HHiil
i! i
m
Ex Libris
C. K. OGDEN
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
"OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
DICTIONARY
OF
GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES
PRINTED nV
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON
A CONCISE DICTIONARY
OP
GREEK AND ROMAN
ANTIQUITIES
BASED ON SIR WILLIAM SMITH'S LARGER
DICTIONARY, AND INCORPORATING THE
RESULTS OF MODERN RESEARCH
EDITED BY F. WARRE CORNISH, M.A.
VICE-PROVOST OF ETON COLLEGE
WITH OVER 1100 ILLUSTRATIONS
TAKEN FROM THE BEST PIXAMPLES OF ANCIENT ART
LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
1898
DE
5
066 CO
PEBFACE
This Dictionary is intended to be a companion volume to the Classical
Dictionary, recently revised and edited by Mr. G. E. Marindin, and though
principally designed for the use of boys in the upper forms of Public Schools,
it is hoped that it may also be of service as a book of reference to under-
graduates and schoolmasters.
As the Classical Dictionary was based on Sir William Smith's well-
known Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (3 vols.),
so this volume is derived from his Dictionary of Greek and Boman Antiqui-
ties ; but it is not a mere abridgment of that work : the results of recent
discoveries, as well as the researches of English and foreign scholars and
archaeologists, have been ^ as far as possible, incorporated: in many cases
several articles have been grouped under one head, as, for instance,
Architecture, Dress, Coinage, Games, Pottery ; and occasionally articles
which did not lend themselves to condensation, have been rewritten.
Some indulgence may be asked for on the plea that classical archaeology
receives such large additions every year, that it is difficult to keep pace with
the latest discoveries.
In a work of this kind it often happens that an illustration will convey
to the mind of a young student a more definite and accurate idea than a long
verbal description. On this ground, upwards of 200 illustrations which do
not occur in the larger work have been inserted in this volume.
The Editor has endeavoured, as far as possible, to avoid controversial
subjects as being out of place in a Dictionary of this kind ; and when it has
not been possible to do so, his aim has been to set down briefly the opinion
which appeared to have the support of the best authorities. Where the best
scholars are not agreed whether to follow inscriptions or manuscripts, a
strictly consistent orthography can hardly be maintained.
In the headings of articles, Latin words have been chiefly used,
although in many cases Greek, and in some, English have been adopted : the
order of the English alphabet has been followed throughout. I and J are
treated as one letter, U and V as two, according to the usage of many modern
texts. Perfect uniformity in the transliteration of Greek words has not been
attempted. The termination -os is generally rendered by -us, but Dclos,
Tenedos, &c., follow the conventional spelUng. Greek k is represented by
vi PREFACE
k, but in some familiar names, such as Corinth and Crete, the old spelling
has been preferred: so also Jupiter and Julius Caesar are printed, but
ianua and ius.
Among works which have been consulted, the Editor wishes especially
to acknowledge the advantage he has derived from the Classical Journal,
and the Journal of Hellenic Studies ; Rich's Dictionary of Roman and
Greek Antiquities', and MM. Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des
Antiquites Grecques et Bomaines, Bliimner's and Becker-Goll's works, and
Baumeister's Denkmdler.
He wishes also to record his personal obligation to the otticers of the
British Museum, and particularly to Dr. A. S. Murray, Mr. H. B. Walters,
and Mr. A. H. Smith, for their friendly and most valuable assistance in every
part of the work. So far as special articles and subjects are concerned he
desires to express his thanks to Mr. Walters for recasting the articles on
Dress and Pottery and for much help in many other articles, and to Mr. A. H.
Smith for his assistance in the articles Caelatura^Xi.^i Scalptura ; to Mr. G. F.
Hill, for re-writing the article Coinage ; to Mr. Cecil Torr for a revision of the
article Navis ; to Mr. E. A. Whittuck, for a complete recension of the articles
included under the head of Boman Law in the Appendix ; to the Rev. W.
Wayte and Mr. Marindin for their kindness in clearing up many difficulties,
and to the former for revision of the articles on Greek Law collected in the
Appendix ; to Mr. F. Davis for the use of a paper on the Bolsena pump in the
British Museum (art. Antlia) ; to the Rev. F. St. John Thackeray for help in
the article Coinage; to Mr. E. P. Rouse, Mr. A. M. Goodhart, Mr. H. F. W.
Tatham, and others of his friends at Eton ; and finally to the Rev. Canon
Evans, who has most kindly read the proofs of nearly the whole volume,
and whose wide knowledge and accurate revision have been of the greatest
service in every part of the work.
One word more remains to be said. Mr. Raymond W. Maude, the
Editor's friend and former pupil, to whom the preparation of the Dictionary
for press had been entrusted by Mr. Murray, died before the completion of
the work. The Editor wishes here to express his sense of Mr, Maude's
unfailing kindness and patience in the execution of a long and difficult task,
and his deep regret for the melancholy event which put an end to their
connexion.
PLATES.
COINAGE : Plate I ........... To /ao- p. llS
PL.VTE II ,180
„ Pl.vik III .... . ....... ISO
POTTERY : PLATE OF COLOURED VASES ....... .,500
A DICTIONAEY
OP
GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES
D^«^C
ABACULUS
Abac'ulus [a^aKlffKos). A small tile or die of
marble, glass, clay, &c., used for making orna-
mental pavements. [Musivum opus.]
Ab'acus (aj8a|), a word probably of Eastern
origin.
I. A table, dresser, or stand for supporting
vessels of any kind.
(1) A small table or sideboard, used for the
display of plate, of a square form, supported by
one or four trapezophora, or legs, which were
made of marble, ivory, bronze, or silver (Juv. iii.
203), and sometimes in the form of centaurs,
sphinxes, griffins, &c. The use of abaci {mensae
vasariae ; /cuAi/ceta) in private houses is said
to have been introduced at Rome 187 B.C. (cf.
Liv. xxxix. 6, 7 ; Cic. Verr. iv. 16, 35; Juv. iii.
ABACUS
covered with sand, in which lines or figures
could be drawn either with the finger or some
pointed instrument; used in geometry, arith-
metic, etc.
(2) A board marked off by ridges or grooves
(along which balls, counters or buttons [\f/ri(poi,
calculi], could be moved) into compartments.
XJ.3H lJVisJ HcUXWA
XrPHPAPHCTX
i'ig. 2.— Greek Abacus or Calculating Table.
for the several orders of numbers. We have
examples of both Greek and Roman abaci.
That figured above is of marble, about 40 inches
long by 28 broad. Along three of the sides is
arranged a series of characters, giving the
following scale, reckoned from the left of h in
the lower line {t =■■ drachma):
h
p
A
P
H
p
X
i
5
10
50
100
500
1000
Fig. 1.— Abacus or Sideboard.
(From a sarcophagus in the liritish Museum.)
204). Abaci were also used in temples for
offerings of food or for displaying sacred
objects.
(2) A wooden tray or platter, with a raised
rim (iXeSs, eXeSv) ; a trough for kneading dougli.
II. A board for playing a variety of games,
either with dice or counters or figures, called
latrunculi, and divided into compartments
(see cut under Games (Duodecim sckifta).
III. A calculating table. This might be —
(1) A table or tray with a frame or rim,
V
Each space represents an order of numerals,
the space on the right hand being intended for
units, the next space for tens, the next for
hundreds, and so on. The numbers belonging
to the first four of each series are put on that
side of the bisecting line a b which is nearest
the calculator ; those over 5 are put beyond it.
As five spaces out of the ten would be enough
for these purposes, it is conjectured that after
the progression of drachmas going up to .5000 a
fresh progression of talents began (T = 6000
drachmas), going up to the seventh place
(1,000,000). Thus the Greek abacus, like the
Roman, reckoned up to a million. The fractions
of the drachma were reckoned on the five lines
at the other end of the slab.
2 ABDICATIO
The Roman abacus was on the same system.
It is divided into nine lower and eight higher
(somewhat shorter) grooves. Sliding buttons
Fig. 3.— Roman .\bacus or Calculating Table.
are attached to each groove Between the two
sets of grooves the following numbers are
marked :
IXI CCCIOOO CCIOO CIO C X I
1.000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 loo 10 1
The units of any other number when not above
4 are marked by moving a corresponding num-
ber of buttons along the lower groove upwards,
the button in the upper gi'oove = 5. The eighth
row was used for reckoning fractions (aes
recurrens} on the duodecimal system, by ounces,
or the twelfth, of the as, and is marked O or 9
= uncia ■ each of its five lower buttons =
1 ounce, and the upper one = 6. Fractions
below an ounce were reckoned on the ninth
groove, marked.
Eemuncia.
^ oz.
sicilicus.
i oz.
Zor2
\ \
duella.
i oz.
IV In architecture —
(a) A painted panel, coffer, or square com-
partment in the wall or ceiling of a chamber
(Fhn xxxiii. §159, xxxv. §§ 3, 32).
(6) The highest member of a column, imme-
diately under the entablature [Architectura.]
Abdicatio [Magistratus. i
Abig'ei, Abigeato'res, or Abacto'res See
Appendix, RoM.\N Law.
Aboila (derivation uncertain). A thick, double
cloak, ot foreign origin. Originally a military
cloak, resembling tlie
Sagum, but probably
shorter, fastened at the
shoulder by a Fibula;
in imperial times worn
indiscriminately by all
classes (cf. Juv. iv. 7(5 ;
Suet. Cah 35; Mart,
viii. 48), and sometimes
made of linen or silk,
and of purple colour.
The aboila Icf. TpCPojv)
was worn by philoso-
))hers (Juv. iii. 115 ;
Mart. iv. 53, 5). [Dress.]
Abortio, Abortus
{6.fx^Ko}<Tis). Se>' Ap-
pendix, Roman IjAW.
Abroga'tio magis-
tra'tUS. The deposition
of a magistrate from his
office by any legal pro-
cess was, strictly speaking, unknown to the Ro-
man constitution. The only legitimate termina-
Flg. 4.— Aboila,
Cloak of Philosophers.
ACCLAMATIO
tion of the magistrate's power was his own abdi-
cation. But (1) it was in the power of a superior
magistrate to forbid an inferior one to exercise
his official functions [agere pro magintratu ;
Liv. iii. 29, 2). (2) The i)eople, by the exercise of
its sovereign legislative power, could put an end
to a magistrate's tenure of ofhce. The right of
the people to do this was admitted in terms by
the Lex Cassia, 104 B.C. There is no certain
instance of the ahrogatio of a consul, except
in the times of the Civil Wars (see Cic. Bnit.
14, 53, Off. iii. 10, 40 ; cp. Liv. ii. 2). But there
are cases of the abrogation of proconsular /?/(-
j)eriuin (ef. Liv. xxvii. 20, 21, xxix. 19, C), and
the tribune M. Octavius was deposed by the
people on the proposal of Ti. Gracchus, 133
B.C
Absis or Apsis (oi|/ts). (1) A fastening of any
kind : for example, the meshes of a net (Hom.
II. v. 487). (2) The joining together the ends
' of a piece of wood, so as to give it the shape of
a bow; hence anything of that shape, such as a
bow, an arch, or a wheel (Hes. Op. 424; Hdt.
iv. 72). (3) Anything vaulted (Plat. Phaedr.
p. 247 b). (4) In architecture, any building <^r
portion of a building of a ciicular form, or
vaulted, and more especially for the apse of a
Basilica [Architectura]. (5) A circular or
semicircular dish [Catinum.
Absolu'tio. See Appendix, Roman L.vw
[ludexj
Acanthus. An architectural ornament imi-
tated from the leaf of the Acanthus spinosus.
[Architectura.]
Ac'atus, dim Acat'ium (oKaros ajciriov).
[Navis.]
Accensi, properly ' supernumeraries,' from
accenseo.
(1) In the Servian constitution the application
of the term is doubtful ; it probably means the
fifth class (see Liv. i. 43, and Weissenborn's
note).
(2) As a military term, accfiisi denotes the
irregularly armed reserve-soldiers, known also,
from their lack of defensive armour, as accensi
velati (i.e. 'clothed,' not loricati) : when any
heavy-armed soldiers were killed or wounded,
the accensi took their places, and used their
armour and weapons. After 352 B.C., when
soldiers received pay from the state, the ac-
censi provided themselves with better weapons.
Tlie term accensi was also used to denote the
attendants on the cavalry, who held their spare
horses, and the orderlies (optio) of the cen-
turions. [Exercitus.]
(3) The magistrates who were attended by
lictors had also supernumerary attendants
{accensi). who did not bear the fasces. So long
as the two colleagues were preceded by the
fasces on alternate days, an accensus attended
on the one penes quern fa.sces non erant.
These accensi were often the freedmen of
the magistrates whom they ser\*ed (Cic. Vcrr.
iii. 67, 157, Att. iv. 6, 12). Among the
duties of an accensus was to summon the
people to the comitia : the accensus of the
consul, and afterwards of the praetor, also pro-
claimed the third, sixth, and ninth hours of
the day in the comitium.
(4) In the time of the Empire accensi velati
formed a coUege of 100 members, charged with
the superintendence of tlie public roads. They
consisted largely of knights and high officials.
Acceptila'tio. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Accessio. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Acclama'tio (eix^Tjyu/a, (iraivos, ^iri^drnjM, itc.)
was the [)ublic expression of approbation or
ACCKESCENDI lUS
disapprobation, pleasure or displeasure, etc., by
loud acclamations. For special forms of nccla-
iiiatio see Matrimonium, Funus, Triumphus.
Orators were usually praised by such expres-
sions asBene et praeclare, Belle cf festive, Non
potest melius, aocpws, euye, &c. (Cic. de Oral. iii.
26, 101.) See also Recitatio. Under the Empire
in the circus and the theatre all the audience
rose at the entrance of the emperor, and greeted
him with an acclamation in a set form of words,
and in a fixed rhythm (Suet. Nero, 20). The
name acclamationes was also given to the
decrees passed by the senate in honour of the
emperor, and to the congratulations addressed
to liim, as these were always carried by accla-
mation. Omnes, omnes ; placet universis ; were
expressions used.
Accrescendi ius. See Appendix, Roman
Law [Heres].
Accuba'tio or Accubi'tio. [Cena.]
Accu'bitum. A couch used for reclining upon
at meals, probably semicircular {signia. Mart.
X. 48, 6), which iu the imperial period took the
place of the more ancient triclinium. The
coverings and pillows were called accubitalia.
[Cena.]
Accusa'tio. See Appendix, Rojian Law
[ludex].
Acerra. An incense box used in sacrifices
(Hor. Carm. iii. 8, 2; Verg. Aen. v. 745). The
incense was taken out of the
acerra and dropped upon the /S^^
burning altar (Ov. ex Pont. iv.
8, 39 ; Pers. ii. 5). It was distinct
from the Turibulum or censer
in which incense was burnt.
ACTA
3
weapon, and thus diiifered from the Roman Sica,
which was curved. It was worn in a sheath on
the right side of the body.
Acerra, Incense Box.
Fig. r..— Servant carrying
the Acerra.
Aceta'bulum (6|(s, o^v^acpou, 6^vfid(f>tov,
ijxBa<piov). (1) A small shallow vessel, used for
holding vinegar or sauces, to dip the food into,
and for a variety of other purposes : e.g. for
Fig. 7. —Dish show ing two small Acetabula.
holding salad, wine, or honey. See also Kot-
TaPos- (2) Also a Roman measure of capacity,
fluid and dry, equivalent to the Greek d^vfia<poi'.
See Tables, VIII.
'AxdvTi. (1) A Persian measure, equivalent
to 45 Attic medimni (Ar. Ach. 108, 109). (2)
A Boeotian measure = 1 Attic medimnus. See
Tables, VIII.
Aci'naces {aKivdKT}s). A Persian sword (Hor.
Carm. i. 27, 5). It was a short and straight
Fig. 8.— Aclnaces.
A golden acinaces was frequently worn by
the Persian nobility, and it was often given to
individuals by the kings of Persia as a mai-k of
honour (Hdt. iv. (52, viii. 120; Xen. Anab.
i. 2, § 27 ; 8, § 29). [Arms and Armour.]
Aclys or Aclis. [Arms and Armour.]
'AKpaTiCTjia. The early breakfast
{irpu.'ii'hv apicTO^), which the Greeks took
immediately after rising. It consisted of
bread dipped iu unmixed wine [aKparos
ohos). [Cena.]
Acrato'phorum. [Pottery.]
Acroa'ma (d/cpt^a^a), properly a musi-
cal piece (Suet. Vesji. 19) ; also a play, a
dance (Plin. Ej)- '^i- '^^^ 1*^); o^ ^ recita-
tion, such as were common at meals.
The word is also applied to the actors and
musicians who were employed to amuse
guests during an entertainment (Cic.
Verr. iv. 22, 49, Arch. 9, 20 ; Suet. Aug.
74), or an actor on the stage (Cic. Sest.
54, 116).
'AkpoXuGoi. Statues of which the ex-
tremities (face, feet, and hands, or toes
and fingers only) were of marble, and
the remaining part of the body of wood
either gilt or covered with drapery.
Statues of this kind continued to be made at
least down to the time of Praxiteles, and are
frequently mentioned by Pausanias (ii. 4, § 1, vi.
25, § 4, &c.). [Statuaria ars.]
'AkpocttoXiov. [Navis.]
' AKptoTTipLOV. Generally used in the plural.
(1) [Architectura.] (2) The extremities of the
prow of a vessel : more commonly ciKpoffroKia
(Hdt. iii. 59, viii. 121). [Navis.]
Acta. 1. The pul)lic acts and orders of a
Roman magistrate possessing the ius agcndi
cum j)Opulo, which after the expiration of his
office were submitted to the senate for ap-
proval or rejection (Suet. lul. 19, 23 ; Cic. Pliil.
i. 7, 16, etc.). After the death of Julius Caesar,
the triumvirs swore to observe all his acta (in
acta iurare: cf. Tac. Ami. i. 72; Suet. 2'ib.
67) ; and hence it became the custom on the
accession of each emperor for the new monarch
to swear to observe the acta of his predecessors
fi-om Julius Caesar downwards (Tac. Ann. iv.
42). The senate also swore a similar oath.
Every year all the magistrates upon entering
B 2
4 ACTA
office on the 1st of January swore in acta of
the reigning emperor. [See Appendix, Roman
Law, lusiurandum, 2 (i.).]
2. Acta Sexatus, called also Commentabii
Senatus (Tac. A7171. xv. 74) and Acta Patrum
(Ann. V. 4), contained an account of the various
matters brought before the senate, the opinions
of the chief speakers, and the decisions of the
house. Such records had from an early date
been kept in the Aerarium (diurna acta).
Julius Caesar ordered that the proceedings of
the senate should be published regularly every
day (senatus acta diurtia) under the authority
of government, from the notes of shorthand
writers (notarii). Augustus forbade the publica-
tion of the proceedings of the senate, but they
still continued to be preserved (Tac. Aim. v. 4).
Notes of the proceedings were taken by clerks
(actuarii, scribae) and from these the acta were
compiled by the senator (ab actis senatus) who
was entrusted with this office. The acta were
deposited in the imperial archives (tabularium)
or in the public libraries. Extracts from them
were published in the Acta Diurna.
3. Acta Diukna, a gazette published daily at
Rome by the authority of the government
during the later times of the Republic and under
the Empire, corresponding in some measure to
our newspapers (Tac. Atm. iii. 3, &c.). They
are also termed Diurna, Acta Fublica, Acta
Urbana, Acta Fopuli, and Acta : in Greek, to !
VTrofivrnnara, to SrjtiocTia (or /coica) inro^vrifuiTa, I
TO STjjuoVia ypdiifjiaTa. They usually contained |
the following matters: — (1) The number of
birtlis and deaths in the city as registered in the |
temples of Venus and Libitina. ('2) An account
of the money paid into the treasury from the '
provinces, and everything relating to the supply
of com, extracted from the tabulae pubUcae.
(3) Extracts from the Acta Forensia (see below),
containing the edicts of magistrates, the wills
of distinguished men, reports of trials, and lists
of magistrates elected. (4) Extracts from the
Acta Senatus. (5) A court circular. (6) Mis-
cellaneous news, such as prodigies and miracles,
the erection of new edifices, fires, funerals,
sacrifices, games, and amatory tales and adven-
tures, with the names of the parties.
These Acta were published under the authority
of the government, probably under superintend-
ence of the magistrates who had the care of the
tabulae publicae — namely, the censors under
the Republic (Li v. iv. 8), and sometimes the
quaestors, sometimes the praefecti aerarii
under the Empire (Tac. Ann. xiii. 28). They
were compiled by subordinate officers, called
actuarii or actarii, assisted by various clerks,
and by shorthand reporters (nota rii). The Acta
were exposed for a time in some public place in
the city in a I bo [Album], where people could
read them and take copies of them. They were
copied by scribes (operarii, Cic. Fam. viii. 1)
and for circulation in the provinces (Tac. Ann.
xvi. 22). After a certain time, they were de-
posited, like the Acta Senatus, in some of the
record offices, or the public libraries. These
Acta were first published in the first consulship
of Julius Caesar. The Acta Diurna probably
continued in use till the removal of the seat
of government from Rome to Constantinople,
but they were never published at the latter
city.
4. Acta Pobensia. These were of two kinds.
(1) The Romans were accustomed to keep tlieir
private accounts with so much accuracy that ^
their books accepti et expensi, bonds (chiro- \
grapha) and contracts (syngraphae) were ad- ;
ACUS
mitted as legal evidence. Under Nero (Suet.
Nei: 17) the legal form for them was prescribed
by Senatus consultum.
(2) Acta iudicioiinn contained the record of
all proceedings of the magistrates, alike in con-
tentious and in non-contentious business, such
as adoptions, cessiones in iure, manumissions,
the appointment of guardians, and the like.
5. Acta Milit.\kia contained an account of
the duties, numbers, and expenses of each
legion, and of the amount of property possessed
by each soldier (jieculium castrense). They
were probably preserved among the official
papers of the several legions. Similar records
were kept in the praetorian cohorts, the urban
cohorts, and other services. The soldiers who
drew up these Acta are mentioned severally as
librarius legionis, actuarius or actarius le-
gionis, tabularius castrensis, optio ab actis.
Ac'tia CAKTto), a festival of Apollo Actius,
celebrated at Nikopolis in Epirus; renewed and
enlarged by Augustus, 30 B.C., in commemora-
tion of his victory over Antony off Actinm.
These games were celebrated every four years
(iTevr(rripis, ludi quinquennales) at Nikopolis,
probably on Sept. 2, the anniversary of the
battle of Actium. (Suet. Aug. 18.)
Actia were also celebrated at the same time
at Rome and in other parts of the empire.
Ac'tio. 1. Greek. See Appendix, Greek
Law ['AvaKpiffts. Ai<Tn. Tpa^)!!].
2. Romas. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Actor. (1) See Appendix, Roman Law. (2)
[Histrio]
Actua'riae Naves. [Navis.]
Actua'rii, or Acta'Vii. (1) [Acta.] The
Nutarii, or shorthand writers, who took down
the speeches in the senate and the courts
(Suet. lul 55; Sen. Ep. 33, 9).
(2) [Notarii.]
(3) A clerk who kept the accounts of a private
person.
(4) Military officers whose duty it was to keep
the accounts of the army, to see to the com-
missariat, &c.
Actus. A Roman measure of land, which
formed the basis of the whole system of land
measurement. See Tables, VI. (1) In long
measure it denotes 12 decempeda, or 120 feet.
(2) In superficial measure (a) the actus sim-
plex or rninimus was 120 (Roman) feet long
and 4 feet wide, (b) The actus quadratus, or
simply actus, was a square of 120 feet each
way, containing thus 14,400 scjuare feet. This
is probably a half-day's work. The lugerum
(also iugum), or ' yoking,' the double of the
actus, would thus denote a whole day's work.
The actus furnishes an example of the com-
bination of the duodecimal with the decimal
system, its length being twelve times the stand-
ard Decempeda. According to Pliny (xviii. 3)
an actus is so called because it was the length
in quo boves agerentur cum aratro uno im-
petu iusto, i.e. the length of a furrow before
they turn at the headland. Actus sometimes
denotes a way between fields, along which cattle
could be driven : and this sense is probably de-
rived from that of a headland, i.e. the place
where the plough is turned (cf. the Italian ver-
sus), which is given by Van-o (L. L. v. 3, 10,
§ 22) as the original meaning. [flXt'epov.
Mensura.]
Acus. 1. Greek— (/SsAJitj, fieKovls, {ia<t>is,
aKfffTpa), a pin or needle made of metal, wood,
bone, or ivory. They varied greatly in size,
according to the purposes for which they were
employed ; and those used in dressing the hair
ADAMAS
or fastening the robe were often of gold or
silver, and ornamented with figures. 'Poc^t's
seeras to have answered to our
sewing-needle, aKearpa (from
BKe'o/uai) to our darning-
needle, while Be\6vr) was ap-
parently a wider term, corre-
o
m
Fig. 9.— Acus— Greek Viiis.
spending both to our pin and
■needle. The preceding en-
graving represents a few of
the more ordinary types.
2. Roman. — (1) A sewing
needle (Verg. Aen. ix. 582 ;
St. Matt [Vulg.] xix. 24, fora-
men acus). (2) A pin or bod-
kin of gold, silver, ivory, &c., from 6 to 9 inches
long, used by women to fasten their hair (acus
critialis) (Mart. xiv. 2i ; crinale, Ov. Met. v.
Fig. 10. -Acus. Ko-
mao gold Hair
pin from Britisli
Museum.
Fig. 11.— Hair fastened with Pin. (Roman.)
53). (3) A similar pin {acus discriminalis, dis-
cerniculum) for parting the hair, or for applying
paint to the eyebrows (Juv. ii. 93). (4) A curling-
iron [Calamistrum] (Ov. Am. i. 14, 30). (5) A
pin of metal or bone for fastening the dress, &c.
(6) A surgical needle.
(7) The tongue of a brooch.
(8) A needle for trimming lamps.
Adamas. (1) In the poets, an excessively
hard metal, known to the gods alone. Of it were
made tlie helmet of Hephaestus, the chains of
Prometlieus, &c. (Hes. Sc. Her. 137 ; Aesch.
Prom. (> ; Ov. Met. iv. 452 ; Verg. Aen, vi.
552).
(2) The diamond. (Plin. xxxvii. 4, 15, § 55.)
Addicti. See Appendix, RoM.vN Law [Nexi].
Addictio. Sec Apiiendix, Roman Law.
Addictio bonorum libertatis causa. Sec
Appendix, Roman Law [Servus].
"ASSig. A Greek measure of capacity, equal
AAHNIA 5
to four xoivtKes, or one iiixUktov (Ar. Fr, 573).
See Tables, IX.
"ASeia. See Appendix, Gbeek Law.
Adf-, see Aff-.
Adgna'ti (Agn-). See Appendix, Roman
Law [CognatiJ.
Adi'tio heredita'tis. See Appendix, Rom.\x
Law [HeresJ.
Adiudica'tio. See Appendix, Roman Law
[Actio].
Adlecti (All-). Those who were chosen to
fill up a vacancy in any office or collegium,
and especially those wlio were chosen to fill up
the proper number of the senate. [Senatus.]
Adlocu'tio (All-). The Roman technical term
for a speech or address made by an Imperator
to his troojjs,
in the place of
a modern pro-
clamation or a
general order.
Admis'sio.
Reception or
audience at
court. At first
all visitors
were admit-
ted without
distinction to
the atria of
their wealthy
friends. C.
Gracchus and
Livius Dru-
sus are said
to have been
the first to
make distinc-
tions, probably
for political
reasons. After-
wards it was
the exception
for anyone to
open his doors
to all comers
(Cic. Att.
2, 5). Under the Empire friends were distin-
guished as amici ad)n>ssionis priuiae, sccun-
dae, &c. The first alone could enter without
delay, and could pay a separate visit. Tlie rest
had to wait, and sometimes purchase, their turn
(Juv. iii. 184-189, x. 00; cf. Tac. Ann. iv. 41,
74; Mart. v. 22, 10). At the imperial court
there was a body of slaves and freedmen, acting
as the introducers of visitors {officium admis-
sionis, Suet. Vesp. 14; servi ah admissione).
The head of the officium adinissionis was the
magister adinissioiuun, who himself introduced
the most exalted visitors.
Adolescens. See Appendix, Roman Law
[Infans].
'ASiovia. A summer festival celebrated in
honour of x\.donis, tlie beloved of Aphrodite;
introduced into Greece from the East by
Cyin-us and Rhodes (see Ezek. viii. 14 ; Milton,
P.L. i. 446), probably about tlie time of the
Persian wars, and celebrated in most of the
Greek cities (Ar. Lijs. 302, Paj-, 410). Tlie
solemnities seem to liave lastecl two days,
the first being tlie day on which Adonis disap-
peared {a(pavtafx6s), and the second on whicli
his body was souglit {(r,Tr]ais) by the women iji
what were called 'ASwviSoi kTittoi, i.e. pots or
baskets of various materials filled with earth,
in which were planted fennel, barley, lettuce,
&c., which withered in the sun ; a symbol of the
Figs. 12 and 13.— Adlocutio on coin of
Trajan and medallion of Gordian III.
6
ADOPTIP
brief duration of human life. Fif^ures of
Adonis were also laid out on rich couches, and
hymns and dirges [Oprivoi, aSaiviSia) sung to the
Phoenician flute (7177^05), with dances of
women (see Theocr. xv., and Adonis in Class.
Drct.).
Adop'tio. 1. Greek. See Appendix, Greek
Law.
2. RoiL^N. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Adora'tio (TrpoffKvvriiTts), (1) the preliminary
act of worship, was x^aid to the gods in the fol-
lowing manner. The person prostrated himself
{pronus) before the statue of the god whom he
wished to honour, then kissed his hand and
Fig. 14.— Adoratio. (From a vaso in the British Museum.)
waved it to the statue, joining his forefinger and
thumb. While doing this he moved round his
whole hody, usually from left to right {conver-
teresc, Liv. v. '21). It was also the practice to
have the head covered, and onlj^ the face un-
covered. ('2) The adoration paid to the Roman
emperors was borrowed from the Eastern mode
of adoration, and consisted in prostration on
the ground, and kissing the feet and knees, or,
later, even the dress [adorari purpuram prin-
cipis) of the emperor (see Suet. Vifel. 2). This
mode of prostration is also cixWed aclulaiio (Liv.
ix. 18, 4, XXX. 10, 5).
Adroga'tio. See Appendix, Ro3I.\n Law
[Adoptio;.
Adulte'rium. 1. Greek. See Appendix,
Greek La\v.
2. Roman. See Appendix, Roman L.\w.
Adultus. See Appendix, Roman Law [In-
fansj.
Adversa'ria. Note-books, in which the Ro-
mans entered memoranda of any importance,
especiallj' of money received and expended,
which were aftei-wards transcribed, usually
every month, into a kind of ledger (tabulae
iustae, codex accvpti cf expensi). The ad-
versaria were not admitted as legal evidence,
although the tabulae were.
Advoca'tus. See Appendix, Roman Law.
'A5\5vaToi. See Appendix, Greek Law.
Ad'ytum. [Templum. ]
Aedic'ula. Commonly used in the sense of a
chapel or shrine, whether attached to a temple
(Liv. XXXV. 9) or an independent building ; or
finally niches in the walls of temples or houses,
containing images of gods and goddesses (Liv.
XXXV. 41 ; Plin. xxxiii. § 19). There were 423
aediculae in Rome, one for every vicus ; these
AEDILES
were usually placed at cross-ways, and con-
tained the images of the tutelary deity of the
vicus. The private aediculae contained images
of the Lares and Pe-
nates. Aedicula is
also the name given
to portable shrines,
often of precious ma-
terials, like those
made at Ephesus
{Act. Ap. xix. 4).
Aedi'les. 1. Aed-
iLES plebis. — In the
year 494 B.C., the
plebs, after its seces-
sion to the Mons
Sacer, was organised
for the first time
under magistrates of
its own. The aediles
plebis were the sub-
ordinate officers of „. ,. ... , „. ,
,, , ., Ill Fig- li. Aedicula or Shrine.
the tribunes, elected
in the plebeian assembly under their presi-
dency, placed under the same leges sacratae,
and possessing a sacrosanct character. Their
name was probably derived from their func-
tions as guardians of the temple of Ceres,
and of the acta of the senate deposited there.
They became by degrees more independent of
the tribunes than at first ; and their duties be-
came almost identical with those of the curule
aediles (see below). They gradually lost their
sacrosanct character, and were ranked in this
respect with other lesser magistrates (Liv. iii.
55). But they never ceased to be plebeian
magistrates, and none but plebeians were
eligible ; they had no insignia of office ; and
were always chosen apart from the curule
aediles at the comitia tributa, under the presi-
dency of a tribune.
2. Aediles cukules. — Livy's story (vi. 42)
of the origin of this office is probably unhisto-
rical. The curule aedileship was opened to the
plebeians in the year after its institution (Liv.
vii. 1) ; but it was arranged that the office should
be held, not by a patrician and a plebeian as
colleagues, but by two patricians and two ple-
beians alternately. This arrangement lasted
till 91 B.C., after which date it was entirely
abandoned. The curule aediles were distin-
guished by the bordered robe [toga j'taetcxta)
Fig. IC— SubscUium.
and the use of the sella curulis, while the ple-
beian aediles wore the ordinary toga, and their
official seat was the subsellium. They were
elected in the comitia tributa, under the pre-
sidency of a magistrate cum iniperio, usually
the consul, and had from the first the auspicia
minora (cf. Liv. xxx. 39).
Cicero (Legg. iii. 3, 7) defines the aediles as
curatores urbis, annonae, ludorunique sollem-
nium.
(1) Cura urbis (including the district within
a mile of Rome) : i.e. the superintendence of
the repair and cleansing of the roads and streets,
and the regulation of traffic, of the public baths,
fountains and aqueducts, of eating-houses, &c. ;
AEDITUI
the aediles also took care that the streets were
not obstructed in any way, nor encroached upon
by private buildings. Further, they had a
general control in matters of police ; either in-
flicting fines for various offences against pubHc
order, or acting as prosecutors before the coniitia
tributa. (Phn. xviii. § 42 ; Liv. x. 23, vii. 28, &c.)
The fines so inflicted (aes multaticiiun) were
spent upon public buildings and works of gene-
ral utility. Their control of public buildings
was confined to a general supervision of their
condition and proper use, as a matter of public
convenience or police ; the charge of building
and repairs lay rather with the censors (Liv.
XXV. 7, xlii. 6).
(2) Cura a)inoiine. As it was their duty to
superintend trade of all kinds, especially in
cattle and slaves, to destroy unjust weights and
measures (Juv. x. 100), and to put down usury
(Liv. X. 23, (tc), so it was especially incumbent
upon them to provide for a proper supply of
corn, partly by i^unishing dardanarii (fore-
stallers and regraters), and partly by purchasing
themselves and supplying it at a low rate (Liv.
X. 11 : cf. xxxi. 4, 50).
(3) Curaliidorn.iu. Thismust be distinguished
from the general police control by the aediles
f of the popular amusements, as well as from
the presidency of the games, which was held by
a consul or praetor. The aediles had only to
organise the games. Up to the time of the
First Punic Wai', 500,000 asses were annually
allowed for this (Liv. xxii. 10, xxxi. 9, <tc.). But
the aediles were expected to spend largely from
their own resources, so that the office became
exceedingly burdensome. Cicero kept within
moderate limits {Off. ii. 17, 59), but as a rule
an aedile who did so lost all chance of election
to higher office (Mur. 19, 40; Plut. SuU. 5).
The aediles had to provide the general decora-
tions and costumes, to organise all the arrange-
ments connected with games, to choose plays,
and control actors (Liv. xxxiv. 44 ; Plaut. True.
990 ; Tac. Ann. i. 70, &c.).
3. The functions of the aediles were greatly
restricted by Augustus and his successors.
After the battle of Actium, Augustus appointed
a praefectus urbi, who exercised the general
police, which had formerly been one of the
duties of the aediles. Their right of jurisdic-
tion and the care of the games were transferred
to the praetor (Dio Cass. liii. 2 ; Tac. Ann. i. 15 ;
Plin. Ep. vii. 11, 4). Augustus also took from
the aediles the office of superintending religious
rites and buildings. Hence the office fell into
contempt. Agrippa volunteered to take the
office, and repaired all the public buildings and
all the roads at his own exjiense, without draw-
ing anything frona the treasury. Augustus ap-
pointed the curule aediles specially to the
office of putting out fires, and placed a body of
600 slaves at their command : the jiraefecti
vigilum afterwards performed this duty (Dio
Cass. Iv. 21). In like manner the curatores
viarum, the IVviri, the curatores ojieru mpu hli-
corum, alvci Tiheris and aquarum stripped the
aediles of their few remaining honourable duties.
They retained, under the early emperors, the
superintendence of the markets, and the duty of
repressing open licentiousness and disorder, &c.
Aedit'ui (viWKdpoi, ^aKopot, iepo(l)v\aKes),
more anciently called Aeditumi or Aeditimi,
IJersons who took care of the temples, and
attended to the cleaning of them. In many
cases they were women (Hdt. vi. 134). Subse-
quently the menial services connected with the
office of the NeuKopou were left to slaves, and
AEGIS 7
the latter became a title given to priestly
officers of high rank. The aeditui lived in or
near the temples, and acted as ciceroni to
those persons who wished to see them (Cic.
Vcrr. iv. 44, 96 ; Liv. xxx. 17 ; Suet. Doni. 1).
They seem also to have had the administration
of the property of the temple.
Aegis {aiyis), originally the storm-cloud
{aiffacc] ; a meaning which underlies the Ho-
meric specialisation, which makes the aegis
an attribute of Zeus, hence called alytoxos. It
is mentioned in Homer as a weapon of offence,
and especially of horror (II. xvii. 595). Thus
Apollo is said to shake it, so as to terrify and
confound the Greeks. Here we have the double
idea of storm-cloud and garment. Zeus is
described as covering the top of Ida with the
aegis (II. xvii. 593), and shaking it with thunder
and lightning. It is furnished with terrors (II.
V. 738, fear, discord, flight, &c.), and the Gor-
gon's head. Athena wears it on her shoulders
Fig. 17.— Athena with Aegis. (From a vase painting.)
(II. xviii. 204), or on her arm or hand (II. ii.
447). Apollo covers the body of Hector with
it. It is made of gold, and decked with tassels
Fig. IH.— Aegis worn by .\thena. (From a marble status
in the Museum at Naples.)
(dvaavoi, II. ii. 448). According to the later
etymology it is made of the skin of the goat
(o?|) Amaltheia (see Class. Diet. s. v.). The
8
AEGIS
goatskin would be worn with the two forelegs
tied in front of the wearer's breast, or i)ossibly
with the head passed through an opening made
iit the neck, by the removal of the animal's
head. In the earliest representations, it ap-
pears as a mantle thrown over the head and
covering the back {II. v. 738), and thus resem-
bles the XeovT?) of Herakles, the vap5a\r} and
vffipis of Bacchus. Shifted round to cover
the left arm, it could be used instead of (not
Figs. 19 and 20.— Aegis worn by .\thena.
(From Torso at Dresden.) (From statue at Florence.)
with) a shield (see fig. 19), and this would appf-ar
to be its use in Homer. (See cut under Funda.t
The aegis became a constant attribute of
Athena. It is sometimes worn as we have
described, sometimes as in fig. IS), from Dres-
den. In the latest form, the aegis (fig. 20, from
Florence) appears as a covering for the breast ;
and finally it becomes
a cli])eus with the
Gorgon's head in the
middle ( Verg. A en.
viii. 354 ; Ov. Met. v.
46 ; Hor. Carin. iii. 4,
57, &c.). The aegis
is in earlier works
shaggy, in later repre-
sentations covered
with scales. The 0v-
aavoi are by Herodo-
tus (iv. 189) supposed
to be a fringe of leather
tags : or they may
have represented the
shag of the goat's skin.
Painters and sculp-
tors often transfer the
serpents of the Gor-
gon's head (which are
not mentioned in Ho-
mer) to the border of
the skin.
The later poets and
artists represent it as
a breastplate covered with metal in tlie form
of scales.
Tlie Roman poets sometimes regard it as a
shield, and sometimes as a corslet or breast-
AinPA
plate (Verg. Aen. viii. 354 ; Ov. Met. v. 46; Hor.
Carin. iii. 4, 57) ; especially as the breast-armour
of Minerva with the Gorgon's head in the centre
{0\.Met. ii. 754; Verg. Aen. viii. 435-438).
The Roman emperors assumed the aegis for
a decoration of the lorica, as an attribute of
Jupiter (see Mart. vii. 1).
'Aei<^vyia. [Exilium.]
*A€iCTiTOi. [ripDTavfiov.]
Aenigma (aj:'i7^i. A riddle. It was a very
ancient custom among the Greeks, especially
at symposia, to amuse themselves by proposing
riddles to be solved. Those who succeeded
received a prize, previously agreed upon, usu-
ally consisting of wreaths, taeniae, cakes and
other sweetmeats, or kisses ; whereas one who
failed was condemned to drink in one breath a
certain quantity of wine, sometimes mixed witli
salt water. These riddles which have conie
down to us are mostly in hexameter verse.
Another name for a riddle is ypi<pos (Ar. Vvsji.
20.) The Ro-
mans do not
seem to have
found great
amusement in
riddles, and we
do not hear of
any Romans
who invented
I or wrote them
until a very late
period. After
the time of
Apuleius, seve-
I'al collections
of riddles were
made, some of
which are still
extant.
Ae'num, in-
Ahe'num isi.
vus). A brazen
vessel used for
boiling (Juv.
XV. 81 ; Ov. Met. vi. 645). It is also used for
a dyer's copper (Ov. Fast. iii. 822 ; Mart.
Fib'. -1 ■•
-.^enam, or bmxon vessel
used tor boiling.
Fig. i-l.—Xiwpa, or Swing
xiv. 133), and for a copper in a bath. [Bal-
neae.l
Alupa. 'Ecipa. (1) A swing. (2) A festival
at Athens with sacrifices and banquets, in
AERARII
honour of Erigone, daughter either of Ikarius,
or of Aegisthus and Klytaemnestra.
Aera'rii. An order of Roman citizens below
the ijroletarii, exckided from the tribes, and
paying a poll-tax [aes [Trihutum]) at tlie dis-
cretion of the censors. They consisted of tliree
classes :
(1) Municipes si?ie sw^raj/zo, inhabitants of
conquered towns deprived of their local self-
government. Their citizens obtained the conu-
biurn and coinmercium, but no political rights.
As Caere was the first miDUcipium sinesuffra-
gio (about 353 B.C.), in tabulas Caeritum
referri came to be equivalent to aerariam fieri.
(Hor. Ep. i. 6 ; Cic. CliLent. 43, 122.)
(2) Infames. [Infamia.J
(3) Those under the severest nota censoria,
who were said to be trihu, moti et aerarii facti
(Liv. iv. 24, &c.). [Censor.]
The exclusion of these classes from the tribes
and the centuries involved the loss of the suf-
frage, the ius honortun, and, in most cases, ex-
clusion from military service (Liv. vii. 2).
Aera'rmm (ri Z-nixoawv). The public treasury
and record office at Rome. The temple of
Saturn and Ops, on the Clivus Capitolinus, was
so employed, from the Regifugium till the later
times of the Empire. (Pint. Fopl. 12.)
Besides the public money and the accounts
connected with it, there were preserved in the
Fig. 23.— Temple of Saturn.
aerarium (1) the standards of the legions (Liv.
iii. 69, &e.) ; (2) the records of the censors, and
(from 187 B.C.), public records of all kinds, in a
part of the building called tabidarium.
The aerarium was the common treasury of
the state, and is sometimes spoken of as the
jruhlicuin {e.g. Liv. ii. 5, 1). Under the Repub-
lic the aerarium in the temple of Saturn was
divided into two parts ; the common treasury,
in which were deposited the regular taxes
[Trihutum ; Vectigalia], and the sacred
treasury (aerarium sanctuni or sanctiiis, Liv.
xxvii. 10 ; Caes. B. C. i. 14), established after
the Capture of Rome by the Gauls, which was
never touched except in cases of extrwne peril.
The sacred treasure was increased by aurum
vicesimariurn (a tax of 5 per cent, [vicesimci] on
the value of manumitted slaves), and l)y contri-
butions from spoils taken in war. It was kept in
bars of gold. (Liv. vii. 10 ; Cic. Att. ii. Ifi.) Even
after the wars of Marius and Sulla, Julius Caesar,
when he appropriated it to his own use, 49 B.C.,
still found in the treasury sums of enormous
value. (Plin. xxxiii. §§ 55, 5G ; Lucan, iii. 155.)
When Augustus divided the administration
AES 9
of the government between the senate, re-
presenting the old Roman peot)le, and the
Caesar, all the property of the former continued
to be called aerarium, and that of the latter
received the name of fiscus [Fiscus.] The
aerarium consequently received all the taxes
from the provinces belonging to the senate, as
well as the revenues of public lauds in Italy,
the aurum vicesimariurn, the custom-duties,
water-rates, sewer-rates, &c.
Besides the aej'ariHJH and the_/?ac«s, Augustus
established (6 a.d.) a third treasury, to^jrovide for
the pensions due to veterans on their discharge,
to which was given the name of aerarium mili-
tare. It was founded with a very large sum of
money (170 millions of sesterces), and received
additions from special taxes (especially zjicesiwa
hereditatum and centesima \ducentesima~\
rerum vefialiuui), and booty obtained in war.
(Suet. Aug. 49.)
The distinction between the aerarium and
the fiscus continued to exist for more than 150
years ; but as the control of the aerarium as
well as of the fiscus came exclusively into the
emperor's hands, the words aerariuvi smd fiscus
are often used indiscriminately. In the time of
the Republic, the entire management of the
revenues of the state belonged to the senate ;
and under the superintendence and control of
the senate the quaestors had the charge of the
aerarium. [Senatus ; Quaestor.] The consuls
could draw what sums tliey pleased ; the quaes-
tors, only under an order from the senate (Liv.
xxxviii. 55). Under the Empire the cliarge of
the aerarium was at different times committed
to praetores aerarii (Tac. J.K>i. xiii. 29), quaes-
tors, and praefecti aerarii of praetorian or con-
sular rank. The last arrangement continued un-
altered from the reign of Trajan (Suet. Aug.
36, Claud. 24).
The aei'arium inilitare was under the care
i of praefecti aerarii militaris, nominated by
! the emperor.
1 Aes (xaXKos). Both Greeks and Romans
use only one term for copper and for that mix-
ture of copper and tin which we call bronze.
Copper is easy to find and work, being found
in liunps, and not, like iron, hidden in ore ; and
it was the metal earliest in use. At a time
immediately succeeding the Stone Age imple-
ments were beaten out of pure copper ; but
the custom of adding tin to copper once intro-
duced, unmixed copper was seldom used for
any purpose. Bronze, containing 12 to 14 pei
cent. of tin and 88 to 86 per cent, of copper,
was used at a very early period in Egypt and
Asia ; and either the compound itself or the art
of making it was introduced into Greece in pre-
historic times, probably by the Phoenicians.
Tin {Kacrcrirepos) is not found in Greece ; the
Phoenicians are supposed to have travelled in
search of it as far as Cornwall and India.
In Homer's time bronze is the usual mate-
rial for tripods, vessels, armour of defence, and
even spears, though iron was beginning to be
used for offensive weapons. Bronze continued,
j after the Homeric age, to be largely employed
I for utensils of all kinds. The interior of the
< treasuries of Mykenae and Orchomenus were
lined with bronze ; bronze was used in his-
torical times for vessels, candelabra, chariots,
armour, for inscribing treaties and laws, for
j personal ornaments, and for many other pur-
I poses. Also all instruments used for religious
j purposes were made of bronze. One of the
j chief sources of copper in antiquity was
1 Cyprus, and from the name of that island are
10 AES EQUESTRE
derived the Low-Latin cuprum and our word
copper. It was also procured in Euboea, and
in other parts of Greece ; also in Campania, in
Germany, and elsewhere. Among the most
celebrated kinds of bronze were the Delian, the
Aeginetan, and, most valuable of all, the Corin-
thian. The colour and other qualities would of
course varj- according to the percentage of tin.
Other metals were sometimes added ; but the
best Greek bronze is identical with the Egj'p-
tian bronze mentioned above. The mixture of
copper and zinc which we call brass was also
known in later Greek and Roman times
[Orichalcum.] It is of this compound that
Roman sestertii and dupondii were made.
(Plin. xxxiv. § 4; Cic. Off. iii. 29, 92.)
In all early bronze-work found in Greece and
Etruria, ohe usual process for cups, utensils, and
ornaments is working plates with the hammer
into the required shape {ff^vpri\aTiiv), fasten-
ing them together with nails or (sometimes)
with solder, beating up a pattern on them in
repousse work, and finishing with a graving-
tool. Small figures are sometimes cast in the
lump, but nothing large. Large statues were
wrought : the art of hollow casting may date
from the middle of the sixth century^ B.C.
Cojjppr as Coin. — In the coinage of the
Greeks and Romans copper is seldom unalloyed.
Tin appears in Greek coins in a proportion of
from 10 to 16 per cent., with an occasional 2 to
5 per cent, of lead. Roman aes signatum in
republican times shows a proportion of 5 to H
per cent, of tin and IG to 29 of lead. After the
time of Augustus, sestertii and dupondii were
made of brass {orichalcum), containing 20 jjer
cent, of zinc and 80 of copper ; the asses were
made entirely of copper.
In Italy and other Western countries copper
was the usu.-il medium of exchange and measure
of value ; and gold and silver at first passed
merely as the e(juivalents and representatives
of so much copper. In Greece and the East,
on the other hand, gold and silver were the
true media of exchange, and copper was used
only for very small values. Coinage.]
In almost all Hellenic settlements copper
money was a currency of tokens ; and the weight
of it consequentlj' most irregular. Copper
monej' was Hrst minted in Greece, Italy and
Sicily towai'ds the end of the fifth century.
[Coinage; XaXKoOs]
Since the most ancient coins in Rome and
the old Italian states were made of aes, this
name was given to money in general. (Com-
pare Hor. A. P. 345, lip. i. 7, 23.) So aes
alienuni, meaning debt, and aera in the plural,
pay to the soldiers (Liv. v. 4 ; Plin. xxxiv.
AGER PUBLICUS
was introduced. The aes equestre [ZqoiteB;
Exercitusj was the sum of money given for tlie
purchase of the horse of an eques ; the aes
hordearium, the sum of money paid yearly for
its keep — in other words, the pay of an eques ;
and the aes militare, the pay of a foot-soldier.
Aes grave. Properly tlie earliest issue of
Roman copper money : 1 as weighing 1 libra of
copper of 12 unciae or 28S scriipuli — hence the
term as libralis oi* librarius. Tlie weight was
soon reduced from 12 to 10 ounces to make the
as interchangeable with the diobol of Soathem
Italy. Aes grave was then applied to copper
coins reckoned by the old standard of the libra!
as of 12 ounces. This method of reckoning
was emplojed in military payments and fines.
When the as was reduced from 10 unciae to the
triental standard ( = 4 unciae), the sestertius
(2i X 4 = 10) came to \ye the same as the old
as libralis. Hence a given sum in aes grave
may be counted as the siime number of triental
sestertii. [Coinage.j
Aes multaticiom. Money derived from fines
on holders of public land, etc., often used by
quaestors and aediles for public buildings (Liv.
X. 23, 13, xxvii. «, 19).
Aes rude. The blocks of copper of rude
square or oblong form, and roughly stamped
with a type, which preceded money in Italy. [As.]
Aes thermarom. [Balneae.]
Aes nxo'rium, a tax paid by men who
reached old age without having married. It
was first iiniioseil by the censors M. Furius
Camillus and JI. Postuinius, in 403 B.C. [Lex
lulia et Papia Poppaea.
Aestima'tio litis. See Ajipendix, Roman
L.wv Judex .
AlovjivViTTis. originally a judge in the
heroic games, afterwards an individual whowas
occasionally invested voluntarily by his fellow-
citizens with unlimited power in a Greek state
(Arist. Pol. iii. 9, § 5). The office was not here-
ditary ; it was .sometimes held for life, and at
other times only till some particular object was
accomplislied (Plut. Solon, 4). In some states,
such as KjTne and Clialkedon, it was the title
borne by the regular magistrates.
'AtTuixa. rFastigium; Architectura.^
Affi'nes, Affi'nitas. or Adfi'nes, Adfi'nitas.
See Appendix, liuii.\N Law.
Agaso. A groom (Liv. xliii. 5 ; Hor. Sat. ii.
8, 72).
'AvaOoepYoC. In time of war the kings of
Sparta had a body-guard of 300 knights
(iirjre?s), five of whom retired every year, and
' were employed for one year, under the name of
agathoergi, in missions to foreign states.
(Hdt. i. f.7.)
Fig. 34.— Agasoncs. (From a Greek silver vase.
§ 1). The Romans had no coinage except
copper, till 269 or 268 B.C., when silver was
first coined (Plin. xxxiii. § 42 sqq.). For a
further account of Roman copper money^, see
Coinage : and for the relative values of gold,
silver, and copper, Argentum.
Aes equestre, Aes hordea'rium, Aes
milita're, the ancient terms for tiie p:iy of the
Roman soldiers, befoie the regular stipendium
I 'A-yTiM-a. Exercitus.]
Ager publicus. 1. In Italy, land owned by
the state and originally acquired by conquest.
Part of the conquered territory was left to the
former owners as tenants of the state ; part
was given or sold to Roman citizens or others
in full ownership ; part (especially posture-
land) became ager publicus, and was held by
new occupiers at a yearly rent.
AGER SANCTUS
ArnNoeETAi
11
A piece of land occupied (not owned) thus j and pai'apets to defend the workmen and
■AS a possessio (possessor, ^jossw7 ere) : the act sokliers. (Caes.^. C?. vii. 24.) As the agger was
sometimes made of wood, hurdles, and similar
materials, we read of its being set on fire. (Liv.
'^^■.
Fig.
-Agger. (From Columnof Trajan.)
xxxvi. 23 ; Caes. B. G. vii. 24.) The word agger
was also applied to the mound surrounding a
Roman encampment, composed of the earth
dug from the ditch {fossa), which was not less
of occupancy wa^ ttsus, the profit to the state
fructus.
Possessores were of two sorts : (1) those who
paid rent under a lease for a term of years ; (2)
tenants at will (precario) who paid a portion of
the produce.
The first class were secured by the terms
of their leases {formula). The second were
liable to disturbance, as no prescription could
prevail against the ownership of the state. But
the possessor was not disturbed in order to put
in another tenant. In many cases tlie value of
the land had been largely increased by im-
provements, and the tenant-right had been
legally transferred by sale, bequest, &c.
2. In the provinces, tlie land of a conquered
community was regarded as confiscated ; but
what had been public or municipal property
now became ager puhlicas; laud held by pri-
vate owners was generally left to them subject
to a land tax {vcctigal). The ager publicus
might be (o) sold ; (6) let
to tenants {possessores);
or (c) left in the hands
of the community.
In the case of a p>ro-
vince which came in by
gift, bequest, or surren-
der, owners were not
disturbed, but became
possessores, paying a
small vectigal. See
Agrariae leges ; Pro-
vincia.
Ager sanctus {re/xe-
vos). [Vectigalia tem-
plorum ; Sacerdos.]
'Avvapeia (Hdt. 07-
yapT)'iov). A system of
posting used among
the Persians, and, ac-
cording to Xenophon, established by Cyrus. 1 than nine feet broad and seven feet deep. Sharp
Horses were provided, at certain distances, I stakes, &c., were usually fixed upon the agger,
along the principal roads of the empire; 1 wliich was then called valhim. When both
so that couriers {iaryyapoi), who relieved one 1 words are used (Caes. B. G. vii. 72), the agger
another at certain distances, could proceed | means the mound of earth, and the vallum the
without interruption, both night and day, and , stakes {valli) which were fixed upon the agger.
in all weathers. (Hdt. viii. 98; Xen. Cijrop, At Rome, tlie rampart, seven stadia long,
viii. 6, § 17.) If the government arrangements erected by Servius Tullius to protect the north-
failed in any point, the service of providing t eastern side of Rome was called agger. The
horses was made compulsory on individuals ; j Servian wall was carried along the toji of it.
hence the word came to mean compulsory 1 (Cic. Bcp. ii. C.) Agger viae is the crown or
service in forwarding royal messages : and in convex surface of a road. [Viae.]
this sense it was adopted by the Romans under | Agi'na. [Libra.]
the Empire, and is frequently found in the
Roman laws (cf. St. Matt. v. 4i). Tlie Roman
angaria, also called angariarum exhihitio or
j)raestatio, included the maintenance and sup-
ply, not only of horses, but of ships and mes-
sengers, in forwarding both letters and packages ;
it is defined as a persoiale niunus, and there
was no ground of exemption from it allowed,
except by the favour of the emperor. [Cursus
publicus.]
Agger (xiiyua), from ad and gero, in general
a heap or mound of stones, wood, earth, or any
other substance : such as a dyke or the quay of a
Agmen. [Exercitus.]
Agna'ti (Adgn-). See Appendix, Roman Law
[Cognati |.
Agnomen. [Nomen.]
'A-yoJv. See Appendix, Gkeek L.\W [Aikti,
rpa(t)Ti].
'Avtdv TIM- TITOS, cLTiji, TITOS. See Appcndix,
Greek Law [Ti|xTi|xa].
Agona'les. [Salii.]
Agona'lia, Ago'nia or Agona'les dies, a
name given to four festivals in the Roman
calendar (cf. Ov. Fast. i. 319-332), celebrated
respectively on Jan. 9, in honour of Janus (Ov.
harbour (Ov. Trist. iii. 9, 13) ; more particularly I Fast. i. 333) ; March 17, in honour of Mars, or
applied to a mound, usually of earth, raised Quirinus ; May 21, to Veiovis on the Capitoline
roundabesiegedtown, and increased in breadth (hill; and on Dec. 11, a festival called iSe^^j-
and height, till it equalled or overtopped the \montiiim or Agonia I nui, when sacrifice was
walls. Hence the expressions aggere oppidum ' offered on each of the seven hills.
oppiignare, cingcre ; aggcrem extrnere, con- \ 'AvcovoGe'Tai. (1) Judges in the Grecian
sincere, iacere,facere,&c. Some of these «£/- {games {aydii'fs). They were called adKoderai
geres were gigantic works, flanked with towers at Athens. The office was considered one of
12 AGORA
great dignity. (2) The title of the judges at the j Pausanias, (2) a plan of tlie later kind of agora,
Panhellenic games. The Eleians were the , from Vitruvius.
(Kjunothctac in the Olympic games, the Corin- \ a (fig. 27), the chief open space of the agora,
tl'iians in the Isthmian games, the Ampliiktyons j or li'qipodromus; a, colonmules separated by
in the Pythian games, and the Corintliians, streets, h ; B, the stoa of the Hellanodikae,
Argives, and inhabitants of Kleonae in the divided from the agora by a street o\ c, the
Nemean games. The ayaivodfrai were also house of the Hellanodikae; x, the tholus; D,
called alau/xvoTat, ayiovdpxah ayoivoSiKai, ad\o- the Korkyraean stoa ; r, g, h, sniall temples ; /,
Vfrai, pa^SovxoL, ^paRds. fipa^evrai. [Olym-
pia, Pythia, Nemea, Isthmia.]
Ag'ora (ayopd). 1. 'Ayopd means an as-
sembly of any nature, and is usually employed
statues of the Sun and Moon ; i, monument of
Oxylus ; k, house of the priestesses of Hera.
In this agora the stoa, li, answers to the later
basilica, and the house, c, to the prijtaneioti in
by Homer for the general assembly of the other Greek ayopai. Tlie open space, a, was
people {Oil. ix. 112). The agora, though usually devoted to public assembUes and exercise, and
E
d
r?f
I
o/o
Li
rig. 27.— Ground-plan of the old Agora at Elis. From I'ausani-.is. (Hirt. C.'.
<f. n.uiUunftb. <l. Al
convoked by the king, may also be summoned
by some distinguished chieftain (11. i. 54). The
king occupied the most important seat in these
assemblies, and near him were the nobles, while
the people sat in a circle around them. The
nobles seem to have been the only persons who
proposed measures, deliberated and voted. The
people were only called together to hear what
had been alreadj' agreed upon in the council of
the nobles, which is called ^ovKt; (II. ii 53, vi.
114), edaiKos (Od. ii. 20), and ayopd(Od. ix. 112).
Justice was administered in the agora by the
king or chiefs (II. xviii. 497, Od. xii. 439), itc,
but the people had no sliare in its administra-
tion. (See Grote, Hist, of Greece, ch. xx.)
Among the Athenians the proper name for
the assembly of the people was iKK\r}(Tia. The
term (u/ora was confined to the assemblies of
tlie cpvKai and drj/ioi.
2. Agora was also the place of public as-
sembly in a Greek city, both for traffic aud for
the transaction of all public business.
In the earliest times the agora was an open
piece of ground, generally in front of the royal
palace, and in seaport towns close to the har-
bour. It was enclosed with large stones sunk
into the eartli, and seats of stone were placed
in it for the chiefs to sit in judgment ; and it
was hallowed Ijy the shrine of one or more
divinities. |Hom. II. ii. 7SS, vii. 345, 340, Od.
vi. 203-285.)
The ayopi of later times consisted of an open
space, enclosed by colonmides (crToai, ]i(»'tici(s).
adorned with statues, altars, and temples, and
built about with public and private edifices. The
distinction between the earlier style of agora,
and the new or Ionian style introduced after the
Persian wars, appears to have been that the
former was divided into streets, whereas the
latter was open, with colonnades round the
whole space. See figs. 27 and 28, showing (1)
the old agora at Elis, from the description of
the aroai (a), with their intervening streets (b),
to private business and traffic.
Tlie later or Ionian form of the agora, as
described by Vitruvius (v. 1), is repi'eseuted in
the following plan (fig. 28).
A, the open court, surrounded by double
colonnades and shops ; ii, the curia ; c, the
chief temple, also used as a treasury ; D, the
basilica, or court of justice ; E, the tholus, in
connexion witli the other rooms of the pry-
taueuin, c, d.
nnnij . h
mm]
t:
h;
1 '1 I I I '^m'^t
n
Fig. 26.— Plan of a Greeli Agora, according to Vltruviu*.
Buildings commonly mentioned in connexion
with the agora are : (1) Temples, altars, and
statues of divinities and heroes, such as the
o-PXVy^"^"-'- or firwi/vfjLoi at Atliens; and of
famous men — Solon, Harmodius and Aristo-
geiton, &c. The epithet ayopaios is often ap-
plied to a divinity who was thus worshipped
in the agora (Aesch. Eiiiu. 976, Sept. c. Thcb.
AGORA
271; Soph. Op(1. Tin: IC.l). (2) The senate-
house (^ovKivTTipLov) . (oj The residence of
the magistrates for the time being _ [Pryta-
nemn]. (4) Courts of justice [Basilica]. (5)
The pubhc treasury [Thesaurus]. (6) The
prison [Career]. (7) To these various build-
ings must be added the works of art with
which the open area and the porticoes
of the agora were adorned ; statues, pictures,
mythological and historical, &c. (8) Colon-
nades like the (TToa. ttoiklKt} at Athens,
which was adorned with the paintings of
Polygnotus and others, the Korkyraean colon-
nade at Elis, and the Persian at Sparta.
The open area of the agora was the place of
public assembly, and of social and general
resort. Here also were celebrated the public
festivals.
Originally the agora was also the market,
and was surrounded with shops, as shown in
the above plan. The market, whether identical
with or separate from the agora for assemblies,
was divided into parts for tlie different sorts of
merchandise, furnished with colonnades, and
partly with shops and stalls, partly with tem-
porary booths ((TK.7]vai, Dem. de Cor. j>. 234).
Each of these parts was called a kvk\os. The
several divisions of the marliet were named
according to the articles exposed for sale in
them. Thus we find ol Ix^^^i ^c) uipov, the fish
market. Other terms are rot a^cpira, the meal-
market, where, perhaps, the women sold bread
(Ar. Ban. 857, Vesj). 1889) ; al fxvppiuai, for gar-
lands of myrtle and flowers (Ar. Thesm. 448,
457); ai xi^Tpai, for j)ottery; ra fxayeipfla, to.
Kp6fxva, TO. (TKSpoSa, TO. fxTjAa, rovKaiov, to. fxvpa,
al KA7vat, TO. avSpd-n-oSa, il'c. Lastly, a part of
the market was devoted to the money-changers.
The time during which tlie market was fre-
quented was the forenoon ; and the early fore-
noon is denoted by the common phrases ■wepl
■K\i]Qovaav ayopau, irXi^ddpr] ayopcis. (Hdt. ii.
173, vii. 223.) The time of the conclusion of
the niarket was called ayopas SiaAvais (Hdt.
iii. 104; Thuc. viii. 92). During these hours
the market was a place of general resort (Plat.
Apol. p. 17). It was also frequented in other
parts of the day, and particularly in the even-
ing. The shops, especially those of the barbers,
the perfumers, and the doctors, were common
places of resort for conversation (Ar. Phot. 337,
Av. 1439 ; Xen. Mem. iv. 2, § 1 ; Dem. in
Aristog. i. p. 786, § 52).
The persons who carried on traffic in the
market were the country people, who brought
in wine and other commodities into the city,
and the retail dealers (/caTTTjAoi)- (Plat. Bcp.
ii. p. 371; Xen. Mem. iii. 7, § 6.) [Caupo.]
Wholesale dealers sold their goods by means
of a sample (Seryyua), either in the market,
or in the place called hetyixa attached to
the port. The retail dealers exposed their
goods for sale in their shops, or hawked them
about (Ar. Ach. 33 sqq.). The privilege of free
market belonged to the citizens : foreigners had
to pay a toll (Dem. in Euhul. p. 1309, § 34).
Citizens either made their own purchases in
the market (Aeschin. c. Timarch. § 65), or
employed a slave, ayopaarT^s (Xen. Mem. i. 5,
§ 2; Ter. Andr. ii. 2. 31). Sometimes female
slaves performed this office (Lys. de Caed.
Eratosth. p. 18), but not free women. There
were porters in attendance to carry home their
purchases from the markets, called TrpovvetKoi,
■n-aiSapiwves, andiraiSdvfs. The preservation of
order in tlie market was the office of the
' Avopavoixoi.
AGRARIAE LEGES
13
'Ayopavoiioi.. Public functionaries in
most of the Grecian states, whose duties corre-
sponded in many respects to those of the
Roman aediles. The Athenian agoranomi were
regular magistrates, ten in number — five for the
city and five for the Peiraeus — and were chosen
by lot, one from each tribe. (Dem. c. Timocr.
p. 735, § 112; Ar. Ach. 689.)
The duty of the agoranomi was to inspect
the market, and to see that its regulations were
observed. They had the inspection of every-
thing sold in the market, except corn, which was
subject to the jurisdiction of the 2tTo4)\j\aKes-
Wholesale trade was under the jurisdiction of
the cTTi/ueATjTat roiJ efxiroplov. They regulated
the price and quantity of all things which were
brought into the market, and punished all
persons convicted of cheating, and the use of
false weights and measures, by imposing a
slight fine (eVi/SoAr'i). They had the care of all
the temples and fountains in the market-place,
and received the tax (^eviKov reAoy) which
foreigners paid for the privilege of exposing
their goods for sale in the market. (Ar. Ach.
689 ; Plat. Legg. vi. p. 763.) ['AcrTvvoM.ot.]
'A7pa<J)Cov ypa<i)i\. See Appendix, Geeek
L.vw.
'AYpdcJjov [i.iTdK\ov -ypacjj-n. See Appen-
dix, Greek Law.
Agra'riae leges. Laws dealing with the
distribution of Roman public land (ogcr jjubli-
cus), and in general providing for giving to
the poorer citizens allotments out of the land
I which belonged to the state, and regulating the
I tenure on which these allotments and the
i remaining bulk should be held.
j The agrarian laws dealt with the state lands,
j i.e. lands acquired by conquest. In ancient
warfare, though the conquered community was
allowed to exist, it was deprived of part, often
of a third part, of its lands. These confiscated
j lands had sometimes been wasted in war, some-
i times were still in a state of cultivation, some-
j times consisted of waste and moorland. Each
kind requires separate treatment.
j 1. The cultivated lands were dealt with in
four ways.
' (1) Part was sold by the quaestors, and
: hence called agri quaestorii. The land for
I this purpose was measured and divided by
1 balks {limites) into square plots {latcrculi),
j measuring 10 actus each side, and containing
fifty iugera ( = about 31 acres) each. Such a plot,
containing 100 square actus, was also called
! centuria. The sale under the spear [sub hasta)
' gave full rights of ownership, conquest having
extinguished all previous title.
(2) Part was given and assigned in full
ownership to Roman citizens. Tliis land was
I duly surveyed, measured, divided by Imlks
i [limites) into centuries, each containing 200
iugera (125 acres), and assigned by lot to
! Roman citizens. Such land was called ag)-i
• dafi assignati. The oldest assignments were
j two iugera to each man ; this formed an heredi-
tament [heredium] : i.e. the assignee had not the
mere use or life interest of the plot, but it passed
to his heirs after him. The survey and distribu-
I tion were effected by a special commission of
three or more men (Cic. Agr. ii. 7), called lllriri
A. D. A., i.e. Hgris dandis assigjiandis. Some-
times the distribution was accompanied by the
establishment of a colony ; or the allottees were
incorporated into some existing colony or
borough ; or they remained at Rome and had
their allotments as well.
(3) Part of the lands confiscated were given
li
AGRARIAE LEGES
back [redditi) to their former proprietors. No
rent was imposed on these plots, any more than
on those newly assigned to Roman citizens.
(4) Part was neither sold, nor assigned, nor
restored to the former owners. This took
place when the number to share was small in
proportion to the land. The whole cultivated
area was or might be duly surveyed, and di-
vided into centuries, and allotted as far as
was required. The remainder was let at a
rent, for a short period, apparently from year
to year, or for a lustrum ; in other cases for 100
It must be clearly understood that agrarian
laws dealt only with agn- 2>itblii-us and did not
touch private ownership in land.
Agrarian laws were directed, (1) in the case of
land already public, to enforce the regular pay-
ment of state rents, to limit the amount of
public land to be held by one occupier, and to
make allotments of it to new settlers as owners ;
(2) in case of new conquests, to allot newly
acquired land to colonies or private owners
(viritim).
The earliest grievance connected with the
years or more. For these long periods the public land was its possession by patricians
lessees were state-contractors (mancipes), who ! exclusively, though after a time the ricli pie-
sublet to other occupiers. The rent was called [ beians came in for their share. The occupiers
vectigal. The manccjis was not a mere col- i were accused of paying no rent, or less than
lector of rents, but was himself the lessee ; he ! was due ; of claiming public land as their own,
could work the land himself if he chose, or j by removing land-marks ; the deficiencies
engage with others to cultivate it at a rent, as i having to be made up by taxation of the iX)orer
he, inhia turn, according to his agreement, jiaid citizens.
a rent to the state or other owner. The first agi-arian law was that proposed, but
2. Besides the cultivated lands still in condi- not caiTied, by Sp. Cassius Viscellinus, 48Gb.c.
tion to be sold or let, there were the mountain This was to divide lands taken from tlie Hemici
among landless men, Roman and Latin. It
also proposed to deal with land ah'eady made
ar/er 2'iil>licus but occu^Med by pi'ivate owners,
thus causing disturbance.
It does not seem probable that any definite
aiTangement was made in earlv times for the
pastures {saltus) and woods. The mountain pas-
tures and woods were often granted {concessa) to
the old proprietors rent-free, or to the new Roman
colony, or reserved to the state. Sometimes a
small rent was required, and then they came
under the head of ar/ri vectigales. Sometimes
strips of wood on the mountain were annexed : occupation of public land which was not as-
by the original assignment to the different signed or sold or leased ; and the legal claim of
estates (fundi) of private persons. Pastures the state to deal with it was incontestable in
also were appropriated to individuals, or shared , theory. But it was difficult to enforce it with-
as common {nger compascuus) by the whole out the destruction of those reasonable expec-
community. A tax was paid for the use of the tations, arising from long use, which are the
common pastures, both for horned cattle and , foundation of the statesman's view of property,
sheep. All animals turned on to these pastui'es j It appears probable that the jmtricians alone
were declared to the tax-farmer, and registered
in his books ; the word scriptiira was fre-
quently used both of tlie registration and of the
tax itself (e.g. Cic. Vcrr. ii. 70, 169). The
fanners of this tax were called publicani scrip
had, before the Licinian laws, tlie right to hold
the public land. They were originally the holders
of the government, and were, as a rule, the
richest citizens. Neither the peasant nor the
small capitalist would find the occupation of
turarii. As the plots of arable land were small , land far from Rome attractive ; it required capi-
(two iugera) a common pasture was a necessity. I tal; it was at a distance ; and it was insecure.
The word most frequently used to denote this , Such possessions had, therefore, a natural ten-
occupation is, poHsidcre; the occupiers are pos- i dency to accumulate in the hands of the few.
sessores, the lands are jwssessioucs. Occu- , The holders added field to field (continuare
pation (possessio) was recognised and pro- ! agros, cf. Cic. Agr. iii. 4, § 14 ; Liv. xxxiv. 4,
tected by the law without regard to title, but ■ § 9), partly by purchase, i>artly by violence,
on the negative condition that it had been ob- ; partly by enclosing vacant land (Sail. lug. 41).
tained neither by force, nor by stealth, nor by Thus were formed the large estates (latifundia,
request (ncc vi, nee clam, nee pirccario) from | lati fundi), which, worked by slaves, excluded
the opposing litigant. But, however acquired, i free peasants, and (Plin. xviii. § 35) roused the
the occupation gave no rights to the possessor Gracchi to their famous legislation,
which were good against the state. The most important agrarian law, that which
Length (vefustas) of possession, even of set the precedent for all that followed, was that
public land, was considered to confer a title ; ] of C. Licinius Stolo, 307 B.C. [Lex Licinia],
and Sulla's confiscation of private property and | luniting the amount of public land, arable and
possession, and his grants of land to friends pasture, which might be held by one occupier,
and soldiers, were an outrage on Roman con- I and providing for the employment of free
servative feeling. Cicero, in the de Officiis (ii. ! labour.
22, 78), with Caesars measures in his mind, ] During 200 years, while the amount of ager
classes together the expulsion of possessors, l^«i)/(f«s wasimmenselyincreasedbytheRoman
which was the object of agrarian laws, and the conquests, no regulation of its occupancy was
wiping out of debts incurred by loan of money, | made, except in one instance, by the Lez
which was another democratic measure ; and
speaks of both proposals in the same language
as measures weakening the foundation of the
state, common feeling and equity. Those who
were disturbed might plead improvements on
the land, plantations, and buildings ; some of
the land they had bought from their neigh-
bours: it held their fathers' tombs; it had
Flaminia (233 b.c). Meanwhile, the Licinian
law had been evaded or fallen into disuse; large
tracts of public land had fallen into the hands
of private owners, who considered them as their
own property, and managed them by slave
labour. Small freeholders sold their farms to
rich neighbours, and removed into the towns.
The depopulation of the country and pauperis-
been disti'ibuted like ancestral property; they j ing of the smaller citizens led to tin' reforms of
had invested in it the dowries of their wives,
and given it in dowry with their daughters;
and mortgagees held it as security for loans.
Tiberius Gracchus [Lex Sempronia agraria,
133 B.C.]. By these the Licinian law was re-
vived ; old occupiers dispossessed were to have
AGRAULIA
in full ownership the land which they retained,
but no other compensation. Tlie land resumed
was to be distributed in small allotments,
which might neither be alienated nor let.
Circumstances connected with the lati-
fundia, tlie interests of their owners, and the
grievances attaching to them ; the necessity
for finding lands to reward the soldiers of
Marius, Sulla, Pompeius, and Caesar; the decay
of agriculture, the growth of pasturage, and tlie
exclusion of free labour by slave labour, led to
many attempts to regulate the occupation of
public land, such as the Lex Thoria, 119 or 118
B.C. ; Lex Apuleia, 100 b.c. ; Leges Liviae, 91
B.C. ; Lex Servilia, 63 B.C. ; Lex Flavia, 60 b.c. ;
Lex lulia, 59 B.C.
See furtlier under the headings Lex Licinia,
Sempronia, Thoria. The political struggles
connected with these and other enactments are
treated in general histories.
Vespasian made fresh assignments to vete-
rans, and proceeded to sell, for the benefit of
the liscus, all oddments (subseciva) and un-
allotted lands which had been usurped by
adjoining occupiers. But deputations repre-
sented the general alarm which this disturb-
ance of long-standing occupations had occa-
sioned. Vespasian stayed his hand, but Titus
resumed the action. Domitian issued an edict
granting the oddments throughout Italy to the
occupiers (Suet. Doin. 9).
Agrau'lia [aypavXia). A festival celebrated
by the Athenians in honour of Agraulos, the
daughter of Kekrops {Class. Diet. Agraulos.)
Agriculture.
1. Greek. — Besides the Geoponica [T^wiro-
viKo), a collection of maxims of husbandry from
authors of all dates down to the eighth century
A.D., when it was compiled, it is believed, by
Cassianus Bassus, and scattered notices in
Homer and other authors, two important works
are extant, the Works and Days of Hesiodand
the Oeconomiciis of Xenophon. From these,
and from information to be gleaned from vases
and other works of art, we learn that agricul-
ture in Greece never reached a high level. The
rotation of crops, deep ploughing, scientific
drainage, application of different manures ac-
cording to the soil, were unknown. Viticulture
was practised with success, and many kinds of
fruit and vegetables were grown ; but the
methods were primitive, and to tliis day the
Greek peasant may be seen using the same
plough as that described by Hesiod, holding the
e'xeVATj with one hand and the goad in the other,
and laboriously pressing the plough into the
ground, exactly as he is depicted in the vases.
Kings and chiefs did no'^; disdain to work in
the fields ; Ulysses, like Cincinnatus, follows the
plough (Od. xviii. 371-75) ; Laertes hoes the
earth round his own fruit-trees {Od. xxiv. 227).
The plough [Aratrum] is identical with that
used in Italy, with the exception of the
earth-boards. Oxen and mules are used in
ploughing : the former for the harder work, the
latter to follow, and to deepen and clear the
furrow. Loose clods were bi'oken by mattocks,
and the seed was covered in with spades. The
oxen were yoked by the neck ; the mules har-
nessed with collar and breastplate, both in
pairs {(^ivyos).
The land lay fallow in alternate years. Then
ploughings took place in spring, summer, and
autumn ; immediately after the third the seed
was sown. In the spring the soil was loosened
(cr/coAevejj') with hoes, to cover the roots and
kill weeds; late in the year it was weeded
AGRICULTURE
15
i^OTavi^dv). The harvest took place in summer.
The corn was cut with sickles (^piiravov), some-
times close to the ground, sometimes halfway up
the stalk. The stubble was burnt on the ground.
Sometimes young crops were ploughed in for
manure. Dung, we ads allowed to rot in water,
and rubbish from the roads, were used as
manure. The corn was trodden out on a thresh-
ing-floor {aKwi]), a circular floor of stone or
concrete, such as may be seen outside Greek
villages to-day, by oxen, mules, or horses. The
corn was winnowed {i.e. thrown up against the
wind) with shovel {tttvov) or basket {KIkvov,
vaiinus) and stored in barns.
Water was kept off the land by dykes
{xoip-ara) and guided in channels {oxfroi).
Some drainage of wet lands was also practised.
Vnies were planted from 2g to Ih feet deep.
The soil round the roots was frequently dug
{\i<TTpiViiv) to loosen it. They were planted
in slips ; the earth was stamped in round them,
to prevent scorching or flooding. Olives were
planted deeper, and stakes set to which the
young plants were tied. The fruit-bearing
(/jyuepos) olive was grafted on the wild-olive
stock {wypUKaiov, kotivos).
It appears from the Geoponica that the
Greeks kept domesticated animals of all
sorts.
2. Roman. — Among the Romans, agriculture
was the only lucrative profession in which a
citizen could embark with honour. Besides
works which have perished, we still possess, in
addition to Virgil, four Scrip)tores de lie Bus-
tica. We have 162 chapters of the book de Re
Busfica by the elder Cato (234-149 B.C.) ; the
tliree books dc Be Bustica of Varro, 116-28 B.C. ;
the thirteen books of Columella, c. 40 a.d. ;
and, lastly, the fourteen books of Palladius
(c. 350 A.D.), of which tw'elve form a farmer's
monthly calendar. Besides the above, a whole
book of Pliny and many detached chapters are
devoted to matters connected with the labours
of the husbandman ; and the work of Blago the
Carthaginian, in twenty-eight books, was trans-
lated into Latin about 140 B.C., besides several
editions in Greek.
The crops to which the Romans chiefly
directed their attention were (1) different kinds
of grain ; (2) vines [Vitis], leguminous vege-
tables, herbs cut green for forage, and plants
which furnished raw material for textile fabrics ;
(3) fruit-trees [Olea] ; (4) garden stuffs.
Agriculture was considered by our authors in
regard to: (I.) fundus, praediuni ; (II.) the in-
struments {instrumenfa) oi husbandry; (III.)
the operations of husbandry, and tlie time when
they are to be performed ; (IV.) tlie object of
these operations, viz. the different plants culti-
vated ; (V.) pastio, the breeding and keeping of
animals.
I. a. CoGNiTio Fundi.
Knoivledge of the Farm. — In selecting a
farm the farmer considered : (1) the healthiness
of the situation isaluhrifas), especially with a
view to avoid malaria. (2) The general fertility
of the soil. (3) A good aspect. (4) Position:
near a town, with a good exposure, good water
supply. (5) Manageable extent. The soil might
be considered in reference : (a) to its general
external features {forma) ; (^) to its internal
qualities. Land was characterised according
to its slope, levels, and exposure ; soils were
classified by quality, colour, consistency, or
natural products. (See Verg. Geory. ii. 177-
258.)
16
AGRICULTURE
Land mi'^'lit be either tilled (culta) or untilled
(rvdis ager).
The comjiarative value of land under cxxY-
tivation is lixed by Cato according to the
following descending scale :
{I) vinea; {2} hortus irriguus ; {S)salictum;
(4) oletum; {o)])ratum; (6) camjjus fruinenta-
rius ; (7) silva caedua ; (8) arbiistum {i.e. fields
planted with trees in regular rows, upon which
vines were trained, and the open ground culti-
vated in the ordinary manner, an arrangement
still existing in many parts of Italy) ; (9)
glandaria silva.
Waste land was reclaimed by removing trees
and brushwood (fruteta), rocks and stones,
weeds {filices, iunci), and by draining, measur-
ing, and enclosing with fences.
Drains {fossae, sulci alveati, incilia) were
of two kinds :
(1) Open ditches (fossae patentes) for heavy
soils ; wide at top, and gradually narrowed
downwards.
(2) Covered drains (fossae caecae), where the
soil was loose, emptied themselves into the
fossae patentes. One-half of the depth was
filled up with small stones, gravel {nuda glarea),
brushwood bundles (sarmentis colligatis), or
willow-poles interlaced, and the earth was
thrown in above until the surface was level.
The mouths of the drains were supported by
two stones placed upright, and one across. To
carry off the surface-water, open furrows {sulci
aquarii, elices, coUiquiae) were left at intervals.
Measures of Land. — The measure employed
for land in Latium was the iugeruvi, which
was a double actus quadratus. [See Measures,
Tab. VI., Actus, lugerum, Scrupulum.] The
following table gives the usual standards :
1 scripulum or scnjpulum = 100 square ft.,
[Roman measure.
144 scripula = 1 actus = 14,400 square ft.
2 actus = 1 iugerum = 28,800 square ft.
2 iugera = 1 heredium = .57,600 square ft.
100 hcredia = 1 centuria = .'>,760,000 sq. ft.
4 centuriae = 1 saltus = 23,040,000 square ft.
The Roman iugerum was less than two-thirds
of an imperial acre by about 500 square yards.
The actus quadratus was a square whose side
was 120 Roman feet (ten decempedae), the words
actus and versus marking tlie ordinary length
of fiirrow from headland to headland.
Fences {sac2Jes,saepimenta), viz.:
(1) Sae])ijiicntum naturale, viva saepes, the
quickset hedge.
(2) Saepiiiicntum agreste, hurdles made with
upright stakes (pali) interlaced with brush-
wood (virgultis implicatis), or with cross-spars
{avtites,longuria) passed through holes drilled
in the stakes.
(3) Saepimentum militarc, consisting of a
ditch {fossa} and mound {agger).
(4) Saepiiuciituvi fabrile, wall (maceria),
whether of stone, brick, or formacei, i.e. made
of earth pressed in between upright boards (in
form is), like the cob- walls in the "West of
England.
Finallj', the banks and roadsides were planted
with trees, the elm and poplar being preferred.
I. b. Villa Rustica.
The site for a house and offices was to be
elevated, under the brow of a hill, facing the
east, near a stream, and with wood and pasture
in the neighbourhood. The buildings were
usually an-anged round two courts, with a tank
in the centre of each, and divided into three
parts: (1) (Pars) Urbana; (2) Bustica; (3)
Fmctuaria.
(1) Urbana. That part of the building occn-
pied by the master and his family, consisting
of eating-rooms {cenationes) and sleeping apart-
ments {cubicula), with baths (balnearia), and
covered walks (ambulationes).
(2) Rustica. The part of the building occu-
pied by the slaves, consisting of kitchen (culina),
baths (balnea), sleeping closets icellae) for the
servi soluti, a gaol (ergastulum) underground
for the sei'vi vincti. In this division were in-
cluded also the stables, byres, sheds, and
enclosuresof every description (stabula bubilia,
saepta, ovilia, cortes) for the working oxen
(domiti boves), together with a storehouse
{horreum) and toolhouse, and chamber for the
overseer (vilicus), the steward (procurator),
and the shepherds (opiliones), oxherds (bubulci),
&c.
(3) Fructuaria. Storage for farm-produce,
consisting of the oil-cellar {cella olearia), the
press-house (cella torcularia), the vault for
wines in the cask (cella vinaria), the boiling-
room (defrutarium), all on the ground-floor.
Above were lofts (faenilia, palearia, horrea,
granaria), a drying-room for firewood (fuma-
Hum), and store-rooms (apothecae) for wine
in the amphora [Vinum].
A mill (pistrinum) and bakehouse (fumum)
were attached to every establishment ; open
tanks (piscinae, lacus), and where there was
no river or spring available, covered rain-water
tanks (cisternae sub tectis).
n. Instbumenta.
As instrumenta were reckoned : a. Persons
(homines); b. Aids to human labour (admini-
cula hominum), viz. oxen and other animals,
and tools (instrumenta).
a. homines.
(1) Free labourers (operarii). Although a
large proportion of the work upon great estates
was always performed by slaves, labourers were
hired in hay-making, the corn harvest, and the
vintage, or in unhealthy situations where slaves
would have died off fast. Operarii were free
workmen hired in gangs (conducticiae libero-
rum operae) engaged by a contractor (mercen-
narius). They were paid either in money or
in kind.
(2) Slaves (servi). Rustic slaves were divided
into two classes — (a) servi soluti and (b) servi
vincti, who worked in fetters when abroad, and
when at home were confined in a kind of prison
{ergastulum) under a gaoler (crgastularius).
The slaves worked either singly or in small
gangs under inspectors (magistri operum).
When the owner (fZaJ«/««s) did not reside upon
the property, the whole establishment was under
the control of a general overseer (vilicus), him-
self a slave or freedman, who looked after the
establishment, stock, slaves, and labour, and
sold the produce of the farm, for which he
accounted to the proprietor. On very exten-
sive estates there was usually a steward (pro-
curator) who held the vilicus in check. The
wife of the vilicus (vilica) took charge of the
female slaves and the indoor details of the
family.
The food of the slaves composing the house-
hold (familia) consisted of (a) cibaria, bread for
the servi compediti, ungi-ound wheat for the
servi soluti; (b) vinum, wine, and after the
vintage, washings of the husks and stalks, called
lora or vinum ojierai'ium [Vinum]; (c) pul-
AGEICULTURE
17
tncntaria, olives, salt fish {halcc), vinegar
{(icetuiii), and oil.
The clothing (vestimenta) of the rustic la-
bourers was of the coarsest description. It
consisted of thiek woollen shirts itunirae) 85 ft.
long, skin coats with long sleeves (pelles mani-
catae), cloaks with hoods {saga cucvUata,
cuculiones), patchwork wrappers {cruioiies)
made out of old clothes, sabots or wooden shoes
(scul2)oneae). A tunic, a sagum, and a pair of
sculponeae were given every other year.
The {proprietor was usually himself the farmer.
Sometimes, but rarely, land was let {locare) to
a tenant, who paid his rent either in money
{pensio ; ad pecuniam nmneratam) or in kind
at a fixed rate {partihus) : hence the term
partiarius. i'^'L medietarius, Fr. vietayer.)
These colon! .sometimes tilled the same farm
from father to son for generations {coloni in-
digenae), and such were considered the best
tenants. The worst were those who lived in
towns, and employed gangs of slaves.
b. ADMINICULA HOMINUM.
For domestic animals see Pastio.
For the tools {instrumenta) see articles
Aratrxun, Irpex, Crates, Rastrum, Ligo,
Sarculum, Bidens, Falx, Tribuliim Plos-
truin, Securis, &c.
III. The Operations of Aghiculture.
1. Ploughing [aratio).
The number of times that land was ploughed,
varying from two to nine, as well as tlie season
at which the work was performed, depended
upon the nature of the soil and the crop
for which it was prepared. When stiff low-
lying soil {cainpus uliginosus) was broken
up for wheat, it was usual to plough it
four times (see Verg. Georg. i. 47 sqq.). The
first spring ploughing was termed proscindere
or vervagere ; the second offringere, iterare,
vervacta stibigere ; the third, tertiare, in Sept-
ember ; and the fourth time, lirare, for the
reception of the seeds, the ribbing being exe-
cuted by adding two mouldboards to the plough
(aratriim auritum), one on each side of tlie
share. Lighter soil was ploughed three times,
or twice only.
The plough, as in Greece, was drawn by
oxen, yoked by the necks and not by the horns.
Tlie ploughman (hubidcus) was required to
make straight furrows so close to each other
as to obliterate the mark of the share and not
to leave scatnna, i.e. lines of unturned earth
between the furrows. The normal length of a
furrow {versus, versura) was 120 feet [Actus].
2. Manuring {stercoratio).
Manure {fimus, stercus) was of various
kinds. That derived from pigeon-houses {stercus
columhinum) and from birds in general was
considered the strongest, and was sown by the
hand. Besides dung of all kinds, straw, weeds,
leaves, and other litter, were mixed with aslies,
sweepings of the house, road-scrapings, &c.,
and served to swell the dunghills (sicrg'wi^ima).
These were formed on ground beaten hard or
paved, and were covered over with brushwood
or hurdles to prevent evaporation, and fre-
quently turned over with the fork.
Manure was laid down in September or Octo-
ber for autumn sowing, and in January or
February on ground that was to be spring-sown,
and was ploughed in at once. The system of
manuring by penning sheep was also in use.
Lime was sometimes used for fruit-trees. Marl
was not used in Italy, but soils were sometimes
combined, as gravel with chalky clay, &c.
3. Sowing {satio).
The principal sowing-time {sementis) was in
late Sei^tember or October {Georg. i. 219).
Spring-sowing {triincMris satio) was practisefl
only in deep stiff land, whicli would admit of
being cropped for several years in succession
(restibilis ager). The seed was sown (1) on the
fiat ; (2) on the tops of the lirac, or ridges ; (3)
in the furrows; or (4) upon unprepai'ed land
{cruda terra), being then ploughed in.
The points chiefly attended to in the choice
of seed-corn were, that it should be perfectly
fresh and pure, and of a uniform reddisli
colour. When the crop was reaped, the largest
and finest ears were selected by the hand, or
the heaviest grains were separated by a sieve
and reserved. It was not unusual to doctor
{medicare) seeds of all sorts by sprinkling them
with an alkaline liquor {nitriim, carbonate of
soda), or with oil-lees {ainurca), or by steeping;
them in various preparations (cf. Verg. Georg.
i. 193).
For the quantity of seed sown cf. Xen. Oecon.
17 ; Verg. Georg. i. 193, 212, 225.
The proportion which the produce bore to the
seed sown varied, when Cicero and Varro wrote,
in the richest and most highly cultivated dis-
tricts of Sicily and Italy from 8 to 10 for 1. 15
for 1 was regarded as an extraoi'dinary crop :
when agriculture had fallen into decay, the
average return was less than 4 for 1.
4. Harrowing {occatio)
Might be performed after the first or second
ploughing, in order to pulverise the soil com-
pletely or to cover up the seed. When the laml
was encumbered with roots and weeds, a grubber
(Irpex, formed of a strong plank set with iron
spikes) was employed, but in ordinary cases
wicker hurdles {vimineae crates), sometimes
fitted with teeth {dentatae), were dragged over
the ground ; or the clods were broken with hand-
rakes {rastra). (Verg. Georg. i. 94, 104.)
5. Hoeing (saritio).
The next care was to loosen the earth round
the roots of the young blades. This process
was termed- saritio, or sarculatio, and was
carried on by hand with an instrument called
Sarculum. Corn was usually hoed twice, in
winter and in spring.
G. Weeding {runca.tio).
Hoeing was followed by weeding {riincatio),
which in the case of grain crops took place im-
mediately before or after the flowering season.
7. Reaping (messio).
The corn was reaped {meto) as soon as it Iiad
acquired a uniform yellow tint.
Varro describes tliree distinct methods of
reaping :
(1) That followed in Unibria, wliere the stalk
was shorn close to the ground with a sickle
{falx). The ears were afterwards cut off, thrown
into baskets {corhes), and .sent to the tlireshing-
floor {area), the straw {strarncntum) being left
upon the field, and afterwards gatliered into
heaps.
(2) That followed in Picenum, where the ears
were cut witli a small iron saw {scrrula ferre.a)
fixed to the extremity of a crooked, wooden
handle, the straw being mown subsequently.
C
18
AGRICULTURE
(:'.) The nsual method, where the stalks were 1 From siligo, a wliiter and hghter variety,
out at half their lieight from the ground with I (ij 6'iZ»V/o, the finest double-dressed floor, used
instruments eaWt'd pectines, meryae, uud falces for pastry and fancy bread.
denticulatae. Reaping-machines worked by ' (2) Flos (siliginis), first flour.
oxen were used in Gaul.
8. Threshing [trititra).
The f rop, properly dried and hardened (torrc-
fdcta) by exposure to the sun, was conveyed to
the threshing-floor {a\uii, a\wTi or oAoit). area).
This was an open space of a circular form,
slightly raised in the centre to allow moisture
to run off. The earth was compressed by heavy
stone rollers [cylindrus), pounded w ith a rammer
(jiaviciila), and reduced to a solid consistency
with clay or chalk and chaff, or paved with stones
(Verg. (inorfj. i. 17H). Here the com was spread
(3) Cibarium secundarium, seconds.
(4) Furfures, bran.
Alica, pounded com, much used for a kind of
frumenty (also called alica) made by the ad
mixture of a fine white marl (crcta), found l»e-
tween Naples and Puteoli (Plin. xviii. § lO'.l;
Mart. ii. 37, xiii. l>).
Ainylum, starch, used both in medicine and
for the kitchen.
Granea, wheat, divested of its hosk. and
boiled, and eaten with milk.
Hordetnn, barley, was used as foo<l for ani-
ontand beaten with flails (^arw/M.V, /K/<w)7or 1 mala, a"^' '"•1»«" ni"<ie into ;;o/^«/a, for men.
trodden out (exterere) by the feet of men or ' and furnished excellent straw and chaff (strn-
horses. The cattle were frequentlv voked to a j mentum, palea). The si>ecies most generally
machine {trihnlum, tribiila, tm'hea, traha), cultivated, temu-d hrxa,st,rhum or canthrr,-
num, was identical witli the liardy species,
called in Scotland here or bigg.
Panicum and Milium, millet (the Egj'ptiaii
doora) sown towards the end of March (Ver;;.
Georg. i. 21(i). As soon as the ears were fairlv
consisting of a board loaded with some heavy
weight, or a Punic wain (plostcllum Poeni-
riim.), viz. a set of toothed rollers covered with
planks, on which sat the driver who guided the
team,
Attached tothearea was a half-enclosed l.arn i formed, they were gatheretl by the hand and
(nubdari.um). Here the com was dried before
being threshed. (Verg. Georg. i. 178.)
0. Winnowing (iientilatio).
Winnowing was effecUfd by a labourer (rrnti-
lator), who tossed it up to the wind from a
broad basket or 'fan ' (vannus ; St. Matt. iii. 12),
sieve (rapisterium) or shovel (renttlahrum).
10. Pre.iei'vation of Corn (dr friimento
servnndo).
The next care was to store up (condrre) the
grain in fitting repositories (grannria, horrea). '■'"^t oKvpa III. v. 19(5) may he doora.
Tliese were sometimes built with brick walls of ' The whole ear was named !tpicn ; the heard
great thickness, and had no window or aperture, '^r <»"■". "rista ; the white solid substance of the
exc.pt a hole in the roof, through which thev fTrft'". f'irdulla, granum; the husk which ini-
were filled. Other granaries were raised on 1 "icdiately envelops the granum, .7/'""<». ror/rx,
posts and exposed to circulation of air: and in I tunica, foUicnlus; the outer husk, nrj/.f (ox upoKi.
some <ountriea, e.g. Spain and Africa, the com ! t^'f ""t*'"" '^"''•« with the short straw attached,
was laid up in pits {scrnhes) sunk in a dry soil palea; i\\(^ stem, sfipula, rM/wM; the kiic.l'-
and well lined with chaff.
hung up to dry in the sun. and made inti
breml or cakes, and porridge (puU).
Secale, rye (Secale cereale), hardly used for
human food.
Avena, oats f.4rr/ia sativa), used as green
fodder, but rarely sown in Italy.
Ort/za (opv(a, opv^oy), rice, imported from
the East, and usetl for making gnnd {ptmantii.
Zea ((.Vet. C*"*'- f^lgra (u\vpa), Tiphe (ri<pr\\,
and Arinca, were varieties of the Triticinn
Sprlta or Far (Hdt. ii. 30 : Plin. xviii. (}§ f.2, 9-1 ;
Horn. Oil. iv. r>04, //. ix. .'104). It is possible
IV. Cltnrs
a. Corn cfoj)s ( frumerita).
Frnmenta means all kinds of cereal grasses,
or joints in the stem, genicula, articuli; lh<-
sheath from which the ear issues forth, ragimi.
b. Leguminnux Crops (^fSpoira, Lrgutnina).
(1) Faba (Kvofioi). a variety of our commoi
but is pspeciallv used for triticum (■irvp6s, late ^^^^ '^'*"' ^^^ Vicia Faba, or Faba vulgans
Greek frrros), w'heat. Amongst varieties of /n- | «'^'*"T'' "f botiinists. Beans were generally
ticuni are mentioned rolius ^robur), siligo
(both probably varieties of Triticinn hiberuum)
trimesfre (probably T. aestivum) far or ador
(perhajis T. Spelta or Gk. (,"fia).
The finest Italian wheat weighed from twenty-
five to twenty-six pounds the modins, i.e.
upwards of seventy English pounds avoir<lu|>ois
to the imperial bushel. The BiU'tican, and the , - -
African wheat approached most nearly in excel- ; yellow, and rose lupines of our gardens. Th
lenre to the Italian. '. ^'""^ w*** ^'^at chiefly cultivated by the Romans.
Farina is the generic term for flour or meal Steeped in wat^-r and afterwards boiled, it was
wh.'ther derived from far, from triticum, or from K'^«" to oxen in winter, and might be used for
any other cereal. Thus we re.vd of farina •'""!"" foofl- (Verg. Georg. i. 75.)
sown in autumn; sometimes (Verg. Georg. i.
21.5) in s]>ring. Beans were reape<l close to
the grouiicL made up into sheaves {fasciculi),
threshed by being troilden and beaten with
flails, and finally cleaned by winnowing. The
harvest took place about the end uf May. (Cic.
Ihv. i. 30. § (!2 ; Ov. Fa-ff. v. 43G.>
(2) LupiniLS iOfpno^), the common white.
fa
triticea, siliginea, hordeacea, avenacea.
Far (and .filign) sometimes means flour as
well as grain. Of varieties of flour the follow-
ing were distinguished :
From triticum, i.e. common winter-wheat.
(1) Pollen, the finest double dressed flour.
(2) Simila, or Siinilago, the best first flour.
(3) Cibarium .lecundarium, seconds.
(4) Furfures, bran.
(3) Lens s. Lenticula (0a"f<5i), Lentile (Er-
rum Lens, Vicia Letui). (Verg. Georg. i. 228 ;
Mart. xiii. 9, 1.)
(4) Ciccr {4p($iveos), Chick-pea.
(5) Cicercula {KdOvpos), the Lathyrus sati
vus.
(Ci) Phnselus s. Pha.<<eolu.i {(pitrriXos), the
common kidney-bean. The pods of the phasclus
were sometimes eaten along with the seeds.
(Verg. Georg. i. 227 ; Plin. xviii. § 126.)
AGRICULTURE
19
(7) Pisnm (m<Tov ; irt'cros), tlie common Field
Pea.
Napus, Rape, Brassica rapa of botanists.
Hapiun, yoyyvKii, is the Turnip, Brassica
Napus. The value of these x^ls-nts was in a
great measure overlooked by the earlier Roman
writers ; but by the Gauls beyond the Po, who
wintered their oxen upon them, their culture i
was deemed next in importance to that of corn
and wine, liapina is the term for a bed or
field of turnips.
f. Green Forage Crops {Pabula).
Medica (MTjStKr)), the modern lucerne, so
called because introduced into Greece during |
the Persian wars. The ground was divided into
plots or beds (areae), manured, and ploughed
three times. The seed was covered in with
wooden rakes {ligneis rastellis), and frequently
hoed and weeded. Medica might be cut six
times a year for ten years.
Faenum Graecum (^ovKfpws), Fenugreek,
called also Siliqua.
Vicia ((TapaKov), a variety of the Vicia sativa,
Vetch or Tare. (Verg. Georg. i. 75 ; Ov. Fast.
V. 267.)
Cicera (&xPos), Lathyriis Cicera.
Ervum, Ervilia {upo0os), varieties of the
Ervum Ervile, or "Wild Tare.
Farrago, a general term employed to denote
any kind of corn cut green for fodder. The
name was derived from far, the refuse of that
grain being originally sown for this purpose, but
afterwards other grain and legumina were em-
ployed. Hence farrago is used by Juvenal
(i. 86) to denote a medley of topics.
Faenti.ni, Praia. So much importance was
attaclied to stock, that many considered a good
meadow as the most valuable species of land,
requiring little trouble or outlay, and afiording
a sure return every year of hay and pasture.
Meadows were of two kinds, the Dry Meadow
{siccanexom pratum) and the Irrigated or Water
Meadow (pratum riguum). The land was sown
with rapa, napi, or beans, the following year
with wheat, and in the third year with vetch
(vicia) mixed with grass seeds. Irrigation and
top-dressing were freely applied, and in the
third year the land was fit for grazing.
In making hay, the grass was cut (fal-
cibus stibsecare) before the seed was perfectly
ripe. After being properly turned over with
forks (furciUisversare) it was collected and laid
in regular swathes (strigae), and then bound
into sheaves or bundles (■manijili). The whole
crop (faenisicia) was carried home and stored
in lofts, or, if this was not convenient, built up
in the field into conical ricks (inctae).
d. Crops affording Materials for textile
Fabrics.
(1) Cannabis [Kavva^is, Kavva^os), Common
Hemp (Cannabis sativa), required rich, well-
watered, and deeply trenched land.
(2) Linum (Kivov), Common Flax (Linuiii
usitatissinium), being regarded as an exliaust-
ing crop, was avoided (Verg. Georg. i. 77, 212),
unless the soil happened to be peculiarly suit-
able, or flax was in great demand.
Succession or Rotation of Crops.
A summer fallow usually preceded a corn
crop (Verg. Georg. i. 71), the ploughing for
which began, as in Greece, in the spring of the
previous year. Nor did this plan apply to
corn alone, for it would seem to have been the
general practice to permit nearly one half of the
farm to remain at rest, while half was worked.
There were, indeed, exceptions to this system,
according to the quality of the soil ; some lands
being worked mucli harder than otliers.
Novalis (terra) or novate (solum) is used in
different senses :
(1) Land newly reclaimed (the original mean-
ing). (2) Land which is allowed occasionally to
repose, as opposed to rcstibilis agei', land con-
stantly cropped. (3) Fallow land. (4) (rarely)
Pasture. (5) Land under tillage generally, as
opposed to rudis ager (cf. Verg. Eel. i. 71 ; Juv.
xiv. 148).
e. Vines and their Cultivation [Vitis,
Vinum].
/'. Olives and their Cultivation [Olea,
OlivumJ.
Of fruit trees, almost all of which (except tlie
apple and the fig) were of foreign extraction
(see Gibbon, chap, ii.), and the cultivation of
which was greatly extended in the late Repub-
lic, and further still under the Empire, we may
mention the following kinds :
Apple (pomum, malum, ^iriKov). The best
kinds were mala Amerina, Syrica, Mattiana,
melimela (Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 31 ; Plin. xv. 51, 49 ;
Suet. Dom.. 21).
Pear (pirum): especially jpira Volema, Fa-
lerna, Crustumina.
Plum (pranum) : especially Armeniaca,
I Damascena (Plin. xv. 18). The culture of
plums came in in the first century B.C.
j Fig (ficus, (TvKov). The best sorts were cot-
' tanae (Juv. iii. 83; Mart. vii. 52), caricae or
cauneae (Cic. Div. ii. 40; Plin. xv. 19).
Quince {rn. Cydoneum or cotoneum, fi. KiySoi-
viov).
Peach (;h. Persicum, fi. TlfpaiKov).
I Medlar (mesjnlus, fxiaTriKov).
Cherry (cerasus, Kepaaos). Imported by Lu-
cullus (Plm. XV. 102).
Orange or lemon (m. Medicum, u.. Mi]^ik6v).
Apricot (wi. Armeniacwin, ix. 'Ap/xeviaKov).
Dates (caryota, dactylus, <poivi^, SolkyvKos,
^a.\avos (p.) were not cultivated in Greece or
Italy, though the date palm (palma, (potvii) was
common in the south.
Of nuts (nuces, Kapva) we hear of chestnuts
(h. Castaneae, Ponticac, k. KaaTavaia, KaaTa-
via), walnuts (iuglans, k. fia(n\iKa,), filberts or
hazel nuts (». Abellanae or Praenestinac, k.
AeiTTct), almonds (rt. Graecae,ap.vy5a\a,K.TiKpa,).
The ancients understood the arts of (1) graft-
ing (inserere) and (2) budding (inoculare,
oculos inserere). They also propagated trees
by (3) planting suckers (plaiitae) or cuttings,
whether thin slips (sarmenta) or thicker pieces
of the root or branches (stirpes, sudes, valli,
Verg. Georg. ii. 23-31); (4) layers (propa-
gines), i.e. twigs pegged down (Verg. Georg. ii.
26, pressos propagiuis arcus) till they Iiave
taken root, and then cut off from the parent
plant.
V. PASTIO,
a. P-A.STIO AGRESTIS S. RES PECUARIA.
I. MiNORES PeCUDES.
(1) Sheep (pecus ovillum s. oviarium) were
divided into
(a) Pecus hirtum, whose fleeces were^not
protected artificially.
(Z>) Pecus Tarentinum or Graecuvi, Ovespel-
litae or tectae, whose fleeces were protected from
injury by jackets of skin. (Hor. Carm. ii. 6, 10.)
C2
20
AGRICULTURE
Home-fed sheep (gregeg viUatic-i) were either
allowed to pasture in tlie fields during a portion
of the year or kept constantly confined in sheds
(stabula, saepta, ovilia), built in warm and
slieltered situations. They were fed upon
cytisus, lucerne, barley, and leguminous seeds,
or on hay, grape husks, and dry leaves, &c., being
at all times plentifully supplied with salt. They
were littered with leaves and twigs, which were
frequently changed, and the pens were kept
clean and dry.
The more numerous flocks, which were reared
in extensive pastures (salt us), usually passed the
winter in the low plains upon the coast, and
were driven by regular drift roiuls (calles puhlici)
in summer to the mountains of Central Italy.
Those who were employed to watch them
were furnished with materials for the construc-
tion of folds and huts, and all necessary stores.
The sheep were collected at night to secure
them against robbers and beasts of prey. The
Hocks sometimes contained as many as 15,000
heiul, one shepherd (opilio or upilio) being
allowed to every five or six score.
The breeds most prized by the early Romans
were the Calabrian, the Apulian, which were
short-woolled [breves villo), the Milesian, and,
above all, the Tarentine ; those of Cisalpine
(taul (Mart. xiv. 153) were also esteemed.
The system of crossing was practised. Sheep
were classified according to size as procerae,
fjuadratae, exiguae, and with regard to the
localities where they were to be maintained.
As to colour, pure white was most sought after;
but certain natural tints, such as the dark grey
(pullus) of the Ligurians, the yellowish brown
(fuscus) of tlio Baeticans (Mart. v. 37, viii. 2,
H ; Juv. xii. 40), and the red brown {ruber) in
some Asiatic varieties, were highly prized.
The points of a ram are given by ViUTo (ii. 2)
and Columella (vii. 2, 3). Uniform colour in
fleece was considered important.
The earliest lambs (agni,agnae) were yeaned
in September, the latest about the middle of
December, and weaned at four months. Late-
born lambs were called chordi and serutini.
The management of ovespellitar differed from
that of the ordinary grcges villatici merely in
the amount of care with which they were tended.
The jackets were frequently taken off to cool
the animals ; the wool was combed out at least
thrice a year, and well washed and dressed with
oil and wine.
Slieep-sluMring (tonsura) took place between
March and June. The wool, when fresh shorn,
and still impregnated with the grease of the
animal (oiVutft;, «mc</s), was called lana aucida;
the rteeces when rolled up were termed vellera
or vcluminu. The sheep, when shorn, were
immediately dressed with wine and oil. In some
places the wool was plucked off, not shorn.
(2) Goats (per us caprinum) were divided into
the genus inutilum (polled) et raripilum, and
the genus cornutum et setosum.
The management of goats was in most re-
spects tlie same as that of sheep, except that
they throve better in craggy ground or among
copse-wood than in open grassy plains. Not
more than fifty were kept together in a flock
under the same goatherd (caprarius), tlie pro-
portion of one male (caper, hircus) to about
fifteen females (caprae, capellae) being com-
monly observed.
When in stalls (caprilia), no litter was given
to them. The houses were swept out daily.
The kids (haedi) were born in spring, weaned
at the end of three months and tlien transferred
at once to the flock (submittere, Verg. Erl. i.
46; Georg. iii. 73, 159).
The hair (pili) of goats was shorn or plucked
out (capras vellere), and used in the manu-
facture of coarse stuffs, Verg. Georg. iii. 313.
The hair-cloth woven from this material was
termed Cilicium, the best being made from the
Angora goats of Asia Minor.
(3) Swine (pecus suilluin) divided into sues
densae, usually black in colour, thickly covered
with bristles ; and the sues glabrae, generally
white, and comparatively smooth; the former
were the more hardy.
During a great portion of the year tlu y were
driven out early to feed in woods, &c. ; and in
the middle of the day they repwsed in swampy
ground ; in the cool of the evening they fed
again, assembled to the swineherd's (subulcu.s)
horn, and were driven home. The number in
each herd varied from 100 to 150.
Each breeding sow (scro/a) brought up her
pigs in a separate stye (hara). Sucking pigs
(lactentes) when ten days old were accounted
pure for sacrifice, and hence were termed
sacres; after the suckling time {nutricatu\,
porculatio) was over, they were denominated
delici, and sometimes ne/rendes. The liogs not
reserved for breeding were termed niaialrs.
II. Maiores Pecudes.
(1) Neat cattle (pecus bubuluin, anncutuin
bubulum) were kept and worked at home {boves
domiti), or pastured in herds iamtenta).
Boves domiti were usually allowed to pasture,
but sometimes stall-fed (alrre ad pra'isi'pia).
In winter they were kept in byres istnbulu,
consaepta) built with a southerly asjHnt, the
floors being hard and slojting and bedded with
abundance of litter [stramentum), of straw oi-
leaves. Their spring food was vetches ami
other fodder cut green ; in summer the leaves
of trees, especially those of the elm, oak, and
poplar; in winter hay (faenum pratetise), or
chaff, graiKj husks, dry leaves, &c., mixed with
barley, or leguminous seeds, soaked (maccratar \
or crushed (J'resae). They were also supplied
with salt.
Large lierds were pastured chiefly in woods,
shifting to the coast in winter and to the hills
in summer, under the charge of herdsmen
tarnicntarii), a class distinct from bubulci, or
hinds on the farm. The common number in
a herd was from 100 to 120. The Umbrian
oxen, especially those on the Clitumnus, were
the largest and finest in Italy ; those of Etruria,
Latium, and Gaul were smaller, but strong and
useful. The cattle of Epirus were superior to
all others.
A cow in calf is called horda OT fordo. The
calves (cituli), bom in spring, were weaned from
six months. Young steers (vituli) intended for
labour were castrated at two years, broken in
(domare) between the third and fifth year. The
members of a herd, according to ago and sex.
were termed, Vitulus, Vitula ; luvencu.i, lu-
renca ; Bos novellas, Bucula; Bos vetulu.s.
Taurus, Vacca ; Taurrt, a barren cow.
(2) Horses (pecus, arnientum equininn, nd-
inissarius, egua) either pastured in gra-ss fields
or were fed in the stable upon dry hay, and
occasionally barley. Brood mares were fre
quently kept in large troops which shifted from
the mountains to the coast, according to the
season ; two mounted men being attached to
each herd of fifty. The best foals (pullus
cquinus, eg u ulcus) were allowed to continue '
sucking until they had completed two years,
AGRICULTURE
21
iind at tliiee years were broken in, whether for
racing (ad cursuram), for draught (redam),
for carrying burdens {vecturam), or for mili-
tary service (ejjhipjrium), but they were not
regularly worked until four off.
Entire horses were used for racing and in
war ; geldings {canterii) for the road.
Horses were little used for agricultural pur-
poses in Italy and Southern Europe, the ordi-
nary toils being carried on almost exclusively
b.y oxen.
(3) Asses [asinus, asina) were divided into
genus mansuetum [asinus, asellus), and the
f/enus fcrum (onager, oriagrus), imported from
Asia Minor.
The most celebrated breeds were those of
Arcadia and of Reate. The latter fetched very
high prices. The inferior description of asses
(minor asellus) were much used for farm
labour.
(4) Mules. Hinni were the progeny of a
stallion and a she-ass, Mali of a male ass and
a mare. The latter were the more esteemed.
The great use of mules was in drawing
travelling carriages, usually in pairs : they were
also employed in carrying burdens upon pack-
saddles (clitellae), and in ploughing light lands.
III. Instkuments.
(1) Herdsmen (pastores).
The flocks and herds which fed in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of the farms were
usually tended by old men, boys, or women ;
but those in distant pastures were placed
under the care of men well armed and furnished
for a protracted absence, under the command
of a magister pecoris.
(2) Dogs (canes) were divided into three
classes : (a) Canes villatici, watch dogs, (b)
Canes pastorales s. pecuari, to protect the
flocks and herds from robbers and wild beasts,
such as wolves and bears. They wore spiked
collars [mellum). The breeds most valued
were Spartan (Lacones), the Epirot (Molossi),
a large breed, the CaXahviaM. (Sallentini). They
were fed on barley meal.
IV. Dairy Produce.
Cheese-making commenced in May. The
milk unskimmed was used as fresh as possible.
The curd was transferred to baskets (fiscellac,
calatid) or wooden chessets (formae) perfo-
rated with holes, in order that the whey (sermn)
might drain off, and was pressed, sprinkled
with salt, partially dried, again pressed, again
salted and again shelved. It might be flavoured
with thyme, pine cones, or any other ingredient.
The rennet (coagulum) was usually obtained
from the stomach of the hare, kid, or lamb
(coagiUujn leporinum, haedinum, agninum).
The milky sap (ottos) of the fig-tree, vinegar, and
other substances, were also used for rennet.
Butter (butyrtim) seems to have been scarcely
U3ed as an article of food.
)3. VILLATICA PASTIO.
I. AVIARIA.
(1) CoJiors in piano.
Gallinae, domestic fowls, were kept partly for
fighting (especially the Tanagran and Rhodian
breeds), partly for the table, or for their eggs.
They were usually kept shut up (clausae) in a
poultry yard (gallinarium), which was an en-
closed court (saeptum) with a warm aspect,
strewed with sand or ashes, and covered over
with netting. It contained hen-houses (caweae)
in which they roosted upon perches (perticae) ;
nests (cubilia) for the laying hens being con-
structed along the walls. The whole establish-
ment was under the control of a f>oultry-man
(aviarius custos, curator gallina.nus). Their
food consisted of barley, millet, the refuse of
wheat, bran, &c.
Hens began to lay in January. Eggs were
preserved by rubbing them with strong brine,
and then storing them in chaff or bran. The
chickens were fed by hand on polenta mixed
with cress seed (nasturtium).
Chickens, when fattened for sale, were shut
up in dark narrow pens, or swung separately in
small baskets, with a hole for the head and
another for the rump. In this state they were
crammed for about three weeks with wheat,
lumps of barley meal (turundae), and other
farinaceous food.
Guinea fowls (g. Numidicae or meleagrides),
pheasants (phasiani), and peacocks (pavones,
pavi, pavae), were also kept The latter were
sold at very large prices. They were reared
best in the small wooded islets off the Italian
coast, where they roamed in freedom witliout
fear of being lost or stolen. The eggs were put
under hens.
Geese (anseres) were easily reared, but
were not considered very profitable. Birds for
breeding were always selected of a large size
and pure white. Geese were generally kept in
a goose yard (xi]vo^oaiciiov), consisting of a
court (cohors) with pens (harae, cellae), as they
were supposed to injure land on which they
grazed (Verg. Georg. i. 119). Goslings, when
from four to six months old, were fattened in
dark warm coops (saginarium) where they
were fed with barley meal or flour moistened
witli water. Geese were plucked twice a year,
and the feathers were worth five denarii a
pound.
Ducks (anates) were kept in walled en-
closures (vr)(r<Torpo<pf7a) with a pond (piscina),
and fed with grain, grape skins, &c. The eggs
were generally hatched by hens.
(2) Columbariuvt.
Pigeons (columbus, columba). Of two va-
rieties : (1) genus saxatile or agreste, the rock
dove (Col. livid) ; (2) a white kind. There was
also a cross breed (miscellvm). They were
kept in dove-cots (irepi(TTfpewv). These build-
ings, placed under the charge of a columbarius,
were frequently large enough to contain 500(1,
were roofed or vaulted with tiles, and lighted
by barred or latticed windows (fenestrae Puni-
canae, or reticulatae,,. The walls were lined
with rows of nests (foZ//miia?7'(i), often formed
of earthenware (fictilia). Their food, consist-
ing of refuse corn (excreta tritici), millet, peas,
&c., was placed in troughs round the walls. The
pigeons kept in the country were allowed to
range, but those in or near a town were con-
fined to the house. Those set aside for the
market had their wing feathers plucked out and
their legs broken, and were then fattened upon
white bread previously chewed. Large prices
were given for pigeons of a good stock at Rome.
(3) Ornithon, Aviarium.
Ornithones. These were large buildings
with vaulted roofs, well supplied with water ;
the windows were few and small. Perches
(pali, perticae) were provided for the birds,
chiefly thrushes (turdi), quails (coturnices), and
beccaficoes (ficedula':). Tliey were fed on dried
figs kneaded and chewed with flour.
22
AGRICULTURE
II. Vivaria.
(1) Leporuria anciently were small walled
paddocks, planted tliickly with shrubs to give
shelter; in these liares (lepores) and rabbits
(cuniculi) were kept. Parks (8r)ptorpo(pe'ia)
were also maintained, sometimes of vast extent ;
in which boars (apri), stags (cervi), and roe
denr (capreae), were shut up. These were
fenced with walls or by a strong paling (vacerra)
formed of upright stakes (stipites) drilled with
holes (per latus efforare) through which
poles {amites) were passed horizontally, the
whole braced and latticed by planks nailed
diagonally (aeris transversis clatrare). In
winter the beasts were fed to the sound of a
horn.
(2) Bees (apes). For this consult above
all the 4th Georgic of Virgil. The ancients
attained great skill in the care of bees, and paid
great attention to this branch of economy.
Where bee-keeping was practised on a large
scale, it became common to form a regular
Hpiary {apiarium, aivearium, nipllarium ;
fjii\irTorpo<pe7ov, nfKiTrdur)). This was a small
enclosure in a sheltered spot, and carefully
removed from kitchens, stables, dunghills, &c.
A supply of pure water was provided, and
plantations were formed of plants and flowers,
especially the cytisus and thyme (cf. Verg.
Eel. ix. 30). The hives {alvi, alvei, alvearia,
Kvip4\ai), if stationary, were built of brick
(lateribus) or baked dung (ex fimo) ; if move-
able, were made of wood, wicker-work, bark, or
earthenware. They were covered with lids to
enable the mellarius to inspect the interior,
and were arranged in rows resting upon a
stone parapet.
Various details connected with bees and their
habits, and the methods of tending them, may
be studied in the 4th Georgic.
Tlie honey harvest (mellatio, mrllis vin-
demia, castratio alvoru7n,iif\irw(ris) took place
twice or three times a year. The bees were
smoked but not killed ; the top of the hive was
taken off, and the mellarius cut away the
comb with a knife shaped for the purpose,
leaving enough to keep the bees through tlie
winter.
Wild swarms also [apes silvestres, ferae,
rusticae, as opposed to urbanae, cicures) were
sometimes taken.
Terms connected with apiculture are : honey,
incl, fifKi ; wax, cera, Krjp6s ; comb, favus,
K-qpiov ; bee-bread, propolis, irp6'Ko\i^ ; bee-
glue, erithace, ipiOaKr).
(3) Snails (coc/eae). Certain species of snails
were eaten by the Romans, and were used also
medicinally. Tlie coclearium was sheltered
from the sun, and kept moist.
(4) Dormice (glires) were kept in &glirariwni,
and fattened in earthen jars (dolia) upon
chestnuts, walnuts, and acorns (Mart. iii. 58,
xiii. :>9).
(5) Piscinae. Fresh-water ponds {p. didces)
were common from ancient times : salt-water
ponds ( piscinae salsae) were unknown until the
last half century of the Republic. These re-
ceptacles were constructed at a vast cost on
the sea-coast, being provided with elaborate
contrivances for the admission of the tide
at particular periods, and for regulating the
temperature of the water ; the stock with which
they were filled consisted chiefly of mullets
and lampreys (mtiraenae). These preserves,
though not a source of profit, were sold at
AGRIMETATIO
immense prices. Artificial oyster-beds (vivaria
ostrearum) were also kept for profit. The best
oysters were those from the Lucrine Lake, and
from Britain {Mutujtiac).
Agrimenso'res. In early times the augurs
directed the laying out of a town or colony.
The older term specially for a surveyor whs
finitor (Plaut. Poen. 4b ; Cic. Agr. ii. 13, 341 ;
decempedator and rncnsor are also used. Mi-
tator appears to have been applied only to
military suneyors (Cic. Phil. xi. 5, 12). The
professors of the art were also called gro-
iiiatici, and the teachers geometrae.
The state required survivors chiefly for three
purposes: (1) laying out land for a colony, nr
other distribution of land ; (2) measuring anil
registering the land for the census; and (:ii
military operations. Soldiers were employed
for camp purposes, and also frequently fm-
other state surveys (Cic. Agr. ii. 13, 34).
Mensores and geometrae v/ete freed from the
more burdensome civil duties. Their payment
was a honorarium, and the relation of liiriii;.'
ilocatio conductio) (see Appendix, Roman
Law) was not properly applicable to their
services. Neither want of skill nor neglij:-
ence (unless gross negligence) was a ground of
action.
The services of the land-surveyors were re-
sorted to in disputes about land, when the
question turned on (1) the boundary between
neighbours ; or (2) on the position or size of
pieces of land which were the subject of a claim
or liable to tax or duties. They had nofhinj:
to do with any questions of law, but solely with
the ascertainment, by their technical knowledge,
of the true boundary, and with the interpreta-
tion of official or private charts or records, or
of inscriptions, or other marks of boundaries.
The disputes which arose touching land, so fur
as the land-surveyors were concerned, related
to the boundary of the land only (de fin-e), or
to the land itself (de loco). Under the fornuT
head came disputes whether boundary stones
had been removed (de positione terminorinn),
or where ran the straight line indicated by
certain posts (de rigore), &c. Under the latter
head (de loco) came questions as to ownerslii)>
or possession, or verification of acreage of the
land (de modo) ; or whether the land belonged
wholly to the public, or was subject to a public
right of road, or was an oddment, or belonge<l
to some religious body or purpose ; or matters
of jurisdiction. To the same head belong also
questions of accretion by the action of water
(alhivio),&T\A of damage caused by flow of rain-
water, &c. Questions of a piece of land {de
loco) were settled by the ordinary tribunals,
with or without the aid of experts, as circum-
stances might require. Justinian allowed a
prescription of thirty years in case of encroach-
ment.
Agrimeta'tio. Definition of boundaries, and
measurement and land-sur\eying in general.
(1) The Roman land-surveyors make three
great classes (qualitutes) of land: (a) land
divided and marked out (ager divisus et o.s.sv'a-
natiis; (b) land surrounded by a measurnl
boundary (mensvra per extremitatrm rom-
prehensvs) ; (c) land not measured at all
(arcifinius). Ager arrifiniiis is land ' bow-
bounded,' i.e. bounded with a natural wavy
line, as opposed to land bounded by the arti-
ficial straight lines of the surveyor.
(2) If conquered territory was to be assigned
to Roman citizens, the land was marked off in
plots according to a' regular plan. The surveyor
AGRIMETATIO
-2-6
placed himself facing due west (see cut), and
drew one line due east and west, and another
crossing it due north and south. Along these
lines were set out two wide balks (^i««ies). The
balk along the line of the meridian (N. and S.)
was called cardo or kardo, from being as it
were the hinge or axis on which the heavens
revolved ; that crossing it at right-angles (E.
and W.) was called decunianus. All balks
])arallel to the decumanus were prorsi lindtes,
all parallel to the kardo were traiLsvcrsi,
but were often all called decumani and kar-
dines respectively, the two principals being
distinguished as decumanus maximus and
kardo maximus. The others were numbered
tarius : the others were called suhruncivi, and
were used as occupation roads for the farmers
to carry off their produce. The principal balks
were also called actuarii [Actus], and were
usually public roads of considerable breadth
(cf. Verg. Aen. ix. 32o).
(3) The centuries were marked by a round
stone post at each corner, a foot in diameter
and four feet in length, of which 2i feet were
sunk in the ground ; marked with letters show-
ing the position with reference to the liinitcs.
The systematic marking of the centuries by tlie
number of the adjacent decuman and kardo
(the numbers all starting from the centre cross-
ing), enabled a surveyor on examining a series
PARS
ANTICA
•i
PARS POSTICA
\4
d
d
d
d
D
d
d
d
d
I id: I
1 • 1 >
; d I ; i
4i H^ai< 4<
"<?: 4<
! I X ; 1
> UJ ■ ■
)EX
: ; i :
ULTRA Kj m'i
CITRA
k: m!
u'LTRA k; m:
CITRA
Ki m;
i : ^ i i
; s : ; i
: id: i
; Q : : :
4; Sc: EC 4; <t;
■<;;q: Sii
<a nJ^
INIS
INIS
w
«>
\v
M
from the centre crossing-point, all the north of these stones to determine all necessary bear-
and south balks in front of the kardo maximus ings.
being ultra kardinem 7tiaximuvi, all behind it (4) The earliest allotments were two iuf/erd
being citra kardinem max.; and all the east ' (Liv. iv. 47) ; later we read of other amounts up
and west balks being dextra decumarium max. \ to seven (Liv. vi. 161, v. 24, 30), which last was
if on the surveyor's right of the decumanus j often regarded as a standard amount, though
maximus., and sinistra decwmanum max. on i larger amounts are also mentioned, e.g. eiglit
the sux'veyor's left of the same. The half in ) and ten (Liv. xxix. 55). In the assignments to
soldiers army rank
was regarded, and
larger allotments were
made to horse-soldiers
than to foot.
The straight lines of
the Roman limitation
were carried out re-
gardless of natural
obstructions, so far as
possible. Hence a
century would often
include part of a river,
and thus water as well
as land might fall into
an allotment. There
was a right of road
along the balks, either
for the public or at
least for the neigh-
bours. In some cases,
the rigorous line of
the balks might pass
through a farmstead
(villa), and the owner
then could i)ut up
gates and set a porter
to let iJeojile through.
Sacred localities
tombs, public water-
works, or pri\ate
front of the surveyor, i.e. the western, was ' drains (fossae), roads, &c., remained subject to
called also pars antica ; the half behind, i.e. \ the same rights and uses as before. Waste
the ea,Hiem,pa rs jjostica. j land, woods, &c., were often not assigned, but
The measurement was by a ten-foot rod, ; either reserved or granted (conccssa) to tlie
pertica decempeda (e.g. Prop. iv. 1, 130 ; Hor. ; colony as a whole or to individuals, to be held
Od. ii. 15, 14). Twelve rods or 120 feet was an j as common land for pasture (ager co^iqmscuus).
Actus (see Table VI). A iugerum was an | Such places would rarely or never coincide
oblong rectangle, composed of two square actus, exactly with the area of a century, and the re-
containing' 28,800 square feet, being 24 rods : mainder of that century was an oddment (sub-
long by 12 rods broad. The amount originally ! secivitm). In certain places stone altars bore
assigned to each citizen was two iugera (about ; on one side the name of the colony, on the other
equal to l5acre), together forming a square plot ; the names of the neighbours abutting (ar(^»(c.s).
called /ier<;(Zi«wi[Agrariae leges]. A hundred : (5) As a general princii)le, land was divided
of these plots, iforming a scjuare of 20 actus ' by balks in order to be marked out to persons
each way (5,760,000 sq. ft.), was a centuria. \ (adsignatus) as their property. Neither tln'
Between the centuries ran the limites, those ; land assigned nor the land restored was sub-
forming the principal divisions being broader ; ject to a ground rent (vrctigal). But such
than the others. Each side of the century ! a rent was imposed on land which was not
contained ten heredia, and the balk bounding 1 assigned in private ownersliip, and was evi-
^
PARS ANTICA
PARS POSTICA
I'Mg. -i;!.— Agrimetatio.
I) D, deciiHiiiuuB maximus ; KK. kardo maximus; dM, decumani or prorsi limitcs
hkk, transversi limites or Itardiues ; M, position of surveyor.
the century was therefore a balk. 'of | i.e. ad-
joining] the tenth' heredium,. Every fifth
balk, counting from but not inclusive of the
decumanus or kardo, was called limes guin-
dence of its remaining public. The lands of
the Vestal Virgins or of priests were also sub-
ject to a ground-rent. Tlie lands not assigned
were usually let for a year, live years (lustrum),
24
AGRIMETATIO
.ir a )iun<lred years. See under Agrariae
leges.
(t)j The colonies in the early days of Rome
were Roman garrisons and outposts in a foreign,
and, it might be, still hostile country (Cic. Font.
•^) § •"''' garrisons to watch the boroughs, out-
])OSts to repel the enemy on the border. Thej'
had jurisdiction within their own bounds, but
none outside of them. Only that which was
given and marked out (datum adsignatum)
was subject to their control. Lands retained
by their former owners, oddments {subseciva),
or vacant centuries, estates (fundi) held by
specially deserving veterans, are instances of
holdings which were occasionally exempted
{except/) from all duty to the colony, and
deemed to be part of Roman soil.
The whole ground assigned to a colony was
called a rod (perticd), and was divided on one
system and from one central crossing. Addi-
tional land assigned to a colony was called a
praefectura. Sometimes land was taken for
the use of the colony from other boroughs, and
private owners might suffer (cf. Verg. Eel. ix.
•27; Georg. ii. 198).
(7) The distribution of the plots among the
individuals was determined by lot.
(8) A chart (pertica, tijpus, forma, centuri-
atio, <tc.] was made of the whole pertica, show-
ing its bounds and abuttals, all the balks, the
position and limits of the oddments, common
pastures and woods; plots assigned to indi-
viduals in fee (data ad^signata) ; jilots granted
(conceHsa) under special circumstances ; plots
specially exempted from the colonial jurisdic-
diction (excepta) \ plots given back to the
ancient occupier (reddita veteri posHcusori), ttc.
Besides the chart, tliere was a register setting
forth the local description of each centurj', the
names of the jtersons to whom it was assigned
or restored, and tlie quantity of acres to be
held by each. These registers (kept in dupli-
cate) were the most authentic evidence in all
disputes about the boundaries, the quantity and
title of the lands of the colony or other assign-
ment.
(!)) The account given above relates to the
normal survey and arrangements for the dis-
tribution of land among Roman colonists. But
in almost all these points differences were found,
arising from the nature of the ground.
(10) Another mode of dividing and assigning
colonial land is contrasted with the above. If
divided into plots of greater length than breadth,
tlie division was per strigas ; if of greater
lireadth than length, per scamna : length being
reckoned in the direction of north and south,
l)readth in that of east and west. Agrr xtri-
(/atua or .saiiiuiatus would therefore be land
<livided into oblong plots, the sides of which
were not parallel to decumatti and kardinrs,
but to the boundaries of the neighbouring occu-
piers.
(11) Laciniae were in-egular strips of land;
praecisurae, rectilinear but not rectangular
pieces; in soluto, undivided land; in nomi-
nihus, divided and assigned to occupiers.
(12) Besides these regulation metliods, local
aiul i)rovincial divisions according to the various
customs (consuetu dines) of countries were
found, private plans (formae, ucra), private
agreements and uses.
(l;!) Tlie boundaries between the territories of
adjoining colonies or towns were usually taken
from the natural features of the country. The
ridges of the mouutaina (ruga, montium), water-
sheds (divergia aquarutn), and rivers (flumina)
or streams (rivi) were the principal ; but the
line of division was often marked by boundary
stones (termini). Trenches (fossae), springn
(fontes), public roads (viae), chapels (sacella),
and tombs (sepulera) were also not uncommonly
made use of for this purpose. All these are
also found as boundaries between occupiers.
(14) Other boundary marks were smaller hills
(supercilia) ; unploughed edges of land (mar-
gines) ; trenches and mounds ; walls (m^iceriae) ;
heaps of stones (scorpiones) or earth (gntmi) ;
hedges (sepes) ; trees. Boundary trees were
marked by scoring the bark with various signs.
Under boundary stones or mounds, objects such
as potsherds, glass, or coins, were often buried.
Mounds of earth containing such objects were
called botontini. The practice seems to hav<-
originated in the rites of consecration. The
neighbours whose estates met at the place put
each his stone on the ground, anointed it, an<l
crowned it with garlands ; then in the pit dui,'
to receive the foot of the stone they made a
sacrifice, dropped the blood of the victim into
the pit and threw in frankincense and corn
(fruges), honeycombs and wine, placed the
stone on the glowing embers, and rammed il
tight with fragments of rock.
(15) Both religion and law combined to give
sanctity to boundary stones. The rites of tlic
annual festival of Terminus on the 28rd oi
February are described in Ov. Fast. ii. 63{M<4 ;
(cf. Hot.' Epod. ii. .lO ; Juv. xvi. 39). The first
institution of bounds is referred to Numa : the
stones were to be sacred to luppiter Terminalis
(Zfirs Spios), and anyone destroying or moving
them was to be held accursed (sacer), with full
allowance before God and man to anyone to
slay him.
The earliest law which we know of in which
penalties are directed in matters of this kind is
the Lex Mamilia (50 k.c), the substance of
which was ]>iussed by Julius Caesar. It imposed
the duty upon the occupier of restoring ii
boundary stone which had fallen ; prohibited
anyone from building on or ploughing up tln^
balks or decumans, or obstructing the trenches,
under a penalty of 4000 sesterces. Moving
or removing boundary stones (termini) mali
ciously was punishable by a penalty of fiOOO ses
terces for each stone. Hadrian (119 a.d.) added
banishment and confiscation of one-third of the
offender's property.
(16) For surveying purposes, two instruments
are mentioned as in use by the Gromatici : tlie
gnomon and the groma, or surveyor's cross.
"The problems to be solved required two
things : a determination of the jtoints of the
compass, and a method of setting out on
land a right line and a right angle. The
gnomon or practical sundial was employed for
the first purjwse (Hdt. ii. 109; Isai. xxxviii. 8).
[Horologium.] The groma was employed for
the second puriwse, and was probably got by
the Romans from the Etruscans along with the
augurial discipline. Its precise shape is un-
known ; it consisted of a movable instrument
capable of standing steadily on the ground, and
carrying either (a) two straight bars crossing one
another at right angles and fixed on a pivot at
the top of the staff, or (b) a plate with marks in
the periphery for the extremities of two straight
lines crossing one another at right angles, and
for their intersection. The verticality of the
staff or stand was probably secured by a plumb-
line. The ascertaining of the straight lines to
be marked out on the land was called dictare
rigarcm, "tigixiWne,' or met as, 'poles.' Sight-
Fig. 30— Groma.
ArpinNiA
iiig the marks was comprehendere signa or
inetas ; verifying this by sighting in the opposite
direction was reprehrn-
dere metas, etc. [Groma;
c>.^^ I ^ Horologium.]
p^ \^;^ (17) Theartof land-sur-
I ^^ ^^ J_ veying comprised, amongst
other things, the elements
of geometry, and practical
instruction in the calcu-
lation of the contents of
a variety of superficial
figures, and in the use of
the groma. The methods
appear to have been |
much the same as are '
now practised by sur- !
veyors with the cross and ten-link offset staff.
The Romans appear to have owed their
system of dividing and marking out land to the
Etruscans. For the calculation of other than
rectangular areas, the Roman or Etruscan
discipline was insufficient. This knowledge,
first developed in Egypt, and found in a papy-
rus as old as 1700 b.c, was developed by the
Greek school at Alexandria, and reduced to a
jsystem by Heron, 100 b.c. The first Roman
writer on geometry was Varro {oh. '11 B.C.) and
it was in his lifetime that Julius Caesar is said
to have directed a survey of the whole Roman
empire, which was carried out by Augustus.
Agrippa had a map of the empire engraved
on marble. About the time of Caesar the
methods of Alexandrian trigonometry were
brought fully into the course of Roman gro-
matic.
'Avpitiivia. A festival celebrated at Orcho-
menus, in Boeotia, at Thebes, and at Argos,
in honour of Dionysus, surnamed ^ hfypidvio^,
i.e. the wild or boisterous ; it was solemnised
during the night only by women and the priests
of Dionysus. The sacrifice of a human being,
which originally formed a regular part of the
festival, seems to have been avoided in later
times. The festival is said to have been derived
from the daughters of Minyas, who, after having
for a long time resisted the Bacchanalian fury,
were at length seized by an invincible desire of
eating human flesh. They therefore killed and
ate one of their own children.
'AvpoTe'pas evata. A festival celebrated
at Agrae near Athens in honour of Artemis
Agrotera (from aypa, chase), in consequence of
a vow made before the battle of Marathon.
It was solemnised on the sixth of the month
of Boedromion (September), the anniversary of
the battle, and consisted in a sacrifice of 500
goats (Xen. Anah. iii. 2, § 12).
Ayui£\js. Surname of Apollo dvo'Sios as
guardian of the streets ; also ap)ilied to the conic
pillars [metae] and square altars {apyoX \idoi)
set up at Athens in front of houses (cf. Ar. Eq.
1320 ; Eur. Ion. 18f!).
'A-yvpTai. Wandering beggars or collectors
of abus (from ayelpeiv), mostly but not always
claiming a religious character. They were
of various kinds. They told fortunes by
lots, tablets, &c. (Her. Sat. i. 9, 30 ; Tibull.
i. 3, 11), or collected alms in the name
of Isis, the Delian deities, Opis and Arge
(Hdt. iv. 35), and especially Kybele, the great
mother of the gods ; whence they were called
IxTjTpayvpTai (Arist. Rhet. iii. 2, § 10). They
undertook to inflict injury on the enemies of
those who paid them, or to obtain forgiveness
of sins from the gods whom they served (Plat.
Bep. ii. p. 364 b).
ALABASTRUM 2.",
These mendicant priests came into Italy
together with the worship of Isis, Cybele, and
other foreign deities.
Ahe'num. [Aenum].
AldvTeia. A festival celebrated in honour
of Aias (Ajax) at Salamis, of which town he
was the tutelary divinity. In Attica the festi-
val was celebrated in commemoration of the
victory at Salamis, bj' a boat-race and sacrifices
to Aias and Asklepios. (Hdt. viii. 64, 83 ; Plut.
Theinist. 15.)
AlKuas SiKTi. See Appendix, Greek
Law.
AiSovaa. The open portico or verandah of
the Homeric house. The Homeric liouse con-
tained two such verandahs — one, the cuQouaa
avKris, on each side of the courtyard gate (II.
ix. 472, Od. xxi. 389) ; the other on the opposite
side of the court, along the front of the house,
and forming part of the irp6Sofxos [Od. iv. 279,
//. xxiv. 644). This cudovffa was used especially
as a sleeping place for strangers. See plan
under Donias.
'Akotiv (xapTupelv. See Appendix, Greek
Law.
Ala. (1) [Domus.]
(2) Ala'res, Ala'rii. [Exercitus.]
(a) In the original constitution of the Roman
army, each legion of citizens was accompanied
by a body of 300 equites (Polyb. i. 16, 2). These
were drawn up on the flanks of the infantry,
and hence were termed alae.
(b) When the socii were required to con-
tribute a contingent to the Roman army, the
Roman legions were placed in the centre of the
line of battle, and the allies formed the wings.
Hence the allied troops, both cavalry and in-
! fantry, were sometimes termed alae or alaHi ;
1 and we find mention, not only of equites, but
also of cohortes alares or alariae (Liv. x. 40, 8,
xxxi. 21).
(c) After the franchise had been extended to
the whole of Italy, the term alarii was
transferred to foreign troops {auxilia) serving
along with the Roman armies (Caes. B. C.
i. 73).
(d) Under the Empire, the word ala usually
denotes ' auxiliary cavalry ' ; and alae were
usually named from the country where they
were raised: eg. ala Moesica, ala Batavorv )ii ,
&c Sometimes a body of horse was named
from the officer who had first raised it, or wlio
commanded it: cf. ala Siliayia (Tac. Hist. i.
70), alu Auriana [ib. iii. 5). The ala was ori-
ginally divided into ten turmae, each contain-
ing three decunae of ten men each. But at a
later time the ala was either miliaria or quiii-
(fcnaria : in the former case there were twenty-
four turmae, in the latter sixteen, besides
various officers. [ExercituS.]
Alabarches (said to be derived from aXa^a,
ink). A Roman official stationed at Alexandria
under the Empire.
Alabastrum and Alabaster {aAd^cwTpov or
better aAa^aaros : Lat. pi. Alabastra, some-
times -tri). A small tapering or pear-shaped
vessel, having no feet, and commonly without
handles, used for holding perfumes and un-
guents. Onj'x-alabaster was usually employed
(Hor. Corm. iv. 12, 17 ; Plin. siii. § 19, xxxvi.
§ 160). They are also found of stone and ttn-ra-
cotta, with a white or cream-coloured ground
and black figures ; of glass, and even of gold
(Tlieocr. xv. 114). Sucli scent bottles are first
mentioned by Herodotus (iii. 20) ; they occur
both in Greek and Roman writers (Ar. Ar]i.
1053; Mart. xi. 8). To ' break the box ' of oiut-
26
ALABASTROTHECA
ALIMENTAHU
Ti^.:A. :.ui...-
V -
Fig. 32.— Alabastrum.
<l>enniB, A'lnirm 1. p. cxxv.)
meiit. (St. Matt. x.wi. 7) means to break tlie
cxtifiiiity of the sealed neck.
Alabastrothe'ca (d\a0aaTpo6riKr) or oAajSa-
aToQiiKT]). A casket for unguent-bottles [Ala-
bastrumj. or a liolder into wbich tliey were put
Fig. J3.— Alabastrotheca. (British Museum
when not in actual use. (Ar. i'V. 403; Dem.
i-'. i^. v. 41.-i,§237.)
Alauda, a Gaulish word, a lark (Latin
(jiilcnt(i). The name ahitidae was bestowed by
Julius Caesar on a legion of picked men, which
lie raised at bis own expense among the inha-
bitants of Transalpine Gaul, about the year 55
r,.c. This seems to have been the first example
of a regular Koman legion levied in a foreign
country and composed of barbarians. The
designation was. no doubt, taken from a crested
helmet.
The legion Ahiuda was numbered V., as is
•j>r<i\ed l)v several iiiscrii)tions.
Albarius ; Opus albarium. [Paries.]
Albogale'rus. A caji n)ade of the skin of a
white victim sacriliced to Jupiter. It was worn
bv tiu' Flamen Dialis. [Apex.j
Fig. 34.— .\piccs or caps worn by the Fl&mines and Silii
Album. A notice board, probably of wood
painted white, the letters being black, except
the headings inihricae), which were red: espe-
cially used for the board tm which the aiuiual
edict of the praetor was inscribed. It contained
the formulae and other legal remedies which the
praetor was prepared to grant ^^Edictum]. The
album was put up in a public place in Rome.
The word was al.so used for any tablet con-
taining a public announcement (Cic. de Oral.
ii. 12, 52) ; or a list of any public body : e.g.
album senatorium (Tac. Ann. iv. 42), ileciii-i-
oniiin, iitdicum (Suet. Claud. 10), jwntifirtnii,
iVc. [Judex.]
Alea. Playing at a game of chance. [Games ;
Tali ; Tesserae ; Par impar.]
Gaming wa'^ discountenanced at R)me
(Cic. Cat. ii. 10, 23, Att. xiv. .'J ; Juv. xi. 171".,
xiv. 4). It was also forbidden by special laws
during the times of the Republic and under the
emperors (Hor. Cartn. iii. 24, 5S; Cic. Phil. ii.
23, 50 ; Ov. Trist. ii 470 ff.K Three such laws
occur— the Leges Titia, Publicia, and Cornelia
(probably enacted by Sulla) — and likewise a
Heiiatusconxtiltiivi, and the praetor's edict.
Those who were convicted of gaming incurred
a fine and became infames. [Infamia.] Games
of chance were, however, tolerated in December
at the Saturnalia (Mart. iv. 14, v. s4 ; Suet.
Aug. 71; <-f. Plaut. Cwrc. ii. 3. 75; Cic. iSV/(.
16, 58). Under the Empire gambling was car-
ried to a great height (cf. Juv. i. 88-90).
Augustus and other emperors were fond of
it (Suet. Aug. 70, 71, Cal. 41, Claud. 33,
Doin. 21 ; Dio Cass. lix. 22, Ix. 2). There were
treatises on the art. among them a book writU-n
by the emi>eror Claudius (Ov. Trist. ii. 471 ;
Suet. Claud. 33). All gaming was finally for-
bidden by Justinian.
Alicula. A short cloak or cape woni by boys,
and by hunters (cf. Mart. xii. 82). [Dress.]
Alimentarii paeri et paellae. In the
Roman Republic the poorer adult citizens were
assisted by public distributions of com, oil, and
money, which were called con/jiaria [Congi-
arium]. Nero extended them to other Italian
towns, and also to children, and Trajan ap-
pointed them to be made every month. The
children who received them were called jiucri
ct puellae alimentarii; and the almoners
quaestores pecuniae alinientariae, quaestorcs.
procuratores, or praefecti alimentorum.
The methods were as follows : — Tlie emperor
lent considerable sums at low interest on the
security of landed estates belonging to members
of the municipality, and the interest was paid
to the municipal chest for tho support of
AAEI20N
orphans. Boys enjoyed the benefits of this
institution up to their eighteenth, and girls up
to their fourteenth, year. Similar institutions
of municipal or private foundation existed at
Terracina, Hispalis (Seville), and elsewhere.
One was founded at Comum by tlie younger
l'liny(PHn. Ep. vii. 18, i. 8).
"AXfLCTov. A cuj). [Ae'iras.]
Ali'pilns. A slave who attended on bathers,
to remove the superfluous hair from their
bodies (Sen. Ej). 56 ; Juv. xi. 157). The female
slaves were called TrapariXTptat. Tweezers
were used (zwlseUae, Mart. x. 28, 5) or depila-
tory ointment (dropax). [Psilothrum.]
Aliptae aKi'iTrrai), among the Greeks, were
persons who anointed the bodies of tlie athletes
in the a.KenrTi)piov before and after the exercises
of the palaestra. The oil was not simply spread
over the surface of the body, but also rubbed
into the skin (iTapaaKivacniK^i rpTipts). The
athlete was again anointed after the contests
(airotiepaireia), in order to restore the tone of
the skin and muscles. He then bathed, and
had the dust, sweat, and oil scraped off hisbody
by means of a scraper, an instrument similar to
tlie strigil, and called trrkiyyls, and afterwards
^varpa. [Balneae.]
Besides their mechanical work, the aliptae
also gave advice as to training and diet (Arist.
Eth. N. ii. 6, 7). Hence the term laTpa\^im7]S,
or medical trainer (Plin. H. N. xxix. § 1, 2,
latraleptic.e, Ep. x. 4 ; Cic. Fam. i. 9, 15).
[Athletae.]
Among the Romans th.ore were slaves called
aliptae who rubbed and anointed their masters
in the baths (Juv. iii. 76). These slaves
were also called unctores (Mart. iii. 32, 6), and
the anointing-room unctorium or unctnarium
(Plin. Ep. ii. 17). [Guttus ; Strigil; Balneae.]
Alligati. Roman soldiers carried with them
a coupling-chain with a handcuff {niamca) at
each end. When a prisoner was taken, his
hands were secured behind his back by one of
these, and the other passed round his captor's
left wrist. Prisoners other than military were
secured in the same way. See Acts xxiv. 7 ;
Jos. Antiq. xvii. 6, 7 ; Bp. Lightfoot on Philip-
pians, p. 8, n. 2, aXvais.
Allu'vio. See Appendix, Roman Law.
' A\(ba, 'A\<da. An Attic harvest festival in
honour of Demeter and Dionysus. It took
place every year after the harvest was over, and
only fruits were offered. It was unlawful to
offer any bloody sacrifice on the day of this
festival (Dem. Neaer. p. 1885, § 116). The
festival was also called OaKvcria, or (TvyKOfu-
(TTrjpia.
'AA.07C01J 8Ckti. Rep Appendix, Greek Law.
' AXtoircKTi. A fox-skin cap usedbyThracians
ir.g. Rhesus and Orpheus) and Amazons ; with
ear-flaps (Xen. Anab. vii. 4, 4 ; Hdt. vii. 75).
Alphabetum (dA(^a/3r)Toy). Alphabetical writ-
ing, i.e. writing in which each character repre-
sents a single sound, vowel or consonant, is de-
rived from picture-writing (ideography), in
which each character represents a word, and is
a conventionalised picture of the thing denoted.
Instances of ideographic writing are, among
others, the Egyptian hieroglyjihic system, the
Chinese, the cimeiform, and the Mexican. Im-
material ideas were in time expressed by mate-
rial forms, e.g. the sun to represent a day.
The next step after simple picture-writing
was the use of a symbol to represent a syllable
(syllabism) : this is the beginning of plionetic
writing. The third is the use of a symbol to
represent a single sound : this is alphabetical
ALPHABETUM 27
writing. Rather by accident than design the
number of symbols or letters adopted is small,
26 letters being used to represent a much larger
number of sounds, some letters standing for
several sounds (e.g. the vowels, C = S and K,
G = DJ, and vocalised K, &c.), other sounds
being represented by combinations of letters
(e.g. TH, PH, SH). This makes transliteration
from one language to another obscure and diffi-
cult. A perfect alphabet would be arranged
according to sounds, so as to represent all
speech-sounds in a common symbolism.
Again, some languages are, some are not,
written phonetically : e.g. German is written
phonetically; English and French retain the
history of the language in their orthography.
The hieroglyphic writing of Egypt was fixed
at a very early period. The earliest monuments
contain a complete system of a large number of
signs, each of which may represent (1) a word,
(2) a syllable, (3) a letter. The three systems
are often combined in one word : e.g. the word
kheper, a beetle, may be written —
As there are many signs for one meaning (e.g.
[1
for S), so there are many meanings
to one sound: e.g. the sign % nem means ' t(^
I sleep,' 'to walk,' 'tongue,' 'again.'
This multiplication of signs continues through-
out the whole period of Egyj)tian historj'.
A cursive or running form of hieroglyphics,
with a smaller number of signs, was used by the
priests (hieratic), as well as a business form
(demotic). From the foiTner of these, in a very
ancient stage, earlier than the period of the
I Shepherd Kings (i.e. before 2000 B.C.), tlie
! Phoenician alphabet was derived, and from it
all other old world alphabets. The resemblance
I between the ancient hieratic alphabet and the
I Phoenician bears out the constant tradition
of the Greeks and Romans that letters wei-e
adopted by the Phoenicians from Egypt, and
imported by them into the West. (See Table I.)
1. Greek.— The origin of the classical ali^ha-
bets may thus be traced to the Egyptian through
an Asiatic form imported by the Phoenicians
by way of the islands of the Aegean to Greece
and Italy. What relation the Semitic alphabets
may have had to the cuneiform Assyrian or
other Asiatic alphabets cannot be said to be
finally settled. The names of the letters (Aleph,
ox ; Beth, house, &c.) alone prove their Semitic
origin.
The wide dissemination in Greece of a single
alphabet in many varieties is a strong evidence
for a single centre ; for all the Greek alphabets
agree with each other, and differ frf)m the
Plioenician, in the employment of vowels.
The date at which writing became known in
Greece is quite uncertain. There are Greek
inscriptions of the seventh century in Egypt ;
and it is probable that writing was in use inucli
earlier than that date.
The earliest Greek handwriting, like the
Semitic, was from right to left; to this suc-
ceeded a method in which alternate lines ran
frcmi left to right and vice vei'sa. This is
called fiovffTpo^TjSdy. The Semitic alphabets
28
have no vowels. These were added by the
Greeks, who thus were the founders of the first
complete phonetic system. *, X, "V, came in
from Cyprus in the sixth century. The dif-
ferent forms current in Asia Minor, Euboea, the
Islands, the Peloponnese, &c.,gave place to the
Attic form of the Eastern Ionic alphabet, which,
from the archonship of Eukleides, 403 B.C.,
[•ame into use within a few years, as the estab
ALPHABETUM
In later MSS. a large number of abbreviations
were introduced, some of which (e.g. ^ = ti,
8 ^ ou, © = 01, &c.) were diphthong signs,
the rest abbreviations of common combinations
of letters (e.g. ©- = os, ^i^ = 5ia, 6, Xj = Kai,
yb — yap, J = Sf, fj9fj = fifv, c^ = ffOcu, &c.J.
These were imitated in type, and may be seen
came mlO use Wlimn a lew years, its viic c=uu,i/- I . ^ J. I 111 tu 1 . r
lished Greek alphaliet. Attic inscriptions of i m any Greek prmtad book till the earlv part of
an earlier date differ in many respects from I the present century.
<»
5
a:
"5
c
1
5 o
CO
»
1
a.
^^
Easte\n Ion c
CO
m 2
Western Ionic
or Chalhidian
o
=
c
•Co
«> CO
< O
•
00
o
13
C
1
Aleph
A
2-
^
A
A
A A
AM
AA
AA
AA
A/9
A A
AP)
2
Beth
B
^
^9
a
B
AKB
^B
B
115
^B
^ B
3
Gimel
G
<2i
^ 1
-A
rrr
^/\a
/"A
rA
^(la
rn^
A<CF
4
Daleth
D
-6
A ^:i»
^>.
^AA
A
DA
t>D
A
[>DA
[>DA
5
H&
E
m
a ^
3
//ffE
ft
fE
6
Vau
\V
^
Y <f
=1
F
PC F
PF
FCF
cc
niv
7
Zain
Z
t7
-X-
I
I
I
I
1
X I
B
Heth
H
NHH
BH
B H
BH
BH
B
HH
BH
HH
9
Teth
Th
O
0©O
0©O
o
e
e
0©0
^ G
®©o
m
10
Yod
Y
¥
T,
\.
'
1
1
11
1
1
11
Kaph
K
n
^
i
k KK
1^(:|CK
kK
K
FKK
k K
K K
i2
Lamed
L
^
LL
\
/^ r A
/^r A
VL
FF
/PA
VAA
i/r/^A
13
Mem
M
y
n^/
n
/^A\M
^A\M
A\
M/A
/^A\
14
Nun
N
-y
h
*A
ATA^N
rr/VN
rA'N
A'
rA^
/7>VN
r/VN
15
Samech
X
•♦^
^
%
$ti
i
FH
ii
+ X
+
16
'A in
o
o
o
O
o o
o O
oac
oQ
O
o
oO
gOO
o O
OOD
17
Pe
p
^
?
n
nr n
f( r
nr
r
rpn
rnn
'>rir
18
Tsade
s
^
yv
n
n M
/nn
M
19
Koph
K
n
?
?
?
??
?
??
??
?<:>
T
20
Resh
R
^
4 S
1
Pt>DP
f> > p
1? PR
r p
f p
p
R
f^rp
1^ p
PP
l?RPR
21
Shin
S
X
W
$
^1^
^
S
^7
22 1 Tau
T
a
X
-^
T
T
.fT
TiT
-fYT
TT
Fig. :55.— Alphabets. Table L
what henceforward became the conventional
form. The chief points in which the accepted
Greek alpliabet differs from the earlier forms
are the omission of H as an aspirate sign, (j)
(/coTTTro), '?) ((ro;uiri = 8p), f = V or W {Uyaixfia),
ajid the addition of the long vowels H and H.
The cursive Greek character was developed
from the established Attic form in the second
century B.C. It is first met with in Egypt, but
does not appear in Greek MSS. till the Byzan-
tine period.
2. Etruscan. — The Etruscans, whose alpha-
bet came from the Greeks, not (as has beeh
maintained) independently from the Phoe-
nicians, omitted B, D, O, Q, X. They intro-
duced 8 or 8 = F, a harder (labio-dental) form
of <^, wliich disappeared later, as did x-
Other Italian alphabets existed, such as the
Umbrian and Oscan all derived from or
closely akin to the Etruscan. The Italians
wrote for the most part from right to left.
' 8. Latin. — The earliest Latin alphabet (sup-
I
ALPHABETUM
posed to have been derived from the Chalkidian
colony of Kumae, who used the Western variety
of the Ionic alphabet) consisted of 21 letters:
6, (p, X) are absent, or only used as numeral signs.
The vowels resemble the Chalkidian type.
The digarama 7 , /", &c., was used for the hard
F (the Etruscan 8). Z (a vocalised S = English
Z) came between P and H, but was early disused ;
earlier, S represented it (Saguntum — ZaKwdos).
The place of Z in the alphabet was taken by Q,
G, C having come in the place of the Greek r.
K went early out of use, except in a few words
and signs (Karthago, Kal., Kaeso, &c.) ; X ( =
English X) the earlier form of H.
In Cicero's time Z was re- introduced, with Y,
in order to transcribe Cicelv words more ex-
actly. Three new letters were added by Claudius,
but never came into common use, though
they have been noted in inscriptions : d or '^
(du/amma inversum) = V consonantal (ARJA-
LES) ; "^t antisigma = i|/ or j)s ; \r (iota ad-
fectinn), OPT\-Wl\/S, to represent a vowel sound
'resembling that of the French u. [Palaeo-
graphy.]
AMBITUS
29
nuiler the Tables and most of the letterpress
have been compiled).
Semitic alphabets have no vowels. Vowel
sounds in the Greek alphabets, such as Nos. 1
and 5, were aspirations or clicks before (un-
written) vowels in the Semitic.
The values of the letters in Tables I. and H.
are approximately English, except the vowels,
which have the Italian sound. In Table I.
G (3) is hard; Z (7) is rather SD; K (11) is a
weak K, and K (19) a strong K ; X (15) was in
the Semitic alphabets S, and S (18) was in the
Semitic alphabets SH ; Th (9), the Greek Qr^Ta,
was in Semitic a strong T, and T (22) a weak T.
Aluta. [Calceus; Coriarii.]
Alveus. (1) A basin, generally of an oval
shape, used, f.(j., lor washing infants. (2) A
tray for tools. (S) A kueadmg board with a
<N
1
CO
5.0
II
CSUJ
in
5
1
i °
S 5
s:
1
CO
.1
1
1
o
ati
s
CO
c
a
1
A
A
AA
^
^
AA <1
fl
A
A
A
A
A
2
B
^
B
a
B
B
a
3
C
>
<C
>
V
)
3
C
c
>
4
D
<1
D
s
a
Q
D
D
9
5
6
E
3
ff
^
^^
^^33
3
311
^3
Ell
E
3
F
1
P f
A
^^
=1^
3
^
Fl'
F
D
7
G
I
n
\
^i
X
u
h'
I
G
G
I
8
H
B
B
H
asH
Q
m
H
H
B
9
Th
©
©©
o
00?
G
10
I
1
1 1
1
II
1
1
1
1
1
I
II-
11
K
>l
K
>
n
»
>1
^)
KK
K
^
12
L
nI
K
nI
^
nI
nI
-<>
\/
IK
L
nI
13
M
^
rr
^
w
^n
m
m
IVl
M
w
14
N
n
vv
n
M
n^
M
H
N
N
H
15
X
ffl
B
16
o
O
o
oo
o
O
8
17
p
n
pp
^1
^
^1
1
11
1
p
P
n
18
z
n
M
M
M
MM
M
19
Q
9
?
p
9
Q
20
R
<1
PP
a
a
4^Q
G
/I
<\
P
R
a
21
S
^
a
1
n
X h
^d
U
u
S
S
1
22
T
-r
TT
r
f
-f-X
i
ir
tT
T
T
T
23
U
Y
Yr
V
V
VA
V
V
sv
V
V
VV
24
X
X
-1-
X
X
25
Ph
9
"P
<i>
o
26
Kh
r
^rr
Y
^
YT
27
F
^
T
8
T
8
Fig. 36.— Alphabets. Table II.
Note. — The Primitive Greek and Primitive
Italian alphabets in Tables I. and II. do not
exist actually, but have been restored from the
evidence of other alphabets by Dr. W. Deecke
(.from whose article in Baumeister's Denk-
.37.— Cupids sa-wing. Ao alveus is under the bench.
raised rim. (4) Alveus lusoriits, a table for
playing hazard: of similar form [Tali, Abacus].
(5) A 'dug-out ' or canoe made of the trunk of
a tree (/xoyo^vhov). [Linter.]
(6) = Alveare. [Agriculture.]
Amanuensis, or A manu [servus], A slave
or freedman whose office it was to write from
dictation in short-hand [notae) or otherwise
[Suet. lul. 74, Aug. 67, &c. ; Cic. cZe Orat. iii.
60, 225).
'A(ji,ap\3v9ia or 'Aixapvaia. A festival of
Artemis, celebrated at Amarynthus in Euboea ;
also in Attica. The festival in Euboea was dis-
tinguished for its splendid processions, amount-
ing on one occasion to 3,000 heavy-armed men,
600 horsemen, and 60 chariots.
Ambarva'lia. A rural festival among the
Romans, so called quod arva ambiat victinia
(Serv. ad Verg. Eel. iii. 77).
There were two kinds of Ambarvalia, private
and public. The private Ambarvalia are those
alluded to by Virgil {Georg. i. 338 sqq., Eel. iii.
77, V. 75 ; cf. Tibull. Eleg. ii. 1). The victims
[Suovetaurilia] were led three times round the
cornfields, before the sickle was put in, accom-
panied by a crowd of merry-makers, dancing and
singing the praises of Ceres, while they offered
libations of milk, honey, and wine. The public
Ambarvalia, which have been (doubtfully) iden-
tified with the sacrifice of the Fratres Arvales
to Dea Dia, took place at Rome on May 29, and
were an immovable feast (feriae stativae). The
feast of Dea Dia was j)roila,imed every vear.
[Arvales ; Amburbium. ] Tlic Roman An'ibar-
valia were performed at a spot called Festi,
about five miles on the load to Alba, the Fossa
Cluilia of Livy (i. 23). The Lucus Deae Diae
was on the Via Portuensis, south of Rome. Both
were on the boundary of the original ager Ro-
manus.
The rites of the Ambarvalia survived in, and
may be compared with, the ceremonies of the
three Rogation Days, anciently called ' Gang-
days,' which precede Ascension Day, occurring
nearly at the same tinit; of year.
Anibilus'trium. [Lustratio.]
Am'bitus. See Appendix, Roman Law.
80
AMBUBAIAE
Ambnlsaiae. Female musicians from Syria,
who ptrlormed in public, at Rome, especially
in the circus. Tlieir name is derived from the
Syrian word abtib or anbub, a flute. The
natch-girls of India will perhaps give the best
idea of them. (Hor. Sat. i. '2, 1 ; Suet. Ner. 27.)
Ambu'rbium or Amburbia'le. A sacrifice
performed at Rome for the purification of the
city, in the same manner as the Ambarvalia
were intended for the purification of the coun-
try : usually in consequence of the appearance
of prodigies, &c. (See Serv. on Verg. Eel. iii.
77, and Lucan, i. 592 sq., where it is described.)
[Ambarvalia. J
Amentum. IHasta; Solea. 1
Ames. A poll', csijccially (1) for spreading nets
(Retei ; Ci) tlu- sluifts nt a palanquin [BastemaJ.
Tlif polns of a Lectica were called (usscres.
Amictus, Amictum, Amictorium. Dress.]
Amne'stia laiu.i-r](rTiaj. 'J'he act or airange-
ment by which offences were forgotten, or re-
garded as if they had not been committed, so
that the offender could not bo called to account
for them. The word is chiefly used with refer-
ence to conflicts of opposing factions in the
<Treek republics. There is only one case of
amnesty in Greek history whicli recjuires any
particular notice, viz. that which tenninated
the struggle between the democratical and
oligarchical parties at Athens, 408 B.C. It
was arranged by the mediation of the Spartan
king Pausanias, and extended to all citizens,
with the exception of the Thirty and the Eleven,
and the Ten who had ruled in Peiraeus. The
earlier authors use the phrase /u?) fivri(TiKaK(iv.
Amphikty'ones {'\fx<piKTvou(s\. Institutions
calii <1 Ainpliiktyonic appear to have existed
in Greece from time immemorial. They were
associations of originally neighbouring tribes,
formed for the regulation of mutual inter-
course, and the protection of a common temple
or sanctuary. The true derivation of the
word is from ktiw, with the same meaning as
TruHKTiovfS ; nf)t from the name Ainjiliiktyon.
We find many Amphiktyoniae of various de-
grees of importance. There was one of sonie
<'eli'brity which met at a sanctuary of Poseidon
at Kalauria, an ancient Ionian settlement in tiie
Saronic Gulf. Another is that of Onchestus in
Boeotia, where the gathering was round a temple
of Poseidon.
One of the most important was that of Delos,
the 'religious metropolis of the neighbouring
Kyklades, where musical and gymnastic con-
tests were celebrated every fourtli year {irfVT-
fTrjpis) in honour of the Delian Apollo (Thuc.
iii. 104). Plutarch {Then, 'ill ascribes the
foiuidation of it to Theseus. The dfwpoi sent
by the Athenians to Delos [Theori ; Delia]
were also called AjjAiaiTTai.
The fedei'al unions of the Dorians, lonians,
and Aeolians, living on the west coast of Asia
Minor, seem to have been Amphiktyonic in
spirit. Thus the Dorians held a federal festival
at Triopium in honour of Apollo and Demeter.
The lonians met in honour of the Helikonian
I'oseidon (the Ionian god) at Mykale — tlieir place
of assembly being called the Panioninm, and
their festival Panionia. The twelve towns of
the Aeolians assembled at Gryneia in honour of
Ar)ollo. (Hdt. i. 144, 148.)
One Amphiktyony of greater celebrity than
the rest, and more lasting, was called the Am-
pliiktyonic League, and had two places of meet-
ing — the temple of Demeter at Anthela, near
Thermopylae (Hdt. vii. '200), where the deputies
met in autumn ; and that of ApoUo at Delphi,
AM4>IAPOMIA
' where they assembled in spring. This Amphi-
ktyony was originally composed of twelve tribes
(eOvif), not cities or states, each of which tribes
contained various independent cities or states.
These tribes were probably the Thessalians,
Boeotians, Dorians, lonians, Perrhaebians, Ma-
gnetes, Lokrians, Oetaeans, Phthiots or Achae-
ans of Phthia, Malians or Melians, and Pho-
kians ; and perhaps Dolopians. The equality of
Dorians and Malians, the inclusion of the lonians
of Asia, and the equal voting of deputies for large
, and small towms, are evidence of antiquity.
The probability is that the association had
its origin at Tliermopj'lae, not at Delphi, as is
shown by the number of Thessalian tribes from
the neighbourhood of the Maliac bay, and the
comparative insignificance of many of them ;
I the myth of Amphiktyon ; the names Pylagorae
and Pylaea. Besides, we know that Thessaly
was the theatre of the most important events
of early Greek history; whereas it was only in
later times that Delphi became more important.
The council itself was called Pylaea {Tlv-
kola) from its meeting in the neighbourhood of
Pylae (Thermopylae). It was composed of two
classes of representatives, one called nuAa7<^pai,
the other 'Upo/jLvrifioves (Ar. Nub. v. (J'iS ; Dem.
I Timocr. p. 747, §150) and Upoypafinarfls, \\\i'
j latter perhaps taking precedence, and elected
for life. The iKKKt\(Tia, or general assembly,
included all those who had joined in the sacri-
fices and were consulting the god.
The oath taken by the Amphiktyons (Aeschin.
F. L. § 115) was to the effect that they would
I do no injury to any city of the Amphiktyons,
and would protect the proi)erty of the god at
Delpiii. The main duty of the deputies was
the preservation of the rights and dignity of
the temple at Delphi. After it was burnt down,
548 B.C., they contracted with the Alkmaeonidae
for the rebuilding (Hdt. ii. IhO, v. U'2) ; and in
other matters connected with the worship of
the Delphian god they regulated the minutest
i details. The council sometimes acquiesced
; in, and at other times was a party to, ini-
quitous and cruel acts. Such were the de-
struction of Mykenae by Argos (4(18 B.C.) ; of
Plataea and Tliespiae by Thebes (427 B.C. I;
of Thebes by Alexander (330 B.C.) ; and other
instances are to be found in the case of Krissa
in the First Sacred War ^58G H.c.) ; of the
Phokians in the Second or Phokian War (3.59
B.C.) ; of the Amphissians in the Third Sacred
War, leading to the battle of Chaeroneia (338
B.C.), and the extinction of the independence of
Greece. In the following year a congress of the
Amphiktyonic states was held, in which war
was declared against Persia as if by united
Greece, and Philip elected commander-in-chief.
The council is mentioned by Pausanias as
existing in the second centurj- of our era ; but
even Demosthenes spoke of it as t; tv AeAc^oi"?
(TKia, and it had long ceased to have any influ-
ence.
'A)j.(|>i8p6Miia. A purificatory festival of the
Athenians, at which the newly-boni child was
introduced into the family, and received its
name. No particular day was fixed for this
solemnity ; but it took place about a week after
the birth of the child. The friends and rein
tions of the parents were invited to the festival
of the Amphidromia, which was held in th<'
! evening, and to which they brought presents.
The door of the house was decorated with
olive branches when the child was a boy, or
garlands of wool when the child was a girl ;
and a repast was prepared. The child was
AM*IOPKIA
then carried round the hearth by the nurse,
followed by the family (hence the name), and
thus presented to the gods of the house and
to tlie family ; and at the same time received its
name, to whicli those present were witnesses.
This was the principal part of the solemnity.
It was also called e056fjLai or €/35oyU.as, Se/caTTj,
etc., according to the day after birtli.
'A|ict)topKia or 'A|jL(t)o)|iOCTia. See Appen-
dix, Greek Law ("AvaKpicris].
'Aji,<j)i(73'nT-nCTts. See Appendix, Greek
Law.
'AM,<|>ied\ajjLos- [Domus.]
Amphithea'trum (aij.(pideaTpov). [Gladia-
tores ; Venatio ; Naumachia. )
1. Its History. — These exliibitions (which
were peculiar to the Romans) originally took
place in the Forum and the Circus at Rome,
tlie shows of gladiators being given in the
former, and those of wild beasts in the latter.
In Italian towns the public piazza or forum was
used as an amphitheatre till the end of the
Republic. As tlie gladiatorial combats and the
wholesale slaughter of animals came to be the
favourite amusements of the Romans, a new-
form of building was required to accommodate
a multitude of spectators. The first amphi-
theatre — that of C. Scribonius Curio — was com-
posed of two theatres, placed on pivots, so that
they could be turned round, spectators and all,
and placed either back to back, forming two
theatres, or face to face, forming an amphi-
theatre (Plin. xxxvi. § 116 ff.). The next amphi-
theatre was built by Julius Caesar, 46 B.C. This,
however, was made of wood, a material which,
besides being combustible, sometimes proved
inadequate to supjiort the weight of the spec-
tators, and thus occasioned serious accidents,
(Suet. Tib. 40; Tae. Ann. iv. 6o, Hist. ii. 20.)
In the year 30 B.C. an amphitheatre of stone
was erected by T. Statilius Taurus, in the
Campus Martins, which was destroyed in the
great fire of 64 a.d. (Suet. Aitg. 29 ; Tac. Ann.
iii. 72.)
Nero built a vast amphitheatre of wood,
57 A.D. It was not, however, till the reigns of
Vespasian and Titus that the design of build-
ing a permanent amphitheatre, entertained by
Augustus (a great lover of the venatio), was
carried into effect by the erection of the Amj)hi-
theatrum Flavium, or Colosseum or Coliseutn,
so called either on account of its gigantic size,
or from the colossal statue of Nero which stood
close by.
This wonderful building, whicli for magni-
tude can only be compared to the pjTamids of
Egypt, was commenced by Vespasian (Suet.
Ves2}. 9), and completed by Titus, who dedi-
cated it in 80 A.D., when 5000 animals of dif-
ferent kinds were slaughtered in it (Suet. Tit.
7). Domitian added the last story and the orna-
mental work. The fourth tier was of wood, and
was burnt 217 a.d. ; the present upper story
being not earlier than the time of Alexander
Severus and Gordian III.
There is a doubtful tradition that the archi-
tect of the Coliseum was a Christian, Gauden-
tius, afterwards a martyr, and that thousands
of captive Jews were employed in its erection.
Tlie Flavian Amphitheatre, from its enormous
size, rendered the subsequent erection of any
otlier such building in Rome unnecessary.
Games continued to be celebrated in it down to
the sixth century. It is usually stated that, in
consequence of the self-devotion of Telemachus,
an Asiatic monk, who rushed into the arena to
.separate the gladiators, and was overwhelmed
AMPHITHEATRUM
31
under a shower of stones, Honorius abolished
for ever the sacrifices of the gladiators ; but
there is evidence that they were continued at a
later period. (Aug. Confess, vi. 8.)
2. Descriptio7i of the Flavian Amjihi-
theatre. — The site of the Coliseum was in
the middle of the city, in the valley between
the Caelian, the Esquiline, and the Velia, on
the marshy ground which was previously the
lake of Nero's palace (siagnum Neronis)
(Mart, de Spect. ii. 5). As a general descrip-
tion of the building, the following passage of
Gibbon (ch. xii.) is perfect : — ' It was a build-
ing of an elliptic figure, founded on fourscore
arches, and rising, with four successive orders
of architecture, to the height of 140 [157] feet.
The outside of the edifice was incrusted with
marble, and decorated with statues. The slopes
of the vast concave which formed the inside
were filled and surrounded with sixty or eighty
rows of seats, of marble likewise, covered with
cushions, and capable of receiving with ease
about 80,000 spectators. Sixty-four vomitorii's
(for by that name the doors were very aptly
distinguished) poured forth the immense multi-
tude; and the entrances, passages, and stair-
cases were contrived with such exquisite skill,
that each person, whether of the senatorial, tlie
equestrian, or
the plebeian
order, arrived
at his destined
place without
trouble or con.
fusion. No-
thing was
omitted which
in any respect
could be sub-
servient to the
convenience
and pleasure
of the specta-
tors. They
were protected
from the sun
and rain by an
ample canopy,
occasionally
drawn over
their heads.
The air was
continually re-
freshed by the
playing of
fountains, and
profusely im-
pregnated by
the grateful
scent of aro-
matics. In the
centre of the
edifice, the
arena, or
stage, was
strewed with
the finest sand,
and succes-
sively assumed
the most dif-
ferent forms.
At one mo-
ment it seemed
to rise out of
the earth, like
the garden of the Hesperides, and was after-
wards broken into the rocks and caverns of
Fig. 38.- i;K\;d.m. uf th,. Khivi.-in
Amphithealre rt^storeti. (Darem-
berg and Saglio.)
HI
AxMPHlTHEATRUM
Thrace. The suhterraneous pipes conveyed
an inexhaustible supply of water; and what
had just before appeared a level plain miglit
be suddenly converted into a wide lake, covered
with armed vessels, and replenished with the
monsters of the deep. In the decoration of
these scenes, the Roman emperors displayed
their wealth and liberality ; and we read on
various occasions that the whole furniture of
the amphitheatre consisted either of silver, or
of p^old, or of amber.'
This structure, like nearly all the other exist-
ing amphitheatres, is of an elliptical form. It
covers nearly six acres of ground. The plan
divides itself naturally into two concentric
ellipses, of which the inner constituted the
arena or space for the combats, while the ring
tier is of a different order of architecture, the
lowest being a plain Roman Doric, the next
Ionic, and the third Corinthian. The fourtli
story has no arches, but alternately larger
and smaller square windows, and pilasters of
the Composite order. Between every two
pilasters three consoles or brackets project from
the wall, and above these are small vertical
shafts in the entablature. The masts (niali)
upon which the velaria or awnings were
stretched, rested on these brackets and passed
[ through the sliafts in the manner represented
in the above engraving. The total height of
the building is 157 feet; the stories are respec-
tively about aO, 88, 38, and 44 feet high.
The stone used in the exterior is travertine:
some of the blocks are five feet high, and eight
Fig. 80.— Gponndplun of the Flavian Amphitheatre.
A, ground-plan, or plan of lowest story ; B, plan of erections on a level with the second row of exterior
columns (II in fig. 41); C, similar plan of third order ( HI in fig. 41) ; D, bird s-eye view.
between this and the outer circumference was
occupied by the seats for the spectators. The j
lengths of the major and minor axes of these
ellipses are, respectively, 287 feet by 180, and j
«)20 feet by 513. The width of the space appro- I
priated to spectators is, therefore, KiGi feet all
it)und the i)uil<ling. The material used was
stone, in large blocks, fastened together, where
necessary, by metal clamps. Tlie exterior was
faced witii marble and adorned with statues.
The external elevation requires little descrip-
tion. Each of tlie three lower stories pre-
sents a continuous facjade of eighty columns
backed by piers, with open arches between
them, and with an entablature continued un-
broken round the whole building. The width
of tlie arches is about 14 feet 6 inches. Each
or ten feet long, and all have inscribed upom
them small numbers or signs indicating tln'
place of each in the building.
The arrangements of the Flavian Ami)hi-
theatre may be easily understood by reference
to the plan and section given below (Figs. 40
and 41). The whole space was divided into
tliree terraces (praecinctiones, GG, HH, II,
Fig. 40) running all round the building :
from which rose three ranges of seats {mar-
niana, G, H, I), accessible at any point from
a corridor on the ground floor (C D E F) hy
passages {viae, itinera, aditus) and flights of
stairs {scalae, a, h, r, d, e, f, (j, h, k, I, in, tt,
5). The walls backing the praecinctiones were
called haltei, and were faced with marble or
otherwise decorated. The doors which openefl
AMPHITHEATRUM
Fig. 40.— Section of the Corridors. Stairs, and Seats.
I, II, III, IV, four stories of the exterior. .1 . aren i ; /;, podium ; C, D. K. F,
corridors; a, H, I. maeniana; K. upper gallery; 1., terrace over it; II,
space on the summit of the wall for the managers of the velarium ; Z,
steps which surrounded the building on the outside ; r(, stairs from the
third colonnade to the podium ; /.. short transverse steps from the podi
to the first maenianum (compare the plani ; c. d. stairs from the ground
Btory to the second, whence the second maenianum was reached in two
■ways, (• and g ; c, steps to the first praecinctio. from which there were
sho'rt transverse steps (/) to the second maenianum; ;(. stairs leading
direct from the corridors of the second story to the second maenianum.
through the vomitorium a ; h. stairs leading from the floor of the se
story to the small upper story, whence other stairs (ii led to the third
story, from which access was obtiined to the upper part of the second
maenianum by doors «/i] in the inner wall of the second corridor </ ; /.-,
stairs from the second story to tlie entresol, or middle story, whence
■access was obtained to the third maenianum by passages (yi ; /. stairs in
the entresol, leading to the upper part of the third maenianum, and to
the gallery K; m. steps from the gallery to the terrace over it ; n, steps
Irom that terrace to the summit; u. p, grated openings to light the two
inner corridors; </. see under /( ; .s. windows to light the entresol ; /, win-
dows of the gallery ; v, rest, and u\ loop, fur,y, the masts of the velariu
Fig, 41.— Elevation and section of Flavian Amphitheatre at Rome.
84
from the staircases and corridors on to the
interior of the amphitheatre were termed vonii-
toria. The whole of the interior was called
cavea.
The arena was smTOunded by a wall of suffi-
cient height to guard the spectators against
any danger from the wild beasts — namely,
about fifteen feet. A further protection was
afforded by a network or trellis of metal, some-
AMPHITHEATRUM
gallerj' at the top was the only part of the
ampliitheatre in which women were permitted
to witness the games, except the Vestal VirgLnK,
and with them perhaps a few ladies of dls-
I tinction (Suet. Aug. 44). The seats of the
maeniana were divided into portions called
I ciinei (from their shape), by flights of shallow
'■ stairs, which facilitated the access through the
several vomitoria to the seats (Suet. Aug. 44 ;
mMXLMllMMJ-^MBS
Fig. 42.— LongituHlnal Elevation of the FUvian AjuptuUiaiiUe.
!RS?^
JUiJft
Fig. 43.— Longitudinal Section of the Flarian Amphitheatre.
time's gilt, and by rollers suspended against it
as an additional protection against the p<is->i-
bility of tlie wild beasts climbing over. The
terraee on the top of this wall, which was
called podium, was about twelve feet high, and
contained two or three ranges of separate
marble thrones. This, as being the best situa-
tion for viewing the games, and u1m» more
commodionsly ivccessible than the .seats liigher
up, was the place set apart for senatoi^i and
other persons of distinction (Suet. Aug. 44;
Juv. ii. 143, Arc); tlie magistrates s«>em to have
sat here in their curule chairs, and liere also
was the emperor's box, in an elevated ]>lace
called suggestus (Suet. lul. 76), or ruhicuhnn
(Suet. Ncr. 12); and likewise the seat of the
person who exhibited the games (rditoria tri-
bunal). The Vestal Virgins also had a place
allotted to them on the pt)dium. (Suet. .1;";.
44.1
Above the podium were the gradii.s, or seals
of tlio other spectators, divided into stories
called maenidna. The first marnianutii [G),
consisting of fourteen rows of stone or marble
seats, was appropriated to the equestrian order
(Juv. iii. 153, xiv. 824; Mart. v. 8, xiv. 23, Ac;
Cic. Phil. 11. § 44; Suet. Aug. 14 ; Hor. Epod.
iv. 1.')). Tile seats appropriated to the senators
and equites were covered with cushions {}>ul-
vini) (Juv. iii. 154). Then, after a lioiizontal
space, termed a. praecinctio (GG), and forming
a continuous landing-place from the several
staircases which opened on to it, succeeded the
second maenianum (H), where were the seats
called po7i«/(»rtVi (Suet. Z)ow. 4), for the third
class of spectators, or populus. Behind this
was the second praecinctio (HH), above
which was the third maeniotium (I), where
tliere were only wooden benches for the pullati,
or commuii people (Suet. Aug. 44). The open
Juv. vi. 61). (See the ground plan, and the
annexed section of a small (>ortion of the seats.)
-J
Fig. 11.— Section of 8cat6.
Not only were the different ranges of senls
appropriated to different classes of siiectattirs,
but the tickets of admission marked the exact
seat the holder was to occupy, with the nmnber
of the maenianum and the cunetts. The
spectators were guided to their places by num-
bers placed over the external arches by which
the building was entered ; these numbers still
exist: e.g. cvn. vi. in. xviii.; i.e. sixth cuneus,
lowest {infimus) row. No. 18. (Middleton, An-
cient Rome in 1888, p. 306.) The office of pre-
8er\ung order in the distribution of the places
was assigned to attendants, under the superin-
tendence of tlie vilicus amphitheatri.
Tlie arena, or central o{K'n space for the
combatants, derived its name from the sand
with wliich it was covered, chiefly for the pur-
lK>ae of absorbing the blood. Such emix>rors
I
AMPHITHEATRUM
as Caligula and Nero showed their prodigality
by using cinnabar and borax instead of the
common sand. In the earlier amphitheatres
there were ditches {euripi) between ih.e podimn
and the arena, which were chief!}' meant as a
defence against the elephants. These were dis-
pensed with by Nero, in order to gain space for
the spectators. (Suet. Iitl. 39; Plin. viii. §21.)
The space of the arena was entirely open.
There were four principal -entrances to it, by
passages from the four corresponding arches of
the exterior ; there were also minor entrances
through the wall of the podium. Underground
were arrangements for flooding the arena
[Naumachia], and cages for wild beasts, with
'Maeriianiii)!
Podium I
AMULETUM
85
Arena
Windlass
Cage raised
Cage loivcrcd
Fig. 4o.— Jlethod of raising -n-ild beasts in the Amphi-
theatre.
lifts (pegniata) by which the cages could be
raised to the level of the arena. The floor of
the arena above these substructures was of
boards covered with sand, and movable.
The velarium, or awning, was sometimes
wetted with perfumes {sparsio). On one occa-
sion a blue velarium with stars was provided
by Nero. It would be drawn as required : the
centre part, shading the arena, was fixed in its
place by ropes. Small balls (viissiUa) were
occasionally thrown to be scrambled for. Each
missile contained a ticket (tessera) entitling the
holder to a prize, sometimes of considerable
value.
3. Other Amphitheatres. — The Flavian Am-
phitheatre, as has been already stated, was the
Fig. 46.— Elevation of Amphitheatre at Verona.
only one in Eome. But in the provincial
cities, and especially the colonies, there were
many amphitheatres. The provincial amphi-
theatres were, probably, like the earlier ones at
Rome itself, generally built of wood, such as
those at Placentia and Fidenae. There are
important ruins of large amphitheatres at
Verona, Paestum, Pompeii, and Capua, in
Italy ; at Nimes, Aries, and Fr^jus ; at Trier ;
at Pola ; at Syracuse, Catania, and some other
cities in Sicily. Some of these are of three
stories, others of two. The amphitheatre of
Verona, built of red marble, is 500 by 400 feet
in external measurement. There are traces
of amphitheatres of a ruder kind, chiefly of
earth, in various parts of our own country,
as at Dorchester, Silchester, Caerleon, and
Redruth.
4. Z'srs of the Amjjhitheatrr. — See Gladi-
atores, NauniacMa, and Venationes.
Amphora. [Pottery.]
'Ajjnr-ug. A frontlet, or band, worn by Greek
ladies to confine the
hair, passing round the
front of the head and
fastening behind. It ap-
pears to have generally
consisted of a plate of
gold or silver, often
richly worked and
adorned with precious
stones. {II. xxii. 468-
470; Eur. See. 465;
Theocr. i. 33.)
The word d/xirv^ (or
afj.TrvKTr)p, Aesch. Theb.
461, Siippl. 431) was also
applied to the frontal of
a horse's bridle, Lat.
frontale, or more usu-
ally plur. frontalid
(Plin. xxxvii. § 194 ; Liv. xxxvii. 40).
Amule'tum {■mpiaTrrov, Trepiafx/jia, <^u\aK-
T^piov). A charm attached to the body of a
human being or animal to avert calamities or
secure good fortune. Ligatura ajid alUgatura
are used by Christian writers. Amulets are as
old as Homer [Od. x. 292), but the word first
occurs in Varro (ap. Charis. 105, 9 k), and is
probably of Italian origin. It is also used by
Pliny (xxix. §66, xxx. f 168).
Large numbers of the more durable amulets
are still in existence. The shapes of ancient
jewellery and ornaments were in great measure
decided by a belief in their magical efficacy.
The belief in the virtues of precious stones
especially was widespread, even
among the intelligent.
Amulets were of different mate-
rials. Among these we may men-
tion diamond, amethyst, and other
gems; coral, rock-crystal, jasper,
agate, chalcedony, opal, amber, jet,
and many similar substances.
Amulets were also made of metal ;
and various plants — bay, hellebore,
hawthorn, &c. — were used, as well
as parts of animals, e.g. the gall of
a dog, the brain of a goat, the teeth
or eyes of a hyena ; and various
parts of owls, snakes, frogs, wolves,
iVre. Some of the strangest amulets
were the blood of gladiators, the
hair of a man who had been cruci-
fied, bones from graves, &c.
Besides assuming various forms
of personal ornaments — necklaces
or pendants [Crepundia ; Phalerae], rings,
bracelets, earrings, hair-pins, &c. — amulets
were attached to a sort of belt which was
D2
3G
AMULETUM
passed over one shoulder and under the oppo-
site arm, or in the shape of thin phites (brac-
teae) were sewn on t,';irnient8, or enclosed in
a bajr or a Bulla.
Fi(?. 49.— Gold ca§e contalntnir an Orphic tablet, found In
u tomb at IV-telia.
Tlie formulas of iiuant.itiuns called iT^'/jcsVae
Uttcniti ('E<j)e<rio ypdnfiara) belonged for the
most part to the later Empire.
To gain good fortune atid
protection, small images of the
deities were carried, especially
of the (irrrrimci, and in later
times still more commonly those
of Eastern deities; Diana of
]*.l>hesus, IMitliras, Isis, Anubis,
ami especially Serapis and Hor-
1 " ikrates.
It was also a very common
Fig. 5^!^ulet. 1"^«=<:''=« ^ »^'^};* '" ^"f^ ^y
roprespnting wearing some lU-omened, gi<o-
ilarpokrates. (,esque, or obsceue shajje which
might instantly catdi the ' evil eye ' of the
ANCILLA
malign power and divert its malice, especially
the phallus. [Fascinom.J
Fig. 51.— Collection of Viiiulcts. iV. A 8.)
Amossis. A level used by masons to test the
evenness of a surface, for which puqwse a canon
or straight-edge of marble, marked with red,
was also used [Canon]. .\lso a sort of Norma,
or square, testing whether an angle made by
two surfaces was a right angle. The aniiissis
wa.s distinct from the Begnla (straight rule)
and from the Libella i]ilumb-line or square).
Hence the adverbs uuin.ssiiii, (nianiussini, exa-
mussiiii, and amussitatii's.
Amystis i&ixva-rts, a/xva-ri iriyfti', afwtrri^fiv),
from d and fivw, a draught taken without draw-
ing breath. It was a favourite amusement
with the Greeks to try how much they could
swallow in this way (At. Ach. 1229). Plato
(Symp. 214 a) represents Sokrates and Alki-
biades as draining off the contents of a wine-
cooler holding eiirht kotvKcu, or nearly two
quarts, while Alexander the (iieat is said to
have greatly exceeded this amount (cf. Hor.
Carm. i. 3(), 14 ; Eur. Ci/rl. .^f..5).
Anabolium {avaBo^aw^ k Dress.]
'AvaStcTpLT). Mitra.
'Ava.y\v<i>a., 'AvdYXvirra. i^Caelatura ;
TopCUTlKTI.^
Anagnostae, also called Lrrtores : slaves em-
ployed by educated Romans in reivding to them
during meals, the batli, and at other times
(Cic. Att. i. 12; Suet. Aug. 78 i Mart. iii. 50).
'Ava-YOJvnS SCkt). See Appendix, Greek
L.wv.
'AvaKaXviTTTipia. [Matrimonium.]
'AvcLKpiCTis. See Appeiidi.x, Gkeek L.\W.
Anathe'mata {avadr.,uaTa\. iDonaria.]
Anatoci'smus (di/aTo/cicr^tds), compound in-
terest, and the correlative fvOvroKioL, simple
interest, are often found in inscriptions (cf. Cic.
Att. V. 21, 11; t6koi t6kuv. At. Nub. 1156;
rrffcot firiTOKOi. Plat. Lri/g. 842 D).
'AvavM-axtov YP°-4>Ti See Appendix,
Grekk IjWv.
'Avag\jpi5€s. "Bracae."'
"AyxiaTiia. See Ai>)"iidix, GREEK Law
Heres,.
Aneile. [Salii.]
Ancilla. [Servus.]
AN CON
Ancon (a7hcu;'). An elbow, especially (1) the
arms of a Norma, of a chair, &c. (2) A cramp
ANTHESPHORIA
37
zz.
Fig. .V2.— Ancon.
to fasten blocks of stone {uncus, Hor. Carm. i.
35, '20; Vitr. ii. 8). (3) The trusses or consoles
supporting a cornice over a doorway.
Ancora. [Navis.]
'AvSpa-iroSicrpLov vpa-<i>Tl- See Appendix,
Grkek Law.
'AvSpo\Ti\|/Ca, 'AvSpoMxI/iov. See Appen-
dix, Greek Law.
'AvSpojv. Any room in the avSpcvvTris of a
Greek house, but often used specially to denote
the dining room. [Domus (Greek).J
'AvSpwviTis- [Domus (Greek).]
Angaria. ['Avyo-p^'o-]
Angiportus, or Angiportum. A narrow lane
between two rows of houses (Ter. Ad. iv. 2, 39,
Eun. V. 2, 6, 7 ; Hor. Carm. i. 2.5, 10).
'AYKij\-n. [Arms and Armour, Spear.]
Anna'les leges. [Leges annales.]
Anna'les max'imi. [Pontifex.]
Anno'na is used to signify : (1) the produce of
the year in corn, fruit, wine, &c. ; hence (2)
provisions in general, especially the corn which,
in the later years of the Republic, was collected
in the storehouses of the state or in private
granaries for the provisioning of Rome ; (3) the
price at which siich corn was sold [e.g. Liv. ii.
34, iv. 12) ; (4) a tax in kind, usually oiie-tenth,
levied in the provinces (Cic. Rull. ii. 29, Leg.
Manil. 6, Place. 8, Verr. iii. 6, 7) and, under
the Empire, applied for provisioning the army ;
(5) tlie corn so distributed among the soldiers.
[Congiarium; Frumentatio; Praefectus an-
nonae.]
Annulus. [Anulus.]
Anquina. [Navis.]
Anquisi'tio. See Appendix, Roman Law
[ludex].
Antae {■irapa(TTa5f:s) [Architectura]. Square
pilasters flanking a doorway, and attached to
the wall.
Tlie proportions of a Doric temple in antis
are given by Vitruvius (iv. 4).
In pure Greek architecture, the capitals and
ba«es of the antae are not repeated from the
columns, but freely treated. In the later
(Roman) style, they have capitals and bases
resembling those of the columns between tliem.
The antae were generally of the same breadth
above and below.
In a Greek private house the entrance was
flanked by a jiair of antae with no columns
between them ; and the space thus enclosed
was itself called Trapacrras (Eur. Ipli. Taur.
1159, Androm. 1121).
Anteambulo'nes. Slaves who went before
their masters, in order to make way for them
tln-ough the crowd (Suet. Vesp. 2). They usually
called out ' Date locum domino meo ' ; and if
this were not sufficient to clear the wa,y, they
used their hands and elbows for that purpose
Fig. 53.— .\ntae, temple at Eleusls.
A A, the antae ; IJ IS, the cella, or fao's.
(9\\n. E2). iii. 14,7). The same word is applied
to clients in attendance on their patroni (Mart,
ii. 18, iii. 7; Juv. i. 9G, viii. 49).
Antecesso'res, called also Antecurso'res.
Horse-soldiers, who preceded an army on the
march, in order to choose a suitable place for
the camp, and to make tlie necessary provisions
for the army (Suet. Vit. 17 ; Caes. B. G. v. 47).
Antefixa. Terra-cotta ornaments (opus figu-
linum: fief ilia, Liv. xxxiv. 4, 4) used in arclii-
tecture to cover the frieze (zophorus, or the
cornice of a roof. [Architectura.]
f 11 ^
Fig. .>J.— .Antefixa, from Velletri.
Antefixa, like other terra-cotta work, were
probably Etrurian in origin, and adopted thence
by Roman builders. They were often coloured.
In later times they were made in marble (fig. 55).
(Liv. xxxiv. 4.) See also "EKTwira, and cut
under Terra Cotta.
Antenna. [Navis.]
Antepagmenta. [Domus.]
Antepila'ni; Antesigna'ni. [Exercitus.]
Antesta'ri. See Appendix, Roman Law
[Actio,.
Anthesphor'ia (avQfo-cpopia). A flower or
spring festival, princijiidly celebrated in Sicily
in honour of Demeter and Persephone, in com-
memoration of the return of Persei)hone to her
38
AxNTHESTERIA
ANTLIA
(3) Itota aquaria. Water wheels of various
kinds were used for irrigation, &c., in all coun-
tries. That figured below was found in a mine
-Marble AnteBxura.
mother in the beginninj^ of spring. It consisted
in gathering flowers and twining garlands, be-
cause Persephone had been carried off l>v Pluto
while engaged in this occupation. Anthesphoria
were also solemnised in honour of other deities,
«'sp3ciaUy in honour of Hera, surnaraed 'Kvdfia
at .\rgos.
Anthesteria. Dionysia.j
'AvGpdKLov {(axapa, ^ffxapi's, f<Tx°-P^o'')-
A small portable stove or brazier, filled with hot
charcoal, and caiTied from room to room as re-
(luiri'd, as acahlini in Italy in the present day
[Focus. '
'AvTiSocTts. See Appendix, Guekk Law.
*AvTLYpa(}>Ti. See Ajjpendix, (iKEEK L.\w.
'AvTivpa4)€is Checking-clerks. EflBcient
check/i on tlie liaiidliiig of public funds were
multiplied by the Athenians, with their dis-
trust of official honesty. Hence in Athenian
linauce, whnrever there was a public officer
entrusted with the iiayment of money, there
was by his side an avTiypcupivs who watched
over him and kept du|ihcate accounts.
Two of these a.vTiypa<pf'is stand out from the
I'est as important i)ublii- officers; tlii'dcTi7pa<^*iis
rf/s Sioixriffeuis and the avTiypcupfvs t^s ffovKrjs.
The office of the former (to be distinguished
from rpajjuttarevs) was to control the expen-
diture of the public treasui-j^ (SioiKijffjs), and to
lay the revenue accounts before the people in
every prytany, so that he was a check upon the
' AiroSe'KTai.
The ai'Tiypa<pfvi ttjj PovXtjs was originally
elected V)y the people, but afterwards appointed
by lot from the senate itself. He was always
present at tlie meeting of the senate, and checked
the accounts of moneys paid into its keeping
[rpap,|j.aTe\5s '.
An tlia (avrKla, ayrKioy). Any machine for
raising water. Among such machines may be
mentioned :
(1; CocU'a, Archimedes' screw.
Fig. ST.— Wooden wheel, for raising water from minee.
From Rio Tinto, in Spain, i British Museum >
at Rio Tinto in Spain. The water was taken
up in the boxes at the outer circumference, and
discharged into a trough, when the wheel had
nearly completed its lialf-revolution, i.e. at a
height of nearly 15 ft. Another wheel, or pair
of wheels, then raises it to a higher channel,
and so by a succession of stages it is removed
from the mine. The wlieels were probably
turned by slaves by means of ropes, and worked
with the feet, as a treadle, or with the hands.
(i) ('texibica tnachina, a combination in one
machine of two single-action plunger- or force-
pumps, with a rising main or discharge pipe
common to both : invented bv CtesibiuB of
Alexandria (Vitr. ix. [8], § 2).
The following cut illustrates the construction
as described by Vitruvius. Two cylinders
(modioli) BB are connected by pipes GG with
a receiver (catinus) A, wliich is closed by a cowl
(paennla) D. In each cylinder a plunger (embo-
lus ina.<iculus) C is worked by means of its rotl
(reguln) : in the bottom of each cylinder BB,
and at the opening of each pipe G<t into the
receiver, is a movable lid or valve (us.^is) FF,
HH, which only opens upwards. The bottoms
of the cylinders are inserted into a reserv'oir, or
connected with it by pipes. Wlien one of the
plungers C is raised, a vacuum is produced iu
Fig. .'56.— Coclea
(2) Giraillus, the roller and windlass of a
well.
Fig. fiM.— Cteslblca Machlna. Fig. I^.— Section of cylloder,
(Kich.) showing valve.
the cylinder B, and the atmospheric pressure
forces a stream of water past the raised valve P
into the cylinder B. When this stream ceases,
the valve falls ; and if the plunger is forced down,
the water is driven out of the cylinder B into
the pipe G, and past the vidve H into the re-
ceiver A, and retained there by the closing of
the valve H. If the two phuigers are worked
alternately (as by a horizontal beiun or con-
necting-rod working on a pivot), so that one
descends as the other rises, a continuous stream
of water is forced ou,t of the top of the paeniUa.
Fig. 60 sliows an improved form of the same
ANTriMOSIA ANULUS 89
machine, described by Hero. A pump of tliis ] Avtxj^- iCurrus.^
kind, now in the British Museum, was found | A'nulus <n- Annulus (ScuctvAiov) was used
atBolsena (Volsiniij; and another recently at ^ for a ring of any kind, especially a finger-ring.
Silchester,
Fig. (iO.— Section of Bolsena prniip. (Iiritis}i Jluscum.
A, rising main or discharge pipe ((TcoArji/ 6pdio<;) ; B li',
, cylinder (ttu^is) ; C C, plunger (c/n/SoAeiis) : and E E',
rod (KO.v6vi.ov); FF', outlet valves (litrcropiai ; G G'.
horizontal ports; HH', horizontal branch of central
tee; 1 1', inlet valves (auo-apia); KK', connecting-rod
(Kavuiv) ; LL', pivots ; M JI', well.
The dotted lines represent the directions in which the
valves move.
When the left hand plunger C is lowered into
B, the lower (inlet) valve I closes, and the pres-
sure of the plunger upon the water in the cylinder
c^ens the outlet valve P, and the water flows
through F into the upright main A. At the
same moment the right-hand plunger C rises,
the inlet valve I' opens, and the outlet valve F'
closes, the water from MM' rising through H'
and I' into B'.
Pumps of a similar construction were used,
as in modern times, as fire-engines.
(5) Sipho (a'Kpwf), a siphon or bent pipe by
which liquids are lifted above their level and
transferred to a lower level, by the pressure of
the atmospliere. The principle of the siphon
and reversed siphon was known to the ancients,
and aijplied both to hydraulic purposes and
for drawing liquids from casks. [Aquaeductus.]
(6) Tolleno, a swipe or pole and bucket as
used in Italy and Greece. It is the same as
the Egyptian Shadi'lf. (Mart. ix. 19, 4. 1
Fig. fil.— Swipe for raising water.
In situations where the water was at rest,
or where the current was slow, antliae were
worked by animal force, and slaves or criminals
were commonly employed for the purpose (i»
nntliam ro>i(]e»t?iare, Suet. Tib. 51).
^ 'AvTo)(j.ocrCa. See Appendix, (>rej;k Law
['AvdKpiais, napaYpa<$Ti.]
In the earliest times the ring was used, not
as an ornament, but as a seal. It is probable
that the custom of wearing rings was introduced
into Greece from Asia. (Hdt. i. 195; Plat.
Be^]. ii. 359 e.) The signet, now moiuited as a
finger-ring, was commonly worn in Greece
in the fifth century b.c. (Ar. Thenn. 432;
Thuc. i. 13'2). Rings without precious stones
were called dire/pores, dKiQoi, a.\\n)(l>oi, the name
of the gem being 4''?<?>os or a<ppayii, which was
set in a bezel {a<t>ev56vr), TrueAis, ij.dvSpa, funda,
pala). In later times two (Plat. Hipp. Min
p. 36t) cj, tlu-ee, or even more rings were worn
Fig. r,2.— Specimens of rings from British .Mue;eum.
as ornaments. Greek women likewise wore
rings (Ar. frag. 309 ; Ter. Heaut. iv. 1, 37), but
not so frequently as men. Ruigs were mostly
worn on the left hand and third finger [irapa.-
/j.e(Tos), but also on the little finger.
The Lacedaemonians are said to have used
iron lings at all times (Plin. xxxiii. § 9). No-
where in Greece does the right of wearing a
gold ring appear to have been confined to a
pai-ficular order of citizens.
Whether or not introduced into Rome by the
Sabines, or from Etruria or Greece (Plin. xxxiii.
4), Roman rings were at first generally of iron ;
they were used as seals, and every free Roman
had a right to use a ring. This iron ring was
used down to the last period of the Republic
by old-fashioned persons, and retained its place
in the ceremony of betrothal. Marius wore an
iron ring in his triumph over Jugurtha, and
several noble families adhered to the ancient
custom, and never wore gold rings. Originally
among the Romans men wore only one ring and
women none, except the wedding ring ; but in
later times the Romans covered their fingers
with rings (Mart. xi. 59).
Official rings were worn by envoys to a foreign
state.
Rings were associated with marriage. The
anuluH pronubus was originally of iron, with-
out a stone, and continued to be so to a late
period (Plin.- if. N. xxxiii. § 12). Marriage
rings of gold, and rings set with precious stones
were also used. The ring was an earnest given
by the bridegroom for the fulfilment of the con-
40
ANULUS
Fig. r>S.— Ring with Key attached.
(Kritlsh Museum.)
tract of marriage {ci. jngnus, Juv. vi. 27), as in I
mercantile contracts a ring was often given as
a pledge (Ter. Eun. iii. 4, 3).
Signet rings were used by the Greeks and
Romans as we use our seals. Thej- were also
used to seal up
stores or valuable
things, in order to
secure them from
thieves or slaves
(Ar. Thesm. 415
sqq. : Mart. ix. 8a ;
Juv. xiv. 13'2).
The ring of a Ro-
man emperor was
a kind of state-
seal, and the em-
peror sometimes
allowed the use
of it to such per-
sons as he wished
to be regarded as
his representa-
tives. The signs
engraved upon rings were portraits of ancestors
or friends, family legends, subjects connected
with mythology or worship. (Cic. Catil. iii. 5,
Fill. V. 1 ; Viil. Max. iii. 5, 1 ; Suet. Tib. 58.)
Different families seem
to have had distinct
seals. Pompeius used
a device of three tro-
pliif's, and Augustus
sealed with a sphinx,
afterwards with a por-
trait of Alexander the
Great, and at last witli
his own portrait, which
was subsequently used
by several emperors.
(Suet. Aug. 50.)
The stone or gem most frequently used was
the onyx. The Greek engravers of tlie best
times used only tlio sard, banded agate, and
amethj'st. Tlie Romans attacked the harder
stones — such as the ruby and the sapphire.
Many rings liave inscriptions or jiosics upon
tlieni — ^X"P"' X*P'' ''■J7 <popov(TTi, ?T7J X'^"* iV^V^
(Blart. viii. 5).
The stone and its setting sometimes revolved
on tin axis.
The materials used for rings were iron, bronze,
gold, silver, lead, zinc,
amber, and ivory. Rings,
especially among the
Greeks, were often re-
gai'ded as talismans (Ar.
I'liit. 884). Rings were
kept in a box called ilar-
tyliotheca, a name also
applied to a collection of
rings. (Mart. xi. .")'.).) On
earrings see Inauris.
The Roman gold ring
I'ig. (ii.
Tig. U.'..— Snake-ring.
(British Museum.)
lus ANULI .VUREI
appears to have been originally a militai-y
decoration given for distinguished service (Cic.
Vrrr. iii. 80). Later, it was an ornament
bestQwed on the chief civil magistrates and
nohilrs, and transmissible to their descendants
(Liv. ix. 4(i. I'i). [See Nobiles.J It did not
belong to the senators as such, but the most
distinguisiied military class obtained it, and thus
we find tliat tlie cqiiitrs eqito publico had this
badge : cf. the story of the bushels of rings taken
from the Romans who fell at Cannae (Liv. xxiii.
12, 1). The tribiini militum also wore gold
rings, but not the knights cquo private, as not
AHATOTPIA
being classed witli nobiles. During the follow-
ing century publicani and their sons began to
appropriate this distinction of the ring, and by
the time of Caius Gracchus the ring was virtu-
ally a class-distinction of the knights, though
some senators also wore it. The ring was
granted by military commanders or provincial
governors and by the emperors at their pleasure
(Tac. Hist. ii. 57, iv. 39). Tlie gift of the ring
was equivalent to elevation to knighthood, and
brought with it all the privileges granted to the
knights by the Aurelian and Roscian laws.
Free-birth, however, was always presupposed,
and tlie money qualification of 400,000 sesterces.
But many freedmen under the early Empire
attained the dignity of the anulus aureus.
Augustus gave it to Menas (Suet. Aug. 27,
74), to Antonius Musa, and others ; but many
more assumed it without warrant. A decree
of the senate was passed (23 .\.D.) that no one
who had not the qualifications of (1) the cen-
sus, (2) birth from free father and gi'andfather,
could be a knight or wear the ring. The ring
could be forfeited by loss of the census (Mart,
ii. 57), conviction for crime, or the command
of the emperor (Plin. xxxiii. § 8). Intruders,
however, continued to push into the ' fourteen
rows' in the theatre (Juv. iii. 157; Mart. iii. 95,
10, V. 8, 12, <tc.) ; and the ring ceased to be a
symbol of birth or wealth. Hadrian enacted
that the ius anuli aurei attested merely that
the wearer was to be considered freebom, and
in the case of a freedman did not impair the
rights of his patron. The patron liad to give his
consent to the freedman obtaining the ius anuli.
Women, too, got the right. Finally, in Justi-
nian's time all free men could lawfully wear
the gold ring.
'ATra-yo)vn. .See Appendix, Gkkkk L.\w.
"ATTaTovpia (a^&fjia, and irar6pta: i.e. the
festi\al of ctunmon parentage). A festival com-
mon to the Athenians with all the Greeks of the
Ionian name (Hdt. i. 147). with the exception of
those of Kolophon and Ephesus. It was cele-
brated in the month of l'yanei>sion (October) and
lasted for three days. The origin of this fest i val
was ascribed by the ancients to an incident in
a war between the Athenians and Boeotians,
1100 B.C., in which Dionysus fxf\avouyis
appeared clad in the skin of a black goat {rpayii),
as tlie companion of tlie Boeotian champion
Xanthius.
The first day of the festival was called Soprria
or Sdpireia, on which every citizen dined at th<'
<pparpiov or with some member of his own
phratria (Ar. Arli. 140).
The second day was called avappvais {avap-
puv), from the public sacrifice offered on this
day to Zeus ^parpios and Atliena.
On the third day, called Kovpfwris (Kovpoi),
children born in that year, or not yet registered,
were taken by their fathers, or other represen-
tatives (Kvpioi), before the assembled mcinbers
of the phratria. For every child a sheep or
goat was sacrificed. The victim was called
ju.eTo*', or Kovpdov, and the sacrificer fittaywyds
(jit lay Ci>ye7f). After the .sacrifice, the ])hratort's
gave their votes for or against tlie reception of
the child into the phratria ; and if the claims
of tlie child were found good, its name, as
well as that of the father, was entered in the
register of the pliratria. Then followed the dis-
tribution of wine, and of the victim's Hesh, of
which every plirator received his share ; i>oenis
were recited by the elder boys, and a prize
was given to the best reciter (Plat. Tim. p.
21 b). On this day, also, illegitimate or adopted
AOATAIA
children, and newly-created citizens, were inti'o-
duced. [Civitas.]
'A-iravXia. [Matrimonium.]
'ATr«viavTi.(T|jL6s- See Appendix, Greek
Law [<t>6vov 8ikti].
Apex (rt/)P/'(^ to join). (1) The apex properly
was a pointed piece of olive-wood, the base of
which was surrounded with a lock of wool.
This was worn on the top of the head, and was
held there either by strings only, or by the aid
of a cap (also called apex) which fitted the head
and was also fastened by means of two strings
or bands [apicula or offendices). The apex was
the special badge of the flamens, without which
APOTHEOSIS
41
Fig. 6C.— Apices, or caps worn by the Flamines and Salii.
they never appeared. Hence apicem. hnpoiicrr
(Liv. vi. 41) is to apponit a flamen. The apex
worn by the Flamen Dialis was called Albo
galerus. The Salii also wore the apex. (See
cut under Flamen.)
(2j Hence (a) the ridge on the helmet to
which the crest was attached {^koivos) (Verg.
Aen. X, 270. xii. 492). (&) The -ridpa opQi) of
the Persian king (Hor Cann. i. 34, 14). (c) A
hat (Cic. Legg. i, 1).
"At|)avih9 oiaia. See Appendix, Greek
Law.
'A<l>\aCTTov iNavis.j
= Act>op|j,Ti? 8ikn SeeAppeudix, Greek Law,
Aphrodis'ia ('a (J)pf,?i(7ia), festivals celebrated
in honour of Aphrodite, at Corinth, Athens, and
elsewhere, particularly in her most ancient
temple at Paphos in the island of Cyprus. (Tac.
Hist. ii. 3.) Mysteries were celebrated at
Paphos. In all the Aphrodisian festivals the
hetaerae bore a conspicuous part.
Aplustre. [Navis.]
'AttoPcLttis [Desultor.]
'AiroSeKxat. Public officers at Athens,
introduced by Kleisthenes in the place of the
ancient KuiKaKpirai. They were ten in num-
ber, one for each tribe, appointed by lot ;
and they exercised a general control over
the other officers of the revenue. Their duty
was to receive all the ordinary taxes and dis-
tribute them to the proper branches of the
administration. They accordingly kept lists
(7po/u/iOTera) of persons indebted to the state,
made entries of all moneys that were paid in,
and erased in the register the items which had
been paid. They had the power to decide small
causes, up to 10 draclunas, connected with their
owTi business. (Dem. c. Timocr. p. 750, § 102 ;
Grote, ch. 31 .)
'AiroSuSpaCTKivSa. [Games.]
Apodyte'rium. [Balneae.]
'A-irovpa<J)Ti. See Appendix, Greek L.\w.
'A-rrouKia. [Colonia.]
• AiroKTipv^Ls- See Appendix, Greek Law.
'Airocjaaatg and ' A'n-6<{)avats- See Ap-
pendix, Gi{];ek Law.
'ATro4)opd. The profit which accrued to
masters from their slaves : whether (1) the sum
which slaves paid to their masters when they
laboured on their own account ; or (2) the sum
which masters received when they let out their
slaves on hire ; or (3) the money paid by the
state for the use of slaves serving in the fleet.
Apophoreta (aM0(p6pJira). Presents given to
friends at the end of an entertainment, to take
home with them. Although the name is Greek,
the custom is Roman, and belongs to the times
of the Empire. They were given at the Satur-
nalia, Matronalia, and at weddings (Mart. xiv.
pans. ; Suet. Vesj). 19, Calig. 55). [Strenae.]
'A'tro(J)pdS€s ■fiM.e'pau. See Appendix, Greek
Law.
'A-iropp-rio-eus S^kti. See Appendix, Greek
Law.
'AiroppTiTa. See Appendix, Greek L.\w.
'A-iT-oaTaaCov 8ikti. See Appendix, Greek
Law.
Apophyge. rArchitectura.]
'AiroaToXets- Extraordinary commis-
sioners, ten in number, chosen out of the whole
Athenian people, to attend to the equipment
and despatch of a. naval expedition (dTrocTToAo.t).
They could imprison a trierarch who neglected
to furnish his ship propei-ly (Dem. de Cor. p.
262, § 107) ; they controlled the giving out of
stores from the dockyinds, and decided any
disputes which arose when a ship was handed
on from one trierarch to another.
Apothe'ca {aTro6r,Kr}) . (1) A storehouse or
magazine (Thuc. vi. 97; Cic. Phil li. 27). (2) A
burial-place. (3) Most commonly, a place in the
upper part of the house in which the Romans
kept their wine in amphorae. It was usually
above the fumarium, since it was thought that
the passage of the smoke through the room
tended to improve the flavour of the wine
(Hor. Carm. in. 8, 11, Sat. ii. 5, 7). The
apotheca was distinct from the eella vinaria,
in which wine was kept in doha and cupae
until it was fit to be poured off (diffundere)
into the amphorae. rVinum.]
Apotlieo'sis iaiToQiwff.s, consccratio). The
ein-olment of a man amongst the gods.
Among the early Greeks and Romans all the
dead were regarded as becoming in a sense gods
(X0oi/ioi, dii manes), and received worship from
the family at the family hearth ; and founders
and great benefactors were honoured by the
city with sacrifices and festivals (e.g. Brasidas
at Amphipolis, Thuc. v. 11). But the privilege
of a celestial abode was regarded as belonging
only to those few who had performed great ex-
ploits in the service of humanity, such as Hera-
kles and Lj'kurgus. The deification of kings
was a common thing in the East. The first
Greek of whom it is recorded is Lysander (Plut.
Lys. 18). A temple was raised to Philip of
Macedon in the Altis at Olympia. Demetrius
Poliorketes was deified at Athens. Alexander the
Great required divine honours to be paid to him
even while alive, and his successors continued
the practice : e.g. the Ptolemies in Egji^t ;
Antiochus I. and his successors in Syria; and
the kings of Pergamus and Pontus.
The rising ascendeiKy of Rome led to deifica-
tion from the Greeks. They bestowed divine
honours on Flamininusand associated him with
Herakles and Apollo (Plut. Flam. 16). Smyrna
raised altars to the goddess Roma, 195 B.C.
42
APOTHEOSIS
(Tac. Ann. iv. 56), and temples were raised and v. 8, 1). But divinity was decreed to Corn-
games celebrated in honour of provincial modus and Caracalla, and all the succeeding
governors (Cic. Verr. ii. 21, 51). emperors, and even deceased Cliristian em-
From the time when Romulus became the god , perors, down at least as far as Valentinian,
Quirinus (Liv. i. 10) no example of apotheosis is were termed divi.
recorded till the latest period of the Republic, i Besides emperors, other members of the
when many held that, while the souls of all imi)erial family were deified, amongst whom we
were immortal, those of the great and good ; find many women.
were divine (Cic. Z/fi<7g^. ii. 11, 27), and that they ' Sometimes consecration did not follow till
ascended to the heavens and the stars (cf. Hor. after the funeral ; sometimes the two acts were
C 'arm. iii. 2, 21; Verg. Aeii. ix. 641). ' simultaneous. Consecration consisted of : (1) a
Julius Caesar was deified in his lifetime, j lying-in-state either of the corpse or a waxen
His statue was placed in all the temples of. efifigy ; (2) a procession; (S) a funeral oration;
Rome and of tlie empire. It was enacted (4) the placing of the effigy on the pyre ^he
later that public prayers should be offered i body having been previously burnt) ; (5) a De-
for him every year, that oath should be taken cursio ; (6) the rising of an eagle from the pyre.
by his genius, tliat there should be a festival
to him every four years as to a hero, that
Luperci lulii should be appointed, and other
honours decreed ; and finally they called liim
plainly luppiter lulius, and enacted that an
altar should be set up to his Clemency, and
In the earliest representations of apotheosis
the deified man is carried to heaven on an
eagle, and tliis is tlie most common figure ;
other symbols are found, such as a genius, a
winged horse, a peacock, &c.
The new god is represented with the caput
Antonius appointed his priest, a sort of Dialis. radiatum (cf. Verg. Aen. xii. 162) ; the ima^e
After his death, Caesar was solemnly enrolled ■ of the deified emjieror no more appears in the
among the gods as Divus lulius
(43 B.C.) ; and hence dioicis ac-
quired the specific meaning of
a god who had been a man, while
deiis was a god from the begin-
ning.
Octavian would not allow him-
self to be worshipped except along
with the goddess Roma. But in
later years temples were built to
Augustus in many i)arts of the
world. [See Augustales and Con-
cilium. J Later tlie practice spread
overywliere. Tlie temples were
called Kaiffapela or 'ZfBacrT(7a ; the
most celebrated of these are the
temple at Ancyra in Galatia, on
the wall of whii-li his exploits have been found
engraven, and that at Alexandria. Probably
during the lifetime of Augustus lie was not ,
publicly worshipped at Rome (Suet. Aug. 52); j
iiut he was worshipped privatclv (Ov. Pont. iv.
!), Ill ; Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 15, C<tn,i. iv. 5, 34).
Besides adopting the name Augustus, the |
emperor permitted the senate to adore his I
virtues. The worship of his GeniUB was also I
associated with that of the Lares Praestites j
(Ov. i<V/.s^ V. 145; Hor. Carm. iv. 5, 34|, who |
were thenceforward called Lares Augusti, and
this service was jilaced under the chai-ge of the
Magistri vicorum.
Augustus at liis death, in 14 A.D., was made
a god by a decree of the senate (caclitm dc-
(■.return, Tac. Ann. i. 73). Other expressions j
for deification are inter divos referre (Suet. I
Aug. 97), in numerum deorum referre (Suet, j
Claud. 45), caelestrs honnn-n dcccrncrc (Tac. |
.-Jh«. xii. 6',); a.QavaTi(.fiv, Dio Cass. lix. 11
Fig C7.— Med il of Antoninus Plus, representing the funeral pyre
at his Consecratio iBrltiBh Museum. i
funerals of his fsunily, but his statue appears
at the games among those of the gods. All
Fig. OH.— Consecrtvtio of Antoninus and Faustina. (From
pedestal ol Coluiuii uf Antoninus Plus.)
the accompani-
After this a college of priests was appointed, | ments of divinity
the sodales Augustales ; and a number of appear on the
private associations for the worship of Augustus i coins representing
sprang up in Rome and thr(>uj,'hout the empire, consecration — the
Li via est ill ilishcd a (loiuestic sanctuary to her dci- , caput radiatum,
tied husband, of which she was the priestess, and i eagle, peacock,
celebrated games in his honour (Tac. Ann. i. 73). I pyre, altar, tensa
Tiberius rejected all divine honours for him- [ drawn by ele-
self. He was not made a god on his death. ' phants, the star.
Not all emperors were deified, but only those i the phoenix,
whom the reigning emperor proposed to the Outside the im-
senate ; for it was the senate who formally perial family we
decreed divine honours. They refused to deify sometimes find ex-
Domitian (Suet. Doni. 231, who had been styled amples of deifica-
•doniiiius deusque' during his lifetime (Mart. [ tion : e.g. Antinous,
lulia Domua,
on the t>:ick of a peacock.
(LSritish Museum.)
the favourite of Hadrian.
AnOTIMHMA
AQUAEDUCTUS
43
Other idealised human beings, e.g. Plato, Mar- ' pendent on cisterns. Below tlie Enneakrounos
cus Aurelius, Orpheus, Abraham, were tlius, as \ an underground conduit ran from the river
it were, canonised.
'A-TTOTuixTina. See App., Gk. Law, Dowry.
Apparito'res. The general name for the free
attendants of the magistrates at Rome, as
distinguished from the servi pithlici. They
received wages {nierces) from the ijublic trea-
Ilissus, repeatedly crossing under its bed, and
accessible to use by shafts, and finally carried
to the Peiraeus. Also, a stream from Hymettus
was carried over the Ilissus into the city.
Later, two largo, conduits were constructed
from Lykabettus ; and a system of canals from
sury, and had places of their own in the theatre i the Kephisus served to irrigate the olive-woods
and circus (Tac. A>m. xvi. 12), doubtless near | Hadrian built at Athens an acjueduct of the
the magistrates on whom they waited. They Roman type, drawing its water from the Kephi-
were divided into five classes — the Accensi, sus. Among the finest and best j)reserved of
Lictores, Viatores, Scribae, and Praecones. Greek aqueducts are those of Syracuse (Thuc.
(Of. Serv. on Verg. Aen. xii. 850; Liv. i. 8.) vi. 100), still in use; one from the Anapus,
Each class constituted a corporation (corpus), ; on the north, twelve miles long; and one from
subdivided into decuriae, which had the right Monte Crimiti on the south.
of holding property and slaves
Appella'tio 1. Greek. See Appendix,
Greek Law.
2. Roman. See Apxaendix, Roman L.\w.
'Airp6(TK\TiTos 8Ckt|. See Appendix, Gbeek
Law [ACkti].
'AirpocTTaCTiow vpa<t)Ti. See Appendix,
Gkeek Law.
'A\|iiJxtJv 8Ckti. See Appendix, Gkeek Law.
Aquaeductus [vSpayccyia, virovofios).
1. Greek.— Among the Greeks in many cases
springs (K:p>7i/ai, Kpovvoi) were sufficiently abun-
dant to sujiply a
considerable part of
the great cities with
water ; they were
converted into pub-
lic fountains by the
erection of orna-
mental structures,
and were dedicated
to some god or hero.
Such fountains
were: that of The-
agenes at Megara ;
those of Peirene and
Lema at Corinth ;
and especially the
'Ei/veaKpovvos at
Athens, constructed
by Peisistratus and
his sons (Thuc. ii.
15), 560 B.C.
Besides these
simple fountain
heads, the Greeks
constructed aque-
ducts and subter-
ranean channels :
e.g. the very ancient
drainage tunnels of
the Lake Kopais,
and at Agrigentum,
Selinus, Kos, and
Samos. [Emissa-
rium.]
To these works
may be added un-
dergx'ound conduits
resembling the
earlier Oriental
aqueducts, such as
The public conduits at Athens were super-
intended by eTTKTTaToi Tajr i/Sdrajv (Plut.
ThevitHt. 31). Kp7]vo<pv\aKis and Kp-fivapxot
were probably subordinate officers.
2. Etruscan. [Emissarium ; Cloaca.]
3. Roman. — The Romans at first had recourse
to the Tiber and to wells sunk in the city ; but
the water obtained from those sources was
unwholesome and insufficient. Consequently,
as the city grew, they had recourse to public
works in order to bring pure water from the
hills which surround the Canipagna. The first
H.
JO. .a. o. to, gO^ 30. FEE.T.
Fig. 70.— Arch built by Augustus where the tliree Aqueducts, lalin. T'piild. and Mxrcia,
pass over a road, now the Porta S. Lorenzo. (From Middletou.)
A, original inscription by Augustus.
H. inscription recording restoration by TituS.
C, inscription added by Caracalla.
D, Peperino arch of the Aqueduct.
E, F, G, &'pt'c-i« of the Murcia, TiimUi. and IiiUn.
H,part of one of the towers of .^urelian's Wall.
the conduit (attributed to Kadmus) at Thebes,
and the canalisation of the mountain torrents
round Argos, both early works. The Greek
aqueducts were usually rectangular channels
cut in the rock or constructed of solid masonry,
but in the Troad we find one composed of
earthenware pipes. They were not usually
carried on arches.
At Athens the rocky part of the city was de-
aqueduct was built in 312 B.C. ; in the sixth
century a.d. there were as many as fourteen.
Our knowledge of Roman aqueducts is derived
almost entirely from the treatise l)e Aquac-
ductibus Urbis Botnac, by Sex. Julius Fron-
tinus, who was curator aquarum under Nerva
and Ti-ajan. There were nine aqueducts in
the time of Frontinus, of which four belong
to the time of the Republic ; five were built in
44 AQUAEDUCTUS
the veigus of Augustus and Claudius, some of
which were carried chiefly underground, others
chiefly on arches.
(1) The Aijita Appia was begun by the censor
App. Claudius Caecus 312 B.C. Its length was
about ten miles, and it ran almost entirely under
the earth and at a considerable depth.
(2) The,-l/i/o Vcttis was commenced 272 B.C.,
by tlio censor M'. CuriusDentatus, and tini.shed
by M. Fulvius Flaccus. The expense was de-
frayed out of the spoils taken from Pynhus.
The water was derived from the river Anio,
above Tibur, and was carried underground.
There are considerable remains of this aque-
duct both at Rome and also in the neighbour-
hood of Tivoli, which was supplied with its
water.
(3) The Aqua Marcia, one of the most im-
portant of the whole, was built by the praetor
Q. Marcius Rex, 144 B.C. This aqueduct com-
menced near tlie Via Valeria, thirty-six miles
from Rome ; its length was sixty mjles, of
which about six were above gi'ound. It was
high enough to supply water to the smnmit of
the Capitol. The water of the Aqua Marcia
was reputed to be the coldest and most whole-
some of all which was brought to Rome.
(4) The Aqua Tepula, built in 127 B.C.,
began near the tentli milestone on the Via
Latina. Its water was slightly warm, whence I
its name. It was afterwards connected with i
(5) The Aqua fulia. Agrippa, when aedile,
83 B.C., restored all the old aqueducts and
added a new one, to which he gave this name.
It began twelve milesonthe Via Latina, ioiuvd ^
tlic Aqua Ti'piila after five miles, the lower '
channel being called the Aqua Tepula and tlie
upper the .-liy^f? lulia; and this double aque-
duct again was united with tlie Aqua Marcia.
The arch bearing the tjirce aqueducts, where it
entered the city, is now tlie Porta S. Lorenzo.
(C) The Aqua Virgo was also built by Agrippa
in his aedileship. In the same year, Agrippa, :
according to Pliny (xxxvi. § 121), erected I
for public use 700 basins or pools {lacus}, 500
fountains (aalieulrs), and 130 ca.stella, adorned
with 300 statues and 400 marble columns. The
main object of lln; Aqua Virgo was to supply
the baths of Agrippa. It was conducted to the
east side of the Pantlieon from a source eight
miles on the Via Citllatina. Its water was as
highly esteemed for batliing as tliat of the Aqua
Marcia was for drinking. It is still in use,
though on a diminished scale. (Plin. xxxi.
§ 42; Ov. Triat. iii. 12, 22; Mart. v. 20, 9, vi.
42, 18.)
(7) The Aqua Alsietina (sometimes called also
Aqua Augusta} was constructed by Augustus
from the Lacus Alsietiuus (Lago di Marti-
giiano), about eighteen miles from Rome.
(8, 9) The two most magnificent aqueducts
were the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Nevus,
both commenced by Caligula 38 A.D., and
finished by Claudius 52 A. D. The Aqua Clauilia
rose about thirtv-eight miles from Home (Suet.
Cal. 21, Claud'. 20). Its length was forty-six
miles, of which nine miles were on arches. The
Anio yovus was the longest and the highest of
all the aqueducts, its length being nearly fifty-
nine miles, and some of its arches 109 feet high.
In the neighbourhood of the citj- these two
aqueducts were united, and entered Rome at the
gate now called Porta Maggiore. The ruined
arches of the Claudian aqueduct still extend
for many miles across the Campagna.
The total water supply of Rome has been
estimated at 332,30G,(!24 gallons a day, oi", taking
the population at a million, 332 gallons a head.
Forty gallons a head is now considered sufli-
cient.
Kig. 71.— Section of the Porta Uaggiorr at Ruiiie.
o, the A(tita CUiuiiin : b, the A iiio Xonu ; c. ciK'aliigB to
give vent to the ulr.
I To these nine aqueducts may be added :
I (10) Aqua Crabra, also called Dauinata.
(11) Aqua Traiana, brought by Trajan from
the Lacus Sahatinus (Bracciano), to supply
the licgio Traustiberina.
(12) Aqua .4/<'xa/irfi7Ma, constructed by Alex-
ander Severus, 22C a.d.
There may have been other aqueducts con-
I ><tructed at a later time, since we read of
I as many as nineteen aqueducts at Rome.
I Of these three remain : (1) The Acqua Vergine,
I the ancient Aqua Virgo, restored by Pius IV.
and embellislied by Benedict XIV. and Clement
XIII., which supplies the beautiful Fontana di
I Trevi and the fountains in the Piazza di
I Spagna and the Piazza Navona. (2) The
1 Ac(iua Felice, restored (a. P. 15H7) by Sixtus V.
(Fra Felice). It supplies the eastern part of
the city. (3) The Acqua Paola, the ancient
I Traiana and Alsietina, united and restored
by Paul V. (1611), supplies the Trastevere and
I the Vatican, and feeds the fountains before St.
I Peter's. Tlie Acqua Marcia-Pia (1870) brings
to Rome in pipes the old Aqua Marcia, whicli
j has now regained its ancient repute.
Aqueducts were constructed by the Romans
I in various parts of the empire — at Athens,
I Corinth, Salona, Nikomedia, Epliesus, SjTacuse,
j Metz, Nemausus (Nimes : the Pont du Gard;
I see fig. 72), Lugdunum, Segovia, Augusta Eine-
rita (Merida), and many otlier places. That of
Segovia is one of the most perfect and magnifi-
cent works of the kind anywhere remaining. It
is entirely of stone, and of great solidity ; the
height is upwards of a huudied feet, and it has
two tiers of arches. Tlie Pont du Gard, carry-
iug an aqueduct across the valley and stream
of the Vardo (Gardon) into Nemausus, is a
still grander work.
The Romans understood the principle of water
finding its own level (Plin. xxxi. § 57), and
illustrations of it are found in the distribu-
tion of water to houses and fountains (see fig.
73). Possibly they did not recognise that the
law would hold over so extended an area.
AQUAEDUCTUS 46
there were no engines used, as in modern water-
works, to raise the water to a higher elevation
than that to which it rose of itself. Wlien the
source had been fixed upon, whether it was an
open spring {fonn), or one got at by sinking a
well (putens), a head (piscina) was dug for the
water, and enclosed with a wall.
(2) The Channel [sjjrcns, sometimes canalis),
or Aqueduct itself. — In order to convey the
water from its source to its destination, a
gv r^^^»Hr^rrr^flffv^rvfv4M%ru^^^r^4y^
Fig. V2. - Aqueduct near Xomausus, now called Pont du Gard.
It may be doubted whether Roman engineers
could have conveyed by an underground channel
a large stream of water subject, like that from
the upper Anio, to a high pressure. Their
conduits were always pierced by shafts at
intervals, designed to avoid the supposed danger
of the walls being burst by the compressed air
inside. Now these shafts, sunk in the low-
lying parts of the Campagna, would of course
make it impossible to force the water to the
channel was constructed, having a slight and,
as nearly as possible, a uniform declivity. It
was carried where necessary in tunnels or on
arches, often of two tiers, and sometimes of
three The material emploj'ed was generally
stone (usually travertine or peperino),but some-
times rubble faced witli brickwork. The channel
Itself (sj^ecus, canalis) was a trough of brick or
stone, lined with very hard cement [ojiiis sig-
ninum), made of lime, pozzolana, and pounded
a, a. the ascending pipe.
b, b, the basin, made of blocks of travertine
tops of the hills, and were confessedly designed
to relieve the pressure. If they had recourse
to pipes, the joints would laresent great diffi-
culties, and probably for such large volumes
of water iron pipes would alone be sufficiently
strong, and the casting of pipes of such dimen-
sions would have been beyond their power.
A strip of land fifteen feet wide, marked at
intervals by cippii or boundary-stones, was left
on either side of the aqueduct, upon which no
encroachments were allowed.
We proceed to describe in detail the con-
struction and arrangements of Roman aque-
ducts.
(1) The Sources. — It was necessary that the
springs should be at a proper elevation, for
A, B, C, apixus of the .Aquae
lulia, Tepulii . ■.Hid Mania.
The top and liottoni of
each is of liMveitine, the
sides of tilt b oi- peperino:
they are lined with ojiut
si<jiaiiitm.
D, peperino arch.
E, specu.^ of the .iiiua luUa at
another point, where it
has been restored in con-
crete and brick.
Fig. 71.— Section of the «;>(•(•!(,'! of the triple .\c|ueduct of
Agrippa. (From Middleton.i
pottery or brick, and covered with a coping,
which was almost always arched ; the bottom
of the channel was also cui-ved. The water
either ran directly through this trough, or was
carried through pipes laid along tlie trough.
The construction of the specus will be seen
from the annexed drawing, fig. 74, which repre-
sents a section of the triple aqueduct of Agrippa.
(See above. Aqua Marcia.)
The object of covering the specus was to ex-
clude the sun and rain ; but it was necessary to
46 AQUA.EDUCTUS
provide a vent, lest the compressed air should , in the two lower chambers, which could be
burst the walls or roof of the speriis. The vent- cleaned out by the door d.
holes (spiramina) were made at regular inter- '• (3) The Termination of the Aqueduct, and
vals in the roof or side of the specuH. To venti- the Arrangements for the Distribution of it»
late the subterranean channel of an aqueduct, Water.— The water, when it reached the walls
shafts {putei or lamina) of masonry were car- of the city, was received in a large reservoir
ried to the surface of the ground at intervals. called cast ell um aquarian, which formed the
head of water. (Vitr. xiii. 6 : Plin. xxxvi. § 121.)
From this principal castellum the water flowed
into other castella, whence it was distributed
for public and private use.
The chief castellum was, externally, a highly
decorated building. Internally, there was
generally one vast chamber, lined with opus
signinum, with a vaulted roof supported by
massive pillars, into which the water flowed
from the aqueduct, and from which it was con-
ducted through pipes of fixed dimensions into
three smaller reservoirs, supplying respectively
the public baths and the private houses, and
the public ponds and fountains (laeus et
salient cs).
The minor castella, which received the water
^ access lo u: . . uie f»"om this chief head, were distributed over the
und shaft ;/," trans- city, in such a manner that the Aqiia Appia,
e.g., supplied seven regiones by means of twenty
castella, und others in like proportions.
The castella were (a) publira,v;h'\ch furnished
water for the Praetorian camp (ca-s<rn), the
1
J
mm
Fig. 75.— Shaft for ventilation of an Aqueduct at Palmyra.
<i, the watercourse: b. steps giving access to it : •■, the
shaft: (/. c. section of the »;
verse section of them.
Instead of, or within the specus, pipes (^s-
iulae, tuhnli) were often used for the passage
of the water. Tlie pipes were mad(.' in lengths
of not less than ten feet, and of various widths
[Fistula]. They were cemented together at the
joints. The use of pipes iiermitted variations
to be made iu the construction of the aque-
duct — namely, the water could be carried round
instead of tluough a hill, if tlie circuit was not
too great; and in very wide valleys the costly
stiuicture of arches could be di8i)ensed with.
In this case, a low horizontal substruction was
made across the bottom of the valley, and the
pipe was brought down the one sIojm-, along
this substruction, and up the opposite slope, to
a heiglit of course somewhat less than that of
the ojjposite side. The horizontal part of the
pipe across tlie bottom of the valley (venter)
had ventilating openings for the escape of the
air, with shafts of suitable height.
The slope (fastigium) on which the aqueduct
was built, in order to give the water a proper
fall (lihranientnm) is stated at less than 1 in
200. Tliere is, however, a considerable varia-
tion in the declivities.
Besides the reservoir oT piscina, at the source
of the aqueduct, tliere were similar reservoirs
at convenient points in its course, especially at
the middle and end.
7.— Castellum of an Aqaedaot, called the ' Trophies
of Marius.'
ponds and fountains {lacus et salientes), the
circus, naumachiae, and amphitheatres (mu-
nera), the baths and trades {opera publira).
and other purposes; (b) privata, for the supply
of private houses. Each householder obtained
his quantum by inserting a branch pipe, as we
ilo, into the main. The castella privata were
built at the joint expense of the families supplied
by tliem ; but they were considered as public
property, and were under the control of the
curatores aquarum. The leaden cisterns which
each person had in his own house were called
castella domestica. All the water which en-
tered the castelhtni was measured, at its in-
gress and egress, by the size (tnodulus) of the
tubes (puncta) through which it passed. The
former was called tnodulus acceptorius, the
latter erogatorius. To distribute the water
was termed erogare : tlie distribution was regu-
The water flowed from the aqueduct a into lated by a tube called calix, of the diaraeU-r
the first upper chamber, thence down and up [lumen) required. The calix was stamped
through b, c, e, into the second upper chamber, with the owner's name as well as the capacity,
out of which it passed into the continuation of Careful oversight was required to keep the
the aqueduct /, haNnng deposited its sediment aqueducts in repair, to regiilate their use, and
Piscim, or reservoir of an Aqueduct.
AQUAE ET IGNIS INTERDICTIO
to prevent the fraudulent abstraction of their
water. Under the Republic, this office was
discharged by the censors (Liv. xxxix. 44),
aediles.orquaestors (Cic. i^a?/i. viii. 6). Augustus
established the office of curator (or -praefec-
tus) aqnarum (Suet. Aug. 37), to which heap-
pointed M. Agrippa. The curatores aquaruvi
were of consular rank (consul ares aquarunt^,.
They were under the^jrap/ecfi/s urhi; had under
them a large number of officials, and were at-
tended outside the city by two lictors and other
attendants.
A large number of slaves were constantly
employed in attending to the aqueducts.
Among them are vilici, castellarii, circuitores,
tectores, silicarii, &c. These and other work-
men appear to have been included under the
general term of Aquarii.
See for further details Diet. Antiq. vol. i.
Aquaeductus ; Middleton, Anc. Home in 1888.
Aquae et ignis interdictio. See Appendix,
Roman Law [Exilium].
Aquae pluviae arcendae actio. See Ap-
pendix, Roman Law.
A'quila, Aquilifer. (1) [Signa militaria.]
(2) Architectural (aeros, aeraifxa). [Fasti-
gium, Architecture.]
Ara (/3&!/xo's, eVxapo, Bvrripiov). An altar.
Bwfj.6s properly signifies any elevation, and is
applied to an elevation used for the worship of
the gods above. Sacrifices were offered to the
infernal gods, not upon altars, but in cavities
{scrobes, scrobiculi, Qodpoi, Kolkkoi) dug in the
ground (Horn. Ocl. x. 25).
'ETxapa, focus, an altar for buriit-offerings.
In Latin ara and altare are often used without
any distinction, but properly ara was lower
than altare, and altare was appropriated to the
di superi.
The domestic altar (in Homer) is that on
which the sacred fire was kept always burning.
It was built in the avKS), or courtyard, sur-
rounded by the fence-wall i'ipKos), and was the
centre of domestic religion and a sanctuary for
suppliants. In later times it was in the house
itself. It was looked upon as the altar of Zeus,
under his attributes as ep/ceZos, ^evios, and
iKeaios. Other deities (deol ((peartoi, ecrriovxoi,
fivxtoi, Kr7](Tiot, &c.) were worshipped and had
their special altars and images in the domestic
sanctuary.
Associations such as phratries, tribes, &c..
had their special altars, and the hearth of the
whole state was in the npvTavelov.
ARA
47
Suppl. 494), in the -rrpovaos itself, outside the
vestibule, or in the sacred grove (lucus, aKcros),
within the r^fjuvos (Horn. II. ii. 305). Altars
were also built against the walls of houses in a
street.
As among the ancients almost every religious
act was accompanied by sacrifice, altars were
often constructed of earth, turf, or stones, col-
lected on the spot ; sometimes also of ashes,
as the great altar n t Olj-mpia, or (at Delphi) the
I 1 1
; 1
! 1 i
1 1
1 ! 1
ri
1
Fig. 7S).— Altar
(Column of Trajan).
horns of victims. (Verg. Aen. xii. 118; Hor,
Carni. i. 19, 13, iii. 8, 4.) Ordinary altars were
built of blocks of stone or in courses of masonry
orbrickwork. (Seefig. 79.) The first deviation
from this simplicity of form consisted in the
addition of a base, and of a corresponding pro-
jection or cornice at the top. The cornice was
sometimes extended at the angles into a kind
Fig Sl.-Altars.
of volute {cornua, Kfpara). These two parts
became almost uniform types of the form of an
altar.
In later times altars were ornamented with
festoons and garlands of flowers. They were
also adorned with sculpture, often representing
Fig. 78.— .\Uar in front of temple.
A temple was originally conceived as the
house of the god, and his image and altar are
Fig. 82.— Bronze .Utar
(British Museum.)
symbols or legends connected with the worship
placed in front of it {fiw/xol irpovaoi, Aesch. ; of the god. iVltars were adorned with garlands
43
ARABARCHES
and gifts of all kinds. Incense was bunit upon
them, and for this jjurpose, also, small altars
{iirae turicremae) were used. Portable altars
(eVxap'tt) were also common.
ARATRUM
the command of an oracle (Paus. ii. 0, § 4V Cf.
BpaaiSei.a.
Ara'trum (oparpoi'). A plough. The invention
of the plough is variously attributed to Zeus,
Dionysus, Triptolemus, or the Athenian hero
Buzyges. The plougli appears again in Athe-
nian legend in the story of the^pws 'ExfTAoTos
or 'ExtTAo J, who fought against the Persians
at Marathon.
The simplest and earliest funn of plough
was that called avT6yvov, so called because the
yin)s or plough-tail and the other parts were of
one piece. It was made by taking a young
tree with two branches proceeding from its
trunk in opposite directions, so that, while the
trunk ser\ed for the pole A, one of the branches
stood upwards and became the tail B, and the
Kig R4.
-Ancient Greek Plnngh. Gcrliard.
und Ge/iuue, pi. l.i
Fig S3.— Altar before a stntue of Apollo.
(.\rch of Con»Uintiiie.i
other, C, penetrated the ground, and, being
sometimes shod witli bronze or iron, fulfilled the
purpose of a share. D is the ^x^Atj or handle.
This simplest form is shown in figs. 84 and 85.
But even in Homer (//. x. :153) we hear of
I the in^Kjhv &poTpov, composed of separate pieces
Altars for bumt-offerings were built in the of wood ; and Hesiod (0;>^ 4'27-43C,), who advises
open air, in order tluU the steam of the sacrifice the farmer to have a plough of each sort, de-
might be wafted up to heaven. A canopy was -^''^^s the ^Krbu aporpoy as consisting of the
sometimes built ovLr the altar to protect the tire yrrij (B, fig- 80) {bur,s t,n« plough-tai I. to be
from rain Thev were also erected against the "I'^de of a bent piece of ilex ; t he * Au/xa (dctale,
walls of a hou^e [Aedicula], and within the fluire- beam. C), to be mad.- of oak; aiul the
house itself, for the purpose of fain.ly sacrifices .^ro^oeus (trmo pole. A), to be made of bay or
to the Lares and Peuatc. W.th.n temples, j elm, the parts being joined bv bolts iyou<poi).
where no bloody sacrifices uere offered, they I Fig. SO shows a plough which
were of small size. Tiie altar of Zeus at consists of .(rToSoevs, eA^MO,
Olympia was on an elliptical base about r,0 feet and tx"A7j (s^ya, handle),
long, and was 2'2 feet liigh ; that of Demeter at ' here not clear y distinct from
Eleusis was upwards of '2r, feet lon^ ; and the yv^s ibuns, the plough-ta.l
It IS the plough still used in
Mysia (where each portion of
this instrument is still called iriinUivc forms of
by its ancient Greek name), ^''^ '''"",?I',*^^„''°'
■' -1 ■ 1111 u J conipiinylng In-
and 18 held by one hand etrumenu.
lift. «.'..
great altar at Pergamus was more than M feet
high.
Altars were of different shapes; s(iuare,
oblong, cylindrical, triangular, &c. In the top
there was usually a depression or basin, in r ♦. „ ,u„,
which the fire was lighted; and an escape lot ' only; the form of the share
liquids from the bottom of the basin commum.tiJ^v.s) vanes, and the plough .s frequently
i . ,, 1 __ ^■>^aA iviflinnf. nnv Rnn.re. 'it IS drawn DV two
eating with an opening in one of the »icl.. or used without any share.
. . , " , ' ° oxen, yoked from the pole, and guided by a
'' AlTaltars were places of refuge, and violence long reed or thin stick (Karpiyos), ^vhich has a
to the unfortunate, even to slaves and crimi -Pud or scraper at the end for cleanmg the
nals, in such circumstances, was regarded ^
as violence towards the deities themselves. Q^
It was also the practice among the Greeks
to take solemn oaths at altar.s, either taking
hold of tlie altar or of the statue of the god.
Arabarches The governor (irtaTpcLTriyos)
of Upper Egypt, or the Thebais, was called also
apa&apxv^> the district between the Nile and
the Red Sea being knowni often a.s Arabia This
title is found among the inscriptions upon the
so-called Meninon of Theb.-s. ( See Alabarches.)
Araeostylus. [Architectura.]
'Apdreua. Sacrifices offered every year at
Sikyon in honour of Aratus, the general of the
Acheans, who after his deatli was lionoured by
his countrymen as a hero, in consequence of
Fig. 8C.— A. i(TToPo£Vi. B. yvi«. C. eAv/io. D. tx^Ai)-
share.' For the yoke see figs. 8C, 87 ; for the
Kdrpivos, figs. 86, 88. Tlie vertical cross-bar
AEATRUM
which passes from the pole to the share-beam
for the purpose of giving additional strength was
called airdBri, Lat. fulcrum.
The plough was usually drawn by oxen, but
mules were esteemed for this work (Horn. II. x.
o51, Od. viii. 124). They appear to have been
harnessed by a broad collar.
The later and more developed irriKThv dporpov
may be regarded as consisting of a share Gr
Cwvis, vvis, vvvT}, vuvrfs) fitted into a share-
beam C (iXvfia), from which rose the plough-tail
B and handle D (exerATj), and, curving in the
opposite direction, the yvrts A consisting of
pvf^LOS (pole), the upper part, and iffro^osvs,
the lower (if, indeed, these are not identical),
ARBOR IN FELIX
49
called a. aiirita, and without them a. simplicia.
The word stlva (Verg. Georg. i. 174) has been
differently e.-Cplaiued. According to one view
there were two dentalia, i.e. share-beams, which
Virgil supposes were in the form of the Greek
letter A, which he describes by duplici dorso :
the buris was fastened to the left share-beam,
and the stiva to the right ; so that, instead of
the simple plough of the Greeks, that described
by Virgil, and used in his country (see fig. 80),
was more like the modern Lancashire plough,
wliicli is commonly hold behind with both
hands. Another and a better view is that there
7.— Ancient Greek Plough. (GInzrot, Waqni und
Fahrwerke, p. 34.)
across which was fastened the ^vyos or yoke E.
The accompanying woodcut, from the base
of a statue of Demeter in Magnesia, shows
the yvris strengthened by a piece of wood (see
also iig. 85) rising from the eXv/j-a C, and also
two earth-boards P P (Trrepa, aures) behind
the share. The part of the handle which the
ploughman grasped was called x^^po^ci^T] D ;
the part where the handle entered the eXv/na,
aKvri ; the tip of the share, uv/j.(p7]. (Ap.
Rhod. iii. 232.) Por the yoke see lugum. In
ancient works of art the parts of the plough
are often represented as not nailed together,
but lashed with thongs. See fig. 84.
The Italian plough, the invention of which
the Romans referred to Greek (Verg. Georg. i.
19) or even Egyptian (Tibull. i. 7, 29) legends,
had the same origin and development as the
Greek. The share was originally of bronze.
Virgil, in a passage {Georg. i. 169-175) pro-
bably suggested by Hesiod, recommends that
the plough-tail (buris, bura) should be made
of elm, bent to tihe proper shape while grow-
ing, the yoke and handle {stiva) of smoke-
dried lime or beech. The pole {te77io) is to
be eight feet long, and the plough is furnished
with earth-boards or mould-boards {aures],
rising on each side and bending outwardly in
such a manner as to throw on either hand the
soil which had been previously loosened and
raised by the share, and adjusted to the share-
Fig. 89.
was one dentale, C (or two fastened together as
one), into which were fixed (1) the pole {temo) A
with its yoke E ; (2) the plough-tail {buris, B),
with its handle (stiva, D), and the earth-boards
{aures,F). (Oy. Fast. iy. 825.) In pluceoi stiva,
Ovid uses the term capulus (Pont. i. 8, 57) ;
inanicula is also found, which is sometime.^
explained as a cross-piece fixed to the end of
the stiva. (Cf. Verg. Georg. i. 45; Ov. Met.
viii. 218.) Pig. 89 represents (according to the
first view) the plough as seen from above ;
fig. 90 the Roman plough according to the
second view. The coulter (culter, Plin. xviii.
^D
Fig. 88.— Roman Plough. fFrom a gem.)
beam, whirh was made double for tlie purpose of
receiving them. Ploughs witii earth-boards are
§ 171 sqq.) was used by the Romans as it is
with us. It was inserted into the pole so as to
depend vertically before the share, cutting
through the roots which came in its way, and
thus preparing for the more complete loosening
and overturnmg of the soil by the share. The
share (vomer, vomis) was sometimes lashed
under the dentale, sometimes embedded in it
{indutilis: Cato, It. B. 135, considers this
arrangement preferable). Pliny (I.e.) describes
the ordinary form of vomer as pointed like a
crowbar ; another, for use in light lands, did
not extend over the whole of the dentale, but
formed a slender point to its end ; another
shape, broader, sharper, and sword-like, pierced
the ground with its point, and with its edge did
the work of a culter.
Pliny also describes a plough furnished with
two small wheels (rotae, rotulae). Fig. 88
shows the form of a wheel-plough.
The operations of ploughing are describwl
under Agriculture, p. 15.
Ar'biter. See Appendix, Roman Law [ludex].
Arbor infe'lix. As applied to trees, felix
and infelix imply ' fruit-producing ' or the re-
verse (Verg. Georg. ii. 81 ; Plin. xvi. § 108).
Those trees also which bore black berries and
black fruit, and were accordingly sacred to the
gods of the lower world, were called infelices
(Macrob. Sat. ii. 16, § 2). Such trees appear to
have been used for the patibulum and crux
(Cic. Eab. perd. 4, 13 ; Liv. i. 20).
E
50
APBTAH
ARCHITECTURA
'ApPijXti. [Calceus.] | (2) Area publica, or simply Area, the tie*-
Arbusculae. [Currus, Plaustbum.] sary of a municipal towu, whether colonia,
Arbustum, [Vitis.J ] municipium, orpraefectura. The name was also
Area (Kapva^, Ktfijiros, /ciflf/eArj, (pupiajxSs, in | applied to the treasury of a collegium, such as
Homer xV^^^)- -^ chest or coffer. , that of the Pontifices, Vestals, &c. In Rome,
1. Greek.— In the Homeric poems, and pro- j under the Empire, area publica properly sig-
hably much later, a box was the only depository j nified the city funds, which were administered
for valuables. The \dpva^ of Homer was of no 1 by the senate, as distinguished from the aera-
great size : the golden Xapva^ in which the ashes : rium and the fiscus ; but the term is applied
of Hector are laid after his funeral is evidently I to these also. The arcarius was a financial
a small casket (II. xxiv. 795) ; and Hephaestus i ofl&cer in the municipal towns and the pro-
keeps his blacksmith's tools in a silver one {ih. | vinces.
xviii. 413). The Homeric word for the ordinary ', (3) Area, a coffin, of stone {aarcopJiagus),
clothes-chest is xv^os : e.g. the chestof Achilles wood, or earthenware, used anciently when the
(J/, xvi. 221), the chest of Odysseus (0(7. ix. 4'24), j corpse was buried, not burnt (Plin. xiii. 27;
stored with raiment, gold, and silver,
The chest (Kui^eAij), said to be that from
which Kypselus, the tyrant of Corinth (c. 660
li.c), derived his name, was shown at OljTnpia
more than 800 years later. It was of cedar,
inlaid with gold and ivory (Paus. v. 17)
Liv. xl. 2'.», of Numa).
Archia'ter {dpxiarpos). A medical title under
the Roman emperors, apparently sj'iionynious
with protoinedicus, supra medicos, dmiiinus
mcdicorum, and superposii us mediconnii. The
! archiatri were divided into Archiatri saitcti
At Atliens, money and valuables were kept in \palatii or palatini, who attended on the eni-
a Kt^atrSs (Lys. C. Erat. [Or. 12], § 10). Trea- peror, and Archiatri populares, who attended
sure-chests are KdpvaxfS in Herodotus (iii. 123). on the people. The Archiatri palatini were
On Greek vase paintings the Kapva^ ox \ persons ol\\\gh ra.\\k (comites primi or secundi
ki&wt6s is frequently introduced in mythologi-
cal subjects. In the illustration a workman is
Kg. 91.— Greek Chest. (Ovcrbeck, KuniUWyOwtogie.')
ordinis) : tliey were exempted from all taxes,
as were also their wives and children ; fhey
could not be put in prison, &c. The Archiatri
populares were established for the relief of the
poor, and each city was to be provided with
five, seven, or ten, according to its size. Rome
had fourteen, besides one for the Vestal VirL,'ins
and one for the gj-mnasia. They were paid by
the government, and were therefore obliged to
attend their poor patients gratis, but were
allowed to receive fees from the ricli.
Architectura (o.px^'rfKTovia, dpxiT(KToyiKrt),
1 its widest sense the business of an dpxi-
TfKTWv, or master builder, signifies all that wo
understand by architecture and by civil and
military mr/ineering; in its more restricted
meaning it is the science of building according
to the laws of proportion and the principles of
/ beauty. We propose to give under this head a
seen in the act of shutting up Danae and the ] short account of the principal feature.s of Greek
infant Perseus in the 5ai5oA«a \apva^ (Simonid. j and Roman architecture as distinguished from
44 (50), Bergk) : Akrisius stands by. i building.
2. Roman. — (1) Area was a chest or coffer i 1. Gkeek. — The earliest buildings existing in
for valuables (area vestiaria, Cato, li. Ji. 11, ' Greece are of the so-called Pelasgiaii or Cy-
3 ; cf. Suet. C'al. 59, Tib. 63), but more par- , clopean character. The most ancient works in
ticularly a money box (Varr. L. L. v. § 182 ; i this style are constructed of irregularly shaiied
Hor. Sat. i. 1,67; Catull. xxiii. 1). It stood in 1 masses of rock, piled up with no cement, but with
the atrium of the house (Serv. ad Verg. Aen. I small stones filling the interstices. Those of the
i. 730, ix. 048), and was made either of iron or second style are built of polygonal blocks neatly
of wood bound with iron or bronze (Juv. xi. 26, ' fitted; instances are found at lulis in Keos, at
xiv. 259 ; cf. Juv. i. 89, loculus). Ex area Delphi, luid in various parts of Italy, e.g. at
solvere or persolvere means to pay in ready l Faesulae (Fiesole) and Co^a. Here also no
money (Ter. And. ii. 4, 13-). The area was j mortar is used. The third kind is of rectangular
^_^ 1 blocks of the same height in parallel courses.
' The arch is not employed, but spaces are
- _ .i\fred by projecting layers of stone, as in
.'vpt, and in the galleries of TirjTis. See cut
j J uiuier Areas (II.). The tomb called the Trea-
IJ I sury of Atreus at Mykenae is of a conical form,
:^ ' tlie layers of stone being corbelled out in a
iiminishing scale. The principle of tlie arch
the form of a horizontal ring is here applied
ictically, though it may not have been nn-
rstood in a mathematical sense. [Arcus.]
.lomious blocks of stone are used in this
^^* and similar buildings in Greece and Italy: e.g
the lintel of the Treasury of Atreus measures
'Tiian Area or Treasure-chest, (iroin I'diipciil i -"' '^- "y •^" '^- ".^ ^ "•
j A close imitation in stone of timber construe-
under the care of the porter (atriensis) or of an tion may be observed in the tombs of Lycia
arcarius. Two arcae have been found in a I (see cut under Sepolcram) : and it may be
house at Pompeii. (See fig. 92.) 1 traced in such common details as pediment,
ARCHITECTURA
51
tn'glyphB, and metopes. The cohuniiar style
was not re-invented by the Greeks, but, having
begun to build in stone on the model of timber
construction, they adopted many features of
Fig 93.— Tomb at BeniHassan fFergussonl.
EgjT^tian architecture, and grafted them on
their local styles. The resemblance of the Doric
style to the Egyptiaii ' Proto-Doric ' forms is
not accidental (see fig. 93, from the Tombs at
— . Beni-Hassan), but
neither is it an
evidence of the
adoption of a new
lorinciple of build-
ing. Greek archi-
tecture was deve-
loped from the
native timber
building with the
assistance of Assy-
rian, Persian, and
Egyptian models,
not imported from
Egypt as a new
thing.
Behind all adop-
tion of exotic forms
lies the native tim-
ber construction,
of which, in Greece,
we have the earliest
notices in Homer.
The buildings men-
tioned in the Ho-
meric poems have
the walls (to?xoi)>
roofs, and posts
or pillars (Kioves)
of timber resting
upon a basement
of stone {\divos
ovB6s). Wooden
columns survived
here and there, e.g.
in the Heraeon at
Olympia, till very
late times (Pans. v.
16), and indica-
tions of them may
be observed at
Tiryna and else-
where.
All Greek archi-
tectural buildings
have certain corn-
Fig. 94.— Parthenon at Athens.
Doric Column. (Fergusson.)
polygonal buildings) is terminated by a low-
pitched gable-end or ]3ediment, frequently
adorned with sculpture.
Greek architecture of the classical period is
in three styles: (1) Doric; (2) Ionic; (3) Co-
EINTHI.\N.
(1) Doric. — Bj' fai the commonest style, and
that of the greatest works. This order, like the
others, is divided into tlu'ee parts :
(a) Stercohate (crTepeo^drris), or stylohafe
((TTuAojSaTTjs, projjerly the topmost step), three
steps of equal lieight (in some cases only two),
forming the base or podium on which the
building rests.
(6) Column {columna, <ttv\os), consisting of
shaft (scajnis, kuvAos, crwixa) and capital (capi-
tiilum, cajntelhim, Ke(p(xX-l}, eTriKpavov). Tlic
I height of the column is from four to si.x dia-
meters of the column at its base. Such dia-
meters, and fractions of them, are the unit
(Modulus, ifx^arrjs) of measurement in every
pai-t of the building. The line from base to
capital is not a straight line, but a slightly
convex curve. This curvature is called Entams
mon features. They are constructed on an
elevated platform or base, and are columnar.
They have above the columns an entablature
and cornice, and the roof (except in cu-cular or
Fig. 95.— Entasis. (From Doric columns at Paestum.)
(evraffis) (see below, p. 57). The shaft is generally
divided {striatura, ^dfiSwais) into twenty flutes
[striae, Sia^vaixara), which are contiimed through
and beyond the necking (hypotrachelium, Inro-
Tpaxh^iov) of one or more incised rings, and
terminate with a sliglit outwai-d curve [apotlie-
sis, apophygc, diroOicns, dirocpvyo) below the an-
nulets [anuli) of the capital. The capital con-
sists of (a) annulets [anuli, Ifxavres), from three
to five in number, placed innnediately under
the echinus on the slope from shaft to abacus ;
(j8) echinus [extfos) or ovolo ; and (7) abacus
[abacus, aj3a|), a square tablet the sides of
which are somewhat larger than a diameter.
Originally the echinus moulding was full and
impending; its outline, usually pai'abolic or
circular, became later almost flat (hyperbolic),
as in the Propylaea and Parthenon.
[e) Entablature [epistyliiim, fwi^oXr)), di-
vided into (a) architrave [epistylium, firicTTv-
\tov), (/8) frieze [zoj^horus, ^wo(p6pos, Coxpopos),
and (7) cornice (co?"orirt, ■yt'iaov). (a) The archi-
trave [corona, yfifrnrSSKTua) is a plain face, or
facia, of stone, marked oS from the frieze by a
£ 2
52
ARCHITECTURA
narrow bdiul, or taenia, and regulae under the 1 separated by three flat strips (jiifpol, femora).
triglyphs, from each of which depend six drops They are bound above and below by narrow
(guttae). The architrave (a) is ahnost always bands (regulae) : the upper of these is con-
tinuous, although here deeper, with the fasc-ia
of the frieze ; from the uuder-surface of the
regulae depend six cylindrical or conical
drops (guttae). The triglj-phs represent the
ends of beams, and the metopes (fifT&wat) the
open spaces between the beams. These are
supposed to have been originally left open
(Eur. Iph. Taur. 113), and are so representtd
on vases. In extant examples they are occupied
with flat plates, often sculptured in high relief.
The cornice (y) consists of a flat larmier ("ytKri-
irSSifffxa, corona) and a group of mouldings (kv-
fidriov, uKpoyeiaiov), comprising a square fillet
and ogee. The corona is continuous and greatly
projecting, with its lower surface sloped. At-
tached to a narrow sunk face, forming the soffit
of the cornice, is a series of sloping slabs (tnu-
I tuli), one over each triglyph and metope ; froni
their under- surfaces depend eighteen cylindrical
guttae in three rows. They represent the ends
of rafters in the timber construction. The cy-
I matium, so called from the form of its charac-
I teristic moulding (KVfia), is furnished at intervals
t with Antefiza of lions' heads, honeysuckle
ornament, itc. F(ir the arrangement of the
roof, see Fastigiom, and p. 55, Hoofs.
The Attic variety of the Doric style is specially
adapted to the use of miurble ; buildings in other
parts of Greece being more commonly con-
structed of irwpos or rougher stone, and coated
with stucco. Many varieties of detail exist ;
but the general character is that described
above.
(2) Ionic. — This order, the earliest extant ex-
amples of which are tlie Heraeon at Samos
and the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus (c. (iOO-
550 B.C.), and some fragments on the Acropolis
of Athens, shows traces of Egyptian and Per-
sian influence. Tlie forms of capitals common
in Cyprus resemble those of the Hathor co-
lumns in Egypt ; those from Asia Minor have
Fig. 06.— Doric Order
Phigulela. (Mauch. pi. 11.1
Temple of Apollo 'Rn-tiroupiof.
Hullt by Iktliius.
flat and plain. It is marked off by a narrow
band (fa.sria, raiyia, tuenia) from the frieze.
Tlie frieze (fi) is oniamented by equally-spaced i more of a Persian character
Fig. 97.— Theseum.
surfaces (rpiy\v<poi), one over each colunan and ( The Ionic style differs from the Doric in the
each intercoluniniation. The triglyphs are two ' following particulars: (a) The columns an-
whole anil two half perpendicular grooves (rrt«- slender, having a height of from eight to nim-
aiic«/at', 7AK<^ai), of triangularorcurvedsectiou, j and a half modules. (6) The shaft rests upon
'I
i
AECHITECTURA
53
a circular base (spira, aire'lpa), consisting of a
succession of convex or concave mouldings
(tori, a-welpai, and trochili, or scotiae, rpox't-
\oi), sometimes resting on a square plinth
(irXivdos). The simplest form of Ionic base
is that found in all the Ionic buildings at
Athens, and called Attic or Atticurges. (See fig.
99. The plaited ornament is often
omitted.) The number of flutings
(Sta^va-fiaTO.) is usually twenty-four.
The flutes, segmental in outline, do
not meet, as in the Doric stj^le, in a
sharp arris, but in a fillet. Both at
base and capital there is an apothesis
or apophyge, and the diameter dimin-
ishes with a slight entasis. The flutes
sometimes end close under the capital,
in Greek buildings, takes the form of a succes-
sion of three, five, or seven rpox^^oi (trochili),
separated by astragals or fillets (see figs. 101,
108). At the corner of a building the plane of the
outer volute was sometimes (as in the Roman
order) given an inclination of 45^ to the surfaces
(see fig. 103). The columns of the Temple of
•aaaoti
irVlf f l V'""[r »i nMrT i ri"T i rTnrvr-w^iff i r'?*/ F *v ^ r T l' ""^'*^I
Fig. 98.— Ionic Base.
Fig. 99.— Attic Base.
sometimes are separated by a hypotrachelium
or necking, consisting of a band of ornament
(see cut from Erechtneion, fig. 102) separated
from the shaft by an astragal. The necking is
often omitted. The capital consists of (a)
Fig. 100.— .\stragalus, from Ionic capital.
astragal; (b) echinus, with egg-and-tongue
pattern, and sometimes a torus (figs. 100, 101) ;
(c) canalis, a depressed surface between and
following the lines of (d) two spiral volutes
(e'Ai/fes, crirfTpai), whence the name for the whole,
Fig. 101.— Balteus of an Ionic Capital.
Polias.)
(Temple of Athena
<TiTeLpsKe<pa\oi'. The volutes have a centi'al disc
(oculus) from which the spirals are struck, and
are flat before and behind. The roll or bolster
(pulviyms) is relieved from monotony by a
halteus (see Vitr. iii. 57) or band which generally,
Fig. 102.— Ionic Column and Entablature. Portico of
Temple of Athena Polias (Erechtheion). Athens. iFer-
guBson.)
Apollo at Bassae (fig. 104) (like those of the
Roman Ionic) have all their volutes set aslant.
The abacus is smaller than the Doric, square in
plan, and ogee or cyma rcversa (KVfxa, KvfjLanov)
in profile, ornamented with egg-and-arrow pat-
tem. The entablatui-e consists of (r/) archi-
trave, (h) frieze, (c) cornice. The architrave (a)
is of three plam faces or facias slightly over-
lapping. There is a small cornice between
architrave and frieze. (6) The frieze (dpiyKos,
(axpopos) is usually plain, but sometimes ex-
hibits bas-reliefs. The frieze has no triglyphs
and metopes as in the Doric style, but modil-
hons (TTpofioxSoi) or dentils sometimes appear
in the cornice. The cornice (c) projects con-
siderably beyond the frieze and columns, and is
terminated above with a richly ornamented
cyma. . .
Fig. 105 shows a very beautiful vanation of
the Ionic order in the capital of the antae. It
AECHITECTURA
Fig. 103.— Ionic Corner Capital. Portico of Temple of
Athena Polias (Erechthelon), Athens. (Mauch, pi. 34.)
Fig. 1(M.— Ionic Capital. Bassiio.
■will bo observed that the conibimitiou of small
volutes and acanthus-leaf ornament resembles
tlu' Corintliian order.
■ ^^ikUAUv^ALtXUl^M-ji!L/AUM.U^
Fig. 105.— From Temple of .VpoUo Dldymeius at Branchidae.
(3) CoiUNTHiAN. — The Corinthian order,
though some examples are of very early date,
was fully developed later than the Doric and
Ionic, it resembles the Ionic in many particu-
lars. The columns, which are slenderer than
the Ionic, rest on a base, generally Attic
in character; sometimes a phntli is added.
The flutes are twenty-four in number. The
hypotrachelium is wanting, as in the Doric.
The necking is either a fillet and bead or an
astragal. The principal difference is in the
capital, which in the fully-developed style con-
sists of a sort of basket (KaKados) from which
spring two rows of acanthus leaves, in great
variety of treatment, surmounted by four vo-
lutes at the angles, the spaces between the
volutes being occupied by flowers, leaves, and
opposed or intertwining helices or volutes. In
the earlier examples, however, there is frequently
but one row of acanthus leaves ; and in the
Horologium of Andronikus Kyrrhestes, vulgarly
called the Temple of the Winds^ the volutes are
"^S—^il^-^—F"
Fig. IOC.— Corinthian Order. Choragie Uonnment ot
Lyslkrutes. .\thcns.
wanting, the capital consisting only of an as-
tragal, a row of acanthus leaves, and a row of
tongue-shaped leaves (fig. 108). In almost all
examples the abacus, instead of being square, is
hollowed at the edges, and the middle of each
edge is ornamented with a flower. The capital
was frequently made of bronze, or even gold
and ivory. The completed development of the
Corinthian capital shows both the volutes and
the acanthus-leaves, the former adapted from
the Ionic volutes, the latter probably from
the lotus-capitals of Egypt. The entablature
consists, as in the other orders, of (a) archi-
trave, (b) frieze, and (c) cornice. The architrave
ARCHITECTURA
55
(a) is of tliree facias, as in the Ionic, sometimes
slightly projecting, sometimes set back, as in
the Monument of Lysikrates. The frieze (b) is
either plain or sculptured. The cornice (c) is
furnished with dentils. The details of it vary
greatly in different examples.
Roofs. — Both Greek and Roman buildings
had roofs of slight inclination, the Roman being
of higher pitch than the Greek. These were
built of timber and covered with tiles of clay or
metal ((rw\rjvis, tegulae). [Tegula.j The tiles
in important buildings were often of marble (see
below. Temple Architecure). Some buildings
(hypaethral) were lighted from the roof. Mr.
Fergusson heldthat light was admitted in many
architecture, were introduced as part of the
design in Roman works, in domestic architec-
ture usually not on the ground floor.
2. Etruscan. — No remains of Etruscan
buildings above ground exist. What is known
of Etruscan art from the tombs and vases,
bronzes, &c., found in them, shows much of the
Greek spirit in design and much direct Greek
influence ; with many traces of the imitation of
wood construction.
The Etruscans, whose religion was based
upon ancestor worsliii), built more tombs than
temples. (See Sepulcrum.) Their temples a}>
pear to have been chiefly constructed of woo<l.
Circular temples were dedicated to a single
c=3:
II II II II li li II II II I ! I I
(
V
"N
f~\
'>
P
V
r
Fig. 107.— Choragic Monument oj Lysikrates,
Athens.
I'ig. 10ft.— Corinthian Order. Horologium of Androiiilcns Kyrrhestcs.
Athens. (FerguBson.)
cases by clerestory windows (somewhat resem-
bling those in the great hall at Karnak, but
constructed in timber), invisible from outside.
Along the sides of the building were spouts,
usually in the form of lions' heads, projecting
from the cymatium of the cornice, which to
some extent hid the roof. The gable end or
pediment (diTWfxa,fasti(/ium) was finished above
in the same lines as the cornice. The drum
irvixTtavov, tympanum) was plain, or adorned
w'th groups of sculpture. In small buildings
this space was sometimes occupied by an eagle
(oer^s) with outspread wings. At the three
angles of the pediment (in large buildings) were
small pedestals (aw-pcoTrjpio) supporting sculp-
ture, represented in small buildings by finials.
Windows, which do not usually appear in Greek
deity. Rectangular temples had three cells,
and were dedicated to three gods. This design,
it may be remarked, is almost identical with
the restoration of the fxiyapov at Tiryns, figured
below (figs. 114, 115). It may be also noted here
that in one of the most ancient specimens of
architecture — the Lion Gate at Mykenae — the
column separating the two lions is of a more
developed character than the later Doric or Ionic,
and somewhat resembles that known as Tuscan,
which is derived from the Etruscan style.
The principal features of the Etruscan stylo
appear to have been the wide intercolumniation,
necessitating a timber architrave, even where
the building was of stone; and the greater height
of the entablature. The masonry of the Etrus-
cans was excellent, and they used blocks of im-
ARCHITECTURA
mense eize. Tliey made considerable use of
terracotta, and painted their buildings in bril-
liant colour. It is probable that the arch was
employed as an arcliitectural feature.
3. Roman. — Roman art is in its origin Etrus-
can, and in its development Greek. Placed be-
tween Etruria and Magna Graecia, Rome was
naturally influenced by both. Roman architec-
ture is Etruscan in construction, Greek in pro-
portion and detail. The principal features of the
native style as distinguished from the Greek
are : (1) the arch, with its corollaries of dome and
vault ; (2) the larger use of circular and polygonal
buildings; (3) wide intercolumniation, which
gives rise to the most characteristic and perma-
nent alteration introduced by Roman architects,
the supporting of a long entablature by means
of an arch inserted behind the Grecian front ;
The dome of the Pantheon, a circular build-
ing, is 142 ft. in diameter ; the barrel vault of
the Basilica of Maxentius is 82 ft. across. The
first dome built with pendentives is that of St.
Sophia at Constantinople. The Romans learnt
from the Etruscans the use of brick and perfec-
ted it. They also invented building in concrete.
Arches, domes, and vaults were often made of
solid concrete ; and many of the greatest Roman
works, where stone was not used, are as it were
cast, not constructed, though in the forms of
arch-construction, as, e.g., the dome of the Pan-
theon and the vault of Maxentius' basilica.
See Caementom ; Murns, iii.
(1) Tuscan Oiidkk. — Of the original Tuscan
order no ancient specimens exist. We are told
that the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which
was several times burnt down, was always re-
constructed on the original Etruscan plan. The
cella, dedicated to Jupiter, Jmio, and Minerva,
the three chief Etruscan deities, was divided into
three parts with three doorways. The columns
were very widely spaced (araeostyle), and the
architrave was of wood. The ornaments of the
pediment were in terra-cotta.
The so-called Tuscan order is a variation of
the Roman Doric, chieHy differing from that in
the absence of triglyphs and mutules, the mem-
bers of the entablature being continuous.
(2) Tlie Roman Doric order is a develoi>ment
or corruption of the Greek Doric. The columns
are slender, and often not fluted. They rest on
a base consisting of a fillet and torus resting on
a square plinth. They have a moiUding al)ove
the abacus, and a torus necking some dist^mce
below the annulets of the echinus. A |>edestal
is sometimes added, as, r.fj., in the Column of
Trajan (^ec cut under Columnar. The capitals
Fig. lOB.— Tlomau Doric .\rcade (Kergnsnon).
(4) a higher pitch of roof, and greater propor-
tional height in general; (5) use of brick, (6)
concrete, and (7) coloured marble, both in shafts,
wall-panelling (criistae), and pavements; (8) the
character of the columns, which are, as a rule,
more clumsy in design and frequently plain,
not fluted : they are often monoliths of coloured
marble; (9) the use of windows, which were not
admitted as architectural features in Grecian
buildings; (10) in temples, the greater width
compared with length.
The most important by far of these character-
istics is the invention and employment of the
arch [Atcub], in the use of which the Roman
architects have never been surpassed, though
tliey used no form of it except the segment of a
circle. They also invented and brought into
common use the vault and the dome, lK)th ap-
plications of the principle of the arch, and car-
ried by them to the greatest perfection. These
gave a new character to and led to develop-
ments of circular and polygonal form in ground
plans, which gave rise to great variety of com-
binations. From the Roman architecture,
through Byzantine and Romanesque types, all
mediiveval building was derived.
The Roman structures of the ancient period
were properly works of building, not of archi-
tecture ; their earliest architecture followed an
Italian, not a Greek, model; and the massive-
ness which characterises them is seldom absent
even from those buildings which were modelled
upon the Grecian styles. The Roman theatres,
amphitheatres, aqueducts, baths, bridges, (fcc,
were carried out on a scale greater than that of
any Greek buildings.
1 :
^
i
v - -- — -y
-
__i__iEd
jajLLO—
_jLLir0;_
FiK 110.— Roman Doric Order. Albano. near Home.
(Mauch. pi. 19.)
differ in detail from the Greek, and have some-
what of an Etruscan character. The frieze has
triglyphs; it is sometimes omitted altogether,
ARCHITECTURA
57
and a plain architrave is crowned by the cornice.
The style is called viutidar or denticular,
according as the cornice is furnished with
rautules or dentils ; sometimes both are absent.
(3) The Roman Ionic, of which few examples
remain, differs from the Greek in less knowledge
and taste. The volutes are often placed dia-
gonally on the capital, so that the four faces are
similar in design. The co-
lumns are usually fluted.
The bases have a square
plinth ; and a pedestal is
often added. There is no
necking under the capitals.
(4) TheEoJLiN COKINTHIAN
order (fig. Ill) is richer,
though not freer, in detail,
than the Grecian. The co-
lumns are sometimes fluted,
sometimes plain. Instead of
mutules, modillions or
brackets are used, as well
as dentils, and the soffits of
the cornice (as in the Greek
order) have no guttae. A
pedestal is often added.
The Corinthian order, left
undeveloped by the Greeks,
was completed in great
variety and richness by the
Roman arcliitects and Greek
artists in the great building
ages of the Empire ; and it is
the parent of all the foliaged
styles of the Romanesque
and Gothic periods. A variety
of it is
(5) The Composite or Ro-
M.\N order (fig. 112), differing
chiefly ui the capital, which
lias above the acanthus leaves
a fillet, astragal, and echinus,
and over these four diagonal
loaic volutes. The whole
capital thus consists of an
Ionic capital placed upon a
Corinthian capital. The cor-
nice has dentils, and some-
times modillions as well.
The ornamentation of this
style is extremely rich and
often excessive. One com-
mon feature of Roman archi-
tecture is the superimposition
of whole ordonnances, Doric,
Ionic, and Corinthian, one
upon another. [See fig. 38,
Amphitheatrum.] Pedestals
(which consist of three parts,
the base, the die or plinth,
and the cornice) were not
used by the Greeks except to
elevate whole buildings, as,
e.g., the Mansoleum.
For the terms araeostyle,
pycnostyle, &c., see Glos-
sary.
Entasis. The lines of the shafts, instead of
diminishing regularly from bottom to top, are
slightly convex, giving a very delicate swelling
to the central part of the shaft, from the lower
end to a certain point, after which a diminution
takes place to the hypotrachelium. This was
done to correct the effect of the light behind it,
lower diameter of the column being 1'9 metre,
the entasis is -^hj-, (or '016 m.), the diminution §
(or '425 m.) of this dimension. In some ancient
columns, as at Assos, entasis is exaggerated ;
wliile in others, as at Corinth, it is absent. The
profile in the IParthenon and Propylaea is an
hyperbola, with 1 (Attic) foot for principal axis,
and 80 feet from centre to focus.
3
mrrmmwrnrn MUMMmf "
1
1
<4mMwmjmjmji}<im}iE
Fig. 111.— Roman Corinthian Order. Temple of Jupiter Stator ^so called). (Ferg.i
Examples of the absence and presence of
entasis are represented in fig. 95. This oitaaiH
is the only one of the many optical refine-
ments of the Greeks which is used in modern
buildings.
Such were: (1) a slight thickening of the
columns at the angles of ])eriptenil temples,
wliich appears as it were to eat into or encroach \ and a reduction of the intercolumniations at
upon the column, especially midway between I the angles : for a similar reason,
the top and bottom. In the Parthenon, the | (2) The main horizontal lines of the temple,
158
ARCHITECTURA
„ - A^^ r ^L-v:'.i^:^^T^v^^vi^^ .rA^i£^
^■v^vti~-^v.'.>.v-'^v.'^v.^v>'-^^ViV/T-t:i:J
Fig. 112.— Romsin or Composlto Order. Arch of Titus.
(Mauch, pi. 77.)
both above and below, were formed slightly
convex, in order to prevent an appearance of
woiikness and sinking in the middle. In tin-
I'ai-thenon the rise varies from 7^,, to ^^, of
tilt' length.
(:j) An inward sloiie of all vertical lines and
]>lanes, whether in walLs or coliunns, to give an
ap|)enjance of stability.
(4) In some cases when the point of sight is
near, and the moulding high np, the cliit'f
planes of the moulding slope forwards instead
of inwards, to correct excessive foreshortening.
:. tmesc tAvI »vm would »eet_..^
/iTAheiGMroFssopfeET j,
Fig. 113.— Diagram showing the various optical
corrucllonii used In tno Partlienon.
This principle of optical correction (v6ixos
KaroTTTiKos), stated by Vitruvius (vi. 2), was
verified in the case of the Parthenon by
measurements taken in 1848 by Mr. F. C.
Penrose.
Fig. 113 shows in a very exaggerated form the
most important optical corrections in the Par-
thenon. Each block of marble is worked accu-
rately so as to form its proper proportion of
these delicate curves, which, e.g. in the entabla-
ture, amounts only to a rise of 2 inches in
100 feet of length.
Both in Greek and Roman art the principles
of architecture as developed in temples were
applied to secular buildings; and more freely
by the Romans, the greatest builders of all ages.
Tlie so-called Temple of Demeter — or, more
correctly, Stjk^s /uu<rT«(cds— at Eleusis, was a
' different building from ordinary Greek temples,
as it was a great hall of meeting for those in-
itiated into the mysteries of Demeter, Kore,
and other Chthonian deities.
The latest building was a large square hall
containing six rows of seven columns each. On
three sides, there were two doorways, six in all.
I It appears probable that the building was in
two stories.
The Thersilion at Megalopolis; the Leonidaeon
; and Bouleuterion at Olympia ; the Odeion of
' Herodes Atticus at Athens, are other instances
of buildings for secular use, constructed accord-
ing to strict architectural rules.
Among such buildings may be mentioned
the Prytaneion, or sacred home of the state in
every capital town ; aroal or colonnades [Porti-
CUS] ; ayopai or piazzas ["AYopdJ; theatres
TheatrumJ; comert lialls [0(/'um, under art.
Theatnun] ; tombs [Haasoleum] ; gateways
jPropylaeaj; and in Roman arrliitecture every
kind of public edifice wnscoiistriKted iK-cordin^,'
to the orders. See Amphitheatrum, Aquae-
ductus, Areas triamphalis.Balneae. Basilica.
Porta, Theatrum, for illustrations of Roman
art ; ami for adiscriptionof particular buildings,
Erechtheion, Mausoleoin, Pantheon, Parthe
non, Propylaea.
Tkmplks .\ni> Temple Architecturk.
Greek Temples. — Among the Greeks tiie
' temple was not a building in which a congrega-
tion met and worshipix-d, but was rather re-
, garded as the house and treasury of the god.
I In the most primitive times the place of temples
' was taken by an altar in the open air, or by a
] sacred stone (/SairuAor). The kingly heroes of
Homer offered sacrifice to Zeus Herkeios on
the altar in the fore-court of their palaces
I (see Horn. Od. xxii. 334). [DomUB.] Other
I primitive forms of temples were natural caves
in the rock, or hollow trees.
The next stage appears to have been the
construction of a small cell-like building, con-
, sisting of a mere cella or otjkJs without any
columns or subdivisions into more than one
chamber.
The words used by the Greeks to denote
temples are chiefly these : va6s (Attic yfcis).
aeile.<i, the ' house ' of the god ; ifp6v, frequently
including the sacred inclosure, yaui, r(^lfvoi
(Thuc. iv. 90) or ifpbi irepi$aKos. Other words
— fj-fyapov, &5vTov, avoKTOpov, ariKii — seem to
have been taken from terms originally used for
parts of domestic buildings.
The next stage after the simple <rriK6s was
probably a building with a prostyle portico,
constructed mainly of unburnt brick with
W(MKlen columns, closely resembling the hall or
fi4yapov of a pre-Homeric palace (see figs. 114.
and 115). Both in plan and in its fafade it is
AECHITECTURA
clearly the prototype of the later stone temples
of the Greeks. The walls were of unburnt
brick, covered with hard fine stucco decorated
with painting ; the lowest courses of the wall
(probably the AaiVos ovSos) were of stone to a
height of about two feet above the ground. A
survival of this structui-al stone plinth existed
Greek temple was a building with walls and
columns whoUy of stone or marble.
Vitruvius (iii. 2) classifies temples according
to the arrangement of their columns in the
following manner (see fig. 110). — I. Nabs eV
irapcurTacri, in antis, with two columns between
the antae of the projecting side walls (a, c).
[Antae.J II. UpocrrvKos, j^t'oatylc, with four
columns in front. III. 'Afj.(t)nrp6crrv\os, amphi-
prostyle, with four columns at each end (b, d).
IV. tlepiimpos, j^eripteral (from irrfpov, the
columniation), with columns along both sides
and ends (e). V. Aiwrfpos, dij'teral, with a
double range of columns all round (g). \1.
'V€vSoSi'7rTepos,2Jseudo-di2}teral, with one range
Fig. 114 — Restoration of the front of the principal Hall
(jxiyapoif) of the prehistoric Palace at Tiryiis.
even in the latest temples of the Greeks, which
were wholly built of marble : the lowest course
immediately above the pavement being usually
very much deeper than the rest of the masonry,
as if marking a change of material. The
columns both of the portico and of the inner
chamber were of wood, each resting on a block
of stone.
This use of unburnt brick for the walls and
wood for the columns appears to have survived
i ^
'•
1
• • •
^
9
1: e
•
9
j»
<9
•
W
*l
• ••
«
•
ii
• 9
«•«••«••»••••••••••
»••»»««>•••»»••♦••••
OPEN COURT'
Fig. 11.5.— Plan of the Hall at Tu-yns.
lu many cases till very late. Pausanias (v. 16)
mentions one ancient wooden column as still
existing i)i situ in the Heraeon at the time of
his visit to Olympia.
The walls of ancient temples and other
buildings were sometimes lined with bronze.
The last stage of the development of the
Fig. 116.— Vitruvian classification of Temples.
and c, templum in antis ; li and d. tetrastyle amplii-
prostyle ; c, hexastyle peripteral ; /, circul^ir temple
(lioman); ;/, decastyle dipteral.
of columns only, but placed at the same dis-
tance from the cella wall as the outer range of
the dipteral temple. VII. 'VevSoirepiimpos,.
pseudo-'peripteral, has no complete columns
along the sides, but half or 'engaged' cohimns
built into tlie side walls of the cella (see tig. 118,
and Parthenon, cut). Among the Romans tliis
form was very frequ<;ntly used, as, for example,
in the Temples of Concord and Vespasian.
The term hyparthral. is applied to a temple
which has, inside the cella, two tiers of columns,
one above the other, supporting the roof, in the
middle of which is an opening to the sky. In-
stances of this are the Parthenon, and the
great temple at Paestum, where some of the
upper range of int.-rnal columns still exist.
Temples are named also according to the
number of columns on their fronts : Ttrpd-
crrvKos, tetrastijle, with four cohunns ; «|a-
(TTuA-os, hexastyle, with six columns, &c.
f.0
AKCHITECTURA
Namef? ai-e also given by Vitruvius (iii. 3)
from the distance of intercolumniation,p7/cno-
atijle, tiraeoatyle, &c. (see Globsaky),
T- -v-~7S',l0'- — r":
4^'^^ • • ii
Fig. 117. -Plan of tluliirKo hPT[i.<tvl. ' uplo at
Pacaituin . bhowiiii; the /'rLin'i.'t .n; i . 'itiithn
liiniutt lit the ciidi o( the r,U.i, 111. iiU<Tn J rows of
columns and the stairs leading to Iho gallery over the
uUlc8.
'riie larger Greuk temples were divided into
different parts. The inner space within the
front portico wus
called tlie irpovaos ;
that at the rear wan
the pii^ticnin [ottm-
OiiSo/ios); theprinci-
pul chamber, whic)i
Usually contained
the statue of the
deity, was the eel I a,
va6s or (rriK6s; it
was frequently di-
vided into a nave
and aisles by two
ranges of internal
columns ; it was
sometimes used as a
treasure <-hamber.
A similar chamber
in the Temple of
Apollo at Delphi
was called rh aSv-
rov', in it were
placed the mystic
Omphalos, and otlier
sacred objects which
■ ,,,,,■ . ■.. „ J only priests were
lie. 118. -Plan of the »o-c:illf>d ,,''',. ,
Temple of Kortuna VlrlUa allowed toapproacll.
iprobabiy Portunus' in the Some temples had a
I'oruin Uoarluni lit lloinc. .-i i / /»
vestibule (irpdiofws,
prodomus) bchin 1 the pronaos.
Staircases of wood or stone were frequently
introduced into the celia, as iu Egyptian
temples, la the Temple of Zeus at Olympia
the stairs {auoSos CKoKid) led to the impfov,
or gallery over the aisles, whence a go<xl view
was obtained of the colossal gold and ivory
statue of Pheidias.
The floor of tlie cella is usually raised two or
three steps above the stylobat*.
The paving of temples was usually formed of
large slabs of stone or marble : those in the
Parthenon are 1 foot thick and about 4 feet
square. In some cases a fine liard cement,
often coloured red, was used.
The pronaos of the Temple of Zeus at
Olympia, built 409-457 B.C., was paved witli a
mosaic, formed, not of squared ttsscrac, but of
pebbles from the bed of the river Alpheiu^.
These are set in a fine white cement on a
thick bed of concrete. This is almost the only
e.xaniple of mosaic of the Greek period that
has been found.
The stereobate or stylobate is usually of
three stejjs, in which smaller steps were in-
serted ut certain places for tu-cess. The great
Ionic temples of Asia Minor were in some cases
ruised on a lofty stylobate, consisting of many
steps extending all round the building.
Hoofs. — Greek temples were roofed with
simply framed ' principals ' and strong rafters,
covered with tiles of baked clay, or, in the more
niagniticent buildings, with slabs of white
marble jointed and accurately fitted. Each of
these marble tiles {awKitvu. tegulac\ was "re-
bated ' at top and bottom to give the closest
possible fit, and each side-joint was covered by
an overlapping 'joint-tile' (<toAwirr»ip, imbrex),
the edges of which were ground down to an
absolute accuracy of surface. At the eaves tiie
end of each joint-tile was covered by a KaAuwTTjp
0LvQf)xmr6i, antefixum, usually a lotus or acan-
thus relief.
C'eihiigt. — The peristyle, and in some cases
the pronaos and opisthodoinos, had ceilings
under the wooden roof formed of slabs of stone
or marble decorated with deeply-sunk panels
or coffers {laciiiiaria}, all worked in the solid.
Witli regard to the wider span of tlie cella,
probably in some cases wooden ceilings with
siiuare lacunaria were used; in other cases
the raitei-s of the roof and the underside of the
marble tiles were left visible. The whole
visible woodwork, wliether rafters or internal
ceiling, was decorated with gold and colour,
like the rest of the building.
Screens. — Various parts of a Greek temple
were usually sliHt off by bronze screens or
grills, frequently gilt.
Duoru'iu/s. — These, as in Egyptian temples,
were cased with an inner jamb-lining of woo«l.
This wooden architrave and the valves of tin-
doors were frequently covered with reliefs in
gold and ivory. The doors were hung, not on
hiiifjfs, but on bronze pivots, which revolved
in sinkings in the lintel and sill of the opening.
Each valve, in the case of a large doorway,
usually ran on a bronze wheel, the marks of
which are plainly visible in the Parthenon, on
the marble pavement.
Temple 'treasuries (9ri<Tavpoi, thesauri). — In
some temples a special chamber was cut off
from the rest of the cella as a store-place for
the treasures which belonged to the temple or
had been de|x>sited there as if in a bank.
[Thesaoras.]
Materials and Construction. — The earlier
temples were chiefly built of stone, even in
districts where marble was plentiful. Very
coarse local stones (irwpos) were frequently
\
ARCHITECTURA
usetl, but the stone was in all cases coated with
a thin skin of very line hard cement, usually
made of lime and powdered marble or white
stone, mixed with white of egg, milk, or some
natural size. This beautiful substance, which
was as hard, white, and durable as marble,
not only protected soft stone from the weather,
but formed a good surface for painted decora-
tion (see Pictura [Waxl-painting] and Paries).
In some of the early stone temples, especially
in Sicily and at Olympia, coloured terracotta
mouldings and euricliments were used to de-
corate the building. [Terracotta.]
By degrees marble came into use for building
temples ; at first only for the sculptured reliefs.
By the fourth century B.C. the whole temple
was built of marble, even where no marble
quarries were at hand. Coloured marbles were
but little employed in Greek temjjles.
Many different kinds of decorative materials
were used ; such as rosettes and other orna-
ments of gilt bronze, bands of gold, pieces of
coloured glass or enamels of brilliant tint.
61
reliefs. The celebrated Parthenon frieze ((uo-
(popos, <^ai(p6pos) was set within the peristyle at
the top of the cella wall. In the Artemision
at Ephesus a number of the colunms had their
lower drums scul^jtured with life-size figures in
relief.
Besides these sculptures, forming pai-t of the
building itself, the more celebrated temples
were crowded with votive statues, both inside
the cella and in the portico and peristyle.
The method in wliich Greek temples were
lighted is a' rather difficult problem : windows
were not used till Roman times, and it appears
fairly certain that some form of opening in the
roof (oirdioy, hypaethriim) was the usual way
in which light was admitted into the cella. See
above, and Hoofs.
After a long-established custom of sacrificing
on altars in the open air, there was probably a
survival of sentiment in favour of having some
jjart of a temple sub divo.
Painting. — Rich painted decoration in
brilliant colours seems to have been used to
In the marble masonry of the finest Greek , ornament all the Greek temples. Even tlie
temples extraordinary care was taken to fit , sculpture was painted, either wholly, or enriched
each block closely to the next. Each block j with borders and other patterns on the drapery,
was first cut and rubbed to as true a surface as 1 Accessories, such as weapons, &c., were usually
possible, and then, after it was set in its place, , of gilt bronze. The mouldings of the entabla-
it was moved backwards and forwards till by tures, capitals, and other members were picked
slow grinding it was fitted with absolute accu- i out in red, blue, and gold.
The interior of the temple was often covered
with large mural paintings of figure subjects.
The architraves of Greek temples were also
adorned with votive shields, wreaths and fes-
toons of flowers worked in bronze ; and armour
and weapons and other e.r-votos were hung to
the walls of the cella.
Orientation. — Greek temples are usually
j)laced with the axis east and west : the front
is commonly towards the east.
For a description of the orders or styles of
architecture used in temples, see above.
Doric Temples. — The largest number of early
Doric temples which still exist are in Sicily : at
Syracuse, Agrigentum, Selinus, and Egesta.
Ajiother example of very early date is the
temple at Corinth. Of the later, fully- developed
Doric, the chief examples are in Athens, and
at Bassae in Arcadia. The temple in Aegina
occupies an intermediate position in point of
date — sixth century b.c. The Asiatic temples
are almost all in the Ionic style. Of the
Corinthian style, few purely Greek examples
remain, the great majority having been exe-
cuted by Greek artists under Roman direction.
A full list of Greek temples of which remains
exist is given in the larger edition of this work,
in the article Templum.
The most famous of all are the Parthenon
(Doric), the Erechtheion (Ionic), the temple of
Zeus at Olympia (Doric), the temples at
Paestum and Agrigentum (Doric), the Arte-
mision at Ephesus (Ionic), the Olympieion at
Athens (Corinthian). The Asiatic temples are
almost all in the Ionic style.
Circular Greek Temples.
A form of Greek temple not included in the
above classification is the Tholos {66\os), a
round building (probably derived from a primi-
tive hut), often surrounded by columns forming
a circular peristyle. The Prytajieion, or city-
hearth, which existed in every important Greek
city, seems to have been usually a building of
this kind. It contained an ever-burning fire in
honour of Hestia {fiaria) or Vesta ; so also the
Roman temples of Vesta were built on this
racy to the block below it. The drums of the
columns were ground true in the same way.
With such perfect fitting as this, no cement or
mortar of any kiud was used : each block was
fastened with bronze or iron clamps and dowels,
carefully fixed with melted lead.
Optical refinevients. — See Entasis.
Methods of Decoration in Greek Temples.
Sculpture. — In Doric temples \,h.e pediments
{a,eT(i}fia, tympanum) or end-gables were adorned
Fig. 11!).— Drawing to show the construction of the en-
tablature of a Doric temple of the ."ith century B.C..
and the manner in which it supported the timbers of
the roof. One of tlie pierced lions' heads for rain-
water is shown on the top-member (cymatium) of the
cornice.
with sculpture, usually of figures in relief or in
the round. The metopes {fiiT6in\, metopa), or
panels between the triglyphs, were filled with
6-2
ARCHITECTURA
circular plan. [Prytaneion.] Remains of the those of the Greeks. The walls were built of
Tholos at Epidaurus have recently been dis- large squared blocks (opus qiiadratum) of the
covered.
Another circuliir temple or Heroon was the
Philippcion at Olympia.
lionian Temples.
local stone, and coated with a fine hard cement.
Only a very few of the most magnificent
Roman temples were built of solid blocks of
marble. Under the Empire concrete was very
largely used for foundtitions, and for the inner
Little originality was shown by the Romans core of walls : it was made of lime, pozzolana
in the designs of their temples, as in other (pulvis Puteolanus), and broken fragments of
artistic matters. In early times Roman temples stone. [Caementum.j
were copied from those of the Etruscans ; in ] Other noteworthy temples in Rome, of most
later times, from Greek temples, more or less of which remains still exist, are these :
modified to suit their different practical needs. The Temple of Vesta, at the south of the
In its primitive form the Etruscan temple Forum Ronianum, one of the most primitive
was a wooden structure, with trunks of trees for and sacred of all the Roman temples ; in it was
columns, widely spaced, and carrying a timber preserved the sacred fire, guarded by the six
architrave. Terracotta mould-
ings, friezes, and other enrich-
ments were very largely used,
all decorated with rather coarse
painting in different-coloured
ochres, and the brilliant red
muiiuiti. The statues and re-
liefs were also of terracotta.
The Roman Tuscan style was
a survival of the ancient Etrus-
can forms. Tlie most important
example of tliis was the great
Temple «f Jupiter Capitalinus,
one of tlie earliest of the Roman
temples, wliich, though fre-
(jnently burnt and rebuilt, was
always restored on the old Etrus-
can plan, tliough probably with
variety of detail (cf. Plin. xxvi.
5) for religious reasons.
The colla of a Roman temple
was usually wider in proportion
tlian that of a (ireek temple,
and was without 'aisles' or
Fig. lao.— The Xcmple (afd'i)ot Vesta, as rebuilt by SeTcnis, restored from
existing rL-muliii> by Conun. Ltincianl.
iner ranges of free columns, though ' engaged ' , Vestal Virgins. This most sacred of all Ro-
or even complete columns were very commonly man slnines was not a tern plum in the strict
set alon" the walls of the cella, both inside and meaning of the word, but rather an aedes sacra,
out There was freijuently no peristyle along as it was not consecrated by the augurs, the
the flanks of the Roman temples. Roman presence of the sivcred fire being sufKeient to
temples were very often set, not on a mere stylo- give it a character of the highest sanctity,
bate of steps, but on a lofty base or /)odtMM«, The Pantheon, built by M. Vipsanius Agripi)a
with plinth and cornice of its own. in 27 B.C. in the Caminis Martius, is the most
In .s«jm<' Roman temples windows were intro- stately and magnificent of all Roman circular
duced. The slope of the roof and of the pedi- temples. It was, most probably, originally de-
ments was much steeper in a Roman than in a signed as part of the Thermae of Agrippa, near
Greek temple. Monolithic columns of coloured to which it .stands ; but it seems to have been
marblf! or granite were commonly used, and in consecrated as a temple to a number of deities
matters of construction and decoration generally as soon as it was completed,
tha differences were very great. On the whole. The Temples of Castor, of Diviis lulius, of
Roman temples were loftier tlran those of the
Greeks, lighter in their general proportions,
and had tlieir columns more widely spaced.
The closest (most pycnostyle) intercolumaia
Concord, of Vespasian, and of Faustina, all
in the Forum Romanum.
The Temple of Mars Ultor, in the Forum of
Augustus, dedicated to commemorate the ven-
tion that Vitruvius (iii. 3, 2) mentions has wider geance taken on the murderers of Julius
spans than any of tlie chief Doric temples of Caesar.
the Greeks. The whole interiors of the temples | The Temple of Peace (tf> be distinguished
tveie frequently lined with thin slabs or veneers from the Basilica of Maxentius), in which were
[criistae) of richly-coloured marbles, wliich, ' placed the spoils of the Templi' at Jerusalem,
irom the tune of Augustus onwards, were im- 1 sacked by Titus in 70 A.n., including the candle-
porled in immense (juantities from Asia Minor, | sticks, the table of offering and the trumpets,
Greece, Northern Vfrica, and other countries.
Treasures ni Roman Temples. — .\s was the
case with Greek temples, vast stores of treasure,
sacied, public, or private, were frequently pre-
^erved in tlie temples of the Romans. These
treasuries were usually cellar-like cavities in
the immense mass of concrete which forms the
bulk of the podium. See fig. 23. (Cf. Juv.
xiv. 260.)
in early times the methods of construction
all of gold, which are represented m one of the
reliefs inside the Triumphal Arch of Titus on
the Summa Sacra Via. No remains of this
temple are now known.
Tiie Templeof Jupiter Cap It oltnus(AetnCTihed
above) on the Capitolium, and that of Juno
Moneta on the .\rx ; the so-called Temple of
Vesta in the Forum Boarium, close by the
mouth of the Cloaca Maxima.
The double Temple of Roma Aeterna and
used in Roman temples were vciy similar to 1 Venus Felix, built by Hadrian and Antoninus
ARCHITECTURA
G3
Pius, aud said to have been designed by
Hadi'ian.
(For accounts of other Roman temples, see
Middleton, Ancient Rome in 1888.)
Provincial Temples.
Remains of a large number of important
Roman temples still exist in Asia Minor, Africa,
Gaul, and other provinces of tlie empire, the
best known of which is the Maison Carrie at
Nimes (Nemausus).
History of Architecture.
The FiEST Period, chiefly mytliical, comes
down to the time of Kypselus, 01. 30, 660 B.C.
Our information respecting the first period
is derived from the Homeric poems, the tra-
ditions preserved by other writers, and the
most ancient monuments of Greece, Central
Italy, and the coast of Asia Minor. Strongly
fortified cities, palaces, and treasuries are the
chief works of the earlier part of this period ;
and to it may be referred most of the so-called
Cyclopean remains ; while the era of tlie Dorian
invasion marks, in all probability, the com-
mencement of the Doric style of temple archi-
tecture. The principal names of artists belong-
ing to this period are Daedalus, Euryalus,
Hyperbius, Dokius, and some others. In the
Second Period (660-478 b.c.) the art made rapid
advances under the powerful patronage of the
aristocracies in some cities, as at Sparta, and of
the tyrants in others, as Kypselus at Corinth,
Theagenes at Megara, Kleisthenes at Sikyon,
the Peisistratids at Athens, and Polykrates at
Samos. Arcliitecture now assumed decidedly
the character of a fine art, and became asso-
ciated with the sister arts of sculpture and
painting. Magnificent temples sprang up in all
the principal Greek cities ; and while the Doric
order was brought to perfection, the Ionic order
appeared, already perfect at its first invention,
in the great temple of Artemis at Ephesus.
The ruins still existing at Paestum, Syracuse,
Agrigentum, Selinus, Aegina, and other places, ,
are imperishable monuments of this j)eriod. j
Nor were works of utility neglected, as we see \
in the fountain of the Peisistratids at Athens, j
the aqueduct at Samos [Aquaeductus], the
sewers {uir6vofx.oi) and baths (Ko\vfxp-i}dpa) at
Agrigentum. To this period also belong the
great works of the kings at Rome. Tlie com-
mencement of the Third Period (478-323 b.c.)
was signalised by the rebuilding of Athens, the
establishment of regular principles for the lay-
ing out of cities by Hippodamus of Miletus, and
the great works of the age of Perikles, by the
contemporaries of Pheidias, at Athens, Eleusis,
and Olympia; its termination is marked by the
works of Deinokrates and his contemporaries
at Alexandria, Antioch, and other cities. The
first part of the Fourth Period (323-146
B.C.) saw the extension of Greek architecture
over the countries conquered by Alexander,
and, in tlie West, the commencement of the
Roman styles. A period of transition from Greek
to Roman architecture follows (146-31 B.C.).
By tlie time of Augustus, Rome was adorned
with every kind of public and private edifice, sur-
rounded by villas, and furnished with roads and
aqueducts ; and these various erections were
adorned by the fonns of Grecian art. The early
part of the Fifth Period, that of the Roman
Empire, is made illustrious by the numerous
works of Augustus and his successors, especially
the Plavii, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the
Autonines, at Rome and in the provinces ; but
from the time of tlie Antonines the decline of
the art was rapid and decided.
Glossary of ARCHiTECTUE.'iL Teems.
Abacus. — The liighest member of a column, imme-
diately under the architrave.
Acanlhns. — The conventional ornament of the Co-
rinthian capital.
Acroivria. — Pedestals on the centre and sides of pedi-
ments. [Fastigium.]
Antae (nopaa-TaSc;). — Jambs supporting the lintels of
doors ; hence pilasters on a wall. (See cut under
Antae.)
Antefija (see cut under Antefixa).— (!) Ornaments of
terra-cotta or marble, usually in tlie form of lions'
heads, below the eaves to carry off rain-water. (2)
Upright ornaments above the cornice.
Anlepagmenla.— The jambs of a doorway. See Siiper-
ciliuni.
Ainili {ludvTcs). — Annulets, the necking of a Uori<;
capital.
ApophiHjf or Apothesis.—Fr. congi. The ' escape ' or
start of the shaft of a column from the base ; usually
moulded into a hollow.
A raeostuJe. — See Intercolumniation.
Arch. — [Areas.]
Arc/dtriive (em.a-TvKiov). — (1) The lowest member of
the entablature. (2) Moulding round the exterior of
an arch.
Arcliivolt.— Cl) The under surface or soffit of an arch.
(2) A band of mouldings round the voussoirs of au
arch, terminating upon tlie impost.
Arris. — The sharp line of meeting of two surface.s.
Astragal (ao-rpa-yaAos).— A semicircular moulding^
consisting of long and short beads, used in all styles
except the Doric.
A IJanles. — See Atlantes.
Attica. — A low story or entresol above an entablature.
Attic base, or Atticurges. — Consisting of upper ami
lower torus and a scotia and fillets between them :
usetl first at Athens in Ionic buildings, and after-
wards in other styles.
Balteus. — The ornament of the side of the pulvinus or
bolster of an Ionic volute.
Bund. — A flat member or moulding smaller than a
facia.
Base (spira, inrclpa). — The band which encircles the
lowest part of a column. Doric columns have no
base.
Bead. — A moulding whose section is circiUar.
Bell (xaXaOoi) — The body of a Corinthiau capital
stripjied of ornament.
Holster or Baluster {pulvinus). — The side of an Ionic
volute.
Cnmara. — A barrel vault.
Ciinaliculi and -ae. — The grooves of tlie trigly])hs.
Canalis.— (\) The spiral channel beginning at the eye
(oculus) and following the curves of the volute of an
Ionic capital. (2) The fiute of a column.
Caiitherii. — Rafters.
Capital. — The highest member of a column, immedi-
ately under the abacus.
C'apreoli.— Struts or braces of a roof.
Caryatides (Kapva.Ti.Sei), Atlantes, Telamoues.— Wwnv^n
figures used as columns.
Caulicoli {-ae). — The eight lesser branches or stalks
in the Corinthian capital.
Covetto. -A hollow moulding of a quarter of a circle.
Cincture. — The necking (vTTOTpaxrj>^i-ov) of a column ;
also a ring above the ba.se.
Coffer (lacus). — A panel in a vault or ceiling.
Colonnade. — A range of columns with entablature, Ac.
Tetrastyle, decastyle, &c., denotes the number of
columns : araeostyle, diastjle, &c., the proportional
distance of intercolumniation. For other tei-ms
see Temple Architecture, above. The colonnade
(infpov) round a temple or similar building is called
the peristyle (peJisttilium, nepicnvMov).
Columen or 'Culmen.— The ridge-piece of a roof.
Console.— [ Janua. ]
Corbel. — A range of stones projecting from a Mall in
regular proportion upwards and outwards.
Corbelled arch. — An arch of which the stones are not
centred but project horizontally from spring to
crown. It is not a true arch. An instance is the
arch in the Deir-el-Bahri at Thebes. (See cut under
Arous.) Others are found at Tiryns, Athens, and
elsewhere in Greece.
64
ARCHITECTURA
-Tlie upper division of the
Vornice (^corona, yeiiroi').— Tlie upper division of the ing, divided into panels or coffers (lacus, lacunar)
entablature. -AJso the under surface of any member of an order.
Corona (yeiiroi').— The larmier or principal projcf- ^7-m»^=C!orona.
tion of the cornice immediately under the cyma '•'•' ^-^ "'-"■ —
tiam.
Crypta, Cryptopor liens.— lCiy^ta..'\
Cupola. — The inner surface of a dome.
Cushion or Coussiiiel.— The part of an Ionic capital
(front and back), between the echinus and abacus,
formed by the curves of the volutes between the
helices. The side of the volute is called baluster or
bolster (pulciniis).
Ci/mu and Cymatium (kvijm, KvnaTtov). — An ogee
moulding or curve of contrary tlexure. Cyma recta
is concave above and convex below. The converse
is caUeil cyina reeersa.
Cymatium is also used for the upper moulding of a
cornice, frieze, or arcliitrave.
Cym*ia= Fillet.
Dado.— The die (Pr. rf<f) or part of the pedestal between
base and cornioc.
Di'iilil.i (denticiili). — Small square projections in the
cornice, supposed to represent the ends of laths in a
flat roofing. The .space between two dentils is called
an intenlentil, and varies from two-thirds to one-
half of the width of the dentiL
Diaslylp. Dipteral, Decaslyle, Uexastyle, &c.— [Tkmplk
Ahchitkcturk.]
Dome. — .\ hemispherical or otherwise formeil convex
rftof over a building of circular or polj'gomd ground
|>lan.
Drops (ijuttae). — Small frusta, or truncate"! cones or
cylinders used as ornaments under the triglyphs
.Viid in the soffits of the mutules of the Doric order.
Drum. — A block of stone forming part of the shaft of
a column.
Echinus. — The ovolo or quarter round supporting the
abacus in a Doric capital, and used also in other
stylos. In the Doric order it is a convex moulding
in the form of a conic section (see figs. 'J4, 95). In
the Ionic order it is carved with the egg-and-arrow
ornament (see fig. 100).
l'.ij(i-and-arrow or E'jg-and-tongw (see flgs. 100, 102).
Entablature. — .\11 tliat comes above the capital of a
column, divided into three parts — architrave, frieze,
anil cornice.
/iVi/diu.— [See above, Evtasis.]
Epistyliiim («jri(rTvA40»') = Architrave.
E.<cape = .\pophyge.
E.rtra<lo.i.— The outer (Intrailos, the inner) curve of
un arch.
Fticia or Fascia. — A flat member of an order : e.{/. the
Ionic and Corinthian architraves arc dividei^l into
three facias.
Fnsti<jiam. — [Fastigium.]
Femur (/nrjpo?). — See Triglyph.
Fillet.— .\ narrow flat band used to separate one
utDuIding from another.
Flute.f or Flulinjs (jtafuo-fiara, striO'- or striip-n).—
Upright channels on the shafts of columns.
Fret.— A. surface ornament of vertical and horizontal
lines.
Frieze (:ophorus, ^uic^opos).— The second member of
the entablature.
Frustum.— .\. truncated solid, such as a cone, cylinder,
or pyramid. Sec Drops,
(llyphs (canalieulae. yAu<^oi)-— The grooves of tri glyphs.
(iuttae.Sco Drops.
J/eli.c (i'Atf ).— .\ volute, commonly applie<l to denote
the small volutes, lt> in number, under the abacus of
a Corinthian capital, briinching out of the caulicoli
or stalks wUii-h rise from between the leaves.
/{upaithral.—[TKM vu: .Vucuitectuii[':l]
J fiipol riichitium.— The necking of a column. (1) In
the Doric order one or more narrow grooves tra-
versing the dutes. (2) In the Ionic, a band of orna-
ment under the o>.'hinus ; absent in the Corinthian.
(3) In the llonian or^lers, Tusimu and Doric, it is a
conspicuous feature, consisting of a torus and faciae,
and placed lower than in the (ireek styles.
Impost. — The capital of a column or pilaster which
supports an arch.
/ntercoliimniafion. — The dist4»nce between two columns
measured imnieiliately alxive the base. When the
distance is 4 diameters, the term used is araeostyle :
the next degrees are — iliastyle, 3 diameters ; eustyle,
2| ; systyle, 2 ; pycnostyle, IJ.
Diterdenlil. — Sec Dentil.
Isodomum. - [Murus. ]
Keyitone.' The highest or i-entral stone of an arch.
lAicunar or Laqtuar. — .\ coffered dome, vault, or ceil-
List.—See Platband.
Metope ( metopa, fxtromq ).— The square space between
the triglyplis. See above ( Doric Order [Greek] ).
Modillion.—k projection under the corona resembling
a bracket. A modification of the mutuie.
Module {in^afi)<:).—X scale of me:is-urement taken
from the building itself. The usual module is a
diameter or semi-diameter of the sliaft immediatfly
above the base. [Modulus.]
Moulding.— The contours of the projecting or recoling
members of an order. Greek mouldings are formi'd
by some conic section ; iioman mouldings by arcs
of circles.
Mutuie. — An inclined plate under the corona of the
Doric order, ornamente<l with guttae on the under
side. It is taken to represent the ends of a sloping
roof timber.
Neck or Seeking (of a column).— See Hupotraehelium.
Ogee.— A curve of contrary flexure = cyma.
Ovolo.— In Roman architecture, a quarter-circle (or
less) convex moulding ; the similar concave is called
cavelto. See Echinus.
Farastatae.-See .intae.
Pediment (fastigium, dfrwiia). — The gable enil of a
building or portico.
Pendentive.— The portion of a circular dome built
over a square which ilescends into the angles of the
square.
Peripteral, Peristyle, &c.— [TE-MPUt ARClIITKCTUttK.]
Peristyle.— (I) A square court with a colonnade rouni',
it. (2) The colonnade itself.
Pilaster. — See Antae.
Platband. — A flat mouUling, narrow but deep, such as
the list between flutings.
Plinth. — A square tablet supporting the base of :i
column.
/'o</ii/m=Stereobate or stylobate. (See also Amphi-
theatrum.)
Portico.— \ porch or coverc<l path in front of a build-
ing. Sec cut of Pantheon.
A)rnciis = Peristyle, a colonnarlc (irT«'flo»').
Pronnos, Pro.t'yte. — [TuMPl.K .•VnciUTECTl'RF..]
Propiiliiea ( ripoTTijXaia, plur.). — .\n entrance gate-
way ami the adjoining buildings, as on the Acropolis
at Athens.
Pteroma (ambulatio, n-Ttptofia). — The space between
the wall of a building an<l the peristyle.
Pteron (irttpoi'). -.V row of columns along the side of
a temple : hence apteral, dipteral, ic.
Pulrinus, Pulvinata. — See Bolster.
Purlins (templa). — Horizontal pieces of timber restiiiij
on the rafters of a roof, to spreail the weight.
Quoins (C'oiV'i).— -^igular courses of stone at the corner
of a buil(ling : in Iioman work sometimes nisticatcil.
[Murus.]
Regula or lifglet. — A band below the taenia in Doric
architecture.
Roman order.— See COMPOSITE OUDKn.
Jtusiic order, Hustication. — A kind of masonry in which
the joints are workctl into grooves or channels, and
the surface of the stones is left rough, or worked
into a iiattern. [Murua.]
.Hcape or Scapiu (aufia). — Tlie shaft of a column.
.Scotia ((TKorio, Tpo^'Aot, a pulley). — A hollow mould-
ing between the fillets of the tori.
Scroll.— .\. con volved or spiral ornament; the volutes
of a capital.
Segmental arch. — One which springs from a point
above the centre from which it is struck,
^'trrui = Cyma.
.s'o/fir — The lower surface of an arch, vault or ceiling.
or cornice.
Spandrel.— The space between the curve of an arch
and the inclosing right angle.
Spira (a-ireipa). — The base of a column.
Stereobate. — Tlie basement of a building.
Stilted arch. — A semicircular arch the spring of which
is not from, but above tie impost.
Striae, Striges. — See Flutes.
Stylobate. — The upper step of the stereobate ; also used
for the whole.
Supercilium.- The lintel of a doorway.
Taenia (rairia). — The fillet or band on the top of a
Doric frieze.
Taliuf = Fillet, a small facia.
Teetorium opus. — Stucco. [Pariea.]
Telamomt. -See Caruatiiles.
Testudo. — A vault or dome.
APXIGEHPOS
Thrust (of an nrcli^.—Thc lateral pressure of the areli
stones, wliioli is met in Gothic architecture by
buttresses, in Roman work chiefly by tlie strength
of the walls.
Torus. — A large moulding of semicircular section.
Trachelium. — The neck or part of a column between
the capital ami the torus or hypotrachelium.
Trigltiphs (TpiyAu<i)oi). — Vertical tablets in tlie Doric
frieze having two channels, and two half-chaunels
at the angles ; the spaces between the channels
(canaliculae, y\v^aC) are called feniorn (^Tjpot).
The space between two triglyphs is termed vn-tope
(HeTOTTTl).
Trochilitx = Scotia.
Tympannm. — The face of a pediment ; also the die of
a pedestal.
Vault. — An arched roof. The largest quadrangular
vaults in existence are those of the Baths of Diocle-
tian and Caracalla, about 85 feet in span. Tlio
great Hall of the Basilica of Maxentius (Constan-
tini) was 83 ft. wade and 191 ft. high. Roman
vaults were mostly of solid concrete.
Volutr. — Tlie spiral scroll which is the principal
feature of the Ionic order. See Helix.
Vottssoir. — A stone f(irming part of an arch. Tlie
central voussoir is called the keystone.
Windows, in Roman architecture, are rectangular
openings, with architraves like those of doorways.
Zophorus (^w^o'pos) = Frieze.
'ApxiSewpos- [Delia.]
Architim [dpxi^ov) properly means any public
place belonging to the magistrates, whether
among barbarians (Hdt. iv. 62) or Greeks
(Xen. Hellen. v. 4, § 58). At Athens, the record
office is sometimes called rh Srnxoaiov (Dem. de
Cor. p. 275, § 142). The archives were kept in
the temple of the Mother of the Gods (fjLT]Tp^ov),
and the charge of them was entrusted to the
president (iincnaTris) of the senate of the Five
Hundred. (Dem. de Fals. Leg. p. 381, § 129.)
The word is used in late Latin.
Archon (apxwv). The title of the chief magis-
trates in many Greek states, as Boeotia, Megara,
Delphi, Thessaly, Loki-is, the islands, &c. At
Athens, according to tradition, royalty was
abolished on the death of Kodrus, 1068 B.C., and
his son Medon became the first archon for life.
The archonship remained hereditary in the line
of Medon and twelve successors. The head of
the state, we are told, was still called /SacriAeus
([Arist.] 'A6. iroA. 8) ; next to him was the iroKe/j.-
apxos, and the third was styled &px<^v ; the
two latter were probably appointed by the
Eupatridae for a term of years. The next step,
dated 01. 7.1 = 752 B.C., was to limit the con-
tinuance of the office to ten years, still confining
it to the Medontidae, or house of Kodrus. In
713 it was thrown open to all the Eupatridae.
"With Kreon (683 B.C.), the archonship was made
annual, and put into commission among nine
persons. At this time we may suppose that
the title of ^o.aiXevs for the head of the state
was abolished, though the name was retained
for the officer who was head of the state religion.
At the same time, the chief minister of the king,
the &px<»v, was promoted to the titular headship
of the state. It is from this date (683 B.C.) that
trustworthy Athenian chronology begins; and
these nine archons annually changed continue
tliroughout the historical period (Grote, ch. x.
init.).
Though these accounts are legendary, not
historical, it is clear that at Athens, as elsewhere
in Greece, hereditary monarchy passed into a
commonwealth which at the dawai of authentic
histoiy was still in its oligarchic stage. The
ancient monarchy appears to have been not
only changed in name but also made responsible
(inrevBvvoi) to the general body of Eupatridae
(Pans. iv. 5, 10), then, and long after, the only
full citizens or Srjjxos.
ARCHON
65
The government by archons chosen from the
leading families tended to become oligarchical
rather than monarch ical ; the prestige of royalty
had vanished, though Athens, like other ancient
republics, granted a large amount of arbitrary
authority, even in matters of life and death, to
her chief magistrates.
The nine annual archons during nearly the
first century of their existence were still chosen
from the Eupatridae exclusively, and by show
of hands (apx'h alperr) or xetpoTot'TiTi)). They
were the supreme magistracy, combining the
chief administrative and judicial functions. With
the exception of cases of homicide, transferred
(it is said, by Drako, 621 B.C.) to the 'E<J)€Tat,
tlie entire judicial system seems to have been in
their hands. At the time of Kylon's revolt (about
612 B.C.) they still managed the greater part of
the public affairs (Thuc. i. 126). This arrange-
ment continued till the timocracy established by
Solon (594 B.c.l, ^.vho made the qualification fof
office depend not on birth but property, still re-
taining the election by suffrage. Two important
changes remained to be made before the age of
Perikles : the abolition of the property qualifica-
tion, and the election by lot. The former of these
changes was effected by Aristeides, 479 B.C., by a
law that the archonship and other offices should
be open to all Athenians (Plut. A/ist. 1).
The question at what time the election by lot
was introduced :s difficult and obscure. Some
light has been throv/n upon it by the discovery
of the Aristotelian treatise on zhe constitution
of Athens ('A6r;yaiwu TroAireiaV It is probable
that the archons v/ere at first nominated by the
Areiopagus ; under the Drakonian constitution,
by the ekklesia; under the SoiOiian constitu-
tion, by lot from candidates, ten fi-om each of
the four tribes ; under that of Kleisthenes, di-
rectly by the people in the ekklesia ; after
487 B.C., by lot from 100 candidates selected by
the tribes ; and finally, the candidates also were
chosen by lot.
It is probable that the nine archons belonged
each to a different tribe. The tentti tribe was
represented by the ypaij.fj.arevs or secretary
([Arist.] 'A6. ttoA. 55). An archon, before enter-
ing on office, underwent a double dokimasia
[AoKLiJLacrLa], before the senate and before a
dicastery. The archon was examined as to his
being a legitimate and a good citizen, a good
son, having served in the army, and being
free from bodily infirmity such as would dis-
qualify him from ceremonial functions. Each
of the archons, in common with other magis-
trates, was liable to be deposed, on complaint
of misconduct made before the people, at the
first regular assembly in each prytany. On
such an occasion an iirixeipoTOvia, as it was
called, took place [Xcupoxovua].
The archonship existed in name during the
greater part of the Roman period ; Athens being
a libera c.ivitas (iXevdepa Kol avr6vo/j.os), and
having iurisdictio according to its own laws.
But the archonship became merely honorary.
With the growth of democracy, the archons
gradually lost the gi-eat political iiower which
they had i^ossessed as late as the time of Solon,
perhaps even of Kleisthenes. They became,
not, as of old, directors of the government, but
merely mvmicipal magistrates.
The first, or president of the college of
nine archons, was called 6 apxt»Vi by way of pre-
eminence, and after the Roman conquest, iird-
vvfjLOS. The second was styled ^aaiKivs; tlie
third, TToAe'/iiapxos', or commander-in-chief; the
remaining six, decTixodeTai, or legislators. The
P
66
ARCHON
Arclion had the superintendence of personal
rights and liberties of citizens, of orphans and
their estates, heiresses, families losing their
representatives, Arc. In cases of wrong-doinj;
he was empowered to inflict a fine of a certain
amount, or to bring the parties to trial. Citizen
heiresses seem to have been under his peculiar
care, the polemarch having conesjwnding duties
when the heiress was an alien. The archon wa^
also the official superintendent of the greater
Dionysia and the Thargelia.
The functions of the ^affiKfvs, or King
Archon, were almost all connected with reh-
gion : his distinguishing title shows that he was
considered a representative of the old kings in
their capacity of high priest, as the Rex Sacri-
ficulus was at Rome. Thus he presided at the
Lenaea or older Dionysia ; sujierintended the
mysteries and the games called \afj.iraST](popicu,
and h;id to offer up certain sacrifices and prayers.
Indictments for impiety, and controversies about
the priesthood, were laid before him ; also casc-s
of malicious wounding (rpavixa ^k npovoiai) and
incendiarism lirvpKa'id} ; and, in cases of homi-
cide, he brought ielcxdyeiv, Elaavuve^SI the
trial into the proper court, and voted witii its
members. His wife, also, who was called
0a(riKt<r(ra or $aai\ivva, had to offer certain
sacrifices. His court was held in the 0affiKfui
(TTod. or fia(n\(1ov. (Dem. c. Andrvt. p. 001,
i;27; Lysias, c. Andoc.^ A\ Flato, Eut/iyplir.
351 A.)
The Polervarch was originally the coirmian-
der-in-chief (Hdt. vi. 109, 111); and we find
him discharging military duties as late as the
battle of Maratlion, in conjunction with the ten
(TrpaTijyoi : he tlicre took, like the kings of old,
the command of the right wing of the annj'.
This, however, seems to be the last occasion on
which the polemarch acted as a gi-neral, and
in after ages his duties ceased to Ije military :
he now appears as protector and superintendent
of the resident aliens {fxfroiKoi), standing in the
same relation to foreigners as tbe archon to citi-
zens. Thus, all actions affecting aliens, isoteb's
and proxeni, were brought bt'ft>re him pr(.'viou>ly
to trial (see Dem. r. Liter, p. "J40, § 4a). It was also
the polemareh's duty to offer the yearly sacrifice
to Artemis ['Avportpas QvaCa.], that in com-
memoration of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, and
to conduct the obseijuies of those who fell in
war. The iirwvvfios, fiacTiKfvs, and ■jroAf'/uopxos
were each allowed two assessors (ridptSpotito
assist them in the discharge of their duties. The
thesmothetae on occasion appointed (Tvfi0ou\oi.
The thesmothetae (makers, i.e. interpreters,
of Htauoi) did not act singly, but formed a col-
legium {avveSpiov). They were required to se-
view, every year, the whole body of laws.
[NofioGsTai.]
Li the Athenian legal system the thesmo-
thetae had a more extensive jurisdiction than
the three senior archons. They heard cases of
treason, bribery, falsification of money, and
others involving the high interests of the state :
in matters of private jurisdiction it may be said
that all cases not specially reserved to otlier
magistrates came naturally before them. Their
duties included the receiving of infonnations,
getting up cases as jiigcs d^ instruct ion, and
presiding at the trial before a jury {riftfuovia
diKaarriplov). Except in very few cases, the
archons did not decide themselves, but merely
brought the causes into court, and cast lots for
the dikasts who were to ti-y the issue. (Dem. c.
Sti^ph. ii. p. 113C>, §§ 22, 23.)
The archons also received informations
ARCULUM
against individuals who had wronged heiresses,
children who had maltreuteil their i>arents, and
guardians who had neglecttHl or defrauded their
wards. fKdKuaLS.j
In their collective capacity the archons also
superintended the tvixuporovia of the magis-
trates, which was held every prytauy (iwtpttru-
aiv (I SoKe't KoAtZis apx'"')' '""^ brought to trial
those wljom tlie people dejxised, if an action or
indictment were the consequfuce of it. They
also attended jouitly to the annual ballot for the
dikasts or jurymen, and pr<--tli .1 ir; the uM.sem-
blies for the election of St: nvhs, hip-
parchs, and phylarchs (sev ^•s).
The court of tlie Firr^t .\i\ ... ... 'Aie dyopd,
near the statues of the 'Eiruwjioi ; that of the
Basileus by the Boukolion near the Prytaneion
or in the fiaai\(tos aroi; that of the Thesmo-
thetae, in the Thesmotheteiou or Thesmothe-
sion, where they dined at the |)ublio expens*: ;
that of the Polemarch outside the city, adjoin-
ing the Lykeum. In their oath of office the
archons promised faithfully to observe the laws
and to be incorruptible, and in the case of trans-
gression to consecrate a golden statue at Delphi
I Arist. 'A0. iroA.).
The archons were exenipte<l from the trier-
iwchies — a Ix^in not allowed even to the succes-
sors of Hanuodius and Aristogeiton. As a
nuirk of their office, they wore a chaplet of
myrtle ; their persons were sacred, oflcnces
against them being
l>unishable by an-
/xia (Dem. r. Lt'pt.
p. 4C..'), § 28. c. Mid.
p. -.24, § 83). The
archons, at tlie close
of their year of ser-
vice, when they ha<l
deli\ered their ac-
count and proved
themselves free
from blame, were
admitted among the
members of the
-Vrtiopugus. [Areio-
paguB.l
'Apxijvns [T«-
Arcuatus currus.
'Currus
Arcuballista and
Manuballiata (xd-
po0a\\i(TTpai, a
crossbow, is prob-
ablv identical with tl
Fif. m.-Croasbow.
ic srorpionea minares
of Livy (xxvi. 47, 49), and the aKOpirUta of
Polybius (viii. 7). The crossbowiuaii is arcii-
biiltiatariim.
Ar culum or Arculus {cr-irtlpa, tvAtj). (1) A
I
Fig. 122.— Arcutiim. (From Tprracotta In lb*
UriUsh Miucum.i
ARGUS
67
pad or twisted ring (like the heraldic ' wreath ')
worn on the head, as now in Egypt and other
countries where burdens are carried on the
head: commonly called caesticillus. (2) A sacri-
ficial wreath made of a jjomegranate twig bent
into a circle and tied with white wool (Serv. acl
Verg. Aen. iv. 137).
Arcus [1] {^l6s, t6^ov), a bow. Used in war
by the Greeks in ancient times, but early aban-
doned by them, and only in use among barbaric
nations (Hdt. vii. 61-80). The Scythians and
Parthians were the most celebrated archers in
the East, and among the Greeks the Cretans,
who frequently served as a separate corps both
in Greek and in Roman armies. (Comp. Xen.
Anab. i. 2, § 9 ; Liv. xlii. 35.) The use of the
bow in the chase continued, nor was archery as
an exercise abandoned (Plat. Legg. i. p. 625).
A contest of archers is described in Horn. II.
xxiii. 850-84. In later times an dywv To^iKOs
was held at Keos and at Sestos.
Pandarus's bow (Horn. II. iv. 105-26) was
composed of the horns of a wild goat, sixteen
palms in length, joined by a straight stock
(irrjx'^s) in the centre, with a golden tip (/fopcocij)
at the end of one horn, on which, when the bow
was strung, -was fastened that end of the string
{vevpr], pevpa ^oeia, II. iv. 122, nervu-s) which
Fig. 123.— Greek Bows.
was not permanently attached. Such a bow is
represented in the upper figure in fig. 127,
from a fictile vase. In Hom. 11. iv. 115-126,
the action of shooting is described, and this
account is illustrated by the following figure.
In Od. xxi. 405-23 Odysseus shoots sitting.
into two unequal sinus. The outline of the
Black Sea is compared to a Scythian bow, the
southern coast resembling
the string, and the other
coasts recalling the two
curves of the bow, one of
which projects further than
the other.
When not used, the bow
was put into a case (to|o-
dijKT], ywpvTOS, corytus),
which was made of leather,
and sometimes ornamented
{(i>aiiv6s, Od. xxi. 54). The
bow-case is very conspicuous
in the sculptured bas-reliefs
of Persepolis. It frequently
held the arrows as well as
the bow. (Verg. Aen. x. 169 ;
Ov. Tr. V. 7, 15.)
The arrows were kept in
a quiver, ijharetra {(paperpa, Hdt. (papeTpedv).
Virgil applies to it the epithets Cressa, Lycia
[Georg. iii. 345, Aen. vi. 816) ; Herodotus re-
Fig. r2o. — Corytus,
Bow-case. (From a
relief in the Vatican.)
Fig. 126.— Scythians with bow-case and quiver.
presents it as part of the ordinary armour of
the Persians (vii. 61). The quiver, like the
bow-case (corytus), was i^rincipally made of
Fig. 124.— Figure in the Aeginetan Marbles,
drawing the Bow.
For a string a strip of leather was sometimes
used in place of the sinew of the ox or plaited
horse-hair (Verg. Aen. x. 622 ; Ov. Pon. i.
2, 21). The bow was sometimes straight like
tiie English long-bow ; sometimes of the form
shown in the cut.
The Scythian bow was distinct from the ordi-
nary Greek forms of the bow, and was carved
Fig. 127.— Pharetra. (From a Greek vase.)
hide or leather (Hdt. ii. 141), but also of wood
or metal. It was adorned with gold (Verg. Aen.
F 2
ARCUS
68
iv. 138, xi. 858), painting (Ov. Epist. Her. xxi.
173), and braiding (Theocr. xxv. '205). It had a
lid (iru>fia, Horn. II. iv. IIC).
The form of the Greek quiver is shown in the
cut below. It was suspended from the right
shoulder by a belt [Balteus J, passing over the
breast and "behind the back. Its most common
position was on the left hip (Pind. 01. ii. 151 ;
Theocr. xvii. 30).
Arcus [2j (also fornix, Verg. Aen. vi. fi31 ;
Cic. Verr. i. 7, 19, &c. ; Ka^ldpa). An arch. It is
possible to give an arched form to the covering
of any opening by i)lacing horizontal courses of
stones projecting over one another, from both
sides of tlie opening, till they meet at top, and
then cutting the ends of the projecting stones
to a regular curve. A true arch is formed of a
series "of wedge-like stones, supporting each
other, and all bound firmly together by their
mutual pressure.
The arch, as thus defined, was not used by
the (Ireeks in the .iuly periods of their history, j
circle, as is done in forming an arch. Tlius the
principle of this construction is that of an arch-
Fig. laO.-Arcb at I>elr^l-U»lirL
, shaped wall deriving its strengtli and coherence
I from the superincumbent weight. Another
I ii; Ij-.- \rclii^ ill the ryrnmlds at MeroC.
though it was familiar to the .Vfisyrians and
Egyptians, and employed by botli in situations
wiiere (asc.*/. in pyrainid^^ and underground) the
side supports afforded perfect security.' But the
constructive principle by which an arch is made
to afford resistance against pressure upon its
circumference, was known pnu-tically to the
Greeks in the earliest tinu-s — as is exemplified
in the chamber of Minyas at Orchomenus in
Boeotia, and tlie 'Treasury of Atreus' at My-
kenae ; tnich consisting of a circular chamljer
formed by regular courses of stones laid hori-
zontally over each other, eac-h cours<.! projecting
towards the interior, and beyond the one below
it, till they meet in an apex over the centre,
which was capped by a large stone, and thus
resembled the inside of a dome.
It will bo observed thateivcli stone is bevelled
off into the shape of a wedge, the apex of which,
if continued, would meet in the centre of the
Fig. 139.— Circular masonry at Mykenae.
• ' Even to the iireseiit day the Hindu-: rofuso to use
the arcli. tlioiinJi it has long been employed in tlieir
country bv the Maliometans. As they quaintly ex-
pres-s it, " An nrch never sleeps." ' ForKU».«>n. Hist, of
Architecture, p. 22, c<l. 1S74. Tlie Kgyptians and
Greeks probably nctcil on the same principle.
^-t^^^^
FlK. 1.11.— Polntca \Tc\\ In the walls of lirrna.
contrivance ust^'d in making galleries, was to cnt
away the superiucuiubent stones at an angle of
^j:V-
Fig. 11J -Giitcway nt ArptnOw
45° with the horizon. The gate of Signia (Segni)
in Latium exhibits a similar example.
ARCUS
The Etruscans are the first people who used
the true arch extensively, first in tunnels, after-
wards in buildings. The Romans doubtless
borrowed it from the Etruscans, but did not
employ it largely till a comparatively late
period. The use of the arch constitutes one
leading distinction between Greek and Roman
architecture.
In many Roman edifices we find the use of
the arched form without the principle of the
arch, as the facing of brick or stone covers a
concrete arch cast in one solid mass, and there-
fore without lateral thrust : e.g. in the Thennae
of Caracalla and the dome of the Pantheon.
[Caementum.]
Arcus [3] triumpha'lis. A structure pecu-
liar to the Romans, which seems to have taken
ARCUS TRIUMPHALIS
69
the principal streets of the city, and consisted
of either a single archway, or of a central one
celebrated. In process of time other arches
were erected, both at Rome and in the provinces,
which remained as permanent monuments. reliefs.
Fig. 137.— Arch of Constantine.
tnch remamed as permanent monum.u.«. ......=• Both ^-^^^Z.^^'l^^^^^i^l^!
Triumphal arches were usually built across agamst the piers, suppoitmg an entablature.
70
APAANION
surmounted by a lofty attica, on the front of I
wliicli was the inscription, and on the toj) of it j
bronze chiuiots, war-horses, statues and trophies, i
Tlie earlii-st instancesof triunijilial arches are 1
those built by L. Stertinius about 19G B.C. (Li v.
xxxiii. 27) in the Forum Boarium and the Circus i
MaxLmus. P. Scipio Africanus built another on 1
the Cliviis Capitolinus, 190 B.C. (Liv. xxxvi. 8). I
All these were surmounted by gilt statues. \
Five out of thirty-eight triumphal arches i
erected in the city of Rome now remain : the !
Arches of Drusus (so called), of Titus, of Septi- |
mius Severus, of Gallienus, and of Constantine. ,
Others were built in the provinces, some of which ■
are in existence (see Diet, of Antiq. vol. i. ■
[Arcus TKIUMPH.U.ISJ ; and Middleton, Anc. i
Eome iti IHHH). I
'ApSdviov (ordpSoAioi'). A vessel full of water
which was ])liu:ed at tiie door of a house in which
a dead body was lying, in order that persons on
leaving the house might purify themselves by
sprinkling themselves with the water (Eur.
Air. 100; Ar. Eccl. 1033).
A'rea. Any open space in a town, as : (1) a
site for building (Hor. Cartn. i. 9, 18 ; Ep. i.
10, 13). (2) The site of a house pulled down
and devoted to religious uses (coiisecratn) : r.tj.
the houses of Sp. Cassius (Liv. ii. 41) and Sj).
Maelius (id. iv. 10). (3) An open space in front
of a temple, house, or public building. Tl»e
areae before cemeteries often contained the
ustrimim or place where bodies were burnt.
Those in front of temples were often named
after the god, and consecrated to prevent en-
croachment : thus we have on-a Pnlluris,
Ajiolliiiis, Cnncordiae, &c. (4) [Agriculture.]
Areio'pagUS. The Areiopagus ("Aptioj irdyos,
AreusPagusl.orhill of Ares, at .Athens, is a rocky
eminence, lying to the west of and not far from
the Acropolis. Tlie commonly received account
connected the name with the legend of Ares
having been brought to trial there by Poseidon,
for the murder of his son Hulirrotliius. (Aesch.
Eitm. 088.) The Areiopagus was the seat of the
sacred council (i) iv Apdcfi iraytf $ovKii or i]
aro) fiouXri), a body of very remote antiquity,
acting as a criminal court of justice. It was
believed that Orestes was tried here for tlie
murder of his mother Klytaemnestra, Athena
being the judge. Even before the first Messe-
nian war (743 B.C.) began, the Messenians offered
to refer the points in dispute to the Argive
Amphiktyonj', or the Athenian Areiopagus, be-
cause this body was believed to have had juris-
diction in cases of manslaughter (Sinai ((foviKai),
' from of old.'
It seems to represent the Homeric council
of old men (Grote, eh. x.). We hear of the
Areiopagus chiefly as a judicial tribunal. But
in its original form, and till the time of Drako,
(who constituted tlie BovX-ri and transferred to
tlie 'EKK\T)aia the appointment of the ar-
chons), it existed pennanently as the highest
deliberative authority, as well as a supreme
court of justice. In pre-Solonian Athens this
ancient council had become only a criminal
court, trj-ing cases of wilful murder and wound-
ing, of arson and poisoning (Lex ap. Dem. c.
Aristocr. p. ()27, § 22). These powers were
abridged by Drako, who transferred to the
'E<t)«'Tai. the cognisance of all cases of homi-
<'ide. Solon restored to the Areiopagus all the
more important powers connected with the h'lKai
(^oi/((fa(, leaving to the Ephetae little more than
a ceremonial purification of blood-guiltiness.
The Areiopagus acquired fresh powers, and was
invested by Solon with the general super\'ision
AREIOPAGUS
of the state ; in particular, it watched over the
conduct of the magistrates in ofiice ; it con-
trolled the proceedings of the popular assembly,
with the right of stopping unconstitutional legis-
lation : and it possessed a censorial power of
maintaining public discipline, and of bringing
private persons to account for their behaviour.
Thus we find that they called persons to ac-
count for extravagant and dissolute living, and,
on the other hand, occasionally rewarded re-
markable cases of industry ; and made domici-
liary visits at private entertainments. At the
time of Xerxes' advance upon Athens they levied
a tax ; and as late as the time of the battle of
Chaeroneia (338 B.C.) they seized and put to
death those who deserted their country.
For the first sixteen years of the Athenian
naval supremacy (478-402 B.C.) the Areiopagus
was once more the ruling power in the state.
But its character, timocratic in constitution,
but aristocratic in spirit, was opposed to the
growing power of democratic feeling. Ephialtes,
the leader of the democratic party before Peri-
kles, with the assistance of Themistokles, carried
out, not without violence, a revolution, the result
of which was that the powers of the Areiopagus
were distributed among the Boule, the Ekklesia,
and the courts of law (462 B.C. : [Arist.] 'Afl. woA.
c. 20).
We may add that when heinous crimes had
notoriously been committed, but the guilty
|)arties were not known, or no accuser appeare<l,
tbe Areiopagus inquired into the subject, and
reported {d-Koipaiv fiv) to tiie demos. The report
or information was called d,ir6^<rii.
Tiieyalso had duties connected with religion,
one of which was to superintend the sacred
olives growing about Athens, and try those who
were charged with destroying them (Lysias,
ritpl ToO 'irjKov, § 22). It was their office gene-
rally to punish the impious and irreligious. We
are told that tliey controlled the studies and
education of the young, and they appear to have
exercised an undefined censorial power over
pu})lic decency of morals (Is<xt. Areiop. § 55).
The infiuence of the Areiopagus was a con-
siderable obstacle to the aggrandisement of the
democracy. Perikles, who never was an archon,
and who was opposed to the aristocraj'y, resolved
to diminish its jiower. His coadjutor in this
work was Ephialtes (Pint. Cim. 10, Pericl. 7,
9). They experienced much opposition in their
attempts, not only in the assembly, but also on
the stage, where Aeschylus produced his tragedy
of the Eumenidcs, the object of which was to
impress upon the Athenians the sacredness and
constitutioiuil wortli of the Areiopagus. The
opposition failed : a decree was carried, about
458 B.C., bv which the Areiopagus was ' muti-
lated.' (Arist. Pol. ii. 12, § 4 ; Cic. lirp.
i. 27, § 43.) Plutarch (Cun. 15) tells us that
the people deprived the Areiopagus of nearly
all its judicial authority (ras Kplffas irKi)i'
6\iywv airicras). The Areiopagus, however, did
not lose the S'lKai ((lovtKai, with the rest of their
general censorial authority. No doubt so con-
servative an institution st<x)d in the way of the
great development of Athens both constitu-
tional and imperial, and had to be checked.
But it is clear that the Areiopagus did not lose
all prestige by the severance of judicial and
executive functions. It was in the time of
Perikles, probably, that the Areiopagus, like the
Senate of Five Hundred, became accountable
to the demos, as, indeed, we know they after-
wards were. (Aeschin. c. Ctfu. § 20.)
The general ix)wer of supervision, now taken
AKENA
from the Areiopagus, became vested in seven
new magistrates called NoixotjJv^aKeg, who
were in their turn abolished when, in the
archonship of Eukleides, 40o B.C., the Areio-
pagus received back a part of its former
controlling authority. Neither the Noniophy-
lakes, however, nor the restored authority of the
Areiopagus were able to exercise ai y real check
upon the irresponsible demos. In the last
century of Athenian liberty, the 'ypa(pri irapa-
vofxoiv gradually superseded every other form of
control over constitutional changes.
No subserviency in judicial matters is im-
puted to the Areiopagus. Their tribunal, on
the contrary, is always spoken of as most just
and holy (see Dem. c. Aristocr. p. 642, § 66 f. ;
Lys. c. A)uloc. § 14). The procedure before the
Areiopagus was as follows : — The king archon
brought the case into court, and sat as one of
the judges, who were assembled in the open air.
The accuser, who was said e/s ''Apeioy irdyou
iiricTK-fiTrTeiv, first came forward to make a solemn
oath (SiciiiiJ.o(ria) that his accusation was true.
The accused then denied the charge with the
same solemnity and form of oath. Each party
then stated his case, keeping strictly to the
subject, and not being allowed to appeal in any
way to the feelings or passions of the judges
(Arist. Bhet. i. 1). The speakers were mounted
upon two unhewn stones {apyol \idoi), still visible
on the spot : that of the accused was called \i6os
v^peccs, that of the prosecutor \i6os dvaiSeias
(stone of implacability) (Pans. i. 28, § 5). After
the first speech, a criminal accused of murder
might remove from Athens, and thus avoid the
capital punishment fixed by Drake's Bea/jLoi,
which on this point were still in force. The
party who thus evaded the extreme punishment
was not allowed to return home {(pevya dei(pv-
yiav), to which penalty there was no exception.
See Plat. Lcgg. ix. 871 d.
The reputation of the Areiopagus as a crimi-
nal court was of long continuance, and the Areio-
l^agus existed in name till a very late period
(Cic. Fam. xiii. 1, Att. i. 14, v. 11).
It is not certain that the case of St. Paul (Acts
xvii. 22) was an instance of their authority in
religious matters ; but they certainly took cog-
nisance of the introduction of new and unauthor-
ised fonns of religious worship, called iwidsTa
hpd, in contradistinction to the irdrpia or older
rites of the state.
Are'na. [Amphitlieatruin,]
Areta'logi. A class of iiersons whose conver-
sation formed one of the entertainments of the
Roman dinner-tables (Suet. Aug. 74). They
are variously described as (1) improvisatori
who told miraculous stories (aperai) connected
with Oriental religions ; (2) poor philosophers,
chiefly of the Cynic and Stoic sects, who, besides
lecturing in public, obtained a maintenance at
the tables of the rich by their philosophical
conversation, and finally becanie a sort of
scurrae. (Juv. xv. 16.)
Argei (Argea). Numa(Liv. i. 21) consecrated
places for the celebration of religious services,
which were called by the pontifices Argei.
Varro calls them the chapels (saccUa) of the
Argei. They appear to have been twenty-seven
(3 X 9) in number, divided among the four ancient
regions (vici) of Rome, viz. Subura, Esquiline,
Palatine, Quirinal. They were said to be
named from the chieftains who came with Her-
cules, the Argive, to Rome, and occupied the
Capitoline or Saturnian hill. On the Ides (15th)
of May, the chapels were visited by a procession
headed by the Flaminica Dialis, and twenty-four
ARGENTARII 71
figures of men made of straw or osiers, also
called Argei, were thrown into the Tiber from
the Pons Sublicius by the Vestals. This cere-
mony, whatever its origin, was no doubt a
survival from human sacrifices to the infernal
gods, and was a purificatory offering to the
river-deity for the four regions. (See Burn,
Eome, p. 39 ; Ov. Fast. iii. 791, v. 621 sqq.)
Argentariae (sc tahernae). Seven stalls or
shoi^s on the north side of the Forum, behind
the tlu'ee Jani and in front of the Basilica
Aemilia (Liv. xl. 51), in which the Argentarii
carried on their business. They were destroyed
in the fire of 210 B.C. and rebuilt 194 b.cj. They
were called novae to distinguish them from the
seven veteres tahernae, which were rebuilt the
year after the fire. They were public property,
and let by the censors to their occupiers, who
are called {lomini argentariarmn. (Liv. ix.
40, 16, xxvii. 16, 16, xxxiv. 44.)
Argenta'rii [rpaireQ^Tai.). Dealers in money,
of every kind.
1. CtKeek. — The name TpaireQrris was applied
indifferently to men who carried on several
distinct branches of business. The KepjxaTKrrris
gave small change for the larger coins; the
KoAAy/SicTTijs changed foreign money at an agio
(KaraWayt)), or isrovided gold to be remitted
abroad (Dem. F. L. p. 376, § 114 = 124). The
Saveiarai advanced money at interest, or lent
it on the security of ships and their cargoes ;
hence at Athens their headquarters were in the
Peiraeus (Dem. c. Phorm. p. 922, § 51). This
class of business, as well as tliat of banking, was
mostly carried on by fieroiKoi or resident aliens
and freedmen.. As in modern times, such
bankers received money on deposit at a com-
paratively low interest and lent it out at a higher.
The interest allowed to depositors may perhaps
be estimated at a drachma per mina per mouth,
= 12 -per cent, a year (gTrl SpaxfJ-v), or 18 per
cent, (in' ivvia o^oXols). As lenders, where the
security was bad, tlie bankers made much higher
profits than this ; and we hear of loans at 36
IDer cent. ; and in the case of bottomry loans or
advances on ships' voyages, as the principal was
lost if tlie ship foundered, 25 or 30 per cent. See
Dem. c. Aplwh. i. p. 816, § 9, 11, c. Nicostr. p.
1250, § 13, c. Lacr. p. 926, § 10 ; and Fenus.
Money could be raised on plate and valuables
(Dem. c. Nicostr. p. 1249, § 9), land and houses
{c. Phorm. p. 946, § 6).
Notwithstanding the x^rejudice against all
taking of interest (Arist. Pol. i. 10, 4 ; Dem. c.
Callipjj. p. 1243, § 25), the higher class of
bankers in many instances (of which Pasion
is the most familiar : see Dem. j^'^'o Phorin.
p. 957 &c., and c. Steph. <tc. ; and Mahaffy,
Social Life in Greece, ed. 3, pp. 414-418) ac-
quired a high reputation for ability combined
with honesty ; their credit enabled them to raise
money at a moment's notice in distant cities ;
money and contracts of debt were deposited
with them, and agreements were concluded or
cancelled in their presence. On the other hand,
there are instances of bankers losing all and
becoming bankrupt {iKcnr]vai twv outijov, Dem.
2)ro Phorm. p. 959, § 50; dvaaKivd^iaQai, c.
Ai^atur. p. 895, § 9). Security was often bad;
and popular prejudice was reflected in the ill-
regulated and impulsive Athenian dikasteries,
in which the fi-audulent debtor had at his com-
mand every species of subterfuge and dishonest
contrivance against the creditor.
In early times, the place of banks was to some
extent supplied by the temples, which were used
as safe places for the deposit of treasure, and
72
ARGENTARII
had arge funds of their own, derived from the
rent of their estates and from votive offerings,
whicli tliey employed productively. (See Isocr.
Antul.ii2]i-2; Dem. c. Mid. p. 561", § 144; Thuc.
i. I'Jl.) No banks were either worked or guaran-
teed by tlie state.
2. Roman. — The existence of bankers {argen-
tarii) at Rome can be proved as early as 309 B.C.
(See Liv. ix. 40, 16.) Silver was not coined at
Rome till 268 b.c. ; but silver coin came in from
Etruria and Southern Italy.
As a distinct class the bankers were called
argenteae mensae exercitorvs, ticgotiatores
stij)iii (irgentariac, and tiegotiatorcs simply in
the Roman provinces. The terms numularii
and mensarii or mensulani are also used. The
argetitarii were bankers doing business on their
own account; the numularii., assayers and
officers of the mint, who also, as time went on,
were allowed to transact banking business, i.e.
receiving deposits, opening current accounts,
making loans, &c.
But though the bankers were private business
men, they were regarded as exercising a public
function, and in imj>erial times were under tlio
supervision of the praefectus tirli at Rome, and
in the provinces under that of the governor
(Suet. Galh. 9).
The various functions of argentarii may be
classified as follows: (1) Peruiutatio, or the
exchange of foreign coin for Roman coin, in
which case a small agio {collybus) was paid to
them (Cic. Vcrr. iii. T.s, 180) ; and in connex-
ion witli this, the negotiation of bills of exchange
(also called permntafio). (2) The keeping of
sums of money for other persons. If the money
was merely deposited for safe keeping, the
banker paying no interest (vacua pccunia), it
was termed depositutn ; if the argcntarius paid
interest and made use of the deposit in his
own business, it was cyeditum (Suet. Aug. 39).
When a payment was to be made, the owner
drew a cheque (perHcrihere, perscriptio ; scri-
berc). (Plaut. Cure. iii. 66, itc.) A payment
made through a banker was called ^;cr utensani,
dc inensa, or per incnsae scripfuram, while a
payment made by the debtor in person was a
payment ex area or dc doruo. (Plaut. Capt.
ii. 8, 89; Cic. Att. i. 9; Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 69;
Ter. Pltorm. ii. 413.) The argentarii kept ac-
curate accounts in books called codices, tabulae
or ratianes, and there is every reason for believ-
ing that they were acipiainted with book-keeping
by double entry (Obligatio litterarumj. Ac-
counts could be settled either in writing or
orally, and the debtor paid what he owed, and
then had his name effaced (numen expedirc,
cxnolvcre or expungere) from the banker's
books. (Cic. Att. xvi. 6.) The books of the
argentarii were looked ujjon as documents of
high authority, and in the courts of justice
(where, if called for, they had to be produced :
edere, proferre codicem) were appealed to as
unexceptionable evidence. (Cic. Cacc. 6, 16.)
(3) Their connexion witli commerce and public
auctions. In private sales and purchases, they
sometimes acted as agents for either party
{interpreter, Plaut. Cure. iii. 1, 64), and at
public auctions they were almost invariably
in'esent in person, or by their clerks or servants,
who were called coaetores from their collecting
the money. Horace's father (Hor. Sat. i. 6, 86)
and Vespasian's grandfather (Suet. Vesjj. 1)
were cuactirrcs.
Banking establishments were often owned by
several partners (.socii), each of whom was
severally liable for the debts of the firm, and had
ARGENTU3I
an action against a debtor to the firm. Slaves
acted as bankers on their own account with
their jjeculiutti, and the master was liable for
the amount of the jieculium sunk in the busi-
ness, but generally the slave was oidj' the man-
ager {institor) of the bank for his master.
During imperial times the argentarii organised
themselves into a collegium or corporation.
Wealthy argentarii who did business honestlj'
enjoyed as much consideration as bankers in
modem times ; others did business only on a
small scale, or degraded their calling by actuig
as usurers. The argentarii had their shops
round the forum (Liv. ix. 40; Ter. Phorin.
V. 8, 28) ; hence to become bankrupt was ex-
pressed hy foro cedere, or abire, or foro viergi
(Plaut. Epid. i. 2, 16). The shops or booths
(argentariae) were public property, and built
by the censors, who let them to the argentarii
(Liv. xxxix. 44).
Argcntarius also means a silversmith (i.e.
faber arg.) or dealer in silver plate.
Argentom. The use of silver among the
Greeks dates from pre-historic times. The
archaic tombs opened by Dr. Schliemann at
Mykeuae contained vessels and ornaments of
sUver. Homer mentions vessels of silver from
Sidou (II. xxiii. 743), or Egji^t (Od. iv. 125), or
of home manufacture (Od. xix. 57). Silver was
worked in the same mamier as gold and copper :
the material was beate^ out with a hammer and
fastened either with nails or solder, or else cast
in moulds.
In Asia, in the time of the Persian Empire,
silver was reputed as thirteen tinaes less valu-
able than gold (Hdt. iii. 95). Much silver came
to Greece from Asia in the way of commerce.
But there were also silver mines in Hellas,
especially those of Laureion, the property of
the Athenian people. There were also sUver
mines in the Pangaean range ui Tlirace and in
Ejjirus. Silver was in demand in Greece both
in the arts [Caelatura] and especially as coin-
age. The usual issues of Asia Minor were in
silver, and that metal was almost the only
currency in Hellas proper, and used with copper
in Sicily and S. Italy. As early as the sixth
century Aegina, Corinth, Athens, and many
other cities issued an abundance of silver coin.
In the time of Alexander the mines of Laureion
were of diminished richness. But their place
was far more than supplied by the enormous
treasures of silver which the Persian kings had
lioarded.
Italy produced less silver than Greece. Tlie
Etruscans were celebrated for working in silver,
and they issued silver coins as early as the fifth
century. The greater part of the metal employed
was probably either imported from Gaul or
brought by Phoenician traders. The Roman
tradition was to make little use or display of
silver plate. (Liv. Ep)it. xiv., xxvi. 86 ; Hor.
Carm. iii. 16, 14; Plin. xxxiii. Ib'i, paterani et
salinuni.) Before 268 B.C. Greek silver was in
circulation at Rome ; and the principal silver
coin of the Romans, the denarius,v,-a.ii borrowed
from the Greek drachma. The Romans after-
wards acquired the rich mines of Sjiain, wliich
the Carthaginians had worked before them.
But a much larger quantity of silver came in
from the East after the victories of Scipio
Asiaticus, which flooded Rome with silver as
with other luxuries, until silver tables and
silver dishes of great weight became common
at Rome, and even cooking utensils were some-
times made of the same material (Plin. xxxiii.
§ 140).
APriAS rPA>i>H
ProjJortionate value of gold, silver, and
copper. — Herodotus (iii. 95) says that the esti-
mate of gold in the Persian Empire was at
thirteen times that of silver. In the fourth
century the value of gold began to fall in
Greece ; and after Philip of Macedon had got
possession of the gold mines in Thrace, and
Alexander of the treasures of the Persian kings,
it fell to 10 to 1. Gold was to silver as 15 to 1
until the middle of the fourth century, and
afterwards as 1'2 to 1. The latter proportion
was then current in Italy. Under the Empire
it was as 12 or 10 to 1.
The relation between silver and copper in
Sicily and Italy was about 250 to 1. In later
times, and generally in Greece, copper coins
were money of account, and did not pass in
currency at their commercial value. Among
the Romans silver retained its standard until
the time of Augustus, who fixed the purity at
98-9 per cent. But after Vespasian the stand-
ard of silver currency decreased, until the so-
called silver monej- is but copper plated. The
substances used for adulteration of silver were
copper, tin, zinc, and lead, all of which are
found in the later Egyptian money. (For
silver as coin, see Coinage.)
' Ap-yias ypa.^r\. See Appendix, Greek Law.
Argyras'pides [apyvpacrTn^es). A division of
infantry in the Macedonian army of Alexander
the Great, who were so called because they
carried shields covered with silver plates. (Jus-
tin, xii. 7; Plut. Eum. 13.) The Greek kings
of Syria had a corps of the same name in their
army (Liv. xxxvii. 40 ; Polyb. v. 79).
'ApvvpoKO-irelov. The mint at Athens. It
appears to have been in or adjoining to the
chapel (fjpcpov) of a hero named Stephanephorus,
iu which were kept the standard weights for the
coins, as at Rome in the sanctuary of luno Mo-
neta. [Moneta.]
'ApvupoXoYOi (with or without j/^es). The
money-collecting shi]ps of the Athenians (Thuc.
iii. 19, iv. 50; Ar. Eq. 1071; Xen. Hell.
iv. 4, 9. They were ostensibly employed in
levying the regular tribute {(p6pos) from the
subject-allies ; but their commanders often
resorted to arbitrary exactions, even from
neutrals.
'ApLdSv€ia. Festivals solemnised in the
islands of Nasos and Cyprus in honour of
Ariadne (Plut. Tkes. 20).
A'ries (/cpids). A battering ram (Caes. B. G.
vii. 23; Verg. Ae7i. ii. 492 ; Liv. xxi. 12, &c.). It
consisted of a large beam, made of the trunk of
a tree, especially fir or ash. To one end was
fastened a mass of bronze or iron {Ke(pa\7],
ififioXi), TrpOTOfj.ri), which resembled in its form
the head of a ram. The ram was sometimes
suiTounded with iron bands, to which rings were
attached for the purpose of suspending it by
ropes or chains from a beam fixed transversely
over it. (See tig. 139.)
The use of this machine was further aided by
placing the frame {Kpio56xri) in which it was
suspended upon wheels, and also by construct-
ing over it a wooden roof, so as to form a testiulo
(xe^upv Kpio(f>6pos, App. Bell. Mithr. 73 ; testiulo
arietaria, Vitr. x. 19 : see fig. 140). The fi"ame
was also divided into stories, and the roof
covered with hides or plastered with clay. The
beam of the aries was often of great length,
80, 100, or 120 feet. A hundred or more men
were sometimes employed to swing it. In
order to break the arias, stones were dropped
from a height, and also nooses employed to
catch, and the Lupus to sever it.
ARISTOCRATIA 73
There is no reference to the aries in Greek
literature before the siege of Plataea (Thuc. ii.
7(5, where it is called ifx^oKi]).
Fig. 138.— Aries, Battering Ram. (From Column of Trajan.)
The ram first became an important military
engine in the hands of the Macedonians, under
PhililJ and Alexander the Great. The Romans
(trznfn
Fig. 189.— Aries, Battering Ram.
learnt the use of these machines from the
Greeks, and appear to have employed them
for the first time to any considerable extent in
the siege of Syracuse m the Second Punic War ;
Fig. IIU.— Aries with Testudo. (From the Aich of
Septlmiua Severus.)
on which occasion one of two rams used required
(iOOO legionaries to bring it up to the v/alls
(App._ de Beb. Pun. 98). [Helepolis.]
Aristocrat'ia (dpio-To/cpaTia). Literally, ' the
government of the best men ; ' and as used by
Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, &c., it meant the
government of a class whose supremacy was
founded, not on wealth merely (irXovTivSriv),
but on personal distinction (dpicTTii/STjf : Arist.
Pol. iv. 5, p. 127). It was moreover essential to
an aristocracy that affairs should be conducted
with a view to the promotion of the general
interests, not for the exclusive or predominant
advantage of the privileged class (Arist. Pol.
iii. 5, p. 83 ; Plat. Bep. p. 801 a). As soon as
the government ceased to be thus conducted,
or whenever wealth alone conferred power, the
constitution was termed an oligarchy (o\i7-
apxia), which was always looked upon aa
a corruption {■trapfK0aais) of aai aristocracy.
(Comp. Arist. Pol iii. 5, p. 84, iv. 3, pp. 117,
118.) The personal excellence, however, which
was held to be a necessaiy element of ari-
stocracy, was that which, accordmg to the
deeply-seated ideas of the Greeks, was com-
monly hereditary in families of noble birth
(Plat. Cratyl. p. 394 a ; Arist. Fol. iv. 6, t} yap
74
API^TON'
evyeveid iffriv apxaios ttKovtos Kcil aperi^) — ]
namely, wealth, military skill, and superior i
education and intelligence. The word dpi- I
ffTOKparia is never, like the English term ari-
stocracy, the name of a class, but only of a ,
particular political constitution.
In the state of society depicted in the
Homeric poems, the power of the kings is ]
already limited by that of a body of princes or
nobles (3a<TjAj)6s), such as would naturally arise
in circumstances in which martial skill would be
a sure and speedy method of acquiring supe-
riority. When the kingly families died out, the
supreme power passed into the hands of these
princes or chieftains, who formed a body of
nobles. The changes consequent on the rise of
the Hellenes, and the Thessalian, Boeotian and
Dorian conquests in Greece, established gene-
rally a state of things in which we find the
political power in the hands of a body of nobles
of the conquering race, beneath whom is a free
population not possessed of political rights,
consisting of the older inhabitants of the land ;
together with a body of serfs attached to the
domains of the nobles. The nobles bear various
names, as EuTrarpi'Sai in Attica, or Pajutipoi, as
in Syracuse and several of the Doric states. We
also find the nobles bearing the name 'Iirirdroi,
'Itrirfh, or '\Tnro&6Tai (Hdt. v. 77) ; and in most
states the first great advance of the commonalty
in power aro^e from their gaining greater effi-
ciency as heavy-anned foot soldiers. (See
Arist. Fol. iv. 3, 10.) Comp. EviraTpCoai,
r€UM,6poi, Patricii.
"ApicTTov. [Prandium.]
Arithmet ica (apid/xriTtKri, sc. rix^ o'" ^''^^'
(TTrjfiLTi, Plat. Gorg. 450 D, &c. : in Latin, Vitr.
i. 1, Plin. XXXV. 10, Sfi, § 76 : nunu^i is used
with the same meaning, Cic. Fin. v. 20, 87)
means generally the throrij of numltrr.s, or pure
arithmetic, as oi)pose(l to arithmetic applied to
the practical art of calculation iKoyiffriicr).)
The distinction is insisted on by I'lato (Gorg.
451 B, C, Etithyd. 290 B, c). But the line of
division cannot be sliarjily drawn. It would,
however, appear from Plato {li''p- P- 525 .v sqq.)
that any arithmetical operation in which
numbers alone were considered would fall under
apidiJ.r]TtKri, while such propositions as tliat (>00
obols make a mina would belong to \oyiffTiKr,.
The opposition between the two terms be-
came one, not of matter only, but of method.
For philosophical purposes, numbers were gene-
rally represented by dots or lines arranged in
geometrical figures (cf. Plat. TIteacf. 147, 148),
and operations witli the customary symbols a',
j8', &c., were referred to KoyiffTiKr], and were
seldom used in pure mathematics.
The principal (Ireek authorities on arithmetic
are the following : Pythagoras (c. 550 B.C.),
whose works, if lie wrote, have ])erished ; he
studied in Egypt and perhaps at Babylon, and
many of the earlier definitions and classifica-
tions are due to him and his school, of which
Philolaus and Archytas (c. 400 B.i.) are the
best known ; Plato and Aristotle ; Euclid (c.
300 B.C.), Eratosthenes (c. 250 B.C.), Nikoma-
chus of Gerasa [c. 100 .\.D.), Theon {c. 100 a.d.),
laniblichus (c. 300 A.D.), and Diophantus (c.
;ii.Mi A.D.). (See Class. Diet.) [Geometria,
Logistica.]
The introduction of the study of numbers
into Greece is universally attributed to Pyth-
agoras (c. 550 B.C.), who is said to have referred
all things to numbers. The chief subjects of
dpi0/U7jTiKi) were from the first, and remained
tuways, the classification of numbers, the theory
ARMARIUM
of proportion, and the summation of series.
Some attempt at a theory of permutations and
combinations may possibly have been made.
The first classification of numbers is that into
apTtoi and irfpiaffoi, ' even ' and ' odd.' This
division no doubt was older than Pj'thagoras.
A game was founded on it (Plat. Lysis, 206 y. ;
Ar. Plut. 816; apria.<^(iv). Of vfpicrcroi, also
called yvdfwves (a term applied by the Pytli-
agoreans to the five odd numbers, viz. 1, 3, '>, 7,
9), some are ' prime,' irpwrot, fWvaSi fiovr) fifrpov-
fxevoi (Eucl. vii. def. 11), e.g. 3, 7. 'Composite'
numbers are called avyderoi ; of which, ' plane '
numbers {iiriirtSoi} are the products of two
factors (irKevpcu), e.g. 15 ( = 3 x 5), and ' solid '
numbers (ffTfptoi) of three, e.g. 105 ( = 3x5x7).
Other terms are : rpiywvoi, ' triangular ' numbers,
as 3 (•■•), 6 (.v.), which are all of the form
n(n+l) „ 3 (3 -1- 1) , ,
^ -', as 6= '^ -,TeTpa7au'oi, square
numbers {IcroKis f(roi), as 4 (::) = 2 x 2; irpo-
urjKeis, of two unequal factors, as 42 = 6 x 7
(« [« -t- Ij) ; ' cubes ' (iffcufij taoi laaKis), as 8 =
2 X 2 X 2;d»'dA<{7o>'ord»'aAo7oi, 'proportionals';
r(\(ioi, ' perfect,' i.e. those which are equal to the
sum of all their aliquot i)arts, as 6 --■ 1 -t- 2-i- 3 ;
vwfpreKftoi, those of which the sum of the
aliquot parts is greater than the number, as
12, because '2 + S + 4 + G is greater than 12 ;
! 4\\fire7s, those of which the sum of the aliquot
parts is less, as 50, because *2 + H + 10 + 25 is
! less than 50 ; <f)i\toi, ■troKvyuvoi, &c.
Similar ratios (»; rwv Xoywv &fioi6Tns) pro-
duce a proportion {avaKoyla). The terms of
a proportion are in general called Spo«, the
I middle terms specially pif(T6rr)Tfs. By the
time of Nikomachus, ten kinds of propor-
I tion were distinguished, four of which were
ascribed to Pythagoras — viz. the aritliineticixl
(when a — b = c — d), e.g. 5, 7, 8, 10, the geo-
nirfrical (when a ■ b '•'■ i- '■ d), e.g. 4, 6, 10, 15,
the harinoniral or Wivavrla (when a — b ■ b -
r y. a '■ c), e.g. 6,3, 2, and the iiiusinil orrfAtio-
I rdrri, which exists between two numbers and
their arithmetical and liarmonical means
i („ : «.+_* "2^* : I as 6 : 9 :: 8 : 12). Har-
, 2 a + b
monical proportion is so called because a
string, if stopped at ^ of its length, gives the
fifth, and, if stopped in the middle, the octave
of the note which is produced by the whole
string, and 1, ^, A are in harnionical proportion,
' for 1 - if : i< - i':: 1 : i. [MuBica.l
I The terms of a progression, like those of a
pi'oportion, were called opot.
Annamenta'riiim (aKfvod-fjKT}. 6ir\o6-fiKr]). A
place where iinnanienta (i.e. any kind of im-
plements or utensils, but especially the tackle
of a ship) were kept; an annoury or, more
frequently, a naval arsenal for tackling. Sec, as
well as munitions of war. '^KevoditKat must be
distinguished from veaipia, dockyards, and ffciff-
otKoi, slips or docks. There was a celebrated
nrniantentarium i6ir\odvKT)) in the Piraeus,
built by the architect Pliilo about 342-330 B.C.
(Plin. vii. 38; Plut. Sull. 14). Others existed
at Syracuse, Rhodes, &c.
Among the Romans armamentaria were
places for the manufacture as well as the
storage of anus (Liv. xxvi. 51) ; and arms
might be served out from them in times of
public danger (Cic. C. liab. 7, § 20). We also
find them under the Empire (Tac. Hist. i. 80 ;
Juv. Sat. xiii. 83) at the Castra Praetoria in
Rome, and in the provinces.
Arma'rium. A cupboard, set upright in the
AEMILLA
wall of a room (usually tlie atrium), for food,
clothes, books, money, &c. (Plaut. Capt. iv. 4,
10; Cic. Chient. 64, 169; Plin. xxix. § 101).
The same name was given to a cupboard for
ARMS AND ARMOUPw
75
rig. 141.— Armarium in a cutler's shop. (Elumner, iv. 371.)
holding books (Plin. Ep. ii. 17, 8), and to the
divisions of a library (Vitr. vii. Praef. § 10).
Armi'Ua {viria, Plin. xxxiii. 39); \i/^\ioy, '6(pis,
XAiScoz', irfpiKapirtov, 7repi/3pax"^»"Oj').
1. A bracelet or armlet worn among Orien-
tals by men (Hdt. viii. 113 ; Xen. Ariah. i. 2,
§ 27), in Greece by women or effeminate men.
(1) Greek. — Bracelets and armlets are com-
monly shown in Greek art. They were worn
below and above
the elbow and on
both arms, and
also on the leg
[Periscelis]. A
snake (iitpis, Spa-
Kwv) was a com-
mon form (see
cut). The e\iKes
mentioned in Ho-
mer {II. xviii. 401)
may have been
spiral bracelets,
or spiral ornaments perhaps used as brooches
(see Helbig, Das Horn. Epos).
(2) Etruscan. — In Etruria men as well as
women wore bracelets, and the story of Tarpeia
points to the same usage among the Italian
Fig. 142.— Bracelet. (Jl/i/s. Borb.
vol. vii. tav. 46.)
peoples. Etruscan bracelets sometimes had
medals or hiillae dependent fi-om them. They
were ornamented with delicate work in gold,
and also with jewels and glass.
(3) Roman. — Bracelets were worn by women
at Rome, but not by men till the Empire.
Several of the emperors — Caligula, Nero, Ela-
gabalus, &c. — are represented as wearing them.
Other terms are brarchiale, sjmtalium,
spintcr (-Kipifipaxi-ovLov, irfpiKap-Kiov). Brac-
chiale was an armlet used on the upper arm
{Ppax'ioov), while ■KepiKo.p'Ki.ov was used on the
wrist (/capTTos) as a bracelet. Bracclnale and
Fig. 144.— Military bracelet found in Britain. (Brit. Mug.)
torques (also forquis) bracchialis are also used
as generic terms for armlet, as is also spata-
lium, conn-prising spinier {(r(piyKTi)p), an elastic
bracelet needing no clasp (Plant. Me>!. iii.
Fig. 143.— From a bronzo mirror in the British
MuBeum.
Fig. 145 —Roman bracelets.
(a) Bracelet found on the Palatine. (Caylus, v. 93.)
(b) found in Britain. (Brit. Mus.)
3, 4, &c.), and dextrale or dextj-ochirium, an
armlet worn on the right arm. They were
fastened with a clasp {copula), which was some-
times set with jewels.
2. As a military decoration, bracelets are
said to have been worn by generals triumphing.
Armillae {galbeiis or calbeus is another term)
were granted to soldiers and centurions for
good conduct fPhalerae, and cut there], usually
of silver (Liv. x. 44 ; Plin. xxxiii. 37).
3. A dog's collar.
Armilus'trium. A Roman festival for the
purification of arms, celebrated annually on
Oct. 19 (xiv. kal. Nov.), when at the sound
of the trumpet the citizens assembled at a place
called Armilustrium (-trum) on the Aventine,
and made sacrifice. The Armilustrium denoted
the close, the Quinquatrus the opening, of the
campaigning season. On both occasions the
ancilia were brought out by the Salii (Varr.
L. L. vi. 22).
Arms and Armour. "We proceed to give a
short account of the different arms, offensive and
defensive, worn by Greek and Roman soldiers.
1. Homeric. — Only a few actual represents-
76
ARMS AND ARMOUR
tions of these exist as early in date as the poems,
viz. the objects and paintings discovered at
Mykenae, Ilium, &c. : and therefore the exact
character of the armour mentioned in the Ho-
meric poems can only be gathered from the
poems themselves, and all conclusions must be
to a certain extent conjectural. But as the
general character of Greek armour did not
greatly vary during the historical period, we
may form from the representations existing in
vases, sculpture, and metal work, as well as
from actual specimens preserved in museums,
a fair idea of what is described in Homer. Of
these the earlier black-figured vases of the
seventh and sixth centuries give a panoply more
nearly resembling that of Homer than the red-
figured vases of the following century : and the
contemporary objects discovered at Mykenae
and elsewhere bear this out.
Some of the warriors, as shown in the objects
found at Mykenae and elsewhere, wear no body-
armour, but only a pair of drawers or a short,
close-fitting kilt.
Fig. 116.— Early panoply. (Gerhard, Vcuenbilder, 213.)
The xiTtiy was of two kinds. In the earlier
(black-ligurcd) vases it appears as a jerkin fitted
to the body, and would seem to have been made
of thick woollen stuff or leather. It had a tight
Fig. 147— Ancient lorica as worn by :
(From brunze statuette found at Dodona.)
band at the lower edge ; as had also the close-
in the later (red-figured) vases it is a full
garment of linen plaited at the neck (Od.
xix. 32), with short sleeves or none. It was
girded round the waist and under the breast.
The x'-''''^": whether a loose shirt of linen or
a close-fitting jerkin of woollen stuff or leather
(originally the skin of a beast), was worn under
the dupif^. Occasionally the duprj^ seems to
have been worn next the skin. Other under-
garments, like bandages round the thighs, may
be made out from a comparison of drawings,
that shown in fig. 150 being the commonest.
The duipri^ (1) as given above may be taken
approximately to be that of the Homeric poems.
It consisted of two ^voAo or plates, ' back ' and
' breast,' which were buckled or hinged to-
gether at the sides, and kept in place by a belt
({ojffTTjp, II. iv. 134) fastened with clasps
(oxijes, iv. 135 sqq.) behind the joining of the
two 7vaAa (xx. 413). In some Etruscan speci-
mens the belt is fastened with ornamental
hooks fitting into holes.
The projecting rim of the 6<ipnl below (fig.
147) has been supposed to be the C<^ijxi of II. iv.
187. There is no mention of shoulder-pieces.
This form of cuirass (yvd\oi(Tiv aptipiTO,
XV. 530 : the later yvaKoeuipai,, Paus. x. 26, 2)
continued in use till
comparatively a late
period.
It is, however, not
improbable that the
kind of Btipa^ mentioned
below (2.) ((TTdSios 6.)
was known to the Ho-
meric writers (cf. II. ii.
416, xi. 19-28 ; and
the epithet x^^f^X*'"
Twv). The warriors
sometimes fight with-
out a tidipr)^, and Rei-
chel considers that the
fi-'iTpri was the oidy de-
fensive armour, besides
the shield, used by the
heroes.
MjTpT/ (//. iv. 187) must be a band of some
kind. It may be taken to mean either: (1) a
baud of bronze worn over the X'Twy, and lower
than the dwprj^; or (2) an apron or kilt, plated
with bronze ; or (3) the WTappings of the thighs
sometimes shown in the earUest pictures.
The Greaves {Kvrjfudfs, ocreae) were put on
before the Owpi\\, the shape of which made it
Fig. H«.— Etruscan or
Greek culrasa.
Fig. 149.— Bronze shield and pair of greaves.
(British Museum.)
difficult to stoop. They were of bronze (II. rii.
41, xoA/co/ci^M'Ses : those of Achilles were of
tin, xviii. 613), and were attached to the calf
by the elasticity of the metal. 'Eiritrc^ypia (//.
iii. 331) were some kind of fastening at the
ankle, perhaps an open ring of metal like a
fitting petticoat or kilt sliown in some paintings, [ bangle, or a buckle above the heel. Possibly
wliich may possibly be (see below) the /wVpTj. , they were used, not as a defence against
ARMS AND ARMOUR
77
weapons, but as a ^ard to prevent the shield
grazing the shins. Cf. viraffiriSta TrpotroSi^wv
(II. xiii. 158).
Sandals (Tre'SiAa, II. ii. 44, &c. ; inro57)fiaTa,
Od. viii. 368), i.e. a sole with straps, were worn
by the heroes ; but they are often depicted as
barefooted.
Shield {(rdicos, a(rirls). — In the Homericpoems
(which, it must be remembered, are not all of
the same date), it seems, on the whole, probable
that two kinds of shields are known ; the larger
oblong, oval, or fiddle-shaped (Boeotian) shield,
afi(pifip6Tri aairis (II. xii. 402), iroS7]feKr)s (II. xv.
645; see also ii. 389, xiii. 157, 803), reaching
from chin to ankles ; and the circular shield,
some three feet in diameter, which is commonly
shown in vase-paintings and other works of
art (figs. 146, 147, 150). It is shown, more-
over, % vase-paintings that both forms were
known in historical times. In such representa-
Fig. 150.— GreeK -warrior, 7th-i.th century. (Gerhard, 207.)
tions the large oval shield is worn on the left arm
and slung over the right shoulder, in the same
manner as the smaller circular shield. It must
then have been made on a light framework.
The former, oblong or oval shield, is shown
in all the earlier representations, whether at
Mykenae or elsewhere, and it satisfies most of
the Homeric passages. This shield covers the
whole body ; shows only the feet below it ; can
cover a fallen man, or be used as a bier to carry
a corpse, or to sleep in on a bivouac ; can be
slung before or behind ; ' leaves both arms free.
A round shield 4 feet 6 inches in diameter
would answer all these purposes, but could
not be used in actual warfare. If, therefore, a
round shield of these dimensions is intended, it
must be an heroic exaggeration. On the other
' Cf. Hdt. 1. 171, where n-epl Toitri avxe'ci re icai
Totcrt apicTTfpoKTi uiiJOKTL TTepiKeijiieiot does not neces-
sarily mean that the strap passed over the left
shoulder. The shield may have been hung round the
neck, i e. over both shoulders, and so couUl be moved
freely in any direction ; when the shield was in its
usual position, i.e. protecting the left shoulder, the
strap would rest on the right shoulder (see fig. 146,
and cut under Balteus). The Mykenae drawings,
however, show the strap under the right arm. In
this position the shield must come either in front or
behind, as usually in Homer, not on the left side.
hand, the terms TravrScr' ii<rri and kvkKos, very
frequently used, cannot well be applied to any
but a circular shield.
Fig. 151.— Archaic shields (Mykenae).
The round shield,^ as shown in art and de-
scribed in Homer, is about half a man's height,
made of layers of ox-hide (eirra/SfJeios, of Ajax,
II. vii. 245), strengthened by plates of bronze
or other metal (II. xv. 275) with a boss (diJ.(pa\6s)
in the centre, and other bosses and studs
(ofiipaKol, -^Koi) set in it both for strength and
ornament ; and at any rate a rim (avrv^) of
metal (II. xviii. 479). Across the hollow of the
shield, which was boldly convex (see Od. v. 279,
where the outlme of a mountain rising from the
sea is compared to that of a shield, whether
oval or circular), ran two or more bars (Kav6p€s
or pdfiSoi, II. xiii. 407, xii. 294) across the centre
to the metal rims (SiTji/e/c/js, II. xii. 297), under
which bars the left arm was passed. It was
hung round the shoulders by a belt (reXafxccv,
II. xi. 31, 38, xiv. 404), and could be shifted
(v(tiiJ.r)(Tai, II. vii. 238 ; though tliis and similar
passages may have referred to the oval shield),
from right to left, or turned to protect the
back. At close quarters the warrior could
seize with his hand one or other of the loops of
leather which were disposed round the circum-
ference.
In a later development there was probably
some arrangement to keep the arm firm at the
Fig. 152.— .\rm oi a warrior across shield. (Gerhard, 204.)
centre of the Kavwv ; but earlier than the intro-
duction (by the Karians, Hdt. i. 171) of the
regular Tr6pTrai, or oxavov- (Eur. Hel. 1396;
Soph. Aj. 576). The outside of the shield was
ornamented with various devices (Aesch. Theh.
488 sqq.). (Cf. the description of the shield of
I The circular shield was attributed to Proetus
and Akrisius of Argos ; hence clipeus Argolicus in the
Latin poets ( Verg. .4en. iii. 637).
'^ Plutarch ( Cli'om. 1 1 ) distiirguishes between -itopna^
and oxoLvr) ; probably using o"xo>'») for the cross-bar
(^KOiVuiV).
78
ARMS AND ARMOUR
Achilles.) Agamemnon's shield (11. xi. 3(5) has
a Gorgon's head.
The rim of the shield was ornamented with a
fringe of tassels {dvaavoi, II. ii. 448), probably
representing the shaggy edges of a beast's fell, as
in the aiyis [Aegis] ; and, like the 6v<javoi of the
alyis, sometimes ajjpeaving in the form of ser-
pents. In Herodotus liv. 159) 0. i/j.avrii'oi is a
fringe made by cutting the edge of a leathern
Fig. 108.— Shield with apron. (Jnum. Hfl. Snr. iv. 81.)
jerkin into tags ; and dvaavwrds (ii. 81) a fringe
left from the loom.
Aoiff^ioj/ may have been a light buckler made
of undr<!ssed skin (like yeppov, Hdt. vii. 61) ; not,
as has been supposed, tlie apron shown below.
In some vase-paintings tlie shield has attached
to it a curtain or ajjron probably ol leather,
'219). The swords on the vase-paintings are
not more than thirty inches long, and generally
are of the leaf-shape {ffviQri : hence spatha,
spada, espacla, epee).
The sword was kei^t in a scabbard (KoKfOv,
KovKeov, vagina), made of metal (silver, xi. 30),
ivory (Od. viii. 404) or leather with metal mounts.
It was hung over the right shoulder — the scab-
bard being on the breast or under the left arm,
not below the waist — by a TeKafjiwv or aopTTjp
(of gold, II. xi. 31).
Spe.\r {S6pv, tyxos, \6yxVi '"'XM''7> ^varov)
the principal weapon of offence. The heroes
carry one or two (Sovpf Bvoo, iii. 18), made of ash
wood ()U6A.iTj, xix. 390; niiKivov tyxos, v. 655).
They are used both for throwing and thrusting.
Hector's spear is eleven cubits long (vi. 319).
The head (a»XM^) w^'S sharpened on both ed^es
(aiJ.(piyvos, xiii. 147), and fixed to the shaft (Sdpv)
by a tube iav\6s), probably split, or into a slit
in the shaft; and secured by two pins of metal
and a ring {■ir6pKris, vi. 3'2(l).
At the butt end was a aavpurfip (x. 158 ; Hdt.
vii. 40) or ovplaxos (11. xiii. 143, xvi. 61'2), i.e.
either a knob of metal or a spike to fix in the
ground. The spear, when not in use, was kept
in a case or stand (avpiy^, xix. 387 ; 5oi;po5d/crj,
Od. i. 128).
The spear (^vffT6v) of Ajax (Tl. xv. 077) is 22
cubits long, and made of more than one spar.
This (cf. also xiii. 497) is vaviiaxov. and only
used for lighting from the ships, where great
length would be required.
Hklsfet, Kvvei} (^kv, ' hollow,' not kvuv, dog-
skin cap), kSpvs, it^Atj^, Kpdvos, &c. Of various
Fig. lOJ.— shield with apron. fGerhard. pi. clxv.)
fringed or tagged below, and ornamented with
eyes. This appears to be a Lycian fashion.
It is, however, not luilikely that the Kaiffriiov
(Acicrioj) is a skin with the hair, like the KfovTrj
of Herakles and the at7is of Zeus and Athene,
tied roimd the neck by the fore feet. Such a
skin is probably the original of all forms of
shields.
The SwoKD {^i(t>os, <()d(Tyavoi>, &op) was of
bronze, often described as ' great,' and apparently
used for cutting, not thrusting. The existing
swords, however, are too light to be used for
cutting, and probably do not rei)reseut the
Homeric sword. The length of the blade in the
Mykenae swords is nearly three feet. Most of
them taper slightly from the cr«ss hilt. The hilts,
Kwirri, captdus, are of wood, sometimes inlaid
with gold, and (in Homer) made of silver (//. i.
Fig. 15o.— Helmet of fifth century. (Gerhard, 368.)
sliapes, the simplest and earliest being a cap
fitting the head (cf. alytir] k. Od. xxiv. 230),
(Kpordcpois dpapxna, 11. xiii. 188) ; usually of
Fig. 15G.— Helmets.
(From the collection at Ooodrich
Court.)
leather, but also of bronze, or strengthened
with bronze (irayxaf^Kos, Od. xviii. 877), except
ARMS AND ARMOQR
79
in a few passages (Tavpei-n, II. x. 258, KTiSer), x. | body, and the lower edge below the hips was
335), lined with felt {ir'iKos, x. 265), secured cut into irTepvyia
under the chin by a strap [Ifids, iii. 371). Various
forms are shown in pictures : one kind is avAuiris
(xi. 353), i.e. with small openings in front. The
helmet was furnished with one or more horse-
tail plumes (\6(pos, iii- 337 ; 'imrovpis, iii. 309 ;
i-mrodacTiia), sometimes with cheek-pieces (xaA.-
Koirdprjos, xii. 183).
The words (paAos {x.vi. IOC), Terpa<pa\os,
^ Terfia<p<k\rjpos (v. 743),
TpucpdAeia (iii. 372), cpd-
\apa (iii. 3(52) have been
much disputed. One view
is tliat (pd\os is a raised
ridge {kwvos) from front to
back in which tlie crest
was fixed. 'AiJ.(pi(pa\os (v.
743) would then mean with
two such ridges or with a
raised margin all round ;
TeTpd(paAos, with four,
eitlier parallel or two from
front to back and two at
right angles to these (xi.
41), i.e. in front and be-
hind. Another view is that
(t>d\os is a knob of metal ; another that it is
a hoiTi either to hold the plume or project-
ing as an ornament in
front (see fig. 153).
<i>a/\apa are taken to
be flaps or cheek-pieces
(irapayyadiSes) fixed with
hinges ; or bosses of bronze
near the cheek-pieces. Tlie
crest, Kocpos (xxii. 316, etc.),
of horsehair was variously
disposed, as may be seen by
a comparison of pictures.
More than one crest miglit
be used (Aescli. Theb. 384).
The helmet marked (a) below could be tilted
forward so as to hide the wearer's face; (b)
shows the two koovol (<pd\oi ?).
Fig. 157.-Knob of
helmet. (Joiint. Hcl. Sov
iv. al.)
Kg. 158.— Cypriote
helmet.
Fig. l.'g.— Helmets. (From gems. Original size.)
2. PosT-HoMEiuc Times. — "We have a vast
number of representations of Greek armour in
works of art. As they are cliiefly of mytho-
logical and heroic subjects, the treatment is to
some extent conventional ; but thej- may be
supposed to resemble the armour actually in
use at the time.
Besides the ancient yva\o9wpa^, another form
appears to have been developed from tlie leather
X^Twy, that form of cuirass which is depicted
on tlie red-figure vases, and called (Ttotos or
trrddios 0wpa^ (see fig. 163).
The leather x'Twf, it may be supposed, was
originally the hide of a beast made into a sleeve-
less coat. It was then made to fit closely to the
or flaps, so as to
give the legs freer
action. It became
the custom to
strengthen it with
plates of metal,
either disposed as
scales or more com-
monly as overlai^-
ping plaques of an
oblong shape. Such
plaques have been
found. The irrepv-
yia were also often
plated. To the bade
of the ddopa^ were
attached two shoul-
der-pieces (hinged
or of elastic metal),
which came down
diagonally in front
and were fastened
bj' strings to a
button. Themethod Fig. 160.— AchiUes. From a red.
of putting on the Ag'^'-'^d vase (Gerhard, 184.)
dwpa^ may be seen in the cut below (fig. 161).
Fig. ICl.— Youth putting on 6ujpa^.
iGorliard, Iw.i
A, back ; i, u, ».
Bhoulder-pieces
Fig. Ifyj.— ]>iaj,'ram ol Soipof.
B, front: DI), huiges (ytyyAu/xot) ; EE,
lieces ; F !•', strings faatcuing to G buttons iu
front ; H, flaps, (TTTtpuyia).
80 ARMS AND
The figures show clearly that the whole harness
was in one piece and different from that com-
posed of two yva\a.
This 6wpa^ was worn over the full linen
XtTiiv ; and no belt {(duri) appears to have been
worn.
When this tj'pe was once fixed, no great
alteration in it seems to have been made in
later times
ARMOUR
ment. All the instances knowm occur upon
black-figured vases ; at present no illustration of
■jrapafiTjpiSta is known iu art later tlian the fifth
centuiy b.c. In Greek writers, however, of the
third century B.C. and downwards, they are
frequently mentioned as employed by cavalry,
both for the rider and his horse {irapairKevpiSia,
Xen. Eq. 12, 8,Anab. i. 8, 0).
The shield (airirty) of the Greek soldier in
Rg. 168.— ®<ipof (TTdSios and Af itiS<i)t6?. combined.
(From the Parthenon.)
A leather Owpa^ without ai-mour {cnro\ds) was
occasionally worn, and also scale armour (6.
\(iriS(t!T6s, see fig. 163), especially under the
arms (Xen. Eq. 12).
Tlapa/jL7]piSia and UfpinTjpiSta, armour for the
thighs, ctiissps. These articles of armour,
though not in common use in the ordinary
Greek panoply, are shown on the monuments
as far back as the fifth century B.C. They
seem to have been made of metal, and adapted
Big. 1C4.— TTapoMTjpi'Sto. (Prom a vase in the British
Maseum.)
fig. liii.—llapafi.r)pCSia. (From Mus. Grtg^
historical times was the round kffvls described
above. It was no longer supported by a re\anu;f.
and must have been lighter than the Homeric
shield. When not in use it was kept in a case
(ffdyna, At. Ach. 574).
Heraldic devices, public and private, wen^
commonly used : lions, panthers, Gorgon heails,
serpents, &c. (see figs. 153, 155, 164). Tlie
Lacedaemonian hoplites had A on the dfj.<pa\us
of their shields ; the Argives A, Sikyonians 2,
Thebans a sphinx, etc. ; mottoes also : e.g. irpr/troj
ir6\iv of Kapaneus (see Aesch. Theb. 488 sqq. ;
Pint. Alcib. 16; Eur. Phoen. 141 sqq.).
Gke.wes, Ocreae (Ki/Tj^rSes) were worn by
all hoplites. They were usually of bronze, and
either clipped the leg by the elasticity of the
metal, or were fastened behind with straps and
buckles. In figs. 155, 161, bands {iiria<p{ipia)
may be seen at the ankle.
n^ATTj (pelta), a small shield. Iphikrates,
394 B.C., introduced among the Greeks a smaller
Fig. 1(36.— Peltae. (From a vase in tlie British Mtisenm.)
to tlie shape of the thigh, clasping it round in j and lighter shield than the aairis, from which
the same way as the greave clasped the leg. those who bore it took the name of peltastae
They are usually decorated with a spiral oina- ! [Exercitus.] It consisted of a frame of wood
ARMS AND ARMOUR
81
or wickerwork (Xen. Anab. iii. 1, § 6), covered
with skin or leather, without the metalhc rim
i&vTV^). It was worn by the Thracians (Thuc.
ii. 29), and is commonly shown in pictures of
Amazons (Verg. Ae7i. i. 490, xi. 663). [Salii.]
The heavy-armed warrior, having already a
tunic (xtrwv) around his body, and preparing
for combat, puts on— first, the greaves {Kvrifu-
Ses, ocreae) ; secondly, the cuirass {dwpri^,
lorica), to which belonged the /xirpri under-
neath, and the zone {((ivr], (oxtttip, cingiihmi)
above ; thirdly, the sword {^i<pos, eusis, gladius)
hung on the left side of his body by means of a
belt which passed over the right shoulder :
fourthly, the large round shield (<ra(cos, affiris,
clipeus); fifthly, the helmet (iccipus, Kvver\,TTT)\rt^,
cassis, galea) ; sixthly and lastly, he took his
spear (67x0s, 56pv, hasta), or, in many cases,
two spears [Sovpe Svoc).
Those who were defended in the manner
which has now been represented are called by
Homer aaTncrrai and ayx^/J-ciXO^ > but more
commonly npofiaxoi, because they occupied the
front of the army.
Mail-clad cavalry {cataphracti, Kard(ppaKToi)
were found principally among the Eastern
nations (see Liv. xxxv. 48, xxvii. 40) and the Sar-
Fig. 167.— Cataphractus. (From Column of Trajan.)
matians (Tac. Hist. i. 79). Their armour, itself
called cataphractes. or cataphracta , was a kind
of flexible scale-armour (<t>o\iSuT6s), made of
leather with scales of metal sewn upon it. (See
above, dwpa^.) The armour also had sleeves
(xe'pi5a»T({$) ; the whole body was covered ex-
cept that part of the thighs which grips the
horse. The helmet was close-fitting, all down
the neck, the eyes alone being exposed. The
soldier had to be lifted on his horse. He was
armed with a long spear, which was supported
by a chain attached to the horse's neck, and at
the end by a fastening attached to the horse's
thigh. The horse, too, was all covered with
armour.
We first hear of such mail-clad cavalry in
the army of the elder Cyrus (Xen. Ci/r. viii. 8,
22), and of Antiochus Epiphanes (Polyb. xxxi.
8, 9 ; Liv. xxxv. 48, 3).
Spear (eyxos, 56pv). — This resembled the
Homeric spear, but was of less heroic length.
To the middle of the spear was sometimes
attached a leathern thong {ayKvKr], amentum),
to give it a rotatory motion (Xen. Anab. iv. 2,
§ 28; Verg. Aen. ix. 665; Cic. de Orat. i. 57).
A6yx'i) is a light lance used by cavah-y (see
Nep. Ij)hicr. 1, § 3). "EvctSv is also a cavalry
spear (Xen. Cyr. iv. 5, 58). The adpiaa, or
Macedonian two-handed pike, was 14 cubits
(nearly 21 feet) long. All other spears were
held in the hand.
Sword (|i(^os, poet. &op, (pdayavov). — In post-
Homeric times swords were mostly of iron,
not of bronze, though the older metal did not en-
tirely go out of use. The average length of
those extant is under 30 inches. The scab-
Fig. 168.— Greek swoids.
bard (KoKeos) was of metal, or of leather with
metal mounts. The type of the primitive Greek
sword does not seem to
have greatly altered until
the fourth century B.C.,
when Iphikrates, the Athe-
nian commander, greatly
increased the length of
the blade for his peltasts
or light infantry, while
the hoplites retained the
short sword of earlier
times; the sword thus
lengthened does not, how-
ever, appear to have ex-
ceeded about 31 inches
for the blade exclusive of
the hilt. The Greeks
hung the sword on the
Fig. 169.— Greek ixaxaipa.
Fig. 170.- Greek swords and scabbard. (Oohl and Eoner.)
left side by a belt passing over the right shoul-
der. The ^o/jicpaia, rhunijihaea or rumpia, was
a Thracian broadsword of great length.
Dagger (pugio, clunaculum; fxaxatpa, dim.
fiaxaiptov; e'Yxe'P^Sjoi'). A dagger ; a two-edged
knife, commonly of bronze, with the handle in
many cases variously ornamented or enriched.
In the heroic ages the Greeks sometimes wore
a dirk suspended by the sword on the left side
of the body, and used it on all occasions instead
a
82
ARMS AND ARMOUR
of a knife (Horn. J7. iii. 271, xix. 252). In later
times the ixaxaipa was worn on the right side.
The Rontins sometimes wore the dagger as
the Persians did [Acinaces], on the right
side. The terms pugio and ^yxf'piSiou denote
both its sraalluess and the manner of grasping
it in the hand (rru|, pugrius).
On some of the Roman monuments the long
sword was worn by the riglit side, while the
shorter dagger was by the left hand. Among
some of the northeim nations of Europe, a dirk
Fig. 171.— Ancient daggers.
was constantly worn (Ov. Trist. v. 7, 19, 20).
The Chalybes employed the same weapon, stab-
bing their enemies in the neck (Xen. Anah. iv. 7,
§ 16). For the Greek horsemen the dagger
was considered preferable to the long sword as
a weapon of offence (Xen. de lie Eq. xii. 11).
Heavy-armed soldiers were called ^TrArraj,
because the term ciTrAa more especially denoted
the defensive armour, the shield and thorax
(hence decrOai ra '6ir\a, to ground the shield at
the halt, and so to halt). By wearing these
they were distinguished from the light-armed,
ivoTrKoi (Hdt. ix. 62, 63), \pt\o't, and yv/jLvoi,
yu/jLuriTai, or yvfivriTfS, whose
bodies were protected by a
covering, sometimes of skins,
and sometimes of leather or
cloth ; and instead of the sword
and lance, they commonly
fought with darts, stones, bows
and arrows, or slings.
Besides the heavy- and light-
armed soldiers, the dirKtrai and
>^iAoj, the targeteers {ireKraff-
ral) formed a part of the Greek
army ; they carried a small oval
or crescent shaped leathern
buckler called FleATTi, and, in
other respects their armour was
lighter than that of the hop-
lites. The weapon on which
they principally depended was
the spear..
The soft or flexible parts of
the heavy armour were made of
cloth or leather. Tlie metal
principally used for armour was
that compound of copper and
tin which we call bronze or more
properly bell-metal. [Aes.] In-
stead of bronze, iron afterwards came to be very
extensively used in the manufacture of anns.
Gold, silver, and tin, were also used to enrich
and adorn the armour.
3. Roman. — The Romans used arms in most re-
spects similar to those of the Greeks. They wore
a frock (tunica) reaching nearly to the knees,
and over this a cuirass (lorica); greaves (ocreae),
a helmet (galea), a round shield (clipeus) all of
bronze ; a spear (hasta), or javelins (pilum),
and sword (ensis, gladius) of steel, and military
shoes (caligac). This was the full equipment
of the first class in the Servian constitution.
The second class carried instead of the clipeus
Fig. 1V2.— Ancient
dagger.
Fig. 173.— Centurion.
(Trajan's Column.)
! the oblong scutum (6vpe6s), which in later
times became universal. Tlie third and fourth
classes were more liglitly armed ; the velites
1 and cavalry used a round buckler (parma) in-
} stead of the clipeus or
I scutum. [Exercitus.]
The several parts of
I the armour con-espond
I with those worn by the
Greek tirXlrai, except-
ing only that the Ro-
man soldier wears a
dagger (pugio) on his
left side, and instead
of the greaves (which
were abandoned in
imperial times) has
fcmoralia&nAcaligae.
The essential parts of
the Roman heavy
armour (lorica, ensis,
clipeus, galea, hasta)
are mentioned to-
gether in an epigram
of Martial (iv. 57). (Cf.
St. Paul, Ej^h. vi. 14-
17.)
The Roman Cuirass
(lorica) was (1) a
combination of the
two Greek types, de-
veloped as in fig. 174.
It was moulded to the
shape of the body,
like the Greek yvoKo-
6wpa^, and often richly
ornamented with reliefs and decorations in metal
work. (2) The ordinary cuirass (see figs. 175,
177) was of the kind which may be called lamina-
ted, consisting of a series of bronze or iron
hoops attached to
a leather ground-
work ; those wliich
went round the
body were called
pectoralia ; the
shoulder hoops,
U7neralia.
Fig. 176 wears
the scale-annour
called in Greek
AeirtScoTcfy, the
metal scales being
attached with wire
or thread to a
groundwork of stuff
or leather. Chain-
annour (aKvcrlSe-
Tos 6.) was worn by
the Roman has-
tati,&nd commoiUy
by the Gauls.
Greavf.s (ocreae)
were only worn by
centurions and by
certain gladiators.
In early times the
heavy-armed wore
a greave on the Fig. 174.— Lorica as worn by A
_:„Ui. i„„ Roman emperor. (Statue of
rigni leg. Callgula found at Qabli.)
Sandals (calt-
gae) were worn by the gregarii milites and
centurions, not by inferior officers (Suet. Aug.
25) : hence a caliga (' from the ranks ') and
the nickname of Caligula (Tac. Ann. i. 14;
Suet. Calig. 9). The sole of the caliga was
studded with hobnails, clavi caligarii (cf. Juv.
ARMS AND ARMOUR
83
iii. 248). The superior officers wore boots
(calcei), or sandals with cross-straps round the
leg as high as the calf (see cut under Calceus).
Fig. 175. Fig. 176.
Laminated lorica. ©wpaf AeTrtSwrds.
(BartoU, Arcus Triumphales.)
Besides the Tunica, Roman soldiers of all
ranks wore loose breeches (bracae, feniinalia),
apparently of linen or fustian, reacliing to the
middle of the calf.
The Shield {scutum, dvpe6s) was of wood or
wicker-work covered with leather, with a metal
rim ; it measured 4 feet by 2i ; it was sup-
ported by a balteus over the right shoulder, and
held by a handle. It was frequently curved or
Fig. 177.— Roman legionaries.
cylindrical in outline. Scuta bore various de-
vices, of which the winged thunder-bolt was the
most common. They were also marked with
the owner's name and the number of his legion,
cohort, and century. Oval and hexagonal
shields were also worn. Otlier names of
shields are ■parnia (a round leathern buckler)
and cetra, a round target, used especially by
the inhabitants of Spain and Mauretania.
Of Speaks (hasta) several kinds were used.
(1) The long spear or pike {lancea, hasta) used
by the heavy-armed soldiers, and in later times
by the auxiliariae cohortes. The dimensions
of it are uncertain, but it was longer than the
pilum. It could be thrown with the amentum.
Tlie head was sometimes leaf-shaped. (2) Tlie
pilum {vff<r6s),ih.e characteristic Italian weapon.
The shaft was 4^ feet long, and the iron head is
said to have been of the same length, but ex-
tending a considerable distance down the shaft,
so that the whole lengtli of the weapon would be
about &h feet. The lower end was either a tube
into which the shaft ran and was secured by
pins, or a thin blade fitting into a slit in the
shaft. Marius had the heads of his pila lightly
secured, so that they would break in the shields
of the enemy (Plut. Mar. 25). Caesar se-
cured the same object by making the lower end
of the spear-head of soft iron, so that the
weapon bent on striking and was unserviceable.
The liead was of different sliapes, and sometimes
barbed.
The light-armed soldiers used smaller missiles,
included under the general term hastae velitares
(Liv. xxvi. 4 ; yp6<r<pos, Polyb.
i. 40). According to Polybius,
yp6(T<pos was a light dart with
a shaft 3 feet long, and a head
of iron, so thin tliat it bent
on striking. Similar to this
was veru, verutuni, aavviov
(Liv. xxi. 55). It was adopted
by the Romans from tlie
Samnites (Verg. Aeji. vii. 665)
and the Volsci (Georg. ii. 168).
Its shaft was 3i feet long, its
point 5 inches. Fig. 178, No.
2, maybe &verutum; No. 3
the head of a lancea. The
Romans adopted also the
gaesum, properly a Celtic
weapon (Liv. xxviii. 45).
Sparus, iaculum, spiicu-
Iwm, and venahulum {olkoov,
aK6pTiof, Thuc. ii. 4 ; Cic.
Verr. v. 3, § 7 ; Verg. Aen.
X. 52; Ov. Met. viii. 410)
are other terms for spears
of different kinds. The Illy-
rian crifivvf) (sibina) is de-
scribed as a venahulum or
hunting-spear (ai^vviov, Polyb.
criyvvris, Hdt. v. 9).
The iron head of the German spear, called
framea, was short and narrow, but very sliarp.
The Germans used it either for hurling or
thrusting. (Tac. Germ. 0, 13; Juv. xiii. 79.)
AcLYS and Cateia. — A missile used in war by
the Germans, Gauls, and some of the Italian
nations, ascribed also to Persians and other
Orientals (Verg. Aen. vii. 741), and supposed to
resemble the achjs described by Servius (Verg.
I.e.) as a club a foot and a lialf long, studded
with nails, and furnished with a thong {flagel-
lum), so that it can be recovered by the thrower.
If the two can be distinguished, the aclijs seems
to have been a club, the cateia a spear.
The falarica or phalarica derived its name
from the/a?ae or wooden towers (Plaut. Most.
ii. 1, 10) used in sieges (cf. Helepolis), from
which it was discharged by an engine (.4en. ix.
705 ; Gell. x. 25). Livy (xxi. 8) describes one
used at the siege of Saguntum : it had a head
of iron 3 feet in length, which carried flaming
pitch and tow. This sort was weighted near
the top by a mass of lead. Tlie matara,
mataris, or matcris, a Celtic word, denotes a
broad-tipped spear used by the Gauls (Caes.
B. G. i. 26; Liv. vii. 24); the tragula was
probably barbed (Caes. B. G. v. 35).
Among Roman military decorations was a
g2
Fig. 178.— Roman
spears.
23, § 9;
84 ARMS AND ARMOUR
spear without a head, called hasta pura (Verg.
Aen. vi. 700; Suet. Claud. 2ii; Tac. Ann. in.
21).
Belt {balteus, cimjulum). — The sword, as
we have seen, was usually on the right side, the
scabbard being suspended from the left shoulder
by a balteus, often richly ornamented with
silver bullae, &c. (Tac. Hist. i. 57). The cin-
gulum went round the waist. All soldiers wore
it : in later times it became a mark of mili-
tary rank. Officers wore the sword on the
left side. The appendage to the cingiilum
seen in fig. 179 was worn by all officers. In
later times the cingulum
was broad, and often
adorned witli plaques of
metal, jewels, &c.
ARRA
Fig. 179.- a. Monument of an lUyrlan soldier, found at
Bingen ; h. Scabbard (in the British Museum) ; c,
daggers and swords (various parts of Qerraany).
SwoRB {gladius, ensis). — Of the swords used
by the Romans before the Second Punic War
little is known. After the battle of Cannae,
they are said to have discarded tlie native pat-
tern in favour of tlie Si)anish (cf. Liv. xxii. 46).
The early Roman sword in all probability did
not differ much from the contemporary Greek
form. The Spanish type now introduced, though
lighter than the Gallic broadsword or claymore,
was larger and heavier than that previously in
use. It was better adapted for thrusting than
cutting {punctim quam caesim, Liv. I. c), and
the Romans ever afterwards used tlie point of
their cut-and-thrust sword much more than the
edge. Existing specimens measure about 30
to 33 inches, including the hilt. From time
immemorial, gold and jewels have been freely
lavished upon the adornment of hilts (capulus)
and scabbards {vagina) (Verg. Aen. iv. 'H\l ;
Juv. v. 44). The cavalry swords were longer
than those used by the infantry.
Roman soldiers also wore a short dagger
(pugio. Tac. Hist. i. 43), hung on the left side by
a separate belt from the balteus or sword-belt
(see above).
Helmet. — TJie commonest legionary type of
Roman helmets is shown in figs. 175, 176,
177. Centurions and other officers wore
feathers with a crest (crista) of horsehair (fig.
180). Another form is that shown in fig. 181,
(Baumeister.)
commemorate the
Thej' were held in
The first plougliin
Fig. 180.— Romai! offleers.
from a centurion's tomb, with a transverse
crest. Standard-bearers wore a skull-cap of
iron, with the head and
akin of a bear drav^^l over
it, like the XfuvTri of Her-
cules, and hanging over
the shoulders beliind. See
cut under Slgna miU-
taria.
For bows and arrows,
see A reus ; for artillerj',
Tormentum.
"ApoToi UpoC. These
were three ' sacred
ploughiugs ' in Attica to
institution of agriculture.
Maimakterion (Nov.-Dec).
was held at Skiros, the second on the Rarion
{'Paptoi') plain near Eleusis, and the third
under the Acropolis, which was specially called
Bov^vyiov. These ploughings were probablj'
for the purpose of sowing the com used in the
rites of the temples of Athena Skiras, of the
Eleusinian goddesses and of Athena Polias. The
family of priests who took care of the sacred
plough and of the oxen who drew it were called
Buzygii, and the family derived their descent
from an eponymous Buzyges, later assimilated
with Triptolemus or Epimenides.
"Apovpa. A Greek measure of surface, esti-
mated by Herodotus (ii. 163) as containing a
hundred Egyptian cubits in every direction,
i.e. about 148 x 148 feet = 21,904 sq. feet.
Arra, Arrabo. An earnest. The word arrabo
is Semitic, and occurs (appa^wv, LXX) in Gen.
xxxviii. 17-20, and the corresponding verb in
Hebrew several times. (' Appa^wv, 2 Cor. i. 22,
v. 5, Eph. i. 14.) The Phoenician traders
probably brought word and custom to Greece.
Plautus uses the word for anything given as
sign of a bargain being made and as pledge of
its fulfilment. It is often part of the purchase
money (Plant. Most. iii. 1, 111, Bud. prol. 45,
&c.). The word belongs to early Latin.
Tlie legal form is arra or arrae (pi.). The
primitive form of the arra would seem to have
been a ring given sponsionis causa ; so the
ring used in a betrothal was only the ordinary
mark and pledge of a bargain (Plant. Mil. iv. 1,
APPH*OPIA
11). The ring was probably considered as a
temporary deposit reclaimable on the bargain
being fulfilled, unless it was counted as part of
the price. On the bargain being fulfilled, its re-
turn could be enforced eitlier by an action on its
purchase, or by a condictio sine causa. Both
are survivals of an ancient form of marriage by
purchase.
'AppTi4)6pia {■}] apprjcpopia, also epiX- and
4ppr)(p6pia, V. Liddell and Scott : perhaps epff- —
Lat. verves and denotes the slaughter of a boar
or some other male victim). A festival held
at Athens in the month of Skirophorion. Both
the meaning of the name and the origin of the
festival are disputed. Four girls, of between
seven and eleven years (appr}cp6poi, eppricpdpoi :
Ar. Lys. 642), were selected every year by the
king arehon from the most distinguished
families, two of whom, called ipyacnlvai, super-
intended the weaving of the sacred peplos of
Athena, which was begun on the last day of
Pyanepsion ; the two others had to carry the
mysterious and sacred vessels of the goddess
to the Acropolis, and remained there a whole
year, either in the Parthenon (perhajis hence
so called) or some adjoining building ; and
when the festival commenced, the priestess of
the goddess placed vessels upon their heads,
the contents of which were known neither
to them nor to the priestess. With these they
descended to a grotto, deposited the sacred
vessels, and carried back something else, which
was covered and likewise unknown to them.
After this the girls were dismissed, and others
were chosen to supply their place in the Acro-
polis. The girls wore white robes adorned with
gold, which were left for the goddess ; and a
peculiar kind of cake (aj/aVraToi, vaaroi) was
baked for them. To cover the expenses of the
festival, a peculiar liturgy was established, called
appT)cpopia.
Arrog'a'tio. See Appendix, Roman Law
[Adoptioj.
A'rtaba {apra^yi). A measure of capacity:
(1) Persian, principally used as a corn measure,
which contained, according to Herodotus (i. 192),
1 raedimnus and 3 choenikes (Attic) = between
12 and 13 gallons. (2) Egyptian, (a) older = 9 to
10 gallons, {h) later = 6 to 7 gallons. This was
equal to the Oljonpic cubic foot (see Tables,
IX.).
'ApT€p,L(TLa. Festivals celebrated in honour
of Artemis in various parts of Greece, in the
spring of the year : e.g. we find one mentioned
at Syracuse in honour of Artemis iroTa/xia and
crcoTripia (Pind. Pyth. ii. 12). It lasted three
days (Liv. xxv. 23). Bread was offered to her
under the name of Aox'c- Similar festivals
occur in many other places, as at Delphi, (Jyrene,
and especially at Ephesus, in the month called
'ApTifjiiaiuv (March), where the image of the
goddess was carried in procession accompanied
with hJ^nns and dances of girls. (Ar. Nub.
599.)
Artemision (rh 'Aprefxlawv), the Temple of
Artemis, Ionic octastyle, dipteral, built during
the reign of Alexander the Great, 330-323 B.C.
In many respects this was the most magni-
ficent and celebrated of all Greek temples ; tlie
last temple built on the site ranked as one of
the seven wonders of the world. The great
size of the Artemision was a very important
factor in its celebrity. In point of beauty it
was far surpassed by earlier Greek temples.
Between the seventh century B.C. and the time
of Alexander the Great three successive temples
were built on the same site. (1) The original
ARTEMISION Cj
temple built by Theodorus of Samos, probably
about 680 B.C. (2) The temple begun by Cher-
siphron and finished by his son Metagenes
about the end of the sixth century B.C. Tliis
temple was burnt by an incendiary on the
night when Alexander the Great was born,
in 356 B.C. (3) The last temple, built during
the reign of Alexander, was designed bj' his
favourite architect, Deinokrates. (See Pliny,
xxxvi. §98.)
The Artemision, surrounded by its extensive
temenos, stood nearly a mile outside the
Koressian gate of Ephesus. It had eight
columns on the fronts, and probably twenty
on the flanks : the stylobate, which consisted
of fourteen steps, measured at the lowest step
about 418 by 240 feet. The columns were 56
feet high, and about 6 feet in diameter above
the base. Some of the columns and their
pedestals were enriched with sculjiture, as were
also the antae. None of the sculpture is re-
markable for any high degree of finish or
delicacy. The temple was enormously rich in
statues and votive offerings of all kinds in gold
and silver ; its doors were decorated with plating
Fig. 182.— Base of column, .\rtemlsion. (British Museiim.)
of gold and ivory. The inside of the cella was
decorated witli a large mural painting of Alex-
ander Keraunophoros by Apelles, and many
otlier pictures, and contained a large number
of fine statues by Skopas, Timotheus, Leo-
chares, and other sculptors of the Ionian
school. The temenos was very large, enclosed
by a massive wall, and planted with groves of
trees. It formed one of the most sacred
i sanctuaries of Asia Jlinor, and by degrees the
I ])ounds of the Asylum or sanctuary were en-
larged, until tliey extended up to the walls of
Ephesus, and even included part of the city,
I which thus became the resort of evil-doers, and
86
ARTEMON
caused much trouble to the citizens. Augustus
therefore restricted the limit of the asylum.
Tlie British Museum possesses some very
interesting fragments which belonged to the
second temple, begun in the sixth century, to
which the Lydian king Kroesus was a liberal
benefactor. On some of these the name and
dedication of Kroesus appear.
Artemon [aprifxaiv). [Navis.]
Artifices. 1. Greek. — Among the Homeric
Greeks we find gods and heroes engaged on the
works of artisans. Thus Hephaestus himself
works at the forge [11. xviii. 371), and Athena
at the loom {II. viii. 386). Odysseus makes his
own bed [Od. xxiii. 189), Arete spins {Od. vi.
306), and Nausik-aa washes her own clothes
{Od. vi. 81). In Hom'rjric times there were also
professional artisans who worked for the people,
5r)iii06p7oi — a term which probably comprised
those who exercised all crafts and trades liberal
and mechanical ; including physicians, sooth-
sayers, and musicians. (See Od. i. 416, xvii.
384.) They were free Greeks, not barbarians. '
(cf. e.g. II. vii. I'll). They did not form any- j
thing like a caste. They appear to have been '
remunerated generally by a feast {Od. kv. 506; I
cf. //. xviii. 558). They almost always belonged '
to the lower classes (x^P'J^s)-
In the military and aristocratical society
which prevailed after the Dorian conquest, the !
manual arts were exercised by perioeki and
slaves. An artisan could not be a citizen ; nor
could a citizen learn a manual art. This was
especially the case at Sparta. The tyrants,
such as the Peisistratidae at Athens, Polykrates
at Samos, and Periander at Corinth, are said to
have encouraged their subjects to occupy tliem-
selves with mechanical arts : and in most of the
Peloponnesian states the citizens were ao occu-
pisd (Plut. Ages. 26).
The political disabilities of artisans occur in
different degrees : e.g. at Thebes, Thespiae and
Corinth, artisans could become citizens. In
some states, such as Phokis and Lokris, there
were for a long time no slaves, and all trades
were carried on by citizens. The Athenian legis-
lators enacted that every father should have
his son taught a trade (Plut. Sol. 22; cf.
'ApyCas Ypa<j)T^ ; Hdt. ii. 177), and citizen-
ship was offered to strangers who were skilled
as artisans and were willing to settle at Athens
(Plut. Sol. 24).
Artisans were recognised and protected by
the law, and had a share in the deliberations of
the assembly (Thue. ii. 40) ; but they were looked
down upon by the upper classes, and so suffered
in general repute (Hdt. ii. 167). According
to genuine Greek minds, such as Plato's, no
native should engage in the employments of
artisans {ir)fjnovpyiKa rex^'^f"''''**) (^'^ffff- 8'**' ^)-
Aristotle holds similar views {Pol. iii. 3, § 2, v.
(viii.) 2, § 1 ; cf. Xen. Occ. 4, § 2). As most of
the artisans at Athens were either actually
slaves or foreigners (jucto(koi) (Arist. Pol. iii.
3, § 2), all came to be regarded together as
forming one class, viz. ^duavffot (also called
XJ77uaTirrTaO.
The ancients made no radical distinction be-
tween the artist and the artisan, as long as
each took pay for his services. The greatest
statuary or painter, if he was paid, was regarded
even till the latest times as a ^di/avaos (Plut.
Pericl. 2). If, however, the artist took no
money, this raised him in public estimation :
e.g. Polygnotus, who painted the Stoa Poekile
gratis (Plut. Cim. 4).
ARTIFICES
Though there were no castes of artisans
among the Greeks as there were among the
Egyptians, some crafts, such as those of phy-
sicians, heralds, and flute-players, were here-
ditary in certain families (Plat. Euthyphr.
11 c). Certain priesthoods were confined to
particular families both at Athens and in other
cities (Hdt. ix. 37). Trade corporations do
not appear till Roman times. Artisans had
partners {(Tvv(pyoi), and apprentices {jxaQrirai,
Plat. Meno, 90 d). But, besides these small
artisans, we find large workshops {fpyaiTTijpta),
the owners of which managed them by foremen
{fpyuv iirKTrarai, iirlTpoiroi) taken from among
their slaves or freedmen (Dem. c. Aphob. 819,
§ 24; Lys. C. Erat. §§ 8, 19; see also Thuc.
vii. 27). No discredit attached to business
conducted in this manner. Some of the tan-
ners, shoe- makers, lamp-makers, flute-makers,
(fee, satirised by Aristophanes, were owners of
such factories. The workers in these factories
were mostly slaves, though sometimes no doubt
day-labourers were liired {drires, ixttrBwroi).
Masters, too, "often allowed their iilaves to be
hired. (See XaXKcia.)
The state interfered very little with tlie
artisans. No system like that of the mediaeval
guilds existed to limit individual freedom within
the law. A tax (xeipt«'«'o{ioj') on trades gene-
rally is alluded to by Aristotle {Oec. ii. 1, 2).
We hear of patents for discoveries (Athen. xii.
521 d), and the selling of good-will (Lys. pro
Inval. § 6). It is difficult to ascertain the rate
of wages at any given time or place in Greece.
In the time of Perikles one drachma per
diem is mentioned as the wages of a skilled
mason ; hodmen and labourers got four or three
obols.
2. Roman. — The Romans, who considered
war and agriculture the only fit occupations for
a citizen, agreed with the Greeks in looking
down on all manual labour for hire, whether
art or handicraft. All such workmen were
called mercennarii. The distinction of 'liberal'
{liberales) and ' sordid ' or ' common ' {volgares)
arts was adopted by the Romans, the former
being those which involved greater skill, the
latter those which required mere labour {opera).
The professors of the liberal arts were in strict-
ness called artifices : such as painters, sculptors,
engineers, architects, musicians, actors, &c. ;
while opifices or sellitlarii was the name given
to those who exercised the artes operosae or
sordidae (Cic. Off. i. 42).
Numa (Plut. Numa, 17) is said to have in-
stituted nine guilds {collegia) : viz. of tibicines,
aurifices,/abri, tinctores or fullones, sutores,
coriarii, aerarii, figuli; the rest of the me-
chanics formed the ninth collegium. In these
guilds there are no signs of monopoly or pro-
tection. They remained in existence all through
the Republic.
The Servian timocratic organisation excluded
the mass of the artisans from serving in the
army. They were not enrolled among the
centuries, but distributed into corporations
{collegia). Many of the poorer citizens worked
as day-labourers {operarii or p alitor cs).
The enfranchisement of the plebs and the
occupation by them of the Ager pnblicus led
to the establishment of small farms, on which
much hired labour was employed.
In later times the throwing of farms together
into latifu7idia, and the great development of
slave labour, ruined Italian agriculture and
caused population to flow into the towns. Town
trade was thus developed. Both hired and
APTTNOI
slave labour was used. The increase of capital
in a few hands led to the employment by capi-
talists of slaves or freedmen as artisans, and
this prevented any middle class growing up in
Eome. Manufacture was spread throughout
Italy. A considerable list of manufactures may
be seen in Plaut. Aulul. iii. 5. The rate of wages
appears to have been about 12 asses a day
{about Sd.) for an ordinary journeyman labourer
(Cic. Hose. Com. 10, 28). Little, however, is
known about the state of trade during the Ee-
public.
The artifices, properly so called, except the
arcliitects, came mostly from Greece : painters,
statuaries, architects, and many more. Few
Romans practised these arts. Fabius ' Pictor '
(304 B.C.), Pacuvius, painter (as well as poet),
Sp. Carvilius, sculptor (293 B.C.), Cossutius,
architect (170 B.C.), are exceptions. Actors
were either slaves, freedmen, or strangers, and
were always considered unworthy of citizen-
ship (see Cic. Arch. 5, 10; Tac. Arm. xiv. 21).
Much business came -into the hands of
freedmen {lihertini), whether as principals or
subordinates. Both in the later Republic and
under the Empire the retail shops (tabernae)
and private workshops {officinae) were to a
large extent conducted by freedmen, who occu-
pied the place of a middle class, while the
genuine citizens sank more and more into the
condition of well-to-do paupers, supported by
public doles and gifts of patroni. The great
influx of wealth into Eome created a capitalist
system developed by the pubUcaiii, both in
town and country, and destroyed the ancient
independence.
Under the Empire a great development of
industry took place. The division of labour
was of the most extensive kind. A capital
feature of the Empire was the tendency to con-
centrate the different kinds of handicraftsmen
in collegia. [Collegium], which were at once
trades-unions and clubs, insurance and burial
societies. The different trades were mostly
carried on by foreigners and freedmen ; though
rich people and even the emperors put their
money into large businesses. The artisans in
these large workshops were slaves or freedmen.
Under the Empire taxes were sometimes laid
upon industry.
After Diocletian all artisans were scheduled
and formed a corporation in each community.
Each corporation paid a fixed tax, called lus-
tralis collatio. The lower class of artisans
and traders was organised into the Collegiati,
while a number of artifices — architects, phy-
sicians, painters, sculptors, goldsmiths, fullers,
potters, &c., obtained by a law of Coustantine
special exemption from all state burdens.
'ApTvvoi or'ApTvvat. A sort of deliberative
and executive committee of the governing ari-
stocracy at Argos and Epidaurus (Thuc. v. 47).
Arundo or Harundo. [Calamus.]
Aru'spex. [Haruspex.]
Arva'les Fratres. A college or company of
priests, twelve in number, so called, according
to Varro {L. L. v. 85) from offering public
sacrifices for the fertility of the fields. Their
institution was referred to Romulus, who, when
his nurse, Acca Larentia, lost one of her
twelve sons, allowed himself to be adopted by
her in his place, and called himself and the
remaining eleven ' Fratres Arvales.'
The office of the Fratres Arvales, like that of
the augurs, was for life, and was not taken
away even from an exile or captive. They
wore, as a badge of ofiice, a chaplet of ears of
ARVALES FRATRES
87
com yspicea corona) fastened (yittata) with a
white band of wool [vitta or infida). (Plin.
xviii. § 6.) The sanctuary of the Arval Brethren
was the grove of the Dea Dia, near tlie fifth
milestone on the Via Portuensis, where a
number of stone tablets have been found during
the last 300 years, containing the acta or
l^rotocols of ninety-six annual meetings of the
college, ranging in date from 14 a.d. to 241.
The sacrificium Deae Diae in luco continued
to be celebrated till 382 a.d. when, by a decree
of Gratian, the disestablishment of all pagan
worships was completed, and the endowments
of the college were confiscated.
The regular number of brethren was twelve.
The emperor was always a member, and some-
times a supernumerai-y. From the time of
Augustus it became usual to appoint princes
of the imperial family as extra members of the
most dignified priestly colleges. Vacancies as
they occurred were filled up by cooptation,
usually controlled by an imperial rescript (e.g.
viea sententia coopto P. Matdium Carbonem)
indicating the person to be elected, like the
conge d'elire of modem times. For the pur-
pose of an election the brethren met on the
summons of the magister in the Regia, the
temple of Jupiter Stator, that of Divus lulius,
or latterly in the temple of Concord ; and the
votes were given in writing (^jcr tabellas). The
newly elected member was solemnly admitted
{ad sacra vocatus) by the magister.
The Arvales had their presiding officer called
magister, elected annually. Next in import-
ance to the magister -vins the fiamen. Either of
these dignities was often conferred by way of
compliment on the emperor, who usually dis-
charged its duties by deputy ; we also hear of
jn-omagister and profianien. There were, be-
sides, four pueri ingenui patrimi et matrimi,
seyiatoruvi filii (called also Camilli), who
waited on the brethren dm-ing the sacrificial
feast, and shared it themselves sitting on cath-
edrae, while their elders reclined. The college
had also its staff of servants: some sjrvipublici,
an aedituus in charge of the sacred precinct,
and lastly the calatores, who were freedmen of
the Brethren.
The principal duty of the Arvales was to
celebrate a three days' festival in honour of the
Dea Dia, identified with Ops. This festival was
proclaimed on the ClivusCapitoliuus in January,
and held in May. The festival belonged to the
order of feriae conceptivae, or those fixed by
proclamation. On the first and last of the
three days the college met in Rome, offered
fruits, incense, and wine at sunrise to the Dea
Dia ; anointed lier statue ; bathed, and changed
the p)raetexta in which they had sacrificed
for a white dinner-dress (album cenatorium;
cf. Synthesis). Between dinner and dessert
(mensa prima and mensa secunda bcllario-
ruju) they rose from table, reclined on more
magnificent couches than those of the tricli-
nium (toralibus segmentatis) repeated the
offerings of wine, incense, and first-fruits [fruges
libatae) ; then divided the bellaria, and received
each man a sjjortula or perquisite for attend-
ance. Tliis in tlie period from Trajan to tlie
Antonines amounted to 100 denarii, the boys
receiving 25.
On the second day of the feast, which was
the most important of the three, the Arvales
assembled in the grove of the Dea Dia already
described, and performed certain sacrifices : two
pigs (porciliae 2>i''i'Cula7-es), a white heifer
(vacca honoraria), and a lamb, were the victims.
88 ARVALES FRATRES
Other ceremonies followed, including the shar-
ing of panes laiireati, and the anointing of the
images of Acca Larentia and the Dea Dia. The
temple was cleared of all but the priests, and
the doors shut ; and with their tunics tucked
up for the dance, taking written copies of the
formula from their attendants, and dividing
right and left into two bodies, they proceeded
to recite the hymn which is transcribed below.
A rude Satumian metre is traceable in the
hymn :
Enos, Lases, iuvate,
Neve lue rue, Mannar, sins incurrere in pleores.
Satur fu, fere Mars ! limen sail ! sta ! berber !
Semunis alternei advocapit eouctos.
Enos Marmar iuvato.
Triuinpe.
Each of the first five lines was repeated
thrice, and ' Triumpe ' five (or probably six)
times.
In Mommsen's rendering :
1-3. To the gods—
Nos le-nos, of. e-jie, or perliaps e-castor]. Lares,
iuvate,
Neve luem ruem [= ruinam] sinas [sines7'] incur-
rere in plures [pleores = ple-ios-(oT ior-)es'].
Satur esto [fit, imper. of '/uo'\, fere Mars.
3. To the individual brethren—
In limen insili ! [better, limen Iransili : cf. CatuU.
Ixi. 159 ; Plant. Cos. iv. 4, 1 ; Lucan, ii. 3.59 :
1 Sam. V. 5 ; Zepli. i. 9] sta ! verbera ! [limen (or
solum ?)].
(Another interpretation is sta rerber, ' stay thy
lash.')
4. To all the brethren -
Semonos [se-homones, acc.=divos, gods of the second
rank] alterui advocate [better, euJvocabitis] eunc-
tos.
6. To Mars—
Nos, Mamers [Mar-Mar, redupl. form of Mars'],
iuvato I
6. To the individual brethren —
Tripudia [triumpe = triumpha'].
Help us, Lares, and thou. Mar.s,
Let not plague and ruin fall upon our folk.
Be content, fierce Mars.
(Leap over the threshold ! Halt 1 beat the ground 1)
Call in alternate song on aU the divinities.
Help us, Mars.
(Dance the sacred measure.)
Cf. Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens, ttc,
pp. 391-395.
After the recitation the doors were thrown
open and the service-books handed back to the
attendants (j)«6/i'ct introierunt ct Ubellos re-
ceperwnt) ; and the brethren now proceeded to
the election of a Magister and a Flamen for
the ensuing year, followed by the distribution
of a Sportula and of roses. Next came races
in the circus of the grove ; the Magister or his
deputy presided at the games, habited in the
Riciuium, and gave away the prizes. The
brethren then returned to Rome and dined to-
gether in the house of the Magister.
Whenever iron was brought into the grove,
as for cutting the inscriptions for the acta, or
the lopping and felling of the trees, sacrifices
were made ob ferrum illatum, and when the
work was done, oh ferrum elatum. This points
to an origin anterior to the use of iron. Wlien
the trees perished or were renewed, more solemn
sacrifices {suovetaurilia maiora) were offered
on the spot. The Arvales met at Rome, in the
Capitol and elsewhere, for elections and the
indictio of the annual festival ; and also for the
nuncupatio or solemn pronouncing of vows
for important events in the imperial family.
ASCIA
The deities specially honoured by the Arvales
were Janus, Juppiter, Mars [Quirinus], probably
Juno, the Lares, Fons and Flora, SummanuB,
and Vesta [Ambarvalia.j
Arx (oKpa) signified a height within the walls
of a city, which, however, was never closed by
a wall nor held against the city in earlier times,
and very seldom later. The same city may have
had several arces, as was the case at Rome
(cf. Verg. Georg. ii. 535). But the word arx
came to be used as equivalent to acropolis. At
Rome the north-eastern summit of the Capito-
line Hill (Ara Celi) was especially called Arx, the
south-western (Palazzo Caffarelli) being termed
Capitoliuni. The Arx was the regular place for
taking the auspices (Liv. i. 18, x. 7). The spot in
the Arx whence they were taken was called augu-
raculum. The auguraculum appears to have
been transferred by Augustus to the Palatine.
'ApvPaWos- [Pottery.j
As ( = sfs), any unit. The Roman fractional
division was by 12 unciae, and fractions were
thus expressed. For the names of these frac-
tions see Tables XIII. and XIV.
The common use of the word is to express
what was originally a pound (libra) of bronze
stamped with a device guaranteeing its weight.
For the history of the As see Coinage.
'AcTd.p.i.v9os ((TKa<p7], irvtAos, efj.0aais,
fjMKTpa). A tub — usually of wood {Od. iv. 48),
of silver in Od. iv. 128 — in which the bather sat,
while warm water was poured over his head and
shoulders (cf. Od. x. 361). Tliis was the usual
mode of bathing in Homeric times; but no
representation of a tub in which the bather
could sit appears on any of the vases which
depict scenes from the baths. See, however,
Ar. Eq. 1060. [Balneae.]
Ascaules (iffKavK-qs). A player on the bag-
pipe (Mart. X. 3, 8). Suetonius (Nero, 54) uses
the word utricnlarius.
As'cia (dimin. asciola, acisculus). A tool
employed in somewhat different forms for dif-
Fig. IM.— .4scla, or
Carpenter's Adze.
Fig, 1R4.— .iscla, Mason's
Hammer or Pick.
ferent purposes. (1) The ffKiirapvov of Homer
(Od. V. 235, ix. 891), used in working wood, and
resembling our adze.
It was different from
the ir4\(Kvs, felling-
axe or hatchet (Lid-
dell and Scott, s.v.),
liaving the head set at
right angles to the
helve.
(2) The Greek tvkos
(Eur. H. F. 945) or rvxos (Theogn. 24), used
in dressing stone, was a mason's hammer.
Hence tvkt) signifies mason's work (Eur. loUy
Fig. 185.— .\scia used by
Bricklayers. (From
Trajan's Column.)
A2KnAIA2M02
206) and rvKicTfjia, working of stones (Eur.
Troad. 812).
(3) A bricklayer's implement for chopping
lime and mixing mortar (Vitr. vii. 2).
ASTEOLOGIA
89
Fig. 166.— Bricklayer's ascia. (From Trajan's Column.)
(4) A hoe.
'A(TKu\iao'p.6s {aaKwXidCdv). Dancing
upon the leathern bag {a.crK6s) during the Anthe-
steria and other festivals in honour of Dionysus.
Fig. 187.
•'A<7<ca)Aia<rnd?, dancing on a wineskin. (From
an ancient gem.)
The Athenians sacrificed a he-goat to the god,
smeared the skin with oil, and then tried to
dance upon it. The comj)etitor who kept his
balance longest received the skin as a reward.
(See Ar. Pint. 1129.)
A similar usage was known at Italian vintage
feasts (Varro, de Vit. P. Bom. i. ; cf. Serv. ad
Verg. Georg. ii. 383.)
' A(tk6s- a wine-skin, generally a goat-skin.
Also an earthenware vessel of similar shape.
Fig. 188.— 'Actkoi. (Dennis's Etruria.)
'Aa€3e£cLS 7Pa.4>'n. See Appendix, Geeek
Law.
Asiarchae {aaidpxai). In the Roman province
of Asia, the cliief presidents of the religious
rites, in honour of the deity of Rome and
Augustus, founded by that emperor. It was
their office to exhibit games and theatrical
amusements for the year of their appointment,
at their own expense, like the Roman aedLles.
The games were held once in four years [qiiin-
quennales), and the presiding Asiarch, the
supreme functionary of the Koivhy 'Aaias, is
said to have been styled dpxitptvi 'Aaias.
Wealthy persons were always chosen to fill this
office. A list of ten names was drawm up an-
nually by delegates (avffdpoi) of the different
towns of Asia, at the general assembly (Kotvhv
'Acrias), and the selection of one made by the
Roman proconsul. The duty was frequently
shared among a large number, in order to lighten
the burden of the expense. In other Asiatic
provinces, we find Bitliynarchae, Galatarchae,
Lyciarchae, &e. (Acts xix. 31). Cf. Arabarches.
Asilla {daiWa). A wooden pole, or yoke, for
Fig. 189.— .\silla or pole used for carrying burdens.
carrying burdens. It is called a.vd<popov by
Aristophanes [Ban. 8). See cut under Cophi-
nus.
Aspersio. [Sacrificium.]
'AcT-n-Ls. [Arms and Armour.]
Assertor (Ads-). See Appendix, Roman Law.
Astrag'alus {aaTpayaKos}. (1) An ankle-
bone, knuckle-bone, used as dice, &c. [Games :
Tali.]
(2) An ornament of the Ionic style, resembling
a string of tali (darpdycxAoL), used chiefly as a
lower edging to the larger mouldings, especially
the echinus (ovolo). [Architectura.]
'A(TTpaT€£as 7pa<t>iti. See Appendix, Greek
La\\'.
Astrolo'gia. This word is employed by the
best Latin \vriters {e.g. Cic. Dir. ii. 42, 87) to
denote astronomy in general. In Greek oerrpo-
\oyia is the more common term ; but darpo-
\oyia and darpovofxia are often used indiffer-
ently. [See Astronomia.]
The belief in astrology is of very ancient date.
Astrologers were called Chaldaci or Bahylonii,
astronomi, astrologi, jilanetarii, niatliematici,
genethUaci, diroT(\e(r/j.aTiKoi (from the effects,
dwori\€(rij.ara, of the stars) ; while their art
was known as dcrrpoKoyia, /jLeTfwpoKoyia, ytv-
e6\ia\oyia, dirorektcriJiaTiKri^ox irivaKiKi). Tlieir
calculations were termed Bahtjlonii ninncri
(Hor. Carm. i. 11, 2), XahSaiony fxedoSoi, Xa\Saici>y
\pT]((>7Ses, rationes Chaldaicae; their responses
wlien consulted, Cluddaconim monita, Chal-
daeorum natalicia praedicta.
The stars and constellations to which atten-
tion was chiefly directed were the planets and
the signs of the zodiac, some of which were
supposed to exert uniformly a benign influence
(dyadoTTowl daTepes), such as Venus, Jupiter,
Luna, Virgo, Libra, Taurus; others to be uni-
formly malign (kokoitoioI acrrfpes), such as
Saturnus, Mars, Scorpio, Capricornus; others
to be doubtful {iTriKoivoi darepes), such as Mer-
curius. But by tlie combination and conjunc-
tion (avvSpo/rr), constcllatio) or opposition
of benign and malign, the jiower of the latter
might be neutralised or even reversed (Suet.
Aug. 94). The risings, settings, movements,
and relative positions were carefully registered
90
ASTKONOMIA
in tables {irivaKes icprifjupiSes). Each planet
had a proper sign of the zodiac, called the domus
or House of the planet, during its sojourn in
which it possessed superior power. Thus Libra,
Capricornus, and Scorpio were respectively the
houses of Venus, Saturn, and Mars.
Computations founded upon the hour of
birth [hora genitalis) were styled yeveais [gene-
sis or genitura), wpoaKoiros {horoscopus), or
simply Ofna, and the star or stars in the ascen-
dant sidus nataUcium, or sidera natalicia.
The Chaldaean astrology was little known in
Greece until after the conquests of Alexander.
After this time it passed into general accept-
ance, especially among the Stoic pliilosophers
(Cic. Div. ii. 4-2, 88). Astrologers had found
their way to Rome by the second century B.C.
In 139 B.C. C. Cornelius Scipio Hispallus,
jjraetor peregrinus, banished the Chaldaeans
from the city and Italy, and similar measures
were frequently repeated both during the Re-
public and under the Empire, but with no per-
manent result (Suet. Tib. 36 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 62,
Ann. ii. 3'2, vi. 20, 21).
Astronomia. Astronomy.
1. HisTOBY. — The astronomy of the Greeks
was derived from the East, and from pastoral
observation at home. The earliest period, that
of Homer and Hesiod, embraced some know-
ledge of separate stars and their grouping
into constellations, and some observation of
elementary astronomical facts, such as times
of rising and setting, the solstices (Tpotrai), the
length and seasons of the year, the phases of
the moon, &c.
The second period begins with the Ionian
school of philosophy and its founder, Thales
(c. 600 B.C.), who fixed the year to 365 days, and
stated the causes of eclipses ; one of which he is
said to have foretold (Hdt. i. 74). He divided
the heaven into five zones, and traced the
ecliptic. Ana.ximander (610-547 B.C.) originated
the idea of the Spheres, and erected a,yi/cifjLa>yov
astronomical dial, marking probably the meri-
dian, the solstices, and the equinoxes. Anaxi-
menes (r. 544 b.c.) and Herakleitus (c. 513 B.C.)
were theorists rather tlian scientific reasoners.
Kleostratus of Tenedos (c. 500 B.C.) is said to have
named the signs of the zodiac. Anaxagoras
(c. 450 B.C.) made some steps towards investiga-
tion of the nature of the heavenly bodies. He
declared that the sun was /xvSpos Siiirvpos, and
as large as the Peloponnese. The Pythagorean
school of the sixth and fifth centuries imagined
the Harmony of the Spheres, corresponding to
musical proportions. They also observed the
planetary motions, and reckoned comets among
the heavenly bodies. By the time of Plato
(428-347 B.C.) the spherical form of the earth
was recognised, and the five planets were num-
bered and named. Eudoxus of Knidus (c. 366
B.C.) is said to have built an observatory, and
to have taught the motions of the planets and
developed the doctrine of the spheres. His
system was set forth in two works, the "Ei'-
oirrpov and the ^aiv6ij.iva. Aristotle (384-322
B.C.) in his works de Caelo and Meteorologica
put together the result of former speculations,
following the system of Eudoxus.
The works of Eudoxus are known to us from
the ^aiv6iJiiva and Aiocr7),uf(a of Aratus [fl. B.C.
260), a metrical version of the two treatises of
Eudoxus mentioned above (Ov. Am. i. 15, 16).
Virgil borrowed largely from this source in
his Georgics, and many commentaries upon
it were written. The work itself consists
of : (1) a description of the constellations ;
(2) a short account of the planets, of the
Milky Way, of the tropical circles, and of
the equator, and the dates of rising and setting
of the stars; (3) the AioariiJ.(ia, a collection of
weather- prognostics.
Eratosthenes (Ji. 230 B.C.) was a follower of
Aratus.
Scientific astronomy commenced at Alex-
andria in the early part of the third century B.C.,
with Timocharis and Aristyllus, who determined
the places of the fixed stars, and observed the
right ascension and declination of many stars.
Hipparchus, however (Ji. 150 B.C.), is well
entitled to be regarded as the father of tlie
science. (See Pliny, ii. § 95.) He first drew up a
regular catalogue of the fixed stars according
to position and magnitude, and discovered the
precession of the equinoxes. Though almost
all his works have perished, the substance of
them has been preserved in the Almagest of
Ptolemy.
The catalogue of the fixed stars by Ptolemy
[fl. 150 B.C.), derived in great measure from Hip-
parchus, held the field until the seventeenth
century. It embraces forty-eight constellations ;
comprising 1022 stars, arranged according to
sis magnitudes. These are usually denomi-
nated the Old Constellations., to distinguish
them from the additions made in modem times.
Several stars are mentioned as a.ix6pcp(ioTot —
that is, not included within the limits of any
one of the figures: e.g. Arcturus, Canopus,
Capella, and small groups such as the Lyre,
the Kids, &c.
The Romans adopted, without addition, the
knowledge of the stars communicated by the
Greeks. Pliny speaks of the constellations as
seventy-two in number, and sets down the
number of observed stars at 1600.
2. N.\MES OF THE CONSTELL.^TIONS.
The only constellations known to Homer {Tl.
xviii. 485-489, Od. v. 272-275) and Hesiod (Op.
333, &c.) appear to have been the Great
Bear, BoStes, Orion, Sirius, the Hyades and
Pleiades. Hesiod also mentions Arcturus
(possibly for Bootes; 566), and Sirius, the
Hyades (Op. 615), and Orio7i (598, &c.).
I. Northern Signs.
1. The Great Bear, The Plough, Charles's
Wain, "Ap/cros (u€yd\ri), "EKikt], (Arat. 27, &c.),
Maior Arctus, Maior Ursa, Helice ; also^A/uolo,
the Waggon (II. xviii. 487, Od. v. 275), in Latin
Ursa and Plaustrum or Currus. (See Ov.
Trist. iv. 3). The ancient Italian name for the
seven principal stars of the group was Septem
Triones. For the story of Callisto and her
transformation see Ov. Met. ii. 409.
2. The Lesser or Little Bear, "Apktos
(mKpd), Kvv6(Tovpa, Kvv6(Tovpts, Arctus minor,
Cynosura, ^oivikti, a name derived from the
circumstance that it was selected by the Phoe-
nicians as their guide at sea. The name
Kvv6<rovpa was by the ancients applied to the
whole figure and not merely to the pole star
(' Cynosure,' Milton, All. 80).
3. The Dragon, ApuKoov, Draco, Serpens,
and Anguis : tliree stars, distinguished as
ApaKoov, ""Ocpis, and''T5p7j : the second of which
is grasped by Ophiuchus (No. 13) (Milton, P. L.
ii. 709; cf. Verg. Georg. i. 205).
4. Cepheus, K-i\(pevs, Cepheus.
5. The Bear-Warden, Bootes, 'Ap/cTo<^u\af,
Arctophylax, also called Bowttjs, Buhulcus,
Gustos, and TpvyriTr,s.
ASTRONOMIA
91
The chief star in the constellation is Abct-
URUS, 'AC)KToipos, also called Lycaon.
6. The Nobthekn Chown, 'S.Titpavos, Corona,
Ariadnea corona (cf. Verg. Georg. i. 1'2'2 ; Ov.
Fast. iii. 460).
7. Hebcules, also called ''Evy6vaaiv, Engo-
nasi,Engonasin, or Geniculatus, IngenicuLus,
&c.
8. The Lyke, Xe\vs, Avpa, Lyra, Fides, &c. ;
a Lyrae is also called by the same name.
9. The Swan, "Opj'is, Kvkpos, Ales, Volucris,
Avis, Cycnus.
10. Cassiopeia, KotrtrieTreia, Cassiepeia,
Cassiopea.
11. Febseus, Tlepcrevs, Perseus.
12. Th£ Chabioteeb, 'Hvioxos, Heniochus,
Auriga ; a Aurigae was termed AjI, Capella
or Cajira.
The two stars (f, 77') on the wrist of Auriga
wore
The Kids, '''E.pKpoL, Haedi, spoken of as
heralds of bad weather (Verg. Georg. i. 205 ;
Hor. Carm. iii. 1, 28).
13. The Sebpent-Holder or Ophiuchus,
'OcfxoSxos, Ophiuclius, Anguitenens, Anguifer,
Serpentarius (Ov. Fast. vi. 735).
14. The Arbow, 'OiffTos, T6^of, Sagitta.
15. The Eagle, 'AeT<^s, Aquila.
16. Antinous. a star assigned by Hadrian
to liis favourite.
17. The Dolphin, Ae\<pis s. A(\(piv, Dcl-
2)hinus.
18. The Little Hobse, "l-mrov irpoTo/M],
literally, the fore quarters of a horse.
19. Pegasus, "Ittttos, Eqnits (Ov. Fast. iii.
450).
20. Andromeda, 'AfSpo^e'STj, Andromeda,
Cepheis.
21. The Teiangle, AeArctirSv, Deltotum,
the rpiywvov of Ptolemy.
II. Southern Signs.
1. The Whale, K^tos, 'Op(p6s, Cetiis, Pristis,
Pistrix, &c.
2. Orion, 'Clpiuiv, 'napioiv (Hom. IJ. xviii.
8. The Water Snake, "TSpTj, "TSpos, Hydra,
Hydros, Anguis (Ov. Fast. ii. 243 ; Verg. Georg.
i. 205).
y. The Cup, Kparl,p, Crater, Cratera, Urna.
10. The Raven or Crow, K6pa^, Corvus (Ov.
Fast. ii. 243).
11. The Centaur, KivTavpos, Xfipwv, Ceti-
taurus, Chiron.
12. The Wolf, @i)piov, Bestia.
13. The Altar, ©uTrjptor, ^Ira.
14. The Southern Crown, ^Teipcwos v6tios.
It was also called the Wheel of Ixion.
15. The Southern Fish, 'Ix^i/s vunos, Pis-
cis Notius or Australis, also 'Ix^ivs /J-tyas.
Among other constellations we may men-
tion :
1. The Hair of Berenice, n\6Ka/jx)s s.
B6(TTpvxos Bfpov'iKrts, Coma^ Berenices (Catull.
Ixv.), formed by Koiion out of certain unappro-
priated [a.ix6p(puiToi) stars behind the Lion's
Tail, in honour of Berenice, the wife of Ptolemy
Euergetes.
2. Mil\its (Ov. Fast. iii. 793; Plin. xviii.
§ 237). No such constellation is known ; and
probably Ovid and Pliny, finding in the cal-
endars Milvus ap2)aret (i.e. a spring sign from
birds of passage, xeAiSwi' koI IktTvos (paiverai),
mistook the bird Milvus (kite) for a constella-
tion.
III. Signs of the Zodiac.
1. The Ram, Kpi6s, Aries, Phrixea Ovis.
2. The Bull, Tavpos, Taurus, Bos (Ov. Fast.
vi 712 ; Mart. x. 51). To this constellation
belong —
The Hy.\des {II. xviii. 436 ; Hes. Op. 615),
'TdSes, Hyadcs, are situated in the fore-
head of Taurus. They were called by the
Italians Suculae. Tlie period of their setting
in the morning at the end of November marked
the stormy season of the year. Their spring or
evening setting was near the feast of Pales
[Palilia] in April, and hence they were called
Parilia, or Palilia.
The PLEi.'a)ES, U\etdSes, Pleiades, probably
486; Hes. Op. 598), Orion, Oarion (Catull. i from irAelr, not TTfAeioj, wdled also Fer^^j'/me :
Ixvi. 94), also lugula and lugulae (Plant. ' also in Taurus. They were counted as seven,
Amph. i. 1, 119), supposed to represent although six only are visible. They are called
warrior with shield and club, belt (6«/<ei/.s) and 'ArXayyeve'ts (Hes. Op. 383) and Atlaiitides.
sword (ensis). The two stars, a and y, were
called TJmeri.
3. The Ebidanus, nora^i^s, Amnis, identi-
fied by the Romans with the Po or the Nile.
4. The Hare, Aay<»6s, Aaycvs, Lejms.
5. The Great Dog, Kvwv, Sfi'p'oy, Canis,
Sirius.
The most important star in the Great Dog,
perhaps the brightest in tlie heavens, was fre-
quently specially named Kvwv, sometimes em-
phatically rh 6.(TTpov, and by tlie Ronums Canis
or Canicula, but more frequently 'S.iipios, Sirius
<Hes. Op. 587 &c. ; Hom. //. v. 5, xxii. 25).
About 400 B.C. tlie heliacal rising of Sirius at
Athens, corresponding with the entrance of the
sun into the sign Leo, marked the hottest sea-
eon of the year ; and hence the Dies Canicu-
l<ires became proverbial, as the Dog Days
among ourselves.
6. The Little Dog, WpoKvuv, Procyon, or
Antecanis (Ov. Fast. iv. 936; Hor. Carm. iii.
29, 18)
Maia, the seventh, married a mortal and was
extinguished by her sisters.
3. The Twins, AiSufj.01, Gemini, including
Castor and Polhix.
4. The Crab, KapjciVos, Cancer, including
"Ovos fiopetos and ''Ovos v6ti.os, Aselli, and
•tciTj'T), Praesepie.
5. The Lion, a4wv, Leo, including BatnAiV/cos,
liegia (Begulus).
6. The VnuJiN, Uapeffos, Virgo, Erigone,
with 'S.TO-xvs, UpoTpvyr]Trip, Spica, Vindemia-
trix, Provindemia.
7. The Balance or Claws, XTjXai, Libra,
i.e. the equilibrium which marked the autumnal
equinox.
8. Tile Scorpion, "ZKopirios, Scorpius, Scorpio,
Nepa.. The brightest star in Scoqiios was
'Avrdpris, Antares.
9. The Archer (Sagittary), Tofeur^y, TJ|oj',
Sagittarius, Arcitenens, Centaurus, Chiron
(Ov. Met. ii. 81).
10. The Goat (Capricorn), Aly6Kepu>s, Caper,
7. The Ship Abgo, 'Apyw, Argo, Kavis, the Capricornus (Hor. Carm. ii. 17, 20).
portion of the vessel beliind the mast. The 11. The Waterman (.\quarius), 'Thpox^os,
brightest star was distinguished as irf\^a.\iov
(jfuhernaculum), the rudder, instead of which
Kivufios, Canopus, became general.
Aquarius, Aquitenens, Deucalion; contaiumg
KaAiri'y, Situ la.
12. The Fishes {Pisces), 'Ix^ves, 'Ix^ue,
92
ASTRONOMIA
Pisces: not to be confounded with 'Ix^i/s
vorios (Piscis Austraiis), in the southern hemi-
sphere.
3. Risings and Settings of the Fixed
Staes.
As early as the time of Hesiod, the changes
of the seasons, and the more important opera-
tions of agriculture, were fixed with reference
to the risings and settings of Orion, the
Pleiades, the Hyades, Arcturus, and Sirius.
After the time of Thales (c. 600 B.C.), these
celestial phenomena were determined with
great care and accuracy : tables were drawn up
of the risings and settings of the more brilliant
stars, together with other notices. Copies were
engraved on stone or brass (Trapairriyfj.ara), and
hung up in market-places and other places of
public resort.
We find numerous precepts in Virgil, Colu-
mella, and Pliny dehvered with reference to
the risings and settings of the stars, forming a
complete Calendarium Rusticum. Ovid, pro-
bably following the Fasti of Caesar, com-
bined the Fasti of the city with these Rural
Almanacs.
It is necessary to attend to two facts :
(1) The time of the risings and settings of the
fixed stars varies for the same place at dif-
ferent epochs. Thus the Pleiades, which at
Rome rose with the sun on the 16th of April,
B.C. 44, rose with Uie sun several days earlier \
in the age of Meton (c. 430 B.C.), and do not now '
rise with the sun at Rome until several days
later. This is caused by the precession of the
equinoxes.
(2) The time of the risings and settings of the
fixed stars is different on the same day in
places whose latitude is different. Thus, in
the year when the Pleiades rose with the
sun at Rome on the 16th of April, they did not
rise with the sun at Athens until the 22nd
of April.
Too little attention was paid to these con-
siderations by the Roman writers ; and conse-
quently calculations made for the latitude of
Athens, or of Rhodes, or of Alexandria, 300
years earlier, were adopted by them and trans-
ferred to calendars of their own time without
change or modification.
Another source of confusion is a want of pre-
cision in specifying the different kinds of risings
and settings.
The risings and settings of the fixed stars,
when considered with reference to the sun's
place in his orbit, may be arranged as follows :
(1) (a) Wlien a star rises at sunrise.
(6) "When a star rises at sunset.
(c) When a star sets at sunrise.
(d) When a star sets at sunset.
These four are called cosmic or true risings
and settings (KOfffxiKi) or a.\7\Qiirr) iiriroKri and
Svffis [also a-vvavaToKi], (XvyKaTiiSvcns], tifa and
kffnepia); mundanus or verus ortits and oc-
casiis, matufinus and vespertinus; and are
matters of calculation, not of observation,
since the sun's light renders the stars which
rise and set with him invisible.
(•2) (a) When a star rises shortly before the
sun, so as to be just visible in the morning twi-
light as it ascends above the horizon, before its
rays are overpowered by the light of the more
brilliant luminary.
(6) When a star rises shortly after simset, so
as to be just visible in the evening twilight as
it ascends above the horizon.
(c) When a star sets shortly before sunrise,
so as to be just visible in the morning t\vilight
as it sinks below the horizon.
(d) When a star sets shortly after sunset, so
as to be just visible in the evening twilight as
it sinks below the horizon.
These four are called heliacal or apparent
risings and settings (v/Aia/ci) or (pouvofj.fvr)
iiriToKri [irpoavaro\-ri, iircwaToKr}], and Svais
[irpoSvais, eviKaTaSviTLs], e^Soand iaTrtpia) ; heli-
acus or apparens ortus and occasus, matuti-
nus and vespertinus.
But the Roman wTiters fall into much con-
fusion between the true and the heliacal risings
and settings, as well as the morning and even-
ing risings and settings ; and for the most part,
both in prose writers and in poets, everything
is vague and unsatisfactory : risings and set-
tings of all descriptions, calculated for different
latitudes and at different dates, are thrown
together at random. For instances of this, see
Diet, of Antiq. vol. i. pp. '2'25-233, Astkono-
Mi.\, where this part of the subject is treated in
greater detail than is possible here.
It may be observed here that certain periods
of the year were in the mind of the people so
indissolubly connected with certain astronomi-
cal phenomena, that the phraseology remained
when the facts had changed. Thus the period
of greatest heat, which at one time (c. 400
B.C.) coincided with tlie heliacal rising of
Sirius in the latitude of Athens, would con-
tinue to be distinguished in the language of
the people, and in almanacs, as the Canis
Exortus, long after the two epochs were
removed to a distance from each other ; just as
among ourselves the term dog-days, once
accepted, is used without regard to the actual
position of the constellation at the time in
question. In the same manner, our quarter-
days, and other traditional anniversaries {e.g.
May Day, St. Swithun's Daj, St. Luke's
summer), are partly (as the longest and shortest
days), nearly exact, partly inexact in conse-
quence of the change of style.
I An exam-pie still more striking, because it
! involves an anomaly universally recognised by
' scientific men, is the practice of denominating
I the position of the sun at the vernal equinox,
I as the first point of Aries, although two thou-
sand years have elapsed since the intersection
of the ecliptic with th* equator corresponded
with the commencement of the constellation
Aries. Hence arises a distinction between the
Signs of the zodiac and the Constellations of the
zodiac. Thus the sun is said to be in the sign
Aries while he is actually traversing the con-
stellation of Pisces, and enters the sign Taurus
long before he quits the constellation Aries.
4. Division of the Ye.\b into Seasons.
Homer clearly defines three seasons: (1)
Spring (top : Od. xix. 519). (2) Winter {xftfjuiv,
Xe«iua : II. iii. 4 ; comp. Hes. Op. 448). (3)
Sunmier (Btpos : Od. vii. 118). The word
oirdipT) (Od. xi. 191, xii. 76), which is often
translated ' autumn,' originally meant the
hottest part of summer ; and hence Sirius,
whose heliacal rising took place in the age of
Homer about the middle of July, is designated
as acTTi^p birwpivos.
Hesiod notices eap [Op. 462), Oipos (I. c),
Xei/ua (450), and in his poem we find the trace
of a fourfold division, for he employs the adjec-
tive ix.iToiTwpiv6s (Op. 415) in reference to the
periods of the first rains. These rains he else-
where calls the oirwpivhs uuPpos, and notices
them in connexion with the vintage. As late,
A2TTNOMOI
liowever, as Aeschylus {Pro)i>. 453) and Aristo-
phanes {AiK 710), the seasons are spoken of as
three: x*'i"'^''i ^"■Pi ^ipos, by the former;
XiLfidov, tap, OTTcipa, by the latter. Moreover,
the most ancient poets and artists recognised
the "^ilpai as three only, bearing, according to
the Theogony (901), tlie symbolical appellations
of Oi'der (Evvo/^ia), Justice (Ai'/ctj), and Peace
(Elp7)vn). When (in the fifth or fourth century
B.C.), tlie number of four seasons was regularly
established, autumn is designated as (pdivonwpoy
or /jLeroiroopov : owwpa, the period of the year
which immediately preceded autumn.
Julius Caesar, in his Calendar (46 B.C.), selected
an eightfold division, as follows : (1) Veris Ini-
tium; (2) Aequmodium Vernum ; (3) Aestatis
Initium; (4) Solstitium; (5) Autunini Ini-
tium; (6) AequhioctmniAutuinni; {^) Hiemis
Initium; (8) Bruma.
We find no trace in Homer of any connexion
between the recurrence of particular astrono-
mical phenomena and the return of the sea-
sons. But in Hesiod, and in subsequent
writers, the seasons are defined by the risings
and settings of particidar stars or constella-
tions : principally Arcturus, the Pleiades, Sirius,
and Orion.
'A<TTvv6(jLoi. Public officers in many Greek
states, who had to preserve order in the streets,
to keep them clean by means of scavengers
{KOirpoK6'yoi), and to see that all buildings, both
public and private, were in a safe state, and not
likely to cause injury by falling down (Arist.
Pol. vi. 5, § 3, 'Ae. TToA.. 50 ; Plat.ifg'S'. vi. 759 a).
The aarvvdfjat at Athens were ten in number,
corresponding with the number of the tribes,
and appointed by lot, five for the city and five
for the Peiraeus. They appear to have had
some police authority in virtue of their duty of
preserving order in the streets. We must re-
gard the supervision of buildings as a part of
their fmictions; they could also prevent the
streets being made too narrow or encroached
upon by balconies (Spv<J)aK:Toi), or windows
opening outwards.
'AcfvkCa.. Inviolability. (1) The security
of person and property everywhere granted
to ambassadors and heralds, and often to
others as well. It was regularly enjoyed by
athletes on their journeys to and from the
games, and by actors and others engaged in the
Dionysiac festivals (Plut. .4?-fli. 28). As granted
to individuals by special favour, it is often
mentioned in the inscriptions in connexion with
oreAeia and irpo^evia. This privilege was also
granted bj' one state to another, and claimed in
the fullest measure by the presiding states at
the four great games (Thuc. v. 49; Olympia).
The period during which the sacred truce lasted
was called tepofjLr]i>ia or e/cex^'P'o- •^'' the
derivation of the word implies, acrvXia included
exemption from reprisals [2i;\ai] in time of
war. (2) The right of sanctuary [Asylum].
A8y'lum(a(n;\oi'). 1. Gkkek.— In the Greek
states tlie temples, altars, sacred groves, and
statues of the gods generally possessed the
privilege of protecting slaves, debtors, and even
criminals, who fled to them for refuge. There
was, however, a clear distinction between
the right of the suppliant (i/csVrjs), which was
everywhere acknowledged, and the aavKla, or
ius as////, limited to certain specially privi-
leged places. The scruples of the Greeks on
this point were purely formal (see Pint. Sol.
12 ; Thuc. i. 126). When the law gave no pro-
tection, it seems to have been thought lawful
to use any means, such as fire (Eur. Andr.
ATHLETAE 93
257 ; Plant. Most. v. 1, 45) or starvation (Thuc.
i. 134 ; cf. Hdt. iii. 48), in order to compel those
who liad taken refuge to leave the sanctuary,
short of dragging tliem out by personal violence.
Among Greek sanctuaries the most famous
were the temple of Athena 'AAerj at Tegea (Pans,
ii. 17, 7; Hdt. i. 66); that of Poseidon, in
Kalauria (Paus. ii. 33, 8) ; of Poseidon, at Taena-
rum, the favourite refuge of Spartan slaves,
Helots, and Perioeki (Thuc. i. 128, 133; Plut.
Pomp. 24) ; and of Athena XoKkioikos at Sparta.
(Thuc. i. 128, 134.) Out of many others may be
mentioned the temples of Apollo at Delos ; of
Hera at Argos and Samos; of Zeus Au/coios,
itc. (Thuc. V. 16). Other sanctuaries possessed
merely local privileges. Such were the temples
of Athena 'Itoii' o in Thessaly and Boeotia (see
Class. Diet. S.V.), of Artemis in Samos and at
Ephesus, &c. [Artemision]. There were several
places in Athens which possessed this privilege :
such was the Theseion, which was chiefly in-
tended for the protection of ill-treated slaves
(Plut. Thes. 86) ; the altar of Pity ("'EAeos) in
the agora, the altar of Zeus 'A-yopaios, the altars
of the twelve gods, the altar of the Eumenides
on the Areiopagus, &c.
By command of Tiberius, in consequence of
abuses impeding the administration of justice,
the senate limited the iiis asyli to a few cities.
2. Roman. — The asylum of Romulus (Liv. i.
8) (if not, as has been supposed, the altar of
Veiiovis) was not a sanctuary in the Greek
sense. In the republican and early imperial
times, a right of asylum, such as existed in tlie
Greek states, does not appear to have been
recognised by the Roman law. (See Liv. xxxv.
51.) The temple of Divus lulius was consti-
tuted an asylum by decree of the people (Dio
Cass, xlvii. 19). A constitutio of Antoninus
Pius decreed that if a slave in a province fled
to the temples of the gods or the statues of the
emperors, to avoid the ill-usage of his master,
the Praeses could compel the master to sell the
slave. Justinian extended it to include churches.
The right of asylum seems to have been gener-
ally, but not entirely, confined to slaves.
'AxcXeia. See Appendix, Ghkek Law.
Atella'nae Fa'bulae. [Comoedia.]
Athenaeum ('MiivaLov). A school {Indus)
founded by the Emperor Hadrian at Rome, for
tlie promotion of literary^ and scientific studies
{ingcuuarum artium), and called Athenaeum
from the town of Athens, which was still
regarded as the seat of intellectual refinement.
The Athenaeum was situated on the Capitoline
hill. It was a kind of university ; and a staff
of professors (magistri) was regularly engaged,
under the titles of orators, grammarians,
sophists, philosophers, and lawyers. Public
recitations were held there, at which the empe-
rors were sometimes present. The Athenaemn
continued in repute till the fifth century; and
young men from all parts, after finishing tlieir
usual school and college studies in their own
town or province, resorted to Rome for the
purjMse of completing their education.
Athletae {ddx-nrai, dd\riTrjpfs). 1. Greek.
Strictly, those who contended for prizes {adKa)
in running, wrestling, boxing, the pentatlilon,
and the pancratium. (See the separate articles
Stadium; Lucta ; Fugilatus; Pentathlon;
Pancratium.)
In the early times in Greece athletic games
were held occasionally at festivals in honour of
the gods and heroes, but especially at the fune-
rals of distinguished men (Horn. II. xxiii).
The warriors as a rule do not appear to have
94
ATHLETAE
trained specially for the games, though legend
celebrated the athletic deeds of Herakles,
Peleus, Theseus, and others; in the Homeric
age there were few who made atliletics as such
their special business. (See, however, Od. viii.
104, n. xxiii. 670.)
In tlie next age athletics became the national
Hellenic sport, and never ceased to be so till
the latest times of the ancient world. The
Hellenic world assembled at the great festivals,
and the extravagant honours and rewards
bestowed by the cities on their citizens when
victorious, rendered victory in the games the
most coveted distinction a Greek could acquire.
Among those who contended, though many
were of low extraction (Arist. Bhet. i. 7, 9),
were also found men of mark and high birth
(Hdt. viii. 47). A class of athletes, however,
arose as early as the fifth century B.C., who
made their art a trade. These monopolised
the games, with the exception of the cliariot-
races, and came to form a class of low-bom
and vulgar 'professionals.' It is to such atliletes
that the term dd\T)rai was most strictly applied
in the historical times (cf. Eur. Autol. Fr. 1).
The athletic contests were divided into
' light ' [Kovipa.) and ' heavy ' ($apea) or ' violent '
{0iata) : see Arist. Pol. v. 4, 7 sq. The train-
ing in each of tlie two main classes was very
severe. The ordinary gynuiastic njaster who
taught the youths bodily exerci.ses as a branch
of general education was called 7rai5oTpi;37js ;
yvfjiva<TTi]s was the trainer of those wlio were
intending to compete in the games. The yvfiv-
offTTis was in constant supervision of his pupils,
attended them to the games (Paus. v. 6, 8),
and backed them during the contest. Subor-
dinate to him was the oAeiirTTjs [Alipta], who,
besides the anointing of the atldete's body,
attended to his diet. This consisted of cheese,
broad {coli})kia, Juv. ii. 53), and dried figs.
Fish and pastry were forbidden. The only
drink was water (Hor. .1. P. 414). It has been
questioned whether athletes used a meat diet.
We hear, liowever, of pork and beef, and
tliose who submitted to the severest training
{dvayKOcpayia, d5ri(payia) had to eat enormous
masses of meat after the day's exercise :
two minae (= '2if lbs.) was a small amount
for an atldete. (See Arist. Eth. ii. lI, 7 ; Ar.
Fax, 34; Cic. Tusc. ii. 17, 40.) They were
made to eat slowly, and intellectual con-
versation {<pt\o\oyuv} was forbidden during
meals. The aim of this excessive eating is
said to liave been to acquire, not Kpacris or
training, but mass and weight (tiyKos Kal fidpos)
of body, an important element in ' heavy ' con-
tests like boxing and the pancratium. The
training for rminers was directed towards di-
minishing the Hesh. Besides the ordinary
training (KaTaffKevr]) there were also other
treatments, consisting of warm baths ((ecrTO-
\ovffla), long-continued and violent movements,
accompanied with shampooings by many hands
and with much oil (diroSepaTTfia). (Cf. Hor.
A. P. 414 ; 1 Cor. ix. 25.)
The exercises were the ordinary ones of the
palaestra and those required for the games, be-
sides gymnastic exercises, such as putting heavy
weights, «:a>pi//co/3oA/a [KtopvKosJ, working with
a mattock ((TKa-rravn) (Theocr. iv. 10), &c. The
athletes practised as a rule each for a separate
event. But sometimes the athletes attempted
more than one : for it was considered a great
honour to be victorious at Olympia both in
wi-estling and in the pancratium on the same day.
Tliere were only seven such victors besides their
I mythic predecessor, Herakles (Paus. v. 21, 10,
vi. 13, 3) ; and victors in more than a single
event (irapdSo^of'iKat) were so rare as to claim
special record. (See Pind. 01. xiii. 30.)
I Victors in the principal games were called
lepoviKai ; in the separate games, oAu/iirtoft/cai,
I &c. ; in all four games, inpio^ovlKai.
Li early times the athletes used to practise
I in the Gyzunasiuiii, where the young men who
j had made some progress in the 2^(il(ici>t>'(i went
< through their ordinary unprofessional exercises,
I In Roman times we find the athletes frequent-
! ing the palaestrae, the gymnasia, xysti (hence
' xystici), the stadia, and the thermae [Balneae].
I Originally the atliletes used to contend with
: a girdle round their loins (Sid^wfio, -jripii^oDfia, or
simple C^fJM), according to the custom of the
I Spartans (Thuc. i. 6, 4). But very soon it
', became the custom to contend naked. Roman
' athletes wore their hair tied up in a knot called
cirrus, or shaved it close, as did the Greek
athletes. Some wore caps [galericulum, Mart,
xiv. 50) and ear-guards [dixc^wTihis or (irwriZis :
see Plat. Protag. 342 B ; Mart. vii. 32, 5).
I Atliletes seldom abandoned the profession
before the thirty-fifth year. A successful ath-
lete continued to contend in the games tiU his
strength failed (Plut. Cat. Mai. 4); and, in
many cases, as he advanced in years, became a
trainer.
Contests of youths {dyevfiot, from sixteen to
I twenty) and boys were held at the great festi-
, vals, in running and wrestling, the pentathlon,
boxing, the long race, and finally the pancra-
tium.
' To be an Olympic victor was esteemed by tht
I Greeks as a greater glory than a triumph at
' Rome. The victorious Greek athlete used to
: have a triumphal entry into his to\vu. Sur-
I rounded by a largo crowd, sometimes with a
grand procession of chariots, and clad in a
purple mantle, he drove into the city through a
breach made in the wall for his chariot to pass
through. Sucli victories were called etVeAoiTTj-
Kol dywvfs. Then followed the banquet, during
which the victor heard his praises sung by a
. lyrical chorus and in verse of the greatest poets
I of the day. The Athenians gave 500 draclimae
to the victor in the Olympic games, and 100
to the victor in any of the other games (Plut.
Sol. 23) ; sometimes, also, maintenance in the
Prytaneion and the honour of FlpoeSpia.
Statues were erected to liiui in his native city
and at Olympia. There was occasionally mifair
dealing and trafl&cking amongst the combatants,
and bribery became frequent in later times.
' It was punished by severe fines, according to
j the rules of the OljTiipic games.
Amongst the many judgments passed by the
ancients on the athletes, we can hardly find any
that are favourable. Euripides (Fr. Autol.],
Plato [Rep. iii. 404 a), Aristotle (Pol. iv. 16, 8),
and Plutarcli take exception to the habit, both
of mind and body, produced by athletic train-
ing : and Galen says that athletes are no better
than brutes (0A.070 C'^a), and have neither
beauty, health, nor endurance.
2. Roman. — At Rome, exhibitions of gladia-
tors, not of athletes, were the national sport. A
certain kind of athletics had, indeed, been indi-
genous in Italy from the earliest times (Liv. i.
35), and we lienr of contests in wrestling and
j boxing at the Roman games (Cic. Legg. ii. 15,
i 38) ; but the whole practice was unsystematic
I (cf. Suet. Aug. 45), and unlike the elaborate
! gymnastic of Greece (cf. Hor. Ep. i. 1, 49). In
I 186 B.C. M. Fulvius Nobilior gave the first ex-
ATHLOTHETAE
hibition of professional Greek athletes at Rome
(Liv. xxxix. 22). The next was a century later,
in Sulla's time (App. B. C. i. 99). It was not till
the Actian games were established by Augustus
(30 B.C.) [Actia] that athletics got a steady footing
among the Romans. From that time the certa-
mina Gi-aeca, as they were called (Tac. Ann.
xiv. 21), became more and more popular. Nero in
60 A.D. built a gpnnasium (Suet. Nero, 12), and
instituted new games called Neronia, of which
athletics formed a part. Domitiau in 80 .\.D.
established the Agon Capitolinus, and built a
stadium in the Campus Martius, large enough
to hold 30,000 spectators (Suet. Doni. 4, 5).
After this, athletics gradually attained increased
prominence in the Roman games till finally in
the fifth century they supplanted the gladia-
torial shows.
The names of the athletes which are pre-
served in inscriptions are almost all Greek ; not
more than four or five are Roman. Everything
connected with athletics is Greek (cf. Juv. iii.
68). The reason is that it was considered un-
suitable to Roman dignity to be an athlete.
(See Mayor on Juv. iii. 68.) But athletics con-
tinued to grow in popularity. Professional
atliletes gave lessons for high pay (Mart. vii. 32,
5, 6), and were found among the attendants of
great houses (Mart. iii. 58, 25) ; statues were
erected to them (Plin. xxxv. § 5) ; and they
stood higher in social estimation, as incjenui,
than the gladiators and actors. The Olympic
games continued to maintain their glory, and
we hear of Olympic victors being hired by the
givers of spectacles for immense smns, even as
much as five talents.
Under the Roman Empire, the athletes formed
societies or guilds (avvohoi), e.g. the Herculanei
in the second century, who had their own
special gymnasium, with its council-chamber,
its records, its temple, and its president, who
bore the title of dpxtepevs. Such companies
made provincial tours, and gave exhibitions of
their skill.
Athlo'thetae. [Agonothetae.]
'AxtjiCa. See Appendix, Greek Law.
Atlantes (6.T\avT€s), Caryatides {KapvariSes),
and Telamo'nes (Te\aij.u>ves) are terms used in
architecture to designate the figures which are
sometimes fancifully used in place of columns
ATRAMENTUM
95
monly given to the figures supporting the
portico of the Pandroseion at Athens. These,
however, are called simply Kopai in contem-
I)orary records, and should, perhaps, be more
correctly termed Kane-
phoroe. Besides these
figures, barbarians,
giants, satyrs, and Si-
leni are also found.
Such architectural
figures naturally fall
into two divisions, of
each of which we have
representative speci-
mens in the maidens of
the Pandroseion and the
Giants of Agrigentum
respectively. The differ-
ence of treatment sug-
gests in the one case tlu;
forced labour of van-
quished enemies, while
the willing and honour-
able service of the others
is suggested by their as-
similation to the Kane-
phoroe, or basket-
bearers in the Panathe-
naic procession.
Atr amentum {fxe\afj.
A term applicable to
any black liquid, e.g.
I that emitted by the
' cuttle-fish (Cic. N. D. ii.
•' 50,127; Pers.iii. 12), but
specially to three differ-
; ent kinds of black
I colouring substances :
; (1) Atramentum suto-
rium (xd^Kavdov), used
by shoemakers as a sort
of blacking to dye leather with (Plin. xxxiv. §
123), probably containing sulphate of copper
(Cic. Fam. ix. 21). (2) Atranientuni tectorium
ov pictorium, a black pigment used by painters,
made of soot from the iDitch-pine, mixed with
glue (Plin. xxxv. § 41), or vinegar. Another
kind, imported from India, probably Indian
ink. (3) Atramentum librarium {fxe\av ypa-
(piKov, in Byzantine Greek /jii \di' lov , dTepa/xvov,
eyKavcTToy, whence Italian incJiiostro,a,nd'Eng-
lisli ink) was usually prepared in the same way
as atramentinn tectorium, gum being substi-
tuted for glue. This ink was more unctuous
than ours, and resembled printer's ink. It
could, however, be easily wiped out soon after
writing. Hence the sponge was one of the
Fig. Ifll.— Caryatid from
the Pandroseion (Erech-
theion) at Athens. (From
Fergusson.)
Fig. 190.— AUanteB. (From Doric Temple at .igrigentum :
Professor Cockerell.)
Fig. 192.— Inkstands from PompeU.
(Vitr. V. 7, § 6). Such figures were used in regular implements of the scriba librarius
architecture, and applied to tripods, thrones, j (Suet. Aug. 85).
and so forth. Caryatides were originally figures
of maidens executing the dance in honour of
Artemis Kapvans ; but the name has been com-
Inlc composed of oxide of iron and galls was
used for writing on parclunent as early as the
second century after Christ.
96
ATRIENSIS
Coloured inks were also in use among the
Romans [Minium, Eubrica], and also illumina-
tion in gold leaf (Suet. Ner. 10).
'Sympathetic' ink (e.g. fresh milk, Ov. A.
A. iii.(j27) ajipearsnot to have been uncommon.
Inkstands [irv^iou, fxeXdvSoKoy, fj-fKavSoxe^ov,
fipox'ts '■ late Lat. atramentarium,atramentale)
were either single or double, for black and red
ink (cinnubaris). They were of various shapes
and materials, as terracotta, bronze, silver, (to.
A portable inkstand was called Kakafiapiov, theca
calatnaria. [See Calamus, (4).]
Atriensis. A majordomo or housekeepec, a
confidential slave in the familia urbana, who
superintended the house and housekeeping,
took charge of the valuable objects in the
atrium, and had a general control over the
slaves. Those immediately in his department
were also called atrieuses and atriarii. (Plaut.
Asin. ii. 2, 80, Pseud, ii. 2, 13 ; Phaedr. ii. 5, 11.)
A'trium. (1) [Domus].
(2) An open area surrounded by a colonnade.
' The atrium was sometimes a building by itself,
resembling a Basilica, of three sides. Such
was the Atrium Publicum in the Capitol (Liv.
xxiv. 10). At other times it consisted of an
open area and surrounding colonnade (porticus)
in front of a temple or other building, like
the vestibule of S. Ambrogio at Milan. The
atrium Vestae appears to have resembled the
atrium of a house, surrounded by the apart-
ments of the Vestals. We also read of two
atria libertatis (Liv. xxv. 7, xxxiv. 44 ; Tac.
Uist. i. 31), of an atrium Minervae, an atrium
sutoriiim, and others. The name is also applied
to the halls in which auctions were held (atria
aurtionaria, Cic. Agr. i. 3, 7).
Atticurges CATTiicoup-y^j), properly an Athe-
nian modification of the Ionic base ; afterwards
applied to other orders also. [Architectura.]
Fig. 193— Atticurges.
Auceps (aucupium : Gk. l^fvTi)s,bpvieoBr)pa^).
A bird-catcher, fowler (Ov. A. A. iii. G60). Small
birds were caught in great numbers by fowlers,
and sold at Rome in the Vicus Tuscus (Hor.
Sat. ii. 3, 227). Slaves of the familia rustica
were employed for the same purpose, and called
by the same name. The fowlers used gins and
snares (laquei; pedicae, Verg. Georg. i. 307),
rods tipped with bird-lime (viscum, Verg.
Georg. i. 139 ; arundines, calami, Mart. ix. 54, 3,
xiv. 2ia) [Calamus, (0)]; clap-nets (awn7.^'s, Hor.
Epod. ii. 33); ira.^& [transennae, Plaut. Barch.
iv. 5, 22) ; and decoy- or call-birds (illex,
(Plant. As.i. 3, 67) were also used. The time for
catching birds (principally thrushes, tiirdi,'H.OT.
Epod. ii. 34) was from December to March.
Au'ctio. Sale by auction. 1. Greek. —
Xipaais, ayopa koi irafxirpaffia, and late awapria
(Poll. X. 19) or airapTiov. Except in the case of
slaves (Luc. Biwv npaa-ts ; Plaut. Bacch. 815, d-c),
public auction of private property and estates
(Plaut. Men. v. 9, 94-100) is not frequently men-
tionedo we hear more of sales of public property.
AUCTORITAS PATRUM
Contracts for timber-felling and mines were put
up for auction at Athens, under the control of
the ircuA.r/Toi. Confiscated proi)erty (SrjfiiSirpoTa)
of defaulters, criminals, &c., was thus sold.
Public notice was given of such sales. The
handing of an olive-branch to the highest
bidder (avTcovucrOai, virfpfidWeiv) answered to
the ' fall of the hammer.'
2. Roman. — Audio signifies a public sale of
goods, at which persons raise (augere) the price
by bidding against one another. Auctio, as
a general term, comprehends auctio, bono-
rum emptio, and sectio. Specifically, auctio
signifies a public sale of goods by the owner or
his agent, or a sale of goods of a deceased
person (auctio hereditaria, Cic. Caec. 5, 13).
The quaestor, on behalf of the state, or the
magister auctionis acting for the creditors,
gave notice of the time, place, and conditions
of sale either by a public notice (tabula, album),
or through a crier {j>raeco), who also assisted at
the auction.
Usual phrases are auctionem proscribere,
praedicare; ad tabulnm adesse, to attend as
purchasers (emptores) ; to fetch a price, licere
(Plaut. I.e.) ; liceri, licitari, to bid either by word
of mouth or by signs ; addicere, to knock down.
An argentarius [Argentarii] was usually
present as a business agent for the vendors.
The purchaser entered into an engagement to
pay the money to the argentarius or magister,
or paid before delivery of the thing. An entry
was made in the books of the argentarius of
the sale and the money due or paid (experisa
pecunia lata, accepta relata). The book of
the argentarius might be used as evidence for
the purchaser. If the money was not paid
according to the conditions, the argentarius
could sue for it.
It was usual to put up a spear (hasta) in
auctions and locationes, a symbol derived, it is
said, from selling booty acquired in war : the
spear was a sign that the sale was conducted
under public authorit}-. Hence the phrase sub
hasta vendere (Cic. Off. ii. 8, 27 ; cf. Nep. Att.
6; cf. Italian asta pubblica, vendere per sub-
asta\. [Bonorum emptio ; Sectio.]
Auctor [augeo). Generally one who enlarges,
confirms, or gives to a thing its completeness
and efficient form. Auctor is also used in the
sense of one who originates or proposes a thing.
1. Political. — The word auctor, when used
in connexion with lex or senatusconsiiltuni ,
often means the proposer of a motion (Liv. xi.
3(i; Cic. pro Dom. 30, 80). When applied to
one who supports but does not originate a
legislative measure, it is equivalent to suasor
(Cic. Att. i. 19). Wiiena measure was approved
by the senate before it was confirmed by the
votes of the people, the senate were said auc-
tores fieri, and this preliminary approval was
called scnatus auctoritas (Cic. Brut. 14, 55).
[See Auctoritas patrum.]
In the imperial time, auctor is often said of
the emperor (princeps) who recommended any-
thing to the senate, and on which recommenda-
tion that bodv passed a senatusconsultum
(Suet. Vesp. Ill
2. Legal. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Auctoritas patrum was a constitutional and
religious sanction required for the ratification
of laws and elections made by the centuries.
The meaning of the word patres is variously
understood as: (1) the patricians meeting, in
comitia curiata ; (2) a convention of the patri-
cians not in comitia curiata ; (3) the senate ;
(4) the senators who were patricians.
AUCTORITAS SENATUS
In later times and by Livy's usage the terms
ex patrum auctoritate, auctoribus patrihus,
anctoritate senatus, ex senatuscunsulto,
applied to the usual confirmation of legislation
by the senate, appear to be used indifferently.
The ancient right of the patricians was exer-
cised by the senate. It is probable that the
patres had originally the duty of maintain-
ing the national sacra, and that the validity of
all public acts rested ultimately on a religious
sanction. Thus, all elections and rogations of
the comitia centuriata had to be ratified by a
resolution of the senate, or possibly of the
patrician meinbers of the senate (Liv. vi. 42,
jKitrlcii auctores; Sal. Fragm. 82,15; Cic.
Hep, ii. 32). In this sense the putrum aucto-
ritas survives as a form down to the Augustan
age.
Since the anctorifds pafru7H was reduced to
a mere form by being put before instead of after
the voting (id ante initum suffragium pafres
auctores Jierent, Liv. viii. 12) as was ordered
by the Lex Publilia of 839 B.C. in the case of
rogations, and by the Lex Maenia (287 B.C.) in
that of elections, it can never have amounted to
the power of rejecting a measure on its merits ;
such a power could be exercised as easily,
perhaps more easily, on a bill before it came to
the assembly. If, however, the ^ja^r«/;i aucto-
ritas was limited to a confirmatory certificate
that the law had been passed in due form, it
would be rendered nugatory if it had to be
given before any objection could be raised to
the procedure. I3y the Lex Hortensia, 287 B.C.,
the same provision was extended to plebiscita.
The words patrum auctoritas are also some-
times used in a general sense for the approval
or recommendation of the senate (e.g. Liv. vii.
l.j, 12 ; 17, 9; xxxiii. 24, 4 ; xxv. 7, 5).
Auctoritas senatus. A motion passed by
tlie senate but vetoed [Intercessio (3)] by a
tribune (intercessio tribtini) or other magis-
trate (int. coUegae). Such motions were
generally recorded, with the name of the
tribune. [Senatus.]
Audito'rium. Any place for hearing. Under
the Empire the word was applied to a court of
justice. The Forum continued to be the place
where magistrates and iudices heard civil
causes. But it became the practice to hold
courts in the Basilicae, halls of temples, and
other places about the Forum. Such enclosed
courts were called auditoria (cf. Act. Apost.
xxv. 23, aKpodTfipiov).
The emperors at first sometimes sat with
their consilium or contiiberniurn, in the Fo-
rum, but they soon gave up the practice, and
only exercised justice within their own palace.
The place where the emperor's court sat was
called the auditorium p)'>'inci2ns. The ^jrae-
fectus praetorio and praefectus urbi, who ex-
ercised the imperial jurisdiction, also sat in
auditoria.
In the time of Diocletian, the auditorium was
also called sccretarium.
After the fourth century causes were exclu-
sively heard in the secret arium or secretum.
The public was shut off by eancelli and cur-
tains (vela), which in exceptional cases were
drawn aside.
Augur, Augur'ium; Auspex, Auspic'ium.
Aiigur or auspex. meant a diviner by birds, but
came to be applied in a more extended sense :
his art was called auguriuni or auspiicium.
The 'augur PS were originally termed ausjnces.
There may be a distinction between auspex,
auspicium, auspicari, and augur, augurium.
AUGUR
97
augurari; riusjieu:, &c., signifying the observer,
augur, &c., the interpreter of signs. The w-ord
auspex was supplanted by augur, but the
scientific term for the observation continued to
be au.spiciiim, and not auguriwm. The ety-
mology of auspex is from avis and the root
.spec ; that of augur is variously given as (1)
from a/vis and gero ; (2) from the Umbrian
uhtur = aucUrr ; (3) from aris and the root
gar, to speak ; and (4) from root aug. By
Greek writers on Roman affairs the augurs are
called avyovpes, oiovoiroXoi, oiu}po(TKUTroi, &c.
In the most ancient times, no transaction
took place, either of a private or a jniblic nature,
without consulting the auspices (see Liv. vi. 41,
4). But the private augur seems to have fallen
into contempt (Cic. JJii'. i. 58, 132 ; i. 16, 28).
The public augurs, augures j)ubUci populi
Bomani Quiritium, as interpretcs lovis Opt.
Max., are of great importance in Roman poli-
tical history.
All ancient nations believed that the will of
the gods was revealed to men by signs ; and
each people possessed a national fMvriKT} or
dlvinatio, sup)iorte(l by the laws and institu-
tions of the stat(', and guarded from mixture
with foreign elements. The Romans and other
Italians disapproved of astrology and the art of
tlie Chaldeans, and paid little attention to
dreams and seers; but they attached great
importance to prodigia, whether manifested
through the inspection of entrails, by omina, or
in the Sibylline books ; their peculiar national
mode of divination consisted in the signs in-
cluded under the name auspicia. Rome itself
was believed to have been founded under the
sanction of the auspices, and the use of them
is therefore associated with the Latins, or the
earliest inhabitants of the city. There seems,
therefore, no reason to assign to them an Etrus-
can origin. (See Cic. Diu. i. 41, 92 ; 42, 93, ii.
35, 75, ]<!at. Deor. ii. 4, 11.) The Greeks, as
well as the Romans, observed the flight of
birds ; but it was only among the latter people
that it was reduced to a complete system. (Cic.
Div. ii. 34, 72, Legg. ii. 8, 20.) The Roman
auspices in general, unlike Greek oracles, did not
inform men what was to liappen (Cic. Div. ii.
33, 70), but simply taught them whether they
were to do or not to do the matter proposed.
The science or system of the augurs (disci-
plina or ius augurum), originally memorial, of
which they were the skilled interpreters, was in
early tunes reduced to a documentary form (libri
[commentarii, Cic. Div. ii. 18, 42] augurum),
comprising, besides minute formalities of cere-
monial, and no doubt the whole theory of
augural science (libri reconditi), judgments
(res2>onsa or decreta, Cic. Div. ii. 35, 73) of
the college of augurs. Further, the college
of augurs had lists (fasti) of its members.
Manuals of augural law, originally secret,
were in course of time divulged, and became a
favourite antiquarian topic in the last century
of the Republic.
Auguria and auspicia were divided into five
sorts : (1) ex caelo, (2) ex avibus, (3) ex tri-
pudiis, (4) ex (juadrupedibus, (5) ex diris.
These signs were either i))i.petrita. (or impe-
trativa) — that is, specified (legwin dictio) by the
person who consulted the will of Jupiter when
he began to lake observations; or nldativa-—
that is, not specified nor expected by him
beforehand.
(1) Ex caelo. This included the observation
of the various kinds of thunder and lightning
(maximum auspiciicm), especially in a clear
H
ya
AUGUR
sky (Verg. Ae7i. ix. 630; Cic. Div. ii. 18, 43,
iSrc). Ill interpreting this, as well as other
signs, the Italian regarded those from the left
as I iicky, those from the right as unlucky. The
contrary \s'as the case in Greek augury ; for
while both I'egarded the east as the lucky side,
the Italian faced south and the Greek faced
north. Lightning or ' thunder suspended the
comifia for tlie day (Cic. l.c,) ; and this mode
of augury became in time a political engine for
causing delay ; it was retained as the one
formally used on the occasion' of a magistrate
entering upon office (Cic. Dlv. ii. 35, 74).
The transition from the old system of augury
to the new system, in which only ccu-lestia and
■piillaria were used, dates from, the Punic Wars.
(2) Ex (ivihus. It was only a few birds
which could give auguries among the Romans
(Cic. Div. ii. 36, 76). They were divided into
two classes : Oscines, those which gave auguries
by their voice, and Alites, those which gave
auguries by their flight. To the former class
belonged the owl {nortna),ihB raven (covviih) and
tlie crow ox rook {(■ornix), the raven giving a
favourable omen {ainipiciiini ratiim) when it
appeared on the right, the crow when it was
seen on the left (Plaut. Asin. ii. 1, 12 ; Cic.
Div. i. 3i», H.5). To the aves alites belonged
first of all the eagle (aqvila), and the vulture
(viilfur) ; and with these two the ai'is san-
qualin or osaifraffa, and others. (Cf. Verg.
Aph. i. 394 ; Liv. i. 7, 34.) Some birds were in-
cluded both among the ascinrn and the alites:
sudi were the picas Martins (woodpecker)
and picas Fcronins, and the parrn fowl) (Hor.
Carm. iii. 27, 1, 15). Some birds by their mere
api)earance foreboded ill, and some were birds
of omen only to particular classes of events or
people. These were the principal birds con-
sulted in the auspices. There were considerable
varieties of omen among the oscines, according
to their note and place ; and among the alites,
according to the nature of tlieir Higlit : hence
the division of p}-aepetes and infcrae, birds
which flew high or low. When the birds
favoured an undertaking, they were said addi-
cere or admittere, and were called admissivae.
When unfavourable, they were said abdicere,
and were called alterae, arculac, remores, ad-
versae, itc. The technical term for all the
observations agreeing was consensio.
(3) Ex tripudiis. These auspices were taken
from the feeding of chickens, and were espe-
cially employed on militaiy expeditions.
Though any bird could give a tripudium (Cic.
Div. ii. 35, 73), onlj' chickens {pidli) were
employed for the purpose. , The chickens were
kept in a cage, under care of a pitllarius, wlio,
when the auspices were
to be taken, opened the
cage and threw to the
chickens porridge (offa,
Cic. I.e.) of pulse. If
they refused to come
out or to eat, or uttered
a cry {occinere), or beat
tlieir wings, or flew
away, the signs were
considered unfavour-
able (Liv. X. 40, 4). If
they ate greedily, so tliat
^ ^=^^ilK=:g
Fig. 194. —Cage (cavfa') of
sacred chickens.
something fell from their mouth and struck
the earth, it was called trijjudiiim solistitnum
(tripudium, ' hopping ' ; solistinium, ' perfect '),
and was held to be a favom-able sign. The
pullarii appear to have been employed servare
de caelo for magistrates (Cic. Div. ii. 35, 74).
I They were supposed not to be always incorrup-
tible (Cic. Div. ii. 35, 73).
[i) Ex quadrupedibiis. Auguries could also
1 be taken from foui'-footed animals and reptiles,
and were called pedestria ausjncia ; these
fonned no part of the original science of the
augurs, but were a mode of private divination.
Thus it was an augury, if a fox, a wolf, a serpent,
a horse, a dog, or any other kind of quadruped
j ran across a person's path or appeared in an
unusual place (Hor. Lc.). Such auguries came
under the head of oblativa (Cic. Div. ii. 36,
77).
(5\ Ex diris,»c.signis. Every kind of augury
not included in any of the four classes men-
tioned above, such as sneezing, stumbling, and
any other accident or noise (dirae obstrepeiitcxi,
however trifling, such as anything falling in t^\"
temj)le (cadtica ausjjicia), which was lield to
break the siletitiuiii. Silentinin is used to
denote the absence of everything faulty, not of
.sound alone. For auguiy ex acumiuibus see
Cic. Div. ii. 86, 37. The comitia were post-
poned if anyone present was seized with an epi-
leptic fit (lience called morbus cotnitialis).
Under the head of dira^ may also come ^nacv-
laria auspicia, such as when the victim escaped
from the altar or moaned when struck, 6:c.
[Sacrificium.T
The ordinary manner of taking the auspices,
pro|)(>rly so called (i.e. ex caelo and ex avibus),
was as follows : — Tlie jierson who was to take
them first marked out with a wand [LitUUS], as
lie looked towards the south, a division in the
heavens called Templuill (sometinies tesciiiii),
within which he intended to make his ob-
servations between midnight and daybreak.
The auspices had to be taken on the day
of the business in question, and the usual
hour was early, before tlie business-day com-
menced. The station {aiaociillnd iemplum and
fcsci(m) where he was to take the auspices
; was also separated (effari loca) by a solemn
I formula (cuncpptis twrbis) from the rest of
I the land, and remained so consecrated (locus
liberatiis et effatus). For the ceremonies,
: see Templum. The buildings in which the
' senate met, such as the Curia Hostilia Pom-
j peia or lulia, had likewise to be consecrated
' by the augurs and made into tcmpla ; a
j term which did not apply to all the sacred
: buildings of the gods. Within the pomeriuni,
there was no occasion to select a spot and pitch
a lent on it, as there was a place on the Arx on
the summit of the Capitoline hill, called Augu-
. ntculntn, wliicli had been consecrated once for
'• all for this purpose (Liv. i. 18, 6). In like
manner there was in every Roman camp a place
; called augurale (Tac. Ann. ii. 13, xv. 30) Cas-
: traj ; but on all other occasions a place hud to
be consecrated and a tent pitched, as, for in-
stance, in the Campus Martins for tlie comitia
eenturiata. The spot where the auspices were
taken must always be Roman land, or speciallj'
inaugurated as such (Liv. xxvii. 29, 5).
j The person who was taking the auspices
! proceeded to specify the signs for which he was
. watching (legum dictio), and the period of
time during which he would watch — the most
important moment at tlie end being called
I tempestus — and, seated in a chair, waited for the
I favourable signs to appear ; but it was neces-
sary during this time that there should be no
interruption of any kind whatsoever (silentium).
The watclier might ask others to assist him in
watching for signs (iw auspiciu esse); and in
later times the assertion of the assistant that
AUGUR
99
the required sign had been seen was held suffi- '
cient (Cic. Div. ii. 34, 35, 71, 75.) Everything
which rendered the auspices invalid was called
vitium, and hence we constantly read of ' vitio
niagistratus creati,' ' vitio lex lata,' &c. A
euphemistic phrase was causa est. Tlie watch-
ing for the auspices was called spectio or xcrtHi re
(le caelo ; the declaration of what was observed,
niintiatio or obnuntiatio. If the signs were
unfavourable, the nuntiatio of the augur was
oxpressed in the form alio die, by which the
business in hand was entirely stopped (Cic.
Legg. ii. 12, 31). See Liv. i. IS.
1\\ ancient times no one but a patrician could
t ake the auspices. Hence the possession of the i
I uspices (habere aiispicia) is one of the most dis-
I iuguished prerogatives of the patricians [penes
jiatres) and is closely connected with the pos-
session of a patrician gens. In the most ancient I
times no transaction, whether private or public,
was performed without consulting the auspices
{nisi anspicato, ne pirivatim quidinii, Cic. Div.
i. IG, 28, i. 17). In later times auspicia privata
were taken in the case of a marriage, and the
Romans to the last employed auspices in mar-
riage, who acted as friends of the bridegroom,
to witness the payment of the dowrj' and to
superintend the various rites of the marriage
(Suet. Claud. 20; cf. Liv. iv. 2, 5). In taking
private auspices, it would appear that any
patrician was employed who was acquainted
with the art of augury ; not usually the public
augurs, the members of the collegium (Cic.
Lrgg. ii. 8, 20). Auspicia })ublica, ov ausjncia
simply, could only be taken by persons who
represented the state. Tlie magistrates were
the mediators between the i^eople and both god
and m.in ; hence their authority was represented
in the fullest terms by auspiciumimperiuinqiie
(Liv. .\1. 52, 5). As long as there were any
|>atrician magistrates, the auspices were exclu-
sively in their hands; on their entrance upon
office, tlie}' received and held the auspi("es, and
at the expiration of their office, tliey laid tliera
down (auspicia accipere, habere, j)oncrr). In
• ■ertain cases the auspices became vested in the
w'aole body of the patricians (ausjjicia ad
IKttrcs redeunt) (Cic. Ep. ad Brut. i. 5, 4).
This happened on the demise of a king, and in
the republican period if the consuls were vitio
creati. The patricians then chose an Interrex
to renew (renovare) the auspices, liepetere
a us pi ria vras said of a general who had taken
fauhy omens befoi^e setting out, and liad to
return to Rome to renew them (Liv. viii. 30, 2).
A magistrate declared faultily elected had to
resign (vitio facti abdicarunt), and was not
cHgible for re-election. There an; numerous
examples (Liv. vi. 88, 9, viii. 15, (5, &c.). If the
magistrate refused to resign, he continued in
oltice (e.g. Flaminius in 223 b.c, Liv. xxi. 03, 7),
liiil could be prosecuted at the expiration of his
term.
The distinction between the duties of the
magistrates and those of the augurs in taking
the auspices is derived from the earliest times.
Romulus was both chief magistrate and chief
augur ; and from him all succeeding augurs
received the cliief mark of their office, the lituus
(Cic. Div. i. 2, 3; Liv. i. 10, 6, i. 18 ; from whicli
|)assage it appears that the augur had spectio
at the inauguration of a king). He is fur-
ther stated to have appointed thri'c augurs as
his assistants in taking i\n'. auspices (Cic.
Hep. ii. 9, Ki). Formed into a collegium, the
augurs handed down to their successors the
various rules of the science, which became a
mystery (distinct both from tlie Etruscan
haruspiciiia and the ^avriK-i] of tlie Sibylline
books), and passed out of the hands of the
magistrates. Tlie augurs, however, wei-e merely
the assistants of the magistrates, and could not
take tlie auspices without the latter, thougli the
magistrates could dispense with their assist-
ance. The augurs, as the interpreters of the
science, possessed the right of declaring whether
the auspices were valid or invalid (Cic. Legg.
ii. 8, 21). They thus possessed in reality a veto
upon every important public transaction, and
sometimes employed this power as a political
engine. (Liv. vi. 27, viii. 23.)
The political incidents on which it was neces-
sary to consult the auspices were as follows :
(1) On the appointment of a magistrate. (2) At
all cumitia (Liv. v. 52, 15). (3) By a magisti-ate
on assuming office. (4) By an imperator on
the morning of his departure with an army
(Liv. xxi. C3, 9).
Auspices were also taken before sittings of
the senate, drawings of lots (Liv. xli. 18, 8),
founding colonies (Cic. JHull. ii. 12, 31), be-
fore a battle (Liv. xxxiv. 14, 1). Military
auspices (Cic. Div. ii. 36, 70), used on cross-
ing any running water, were called aus])ici(i
perennia.
When, after the regal period, the ausjiicia,
together with the impierium, were committed
to the two consuls, and later to the other
magistrates, they were graduated according to
the p)otcst(is, and a distinction was drawn
between the auspicia ynaiora, possessed "by the
magistrates with the imperium, and the auspicia
minora, possessed by quaestors and curule
aediles, officers sine im2)erio.
On a campaign two commander's of equal
rank possessed the ausjncia on alternale days
(Liv. xxii. 42, 8). In case of collision of two
consuls, both of whom had the auspices at the
same time, the matter in question remained
suspended, as was also the result of conflicting
intcrcessio. If two magistrates, although not
equal in rank, were taking the auspices on the
same day for different purposes, either might
annomice to the other an unfavourable sign
(obnuntiare) and vitiate the auspices.
Ausjncia urbana were those auspices taken
within the city for acts performed within the
city; auspicia bellica (or ntilitaria) were those
employed by generals on a campaign anywhere
a mile"outside the Pomerium. (Cic. Div. ii. 35,
75.)
Tradition (Cic. Be]), ii. 9, 16) attributed to
Romulus the foundation of the augurship, the
three augurs answering to the three tribes,
Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. Numa (ibid. ii.
14, 20) added two more.
Livy (iv. 4, 2) assigns the foundation of the
college to Numa. The original number is
variouslv put at three (Cic. I.e.) and four (Liv.
X. 0, 0). "
Tlie (.)gulnian law (300 B.C.) increased the
number of the augurs to nine by the addition
of five plebeians. The number of nine augurs
which this law fixed lasted down to the dic-
tatorship of Sulla, who increased them to fifteen
(Liv. I'Jpit. 89). A sixteenth was added by
Julius Caesar.
The kings appointed the augurs. After the
Regifugium the augurs wei"e chosen by co-
optation (Liv. iii. 32) ; which right they retained
until 104 II. c, when the Domitian law enacted
i that vacancies in the priestly colleges sliould
! be filled up annually from the nominees of the
I colleges by the comitia sacerdotum, i.e. seven-
u 2
100
AUGUR
toen out of the thirty-five tribes chosen bj- lot.
(Cic. Leg. Ayr. ii. 7, 18.) The emperor received
from the people (29 a.d.) the right of appointing
members of the sacerdotal colleges even in ex-
cesH of the prescribed numbers, and the places
were filled sometimes by the emperor, by sena-
tuHConsaltutn, or by the co-optation of the col-
lege. After Tiberius ceased to sunnnou the
eoinitia, the importance of the augurs rapidly
declined. The last mention we have of augurs
is in 390 a.d.
The augurs were elected for life, and could
not lose their sacred character even by mis- '
conduct or crime (Plin. Ep. iv. 8, 1). When a
vacancy occurred, the candidate was nominated
by two of the elder members of the college (Cic.
l^hil. ii 2, 4), the electors were sworn, and the
new member was then solemnly inaugurated
(Cic. Brut. 1, 1). Oil such occasion there was
always a splendid banquet given, at which all
the augurs were expected to be present (Cic.
Fam. vii. 26, 2). The only distinction in the
college was one of age: an older augur always
voted before a younger. The liead of the college
was call.'d )>i(iijinter collegii. |
The procedure adopted to decide whether
there was a vitiurn or not in any proceeding
was as follows : the senate or one of tlie magis-
trates laid the matter before the college (re-
ferre, deferre rem ad collerjiiim, Liv. xlv. 12,
10). The inquiry, a matter of ecclesiastical
law, was conducted just as would have been n
question of civil or criminal law : evidence was
heard (IjIv. viii.2;{. ITi), and judgment {</«*rr^fM»i) ;
ilelivcred { pronuntiaverunt) ; cf. Liv. iv. 7, 3. '
As partaking of tlie nature of a court, the
collt'ge had atteiidiints, servi pnbliri: we also I
find monitor tiinjuriiin, viator aiit/itrum, pul-
larii, and calatorea. It jwssessfil lauded pro-
I)erty on the Capitol and near Veii, but no official
residence. The augurs were not jiaid any salary ■
by the state. Tlioir privileges were : special
places at tlie gamt'3 and festivals, freedom from
mUitary service and from ju'rtain civil duties |
ivacntio miiiu-ris pnbliri ft militiie), itc.
The daughters of augurs wore exempted from
liability to be chosen as Vestal Virgins. The
augiirate could be held
with other offices e.g.
those of Hex Sacrorum,
Pontifex, Fetialis, Arc.
The dress of the augurs
was the jtnirtrxta (Cic.
Sest. iVi, li-Ji.imd on some
occasions the purple and
led irabea (t. atiguralis,
Serv. ad Verg. Aen. vii. j
C.ie). They carried the j
1 wv'^.v /» ' «!(' Lituus and the Capis. j
v. ^"^ /'■ ''1 The science of augury
V had greatly declined in the I
! ime of Cicero, and ha<l j
liecome purely ceremonial. .
The office, however, was
always considered as of !
the highest dignity. |
The Kugubine Tables ■
preserN'e some remnants of
the ritual of the Umbrian
augurs, showing striking
resemblances to the Bo-
man. The fame of the '
Marsi as augurs was wide-
spread ; and the uugurul
Bcienco of the Sabincs was preserved at Rome
by the Soda lea Titii. When Rome became
mistress of Italy, collegiate bodies of augurs, in ,
AUGUSTALES
imitation of the Roman, were established in
many Italian cities and in the provinces.
V\i. 19S.— Au^r,
Wcarlntf iho trahon.
(British Muneuiu.)
Fig. U'6.— Coin of Cornlficius, representing on the reverse
un Augur, holding the lltuus.
Fig. ICT.— Coin of I.«ntalns, representing on the re'verse
Ihu Utuus tind caput.
Auguriom canarium. A summer festival
much resembling the Robi^lia, at which dogs
were sacrificcfd for the iiror-perity of the viiteta
virgetaque, outside the Porta Catularia. It
was a moveable feast. The Robigalia wus ii
fixed feast, and tlie place of its celebration was
five miles from Roino on the Via Claudia.
AugUSta'les (sc. ludi,a.\soca.\\ei\ Augustalia,
sc. ci-rtiiniina, ludicra: 2f&a<TTd, Sc/Scicuia,
AiryovaTaKia). Games celebrated in honour of
-Viigustus. at Rome and in other parts of the
empire. At Rome two festivals were know)i
under this name.
(1) On Sept. 23, the birthday of Augustus,
wliich after the battle of Actiuni was kept as .i
holiday, it was customary from 13 B.C. onwards
for games to be held iu the Circas (Die ens'-,
liv. 20, 34).
In most of the provinces, also, games wi re
held in almost every town at intervals of four
years in his honour (qiiiwjuenyuUea ludi, Suet.
Aug. 68).
(2) The Augustalia proper were held for t<-n
days (Oct. 3-12). Tliese were instituted in !'.»
B.r., when Augustus returned to Rome iift<-r
settling the provinces.
We find mention of Augustalia at Naples and
in numerous other places, Alexandria, Per-
gaiuus, Nikomedia, Arc.
AagUBtales (aodalea aactrdotes A.). The
name of two classes of priests, one at Rome
and the other in the monicipia, frequently
mentioned in inscriptions.
(1) The Auguftales at Rome were an order of
priests instituted by Tiberius to attend to the
worship of Augustus and the lulia gens. On
this occasion they were twenty-one in number ;
Tiberius, Drusus, Claudius, and Germanicus. as
members of the imperial family, were adde<i ii-
supernumeraries (Tac. Arm. i. ^>i). The nunilivr
was subsequently increased, but never exceeded
twenty-eight. There were priestesses of .-Vn-
gustus as well as priests : this practice probably
took its origin from the appointment of Li\ ia,
by a decree of the senate, to be priestess to h< r
deceased husband. Similar priests were ap-
pointed in honour of other deified emperors :
sodales Augustales Claudiales, Flaviales (aft^^r
Vespasian), Hmlrianales, Aureliani (M. Aure-
lius). The imperial scdales were under
three magistri clianged annually; and were
taken indiscriminately from patricians and
plebeians. Each of the.so sodalitatcs had like-
AUGUSTUS
wise a flamen or sacrificing priest. Tlie
famines Avigustales were necessarily patricians ;
the sodales were under no such restriction.
[Flamen.]
(2) The Augustales in the municipia (n) were,
as a rule, libertini ; (h) they formed, in con-
junction with the seviri Augustales, an inter-
mediate class (ordo) between the municipal
senators {decuriones) and plebs {municiiJes) ;
and (c) they and the seviri alike had for their
object the worship of Augustus and succeeding
emxjerors. Under later emperors the institu-
tion spread throughout the empire. There was
H property qualification required : besides the
sacrifices, they had to pay a fine on admission
(sinmna honoraria) and give games and other
treats to the people. They had the distinction
of the praetexta while in office, and might
also be buried in it; that of the hiselUum,
with a place of honour in the theatre ; and were
accompanied on state occasions by two lictors
bearing fasces. Their festival was the first of
August.
The distinction between Augustales and
Seviri Aug. is difficult to draw. The Seviri
were appointed annually ; they had the honour
of the sella ciiridis; they provided sacrifices
at their own expense; and after serving pro-
bably retained the honour of Augnstalitas.
Augustus. A name bestowed upon Octavi-
anus by the senate and the Roman people, 10
.Jan., '27 B.C. It was a word used in connexion
with religion, and designated a person as sacred
and worthy of worship : hence the Gi'eek writers
translate it by '2,i^a<TT6s (Ov. Fast. i. (i07 ;
Suet. Aug. 7). It was not an official title, but
a complimentary surname, like Africanus or
Pius ; and is hence called by Suetonius nomen
licrcditarium (Tib. 26). It was borne not
only by Tiberius and the other emperors con-
nected with the family of Augustus, but by
all succeeding emperors. It was not usually
assumed until it had been formally decreed by
the senate (Tac. Hist. i. 47, ii. 62). Prom the
time of Domitian, the imperial style and title
began regularly with Imjjerator Caesar asjrrae-
nomina, and ended with Augustus, thus: Imp.
Caes. T. Flavius Domitianus Augustus. The
name of Augusta was frequently bestowed upon
females of the imj)erial family, the first instance
being Livia, who, upon her adoption into the
Inlia gens on the death of Augustus, became
lulia Augusta [Avyovcxra) (Tac. A?in. i. 8). But
Augustus belonged exclusivelj' to the reigning
emperor till the middle of the second century,
wlien Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus both re-
leived this surname. From this time we fre-
quently find princes of the imperial family,
adoptive sons, &c., honoured with this title. In
tlie fourfold division of the empire under
Diocletian, the two senior emperors were styled
Angusti, the two junior Caesares. After the
middle of the third century the title became
seynper Augustus, which title was borne by the
so-called Roman emperors in Germany ; and
curiously translated Mehrer des KeieJis from
tlie etymology augere.
Aula (avkri). [Domus.]
Aulaeum, usually in the plural Aulaea (^
avXaia). A curtain, carpet, or hanging. The
name was especially applied to the tapestry
vsorked with human and animal figures, which
was early introduced from the East (Verg.
Georg. iii. 25; Ov. Met. iii. Ill sqq.).
Such hangings were used : (1) in temples, to
veil the statue of the divinity; (2) in houses, as
curtains or portieres [Plagulae], as tapestry,
AURUM
101
or hung from the ceiling as a canopy (Hor. Hut.
ii. 8, 54), [Cenaj ; (3) on the outside of houses,
to close in open galleries [Domus] ; (4) to stretch
over colonnades, and form a tent (Propevt. ii.
32, 12 = iii. 24, 12). [See Velum, Siparium, and
Theatrum.]
The curtain in the Roman theatre was not
drawn up, but disappeared underneath the stage
between the stage [proscenium) and the scena.
Hence aulaea premuntur, ' the curtain is kept
down,' whilst the acting goes on (Hor. Ep. ii. 1,
I8it ; aulaeum tollitur, Ov. Met. iii. 111). It is
doubtful whether the curtain was used in Greek
theatres at all.
There is no aiithority for the use of the word
aulaea as applied to coverlets and draperies of
couclies in the triclinium or elsewhere.
Au'reus. [Pondera; Coinage.]
Auri'ga. [Circus.]
Aurum. Gold, from its malleability and the
circumstance tliat it is found lying in lumps, and
washed down with river-gravel, was one of the
earliest of metals used by man. Homer speaks
of the houses of Menelaus and Alkinous as full
of silver and gold ; the armour of Glaukus was
of gold [11. vi. 236; see also II. xviii. 417, xi.
632). In the decoration of the shield of Achilles,
the chest of Kj^pselus, and other works of art,
much gold was employed. At Mykenae {iroKv-
Xpvffos, II. xi. 46), Dr. Schliemann dug ui) a
prodigious quantity of gold vessels and orna-
ments.
The softness and malleability of gold enabled
even workmen wlio had no other tools than a
hammer and nails, to work it into any given
shape. All the vessels of Mykenae are thus
hammered out and joined into shape by nails,
and the earliest figures of the gods were pro-
duced by the same method, which was called
(T<pvpr)\aTe7u. Welding by a solder of borax
{Xpva-^KoWa) was not unknown. Casting in
hollow moulds belongs to a later period.
In the preparation of gold, the ancients used
only the simxjlest processes of melting and re-
fining. Virgin gold is called onrvpos XP- j ^s op-
posed to XP- aTre<pdos. [Electrum.]
Asia was the source of gold, from the days of
the Argonauts to those of Alexander. In the
city of Persepolis alone, Alexander is said to
have captured a treasure in gold and silver of
120,000 talents. Kroesus presented to the god
of Delphi (Hdt. i. 50) above 100 solid ingots
(riniirKivQia) of gold (see also vii. 27). Gold was
exported from India, Arabia, and the mines and
washings of Lydia ; perhaps also from the
mines of the Caucasus, in Armenia and Kolchis,
with which district the fables of the Arimaspians
and their griffin-guarded treasures appear to be
connected.
The Carthaginians, and after them the
Romans, obtained their main supply from Spain.
Large quantities of gold were obtained by
washing the gravel of the Tagus and Durius.
There were rich deposits in the country of
the Tectosages and Tarbelli in Gaul, as well
as in the Piedmontese district of the Salassi.
Gold was also found in the Padus, in the Hebrus
in Thrace, and other rivers ; also in Pannonia,
in the islands of Siphnos and Tliasos, and in the
range of Pangaeus in Thrace, that of Skapte
Hyle and in the river Hebrus in Macedonia.
From the latter, Philip of Macedon prociu'ed,
it is said, 1000 talents a year. In earlier days
gold had been rare in Hellas and Sicily (Hdt.
i. 69). It was now again used, as in pre-historic
days, for the vessels and ornaments of the rich.
It also became a custom for cities to bestow
102
AURUM CORONARIUM
crowns of gold upon their benefactors, and even I
sometimes to set up their statues in gold.
In Upper Egypt (Diod. iii. 12 ; cf. Hdt. iii. 114), '
on the confines of Aethiopia, were gold mines I
underground, wliich were worked from the time ,
of the early kings of Egj^jt onwards for tlie '
benefit of the state. Tlie gold appears to have
been extracted from quartz and refined by fire,
after pounding and washing.
Other gold-producing countries were the
Sinai Peninsula, the Altai mountains, Dalmatia,
Noricum, and other Alpine districts.
As in Greece, so in Italy, the stock of gold
increased, from the 1000 pounds weiglit of
ransom when the Gauls took Rome, to the 17,000
pounds weight of the treasure in the second
century ii.C. The great influx of the metal and
its use for all purposes of luxury dated in Rome
as in Greece from the time of Oriental conquest. I
Gold as coin. — In many parts of the East
and in Egj'pt, gold wedges and rings of fixed |
weiglit passed as currency before flie invention j
of coins. The earliest gold cuius were issued
by Phokaea. [Pondera.] For a long period ,
the gold coinage of tlie world consisted almost
exclusively of the Persian Darics. Tlie earliest
Greek coinage of any importance in this metal
was that of Philip of Macedon. The gold pieces
of Philij) and Alexander were issued in enormous
quantities, both during the lives and after the
deaths of those monarchs. Tlie Philippi cir-
inlated in tlie West : the Alexandri succeeded
the Darics in Asia, and continued for many
years to furnish the bulk of the gold circulation
of the Seleukid and Ptolemaic kingdoms. '
Athens, also Rhodes and other cities, minted '
gold in their own names. After the death j
of Alexander these coins gradually gave way
to the gold money issued by the Macedonian ,
kings of the East, especially the Ptolemies. |
(rold coin among the Greeks and Romans ;
(also called xpi'fio*') was usually almost entirely '
free from alloy. Among barbarous peoples it '
was often nui(;h debased. j
Aurum corona'rium. When a general in a ,
Roman province had obtained a victory, it was ,
the custom for the cities in his own provinces, j
and the neighbouring states, to send golden !
crowns to him, which were carried before liim i
in his triumph at Rome (Liv. xxxviii. 37, i
xxxix. 7). In the time of Cicero, the cities of
the provinces paid money instead, which was
called auTHDi curonarium; and later still, the
aurum coronarium became a complimentaiy
present to the emperor on stated occasions.
Aurum vicesima'rium. [Aerarium.]
Authepsa (aiiW^"?^)- or ' sdf-boiler,' a vessel
used for heating water or keeping it hot, jiro- •
bably by means of charcoal, like the Russian
samovar.
AuTotioXias ypa.^r\. See Appendix, Gkeek
Law.
AvTovoixot. The name given by the Greeks
to those states wliich were governed by their
own laws, and were not subject to any foreign
power (Time. v. IH, 27; Xen. Hell. v. 1, § 311.
In the days of the Athenian maritime empire,
it was applied to those of the subject-allies
who were controlled in their foreign policy, and
required to furnish a contingent of ships, but
not otherwise interfered with. They were dis-
tinguished from tlie inrijKooi, who paid tribute
(<p6pos), and from the really independent allies
(Thuc. vi. 85, § 3). Such states were restrained
from making war on any ally of Athens ; and
complaints of injury brought by citizens of
Athens or allies of Athens would be tried be- .
BACULUM
fore the Athenian dikasteries. (Tliis does not
apply to criminal causes.) In other respects
the autonomous allies were independent.
Tlie same two characteristics — the retention
of their own lc(/t:s and indicia — mark the hberae
(■icitatf'.s under the Roman dominion, of whose
designation avTivofwi was the Greek I'endering.
This self-government was regarded as a great
privilege and mark of honour; and the cities
whicli enjoyed it recorded the fact upon their
coins, medals, and inscriptions.
Auxiliares. fSocii; Exercitus.]
Axamenta. [Salii.]
"Amoves (also called Kvpfieis). "Wooden
tablets set on end fom* together so as to form a
quadrangular prism, and made to turn on an
upright axis. They were painted white, and on
them were written the laws of Solon.
The amoves were at first kept in the Akropolis,
but from the time of Ephialtes were placed in
the agora for all to read. Some fragments of
them were preserved in the prytaneion in the
time of Plutarch (Sol. 25; cf. Paus. i. 18, 3).
B.
Bacchanalia. The name under which the
festivals of Dionysus or Bacchus were known
at Rome (Liv. xxxix. 8-19). Livy traces the
origin of Bacchanalia to Greece through Etruria.
Women oidy were initiated, and that by day,
three times in the year, and the priesthood was
held by matrons in turn. It is possible that in
this statement Livy has in view the worship of
Stimula or Siniila, an early Italian deity (Ov.
yast. vi. r)03-r)15). According to Livy (/. c.l,
the admission of young men to tliese rites, by
the priestess Anna Paculla, was the occasion
of a serious outbreak of immorality at Rome.
The initiated were a vast number, including
many of high birtli, both men and women.
In 18(5 B.C. the criminal character of the meet-
ings was brought to the knowledge of the
consuls; the senate was consulted; and full
powers were given to the consuls to investigate
the matter. The inquii-y led to the belief that
more than 7000 men and women were un pli-
cated in the affair. Those who were merely
initiated were imprisoned ; the more guilty were
])ut to death. The women were for the most
l)art handed over to their relations, or to thosi'
who were responsiV)le for them, for private exi-
cution ; the rest were put to death in public.
Stringent regulaticms were made, and carried
out with unflinching rigour, apparently not
without the use of military force (Cic. Li-f/ij.
ii. 15, 37); but it was some years before the
Bacchanalian rites were completely extinguished
in Southern Italy (Liv. xxxix. 41, xl. 19).
Bac'ulum and Sac'ulus (fioKTripia, lia&Sos,
(TKriTTTpov, (TKuraX-i) : in the poets, ^wTpov and
ffKi-Kuiv : the Homeric word is aKrjirTpov). A
walking-stick.
Carrying a stick was a common practice in
Greece (Lys. Inval. 12 ; Plat. Protag. p. 310 a;
Ar. I'lut. 2721 ; and on Greek vases and sculp-
tures we see sticks of all forms and patterns.
The straight form with an ornament at the head,
called the YlfpaiKT) /Sa/CTTjpi'a (Hdt. i. 195), was
the form affected by dandies at Athens in tlu-
time of Aristophanes (cf. Dem. Pantaeti. 981);
while the large form with a crook handle
iKaixTTvXn) was on the stage carried by old men
and rustics.
Crutches {ffKriirrpov) and sticks were used by
cripples. The a^vvaros in Lysias (Inval. 12)
BAIULUS
BALNEAE
103
uses two sticks. Tliey are often represented as Thus Nausikaa, daughter of Alkinous, kinjr of
rough and knotted. The AiKaaxai had a stick Phaeakia, bathes in the river (Ot?. vi. 58, (iS).
jiainted with the colour and number of tlie courts Odysseus also (ih. 210); of. Mosch. ii. 31;
(Deni.298). A sliepherd' s crook was called /copurTj | Theocr. vii. 22. Warm springs ('HpifcAeio
or Pedum. (Theocr. vii. 19 ; Verg. Eel. v. 88.) I \ouTpd) were also resorted to (I'iud. 01. xii. 27 ;
Horn. //. .x.\ii. 14'J). Bath-
ing in rivers or tlie sea
l\\/uxpo\ouTe'iv) was always
coninson. There appears
to have Iteen a swimming-
bath {Ko\v/j.0r]0pa} at
Athens in the time of
Plato (iJep. 453 d).
The artificial warm bath
was taken in a vessel called
dcrd/juvOoi by Homer, usu-
ally made of wood (ev^ecr-
Tos, 0(1. iv. 48) ; in Od. iv.
12H, of silver. This vessel
did not contain water, but
was used for the bather to
sit in while the warm water
w-as ])oured over him {Od.
X. 359-305). The bath was
usually thus administeretl
by a handmaiden {11. xiv.
6, Od. iv. 49), or even a
daughter (iii. 464), or the
Fig. 19S.— From a Greek vase.
(British Museum.)
Fig. ]!!<).— From a Greek vase.
(British Museum.)
In Italy, sticks were used by travellers, rus- mistress of the house (iv. 252). Hesiod {Oji.
tics, ifcc. (Ov. Afe^. XV. (555), old or infirm persons 754) protests against hot batlis for men; and
{ih.vi. 27), ttc, and by professors of pliilosophy in Homer!s time much warm-bath bathing was
(Mart. iv. 55); but were not carried as jiart of considered as a mark of effeminacy {Od. viii.
common town dress. (Hee Centurio, Sceptrum, j 249). ' '
ZktjtcLXti.) ! After bathing, the body was rubbed with oil,
Ba'iulus {a.xOo(p6pos, ipopTriyos). A porter, in order that the skin might not be left harsh
anyone employed to carry burdens, whether a and rough {Od. vi. 96, II. xiv. 172). The use of
freeman or a slave (Plant. Pool v. ('>, 17 ; Cic. precious unguents {/J-vpaj was unknown at that
dr Or. ii. 10, 40). early period.
Ba'latro. A professional jester, buffoon, or At Athens the frequent use (OepuoKojTelu) of
parasite (Hor. Saf. i. 2, 2). the public warm baths {0a\ave?a) was regarded
Ballisla. rTormentum.] by strict moralists in the time of Sokrates and
Fig. 200.— Greek bath for Men. (From a Greek vaso.)
Ba'lneae, Balinrno, Balurum, BaJiiieiim, Demosthenes as a mark of effeminacy (Plut.
ThrniKU' {acTRfxiydos, ^aKaixTov, \oerp6v, \ov- | Flior. 4 ; cf. Ar. Niih. 991 ; Plat. Sijmp. 174 a).
rpov). But after the Pelojionnesian VVar they were an
(iiiKEK B.VTHS. — Bathing was a practice everyday feature of Greek life (see Theoplir.
familiar to the Ureeks of both sexes from the , Cluir. 4, 8, &c.).
earliest times, both in fresh water and salt, i The baths (/3aAo»'6?o) were either public and
104
BALNEAE
the proiHjrly of tlie state (57j^o<Tia, Sriixoai-
tvovra) or private (tSia, (SiorriKa) [Vlni. iJcnu'tr.
24 ; Xen. Hep. Ath. ii. 10). Tliere appears to
have been a small charge (from ^ obol to 2
obols) for the use of the public baths {firiKouTpov)
(Ar. Nub. 835).
We know little of the baths of the Athenians
during the republican period. On ancient vases,
on which persons are represented bathing, we
seldom find any bath in which persons can stand
or sit; but there is always a round or oval
basin {Kour-f)p or KouTi^piov), resting on a stand
(uirSffTaTovj, by the side of which tliose who are
l)athing are represented standing undressed and
washing themselves.
Batlis large enough to sit in, which were
always found in public baths, were called /xiKxpai
and itvfKoi (Ar. Eq. 1060). Tlie KovT<]p thus
corresponded to the Roman lahrum ; the xveAos
to the solium or alveux.
In the baths there was also a kind of sudorific
or vapour bath called irupia or irupiariipiov
(Hdt. iv. 75), also ^rjpoj 06Kos- This was the
same as the concamerata sudatio ox Uironictun |
of the Romans. It was followed by a cold |
douche or plunge. Among tlie chambers of |
the Greek battling establishment was the aAei- i
TTr\ptov, Lat. unctorium, and the dirohuT-/ipiov. ■
Stealing dotlies from the baths (<VaTiof\eirTa«
or Kuiroivrai) is often inentionetl, and was a ]
I>uiiisliable offence. (Cf. Deni. r. Conou. p.
125ti, § 1. c. Timocr. p. 780, «» 114.) As the
liaths most fre()uently adjoined tlie gymnasia
and i)alaestra, one of the rrK>ms of these latter
buildings served the purpose of a dressing-room
(Xen. Rep. Ath. ii. 10). Wo hear of wrestling
(Theophr. Clinr. 27) and [)laying the kotUilK)s, i
besides a great deal of conversation going on in
the baths \ib.).
Tlie bath or simple anointing of the body
generally formed part of the business of dress-
ing for dinner (Xen. Si/iiip. 1, 7). It was gene-
rally taken shortly before the S(7iruov or prin-
cipal meal of tlie day. To bathe several tinies
times of other materials (Ar. TIiphiu. 556). The
(Jreeks used different materials for cleansing or
washing themselves in the bath, to which the
general name of pvfifia was given, and which
were supplied by the ^aKcwivs (Ar. Li/nistr.
377). This l)vfi./jM usually consisted of a lye
made of lime or wood-ashes (Kovia), of nitrum,
and of fuller's eartli (y?i Ki/xuKla, Ar. lian.
710; Plat. Hep. iv. p. 430 a).
Bathing establishments for women, probably
public, existed among the Greeks
Fig. 201.— Shower baths lor Women. iKroiti a Greek vase.)
in a day was looked ui>on as nnwholesome and
effeminate. It was the pnu-tice to take first a
warm or vapour, and afterwards a cold bath.
The cold water was usually poured on the back
or shoulders of tlie bathers by the ^aXcwfvs or
his assistants, who are called iropox"^'"' (Plat.
Iir/>. i. p. ;UJ n; Liieian, J)r)»o.<ifh. F.urotu. p.
503). The vessel from which the water was
poured was called ii^pia and apvraiva (Ar. Eq.
1091, 1094 ; Theophr. Chnr. 9).
The persons who bathed either brought with
them slrigils, oil, and towels, or had them carried
by a slave (A.TjKi'Oo(/>dpos, f_v(TTpo\i/iKv6os : see
lig. 200). The slrigil (StrigUis, (TTXtyyis or
IvffTpa) was usually made of iron, but some-
Fig. 202.— bwlmmiag bath (or Women. iFrom a Greek
vase.)
Among the Greeks a person was always 1 )a tlied
at birth, marriage, and after death. jFunas,
Matrimoniom. <
HoM A N 15 \rHs. — The words baliwar, balinear,
biiinfuiii, baliitrum, ^/i/Twnf, are all commonly
translated by our general term bath or baths.
lialnrum or balinrinn- {QaXafflov) signifies, in
itsprimarj- sense, a bath or bathing-vessel (Cic
Att. ii. Hi, and lience the <-hninlH'r whicl! con-
tained the bath (Cic. Fiiiii. xiv. 20t (also bal-
nriiriuiii). When the baths of private in-
dividuals became more sumptuous, and com-
j)rised many rooms, instead of one simdl
chamber, the plural balnea or halint-n wa.H
adopted, still referring only to the baths of
jirivate persons. Hal near and bah near were
the public baths. Thermae (0(p^<u. hot springs)
is applied to those magnificent edifices which
grew up under the Empire, in place of the
simple bnlnene of the Republic (Juv. vii. 283).
Writer^, however, often ase these U'riiis wth-
out distinction.
The early Romans used the bath bnt seldom
(Seneca says, once a week, Kp. ><i>,% 12), and only
for health and cleanliness. The room set apart
I for this ]>urpose was called htvatrina or hitrina,
and was placed near the kitchen, so that warm
water might be easily procured.
It is not known at what period public hot
baths were introduced at Rome: the practice
of heating an apartment with warm air l)y a
hollow underneath the floor, so as to produce
a hot-air bath, is said by Pliny (ix. § 1(>8) to
liave been invented by Sergius Grata. These
are called balnea pen.iilia, i.e. with a fl<H>ring
suspended over the hollow cells of the hyjx)-
caust.
In the time of Cicero the use of baths, both
public and private, of wann water and hot
air, had become general {Q. Fraf. iii. 1) : and
v.-e learn from him that there were already
baths at Rome which were open to the public
upon payment of a small sum {Cael. 25, 61).
Besides public baths, others (vieriforia) were
built by jn-ivate speculators, who either worked
them themselves or leased them out. Such baths
were commonly called by the owner's name.
There were baths, of course, in the country,
some of which professed to be quite up to city
BALNEAE
105
style {lavatur more vrhico). A signboard
of the Thermae of M. Crassus offers baths
both fresh and salt. Agrippa added 170 baths
to those which already existed in Rome. In the
time of Constantine there were no less than 850.
In the earlier ages of Roman history a much
greater delicacy was observed with respect to
l)athing, even amongst the men, than was usual
among the Greeks. The public establishments
generally contained separate baths for both
sexes adjoining each other, as at Pompeii.
In some cases the men and women bathed at
different hours. But under the Emiiire the
custom prevailed of men and women bathing
indiscriminately together (Plin. xxxiii. § 153).
This custom was forbidden by Hadrian and M.
Aurelius Antoninus; but though not adopted
by women of respectability, it continued eveu
during Christian times.
When the public baths {halneae) were first
instituted, they were only for the lower orders,
who alone bathed in public. But as early even
as the time of Julius Caesar we find the mother
of Augustus making use of the public establish-
ments (Suet. Aug. 94) ) ; and in process of time
even the emperors themselves bathed in public
with the meanest of the people.
Tlie public baths were open from sunrise till
sunset. They were originally placed under the
superintendence of the aediles, whose business
it was to keep them in repair, and to see that they
were kept clean and of a proper temperature.
The price of a bath {hahieaticum) was a
quadrans [Coinage], from the age of Cicero
onwards (Cic. Gael. 26, 62 ; Hor. tiat. i. 3, 137 ;
Jiiv. vi. 447), which was paid to the keeper of
the bath {balneator). Children below a certain
age, foreigners, and some favoured persons, were
adnritted free (Juv. ii. 152). Women paid a
higher fee than men. Agrippa opened the baths
gratuitously to both men and women for a year,
and afterwards gave his tltermae to the people
entrance-free.
The time usually assigned bj- the Romans for
taking the bath was the eighth hour, or shortly
afterwards (Mart. x. 48, xi. 52).
When the water was ready, and the baths
prepared, notice was given by the sound of a
bell {aes thermarum) (Mart. xiv. 163).
It was the usual and constant habit of the
Romans to take the bath after exercise, and
previously to their principal meal {ccna) ; but
some bathed after eating as well as before
(Suet. Nero, 27 ; cf. Juv. i. 142 ; Pers. iii. 93).
And under the Empire the bath was sometimes
repeated as many as seven and eight times in j
a day. !
Tlie Romans did not content themselves ;
with a single bath of hot or cold water, but
went through a course of baths in succession, I
in which the agency of air as well as water was
applied. The usual custom was first to sweat
for a short time in the tepid chamber {tcpid-
urium), without undressing ; then to proceed
into the thermal chamber {caUdariiim), and
after having gone tlu'ough a regular course of
perspiration there, not to descend into the warm
bath (solium), but to pour a quantity of water
over the head, first hot, then tepid, and finally i
cold ; afterwards to be scraped with the strigil
(perfricari), smd finally rubbed dry and anointed.
Antonius Musa, the phj'sician of Augustus, is
said to have introduced the practice of the
cold plunge ((Plin. xxv. § 77 ; cf. Hor. Ej].
i. 15, 4), which became the fashion, in con-
sequence of the benefit which the emx^eror de-
rived from it.
The chief rooms of a Roman bath were: 11}
the elaeothesiuvi, where the oil was kept, and
where the bathers were frequently anomted ;
(2) the frigidarium or cold room, which gene-
rally had a cold bath in it, and which frequently
served as an undressing room (apodyteriuin) ;
(3) the warm room {tepidarium), which led into
(4) the hot room {>iiidatio,caldariuvt,), or sweat-
ing room; (5) the hot bath, served by three
coppers [ahena) for cold, tepid, and warm water
(see figs. 204, 205).
The principal ancient authorities on Roman
baths are Vitruvius, Lucian, Pliny the Yoimger,
Martial, Seneca, and Sidonius Apollinaris.
Much light is thrown on the Roman system.
of bathing by the existing remains of baths
both at Rome and throughout the Roman em-
pire ; especially the public baths [halneae]
of Pompeii, which were excavated in 1824-5.
The cut below gives a ground plan of the small
Fig. 203.— Bath in House of Li\-ia. (From Daremberg ami
Saglio.)
private baths of the ' House of Livia ' on the
Palatine hill, consisting of two rooms.
The next (fig. 204), from the villa of Arrius
Diomedes at Pompeii, are on a larger scale,
but still form part of a private establislunent.
Fig. iW.— liath at Pompeii.
They were entered from the atnnm of the house
by a door at a. A is the frifjidariu7n, also used
as apiodyteriuvi. B, a coiu't with colonnade
and a cold water bath ( piscina) in the open air
under a shed. C, tcpidarhim. T),raldariuni,
with alveiis and apsidal siidatio. d, the general
reservoir ; e, slaves' room : /", cistern for cold
water; g, copper for tepid, Ji, for hot water;
i, furnace.
Fig. 205 represents the ground plan of the
baths (usually called the Old Baths) adjoining
the Forum at Pompeii, wliich are nearly sur-
romided on three sides by houses and slioi^s, and
form an insula.
The whole building, which comprises a double
set of baths, has six different entrances from
the street, one of whicli. A, gives admission in
the smaller set only, which are supposed to
have been apjjropriated to the vvomen ; B luid
C communicate directly with the furnaces, and
D, E, F with the bathing apartments. Passing
106 BALNEAE
through the principal entrance, F, the bather platform or ambulatory {schvla, Vitr. v. 10)
fintls upon his left hand a small chamber (1), round the bath, also of marble. The ceiling ik
containing a convenience (latrina), and pro- | vaulted.
Fig. •ja-..-JMan of the Old Baths at Pompeii.
ceeds into a covered colonnade (2), which ran I Fi^r. 207 represents a frigidanum with its
round three sides of an open court — atriutn I cold bath (jjuteus, Fliu. i^. v. tj, § 25), sup-
(iJ), G8 feet long and .'>;) feet broad; and these j
together formed the vcHtlbaluDi lialn,rani,ni\
(Cic. Gael. 20), in wliieh the servants waited: ,
(u, a are seats for tlieir accommodation. Within ]
this court the kee])er of the baths (balneator),
who e.\acted the rjiiadrans paid by each visitor, [
was also stationed ; and the box for holding i
the money was found in it. Hc^ve also advertise-
ments for the theatre, or other public announce-
ments, were posted np, one of which, announcing
a gladiatorial show, still remains. (8) is the
apud/jtrriion, 3H feet long and 22 feet broad; ,
in which room all the bathers must have met
before passing into the interior. An iipodtjteriiun
might be either cold or warmed. It is probable
that the frigid ariuni at Pompeii served as an
apodi/tcriuin for those wiio contined themselves !
to cold bathing, and the trpidariiiin for those
who visited the hot rooms. The bathers stripped
in the aj)od!/teriiini, not beiiig i)ermitted to
enter into the interior unless naked (Cic. Gael.
26, (52). The clothes were taken care of, and
sometimes stolen (Catnll. xxxiii. 1 ; Plant.
Jiud. ii. 3, 51), by slaves, called ra/jsarii.
The frigidarium is spacious, with stone seats
along two sides of the wall ib, b). It was lighted
by a window closed with glass. Tliere are six
doors to this chamber, one of wliich led to the
furnaces, one to the tepid apartment, and
another opened upon the frigidarium, the
room wliich had the cold bath (10), named also
natatio, natatoriiini, jjiscina, baptisteriuni,
puteus, \ovTp6v. The bath, of white marble,
is 13 feet 8 inches in diameter, and about S feet ^'S- -*' -^''^''"'":?-,°'„*'jfell f ^"^^^ "* ^"""'^
ff inches deep; it is entered by two marble
steps, and has a seat surrounding it at the depth posed to have formed a part of the Formiau
of 10 inches from the bottom. Tliere is a villa of Cicero.
BALNEAE
107
Tlie tepidarium of the Old Baths at Pompeii,
83 feet long by 18 feet broad, did not contain
Fig. 207.— Frigidarium of a Formian villa.
■water, but was heated with warm air, of a tem-
perature between that of the outer air and the
great heat of the vapour and warm batlis. Three
The tepidarium is generally the most liighly
ornamented room in V)aths. In small establish-
ments like that at Pompeii the tcpidariiini would
be used as the room {aKeitzTripiov, unctoriinn
[Plin. Ep. ii. 17, *? 11], di'strictariuvi) in which
the bathers were anointed ; which service was
performed by slaves called u nctorcs and Aliptae.
Anointing sometimes took ])lace before jroing
into the hot bath, sometimes after the cold l)atli,
just before putting on the clothes, in order to
check perspiration. The common people used
olive oil ; the more wealthy classes indulged in
the greatest extravagance with regard to their
perfumes and unguents (see Atlien. xv. ; Plin.
xiii. 22). [TJnguentum.]
From this apartment, a door which closed by
it.s own weight, to prevent the admission of
cooler air, opened into (13), the caldarium, 53
I feet long, 17^ feet broad. Its floor, of mosaic,
I was suspended over the hypocaust. The wall
' was not lined with flues, but was liollow throngh-
■ out, ha\nng a lining of tiles with projections
(trgtilac viamiuatae) of about four inches, con-
I nected with the outer wall by cramijs of iron.
The room has at its south side the quadrangular
j alveus (Cic. Gael. 28, 67) or solium (Lucr. vi.
; 800 ; Liv. xliv. 6; Suet. Aug. 82) or calida
jnscina (Suet. Ner. 27) ; and at the north side,
which ended iu a semicircular a]jse, a round
liti :.,ni of Old Baths of Pompeii. (From Gell.)
bronze benches were found in the room, and a
brazier of bronze [foculus), in which the char-
coal ashes were still remaining when the ex-
Fig. 200.— Brazier of the Old Baths at Pompeii. (Size of
original, 7 ft. by 2 ft. 6 111.)
cavation was made. The room was also heated
by the hypocaust of the adjoining chamber.
lahrum. Into the alveus, called in Greek nveXos
or 6epiJ.ii Se^a/xevfijOV KoKviJ.^r,Opa BfpjjMv iiSaTos,
the bather descended from the schola (cf. fig.
206) by a step. The alveus was 16,^ feet long,
5J broad, and 2 deep. Ten bathers could be in
it together. The lahrum for cold water at tlie
other end is a circular basin of marble, 7^ feet
in diameter.
The apse at the soutli end witli its aperture
in the dome is by some called laconirum '. and
tliis term may have been applied to rooms of
this shape and arrangement ; but strictly speak-
ing, the lacoiticum or hot room (also called
sudatoriuDi ; |7jpJ)$ Q6\os, ■Kvpiarripiov) was sepa-
rate from the caldarium, and raised to a higher
temperature. It was a dry sweating-room, and
108
BALNEAE
liad no bath. The opening in the ceiling could
be closed or regulated at pleasure by a circular
the area of the room, rows of brick or tile sup-
ports about '2 feet high (pilae) were built to
carry the upper or 'hanging' &oot (suspensura).
The floor was sometimes a single block of con-
crete, as much as nine inches thick. The hot-
air chamber or hoUow floor beneath the sus-
pensura to or from which the hot air was
distributed through tubes or galleries {citni-
culi) is called the hypocaustum. There was
i'ig. alO.— Caldaiitun of Old Baths at Pompeii.
Gell.)
Fig. :il2.— BoUer, mUiiirixim or a)Keniim (cal'larium).
(From Pompeii.)
no fire in this chamber, which is to be distin-
guished from the hijporausis or stoke-hole.
Thefrigidarii(m (fig. '205, 8) has a passage (14)
communicating with the mouth of the furnace {«?),
covering {clipcus, biJupaXds) made of bronze and c&WeA praefurmum or prupjiigeum; the cham
worked bj- chains.
Tlie usual aiTiingement of i\\<?.S7ispensurae,ov
hanging floors above the hi/pocanstinii (Vitr.
V. 10; Plin. Ep. ii. 17, § 28) may be seen by re-
TEPIDARIUM
E.
Fig. 211.— Mctliod
jl heHtint: tlie i; itlis in tlie Thermae of (.ciruCiiUa.
(From Middleton.)
AjV. concrete -n-all faced with briclc.
T.. lower part of wall with no brick facing.
CC, suspriisura, or upper floor of Hypocaust. supported hy pillars.
Dl>. anotlier floor, witii support only at the edges.
EE, marble flooring.
FX'. marble plinth and wall lining.
GG, under-ftoor of Hypocaust, paved with large tilee.
HH. horizontal and vortical sections of the flue tiles which lino the walls of the
Caldarium. «
o (7, iron holdfasts.
J.T, socket-jointed flue-pipe o< Tepidarium.
K, rain-water pipe.
lit, vaults of crypt, made of pumice-stone concrete.
ber (15) was for the use of the stokers (forna-
catores). The coppers (c(7(r/ia) which contained
the water were three: caldariian, tepidarium,
and fngidarium. The caldarium stood over
the circular furnace (/),
17 feet in diameter, wliich
served to heat the water
and give out streams of
hot air into the hollow
r-Kii-^r Ik •
^ '»— ^ >' wATtR i cells of the hypocaus-
tum. The hot air passed
from the furnace under
the first and last of the
caldrons by two flues,
which are marked upon
tlie plan. The copper
containing hot water was
placed immediately over
the furnace ; and as the
water was drawn out
l>elow, it was supplied
from the next, the trpi-
dari u m , which was raised
a little higher and stood
a little way off from the
furnace. It was already
considerably heated from
its contiguity to the fur-
nace and the hjTJOcaust
below it. The third and
farthest removed con-
tained cold water re-
ceived directly from the
reservoir. As water was
drawn off from either of
the two lower boilers, its
place was taken by a
supply, already more or
less warmed, coming in
from above ; a principle
HYPOCAUST.
-*^*»^^^^]
ference to fig. 211, from the Baths of Caracalla which has been introduced into modem bath-
at Rome. The lower floor was laid with tiles, ing establishments, to the saving of time and
G G, over a bed of concrete : on tliis, all over , expense (cf. also fig. 204,/, g, h, i).
BALNEAE
109
Behind the coppers another corridor (lOj !
leads into the court or atriinn (17) appropriated !
to the servants of the batli, and lias an imme-
diate communication witli the street by the
door at C. '
The arrangements in the adjoining set of
baths, which were assigned to the women, and
were smaller, are similar to those in the men's
batlis. They comprise apodijterium (19), a
cold bath, natatio or puteus (20), tejndarium
(21), caldarium (22), on one side of which is a
warm bath in a square recess, and at the further
to the peoiile the thrr?nae and gardens which
he had erected in the Campus Martius. (Plin.
xxxvi. § 189.J Tlie Pantheon was included in
this magnificent group of buildings, but was a
temple, not a bath-room. The example set by
Agrippa was followed by Nero, and afterwards
by Titus. Thermae were also erected by Trajan,
Caracalla, Diocletian, and Constantine : besides
many constructed by private individuals.
A ground-plan is given of the thermae of
Caracalla, which are the best preserved, and
which were perhaps more splendid than all the
a
!II
o o e 1
-> '/ .fffrr\-,, V, o o o c
,/ ,*v 1 ' - •> \\ r
Fig. 213.— Plan of the Thermae of Caracalla.
A, colonnade with entrance.
BB, CC, ranges of Bmall chambers, probably shops.
DD, EE, colonnades.
FF, ezedrae, for lectures and recitations. (Cic. de Oral.
iU. 5, 17.)
GG, hypaethrae, open walks ; also called ambulationcs,
xysti.
<-xtremity the lahnitn. The floor of this cham-
ber (and of the tepidarium also) is suspended,
and its walls are perforated for flues.
Thermae. — -The thermae, properly speaking,
were a Roman adaptation of the Greek Gymna-
sium or palaestra : both of which contained a
system of baths in conjunction with con-
veniences for athletic games, and exedrao for
recitations and lectures, as well as colonnades
and libraries. They were decorated with paint-
ing and sculpture, panelled with marbles, and
adorned with fomitains and shaded walks, like
the groves oi the Academy. They began and
'ended with the Empire. M. Agrippa bequeathed
HH. stadia in the palaestra.
il, KK, lodgings of tlie servants {ItthwatoreS).
L, gardens and walks.
M, arena for gymnastics.
NN, reservoirs.
O, aqueduct.
1', cistern, or piscina.
rest, though those of Diocletian were more
extensive. The dark parts represent tlie
remains still visible ; the open lines are resto-
rations.
Of the interior arrangements the following
may be noticed. Q represents the principal
entrances, of which there were eight. R, the
natatio, piarAna, or cold-water bath, approached
by a vestibule S, and surrounded by a set of
chambers, apodyteria. unctuaria, stations for
the cajisarii, conisteria, &c, T is the tepida-
rium, with four warm baths (U) (caldae lava-
tiones), and two labra. This tepidarium was
170 feet long by 82 feet wide. It had a vaulted
110
BALNEAE
roof springing from eight immense columns of
granite and porphyry.
The tepiilarium of the thermae of Diocletian,
on the Quirinal Hill, now the church of S. Maria
degli Angeli, is about 300 ft. long by 92 wide.
The apartments beyond tliis contained the
laconicum and sudatories, for which the round
BALTEUS
the sphaei-isteriitimmd corycaeum [KupvKOsJ
(Mart. xiv. 103).
These baths also contained an upper story.
There is no part of the bathing department,
clearly separated from the rest, which could be
assigned for the use of women exclusively.
, From tliis it must be inferred either that both
i'ig. Jll.— Tepldarlum of the Thermae of Caracalla. restored. iKrom Middleton.)
chamber W and its appurtenances seem to be
adapted, and which are also contiguous to the
reservoirs Z, Z.
rig. 215. — Piscina und Castellnm of the Aquaeductus of
the Thermae of Caracalla.
e, e probably ephebia, or places where the
youth were taught their exercises, including
sexes bathed together in the thennae, or that
women were excluded altogether from these
establishments, and
only admitted to the
bahieafi.
The immense body
of water required for
the thermae was
heated by a number
of flues and hollow
walls on the same
principle as the boilers
iahena) mentioned
, above, the upper range
I of cells or cisterns
being supplied with
cold water from the
I aqueduct .\, and the
I lower range being
situated imme-
diately above
the hypocaust
I (see fig. 215,
E, F, 2^>'c^.f''>'-
niiivi).
Balteus. (1)
A belt {iopT-l-p, Flg.216.-Baltm,s^8upportingshieU.
TeAojucii') to
support shield or sword. [Arms and Armour.]
(2) A belt or collar (jxaarx°-^"^''"'1P> irpocrrfp-
yidiov, irpooTTtiOiSiov), passing round a horse's
BAPTAE
nock and breast, used partly as a protection
;uid partly as an ornament, especially for
chariot-horses. It was often adorned with
2>}ialerae and tintinnabala.
(3) The belt on the celestial globe represent-
ini^ the sun's course, on which the signs of the
zodiac are depicted. [Astronomia.]
(4) The vertical wall at the back of the prae-
rinctio (Zid^bifxa) in the theatre. [Amphithea-
trum; Theatrum.]
(5) In the Ionic style, a band encircling the
ji/i/rinus or ))olster of the capital. [Archi-
tectura, fig. loi.]
Baptae (Ba-Krai). A society founded by
Alkibiades in honour of Kotytto, the Thracian
Cybele, so called from the purification connected
with initiation Eupolis satirised it in the
B(ipia>'. Cf. Juv. ii. !)2.
Bdpa9povor''Opii7|xa. A dee)) pit at Athens
into which criminals were cast (Plat. i2e/j. iv. p.
439 e; Plut. Thi-m. 22; Xen. Hell. i. 7, 201.
It was situated in the demus Keipia^ai, clost
to the Hill of the Nymx^hs, outside the city ti>
the west, between the Peiraic gate and that of
Melite. It is mentioned as early as the Persian
wars, and was in use in the time of the orators.
The executioner was called 6 iirl tc2 opvy/xar .
(Hdt. vii. 133; Xen. Hell. i. 7, 21.)' It corre-
sponded to the Spartan KedSas, and the Scalae
('. cnioniae at Roine.
Barba. 1. Gkekk (TrtoYoji', ytvuov, inr^vri). —
Mucrra^ is the moustache ; irdinros the hair on
the under lip. 'Tirf)V7] is sometimes restricted
to the hair about the upper and lower lips — that
is, to the fxiicrra^ and the TrdTnros combined ;
•yfyeiov to the hair on the chin. Tlwywy, the
commonest prose term, is later than yeveiov.
The early Greeks never shaved the beard,
regarding it as the honour of manhood. In the
Homeric times a common form of entreatj* was
to touch the beard of the person addressed
(Hom.I/.viii.371).
The beard was
shaven, or left un-
trimmed, only in
sign of mourning ;
and a smooth
face was thought
effeminate (Ar.
Tlirsm. 218). The
Bpartans punished
cowards irpecrav-
T6s) by shaving off
part of their
beards (Plut. Ages.
30, Cleom. 9 ; cf. 2
Sam. X. 4). On the
most ancient vases
men are repre-
sented with the
space round either
lip clear, and with
a pointed beard, as in fig. 218, from a painted tile
in an Etruscan tomb.
In the time of Alexander the Great the cus-
tom of smooth shaving was introduced, and
spread from Macedonia (see Coinage, PI. II.)
throughout the whole Greek world. Philo-
sophers retained the beard as a badge of their
profession {irwyojfOTp6(t>os, T:wyu>vorpo(pia) (cf.
Pers. iv. 1 ; Hor. Sat. i. 3, 133, ii. 3, 35 ; Mayor
on Juv. xiv. 12).
2. Roman. — The Romans in early times wore
the beard uncut (Liv. v. 41 ; Cic. Gael. 14 ; Hor.
Carm. ii. 15, 11; Ov. Fast. ii. 30; Verg. Aeii.
vi. 809). Shaving is said to have been intro-
duced at Rome 300 B.C. (Plin. vii. § 211), and
BARIS
Hi
soon became the fashion. Poor men sometimes
wore beards.
A long beard (Liv. xxvii. 34) was consid3red
a mark of slovenliness and squalor. Tlie first
time of shaving was regarded as the beginning
of manhood, and the day was celebrated as
a festival (Juv. iii. 18(5). This usually took
place when the young Roman assumed the toffa
virilis (Suet. CnJ. 10). The hair cut off on.
such occasions was consecrated to some god
{Suet. Ner. 12). [luvenalia.]
With the emperor Hadrian the beard began
to revive ; and till the time of Constantine the
Head of Olympian Zeus.
Fig. 219.— Coin of Augustus. Fig. 2-.i0.— Coin of Hadrian.
I British Museum.)
emperors appear in busts and coins with beards ;
but Constantine and his successors to the end of
the sixth century, with the excei^tion of Julian,
are represented as beardless. The Romans, un-
like the Greeks, let their beards grow in time of
mourning (Suet. Aitg. 23). t)ther occasions of
mourning on which the beard was allowed to
grow were, appea'rance as a reus, condem-
nation, or some public calamity. (Liv. vi. 10;
Mart. ii. 36, 3; Suet. lul. 67.) The Romans
used scissors (forfrx) and razors {nnvacula),
and sometimes tweezers (vuhrUae) ; they also
trinnned their beards j^o' pectinem, i.e. not
quite close (Cic. Att. i. 14, 16). Badi, tonderi,
vein, deceiyi, are words used for different
fashions.
Bar'bitos. Lyra.]
Baris (^«pis). A boat used on the Nile to
transport merchandise, and also at funeral.T to
convey the coipse across the river. It was,
ll'i
BA2AN02
like the modem Nile boat, or dahahiyeh, ;
made of the (xkoi/Otj {Mimosa Nilotica, modern
Ai-ab. sont), was fiat-bottomed, and of light
Pompeii (Suet. Aug. 31),
near the theatre of Pom-
pey ; (5J lulia, begun and
almost finished by Julius
BASILICA
Fig. ■22L— tuneral Baris. (From Kawlinson's Herodotus.)
draught, and had usually only one rudder. The
haris was often of many thousand talents'
burden. (See Hdi. ii. 'JC; Aesch. Suppl. 81.5;
Propert. iv. 11, 11; and for a Persian ship,
A e sell. Pern. 55.5.)
Bd<Tavo§. [Tormentum.]
BacTKavia. fFascinum.]
Bascauda. A word
borrowed, like our En<,'-
lish basket, from the
ancient British language
(Welsh banf/ed, Cornish
fiasred), and mentioned
by Martial, xiv. 9!), as an
acceptable xcnium, im-
ported from Britain, and
by Juvenal, xii. 46,
among a number of
valuable articles of
plate.
BacriXciJS. [Rex ;
Archon. I
Basil'ica (also regia,
Stat. Silv. i. 1, SO ; Suet.
Aug. 31 ; in Greek
writers ff-roa QaaiKiK-i) or
(TTOa). A building which
served as a (^ourt of law
and an exchange, or
place of meeting for
merchants and men of
business; an adjunct to
the market-place. Its
special architectural pe-
culiarities were division
into nave {media porfi-
cus) and aisles (porti-
cus), and clerestory light-
ing. The origin of the
term is uncertain. It is
possible that it origina-
ted in Asia with the suc-
cessorsof Alexander, and
that it was their Divari,
the place where they ad-
ministered justice.
The first edifice of
this description. Basilica
Porcia, was erected by
M. Porcius Cato, 184 B.C.
(Liv. xxxix. 44, 7), in
the Forum adjoining
the Curia. There were
twenty otliers in Rome,
of which the following
are the best known. (1)
Basilica Sempronia ;
(2) Opimia; (3) Aemi-
lia ; ( 4) Basilica or liegia
Fig. 222.— Basilica Ulpia. (From
j medal in Uritish Museum.)
t
Caesar. Having been burnt
j down, the B. lulia was re-
I stored by Augustus on a
j larger scale, and then bore
the title of his two grand-
Fig. 223.— Plan of Basi-
lica at Pompeii.
Scale, lOO feet to 1 inch.
(From Fergusson.j
I'lau of Trajan's Basilica (B. Ulpia) at Rome. Scale. 1(X) feet to 1 incll.
(From Fergusson.)
BASILICA 113
Bons, Caius and Lucius. It was a large double was either vaulted, as in the Basilica of Con-
porticus with two tiers of columns, and open on j stantine, or of timber, as in the Basilica Ulpia.
three sides. The central space appears to have I The B. Ulpia (fig. 224) is a rectangle about
Fig. 225.— Plan of Basilica of Constantino or MaxenUus. Scale, 100 feet to 1 inch. (From Ferj"jsson.
Fig. 226.— Longitudinal Section of Basilica of Maxentius. Scale, 100 feet to 1 inch. (From Fergusson.)
been without a roof. (6) Flavia, the best pre- j 370 feet by 180. The viedia j^orticus is 87 feet
served example of that special form of classical I wide, and has five aisles, each 23 feet wide,
basilica which is supposed to
have been the model of the
Christian churches. It is
rectangular, ending in a
semicircular apse. It has a
nave and two narrow aisles
divided by Corinthian co-
lumns ; over these colxunns
is an upper gallery with its
entablature. The apse was
screened off from the nave
by canceJli. The emjieror's
judgment-seat (trihunal)
was in the apse. (7) Tllpia,
or Traiani, in the Forum
of Trajan. (8) Constantini
or Maxentii, in the Sacra
Via.
The ground-plan of all
these buildings is rectangu-
lar, and their width not more than half nor I divided by four rows of columns S.T feet high.
less than one-third of the length. The roof 1 Above the side aisles was a gallery with a
Fig. 227.— Transverse Section of Basilica of Maxcntlus.
(From FergUBKon.)
Scale, 100 feet to 1 inch.
114
BASILICA
balustrade (pluteus), the roof of which was ; hemicycle were seats for persons of distinction,
supported by an upper row of columns, and | and for the parties engaged in the proceedings,
from tliese columns sprang the arches of the I In this basilica were two large libraries, one for
nave. This roof 120 feet high, was of wood, Greek and the other for Latin MSS.
l!l\Wv^>^-^
Fig 228 —Plan of the Basilica at Treves. Scale.
100 feet to 1 inch. (From Ferguseon.)
Fig. 229.- -Internal view of the liasilica at
Treves.
and was richly adorned with gilt plates. At J The Basilica of Constantine {or of Max en-
one end was a semicircular apse, or tribune ' tius), formerly called the Temple of Peace,
(hemicycliuni), containing a raised platform. ; was 195 feet broad by 270 feet long and 120 feet
In the centre of this tribune were placed the \ high. The form of the vaulting will be mider-
Fig. 2.90.— Old Basilica of St. Peter.
curuJe chair of the praetor and seats for the ' stood from the sections (figs. 226, 227), one taken
iudices, who sometimes amounted to the num- j longitudinally, the other across the building,
ber of 180 (Plin. Ep. vi. 33, 3), and the ad- I (See Fergusson, Hist, of Arch. i. 318.)
vocates ; and round the sides (cormta) of the i The name of basilica was in course of time
BA2IAINAA
applied to other public halls of all sorts, such as
those attached to temples, theatres, or baths
(Plin. Ep. X. 33, 3) ; and, lastly, to auj' large i
covered building, public or private. |
Over the side aisles of a basilica was a gallery
with a parapet or balustrade (pluteus). This
gallery ran all round the building, and was
readied by staircases. The whole area was
covered in with three separate coved ceilings,
of the kind called trstudinatum. Of the pro-
vincial basilicas of the Romans, most were
converted into churches, and afterwards modi-
fied ; but that of Treves survives.
Many of these edifices were converted to the
uses of a Christian church. Hence the later
writers of the Empire applj' the term hasilira
to all churches built after the model just de-
scribed. Such are, e.g., the churches of St.
Clement at Rome, and St. Ambrose at Milan.
(See Diet, of Chri.stian Antiquities, s.v., and
generally Guhl and Koner, Daremberg and
Saglio, .v.y.)
BaaiXivSa. [Games.]
BaCTcrdpa. Bacrcrapts- Originally a fox (cf.
fiacraapLOv m Hdt. iv. 192), and Egyptian priests
BESTIAEU
115
Fig. 231.— Bassara, dress of a Bacchante. (From a Greek
vase in the British Museum.)
are found represented in what seem to be fo.x-
skins, when officiating. The word probably
came from Egypt through Kvrene to Lydia and
Thrace, where fiacrfrapis
appears as the dress of
the Bacchanals. (Cf. Hor.
Caini. i. 18, 11.)
Bastferna. A kind of
litter [Icctica) in which
women were carried in
the time of the Roman
emperors. The Lectica
was carried by slaves;
the bastema by two
mules, one before and
one behind. The sides
might be closed or left
open. It was driven by
a hasternarius.
Batillum (batillum or
vat ilium, Hor. Sat. i.
5, 36). A shovel with a short handle, made of
iron (Plin. xx.\iii. § 127), used for various
purposes, such as collecting dung, and also as
a fire-shovel, or chafing-dish, for burning per-
fumes or incense-
Fig, iu
-Batillum. bronze shovel found near Pompeii.
(British Museum.)
Baxae, Baz'eae. Sandals made of leaves,
twigs, or bast (Plaut. Men. iii. 3, 40), part of
37).
Fig. 233. -Egyptian Baxae. (British Museum.)
the dress of Egyptian priests (Hdt.
[Calceus.J
Be3att3CTewsSCKTi. See Appendix, Greek
Law.
Bf|p.a. ['EKK\TiCT£a.]
BevSCSeia. A festival celebrated in the port
town of Peiraeus in honour of Bendis, the
Thracian moon-goddess, whose worship seems to
have been introduced into Attica about 410 B.C.
It was celebrated in the month of Tliargelion
(May), and included suravvvxis, a torch race on
horseback, and processions (Plat. Hep. 327 a).
Benefi'cium, Beneficia'rius. See Appendix,
Roman Law.
Benna. [Currus.]
Bes, Bessis. (Coinage; Tables, XIII.]
Bestia'rii (dripwiij.dxoi}. Persons who fouglit
with wild beasts in the games of the circus.
They were either persons who fought for the
sake of pay {auctorainentuin), and who were
allowed arms, or criminals, who were usuallj-
permitted to have no means of defence against
tlie wild beasts (Cic. Sest. 04 ; S*n. Jy). 70, 17).
The former class, more correctly calh d vena-
torcH [VenatioJ, were distinct from and inferior
to the gladiators, who fought with one another
Fig. •2.<14.-Bc8tlarli
(Cic. Vatin. 17). There wore schools (scholae)
in Rome for their training. Sucli were called
ludi viatiititii, since the combats with beasts
always iiri'ccded those of the gladiators*.
[Oladiatores.J
i2
116
BIAiriN AIKH
BiaCuv SCkti. See Appendix, Greek Law. j
Bibliothe'ca (0i0\ioer}Kr]). 1. Greek.— The
large libraries of the Assyrian and Egyptian
monarchs were unknown to the Greeks till the
time of the Ptolemies. We hear of libraries
formed by Peisistratus, by Polykrates the
tyrant of Samos, and by private collectors, such
as Nikokrates of Cyprus, Euripides, and Ari-
stotle. Ptolemy Philadelphus collected books
from all parts of Greece and Asia, the larger
number of which he deposited in the Museum
at Alexandria, and the rest in the Serapeum.
Among the librarians of Alexandria were De-
metrius of Phaleron, Eratosthenes the mathe-
matician, Zenodotus, Aristarchus and Aristo-
phanes the critics, and the poets Apollonius
Rhodius and Kallimachus. Tlie number of
volumes in the two libraries seems toliavebeen
upwards of 500,000 (Joseph. Ant. Jad. xii. 2).
Books in foreign languages were brought to
Alexandria and translated for the library, and
the Septuagint Version was probably made in
this way.
This priceless collection suffered considerably
in the siege of Alexandria by Julius Caesar,
in 47 B.C., and in 273 a.d. and 389 a.d. What
remained of it was finally destroyed by the
Arabs, 640 a.d. (See Gibbon, chap, li.)
A library formed by the kings of Pergamus
was transported to Egj7)t by Antony, who made
a present of its 200,000 volumes to Cleopatra
{Plut. A7it. 58). By the second or first cen-
tury B.C. there seem to liave been libraries in
most Greek towns.
2, Roman. — The first public library in Rome
was tliat founded by C. Asinius Pollio (Plin.
vii. 31), in the Atrium Libertatis near the Forum
(Cic. A. H. iv. 16, § 13). Julius Caesar had pro-
jected a Greek and Latin library, but the scheme
was prevented by liis death (Suet. Tul. 44).
Augustus formed a library in the temple of
Apoilo on the Palatine (Suet. Aug. 29 ; Hor. Ep.
i. 3, 17) ; and another, Bibliotheca Octaviana,
in the Porticus Octaviae. Among the Roman
libraries, tliose in the Capitol (Suet. Dom. 20),
in the Temple of Peace, in Vespasian's Forum,
and the Ulpian Library, founded by Trajan,
were the most celebrated.
Private collections of books were made at
Rome soon after the Second Punic War. Aemi-
lius Paulhis brought to Rome the library of
Perseus, king of Macedonia ; Lucullus, that of
the kings of Pontus, to wliich he gave the
public free access (Plut. Aem. Paul. 2S,Lucull.
42). The love of Cicero, Atticus, Varro, and
others for their libraries is well known (Cic.
Atf. i. 7, 10, iv. 5). Towards the end of the Re-
public it became the fashion to liave a room
elegantly furnished as a library (cf. Vitr. vi. 7).
We read of libraries at Milan, Comum (Plin.
Ej}. i. 8, iv. 13), Tibur, and elsewhere.
A library generally had an eastern aspect.
Round the walls were numbered cases contain-
ing the books [Liber]. The cases were called
either armaria [Armarium] (Plin. Ep. ii. 17),
loculamenta, foruli (Juv. iii. 219), or nidi (Mart.
i. 118). Libraries were adorned with portraits
and busts of celebrated men, as well as statues
of Minerva and the Muses. The lihrarii a
bibliotheca or bibliothecarii, whohsid charge of
the libraries, were usually slaves or freedmen.
(Juv. iii. 219 ; Plin. Ep. iii. 7 ; Cic. Fam. vii.
23 ; Suet. Tib. 70.)
Bidens. [Rastrum.]
Bidental. A building to mark a spot where
lightning had fallen. The name is derived
from the sacrifice of a young sheep {bidens) by
BOEOTARCHES
the haruspices at the place. It was sometimes
called puteal, as in the case of the puteal
Libonis in the Forum Romanum (Hor. Ep. i.
19, 8, Sat. ii. 6, 35). (See cut under Puteal.)
When lightning had struck a spot, it was held
necessary condere fulgur, either publice or
jjrivatiin, according to the nature of the place.
Everything which had been touched by the
lightning was solemnly collected by the pontitf,
Fig. 2S5.— Bidental at Pompeii.
and piled up, with a prayer (Juv. vi. 587 ; cf.
Lucan, i. 607). A bidens was offered, and a
small enclosure, neither paved nor covered,
was built, and surrounded by an exterior wall,
bearing the legend fulgur conditiim. It was
not allowed to tread this locus religiosus, or
even to look into it.
BLSialoi, )3i560t or fiiSvoi. Magistrates
in Sparta, five, or six, in number, with a presi-
dent (irpecrfivs), who inspected the gymnastic
exercises. Their house of meeting {apxewv)
was in the market-place.
Biga, Bigae. [Currus.]
Biga'ti. [Coinage.]
Bilix. [Tela.]
Bipennis. [Securis.]
Bire'mis. [Navis.]
Bisellium. [Sella.]
Bisextum. [Calendarium.]
B\dPTi9 8Ckti. See Appendix, Greek Law.
Blautae. [Calceus.]
Boavds, Bova-yos. The boys from seven
to eighteen years of age at Sparta were taken
by the state and trained for its service. They
were di\'ided into sections, called fiovai. Tlie
leader of such a section who was an elp-qv {i.e.
between twenty and thirty years) was called
^ovayos or fiovaySp (Plut. Li/c. 17 ; Xen. Bep.
Lac. ii. 11). In later times it became an
honorary title given to distinguished men, and
held with the ephoralty and other magistracies.
BoTiSpdM-ia. A festival celebrated at Athens
on the seventh day of the month of Boedro-
mion, in honour of Apollo BoTjSpi^jUtos, by
which name Apollo was called in Boeotia
and elsewhere (Callim. Hi/m. Apoll. 69). The
origin of the festival is variously attributed to
Theseus (Plut. Thes. 27) and Xuthus or Ion
(Eur. Ion, .59).
Boeotarches (BoicorapxTJs, or Boiuirapxos).
The Boeotians, a Tliessalian people (Thuc. i.
12), settled in the counti-y called Kadmeis,
afterwards Boeotia, under their kuig Opheltas.
The Boeotian kings ruled the whole country
from Thebes (Thuc. iii. 61). Subsequently, the
country was divided into several states, contain-
ing each a principal city with its i^wnXiis
(cf. Thuc. iv. 76) living around it. These in-
dependent states formed a Boeotian League
{Koivhv BoiwTwv), with Thebes at its head.
Common sanctuaries were the temple of the
Itonian Athene near Koroneia, where the Pam-
boeotia were celebrated, and the temple of
Poseidon at Onchestus. Thucydides (iv. 93)
mentions seven independent states: Thebes,
Haliartus, Koroneia, Kopae, Thespiae, Tanagra,
and Orchomenus ; other towns are najned in in-
scriptions, and probably the number differed at
BOIAE
dififerent times ; some Boeotian towns seceded
from the league, c.cj. Plataea, or non-Boeotian
towns joined the league ; and some were de-
stroyed by Thebes, as Plataea and Thespiae.
The dependent towns were not immediately con-
nected witli the national confederacy, but with
the neighbouring chief citj-, and were obliged to
furnish troops and money to the general con-
federacy (Thuc. iv. 7t)J. The league was finally
dissolved by Q. Marcius Philippus, 171 B.C. ;
but some kind of confederation lasted down to
a late period of the Roman Empire.
Each of the principal to\«is had its fiovKrl or
senate (Xen. Hell. v. 2, 2'.)) and Stj/uos. In the
early period the supreme power of the league
was vested in the four senates (Thuc. v. 38),
representing four districts, and assembled in
one place (koiv^ (tvvoSos). After democracy
was inti-oduced at Thebes, there was no longer
a Boeotian confederacy, but rather a Theban
state, in which other cities were merged. At
the time of the alliance with Rome (197 B.C.) it
would seem that the supreme power was vested
in a federal assembly, in which (Liv. x.xxiii. 2)
each of the confederated cities had a distinct
vote.
Each city had one or several annual archons.
The Theban archon was chosen by lot, and kept
a sacred spear of office always by him (Plut.
Ge7i. Socr. 31). The main powers of the state
were in the hands of the three polemarchs, who
were elected annually. Of other magistrates
we find mentioned iVirapxoi, (A.apxai, yavapxos,
KardiTTai, rafilai, &c. Tlie popular assembly at
Thebes is called aAi'ij by Herodotus (v. 79), and
(KK\7}(ria by Demostiienes (Cor. § 213). There
was also an archon of the confederacy, not
necessarily a Theban, whose name was affixed
to all alliances and compacts which concerned
the whole confederacy. Power was in the
hands of the Boeotarchs, representing the
several Boeotian cities ; their determinations,
however, required the ratification of the four
senates (Thuc. v. 38). The Boeotarchs dis-
charged the functions of an executive in various
matters, formed alliances with foreign states,
received ambassadors on their return home,
negotiated with envoys from other countries,
and acted as the representatives of the whole
league. But their principal duty was of a
military nature ; and they were the supreme
military authorities both in the field and at
home. The Boeotarchs, when engaged in mili-
tary service, formed a council of war, the deci-
sions of wliich were determined by a majority
of votes (Thuc. iv. 91). It is possible that the
supreme command was always vested in a
Theban Boeotarch.
The exact number of Boeotarchs is uncer-
tain : it is given as seven, eleven, twelve, and
thirteen. They were elected by the eK/cA.T;cri'a.
Their period of service was a year, beginning
in winter (Plut. Pelop. 24, 25), and wlioever
continued in office longer than his time was
punishable with death. (Paus. ix. 14, 5; Corn.
Nep. Epam. 7). Pelopidas was re-elected as
Boeotarch without interruption from 378 B.C.
to his death. Each Boeotarch was responsible
to his own state alone.
Boiae {k\oi6s). A collar of wood or iron put on
the neck of slaves or criminals as a punishment
(Plaut. Capt. iv. 2, 109). Tlie Greek k\oi6s,
usually of wood, sometimes of iron, was (1) a
collar on the neck of a mischievous dog (Ai*.
Vcsp. 897) (2) A form of pillory (Eur. Cijcl.
235). (3) An ornamental collar of gold (Eur.
Cijcl. 184).
BOTAH
117
Bomby'cinuni. Sericum.]
ButiovLKTis- [AtajxaaTCYucrig.]
Boovat.. Persons in Athens who purchased
oxen for the public sacrifices and feasts (Dem.
Mid. p. 570, § 171), and paid into the treasury
the money received for the hides of sacrificed
animals (AepjxaTiKov). They were elected
by the ekklesia.
Bop€aa|xoC, or BopeaCTH-os. A festival
celebrated witli banquets by the Athenians in
honour of Boreas. Herodotus (vii. 189) tells us
that the Athenians erected a temple to Boreas
on tlie banks of the Ilissus, as a thank-offering
for the destruction of the fleet of Xerxes near
Cape Sepias. But the festival may have been
of earlier origin. See Class. Diet. Okithyia.
BovKo\«iov. The official residence of the
Archon ^aaiKtvs near the old Prytaneion,
which was probably NE. of the Acropolis. The
name is perhaps connected with the worship of
the Thracian Dionysus ravp6/j.op<pos, identified
with Sabazius, whose votaries are said to be
called 0ovk6\oi (see [Arist.] 'A9. iro\. ed.
Sandys).
BovXti. A deliberative assembly or council.
In the Heroic age, represented to us by the
Homeric poems, the despotism of royalty is
tempered by the fiovKr] or council of chiefs and
the ayopa or general assembly of freemen.
Such councils, however, had only a consultative
power, and could not restrain the king's autho-
rity.
In the free republics of historic times the
$ov\-fi assumed more of an executive character,
especially among the Ionic race ; the Dorian
states, like Sparta and Crete, preferred the
terms yepoiKTi'a, 76po;'T6s, retaining the kingship
of the Heroic age in a modified form [Gerousia,
K6ap.oi]. In Athens, at least from the time of
Solon, there were two councils, the Areiopagus
(q. V.) and the Boule.
The ancients ascribed all Athenian institutions
to Solon. The Areiopagus appears to have been
the legitimate descendant of the Homeric fiovKi)
or council of old men (yepovr(s) ; and, how-
ever shorn of its power in later times, it always
enjoyed honorary precedence as ij aroi fiovAi]
{i.e. on the Hill) over the senate, t) koltw jSodAtj.
There are some indications of the existence of
more than one council in pre-Solonian Athens
(NawKpapCai). It is possible that under the
government of the Eupatrids, there was a
senate of 300 composed of 75 members from
each of the four tribes, 25 from each of the
phratries ; and that Solon, wishing to give
some political jwwer to the unprivileged citi-
zens, added a fourth hvmdred of non-Eupatrid
members, 25 from each tribe. According to
oneaccomit ([Arist.J 'A6. ttoA. c. 4 : the passage
is disputed) Drakon instituted a fiov\Tj of 401,
chosen by lot. All authorities agree that Solon
made the number of his liov\-i] 400, taking the
members from the first three classes, 100 from
each of the four tribes ; and that its function
witli reference to the public assembly (iKK\rj<rla)
was also his work — to prepare matters for its
discussion, to convoke and superintend its
meetings, and to ensure the execution of its
decrees (Grote, chap, xi.) : the people alone
being sovereign, and governing by psephismata
and dikasteries. The ^ovKtvrai or senatora
were probably not at firi^t aiijwinted by lot as
in after-times. The Kva/xos or lot formed no
part of any of Solon's institutions ; and an elec-
tion by open voting, wliere tlie influence of the
Eupatrids would l)e felt, may be assumed as
most in accordance with his views. On the
118
BOTAH
tribes being remodelled byKleisthenes (510 B.C.),
and raised to ten in number, the senate also ;
was increased to 500, fifty from each of the ten ^
tribes. It is to this period, and not to any ,
earlier one, that the introduction of the lot is
probably to be referred. Kleistheues, himself !
an Alkniaeonid by birth, was by no means an
advanced democrat, and under his constitution
the office of ^ou\fVTi)s was confined to the first
three Solonian classes. These restrictions were
swept away by the law of Aristeides about 477,
and every office became open to every citizen
{ArchonJ. The senators thus appointed were |
required to submit to a scrutiny or SoKifmtrla,
in which they gave evidence of being genuine
citizens {yviiffwi i^ afi<t>o'iv), of never having lost
their civic rights by aTifxia, and also of being
above 30 years of age. After passing the Soki- ,
fxaffia they took an oath of office (op/coj ^ovKtv- i
tik6s). They remained in office for a year, and ;
sat probably every day, except on some religious
festivals, when they were discliarged from atten-
dance. The senators' pay {puffOhs ^ovKfvriKOi)
was at the rate of a drachma (according to 'AC |
iroA. five obols) for each day on which they sut.
During their sittings they wore a wreath of
myrtle. In the theatre, at festivals, and in the ',
jjublic assembly, they had a place of honour
(irpotSpia), and for their year of office they were [
exempt from military service (cf. Appendix,
Ghkkk Law, 'ArtXeia). The ballot for the
removal of a senator was called iK<pv\Ko(popia,
because the voting in it (so it is said) was
taken with leaves of olive insteiul of voting
tablets or iiebbles. If acquitted on the trial, ■
the senator was reinstated ; if convicted, not I
only was he expelled, but the senate was entitled '
to inflict punishment on it-« own account in addi- |
tion to that awarded by the? dikasU-ry. At tl>e 1
end of the year the whole bo<ly had to pass the
examination called ffjdvvat, at once an audit of ;
accounts and an inquiry into its general conduct
in office : and if the result was satisfactory, the
people decreed thejn a golden crown as the [
equivalent of a modem vote of tiianks. ,
This senate of 500 was divided according to
tribes into ten sections of fifty each, and tlies*-
served in an order of succession determined by
lot at the beginning of tlie year. The members ;
of the tribt! whose turn it was to serve were
called Prytanes (irptnavfts), i.f. chiefs or presi-
dents, because they presided both in the senate
and the ekklesia; their period of office was
called a I'rytany {irpirrawfia), and lasted in
ordinary years 35 or 3(> days, in intercalated
years 38 or 3'.). [Calendariam. | From among
the prj'tanes a president (^irifTTOTTjj) was
chosen, also by lot, every day, to sit as chair-
man in the senate and the assembly of the
people ; during liis day of office he had in his
custotly the keys of the citadel, the public
archives, and the state seal, and was thus for
twenty-four hours the nominal head of the
government.
The attendance of the fifty prytanes at each
meeting of the senate was compulsory, tliat of
other senators voluntary. It was provided,
however, that all the tribes should be repre-
sented at every meeting of the senate; and this
was done by the institution of the jiroedri
(wpSeSpot), nine senators chosen by lot, one from
each of the non-presiding tribes, at the com-
mencement of each sitting, under the direction
of the epistates of the prytanes. But the
democratic jealousy of men in office introduced
restrictions on the authority of the iirytanes
and their epistates. From the early part of
the fourth century B.C. a second epistates was
chosen by lot from among the proedri i (irKTrdrris
riiiv irpo(hpuv) to whom the presidency both of
the senate and the assembly was transferred,
leaving to the former epistates (iiri(narr\s rwv
irpvTcwtwv) only the chairmanship of the pry-
tanes and the custody of the keys and seals,
with an honorary precedence.
Other officers of the senate were the secre-
taries (7pa/i/wiTejs), of whom there were several.
(1) The clerk of the prj-tunes, apixiinted for
each prytany by lot from among the prj-tanes,
whose duty it was to prepare all the acts passi-il
by the senate ; this is the ypafifiar fvs 6 Kara
irpvravfiav, and the one whose name was pre-
fixed to decrees in the formula [d Sflva] iypafi-
yLaTfvfv ['EKKXtiaCai. (-2) The clerk of tlie
senate (ypaix^univs tQiv fiovKfvTwv), elected
by the senate itself by show of hands, appar-
ently for the whole year. (3) A secretary
elected by the jwople, and called ypafXfiaTfhs
rrji irdKfws (Thuc. vii. 10) or TJjy $ov\ris koI
Tov Sr]/xov ; his chief duty was to read out docu-
ments both in the senate and in the popular
assembly. There were also under-secretaries
{utroypantiaTels). Of more importance was the
afTty pa(p(vs ttjs 0ov\tis, onv of the two con-
trollers of accounts ['AvTi7pa4)€i9].
Solon, in order to control the democratical
powers of the state, ordained that the senate
should discuss and vote ujion all matters
before they were submitted to the assembly of
the people. This decision, or bill, was called
irpo&ovKtvfia; but the ekklesia was in noway
bound by the terras of it. Besides the option
of adopting or rejecting a probouleuma, the
people possessed and exercised the power of
coining to a decision completely different from
the will of the senate. Everyone [)ossessing the
right to speak (6 $ov\6fjifyos, oh (ffori) had also
the right of proposing motions ["EKicXTiata].
The motion might be a simple negative, or an
amendment to the probouleuma, involving an
ext«'nsion or modification of it. As regards other
matters the motion could only consist in a de-
nnind to the senate to discuss these, and draw
up a jirobouleuma relative to them, which was
then to be laid before the assembly. It is
clear, however, that airpo^ovKfvra, or matters
not previously referred to the senate, were not
unfre<juently put to the vote.
If a private person had anything to bring
before the public, it was first necessary for him
to obtain, by written petition, the jirivilege of
access to the senate {irpAffoioy ypd\tia(T0ai) and
leave to propose his motion ; and if the mea-
sure met with their approbation, he could then
submit it to the assembly. Proposals of this
kind when sanctioned by the senate were also
called ■Kpo^ovKfufiara, and were then submitted
to the people, and by them adopted without
amendment, or rejected.
When a probouleuma came before the people
it was read out by the ypofjLfjLOcrtvs (the third of
those mentioned above), and the preliminary
(juestion was then put, whether the people
agreed with it or desired to have the matter
subjected to further discussion. The show of
hands on this previous question was called
irpoxftpoTovia. The subsequent stages of the
discussion Arc, are described under 'EKKXtiaCa.
Other resolutions (y\rt\<p'ifftxaTa) of the senate, of
the class which did not require the sanction of
the ekklesia, became invalid at the end of the
year unless re-enacted by the incoming senate.
I The political powers of the senate were
1 strictly limited. In the more important mat-
rwv wevTaKocriwv. Late comers lost their
drachma for the day.
The prytanes also had a building to hold
their meetings in, sometimes called the pryta-
neum (irpvravelov), but more usually 66\os, the
' Dome ' or ' Rotunda,' from its shape. This
must not be confounded with the more ancient
prytaneum proper [npuraveiov]. It was
situated near the senate-house, so that the pry-
tanes could without inconvenience betake them-
selves from it to the full meetings of the senate.
Before and after these meetings, however, they
were present in the doAos for the whole day,
and also took their meals there, at a common
table and at the public expense, with some other
public officers, and with the privileged persons
called aeiffiToi or irapdai'Toi (see flpwravelov).
The number of tribes at Athens was increased
from ten to twelve in 30(5 B.C. The senate was
now increased to 600 members. In the time of
Hadrian a thirteenth tribe was added, and the
number of senators was again reduced to 500.
The Athenians kept up the show of their former
institutions down to the latest times of tbe
Roman Empire ; cf. Archon.
BovXeTjaeoJs ypa.^r\. See Appendix, Gbeek
Law.
Bracae (avalvpiiis, QvXaKoi). Trousers (Cel-
BOTAH BRACAE 119
ters, and especially in foreign affairs, it had the
right of initiating a policy, but not of deciding
finally on the course to be pursued. Since,
however, the senators were convened by the
prytanes every day, except on festivals or
d(^eTol 7)jxepai, they would be fit recipients of
any intelligence affecting the interests of the
state, and they had the right of proposing
measures to meet an emergency (see Dem.
F. L. p. 346, § 17 = 19, Cor. p. 284, § 169).
Besides this, the senate was sometimes dele-
gated by the people to determine absolutely
about particular matters, without reference to
the assembly : e.g. in the case of the mutilation
of the Hermae (Andoc. de Mijst. § 15).
In some departments of state, especially
finance and war, the senate was entrusted with
large administrative powers. The farming of
the public revenues, the receipt of tenders for
public works, the sale of confiscated properties,
and the like, were carried out by the fltoXTiTai
under the superintendence and subject to the
ratification of the senate. The farmers of the
taxes (TeXuvai) ; the lessees of the leasable
revenues, i.e. lands and mines (ol fjLiadovfxfPoi) ;
the tax-collectors ('EKXovelSj 'EK\e-yovT€s) ;
the ' AiroSeKTai or receivers of money for the
different treasuries ; the treasurers of the
Akropolis (ra/iiai TJjs Of oC) and of other temples, I tic and A.-S. brec, breeks, breeches), panta
made report and were accountable to the senate : loons. These, as well as various other articles
in fact, all questions of finance were confided of armour and of dress [Acinaces, Arcus,
to its supreme regulation. Another very im- Annilla], were common to all the nations which
portant duty of the senators was to take care ! encircled the Greek and Roman populations, ex-
that a certain number of triremes was built i tending from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic
every year; and in general the fleet and all (Hdt. v. 49; Eur. Cycl. 182; Verg^ Aen.^s-i.
matters relating to the maritime empire of
Athens were under the special control of the
senate (see 'Eirijj.eA.TiTaC). The cavalry,
also, was under its special supervision. It
was bound to inspect these troops from time to
time, and to provide for their pay, called Kard-
(TTafflS.
The senate had also judicial functions, the
most important of which was to receive elaay-
yf\iai, or informations of extraordinary crimes
for which there was no special law provided
[Elo-a7V€\ia]. The senate in such cases
either decided themselves or referred the case
to a dikastery. It was also their duty to decide
[AoKU^-aCTia] on the qualification of magis-
trates, and the character of members of their
own body. In all these matters the senate, as
the executive body, was itself responsible
(vnevdwos) to the demos or sovereign people.
The meetings of the senate were open
to strangers {ISiwrai) ; who might, however, be
removed (fj.erao'Trii'ai) on motion made to that
effect. To enforce these regulations they had
at their disposal the services of the policemen,
the so-called 'S.KvOat or ro^6T(u, who were under
the orders of the prytanes [Atijioctioi].
The senate-house, situated in the Agora, was
called ^ovKevrl)piov, and contained two chapels
(Upd.), one of Zeiis fiov\aios, another of 'KQr]va.
0ov\aia, in which it was customary for the
senators to offer up prayers before proceeding
to business,
777 ; Ov. Trist. iv. 6, 47 ; Juv. viii. 254). The
following nations are mentioned as bracati :
the Medes and Persians, the Parthians, Phi-y-
gians, Sacae, Sarmatae, Dacians and Getae,
Teutones, Belgae, Britons, and Gauls. The
Cossack and Persian trousers of the present
day differ little from those which were anciently
Fig. 236.— Bracae worn by Sarmatians.
Trajan.)
worn in the same countries. In the annexed
cut the Sarmatians wear the loose trousers
We read also of 'Ecrria ^ovXaia \ {bracae laxae) which the Greeks called BiXoKoi
and "Apre/uis l3ov\aia as among the gods thus ] (Ar. Vesp. 1087). They are part of the usual
invoked. A signal, probably a flag, was hoisted i di'ess of Amazons and Thracians. See cuts
over the fiovKevTrjpiov ; and when the sitting i under Arcus, Pelta.
was about to begin, the members were summoned I The tighter form of ava^vpiSes is exemplified
to enter by a herald : the flag was then struck,
The right to receive the fee for attendance was
checked by a ticket [Za5ji,3o\ov], consisting
of a small piece of stamped lead, given to each
senator on his entrance. These tickets bore
the legend BOAH, i.e. Pov\-fi, or B*, i.e. ^ov\r]
in figs. 238, 239.
The Roman soldiers fighting in the north of
Europe wore bracae, but not in Italy (fig. 240).
(See Tac. Hist. ii. 20 ; 69 a.d.) In the second
century they appear to have been worn at Rome,
but never came into general use.
120
BKACCHIALE BPATPnNIA
Trousers were principally of woollen mate- | fingers square, could be beaten (exprimere,
rial ; but in Europe they were also made of ducere). The thicker leaves were called brat-
linen and of leather ; the Asiatics made them of teae Praenestinae, the finest bratteae quaes-
cotton and of silk. Sometimes they were em- ! toriae. These leaves were used for gilding
Fit!. 2S7.— Amazon. (From a Greek
ulabastron in British Museum.)
Fig. 238.— Bracae worn by Persian prince.
(Mosaic found at Pompeii.)
Fig. 239.— Bracae ■« orn by Roman
soldier. (Trajans Column.)
bioidered {pictae) or striped (vjr<7a#ae,Propert.
iv. 11, 48) and ornamented with a woof of
various colours {noiKLKai, Xen. Anab. i. 5, § 8).
Tlie (rret'ks never wore ava^vpiSes. (See cut
under Agaso.)
Braccnia'le. (1) [Armilla.] (2) riept/Spaxi-
dvtof, an arm-guard used by gladiators.
[Galerus.]
Brac'chium ducere (circumducere). A mili-
tary term used by Livy (xxii. 52) and Caesar to
denote the drawing of a line of entrenchments,
usually double, to connect a camp with another
or with some point. The modern tenn is ca-
ixiiilrrr.
BpaaCSeia. A festival celebrated at Sparta
in memory of Brasidas, wlio, after his death,
422 n.c, received tlie honours of a hero (Arist.
Eth. Nic. V. 7). It was held every year with
orations and contests, in which none but Spar-
tans were allowed to partake.
Brasideiawere also celebrated at Amphipolis,
which, though a colony of Athens, transferred
the honour of oiKi(TT-f)s from Hagnon to Brasidas,
who was buried there, and paid liim heroic
honours by an
annual festival
(Time. V. 11).
Brat'tea (not
Bractea : irera-
\ov). A finely
beaten-out plate
of metal, espe-
cially gold (Lucr.
iv.727; Verg.^ew.
vi. 209). Thicker
plates were called
laminae. Such
plates were fast-
ened (imbratte-
are) on objects as
ornaments (Hom. Od. iii. 884). Other terms are
bratteator, tritoi-, rnaurator (the fastener),
veTa\ovpy6s. Pliny (xxxiii. § 61) tells us that j
from an ounce of gold 750 plaques, each four i
statues (Juv. xiii. 152), furniture (Mart. viii. 33,
5, 6), walls and ceilings (Sen. Epist. 115, § 9).
Bratteae stamped or embossed were also used
as ornaments on articles of clothing and aa
amulets, and many such are found in tombs.
Fig. 240. - Brattea, sewn upon
dress. (From the Crimea :
Daremberg and Saglio.)
Fig. 241.— Gold-beater (hratU-ator). (From a Roman
bas-relief.)
Bravpuvia. A festival celebrated in
honour of Artemis Bpaupwcta, in the Attic town
of Brauron (Hdt. vi. 138), where Orestes and
Iphigeneia, on their return from Tauris, were
supposed to have landed, and left the statue of
the Taurian goddess. It was held every fourth
j'ear, under the superintendence of ten leponotoi ;
Attic girls between the ages of five and ten
years, dressed in saffron-coloured clothes, went
in procession to the sanctuary, where they were
consecrated to the goddess. During this act the
iepoTTOioi sacrificed a goat, and the girls per-
formed a propitiatory rite in which they imitated
bears. This rite probably arose from the cir-
cumstance that the bear was sacred to Artemis,
especially iu Arcadia. Hence the girls them-
BUCCULA
selves were called apKToi, the consecration
apKTeia, the act of consecrating apKTevuv. and
to celebrate the festival apKreveaOai. Tliere
was besides this a quadriennial Brauronia, cele-
brated also at Brauron, but in honour of Dio-
nysus (Ar. Lijsififr. G43).
Bu'CCUla (wapayvadis). The cheek-piece of a
Roman helmet. (See Arms and Armour, figs.
176, IHO, 181.)
Bucina. [Cornu.]
Bulga (TT^pa). A leathern pouch, slung on
the arm and used as a purse; also as a seed-
bag.
Bulla. A water bubble, and, from the resem-
blance in form, a boss (fi\os), sometimes of ivory,
but usually of metal ; employed to adorn a
sword-belt, a military girdle (Verg. Aen. ix.
359), a sword (Horn. II. xi. 29), a sceptre {ib.
i. 246), a goblet (ib. xi. 633), a bronze chest, the
panels of doors fCic. Vetr. ii. 4, 56).
KABEIPIA
121
Fig. 242.— Bullae, or boases, on doors.
Pantheon.)
We most frequently read, however, of bullae
as ornaments suspended from the neck, worn by
children, and especially by the sons of the noble
and wealthy (Juv. xiv. 4). These hiiUae were
made of two concave plates of gold fastened
together by a brace of the same material, so as
to form a globe, within which an amulet was
contained (Plaut. Bud.
iv. 4, 126).
The use of the bulla,
like that of the j^'''*^^'
texta, was derived from
the Etruscans (Jut, v.
Fig. 21H.— Roy wearing a
Bulla. (Muller, IimknUiler.)
164, and see the story in
^%e"''coTie"t'i^^n o^iS" Pliny, xxxiii. tj 10), who
Kogers; the gold cord wore necklaces and
added from a specimen !,_,„, i„t. r ,„„,„ 1 „f
in the British Museum.) bracelets formed of
bullae, doubtless con-
taining amulets [AmuletumJ. They were worn
by the general at his triumph and by boys to
avert evil influences. [Fascinum.J Tlie bulla
was originally worn only by the chililren of the
l)atricians, but subsequently by all of free birtli
(Cic. Verr. i. 58, 152) ; wliile children of the
libertini were only permitted to wear an orna-
ment of the same kind niadK; of leather {scor-
tea: Juv. v. 165). [Nodus.] On coming of age
it was laid aside, together with the praetexta,
and was consecrated on this occasion to the
Lares (Pers. v. 31).
Bullae were sometimes hung as an ornament
and a charm on the forehead or round the neck
of pet animals (Ov. Met. x. 114).
Buris. [Aratrum.]
Bustum. [Funus.]
Buty'rum (^ovrvpov, ^ovrvpos), butter, wa.s
only used by the Greeks and Romans as an un-
guent (Plin. xi. § 239) and a medicine {Id.
xxviii. § 133). The phrase (e\aiov awh ydKaKTos)
shows that the butter of the ancients was a
liquid (see Pliny, I.e.).
Buxum [irv^os), the wood of the box tree, was
given as a name to many things made of this
wood. The tablets used for writing on, and
covered with wax {tabulae ceratae), were usu-
ally made of this wood (Prop. iii. 22, 8). The
Greek irv^iov, ttv^'iSiov is used in the same way
(Exod. xxiv. 12, LXX). Tops were made of box-
wood (Verg. Aen. vii. 382) ; wind instruments
(Ov. ex Pont. i. 1, 45; Verg. Aen. ix. 619);
combs (Juv. xiv. 194), and boxes.
Byssus (fivffffoi, from Semitic buiz). It has
been disputed whether the byssus of the
ancients was cotton or linen. Herodotus (ii.
86; cf. vii. 181) says that the mummies were
wrapped up i-n bandages of this material ; and
mummy cloth was made of flax, not cotton.
Herodotus calls cotton ' tree-wool ' (elpiov airh
|uAou, iii. 47, vii. 65 ; gossijpium or gossijJion,
Plin. xix. 2, 3). The robes of $v(T(Tos men-
tioned by Aeschylus (Peis. 125) and Euri-
pides {Bacch. 821) we may take to have been
linen. But in some writers byssus is used
for cotton, and even silk. It seems in later
writers to have signified a fine and costlj' tex-
ture, made generally of linen, but perhaps iu
some cases of very fine cotton (cf. Theocr. il.
73; St. Luke xvi. 19; Rev. xviii. 12). Other
tei'ms are \ivov, ffivScav, d66vr], or oQ6viov\.
linum, linteum, sindon.
The flax was plucked (vellere), sun-di'ied,
steeped in water (/«ace?'a.?'e), dried again, beaten
with a mallet (stupjjarium inalleum), and
carded (peeten'). The outer fibres served for
lampwicks : the inner were cleaned and spun
into yarn for the loom. For the process of
weaving, see Tela. "When woven, the finer linen
was beaten (caedere) with wooden clubs (elavae)
to improve the colour. Modern methods of
bleaching, whether by the use of chlorine or
exposure to the sun, do not appear to have
been known. The use of oil (Hom. Od. vii.
107) may have been to make the fibre soft and
even.
For cotton, see Carbasus.
C, K.
KaPeipia, the mysteries of the Pelasgio
(Hdt. ii. 51) Kabeiri, were celebrated in the
islands stretching from Euboea to the Helles-
pont, in Lemnos, Imbros, and most of all in
Samothrace. We also find them on the adja-
cent coasts of Eurojie and Asia Minor, at
Thebes, and even in an island near Britain.
Like the Eleusinia, an almost complete secrecy
has been maintained as to the ceremonies and
teaching of these mysteries. We know, however,
tlie names of the gods which form a Kabeiric
group : four in number, representing the planets
and the universe formed from tlieir union, and
consisting of a primal mot Iter goddess, from
whom issue two divinities, a male and a female,
and from tliese again a fourth, Kasmilos,
the orderer of the universe. These gods were
variously identified with their own deities by
122 CACCABUS
the Greeks and Romans. [Bee Class. Diet.
Cabiri.]
The whole tenor of the worship is Asiatic.
We hear of Romans who were initiated, e.g.
Marcellus (Plut. Marc. 30), and probably Cicero
{Nat. Deor. i. 42, 119). Throughout the Roman
CAELATURA
100) ; also the staff with wliich Hermes or
Mercury is usually represented. The caduceus
may have been originally only an olive branch
with garlands ((TTf/xixara), which were afterwards
formed into snakes.
From caduceus was formed caduceator a
Fig. 245.— Cabiri. (Fragment of vase at .Athens.)
period the Kabeiric mysteries were held in high person sent to treat for peace (Liv. xxxii. 32).
estimation, second only to the Eleusinian. The persons of cadnceatwes were considered
The chief priest was probably called Upo- sacred. The caduceus was not used by the
(pdvTris, and the purifying priest K6ris or koit}s. Romans. They used instead verbenae and
As in all mysteries, the votary must be
purified in Vjody and mind before initia-
tion, and thus we have some evidence of
auricular confession. It is said also"
that the initiated became more pious and
in every respect better than they were
before. It is not improV)able that the
doctrine of rewards and punishments in a
future life was inculcated. Women and chil-
dren appear to liave been admitted as well as
men. The religious ceremonies consisted of
dpiifXfva Kol \ey6fxfva. There were two classes
Fig. 246 —Caduceus of bron2e, IG in. in length. (British Museum
sagtnina, which were carried by the Fetiales.
[FetialeB.]
Cadu'cum. See Appendix, Roman Law
[Bona cadnca\
Cadur'cum. A kind of linen made by the
of votaries — the fjLVffrai and the fiVffTai fixrffie^s Cadurci, who inhabited the district Le Quercy
—the latter being apparently those initiated in Guienne (Juv. vii. 221). It was especially
for the first time. esteemed for bedding (Juv. vi. 537), and also
The initiated wore a purple band (raivia) used for garments, bandages, and tents,
round the waist. Preservation in times of Cadus (kuSos). (1) A large jar or tub of
peril, and especially in perils on the sea, was the I earthenware, most frequently used, like the
chief service that the Kabeiri were supposed ' amphora, to keep wine in after it had been
to render to those who called on them by ; drawn from the do/JM??? (Hdt. iii. 20 ; Hor. 0(7.
name ; and none knew their names except the iii. 19, 5 ; Verg. Aen. i. 195). Other kinds of
initiated. produce stored in cadi were honey (Mart. i. 55,
The initiations at Samothrace took place be- 10), oil (id. i. 43, 9), figs, salt fish; and some-
tween May and September. There appears to times plants were grown in them. It seems to
have been a special ceremony at the commence- have resembled the amphora in shape, perhaps
ment of August. with a wider mouth : the two words are some-
Cac'cabus, less correctly Cacabus. A cooking- times used indifferently. [Pottery.]
pot. The Greek forms KOKKa^t) and Ka.KKa$os (2) A well-bucket (yav\6s, v-iravTK€7ov) Av.
both occur. The caccrei)/ .s was used for boiling Eccl. 1002; FiMT. Ci/cl. 33).
meat, vegetables, &c.; and was placed imme- (3) = /co5<(r/(os (Ar. -4y. 1030). [U'fi<|)os].
diately upon the fire, or upon a trivet (tripus) (4) = /xfrpriTris, or amphora. (See Measures,
standing over it. It is thus distinguished from Tab. XII.) The word is used as an equivalent
Aenuin, wliich was suspended over the fire, of the Attic amphora, or fxerpriTi)s, a measure
The KaKKa^T) is mentioned as equivalent to containing twelve x<^**> or about nine gallons
Xvrpa, i.e. earthen cooking-pot or pipkin ; and so English.
usually in Latin. But caccabi were also some- Cadi were made of stone and metal as well
times of metal ; stanncus, aeneiis, argenteus. as earthenware.
KaKT)-yopia9 Slkt). See Appendix, Greek Caelatu'ra (TopeuTiKi^), from •Jcael- = caed-,
L.^w. caelum {ropevs}, a chisel or burin. These
KoLKuats. See Appendix, Greek L.\w. terms include all processes employed by the
KaKOTexvtuv 8ikti. See Appendix, Greek ancient artist, whether in jeweller's and gold-
L.\w. smith's work, or in the application of the non-
KaSiaKo;. [il'f|<J)os.] i precious metals (especially bronze) to the pur-
Cadu'ceas (K-npvKdov). The staff or mace ■ poses of ornamenting different objects, such as
carried by Greek heralds and ambassadors in i aiTnour, mirrors, &c. The terms are strictly
time of war [PraecoJ (Thuc. i. 43 ; Hdt. ix. and commonly confined to metal work in relief
CAELATURA
123
or intaglio, whether repousse, stamping, chasing,
or engraving, in one piece or more, also gold-
smith's and jeweller's work of all kinds; and
less correctly to enamelling, niello, damascen-
ing, and soldering, with or without the blow-
pipe.
Caelatura is distinguished from statuary
[Statuaria ars], though its processes were fre-
quently applied to the decoration of plastic
works. (See Mart. iii. 141, et pass. ; Juv. viii.
104; Cic. Verr. iv. 18, 88. |
Pliny (.\xxiii. §§ 154-157) gives a list of
toreuticians eminent especially for working in
silver. This list includes names which appear
to range in date from about 420 or 400 B.C. to
the time of Nero ; the most famous artist men-
tioned being Mentor, who lived not later than
350 B.C. Mys (c. 420 B.C. : Mart. xiv. 95) ; Alkon
(Ov. Met. xiii. 083) ; gi-eat artists such as
Myron (Mart. vi. 92, viii. 51), Pheidias (Mart.
iii. 35), iPolykleitus (Juv. iii. 217), &c., also did
toreutic work.
The earliest specimens of ornamental metal
work discovered on Greek soil are those found
by Dr. Scldiemann at Hissarlik in the Troad,
consisting of a large number of objects in gold,
such as bracelets, earrings, diadems, buttons,
cylinders, and scabbards. (See Schlientanji's
Excavations, Schuchardt, Eng. Transl., Mac-
millan, 1891.) The Hissarlik metal work is
the product of a half-barbarous people. An
early though more advanced style is repre-
sented by the objects discovered by Schliemann
at Mykenae, which may be approximately
assigned to a date not later than 1000 b.c.
The Mykenaean objects show little trace of
Oriental influence : the specimens in gold con-
sist principally of plaques in repousse work,
bowls, diadems, rude sepulchral masks, bosses,
combinations of spirals, floral forms and imita-
tions of insects, &c.
The next important epoch in the history of
our subject is that of the Homeric poems, in
which works of metallic art are spoken of as
coming from Cyprus, Egypt, and especially
Phoenicia (II. xi. 19, xxiii. 741, Od. iv. 120,
610). This Phoenician art was formed by a
blending of the art of the Egj'ptians and that
of the Assyrians. The epoch generally assigned
to tliis work is the seventh or eighth century
B.C. Thus Egyptian figures, such as sphinxes,
uraei, scarabs, are found in combination with
hunting scenes of Assyrian character.
As specimens of early jewellery we may
refer to the objects of gold (now in the Louvre
and British Museum), fomid in Rhodes, which
may be regarded as products of Phoenician ai't
in the eighth centui-y B.C., and show the same
mixture of Egyptian and Assyrian features.
Other archaic gold ornaments have been found
at Corinth, Athens, Melos, Delos, in Etruria,
Lydia, &c., showing a gradual development
from simple geoni(!tric ornamentation to groups
of men and animals, and mythological subjects.
Our knowledge of the jewellery of tlie fine
period of Greek art is mainly derived from the
«xcavations in the Greek tomlis of Southern
Russia and in those of Etruria. The objects
from Russia belong to a great extent to Attic
art of the fourth century B.C. They consist of
specimens, unrivalled in workmanship, of neck-
laces, earrings, bracelets, brooches, itc. The
main effect in this jewellery is due to tlie com-
bination of small figures and flowers in rejiousse
work, with fine filigree, granulated patterns,
and vitreous inlays. Precious stones, such as
garnets, are sometimes, but rarely, introduced.
•247.— Gold enr ring
(British MuseuL
nuns).
The jewellery from Etruria, in its earlier period
Oriental, is in its latest and finest stage tho-
roughly Greek in style, though less rich m
invention, and
with an Italian
character of its
own.
Another im -
portant branch
of the toreutic
art is constituted
by the produc-
tion of gold and
silver vases, ela-
borately adorned
with reliefs, or
ornaments sepa-
rately made and
soldered or rivet-
ed to the vessel.
(Cf. Ov. MH.
iii. 80; Juv. i.
76.)
These orna-
ments are called
emhlemata and
crustae : (1) Me-
tal ornaments,
such as masks,
medallions, fig-
lu'es of men
and animals,
wrought in relief
and artificially
attached {illigare, includere, inicere, infigere,
inserere) by soldering or riveting to the interior
or exterior of metal vessels (Cic. Verr. iv. 22 ;
Juv. i. 76 ; Plin. xxxiii. § 55). Emhleuiata must
be distinguished from metal ornaments in relief
(such as those produced in repousse), which
formed an integral part of the vase itself.
Crustae were metal ornaments similar to
emhlemata. Strictly speaking, ctttblemata
(e/i)3A7j/ua, ifi^aWw) would mean ornaments
inserted, while crustae would be leaves or
plates of metal ni)plied to the surface. Prac-
tically, however, the terms emblcmata and
crustae seem to have been used as synonymous.
The crustae were made by artisans called crus-
taril (Plin. xxxiii. § 55).
(2) The word emblema is also, but rarely,
used to signify inlaid work.
Under the successors of Alexander, this
branch of art began to assume esi)ecial promin-
ence. At the same period, vases by the great
Greek masters were collected by the Romans
(Juv. i. 76 ; Mart. viii. 6, 1, iv. 39, iVc), and were
doubtless copied by the Roman artists. (Cf.
Plin. xxxiv. § 47.)
To the examples of ornamental metal-work
which have now been mentioned in this article,
and which are principally in gold and silver,
must be added certain specimens in bronze
which are adorned (1) with engraved designs,
(2) with figures in relief. Engraved designs
occur most frequently upon mirrors and their
covers, both Etruscan and Greek. [Speculum.]
(Cf. Brit. Mus. (tuide to the Brotizr lionin.)
The Roman work of (J reek design was often
worked in very high relief.
The methods used by the ancient metal
workers were various (Metallum). One of the
earliest inventions must liave been that of
beating gold into thin plates (Aeirij, TrsVaAov,
lamina, lamella, hrattea) (Aurum, Brattea),
and from this beginning the goldsmith's
craft seems to have been derived. The
124
CAEIiATURA
earliest designs are beads, bosses, geometrical
patterns, and rude animal forms, produced by-
embossing or engraving thin plates of gold.
Fig. 248.— Late krater. Perugiii
p. cxli.i
f Dennis, Elruria, t
These plates, joined together by chains and
other fastenings, were used for necklaces,
bracelets, &c., side by side with bangles and
torques made from solid metal. Metal plates
were also used as late as the sixth century B.C.,
to adorn the walls of buildings (e.g. the tower
of Danai", the palace of Alkiiums, the teinple of
Atliena XaA./(ioi(cos, tlie chaniher of Myron at
Olympia) ; to decorate furniture (f./y. the famous
casket [/cjcttj] of Kypselus at Olympia), statues
(e.g. the Athena of Dresden) and garments.
These early works, when applied as ornaments
to a background of wood or metal, were fastened
by rivets (^Aoi)- They were made with the
hammer (ff<pvpa) and chisels (ropfvs) of various
shapes and sizes. Tlie art of thus applying
j)laques of metal, whether by rivets or other-
wise, is called ffiiraiaTiKri. Soldering of metals
(KoWav) by means of chemical compounds
(XpvffOKoWa) was known in very early times in
the East, and was introduced thence with the
use of the blowpipe. It was in use both at
Mykenae and at Hissarlik.
The art of drawing wire {(TT-ijfjiwv, filum)
through lioles in a steel plate was also early
known in the East. It is not certain whether
in the most ancient specimens of Greek work-
manship tlie gold wire was drawn, filed, or
hammered. The fringe (dvffavot) of the aegis
of Athena (11. ii. 448) may have been of gold
wire. In much of the most delicate Greek and
Etruscan jewellery gold wire is used, drawn to
the fineness of a thread. The tools employed
were hammer (crc^Cpa), saw (sometimes of silex :
irpiaiv), chisel and burin (ropevs, caelum or
cilirt), drill or awl {TfpeTpov), file (pt'fij), shears
(i|/oA.ts), blowpipe (perhaps av\6s or KaKaf^ios),
tongs (irvpaypa), pincers, and anvil (&Kfj.<i>v).
(See figs. 250, 2.')1, under Caelum.
Instruments of agate, obsidian, &c., were pro-
bably used for engraving matrices, and the use
of corundum and the wheel and bow-lathe was
known.
Plaques of repouss^ work were made :
(1) By hammering on a matrix of stone or
wood.
(2) The gold plate was laid on a leaden plate
and struck with an iron stamp.
(3) Freehand working ; the design being
drawn on tlie gold and hammered out. In this
case, especially in the case of a cup or bowl,
the vessel would be filled with pitch, as in
modem work. Patterns cut in stone have been
found which are evidently meant to be used as the
matrix for embossing gold ornaments. Works
produced by the hammer are called erc^upi^AoTO,
and the iprocess is called fAavvfiy, KpOTtiv,
exciiilere, as opposed to eyKoKaimiv, engraving-
i
Fig. 249.— Caelatara.
The word (r<pvpi\\aros is also applied to large
statues made in pieces and put together, before
casting in metal superseded hammer-work.
Tlie old plan has been resumed in some modern
colossal works, as, e.g., the Victoria at Berlin.
Tlie greatest skill and invention were shown
in the fabrication of gold ornaments : especially,
for workmanship, the Etruscan jewellery. This
consists of figures, foliage, pendants, &c., of
extraordinary delicacy. The filigree [i.e. in-
volved patterns worked in fine wire) is superior
to anything in West or East of the same
character. Another process which modern
artists have not been able completely to imitate
is that of covering a surfivce of gold with a
frost-work consisting of innumerable micro-
scopic granules or beads of gold, as fine as
dust. It is not known how such granules were
fused, nor how they were applied and attached
to the metal which is powdered with them;
especially as we have no reason to suppose that
the Etruscans were acquainted with the use of
lenses. The soldering is more perfect than any
except the finest specimens of Chinese gold-
smith's work. The Etruscans also worked in
enamel and coloured glass.
Toreutic was largely applied to the decoration
of silver vessels and armour, as well as to the
details of bronze statues, and to the gold parts
of chryselepliantine figures. Hence we find
great sculptors, such as Pheidias and Poly-
kleitus mentioned among toreutic artists
[ropevrai). The Fly and Bee of Pheidias were
celebrated as evidences of his skill in the
smallest details.
The Greeks and Romans understood also the
art of damascening, i.e. inlaying or incrusting
one metal with another : either by cutting out
the shape of the figure on the ground (say) of
bronze, and beating the silver or gold in ; or by
fusing silver or gold wire into outlines engraved
on the ground ; or bj' overlaying with gold and
scraping down to a level, leaving the gold in
the incised portions. Iron was sometimes
inserted thus. This art also included that of
colouring and shading gold and silver. It is
probable, also, that the use of enamel or metal
in cloison {i.e. making a raised outline from the
CAELUM
ground and filling the intermediate spaces with
enamel or gold : the converse to the gold out-
line mentioned above) was also jiractised.
Of solders (xpvcrSKoWa), several kinds were
used ; both natural, i.e. malachite (native gi-een
carbonate of copper), and artificial, a combination
of oxide of copper and nitre, or perhaps borax.
Some instances have been found of niello, i.e.
filling an incised pattern with a dark composi-
tion made of various metals with sulphur and
borax, which sets as hard as metal and is filed
down to a surface.
Caelatura (toreuma, TopevTiKrj), however, in
its commonest acceptation, is goldsmfth's work
applied to the decoration of vessels either in
mtaglio, relief, or the flat. This was carried to
a high mechanical perfection by the later
Greeks and the Romans. (See emblemata
and crustae above.) Enormous sums were
given in the times of the later Republic and
Empire for these (see Hor. .S'a^. i. 3, 90, ii. o,
20), and there was a rage for ancient pieces
of plate {argentuni vetus) attributed to the i
great masters of the art. (Juv. viii. 102 ; Mart, j
iv. 39, &c. ; Cic. Verr. iv. 5.) i
Some of the finest engraving was applied to |
the decoration of the backs of silver mirrors, '
both Greek and Etruscan. The method is ]
simple, being merely a drawing with the chisel .
in shallow outline. The subjects are for the j
most part taken from Greek mythology. (See ^
cuts under Speculum.)
Caelum {ropevs, yXiKpauos, Konevs). A chisel, j
gouge, or graver used for engraving on stone or
metal [Caelatura.]
Punch Square CMscl RotindChisel Cla'u Chisel
CAEMENTUM
fig. iM.— Tools used in metal work. (Bliinuier.
Caemen'tum (more frequently in the plural,
Caeuienta; Gr. \arvnri, (XKvpos). Rubble, or
small undressed stones, used together with
mortar to form the caementiciae .striictiirneov
concrete walls common in Roman buildings.
Vitruvius describes (ii. 8) two chief varieties : the
opus 7-eticulatu})i, in general use in his day, the
more handsome kind of work ; and the ancient
opus incertum, which was more lasting, on
account of the way in which the stones were
bonded together. A third method of wall-building
which Vitruvius mentions was a variation from
the Greek (jxirKeKTOv, in which two parallel
faces of dressed stone were erected, and the
interval between them filled up with rubble.
He also speaks of concrete walls faced with
marble.
Mr. J. H. Middleton (The Bemains of A ncient
Rome (189'2), vol. i. chaps. 1 and 2) distinguishes
the following varieties :
(1) Unfaced concrete. The method of con-
Fig. 251.— Tools used in metal work. (Bliimner.)
1, scraper ; 2, drill ; S, punch ; 4, tongs or pincers.
struction was to erect two lines of upright posts
from ten to fifteen feet high, and to nail boards
against them and pour the concrete in a liquid
state into the btd thus constructed, the frame-
work being removed when the concrete had set.
The frame was then set up again on the top of
the mass and the process repeated. The stones
were usually of the size of a man's fist, and the
mortar was composed of lime and the volcanic
sand called pozzolana (pulvis Puteolanus,
Vitr. ii. 6).
(2) Faced concrete walls, in which the core is
composed in the same way as the unfaced con-
crete. Under this head come (a) opusincertum,
in constructing which bits of tufa of various
shapes were cut smooth on one face, and roughly
pointed behind ; the whole face of the concrete
wall was then studded with these stones, the
smooth surfaces appearing on the face. This
structure is found in Republican buildings.
{h) Opxis reticu-
latnm, differing
from the incer-
tum in having
tlie facing stones
cut into squares
and closely fitted
together in a re-
ticulate pattern.
It is found in
buildingserected
from the reign
of Augustus to
that of Hadrian,
as in the Mauso-
leum of Augus-
tus, (c) Con-
crete faced with
burnt brick. This
structure was
largely used in
many of the
most substantial
Ijuildings of
Rome, while solid
walls oi brick are
not found, [d) The so-called opus mixtum, a
wall-facing of alternate cotu-ses of brick and
small blocks of tufa, used from the fourth to
the sixth century a.d.
r->- ^
)
\v- N-
:_^...J
SECTION OF ANGLt
Tig, 2'2.~Cnementum. (From
126
CAERITUM TABULAE
Concrete was extensively used atBaiaein the
Augustan age, as a foundation for edifices built
out into the sea (Hor. Carm. iii. 1, 83 ; 24, 3).
Many of the great Roman engineering works
in the provinces, as, for instance, the wall from
the Tyne to the Solway, were of faced concrete.
The use of concrete, bonding as it did the
whole structure in a solid mass, was largely
employed in domestic and other architecture,
for vaults and domes, often of very large size,
which thus were made in one piece and did not
involve the lateral thrust of the arch ; covering
the space ' with the rigidity of a metal lid '
(Middleton, Lc. p. 66). [Arcus.]
Cae'ritum tabulae. [Aerarii.]
Caesar. A title of the Roman emperors,
assumed by Octavianus as the adopted son
of the dictator, C. Ju-
lius Caesar, and by him
handed down to his
adopted son Tiberius. The
Caesarian descent ended
with Nero ; but succeed-
ing emperors retained the
name as part of their titles,
as, for instance, Impera-
tor Caesar Domitianus
Augustus. From the time
of Hadrian, whilst the
title of Augustus con-
tinued to be confined to
the reigning emperor, that
of Caesar was granted to
the second person in the
state and the heir pre-
sumptive to the tlirone.
[Augustus.]
Caestus (from caedo,
not cestus, from KeffrSs).
The thongs or bands of
leather which were tied
round the hands of boxers,
in order to render their
blows more powerful.
^. „,„ ^, , . These bands of leather
Fig. a^3. —Statue of a i j ii i • i
Boxer with the Caestus. were also frequently tied
(From the Louvre.) round the arm as high as
the elbow.
The caestus was used by boxers from the
earliest times. The ordinary boxing-gloves
were called in Greek l/xavTes or l/xdi'Tes
CALAMUS
(rire7pai jSo'eiai, ^(paipat, and jjivpfxriKes : of which
the /xeiAi'x"' were tlie mildest, and the /xvpfj.TjK€s
the most severe. The ;ue(Aix«' were used in
practising for the public games.
The caestus was frequently loaded with lead
and iron (cf. Verg. Aen. v. 405, Georg. iii. 20).
The (T(pa7pai were spherical in form, and fight-
ing with them was called (T<paipoiJ.ax'tci. But
the most formidable of all were the fivpfxriKes,
Fig. 255.— Caestus. (Fabretti.)
covered with metal studs or nails, and hence
called the 'limb-breakers' {'YviOT6poi).
Caetra (Cetra). A target, or small round
buckler of hide, used by barbarians. (Verg.
Aen. vii. 732; Suet. Cal. 19; Caes. B.C. i. 39;
Fig. 254.— Roxcrs wearing i/xai'Te?. (From a vase.)
irvKTiKoi. (See Hom. II. xxiii. 684 ; Theocr.
xxii. 81.) The different kinds of caestus were
called by the Greeks in later times fi€i\lxai,
Fig. 356.— Cetra. (From a MS. of the nth century.)
I Tac. Agr. 36). It is usually identified with the
target of the Scottish Highlanders. [Anns and
Armour.]
Calamistrum (pi. calamistri and cala»i istrnj.
A curling-iron, so called from its resemblance
to a reed. Among the Romans, calamistra
were used by ladies and boys, and sometimes
even by men (Cic. Sest. 8, 18). The calamistrum
Fig. 237.— Calamistrum, instrument for dressing hair, on
a small relief from Arayklae, with other articles of
toilet. (British Museum.)
resembled the modern curling-tongs, and be-
longed therefore to the department of the
ornatrix. Serva a calamistro, ciniflo (Hor.
Sat. i. 2, 98), or ei nerarius (Cat. Ixi. 138) was
the title of the slave who heated the irons.
Cal'amus. A reed. KoAo/uos denotes a larger
sort of reed than B6va^, and harundo than
canna.
Reeds were extensively used for thatching
and wall-building ; for making mats, crates, and
other articles of plaited work (Hdt. v. 101 ;
Thuc. ii. 76) ; and for many purposes for which
a light stick was needed — e.g. a signal-post, a
•"if;. 2-"iH.— Calamus,
i'a.n s pipe, front
terracotta relief.
(British Museum.)
CALATHUS
rod to brush down cobwebs (Plaut. Stick, ii. 2,
23J, the bridge of the lyre (buva^, Ar. Ban.
232), the cross-piece on which
the lyre-strings are fastened
(Soph. Fr. 34). Heeds were
also employed in the follow-
ing uses :
(1) The Pan's pipes (<ri;pi7|,
Fistula), foi-med of reeds of
graduated length bound to-
gether by wax, as shown in
the accompanying cut (Lucr.
iv. 588 ; Ov. Met. ii. 682, xi.
171 ; Eur. /. T. 1125 ; Aesch.
Fr. 574).
(2) A light flute, formed of a single reed (Ov.
Met. vi. 384 ; Find. 01. x. 100; Theocr. xx. 29).
Fig. iiO.— Egyptian reed-flute. (Britisli Museum.
(3) The shaft of an aiTow (Hor. Car in. i. 15,
17; Ov. Met. i. 471; Verg. Jle;t. i^-. 73 ; Honi.
II. xi. .584).
(4) A reed-pen {calamus scriptorius or char-
tarius, which, like our quill-pens, was sharpened
(Kakaixoy\v(pe7v, calanium acncre, toirperare)
with a knife (ncalprum librai-iinii, Tdc. Ami. v.
8) and had a cleft point. See cut under Atra-
mentum. The case in which they were kept
was called Ka\a/j.is, theca calamaria or gi'a-
pkiaria, or theca c.annarum (Suet. Claud. 35;
cp. Mart. xiv. 19). The best reeds for pen-
making came from Egypt and Cnidus (Mart,
xiv. 38).
(5) A fishing-rod (Theocr. xxi. 43 ; Ov. Met.
iii. 587; Plaut. i?(«7. ii. 1, 5).
(6) The fowler's limed rod, sometimes com-
posed of separate joints (luiri/ndo crcscens or
texta) (Mart. ix. 54, 3, xiv. 218 ; Prop. iii. 13,
46).
(7) A light Egyptian boat made of reeds (Juv.
V. 89).
(8) A horizontal rod passed through the warp
in we.aving (Ov. Met. vi. 55). [Tela. See fig.
292, under Canon.]
Cal'athns {Kd\ados, also raKapos), dim. cala-
thiscus {KaAadlcTKos). The true Latin word is
qiialus or qualiini (Verg. Georg. ii. 241; Hor.
Carm. iii. 12, 4), dim. quasillua, quanilluni
(Cic. Phil. iii. 4, 10; Tib. iv. 10, 3).
(1) Calathus, the basket in which women
placed their work, and especially the materials
for spinning. It was generally made of osiers
or reeds (Ov. Fast. iv. 435, Her. ix. 76). Homer
(Od. iv. 125)
speaks of a silver
rd\apos. The ca-
lathus was narrow
at the bottom. It
is constantly men-
tioned in connex-
ion witli spinning
(cf. Verg. Aeii.
vii. 805 ; Ov. Met.
xii. 474 ; Juv. ii.
54). Slaves em-
ployed in spin-
ning were called
qiiasillariae.
(2) A similar
liasket for carry-
ing fruits, corn,
flowers, &c. [II.
xviii. 568; Verg. Eel. ii. 46). Also for holding
cheeses, the whey running off through the
CALCAR
-Penelope, with calathus under her seat.
(British Museum.)
wicker-work (Hom. Od. ix. 247 ; Theocr. v. 90 ;
Ov. Met. xii. 436).
(3) A vessel made in the fonn of a wicker
basket for holding milk (Verg. Georg. iii. 400) ;
also a wiue-cup (Verg. Fcl. v. 71 ; Mart. ix. 60,
15).
(4) The calathus was used as a religious
emblem, and is figured on moimments in con-
nexion with Athena as the goddess of weaving ;
of Demeter, the goddess of harvests ; of Tellus
and other divinities, as an emblem of abund-
Flg. atiO.- Calathus presented by i
slave to her mistress. (From i
vase.)
Fig. 2G2.— Calathus on a chariot in the F.leusiuian proces-
j sion. (British Museum.)
I ance. It was carried in honour of Demeter at the
' Eleusinian festival. It was fretiuently placed
on the heads of divinities, especially of Demeter
and Serapis, in ancient statues (in tin's use called
modius), and carried on the lieads of women in
processions. (See cut under 'UpoSovXoi.)
Hence im)l)ably originated the Caryatid column
[Caryatides] and (according to tradition) the
Corinthian capital [Architectura].
Cala'tor (KaKriTwp). Originally a slave em-
ployed as a caller or crier (Plaut. Merc. v. 2,
11). In this sense the word became obsolete ;
I but it survived as the name of certain attendants
' on the nieinbers of the liigher priesthoods, such
as the Arvales, Pontifices and Flamens, eacli
of whom nominated a calator from among his
own freedmen.
Calcar (nvwip, iynf vrpis). A spur: not men-
tioned in Homer, Ktvrpov meaning a goad. A
spur is indicated on one foot of an Amazon oh
a vase of probably the fourth century. The
I spur was fastened to the foot by a band passing
Bronze spurs have been
128 CALCEUS
round the ankle
found at Dodona.
Among tlie Romans spurs are found at least
as eai-ly as the time of Plautus, and numerous
specimens are extant.
They are all of the
kind called ' prick-
spur,' the rowel not
liaving been invented.
Cal'ceus (vir6SrifjLa}.
A boot, shoe, or other
covering for the feet.
1. Greek. — The
most primitive form of
foot-gear is the sandal
{(ravSd\iov, ffdvSa\ov,
inr6Sr)iJ.a) ; a sole of
matting, leather, felt,
or wood bound to the
foot by thongs and
straps or (in the case
of poor people) strings
(ffirapria).
In the Homeric age
TTsSjAa, worn by men
(II. ii. 44, Od. xiv. 24,
&c.), and probably
women (11. xiv. 186), are sandals (viroSi)ij.aTa,
Od. viii. 868). They are KaKa, XP""'*'"'? "M"
fip6crta: in common life made of ox-hide (Od. \ work of thongs,
xiv. 23) ; though these may have been brogues Elaborate forms of
like Kap^aTivai (Xen. Anab. iv. 5), made of a
single jjiece (fxov6Sfpfwi') of untanned ox-hide
placed under the foot and tied up with thongs
(cf. Catull. xcviii. 4).
The Greeks generally wore some sort of
covering for the feet, though it was not quite
tmusual for even distinguished people to go
barefooted (Plat. Sytnp. 174 a; Plut. Phoc.
4). Philosophers also affected ihis austerity
Fig. 2fw?.— Bronze spurs.
(British Museum.)
'J'he most characteristic feature of the sandal
was the ^vyos or (vy6v, a strap which passed
across the toes and held it on the foot (Ar.
Fig. 264.— Greek shoes and boots. (From Gobi andEoner.)
Lys. 416). To the C^ySs was attached a thong,
which passed between the great toe and thf>
second toe. This and the other straps which
held the other parts of the sole were, as a rule,
kept tight by a latchet (avaywyevs, iingiila,
Mart. ii. 29, 7, xiv. 120) over the instep. This
was of metal, and of a heart- or leaf-shape.
Sandals were of different makes, from the
strap across the instep shown in fig. 264, 1, to a
complicated net-
lacing may be seen
in the statue of
Hermes by Praxi-
teles, the Belvedere
Apollo, &c. Sandals
were often closed at
the heel (oirta-eoKpvirh), (fig. 264, 3, 4) ; and No
7, shows the last stage before the completely
closed shoe (6), ifj.$a.s. ko7\ou vnSSrjua. Half-
(Ar. Nub. 103; Theocr. xiv. 0). The lower ! closed shoes like 4, 5, and 7 were probably
orders, too, in a gi-eat measure went barefooted, ! called KpTjirlSey: Kp-oTrlSes were also worn by
as also did the Spartan youth (Xen. Bej). Lac. I women, and on the stage.
2, 3). Usually, however, the Greeks wore shoes.
It was a mark of boorishness to have too large
boots (Theophr. Char, iv.) ; and Greek dandies
were particular about the cut and fit of their
shoes (Plat. Phaed. p. 64 d; Ar. Eq. 321).
Men's boots, especially those of rustics, had
nails in them. The usual colour of Greek boots
was either the natural colour of the leather or
black, though sometimes we find red and white
boots. Tlie black was produced by a substance
called neAavrr^pia, which was the same as the
Atramentum sniorium (Cic. Fam. ix. 21, 3) of
the Romans. They rubbed on this blacking
(irepiKwi/e'iv) with a sponge, not with a brush
The word v7r6Srina, which properly means a
sandal, is used generally for any kind of foot-
gear.
Other names of coverings for the feet are the
following :
(1) 'Ap/3uA.r), of cheap workmanship and
material, used on journeys (Aesch. Ag. 945 ;
Theocr. vii. 26) ; probably a boot : used by
women as well as men
(Eur. Or. 140).
(2) BAavToi or $\avTia,
/SanKi'SfS, KoviiroSiS, (Ar.
Eccl. 8481, Trepi/3api5ey
(Ar. Lys. 45), supposed to
{Ar. Vesp. 600). A passage in the Cyropaedia be light sandals fastened
(viii. 2, 5) shows the division of labour in the
making of shoes.
The names of boots and shoes are numerous.
There were three main kinds of covering for
the feet — viz. (1) sandals (ireSiAa, inro5^iJ.aTa,
<rav5a.\ia, in the special sense) ; (2) shoes ; and
by latchets iavayaryels)
round the ankle, worn at
meals (Plat. Symp). a), and
in the gymnasium.
(3) 'E;aj3a56S were only
worn by men (Ar. Eq. 324,
(3) boots. (The last two kinds were called ' 872) ; ffifids is the ordi-
uTToSiij/uaTO Ko7\a.) Nos. 1, 2, and 3 in fig. 264, i nary word for any shoe or
show the different sorts of sandals and method;
of fastening them, from the simplest to the
most complex kind ; 4, 5, and 7 are half-sandals ;
6 is a shoe, 8 an 'Ev8poM.Cs-
The sole of the sandal (irsA^a, Kdrru/jia) was
of one piece or several layers of leather. Thick
soles were worn, like modern high heels, to give
greater height. Wood was used as well as
leather, not only for clogs (Kpoinre^at, scul-
■voneae), but for sandals for ladies' wear (rvp-
pyjviKd). Cork was also used for soles.
boot covering the instep
{k6Qopvos Taireiv6s) such as
was commonly used at
Athens. Shoes and boots
(vir. Ko7\a) were made on
a last (Ka\6irovs : forma,
Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 106). [See
also Soccus.]
(4) 'EvSpo/xiSfs reached
a considerable way above the ankle, and the
top of the leg of the boot turned over and hun^
Fig. 2C6.— E/ui/Sas, from
bronze foot of a sta-
tue. (British JIuseum.)
CALCEUS
129
down in a flap. They were generally open down
the front, with eyes on each side for fastenings.
The Romans translated the iySpofxis of Artemis
by cothurnus (Verg. Eel. vii. 32,
Aen. i. 837).
(5) Ev/jLOfiis, a Persian slipper
(Eur. Or. 1370; Aesch. Pers.
660), with thick soles.
(6) 'I(piKpaTiSes, a military
boot called after Iphicrates the
general, like our Wellingtons
and Bluchers. Other kinds of
boots were called after various
individuals.
(7) K6doppos is not in Greek,
as in Latin, the tragic buskin,
for which ifxISdr-qs is the usual
term. Among the Greeks, k6-
dopvos is a kind of KotKov vit6-
Sfjua or boot used by women
(Ar. Eccl. 846, Ban. 47 ; cf. Ov.
Am. iii. 1, 14), and fitting either
foot (hence the nickname of
p^J^«,°„1? Theramenes, Xen. Hell. ii. 3, 31).
a Pompeiau ,_ „ , . ' , -, . ,
painting.) EyUjSoTTjs IS also used tor a top-
boot worn by hunters, some-
times lined with felt (Hes. Op. 541 ; Xen. Eq.
12, 10), more commonly called ivdpofxis (see
abovcj)
I'ig. 268.— Endromis. (From a vase-painting.)
(8) AaKuvtKai or AaKUiviKo,, a kind of men's
shoes (Ar. Thesm. 142, Eccl. 74). They were
generally red. 'A^uu/cAat'Sey or 'A/j-mXai (Theocr.
X. 35) were probably a finer sort of Laconian
shoes.
(9) TlepcriKai or TlfpffiKa, women's slippers
(Ar. Lijsistr. 229, Eccl. 314, 345, where they are
called Kod6pvoii).
(10) 2i/ci/wj'ia, women's shoes, and other kinds
of shoes were called after the names of places.
(11) TuppTjj'iKa, sandals with high wooden
soles. The latchets were sometimes plated
with gold {imxpvcoi). Pheidias is said to have
represented Athena as wearing this kind of shoe.
Many other names are found, of which little
or nothing is known.
In cold weather shoes made of white wool or
felt were often used (iriKoi, apvoKiSfs, Plat.
Symp. 220 b ; Hes. Op. 542). Or ttTKoi may be
strips of felt (Lat. impilia) wrapped round the
feet and legs; or felt soles (Lat. pedule);
irdKvvTpa and TroSeta may have been woollen
socks.
2. Roman. — At Rome it was not the custom
to go about barefoot. Out of doors calcei
were worn (see below). Sandals and slippers
{soleae) were reserved for indoor use ; and to
wear them out of doors, in Greek fashion, was
considered effeminate (cf. Liv. xxix. 19, 12 ; Cic.
Phil. ii. 30; Tac. /!««. ii. 59; Suet. Cal. 52).
In cold weather woollen soleae were used.
Sandals or slippers were worn when going out to
dinner, and were taken off by the slave on re-
clining at the table (aoleas detnere, Plaut. True.
367 ; deponere, Mart. iii. 50, 3 ; 2'oseere, Hor.
Sat. ii. 8, 77, &c.). Those who could not afford a
Zec^ica walked in calcei and carried tluir soleae
under their arm (Hor. Ep. i. 13, 15). The gene-
j ral name for sandals in Latin is soleae ; they
! were probably of the simplest kind, to slip on and
j off ; gallicae were a kind of low shoes inter-
I mediate between the calcei, which were half-
boots, and the soleae, which did not cover the
j foot at all.
Crvplda, like KpT)iris, appears to have been
half sandal, half shoe. It was furnished with
eyes (antae) through which straps (obstragula),
(sometimes dyed or even set with jewels), were
IDassed, fastening it over the instep. The eyes
were set in pieces of leather attached to the
sole, which covered more or less of the foot and
heel. The crepida was of Greek origin, and
worn with the pallium (Liv. xxix. 19, 12 ;
j Suet. Tib. 13). Rence fahula crepid at a, •where
the actors wore Greek dress.
I Calceus is distinguished, as a regular closed
shoe with a sole and upper leather, from solea,
I crepida, and caliga. Calceus is the special
Roman city boot or shoe. Tlie calceus and the
toga were the two peculiar features of Roman
costume (Cic. Fhil. ii. 30, 76). When a Roman
went out in the city he wore toga and calcei ;
but calcei were not worn in the house or in the
j country (Mart. i. 49, 31 ; Suet. Aug. 73, 78).
Women's calcei were of the same make as men's,
but thinner, and of various colours, generally
white (Ov. A. A. iii. 271) ; they were tied with
coloured ribbons or leatlier laces. High soles
were sometimes worn (Suet. Aug. 73, calcea-
menta altiiiscitla).
Certain differences of rank were marked by
different kinds of shoes.
The calceus j)atricius was a red-coloured
boot ; lience also called 7)iiilleits, from the colour
of the red mullet (Fr. 77iules). Though called
calcei patricii, they were not worn by all
patricians nor by all patrician senators. In
liistorical times mullei were worn by curule
magistrates only, as part of their official dress;
and as part of the triumphal apparel. It
was made a reproach to Caesar, that after his
triumph he entered the senate wearing calcei
patricii. Such ornamenta were granted by
j tlie senate as personal distinctions, like the
' insignia of our orders of knighthood.
The calceus patrici us was of tanned leather
{aluta. Mart. ii. 29, 7), with hooks {malleoli)
I on the upper leathers, probably on the instep.
To the hooks were fastened four black leather
j (Juv. vii. 192) straps [corrigiae, Cic. Div. ii. 40,
I § 84, or lora) ; two of which were inserted in
I the sole and fastened on or a little above the
instep, after being wrapped once round the leg.
The otlier bands were liiglier and went several
I times round the leg. These bands were fastened
; in front, and the extremities of tlie bands hung
1 down near the ground. Au ivory ornament in
K
ISO
CALCEUS
the shape of a crescent or C , called lunula or
lutia, was fixed outside the ankle. The popular
Fig. 269. — Calcens of a Patrician Youth. (From a statue
in the Louvre.)
explanation was that the original wearers were
the hundred (C) senators chosen by Romulus ; it
was probably of the nature of an amulet, like
Calig. 9). The sole of the caliga was studded
with hobnails (^A.oj, clavi caligares, Plin. ix.
Fig. 270.— Patrician calcei. (From Kaumelster.)
the bulla of children
Suet. Aug. 92).
The calceus senatorius, or boot of the ordi-
nary senators, differed from that of the eurule
magistrates, in not having the lunula (Juv. vii.
192) ; it was probably red, like the patriciu.s,
but some say black, like the corrigiae. This
boot was worn by senators in public, especially
at sittings of the senate (Cic. Mil. 10, § 28).
The calceus equester was probably distinct
[ CANl(D<AFRICE«PROCVRir
Fig. 271.— Caloeus of a Procurator of .Airica. iFrom a
statue in the Louvre.;
from the senatorius : a genuine boot, with no
bands, and was composed of two pieces.
Somewhat different were the calcei of the
ordinary citizens, which do not seem to have
gone so high up over the ankle, and which had
a tongue (lingula or ligula, Mart. ii. 29, xiv.
120 ; Juv. V. 'io) of leather extending from the
side of the boot by which it was fastened over
tlie instep. For the atramentum sutorium,
see Plin. xxxiv. § 32.
Ga'liga was a military sandal, fastened by
straps which reached half way up the leg. The
common soldiers and centurions were called
caligati. Hence the name of Caligula borne
by the Emperor Caius (Tac. Ann. i. 41 ; Sue*;..
Fig. 272.— Caligae, military sandals.
§ 69 ; Juv. iii. 248, 322). The upper leathers
were not made in a piece, but of thongs sewn
together, showing the foot.
Ca'mpagus (also compagus, compagum, per-
haps from Kairwdyiov, Kairira being the Greek
word for the sena-
tor's lunula) was a
kind of boot worn
by Roman emperors
and military officers
under the later Env
pire.
Soccus was a low
shoe, which did not
fit closely, and was
not fastened. Shoes
of this description
were worn in the
house, both by men
and by women. In
the time of the Re-
public it was con-
sidered unbefitting a
Roman to wear them
(Cic. Bab. Post. 10,
27), and was classed
with wearing the
pallium instead of
the toga.
The soccus was worn by comic actors (Hor
A. P. 80, 90), and was op-
posed to the cothurnus (Ov
Rem. Am. 376 ; Mart, viii
3, 13).
Fig. 278.— Campagus, boot from
marble statue of an em-
peror found at Carthage.
(British Museum.)
rig. 274.-A comic actor rearing "^"^-^^-J^^^^-
°°'-^^- fDaremberg and Sagllo.)
In Roman times cothurnus takes the place of
ifj.fidrris as applied to the tragic boot (Ov. Atn.
ii. 18, 15). It was a closed boot; its special
characteristic was the great height of its soles
(Ov. A7U. iii. 1, 63, alto cothurno ; Juv. vi.
506). The object was to give the principal
characters a grandiose and superhuman stature.
' Cothurnus ' came to be useci for ' tragedy,' or
Fig. 276.— Pero.
CALCULATOR
'tragic style' generally (Hor. A. P. 80, Carm.
ii. 1, 12).
Pero was a boot of untanned leather worn by
shepherds and la-
bourers, like the
Greek apfiuAij or
irrjAoTraTt's (Juv.
xiv. 186 ; Verg.
Aen. vii. 690).
Udo, a warm
close-fitting shoe of
felt or goat's hair
{(■ilicium) (Mart.
.xiv. 140).
3. For the pointed boots worn by the Etrus-
cans see fig. 218 [Barba].
Calculator {\o-yi(TTr)s). A keeper of accounts
in general ; also a teacher of arithmetic (Mart.
X. 02, 4) : from calculi, wliich were used in
teaching arithmetic, and also in reckoning in
general. [Abacus.]
Cal'culi. [Abacus ; Games (Duodecim
sckipta; Latrunculorum lujius).]
Calda, or Cal'lda, sc. aqua (Juv. v. 63;
Mart. viii. 67 ; Tac. Ann. xiii. 16), tlio warm drink
of the Greeks and Romans, occurs as early as
Plato [Hep. iv. 437 E, where it is simply dep/j.6v).
It probably consisted of an infusion of spices or
aromatic herbs in hot water. Wine was con-
stantly drunk with it, but it is a mistake to
suppose that the calda was a kind of negus in
which the wine was already mixed. It would
seem that the wine was served separately, wliile
the guests had the choice of hot or cold water
to mix with it according to their taste or the
season. Besides the use of it in private houses,
calda could alwaj's be procured at shops or
taverns called thentiopolia (Plaut. Cure. ii. 3,
13, Bud. ii. 6, 45).
The water for this purpose was heated in an
Aenum, and kept hot in an Authepsa.
Calda'rium. (1) Balneae ; (2) (in late authors)
a portable cooking-stove. The classical term
for it is probably focus. The sides of the cal-
darium here figured are hollow, and contained
CALENDARIUM
131
Fig. 277.— Caldariuin. (From Pompeii.)
water ; the four towers at the angles are pro-
vided with movable lids ; the centre held the
lighted charcoal.
Calenda'rium, or rather Kalenda'rium. The
account-book in whicli creditms entered the
names of their debtors and tlie sums which
they owed. It was so called because the in-
terest on borrowed money was due on the
Kalendae of each month. The word was sub-
sequently used to indicate a register, like a
modern almanac or calendar.
1. GuEEK C.\LEND.VR. — The division of the
year into its various seasons in the earliest
times has been described under Astronomia.
The moon formed the basis of tlie (Inck
calendar, and all religious festivals we're de-
pendent on it. The Greek year was a lunar
year of twelve months, but at the same time the
course of the sun also was taken into consider-
ation, and the combination of the two cycles
involved great difficulties. It was observed
that twelve revolutions of the moon took place
nearly within one of the sun, and that the
moon revolved in her orbit in about 30 days,
which period was called a month ; but it was
well known that a lunar month did not contain
exactly 30 days, but only 2!).*i. Various attempts
were made to correct this error. (1) A cycle of
two years, called rpieTTipis, or annus magnus,
and containing 25 months, one of the two years
consisting of 12 and the other of 13 months,
the months themselves, alternately containing
30 days (irKripeis) and 29 days (ko7\oi). Ac-
cording to this arrangement, one year of the
cycle contained 354 (6 x 29 -I- 6 x 30) and the
other 384 (6 x 29 + 7 x 30) days, and the two
together made 738 days, or 7A more tlian two
troi^ical or solar years (Hdt. ii. 4). The 7i days,
in tlie course of 8 years, made up a month of
30 days, and such a month was accordingly
omitted every eighth year. (2) A more usual
j method of treating the fvvaeTrjpis, or cycle of
I 8 years, was the following. The solar year
1 being reckoned at 865:^ days, 8 such years
I contain 2922 (365;^ x 8) days, and 8 lunar years
j 2832 (29i X 8 X 12) days : that is. 8 solar
years minus 90 days. Tliese 90 days were
inserted as three intercalary months into three
different years of the fvvaerrjpis. The inac-
curacy of this method called forth a number
j of other attempts at establishing chronology on
a sound basis, the most celebrated among which
j is that of Meton (c. 432 B.C.). (3) The cycle of
Meton consisted of 19 years, in 7 of which there
. was an intercalated month ; making tlie average
year one of 365j5 days, i.e. about 30' 9" too
much. Kallippus, about a century later, by
\ combining four of Meton's cycles into one and
omitting one day, brought the duration of the
year to 365^ days, the length afterwards adopted
I in the Julian Calendar. Meton's new year began
probably on the 20th of June 432 B.C. ; but it is
doubtful whether it was ever adopted by the
Athenian state. Both the 8 year cycle and
one of 19 years were in use at different times.
( The imperfection of the Athenian calendars
makes it almost impossible to reduce any given
date in Greek history to the exact date of our
calendar.
The Greeks, as early as the time of Homer,
appear to have been perfectly familiar with the
division of the year into the twelve lunar months
mentioned above ; but no intercalary month
(/xV ff.t.$^?^ifJ^os) or day is mentioned. The first
day or new moon was called vovnr\via (Horn.
Od. X. 14 ; Hes. Op. 770). The period from the
vovij.7}via. until the moon was full was expressed
by /xrivhs i(TTaiJ.4vov, and the latter part during
which the moon decreased l)y fxrivhs (pBii/ovros.
(Hom. Od. xiv. 162.) The 30th day of a month,
i.e. tlie day of tlie conjunction, was called rpioKay,
or (Plut. Sol. 25), evri Kal via, because one part
of that day belonged to the old and tlie other
to the new montli. The day of the full moon
is sometimes called SiXOM^J^'a (Pind. Ol. iii. 35).
The Attic year began with the summer solstice,
and each month was divided into three decades,
from the 1st to tlie 10th, from the 10th to the
20th, and from the 20th to the 29th or 30th.
The first day of a month, or the day after the
conjunction, was vovfjL.Ti]vi.a : and as the first de-
cade was designated as Iffrafjifvov (or tlfftovTos)
fjL7]v6s, the days were counted onwards as Sfurepo,
Tpirr], TfrapTTj, &c., n-qvhi laTafjLf-'ov. The days
of the second decade were distinguished as 4irl
SfKa, or /uffTof/i/Tos, and were counted onwards
to 20 as irpiirri, SiVTfpa, &c., ^iri SeKa. The 20th
itself was called tiKcis, and the days from the
20th to the 30th were counted in two different
k2
132
CALENDARIUM
ways, viz. either onwards, as irpwrij, Sevrtpa, doiiian Calendar, in various forms, was spread
&c., «'7r( (iKaSi, or backwards from the last day over many parts of Asia. Subsequently the
of the month with the addition of <pdiuovros, Asiatics adopted the Julian Calendar; but
Ttavoixivov, XiiyovTos, or airiSvTos, as Sskottj, i several of the Eastern nations dropped the
ivart), li'c, (pBivovTos. Tlie 21st day was names of the months, and merely counted them
called SeKarri <pdivovTos (not ivdrrj). The mode as first, second, third, &c.
of counting backwards seems to have been 2. Roman Calenuab. — The early history of
more commonly used than the other. The fol- the Roman calendar is a question of great
lowing table shows trhe succession of the Attic difficulty and uncertainty.
months, the number of days they contained, (1) There is some evidence for the existence
and the correspondmg months of our year.
days
1.
'EKaTO!x0ai(i)v
of 30, nearly
-July.
o_
MfTayetTviciv
., 29,
August.
3.
BorjSponiwt'
., 30,
September.
4.
ni;a>/6(|/4aii'
„ 29,
October.
5.
MaifxaKTripKiu
., 30,
November.
6.
noaaSeuv
„ 29,
December.
7.
TaiJLi\Kiuiv
„ 30,
Janpary.
8.
' hvd«rTr)piwv
.. 29,
February.
9.
'EKa(p7]$o\iwv
., 30,
March.
10.
Movvvxiii"
., 29,
April.
11.
&apyt)\idov
., 30,
May.
12.
'S,Kipo(popiwv
„ 29,
June.
Other calendars with various names for the
months, some few names agreeing with the Attic
nomenclature, are the Delphian , Lacedaemon ia n ,
Delian, Boeotian, Sicilian, Ephesian, Mace-
donian, &c.
The Macedonian Calendar was as follows:
in early times of a year of ten months, or 304
days divided as follows: March (31), April (30),
May (31), Jvme (30), Quinctilis or Quintilis (31),
Sextilis (30), September (30), October (31),
November and December (30) ; the four longer
months being called ftill (pleni), the other six
hollow (cavi). (Cf. Ov. Fast. i. 27, 43, iii. 99,
119, 151 ; and Verg. Georg. i. 43.) Ten months
is a period frequently employed in legal provi-
sions : e.g. for the time of a widow's mourning,
for the paying back of a dowTy, for the credit
allowed for goods not bought for ready money,
for the calculation of interest, &c., and appa-
rently for truces.
(2) The names of the Roman months show
that at a very early time the months must
have been grouped into a cycle, the length of
which was determined by the course of the
sun. Names like Aprilis (aperio), Mains (the
month of growth, maior), and In nius (the month
of increase, iuvo), are only in place in a solar
year. Now the simplest way of reconciling ap-
(1) Aios, (2) 'AireAAaTor, (3) AiiSwcuos, (4) Tlepi- proximately the lunar and the solar years is
Tioj, (5) Avcrrpo';, (()) s.av0iK6s, (7) 'A.pr(fu<nos, that of the Greek trietcris, in which the
(8) AoJfftos, (9) riavTj/xos, (10) Acioj, (11) ropiriatos, months are made up of 29 and 30 days alter-
(12) "fTrfp$epfTaios. nately. A solar year answers pretty nearly to
When Alexander conquered Asia, the Mace- 12J of such months. Thus :
The first ordinary year of 12 months = G x 30 -H 6 x 29 =354 days.
The first intercalated year of 13 months = 6 x 30 -(- 6 x 29 -I- 30 = 884 „
The second ordinary year =6x30-t-6x29 = 354 „
The second intercalated year = 6 x 30 + fi x 29 -i- 29 = 383 „
The period of four years = 1475 „
The average of each year = 368J „
The Romans, it is supposed, having learnt Graecia, kept to the total number of days, but
this cycle from the astronomers of Magna , rearranged the months in the following cycle :
First ordinary year ^ 4 x 31 -(- 7 x 29 + 28 = 355 days.
First intercalated year = 4 x 31 + 8 x 29 -t- 27 = 383 „
Second ordinary year = 4 x 31 + 7 x 29 + 28 =355 ,.
Second intercalated year - 4 x 31 -H 7 x 29 + 28 + 27 = 382 „
The period of four years = 1475 „
The average of each year = 368^ „
with the same total and average as before.
(3) The year as we find it computed after the
decemviral reforms is that which is commonly
known as the year of Numa. This consisted of
355 days, 354 being the number of days in twelve
lunar months. The one additional day was due
either to carelessness or to the superstitious
feeling in favour of an odd number. The dimi-
nution in the length of the year was effected
by cutting down the number of days assigned
to February in an intercalated year to 23 or 24.
and by intercalating a month or period of 27
days. This intercalated month was named
Mercedinus or Mercedonius. Thus the cycle
now became —
First ordinary year = 4 x 31 + 7 x 29 -H 28 = 355 days.
First intercalated year = 4 x 31 -(- 7 x 29 + 23 -I- 27 = 377 „
Second ordinary year = 4 x 31 -t- 7 x 29 + 28 = 355 „
Second intercalated year = 4 x 31 -f 7 x 29 + 24 4- 27 = 878 „
Total of four years = 1465 „
Average of a year = 366;^ „
The origin of this reform in the calendar is
no doubt to be sought in the Greek oKTaerripis.
In this, as has been said, three months of 30 days
each were intercalated in the course of eight
years ; and it cannot be by accident that the
intercalation of 22 + 23 days every four years
exactly corresponds to this. Of the date of the
change we have no positive evidence, but it i^
natural to suppose that the decemvirs made an
attempt to incorporate in their own calendar
the period then current at Athens.
The year thus settled was one day in excess
CALENDARIUM
133
of the real year. It is probable that the re- i
ligious conservatism of the Romans forbade
them to attack either the ordinary year, or the
alternation of intercalated and ordinary years,
or the four-year period of intercahition, or the
intercalated month of 27 days. The only course
left was to shorten the month of February,
which preceded the intercalated month. Now,
if they had reduced this month from 24 and 23
to 22 and 21 days in the alternate years of
intercalation, the cycle would have been 1461
days, instead of 1465, and the average length of
the year 365^ days. Probably the main difWculty
in the way of this lay in the fact that the festival
of Terminus fell on February 23. The obstinate
;4od, who had refused to yield his shrine to
Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Liv. i. 55), would
not have surrendered his ancient feast-day for
all the mathematics in the world.
A lex Acilia of B.C. 191 empowered the
pontiffs to deal with intercalation at their dis-
cretion. This led to arbitrary and dishonest
intercalation, and made matters worse (cf. Cic.
Legg. ii. 12, 29; Plut. Cues. 59), so that by the
tinie of Caesar January fell in the late autumn
(Caes. B. C. iii. 6).
Year of Julius Caesar. — In the year 46 B.C.
Caesar, now master of the Roman world, em-
ployed his authority, as Pontifex Maximus, in
the correction of this evil. For this pui^wse he
availed himself of the services of Sosigenes, the
Peripatetic, and a scriha named M. Flavins,
though he himself too was well acquainted with
astronomy, and, indeed, was the author of a work
upon the subject. He inserted between Novem-
ber and December two intercalary months of
67 days, the month of February having already
received an intercalation of 23 days, and thus
made that year to consist of 445 days. At the
same time he cast aside the intercalary monthj
and adapted the year to the sun's course. To
the 355 days of the previously existing year he
added ten days, which he so distributed between
the seven months having 29 days, that January,
Sextilis, and December received two each, the
others but one ; and these additional days he
placed at the end of the several months. Lastlj-,
he established the rule that, at the end of every
four years, a single day should be intercalated,
where the month liad been hitherto inserted:
that is, immediately after the Terminalia (23
Feb.), which day is now called i\\e Bisextum,or-
doubled sixth (see below).
The kalends (kalcndae ; from colore, to pro-
claim : hence sAsointercalare, &c.) always denote
the first of the month : the nones (nonae) occur
on the seventh of the four months March, May,
Quinctilis or July, and Octolier, and on the fifth
of the other months ; the ides [idus, from ^/idh,
burn or shine ; the full moon : or Etr. *iduo, to
divide) always fall eight (by Roman reckoning,
nine) days later than the nones; and lastly,
the intermediate days are in all cases i-eckoned
backwards upon the Roman principle of count-
ing both extremes : e.g. 30 June is prid. Kal.
lul. (Quint.), 29 June III. Kal. Quint., 28 June
IV. Kal. Quint., and so on. This method is ex-
pressed in the following distich :
Sex Mains nonas, October, lulius et Mars:
Quattuor at reliqui : dabit Idus quilibet octo.
For the month of January the notation will
be as follows :
11 a.d. III. Id. Ian.
12 Prid. Id. Ian.
13 Id. Ian.
14 a. d. XIX. Kal. Feb
&c.
;;0 a. d. III. Kal. Feb.
31 Prid. Kal. Feb
1 Kal. Ian.
2 a. d. IV. Non. Ian.
3 a. d. III. Non. Ian.
4 Prid. Non. Ian.
5 Non. Ian.
6 a. d. VIII. Id. Ian.
&c.
Our days of the
Month
March, May, July,
January, August,
April, June, Sep-
February has 28
October, have 31
December, have 31
tember, November,
days, and in Leap
(liiys.
days.
have 30 days.
Year 29.
1.
Kalendis.
Kalendis.
Kalendis.
Kalendis.
2.
VI. ,
IV. 1 ante
III. j" Nonas.
IV. 1 ante
III. ; Nonas.
IV. 1 ante
III. 1 Nonas.
3.
V. ( ante
4.
rV. 1 Nonas.
Pridie Nonas.
Pridie Nonas.
Pridie Nonas.
5.
III. j
NONLS.
NONIS.
NoNi.-;.
6.
Pridie Nonas.
VIII. \
VII.
VIII. N
VIII.
7.
NONIS.
VII.
VII.
8.
VIII. -v
VI. 1 ante
VI. 1 ante
VI.
9.
VII.
V. f Idus.
V. f Idus.
V.
10.
VI. 1 ante
IV.
IV.
IV.
11.
V. f Idus.
III.
III.
III.
12.
IV.
Pridie Idus.
Pridie Idus.
Pridie Idus.
13.
III. J
Idibus.
Idlbus.
Idibus.
14.
Pridie Idus.
XIX. >
XVIII. \
XVI.
15.
iDreus.
XVIII.
XVII.
^
XV.
16.
XVII.
XVII.
5
XVI.
"ti
XIV.
J
17.
XVI. \ 5
XVI.
o
XV.
2
XIII.
«
18.
XV.
o
XV.
a
XIV.
~
XII.
OS
19.
XIV.
a
XIV.
o
XIII.
.^
XI.
20.
XIII.
OJ
XIII.
^ ^
XII.
.w 6C
X.
21.
XII.
XII.
<*H bo
o c
XI.
^tl
IX.
22.
XI. , ■S g"
IX. «o
XI. >^S
X.
VIII.
2i
23.
24.
X.
IX.
IX.
VIII.
a o
VII.
Vl.«
M
25.
26.
VIII.
vn.
I2
VIII.
VII.
■3
VII.
VI.
■3
V.
IV.
■5
27.
VI.
^
VI.
2
V.
♦J
III. j
28.
V.
<o
V.
c
IV.
-j;
Pridie Kalendas
29.
IV.
c
IV.
<
III. )
Martias.
30.
III. > -^
HI. '
Pridie Kaleiidas
31.
Pridie Kaleiidas
Pridie Kaleiiilas
(of the month
(of tlie month
(of tlic month
following).
follo\ving).
following).
'^ For the arrangement in Leap Year, see next page.
184
CALENDARIUM
The letters a. d. are an abridgment of ante'
diem, and the full phrase for ' on the second of i
Januarj'' would be ante diem quartum notias \
lanuarias. Another notation is die quarto '
nonarum. In the leap year—
Feb. 23 was called a. d. VII. Kal. Mart. ;
Feb. 24 „ a. d. VI. Kal. Mart, poste-
riorem (bisextuin) ;
Feb. 2r, .. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart, priorein ;
and I
Feb. 2U ,, a. d. V. Kal. Mart. j
In which the words prior and posterior are |
used in reference to the retrograde direction of i
the reckoning.
From the fact that the intercalated year has
two days called ante diem sextum, the name of
bisextnm is given to the 24th of February.
The year is called annus bissextilis (more |
correctly bisextilis), or in classical Latin annus '
bisextus. 1
It was probably in consequence of the refor-
mation of the calendar (Plin. xviii. § 211) that .
the names luliusand Augustus were substituted
for Quinctilis and Sextilis. !
Before the Julian reforms, the official year
with its frequent and irregular intercalations, '
could not have met the practical requirements ]
of an agricultural population ; and there is
reason to believe that the ' farmer's year,' as ,
distinguished from the official year with its
irregular intercalations, was that which hiwl ;
been adopted with slight modifications from the ,
Egyptian sages of Heliopolis by Eudoxus. This
was a purely solar year. The cycle was made
up of four years— the first of 300, the others of
365 days — thus corresponding exactly with the i
reformed Julian system. The divisions of this
year were marked by the entrance of the sun
into the signs of the zodiac, and by the tropics
and equinoxes. The following table is one
column of a tnenoluffiiim or farmer's calendar,
dating probably from the first cent. B.C., pre-
served in the Museum at Naples {Mtcs. Borb.
ii. PI. xliv. .
MENSlii
MAIVS
DIES • XX.XI
NON SEPTIM
DIES • HOR • XIIIIS
NOX • HOR • viiris
SOL T.WRO
TVTEL ■ APOLLIN
SEGET RVNCANT
OVES TVNDVNT
LANA • LAVATVR
IVVENCI DOMANT
VICEA PABVL.Ul
SECAT\'R
SEGETES
LVSTRANT\'R
SACRVM MERCVR
ET • FLORAE
The Gregorian Year. — The Julian Calendar
supposes the mean tropical year to be 305 d. 6 h. ;
but this exceeds the real amount by 11' 12'', the
accumulation of which, year after year, caused
at last considerable inconvenience. Accord-
ingly, in the year 1582, Pope Gregory XIII.
again reformed the calendar. The ten days by
which the year had been unduly retarded were
struck out by a regulation that the day after
the fourth of October in that year should be
called the fifteenth. It was provided in the
Bull of Gregory XIII. that the Julian inter-
calation of one day (29 Feb.) every fourth year
should be omitted in the last year of those
centuries which are divisible without remainder
by 100, but not by 400: thus making the addi-
tional days in 400 years 97, not 100. The year
1000 A.D. was leap-year, both in the Gregorian
and the Julian calendar ; and tliroughoat the
sixteenth (after 1582) and seventeenth centuries
the Old and New Styles are represented by the
formula i^ : i.e. 10 June O. S. is 20 June N. S.
1700 A.D. would have been leap-year in the
Julian calendar, but was not in the Gregorian.
Hence from 1 March (the commencement of the
legal year), 1700, the difference became eleven
days, and the formula for the eighteenth cen-
tury is i J ; from 1 March, 1800, the difference
is twelve days, and the formula is ij ; in
1900 there is no intercalation, and conse-
quently the difference in the twentieth cen-
tury will be thirteen days, and the formula
h^. 2000 A.D. will be leap-year in both calen-
dars, as 1000 was; and he formula for the
twenty-first century will remain as in the
twentieth, i'f{.
The Gregorian Calendar was introduced in
the greater part of Italy, as well as in Spain
and Portugal, on the day named in the Bull, or
witliin a few years. In the eighteenth century
the Protestant nations followed suit. In Eng-
land the Gregorian Calendar was first adopted
in 1752. In Russia, and those countries which
belong to the Greek Church, the Julian year, or
Old Style, still prevails.
The division of the year into weeks (f /35o-
judSfS, septimanae), which is as ancient as
Genesis, does not appear to have been known
to any primeval people except the Hebrews and
Babylonians. The Sabines, also (and probably
other Italian races), had a week of seven days.
Dio Cassius (third cent, a.d.) speaks of a dedi-
cjition of seven days to .seven planetary deities,
arranged in order of distance from the earth,
viz. Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sol, Venus, Mercury,
the Moon. The hours of the day are given to
the planets in this order, and each day is named
after the planet to which the first hour of that
day belongs. Thus if the first hour of a day
belongs to Saturn, that day is dies Saturni ; the
8th, 15th, and 22nd hours of that day are als. >
his; the 23rd belongs to Jupiter, the 24th to
Mars, and the Ist of tlie next day to Sol, which
day is therefore dies Solis. By following the
same order, the 1st hour of the next day belongs
to Luna and the daj' is dies Lun-ae, the next to
Mars (dies Martis), the next to Mercury, and
so to Jupiter and Venus.
The Roman weeks were of eight days (Nun-
dinae], and are said to have followed on con-
tinuously, without regard to divisions of months
and years. The same rule is followed in the
Sunday Letter.
It is probable that the seven-day week was
adopted at Rome with the growth of Chris-
! tianity. It was known as a Jewish use as early
• as the time of Pompeius. (Cf. Hor. Sat. i. 9,
09; Juv. xiv. 90; Ov. A. A. i. 76.)
The division of day and night was in early
times by periods {tipOpos, irepiopdpov, diluculum ;
I irpwi, mane ; fxea-qfiBp'ta, yneridies ; 7f\lov kA.1-
vavTos ; 6>|/f r^y 7}ixepas., tairepas, vesperi.
j Tlie division into twenty-four hours was
Babylonian, and was perhaps introduced into
the West by Eudoxus (c. 360 B.C.).
The military division of the night was into
I four watches [vigiUae), and of the day into
'■■ cxcubiae.
See also Astronomia ; Dies ; Horologium ;
. Lastrom ; Nandmae ; Saeculom.
CAUDA
Cal'ida. [Calda.]
Calie'ndrum. A tall female head-dress, but
whether a wig of false hair or a cap, it is not
cosy to determine.
Calix. 1. [Pottery.]
CAMILLI
135
Fig. 278.— Calix.
(2) [Aquaedtictus.]
Ca" - '
)alles (Suet. lul. 19) was the name of a
quaestorial province, probably the care of
Cal'thula. [Dress.]
Cam'ara (Ka/xapa) or Cam'era. Any arched or
vaulted covering, or anything with such a cover-
ing : Herodotus (i. 199), for instance, calls
a covered carriage Ka/j-dpa. [See cut under
Carpeutum.] It is chiefly used in the two
following senses :
(1) An arched roof which might be (a) a mere
open trellis-work or covered herceau with creep-
ing plants trained over it (fig. 279). (h) An
arched or vaulted ceiling or waggon-roof formed
by semi-circular bands or beams of wood or
reeds, over the intervals of which a coating of
lath and plaster was spread (Vitr. vii. 3 : Cic.
Q. Ft. iii. 1, § 1). Catnerae were sometimes
gilded, or filled with plates of glass, (c) More
rarely a barrel vault in solid stone-work, like
that of the Tullianum at Rome. (Sail. Cat.
55 ; cf. Career.)
Pig. 279. — Camara ; an Egyptian Bcone. iMoauic from Praciiustc.)
the mountam-pasture country between the
crest of the Apennines and the Adriatic, and
the collection of the Vectigal due for it. Cf.
Tac. Ann. iv. 27 (where Cales is also read).
Calo. A slave of the lower kind, usually, but
not always (cf. Hor. Sat. i. 2, 44), applied to a
soldier's slave. The number of slaves following
a Roman army was very large, and each legion
was followed by its own calones, who were
organised and subjected to military discipline.
[Liza.]
(2) Small boats used in early times by the
people who inhabited the shores of the Euxine
and the Bosporus, with a broad arched deck
(Tac. Hist. iii. 47).
Camilli, Camillae. Boys and girls emploj'ed
in the sacrifices of the Flamen Dialis, the Fla-
minica Dialis, and in general in religious rites
and ceremonies. They were required to be
free bom, perfect in form and sound in health,
and with both their parents alive and manied
by confarreatio [MatrimoniumJ ; pue^ri seu
186
CAMINUS
CANCELLI
puellae ingenui, felicissimi, patrimi matri- \ Cana'lis (o-cdX^v), a channel or canal, is used,
viique. The origin of the word is doubtful. \ like its English derivatives, to signify a water-
The meaning is 8aidtobe = »imisit'r. (Sers'. ad course, whether open or closed ; and next, any
other passage which resembles a watercourse.
(1) The canalis which is lined with masonry
(structilis), and is distinguished from the leaden
fistula and the earthenware tubulus (Vitr. viii.
7 ; cf. Suet. Claud. 20). A ruder kind of con-
duit, made of timber or earthenware to carry
water from a spring or stream to cattle in a
meadow, is figured in the illustration below
(Verg. Georg. iii. 330).
Fig. 280.-OammaB.
Verg. Aen. xi. 548.) See also Matrimonilim.
(Hor. Carw. iv. G, 32.)
Cami'nuB. (1) [Somas.] (2) A smeltiug fur-
Fig. 281.— Camlnus.
nace. (3) A blacksmith's forge (Verg. Aen. vi.
630; Juv. xiv. 118).
Cami'sia (It. camicia, Fr. chemise). A linen
shirt or shift worn next to tlie skin = subucula.
[Dress. 1
Campa'na. [Tintinnabulum.]
Campe'stre (sc. suhlujar) was a kind of girdle
or iipron, which the Roman youths wore around
their loins, when they exercised naked in the
Campus Martins : whence the name. The cam-
______^___^^^__ pestre was sometimes
" ' =^ worn in warm weather
in place of the tunic
, ,,„| i |,M under the toga (Hor.
|jUU U m JI-'l"^ Ep. i. 11, 18).
Ca'naba. A hut or
booth ; whence the
word ca7iabe7ises for
camp-followers [Ex-
ercitus]. The towns
which grew up in the
neighbourhood of sta-
tionary camps were de-
scribed as being ad
ca)iabas, and formed
Fig. 282.— Canallcull. a kind of ConventUS.
Canaliculi and -ae.
Tlie grooves, or gh^plis {y\v(pai), of the triglyph
[Arcnitectura].
Fig. 283.-Ganalis. (From tho Vatican VirgU.)
(2) A vein in a mine ; the barrel or channel for
missiles (aiipiy^) m a catapult (Vitr. x. 13, 7) ;
a reed-pipe, itc.
{H} The channel in an Ionic capital running
from volute to volute [Architectura].
Cance'lli {KiyK\iSfs, SpiKpcucToi). A screen or
lattice of open work, placed before a window,
a doorway, the tribunal of a judge, or any other
place. At Athens, in the senate-house ($ov\ev-
rT)ptoi') and law-courts, ZpiKpoKTOi were the fixed
bar, KiyK^lSes the gates opening through it.
Fig. 284.— Cancelli before the Temple of Veeto.
(From Middleton.j
Balconies projecting from the fronts of houses
were also called Spv<paKToi, Lat. macniana
(Ar. Eq. G72, Vesp. 385). The material was
originally wood ; and such were also the can-
celli put up at Rome for temporary purposes
(Cic. Scst. 58, § 124; cf. Ov. Am. iii. 2, 64).
But tjiey might also be in metal, as in the
i canceUi before the Temple of Vesta ; or in
CANDELA
CANDELABRUM
137
marble. Hence in ecclesiastical language the j the tribunal. The chief scribe or secretary was
word Chancel. [Rostra.] i called Cancellarius Kar' ii,oxf]v- From this
word has come the modern
Chancellor.
Cande'la (candeo), a
candle or taper, made
either of wax (cereus, sc.
funis; Plaut. Cure. i. 1,
9) or tallow (sebaceus),
was used by the Romans
before the invention of oil
lamps {lucernae). (Mart,
xiv. 43.) They used for a
wick the pith of a kind of
rush called scirpus (Plin.
xvi. § 178). Tapers were
used in funeral processions
(Pers. iii. 103). In later
times candelae were only
used by the poorer classes ;
the houses of the more
wealthy were always lighted
by lucernae (Juv. iii. 287).
Candelabrnm [Kvxvf'iov,
Xvxv'mv, Kvxvia). Origin-
ally a candlestick, but was
afterwards used for a stand
to support lamps (whence
also called lychnuchus,
Xvxvovxos). The candela-
bra of this kind were usu-
ally made to stand upon
the ground, and were of a
considerable height. The
most common kind were
made of wood (Mart. xiv.
44) ; those found in Hercu-
laneum and Pompeii are
mostly of bronze. Some-
times they were made of
the precious metals and
adorned with jewels (Cic.
Vcrr. iv. 28, 64, &c.).
Fig. 2S5.— Marble Candelabrum In the
Vatican. (Vieconti, vol. iv. tav. 5.)
Fig. 286.— Pompelan
Candelabrum.
The word Cancellarius originally meant a
porter who stood at the latticed or grated door
of the emperor's palace. The cancellarius also
signified a clerk who sat within the cancelli of
Fig. 287.— Candelabrum from Pompeii.
rig. 288.— Candelabrum from Pompeii.
138
CANDIDATUS
Candelabra usually consisted of three parts :
(1) the foot (^ao-ts); (2)theshaftorstem{/cauA.ds) ;
(3) the plinth or tray (Si<tk6s), large enough for a
lamp to stand on, or with a socket to receive a
wax candle. The foot usually consists of three
lions' or griffins' feet, ornamented with leaves ;
and the shaft, plain or fluted, generally ends in a
kind of capital, on which rests the tray for sup-
porting the lamp. Candelabra were sometimes
made with a sliding shaft, by which the light
might be raised or lowered at pleasure. The
lamps were sometimes suspended as in fig. 288.
Candelabrarii, or makers of candelabra, are
mentioned in inscriptions.
Candida'tus. [Ambitus.]
KdvSus. A gown or caftan worn by the
Medes and Persians over their trousers and
other garments (Xen. Anah. i. 5, § 8). It had
CANON
It is doubtful whether the Caryatides of the
Erechtheion are Canephoroe. [See CalathUB.]
Fig. 28a.— Candys, Persian dress. {Sir B. Eer Porter's
'Travels, vol. 1. pi. 94.)
wide sleeves, and was made of woollen cloth,
which was either crimson, or of some other
brilliant colour.
KavTi<})6pos. 'A basket-bearer.' The ko.-
vfiov or Kavovv (Kai'va.) was in the Homeric
times a basket used for bread (II. ix. 217)
or other edibles (II. xi. 630), or the sacred
ov\ai for sacrifice (Od. iii. 441). We find the
remains of a feast also placed therein (Od. xx.
300). The epithets used
are Ka\6s or xaKKeos
(II. xi. (i30) or xpvfftios
(0(i.x. 355). The usual
pompic vessels carried
at Athens were of
bronze. At Athens the
Kavovv was used in re-
ligious service only (Ar.
Ach. 244; Eur. I. A.
435). KdvaiTTpov signi-
fies both a bowl (rpv-
fiKiov) and also a dish
made of earthenware.
The Roman canistra
(plur. ; the sing, canis-
triim is not found) were
used for the same pur-
X)oses as the Homeric Kavovv, viz. for holding
bread (Cic. Att. vi. 1, 13 ; Juv. v. 74), neces-
saries for sacrifice (Verg. Aen. viii. 180), and
remains of a feast (Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 105).
At the Panathenaea these baskets were
carried by grown-up maidens of high birth, who
were genuine native Athenians (Thuc. vi. 50 ;
cf. Hdt. v. 55-57). They were accompanied
by the daughters of /x^toikoi, carrying um-
brellas and seats f Ar. Av. 1508, 1549, Lys. 1188).
Statues of Kavrjcpopoi by Polykleitus were made
in bronze, and by Skopas in marble.
Kavri<l>6pot are also mentioned in connexion
with processions to Zeus in Boeotia, Dionysus
at Athens, &c.
Fig. 290.— CanephoroG.
(British Museum.)
Fig. 991.— Girl with KcLveiov. (From a Greek vase.)
Canon [Kavwv). Probably from Kawa, a
straight rod ; hence the following special appli-
cations :
(1) In the Homeric shield (and the ancilia),
bars to which the rf\afj.civ or shoulder-belt was
attached. [See Arms and Armour.]
(2) In Hom. 11. xxiii. 761, probably the
straight rods (K, K) to which the alternate
threads of the warp were attached by means of
strings and loops
(Ucia). [Tela.]
(3) In descrip-
tions of machinery
Kavdv is used just
as we use ' rod ' :
e.g. in organs and
military engines.
(4) A graduated
rule, often repre-
sented on car-
penters' tombs
[Eegula]. It dif-
fered from (TrdOnT)
(amussis), which
was a string.
Sometimes it was
made of lead and
could be bent so
as to take templets
(Arist. Eth. N. v. 10, 7). Both the (rrdOfiv
and the Kavciv were rubbed over with some
coloured substance, generally vermilion (fii\Tos,
rubrica). Kaviiiv is also a ' straight-edge ' of
marble, marked with ^IXtos, and applied to
test the evenness of surface of a block of stone.
Also a ruler for drawing straight lines with
pen and ink.
(5) The beam (not the tongue) of a balance :
generaUy ^vy6v.
(6) In the figurative sense Kavciv came to be
used for anything which served as a standard or
rule : e.g. in Athletics, the average or normal
jump was called Kavwv. In Ethics, for the rule
of right, the ethical standard (Arist. Eth. Nic.
ii. 3, 8 ; cf. Hor. Ep. i. 7, 98). For the rules of
Grammar : hence of (as we say) ' standard '
writers. In reference to Music, Kavwv is the
string which is regarded as the unit. Kacoii/
was also applied to the table thence derived
Pig. 292.— Rods of loom.
CANTEEIUS CAPISTRUM 139
which expressed the relations of the intervals of | xf'^wT'^p, appears to be used for a nose-bag.
sounds. In Philosophy, that branch of Logic It was further applied to the band of leather
which dealt with the tests of truth was called which flute-players put over their mouths and
by the Epicureans rb kuvovikSv. In Arcliitec- | about their heads (see fig. 294) (Soph. Fr. 753 ;
Fig. 293.— Anthropometric canon. (Arundel Marbles. Oxford.)
tare, the rules of proportion. In Sculpture,
the rules of the proportions of the human figure ;
first definitelv laid doivn in terms of heads by
Polykleitus o'f Sikyon, 452-412.
(7) As rules often take the form of tables or
lists, we find kuvoov sometimes in this sense,
but not in the older writers. In Astronomy
we have Kav6v(s irpdxftpoi oi Ptolemy, ' handy
tables,' giving the mean motions of each of the
planets and the differences of their observed
positions therefrom.
(8) In the fiscal affairs of the later Roman
Empire canon was used for regular payments
of tribute, especially for the corn supply to the
capital, and for the rent of public lands.
For the Christian use of the word, see
Du Cange, and Smith's Dictionary of Chris-
tian Antiquities.
Canterius (Cantherius). (1) A gelding (Liv.
xxiii. 47, 6; Plaut. Capt. iv. 2, 34). (2) A prop
for vines. (3) A rafter. (4) (Perhaps) a painter's
easel ioKpifias) ; cf. English ' clothes-horse.'
Cantharus. [Pottery.]
Canthas [iiriaffoiTpov). [Rota.]
Can'ticum. In Roman comedy, cantica (as
opposed to diverbia, the dialogue) are of two
kinds: (1) those which are written in lyric
metres, i.e. anapaests, cretics, and bacchiacs ;
and (2) those which are composed in trochaic
or iambic septenarians. The latter were de- ,
livered melodramatically, with a musical |
accompaniment ; the former were sung to a
sort of recitative. Taking these two kinds '
together, the cantica usually form a larger |
part of the play than the diverbia. Cantica j
of botli kinds occurred also in tragedies (Cic.
Tusc. i. 44, 107). Livius Andronicus (c. 240 B.C.)
introduced cantica sung by a young slave
standing near the flute-player, while the actor
accompanied his singing with the proper
gesticulation (Liv. vii. 2). Favourite cantica,
like airs in modem operas, were sung separately
at musical entertainments (Suet. I%d. 84 ; Tac.
Ann. xiii. 15). [Comoedia.]
Capillamentum. IGalerus.]
Capis. I Sacrificium, Augur, TJrceus, Se-
cespita, Simpulum.]
Capi'strum (<pop0€ia, K7]fi6s, (fit/xSi). A
halter for animals, made apparentlv of leather
(Xen. Eq. 5, 1; Ov. Met. x. 125; Mart. i. i04,
7 ; cf. Juv. vi. 43). The term (popfifid, like
Ar. Vesp. 582) ; also called K-i]p.6s and arofu^.
The (popfind was only used with the long
double clarionet.
Capistrum, also means a muzzle {fiscella [or
-i(s], huccale, ca/mus) used to prevent animals
Fig. 294.— Capistrum or mouth-band for flute-player.
(Baumeister.)
eating or biting (Cato, B. B. 54); in Verg.
Georg. iii. 399 the capistra for kids have iron
spikes to prevent them sucking. In ecclesias-
tical Latin camus is used for a muzzle (Psalm
xxxi. 9) ; in Plautus (Cas. ii. 7, 37), it means a
log put on the neck of a refractory slave. The
I Greeks called it KTJiutJs (Xen. Eq. 5, 3), or more
I generally <^i/u(5s (Ar, Nuh. 592). *jMoOi'is foxuid
j in the N. T. in the sense of 'to put to silence ' :
I e.g. St. Matt. xxii. 84 Muzzles for cattle ap-
I pear to have been sometimes made of plaited
1 osiers (fiscellae, Plin. xviii. § 177), or of per
140
CAPITA
forated leather. Sometiin3s they were of
bronze.
Capistrum is also used as a band for fasten-
ing up vines, and as a strap for the wine-press.
Fig. 295.— Capistrum, bronio horse-muzzle, i British
Museum.)
Ca'pita aut na'via, 'heads or tails.' Tlie
name of a game, derived from the fact that the
early as had on one side a double-faced Janus,
on the other tlie prow of a ship. See cut of as.
[Coinage.] [Games.]
Ca'pite censi ; Cap'itis deminu'tio. Caput.
See Appendix, Roman IjAW.
Capit'ulum. (1 ) [Architectura.] (2)Tlietop
of a sclioolboy'B tablet, which had an eye
through wliich a string was passed for slinging
it over the arm (Hor. .S'(j/. i. (>, 74).
Capre'olus. (l) = Bidens. (2) A brace or
strut placed diagonally between king-post uiul
rafter.
Capsa (dim. Ca'psula, Capsellaj or Scrinium.
A box for holding books and papers (Cic. Div.
CAPUT
(Plin. xvi. § 229), and were of a cylindrical
form.
Scriniutn was a larger capsa, holding a
considerable number of roUs (Hor. Sat. i. 1,
120; Mart. i. 2, 4). Boxes used for preserving
other things besides books, for instance fruit,
were also called capsae (Mart. xi. 8). The cir-
cular toilet- or jewel-cases of the Romans, if in
wood, were called capsae ; if in metal, cistae.
Cista is used for a book-box in Juv. iii. 200.
[Cista.]
Capsae were sometimes sealed or kept under
lock and key (Mart. i. 66; Hor. Ep. i. 20, 3) :
they were carried on the arm or shoulder by
straps.
Capsa'rii. The name of three different
classes of slaves. (1) Those who took care of
the clothes of persons while bathing in the
public baths. [Balneae.] (2) Those who had
the care of the capsae in which books and
letters were kept. (3) Those who carried the
books, &c., of boys to school [Capsal. (Juv. x.
117.) (i) A fourth kind of capsarii are men-
tioned as a class of soldiers enjoying certain
privileges. They are joined with librarii, and
i probably kept the boxes containing military
1 papers and registers.
Cap'alus ((fciiTTj, \afiri). (1) The hilt of a
sword, which was frequently much ornamented.
(Verg. Acn. ii. 553; Ov. Met. vii. 422, &c.)
Arms and Armour, Gladius.]
CJ) The handle of a knife.
Fig. 296.— The Muse Clio with a Capsa. (Pitture d'Ercolaiiv,
vol. 11. pi. 2.)
in Caecil. 10, § 51 ; Hor. Sat. i. 4, 22, i. 10, 68).
These boxes were usually made of beech-wood
Fig. 297.— Capall, ancient knifehandlee.
(3) The handle of a plough (Ov. Pont. i. 8,
57) = stiva. [Aratrum.l
(4) A bier or coffin. ■ Funus.]
Capnt. (1) A single person or thing as dis-
tinct from an aggregate. Hence perhaps its
use to express a chapter of a law and a unit
of land. (2) A human being (Caes. S. G. iv.
15) : e.g. as a subject of the poll-tax (usually
applied to citizens) (Liv. iii. 24, x. 47). The
lowest century of Servius Tullius comprised the
proletarii and capita censi ; of whom the latter,
having little or no property, were rated as so
many ' head ' of citizens.
(3) A human being regarded as capable of
legal rights { = persona); and (4) that capa-
city or those legal rights themselves. [See
Appendix, Roman Law, Caput.]
Caput exto'rum. The part to which the
haruspices especially directed their attention
was the liver, the convex upper portion of
CARABUS
which (or perhaps the upper prominences of its
various lobes) was called the caput extorum.
(Plin. xi. §§ 189, 190.) Any disease or de-
ficiency in this organ was considered an
unfavourable omen ; whereas, if healthy and
perfect, it was believed to indicate good fortune.
The haruspices divided it into two parts— one
called familiaris, the other hostilis : from the
former, they foretold the fate of friends ; from
the latter, that of enemies (Liv. viii. 9, &c.). If
no caput was found, it was a bad sign ; if well
defined or double, it was a lucky omen. (Cic.
Div. ii. 12, 13, § 28 sqq. ; Liv. xxvii. '26, xxx. 2.)
Ca'rabus (KapaBos, Mod. Gr. Kapdfii, whence
caravel, &c.). A coracle or boat made of
wicker-work and covered with raw hides. The
word is late, but the thing is described by
Caesar {B. C. i. 64) as employed by him in
Spain, from having seen them in Britain.
Carabi were used by the Veneti on the Padus, as
well as by the Britons (Lucan,P/tars. iv. 131 sqq.) .
Caracal'la. [Dress.]
Car'basUB (Kapiracros). Cotton, from Sansk.
karpdsa, an Eastern product, originally called
ipia oLTrh ^v\ov (cf. Geiiaan Bau77iwolle). (Hdt.
iii. 47, 106.) Cotton was brought by the
Phoenicians into Spain, and it was known as a
product of Upper Egypt and India, where it
appears to have been woven into stuff. The
Greeks first got a real knowledge of it from the
expedition of Alexander (Plin. xii. § 38 sqq.).
The Latin term used by Pliny (xii. § 39) is
gossypium. The common kind was grown in
India. The finest cotton was got in Egypt;
and vestments made of it were worn by the
Egyptian priests. The earliest mention of
cotton at Rome is about 180 B.C. Carbasus was
used at Rome not only for articles of dress,
but also for tent curtains (Cic. Verr. v. 12, § 30),
sails (Verg. Aen. iii. 357), awnings in the theatre
(Lucr. vi. 109). There was no great distinction
maintained in ordinary language between
cotton and linen (CatuU. Ixiv. 227). '2,ii'S<iv
(sindon) is Indian muslin. 'Odovri {odSvia.) is
used of any fabric woven from byssus, flax or
cotton. Cotton or linen fabrics were manufac-
tured at Malta [vestis Melitensis, Cic. Verr. ii.
72, § 176; Sil. Ital. xiv. 250). The Mace-
donians serving with Alexander used raw cotton
as stufiing for pillows and padding for saddles
{(Tayi]). The word cotton is probably derived
from cotoneus = cydonius (Plin. xii. 21).
[Byssus.]
Carba'tina (KapParivri). (1) [Calceus.] (2) It
is also applied to a covering put on the feet of
camels when they got sore from the march
(Arist. Hist. An. ii. 1, 27) ; and also to a skin-
covered structure used by besiegers.
Career [heaixwritpLov). A prison.
1. Greek. — Imprisonment was seldom used
among the Greeks as a legal punishment for
offences, though commonly mentioned in the
poets and elsewhere as an incident of govern-
ment. The Athenians neither had the proper
appliances for it, nor were willing to incur the ex-
pense, and they preferred either banishment or
the penalty of death. Capital punishment was
inflicted without hesitation for comparatively
trifling offences.
Imprisonment before trial was common
enough, though bail was freely accepted in
cases other than capital ; the terror of exile
was in general thought sufficient to keep a man to
his bail (Dem. c. Timocr. p. 739, § 125 ; Evv^^'n).
The farmers of the taxes and lessees of other
revenues (T£\d)vaL, /xia-dov/xevoi) as well as
their sureties [ol iyyvdixtvoi) were liable to im-
CARCER
141
prisonment if the duties were not paid by a
specified time ; and might be imprisoned as a
measure of precaution at the discretion of the
senate or law-courts (Dem. I. c. p. 713,
§§ 40, 41; BovXri). Again, persons who had
been mulcted in penalties might be confined
till they paid them in criminal (Dem. c.
Mid. p. 529, § 47) and in some civil actions
(Dem. c. Lacr. p. 939, § 46; ' EiruPeXCa).
Certain of the &TLfjLoi also, if they exercised the
rights of citizenship, were liable to imprison-
ment (Dem. c. Timocr. p. 732, § 108). We
read, moreover, of Secr/mot as a public stigma,
short of capital punishment, put upon dis-
graceful offences, such as theft (Dem. I.e.) ; but
SffffiSi was not so much an imprisonment as a
public exposure in the ^vkov (anciently termed
TToSoKaKKr], Lys. x. 16) or stocks, for five days
and nights — called eV ^vXcfi 5e5f<r6ai (Dem.
I. c. p. 746, § 146). Sokrates also (Plat.
Apol. 27) speaks of imprisonment as a penalty.
In the interval between condemnation and
execution, owing to the insecurity of the
building, the prisoner was chained, and was
under the special custody of the Eleven, who
were also responsible for the execution itself.
(Plat. Apol. 37 c, cf. Legg. x., Phaed. 60 c.)
The prison at Athens is frequently mentioned
in the orators, both by its usual name Setr/xw-
T-qpiov and the euphemistic equivalent of/crj/io.
Among local names for prisons were a.vayKa7ov
or avaKatov in Boeotia, Kepafxos in Cyprus, kws
at Corinth, and among the lonians yopyxipy)
(Hdt. iii. 145) ; also KapKapov, and ii\/ov.
The Attic expression for imprisonment was
heiv, a word which does not necessarily imply
the use of chains or fetters. The phrase in the
oath of the 0ou\evrai or senators, ovSe Si)cret>
'Ad-r)vaiuiv ovSeva, is explained by Demosthenes
{I.e. p. 746, § 147) as a security against
arbitrary imprisonment by the executive
government without trial. It was in fact the
Habeas Corpus of the Athenian constitution.
No such words occur in the oath of the
Heliastae or dikasts ; the law-courts had abso-
lute power over men's lives, liberties, and for-
tunes.
2. Roman. — The only prison at Rome in
early times (Juv. iii. 312), was called simply
Career ; and is stiU to be seen on the Capito-
line hill, to the right of the ascent from the
Forum. The name Mamertinus, usually applied
to the Career, is mediaeval and not classical. It
consists of a larger oblong upper and a smaller
circular underground dungeon ; the latter is the
Tullianum, or weU-house, so called from the
tullii or springs for whose waters it formed a
reservoir to secure the water supply of the
Capitol. It was only in later times used as a
part of the prison. (See Plut. Mar. 12 ; Liv.
xxix. 22, xxxiv. 44 ; Sail. Cat. 55.) The con-
struction points to a time when the arch was
not yet used in Roman architecture ; the roof
being of stone slabs, each overlapping the
one beneath it [Arcus]. The upper chamber
is also of very early date, but later than the
Tullianum. Another name for this part of
the prison was robwr, in old Latin robus, so
called from a former lining of oaken planks
or beams (Liv. xxxviii. 59 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 29 ;
Hor. Carm. ii. 13, 18).
The earliest mention of another prison is in
the days of the Decemvirate 450 B.C. (Liv. iii.
57). At a later period we find a prison called
Lautumiae or stone-quarries near the Career ;
probably named after the Syracusan Aoto/xioi
which were thus used.
142
CARCERES
Close to the Career were the Scalae Gemo-
niae, where the bodies of criminals were exposed
KAPNEIA
struction the stile or axis of the door (Scapus
cardinalis, Vitr. iv. 6, 4) was fitted with a pivot
(crTpo(pevs, cardo masctdus) at each end, turn-
ing in a socket {oK/jiLcrKos, cardo femina) ex-
cavated in the sill and lintel respectively. The
upper figure to the left in fig. 299 shows the
general form of a door with a pivot at top and
bottom (a, h). The second figure above repre-
sents a bronze hinge in the Egyptian collection
of the British Museum : its pivot {b) is exactly
cylindrical. The lower figure shows the ground-
plan of a pair of folding-doors. The pivot-holes
are placed in an angle behind the antepagmen-
tum or door-jamb. The Romans (and perhaps
the Greeks) also used hinges like those now in
common use. The word yiyyXvfjios is applied
Fig. 29fi.— Section and plnn of the Mamertine Prison.
(From Middletoii's !;■ imiina nf Aiunfnt liiime).
\, Opening in floor over TuUianum, the only access ;
B li, tufa rock : C C. branch of Cloaca ; K K. front wall
of prison ; G, probable original top ot Tullianum.
after execution (Suet. Tib. 61 ; Tac. Ann. iii.
14, Ilist. iii. 74).
Car'ceres. [Circus.]
Carche'sium. (1) [Pottery.] (2) [Navis.j
Cardo. A hinge. The older and simpler form
of hinge was a pivot working in a socket ; of
this kind must have been the daipoi of Homer
(H. xii. 459) and the arpo(l>evs and o'Tp<J(^i7| of
the later Greeks (Ar. Tliesm. 487). In this con-
Fig. SOO.— Roman hinges of bronze, modern type.
(British Museum.)
to the hinge of a dwpa^, probably a pin passing
ihrough loops alternately attailied to the breast
;iiul buck pieces. [Arms and Armour.]
I2j [Agrimetatio.]
I'd) The poles of the lieavens (Ov. Font.
ii. 10, 45; Cic. X. D. ii. 41, §105); and the
same term was applied to the East and West
also (Lucan, v. 71) (quattnor cardines orbis
terrariiin, cardinalrs venti).
Carina. Navis.'
Caris'tia or Charistia. A Roman domestic
feast, celebrated on viii. Kal. Mai't. (Feb. 22).
Following the Dies parentales iFeb. 13-21)
I and Feralia (Feb. 21), days sacred to the
dead lOv. Fast. ii. 533 sqq.), this festival was a
day of rejoicing and tlianksgiving for the sur-
vivors. None but relations and members of
the same family were invited, and it was looked
upon as a time for making up family quarrels.
The derivation is from xnp»C"Ma't to grant a
favour or pardon ; but caristia is the approved
spelling, and Ovid seems to have connected the
word with carus. (Ov. Fast. ii. 017 sqq. ; Mart,
ix. 54, 55.)
Cannentalia. An old Roman festival in
' honour of tlie nymphs called Carmenta or Car-
, mentis (see Class. Diet. C.uimknt.v), celebrated
I annually on the 11th and the 15th of January ;
i the sacrifice was offered by the flamen Car-
mentalis, and the Pontifices, in the fanum
I Carmentis, near the Porta Carmentalis, at the
I south-west of the Capitol. The festival was
cliiefly observed by married women ; and the
second day of the festival was given up especi-
ally to rites bearing upon childbirth. (See Ov.
Fast. i. 633 ; Liv. v. 25.)
Kapveta. A national festival, celebrated
by the Spartans in honour of Apollo Kar-
neios, said to have been instituted in 01. 26
(616 B.C.) ; although Apollo, under the title
Kapvelos, was worshipped in various places of
Peloponnesus, particularly at Amyklae, even
before the Dorian migration. The festival
began on the seventh day of the montli
Kameios=Metageitnion of the Athenians, and
CAENIFEX
lasted for nine days. It was a warlike festival,
like the Attic BoTiSpoM-io., and was celebrated
by aU the Dorians. During the time of its
celebration nine tents were pitched near the
city, in each of which nme men lived in the
manner of a military camp, obeying in every-
thing the commands of a herald. We are told
that a boat (Si/CTjAoj') was carried round, in
allusion to the passage of the Dorians from
Naupaktus into Peloponnesus. Musical con-
tests were held at the Kameia.
Kameia were also celebrated at Kyrene
(Callim. Hymn. Apoll. 7'2 sq. ; Pind. Pyth. v.
99 sq.), Messana, Sybaris, and other Doric towns
(Theocr. v. 83).
Carn'ifex, the public executioner at Rome,
who put slaves and foreigners to death (Plant.
Capt. V. 4, 22), but no citizens except those
convicted oi perduellio, and occasionally under
the Empire. It was also his business to ad-
minister the torture. He was usually a public
slave, and his ofl&ce was considered so disgrace-
ful that he was not allowed to reside within
the city (Cic. Bab. Post. 5, 15), but lived
without the Porta Esquilina (Plaut. Pseud, i.
3, 98) near the place destined for the punish-
ment of slaves (Tac. An?i. xv. 60), called Sester-
tium or Sessorium under the emperors (Plut.
Galb. 28).
Carpen'tum. [Currus.]
KapTToO SiKT). See Appendix, Greek Law.
Carru'ca. [Currus.]
Carra'go. A kind of fortification or laager,
consisting of a number of waggons placed round
an army. It was emjiloj'ed by barbarous nations,
as, for instance, the Scythians, Gauls, Germans
and Goths.
Carrus or Carrum. A cart. [Currus.]
Cartibulum. An oblong slab of marble sup-
ported on a single bracket or console {colu-
CASTRA
143
iig. sul.— Cartibuium. lirom i'ompeii.)
mella), used as a table in the atrium of a Roman
house.
Carya'tides. [Atlantes.]
Cassis. (1) [Arms and Armour.] (2) A
purse-net used in hunting (Ov. A. A. i. 392).
Castel'lum. (1) A fort or redoubt, either as
])art of a Bracchium or a permanent fortifica-
tion.
(2) [Aquaeductus.]
Castra. 1. Gkeek. — The naval camp of the
Greeks in Homer, lying between Rhoeteion
and Sigeion, was very large. It had numerous
streets which crossed one another {II. x. 66),
an agora which was capable of holding all the
fighting forces of the Greeks, and in this stood
the altar to Zeus Uavofj.<paLOS {II. viii. 249).
The games in honour of Patrokius appear to
have been held within the camp. It had a wall,
probably of earth, with high two-loaved gates
{II. xii. 154), and at a short distance a ditch
{II. ix. 67) protected at the top by many sharp
stakes {II. xii. 55). At intervals in the walls were
wooden towers (i7. xii. 86) and battlements
(eiraA|€is), probably stakes rammed into the
wall, with pinnacles of different sorts {Kp6a-
crat, (TrrjKai irpofiKr\res, II. xii. 258). It was
guarded by watches {(pvKaKai) at night {II.
ix. 66), who numbered 700 {II. ix. 85, x. 180),
The habitations within the camp were not
tents, but solid wooden structures {KKuriai, II.
xxiv. 448 sqq.).
The camp-constructions of the Greeks in
later times were contemptible compared with
those of the Romans. They always chose
a position with natural defences (cf. Xen.
Rep. Lac. 12) for their encampments, which
must have varied in position and size (Polyb.
vi. 42). The Spartans generally formed their
camp in a circle on a height, and posted
cavalry to observe the enemy. The Spartans
used to drill each morning. After this followed
the mid-day meal {&pi(TTov) and change of
guard ; and then amusement {SiaTptfiai) or rest
till evening exercise. The herald tlien gave the
signal for the evening meal (SeiTrvou), a hymn
was sung to the gods, and the soldiers retired
to rest.
2. Roman. — Roman armies never halted for
a single night without forming a regular en-
trenchment, termed castra, capable of receiving
within its limits the whole body of fighting
men, their beasts of burden, and the baggage.
This operation was never omitted, even under
attack, but a portion of the soldiers were em-
ployed in constructing the necessary works,
while the remainder were resisting the enemy
(Caes. B. G. viii. 15 ; Liv. xxvii. 12). An en-
campment occupying the same ground for any
length of time was distinguished as castra
stativa (Liv. xxvii. 12 ; Caes. B. G. viii. 15).
When foi-eign service rendered it impossible
for the legions to return home in winter, they
usually retired during the winter months into
some town ; or they were dispersed up and
down in detacliments among friendly villages
{in hiberna concedere ; exercitum in hiberna
dimittere ; per civitates in hiberria dividere).
Except in case of necessity, or as a punishment
for misbehaviour, they never wintered under
canvas {hiemarc sub pellibus, sub tentoriis).
Armies serving in distant countries were forced
to remain constantly in permanent camps,
called respectively aestiva and hiberna, both
alike being stativa. Such posts were often
garrisoned permanently (Caes. B. G. vi. 37).
Merchants, both Roman and foreign, came and
settled outside the fortifications of these camps
{ad canabas [liuts] Irgionis consistere) ; the
inhabitants of the adjoining country, with
veterans from the legions, settled there, and
thus the canabae grew into a village, and from
that often to towns and colonies of considerable
size and importance. Mainz, Strassburg, and
Vienna owe tlieir existence to this origin, as do
many towns in England with the terminations
-Chester and -caster.
But whether a camp was temporary or per-
manent, it was laid down, arranged and fortified
according to a lixed and well-known plan, alto-
gether independent of the nature of the ground
or of tlie fancy of tlie general, so tliat each
battalion, each company, and each individual
had a place assigned to which they could at
once repair, without order, question, delay, or
confusion.
The system of camping, from whatever be-
ginnings it may have been developed during
144
CASTRA
the wars with the Samnites, with Pyrrhus, the | sisting of two Roman legions with the full
Cisalpine Gauls, and the Carthaginians, was < contingent of Socii. The composition of a
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100
100
1
De D,
D|
Bo
i
Ea
1 B
' ,00
100
B,
B5
B,
Co
§
C4
C5 C3 A
2 C2
Cs C,
c,
^0
z -
E4
y X w
E3 A
V T 8 E Q P
4
p' Q' r' s' t' v'
Es E7
W X' T'
z'
Ei
To
§
§
§
O
I
o
O
o
§
A
"
F,
A
"■
■^
•
»
\
'
.•V
u
A
"
A
'■
'^
'
\
'■
\
1-
Go
|,\
Q|
z
A
A
T
Z'
so 100 100 so so 100 2925 100 80 SO 100 100
Fig. 302.— Construction of a Roman camp.
probably brought to perfection in the campaigns
against Hannibal, and underwent no material
alteration until the organic changes in the
constitution of the army, which took place
during the civil wars and under the earlier
emperors, rendered a corresponding change in
the internal economy of the camp unavoidable.
"We shall proceed to describe shortly these
two camps in succession. The two principal
authorities are Polybius (c. 167 B.C.) and
Hyginus, whose date may probably be referred
to the reign of Septimius Severus.
I. Camp of Polybius.
The camp described by Polybius is such as
would be formed at the close of an ordinary
clay's march by a regular consular army con-
Roman legion at this period is reckoned as
follows :
( Legionary infantry {legionarii
Romans ] milUes) 4,200
( Cavalry {legionarii equites) . 300
/ Infantry (cohortes alariae) . 4,200
I Cavalry {equites alarii) . . 600
Socii \ Infantrv {cohortes extraordi-
naride) 800
V Cavalry {aloe extraordinariae) . 300
10,400
The whole force, therefore, of a consular army
of two legions with the full complement of
Socii in the second century B.C. amounted to
20,800 men, i.e. 18,400 foot and 2,400 horse, of
which 4,500 were Romans and 16,300 allies.
Choice of the Ground. — Great importance
CASTRA
115
was attaclied to the choice of a fitting situation, This preliminary point being decided, the
which should admit of being readily laid out in business of measuring out the ground {metari
the required fonn, afford no facilities for attack castra) commenced, and was executed, with
or annoyance, be convenient for procuring wood, ' graduated rods (decetnpedao) by persons de-
water, and forage, and which the army might nominated mctatorcs (Cic. Phil. xiv. 4, 10).
enter and quit without danger of sui-prise. The different steps of tlie process may be most
Unless the commander undertook this duty in [ briefly and distinctly set down in the ordinarj'
person (Liv. ix. 17), the task devolved upon one ; language of a geometrical construction
w
Porta Decumana
I n t e r V a 1 1 u ni
JOO 650
''r-is.,.
10°=
B4-.-.. . .
•.•.ll.- .
B
9
E3
C u
■■>'.§.■.••■
,;5-
■'' ^ '.■.■'. ■
" ' 5 s
■ v'e;; ■■•
^:s'
'■yA:.:
'.■/Gy/.
.,,5
5- |.;.;.-6
5' •■is
'' [ '"■•^
5' I "•■-6
•e-ZIN
e
'C
n!
u
o
■.'■'.6 '
5
.• .;. 6.' .;
5
y-.'ey.'.
5
.'•.'•. -e."-'.-/
5
■::■'}.:':■:
5
4 3
4 3
4 3
4 3
4 3
3 4
3' 4'
3' 4'
3' 4'
3' 4'
5 • . . • .6
5' ; ; .6
5' .. "-6
5' 6
5' -6
so 100 100 to 00 100 50 100 50 50 100
I n t e r V a 1 1 II in
Porta Praetoria
Intervallum
I Roman Caualry.
Roman Infantry.
_! Cavalry of Allies.
Fig. .10S.— Plan of a Koman Camp in the time of Polybius.
1. Roman cavalry.
Koman infantry.
Cavalry of 1st I.egion.
Cavalry of '2nd Legion.
Triarii of 1st I-egion I , ,,•„„„, . fSR.
Triarii of 2nd Legionf looking out on | jj, g,
Principes of 1st L,egion ) i,„fc.i„« ^..^ /S 15.
Principes of '2nd Legionf lookme out on jjj, g,
Hastati of 1st Legion 1 ,„„,,;„„ „„, 'W V.
Hastati of •2nd Legion) looking out <
Cavalry of Allies {ciiuilex nlarii).
Infantry of Allies Uoliorl'-s alnriar).
IV W'.
S. Cavalry of Allies.
Infantry of Allies.
4. Infantry of .Mlies.
of the military tribunes, and a certain number '
of centurions appointed from time to time for
the purpose.
ConHtruction. — Tlie spot answering these \
conditions was marked by a small white flag, i
The next object was to ascertain in what direc- ,
tion the front of the camp should face — this
direction we indicate by the arrow in fig. 30'2.
7. Quaestoviiim.
8. Forum.
9, 10, 9', 10'. Cavalry selected from ola/^ (equites) extraord.
H, 1'2. U', 1'2'. Picked Infantry from coh. extraord.
18, 13'. Remainder of I'quiU'S fxlrnnrd.
14, 14'. liemainder of c^ihorUs ixiraord.
15, 15'. Occasional siege troops (<i»xilki) or allies.
From E '2 to E5 along the Via Principalis, tents of the
legionary tribunes and praefecti sociorum.
Through A (fig. 302) draw a straight line A© A , ,
parallel to the direction of the arrow, and a
straight line Bo B, at right angles to A,-, A,.
These two straiglit lines, Ao A, and B,, Bi,
served as the bases by which tlie position of all
the different divisions of the camp were de-
termined. In the technical language of land
measurement [AgrimetatioJ, these two lines
L
146
CASTRA
were called respectively decumarius maxiinus
;ind cardo (or kardo) maximus. The camp
theoretically looked east, but as a matter of fact
usually faced the enemy.
Draw straight liues parallel to Aq A,, and to
Bo B,, at the distances marked on fig. 302. The
area determined by the exterior lines O O', O Z,
Z Z', Z' O is the camp, forming a square, each
side of which measures 2150 feet. The lines
thus drawn served to mark the limits of the
areas allotted to the various contingents of the
army encamped.
We now proceed to explain the arrangement
of the different parts, referring to fig. 303, in
which the lines no longer necessary are oblite-
rated, the spaces occupied by troops or officers
enclosed by lines, and the streets [viae) laid
•down. In practice the most important points
were marked by white poles, some of which
bore flags of various colours, so that the differ-
ent battalions on reaching the ground could
at once discover the place assigned to them.
The white flag A, which served as the start-
ing point of the whole construction, marked the
position of the consul's tent, or praetoriitm.
The square area C.> D5 (fig. 302) was left open,
extending a hundred feet each way from the
praetorium.
The number of legions being two and the
number of tribunes in each being six, their tents
were arranged six and six at equal distances
along the line Eo E| (fig. 302), i.e. on the west
side of the Via Principalis (see below), exactly
opposite to and looking towards the legions
to which they belonged. Tlie space of fifty feet
immediately behind the tents of the tribunes
was appropriated to their horses, beasts of
burden, and baggage.
The ten areas marked 1 (fig. 303) were set
apart for the cavalry of one legion, and the corre-
sponding ten areas marked 1' for the cavalry of
the other legion. These all faced towards the
street P P' ; and each area, containing a space
of 10,000 square feet, was allotted to one turma
or troop of 30 troopers, with their horses and
baggage. Such long rows were called .s^n'^rae:
rows at right angles to these were called in
surveyors' language scamna. Agrimetatio.]
Back to back with the cavalry, and looking
out upon the streets R S, R' S', the Triarii of
tlie two legions were quartered in the areas 2
and 2'. Each area contained 5000 square feet,
and was allotted to a maniple of 60 men ; hence,
according to the calculation here followed, a
trooper and his horse were allowed as much
space as four foot-soldiers.
In the areas marked 3 and 3' facing the Triarii
were quartered the Principes of the two legions.
In the areas marked 4 and 4', back to back
with the Principes, were quartered the Hastati
of the two legions.
Facing the legionary Hastati, in the areas
marked 5 and 5', were the cavalry of the allies.
The total number was 900 to each legion, but
300 of these were separated under the name
of extraordinarii (iwiKeKToi), and quartered
in a different part of the camp. Consequently,
each of the spaces 5 and 5' was calculated
to accommodate sixty troopers with their
horses.
Back to back with the cavalry of the allies,
the infantry of the allies were quartered in the
areas marked 6 and (>'.
The open space immediately behind the tents
and baggage of the tribunes, extending to the
right and left of the space allotted to the general,
was probably assigned on one side to the quaes-
t avium and its appliances, and on the other to
a forum. They are marked 7 and 8.
Still further to the right and left in 9, 10, 9',
10', looking respectively towards the quaesto-
rium and the forum, were a body of cavalry
selected (aTrc/AeKToi) from the extraordinarii
eqiiites, and a body of cavalry serving as volun-
teers out of compliment to the general.
Back to back with these, looking towards the
rampart, in 11, 12, and 11', 12', were quartered
the foot-soldiers belonging to the same classes
as the cavalry just named. In the camp, as
well as on the march, these troops were always
near the person of the consul and of the
quaestor, and served as a sort of body-guard to
them.
In 13, 13', were quartered the remainder of
. the extraordinarii equites. Back to back with
these, and facing the ramparts in 14, 14', were
the remainder of the extraordinarii pcdites.
The spaces marked 15, 15' were assigned to
J foreign troops {auxilia) or to irregular bodies
! of allies.
The form of the camp was an exact square,
the length of each side being 2150 Roman feet.
The space left clear between the rampart^
and the tents (intervallum) was 200 feet, to
I facilitate the marching in and out of the soldiers
without crowding or confusion. Here, also,
cattle and other booty were kept and guarded.
Tlie principal street, stretching right across
in front of the tents of the tribunes, was 100
feet wide and called Via Principalis (Liv. x. 33),
so called because the chief officers, principes,
had their quarters there. The main portion of
this street, that in close proximity to the tents
of the tribunes, was called Principia, which
term was properly applied to the officers'
quarters themselves. The central portion of
the Via Principalis was also ca.W.edt. Praetoriniv .
Further east, between A^^and A" (fig. 302), ran
a roiid fifty feet wide, called the Via Quintan' i
(lience the modem word canteen). The widtli
of the remaining five viae in the fore-part of
the camp, all of which intersect the Via Quin-
tana at right angles, was fifty feet each.
\Vlien two consular armies encamped to-
gether within the same rampart, two ordinary
camps were applied to each other, as it were, at
the ends nearest to their respective praetorift, ;
the decuman gate in each camp disappearing.
In this distribution no mention is made of the
Velites, a certain number of whom were attached
to each division of the legions. It is probable
that the Velites occupied the whole line of the
ramparts, and especially that part of the ram-
parts in front which faced the enemy- We may
suppose that a considerable proportion of them
were used for the large outposts (stationes) out-
side the camp (Liv. xxi. 4, § 7), and that the
Velites sei-ved both inside the camp to man the
wall and outside as pickets.
Witli regard to the fortifications of the camp,
it is stated that the digging of the ditch ami
the formation of the rampart upon two sides
of the camp was assigned to the Socii, each
division taking that side along which it was
quartered; while the two remaining sides wci-e
in like manner completed by the legionaries,
one by each legion. The defences consisted of
a ditcii (/ossa'l, the earth from which was thrown
inwards, and formed, along with turf and stones,
into a mound {agger), on the summit of wliich,
on the outer edge, a strong palisade of wooden
stakes (slides, valli) was fixed forming the ram-
part. [Vallum.] The average measurements
were, for the ditch, fifteen feet, and, for the
CASTRA
147
vallum, ten feet liigh and ten feet broad; but
this must have varied according to circum-
stances.
The openings in the vallum were four :
(1) Porta Principalis dcxtra, and (2) Porta
Principalis sinistra, at the two extremities of
tlie street called Via Principalis; (3) Porta
Praetoria ; (4) Porta Decumana or Qiiaes-
toria (Liv. xxxiv. 47, xl. 27). (3) and (4) were
at the extremities of the decumanus uiaxiinus;
and probably in the positions marked in the
plan. The Porta Deciiinana was that which
was turned away from the enemy (Liv. x. 32),
and the Porta. Praetoria that which faced
them. The relative position of the four gates
is disputed, but that given in the plan appears
to be the niost probable.
We proceed to notice various particulars con-
nected with the internal discipline of the camp.
1. Tlie Camp Oath. — When an army en-
camped for the first time, the tribunes admin-
istered an oath to each individual quartered or
employed within its limits, slaves as well as
freemen, to the effect that he would steal
nothing out of the camp, but if he chanced to
find any property that he would bring it to
the tribunes. This engagement, once made,
was no doubt considered as binding during the
whole campaign.
2. Distribution of Duty among the Officers.
In each legion the tribunes divided themselves
into three sections of two each, and each sec-
tion in turn undertook for two months the
superintendence of all matters connected with
the camp. One tribune in eacli section pro-
bably assumed the chief command upon alter-
nate days, or perhaps during alternate months
(Liv. xl. 41, § 8).
3. Officers' parade. — Every morning at day-
break, the centurions and the equites waited on
the tribunes, and the tribunes in like manner
presented tliemselves at the praetorium. The
orders for the day were then issued by the
general to the tribunes, communicated by them
to the centurions and equites, and so reached
the soldiers.
4. Guards, Sentinels, d-c. — Out of the twenty
maniples of Principes and Hastati in each
legion, two were appointed to take charge of
the Via Principalis. The main part of the
centre of this road, the Principia, was the place
of general resort during the day. The tribunes
heard complaints and administered justice (Liv.
xxviii. 24, § 10) in the principia; and here
punishments were inflicted. Here also was the
altar, in front of the praetorium. At the north-
east angle of the praetorium facing the Via
Principalis (Cj in fig. 303) was the tribunal
(Liv. viii. 32, § 2), and at the south-east angle
(C^ in fig. 303) the augurale (Tac. Ann. ii. 13)
or auguratorium. Tlie Via Principalis was
accordingly an important place, and great pains
wei"e taken that it sliould be kept perfectly
clean and regularly watered.
The remaining eighteen maniples of Prin-
cipes and Hastati in each legion were assigned
by lot to each of tlie six tribunes. Each maniple
in turn took charge of the tent and baggage
•of its tribune, and furnished two guards of four
men each, who kept watch. Four was the
regular number for a Roman guard, one of whom
acted as sentinel (cf. Act. Apost. xii. 4).
One maniple was selected in rotation each
day from the whole legionary force, to keep
guai'd beside the tent of the general. Sentinels
were posted at the tents of the quaestor and
.the legati.
The Velites, besides furnishing men for the
outlying pickets (siationcs), also mounted guard
by day and by night along the whole extent of
the vallum ; and to them in bodies of ten was
committed the charge of the gates.
Exruhiae, exciihias agere, excubare are the
general terms used with reference to mountmg
guard, whether by night or by day, but usually
by day. The day watches were probably changed
twice a day (Liv. xliv. 33). Vigiliae, vigilias
agere, vigilare are restricted to night duty.
Stationes are the advanced posts thrown for-
ward in front of the gates; custodes or
custodiae the parties who watched the gates
themselves; prarsidia the sentinels on the
rann)arts ; but all these words are employed in
other significations also.
5. Going the Rounds. — The duty of going the
rounds {vigilias circuniirc) was committed to
the equites, four of whom were chosen each
day to visit all the guards in succession. Any
sentinel found asleep on his post was liable to
the punishment of Fustuarlum. If he could
prove his innocence, the punishment fell upon
his accusers ; and, in point of fact, the guards
were hardly ever neglected. Sometimes we
find centurions (Tac. Hist. ii. 29), tribunes (Liv.
xxviii. 24, § 8), and even the general-in-chief
(Sail. Dig. 45), represented as going the rounds ;
but under ordinary circumstances the duty was
performed as we have described.
6. Watchword. — The watchword for the night
was not communicated verbally, but by means
of a small rectangular tablet of wood [tessera),
upon which it was written. These tesserae,
given by the tribunes, were taken through the
whole series of guards, and returned to the
tribune, who had himself received the word
from the commander in chief.
7. Breaking up a. Camp. — On the first signal
being given by the trumpet, the tents were all
struck and the baggage packed [vasa colligere),
the tents of the general and the tribunes being
disposed of before the others were touched. At
the second signal the baggage was placed upon
the beasts of burden ; at the third, the whole
army began to move.
Josephus (born a.d. 37), in his account of the
Jewish War, takes special notice of the Roman
encampments, chiefly Castra Stativa. His ac-
count agrees in the main with that of Polybius.
II. Camp of Hyginus.
The camp described by Hyginus [de Muni-
tionibus Castrornm) dates from about 230 a.d.,
and represents a state of things entirely differ-
ent from that of Polybius. The following
short description will serve to explain the
figure.
A complete Roman army did not now con-
sist of Legiones Romanae cum Sociis, or of
Legiones cum Sociis et Auxiliis, but of Le-
giones cum Supiplemcntis, the term Supjjle-
menta including various foreign and barbarous
troops, designated by their respective national
names. The camp (castra acstivalia) described
by Hyginus contained three legions witli tlieir
supplements, not less than 40,000 men ; and
the space allotted to them is far smaller pro
portionately than under the ancient republican
system.
The point from wliich the whole of the
measurements proceeded is marked with a
small cross, and was called Groma, an instru-
ment analogous to the modem cross staff, plane
table and level.
The general form of tlie enclosure was an
l2
148
CASTRA
oblong, the two longer sides being at equal
distances from the Groma, rounded off at the
angles, 2320 feet in length by 1620 feet in
breadth.
The Groma stood in the middle of the princi-
pal street (Via Principalis), which was sixtj'
feet wide, extendmg right across the camp, with
the two Portae Principulcs at its extremities.
The two remaining gates were the Pc/i-ta Prae-
toria, that nearest to the enemy, and the
Porta Dec uinayia, find tliesewere placed in the
centre of the two shorter sides of the oblong.
PORTA PRAEToaiA
1 1
SAGd^ARiS
1
5
TENTURA
I PRINCIPALIS <n J
^ 2 3l
PRAETORII
QUINTANA >
PORTA DECUMANA
Scale of Feet
9 190 , 300 _ 59
Fig. 301.— Plan of a Roman camp about 200 A. P.
1. Groma.
2. Ar,i^.
3. Auyumlorium (or Auguralr, Tac. Ann. xv. 301, where the
Imperator took tho aaapices.
i. TribuKtil. an elevated platform made of turf or stone.
[Tribunal, Suggestus.l
.'). I'lilrliiiliniirium, or hospital for sick soldiers.
G. VeU'iiiiiiiiiim. or hospital fi>r sick horses.
7. Fabricii, or workshops of carpenters and armourers.
The gates were double. The portals seem to
have been covered with urclies of stone, and
liad guard-chambers on each side. Immedi-
ately behind the Groina, a rectangular space,
720 feet long by 180 broad, was set apart for
the commander-in-chief, and termed Prae-
toriiDii. Beliind the Praetorium a street called
Via Qiiintatia, forty feet wide, extended across
the camp parallel to the Via Principalis.
The camp was divided into sections by the
Via Principalis and the Via Quintana. Of these
sections that nearest to the Porta Praetoria
was called Praetentura', the central section,
Latera Practorii; that nearest to the Porta
Decumana, lietentiira.
The legiones were quartered by cohorts next
to the rampart all round the camp, encircling
completely witli tlieir lines the masses of
foreigners, who, with the imperial guards,
formed the supplementa.
A clear space of 60 feet {intervalhnn) was
left between the tents of the legionaries and the
ramparts, and they were separated from the
quarters of the other troops, whom they sur-
rounded, by a street called tlie Via Sagularis,
which ran completely round the camp. Tlie
remaining streets were comprehended under
the general name Viae Vicinariae s. Vicinal cs,
and their breadth was 20 feet.
CATARACTA
The defences of a camp might be (1) Fossa ;
(2) Vallum; (a) Cervoli; (4) Anna.
(1) The Fossa might be of two kinds: (a) The
Fossa fastigata, with both sides sloping, so as
to form a wedge ; ov (b) the Fossa Pnnica, oi
which the outer side was vertical, the inner side
sloping, as in the fossa fastigata. The breadth
was not less than 5 feet, the depth 3 feet.
(2) The Vallum was formed of earth and
turf, or of stone, 6 feet in height, 8 feet broad.
(3) When the nature of the ground did not
admit of the construction of a sufficient vallum,
then a chevaux de frise [cervoli) was substi-
tuted.
(4) When neither a vallum nor Cervoli could
be employed, the camp was surromided by a
ring of armed men four deep, numerous sentries
were posted, and the cavalry patrolled in everj-
direction.
We may conclude with a few words upon the
number and arrangement of the tents.
A double row of tents (papiliones) facing
each other, pointing east and west, with a space
'; between for pilmg the arms of the soldiers and
I for receiving the beasts of biu'den and the bag-
; gage, was termed Striga. The normal breadth
of a Striga was 60 feet.
I A full legionary century (plena centuria),
consisted of 80 men, who occupied ten papiliones.
The length allowed for each papilio was 12 feet.
, Eight men occupied a tent, and formed a con-
I tubcrnium.
For the cavalry a single row {hemistrigium)
was assigned to forty men, i.e. two troopers
had as much space as five foot-soldiers.
I The term Castra was also applied to per-
' maneut fortified barracks occupied by Roman
armies in the provinces. The general dispo-
I sition of these resembled that of an ordinary
' camp, but tliey were surrounded with high
walls and towers in place of the vallum and
I fossa.
The Castra Praetoria was a square castle,
erected by Tiberius on the Viminal Hill, for the
, accommodation of the Praetoriae Cohortes. A
' great part of its walls still remains standing.
j KaTd\o70S. The catalogue of those persons
in Athens who were liable to regular military
1 service. At Athens, those citizens alone who
I possessed a certain amount of property were
I allowed to serve in the regular infantry, whilst
1 the drjres had not this privilege. Thus the
I former are called ot in KaTa\6yov arpaTtvovTes,
j and the latter oi e^oo tov KaTa\6yov. (Xen.
I Hell. ii. 3, § 20.) Those who were exempted by
i their age from military service are called by
I Demosthenes (de Synt. p. 107, § 4) ol vvkp rhv
KaTa.\oyov.
KaTa\vff£(i)s tov S-njiOV 7pa(}>ii. See
Aiipendix, Gkeek L.\w.
I Cataphracti (KaTa.<ppaKroi). [Anns and
I Armour.]
Catapira'tes (-er or -a ; KOTaTreiprjTrjpiTj, Hdt.
j ii. 5, 28). A sotmding lead. The lead was
1 covered with grease, so that specimens of the
kind of bottom might attach to it. The unit of
I measurement in soundings was a fathom
1 (opyvia) : see Act. Apost. xxvii. 28. ' To sound '
j is PoKi^fiv; jSoAi's and ij.o\v05aiva (II. xxiv. 80)
are also used.
Catapulta, [Tormentum.]
Cataracta (Karappd/CTTjs). (1) A portcullis.
This contrivance was in use in Italy in very
early times, as well as in Greece (Hdt. v. 16).
The ropes by which it was raised or lowered
were called ava<rTra<TTr)pi.a and x''^'"''''"''P'" > '^
was hung outside the regular gate (cf. Liv.
KATA2KOnH2 rPA*H
xxvii. 28). In fig. 305, A, A, sliows the posi-
tion of the gates turning on pivots [CardoJ.
This end of the road was nearest to the town.
-p^^^
CAULAE
149
/ N
>.— Plan of a gate at Pompeii.
The portcullis was at B, B, and was made to
slide in grooves cut in the walls.
(2) A boarding bridge, something like the
Corvus of Duiliiis.
(3) A sluice, or perhaps a weir with hatches
or sluices in it for regulating the height of the
water (Plin. Sp. x.
69).
K a T aa KoirTi s
ypa.<^r[ . See Appen-
dix, Greek Law.
Catasta. [Ser-
vus.]
Cateia. [Arms
and Armour.]
Catena, dim. Ca-
tella (a\v(Tis). A
chain. [Compes.]
The true chain in
which the metal
links are joined to-
gether by soldering
can be traced as far
back as the eighth
century B.C. In the
classi<'al period the
axt of chain-making
was as well under-
stood as in modern
times, and the variety of patterns was as
greskt.
Fig. 306.— Catena, chain.
(British Museum. i
soldiers (Liv. xxxiv. 31), but they wore com-
monly worn by women (Hor. Up. i. 17, 55),
either on the neck, round the waist, or over one
shoulder. They were used to suspend pearls,
or jewels set in gold, keys, lockets, and other
trinkets.
Cathedra (Kade'Spa). (1) A seat; more par-
ticularly a seat with a back but no arms.
Fig. .S07.— Catena : chain links. (British Museum.)
Chains of delicate workmanship or valuable
material are connnonly called catellae. Such
chains were sometimes given as rewards to the
iig. 308.— Cathedra, chair. (From a Greels vase.1
whereas the sella had neither. The back was
usually curved or hollow.
(2) Cathedra longa, a chaise loiigue or easy
chair ; and cathedra supina or reclining
chair. These were often made of wicker-work
(Plin. xvi. 174). The cathedra was more
used by women than by
men (Mart. iii. 63 ; Hor.
Sat. i. 10, 91). The seat
was not stuffed, but a
cushion was commonly
placed ujion it {strata,
Juv. ix. 51), and a cover
might also be thrown
over the back.
(3) A sedan-chair, in
which women were car-
ried about, instead of in
a lectica.
(4) A professorial chair
(Juv. vii. 203; Mart. i.
77).
(5) A bishop's throne.
Cati'nus or Cati'num, dim. Catillus or
Catillum. (1) A deep disli, generally of
earthenware (Hor. Ep. i. 5, 2).
(2) A pie-dish, in which food was both cooked
and sei-ved (Plant. Pseud, iii. 2, 51).
(3) A dish for carrying incense (Suet. Galb.
18).
CafiUns was a saucer for pickles or other
condiments (Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 75). Tlie word is
also used for the upper or concave stone (ovos)
of a mill. [Mola.]
Other kinds of dishes and plates are described
under Absis, Patina, Paropsis, Lanz, n ivag,
Scutula, lie.
Caulae (inavSpa). (1) Hui'dles or wattled en-
closures for cattle (Verg. Aen. ix. (iO; Theocr.
iv. 61). (2) = Cancelli. In particular, the
grated doors which enclosed the temple of
Janus are so called.
150
CAUPO
Caupo. An innkeeper who lodged travellers
in his house, and was responsible for the safe
custody of their property while remaining there.
(1) He was answerable for custodia, and not
merely for culpa.
(2) He was answerable for theft of such pro-
perty by his employes or slaves, and for all
damage done to it bj' them while under his
charge. The i^enalty in this case was double
the value of the property stolen, or double the
loss occasioned by damage.
Caupo'na signified: (1) an inn, where tra-
vellers obtained food and lodging; in which
sense it answered to tlie Greek words iravZoKuov,
Korayuyioi', and KaraKvcT IS. (2) A shop, where
wine and ready-dressed meat were sold ; in
Greek KaTrT)\eiov. The person who kejit a cau-
pona was called caupo or copo ; a hostess is
copa.
(1) Greek Inns. — In the earliest ages of
Greece, there was no provision for the entertain-
ment of travellers, and the duty of hospitality
was universally acknowledged [Hospitlum].
The growth of traffic rendered inns necessary.
The great number of festivals celebrated in
Greece must have required a considerable
number of inns to accommodate strangers, and
posting-houses.
The accommodation provided was mean, and
the character both of the houses and of their
landlords was very indifferent. The higher
classes used these -KavZoKiia as little as possible ;
yet the public ambassadors of Athens were
sometimes constrained to lodge and even to
transact diplomatic business in them (Dem.
F. L. p. 390, § 158).
(2) Eating-hounes. — KairijA.or signifies in
general a retail trader (cf. Ar. Plat. 115G ; Dera.
c. Didnysod. p. 1285, § 7). The term, however,
is particularly applied to a person who sold
ready-dressed provisions, and especially wine on
draught. These Kain\\ua were not resorted to
as clubs (A.e(rxo(, eraipeia.), but merely for
drinking ; and hence were extremely disreput-
able. (Isocr. Areop. § 41); Plat. Legg. xi.
p. 918.)
(S) Roman Inns. — A Roman wayside inn for
the reception of travellers was called not only
caupona but also taherna, dcversoriuni and
taberna deversoria. Along all tlie great roads
of Italy there were inns (Hor. Sat. i. 5). They
were built as a speculation by neighbouring
proprietors, and either let or managed by slaves.
They usually included a st<ibidum for horses
and mules. Ambassadors were usually received
at the public expense in decent lodgings
riegatusj (cf. Liv. xlv. 22; Cic. Cluent. 59,
CELLA
accommodate strangers, but they are hardly
ever spoken of. We, however, find frequent
mention of restaurants or trattoi'ie, where wine
and ready-dressed provisions were sold, and
which appear to have been numerous in all
parts of the city. These were called almost
indiscriminately caitponae, popinae, the7~mo-
polia, and tahernae vinariac. [Calda.] They
were principally frequented by slaves and the
lower classes (Cic. Mil. 24, § 65 ; Hor. Ep. i. 14,
21, Sat. i. 5, 73, ii. 4, 62 ; Mart. v. 70).
From the moral point of view the Roman
inns, whether lodging-houses or mere drink-
shops, were no better than the Greek. Tliey
are called ganeae (Cic. Pis. 6, § IB; Ter. Ad.
iii. 3, 5 (ganeum) ; cf. Cic. Phil. xiii. 11 ; Liv.
xxvi. 2).
Under the emperors many unsuccessful
attempts were made to regulate the popinae
(Suet. Tib. 34, Claud. 38).
Cau'sia. A broad-brimmed felt hat, part
of the national costume of the Macedonians
and neighbouring nations {e.g. the Illyrians,
Plaut. Trill, iv. 2, 10). The name is derived
from its keeping off the heat of the sun
{Kavais, Kavawv); it was also a protection
against bad weather generally, and served as a
helmet (cf. Plaut, Trin. iv. 2, 9, Mil. Gl. iv. 4,
42, a sailor's hat). A purple {a\ovpry4\s) causia
Fig. :U1.— Hermes wearint;
the Cuusia. U'rom .\.
Kctile vase.)
^^m
w^
I\J. 310.— A wiue-shop. (From a painting at; fompeU.)
§ 123, Phil. ii. 31, § 77). The accommodation
at these places was generally poor, but cheap.
At Rome there must have been many inns to
i'ig. .312.— Royal Causia. with
diadem. (From a Macedo-
nian coin, c. IHO B.C.)
was worn regularly by the Macedonian kings as
part of the royal costume ; the diadem or white
scarf was wTapped round it and the ends hung
down behind. (See the second illustration.)
These red hats were sometimes distributed as
the highest militar>' decoration (Plut. Eum. 8
fin.). They were sometimes
worn at Rome (cf. Plaut.
Mil. iv. 4, 42; Pers. i.
3, 75).
Cautio. See Appendix,
Roman Law.
Cavae'dium. [Domus.]
Ca'vea. il) [Theatrum.J
(2) A cage, especialh' the
coop in which the sacred
cliickens were kept (see
j cut under Augur).
(3) A wicker frame for Fig. 813.-Cavea or coop
drying clothes (see cut ArcitfoD
under Fullo).
KedSa; or KaidSac. [BdpaBpov.]
I Cel'eres. According to Li^-y (i. 15, 8), a body-
guard of 800 chosen by Romulus to attend him
I in peace and war ; probably cavalry.
I The celercs were under the command of
I three tribuni celeruni. who bore the same rela-
tion to the cavalry as the three tribuni militum
to the infantrj".
I Cella. (1) In its primary sense, cella means
a store-room whether cella penaria or penu-
aWa, where all kinds of provisions {peinis) were
CELOX
stored (Cic. Sen. 10, 56) ; cella j)romptnaria,
promptuarium, or promwm, the larder, where
meat and other things required for immediate
consumption were kept (Plaut. Ampli. i. 1, 4) ;
cnlla olearia or olearis, the magazine of an
oUve-yard, in which the oil was stored ; or cella
vinaria, in which the new wine was kept in
dolia or cupae, imbedded in sand, while older
wine was put into amphorae and matured in
the apotheca. The cella vinaria was partly
luiderground.
The slave in charge of these stores was called
rellarins (Plaut. Capt. iv. 2, 115), or j^romus
(Hor. Sat. ii. 2, 16), who had under him a sub-
promus (Plaut. Mil. Glor. 3, 2, 21).
(2) Any number of small rooms clustered
together like the cells of a honeycomb (Verg.
Georg. iv. 161), or the niches of a dovecote or
poultry- house, were also termed celiac. Hence
CENA
151
feast. The bards {aoiSoi) sang the deeds of
heroes, and dancing and tumblers (Svo Kvfii-
(TTTJpe) are introduced {0<l. iv. 18).
Beef, mutton, pork, and goat's flesh were the
ordinary meats, generally (saten roasted, though
sometimes boiled (//. xxi. 3()3). Fisliand fowls
were almost unknown. After dinner the to/xji;
and S/xwai removed the remains (Od. vii. 60).
Many sorts of wine are mentioned, notably the
Maronean and the Pramneian. A small quantity
was poured into each guest's cup to make a
libation with (firap^dij.ft'oi Seird.fcrfftt') before
the wine was served out for drinking. The
guests drank to each other (5€i5i(T/f6(r6loj : Od.
iii. 40, II. ix. 225) ; the tongues of the animals
were thrown into the fire ; and a second liba-
tion to the gods closed the repast [Od. iii. 332).
''Epauos {Od. i. 220) is a meal where all the
guests contributed a share ; eiAoTriVrj a solemn
the name was applied to the dormitories of ' banquet ; Zai-. is a general term
laves (Cic. PhiL'n. 27, 67; Hor. Sat.L 8, 9),
to the bedrooms of an inn, a poor man's garret
(Mart. vii. 20, 21), &c. Cella ostiarii (cellula
ianitoris, Suet. Vitell. 10) is the porter's lodge.
(3) In the baths. [Balneae.]
(4) The interior of a temple — that is, the part
included within the outside shell, (ttjkos (see
the lower woodcut in Antae) — was also called
cella (Cic. Phil. iii. 12, 30). [Templum.]
Celox. [Navis.]
Cena, less correctly Coena (5e?7ryo>'). The
jirincipal meal of the Greeks and Romans, cor-
responding to our dinner rather than supper.
1. Gbeek. — In the Homeric poems kings and
private men all partake of the same food. Royal
personages prepare their own meals {II. ix.
206-218, Od. XV. 322 ; cf. Gen. xxvii. 31).
Three names of meals occur in the Iliad and
Odyssey — apiarov, Sf7-rryov, SSpirov or Sopiros.
The word upicnov uniformly means the early
{Od. xvi. 2), as h6pTTov does the late meal; but
beiirvov, generally the mid-day meal, is some-
times used where we should expect apiarov
{Od. XV. 397) or even Zopnov {Od. xvii. 170).
In the Homeric age it was usual to sit, not
recline, at table. Each guest had generally his
own table (but see Od. i. 138, 11. xxiv. 625, ix.
216), and an equal share of food was placed
before each (Sals fiffTj), except when a specially
distinguished guest was honoured by getting a
larger portion {II. vii. 321, Od. xiv. 437). The
Homeric dinners partake more or less of the
nature of a sacrifice, beginning with a prayer
and an offering of part of the meat to the gods
{Od. xiv. 440, II. ix. 219), and both beginning
and ending with a libation of wine {Od. iii. 40,
xix. 447), while the terms upeveiv {11. vi. 174),
iepijta {Od. xiv. 250), are borrowed from the
language of religious ceremony.
0V61J/ does not seem to be used in Homer for
slaying victims, but only for sacrificing dTrapx""'
(see Merry on Od. ix. 231).
The description of Euniaeus's dinner to
Odysseus {Od. xiv. 420 sqq.) gives us a good pic-
ture of a dinner in the Homeric age in humble
society. The tables and trestles wei"e brought
in by the slaves ; the host himself is the SatTp6s.
With this may be compared the dinner given
by Achilles to Odysseus {II. ix. 219 sqq.).
The guests sit on chairs {Od. vii. 203).
Women are present, but do not eat with the
men.
Before eating, a servant brings the xept''>J')Or
lustral water, ' in a golden pitcher, pouring it
The Greeks of a later age usually partook of
three meals, called d/cpdricr/xa, apiarov, and
Se7iryov.
'AKpaTifffxa was taken immediately after rising
in the morning {i^ evvris, ewOfv, Ar. Av. 1286).
It usually consisted of bread dipped in unmixed
{ixKparos) wine, whence it derived its name.
Apiarov (Lat. 2"'«"f^^"W') oi" luncheon, a
simple meal (Xen. Oecon. xi. 18) was taken
about the middle of the day. The Trh-iidova-a.
ayopd, at which provisions seem to have been
bought for the apiarov, lasted from about 9 a.m.
till noon ; and the dpi (Ttov followed it (Ar. Vesp.
005-612).
The principal meal was the helirvov. It was
usually taken rather late in the day, frequently
not before sunset (Lys. de Caed. Eratosth. §
22 ; Ar. Eccl. 652).
The Athenians were fond of dining in com-
pany, and dining clubs ("Epavos) were very
common, the members of which contributed each
a certain sum of money, called avfjifioKT) {a-rrb
ffv^jL^oXwv huTTVi'iv: ci. Ter. Eun. iii. 4; Horn.
Od. i. 226), or brought their own i^rovisions with
them. When the latter i^lan was adopted,
they were said airh (nrvpiSos Senrve7v, because
the provisions were brought in baskets (Xen.
Mem. iii. 14, § 1 ; cf. Eur. Med. 103).
When a person invited his friends to his
own house, it was expected that they should
4UM MAJUUlMM
Fig. 314.— Slave Inking off the shoes ol a guest.
(Hritisn Musouiii.)
over a silver vessel ' {Od. i. 130). Music (<pop/j.iy^, j
fioKiry), Od. xvii. 270, i. 152) is a common ] come dressed with more than ordinary care,
accompaniment {avdOrifia) {Od. i. 152) of the and also have bathed shortly before (Plat
152
CENA
Hymp. 174 a). It was not unusual to bring
uninvited {&K\r)Toi, Plat. Sipiip. )). 174 b)
guests to a friend's house, a custom which
produced the Parasite, a stock character in
the New Comedy. As soon as tlie guests
arrived at the house of their host, their shoes
or sandals were taken off by the slaves, and
their feet washed [vtroXvuv and airovi^nv).
After their feet had been washed, the guests
reclined on the K\7vai or couches {KaraKiiaOai,
KaraKXiveiv, Plat. Sijmp. 175 a, 176 a ; avaKita-
Oat, late Greek and N. T.). Women, when ad-
mitted to banquets on extraordinary occasions,
such as a marriage, took the sitting posture,
and so did the children (Xen. Symp. i. 8 ; Arist.
Pol. vii. 17, p. 133G b, 9). The Roman custom
was the same.
It was usual for only two persons to recline
on each couch. (Plat. Symj}. p. 175 a, c.)
The chief place, i.e. the first on the left,
was taken by the host. The manner in which
they reclined will be understood by referring to
the woodcut under Symposium, where the
guests are represented reclining with their
left arms on pillows {virayKwvia, fir' ayKoivos
^eiirvfiv. cf. Ar. Vesp. 1210).
The slaves now brought in water to wash
tlie hands of the guests (u'Soip Kara. xeipt>s tovvai);
this was also called aTrovi^nv (airovi^effOai) ; and
tlien the dinner was served up, the expression
for which was ra^ rpaTrefas fl(r<pepfLv (Ar.
]rsp. 1'21(5), i.r. not merely tlie dishes {iriyaKfs,
HayiSes) but the tables themselves. A small
table, with provisions upon it, was placed before
each K\iin).
In eating, the Greeks, like the Romans,
made use of their fingers only, except in the case
of soups or other liquids, which they partook of
by means of a spoon {fjLVffTpov), or a piece of
bread scooped out in the shape of a spoon
(/ui/tTTtAtj, Ar. Eq. 1104). Plates (irivaKts) were
used. [See Coclear, Ligula.] After eating,
tliey wiped their fingers on pieces of bread,
called airofxay^aXiai (Ar. Eq. 415.) Napkins
{Xftp6iJiaKTpa) were not used till the Roman
l)eriod.
The arrangement of the dinner was entrusted
to certain slaves (Plat. Symp. p. 175 li). The
one who had the chief management of it was
called Tpaire(^oTrot6s or rpaTrf(^oK6fios. The
Greek word for a menu was ypa/nfj-aTiSiov.
The most common food among the Greeks
was the fia^a, a kind of frumenty or soft cake,
prepared in different ways. Wheaten or barley
bread was the second most usual species of
food. The vegetables ordinarily eaten were
mallows {fxa\a.xv)t lettuces (flpi'Safl, cabbages
{lid<pavot), beans (Kvafiot), lentils ((paKds), &c.
Pork was the most favourite animal food, as
was the case among the Romans. Sausages
were very commonly eaten. Fish also was one
of the most favourite foods of the Greeks, so
that the name of o\pou was applied to it /cot'
f^ox-fiv-
The ordinary meal for the family was cooked
by the mistress of the house, or by the female
slaves under her direction ; but for special
occasions professional cooks (fidyeipot) were
hired. The Sicilian cooks had the greatest
reputation (Plat. Bep. iii. p. 404 D, Gorg. p.
518 b). See CoCQS.
A dinner given by an opulent Athenian usu-
ally consisted of two courses, called respec-
tively npwrai and Sevrfpai Tpa.Tre(ai. The first
course included fish, poultry, meat, &c. (fSea-
juoTo) ; the second, or dessert (Tpa>7aA.io,
TpayiifiiaTa, bellaria), consisted of different
kinds of fruit, sweetmeats, confections, &c. The
Roman first course of salads, vegetables, &c.,
was unknown to the early Greeks.
When the first course was finished, the tables
were taken away {atpeii', fK<pipfiv, ^affra^eiv
ras rpaiTfi^as), and water was given to the
guests for the purpose of washing tlieir hands
(a.irovi^ea'dai) with soap (ffixrifju, viTpov, yrj).
Garlands of flowers were also then given to them
as well as various kinds of perfumes. Wine
was not drunk till the first course was finished ;
but as soon as the guests had washed their
hands, unmixed wine was produced in a large
goblet, called fifrdviirTpov or fieTavfirrpis, of
which each drank a little, after pouring out a
small quantitj' as a libation to the good spirit
{ayadov Saifiovos), which was usually accom-
j panied with the singing of the paean and the
' playing of flutes. Mixed wine wasthen brought
in, and with their first cup the guests drank to
I Zei/s SwT^p. (Xen. Symj). ii. 1 ; Plat. Symp. p.
I 176 A.) With the crirov^ai, the ^^lirvov closed ;
, and at the introduction of the dessert, the
iroTos, <TviJ.Tr6aiov, or Kufios commenced.
f [Symposium.]
2. Roman. — The Roman meals were ?e»^ac«-
lum, prandium, merenda, and cena.
lentaculum was a slight morning meal taken
' at different times by early and late risers ; but
generally about the third hour (Mart. viii. 67,
it, xiv. 233). The meal usually consisted of
bi'ead seasoned with salt or with honey and
dipped in wine, or of dates and olives. Bread
and cheese, and even meat, appear to have been
' sometimes taken (Mart. xiii. 31).
Among the primitive Romans noon was the
time for cena, which in later times was the
hour of prandium. This meal varied from a
piece of bread eaten in the hand (Senec. Ep.
j 83, 6) to an elaborate entertainment with hot
and cold fish, fowls and meat, vegetables
and fruit. The meats were rather savoury
: dishes than solids : e.g. kernels of pork (glan-
I dulae, glandia, Mart. vii. 20), ham, pig's-head,
I &c. (Piaut. Men. i. 8, 27, Capt. ii. 4, 7, &c).
' Wine (Tac. Ann. xiv. '2), hot wine and water
I (Mart. viii. 67, 7), and niulsum, a mixture of
wine and honey [Vinum] (Cic. Chietit. 60, 166)
were drunk at it.
Merenda was in ancient times an afternoon
meal given to workmen, and called antecenia.
li prandium wasnot taken at mid-day, 7werc«f?(t
was a \iiXe prandium in tlie afternoon.
The principal meal of the day was cena. It
was taken after the bath, about the ninth (Cic.
Fam. ix. 26 ; Mart. iv. 8, 6) or tenth hour (Mart,
ii. 7, 33, vii. 51, 11 ; cf. iii. 36, 5). These were
homely repasts : for the more fashionable ban-
quets were, the earlier they began {de die cenare,
Catull. xlvii. 5 ; see Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 8). The ceiia
lasted three or more hours (Plin. Ep. iii. 5, 18 ;
iii. 1, 9) ; often till late in the evening. Sym-
posia went on till midnight, and even morning
(Hor. Carm. iii. 21, 2^, et passim).
The ancient Romans used to sit at dinner ; but
in the times with which we are best acquainted,
the Romans usually dined in the atrium in the
circle of the family, the men reclining, the wife
sitting on the lectus, the children beside the
couches (Suet. Claud. 82), or on a lower couch
(Aug. 64), and with a separate and more frugal
table (Tac. Ann. xiii. 16) ; the subordinate
persons (Plaut. Capt. iii. 1, 11) and slaves
sitting on benches {suhsellia). There were, of
course, bachelor dinner-parties {e.g. Hor. Sat.
i.8).
Wealthy Romans built separate dining-rooms
CENA
153
[Tricliniumj. Sec also Lectus, Pulvinus, and j towards the end of tUe first centm-y a.d. tliat
Mensa. table-cloths began to be used (Mart. ix. 59, 7,
During the later Republic and Empire the xii. 29, 11).
number of guests at a private dinner-party was I The first part of the ccna was called ^jrom^/-
usually nine, sometimes less (Cic. Fin. '21, (il). \ sis, or gustatiu, (Justus; also frigida mensa
Uninvited guests (umbrae) were occasionally
brought (Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 22, Ep. i. 5, 28), or
perhaps a client was asked to fill up a place
Fig. 315.— .V Feast. (Vatican Virgil MS.)
(Juv. V. 17). The guests used to dress for
dinner ; the dinner dress (vestis cenatoria,
Mart. X. 87, 12, (ttoXti hdirviTLs) being generally
a light tunic of bright colour [prasina syn-
thesis. Mart. X. 29, 4, v. 79, 2). Sandals
(soleae) were generally worn in the house of
the host, but were taken off {demere snieas)
before reclining for the meal. They were taken
charge of by the guest's own footman (a j't'di-
bus), whom he brought with him, and who
waited on him at table (Plaut. True. ii. 4, 16 ;
Mart. xii. 88, 2). The regular expression for
rising from table was soleas poscere (Hor. Sat.
ii. 8, 77) ; also calceos poscere (Plin. Ep. ix. 17).
[Calceus.]
The places were pointed out to the guests by
the Nomenclator, and when they had taki.-n up
'"^""^^^^ „dB«l^
(i|/i»Xpoi rpdiTi^ai). It consisted mostly of hors
d'ccuure to whet the appetite, e.g. shell-fish
(Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 28), vegetables with savoury
sauces (Mart. iii. 50, 4), olives,
muslirooms (Juv. v. 147), also
eggs (hence ab ovo usque tid
mala, Hor. Sat. i. 3, 6, i.e. from
the beginning to the end of the
meal ; cf. Cic. Earn. ix. 20 ;
Mart. x. 48, 7, v. 78, 3). Th<'
drink was mulsum (Hor. Sat.
ii. 4, 26).
After this followed the cena
proper, which in early times
was tlic whole dinner (Mart. x.
48, 3). This part of the meal
consisted of several courses
(fercula, missus), sometimes as
many as six or seven (Suet.
Aug. 74; Juv. i. 94), but the
usual number was three (Mart.
xi. 31). Each course was
brought in on a tray (reposito-
riuiii), generally of wood, but
sometimes of silver, and the
arrangement of the viands on
each dish and of the dishes on these trays
was a branch of art (Juv. vii. 184), the
artist being called structor. The dinner was
arranged bj' a special majordomo called tri-
cliniarcha, with 'decuries' of sijecial servi
tricliniarii (cf. Plaut. Pseud, i. 2, 30). Between
the courses the table was wiped down (Hor.
Sat. ii. 8, 11), and the bits that had fallen
gathered up by the analecta (Mart. vii. 20, 17).
The career was ca\i.eAcarpt(>r,dirihitor, scissor
(Juv. xi. 137). To point out the peculiarity of
each dish was a part of the nomenclator's duty
(Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 43, &c.). After each course the
guests washed their hands (Mart. v. 78, 6).
For a description of luxurious dinner-parties,
see Becker-Goll, GuUus. sc. 9, and the Excur-
Fig. ,'ll(i
their reclining position (accumbere, discumhcre)
at table, water was brought round and poured
over the hands of each guest (Plaut. Pcrs. v. 1,
17), and the hands wiped in a towel or napkin
[Mantele, Mappa] provided by the host,
though sometimes brought by the guest, in
order to carry away the presents which the host
frequently gave [Apophoreta]. It was not till
tiumi'nli (Ml' InsU'Uito Archfnl.')
The bill of fare of a plain dinner is to be found
in Martial (x. 48). Wliile eating, wine was
usually drunk, but in small quantities (Hor.
Sat. ii. 8, 38). To enable the guests to consume
such dinners, vomiting was often resorted to
{emetica, Cic. Att. xiii. 52, 1).
After the tables were removed, offerings to
the gods {mola salsa, itc.) were thrown upon
154
CEXACULUM
the heartli; and when a, slave announced
that the gods (i.e. the Lai'es) were propitious,
silence for a short time was observed (Serv. ad
Aeii. i. 734). If the Lares were not in the
dining-room, they were carried in and placed
on the table (cf. Hor. Carm. iv. 5, 21), or a
special table with a salt-cellar and some meat
was placed before their slirine.
The dessert followed, jnensaesecundae (Hor.
Sat. ii. 2, 122), also called bellaria, impomenta,
ejndipnis (eiriSenrvis) (Mart. xi. 31). It con-
sisted of all sorts of pastry, fresh and dried
fruits, ajiples, grapes, itc The mensae secim-
dae formed the transition to tlie Coniissatio.
At distinguished dinner-parties the company
used to be amused in various ways. Tliese
amusements were called Acroamata (Cic.
Arch. 9, 20 ; Mart. v. 7», 25, iii. 44, 15 ; Juv.
X. 180). Poetry, too, and music used to be
introduced, sometimes choral and orchestral
performances (symphonia, Cic. Verr. iii. 44, 105 ;
Hor. A. P. 374). There were actors also, and
story-tellers (aretalogi, Suet. Aug. 74). Some-
times, also, tliere were girls to play, sing, and
dance (Liv. xxxix. 6 ; Hor. Sat. i. 2, 1), gymnasts
(petauristae), fools (morioncs). Formal speech-
making was unknown. These amusements were
produced during the cena and continued on
into the coniissatio, if such followed.
Cena'culum. [Domus.J
Cenotaph'iiun (KevoTd<piov, Kevhs rdcpos). A
cenotaph, i.e. an empty or lionorary tomb. It
was erected sometimes as a memorial of a per-
son buried elsewhere (Verg. Aeii. iii. 304) ; more
often in cases where the body had not been
found (Xen. A nab. vi. 4, § 9 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 505 ;
cf. Time. ii. 34, § 3; Eurip. Hel. 1057-60).
[Funus.J
Censor (tijUtjti^s). The name of two magis-
trates of liigii rank in the Roman Republic.
Their office was called Censura (TtixriTfia or
Tj/x7jT(ol. The Censiiti, a register of Roman
citizens and of their property, was first esta-
blished by Servius TuUius. After the expul-
sion of the kings it was taken by the consuls.
Censors were not appointed till the j-ear 443
B.C. The office was at first restricted to patri-
cians, but was probably thrown open to plebeians
by the Licinian laws of 367 B.C. and 351 B.C. C.
Marcius Rutilus, 351 B.C., was the first plebeian
censor (Liv. vii. 22). In 339 B.C. it was pro-
vided by one of the Publilian laws, that one
of the censors must necessarily be a plebeian,
and that both might be plebeians (Liv. viii. 12).
In 131 B.C. the two censors were for the first
time plebeians.
There were always two censors. If one of
the censors died during his term of office, his
colleague resigned, and two new censors were
chosen (Liv. vi. 27, ix. 34).
Both censors were elected on the same day
in tlie comitia centuriata held under the pre-
sidency of a consul (Liv. xl. 45). The comitia
were held by the consuls of the year very soon
after they had entered upon their office (Liv.
xxiv. 10). As a general rule the only persons
chosen for the office were those who had pre-
viously been consuls ; but a few exceptions
occur.
The censorship, unlike other Roman magis-
tracies, was not conferred for a definite period.
It could be lield witli another office. The
censors were appointed to discharge a special
duty, i.e. ut conderent lustruvi, which took
place usually every fifth year (quiiito quoqiie
uiino); though the interval varied consider-
ably. The censors resigned office within
CENSOR
eighteen months of their appointment. Tliey
held a verj- peculiar position with respect
to rank and dignity. No imperium was be-
stowed upon them, and accordmgly they were
attended by appantores, not lictors, and had
no power of capital punislunent. The ius
censurae was granted to them by a lex centu-
riata, and not by the curiae, and in official
precedence they ranked below the consuls and
praetors, and even below the magister equitmn.
They could not co-opt a colleague, call the senate
or comitia centuriata, except for financial busi-
ness, and had no ius cum populo agcndi. They
had the ius edicendi, ius coidloiiis, and ius
multae edictionis, and were responsible only to
the senate and comitia tributa. But, notwitli-
standiug this, the censorship was regarded as>
in some respects, the highest dignity in the
state {sanctissimusmagistratus), with the ex-
ception of the dictatorship (VXni. Flamin. 18;
Cic. Fam. iii. 10, 11). This high rank and
dignity was owing especially to the regimen
niorum, or general control over the conduct
and morals of the citizens ; in the exercise of
which power the censors were regulated solely
by their own views of duty, and were not re-
sponsible to any other power in the state
(Liv. iv. 24, xxix. 37). The censors sat on the
sella curulis (Liv. xl. 45), but had no lictors.
During their term of office they wore the toga
praetexta, or perh&Tf s purpu rea (Polyb. vi. 52),
with which they were certainly honoured at
burial. The funeral of a censor {funus cen-
sorium) was conducted with great pomp and
splendour, and was voted even to emijerors
(Tac. Ann. iv. 15, xiii. 2).
The censorship continued in existence from
443 B.C. to 22 B.C. ; but during this period
many lustra passed without any censor being
chosen at all. After 22 B.C. the emperors dis-
charged the duties of the censorial office under
the name of Fraefcrtura Mcrrum. Some of
the emperors took the name of censor, and
appointed a colleague when they held a census
of the Roman people, e.g. Claudius (Suet.
Claud. 16), and Vespasian (Suet. Vesp. 8).
The duties of the censors may be divided into
three classes : (1) The Census, or register of tlie
citizens and of their property, including also
the Lectio senatus, and Becognitio Equitum ;
(2) The lieginwn Morum ; and (3) The Ad-
ministration of the Finances of the State, with
the superintendence of the public buildings
and the erection of all new public works.
(1) The Census, the first and principal duty
of the censors, for which the proper expression
is cettsum agtre (Liv. iii. 3, 22, iv. 8), was held
m the Campus Martins; and from 435 B.C.
a special building called Villa Publica was
used as the censor's office. The actual census
was conducted in the open air : but all
other business of the censors, including the
t'ecognitio equitum, was transacted in the
Forum. The ceremony in the Campus Martius
began with the taking of the auspices. After
this the citizens were summoned by a praeco
to appear. Each tribe was called up severally,
and each paterfamilias appeared in person
before the censors, seated in their curiile
chairs. Each citizen had to give an account
upon oath [ex animi sententia, i.e. truly and
honestly) of himself, of his family, and of his
property (Liv. xliii. 14). In making this state-
ment he was said profit eri, dedicare or deferre
in censum, or sometimes censere or censeri :
the censor who received the statement was
said censere, as well as accipere censum (Cic.
I
Flacc. 3'2, 79 ; Liv. xxxix. 15). Only such
things were liable to the census [censui cen-
sendo) as were property ex mre Quirithtm.
Freehold land fornaed the most important
article in the census ; but public land, the -poti-
sessio of which only belonged to a citizen, was
excluded as not being quiritarian property.
Freehold land was minutely described. The
CENSOK 155.
tatio, or animadversio censoria. In inflicting
it they had to take an oath that they would act
according to their conscience, and neither
through partiality nor favour ; they were bound
in every case to state in their lists, opposite
the name of the guilty citizen, the cause of
the punishment inflicted on him — subscrijjtio
censoria (Liv. xxxix. 42 ; Cie. Cluent. 42, 48).
owner gave in his own valuation, subject to i A citizen was usually required to appear before
the censors in his own defence, when threatened
witli the iiota. In fact, a kind of trial was
held, but one not regulated by ttie ordinary
legal forms of procedure.
The consequence of such a nota was only
igiiominia, not infamia (Cic. Bep. iv. 6, (il
re\'ision by the censors. Slaves and cattle
formed the next most important item, as
being re& mancipi { = res cenmii censendo, Cic.
Flacc. 32, 79). The censors also possessed the
right of calling for a return of personal pro-
perty, such as clothing, jewels, and carriages
(Liv. xxxix. 44). The tax levied by the censors j [Infamia], and the censorial verdict was not
[trihutum) was usually one per thousand upon ' a iudicium or res iiidicata (Cic. Cluent. 42,
the propei-ty entered in the books. The censor
were aided by certain assessors (iti consilio
vocati) and iuratorcs (Liv. xxxix. 44), who
asked the formal questions which were to be
answered on oath.
A person who voluntarily absented himself
from the census, and thus became iiicensus,
was subject to severe punishment (Liv. i. 44).
In the republican period he might be sold
by the state as a slave (Cic. Caecin. 84, 99).
Before the Social War the census of the allies
was taken in their own towns ; and this prac-
tice seems to have continued after they had
been admitted to the francliise (Cic. Cluent.
14, 41).
After the censors had received the names of
all the citizens with the amount of their pro-
perty, they made out the lists of the tribes, and
also of the classes and centui-ies [Comitia
centuriata]. These lists formed an important
part of the Tabulae Censoriae, under which
name were included all the documents con-
nected in any way with the discharge of the
censors' duties (Cic. Legg. iii. 3, 7 ; Liv.
xxiv. 18). They were deposited in the tabu-
larium at the Atrium Libertatis, and in later
times in the Temple of the Nymphs ; and at the
close of the lustrum transferred to the Aera-
rium in the Temple of Saturn (Liv. xxix. 37).
The censors had also to make out and read
(recitare) in the senate the lists of the senators
117), for its effects might be removed by the
following censors, or by a lex. A nota cen-
soria was moreover not valid unless both
censors agreed. Tlie iguominia was thus only
a transitory capitis deminutio, which did not
disqualify persons from serving the state in war
or peace (Liv. iv. 31).
The offences which are recorded to have been
punished by the censors were :
1. Such as occurred in the private life of
individuals, e.g. [a) the dissolution of matri-
mony or betrothment irregularlj', or for in-
sufficient reasons (Val. Max. ii. 9, § 2). [h)
Neglect of the obligation of marrj-ing [Aes-
uxoriiim]. (r) Improper conduct towards wife,
childi'en, or parents (Cic. Hep. iv. 6, 16). (d)
Inordinate and luxurious living, (e) Neglect
and carelessness in cultivating land. (/)
Cruelty towards slaves or clients. {g) The
carrying on of a disreputable trade or occupa-
tion. (/() Legacy-hmiting, defrauding orphans,
&c.
2. Offences connected with public life: e.g.
Improper conduct (a) in a magistrate (Cic.
Scncct. 12, 42 ; Liv. xxxix. 42) ; (b) towards a
magistrate (Liv. iv. 24 ; Cic. de Orat. ii. 64, 260).
(c) Perjury (Cic. Off. i. 18; Liv. xxiv. 18).
(d) Militai-y misconduct (Liv. xxiv. 18, xxvii.
11). (e) The keeping of the equus publicus in
bad condition [Equites].
3. A variety of actions or pursuits which
(lectio senatus) for the ensuing lustrum, or till i were thought to be injurious to public morality
new censors were appointed ; striking out horn , might be forbidden by the censors by an edict,
the list (album) the names of such as they con-
sidered unworthy (praeteriti), and making
additions to the body from those who were
qualified [Senatus]. They also held a review
(recognitio, distinct from transvectio equitum)
ottheequiteseqiio publico, and by the formulas
and those who disobej'ed such edicts were
branded with tlie nota and degraded.
The consequence of the censor's nota was the
removal of the citizen thus censured from the
tribe to which he belonged (tribu movere), and
his degradation to the aerarii (Liv. iv. 24, 7 ;
traduc equuin, voide equum, added and re- xxiv. 43, 3). [Tribus. ! After the changes intro-
nioved names as they judged proper. [Equites.
After the lists had been completed, the num-
ber of citizens approved was counted up, and
the sum total announced (e«^)iYcf, capita chum wi
[Caput]).
(2) Regimen Morum. — This was the most
important branch of the censors' duties. Its
main purpose was to determine, according to
the judgment of the censors, how far each
citizen fulfilled his duty towards the state.
The censors were thus constituted the con-
duced by Appius Claudius tlie phrase tribu
movere came to mean the removal from the
country to the less honourable city tribes. In
the case of a senator this degradation involved
the loss of his place in the senate (Cic. Cluent.
42, 117). In the case of an eques, it accompanied
the ademptio eqvi. Women did not come at
all under the control of the censors. There
was no appeal against the nota inflicted by
botli censors.
(3) TiiK Administkation of the Fin.vnces
servators of public and private virtue and of the St.^te. — In the first place the tribu-
morality ; their great object was to maintain turn, or property-tax, had to be paid by each
the old Roman character and habits, the mos citizen according to the amount of his property
maiorum. The proper expression for this branch registered in the census, and the regulation of
of their power was regiynoi morum (Liv. iv. 8 ; this tax fell under the jurisdiction of the cen-
Suet. .4 j/^f. 27), called in the times of the Empire sors (Liv. xxxix. 44). [Tributum.] They also-
curaoY praefecturaniorum. The punishment had the superintendence of all the other re-
inflicted by the censors in the exercise of this venues of the state. [Vectigalia.] All these
branch of their duties was called nota or no- 1 branches of the revenue were let out to the
156
CENSUS
highest bidder for tlie space of a lustrum or
five years. The act of letting was called ven-
ditio or locatio ; and the conditions were spe-
cified in the leges censoriae (i.e. rules or con-
ditions of sale), which the censors published
before the bidding commenced (Cic. Verr. iii.
7, 18, Nat. Deor. iii. 19, 19). (See Publi-
isaili.) The censors also possessed the right,
with the concurrence of the senate, of imposing
new vectigalia (Liv. xxix. 37), and even of sell-
ing land belonging to the state (Liv. xxxii. 7).
So far the duties of the censors resembled
those of a modem minister of finance. The
censors, however, did not receive the revenues
of the state. All the public money was paid
into the aerarium, which was under the juris-
diction of the senate, and payments were made
by the quaestors. [ Aerarium ; Senatus.]
The censors had the general superintendence
of all public buildings and works (opera j)ub-
lica) ; and to meet expenses the senate voted
them a certain sum of money or certain
revenues, which they might employ according
to their discretion (Liv. xl. 46). They had to
see that the temples and all other public build-
ings were in a good state of repair (aedes sacras
tueri and sarta tecta exigere, Liv. xxiv. 18), and
that the aqueducts, roaids, drains, &c., were
projierly attended to. [Aquaeductus ; Viae ;
Cloaca.] The repairs and maintenance of the
public works were let out by the censors by
public auction to the lowest bidder (Liv. xxxix.
44, idtro tribufa, i.e. free grants). The con-
tractors were called conductores, mancipes, re-
deiiqjtores, sufsceptores. The censors had also
to superintend the expenses, connected with the
worship of the gods. They also constructed new
works, both in Rome and in other parts of
Italy, such as temples, theatres, fortifications,
acjueducts, harbours, bridges, roads, &c. These
works also were let out to contractors. When
there were no censors in office, their financial
duties lapsed to the consuls. [Aediles.]
After the censors had performed their various
duties and taken tlie census, the hmtnim or
solemn purification of the people followed. The
censors drew lots to see which of tliem should
perform tliis ))urifieation (Instrtiin facrrc or
condere ; Liv. xxix. 37) ; but both censors were
obliged to be present at the ceremony. [Lus-
trum.]
For the censors in the Roman and Latin
colonies and in the municipia, see Colonia.
As a rule the census of the various provinces
was taken quite iiidependently : sometimes by
censitores, sometimes by imperial Irgati jjro
praetore appointed for whole provinces (Tac.
Ann. ii. 6), or by officials of still higher rank for
several provinces together.
The word census, besides the meaning of
' valuation ' of a person's estate, also signified
(1) the amount of a person's property (census
scnatorius, census equestris) ; ('2) the lists of
the censors ; (3) the tax which depended upon
the valuation in the census.
The censors had, properly speaking, no iuris-
dirtio, but had judicial power in cases of
delimitation between property of the state and
that of individuals. In most cases their de-
cision was a simple cognitio, based on rules of
equity.
They issued edicts, which were valid during
the lustrmn. Part of the edict was usually
taken on (tralaticiiun) from that of their pre-
decessor, as in the case of the praetor's edict.
[Edictum.]
Census. 1. Ghef.k.— The Greek term for a
CENTO
man's property as ascertained by the census,
as well as for the act of ascertaining it, is
rifj.r\fj.a. The only Greek state concerning whose
census we have any satisfactorj' information is
Athens ; where a census was first instituted by
Solon. According to his census, all citizeiis
were divided into four classes: (1) Ilei'TOKoirio-
fieSifivoL, or persons possessing landed property
which yielded an annual income of at least
500 (LtsSiyuvoi (see Tables, IX.) of drj' or liquid
produce. (2) 'lirirris, i.e. knights or persons
able to keep a war-liorse, those whose income
was not less than 300 medimni (rpiaKoffio-
fj.4hifj.voi.). (3) Xivyirai, i.e. persons able to
keep a yoke of oxen (^evyos) : 150 medimni. (4)
©TJTsy, containing all tlie rest of the free popu-
lation (Pint. Sol. 18). These classes themselves
were called Tijj.ijfj.aTa : and the constitution of
Athens, so long as it was based upon these
classes, was a timocracy (ri/xoKpaTia, or iro\i-
T€ia atrh TLfxrifj.iTwv). The maintenance of the
republic devolved upon the first three classes,
the last being exempted from all taxes.
Since land was regarded by Solon as the capi-
tal wliich yielded an annual income, he regulated
his system of taxation by the value of the land.
I Of this value a certain proportion was treated as
i the taxable capital ; the value of the land being
1 estimated from its net annual produce, and
tile number of medimni which it was supposed
to produce were reckoned as so many drachmae.
j The tax was graduated. The same fraction of
the taxable property was levied on all : but a
person belonging to the fir&t or wealthiest class
I had to pay a tax on liis entire property ; per-
I sons of the second paid the tax only on ^, and
persons of the third class on g, of their gross
property. Lists (airoypacpai) of this taxable
property were kept at first by the NavKpapoi,
who had also to conduct the census, and after-
wards by the Atijjiapxoi. The census was
repeated from time to time, but at no regular
interval (Arist. Pol. v. 8). Every person had to
give in a true statement of his property ; and if
there was any doubt about his honesty, a
counter- valuation (avTirifx-^ais) might be made.
This system underwent a con8ideral)le change
in the time of the Peloponnesian War, though
the division into classes itself continued to be
observed for a considerable time after. The
original land-tax was changed into a property-
tax, called Ela<(>opd. Compare AeiTovp-yta,
and for the taxes paid by resident aliens,
Me'ToiKOt.
2. Roman. [Censor.]
Cente'sima (pars), also called vectigal rerum
venaliuni, or centesima rerum venaUuin,& tax
of one per cent, levied upon all goods that were
exposed for public sale, probably not only at
Rome and in Italy, but throughout the empire.
This tax was introduced after the civil wars
(Tac. Ann. i. 78), and its produce assigned to the
aerarium militare. It was sometimes reduced
to one-half per cent (ducentesima, Tac. Attn. ii.
Cente'simae usu'rae. [Fenus.]
Cento (KfVTptxiv), dim. Centunculus. Patch-
work, a covering or garment consisting of several
pieces of cloth patched together, worn by slaves
(Cat. Ii. R. 2, 3), also by soldiers when working
in the trenches (Caes. B. C. iii. 44) ; used as a
coverlet for beds (Sen. Ep. 80, 8) ; as a curtain
or portiere (Juv. vi. 121 ; Mart. i. 35, 5) ; placed
under the pack-saddles of mules (Liv. vii. 14, 7) ;
also worn by soldiers as a skull-cap under the
helmet. Centones were hung upon earthworks
and similar fortifications, to protect them from
CENTUMVIEI
fire and to blunt the force of weapons (Caes.
B. C. ii. 9).
Cento was likewise the name given to a poem
made up from lines or parts of lines of other
poems.
Centum'viri. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Centu'ria. [Agrimetatio ; Comitia ; Exer-
citus.]
Centu'rio. [Exercitus.]
Cera (/crjpos). Wax. [Ceroma ; Pictura;
Tabulae ; Testamentum.]
Cercu'rus {K(pKouf)os, KfpKovpos). [Navis.]
Ce'reus, Cereus fun'alis, runa'le. A wax
tiiper both for domestic (c.ij. as a night-light) and
religious use. Tapers were used at funerals, and
are often represented in the catacombs. The
candlestick is ccm/driiuti.
Cerevi'sia. [Cervesia.]
J Ceria'lia, Ceria'lesludi(the spelling CerenZcs
is incorrect). Festivals celebrated at Rome in
honour of Ceres. In 493 B.C. the worship of
* Demeter (under the name of the old Italian
goddess Ceres) was introduced at Rome by the
direction of the keepers of the Sibylline books,
and a temple was built in her honour near the
Circus Maximus. The ritual was entirely Greek,
and the priestesses wei'e Greeks (Cic. Lcyg. ii.
9, 21). In connexion with this worshix?, games
in the Circus were celebrated, at first only on
special occasions (Liv. x. 23), but afterwards
annually from the 12th to the 19th of April, the
last day being called especially the Ccrialia.
All who took part in it were dressed in white.
No bloody sacrifice was permitted, except that
of a sow (Ov. Fast. iv. 414); the offerings con-
sisted of cakes, honej', and incense. On the
last day there was in the country a procession
round the fields (Verg. Georg. i. 345), in the
town a procession to the Circus (Ov. Fast. iv.
389).
A second festival, the sacrnm aunirer-
sarium Cereris, was held in tVugust {Ijiv. xxii.
56), observed only by women, who were
dressed in white, and brouglit the first-fruits
to the goddess [see Eobigaliaj (Ov. Met. x.
431 sqq.).
Cero'ma (K'f;pw/Lia). (1) A plaster, with wax
as the principal ingredient. (2) A mixture of
oil, wax, and earth, with which athletes under
the Roman Empire rubbed themselves before
wrestling (Mart. iv. 19 ; Juv. vi. 24(!). (3) The
place where this unguent was rubbed on, = eZ«eo-
thfisium (Vitr. v. 11).
Cerve'sia, Cervi'sia, Cerevi'sia {C^Qos). Ale
or beer, a beverage scarcely ever drunk by the
ancient Greeks and Romans, althoui^h it was
used by neighbouring nations. The Egyptians
(Hdt. ii. 77), Ethiopians, Armenians (Xen.
Anab. v. 5, 14), Spaniards, Germans (Tac. Germ.
23), Thracians, and other races brewed similar
drinks. Other names for fermented drinks made
of barley and other grains are Kopfju, Kovp/xi,
irapa^ias, luvov, aabaia, jueSoj, Ka/xov, caclia,
or cerea. Beer was des])ised by the Romans
as a barbarian drink, and was regarded by
physicians as unwholesome.
Cervi [cervoli dim.), from their resemblance
to the horns of a stag, were branches of trees
interlaced with their points projecting, used in
war as palisading or chevaux-de-frise, in front
of or upon earthworks or fortifications (Caes.
B. G. vii. 72; Liv. xliv. 11, 4).
CQT7'i!cs\(irpo<TKi(p6.\aiov, iroTiKpavov). A pil-
low or cushion to support the head or shoulder,
on a bed or dining couch (IVfart. xiv. 14C : Suet.
Ner. 6) ; hence any cushion (Juv. vi. 353 ; Theocr.
XV. 2). rPuIvinus.]
XHAH
157
Krip-ug. [Caduceus; Fetialis.]
Ces'sio bono rum. See Appendix, RosLUf
Law [Bonorum cessio].
Cesticillus. [Aiculum.]
Cestrum. [Pictura.]
Cestus (Kf(n6s). In Horn. //. xiv. 214, an
adj., applied to the girdle (ifxis) of Aphrodite.
The word ('/kas=/erire) means 'embroidered,'
(icH pictiis. It is the same as the crTp6(ptof,
Taivin, filrpa, (TTijOoSecrfxos, fascia pcctoralis,
niiunniillarr, which is found on statues of
.\l)hr(>ilitf CNIart. xiv. 2()Ci). iDress; Fascia.J
Cetra. ^Caetra; Arms and Armour. j
Xa\K€ia. A very ancient festival celebrated
at Athens in honour of Athena 'EpyavT], by
the whole people of Athens. At a later period
it was celebrated only by artisans, esiiecially
smiths, and in honour of Hephaestus, whence
its name was changed into Xa\Kf7u. It was
kept on the 30th day of the month of Pyanepsion
(October). _
Chalcid'icum. An annexe or appurtenance to
a basilica or other building. On the building
called fuUoitica at Pompeii the name chulci-
dicum may still be read. The chalcidicum was
an entrance-hall to a public building, wholly or
partially i-oofed. Such a vestibule is found in
many Christian basilicas : e.g. in St. John
Lateran. Sta Maria Maggiore, and St. George
in Velabro, at Rome.
XaXKioiKia. An annual festival, with sacri-
fices, and a marcli of young men in ai-mour,
celebrated at Sparta, in honour of Athena, sur-
named XaAKioiKos, i.e. the goddess of tlie brazen
house.
XaXKovs. [Coinage.]
Charis'tia. [Caristia.]
Charta. [Liber.]
Cbironom'ia ixf^povofxia). [Saltatio; Pan-
tomimus ; Pugilatus.]
XeLpoTovia, XeipoTovetv. In the Athe-
nian assemblies two modes of voting were
practised, the one by ballot [U'Ti4>os], the other
by a show of hands (xeiporove^y). Secret voting
in general was only used when the personal
interests of individuals were concerned. Open
voting was employed on questions of public
policy, such as war or peace, in voting upon
laws, and in some special kinds of trials on
matters which concerned the people, as upon
■Kpo^oKal and elaayy(\ia. In the elections of
magistrates (apxa'peciaOi some were chosen by
lot (apxv KKripaiTT)) ; others, and these the more
important, e.g. the arpaTr^yoi, by show of hands
(apxv aipfTT] or xe'poTorTjrii).
The x^^poTouia was taken first on the affirma-
tive, then on the negative side of the question
at issue : the number of hands was comited by
the herald ; and the president declared whetlier
the ayes or noes had the majority (avayopeveiy
Tos x^^PO'^'Oi'ias, Aeschin. c. Cte.s. $ 3).
The conipomids of this word are Karaxftpo-
Toj/etj', to condemn ; djrox- to acquit; ^ttix- to
confirm by a majority of votes ; eVix* iporof I'a
Tuv uAfMwv was a revision of tlie laws, ^irixupc-
Tovla Twv apx^^f "' vote on the conduct of magis-
trates; the contrary to iTrtxf'poTove'iv is oTro-
X^ipoTovuv ; hiax^^poTovia is a vote for one of
two alternatives; avrixf^poTovt'iv to vote against
a proposition ; Trpox«ipi'To»'ja is tiie siiowof hands
on the i)revious question, i.e. whether the people
desired further discussion or not. The com-
pounds of \ln)(t>i^f(T(fai liavt' similar meanings.
XtiXti (besides other meanings, for which sei'
Ijexicon), tlie notch of the arrow or other mis-
sile discharged from the catapult; the two
'fingers' a, «, of the 'hand' (iiiaititcla, Vitr
158
XEAIAONIA
X. 15) which in that engine grasped the back-
drawn string. [Tormentum.]
-■ ; r \
j
d
1
a r
^ 1 Horizontal section.
Fig. ol7.— XtjA^, notch of catapult.
In astronomy, tliat part of the heavens next
Virgo embraced by the arms of the Scorpion
was called Chelae by early writers and by the
poets (Verg. Georg.i. 33 ; Ov. Met.ii. 195), even
after Geminus (80 B.C.) had separated that por-
tion as a new sign, and called it Zvyos (Libra).
[Astronomia.]
X e\i86via. A custom observed in the island
of Rhodes, in the month of Boedromion, the
time when the swallows returned. During
that season boys, called xeAiSoi'icTToi, went
from house to house collecting little gifts,
ostensibly for the returning swallows (xeA.i-
hovi^eiv), and singing a song (^A.0' iiKQe Xf*^'-
-Soiv, &c.), which is still extant. (See also
•Games.)
Chelys. [Lyra.]
X-nixT). A small measure of capacity.
(1) X'V'7 /"•'fpa = fivffTpov jxiKpov or iharTonv
K6yxv ~ tV kotvKt) = Jf of 27'36 centilitres = 0'04
Eng. pint. It was equal to two coclearia.
(2) By another computation, X. M"''P'' = 0"016 Eng.
pint, X- lJ-eya.\Ti = 3 drachmas or 0'368 Eng.
pint. The symbol for X'/JM'? was X- (Tables, VII.)
Chenis'ciis. TNavis.]
XcpviPeiov, Xepvi.3ov, or XetpdviiTTpov.
.\ basin used for liolding the lustral water at a
sacrifice ; and generally a basin for washing the
hands in: Lat. malliiciuni. The term x^'P*^"
viirrpov embraced both jug (npoxovs) and basin
{\4fir\s). The water, whether sacrificial or not,
was called x^P^'-^ <^'' XfP'"^*^ (Horn. Od. i.
137, II. xxiv. 301). [See cut under Cena. The
cut shows the towel (xetp6ixaKTpot') as well.]
X-np(i>crTa£. See Appendix, Greek Law
[Heres].
Xi.\tapxos = Tribunus. [Exercitus.]
Chiro'graphum is the Latin equivalent of
the Greek word x^'pt^Tpo^oi') '>■ document in the
handwriting of a person interested in the truth
of the facts contained in it (cf. Cic. Att. ii.
20, 5, Phil. ii. 4, 8), and came to signify
■specially a written acknowledgment of a debt.
Though a chirographum of a debt was not bind-
ing as a contract, its existence was presumptive
•evidence of a debt, if the debtor allowed it to
remain in the creditor's hands for a certain
period. It was usual to seal obligtitions in
\vritiug and to entrust them to a third party.
Another term was sijngrapha. There appears
to have been no essential difference between
syngrapha and chirographum, both being docu-
ments of an infoi-mal character, not requiring
seals or the attestation of witnesses as essentials.
Ch.iru'rgia(xetpoi'p7/a). Surgery. Thepractice
of surgerj' was at first considered by the ancients
to be merely a part of a phj-sician's duty ; but in
later times tlie two branches of the profession
were to a gi-eat extent separated. [Medicina.]
'l^e word chirurgia means that part of medi-
cine quae manu curat, and cures by cutting
and burning, t(^v(iv and Kaieiv; nor is it
•used by ancient authors in any other sense.
In the Iliad and Odyssey surgery is almost
entirely confined to the treatment of wounds ;
CHIRURGIA
I and the imaginary power of enchantment was
joined with the use of topical applications. {II.
' iii. 218, xi. 515, &c.)
I The Greeks received surgery, together with
the other branches of medicine, from the
I Egyptians. Upon the ceilings and walls of the
I temples at Denderah, Karnak. Luxor, &c., bav;-
reliefs are seen, representing limbs that have
; been cut off with instruments very similar to
I those which are employed for amputations at
the present day. Vestiges of other surgical
I operations may be traced which afford con-
; vincing proofs of the skill of tlie ancient
j Egyptians in this branch of medical science.
Among the Greeks, Hippokrates (c. 400 B.C.)
far surjjassed all his predecessors in the bold-
ness and success of his operations, among which
may be mentioned the reduction of fractures
and luxations, and the use of the trephine.
The names of several persons are preserved
who practised surgery as well as medicine, in
the times immediately succeeding those of Hip-
pokrates. Among these, Archagathus is said to
have been the first foreign sui'geon that settled
Fig. .US.—Surgical instruments.
1, 2, probes (specUlum, /i^Arji ; 3, cautery {KavT^piov) • 4, 5,
lancets isi-nlpcUum, <r/iii.Atj) ; G, 7. knives; 8, needle;
!). elevator for raising portions of the skull.
at Rome (219 B.C.). Asklepiades, who lived
at the beginning of the first century B.C., is
said to have been the first who proposed the
operation of tracheotomy. Amnionius of Alex-
andria, surnamed AidoT6uos, was the first
to perform the operation of lithotrity. Tlie
i next surgical writer after Hippokrates whose
works are still extant is Celsus, who lived at
the beginning of the first century a.d. We
find in him the earliest mention of the use of
the ligature for the arrest of haemorrhage ; and
the Celsian mode of amputation was continued
down to comparatively modern times. His di-
rections for the operation of lithotomy continued
to be the rule till the sixteenth centur}'.
The next author of importance is Caelius
Aurelianus, who is supposed to have lived about
the beginning of the second century a.d.
Galen, who removed from Pergamus to Rome
in 165 .\.D., is less celebrated as a surgeon than
as an anatomist and physician. He appears,
however, to have been a skilful operator, though
no great surgical inventions are attributed to
him.
Oribasius, physician to the Emperor Julian
(361 A.D.), professes to be merely a compiler.
XITfiN
Paulus Aegineta (7th century a.d.) was par-
ticularly celebrated for his skill in midwifery
and female diseases.
For further illustrations of surgical instru-
ments, and an account of their use, see Diet.
Aiitiq. vol. i. pp. 414, 4ir), Chirukuia.
XiTcjv. [Dress. J
XXalva (Laenai. (Dress. 1
X\u.ji,iJ9 (Chlamys). [Dress.]
XA6£ca or XA.oid. A festival celebrated at
Athens in honour of Demeter Chloe, or simply
Chloe, wliose teniph; stood near the Acropolis
(Soph. O. ('. lOOO). It was solemnised on
the si.xtli of Thargelion (May).
Xoivig, -Ikos (in Attic Greek feminine, in
Hellenistic masculine). A dry measure of
capacity. (See Tables, IX.) In Horn. Od. xix.
IIH, a x<''*''l "f corn is the ordinary wages for
a day's work. It was a minimum daily allow-
ance (Hdt. vii. 1H7), and was what slaves
received (Thuc. iv. Ki).
The symbol for X''*'"! '^ or
Xoes- [Dionysia.]
Chore'gia, Chore'gus (xopriyos). 1. Greek.
The x'tpvyio- ^'''^is ont! of the ordinary services
((JkvkKwi \ftTovpyiai)a,t Athens, and consisted
in providing a properly-trained chorus for one
of the festivals. It was an office of great
trouble and expense, but also of high honour.
Originally, there was a choregus elected by
each tribe. The eViyueATjTai of each tribe
looked out for the fitting persons to fulfil the
duty of choregi, and probably proposed thein
(irpo0i\\f(r6ai, Dem. Mid. 5VJ,^V6}. Usually
the wealthiest citizens were appointed choregi
in turn, but sometimes individuals undertook the
duty even when not in their turn : e.g. Demo-
sthenes. On the choregi being proposed, the
archon used to allot a chorus (xophv SiSovat) to
as many as he thought deserving from among
the poets who applied to him {xophv ahuv).
Then there was a drawing of lots among
the choregi as to who should get the first
choice of the BiSd(TKa\oi. The duty of the
SiSd(TKa\os was with the help of musicians —
generally flute-i)layers (avKrirai), sometimes
harpers (KidapcfSoi)— to teacli (SiSdffKeiy, avy-
Kporelv) the choristers the words, songs, and
dances. The lot now decided who should have
the first choice of flute-players (Dem. /. c. 519,
§13).
The next duty of the choregus was to collect
the chorus. The members of the chorus were
always citizens. The collecting {(rvKKeyav) of
the chorus was effected by means of officers of
the tribe called xopo^fKTai, who apparently
had power to inflict fines and confiscations
(Antiph. de Chor. § 11).
Emulation existed among the rival choregi :
some spent their whole patrimony in the
service (Dem. I.e. .534, § 61). Tlie successful
choregus leading his choir was crowned victor,
and received his prize, a bronze tripod, which
became the property of the tribe (Dem. I. c.
516, § 5). The crime of assanlting a choregus
during the festival apjiears to have been iifipts,
or even acrtfieia (Dem. l. c. Arg. p. 510).
No one was liable for the choregia nor for
any of the regular liturgies unless he had a
property of at least three talents. The state
defrayed part of the expenses, and the lessee of
the theatre who received the entrance money
must have supplied a considerable sum towards
the outlay. But still much remained for the
choregus, who had not merely to train the
chorus, but also to supi)ort and pay them
CHORUS
159
during the time of training, to provide the
dresses, and also at times tlie accessories of
the play. An additional chorus iirapaxopriytifxa)
liad sometimes to be provided. Each choregus
provided the chorus for a whole tetralogy.
The expenses of a tragic cliorus are reckoned
in one case at 30 minae; and of a comic
chorus at 16. The dedication of the tripod, too,
increased the expenditure, as the prize tripod
{rp'ntovs x^PVyio^i) was generally dedicated to
Dionysus, either on the top of a jiillar or on
th(? top of a round temple-like structure. Fine
examples of such a structure are the celebrated
^lonuments of Lysikrates and Thrasyllus (see
fig. 107 I ArchitecturaJ). A whole street lineil
with such shrines to hold dedicated tripods,
and hence called TpiVoSej, was on the east side
of the Acropolis.
^Vhen the state became poor, single indi-
viduals tried to avoid {a.<po<Tiov(Tliai) the burden.
The first step to remedy this state of things was
the combination of two tribes to suj)ply a chorus,
under a single choregus (see Antiphon, de Cliur.
p. 142, § 11). After 406 n.c. two individuals
could be thus associated (irvyxopriydv). A cen-
tury later, the state undertook the choregia,
and bore all the expense.
The following is an example of the inscrip-
tions on the monuments: GiVtjJs [the tribe],
(v'iKa TraiSwv [sr. x^Pv], Eiipi/ueVTjs MeAeroicoy
eX^PVy^^y Ni/coffTpoTos (SiSa(TK(.
The choregia was not con fined to Athens ; it
is found at Keos, Aegina (Hdt. v. 83), Mytilene,
Thebes (Plut. Aristid. 1), <S:c.
2, Roman. — The cltoragim among the Ro-
mans (Plant. Pers. i. 3, 79) was a lender of
costumes and properties, and to him tlu'
aediles used to give a contract for supplying
the necessary accessories for a play. Under
the Empire the Froriirator .snmtui choraf/ii,
appointed i)robably by Domitian, was a regiilar
imperial minister, who had charge of the whole
supply of decoration, macliinery, and costume
for th(! performance of the various shows as
well in the am])hitlieatre as in the theatre.
Chorob'ates (x(^pofid.Ti\s). An instrument
for determining the slope of an aqueduct and
tlu! levels of tlie country through which it was
to jiass ; consisting of a horizontal rule suj>-
porting two perpendiculars, against each of
which hangs a plumb-line (Vitr. viii. 5, 1) : a
water-level {ritnalin) was added.
Chorus. 1. Greek. — The word x^pos in
Greek signifies both a place for dancing (Honi.
Od. viii. '2()0 ; cf. eiipvxopos and /caAAi'xopos)
and the dancers, but is usually confined to
the latter. In early times we find harvest festi-
vals and weddings (Hes. Scut. 282) celebrated
with bands of dancers (Horn. //. xviii. 567).
The shield of Achilles contained a picture of
young men and maidens dancing (//. xviii.
590 sqq.). Another kind of chorus mentioned in
the Iliad is the paean, whicli the Greeks sang
as they marched to tl:e ships after the death of
Hector (11. xxii. 391).
But it is especially in the service of the gods,
and most of all in that of Apollo and Dionvsus
(cf. Dem. Mid. p. 5:tO, § 51), that bamls of
dancers appear prominently. In religions cere-
monies, poetry, music, and dancing or rhythmical
movement i Saltatio] were united. There were
dances of the Kuretes in Crete in honour of
Zeus, and in very early times dances in the
worship of Ajiollo at Dtlos (Hom. Hi/nni. ApoU.
Del. 249) ; but dance and song wore first fully
developed by the ApoUine religion of Deli>hi,
the guiding spirit of Dorian life. The choruses
16U
CHORUS
of the Dorians, jjerformed to the music of the
cithara, were most of them stately and
measured, partaking much of the uature of
gymnastic and mihtary exercises [GjrmilO-
paedia, PyrrMca]. The Doric chorus was quad-
rangular (T€Tpay(cvos). There were choruses of
boys, men, and old men at the different Spartan
festivals (Plut. Li/c. 21) ; and the matrons
and maidens danced likewise. Fiu-ther it is to
be noticed that the Doric dialect came to be
regarded as the artistic dialect for choral song,
and was used by all choral writers, being re-
tained in the language of the chorus even in
Attic tragedy.
But in the Apolline religion beside Apollo
stood Dionysus, the god of the peasantiy, to
whom the dithyramb was sung. Originally
the dithyramb was the spontaneous song, telling
the tale of Dionysus and his fortunes, which
the chorus of Satyrs and other attendants of
the god, guided by its leader («|apxos), sang
to the music of the fiute, as it danced round
the altar of the god. [Dithyrambus. j The
Satyrs were half goats (rpayoi), their song
was the ' goat-song ' {Tpa-yifiSia} ; and they were
originally the sole performers in what after-
wards became the dramatic tragedy. But
there was another sort of chorus belonging to
the old phallus cult which, under the guidance
of its leader, sang phallic songs and danced in
revel through the roads, with faces coloured
with wine-lees, in the worship of Dionysus.
This was the wild song of the revel (KWfjufSia),
and the origin of Greek comedy. Thus the
eliorus was the foundation of the two luaui
kinds of Greek drama (Arist. Foct. iv. 14).
I. Tragic GhoruH. {\) Ntonberof Choreutae.
The circular dithyrambic chorus consisted of
50 members. The early tragic chorus consisted
of 12, and was raised to 15 later ; but whether
by Sophocles or not is uncertain.
The .S(/i/yrtc chorus appears to have consisted
of the same number as the tragic chorus, i.e. 12
or 15. They were always habited as Satyrs,
with goat- skin and pliallus.
(2) Movenie}ttsan<l (Urinidus uf the Chorus. —
The dramatic cliorus, unlike the cyclic, was
([uadrangular (T^rpaytovov (rx^M**) or Dorian.
The entry of the cliorus was called irdpoSos, its
final departure e^oSos or &(po5os, its temporary
departure /xfrdaTafrts, and its return after such
departure ewiwdpoSos. The tragic chorus was
arranged in ^vya of 3 and (ttoixoi of 4 or 5.
The arrangement was said to be Kara (vya or
KaTa (TToixovs, according to the depth. The
i:horus usually entered the orchestra Kara
(TToixovs, by the door at the right of the spec-
tators.
The arrangement of a chorus of 15 at its
ontrance may be represented thus :
Stage.
<—■<—•*—«—<—
11 12 13 14 15 o-TOt^o? III.
ti 7 8 9 1(1 cTTOtxos II.
<- -e- ^0 -e- ^
12 3 4 5 o-TOixos '.
Spectators.
The members of the row {(Tto7xos) ne.xt the
spectators, viz. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, were called dpi-
(TTepocTTarai {i.e. ' left-hand men ' in the order
of marching, as shown by the arrows), or
TrpwTO<TTa.Tai. Here were the best-looking and
most skilled choristers, the middle place Xo. 3,
or No. 2 in a chorus of 12, being occupied by
tholeader of the chorus, Kopv<pdios {coryphaeus) ;
and before and behind him were the TrapatrTOTai,
subordinate leaders of divisions of the chorus.
The coryphaeus, who was also the arranger of
the chorus, bore the titles 7)y(fjuiiv tov xopov,
XopocrTa.T7]s , xopo^efTTjs, xopoToios, and in
early times xopvyos. The members of the third
row were called Se^ioffraTai or S^^iSaroixot or
TpLToaTarai ; and those of the second row,
which contained the inferior choristers, were
called AavpoffTaTai, as forming a lane {\avpa)
between the first and third rows.
The entry of the chorus by C^yd was very
rare.
The chorus sometimes did not enter in order
at all, but severally (/cofl' eva or airopoBriv), as
in the Oedipus Coloiieus, 117 sqq.
When the chorus arrived in the orchestra
they made an evolution, so that the aptcTTepo-
(TTarat stood facing the stage. When the stage
was not occupied bj' actors the chorus faced the
audience. They appear to have mounted the
stage occasionally, as in Oed. Col. 850. The
chorus sometimes divided into two yj/xixopta
(in MSS. HMIX.), which stood opposite one
another, facing to the spectators' right and left.
j When the cliorus was divided into two distinct
groups (as of men and women in the Lysis-
trata) the}' were called aprixopia or hixopia, not
! The chorus at times used further to divide
I into arotxoi and ^fyo, and even into individual
{ choristers (cf. Aesch. Agam. 1344 sqq.).
(3) The songs of the Chorus. — As the chorus
entered the opXTJtTTpo, the iropoSos was simg. It
was very frequently in anapaests. The ffraffifixt
were choral odes sung after the chorus had
taken up its position on the 6vfj.(\ri. These
(TTdaifia served to divide the play into acts.
They generally consisted of one or more
(TTpocpai, sung as the chorus moved from left to
right, avTi<Trpo<pal as it moved from right to
left ; while the conclusion of the ode was sung
standing and called dtrcj.'S6s. The fj.(\Ti e^6Sia
(part of the e^oSos or last act) were sung as the
chorus moved off the stage to the left of the
spectators : like, the irdpoSos, they were usually
in anapaests. A dialogue between the chorus
and the actors, as in the Choephoroe (306 sqq.)
and the Electra of Sophocles (121 sqq.), was
called Ko/xiJ.6s (defined by Aristotle (Poet. 12,
3) as 8p7Jvos Koiv6s) : a dialogue between the
coryphaeus and an actor was called KaraKoyij.
(4) The dances of the Chorus. — The dance,
or rhythmic step of tragedj', was called
ffjLfj.f\fia; that of the Satyric drama a-iKivvis.
The dance took a more prominent position, and
a more lively movement was adopted, in the
inropxi)tJ-o-'''a than in the ardaifjua. For an
example of vir6pxi)H-<'-i see Soph. Ajax, 693,
O. T. 1086. To help the evolutions of the
chorus, lines {ypafj./xai) were drawn on the
thymele to guide them. [Saltatio.]
(5) The musical accompaniment of the
Chorus. — The accompaniment was played by
one flute-player (avKTiTrjs) on a double flute.
Dressed in splendid garments and wearing a
wreath, the flute-player marched before tlie
chorus at their entrances and their exits.
During the performance he remained on the
thymele or on the steps of the altar. Some-
times there was also the accompaniment of a
stringed instrument. Wlien the chorus were
to sing or dance, the flute-player gave the
signal (SiSJrat rh 4vS6(Tiinov) by pressing with
his foot an instrument called Kpov-rrt^a [Cym-
balum] The flute accompaniment of the aiKivris
in the Satyric drama was called aiKivvoripfir).
CHORUS
(6) The personnel of the Chorus. — They
were male citizens, and generally young. They
were exempt from military service {a<pfdi]vat
rris (TTparuas, Dem. Mid. 519, § 15).
The chorus represented old and young, men
and women, Greeks and foreigners, Furies,
nymphs, sailors, guards, captives.
(7) The dress of the Chorus. — They regu-
larly wore masks [Persona]. The garments
used in tragedy were a short chiton and him-
ation [DressJ, though generally special choruses
were dressed in character: thus the Eumenides
wore black garments and black felt Arcadian
hats ; and the Bacchae wore Bacchic costume.
They also wore a tight-fittinggarment((Ta)(UaTio»')
over a certain amount of padding (irpoaTepviSiot',
irpoyacrTpiSiov). Further, tlie chorus had all
sorts of accessories where necessary, such as
staves, drums, torches, thyrsi, &c., which they
laid aside before beginning tlie dance.
The Satyrs' dress was a flesh-coloured tight-
fitting garment, with an apron (Trepi'^w^a) of
goat-skin round the loins, and a tail and phallus
of red leather; they had besides often a goat's
skin round their shoulders.
(8j Gradual disappearance of the Chorus. —
The practice of introducing into tragedies
choral odes which had no special relevancy to
the play was a sign of the growing sense that
the chorus was not an essential part of the
drama. However, we find mention of a tragic
chorus in the Demosthenic age {Mid. 533,
§ 58), and of a Satyric chorus as late as 28-1 B.C.
But in Delphian inscriptions of 260 B.C. no
choreutae appear.
II. Comic Chorus. — The chorus of comedy
at Athens consisted of twenty-four. Only
half a tragic chorus was given to the comic
poet, and the same choreutae appeared in the
three comedies of each agon. The chorus
was arranged in ^vyd of four and (rro7xoi of
six.
The parabasis is the distinctive feature of
tlie chorus of the Old Comedy. In it the
chorus, facing the audience, addressed them
with remarks on personal matters or on topics
of the day (cf. Schol. on Eq. 508, Pax, 733). It
consisted of several parts, all of which can be
seen in the Aves : (1) the KOfifjiaTiov (675-683), a
short lyrical piece, sung while the chorus was
making the evolution to face the audience.
(2) The ■Kapd0a(ns proper or avd-Traiaroi (684-
735), the address of the corj^ihaens to the
audience, generally in anapaestic tetrameters.
The concluding portion of this was called the
fjuiKp6v or TTviyos (probably 722-735), as it had
to be recited in one breath. (3) arpocp-n or
tfiSij (736-751), a short lyrical hymn. (4) i-n-ippy]fia
(752-767), trochaic tetrameters, sung by the
corj^ihaeus in recitative to a musical accom-
paniment. (5) avTi(TTpo<p-r) or aprcfiS-f} (768-782),
corresponding to the <TTpo(pr\. (6) avTeTripprifxa
(784-799), corresponding to the (iripprifxa.
Sometimes the sepai-ate parts of the parabasis
are in different portions of the play, as in the
Pax.
The dances of the comic drama were lively
and often licentious (K<{p5a|, ij.6duv).
The persons of the chorus might, as in tra-
gedy, represent men or women ; and we have
besides all kinds of fantastic forms, such as
clouds, frogs, birds, &c.
The costume of the older comedy appears to
have consisted of the o-oifxariov, X'"'"*^*') "•"d
ifiaTiov, the latter being laid aside before dan-
cing (Thesm. 655). On their feet they had
sandals {crav^aKicrKoi).
CHRONOLOGIA
161
As noticed above in the case of tragedy, the
chorus of comedy gradually declined and dis-
appeared. The absence of the choral songs
and of the chorus as a participator in the
Fig. S19.— Comic Chorus. (From Daremberg and Saglio.)
action distinguishes the Middle and New
Comedy from the Old.
2. Roman. — Tlie chorus among the Romans
V)elonged especially to the crepidatae, i.e. the
tragedies modelled on and derived from Greek
tragedies ; but it also appears in the national
tragedy of the Romans, the jn-actextata. It
was probably the whole company of actors
(<?ai<';-i-«), not a chorus, which said the 'Plau-
dite ' with which comedies end (cf. Cic. Sest
55, 118). There appear to have been choruses
in the Pantomimus and in the Pyrrhica of the
Empire. There was no fixed number of
choreutae. As the opx'ho'rpa was occupied by
spectators, the chorus stood on the stage
(Vitr. V. 6, 2). Tlie Roman chorus took more
part in the action of the drama than the Greek
(Hor. A. P. 193). It was led by a magister
chori, also called viesochorus. The musical
accompaniment was played by a choraules on
a double flute. Between the acts the chorus
(in tragedy) and the tibicen (in comedy) used
to sing or play (Hor. A. P. 194). The chorus
was composed of professionals {artifices), who
were for the most part slaves. Tliey wore masks,
and were probably dressed after the manner of
the Greeks. The dresses appear to have been
very splendid (Hor. Ep. i. 6, 40).
Xocvsj Xovs- A Greek liquid measure
containing twelve Korv\ai or 5'76 English pints,
equal to the Roman congius of six sextarii.
(Tables, VII.)
Xpe'ovs oCkti. See Appendix, Greek
Law.
Ch.ronolo'gia {xpovoKoyia) is the science by
wliich time is measured according to the courses
of the heavenly bodies ; it also has the modern
and historical usage. (For the calculation of
years and months, see Calendarium.)
1. Greek. — Tlie Greeks reckoned their year.*^
generally according to tlieir kings or annual
magistrates. At Alliens the year was called by
the name of the first of the nine archons, called
&pX(^v (or &PXWV iirwvvfxos), the arclion par
excellence [Archon] ; and at Sparta the years
were called after one of the five ephors, who
for this reason was likewise termed dnwuv/xos
[Ephori]. (Thuc. ii. 2 ; Xen. Atuzb. ii. 3,
§ 10). Tiraaeus {o. 260 B.C.) was the first
historian who counted the years by Olym-
M
162
XPT2EAE"i>ANTINA
piads, each of which contained four years
[Olympias]. The beginning of the Olympiads
is universally fixed at 776 B.C. This calcula-
tion according to Olympiads, however, seems
to have been confined to literature, and
more especially to history. Some writers also
adopted the Trojan era, the fall of Troy being
placed in the year 1184 b.c. After the time
of Alexander the Great, several other eras were
introduced in the kingdonis that arose out of
his empire. Such were tlie Philippic era, the
era of the Seleukidae, the Chaldaean era, and
the three eras of Antioch. In Europe none was
so generally adopted as the era of the Olympiads.
"When tlie Greeks adopted Christianity, they
probably adopted the Julian year. The practice
of dating from the birth of Christ was intro-
duced by Dionysius Exiguus in 533 a.d.
2. Roman. — The Romans in the earliest times
counted tlieir years by their highest magistrates,
and from the time of the Republic according to
the consuls, whose names were registered in
the Fasti. Li 153 b.c. the consuls began regu-
larly to take office on January 1. The consular
era was the one commonly used by the Romans
for all practical pui-poses. But along with this
reckoning there existed another, that which
counted the years from the foundation of the
city (ab Urbe condita) ; but the year of the
foundation of the city was a question of un-
certainty among the Romans themselves,
although all agreed in the day of the month,
i.e. April 21, the Parilia; on which day the
birthday of Rome is still kept. M. Terentius
Varro and Atticus placed it in the third year
of the 6th Olympiad — that is, 753 B.C. ; and
this computation has been generally adopted.
Xpvo6\€ct>d.vTiva, sc. d.vd,A.jjLaTa. This
term is used to denote those gold and ivory
statues which were the highest attainments of
Greek plastic art.
The use of these costly materials seems to
have been originally a development of the early
art of wood-carving. The first artists who pro-
duced chryselephantine statues are said to have
been pupils of Dipoenus and Skyllis, the Cretan
Daedalids. Tliese masters used ivory in con-
junction witli ebony, and applied gilding to the
wood. The appropriateness of the two materials
woixld then suggest the restriction of the ivory
to nude parts, of gold to drapery, &c., a core
of wood underlying the whole. Such probably
■were the works of Doryklidas, Theokles, Dontas,
and other artists of the earlier portion of the
sixth century B.C. For the construction of
colossal figures an internal framework was
necessary. The two most famous works in this
branch of art were the statues by Pheidias of
Zeus at Olympia, and Athena in the Parthenon,
and that of Hera by Polykleitus, at Argos.
Chrysen'deta were dishes {lances) used for
serving up food at table (Mart. ii. 43, ii. 53) ;
probably made of silver, and adorned with
ornaments in relief, wrought in gold and at-
tached by means of soldering or riveting. Such
ornaments were called einblemata and crustae
[cf. Caelatura].
Chrysocolla (xpv(rJ/foAA.a). A flux for solder-
ing gold ; whether borax (biborate of soda) or
green carbonate of copper (green verditer or
malacliite). It appears to be used for mica,
with which Nero strewed the arena of the
Circus Maximus (Plin. xxxiii. 90) [Caelatura.]
Chrysocolla was also employed in the pre-
paration of various shades of green colour
[Dolores.]
XvTpa, XvTpos, XvTpC9, XvrpCSLov. A
CINCTUS
pot, generally of earthenware, for cooking. The
X^Tpo was an indispensable utensil, even in the
poorest houses, and allusions to it are innumer-
able in Aristophanes (Ach. 1175, Eq. 745,
1173). Besides being placed upon the fire, in
order to boil water or cook victuals, the X'^''"P«
was used to carry fire. Children were some-
Fig. 320.— Chytra resting on a Chytropus. (Vase in
the British Museum.)
times exposed in such vessels. Hence the
words eYxuTpi^'eii' and eyx^rpitrrpta. Xvrpo-
irovs was the stand or trivet on which the
Xvrpa was placed to be heated (see fig. 320)
XvTpai sometimes were made with three short
legs. They were used as flower-pots (Ar. Pax,
923).
Cico'nia. A T square used to measure quan-
tities of earth dug out in a ditch. An improved
form of it, described
by Columella (iii. 13)
is given in fig. 321.
Cid'aris. [Tiara.]
Cilic'ium {Seppis,
Bfpis,(TdKKos). A hair-
cloth, made of the hair
of goats. The best
goats for this purpose
were bred in Cilicia :
hence the Latin name.
The cloth obtained by
spinning and weaving
goat's-hair was nearly
black, and was used
for the coarse habits which sailors and fisher-
men wore; also for horse-cloths, tents, sacks,
and bags to hold workmen's tools (fabrilia
vasa) ; and for the purpose of covering military
engines and the walls and towers of besieged
cities (Verg. Georg. iii. 312 ; Liv. xxxviii. 7, 10 ;
Cic. Verr. ii. 1, 38, § 95; Mart. xiv. 140).
Cil'liba {kiKKI^os, aKpi^as). (1) A trestle or
stand for anything, e.g. a shield (Ar. Ach. 1122 ;
Hesych. s. v.). (2) A dining table, square or
round.
CinctUB {CwfJM, irepi^u/jM, &c.). (1) An apron
or short petticoat worn by workmen in the
field or at the forge, sometimes also in early
Fig. ,S21.— Clconia.
CINGULUM
times by soldiers. Campestre, worn in the
campus or in tlie fields, was the same thing.
(2) Cinctus Gabinus. [Dress, Tog.\^.]
Cing'ulum [C'^vt] = zona) (1) [Dress.] (2)
[Arms and Armour.] (3) Cingula (fem.) is
used for a girtli (/ua(7xaA.i(rT7)p) (Ov. Item. Am.
236). (4) Cingiihis (masc.) is used for iwvr] in
the sense of a zone of the earth (Cic. Bep. vi. i
20, 21).
Ciniflo. [Calamistrum.] j
Cip'pus. (1) Originally the trunk of a tree
with its branches lopped off, left standing in
the ground ; used by Caesar (J5. G. vii. 73) for
sha^^1ened posts serving as chevaux-de-frise.
(2) A low column of stone, round or rect- ,
angular. Stone cippi were set up by the Agri-
mensores to mark tlie divisions of lands.
The most frequent use of tlie cippus, however,
was as a sepulchral monument. Cippi are
commonly inscribed D.M. {Dis Manibus), and
sometimes S.T.T.L. [sit tibi ten-a levis). They j
CIRCUS
163
Fig. 828.— Clrclnl. compasses.
Fig. 322.— CippuB. (In the Vatican.)
are in the form of an altar, and have a hole
at the side as a drain for libations. These
two uses of the cippus, as a boundary and a
tombstone, were often combined ; it was usual
to inscribe on it the extent of the burying gi-ound
both along the road (in fronte) and in depth
(in ar/riim) (Hor. Sat i. 8, 12, 13). [^Opoi.]
Circenses ludi. [Circus.]
Cir'cinus (Siafi-nrnsi KapKivos). A compass.
The compass used by
statuaries, architects,
masons, and carpen-
ters, is often repre-
sented on the tombs
of such artificers,
together with the
other instruments of
their profession or
trade. The invention
of the compass was
attributed to Perdix
(Ov. Mcf. viii. 241) or
to Daedalus. The
Topvos (Hdt. iv. 36;
Plat. Fhileb. 56 b;
Eur. Bacch. 1066)
was a pin at the end
of a string.
Circito'res. [Cas-
tra.J
Circula'tor. A strolling mountebank or show-
man of trained animals.
Circus. 1. Gkekk. ['lirirdSpoiios.]
2. Roman. A building used by the Romans
for chariot races and other amusements, the
general form of which was derived from the
lirniZpofxos of tlie Greeks.
Tlie Circus Muxinms in Rome was for a long
time the only building of the kind, and appears
to have been the model from which all later circi
were copied. According to the legend, Romulus
held tlie Consiialia or games in honour of the
Latin deity Census, an equestrian Neptune, in
the Vallis Murcia, a long narrow depression
between the Palatine and Aventine hills.
Wooden seats (fori) for the people are said
to have been first constructed by Tarquinius
Priscus (Liv. i. 35), and these were frequently
burnt, and rebuilt in the same material (Liv.
viii. 20, xli. 27). In the time of Julius Caesar
some of the seats were for the first time con-
structed of stone. At this time the Circus
held 150,000 spectators. Augustus added a
marble pulvinar or imperial box, and placed
in the centre of the sj)ina the Egyptian obelisk
which now stands in the Piazza del Popolo (Suet.
Aiig. 43-45). In 36 A.D., after a fire, Claudius
rebuilt the carceres in white marble, and
replaced the old wooden metae by new metae
SCALE OP 1-™
Fig. ."(21.- Plan of the Circus of ^[ivxentluB.
A A. Carceres.
B. Porta Pompae. entrance In centre of the Carceres.
C C. Gradus. seats of the spectators.
I>. Tribunal ludicum.
E. Pulvinar. seat of the emperor.
F. Porta Triumphalis.
H H. Entrances between the Carceres and Oradus.
1 1. Towers.
K. Alba Unea. starting lino.
LL. Metae.
M M. Spinas.
N. (See p. \K>.)
ua
164
CIECUS
of gilt bronze (Tac. Ann. vi. 45). After tliis for the senate and others of high rank (Juv. ii.
restoration the circus contained seats, partly of 147), and allotted special seats for soldiers,
marble and partly of wood, for 250,000 specta- boys, women, and others. Before this, men
Fig. 325.— Circus. (From mosaic at Lyons.)
tors. Great additional splendour was given to
the Circus Maximus by Trajan. The whole
cavea and carceres were of white marble, deco-
rated with gold and colours and adorned with
columns of Oriental marbles, statues, and gilded
screens. Still further accommodation was added
by Constantine ; and Constantius set on the
spina a second obelisk, transported from Helio-
polis. This now stands in the piazza of the
Lateran. The circus is said to have now held
385,000 spectators. When complete it must
have been at least 2000 feet long by more than
600 feet wide, outside measurement.
For an account of the existing remains of the
Circus Maximus, see Middleton, Ancient Home
in 1888, p. 287.
Arrangement of the Circus. — Fig. 324,
which shows the plan of the Circus of Maxen-
tius, will also serve to illustrate the arrange-
ment of the Circus Maximus. At the foot of
the cavea with its
tiers of seats (gra-
dus, subsellia,
CC) a marble
platform (jpodi-
um) was con-
structed, which
ran along the long
sides and curved
end. On this jyo-
dium stood a row
of marble tlirones
for the use of the
more dignified
officials of Rome,
both secular and
religious. At the
front edge of the
podium was a
screen of bronze
cancelli, richly
decorated and gilt.
According to
Livy (i. 56), the
Roman senate
from a very early
period possessed
special seats in
the circus. Au-
gustus (Suet. Aug.
44, Ner. 11) ar-
ranged for a new and complete classification
of the spectators: he reserved the podium
and women had sat together in the circus (Ov.
A. A. i. 96). Cushions (pulvini) were used,
Fig. 326.— Doors of Carceres opened by slaves.
(Relief at Velletri.)
See
especially bv ladies, on the marble seats.
Ov. A. A. i. 160-2.
The cavea was divided into bands called
maeniana by the horizontal passages, ambu-
Fig. S27.— Circus. (From a Florentine gem ; Gori, vol. 11. pi. 79.)
lacra or praeciyictiones. Each of these bauds
of seats was also divided by flights of steps into
':'
CIRCUS
165
CMwej, which were numbered: each line of seats
(gradus) in each cuneus was also numbered ;
but the places on each gradus were not sepa-
rated.
In addition to the cavea proper and its
■podium, various state boxes for the editor
spectaculoruin, the iudices(D)
(fig. 324), &c. were constructed
of marble, with colurmis and
arches to support tlie entabla-
ture and roof of each.
A separate pulvinar or state
box (E) for the imperial family
was erected on the Pulatino side
of tlie circus (Suet. Claud. 4).
On ivory consular diptychs
of the fourth and fifth centuries
the consul, or other presi-
dent of the games, is usually
represented in tlie j^ulvifiar,
robed in the toga picta and
i-ich pallium, holding in his
hand the mappa or napkin
with wliich he gave the signal
for tlie start.
The starting end of the circus
was formed by a row of small
vaulted clia-nbers (carceres,
A A), each large enough to
hold one chariot and its liorses.
Each had two doors — one be-
hind, and one in front opening
into the arena. Tliis latter
doorway was closed by folding
doors, with open grilles (can-
celli) in the panels ; these were
thrown open at the start by
slaves (ten tores), two to each
doorway, who flung them open
simultaneously at the given
signal.
In early times the race appa-
rently began from the carceres,
but afterwards tlie actual start
took place from a white line
marked on the aroia {alba
tinea, creta or calx) (Kj. A
similar white line for the finish
was drawn across the arena
opposite the judges' box (tribunal iudicum,
D). The starting line was drawn opposite the
inetae which were nearest to the carceres.
The carceres (A A) were slightly curved on
liave as nearly as possible a position of equal
advantage at the start.
The spina or backbone was a long low wall
or platform of marble (M M), set in the middle
of the arena to separate the out and home-
ward eoursos of the racers. The line of the
Fig. 828.- Games of the Circus, on ICon-.uii lamp. (British Museum ; frOTTi
Birch, AMitiit I'vtlcry, p. ilO.)
spina is slightly inclined, leaving a wider space
at K than that near the semicircular end ;
so as to give the chariots more room where
they were crowded together at the start, than at
Fig. 829.— Bace In the Circus, showing the Spina, with the Dolphins, Obelisk, luid Ovu.
plan, and were constructed on a segmental lino, I other points where some would have begun to
the centre of which is struck from a point (N) tail off.
midway between tlie line of the spijin. and the The spina (M M) was adorned with a series
side of the cavea. This plan was adopted in of statues and ornamental structures, such as
order that the chariots in all the carceres might I obelisks, small acdiculae or shrines, columns
166
CIRCUS
sonnounted by statues, altars, trophies, and
fountains. In addition to these were two sets
of seven marble eggs {ova) at each end of the
ffjyina — each set mounted on a small aedicula
(Liv. xli. 27). One of these eggs was removed
after each lap (curriculum) was run, there
l>euig usually seven laps to each race (missus).
Another series of ornaments were seven dol-
phins, which were set on a similar aedicula
and served a similar purpose (Juv. vi. 590).
The eggs bore allusion to the Dioscuri, and
the dolphins to Neptune (or Census), the patron
deities of horses and racing.
Metae (L L), the goals, were three tall
conical objects (Ov. Met. x. 106 ; Hor. Carm. i.
1, 4) set on a semicircular plinth, at a short
distance from each end of the spina. These
i ig. ;i30.— Metae. (Uritlsh Museum.)
formed the turning-points for the chariots. The
vrimae metae are those near the semicircular
end of the circus, round which the chariots
made their first turn.
The arena or sandy floor of the circus, like
that of the Colosseum, was on some occasions
strewn witli glittering particles of mica, red
lead, &c., or sprinkled with perfumes (Suet.
Cal. 18 ; Plin. xxxiii. § 90). That part of the
arena which formed the course for the chariots
was known as the spatiuviiy erg. Georg. i. 513,
iii. 20;^).
Before the construction of amphitheatres in
Rome, the Circus Maximus was used for gladia-
torial combats, and fights with wild beasts. In
order to keep the elephants from reaching the
spectators Julius Caesar constructed a canal
(eurij)us) ten feet wide and ten feet deep all
round the arena (Suet. lul. 39).
Entrances to the Circus. — The principal
doorway (Porta Pompae) was at B (fig. 324)
in the middle of the carceres ; F is the Porta
Triumphalis, tlirough which the winning cha-
riots left the arena. The position of the Porta
Libitinensis, through which the bodies of the
dead were carried out, is uncertain.
The other Circi of Borne. — Next in import-
ance to the Circus Maximus was the Circus
Flaminiiis, which gave its name to the Campus
Flaminius, in the Cajnpus Martius. This
circus was founded by and called after the
censor C. Flaminius Nepos, who was killed at
Lake Trasimenus in 217 B.C.
The Circus of Caligula and Nero stood in
the Horti Agripjnnae, at the foot of the Vatican
hill (Suet. Claud. 21). The obelisk which now
stands in the Piazza of St. Peter's once stood
on the spina, and remained in situ till it was
removed to its present position by the architect
Fontana, 1586 a.d., in the reign of Sixtus V.
The Circus of Hadrian lay to the north-west
of his mausoleum, in the Campus Vaticanus.
The Circus of Maxentius on the Via Appia,
two miles from the walls of Rome, was dedicated
by Maxentius in 311 a.d. to the memory of his
son Romulus. The plan of tliis circus is shown
above. The obelisk which once stood in the
centre of the spina is now in the Piazza Navona.
The Circus of Sallust, called after the his-
torian Sallust, is supposed to have existed in
the valley between the Quirinal and Pincian
hills. The obelisk which now stands at the top
of the Trinity de' Monti steps belonged to this
circus.
The CrRcxis Games. — The games in the
circus (Ludi Circenses) opened with a proces-
sion (pompa), which assembled on the Capito-
line hill, passed into the Forum, along the Sacra
Via and Vicus Tuscus, into the Forum Boarium,
where was the entrance into the circus at the
Porta Pompae. It then passed once round the
spina, pausing to offer sacrifices and to salute
the imperial pulvinar. The procession was
headed by the presiding magistrate, or in some
cases by the emperor himself, in a chariot,
wearing triumphal insignia (Liv. v. 14 ; Juv. x.
35-46). Next came a crowd of noble citizens
on foot and on horseback: then the chariots
and horsemen who were to take part in the
games, accompanied by musicians. Next in
order came priests in their various collegia.
bearers of holy water, incense and sacrificial
implements, and statues of deities in carriage
(tensae), or borne in litters (fercula) on men
shoulders, and attended by noble Roman youths.
The games mainly consisted of chariot-races ;
the cars (cmn-us) being drawn by various num-
bers of horses, from two up to ten, and called
bigae, trigae, seiuges,
and so on. In early
times bigae and quad-
rigae were mostly
used.
The chariots were
light structures of
wood bound with
bronze, high in front
and open behind.
[Currus.]
Aurigae. — The driv-
ers (atirigae or agita-
tores) were usually
slaves or men of low
class. They wore a
short tunic laced
round the body with
leather thongs (fas-
ciae) : other thongs
went round their
thighs. The auriga
wore a low close-fit-
ting cap, and drove
with the reins looped
round his waist. That
he might have a chance
of cutting himself free
in case of accident, he
wore a curved knife (falx) stuck in his waist-
bands. The victorious auriga received a prize of
money ; or, if a slave, he might win his freedom.
-Statue of Auriga,
(la the Vatican.)
CIRCUS
The prize was sometimes called the hrabeum '
or hravium {^pa&eiov, cf. 1 ('or. ix. 24) ; and the
giver of the prize was known as the brabeuta
(fipa0fvT-fis) (Suet. Nero, 53). The winners of
important races, on which there was lieavy
betting, sometimes received enormous sums of
money from patrons wlio had backed them (Juv.
vii. 113, 243; Snet. Claud. 21) : e.g. a Moorish
■auriga, named Crescens, during ten years (115- '
124 .\.D.) won 1,550,346 sesterces with four j
horses called Circus, Acceptus, Delicatus, and
Cut gnus. Some di-ivers lived to win from 2000
to 8000 victories.
Racehorses. — The horses used for racing
purposes were mostly bred in Spain, Sicily,
Mauretania, Northern Greece, and, in late
times, in Cappadocia. As a rule horses were
not allowed to run till the age of five. A hod-se
which had won 100 races was called ceniota-
rius : a horse called Tuscus is mentioned as the
winner of 429 races. The horses were marked
by branding on tlie flank the initial or badge
{character) of the owner.
Large sums of money were lost and won on
the races {^onsio, ' betting,' Juv. xi. 202 ; Mart.
xi. 1, 15). Race-cards [libeUi) were sold with
lists of the horses and names of the drivers:
and these were also given in the advertisements
of the games which were painted in large letters
on conspicuous walls; as at Pompeii. In addi-
tion to the chariots and their drivers, men on
horseback appear to have galloped with the
racers, exciting tliem with shouts [iiibilatores) ;
and on foot (cursores).
Ill early times only four chariots ran in each
race (missus), one for each colour (see below) :
in later times eight or even ten chariots started
together. The presiding magistrate gave the
signal for starting, by waving a white cloth
(viappa, Liv. viii. 40, 2; Mart. xii. 29, 9; Suet.
Ner. 22 ; Juv. xi. 193). In early times few races
were run in a day ; even in the time of Julius
Caesar they did not usually exceed ten or twelve. '
Li later times the races sometimes lasted the
whole day. Intervals between sets of races
were filled up by exhibitions of rope-dancing,
tumbling, and feats of horsemanship, very
like those of a modern circus. [Desultor.]
In addition to tliese races and games, the
young Romans held reviews and assaults of
arms (armaturae pedestres or equestres) in
the Circus Maximus. One variety of this
was called the Ludus Troiae (Tac. Ann. xi.
11).
The Factiones were companies of contractors
who provided horses, drivers, and all other
requisites for the games. The giver of the en-
tertainment [editor spectaculorum) only found
the money, the whole business being managed
by the factiones. Each /actio was distinguished
by a colour, which was worn by the anrigae
and other performers in the ludi. At first
there were only ivio factiones, distinguished by
the colours red and white, russata and albata ;
next blue (veneta) was added, probably in the
time of Augustus; and a fourth, green (jjrasina),
came in soon after (Juv. xi. 196). Lastly, Do-
mitian added purple and gold (Suet. Dam. 7).
Under the later Empire each factio formed
a sort of collcgiuyn. At the head of each was
Afactionis dominus, and under him were em-
ployes, slaves, and artisans of every sort required
for the management of the ludi.
The rivalry between the different colours of
the factions and the heavy betting on the races
often led to scenes of riot and bloodshed. In
the sixth century the great circus at Constanti-
CISTA
167
nople was frequently the scene of hideous
slaughter (see Gibbon, cap. xl.).
For the various festivals that were celebrated
by Circus games, see Cerialia, Floralia, Con-
Bualia, Equiria, and Ludi.
Cirrus. [Coma J
Ci'siam. A two-wheeled carriage or gig.
[CurruB.]
^^
Fig. 8,S2.— Cisium. (From the Igel Monument near Trier.'
Ki(T<ru3iov. A large wooden rustic cup with
one handle or two, sometimes adorned with
carvings (Theocr. i. 27). It is mentioned iii
Homer as belonging to the Cyclops {Od. ix.
34()) and to Eumaeus (xiv. 78, xvi. 52). In
shape it was rather deep, like a teacup, or the
rustic scyp)hus (Od. xiv. 78 ; Eur. Cycl. 390).
The derivation of the word is uncertain, but
probably not ki(T(t6s.
Cista, Ciste'lla (Kia-rrj, Kicrrls). (1) A wicker
basket, square or round. (2) A box or casket,
smaller than the area or chest : e.g. a monev-
box (Cic. Ve)-r. iii. 85, § 197 ; Hor. Ep. i. 17,
54). (3) In the Roman comitia the cista was
the ballot-box into wliich the voters cast their
Fig. 333.— Cista, voting-basket. (From coin of
Cassia Gens.)
tabellae (Plin. xxxiii. § 31). (4) A toilet- or
jewel-case. Such cistae are often mentioned
in Roman comedies (cf. Plaut. Cistell. iv. 1, 3 ;
Ter. Eun. iv. 6, 15), and are represented on
vases. The material indicated is usually bas-
ket-work.
These vases have been found mostly in Magna
Graecia. The metal cistae come almost exclu-
Fig. ».'U.— Ciata, toilet-busket. (Gerhard.)
sively from Praeneste, where they were pro-
duced on a large scale. The most beautiful of
these is the celebrated Ficoroni cista, now in the
Museo Kircheriano at Rome. A large number
of cistae have been discovered. They are
mostly made of bronze, and covered with orna-
mental designs, engraved in oullint> upon the
metal. The Praenestiiie workmansliipissome-
wliat rough. They were, it is clear, turned out
cheaply as manufactincd articles, not finished
artistic products. Tlic Ficoroni cista is of
ipiite exceptional beauty, and a real work of
art
CISTA
CISTERNA
Fig. 335.— Scene from the Ficoroni Clsta.
Many articles of the toilet have been dis-
covered in them, such as mirrors, sponges,
hair-pins [Acus], and scent-bottles [Alabas-
trum].
Fig. 336.— Cista. (British Museum.)
(5) CiSTA Mystica. The name of cista was
also given to the small boxes which were
carried in procession in the Greek festivals of
Demeter and Dionysus. These boxes contained
sacred things connected with the worship of
these deities (Ov. A. A. ii. 609; Catull. Ixiv.
259). [Dionysia; Hysteria.]
Cister'na. An underground, usually vaulted,
reservoir for rain-water : lacus and piscina
being open tanks, and puteus a well-head.
Such reservoirs are found of extreme antiquity
in Egypt, Palestine, Greece, and other coun-
tries. They were sometimes hewn in the rock ;
in other cases they were lined with masonry
Fig. 337.— Cista. (From a painting on a vase.)
joined with a hydraulic cement. At Athens,
and in many Greek towns, cisternae, both
public and private, exist in great numbers, fre-
quently of a bottle shape.
Cisternae were often constructed in sets of
three (Vitr. viii. 7) or moi-e, the wnter passing
from one to the other and becoming filtered.
A cisterna at Firmuni (Fermo) has two ranges
of vaulted chambers built in concrete, commu-
nicating with each other both vertically and
CISTOPHORUS
horizontally. Iii that of Biiiae (now called
Piscina mirabile) the areliea are supported on
piers, dividing tlie space ijito live aisles. Tlie
dimensions are 234 ft. x 91 ft. Fig. a3S shows
the section of a domestic cisterua at Pompeii.
CIVITAS
169
Fig. .S.'W.— Clsterna at Pompeii.
Cistoph'orus (Ki(TTo<p6pos). (1) One who
carried a cista in a procession, e.g. at the Eleu-
sinia (Dem. de Cor. 313), or at Rome in the
rites of Isis and Osiris. The cistophori in the
service of Belloiia were men.
(2) [Coinage.]
Cith'ara, Citharista. [Lyra.]
Civis. [Civitas.j
Ci'vitas (iroAiTfio). Citizenship. 1. Ghkek.
Aristotle {Fol. iii. 1, 4, b h) defines a citizen
(iroAiTTjs) as one who is a partner in the legis-
lative and judicial power.
1. Heroic ages. — The kings were the com-
manders in war, offered up certain sacrifices to
the gods, and administered justice (Arist. Pol.
iii. 9, 7j ; their authority was, however, limited
by the nobles, to whom sometimes the title of
PatriKrjes was given {Od. i. 394) as well as to the
monarch himself. Without their advice and
assent no important matter was undertaken,
and they shared also in the administration of
justice, but to what extent cannot be defined
[BovXti]. The freemeu assembled only to
listen (see 11. ix. 17).
2. Athena. — In Attica the power of the chief
king was limited by the division of the people
into several independent communities, each
under its own head (in Plut. The.s. 32, these
heads are called ^a(n\e7s). Theseus is said to
have united them into a single state and to have
made Athens the seat of government and of
the administration of justice [ZuvouKiaj
(Thuc. ii. 15). Plutarch {Thr.s. 25) ascribes to
Theseus the distribution of the population of
Attica into fvirarpiSai, yfwixipoi, and Sri/xiovpyoi.
In the earliest times the guidance of civil and
religious affairs belonged, under the king, to
the Eupatridae (Plut. Tlies. 25). The ascen-
dency of the Eupatridae continued down to
Solon, who introduced the timocratic princijde,
by distributing all the citizens of the tribt's
into four classes according to the amount of
produce from their lands.
Of these four classes only the first three
were eligible for public offices. But even the
lowest possessed certain imjiortant riglits and
were exempted from military service as hop-
lites. By Solon's reforms anyone who succeeded
in becoming a landed proprietor was enabled to
set himself on an ecpiality in point of law with
the nobles ; and, on tlie other hand, the man
of noble birth, if he became poor, ceased to
belong to the privileged class.
Kleisthenes abolished the old tribes for civil
purposes and introduced the local distribution
into 100 denies (Srjfxoi: Hdt. v. Ci'.l) us tlie foun-
dation of his new ten tribes. The denie now
became the elementary jiolitical division, and a
man was described by the name of his deme
as well as that of his father : e.g. ArjfjLocr dfyT]s
ATiiLiotrdfvous TlaiafifVi.
Among the citizens we have to distinguish
between the naturalised or new citizens ($77^0-
iroiTjToi, iroiTfToi, Tron'jCT-fi or Swpfi TroKlrat) and
the old citizens (<pv<Tft or yfvfi TruKlrai, Dem.
<•. Strph. i. p. 1125, § 7h). Aciording to Solon's
law (Plut. Sol. 24), citizenship could only be
conferred uiioii two classes of foreigners, viz.
political exiles {to7s (pfvyovaiv a.ft(pvyia}, and
public benefactors (avSpayaOias iveKa). In later
times honorary citizensiiip was given bo fre-
(pieiitly as to lower its value.
Other Greek states admitted foreigners to
citizenship, usually as a reward for services
rendered to the state.
Citizenship at Athens was conferred by the
popular assembly. It was open to any Athenian
who considered the candidate undeserving of
the honour, to bring a ypacpri irapav6fx.(iiv. The
person invested with the citizenship was en-
rolled in a tribe (<J>i/At|), deme (5f;/ios), and
phratry ((ppaTp'ia), according to his own choice.
His d<-scendaiits inherited his citizenship.
Of native Athenians no one was counted as
a citizen who was not born of Athenian parents.
Children whose mothers were slaves or aliens
were termed v6Qoi and fj.r}Tp6^evoi, and those
irregularly inscribed, ■rrap^yypa(poi. New citi-
zens and their sons born before citizenship
was conferred, were excluded from the urchon-
ship : with this exception, the Srifj.oiru'njToi en-
joved the same privileges with the citizens by
birth.
The registration of a child in the official
register of the phratry (t^ (pparepiKhv 7po^-
fiaTilov, on the third day of the Apaturian fes-
tival (fcoypeoiTij), formed a recognition of legi-
timacy of birth ; the child now possessed all the
rights of kinship. ["ATraT-ovpta.] This regis-
tration was connected with certain sacrificial
rites, which were, however, not the same in all
the phratries. The victim (fxiiov) was a sheep
or a goat. It would appear that the yfvvi]Tai
and (ppdrepfs had a common register. Tliere
was a second elffriyqcris to the phrateres, when
the grown-up youth was received among the
e<P7jfioi by the solemn act of cutting off his hair
(Plut. 2'ltcfi. 5) and sacrifice : this was probably
called Kovpeiov, and was merely a religious
ceremony ; the civil act took place before the
demotae. In the beginning of the calendar
year in the course of which the youth reached
liis eighteenth year, he was entered in the
A7j|iapx"f^'' ypa/J-iMXTelov. On this occasion the
j demotae instituted a kind of SiiKt/xaaia, and in-
quired into the qualificiitions of the candidates.
An Athenian thus enrolled was of age (avToKpd-
Twp, Xen. Mem. ii. 1,211, and couhl enter ni)on
his patrimony, if an orphan or tiie son of an
eViKArjpos, and might marry ; he now became
responsible to the laws, and liable to military
service (o-TpaTei'/ffi/ios), and had to take his
share in the public burdens.
The young citizens were at the same time, or
on attaining the age of twenty, entered into the
iriVa^ iKKKr)(Tia(rTiK6s, and allowed to attend
the popular assembly. For one year, or per-
haps two, they had to serve as ittpiiroKoi. in the
country.
I At the age of thirty an Athenian could beconjc
' jSouAeuTT)! and i]\ia(TTris : at the age of fifty,
i^(r-i)% or 5iaiT7;T7')S. 'EiriTi/ui'a denotes the un-
(liminislied jiossession of civic rights ,see Aj^jien-
dix, (lur.iK Law, 'ATiM.£a'. Special privileges
were arfKfia. irpjtSpto, triTTjcris iv Wpvravdtf
[Prytaneium].
I .'!. Sjiiirld. — The piipul.it ion of the Sjiiirtaii
state consisted of three different classi s ; tln>
Dorian full citizens, the dej)endent Perioeki.
1 and the serfs or Helots. There seem to have
170
CIVITAS
been few slaves in the country acquired either
by purchase or by capture in war. In war-
time the helots were employed as shield-bearers
to the hoplites, as light-armed troops (Hdt. ix.
28), and sometimes even as hoplites (Thuc.iv. 80).
When they served among the heavy-armed, it
seems to have been usual to give them their
liberty. Out of the class of emancipated helots
there grew up a numerous separate class, the
yeoSafiwSeis. These, however, were not ad-
mitted to citizenship.
The ij.66aKes or fiodaives were helot children
(generally the sons of Spartans by helot women)
who had together with the Spartan children
gone througli the prescribed course of education
and discipline. Some of them enjoyed fuU
civic rights, probably after having been adopted,
such as Kallikratidas, Lysander, Gylippus.
[See riapGevCai.]
The UeploiKoi were politically dependent on
the Spartans. They possessed most probably
civic rights in the communities to wlrich they
belonged, but Sparta seems to have always
exercised a controlling supervision, through
officers called ap/xoarai. In time of peace they
pursued agriculture, and engaged in commerce
and trades, whicli were forbidden to the Spar-
tans by law (Plut. Lye. 4).
The ruling classes of citizens derived their
name of SirapTiarai from the capital, whilst the
name AaKeSai/xoyLoi is common to them with
the Perioeki. Full civic rights did not depend
upon birth alone ; only those were full citizens
(bfioiot) who had fulfilled all the exigencies of
the Lykurgean discipline and continued to con-
tribute and to belong to the ffvaaiTia. oTtpiSiTia.
In legal rights all ofjioioi were equal, but within
them it would appear that there were two
distinct classes : the minority of rich citizens
(the KaKol Kayadoi of Aristotle, from whom
the twenty-eight members of the gerousia
were taken : Pol. ii. 6, 15), and a majority of
poorer members, who, though equal to the
former in the eye of the law, might be described
as the Srjfj.os, or mass of the citizens. The
'AireWa (= e/c/cATytr/a), which all Spartans of
thirty years and upwards were privileged to
attend, elected the Gerontes from the Ka\ol
Kayadoi (only those above sixty were eligible),
and the Ephors e'l airdvTwv ; decided (Time
i. 87) upon a disputed succession to the throne
(Hdt. vi. 65, 66 ; Xen. Hell. iii. 3, 1) ; concerning
peace and war (Thuc. i. 67), treaties with foreign
states (Thuc. v. 77), legislative measures, &c.
The right of bringing motions before the as-
sembly, and taking part in the debates, seems
to have belonged only to the kings, Gerontes,
and in later times to the Ephors.
Admission into the citizen class was a very
rare occurrence (Hdt. ix. 35). Tyrtaeus (Plat. :
Legg. p. 629 a) and Dion (Plut. Dion, 17) are |
instances. Occasionally those were made |
citizens who had been sent to Sparta as children
to share in the prescribed discipline (rpScpiixoi,
Xen. Hell. v. 3, 9). The number of Spartans I
was in historic times continually on the de- '
crease : whilst it amounted to 8000 in the i
times of the Persian wars (Hdt. vii. 234), it had
dwindled down in the davs of Aristotle to below
1000 (cf. Plut. Ag. 5). No distinction of privi- |
leges existed between the three tribes ((pvKai) — !
'TWels, Avuaves and nd/j.(pv\oi — which are
found wlierever there were Dorians. These
three tribes were divided into twenty-seven !
phratries. Besides this, there was a local divi-
sion of the Spartans into five (pvAai, with oiQai
as subdivisions (cf. Plut. Ljjc. 6). j
2. RoM.iN. — Civitas means (1) ' state,' i.e. an
independent political society, civilised or bar-
barous, or the whole body of cives or members
of such a society (Cic. Somn. Scij). 3). (2) Kar'
e^oxv^, the Pioman state. (3) A town within a
state, whether regarded as a corporation or
merely as a place. (4) The condition or status
of a Roman citizen, termed, in its fullest extent,
lus Quiritium, his rights and duties.
Under the Republic, citizens of Rome are
divisible into cives optimo iure and cives
non optimo iure. The first, whether patri-
cians or plebeians, enjoyed the full rights of
civitas, which were either (1) public or (2) pri-
vate. (1) Public rights are suffragium (the
right of voting in the comitia), and honores (the
capacity to fill Roman magistracies), ius mili-
tiae, census, provocationis (involving exemp-
tion from flagellum and crux). (2) Private
rights are comprised under the two heads of
coynmerciuni and conuhium — commerciuin
expressing capacitj' ta take part in all the
dispositions of the civil law [dominium, man-
cipatio, usucapio, testamenti /actio, &c.)
[see those articles in Appendix, Roman Law] ;
while conuhium denotes capacity to enter into
a lawful Roman marriage (iustum matri-
monium), and patria potestas over its issue.
The cives non optimo iure were : (1) Thefreed-
men of a Roman citizen and their children ;
who, though excluded from honores and from
the comitia of the tribes, could vote in the
comitia centuriata. (2) Municipes, persons be-
longing to a city upon which the civitas
Romana had been bestowed. Municipes had
no share in the ius publicum (Liv. xxxviii. 36),
but had civitas sine suffragio (Liv. ix. 43J
[AerariiJ See Colonia and Municipiain.
(3) Roman citizens on whom loss of suffragium
had been inflicted as a punislmient [Infamia ;
Censor]. These were not permitted to share
in the honour of military service, but in other
respects they stood on tlie same footing with
cives optim,o iure. The full citizenship was
acquired by the plebeians by slow degrees be-
tween the earliest times and 300 B.C.
Originally the Romans divided all persons
into cive^ and peregrini : apart from public
rights, the former had conuhium and com-
mercium ; the peregrini had neither. The
peregrinus had no legal capacity according to
the ius civile ; but he had a capacity of acquir-
ing rights under the ius gentium subject to the
praetor's control. Thus the following would be
peregrini : (1) the inhabitants of almost all the
Roman provinces; (2) the citizens of foreign
states who were in friendly relation with Rome ;
(3) Romans who had lost the civitas by capitis
deminutio minor [Appendix, Roman Law,
Caput] ; (4) freedmen who were dediticiorum
nu7nero.
Between these two classes of cives and pere-
grini a third (Latini) is interposed in the course
of history. Latinitas denotes originally the
legal condition of members of the Latin confe-
deration (not belonging to a municipium), and
of the numerous coloniae Latinae : such per-
sons had com,mercium, but none of the public
rights of civitas, nor had they the conuhium.
By the Leges lulia and Plautia Papiria, follow-
ing upon the Social War (90 B.C.), the Roman
citizenship was extended to all Italy, properly
so called, and even to Gallia Cispadana^ But
Latinitas did not therefore disappear. It was
commonly granted as an honour to towns in the
provinces ; and ceased to have any ethnic or
geographical signification. [Latinitas.]
CLAMOR
Citizens were : (1) Civesnati. Children born
of a legitimuni matriinonium {i.e. lawful wed-
lock between two persons in possession of conu-
bium) were cives nati. [Matrimoniiun.] (2,1
Gives fact i. A iy(/^/«MS could rise to the status
of civis in a variety of ways : e.g. by tilling a
magistracy in his own colonia Latina; or by
marrying a civis and begetting a cliild who lived
a year.
Upon peregrini and Latini civitas could
always of course be conferred by statute : see
Liv. vi. 4. Slaves would become cives by being
manumitted in one of the statutory modes
{vindicta, censu, tcstainento).
Under the Empire, when the political rights
of the citizen had ceased to have any value, the
emperors granted the civitas to persons viritim
or communities by a lex, a senatus consultuni,
or in virtue of potcstas ccnsoria. The edict of
Caracalla (211-217 a.d.) conferred the civitas
on all Latini and peregrini tlien living under
the sway of Rome. By the sixtli century the last
trace of the distinctions between freemen in
respect of civitas liad disappeared, and all sub-
jects were either cives or slaves.
Civitas could be lost by anything which caused
loss of personal liberty, e.g. being sold as a slave,
or becoming a prisoner of war [ Fostliminium ;
Caput] ; or as a consequence of Exilium.
Clamor (a\aKT\T6s, Horn. II. iv. 43(i). War
cry. The Greek sliout was dAaAa. According
to Pindar {Fr. 5(1) 'AAaAa was daughter of Ares.
Tlie battle shout was in use throughout Greek
history, and was accompanied by
striking tlie shield with the spear.
The Roman cluuior was accom-
panied with blowing "f trumpets.
Clari^a'tio. [Fetiales.J
Classia'rii. [Exercitus.]
Clas'sicum. [Cornu.]
Clathri(-a: Kavove^). Bars of
■U'Odd or metal, a railing or grille
[Caneelli] : e.g. the uetwoi-Ji of
CLASSIS
171
;iO. Bronze (rWilc. (Circus of
CLiracallu.)
metal or marble filling in a lu-
nette, a railing of metal, of bars
with spear-heads, &c.
Classis. 1. Greek Fleets. —
After the legendary expeditions of
the Argonauts and the Trojan War,
the earliest naval operations on a
Fig. 889.-Bar of larger scale than the piratiial
metal railing, ^.^^j^^ ^^ ^j^^ Homeric poems are
those connected with the rivalry of
the Greeks with the Phoenicians and Karians
about the eighth century B.C. The ships em-
ployed were prol)alily beaked biremes (5iii)p«ts)
and pentekonters [Navisl. Triremes were first
built towai'ds tlie end of the eighth century, by
the Corinthians (Time. i. i:!),who were the first
among Greek states to develop a war marine.
The first recorded naval battle was fought
between Corinth and Korkyra in Cfil B.C. The
Ionian Greeks had a large number of war
vessels : Polykrates of Samos (c. 550 B.C.) had
100 pentekonters and 40 triremes. The Ionian
allied fleet at Lade, 494 B.C., consisted of 850
triremes (Hdt. vii. 90). The cities of Sicily also
maintained fleets against the sea power of
Carthage. Gelon of Syracuse (480 B.C.) had 200
siiips. The Greek fleet at Salamis 4b0 B.C. num-
bered 378 triremes, 180 of which were Athenian.
After the end of the Persian War, the Con-
federacy of Delos gave Athens under Perikles
the opportunity of becoming supreme in the
Greek waters. He had 300 triremes always
ready to sail, and to meet this fleet the Corin-
tliians, who were the principal naval power in
the Lacedaemonian league in the Peloponnesian
War, found it diflicult to provide a sufficient
naval force. At tlie conclusion of the Pelojion-
iiesian War the Athenians lost their fleet, but
the Spartans, to whom it passed, did not keep
it up, and the Persians again established their
power over the Aegean and Egyptian seas. In
the fourth century the naval jKuver of Athens
was re-established, and at tlie time of Demo-
sthenes her fleet numbered 400 ships, principally
triremes, but also quadriremes (TeTpr,peis), and
even quinqueremes (TTfi/Tiipfis).
After the establisliment of the Macedonian
supremacy, we hear of the fleets of Alexander
and his successors chiefly made up of big ships
of ten and more banks of oars.
The Rhodian navy was powerful about 200
B.C., and furnished the Romans with naviil
allies in the Macedonian Wars. The Hhodiaii
ships were mainly of four and five hanks.
Tlie Athenian marine was directed by the
boule and sometimes the ekklesia. The office
of building ships was entrusted to TpiTipo-
TTotoC: 300 or 400 sliips were always ready
either at sea or in the yards (i/eclipta, veu-'ao'tKui
Lsee Armariumj) under the care of eVio-TaTat
Toil vavTiKov and (irifxeK-qrai twu viwpluiv.
The institution of TpLTipapxia dates back
to the sixth century. After the Sicilian expedi-
tion pairs of trierarchs ((TvvTpn^papX'at) were in-
stituted, and later Zv^ip-opiai ami avvTiAetai,
who completed the armament of tlie war tri-
remes, of which the hulls and tackling were
furnished by the state.
Trierarchs commanded their ships in person,
under the ffrparfiyoi. The Kv^{pvr)Tr,s was
master of the vessel. For the general arrange-
ments and manoeu\Tes of ships at sea, see
Navis.
I'he fleet in the times of the Athenian supre-
macy cruised in the Greek waters to protect
trade and keep down piracy, made descents on
hostile territory and contended with the ene-
mies' fleets at sea, and conveyed armies to their
destination. They usually sailed, except when
manoeuvring, or when great speed was required
(Thuc. iii. 49). Before an action the heavier
masts and sails were put ashore. They seldom
went far from land, and the crews often disem-
barked twice a day for meals : as e.g. at Aegos-
potami, 405 B.C. (Xen. Hell. ii. 1, 25; Pint.
Lys. 10).
2. Roman Fleets. — That the Romans pos-
sessed a fleet in very early times is shown by
tlieir adoption of theshipon their coins [Coinage,
PI. III.]. In 303 B.C. a laiiga iiaris was sent to
take an offering to Delplii (Liv. v. 28). In 347
B.C. the Romans coiuhided a treaty with Carth-
age (Polyb. iii. 21), in which the fleets of both
powers are mentioned. After the conquest of
Italy, completed in 338 B.C., we liear of lougae
naves at Antinm, navalia at Rome, rostra in
the Forum. The management of the fleet was
entrusted to Quaestores Classici,aiid on sjiecial
occasions to Duoviri navales. The great de-
velopment of the Roman fleet was owing to the
172
CLASSIS
CLAVUS
Peisistratus had a body-guard of Kopvvr]<p6poi
(Hdt. i. 59; Plut. So?. 30). The club or mace
was used also by Axcadian hoplites (Xen. Hell.
ri\'alry with Carthage in the First Punic War, in
which they made battles at sea reseniljle, as far
as possible, battles by land (Mylae, '659 B.C. ;
Eknomns, 256 B.C.).
After the fall of Carthage and the conquest
of the East, the Mediterranean became a Roman
lake, and there was no further use for a navy.
Indeed, in the Jugurthine War the troops
ordered into Africa were marched down to
Rhegium, and thence sent across to SicUy, and
again from Sicily convoyed over by Sicilian mer-
chantmen. The Romans had no fleet to oppose
to Mithradates. Till Pompeius destroyed the
pirates (67 b c.) there was no security for trade
in any part of the Mediterranean. With the
civil wars naval activity was revived ; but the
fleets of Caesar were built and equipped as occa-
sion required. The senatorial party in 49 B.C.
raised a fleet of 500 vessels, chiefly Greek and
Asiatic. Sextus Pompeius, Praefectus Classis
et Orae Maritimae,\\e\A.Vi\e sea against Octavius
with a fleet manned and partly commanded by
Orientals and f reedmen, till he was beaten by Fig. S42.— HerciJes wrestling -with Nemean lion ; the club
Octavius at Naulochus. At the battle of Actium, by his side. (From a Koman lamp.)
31 B.C., Octavius opposed light 'Libumian' .. _ c „„n ,~,, j u -i.
, . ' ,, 4. ii 1 1 • t \ * vn. o, * 20). Clavae were used by recriuts
bireme galleys to the heavy ships of Antony .jj^^ ^.^ ^^^ ^^j 53 j^^. ^P ,^
and Cleopatra. . . _ . i nia^io Jlanua.]
Augustus entirely reorganised the Roman fleet
and divided it into several squadrons, of which
the most important were :
(1) The Classis Misenensis, ivnder the direct
command of the emperor, whose lieutenant was
styled Praefectus Classis, usually one of the
imperial f reedmen. It had stations also at Ostia,
Corsica, and Centumcellae (Civita Vecchia).
The marines of the CI. Misenensis were sta-
tioned at Rome in barracks (Castra; Misenen-
sium) near the Flavian Amphitheatre
Clavis.
Clavus [riKos, y6fi<pos). A nail. In Homer
fl\os is not a nail to fix and fasten, but a stud
or projecting head used as an ornament (JZ. i.
246, xi. -.'■;. Subsequently it has the sense of a
nail (Plat. Phaedr. 83 b). r6n<pos [Gomphus]
originally signified a wooden peg or bolt used
in shiijbuilding [Katis] ; but it is also used for
an iron nail (Aesch. Sept. 542).
In early times, before soldering was known,
nails were used to join together plates of metal.
foVrZ A p -."i-u....a..e. J the 'Treasury of Atreus' at Mykenae, the
(2) The Classis PraetonaRavennas, stationed . ,. ^ nerforated bv bronze
at Ravenna (where the town of Classis grew up ^'^^^^^ °^ *^^ ^^^^ ^® pertorated Dy Dronze
ad cabanas : cf. S. Apollinare in Classe), with
(no doubt) other ports in the Adriatic. This
fleet also had Castra Ravennatiuni at Rome
in the Transtiberina Regio.
(8) Other fleets established by Augustus and
h's successors were the Classis Augusta Alex-
andriua (a continuation of the royal fleet of the
Ptolemies), Classis Libjxa, Syriaca, Pontica,
Britannica (with stations at Bononia ( Boulogne),
Dubrae (Dover), and on the Yorkshire coast),
Forojuliensis (Frejus),and on the rivers Rhine,
Danube, and Rhone.
The Roman warships were partly triremes
and quadriremes (naves longae), partly biremes
(liburnae). [Navis.]
Both in Greece and at Rome naval service
was unpopular, and only the poorest citizens, or
slaves, were drafted into the navy. The rowers
(remiges), sailors {nautae), and marines (clas-
siarii) were Italians, and were called socii
navales. The term of enlistment under the
Empire was for twenty-
six years.
Clava (^o'lraAot', ko-
pvvri). A club, such as
that attributed to Hera-
kles (Soph. Track. 512;
Ar. Ban. 47 ; Ov. Met.
XV. 114 ; Suet. Xei\ 53)
called Clavigcr (Ov.
Met. XV. 22, 284, Fast, i
Fig. 311.— Club of Herakles.
(From a coin of Philip V.
of Maccdon.)
544). In Homeric times,
the club shod with iron,
or made of bronze, was
used as a mace in light-
ing {II. ix. 141, Od. xi. 375) ; and in the army of
Xerxes the Assyrians carried clubs (Hdt. vii. 63).
Fig. SJ3.— I^ronze nails from Mykenae. (T-.vo-thirds real
size.)
nails, wliich held together the bronze plates
with which the interior was decorated (cf. Hor.
Carm. iii. 16 ; Hom. Od. vii. 84).
Nails were made of iron (Pind. Pyth. iv. 125 ;
Xen. Ci/neg. ix. 12; Plaut. Trin. iv. 3, 32; Caes.
Fig. an.— Copper nail found at HissarUk, one-third of the
size. (Schliemaim, Troja, p. 93, ed. 1884.)
B G. iii. 13) ; bronze (Plin. xvi. § 51 ; hard wood
(Plin. xxi. § 206) ; copper, and even silver (Plut.
Alex. 40).
Large nails for fastening beams were called
clavi trahales or tabulares (Cie. Verr. v. 21,
53 ; Hor. Carvi. i. 35, 18).
The shoes of soldiers were studded with
nails, hence called clavi caligarii or caligares
[Calceus]; clavarium, 'nail-money,' like cal-
CLAVUS GUBEENACULI
ceariiim (Suet. Vesp. 8), was a military donative
(Tac. Hist. iii. 50).
CLIENS
173
Q\\'0>y,-)l^^^,i»»^Mi>.->y»„^„..,iih>„ >.^Hr:
Fig. 345. — Ornamented Roman nail. (Caylus, Ueaieil
d'Aniiq. vol. V. pi. Jli.)
Clavuni figere was a proverbial expression,
signifying what was unalterably fixed by Fate
(Cic. Verr. v. 21, 53). Hence the goddess Ne-
cessitas is armed with a nail (Hor. Carm. i. 35,
lati clavi before he assumed the toga virilis,
and it was afterwards his custom to permit the
sons of senators to wear it and attend the dis-
cussions of the senate, in order to train them in
public affairs. These j'ouths were culled lati-
clavii (Suet. Avg. 38, 94 ; Hor. Sat. i. C, 25).
The right of wearing tlie latus clavus was also
granted as a favour to the sons of knights, as a
preliminary step to tlieir entering the senate
(Ov. Trist. V. 10, 29-3(5 ; Suet. Vesp. 2). The
Senate laid aside the latus clavus at times of
mourning (Liv. ix. 7) and assumed the angustus
claims.
The angustiis clavusv.'o.'a. a badge of the eques-
trian order, but less distinctively so than the
Fig. JM6.— The Etruscan goddess Athrpa or .\tropos armed
with a nail. (Vermiglioli, inscriz. l\rug. vol. i. p. 49.)
17, 18, iii. 24, 6, 6) ; and so also Athrpa or
Atropos (see cut).
At Volsinii, in Etruria, a nail was driven every
year in the temple of Nortia, the Fortune of
Etruscan mythology, in order to keep a reckon-
ing of the years (Liv. vii. 3). This < ustom was
introduced into Rome from Etruria. A nail
was driven by the chief magistrate on the Ides of
September into the side of the cella of Jupiter
on the Capitol. This nail was called Clavus
Annalis. (Liv. I. c.) We read of a dictator
being appointed, more than once, for the sole
purpose of driving in the nail {clavi figendi
causa, Liv. vii. 3, S:c.).
Clavus guberna'culi. [Navis.]
Clavus latus, Clavus augustus. It was
a common usage witli manj- nations of an-
tiquity to adorn a garment with stripes of a
different colour, woven in or sown on tlie stuff.
[Patagium.] Tlie Romans made a characteristic
use of these adornments by employing tliem as
badges of office or rank {oDtavwntd), as in tlie
case of the trabea, the toga practcxta, as well
as the clavi.
Usage. — The latus clavus, said to have been
introduced by Tullus Hostilius from the Etrus-
cans (Plin. ix. § 13(5), was tlie distinctive badge
of the senatorian order (Hor. Sat. i. ('», 28 ; Ov.
Ti-ist. iv. 10, 35), and hence it is used to signify
the senatorial dignity (Suet. Tib. 35 ; Juv. i. 106,
purpura maior). But there were relaxations of
the restriction : thus Augustus wore the tunica
Fig. 347.— Angustus clavus. (From figures in the
Catacombs.)
golden ring. It was also worn by Camilli, as a
part of tlieir ceremonial dress.
Form. — Clavi were purple stripes woven in
the fabric or sewn on it ; they were employed to
ornament the tunic, and no other garment ; the
latus clavus consisted of two vertical stripes
about four inches wide falling from each shoul-
der, down the front and back. The angusticlave
appears to have differed from the livticlave only
in breadth ; but no certam example of the lati-
clave exists.
Latus clavus, ang. cl. are often abbreviated
expressions for tunica lati or ang. clavi (Suet.
lul. 45).
The angustus clavus probably survives in
the clavi or ' orphreys ' of the dalmatic, which
was recognised as an ecclesiastical garb in the
earlier part of the fourth century. (See Diet,
of Christian Ant. s. vv. Clavus, Dal.matic.)
Tlie clavus, whether latus or angustus, was
worn behind as well as in front. The latus
clavus was sometimes woven on table napkins
(Mart. iv. 4(i, 17).
The equivalents used in the Greek writers are :
clavus, ffrjfxflov : tunica laticlavia, 7) irKarv-
(rr]fios : funicti augusiirluvia, r) (rTevScrrinos.
Cleps'ydra. [Horologium.J
K\Tipovxoi. [Colonia.]
K Xtipos- See Ai>peiidix, (iKKEK Law [Heres].
KXtiTTipes or KXtixopts- See Appendix,
Grkf.k Law.
Cli'banus. An earthenware oven, of beehive
shape, pierced with lioles ; it was buried in hot
ashes when in use. Another form appears to
have had hollow walls into whicli the lieat from
a furnace was admitted from below.
Cliens {-Jklu, 'hear'). Before the iuooqio-
174
CLIENS
ration of the plebs in the Roman state, the I
populus, which alone comprised that state, con-
sisted of the patresfamihas united in a com-
pact aggregate by the tie of gens, curia, and
tribe ; but, besides these, there were many
other free persons dwelling on Roman territory
who possessed no civil rights whatever. As
these increased in number, they were allowed
to attach themselves (apjMcatio) as clientes to
a civis, who was called their patronus. They
became members of his gens, thereby acquir-
ing the gentile name, and incurring the obliga-
tion of military service, but not receiving the ius
suffragii. The rights of the patronus over his
client were modelled on those of the pater over
his filius-farailias : if the cliens committed an
offence against him, it was perduellio, and the
only law whicli protected liim against a too harsh
exercise of the patron's authority was that of
the gods (' Patronus si clienti fraudem [' hurt,'
'wrong'] fecerit sacer esto,' XII Tables, in
Servius ad Verg. Aen. vi. 609). The essential
difference between clients and plebeians is that
the relation of the former to tlie patricians
was personal, that of the latter political. The
clientela may be connected with the fabled
asijlum of Romulus, the founders of the first
city having admitted to dwell with them refu-
gees from neighbouring towns and districts,
traders, aborigines reduced to a condition of
vassalage, and finally tlieir owm freed slaves.
The plebs liad an origin similar, but not iden-
tical. [Plebs. J The clientela, however, was an
old Italian institution, which existed among the
original stock from which the Roman populus
sprang. When Tatius and his Sabines settled
in Rome, their clients came there with them ;
and Attius or Attus Clausus brought to Rome
a large body of clients (Liv. ii. 16).
The clientes had conunerrium and conubium,
formed part of the Familia of the patronus
and were called by the name of liis Gens, and
may have been regarded as cives nun optimo
■lure. [Civitas.] They also received grants of
Agar publicus in the times when this belonged
exclusively to the patricians.
In the early struggles between patricians and
plebeians the clients are represented as taking
part with the former. As patrician gentes be-
came extinct, their hereditary clients would
naturally become plebeians (though by what
legal process we are not told), and the existence
of patrician and plebeian gentes bearing the
same name is usually attributed to an original
clientship.
The tie of patron and client survived the
incorporation of the plebs in the state (Liv. v.
82) ; it could still be created by applicatio and
by the manumission of slaves (Liv. xliii. 16),
and the status of cliens was in most cases
hereditary. Plebeians also appai-ently could
have clientes. In later times provincial towns
and civitates, and even those which were
friendly but independent, took to placing them-
selves under the hospitiiim or clientela of some
distinguislied citizen (Suet. Aug. 17), who in
this respect might be compared to colonial
agents or consuls (Liv. xl. 44).
At the end of the Republic and under the
earlier Empire a person might be cliens of a
patronus in at least three senses : (1) much in
the sense of our 'client' in relation to a legal
adviser, protector, or advocate (Hor. Sat. i. 1,
10) ; (2) through having attached himself to a
distinguished or powerful civis ; (3) as libertus
or freedman. In all cases the relation was
expressed by the word clientela, which also
CLIPEUS
denoted the whole body of a man's clients (Tac.
Ann. xiv. 61).
Thei-e was in the earliest time a close analogy
between the relation of patron and client, and
that of pater- and filius-familias ; the patron
was the client's guardian and protector, as the
father was the guardian and protector of his
children. The reciisrocal duties of patronus
and cliens varied much at different periods of
history. In later times the salutatores, de-
ductores, tribules, and liherti, were spoken of
generally as clientela or dependents, without
the existence of any strict legal relation as
originally. Such duties as observare atrium,
subsequi lecticam, praecedere sellani (Mart,
iv. 8), salutare mane (Mart. i. 56, 6), &c., were
included under the term officium and opera
togata (Mart. iii. 46), and were i-epuid by the
patronus by a general protection in legal affairs,
gifts and loans of money, invitations, Sportula,
whether in kind or money (Juv. v. 120), &c.
In imperial times a large number of the poorer
citizens was thus maintained in idleness ; the
trades being chiefly in the hands of slaves and
freedmen. (Authorities: Becker, GaZZus; Ram-
sa}% Roman Antiquities ; &c.)
Clima (fcAiyua: Lat. inclinatio, declinatio,
devergentia). (1) lAiex&Wy & slope or incliyia-
tion. Before the globular figure of the earth was
known, it was supposed that there was a general
slope of its surface from south to north, and
this was called KKifxa. Afterwards the word
was applied to different zones of the earth's
surface, which were determined by the different
lengths of the longest day at their lines of de-
marcation [Cingulum, 5]. Tliis division into
climata was applied only to the northern hemi-
sphere.
Hipparchus (about 160 B.C.) assumed the
circumference of a great circle of the earth to
be 252,000 stadia, and divided this into 360 de-
grees, of 700 stadia to each. Ptolemy reckoned
19 climata. The term kAI/mx was afterwards
applied to the average temperature of each of
these regions, and hence our use of the word
climate.
(2) A Roman square measure, containing one
quarter of an Actus or 60 square feet.
Cli'peus. (1) [Arms and Armour.] (2) [Bal-
neae.] (3) A medallion or shield of metal (Hdt.
i. 92), hung uj) as an offering in a temple.
This custom was transferred to Rome (Liv.
XXV. 39). The first recorded instance of such
Fig. 348.— Temple adorned with clipei,
clipei is that of the shields dedicated, 495 B.C.,
by Appius Claudius, in the teuu>le of Bellona,
CLITELLAE
bearing the portraits of his ancestors, clipeatae
imagines. This custom was copied in later
times (Tac. Ann. ii. 83 ; Suet. Cal. 16).
Medallions of marble, sculptured on both
sides, were also suspended from the roofs of
porticiis or atria as an ornament.
COCLEA
175
Fig. 349.— Marble clipeus in poriicus.
Clitel'lae (KavO-fiKia). A pair of panniers, and
therefore only used in the plural number (Hor.
Sat. i. 5, 47 ; Plant. Most. iii. 2, 91). In Italy
they were commniily used witli mules or asses,
I or peperino. Its original dimensions were 12 ft.
4 in. in height and 10 ft. 8 in. in width, but
one-third of its height is now choked up by
mud. This drain was constructed to carry off
not only the sewage, but also tlie surface water
from the surrounding slopes. Hence the eaily
Fig. 360.— Clltellae, panniers. (From Column of Trajan.)
but in other countries they were also applied
to horses.
Cloa'ca {uir6yofxos). A drain. The existing
remains of the drainage of Athens are of con-
siderable extent, and in part, at least, of high
antiquity, since they contain a specimen of the
corbelled arch, the use of which preceded tlie
invention of the true ai"ch (see Arcus). The
sewer is ventilated by air-sliafts ; and at one
point is a reser\-oir, from the sides of which
small canals lined with brick carried the con-
tents towards the plain and the olive woods,
thus apparently pointing to an ancient system
of applying the refuse of a city to fertilise
sewage farms.
The chief of the ancient drains still existing
in Rome is the famous Cloaca Maxitna, wliich
starts in the valley of the Subura at the foot of
the Carinae, crosses the Forum under tlie south
end of the Basilica Julia, thence under tlio
Vicus Tuscus and the Velabrum, and enters
the Tiber near the Temple of Hercules in the
Forum Boarium, by an arch of lapis Gabinus
' construction of this great work, which is attri-
I buted to Tarquinius Priscus or Tarquinius
Superbus (Liv. i. 88, 50), and is certainly as old
as the times of tlie kings.
Several other main drains may be traced, or
are still in use, at Rome. Brick is largely used
in their construction ; sometimes they are
covered in with a barrel vault, sometimes by
two tiles leaning against each other, sometimes
by a single flagstone. In imperial times an
I arch of concrete was substituted, when repairs
were required.
' Besides the main drains there were many
, branch sewers, furnished with manholes, drain-
ing the wliole city within the Aurelian walls.
J The largest sewer in Rome is that under the
Campus Martins.
The expense of cleansing and repairing these
I cloacae was defrayed partly by the Treasury,
and partly by a rate called cloacarium. Under
the Republic, the administration of the sewers
was entrusted to the censors and aediles ; under
the Empire to special officers called cloacarum
ciiratorcs.
KAo-irtis 8£kti or vpacf)!^. See Appendix,
Geeek L.wv.
Cluna'culum. [Arms and Armour, Puc.io.]
Coa vestis, also Coa (n. pi.). The silk of Cos
(Arist. H. A. v. lil;, frequently mentioned by the
Latin poets of the Augustan age (TibuU. ii. 8,
53; Hor. Ca)m. iv. 13, 13; Ov. A. A. ii. 298),
had a great degree of transparency, was re-
markably fine, and very costly, and was some-
times dyed purple and enriched witli stripes of
gold. [Serica vestis.]
Coa'cta, Coactilia {tt'iXos, cogere, ttiKuv,
7r<A7)Ti«7J, m\r\na). Felt made of sheep's wool
and occasionally of other materials : used for
caps (pilleus), shoe-soles, rough cloaks or rugs,
padding to armour, itc. ; also coverings to pro-
tect engines of war.
Coa'ctor. A name applied to collectors of
various sorts, e.g. to the servants of the publi-
cani or farmers of the taxes, who collected the
revenues for them (Cic. liab. I'ost. 11, § 30) ;
also to those who collected the money at a
public auction (Cic. Chient. 04, § 180: Hor. Sat.
i. 6, 86).
Coccnm {k6kkos). A red dye obtained from on
insect {Coccus ilicis) similar to the cochineal
(Kerinrs). It was very costlj', and resembled
the Purpura made from the Tvrian shell
(Plin. xxiv. 8; Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 102 ; 'Mart. iii. 2,
11; Jut. iii. 283). [Colores.]
Coc'lea or Coch'lea (/foxA^ay). Anj-thing of a
spiral form.
176
COCLEAR
CODEX
(1) A screw. The woodcut annexed repre-
sents a clothes-press, from a painting at Pom-
Fig. 352.— Clothes-press worked by two upright screws
{vocleae). {Mus. Borbun. iv. 5U.)
peii, worked by two upright screws [cocleae). The
■worm of a screw is called ruga (Plin. xviii. 74).
A screw of the same description was also
used in oil and wine presses. The thread of
the screw is called irepiKoxKiov in Greek.
(2) A spiral pump for raising water for irriga-
tion, invented by Archimedes, and called the
Archimedean screw (see cut under Antlia).
(3) Probably a turnstile, used for the escape
of bestiarii in the amphitheatre.
Fig. 353.— Coclea, or turnstile. (Medal, British Museum.)
(4) Kox^^os, a spiral staircase.
Coc'lear {cocleare, codearium, coclearum;
KoxXiapiov. (1) A kind of spoon, the bowl of
which was usually round, while the handle was
narrow and pointed. The pointed end was used
for drawing snails [cocleae) out of their shells,
and eating them, whence it derived its name ;
and the broader part for eating eggs, &c. (Mart.
xiv. 121.)
(2) A liquid measure = one twenty-fourth of
the cyathus.
Cocus (Coquus) (/xdyetpos, /j.ayis, 6\poiroi6s, etc.)
1. Greek. — In Homer the female slaves
(5/uaiai) make the bread and cook. The chiefs
themselves also kill and cook the beasts (Od.
vii. 103, xiv. 419, II. xi. 201, &c.) ; the meal being
always considered as an accessory to a sacrifice.
In historical times, also, cooks were attached
to the temples to attend to the sacrificial feasts.
Domestic cooks must have been for the most
Fig. 334.— Coclearia, or spoons. (Museo Borbonico.)
])art slaves ; but the trade was carried on by
freemen also. Professional cooks are men-
tioned by Kratinos and Aristophanes {Ban. 505,
599) in the fifth century B.C. Such cooks some-
times made large fortunes. Cookery is repre-
sented as an art, and its professors had theii'
pupils and apprentices. Cookery books con-
taining receipts and rules (avyypdfjLfjLara koI
v6iiiixa) were studied by the artists. Among
cooks may be reckoned vendors of eatables, e.g.
the aWavrowwXris of the Equites, sellers of
cakes (i(TX°-p^'^''^^ aproi), &c. At Athens a par-
ticular part of the ayopd was called ra fiayeipe'ia,
where cooks stood for hire.
Sicilian cookery was famous throughout the
Grecian world (Plat. Bep. iii. 404 d).
The cook is a common character in the New
Comedy ; he is often a foreigner. His dress in
comedy was a short tunic (xitwv Sov\ik6s), a
belt (Trepifcojua), and a ladle or other kitchen
utensil as a mai'k of his trade. (See Plaut. Cas.
\ 665, Aul. 276.)
I 2. RoM.\N. — From early times the kitchen
was committed to the care of slaves. Cookery
as an art was supposed to have come in with
the conquest of Greece. There was a forum
coquinuni at Rome, where cooks could be hired.
There were also street cooks, who made and
j cried their wares in the open air. The great
development of slavery under the Empire pro-
I duced a hierarchy of cooks as of other slaves :
vicarius supra coquos, archiniagirus, forna-
! carii, focarii, coctores, obsonatores, &c., are
attached to the imperial families. The extra-
vagant dinners of the later Romans must of
course have increased the number and import-
ance of the cooks who prepared them.
Codex, dim. Codicil'lus (the older form was
' caudex). Originally the trunk or stem of a tree
! (Verg. Georg. ii. 30 ; Ov. Met. xii. 432) ; hence
1 anything composed of pieces of wood.
I (1) A clog of wood, attached as a punishment
; to the feet of slaves (Plaut. Poen. v. 3, 39).
j (2) Boats on the Tiber were called naves
] caudicariae or caudiceae, especially ships
employed in transporting the corn from Ostia
to Rome.
(3) (a) Wooden tablets bound together and
lined with a coat of wax, for the purpose of
writing upon them ; and at a later age the name
of codex was often used as synonymous with
(6) liber, or book ; (c) an account-book or ledger,
codex acce2)fi et expiensi (Suet. Aug. 101) ;
[d) the tablet on which a bill was written ; [e)
CODEX ACCEPTI ET EXPENSI
during the time of the emperors, any collection
of laws a7icl constitutions of the emperors.
The diminutive codicilli was used much in
the same way as codex (Cic. Phil. viii. 10, §
28) ; for its testumentary use sec Testamentum.
Codex accept! et expeusi. Roman account
books were of two kinds : (1) Adcersavia, a kind
of waste-book or daj"-book, entries in which
were carelessly {neglcgentcr) jotted down {dc-
iecta) in no i-ej^'ular order (Cic. liosc. Com.
2, 7). [Adversaria.] They are also called
ephemerides (Prop. iv. '23, 20).
(2) Codex accf'pti et expeusi (Cic. Verr. ii.
70, 180), into which the entries of the adver-
saria were posted each month. It consisted of
a series of double pa»es, one debit (acceptuni),
the other credit (expensum) ; hence the book
is sometimes called codices. The entries were
made in order of date (Cic. Verr. iii. 75, 175).
There was a profit and loss account, as may be
inferred from the common expressions appo-
tiere lucro; lucri, dainnl facere = lucri,
damni nomine facerc (cf. Cic. Verr. iii. 45, 107).
The arranging different accounts under separate
heads appears to have been called digerere
(Cic. Rose. Com. 3, 9). The individual entries
are called nomitia. For the creditor to bonk
a debt was called iiomen facere [Obligatio
litterarum] ; but nomen is the general term
for an entry. Exi raord inariae pecuniae were
sums entered out of their proper order (Cic.
Rose. Com. 1, 4).
Entry on tlie debit side is called acceptuni
ferre or referre, acceptilatio : and on the credit
side expensum ferre, referre, expensilatio.
All entries in the codex were in terms of
cash : but the actual casli payments and
receipts ('Dr. to Cash ' and ' Cash Dr. to so and
so') of our modern book-keeping were called
arcaria notnina. These stand in opposition to
transcripticia nomina. The codex exhibits
the whole state of a man's affairs, and we can-
not suppose that all his transactions would be
ready-money ones.
The codex was sufficient for the ordinary
householder ; but those who had extensive
business transactions had to keep ledgers
[rationes, libri rationnm), each ])ersonal or
nominal account being called ratio. [See
Chirographum.]
Codex Justiniane'us, Theodosianus, &c. See
Appendix, Roman L.\w.
KcSSojv. [Tintinnabulum.]
Cogna'ti. See Appendix, RoM.\N Law.
Cog'nitor. See Appendix, Roman Law
[Actio].
Cogno'men. [Nomen.]
Conors. [Exercitus.J
Cohum. [lugiun.j
Coinage. — The coins of antiquity are among
its most valuable legacies. They range, in
locality, from Portugal to Bactria and India,
and from Britain to Coptus in the Upjier
Thebaid of Egj^jt ; in time, over more than a
thousand years; while the number of groui)s of
coins, each distinguished by its own stamp or
type, has been estiiuated at about one hundred
thousand. In beauty of design and variety of
type, they far surjiass the modern coinages,
though the latter excel in mechanical finish,
roundness of shape, and exact position of the
figures.
General Remakks. — (1) The ancient Names
of Money. — A coin is a piece of metal the
value of which is ascertained and stated by
authority. Tokens of no intrinsic value (e.g.
paper money) and ingots unstamped are not
COINAGE
177
coins. In speaking of money as distinguished
from other kinds of property (xpv'i/uaTa) the
Greeks would call it either apyvpiov or vonia^iara
— usually the former, since Greek currency was
mostly silver. So aes in Latin, the earliest
Latin coinage being of bronze. No/nio-^uaTa (from
v6fxoi, ' law ') stands for coin which was legal
tender in a state, and so for all monej's coined
by authority (Hdt. i. 94). In the South of Italy
and Sicily the word v6fws, or as it was locally
written vovfifws, was applied to coin, and
corresponded in usage nearly to the term stater,
which was in use in the East [Stater]. And in
fact, numus is frequently used by the Ronn\n
writers as equivalent to ffrarrip. (Cf. Plant.
Pseud, iii. 2, 19, Triii. i. 2, 115.) In Roman
usage, 7iumus was applied in a special and
restricted sense to the sestertius.
(2) Materials of Moneg in Antiquitij. — An
important distinction holds between money of
intrinsic value and money of account.
(o) Money of intrinsic value. The bulk of
this has at all times consisted of gold, silver,
and copper, or rather bronze, pun- copper not
having been used by the ancients except in
rare cases. [Aurum, Argentum, Aes, Elect-
rum.] In addition, iron was used as money at
Byzantium (Ar. Nuh. 249) and Sparta, and in
some other cities of the Peloponnese.
(3) Money of account. The smaller denomi-
nations of coin wei-e usually among the Greeks,
from the fourth centui-y onward, issued in bronze,
but for the convenience of the people these
coins were seldom of such weight as to be in
actual value what they were in nominal value.
The light bronze of the Greeks was thus in a
sense fiduciary or conventional, like the Eng-
lish bronze coinage. As a general rule, however,
the Greeks were contented to let it find its own
level in trade and pass for what it was. Coins
of tin, plated bronze, and even of bronze not
plated, wei'e sometimes current at a nominal
value. But in the greaL commercial cities of
Greece the classes of coin most used in com-
merce, such as the pieces of Aegina, Athens,
and Corinth, retain tlieir excellence to a late
period. In later days the currency was more
frequently debased; and this was especially
the case at Rome in the Imjierial period.
1. Gkeek. — {\) luirlg nuntuge. — In early
times rings of gold and silver and bars (o)36-
\i<TKoi) of bronze and iron of a certain weight
(probably unstamped) were current in Western
Asia and Greece.
The earliest coins wei'e made in Asia, and
probably in Lydia (Hdt. i. 94) and of a mixture
of gold and silver called Electrum, about th<-
beginning of the seventh century ii.c., when the
king of Lydia ruled Asia JMinnr. Innnediately
after this, the Greek cities in Western Asia and
the islands began to mint coins. For .some
time, until silver was first coined at Aegina,
all the coinage of the world consisted of
stamped pellets of electrum, though no doubt
unstamped bars of gold and silver circulated
with them.
(2) Standards. — The comparative value of
gold to silver appears to have been 18^ : 1 ; of
electrum to silver 10 : 1 ; of electrum to gold,
about 3 : 4.
The standards current in Western Asia
before the minting of money were :
(rt) The Royal Babylonian gold standard, in
which {a) the heavy shekel weighed about 200
grs. troy (= 3/. 3.s. 4.f.) ; (l>) the light shekel
weighed about l:!0 grs. troy ( ^ 1/. l,s. «</.).
(6) The Common Babylonian gold standard,
N
178
COINAGE
in which (a) the heavy shekel weighed 253 grs.
troy ( = 27. 2s. 2^.) ; (b) the hght shekel weighed
about 126-5 grs. troy (= 11. l.s. Id.).
(c) The Royal Babylonian siher standard of
about 172'9 grs. (= about lie?, at the present
value of silver, or about Is. Tel. at the value of
ten years ago).
(fZ) The Common Babylonian silver standard
of about 168 grains (= about lOhd. or Is. 6^.,
as above).
(e) The Phoenician silver system, in which
the bar weighed 230 grs. (= about Is. 2cZ. or
Is. 10(Z.), fifteen of which bars were equal in
value to one heavy Babylonian Royal shekel,
i.e. a gold bar of 260 grs. (= 2Z. 3s. id.).
(3) Earlij coinage ; elecirum, gold and
silver. — The early electrura coins of Lydia (PI.
I. 1) and Ionia were minted on the silver stan-
dards. Electrum was supposed to be exactly
ten times the value of silver ; it was less likely
than gold or silver to be melted down, being
less generally useful ; it was, moreover, a j
natural product of Lydia. i
The electrum coinage of Lydia (PI. I. 1) is
based on both the Babylonian and tlie Phoeni-
cian silver standards, the former probably for ;
the inland or caravan trade, and the latter for
trade with the West.
In the early part of the sixth century the city
of Phokaea struck gold coins (or rather coins
of very rich electrum, probably passing as gold)
on the common heavy gold Babylonian standard
of 253 grs. (PI. I. 2).
Kroesus {c. 550 B.C.), or perhaps his conqueror
Cyrus, did away with the electrum coinage and
introduced gold (PL I. 6) and silver coins in the
place of gold and silver bars.
From Lydia, coinage was introduced into
Persia by Cyrus, who struck gold and silver
coins on the royal Babylonian standards. In ;
the form of darics {SapeiKoi, gold pieces of 130 I
grs., also called ro^orai, PI. 1. 4) and si.gli {aiyKoi,
shekels, silver pieces of about 86'45 grs., i.e.
half the heavy Babylonian unit of 1729 grs. and i
counting twenty to the daric, PI. I. 5) ; this i
continued to be the universal Asiatic coinage \
till the time of Alexander. The monopoly of .
gold coinage was part of the Great King's pre- 1
rogative ; but silver staters of 1729 grs. were ;
issued (by permission) by subject Greek cities :
and sometimes by satraps. Gold coin, in the j
Persian empire and among the Greeks and
Ronians, was almost entirely free from alloy.
Among barbarians it was often much debased.
According to tradition, Pheidon, king of Argos
(seventh century B.C.), was the first who issued
coins in Greece. The earliest Greek coins are
from Aegina, and bear the device of a tortoise',
and these are attributed to him (PI. I. 7). At
the same time with the first Aeginetan coin-
age, mints were established in Euboea (PI. I.
11) and at Corinth (PI. I. 10).
The coins struck at these mints were all in
silver. There was little or no electrum coinage,
electrum not being found in Greece ; and, with
the exception of a few Sicilian coins (about the
end of the fifth century B.C.) and the gold coin-
age of Athens (beginning about 393 B.C.), there
is practically no gold coinage outside Asia
and the Thracian district until the time of
Philip II.
Tire Aeginetan silver stater {araT-fip) or
didrachm, (SiSpaxfJ^ov) weighed about 196 grs.
( = 2 shillings) and was divided into 2 drachms
of 98 grs., each drachm containing 6 obols of
16*^ grs.
The Euboic silver tetradrachm (PI. I. 11)
weighed 260 grs., the stater or didrachm 130
grs. (the weight of the Persian gold coins
struck [see above] on the Royal Babylonian
standard) ; the drachm 65 grs., and the obol
11 grs.
The Aeginetan is the heavy silver standard
in Greece, the Euboic the light.
The Aeginetan silver money was current at
Athens, which state struck no coins till the
time of Solon. After that date the Attic
standard was introduced (PI. I. 9). At first a
little heaver than the Euboic (135 against 130
grains), it soon became indistinguislia;ble from
it (PL L 8, 9).
In the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. the silver
issued in the Greek world is usually of almost
perfect purity. Of a number of i^ieces of S.
Italy tested, the average proportion is from 94
to 96 per cent, of pure silver. The coins of
Aegina are about '96 fine. Those of Athens,
which were noted in antiquity for their purity,
nearly '98. Even after Alexander the coins of
Athens retain tlieir purity ; but in some places
the standard of fineness rapidly falls in late
times : e.g. in Syria and Egypt.
EL.
EL.
EL.
AV.
AR.
AV.
AR.
AR.
AR.
AR.
AR.
AR.
AR.
AR.
AR.
AR.
EL.
AR.
EL.
AR.
PLATE I.
Lydia. Stater. 166-8 grs. Obv. .Striated surface. Ui v. Incuse impressions, vii. century n.c.
piidkiiea. Stater. 254"9 grs. Obv. © Seal. I\<'i\ Two incuse square.*. Circa 600 B.C.
Halikaniassus? Stater. 2163 grs. 06d. 0ANOZ EMI ZEMA. Stag. vii. century R.r.
Persia. Daric. 129 grs. Obv. The Great King. Ri'v. lucuse impression, vi. century B.C.
Persia. Siglos. 9>i grs. Similar to No. 4. v. century B.C.
Sanies. Stater. 124 grs. Ohv. Foreparts of lion and bull. Rev. Two incuse squares, vi. century B.C.
Aesina. Stater. 192 grs. obv. Tortoise. Rev. Incuse square, vii. century B c.
Athens. Drachm. 65 grs. 06«. Head of Athena. /??('. AGE. Owl and olive-spray, v. century B.C.
Athens. Tetradrachm. 264-8 grs. Similar to No. 8. vi. century B.C.
Corinth. Stater. 131-3 grs. Obv. 9 Pegasus. Rev. Incuse of swastika form. vi. century B.C.
Euboea. Tetradrachm. 254 3 grs obv. Gorgon-head. Rev. Bull's head. vi. century E.o.
Populonia. Stater. 129-5 grs. Ohv. X Gorgon-head. Rev. Plain. Late vi. i-e)itury R.f.
Syracuse. Dekadrachm. 685 6 grs. Oiw. Victorious chariot. TJcr. ZYPAKOZION. Female
head surrounded by dolphins. B.r. 479.
Zancle. Drachm. 85-6 grs. Obv. DANKLE. Dolpliin in harbour. TJfu. Shell. Late vi. century B.C.
Svbaris. Stater. 121-8 grs. 06c. VM (Zv) Bull. /Jpv. Same type incuse, vi. century B.C.
Rliodes. Tetradi-achm. 2342 grs. 06». Head of Helios. Rev. po . Rose. Sphinx in field. Circa
B.C. 40C.
Obv. Golden eagles on the omphalos ; below, tunny. Rev. Mill-sail
Kyzikus. Stater. 2*8 grs,
incuse, v. ceuturv B.C.
Corinth. Stater. 132 grs.
century B.r.
Lesbos. Hekte. 39-5 i>r%.
Sikyon. Obol.
of value).
N.B.
Ohv. Q Pegasus. Rev. Head of Pallas ; behind, acanthus pattern, iv.
Obv. Head of Aphrodite ? Rev. Lyre. iv. century B.C.
154 grs. 06b. Forepart of Obimaera. Rev. 2. Dove flying." Infield O (mark
AR.=Argentum. AV. = Aurum. EL. = Electrum.
PLATE I.
!
i
COINAGE
179
The use of bronze for monej' came in towards ' standard and the ratio of gold to silver 13^ : 1.
the end of the fifth centurj-. This metal, as Alexander struck all his money on the Attic
used for Greek coins, is of copper alloyed with standard, which henceforth became universal,
from 10 to 10 per cent, of tin and 2 to 5 per The different rates of exchange accommodated
cent, of lead. The bronze coinage of the Greek;
was almost entirely a token coinage, and did
not pass at its intrinsic value as metal.
The distribution of coiuivge in Greece and
the islands is irregular. The islands were
earlier than the mainland cities in beginning to
mint. In the W'est the middle of the sixth
century is the earliest date to which coins can
themselves to the gold stater ; i-ontracts being,
no doubt, expressed in terms of gold or silver.
The Khodian drachm (which fell in course of
time to about 50 grs.) became in the second
century n.c. the common unit in Asia ; and the
Roman coinage in the East was made to conform
to it. (See below, KiCTTo<{)6pos.)
{') I Miiitiu;/. — Dies were cut by the wheel (see
be assigned. The coins struck by Siris and Scalptura) till the iiflh century after Christ ; in
Sybaris (PI. I. 15) probably belong to this time, i late nnperial times the graving- tool also came
and at any rate are earlier than 510 B.C. Naxos | into use. The material was bronze, brass, or soft
and Zankle (PI. 1. 14) issued coins of the weight i iron. The die was then let into an anvil a little
of an Aeginetan draclun towards the end of the | below the surface, and a blank of gold or silver,
century. Syi-acusan coins came next, following { cast in a mould, was placed upon it, usually
tlie Attic standard. Etruria follows (PI. I. 12). | while hot. Another die, similarly let into a bar
of iron, was placed over the blank and struck
with a hammer. The lower die was probably
sunk into a block of wood or metal. This
In Africa the kingdom of Kyrene under the
Battiadae coined silver coiais of the Euboic
standard early in the sixth century. Egypt used
only the Persian currency ; and Carthage (PI.
II. 1) did not begin to coin till the end of the
fifth century. [Moneta.j
(4) International Values. — The current gold
standard throughout Greece was the Persian
daric, in value of metal nearly equivalent to a
simple process, with vei"y little imju-ovement,
continued till the time of Constantine, when
steel dies were introduced. The earliest tool
in use was a punch, which made an impression,
generally a square or oblong sinking (incuse),
not covering the whole disk. This side, the
sovereign. The Persian silver shekel of about i upper in striking, is the reverse, and the name
8G grs. weight and 7,'^ of the daric in value j or special stamp of the city was on the punch,
(rouglily corresponding to 1 shiUing) had also not on the lower or obverse die. Incuse squares
a wide circulation in Asia and the Greek cities 1 were commonly used everywhere till 400 B.C.,
of Asia Minor. | and in some places much later, p.g. at Rhodes.
The Greek coins chiefly in circulation were It was replaced as a rule by the incuse circle,
the staters of Corinth (PI. I. 10, 18) and Aegina ] which finally disappears, both sides of the coin
(PI. I. 7), and the Athenian tetradrachms (PI. ; standing out equally in relief. The coinage
I. 9 ; II. 0). of S. Italy in the sixth century was exceptional ;
The coins of Athens gained a wider circula- the lower die was cut in intaglio and the upper
tion as the power of Athens increased and the die in relief, the devices being identical or
silver mines of Laureion were worked, and j similar (PI. I. 15).
became in the course of the fifth century the j Ancient dies, being made in soft metal, lasted
best known on both sides of the Aegean and
far beyond the limits of Greece.
Kyzikus minted a large quantity of electrum
staters in tlie fifth centui-y, when the issue of
only a short time : hence a variety in ancient
coins so great that before Imperial times we
seldom find two coins struck from the same
(lies. Admirable as Greek coins are from an
electrum from other mints had fallen off. artistic point of view, the method of striking
These coins are known by the mint-mark of ! is so rude that coins are seldom free from
the tunny fish (PI. i. 17). They continued till j blemishes ; the impressions being sometimes
the fourth century to be familiar coins in all crooked, sometimes double-struck from the
parts of Greece. Similar large series of elec- shifting of the blank between two blows of the
trum coins were issued by Phokaea (mint-mark | hammer, sometimes broken by too heavy a
a seal, <ptijKr\, PI. I. 2) and Mytilene, but these blow, i^c. Collars and milling were unknown,
consist almost entirely of hektae or sixths (PI. 1 Nothing or little is known of the artists who
I. 19). ! designed the dies. Many of them are of the
The Rhodian coinage was introduced about ; highest excellence.
400 B.C. The principal coins were the silver 1 (6) Inscrijitions. — The earliest coins bear no
tetradrachms of 240 grs. (PI. I. Hi) and had a ! legends. The earliest inscribed coin known is
large circulation. Gold staters of 135 grs. were j one of the sixth century struck on the west
also minted. Philip of Macedon issued di- coast of Asia Minor, and reading in archaic
(kachms or staters of Thracian gold, commonly I letters, retrograde, <tavos (fit crf/ua, i.r. ' I am
known as Philips {<i>i\'nnretoi, Philippi, PI. ' the sign of Phanes ' (PI. 1. 3). In later times
II. 3). The weight of these was the same as 1 the conunonest inscription is {a) that of the
that of the Attic silver didrachm, viz. 135 grs. j people in whose name the coins were struck, as
( = about 23 sliillings). These soon became
current throughout the West. On the shores
of the Aegean, in Northern Africa, and in Asia
the gold staters and silver tetradrachms or
Alexanders of Alexander (PI. II. 4, 5) and his
successors partly took the place of tlie Philips.
An immense production of gold at this time
materially altered the value of money, and all
prices before and after Alexander are to bo
considered in view of this fact. Coins bearing
Alexander's types (PI. II. 5) were issued in all
2TPAK05I0N ( = HN) iV\. I. 13), KninN,
APKAA1K> !N {i.e. v6fi.i<ru.a or K6fiixa), Arc. : often
abbreviated, e.g. A0E for Athens (PI. 1. «, 9;
II. 6), /A for Elis (/>..'AAEir.N) ; or (less fr<-
quently) the name of the city, AKPATAS,
ME2-ANA. The name (6) of tlie master of
the mint is often added from the fifth century
onwards. Regal coins bear (c) the king's name,
at first alone iPl. II. 3), afterwards with tin-
luldition of BA2IAEn2 (PI. II. 5) and other
titles iPl. II. H). Other inscriptions are (</) the
parts of tlie world and for a considerable length name of the artist: NETANT02 EnOEI,
of time. I KIMnN. 2n2inN, fee. ; (r) marks of value.
Hitherto the standard had been a gold /^lO, TPIH, 0B0A02 ; (/) description of the
180
COINAGE
device, e.g. A0AA, ITTeiA ; (g) religious dedi-
cations, e.g. KOPA2, AI02 EAAANIOT.
(7) Bights of Coinage. — Tlie Persian kings
kept the right of minting gold coin in their own
hands, but granted licences to strike silver
coins ; and this continued into Roman times,
the right of minting even silver being under
Roman domination rarely granted, and only to
a few cities. Bronze was allowed to be coined
freely, but not without licence.
In Greece every city made its own coin. The
number of towns coins of which have been pre-
served exceeds 1500.
Temples also had their own mints, some
local, e.g. the temple of Didjonaean Apollo at
Branchidae, which issued coins with the legend
Er [ = EK] AIATMnN lEPH {sc.hpaxm) ; some
connected with Pan-Hellenic worship, e.g.
OATMniKON, AM^IKTIONHN.
Barbarian princes usually, and satraps and
Greek tyrants subject to Persia sometimes,
inscribed their own names; but in Greece such
rulers as Dionysius of Syiacuse and Jason of
Pherae kept to the civic inscriptions, 2TPAKO-
2inN, <I>EPAinN. For some time after Alex-
ander's death, his successors struck coins bear-
ing his portrait, but with their own names ;
later, all rulers and pretenders struck coins
bearing their own images in the East and in
Greece alike.
(Hj Monetary Alliances. — The coins in certain
countries and districts have usually a common
value and sometimes a conunon stamp : e.g. the
early coins of Magna Graecia are of a uniform
value and similar type. In some cases coins
are issued bearing the names of more than
one city, and a monetai-y treaty between Phokaea
and Mytilene is extant. Leagues, such as that
founded by Timoleon in Sicily, that of the Asiatic
cities and the islands in 394 K.c, the Achaean,
Aetolian and other leagues, had a common
mint or struck money by common consent.
Colonies frequently retained the devices of
their /xriTpdiroKts.
(9) Significance of Types. — The type is the
principal device on a coin. The types of Greek
coins are to a very large extent religious in
their significance. The temples of the gods
were the first treasuries of gold and silver, and
from them proceeded some at least of the earlier
coinages. But, apart from this, the commerce
of any Greek city would always be under the
protection of its patron deity, and this deity,
therefore, would be represented on the coinage,
which as it were belonged to him or her. Many
of the earliest de\ices, again, of Greek cities
seem to be connected with Astarte, the goddess
of the great commercial race of the ancient
world, the Phoenicians. The lion of Sardes
j (PI. I. 3, 6), Miletus and other cities, the cow of
Eretria, the tunny of Kyzikus (PI. I. 17) and
the tortoise of Aegina (PI. I. 7) are all emblems
of this same non-Hellenic goddess. Deities, as
a rule, on early coins were represented only by
symbols. Instances of these symbols, among
\ many others, are the owl of Pallas (PI. I. 8, 9 ;
II. 6) on the coins of Athens ; Demeter's ear of
corn (PI. n. 2) on those of Metapontum; the
shield of Herakles on Boeotian coins ; the horse
of Poseidon on those of Pherae. Some cities,
e.g. Athens, Corinth, Samos, were very reluctant,
for commercial reasons, to alter the devices on
their coins. In Asia portraits appear at an
early date ; but the first human effigj' which
appears on Hellenic coins is that of the deified
Alexander. This profanity once admitted
became common in later times. Agonistic
types, such as victorious chariots (PI. I. 13) and
tripods, bave something of a religious charac-
ter. The same may perhaps be said even of
instances of 'canting' heraldry such as the
rose {()6bov) of Rhodes (PI. I. 16), the parsley
[ or wild celerj' {(t4\ivov) of Selinus, the pome-
granate (fx.rjKov) of Melos.
Besides the type and inscription, smaller
designs, known as symbols or adjuncts, are
frequently met with on Greek coins. These are
; believed to have been the signet or armorial
j device of the magistrate who issued the pieces.
Some of these may have been hereditary, but
AR.
AR.
AV.
5.
AR.
6.
AR.
7.
AR.
8.
AR.
9.
HI.
11.
AE.
AE.
AV.
12.
AR.
13.
AV.
14.
15.
AR.
AR.
16.
AR.
17.
AR.
PLATE II.
Carthage. Tetradrachm. 265 grs. Ohv. Female head. Ret. Linti and jialm. iv. century B.f.
Metapoiiturii. Stater. 120'2 grs. 06». Head of PersepLoue. AVc. M ETA. Ear of corn ; symbol,
ploiiKh. iv. century B.C.
Macedou, Philip II. Stater. 133 grs. 06t». Head of Apollo. AVr. <t>l Al Fl PIOY. Biga. iv. cen-
tury B.C.
Macedou, Alexander III. Stater. 133-1 grs. 06p. Head of Athena. AVr. AAEHANAPOY.
Victory with trojiliv-stand. (Struck at Aradus.) iv. century B.C.
Alexander 111. Tetnldrachm. 265 grs. Oftr. Head of Herakle's. /J<t, BAZI AEfl X AAE=-
ANAPOY. Zeus seated, with sceptre and eagle. (Struok at Aradus.) i v. century R.<'.
Athens. Tetrudrachm. 25S-7 srrs. O&r. Head of Atliena. A<>p. A©E. Owl on amphora, llagis-
trates' names: EYPYK AEI— API APA -H PAK AE I. The whole in oUve-wreath. iii.
century B.C.
Pergamuni. Cistophorus. 192 grs. Ohv. Cysta mystica with serpent in ivy-wreath. Rev. Bow-
in case, between serpents, ii. cejitury B.C.
Mitliradates the Great. Tetradrachm. 259-2 grs. Obv. Head of king. Rev. BAZIAEnZ
M I © PA A ATOY E Yn ATO PO 2. Stag. The whole in ivy-wTeath. B.C. 75.
Roman. Sextans. 386 grs. t'6t'. • • He;id of Mercurius. Aei'. • • ROMA. Prow. iii. century B.C.
Roman. Sextans. 73 grs. Similar tj-pes. ii. century B.C.
Romauo-Campanian. Stater. 106-1 grs. Ohv. Jauiform head. Rev. ROMA. Two soldiers, taking
an oath over a pig, held by a kneeling man. iii. century B.C.
Eomano-Campanian. Stater. 109 grs. O&y. Head of Herakles. flff. ROMANO. Wolf and twins.
iv. century B.C.
Romauo-Campanian. 60 sesterces. 52 grs. Obv. ^X. Head of Mars. Rev. ROMA. Eagl3 on
thunderbolt. End of iii. century B.C.
Roman. Denarius. 66-7 grs. Obv. X. Head of Roma. Rev. ROMA. The Dioscuri.
Roman. Victoriatus. 44-5 grs. Obv. Head of Jupiter. Rev. ROMA. Victory crowning trophy ;
a sow (moueyer's mark). B.C. 216-197.
Roman. Denarius serratus. 64 grs. 06». S.C. Head of Diana. Arr. Tl -CLAVD 'Tl -p- AP- N
Victory in biga. B.C. 81.
Italian. " Denarius. 61 grs. Obv. ITALIA. Head of Italia. Rev. C. PAPHus) C. (.lilius) iu
Oscau chai-acters. The Dioscuri. B.C. 9U-81.
N.B. AE.=Aes. AR.=Argentum. AV.=Aurum.
#••
COINAGE
181
probably most of them were personal. In some
cases the type becomes subordinate to the
symbol, e.g. in the staters of Kyzikus, wliere the
tunny iish (PI. 1. 17) represents the city, though
only appearing in the second place. In the
coin of Metapontum (PI. 11. 2), the symbol, a
plough, is combined in the same design with
the type, an ear of corn.
(10) Feriods. — The periods of Greek coinage
agi'ee in the main with those of otlier branches
of art, but the chronological division is affected
by commercial and political changes.
(ft) The Early Archaic period, from about
700 to 480 B.C., the date of the invasion of
Xerxes.
[h) The Late Archaic period, from 480 to
481 B.C., the period of the Athenian supremacy.
(c) The Early Fine period, from 431 B.C. to
about 390 n.c, the period of the Peloponnesian
War and the fall of Athens.
\d) The Later Fine period, from about 390 B.C.
to 336 B.C., i.e. to the beginning of Alexander's
reign.
(e) The Early Decline, 330 B.C. to 280 B.C.,
the time of Alexander and his successors.
(/■) The Late Decline, '280 B.C. to 190 B.C.,
i.e. to the defeat of Antiochus the Great.
(g) The Period of Roman influence, 190 B.C.
to 27 B.C.
{h) The Imperial Period, 27 B.C. to end of
third century a.d. [See under Roman Coinage.]
We add a list of the principal coins current
in Greece, and their values.
'Aaadptov. This term, at first merely the
Greek rendering of the Latin as, is used in
Imperial times for a small denomination of
bronze.
Aaixo-pe'Tciov v6\x.ia\i.o., a Syracusan silver
coin, named after Damarete the wife of Gelon
of Syracuse; struck after the defeat of the
Carthaginians at Himera in 4H0 B.C. (PI. I. 13',.
It contained 10 Attic drachms or 00 Sicilian
litrae, i.e. about 675 grains English.
AavdkTis, from the Persian dnnaka, whicli
means a portion, more especially the fourth
or sixth part. It was probably the sixth of the
Persian siglos or shekel of 86 grains: some-
what heavier than the Attic obol, 14'6 grains
against 11.
D.uiic Stater (ZraT-np SapeiKos). Tlie
gold coin which constituted for centuries, until
the time of Alexander the Great, the main part
of the coinage of Persian Asia (PI. I. 4). The
type of the daric is usually, on the obverse the
Great King running (not kneeling) with spear
and bow, on the reverse a rude incuse ; tlieir
weight is about 130 grains (see above), and
their intrinsic value about twenty-two shillings
of our money. In allusion to their type they
were sometimes called Tot^Srai.
The Greeks connected the word hapuKOS with
sigli were equivalent to a gold daric. With
the conquest of Persia by Alexander the
Great the issue of darics ceased, and their place
was taken by the regal gold coins of Alexander,
which were a few grains heavier. Darics of
double weight were now issued by some Greek
cities in Asia.
A(xa-^'<o>', a double chalkus [XaXKOvg].
ApaxM-''^, the name of a weight and of a
denomination of coin among the Greeks (PI. I.
8j. As weight and as coin it was the hundredth
part of the mina, and was divided into six lesser
units called 6$oKoi. [See Pondera, ad ijiit.']
The ancients connected the word with Spaffaonai
and Spdy/xa, and supposed that a draclim was
originally the value in silver of a handful of
six 6/3o/\.oi', or wedge-shaped pieces of metal,
which circulated as money. It is, liowever,
more probable that 5poXM'?> ^'^e Sapti/trfj, is
connected with the Persian word darag. ' a
part,' i.e. a fraction of the mina, itself a fraction
of the talent.
The ordinary denominations of Greek coins
were: for gold, the r//(?>-rtr7/>yt (double drachm),
drachm, hnni-drarhin, i\.\u\ smaller divisions;
for silver, the same, with the addition of the
tetradracJnu, and occasionally of the dccu-
drachin. The heaviest drachm was the Aegine-
tan of 98 gi-ains, worth in silver rather more
than a shilling of our money ; it was called at
Athens Traxeia dpaXH-V- The Athenian drachm
(PI. I. 8) weighed but 67'5 grains, and the
Coi-inthian only 45 grains : value about sixpence
[Pondera].
"Ektt|. The lielite was the sixth part of
some unit, usually the stater. The name was
specially applied to small coins of gold and of
electrum. The sixth part of tlie gold and
electrum staters of the cities of Ionia, of Lydia,
of Kyzikus and Phokaea was a coin in frequent
use in antiquity, and minted in great quanti-
ties. Hektaeof Phokaea, of JNIytilene (PI. I. 19),
and of Kyzikus abound in our museums : they
are roundish coins weighing from 35 to 44
grains.
The twelfth or ijfiifKTov of electrum was also
a common coin.
Ki.6apr|4>6po9. A small silver coin in use in
Lykia during the period of the Lykian league
(B.C. 168 to A.I). 43), bearing on the obverse the
head of Apollo, on the reverse his kithara.
Kto-Tocjjopos (Cistojjhorus), a, sil\er coin of
Westei-n Asia Minor, bearing as type a serpent
gliding from a mysti<' cista (PL II. 7). On the
reverse is a bow in its case between two serpents,
with the name or monogram of the city of issue.
These were first coined at Ephesus c. 200 B.C.
and were current throughout Asia. The weight
of the larger coins was about 196 grains, and
they were considered to be ecpial to throe denarii
or four Rhodian drachms. The smaller coin was
the name of Darius, son of Hystaspes, who, as one-fourth of the larger, and bore on its reverse.
Herodotus tells us, issued gold coin of great
fineness (iv. 166) ; and this may have caused the
Greeks to suppose that he issued the earliest
Persian coins. Darics, however, were known
in Palestine in the time of Cyrus (Ezra ii. 69)
viii. 27), and the word dariku occurs on a
tablet of a still earlier dat*.
Beside the gold darics there circulated silver
coins of the same shape and bearing the same
device of the archer (I'l. I. 5) : these were com-
monly known as the (riyXos or shekel, but were
sometimes termed silver darics (Plut. Ci)ii. 10).
Their weight is about 86 grains; thus, the
value of gold in relation to silver being in Asia
about thirteen to one [s.'e Argentum], twenty
instead of the bow-case, the club and lion's
skin of Herakles.
KoWviPos. A small bronze Athenian coin,
i of the chalkus (Ar. Pax, 1200). KjAAufius
seems to have been a common name for small
money, since it signified generally ' change '
( = »c^p/uaTa, Ar. Av. 1108) ' the rate of exdiange,'
and KoAAiz/SifTTiis, ' a inonev-changer' (C'ic. I'err.
iii. 78, 181 ; St. Matt. xxi."l2). [Argentarii.]
AeiTTOv, the smallest Greek copper coin.
At Athens its value was 1 of a xo^foOi or ^'^ of
an obol ; i.r. about ,',, of a farthing.
ACrpa, till' unit of weight for bronze i'l
Sicily (see Pondera), corresponding (though
not equal) to the Italian libra. The name was
18'2
COINAGE
also applied to a small silver coin weighing
13-5 grains.
*03o\6s was the sixth part of a drachm
(see Pondera ; ApaxiJ^'n). As a silver coin (PI.
I. 20) the obol was in circulation in Greece,
Asia, and the West from early times, as well as
its multiples the T^Tpui^oKov, rpiw^oKov (henii-
drachni), and SidfioAov. In the sixth and fifth
centimes B.C. the fractions of an obol, the
rifiiw^oKov, TeTaprrifj-SpLoy, &c., were issued in
silver at Athens and other cities. About B.C.
400 copper coin began to be in use, and the
obolus and its parts were issued in that metal.
The metal value of the obolus would be between
one penny and twopence. In Athens the
obolus contained 8 x"^''"'-
rievTaSpaxH^itt (Xen. Hell. i. 6, 12), pro-
bably a money of account at Chios. Two
Chian tetradracluns of 240 grains would be
equivalent to five Aeginetic dracluns of 96
grains.
'ZiyKo^, Xlk\o9, a transliteration of the
Semitic shekel. The shekel was in Syria and
Babylonia the unit of coinage [Pondera], and
of various weights. The ordinary Persian
silver siglos [D.\bic] weighed about 86 grains,
and was worth Ij Attic drachm (PI. I. 5) : the
heavy gold shekel of Phoenicia weighed 260
grains.
ZTaTTip was the Greek standard unit both
of weight and of money, corresponding to the
Oriental word shekel. As the coins which were
the standard units in various districts varied in
metal and in weight, the term stater was
applied in antiquity to a great variety of pieces
of money.
Gold Staters. — The earliest coins struck in
gold were the Lydian pieces attributed to
Kroesus, stamped with the fore parts of a lion
and a bull, and weighing about 130 grains (PI.
I. 6). These were called (TTarripes Kpoi(Te7ot :
they were succeeded by the Persian gold coins
of the same weight, called darics or ararripes
lilapeiKoi (PI. I. 4). About 400 B.C. Athens,
Rhodes, Olynthus, and other cities began the
issue of gold staters of nearly the same weight
(about 13o grains), and this weight was also
preserved in the gold staters of Philip (PI. II. 3)
and Alexander (PI. II. 4) of Macedon and the
successors of Alexander. Thus the gold stater
was almost invariably in antiquity an Attic or
Euboic didrachm [Pondera] and of the metal
value of about 23 shillings.
Electrion Staters. — The coins in electrum
issued in eai'ly times by the Greek cities of
Asia Minor were commonly spoken of as staters.
Thus we frequently read in Attic inscriptions
entries of CTaT^pes 't>aiKaiKoi. AafvpaKrifoi, and
Kv^iKTivol: the Kyzikene stater (PI. I. 17) was
in the time of Demosthenes (c. Phorm. p. 914)
equivalent in value to 28 Attic drachms.
Silver Stuters. — As in Greece proper, silver,
not gold, was the staple of the currency, the
stater in the cities of that district was of silver.
Among the Aeginetans the stater, ffrar))p
Alyiva7os, was the didrachm of about 196
grains (PI. I. 7) ; and among the Corinthians the
Iridrachm of 135 grains (PL I. 10), which was
termed in Sicily SeKaKirpos ffraTTip, because it
was equal in value to ten Sicilian litrae. In
Italy the coins which would elsewhere have
been termed staters were called ninni. At
Athens tlie term stater was applied not only to
the gold didrachm, but also to the silver
tetradrachm (PI. I. 9), at all events in later
times. Similarly the Ptolemaic staters were
tetradrachms of silver.
Tecro-apaKOCTTTi (Thuc. viii. 101), the name
of a coin of Chios, probably the tetradrachm
of 240 grains max., ^j^ of an Aeginetic silver
mina.
T€TpdSpax^.ov. See Apax^i.•n.
Xa\KOvs or Xa\Kiov, a bronze coin, first
struck at Athens in 406 B.C. (Ar. Rayi. 720
[Schol.J, Eccl. 816). The value at Athens was
^ of an obol or 5^5 of a drachm. These are pro-
j bably the pieces still extant, bearing the head of
t Athena on one side, and an owl with two bodies
and one head on the other, which resemble the
silver diobols of Athens. In other places the
XaA./ftoc was g of an obol, and contained seven
iepta.
2. Roman. — The art of coining money had
existed for centuries before the Romans had any
regular coined currency. The earliest pieces
which can be called coins belong to the middle
of the fourth century B.C., and are of cast
bronze ; and the first gold and silver coins
issued by Roman authority were struck at
Capua soon after 338 B.C. Early bronze
coins, owing to their size, were not struck, but
cast. The gold and silver pieces issued in
Campania were struck ; and after the intro-
duction of sQver coinage into Rome itself (269
B.C.), the practice of striking the smaller bronze
pieces came in. The practice of casting was
again employed for coins of the later Empire.
In Roman coinage, from the time that it
claims a place for itself, apart from Greek
issues, in the history of coinage, the following
chronological divisions may be distinguished : —
(1) the earliest period down to the introduction
of a silver coinage in Rome itself in 269 B.C.;
(2) the coinage from this date till the fall of the
Republic ; (3) the coinage of the Empire, both
in Rome and in the provinces.
I For the Roman libra or pound weight, see
I Pondera. The monetary equivalent of this is
the As or pound {libra) of copper. The word
I as is supposed to be an Old Italian viord = soli-
! dum (Skt. ayas, E. ace, Fr. as).
In the earliest times in Italy, as elsewhere,
I cattle were the medium of exchange, one ox
I reckoning as ten sheep. To cattle in Rome and
N. Italy succeeded the pound of copper, %vhich
was the standard of value, as the silver drachm
I in Greece and the gold shekel in the East.
[ There was a period during which small formless
pieces of copper or bronze (Aes rude) were
j accepted by weight in payments. Mention is
' made of money value in the Twelve Tables.
Cubes of bronze with rude types, and elliptical
pieces without types, but uniformly of the
weight of a sextans, are also found. Aes rude
appears to have remained in use for some time
j for ceremonial purposes after it had been sup-
' planted by bronze bearing a device. The Lex
{ lulia Papiria (430 B.C.) fixed (for judicial fines)
I the value of a sheep at ten asses, and of an ox
I'ig. :!o.>.— Italian bronze Qoincnssis of the 4th cent. B.C.
at 100. This, however, probably only refers to
aes rude which passed current by weight. The
COINAGE
188
earliest coinat,'e, properly speaking, belongs to
the niidille of tlie fourth century, and consisted
of large (juadrilutural bricks for the denomina-
tions above the as (fig. 355), and circular pieces
Fig. SBO.— Ab Libral of the earliest period (half-diameter). (British MuBOum.)
for the as and its parts I fig. 356). Multiples of
the as were also issued in circular form, but not
at Rome. These multiples are called dujion-
(Uus, quail russis, quinritasis, dfciissis, accord-
ing to the number of asses they contained.
Some of the large rectangular pieces bear the
legend ROMANOM (gen. pi. of Bonianiis),
wliich proves that they were struck under
Roman authority, if not at Rome itself. The
other similar but uninscribed pieces may in part
have been issued by other Italian cities.
The denominations from the as {as libralis ov I of account, was reckoned as equivalent to the
copper (which was in weight just two-tliirds of
the Roman as), or its equivalent in silver of
13'5 English grains. In Etruria. gold, silver,
and copper were all minted on this standard,
and all bear marks of value. In
Sicily copper was but a money
of account, but in Etruria
pounds or librae of copper of
full weight were issued. Tlio
chief mint cities were — for sil-
ver Popnlonia (PI. I. 12), and
for co])pi'r Volaterrae.
Hence it will ajjpear that the
proportionate value of gold to
silver was 15 to 1, and tliat of
silver to copper 250 to 1 ; as
usual in all parts of Italy at
this early period.
In dealings between Rome
and tile Greek cities of Italy,
a common measure for the
Roman copper and the Greek silver was found
in the silver iJioboI oi Tarentum and Campaiiia,
the weight of wliich was very nearly the Roman
scrupuUint or scrijniluin (viz. t}^ of an uncia or
;-}n of an as of 10 unciae). The diobol was
called both at Rome and in S. Italy Numus iGr.
v6nos). It was J; of the silver didrachm, which
was equal in value to 6 asses of 10 unciae
each, or 15 triental asses.
The diobol was divided decimally into 10
libellae. The silver libella, which was a money
Ubranus) downwards consist of large round
heavy lumps of metal, cast, not struck.
The normal weight of the Roman i)ound was
327'5 grammes, or 5050 Engli;h grains. The
as would therefore originally have been of this
weight, but extant specimens rarely weigh
more than 285 grammes or ten Roman ounces ;
and it has been supposed that this reduction in
weight was for convenience of exchange with
the Greek silver money, ten ounces of copper
being exchangeable for one scrupulum of silver
( = 17-5 grs.).
The tj'pe (i.e. principal subject) on the reverse
alike of the as and of all its divisions is the
prow of a galley (spubolising the early maritime
power of Rome), but each denomination has a
different type on the obverse, together with
a mark of value. Hence capita aut navia,
' heads or tails.'
The style is that of the Greek coins of South
Italy in the fourth century.
Relation of Rome to the rest of Italy.
It was scarcely earlier than 300 n.c. when the
other cities of Latium followed the examjile of
Rome and issued copper money of lilmil weight.
The Etruscans had adopted the art of coinage
at a far earlier period than the Tiatin race. But
at some period not later than about 3(i0 B.C. the
original system of coinage was rejilaced and
supplanted by that in use in Sicily. The unit of
this coinage is the (Airpo) litra or pound of
ounce in copper. The weight in grains (ap-
proximately) is as follows : libella 1*75 ; diobol
17'5 ; didraclim 105.
Soon after the Roman conquest of Capua, in
338 B.C., there began to issue from the mint of
that city the earliest gold (PI. II. 11) and silver
(PI. II. 12) coins struck by authoritj' of Rome,
and marked with tlie name of that city: at first
in the form ROMANO, and aftenvards in that
of ROMA.
Reduction of the As. — The first induction of
the as (carried out, of course, by a gradual pro-
cess) seems to have been in the ratio of 10 : 4. Tlie
new as, being now = ,*„ of the nominal weight
of the original libral as, was called triental (PI.
II. 9). The silver denarii, i.e. 10-as pieces,
issued in 269 or 268 B.C., were equivalent in
value to ten of the copper asses then in circu-
lation. These denarii weigh about 70 grains.
As silver was then worth 250 times as much
as copper, the as would weigh 1750 grains of
copper. As the full weight of an as of 10
unciae was 4208 grains, these asses would be
verv nearly on the triental scale, i.e. the ratio
of 4 : 10.
The triental as of 4 unciae was soon reduced
further. Towards the close of the First Punic
War the as had sunk to 2 unciae or a sextans,
in 218 B.C. to one uncia, to A uncia in 89 B.i'.
In 80 B.C. the copper coinage ceased, only a few
pieces being struck in the provinces, until a
new coinage came in with the Empire. The
evidence of existing coins seems to prove that
the fall in weiglit of Roman as.ses, when it once
i)egan, proceeded gradually. The regulations of
the senate in fixing tin- weight of successive
issues must be i-egarded rather as attempts
to put a stop to the gradual decline tlian as
dclilicrate del)asement of the standard. The
reduction is illustrated by PI. II. 9, 10 (sex-
tantes of the triental and uncial standards re-
sper-tively).
First issue of Silver Coin. — It was in 269
or 268 B.C. that coins of silver were first issued
184
from a Roman mint,
were as follows :
COINAGE
The denominations issued
Denarius, 10 asses
Quinarius, 5 „
Sestertius, 2J „
Mark of Value.
X
V
IIS
V
H-S
Weight in grs.
70-
35-
17-5
The sestertius was apparently of the weight of
1 scrupulum of silver, and equivalent in value
to 1 as of the old issue, weighing 10 unciae, or
24 asses of the new weight of 4 unciae. The
denarius was of the weight of 4 scrupula, or ^V
of the Roman libra.
All these silver coins are of the same tji^e :
on the obverse the head of Roma in winged
helmet, on the reverse the Dioscuri (PI. II. 14).
In the place of the Dioscuri we find at a some-
what later period Diana in a biga, then Victor}'
in a biga (PI. II. lOJ, and, lastly, Jupiter hun-
self in a quadriga.
Changes in the Coinage during the Punic
Wars. — Besides (1) the reduction of stan-
dard mentioned above, other changes took
place at this time. (2) The weight of the
denarius fell to about 60 grs., or -^t of a Roman
libra of silver. (See Plin. xxxiii. § 13'2.) This
corresponds nearly in weight with the Attic
drachm, then the standard of currency in
Macedon, Syria, and Sicily. The date of this
reduction in weight may have been about the
year 241 b.c.
(3) The same measure which decreed the re-
duction of the weight of the as ordained that in
future 16 assfs should go to the denarius in tlie
place of 10. And so it continued to be reckoned
ever after, except, we are told, in the case of
mihtary pay, the soldier being allowed still to
receive a denarius for every 10 asses due to him.
The mark of value X, though now unmeaning,
was retained on the denarius. These changes
necessarily produced a change in the relations
of the silver and copper in circulation. The new
proportion of value of silver and copper became
1 : 112; that is to say, in future flsses circulated
at twice their real value. It henceforth became
more and more the custom to reckon in silver,
and to consider copper asses as mere money of
account. After the Macedonian wars, indeed,
this method of reckoning became universal.
(4) Until the invasion of Hannibal, gold had
passed among the Romans either in tlie form of
bars or in that of Campanian coins. But Han-
nibal cut the Romans off from Campania, tlie
source of their supplies of the jirecious metals.
Gold pieces of a new type were now issued at
Rome (PL II. 13). These bear national designs :
on the obverse the head of Mars ; on the reverse
the Roman eagle bearing a thunderbolt, and the
name ROMA- They are of the weight of 3, 2,
and 1 Roman scruples, and bear respectively
the marks of value iX, XXXX, XX. They
were thus equivalent to (iO, 40, and 20 asses of
the early standard or sestertii of silver. The
ratio of value between gold and silver exhibited
by them is about 1 : 17, which shows that they
circulated at a higher than intrinsic value. The
issue of them was not long continued.
Roman Money from tlie Second Punic War
to Caesa r :
(1) Copper. — The weight of the as was still
further reduced by the Lex Papiria, passed
89 B.C. (Plin. xxxiii. § 46), to half an uncia (PI.
II. 10). But as at this period all reckonings were
made in silver, this regulation had but little
effect. Par more importance attaches to the Lex
Valeria de aere alieno, passed in 86 b.c, which
was a real measure of bankruptcy. Hitherto
there had been two methods of reckoning : (a)
in large transactions by the sestertius or old
libral as ; {h) in small traffic by the reduced as
of yV denarius. The Lex Valeria suddenly
abolished the foi-mer of these modes of reckon-
ing ; so that debtors could discharge obligations
contracted under it with one-quarter of the sum
really due.
(2) Silver. — The sestertius was issued for
but a short period, and the quinarius or half
denarius was not used for very long. But
beside the denarius there came into circulation
the pieces called Victor iati. These exist i-n three
denominations — the double, the unit (PI. IL 15),
and the half. The type of all is the same : on
the obverse, a head of Jupiter ; on the reverse.
Victory crowning a trophy, and the inscription
ROMA. The Victoriatus was originally of the
weight of 3 scrupula, or J of a denarius, or about
45 grs., but soon declined. The Victoriati were
no doubt convenient as being nearly equal in
weight to contemporary drachms of Rhodes,
Corinth, and Massalia.
One peculiarity marks all the silver coin of
this iDeriod — the frequent occurrence in it of
plated pieces ; the issue of which was due to the
dishonesty of the Roman mint and its authorities.
Caesar called in most of this worthless currency.
During the Social War the Italian states
issued silver coins imitated from the Roman,
but with the names of their leaders, Papius
Mutilus, &c., in Oscan characters (PI. II. 17).
In the second century B.C. a great variety of
new typer: come in for the reverses. The names
' of the moneyers begin to appear, at first in
abbreviated form, afterwards at length. The
type of the obverse remained unchanged till
100 B.C. Soon after this date the inscription
ROMA and the indication of value, which
mark all the early issues in silver, disappear
for good. Now, too, first occur such formulae
as S. 0. (Senatus Consulto), ARG. PVB. (Ar-
gento Publico), as well as legends explanatory
of tlie types of the coins, which at first consist
of mere initials, as I. S. M. R. (for lano Sispes,
or Sispita [ = Sospita], Mater Regina), or P. P.
(for Penates Publici).
(3) Gold. — The issue of gold coin during the
Second Punic War was a temporary expedient.
Both before and after that period treasure was
laid up at Rome in the form of gold bars, pro-
bably of fixed weight, but not issued as coin.
In the middle of the second century a, pound of
gold was reckoned as equivalent to 1000 de-
narii, which gi\es the proportionate value of
gold to silver as 12 to 1. This treatment of the
pound of gold as the unit governs the issue of
gold coins, which took place at intervals during
the last centui-y B.C. Thus Sulla struck gold
coins of 30 and 36 to the pound (PI. III. 1), and
Pompey of 36 to the pound, while Caesar chose
the weight of 40 to the pound for his aurei.
All these coins were of a military character,
struck to facilitate the distribution of booty.
Authority to Issue Money. — According to the
early Roman constitution, supreme power rested
with the people with regard to money as with
regard to other things. The regular issue of
coin of course went on without interference of
the legislature, under the general control of the
magistrates entrusted with the imperium, such
as consuls and praetors. All coins issued within
Roman dominions may be divided into three
classes :
COINAGE
185
(1) The normal State Coinage. — It appears
that before the Social War special officers
were appointed to strike coin, or, as it was ex-
pressed in Roman i)lu'ase, aura ar/jento aeri
flando feriundu (A. A. A F.F.). A board of
moneyers, generally three in number (III Viri
Monetales), worked imder the control of the
censors. Authority to issue money was also
occasionally given by special commission of the
senate. Coins so issued are marked S C
(2) Money was also issued by Roman au-
thority in subject states — Capua, &c. All
these bear the name of Rome.
(3) The military imperium carried with it
tlie right to mint money. Both gold and silver
coins were thus issued by Sulla, Caesar, and
others.
Roman Money from Augustus to Caracalla.
During the civil wars there was considerable
h"regularity in the issue of coin. Augustus re-
served to himself the right of minting gold (PI.
III. 5) and silver ; but the issue of copper (PI.
III. 6, 8) was conceded to the senate. Hence-
forth all copper coin bears the letters S C
(Senatus consulto).
In the case of almost all coins, one side is
regularly occupied with the name and titles of
the emperor accompanying his effigy ; the other
side bears sometimes merely a date, as COS III
TR P XX, i.e. in the third consulate and the
twentieth tribunician year of the emperor (cf.
PI. III. 11) : but more usually an inscription
describing the deity represented, as IVNONI
REGINAE (PI. III. y), or containing allusion
to an liistorical event and accompanying a type
of similar allusion, sucli as FIDES MILITUM,
when the army presented a lovul address ;
FECUNDITATI AUGUSTAE, when the em-
press bore a child. See.
The large pieces known as ' medallions ' are
not coins, but commemorative medals. They
were struck in all three metals.
(1) Gold. — The emperors claimed the sole
right in all the world to issue gold coin ; and
Roman nitrri are frequently found in regions so
remote from Italy as India. Augustus issued
gold of two denominations :
Aureus (PI. 111. 5), woiglit j\j libra or Eiig. gr. 126
Half aureus, „ jL ^^ ^^ _^ 63
The aureus was also termed the gold sester-
tius, and its half the gold Victoriatus. The
aureus agreed nearly in weight with the gold
staters of Philip and Alexander of Macedon,
which had long been the standard of %-alue in
all civilised countries. It was reckoned as
equivalent in value to 25 silver denarii or 100
sesterces, which gives the ratio of value of gold
to silver as about 12 to 1. But as silver issues
became debased, the gold coin became the real
standard of value, so that a debt of 100 denarii
meant 4 aurei. With a few exceptions, all gold
and silver coin of the Romans from Augustus
onwards bears the effigy of an emperor. The
weiglit of the aureus sank till, in the time of
Caracalla (211-217 a.d.), it was ,',, of a libra.
(2) Silver. — Under the Empire the issue of
quinarii and sestertii was for a time renewed.
The weight of the denarius was at first main-
tained at its old standard of „', libra, and its
fineness was likewise for a time i)reserved almost
perfect. Nero lowered the weight of the denarius
to {^ libra or 52 English grains, at the same
time mixing ,',-, of alloy with tiie pure metal.
After this tlie quality of the metal went on de-
teriorating.
Caracalla introduced, beside the denarius, a
coin called argcnteus Antoninianus (PI. III.
11). Tliese coins bear the head of the Emperor
radiate or of tlie Empress on a crescent, to
distinguish them from the denarii.
(:■?) Copper. — The largest coin issued by the
senate, in virtue of the privilege allowed them by
Augustus, was tlie brass sestertius (PI. III. S) or
piece of four asses. This was made of a fine
yellow metal composed * of copper and -J^ of
zinc, and was a Roman ounce in weight. The
dupondius (PI. III. Uj was in the same metal,
and weighed about half an ounce. Prom the
time of Nero onward it was the custom to place
on dupondii the head of the emperor v.itli
radiate cro%vn, in order to distinguish these
pieces from the as.ses, on which the head was
laureate. In size the as and dupondius were
closely idike, only the former was made of in-
ferior metal — copper alloyed with about 30 per
cent, of tin and 1» ad. Of tliis metal were also
made semisses and occasionally quadrantcs.
Roman Moiiri/ from, Caracalla to Constan-
tine. — This period presents us with a continually
increasing adulteration of coin in all metals.
(1) Gold. — After the time of Caracalla various
multiples of the aureus were struck. The metal
was not much adulterated, but the weight ol
the pieces varies. For want of a true monetarj-
standard, the pound or libra of gold was now
the base of the system of credit, and gold coins
circulated by weight only. Constantine intro-
duced a solidus of gold (PI. III. 14) weighLng yV
of a libra, as its marks of value LXXI I and OB
= ofi' = 72) sufficiently signify ; as weU as a
sonis and a triens of the same piece. This
latter lield its ground for a long time, and its
lineal descendant the Besant became the proto-
type of all later systems of gold coiiuige in
East and West.
(2) Silver. — The deterioration in the metal of
the Antoniniani was very rapid. The denaritis
declined both in weight and purity, and was in
a shameful condition when Diocletian (PI. III.
13) and his colleagues re-introduced the Nei'o-
nian silver. Constantine struck silver i>ieces
(PI. III. 15) worth resi^ectively one-twelfth and
one-twentyfourth of his gold solidus (= gsf and
iT-ii of a libra of gold).
(3) Copper. — The sestertii of fine brass fall to
a half and even a third of their original weight of
an ounce, and the metal becomes pt>orer. Dio-
cletian issued copper money washed with silver.
These pieces continued to be part of Roman
currency until the death of Tbeodosius I. The
larger of them is mentioned l>y ancient writers
under the name /o/Zis or ^«'CM?(/« maior. The
sjualler is called numus centenionalis.
Coinage in tJic Froviuces during the Empire.
The coinage of the Greek world did not cease
under Roman domination, but was restricted
by the jn-ohibition of gold coinage, and by the
limitation of silver coinage to a few mints, of
which the most important were Alexandria in
Egypt (PI. III. 12), Antioch in Syria (PI. III. 3),
and Caesarea in Cappadocia. This silver coinage
became rapidly debased. Tliere is also a series
of Jewish shekels (PI. 111. 7) extending over five
years, wliich may perhaps belong to the revolt
of the Jews in the time of Nero, though gene-
rally given to Simon Maccabaeus (k.c. 143-135).
The coinage of bninze wa.s i)ractically unre-
stricted. The coins are of two kinds : (1) with
the Emperor's head (PI. III. 10, 11) ; (2) with the
head of the Senate, the Town Council, or the
People (PI. III. 4). Tlie rever.se types are ex-
tremely various, and are most valuable as illus-
trating life in the Roman provinces. The
186
COINAGE
Normal Weights of Roman Coins in English Gbains.
1
B.C. 350.
B.C. 269,
B.C. 210.
1
B.C. 89.
AUGU^STCS.
Nero.
Caracalla.
Gold.
Aureus . , .
52-5
126-
112-
101-
SiLVKR.
Denarius . . .
Quinarjus . .
Sestertius . .
Victoriatus . .
Antonlniauus .
7(1-
So-
ns
CO-
30-
IS-
60-
45-
GO-
30-
15-
...
52-
2«-
84-
Copper.
Sestertius . .
Dupondius . .
As
Semis ...
5050
2525
1750
875-
421
210
210
105
420
210
200?
420
210
200
The values of these coins in modem money varies of course with the weight. The aureus of Augustus
was a little lit-avier than the English sovereign, and three lUr.arii nearly of the same weight as a florin. The
a$ was at first rather more valuable than an English pouud of copper.
inscriptions are in Greek, except in the case
of Roman colonies. This coinas^e ceases after
the first half of the third centuiy after Christ,
trallienus (a.d 253-268) and later emperors esta-
blished local mints throughout the empire, e.g.
at London, Treves, Lyons, Milan, i'c, where
coins of Roman tj'pe and standard were struck.
We add a notice of Roman coins in common
circulation.
Biga'ti (numnti). Denarii bearing as type
the figure of a biga (PI. II. 16). [Currus.]
See also Sekkatus.
Dena'kius, translated by ' penny ' in the
A. V. of the Bible, was the principal silver coin
among the Romans. The name is still preser\ed
in our £ s. d. For the history of the denarius,
see above.
Dupondius. A bronze coin worth two asses,
issued after the reduction of the as (PI. III. 6).
Under the Empire it was made of yellow brass
(see above*.
LiBELLA. The diminutive form of libra, a
Roman pound, and naturally applied, not to
the pound of copp)er, but its lighter equivalent
in silver. TIiu UbeUa was never issued as an
actual coin ; it was in fact a mere money of
account, like the guinea among ourselves. (See
I above, Relation of Home to the rest of Italy.)
1.
AV.
AR.
3.
AR.
4.
AE.
6.
AV.
6.
AE.
7.
AR.
8.
AE.
9.
AR.
10.
AE.
11.
AR.
12.
AR.
13.
AE.
14.
AV.
15. AR.
PLA.TE III.
.Sulla, .\ureus. l«5-5 grs. Obv. L"SVLLA. Head of Venus and Cupid with palm-branch. Rev.
IMPER. ITERVM. Lituus and jujf between two trophies. 87 B.C.
Faustus Sulla. Deiiiirius. 59-7 grs. ('ftp. FAVSTVS. Head of Diana. /?er. L. Sulla seated between
Hacclins and .hiirnrtlia kne<-line. i!-J n.c.
\nti...-li ill SM-ia. Aiir..iiv .nb\ Cl-Mpirni. T.-tr:i.lr:if'hni. 239 grs. 06r. ANTQNIOC
AYTOKPATOP TPITON TPinN ANAPQN. Hea-1 of Antonv. Kev. BAC I
AICCA KAEOriATPA 0EA NEflTEPA. liu>t of (leupatra. b.c. 36-30.
niami.lu.. lit,: AHMOC BAAYNAEON. Hiad of Demos. AV,-. CTP(aTTi-yoii)
KA(av5LOVl BAAEPIANOY. Ivtlir with steorius;-oar and comucopi;ie. ii. cent. a.i>.
Aut'ustus. Aureus, r.'- i-'r-. "' r. CAESAR. Hciwl of Augustus. Rev. AVGVSTVS. Bull.
H.<-. 27.
N.ro. Dupondius. tihr. NERO CLAVDdu-^) CAESAR AVG(ustus) GERM(anicus) PContifcx)
M(a.\imus) TRnbunicia) P(ote.-tut(j IMP(eratori P(atfr) P(atriae). Head of Nero radiate.
ll'O. VICTORIA AVGVSTI. S. C. Victory with wreath and palm-branch. Below, II.
54-68 A.n.
Judiica. SUeki-l. "215 grs. Obc. ' Jeru.salem the Holy." Flowering branch. Rev. 'Shekel of
IsraeU Ycjir 2.' Chalice. .\.i>. 67 70 ( V).
Vespasian. Sestertius. Obv. IMP. CAES. VFSPASIAN(us) AVG. P. M. TR. P. P. P. COS. Ml.
Hwvd of Vospsisian. AVr. IVDAEA CARTA S. C. .Judaea seated under a palm-tree and guarded
bv a soldier. a.i>. 71.
Faustina TI. Denarius. 50 grs. Oip. FAVSTINA AVGVSTA. Bust of Faustina. Rec. [\UOU\
REGINAE. .luuo seatcl with sceptre, patera and peacoek. a.d. 161-175.
KjilH^u^. o/yc. AAPIANOC KAICAP OAYMniOC. Ilust of Hadrian, laureate. Rev.
EOECmN. Teiuplo eontainiug the Artemis of F.plusns. a.I>. 124.
Canicalla. Autoniniauus. 79-1 gr.s. o?,;.. ANTONINVS PIVS AVG. GERM. Bu.st of Caracalla
radiate. Rev. P. M. TR. P. XVIIII. COS. Mil. P. P. .Iiipiter with sceptre and thunderbolt.
A.D. 216.
ba.se. Alexandria. Traiifiuillina. nbv. CAB(ivCa) TPANKYAAEINA CEB(aaTi^).
Bust of Tranquilliiia. lieo. L E (year 5). Niliis recumbent, holds reed and conmcopiae ; below,
crocodile, a.d. 23K-244.
Diocletian, obr. IMP. C. DIOCLETIANVS Prius) F(elix) AVG. Bust of Diocletian radiate.
R'l: SALVS AVGGG (trium .\ugustoruui ). S. P. M. L. XXI. Salus feeding serpent from patera.
Struck at I.oiiilon -y a.d. 292-305.
Coustantiiie I. Solidus. 68-1 grs. "?,r. CONSTANTI NVS MAX. AVG. Bu.st of Constantine.
A/T. VICTOR I AE CONSTANTINI AVG. CONS(taiitino|.oli). Victory writing on a shield
supported bv wiiitred sienius (VOT XX XX. Vows made for the preservation of the Emperor for
40ye;irs). a.d. 306-337.
Constantine I. 64-5 '.ts. 06e. As No. 14. AVr. VIRTVS EXERCITVS. CONS{tantiuopoli) B.
Soldier. A.D. 306-337.
K.B. AE. = Aes. AR.=Argentum. AV.=Auruin.
PLATE TIL
KnAAKPETAI
The half of the hbella wiis the sembella, and
its quarter the tenoicius. The rehition (one-
tenth) of the hbelhi to the sestertius or denarius
gave rise to the phrase ' heres ex libelhi ' (Cic.
Att. vii. 2, 3), applied to those who inherited
tlie tenth of an estate ; while an inheritor of
the fortieth part was called ' heres ex teruncio.'
QuADKANs. A bronze coin worth ^ of an as.
SEins. A bronze coin wortli h an as.
Seiika'tus. Tacitus says of the Germans
(Germ. 5), 'pecuniani probant veterem et
diu notam, serratos bij^atosque.' These were
denarii struck under the Roman Reiiublic ; the
serrati having a serrated edge, notched like a
saw (PI. II. Ki), the bigati bearing the type
of a biga. That tlie Germans should prefer
these coins of llie Republic to those of the
Empire, inferior in weight and purity, was
natural. •
Sestertius. Tliis term is a contraction for
seims tertius, which is the Latin way of expres-
sing 2A. The ntumis sestertius, sestertius, or
sesterce, was the unit according to which sums
of money were reckoned by the Romans almost
throughout their history. It was expressed on
the coins themselves and in documents by
the symbol I I S (two miitsand a semis), or with
a line through, H-S, a form commonly though
incorrectly printed as H S.
When silver coin was first issued at Rome
('2(59 B.C.) it was based on the equation of
the scruple of silver (IT'S grains) to one
libral as of 10 ounces, or 2^ of the current re-
duced assy's of 4 ounces. Thus the denarius
(10 asses) was equal to 4 sestertii, and the
quinarius to 2 sestertii. For the furtlier history
of the sestertius, which under the Empire was
a brass coin, see above.
The distinction between sesfertiiDii and .sr.s-
tertius should be observed. Sestertium always
denoted a sirm of money (1000 sestertii), never
a coin. Sums of a million sestertii and upwards
are expressed by a use of the numeral adverbs
in -ies; centena niilia= 100,000 being gene-
rally understood. Thus ileeies {centena milia)
sestertiani = 1,000,000 sestertii, vicies semel
sestertiitni = 2,100,000 .ses^er///.
SoLLDUS [voixKTfxa). The gold coin introduced
by Constantine (PI. III. 14 ; see above). Hence
soldo, sou, and cognate terms.
Victouia'tl's was the name of a Roman coin
of considerable importance in the time of the
Roman Republic, so called because it bore the
type of Victory crowning a trophy (PI. II. 15 ;
see above). Its origin is doubtful ; but it makes
its appearance in Italy towards the end of the
third century B.C., first in Campania and then
in other parts of the Roman dominions and in
Rome itself.
KuXaKpe'rai. or KuXa-ypeTai. The name
of a very ancient magistracy at Athens. The
name, ' collectors of hams ' (/coiA.^), is said to have
been derived from the circumstance that they
received the hams from the animals in cer-
tain sacrifices. The Kolakretae in later times
acted as the treasurers of the Naukrariae, out
of whose funds they paid the expenses of the
sacred embassies (Oewpiai) sent to Delphi or
elsewhere, and tliose of the public tables in the
Prytaneion. Perikles assigned to them the
payment of the dikasts, and they were an im-
portant magistracy in the time of Aristophanes
[Vesp. 0!)r>, 724, Ar. 1.541).
Coii'phium. [Athletae.]
CoUa re [collar ium, Sfpaiov, kKoi6s). A band
or chain attached to tlic neck (colhnn), acollar.
Dogs with collars are frequently seen in ancient
COLONLA.
187
Fig. ;^
7.— llitdge attuched to
slave's collar.
reward for the runaway
monuments (cf. the well-known ' Cave cauem ' at
Pompeii). Heavy
wooden collars
{k\oioI) were
sometimes put on
mischievous dogs
(Ar. Vesp. «97).
Iron or bronze
collars were placed
round the necks
of slaves who had
attempted to run
away (Plant. Caj/t.
ii. 2, 107). Some-
times a plate was
attached contain-
ing the name and
address of the
master, and ofTering
slave.
Colli'ciae. [Tegula.]
K6\\u3os. :Coinage.1
Colobiuni = €|ct.'Mis. "Dress.]
Cclo'nia. 1. Gheek. — The Greek colonies
maybe divided into three classes; (1) settle-
ments founded by whole races, such as the
Aeolian, Ionian, and Dorian colonisation of the
islands of the Aegean Sea and of the coast of
Asia Minor ; (2) city-colonies founded by cities ;
(3) kleruchies. The first are rather migrations
of races than foundations of colonies ; they did
not start as a small section from a larger miity
at home, but were rather parts of the great
inner movement of the Greek races in early
times. We shall especially treat here of the
second class of colonies.
(1) Different kinds of Colonies. — (a) Co-
lonies of Conquest, such as Alexander's
various colonies in the East. There are none,
that are distinctly of this class in early Greek
times. Under these may be classed Military
Colonies, such as were to a great extent the
colonies planted by Perikles in Thrace, and the
kleruchies. {h) Af/rieultural Colonics, such as
those of Magna Graecia and Sicily, (e) Com-
mercial Colonies. Nearly all colonies start
from factories, established generally in countries
where there are either great natural difliculties
to contend against, or great restrictions in trade :
e.r/. Naukratis in Egj-pt. In such colonies the
colonists generally stand to the natives in the
position of metoeki, and are bound closely
together in corporations, for mutual protection.
[ Such factories, more developed, become com-
' mercial colonies. Examples are the Phoenician
, colonies in Spain and the Greek colonies on the
' Pontus, with their large trade in hides, Hax,
• corn, wood, slaves, and fish. The Pontic colo-
nies deserve especial notice. Tlie great era of
colonisation inaugurated especially by Miletus
and Chalkis, during the eighth century B.C.,
was systematically carried on as a state concern
by each city. Not only did the colonies trade
with their immediate neighbours, especially with
the Scythians, but several of the colonies — such
as Olbia, Tanais, and Dioskurias — were the
starting-points of caravan routes towards Cen-
tral Russia, Siberia, and India. Colonies them-
selves, also, often founded new colonies. Si-
point of much of the colonisation of the soutli
coast of the Pontus, and by the middle of the
eighth century slie had founded Trapezus. The
commercial colonies, by far tlie most numerous
class, were all founded on or near the sea.
(2) Cau.scs (if Colonisation among the
Greeks. — Besides those cases in whicli a wliole
1S8
COLONIA
state leaves its liome before a conqueror, and
those in which in consequence of civil dissen-
sions, one party emigrates in anger, some
settlements were founded in consequence of
internal dissensions, in which the state super-
intended the sending out of the colony, and the
colonists parted in a measure as friends from
the metropolis : e.g. Tarentum. A very fruitful
cause of colonisation was over-population.
Then the wealthy and the upper classes urged
the poor to emigrate. A more extensive cause
was a desire to push commerce, especially in
the case of rich coinanunities.
(3) Procedure in founding a Colony. — When
a colony was to be founded, a leader {olKi(Tr-{)s)
was appointed, who applied to the priests at
Delphi for advice (Hdt. v. 42). Hence the
nimiber of colonies which considered Apollo
'Apx^JTeTTjs as their founder, and the grateful
veneration for Delphi which was felt by the
more prosperous colonies. Participation in
the colony was generally left to free choice;
but sometimes the colonists were appointed by
the state (Hdt. iv. 153) ; foreigners were some-
times invited to participate (Thuc. iii. 92) ; and
generally men from various cities joined in each
colonising expedition. The emigrants, prior
to departure, took fire from tlie sacred hearth
{■irpvTave7oi') of the city which sent them out, to
light therewith the hearth in their new home
(Hdt. i. 146). Wlien they had arrived at their
destination, they sometimes erected an altar to
Apollo (Thuc. vi. 3) ; then the town was built, and
the land divided. As the colonists were mostly
poor men of the same rank, it is most likely
that tlie lots were generally equal, except in the
case of the oiKiffrits, who no doubt received
material advantages while alive, as he cei-tainly
received divi)ie lionours after death (Hdt. i. 167,
vi. 38; Thuc. v. 11). Some colonies claimed a
divine or heroic founder. Additional settlers
sent to a colony already established ((ttoikoi)
generally had inferior riglits and possessions to
the original colonists {airoiKoi) (Thuc. i. 27).
The lots were sometimes made inalienable.
(4) Belations between a Metropolis and a
Colony. — When a colony separated from its
metropolis in anger, tliere was no relationsliip
between them. But even when they parted
amicably, the relation was not a political one
of government and dependency, but one of
affection and dutiful attention (Thuc. i. 34 ;
Plat. Legg. vi. 754) ; though as a matter of
fact quarrels often arose between the two.
The colonists usually liad a native of the
metropolis to officiate as higli priest in their
sacrifices (Thuc. i. 25). But outside tlie sphere
of religion there appear to have been few ties.
Distance, commercial jealousy, and the Greek
sense of the autonomy of each state, were a bar
to any voluntary dependence. Corinth alone tried
to found a colonial dominion by means of her
navy ; but this led to colonial war, as between
her and Korkyra. The Corinthians also used to
send to tlieir colony Potidaea annual magistrates
called 67ri5rj,uioup7oi (Thuc. i. 56). In some cases
a land rent was paid (Xen. Anah. v. 5, 7, 10).
Except under special circumstances and conven-
tions, the citizens of a colony were not citizens
of the mother-city. (See, however, Thuc. i. 27.)
Under stress of internal dissensions or other diffi-
culty (Thuc. v. 106), the colonists often applied
for aid to the states which founded them (Plut.
Timol. 23). Conversely, it was considered im-
pious for a colony not to aid its parent state
when the latter was subject to unjust attacks
(Thuc. I. c), much more to bear arms against
her (Hdt. iii. 19, viii. 22) ; and disputes between
colony and metropolis were commonly settled
by arbitration (Thuc. i. 28). But instances to
the contrary are to be found, as the hostility of
Korkyra to Corinth, and of Amphipolis to
Athens (Thuc. v. 11). In case the colony pro-
posed to found another, according to an old
custom it asked a leader from the mother-city
(Thuc. i. 24).
(5) Political career of Colonies. — The
popiilations forming the Greek colonies were
usually not pure Dorian or Ionian, but of a
mixed race of Hellenes ; and when they had
founded their colony, they mixed the race still
further by intercourse and intermarrying witli
the natives. Tliis was especially the case in
Italy and Sicily, Gaul and Kyrene.
The Greeks settled around the Tarentine
gulf had Amphiktyonic institutions, and a
common point of religious assemblage in the
festivals of the Lakinian Hera, presided over
by the Krotoniates. So, too, the altar of Apollo
Archegetes at Naxos appears to have united
the Sicilians (Thuc. vi. 3). A mixed population
like that of the Greek colonies, with no tradi-
tional reverence for priests and nobles, with
wealth ever increasing, vigorous, and indepen-
dent, could not tolerate an aristocratic system of
govermnent ; the aristocracy of birth and worth
gave place to the oligarchy of wealth. This
important step on the road to democracy
brought with it the codification and publication
of the laws (Arist. Pol. ii. 9, 5 ; cf. Plat. Bejj. x.
599 e). Where the rich few gained the upper
hand, we find oligarchies: as at Rhegium,
Kroton, Lokri, Agrigentum. Where the poor
prevailed, the result was democracy. Close on
diunagogues follow tyrants : the president, as
at Miletus (Arist. Pol. viii. 5, 5j 8)) becomes the
t5ri-ant. ' The great majority of ancient tyrants,'
says Aristotle {Pol. viii. 5, § 6), ' had been
demagogues.'
The wealth of the colonies produced more
beautiful cities and a more brilliant life than in
the mother-country. Much of early Greek
pliilosophy came from the higher minds of
Magna Graecia and Sicily — Xenophanes, Pjrtli-
agoras, Empedoklcs, Parmenides ; and we find
that comedy and travesty owed their origin
principally to the same I'egion. Poverty had
all along been foster-sister of Hellas (Hdt. vii.
102) ; but the luxury of Sybaris is proverbial,
and the Agrigentines ' built as if they were to
live for ever, and dined as if they were to die
to-morrow.'
(6) Atheman Colonics. — These belong to
a later period than the greater mass of the
other Greek colonies. They were more in the
nature of kleruchies (kA.tjpoi'X'C")- l>"t differ from
kleruchies in that they wei'e not planted on Hel-
lenic land from which the inhabitants had been
expelled, but were settlements effected on the
territory of barbarian tribes. They were, how-
ever, similar to the kleruchies in the fact that
the whole arrangement of their planting was
directed by tlie state. They were constituted by
charters (d7roi/«'o), which contained dispositions
as to the class of citizens who might join the
colony, and provisions as regards the religious
duties to be observed by the colonists towards
the mother-city. The state supplied arms and
money. Wlien the colonists arrived, the lands,
previously divided by Yeco/xeVpai, were distri-
buted to them by 'yeuiv6iJi.oi. The oekist of
such a colony received all the honours which
the oekist of tlie colonies of earlier days had
received (Thuc. v. 11). Two of the most con-
spicuous Athenian colonies were Thurii (443
B.C.), iu which Herodotus took part, and
Amphipolis (437 B.C.), founded partly because
it was a convenient centre for ship timber, and
1H9
more intercourse than was ueces-
COLONIA
nor having
sary.
The system of kleruchies, not unreasonable
in itself, but harshly prosecuted by the Athe-
also for working the gold and silver mines in nian democracy, was the most unpopular feature
the neighbourliood ; but principally it served
military purposes, as being close to the bridge
over the Strymon (Time. iv. 102). Hence it
always remained a regular Athenian depend-
ency. This forms a transition to
(7) Athenian Klcrurhies. — The main cha-
racteristics of the Athenian kleruchies were
that they consisted solely of Athenians, were
settled on Hellenic land, and were dependent.
The objects were ' to relieve the city of the
idle and troublesome mob, to alleviate the dis
of the Athenian empire.
2. RoM.\N. — Colonisation existed among the
oldest Italian nations, both religious [Ver
sacram] and military.
Colonies were established by the Romans
wherever they carried their army ; they were
intended to maintain and defend conquests
(Liv. X. 10, xxvii. 4G). Another object was to
extend the power of Rome by increasing the
population (Liv. xxvii. 9), or to carry off turbulent
and discontented per.sons. Colonies {culuniae
tress of the poorer classes, to inspire fear into , ntili tares) were also established for the purpose
the allies, and keep watch that they should not \ of providing for veteran soldiers,
take any hostile steps against Athens ' (Plut. Tlie old Roman colonies were in the nature
Pericl. 11). An additional reason was some- I of garrisons planted in conquered towns, and
times to secure a supply of corn. The sending j the colonists had a portion of the conquered
out of kleruchies formed one of the recognised i territoi-j' (usually a third part: Liv. x. 1)
portions of the democratic programme (Ar. j assigned to them. The inhabitants retained
Nub. 205). Li their military aspect they cor- j the rest of their lands, and lived together with
responded to the Roman colonies. The first the new settlers, who properly conqjosed the
kleruchies were those sent to occupy the land colony. The conquered people were i)robably
of the hippobatae at Chalkis, about 510 B.C. | regarded as cives sine suffragio.
The procedure adopted in sending out a i No colonia was established under the Re-
kleruchy was doubtless by ordinary bill brought public without a lex, proposed by a consul or
by the senate before the people, which defined tribune, and based upon a senatusconsultum.
the principal conditions on whicli the kleruchy and a cliarter (foni'ida) laying down the regu-
was foimded. The jooorer classes of all the ten lations and conditions. A Roman colony was
tribes were invited to send in their names, and never a mere body of adventurers, but was a
the lot decided who were to get the lands, body of citizens, or socii, sent out to possess a
which were doubtless measured out prior to commonwealth by a public act of the people,
the departure of the colonists. They were led Under the Empire, as under the kings, a decree
by an (VKoiKiaTris or arpaTr)y6s. of the sovereign sufficed.
As to the relations of the kleruchs to Athens, | "VVIien a law was passed for founding a colony,
(a) they renuvined Athenian citizens, and he- \ xmn^ons, (curatores col. deducendae),i:cimmon\y
longed to the Atlienian tribes. (i) There j three (Liv. xxxvii. 46, but also Xviri and
seems no definite proof that the state retained ! A'A'c/r?),were elected by the f07«/^/(( centuriata
the supreme ownership of tlie lands, (c) The } to superintend its formation (colon ia»i dedu-
kleruchi paid no tribute, {d) It is probable cere). The law fixed the quantity of land that
that tlie kleruchi could not alienate their | was to be distributed, and how niuch was to be
lands. As a general rule they liad to reside | assigned to each person. If volunteers did not
on their land (but see Thuc. iii. 50). (e) The j offer themselves (nontina dare, a military term,
kleruchi paid taxes for their property to their Liv. i. 11), the requisite garrison might be
own community. For such property as some
few may have retained in Attica they were prob-
ably liable to tlie property tax (ELCT<f>opd) ; but
from personal services, such as the various
liturgies, they were exempt. (/) The kleruchi
served in the Athenian army on certain occa-
sions (Hdt. viii. 40, vi. 100; Tliuc. vii. 57).
((/) Civil magistrates were occasionally sent by
raised by IcAy, or by lot, and colonists were not
allowed to withdraw from the colony at plea-
sure. The number of heads of families was
usually in the early times, and sometimes after-
wards, 300 (Liv. viii. 21, xxxii. 20). At a later
period the number was often much larger, 2000
(Liv. vi. 10), 3000 (Liv. v. 24), 0000 (Liv. x. 1).
The status of a colonist involved dcmiiiutio
Atlions to the kleruchies. These were called | capitis [Ai)pendix, Rom.vn L.vw, Caput] ; and
apxix^Tes, imffKoiroi (Ar. Av. 1050), and I therefore in ordinarj' circumstances had to be
e'TTi/ueArjTaf. (h) As regards jurisdiction, some
cases had to be tried within thirty days {S'lKai
tfiHtlvoi) before tlie Nautodikae at Athens;
otliers before judges chosen by lot out of the
kleruchi themselves. Tlie most imiwrtant cases
were tried at Athens, {i) Touching religion, a
certain portion, generally a tenth of kleruchic
lands, was set apart for the gods (Thuc. iii. 50).
Eacli kleruchy sent an ox to be sacrificed at the
Panathenaea. The Athenians also associated
the kleruchies in their sacrifices.
Tlie kleruchi, liowever, possessed a certain
independence. They had the riglit of coining
copper money. The constitution of tlie klerudiic
state was a miniature Athens, and their political
procedure, and even the very names of their
officers, changed with the changes at Athens.
Towards the natives the Attic kleruchi iii)pear
to have formed a strictly closed body, neither
intennarrying with them (Dem. Ncaer. § 17)
voluntary (Cic. jjro J)om. 30, 78).
The colonia proceeded to its place of destina-
tion in the form of an army (.sid vcxillo). An
mbs, if one did not already exist, was a neces-
sary part of a new colony, and its limits were
marked out by a plough. The colonia had also
a territory, which, was marked out by metes
and bounds (posita ai(sj/icialitrr ffronia). Land
remaining over was counted to Ager Publicus.
The line of the new city was marked out by a
plough drawn by a bull and a cow, and
followed by the dedurtor coloniae wearing tlie
Cinctus (labinus. (Dress, Toc.a.] Tiie plough
was lifted over the hi)aces intended for gates.
I Verg. Aen. v. 775 ; Cic. Att. iv. 14.) A second
colony could not be sent to the same place ; but
new settlers {novi adscripli) niiglit be .sent as
a mipplcmentinn {hiv. vi. .SO, xxxi. 49; Tac.
.inn. xiv. 27) to occupy colonial lauds not
already assigued.
190 COLONIA
Numerous functionaries accompanied a
colony : as apparitores, seribae, librarii, prae-
cones, architects
The first division of the colonies was into (1)
coloniae civiwm liomanorum and (2) coloniae
Latinae.
(1) To the former class belonged all colonies
where the colonising immigrants consisted
exclusively of Roman citizens. These retained
the civitas cum suffragio et iure bonorum.
The former inhabitants are frequently spoken
of as cives {I.e. probably sine suffragio), and
had no other magistrates or laws than those of
the colony. Thus the new-comers and the old
inhabitants were gradually blended into one
community. Thirty-two of such colonies have
been reckoned, the dates of foundation lying
between 338 and 100 B.c„ and there must
Jiave been more, the names of which are not
known to us.
(2) The latter class {coloniae Latinae) in-
cluded three kinds of colonies, (a) Five colonies
are ascribed to the time of the old Latin alliance,
which subsisted in the regal period of Rome, {b)
Seven date from the renewed alliance estab-
lished by Sp. Cassius, including the Hernici. The
earlier Latin colonies had the full Roman fran-
<;hise. (c) Besides these, after the close of the
wars with the Latins (338 B.C.) and the Herni-
cans (306 B.C.), the Romans frequently planted
in conquered territory outside of Latium colo-
nies consisting partly of Roman citizens, partly
of Latins; of these twenty-seven have been
enumerated.'
A Latin colony was planted by Roman tres-
viri and after a jjlehiscitiim, but formed an
independent community under the ride of no
Roman magistrate, and not bound to accept
the Roman law. The citizens lost the Roman
franchise, and beeame^ere^/v;;/, serving, not in
the legions, but in cohorteg and alae, like other
allies. [Exercitus.] Along with the older allied
states they formed the noincn Latinum, and
enjoyed commei-cinni and probably also conu-
■biwm with Rome. The twelve Latin colonies
founded after 268 B.C., the first of which was
Ariminum, had only that limited franchise,
which was aftei-wards extended to Transpadane
Gaul, to some towns of Sicily, and under the
Empire to various provinces. This later or
lesser Latin franchise did not admit of conti-
biuiii, although there was romincrciuni.
Besides these colonies, tliere were (so-called)
coloniae Italici iiiris. The ius Italicum was
granted to favoured provincial cities. It con-
sisted in quiritarian ownership of the soil,
together with freedom from taxes; and also
in a municijial constitution, after the fashion
of the Italian towns, with duoviri, (juinquen-
nales, aediles, and a iurisdictio. Such towns
have on their coins the figure of a standing
Sat. i. 6, 120.) Among towns enjoying ius
Italicum were Lugdunum (Lyons), Vienna
(Vienne), and Colonia Agripisineusis (Cologne).
All colonies had Roman rites conducted by
Flamines, Pontifices and Augurs.
The colonial system of Rome was well
adapted to strengthen and extend her power.
The power of Rome over her colonies was
derived ' from the supremacy {patria 2Jotestas)
of the parent state, to which the colonies of
Rome, like sons in a Roman family, even after
tliey had grown to maturity, continued unalter-
ably subject ' (Niebuhr).
After 100 b.c. colonies of the old kind
ceased to be foinided, and those of a later date
are called militares. They were instituted 'u\
Fig. 358.
IMP. M. IVL. PHILIPP.
Philippus, A.D. ■244-24;i.
Silenus, with the hand raised, which was the
peculiar svmbol of municipal liberty. (Hor.
Fig. 359.
AEL. MVNICIP. CO.
Koela or Koelos (Plin. iv. § 47)
in the Thracian Cht
Fig. SCO.— Coin of Nemausus.
order to provide settlements for soldiers who
had served their time. The old military colo-
nies were composed of whole legions, with their
tribunes and eentiirions ; under the Empire
drafts were made from diiTerent quarters (Tac.
Ajin. xiv. 27, i. 17). They were founded in
military form with a lex or formula colonica,
chiefly by the imperatorial power of the
Dictator. Marius, Sulla, Caesar, Antonius,
Octavius exercised this power, both in Italy and
the provinces. Little regard was paid to the
interests of former occupiers, dispossessed with
or without compensation, and sometimes
deported beyond Italy. (See Verg. Eel. ix. 2-5 ;
Hor. Sat. ii! 2, 112 sqq., Ej). ii. 2, 51.) In later
times Praetorian veterans were settled in Italy,
legionaries in the provinces. Provincial colonists
paid a small stipendiura or tributum for their
holdings ; land in the provinces not being
capable of quiritarian dominium like that in
Italy.
The official language in all colonies was Latin.
Under the emperors, the foundation of a
colony was an act of imperial grace, and often
merely a title of honour conferred on some
favoured spot.
Although after the Social War the citizens of
Italian towns became citizens of Rome, yet the
internal administration of the communities
belonged to themselves. This free constitution
of both municipia and coloniae was the funda-
mental characteristic of Italy. As in Rome, so
in the colonies, the popular assembly had
originally the sovereign power ; they chose the
jnagistrates, and could even make laws. (Cic.
Legg. iii. 16, 36.) as the popular assem-
blies became a mere form in Rome, and the
elections were transferred by Tiberius to the
senate, the same thing happened in the
colonies, but at a much later date. The divi-
sion of the citizens {populus) into curiae, and
the electoral activity of these when assembled
in their comitia, long continued. In course of
time, however, the election became little more
than a formality ; for office in these country
towns was often regarded as a burden, and
candidates had to be nominated by the pre-
COLONIA
Biding magistrate. The confirmation by the
popular vote was a mere form.
Tlie town council or senate consisted of a
fixed number of members, holding office for life,
selected by magistrates corresponding to the
censors ut Rome. The number was fixed by
the law constituting the colonj-, and was usually
100. The senate was called sruatiis, ordo
decurioHum, or curia ; or, in imitation of the
Roman terms, patres et roiiscrijtti, decurionca
conscripiique ; the memViers of it decurioiiea
or curiales. These were principally ex-officials
of the town.
The senate acted as the deliberative body, and
passed resolutions which it was the duty of the
magistrates to execute ; but the ordinary
executive functions of government lay with
the latter. Towards the close of the second
century a.d. popular election died out; those
possessed of the requisite property were ap-
pointed decuriones, often against their will,
and from these tlie magistrates were selected.
Ultimately the position of drcurio became
hereditary, and the curiales constituted a kind
of official aristocracy.
In many of the earlier ni unicipia and colonies,
ancient titles, such as dictator and practorcs,
were preserved. There were also in all cases
two aediles. But as a rule the higher magis-
trates consisted of four officials, two for judicial
business {Ilviri iurc dicundo), two charged
with supervision of buildings, roads, &c.
(aedilicia potestate).
The duoviri or ijuattuorviri iure dicundo
were the highest officials and alone bore the
title magistratus. Their year of office was
denoted by their names. Tliej* had the
supreme judicial authority. They presided
over elections in the popular assembly, and
over the senate. They wore the praetexta
iHor. Sat. i. 5, 36), and were attended by two
lictors bearing the /rtsces (without the axe), also
<'alled virgae or bacilli. (Cic. Leg. Agr. ii. 84,
93.)
After the Lex lulia of 90 k.c. magistrates
were elected every fifth year whose full title
was duoviri (quattuorviri) censoria. potestate
(i.e. taking the place of the [carliorj municipal
censors) quitiquennalcs. Their special duties
included the revision of the senatorial and
citizens' lists, and the settlement of the finance
of the community for the next five years.
Later, the functions of the quittqumnalcs were
transferred almost entirely to an imperial com-
missioner, called curator.
Li some towns quaestores had the charge of
the details of finance. Prae/ecti were ap-
pointed to discharge the functions of any
magistrate unable for any reason to fulfil them
himself. The municipal revenues were derived
from the landed pror«rty of the community
(including also forests, fisheries, and mines),
from invested capital, and from a fax imposed
in case of need upon all inhabitants.
The principal diflerencc between C'oloniaeand
Municipia is tliat the former were originally
Roman and military settlements, the latter
Italian towns admitted to partial citizenship
[st^e Latinitas]. This distinction gra<luully
disappeared and after the Social War became
merely technical.
Colo'res. Tlie Greeks and Romans had a
very extensive acquaintance with colours used
as pigments.
It shoidd be observed that both Greek and
Roman writers )iso colour-names in a differ-
ent way from that now emijloyed ; and thus
COLORES
191
many classical names for colours are now un-
translatable. Homer's olvo\ii and Horace's
purjnireus (Carm. iv. 1, 10) refer, not so much
to what we call colour, as to the chromatic
strength of the various surfaces, and their
powers of reflecting light, either in motion or
when at rest. Thus, too, fine us can be applied
both to a woman's hair and to the foliage of an
olive.
The painting of the Greeks is generally, but
erroneously, considered to have been inferior
to their sculpture. The error originated ap
parently with I'liny himself, who was neither a
scientific archaeologist nor a i)ractical artist.
I Cicero (Brut. 18, 70) says that Zeuxls, Polygno
, tus, and others, used but four colours; which
are explained by Pliny (xxxv. ij 50) to be wliite,
yellow (silaceun), red and black. Late painters,
such as Apelles, used a large number; if indeed
the whole story is not fabulous. (It is to be
noted that blue and green are omitted by Pliny.)
i The colours used by the ancients in painting
of different kinds and for colouring pottery and
glass are principally the following :
I Red. Minium, fiiKros (red lead, red oxide
of lead) ; cinnaharis. Kiwa^api, natural cinna-
bar or artificial vermilion (liisulphuret of mer-
curj-) ; rubriea, (Tivwiris, red oxi<le of iron
(h'iKtos is used as a general term for the above) ;
1 various ochre-clays coloured with oxide of iron ;
and animal dyes made from (a) the Kcrniea of
[ the Arabs or Coccus -ilicis, found in Grei'ce
and Asia Minor ; more brilliant and durable
than cochineal, (b) The murex or Tyrian
' purple (see below).
Yellow. Yellow ochre O^vdrated peroxide
of iron) ; si/, (SJxpo, sandaraca, cravSapaKr) (yellow
oxide of lead); vegetable dyes from licscda
' luteola, woad, and Crocus, saffron.
GiiEEN. Green carbonate of copi>er (mala-
chite) or green verditer, also various kinds of
J verdigris (aerugo, ih? x'^'^ov), green earths,
carbonates, acetates and oxides of copjier.
The finest of all a powdered glass (smalto).
, [ChrysocoUa.]
BuowN. (Calcined ochres, oxides of iron and
I of manganese for pottery ; also preparations of
the sepia or cuttle-fish ink, and of murex or
marine purple.
I Bi-UE. Caeruleuni, kvcwos, smalto of glass
coloured with some salt of copper. Natural
blue, carbonate of copper (verditerl, saj>]>hirus
\ made from calcijied lapis lazuli : a very costly
1 pigment. Cobalt from silver mines; much used
I for colouring glass, and for glazes on jxittery.
I Indigo, indicum, use<l chiefly for dye : imixirti'd
' in a manufactured state from Kgypt and India-
I PritPLE. Pur/iurissu»i or murcjr, nnule
from several spiral univalve shells, especially
j Murcr trunculus. Of murex-purple, a blue
j and a red shade were produce<l. Osiruui, prop,
a compound of red ochre and blue oxide of
copper, liubia, madder root, a purple-red, used
for dyeing.
Black. Atraiuentum, fiiXav. Mostly car-
bonaceous. Elephaiitiuum, ivorj'-bluek ; atra-
metitum Indie u)n, Indian ink or finely divided
carbon ; also fniin sepio. Atraiuentum suto-
riuvi - chalrautltuvi, a 8ul|)liat4» of copiH-r;
also salts of iron with tannin from oak galls.
The fine black enamel of Greek \ases was
coloured by magnetic oxide of iron.
White. MeUnutn, firjKla, a pi|v-clay from
Melos: also •»ropaiT<ifio»', hydrated silicate of
magnesia, ('erussa. carbonate of lead or white
lead, chalk, gyjisuni. lime. These mineral whites
were also much used in combination with other
192 COLOSSUS
[See Pictura.] The creamy white
pigments. ^
colour of the 4th-ceiitury lekijthi (atticuvi, Phn.
XXXV. 50) was produced by a mixture of chalk
or pipe-clay with powdered silica. [Pottery.]
Colo'ssus (/foAoo-iro's) is used both by the
Greeks and by the Romans to signify a statue
larger than life (Aesch. Agam. 406 ; Juv. viii.
230). The word is usually applied to designate
those figures of gigantic dimensions (Plin.
xxxiv. § 39) which were first executed in Egypt,
and aftei-wards m Greece and Italy.
Among the colossal statues of Greece the
most celebrated was the bronze Colossus at
Rhodes, made by Chares of Lindus, a pupil of
Lysippus. Pliny mentions another Greek
colossus of Apollo, the work of Kalamis, thirty '
cubits high, in the city of Apollonia, whence it |
was transferred to the Capitol by M. Lucul- |
lus ; and also those of Zeus and Herakles, at |
Tarentum, by Lysippus. To the list of Pliny ;
must be added the chryselephantine statues by j
Pheidias, of Zeus, at Olympia (more than 40
feet liigh, seated), and of Athena, in the I
Parthenon at Athens ; the largest (more than 70
feet high, including the base) was his bronze
statue commonly called Athena Promachos, on
the Acropolis. 1
To these may be added : (1) A statue of I
Jupiter upon the Capitol, which could be seen j
from the Alban moiuit (Plin. I. c). (2) A bronze i
statue of Apollo at the Palatine library {ih.). \
(8) A bronze statue of Augustus, in his Fonun !
(Mart. viii. 44, 7). (4) The bronze colossus |
of Nero. Its height was 110 or 120 feet (Suet. '
Nm-o, 31). It was originally placed in the
vestibule of the Domus Aurea (Mart. i. 71, 7),
but was afterwards removed to the north of the
Colosseum, where the basement upon which it
stood is still to be seen : hence, perhaps, the
name Colosseum or Coliseo. Vespasian con-
verted it into a statue of the sun (Suet. Vesp. 18). '
Colum (rjfl/ios, i\ddviov). (1) A strainer or ,
colander, used for straining wine, milk, oil,
and otlier liquids. Such cola were made of
hau-, broom, or rushes (Verg. Georg. ii. 242,
Eel. X. 71). The cola employed for straining
wine &c. were sometimes made of linen (Mart,
xiv. 104), but frequently of bronze or silver.
The Romans filled the strainer with ice or
enow {colum nivarium) in order to cool and
COLUMNA
Single columns were erected from the earliest
times to commemorate persons or events : e.g.
those in honour of C. Maenius and P. Minucius
Fig. 361.— Silver Colum, strainer. (From Pompeii.)
dilute the wine at the same time that it was
cleared (Mart. xiv. 103) [Nixj.
(2) = Nassa, a weel.
Columba'rium {irepicmpediv, ireptcrrfpoTpo-
(peTov). (1) A dove-cote, or pigeon-house. [Agri-
culture.]
(2) A sepulcliral chamber. [Funus.]
Colu'mna. [Architectura.] For other uses
see Aquaeductus.
Fig. P.C2.— Columna rostrata of C. Dnilius.
(Plin. xxxiv. § 21), and the marble monolith to
Julius Caesar, set up in the Forum after his
death (Suet. lul. 85). Columnae rostratae.
were employed by the Romans to record their
Fig. 363.— Column of
Trajan.
Fig. 364.— Antonine Column.
naval victories (Verg. Georg. iii. 29) ; the most
celebrated being that to C. Duilius, erected 2fi0
B.C.
Many lofty and elaborate columns were
, erected in imperial times. The finest of these
COLUMXAE HERCULIS
■ monuments is the white marble column voted
by the senate in honour of Trajan, and executed
by Apollodorus in 104 a. P. This is of the kind
named Kox^h, containing a spiral staircase
(koxA.«os)- It stands in tlie Forum of Trajan.
The Antonine column, erected to the memory
of Marcus Aurelius, and illustrating his vic-
toi'ies over the Marcomanni, stands on the Monte
Citorio at Rome. A bas-relief of the chief
episodes in the Dacian campaigns winds round
the shaft.
Colu'mnae He'rculis. Conical columns
{niftaej set up liy I'liociiician voyagers, and
dedicated to ^Iclcarth and Astartc. From this
practice arose the fables connected with the
most famous of such iiictac, the two mountains
to N. and S. of the Straits of Gibraltar.
Columna'rium. A suinptnary ta.\ imposed
in the time of .lulius Caesar upon the pillars
that sui)i)orted a house (Cic. Att. xiii. C).
Ostiarium was a similar tax.
Colus. IFusus.]
KoXvip-ptiepa, KoXviJLpos. A swimming-
batli, whether cut in the rock or constructed
of stone. Such were found in all important
baths. [Balneae.]
Coma (/cJjUTj). 1, CrKKEK. — The word KOfJMV
in Greek signifies 'to wear long hair.' Hence
KapT]K0fj.6wvTii, the constant epithet of tlie
Achaeans in Homer . The Abantes (II. ii. 542)
iire oTTitiev KOfMOCvvres, and the Thracians aKp6-
Ko/xot {II. iv. '>'6;j), because they wound their
hair into a knot on the top of their liciuls. The
gods, too, are long-haired (aKepfffKofxai). Ka\Ai-
TrAo'/ca/ios, evK\6Kaixos are epithets of goddesses
and women : cf. also //. ii. 219. Epithets of
colour are ^avdos (II. iii. 284, v. 501, 0(1. xiii.
S'.t'.t) and vaKifdivos (Oil. vi. 231). We have no
Certain illustration of the way the hair was
dressed in Homeric times. In the Mykenae
works of art the hair is generally short, but
sometimes worn with long ringlets falling on
eaih side of the face.
In archaic statues we find the hair built up
in arrangements as stiti and symmetrical as that
of tile Egyptian and Assyrian statues. The
winged Artemis of Delos (fig. 365) has an artificial
arraugeiiieut of sjiiral curls on the f<neliead, and
Btiff ringlets (_7ra/>a)Ti6€SJ hanging down the back
COMA 193
fringe of curls or ringlets ((nr*rpai), the back
Fig. :«».— Archaic Grook Btntue of Artomis
Irom Delob.
and shoulders ; other statues have front curls
ajul back ringlets ; the .\pollo of Tenea has a
series of perix-ndicular curls on the brow similar
one to anotlier, and long liair hanging down the
back, twisted into a spiral club or tail. It is some
arrangement of tliis sort which is meant by
Homer (I/, xvii. 52) ; threads of gold and silver
lieing twined in with the hair. The front
hair is airanged in some artificial symmetri-
cal fashion with long ringlets or a row or
Fig. 8<5C.— .\pollo. (From t eiiiplu of Zeus, Olympla.)
hair gradually passing to a fastening on tbc
crown of the head by
means of a band or
bands. In none of the
statues is a band want-
ing.
The Athenian fashion
of wearing the hair
noted by Thucydides (i.
6) was called Kpu:0v\oi.
This was a large tuft
of hair, also called
K6pvfjL^os, and was worn
on the top, or, as some
suppose, at the back of
the head. The reTTif was a pin for fastening
it ; in what numner, is luicertain.
FiK ."/•J.— An Ephcbusol
tlie fifll) century.
(Gerliiird.)
Fig. 808.— Apollo belvedere. Fig. iiffi).— Artemis iDrltieh
Museum.)
lioth figures with (co'pufX/3os.
Short hair came into fashion after the Per-
sian wars. "We now find heads on which the
hair is represented quite short and curling
Fig. ,M71.- Zeus.
(Vatican.)
naturally over the head, falling into natural
curls : for example, the Hermes of Praxiteles
(fig. 870). ^
l-li
COMA
derful structures which appear iu Komaii times.
The only feature notice-
able as common to the dif-
ferent head-dresses is that
tliey all tended to narrow
the forehead, wliich wo
know was considered a
Children wore their liair long, the front hair
being tied up in a knot ((TkJaAus) or aKopirios
on the crown. \Vhen the bov became an ephe-
bus his hair {(tkoWvs, fiaWus) was cut ofi, on
the third day of the ' A-iraTovpia {Kovpfuris
TjfJ-fpa) ; the ceremony being preceded by a
libation to Herakles called olvi(TTi\pia, and
the hair being dedicated either to Apollo or, mark of beauty,
more commonly, to some river-god (cf. II. xxiii. For the barbers and theii-
146- Aesch. CIto. ('■). Athletes wore their hair , instruments, see Tonsor;
cut very short, as did also Cynic and Stoic I and for the various po-
philosophers (Juv. ii. 15 ; Pers. iii. 54). But by | mades used, Unguentum.
full-grown Greek men of the Classical period, i The wearing of false hair,
especially the lonians, the hair was worn mode- | whether wig (iT7]viKr), <p(-
rately long, and much attention seems to have | va.Kr),TTp6ad(Tov,fvrpixov-
been bestowed upon it (Ar. Eq. 579, Nub. 14, Ke<pa\7] irfpideTos) or front
ttc). (irpoKOfjiiov), a custom
Among the Lacedaemonians the boys wore which came to the Greeks ^ig
their hair short (Plut. Xi//c. IG) and the men from the East (Xen.Cf/ro^'.
long, tradition marking it as one of the institu- i. 3. 2), is chiefly men-
tions of Lykurgus (Pint. Lys. 1 ; cf. Hdt. vii. j tioned of women and effe-
tiOrt, 209; Plut. Nic. 1'2 ; Ar. .4;;. 1281), minate men (Ar. TAesMJ. 258)
though doubtless it was an old Dorian custom. ' colour most affected was
Tlie Euboeans wore their hair long at the back golden or red (^avOi)).
(I'jiriffdoKOixai) ; and the Macedonians wore long \Ve find men, too,
iiair and beard till after the battle of Arbela, | choosing tliis colour,
when Alexander made them cut both short Dyeing was frequently
(Plut. Tlic.i. 5). '■■ resorted to in order to
K^iroj was the hair cut short on the ciown, conceal gi"ey hairs. /
but raised all round with a crisping iron (Eur. For head-dresses, see '
'Tro. 11051; the 'An-irw^.
reverse, aKatpiov,' It has been customary
was the hair cut among most jieoples to
sliort all round cut off some of the hair
the Iiead witli a
centre tuft (Ar.
.Ir. HOC; cf. Hdt.
iii. H). The o-Ko-
0101' attached only
to slaves and the
as a sign of mourning
for the dead. (See Hom.
0th iv. 198, //. xxiii.
135; Eur. Hel. 1087,
//-//. AuL 1438.)
2. Etui-scvx. — Thf
Idwit orders (Ar. I women usually wore th"
. 1 r. M.'ilj). MoAAcJs back hair in several
was used for short long plaits (fig. 376).
round hair (Eur. | 3. Roman. — ^(1) Men.
Biircli. 113), such Tlif Romans in early
days used to wear long
ha'ir (I-iv. v. 41, 9; Cic.
Cael. 14, 33), and they
often speak of their
-Aphrodite,
from .Mclos. (From
Murray, Jncient
.Sculpture.)
As to dyeing, the
Fig. a72.
(UrltU
as is seen in heads
of Hercules.
As to the way Greek women wore their hair,
we frequently Hud in vase-paintings the front
hair crisped iu a kind of fringe, and the inconipti mi {Ov. Fast.
rest fastened Ijack bj- a band in one long cue,
itself tied at the extremity. There is usually a
baud behind. Sometimes long ringlets hang
down the neck underneatli the band ; sometimes
the liair is all drawn back in i\ n\ass at the back
30 ; Verg. Aen.
«10; Hor. Carm. ii. 15,
11; Juv. V. 30, xvi. 31).
From about the third
■enturv i:.c. it became
of tlie neck, as in the Venus of Melos and tlie the custom to wear the
Venus de' Medici. Young girls often had the
I'iiJS. S7.S, a74. -Tanayrii llgures in Brit. Mus., showing
Greek headdresses ol third ccuturj: B.C.
hair drawn up and fastened in a large bunch on
the top of the head. As time went on, the
an-angements of the hair came to be more
artificial, till the climax is reached in the won- to grow. The men wore their hair quite short
hair short, and it was pig. .•nn-F.truscan woman.
only in times of mis- (Dennis. Kfriin.i.i
fortune (Liv. xxvii. 34,
5), or from exceptional cironmstaneeB (Liv.
xxviii. 35, G), that a Roman allowed his Imir
Fig. .■177.— Coin of Antony.
COMA
and let it lie luiturally, without making any short (eV xPv)j like the auster
195
partin
wavin]
either quite flat or curled (crispus) or
{capillo leiiiter injiexo) {ct.lior. Carin,
^
Fig. 373.— Ijust ol M. Yipsaiiius Agrippa.
i. 15, 14). On statues we generally find the hair
brushed forward on the head, so that the fore-
head was narrowed (Hor. Ep. i. 7, 26 ; Mart.
iv. 42, 9). The hair hanging over the forehead
like a
called
while
which
each
fringe was
capronae,
the locks
hung on
side down
.... philosophers ;
and this practice continued down to the time of
Diocletian, when the hair appears a little longer,
but combed flat down on the crown without
division, and cut evenly round the forehead.
After this time there appears to have been again
a great deal of attention paid to the adornment
of the hair.
Boys.Jiad their hair cut short, and combed
foi-ward on the forehead like tlie men. But
young boys employed in the service of religion
(Camilli) are always represented with long
hair ; and boy- slaves employed to wait at table
are especially noted as comati (Mart. xii. 70, 9),
capillati, cincinna t u li.
Athletes wore their hair gathered in a knot
{cirrus) like the Kpw^vKos.
In the case of men, dyeing the hair black
(Mart. iii. 43) and blonde is well attested (cf .
Mart. iv. 36, &c.). Wigs {capiiUamenta, gaJeri,
galericuli; see Caliendrum) are also mentioned
(Suet. Cal. 11, Nero, 26, Otlio, 12).
(2) Women. — Binding the hair back in a
plain knot with ribands ivittae), occasionally
with a plait in front, appears to have been
the ordinary arrangement followed by girls (Ov.
Met. viii. 319, iii. 170), and such is seen on
coins representing Diana, Victory, Sec, the knot
being sometimes on the back of the crown,
sometimes lower down on the crown, sometimes
2
the temples were
called antiae.
Dandies paid ela-
borate attention to
their hau-, wearing
curls and fringes
crisped with the
curling-tongs and
l^erfumed (Cie.
Ca^.ii. 10,22). [Ca-
lamistrum.] The
ordinary simple
way of wearing
the hair continued
under the early
Empire (but see
Suet. Nero, 51).
Some of the Antonines appear with crisped and
Fig. 379.
o£ ComtRodus.
Fig.38-J.-1. Octavia, the niece of .\uguiitus. (Capitol. Mus.
Rome.) -.i. Mcssaliiia. wife of Claudius. :i. Sabin«, \vi fi-
ef Hadrian. 4. PlautiUa, wife of Caracalla.
lower down! on the back of the head or on the
neck, sometimes on the middle of the crewn.
At marriage the dressing of the hair was
altered. It was one of the wedding ceremonies
for the bridegroom to divide the hair of the
I bride with the caelihariti Jtasfa (Ov. Fa.sf. ii,
hair; but ni the reign of M. Aurelius it r.60; Festus, .1. v.) into six divisions (sex criups).
.e the custom to wear the hair cut quite and these were fastened up with a vitta on the
02
Fig. 330.— Bust of .Vlexander
Severus.
curled
becami
Fig. :'N1.— liusl nf
£lagabalus.
i9e
COMA
cro^vn of the head (Prop. v. 11. 33 ; v. 3, 15).
Matrons also in ancient times wore a high
conical mass of hair on the crown, which was
called Tutulus. In later times the vittae came
to be the special mark of the matron (Ov- A. A.
i. 81, Pont. iii. 3, 51), the tutulus being re-
tained only by the Flaminica and the Vestals.
In the early Empire (Ov. A. A. iii. 149) there
were innumerable fashions of coiffure. We find
the hair divided in the
middle by a plait stretch-
ing from the forehead
across the crown to the
nape of the neck ; some-
times instead of the plait
a tuft of hair on the front
of the forehead, waving
in natural folds along the
temples and head. As
time went on, the way in
which the hair was ar-
ranged became more and
more artificial, with curls
and ringlets in front and
plaits behind (Mart. ii.
tifi; Juv. vi. 402, 502).
The diadem-like arrange-
ment appears to have
been called orMs, and the single ringlet o«m7m.s-.
The hair, too, was frequently adorned with
jewels. During the second .century crisped
curls in front gave way to plaits ; these latter
being employed to build up tower-like struc-
tures on the front part of the head. Such
structures gradually went out of fashion, and
in the third century greater simplicity appears
to have been in fashion. From the time of
Alexander Severus onward the arrangement
adopted was to draw the back hair up and
fasten it above, either simply^ or in circles
Fig 888.— JnHa, daughter
ol Titus.
Fig. S.<U.— Coin o{
Marciauu,.
Fig. .SK5.— Coin of Helena.
(British .Museum.)
rising one above the other on the top of the
head. Statues of the third and later centuries
have often moveable hair, so that it could be
altered to suit the taste of each period.
Women as well as men dyed their hair both
black and aubum (Ov. --1. A. iii. 103). In later
times it was effected by a kind of pomade called
sapo, or siuirna Batava or caustica (Mart. viii.
33, 20, xiv. 26).
False hair was used by women (Ov. .4. A.
iii. 1G5 ; Mart. v. 68, xii. 23) ; also wigs,
generally yellow (gaJeri, Juv. vi. 120 ; conjinlia,
cainllamenta). Hair was imported, especially
from Germany (Mart. v. 68), and even from
India.
The hair was fastened up with hair-pins
(acus crinales ; acus comatoriae) [Acus], and
combs (■pectines) made of bo.wvood (Juv. xiv.
194), ivory, and tortoiseshell (Ov. A. A. iii. 147).
[Pecten.] The hair was also at times fastened
with bands (diademata) of gold set with jewels
(Ov. Am. iii. 13, 25), like the Greek (TTe<pivT].
As to nets, the women used to wear reticula,
sometimes made of gold threads (Juv. ii. 66).
The niitra or mitella ([Verg.] Copa, 1) was a
baud passed once or twice round the head.
COMITIA
["Am-itvI.] The calautica or calantica or
calvatica was a cap with lappets covering the
ears and with strings for tying under the chin.
(Becker, Charikles and Gallus; Guhl and
Koner ; Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. Coma ; (fee.)
Comes. A fellow-traveller : hence ajiplied to
the suite of a magistrate or high ofi&cial sent
into the provinces (cf. Cic. Verr. ii. 10, 27 ; Suet.
lul. 42) ; and the retinue {cohors, Hot. i. 8, 14)
especiallj' of those accompanying the emperor
or members of his family (cf. Hor. Ej). i. 8, 2 ;
Suet. Aug. 16). About the time of Constantine
it became a regular honorary title, including
various grades, answering to the comites ordinis
primijSecuudi, tertii. Hence the words comte,
conde, count, itc.
The names of the following officers explain
themselves: — Comes Orientis, Aegj-pti, Britan-
niae, rei militaris, portuum, comes stabuli
(connestable, constable), vestiarii. In fact the
emperor had as many comites as he had de-
partments of government.
Comissa'tio (kuixos, KWfiaC^iv, comissari). A
drinking entertainment, which took place after
the Cena, but was )iot always held in the same
place (Liv. xl. 7, 5). Comissatio was frequently
prolonged to a late hour at night (Suet. Tit. 7 ;
Hor. Carm. iv. 1, 11).
Comi'tia. Assemblies of the people at Rome,
for the purpose of transacting business; dis-
tinguished from the contio (= conventio), a
meeting summoned to listen to an address, but
incapable of passing any resolution, and from
the concilium, the general term for a gathering,
e.g. concilium plebis, j)opuU. According to the
primitive conception, all power ultimately
rested with the assembly of the citizens, and
every innovation in practice or change in the
existing law required the assent of the citizens.
Every proposal (rogntio) had to be laid before
the people by the king himself: no one was
allowed to discuss it but those to whom he
gave permission ; and the people then gave or
refused their assent.
(a) Comitia calata, curiata. — The assembly
was summoned (comitia calata) regularly on
March 24 and May 24, and as often besides as
seemed good to the king. They met in Curiae
and apparently the answer to be given to the
king was decided by the vote of the majority
of the curies.
(b) Comitia centuriata. — Servius Tullius en-
rolled m the army all owners of land in the
Roman territory (now increased by the acquisi-
tion of the territory of Alba), so that military
service should not fall, as heretofore, solely
upon the citizens. Henceforward all members
I of the state were classed according to property,
I and this classification was made the basis of
! the military organisation of the state. At a
later period, perhaps at the time of the expul-
sion of the kings, the assembly of the citizens
so classified came to be regarded for some
purposes as the only representative assembly
of the citizens. The plebeians were now ad-
mitted to a share in the popular assembly, but
within narrow restrictions. In 495 B.C. tribunes
of the commons were first created.
(c) Comitia tributa. — It was probably at the
same time that the Servian division of the
Roman territory into four tribes was replaced by
the creation of twenty tribes — four belonging to
; the city, sixteen to the country districts ; but the
assemblj' over which the tribunes presided still
met in curies, in which the voting was by heads,
including the clientes of the wealthier families.
I By the Publilian law of 471 B.C. one more tribe.
COMITiA
197
the Crustumine, was added, to jn-eclude the
possibilitj- of an equalitj- of votes ; and he)ice-
forward the assenibhes of the commons were
held, not by curies, but bj' tribes. But as the
basis of the tribes was the possession of land,
a mere form (Cic. Leg. Agr. ii. 12, 31, Att. iv.
18, Fam. xiii. 1).
(2) The comitia of the curies continued to
meet (as comitia calata) when summoned
(calata) in the presence of the three pontiffs on
none voted but freeholders ; and thus the | the Capitol in front of the Curia Calabra, (a) to
clients were excluded, and the assembly of the witness the making of wills; (b) to witness the
tribes became an assembly of the independent ' detcstatia sdcrortDn in cases of adrugatio or
middle classes, wliere the large landholder had adojition [ Adoptio ; Gens] ; (<■•) to inaugurate the
no more weight in voting than his poorer flamens and the rex sacroruin ; and (</) to hear
neighbour. I from the pontitt's on the calends of each month
^Ve thus find in existence three distinct certain announcements concerning the calendar
assemblies of the people. ; of feasts, Arc. (Liv. ix. 46).
1. Comitia CURIAT.^ (eKKAriaia (pparpiK-'i) or i 2. Comitia centueiata(^ Aox<"tis 6KKA7;(ria).
(pparpiaKr,). — Under the kings this was the only j Under the Servian constitution the whole body
assembly of the people. It was no doubt ori- | of Koman citizens was divided according to their
ginally composed entirely of patricians, but property into six rlasscs and 11)3 rciifin-ici-
atanearly period included plebeians :/.('. was an (Aoxoi) or votes, from wliich the assemblies in
assembly of the whole people divided by curies, which the people gave their votes were called
The originally patrician cliaracter of tlie comitia comitia centitriata [Census]. The original form
curiata is also indicated by their survival for j of the comitia centuriata was the whole body of
religious and ceremonial purposes. It was freemen meeting in arms, and conceived as an
always presided over by the king in person.
Under the Republic the presiding magistrate
was always a consul, praetor, or dictator (Liv.
ix. 38; Cic. Leg. Agr. 2, 11, 27). The citizens
were summoned by a lictor. The votes were
given by curies, each citizen having one vote,
and the majority of individual votes determin-
ing the vote of the curia. The votes of the
army {exercifiis or classia), and was divided into
two parts : tlie cavalry (equites) and infantry
(2}edites). The infantry was divided into six
classes. The class to which a citizen belonged,
determined the tribiif it ))i, or war tax, he had to
pay, as well as the kind of service he had to
perform in the army and the armour in which
he had to serve. But for the purpose of voting
curies were all taken at the same time : that j in the comitia, each class was subdivided into
first reported was called the 2"""''i""^" (Liv. a number of centuries {centuriae), one-half of
ix. 38j. Tiie meetings of the curies were always
held in the comitium.
Though in theory the j)ower of the king was
as unlimited over all citizens as that of the
father over all members of his family, in prac-
tice he was bound to keep within the limits
prescribed by custom, and every change in the
law had to receive the previous sanction of
the assembled citizens. At the decease of
the king, aaspicia ad 2>atteH rcdihant. If the
king had not nominated liis successor (see
Interrex), the patricians (2'atres) nominated
(prodere, Liv. vi. 40) an interrex (probably
meeting for this puiT^ose by curies), whose duty
it was to convene them, for the appointment
of a second interrex. The latter then nomina-
ted (prodere) a king. When the citizens had
assented on their part to the formal compact
{lex curiata de iiiiperid) wliich bound them to
allegiance to the king thus noniiiiated, he was
formally installed as the absolute head of the
state. When once the new king was ajjpointed,
the assembly of the people had nothing further
to do with the administration. The citizen had,
however, an uppi.'al from the king's judgment
to the comitia (prororatio ad populum [see
Appendix, Roman Law, AppellatioJ) ; and the
comitia were consulted in the case of aggres-
sive war, and in tlie extension of the franchise
to those wlio were not citizens (Liv. i. 32; Tac.
Uist. i. 15) ; and in other cases, e.g. of property
passing under wills.
After the recognition of the comitia cen-
turiata as the representative assembly of the
people, the power of i)assing laws, of electing
magistrates, and of dt^claring war was trans-
ferred to them. But the comitia of the curies
continued to meet for various ceremonial
purposes.
"(1) The compact by which the citizens bound
themselves to obey the commands of an elected
magistrate was still made under the form of a
lex curiata de impcrio, without which no
magistrate could lawfully enter upon his ofi&ce.
In the later days of the Republic this became
which consisted of the seniores, and the other
of the iuniores. Each centurj% further, was
counted as one vote. In like manner, the
equites were divided into a number of centuries
or votes (Liv. i. 43).
I. Classis. Census : 100,000 asses.
40 centuriae seniorum.
40 centuriae iuniorum.
2 centuriae fabrum (one voting with the
seniores and the other with the iuni-
ores).'
II. Classis. Census : 75,000 asses.
10 centuriae seniorum.
10 centuriae iuniorum.
III. Classis. Census: .50,000 «sses.
10 centuriae seniorum.
10 centuriae iuniorum.
IV. Classis. Census : 25,000 asses.
10 centuriae seniorum.
10 centuriae iuniorum.
V. Classis. Census: 11,000 osscs.
15 centuriae seniorum.
15 centuriae iuniorum.
2 centuriae cornicinum and tubicinum (one
voting with the seniores and the other
with the iuniores). -
1 centuria capite censorum.
VI. Classis. Census: below 11,000 asses.
1 centuria capite censorum.
In all, 170 centuries.
The equites voted in eighteen centuries before
the seniores of the first class ; and hence there
were altogetlier 193 centuries or votes.
In this manner all Roman citizens, whether
patricians or plebeians, who had property to a
' Sometimes reckoneil with Class II.
= Sometimes reckoned wirli Clas.s IV.
Livy's statement ( i. 4:i ) is not (juite clear. If diias
(43, 7) be reail for /;>>.«, tlie number of centuries
comes out as given above. Otherwise, the number
of centuries, according to Livy, is 194.
198
COMITIA
certain amount, were privileged to take part
and vote in the comitia centuriata, and none
were excluded except aerarii, slaves, freed-
men, peregrini, and women. The iuniores were
men from the age of seventeen to that of forty-
six; and the seniores, all men above forty- six.
The order of voting was arranged so that the
eighteen centuries of the equites and the eighty
centuries of the first class carried a majority.
Hence, though the voting was nominally equal,
yet by far the greater power was thrown into
the hands of the wealthy (Cic. Rep. ii. 22).
(1) The election of 7)1 a gistrates. The magis-
trates who were elected by the centuries are
the consuls (Liv. i. 60), the praetors (Liv. vii. 1),
the military tribunes with consular power (Liv.
V. 52), the censors (Liv. vii. 22), and the decem-
virs (Liv. iii. 33, 35).
(2) Legislation. The legislative power of
the centuries at first consisted in their passing
without amendment or rejecting a measure
brought before them in the form of a senatus-
consultum or resolution of the senate. Wlien a
proposal (rogatio) was passed by the centuries,
it became law (lex) (Liv. iii. 34).
(3) The decision upon ivar, on ground of a
senatusconsultum, was a legislative act, and
belonged to the centuries (Liv. iv. 30).
(4) Judicial power. The comitia centuriata
were the highest court of appeal [Appellatio],
and tried all offences committed against the
state — cases of ^j6'rc?«c?/io and maiesfas, or
involving the life of a Roman citizen (Cic. Sest.
30, 65, Bep. ii. 36, 61).
All the j)owers here mentioned had to receive
the Auctoritas patrum before they became
valid and binding. But, in the course of time,
this control became merely a formality, and, in
the end, the juttrca gave their sanction before-
hand to wliatexer the centuries might deter-
mine. This was effected by the Publilian law,
in 339 ]5.c. (Liv. viii. 12). The centuries thus
acquired the power of originating measures.
The comitia centuriata could be held only on
dies cotiiitiales or fasti, the number of which
days in the year was about 190. On dies nefasti
[Dies] no comitia could be held. The comitia
for elections took place every year at a certain
period (Liv. xxv. 2 ; Cic. Mil. 9, 24).
The centuries met necessarily outside the
pomeriuui ; the place selected was usually in
the Campus Martins (but see Liv. vi. 20 ; Plin.
xvi. § 37), which contained the saepta for
the voters, a tribunal for the president, and
the villa yublica for the augurs. The president
at the comitia was usually one of the consuls
(see also Cic- Fam. x. 12 ; Liv. viii. 23, i.
00) ; or at any rate one of the magistratus
maiores. The censors assembled the people
only on account of the coisus and the lustrum.
One of the main duties devolving upon the presi-
dent, before holding the comitia, was to consult
the auspices [Auspicium]. When the auspices
were favourable, the peo])le were called together
(imperare exercituui), which was done by a
general invitation (iulicinm) to come to the
assembly. At the same time when this invita-
tion was proclaimed circummuros or dc niuris,
a horn was blown. The people being assem-
bled — in the earlier days armed, as for a march
— there followed the second call by the ncccn-
sits, or the call ad contionem or conventioncm;
and the crowd then separated, grouxDing them-
selves according to their classes and ages.
Hereupon the consul appeared, ordering the
people to come ad comitia centuriata ; and
led the whole exercitus out of the city to the
Campus Martins (Liv. xxxix. 15). An anned
force was sent to occupy the Janiculum, and
a red flag {vexillum) was hoisted there during
the whole time that the assemblj' lasted. Busi-
ness was now commenced with a solemn sacri-
fice, and a prayer of the president, who then
took his seat on his tribmial (Liv. xxxi. 7).
The president opened the business by laying
before the people the subject for the decision,
beginning with the formula quod bonum,felix,
faustum fortunatumque sit (Cic. Div. i. 45,
102), and concluding his exposition with the
words velitis, jubeatis Quirites, e.g. belluni
indici. This formula was used in all comitia,
and the whole exposition of the president was
called rogatio (Liv. iv. 5). At an election the
presiding magistrate read out the names of the
candidates, of which a list had been published
at least a trinundinu m previously. If the assem-
bly had been convened for the purj)ose of pass-
ing a law, the president usually recommended
the proposal, or he might grant to others, if
they desired it, permission to speak about the
measure, either in its favour or agamst it {con-
tioneni dare, Liv. iii. 71). No amendment,
however, could be proposed ; and discussion
had already taken place in the senate and in
contiones. The business of the comitia was
voting, not debate. When the comitia acted
as a court of justice, the president stated the
crime, proposed the punishment to be inflicted
upon the offender, and then allowed others to
speak either in defence of the accused or
against him.
The president next called upon the people
to prepare for voting by the words Ite in suffra-
gium, bene iuvantibus dis (Liv. xxxi. 7).
There were in the Campus Martiussaepfo. or
enclosures, originally marked off by ropes, but
afterwards formed by palisades, tabulata
(Ov. Fast. i. 53 ; Liv. xxvi. 22), and later by
marble walls (Cic. Att. iv. 16), into which one
class of citizens was admitted after another
for the purpose of voting. The rogatores
stood at the entrance of the saepta, and
asked every citizen for his vote, the first that
entered being the eighteen centuries of the
equites. On entering the saepta, the citizens
received their tablets (Cic. Att. i. 14) ; and
when they had consulted within the enclosures,
they passed out of them again by a jwus or
ponticulus, at which they tlu-ew their vote into
a chest (Cista) which was watched by rogatores.
Hereupon the diribifores classified and counted
the votes, and reported the result to the pre-
siding magistrate. After the union of the cen-
turies and tribes, the order of voting was
determined by lot: a matter of importance,
since the vote of the first centm-y (praeroga-
tiva) was held as an omen, and determined the
maimer in which subsequent ones voted. The
voting was continued until the majority was
ascertained. After the business was done, the
president dismissed the assembly with the word
Discedite.
If some irregularity or unlucky omen dis-
turbed the assembly, the business was deferred
to another day. Such incidents were (1) any
defect in the auspices ; (2) rain, thunder or
lightning ; (3) termination . of the auspicial day
by sunset (Liv. x. 22) ; (4) morbus comitialis ;
(5) removal of the vexillum from the Janicu-
lum (Liv. xxxix. 15) ; (6) a tumult in the city
(Cic. Sest. 36, 79).
The voting was originally viva voce ; in later
times, the vote was given by delivery of one of
two tablets, one marked VR, and the other A
COMITIA
199
{idi rogas ami antiquo: Cic. Att. i. 11; Liv.
vi. 3«). At elections, the name of the successfnl
candidate was mentioned by the voter to the
rogator, who marked the favourable votes by
dots made by the side of the name : lience
puncta fcrre, to be successful (Liv. x. 13, 22 ;
Hor. £p. ii. 2, !)9). The custom of voting at
elections by tablets with the name of the candi-
dates written on thcni was introduced in
139 H.I-. Leges tabellariae'. The citizens
obtained bhuik tablets on wliicli they wrote the
name of the candidate for wliom they voted
(Cic. Fhil. xi. 8, 19). In judicial assemblies,
every citizen received three tablets, marked A
(absoluo),C {coii(lem)io), and N L {iidh liqiiot).
About 241 u.c. a material cliange in the
organisation of the comitia centuriata took
place, by which the classification according to
property by classes and centuries was condjined
with the local classification by tribes. Ijittle
is known of this arrangement. The thirty-five
tribes were divided according to a scale of
property into centuries, half the centuries in
each t ribe being ' iiniioruni,' and half ' seniorum.'
The aheration is said to liave been in a demo-
cratical tlirection (ei's to Srj/toTi/cciTepoj').
It appears probable that eacli of the 3.5 tribes
Quirites tencrent. But it may be that our
authorities have here transferred to resolutions
of the plcha what really applietl only to resolu-
tions passed by tlie tribes under the presidency
of the i)atrician magistrates. The correct legal
phrase would have been qiiud tiihutim popidus
iuHnit. If we accei)t this view, the two laws are
brought into a natural connexion, the former
with the election of quaestors, the latter witli
the extended jiowers given to the praetor by
another Publilian law.
The comitia tribufii, presided over by u
consul or an extraordinary magistrate repla-
cing him (Liv. x. 21, xxii. 33, xxxiv. 35), or by
a praetor, elected tlie quaestors (Tac. Ann. xi.
22), the curule aediles (Liv. vi. 42, ix. 4(j), the
regular and extraordinary lesser magistrates
(Cic. Leg. Agr. ii. 7, 17), and the tribunes of
the soldiers after 3G2 i;.c. These elections,
like those of the roiiiilin crntiuidta, had to be
confirmed by the Auctoritas patrum, which
however, after the Lex Maenia, passed in the.
third century H.c. (Cic. IJntt. 14, 05), was given
beforehand (Liv. i. 17).
Thii 2><>»fiffj- maxim us, and the members of
the three colleges of pontifices, uiigures, and
(xv.) viri savris faciiindis were elected by a
contained 5 centuries of seniores and 5 of iiDii- | combination of co-optation by the colleges and
ores, so that the total number was 350. The
equites continued to be divided into 1« cen-
turies. These, with the 4 centuries fabriivi,
&c., and the century capita ceitsonuii, would
make the total 350 -r 18 -f 4 -f 1 = 373. The half-
tribes consisting of the centiiriar scjiionim
and the renturiac iiDtioritm respectively were
usually considered as distinct bodies, so that
we find tribiis Esqiiilina neniorum or tribiis
Palatina corporis iunioriii, and the like. It
is not sufficiently explained how the divisions
by tribes was reconciled with the continued
existence of the classes, which is an unques-
tioned fact (Cic. Phil. ii. 33, 82), except in
drawing lots for the right of voting first, in
which it is natural to suppose that it was only
the centuries of the first class in tlie several
election by the tribes.
Concilium plebiswiXii an immemorial institu-
tion, at first a meeting for matters concernhig
the plebs alone, and quite distinct from the
comitia, which was essentially an assembly of
the whole people. In course of time the dis-
tinction between CO <«. cent., com. I rib. and con-
cilia plcJiis, became little more than formal,
since all were composed of tlie same persons.
[Concilium plebis. |
The ceremonies of tlie conriliuni, plebin, and
afterwards of the comitia iribnta, resembled
those of the comitia curiatu, not those of the
comitia centuriata. Tlie centuries always met
outside the pomerium ; the curies and tribes
in the comitium, or on the Capitol, but some-
times in the Campus Martins. The concilia
tribes which drew lots, and that hence the ^.i/c^/s were never held f(«A^/t((<o (Liv. vi. 41, 5);
addition of the tribe-name was enough to I but bad omens, such as a storm, would break
distinguish them. The century which voted up a meeting of the commons as much as a
meeting of the people. We must explain in
this way cases of plebeian magistrates wlm
47), and of
first was termed centuriu pracrogativa
3. Comitia tiuhuta. — The Servian tribe
were a division of the land and not of the [ resigned as vitio creati (Liv
people of Rome (Liv. iv. 24). Thus the patri- plebi scita annulled as invalid
cians were included in the tribes, " "
and several
of the tribes bore the names of patrician
families. But as citizens possessed of no
freehold were not included, there could be no
comitia of the tribes in the earliest times, since
it was essential to the character of comitia that
all citizens should be capahle of taking part
in tiiem. It was not till the landless citizens
were admitted into the four city tri-bes (304 B.C.)
that comitia tributa could be held in accord-
ance with the principles of Roman public law.
The comitia tributa were known as comitia
leviora (Cic. Plane. 3, 71 : tlie auspices as
auspicia minora ; the magistrates elected by
them were magistratus niinorcs. They wei'e
presided over by patrician magistrates who had
the ins cum populo in comitiia tributis agcndi,
i.e. the consuls, the praetors, and (for judicial
business) the curule aediles (Liv. x. 23, xxxv.
41; cf. Cic. Verr. i. 12, 3(!). Livy (iii. 55,
67) and Dionysius (xi. 45) state that in 449
B.C. the Lex Valeria Horatia ordained ut
qtwd tributim /ilrbs iussisset,j)opulum tcnerrt,
and Li%'y says that in 839 u.c. tlie dictator
Q. PublUius proposed ^\a\\ itt plebiscita omnes
The comitia centuriata were less frequented
by the rustic population than the comitia
tributa, which took place at the nundinae.
The procedure was much the same in each ;
but the comitia centuriata were considereil
the more regular and venerable of the two.
The comitia tributa. and comitia plebis or
concilia plebis (see I;iv. ii. 5(;) were in theory
the assembly of the plebs alone, though patri-
cians came in in virtue of land tenui-e. The
numerical inferiority of the patricians made
them insigniiicant where the voting was not
by classes, as in the comitia centuriata. No
motion could be brought before comitia cen-
turiata without a scnafusconsultum.
The comitia centuriata were presided over
by the magistratus niaiores : the comitia tri-
buta by the tribunes, in most cases, but also for
certain purposes by the aediles jdebeii, and by
the consuls for some elections and for trials.
In course of time, procedure being assimi-
lated, the rumitia centuriata, the ceremonies
attending which wen' cumbrons and antiquated,
were little used except for elections of greater
magistrates.
200
COMITIALIS DIES
The days specially reserved for the concilia
'plebis and comitia trihuta were the Nundinae.
The commons were summoned bj' jjraecoucs ;
iifter the usual prayers, the presiding magistrate
read the rogatio, and then the tribes were
summoned to vote (Liv. iii. 71). The functions
of the concilia jAehis -AwA comitia trihuta may
be arranged under three heads.
(1) Elections (described above).
(2) Legislation. — Resolutions [iilehi scita)
adopted by the plebeian assemblies were in
theory binding only upon tlie commons (Liv. iii.
r>5). But if they received the sanction of the
senate, they were valid for all citizens. The
necessity for the sanction of the senate was re-
moved by the Lex Hortensia in 287 B.C., and
from this time forward the plebeian assemblies,
whether called concilia plebis or comitia tri-
huta, formed the principal legislative organ of
the Roman people. Here the tribunes proposed
rogationes, also termed leges.
(3) Judicial. — The assemblies of the plebeians
could inflict no punishment more severe than a
fine {Irrogare midtam), the amount of which
was strictlj' limited.
Sulla either abolished the comitia trihuta
altogether, or deprived them of most of their
powers. The constitution was restored by
Pompeius and others, with the exception of the
jurisdiction. Caesar decided upon peace and
war himself, in connexion with the senate, and
controlled the elections of all candidates for
office. He had also tlie whole of the legislation
in his hands. After the death of Caesar the
comitia continued to be held, but as obedient
instruments in the hands of the rulers, whose
unlimited powers were even recognised and
approved l)y them. Under Augustus the
cuiuitia still sanctioned new laws and elected
magistrates, but their proceedings were merely
tlie registration of the emperor's wishes (Suet.
Aug. 40). Tiberius deprived the people even
of this shadow of power, and conferred the
l)ower of election upon tlie senate (Tac. Ann. i.
15), the result of the elections being announced
{ycnuntiare) to the people assembled as comitia
ccntiiriata or trihuta. Legislation was com-
pletely in the hands of the senate and the
emperor. Finally, all the sovereign power
formerly jiossessed bj' the people was conferred
upon the emperor by the Lex E.egia.'
Comitia'lis dies. [Dies.]
Comi'tium. [Forum.]
Commea'tus. (1) Military leave of absence ;
granted by the tribunes of the legions or
cohorts, in later times by pr'aepositi militum,
vicarii and domestici : only on grounds ap-
proved by the officer. The rules were strict,
and defaulters punished as desertores or
emansores. The terms in inie iire com meat urn
dare, inijietrare. Similar rules were extended
in imperial times to state officers (palatini)
and senators, who might not leave Italy without
a pass from the emperor.
(2) (Also sumptus) the supplies and relays
which are furnished by provincial authorities to
legati and other officials travelling rei publicae
causa; and the requisitions for the use of
troops marching through a jn-ovhice.
Commenta'rius, Commenta'rii (tiro^ui/vi^aTa).
Properly notes or note-boolts. Such are :
' The view taken here is that concilia phhis ami
comitia tnhiita are unilistinfruishable iu historical
times, or at any rate after 449 n.c See Ramsay, Ro-
man AntiqiUties, chap. Iv., and G-. Humbert iu Darem-
berg and Saglio's Dictionary.
COMOEDIA
(1) G. domestici, or family memorials, the
records of events intei-esting to the members
of particular families (Cic. Brut. 15, 60 ; Liv.
viii. 40).
(2) ' Memoirs ' drawn up by public men :
such as Cicero's account of his consulship
[Att. i. 19, 10) and Caesar's Commentarii on his
Gallic War.
(3) ' Memoranda ' kept by different depart-
ments of the public service.
(4) A register of official acts of municipal
authorities.
(5) The record of the daily occurrences at
court was kept in c. diurni (Suet. Aug. 64), a
kind of private diary, which must be distin-
guished from the formal acta, and also from
(6) C. principis — the register of his official
decisions (Plin. Ep. x. 106), and of accusations
brought before him (Tac. Ann. xiii. 43 ; Suet.
Cal. 15).
(7) Commentarii of the pontiffs, the augurs,
and the XVviri. Tliese were records of their
decrees, not acta or minutes of their meetings,
nor the books (libri) which contained the ritual,
and the annates masimi or chronicle of public
events. (Cf. Cic. dc JJomo, 53, 136, Div. ii. 18,
42 ; Plin. xviii. § 14.)
Conuner'cium. [Civitas.]
Commoda'tum. Loan. 1. Gkeek. See Ap-
pendix, Gkekk Law.
2. Roman. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Comoe'dia iKoi/^^Sia).
1. Greek. — (heek comedy took its rise at the
vintage festivals of Dionysus. It originated
Arist. Fuet. 4) with the phallic songs of the band
of revellers (KuifAos, Kwiiacrrai) who at the vintage
festivals of Dionysus gave expression to feelings
of men-iment appropriate to the occasion, by
parading about, partly on foot, partly in waggons,
with the symbol of the productive powers of
nature, singing songs in honour of Dionysus
and his companions. These songs were com-
monly interspersed with extemporary ^Arist.
Poet. 4) raillery with which the revellers
assailed the bystanders. The orighi of comedy
is indicated by the name KajjU(j^Sto, the ' song of
the Kou/xos,' not the ' village song ' [Kco/xri).
It was among the Dorians that comedj' first
assumed anything of a regular shape. The
Megarians claimed to be considered as its
originators (Arist. Poet. 3) ; and so far as the
comedy of Athens is concerned, the claim
appears well founded (Ar. Fesyj. 57). The
Lacedaemonians had their SeiKr)\iKTai, whose
exhibitions appear to have been burlesques
of characters of common life. Among the
forerunners of comedy must be mentioned the
ldv(pa\Koi and (pa\\o<j)6poi at Sikyoii. The
Phallophori had no masks, but covered their
faces with chaplets of wild thyme, acanthus, ivy,
and violets, and threw skins round them. The
Sikyonian comedy appears to have arisen out of
the iambic lampoon combined with the phallic
songs of the koi/mos.
Among the Athenians the first attempts at
comedy were made by Susarion, a native of
Tripodiskus in Megara, at Ikaria, the oldest
seat of the worship of Dionysus in Attica,
lambistic raillerj' was an amusement already
known in the festivals of Bacchus and Demeter
on the bridge between Athens and Eleusis
{ye(pvpiarai, yecpvpi^eif). From the jests of the
Bacchic comus arose the proverb to f| afid^ris
and the term Tro/uLTreia, meaning ' abuse.' This
took place at the rural Dionysia on the second
day of the Anthesteria [Dionysia]. There was as
yet no actor separate from the chorus. Susarion
COMOEDIA
201
substituted for the improvisations of tlie
chorus uiul its leader premeditated composi-
tions, though of the same general kind ; Krates
(Arist. Poet. 5) introduced into the Ikarian
choruses a definite number of persons uniting
to form a chorus and arranging some general
plan of performance, leaving details to imi)rovi-
sation. The prize for the su(-cessful poet was a
basket of figs and a jar of wine. Comedy was
called TpvycfSia or lees-song, either («) because
the KoifxaaTai stained their faces with wine-lees,
or {b) because a jar of new wine (Tpi/|) was the
pri^e for the successful poet, or (c) because the
exhibition was held at the time of the vintage
(rpvyy)).
It was, however, in Sicily that comedy was
earliest brought to sometliing like perfection.
Before the time of the Persian wars we hear of
iambic compositions, and of entertainments
accompanied by music and dancing. Epichai'-
mus (540-450 li.c.) is commonly called the inven-
tor of comedy. His comedy was that of charac-
ter and travesty. His plays had not much plot,
but clever dialogue and comic scenes, in which
myths were travestied or philosophical notions
aired and parodied. Epicharmus wrote three
kinds of plays: (IJ travesties of the myths ; (2)
character comedies; ('i) dialectical arguments.
He wrote in trochaic tetrameters and anapaests,
and in the Doric dialect. His plays exhibit a
close connexion both with the Satyric drama
and with such plays as the i/r/cz/rt of Euripides.
Other Sicilian comedians were Phormis, Deino-
lochus, and Sophrou, whose Mimes, written in
broad Doric patois, were the original of the
Idyll. Theocritus is said to have borrowed his
'Papfj.aKevrpiai and 'ASoovid^ovaai from the
'A/c€(rTp/ot and 'Iffd/xLai^ovcrat of Sophron. The
Mimes of Herondas or Herodas (third century
B.C.) recently discovered, are another instance
of this kind of composition (see Class. Diet.
Heromus).
In Attica, the first comic poet of importance
after Susarion is Chionides (488 u.c). Euetes,
Euxenides, and Myllus, were probably contem-
poraries of Chionides; he was followed by
Magnes and Ekphantides (519-423 B.C.). That
branch of the Attic drama which was called the
Old Comedy begins properly with Kratinns, the
Aeschylus of comedy. Under the administra-
tion of Perikles comedy reached its perfection.
Kratinus is said to have first introduced three
actors in a comedy. Krates (c. 440 B.C.) gave to
comedy a character of universality, the charac-
ters introduced being rather generalisations
tlian particular individuals.
The Old Comedy, as it appeared in the hands
of Kratinus, Hermii)pus, Eupolis, and especially
Aristophanes, had for its main characteristic
that it was throughout political. It assailed
everything that threatened the old established
principles of social morality and taste. It
pj'rformed the functions of a public censorship.
But it must be remembered that the comic poets
attacked as party-men, and with the freest
licence of personal satire.
Besides jxilitics, otlier themes wei'e treated in
comedy. Thus we find mythical subjects
treated of by Kratinus, literature bj' Phryni-
chus and Aristojihanes. The subject of the
Pliitus of Aristoplianes is the unjust division of
wealth; even love-intrigue, the stai)le of the
New Comedy, was not unknowm to the Old.
The authors of comedy often began (like
Shakespeare) as actors (Ar. Eq. 541) ; they
also collaborated, e.g. Eupolis and Aristo-
phanes ; and they brought out plays under
other people's names. About 415 n.c, apim-
rently at the instigation of Alkibiades, a law utj
KcofjitfiSe'if ofOfiaffTi was passed on the motion
of one Syrakosius (Ar. Av. 12t)7). But the
law only remained in force for a short time.
'Witli the overthrow of the democracy in 411,
political comedy would be silenced; but on the
restoration of tlie democracy, again revived.
The old Attic comedy lasted from 458 to 404 B.C.
There were forty-one poets, the number of whose
pieces amounted to ;^G5. The later pieces of
Aristophanes belong to the Middle rather than
to the Old Comedy. For production of plays,
comjietition of poets, adjudication of prizes, Ac,
see Theatrum.
Tile Old Attic comedy was succeeded by the
Middle Comedy, which lasted from the end of
the Peloponnesian War to the overthrow of
liberty by Philip of Macedon (400-83C B.C.).
The comedy of this period, one of political de-
pression, found its materials in satirising classes
of people instead of individuals, in criticising
the systems and merits of i^hilosophers and
literary men, and in parodies and travesties.
It is less poetical, more elegant and reflective,
and quite unpolitical. It fonned a transition
from the Old to the New Comedy, in the greater
attention paid to the construction of plots, and
in the absence of the grotesqueness of the Old
Comedy. As regards its extennil form, the
plays of the Middle Comedy, generally speak-
ing (and tlie New Comedy always), had neither
parabasis nor chorus. [Chorus.] The absence
of the chorus was occasioned, partly by the
change in the spirit of comedy itself, partly by
the increasing difliculty of finduigclioregi. Out
of more than NOO dramas of the Middle C omedy,
only a few fragments are now extant. Thirty-
nine poets of the Middle Comedy are mentioned,
the most celebrated of whom were Antiphaues
and Alexis.
The New Comedy answered in a certain
measure to the modern comedy of manners or
character. The poets of the New Comedy made
it their business to reproduce in a generalised
form a picture of the every-day life of those by
whom they were surrounded. The frequent
introduction of sententious maxims (-yj/wyuai)
was a point of resemblance with the later tragic
poets. There were various standing characters,
such as we find in the plays of Plautus and
Terence: the Icuo, amator, serviilus, aiiiica,
sodalis, miles, 2>ariisitus, iiicrct rices, 2><ii'<'iitrs.
In the New Comedy there was no chorus, and
tlie dramas were commonly introduced by pro-
logues, spoken by allegorical persons, such as
"EAeyxos, ^ofios, 'A-op (cf. Plant. Tri)t.). The
New Comedy flourished from about 840 to
200 B.C. The poets of the New Comedy amounted
to sixty-four in number. The most distinguished
was Menander (842-2'.tl B.C.), who wrote 100
comedies, of which only fragments are extant.
Next to him are his contemporaries Diphilus
and Philemon, Poseidippus (c. 290 B.C.), aud
Apollodorus (c. 280 B.C.).
This division into Old, IMiddle, and New
Comedy is the traditional one, but is artificial
and unreal, and not older than the second cen-
tury A.D. Aristotle (Etii. Nic. iv. 8, 6), the
Alexandrians, and Quintilian only knew Old
and New Comedy. Tlie IMiddle Comedy may
bo regarded as the beginning of the New-
Comedy, /.('. the non-political drama, which
dates from the fall of the old democracy of
Athens.
As to the occasions on which comedies were
produced : (1) the original festival at which
202
COMOEDIA
dramas were exliibitecl was the Lesser Dionysia,
or the AiovvcTia ra nar' aypovs^ held from the
Hth to 12th of Poseideon (Nov.-Dec). (2) The
Lenaea (8-12 Gamelion = Dec-Jan.) became
the festival at which comedies especially were
performed. No strangers were xiresent at the
Lenaea (Ar. Ach. 504). The Acharnians,
Knights, Wanps, and Frogs were all produced
at it. The administration was in the hands
of the Arclion Basileus. (3) At the Greater
Dionysia or Aiovucta ra tV ^CTet (8-14 Elaphe-
bolion = Feb.-Mar.) established after the Per-
sian wars, both comedies and tragedies were
acted, but the latter were the principal fea-
ture. The administration was now in the hands
of the a.px<^v (iirdivvfj-os). No comedies were
performed at the Anthesteria (11-13 Antheste-
rion = Jan.-Feb.).
At all the festivals at wliich there were
dramatic contests the comedies came on before
the tragedies (Dem. Mid. 517, § 10).
There was no law to prevent women from
being present at comedies, as they certainly
were at tragedies (Plat. Gorg. 502 d). That they
were present, both in earlier and later times,
is expressly stated ; yet we may well conceive
that many especially of the young women of
Women wear nets {KeKpiKpaKoi), caps (jiiTpai),
and wigs {Ke4>a\al irepiOeTot, Thcsnt. 257-8).
Li pictures the feet appear for the most part
naked. But we hear of e/x^aSes {Eq. 872),
AaKwviKai (Vesji. 1157) worn by men, HeptrtKai
[Thesm. 734) and Kodopvoi {Eccl. 346), a
woman's shoe. [Calceus.] There were also
conventional properties, as the lion's skin of
Herakles, &c. ; and grotesque costumes, as that
of Pseudartabas in the Aves. All the male
characters wore also a phallus of red leather.
For the dress of the chorus, see Chorus.
The costume worn in the New Comedy is
more the dress of ordinary life than that of the
Old Comedy. The (rwfj.a,TLoy is found, but with-
out the excessive padding of the Old Comedy.
The xiTciz/ and ifiiriov wei'e worn. The legs
were generally covered with tights, seldom loose
trousers. The head was usually uncovered.
As covering for the feet the actors wore tlie
'E^3d9, or else shoes which left the toes bare.
Women wore the X'toIj' reaching to the feet,
and the ifidriov. On their feet women wore
either low shoes or sandals with thongs. Old men
carried a curved walking stick {KafxirvKri) ; rustics
a straight staff {Kayu^oKov), pouch (in7pa), and
leathern tunic {Si.<pdepa) ; the parasite a strigil
Fig. ."V*.— Comic .\ctors. (TerraoottaB, British Jiuaeuin.)
respectability did not attend. Boys were cer-
tainly present (Nztb. 537, Fax, 5G) ; but this is
censured by Aristotle {Pol. iv. 17, 9). [Thea-
trum.]
(1) Costume. — The actors in the Old Comedy
wore a aoiixiriov, a close fitting dress of leather
or stuff, a kind of tights, generally drawn
over iiadding for tlie chest and stomach
(irpoffTfpvihiov, irpoyacrrpiSiov), often orna-
mented with s^jots, and frequently coloured so
as to give the appearance of the naked body.
The rest of the dress consisted of a tunic either
with two sleeves (d;U(|)t/xa(rxaA.os, or 'Eg<jp,is,
[eTepo/UcccrxaAos]), which left the right arm and
shoulder bare. Several varieties of tln^ x'''"'^''
are found : e.g. ffiroXtis, SnrAoiSioy, KpoKcvTos.
The principal upper garment for men was l/xd-
riov (Ar. Ar]i. 113!)); |)oorer kinds are \y5dpiov
(Av.Qir,) and rpificcviov (PI tit. 882) ; x^^iva for
old men ( Vesp. 738, 1132 ; Poll. x. 123) ; cricrvpa,
a sheepskin rug, also used for a thick cloak
(Schol. on Vesp. 738). Women, too, wore
the IfiaTiov (Thesm. 250), or fyKVKKov. As to
what wiui worn on the head, there is mention
of Kvvjj (Nub. 201)), and all sorts of hats ap-
pear in pictures : e.g. (he ireTacros on Hermes.
' (ffT?ieyyis) and an oil-pot {\riKvdos); and the
soldier a sword.
(2) Colours. — Old men wore white, young men
I red, parasites black or grey (<pai6s). The soldier
has a chJamys purpurea, slaves and artisans
white i/xdria. Old women wore green (jurjAi^'rj)
or dark blue (aepivTj) dresses, except priestesses,
who wore white. Young women had wliite
dresses ; hetaerae, red and yellow chitons and
wliite and yellow himatia. For the masks
(worn by all), see Persona.
2. R0M.A.K. — Li\-y (vii. 2) states that in the
; year 363 u.c, on the occasion of a pestilence,
among other religious ceremonies, scenic enter-
tainments were introduced from Etruria. Tus-
I can players (ludiones) exhibited a sort of
I pantomimic dance to the music of a flute. The
j young Romans improved uijon this by uniting
with it the Fescennine raillery of the agrarian
festivals. [Fescennina.] The words were set
to a rude irregular measure. This led to a
kind of composition called saturae, wliich were
1 written in a more regular measure (implctae
j iiiodis) set to the music of the flute (dcscripto
iani ad tihicinem cantu), and delivered with
I appropriate gestures. Those who took part in
COMPERENDINATIO
these exhibitions were called histriones, isffr
or luster (Li v. vii. 2) beint; the EtrusfiUi wonl
wliich answered to the Latin liidiu [Histrio.
The drama arose from the eonibinatinn of the
text of tlie saturav with the music and dancing
of the liistriones.
Livius Andronicus, a native of Magna Graecia,
in 240 B.C. introduced both tragedies and
comedies, which were merely adaptations of
Greek dramas. Liviusiicted in his own pieces.
His Latin adaptations of Greek plays, though
they had no chorus, were interspersed with
cantica, wliich were more lyrical in their me-
trical form than the ordinary dialogue. [Canti-
CUm.] The dialogue was called direrliiiin.
Cn. Naevins, a Campanian, a writer of tra-
gedies and comedies, was a contemporary of
Livius, and was followed by Plautus (254-184
B.C.) and Terence (190-151) B.C.), whose ma-
terials were drawn chiefly from Menander,
Diphilus, Philemon, and Apollodorus. The
comedy of the Romans was througliont but an
imitation of that of the Greeks, and chiefly of
the New Comedy. Where the characters weie
Greek, and tlie scene laid in Athens or aonu^
other Greelc town, tlie comedies were termed
IKilUatac. All the comedies of Terence and
IMautus belong to this class. When the story
and characters were Ronum, the plays were
called togatae, because the costume was the
toga. These fabiihie iogatar represented the
life of the lower classes in Rome, and were
coarser in tone than the jxilliaidc. Li tlic
comoediae paUiatae, the costume of the ordi-
nary actors was the Greek pallium. For masks,
see Persona.
Latin comedies had no chorus. They were
introduced by a iirologue, which answered some
of the purposes of the parabasis of the Old
Comedy. The prologue was commonly sjioken
by one of the players, or by the manager of the
troop. ?)ometinies tlie prologue is spoken by
one of the dramatis personae (Plaut. Anipli.),
or by some supernatural or personified being,
as the Lar familiaris (Auhdaria), Arcturus
(lindens), Luxuria and Liopia {Trinuni inns).
The characters introduced were much tlu;
same as in the New Comedy, and their costume
was not very different.
The Af(dlaiiaefabulae were of very ancient
origin ; the Latins having been accustomed
from the earliest times to imi)rovise songs and
jests in masks which rejjresented certain stand-
ing characters. The origin of the name is un-
certain. They were played by Romans of rank,
not by histriones. It was not till the later
Republic that the Atellan farces were taken
up by professional actors (Cic. Fain. ix. IfJ),
who continued to play them under the Empire
as after-pieces to more serious dranuis ; and
followed by Exodia. To the same class belong
the mimes jMimus]. Among the standing
characters were Pappus or Casnar, an old fool
or pantaloon ; Bucco, a glutton ; Maccus, an
amorous fool ; and Dossennus, a shar]>er. Tin-
earlier writers who composed complete texts
for these plays wen; L. Pomponius of Bononia
and Novius (iibout 100-HO b.c.J.
Comperendina'tio. See Appendix, Roman
Law ludex; Repetundae].
Compes (7re57j). A fetter or shackle for the
ankles; whether (1) so as to de)>rive the i)risoner
almost or entirely of the jjower of walking
(Aesch. From. G) ; or (2) as shown in the follow-
ing illustrations. Such fetters were especially
worn by the slaves who cultivated a large por-
tion of the soil of Italy (Cato, li. li. 57 ; Plin.
CONCHA 293
xviii. § 21; Juv. xi. HO), as well as those to
whom heavier tasks, such as quarryin" were
assigned by way of punishment (Plaut. Capt.
l'"ig. WT.— Compes. I From ancient gem and statue.)
iii. 5, 7(>). cJi Hobbles for horses (Horn. II.
xiii. oC>i. ( 1 1 [Periscelis.]
Competi'tor. [Ambitus.]
Co'mpita. Broad spaces where two streets
met, and where people congregated to talk (Hor.
S,tl. ii. ii. 2(i, 281; ii. 6, 50, &c.). Here stood
altars to the Lares Compitales. [Compitalia.J
I'ig. 3f<K.— Compita. d'ompcU.)
Compita'lia, also called Ludi Compitali'cii.
An animal festival in honour of the two Lares
compitales, to whom sacrifices were offered at
the i)laces where two or more ways met (coiit-
pita) ; said to have been instituted by Servius
j Tullius. The sacrifices consisted of honey-
cakes (ireKavoi), which were presented by the
iiihal)itants of each house, and the ministering
I servants were not freemen, but slaves, because
I the Lares took jileasure in the service of slaves :
, the slaves, as at the Saturnalia, had full liberty
! given them to do wliat they pleased.
I The Macjisfri vicornin presided over the
j festival (Liv. xxxiv. 7, 2). They were aided by
collefjia of slaves. Public games were added,
I but suppressed in (U B.C. In the time of
I Julius Caesar the Compitalia fell into disuse.
Augustus restored the festival, assigning the
charge of it to a new set of mrttjistri uicorinit.
To tlie two Lares compitales was now added
'the Grniiis Aiignsti (Ov. Fast. v. 145; Hor.
Canii. iv. 5, ;j5), and the festival was on May ]
and .Vugiist 1.
Complu'vium. [Domus.]
Compromi'ssum. See Appendix, Roiian Law
' [ludex !.
j Comus («aj;uos). [Chorus; Comoedia.]
Coucae'des. .\n alihattis or barricade of
' trees cut down to impc.l<> an enemy's march
' (Tac. Ann. i. 501. [Cervi.]
[ Concha (ko7X'?> Kuyxos). A mussel- or
cockle-shell, (l) A vessel made in the form of
. sucli a sliell, and used as a salt-cellar (Ho:-.
iO'l
CONCILIARII
Sat. 1. 3, 14), for holding perfumes and
unguents (Hor. Carm. ii. 7,23; Juv. vi. 304),
oil and colours for jiainters, foot-baths, &c.
(2) A liquid measure, of which there were two
sizes: (fl) = half the cyathus{ = -0412 of ai^int
English) ; (h) = o^v^acpov (also acetabidimi) _ was
tliree times the former ( = -1236 of a pint). (See
Tables, X.)
Concilia'rii. See Appendix, Ro.max Law
[Assessor].
Conci'lium. An assembly in general. For
(11 concilia 2^lebis, see Comitia and Concilium
plebis. The word also denotes (2) the assem-
blies or meetings of deputies from confederate
towns or nations in Italy (Liv. i. 50, iii. 2, iv.
25, vi. 33, &c.) and Greece (Liv. sxxvi. 31,
xxxviii. 34, xlv. 18). The Romans broke up the
union of the Italian tribes by forbidding such
concilia (Liv. viii. 14, 10). (3) Augustus insti-
tuted concilia in the provinces as associations
for the worship of the imperial house. The
president was the ap-xiepsvs or sarrrdos pro-
vinciae, elected annually by deputies [legati]
from the most important towns. This digni-
tary had the direction of the finances of the
temple and its festivals. After the religious
festival the concilium met for the conduct of
business connected with the provincial temple
to Augustus. It was entitled also to vote
thanks to the governor of the province, or to
lay complaints before the emperor ; and to co-
operate in tlie apportiomnent of taxation, as
well as take some share in other provincial
affairs. (4) In the later Empire the concilium
2}rovinciae replaced by degrees the old con-
ventus, and became a representative assembly
for each district. ■ [Conventus.]
Conci'lium plebis. We must keep entirely
distinct (at least in early times) from the comitia
tributa the assemblies of the tribes under the
presidency of the plebeian magistrates, i.e. the
tribunes and plebeian aediles, who had the itis
cum ])lebe agendi (Cic. Legg. ii. 12, 31). The
technical name for these was cottcilium plebis.
(1) According to one view (which seems the
more probable one), the comitia tributa grew
out of the conciliutn plebis. The business of
the plebs was at first transacted in concilia
plebis. In 471 B.C. the Lex Publilia Voleronis
gave the election of tribunes and aediles to the
people assembled by tribes (fributis romitiis,
Liv. ii. 56, cf. 60). The importance of this lay
in the fact that thus, since the tribesmen were as
yet all freeholders, the landless clients of the
patricians were excluded from all share in the
elections, which henceforward lay in tlie hands
of the plebeian freeholders. The Publiliau law
thus created the independent organisation of
the plebeian bourgeoisie. Thus the concilia
2)lcbis, which met tributim, were recognised
as an elective body, comitia tributa, which
passed plebiscita, and assembled without au-
spices, and therefore not subject to patrician
interference.
The Valerio-Horatian Laws, 449 B.C. (Liv. iii.
55) gave plebiscita thus passed the force of
laws. By the Publiliau law (Philonis) of 339
is.c. the auctoritas patrum was given before-
hand to whatever rogatio was brought before
the comitia.
(2) According to another view, jilebiseita were
always passed in a concilium plebis summoned
and presided over by plebeian magistrates ;
while leges j^raetoriae and conyidares were
passed by the comitia tributa. According to
this view the term quod jwpulus tributim ius-
sisset is to be distinguished from plebiscita,
CONGIARIUM
though [a) by both the Valerio-Horatian laws
449 B.C., (b) tiie Publihan law 339 B.C., and (c)
the Hortensian law 286 B.C., resolutions passed
tributim by the plebs tenebant Quirites.
It is not improbable that in course of time the
practical distinction between concilia plebis and
comitia tributa disappeared; the assembly,
however, when i^resided over by a tribune, being
strictly called concilium, comitia when a
a j)raetor or higher magistrate presided, and
auspices were taken.
The distinguishing feature of the concilium
plebis was that, as it was summoned and pre-
sided over by magistrates who had no right of
summoning j)atricians, it was not an assemblj-
of the whole people, and any resolutions which
it passed were not strictly speaking leges, but
only plebiscita. The two requisities which
were necessary for leges — (1) favourable au-
spices, and (2) auctoritas patrum — were both
absent in the case of the concilia p)lebis.
They would, however, follow the model of the
comitia, and the earliest regular meetings after
the institution of the tribunate were doubtless
organised by curies.
Con'cio. [Contio.]
Concubi'na [TraWaK-fi, waWaKis). 1. Geeek.
See Appendix, Gkeek Law.
2. Roman. See Appendix, Rom.\n L.\w.
Concu'rsus actio'num. See Appendix, Roman
Law.
Concu'rsus derelicto'rum. See Appendix,
Ro:man Law.
Conda'lium. A ring ; perhaps worn on the
first joint (k^vSuAos). (Plant. Trin. iv. 3, 7.)
Plautus wrote a play Condalium, translated
from the AuktvAios of Menander.
Condi'ctio. See Appendix, Roman Law
[Actio].
Condime'nta (^SutryuoTa). Condiments or
sauces, of which the simplest are oil, vinegar,
salt, and peppier {piper, tziirepi). Besides these,
garlic, onion, radish, &c., were in common use.
Lettuces and other salads were soaked in
vinegar (acetaria). A great number of sauces
(ifjL^dfjLfMTa) were used both by Greeks and
Romans with fish : garum, halec, mustard,
ginger, and many aromatic hei'bs, such as anise
{anisuin, &v7]dov), fennel (foeniculum, jxapa-
Qos), capers {cappai-is, KaTTTrapis), rue (rutn.
■n-!,yavoi'), cress (nasturtium, KdpSa,fj.ov) , mint
(meiith'-i, fxivda, cVrc).
Conaito'rium. [Funus.]
See Appendix, Roman Law
See Appendix, Roman Law
Condu'ctio.
[Locatio],
Confarrea'tio.
[Matrimonium].
Congia'rium (sc. ims). A vessel containing
a Congius. (See Tables, VIII.)
In the early times of the Roman Republic, the
congius was the usual measure of oil or wine
distributed among the people ; and thus congi-
arium became a name for the gift as well as
for the measure. The earliest mention of a
distribution of oil is in 213 B.C. (Liv. xxv. 2).
The name covgiarium was also applied, less
accurately, to presents of com or other pro-
visions (Plin. xxxi. § 89; Liv. xxv. 2, xxxvii. 57).
Under the Emjjive a gigantic system of out-
door relief arose (Frumentariae leges), supple-
mented by frequent doles. The general term
for these imperial presents is largitio, some-
times liberalitas. Distributions to the soldiers
were called donatira, to the people congiaria
(Suet. Aug. 41, Tib. 20; Tac. Ann. xii. 41).
Hadrian's congiarium was six aurei per head :
Commodus gave 725 denarii to each citizen.
Fl(?. fl>«. -ConK'itiriuni. (Coin of
Tr.ijan : Ijritish Museumj
C0NGIU3
The imperial confjiaria have been comptuea at
an average of !)0,ih)I)/. a year from Julius Caesar
to Claudius, iH)0,000l. a year from Nero to Sept.
Severus. Tlie con-
giarium was some-
times distributed
by means of tick-
ets [Tessera ,
sometimes by inis-
*'(7(V?, prize-tiekets
thrown, as -.it the
games [Circus ,
for the people to
scramble for.
Cong i a riu m
was moreover
used to designate
presents or pen-
sions given by
men of rank to their friends or dependents (Cic.
Fain. viii. 1 ; Suet. ltd. 27, Vesp. 18).
Co'ngius. A Roman liquid measure con-
iiiniiiv,' >ix sextarii, or the eighth part of the
^•niphorj,. It was equal to the xovs of the
Greeks, 3283 litres, nt ahout
.'^•7<'> pints. ( See Tables, Vlll.)
Pottery.^
Conopeum (Koivwiruov)
(and Conop'ium, Hor. Epod
vs.. Ifi). A mosquito-curtain
{kwvwi^i, a gnat).
These curtains were espe-
cially used in Egj-pt on
^^-ic.;^ :i==i^^^ account of the mosquitoes
^ ^ which infest the Nile. They
\ ^ are spoken of with con-
\ ^ tempt, as signs of Oriental
effeminacy. They were used
by Roman ladies as early
as Varro's day. The term
employed at Rome was cubi-
culare.
Persons employed to go
rig. S90.— Con gins.
(Dresden.)
Conquisito'res.
about till- country and impress soldiers when
there was a difficulty in completing a levy.
(Liv. xxi. 11, 113; Cic. Mil. 25, f.7.) Some-
times commissioners were appointed by a decree
of the senate for the purjiose of making a con-
•juisitio. ilAv. XXV. .'"), I'.i
Conscri'pti. Senatus.
Consecra'tio. Apotheosis; Inauguratio.]
Consilium. (1) A select assembly of official
persons wlio sat together (n'sci/i; concilium,
unofficial persons ca//r(^ together {^'cal, ?ul(irc}.
In Roman law the person responsible for . judi-
cial decision was required as a rule to call m
the aid of impartial and intelligent advisers
{consiliarii). So, also, the jxitria j otcstns was
exercised subject to the control of family con-
silia. The imperium of the kings and oliief
magistrates was subject to a like restraint.
The senate was tlie natural consilium of the
kings and afterwards of the consuls. Tliere
ire, however, examples of consuls, as well as
'Iher magistrates, choosing for themselves a
consilium for a particular (juestion.
Particular uses of consilium are: (1) in pro-
ceedings in iurr (see Appendix, Roman L.\w,
Actio; ludex, ludiciumi, before the praetor
sent a causi' into court (iudiciuni) he was as-
sisted by a consilium. The same is true also
of any nnigistrate trj-ing a case where he had to
pronounce a judgment. In such cases the phrase
'-•X roii.silii smitrntia is used.
In qnurstioncs pcrpctuttr or criminal cases
the body of indices is caUcd consilium. Hence
ire in corisilium, discedere in consilium, ifcc.
CONSUL 205
(2) Consilium of Provincial Governors. In
the provinces, where there was no right of
appeal (provocutio), the consilium was ahuost
the only check on the arbitrary power of the
governor. It was consequently expected that
every imporUmt decision of a proconsul or pro-
jiraetor sliould be dcconsilii sententia (D.C.S.).
(See Cic. Vi:n: ii. 29, § 71.)
The consilimn of a provincial governor was
formed i>artly from the principal jiersons in his
suite, partly »rom the lending Roman citizens
on tlie spot ; and it is probable that all thu
latter of cqu«'strian rank laid a right to sit.
(3) Councils of War. These are constantly
mentioned as nnitters of course. The legati
and the military tribunes as the highest
legionary fpfficcrs were of course present, and a
varying number of centurions: tlie primus pilus
probably always; the centurions primorunt
ordinuin usually (Caes. B. G. v. 28); other
centurions sometimes.
(4) Under thr Empire. For the judicial
' council of the emperor see Consistoritun.
There was, bi;sides, an administrative conii-
, cil. Augustus on first organising his empire
' 27 li.r. set up a connnittee of the senate con-
I sisting ol the consuls, one magistrate of each
denomination, and fifteen unofficial senators
chosen by lot every six months iSuct. Au(j. 3;")).
i Consisto'rium.Consi'liumpri'ncipis. Angus-
I tus and his successors consulted their friends
I and followers (amicij'amiliares, comitcH) before
giving judicial decisions in cases of importance.
The con.siliutn principin or judicial council
thus instituted was at first constituted for each
particular occasion. From the time of Hadrian
I the position of members of the imperial council
j (consiliarii Aiit/usti) seems to have been re-
I garded as a permanent one. The council was
composed of senators, equites, and otlier per-
j sons of distinction. The consilium principis
was not a general council for state affairs, but
I was generally confined to legal business. It
was consultative in character, the emi)eror not
being bound by its opinion. The council as a
rule only sat at Rome. The terms auditorium
and consistorium principis are used as equiva-
lent to consilium.
The ordinary members of the co)Uiistorium
principis, as constituted by Diocletian and his
successors, were called comitcs consistoriani :
they wen divided into the two classes of (1)
illusircH (great officers of the palace), (2) spcc-
tahiles. The consistorium, unlike the earlier
consilium, advised the emperor not only in legal
affairs, acting as a high court of nj>pcal, but in
other matfcrs of state. [Auditorium.J
Consua'Iia. A festival icl(bratt<l at Rome
in honour of the god Consus, tlio protector oi"
horses, identified by Livy (i. 9) with Neptunus
Equester, i.e. Poseidon Hippios. but to be
regarded rather as a god connected with tlie
earth and agriculture. His altar, at the lower
end of the Circus Maxinnis (Tuc. Ann. xii. 2-1),
was covered with earlli. whic'h was ch'ared away
only on the tliree yearly f<'stivals in his honour,
viz. the nones of July, August 21, and Deceni-
ber 15. On the secoiid of these days all horses
and mules had rest from work and were adonie<l
with garlands. It was during tli<' _festival in
August that the Rape of the Sabineu took
place (Liv. i. II; Verg. Acn. viii. f)3(>).
Consul (DiraToj). The highest, republican
magistrate at Rome. The word is probably
derived from \' srd (si l\. ' sit,' or ,/ sal. ' dwell.'
The consulship showed its republican chanvc-
I ter in the circumstance that its power was
206
divided between two indivMuals {imperium
duplex), and that it was only of one year's
duration iannmun). This principle was, with a
few exceptions, observed tlnoughout the repub-
lican period (Liv. Epit. Ixxxiii., cvii.l.
In the earUest times, tlie title of the chief
magistrates was not only consules, but also
2>raetores, i.e. commanders of the armies of the
republic (Liv. vii. 3 ; and cf. the names prae-
torium and porta praetoria in tlie Roman
camp). Upon the establishment oi the Republic,
all the powers which had belonged to the king
were transferred to the consuls, except the
office of high priest, which was transferred to a
priestly dignitary, called the rex sacrorum or
rex sacrificulus.
The election of the consuls invariably took
IDlace in the comitia centuriata, under the
presidency of a consul or a dictator; and, in
their absence, by an interrex. If one consul
died during his term of office, his colleague
called the comitia to elect [subrucjare, sujficere)
a successor. Such temporary consuls were called
consules stiff ecti. To fill up a vacancy occurring
between the expiration of the consulur term of
office and the election of the new consuls, an
Interrex was appointed. In general, the
magistrates entered upon their office on the
kalends or ides ; but the month was not fixed
finally till the year 154 B.C., when it was decreed
that the magistrates should enter upon their
office on January 1, a regulation which remained
in force downi to the end of the Republic.
Henceforward, the consular comitia were
usually held in July or even earlier.
During the interval between election and
induction the consuls were termed coss. dcsig-
iiati: under the emperors consuls were often
nominated several years in advance. The first
instance of this was in 39 B.c
CONSUL
Rome, the consuls were at th a head of the execu-
tive govenunent, the tribunes alone being inde-
pendent of them. They summoned the senate,
and conducted the business as presidents. They
were the meiliuni through which all foreign
affairs were brought before the senate. They
also convened the assembly of the people and
presided in it ; and thus conducted the elections,
p)ut legislative measures to the ^ote, and had
to carry the decrees of the people into effect.
[Comitia; Senatus.] They had the right of
summoning and arresting offenders [vocatio
■And jjrehensio), und a general right of inflicting
punishment, limited only by the right of appeal
{provocatio). The year was known by the
names of the consuls.
The outward signs of their power were tlie
toga praetexta, the sella curulis, and twelve
lictors with the fasces, ^vithout whom the cousid
never appeared in ]3ublic (Liv. xxv. 17), and who
preceded him in a line one behind the other
(Liv. xxiv. 41). In the city, however, the axes
did not appear in the fasces : a regulation con-
nected with the right of appeal from a consul's
sentence.
As military commanders, the consuls had,
outside the citj", the fidl imperimn. "Wlien the
levying of an army was decreed by the senate,
the consuls conducted the le^y, and the soldiers
took their oath of allegiance to the consuls.
They also determined the contingent to be fur-
nished by the allies ; and in the provinces
assigned to them they had the unlimited admin-
istration of everything, extending even to life
and death, except the conclusion of peace and
treaties. The consuls do not appear to have been
directly responsible to the senate for military
expenses ; the quaestors, however, kept a strict
account of the expenditure (Liv. xliv. IG), and
their co-operation was necessary for any expen-
Down to the year 366 B.C., the consulship ! diture. The first limitation of the military
was accessible to none but patricians. In that ' command of the consuls was in 227 B.C., when
year the law of C. Licinius enacted that one I Sicily was erected into a province, and com
consul should always be a plebeian (Liv. vi. 42). '
L. Sextius was the first plebeian consul. The
patricians, however, repeatedly contrived to keep
the plebeians out (Liv. vii. 17, i*i:c.), until in 342
li.c. the legislation of Q. Publilius Philo secured
the firm establislunent of the plebeian consul-
ship (Liv. viii. 12). In 172 B.C. both consuls
were plebeians ; and this was often repeated,
the ancient distinction between patricians and
plebeians falling gradually into oblivion.
The consulship was throughout the Republic,
until it was degraded by Caesar, regarded as
the highest office and the greatest lionour that
could be conferred upon a man (Cic. Plane.
25, 60) ; for the dictatorship, though it had a
mains imperium, was not a regular magistracy ;
and the censorship, though conferred only upon
consulars, was mferior to the consulship in
power and influence.
The power of the consuls was at first equal
to that of the kings, with the exception of the
priestly power. Even after the institution
of the tribunesliip, the consuls retained most
extensive powers in all departments of the
government. The censorship (443 B.C.) took
away the control of the census; and the judicial
power was transferred in 360 B.C. to the praetor-
ship [Praetor]. But the consulship still con-
tinued to be regarded as the representative of
regal power. (Cic. Legg. iii. 3, S.)
The vote of the comitia centuriata gave the
consuls full civil power (potestas) and military
command {imperitim). A lex curiata gsive the
auspices. So long as they were in the city of
mitted to a special governor {praetor). Sulla
extended to the whole of Italy the legal privi-
leges of the city of Rome. From this time
forward the consuls ceased to hold military
command during their year of office.
Abuse of the consular power was prevented,
first of all, by each of the consuls being depend-
ent on his colleague, who was invested with
equal rights ; for the two consuls could do
nothing unless they were unanimous (Liv. ii.
18, 27). But in order to avoid unnecessary
dispute or rivalry, the real functions of the
office were in early times performed only by one
of them every alternate month ; and the one on
duty for the month was preceded by the twelve
lictors (Liv. viii. 22, ix. 8), his colleague being
preceded by an Accensus (Liv. ii. 1, iii. 33).
The consuls were checked in the exercise of their
power by the knowledge that at the end of
the j'ear they might be called to account for
their conduct while in office. Manj- cases are
on record in which they were accused and con-
demned, not onlj- for illegal and unconstitutional
acts, but also for misfortunes in war ascribed
to their carelessness or want of ability (Liv. ii.
41, 52, 54, 61). The tribunes, as their power
and aiTOgance increased, sometimes went so
far as to punish and imprison them (Liv. iv.
26, V. 9; Cic. Legg. iii. 9, 20). Sometimes
the people themselves opposed the consuls
(Liv. ii. 55, 591. Lastly, the consuls were de-
pendent upon the senate. [Senatus.] In times
of danger a senatusconsultum [senatusrou-
sultum ultimu7)i) ' viderent [or darent operam]
CONSUL
cousules, ne quidrespubliea detrimenti capcret,'
conferred upon them full dictatorial power, not
restrained either by the senate, the people, or
the tribunes. [Dictator.]
On enterinj; upim office, the consuls agreed
among themselves as to the business which
each had to look after, so that each had
his distinct provincia. The provinces were
assigned to each, either by lot (sorfiri pro-
vincias), or by agreement (Liv. viii. 20, xxiv. ID,
romparare inter se, xxx. 1; Cic. Fain. i. !l).
Frequently, however, a special commission was
given to one consul extra sortem or extra ordi-
nem, i.e. by the senate and without any drawing
of lots (Liv. iii. 2, viii. 10, xxvii. 1). In early
times one consul took the field, while the other
remained at Rome (Liv. iii. 4, vii. 38). When
the two marched out together (Liv. ii. 44), the
forces were equally divided between them, in
such a manner that each had as a rule the
command of two legions, and had the supreme
command on every alternate day (Liv. iv. 40,
xxii. 27).
When the Roman dominion extended beyond
tlie natural boundaries of Italy, a distinction
was made between proviuciae (■(iiinitlnres and
jiraetoriae (Liv. xli. H). [Provincia.] It lay
with the senate to detennine into wliich pro-
vinces consuls wei"e to be sent, and into which
praetors. In the latter period of tlio Republic,
tlie ordinary practice of the consuls was to go
ii'.to their province in the year after their con-
sulship as proconsuls. In 52 B.C. a law of
Pompeius enacted that a consul or praetor
sliould not go into any province till five years
after the expiration of his office.
The entering of a consul upon his office was
connected with great solenniities : before day-
break each consulted the auspices for himself.
Alter the auspices were consulted, the consul
returned home, put on the iof/'i jiractexta (Liv.
xxi. 63), and received the sal ii tat iooi his friends
and the senators. It was at this time that
diptijcha were presented to his friends present.
Accompanied by these and a host of spectators,
the new consul, clad in his official robes, and pre-
ceded by the sella curulis, went in i)rocession
to the temple of Jupiter in the Capitol, where
a sacrifice of white bulls was offered to tlie god.
Tliis is called processus consu la ris, and was one
of the great shows of Rome. It grew in magni-
ficence as the importance of the consular office
diminished. After this, a meeting of the senate
took place, at which the elder of the two consuls
made his report conc»'rning the republic, begin-
ning with matters referring to religion, and
then passing on to other affairs {referre ad
seuatuni de rebus divinis rt huinanis, Liv. vi.
1). One of the earliest duties of the consuls
was to perform the solemn sacrifice to Jupiter
Latiaris on the Alban Mount.
Towards the end of the Republic, the consul-
ship lost its power and importance. Caesar
took the offite along with that of dictator,
and was elected at fii"st for five years, then
for ten, and at length for life (Suet. Iiil. 7(!,
MO). In the reign of Augustus the consuls
did not retain their office for a full year, but
usually had to abdicate after a few months.
The emperors themselves took the consul-
ship at the beginning of the year, and laid it
down in a month or two (Tac. Hist. i. 77).
(^■ontinui consiilatiis (Tac. Ann. xiii. 41) were
Voted by the senate to Nero, and Vitellius was
perpetuus consul (Suet. Vitrll. 11). The usual
time for the tenure of the oHice came to l)e
either four or two months. Tliose first nomi-
CONTOKNLA.TI
207
nated (c. ordiiiarii) still gave their names to
the year : the rest were suffecti. The election
from the time of Tiberius was nominally in tlie
hands of the senate ; those who were elected
were announced {renuntiare) to the people
assembled in comitia (Tac. .-l9/«. iv. OH). Later,
it was customarj' to create honorary consuls
{cousules Itonorarii), who were chosen by the
1 senate and sanctioned by the emperor. AUhongii
the dignity of these honorary consuls as well as
of the consules ordinariiand suffecti was merely
nominal, still it was regarded as the highest in
the empire. Julius Caesar (Suet. ////. 70) and
Augustus conferred the urnaiiienta eonsuhiria
witliout the actual office. The title of consul
continued till the sixth century A.D., both at
Rome and at Constantinople, and the splendour
of their insignia, toga picta, trabea, cnlcri
aurati, tunica pahnata, seipio cburncus,
fasces laureati, was increased.
Under tlie Empire the consuls were regaided
as the official representatives of the senate
(Suet. Tib. 31). Their official functions were
as follows: (1) the presidency of the senate;
■ (2) the administration of justice in certain cases
j (Tac. Ann. iv. V.)) ; (3) the letting of the public
I revenues ; (4) the conducting of the games in
the Circus (Suet. Nero, 4 ; Juv. xi. 193, etc.).
Consula'ris, throughout the time of the
; Roman Republic, signifies a i>erson who has
: been invested with the consulship ; but under
' the Empire it became a mere title for a class
j of officers, who obtained pei'mission to have
the ornanienta consulariu, without having
I actually been consuls. The title was given
' specially to generals, and to governors of impe-
rial provinces. (Suet. Ainj. 33, Tac. Aqric. n,
40.) Consularis thus became the established
title for those entrusted with the administration
of imperial provinces. This honour ultimately
, became hereditary.
Co'ntio (not Concio) is a contraction for
\ conrrntin. (1) In a loose mode of speaking it
denotes any popular assembly (Liv. xxiv. 22i.
and any speech addressed to such an assembly ;
; hence contioncni habere means indifferently
I ' to hold a meeting ' and ' to make a speech.'
' (2) A general in the field by virtue of his ini-
perium could summon his troops at any time
to address them {in contionent vocare; con-
, tioneiJt habere, Liv. xxvii. 13 ; pro eantione, Sail.
, luff. ti). (3) In the technical sense a contio v/as
an assembly of the Roman people convened
, regularly {per praeeoneni) by a magistrate.
A contio lawfully convened was the usual mode
of initiating public discussion, e.g. of measuivs
which were to be brought before the comitia.
j Meetings of this kind were of very frequent
■ occurrence at Rome from the earliest times.
The right to convene contioiu^s was most fre-
i quently exercised by the consuls and tribunes,
I especially the latter. A magistrate who wa-i
j higher in rank than the one wiio had conveneil
a contio had the right to order the people to
I disperse. Tlie exercise of this right sometimes
I gave rise to tumults. The convening magistrate,
j after offering ])rayer {carmen I'rccationis, Liv.
xxxix. 15), generally addressed the people liiiii-
selt, or gave permission to other persons to
i sjieak. No voting took place. (Liv. iii. 71, xhi.
I 34 ; Cic. Att. iv. 2.) Contiones were held in the
Forum, the Cajjitol, the Cumpu.s Martius, and
1 the Circus Fluminius.
Contornia'ti, an Italian word derived from
the circle (contornuj wliich marks both of their
sides, in incu.se, denoU-s a particular class of
, medallions bearing various devices and legends.
208
CONTUBEENALES
COPHINUS
which were issued under the Roman Empire in ' ix. 487). It is also applied to the long jjikes of
the fourth and fifth centuries a.d. The metal of j the northern barbarians, e.g. the Sarmatians
which contorniates are composed is copper, with (Tac. Hist. i. 79, Ann. vi. 35).
a certain amount of alloy : in size, they are, as
a rule, somewhat larger than the ' first brass '
coins {sestertii) of the early Empire. [Coinage.]
Fig. 391.— Contorniati. (From Daremberg and Sagllo.)
They are generally not struck from a die, but
cast in a mould.
The types or devices of the contorniates have
reference in almost all cases to the public games
and spectacles in the Circus, the i\jnphitheatre,
&c. The type on one side of the piece is as a
rule a heador bust ; on the other, a subject of
a mythological, heroic, or historic character, or
Conu'bium. See Appendix, Eoman Law
pMatrimonium].
Conus {koovos). (1) The ridge of a helmet
(Verg. Aen. iii. 468). [Arms and Armour.] (2)
A kind of sundial.
Conve'ntus {avvo^os, awovaia, or ffwaywyi]).
Any assembly of men who meet for a certain
purpose.
(1) Any association of Roman citizens living
{haLitare,consistere) Auiongperegrini; whether
traders and discharged soldiers ad ranabiis, i.e.
in the neighbourhood of a stationary camp
(in tcrritorio legionis), in non-Roman to%TOS or
in unoccupied land (conventus vicani). The
former of these frequently gi-ew into permanent
mtaiicijna or coloniae. Their magistrates
were called curatores or magistri. Such asso-
ciations were found in all parts of the empire.
The district in which such an association existed,
with its inhabitants, and the principal towni at
which they met, as well as the market days
when they met, are called by tlie same name.
(2) Hence the name conventus was given to
inrisdictiones) into which a province was
divided for judicial purposes, as well as to the
chief or assize town in each, at which the pro-
consul's courts were held. At certain times of
the year, fixed by the pi'oconsul, the people
including Roman citizens who had business to
settle, assembled in the chief to\vn of the dis-
trict. To hold a conventus was expressed by
conventus agrre, peragere, forum agere, ayo-
paiovs (sc. ■i]fi4pas) ayeiv, &c. (Caes. B. G.
i. 54 ; Act. Apost. xix. 38.) The proconsul
selected a number of judges from the conventus
to try causes (Cic. Verr. ii. 13, 32). He him-
self presided, and pronounced the sentence
according to the views of the judges, who were
his assessors (consiliarii). [Cousiliam.]
(3) The term conventus is lastly applied to
bodies of Roman citizens living in a province,
forming a sort of corporation, and representing
the Roniiin yieople in their district or town.
Co'phinus {k6<Pivos). A large wicker basket
or hamper, used for carrying earth, manure,
one ha\ang reference to scenes in the Circus sind ] t]je districts or circuits (also called /or« and
other places of public amusement. Represen-
tations of a chariot and its auriga, and of victo-
rious charioteers and horses are common ; often
with their names and the factio to which they
belonged: as IN PRASINO, IN VENETO.
Besides tlie sports in the Circus, beast-hunts
ivenationes) and atliletic contests are intro-
duced (see cut under Coclea [3 J). The legends
are descriptive. Sometimes the words VI NCAS
or N I K A are added.
Nmnerous accessory devices also appear upon
the contorniates, sometimes cast with the t\ije,
but often engraved or inlaid in silver : such as
V)alms, wreaths, leaves, cups, helmets, horses,
chariots, arms, lions, panthers, &c., and a sym-
bol variously represented thus, _g^ , ©^ , P ,
or P . They were probably neither tickets of
adjnission nor prizes for victors in the games ;
but used as talismans or amulets by the com-
uetitors in the games, and their backers. The
symbol P may stand for Praemium; and the
horizontal lines may indicate sums of money
won by the athletes whose names they bear.
Contuberna'les (o-uir/crjroi). Men who served
in the same army and lived in the same tent.
It is derived from taberna (afterwards taber-
naculuni), a hut made of boards (tabulae).
Each tent was occupied by ten soldiers (contu-
oernales), with a subordinate offic?r at their
head who was called decanus or caput contu-
hernii. [Castra.]
Young Romans of illustrious families attached
io a general's suite, were called his contuber-
nales (Cic. Plane. 11, 27 ; Suet. lul. 42 ; Tac.
Agr. 5).
The name contubernales was applied to
persons connected by ties of intimate friendship
and living under the same roof (Cic. Fam.
ix. 2; cf. Att. xii. 45), and hence when a
free man and a slave, or two slaves, lived
together as husband and wife, they were called
contubernales, and their connexion, as weU as
their place of residence, contubemium (Tac
Hist. i. 43, iii. 74).
Contube'rniiun. [Castra.]
Contuma'cia. See Appendix, Roman Law.
ContlXS (/covTfis). An iron-shod pole (Verg.
Acn, V. 208) ; especially a punt-pole (Hom. Od.
(From a, vase.)
fodder, &c. Jews are noted (Juv. iii. 14) as
caiTying these baskets. For the distinction
COPULA
between k6<Pivos and cnrvpis {sporta), see St.
Matt. xvi. 10. (Ar. Av. 1310 ;
Juv. iii. 14, vi. 5-t'2.)
Copula (I'/ndy, lfi.ivriov). A
leash (Ov. Tr. v. 9, 28 ; Hor.
Carm. i_. 13, 18.)
Koirtg and Kdiravov
(Aescli. Ciio. 860). (1) A
curved sword, like a Bciniitar,
but with the cutting edge
concave (Xen. Eq. xii. 11),
used by barbarians. ('1} A
sacrificial knife of similar
shape (Eur. Elect. 837). (3)
An axe (Aesch. Again.).
Coquus. [Cocus.]
Corbis, dim. Co'rbula,
Corbi cula. A basket of coni-
cal shape, commonly used by
the Ronums both for agricul-
tural and other purposes (Cic.
Sest. 88, 82; Ov. Met. xiv.
044; Plant. Aid. ii. 7, 4;
Suet. Ner. 19). Like the calathiis, the corbis
is sometimes employed as an emblem of Ceres.
CORNICULABJUS
209
the hide on a bench or horse (d^ayos, Opavevnv,
Ar. Eq. 3G9), or on the ground (Ar. Eq. 371), and
Fig. .'WO.— Tanner b knile. iFr
Pompeii.)
Fig. ."W.-KoTTi?.
Flp. 394.— Corbis : a, from a drawing at Horculaneum ; 6,
a basket h-orhi'lln) used by Campaiiian peasantry.
Corbi'ta. [Navis.]
Cordax. [Chorus.]
Coria'rius [fivpcnvs, Pvp(roS4\pris, (tki oSfi^/Tj?,
SfpfiaTo/j-aKaKTris). A tanner. The Romans
used coritin) siihigrrr or j)erficere for tanning,
and depsn'e for tawing ; but corium as well as
scortmii and alnta all signify prepared leather,
in opposition to unprepared hide. Tergora are
' hides ' of oxen, horses, and larger animals ;
pelles thinner ' skins,' e.g. of calf, sheep, (tc.
Corium is a general term for leather.
Leather is made with three classes of sub-
stances: (1) tanned leather, in which the hides
and skins are combined with tannin ; (2) tawed
leather, in which skins are prepared witli mineral
salts, especially alum ; (3) shamoyed leather,
consisting of skins treated with oils or fatty sub-
stances. All these kinds of leather existed in
ancient times.
For (1) tanning : after the horns are taken off
and the hide washed, the remaining flesh on one
side is removed by a knife like that in fig.
895 : the shaded part is the wooden handle.
The cuticle is thus rendered friable and
easily removeable by means of lime-water.
Next the hairy side is depilated by stretching
using a scraping knife (see cut) : the pointed
extremities fitted into wooden handles.
Fig. SSW.- Tanner B knife. (From Pompeii.)
The tanning substances were for the most part
the bark of certain trees — oak, fir, alder, but
esjiecially the leaves of sumach (rhits) ; also
gallnuts (ktikis, galla, Plin. xvi. § 20), roots
and beiTies of the wild vine (labrusca, ib. xiv.
§ 95), and other vegetable substances. The
hides were put to soak in an ooze made of some
of these vegetable ingredients and removed
at intervals from pits of weaker to stronger
ooze ; after some few changes of pits, and lying
in each a few months, they were taken out, hung
on poles, and smoothed with a steel pin.
(2) The practice of tawing with mineral salts
was known to the ancients, and the product was
called aliita, from the aluvien applied. Salt
was also sometimes used. The product was of
a white colour (Ov. A. A. iii. 271), and soft tex-
ture (Mart. vii. 35, 1, ii. 29, 8, xii. 20, 9; Juv.
xiv. 282; Ov. A. A. iii. 202).
(3) The oldest known form of preparing
leather is shajnoying, i.e. combining skins and
hides with oils (cf. Hom. //. xvii. 889 sqq.). After
repeated washings, the skins are staked out and
rubbed with oil ; they are then hammered to
force the oil into the substance of the ski.i.
Homer describes the operation of shamoying
ox-hides. He does not mention the skins of
sheep, goats, or swine as used for leather.
The mode of preparing parclunent by mem-
branarii (Si<pBfpoiroioi) did not difler essentially
from that employed at present.
The substances used for colouring leather
were for the most part lotus-tree, madder
{fpevdfSavov, Hdt. iv. 189; rubia, Plin. xix.
§ 47), scarlet {coccum, cf. Mart. ii. 29, 8), and
atramentum sutoriiim, or oil of vitriol (Plin.
xxxiii. § 123).
Tanneries were usually located outside cities,
e.g. at Athens in a place called AcKpai (Ar.
AcJi. 724), and at Rome across the Tiber (Juv.
xiv. 203 ; Mart. vi. 93, 4).
There was an extensive import trade of hides
I to Greece from the Black Sea and from
Kyrene ; and to Rome from Sicily (Cic. f'err.
I ii. 2, 0), Asia Minor ((7;. i. 88, 2), Germany (Tac.
! Atni. iv. 72), and Britain. In early times, both
• in Greece and Rome, leatlier was used for
I clothes by all ranks; in later times skins were
' only worn by rustics, and wore called Si<p0fpat,
apuaKiSes, fialrai, (nroA.o56j, viastrucae, itc.
i The principal use was for shoes.
Corni'cines. Cornu.]
Cornicula rius. An adjutant or aide-de-
camp attached to the higher military com-
manders. In early times there was jjcrhaps
only one to each legion. From the time of
Marius and under the Empire there were gener-
ally two. Provincial governors also were at-
tended by coniicularii,and other ofTicers, as the
jiraefectus praetorio, the tribunes of the prae-
210
CORNICULUM
torian and urban cohorts, the praefectus vigi-
lum, il'c. The name is taken from
Corni'culam. A mihtary decoration of uncer-
tain shape, attached to the helmet. It was used
either as (1) a military reward for bravery (Liv.
X. 44) ; or (2) as a badge of office, worn by the
cornicularii.
Coma. A horn, of whatever material. It was
said to be an invention of the Etruscans. It
differed from the tibia in being a larger and
more powerful instrument, and from the tuba
in being curved in the shape of a C (see fig.
Fig. .<)97.— Cornua. (Bartholini.)
397) ; the cross-piece or stay, which is cha-
racteristic of the instrument, was grasped by
the left hand of the player. In Greek it is
called (TTpoyyvKi) (TaK-iny^. It had no stopples
or plugs to adjust the scale to any particular
mode. The classicum, which originally meant
a signal to assemble or to charge, not an instru-
ment (see, however, Verg. Georg. ii. 539, Aen.
vii. 637), was usually sounded with the cornu,
as well as the other military instruments. The
comu was also used in Bacchic festivals
(Catull. Ixiv. 263), at funerals (Hor. Sat. i.
6, 44), and at the games in the amphitheatre
(Juv. iii. 34). The word comu, however, may
be applied to any kind of horn.
The Cornicines and the Liticines, the sol-
diers who blew the corim and the lituus, in
the Roman army (Liv. ii. 64, 10), are included
r-' r/UVSViCTOF/KCOLLECIO
LITIClN^yjvA COANlCltn'M ■
D
Fig. 398.— Lituus and Cornu : from Altar of lulias Victor.
(Bartoli.)
under the general name of Aeneatores. The
number of bandsmen in a legion seems to have
CORNU
varied. They appear in company with the
standard-bearers, and sometimes, like them,
wear the skin of a bear over head and shoulders.
The Cornicines and Liticines formed a col-
legium.
Other meanings of comu may be seen under
Navis, Galea, Liber, Arcus, Lyra, Coma, Ex-
ercitus.
Other kinds of horns were :
(1) Bucina, a kind of trumpet, originally made
out of a shell, in which case it is often, especially
in poetrv, denoted by concha, Gk. k6x^os (Eur.
I. T. 303; Theocr. xxii. 75 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 171;
Ov. Met. i. 335), and was made from the bucinuin
Fig. 399.— Bucina. (From a terracotta lamp.)
and other kinds of spiral shells. It had a wide
mouth; was usually straight, but sometimes
more or less curved. When made in metal, the
spiral form is often imitated. It is often given
to Tritons (see Milton, Comus, 872) and wind-
gods, and was employed by sailors, as in the
accompanying woodcut.
Bticinae made of the horns of oxen were
used by ox-herds and swine-herds to gather
their herds together (Varro, R. B. iii. 131), and
for many purposes in rural life (Theocr. ix. 27,
xxii. 75 ; Prop. v. 10, 29 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 519) ;
and specially to summon aid on a sudden alarm ;
to assemble the citizens to the comitia in early
times (Prop. v. 1, 13.) It was also employed in
the Roman army, especially to mark the vigiliae
or night-watches (Liv. vii. 35 ; Tac. Ann. xv. 30).
(2) Lituus. A sort of trumpet slightly
curved at the extremity, differing both from the
tuba and the comu (Hor. Carm. ii. ], 17;
Fig. 400.— Lituus. (Fabretti.)
Lucan, i. 287), the former being straight, the
latter bent in a circle (Ov. Met. i. 98). The
lituus was so named from its resemblance to
the augur's crook. [Augur.] It was used both
in the cavalry and infantry (Hor. Carm. i. 1,
23; Ov. Fast. iii. 216).
(3) Tuba (ffaKirty^). A bronze trumpet: a
long, straight bronze tube, gradually increasing
in diameter, and terminating in a bell-shaped
mouth {kwSwv), and often having a horn mouth-
piece. It was employed in WAr for signals
of every description (Thuc. v. 10, vi. 69 ; Xen.
Anab. iv. 4, 22; Tac. Hist. ii. 29; Caes. B. C.
CORNU COPIAE
iii. 46 ; Liv. xxxix. 27). As regards Homan
military signals, see Exercitas.
The tuba was used also at the games and
public festivals (Juv. x. 214 ; Verg. Aen. v. 113;
Ov. Fast. i. 710), also at funerals (Pers. iii.
103 ; Verg. Aen. xi. 192; Ov. Her. xii. 140).
The invention of the tuba or (rdKiny^ is usually
ascribed by ancient wTJters, both Greek and
CORONA
211
of the Sacra Via was a place much frequented
for the sale of flower-garlands (Ov. Fast. vi. 792).
We hear of ivy (Hor. Carm. iv. 11, 4), myrtle
(ih. i. 4, 9 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 809), and parsley or
celery (apiutn), Hor. Carm. i. 8(5, lOj, itc, and
of flowers of all kinds (Pind. Fr. H> ; Ar. Ach.
()37 ; Theocr. x. 28; Hor. Cartn. i. 30, 10); but
above all the rose (Hor. Carm. i. 30, 15, &c.;
Fig. 4K).- Genii employed as Coronarll, or makers of
garlands. (Museo Borbonico.)
Fig. 401— Soldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua. (From
Trajan s Column.) I
I Ov. Pflsi. iv.870). Roses were grown under glass
Roman (Aesch. Eurti. 507; Soph. Aj. 17 ; Verg. ' (Mart. iv. 22, 5), and were imported from Egypt
.Irn. viii. 526, &c.), to the Etruscans. I (Mart. vi. 80, xiii. 51).
Cornu co'piae, Cornuco'pia. The horn of Garlands were also made of dried flowers,
abundance, used as the symbol of plenty especially of amaranth, which were called hi-
iPlaut. Pseud, ii. 3, 5 ; Hor. Carm. i. 17, 14- bemae coronae (Plin. xxi. § 47). Artificial
10; Ov. Met.'w. 88). In mythology there are flowers were made of a thin layer of metal,
two different tales explaining its origin. One covered with gold or silver (corollae or co
traces it to the horn of the goat Amaltheia, | rollaria inaurata or inargentata).
which suckled Zeus ; another, to the horn
of tlie river-god Achelous, wrenched off by
Herakles.
The cornucopia constantly appears in
coins and works of art, especially of the
Roman period, as the symbol of abundance.
Fig. iOl.— Golden crown.
Fig. 402.— Coin of Arsinoe. with cornucopia.
Coro'na {ffT«f>avos). A crown, worn
round the head or neck, and used as a
decoration and as a reward.
1. Materials. — Wreaths originally were
made of wool or the foliage of trees, espe-
cially myrtle-twigs or \\y, with which
flowers of various kinds were subsequently
interwoven. The makers and sellers of
these garlands formed a distinct trade,
and were called in Greece aTf(patn\ir\&Koi
or ffrtcpavovoioi, and in Rome cornnarii (Plin.
xxi. §§ .".4, 177). Tlie flowers used were named form of leaves, sometimes set with gems, and
<rTf<pavciifxaTa and cornnamrnta. The foliage terminating with ribands (lemnisci) of tlie
and flowers were sometimes fastened togetlicr same metal. It was held by a slave over the
by the inner bark, or bast iphilyra), of the head of a general when he entered Rome in
lime-tree, whence such garlands were called triumph (Juv. x. 41).
by the Romans rorouae sufilrs. also tirxae '• Coronae longofi (Cic. Legg. ii. 24, 60), fes-
and srrtae (Mart. v. 05, xiii. 51 ; Ov. Fast. v. toons, were employed to decorate the doors
335,337). At Athens the place in the market (pnstrs) of liouses, temples. &c. {Ov. Fast. iv.
where wreaths were sold was called at fivpplvai. 73.S, Met. iv. 759; Juv. vi. 51).
At Rome the temple of the Lares at the head Corona tonsa was made of leaves only, as
p2
(Museum at Munich.)
Corona Etrusca was of pure gold in the
212
CORONA
for instance of the olive (Verg. Aen. v. 556,
Georg. iii. 21).
2. Crowns as Rewards. — Judging from
the silence of Homer, crowns were not adopted
amongst the Greeks of the heroic ages as
rewards of merit, or as festive decorations.
It is probable they had a religious origin, and
Fig. 405.— Females with crowns. (Plot. Antiq. in Crypt.
Rom. tav. 8.)
were for this reason given to the victors in the
public games. In the Olympic games the prize
was a crown of wild olive (kotiuos), in the
Pythian a crown of laurel (Sdcpvr}), in the Nemean
a crown of wild celery [(TiKivov, apium), and in
the Isthmian a crown of pine-leaves (irfruy).
Poets also were crowned, both among the
Greeks and Romans.
Crowns as rewards for public services are
first mentioned in the time of the Persian wars
(Hdt. viii. 124; Plut. Cim. 8; Thuc. iv. 120).
Soon after the Peloponnesian War the Athenians
substituted for the olive garland a crown of
gold, and granted it for every trifling feat,
whether civil, naval, or military. Such a crown,
however, could only be presented in the public
assemblies, and by the suffrage of the people,
or by the senators, or by tribes or Srnj-'irai to
their own members. (See Aeschin. c. Ctesiph.
and Dem. de Cor. passim.) Crowns {(rre^avoi.
^epLKoi) were sometimes presented by foreign
cities to particular citizens. Ordinary crowns
were of gold foil. Those voted by cities were
sometimes of great weight, as, e.g., one of sixty
talents presented by the Chersonesites to the
senate and people of Athens.
Among the Romans, honorary crowns were
among the dona miUtaria which generals be-
stowed upon the soldiers, and vice versa.
(1) Corona obsidionalis or graminea. This,
the first in order of dignity, was presented by a
beleaguered army after its liberation to the
general who broke up the siege. It was made
of grass, or weeds and wild flowers (Plin. xxii.
4; 14) gathered from the spot on which the
beleaguered had been enclosed.
(2) Corona civica, the second in honour, was
presented to the soldier who had preserved the
life of a Roman citizen in battle, and bore the
inscription, Ob civem servatum. It was origin-
ally made of the ilex, afterwards of the aesculus,
and finally of the quercus. Its attainment was
restricted by very severe regulations (see Plin.
xvi. 7-14), and high honours, such as a place
next the senators, and assurrectio at spectacles,
were paid to its we.irer.
Among the honours bestowed upon Augustus
by the senate, it was decreed that a civic crown
should be suspended from the top of his house
(Ov. Fast. i. 614, THst. iii. 1, 6 ; Suet. Gal.
19, Claud. 17). A crown of oak leaves, flanked
by two branches of laurel, with the inscription
Fig. 406.— Corona civica, on coins of Augustus (left hand)
and of Galba (right hand). (British Museum.)
Ob civis servatos, is frequently seen on the
reverse of the Augustan medals, as also on
those of Galba, Vitellius, Vespasian, Trajan, &c.
(3) Corona navalis,
rostrata, or classica, a
golden crown, given to
the sailor who first
boarded an enemy's
ship (Verg. Aeti. viii.
684) ; or to a comman-
der who gained a signal
victory at sea (Liv.
Epit. cxxix. ; Ov. A. A.
iii. 392; Suet. Claud.
17). It occurs on the
coins of Agrippa, the *^5- 407.-Corona rostrata,
, . ^ .f^ ' , on a com of Agrippa.
crowns being decorated (British Museum.)
with the beaks of ships,
like the rostra in the Forum. The Athenians
also gave golden crowns for naval services (Dem.
de Cor. Trier. 1228, § 1).
(4) Corona, muralis. The first man who scaled
the wall of a besieged city was presented by his
com^mander with a mural
crown, made of gold and
decorated with turrets (Liv.
xxvi. 48; Suet. Avg. 25).
The mural crown was a
constant attribute of Cybele
(Lucr. ii. 607 ; Ov. Fast. iv.
219).
(5) Corona castrensis or
vallaris. The first soldier pig. 408.-Corona mu
who surmounted the val-
lum, and forced an entrance
into the enemy's camp, was
presented with a golden
crown, called corona castrensis or vallaris
(Liv. X. 46; Suet. Aug. 25). It appears to have
been ornamented with palisades {valli).
(6) Corona triump)halis was worn by the
commander during his triumph. It was at first
made of laurel and bay leaves, and afterwards
of gold. (Liv. X. 7 ; Cic.
Pis. 24, 58 ; Ov. Pont. ii.
2, 92 ; Juv. X. 41 ; Suet.
Tib. 17.) Those who had
received this crowni had
the right of wearing it at
the public games. It was
conferred upon Julius
Caesar and Augustus, and
subsequently was a mark
of sovereignty, and worn ^'%^'^~^°T^^t^\
by the reigning emperor (British Museum.)
alone. The triumphal
Etruscan crown was held over the head of the
general during his triumph by a public officer.
This crown, as well as the former one, was pre-
sented to the victorious general by his army.
[Triumphns.J
Crowns were likewise sent as presents from
the provinces to the victorious commander, and
rails and rostrata
combined, on a coin
of Agrippa. (British
Museum.)
CORONA
ais
were carried before him in his triumphal pro- Bymbol of royalty, often adorned with gems,
cession (Liv. xxxvii. 58). In the early iiges of
the Kepublic, these were },'ratuitons picBents,
but subsequently they were exacted us a tribute
under the name of Aurum coronarium.
(7) Corona ovalis was appropriated to com-
manders who merely deserved an ovation
[Ovatio], and was made of myrtle, the shrub
sacred to Venus.
(8) Corona oleagina was made of the olive
leaf, and conferred upon soldiers as well as
their coninniiid<TS.
3. Kkligious Crowns. — The use of the
sacrificial crown, though later than the Homeric
poems, was established at least as early as
the times of Sappho {Fr. 79 [44]). Certain
trees were sacred to certain divinities, as the
ivy and vine to Dionysus, the oak to Zeus, the
laurel to Apollo, the myrtle to Aphrodite, the
FlK. 413.
Coin of AiitiochoB III.
Fig. 414.
Coin of .\ntiochiu VI.
and sometimes combined with rays. The laurel
crown is also sometimes re-
presented.
4. Funeral Ckowns. —
olive to Athena, Ac. Garlands of leaves and i ^j.^ practice of crowning the
flowers were worn by the worshippers, the
priests and priestesses, and the victims offered
in sacrifice. Persons who went to consult an
oracle also wore crowns. Sacred crowns made
the persons who wore them inviolable. Thus
they were worn by the archons at Athens (Dem.
Mid. § 33), and by orators when addressing
the assembly (Ar. Thesm. 880).
Among the Romans crowTis were worn by
priests and the victim, as well as the bystanders,
at the sacrifice. Such crowns were sometimes
made of olive, sometimes of gold, and some-
times of the ears of corn {corona sjiicca) (Plin.
xviii. § 6 ; Tac. AnJi. xi. 4), and were consecrated
at the temples of
Ceres (Hor. Carin.
Sec. 30; Tibull. ii. 1,
4). In particular the
insigne of the Fratres
Arvales was the coro-
na .spirra and white
woollen tillets iiiifn-
lar aWai). [Infula.J
The corona spicea
was likewise regarded
as an emblem of peace
(Tibull. i. 10, 67).
The corona spicea
also appears in coins
on the heads of some of the females of the im-
perial family.
Corona radiata was originally given only to
gods and deified heroes, and was first assumed
by some of the successors of Alexander the
Great, who claimed divine honours : e.g. the
Ptolemies, kings of Egypt.
Fig. 416.
dead with chaplets of leaves
and flowers was doubtless of
religious origin (Eur. Troad.
1143, Phoen. 1632; Ar. Eccl.
538; Cic. F/acf. 31,75). All
kinds of flowers and leaves Coin of 'iPhlhppuB II.
were used for this purpose,
but wild celery (aeKivov) was most commonly
employed among the Greeks (Plut. Timol. 26).
The relations and friends sent numerous gar-
lands to the funeral, with which they crowned
coin of D. Albinos llrutus.
ipic
IJr
Fig. 411.— Corona radiata, on
a coin ol IHoIcmaous V.,
king of Egypt. (Uritish
MuBeuin.)
Fig. 416.— Funeral stele, with cronne and taeniae.
(Uaumeibtcr.)
both the bier and the tomb. With these gar-
lands were combined taeniae (raiviai). The
Greeks entwined with garlands the cinerary um
of their friends (Plut. Drnirtr. 53, Fhilop. 21,
Mar r ell. 80).
A law of the Twelve Tables enacted that a
person wiio had obtained an honorary crown in
his lifetime might have it placed upon his body
in the funeral i)rocession (Cic. Legg. ii. 24,60;
Plin. xxi. § 7). Garlands of flowers were also
laced upon the bier and the funeral pvre (Plin.
xxi. § 10 ; Ov. Trist. iii. 3, K2 ; Tibull.'ii. 4, 48).
Golden crowns in the shape of leaves and
flowers have also been found in tombs.
6. Crowns as Sions ok Rk-iokino. — (1)
Coronae convivialcs. Among the Greeks and
Romans, the guests wore garlands at their
. coin of thc^KmjHj^ j Ij^nqygjg^ 1,^^ j^^ey were not put_on till the
Fig. 41 'J -Corona railintii.
Tlie first emperor who assumed the corona
radiata in his lifetime was Nero, upon whose
coins it appears. Augustus, however, is thus
represented on coins struck after his death.
Royal crowns do not appear on the coins of
Greek kings. The Diadema was the constant
/ttfmjwsium or cotnissatio began (Plut. Symp.
i iii. 1, 1). The pnu-tice was borrowed by the
Romans from the Greeks, but it was considered
a mark of luxury; and such giu-lands might not
be worn in i)ublic (Plin. xxi. § 8). "At first
' woollen fillets only were used, but afterwards
wreaths of leaves and flowers, especially the
, myrtle and the rose. It was believed that
214 CORONA
crowns of flowers mitigated the effects of wine
<Plut. Sijnip. iii. 1 ; Cic. Fin. ii. 20 ; Mart. x.
19j '20, iii. 68, 5). Unguents or perfumes were
KflPTKOS
it flows from the press. (Se also FuUo.) (2)
The caldron and its cover (oA/ios, kvk\os), sup-
ported by a tripod, upon which the priestess at
Fig. 417.— Symposium. (From a Greek vase.)
introduced with the flowers (Mart. x. 19, 20),
and sometimes, as a special honour, crowns were
dedicated with lemnisci or pendent ribbons,
like triumphal crowns (Plant. Pseud, v. 1, 21).
In ancient times each guest brought his own
crown (Ov. Fast. i. 403), but subsequently
they were provided by the host. The guests
wore garlands round their necks also, called
tiroOu/ni'Ses (Sapph. 51 [26] ; Cic. Verr. v. 11, 27 ;
Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 256; Catull. vii. 51). [Cena.]
(2) Corona nwptialis. Both the bride and
bridegroom among the Greeks and Romans
wore crowns (Ar. Pax, 869, Aves, 159). Those
who wex'e present at the marriage also wore
wreaths; and the doors of the bridegroom
as well as the bridal bed were decorated
with garlands (Bion, i. 88 ; Catull. Ixiv. 294 ;
Lucan, ii. 358). Among the Romans the plants
of which the bridal crown was composed were
plucked by tlie bride herself.
(3) Corona natal icia, the chaplet suspended
over the door of the house in which a child was
bom (Juv. ix. 85). At Athens, when the infant
was male, the chaplet was made of olive ; when
female, of wool.
(4) (a) also coronis andicoromx, Kopcovls. The
cornice of the entablature, (b) The flat face of
stone between Cyma recta and cymatium.
[ArcMtectura.]
Corpora'tio, Corpus. [Collegium.]
Corpus luris Civilis is the term which,
since the end of the sixteenth century, has been
used to denote Justinian's three great compila-
tions — the Institutes, the Digest or Pandects,
and the Code (together with the Novels). These
form one compact
body of law, and were
considered as such by
the glossators, or law
school of Bologna, at
the beginning of the
twelfth century, who
divided it into five
volumina. See Appen-
dix, Roman Law.
Corri'gia. [Cal-
Fig. 418.— Cortina. (Pompeii.) CeUS.]
Corti'na. (1) A large
circular vessel for containing liquids, and used
in cooking, dyeing wool, and receiving oil when
Delphi sat to deliver her responses (Verg. Aetu
vi. 347). Hence a table of marble or bronze used
as a sideboard. These were termed cortitiae Del-
phicae, or Delphicae simply (Mart. sii. 66, 7 ;
Wg. 419.— Cortina. (Pompeii.)
Suet. Aug. 52). [TripOB.] (3) The vaulted
part of a theatre over the stage.
Corvus. A raven's beak. Hence a crane,
used by C. Duilius against the Carthaginian
fleet in the battle fought oflf Mylae, in Sicily
(260 B.C.), described by Polybius (i. 22). It
consisted of a ladder attached to a pivot at the
top of the mast, and furnished with a corvus
or ir6n spike. The whole machine was called
corvus, and was lowered by ropes to the enemy's
deck. By means of these cranes the Cartha-
ginian ships were either broken or closely locked
with the Roman, and Duilius gained a complete
victory.
The word corvus is also applied to various
kinds of grappling-hooks, such as the corvvs
demoUtor, for pulling down walls (cf. also
Tac. Hist. iv. 30).
K6pvpL3os- (1) An ivy garland such as is
commonly worn by Bacchus.
ra) [Coma.]
KoJpvKos (Co'rycus). (l) A leathern bag
(Horn. Od. V. 267). (2) A leathern bag, filled
l''Ig. 420.- Cory CU8. (From
Ficoronl cista.)
COSMETAE
with flour, sand, or bran, and hung up in the '
gymnasium, for the athletes to swing to and fro :
by striking it (Cic.
Fhil. xiii. 12, '20),
whence the exer-
cise is called Kupv-
Ko/xax'io, or Kwpv-
KofioKia. Hence
the proverbial ex-
pression, irohs Kw-
pvKov yv/xfa^ecrdai,
of labour in vain.
The place in the
Thermae for this
exercise is called
corycaeum (Vitr. v.
11).
Cos. A whet-
stone. The term
includes all kinds
of stones used for
sharpening metal
implements : sharp
or smooth grit-
stone, hone, cor-
undum. They came from Naxos, Armenia, and
elsewhere. The quarries {cotoriae) of Crete
were well known.
Cosme'tae {Koa-fiVTai). (1) Slaves employed
as dri'ssiTs by the Persian nobles (Xen. Cyr.
viii. y, 20). (2) A class of slaves among the
Romans whose duty it was to dress and adorn
ladies (Juv. Sat. vi. 476; Hor. Sat. i. 2, 08).
[Balneae.l '
KOCJJJ.T1TT19. [Gymnasium.]
K6a|j.oL. the chief magistrates of Crete.'
The similarity of Cretan institutions to those
of Sparta has led some scholars to believe that
one state copied the other; but it may be
accounted for by a common origin. It is also
known, however, that Sjjartan colonists settled
in Crete, and these may have brought some
Spartan customs with them.
The freemen, the ruling class, were probably
divided into the three Dorian <pv\ai. The
Kiff/xot, or chief magistrates, were chosen from
certain families in these. The office of Kdcr/ioi
(KotTfiiovrfs, K6(r/xioi, K6pixoi), ten in number, is
compared by Aristotle to that of the ephors of
Livconia. Tlie k6(Tij.oi appear to have exercised
a joint authority with the members of the fiovAij
(3&)Ao) and to have consulted with them on the
most important matters ; besides this, they had
the administration of justice. The first kosmos
was called (cJcr/uos inwi'v/j.os and Trpwr6KocriJ.os.
The kosmi were elected from araprol, i.e. pro-
bably the old yivi). These were divided into a
number of rajetr, who in turn held the govern-
ment, and out of the Ta|is or ffraprSs a board
of ten were chosen as an executive. The rela-
tion of the arapToi to the (pvKal is not clear.
A KSfffios could only be proceeded against after
having resigned his office. The kosmi pro-
bably held ofKce only for a year, after which
they passed into the 8a)\a, or Council of An-
cients. The general assembly {ay(Ka), attended
by all freemen, could only ratify the decrees of
the elders and the kosmi (Arist. Pol. ii. 7, 4 S.).
By the middle of the third century B.C. the
aristocratic character of the constitution luul
been modified. The officers (apx<"') were now
elected annually. The ^uKa existed, but with
diminislied powers. The aytKa was supreme.
The kosmi had precedence, but litth; power,
except in transa<'ting negotiations with regard
to treaties with foicign cities.
Cothurnus. [Calceus.]
CROTALUM
215
Coti'cula {0a(Tavos). A touchstone — a variety
of dark-coloured siliceous rock. The best came
from Tmolus in Lycia. Experts judged of the
purity of the metal by the mark left on the
stone when rubbed.
K6TTa0os {Ion. Kuaaafios). [Games.]
Co'tyla. [Pottery.]
Kot\5\ti, KotvXos (dim. KorvXiaKi), kotv-
AiV/cos, KoTv\i(TKtov). A suiall cup.
(2) Cotyla (koti^Atj, not /cdruAos : also hemiiia,
Tifilfa or yjn'tfiva) was also a measure of capacity
among the Romans and Greeks = ^ sextarius,
or nearly half a pint English. (See Tables,
VII., VIII., IX., X.I
Covi'nnus, Covinus. [Currus.]
Cra'ter, Cratera, Crete'rra. [Pottery.]
Crates {rapa6s, yeppov). A hurdle, e.g. for
sheep-folds (Hor. i'^^o^Z. ii. 45) ; vimineae crates
are bush-liarrows (Verg. Georg. i. 95, 104).
[Agriculture.]
(1) ('rail's were used by the country people
upon which to dry figs, grapes, &c., or to screen
growing fruit from the weather; or for spread-
ing manure. (2) Crates dentatae. A harrow.
(3) In militarj' use, for the roadway of a bridge
(Caes. B. G. iv. 17) ; for parapets or breast-
works {ib. v. 40) ; as fascines for crossing ditches
{lb. vii. 79; Tac. Ann. i. 68); as mantlets ci
wooden screens for sheltering the advance of
troops under cover. [Pluteus.]
A capital punishment was called by this
name [sub crate necari). The criminal was
.either drowned under a hurdle (Liv. i. 51), or
crushed by stones heaped u))on it (iv. 50).
Crati'Ciila. A gridiron (.Mart. xiv. 221). A
specimen found at Pompeii has legs at the
four corners.
Crati'culum {Kparevral, II. ix. 214). And-
irons or ' dogs,' rests on each side of the fire on
which a s])it turns.
Crea^ra. [Harpago.]
Crepida. [Calceus.]
Crepi'do (Kprfnls). (1) Any raised base, as of a
building, altar, &c. [Architectura], particularly
(2) A raised causeway or side-walk in a
street, as at Pompeii. Here beggars used to
stand (Juv. v. 8).
(3) A quay or embankment of a river or
harbour (Cic. Vcrr. ii. 5, 37).
Crepita'culum. [Sistrum.^
Crepu'ndia. Playthings, such as dolls [Pupa],
bells, rattles, models of animals, &c. Some-
times also used as amulets and hung round a
cliild's neck. Such are frequently found in
tombs. [Games.]
Cribrum {K6<TKivov,Kpi)aipa). A sieve, made
of horsehair, worsted yarn, rushes or osiers,
&c., or of linen, or of perforated metal or parch-
ment. The rim or frame of the sieve is called
T7jA(a.
Crimen. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Crinis. [Coma. J
Crista. [Arms and Armour, Helmet.]
KptrVis (as distinguished from hiKa(TT7]s).
At Alliens KpiTai, probably one from each tribe,
were chosen by ballot from a number of selected
candidates at the Dionysia. Their office was
to judge of the merit of the different choruses
and dramatic poems, and to award the prizes to
the victors (Dem. c. Mid. 520, § 17 ; Ar. Av.
421).
Kpti)0-u\os. [Coma.]
Croco'ta (KpoKt^nos). [Dress.]
Cro'talum {KpAraKov, Kp(fi0a\ov), a kind of
Castanet or rattle used by dancers, but distinct
from tlie Cymbalum aiid tlie Sistrum. All
three were used by the Egyptians (Hdt. ii. 60).
216
CRUMENA
Fig. 421.— Crotalistria.
a va.se.;
The simplest form was a couple of shells or
potsherds pierced with holes and strung to-
gether (Ax. Ran.
1305 ; Juv. xi.
170). Brass and
wood are also
mentioned as ma-
terials (Eurip.
Cycl. 204, cf.
Mart. xi. 16) ; and
split reed or
cane. Castanets
were used by the
Egj'ptians in the
worship of Pasht
(Hdt, ii. 60), and
by the Greeks in
that of Cybele
([Horn.] Hymn.
xiv. 3) ; and Dio-
nysus (Eurip.
Hel. 1308).
Women who
danced to the cro-
talum were called
c rota listriae
(Propert. v. 8, 39).
Crume'na(/8aAA.aj/Tioi/ori8aXaj'T«oc). A purse.
A leathern pouch slung round the neck (Plant.
Asin. ii. 3, 67) ; and usually hung down behind,
which exposed it to the attacks of the cut-
purse {^aWavTioT6fjLos, sector zonarius, Plant.
Trm. iv. 20). 'S.vcriraffra 0a\\dvTia were round
pouches with strings to draw (Plat. <S(/w^. 190 e).
Crupella'rii. Armoured cavalry. The same
as Cataphracti : employed by the Gauls (Tac.
Anji. i. 43).
Crusta. [Caelatura.]
Cruz {<TTavp6s, <rK6Ko\p). An instrument of
capital punishment, used at a very early period
in the East.
The words crTavpSw and (TKoKoni^u (more
usually a.va(TTavp6ii3, avaaKoKoiri^o)) are applied
to modes of execution common among the
Persians, probably impalement as well as
crucifixion. Tlie case of Artayktes (Hdt. ix.
120) seems to prove that nailing to a tree or
plank {iTpoar)\6(D) was not unknown to them.
It was the usual punishment of rebels (Thuc.
i. 110). The bodies of those who had been
otherwise executed were sometimes exposed on
a cross after death (Hdt. iii. 125, vi. 30, vii.
238 ; Plut. Cleon. m).
Crucifixion was frequent among the Cartha-
ginians, and was probably introduced from
them into Sicily and Italy (see Polyb. i. 11, 24,
79, &c.).
There is no evidence that crucifixion, im-
palement, mutilation, or burning alive (though
instances of them occur (Hdt. iv. 202, v. 28,
ix. 120, &c.), were regarded as Greek punish-
ments (Dem. c. Timocr. p. 744, § 140 ; Xen.
A.nah. i. 2, § 13). It was the same with mutila-
tions of all kinds, such as the blinding pre-
scribed by the laws of Lokri in Italy. The
cruelties alluded to in Aesch. Eum. 186-190,
including impalement, are those of barbarians,
not of Greeks. Poisoning by hemlock (Koivelov),
which was painless, was the Athenian method
of capital punishment, at least for freemen.
Slaves, male and female, were often racked
before execution.
Alexander the Great is said to have crucified
((Kpiaaffi, which, however, may mean hanged)
2000 Tyrians ; and his successors made frequent
use of crucifixion and impalement. The Greeks
did not crucify slaves.
CEYPTA
It is probable that the Eomans derived this
punishment from the Carthaginians : and no
mention of it appears to occur before the
Second Punic War, when the Romans prac-
tised it on slaves and deserters (Liv. xxii. 33 ;
XXX. 43, § 13). After a revolt among the slaves
in Etruria, 196 B.C., the ringleaders were
scourged and crucified (Liv. xxxiii. 36). When
the servile war of Spartacus was put down by
Pompey, the prisoners, to the nimiber of 6000,
were crucified all along the Appian Way, between
Capua and Rome. The power of masters over
their slaves was absolute (Hor. Sat.i. 3, 80 sqq.),
and crucifixion was a common punishment.
[Servitus.] The provincials also were liable
to crucifixion for the greater crimes, such as
murder, piracy (Suet. lul. 4), brigandage, and
especially for revolts and conspiracies. Varus,
Titus, and Hadrian crucified many thousands
of Jews (Jos. Ant. xvii. 10, § 10, B. J. vi. 28).
The first instance, probably, of the crucifixion
of a civis Romanus in Rome itself is that, under
Galba, of a guardian who poisoned his ward
(Suet. Galb. 9). Afterwards the odious dis-
tinction between the hojiestiores and humili-
ores was introduced, and this and other tortures
were freely inflicted upon the latter, especially
for maiestas or crimes against the state or the
person of the emperor.
Scourging, as with Roman capital punish-
j ments in general, usually preceded crucifixion
' (Liv. xxii. 13 ; Cic. Verr. v. 62, § 161 sqq.).
Three kinds of crosses were in common use :
tlie crux commissa, or T shape; the crux im-
missa, "p,with a projection at the top to which
I was affixed the titulus, setting forth the crime
' of the sufferer (this was the most common) ;
and the crux decussata, in the shape of an X
(St. Andrew's cross). The upright post is called
stipes, the transverse beam patihulum; and it
was this latter, rather than the entire instrument^
which the criminal carried to the place of exe-
cution. It was impossible that the whole weight
I of the body should rest upon the nails ; hence
there was a piece of wood projecting from the
stipes, on which the sufferer sat, or rather rode
I (cf. acuta si sedeam cruce, Maecenas ap. Sen.
I Ep. 101). The body was probably sometimes
sustained by ropes : combination of ropes with
naUs is mentioned by Pliny (xxviii. § 46). The
I criminal was stripped naked, and usually hoisted
I on to the cross after it had been set up. Some-
I times he was stretched upon it on the groimd,.
and then lifted with it; crtici suffigere, in
crucem agere or tollere refer to the former
(the commoner) mode. The breaking of the
1 legs to hasten death (St. John xix. 32) is alluded
I to by Plautus (Poen. iv. 2, 64) and Cicero (Phil.
I xiii. 12, § 27). The dead body was generally
left hanging on the cross, to be devoured by
birds and beasts ; the feet were but little raised,
above the gi'ound (Hor. Ep. i. 16, 48 ; Juv. xiv.
77). Sepulture was forbidden, and a soldier
was set to watch the corpses. The place for
these executions was always outside the walls
of cities : at Rome it was the Campus Esquilinus,
to the east of the city, part of which was after-
wards occupied by the gardens of Maecenas^
Crucifixion was abolished by Constantine.
Crypta (/cpvttttj, diwpv^ Kpvmii ; Ital. grotta);
Any long narrow vault, either dark or dimly
lighted, but not necessarily subterranean.
(1) A tunnel for draining pm-poses fKmiB-
sarium], or to shorten communications, e.g. the
grotto of Posilipo (Crypta Neapohtana) between
I Naples and Pozzuoli, and the Grotta della Pacej,
KPrnTEiA
between Curaae and the Lake Avemus, which
is lighted at intervals by vertical shafts. Each
of tliese tunnels is about half a mile in length,
and both date from the time of Augustus.
(2) A vaulted passage in any building, e.g.
under the cavea of an amphitheatre, at the
back of the scaena of a theatre (Suet. Aug. 29j ;
or below the stage (jiroscenium). Several such
passages exist in the Palace of the Caesars on
the Palatine. One of tlieni (probably that in
wliich Caligula was muixlered) is underground,
and lighted from above. Tlie branch of the
Cloaca Maxima which drains the Subura is
called ' crj-pta Suburae' (Juv. v. 100).
(3) A covered corridor above gi-ound, dimly
lighted for the sake of coolness in summer, such
as was very commonly attached to the side of
an open colonnade (porticus) both in public and
private buildings. This species of crypta is
also styled crijptoporticus : the xystus being an
open colonnade.
(4) Crypta seems to have been used in
Christian times for a catacomb or subterranean
cemetery.
(5) A stall for horses and chariots in thecircus.
KpviTT€£a, called also Kpimrlaor KpvitTr,). A
system of secret police adopted by the Spartans
in order to maintain their control over the
Helots ; perhaps over the Perioeki also. A
number of active young Spartans were des-
patched every year by the ephors to the
different parts of the country. They were to
post themselves secretly in convenient places
from which to make observations upon the
neighbourhood. If they found anything sus-
picious, they were either to report it or to sup-
press it themselves on the spot. The institu-
tion served not merely to break up dangerous
organisations, but as a useful military training.
The /cpir;rT€ia was probably carried out with great
severity, and assassination and even massacre
were not unknown. It is a well-known fact
that on one occasion 2000 of the bravest of
tlie Helots were massacred with the sanction of
the ephors, probably by the agency of the i
krypteia (Thuc. iv. 80).
Ctesi'bica machina. [Antlia.]
Cubicula'rii. Slaves who liad the care of the '
sleeping and dwelling rooms, and, to a certain
extent, of their master's person. (Suet. lul. 4.)
It was the duty of the cubicularii to introduce
visitors to their master (Cic. Att. vi. 2, § 5) ;
for which purpose they appear to have usually
remained in an ante-room (Suet. Tib. 21).
They were divided into watches {stationes) for
day and night, and also into decuries.
Cubi'culum. (1) A sleep-
ing and dwelling room in a
Boman house (Domus]; also
(2) the pavilion or box in
which the Roman emperors
witnessed the games (Suet.
2Wr. 12).
CuTjital. [Lectus.]
Cu'bitU8(7r^X''s)- A measure
of k'ligtli used by all nations ;
originally tlie length of the
human arm from the elbow to
the tip of the middle finger.
The Greek cul)it was 4(i2'4
millimetres, the Roman 443'G.
See Tables, I., II.
Cubus (kvBos). [Tessera.]
^/roJ^iTru^J,"^"" Cucu'llus. A cowl <.r hood
used in the open air, instead
of a hat or cap. It was worn by travellers and
countrymen (Juv. iii. 170 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 94),
CULTER
217
by legionaries on service in cold climates, and
at home by persons who wished to go abroad
without being recognised (Juv. viii. 145 ; Cic.
Phil. ii. 31 ; Mart. xi. 98, 10). The hood was
sometimes a separate garment (Mart. xiv. 132J.
[See Caupona.J
Hoods (or frieze as material) were imported
into Italy from Gaul (Juv. viii. 145) and Illyria
(Mart. xiv. 139). [Dress.]
Cudo or Cadon. A close-fitting helmet like a
skull-cap, made of leather or the
skin of a wild animal (Sil. Ital. viii.
493, xvi. 59).
Cu'lcita. [Lectus.]
Culi'na. [l)omu8.1
Cu Ileus or Cu'lens. (1) A pig-
skin, used (as in Spain now) for ^^
storing wine before it was trans- yj_ ^,^
ferred into amphorae. Cullei were Cudo. (Rich.)
used in the punishment of parri-
cides [Parricidium]. (2) A liquid measure of
capacity (Tables, VIII.).
Culpa. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Culter {/xdxa'pa, which also means a sword
or a dagger). (1) A knife (Liv. iii. 48; Plaut.
liud. i. 2, 45 ; Verg. Georg. iii. 492 ; Ov. Fast.
i. 321), usually sharpened only on one edge,
cun'ed or straight, the back also being straight,
or with a downward or upward cune. Knife
and handle were sometimes of one piece ; more
frequently the handle was of bone, ivory, wood,
or bronze, and was often richly ornamented.
They sometimes had sheaths {thecae), like
those in modern use. Fig. 424 shows knives of
various shapes.
For sacrificial knives {cuUcr, secespita) see
Sacrificium. The Greek term is /xaxaipiSioy
6vtik6v or cr<payis. The priest who con-
Fig. 424.— Cutler's shop. From a bas-relief fBlilmner).
ducted a sacrifice never killed the victim
himself ; but one of his ministri, appointed
for that purpose, who was
called minister, or, more spe-
cifically, popa or ciilti-ariits
(Suet. Cal. 32). (Hence tlie
expression sub ctiltro, Hor.
Sat. i. 9, 74.) The two knives
shown in fig. 425 are from the
tombstone of a cult7-arius.
Cultelhis is a penknife used
for toilet purposes (Hor. Ep.
i. 7, 51).
Tlio name culter was also
applied to razors, c. tonsoriiu, novacula (Cic.
Ojf. ii. 7, 25), and kitchen knives, c. coqitinaris.
(2) The coulter of a plough. [Aratrum.]
Fig. 42.'>.-Cultrl.
(From tonibhtone o
a CultrariUB.)
218
CUMBA
Cumba, not cymba (KVfji^ri). A small boat,
probably made originally from the hollow of a
Fig. 426. — Cumba, Charon's boat, with Hermes con-
ducting a soul. (From a Roman lamp.)
tree (alveus), used on rivers and lakes by fisher-
men (Verg. Georg. iv. 195; Ov. Met. i. 293,
Fast. vi. 777). The poets give the name of
cumba to Charon's boat (Verg. Aen. vi. 303 ;
Hor. Carm. ii. 3, 28). [Linter.]
Cunae, Cuna'bula [xIkvov, aKa<pri). A cradle.
No direct mention of a cradle is found in
ancient Greek writers. But Herakles was
cradled in his father's shield (Theocr. xxiv. 4) ;
and Dionysus in a winnowing-fan (KIkvov,
vannus). [Vannus.]
^^ An ark or cradle in
which children w^ere
exposed is <TKd.<pri
(Ar. Lys. 138), and
in late authors we
find (TKacpT^v Sta-
creiety, ' to rock a
cradle.' In the Ro-
man period cradles
were regularly used (Plant. True. v. 13), and
were made to rock. We find a female slave
called cunaria; or a male slave, cunarum
motor (Mart. xi. 39, 1).
Cu'neus. [Exercitus; Theatrum.]
Cuni'culas {inrovoixos, vTr6pvyixa). Properly a
rabbit hole ; a subterranean passage, natural or
artificial (Mart. xiii. 60j. But most commonly
a mine or countermine, as a military technical
term (Liv. iv. 22). For examples of mines, cf.
Thuc. ii. 76 ; Caes. B. G. iii. 21, viii. 43 ; Liv.
xxxviii. 7.
Cnpa, A wooden cask, butt or barrel, used
Fig. 427.— Cradle. (From the
Museum at Beauue.)
Fig. 428.— Cupae. (From Trajan's Column.)
like the largest eai-then vessel, dolium, to
CURRUS
receive the fresh must from the ■wine-press
(torcular) and to contain it during the process
of fermentation. The inferior wines were
drawn for drinking from the cupa, without being
bottled in amphorae ; whence viniim de cupa
(Cic. Pis. 27, § 67), ' from the wood.'
The cupae, like our own casks, were made
with staves (tabulae) and hoops {circidi),
made of rushes or osiers. For the staves, the
pitch-pine was preferred. [Vinum.]
Cura'tor. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Curato'res. Public ofiicers of various kinds
under the Empire (Suet. Aug. 37).
(1) CUBATORES iuLVEI ET RiP.UlUlI ET Cloa
CAEUM, who had the charge of the na\'igation of
the Tiber.
(2) CuRATORES Anno'n.a^, who purchased
corn and oil for the state, and sold it again at
a small price among the poorer citizens.
(3) CuRATOREs Aquabum. [Aquaeductus.l
(4) Curatores Opebuji Publicoeum. [Cen-
sor.]
(5) Cueatores Regionum, who had the care
of the fourteen districts (regiones) into which
Rome was divided bv Augustus. (Suet. Aug.
30.)
(6) Cueatores Reipublic.^e, also called
LoGisTAE. [Colonia.]
(7) CUB.iTORES T.^UL.-VEUM PuBLICAEUM,
who assisted in keeping the public records.
(8) CuEATOBEs Vi.^BUM. [Viae.]
Cu'ria signifies both a division of the Roman
people and the place of assembly for such a
division.
Each of the three ancient Romulian tribes,
the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, was sub-
divided into ten curiae, so that the whole body
of the populus was divided into thirty curiae
(Liv. i. 13). The curiae in their sacral character
included plebeians as well as patricians (cf. Ov.
Fast.'ii. 511 sqq.). Plebeians voted side by side
with patricians before the institution of any
other meeting of the people than the comitia
curiata. The thirty lictors who represented
the curies in the conferring of the imperium
were plebeians. There is no reason to believe
that the right of making wills and adoptions
before the curies was limited to patricians.
Hence the common theory of the purely patri-
cian character of the curies must be abandoned.
All the members of the different gentes be-
longing to one curia were called, in respect of
one another, ciiriales. Each curia as a cor-
poration had its peculiar sacra, and, besides the
gods of the state, thej' worshipped theii proper
divinities, and with peculiar ritesand ceremonies.
For such religious purposes each curia had its
own place of worship, also called curia — in later
times used for discussing political, financial, re-
ligious, and other matters. The religious affairs
of each curia were taken care of by a priest,
curio, who was assisted by another called
Flamen curialis. The thirty curiones formed
a college of priests, the president of which bore
the title of curio maximus (Liv. xxvii. 8). The
thirty curiae had their own distinct names, only
a few of which are known.
Curia {$ov\evTripiov, yepovaia) is also used to
designate tlie place in which the senate held its
meetings. Built by Tullus Hostilius, the Curia
Hostilia was burnt at the funeral of Clodius
(52 B.C.). It was successively restored by a son
of Sulla (Curia Cornelia), by Augustus (Curia
Julia), and by other emperors. The official re-
sidence of the Salii was also called Curia.
Kijpios. See Appendix, Geeek L.-iw.
Currus (apfxa). A chariot, a car. These terms
CURRUS
•219
are especially applied to the light two-wheeled ' the spokes fitted (e) was culled dwpa^ or
cars used in battle and in racing. The words
apyua (11. xxiv. 440j, aouxira [Od. iii. 492), and
Siippos (Od. 4S1) are also employed for a travel
ling-carriage. (See Od. xv. 131).
The most essential parts in the construction
of the Homeric currus were :
irKrjfj.vodeToi'. The interiiiil riiij; (/) round the
hole through which the axle passi-d was ydpvoy
or SfffTpof. A flat ring prevented the wheels
slipping off, and was called irapa^ovtoy, fVi'/3oAoy,
(H0o\os : it was itself kept in its place by the
linchpin (dfj.0o\oS(rTis). Tlie wheels were about
(1) The avTv^ or rim. Either on three sides I thirty inclies in diameter,
of the chariot or only in front there was a (4) The bod;/ of the chariot, Sitppos, consisted
curved barrier {^Tri5i(J)p(ds,Jri.x. 475), sometimes of some kind" of interlaced straps of leather
(iVdfTOKTiy, ToVos, //. V. 727), or of wicker work
l5. <i)7rA(K7Js, (vir\(KT6s, 11. xxiii. :(3.")|, bound to
a narrow frame of some rigid substance, wood
or iron (Trpa!Toirayr,s, koWijtos, 11. v. 193, xix.
395). The breadth of the 5i<^poy would be about
five feet.
(5) The pole (()vix6s, temo), made of wood (II.
xxiv. 271). The pole was sometimes a continua-
tion of the flooring of the Si<ppos, sometimes
fastened into the axle or above it ; and some-
times strengthened at the base by two stays
(<TT7\piyyis, furcae). The pole was sometimes
Fig. <29.— 'AifTvf. (OinzTot. Wagen und Fuhncerke.)
of light wood, sometimes of metal (II. xxiii.
503). The &vtv^ often served to fasten the reins
to (II. V. 2C2; Eur. /fi>p. 118.S).
(2) The axJe, 6.^wv, usually made of oak (Hom.
II. V. 838 ; Verg. Georg. iii. 172), sometimes of
ilex, ash, or elm (cf. II. v. 723). The extremities
were called aKpai,6via or x^oai, and sometimes
ended in the head of an animal. The axle was
about seven feet long, for steadiness on rough
ground.
(8) The wheels (KvK\a, rpoxoi, rotae) revolved
upon the axle. They consisted of (a) spokes
(Kinj/jxit, radii), usually four in number (but see
II. v. 723). They were fixed in (b) a felloe (hvs),
consisting of four or more arcs (b') (aipTSts,
Hes. Op. 42G) of flexible wood (II. iv. 482-
486 ; cf. Theocr. xxv. 247), bound on the out-
FlR. <.<«).— Wheel of Homeric chariot.
The spokes in) urc HomctinioH Htrcngthoned as shown.
sometimes plain.
O. Kinj/biai. 6. irvf. b'. ai^ijcf. c. iiri<r<ru>rpov.
<i. irA^fiiT), X'''^''!- *"■ TArmco'fifTOi'. /. HuTpov.
side by (c) an iron tire (Mffffwrpov, II. xxiii.
519 ; canthus, Pers. v. 71). On the inner side
they were fixed in (d) the nave (irKi)nvT), II. v.
726; x»'*>^. Acsch. Theb. 153; modiolus, Plin.
ix. § 8). The external ring of iron into which
Fig. 4.11.— Currus. (Vatican.)
straight for some distance from its point of
fastening, and curved sharply upwards at its
extremity (irpdiTt) ird^a, d/cpoppiy|ttoi'l,<>r else was
in its whole length quite straight and inclined
at an angle. The extremity of the pole at times
ended in the head of an animal. Towards the
extremity of the pole the yoke was fastened.
There was frequently a fastening running from
the top of the pole to the &vtv^, in order to
divide the traction-force on two points.
The simplest form of yoke (iiigum, {^vy6v)
was a straight wooden plank or pole laid
upon the horses' necks ; but commonly bent
towards each extremity (Ov. Fast. iv. 21t)^.
In the case of oxen, the yoke was eitlicr tied to
the horns or rested on the necks. [Aratrum.]
Collars (siibiugia, jueo-d/So, Hes. Op. 407;
((vyKai, Hom. II. xvii. 440) were used (showni
in fig. 432, a), or notches (y\v<pal, y\v(pl6ts) cut
in the yoke, with straps of leather (lora ; vincla,
Tib. ii. 1, 7) as fig. 432, b.
This figure also shows the method of tying
the yoke to the pole (trtnn, ^i;/ijy) by means of
a leathern strap, or more probably a rope
((vy6SKTpioi', Hom. //. xxiv. 270), which was
lashed from the two ojiposite sides over the junc-
tion of the polo and yoke. Tliese two parts
were still more finnly connected by means of
a pin ('icTTwQ, Hom. /. c. ; ivfiovov, Hes. Op.
4i;7). Of this kind was the celebrated Gordian
220
CUERUS
knot which tied the yoke of a common cart, the ^ boss on the yoke itself ; the long ends which
ends' of which were concealed by being inserted remained after this being carried back to the car,
within the knot. The passage of Homer (II.
xxiv. 268-274) which gives the fullest account
Fig. 432.— Vokes. (From ancient MSS.)
of the way in which the -yoke was attached to
the pole is thus explained by Dr. Leaf :— ' The
pole was curved sharply upwards at the end,
running up to an almost vertical point (Tefal.
In the actual bend (Tre'Cl? e^r^ npcirr,) the yok.-
was laid across the pole. Attached to the yoke
was a ring (/cpt'/cos) : through this a peg (farwp)
where they were fastened to an upright post
(e|6t7j) 1 which arose from the front of the breast-
work (avTv^).' [Journ. Hell. Soc. vol. v. 185
sqq. condensed.)
Another essential part of the harness is the
Xa\iv6s (plur. -a, frenum), including bit, head-
stall, and reins.
The several parts of this gear are : (1) the bit
(ffT6fiiov, Aesch. Prom. 1009 ; frenum), usually
of bronze or iron, sometimes (in the poets) of
silver or gold (Verg. Aen. vii. 279, &c.), corn-
Fig. 433.
a, chariot and pole.
by yoke and appendages, from the front,
c, means by which the yoke is attached to the pole.
(From Ijeaf's Iliad.)
was passed and fastened into a hole in the pole.
The ^vy6ie(rixov, a rope nine cubits long, was
then used to bind the irefa to the b^(pa\6s, a
Fig. 434.— Ancient bronze l.riiJc. (British Aiuscurj.)
monly made of several pieces ; Xenophon men-
tions [de Re Eq. 6, § 7) two bits, one a snaf5fle
(Afios x-)i the other a curb armed with sharp
points [ixivoi). A bit of the latter kind was
called lupatum in Latin (Verg. Georg. iii. 208 ;
Hor. Carm. i. 8, 7). (2) A strap (yir jxa'^»''5ta),
or curb-chain (i^a\iovf^r. Pax, ISf)). (3) A
halter sometimes fastened tcT this, and used to
lead the horse by (^vraywyevs). (4) The headstall
(Kopv(paia), including the ^(Uiru|, which was often
ornamental. (.5) The cheek-pieces {iraprt'ia, Horn.
II. iv. 142), which joined the headstall to the
bit, in some cases richly adorned ; in the pas-
sage of Homer the material is stained ivory.
(6) The reins (^i/iai, rivia, Hom.), which in the
Homeric car xjass through guiders (oI'Tj/ces),
either rings or pegs set in the yoke to separate
the reins.
The Greeks and Romans never used more
than one pole and one yoke, and the currus thus,
constructed was commonly drawn by two horses
which were attached to it bj' their necks, Si(vy(s
nnroi (Hom. 11. v. 195, x. 473), (rwwpis (X.en.HelL
i. 2, § 1), iugales (Verg. Aeit. vii. 280), hiiuges
[Georg. iii. 91). Occasionally only one horse
was used {II. ii. 390, xxii. 22, xxiii. 517). They
drew the cars by means of collars (AeVaSi'a) at-
tached to the yoke (cf. II. vi. 38 sqq., xvi. 860).
' (Tl. xxiv. 274) €^€17)? is usually translated as au
adverb, ' in order,' ».«•. with the laps side by side.
CURRUS
221
They also are represented on vases witli girths, only used in triumphs and in the circus. [See
Besides the yoke horses, there was sometimes . Triumphus.J (Fig. 437.)
a third or a fourth iraprjopos (II. xvi. 471), '
ffiipatos (Sopli. El. 7'2'2), afipa(p6pos (Aesch.
Ag. 842), funalis or funarins cqiius, which
was fastened by a trace (Traprjopiat, II. xvi. 15'2)
affixed to the collar (KfiraSva). As far as can
be made out, the two aeipa<p6poi of a four-horse
car were harnessed by means of a collar, a
girth, and perhaps a trace attached to tlic &.vrv^.
This trace, however, is seldom, if ever, sliown in
the vase-paintings. A team of four horses is
mentioned three times in Homer [11. viii. 185,
xi. (;99, Oil. xiii. 81).
The Latin name for a chariot and pair was
bigae (Verg. -4f«. ii. 272) ; in later Latin also
biga (Tac. Hist. i.8(5). When a third horse was
atlded, it was called trigae or triga ; and a
chariot and four was called quadrigae (Verg.
Georg. i. 512 ; Cic. Div. ii. 70, 144), in later Latin
qnadriga CAnet. Vit. 17) ; in Greek, Terpaopia or
rtdpiTTKov {ap/xa). Four horses were the largest
number usually employed, but larger numbers,
up to ten, are mentioned. In all cases the
horses were driven abreast.
Fig. 487.— Currus triumphnll
Chariots executed in terracotta, in bronze, or
in marble, were common ornaments of temples
Big. 4S5.--n)iGe-hairse ohatlot. The T/aprJopo? is being led np to its place. (From a Greek vase. Gerhard)
The currus wap aidapM'd to carry two persons,
and on this account was called in Greek 5l(ppo<;
(Si-<p(pci>). One of the two was of course the
driver. He was called tjvIoxos, because he held
tlie reins, and his companion irapaiPdTrjs, from
going by his side or near him (II. xix. 397). On
the other hand, a personage of the highest rank
may drive his own car-
riage, and then an in-
ferior may be his irap-
at^drrjs (II. xi. 512,
517, V. 720-775).
Chariots were fre-
quentlv employed on
the field of battle by
the Greeks in the heroic
age, but are never men-
tioned in historic times.
r-i- .o^ r<u I . I ^ 1. In later times the use
Fig. 4.%.— Chariot In Greek , , . , .• i
public Ramcs. (Coin of of clniriots was entirely
{."f.'i"." J'- "' Syracuse, confined to the iiublic
Ilrltigh Museum > rr., , ■ i
games. 1 hese chariots
were small and verj' light, with low wheels set
far back. Among the Romans, chariots were !
and other public edifices. As the emblem of
victory, the quadriga was sometimes placed on
the suuunit of the triumphal arch ; and even in
Fig. 4.'».— Currus. (Vatican.)
the private houses of great families chariots
were displayed as the indications of rank or the
222
CURRUS
memorials of conquest and of triumph (Juv.
viii. 8).
We may here give an account of the various
kinds of wheeled vehicles used in antiquity.
"Ajiaga (Att. afxa^a) corresponds both to the
plaustrum and the plaustrum mains, waggon
and cart. The four-wheeled iz/M^a is mentioned
in Od. ix. 241, II. vii. 426; Hes. Op. 692; Hdt.
i. 188. Probably it differed little (if at all ; cf.
II. x.Kiv. 267, 275, where the same vehicle is
called ifia^a and air-nvri) from the ' AiTr\vt\ ;
and besides its use in husbandry, was employed
for carrying goods (in II. xxiv. 711 Priam
transports Hector's corpse upon an a/xa^a), for
travelling (Hdt. i. 31), for the use of the bride
in weddings, in processions, &c. See below,
'ApM.d^.a|a.
'A-n-TivTi. A four-wheeled (Hom. i7. xxiv. 324)
carriage drawn by mules {Od. vi. 72) or horses
(Soph. O.T. 802) ; see Plaustrum.
A'rcera. a covered carriage or litter, with
cloths, which was used in ancient times in
Rome, to carry the aged and infirm. It is men-
tioned in the Twelve Tables.
Arcua'tus CURRUS. A carriage with an
arched awning, used by the fiamines (Liv. i. 21).
Benna. a Gaulish name (cf. Cato, li. li.
23, 2; Fest. s.v.) for a waggon of basket-work
disregarded. The Lex lulia Municipab's, 45 B.C.,
forbade the use even of carts and •waggons
within the walls and for a mile beyond them,
except at night. The Vestals, rex sacrorurn,
andjiamines are specially exempted under this
law. Even Messalina and Agrippina only used
the carpentum in the city by special vote of the
senate (Tac. An7i. xii. 43). Subsequently, the
use of state carriages was conceded to high
officials, such as the praefectus praetorio,
provincial governors and their legati ; and later
still, all restrictions on driving within the city'
were removed. In the country it had always
been free.
The carpentum of later times was a luxurious
carriage, used for travelling purposes and also
Fig. 439.— Benna. (From the Column of Antoninus.)
(still called benna in Italy, henne in South
Germany, and banne in Belgium and France).
Ca'mara (Ka/xapa). A covered carriage prob-
ably much the same as apij.(i/j.a^a (Hdt. i. 199).
The word is properlj applied, like aKr)v'f\ (Xen.
Cyr. vi. 4, 11) to the tilt or awning of the
carriage.
Carpentum. A two-wheeled carriage with
an arched covering or tilt [Camara]. The
currus arcuatus assigned by Numa to the
flamines (Liv. i. 21) is no doubt the same as
the carpentum mentioned by Livy (i. 34, 48),
the use of which in the city was forbidden
during the whole of the Republic and for the
first two centuries of the Empire. See Pliny
(vii. § 141) for an exception granted to L. Metel-
lus, 241 B.C., and another in the case of Roman
Fig. 440.— Carpentum. (From a coin of Caligula.)
ladies (matronae), Liv. v. 25. Tliis prohibition
applied to all Italian towns, but it was often
Fig. 441.— Carpentum. (From a relief in the British
Museum.)
for state occasions (Juv. viii. 147, ix. 132 ; Prop.
V. 8, 23). It was commonly drawn by a pair of
mules, more rarely by oxen or horses.
The caiTiage represented in fig. 441 is pro-
bably also a carpentma; and, like fig. 440, a
funeral car.
Carpenta, or covered waggons, were used by
the Britons and other northern nations.
Carru'ca. A carriage used in imperial times
(Plin. xxxiii. 49). Like the Reda, it was a
travelling carriage on four wheels (Mart. iii. 47j
Suet. Ner. 30). These carriages were som^
times ornamented with plates of bronze, silv^,
or even gold (Plin. I.e. ; Mart. iii. 62).
C.\RRUM or Carrus. a Gaulish name for a
cart, waggon, or trrck with two or four v^eels,
closed or open at tl e sides.
Ci'siuM. A gig, i.e. a light open carriage
with two wheels, adapted to carry two persons
rapidly from place .ft.*-
place. It had a box or
case, probably under the
seat. Cisia were drawn
by one or oftener two
horses or mules (Verg.
Catal. viii. 3 ; Cic. Phil.
ii. 31, § 77), and were
kept for hire at the sta- Fig- 442.-cisium. (From
,. ^ 1 .V X monument at Igel,
tions along the great near Treves.)
roads.
The conductors of these hired gigs were
called cisiarii, and were subject to penalties
for careless or dangerous driving.
Covi'nus or Covi'nnus (Celtic kowain). (1) A
kind of car, the spokes of which were armed
with long sickles, and which was used as a
scythe-chariot chiefly by the ancient Belgians
and Britons (Lucan, i. 426). It appears to
have been occupiedby one man. Tacitus (.^^fr.
35) speaks of covinnarii as a regular part of a
British army.
(2) A kind of travelling carriage, which had
no seat for a driver, but was conducted by the
CURRUS
traveller himself, who sat inside (Mart. xii. 24).
[See EssEDUJi.]
E'ssKDUM, rarely E'eseda -ae (Sen. Ep. 56,
§ 4) : said to be a Celt if word. (1 ) A chariot used,
especially in war, by the Britons, Gauls and
Belgae, and Germans (Verg. Georg. iii. 204 ;
Pars. vi. 47).-^"*"%.
According to the ftAi^cconnt given by Caesar
(B. G. iv. 88), the e'-st-dum was of solid
construction and open in front; lu-iict' the
driver was able to run along the pole to throw
the spear (Juv. iv. 12()) and tlien retreat into
the body of the car, while at full speed. These
cars were purposely nuide to drive with as
tXhch noise as possible (Tac. Af/r. 3.")), in
(tlder to strike dismay into the enemy. There
were about 4000 esseilarii in the army of
Cassibelaunus (Caes. B. G. v. 19 ; cf. iv. 24).
The driver of the car ranked above his fighting
companion, the reverse of the Greek usage (Tac.
Agr. 12). The British esseda do not appear to
have been furnished with scythes, as commonly
stated.
(2) The name of essedum was given to a kind
of travelling carriage among the Romans (Prop.
ii. 1,70; Cic. Att. vi. 1, ritil. ii. 24, «> 5«).
The traveller drove himself, and always, it
would seem, with a pair of horses. The esse-
duiu, like the cisiuin, was kept for hire iit the
IHist-liouses or stations (Mart. x. 104). i Mansio ;
Cursus publicus.J
'Apixo.J'.a-ga, compounded of ap/ua andfi^a|a.
A four-wheeled waggon : a carriage in its con-
struction very similar to the Caupentim,
being covered overhead and enclosed with
curtains (ffKi)vi), Xen. Ciir. vi. 4, § 11), so as
t-o be used at night as well as by day; but it
\\.is in general Inrgir, dftcn driiwn,.tiy four
horses, and ornanientod i% the C)riental style
(Ar. ^c7j. 70). It was used by the P'Tsmns, espe-
cially upon state occasions, for tlie L-miveyance
of women and children, eunucljs, and the
sons of the king (Hdt. vii. 83, Ik. 76; Xen.
Cyr. iii. 1, § 8) ; and as a travelliug carriage :
a,g. by Xerxes on his march to Greece ; as a
funeral car (that of Alexander wafi a magnifi-
cent instance) ; by priestesses and other ladies
inflareece. (Hdt. vii. 41 ; Xen. Cyr. iii. 1,§40.)
Pe^o'kritvm or I'ETo'RrTi m. A four-wheeled
carriage, which, like the Es8El IM was adopted
by the Romans from the G^uils (Plin. xxxiv. §
163). Its name is derives from the Celtic pet-
vnr <\T petuite, 'four,' tyid rit, 'a wheel.' It
differed from t?5j Bel)** being of rougher and
commoner consirBttion, and in having no cover,
and was often used to convey tlie household of
servants on journeys (Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 192).
Pile'ntl'M. a state fo;ir-wlieeled carriage
with cushions, which conveyed the Roman
matrons, flamines (Liv. i. 21), and Vestals in
sacred processions and to the public games
(Verg. Acn. viii. 666 ; Hor. Ej). ii. 1, 192). For
the origin of this distinction, see Liv. v. 25. It
had a covered roof (ns a riirriis a)Tii(itu.s) simi-
lar no doul>t in sha))e to that wliicli is rei)re-
sented in the woodcut of Lectica (see also
under Cahpentim); but was open all round.
The well, or body of the carriage, was called
area or capsiis ; hero w«'re jilaced cushions for
the occupants, and also any sacred vessels
which they were conveying. Pilentum is dis-
tinguished from carjientum by having four
wheels, and not being covered in with curtains
at the sides.
Plavstkim or Pi.ostrim. A cart or waggon.
The plaustrum, strictly so called, was a heavy
two-wheeled cart : tie four-wheeled waggon |
CURSORES
223
was properly distinguished as plaustrutn mains
(Cato, Ii. Ii. X. 2). The plaustrum was a plat-
form of boards, with a strong pole projecting
from it, fastened upon a pair of wheels and
j Fig. 44.S.— Plaustrum. (From a Roman bas-roUef. Glnxrot.)
axle. On this might bo placed upright boards,
forming sides to the platform (vireprfpla, Horn.
Od. vi. 70; Plat. Tlimet. p. 270 a), or open-
work rails (palae, Varr. L. L. v. 140, like the
German leiterwagen) ; or a large wicker basket
(srirpea, Treipivs) was fastened on the plat-
form.
The jvlieels ordinarily had no spokes (Verg.
Gcorg. i. KiS), but were solid, of the kind called
tijmpana or 'drums,' nearly a foot in thickness,
and made either by sawing them whole from
the trunk of a tree, or by nailing boards to-
gether. These wheels were fastened to, and
tumed with, the axle, which moved witl;in
wooden rings or blocks (arbtisculae, afia^6-
TToSes) attached to the nnder-side of the plat-
form (Verg. Gcorg. ii. 444, iii. 536. .-IfH. xi. 138).
One use of the arbuscula was to unite the axle
of the forewheels to the body of the chariot,
the block turning horizontally in every direction,
so that the arbuscula and the wheel together
formed a castor or universal joint. Plaustra
I were drawn usually by oxen, but sometimes by
mules. The j)lausfrii»i Diaius, or four-wheeled
waggon, had sometimes solid wheels, sometimes
spoked wheels, and sometimes also a body of
' o}>en-work rails (polar).
The Greek "A^aga corresponded both to tlie
plaustrum and the plaustrum mains.
Reda. a large carriage with four wheels;
commonly used as a travelling carriage (Cic
Mil. 10, 28. Att. V. 17; Hor. Sat. i. 5, 86,
ii. 6, 42), by Romans who could afford it, for
rapid travelling ; it held several persons; prob
ably it had a cover, and several seats like a
chari'i-bancs; it also carried luggage (Juv. iii.
10; Mart. iii. 47). Like the Covims and
EssEDiM, it was of Gallic origin, modified in
shape. It was drawn by two horses usually,
but sometimes by four. There were also rediie
as hired carriages {nirritoriae. Suet. /«/. 57) ;
and in the later Empire as government stage-
coaches ijiscalis reda) [Cursus publicusl
Epiredia (Juv. viii. 66) were pr<ilml)ly traces. '
Sarra'cum. a kind of eonnnon cart or
waggon, used by the country jx-ople of Italy
(Juv. iii. 254). The name is su|>i>osed to bo of
barbarian origin. The difference between
sarracum and plaustrum is not dear; both
alike were formed with two wheels as well
as with four; j.erliaps the sarracum was
larger and heavier than the plaustrum.
Curso'res. (1) Slaves (fre.piently Xumidian)
who run before the carriage of their masters as
running font men. They appear to huve first
come into fashion in the first century of tlie
Christian era. (."Mart. iii. 47, xii. 24- Suet
i^cro, 80.) '
224 CURSUS
(2) Messengers or courierjf triumph (Juv.
Tit. 9 ; Mart. iii. 100 ; Tac.
publicus.] junt of the various
(3j Runners in the fo'used in antiquity.
CURRUS
disregarded. TheLexIulia Municipals, 45 B.C.,
forbade the use even of carts and -waggons
within the walls and for a mile beyond them
except at night. The Vestals, rex sacrorum
Pont. iii. 9 20). .orresponds both to the ■ and"^a?«meAre spVcFally exempted underThS
„ "!?/l_^„^?-^J T^ lustrum mams, waggon : law. Even Messalina and Agrippina only used
the most primitive ^eeled a/xa|a is mentioned
759 sqr .' We i .420; Hes. Op. 092; Hdt.
foot-raciii^ : , differed little (if at all ; cf.
(a) The aral where the same vehicle is
which the rum aiT-f]vy)) from the 'AirTivn ;
! in husbandry, was employed
p Js (in II. xxiv. 711 Priam
5 corpse upon an afxa^a), for
\ 1), for the use of the bride
^~ processions, &c. See below,
•wheeled (Horn. Tl. xxiv. 324)
(Od. vi. 72) or horses
•Strum.
riage or litter, with
ancient times in
I infirm. It is men-
the carpentum in the city by special vote of the
senate (Tac. Ami. xii. 43). Subsequently, the
use of state carriages was conceded to high
officials, such as the praefectus praetorio,
provincial governors and their legati ; and later
still, all restrictions on driving within the city'
were removed. In the country it had always
been free.
The carpentum of later times was a luxurious
carriage, used for travelling purposes and also
^
F'g. 444.-1. The Sta'
arena in a direct line '
from one extremity
as measured by t'le C
standard, was about Ov
goal of the race was the
kindled. Here stood tl ;
as umpire), and delivered a
carriage witii an
■UP' t s (Liv. i. 21).
'W. ^ato «- B.
!8ta 'V" ' ■ »-
t(r .-27- .
•, p ;par .d'buti not
st ^who acted also
rch t'' ':he vinner,
hailed as
who lit the sacred fire, and
Olympionikes.
(6) In the Siav\as, or double course (see
Stadium) the runners (SfauAoSptJyuot) turned
round a post {Ka/xnTrtp) and ran back to their
starting-point. Hence it was called Sp6fios
Ka/uirfios (from Kafxiri) = flexiis).
ic) The f(p'nnrtos or '{iririos (Eur. Elect. 825)
■was a foot-race of sufficient length to try the
power of a horae. It was four stades in length.
(») The true test of staying power, however,
was the S6\txos or long race (fig. 445). The
Fig. 445.-2. The DoUchoe. (Krause.)
length of this race is variously given as from
7 to 24 stades.
Fig. 446.— S. The Armed-race. (Krause.)
In the more ancient times runners, like other
athletes, contended at the games wearing a
girdle {Std.((o/.ia, subligaculum) around the
I SuMt 'il.-Carpentuin. (From a relief In the British
I r O ' Museum.)
Hipp
I Cui ' occasions (Juv. viii. 147, ix. 132; Prop.
Cur 1 It ^^as commonly drawn by a pair of
I ciis. — 'i^ore rarely by oxen or horses.
; of Hys rriaga represented in fig. 441 is pro-
regular *5 a carpentum; and, like fig. 440, a
viii. 98)."- '
(cf. St. M ■'-> *■ covered waggons, were used by
&yyapoi a *<1 other northern nations.
In Greec ■ -A- carriage used in imperial times
service, at . f 9)- Like the Reda, it was a
trained rnxt '"age on four wheels (Mart. iii. 47;
A postal i^)- These carriages were som^
Empire whi "ted with plates of bronze, silver,
of state adm ^^^- ^-c- '> Mart. iii. 62).
the beginning. ^'^i^KUS. A Gaulish name for a
connecting tl/ *Ti'ck with two or four wheels,
with Rome ; whV* sides,
marching of troop V" ^ light open c^'xiage
poses of transport. ^A to carry t,w,y^ rJOJjs-
public or military roaW ^'\. >.' i^
general purposes by 'xll cla^^ of
communication were organised by the govern-
ment, but the letters and parcels were trans-
mitted by soldiers and other messengers : such
were snatores and specidatores (horse-messen-
gers) ; and tabellarii, cursores, statores, slaves
and freedmen, who carried private letters.
The great increase of commerce during the
last centuries of the Repubhc, and the vast
organisations of the publicani, who had to
transmit large sums of money to great dis-
tances, introduced some method into public
means of communication {publicanorum tabel-
larii, Cic. Att. V. 10). Traders by land and sea
undertook the transport of private letters and
imrcels. But till Augustus private enterprise
fumislied tlie only means of communication.
For public communications, the expenses
were furnished by the state— mules, tents, &c.
In each town were parochi or copiarii, who,
by the Lex lulia (59 B.C.), were bound to
furnish lodgings, mattresses, firewood, salt, and
hay (Hor. Sat. i. 5, 46). Post-horses and mules
was properly distil. , , , , ,
(Cato, B. M. X. 2). "^^^"^ paiTlmient,
form of boards, witi"^ fK"'^^"'"*-; ^,.
from it, fastened upo°^ J'*'*"'"^ {cL'ertu,) ^nch
^ ny very sparmgly to
r^r'^--'-5i':''^'^f,A
Fig. ■143.— Plaustrum. (From a Romar ^
CURRUS
traveller himself, who sat inside (Mart. sii. 24).
[See EssEDUJi.J
E'ssEDUM, rarely E'sseda -ae (Sen. Ep. 56,
§ 4) : said to be a Celtic word. (1) A chariot used,
especially in war, by tlie Britons, Gauls and
Belgae, and Germans (Verg. Georg. iii. 204 ;
Pers. vi. 47). .'•^"^
According to the fuB*,ccount given by Caesar
(B. G. iv. 83), the essedum was of solid
construction and open in front ; hence the
driver was able to run along the pole to throw
the spear (Juv. iv. 12(>) and then retreat into
the body of the car, while at full speed. These
cars were purposely made to drive with as
xtfixch. noise as possible (Tac. Agr. So), in
jrder to strike dismay into the enemy. There
were about 4000 essedarii in the army of
Cassibelaunus (Caes. B. G. v. 19 ; cf. iv. 24).
The drivei- of the car ranked above his fighting
companion, the reverse of the Greek usage (Tac. axle. On this might b'
Agr. 12). The British esseda do not appear to forming sides to the pi ,-arttiria
have been furnished with scythes, as commonly Od. vi. 70 ; Plat. Th ' ' '
stated. work rails [palae, V
(2) The name of essedum was given to a kind German leiterwagen^
of travelling carriage among the Romans (Prop. I (scirpea, ireipivs) wa
ii. 1,76; Cic. Att. vi. 1, Fhil. ii. 24, § 58). "
The traveller drove himself, and always, it
would seem, with a pair of horses. The esse-
dum, like the cisium, was kept for hire i ^jj- '
post-houses or stations (Mart. s. 104). [Mf
CarsuB publicas.J
'Apixd^jLaga, compounded of apfxa audi
A four-wheeled waggon : a carriage in it ,„
struction very similar to the C^uipe ^^f.^
being covered overhead and enclosed ^^^,^^
curtains (ffKy\uy], Xen. Cyr. vi. 4, § 11). ,,,„,.
to be used at night as well as by day; ,„tjev
was in general larger, often druwn
225
and bore
nder the
He emperor himself
called t. (Jiplo-
heUariorum at
entui Viwards
_ conw'bl of the
fer officiofum.
es and'»(«;)-
procu at ores
"hey each in
• over the post
•ants {f am ilia)
«ed artificers
form.
The wheels Xen^
^'' "■-", ^ote
...-, L),. J only )n si
lo- I pdrtant cifes • p-,
ice, I tended over sea by
ns- : naval Liardi •'.itaoit. i.
)rhap'~ st'M
•) ' l3'tLL"
'/. ') 1-1 virtue
(sc Utterae))^
tional ci cimstaii'. c's.
icli they lound t.hem-
Drovide traveller.-! thus
wood, oil, and salt, all
^er the general term
J
vfffiedx)!! all the public
• Uiiled to the most im-
.»j The cursiiti was ex-
, vb jiiihUcae, which the
anri) placed at the service
of imperial r«.jA*ageb O; transports.
The postal service included the ciirsus velox
or celer, and the curmts clahularis {tardus).
The animals (animalia, iuine)ita piihUca) em-
ployed ill tlie iiostal service were horses, mules,
/itioiis , asses, oxen, and camels. The horses of a iiunisio
horses, and ornamented m the Onen' ,i,.ers, | {equi pvhUci or cursuales) wert not allowed to
(Ar^c7..70)^Itwasusedbytlu_ri..su es, be used in the service of private individual!
cially upon state occasions, for th^ 'fy,/o,„«). The horses (veredi) used in the cursus vrlox
of women and children, eunucl
sons of the king (Hdt. i
Cyr. iii. 1, § 8) ; and as a travellii j]
t lu 1- /-LTii •• oo • "'-s were I were generally procured from Spain. Thev
sons of the king (Hdt. vn. 83, i: „ t^ tlip i woi-o „,,.i,.-,+^,ii„.,„ ,..7 ...,■• 1 1" • •
- ° - '--- - to ine weie mounteu by vercdaru, or public couriers,
, „ ,. , , n ■-^' ^°^^' '''"'^^^ carried their despatches in saddle-ba^^s
fti,. by Xerxes on h.s march to G u, other ' placed behind them (a Jr<a). Each veredari, 7s,
fVieralcar(thatof Alexander was /„ I ,,ere | if his baggage was heavy, was entitled to
ce^tmstance); by priestesses and.tter post- I a second horse {parhippus or avertarial),
mOreece. (Hdt. vii. 41 ; Xen. C?/ h,,h were i mounted by a postillion from the station, wh
PeTo rritum or Peto ritim. A,es. Days' was charged to bring both horses back t^ the
wl?*^ " \ '' ^ 'f ^r'^' "''""'''' ^« ' P°'"t »f departure. The horses were furnished
by he Romans from the Gr...,,enses of con- i with a cloth {stragula vesUs), or with a pad
163). Tts name IS derive, .cations had to Ik ' ' • -^ •' " "•»"''
n c. 'tr, 'four.' ai eoiunuinities. Th:
t ''eE.
(cj'/iippiii/n).
The cur.sKs celer employed not only vei-edi or
keep the stables in riding-horses, but also vehicles of several sorts
repi. , ^ Mr . 1 vices of muleteers (see Currus, RiioA, C.akpentvm, Cauuvc\
(niuhones), mule-do. t..i>, unuhmiedici), wheel- , Cisium). ' '
m-ights (carpentarii), grooms Utippocomi), and - For the cursiis clahularis (or cursus tardus)
conductors or guards (relanihim). Measures or heavy transport service, for conveyance of
were taken from time to time to relieve the heavy baggage (chiefly militan-), large fourgons
burdened districts by Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, i (chihulac) were used. The c/flt«/«f-, also tailed
and other emperors. But the decuriones of the rt;,,9«r/rtf, were four-wheeled waggons di-awii
towns still levied requisitions on the praedia, bv mules or oxen, seldom by horses
nor did any subsequent legislation materially The working expenses of the post such as
alleviate the burden with which the cursus
pressed upon them.
Organisation of Cursus pnblicus. — The
emperor retained in his own hands the supreme
direction of the post. Augustus placed it in the
the maintenance of stations, though nomiiialh
chargeable to the imp.'rial Jisru.s, fell in part
iil>oii the provincials. Service, too, along the
lateral routes was always, and as a matter of
course, a burden upon tlie communities. This
cities, assisted by their own ofliciuls, had tiie thisnatun
duty of making arrangements for the cursus. ' The emperor from time to time formulated
W arrants for the use of the post (diplomata) ordinances {coiistitutiours} regulating the postal
were issued either by the emperor himself, or sen-ice. All the officers of the post were tin-
under order from htm by a special officer, emperor's delegates ; the series of subordinated
226
CUSTODES
authorities closed with the mancipes or prae-
jjositi.
It is to be observed that the imperial
postal system was intended to serve political
and military ends. It never was, like the
modem post, a source of benefit, but always a
burden, to the subjects of the empire.
Custo'des, Custb'diae. [Castra.]
Custo'dia. See Appendix, Rom.\n Law.
Gustos Urbis. [Praefectus Urbi.]
Cy'athus (Kvados). (l) [Pottery.]
(2) A measure of capacity, = 5 of the kotuXtj
(Tables, X.)
KvKtuv (kvkw). a mixture, of medicinal or
magical effect, composed of water, flour, and
herbs (Hom. Hi/mn. Cer. v. 206). 'In the Eleu-
sinian mysteries (of which it formed a part),
it was made of wine, water, honey, flour, and
grated clieese. The Homeric KVKedv ill. xi. 641 1
is of Pramneian wine, goat's cheese, and meal ;
and honey {Od. x. 234). ;
Cyli'ndrus (KvAivSpos). (1) A roller, used in '
agriculture for levelling and consolidating the
ground (Verg. Georg. i. 178). (2) A precious
stone cut or ground in a cylindrical form (.Iu\-.
ii. 61).
Cylix (kvKi^). Pottery.]
Cyma, Cyma'tium (/ct5/xa, Kv^iinov), in archi-
tecture, an ogee, a wave-shaped moulding, con-
sisting of two curves, the one concave and the |
otlier convex. There were two forms, the cyma
recta {a) concave above, and the
ci/ma reversa (b) concave V)elow.
The diminutive cyinatium or
cumatium (/cu/uaTioj/) isthe more
common name. Tlie original
form of the cymntimii was, how-
ever, a simple hollow [cavetto).
This was called the cymatmm
Doricum, and the other the cy-
onatiuni Leshium (Aesch. Fr. 70; Vitr. iii. 5, §
7, &c.). Cymatium also means the volute of
an Ionic capital (Vitr. iii. 5, 7). [Architectura.]
Cymba. fCumba.]
Cy 'mbalum (Kvixfia\ov). A musical instrument
consisting of two half globes, which were played
by being struck against each other. Some were
altogether without
handles; others had
a hole through
which a cord or
strap was passed ;
others a ring or a
Pig. 447.— Cyma
<i, recta.
b, reversa.
Fig. 450.— Cymbala. (From a
bas-relief in the Vatican.)
Fig. 448.— Cymbalum.
(Ricli.)
solid knob by way of
handle. [Crotalum.]
The cymbal was
a very ancient in-
strument, and un-
questionably came
from the East.
Among the Greeks
and Romans thev
Fig. 449.— Dancing Faun.
(Ficoroni.)
were especially used in orgiastic rites of Eastern
origin, like those of Cybele (Lucret. ii. 618 ;
Catull. Ixiii. 29 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 64), Dionysus
(Liv. xxxix. 8 fin. 10), and in the Eleusinian
DALMATICA
mysteries (Pind. Isthm. vi. 3). The cjTnbal
and the tympanum were often used together.
As with the cfo-
taliim, the per-
formers repre-
sented on works of
art are mostly fe-
males. See the
following figure of
a cymbalistria.
Kpovwe(^ai or
KpovTTi^ia, Lat.
scabella or sca-
bilhi, were wooden
shoes, used to beat
time with the foot,
and perhaps had
rattles or bells at-
tached to them to
make a jingling,
like the Tympa-
num or tambourine
(Cic. Cfle/.27,§65).
'0^v$a<f>a and ko-
rvKai were probably small cup-shaped cymbala
(See figs. 448, 449.)
Cy'mbium. [Pottery.]
KvpPcig. ["Agoves-l
D.
Dactyliothe'ca. (1) (Ao/ctwAioOtj/ctj), a case
or box for keeping rings (Mart. xi. 59). The
lid was sometimes furnished with an upright
pin, on which the rings could be strung. (2) A
cabinet or collection of jewels (Plin. xxxvii.
§11);
AdKTv\os. A Greek measure, answering to
the Roman tligitus, each signifying a finger-
breadth, and being the
sixteentii part of a foot.
(See Tables, I.)
AaiSaXa, AaiSdXcia.
A term applied to the
earliest iconic representa-
tions of the gods roughly
hewn out of wood ( = the
later ^oavou). The imme-
diate predecessor of the
SaiSaKou was a squared
beam or flat board draped
and decorated. Cai-yed in
shallow relief, with hoinan
foi-m, tlie plank became a
SaiSaKov; or later, with
head, hands, and feet of
marble adjusted, an acro-
lith of archaic type. The
more naturalistic concep-
tion of the later ^oavov is
ascribed to Daedalus.
Such loaj/a were a Brito-
martis at Olus in Crete,
a Herakles at Corinth,
another at Thebes, all
recorded by Pausanias.
Evidence to the develop-
ment from wood-carving
is also given by wood
technique in marbles,
terracotta, from graves,
coins, &c. A story con-
nected with one of these
figures gave rise to the Plataean festival Ao/-
5a/Va (Pans. ix. 3, § 1).
Dalma'tica, or Delma'tica. [Dress.]
Fig. 4.51.— Hera ol
Samos. Louvro.
(Murray's Arehieolofiy.')
DAMNU:\I
Damnum ; Damnum infe'ctum ; Damnum
iniuria datum. St-e Aiipendix, Human Law.
AajiOCTia (so. (tk7)V7)). Tlie toil of tlic Si)ar-
tan kings in the field, ' head-quarters,' like the
hsaim praetor i am ; usually in the phrase oi irtpi
rill' Sa/j-oaiav, iha ' sl;iff ' or personal suite (Xen.
Hell. iv. 5, § 8). Thja must be distinguished
from the iTvffKrivoi or ll^nt-comrades, who, how-
ever, wer^ incluiled in it, and from the Thirty
who formed the king's body-guard in action.
The' ffvffKrii'ot were the si.Y polenuirehs, and
tiiree ifioioi or Spartans of full civic rank : to
the;i© Xenophon adds the two HiJGioi nonii-
nj^d by tlie king. Besides these, the damosia
(Comprised the heads of tlie diviners, army sur-
f?eons, and musicians.
Aa4;vTn({)opLa. A festival celebrated every
ninth year at Thebes in honour of Apollo, sur-
named Ismenius or (Valaxius. Its name wa-s
derived from the laurel branches {Sd<t)pat) which
V.I 're carried by those who took part in its cele-
bialioii. A piece of olivewood, called Kwirdi),
w;is adorned with many garlands of laurel and
tlowers, and had suspended from it globes, repre-
si'uting the heavenly bodies. At the head of
the procession walked a youth of high birth and
noble appearance, chosen yearly as jjriest of
Ajiollo or ^a<pvi]<p6pos. He bore the kwitw, and
was splendidly attired. Behind him came a
choir of maidens with boughs in their hands
and singing hymns. In this manner the jiro-
cession went to the temple of Apollo Ismenius
or Galaxius, where bronze tripods were conse-
crated. A similar festival was observed at
Delphi and at Athens.
Dari'cus. rCoinage.]
AaTTirat. See Ajijjendix, Orekk L.\w.
Dealba'tor. [Panes.]
AcKaSapxCa. AcKapyia. A council or go-
vernment of Ten. (1| In Thessaly, established
by Philip, 3.52 h.c. [;1) After the Peloponnesian
War, established in many Greek cities by the
Lacedaemonians, who entrusted to it the whole
{government of the state under the direction of
a Spartan harmost. It always consisted of the
leading members of the aristocratical ]iartv.
(Xen. Hdl. vi. 3, § 8; Plut. Lys. 5 and 13.)
['ApM.OCTTiis ('2).J
AtKaapios. See Apiieudix, CIkkkk L.\w.
Dece'mpeda. [Actus; Agrimensores.]
Decern primi. (l) The Ten First of the
Roman Senat* were originally the heads of the
-lecuries into which the senate of one hundred
Kannies was divided. They took the office of
Interrex by turns (Li v. i. 17). The first in rank
among them was the prin(Pj)s seiiutiis, who was
appointed by the king, and was at the same
lime custos urbis. In the early republican
period the decern primi seem to have been the
consulars of the greater houses in order of
seniority, then those of the lesser houses.
When the censors acquired the power of
nominating the senators, the decern primi were
simply the first ten named by them; this choice
was usually exercised according to merit. (See
Liv. xxix. 37, § 1.)
(2) In municipal senates we constantly find a
committee, generally of ten, chosen out of the
larger body. We find this institution in Latium
as early as the great Latin War of 340 ii.c. (Liv.
viii. 3, § 8).
(3) Wherever there was an ordo, Roman or-
ganisation seems to have involved the appoint-
ment of ten, or sometimes six, pruni : e.ff. among
apparitores, lictorea, and jiraccoues, in priestly
colleges. (See Augustales.) [Lex XII Tabu-
larom.]
DECOCTOR 227
Dece'mviri, the Ten Men, the name of
\aiious magistrates and functionaries at Home.
(1) Dkcemvibi CoNsuLABi Imi'ekio Legibus
ScBiBENDis, appointed -J .01 B.C. For an account
of their administration, see the histories.
(2j Dix'EMVjKi LiTihVs or Stlitibus Iiidi-
CA.NDis. See Appendix, Ro.m.\n Law.
(3) Decemvuu S.^ckis Faciundis or Sacro-
RU.M were the members of an ecclesiastical
collegium, and were elected for life. Their
diief <luty was to take care of the Sibylline
books (Liv. vii. 27 ; cf. Verg. Acn. vi. 73). Under
th<' kings the care of the Sibylline books was
committed to two men (duoviri) of high rank.
Their number was increased in the year 307 b.c.
to ten, five patricians and five plebeians (Liv.
vi. 37, 42) ; and later to fifteen (quindecimviri
sacrorum).
It was also the duty of the decemviri to
celebrate the games of Apollo (Liv. x. 8), and
the secular games (Tac. Ann. xi. 11 ; Hor. Cann.
Saec. 7(1). They were, in fact, considered as
priests of Apollo.
Of the ten members of the college two were
iiui(jistri, one a patrician, one a plebeian.
I Sibyllini libri.j
Decenna'lia or Dece'nnia. A festival cele-
laated witii games every ten years by the
Roman emperors, in commemoration of the
fact that Augustus refused the supreme power
when offered to him for his life, and would only
consent to accept it for ten years at a time.
The memory of this comedy was preserved to
the last ages of the Empire by the festival of
the Dr mm alia.
Decima'tio. The selection, by lot, of every
tenth man for capital punisliment, when any
number of soldiers in the Roman army had
been guilty of certain military offences, such as
cowardice, loss of standards in action, ormutiny.
Tills punishment is not often mentioned in the
early times of the Republic ; but the case oi
the consul App. Claudius and his mutinous
army, 471 B.C., is recorded by Livy (ii. r>9).
Polybius notices it as usual when troops had
given way to panic ; the remainder were
punished by having rations of barley instead oi
wheat served out to them, and by being made
to lodge outside the camp (vi. 38). Having
fallen into disuse (Plut. Crass. 10 ; cf. App. B.
('. i. 118), it once more became common in the
civil wars (Suet. Aug. 24; cf. Cic. Cluent.
4t), § 128), and was retained under the Empire
(Tac. Hi.st. i.37). Sometimes only the twentieth
man was punished (vicesiinatio), or the hun-
dredtli (iriilcsutiatio).
Declama'tio. A term which came into use
first in Cicero's time (Brut. 90, 310) for the
rhetorical exercises employed in the training
of orators. These were of two kinds: («) sua-
soriar; {b) cuntroversiac. The former were
based upon some historical or legendary theme,
and di'alt with the commonplaces of philosoi)h\
I Tuv. i. 10 ; Pers. iii. 45). These were thought to
be suitable for beginners, as not recjuiriiig any
wide or minute knowledge of law (Tac. Dial.
35). The latter dealt with legal (juestions, and
took the form of the discussion of an imaginary
case, such as might arise in the courts. TJie.
rage for declamation was at its height during
the first century of the Empire. (See Juv. i. 16,
vii. 150-170, and Mayor's notes.) [BhetOr.j
Decoc'tor, a bankrupt (Plin. xxxiii. § 144),
was used in popular language to signify any
spendthrift (cf. Cic. Phil. ii. IH). The Romans
were a frugal people, and spendthrifts were not
only condemned by public opinion (Catull. xli.
228
DECRETUM
4 ; Cic. Cat. ii. 3, 5 ; Sen. Ep. 36, 5, de Ben.
iv. 26, 3j, but liable to be punished by the cen-
sors with the notu ceiisoria, which carried with
it certain disabilities. [Censor.] By the Lex
Roscia (67 B.C.) a certain place in the theatre
w.iti assigned to decoctores (Cic. Phil. ii. 18, 44 ;
J, IV. iii. 153). (See Appendix, Roman L.\\v,
Nexum; Bonorum cessio.) Another word in
common use was coiiturbare (i.e. rationes).
(Cic. Plane. 68 ; Mart. ix. 4, 5, vii. 27, 9 ; Juv.
vii. 1'29.) Deficere is to fail (Juv. I. c).
Decre'tum. See Appendix, Roman Law.
De'cumae (SeK-aTTj). Tithes or tenths.
1. Greek. The G-reek writers use the word
SeKOLTr] somewhat loosely, applying it to a tithe
of agricultural jiroducts or to any tax of 10 per
cent, on incomes or commodities. It is not im-
probable that the institution of tithes dates
back to tlie heroic age ; but we liave no positive
evidence to this effect. The refxevr) or domain
lands by which royalty was supported must
unquestionably have paid rents in kind, bvit
wlietlier a fixed or a proportionate quantity of
produce is not recorded. Under the Spartan
constitution the subject classes paid a fixed
amount of corn and other produce, calculated
on an average crop, the Helots to their masters,
the Perioeki to the state ; so that all the risks
of bad seasons fell upon the cultivators. Tithes
were exacted from very early times in the East,
by Persian satraps ; and in the age of the
tyrants were doubtless not unusual in Greece :
e.g. Kypseius compelled the Corinthians to make
areturn {a.-n-oypi^a<rdai), and took a tithe for ten
years. Peisistratus imposed a tithe ('A9. iroA.
c. 16), and his sons a half-tithe (et'/cooTTJ), on the
produce of the Attic soil. Republican feeling
was, however, both at Athens and elsewhere,
strongly against this form of taxation, as applied
to the lands of citizens (cf. Dem. c. Androt. p.
617, § 77).
( 1 ) Tithes due to temples. — Tliese were some-
times voluntary offerings ; thus the airapx'^^ o^
' fir.st-fruits ' might amount to a tithe, like the
SeicaTr](p6poL airapxa.!- (Call. Hi/mn. in Del. 278)
paid to the Delian Apollo. Again, a proprietor
might, from religious or prudential motives,
charge his land in perpetuity with the payment
of tithe to a specified temple.
Such tithes were sometimes imposed as a
badge of conquest. Thus at the time of the
Peisian war the confederate Greeks made a
vow that those who had joined the enemy with-
out compulsion should pay tithes to the god of
Delphi (Hdt. vii. 132). At Athens the SeKarai
T^s deov (Dem. c. Tiinocr. p. 738, § 128) com-
prised a tithe of the spoils of war, of certain
fines, and either of all or a large proportion of
confiscated property. (See Appendix, Greek
L.AW, Ariji-LOTrpaxa : na)\T|Tai.)
At Rome, as in Greece, we find from a very
early x^eriod tithes of the spoil dedicated to the
gods after important victories (Liv. v. 21). In
later times ambitious men dedicated a tenth to
Hercules, and spent the money in feasting the
people as a means of acquiring popularity (Plut.
Sull. 85, Grass. 2).
(2) Transit dues. — A SeKarr) or tenth was the
arbitrary exaction imposed by the Athenians on
the cargoes of all ships sailing into or out of the
Pontus. After Aegospotami it came to an end,
but was re-established by Tiirasybulus about
3i)0 ; in the time of Demosthenes we find it
again existing whenever Athenian commanders
were strong enough to enforce it (c. Lept. p. 475,
§ 60).
These taxes, like others, were farmed out by
DECUMAE
the Athenians : the contractors were called
SfKardvai, 5eKaTr)K6yoi, and SfKarevTai. The
special custom-house for these tithes was SfKa-
revTY.piov.
2. Roman. The nature of the Roman state
or domain land (ager pithlicusj has been ex-
plained under Agrariae leges. We may here
briefly repeat that these lands were the con-
fiscated territory of conquered enemies ; that
they were dealt with in four different ways,
either (1) sold by the quaestor (agri qnaestorii).
(2) granted in full (quiritarian) ownership to
Roman citizens [agri dati adsig)iati), (3) given
back to their former proprietors (agri redditi),
or (4) lastly, retained in the ownership of the
state as national property, but let to individuals
in occupation (jMssessio), i.e. subject to a right
of re-entry. On the three former classes of land
no rent was imposed ; the last were charged
with a rent called vcctigal, and hence were
known as agrivectigalcs. As the ogcr publicti.'i
passed almost wholly into the hands of the
patricians, and the possessory owners became
proprietors, these rents ceased to be paid. [Lex
Licinia, Sempronia, and Thoria.] The amount
of them is unknown. [Vectigal ; Scriptura.]
In the provinces the Romans took over the
tithes they found already existing in conquered
countries; and we find the system at once
applied to the earliest constituted provinces,
Sicily, Sardinia (including Corsica), and the
Hispaniae. Spain, as a less fertile countrj^ was
let off with a vicesima (171 B.C., Liv. xliii. 2).
Towards the end of the Republic we find the
decumae existing only in two provinces, Sicily
and proconsular Asia. In these it took the
plaae of the Stipsndiutn.
It was the legal doctrine tliat the dominium
or ownership of all provincial laud was in the
Roman people. On this was based the system
of taxation described by Cicero in his speech
de Fruniento [Verr. iii. 6, §12). All the pro-
vinces except Sicily, says Cicero, paid either
a fixed land-tax {vcctigal certiim quod stipei:-
diarium dicitur), or variable duties: that is,
teaths or other quotas of produce, which last
were let at Rome bj- the censors (censoria If-
catio). The decumae which formed part of tlii'
revenue from Sicily [Provincia] were of wheat
and barlej', wine, oil, and fritges minutae, i.e.
vegetables ; they were paid in kind, and were a
burden on the land [Verr. iii. 86, § 199). The
tithes of each city were let separately, and
estimated by the people themselves. This law
was dear to the Sicilians as inherited from their
popular king Hiero ; it was fair both to the
deriimani, as the farmers of the tithe were
called, and to the aratores who paid it. These
decumani were the most important, in this pro-
vince at least, of the j^uhlicani or farmers of
the revenue ; they had been in league with
Verres in his acts of oppression, and had secretly
agreed to destroy all compromising records
[Verr. ii. 71, § 173). The imjaerial system was
the only possible way to avert the ruin of the
provinces.
The province of Asia, the main source of the
Roman corn supply, paid decumae from 123 to
48 B.C. The tithes of each city were let sepa-
rately at Rome, and natives might be bidders
as well as Romans. The Roman taxation
(scriptura, decumae, portorium, Cic. Place. «,
§ 19) became an intolerable burden to the pro-
vinces. Caesar, after his victory, got rid of
the publicani and changed the decumae into
a stipendium. A little later, the decumae in
Sicily were likewise abolished.
DECUMANA PORTA
Decuma'na porta. "Castra.]
Decumani. Decumae, 2.)
Decu ncis. Aii.itliei- name for the dextans
or ten unciae, a division of the us. Coinage.
See Tables, XIII.
Decu'ria. A company of ten persinir*.
(1) A division of the curiae. Kuoli of the i
tliree ancient Roman tribes was divided into ten i
curiae and eacli ciu'ia into ten decmiiu', bo tliat ■
there were 30(1 decuriae. j Curia, Gens.J I
('2) A ooiTesponding division of tlie senate. '
'I'lie lieads of each decuria formed tlie Decem !
primi in the senate (Liv. i. 17; Ov. Fast. iii.
127). I Senatus.j In municipal towns also t)ie
senate, usually called curia, was divided into
decuriae. iDecuriones. I
[ii\ For military puriwses eacli of the three i
Roman tribes was represented by a centuria of I
100 equites. Tlie three centuriae were divided !
intt) ten tunnae, each consisting of thirty men;
every tunna contained ten Ramncs, ten Tities, ;
and ten Luceres, and eai'h of these decuriae
was commanded by a decurio (Liv. i. IS).
[Equites.]
A like division into decuri tie was followed in i
the case of the indices. 'ludez.]
(4) ColIe<,'ia or corporations. /■.</. of scribae,
lictors, viatores, X'c. (Suet. Claud. 1 ; Liv. xl.
•JO; Tac. .l/M). xiii. 27). The head of any de-
ruria was called decurio.
Decurio'nes, Curia'Ies. In the constitution i
of the Italian towns (iiiitiiiclj)i(i. cohiniae, \
j>r(irf<rtiiruf), as rcj,'ulated by the Lex lulia
-Municipalis, 45 li.c, each municipality was
governed by an assemblj' of the^>oyyM/(/.s, whicli
elected magistrates and made laws ; and also by
a senate, which was an administrative body. I
.Subse(|Hently, the power of Ilie i><>i>ular as- I
sembly was transferred to the senate of the I
town, which thus became the supreme muni- i
••ipal body both for legislative and adminis-
trative purposes.
The municipal senate is sometimes called
■ieiiatus, but more commonly uriio decurioitinn
or onlo, and in later times curia. Decurioues
or rurialrs is indifferently used to signify mem-
bers of the senate.
The (lerurioiies formed a kind of patrician
class in each town, other citizens being called
plfbeii.
The number of (Icciirioiirs of whicli a muni-
cipal senate consisted was fixed by the consti-
tution (Irx niiiuirijiii) of each municipality;
it was frequently, but not invariably, a hundred,
the r.eniutnviri of inscriptions. The office
{honor) of drcnria was obligatory on all citizens
called on to undertake it* Drriiriniic.i held
office fur life. Persons were made drrurioiii-s
partly l)y right of descent. i)artly by free elec-
tion. The onh) or curia co-o)>ted new mem-
lierr. vhen its number was not com))lete. To
Ik- cligihle as decurio, a jx-rson was n-qnired to
b«' of a certain age; the limit was thirty, till
reduced by .\ugustus to twenty-five for the
municipal seiuites as well as for the Ronuin.
.\ property <|ualification was attiu-lieil to tlie
acquisition of membership in a luriti. Kreed-
men, criminals, bankrupts, jwrsons of infamous
diaracter, and persons who followeil certain
enijiloyments, as prarrtnies, drsii/uatorrs.
liltitinarii, were incai)able of holding this
offire.
The names of deciirionm were inscribed on
an album or register in a n-gnhir onler, based
]>artly on rank and ]iartly on seniority.
They inchnled lionorai-y {jmironi) and ef-
fuctive members of the curia, the honorary
DEDUCTIO
229
members having precedence. The president
was lt-rmt:(\ primus j/riucipn/is.
All magistrates were elected by the curia,
and no one who was not a decurio could be
elected magistrate.
The jwsition of dccurin 'leclined under the
desjH)tic administration of the Emp're, .mil came
to be regarded as a burden, owing to the heavy
jiublic charges which were thrown ujioii de-
curioiir.i ; who were miuie liable, whether in
fault or not, for any deficiency in the imperial
taxes of their district. Tlie office thus sank
into low repute, and it became difficult to find
qualified ])ersons willing to undertake it.
Decu'rsio, Decu'rsus, Decu'rrere. (l) These
wonls Well' iiseil to signify the inanteuvres of
the Roman army, by wiiich tlie soldiers were
taught to make long marches in a given time,
under arms and without quitting their ranks.
They are fie<jueiitly mentioned by Livy (xxiii.
3r», (■>, xlii. 52, 4, &c.). These manu^uvTes t^ome-
times consisted of a sham fight between two
divisions of the army (Liv. xl. G, 5). Field-
days were more completely organised under
the Empire. The institution is also called
rampicursio and cnvijicstrix dccursio (Suet.
Gall). t> ; Tac. Ann. ii. 55).
(2) A military jiarade at the funeral of dis-
tinguished generals or ►•mi>erors (Iiiv. xxv. 17,
4, 5). The soldiers niarciied three limes roiuid
rig. l.Vi.— I>ocur«lo on coin of l\eio. lilritlisli Muwum.)
the funeral pyre (Verg. Am. xi. 188 ; Tac. Anu.
ii. 7; Suet. Claud, li.
(3) Military manreuvres or sham fights iu the
circus (Liv. xliv. S), 3).
Decn'ssis. .\ ten <is pi<"ce, | Coinage.]
Dediti'cii. The lowest of the three classes of
freedmen ; consisting of slaves who had suflFered
as criminals, and hiul afterwards been manu-
mitted. Feregrini drditirii were origimvlly
l>eople who, having fought against Rome, had
surrendered at discretion (Liv. i. 3H). Dcditicii
could never under any circumstances acquire
Roman cilizenshij) (cf. Suet. Auy. 40|. They
were not allowed to reside in Rome or within
the hun<lrcdth milestone from it (cf. Liv. viii.
14, !; (>l, on ]iainof forfeiture ^^l their liberty and
their goods. They hiul the status of jirrcgrini,
and were neither cirrs nor Ijuttni, nor slaves.
See Api)einUx. Rom.\n Law [Hanumissio].
Dedn'ctio, Dedu'ctor. Jhdunrc and its
derivatives have the following technical mean-
ings : (1) to conduct or es<-ort in a compli-
mentary or ceremonious manner, as the ' de-
duct io sponsa*' in domum nniriti ' ; the dcductii,
of a candidate by his friends, hence i ulleil dr-
ductorcH (Plin. ICp. iv. 17 ; Ambitus) ; th.-
solemn founding of a colony Colonia . (-' l'^
withdraw, leiul away, siiow out. Hence como
the law tenns dcducrrc, ' to eje<'t from land,'
deductio, 'ejectment,' with a view to try the
<|uestioii of ownership, by a fictitious act of
230
DEFRUTUBI
violence {ex conventu). When real force was
used, the tenn was deductio vi solida. See
Appendix, Roman Law [Actio, Vindicatioj.
De'frutmn. [yinum.J
Deie'cti elfusi've a'ctio. See Appendix,
lIoMAN Law.
Aei-yixa. A particular place in thePeiraeus,
where merchants exposed samples of their goods
for sale (Ar. Eq. 979 ; Dem. c. Lacr. p. 932,
§ 29). The samples themselves were also called
Sciyfiara. (Plut. Demosth. 23.)
AttXias ypa.^r\- See Appendix, Greek
Law ['AaTpaTcCag Ypa-tisii].
Dela'tio no'iniiiis. See Appendix, Roman
Law.
Dela'tor. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Dele'ctus. [Exercitus.]
Delia (AtjAio). The name of festivals and
games celebrated at the great panegyris in the
island of Delos, tlie centre of an amphiktyony,
to which the Kyklades and the neighbouring
louians on the coasts belonged (Horn. Hijmn.
ill ApoU. 147, &c.). The Delia, as appears from
the Hj-mn to Apollo (of. Thuc. iii. 104), had
existed from very early times, and were cele-
brated every fourth year, probably ou the sixth
and seventh days of Thargelion, the birthdays
of Apollo and Artemis. The members of the
ampliiktj'ony assembled ou these occasions
[iOioipovv] in Delos, with their wives and
children, to worship the god with gymnastic
aud musical contests, choruses, and dances.
The Athenians took part in these solemnities at
a very early period. The sacred vessel (dewpis)
which they sent to Delos every year, was said
to be the same which Theseus had sent after
his return from Crete. (Plat. Crito, p. 43 c.)
In the course of time the celebration of this
ancient panegyris in Delos had ceased, and was
not revived until 01. 88, 3 (420 B.C.), when the
Athenians, after having purified the island,
restored the ancient solemnities (Thuc. I. c).
After this restoration, Athens took the most
prominent part in the celebration of the Delia ;
tlie leader (apxiOe<^pos) wiio conducted the so-
lemnity was an Athenian (Plut. Nic. 3), and
the Athenians had the superintendence of the
conunon sanctuary. [Amphiktyones.]
Prom these solemnities we must distinguish
the lesser Delia, which were celebrated every
year, probably on the 6th of Thargelion (May).
The Athenians on this occasion sent the Oewpis
vessel to Delos. The embassy was called Oecopia,
and those who sailed to the island, dewpoi.
During the absence of the ship the city of
Athens was purified, and no criminal was
allowed to be executed (Plat. Phaed. p. 58 b).
Deli'ctum. See Appendix, Roman Law.
[Ci'imen.]
De'lphica mensa
legs (Mart. xii. GO)'.
flelphis (5e\<pii!).
An Abacus with three
I Cortina, 2.]
(1) A mass of lead armed
wifh bronze or iron, perhaps in the shape of a
dolphin, used for sinking an enemy's ship (Ar.
Eq. 759 ; Thuc. vii. 41). [Navis.] (2) [Circus.
AiiM-Q-PX^*-. The presidents of the denies
(3r,;U0i) in Attica, said to have been first ap-
pointed by Kleisthenes when he abolished the
vavKpapoi. [NavKpapCa.j They were probably
elected by vote and not by lot. They convened
meetings of the Srifj-OTai, and took the votes
upon all questions under consideration; they
had the custody of the Ari^iapxn<bv ypafifxa-
relov or book in wliich the members of the deme
were enrolled (Dem. c. Eubul. p. 1317, §60;
Ar. Nub. 37) ; and they made and kept a regis-
ter of the landed estates (xoipia) in their dis-
DEMOCRATIA
tricts, whether belonging to individuals or the
corporate property of the deme. They collected
rents and other moneys, both sacred and pro-
fane, on behalf of the deme, and in their financial
capacity were assisted by ra/xiai. In this capa-
city they had theijower of distraint f Eve'x^Jpa]
(Ar. Nub. 37.) As local jjolice magistrates they
could impose a fine (iirifioXrii/ iiri^dWetv) for
disobedience to a decree of the demotae ; they
were required to bury, or cause to be buried,
any dead bodies found in their district, for
neglect of which duty they were liable to a fine
of 1000 drachmas. They distributed the theoric
£und [©ewpiKov] among their demotae (Dem,
c. Leochar. p. 1091, § 37 ; Plant. Aiihil. i. 2, 29) ;
and conducted those honoured with irpoeSpia to
their places in the theatre.
A7)fj.apxot is also the name given by Greek
writers to the Roman tribunes of the plebs
(Plut. Cor. 7, li-c).
Deme'iitia. See Appendix, Rom.\n L.\w
[Curator].
Oeminu'tio ca'pitis. See Appendix, Roman
Law [Caput].
AtinioTTpaTa. See Appendix, Greek Law.
ATinio-up-yoi. (1) In the heroic age Sr^fiio-
epyoi are not merely skilled artisans, but artists,
including the highest forms of professional skill
in every department — soothsayers, surgeons,
and bards (Horn. Od. xvii. 383), as well as heralds.
{ib. xix. 135).
(2) The name of one of the inferior classes in
early Attica. [Tecjij-opoi-]
(3) Magistrates among the Eleians and Man-
tineians, with whom they seem to have been
the chief executive magistracy (Thuc. v. 47,
§ 10). We also read of demiurgi in the Achaean
league. Officers named firiSri/j.iovpyoi were sent
by the Corinthians to manage the govenunent
of their colony at Potidaea (Thuc. i. 56).
A'n^.i09,6. [AT)M,6aioi.]
Democra'tia (STj^o/cporia). That form of con-
stitution in which the sovereign political power
is in the hands of the commonalty, or demos
{Srjfxos). When the demos had raised themselves
to a level of power with the originally privileged
class, now degenerated into an oligarchy, a,
struggle was sure to ensue, in which the demos
usually gained the masterj-. The sovereign power
of the demos being thus established, the goveni-
m.?nt was termed a democracy. There might,
however, be two modifications of the victory of
the commonalt}". In some cases the defeated
oligarchs were expelled, especially in the smaller
states. In others (as at Athens ) the privileged
class was merged in the majority, the supreme
power being to all intents and pui-poses in the
hands of the class formerly constituting the
demos, bj' virtue of their being the more
numerous. (Arist. Pol. iv. 4, p. 1290 b, 17.)
Aa'istotle (Pol. iv. 4) defines a democracy as a
constitution in which every free citizen is a
member of the sovereign body. For a per-
fect democracy it was necessary that no free
citizen should be debarred on account of his
inferiority in rank or wealth from aspiring
to any office, or exercising any political func-
tion ; and that each citizen should be allowed
to follow that mode of life which he chose
(Pol. iv. 4, pp. 1290-1292). In a passage of
Herodotus (iii. 80), the characteristics of a de-
mocracy are specified to be — (1) equality of
legal rights (iVoj'Ojuit;) ; (2) the appointment of
magistrates by lot ; (3) the accountability of all
magistrates and officers; (4) the reference of
all public matters to the decision of the com-
munity at large. Ai-istotle (Pol. vi. 1, i;U7 b,
AHM02
18) gives the following points as character-
istic of a democracy : ' that all magistrates
should be chosen out of the whole body of
citizens ; that all should rule each, and each in
turn rule all ; that either all magistracies, or
those not requiring experience and professional
knowledge, should be assigned by lot; that
there should be no properly qualihcation, or
but a very small one, for filling any magistracy ;
that the same man should, if possd^le, not till
the same office twice; that magistracies should
be of brief duration ; that all citizens should be
qualified to serve as dikasts ; that the sui)reme
power in everything should reside in the public
assembly.'
Tliat diseased fonn of a democracy, in which
the predomuiant party in the state came to be
the lowest class of the citizens, was by later
writers (Polyb. vi. 4, 57) termed an Ochlocrac;/
{ox^oKpaTLa — the dominion of the mob) ; the
term is not found in Aristotle.
A-p^iOs. A country district, Lat. pagiis
(Aiist. Poet. 3, § ; cf. Hom. //. iii. 50 ; Od.
vi. 8).
The deroes (Stj^lioj) of Attica had existed from
a remote period. Many of them had been
originally independent cities, each with its own
Trpvraveiov and fiovKr, : but the avvoiKiafids
ascribed to Theseus made all the local magis-
tracies and councils to centre in the prytaiieum
and senate of Athens. Henceforward .Vthens
was the one city in the land, excepting Eleusis ;
ihe demes became constituent portions of
Athenian territory (Thuc. ii. 15). Kleisthenes
abolished the four old Ionic tribes with their
yiv-t) and (pparpiai for all but ceremonial pur-
poses. [<t>vXo3aai\£l5.] The new political
organisation consisted of ten tribes, and of
demes, stated to have now amounted to one
hundred. The demes became the political
units of the commonwealth ; the tribes were
mere groups of demes arbitrarily arranged, and
in no case all adjacent to each other. The ten
Attic tribes were only so far local as they were
formed out of an aggregate of demes or parishes,
not as themselves identified with a particular
l)art of the country. The motives of this change
are expressed by Aristotle as ' the more com-
plete fusion of all interests and the breaking
up of old ties or associations ' {Pol. vii. [vi.] 4,
Tlie demes thus constituted bore some re-
seniljlance to an English parish, and a still closer
one to the German Gemeitidc and the French
Commune, having, like the latter, municipal
organisation. The number of demes before the
time of Kleisthenes is not known ; perhaps
between sixty and seventy : in later times it
rose to nearly two hundred. The hundred denies
of Kleisthenes covered the whole soil of Attica,
including the capital. There is reason to think
that the city demes (now probably first con-
stituted), with the Peiraeus and Phaleroii,
amounted to just ten, one being assigned to
each tribe ; an arrangement which must have
tended to equalise the number of citizens in
each tribe. The demes varied greatly in size :
Acharnae was much the largest (Tliuc. ii. '.JO) ;
ilalimus, the deme of Thucydides, one of the
smallest (Dem. c. Eubiil. \i. 131(i, § 57). It
bhould be noticed that members of a demo did
not necessarily reside in their own denie (Dem.
c. Eubul. p. 1301, § 10). The names of the
demes were derived eitiier from natural features
{''.(J. rioTo/iiis Ka.6\nrfpQtv and iTreVeptftrl, fri>m
neighbouring places (c.r/. Olov AfKe\(tK(')v, Oio«'
K(pafMitKdv), from plants which grew there (r.g.
AENAPO+OPIA
23!
MapaBiii', 'Pafivovs, Mvppivov^}, from trades car-
ried on in them {e.g. K(pafj.(7s}, or from iidiabi-
tauts {e.g. 'E1C0A77 and the patronymics in -5at
generally. The first hundred demes all hsul
eponymous heroes, known collectively as the
fKaTuv fjpojes. The demes with gentile or pa-
tronJ^nic names (BovTaSai, XoWfTSat, S:c.) are
ascribed, either wholly or in part, to Kleisthenes.
The demes formed independent corporations,
and had each their several magistrates, and
landed and otlier property, witli a conunon
treasury. They had their assemblies convened
by thedemarch (held at Athens, Dem. r. Kulml.
p. l.SU'i, § 10), in which was transacted the jniblic
business of the deme, such as the leasing of its
estates, the annual elections of offtcers, the re-
vision of the registers or lists of Deinutae
(57);uo'Tai)j and the admission of new members
[ATip.apxoi\ Other magistrates, besides the
deniiirch, weie TUfiiai or treasurers, ai/Ti7pa4)fTs,
controllers or checking clerks, ^irjTi/iTjToi, over-
seers of public works, and dpiarai, who settled
boundaries, mostly of sacred places. Each deme
kept a iriVa| ^/cKATjirjatfTKcoy, or list of those
demotae who were entitled to vote in the general
assemblies of the whole i)eople (Dem. c.
Leochur. p. 1091, § 35). Each deme was re-
quired to furnish to the state a certain quota of
money and contingent of troops. Each had its
peculiar temples and religious worship (Stj^otiko
i'epa, Pausan. i. 31; I'ollux. viii. IOM), witii
priests or priestesses chosen annually by the
demotae (Dem. c. Eubul. p. p. 1818, § 46) : all
officers being subject to a SoKifiaaia.
Kleisthenes admitted many foreigners to the
franchise, who were enrolled among the demes.
New citizens (SriiJ.o7roir)Toi) were also enrolled
in a deme. [Civitas.]
Each deme had its register of enrolment
{Koivhv ypan^arilov. Dem. c. Eubul. p. 1317,
§ 00, or more usually ATj^iapxiKbv ypan/xaTt'ioy}.
These registers were kept by the demarchs,
who, with the approbation of a majority of the
members of the deme assembled in general
meeting, inserted or erased names according to
circumstances. To remedy the admission of
spurious citizens {irap(yypairTot) the AiaxJ/ii-
()>iais was instituted. Crowns and other hono-
rary distinctions could be awarded by the demes
in the same way as by the tribes.
Arm^oaioi. Public slaves at Athens, owned
by the state. The most numerous class were
the To^vTui or 'SKvdat, a force of police under
ofiicers called T6^apxoi. Their duty was to
j)reserve order in tlie assemblj', courts, public
places, and iniblic works. Certain of lln'ni
were in personal attendance on t)fficials, e.g.
the Prytaneis (Ar. Ach. 54), Probuli {Lijsistr.
441 sqq.) — especially police-officers : Astynomi,
Agora;nomi (Plat. Prot. j). 310 c). The corps
dated from the year of Salamis, when 300 were
bought; they were later increased to 1200.
( Aesch. lie Fuh. Leg. «> 173 sq.).
Executioners (STi^ttoi), torturers, Arc, w«'re
also slaves. Demosii were enn)loyed in the
treasury, and in the assembly and courts, as
checking-clerks {avriypaipfis). The state under-
took their training.
Slaves were emjiloyed in the mint (Ar. Vcap.
1007) and in the mines. Exceptionally, demosii
rowed in the galleys.
A(v6po4>opCa. The celebration of the wor-
ship I if the sai-red tree, a cult widely spread in
antiipiity. It was esi>ecially connected with the
worship of Dionysus and Demeler, and later
with tiiat of Cybele ami Atys, in connexion
with which it was introduced at Rome. Hero
232
DENS
the worshippers were associated in colleges (7eH-
drophorum Magnae deum Matris. March 22
was marked by the words arbor intrat : i.e. i\\e
mystical pine-tree was carried in procession to
the temple of Cybele on the Palatine.
In the time of Constantine and later the
dendrophori appear, not as religious bodies, but
as associations of artisans, especially car-
penters.
Dens or Denta'le. [Aratrum.]
Dentifri'diim (oSovrdTpifi/xa. oSovTofffirtyixa).
Dentifrice or tooth-power, generally used among
tlie Romans. A variety of substances, such as
the bones, hoofs, and horns of certain animals,
crabs, egg-shells, and the shells of the oyster
and the murex, constituted the basis of the
preparation. Having been calcined, and some-
times mixed with honey, they were reduced to a
fine powder. To these were added various
fanciful or superstitious ingredients, and also
antiseptics and anodynes, such as myrrh, niti'e,
and hartshorn. Pounded pumice was also
used (Plin. xxxvi. 156).
Dentisca'lpium (dSovTo^fa-r-rjs). A toothpick :
made of gold, silver, quill, splinters of mastic,
&c. (Mart. vi. 74).
Oeponta'ni senes. A name given to men
sixty years of age {sexa gen arii), who were treed
from the obligation of voting in the comitia.
The derivation is said to be from ponten, the
gangways which led to the saepta. [Comitia.]
See Cic. i?o.sr. Am. 35, 100; Ov. Fast. v. 623.
Deportatio. [Exilium.]
Depa'situm. See Appendix, Roman Law.
A€pp,aTiK6v, sc. apyvpiov. The money paid
into the treasury at Athens from the sale of tlie
liides of the victims slain at the festivals.
Dese'rtor differs from emansor, in that the
latter returned to the camp, the former was
brought back. Those who deserted in time of
peace were punished by reduction to the ranks
(gradus deie.r.tio), corporal chastisement, fines,
or ignominious dismissal from the service
(missio ignoniiniosa, [Caes.] B. Afr. 54). Those
who left the standards in time of war were
usually punished with death (Liv. Ejnt. Ivi. ;
Tac. Ann. xiii. 36). Transfugae, or deserters
to the enemy, when taken, were sometimes de-
prived of their hands or feet (Liv. xxvi. 12), but
generally were put to death or exposed to wild
beasts.
Designa'tor. [Funus.]
AeCT|jL(jTTipLov. [Career.]
Desu'ltor (ciTro^aTTjs, iJL(Ta^aTr\s). A person
who rode several horses or chariots, leaping
DIADEMA
\Iul. 39; Liv. xliv. 9). Among other nations,
! e.g. the Numidians (Liv. xxxiii. 29), Scj'thians,
I Indians, &c., this species of equestrian dexterity
was applied to the purposes of war.
Detesta'tio sacrorum. See Appendix,
: Roman L.\w.
j De'unx, Dextans. [Coinage, Tables, XIII.]
Deverso'rium. [Caupona.]
AiaPaTTipia. A sacrifice offered to Zeus
and Athena by the Spartan kings on passing
tlie frontier of Lakonia in command of an army
(Xen. Bep. Lac. 13, § 2 sqq.). If the victims
were unfavourable, they disbanded the army
and returned home (Thuc. v. 54, 55, 116 ; cf.
Xen. Hell. iii. 4, § 3). We also find Sia&aT7}pia
offered by a Roman general in passing a swollen
i river (Pint. LaniU. 24). ["E^iTiipia.]
i Diabathron {^la^aQpov). [Calceus.]
! Diade'ma (5id5r;/ua). (1 ) A white band or fillet
used to encircle the head ; part of the insignia
of Eastern monarchs. Hence the Greeks trans-
ferred it to their divinities. Its invention is
ascribed by Pliny (vii. § 191) to ' Liber Pater ' ;
and accordingly Dio-
nysus is represented
wearing a diadema.
Fig. 453.— 'AffO/SaTT)?. (Tischbein, llnmiltnn Vnsfs, i. .W.)
from one to the other {II. xv. 679-684;
Prop. V. 2, 35). The Roman desultor gene-
rally rode only two horses at the same time,
sitting on them without a saddle, and vaulting
u]X3n either of them at his pleasure (Suet.
Fig. 454.— Diadema on head of Fig. 455.— Double Diadema
Dionysus. (Coin of Naxos on head-dress of the
in Sicily. British Mu- -Assyrian king. (Kou
seum.) yuiijik.)
The diadema was woni by the Assyrian kings,
round the head-dress of the monarch. At a
later period two or more were introduced. A
blue band with white spots encircled the tiara or
cidaris of the Persian kings (Xen. Cyr. viii. 3,
§ 13). (See cut under Tiara.) It was adopted
by Alexander after the conquest of Darius
(Justin, xii. 3), and became henceforth the re-
cognised s5rmbol of
royalty. As worn by
Grecian kings, it coii-
sisted of a broad white
band (Aeu/crj raivia)
encircling the head,
with bands hanging
down behind (Suet.
Caes. 79 ; Tac. Ann.
\i. 37). It was some-
times ornamented with
jewels.
The diadema, as a
symbol of royalty
[regni insigjie, Cic.
Phil. iii. 5, 12), was hateful to the Romans,
and was therefore refused by Julius Caesar
(Plut. Caes. 61, Anton. 12; Cic. Phil. ii. 34,
85; Suet. Caes. 79). This diadem, like that
of the Grecian kings, is expressly said to
have been a white band (Suet. /. c). Suc-
ceeding emperors, though they assumed the
corona radiata as a mark of divinity [Corona],
are, with the exception of Diocletian, never
represented on their coins with the diadem till
t]ie time of Constantine. (See Suet. Cal. 22.)
The diadem was regularly worn by the em-
perors succeeding Constantine. It was con-
Fig. 456.— Diadema on head
of Hieron II. (Coin in
British Museum.)
AIAAIKA2IA
tiuually increased in richness, size, and splen-
dour, till this bandage was at lenj^th converted
into the crown whidi has been for many cen-
turies the badge of sovereigntj- in modem
Europe.
r2) Though the word SidSrjfm is not found in
trrec'k writers as the name of a lieud-(hvss
(avdSrina, avaSeff/xr), ffTp6(pos, cTipevSofT}, <TTe<pdyi]
DICTATOR
233
Fig. 4.'i7.- Greek head-bunds (djijriif,
l)('ing words in coinnum use for diffcrful kinds
of fenuile head-gear), 5iaSf7(r0ai is cmnmoiily
used for tying on a liead-band : e.g. tlie well-
a part of the system of hardening the i^partan
youths against bodily sufferings (Plut. Li/c. 18;
Cic. Tusc. V. '27, § 77).
AiavoM-aior AiaSdcreis (Deni. c Leoch. p.
1091, § 37). Public doles to the .Vthciuan jHJople,
resembling the Roman Congiarium. Such
Were the free distributions of corn (.\r. I'r.sp. 715
sqq.i, the grants of land as kleruchiuc Colooia ,
the largesses given from revenues from the
mines, and the theoric fund (Qiupn(6v).
Aia<l/-n<)>iais. See Api)endix, Gueek Law.
Dia'rium. [Servus.j
Aidaia. A festival celebrated iravSTtufi
without the walls of Athens, in honour of Zeus
^urnamed yiftKix'os (Thuc. i. 126; Hdt. v. 71 :
liic storj- i>( Kylon). The Diasia took place on
the 'JSrd of the month of Anthesterion (Feb-
ruary), and was accompanied by a fair. (Ar.
Xuh. H-n.i
Dia'toni. [Paries.]
Dia'tonon. I'Muaica.]
Diatre ta (SioTpTjTa), sc. vasa (Mart. xii. 70).
tilass cup^ ni- tunililers without a foot, enclosed
Fig. l."*.— Head -srith head. band (di'nS<'T^T)).
It, female: /'. male. (Gdhnrd
known statue by Polykleitus of an atliletc
putting on the band of victory is called the
l)iadumenus (Sia^ovfxevoi).
The diadema was also used as a head-dress
by Roman women.
AiaSttcaaCa. See Appendix, Grekk L.\w.
Diae ta. fDomua.]
AiaLTTiTat. See Appendix, Gkeek L.wv.
Diaete'tica (SioittitikV,). One of the principal
branches of Medicina. The word is derived
from Siaira, and corresponds nearly with the
modem dietetics. By later writer.s it is taken
to comprehend Pharmaceidria, and so answers
to the province of oxxr 2>h>isician.
Diaetetica, in the earlier and stricter sense,
was first treated of methodically by Hipj)okrates
(460-357 B.C.). It dealt witluiuestionscomiected
with the quality and quantity of food and drink,
exercise, bathing, the use of emetics, and diet
and regimen generally.
Aiaypaiels- ^Elatbopd.]
Dia'Iis rlamen. fFlamen.'
AiaiJLapTvpCa. See Aiii)endix, (Iheek L.UV.
" AvdKpt(Tt5.
AiaM-aaTi-yuais. An ancient solemnity
|>erformed at Sjmrta at the festival of Artenus
Orthia, at her temi)le called Tjimnaeon (Pans,
iii. 16, § 6). Spartan youths [(<pri0ut\ were
scourged on the occasion at the altar of Artemis,
by persons appointed for the pur])ose, until
their blood gushed forth and covered the altar.
The 1h)V who held out longest was called J
BuM-ovLKTis (Plut. Iii.'it. Luc. '231), ;i'2). The
scourging itself was preceded by a ])reparation,
by which those who intended to undergo the
diamastigosis tried to harden themselves against
its pains.
The diamastigosis, which is said by Pausanias
to have been a substitute for human sacrifice,
was made by Lykurgus, according to tradition,
Fig. 4,19.— Calls diatrctus, cup ol tla.sK. (Winckcliiiann.)
in a network also of glass, the whole cut out hf
a solid mass.
Aia.v\oz- rCursus.'
AidCcofia. [Subligaculum.]
AiKai i\i.-Kop\.Ko.i. See Api>endix, Greek
L.wv.
j AiKao-T-ripiov. See Apiiendix, GREEK Law.
I AiKaCTTtis. See Ai)i)endix, GitEEK L.\W.
AiKT). See Appendix, GUKEK L.\w.
: Dicta'tor. An extraordinary magistrate at
I Rome and elsewhere in Italy. At Rome this
magistrate was originally called vntfjinter
piijiiili and not (lirlctor, and in the sacred
books he was so designated down to the latest
times (Cic. liip. i. 40, 6:i).
The dictatorship (dictatiira) was institut<-il
in 501 B.C. Tlie name of the fii-st dictaUn- or
nnigister populi, and the date of his npiwiint-
ment, are variously stat^'d.
By the origimil law respecting the apiwint-
ment of a dictator (lex dr dirtiitorr creando),
no one was eligibl<> for this oflice who had not
previously been t'onsnl (liiv. ii. IH). We find,
however, a few instances in which this law wa>.
not observed. When a dictator wivs considered
necessary, the senate passe<l a senatusconsnituni
that one of the consuls should nominate {dicrrr)
a dictator. I'iie nomination or ]>ro('lanuition of
the <lictfttor by the consul wju* lu-cessary in all
cases (see Liv. iv. '26). It was always nni<l«' by the
consul, probably without any witnesses, between
2a4
DICTATOR
midnight and morning (node), and with the ob-
servance of the auspices (silentio, Liv. viii. 23 :
see Augur). Tlie technical word for this nomina-
tion or proclamation was dicere (seldom creare
or facere). The nomination of Sulla by an in-
terrex and of Caesar by a praetor was held to
be contrary to precedent and illegal (cf. Cic.
Att. ix. 15). The senate usually mentioned in
their decree the name of the person whom the
consul was to nominate (Liv. iv. 17, vi. 2, &c.);
but the consul was not absolutely bound to
nominate the person whom the senate had
named (Liv. viii. 12; Suet. Tib. 2). The nomi-
nation took place at Rome, as a general rule,
but in case of necessity could be made in the
camp (Liv. vii. 21, xxvii. 5).
Originally the dictator must be a patrician.
The first plebeian dictator was C. Marcius
Rutilus, 35(3 B.C. (Liv. viii. 17).
Dictators appointed for carrj^ing on the busi-
ness of the state were said to be nominated rei
gerioidae causa, or sometunes seditionis se-
dandae causa ; and upon them, as well as upon
the other magistrates, the imperium was con-
ferred by a lex curiata (Liv. ix. 38, 39).
Dictators were also appointed for some special
purpose. At present we confine our remarks
to the duties and powers of the dictator rei
gerundae causa.
Tlie dictatorship was limited to six months
(Cic. Legg. iii. 3; Liv. iii. 29), and no instances
occur in which a person held this office for a
longer time. Though a dictator was appointed
for six months, he often resigned his office (ab-
dicare se dictatura) immediately after he had
despatched the business for which he had been
appointed (Liv. iii. 29). His powers also ceased
with the exx^iration of the term of office of the
consul who had appointed him. As soon as
the dictator was nominated, a kind of suspension
took place with respect to all other magistrates,
with the exception of the tribuni plebis. The
regular magistrates did not resign, but continued
to discharge the duties of their various offices :
but they were subject to the liigher imperium of
tlie dictator, and obliged to obey his orders in
everything. As soon as the dictator abdicated,
they resumed ipso facto the full possession of
the consular power (Liv. iv. 27).
The superiority of the dictator's power to
that of the consul consisted chiefly in the three
following points: greater independence of the
senate, more extensive power of punishment
without appeal (provocatio) to the people, and
irresponsibility. To these three points must be
added that he was not fettered by a colleague.
(The case of M. Minucius (217 B.C. : Liv. xxii. 25)
is the only instance to the contrary.) The
dictatorsliip was originally a magistratus sine
jirovocatione, and accordingly the lictors bore
the axes in the fasces before them even in the
city. It is probable that an appeal afterwards
lay to the people from their sentence within the
city : perhaps under the Lex Valeria de provo-
ratione, 300 B.C. The tribunes of the plebs con-
tinued in office during a dictatorship ; but they
liad no control over a dictator, and could not
hamper his proceedings by their intercessio or
auxiliicm.
The dictator was not liable after his abdica-
tion to be called to account for any of his official
acts.
There were, however, some limits to the
power of the dictator. (1) The most important
was that the period of his office was only six
months. ( 2 ) He had not power over the treasury,
but could only make use of the money which
DIES
was granted him by the senate. (3) He was not
allowed to leave Italy (for an exception, see Liv.
Ej)it. xix.).
The insignia of the dictator were nearly the
same as those of the kings and consuls. In-
stead, however, of having only twelve lictors,
as was the case with the consuls, he was pre-
ceded by twenty-four, bearing the axes as well
as the fasces. The .sella curiilis and toga prae-
texta also belonged to the dictator. He was
not allowed to ride on horseback at Rome, as
the kings had done, without the permission of
the people (Liv. xxiii. 11).
Tlie preceding account of the dictatorship
applies more particularly to the dictator rei
gerundae causa; but dictators were also fre-
quently appointed: (1) for the purpose of
holdingthe comitiafor the elections {comitioruni
habendorum causa) (Liv. vii. 22); (2) for fixing
the clavus annalis in the temple of Jupiter
(clavi figendi causa) in times of pestilence
or civil discord (vii. 3); (3) for appointing
holidays (feriarum constituendarum causa}
on the appearance of prodigies (vii. 28), and
for officiating at the public games [ludorum
faciendorum causa), the presidency of wliich
belonged to the consuls or praetors (viii. 40, ix.
31) ; (4) for holding trials (quaestionihus exer-
cendis, ix. 30) ; (5) and on one occasion, for
filling up vacancies in the senate [legendo
senatui, xxiii. 22).
Along with the dictator there was always a
niagister equitum, the nomination of whom
was usually left to the choice of the dictator (but
see Liv. viii. 17, xxii. 57). The magister equitum
was subject to the imperium of the dictator,
but in the absence of his superior exercised
the same powers. The magister equitum
was originally, as his name imports, the com-
mander of the cavalry, whilst the dictator was
at the head of the legions (Liv. iii. 27).
Dictators were appointed only so long as the
Romans had to carry on wars in Italj\ After
the battle of Cannae, 216 B.C., M. Junius Pera
was nominated dictator, but this was the last
instance of the appointment of a dictator rei
gerundae causa. Dictators continued to be
appointed for holding the elections down to
202 B.C., but from that year the dictatorship
disappears altogether. Sulla caused liimself to
be appointed dictator, in 82 B.C., reipublioae
constituendae causa. His a^jpointment, how-
ever, as well as that of Caesar, was uncon-
stitutional. Soon after Caesar's death the
dictatorship which he had held from 48 B.C. was
abolished for ever by a lex proposed by the
consul Antonius (Cic. Phil. i. 1). The title,
indeed, was offered to Augustus, but he refused
it in consequence of the odium attaching to it
from the tyranny of Sulla (Suet. Aug. 52).
In circumstances of extraordinary danger the
senate sometimes invested the consuls with
dictatorial power. [Consul.]
Didrachmon (SiSpax/j-ov). [Coinage.]
Dies. The time during which the sun per-
formed his course round the earth, including
both night and day. The civil day of twenty-four
hours (dies civilis) began with the Athenians
at the setting of the sun, and with the Romans
(as \vith the Egj-ptians) at midnight ; with the
Babylonians at the rising of the sun, and with
the Unibrians at mid-day.
The natural day (dies naturalis), or the time
from the rising to the setting of the sun, was
likewise designated by the name dies.
1. Gheek. — At the time of the Homeric
XDoems, the natural day was divided into three
i
DIGITALE
parts (It. xxi. 111). The first, calhd 7;aij, lasted
from sunrise till mid-day (II. viii. (5C, Od. is.
56). The second part was called fieaov ftftap
(later nfo-rffiPpla, /jncrr] rjufpa, &c.), or mid-day,
during wliich tlie sun was thought to stand
still. Tlie tliird pint bore the name of SeiKrj
(warm) or Sfi(\ov ^fnap (Od. xvii. COC). The
last part of the 5ei'A.r/ wu-i sometimes called irorl
'(■Tirepa or fiovKvTos (Oii xvii. 191, //. xvi. 77'J).
Liy a later division, the earlier part of tlie morn-
ing was tenned irpwt or irpi^ ttjs ijixfpa?: the
later, i.e. from !) or 10 till noon, ■ir\ri6ov(rris rrjs
ayopas (ir\r}dvovffr)s, Hdt. iv. 181) or ntpl irKr,-
djuffau ayopav. The two parts of the afternoon
were called StiAij rrpuiia and SeiA?) o^ia I Hdt.
vii. 167 ; Thuc. iii. 74). This division continued
to be observed down to the latest period of
Grecian history. Anaximander, or, according
to others, his disciple Auaximenes, is said to
have made the Greeks acquainted with the use
of the Babylonian chronometer or sun-dial
(called ir6Koi or upoXoyiuv), by means of which
t'lie natural day was divided into twelve equal
spaces of time, longer or shorter according to
I lie various seasons of the year (Hdt. ii. lO'.d.
[Horologium.j The uame ' hour' (Sipa) did not
come into general use till a very late period.
2. Roman. — The early Konians divided the
day by sunrise, mid-day, and sunset — /nam;
meridies, and mijircnia, scil. icinpcstu.'i, after
which no assembly could be held in the Forum.
But tlie division of the day most generallj' ob-
served by the Romans was that into tcnipus
antcmeridianum aiid 2'^""''' '''"'"""■ -^"
ofticer (acce)isus) of the consuls was directed
to proclaim the time of mid-day, when from tlie
Curia he saw the sun standing between the
Rostra and theGraecostasis, at the head of the
Forum. The division of the day into twelve
equal spaces was adopted from Greece in 293
li.c, when L. I'apirius Cursor brought to Rome
an instrument called solarium Jivrulogiion, or
simi)ly solarium. P. Scipio Nasica erected
in 159 B.C. a public clepsydra, which indicated
the hours of the night as well as of the day.
Before this, it was customary for one of the
subordinate officers of the praetor to proclaim
tlie tliird, sixth, and ninth hours. (See Hora ;
Horologiom.)
For the purpose of the administration of
justice, and liolding assemblies of the people,
all the days of the year were divided into difs
fasti, dies nefasti, and dies partly /(Js^(, partly
nefasti.
I. Dies fasti in the wider sense were daj's on
which legal and jwlitical business could b'ilaw-
fidly transacted. They were divided into —
(1) Dies fasti in the narrower sense, marked
with F in the calendars. On these legal busi-
ness could be condueted (Ov. Fast. i. lb).
(2) Dies row (<((//''.s, days on which meetings
of tiic people could legally be held, and on
which courts could be opened. These days are
marked C in the calendars. Tho nundinac
belonged to this class.
II. Dies nefasti were days on wliich no legal
f>r political business could be done. These are
iigain divideil into —
(1) Dies nefasti or fcriati, on which no busi-
ness could be done because the day was sacred
to some festival (a dies festiis). These are
marked in the calendars ^, a sign of uncertain
interpretation.
(2) Dies rcligiosior vitiosi, somotiines called
atri, marked in the calendars by R. These
were days declared to bo unlucky by a decree
of the senate in consequcucu of some disaster
DIOXYSL\
232
wliich had taken place ui>on them. All the
diespostriduani were included under this head ;
i.e. the days next after the kalends, the nones
and the ides (Ov. Fast. i. 59, 60). On these
days it was not only unlawful to transact any
legal or political business, but it wa'> also un-
lucky to begin any affair ■)! inqiortance.
III. Days partly fasti and jiartly not, in-
cluding —
(1) iJies intercisi, marked in the calendars by
EN ieudiitercisi). On these days a victim was
sacrificed in the inoniing, and the exta offered
in the evening. Before the sacrifice and after
the offering of the exta the day was uefastus;
between the two, fast us (Ov. Fast. i. 49).
(2) Dies Jissi, liiree in number: March 24,
May 24, June 15 (Ov. i''aA7. vi. 707); probably
days of comitia calata.
The year contained 45 dies fasti, 194 dies
comitiales, 4y dies nefasti or feriati, 57
dies religiosi, 8 dies intercisi, and 3 dies
fissi.
Another division of the days of the year was
of a purely religious character, viz. :
(1) Dies fe.sti, on which the gods were hon-
oured by (a) sairificia, (b) ejuilae, (c) Ludi,
(d) Feriae.
(2) Dies prof est i, ordinary working-days.
(3) Dies intercisi, of a mixed character.
[Nundinae.]
Fur tlif names of the days of the week, see
Calendarium.
Digita'le. (1) A thunble (Fr. d^, anc. deel),
exactly like the modem thimble, made of ivory
or metal. (2) [Manica.]
AiiiroXia (AtiroAia, or ^nru,\(ia). An annual
festival celebrated 14th Skimiihorion (June) at
Athens in honour of Zeus, the protector of the
city (rioKievs}, to whom a bull was sacrificed.
The sacrificer {$ov<p6i'os. cf. \r. Fax, 420, Av.
984-5) ran away. See Kegifugium.
Diminu'tio ca'pitis. [Denunutio capitis. t
Ai(J3o\ov. A small coin of two obols
[Drachma , which was given to each Athenian
citizen during the festivals to pay for his seat
in the theatre, whence the gift was called
Siw0f\ia (Xeii. //(■//. i. 7, § 2).
Dioece'sis [SioiKrjffts). An adrainistrativo dis-
trict of the empire, principally for judicial pur-
poses, under tlie presidency of a legatus of tlie
proconsul. From the lime of Constaiitine tlie
empire was divided into thirteen dioccescs,
governed by vicarii.
ALdKXEia. A festival celebrated in the be-
ginning of spring, by the Megarians, in honour
of an ancii-nt Athenian hero, Diokles (Theocr.
/(/'////. xii. 27, itc).
At6n.€ia. A festival celebrated at Athens
in honour of Herakles. It took place at Kynos-
arges, and represeutatioDii by y(\<iiroirotoi
formed part of it.
AiuM-ocria. pAvaKpicris.]
Diony'sia (AiDi'vrrta^. i>ii>nysus as well as
Apollo had a share at i)el|ilii as one of the chief
Hellenic gods. Thebes was liis birlhpliu-e, and
he was specially connectid with Corinth, Sikyon,
Euboea, and Naxos. In Athens his worship is
said to have been iiitriKluced by .\niphiktyon ;
that is, it belonged to the Ionic Amphiktyony.
Dionysia were held at Delos, Tenos, Miletus,
Smyrna, Korkyra, and many other (places.
The un-Helleiiic and orgiastic worship of
Dionysus (Eur. Baech. 778) originated in Thrnce
and Macedonia, whence it sjiread into Asia.
Minor, united with the Oriental mysteries of
Cybele, and then reacted on tin' Hellenic cere-
monies. The uivstic fonuB of the Bacchic wor-
236
DIONYSIA
nhip of Dionysus {rpierripiSes, Eur. Bacch. 133 ;
Verg. Aen. iv. 302) first gained ground in
Boeotiia, coming perhaps across the sea by the
islands, and soon spread all through Greece.
There were revels on Parnassus (Soph. Ant.
1126), in Messenia, Arcadia, and even at Sparta.
The festivals were held on mountains, with
blazing torches (Eur. Bacch. 133, 116), in dark
whiter nights (Ov. Fast. i. 394). The votaries
were in large part women, called Maenads,
Thyiads, Mimallones, Bassarides, &c. (see cut
under Bassara). They were clothed in fawni
skins [Ne3pis], carried thyrsi [Thyrsus], and
in their ecstasies used to hunt wild animals,
tear them in pieces, and sometimes eat them
raw. In very early times human sacrifice was
offared to Dionysus Zagreus, and Theraistokles
before the battle of Salamis sacrificed three
young Persian prisoners to Dionysus ojjUTjtrTiijs
(Plut. Them. 13).
The genuine Hellenic worship of Dionysus
was of a less frantic nature. When the vintage
was over, Dionysus, the god of the grape, was
honoured with sacrifices of oxen and goats,
and the country folk used to march in pro-
cession, and dance and sing, and dress them-
selves up in strange costumes. The Attic
Djonj'sia, though mainly Hellenic and natural
wine-feasts, had also come under the influence
of the Thracian and Asiatic mysteries.
The Attic festivals were four in number — the
country Dionysia, the Lenaea, the Anthesteria,
an 1 the Gre it Dionysia.
(1) The Lrsaer or Coiontrij Dionysia (rafjuKpa
or ra. /car' aypovs) were very ancient wine-feasts
(not vintage-feasts) celebrated in the various
demes throughout Attica, from about the 8tli
to 11th of Poseideon ( = about Dec. 19-22), under
the presidency of the demarchs. They were
celebrated with dramatic perform mces in Kolly-
tus, Peiraeus, Salamis, Eleusis, Myrrhinus, &c.
(See Ar. Ach. 240 sqq.)
(2) The Lenaea {\i]vaia or to. iv Ai/j-vais)
was a town-festival. The word is probably not
derived from Atjvos in the sense of ' wine-
press,' but in that of ' vat.' The festival was
celebrated in Gamelion, probably from the 8th
to 11th ( = about Jan. 28-31). At the Lenaea
there was a great feasting and a procession
(Dem. Mid. 517, § 10), during which there was
plenty of jesting e| a/j-alcov (Ar. Eq. 547).
It was a cheerier and less pompous festival
than the great city Dionysia, and strangers did
not take part in it (Ar. AcJi. 504). Dithy-
rambs were sung on the first day, and the victor
received an ivy crown.
(3) The Anthesteria {'AvdfffTripia) consisted
of three days, called the HiOoiyta, the Xoes, and
the XvTpot. The exact order of the ceremonies
of Ccich day is not exactly ascertained, but the
following arrangement seems probable. The
UiOoiyta was held on the 11th of Anthes-
terion ( ~ about March 2nd), the Xoes on the
12th, and the XvTpoi on the 13th. The wliole
festival is sometimes called X6€S (Thuc. li. 15,
5). (a) The Pithoigia was the preliminary
opening of the wine-casks, and general prepara-
tion for the Choes. During all the days of the
Anthesteria, the rustic slaves had leisure. The
schoolboys got holidays at the same time, and
some days earlier there was a regular fair at
Athens, bringing a conflux of foreign traders
(cf. Ar. Ach 719 sqq,). The fastening of a
rope (Trepicrxaificai) round the temple in
Limnae took place on the afternoon of the
Pithoigia (the 11th); and a procession escorted
the image of the god from the Lenaeon to
a temple in the outer Kerameikus ; those
taking part in it, especially the children
from three years old, were gaily adorned with
crowns and flowers. At sunset on the 11th, i.e.
the beginning (ceremonially) of the 12th, the
Choes began. The procession started, no doubt
with torches, the common people following in
waggons. All this part of tlie ceremony was
symbolical. It was a marriage procession and
the votaries of the god — the Horae, Nymphae,
Bacchae — led him along with pipings and
moanings, and songs about Orpheus. Anon
he is joined by the Basilinna, accompanied by
foiu'teen venerable priestesses {y^paipai or
yepapai), and she is solemnly betrothed to the
god in secret. Within the temple in Limnae.
which is opened on this day only in the year,
she administers to the jiriestesses a vow of
1 purity and exact care of the festivals ; af ter-
I wards she offers a sacrifice, and prays for all
I blessings for the state, and then remains for
j the night in the cella of the temple as the bride
1 of the god. The next morning (12th) was
given to rest, and in the early afternoon the
I drinking began. Th^ state had given money to
! the poor to buy wine and provisions. Guests were
I invited, the hosts supplying all the accessories,
^vhile the guests brought their own KLcrrai con-
taining food, and xo'*s of wme (Ar. Ach. 1085
sqq.). At the proclamation of the herald, con-
tests in drinking took place, and whoever
drank up his xovs of wine first was given a
prize (Ar. Ach. 1000 sqq.). Strangers took
part in this festival. It was administered by
; the Arclion Basileus. In the midst of the
revelry a libation is poured out to Hermes
Clithonius. The drinking goes on into the
evening and night, but in the last act of the
festival the drinker winds his garland round his
Xovs, brings it to the jn-iestess at Limnae, and,
pouring out the remnants of the wine as a
libation, offers the crown to the god, and in so
doing makes his libation and offering to the
dead.
(c) The Xvrpoi (13th) was a feast of the dead.
Everything here was solemn and serious. The
administration was probably in the hands of the
King Ai-chon. The feast got its name because
vegetables and other eatables, in honour of Dio-
nysus xOovios, were brought in pots (xvrpai), as
sacrifices to the Shades and to Hermes x^ofws
(Ar. Ban. 218). The first ceremony was bringing
water; then, into a pit, outside the Lenaean
district, into which legend said the waters of
; Deucalion's Flood xxxssed away, flour kneaded
with honey was poured. Then fourteen altars
I were erected, on which the yepatpai offered
pots of TravffTr epfuLia {Ach. 1076, liaii. 2181.
I None of the offerings were eaten. There were
I no doubt cyclic choruses at the x'^'''Pot
{Ban. 212 sqq.) ; but tlie xi'Tpirol ayuves were
contests of actors, not dramas [Comoedia].
The ceremonies were explained by the Orphic
theology, which iells how Zeus made his son
Dionysus king of all things for a day, and the
subsequent death of Dionysus at the hands of
the giants, who cut him into fourteen pieces,
corresponding to the fourteen altars (compare
the story of Osiris).
(4) The Greater or Cifij Dionysia {rafieyaXa
or TO. if acTTfi) were probably celebrated from
the 9th to 13th of Elaphebolion ( = about
March 28-April 2). The 8th was the a(TK\riire7a
and the irpoayuv (Aeschin. Ctesiph. 63, § 67).
At this the poets, choregi, actors, and chorus
appeared before the public in festal attire, but
not in theatrical costume, formally announced
DIONYSIACI ARTIFICES
tlic draniiis whicli were goiii},' to be enacted, ami
solicited the favour of the aiulience. On the
9th there was the procession (Trofiiri;) and tlie
carouse (Kwfios) ; on the 10th the lyrical contest
of boys and men. From the 11th to tlie 13th
were dramatic performances, and on the be>;in-
nhig of the 14th the Pandia. Dnrinj,' the Dio-
nysia prisoners were released on parole (Dem.
Androt. 614, § 08), and no one was allowed to
seize the goods of a debtor (Dem. Mid. SIM,
5 10|. As to the ceremonial, early on the 'Jth {i.e.
at nightfall on the Hth) the image of Dionysus,
possibly the ciiryselephantiiie throned figure by
Alkamenes, was taken from its ' heartli and
home ' ( iax^po') '•• ^^^ Leuaeon, and brought
into the theatre, by the ephebi, wlio gave a
bull for sacrifice in tlie temple after the vofiirf].
The image was set up in the orchestra. Later,
when day had come, the iroixtrr] took place,
partly on foot, partly on carts. In the agora a
cyclic chorus danced round the altar to the
twelve gods (Xen. Hi/)}). 3, 2). The goal r)f the
procession was the Lenaeon. Strangers took
part in the festival, of whom there were con-
siderable numbers in Athens, as the allies used
to come and pay their tribute in Elaphebolion
(Ack. 504). On the morning of the 10th the
lyrical contests for choruses of boys and men
began [Choregus] (see Find. Fragin. 7.")). A
Kufios by the victorious competitors followed.
From the 11th to 13th dramas were exhibited,
a tragic trilogy in the morning and a comedy in
the afternoon. The administration of the feast
was in the hands of the .Vrchon (Eponynius),
assisted by fVt/ufATjTai (cf. Doni. Mid. 510, § 15).
See Comoedia, Tragoedia, Theatrum ; " and
Bpavpuvia, 'Ocrxo(p6pi.a.
For till' worship of Bacchus in Italy, see
Bacchanalia and Liberalia.
Dionysiaciarti fices. .Associations of artists,
for. 111(1 about the time of Alexander, to which
jxieis, actors, musicians, and trainers belonged,
with a view to the organisation of tlie games.
They were all free citizens of their states. They
had their officials, annually elected, and their
codes of laws, and owned property, civil and
sacred. In most parts of Greece the city in
which a festival was to take place contracted
with a compaii}- of Dionysiaci to furnish artists
and properties for the representation. They
enjoyed privileges in virtue of their sacred
clMra<-ter.
AioaKOvpia or AiocKovpeia. Festivals
celebrated in Sparta and various other part> I'l
Greece in honour of the AiocTKOvpoi (Aiotr/copoi '.
the heroes Kastor and I'olydeukes.
The festival of the Dioskuri (Castores) was
celebrated at Rome with great splendour on the
ides of Quinctilis, the 15tli of July, the day
on which they were believed to liave assisted
the Romans against the Latins in the battle of
the I-Mike ReglUu^ (Liv. i.\. 4(!|. (Equites.J
Aiocrnixtia, AioariM-^a- (Ar. .Irli. 171).
Divinatio.)
Dio'ta. I Pottery.
Ai4>6(pa. (1) A cloak made of skins, worn
bv workmen and countrymen (Ar. \iib. 7*2,
V>n/>. 444 ; Plato. Crit. p. 53).
{•2\ Coriarius.
A£TT\a£. AitrXols. 'Oress, pp. 251;, 257.]
Diploma. This word — whidi, like Siwrvxa,
signiliod two tablets fastened together — is
treated of under Diptycha. Diplonnita were
letters patent, securing some kin<l of govern-
mental grant. During tiiec-ivil war Caesar gave
di])louiata to such as he allowed to enter tiie
city (Cic Fant. vi. 12, 8) or to leave Italy (id.
DIPLOMA
237
Att. \. 17, 4). In the later Empire such grants
as, e.g., the status of a patrician, were conferred
bj- diploma.
After the establislunent of the post by
Augustus, dijiloiua, a folded parcliment, was
the regular term for the permission granted by
till- emperor or i)rovincial governor to an in-
dividual to usi- the post (Plin. Ej>. x. 45 [54_;).
CurBus publicuB.J
The inililiiry diploinata were certificates
granting rigiits of citizensliip and regular mar-
riage to soldiers who hail served out their time;
hence are frequently called privih-giu vctera-
norum dr vivitate ct coniihn). In republican
times grants of citizenship were made by the
Klg. 4iX).-lHpt>chii Ci.Mil ri . ct ( lomontliius, A_D.8U.
(I>«bnrl«. I
238
DIPTEROS
people ; in imperial times by the emperor (Suet.
Nero, 12). The diplomata given to soldiers
were ciit on bronze tablets and posted up (cf.
Cic. Fliil. ii. 36, 92) generally in the Capitol
near the temple of Fides. Copies of such grants
v/ere kept by persons interested in them. They
bear the names of seven witnesses. These names
were cut at the same time as the rest of the
document ; and the witnesses gave their attes-
tation by affixing their seals in the vacant space
in the middle of the tablet, after comparison of
the law and the copy.
Di'pteros [Uimpos). [Architectura, Temple
Architecture.]
Di'ptycha (^i-KTvxo-^ from ■KTvffaw, 'to fold ').
Two writing tablets [tabulae or tabeUae, also
called pugillares), fastened together at the back
by means of wires, which answered the purposes
of hinges, so that they opened and shut. The
inside surfaces of such tablets were covered with
wax for the purposes of writing, and with a raised
margin (alveus) round each to prevent the wax
of oiie tablet rubbing against that of the other.
The outside was made of different materials,
such as wood, ivory, or parchment. [See
Tabulae.] Similar tablets (SeAroi) were used
by the Greeks (Hdt. vii. 239; Horn. II. vi.
169).
The (liptycha considaria, frequently men-
tioned in the later times of the Empire, were
made of ivory, and were presented by the
consuls to the emperor and their friends on the
day on which they entered upon their office.
These diptycha contained the portraits and
names of the consuls, with other representations
in bas-relief.
Diribito'res (diribeo = dishaheo). Cicero
[Pis. 15, 30) distinguishes rogatores, diribi-
tores, and custodes tabellaruni. It was the office
of the rogatores to collect the tabellae which
each century gave. The diribitores divided or
sorted the votes when taken in the cistae to
the villa publica; the custodes, among whom
were the agents of the candidates, checked
them off by points (jpiincta) marked on a
tablet. [Cista; Situla.]
Discerni'culum. [Acus.]
Discus (SiV/cos). A circular plate of stone
(Pind. Isthin. i. 34), or metal (Mart. xiv. 164),
made for throwing
to a distance as an
exercise of strength
and dexterity. This
gymnastic feat
formed part of the
Pentathlon.
The earliest form
was a stone {\idos,
Kas), as employed
among the mythic
Phaeakians,and even
down to the latest
period. In Homer,
the heroes contend
for a lump of iron
((r6\o avToxiic^fos),
perforated in the
centre for the pas-
sage of a thong which
served as a handle,
to be given to him who should throw it farthest
(IZ. xxiii. 826-46, Od. viii. 129). In historical
times the discus was of bronze and lenticular
in form, 10 to 12 in. in diameter.
Of the game itself (SiffKofioAia), a complete
idea may be formed. The player, standing,
upon a slight elevation {0a\Pis), raised the
DIVINATIO
discus to the level of his right shoulder {II.
xxiii. 431), and then swung and threw it with
all his force (Od.
viii. 186-200; Stat.
Theb. vi. 703; ra
I SicTKovpa, as a
i measure of length,
I II. xxiii. 431, 523).
I Discus came to
mean any plate-
shaped object, e.^.
j a dish, the disk
of a sun-dial, a
gong, &c.
Dispensa'tor. A
i steward in the
I urbana familia,
[ who had the
charge of the ac-
I counts and made
the payments
; (Cic. Att. xi. 1 ;
, Juv. i. 91, vii. 219;
j Mart. V. 42 ; Suet.
I A7ig. 67). The
I dispensator was
[ usually a slave.
If there was a
I Procurator iu the
Fig. 4G2.— Discobolus of Myrou.
Fig. 461.— Discus. (From
Botticher's Olumpia.)
house, the dispensator was under him, and
acted simply as cashier. If there was a dis-
pensator on the country estate, he was nearly
the same as the Vilicus.
Dithyra'mbus. [Chorus.]
Divina'tio. A presentiment and a knowledge
of future things, by means of the interpretation
of signs (Cic. Div.'i. 1, ii. 63, 130).
1. Greek. — The seers or fxavreis seem origi-
nally to have been connected with certain places
where oracles were given; but in subsequent
times they formed a distinct class of persons,
independent of any locality; one of them is
Kalchas in the Homeric poems. Apollo was
generally the source from which the seers
derived their knowledge. In many families of
seers the inspired knowledge of the future was
considered to be transmitted from father to
son. To these families belonged the lamidae
(Pind. 01. vi.) of Olympia; the Branchida*-,
near Miletus; the Eimiolpidae, at Athens and
Eleusis; the Akamanian seers, and others
(cf. Hdt. viii. 27, ix. 37). The /iavTcij made
their revelations either when requested to do
so or whenever they thought it necessary. The
civil government of Athens protected and
honoured them; and Cicero {Div. i. 43, 95)
says that the ixivreis were present in all the
public assemblies of the Athenians. (Com-
pare Ar. Pax, 1025, Nub. 825.) Along with
the seers we may also mention the Bakides
and the Sibyllae (see Class. Diet. Bacis ; Si-
BYLL.\). Both existed from a very remote
time, and were distinct from the /xavreLs
so far as they professed to derive their know-
ledge of the future from sacred books {xpr)crfj.oi}
which were in some places, as at Athens and
Rome, kept in some revered sanctuarv. Several
Bakides are mentioned (cf. Ar. Eq. 123, A v.
963 ; Hdt. v. 43, vii. 6, viii. 20). The Sibyllae
were prophetic women, probably of Asiatic
origin, who wandered with their sacred books
from place to place. (Liv. i. 7.) [Sibyllini
libri; Duoviri sacrorum.]
Besides these more respectable prophets and
prophetesses, there were numbers of fortune-
tellers and diviners of an inferior order (xpryff/io-
\6yot), who were more particularly popular
DIVISOR
with the lower orders (Thuc. ii. 21 ; Ar. Aues,
897, Pax, '.)86. Xx-.).
The second or formal kind of divination con-
sisted in the interpretation of signs and pheno-
mena. For tliis kind of divination no divine
inspiration was tliouj^ht necessary, but merely
knowledge acquired \>y routine; and on any
sudden emergency anyone might act us liis
own interpreter.
The interpretation of sacrificial omens {ifpo-
fxavreia or lepoffKoiria, liaruspicium or (irn
hanisjiiciiui) was attributed to Prometheus
(Aesch. P. V. 492, &c.). The signs of all
sacrifices were observed, and, when they were
propitious, the sacrifice was said KaWtepui/.
The principal points that were generally ob-
served were: (1) The manner in which the
victim approached to the altar, e.g. whether
mute or not. (2) The nature of the intestines,
especially the liver and l)ile, with respect to
their colour and texture (Acscli. P. V. 498, &c. ;
Eurip. Elect. 833). [Caput extortim.j (3)
Tlie nature of the flame whicli consumed the
sacrifice, and the smoke rising from it, the
libation, itc. (Eur. Phont. 1261); hence the
words irvpouavTfia, ffxvupa (n'lixara, (pKoywira
(Trj/uaTo, KaTrvofxavTfia, Ktfiavo/xavTfia, Kpido-
jLLafTfia, and others. Especial cai'e was also
taken that no inauspicious words were uttered
by any of the bystanders : hence the admonitions
of the priests, iv(prifj.(iT( and ev((>-qfxia, or triyuTe,
cTiunraTf, farrtr Unguis, I'i.c. ; and the terms
Svffcprmia, KKTjSovfs, (pTtjxai, (pwval or bfx<pai
(Find. 01. vi. 112 ; Hom. II. ii. 41).
The art of interpreting signs was called
oioiviaTiKv,, angurium or aiiapicintn. It was,
like the former, common to Greeks ;ind Romans,
but was more completely developed by the
latter. [Augur.] The Greeks, when observing
the flight of birds, turned their faces towards
the north, and then a bird appearing to the
right (east), especially an eagle, a heron, or a
falcon, was a favourable sign (Hom. //. xiv. 274,
0(1. XV. 524) ; while birds appearing to the left
(west) were considered as unlucky signs (Hom.
n. xii. 201, 230). Other animals appearing un-
expectedly, especially to travellers on their
road (ivihia ffv/jLfio\a}, were also thought
ominous. Various other means were used to
ascertain the will of the gods, such as the ctSTj-
po/MiuTfia, iJLo\vfiZofj.avTiia, ^oravofxavTiia, i^'c.
The phenomena in the heavens iSioari/jLiai, Ar.
Ach. 171) were obsened l)y prixatc iiulividual-^
and by the public magistrates. Among unlucky
phenomena were thunder and lightning (Ar.
Eccl. 793 ; Hom. Od. xx. 104), an eclipse of
the sun or moon (Thuc. vii. 50), earthquakes
(Xen. Hell. iv. 7, § 4), rain of blood, stones,
milk, itc. (Hom. II. xi. 53 ; Cic. Div. i.
43). Any one of these signs was sufficient at
-Vthens to break up the assembly of the people,
^lany signs were drawn from common life: e.g.
sneezing (Hom. Ud. xvii. 5()1 ; Xcu. A iiab. in.
2, § 9), twitching of the eyes (Theocr. iii. 37),
tingling of the ears, itc.
The art of interi)reting dreams iovapoiroKta)
was held in high esteem in the Homeric age
(Hom. II. i. 63 ; Od. iv. «41, xix. 4.S7I, and was
popular in later times. (See also Oraculum.)
2. KoMAN. — (1) See articles Augur. Haru-
spex, Sibyllini libri. The wliole siibject is
treated at length by Cicero in his two books de
Divinatione.
(2) For the word divinatin used by the
Romans as a law-term, see Appendix, Roman
Law.
Divi'sor. [Ambitus.]
DOM US
289
Divor'tium. 1. (Ireek. See Appendix,
Greek Law. 2. Roman. See Appendix, Roman-
Law.
AoKava (n. pi. : from honis, a beam). An an-
cient sj'mbolical representation of the fratenial
unity of the Dioskuri at Sparta. It consisted
of two upright beams with others laid across
them transversely. This sjmibol accompanied
the Spartan kings whenever they took the field
against an enemy. But in the year 504 n.c. it
was decreed that in future only one king should
command the army, and in consequence should
only be accomjjanied by one of the images of
the Dioskuri, one-half of the symbol remaining
at Sparta. [Daedala.j
AoKijjuaCTta. See Appendix, GREEK Law.
Dodrans. [As. 'I'abl.-s, I.J
Dola'bra, dim. Dolabe'Ua. A tool consisting
of a long handle and a double heiwl, which ter-
minated on one side in a sharp blade, the edge
of which was parallel to the handle (while
the blade of the ascia was at right angles to
the handle) ; on the other side was a pick,
usually curved (falx, Prop. iv. 2, 59) : used
for hewing wood, for pruning, for making stock-
ades (Juv. viii. 248), for breaking down ramparts
and walls (Liv. ix. 37 ; Tac. Hi.st. iii. 20), and as
a battle-axe; and for excavating or breaking
Fig. !iiM.— Dolabra. (BKImner.)
up earth (fig. 463, a). Fig. 468, c, represents the
dolabra used by masons. The hatchet used at
Fig. 404.— Dolabra. (From funeral monument.)
sacrifices (d. pontificalis, the back of which
was bluS) and the butcher's poleaxe were also
called dolabra.
A6\ixos- [Cursus.]
Do'linm. [Pottkuv.]
Dolo. (1) A staff with an iron point (Serv. ad
'■ Verg. Aen. vii. 664). (2) A sword-stick (Suet.
Claud. 13). (3) The fore- topsail of a ship (Liv.
xxxvi. 44)[Navi8].
! Dolus malus. See Appendix, Roman Law
I [Culpa ^.
I Domici'lium. See Appendix, Roman Law.
I Domi'nium. See Apj)endix, Roman IjAW.
Do'minus. See Appendix, Roman Law.
, DomuB (oiVm, otK-nais, olKrjT'fjpiov). A house.
I 1. PuE-uisTuRic. — Among the earliest forma
240
DOMUS
of human dwellings was a cii-eulav hut made doubt as to the remote antiquity of these re-
of branches of trees stuck into the ground in mains, and the similar buildings at Mykenae.
a circle, bent inwards till their ends met, and On entering through the main gateway of the
then tied together at the top. This frame- Acropolis (1), the approach (shown by the dotted
work was filled in by wattled work woven line) leads through a narrow passage to a second
in and out, and the whole was daubed over gate (2), and thence to the outer porch or pro-
with mud. A reminiscence of this form of pylaeum (3). On passing this, an outer court
building exists in the stone domical structures Cd a) is reached ; and then a second propylaeiun
of Mykenae, Orchomenus, and other early sites (4) leads into the main courtyai'd (auAvj, 5) with
in Greece, in the circular npvTaveiov in ; open cloister or penthouse (cdOovcra} on tliree
Athens and elsewhere, and in the Athenian I sides, and altar of Zeus EpKelos (Od. xxii. 335).
6 is the ix)rch or aWovffa
of the hall, and 7 its
vestibule or auterooiu
(irp6So/j.os). 8 is the
ayapov, or great hall, in
tlie centre of which is the
round hearth (fcrxdpa),
under the open centre of
the roof, which was sup-
ported by four uprights
(Kioves) of timber. 9 are
taken to be small roonas
for the use of the men ;
among them is a small
bath-room, about 12 feet
by 10 feet.
The eastern half of the
house seems to have been
intended for the use of
the women, and jirobably
the married members of
the chief's family. This
portion, like the other,
contains two open courts
(13, 13 a), and a hall
(0aAo(UOJ, 14) withasingle
vestibule — all on a rather
smaller scale. On the
east of the hall and court
are two ranges of rooms
(9a.\a/j.oi^ 15), more in
number and larger than
those on tlie men's side
of the house. There ap-
pear to have been three
means of access to the
women's part : one by a
long passage (\avpr], 12)
leading from a side door
in the outer propylaeum
(3), another from the
north-east comer of the
men's court (21), while a
third way led by a long
passage (16) round the
back of the two halls to
a rock-cut stairwaj' (near
18), at the foot of which
was a small postern door
(17) in the outer fortifi-
cation wall. In times of
peace this was probabh-
©6\os, a round building with a domical roof, ; the path to fetch water ; in war, the gan-ison
not unlike the Roman Temple of Vesta, which j appear to have depended on their stores of
also was originally a round wattled hut (Ov. rahi- water, large cisterns for which were formed
Fast. vi. 261 sq.). The Casa Bomuli on the ! in the thiclmess of the outer wall.
Palatine (Ov. Fast. iii. 183.^ Liv. v. 53) was a | In addition to the rooms on the ground-floor,
similar building. there was an upper story [i/irepwiov). Traces
In the Homeric poems, a number of small | of a staircase still exist on the east side of the
fortified towns or villages were ruled in an women's hall.
autocratic way by some chieftain who lived | Construction of the Palace of Th-y7is. — The
with his retainers in feudal or patriarchal state, walls, about tliree feet thick, are built of
The palace of such a chief has been discovered ' roughly-di-essed limestone bedded in clay up to
at Tiryns, and in many points agrees with [ a height of about two feet above the floor level:
Homer's accounts. i the rest of the wall was of sun-dried brick, and
Plan of the Palace of Tiryns — There is no I tli£ whole was covered inside and out with tliree
I
Fig. 465.— Plan of V.ie I'alace at Tiryns.
1. Main entrance. 2. Inner gate.
3. First proiij latum. 4. Second propylaeum.
5. Open court (aviA^), with open cloister or pent
house (al6ov(ra) on three sides, aa r-ltar of
Zeiis "Epicecos [Od. xxiii. 333)
6. Portico ia'iOov(Ta) of haU.
7. Vestibule or anteroom (npoSofioi) of hal..
8. Great hall (fieyapof), the roof of which was sap-
ported by four uprights (itt'ov'es) of timber. In
the centre, iirxo-pa-
9. Men's rooms.
10. 0aAa/u.oi.
11. Guard rooms.
IJ. Passage to women s part.
13. Open courts.
14. ®oAa/xos or women's hall.
15. 0aAa/iot.
16. Passage to postern.
17. Narrow postern.
18. Projecting bastion.
19. Defences at the entrance.
DOMUS
241
coats of hard stucco, made of lime mixed with j cooked {OJ. xx. 123), and the Rmoke escaped
sand, gravel, aiid broken pottery, forming a tlirongh a liole in tlie roof (cf. Hdt. viii 187)
coating nearly as hard as stone. Besides the tuo principal doors of the fxiyapov
The floors were made of a thick layer of good '
lime concrete. In the rooms the pavement was
worked to a smooth surface, on which simple
patterns of siiuares or spirals were incised, and
then painted blue and red.
The various doorways liave massive stone
sills or thresholds (ovtos), in most cases pro-
vided with two large drill-holes, in which the
bronze pivots of the doors revolved, show-
ing that folding doors were used. The doors
were probably made of thick wooden planks
(see Oil. ii. 844) held in their place by strong
bronze bands with bronze pivots above and
below. The doorways (araQfioi) were lined with
woodwork, the jambs ijeing made of soft unbaked
brick. This practice survived till later times.
Tlio marble doorways of the Parthenon and
Propylaea had wooden casings.
The roof was probably a sinipli' low-pitched
roof, having a principal rafter with tie-beam
mill king-post.
Ill some of the rooms at Tirjnis, the walls were
liiii'd with wooden planks, and on these plates
of bronze were nailed, worked in repoussi with
reliefs, and gilt. [Caelatura.J
All the wall surfaces at Tiryiis which were
not thus adorned seem to have been ornamented
both inside and out with paintings on stucco,
executed in simple earth colours.
The Homeric Palace of Vdi/sseus. — The Ho-
meric house (see plan) consisted of tliree parts :
av\ri, the fore-court ; So.\ua or jxtyapov, tlie hall
of the men ; and 6a.\a)j.os (yvvaiKwv'iTis), the
apartments of the women [11. vi. 316). The
house was entered by massive folding doors (1,
dvpai SiKKiSfS, Oil. xvii. 267), and on either side
were stone seats (10, eSpoi, cf. Od. iii. 406). Tlie
doors led into the av\i) (A), or open court-yard,
which was used as a kind of farm-yard. On
either side and behind were chambers (6oAa/xo;,
'.), 9), used for various purposes [Od. xix. 48,
XX. 105). In one corner of the court was the
06\os (b, Od. xxii. 442, 459), a circular building.
In the midst of the court was the altar of Zeus
'EpKfloi (a, Od. xxii. 335). In the court were
two colonnades or porticoes, each called aWovira,
one on either side right and left of the court-
yard (aidova-a avKTJs, 2fl, 2i<), and the other
(2) opposite the entrance to the court-yard,
and along the front of the Suifxa or jiiyapov.
f AtGovaa.] Crossing the aXQovffcL, the visitor
jiassed into the ^ityapov or Saiua (B), where thr
cliieffi lived. At either end of the fiiyapov was
a door, one leading into the court-yard through
tlie aXSovffa, and the other into the women's
apartments, the da\aixoi properly so called.
In front of either door was a thresliold [ovbos
MYXOl AOMOY
cu
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OAAAMOf
OHiAYPO^
OHAXIN
i
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7
I •
v\. • . 1
1 • • 1
AAINOI OYAO€ '"^
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E?XAPA
<
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•
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a.
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>-
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t iME.AINOfOYAOtl .1
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10 10
Fig. 4fiG.— The Homeric House of the Odu«.i/.
(Iroiii Jebb's Himu-.i : refcreuct-t. from Prof. Gardii
A. aiiK-q, toto-eouxt.
a. Altar of Zei/s 'Epiceios.
b. B6Ko<;.
li. Siina or niyapof, men's hall.
c. ttT\dpa.
C. SoAa^o?, or yvvaiKutflrii, women's
hall.
I. 6vpat SiKAiSfs.
■.;. aiSoutra, npoSoftOi.
er.i
4. &OVpoSoKtf.
a. ^t'Ati'09 oi'5d?.
p. Aaii'O? ou£o<.
A. Ovpa.
6. op(To6vpr).
7. (cAi^a^.
8. Aavpr).
9, 11. 0aAu^ot
10, lU. iSp<u.
already mentioned, there was a third, or postern-
door called ipo-ofluprj (6, ('(/. xxii. 126, 132, 833).
The women's rooms, or eaAojuoj, also called
That in front of the door into the fityapov was fjLtyapa yvvaiKuiv (Od. xxii. 151), were immedi-
made of ash-wood (Od. xvii. 339), and the ately behind the fxiyapov on the ground-floor,
threshold in front of the door into the women's directly communicating with the latter bv a
apartments was of stone [Od. xx. 258). It is not door, and by a passage (H), Kavpi), with the oiitev
improbable that the Aoifroy ouSos ran round tlie court-yard (cf. Od. xvii. 506, xx. 389, iVrc.i.
whole building, and was the basement of stone Here the women sat engaged in weaving and
on which the timber structure was erected, domestic occupations. Here was the chamber
Such a basement, 18 inches high, is found at of the lady of the house (Od. xxiii. 192, 295).
Tiryns, below the courses of unburnt brick, The ordinary sleeping ami other rooms of the
and is a common feature in houses of liiiilier women were in the upper story (virfpwiov)
construction, as in Switzerland. The fniKivos which was reached by a ladder, >fAr/iia{ (0(/. xxi.
ovh6i would then be part of the timber framing C, //. ii. 514). In the women's ix)oni8 was the
of the doorway. The fityapov was of great annoury (OaAa/uos oirAoii', cf. (fd. xxii. 1401, and
size. Its height was that of the house itself, the treasury at tlie fuitlier extremitv (ddXafios
and its roof was supported by lofty posts (wioct j, , faxaroi), with a high roof (Od. xxi. 8). In the
Ud. xix. 38). In the upper part of the fxtyapov | women's part of tlie house also there was an
was the ^o-xc^o, or hearth, where the foiod was i open court (Od. x.xiii. 190).
R
242
DOMUS
2. The later Gbeek House. — Till quite
recently very few remains of Greek houses were
known to exist. Excavations made in the
Greek city of Naukratis in the Egyptian Delta
during 1884-86 have brought to light remains
of a large number of Greek streets and houses,
all built of sun-dried brick coated with painted
stucco. The accompanying figure shows one of
L-XJ-K
Fig. d67.— Plan of a Greek house ac Naukratis in Egypt.
these houses. A is a single house of six rooms,
mth a small central open court. B B appear
to be shops. C C are narrow streets.
Pig. 468 is the plan of a house in the Peiraeus,
discovered in 1884.
On the SE. and SW. sides the block faces oii
to streets : it appears to be a double house. On
the NW. side remains were found of a large
open peristyle or av\ri, apparently derived from
^t=^
Fig. iGi^. — Plan of a Greek house discovered at Peiraeus.
the ouAv) of the earlier Hellenic plan : in this
cloister an altar, B, was found, probably dedi-
cated to Zeus 'EpKfTos. On the SE. side the
house was entered through a long shallow
porch, C, with two columns, in which stood
another altar, probably that of Apollo 'Ayvievs.
This porch led into a small open court, D,
surrounded on three sides by a covered walk
(crrod or porticus). The floors are paved,
partly with flags, partly with a rude mosaic,
formed of pebbles set in concrete. This block of
building measures, without counting the large
peristyle, about 140 feet by 75 feet.
During the most flourishing period of Greece
the private houses appear to have been small
and simple in design. The front of the house
towards the street was nan'ow. In towns the
houses were often built side bj' side, with party
walls between (^/i^Toixot ot/cia(,Thuc. ii. 3). The
exterior wall was plain, and usually covered with
plaster or stucco. Terracotta and bronze were
also used for exterior decoration (Plut. PJioc.
18). Unbaked clay was used for the walls, pro-
bably with timber in the upper story (Xen.
Mem. iii. 1, § 7).
It was not till the time of Demosthenes that
good houses began to be built in Athens (Dera.
c. Aristocr. p. 689, § 207 sqq.). After the time
of Alexander the Great the growth of private
luxury led to the erection of larger and morw
richly decorated houses throughout the Greek
cities, and especially in Magna Graecia and
Sicily. In all cases the country houses must
have been much finer buildings than those in
the old cities, where streets were narrow and
sites often very cramped (Isocr. Areop. § 20 ;
Thuc. ii. 14).
Greek houses had three principal features in
common. (1) There was an open court or
G ■
®
o o o
o
o o o o o o
^/Mvyw^■",wl w:'>m.:
G
2 o
C b
B
•»»'^/'/* ""'/iT-
: H
v»,w»wui v/,»m7.
l~Trrt77?;^C
222
Fig. 469.— Plan of a Greek house. (Gxihl and Koner.)
A. Entrance-hall. A'. IIuAwf (npdSupov'), and, further
back, street door, ovAeio? 6vpa.
B. Peristyle of the 'AfSpwi'irt?.
<2. Altar of Zeus 'EpKeios.
C. XvSpuir, or dtning-hall.
b. icnia.
K. Peristyle of the ryi'itKuvrri?.
H. Rooms of the '.Arijpwi'tTts.
F. Perhaps sanctuaries of the 6eo\ (cnjcrioi and 5f oi
TTarpioOi.
D. 0dAaju.O5.
E. *A/UL<^tdaAa/Ltos.
G. Rooms of the rui/ancMt-iTt?, for working in -wool and
other purposes.
1. Rooms of the ' ■\vSpiavlrK<;, and in some houses per-
haps shops opening to the street.
2. Door between the men and women's rooms, ^6'<rauAos
(/lier-) or /u.e'<ravAo; Gvpa.
3. Garden-door, KTjTrat'a Gvpa..
patio (often two), surrounded by the various
rooms. (2) In a Greek family the women lived
DOMUS
•243
in private apartments allotted to their respec- '
live use. Hence the division into avSpdJulns ■
and yvi'aiKCi>i/7ris. (3) The Gi/naekonitis wa>;.
as a general rule, in larger houses behind and
on the same floor with the Androidtis. Tlie ,
general i)lan was much the same as that of the
Homeric house.
The above plan of the ground-floor of a Greek
house of the larger size, with two courts or
peristyles, is conjectural, but will show what
was probably a common general plan of a Greek '
house in historic times.
(1) Forv-court. — Many houses had a.irp66vpov
(Hdt. vi. 3.5), which may be the space indicated i
in the cut before the passage A. In front of
tlie house was generally an altar of Apollo
Agyieus, a laurel tree, or a term of Hermes or '
Hnkate (Thuc. vi. 27 ; Ar. Thcsm. -IfSl) sq.). |
i'2) EntratU'c. — A few steps {dva^a.dfj.oi) led up I
to the house-door, which generally bore some |
inscription, such as ElfiroSos KpoTTjTt 'fiL-yadw '<
Aaifxofi, or /itjS^v eiViTw KUKuf. The house- j
door generally opened inwards; cf. ^vSovvat, ',
to open, and ^iriffiriffacrdai and ^(peKKvaacrOai
(Plut. Fi-loj). 11, lJi>i)i, 57), to shut. For the ;
doors and fastenings, etc., see lanua. |
The house-door was called oCAfioj {avAfia), 1
or av\ia 6vpa (Pind. Kent. i. 19; //. xxii.
66), because it opened into the avK-l,. Between
the door and the av\i] came a passage. A', t
(■Ku\c!iv or Ovpiiv), and in a large house, the
porter's lodge (Theocr. xv. 43 ; Ar. Thcsm. 410,
Eq. 10'25).
(3) Feristijlc uf the Andronitis (Plan, B).—
This was the most important part of the house, !
corresponding to the Homeric avKr,, by which
name it is frequently called (Plat. Frotag. p.
311 a). It was a court open to the sky in the
centre {virai6pov), and surrounded on all four
sides by colonnades ((Ttooi or tvpoar^a), whence i
the name irfpiarvKiov.
Round the peristyle were arranged the cham-
bers used by the men, called by the general
name of oIkoi, olKrtnara, and avSpwvfs. Besides
these, there were parlours or sitting-rooms
{f^fSpai), sleeping-rooms {Kotrwvfs, oiVjjftaTa),
guest-chambers (^evuiyts), picture-galleries and
libraries.
(4) 'Ai/Spwv, or dining-haU (Plan, C).— The
avSpwv was situated in the centre of the house,
between the two courts. It corresponds to the
^nfyapov of Homer. Here stood the taria, or
sacred hearth, the symbol of domestic worship
(Aesch. Again. 1056), a round altar sacred to
the goddess Hestia, and a sanctuary for sup-
pliants (Thuc. i. 130; Plut. Them. 34; Lys.
de Caed. Erat. § 27). Here diinier was taken
(Xen. Symp. i. 13 ; cf. Ar. Eccl. 670), and it
was generally a place where men assembled.
The andron is called by Vitruvius irpoffras or
iropa<rTdj, and by other writers iraffrds, a word
properly signifying, not a chamber, but a colon-
nade.
(5) Prristtjlcofthr Gi/iMrkoiiitis (P]a.T\,K).—
The peristyle of the Andronitis was connected
with that of the (iynaekonitis by a door I'i)
called fxfTav\os, fj.f(rav\os, or fifiravKto!.
This door gave admittance to the peristyle of
the Gynaekonitis, which was, in large houses,
behind the Andronitis (Lys. c. .S'(w.§6; Deni.
c. Errrg. p. 1155, § 53; Xen. Ore. ix. 5). In
smaller houses, where there was only one court,
the Gynaekonitis was in the upper story (TjVs. <le
Caed. Erat. § 19 ; Ar. Errl. 961, The.im.' 4H2).
On the right and left of this were bod-chamberw,
the OiKufios or bedroom of the master and
mistress, and the aix(pi0d\anos, probably the
chamber of tlie growni-up daughters of tlie
house (Plan, D, E) (Soph. (). T. 1242 ; Pind.
Fgth. ii. 60 ; Soph. Track. 913 ; Eur. Hipp. 940 ;
Theocr. ii. 136). The QiKafios is frequently
called Sw/uiTtoi' (Lys. de Caed. Erat. § 24 ; Ar.
Eccl. H ; Plat. Hep. iii. p. 390 cl, and some-
times iracnai or -rraaTos (Theocr. xxiv. 4f> ;
A nth. Fal. ix. 245). In the 6d\afjiO! were placed
figures of the 6fol yafifjAioi. Beyond these
rooms were large apartments (iffrwyes) used
for working in wool. Round the peristyh-
were eating-rooms, bed-chainbtTS, store-rooms
(,To/ni«?a, cf. Ar. Lijsiatr. 495), and other ajiart-
ments in common use. (Plan, G.)
Besides the a6K«ios dvpa and the jxtaavKos
dvpa, there was a third door (Krjiraia dvpat
leading to the garden (Dem. in Everg. }<.
1155, § 53 ; Lys. in Erat. § 10).
Some other matters connected with a Greek
house require notice.
(1) Upper stories. — When there was an upper
storj' (imtpifov, 5i^p€sl. it was chiefly used for
the sleeping apartments, both of the family ami
of the slaves. (Cf. Dem. in EvP)-g. p. 1150,
§ 56.) Houses rarely had more than two
stories (but cf. rpianyov, Acts xx. 8, 9, and
elsewhere). The access to the upper floor
seems to have been sometimes by stairs (ovo-
)3ad/xoi) on the outside of the house (Arist. Oec.
ii. 5; cf. Liv. xxxix. 14). In some large houses
there were rooms for guests y^fvwvis) on the
ground-floor.
Portions of the upper story sometimes pro-
jected beyond the walls of the lower jnirt,
forming balconies (wpofioKai, yfiatTro5i<TfxaTa\,
like the Roman maeniana.
(2) lidof.'i. — The ruofs were generally flat, and
it was customarj' to walk about ujion them (Lys.
adu. Sim. § 11 ; Ar. Lysistr. 389), or to pa^s
from one house to anotlier (Dem. c. Anarot,
p. 609, § 53). But pitched roofs were also
used, covered with tiles {Kfpafxos).
(3) Doorn. — [See lanua. J In the interior
of the house tlie place of doors was sometimes
supplied by curtains [irapaTrfTaa ixara, irapa-
KaKvfj.fj.aTa) (Ar. Ve.y). 1215).
(4) Windows (dupiSfs) were chiefly in the
upper story (Ar. Thcsm. 797, Eccl. 961).
Windows in Greek architecture, public or
domestic, were few, small, and plain. The only
allusion to windows in Homer is Od. i. 320, and
this is doubtful. Some jjrehistoric houses
recently discovered in the island of Thera show-
traces of small s(juare windows with wooden
lintels. No evidence of windows has been
found at Tiryns or Mykenue; in later buildings
a few have been found. It ajipears probable
that tem])les were principally liglitetl from the
roof, as those in Egypt, and that rooms on the
ground-floor of houses were lighted chiefly from
the door, those in upper stories by small win-
dows, sometimes double (Ovpi^ts), with case-
ments.
In Roman buildings the window was deve-
loped into an important architectural feature.
See below.
(5) Priviex, airiiraroi (Ar. Ach. 81), a.<po^oi
(Ar. Eccl. 1059), KOTtpwvfi (i'ltx, 99), probably
t near the kitchen.
((>) Heativg. — Artificial wannth was procured
by little portable stoves (^<rxapia, t(r>^ap/5«r\ <ir
chafing dishes (avQpixKia). (Ar. Vesp. Hll.)
^FOCUB.I ('himnoys [KaTrinriy Ar. Vcsp. 143;
[ KairvoMKri, Hdt. viii. 137) seem to havo been
used only in the kitchen (oirriviov).
(7) Decoration. — The decorations of the in-
' terior were very plain. The floors were of
r2
244
DOMUS
concrete or plaster. The walls, down to the
fourth century B.C., seem to have been white-
washed. Tlie tirst recorded instance of painting
them is that of Alkibiades (Dem. c. Mid. § 147 ;
Plut. Alcih. 16). We have also mention of
painted ceilings at the same period (Plat. Eejj.
vii. p. 529 B).
(8j Letting and Price of Houses. — There was
a great deal of speculation in the building and
letting of liouses at Athens (Xen. Oecon. iii. 1).
A distinction was made at Athens between the
oiKta, which was a dwelling-house for a single
family, and the ZvvoiKCa, which was adapted
to hold several families. 'S.uvotKiat were let
mostly to foreigners and metoeks. The summer
season was the most profitable for the letting
of houses, when merchants and other visitoi-s
flocked to Athens. The rent was commonly
paid by the month, and was at least 8 per cent.
on the purchase money. The prices of houses
at Athens varied from 3 minas to 120 minas. }
3. Roman. — The earliest dwellings of the
Latins on the Palatine hill were probably I
mere huts of mud-daubed osiers, like the casa
RoDiuli. (See above.) After the burning of
Rome by the Gauls, the city was rebuilt with
narrow streets and on no regular plan (Liv. v. j
55). Even the houses of the richest citizens
were small and built of unbumt brick, or the
soft brown tufa of the hills of Rome. No ex- j
amples of tired bricks are known in Roman
buildings till the time of Julius Caesar ; and I
down to the beginning of the last centurj' of the I
Republic Romans of rank continued to live in \
small houses. j
The Twelve Tables ordained that each build-
ing should be separated from another by a space
of 2i feet, called ambitus. This enactment, I
which had long been disregarded, was again en-
forced by Nero, when he rebuilt the city (Tac.
Ann. XV. 43).
Houses at Rome may be divided into insulae,
blocks let out in flats, principally to tenants of
small means, and doinus or acdes privatae,
separate houses or hotels, usually with only one
story above the ground-floor, and inhabited for '
the most part by a single family ; though parts
of them, especially at the back or top, were
sometimes let out, as in Italian palazzi (Liv.
xxxix. 14, 2 ; Suet. Ner. 44, Vitell. 7).
The insula was a block of buildings isolated
from the neighbouring houses. The ground-
floor was usually let out in shops (tabernac),
and the upper stories in flats or separate rooms.
The number of insulac at Rome greatly ex-
ceeded that of tlie donms (Tac. Ann. xv. 43 ;
Suet. Ner. 16). Insulae were usually built on
speculation, and let by the proin'ietor to differ-
ent occupants (Plut. Crass. 2; Mart. iv. 37).
Hence the suites of rooms or separate rooms
were called cenacula mei'itoria (Suet. Vit. 7 ;
Juv. iii. 234) or eonducta (Hor. Ej). i. 1, 91).
Tlie rent (pensio, Juv. ix. 63) at Rome was
considerable, even for a miserable garret (Juv.
iii. 166 ; cf. Mart. iii. 30, 8). Those who had
charge of the -insulae and collected the rents
were called iyisularii and procuratores insu-
larum. The i«SM/a appears to have been named '
after the person to whom it belonged : e.g. in-
S7ila Arriana PoUiana,insula Sertoriaiia, &c. I
The upper stories and the separate rooms of
the insula were called cenacula. This word
properly signifies rooms to dine in ; but after it
became the fashion to dine in the upper part of j
the house, all the rooms above the ground-floor i
were called cenacula ( Varr. L. L. v. 162 ; Plant. '
Amph. iii. 1, 3 ; Hor. Ep. i. 1, 91). The stairs I
were sometimes within doors, sometimes as-
cended at once from the street (Liv. xxxix.
14, 2, xxi. 62, 3). The different stories had
windows looking out into the street (Liv. i. 41,
xxiv. 21 ; Juv. vi. 31). They also had some-
Fig. 470 — Maeniauum or projecting storv. (Overbeds.
l'„m,,n,, p. -1!..)
times balconies and projecting stories (maeni-
ana), supported by brackets (Mart. i. 87).
We find mention of a house tliree stories high
[teriia contignatio) in 218 B.C. (Liv. xxi. 62, 8);
and Martial (i. 117, 7) lived on the third stoi-y
(scalis tribus). We have no express mention of
any houses more than four stories high, but
probably some houses at Rome were higher
than this.
A picture of a large country house (villa)
found in Algeria in 1878 shows a building of
from four to six stories high. The ground-floor
lias only a few plain rectangular windows, fitted
with strong iron gratings. In the upper stories
the windows are placed at frequent intervals.
The central part of the house has a low-pitched
roof covered with red tiles, from the ridge of
which four chimney-stacks project. A coni(;iI
smoke-cowl is set over each chimney.
The houses let for hire were often badly built
by speculators. The upper stories were of
wood {tabulata, contignationes), and frequently
fell dowii, while their material made them more
liable to fires, which were vei"y frequent in
Rome (see Juv. i. 7, iii. 193 ; CatuU. xxiii. 9 ;
Sen. Ep. 91, § 13). The inundations of the
Tiber also undermined foundations, and caused
the fall of houses (Tac. Ann. i. 76 ; Suet.vl?/.^. 30).
In the reign of Augustus the height of new
houses in streets was limited to seventy feet,
and they were to be constructed on stone piers,
with walls of concrete and burnt brick. Nero
added to and improved these regulations, and
was said to have burnt Rome in order to rebuild
it. (Tac. Ann. xv. 43 ; Suet. Ner. 38.)
The fashion of building large and magnificent
doyyius or palazzi came in with the increase of
wealth occasioned by conquests in the East.
Most of the rooms were on the ground-floor.
These splendid mansions were erected for the
DOMUS
•245
most part on tlie hills, and along the northern
slope of tlie Palatine, afterwards occupied by
the various palaces of the emperors.
The house of the orator L. Crassus on the
Palatine, built about 92 B.C., was the first wliich
had marble columns in tlie atrium. In 78 B.C.
M. Lepidus, for the first time in Rome, used
the rich Numidian marble (giallo antico) not
only for columns, but also for the tluresliolds
of his doors (Plin. .\xxvi. § JH). Marble
slabs were first used for wall-linings by a
knight named MamuiTa, one of Caesar's j)re-
fects in Gaul : in whose house were columns of
marble from Karj'stus (cipoUino) and Luna. In
the course of the next two centuries marbles
were brought from all parts of the world for
columns, entablatures, doorways, wall-linings,
and pavements. Houses thus decorated were
sold at enonnous prices. Clodius gave nearly
15 million sesterces (132,000/.) for a house:
Cicero 3i millions (30,000/.). [Marmor.]
Many of these palaces were surrounded by
extensive gardens {horti iSallustiani, Lii-
cullaiii, &c.).
According to Vitruvius, the principal parts of
a Eoman house were, or in his opinion should
be — (1) Vestibulum; ('2) Ostinut \ (3) Atriian;
(4) Alae; (5) Tablinum; (6) Fauces; (7) Peri-
styliuni. The parts of a house which were
considered of less importance were — [a) Cubi-
cula ; (6) Triclinia ; (c) Oeci ; (d) Exedrac ;
(e) Pi)iacotheca\ (/) Bibliotheca; (g) Bali-
neum; (h) Culina; (i) Cenaciila; {J) Lani-
rium or Sacrariiim ; (k) Diaetae; {I) Solaria.
We shall speak of each in order.
(1) Vesti'bulum. a vacant space before the
house, forming a court-yai'd or entrance-court,
open on one side to the street. In the smaller
houses in Rome and the municipal towns,
there was either no vestibu/um, so that the
door opened straight upon the street, or the
vestibulum was simply indicated by the door
standing back a few feet from the street, as in
many of the houses at Pompeii. In the
houses of the nobility the vestibulum was
adorned with statues, anns, and other trophies
(Liv. X. 7; Cic. Phil. ii. '28,(58; Verg. ^e«. ii.
504 ; Ov. Trist. iii. 1, 33 ; Suet. Tib. 2(), Ner.
88), sometimes with quadrigae (Juv. vii. 125).
It was for the most part uncovered, but some-
times lia<l a porticus or colonnade (Suet. Ner.
10; Tac. Anti. xv. 43), and was adorned with
trees or shrubs (Verg. Georg. iv. 20).
Public buildings also had vestibula, as the
curia or senate-house (Liv. i. 48, ii. 48), and
various temples (Tac. Hi.st. i. 86).
(2) Ostium. The ostium, often used as
synonymous with ifoiiid and fores, the door,
properly signified an entrance-hall, small or
large, before the ianua. Here stood the
Antae, two posts or pillars flanking the door-
way. On the thresliold the word SALVE was
sometimes wrought in mosaic. (See also Mart.
vii. 870, xiv. 70). Over the door a few wonls of
good omen were often inscribed, such as XAI PE,
' Salve,' or ' Nihil intret mali ' : and sonictiincs
also the warning 'Cave canem ' (eu\a0oii ttji/
Kvva) : for here was usually the keiniel of the
house-dog (Theocr. xv. 43; Ar. Thesm. 423,
Lys. 1215 ; Tibull. ii. 4, 82). Here also was tlie
crlla ia nit oris {dupoipfwv). Sometimes the
house was indicated by a sign over the door
(Suet. ^1/^7.5, Doin. 1).
(3) Atiui'm. The atriutii, also called racum
aediu m or cavaediu»t,was a large room or court
roofed over, with the exception of an opening in
the centre, called coinpluoiiuti (sometimes
I covered with an awiiingi, towards which tlie
I roof sloped so as to throw the rain-water into a
cistern in the floor (impluviiiin, Liv. xliii. 13,
(■>; Plant. Ampii. v. 1, 56), draining into a well
(pnteus) underground. The word impliivinm,
j however, is sometimes used for compliiviuni
and vice versa.
I The atrium in ancient times served as
! sitting-room, bedroom, and kitchen. Here was
j the/(^(;«s, or hearth, which served not only for
! cooking, but was used also for the receptacle of
j the Lares or Penates, which were sometimes
' kept in little cabinets near the hearth. (Hor.
Epod. ii.iS; Plaut. Aid. ii. 18, 15; Tibull. i.
I 10, 20 ; Juv. viii. 110.) The Lar or tutelary god
of the house stood close to the entrance beliinil
j the door leading into the atrium (Ov. Fast. i.
136 s(].). Near tlie sacred flame tlie members
I of the family took the common meal. In the
atrium the master of the house kept his an-a
or money-chest, which was fastened to the
floor. [Area.] Here stood the maixiage bed
(lectiis gcnialis, lectiis adoersiis. Prop. iv. (v.)
11, 85). Here sat the mistress of the house,
spimiing and weaving with her maids (Liv. i.
57, 9). Here all visits were paid, and the patron
received his clients (Hor. Ep. i. 5, 31 ; Cic. Legg.
i. 3, 10). Here the corpse was placed before it
was can-ied out to burial. [Funus.] Hen;
also, in the Al.ve, were placed the waxen Ima-
gines of the ancestors of the house.
As wealth increased, and more rooms were
needed, the atrium ceased to be the only
room for the family. A kitchen (culi)ia) was
made for cooking, the Lares were placed in
a special larariinn; the meals were taken in
the upper story, hence called cenaciilum; the
master and mistress slept in a separate cubi-
culiun, and most of the bedrooms were up-
stairs. The atrium now became the reception
room, and was magnificently fitted up with
marbles and w-orks of art. It still continued
to be the chief room of the house, and its
primitive chai-acter was preserved by its retain-
ing the symbolical nuptial couch (Hor. Ep. i.
1, 87), the imagines of the ancestors, and the
instruments for weaving and spinning (cf. Hor.
Cann. iii. 1, 45, ii. 10, 7 ; Verg. Aen. i. 725, Georg.
ii. 461 sq. ; Ov. Met. xiv. 260; Mart. xii. 50 1.
The rooms which opened out of the atrium
were lighted only through the rmiijilnviinn.
(4) Alak were Two (juadraiigiilar recesses on
the left and right at the end of the atrium, and
open to the atrium. Here the imagines weie
kept (Juv. viii. 19 sq. ; Ov. Fast. i. 521 ; Mart.
ii. 90, 6).
(5) T.\bli'num, with the two alae, formed a
prolongation of the atriiini.
(6) F.^ucES was a passage from the atrinin
to i\\.e peristijlium or open court.
(7) Peuisty'i.uim, like the atriimi, was a
court open to the sky in tin- middle, like the
Spanish patio; the open i)art, which was sur-
rounded by columns, had a fountain in the
centre, and was planted with flowers, shrubs,
and trees forming a viridariiim. The atrium
and p<'ristyliuin were the two important parts
of a Roman house; the former, during the last
century of the Republic and under the Empir-,
being the public reception room, and the latter
the inner or private cimrt, wliich gave access to
the private rooms, such as the oeci or saloonti,
the triclinia or dining-rooms, the baths, &c.
(cf. Hor. Ep. i. 10, 22, ('arm. iii. 10, 5 ; Juv. iv.
7). Between the colunms of the peristyliuni
were placed statues (Cic. Verr. i. 19, 51|, uu 1
vases filled with flowers.
246
DOMUS
The rooms leading out of the peristylium,
varying, of course, according to circumstances,
were as follows :
(a) CuBi'cULA, bed-chambers, appear to have
been usually small. There were separate cubi-
cwla for the day and night {dor7nitoria),rao&i\y
on the upper floor. They sometimes had a small
anteroom (irpoKoirdv), for the cubiciilarius or
valet. (Plin. Ep. ii. 17, 23.) In some Pompeian
houses we find an alcove (zotlieca) in which the
bed was placed. (Plin. Ep. ii. 17, 21, v. 6, 38.)
{b) Tkicli'nia, dining-rooms. [Triclinium.]
(c) Oeci, from the Greek oIkos, spacious halls
or saloons, frequently used as triclinia (Plin.
xxxvi. § 184 1.
(d) ExEDB.\E were rooms for conversation
and other pui-poses of society (Cic. de Orat.
iii. 5, 17).
(«. /) 9) Pin'acothe'ca, Bibliothe'ca, and
Bali'neum [Balneae], are treated of in separate
articles.
ij) Lara'rium or Sacra'eium. The Lares or
Penates were kept in the atrium, in the
kitchen, or in a special chapel, called Lararium
or Sacrarium (Cic. Fam. xiii. 2, Verr. iv. 2, 4),
in which statues of other divinities were also
placed.
(k) Diae'ta (Suet. Claud. 10) does not denote
any particular kind of room, but may mean a
bed-chamber, a dining-room, a summer-house,
or a set of chambers.
(Z) Sola'kium. a terrace on the flat roof of a
house (Plaut. Mil. Glor. ii. 3, 69, ii. 4, 25 ;
Fig. 472.— Culina and La trina in the house of Sallust at
Fig. 471.— Culina or kitchen, in Pansa's house at Pompeii. | Pompeii. (Gell, Pompeiana, p. 107.)
(h) Culi'na, the kitchen, was in the back part Suet. Claud. 10). In the time of the emperors,
of the house, and in connexion with it was the I these solaria were turned into gardens, which
pistrinum or bake-
house, where bread
was baked at home.
[Pistor.]
In smaller houses
the kitchen hearth,
being the only one
usually lighted, was
also the sacrarium
of the Lares. The
stove in existing
examples is usu-
ally of masonry
finished with .1
chimney common to
oven and stove. As
charcoal was used
for cooking, there
was not much
smoke. The kitchen
was also furnished
with a sink (ro)i-
fiuvium, culinae
fnsoriiiDi), and a
cistern for water
supply.
In close proximity
to the kitchen was
the latrina (con-
traction of lava-
trina), or privy, both
communicating by
a common drain
with the cloaca or
Fig. 170.— Plan of the so-called Ii
f Livia.
A. Passage.
B. Stairs at entrance.
CC. Pedestals for statues.
D. Stairs.
E E. Bedrooms.
F. Stairs.
G H. Crypto-Porticus.
J K L M. Bath-rooms.
N N. Shops.
O O. Street.
P. Early Building.
Q. Piscina.
public sewer (cf. Plaut. Cure. iv. 4, 24 ; Suet.
Tib. 58).
(i) Cena'ci'la (see above).
contained even fruit-trees and fish-ponds (Suet.
Ner. 16; Tac. A7in. xv. 43). Sometimes the
solaria were covered by a roof.
i
DOMUS -217
(m) Cellae seuvo'kvm,Cellae kamilia'kes The House of Sullust, tla- lii-^toiian, l.ftwt-eii
or familia'kuae, the small bedrooms of the the Quiriual luul Pincian Hills near the Purta
slaves, usually situated in tlie upper story, or | Collina, still existinj; in part, was one of the
in the back of the house (Cic. Fhil. ii. 27, 67 ; ] finest houses in Rome. It had, like the House
Hor. Sat. i. 8, 8; Vitr. vi. 7; Plin. Ej). ii. 17, 9). of Maecenas (discovered in 1«74) on the Es-
Palace of cali
-IGULA I T *|»
{«) Cella. [Cella.]
Existing Jtemains of
fiomaii Houses. — One of
the best presei-Ned houses
in Rome is also of spe-
cial interest from its
early date. This is the
small thvellint; usually
known as ' the House
of Livia 'or 'of Germa-
nicus,' on the N\V. part
of the Palatine hill. It
in probably not later in
<late than the time of
Augustus. The walls
are built of concrete
faced with opus reticu-
lattttn of tufa, no brick
being used. Fig. 473
shows its plan, which,
owing to the irregularity
of the site, is at two diffe-
rent levels : the small
rooms grouped round the
staircase F being at a
higher level than the
larger rooms by the
atrium ; the stairs D lead
from the atrium up to
the higher tloor behind.
The main entrance is at
B, apin'oached down a
short riight of steps.
The paintings in the
I)rincipal rooms of this i ig. )
liouse are among the
finest examples of Roman wall decoration that
still exist.
. The floors are formed of marble mosaic of
small tesserae an-anged in simple geometrical
patterns.
As seems to have been usually the case in
Roman houses till the reign of Augustus, the
only method of heating was by charcoal braziers
(foriiN). The use of hypocausts for private
houses was a later introduction, and the veiy
complete system of heating rooms with hot air
under the hypocaust floors, and wall-linings of
rtue-tiles all over the internal wall-sin-face of a
room, did not come into general use till about
the end of the second ceatury a.d. [Balneae.]
quiline Hill (Hor. Hat
«, 14, Carm. iii. '2<J,
iWteF
^
^
*/«/:
U
-.\trium Vcstao. (From Middleton.)
Klg. 174.— Fraifmont of ri.pitoUno Pliin. »howlii(j plans of
iloniiin hoU80».
12), extensive gardens, whence the residence
was fre(juently called the Horti Sallustiavi.
(Tac. Ann. xiii. 47, Hist. iii. 82 ; Plin. vii.
§ 75.)
Fig. 474 shows the ground plan of a common
type of street house in Rome, such as belonged
to men of moderate means. On this fragment
are engraved the plans of three houses in a row,
almost identical in arrangement. (1) is the
entrance passage, witli two shojis (2) on each
side: (J5) is a small «/r/«///, witlmut columns ;
(4) is the passage leading into (,5) the prri-
sti/iiiivi, round which are four small rooms (6),
one at each corner.
Fig. 475 is the ))lan of the Atrium Vestae or
House of the Six Vestal Virgins, at the S.E.end
of the Forum, whicii was exposeil to view in
lMK:i-4.
The rooms are arranged round a long oi)en
peri stijli mil or cloister, in the centre of which
was a flower garden with beds divided by low
brick kerbs. 'I'iie upper rooms consist chiefly
of bedrooms and small bathrooms, mostly fur-
nished with marble wall-linings and mosaic
floors. Some of the rooms are warmed by both
hyp<icansts and wall-linings of flue-tiles. TIk-
internal ih-corations were very magnifii'ent; in
some of the rooms both walls and floors w(>ro
covered with rich coloured marbles from Africiv
and (Ireece. Some rooms had moulded skirtings
and cornices made of very hard and brilliant
marbles, such as mssiiaiitico, or encrusted with
gorgeous glass mosaics: and ceilings und vaults
were ilecorated with ]iainting.
Of the imperial pahues of Rome, which at)
last covered tiie whole site of the primitive
w^t
248
DOMUS
Roma Quadrata, the earliest was the House of j
Augustus {Domus Augustana), on the SW.
edge of the Palatine, overlooking the Circus
Maximus (Suet. Aug. 20, 7!i).
porticus or colonnade of marble. Tlie interior
was decorated with gold, ivory, and jewels.
(Tac. Ann. xv. 4*2; Suet. Ner. 81; Mart.
Sped. 2.) Some rooms, according to Suetonius,
were entirely
• i-i
I .•AUQUS-US: I ^] ,
plated with
gold, and stud-
ded with pre-
cious stones and
pearls. The
dining - saloons
were vaulted
with ivory ■paji-
e\s{lacunaria).
An enormous
number of
works of art of
every class col-
lected from
Greek cities
were brought to
iidorn the palace
--- i8'
O
o
oo
STREET
Fig. 477. -House with Sho
Here stood the bronze
Colossus of'Nero, 120 feet high.
Fig. ivr..- Tiliicc of Augastas nnd tho 'naWiin Kmporors.
This palace, which was of verj- moderate size,
had a number of small rooms in two stories
grouped round one peristyle.
Tlie Flavian Palace (shown on the same
woodcut), was built by Domitian, ivdjoining
the Area of Apollo and the Palace of Augustus
on the N\V. side (Pint. Fopl. 15; Mart. viii.
36). It was not so much a place of residence
as a series of state apartments.
The Goldeyi House (Domna Aurea) of Nero,
which covered part of the Palatine and Esqui-
line hills and the valley between tlieni, was
nearly a mile in length, and included large
gardens and jiarks, all surrounded by a triple
Fig. 47f. — House without Smp.
1, door ; 2, entrance hull ; .'<, Kcaloe ; 4. cclla tor slave; 5,
winter trlcliniam ; i'. cuUna ; 7. I:inirlum ; s, atriuni or
open court ; :>, triclinium ; 10, puteul.
Pompeian Houses. — In the houses of Pompeii,
which were almost invariably of more stories
DOMUS
249
than one, the street fi-ont on the gi-ound-floor
was usually occupied by a row of shops.
Fig. 477 shows a small shop, to which is
joined the residence of its owner, forming a
small block indejjendent of the adjoining larger
house. (1) An open archway, in which a wooden
shop-front was fitted. The L-shaped counter
(2) is formed of concrete and brick, stuccoed.
At one end is a charcoal stove (8) ; 5, 5 ai-e the
dining-room and stoi'e-room of the shopkeeper ;
4 is the staircase leading to the sleeping apart-
ments. The whole forms a complete house of
the smallest type.
Fig. 478 is a small dwelling house without a
shop.
In the larger houses the atrium is a very
important feature, on which the chief archi-
tectural beauty of the building dej)ends. It is
usually supported by Corinthian columns formed
of concrete and brick, coated v/ith painted
stucco : marble, except in thin slabs for x^iive-
ments or wall-linings, is rare in Pompeii. The
central paved space under the open part {im-
pluviiim) of the atrium is usually of marble,
either in thin slabs or in mosaic : a fountain
surrounded with flower-pots is a very common
ornament.
Fig. 479 represents the atrium of the 'House
of the Quaestor ' at Pompeii. This atrium is
surrounded by various rooms, and is painted
with arabesque designs upon red and yellow
grounds.
Fig. 4y0 contains the ground-plan of an insv.Ia
surroimded by shops, which Itelonged to tlie
owner and were let out by hiin. The house
itself, commonly called the ' House of Pansa,'
evidently belonged to one of the principal
men of Pompeii. Including the garden, which
is a third of the whole length, it is about
300 feet long and 100 wide.
Besides these rooms, belonging to Pansa's
dwelling-house, rt, h, c, d, were let out as shops
and houses large and small.
Moman Houses in Britain and Gaul. — A
large number of Roman houses have been dis-
covered in England and France, for the most
pai't country villas, not town houses like those
at Pompeii.
In the latter Romano-British or Gaulish
houses there is no open atrium, but the rooms
are commonly ranged in a long straggling line,
with a passage along one side. In many cases
Si peristi/liuiu is used, but the rooms only open
on to it by small doors or glazed windows ; the
use of which seems to have been universal in
Roman Britain. These houses have hyjio-
causts, and many also have wall-linings of
flue-tiles.
Fig. 480.— Ground-plan of an Insula, known aB the Houso
of Pansa.
A, ostium, or entrance-hall, paved with mosaic ; B,
atrium; I, impluiium; C, chambers on each side of the
atrium: D, ala; E, tiihUnum; F, a passajje (fnun-x): C,
chambers ; G, peristiiUum ; D, recesses in the prrixtii-
Hum; C, cubii-uhi ; K, tridinium: L. ofcus, with a pussii '
leading to the garden ; M, back-door ijinslii-iim I'xlnu.,,
to the street; N, culiim; H. servants' hall; 1', portico
of two stories. The site of the staircase is unknown,
perhaps at M ; Q, garden ; R, reservoir for supplying a
tank, S.
Fig. 481.— Wall-painting at Pompeii. (Fergusson.)
'250 DOMUS
Construction of Roman Houses.
(1) Walls. — Tlie wall of a house was called
Paries. [Murus.] In Italy, during the re-
publican peri()<l, some easily-worked stone, such
as tufa (tojjhiis) or peperino (lajjis Albanus and
Gabiniis), was used, in large squared blocks
iojtiis quadratiun) iovihe best houses; unburnt
brick being the usual material for ordinary
duellings. In the time of Augustus concrete
began to be the chief building material, faced
with stone (opus incertum, opus reticulutuut,
see Uarus) or brick ; which material was rarely
used at Rome for building walls throughout.
The inner walls of the rooms were originally
simply whitewashed (dealhati) [Paries], and
subsequently covered with a white cement or
stucco (opiis albariiim), the workers of which
were called dcalbatores, tertores albarii, or
nibarii simply. The plain surface of the walls
was broken by quadrangular panels, called
abaci. [Abacus.] In tlie second century B.C.,
tlie practice was introduced from Greece of
painting these panels with figures, landscapes,
buildings, gardens, ttc. [Pictura.J When mar-
ble was used for wall-linings, the slabs were
iastened to the
walls by long
liooked clamps or
pins of iron or
bronze (unci, ansae
[Ancon]), or at-
tached by a thick
bedding of cement
beliind them. An-
otlier very rich
method of decora-
Fig. i82.-Jrethod of nxlng marble tion was th.' appli-
A, marble slab; I!, moulding; C. cation of stucco
Ellnth; D, concroto backiiij! : reliefs executed
, stone wall; F, cramps of „ ., ;,ii., • .1 .
b^nzeoriroM. rapidly ui tlie wet
quick-setting stuc-
co, and enriched with gold and colours. A third
system, applied also to vaults, was to eucrust
the walls with mosaics. [Pictura. ]
(2) Roofs. — The roofs (tecta) of Roman houses
were in the oldest times thatclied with straw,
t)f which a memorial was preserved in tlie casa
lioinuli even in imperial times. Next came
the use of shingles (scundulae). Subsefpiently
clay tiles, called tcf)iilae and imbrices, were |
introduced [Tegala|. The ends of these at '
the eaves were usually hidden by ornamental
ievvixcotia. autcfixa. (Plant. Mil. Glor. ii. (!, '24,
Most. i. '2, '28.) The roofs of houses were some-
times flat, sometimes gabled. Tecta pectinata
slojjed two ways ; tecta testudinata, four ways.
The projecting eaves of roofs were called
sufifjrunilac. Tlie gabled roofs rose to a ridge
called Fastigium. The roofs were usually of
simple construction, with principal rafters j
framed with tie-beam and king post. .
(3) Floors. — The floor (solum) on the ground-
floor, in the case of common houses, consisted
of small pieces of stone, brick, tiles, &c. (ruder- ,
iifio, opus rudcratuni), beaten down (pavita) |
with a rammer (Ji.<ituca), whence tlie w^ord I
pavimentum became the general name for a
floor (Hor. Carm. ii. 14, '27; Plin. .xxxvi. § 185).
Floors were also paved with bricks laid in 1
herring-bone order (spica testacca), and with '
thin slabs of marble, and still more frequently !
with mosaics (opus musivum). [Pavimentum;
Pictura.]
In Rome and other parts of Italy, the upper
floors of houses were fi-equently made of puzzo-
lana concrete cast in one great slab oa tempo- .
Fig. 483.— Arch (.camara) In
concrete.
DONARIA
rary boarding fixed at the required level.
Examples in Rome are to be seen where the
upper floor had a span of twenty feet, and con-
sisted of one slab of concrete about fourteen
inches thick. On this, mosaic and other paving
was laid. For the hollow hj'pocaust floors,
see Balneae. The upper floors were often of
wood.
(4) Ceilings. — Ceilings were very commonly
semicircular or ' ban-el ' vaults (cam.arae), deco-
rated with stucco reliefs, mosaics, or painting
I Camara]. The extrados of the vault was filled
in level with concrete to form the floor above.
(See fig. 483.) Ceil-
ings were often di-
vided into a number
of deeply-sunk panels
or cotfers, like vats or
cisterus (lacus, lacu-
nae), whence they
were called lacuna-
ria or laquearia (Cic.
Tusc. V. '21, 62 ; Hor.
Car»n. ii. 18,'2). These
were richly orna-
mented, by stucco reliefs gilt and coloured, by
inlaid work of ivoiy, ebony, paintings, «S:c. In
a few cases the coffers were covered with en-
riched bronze plates, thickly gilt (Hor. Carm.
1. c. ; Verg. Aen. i. 726). The artists who exe-
cuted this work were called laqtiearii.
(5) Windows (fenestrae). — Roman houses
had few windows. The courts were lighted
from above, and the smaller rooms leading
out of them generally derived their light from
them. The cenacula seem to have been
usually lighted by windows looking out upon
the street, as well as on the inner courts. (Liv.
i. 41 ; Hor. Carm. i. 25 ; Juv. iii. 270.) Ground-
floor windows, when they existed, were small
and high up.
The windows appear originally to have been
merely small openings in the wall, closed by
means of sliutters, which frequently had two
leaves (Hor Carm. i. 25, 1 ■ Ov. Pont. iii. 3, 5,
.Im. i. 5, 3).
Windows were also covered by lattice or trellis
work (Clathri, transennae) or by net-work.
Besides glass [Vitrum], other transparent
substances were also used, such as talc [lapis
specnlaris, Plin. xxxvi. § 163), window =; made
of which were called specularia (Mart. viii.
14; Juv. iv. 21).
(6) Doors. [lanua ; Velum.]
(7) The Heatinfj of Houses. — The rooms were
lieated in winter in different ways. The cubi-
cula, triclinia, and other rooms intended for
winter use, being built in that part of*the
house upon which the sun shone most, did not
need artificial heat. The rooms were some-
times heated by hot air, introduced by means
of pipes from a furnace below, but more fre-
quently in earlier times by portable furnaces
or braziers {foculi), in which charcoal was
burnt. [Focus.] The caminus was a fixed
stove, in which wood was burnt. (Suet. Vit.
8; Hor. Sat. i. 5, 81, £>. i. 11, 19 ; Cic. Fam.
vii. 10.)
(8) The Water Supph) of a good Roman housa
was very complete ; in towns the main usually
ran under the pavement in the middle of the
street, and from it rising mains branched off to
the houses right and left, and often were carried
to the upper stories, where a cisteni supplied
the fountain-jets (salietites) and other purposes
below. lAquaeductus.]
Doaa'ria layaDijixaTa or ayaxelneva). Names
DONATIO
by which the ancients designated prfsents made
to the gods, either by individuals or communi-
ties. Sometimes they are also called dona or
^oipa. Such gifts were partly thank-offerings,
partly propitiatory offerings, or gifts of ransom
or substitution. Presents of this kind were
dedicated in temples, to which in some places
an especial building was added, in which these
treasures were preserved. Such buildings were
called dri<ravpoi. The act of dedication was
called avaridevat, donare, dedicare, or sacrarc.
In the heroic ages of Grecian history anathe-
mata consisted of chaplets and garlands of
flowers. A very common donation was that of
locks of hair (ko/itis airapxai), which youths and
maidens, especially joung brides, cut off from
tlieir heads and consecrated to some deity.
(Honi. II. x.Kiii. 141; Aesch. Cho. 6; Eur.
Orcst. 96, Bacch. 493.) Costly garments
(7re7rA.oj) were also presented to the gods, espe-
cially to Athena [Peplos] and Hera. (Horn. II.
vi. 293, 303 ; Ar. Av. 792). A similar peplos was
woven every five years at Olympia for Hera.
The treasuries of the temples of Delphi and
Olympia, in particular, contained offerings of
silver and gold, and of works of art, which sur-
pass all conception. Among such offerings were
sums of money, furniture, ingots and vessels
of gold and silver, statues and statuettes, orna-
ments, arms, &c. It was the custom, after the
happy issue of a war, to dedicate the tenth part
of the spoil (aKpoOiviov, aKp6\eiou,OYirpwT6\ftoi'}
to the gods, generally in the form of some work
of art (Hdt. viii. 82, 121 ; Thuc. i. 132). After
an action at sea a ship was sometimes dedi-
cated to Poseidon (Thuc. ii. 84 ; Hdt. viii. 121).
Lands also, slaves, and other property, were
given or bequeathed to temples [Templum],
and temples were built as offerings.
Among individual and personal anathemata
are those of persons who had recovered from an
illness, especially by spending one or more nights
in a temple of Asklepius (incuhatio). In such
cases presents were made to the temple, and
little tablets {tabulae votivae), like modern ex-
votos, were suspended on its walls, containing
an account of the danger from which the patient
had escaped, and of the manner in which he had
been restored to health. Models of limbs, &c.
were also dedicated. Persons who had escajied
from shipwreck dedicated to Neptune their
'dank and drojjping weeds ' (Hor. Carm. i. 5, 13 ;
Verg. Aen. xii. 768). Individuals who gave up
a profession or occupation, frequently dedicated
in a temple the instruments which they had
used. The soldier thus dedicated his arms, the
fisherman his net, the poet his lyre, &c.
Among the Romans the donaria in temples
were neither as numerous nor as magnificent
as in Greece : instead of such gifts, wealthy
men showed their gratitude by building a temple,
by public prayers and thanksgivings (suppli-
catio), or by celebrating festive games. Hence
the word donaria was used by the Romans to
designate a temple or an altar, as well as statues
and other offerings dedicated in a temple
('Donaria proprie loca sunt in quibns dona
reponuntur deorum,' Serv. ad Verg. Gcorg.
iii. 533 ; Ov. Fast. iii. 335). (See Liv. x. 36 ;
Suet. Claud. 25 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 71 ; Plaut.
Amphitr. iii. 2, 65 ; Hor. Ep. i. 1, 4.)
Dona'tio ; Donatio inter virum et uxorem ;
Donatio mortis causa. See Appendix, Roman
Law.
Donati'vum, [Congiarium.]
AupoSoKias 7pa(J)Ti. See Appendix, GitKEK
Law [AeKaaiJbos].
DRESS
251
Aupov. rPes ; Tables, I., II.]
Atopogevias 7pa(t)ti. See Appendix, Gkeek
Law [ =€vias ypa.(^r\\
Dorsua'Ie. Probably the terra used for the
I embroidered cloth or housing thrown upon the
backs of victims (see cut under Suovetaurilia),
and commonly shown in representations of
Roman sacrifices.
Dorsua'rius or Dossua'rius. Any animal
carrying burdens on its back. It carried its
load either by means of panniers [Clitellaej or
a packsaddle ifinfjma).
Fig. 48).— Dossuarii. (From TbeodOBiau Column
Aopv<})6poi. [Mercennarii ; Exercitus.j
Dos. (1) Gkeek. See Appendix, Greek Law.
(2) Roman. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Drachma. [Coinage.]
Draco. [Signa militaria.]
Dress. 1. Greek.
I. Dress in Homeric Times.
The Homeric poems give us the results of the
developments that had taken place among the
lonians and Aeolians of Asia Minor up to about
800 B.C. They had had experience of the Phoe-
nician skill both in weaving and in the manu-
facture of fine linen stuffs ; and there seems to
have been keen rivalry between Greeks and
Phoenicians (cf. II. vi. 289 with Od. xv. 105).
Besides the garments brought from abroad, the
work of Sidonian women, it was the regular
custom of the mistress of the house and her
maidens to weave garments (et/xoTa, eVSTjs),
which were stored up in large quantities, and
formed part of the household treasures. These
robes were woven each as one complete gar-
ment ; wool was the commonest material, but
linen or linen-cloth had been introduced from
the East, where it had always been popular,
and was gradually adojjted by the Greek people.
(1) Male Costume. — The poems describe the
process of dressing in the case of a hero as
follows : he begins by putting on the chiton
(xiTciJi'a evSvveiv), then binds on his sandals,
throws his over-mantle (cpapos) around him, and
finally arms himself with sword, spear, or
bow. The xiTwi' was the principal garment,
and that it was made of linen the epithets
applied to it seem to show {vrj-ydreos, II. ii.
43 ; iijvvriros, II. xviii. 595). It was a sewn
garment of varying length, put on like a shirt.
The chiton of the warrior or hunter was short,
not reaching below the knees ; that of old men,
charioteers, or any dignified personage, usually
reached to the heels. Hence the epithet in
Hymn. Apoll. 147, '}doves e\Kex'^'''<^''f^i '"^-
plying that this long, dignified chiton was worn
by all on solemn occasions, such as feasts of the
gods. The long chiton had no girdle ; the
short chiton of the warrior was kept up by
means of a belt ((.oicTT^p). In the house, the
chiton was the only garment worn (Od. xiv.
488, oioxiTwu).
For the over-garment worn out-of-doors we
find two names, xA-or^a and <papos : the latter a
252
DRESS
linen gannent of more costly fabric than the
XAo?j/a, and worn by persons of superior rank.
The tpapos was usually of a purple colour {II.
viii. 221 ; Od. viii. 84). The X'^'"'*''' ^'s-** *
woollen garment, thrown round the body like a
mantle, and fastened on the shoulder with
more or less ornamental bix)oches ; it was some-
times worn doubled (5f7rA.r), Od. xix. 225 ;
5i7rAo|, II. xxiv. 229). Its thickness made it a
good protection against wind (aveixo(TKeirT)s, II,
xvi. 224; aAelavs/ioy, Od. xiv. 529; cf. Od. iv.
50, X. 450, xxiv. 376). While the chiton was
usually of plain white linen, the xAoica was
frequently dyed purple (II. iii. 126), and had
various patterns and figures woven into it {II.
xxii. 441). It should be remembered that the
word ' purple ' is only used here as a translation
of iroptpvptrj, and that it does not necessarily
denote what we mean by a purple colour. With
the Greeks, the word implied brightness or
splendour rather than any particular shade of
colour; witness the use of the word for the
sea. [Colores.]
The dress of a peasant or labourer is de-
scribed in Od. xxiv. 225 sqq. He wore a chiton
of coarse stuff, leathern gaiters {KvrjfuSes) for
protection against thorns, and thick gloves
(Xftp^es) for hedging, and a leathern cap
{Kwer}) on his head. No doubt a x^"^""^ ^^'i*^
■worn in addition in winter. Compare also the
account, of Eumaeus, and of Odysseus in dis-
guise.
One of the most primitive and widely-spread
forms of gannent is the piece of cloth tied or
wrapped round the waist, and worn as an apron.
Fig. 4«6.— Homeric iren-Aos. (From Francois vasaj
Irilt, or loin-cloth, (ufia (II. xxiii. 683), or Sid- left open at one side {(rx«(rT<Js) That the arms
^wfM (Thuc. i. 6). (See cut under Olea.) It ' were left bare is clear from the common epithet
Fig. 485.— Hunters we:irlng drawer-. ^Helblg. )
"Was undoubtedly used in Greece in pre-historic
times, as, for instance, by the hunters on the
inlaid sword-blade from Mykense (fig. 485). It
is also seen on archaic bronzes and early black-
figured vase-paintings, and formed part of the
dress of labourers and craftsmen. It was worn
by warriors below their armour until supplanted
by the chiton. At Rome it is represented by
the Subligaculum or subligar.
(2) Fe.ma.le Costume.— The dress of the
women in Homer consists chiefly of the single
TTfTrAos (fig. 486), which in the Homeric poems
would seem to be the equivalent of the garment
known as the Doric chiton. While the men's
chiton was a sewn gannent put on like a shirt,
the women's peplos was merely a piece of cloth
fastened with pins (cf. Od. xviii. 292). The
garment was all of one piece, and frequently '
\evKu)Kevos. It was held together at the waist
by the girdle (Cuivt)) ; cf. evCwvos and KaWiCows.
The girdle was often adorned with a row of
tassels (dviravoi). The upper part of the peplos,
hanging in loose folds over the breast, was
known as the it6\iros; hence the common
epithet, &advKo\Tros.
Fig. 4ft7.— Myl5enean female coBtumo. (Schlicmann.)
DRESS
253
Another garment frequently mentioned is
the Kp'ljSe/j.vov, a kind of mantle or veil of cloth ;
it is probably a reminiscence of the veil woni
bj' women of the Semitic races. Another name
for it is KaKvTTTpr}. A good general idea of
Homeric female dress may be gained from
early Greek painted vases, especially the
famous Francois vase at Florence. Fig. 467
also gives a remarkable specimen of female
costume from a gold ring of the Mj'kenean
period.
//. Dress of the Period between llomeriv
Times a7id the Persian Wars.
While in the main the dress of this period
undenvent but little alteration from that of
Homeric times, there appears to have been a
( hange in the direction of increasing splendour
and variety. Many passages in the lyric poets
demonstrate the wealth and magnificence of the
Jiydian princes, for which their capital, Sardis,
was famous (e.g. Archilochus, Frag. 25). Persian
influence, also, and the growth throughout
Greece of a rich and powerful aristocratic
class, was manifested in the same manner.
Both wool and linen appear to have been
used as materials ; the prevailing colour was
no doubt white, varied by strijies or borders
of various hues.
In male costume
two features are
noticeable : the
universal adoption
of the chiton, and
the appearance of
the chlamys as an
over-garment. The
long linen Ionic
chiton with short
sleeves soon spread
all over Greece,
almost eclipsing
the Doric chiton,
which had so long
"leld its own in the
Peloponnese. For
ihe distinction be-
tween these two
varieties of the
chiton, see below,
fig. 505.
The large mantle
or X'Vfl'J'a, whether
doubled or single,
was still woni as
an over-garment,
but was often i-e-
I)laced by the
smaller and lighter
chlamys, as numer-
ous vase-paintings
indicate.
Another over-
garment, worn
more esjjecially by
elderly men, boys,
and dignified per-
sonages, was the
tf/.drioi', an oblong
piece of dotli
which was wrapped
for its adoption at Athens in the sixth century,
see Hdt. \ . «0 sq(i. The Dorians adhered to
their national costume, the woollen Doric
chiton with an upper fold falling over in front,
fastened on the shoulders by pins or bror)cheR,
and open at the sides (xitwv (Txkttos), without
even a girdle {fig.
4H9). Married wo-
men, however, wore
the chiton fastened
up the side, and con-
fined with a girdle.
The chiton was
often embellished
with an ornamental
border of embroid-
ery or of cha.sed
gold-work, as in the
example here given
(fig. 490) from a
statue of Athena.
Fig. 4RH.— Men's Itiartov.
I From a vase.)
round the whole body and fell to the feet, or
else merely covered the back and shoulders,
falling in folds over the arms.
In female costume, important alterations also
took place. The loose peplos gave way to the
close-fitting linen chiton with its neat folds ;
Fig. ^m.-Xtrwi/ crxKTTOi, Fig. 4!(0.— Statue of Athena,
from a vase. with bordered peplos.
(Murray's .-I A-/i<fu;i)(;v.) (From l>resdeii.i
! III. Dress from the Time of Pcrildes to that
of Alexander the Great.
The costume of this period came under the
universal influence of the sudden development of
j Greek culture in the Periklean age, and became
I more national, simple, and full of individuality ;
i see Thuc. i. 0, dating the change from the SOtli
I Olympiad (4()0 B.C.).
' This tendency showed itself in material, in
' colour, and in decoration. The long linen
: chiton is replaced by a shorter garment of wool,
I and much attention was paid to the quality of
the material, both of the chiton and the xAalfo.
! White remains the favourite colour for men,
but state or festal robes were generally of
! purple. Women appear to have worn variously
coloured robes, the commonest hues being
saffron (KpoKwros), emerald green (fiaTpaxfios),
! and apple or grass green (/x-qAtt^os) ; these were
I further adorned with stripes and borders of
various colours. The KpoKWThs x'^w*' was a
light and showy garment, probably sleeveless,
showing the sleeves of the tunic underneath.
It was worn mostly by women, and its use by
men was a mark of effeminacy.
(1) Mai.k CosTiiMK. — For outdoor wear men
still adhered to the X'^"'^''''' which in fact
j among the poorer population ser\ ed in place of
both chiton and himation. Slaves, and crafts-
men or labourers, who required free<loni of
movement for th<^ right arm, adopted a fashion
of wearing this garm<'nt so as to leave the right
arm bare ; it was then known as ^^aifiis.
254
DRESS
The e|a)/iis, sti'ictly speaking, is a variety of
the chiton, the rpi^oiv of the liimation. The
former is derived from the chiton fastened on
the left shoulder only
{«Tfpo^a.(TXo-f<os, as op-
posed to afKpiixdffxoAos).
it was also worn by Ao-
Kwv'iQovTes and Cynics,
and appears as the dress
of old men in comic plays.
Although originally a
variety of the chiton, the
i^oifiis became in fact a
irfpi$\r}fxa, or over-gar-
ment like the himation.
The rpifiwv was a
variety of the himation,
and was the national garb
of Sparta, worn by all
males over twelve years
of age. It was introduced
at Athens by such Aa/cco-
vi^ovTii as Kimon. It
was worn by Sokrates,
and adopted afterwards
by the Cynics as their
professional costume. It was worn alone,
without a tunic, and was of a dark colour
{<pai6s), and of coarse and thick material. The
manner of wearing it varied according to tlie
length desired by the owner ; it was usually
secured by a broooh. It could be worn long or
short.
The iyK6/jL0wna, used by slaves in comedy,
was worn over the ^^(d/jlIs. It was tied round
the body in a knot (kS/x^os), and worn like
an apron, to keep the tunic clean (cf. 1 Pet. v.
5).
Another costume for occasional use was that
worn by tlie Kidaptcrrris, consisting of a long
Fig. 191.— 'F.f<i>/oit?. (From
a bronze in Brit. Mus.)
Fig. 4JW.— Male x'twi', from
a vase. (Gerhard, i
Fig. 192.— .\poIlo wearing opBocrraSio:'.
under-garment known as the opfloo'TaSioj', differ-
ing little from the chiton, and a shorter one,
known as aA.Ai| or 4inir6piraixa (see fig. 294,
under Capistrum).
The chiton in everyday use was short, though
worn in the same style as the longer garment,
and was drawn up under a girdle ; it was worn
either with short sleeves or without, the sleeves
I being formed by looping it together at inter-
I vals down the arm to the elbow. A man of
good position was re-
i garded as yvixvds
j while only clad in a
I chiton, and out of
doors the himation
had to be worn as
I well. The chlamys,
originally worn only
by horsemen, now be-
came the recognised
costume of an epliebus.
(2) Fem.\le Cos-
TuiiE. — Changes in
this respect chiefly
take the form of
altered arrangements
of wearing the gar-
ments. Either the
upper fold came under-
neath the girdle, only admitting of a compara-
tively small KdXiros above, or, what was more
usual, the upper fold (usually known as the
dTrdiTTu^/to) fell free of the girdle, which merely
confined the chi-
ton itself, a small
fold of which was
generally pulled
up so as just
to overhang the
girdle. The chi-
ton was often
supplied with
sleeves, like those
of men described
above, and was
then described as
Xe«p»5a)Tds ; long
sleeves reaching
to the wrists were
derived from an
Oriental source
at a compara-
tively recent
period. For over-
garments we find
the words iiri-
fi\T)Ha and a/xir-
€X<^'''?j tlie gar-
ment in question
probably answer-
ing closely to the
masculine hima-
tion, and having
sometimes in
addition a veil
(/coAuirrpTj).
A further addi-
tion is the <rrp6-
<plOV or (TTTjdd-
SecTfMos (mam-
tnillare), a broad
band round the
chest for the sup-
port of the breast.
This band was
probably stiff-
ened in some
way or made of
Fig. 491.— XtTior -with looped-up
sleeves (c. 500 B.C.). (Murray s
Archicology.)
leather; occasionally it seems to be supported
over tlie shoulders by strings and buttons. It
probably represents the cestus (Kearhs tp-ds) of
Aphrodite, whicli was worn next the skin, and
was made of a soft substance, perhaps kid ; it is
so called as being ' perforated,' i.e. embroidered.
The object of the cestus or arpdipiov was not
DRESS
in any way to alter the shape of the figure,
like the modern stays, but merely to supjiort or
compress the bosom.
Other articles of female dress are x'TtiJvio)/
(sometimes x'''''^''''''''f''^> though this is com-
monly a male garment) (Ar. Lys. 150), a short
chiton, not reaching to the knees, and appa-
rently worn under the chiton : XySdpiov
{\T)Siov), and dipiffTpov (deplaTpioy), a summer
i/iarioj/, x^cf'Si iilio'^'' X^'"''''''' ^"C"'''ts, ^yKVKKov,
varieties of Iimtiov.
Since clothes were all cut to one or two
simple patterns, and not made to fit, changes
of fashion must have been chiefly confined to
differences of material, colour, and ornament.
Wool, cotton, flax, and (later) silk, are men-
tioned as materials [Byssus ; Carbasus ; Gossy-
pium ; SericumJ.
The vases show many instances of rich em-
broideries and irapvcpa'i, stripes or borders | Pata-
gium]. See figs. '10, 291, •294, 308, 489, 490,
506, 522 d, &c.
For head-gear, see "Aji-irvg, AidSTijiia,
Mitra, Coma : for sandals, shoes, il'c, Calceus :
and cuts to those articles.
IV. Dress in the HeUenistic Age.
The extension of Greek civilisation worked
some important changes in the history of cos-
tume, especially in the introduction of new
materials from the countries with which Greece
now came in contact. Chief among these were
cotton and silk, introduced from India and
China after Alexander's conquests. The word
for cotton is Kapiracros. while garments of this
material are described under the names ffivSuv
and odovrj. The manufacture of silken fabrics
i^ojii^vKia) found a home in the island of Kos,
afterwards to be so renowned for its trans-
parent Coa vestis, made of tliis material.
[Byssus ; Carbasus ; Sindon ; Coa vestis ;
Gossypium ; Sericum.]
Richly embroidered and ornamented dresses
are characteristic of this period, as we learn
from the vases of Southern Italy.
Dm-ing the same period distinctive character-
istics of nation or rank in dress gradually disap-
pear, and the use of such garments as the chiton
and chlamys becomes quite indiscriminate.
Dress in Historic Greece iUustrated by
the Monuments.
In the present state of our knowledge a mere
historical sketch of Greek dress derived from
literary sources is inadequate, unless supple-
mented from the material supplied by archaeo-
logy. At the same time this artistic evidence
must be utilised with caution owing to the
conventional character of many Greek monu-
ments. On many statues and vases we find
details of costume or arrangements of the
hair that appear to be purely fanciful, and are
not only unknown but practically impossible.
Taking this, however, into consideration, the
fact still remains that it is possible to learn far
more from art than from literature as to the
costume of the ancient Greeks.
The earliest monuments are not of much
practical use, owing either to their conventional
treatment, or to mere rudeness of execution.
It is not U7itil about the middle of the sixth
century b.c. that we can apply to this source
for trustworthy information, but the black-
tigured vases of this period give a very fair
idea of the fashions current in this century,
while to some extent they also illustrate the
Homeric poems.
As we have seen, the dress of both men and
women during the historic period is based on
the principle of two gannents, the tuSvfxa or
long or short chiton, and the iiri^Kri^a, whether
in the form of ifxariov, x^oi/J-^s, or x^-arj/a. .\s
in literature, so in vase-paintings we can trace
the evolution of these garments from the stiff
conventionality of the Fran^'ois vase down to
the flowing robes worn bj' the ladies of the
Hellenistic age.
M.VLE DiiESS. — As regards men's dress, we see
from early black-figured vases that they wear a
long ungirt chiton under a x^o'^''" (see fig. of
Peleus, fig. 488), and on later vases a sliort
chiton of the Spartan sort, reaching to the
knees, coiTesponding with the change described
by Thucydides. This short wooUen chiton
was a moderately wide garment on the same
lines as the Doric chiton of the women, with
the part below the girdle sewn together, the
uppei- part left open and fastened on the
shoulders with fibulae or buttons. The girdle
was worn in the same way as the women's ;
there was no onroirTvyfjLa, but when free use of
the limbs was required the skirt was drawn
over the girdle in a K6\iros. At the same time
the longer and more dignified linen chiton was
retained for religious and festal occasions in
which men took part; it was also worn by
priests, flute-players, and charioteers, as is seen
on countless examples from the vases. The
short chiton worn under the cuirass by warriors
on black-figured vases is apparently of fine
crinkled linen. (See figs. 160, 161, Arms and
Armour.)
Outer-Garments of Men and Women.
The chief of these is the himation, which
appears to be of the same shape both for men
and for women — a
large square, vary-
ing in size accord-
ing to taste. If
anything, the wo-
men's himation
was larger than
the men's, as it
was often drawn
over the head as
a covering (see
fig. 501). In times
of mourning the
wearer was com-
pletely muffled in
the himation. It
was put on as fol-
lows : — One corner
was folded or
gathered np in the
hand and pulled
over the left shoul-
der from behind,
then tucked in
firmly and held
between the l)ody
and the left upper
arm. With the
i right hand it was
i then pulled out
across the back by
its top right-hand
corner, till the
lower edge fell to
tlie calf of tbp ^^- 495.— Lady in t/oiaT
: leg. It was then
Icrracotta in British Museum.)
I brought round over oho right side (uvafiaWtn-
I floi ^vtde^ia, Plat. Theaet. 175 e) to the front,
256
DRESS
and the right-hand corner disposed either over distance from tip to tip of the hands extended
or under the right shoulder, as circumstances horizontally. The upper edge of this piece is
required ; the correct arrangement of this was then folded over about the depth of the neck
regarded as the sign of a civilised individual j
(cf. Ar. Av. 1567).
The narrow double hiraation often seen on
archaic vases is thought to be of Ionian origin,
and survives sometimes to a later date, ad in :
the Karyatides and maidens of the Parthenon j
frieze. It is supjioscd that this garment is the ;
Si'ttAoI often mentioned in Homer. |
The (papos was the rich man's equivalent of i
the x^"'""' ^""^ ^^''^*^ made of linen. Many
other names of outdoor garments have come ;
down to us, as well as many forms and varieties j
of arrangements on the monuments, but identi-
fication of evei-y known variety is impossible.
A characteristic male garment was the .
X^CLfivs, made of wool, a sort of small himation,
being at the same time finer, thinner, and more j
susceptible of varied colour or ornament. It |
was oblong, not square, its length being about [
twice its breadth. It came originally from !
Macedonia or Tliessaly, and was the dress of |
hunters or travellers, especially on horseback, j
Fig. -ly?.— Diagram showing scheme ol Doric x"''"''-
and of soldiers. It was part of the ordinary
dress of a Spartan, i..nd was worn by Athenian
ephebi from about seventeen to twenty years
of age. In the Parthenon frieze several of thf
riders wear the chlamys.
The xAa/ius differed in colour and texture ac
to the waist, fonning what is known as llie
a-iroTTTvy/xa (x r. b f). The whole is then
doubled at o h, and the lengths f g, G e are
divided into three, f i, i L, l g ; g M, m k, K e ;
but these equal parts leaving too much space
f«,)r the necl: between i l, k m, there must have
cording to its destination and the age and rank ^^^^^ ^^^^ arrangement of pleating or pinnin„
of the wearer. Ephebi wore a saSron-yellow together the piece k m, to prevent the garment
(/cpoKtoTo's), soldiers a scarlet chlamys ; hunters f^nin^ og fhe shoulders.
wore one of dull or inconspicuou-^ colour. The rpj^l" ^^^^^^ j ^ and K M being taken, the
more ornamental chlamydes were often bor- g.^rn^gnt is folded round the bodv, and pins are
dered with gold. placed at these points to fasten it over the
The usual method of weanng it was to pass shoulders ; thus the left side of the person is
one of the shorter sides round the neck and go^.^red by the closed side G H, while on the
fasten it by means of a brooch (iropxTj,. ///>«/«) ^(j,^^ j, ^ ^J^^^ j, ^ remains open (cf. fig. 489). In
either over the breast or right shoulder ; the practice, however, this arrangement was modi-
tied, and the open side was closed, wholly or in
part, either by sewing or by pins, at the point*
Fig. 496.— Chlamys. From
Dronze in Hrit. Mus.i
Fig. 197.— Chlamys. (From
vase. I
Belvedere Apollo illustrates the latter arrange-
ment. It was also frequently worn hanging
from one shoulder, as in fig. 496, or again pass-
ing over the arms, as in fig. 497 ; and in many i
other ways. i
Female Dress.
The Chiton. — (a) Doric.
The Dorian or long woollen chiton of the j
women, corresponding to the old Homeric
peplos, together with the ancient method of
arranging it, may be described as follows :
A large piece of material is chosen, a B c n
(see fig. 498), in the direction a d and B c about i
a foot longer than the height of the wearer, :
and in the direction a b and d c as long as the 1
Fig. 499.— Girl fastening xiT«ii'. Fig. .-iOO.— Dress of Carya^
(From bronze at Naples.) tid- iFrom Brit. Mas.}
N and o, or all the way down (see fig. 544). For
the manner of fastening the chiton see fig- 499.
A girdle was then passed round the waist,
and the superfluous length was drawn up and
allowed to hang over it, forming the koKttos.
For examples of this wholly or partially closed
chiton we may refer to the maidens of the
Parthenon frieze and the Karyatides of the
Erechtheum ; also the Herculaneum bronzes.
Sometimes the airSwrvyfia is drawn up at the
DRESS
257
back as a veil over tiie head, as in fig. 501, where size and folded. Instead of one side being closed
the girl is about to arrange it thus. The by pins, the two pieces are united by sewing along
peplos of Athena follows the arrangement of g c and h d, and also at the shoulders a e, f b.
The distance a b being half the full span of the
wearer, it follows that a long hanging sleeve is
obtained (cf. fig. 504). The girdle is put on as
in the Dorian variety, with the extra length
Kig. .TOl.— Girl veiling head.
I From bronze at Naples.)
Fig. .502.— .\thena wearing
TTeVAo?. (From bronze
in British Museum.)
the Doric chiton, except that the a.Tr6TrTvyfjia
falls lower, and there is no kSXttos (cf. fig. 502).
Another way of arranging the Doric chiton
was to omit the folding over of a E, B F, and to i „.„ „, , . > ,^
. , ■ , 11 1 i • ii iig. 501.— Ionic YiTujr. (From a vase.)
take points parallel to I K, L M in the upper I ^
edge of the unfolded stuff, and draw the whole drawn up to form a kuXttos. The material is
superfluous length through the girdle, instead generally finely pleated or crinkled,
of having an aTToirrvyiJia. Or the piece folded ' Fig 505 gives a good example of the two
over at a e, b f, may be so deep that no girdle t varieties of chiton side by side, the figure on
is required, as there is nothing left to draw | the left [a) wearing the ordinary closed Doric
through it (cf. the Iris of the E. ^ ^ ^
pediment of the Parthenon).
{h) Ionic. The Ionic chiton
on the monuments often closely
resembles the closed Doric chi-
ton at first sight, but the cliief
Fig .".or!.— Scheme of Ionic Xtriav.
point of distinction is that the
Doric chiton was always fast-
ened with pins on the shoulders,
whereas the Ionic was entirely
a sewn garment with no pins.
K scheme of it is given in fig. 503, but it should
be noted that this diagram is entirely conven-
tional, and does not give the exact form of the
chiton. The piece of material required for it
would be smaller than that for the Doric, and
at least a foot less in height. It may consist
either of two pieces, or of one piece double the
Fig. .W;.— Doric and Ionic xirmv compared. (From a relief at Athens.)
chiton with )((iA.7ros and a7r(iirTi;7^io ; the middle
one (h) has the same chiton open down the left
side; while the third (c) wears the Ionic chiton
made of the material just described.
The words SiTrAofs and SittAoISiov, which often
occur in connexion with the chiton, are a little dif-
ficult to explain, but appear to denote a doubled
258
DRESS
Fig. SOfi.— AiTrXot?.
(From a vase.)
chiton folded over at the top bo as to form an
aTToTTTvyfia. On the other hand it may possibly
denote the second chiton often worn by women
(cf . the irepovarpis of Theocr.
XV. '21, 3-1). (See fig. 506.)
For the consideration of
Greek dress as illustrated by
the monuments important
evidence is supplied by the
female statues excavated on
the Acropolis of Athens,
1882-1888. In point of date
they range from about 550
to 480 B.C. The sculptor has
allowed himself much lati-
tude in the treatment of the
garments, and the variety of
the surfaces of the under-
jrarments, smooth, creased
or crinkled, has given rise
to some difficulties. It ap-
pears, however, that this
variety is due to an attempt
to show the various ways in
which the same garment may appear, owing to
the folds it assumes and the shape of the body
it covers. The upper portion of the Ionic
chiton, which is worn by the majority, is
arranged over the girdle in a /cJAttos. Over
this chiton the ordinary himation is worn,
either fastened on the right shoulder, or pass-
ing over both like a cloak.
2. Roman.
For the study of Roman dress the traditions
of the kings give the earliest starting point.
These all go to sliow that the influence of
Etruria on dress was great. Most, if not all,
of the insignia of power were borrowed from
Etruria: such as the fasces, trabea, praetexta,
toga picta, tunica palmata, &c.
As in all primitive communities, the women
of the family and their maids were mostly
busied in weaving and spinning wool. The
primitive stage, however, in which garments are
worn as they come direct from the loom, had
long since passed at Rome, even in the days of
Numa, during whose time we hear of fullers,
dyers, goldsmiths, and felters (coactiliarii).
The garments produced by these native indus-
tries were for the most part of wool, and the
use of linen did not become common at Rome
till late in the history of the Republic. The
form of these garments can to some extent be
recovered from their survival in certain cere-
monial uses. Originally, both men and women
wore a cloak of wool [ToG.vl, below which the
mt'n had a loin cloth, [Subligaculum]. The
first change was the adoption by both sexes of
a woollen shirt or shift, the Tunica, instead
of the subligaculum. Early forms of these
garments were used in historic times: the
trabea, for instance, a narrow toga, wag the
uniform of the eqiiites equo publico and the
vestment of certain priests. In the same way
the tunica recta woven in the ancient up-
right loom [Tela], was worn by the bride on
the wedding-day. She also wore the Ricinium,
which was retained by certain priesthoods.
Besides the toga, other forms of cloak seem to
have been worn in sacred rites, such as the
Laena, the vestment of the flamens and augurs,
and the Palla, the dress of the Flaminica.
The laena was not confined to ceremonial
use, being worn as a cloak by both rich
and poor. It was of wool, very thick, and
shaggy on both sides, and was worn over every-
thing ; hence persons carried it with them
when going out to dinner. It was fastened
with a bronze fibula, and is the equivalent of
the Greek x^«'^''i. Of the various coverings
for the head, those of felt, the Pilleas and
Galerus of men, and the Tutulus of women,
were far the oldest at Rome.
Towards the end of the third century B.C.
the conquest of Magna Graecia had begun to
take effect on the Romans. We find now a
j large number of words for new garments and
new fabrics derived from the Greek (Cic. Brut.
xiv. 56). Embroidery and the use of trim-
mings and such-like adornments became more
common. From this time dates the intro-
duction of the Limbus and Patagium, the
former a border of ornamental pattern, the
latter of gold ; also Fimbriae or fringee. It
was now the fashion to wear more than one
under-garment, and sleeves were no longer un-
usual. Women gave the Greek name Stola to
their principal garment, wearing the strophium
below it, and wrapping the iropairrjx" over it.
The Trapa-rrrjxv was a garment with a purple
border on either side (i.e. by each elbow) ; it is
' mentioned by Athenaeus, 582 d, and PoUux,
1 vii. 53, the latter of whom describes it as l/juiTiSv
\ Ti KevKhv, ir'jxvi' irop<pvpoiiv f-^ov iTapv(paafi.4vov.
I The men, too, though they still retained the old
' dress for ceremonial purposes, adopted the
Greek himation, giving it the name Pallium,
the e'loijuiy or rpifitisv under the name Abolla,
and the chlaniys with its name unchanged.
This adoption of Greek fashions went on in-
I creasing until the beginning of the Empire,
when, except for ceremonial purposes, the old
Roman dress had become obsolete.
Dress under the Empire.
In this reepect three important changes may
be noted :
(1) The introduction of new materials, such
as new linen and cotton fabrics (byssi?ia), or
silk {serica, bombycina).
(2) New technical processes, producing varie-
ties of pattern and texture, known as scutula-
fii»i, trimita, polymita, &c., or patterns shot
with gold.
(3) New garments or fashions. Many of these
garments were introduced from Greece, or
were the outcome of Greek ideas ; but of the
majority we know little more than the names.
This great variety of attire and love of novelty
was of course due to the rapid increase of
luxury and civilisation under the Empire.
Most of the changes in dress in this period
come under this third heading, the principal
among which we now propose to notice.
fa) TJnder-qarments. The capitiuin or stro-
phium derived from Greece (see above) : in the
case of matrons it appears to have taken the
form of a stiff bodice ; younger women wore
merely bands and belts round the chest for the
improvement of the figure (CatuU. Ixiv. 65 ; Ov.
A.A. iii. 274, 622; Ter. Eun. ii. 3, 23). From
Mart. xiv. 66 we infer that the capituun was
usually of leather. Varro(L. L. v. § 131) says
it is so called quod capit pectus.
A statuette from Herculaneum shows a nude
female figure putting a broad band over her
breast; this band ( strojthium) was known as
fascia pectoralis or mammillare. Women
also wore a girdle {cinguhnn) over the tunic
just beneath the breast (Verg. Aen. i. 492).
Another use of the word fascia was for a kind
of stocking worn on the legs (like the cloth
bands worn by Campagna shepherds and con-
DRESS
25y
vcntional brigands), which in the time of
Cicero liad been regarded as a sign of effem-
inacy when worn by men, but under the
Empire became common with both sexes, and
was even worn by soldiers. The feiainalia
worn by Augustus (Suet. Aug. 82) appear to
have been a kind of bracae or trousers ; lie
wore them as being very susceptible of cold.
Focalc (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 255), a kind of neck- cloth
for invalids ; dalmatica, a tunic of white wool,
linen or cotton, with long sleeves, ornamented
with stripes of purple and gold, an attribute of
priests and ofhcials, and afterwards adopted as
a vestment in the Christian Church (see Diet,
of Chrint. Antiq. s.v.) ; ciunisia (Fr. clieiuise), a
representative of the older subucula (Hor. ijj).
i. 1, 95), a linen shirt worn ne.xt the skin, first
mentioned by Jeronie in the fourth century
as worn by soldiers : these are a few of the
principal under-garments introduced under the
Empire. It may also be mentioned here that
the subligacidum, one of the characteristic
garments of the time of the Republic, was in
imperial times worn only by servants and gla-
diators ; similar drawers, however, appear to
have been worn by actors, dancers, and bathers.
(6) Outer-garments. We note the practical
disuse of the toga in ordinary life, and the
substitution of the pallium as the usual gar-
ment of men, as the palla for women ; also the
introduction of numerous cloaks, practically
one garment with various names to denote
slight differences of cut or material ; these
must be described in detail. Besides the
dalmatica mentioned above, other rich gar-
ments came into use for various special occa-
sions: avLch. OM syntliesis, a costume specially
made for wearing at dinner (also vest is
cenatoria, or cenatorium) ; and cyclas,
of a circular form, worn chiefly by women.
Nothing is known of the shape of the synthesis ;
the colour varied (cf. Mart. x. 29, 4). The
cyclas was made of some thin material, perhaps
muslin, and had a border round the bottom in-
laid with gold ; it continued to be a dress of
ceremony down to the fifth century.
(r) Garments for out-door use. These are
mostly included in the following alphabetical
list, which deals with the more important
Roman garments of all periods.
Abolla. a thick double cloak resembling
the Greek chlamys, the duplex pannus of
Fig. 607.— Abolla, military cloak.
' indiscriminately worn, like the sagum (Juv. iv.
7(j) ; its shape was altered and the rough tex-
ture exchanged for fine linen. Worn, like the
Tpifiwv, by a Cynic, it served alike for day and
night clothes. The abolla was worn by Stoics
also (Juv. iii. 115).
Biuuus. A cloak or cape furnished with a
hood, for use in bad weather. It was made of
a stiff material with a long nap, usually wool,
but sometimes beaver. The word is also used
synonymously with lacerna, cucullus and
sagum; it is probably of barbaric origin. (See
fig. 509, under Cucullus).
Cakaca'lla. An outer garment used in Gaul,
not unlike tlie lacerna. It was first introduced
at Rome by the
Emperor Aurelius
Antoninus Bassia-
nus, wjio thence
obtained the sur-
name by which
he is commonly
known. It was a
close-fitting gar-
ment with long
sleeves, slit before
and behind like a
modern overcoat.
In its original
shape it reached
only to the knee,
but the EmiJeror
lengthened it to
reach the ankle.
In its longer form
it afterwards be-
came the cassock
of the clergy.
Cucu'llus. a
hood or cowl worn
by traveller8,shep-
herds, husbandmen, and hunters, or by legion-
aries on service in cold climates, and in town
by persons of distinction who wished to go
abroad unrecognised. It was sometimes a
separate garment, but was generally worn with
the lacerna or paenula. It was intended to
be used in the open air, and was drawn over
the head to protect it from the weather instead
of a hat or cap. A similar garment was the
cuculio, a kind of woollen capote. The use of
the cucullus and hirrus was allowed to slaves
by the Codex Theodosianus.
-Carac^lla. (From bionze
in Britisli Museum.)
Fig. .509.— Cucullus.
(Figure from
Aesornla.)
Fig. 610.— Boy wearing
Lacerna. ( From bronze in
Britisb JIuseum.)
Lace'rna. This garment was a woollen
cloak, worn over the toga, answering in most
Horace, Ep. i. 17, 25 ; it was originally a mill- | respects to the Greek X'^oM"^. It generally
tary garment, but in imperial times it was | had a hood (cucullus), and was worn open and
sa
260
DRESS
Fig. oil.— Paenula. (From
terracotta in British
Museum.)
loose, fastened to the shoulder by a fibula,
thus differing from the paenula, which fitted
close and was fastened the whole way up. It
might be of any colour. It appears to have
been worn as a military cloak before the time
of Cicero, and to some extent displaced the
sagum. It was a very common garment at Rome
under the Empire, though Augustus tried to
repress its use (Suet. Aug. 40). Another name
is bardocucullus.
Pae'nul.\. a sleeveless cloak of thick
cloth, worn especially by country people. It
was not so fashionable
as the lacerna, but
was used by all classes
on journeys and in
bad weather (Juv. v.
79). Its variety of
shape was considerable,
square, round, or bell-
shaped ; it sometimes
had a hood (cucullus).
Women wore the pae-
nula matronalis or
pallioluni, a kind of
mantilla.
Pall.\. This word,
though it denotes a
genuinely Roman gar-
ment, is also used as
the translation of irdir-
Kos, and is par excel-
lence the garb of heroic
personages on the tra-
gic stage (Hor. A. F.
270). There i.s good
reason to believe that
the palla took the place
of an archaic garment of somewhat the same
shape as the Doric chiton, but of a smaller size,
which survived until classical times in the rici-
niurn (q. v.) Whether tlie7^(j//n continued to be
worn after the introduction of the tunica re-
mains undecided. It is as a shawl, covering
the stola. that we hear of it in classical times,
when it took the place of the toga in female
dress. It was worn over the left shoulder,
drawn across the back, and brought over or
under the right shoulder and tucked round
the body. It was thus identical with iudriov,
and was the outdoor dress of all respectable
women (Hor. Sat. i. 2, 99). Under the Empire
it became unfashionable, like the toga, and in
the third century it seems to have gone out of
use entirely, being supplanted by the dalmatica
(see above. Dress under the Empire, S, a), and
the colobium, an under-tunic with short sleeves
(Serv. ad Verg. Aen. i.x. 616).
On the monuments of all kinds, especially
the portrait- statues of the Empire, the palla
frequently appears used as a shawl, wrapped
round the body as described above ; it does
not seem to have been girded. The ways of
wearing it differ in many small details, but in
all cases a third part is thrown over the left
shoulder from behind, and the gannent drawn
round the body, covering or leaving free the
right arm (see fig. 512). Sometimes it is drawn
over the head, to serve either as a veil or as a
protection against the weather. In nearly all
eases it is a rectangular piece of cloth, the
dimensions varying very considerably. In
some few instances it resembles the toga in
having one of its sides cut in a circular form.
Palla is one of the names given to the
XiTuif opdoaTo^ios (tunica talaris) which with
the chlamys formed the conventional costume
dzzirj'-
I Fig. 512.— Palla, as worn by Livia.
I of the cifharoedus (see above) ; strictly speak-
ing, however, this was a long sleeved tunic
' girded high above the waist.
I P.\'llium is a word only used to describe the
, Greek himation, as, e.g., in the phrase palliatae
' for Greek comedies as opposed to the Roman
I togatae.
Rici'xiiM. Before the palla came into use
at Rome, a smaUer-sized mantle known by this
I name was worn by women, and sometimes by
j men, as would appear from certain ceremonial
! survivals. It was a rectangular piece of cloth,
: worn with one half throwni back over the
shoulder. The word occurs as early as the
I Twelve Tables. In classical
] times it was only used for
j ceremonial purposes, and
' was worn bj the magistcr
of the Arvales Fratrea at
the Ludi Circenses, by the
boys who attended them,
I and by Camilli generally.
' It was also worn by women
I at funerals before the burial,
after which they put on a
black palla ; this shows that
there was an essential dif-
ference between the two.
Of the material nothing is
known, except that we hear
of one embroidered with
gold.
The monuments give no
representations of it as
worn by women, only by
sacrificial attendants (as
fig. 513). The wife of the Flamen Dialis wore
a purple ricinium with a fringe.
Saoum. a thick woollen cloak or plaid
fastened round the neck with a brooch [fibula',
the distinctive garb of a Roman citizen in time of
war. Hence it is contrasted with the toga, the
dress of peace. It was in no sense a uniform.
The name has also a wider and more general
meaning, and is applied to other varieties of
Fig. 61S.— Camillus
wearing Ricinium.
DRESS
261
cloak, such as birrus, laena, lacerna, and
abulia. It is also used to describe the national
dress of Germans, Gauls, and Spaniards. In
later Latin the word chlarnys is ordinarily
used, supplanting sag u in. There was much
variety in the shape, cut, and material, and it
sometimes had a hood ; it was made of stout
stufiE for rough usage. It was put on and
fastened in the same way as the paludamen-
tnm, which word was originally an equivalent
oisagum, but in Latin of the best period was
applied only to the sagum purpureum of the
imperator as distinguished from the sagum
(J regale of the common soldier. The favourite
colour for the paludamentwm was red, but
this was not invariable ; it was larger and of
better material than the ordinary sagum. It
was worn regularly by the emperors, and is
Fig. .514.— Sagum. (From Trajan's Column.)
frequently represented on the portraits; by
some who carefully observed constitutional
forms it was laid aside on entering the city.
Stola. The gown or dress peculiar to the
Roman matron, and worn as a badge of lawful
marriage (Hor. Sat. i. 2, 94). It was a tunica
put on over the shift or tunica interior, and
reached down to the ankles. It was bordered
below with a flounce or hem called instita (Hor.
Sat. i. 2, 29), and had sleeves reaching to the
elbows, fastened with a row of clasps fibula:),
and not sewn. Like the corresponding Greek
garment, it was girded,
generally immediately un-
der the bptjom, forming a
cluster of folds (Mart. iii.
93, 4). There is no record
of the date at which the
^^ stolawas adopted by Roman
r-J3 women, but the change was
probably connected with the
transfonnation that the
palla had undergone : i.e.
when the palla, originally
worn like the Doric chiton,
was used as a shawl or
mantle, another under-gar-
ment besides the twnica
interior became necessary,
and that adopted by the
matrons was the stola. As
Kig. .M5.-Stoift, early as the Second Punic
as worn by Livia. War the longa vcstis is
mentioned as the privilege
of married women. In the time of Tiberius
the stola ceased to be fashionable.
SuBu'cuLA, or tunica interior. It was usual
at Rome to wear two shirts, and this was the
name given to the under one. It was generally
of wool, and was not made of linen before the
fourth century of the Empire. The subucula
was also worn by women, and in its earliest
form was known as sujqiarum. Colobium
appears to be another name of a short-sleeved or
sleeveless subucula. It was worn with sleeves
if the stola was without them, but otherwise,
except at the neck, is not visible in statues (see
fig. 515), and is generally not represented at all.
Toga. The earliest costume of the Roman*
was a thick woollen cloak known as the toga,
which was the proper dress for outdoor wear
(cf. Liv. iii. 2f), 9). In later times the adoption
of the shirt {tunica) worn by the (i reeks and
Etruscans made the toga more bulky, and it
was worn in a looser manner. The result was
that it was superseded by other garments, the
sagum in time of war, and in peace the laena,
lacerna, faenula, or other forms of buttoned
or closed cloaks. This partial disuse gave the
toga an increased importance as a ceremonial
garment. As early as the third century B.C. it
was looked upon, together with the CalceUE,
as the characteristic badge of Roman citizen-
ship (Juv. iii. 172 ; Plin. Ep. v. G, 45 ; Suet
Aug. 40; Mart. i. 49, 31j. It was denied to
foreigners and banished Romans, and was
worn by magistrates as a badge of office. It
remained as the Court dress of the Empire, and
the proper garment for a client to wear when
visiting his patron ; it was also worn by the
spectators in the circus. Its use as an official
garment continued till the fifth century after
Christ, when it was supplanted b)' the paenula.
As regards the shape of the toga, its charac-
teristic feature was its curved outline, by which
it is distinguished from the square pallium (the
Greek IfxaTiov) and the old Roman ricinium.
It was certainly in no sense circular, but rather
segmental, crescent-shaped, or perhaps ellip-
tical or lenticular. But its exact shape has
been much disputed. We cannot, however,
consult any better authority on the subject
than the existing monuments in the shape of
the numerous portrait-statues on which it
appears. Based on this evidence two main
theories have so far found favour : (1) a gar-
ment of elliptical shape, with pointed ends, to
which a border was sometimes attached (see
fig. 516) ; it is probable that this was the earlier
Fig. 51G.— Diagram of earlier toga.
form of the toga. (2) The more usual form on
later examples has been shown by practicid
experiments to be a crescent (fig. 517), the back
of which is an elliptical curve, having a circu-
lar segment of cloth (k W a) about one-third of
the arc across, sewn on to its concave side.
Both shapes were of very considerable size, the
length being at least three times the height
of a man's shoulder. The method of wearing
the latter shape is well seen in the statue of
Didius Julianus (fig. 518). About one-third of
262 DRESS
rather vague and hard to understand. The
cinctus Gabinus was retained long after it liad
passed out of ordinary
use in the ritual of cer-
tain warhke sacrifices,
as when tlie temple of
Janus was opened, also
at the Ambarvalia, or
at the founding of a
city.
The angular extre-
mity of the toga, one
end of which was
brought round over the
the toga is first allowed to hang in front over left shoulder, was known
ths left shoulder (at the point e in fig. 517), so as lacinia (see tig. 518).
that the end (j) lies It was generally tucked
l:>etween the ankles, into tlie girdle, but
Then the rest of the sometimes was allowed
garment is taken and to hang loose. Scipio
drawn across the back, Nasica is described as
under the right shoul- wrapping the lacinia
Fig. .j17.— Diagram of later toga,
Fig. 518.— Didius .lulianus
wearing tog.i. i From tlie
Louvre.)
der, and across the
chest in a slanting
line, being finally
thrown back over tlie
left shoulder once
more. This done, the
weight of the end
which is thrown over
the leftshoulder keeps
the whole in its place.
The arrangement of
the toga was further
complicated by the at-
tached piece indicated
above (f k a), which
is apparently the part
known to the ancients
as the sinus (see
guintil. xi. 137 sqq.).
It ran slanting from
the right arm to tlie
left shoulder, forming
a sort of apron or
Fig. .510.— Cinctns Gabi-
nus. (From bronze in
Britisli Museum.)
round his left arm for
u shield (PluD. Gracch.
19). The ductus Ga-
binus was probably
formed by girding the toga tightly round the
body by one of the laciniae. Some permitted
the lacinia to trail on the ground (lacinia ni
trahere), and we are told that Caligula once,
when rushing suddenly out of the theatre,
trod on the lacinia of his toga and fell (Suet.
Cal. 35). It could also be seized as a means
of stopping a person.
The toga in Cicero's time had become the
typical garment of peace, as in the well-known
line cedaiit anna togae {Pis. 30, 73). Among
other survivals of its old uses was the custom
of wearing it without a tunic beneath, which
was observed by candidates for election until
almost the end of the Republic. Cato Uticen-
sis, like the family of Cethegi {cinctuti, Hor.
A. P. 50; Lucan, li. 543, Sil. viii. 587, exsertus),
adopted this as one of his habits, though the
ordinary Roman considered it as scarcely
sling, and, covering the greater part of tlie left decent. Yet another custom was the survival
thigh, fell as far as the knee
A mantle worn in such a complicated way
must have been extremely difficult to keep in
place. The valet (vestii>liciis) arranged the
folds the day before and fixed them in their
place with to'ngs(/orcf;2).s) (Tertull. <le Pallio,5)
of the toga as a woman's garment in the case of
nifrctrices, who were compelled to wear it.
The toga of the Roman citizen was white
(cf. Mart. viii. 28, 11), i.e. the natural colour
of the wool. Candidates for office wore a toga
Candida whitened (cretata) by the fuller. The
The main point in all such arrangements was citizen's toga, or toga pura, the mark of his
to secure the band-like fold which ran across
the breast ; it was called the utnbo or nodus (cf.
Macrob. Sat. iii. 13, 4).
A mark of the Roman dandy was the enor-
mous size (laxitas) of his toga (cf. Cic. Ca,t.
ii. 10, 20 ; Suet. Calig. 35, and Mart. vii. 35) ;
such togae laxae were associated with curled
hair, and considered in bad taste fOv. lion.
Amor. 679), though according to Tibullus (ii.
3, 77) this was a common lover's fashion.
Another important passage is Horace, Epod.
4, 7, where he speaks of the universal indigna-
franchise, was assumed by the young Roman
when he was declared to be legally of age. It
was on this acdilunt known as the toga virihs,
as opposed to the toga praetexta of boys. The
assumption of the toga virilis took place on the
feast of the Liberalia (March 17), when the boy
was between fourteen and sixteen years of age.
The praetexta, worn by free-born boys, was
an orduiary toga with a purple hem added. It
was also worn by all the curule magistrates,
but not by quaestors, aediles, and tribunes of
the plebs "; though it was one of the privileges
tion excited at a freedman's wearing a toga C. of magistrates in the municipia and coloniae
ulnae ( = 4 yards) long. Contrasted with this ! (cf. Hor. Sat. i. 2, 36). To wear it was a dis-
was the modest tnga neque restricta, neqve tinction ; and ex-curule magistrates, as well as
fusa of Augustus (Suet. Aug. 73), or the toga ' dictators, were buried in it. During their life-
exigua of Cato Uticensis (Hor. Ep. ii. 19, 13), ; time they might only wear it at public cere-
which were doubtless attempts to restore the monies or festivals. The Flamen Dialis,
old shape without the sinus (see fig. 516).
Another mode of wearing the toga was the
cinctus Gabinus. The name is said to be
derived from the wars of the Romans against
Gabii, and was at first purely military. The
descriptions given of the cinctus Gabinus are
Pontifices, Tresviri Epnlones, Augurs, and
Arval Brothers were among the priests men-
tioned as wearing it. Under the Empire it
was common to bestow a praetexta as a badge
of rank (ornamentum). The toga pulla, a
dark-coloured mantle, was w<n-n in mourning;
DROMO
it was also put on in cases of private danger
or of public anxiety, as a solemn mutatio vestis.
Under tlie Republic the most magnificent gar-
ment was tlie tu</ii picta of Jupiter Capitolinus
worn over the tunica jtahnatd bj' a general
triumphing or a magistrate conducting tlio tcn-
sae. The Praetor Urbanus also apj)eared in it
when he rode in the chariot of the gods into tlie
circus at the Ludi Apollinarejj. It was a mantle
of puri)le covered with gold embroidery, and
may have been the original attire of the kings.
Under the Empire all magistrates who gave
games wore this toga, and the right of wear-
ing it always was also conferred on Julius
Caesar, which privilege was retained by Au-
gustus and his successors. In the second
century after Christ the ioga 2>>('ta, with the
tunica palmata, became the otficial dress of
the consuls.
Among the varieties of the toga the trabea
must l>e mentioned. It probably derives its
name from having stripes (trabcs) of bright
scarlet with a purple border. It was a very
ancient form of the toga and was i\'orn by the
Salii and by augurs ; Servius (ad Acn. vii.
188) distinguishes three varieties : for gods
(purple), for kings (purj)le and white), and
augurs (purple and scarlet).
TuNic.\. It has been shown that this gar-
ment was not adopted at Rome till a compara-
tively late date, but in the last three centuries
of the Republic it was an indispensable gar-
ment, worn by both men and women. The
man's tunica was practically identical w^ith the
later Greek chiton, being two pieces of linen or
woollen cloth sewn together. Sleeves down to
the wrist were sometimes worn, but were con-
sidered effeminate (Verg. Ae)i. ix. BIG); under
the Empire, however, tunicae manicatae were
the ordinary wear.
The tunica was worn with a girdle fastened
round it at the waist, and its length could be
varied by pulling it through the girdle. It
usually fell just below the knees. For active
exercise, w'hen travelling, for instance (Hor.
Sat. i. 5, 6), it was girded higher. Indoors the;
girdle was thrown aside for the sake of comfort,
but to appear without it in public was con-
sidered slovenly
The tunica girt liigh and tight was the ordi-
nary dress of a slave (Juv. iii. 93) and of free
labourers (Hor. Ep. i. 7, 05). If a cloak were
worn by the slave, it would be a sagum or
paenula, and Cato the Censor considered an
allowance of one tunica 3.^, ft. long and one
sagum to each slave su£Bcient for two years.
For tunica inuliehris see Subucul.v.
Dromo. [Navis.]
Ducena'rii. The name of various officers and
magistrates ni the imperial period : in particular,
(1) a class or decuria of iudices, first established
by Augustus ; whose property, as valued in the
census, only amounted to 200 sestertia. They
tried causes of small importance. (Suet. vl!^^. 82.)
(2) Ofliccrs who commanded two centuries.
(3) The imperial household troops, who were
under the iiuthority of llic iiiiir/istrr ojjiciurum.
Dne'lla. [Pondera ; Coinage ; Tables, XIV.]
Duo'decim scripta. [Games.]
Duo viri, A name applied to various magis-
trates and commissioners at Rome, and in the
coloniae and muuicipia. The form duumvir,
'one of the two men,' is used in the singular
(Liv. ii. 42, 5, itc.) : it is doubtful whetlier
iluumviri should ever be used in the plural.
So tres viri, not triumviri (Cic. Fam. viii. 13, 2).
The most important of these were the following :
EKKi\H5IA
263
(1) Duo VIRI IiKE (-1) DicuNDO. the highest
magistrates in the municipal towns. [Colonia.]
(2) Duo VIRI S.\CR0RUM, tlie keepers of the
Sibylline Books (cf. Liv. iii. 10, 7, v. 13, C).
The commission was afterwards made to con-
sist of ten (Liv. vi. 87), and afterwards, pro-
bably by Sulla, of fifteen. [Decemviri (3) ;
Sibyllini libri.]
(3) Duo VIRI Nav.vles, an extraordinary com-
mission appointed for the i)urpose of equipping
or repairing a fleet. The election was made as
occasion arose, and the tenure of office was not
limited to one year. There is no instance of it
on record later than that of 180-178 B.C. (Liv.
xii. 1).
(4) Duo VIRI Aedi dedicandae, elected by the
people for the purpose of dedicating a temple
(Liv. vii. 2H, xxii. 33, xxiii. 21, xxxv. 41).
(5) Duo viri 1'kruuki.lionis. [Ferdaellic]
((!) Duo VIRI QuiNQUENNALES, the ceusors in
the municipia. jColonia.]
Dupla'rii or Duplica'rii. Soldiers who re-
ceived on account of their good conduct double
allowance {duplicia cibaria), and perhaps in
some cases double pay likewise (Liv. ii. 59, xxiv.
47).
Duplica'tio. See Appendix, Roman Law.
[Actio].
Dupo'ndius or Dupo'ndium. A coin of two
afisrn, struck after the reduction of the weight
of the as. [Coinage.] As the Romans applied the
uncial division of tlie as to the foot, dupondium
also signified two feet.
E
Ebur (i\4<pas, elephantus,poet.,YeTg. Georg.
iii. 20). African ivory was known to the an-
cients, through Phocniician trade, long before
the elephant, with which the Greeks generally
only became acquainted from the Macedonian
expeditions into Asia : the Romans, from the
arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy.
In Homer, ivoi-y is used to decorate walls, doors,
harness, Ac, and was then probably attached
in plaques by nails to a metal or wooden ground.
The chest of Kj^iselus, which was of cedar
embellished with ivory reliefs, was probably
an example of the latter method. In later
times, true inlaying was resorted to, and applied
to almost every kind of furniture, as beds,
sofas, thrones, even carriages.
Writing-tables (SeAroi, libri elephantini),
with tw£), three, or more leaves (diptycha, tri-
ple. .'V20.-
Afriean, and 6. Indian elephants. (From
cuing in Itritish Muhouiu.)
ptycha,pcntapttjcha, &c.),were either made en-
tirely, or had their covers only, of ivory. Those
extant are chiefly late Roman. [Diptycha.]
The ancients were acquainted with both the
Indian and African species of elephant and
used both in war. The Indian was coiisidereil
the more intelligent and docile.
'EKKXrurCa. 1. At Athens. — The general as-
sembly of tlie citizens, in which they met for tlie
direct exercise of their sovereign power. Whether
264
EKKAH2IA
certain periodical meetings of the people were
ordained by the legislation of Solon is unkno\vn.
It is, however, probable that the only assemblies
thus fixed in early times were for the election
of magistrates {apX''"P«<''''") a^nd the confirma-
tion (iirtxetpoTovia) of magistrates or of laws ;
while questions of public policy were discussed
at meetings specially summoned for the purpose.
The right of convening the people generally
vested in the prytanes [BovX-rj]; but in cases
of sudden emergency, the strategi also could
direct the prytanes to call extraordinary meet-
ings. In the times about which we have fuller
information there was at first a regular assembly
in each prytany, and therefore ten in the year ;
these were called Kvpiai (KKKrjffiai. By degrees
the number of these rose to four in each prytany.
Assemblies were held on an average about
once in ten days. Extraordiuiiry meetings were
specially convened upon any sudden emergency,
and were called iTvyK\r)Toi or KaTdK\riToi
iKK\ri<xiat : messengers being sent round to
call in (/caTa/caA.ejj') the country people from the
denies. Besides these messengers we find a
trumpeter {(TaKurtKT-l^s, Dem. de Cor. p. 284,
§ 169) summoning to a (TvyK\i\ros fKKKriiria,
doubtless the city voters only.
The place in which the assemblies were ori-
ginally lield was the Old Agora {apxaia ayopd),
which lay to the east of the Agora of later times.
Afterwards they were transferred to tlie Pnyx,
which throughout the great period of Athens
in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. was
the usual place of meeting (Thuc. viii. 97 ; Ar.
Ach. 20, Eq. 42, 750-1, Vesp. 31 ; Dem. de Cor.
p. 244, § 55). This was not far from the Agora,
on a height ([Dem.] c. Aristog. i. p. 772, § 9; cf.
Ar. Eq. 149) commanding an extensive view of
the Acropolis, city, and port. The &7iu.a was a
stone platform with an ascent of steps cut
out of the solid rock, whence it is called
6 Kidos (Ar. Pax, 680). After the great theatre
of Dionysus was built assemblies began to' be
held there also (Dem. c. Mid. p. 517, § 9). For
the discussion of naval matters they also met
in the Peiraeus, or in the Dionysiac theatre at
Munychia (Dem. F. L. p. 359, § 60 = 67 ; Thuc.
viii. 93). They were held on certain occasions
in the Agora, i.e. the larger Agora of later
times. In the Macedonian period the theatre
superseded the Pnyx, which was retained only
for the elections.
The four ordinary meetings of every prytany
were convened by the prytanes, who gave a
previous notice {Trpoypa.<peiv r^v iKKXtjcriap)
of the day of assembly, and published a pro-
grarmne of the subjects to be discussed, and
also sent a crier round to collect the citizens.
On the actual day of assembly a flag (arifie'iov)
was hoisted as a signal, and struck when busi-
ness began, as in the case of the senate. Six
magistrates called Ari^iapxoi, with thirtj' assis-
tants, checked the attendance at the assembly.
While some of the lexiarchi stood at the en-
trance of the place of assembly with lists or
deme-registers in their hands (the so-called
iKKKT)(TiaffTiKo\ TTivaKes or \ri^iapx^Khu ypo-fJ.-
fiaTe7ov) [^At^o-PXoC, others directed the
police (l.KvOai or To^orai, cf. Atijj,6ctioi) to i
surround the Agora with a rope coloured with
red chalk {ffxoiviou fi€fj.iXTaifjLivov), so that
only the road leading to the Pnyx remained
open ; and into this road they drove the citi- !
zens. As a further inducement to attend to I
business the ro^drai were sometimes ordered to
shut up the market-stalls (irpaTripia). Those '
who were ' tan-ed ' with the rope counted as late '.
comers, and no doubt forfeited their ffv/x&o\ov,
even if they actually remained in the assembly ;
hence there was a rush to avoid it (Ar. Ach. 22,
Eccl. 378). The place of assembly was further
enclosed with hurdles (ytppa) until the termi-
nation of business to wliich it was thought
advisable not to admit strangers (Dem. c. Nsaer.
' p. 1375, § 90).
A sufficient inducement to attend the as-
sembly, with the poorer classes, was the fjLiaQhs
1 fKKKr)aia(TTiK6s or pay which they received for
it. This practice probably dated from the suc-
cessful early years of the Peloponnesian War.
The pajnnent itself, at first an obolus, was after-
I wards raised to three by Agyrrhius of KoUy-
tus about 390 B.C. (Ar. Eccl. 300). It is said in
FArist.] 'A9. iro\. c. 62 to have been further raised
to a dracluna or even nine obols. The money
was paid by the thesmothetae at the close of tht-
proceedings, and in exchange for a ZiiM.3o\ov
or ticket given to those who arrived in time.
This payment was not made to the richer classes.
The right of attending and voting was enjoyed
by all citizens of full age (AoKijiaaia) and nut,
labouring under any atiniia or loss of civil
. rights. Men above sixty may have been ex-
cused, but were certainly not excluded.
The commencement of the proceedings was
marked by a lustration or purification of the
place where the assembly was held. Sucking-
pigs (xoipiSia) were sacrificed and carried
round, and the limits thus marked were called
, KxOapfjLa, 'the purified space' (Ar. Ach. 44).
These victims were called irepiffTta, probably
; from irepl t^j/ eariav: they were preceded by a
religious functionary called irepicm'opxos (id.
Eccl. 128), and their blood was sprinkled
about the place. Then followed an offering of
incense, and a solemn prayer, repeated by a
herald at the dictation of an under-secretary
(inroypanixaTevs), and including a curse (opo) on
' the enemies of the state (Dem. F. L. p. 363,
i § 70 = 79; cf. de Cor. p. 319, § 282; Ar. Thesm.
1 331 sqq.). The presiding officer was, in the earlier
I times, the epistates of the prytanes, afterwards
I the epistates of the nine proedri [BovXii.]
I No business could be brought before the as-
1 sembly without a wpofiovKev^ia of the senate,
; and the subjecting of such irpo0ou\evfiaTa U>
the senate necessarily preceded their discussion
in the assembly, in cases where the motion did
i not proceed from the senate itself. The reading
[ of the probouleuma by a herald or ypafxixaTivs
was immediately followed by the irpoxf^poTovia,
a show of hands on the previous question, whe-
ther the sovereign people desired the proposed
measure to be further discussed, or were pre-
pared to accept it at once (BovXt)).
The privilege of addressing the assembly was
not confined to any class or age among those
who had the right to be present ; aU, without
any distinction, were invited to do so by the pro-
clamation 'Ti's ayopfvftv PovKerai ;' which was
made by the herald as soon as the irpoxf-poTovia
had shown that there was to be a debate. The
person ' in possession of the House ' mounted
the bema and put on a -wreath of myrtle, as a
sign that he was for the moment a representa-
tive of the people, like the bouleutae and the
archons (Ar. Eccl. 131, 148). The duty of
maintaining order (no easy task, for aKoa/jLia
was a constant gi-ievance) devolved on the
prytanes, assisted by the ro^Srat or policemen
(AJ-. Eq. 665) : from about 345 B.C., by the
members of a tribe chosen by lot for this pur-
pose ; later stiU, in the Macedonian period, by
the ((prjfioi.
EKKAH2IA
After tlie speakers liad concluded, anyone
■\vaH at liberty to propose a decree (ipi,(f)t<rfjLa).
Tliere was no restriction on the moving of
anieiidments or riders; they were introduced
witli tlie fonnula [6 Suva] (lirt' to, /xiv aWa
KaOdirep rrj fiovKfj, or Kaddirep [6 Sftva] followed !
by the words of the amendment (cf. Plat. Gore/.
451 B). Before the question could be put, it i
had to be determined usually by the Areiopagus
wliether it contained anything unconstitutiunal.
If there appeared to be no legal obstacle, the
psephisma was next read to the people. Even !
at tliis stage the epistates had the legal right
of stopping the voting on his own unsupported
authority (Aeschin. F. L. § 84). But he was
responsible for his use of this privilege, and
might be proceeded against by tvSei^is, or the |
more summary airayuyri (Plat. Ajtol. 32 b). Any ;
duly qualified citizen might also object to the i
question being put, by engaging on oath {imoifio- \
ffia) to try the legality of the motion by means
of the ypacph vapav6/x(t)v. Finally, the mover
himself might withdraw liis motion before it i
was put to the vote (Plut. Arint. 3). The form |
in wliich the votes were taken was in general
XeipoTovCa, or show of hands; the ballot
(kPv^Stjv \l/r](pL(^f(rdai} was only used where the .
personal interests of individuals were concerned.
The mode of voting by ballot in the ekklesia was
probably the same as in the courts of law, by
means of black and white pebbles put into urns I
caUed KaSiffKoi (Ar. Vcsj). 981; ii'fi(})09). To j
' put the question ' is (■iri\f/ri(pi(fiv, or (rarely)
(TTtxftpoTovelv (Dem. c. Tiinocr. p. 712, § 39). |
Tlie determination or decree of the people
was called a Psephisma (\pr,(t>i(rijLa), and only
remained in force a year, like the resolution of
the senate which bore the same name ; to become
a v6iJ.os, it had to jiass the ordeal of the Nono-
e€Tat. The form for drawing up the Psephisma
varied in different ages. An example of the
earlier foi'm is as follows: "ESo^f rfj ^ovKfj
Ka\ ToJ Srifj.(f, KsKpoTrh iirpvTavfvi, Mvrjffidfos
typafifioLTfvf, EvTTfiOrjs iirecTTaTei, KaKKias
fJTrej' : then follows the resolution, in the infini-
tive dependent on elirev : e.y. diroSovvat to7s deo7s
TO xP'hp-o-Ta TO. ocpeiKo/xfya. In a later foim the
date is given more precisely : e.g. eTrt NiKoSwpov
aoxovTos, firl rfjy KeKpoir'iSos e/CTTjs irpvTaveias,
rafxriKiutvos ivSeKari], e/CTj; Koi (iKOffTij ttjs
TrpvTaviias, (KKKriaia k.t.\.
The assembly was dismissed (Kveii/) by the
prj'tanes through a herald (Ar. Ach. 173). Meet-
ings usually began early in the morning, and
were not continued after sunset. But an
assembly was broken up by a Sio(n}ix'ta or sign
from heaven (Ar. /lc/(. 170-1; Thuc. v. 45).
[Divinatio; 'EStivTiTai.]
The four ordinary assemblies of every prytany
had each their specially api)ropriated subjects
for discussion, or ' order of the day.' In the
first assembly, the Kvpia iKK\7)(ria properly so
called, matters connected with government
officials, offences against the state, supply,
defence, finance, were discussed ; in the second,
questions affecting citizens personally ; in the
third, foreign affairs ; in the fourth, irepl ifpwv
Kol irjixoaiuv, i.e. public business generally.
In judicial matters tlie ])coi)le acted only in
exceptional cases, cliietly tllo^^c■ disc ii--sc(l uii<ler
Elaa-yveXCa. 'EiravYt^ta luul HpoPo^il. See
also Appendix, Gukkk Law rMiivvats].
Complaints and indictments were in the first
instance brought before tlu? senate, and came
liefore the people only wlien tlie case was too
serious for the former to deal with. Among the
judicial acts of the people we may also reckon
EKKAHTOI
265
the special commissions of inquiry which were
sometimes issued : for instance, the periodical
overhauling of the finances by the appointment
of ZT|TTiTaC. Inquiries into consjiiracies or
secret crimes might be thus relegated to the
Areiopagus or the senate, and the guilty parties,
when discovered, indicted before the people.
The senate I'eceived full powers to try and
sentence the offenders (Andoc. de Myst. § 15).
As regards the open elections of magistrates
(dpxatpfcrtat), only a few took place in tlie
popular assembly. Such were those of the
strategi, the chief financial minister (TajjuCag
6 tV! T)7 StotKr,fffi), and others who had the
handling of large sums of jjublic money ; also
ambassadors and pul)lic commissioners. The
election was invariably conducted by show of
hands (xfipoTovia), and not by voting tablets
or by ballot. Besides those who declared them-
selves candidates, persons might be nominated
by others, but in this case might refuse ofitice
on taking the oath called 'Eguixoaia.
The legislative powers of the people in as-
sembly, so far as they were defined by the laws
of Solon still in force in the time of Demo-
sthenes, were very limited [NojJuoScTai], ij/rj-
<picrfj.aTa taking the place of laws passed in
regular course ( Arist. Pol. iv. 4 ; Dem. c. Tiinocr.
p. 744; Xen.Hrll. i. 7, §121. Tliere was, in
fact, no check ujioii tlie action of the assembly,
except the Ppact)'^ Trapavojjuov. It was king
and parliament in one.
2. At Sparta. The Assembly of Spartan
Freemen. — This assembly possessed, in theory
at least, the supreme authoritj- in all matters
affecting the general interests of the state. By
an ordinance or P-riTpa attributed to Lycurgus
the assembly of the Sparttin citizens, or ofioioi,
was to be summoned from time to time, under
the presidency of the kings. The Spartan
name for €K/fArj(n'o is ctTreAAa. The meeting
(see Thuc. i. 67) took place at the full moon.
By the same ordinance, full power was given
to the people to adopt or reject whatever was
proposed to them by the king and other magis-
trates. It appears, however, that the assembly
was not competent to originate any measures,
but only to pass or reject, without modifica-
tion, laws and decrees proposed by the proper
authorities (cf. Dem. v. Lcpt. p." 489, § 107).
All full citizens above the age of thirty were
admissible to the general assembly or atriWa ;
but no one except public magistrates, and
chiefly the ephors and kings, addressed the
people without being specially called upon.
The same public functionaries also put the
question to the vote (4iTiy\i-r\<pi^iiv, Thuc. i. 87 ), and
the method of voting was by acclamation {ibid.).
Hence, as the magistrates only were the leaders
and speakersof the assembly, decrees of the whole
people are often spoken of as the decision of the
authorities only, especially in matters relating
to foreign affairs. The intimate connexion of
the ephors with the assembly is shown by a
phrase of very fre(iuent occurrence in decrees :
l5o{€ Tols i(p6pots Kol rfj iKKKrjffia.
The subjects of discussion in the popular
assemblies which we find in the historians are
the election of magistrati'S and Gerontes, deci-
sions upon a disputed succession between pre-
tenders to the crown, votes concerning peace
and war, and treaties with foreign states, and
finally legislative measures ; in which depart-
ment, however, little business was done, as the
laws of S])arta were practically unalterable.
'EkkXtitoi. An assembly at Sparta, of un-
certain constitution. It mav have been iden-
266
ECDICUS
tical with (li the tKKKriaia, a\'ia (a), or aireWa.
the principal assembly of the bfioioi ; or (2) the
lUKpa eKK\r)aia, an inierior body, probably also
consisting of o/noioi.
E'cdicus {fKSiKos). The name of an officer
in many of the towTis of Asia Minor under the
Roman dominion. The ecdicus was the agent
of a city in its foreign busmess and its relations
with the central government, and especially in
prosecuting its claims against debtors. (Cic.
Fam. xiii. .56; Plin. Ep. x. 3.)
'EKeoats- [Fenus.]
'HxeLov. (1) Metal vessels used in atheatre
to represent thunder.
(2) Vessels of bronze or clay, tuned harmonic-
ally, and placed at calculated distances, disposed
in niches (cellae) under the seats of a theatre.
They were placed on their sides with the mouth
towards the stage. The object was to improve
the sonorousness of the building (Vitr. v. 5).
(3) A musical instrument used at the Eleu-
sinia ; perhaps a succession of bowls played
upon with a wooden hammer.
EcM'nus fex'"''o$)- (1) A pot or pitcher (Hor.
Sat. I. 0, 117, ii. K, .52). 'Pottery.]
(2) The urn, of earthenware or bronze, prob-
ably of a cylindrical shape, in which documents
were sealed up between the avaKpiffn and the
trial. [ACkti]
(3) [Architectura.]
'EkAoycIs- Athenian collectors of taxes
were of two kinds. (1) Ordinary, who collected
the €l<T(popa. under the 7]yefi6vfS twv ffvfjLfxopioiiv.
[Ela<})opd.] (2) Extraordinary, appointed when
the tribute (cp6pos) of the allies fell into arrears.
EK^apTvpCa. See Appendix, Greek L.\w.
E'ctypuB LeKTviros). 1. (Ectypum) a cast
Fig. 521.— Ectypum, cast iti) and mould i.b). (British
Museum.)
or mould in plaster or terracotta (Plin. xxxv. 43,
§ 152; cf. tijjiiis, Plin. I.e. and Cic. Aff. i. 10, 3).
2. (Ectypa gemma, scalj^tura, Plin. xxxvii.
63, § 173), a cameo or engraved stone cut in
relief. [Caelatura.]
Ecu'leus, less correctly Equu'leus. An
instrument of torture commonly used at Rome
in extracting evidence from slaves. It was a
frame on which the sufferer was mounted and
then stretched with weights or racked with
pulleys (Sen. Ep. 67, § 3). The eculeus was in
use as late as the fourth centm-y. (Compare
Eidicula, Flagellum; the legal aspect under
Tonnentum.)
Edi'ctum. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Effira'ctor (toix'^P'^Xo^)- !• Greek. See Ap-
EI2*0PA
pendix, Greek Law. 2. Roman. See Appen-
dix, Roman Law.
ElKotTTTi. A custom duty, payable into the
Athenian exchequer, of one-twentieth (five iier
cent.) ad valorem, uponall commoditiesexported
or imported by sea in the states of the allies
subject to Athens. Tliis tax was first imposed
413 B.C., in the place of the direct tribute
( (p6pos) which had up to this time been paid by
the subject allies ; and the change was made
with the hope of raising a greater revenue
(Thuc. vii. 28). This tax was farmed, and
the farmers of it were called eiKoaroKoyot. It
must have been more difficult to collect than
the (f>6pos, and there is good reason to think
that the change was never fully carried out in
all the subject states. With the fall of Athens
both forms of taxation came to an end ; but
both were afterwards revived, the (pipos under
the less invidious name of ZvvTagtS-
EtpTiv iipriv). The third class of Spartan
youth with regard to age ; the series being :
7ra?5es (aged 7-18), jxeWipaves (18-20), JpavfS
(20-30). The last were distinguished again as
TTpoDTipaves or aipaipels, according as they were
near the lower or upper limit. The boys and
youths forming a pova or lAa chose as their
leader i^ovayop) the wisest and bravest of the
tpavfs (Xen. Eep. Lac. ii. 11). These leaders
excepted, the tpaves partook with their elders
of the common meal (avSpe'ia).
Elcra-ytov^ts. See Appendix, GREEK Law.
ClaayytKiou. See Appendix, GREEK Law.
Elo-LTiipia (sc. Upa). Sacrifices offered
upon entrance into office. When an embassy set
out, at least on the most important occasions,
the senate and principal magistrates offered
flffiTYipia for its success, and dined together
(Dem. F. L. p. 400, § 190). See AiapaTiipia.
Ela(t>opd. Literally a contribution or tri-
bute, an extraordinary tax on property raised
at Athens in war-time only, paid both by citizens
and fxfToiKoi, and voted by the people on each
occasion when it was required. It is not certain
when this tax was introduced, but it seems to
have come in together with the decline of per-
sonal service among the citizens.
Tlie first eisphora of which we have any
information was one of 200 talents imposed in
428 B.C. (Thuc. iii. 19). It is probable, however,
tluit it had been levied on occasion before this.
Before the institution of the Zu^.M-opCai, which
acted as intermediaries, the people collected
the eisphora directly through their own agents,
with confiscation as the penalty for default. At
the head of the collection were the generals,
who had under their orders the eKKoyeis
and other subordinate tax-gatherers (Ar. Eq.
924). As to the rate of this taxation in propor-
tion to the taxable capital, we have not much
information : but it would seem to have varied
from a hundredth or less to a fiftieth, or in some
cases a higher proportion. (See Dem. Oh/nth.
iii. p. 29, § 4 ; Ar. Eccl. 824 ; Grote, ch. Ixxv.)
Until the archonship of Nausinikus (378-7 B.C.)
the standard according to which the eisphora
was levied was based upon the four Solonian
classes. This census must have been extended
with the growth of Athenian commerce and
empire to include moveable or personal property
as well as landed or real property (Ar. Eq. 924).
Slaves also were included iit the a.iroypa<p'h
or return ; and corporate property was taxed
as well as individual.
In the archonship of Nausinikus a new
census was instituted, in which the people,
for the purposes of the property-tax, were
1
EKEXEIPIA
divided into a number of gi-oups called 2vm-
^op£ai, similar to tliose wliioli were some
years afterwards (304 B.C.) made for the trier-
iirchy. The property-tax was paid by all (Uem.
Olynth. i. p. 15, § 20) ; not even the descendants
of Harmodius and Aristof^eiton were e.vempt
ir. Mul. p. 462, § l«l. The 300 richest men,
as named by the stralegi, formed the first
class of contributors. About tlie j-ear 3(52 the
TTpoii(T(popa was introduced: the 300 richest
men were now called upon to advance (wpoetcr-
cpfpfiv) the money required fiom tlieir sym-
inoria to the state, wliicli thus reaped tlie
benefit of dealinji with capitalists, of prompt
pavment and no arrears, and was spared
trouble and risk of money loss in dealing with
individual taxpayers. The irpo(i.<T<p(povTes. as
they were called, had to recover from tlie poorer
contributors in the courts of law as best they
might. The wpoeL(T<popd counted as a liturgy,
and could not lawfully be imposed on those who
were alrei^dy trierarchs. The wpoeiacpepovTfs
made no profit upon the transaction, as tlie
TfK&vai dill, who farmed other taxes. The irpo-
(ia<popa. marks a jieriod when an eniptj' ex-
chequer liad increased the tendency of the
democracy to prey upon the rich. It seems to
have succeeded in its object of avoiding arrears.
The resident aliens, whether /liroiKoi or laore-
AeTs, as they were liable to other liturgies, were
doubtless also included in the Trpoeicripopd, and
were grouped in symmoriae of their own
apart from the citizens (Dem. c. Lejit. p. 462,
§ 18). For the collection of the eisphora,
besides the 'EKXoveig other officers, called
5iaypa<pe7i and firiypa(fie7s are mentioned. The
list or register of each syiiiiuoria, analogous to
our rate-books, was called Sidypafj.ixa (Dem. de
Sym. p. 183, § 21), and the SiaypatpeTs were
probably the keepers of it.
In the Solonian classes the principle of
graduation was already recognised, though only
to a slight extent. In the succeeding period,
the custom must have arisen of allowing a
comparatively small proportion of the groas
property to rank as Ti;UT;,ua or ' taxable capital.'
In 878 B.C. the whole rifx-qixa or taxable pro-
perty of the x'opulation of Athens was about
6000 talents. The following table gives a pro-
bable estimate of the gross and taxable pro-
perty of the four classes respectively :
ELEUSINIA
267
Gross
Property.
Ti/«,r)/iio or
Taxable Capital.
Eto'i^opa or
Property Tax.
First Class (12 talents and upward) at
5 per cent, on Tifx-qna.
from 500 tal.l from 100 tal. ifrom 5 tal.
to 12 tal.l to 2 tal. 24 m.lto 720 dr.
Second Class {from 6 talents to 12) at
bjjcr cent, on Tifj.rjfj.a.
from 11 tal. Ifrom 1 1. 45 m. 60 dr.jfrom 528 dr,
to 6 tal. jto 57 m. 60 dr.|to 288 dr.
Third Class {from 2 talents io under (!) at
5 per cent, on Tifj.rjfj.a.
from 5 tal. I from 36 m. (from 180 dr.
to 2 tal. I to 14 m. 4 dr. |to 72 dr.
I Fourth Class {from 25 mhiae to under
' 2 talents) at h per cent, on Tifxriixa.
I from IJ tal. 1 from 7 m. 20 dr. irom 36 dr.
' to 25 m. to 2 m. jto 10 dr.
The rlfjL-r)(jM of the first class was reckoned at
one-fifth of the gross value of the property;
that of the second, at one- sixth ; of the third,
at one-eighth ; of the fourth, at one-tenth.
The rate at which fxtroiKoi were assessed
uncertain : rh tKrov nipos, we are told (Dem.
c. Androt. j), ()12, § 61) ; which may probably
mean a unifoi-m rate of one-sixtli, the same as
the assessment of the second class of citizens.
The income of Demosthenes, who belonged
to the first class, on a capital of 3600/., was
about 3(<0/. per annum. On this he paid a little
more than (on an average) 11. jier annum.
Everyone had to pay his tax in the deme or
denies wliere his landed property lay (Dem. c.
Folijcl. p. 120!), § 9). It is expressly stated
that KTi)fiaTa, not awfiara, were responsible for
the eisphora : i.e. a man could be sold up but
not imprisoned or punished in person (Dem. c.
Androt. p. (JOS), § r,4, c. Tiinocr. p. 752, § 166).
Even citizens, liowever, who had not the means
of jiaying unjust demands were sometimes
dragged to prison, and the metoeks might be
oppressed with still gi-eater impunity (c. Androt.
pp. 609, 610, §§ 54, 56).
The eisphora resembled rather the ' tenths '
and ' fifteenths ' levied by Enghsh kings in
former times, a contribution demanded at
irregular intervals, than a regular property-tax ;
it was based on tlie capital itself, not on the
vai-ying produce of capital. It was not oppres-
sive in amount, though the Athenian people
required so much persuasion to induce them
to vote it. The tax was assessed on the whole
of a i)erson's property, real as well as per-
sonal.
It should be observed that the Solonian
taxation was based upon income ; that of the
later ela(popa upon cajiital.
'EK€xcLpua. L'lepop.TivLi.]
'E\a<t)Ti36Xta. The greatest festival in the
town of Hyampolis, in Phokis, celebrated in
honour of Artemis. The only particular which
we know of its celebration is, tliat a peculiar
kind of cake (t\a(pQs) was made on the occa-
sion. These cakes were probably made in the
shape of a stag (cf. ^ws (TTairivr)).
Ele'ctrum (VjKfKTpos or -ov).
(1) Amber. Beads of amber were found
in the royal tombs at Jlykenae. At a later
period amber is mentioned in the Odyssey
(XV. 4('>0, xviii. 295) as a material of necklaces,
which are said to be held together ■qKiKrpoicri,
i.e. by beads of Phoenician (i.e. Baltic) amber
(cf. also Od. iv. 73).
It is probable that the amber of early Greece
was imported by the Phoenicians who sailed
round the coast to the north of Europe. There
was probably also an ovt'iland trade.
(2) Mixed gold and silver. The earliest
certain mention of this mixed metal as electrum
(rather ViK(KTpos) is in Soi)hocle8 {Ant. 1037),
where the substance is said to come from
Sardes : for Sardes by the Paktolus was noted
in antiquity as the place whence came the
river-gold, mixed when foimd with a consider-
able percentage of silver. Herodotus (i. 50)
calls this Siinlian metal KfvKhs xt>'"^<^^-
Tliis white gold or electrum is used on the
sword-blades found at Mykenao for purposes of
inlaying (fig. 48.'">). By far tlie most important
use to wliicli it was put waH as a material for
coins. [Coinage.]
Ele'nchus (i\fyxos). [Inauris.]
Eleusi'nia ('EAtufrij'ja). This title was
chiefly ai>i)lied to a festival held by the Athe-
nians in autumn, in honour of Demeter, Perse-
phone, and lacchus, consisting of sacrifices,
processions, and certain mystical ceremonies.
268
ELEUSINIA
(1) The Origin of the Eleusinia. — The
mythical origin is contained in the Homeric
hymn to Demeter, whicli tells the story of the
Rape of Persephone, and the search of Demeter
for her daughter, together with the myths of
Keleos and Metaneira, Demophon and Tripto-
lemus. (See Class. Diet.)
The connexion of these mysteries with
Athens depends on another story, which con-
cerns the union of Eleusis with Athens, and is
told in the legends of Erechtheus and his
family. The conquest of Eleusis by Athens,
and the assignment of tlie high-priesthood
(iepccpivTla) of tlie Eleusinian worship to the
family of Euinolpus and the daughters of King
Keleos of Eleusis, form part of these legends
([Hom.] H. Cer.). The other priestly family, the
Kerykes, were said by some to be descended
from Eumolpus ; the family itself claimed an
Athenian origin, from Hermes and Aglauros,
daughter of Erechtheus. (Hee Class. Diet.) The
goddesses worshipped at Eleusis are Chthonian
divinities who presided over the production of
the fruits of the earth ; and it is reasonable to
suppose that this most primitive kind of wor-
ship was a relic of the Pelasgian past, like
the Thesmophoria in the Peloponnesus, wliich
continued to be kept after its conquest by
the Dorians (Hdt. ii. 171). Another influence
came with the elaborate Orphic theology and
mythology [Orphica], about the seventh and
sixth centuries B.C., connected with the names
of Zagreus, Semele, and Dionysus, or lacchus
("laKxos), as he is called in the Eleusinian
wor:ihip. Oi^jhism, however, did not get any
permanent hold on the Eleusinian worship till
380 B.C. Another influence was that of Egypt,
wliich became fully open to tlie Greeks about
660 B.C. Dionysus and Demeter became identi-
fied with Osiris and Isis (Hdt. ii. 42, 59, 144) ;
and with this adoption of the Egyptian divini-
ties came the peculiarities of the Egyptian
priesthood, with their minute and scrupulous
ceremonies, separate mode of life, elaboration
of sacred tales {Upol K6yot}, secrecy and silence.
It was doubtless owing to Eastern influences,
superadded to the national privacy of separate
family cults, that this secret and mystic
character came to be attached so especially to
the worshipof Demeter at Eleusis. [Kageipia.]
This influx of new and peculiar religious rites
is a marked feature in the liistory of Greek
thought in the sixth century B.C., producing as it
did not only oracles sucli as those of Bakis and
the Sibyls, rites such as those of Epimenides,
but also the great Pythagorean philosoi)liy and
the mystic brotherhood who held it.
The introduction of the Eleusinian worship,
with its foreign teaching concerning the death
and re-birth of lacchus, was brought about by
Epimenides, who was called in from Crete
(596 B.C.) to assuage the religious terrors of. the
Athenians after the murder of Kylon by the
Alkmaeonidae. To the sjime earnest and holy
priest the Athenians were indebted for the de-
velopment of the gracious worship of Apollo, and
for the introduction of the Eleusinian worship of
Demeter and lacchus, with the religious hope
and consolation they brought to the afflicted.
(2) Eleusinia elsewhere than in Attica. —
Demeter and Persephone (Kore) were wor-
shipped in many places in -Greece, Asia, and
Egypt (Hdt. ix. 62, 65, 101). But these cults
were inferior in solemnity and importance to
the Attic Eleusinia, wliich consisted of two
parts, viz. the Lesser Mysteries at Agrae and
the Greater Mysteries at Eleusis.
(3) The Mysteries at Agrae (to iv "Aypcus). —
These were held probably on the 19th-21st of
Anthesterion (February) at Agrae, a place on
the Ilissus, SE. of the Acropolis. The Lesser
Mysteries were considered as a prelude to the
Greater (Ar. Pint. 845), and initiation into them
was generally required before the candidate
could present himself for initiation into the
Greater (Plat. Gorg. 497 c). The mysteries at
Agi-ae consisted probably to a large extent of
purifications, for which the water of the Dissus
was used. A great many, especially strangers,
were initiated into these mysteries who did not
proceed to initiation into the regular Eleusinia.
(4) The Course of the Festival at Eleusis. —
A montli before the middle of Boedromion,
the (rirovSo(p6poi announced the mysterj'-truce
(€/c6x;€'pio) to the neighbouring states (Aeschin.
Fals. Leg. § 133). During the latter portion
of this montli the votary who intended to be
initiated used to betake himself to some private
instructor {fjLv<TTayciiy6s) who had gone through
all the grades of initiation, was examined by
him as to his freedom from sin, and received
instruction as to purifications and offerings.
He notified to the hierophant the fitness of the
applicant and introduced him, this proceeding
being apparently called ffiKXTaats (cf. II. Cor.
iii. 1). Sincere devotees appear to have fasted
between sunset and sunrise (cf. Ov. Fast. iv.
535) for nine days; other votaries abstained
from certain kinds of food. On the 15th of
Boedromion was an assemblage of those who
intended to take part in the mysteries. On the
morning of the 16tli Boedromion was the first
fonnal act of the festival, viz. the irpSppyjais or
aKa^e fiuffrai. Proclamation was made by
the Archon Basileus, and by the hierophant
and daduchus in the Stoa Poekile (Ar. Ba7i.
369), for the departure of all strangers and all
murderers : and then the order for purification
was given, 'a\aSe yuuerroj,' 'Ye mystae, to the
sea.' The ' sea ' was sometimes the Peiraeus
(Plut. Phoc. 28) ; but generally the 'Pf ito«, two
salt streams on the Sacred Road, one dedicated
to Demeter, the other to Kore. On the 17th,
sacrifices [upila) were offered in the Eleusinion
at Athens. On the 18th, the Epidauria was
celebrated in the temple of Demeter or lacchus
and in the temple of Asklepios. Meanwhile
there were being brought from Eleusis certain
religious objects — playthings, it was said, of
the child lacchus — bone (aaTpayaKos), top
((rTp6fii\os), ball {(T<pdipa), apples (^^Aa), tam-
bourine (/io'yu/3os)> fleece (iroKos), fan {Kikvov},
and such like. The Athenian ephebi met this
convoy at the temple of Echo. In the forenoon
of the 19th (Hdt. viii. 65), the lacchus proces-
sion started from the Eleusinion and proceede<l
to the laccheion, where they got the statue of
lacchus, probably that of a child crowned witli
myrtle and holding a torch {Ban. 342) ; then,
passing through the Kerameikus (Ar. Ran. 399),
left Athens by the Sacred Gate (Plut. Sull. 14),
priests and people crowned with mjTtle and
ivy, the rich ladies following in carriages (Ar.
Pint. 1014). There were many ceremonies to be
performed as the procession passed along the
Sacred Way to Eleusis. Occasionally during the
procession the majority of those who took part
in it indulged in flouts and gibes at one another,
a proceeding called ye<l>vpt<rfi6s, the origin of
which title is unknown, but is generally asso-
ciated with the bridge over the Kephisus
(Strabo, ix. 400). It was similar to tlie ra ^^
afjLa^wv of the Dionysia, or the (TT-l]via of the
Thesmophoria. Iljinns in honour of lacchus
ELEUSINIA
269
(e.g. Ar. Ran. 325 sqq.) were sung constantlj' \ Eleusinia or Demctria, and the prize was some
during the procession till, near midnight, lacchus barley grown on the neighbouring Hharian
arrived at Eleusis amid the blaze of torches ' plain (Pind. 01. ix. 150, 106), the place in which
(Soph. 0. C. 1049 sqq. ; Eur. Io«, 107G sqq.). On I corn was said to have been first sown (Pans,
the morning of the '20th, certain sacrifices were | i. 38, § G). The 2Gth and 27th appear to have
/ g _ h i j
Fig. 522.— Eleusinia, «i' 'Aypats. (From Kertch.)
a, Herakles. b, Triptolemus. c, Dionysus. </. 6a5oSxos. c. Aphrodite. /, Eros, ij, Demeter. /(, Plutus.
i, Kore (Persephone), j, uncertain.
performed to Demeter, consisting probably in
part of swine (Ar. Pax, 374).
The 22nd and 28rd were the ij.vcTTr]ptwTiSes
•//yuepai, and the ceremonies celebrated thereon
were Travj/ux'SfS- These include a symbolical
search after Kore with torches, performed
by the less highly initiated, who conducted
the seai'ch crowned with myrtle and wearing
fawn-skins. After this came the partaking of
the KVKeciv, a mixture of mint, barley- meal,
and water, in remembrance of Demeter being
refreshed after her wandering. Thereafter
followed what was called the irapd^oats raiv
lepwv : relics and amulets were given to the
votary to touch or kiss or even taste, accom-
panied by certain sacramental words. The
Upd were kept in a chest (/cfixTrj) bound with
purple ribbons, and are said to have con-
sisted (among other objects) of sesame cakes
of particular shapes, pomegranates, salt, ferules,
ivy, &c., which only the initiated were allowed
to see. The ceremonies of the 23rd were held
for the more highly initiated mystae called
iir6TrTat, and they were the highest and greatest.
On the afternoon of the 23rd was held that
portion of the feast which was called TrATj/xoxoa',
a sacrifice to the dead. Two ■jrA7)/u.ox<>ai or
broad-bottomed earthen jars were filled, one
with wine and the other with water, the con-
tents of the one thrown to the east and of the
ntlier to tlie west, wliile mystic words (v( Kve)
were spoken. This sacrifice ended with a
Xai'pf Te to the dead, which conclusion was called
irpoxa»pT)T7jpta. The next morning, 24tli, oc-
curred perhaps the /3aA.\TjTur or rinrrat, a sort
of sham fight. On this same morning and
afternoon were the aywyes trraStaKoi, called
been devoted to the theatrical exhibitions of the
Atni/vffov texi'i'toi. The mysterj--truce (ffTrovSai,
eK-6x«'P''o) lasted till the middle of Pyanepsion.
(5) The Priests and Priestesses.— (a) The
most important priest was the Hierophaut
('lepocpavTris). He was nominated for life from
the Eleusinian family of the Eumolpidae, and
was generally an elderly man and bound to a
life of strict chastity. His principal duty was,
clothed in a long robe ((ttoA.?/) and a turban
((TTpScpLov), to show and explain the sacred
symbols and figures, (i) Tlie SoSof'Xos or liere-
ditary torch-bearer was infericjr to the Hiero-
phant, and of the same rank with the K?ipv^.
His main duty was to hold the torch at the
sacrifices; he also recited portions of the
ritual, took part in certain purifications in the
■7rp6ppr](ris (Ar. Han. 309), and the exhibition of
the mysteries. For these two priests there was
a regular consecration on their entering office.
It was called avdSfffis Kol (mfj.ixdTwv iir'idecns,
because the sign of it consisted in placing on
the head of the new priest the diadem of purjile
and the wreath of myrtle which fliey wore per-
manently. ((•) The Ki]pvi, or i(poKi]pv^. His duty
was chiefiy to proclaim sih'nce at tlie sacrifices.
{(1) The 'Epiboniios (6 ^ttI fiuifj.<j}]. (e) Tlie
Hieropliantis (Up6<pavTti). There was originally
only one at a time ; she belonged to DenieteV
and her name was sacred. Tlie priestesses lived
a life of chastity during their tenure of office,
though they might have been married pre-
viously. The duties of the hieropliantis corre-
sponded to those of the hieropliant. (/) Female
torehhearer {^a'5ov-xos). ig) Priestess (iepaa),
of the family at the Phillidae. (/() The Spondo-
jihori {<nroySo<f>6poi) were sent out to announce
270
ELEUSINIA
the truce for the mysteries, (i) Minor offices :
(1) (paiSpwTrjs Toiv 6eo7v; (2) vSpavSs; (3)
iaKxo-y^y6^ iiiitl Kovporpocpos, female nurses
attending on the child lacchus ; (4j ^anpiTis,
so called from Daeira, an Eleusinian name of
Demeter ; (5j lfpavKr\s, probably the head of
[Upa. yepovaia) for trjing offences of impiety
in connexion with the festival. To prosecute
before this court was called Sj/cafeirSat Trphs
Ev/j-oKTriSas. Their punishments were strictly
religious : exclusion from the mysteries, de-
privation of title of initiate, and such lite.
Fig. 5a3.— Eleasinian deities, Ac. (From vaso from Cumae at St. Petersburg.)
11. liemeter. 0, Hierophant. <•, Kore. d, eTri^iu/iitos.
I
the vixv(fZol and v/iLvqTpiSfs ; (0) iravayels and
irupcpiipoi. (J) Mv(TTaywyoi (see above). {k)
'E^TjyriTai, interpreters of the Eleusinian eccle-
siastical law. There were many books of the
mysteries which were kept from the uninitiated
and which appear to have contained the ritual
Kg. 524.— AaSoOxo?. (From Cumae \ase at St. Petersburg.)
a, SaSovxo<;. 6, .\phrodite with lotus sceptre.
and perhaps the allegorical and symbolical in-
terpretations of some of the myths.
The priests of the mysteries, especially the
Eumolpidae, held a special ecclesiastical court
The curse and excommunication were most
solemn ; priests and priestesses, turning to the
west, uttered the words of imprecation and
shook their garments. Such charges were
brought before the Senate of Five Hundred
on the day after the mj'steries. The penalty
for profanation of the mysteries was death (Thuc.
vi. 61) or banishment, with confiscation of goods.
(6) TJie Civil Functionaries connected with
the Festival. — -The chief civil superintendence
of the festival was entrusted to the Archou
Basileus, who was assisted by four eirt/jLeKriTal,
elected by the people, two from the people
generally and one each from the families of the
Eumolpidae and Kerykes. The duties of the
archon and his assistant {irdpeSpos) were to
sacrifice and pray for the prosperity of the
people, both at Athens and Eleusis, and to have
general police supervision over the whole
solemnity. As to the finances of the festival
generally, tlu-ee Upoiroioi had the administra-
tion of them (Dem. Mid. p. 522, § 115).
(7) The Initiates. — Originally only Athenians
were admitted : but later (cf. Hdt. viii. 65) all
Greek-speaking people were admissible, barba-
rians being excluded (Lucian, Scyth. 8). Women,
and perhaps even slaves, were admissible.
Children were admitted to the first grade only ;
except one boy or girl, an Athenian of high
birth, specially initiated, and called b (or i)) a.(j)'
ecTTias. The shortest possible interval between
the two grades of initiation is stated at one year.
The whole cycle of the mysteries was a Tpie7-
rjpis, and could be gone through in two years.
The /xvcrrai were those who had received any
degree of initiation ; the iirdirrat or ecpopoi, the
second-year votaries. There were mjstic cere-
monies for both these classes of initiates. What
those ceremonies were is the most important
ELEUSINIA
271
and interesting point in our subject ; but the
seal i)f silence wliich was laid on tlie votaries
has not been broken. It was the prevailing
belief of antiquity that one who was guilty of
divulging the mysteries would bring down
divine vengeance on himself and those asso-
ciated with him (Hor. Carm. iii. '2, 20).
(8) 'The Mj/stic Ceremonies in the Temple. —
They were performed in the temple of the two
goddesses at Eleusis, l)uilt by Iktinus, Koroebus
and others. This building was '2'23 feet by 17!).
The temple stood inside a large enclosure ((Tiy/cis
fivariKis) (see Architectura, p. 5^i), wliich was
approached by propylaea. inside tliis enclosure
dances, solemn wordr. and hc!y images ; the
votary, now i)erfected, is freed at last and is
released : he wanders to and fro with a crown
on his head, joining in the worship and in the
company of pure and holy men, and separated
from the uninitiated and unpurified crowd.
Then the doors were tlirown open, and the
dadudius appeared with torclies in his hands ;
and the image of Demeter was seen in gorgeous
vestments and brilliantly lit up. It is probable
that the whole performance took place inside
tlie temple. The mystic drama of Demeter and
Kori! was unfolded to the mystae, the first-year
initiates ; but the epoptao were shown a repre-
S" Metres
ll'iU'iCi cr£if:uusa.
Fig. sa?.— Part of tho sacred precincts fcnjicos or r^ficvo';t at ElousU. (DOrpfold ,
■was the a,y4\aaTos irfrpa, where Demeter was
said to have rested in her wanderings.
The ceremony was doubtless dramatic. The
drama consisted of Spco/xtva and Kfy6ixfva, the
former being the more important. Tliere were
hynms and chants, sjx'cclies and exliortii-
tions (^■J7(Ttis, iropo77«A;uaTo), recitals of myths
(fivduv (pri^i), wailings for the loss of Perse-
phone. There were dances or rhj-thmical move-
inents by those engaged in the ceremony, clash-
ing of cymbals (Theocr. ii. 3C), sudden changes
from light to darkness, toilsome wanderings and
dangerous passages through the gloom, and
before the end all kinds of terror ; when
suddenly a wondrous light Hashes forth to the
worshipper, and pure regions and meadows
receive liim ; there are chants, voices, and
sentation of the ' mysteries of the dragon,'
which is the story of Zeus uniting himself with
Persephone in the form of a serpent, and tlio
whole tale of lacchus-Zagreus was j)robably
told. The last most solenni act of the ^iroi^ia
was shown, the ear of corn cut in perfect still-
ness : tlie blade of corn symbolised, we are told,
the great and perfect ray of light issuing from
the Inexpressible One. The general form under
wliich the initiations are represente<l on tlie
vases is that of a nuirriage of the votary with
Eudaimonia in the other world.
Of the deep religious imi)ort of the mysteries
there can be no reasonable doubt. Tho uni-
versal voice of the great names of pagan anti-
quity, down to the writers of the late Roman
Empire, attest to the soothing cSect tho
272
EAEY0EPIA
mysteries had on the rehgious emotions, and
what glad hopes they inspired of a pure and
joyful life and a happy death and good fortune in
the world to come (THom.] Hymn. Cer. 483 sqq.;
Pind. Fr. 137, Bergk ; Soph. Fr. 719, Dind.;
Cic. Legg. ii. 14, 36), and that the votaries
became better men and better citizens. For
the object aimed at was not that the initiate
should be taught anything that would appeal
to his intellect, but rather that he should be
moved and have his higher impulses stirred {ov
ixadflv ri ^eiv aWa. iradelv Koi SiaTeOrtvai).
The Eleusinian mysteries lasted for more than
five centuries after Greece became a Roman
province, and Theodosius (c. 885 a.d.) excepted
them from the general prohibition of noctiu-nal
celebrations. Subsequently Mithraic woi'ship
was blended with the Eleusinian ; but the mys-
teries did not finally perish till the destruction
of Eleusis by Alaric in his invasion of Greece,
S9C A.D. [See Mysteria.]
'EKivQfpia. The feast of liberty, a yearly
festival which the Greeks, after the battle of
Plataea (479 B.C.), instituted in honour of Zeus
'E\ev6epLos (the deliverer). It was intended
not merely to be a token of their gratitude
to the god, but also as a bond of union among
themselves. Every fifth year these solemnities
were celebrated at Plataea, with sacrifices and
contests, in which the victors were rewarded
with chaplets. For a description of these cere-
monies, see Plutarch (Arist. 19 and 21) ; of.
also Thuc. iii. 58.
'EWijxe'viov. A harboui"-duty collected at
the Peiraeus, probably the same as the (KaToffT-i)
or tax of 1 per cent, mentioned by Xenophon
{Bep. Ath. 1, § 17) as levied on all foreign
ships entering the Peiraeus, whether goods were
unladen or not.
Emansor. [Deserter.]
'E|jupd9, "EM-StiTTis. [CalcenB.l
"E|j.0aCTi.s> 'EiiPaxcCa- See Appendix,
Gkeek Law.
Emble'ma (e/u)3AT),ua). [Caelatura.]
Embolium. A dramatic and musical inter-
lude witli dances and scenery. Cf. Exodium.
"'Em.3o\ov. [Navis.]
Embolus. A piston. [Antlia.]
Eme'riti. [Exercitus.]
Emissa'rium iimovoixos). An artificial chan-
nel to carry off any stagnant body of water
(Plin. xxxiii. § 75 ; Cic. Fam. xvi. 18). In
Greece, in the early times of the Minyae of
Orchomenus, we find the natural channels
(katavo'thra, Kara^oQpa, as they are now called)
which carry off the waters of the Boeotian
Kephisus tlirough Lake Kopais to the sea,
supplemented by two artificial emissaria or
tunnels (see Diet. Geogr. i. 411) : the longer of
the two is nearly four miles in length and has
about twenty perpendicular shafts su nk into it,
some of which are from 100 to 150 feet in depth.
Herodotus (iii. 60) describes the tunnel in
Sanios, by which a supply of fresh water was
introduced into the city, designed by Eupalinus,
and made by Polykrates about 522 B.C. This
tunnel, recently re-discovered, and to a great
extent cleared out, is about 1000 metres or five
stadia in length. The height and width are
between seven and eight feet each. For the
greater part of its course the tunnel is he\vn
out of a hard limestone rock ; towards the
extremities the strata are softer, and a lining of
masonry was required. The tunnel is venti-
lated by about twenty shafts.
A little later, probably, in date than the
Samian aqueduct (about 480) were the subter-
EMISSARIUM
raneous channels constructed by Phaeax at
Agrigentum in Sicily, to drain the city. They
are still called the Condotti di Peace.
In Italy the Etruscans were the first great
masters in the art of tunnelling, and the
Romans learnt it from them. The Cloaca
Maxima itself is quite as much an emissary as
a sewer, draining the Forum and Velabrum,
which previously were swamps ; the period to
which it belongs, that of the last kings, marks
the culminatmg point of Etruscan civilisation
at Rome (see Cloaca). Tlie celebrated emissary
of the Alban Lake is still in working order ; it is
probably of Etruscan origin, and older than the
Veieutine War, with which tradition connects it
(Cic. Div. i. 44). The length is about 6000 feet ;
it is from seven to ten feet liigh, and about four
feet wide. Tliree vertical shafts and one slant-
ing adit may be seen. The rock (peperino and
basaltic lava) is cut with the chisel. The neigh-
bouring volcanic lake of Nenii is drained in a
similar manner ; and remains exist to show that
the system was likewise applied to Trasimenus.
The greatest Roman work of this description
is the emissary of the Lacus Fueinus, Lago
Fucino, or Lago di Celano (Verg. Aen. vii. 759).
Julius Caesar is said to have first conceived
the idea of this stupendous undertaking (Suet.
lul. 44), which was carried into effect by the
Em^ieror Claudius (Tac. Ann. xii. 57). The
length of the emissary is 15,600 English feet
Fig. 526.— Emlssarium ol Lake Fucino.
(Suet. Claud. 20; Plin. xxxvi. § 124). For
more than a mile the tunnel is carried tlirough
a stratiim of camelian rock, entirely worked
by the chisel. The remaining portion runs
through a softer soil, and is vaulted with brick.
Perpendicular shafts (putei) are sunk at various
distances into the tunnel ; and a number of
lateral openings or adits (cunicuU) are like-
wise directed into it, tlirough which the mate-
rials excavated were carried out. The upper
end of the tunnel consists of a splendid arch-
way of the Doric order.
EMMHNOI AIKAI
For tunneU used for otlier puii)oses, see |
Crypta; Cloaca.
"EjjL^tTivoL SiKai. See AppeJitlix,GuKEK Law.
'En4>a'VU)v KaTOLCTxaCTiv, Aikt^ els. See
Appendix. (Ikkkk Law. |
Emphyteusis. See Appendix, Roman Law. ,
Emple'cton le/iTrAeKToc). [Murus.] !
' EjJLTropLKai SiKai. See Appendix, Gkeek |
Law I "Em-IJL'Hi'O'- Si.KaLJ. i
Empo'rium (efxTropioy^. A place for wliole- I
sale trade in conuiiodities carried bj" sea ; some-
times a seaport town ; properly a particular '
place in such a town (Plant. AmjjJi. iv. 1, 4 ; Liv. ,
.XXXV. 10). Tlie emporium at Athens was under •
the inspection of certain oflBcers, wlio were elec-
ted annually ('E-n-iM-e'^'nTaL tov ^ji-rropCov).
E'mptio vendi'tio. See Appendix, RoMA.N
Law. !
Enca'rpus. A festoon of fruit and flowers ;
(Vitr. iv. 1, 7).
Encau'stica. [Pictura.]
'Evi«6M.3o)M.a. Dress.J
"EvKTTiats. See Appendix. GUEKK Law.
EvSeu^LS- S.e Ap))endix, Gkeek Law.
E'ndromis. (1) [Dress.]
('2) Li Roman times endroiiiis was used for a
thick woollen rug thrown over the body after
violent exercise in the palaestra (Juv. vi. 24."i),
but also used by the humbler classes as a pro-
tection against cold and rain (Mart. iv. 19, xiv.
126; cf. Juv. iii. 103). We hear that sucli rugs
came from the woollen manufactories of the
Sequani in Gaul (Mart. iv. 19, 1) and from Tyre
(Juv. vi. 'Mr,).
'Eve'xupa-. See Appendix, Greek L.\w.
'Ew'UTn- See Appendix, Greek L.\w. j
'EvyxiTiaLs. See Appendix, Greek Law I
MatrimoniumJ.
'EvoLKLov SiKT|. See A])pendix, Greek Law.
'EvcjjjLOTia. [Exercitus.]
Ensis. [Arms and Armour.]
E'ntasis (iVTuais, admt/o, of columns).
[Architectura]. !
'Eupa. [Altopa.] j
'E-n-avyeXLa. See Appendix, Greek L.vw.
'EircTJvaKToi or 'EirtvvaKTai. Citizens of j
Sparta, wlio, according to tradition, cohabited '
with Spartan women, niiUTied and unmarried, |
during the absence of the elder men at tlie first '
Messenian War (743-723 B.C.). According to '
one account, tliey were the youths who had not '
gone to tlie war ; according to anotlier, the '.
elder men, who were bound by a vow not to ,
return, sent them liome to continue the race. >
Another story makes them Helots or slaves.
The children tlius bom were called irapdfv'iai. :
On the return of the absent soldiers, the
iittwaKTai were degraded to the {wsition of I
Helots: the napdeuiai were also deprived of
citizensliip. The firfvi/aKrai, or tlie napOfviat, •
or both, headed by Phalanthus (Hor. Canii. ii. (!,
12), a Herakleid, conspired against the state;
being discovered, they emigrated to Magna I
Graecia, and founded Tarentum, 707 K.c. The ;
historical foundation of the legend (if tliere is
Any) is probably the admi.ssion to citizenship of
non-Dorian allies in the war with Messenia, and
a subsequent breach of the agreement on the ,
part of the Spartans. (Thirlwall, i. 353 ; Grote, '
Part II. ch. 22.)
'Eire^oSia. ['EEiTiipia.]
Ephe'bus {((pri^os). Th<! name applied to
Athenian yoiitlis between tlie ages of eighteen
and twenty. (See AoKijiacria.) At the age of ^
eighteen the j'oung citizen was entered on the
X7){iapx"f^»' ypafi.fjLOTf'iov ov register of his deme. i
He was likewise admitted, at least on sufferance, I
E*ETAI
•.i73
to the ekklesia, wliere the (<pri^ot were charged
witli police duties. L'EKKX-ntjia.] An e<pr}$os
could marry, and conduct a case in court (Dera.
pp. 8C«, 1011).
Militarj' training, likewise, began with the
((pTjfifia, whicli may be considered as a kind of
apprenticeship in arms. After (he SoKt/xatrio,
tlie ephebi were solemnlj- introduced before tlie
people assembled in the theatre, and received
publicly a shieUl and a lance ; while those
whose fathers had fallen in the defence of their
country received a complete suit of armour
(Aesch. Ctes. § 154; Plat. Menrx. 249 a).
Tlius equipped, they were led to the temple of
Aglauros, and there took an oatli by which they
pledged themselves to valour and patriotic and
religious conduct.
As commonly stated, the ephebi served as
irepiiroKot, i.e. on ])atrol (Ar. Av. 1177) and
garrison duty, in Attica, during the whole two
years of their i<pTjP(ia (Plat. Lcgg. vi. 760 c),
or such part of this period as was not spent
in military exercises. Their commander was
called irfpiTToKapxos. The military training of
the ephebi was under the diret^tion of the
strategi. The duty of superintending their
morals and manners was entrusted to a board
of (Twcppoficrrai, who were controlled aud per-
haps chosen by the Areiojiagus.
The distinguishing costume of the ephebi
was the xX.O;uv9, their head-dress the irtraaos.
[Dress.]
'E<|)€6piap.6s. [Games.]
'E<j>-nYT|(Ti9. See Appendix, GREEK Law
["EvSeigisJ.
Ephe'meris (eYlM^P's)- [Commentarius.]
'E<})€'aia. A grt^at panegyris of the loniane
at Ephesus, the ancient capital of the lonians
in Asia. It was held every year, and had a
twofold character, that of a bond of poli-
tical union among the Greeks of the Ionian
race, and that of a common worship of the
Ephesian Artemis (Thuc. iii. 104). It took
place at night, and was accompanied with much
mirth and feasting, and mystical sacrifices were
offered to the Ephesian goddess. Games and
contests formed likewise a chief part of the
solemnities.
Ephe'siae lit'terae ('E(p(ata ypdn/LiaTo.) were
mystic words engraved on tlie crown, the girdle,
and the feet of the Ephesian Artemis. Svhen
jironounced, they were regarded as a chann ;
and when written on strips of parchment, were
worn as amulets. They cured diseases, charmed
away evil spirits, and gave victory in contests
of various kinds (cf. Acts xix. 19).
''t<t)€CTis. See Ai)pendix, Gheek Law.
'E4>€aTp£s. [Dress.]
'E<J)€Tai. Certain judges al .\tliens, invested
with jurisdiction in cases of homicide. They
were fifty-one in number (Dem. r. Macart.
p. 10()9, § 57), selected from noble families
{apicrrivSriv), and more than fifty years of age.
Their early history and tlu' origin of their
name are involved in much obscuritj-. The
latter is usually derived from ^(piTjfn, probably
in tlie sense of directors of the trial ; cf. i<ptTfiii,
' command.'
The ephetae appear to have been among the
primitive institutions of Attica. It is possible
that they acted as a kind of committee of the
Areiojiagus in cases of homicide. Drako en-
larged their power, and made them the sole
tribunal in cases of homicide. But tlie recon-
struction of the early constitution of Athens is
for the most part conjectural. From the time
of Solon, at any rate, the epheta*- were dis-
T
274
EPHIPPIUM
sociated from the Areiopagus, and sat in four
courts only, and these of minor importance —
that by the Palladium (rb iwl TlaWaSi<f)), by
the Delphinium (rh iirl Ae\<pivi(f>), by the Pry-
taneum (rh eVJ TlpvTaydci:), and the court at
Phreatto or Zea (rh eV *peaTTo7). [AtKaaTii-
pLov : 06vos.] The four courts dealt with
bloodshed mainly from the religious point of
view, and not as a crime against society. Such
ceremonial matters as the atonement for blood,
the purification of the shedder of it and his
forgiveness (alSelffdai) by the relatives of the
slain, belonged to the sacred law of Athens,
tlie knowledge of which was confined to the old
nobility [EvTrarpiSai: ' E^r\yr\Tai']; and the
decision of such ceremonial questions came
under the cognisance of the ephetae, even
after most of the (poviKol S'lKai were tried by
the ordinary courts. The jurisdiction of the
ephetae declined in proportion to the growth
of democracy, and the consequent dislike to a
court of aristocratical constitution.
Ephi'ppium (4(p'nnnov, -eiov arpwfia, strata,
perhaps affrpa^t])- -^ saddle-cloth or pad. The
saddle with a ' tree ' was unknown till the
fourth century \.d., although the pack-saddle
seems to be of much earlier occurrence. Among
Greeks and Romans alike there were two
methods of riding, bare-backed and with a
saddle-cloth (eiri i^iKov, eVi roxi e<pnnriov). But
no ancient author hints at a true saddle (Caes.
B. G. iv. 2 ; Hor. Ep. i. 14, 43).
Fig. 527, from the Crimea, shows a Scythian
saddle of the modem type.
Fig. .527.— Scythian saddle. (From St. Petersburg.)
The earliest known representations of a saddle-
cloth are from Daphnae in Egypt (7th century
B.C.) and Klazomenae, both probably Ionian
(see fig. 529). Amazons ride astride on a
skin fastened by girths, or bare-backed. The
sculptures of the Parthenon represent horses
ridden bare-backed {iirl (|/tAo£/). Those of Xan-
tlius in Lykia show a large square saddle-cloth
with girths. Xenophon tells us that the
Athenian cavalry in his time used an (cp'nririov
secured by girths, and an eiroxoi' or pad under-
neath it. Plutarch {Artax. ii.) speaks of an
i<piinr(tos irtAos. 'AcrTpifiy) (Dem. c. Mid. p.
558, § 133) is a side-saddle used by women and
invalids ; in Lysias {pro Inval. § 11) it appears
to mean a mule. It is also used for a step or
board to support the feet of
a person sitting sideways.
In the absence of stirrups
{staffae, stapides, &c.), which
are not mentioned till about
600 .\.D. there were several
ways of mounting: as jump-
ing with or without the aid
Ephippium, of a lance-shaft, with the
assistance of grooms {ava-
fio\e7s), or from steps (avd-
0a6pa). Or, the horse was taught to kneel at
the word of command.
The use of trappings was originally regarded
as effeminate by the Romans, but they were
EPHORI
used in processions. It is only on the Tlieodo-
sian Column (380 a.d.) that the true saddle, with
bow behind and before, appears for the first
time. The saddle is here placed over triple
housings of the old type, ornamented with
metal scales, bells, and borders. A new word
(sella) seems to emphasise the new fashion.
Ant ilc7ia is, a breast-band ; ^JOs<JZe«a, breecliiug.
Fig. -Vi^,
saddle. (Coin of
Labienus.)
Women (except Amazons) are usually repre-
sented as riding sideways (but see fig. 529).
[Equitatio.]
E'phori ("Ecpopoi). Magistrates called Ej)]/ -
ori or ' overseers ' were an ancient Lacedae-
monian institution ; we find them also in some
earlj' Lacedaemonian colonies, as Tliera, Kyrene,
Herakleia, and Tarentum. The ephoralty at
Sparta is classed bj' Herodotus (i. 65) among the
institutions of Lykurgus (cf. Xen. Hep. Lac. 8,
3 ; [Plat.] Epist. 8, p. 354 b ; Plut. Agesil. 5,
ascribes it to the AaKwytKhs vofxodfrrjs, &c.).
Aristotle {Pol. viii. 9, 1 S. = v. 11, 1 Bk.)
refers the institution of the ephoralty to king
Theopompus (c. 770 B.C.). It is certain that the
ephoralty was not founded with a view of limit-
ing the power of the kings : as late as the
Second Messenian War the management of the
state was entirely in the hands of the kings
and the yipovns, and it was many generations
after the great Messenian War that the power
of the ephors was raised and expanded. Their
number, five, appears to have been always the
same (Xen. Ages. i. 36). Originally the ephors
were appointed by the kings ; at a later period
they were elected from the people (Arist. Pol.
ii. 6 [9 Bk.], 14), without any qualification of
age or property, and without undergoing any
scrutiny {ol Tvxovres), so that the Stj/xos en-
joyed through them a participation in tlie
highest magistracy of the state. They entered
upon office at the autumnal equinox (Thuc. v.
19, 36), the beginning of the Lacedaemonian
year, and the first in rank (Trpoeffrws rwv
i<t)6pwv, Plut. Lye. 30) gave his name to the
year, which was called after him in all civil
transactions (Thuc. ii. 2, v. 25). They held
their meetings in a public building called dpX'
elov or i(popetoy, in which they also ate together
(Plut. Cleoin. 8, Agis, 16) ; a majoritj' of votes
decided. On the expiration of their term of
office they had to render an account, probably
to their successors (Plut. Agis, 12).
The original functions and power of the
ephors are obscure. They may have repre-
sented the five towns of the perioeki after the de-
position of the local kings, or the five divisions
EPHORI
of the town of ypurta, viz. the iroKts itself and |
the four Kuifxai around it. Thej- had early some |
judicial functions; but it is unlikely that civil
j urisdic-tion was the starting-point of their power.
The ephors appear to have had originall)'
some controlling or censorial power (such as .
is implied in the name of ' overseers ') which
carried with it the right of inflicting punish- j
ment. We may distinguish roughly three
[)eriods in the development of the power
of the ephoralty — the hrst extending to the
death of Kleomenes I. (c. 488 B.C.), when the
ephors had power only in time of dissensions
between the kings ; the second to c. 802 B.C., ;
during which thej' took to themselves by I
degi'ees the prerogatives of the kings ; and the
third to the abolition of their oSice by Kleo-
menes III. (f. 220 B.C.), the period when they
had raised themselves to a position above the ,
council and the popular assembly.
The first of these periods requires no further
notice. In the second, the ephors acquired the
right, originally vested in the kings (cf. Hdt.
vi. 57), of convening and presiding over the
senate (ib. v. 40), and thereby gained a share
in the privilege of initiating laws (Plut. Agis,
11) ; in the third period, they usurped the
exclusive right of initiating laws (Plut. Liju. 17,
Agifi, 5). All capital crimes belonged to the
jarisdiction of the senate (Arist. Pol. iii. 1, 7;
cf. vi. 7, 5 = iv. '.) B Bk.) ; the ephors as pre-
sidents acquired a share in this privilege, and
they had the power of imprisoning the accused
person, even if he were a king (e.g. Pausanias,
Thuc. i. 131). The authority of the ephors was
further increased by their putting themselves in
connexion with the popular assembly, convening
its meetings (Plut. Agi-'i, dj, and laying measures
before it (Time. i. 85, 87). Acting as representa-
tives of the iJublic assembly, and being, in fact,
the executive of the state, they transacted busi-
ness with foreign ambassadors (Hdt. ix. 8),
sent ambassadors abroad (Thuc. vi. 88), con-
ducted negotiations with foreign states (Thuc.
V. 30), and subscribed treaties of peace or
alliance (Thuc. v. 19, 24). The ephors kept
their seats when the kings passed (Xen. lie]).
Lac. 15, 0) ; nay, Agesilaus is said to have
shown them respect by rising (Plut. Ages.
4). The kings continued to discharge priestly
functions for the state (Hdt. vi. 50, 57), and
to consult the oracles either in person or
through special messengers [Pythii] ; but the
ephors encroached upon this prerogative too
(Plut. Agis, 9, Cleom. 7). The kings never
lost the prerogative of leading the Spartan
army (Arist. Ful. iii. 9, 2) ; but they were de-
prived of the power of declaring war, the jiojiu-
lar assembly claiming this as their exclusive
right (Thuc. i. 80) ; the ephors called out
the troops (Xen. Hell. iii. 2, 23), and fixed
the strength of the army (Xen. Hell. v. 2, 20)
and the time of starting (Xen. Hell. v. 4, 47) ;
and in the third period the ephors seem to have
taken the initiative (Plut. L'lcom. 0, Agis, 13,
14), and to have decided which king should lead
the army (Plut. Agis, 4). In the exercise of
their general controlling power, they had the
right to institute scrutinies {(Cdvvai) into the
conduct of all the magistrates, including the
kings (Plut. Cleom. 10). In extreme cases
the ephors could lay an accusation against
the kings as well as the other magistrates, and
bring them to a capital trial before the scmite
(Xen. Hell. v. 4, 24 ; Plut. L//.S. 19), or they
could fine them (Plut. Ages. 5) ; in the third
period tliey condemned men to death without
EniA02EI2
275
trial, e.g. Agis III. (Plut. Agis, 19, 20 ; cf. Plut.
Ajxijjiitli. p. 210 1> : see rieptoiKOt). Two
ephors accompanied the king when he took the
field (Hdt. ix. 70 ; Xen. Hell. ii. 4, 30). The
ephors sent instructions (ffKirrdKai) to the com-
njanders abroad, and were in direct communi-
cation with them (Thuc. viii. 11 ; Ar. Av. 1283,
itc). Spoils of war were sent to Sparta to the
ephors (Plut. Lgs. IG), who had charge of the
treasury (Plut. Agis, 10). The censorial autho-
rity of the ephors seems to have been unlimited.
They exercised a general control over the
morals of the citizens, inspected the youths,
superintended the games, civic i)erfonnances, Arc.
The ephoralty, after its abolition by Kleo-
menes III., c. 220 B.C., though re-established soon
afterwards, diil not recover its former authority.
'EiriPaTai. Soldiers or marines onboard
ship, distinct from the rowers, and also from
the land soldiers, such as hoplites, pel-
tasts, and cavalry (Xen. Hell. i. 2, § 7). The
number of epibatae on board a trireme is
variously stated. At the battle of Lade (494
B.C.) Herodotus (vi. 15) gives forty as the
number on board the Chian ships ; Plutarch
(Thei)t. 14) says that each Athenian sliip at
Salamis (480 n.c.) had eighteen men on deck,
four archers, the rest hoplites. In later times
the usual number appears to have been from
seven to ten (Thuc. vi. 42, iii. 95, ii. 92, 102).
Epibatae were probably armed with bows,
javelins, swords and spears. They received pay
at the same rate as the hoplites.
The epibatae were usually taken from the
Thetes, or fourth class of Athenian citizens
(Thuc. vi. 42) ; but on one occasion, in a season
of extraordinary danger, the citizens of the
higher classes (^/c KaTak6yov) were compelled
to serve as epibatae (Thuc. viii. 24).
The tenn is sometimes also applied by the
Roman writers to the marines ; but they are
more usually called classiarii milites. [Navis.]
'E-rripXTm.a. [Dress.J
'EirtPoXTri. See Appendix, Greek L.wv,
•E-n-ixvats. [Pottery.J
'EttCk\tipo9. See Ai)pendix, Gkeek Law.
'ETriSiKacTLa, 'EiriSiKOS- See Appendix,
Gk?:kk L.\w iHeres).
' Eiri86a€LS- Voluntary contributions, either
in money, arms, or ships, made by Athenian
citizens on special occasions. When the ex-
penses of the state were greater tlum its
revenue, the prytanes summoned an assembly
of the people, and called upon the citizens to
contribute according to their means. Those
who were willing to contribute rose and men-
tioned what they would give ; those who were
unwilling to give anytliing, remained silent or
retired from the assembly. (Plut. Alcib. 10,
I'ltin: 9 ; Deni. c. Mill. p. 507, § 102.) The names
of those who had promised to contribute, to-
gether with the amount of their contributions,
were written on tablets, which were placed
before the statues of the Eponymous Heroes
j'Eiruvwixos], where they renuiined till the
amount was paid.
These epidoseis, or voluntary contributions,
were freipiently very large. Sometimes the
more wealthy citizens voluntarily undertook a
trierarchv. or the expenses of eijuipping a
trireme (Deni. r. Mill. p. 500, § Kil). E.g.
Pasion furnished 1000 shields, together with
five triremes, which he equipped at his own
expense (Dem.r. StrpJi. i. j). 1127, §85). Other
gifts are : a talent, 30,000 drachmas, 800 shields.
] Demosthenes gave in all thirteen talents, be-
. sides three triremesand other gifts and liturgies.
276
EnirAMiA
Such gifts, in money or in kind, were
common in all Greek cities, and were often
rewarded by votes of thanks, garlands, and
(in the case of aliens) irpo^evia.
'E.'iT^ya\t.Ca.. See Appendix, Greek Law.
'E'irfYpa4>€is- [ElCT((>opd.]
'EirnxeXTiTai. Curators: the name of va-
rious officials at Athens, charged with the care of
different public objects. The most important
appear to be the following : !
(1) 'Eirifj.e\rirr]s rqs Koivris Trpo(r65ov, more
usually called raixias, or 6 eirl rfj StoiiCTjffeL.
[TajiCas-]
(2) 'Eirifj.e\r]Ta\ rwv ixopiSiv iXaSiv, persons
chosen from among the Areiopagites to take
care of the sacred olive-trees: they are also
called yvwfj.ovfs or iinyva>iJ,oves.
(3) 'ETTfjueArjTal rov i^-nopiov were the over-
seers of the Emporium, and a sort of harbour-
masters in the Peiraeus. They were ten in
number, and were elected yearly by lot. They
liad jurisdiction in all breaches of the com-
mercial laws, especially the corn laws. It was
part of their duty to compel the merchants to
bring into the city two-thirds of all corn which
liad come by sea into the emporium at Athens
(Harpocr. s. v. ; [Arist.] 'A9. iroK. 51) ; and to en-
force the rule which forbade shipment of corn
to any other poi't than Athens (Lex ap. Dem.
c.Lacr. p. 941, § 15, c. Theocr. p. 1324, §§ 8, !)).
(4) 'E7rifjLe\r]Ta\ ricv fjivffTripiwv. |Eleu-
sinia (Cj.]
(5) 'ETnfifKrjTal tTjs irofJiiTris T<p Aiovvcrcfi as-
sisted the first arclion (eponymug) in the
management of the Greater Dionysia. They
were chosen, one from each tribe, by x^'P"-
Tovia, and later by lot ([Arist.] 'AS. ttoA..^ 5(51,
and had 100 minas for expenses. [Dionysia.J
(6) 'E7ri;U€ArjTa! tuu vioipiuiv, also called ol
&pXovTfs iv Tois vfaipiois, the inspectors of the
dockyards. The office was yearly, and they
were ten in number.
The principal duty of the inspectors of the
dockyards was to take care of the ships and all
the tackle (ffKevri) belonging to them. They
also had to see that the ships were seaworthy ;
and for tliis purpose they employed a skilled
surveyor (SoKi/xaffr-qs) and kept an accurate
register of the .tlockyards and ships and their
furniture and condition, and also of all persons
who owed anything to the docks. (Dem. c.
Androt. p. (512, § 63.) They had riytfjiovia
SiKaarrfplov in all matters connected with their
own department. (See also 'ATroCTToXels)
They had a secretary {ypan/xaTevs}, and a public
servant (5rj^o(rio$ fV to7s yewpioLs}.
(7) 'EnifxfKriTai. tmv c^uAoir, officers, probably
three in number for each ti'ibe, appointed every
year, as general managers of the affairs of the
tribe. They summoned and presided over the
meetings of the tribe ; appeared as agents for
the tribe before the superior magistrates in
matters such as liturgies, &c. ; kept accounts
and records ; and attended as trustees or agents
to all busmess connected with the common
property of the tribe. (See also OvXapxot,
OvXoPaCTLXeis.)
(8) 'ETTi/xeArjrai twv ffvfifiopiwv, or oi (v rats
(Tvnfj.opiais, assisted the rjyeixdves of the trier-
archie symmoriae, and were probably twenty in
number ([Dem.] c. Everg. et Mnes. p. 1145, §§ 21,
22 ; 1146, § 24).
(9) In Roman times, at Athens, as in other
towns, the president of the city was termed 6
tVi/ieXijT^s T^s ■7r6\eais. The extent of his
powers is uncertain.
(10) 'E7ri/U€A7jT7;s rwv vSdrwv (also called eVt-
Eni2TOM10N
(rrdrris r. v., Plut. Them. 31), elected by x^'Po-
Tovia ([Arist.], 'Ad. ttoA. 43). His subordinates
were called Kp7\vo<p{i\aKis.
(llj Other functionaries in imperial times
were eVijueArjTal riav StKaffTTjpiuiy, AvKeiov,
irpvraveiov, ayopus. Religious private associa-
tions, (pparpiai, yivr), diacroi, epavoi, guilds, had
their eVt/ieATjTai.
'EirtvCKia. Anything connected with the
celebration of a victory : e.g. distinctions for
good conduct, prizes in the games, and especially
feasts commemorating a victory, and odes sucli
as those of Simonides or Pindar in honour of
athletes or their patrons. [ N iKtir-npia.]
'EirivojJiCa. See Appendix, Gkeek L.\w.
Epire'dium. [Currus.]
'E-n-icrKTi4/is. See Appendix, Gkeek L.\w
[MapTvpia].
'EirCCTKOiroi. Inspectors or commissioners,
sometimes sent by the Athenians to interfere
in the affairs of subject states. The eiriffKoiroi
exercised civil authority, and perhaps judged on
the spot small causes where Athenians were
concerned, not of sufficient importance to be
referred to the Athenian tribunals. Tliey re-
ceived a salary at the cost of the state to which
they were sent, and were appointed by lot.
'ETTiaTdTTig, which means a person placed
over anything, was the name of two distinct
classes of functionaries in the Athenian state :
namely, of (1) the chairmen of the prytanes
and proedri (see BovXti, 'EKKXtiCTua) ; and
(2) of the directors of public works {(iricrTdrai
Tuiv Sr)fio(rioi>v tpywv). These directors had dif-
ferent names, as rtixoT^otoi, the repairers of the
walls ; Tpn]ponoioi, the builders of the triremes ;
ra<ppoiroioi, the repairers of the trenches, &c.,
all of whom were elected by the tribes, one
from each. Other public buildings, such as
temples, belonged to the department of the
chief finance minister (6 e'lrl rfj SioiKi^afi). Li
each case a ypafi^ianvs is mentioned, and there
appears to liave been always an expert to advise
professionally: e.g. Philokles, the architect of
the Erechtheion.
Among the firiffTaTai twv Syjixoffiuu epyccv
were reckoned also the road- surveyors (o5o-
woioi), and those charged with the water supply
(eTriffTOTat [also called ' EirtjieXTiTaCJ rwv
uSd-Tcov, Plut. Them. 31). Inscriptions also
mention itriffrdrris ruy vofiodfTwi/ [Nop-o-
GtTTis], of tlie temples at Eleusis (fVicTTaTai
'E\(v(nv66(v), e. rris 'A(caS7j/x6iaj, tov Mov(Teiou
(at Alexandria), tov dyd\fj.aros (the statue by
Pheidias), rwv ayccvuv, itc.
'EiTtCTToXeiis. Tlie officer second in rank in
the Spartan fleet, who succeeded to the com-
mand if anything happened to the vavapxos, or
admiral (Xen. Hell. i. 1, § 23 ; Plut. Lys. 7).
[Navarchus.]
'E-rrLo-Toixiov (ejnstomion or epitoniiim,
Fig. 580.— 'ETTto-Tontoi'. iFroiii British Mu«eiim.)
EPTSTULA
Vitr.). The cock of a water-pipe ; more strictly '
the vertical pierced tube which revolves in the
horizontal pipe. [Fistula.]
Epi'stula, Epi'stola (eVio-ToAT?). A letter.
The earliest letters mentioned were written on
tablets of metal, ivory, or wood, and these con-
tinued in use for short missives till a late
period. Longer letters were generally written
on papyrus (Ov. Am. i. 12, 1 ; Plin. xiii. 21).
We hear also of leaves and bark as substitutes
for paper, as well as parchment (Si<p6fpa, inem-
branu, carta pcrgaineiui). [Liber.]
Caesar is said to have been the first to fold
the paper in his despatches instead of writing
EPULUM
277
Fig. 5.S1.— Epistola. (Overbeck's Pompeii, fig. 1«).)
across the whole page. Letters were rolled up
and secured with string or wax. Various de-
vices were in use for secret writing — ciphers,
sympathetic inks, etc. (see Ov. A. A. iii. 621 sqq.).
Epi'stulis, Ab. Aii office (officiian^scriniton)
in the imperial government. At first it was
discharged by slaves or freedmen. From the
time of Claudius it became a department of
state, and was organised by Pallas, Narcissus,
•tc, to concentrate business in the hands of
the emperor. The office grew in importance, and
Hadrian employed in it none but knights. He
also divided the secretariat into the officium
ah Epp. Grarrif, and that ab Epp. Lafinin, the
more common of the two. The heads of these
offices {primipaJrs) ranked as Ducenarii, and
in the third century bore the title j/er/cctis-
Episty'lium ((TnaTvKiov) is properly, as the
name implies, the architrave, or lower member
of an entablature, consisting of one or several
beams resting upon the capitals. It was origin-
ally the main beam in timber construction.
Its function is to bind the columns into a
whole, and to distribute the weight of the
Fig. .'■)32.— Epistylium. (Doric portico at Ponipoii
superstructure. The component blocks were
fastened together and to the capitals by iron
clamps. 'When an intercoluinniation was of the
kind called ' araeostyle,' that is, when the
columns were more tlian three diameters apart,
tlie e]>istylium was necessarily made of wood
instead of stone. This peculiarity was one of
tlie characteristics of the Etruscan architecture
and of the Roman Tuscan and Doric styles.
In Koman buildings generally, the intercolum-
niation was wider than in Greek. Epistylium
was sometimes used for the whole of the entab-
lature. For other details see Architectura.
■E-TTiTd.<pia, Epitaphium. [Funus.J
'E-iriTijiCa. ['Arin-ta.]
'E-TTLTpoiros. See Appendix, Grkkk L.\w.
'E-iT<o0€X£a. See Appendix, Gukkk L.\w.
Epo'mis. [Dress.]
'E-iT<jvu(j.os- Having or giving a name. (1)
The surname of tlie first of the nine archons
at Alliens, because his name, like that of the
consuls at Rome, was used in public records to
mark the year. The title (iraivvfjios was not in
use till the Roman conquest, the first archon
being styled 6 &pxoiv. [Archon.] At Sparta the
first of the five ephors gave his name to the
year, and was called tcpopos ivwvv/xos (Paus.
lii. 11, § 2).
(2) It was common to attribute the origin of
institutions to mythical heroes, hence called
ivwvvfjioi. Thus the ten Attic tribes instituted
by Kleisthenes were named each after some
national hero. These ten heroes, called the
iircivvfiot, or iTrwvv^oi rcLv (jyvKuy, were honoured
with statues, which stood in the Kerameikos,
near the Tholos. The space in front of these
statues (irpoffBiv tuv iirwyvfjuav) was a common
place for public notices, which were set up ou
tablets.
(3) A list of forty-two heroes aiTanged in a
cycle of years. Every Athenian citizen was en-
rolled for military service at his nineteenth year
under the name of the eponymous hero for that
year (or the year preceding). If he lived till
the cycle came round again, he was no more
liable to military service ([Arist.] 'kQ. iro\. 53).
I Epulo'nes, originally three in number ( T;r.s-
viri EpuluiH'ti), were first created in 190 B.C.,
to attend to the Epulum lovis (Liv. xxxi. 4)
j and the banquets given in honour of the other
gods; a duty which had originally belonged to
the Pontifices (Liv. xxxiii. 42 ; Cic. dc Or. iii.
I lit, 73). Their number was afterwards in-
! creased to seven, and by Caesar to ten : but the
title of the college continued to be Septemviri.
The Epulones were one of the four great
religious corporations {coUcgia) at Rome ; the
other three were those of the Pontifices, Au-
gures, and (^>uindecimviri. Unlike the others,
this was from the first opi'u to plebeians.
E'pulum. See Sacrifi'cium, where it is shown
that feasting and worshi[) were always con-
nected in ancient ideas. The public feasts
arose out of the conception of a family, gentile,
tribal orcivic iffria. Hence the dolvai, awttlirva,
iravSaKriai, ffvffff'iTia, Arc, of Greek communi-
ties. At Athens the civic feast had to be. held
every day at the irpvravfiov, even tliough the
city was represented by a few officials only.
The TTpvTavfis were always obliged to dine
at the ©oAos. The guests were crowned,
libations, prayers, and liymns were never
omitted. A priest presided, and the victims
were slain and prepared by members of the
family of KrjpvKts.
Similar institutions are found also in ancient
Italy. Tlie sacri'd meal is called dopes and
rpuhim. Such feasts took place on the dedi-
cation of a temple, at sacred games, and funerals.
278
EPULUM lOVIS
and triumplis. [See Epulones.] The ritual
never varied : the sacred tables were of wood,
and the traditional meals were served to the
gods in earthenware platters.
E'pulum lovis. [Lectisternium.]
Equi'rria or Ecu'rria. A festival celebrated
at the end of February, at which there were
horse-races in the Campus Martius. There
were two festivals of this name ; one a. d. Hi.
Kal. Mart., the other prid. Id. Mart. (Ov.
Fast. ii. 859, iii. 519). This festival was also
called Mamaralia.
Equita'tio {Iwireia, iTnrrjXaffia). The most
ancient use of horses in Greece is that for
draught, whether in war or peace, as shown in
the Homeric poems. [Currus.] The invention
of riding was ascribed to the Dioskuri. There
is, however, no mention of riding in Homer or
Hesiod, at least in war, though feats of skilled
horsemansliip {Ke\ris, /ceATjTifeii/, II. xv. 679,
Od. vi. 371 ; see Hes. Sc. 286) are mentioned.
Simon (c. 440 B.C.) (Xen. de Be Eq. c. 1) and
Xenophon (c. 400 B.C.) wrote treatises on horse-
manship and the horse generally.
Fig. 533.— Riding lesson. (From vase in British Museum.)
The Greeks and Romans did not use stirrups.
For centuries saddles were unknown, and in
later times pads only were used, without pummel
[EpMppium]. Nor were their horses generally
shod. Having no stirrups, the rider mounted
either with the help of the gi'ooni [avafii&a^eiv,
avafioXevs) or with a leap from the ground
(avaTT-qSai'), or with the aid of a step or crutch
iittached to his spear. Some horses were trained
to lower their bodies by extending their fore
and hind legs. Walking is jSoStji' iropeveffdai,
rjradus; trotting, StaTpoxa-C^iv, tohttiia ire;
galloping, iirippa&^o<popeiv, eqno cancitato velii.
Turning {(TTpo<pv, 'J!jri(s) in figures of eight of
different curves and dimensions, leaping
{StaTr-qSav, exsultare), both high and wide, were
practised in horsemanship in the manege, the
hunting field, and the parade gi-ound, and
carried to perfection by both nations. (See also
Sesultor.)
It may be noted that in Greek representa-
tions the rider sits further back, and with the
knees much higher, than in Eoman.
Women did not ride much, either Greek or
Eoman. When they did, it was usually on a
chair-saddle with a footboard. Amazons are usu-
ally represented as riding astride (•7r€pi)3a57jj').
In Greek art horses are usually sliown with
long mane (but see fig. 533, and tlie Parthenon
frieze) and long tail. In late Roman repre-
sentations the mane ii? usually flowing : and
this is the case in Homer also. [EpMppium.]
E'quites. 1. Greek {Itrirris, lir-mis). — As in
other countries, so in Greece, the employment of
EQUITES
cavalry as the principal element in war belongs
to an aristocratical period, and infantry is de-
veloped under a democratical constitution.
According to the 'A0. noKireia attributed to
Aristotle (c. 4) the iirirrjs were a class at Athens
as early as the time of Drakon, and were com-
manded by 'iTTTrapxoi. Under the constitution
of Solon, each of the four tribes furnished
twenty-four horsemen (itttttjs), taken by the
hipparch from the class which had the necessary
property qualification of 300 medimni (ImrdSa
TeKilv) (Isae. p. 67, '23, g 49).
The cavalry at Sjsarta, besides the 300 enrolled
yearly by the ephors and 'nnrayperai, consisted
in the fourth century of 600 troopers divided
into 6 fxopai and 12 ovXa/jLoi : the Boeotian
cavalry were about 1000 strong, commanded by
iXapxoi ; Jason of Pherae is said to have had
6000 cavalry, under the command of 'iirirapxoi.
For the Macedonian cavalrj', see Exercitus.
The alliance of Peisistratus with Thessaly
may have improved the Athenian cavalry,
which, however, was insignificant at the time
of the Persian wars. In 452 B.C. the number
of the cavalry is stated at 300 ; in 445 b.c. at
1200, viz. 1000 troopers and 200 mounted archers
{iinroTo^OTai) ; and this remained its normal
strength during the Pelcponnesian War. The
cavalry of each of the ten tribes of Klei-
sthenes were commanded by the <pv\apxos
and two 'iinrapxoi, one for each corps of five
squadrons.
At Athens, as well as at Rome, we must dis-
tinguish between the knights as a political class
and those among them who served as cavalry.
The latter were a fixed number ; the former
varied according to the property of the citizens.
2. Roman. — The traditional account of the
origin of the Roman cqnifes is as follows.
Livy (i. 13) relates that Romulus raised tlu-ee
centuries of horsemen, called Bainnenses, Ti-
tienses, and Luceres. Dionysius (ii. 13) says
that the three centuries were divided into ten
turmae of thirty men each. The thi-ee
centuries correspond, we may suppose, with tlie
Ramnes,Titienses, and Luceres,tribes into which
the whole nation was divided. These horsemen,
according to Dionysius, were called Celercs, and
formed the body-guard of the king : Livy (i. 15)
appears to regard the 300 Celeres as a dis-
tmct bodj-. Ten turmae of Albans were added
by Tullus Hostilius (i. 30) ; the number would
thus reach 600. Monunsen holds it to be
certain that there were originally three eques-
trian centuries, then six (including the Albans i,
and after the Servian reform eighteen ; Servius
Tullius having, according to Livy (i. 43), en-
rolled twelve centuries from the principal
families. The earher six were called sex suf-
fragia, and consisted of primi secundique
Ramnes, Titienses, and Luceres. The added
twelve were called centuriae iuniorum, and
with the sex sufragia formed the eighteen
centuries of equites eqiio publico, who con-
tinued to exist till the Empire.
Each of the equites received a horse from the
state {equiis j>?<6/ic?<s), or money to purchase
one.
The aes equestre was probably introduced in
the constitution of Servius Tullius, by way of
compounding for the horse pre\'iously supplied
at the public cost to the country. It amounted,
according to Livy (i. 43), to 10,000 asses : pro-
bably equivalent to 2000 libral asses, or pounds
of copper, or 1000 denarii — about 40/. Each
knight had two horses, one for himself, one for
liis attendant squire.
Acs hordeariinii was the money paid an-
nually b}' the state for the purchase of com
(hordeiim) for the cqui ptihlici. It was derived
from the contributions of the vidiiae et orbi.
The sum allowed to each knight was 2000 assfs,
i.e. 400 i)ounds of copper = HU.
All the equites of whom we have been spenk-
ing received a horse from the state, and were
included in the eighteen equestrian centuries of
the Servian constitution ; but in course of time
we read of another class of equites in Roman
history, the equites eqiio jrrivuto, who did not
receive a horse from the state, and were not
included in the eighteen centuries. These are
said by Livy (v. 7) to have had their origin from
the siege of V'eii (403 k.c), when all those
citizens who had an equestrian fortune, and no
horse allotted to them, volunteered to serve
with their own horses. The state gave them
pay as a compensation for serving with their
own hoi-ses. The foot-soldiers had received
pay (stipendium) a few years before (Liv. iv.
59) ; and two years afterwards (401 n.c), the
pay of the equites was made threefold that of
the infantry (Liv. v. 12).
Tlie Roman knights who received horses from
the state are frequently called equites equo
publico (Cic. iViiV. vi. 5),and sometimes Flexii-
mincs or Trossuli.
The inspection of the equites who received
horses from the state belonged to the censors ;
who liad the power of depriving an eques of his
horse, and reducing him to the condition of an
aerarius (Liv. xxiv. 43) [Census], and also of
giving the vacant horse to the most distinguished
of the equites who had previously served at
their own expense (Liv. xxxix. 19, 4). For these
pui-poses they made during their censorship a
public inspection {recognitin), in the Forum, of
all the knights who possessed public horses (Liv.
xxxix. 44). The tribes were taken in order, and
each knight was summoned by name. Every-
one, as his name was called, walked past the
censors, leading his horse. The new list {album)
was then read out. The eques whose name
stood first on the list was termed princeps iu-
ventutis : a title afterwards assumed by the
imperial family.
if the censors had no fault to find either with
the character of the knight or the equipments
of his liorse, they ordered
him to pass on {traduc
rquum); if otherwise, they
struck him out of the list of
knights, and deprived him
of his horse (Liv. xxxix. 44)
or ordered him to sell it
ivende equuiii, Liv. xxix.
Fig. 5M. - iuBnectlon -^V- If ''« appeared to have
of Equites by the neglected his horse, he
Censors. ,Homan ^^j^,,^^ j,^ ^^^^ ^^. ,i^.j„.i,.e^|
of his allowance. At the
same review, those equites who wished to be
discharged gave an account t(i tlie censors of
the campaigns in which they had served, and
were then dismissed with honour or disgrace,
as they might have deserved.
This review of the equites by the censors
must not be confounded with Kqnitinii Tran.s-
vert id, wliich was a solfmii j>r()cessi()n of the
body every year on the Ides of CJuinctilis (July),
from the temple of Mars outside the city,
through the Forum, and by the temple of Castor
and Pollux, in commemoration of fheir ap-
pearance at the battle of the Lake liegillus.
On this occasion the equites were crowned with
olive chaplets, and wore the trabea, with all tlio
EQUITES 07.,
honourable distinctions wliich they had gained
in battle (see Liv. ix. 40).
The compulsory term of seivice for equites
suo equo was ten years; and that of equites
serving equo publico was probably the same.
An eques, however (at least in the early Re-
public), might retain his horse as long as he
discharged the duties of a knight, even after lie
became a senator (see Liv. xxix. 37, xxxix. 44,
xxvi. 86). During the later times of the Ro
public the knights gave up their horses on
entering the senate, and consequently ceased to
belong to the equestrian centuries.
The exclusion of senators from the equestrian
centuries naturally tended to make the equites
equo 2iublico a body of younger men (cf. Hor.
A. P. 341).
The qualifications of an eques are : (1) age, the
same as for the infantry; (2) physical aptitude,
determined by the censors. The equites avail-
able for active service would thus be generally
young. (3) Character, also determined by the
censors (Liv. xlii. 10, xliv. 10). (4) Property,
according to Cicero, censu niaxitno (Hep. ii.
22, 39) ; the census equcster appears to nave
been fixed during the third century n.c at
400,000 sesterces. (5) Birth. The sex 'suffraqia
were patricians : for the rest, only freedmen
and their sons were excluded, and later the
senators.
The pay of the equites was at first the same
as that of the leginnai-j' infantry, plus the aes
hordearium. In the time of Polybius it was
three times trhat of the infantry, i.e. 360 sesterces.
The equites also received a larger share of
prize-money, and of lands, when there was a dis-
tribution of lands. After the wars with PjTrhus,
the Roman citizen-cavalry was reinforced by
Latin and subsequently Italian allies. Frorn
the end of the Second Punic War, foreign auxi-
liary cavalry was employed ; after the Social
War the equites Romani foi-med the staff [cun-
I tubernales) of the general, and were employed
I as legionary officers, or to command the allied
I cavalry. The effective cavalry of Rome in
ithe late Republic and under the Empire was
levied among the nations of Gaul, Germany,
Numidia, itc. For details upon the cavalry (as
distinguished from the equites Romani), see
' Ezercitus.
1 The ecjuestrian centuries, of which we have
hitherto been treating, were only i-egarded as a
I division of the army; they were composed of
I patricians and plebeians alike, and did not form
a distinct class or or(/o in the constitution. But
I in 123 B.C. a new class, called the Ordo Equester,
I was formed in the state by the Lex Sempronia,
introduced by C. Clracduis. By this law
all the iudiees had to be chosen from those
citizens who possessed an equestrian fortune
(Plut. C. Grttccli. 5 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 60). Ever>-
person who was to be chosen index was required
to be above thirty and under sixty years of ape,
to have eitlier an equus jiublicus or to be
qualified by his fortune to j>osse8s one, and not
to be a senator. The luiinber of indices who
were required yearly was chosen from tliis class
by the praetor urbanus.
The name of equites now came to be applied
to all those persons who were <|ualified by tlieir
projierty to act as indices, in wliich sense the
word is commonly used by Cicero. After the
disuse of the censorship and census in conse-
quence of SviUa's rlianges Censor , it is uncer-
tain how tlie ranks of tlie e<juites were filled.
I Sulla gave the indicia to the senators, but in
I 70 B.C. the Lex Aurelia ordained that the iudicee
280 EQUITES
should be chosen from the senators, equites, and
Tribuni aerarii, who counted as equites in tlie
wider sense [ludices]. The influence of the
order was still maintained by the publicani, or
farmers of the public taxes., who are frequently
spoken of bj' Cicero as identical with the eques-
trian order" (^«. ii. 1, § 8). [Publicani.] The
consulship of Cicero, and the active part which
the knights then took in suppressing the con-
spiracy of Catiline, tended still further to in-
crease the power and influence of the order.
In 63 B.C., by the Lex Roscia Othonis, the first
fourteen rows of seats in the theatre behind the
orchestra were given to the equites (Liv. Epit.
xcix. ; Hor. E2>o(L iv. 15 ; Juv. iii. 159, xiv.
324; Cic. Mur. 19; Tac. Aim. xv. 82). They
also possessed the right of wearing the Clavus
angustus ; and subsequently obtained the pri\i-
lege of wearing a gold ring [Anulus] which was
originally confined to the equites equo ijuhlico,
and probably not granted to these till the time
of Gracchus. But the militaiy organisation
of the equites was still kept up ; and whenever
they took j)art as a body in public functions, as
for instance in funerals, they were formed into
turmae (Tac. Hist. ii. 88).
Under the early emperors, property became
the only qualification, without any inquiry into
character or birth, and the order in consequence
gradually began to lose consideration.
From the time of Augustus, a kind of heredi-
tary equestrian rank was allcnved to the youth
of senatorial families. Sucli ('(juites appear to
have been known as equites ilhistres or equites
dignitate senutoria. They wore the anulus
equester and the latus clavus, which, however,
was exchanged for the anc/ustus, if they were
not nominated senators at the usual age (Ov.
Trist. V. 10, 29-8C>). 'Clavus.J
In the ninth year of the reign of Tiberius an
attempt was made to improve the order by re-
quiring the old ([ualifications of free birth up to
the gi-andfather. Tliis regulation, however, was
soon disregarded ; and the gold ring came at
length to be worn by all free citizens.
The equites equo j)ubJiro, who formed the
eighteen equestrian centuries, still existed dur-
ing the latter years of the Republic, but after the
reforms of Marius they had entirelj' ceased to
serve as horse-soldiers in the army, the cavalrj'
of the Roman legions consisting now of allies
(of. Caes. B. G. i. 15, 42). The Roman equites
are, however, frequently mentioned, but as staff
officers, never as common soldiers (Caes. B. G.
vii. 70).
When Augustus took upon himself, in 29 B.C.,
the jiraefectura moruiii, he frequently reviewed
the troops of equites, and restored the long-
neglected custom of the solemn procession
(transvectio) (Suet. Aug. 88), i.e. combined the
annual review {jyrobatio or recoguitio) with the
transvectio of the 15th of July. From this
time the equites formed an honourable corps,
from which all the higher officers in the army
(Suet. Aug. 88, Claud. 25) and certain of the
chief magistrates in the state were chosen.
Admission into this body was equivalent to an
introduction into public life, and was therefore
esteemed a great privilege ; it was granted by
the emperor at pleasure through an office (a
censibus) ; and we find it recorded in inscrip-
tions that such a person was equo publico
honoratus, exornatus, etc. by the emperor.
This rank was tenable for life. It was often
conferred on old soldiers, magistrates of provin-
cial towns, and even freedmen.
All equites not employed in actual service
ERECHTHEUM
were obliged to reside at Rome, where they
were allowed to fill the lower magistracies,
which entitled a person to admission into the
senate. They were divided into six turmae,
each of which was commanded by an officer
called Sevir equitum Bom. turmae I. II., &c.
Augustus divided the provinces between the
senators and the equites. The commanders of
the fleets, and many of the prefects, were drawn
from the same body. Many posts in the general
administration were usually filled by knights,
e.g. the receiverships of customs, and the busi-
ness of the imperial chancery.
After the time of Diocletian, the equites be-
came only a city guard, under the command
of the Praefectus Vigilum. For the Magister
Equitum, see Dictator.
E'quites singula'res. [Exercitus.]
Equu'leus. [Eculeus.]
"Epavog. (1) A dining club (cf. the expres-
sions Selirvov curb (nrvpiSos,a.Trh ffvfi^oKwv '■ and
see Horn. Od. i. 244; Ar. Ach. 1137; Ter. Eun.
iii. 4). Every member {ipaviaTi]s: itKripwr^s
ipdvov, Dem. e. Mid. j). 547, § 101) was bound
to pay his monthly subscription (also called
fpavos, or <popd., elcrcpopd, ffvvoSos). The presi-
dent is ipavdpxv^ or apx^^p<^vi'<^'''iis. Such
societies usually united in the common worship
of some deity, for whom they appointed special
sacrificial officers (lepoTroioi). From this point
of view they were called 6ia(roi (Arist. Nic.
Eth. viii. 9, 5, p. 1100 .v). They often had a
common burial-place (ufx-jracpoi). Sucli clubs
had their own common property and rules,
which were recognised by the state. New
members underwent a SoKifjLaffia. These societies
were more common in the Macedonian and
Roman periods than during the freedom of
Greece. They were looked upon with suspicion
by the Roman authorities (Plin. i'^. x. 93) ; but
in some cases proved useful for trade, and were
especially employed as volunteer fire-brigades.
Such clubs numbered among their members
women, foreigners, and even slaves.
(2) A contribution made by friends to assist
a person in difficulties: avWeyew, ffvWeyeffdai
fpavov, fpai>i(^eiy (to ask, to collect, or to pay a
contribution), are phrases used. The payment
was always a sum of monej'. The relief was
looked upon as a, friendly loan without interest,
repayable by the borrower, probably bj' instal-
ments, when in better eii-cumstances (Theophr.
Char. 17) : it was neither a present nor a loan
(xpec<'s)i t>ut something between the two.
Security was sometimes given : in cases of non-
payment, or of disputes amongst the epaviarai —
e.g. about the pajrment of each member's share,
or the use made of the contributions by the
president, A'c. — there were special epaviKou. hiKai
["EjAixtivoi 5tKai]. Plato (Legg. xi. p. 915 e)
disapproved of lawsuits in such matters, and
would not allow them in his Republic. For
other institutions of a similar kind, see
'ExaipeCai,.
Erechthe'um ('EpexO^^ov). The Ere-
chtheion, or temple of Erechtlieus, the most re-
vered of all the sanctuaries of Athens, and con-
nected with the earliest legends of Erechtlieus
or Erichthonius (see Class. Diet.). The Ere-
chtheion, as built in the time of Perikles, con-
tained the sanctuaries of Athena Polias, Pos-
eidon-Erechtheus, Pandi'osos, Kekrops, and
altars to Butes and other local heroes.
The temple of Athena Polias contained the
ancient olive-wood statue {^6ai/ov) of the god-
dess, to which the Peplos was brought, and the
sacred olive-tree. Poseidon under the name of
ERECHTHEUM
Ereclitheus was also worshipped in the Ere- j
chtheion ; and here was the cleft in the rock ]
(which may still be seen) made bj' Poseidon's
trident, and the salt well which sprang up
where lie struck the rock.
Tlie original temple was burnt by Xerxes, 480
i:.f. The present building' was begun after the
completion of the Parthenon and Propylaea,
and not finished till the beginning of the fourth
century i:.c.
EPrOAAB05
281
Scule. 50 feet
(The dark p:irts remain : the shaded are restorations.)
A. Eastern Portico; D. East Cella (usually taken to be
the temple of Athena I'olias): C. North Portico; IJ.
West Hall; E. West Cella; K, South Portico (/"(■'v/i «/
CtiriitiUtO'!<i.
The Erechtheion stands to the north of the
Parthenon. The architect's name was Philokles.
figures in low relief of white Pentelic marble.
The annexed cuts show the general plan and a
restDration of the elevation. The windows in
the western front are a later insertion.
The official name for the Erechtheion was
6 yews & iv iro'Afi iv ^ rb dpxo-'tov &.ya\na. It
appears also to have been called ' the Old Temple
of the Polias.' The most remarkable feature
of the building is the portico of the Kekropion,
the entablature of which is supported by Carya-
tides [see cut, Caryatides]. (See Class. Diet.
Ekk(^mtiiki-.m.)
Erga'stulum. A barracoon or private prison
attached to most Roman farms, called career
rtisticu.s by Juvenal (xiv. 24, cf. viii. IHO), where
tlie inferior class of slaves {servi vincti) were
kept during the night in chains, especially those
who worked in the fields in chains. It was some-
times underground, and lighted by higli narrow
windows. The keeper was called crgastularhis.
Such prisons were used as places of punishment :
the necessity for them arose in consequence of
the conquest of Italy by the Romans, and the
great number of barbarian slaves who were
t'mplnyed to cultivate the conquered lands.
[Agriculture.
'Ep-yoXdPos, 'EpY<i>vTis. These words and
lxt(rdwTi)s signify a contractor for a public work.
The most ancient contracts extant are those for
the constructions on the Acropolis in the fifth
century li.c. Tlie inscriptions contain onlj- the
sums received, the works executed and the
names of the artists employed. Later inscrip-
tions {e.g. thoserelating to the rebuilding of the
Long Walls, 307 b.c.) are fuller, and contain the
terms of the contract and the signatures of
the contractors.
Such works were executed (1) by voluntary
offering, sucli as the rebuilding of the temple at
Fig. .vWi.-Ercchtho«ra.
It is one of the most perfect instances of the Delphi by the .Mlcinaeonidap after 548 B.C. at a
Ionic style, and is built entirely of whitf marble cost of 800 talents libit, v. i;2l ; or (2) at the cost
with the exception of the frieze, which was of of the city. Tlic buildings of the Acropolis were
dark blue Eleusinian marble adorned with erected under the control of a connnission
282
EPPH*OPIA
of iiriffTdraL chosen by the people. The work-
men emploj'^ed on the Parthenon are paid
directly by the iiriffTarai : other works were
partly carried out by a contractor (fiiffdairr. s) ;
Pheidias is (pyo\a^os or contractor for the
statue of Athena (Plut. Pericl. 31), providing
part of the materials, and engaging the services
of Menon, Panaetius, and other artists, as
awepyoi. The new wall between Athens and
Piraeus was contracted for by Kallikrates about
the same time. In later times contracts became
usual, the (WKTrdTai only supervising the work.
The methods of a general contract and piece-
work were sometimes combined. The works
were sometimes given to one contractor, some-
times to several.
The conditions of the contract were published
beforehand ; and sometimes it was given to the
lowest tender, subject to an action for fraud
(SiJCTj \f/fvSojs} on the part of any of the compe-
titors. The contract was engraved and pub-
lished on a (TttJAtj. Foreign contractors were
attracted by the offer of privileges. Contractors
might form associations; they had to give
security for solvency. The state usuallj' fur-
nished the primary materials, such as stone and
timber ; all else was found by the contractor,
who was liable to a fine in case of delay or non-
completion. Payment was made by instal-
ments. The behaviour of the workmen was seen
to by the eTnardrai as a matter of police. They
could condemn (airoSoKifjidCftv) any part of the
work which was ill done. [Artifices. J
'EppT|4)6pia or 'Ep<rn<t)6pia. ['AppT)-
4)6pia.]
'Ecrxdpa. [Focus.]
E'ssedum. [Currus.]
Eumo'lpidae (Eu/toAir/Sai). [Eleusinia;
'E^rl^J^,eA.TlTat, (4). J
The Euinolpidae (perhaps also the Kerj-kes,
the second great priestly family at Athens) had
certain judicial powers in cases of acre fie lu (cf.
SiKd^eaOai irphs Evfj,o\TriSas), but only, it would
seem, where the mysteries were concerned. In
such cases the King Arclion acted as flaaywyevs
or riyefjiiov StKaarripiov, and the Eumolpidae fur-
nished a jm"y. They pronounced their sentence
according to a secret and traditional law, of
which they wei'e the sole e'lTjyrjTaj.
It is to be remembered that the ancient
aristocratical bodies could only inflict ' spiritual
censures' in democratic Athens, their action
being jmrely ceremonial, not judicial. (Cf.
EinraTpiSai., 'E<}>e'Tat.)
EvirarpiSai, tlie ancient name of the ari-
stocracy of Attica. In the eai'liest state of
society we find the nobles gathered in cities,
and owning the lands which were cultivated
for them by their dependents. The neigh-
bourhood of the city formed the district of
tlie PeXeovTes, the noblest of the four old-
Ionic tribes. The Attic Eupatrids included
not only the so-called autochthonous nobility,
but also those noble gentes wliich had imini-
gi-ated : the Neleidae, the Kodridae, and the
Alkmaeonidae.
Like other aristocracies ancient and modern,
they were in the exclusive possession of all the
civil and religious offices of the state, and were
the exponents of the law and the authorised
interpreters ( e'jTjyTjrai) of things human and
divine (Plut. Thes.'25). The <|)yA.oj8o(rjAeTs were
necessarily Eupatrids, and certain priesthoods
could only be held by Eupatrids, e.g. those of
Zeus 'Ep/cfios, and Apollo Uarpifos, the oiSce
of 4(pfrris, c'irc. : and these jirivileges remained
after all political power left them. (See Archon,
EXEDRA
Areiopagus, Arinos, 'E4)€'Tat, Eumolpidae,
'E^TiYTiTaC.)
Euri'pus. Circus.]
EijGuva, EiiGvvai (later evflui/?}, evOvvai, ev-
Qwoi). All public officers at Athens (Aeschin.
c. Ctes. c 18), both ordinary and extraordinary,
KKr]puno'i and x^'^POTovriToi, religious, militan-,
and civil — even the senate of the Five Hundred
and the members of the Areiopagus — were
accountable for their conduct and the manner
in wliich they discharged their official duties.
The judges in the popular courts and the diae-
tetae (cf. E-loa-yytKLa., [3]) seem to have been
the only authorities who were not responsi-
ble. This account was called eddvva (mostly
in pi. evdvvai), and the officers subject to it,
vnevdvyoi. The annual ordinary public officers
had to render it within thirty days after the
expiration of their offices. Until this duty was
fulfilled, the whole property of the ex-officer
' was in bondage (ivfX"Pov) to the state (Aeschin.
c. Ctes. § 21) : he was not allowed to travel
beyond the frontiers of Attica, and was subject
to other disabilities ["AXoyiov 8£kti]. Th..
officers who held such audits were called
Xoyiarai, eijBvvoi, and <rvv(\yopoi (Arist. Pol.
vii. 5, 105). These officers were each ten in
number, chosen by lot. Their several functions
cannot be distinguished with absolute certainty.
I To these must be added ten irdpfSpoi, assistants
1 to the fHOvvoi. All the inrevOvvoi, with the ex-
1 ception of the generals, had to send in their
accounts (Koyos) to the Koyiffrai (Aeschin. (■.
C^tes. § 20). The Koyiarai, assisted by the
(TuvriyopoL, examined the accounts {avaKpiv fiv)
at their office (KoyiaT-i^piov} within the period of
thirty days. At this avdKpicris the fUdvvoi might
bring, or I'eceive from their irdpeSpoi, chaiges
against the person under scrutiny. The edduvoi
j appear to have been administrative officers,
Koyiffrai actuaries, (Tvv}\yopoi legal advisers.
Even when the accounts were fomid coiTcct and
no act'user appeared, the Xoyiarai could not pass
the audit (4vt(7r)fj.aive(r9ai rds evdvvas, Dem. dr
Cor. p. 310, § 250) ; this could only be done by
a court of 501 judges presided over by tlie
KoyKTTai (Dem. de Cor. p. 266, § 117). In case
of irregularities being discovered at the avd-
' Kpiats, it devolved upon the ffvvriyopoi to bring
the charge before the court. Such a cause
{ypa<pr! wepl ruv evdvi/wv) was tjjUTJtJs. Eufluras
6<\)\f'iv is the technical term for being con-
victed.
I A similar organisation existed in the several
Evi'ctio. See Appendix, Rom.\n Law.
' Evoca'ti. [Exercitus.]
I 'Egav<J7Ti- See Appendix, Greek L.\w
["E^OvXtiS SlKT|].
'Ega-ytJYTis YPa-4>'n- See Appendix, Gheek
Law.
'E^aupe'aetos or 'A4)ai.p€CTeus Sikt). See
Appendix, Greek Law.
I Exa'men. [Libra.]
I Exauctora'tio. [Exercitus.]
j Exaugura'tio. The act of taking away from
a place or thing the sacred character which it
had recer\'ed by inauguratio, consecratio, or
dedicatio (Liv. i. 55, cf. v. 54, 69). No conse-
crated place could be applied to any profane
purpose, or otherwise dedicated ; nor could
priests or Vestal Virgins give up their sacred
I character without first undergoing the process
' of exauguratio.
Excu'biae. [Castra.]
j Exedra or Exhedra (f^e'Spa). Properly a re-
I cessed seat built out fi'om a colonnade, and
EHHTHTHS
opening into it; usually of a curved shape.
[Absis; Hemicyclium.] Hence it came to
mean, among the Greeks, a hall or colonnade
furnished with recessed seats, where people
met to enjoy conversation ; such as the rooms
which opened on to the peristyle of the
cutdrouitis [Domus; see also A€crxT|], or in
the gymnasia and schools of pliilosopliers.
Among the Romans the word answers to both
the Greek terms, ^|e'5po and Kfcrxv-
' E^r\yr\Tr\z . (!) An expounder, interpreter;
usually an interpreter of laws, whether sacred
or secular, but especially the former ; thus the
wliole order of Eupatrids wei"e in the old times
balwv KoL ifpuv t'|r)77jTOi' (Plut. Thes. 25).
(ExnraTpCSat.] In Athenian courts, both the
dikasts and the presiding judges acted without
the guidance of trained lawyers, but frequently
appealed to experts in purely ceremonial
matters. Thus, if an ascert6.ined homicide were
proved to be accidental or justifiable, the cere-
monial expiation, the reconciliation with the
relatives of tlie deceased, and the disposal of the
corpse remained as the province of f^riyr]Tai.
In an official sense, the i^riyijTai were a
board of three persons, to whom application
might be made in matters relating to sacred
law ; they were all to be Eupatrids, and one of
them necessarily a member of the family of the
Eumolpidae. They attended in the assembly
of the people, and interpreted (he Siotrrj^i'aj or
signs from heaven ["EKKXTiaCa j ; they liad thus
the power of stopping the business in hand,
corresponding to iha ohnintt iatio oi the Roman
augurs ; but probably were responsible to the
people for tlieir action in such matters.
(2) A guide or cicerone, such as were found
at all places visited by travellers. Probably
this sense grew out of the former, all such
places having been places of religious pil-
ginmage. The later tenn is ■mpiy)yr)rr,s.
Exequiae. fFunus.]
Exe'rcitus (o-TpaTc^si. Ai-my. 1. Gbekk. —
(1) Homeric. — Homer describes military ojiera-
tions in their earliest stage. Such organisation
as we see there arose out of the imperfect
constitution of society in that age. Every free-
man in those times was a soldier; but when
all were not needed, those who were seem to
have been selected by lot {II. xxiv. 400). A
common epithet for allies is ' called from afar '
(t7jA.6/cA€itoi). Each body of allies ((iriKovpot)
obeys its own leader (//. v. 191, vi. Ill), and
follows him, not the commander-in-chief, to tlie
conflict. Authority is less official than personal
{II. iv. 838 sqq.). The wide interval which sepa-
rated the noble or chieftain from tlio common
freeman, appears in military as in civil affairs.
A single hero in his chariot i)uts to flight a troop
of common soldiers. The linrri fs of Homer are
not cavalrj', but chieftains who ride in chariots;
these are drawn up in front (//. iv. 207, 50.5,
irp6fj.axoi, irpofitixfffOat} ; and frequently the
foot-soldiers seem to have done nothing but
watch the single combats of their leaders.
Though so little is usually made of the
common soldiers (irpvAesy, //. xi. 49, xii. 77),
Homer occasionally dwells on their orderly and
compact array. The troops were drawn uji
according to tlieir different nations, in comjiact
bodies (//. xiii. 130, xvi. 212 sqq.), which with
their spears frequently offer resistance, even to i
distinguished heroes (//. xiii. 145 sqcj., xvii. 207).
The signal for advance or retreat was given by i
the voice of the leader. The soldiers advanced I
with shouting (oAaA7)T<{s, 11. iv. 430). The
tnnnpet, however, was not unknown (//. xviii. |
EXERCITUS
283
219). No engines for besieging are found.
There were in the anny, besides the hoplites,
light-armed troops, arcliers and slingers {II.
xiii. 767). [See Arms and Armour.]
The term <pa\ayl is applied either to the
whole army (as //. vi. 6), or to the smaller divi-
sions and subdivisions, which are also called
o-Ti'xfs »ind irvpyoi {II. xi. 90, iv. 333).
When an enemy was slain, his arms were
stripped off, and kept as trophies. The division
of the booty was arranged by the leader of the
troop, for whom a portion was set aside as an
lionorary present iytpas, II. i. 118). The re-
covery of the bodies of the slain was a point
of the greatest importance, and frequently
either led to a fierce contest (2/. xvi. 756 sqq.),
or was effected by the payment of a ransom
{II. xxiv. 502).
The distinction of heavy-armed {uTtK^TOu) and
light-armed (v/ztAoO foot-soldiers took its rise
with the beginnings of military sen'ice, the
poorer class being unable to provide the more
efficient weapons. When the demus obtained
full armour, the result was not uncommonly a
revolution. In the Greek connnonwealths all
freemen were bound to serve as soldiers when
called upon. The Greek armies accordingly re-
send)led rather the militia than the regular
standing armies of modern tinies. The thousand
XoyaZis at Argos (Thuc. v. 67), the sacred band
at Thebes (Plut. Felop. 18), and the Arcadian
iirdpiToi were not niunerous enough to be
called armies. Mercenaries were occasionally
employed. Slaves were rarely trusted with
arms. The largest Greek armies we know of as
having operated in Hellas proper were, at
Plataea, 38,700 hoplites and (19,500 y\iiXoi (Hdt.
ix. 28 sqq.) ; in the first invasion of Attica by
the Lacedaemonians, 70,000 (Plut. Fer. 33).
(2) Spartan. — In all the states of Greece,
especially among the Spartans, the typical
formation was the jihalaiix t(l>dKay^), a body of
troops in close array with a long spear as their
principal weajwu. The strength of the Spartan
anny lay in the heaxy-armed infantry {SirKTrai).
Their cavah-y was always inferior (Xen. Hell. vi.
4, § 10). [Equites.J Tlie life of a Spartan was
little else than the preparation for or the prac-
tice of war; and in strictness of discipline and
the use of arms the Spartans were unrivalled.
Their heavy-armed infantry was composed
partly of Siiartaii citizens, partly of Perioeki
(Thuc. iv. 8). In later times, the Perioeki con-
stituted the larger portion. Evei-y Spartan
citizen was liable to militai-y service {(ficppovpos)
from twenty to sixty, during which period he
might not leave the country without permis-
sion. Those beyond that age were sometimes
employed in the less arduous kinds of service
(Thuc. V. 72). On the occasion of any expedi-
tion, the kings, or later the ephors, proclaimed
what class, according to age, were to go : c.ij. all
between twenty and thirty-five, See.
The life of a Spartan was passed in the disci-
pline of a kind of camp. The citizens messed
together in companies, and sle))t in barracks.
All of military age were divid«'d into six /idpai,
under the superintendence of a iroXtfiapxos ;
each ix6pa into two \6xoi (commanded by
Aoxavo/) ; each k6xos into four irfprriKoffrva
(headed hy ■KfVTt)KO(nrjpfs)\ each Trei/TTj/foffTui
into two di/ainoTtat of twenty- five men (headed
by ivwfxoTapxai or ivQi^orapxoi) (Xen. livp. Liic.
xi. 4), so called from the men being bound to-
gether by a common oath, and composed of
men of the same age. This was the unit, con-
sisting normally of twe)ity-four (or, with its
284
EXEECITUS
captain, twenty-five) men, but sometimes of
more. Eacli enomoty was drilled together apart.
A Spartan anny sent on foreign service was
composed of dctacliments from each enomoty,
re-formed into [xopai, Aoxoh and evcc/jLOTiai of
the army in the field, Perioeki being attached to
each. The strength of a mora on service varied
from the normal 400 to 900 (Plut. Pdop. ]7).
Each mora of infantry was attended by a mora
of cavalry, at most of 100 men, under an
iTTirop/Uoo-TJjj (Xen. Hell. iv. 4, § 10). The
Spartans generally used mercenary cavalry
(Thuc. ii. 9). The corps of 300 iwwf7s (Hdt.
viii. 124) formed a sort of body-guard for the
king, and consisted of the flower of the young
soldiers. Though called horsemen, they fought
on foot. Their commanders were called iirir-
ayperai.
The terms fxopa and \6xo^ ^^'^ ^ot always
distinguished.
The army was drawn up in the dense array of
the (paKay^, the depth of which depended upon
circumstances. An fvoifioTia sometimes made
but a single file, sometimes was drawn up in
three or six files ((Ttixoi, Xen. Rep. Lac. xi. 4).
The depth of the Spartan phalanx varied from
eight to twelve files. The enomotaix-h stood at
the head of his file (irpaiToffTarris). [Cf. Chorus.]
The last man was called oi/payos- The divisions
of the rows of twelve men each were TrefxirdSes
(Xen. Hell. vii. 3, (!). The commander-in-chief,
who was usually the king, had his station some-
times in the centre (as at Mantineia, Thuc. v.
72), but more commonly (as at Leuktra) on the
right wing.
The hoplites (both Spartans and Perioeki)
were accompanied by Helots, partly as attend-
ants, partly as light-armed troops. One Helot
of those attached to each Spartan was called
his QfpaTroiv, and acted as armourer or shield-
bearer. They were called intacnncTTai or ^opv-
ipopoi. Their number varied. Seven Helots to
one Spartan (Hdt. iv. 28) is the highest figure
mentioned. In extraordinary cases, Helots
served as hoplites, and then it was usual to
give them their liberty (Thuc. vii. 19). Distinct
corps were sometimes composed entirely of
these NfoSafxwSeis. The ^Kip'irai occupied the
extreme left of the line in battle. On a march,
they formed the vanguard (Thuc. v. 67).
Light-anned troops (\pi\oi) are mentioned
in the Peloponnesian War (Thuc. iii. 1), and in
424 B.C. a corps of archers was established by
the Spartans (Thuc. iv. 55). These appear to
have been chiefly mercenaries and allies.
Though the tyrants (Hdt. i. 61) and some
Peloponnesian states [e.g. Corinth) had pre-
viously a large mercenary force (Thuc. i. 60),
the first appearance of a jj.icr6o(p6pos tix^os
^eviK6s of the Spartans was in Akarnania in 426
B.C. (Thuc. iii. 109). The expedition of Cyrus
the younger, 401 li.c, gave a great impulse to
the development of a mercenary armj'. In fact,
about the time of Agesilaus mercenaries were so
niunerous that they became the national army
for active service, the Spartans preferring
garrison duty at home. It was principally
composed of Arkadians. Later there was a
regular market of mercenaries at Taenaron.
The general hired the troops and found their
pay and provisions, and they served him rather
than the state. The pay was generally about a
drachma a day (Thuc. vii. 27), to the Aoxay^s
twice as much, and to the (TTpaTt]y6s four
times as much (cf. Xen. Ayiab. iv. 6, 1). The
divisions of the mercenary force were smaller
than those of the (ppovpd, the rd^is being the
highest unit for both cavalry and infantry. The
rd^is of cavalry was commanded by the 'Itttt-
apyos, that of infantiy by the ra^iapxos. The
To^is fell into \6xoi, commanded by \oxayoi
and inro\oxayoi (Xen. Hell. iv. 1, 26). This
breaking up of the phalanx into smaller units
which could be used independently is the chief
feature of the mercenary forces.
The number of allies (cryyUjuaxoi) in the army
compared with that of the Spartans was very
large: in one case 10,000 to 1500 (Time. i. 107).
Later, the services of allies were usually com-
muted for money. A hoplite was considered
equal to two light-armed, and a horse-soldier to
four hoplites — the commutation for a hoplite
being three Aeginetan oboli (Xen. Hell. v. 51).
The forces of the allies, besides their own com-
manders (Thuc ii. 10), had also assigned to
them special Spartan commanders {^evayoi,
Thuc. ii. 75).
The arms of the phalanx consisted of the
long spear and a short sword (|ur)A.?j) The
chief part of the defensive armour was the
bronze shield — generally marked with the letter
A, signifying AaKeSaifj.ovicci' — which covered the
body from the shoulder to the knee. Besides
this, they had the ordinary armour of the
hoplite ["Arms and Armour]. The helmets
were of felt, called TrtAoj (Thuc. iv. 34). The
heavy-armed soldiers wore a scarlet uniform
(Xen. Ages. ii. 7).
The commander, on crossing the frontier of
Lakonia, offered sacrifice (6ir6p/3oT'/;pia OveLv :
Sia^arripia, Thuc. v. 54) ; and again to Artemis
Agrotera on coming in sight of the enemy, be-
fore an engagement.
The encampments were circular, and fenced
with a palisade. Only the heav3'-armed were
stationed within it, the cavalry being placed to
look out, and the Helots kept as much as pos-
sible outside. Preparatory to a battle, at least
in early times, the Spartan soldier dressed his
hair and crowned himself as if for a feast. The
signal for attack was given, not by the trumpet,
but by the nuisic of flutes, and sometimes also of
the lyre and cithara, to which the men sang the
battle-song (•rrojoj' i/xfiaTriptos), such as Tyrtaeus
wrote, or raised a war-cry (dAaAct, i\e\€v). The
object of the music was to regulate the march
of the phalanx (Thuc. v. 70).
The O^reeks had no standards. Trumpets
were little used. The hoplites were forbidden
to stop in order to strip a slain enemy while
the fight lasted, or to pursue a routed enemy-
Cavalry or hght-armed troops were despatched
for this purpose (Xen. Hell. iv. 4, § 16, v. 14,
§ 16). All the booty had to be handed over to
the \a(pvpoiriiKai and ephors, by whom it was
sold.
Spartan armies on the march paid for sup-
plies in a friendly country (dyopd, Thuc. vi. 44,
etc.) ; in an enemy's country they took what
they wanted, or made requisitions {wpovofiai.
Xen. Anah. v. 2, 24). Besides taking pro-
visions with them, they were attended by e/u-
iropot, KdiT7)\oi, and camp-followers (070^340^
uX^ds), who came with the baggage in the rear.
The baggage was attended to by the apxovrts
Twv cTKevo<p6pciiv (Xen. Hell. iii. 4, 22).
The Spartans, though better in the field,
were inferior to the Athenians in siege opera-
tions (Thuc. i. 102 ; Hdt. ix. 70).
(3) Athenian. — Of the times before Solon
we have but little information. There were
twelve (ppaTplai, and in each four vavKpapiat,
each of which had to furnish two horsemen
and one ship. Tlie citizens of the first and
EXERCITUS • 285
second Rolonian claRses sci-ved as cavalry, or Scythian (inroTo^OTat (Time. ii. la ; Ar. J?7. 225).
as commanders of tlie infantry (sl-i- Census I ; Tlie number 1000 remained down to the time of
those of the third chiss {(^ivylTai) furimd tlie Demostlienes (Dem. di- Sijinin. p. 181, § 13).
heavy-anned infantry. Tlie Thetes served The cavalry was divided by tribes, and eom-
eitlier as lij<ht-anned troops on land or on manded by ten <pv\apxui, and over them two
board the ships. The same principles renniinetl 'tinrapxot, all elected by the i>eople (Ar. A v.
when the constitution was remodelled by Kleis- 7i)H|. The I'inroTpoipia was on*- of the liturpes
theiies. All citizens qualified to serve either as (Xen. Ore. ii. G) the performance of which could
horsemen or as heavy-anned infantry were en- be enforced by law. Those only were required
rolled by the KaTaAo7«ry in a list (KarciXoYOS /. to serve who were jdiysieully eujiable of doing
Ever}' citizen was liable to service from eighteen so; the corps was divided into ftoi and irpsir-
to si.xty. [Ephebns.J The levies were made /Surtpoi. The hipparch had to drill and exercise
under "the direction of the jjenerals [Zrpa- his men (Xen. Mrm. iii. a, Ci), and to see that
TT|YoC]- The soldiers were selected either their liorses were in (;ood condition. At the
according to age, as among tlie Spartans (4vto7s beginning of the year the 0ov\r] held a review
iiritivvfiots ; see 'Eirwvvjjios fa ), or according [SoKi/xaffia) of the /irirrjj. Tliey went through
to rotation {^k 5io5ox^r)- Another kind of levy e.xercises {aKoin-tfffx6i, avOiinraffia, itc), and if
was that called ^v tois /xe'peffj, i.r. according to tliey proved satisfactory, a fee for ecjuipment
some order of rotation. These were partial : I (KaraiTTOfris) was paid to each horseman. Bc-
wlien universal, the levy was said to be irai/Srififi. i sides this, jiay (nicrdos) was given to the cavalry
Tlie levying-place was generally the Lykeion j to the amount of forty talents a year, i.e. 240
(Ar. Pax, a56J. Each soldier was expected to draclimas for each horseman (cf. Dem. Phil. i.
bring provisions for three days (Ar. Acli. VJlj. I p. 48, R.). A iinrtvT regularly ap[>ointed could
The services of those below or above military i notserveas a hojilite (Lys. Air. ii. 7|. The arms
age were only called for on emergencies, or for of the cavalry were two spears with shafts of
guarding the walls (cf. Time. i. 105, ii. la). cornel-wood and a small sword.
Certain exemptions were gi-anted, as e.g. to Besides the light-armed infantry drawn from
members of the senate, choreutae at the | the poorer citizens, there was at Athens a regi-
Dionysia, traders by sea (Dem. c. Mid. p. 516). mentof Thracian slaves (0paKfs,To|dTO(), armed
Anyone who shirked this duty could be ac- witli bows. The number of these increased
cusedon an'AaTpaTcCas YPa'4»n- This action, from aOO, jiurchased after Salamis, to lOOO
the AiTTOTagiov vpacjjii, and the AciXCaj or 1200. They were generally employed as
■ypa(j>-n, were the chief indictments to which > police. Besides the.se, however, tlie Athenians
the soldier was liable. The resident aliens had a troop of archers of their own citizens,
commonly served as heavy-armed soldiers amounting, at the beginning of the Pelopon-
(never as cavalry), especially for the purpose of nesian War, to 1000 (Time. ii. 13). They were
gaiTisoning the city, but only in case of a levy commanded by rd^apxci.
vai/Sr}fjLfi. Slaves were only employed in cases For the command of the army, there were
of great necessity, as at Marathon and Arginusae. i chosen even,' year ten generals [IrpaTTiYOi]
Tlie levy of the kleruchs and allies ((rTpariav and ten taxiarchs fTa$iapxoi . The number
iirayytWdv, Time. vii. 7l appears to have been of strategi sent with an army was not unifonn.
made iK KaTa\6yov (Time. vi. 20), by Athenian Three was a common number. Sometimes one
officers. was supreme ; at other times, they commanded
The hoplites wore a white jerkin (xAai'i's) in turn (as at Marathon), or by common consent
which reached to the hips ; over this the dciipa^; las in the Sicilian expedition I.
over this again a cloak which in the case of Pay for the troops was introduced by Perikles,
officers was red (Ar. Pax, 1175). On their legs and consisted partly of wages [ixt<re6s), partly
were greaves, and on their head a plumed of allowances in money {ffnr]pt(Tiov) or rations
helmet. Their arms were around or oval (o-rros), each amounting to about two obols a day
shield, short sword, and lance. These the {TfTpw$6\ov 0ios, said of a soldier). Ofhcers
soldier himself appears to have provided; tin; received twice as much ; cavaliy, three times;
orphans of those who fell in battle, on arriving ' generals, four times (Xen. Aiiab.yu. 6, § 1(.
at man's estate, received a iravoTrAia from the As regards the military- strength of
state. [See Arms and Armour.]
The Athenian system was less rigid than
the Spartan, and more frecjuent exemption was
granted. The hoplites nearly always fought
in phalanx, very rarely in square (Time. vi. 07).
The soldiers of each tribe formed a sejiarate body
in the ai-my also called a tribe (Hdt. vi. Ill ;
Plut. Arist. 5). Each (fmAij appears to have
the
Athenians, we find 10,000 hoplites at JIaratlion,
at the beginning of the I'eloponiiesian AVar
13,000 ready for foreign service, and 10,0110
(including fifToiKoi) for gan-ison service (Thuc.
ii. 13).
Military discipline among the Athenians was
lax (Time. vii. Ml, though the generals had
some power of jiunishing on the sjHit ; military
formed a to^is, and the memberw of each deine trials, as a mle, only took jilace after the re-
probably stood together. A furtlier subdivision turn of the army home, before the g«-nerals and
was that into Adx"' under Aoxa70i (Xen. llrll. u jury of persons who had served in the army
i. 2, 3). The strength of these, however, cannot (I,ys. Air. i. 15 1 ; the punishments were various
be determined ; Aoxot is the most ordinary kinds of uTifiia. Itewards were held out for
tenn for the largest unit, which varied, thougli those who distinguished themselves for their
generally about 100 men. Every hojilite had courage or conduct.
an attendant ilnrnpfTT)s, Thuc. iii. 17 1, to take The Peltastae {wf\Ta<rrai) [ Pelta] were a
charge of his baggage, and carry his shield on a kind of troops of which we hear very little
marcli. Each trooper had a ser\'ant, called before the end of the Pelopoiincsiaii NVar.
l-rwoK6ixo5, to attend to his horse (Xen. Hrll. ii. ; Tlie .Vthenian general Ijihikrates, 393 B.C.,
*• <>)■ gave his peltasts a linen corslet instead of the
The .Mhenians had no cavalry at Marathon coat of mail worn by the ho|ilites. and adopted
in 490 B.C. (Hdt. vi. 112). .\bout 4.50 li.c. they a longer spear and sword, thus (ombining tin-
mustered 300, and at the beginning of the advantages of 6ir\irai and \{>iAoi. This enuip-
Pelo|H>nnesian War 1000. besides 200 hirei) ment was commonly aclopted by iiuTcenarieK,
286
^XERCITUS
and proved very effective (Xen. Hell. iv. 5,
§ 11). It was general among the Achaeans untQ
Philopoemen again introduced heavy armour
(Phit. Pliiloj). 9) with the Macedonian phalanx.
When the use of mercenaries became gene-
ral, Athenian citizens seldom served except
as volunteers. We find 10,000 mercenaries to
400 Athenians (Dem. Fals. Leg. p. 4'25,
§ 263); 15,000 mercenaries to 2,000 citizens
(Dem. de Cor. p. 306, § 237). Those bound
to serve in the cavali-y also frequently paid
substitutes.
(4) Other Greek armies conformed more or
less to the model of Sparta and Athens. Com-
pulsory service during the military age was
everywhere the rule ; and the forces consisted
of hoplites, light-armed troops, and cavalry.
In Thessaly, Boeotia, Achaia, and wherever the
country was favourable, large numbers of cavalry
are found. In Akaruania, Aetolia, Lokris, the
^iKoi are prominent. But in general the hop-
lites were the principal army and were recruited
from among the well-to-do citizens, the irepioiKoi
furnishing the liglit-armed contingent. Cavalry
service was regarded as a AeiTtii»p7io, and fell
upon the rich. Curpn d'elife existed in many
armies: such were the A.07d5esof ElisandArgos;
the 300 {rjvioxoi and Trapafidrai) of Boeotia ; the
Sacred Band {Upbs Kdxos) of Thebes ; and the
'EirapiToi of the Arkadian League.
The forces of separate cities were usually
under the hegemony of the ruling state — Athens,
Sparta, Thebes, &c. Certain districts also
maintained federal armies, Thessaly, Boeotia,
Aetolia, Arkadia, itc. ; led by their particular
commanders under a <npaT7)'y6s from the prin-
cipal city. The most conspicuous are the
Aetolian and Achaean Leagues (see Did. of
Antiq. vol. i. pp. 8-10, 41, 42). The Thessalians
also, both in the seventh and sixth centuries
B.C., and in the fourth under lason of Pherae,
had a powerful army, especially strong in cav-
alry, amounting, it is said, to 40,000 men of all
anns. The same commander was the first to
take measures for tending the sick (Xen. Hell.
vi. 1. 6). The tyrants in Sicily, also, had very
large armies.
(5) Boeotian Arm ij.— By the fifth century
Thebeshadestablishedher hegemony in Boeotia.
The Boeotian army henceforward consisted of:
(a) Hoplites divided into A^X"'* '•''"i com-
manded by Koxayoi under ■aoKitx.apxoi from
each city.
(6) Numerous \\ii\oi, chiefly of younger citi-
zens, metoeki, and mercenaries, comprising pel-
tasts, archers, and slingers.
(c) Cavalry, divided into iKai, and commanded
bj' iKapX"'!' i'-nd 'iirirapxoi-
(d) A picked body from each city called rjvio-
Xoi and irapa^arai in memory of the ancient
mode of chariot warfare. In the fourth cen-
tury this was furnished entirely by the Uphs
\6xos of 300 Thebans. They fought on foot.
The Boeotian army was conunanded by the
^oioiTapxo.i-1 under a cTTpa.Triy6s.
The perfection of tlie phalanx {<pi\ayQ was
due to Epameinondas. The formation was 25
deep, the usual number in other armies being 8.
The Theban phalanx was not less than 25
shields deep. The front ranks were the famous
Sacred Band [Uph^ \6xos) of 300 picked soldiers,
who fouglit in pairs (irapaaTarai and dniffTdrai,
or irapa^drai and rjvioxoi), and were considered
as brothers in arms : e.g. Epameinondas and
Pelopidas. The depth of the Theban plialanx
and the excellence of its front ranks were the
reason of its superiority to the armies of other
Greek states. Epameinondas also taught his
troops to concentrate their attack on a point in
the enemy's line, breaking through by sheer
weight ; and to advance in oblique order in any
direction.
(0) Mercenaries (fiiffdocpopot). — Besides the
national militias, kings and tyrants employed
hired troops ; and in the Peloponnesian War
we hear of barbarian and Hellenic mercenaries
in many Greek armies. Such were especially
the Thracians and Arkadians, Cretan archers,
and Rhodian slingers. The Phokians main-
tained the Sacred War by the treasure at Delphi ;
the Athenians employed 17,000 mercenaries
against Philip ; 10,000 fought under Agis in
330 B.C. These troops principally consisted of
archers (To|dTai), slingers {(T<p(vSoi'rirat}, javeli-
neers (aKovriffrai), and targeteers (7r€A.TO(rTai) ;
but were sometimes armed as hoplites.
Mercenaries were recruited by agents called
^fyo\6yot or crvWoyels : e.c/. Klearchus the
Spartan (Xen. Aiiab. i. 1, 7), who became their
general, with viroffrpdrriyoL, ra^iapxoi, ^oxayoi,
&c. under him. Their principal entrepots were
Corinth and Cape Taenaron. They engaged for
a fixed tenn for rations ((Titos) or the equiva-
lent (criTrjpeVioi'), and pay (jujtrflrfs) at a daric
per month, with a share of prize-money. They
furnished their own accoutrements.
Xenophon's Ten Thousand (mostly hoplites)
wore red frocks (xnoiv), helmets [Kpavos] of
bronze, greaves (/cyTj/uISes), cuirass {Qupa^) of
bronze or leather, and carried sword, spear, and
shield.
From the beginning of the fourth centurj-,
war having become a trade (see below), disci-
plined armies of professional soldiers in great
measm-e superseded the national militias.
(7) General remarks. — A Greek army on the
march was followed by a baggage train ia/xa^ai
and vnoCiiyia}, tended by (XKeuofpSpot, to carry
supplies, tents, and arms. The baggage of each
division was usually placed in the middle of the
column ; and in tlie same part of the line of
march were the non-combatants (airSixaxoi), sucli
as vnr]pfTai, larpoi, /xdvTfts, f^Miropot, besides
slaves and prisoners. Camp-followers layopa7os
uX^os) encumbered the army, and made discip-
line difficult. Officers might strike their men
(irKrjyas iraieiv, 7ri;| iraifiv). Serious offences
were tried by court-martial ; but Greek troops,
though good soldiers, were never subject to
strict military discipline, except as regards drill,
in which they were exercised by 6Tr\ofidxoi to
execute rapid and complicated evolutions at
the word of conunand. Troops drawn up in
line of colunnis were said to be eirl <pd\ayyos.
On the march the army advanced in column
(^ttI Kfpws), the first enomotia of the right
wing filing off, and the rest in succession
following it, usually in two files, eh Svo.
Deployment from marching column into line of
phalanx, or vice versa, was called irapaywyf)
(Xen. Hep. Lac. xi. § 6). Tiu-ning to the right
(the common usage, because the shielded side
was thus presented towards the enemy) was
called iirl S6pv ; foiTning to the left, ^ir' a<riri5o :
for cavalry, ecp' rjviau. The depth had to be
increased or diminished in any other pi'opor-
tion. If the army had to turn to the rear,
then, in order that the best soldiers might
still be in front, an evolution called (^f\iyiLi.6s
(Kara (ttixovs) was performed, in which either
(1) the front rank man faced about and the rest
of the colurmi took up the same relative posi-
tions behind him {Macedonian) ; or (2) the
rear rank man faced about and the rest moved
EXERCITUS
•287
ui> iu front (X/flA-o«/a«) ! or (3) the leader und field. The dead were solemnly burie<l. a ceno-
rear man, the second and last but one, and so taph {K(voTd(piov) being added for those who
on, changed places (Cretan). were not found; the sick and wounded were
A reversal of position, left for right, of the carried into the neighbouring houses,
whole army, was effected by a similar move- (8) Macedonian and Hcl/cnisfic Armies. —
ment, i^e\iyixbs KaTO. (,'"i'7a. The Macedonian was a development, on a larger
Further evolutions were the different kinds scale, of the Boeotian and earlier system. Philip
of wheelings (eTricrTpo<pai). The (juarter wheel had been acquainted witli Iphikrates and Epa-
was called avaarpoipi), the half ireptaTraafxos, nieinondas, from whom he learnt tlie lesson of
the three quarters ^KirepicnracriJi.6s, in which one war. He divided the country into districts, and
quarter wheel more brought them back to their : enforced the conscription and regular exercise,
original position, eVj/caTao-Toiris. The irpoiTO- Tlie feature of the phalanx, as used by
ffTariis was the pivot. If the army changed its Philip and Alexander, was the Macedonian
front by wheeling round through a half circle, adpiffa or pike, 21 feet long. The phalanx was
round one corner as a pivot, the movement | usually drawn up sixteen deep. The phalangite
seems to have been expressed b}- iripnrrvaanv \ in close array (irvKvoxTis) stood three feet from
or dt'OTTTuo'trfti' (Xen. /l«ai. i. 10, 9).
When an army was led to attack a height, it
was usually drawn up in what were termed \6xoi-
updiot, a term which implies that the lochi had
greater depth than breadth. The lochi were
drawn up with considerable intervals between
them.
the soldier at liis side, and two feet from his
rear-rank man (^Trto-TOTTjs). The sarisa was
weighted at the butt, and projected about
fifteen feet in front of the soldier. Thus be-
tween the front rank and the enemy there was
presented a series of five pike-points, the head
of the fifth rank man's sarisa projecting three
In special circumstances, such as a retreat feet beyond the front rank. The other ranks
(Xen. Anab. iii. 4, 19; Thuc. vii. 78), the j held the sarisa slanting forwards and upwards
arrangement in a hoUow square was adopted, i to ward off missiles. On the march the phalan-
The term ir\a((riov was generally applied to an | gites carried their sarisas on their shoulders ;
anny so arranged, whether square or oblong, and bringing them down into position for
Afterwards the term irKalffiov was restricted to action was called KaraPaWfiv ras aapiffas (Pol.
the square, the oblong being called irKivQiov. \ xviii. 24, 9). The first man of each file ((ttixoj)
Add to these : i was the Aoxa7<^s, a soldier of tried bravery and
KAifffs, half-turn. | great strengtli. This method of fighting in
MerafioKri (eVl Supv, in' aaniSa), right or left phalanx, as being incapable of manoeuvring
turn. easily, though it could charge rapidlj', failed
'ETrtffTpo<pri, change of direction (in marching when opposed to the Roman manipular tactics
as well as when halted). (Pol. xviii. 29, 30). But the phalanx was in-
Words of command {irapayyfKfjiara), passed - vincible as long as it remained together, and its
along the ranks, or given by the (c/jpuKes or by ' attack was irresistible. The theoretical strength
trumpet are : I of tlie phalanx was 16,384 men — IG men to one
■'Aj/o; to SopaTa, ' shoulder arms.' | Ao^oJ, Iti \6xoi to one ffvvTayfxa, '1 (rvvTiiy-
'Ett' &IXOV TO. Sopara, ' slope arms.' ' /xara to one irevTaKoaiapxia, 2 ir€vTaKO(rLapxio.i
Kddfffde (QeaQi) to SirAa, 'halt' : lit. ground ! to one xiA'apX'^h 1^ X^Kiapx'iO'^ to the phalanx
arms, i.p. slip the shield from the arm so as to (cf. Grote, chap. xcii.). The actual numbers of
rest with tlie rim on the ground. the phalanx varied.
Greek soldiers in line stood at a distance The infantry wore a helmet, metal-plated
from each other {TrvKvoiais) of from 14 to 3 feet, leather jerkin (Oeipaf), and greaves, and had a
If an army halted near a town, they were small circular buckler, about two feet in dia-
billeted in the houses ; if not, thej' spent the meter, fastened on the arm, not grasi)ed by the
night under tents or shelters of skins ((t/ct}- hand ; for both hands had to be used to hold
vai, Si<pdfpai). Tlie camp was circular or the sarisa [Sarisa], 21 feet long. They had also
square, not fortified, except by natural position, a short sword for thrusting. Over the armour
Befoi-e the camp was the place of arms (to they wore a cloak, except in battle. The armour
oir\a), and the ayopd for provisions. The pass- of the cavalry did not differ from that in the
word ((Tvvdr)ixa) was given by the general. | Greek armies. The laiue was the ^vcnov, made
Sentinels (<pv\aK(s) and outposts (■rrpo<pv\aKes) of cornel-wood. The ridtvsluul neither stirrups
were stationed both by day and by night (wk- nor saddles [Arms and Armour ; Ephippium].
TO<t>vKaKfs), in which there were three watches. A very large portion besides of Philip's army
The signal for sleep was avaTravcTTripioy. consisted of light-armed troops and mercenaries.
5u<r(f€uo(,'€ii/ {i'usa colligere), to get ready for ; Philip was most particular about drill ; he made
a start. ; the soldiers carry their own provisions ; and he
Ki^'fii' rh (TTpaTOirfSov to break up the camp, j allowed but one servant for each horse-soldier,
KotoACo-oi, to halt. 2to0mos, a day's journey, and one for each ten foot-soldiers. His especial
The army was directed by guides (rjyefx6v(s), body-guard were called ffwij.aTo<pv\aKfs, and
and preceded by scouts {ctkowoi, Trp65po/xoi). were composed of his closest friends (Arr. An.
Besides all kinds of artificers, Greek armies vi. 28, 4). A further body closely connected
in later times were attended by a train of , with the king were the royal pages {0affi\LKo\
artillery [Tonnenta]. iralSfj), sons of tlie most distinguished Mace-
Before a battle the general harangued his donians, who received a military training at the
troops, after sacrificing to the gods ; then gave court.
the password {ffvu8r}fj.a) (usually the name of a : Under Philip's organisation, the Macedonian
god), and began the paean (TrofOf), which was cavalry were the principal element; they were
taken uj) by the whole army. The trumpets gave called his Companions or (Toipoi, a term a])plied
the signal for attack (rh iro^ffiiKdi'), and the in Macedonia to persons of distinction (Plut.
army advanced, first slowly, then at the double Pelop. 27). Those summoned for service in
1 5pd/iff)), with shouts of ' cL\a\d' and ' ^A*Aei;.' the infantry were called F'oot-Cumpanions (ir*^"-
Tne signal to retire is ai'aK-/\7)TiK(!i'. After a | cVaipoi). The tToipoi, HOO in number, were
victory a trophy [Tropaeimij was set up on the . mostly Macedonians. They were divided into
288
EXERCITUS
I\ai, the ire^eraipot into ra^eis. The mfantry
were trained to fight on horseback as well (cf.
Arr. An. iv. 23, 2) ; and a peculiar wedge-shaped
arrangement of cavalry (e/ij3oAoej5r)s Ta|ts) is
attributed to him. Philip took the greatest
care in improving the breed of horses. He also
made great improvements in military engines
[Tormenta], such as catapults and besieging-
towers (e\eir6\fis) : from the sieges of Perin-
thus and Byzantium a new era dates in the art
of besieging to\vns.
One of the chief introductions of Alexander
was tliat of the vTraairicrTai. They held an
intermediate position between the heavy-armed
Foot-Companions and the quite light-armed.
They carried a round shield and a short thrust-
ing-lance, were clad with a X itojv, and wore
on their head a KcLVcrCa.. At some time during
Alexander's campaigns, probably after the
battle of Arbela, they were divided into chili-
archies, according to Persian custom (cf.
Xen. Cyr. iv. 1, 4). Alexander also divided the
cavalry into iTrirapx'tti, iAai, and eKaToarves ;
and introduced lancers called (rapiaocpopoi, used
for advanced posts or scouring the country.
The phalanx of Alexander was less rigid than
is usually supposed, but its normal condition
was in close array {irvKvctiais /car' iin(TTa.Tr\v
Ka\ irapacTTaTriv).
The introduction of native troops after the
conquest of the Persian empire led to changes.
The phalanx was now made 16 deep ; the first
ihree ranks and the rear rank being Macedo-
nians, armed with the sarisa ; the twelve interior
ranks were Persians, armed with bows and
javelins, which they discharged over the heads
of the front ranks. (Grote, chap, xciv.) The
Macedonian cavalry was posted on the wings,
and was usually led by Alexander himself. At
Arbela Alexander made use of a considerable
reserve. The excellence of his cavalry enabled
him to pursue the enemy, a practice not usual
in Grecian warfare. The employment of field
artillery is a feature of Alexander's tactics. He
used it specially to protect the army in crossing
a river. All the engines were administered by
firixo-voTroLoi. Alexander did not make use of
elephants ; though he appears to have intended
to do so, as he had 200 brought from India.
The Macedonians do not seem to have forti-
fied their camps ; but each division of troops had
definite positions in the encampment. We know
little about the commissariat ; and as regards
pay, all we know is that the phalangite received
ten staters a month.
The Macedonian army in its full development
under Alexander, was composed as follows :
(i.) The Staff, consisting of [a] ffw/xarocpvAa-
Kes, seven or eight in number, chosen from
among (6) the era'tpoi, thirty officers, principally
Macedonian ; (c) two ayhfiaTa or body-guards,
one cavalry, the other infantry ; {d) the ;8acrt-
\iKoi. ■TrarSes, or pages.
(ii.) Infantry :
(a) Tle^fTaipoi, hoplites, in six rd^eis of 1000
men each, divided into \6xoi and SfKaSes.
(b)' tira(TiTi(TTal, divided into x''^'°PX''*'' (')
2i5|i;uaxot ire^oi, or Greek allies, under their
own commanders, forming altogether a rd^is,
commanded by a Macedonian officer. (cZ) Micr-
6o(t>6poi ^evot, peltasts, chiefly from the Pe-
loponnese. (e) QpaKes or aKovTiffrai. (f)
To|o'toi, Macedonian and Cretan archers, in
battalions of 1000 (xtAmpxiai)- ig) 'Aypiayes,
Thracian javelin men. (h) ^(pevSovrirai, slingers.
(iii.) Cavalry:
(a) 1200 fTotpoi, Macedonian troops, consist-
ing of tlie aryrina and seven 7Aoi of 150 men
each, commanded by lAdpxai- (b) Qecrffahol
Imrels. (c) 'lTnre7s ffiififiaxot, Greek allies.
(d) Mt(r6o(p6poi iirireTs, principally Thi-acian. (e)
2api(TO(p6poL and Tlaioves, light cavalry armed
with lances.
(iv.) Baggage train, artillerj', &c. :
(rt) '^Kevotpopoi. (b) Engineers, pioneers, &c.
(xetpoTe'xfaj)- (c) Artillery (furixo-vai). (d) Com-
missariat (iTTiT-fiSeia, x^^os). (e) Military chest
(t^ Koivov). if) Ambulances {PaaiXiKT] 6epa-
Trej'a). {g) Intelligence department, telegraphs,
posts, &c. (wvpffoi, ^ifi\ia(p6poi).
The greater part of the arrangements were
adopted, with little alteration, from those of
Philip.
After the destruction of the Persian Empire,
Alexander, having to dismiss a great part of
liis Greek soldiers, supplied their places with
Asiatics, both infantry and cavalry, and en-
listed adventurers of all kinds. He even ad-
mitted Persians among the tre^eratpoi. He also,
as we have seen, introduced light-anned bar-
barian troops into the phalanx itself. These
may have amounted to some 120,000 men. The
principal novelty was the addition to the army
of a large force of barbarian light cavaliy from
Central Asia, including linTaKovTiaTai and
iTnroToloTai. Camels and elephants appear
among the baggage train.
(9) The Hellenistic period is one of great
armies, chiefly composed of Greek or Asiatic
mercenaries, furnished partly with European,
partly with native, arms.
Though an appearance of Greek armament
and discipline was maintained, the armies of
later times, e.g. that of Mithradates, were on an
Oriental scale, and composed of a medlej" of
tribes, many of them armed in native fashion.
The phalanx became more rigid and immovable
tlian it was with Alexander. This close phal-
anx remained the feature of the Hellenistic
armies of the time ; the best soldiers for it
were considered to be the Macedonians and
Achaeans (Pol. iv. 8). The smallest division
of the Hellenistic phalanx was the a-qfiaia
of fourteen or fifteen men. The (nreTpa was a
larger division. There were no standards.
The red flag {(poiviKis) raised on a sarisa was only
used for a signal. We hear of apyvpacnnSes.
AevKaffTTLSes, and xo^'<'''''''''56s.
PyiThus, King of Epirus, maintained the
traditions of Alexander, but modified them to
meet the Romans. In particular he armed
some of his troops with the piliim (vfftTos) ; be-
gan the attack, not with the mngs, but by
throwing the phalanx upon the enemy ; and
made great use of elephants.
In the Hellenistic armies the light-armed
peltasts and cavalry stood on the wings. The
Greek mercenaries were mostly armed in this
style. They were divided into (nrelpat and
ffrifialai. These generally fought in a scattered
manner in small detachments (Liv. xxxv. 29).
The best archers were Cretans ; the best sling-
ers were Achaeans. The cavalry was largely
supplied by the Thessalians (Liv. xxxiii. 4 ; Pol.
xviii. 22). It was armed with the hea\'y breast-
plate and lance {^varov), and carried a wooden
shield covered with brass. Cavalry was usually
posted eight deep, with intervals between the
individual iAoi (Pol. xii. 18). Special kinds of
cavalry also used were : (1) Median lancers
(\oyxo<p6poi) ; (2) Tarentini, light-armed cav-
alry, using javelins and each having a second
horse (Liv. xxxv. 28) ; (3) Cataphracti (Pol.
xxxi. 3 ; Liv. xxxvii. 40) [Arms and Armour,
EXERCITUS
2b9
Cataphkactij ; mounted archers {liriroTO^Srat) BeHideu these regfular troops, the uncicoit U^rms
ami scythed chariots (Liv. xxxvii. 40). The i flitcs and arquilt-s point to a force of li")it-
loiiK niai-chesin vast and remote countries made armed, especially archers. The {latricians were
i\v: commissariat more important ; and military the lieavy-anncd, and their clients and the plebs,
operations, ambuscades, forced mardies, sur- the light-armed. The method of figlitinj; ap-
j)rises, and such kKottoX iroKifjLov, are more fre-
ijuent in this period than previously. The
number of camp-followers of all kinds increased ;
the army became like a colony, (ireat arsenals
and military centres were established in tlu
jiears to have been by single conibatti
Homeric style (ef. Liv. i. 10, li. U\).
(2) Servius Ttillius. — During the reign of
Servius Tullius wo find four legions, two of
luniores from 17 to -ft; years, and two of umiores
dilTerent kingdoms, e.g. at Alexandria and from 47 to 00, with IHUO cavalry. The infantry
Apameia, where the Boldiers were drilled during now became the chief di-partment of the army,
the winter. and was arrangeil in a jdialanx. armed with the
The special feature of the Hellenistic armies haadi, called in Sabellian language i/iiirin.
is the use of elephants. The elephants were The men were tiiken from the Assidui or LOCU-
generally j.liued before the line in the centre ; pletes, who were formed into five classes, paid
sometimes on the Hanks, or in a square, tribute, and served at their own expense ; while
Between the elephants were numerous liglit- the pralftarii, who were outside the elapses,
armed. A battle was usually begun with ele- were only called out in cases of emergency, and
[.hants; but Pyrrhus used tliem for the liniil were equipped by the state (Gell. xvi. 10, 11).
charge. The eleiihants were mostly Indian, and The phalanx consisted of 4'iOO men, viz. six rows
were driven by men called Indians (Diod. xix. of 500 men each and 1200 light-armed. They
ft4 ; Liv. xxxviii. 14), except in Egypt, where the were arranged in three classes according to the
African elephant was used (Pol. v. 7i', K'i).
Th<! latter was considered inferior to the Indian
Census, of which the better armed fought in
front, -llie light-armed in the rear r:i)iks. The
elei)hant. The elephants were splendidly ^ fourth and lifth classes, stationed probably to
jidorned, and sometimes wore armour. But they riglit and left of the main body, contribnU-d the
could not be relied upon, and a stampede was light-armed (roraru or /■(•/-(■«/<"/<•//). 'J' he re were
ruinous. [Ebur.j \ in each legion twenty centuries of tlie tirst
In Egypt tlie Ptolemies enrolled a great class ; five of the second, third, and fourth ; and
number of native Egyptians, but trusted prin- ] seven of the fifth class. Besides, there were
cipally to the military colonists {KaToiKoi) settled ^ two centuries of artisans (fabri. arnirii ct tig-
throughout the country — (Ireeks, ^lacedonians, narii) to look after the engines, two of trunipet-
Thracians, Celts, Jews, and Cretans. ers {cuniicuir.s. litichira). and one of acrenti
2. Roman. ri:laii (unarmed supernumeraries) or adscrip-
_ ,, r, 7 J ir • 11 /^-i- ticii. The terms «crc/(st and n(7scr(';y<!ri/ some-
L l-rom Romulus to Manus : the Cit,z,-n jj^^^^ embrace all not marshalled in the main
■^^"".1- , battle. The subjoined table will serve to ex-
(1,1 The lurltj Kiiign. — Under the early kings r j.lain the arrangement. It is not, liowever.
the /c<//o« (/<(/'<', tTTpoToTrfSor, Tci'y^o) appears to probable that the seniores were as numerous
have consisted of three 'thousands' (iiitlitcs) its the iu)iiores.
commanded by three <W6in/( //«7i<MJ« and three The cavalry was increased by twelve now
hundred ■ horse (celercs) connnanded by three centuries by Servius Tullius EquiteSj. The
tribuniceleru)n{^er\.ixAAeii.\.f>\M). [Equites.] ^equites are now the richest of the citizens (Cic.
Legio 1. luniorum
Order
i'irrt
Ptvoml
Ihinl
Kounh
Fifth
SIztli
Centuria I.
o2 o2 '^^
Onler of Voting.
|5
<a
a
e
a
a
1
g"
M
i
1
25
25
25
35
36
36
36
■32
100x5
100x5
100x5
100x5
100x5
100x5
100x5
100x5
■f Uiittlc.
nassis I.
26
35
25
25
26
25
25
25
25
26
25
25
100X6
lU0x5
100x5
100x5
100x5
100x5
100 X.'.
100x5
nink
n. Centnriae fabmm.
1
1
/■ i
ClamisII.
26
25
25
100x6 100x5
100x6 100x5
100x5
100x5
100x6
t
j
CUudB III.
25
36
25
35
100x5
••
Cloiwis IV.
36
26
100x5
100x5
100x6
100x5
100x7
H.<
II. Centuriae litlc. ooruic.
SB
86
JL
luux7
r..rij.
36
100x7
100x7
A.(
•< hKi.
Total of Lcjfion.
100x43
100x42
100x43 100x43
u
I
'280
EXERCITUS
Rep. ii. 22, 39), those wnose property surpassed
that required for tlie firat class. Each of them
liad one horse for himself and another for his
attendant ; and got from the treasury an aes
eqnestre and aes hordeariuvi. At a triumph
the equites got a threefold share of the booty
(Liv. xlv. 43, 7) ; when planted in a colony
a share of land larger than the others (Liv.
XXXV. 40, 5) ; and threefold pay when pay was
introduced. The number of active knights who
received the aes equestro remained 1800.
(3) Camillus. — Important changes were intro-
duced into the anny by Camillus : (a) pajnnent
of the soldiers from the time of the siege of Veii
(406 B.C.), in consequence of the necessary con-
tinuance of war operations from summer into
winter; (b) certain alterations of arms (Plut.
Camill. 40) ; (c) probable beginning of the
breaking up of the phalanx into maniples, in
order to resist the first and most dangerous
charge of the Celtic sword-phalanx. This was
further developed in the Samnite wars, reaching
it^- full perfection in the war with Pyrrhus. The
result of the breaking up of the phalanx into
lu.uiiples was that the system of census divisions
ill the army gave way to a disposition depending
on the age and experience of the soldiers.
From Camillus (400 B.C.) to Polybius (204-
Vl'l B.C.) is over two hundred years, and many
clianges were effected in that time which we can
only guess at.
(4) Polyhius. — A certain property was still
required for service in the army, but it was now
only 4000 assps instead of the 11,000 of Servius
TuUius (Pol. vi. 19, 2). The normal number
of men in the legion continued as in the time
of Servius Tullius, viz. 4200, roughly 4000, in-
fantry. The numbi'rs were sometimes 5200 or
r.00o'(Liv. xxvi. 28, 7, xl. 1, 5). In the war
against Perseus the legion was raised to 6000
(Liv. xlii. 31, 2), and the regular number from
Murius's time was 6200 (see also Liv. xxix. 24,
14, XXXV. 2, 4). Tlio old quota of cavali-y for the
legion was 200 ^Pol. iii. 107, 10; Liv. xlii. 31, 2),
Imt th<! usual lunnber in later times was 300.
Taking, then, tlio normal legionary force at
4200 infantrj', it was divided in Polybius's time
(vi. 21, 7-9) into 1200 hastati, 1200 principes,
(iOO triarii — these three classes arranged behind
one another in the form of a quincunx — and 1200
irlifrs (ypo(T<po/xd.xoi). All three were armed
with a metal helmet [Cassis], having a red or
black plume (crisfa) 1^ foot high, but no visor,
a leathern shield [scutum), greaves [ocrcae), a
leathern breastplate (lorica), a short Spanish
two-edged sword (gladius), which was worn at
the right side, while they carried a dagger at the
left. The spear of the hastati andprincipes was
the light piluiii, used for throwing, while the
triarii carried the hastn for thrusting [Arms and
Armour ■. Besides this armour, the soldier had
such articles of attire as the Sagum.
Thehastati, principes, and triarii were broken
up into thirty ' bundles ' {vtainpuli), each mani-
jmhis forming the smallest tactical unit under
one standard. The iitanipulus probablj' derived
its name from the bundle or handful of hay (Ov.
Fast. iii. 115 sqq.) fixed on a pole which served as
the standard. Later, siginnn was the term for
the standard of tlie manijtles (Liv. xxvii. 14, 8)
[Signa militaria;. The maniple continued as
a re(u)gnised division of the army even after the
introduction of the arrangement by cohorts
(Caes. B. C. ii. 28, 1 ; Tac. Ann. i. 34) Aovm to
very late times. The maniple was further
divided into two (■.enti(riac,ea,ch. commanded by
a centurion : the centurion who was to com-
mand the right century being elected before the
centurion of the left (Pol. vi. 24).
The hastati formed 10 manipuli of 120-
men each or 20 centuries of 60 men each. So-
did the principes. The triarii, who were always
600, and never varied with the numbers of the
legion (Pol. vi. 21, 10), formed 10 maniples
of 60 men each or 20 centiu'ies of 30 men. To
each century 20 relites were added. The
maniple of the first two ranks with its velites
was probably drawn up four files deep, with a
front of 40, 40, and 20 men. A space of about
6 feet appears to have beeu allowed in loose order
(laxatis ordinihus), between each soldier and
his fellow-soldier beside or behind him ; inclose
order (confertis ordiuibus) onlj' 3 feet (cf. Pol.
xviii. 13, 6; Liv. xxii. 47, 5; Caes. B. G. ii. 25,
1). The general form of opening the battle was
for the hastati to discharge i\\e\v jnla about 10
or 20 paces from the enemy, and then attack
with the sword. If this did not finish the battle,
the principes advanced. The triarii always
acted as a reserve, sometimes at the camp (Liv.
v. 19, 7).
This divided light 'manipixlar arrangement
had the advantage of giving freedom both to the
formation and to the individual soldier, as cora-
l^ared with the unwieldy phalanx of the Greeks.
The 300 cavalry of" the legion fell into 10
tirrmae of 30 men. Each tiirma was com-
manded by three dccnriones and three optiones,
and had a vexiUam. The turnia was drawn up
three files deep, each row having a decurio and
an optio in the first and last jilace, the first
elected decurio leading the whole troop. They
chai'ged in close order (Sail. Jug. 101, 4), some-
times, according to Livy, taking the reins off
the horses (Liv. viii. 30, 6 ; xl. 40, 5). Originally
the cavalry had no armour, only a tunic, so as
to leap on and from their horses easily, and light
shields and lances ; but in the time of Polybius
they had adopted the Greek equipment, which
consisted of breastplate, gi-eaves, metal helmet,
round shield [Parma], lance, and long sword
(Pol. vi. 25, 3-11). Saddles upi^ear to have
been used in Caesar's time (Caes. B. G. iv. 2)
[Ephippinm], but not stirrups.
During the Republic the Roman cavalry was
always weak; and the Romans in 211 n.c. (Liv.
xxvi. 4) selected from the legions the most active
youths, who carried each a j^firma and se\en
iron-tipped javelins {hastae velitares), 4 feet
long. These youths used to ride behind the
horsemen, and leaping down at a given signal
hurl their darts in rapid volleys. This practice
of foot-soldiers fighting amongst the cavalry
(adopted by Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty
Years' War) existed also amongst the Germans
(Caes. B. G. i. 48, 5 ; Tac. Germ. 6), and Caesar
formed such a troop of Gei-mans [B. G. vii. 65,
4). From this time (viz. 211 B.C.) the rorarii-
disappear, and velites is the name for the light-
armed of the legion (Liv. xxx. 33, 3), who now
formed an integral part of the maniples or
turmae, whereas the rorarii were troops apart.
It should be noted that the front rank men are
I called hastati, but their spear was the pilum.
i The second rank are called principes, i.e. ' the
first men ' ; and the triarii, who are also called
1 jnlani, do not carry the jiilnin, but a hasta. The
terms probablj' came from the old phalanx, the
principes being then the front rank, and so
being members of the first class. The term
hastati was once applied to all the members of
the phalanx, who were all armed with the hasta,,
but it was transferred to a portion only when
the name of principes was appropriated by the
EXERCITUS
'291
fust class. The triarii, the third nuik, were ' Liitiii colonies furnished the socii to the Roman
orij^inally armed with the pilum as guards of tlie armies.
i-amp, and hence were cMed pila7ii. Wlien tlie Tlie Socii contributed nothing to the legions
i-luss-distinctions began to be superseded, tlie , but had to supply each year a force of auxiliaries
cliief and most able soldiers were not used for for the army, and ships and sailors for the fleet,
the first assault, but kept in case the battle The allied state raised and paid (Lix. xxvii. !),
proved a serious one ; the inferior classes, the 18) tliis force, but it was maintained duriu"-
liasfati, being placed in front. The triarii con- service by the Romans. Every such contingent,
tinued to be the reserve. They had been pro- had its own leader and paymaster (apxovra kcu
bably the older men left to guard the camp, but utffOoSoTfiv, Pol. vi. '21, 4, 5).
now foiTned the most efficient and tried i)oi-tion The force contributed seems to have exceeded
iif the army. that of the Roman legions, being often double,
and sometimes even four times the number. Ac-
II. From Marius to Autjustus : theMnrenarij cording to Livy (xl. »(>, G), the normal number
■lirniij. I of allies attached to two legions was 15,000
The defeat of the Romans by the Cimbri at infantry and HOO cavalry.
Araiisio in 105 B.C. rendered it necessary to make ,1" battle the allies were placed on the wings,
every effort to raise forces to meet the invaders
The gradual shrinking of the upper classes from
service (Sail. Jug. 85, 3) caused the admission of
111! free-born citizens to tlie legions — a recruit
need now possess nothing but his caput (capitr
iriisiis). This change converted the citizen
militia into a professional army, owing duty only
to the general who gave them i)aj-. The essence
the two sections being called dcxtra and
sinistra ala or Ktoay (Liv. xxxi. '21, 7 ; Pol. vi.
'2(5, 9) ; forming cohorti-s, called after the sepa-
rate nations. The cohort was the unit of the
allied infantry, as the mani[)le of the Roman
troops : cohorts and maniples are often thus
opposed (Liv. x. 33, 1, xli. 1). Each ala had
usually 10 cohorts (Liv. x. 48, 3). Ala was
of such an army is the supremacy of the general originally used of the wings of an army (rormia)
and the equality of the soldiers. The tradi- which chiefly consisted of cavalry. Afterwards
it is generally used of cavalry [Legio].
The commanders of these allies were prar-
fecti sociorum, Roman citizens (Liv. xxiii. 7, 3) ;
iiperseded; the recruits were now all on an '"'<! native officers, called practores (Liv. xxiii.
luality, and unifomily subjected to a new and !''> '')•
tioiial distinctions of velites, hastati, i^rincipcs,
and triarii disappear; their deiinite place in
li;ittle, their rank, armour, standards, all were
severe drill and training like that of gladiator
In place of the maniple, the unit now becomes
the cohort, viz. three maniples. The number
of the legion at this time was, roughly, 0000 in-
fantry (Plut. Sail. 9) ; though Caesar had gene-
rally fewer, sometimes not more than about 3500
men, in his legion. Still, whatever was its
strength, the number of cohorts was always 10.
These had no traditional arrangement, and were
disposed of in battle as the general thought fit :
l)Ut i)erhaps the triplex acies, viz. 4 cohorts in
front and 3 in each of the other ranks, was the
The number of the cavalry of the allies, Poly-
bius says, was three times that of the Romans:
accordingly 1800 for two legions. It was
divided into four squadrons (alae) of ordinary
cavalry {equites alarii, Liv. xxxv. 5, 8) and two
filac of extraordinarii, each ahi consisting of
:!00 men, the unit being the tur/iia of 30 men.
Ala is also a general term for a squadron of
allied cavalry, just as collars is for a battalion
of allied infantry.
The extraordinarii (ewlKfKToi) were a picked
body of horse and foot from the allies. The
t usual. The pilum was now made the ''•^i>'"<^>''J'>'crii prdites were normally one-fifth
weapon of the whole, the hasta of the triar
Iteing done away with. The old standards — the
eagle, wolf, &c. — give place to the sih'er eagle
iC'ic. Cat. i. 9, 24). [Signa militaria.l
The native Roman cavalry had disappeared
before Marius. Its last mention is in the Spanisl
of the infantry of the allies (Pol. vi. '20, 8),
and formed four cohorts (Liv. xl. 27, 3) o(
400 men each. The extraordinarii equites
numbered 600. The extraordinarii formed a
class intermediate between the heavy and the
light forces. They were used on difficult
(•am])aign of 140 B.C., where it behaved ill ; and services which required vigour and celerity,
ifter the Jugurthine War (105 B.C.) it vanishes I [Castra.]
entirely. Even the Italian cavalry api)ears last
ill the Social War. In Caesar's army they were
about a fourth or a fifth of the infantry ; in the
army of Brutus at Philipjii (42 B.C.) there were
more than 1000 to the legion. The numbering
of the legions jjrobably began in this period. In
former times the legions were levied annually
and numbered as raised. They now become
regiments, with numbers, names, distinctions,
and esprit de corps.
The Auxiliarii Forces under the Jicpiihlic.
2) The Avxilia properly so called did not
come into any prominence till the foreign wars
of Rome. There are some traces of mercenary
forces employed by the Romans in the Punic
Wars, e.g. Gauls and Celtiberians (Liv. xxiv.
49, 8). During the wars in the East their
numbers increased greatly. After the Social
War there were again but two classes of soldiers :
\a) legionaries from Italy; (i) auxiliaries from
the provinces and from foreign states, protecte<l
or independent. Gauls, Spaniards, Thr.u-ians,
and Afrii'ans were now taken into the service
1 larger numbers than before. The numbi-r of
(1) The Socti. — In the time of Tar(|uinius auxiliary infantry varied according to circu
Superbus the Latins were incorporated in the ""
Roman army (Liv. i. 52, 6) ; after the establish-
ment of the Republic, they held the com-
mand alternately with the Romans. But afU'r
t 'lie great Latin War (338 n.c), the Latins be-
eame rives sine suffragio. Those municipia
which retained their own constitution formed
separate legions, such as the legio Canipana
stances. They were di\ ided into cohorts, some
of which used their national arms, e.g. sagit-
iarii, funditores, cohortrs ntratar it acutatae.
The cavalry consisted of CJauls, Spaniards,
Thracians, Numidians (Sail. lug. 38, (!), even
Gennans (Caes. B. G. vii. 13, 1); formed into
aide of about 400 men ea<'h, which were sub-
divided into turniae and deruriae, commanded
but after the Second Punic War, such legions by native 2>raeJ'ccti equitutn (Caes. B. G. iii.
disappeared. The civiiates focderatae a.tid the '20,1).
U 2
292
EXERCITUS
III. The Itiqierial Period : the Standi ng
Ar))iy.
The army now becomes a standing one. The
«mperor is the supreme commander {hiipcrato} ,
avToKpdrwp, Dio Cass. Ivii. 8) ; and to his
staixhirds the legions and auxiharies swoie
allegiance [aacraiibentum) twice a year, on the
date of his accession (Plin. Ep. x. 52 [(it)]) and
on the Kalends of January (Tac. Hist. i. 55).
[lusiurandum.]
(1| Tlie Lf'yiuns. — Under the early Empire
the legion contained ten cohorts and sixty
centuries — altogether between 5000 and 6000
men, with only 120 cavalry for each legion.
Prom the time of Hadrian the infantry of the
legion consisted of 6100 men in ten cohorts, and
726 cavahy in 22 turinae, each of i'A) men and
3 officers. [Legio.]
Octavian, in 36 B.C., had the command of forty-
five legions. After Actium, he retained the tii-.t
twelve of his own and six of those of Lepidus
and Antonius. This accounts for two legions
or even three being found with the same
number. He enrolled legions XIII. to XX. to
face the Gennan War against Maroboduus
(3 A.D.) (Suet. Tib. 16). Legions XXI. and
XXII. were added after the defeat of Varus.
Augustus had at the time of his death twenty-
five legions, which (with duplicates and omis-
sions) only number up to XXII. To these, other
Emperors added new legions under duplicate
numbers, still not going beyond XXII.
The names of the legions arose from various
causes : [a) in the later Republic, sometimes
from the place of levy, e.g. V. Urbaiut, VIII.
Miitinensis ; (b) from cainpaigiis, e.g. IV. Svij-
thic.a, X. FretensiH ; (r) from divinities, c.<j.
I. Minervia; (r?) from division of a single legion,
e.g. Priinigeiiia, or linking two, e.g. Cirniina;
(e) from certain insignia, e.g. V. Alatida, XII.
Fulminata ; (/) various epithets, such as Fia,
Fidelis, Constans, Victrix, Aeterna, liapax ;
(g) after the founder, as II. Trajcnia, IV.
Flavia. After Caracalla all legions bore the
name of the reigning emperor.
The quarters of each legion were fixed : e.g.
II. Augusta in Upper Germany ; VI. Victrix in
Spain. They formed, with cohortes and aJae
of allies, permanent armies of occupation in the
])rovinces, but were liable to be moved if neces-
sary to the seat of war.
(2) The Auxilia. — The auxiliary troops under
the Empire consisted of those forces, besides
the legions, which were raised in the provinces.
In numbers they were perhaps about etjual to
the legionaries (Suet. Tib. 16). They supplied
the whole of the cavalry and a large contingent
of infantry, light armed (cohortes auxiliaviae
sociae, Tac. Ann. i. 49, 5l) and partlj' equipped
in Roman fashion, partly retaining their native
weapons.
The cavalry wore helmets and cuirasses, either
of iron or leather ; carried a long sword, a lance,
and a light shield ; and were furnished with a
quiver, containing three or more javelins. Note
in fig. 537 the trousers (bracue) and boots.
The alae and cohortes, like the legions, had
honorary names and distinctions, as Claudia,
Ulpia, Brita nnica, Victrix, Veterana.
The cohortes were raised in the imperial
provinces only, and seldom stationed iu the
province in which they were raised, nor ever
left very long in any one province. But as
time went on, vacancies were filled up by men
of other nations, especially from the province
in which the division was stationed.
I'ig. 537. — Roman soldier (auxiliary cavalry).
The commanders of the auxiliary cohorts and
o/ae were for the most part Romans, and were
called praefecti, as in the republican period
(Tac. Hist. ii. 59). In later times the title tri-
biiiius came to be applied to the chief officers
of all the cohorts.
Special Extra-Legivnarg Troops.
(1) The Cohors prar f jria {(nrupa (TTparriyls)
of the Fepitblic. — This (from the name) must
have been an old institution, but does not ap-
pear in historical times till the Numantine War
iu the army of Scipio the Younger, who formed
500 of his friends and clients into a troop calk'd
cohors practoria. They received once and a
half the pay of the legionary. Caesar had only
one praetorian cohort {B. G. i. 40, 15). Towards
the end of the Republic each commander had a
praetorian cohort (Sail. Cat. (iO, 5; Cic. Fant.
XV. 4, 7). After the battle of Philippi the various
praetorian cohorts had in all 8000 men. Later
each of the triumvirs had several such corps
d' elite (Plut. Ant. 39, 53). These cohortes prae-
toriae were soldiers picked from veterans and
from the eqitites extraordinarii.
(2) Cohortes civinm liontunorum. — Winn
! Italians came to be confined to serve in the city
' troops, such of them as wished to make a pio-
I fession of arms entered the auxiliarj' cohorts us
i volunteers. Hence the origin of these trooi)s
I which appear under many names: e.g. Cohors
I. Italica civiuvi BomanoriDn voluntarionnn ;
Cohors II. Civium Romanorum, &c. The
centurion Cornelius in the Acts of the Afiostles
(x. 1) belonged to one of these cohorts {(k
<TirfipT]s TTJs KaAovixfVTjs 'ItoAi/ctjs).
(3) The Evocati {avaKArjToi). — The ancients
distinguished tliree kinds of service : (o) legi-
tima militia or sacrament iim \ (b) tiaiuiltus;
(c) evocatio. Those who served in the last
were the evocati. These were originally only
enrolled ^ro militibus (i.e. not regular soldiers)
in special emergencies; but later were veterans
attached, not to the state, but to particular
commanders. [See lusiurandum.] They
played a considerable part in the civil wars,
but seldom appear under the Empire. When
they do appear, the invitation was made by the
emperor (Tac. Hist. ii. 82).
(4) The Evocati Augusti were a special corps
EXERCITUS
293
established by Augustus, wliicJi eontinuod till
Christian times. They had no fixed term of
service, and had civil rather than niilitarj-
functions, as surveyors, architects, clerks, A'c.
They had special rank and extra pay, and the
right of carrying a ritis.
( 5) Vexillarii. — This word has two meannigs :
{(I) one who bears a vex HI inn (= vexillifer) :
ih) one who serves under a cr.riUiini, i.e. u
temporary enrolnieiit. A rc.iilluin and a
sirfuiiiii ilitTer in lliat the fonner is temporarv
and extraordinary, the latter is fixed and regular.
There were different classes of those who serve
under vexilla. (a) Tliose veterans who had
stTxed out their time of twenty years (ve.riUii
viteraiwrum, Tac. Attn. iii. 20) and were nomi- :
nally dismissed (cxauctorati, Tac. Ann. i. 3(>) I
were treated as a select troop, used only in !
buttle, and were free from all other duties {ib.
;it»). (h) Any trooj) sei)aruted from the main
body under a si)ecial commander with its own '
rcxHlum (Caes. B. G. vi. !j(), 3), was called i
rfxillutn or vcxillatio, and its members vcxil- j
liirii. The numbers of a vcxillatio varied, ;
though often 1000.
The Garrison of the Citij under the l-]ni/iirc.
fl) The Cohorics Fraeforiae {ol Sopv(pupoi). —
Tiie praetorium was now wherever the emperor
was. Augustus established nine praetorian
cohorts (Tac. Ann. iv. 5) : three of these he
(|uartered in Rome (Tac. Ann. i. 7), and the
rest in Italy in places where he was wont to
stay himself (Suet. Aiuj. 49, Tib. 37). Sejanus
concentrated the praetorian cohorts into one
c;imp before the Viminal gate (Tac. Ann. iv. '2 ;
Suet. Tib. 37). The supreme commander of
these was the emjieror ; but from the j-ear
tJ B.C. the praetorians were commanded in the
name of the emperor by a jfraefcctus prnetorio,
ur two.
The number of praetorian cohorts varied from
nine to si.xteen.
Each cohort was a eohors niiliaria (Tac.
Hist. ii. 93) eqnitata, each century having a
tiirina of cavalry (Tac. Ann. i. '24, xii. 5C). Each
cohort was commanded by a tribune. The
liraetorians were recruited from volunteers
coming principally from Italy or the provinces
of Spain, Macedonia, or Noricum (Tac. Ann. iv.
Ti). From the time of Septimius Severus, the
praetorians were recruited from the most tried
of the barbarian troops. The length of service
in the praetorian cohorts was sixteen years (Tac.
Ann. i. 17) ; the pay from the time of Tiberius,
720 denarii (about i."27) yearly. ,
(2) The Cohartes 6>/yrtH^tfi.— The praetorians I ^^'-'- -'1"«- xn. 49)
and the urban cohorts appear to form one
closely connected body, though the urban co-
horts were inferior in rank, only getting half
the pay of the praetorians, ami having to serve
twenty years. They were established by Au-
gustus in custodiam urbis (Suet. Aurj. 49), and
put under the authority of the prnrfeitiiH iirbis
(Tac. Hist. iii. (>4). Each cohort iiad originally
1">(I0 men, and was coranninded by a tribunns
(Tac. Ann. vi. !)).
\'A) The Statorcs. — These appear in the Re-
|)ublic amoi\g the apparitors of the provincial
governor, on a le\fl with tin; lictors. Under
the Empire they were confined to the special
service of the emperor, and culled Statores
Aiiffusti. They took rank between the c.ohortea
rigiliim and urbanar, and stood in close con-
nexion with the praetorians. Tiieir connnamler
appears to have been called jjrue/eifus or
enrutvi:
(4 1 The Conartes Vigilum were establisheil
by Augustus in G .\.D. as a night-watch, botli
to i)revent tir<'s and to act as iM)lice. They
were part of the regular army, but of a lower
rank than the other corps of soldiers.
They consisted of freedmen (Suet Auij. 2.">).
The whole consisted of seven cohorts of abi^ut
11100 men each. Each cohort had two regions
of the city to look after, and in each region a
watchhonse (exrubitoriinn). Each cohort fell
into si-vi-n centuries, and was conunanded by u
trdiimiis. 'I'hc whole corps was under the
Praefectus vigilum. In early times his juris-
iliction was restricted ; but under Sejjt. Severus
the jurisdiction of the etjuestrian praefeetua
vigilum was extended at the expense of that of
the senatorial praefectus tirbi.
Xon-Bantan Troops in the Garrison.
(1) Gennani or Bata.vi. — This troop was in-
stituted by Augustus. Tln-y were taken from
the Cicrnian tribes belonging to tlie eni]iire, and
their duty was the guarding of the imperial
family. They formed a cidlegiuni, which fell
into decuriae like the collegia and deeuriae of
slaves.
(2) The Equites Singulares Augusti wc-re
instituted by either Trajan or Hadrian. They
appear originallj' to have been taken from the
provinces on the Rhine or the Danube. They
were connected with tlie auxiliary cavalry, but
stood in a higher grade. They were (juartered
in Rome. They seem to have been under the
general conmiand of the praefectus j'raetorin,
each division having a tribune.
The Provincial Militia.
Tacitus often (Hist. i. 11, &c.) speaks of the
inennes pruvineiae, by which he means those
provinces in which no legions were stationed.
These were (1) senatorial jirovinces (except
Africa) ; (2) imperial provinces in which there
was no legion stationed ; (3) provinces governed
by procurators, e.g. the Cottian Alps (Suet.
Tib. ;!7), Rhaetia, Noricum, Thrace, Judaea.
There was a threefold kind of militia in the
pi'ovinces :
(1) Municipal, the maintenance of which
was incumbent on the municipal magistrates.
(2) Special Provincial, e.g. the Praefectus
orae inuritimac in Hispania Tarraconensis.
(3) General Provincial. In tinu's of danger
or confusion the main body of youths in a
province apjjcars to have been sometimes called
out for military service (Cic. Verr. v. 17, 43;
'The higher Officers of the Legions.
(1) The Tribuni (xiAiopx"')- — There were six
for each legion, chosen originally by the consul.
In 3(12 n.c. the people laid claim to elect in the
cnniifia. tribnta six out of the twenty-four (Liv.
vii. r>, 9); in 207 li.c, all the twenty-four (Liv.
xxvii. 3('), 4). They were ri'gnlar nuigistratcs of
the Ronnm peoi>le ; they held office for a year
(Cic. Att. xiii. 33, 3), beginning on January 1.
When the number of legions increased, the
consuls had the appointment of the rest. Tiiis
distinction rennxined till the reign of Augustus.
Tlie tribunes divided themselves info three
sections of two each, and each pair commanded
the legion for two months out of the six months
of active ojierations. In the Punic and Ma<-e-
donian wars tribuiu's of the soldiers ftp|)ear
who ha<l held the consulship, praetorship, and
aedileship; but as a general rule the tribunes
294
EXERCITUS
were young men of rank : e.g. Scipio at the
age of twenty (Liv. xxii. 53, 1), and Flamininus
at that of eighteen (Plut. Flam. 1). The tri-
bunes wore the gold ring [Anulus] of the
equites : if they were of senatorial birth they
were called laticlavii (Suet. Aug. 38). The
annual salary of a tribune was 25,000 sesterces,
about 200^.
Under the Empire the tribunes still held a
certain command in the legion (Tac. Hist. iii. 9),
but subject to the legatus, who commanded
both legions and auxiliary troops. The tribunes
attended to the discij^line of the camp, the
giving out of stores, the care of the sick, ttc,
took part in the council of war, acted as spokes-
men for the soldiers, kept the lists, and granted
discharges and furloughs. They were attended
by apparitores and other orderlies.
(2) The Legatus Legionis. — On days of battle,
and when he left his army, Jul. Caesar was in the
habit of appointing special commanders (legati)
for the legions, one for each. This commander
was retained by Augustus, and was styled
legatus legionis. He was of senatorial rank,
usually an ex-praetor (Tac. Hist. i. 48). The
legati had conimand of the legion as well as
the annexed auxilia (Tac. Hist. i. 57), while the
tribuni were strictly legionary officers.
(3) The Prae.fectus Castrorum,. — These
officers were created by the emperor, chiefly
from among primipili. They were subject to
the legatus of the province (Tac. Aim. xiv. 37),
and seem to have held the chief post after the
legatus legionis, though they were not subject
to him (Tac. Ann. xiii. 89, Hist. iii. 14).
The duties of the praefectus castrorum ex-
tended to the whole control of the camp, its
buildings and engines, and the maintenance
and care of the animals kept in it. He kept
discipline in the camp (Tac. A)t)i. i. 20), and so
had a certain jurisdiction, but could not punish
capitally (ih. i. 38). During battle the prae-
fectus castrorum generally i-emained in the
camp with the reserve (Tac. Hist. ii. 2(>).
(4) The Centuriones, eKarovToipxah ra^iapxot,
were sixty in number, and were appointed by
the consul, through the military tribunes, on
grounds of merit (Liv. xlii. 53; Pol. vi. 24).
They were arranged according as they belonged
to the triarii or pilani, pr in cipes, or hastati;
and again according as they commanded the
first or second century of the maniple [prior or
posterior). The words ordo imd piliis are used
indifferently to mean rank or centurion. Priini
jiili centurio or jmmi ordinis centwrio is the
same as the commoner primus pilvs (prinii-
/lilus, primopiliis) : pri?>ii ordi)ies=priuii cen-
turiones. The pri 1)1 i ordines seem to have been
the three chief centurions of the first cohort,
viz. the primus pilus (i.e. triarius), jn'inius
vrinceps prior, &nd prim,us hastatus prior.
The rank and method of promotion of the
centurions is a matter of some obscurity. It
depended partly on the division into triarii,
principes and liastati or pilani (the triarii
taking precedence), partly on senior or junior
companies [centuria prior ot posterior).
All centurions carried the vitis, with which
to inflict punishment on refractory soldiers.
Vitis was a synonym for the centurionship ( Juv.
viii. 247 ; Mart. x. 26, 1). In the legion the
pri)nipilus was held in especial honour. He
took part in the council of war (Pol. vi. 24, 2).
In republican times, and for the most part
during the Empire, this was the last position in
an ordinary soldier's career. When they had
finished their service, they retired into private
life, and were then called primipilares. They
frequently repaired to municipal towns, where
they became local magnates (Cic. Fin. i. 3, 8 ;
Hor. Sat. i. 6, 72). Tliey often made enough
money to enable them to buy equestrian rank
for themselves or for their sons (cf. Mart. v. 58,
10). If they wished to continue in the service,
they were employed in important military
dvities (Tac. Ann. ii. 11, Hist. i. 87, iv. 15),
sometimes bs praefecti castrorum or pracfecti
cohortium (Tac. Ann. i. 20) : sometimes, too,
they got positions in the civil service (Suet.
Cal. 21). But in imperial times the 2^>'''"i-
pilatus became the first step in the equesti'ian
career, leading to the tribunates of the city
soldiery, occasionally to that of the legions, and
even to the praefecture of the praetorians (Tac.
Ann. i. 29). Often the honorary title of cen-
turion was given to young men of position by
grant of tlie emperor (Juv. xiv. 193 ; Suet, de ill.
Gramm. 24), either on retirement a militiis or
as a qualification for further promotion.
In republican times and in the early Em])ire
the number of centurions in the legion was
sixty (Tac. Ann. i. 32). In the first cohort the
primipilus commanded 400 men, the jirinaps
200, the hastatus primus and princeps ■jms-
terior 150 each, aad the hastatus posterior ]i)().
The Inferior Officers [Principales).
I. 27ic Principales belonging to a corps. —
(1) The Standard-bearers :
(a) Aquiliferi, of which each legion had one.
ib) Signiferi cohortium, ten in number.
(c) Vexiilarii or vexilliferi.
(d) Imaginiferi.
(2) The Trumpeters. — Tubicines, cornicinrs,
bvcinatores. rCornu; Signa militaria.]
(3) Tesserarii. — Soldiers told off to carry the
tessera or password, one in each centurj'.
Other petty officers are curatores, custodes
annorum, campidoctores or exercitatores, car-
rerarii, haruspices, inctiniarii, &c.
(4) Optiones. — So called because 'chosen ' by
the decurion or centurion, as his assistant in
]irivate matters, or his substitute in case of
sickness or accident. There were two classes
of optiones, one belonging to the centimes and
superior in rank, the other taking charge of
special departments outside the centuries. We
find optioties belonging to the centuries in the
legions, praetorians, cohortes urbanae, and
vigiles.
1 5) Speculatores appear first in the Civil War.
During the Empire there were ten in each
legion. They carried despatches (Tac. Hist. ii.
73 ; cf. Liv. xxxi. 24, 4), and sometimes acted as
exe(!utioners (Sen. de Ira, i. 18, 4 ; St. Mark
I vi. 27). They were numerous in the praetoriun
I cohorts, and we find them in Tacitus (Hist. ii.
11, 23) forming a separate corps, with their
j own officers, and the function of acting as body-
guard to the emperor (Suet. Claud. 25).
I (0) Artisans. — Under this head may come the
! architectus, the librator who made aqueducts,
smiths, stone-cutters, roof-builders (scandu-
I larii), wood-cutters, charcoal-burners ; makers
I of catapults, arms, carriages, &c., and other
' labourers and artisans ; and metatores, wlio
measured out the camp (Cic. Phil, xi, 5, 12).
(7) Medici. — The army doctors, who ranked
among tlie ]3ri?wipales, were an institution of
the Empire. Under the Republic the chief
officers used to bring their private physicians
with them on campaign (Plut. Cat. Min. 70 ;
Suet. ,4m(/. 11). Wounded soldiers could seldom
' obtain treatment (cf. Cic. Tasc. ii. 16, 38). But
EXERCITUS 296
early in llie Empire (Tac. .Iwh. i. Cm) attention a ncjas, and (leser\-etl death. From the lime
began to be paid to the medical department, of Marius the oath was taken once for all tlio
Every division had its incdUns. There was the , whole period of service.
virtUcus Icyionis in each li'tjion, and also Besides the sac/-rt/;«/i<M>w, whit-'i belonged to
doctors attadud to the otlur Immches of the the Injitinia militia, soldiern were sonietinies
aervice. Tliese doctors were Koman citizens. , sworn m en masse (cuniurutin) on the occasion
The hospital of tlie garrison was called vale- of a tumultus, i.e. an Itiilian or Gallic war. The
tudinarium: for three legions there was one consul hoisted a red Hag, to call out (evocart-)
valetudiiiarium. It was under the super- the infantry, and a blue tlag for the cavalry, on
intendence of the jtrafff<tii.i castroriun or a tlie Capitol, and with the formula 'Qui rem-
trihnniis militum; but tlse oHicer in charge publicani salvani esse vidt, me secjnatur,' en-
wa.s the uptio ualetiidiiiaiii, who had a niunber rolled the citizens. Evocatm appears to have
of male nurses under him. There was also an been a similar ceremony, performed by deputy
infinnary for horses and nudes (vctrrinariiiiiij and not at IJonie (Serv. a<l Verg. Acn. viii. l).
and veterinary surgeons to attend to them. The soldiers sworn in by a coniuratio were free
II. The triurijiales attached to an officer, from service at the end of the crisis. (See aljovc,
Clerks. — Librarii who kept the jiccoimts ; Eeocati.)
(rtitiones); conimentarieimes,\\hn entered the The qualifications for Bervice were physical
daily proceedings in journals, and others, such capacity (Pol. vi. atl, il), citizenshiji, and a
as iddicillarii, tahitlarii, actarii; qnaestioit- census of 11,000 ass(s (later UIOO, Pol. vi. lit,
arii, cornicularii, and serutorc.i (adjutants), ; 12). The jjrulctarii and cajiiie coisi were
strutvren (equerries), itc. ; and lastly inimtuws, ', enrolled only in times of danger. In the Social
soldiers excused all camp duties. I War Ubcrtini were enroll. d, and afterwards
III. Theorderof rank among the 7J)7/(r//)fl/^s, occasionally even slaves {I'lni. Mar. i\ ; Cats,
or (as we should call them) non-commissioned B. C i. 29, 2).
officers, appears to have been somewhat as I Caesar and Pompeius enrolled legions of
follows: (1) Centurio; (2) Evocatus Augusti ; provincial troops (legionen vcimactilae), \\ho
(3) Cornicularii and Beneficiarii ; (4) Curator were not citizens (Caes. Bell. Hisp. 7). This
fisci ; (5) Aquilifer; (G) Signifer: (7) Vexil- practice was restricted to the Eastern provinces
larius; (8) Optio. I by Augustus, who thus laid the foundation of
I the later division of the Empire into partes
The Lrrij (delectus, dilectus, KaraKoyos). Orientis and Oecidentis (Tac. Ann. iii. 40, xi.
\i\ the time of the citizen army the levy took | 24).
place yearly. The consuls appointed a day on ' The qualifications for the legionary service
which the citizens liable to service were to under the Empire, besides such physical ones as
assemble at the CapiUd (Liv. xxvi. 31, 11). | health, strength, a regulation height (/«fo;H//ui,
Sometimes recruiting otiicers (ennijitiiiitorea) \ tyKOfifxa), and freedom fron> any serious crime,
were sent throughout Italy (Liv. xxiii. 32, 19), were : (1) to belong to an urban conununity,
and constantly after 89 B.C., when all Italy was I and (2) free-birth
Duruig the Empire regular levies seldom took
place. As a rule vacancies were filled up by
volunteers ; and even in tlie levies substitutes
were accepted (Plin. Ep. x. 30 [89J, 1). Gradu-
liable to legionary service.
The tribunes were first assigned to the four
legions in the order of their election (Pol. vi.
19, 8 sqq.). A tribe was then chosen by lot, and
the names of four of its members were called ' ally the Italians ceased to take service in the
out. The men answering to llieir names (Liv. ; legions, though the legal liability was not
vii. 4, 2) were chosen by the tribunes, one for i removed ; and the legions were j>rinciiiiilly
ea<-li of the four legions; then four more (the , recruited from the Latin i)rovinces, e.y. Gallia
tribunes of the second legion now liaving the I Transpadana, Sicily, Spain. This practice de-
first choice), and so on. A lot was then cast I veloped (under Hadrian) to a local conscription
for the second tribe, and so on till the legion ' for each legion : the African legion, e.;/., being
was completed. Volunteers (Liv. xlii. 32, G) almost exclusively raiseil in Africa and Numidia.
were frequent. They became legitimi inilitcs From the time of tlie Social War, the Sorii
in the same way as those who served under | having vanished entirely, the legions and auxilia
i!onipulsion. form the two main bodies of the Roman army.
The cavalry, in early times, were chosen The latter were the nnn-Roman troojts raised
after the infantiy (Liv. xxix. 37, 8); but in partly in the provinces, partly from allied kings
Polybius's time Ivi. 20, !)) the cavalry were
pickful first from liie e<iuestrian list of the last
census and 300 appointed to each legion.
If those bound to serve did not answer to
their names, they were liable to severe punish-
ment, even slavery. Certain excuses were
allowed, which were considered by the consul
(Liv. iii. C7, 7).
The levy being completed, the consuls a*l-
ministered the oath [sacraniento milites rogare
nr ailigere). One soldier stootlout and rei)ealed
the oath {sacramentiim or sacra inrnto dteere)
that he would obey orders and execute the
(■onnnands of theoflicer to the best of hisability ;
ofter that each soldier was called out sepa-
rately, and said ' Idem in me.' The obligation of
the iiath lasted till the next <'ampaign. a new
oath being recjuin-d for the new gen«'ral (Liv.
iii. 20, 3; Cic. Of. i. 11, 3(1). Witliout an oath
it was unlawful to light with the enemy (Cic,
and nations:.. These auxiliary troops were for
the most part raised from peregrin i — especially
from natives of the place where the troo)<
happened to be located. They were designated
by the name of the nation to which lh< >
belonged. By Augustus the auxiliaries were
only taken from the im|ierial jirovinces and
Africa, the senatorial provinces BUi)plying prin-
cijjally the legions and the guard.
Recruiting officers under the Empire were
called dilrctatores; being oflicials of senatorial
rank in Italy and tlie senatorial provinces, of
equestrian rank in the imii«.>rial.
The Line of March (agmen).
The usual order of inarch in the second
c«(ntury i:.c. was in a single column (Pol. vi.
40, 4). First came the extraonlinarii. Next
the ala dextra of the allies, followed by its
haggago and the baggage of the extraordinui ii.
Q^.i. 11,37; Liv. viii. 34,10). Desertion was Then one of the legions, followed by its baggngt
I
296
EXERCITUS
tlien the other legion, followed by its own
baggage and that of the ala sinistra of the
allies, which latter brought up the rear. The
cavalry usually followed the divisions of in-
fantry to which they were attached ; some-
times, however, they were placed on the flanks.
In open places where an attack was imminent,
the line of march was almost that of battle,
into which it could readily be changed (Tac.
Ayin. ii. IC). Caesar calls it triplex acies (B. G.
i. 49, 1). The hastati, principes, and triarii
then marched in three parallel columns, each
maniple having its baggage before it. The
triplex acicH is usually called by Livy agmen
qiiadratnm, i.e. a square or rectangular ar-
rangement : see Liv. x. 14, 7, &c. Sometimes
a hollow ^.ijuare or rectangle was formed (also
called agmen quaclratum), with the baggage in
the middle.
The Roman soldier carried a great weight.
Besides his arms, the legionary liad to carry
food for half a month or more (Caes. B. G. i.
78, 1 ; Liv. xliv. 2, 4), one or more stakes, and
various odds and ends ; e.g. saw, basket, spade,
axe, strap, sickle, rope. The whole weight of
the baggage was estimated at sixty Roman
pounds (cf. Cic. Tusc. 11, IG, 37 ; Verg. Georg.
iii. 346). Marius made an arrangement for
carrying all this on a board fastened on to a
forked support strapped across the shoulders
(viiilus Marianiis, also called aerumna).
The heavy baggage, such as tents, hand-
mills, &c., were carried on horses or mules
{mmerifa) driven by calonea.
The Battle Array {acies).
According to Livy (viii. 8, 9 sqq.), the ten
maniples of the hastati stood first, next imme-
diately behind the intervals {intcrva,lla,^ia<rTi]-
/jLara) between the maniples of the hastati stood
the principes, and behind the intervals of these
the ten maniples of the triarii. Thus the
arrangement was that of a quincunx (Pol. xv.
CD nH CD hastati
I I I I jjrinciprs
I 1 I I f 1 triarii
9, 6). The hastati, if repulsed, retired throuifh
the intervals of the principes. Should the prin-
cipes likewise be defeated, the contest came to
the triarii (res ad triarios redit).
The standards (Signa, i.e. the standards of
the maniples) usually stood behind the last
row of the maniple. The signa especially
alluded to in accounts of battles are those of
the hastati (Liv. xxxvii. 39, 8). The antesig-
nani, then, are the prima acies or hastati (cf.
Liv. 47, 2) ; and the 2'ostsignani the principes.
If the enemy are repulsed, the hastati advance,
signa jrromota (Liv. viii. 38, 10) ; and if the
hastati have to retire, the secunda acies come up
ad prima signa (Liv. ix. 32, 8). Sometimes the
signa appear to have been in the front of the
maniples (Tac. Hist. ii. 43), and this was no
doubt the usual position in a charge in battle
(Liv. xxxiv. 15, 3). Miles subdgnanus is a
regular legionary soldier. The antcsignani of
Caesar were a select body (cf. Cic. Pldl. v. 5,
12), formed within the legion from the most
active and brave men, three or four hundred in
number, who were free from all baggage {expe-
diti), and who could be used for sudden exigen-
cies.
The usual order of battle (frons) appears to
have been the two legions in the centre, flanked
ou the right by the ala dextra of the allies,
and on the left by the ala sinistra. On the
extreme right were the legionary cavalry and
the equites extraordinarii (Liv. xxii. 45, 7) ;
on the extreme left, the allied cavalry. But
there were frequent variations : sometimes the
cavalry was behind the legions (Liv. x. 5, tJ), or
the allies were in front, the legions in reserve
(xxxv 5, 8), or the legions were on the wings
(Pol. xi. 20, 5). Other formations are found : e.g.
(Vj fronte longa qnadrato crercitit — the kind
described above; (2) obliqua acies, i.e. right or
left wing attacking ; (3) simiata acies, both
wings attacking, legionaries guarded by light-
armed ; (4) cnneus (e/i)3oAo;/) (see Liv. xxxix.
31), called by the soldiers caput porcinum, viz.
the centre projecting like a wedge, a kind of
attack to be received by a V-shaped arrange-
ment {teJiaHlc), called /o?/t'a'.
Guneus, however, is frequently used for any
solid formation, e.g. the Macedonian phalanx
(Liv. xxxii. 17, 11), not necessarily of a wedge
form.
In particular emergencies other combinations
were formed : e.g. (1) orbis, a close square or
mass, which soldiers formed {volverc, facerc)
when hard-pressed by the enemy (Sull. lai/. 97,
5; Caes. B. G. iv. 37, 2); (2) Testudo"; (3)
globus, a general word for a small closely-
formed attacking division (Liv. iv. 29, 1 ; Tac.
Ann. xiv. 01).
Hadrian, who much improved the organisa-
tion and discijiline of the army, reintrndnced
the close phalanx. The phalanx was now eight
deep, in close array, the first four lines armed
with pila,i\\e. last four with lanccar [jArms and
Armour, Lance.\]: cf. Tac. Hist. i'. 79. The
cavalry and artillery stood both on the wings
and in the rear of the phalanx, with a reserve
of picked men to make a charge at tlie right
moment.
Conditions of the Service.
Augustus organised the regulations referring
to the pay of the soldiers while in the service,
the number of years' ser\-ice required, and the
reward on discharge ; establishing at the same
time the Aerarium militare (Suet. Aug. 49).
(1) Pag.~ Prior to the siege of Veii, in 406
i!.c., the expenses of the Roman soldier were
defrayed by his tribe, except those of the
knights (see above). [Equites.J It was paid at
the end of service, whether for six mimths
(semestre stipendium, Liv. xl. 41, 11), or a year
[annuuni stipendium, Liv. xlii. 34, 5). The
payment was laid on the conquered (Liv. v. 27,
15). Polj'bius (vi. 39, 15) says that the pro-
visions, clothes, tents, and accoutrements were
deducted from the pay.
The annual ijay of the legionary in the time
of Polybius for the year of 360 days was 1200
asses, of the centurion 2400, and of the horse-
man 3600. Caesar raised the pay of the legion-
ary to 3600 asses ( = 225 denarii), Domitian to
300 denarii. The only superior officer's pay
we know of is that of the tribunus legion is in
the third century, viz. 25,000 sesterces.
Increased pay was sometimes given for dis-
tinguished bravery or special service. Such
soldiers were called dnplarii, sesquiplicarii,
&c. Salariarii are officers of rank employed
in civil duties, e.g. adsessores, medici, evocati.
(2) Length of service and discharge. — Dur-
ing the Republic the citizens were bound to
serve between the completed seventeenth year
of age and the completed fortj'-sixth ; the legion-
ary had to serve sixteen or at most twenty
campaigns, the cavalry ten (Pol. vi. 19, 2).
EXERCITUS
After Augustus the legionary served twenty
years (Dio Cuss. liv. 25, C), the pnu»toriaiis six-
ttfcn (Tac. Ann. i. 17, 7H), the urban coliort^
twenty, the auxilinrit's twenty-live. After serv-
inj; their time they were entitled to hoventu
fninsio; but soldiers were very eonimonly re-
ttiined in the service as evocati long after tlu-ir
legal term of service had expired. In tlie cu^e
of hont'sta inisaio, if the veterans did not ha\e
land allotted to them, tliey got a lump sum
i>f money, the praetorians 5000 denarii (al)ont
ilH5) the legionaries ;iOOOor im)re (about ilVl'i).
In ease of physical incapacity or sickness,
a .soldier had what was called a rtiii sarin
inissio.
2i)7
Miscellaneous Features of the Scrviir.
II) Marriafjr. — A Ronnm legionary could not
legally marry while in the service, but relaxa- \
tioiis of this rule were granted, and the offspring I
from soldiers* nnirriages or cohabitation u<in-
ressn consuetudo) with women called y'()r«r/(/r,
tliiuigli not bom in wedlock, were often legiti-
mated and granted citizenship, even when tlieir
parents were pcregrinae condicionis. A sol- ;
dier alreadj" inaiTied could retain his wife, but '
ei'uld not keep her in the camp. The oidy
wniiKui in the camj) were eitlier camp-follnwers
or non-Komans (Liv. xliii. 8, 1). The auxiliaries
were allowed to marry while still soldiers. Tlie
children born of a /ocd rm bore the name of the
mother, were said to have been bom in the
camp, and all assigned to tile tribe I'ollia, so
iis to enable them to take service in tlie legions.
In the fourtii century a.d. all soldiers could
marry, and permissicm could be granted by the
commander to a soldier to keep liis wife in the
caini>.
What was legally only concubinatus was no
doubt expressed (as e.g. in epitaphs) by the
more honourable tenns of conhnix and maritnH.
Vl) liusinesa (if the Soldier i)i pearr. Exer-
rises and tlie Con.structionnf Puldir. Works. —
Itoman discipliiu; required that the soldiers
sliould not got demoralised by inaction. They i
had to go through the drill necessary to keep !
tlii-m in efficient training, which was held twice
a day for recruits, once for full soldiers. Tliey
were further trained in wood-cutting, riding,
jumping, running, swimming, shooting javelins
and arrows, slinging stones, fencing and sjiar- j
ring at a stake with a stick [vcrtis; elava, V'eg.
i. 11; sillies, Juv. vi. 248; hulns qnintainis
from via tjiiintana [Castra] : hence mediaeval
'"luintain '), I'Cc. Besides this, there was occa- I
sioually the Decursio ; especially after the;
ri!\iew (lustratio): see Liv. xl. (!, 5. Also once ;
a month the ambiilatio, i.e. to march fully '
eipiipped ten miles out and home at theregnla- j
tion military pace (four Koman | = nearly
aft EnglishI miles an hour), sometimes pleno
(/radii (nearly five miles an liour).
Soldiers often executed (lublic works. They
Were not allowed to work for private i)eoplo ;
but sometimes built pul)lic edifices in the pro
(b) The Military Roads, which were always
the main high roads throngliout the Emjure
((^uint. ii. 13, 1(5). From the duties of road-
making «'ven veterans were not free.
(f) Keeping up and extending the fortifica-
tions already in existence.
((/) MisrellaneoUH works, such as making
bridges (Tac. .inn. i. 20), cutting canals (ib. x'l.
20), building amphitheatres (ib. Hist. ii. 07|,
dredging rivers and harlMiurs (Suet. Auij. \H\,
agricultural work, even occusionally working in
mines (Tac. .b/w. xi. 2<H.
(.'5) Uewards and I'lmislinunts. — For v-
wards, see Corona, Ovatio, Triamphas, and
Inilex, s.v. Military Rewards.
Among military punishments may bo men-
tioned :
(d) Castigatin, which could be inflicted even
on oflicers.
{b) Pern niaria multa, deprivatum of whole
or part of pay (Liv. xl. 41, 11). One who thi:s
lost his pay was called acre dirntns.
(r) Mil mm in indirtio, extra duty, could Ix?
inflicted only on those who were in some degree
immunes, by making them niunificcs, whicli
may be regarded as grndiis deiertio.
(d) Militiue vintdtio, degradation, e.g. from
the cavalry to the infantry, or to the finidi tores.
This was also called ordinis adeniptin.
(<•) Ignominiosa niissio, public drumming-
out before the whole army.
To these add —
(/) Whole troops were often given barley
instead of wheat for food, and made to bivouac
outside the camp (Pol. vi. an, 3: ef. Liv. j.
4, 4 ; Suet. Aug. 24).
(g) Declmatio.
(//) Cnjiit'il jiiinishment, which could only
1)0 inflicted by the consul during the Republic,
or by the emperor or Irgatus legionis during
the P^mpire. It was the penalty for desertion
tdesirtio), excessive insubordination, secret cor-
respondence with (he enemy, or loss of stan-
dards (Tac. Ann. xiii. 3(>). See Fastaariom.
(4) Co7nniis.s(iriat. — Kach foot-soldier in the
time of Polybius (vi. 8i«, 1:5) got per month 4
inodii of wheat ; each Roman trooper 42 modii
of barley, and 12 of wheat ; ea<-h tro..j)er of the
allies 80 modii of barley and H of wheat. The
extra supply for the horse-soldiers was for tin-
support of two servants for each Roman and
one for each ally, and for their horses. The
food of the (rreeks was mostly barley (cf.
Xen. An. vii. 1, 87); the Ronnins used more
wheat. The soldier used to carry rations
for seventeen days. The com when nua-
snred out (ntetiri) to the soldiers was neither
ground nor baked. The sohliers ground their
com in hand-mills [MolaJ, which were carried
with the baggage. The flour was nnide into
a kind of porridge (puis), or baked into br.'a.l
(Plut. Mar. 7). Cocta ribaria are freipientiv
mentioned in the times of the early l^public
(Liv. iii. 28, 8, 27, 8 ; cf. Pint. Mar. 18 ; Sail. lug.
44, 5). Biscuit (biirrellatnni) is mentioncMl in
vinces. In republican times the soldiers were ' lato times. Meat was cjuite a secondarv artiilo
o<-casionally employed in executing large public of food in the time of the Republic aiid early
works. Exami)les of this are the Via Flaininia ' Empire (C'aes. Ii. G. i. 4,s, «;) : and it was con-
in Italy, and the Fossa Mariana near Aries
- But the great works of the Ronum soldiery
appear under the Empire :
(a) The Liniites, or frontier fortifications:
such as the Valium Hadriani or Picts' Wall
in the N. of England; the Limes I'niiisriirna.
nu.s, from the mouth of the Lahn iiearKelheim
to the Danube; the Limes lihaetiae, the Limes
Oricntalis, the Limes Africanus, Arc.
sidered a case of hardslii|) when life had to bo
I supported on meat alono (Caes. B. O. vii. 17, 8;
I Tac. ylHH, xiv. 24). Vegetables {legumina) were
I also occasionally us<m1 in case of un insiillicient
j supply of corn"(('(ir<». Ji. C. iii. 47. 7): and of
course salt was always given (cf. I'lut. Crass.
la). For drink we hear of vinegar being
j supplied to make the draught called posru.
, Wine was often served out, though not by strict
298
EHETA2TAI
disciplinarians (Sail. In;/. 44). The price of the
com was deducted from the pay ; it amounted
to about 40 denarii a year. Other necessaries
or luxuries were supplied by sutlers {lixae)
who followed the camp. Armies used to be
biUeted in towns, and requisitions were made
on the neighbourhood, whether friendly or not.
Cicero (Imp. Cn. Pomp. 13, 38) speaks of the
abuses connected with this. It was thought
that war should support itself (Liv. xxxiv. 9, 12).
Magazines (horrea) were erected for the sup-
plies to be transported to (Caes. B. C. iii. 42, 4).
The supplies in the imperial magazines con-
sisted of corn, barley, and straw, and biscuit,
bacon, pork, wine, vinegar, &e. The duty of
transport (vectura) lay on the magistrates of
the tributary towns (Gaes. B. C. iii. 32, 2).
Among commissariat officers were pecuarii,
venatores and lanii.
(5) Associations in the Arnuj. — Belonging to
every cohort of the legion, under charge of the
sifjnifer and subordinate clerks [Uhrarii deposi-
toTTuyn), was a,foIlis or public purse, into which
one-half of all extraordinary grants of money
were paid by the soldiers, and probably also
voluntary contributions. There was also a
burial fund in each legion, to which every soldier
contributed a trifle. We also find kinds of
friendly societies formed by certain classes of
the pr 1710 ip ales. Such a society, as well as the
building in which it met, was called schola.
Each member paid an entrance fee [scamna-
rium) of 720 denarii. If ordered across the
sea, he got 200 denarii ; when he became a
veteran, an anulariujti of 500 ; if he died, his
heirs or executors received .")00.
For military armour and weapons see Arms
and Armour. For dress, military ensigns,
military engines, see the Index.
'EgeTaaTaC. See Appeudix, Greek Law.
Exhibendum, Actio ad. See Appendix,
KoMAN Law.
Exi'lium {(pvyi). Banishment. 1. Greek. —
In the heroic ages the general term (piryrj (flight)
was applied (1) to penal banishment for crime,
e.g. Oil. xvi. 38 ; (2) to voluntary exile in order
to avoid punishment, chiefly when homicide had
been committed (see II. xxiii. 88, ii. 0(55, xiii. 095,
Oil. XV. 224, xxiii. 119). Tlie exile became iKtrris
in his new country (Hdt. i. 34; Od. xiii. 231,
&c.), and under the pi'otection of Zeus iKeffios.
The duty of taking vengeance devolved upon
the relatives of the slain man ; who might, how-
ever, accept a ransom (' blood-wite,' ' wer-gild ') or
iroji/TJ {II. ix. 630, &c.). The idea of a ceremonial
pollution and cleansing {Kadapffts) is post-
Homeric, and probably Asiatic (Grote, ch. i.)
(Od. xxiv. 433 sqq.).
At Atbens, a person convicted of accidental
homicide had to leave the country within a
specified time by a certain road, and to remain
in exile until the relations of the slain man
pardoned him (alSelffOai, alSecris) (Dem. c.
Aristocr. p. 644, § 72, c. Mid. p. 528, § 43) ;
his possessions were iirlri/jia, i.e. not confiscated.
The length of the term of banisliment is uncer-
tain. The relations could always bring it to an
•end by alSeais and KJidapffis (cf. 'E(t)eTaL).
Banishment for life with confiscation was
inflicted on persons who rooted up the sacred
olives (uopiai) at Athens (Lys. ijro sacr. Olea
exsc. § 41), and on those convicted of wounding
with intent to kill [Tpavvt-axos YpaiJjTi]. The
murder of a non-citizen was punished with
banishment.
Banishment might also be proposed as penalty
by the accuser, or be decreed by the state, in a
EXILIUM
case of aaePfia (Plat. Apol. -p. 373 C ; Plut.
Them. 6 ; Plat. Gurg. 408 b).
In the majority of cases, however, when we
hear of non-political exiles we must understand
voluntary exile preferred to the risk of standing
a trial. This was not forbidden even in the
case of wilful murder, provided that the accused
person left the country after the first day of the
trial ; the murderer was then condemned to
perpetual exile and his property confiscated.
If such an exile returned, he was immediately
put to deatli (Dem. c. Aristocr. p. 030, §311;
and whoever harboured anyone who had thus
fled his country was liable to the same penalties
as the fugitive himself (Dem. c. Polycl. p. 1222.
§ 49). Such exiles were not allowed to return
home even upon a general amnesty ; and during
exile they were shunned as aLv^po(p6vo: (Phil.
Sol. 19; Andoc. de Mijst. §§ 77, 78). There
are instances of individuals being allowed t<i
return from exile: e.g. Alkibiades (Thuc. viii.
97, etc.), Demosthenes (Plut. Dem. 27, &c.),
Thucydides (Paus. i. 23, 9). To those who
received permission to return to Athens the
state restored the value of the confiscated pro-
perty (Plut. Ale. 33).
Under (pvyi], or banishment, as a general
term, is comprehended Ostrarimn (o(TTpaKiirfj.6s\.
Ostracism was not perpetual (aei(J)u>(o), nor did
it involve confiscation of property. It was
introduced after the expulsion of the Peisi-
stratidae, and was used (Arist. Pol. iii. 8 [13j)
in order to remove from the city for a definite
Fig. .■^.— 'OffxpaKOi' with the name of Megakles.
(Benudorf, Gr. «. Sic. Vasenb.)
time those who appeared to be pre-eminent
above their fellow-citizens, by reason of their
wealth, the number of their friends, or any
other means of influence. No name was pro-
posed, and any name might be written on the
offTpaKa; but it worked practically asaparty vote.
The manner of effecting ostracism was as
follows. The assembly determined in a Kvpia
(KKKricria whether such a step was necessary ;
if they decided in the affirmative, a day was
named for the voting. On the appointed day
the agora was railed round, with ten entrances
left, one for each tribe : by these tlie tribesmen
entered, and in the presence of the archons and
jSouAr), deposited in urns each his vcrrpaKov or
potsherd, with the name of the person written
on it whom he wished to be ostracised. If
6000 citizens voted, he against whom most vntes
were given liad to leave Athens within ten days
If a total of 6000 votes liad not been recorded,
the ceremony ended in nothing (Andoc. dc
Myst. § 87 ; Dem. c. Timocr. p. 719, § 59). The
period of banishment was ten years ([Andoc] c.
Alcih. § 2). In some instances persons ostracised
were recalled before the ten years had expired ;
e.g. Aristeides, before the battle of Salamis, on
the motion of Themistokles (but see Hdt. viii.
79, and Corn. Nep. Arist. 1). Perikles did the
same with regai'd to Kimon (Plut. Per. 10,
Kim. 17).
\
t
EXILIUM
Besides those mentionetl before, Thukydides,
the son of Melesias (PKit. Per. 14, Ac.) ; Alki-
biiules and Mej^akles (see fig. 53Wj, tlie j^rand-
fatliers of Alkibiados ([Andoc] c. Alcib. § 34j ;
Xanthippus, tlie fatlier of Perikles, and other
distinguislied citizens, were ostracised. Tlie hist
piT.soii against whom it was nsed was Hyper-
bohis, tlie lainpniaker, in -11(1 ii.c, fre(iuently
mentioned by Aristupliancs as the leader of the
democratic party after Kleon's death (Ar. Pax,
G«l : c(. Jiu/i. 570; Thiu-. viii. 73). According
to the connnon story, Hyiu'rholus's ostracism
bronght the institution into contempt. It is
probable that ostracism was formally abolishcil
in the archonship of Enkleides, 403 n.c. It is
likely that the 7po4>j) TrapavufiUf had already to
some e.xtent taken its place.
Ostnu'ism prevailed in other deniocratical
states as well as Athens : as at Argos, Mi-
letus, and Jlegara. From the ostracism at
Athens was copied the Petalism {TrfTa\i(Tix6s)
of the Syracusans, so called from the ir«TaAo,
or leaves of the olive, used instead of uffrpaKa.
2. Rit.MAN. Exiliitin means banishment
inHicted i>y the state as a punishment, and
accompanied by loss of civitus: if the per-
si>n banished did not cease to be cirin, it was
nut jiroperly rxilium, but relcijatio. The
iiirtiction of exile for crime was a punishment
unknown to tlie Roman law for centuries. No
decree of banishment caused hiss of civitas,
unless the person punished had been legally
condemned in a regular indicium. (See Cic.
pro Donii). IC, 17, Caec. 34.) The Romans
hatl a dislike to compulsory exile, carrying
with it loss of nvitas. The outcast from his
tribe and people lost everything that made life
valuable or e\ en bearable : he became civilly
dead, and liable to be reduced to slavery
wherever he might betake himself.
But though the state hesitated to inflict such
a fate as this upon its citizens, it did not deny
them the privilege of escaping legal consequen-
<'es by voluntary exile (Liv. i. 41, ii. 35, v. 32 ; Cic.
('iicr. 33, 34). Kxile was conceived not as a
inuiishment, but as a meansof escaping punish-
ment, which the Ronnins left open to the ac-
••iised up to the moment of his condemnation.
Tiie voluntary withdrawal of an accused crimi-
nal seems to have been regarded as an admis-
sion of his guilt, which the Romans habitually
confirmed by a plebiscitum, giving it a legal
<-haracter (Liv. v. 3'2, 4()) ; and, in order to pre-
vent the return of the accused, forbadr- other
members of the state to afford him shelter, fne,
or water: the most common expression is a(/«rte
rt ii/nis interdictio (Liv. xxv. 4), sometimes
also tccti (Cic. pro Domo, 30). Interdictio was
no mere political outlawry ; it was intended to
purify the body jiolitic by casting out its im-
pure elements. Fire and water were the sym-
bols of purity, and it was as religious symbols
that fire and water were denied to tin; exile.
In later times hUerdictio a. rl i. was imposed
as a legal penalty, inflicted by the praetor pre-
siding at ijiKirsfioitrs per/ictiitir in cases of
aiiihitiin, itiuirstajs, murder and ceiwjiciam,
and J'ahiim. Julius Caesar added to these
crimes that of vis.
Towards the end of the republican period,
interdiction iiqitur rl iijuis was inflicted as
an ordinary criminal sanction or punishment,
awarded not by a lex or plebiscitum, but by a
judge or judges after trial and conviction (Cic.
prt) Domo, 31, Mur. 23).
The emperors introduced a new form of
banishment, dvporiado in iiistitain, the crinii-
EXPOSITIO
2S9
nal being confinetl to an island or some jne-
scribed place on the mainland (but not of Ital v ■,
but within its limits enjoying personal freedom
(Tac. Ann. iii. 38, OH). Like mjuar et igna
interdictio, deportation carried with it loss of
civitas {media deniiniitio cajiitis). The con-
demned man lost patria potentas over his
children, uynatio, and conubiiim ; his property
was confiscated and his testament eancelled,
and being now a pereyriniis he was iucapabli'
of executing another. But the loss of citizenship
did not have the practical effect of dissolving'
his marriage or depriving him of the capiuitv
of buyiiig and selling, or of doing any other
legal acts which coald be performed by the ius
gentium.
Itelcg.itio, which as contrasted with exilium
was known under the Republic (Liv. iii. in,
iv. 4, xl. 41; Cic. P. Srxt. 12; Suet. Aitg.h,,
t>5 ; Tiu-. Ann. i. 53, iii. 17), was a slighter pun-
ishment, a[)pearing in two fonns. A jierson
might (1) be forbidclen to live at Rome or any
other specified place, or (2) some eontin<-d sim.i
might be assigned to him for his residence for
a definite or an indefinite time. A variety of
rclrgatio was lata fnga, in which the person
banished was excluded from one specified dis-
trict only (see Suet. CUiiid. 23). The nlrgatns
retained his civitas, and so did not undergo
j capitis deminutio, nor was his proi)erty for-
I feited, except by special direction of the judgi:
(see Ov. 'Prist, v. 11, ii. 127, &c.).
I 'E£tCTTa(T6ai tuv ovtcjv. See Appendix
' Gkkkk Tjaw.
ESiTTipia or ' EtregoSia. (1) Sacrifices
offi.Ted to obtain omens by generals before they
set out on an expedition. (Xen. .\nab. vi. 5, § 2.)
[AtapaTTiptaJ (2j [ElaLT-ppia.J
' Exo'dium (i^iBiov). Exodia " were old-
fashioned comic interludes in verses with can-
tica, chiefiy in the Atellanae (Liv. vii. 2), with
which they were closely connected, and not per-
formed alone (Juv. iii. 175, vi. 71). They were,
like the Atellanae themselves, played by young
and well-born Romans, and not by histrilmes. It
is not certain whether they were short comedies
or farces performed after tiie Atellanae, or inter-
ludes between successive Atellanae. The thing
itself, as well as the name, seems to have been
introduced from Italian Greece; but after its
introduction it appears to have become very
popular among the Romans, and Exodia con-
tinued to be played down to a very late period.
(Suet. Domit. 10.) i Comoedia.J
Exo'mis (^^oyuix). Dress.j
'E$u^.o<Tia. Hee Appendix, Gkkkk Law.
'EfioiCTTpa. (1) A theatrical contrivance,
attributed to Aeschylus, to represent a scene
in an interior. A moveable chamber correspond-
ing to the size of any of the three doors was
wheeled out {fKKvK\r]fia} or (lushedout (^^ucTTpa)
(Ar. Thcsm. 27C., AcJi. 375). A special use
of both nnichines was to exhibit the results
of acts unfit to be represented in action on the
stage (Hor. A. P. 185 sipp) | TheatrumJ.
(2) A boarding bridge used in siege opera-
tions.
'E€o\5Atis &ixr\ See Appendix, Greek
Law.
Expositio (a7r(i(<*o-ij, ^i(df<Ti%). In primitive
liiiie-, I lie fill lier was at liberty to fake up (siisci-
pi r, ) or not. as he chose, the ehild laid on the
liearth. The legends of Zeus, Thesirus, Oedipus,
Romulus aii<l lieinus, iV.c. jKiint to this. At
Sparta and in Crete it was directly allowed by
law ; in all Greek sl.it<-s, except Thebes, it w.us
more or less the custom, and not punishable by
soo
EXTRAORDINAEII
law. Mothers exposed their children to hide
their shame, and fathers to avoid the expense or
trouble of bringing them up. Daughters espe-
cially were often exposed (Plaut. Cist., Cas. ;
Ter. Ha at. etc.): a nurse of the class called
(yXVT picrrpia (Plat. Minos, 313 d) managed the
business. The child was usually swaddled and
placed on a x^'''P°-i from some religious idea.
Sirapyaua or tokens were sometimes left with it,
ill case of future recognition. Those children
who were picked up were probably sold or kept
as slaves ; some few may have been reared for
charity or by childless couples. But there was
in any case a risk, since the parent on proving
his relationship could at any time re-enter on
his rights.
At Rome, where all social institutions rested
upon the patriapotestas, the right of exposition
was limited by custom, which enjoined that all
male children and one female should be reared
in each family. Deformity or weakness was a
sufficient reason for exposition, but had to be
attested by five citizens. The irregular exposi-
tion of children was subjected to law in 315 a.d.
in consequence of the growth of Christianity.
In 374 A.D. the offence was made punishable by
death.
Extraordina'rii. [Exercitus.]
Faber {riKncv, x'^^'^^'"^)- ^1) A worker in
wood, stone, or meta.l,as faber tig)iarius,fabe7'
aerarins, &c. Faber without an epithet usually
signifies a carpenter. We find also faber
navalis, balncator, lectarius, &c. The work-
shop, as well as the trade, was called fabrica
(Ter. Ad. iv. 2, 45; Cic. N. D. ii. 13, 35). The
different trades were said to have been divided
by Numa (Plut. Numa, 17) into nine collegia,
i.e. comj)anies or guilds. Domestic crafts, such
as baking and weaving, are not included in these
collegia. The object of enrolling them was
probably to provide for the religious observ-
ances of the city, and to give the plebeians (to
whom exclusively the fabri belonged) an interest
in the state religion under their patrona,
Minerva of the Aventine. In the constitution
of Servius Tullius, the /airi tignarii and fabri
arrard or ferrarii were formed into two cen-
turies called centuriae fabrum (Cic. Orat. 46,
15C). [Census.!
Nothing is knowai of these collegia during
republican times. We only hear that they
were not suppressed with others (Suet. Caes.
42, Atig. 32), but existed down to imperial
times.
Under the Empire, both at Rome and espe-
cially in the provinces, the collegia fabrum
multiplied and prospered. They were organised
in decuriae, presided over by decuriones, ma-
gistri or a praefectus ; with quaestores, hono-
rati, and other officials or dignitaries ; scribae,
acditumi, harnspices : a public chest (area),
archives, landed property. They met according
to constitutional forms. Some collegia were
on a military model, with centurions, optiones,
priyicipales,vexilliferi,&:c. [Exercitus.] They
had their special religious observances and
IJatron deities, Minerva chiefiy, but also Vulcan,
Silvanus, Hercules, ttc. ; their common banquets
(epulae) and burial-grounds.
The collegia fabrum do not appear to
have been primarily industrial bodies, nor to
have attempted, like the guilds of the middle
ages, to control trade. They rather resembled
FALX
benefit societies, but on a larger scale ; and
they received into their numbers, not crafts-
men only, but private persons, women, and
foreigners. They were thus liable to suspicion
; as leading to political associations (eraipiai,
I Plin. Ep. ad Trai. 33, 34 [42, 4:;]). In the
later Empire they were considered to be useful
to the public service, especially for building
i and in the dockyard service. Tliroughout the
; wliole time of their existence the collegia
fabrum seem to have been organised as fire-
brigades.
(2) The fabri or engineers in the army were
! under the command of an officer called prae-
I fectiis fabriiju (Cic. Att. ix. 8), or engineer in
chief ; and appear to have been attached, not
; to any legion in particular, but to the whole
' army. It was the duty of the fabri, not only to
, repair damaged armour, and to construct and
' keep in good order the usual siege-material, but
1 also to build bridges, and even to superintend
' mining operations. From the first century B.C.
I onwards the fabri are no longer enrolled as a
[ separate class, but are counted as legionaries.
The office of praefectus fabrum, however, re-
mained as late as the second century a.d.,
though it had long ceased to be anything more
than a title of honour, principally given to
young men attached to the suite of a provincial
governor.
Factor. [Pila.]
Fala, or Phala. (l) A wooden structure, of
considerable height, used in sieges, from which
missiles were thrown.
(2) Probably moveable towers, used in the-
sham fights of the Circus (Juv. vi. 590).
Fala'rica. [Hasta.]
Falsiim. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Falx, dim. Fa'lcula {apTrrj, kottls, Speiravov).
As Culter denoted a knife with one straight
cutting edge, 'falx' signified any similar instrti-
Fig. BSfi.— Falx. 1. From a coin. -2. From a JIS. of
Columella.
ment, the single edge of which was ciu-ved
(Hom. Od. x^-iii. 368; Verg. Georg. i. 508; Ov.
Met. vii. 227). The sickle was called /ate me.i-
soria, another form, falx denticulafa ; the
scythe, fal.v fenaria ; the pruning-knife and
the bill, falx putatoria, vinitoria, arboraria,
or silvatica.
~ The edge of the falx was often toothed or
serrated (apir-qv KapxcpoSovra, Hes. Thcoq. 175 ;
doiticulata. Colum. de E. B. ii. 21). Whet-
stones [Cos] were imported from Crete and
other places. The mower (fenisex) carried oil
or water in a horn ujjon his thigh (Plin.
xviii. § 201).
I
FAMIJ.IA
As a military weapon, the falrliioii is well
known, botli in mythology and luKtory. With
tliis Zeus wounded Typhon ; Herukles slew the
Hydra (Eurip. Ion, lH'ij ; Hermes eut off the
head of Argus (Ov. Mrt. i. 717); and Perseus,
of Medusa. Tile fa!<-hi<)n was ginlcd like a
dagger uj>on the waist, and held in tin: hand by
ii Hhort hilt.
FASCIA
301
jected from tljeni. Those rods were carried l»y
lictors before the superior magistrates at Rome,
Fig. .VIO.— Falx. (From cameos.)
This weajion, fixed to the end of a pole, would
assume the form of the modern halbert.
I-'(tlx muralis is a grapnel for pulling down
the stones of a wall (Liv. xxxviii. r> ; of. Caes.
Ji. a. vii. '22, 8(!).
Many Oriental nations, and the tiauls and
Hritons in Europe [Covinus], used chariots
with scythes fixed to the axle and turned down-
wards; or inserted parallel to the axle into the
felly of the wheel, or projecting from the ex-
tremities of the axle.
Familia ; Familiae erciscundae iudicium.
See Appendix, Ko.M.w Law.
Fanom (fari). Any locality consecrated by
the pontiffs. It was a consecrated spot {locus
ijtilus), whether a building was erected upon it
or not (Liv. v. 50, '2, x. 87). [Templum.] The
consecrated places in the forum where the
<i inches of the gods were placed in a Lectister-
nium were also called faita. Even a tree
struck by lightning was deemed a /unit in.
Everything not consecrated was termed 2"'(>-
fuiiuiH (Liv. xxxi. 44).
Faiiutici, properly speaking personivbelimg-
iiig to a Januni, were more sjK-cifically priests
of the goddess of Coniana in Cappadocia, whose
worship was introduced into Homo inider the
name of Bellona. They performed the worship
with wild and frantic rites, whence the woril
f'uiuiliriis obtained its Becondary meaning, and
has passed into modern languages (Juv. iv. 1215,
vi. 511 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 223 ; Tibull. i. f>, 4:! -«|. ;
.Mart. xi. K4, a). Fanalici was also the name
given to the prieBts of Isis and Cj'bele (Juv. ii.
1121.
Fa'rreum. See Apjwndix, Roman Law
IMatrimoniiun].
Farter [iTiTtvrfii). \ slave wlio fattened
IM.nltry Uiltilrs) (Hor. Snt. ii. 3, '22ti; Plaut.
■/'/■(/(•. i. -J, 111. [Agriculture.j
Fasces. IU)ds of lurch or elm (Plin. xvi.
§ 7."i), V)ound together by a red thong in the
form of a bundle, and contain ing an axe
iaecitris) in the middle, the head of which pro
I'ig. 541.— Fasces. (From the original In the Capitol iit
Rome.)
and are often rt'presented on the reverse if
consular coiiis. [Lictor.]
Fig. Ma.— FnfCPK on Connulnr com
Fa'scia, tlim. Fasciola (ratvla, aird5»<T/im).
Any long narrow strip of stuff employed as a
bandage: e.q. (1) a hnw of riband on a wreath
(Suet. /(//. 7fl). fDiadema."
(2) A band worn by women round the bff nst
302
FASCIA
FASTI
inKnniiiillare) {Ter. Eu7i. ii. 3,23; Propert. v.
i). 49; Ov.A.A.iii. 276, 622; Mart. xiv. 134).
[DresB, Ghf.ek, rrTp6<t>iov.~\
(3) A band worn round the legs and shins, a
kind of stocking: hence called /asc/ru' rrurales
and tihiales (ViVifii. Aug.HI). Afterwards, when,
instead of tlie toga, the shorter pallium was
woni, so that the legs were exposed, fasciae
crurales were coranionly worn by men (Hor.
Fiat. ii. 3, 255). ^V^lite fasciae, worn by men,
were a sign of extraordinary refinement in dress :
worn by Pompeius they were looked upon as a
symbol of royalty ; and the emperors seem to
liave used them (Phaedr. v. 7, 37); they were
i-leaned with white chalk or pipe-clay [fas-
ciae crefatae, Cic. Att. ii. 3). In the imperial
times the Roman soldiers wore such fasciae.
Fasciae were also used by soldiers.circus-drivers,
Iiunters, and rustics, and by boxers, on the
arms [Caestus]. (See cut under Libra.)
(4) The sacking of a bed (Cic. Div. ii. 05,
§ 134 ; Mart. v. 02, xiv. 159).
Fig. S.!.*!.— Achilles bandaging the wounded Patroklos. (From a vase at Herlln.)
Incunabula, from a bas-relief
(6) A surgical bandage (figs. 543, 544).
(7) Taivia (fascia or facia), in arcliitecture,
signifies (byan obvious ana-
logy with the ordinary mean-
ing of the word) any long flat
surface of wood, stone, or
marble, sucli as the baud
which divides the architrave
from the frieze in the Doric
order, and tiie surfaces into
which the architrave itself
is divided in the Ionic and
Corinthian orders. (Vitr.
iii. 5. 10) [Epistylium,
Architectura.J
Fa'scinum ()3octkoWoi.
Fascination, enchantment.
The belief in the evil eye
{oipdaKfxhs KaK6s, jettatura)
was prevalent among the
(rreeks and Romans. It
was supposed to injure chil-
dren particularly, but cattle
also (V'erg. Eel. iii. 1031.
Various amulets were used
to avert the influence of the
evil eye. The most common
of these appears to have
been the phallus, called by
the Romans fasrinuiu,
which was hung round the
necks of children. An eye
is also a common symbol.
lAmuletain, Balla.]
(5) Swaddling clothes ((TTrapYai/o, incunabula)
(Plaut. True. v. 18) (fig. 545).
H.— Woman putting on a bandage.
Fasti. Fastus is properly applied to anytliing
in accordance with fas, or divine law, and hence
all those days upon which legal business might,
without impiety (sine piaculo), be transacted be-
fore the praetor, were technically denommateil
fasti dies, i.e. lawful days. [Dies.]
The sacred books in which the fasti dies of
the year were marked were tiieniselves denomi-
nated /as</; the same term was employed to
denote registers of various descriptions.
(1) Fasti Sacri or Kalendauks. For nearly
four centuries and a half after the foundation
of the city a knowledge of the calendar was pos-
sessed exclusively by the priests. One of the
pontifices regularly proclaimed the dates of the
new moon, the Kalends and the Nones. On
the Nones the Rex Sacrorum announced the
festivals to be celebrated during the month,
and the days on which tliey would fall.
Those who wished to go to law could only
learn from the privileged few on what day
they might bring their suit. (Cic. Muren. 11,
FASTI
FASTIGIUM
303
Fig. 547.— Temple at Aegina, restored. (Fergussou.)
25.) Tlie whole of this lore was at length ob- ' under Antae.) It is composed of the cornice
tained and made public by a certain Cn. Fla- I of the entablature which forms its base, the
vius, scribe to App. Claudius Caecus (Liv. ix. ; two converging cornices at the sides, and the,
4()). ;ius Flavianum.J Prom this time forward ' tympanum or flat surface enclosed by them,
such tables became common, and were known (Vitr. iii 3, iv. 0; Cic. de. Orat. iii. 46, tj 180;
•A> L'aati. They usually contained an enumera- Liv. xl. 2.) Tliis flat surface was generally
tion of the months and days of the year; the ornamented with sculpture; originally, in the
Nones, Ides, Nundinae, Dies Fasti, Comitiales, early temples of Zeus, with a simple eagle as a
etc. [Calendarium], together with the different symbol of the god (Pind. 01. xiii. '29 ; Ar.
festivals, were marked
in their proper places ;
astronomical observa-
tions were frequently
inserted, and some-
times brief notices
annexed regarding
certain rites and anni-
versaries.
The FiiHti of Ovid
may be considered as
a poetical Year-book,
hiivingbeen composed
to illustrate the Fasti
published by Julius
C'aesar, who remod-
elled the Roman year.
Several specimens
or fragments ol fasti,
on stone and marble,
dating from 30 B.C. to ^
f)! A.I), have been dis-
covered.
As an instance we ~
may mention the Far-
nese Calendar, now
in the Museum at Naples. This Rural Almanac j Av. 1110), whence the Greek names derrfy and
(nipnologium) is cut upon four sides of a cube, i aiTWiJ.a, applied to the tympaituvi and after-
each face being divided into three columns, j wards to the whole pediment; and in after-
and each column including a month. At tlie | times with groups of sculpture, such as those
top of the colmnn is carved the appropriate i in the pediments of the Parthenon and the
sign of the zodiac; then follow the name of the j temple of Zeus at Olympia. Terracotta figures
month, the number of the days, the position of
the nones, the length of the day and night.
Calendarium, p. 134.]
i2) Fasti Annales or HisTomci. Chronicles
such as the Ainiales Maximi, containing the
names of the chief magistrates for each year,
and a short account of remarkable events, were
also called fasti; and hence this word is used
in tlie general sense of historical records. (Hor.
Sat. i. 3, 112, Cann. iv. 13, 13.) In prose
writers /fl.s<z is connnonly employed as the tech-
nical term for the registers of consuls, dictators,
censors, and other magistrates, which formed
part of the public archives. (Liv. ix. 18; Cic.
Fhil. xiii. 12, 26; Tac. Atin. iii. 17, 18.)
A fragment of fasti belonging to this class,
executed probably 14 A.D., was discovered in
1547 A.D. in the Forum. The different pieces
were collected and arranged under the inspec-
tion of Cardinal
Alexander Farnese,
with the assistance
of Michelangelo,
and deposited in
the Capitol, where
they still remain.
Hence the name
Fasti Cajiitolini.
Fastigium {atrds,
aeroofia), literally a
slope, in architec- were a^iplied in a similar manner by the Ro.
tm-e,a pediment, i.e. mans in the early ages. (Cic. Div. i. 10, § 16;
the triangle which V'itr. iii. 2.) [Antefixa.]
surmounts each end Pediments were adorned at the summit and
of a rectangular building, and represents the the two angles witli acroteria, i.e. pedesuxla
gable end of the roof. (Fig. 546 ; see also fig. 53, bearing figures, which also are sometimes called
3
W^
fWW
Fig.
-Terracotta unhfi.
(From I'ritisli .Museum.)
804
FAX
acrotcvia, e.g. tlie finial on the monument of
Liysikrates at Athens. [Architectura, p. 55.]
Fax (<pav6s, irevKT], Sas, Serq, (ppvKTOS,
\afnrds). Atorch. The descriptions of poets and
mythologists, and the works of ancient art, re-
present the torch as carried by Diana, Ceres,
Bellona, Hymen, Phosjjhorus, by females in
Fig. 549. — Fax, 1. Somnus. ( From a relief .) 2. From a
vase. 3. 'Epws Av<r«'pws. (From an antique gem.)
bacchanalian prot;essions, and, in an inverted
position, by Sleej) and Death. (Verg. .-ICH. iv.
520; Ov. Bern. Am. 551.) In Homer (Od. .xxiv.
140, &c.) pine-wood torches were used to light
the house ; sometimes braziers {KaniTTrjpes, Od.
xviii. S07) were set up in the hall, with splinters
of pine-wood (5a')6s) burning to give light.
A single braiul or a rough bundle of brands
appears to have been commonly used in ancient
times in Greece. From the fifth century a more
regular and elegant form appears, sometimes
witli a plate or bobecJie to prevent the hot
resin from reaching the hand (see cuts under
Aan.iraSriSpoM.ia). Vine-twigs were also used
for (iiis purpose (Ar. Li/s. 308). They were
commonly sold in the shops (Lys. de C. Erat. 24).
They were used as links on dark nights (Ar.
2sub. 1)12) out of doors.
Torches were used at religious ceremonies : e.'j.
lustrations, the Dionysia, the mysteries [Xoeg-
Eleusinia], by the bacchanals, and especially at
the Aa|j,-iraSTi5pojjLCa. High braziers stood in
the temples, containing burning wood for the
worshippers to light their torches. In ancient
marbles the torch appears to be formed of
wooden staves or twigs, tied by one or more bands.
The inside of the torch may be supposed to have
been tilled with flax or tow, steeped in pitch or
other inflammable substances. Another (Roman )
form of torch is a hollow tube, probably contain-
ing a taper or wax-rope. This is often represented
in a conventional form. The use of caudles
(randrlae) of wax or grease was more ancient in
Italy than in Greece. (See cut under Funalis.)
Roman marriages were celebrated after sunset.
Hence the fax iiii2)tialis, which, having been
lighted at tlie parental hearth, was carried be-
fore the bride. [Matrimonium. | The torch
was also carried at funerals {f(t.v -scjiJilcralis,
Ov. Her. ii. 120), to set fire to the pile (Prop.
iv. 11, 40). It should be noted that fax, taeda,
das, \afj.Trd.s, S:c., are torches of pine-wood ;
luccnui, Kvxvoi, a lamp; crretts, sebaceus,
candcla, a candle. Torches were also used (as
well as bonfires [Aesch. Ag. 295 ; Thuc. vii. 54j)
in war as fire-signals {(ppvKToi, Thuc. ii. 94 ;
Aesch. Again. 281 sqij.) and to set fire to ships
(Thuc. vii. 53). [Funus, Taeda.]
Februum. [Lupercalia.]
FENUS
Fecia'les. [Fetiales.J
Femina'lia, drawers, were worn in winter by
Augustus, who was very susceptible of cold
(Suet. Aug. 82). They are probably to be
identified with the Bracae (irepiyurjpt'Sm) which
were worn by Roman soldiers. (See cuts under
Abolla, Arms and Armour, and Ara.)
Fenestra. (Ij A window. [Domus.]
(2) A loophole in a tower (Caes. B. C. ii. 9).
(3) A hole i)ierced in the lobe of the ear (Juv.
i. 104). [Inauris.]
Fenus (tokos). Interest of money. 1. Greek.
At Athens, Solon abolished the law by which
a creditor was empowered to sell or enslave a
debtor, and wliich prohibited the lending of
money upon the security of a person's own body
(Pint. Sol. 15 ; cf. Dem. F. L. p. 422, § 255). No
other restriction was introduced by him, and
the rate of interest was left to the discretion of
the lender. [Divortium (Greek ).J
The rate of interest might be expressed in
two different ways : (1) by the number of oboli
or drachmas paid by the month for every mina ;
(2) by the part of the principal [rb apxo-^ov or
Ke<paAaiov} paid as interest, either annually or
for the whole period of the loan. According to
the former method, which was generally used
when money was lent upon real security (tokoi
(yyvoi or eyyeioi), different rates were expressed
as follows: — lOper cent, per animmby eTri irfi/Te
60o\o7s, i.e. 5 oboli per mouth for every mina,
or 00 oboli a year = 10 drachmas = -j\j of a mina.
Similarly :
12 per cent. i)er annum is expressed by iirl
SpaxfJ-V (per month).
10 per cent, per annum by eV oktw 6Po\ols
(lier month).
30 per cent, per annum by eirl rpicrl Spax.uats
(per month).
The interest was usually paid at the end of the
month (Ar. Nub. 16), but sometimes at the end
of the year.
Another method was generally adopted in
cases of bottomry, where money was lent upon
the ship's cargo or the ship itself or the freiglit-
age, for a specified time, commonly that of a
voyage. The rate by time (month or year) does
not, therefore, come into consideration in tliese
cases. By this method the following rates were
thus represented :
10 per cent, by tokoi imSeKaToi, i.e. interest
at the rate of a tenth ; 12^, HVj, 20, 33^ per cent.,
by TOKOI inoySooi, (<peKToi, eViTrejuTTTOj, and eVi-
TpiToi. respectively. Thus tokos eiriStKaTos is
equal to fnl irevTf o^oKols: tokos iit6ydojs =
the itr\ Spaxf^jj nearly: t6kos «<^€(CT0S = the eV
OKTW oBoKols nearly.
The rates above c^lained occur frequently
in the Orators ; the lowest in ordinary use at
Athens being the t6kos iiri^eKaTos or 10 per cent.
(Dem. c. Onct. i. p. 800, § 7j, the highest itrl
TptcTL Bpaxi^a7s or 30 per cent. The higher rates,
however, were chiefly confined to cases of
bottomry, and denote more than they appear to
do. as the time of a ship's voyage was generally
less than a year. The higher rate is explained
by the fact that there was no system of in-^ur-
ance to cover sea risk. (Dem. c. Onet. i. p.
800, § 7; Ai-ist li/ict. iii. 10, 7, p. 1411a, 15.1
The eirl Spaxf^il, or rate of 12 ))er cent., was
common in the time of Demosthenes (c. Ajifmb.
i. p. 820, § 23) ; but appears to have been
thought low. Eight oboli or 10 per cent, and
nine oboli for the mina, or lb per cent., ap-
pear to have been common rates (Dem. r.
Nicostr. p. 1250, § 13 ; Lys. c. Aesrh. it. 1 1. On
' the whole, we may conclude that the usual rates
FEN us
805
of interest at Athens and elsewhere in Greece
about the time of Demosthenes varied from 12
to IH per cent. Exorbitant rates were charged
by bankers and common usurers {roKoy\v<poi,
toculiones,o^o\o(nd.Tat, riixipo^aveLdTai). When
a banker cliargud as nmch as 30 per cent, inter-
est, this was probably because he woi'ked with
foreign capital (cf. Dem. c. Aphoh. i. p. bl(>,
§ 11), so that his profit consisted in the diffei--
ence between the interest which he received and
that which he liimself had to paj-. Compound
interest (roKoi tukcov, avaroKifffjius, tokos itri-
tokos) was sometimes charged. Simple interest
is ivduTOKia. Moneylenders and l)ankers in
general seem to have been as unpopular at
Athens (Dem. c. Pant. p. 981, §52) as Jews and
usurers in more modem times. Plato (Lccff/. v.
p. 742 c) disapproves of lending money upon
interest. Aristotle (Pol. i. 3, 23 S.) objects to
putting money out at interest, as being a per-
version of it from its proper use, as a medium
of exchange, to an unnatural purpose, viz. the
reproduction or increase of itself.
The arrangement of a loan would of course
depend upon the relation between the borrower
(XPV0'T7]S, xP«<«'4>e«Ae'Tijs) and the lender {xpv-
(TTijs, SaueiffTrts), and the confidence placed by
one in the other. Sometimes money was lent
without written bond, ur security, or witnesses
(Dem.] c. Timoth. p. 1202, § 01), especially by
bankers ([Dem. J c. Tiinoth. p. 1185, § 2), since
their books seem to have afforded sufficient
evidence. But generally a regular instrument
{<rvy'ypa<pr], cwflrj/cat ; at Sparta, K\apla []}liir.]
Plut. Agis, 13) was executed by both parties be-
fore witnesses, whose names were mentioned in
the document, sealed up, and deposited before
witnesses with a third party, usually a banker
(Dem. c. Pliunn. p. 908, § 0) ; such agi-eements
were sometnnes made in duplicate (Dem. r.
Phorm. p. 910, § 32). Witnesses were also
present at Athens at the payment of the money
borrowed (Dem. c. Phorm. p. 915, § 30). The
.security for a loan was a third party (o-uffT^troi
Tiva, Dem. c. Spud. p. 1029, § 0)), or an
tVe'xi'poi' or a imodi\Ki]. The fv4x"Pov was
put into the possession of the lender, and
consisted generally of moveable property ; the
xnrodriKr] was merely assured to the lender, and
generally consisted of real or immoveable i)ro-
perty. [See Appendix, Grkkk L.\w, ' Eve'xvpa.]
At Athens, when land or house property was
given as security, or mortgaged (avfx^oAaiov or
Sivei(TiuM eyyeiov, Dem. c. Apttt. p. 983. ;i 3),
pillars ["O pot] or stone tablets ((TTrjAai) ' Ztti\t|]
were set up upon it with the debt and the mort-
gagee's name and that of the archon eponymus
inscribed {a,<popi^eiv Th x<^p'^ov, [Dem.J c. Timuth.
p. 1202, S 61). Without the consent of the
creditor no more money might be borrowed
(iirihavfi(^tiv) on mortgaged property ([Dem.J c.
Nicostr. p. 1249, § 10). If the debtor became
insolvent, the mortgaged land passed into the
liossession of the creditor without legal pro-
ceedings (Dem. c. Spud. p. 1030, {j 7). Thus
fjLfToiKoi could not lend on landed security
L'Evktticiis].
In bottomry {(kSoo-is, vavTiKhv Savettr/xa) loans
were generally made upon the cargo shippc'd
{iirl To7s xPVf^o.fft, (popTiots), sometimes on the
vessel itself (iirl T17 vrji, Dem. c. Lacrif. j). 938,
§32, c. Dionijsod. p. 1283, § 3), and sometimes
on the money received or due for passengers and
freightage [iiri Ttji vavKw, [Dem.] c. Tiiiiotli. p.
1192, j5 20). The principal as well as the interest
could only be recovered in case the ship came
safe home {(rwdticrris ttjs veais, Dem. c. Phorm.
p. 910, § 33). The loan itself was either a
5dveicrfj.a eTepi'tnKovy, i.e. for a voyage out, or it
was a Sdv^LCT/xa apL<poTfpoir\ovv,i.e.lov a voyage
out and home. In tlie former case, the principal
and interest were paid to tlieireditoror his agent
at the place of destination (Dem. c. CaUijip. p.
1242, § 20, c. Pliorm. p. 909, § 8). la the latter
case, on the return of the ship (Dem. c. Lacrit.
]>. 920, § 11). Accidents, such as risk of war or
jettison (^*c;8oA7j),were usually deducted from the
debtor's liability. A deviation from the terms
of the agreement was, according to a clause
usually inserted in the agreement, punishable
by a tine (f-rriTifMia, Dem. c. Phorm. p. 910, § 33).
The rate of interest would of course vary
with the risks and tiunition of the voyage. That
for a voyage from Athens to the Bosporus
and back again was from 22A to 30 per cent.
(Dem. c. Phorm. p. 914, § 23) ; for a voyage
(lasting three days) from Byzantium to Athens,
10 or 12 per cent., &c.
For a good instance of a j/outjkt; (rvyypa(pr),
see the speech of Demosthenes against Lakritus
(p. 925 sqq. §§ 10-13).
The rate of interest amongst the ancient
Greeks was higher than in modei'n Europe, or
at Rome in the age of Cicero. The high rate
was caused (1) by the unwillingness of those
who had capital to lend it out at a low rate of
interest, shice they could use it themselves to
more advantage in trade or agriculture ; (2)
from the want of an open money-market, and
the absence of general competition ; (3) from a
low standard of credit and commercial lionesty.
2. RoM.\N. — Fenus or foeniis originally
meant any increase (V /«), and was thence
specially a^jplied to the interest of money.
Fenus was used for the principal [caput, sors
[Mart. v. 42], iiumi) as well as the interest
{mrrces, Hor. Sat. i. 3, 88). Another term for
interest was usura (Tac. Ann. vi. 17 ; Mart.
he.) (generally found in the plui'al), and also
imipiendium (Cic. Att. vi. 1, 4).
In Latimn, as in other agi'icultural societies
ancient and modem, the tendency of small
cultivators was to sink into debt, to mortgage
future crops, and to fall into tlie grasp of
the usurer. In early Latium, this tendency
was aggravated by the law of addictio, which
consigned the debtor to personal slavery
[Nexum], and by the incessant ravages ot war.
Hence at Rome the rate of interest was ori-
ginally imlimited ; and the grievances of debtors
fill a large space in the earliest struggles
between the patricians and the plebs (Liv. ii.
23, iK:c.).
The first restriction was imposed by the
decemviral legislation of the Twelve Tables,
451 B.C., which established /r/ji/s unriarium as
the nonnal rate. Interest at this time was paid
yearly, i.e. after harvest time. Fcnus uncia-
rium was an ounce (uncia) in the pound (as),
i.e. a twelfth part of the principal = 8i per cent,
annually. It is, however, not certain whether
fenus unciarium is to be reckoned on tlie year
of twelve months ( = 8\ per cent. p<'r annum),
or on the year of ten months (- 10 pi'r cent.
per annum of twelve months). [Calendarium.]
Towards the last century of the Heimblic the
interest of money became due on the first of
every month : hence the phrases tristcs or
releres kalendae, and calendariuvi, a debt-
book or book of luicounts.
The rate of interest was expressed in the
time of Cicero and afterwards by means of the
as and its divisions, according to the following
table :
306 FENUS
Asses usurae, or one as per month
for the use of lou = 12 % per ann.
Deunees usurae 11 „
Dextantes „ 10 „
Doflrantes „ 9 „
Besses „ 8 „
Septunces „ 7 „
Semlsses „ 6 „
Quincunces „ 5 .,
Trientes „ 4 „
Quadrantes „ 3 „
Sextautes „ 2 „
TJnciae „ 1 ,,
Instead of the phrase asses usurae, a synonym
was used, viz. centesimae usurae, inasmuch as
at this rate of interest there was paid in a
hundred months a sum equal to the whole
principal. Hence hinae centesimae = 24 per
cent., and quaternae centesimae = 48 percent. ;
quinae centesimae (q. mercedes, Hor. Sat. i. 2,
14) 60 per cent. Rates ruled very high in the
provinces under the senatorial regime. Brutus
tried to get 48 per cent, out of the Cyprians.
[Negotiatores.] Verres made 24 per cent, out
of the public money which he had to buy com
for the Roman people (Cic. Verr. iii. 71, § 165).
In Rome itself the accumulation of capital
brought about a reasonably low rate of interest
on good business ; Cicero mentions a sudden
rise from 4 per cent, to 8 (Att. iv. 15). Under
the early Empire we hear of land mortgaged
at 5 or even 2^ per cent.
If a debtor could not pay the principal and
interest at the end of the year, the usual plan
was to borrow money from a fresh creditor, to
pay off his old debt. This proceeding was called
versura (Ter. Phorm. v. 2, 16). It amounted
to little short of paying compound interest,
avaT0Ki<Tn6s, another plirase for which was
usurae renovatae; e.g. centesiinae renovatae
is 12 per cent, compound interest; centesimae
perpetuo fenore is 12 per cent, simple interest
{Cic. Att. V. 21). The following phrases are
of common occurrence : pecuniam apud ali-
quem collocare, ponere, to lend money at in-
terest; rcdigere (Hor. Epod. ii. 69; Cic. Verr.
i. 86), to call it in again ; cavere, to give
security for it ; opponere or opponerc jngnori,
to give as a pledge or mortgage (Catull. xxvi.).
The word no men is also of extensive use in
money transactions. Properly it denoted the
name of a debtor, registered in a banker's or
any other account-book : hence it came to
signify the articles of an account, a debtor, or a
debt itself. Thus we have bonum nomen, a
good debt ; iiomina facere, to lend or borrow
moneys (Cic. Fam. vii. 23 ; Off. iii. 14, § 59).
Moreover, the Romans generalh' discharged
debts through the agency of a banker (in foro
et de mensae scriptura) rather than by a direct
personal payment (ex area domoque) ; hence
came the phrases scribere yiumos alicui, to
promise to pay (Plant. Asiyi. ii. 4, 34) ; rescribere,
to pay back, of a debtor (Ter. Phorm.. v. 7, 29 ;
Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 76). So also j^erscribere, to give
a bill or draft (perscriptio) on a banker for pay-
ment, in opposition to pajTnent by ready money
(Cic. ^«.xii. 51, xvi. 2).
The Roman law of debtor and creditor is
given under Nextim. It is sufficient to remark
here that the Licinian laws [Leges Liciniae],
passed 367 B.C., did not lay any restriction on
tlie rate of interest that might be legally de-
manded. In 357 B.C. (Liv. vii. 16) the rate of
the Twelve Tables was re-established, and any
higher rate prohibited by the bill (rogatio) of
the tribunes Duilius and Maenius. In 347 B.C.
the legal rate of interest was still further
FERIAE
lowered to the semiunciarium, femis (Liv,
vii. 23, § 3), or the twenty-fourth part of the
whole simi. But all these enactments were
merely palliatives ; and in 342 B.C., a general
abolition of debts (novae tabulae) took place,
and was foUowed up by the passing of the
Genucian laws, which are said to have forbidden
the taking of usury altogether, at least by Ro-
man citizens. At last, perhaps in the time of
Sulla, the centesima or 12 per cent, per anntmi
became the legal and recognised rate. It is not
improbable that it was first legalised by the
edicts of the city praetors. Cicero in his edictum
tralaticium decreed for Cilicia a maximum of
12 per cent (see Att. v. 21). The centesima or
12 per cent, continued to be the legal rate
under the emperors. In the case of fenus
nauticum, however, or bottomry, as the risk
was the money-lender's, he might demand
any interest he liked while the vessel on whicli
the money was lent was at sea. Justinian re-
duced the legal rate to 6 per cent, (ducentesima)
on ordinary loans.
Fera'Iia. [Fiuius.]
Fe'rculum (fericulum) is applied to any kind
of tray or platform used for carrying anything.
Thus it is used to signify the tray or frame on
which several dishes were brought in at once
at dinner (Plin. xsviii. § 26) and hence /ercw/a
came to mean the num-
ber of courses at dinner,
and even the dishes
themselves (Suet. Aug.
74; Juv. i. 94; Hor.
Sat. ii. 6, 104). Augus-
tus gave three, or at
the most six, fercula,
Elagabalus twenty-two.
Fercula were also
used for carrj-ing the
images of the gods in
the procession of the
circus (Suet. lul. 76),
the ashes of the dead
in a funeral (Suet. Cal.
15), and the spoils or
even captives in a tri-
umph (Suet. lul. 37;
Fig. 5.50.— Ferculum. ( From
Daremberg and Saglio.)
Liv. i. 10) ; in all which cases they appear to
have been carried on the shoulders or in the
hands of men.
Ferenta'rii. Exercitus.]
Fe'riae. Days during which Romans sus-
pended political transactions and lawsuits, aiid
slaves enjoyed a holiday (Cic. Legg. ii. 8, 19 ;
12, 29, Div. i. 45, 102). All feriae were dies
nefasti. They were distinguished by the mark
^P, while the nefasti tristes were marked
simply N. [Dies.] Tlie feriae included all days
consecrated to any deity ; but some of them,
such as the feria vindemialis and the feriae
aestivae, seem to have had no direct connexion
with the worship of the gods. The nundinae
were fasti.
Feriae were publicae and privatae. The
latter were only observed by single families or
individuals, and connected with their privata
sacra. Such were the feriae Claudiae, luliae,
Corneliae, &c., and the feriae denicales, i.e.
tlie day on which a family, after a death, under-
went a purification (Cic. Legg. ii. 22, 55). Indi-
viduals kept feriae on their birthdays and other
anniversaries. The Kalends, Nones, and Ides
of each month were also usually kept as feriae
privatae. But no ptiblic feriae were celebrated
on these days. During the time of the Empire
feriae were held on the birthday of an emperor.
FERIAE
and on other anniversaries (Tac. An/i. i. 15),
such as, e.g., the dies nutalicii of Rome and
Constantinople. No new feriae were added
during the Republic to those anciently observed.
Feriae jjublicae were divided into ferine
stativae, concept ivae, and iinpcraticae. Ferine
stativae or statue were thosi; wliicli were held
regularly, and on certain days marked in the
calendar. To these belonged some of the great
festivals, such as the Agonalia, Cannentalia,
Lupercalia, S:c. Feriae concept ivae or con-
ceptae were held on no fixed days, the time
being every year appointed by the magistrates
or priests. Among these we may mention the
feriae Latinae and Cuinpitalia. Feriae im-
perativiie are those wliich were held for sup-
plication or thanksgiving at the command of
the consuls, the praetors, or a dictator (Liv. i. 31,
iii. 5, xx.w. 40). They frequently lasted for
several days : e.g. a sacrum novendiale for a
rain of stones.
On the public feriae the people generally
visited the temples of the gods, and offered up
prayers and sacrifices. All kinds of business,
especially lawsuits, were suspended during the
public feriae ; the rex sacrorum and the fiaminos,
when they went out, were jireceded by their
heralds (jyraeciae, pracclatnitatores, or cala-
tores), who enjoined the people to abstain from
working, that the day might not be polluted by
the imests seeing persons at work (Pint. Nu)na,
c. 14). Certain kinds of work, however, and of
legal business, were lawful, as on the Jewish
Sabbath.
Some of the feriae, such as the Compitalia,
ceased to be observed, until they were restored
by Augustus (Suet. Aug. 31). After the in-
troduction of Christianity, the feriae were
abolished, and the Dies dominica, together with
the Christian festivals, was substituted ; but the
manner in which they were kept was nearly
the same as that in which the feriae had been
observed.
Feriae Latinae, or simply Latinae, attri-
buted to the last Tarquin, were originally a
iratnjyvpis of the Latins, converted by Tarquin
into a Roman festival. This festival was a
great engine in the hands of the magistrates,
who luwl to appoint the time of its celebration
(coHcijJere, edicere, or indicere Latinas) ; as it
might often suit tlieir purpose either to hold
the festival at a ])articular time or to delay it,
for political reasons. Whenever any of the
forms or ceremonies customary at the Latinae
had been neglected, the consuls might demand
that their celebration should be repeated (in-
staurari, Liv. xxii. 1, xli. 16, &c.). At first tlioy
only lasted for one daj-, to which subsequently
a second, a third, and a fourth were added.
The festive season was attended by a sacred
truce. In early times the chief magistratesof the
Romans and Latins met on the Alban mount,
but afterwards the Romans alone conducted
tli«! celebration, and offered the common sacri-
fice of white oxen (Liv. xli. IGJ to Jupiter
Latiaris. Bt^sides llie conunon sacrifice of
oxen, the several towns offered for themselves
lambs, cheeses, milk (Cic. J)ii'. i. 11, IH), or
cakes. Multitudes flocked to the Alban mount
on the occasion, and a fair was held, with feast-
ing and rustic games. There was also a race
of quadrigae on the C!apitol. .\t the same time
the warm blood of a bestiarius was offered to
Jupiter Latiaris.
The Latinae, disused in the counti-y, were
kept at Rome down to the fourth century of
our era.
FETL\LES
Sl)7
Other Feriae were, Sonentivae, or Semen--
tiva dies (Ov. Fast. i. 058, ttc), rindemiales,
aestivae; praecidaiieae are said to have been
preparatory days, preceding the ordinary feriae.
I Ambarvalia ; Compitalia.]
Ferrum. fMetallum.J
Fescenni'na, m-.rannina. One of the earliest
kinds of Italian poetry, rustic in origin, but
introduced at Rome, which consisted of rude
and Jocose verses, or rather dialogues in ex-
tempore verses (Liv. vii. 2), in which the country
folks assailed and ridiculed one anotht.-r.
(Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 145.) Fescenninc verses were
specially connected with weddings [Matti-
monium] and triumphs (Suet. lul. 80), pro-
bably to avert the evil eye. They were irre-
gular, and mostly extempore doggerel verses,
usually in the Satumian metre or in troehaics.
The word is probably not local, but connected
with Fascinum.
Festu'ca. Properly any stem, stalk, straw
or haulm of corn, or blade of gi'ass. Li two
passages it is generally explained as a synonym
of the i^raetor's rod (rindicta) laid upon the
slave's head in Manumissio (Plaut. Mil. Glor.
iv. 1, 15). But it may refer to a handful of
stubble thrown on the manumitted slave (of.
Hor. Sat. ii. 7, 70). Probably both ceremonies
accompanied the act of manumission, the
praetor applying the vindicta with his own
hand, the lictor throwing the stubble.
Fetia'les. A college (Liv. xxxvi. 3) of Roman
priests who acted as the guardians of the public
faith. It was their j)rovince, when any dispute
arose with a foreign state, to demand satisfac-
tion, to determine the circumstances under
which hostilities might be commenced, to per-
form the various religious rites attendant on
the solemn declaration of war, and to preside at
the formal ratification of peace. The ceremony
of demanding satisfaction was called res repe-
tere; and was originally a demand for the resti-
tution of men stolen or cattle lifted (Serv. ad
Verg. Aen. ix. 5, x. 14). The act of satisfac-
tion was res reddere ; res rape.re was to take
satisfaction, i.e. begin hostilities. When an
injury had been sustained, four fctiales were
deputed to seek I'edress, who appointed one of
their number to act as their representative.
This individual was styled the jiater patratus
populi Jimnani. They were dressed in the
garb of i)riests, and a wreath of sacred herbs
gathered within the enclosure of the Capitoline
hill {verbeiiac, Sagmina), was borne before
them by one of their number, who was hence
called Verhcnarius. (Plin. xxii. § 5.) Thus
equipped, they proceeded to the confines of
the offending tribe, where they halted, and
the pater patratus addressed a prayer to
Jupiter, calling the god and the land to wit-
ness the justice of his cause. He then crossed
the border, and the same form was repeated
in nearly the same words a second, a third,
and a fourth time : the last being to the
nuigistrates in tlie forum in presence of the
people. If a satisfactory answer was not re-
turned within thirty-three days, after publicly
delivering a solenni dciiunciiition, he returned
to Rome, and, accompanied by the rest of the
fetiales, made a report of liis mission to the
senate. If tlio senati> and jieople (Liv. x. iU)
decided for war, the i>ater patratus again
set forth to the border of the hostile terri-
tory, and launched a spoar tipjied with iron,
or charred at the extremity and dipped in
blood, across tho boundary, pronouncing at the
same time a solemn declaration of war. The
.\ 2
308
FIBULA
demand for redress and tlie proclamation of
hostilities were alike termed clarigatio ( = pub-
lication). (Liv. viii. 14, 5.) The rules of the
college of fetiales formed a body of ius fetiale
(for a specimen see Liv. i. 24, 32), the use of
which, with the services of the fetiales, was
considered absolutely essential in concluding a
treaty (Liv. ix. 5) ; and we read that at the ter-
mination of the Second Punic War fetiales were
sent over to Africa, who carried with them their
own verbenae and their own flint stones for
smiting the victim (Liv. xxx. 43).
The institution of these priests was ascribed
to Numa (Diouys. ii. 71), but similar usages un-
doubtedlj' prevailed among the Latin states.
The number of the fetiales was probably
twenty. They were originally selected from
the most noble famQies, and their office lasted
for life.
The etymology of fetialis is uncertain.
Fidus and foedus ferio, facio, have been pro-
posed. The most probable origin is -J fa; and
hence fetialis = orator. Pater patratus, ex-
plained by Livy (i. 24) as created ' ad iusiur-
andum patrandum, id est, sanciendum foedus '
(patratas = qui patratur from patrari, de-
ponent), may be better explained ' appointed,'
from patrare, active.
Fi'bula (Trep6in/], nepovis : iropTrr], eirnropTris :
iuerij). A brooch consisting of a pin (aciis), and
of a curved portion furnished with a catch
{KKfis, Hom. Od. xviii. 293). The forms of
brooches were, however, as various in ancient
as in modern times. (Hom. Od. xix. 256, 257 ;
Eurip. Fkoen. 805.)
FIMBRIAE
her tunic, examples of which ai'e seen in many
ancient statues [see fig. 143, under Armilla].
Another occasional distinction of female attire,
in later times, was the use of the fibula in
pinning up the tunic above the knee.
Brooches were succeeded by buckles, espe-
cially among the Romans, who called them by
the same name. (See fig. 551.) Buckles were
chiefly used to fasten the belt [Balteus], and
the girdle [Zona] (Verg. Aen. xii. 274).
Fictile. [Pottery.]
Fictio. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Fideicommissum. See Appendix, Roman
Law.
Fideiussor ; Fidepromissor. See Appendix,
Roman Law [Intercessio].
Fiducia. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Fimbriae {dixravoi : also Kpoa-aoi). Thrums ;
tassels ; a fringe.
When the weaver had finished any garment
on the loom [Tela], the thrums, i.e. the ex-
tremities of the threads of the warp, hung in a
row at the bottom. In this state they were
frequently left, being considered ornamental.
The most frequent use of the fibula was to
pin together two parts of tlie scarf, shavrl or
cloak [Dress ; Chlamys ; Peplus ; Pallium],
so as to fasten it over the right shoulder (Soph. .
Track. 9'2i-6; Theocr. xiv. 6() ; Ov. Met. viiL '
Fig. 552.— Fibula, brooch. (British Museum.)
318 ; Tac. Germ. 17). [See cut under AboUa.]
More rarely we see it over the breast. Women
often wore it on both shoulders. In conse-
quence of the habit of jiutting on the amietus
with the aid of a fibula, it was called irepovrjima,
TTopiraixa (Eurip. Elect. 820), &c.
In addition to the fibrda on both shoulders, a '
lady sometimes displayed an elegant row of ':
brooches do^vn each arm upon the sleeves of ',
Fig. 533.— Fimbriae. (From au ancient bronze.)
Often also, to prevent them from ravelling, and
also for ornament, they were separated into
bundles, each of which was twisted, and tied
in one or more knots. The thrums were thus,
by a very simple process,
transformed into a row of
tassels. They might also
be crossed and tied in
knots, so as to make a net-
work. Among the Greeks
and Romans fringes were
■ seldom worn except by females. Caesar, how-
ever, wore a long-.sleeved tunic with fi)nbriac
at the wrists (Suet. lul. 45 ; cf. Pint. Lucull.
28). [Clavus latus.]
The earliest representation of a fringe ex-
tant in Greek art is on a vase from Mykenae.
Fringes are worn by Dionysus, Orpheus, De-
meter and Kore, the Muses, &c. ; but usually
only by divinities and by priests and priestesses.
Sashes, however, taeniae, and scarves, coverlets
and horse- trappings, are often ornamented
thus. Among the Romans fringed garments are
Fig. 554.— Fimbriae.
FINITORES
worn by biirljMriati cai)tiv«;s, und l>y comic actors;
the imperial standards and Ijorse-housings,
coverings of curule chairs, curtains, iVc, are
similarly ornamented. Some of these fringes
are woven, some sewn on.
They were likewise made of gold thread and
other costly materials. In the poets we read
of the aiyls dixrcravoea-ffa of Zeus and Pallas, -.lie
dvffavoi of the girdle of Hera (Horn. 11. ii. 448,
V. 738, xiv. 181), of the golden fleece (Pind.
Fl/tli. iv. 411), itc.
Finitores. [Agrimensores.]
Fiscus. I'mperly, tlie large basket in which
the Aeiarium and tlie great banks kept money,
as c)pposed to the cista or chest used by private
persons. In the republican i)eriod tliere was
oidy one public treasury, the Aerarium populi
Komani, or Aerarium Saturni. On the esta-
blishment of the imperial power, c. '27 k.c, there
was a division of government between the senate
as the representative of the populus, and the
emperor, and in consequence a division of the
different branches of the public revenue into
two departments. The treasury of the senate
retained the name of Aerarium, wiiile that of the
emperor received the name of Caesaris Jiscits
or Fiscus, the terms Aerarium publicum and
privatum being sometimes used. In the time of
Augustus tlie central financial department of
each branch (ratio) of imperial administration
was called fiscus : e.g. fiscits Asiaticus, frumen-
tarius,castrensis (cf. Suet. Aug. 101). But the
wDrd soon came to be limited to the central
imperial treasury, and is commonly opposed by
Tacitus to aerarium (e.g. Tac. Ann. ii. 47, 48).
The property of the fiscus was held by the
emperor in his public capacity, to be employed
for tlie benefit of the state. The law, however,
made no distinction between the rights of the
emperor over property intended for public uses
and that wliich he held as a private person (Tac.
Ann. iv. 6, 1.5). The fiscus was at first admi-
nistered by the emperor's freedmen and slaves,
not by public officials. But the administration
of the fiscus was kept distinct from that of
other imperial property, and was treated as
public ; accounts of it being published bj' some
of the earlier emperors. Hence the res fisci
are frequently opposed to the property which
the emperor had acquired for his own use ( patri-
monium principis or res privatar priucipis).
At first the army and navy and the imperial
provinces were its principal concern, but new-
burdens were gradually imposed on it, as of the
city corn and water supply, of sacred and jiublif-
buildings, of the banks and bed of the Tiber, the
roads and bridges, and coinage. The income of
the liscuB was derived from the provinces which
were assigned to the emperor and to some extent
from the senatorial provinces also ; from con-
<iuered territory, and especially from the land
which he held in his own domain, which included
Kgjpt. Trovincia.) It was also augment«-d
i)y contributions from the aerarium, gifts from
Italian and provincial towns, jx-nalties on ac-
count of frauds on the revenue, and forfeitures.
The emperor frequently subsidised his treasury
to a eonsiderabl(> extent from his own private
property (cf. /■.</. Tac. Anu. xv. 18). The dis-
tinction between the fiscus and tlie lu-rarium
became merely formal as the republican trea-
sury lost its -ndepjindence. From the time of
Diocletian the wor<l fiscus signified generally the
treasury of the state, and the distinction Ix'tween
aerarium and fiscus disappeared entirely, and
with it the administration of the finances of
senatorial provinces by the (juiu'stors. The ad-
FISTULA
809
ministration of the fiscus was conducted by
imperial officers, called successively procnra-
tores a rationibns, rationales, and rotnites,
who had numerous assistants — adintores a
rationibus, tabcllarii, fcv. Hadrian first ap-
pointt'd its chief otlicers from the Equites instead
of taking them from his freedmen, according to
the practice of former emperors. Actions to
whicli the fiscus was a party were maintained
by means of its procuratores, for trj'ing wliii ii
special triitunals were after a time established
(Suet. Claud. 12; Tac. Arm. xii. CO).
Hadrian instituted the office of advoeatus or
pafrnnus fisci, v/hoae duty was to act as counsel
for the fiscus.
Fistu'ca. A rammer used for ramming down
pavements and threshing-fioorsond the founda-
tions of buildings (Cato, Ji. Ii. 18, 28; Plin.
xxxvi. § 1851, and also a monkey for driving
piles (Caes. Ji. G. iv. 17).
Fl'Stula («ra>A7J»'). (1) A water-pipe. Vitruvius
(viii. 0) distinguishes three modes of conveying
water: by channels of masonry {per canahs
struct iles), by lewlen pipes (fistulis plunt-
hei,s), and by earthen pipes {tubulis fictilibus).
Leaden pipes were commonly used in distribut-
c
Q
Fig.
From Middleton B lUirv.)
ing water from aqueducts, though draining-
pipes of earthenware were extensively used.
Pipes were made by rolling thick plates of lead,
in lengths of ten feet, round a wooden core; tlie
edges were then brought together and soldered
with melted lead. The resulting form was pear-
shaped in section (see fig. r).55, D). The pi))es were
made of thicker lead than is the custom now,
as much as 20 lbs. to the square foot in exist-
ing specimens ; bronze pipes were also used to
resist heavy pressure.
The bore of these pipes was measured either
by the width of the plate of lead (lamina or
/«»( /Iff) before it was bent into the sha|>e of .i
pipe, orl)y the internal diamett-r or bore {lum/'r>\
of the iM]ie when formed. Tlie latter system (that
of Frontinus) appears to have been the more
usual : ivccording to this the measurement was
by internal diamet«'rs, in quarters (quadrante^\
of a digitus = -18204 of an inch, or -004625 of a
metre. (See Tables, II.) The commonest unit
or t<!rni of measurement was quinaria — l\
digit. .-V fistula (juinaria 10 feet long weighe<i
00 Roman pounds.
Ilecent excavations in liome have unearthed
immense quantities of inscrib<'d pipes, from
which CommendaUire Jjanciani has identified
310 FLABELLUM
many sites of houses, and has gathered much
information as to the distribution of water from
the various castella, &c. The earhest existing
inscriptions date from the reign of Augustus.
The letters of these inscriptions are in rehef,
and therefore cast with the pipe by some
process of moveable types, not stamped upon
it. Inscriptions on leaden pipes usually re-
cord the name of the reigning emperor, some-
times the consuls of the year, the Procurator
Aquarum, the plumber who made the pipe, the
owner of the house, the name of the estate, the
fact of the water being an imperial concession,
and the capacity of the pipe in quinariae. (See
fig. 555, A.) [Aquaeductus.]
Of the earthen (terracotta) pipes we know
very little. Pliny says that they should be two
digits (lA inch) thick, and that each pipe should
have its "end inserted in the next, and the joints
should be cemented; but that leaden pipes
should be used where the water rises. The
eiirthen pipes were thought more wholesome
than the leaden (Plin. xxxi. § 57). Water
pipes were also made of stone, of leather, and
of wood, especially of the hollowed trunks of
the pine, fir, and alder (Plin. xvi. § 224),
but these are properly styled tuhuli, fistula
denoting a pipe of metal.
(2) A musical instrument [Tibia].
Flabe'Uum, dim. Flabe'llulum (piiris, piiri-
(TTirjp, dim. piwiSiou). A fan. Fans were used
from remote antiquity in Egypt and the East,
and appear to have been imported into Greece
after the fifth century. (See Eur. Or. 1430.)
They were at first made of broad leaves, hence
the common heart- shape. They were imitated
in other materials, palm-leaves, feathers, &c. ;
FLAGEUM
illustrations have been discovered of late years
in the Tanagra terracotta figures.
Fans were also used in the baths as punkahs,
and (as in Italy at the present day) to make a
fire bum on a hearth or altar (Ar. Ach. 689,
Ban. 360). [Focus.] The peacock fans borne
beside the Pope's sella gestatoria are of
Oriental origin. (Stanley, Christian Institu-
tions, ch. xi.)
A cameo represents Philoktetes fanning his
wounded foot with a bird's wing.
Flagrum, dim. (with no distinction of mean-
ing) Flage'llum (/j.a.<TTi^, aKVTos). A whip,
scourge.
The corporal punishment of freemen was, like
other forms of torture, abhorrent to Greek
manners [CruX]. Not only was the use of the
fxaffri^ limited to slaves, but we find no trace
of its infliction in public, as among the Romans
(Liv. ii. 36). A slave who had been flogged was
called ixaffTiyias (Ar. Eq. 1228, Ban. 501), a
term of mockery and contempt. Through the
comic writers, mastigia passed into Latin
(Plaut. Capt. lii. 4, 68; Ter. Adelph. v. 2, 6,
etc.). Among the different kinds of whips we
find the ffKVTivr} fidcm^ ; one called uaTpixi-s,
with a lash of bristles (Ar. Ban. 619, Pax, 746) ;
another, the most severe of all, called affrpa-
yaKuiTT], because strung with acrrpdyaKoi or
knuckle-bones.
At Rome the scourging of citizens had been
forbidden from verj' early times (Liv. x. 9).
Unprivileged jiersons, and especially slaves,
were scourged in a variety of ways, of which
the flagellum was the worst (Hor. Sat. i. 3, 119).
It was a ' knout ' or ' cat,' with lashes of knotted
cord, or even wire ; like the affrpayaXcoTi) of
the Greeks, it might be loaded with knuckle-
bones (fl. tessellatum, tala, Sen. de Ira, iii. 19,
§ 1). The infliction of punishment with it upon
the naked back of the sufferer (Juv. vi. 477) was
sometimes fatal (Hor. Sat. i. 2, 41), and was
carried into execution by a class of persons,
themsehos slaves, who were called lorarii.
Some flagella found at Herculaneum consist of
several short chains with knobs of metal at the
end, attached to a short handle. Less severe
forms of coi'poral punishment were with the
cane {vdpdr]^, ferula), tlic leathern strap (Ifids,
liahena, scutica, lorum, Hor. Sat. i. 3, 119,
£>. i. 16. 47 ; Plaut. Most. iv. 1, 26) ; the rope's
end (Hor. Epod. 4, 3). During the Saturnalia the
scourge was deposited under the seal of the
master. We likewise find that some gladiators
fought with the flagellum, as in the coin here
introduced.
Fig. 556.— Flabellum. (From Gerhard's Viisetihihh'r.t
were of elegiint forms, of delicate colours;
(Mart. iii. 82, 11), and sometimes of costly and
splendid materials, such as peacocks' feathers
(Mart. xiv. 67). Fans were of a fixed shape and
not made to fold, and were held by slaves
(./?rt6e?///'erf/r, Plaut. Trin. ii. 1, 22; Ter. Sum..
iii. 5, 47; cf. Ov. A. A. i. 161; see cut under
Cathedra). Another use of the fan was to
drive away flies {fjiVioaofir), muscariinn). Fans
or flappers were sometimes made of an ox-tail
(Mart. xiv. 69).
Fans were also made of linen, extended upon
a light frame ; or by placing the two wings of a
bird back to back, fastening them togetlier in
this position, and attaching a handle at the
base. [See fig. 308, under Cathedra.] Further
Fig. 557. - Flagellum.
For corporal punishment in schools, virgae,
anguiUae (tawse of eel-skin), /.e>(/7ae, and lora
are mentioned (Juv. i. 15, with Mayoi-'s note;
Mart. X. 62).
For the virgae of the lictors, see Fasces.
FLAMEX
For driving, the whip (jxdffrt^, Ksvrpov) is often
ineutionetl by Homer (//. v. M40, cV'c.) ; a lonj^
pointed rod or goad was also used. In later
times we find ii switch or cane for riding, and
for riding and driving, a whip with a short
liandle and single or double lash, sometinjes
weighted at the end.
Flamen. The name for any Roman priest
devoted to the service [ fiamoniuvi,Jiaminatti8)
of one particular god (Cic. Leyg. ii. H, § 'id I, and
who received a di.stinguishing ei)itlu't from the
deity to whom he ministered. The derivation
is Irom Jlare, to blow up a fire; the flamen was
always a sacrificing ])riest.
The most dignitied llamens were the Dialis,
Martialm, and Quirinalia. The number was
eventually increased to fifteen ; the three
original flamens were always chosen from
among the patricians, and styled Maiores; the
rest from the plebeians, with the epithet Mi-
norea.
Towards the end of the Republic the Lesser
Flamens seem not to have been fullj' kept up.
The characteristic dress of the flamens was
the Apez, the Laena, and a laurel wreath ;
they were inaugurated at the Comitia Calata
[Comitia], and tiiey were at all times sub-
ject to the authority of the Pont if ex Jlaxi-
mus, against whom, however, they sometimes
appealed to the people (Liv. xx.wii. 51). The
office was understood to last for life ; but a
flamen might be compelled to resign (Jia»ionio
iibire) for a breach of duty, the death of his
wife, or even on account of a mistake in ritual
(Liv. xxvi. 23). When a vacancy occurred,
three persons of patrician descent, whose |mrents
had been married by the rite ol ctnifn rri'atiu\yiGe
Appendix, Roman Law, MatrimoniumJ, were
nominated by the college of pontiffs, and one of
tliese chosen (captus ; the same word is used
of the Vestals) and solemidy installed by the
Pontifex Maximus (Tac. Ann. iv. 16; Liv. xxvii.
8) ; he was not allowed to refuse the ofKce.
The Dialis enjoyed many peculiar honours,
counterbalanced by burdensome restrictions.
He was to be literally lui'i ailifuliius sacerdos.
He was always on parade, and always in full
dress. He had a right to the tu<ju jtrat'tcxta,
the sella cum I in, and to a seat in the senate by
virtue of his office ; but in early times he was
altogether, and always was partially, i)recluded
from seeking any civil magistracy. He niigiit
not mount upon horseback, nor even touch a
horse, nor look upon an army marshalled with-
out the i)onierium ; was not allowed to swear
an oath (Liv. xxxi. 5t>) ; nor to be out of the city
for a single night (Liv. v. 52; cf. Tac. Ann. ii.
5a, 71). As every day was a holiday witii him
(ratidiv. feriatiis est), he was not allowed either
to work himself or to see others working.
Whenever he went out, he wore the special
ai>ex called AlbogalerUS, with an olive bnuich
twined witli wiiitc wool {filiini) attaciied to its
point (aj/ici(luiii) ; the laena, a thick woollen
praetexta, woven by the hands of his wife; in
one hand he carried a sacrificial knife 'Seces-
pita], in the other a wand called rommetarula
with which he kept tlie people at a clistance.
He was preceded by a lictorand by criers called
praeciae or praeclaniitaturrs, at whose bidding
everyone laid aside his work. As em))lennitic
of thf divine freedom, he could neitlier look
ujxm, toiu'h, nor name anything suggest iv«! of
bonds or imprisonment : hencelu! hail no knots
on any part of his attire, which was fastt*ned
instead with clasps (fibulae) ; his ring had to
be split (pervius) so as not to encircle hi;*
FLAMMEUM
311
finger completely ; he was forbidden to name
ivy, on account of its binding proi^>erties,
or to walk along a path over-canopied by
vines, for a similar reason ; if a criminal
on his way to punishment met him, he
could neither be scourged nor executed on
that day. None but a free man might cut
the hair of the Dialis ; his beard might
only be trimmed with a knife of bronze, the
ancient and sacred metal; the clippings of his
I hair, and the parings of his nails, were burie«l
j beneath a felix arbor. Many other minute
: ceremonial restrictions are mentioned. He
I was forbidden to touch or name anything un-
clean or suggestive of uncleanness, such us a
I dead body or a bust u in [FunusJ, a dog, a she-
' goat, beans fLeinuriaj, raw flesh, <i:c.
Flaininica was the name given to the wife of
the Dialis. He was reijuired to wed a virgin
according to the ceremonies of ronfarreatio.
! By this fonn of marriag*- she came //( inanuin
j viri\ but only sairoruni causa, her property
being secured under the ordinary law. The
Dialis could not marry a second time. A
: divorce was not permitted, and if his wife died
' the Dialis was obliged to resign. Their children,
if they had any, assisted them in their sacred
duti<-s; if not, their place was supplied by
Camilli and camillac. Ceremonial regulations
' were imposed upon the flaininica similar to
those of her husband. In public, her dress
consisted of a dyed robe (renenatu operitur) ;
I her hair was arranged in the double Etruscan
j plait [ComaJ, plaited up with a purple band in
a conical form [Tutulusj; and iicr head was
covereil with a veil (fiannneuni) and a Bica.
She likewise carried the Secespita. On each
of the luindinae she sacriliced a ram to Jupiter
in tlie Regia.
The house of the Dialis was c&Ued fia7mnia,
from which it was unlawful to eari-y out fire
except for sacred puqioses.
The municipal towns also had their flamens:
e.g. Lanuvium (Cic. Mil. 10, § 27). After
, the deification of the emperors, flamens were
appointed in their honour. Julius Caesar ac-
; cepted a flamen in his lifetime (Suet. Jul. 7(5) ;
I Augustalis refused all divine honours within the
borders of Italy, but after his death t\u> fiainen
Augustalis appears [cf. AugUStales). The im-
perial flamens were required to be patricians,
and were mostly taken from the imperial family,
e.g. Gernianicus and Nero. Flamens were not
usually assigned to empresses. The flamens of
the Empire were not called lulii, Aiigusti,
Claudii, Arc, but luliani, Augustales, Claudi-
ales, .V.-.
Fla'mmeum (sc. velum). A flame-colouied
j veil, worn by a Roman bride, the colour of
, which is described as luteus (Plin. xxi. § 4t> ;
irldf "itli Iho Kliiiiiii'cum.
Alilubruiidini Miirrlii)!c. <
I'rooi tllO
S12
FLORALIA
Juv. ii. 124 ; Mart. xi. 78, 3, xii. 42, 3). It
was a long veil covering the head, and de-
scending over the back to the feet. When the
bride was brought into the nuptial chamber, the
veil was removed by the bridegroom. It was ori-
ginally identical with the Ricinium and Rica.
[Dress.]
The jiamnieum continued in use in the im-
perial period down to the fourth and fifth cen-
turies, and along witli the 2mUa was the charac-
teristic dress of the bride. The use of the veil
in the marriage ceremony was adopted in the
Christian Church. The colour of the Christian
veil was purple and white, though the name of
fanimewm was sometimes used. [Matrimo-
nium.]
Flora'lia, or Flora'les Ludi. A festival which
was celebrated at Rome in honour of Flora or
Chloris. It was said to have been instituted in
238 B.C., on the occasion of the dedication of a
temple to Flora by the aediles L. and M. Publi-
cius in the Circus Maximus, at the command
of an oracle in the Sibylline books. It was made
an annual festival (178 B.C.) (Ov. Fast. v. 329).
By degrees it was extended to six days (Api-il 2S-
May 3). The celebration was conducted by the
aediles (Cic. Verr. v. 14, 36), and was carried on
with excessive merriment, drinking, and licen-
tious games (Mart. i. 3). Theatrical and mimic
representations formed a principal part of the
^jarious amusements. At the Floralia women
dressed themselves in clothes of bright and
various colour (Ov. Fast. v. 3G1) ; numerous
torches were lighted ; beans and lupines were
thrown to the people to be scrambled for (Pers.
V. 178; Hor. .S'«^. ii. 3, 182). Hares and deer
were baited in the venationes instead of wild
beasts. Tlie last day was devoted to a vcnatio
in the circus, but there were no races. The
Floralia were originally festivals of the country
people, which were afterwards, in Italy as in
Greece, introduced into the towns.
Foca'le. A covering for the throat (fauces),
sometimes drawn also over the ears (Mart. iv.
41), made of wool and worn by delicate or effemi-
nate persons (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 255 ; Mart. xiv. 142).
Focus, dim. Fo'culus (fffTLa : ecrxapa, iffxapi^i
dim. i(rx<ipiov). A fire-place ; a brazier. In the
primitive Greek house the fVxapa stood against,
or near, the back wall of the ^leyapov [Domus] :
in a later age it was transferred to a small
private chapel, vaulted so as to resemble the
06\os, the dome-shaped icTTia of the state.
The use of the hearth as a sanctuary for sup-
pliants occurs as early as Homer {Oil. vii. 153-
169; Thuc. i. 136).
Among the Romans the fireplace was dedi-
cated to the Lares of each family (Ov. Fast. i.
135, vi. 302) : a consecration which did not
i,nterfere with its domestic uses (Hor. Epod. 2,
Fig. 559.— Focus. (From British Museum.)
43; Ov. Me^. viii. 673). On festivals the house-
wife decorated the hearth with gai-lands (Ov.
Trist. v. 5, 10).
FOEDERATAE CIVITATES
The focus was usually a fixture, constructed
of stone or brick, and elevated a few inches
above the ground. Moveable foci were also fre-
quently made of bronze.
A small portable brazier or chafing-dish,
called /ocmZws or eVxapioj', was especially used
in sacrifices ; and the same name was applied
to the hollow or fire-jpan at the top of an altar
(Liv. ii. 12 ; Ara). The movable focus or foculus
was used in the bath [Balneae], in the kitchen
(Plant. Cajit. iv. 2, 68 ; Juv. iii. 262), and for
keeping things hot was bi-ought into the dining-
room. [Caldarium ; Authepsa ; Domus.]
Foedera'tae civita'tes, Foedera'ti, So'cii.
The Romans sometimes concluded a treaty of
alliance with a neighbouring community ; some-
times reduced such community to complete
subjection by conquest or surrender (Liv. xxxiv.
17, viii. 2). Where there was a treaty of alliance
(foediis), the allied community was described
by the terms x^refixed to this article. At first
such allies were exclusively Italian ; in particular
the Socii and Latini. But outside Italy also
Rome attached allies to herself by treaty, both
states governed on the republican principle
and foreign princes {e.g. Ptolemaeus Philadel-
phus, 273 B.C. ; and Hiero of Syracuse, 272 B.C.,
Pol. i. 16). After the extension of the Roman
empire into the provinces, two kinds of foe-
derati populi or civitates have to be distin-
guished : those whose territory lay within the
bounds of a Roman province, and those which
were genuinely foreign. The latter, however,
were constantly becoming mere tribute-payers
to Rome (Liv. xlii. 6), and as a general rule had
to be content with concealing their practical
vassalage under the disguise of ' friends and
allies of the Roman people ' (Caes. B. G. i. 3,
iv. 12 ; Cic. Leg. Man. 5, 12).
The foedera were of three orders, stipulating
(1) for friendship between the contracting
parties, or (2) for reciprocal hospitality, or (3)
for military subvention. (1) Those of the first
order (Polyb. iii. 22 ; Liv. xxxviii. 38) provided
that the two states should, if possible, not
engage in war with one another, and contained
regulations as to the sojourn of the citizens of
each on the territory of the other (Liv. xxx. 37,
xxxiii. 30, xxxviii. 38). (2) Treaties of the second
class bargained for greater intimacy between
the two states, and bound the superior power
to give aid if called upon (Caes. £. G. i. 31).
Those (3) providing for military assistance some-
times placed the parties on an absolute equality
(Liv. xxxiv. 57, xxviii. 45, xx vi. 24) ; in other cases
the socius was subordinated to Rome (Cic. Balb.
16, 35) : it remained free, but practically was
at Rome's orders, as a client at those of his
patron, though the Romans admitted their obli-
gation to afford full protection (Liv. xxx. 42 ;
Caes. B. G. i. 43), and included the socius in
their own treaties with neighbouring peoples
(Liv. xxx. 37, xxxviii. 11, 38).
The condition of the socii and foederati was
originally one of tolerable independence, subject
to tlie obligation of furnishing a contingent to
the Roman army. At the termination of the
Social War the Leges lulia and Plautia Papiria
put an end to this class of communities by
bringing the Roman civitas within the reach of
all who were domiciled in Italy [Civitas].
There were also foederatae civitates in most
of the provinces, their treaty being anterior to
the formation of the province itself : e.g. in
Sicily, Baetica, and Asia Minor: Athens, Rhodes,
and Tyi-e were federate towns. The citizens of
such tomis were exemx^ted from paj'ment of the
FOENUS
land impost (vectigal, Cie. Verr. iii. 6, 13), and
perhaps fjflam some other ordinary taxes; and
they were supposed to possess avTovofiia, the
independent control of their own affairs. The
foederatae civitates were of course forbidden to
embark on any independent foreign policy.
They were free to adopt the civil law of Rome
in whole or part.
With the development of the imperial syst»'m
the provincial foederatac civitatrs {^-adually
disappeared : many of tiiem voluntarily became
coloniae, and others municipia. Caesar and the
emperors admitted many trjbes of barbarians
as allies. The earliest instance is that of the
Haedui mentioned above. The Batavi, Ubii,
Sygambri, itc, were associated under the early
Empire. In later times, when the barbarians
began to press uix)n the empire, they were
propitiated by the sj)ecious title of /oe(?('>-(7// :
and wlicn hordes of barbarians were repulsed
and walled out on the Rhine and Danube, the
more powerful or better disposed tribes were
permitted to settle within the limits of the
em])ire.
Foenus. ^Fenus.''
Follis, dim. Jolli'CUlus. (1) An intlated ball
of leather, no doubt originally the skin of a
quadruped filled with air. The follis [Pilaj
was the largest as well as the lightest and
softest ball in use; the follis miglit be either
filled with air (Kefrj) or perhaps lightly stuffed
with feathers. The follis was soft, not tightly-
blown like a modern football, and was recom-
mended as a gentle exercise, fit for small boys
and old men, but one to which iureiifn would
not condescend (Mart. xiv. 47). (See Games.)
For the foUis pugihitoriusoi Plautus (ii;<rf. iii.
4, 16), see Corycus. The term follis is also
applied to a leather purse or bag ( Juv. xiii. Gl,
xiv. 281).
(2) Under the later Empire, folli> was the
name of a small debased coin [Coinage], so
called from the bags in which the coins were
done up. The number of coins that went to a
bag was probably 500, and the worth of a follis
nearly j\ of a solidus, or Is. 1(7.
(3) Follis also (Verg. Grorg. iv. 171, Aen. viii.
449) means a pair of bellows, <pv(rai {II. viii.
872), irpTjffTripfs, ^v(Xr)T7ipes, Apoll. Rhod. iv.
775). 'Die Homeric bellows were small ; tliere
was one to every melting-pot ix^avoy) or
crucible (II. xviii. 470; cf. Hdt. i. (!»). The
nozzle of the bellows was called aKpo<pvcnov or
aKpoffrSfiiov (Thuc. iv. ]00). A simpler form
FORCEPS 313
Fons {Kprivni). Originally a natural spring ;
but both the Greeks and Romans had artificial
fountains, made either by covering and decorat-
ing a spring with buildings and sculi)ture, or by
making a jet or stream of water, sujiplied from
an elevated cistern, play into an artificial basin.
Aquaeductus.J
Tluy were covered to keep them pure and
cool, and the covering was frequently in the
form of a monoiiteial temi)le : there were al.so
statues. That of I'eirene, behind the temple
of Aphrodite on the Akrokorinthus at Corinth,
was adorned with covered cisterns f>f white
niarble, and with a statue of Ajiollo (Pans.
ii- 8, ^ 3). The entrance is from the tojj of the
rock down a staircase. Tiio grotto enclosing
the spring is of vaulted marble, and the sjjring
itself, of the most transparent water, is entered
through a marble jiortico of three pila-sters
supporting a pediment.
Other instances are the salt wells of Pos-
eidon at Athens [Erechtheum J and Mantineia
(Paus. i. 2(5, § 5, ii. r., $ 1, viii. 10, § 4); the
fountain of Salmakis at Halikarnassus", A'c.
The Romans also erected similar edifices,
as the grotto of Egeria, near Rome, where the
natural cave was converted by the architect
into a sort of temple or Nymphaeum (Juv. iii.
12-20); and the baptistei-y of Constantine, now
called ,S. Giovanni in Fontc, adjoining the
Lateral!.
At Rome, a large portion of the immense
supply of water brought to the city by the
Fig. Geo.— Bellows
of forge-bellows was a skin with a nozzle. In
Egy{itiaii sculptures the forge is furnished with
a set of such skins worked by slaves, who tread
them in turn.
Fig. 5f)l.— Jet. (From a painting at I'ompcU.)
aqueducts "was devoted to the public fountains,
which were divided into two classes : namely,
lacii.s, ponds or reservoirs, and .salir)itt'ft,jeie of
water, Ijesides which many of the casirlla were
s(i constructed as to be also fountains. (See
AquaeductuB.) There were also many small
(irivate fountains in the houses and villas of the
wealthy (Plin. Epji. v. (J). At l\impeii the
fountains are extremely numerous, both in
public places and in priv ate houses.
Various forms were given to fountains. Tlie
large flat vases were a cummon form, and these
are found of 5, 10, 20, and 80 feet in diameter,
ctil out of a single piece of some hard stone,
such as jwrphyry or granite. Very often the
water was made to flow out of bronze statues,
es)iecially of boys, and of Tritons, Nereids,
Satyrs, I'i.c.
Forceps. Tonga, pincers, nippers, or pliers.
(1) A j)air of tongs (irvpaypa, Otpfuiarpls), for
smiths' use, and attributed to H(4>hiu>stus ami
the Kyklopes : s(!e cut under Incus. (Uom. //.
xviii. 477, Od. iii. 434; Verg. Geoig. iv. 175;
Ov. Mf't. xii. 277.)
(2) Smiths' pincers (KopKivos).
814
FORDICIDIA
(3) Shears for liftiug blocks of marble, fitting
either into two lioles in the stone, or (as at the
Parthenon) under two projecting blocks (Vitr.
X. 2). See cut under Machina.
(4) As a surgical instrument, a forceps {Kafiis).
Several specimens found at Pompeii are figured
under Chirurgia. Among special kinds may
be mentioned one for extracting spear- or arrow-
heads from wounds (Verg. Aen. xii. 404 : Gr.
dp5io9-/)pa) ; another for drawing teeth (oSovr-
dypa, ptCdypa).
(5) In military language, a tenaille, i.r. a body
of troops in the form of a V [Cuneus] ; in which
sense, however, Fprfex is more commonly used.
Fig. 562.— Forcipes. (From BlUmner.1
a, h. and p, from vase-paintings ; r, from the altar of Vul-
can at Veil ; </. from a basrolief ; /, from an original
now in the Zurich Museum.
Fordici'dia. The second of the two festivals
of the cin-iae (the first being the Fomacalia),
held on the 15th of April. Cows in calf [fur-
dne, hordae boves, Varro, Ovid) were sacrificed
under the direction of the Pontiffs and Vestals,
some in the Capitol, others in the thirty curies,
others outside the walls of Rome. Tlie unborn
calves were extracted and burnt separately by
the senior Vestal (Virgo Vestalis maxima),
and tViesc ashes, together with the blood of the
October ecus, were used six days later for
purposes of lustration at the Parilia (Ov. Fast.
iv. 62y-(J40).
Other forms of the word are Fordicalia,
llordicalia, and Hordicidia.
Fores. [lanua.j
Forfex, dim. Forfi'cula (ij/oAis, dim.xpaAiSiov,
SiirXri fxdxaipa). Shears (Verg. Aen. viii. 453),
(1) used in shearing sheep; (2) scissors for
cutting hair, itc. (Schol.
in Euvi)). Ori'st. 954 ;
Verg. Cr(^^Lviii. 9): the
cross-handled kind does
not seem to have been
used ; (3) for clipping
hedges and shrubs.
In military man-
ceuvres ^ Forceps.
In architecture the
term ij/oA(s denoted a
construction consisting
against each other so as to form an acute angle
overhead, as is seen in the ruins of Tiryns and
other prehistoric buildings (Plat. Legg. xii.
947 d). [Arcus.]
Fori. [Navis; Circus.]
FORNAX
Forma, dim. Formula, Forme'lla irvnos). A
pattern, a mould, for makinj,' pottery, pastry,
cheese, bricks, and coins. Several moulds for
cookery were found at Pompeii. Moulds
for coins were made of stone. For moulds
used in casting ten-acottas, see FctypuB.
Moulds have also been found of jjigs of lead
and silver, spear-heads, jewellery [Caelatura],
er-votos, medallions, tesserae, &c. Moulds
were likewise employed in making walls of cla.y
cast in wooden frames (jjarietes formacei,
Plin. XXXV. § 109), which were built in Africa,
in Spain, and about Tarentum. A shoemaker's
last was also called /o?v«a (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 106),
formula, and tentipeUiuvi, in Greek KaK6irovs
(Plat. Si/mjj. 191 A). The spouts and cliaimels
of aqueducts are called /or;«ae.
Forma also means a plan : e.g. the well-known
forma TJrbis liamae, or Capitoline plan, execu-
ted 203-211 .K.D., many fragments of which have
been discovered and edited by Comm. Lanciani.
It is engraved on slabs of marble about 3 in.
thick, which were fixed to the wall of the
Templum Sacrac Urbis (see Middleton's Rome,
ch. viii. p. 263). The whole plan when complete
must have covered 2500 square feet. It was
executed in extreme detail.
Fo'rmula. See Api^endix, Roman Law
[Actio.
Fomacalia. A festival in honour of Fornax,
the goddess of furnaces, in order that the corn
might be properly baked. This ancient festival
is said to have been instituted by Numa, and
was celebrated by the curiae, probablj' in the
Forum [FordicidiaJ. The time for its celebra-
tion was proclaimed every year by the Curio
Maximus, wlio announced the different part
which each curia had to take in the celebration
of the festival. Those plebeians who did not
know to what curia they belonged, performed
the sacred i-ites on the Quirinalia, called from
this circumstance the Stultorum feriae, which
fell on the 17th of February.
Fornax, dim. Foma'cula, Furnus {Kamvos,
dim. Kafiivioy). A kiln ; an oven ; a furnace.
..ii^-
Fig. 563.— Forfex, sliears.
(From a gem.;
Fig. ,'564.— Fornax, a kiln. (Discovered near Castor, In
Nortliamptonshire.)
The construction of the kilns used for baking
of two stones leaning earthenware I Pottery] may be seen in the an-
nexed woodcut. The middle of the floor is
supported by a thick column of brickwork,
which is encircled by the oven (fur^ins, K\ifia-
vos). The entrance to the oven (praefiirnium)
is seen in front. In Spain these furnaces were
FORNIX
raised to a great height, and provided witli
long flues (Plin. ix. § IBS), and chambers or
' cupolas ' (cavierae) for tlie purpose of collecting
the oxides and other matters by sublimation.
In the primitive forges Iniown to Homer, there
was no furnace, only melting-pots (x6aj/oi.),ea.c\i
with its separate bellows {II. xviii. 470; FoUis).
Furnaces were erected for casting lai'ge
std,tues of bronze. The lime-kilu (/onia.v cal-
mria) is described by Cato (It. li. 3M). For
the furtius used in heating baths, set: Balneae.
Fornix, in its primary sense, is synonymous
with Arcus, but more commonly implies an
arelied vault, chamber, or passage.
These vaults were often occupied by prosti-
tutes (Hor. Sat. i. 2. 30 : .Tnv. Sat. iii. 150 ; Suet.
FRUMENTAEIAE LEGES
315
I'ig. 50."..— Fornices, vaults. (From a villa at Mola dl
Gaeta.i
luL 49), whence comes the meaning of the word
fornicatio in ecclesiastical writers.
A detached triumphal arch, like those of
Titus, Sept. Severus, and Constantine, is not
called fornix., but urcus triumphalis; but
the former name is applied to ornamental or
honorary arches spanning a street, and con-
nected with the adjacent buildings, e.y. the
Fornix Fabii (Cic. de Orat. ii. CO, § -207).
Forpex (pecto). A pair of curling tongs.
[Calamistrum.]
Forum. Forum originally signifies an open
space (area) before any building, especially
before a sepulcrum (Cic. Lege/, ii. 24, J; 01).
The characteristic features of a Roman forum
were, that it was a levelled space of ground of
an oblong form, and surrounded by buildings,
houses, temples, basilicas or colonnades :
such as the forum at Pompeii, now completely
e.Kcavated. A forum was oi'iginally used as a
place where justice was administered, and
where goods were exhibited for sale. The
former kinds of fora were sometimes called
fcn'a iudicialia, to distinguish them from the
mere market-places.
For the Forum Boniunum and the other
fora of the city, see Diet, of Geogr., art. Roma ;
C/as.f. Diet. ; Burn, Rome and the Campagna ;
Sliddleton, Tieniains of Ancient Home, 1892.
Fossa. [Castra.]
Fra'mea. [Arms and Armour, Spk.ves.]
Friti'llus (pgrgus, phitnus, tnrriciila, (pifxos,
irvfjyoi). A dice-box. The dice were some-
times thrown from the hand, but more usually
from a box of a cylindrical shape, but taper-
ing towards the top (Mart. iv. 14, xiv. 16 ;
Hor. Sat. ii. 7, 15 ; Juv. xiv. 5). It was fur-
nished inside witli parallel indentations like
hteps (gradus), which gave a better spin to the
dice. The game was played on a board {alveiia)
with a raised rim. [Games, Tai>i, Duodeci.m
SCKIPTA.]
Front'ale. ["AM-irvg.]
Frumenta'riae leges. From tlie earliest
times the supjily of corn at Rome was con-
sidered one of the duties of the government ;
who, in seasons of scarcitj', were expected to
purchase corn in the surrounding countries, and
sell it to the people at a moderate price (Liv.
ii. 9, 81, xxvi. 40; Cic. Dom. 5). The customary
price {annuna vetus, Liv. ii. 84) could not rise
much without exciting formidable discontent
against the adniinistnition. The superintend-
ence of the corn-market belonged in ordinary
times to the aediles ; but in time of dearth, an
extraordinary ofKcer was appointed, under the
title of Fraefectus Annonae (Liv. ii. 27, 5]. The
decay of agriculture in Italy, the importation
of corn, the decrease of the free citizens, and
llie growth of an indigent population in Rome
increased the burden laid upon government.
Even in early times occasional donations of
corn were made by the state or by rich men
(donatio, largitio, divisio, friimentatio). But
it was not till the year 123 n.c. that legal pro-
vision was made for supplying the poor at
Rome with corn much below its market value.
In that year C. Sempronius Gracchus brought
forward the first Lex Frumentaria, by which
each citizen was entitled to receive every month
a certain quantity of wheat (triticuin) at 6^ asses
per modius, a trifle more than half the market
price (Liv. Fpit. Ix. ; Pint. C. Gracchus, 5).
This distribution was only given to fathers of
families; but every citizen had a right to it,
whether he were rich or poor (Cic. Tusc. Disp.
iii. 20, 4Sj.
Appuleius Saturuinus in 100 B.C. (Cic. Legg.
ii. 0, 14), the tribune M. Ijivins Drusus in 91
B.C. and the tribune M. Octavius (Cic. Brut.
02, 222), brought forward laws to regulate the
distribution of corn. Sulla, by his Lex Cornelia,
82 B.C., entirely abolished it. But as the
popular party began to increase in power, the
consuls of 73 B.C. brought forward the Lex
Terentia Cassia, enacting that each Roman
citizen should receive five modii a month
at the price of 6^ asses per modius. The
provinces were obliged by this law to furnish
the greater part of the corn at a fixed price,
paid by the Roman treasury, and the governors
of the provinces had to take care that the
proper (juantity of corn was supplied (Cic. Verr.
iii. 70, 103).
The distribution of corn became at length
quite gratuitous. Caesar, in his consulsliip,
59 B.C., had threatened to make it so (Cic. Att.
ii. 19), and this tlu'eat was carried into execu-
tion in the following year, 58 ]i.c., by the Lex
Clodia. The abolition of the payment cost the
state a fifth ])art of its revenues (Cic. Sest. 25,
55), or nearly 700,000/. a year.
Caesar, when he became master of the Roman
world, resolved to remedy the evils attending
the dole, as far as he was able. He did not
venture to abolish the distributions of corn, but
reduced the number of the recipients, by ex-
cluding all who were not Roman citizens. Tlie
number was thus lowered from 300,000 to
150,000 (Suet. Cars. 55). It would appear, also,
that the corn was supplied gratuitously only to
' the utterly destitute ; these persons were fur-
! nislied with tickets, called tesserae nummariae
\ or frmnentariae (Suet. Aug. 41). After
! Caesar's death the number rose to 320,000 ;
but was again reduced by Augustus (2 B.C.) to
200,000. [Congiarium.]
The system established by Augustus was
followed by his successors ; but they frequently
lowered the price of the public corn, or distri-
buted it as a congiarium. Hence the cry of
the populace, j>anem et circcnses.
In course of time, the sale of the com ceased,
and the distribution again became gratuitous.
Every citizen living in Rome, with the exception
of senators, was therefore now provided with a
' tessera, which he was allowed not only to
316
FUCUS
keep for life, but even to sell, or bequeath by
wiU.
At a later period, perhaps about 260 a.d., not
com, but wheaten bread, called annona civica,
was given to the people. The bread was baked
by the pistores, who delivered it to the various
depots in the city, from which it was fetched
away on certain days by the holders of the
tesserae. These depots had steps {gracilis)
leading to them, from which the bread, hence
called panis gradilis, was distributed. The
superintendence of the corn-market, under the
emperors, belonged to the praefect us atinonne.
Fucus ((pvKos : cf. Heb. piich) was the general
term to signify the paint which the Greek and
Roman ladies used for the toilette. This prac-
tice was of gi-eat antiquity among the Greeks,
and was probably first introduced among the
Asiatic lonians from the East.
In the Homeric poems both sexes use oil
freely (Od. xviii. 172, &c.) [TJnguenta], but
there is no mention of paint or other cosmetics.
But at Athens it was universal (cf. Lys. de \
Caede Erat. § 17 ; Ar. Lijsistr. 149, Eccl. 878, '
Plut. 1064 ; Pint. Alcib. 39). In order to pro-
duce a fair complexion, white lead {•^iij.vQiov,
cerussa) was employed (Ar. Ecd. 878). Rouge
was prepared from vegetable reds: a plant
named 67X0"'''° ^'^^- Lijs^istr. 48), now called
anchusa, oxtongue or bugloss, the root of which
yielded the dye ; mulberry-juice ((rvKa/xivov} ;
and (pvKos, used for paint in general, but pro-
perly a seaweed, moss or lichen (Ar. Fr. 309).
Besides \ptfivdiov, red lead {ixtXros, minium)
and carbonate of soda (virpov, Att. \irpov) were
employed. Tlie usual word for apphnng paint
is ivTpi&ecrdai : the dyes are called iyTpifXfiaTa
(Plut. Crass. 24). The eyebrows mid ej-elids
were stained black with crTififii or ffTinfMis,
stibium, a sulphuret of antimony, still employed
in the East, under the name kohl, for the same
purpose. The eyebrows were darkened with
acr^oKos, a preparation of lamp-black. Men
also sometimes used paint.
Among the Romans the art of painting was
can-ied on to a still gi-eater extent tlian among
the Greeks (Ov. A. A. iii. 206). The favourite
rouge was from a kind of moss {Lichen roci'Ua,
Linn.) ; another wa,s purpiiTissi/ m (Plant. Most.
i. 3, 104). The use of patches [Splenium] was
not unkno\vn to the Roman ladies (Mart. ii. 29,
Fig. 566.— Woman painting her face. (From a vase.)
9, viii. 33, 22; Plin. Epp. vi. 2). The more
effeminate of the male sex at Rome employed
paint (Cic. Pis. 11, § 25). See fig. 566, and
also fig. 143, under Armilla.
FULLO
Fuga lata. FExilium.]
Fugiti'vus. : Servus.]
Fulcrum. [Lectus.]
Fullo {Kva(pivs, yi'a(pevs). A fuller, a washer
or scourer of cloth and linen. The f ullones not
only scoured the cloth as it came from the
loom, but also cleaned garments which had
been already worn. As the Romans generally
wore woollen dresses, wliich were often of a
light colour, they frequently needed cleaning.
The word irKvveiv denoted the wasliing of
linen, and Kva^€v€iv or yya<peveiv the washing
of woollen clothes. The clothes were first
washed, which was done in tubs or vats {laciis,
Fig. 567.— Fullones. (From a painting at Pompeii.)
lacunae), or mortars {pilae fnllonicae. Cat.
R. a. 10, § 5), where they were trodden upon
and stamped by the feet of the fullones.
The ancients were not acquainted with soap
(sapo, Plin. xxviii. § 191, appears to have been
rather a pomade or a dye than a soap) ; they
used in its stead different kinds of alkaline
detergents {{ivfifiara. Plat. Bep. iv. 429 e) :
(1) a species of lye or potash called kovlo, Lat.
lixivium (Plat. ttep. iv. 430 a ; Ar. Ach. 18).
(2) Nitrum, or native carbonate of soda {virpov,
Att. Kirpov), whicli came from Chalesti-a in
^Macedonia {xo-^fcrpaiov) and Egypt (Hdt. ii.
86; Plin. /. c. §i> 109, 111 ; cf. Theocr. xv. 26).
(3) Fuller's earth {creta fiillonia, Plin. H. N.
xvii. § 46), a sort of alkaline marl ; the best
was from Kimolus (Ar. Man. 713 ; Ov. Met. vii.
463; Plin. xx.xv. $§ 195-198), and Sardinia.
We must distinguish between fuller's eai-tli,
mixed witli the water in whicli the clotlies were
washed, and creta, used like pipe-clay for
whitening the togas of the candidati (Plant.
Aid. iv. 9, 6). (4) The urine of men and
animals. The fullones derived their supply of
it from the public latrines (Mart. vi. 93 ;
Dolimn ; see Suet. Vesp. 23).
Fig. 5C8.— Fullones. (From a painting at Pompeii.)
FUMARIUM
After the clothes had been washed, they were
hunt; out to dry in the street before the doors
of the fulloiiica. Wlien dry, the wool was
brushed and carded to raise the nap with an
instrument (Kvd<t>os, aemi), or a phvut of the
teasel kind (spina fullonia, Plin. xvi. § •2-14}.
The clothes were then huuf^ on a caj^e of basket-
work (viiiunea cavca) (see Hj^. 51>H), under which
sulphur was placed in order to whiten the cloth.
Tliere were many fullers' workshops {ful-
loiiicae) at Rome, for the Uomansdo not appear
to have washed even their linen at home (Mart.
.\iv. 51). To large fanns a fullonica was some-
times attached, worked by the /am ilia rustica. !
Like other trades in Rome, the FuUones
fonned a collf(jiu>n or sudalicium, under the
protection of Minerva, the patroness of handi-
i-rafts. The fuUo was legally answerable for ;
the property wliile it was in his possession;
and if he sent home a wrong or a damaged
garment, he was subject to an action ex locato.
Fuma'rium. [Vinviin.]
Funa'le, tlie neuter form, is probably to be
distinguished from Funalis, and means ai
ihandelier or other contrivance for holding a |
number of lights (Verg. Acn. i. 727 ; Hor. Od.
iii. 26, 7 ; Ov. Met. .\ii. 247). The smaller sort j
were used as links by night (Hor. /. c), and
carried a single taper. The candles appear to !
have been stuck upon spikes, as in a church I
corona. '
Funa'lis (dim. funiculus). A link or taper,
uscil in tiie siune manner as a torch [Fax], but
made of papyrus and other fibrous plants,
twisted like a rope, and steeped in pitch or wax.
Ci'rcus and scbaceus are both adjective and
substantive, and either an epithet or a synonym
of funalis. At the Saturnalia funales were pre-
sented by clients to their superiors, and were
liglited in lionourof Saturn. [Taeda.J
Funa'lis equus. [Currus.]
Funa'mbulus (axoivo^6.rri]s). A rope-dancer.
The art of dancing on the tight rope was carried
FUNDA
n?
running up {adversis funihiis i,iibirci or down
(catad ramus. Suet. Xei\>, 11) tlie rope at the
conclusion of the performance. Gernumicus
and Galba exlubited elephants walking on tlie
rope (Suet. Galb. C ; Sen. Epp. bii). Other
kinds of rope-dancers are Ttixo^aTai, opci/Sarai,
alt)f^po^6.rai, iV'c. ; fjrallatorcs, petauristat , &:<■.
Funda {(T(pivi6vT)). A sling. The light
troops of tlie tlreek and Roman armies included
a certain proi)ortiou of slingers (fuiiditorrs,
<7<J)6j'5oi'f)Tai). Slingers are shown on a silver
vase from Mykenae. The sling is not nientioiu-d
in the Iliad. Among ihe troops which Gelou
Fig. 570.— Slingers. (From h'agtnciit of silver
vase, Mykeniie.)
offered to send to the assistance of the Greeks
against Xerxes, mention is made of 2000 slingers
(Hdt. vii. 158; cf. also Aesch. Ar/am. 1010;
Eur. P//of'«. 1142 ; Ar. ^li>. 11K5). The use of
the sling was a barbarian rather than a Greek
accomijlisliment, and found in the highest per-
fection among Egj-i)tians and Persians, as later
among the Spaniards and Baleares. Among the
Greeks the Akarnanians, a backward people,
used it (Thuc. ii. 81), and at a later time the
Achaeans. The Achaean slings were made of
three thongs (scutaiia) of leather (I,iv. xxxviii.
29).
In the early Roman army, slingers formed a
part of the fifth or lowest Servian class (Liv. i.
4a ; cf. Exercitus) ; but in the Second Punic
War the Balearic slingers of Hannibal were
opposed by Greek, Syrian, and African auxil-
Flg. STl.-SoIJIer'
,-lth BllnK Trotn the Column of
Trujuii ■
Fig. .WO.— Rope-dancers. (From a pulntlng at
Horculiinoum.)
to great perfection among the Romans (Ter.
Hec. Prol. 4; Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 210; Juv. iii.
77). One of the most difficult exploits was
iaries. Besides stones, oval bullets, called
glandes ifioKvfiSiSfs), were oust in moulds to be
thrown with slings (Luor. vi. 17(i; Ov. Met.
ii. 727). They have been found on tlie plain of
Marathon and in other jiarts of Greece, and
bear inscri])tions and devices, such as thunder-
bolts, the names of norsoiis, and the word
AE = AI, meaning ' TaJce this.' Many Latin
318
FUNDITOKES
inscriptions of the same character are found.
[Glans.] The notion that these bullets melted
in the air was widely diffused in tlie ancient
world (Lucr. I. r. ; Verg. Aen. ix. 588 ; Ov. Met.
ii. 727) : even the Father of science maintains
it (Arist. de Caelo, ii. 7). Another missile was
called Kearpos, a bolt with an iron head six
inches long, attached to a wooden shaft nine
iiiches long, furnished with thi'ee short wooden
wings, resembling the feathers of an arrow, and
was discharged from a sling with two scutalia,
called Ke(rTpo(r<pev56inrj (Liv. xlii. 65).
Funda also means : (1) a casting-net, a.fM(pl-
PArjarpov (Verg. Georg. i. 141) ; (2) a purse or
money-bag, from the way it was slung (Macrob.
Sat. ii. 4, § 31) ; (3) the bezel of a ring {ff(pev-
S6vr}). [Anulus.]
FuDdito'res. [Exercitus.]
Fundus. Land belonging to a private owner
{locus lyrivdtus), situated either in town or
country ; but fundus commonly means a
country estate only. The term comprised all
land and constructions on it ; but usage had
restricted the name of aedes to city houses,
viUae to rural houses, area to a plot of land
in a city not built upon, ager to a plot of
ground (properly, arable) in the country, and
fundus to ager cuvi aedificiis. A fundus was
sometimes devised cum omni instruniento —
with its stock and implements of husbandry.
Funus. A funeral. (For tombs and monu-
ments see Sepulcrum.)
1. Grp:ek. — The Cxreeks attached gi-eat im-
portance to the burial of the dead. They
believed that souls could not enter the Elysian
fields till their bodies had been buried (Horn.
Od. xi. 66, &c., V. 311). The burial of the body
by the relations of the dead was considered a
religious duty by the universal law of the
Greeks (cf. the story of Antigone in Sophokles).
Neglect of burying relatives was a grave moral
charge ([Dem.] c. Aristog. i. p. 787, § 54). It
was considered a religious duty to throw earth
upon a dead body lying unburied.
(1) In the earliest time of wliicli we have any
record, viz. from the tombs at Troy, Tiryns,
Mykenae, and elsewhere, cremation was un-
known. The royal sepulchi-es at Mykenae are
hewn in the rock, and contain each more than
one body. The bodies had probably been em-
balmed. They wore rich ornaments of gold,
and the faces were covered with masks of thin
gold. With them were buried arms and vessels
of gold and silver. There were also found
calcined bones, &c., the remains of a funeral
sacrifice. Other bones and skulls were pro-
bably those of human victims (cf. IJ. xxiii. 166).
Each tomb had had its ZttiXti, all facing to the
west. (For other details see Sepulcrum. ) Other
objects, such as fm-niture, food, <tc., point to
the belief, universal in prhnitive times [e.g. in
Egypt), that the dead used the images of the
things which they had enjoyed whilst living,
and the gods who would protect them when
dead.
(2) Tlie funeral rites as described in Homer
{II. xxiii. 110-261, xxiv. 707-804) resemble those
of primitive times in many particulars. Tlie
chief difference is that the body is bunit before
being buried. The dead have a right to a
funeral {Krepea), without whicli they cannot
pass the river of Hades. The eyes and mouth
are closed, the body is washed and perfumed or
embalmed (rapxveiv), and laid out on a couch
(Ae'xos), with the feet turned towards the door,
for several days (12, II. six. 284 ; 17, Od. xxir.
65). During this time the friends lament, tear-
FUNUS
ing their hair, s^sreading ashes on their heads,
beating their breasts and faces, and fasting
and singing dirges (dprjvoi, ol/xwyri, aoiSai). The
body is then carried to the pyre i-Kup-f], irvp-
Kaii)), and burnt, together with animal and
hiiman victims, and valuables of various kinds.
The relatives cut off locks of hair, and bui-n
them with the corpse. The pyre having burnt
down is quenched with wine ; the bones are
collected, wrapped in fat, placed in an urn
((piaK-i), u/jLCpopd), and buried in a grave (/caTreTos),
which is covered with a cairn of stones {r)piov,
(T7)ixa, Tv/xfios) or a memorial column {(TT7)\ri,
Od. xii. 14).
(3) In historical times, at the moment of
death the eyes and mouth were closed by one
of those present (Plat. Phaed. 118). The obol
to serve as Charon's fare was placed in the
mouth or by the side of the corpse. This coin
was also called SavditJi (ci.Ar.Ban. 139). Coins
are frequently found in Greek tombs, and in
some between the teeth of the skeleton. This
practice, however, does not appear to have
been very ancient. The body was then washed
(Plat. Phaed. 115 a; Eua-. Phoen. 1319),
anointed with perfumes, and clothed in rich
garments, generally white. These were burnt
with the body. A wreath of flowers was placed
upon the head (Eur. Phoen. 1632; Ar. Eccl.
538). Golden wreaths, in imitation of laurel or
other foliage, were sometimes used, and have
been found in graves.
The corpse, thus prepared, was laid out (Trpo-
OiCTis, TrpoTiOfffdai, npoK^iffdai) in the house on
a bed (kAiVtj), which appears to have been of
the ordinary kind, with a pillow (irpoffKecpaKaiov)
for supporting the head and back. Vases of a
sjiecial kind {KtikvQol), containing perfumes,
were placed beside the body (Ar. Eccl. 1032).
Lekythi were also buried with the coffin, and a
large number of them have been found in graves
in Attica. [Pottery, Ampui^la.] The scene
UpdSetri;. (From a Greek lekythus.)
most commonly represented is the bringing of
offerings to the tomb ; in other cases we have a
I
Fig. 573.— 'Eici^opa. (From a vase at Naples.)
picture of some part of the fiuieral ceremonies,
or of Charon preparing to ferry the shade
Fig. ■
Quciichinc the funeral pj-re. (From ItiiV. Snp. 111. 23.)
When bodies were buried without previons
cremation, they wore generally placed in coffins,
(ffopds, TTvfKos, \r)v6s, \dpt>a^).
Immediately after the funeral, the relatives
partook of a fea.st called irfpiSftTruoy or v(Kp6-
ifiirvov (Cic. Legg. ii. 25, 08), which was given
FUN US 319
across the Styx. A lioney-cakr i,uf AitoStto), of the fire weri- iiucnched (with wine, 11. xxiv.
intended as a sop for Cerberus, was also jilaced 701), and the relatives and friends collected
by the side of tlie corpse {.Kt.Lijs. (iOl i. Before the JMjnes or ashes. The remains thus collect<-d
the door was placed a vessel of water (ap^ivtov) . were placed in an urn, atid buried. [Sepulcrum.J
for lustration (Ar. Eccl.
]0:W ; Eur. Ale. 98).
The near relatives of the
deceased assembled round
the bed on which he was
laid, and uttered loud la-
mentations, with violent
signs of grief, such as
beating of breasts, tearing
of hair, laceration of
cheeks, rending of gar-
ments, and sprinkling of
ashes upon the head,
though these were forbid-
den by Solfin. The burial
was to take place on the
day after the ■irp6B(ais,
l)efore sunrise (Dem. c.
Mill-art. p. 1071, § 62).
Solon ordained that no
females under sixty years
of age except the nearest
relatives (ivrhs dvii^ia-
Zwv) sliould be allowed
to be present while the corpse was in the house.
Singers (aoiSoi) were introduced to lead {(^apxoO
the mourning chant of the women at the
■irp6de(rts (Horn. II. xxiv. 719 sqq. ; Aesch. Pens.
fl:i7).
The funeral {fKtpopa, iK(p(piiv) took place
legally on the day following the trpodiais. It
might, however, be put off to allow of the
arrival of distant friends (Pint. Timol. 39).
The early moniing was the usual time (Plat.
Lfijg. xii. 9C.0 A ; Cic. Ligg. ii. 26, 66). The
body was carried on the couch on which it
had been lying. The bier was borne either
by hired bearers (viKpo(p6poi), or, in cases of
■■(jecial honour, by selected citizens (Plut. /. c).
The men walked before the corpse, the women
behind, and musicians were hirerl to play mourn-
ful tunes on the flute, and sing dirges (dpr)voi) at
the iK<popd as well as at the Trpodtais (Vhxt. Lrgg.
vii. 800 k). Tliose who accompanied the funeral
wore mourning garments of a black or dark
colour (^rrCTjs <f)aid) 'Horn. //. xxiv. 0;5 ; Eur. A!c.
■127). Men and boys might wear white. The head
was shaved or the hair cut as a sign of grief
(Horn. 0(1. iv. 107, II. xxiii. 46 ; Aesch. Cho. 7).
It \s'as the custom, at any rate at Athens, to
hold pulilic funerals for those who had fallen in
war. Thucydides (ii. ,'34) describes the proceed-
ings usual on siich occasions. The irpoOfffis of
the Ixmes took place on a platform erected for
tiie pnq)ose in some public place. On the day
of the funeral, coffins of c>-]iress wood, one for
each tribe, were carried ujion waggons. An
enii)ty couch represented those whost* bodies
had not been found. Funeral orations were
only pronotniced at jmblic funr-rals of the kind
de8cril)ed. The two best knf)wn instances iiro
those on which Perikles was the selected orator,
viz. 4119 and 4:11 B.C.
Both burning and burying were pra<'tis4'd by
the (ireeks. The word ddirTttv is used of tlie
burial of tlie ashes aft<T cremation ; KaropirrTny
refers to tlie burial of an unburiit body (Plat.
I'hard. ll."> e). We hear of burial also among
the Spartans (Phil. Lyr. 27 : Thuc. i. i:U).
Tlie pile of wood {irvpa) upon which tin' body
was burnt was sometimes erect<'d over the
grave in which the ashes were to b<' burii>d.
Wlien the pyre was burnt down, tl
rig. .■m.'..— Kunrral banquet. Krom ft bas-rpliet.)
at the house of the nearest relative (Dem. He
Cor. p. 821, § n55).
Other ceremonies were performed on the
third, the ninth, and the tliirtietli days after
the funeral, and were calie<l respectively rplroL,
fyara, and rpiaKas or rpiaKa^fs. The last,
called Ka6fSpa, includi'd u repetition of the
funeral feast.
It was also the custom to bring rifferiiigs (^»«i-
avaia vtKi'xna or ytyfcria, Hdt. iv. 26) to the
tomb on certain days in each year il'lat. Lrcjg.
iv. 717 k). The words ivctyi(.fiv and iva-yitr-
flora were applied to thcM> »acrifi<-es. They
consisted of libations (xooi) of wine, oil, milk,
honey mixe<l witli wat<'r or milk (Aesch. I'ers.
609 .s(|i|. ; Eur. dr. li:ts(j<|.), which were jioured
upon the ground (A«mch. J'rr.s. iVil, C/io.97).
Wreaths and ribands (raiciai) were also |)lace<l
upon the grave- stones, and on the cor])se, and
unguents were jxiiired U|>oii them.
The Ix'st idea of the rit<«s jK.-rformed at the
remains grave is given by the nuniecon<^ reproBentations
320
FUNUS
of them on lekythi of the class already de-
scribed.
The period of mourning varied at different
places. At Athens the rpiaKas seems to have
ended it, on the thirtieth day after the funeral
(Lys. de Caede Erat. § 1-t). At Sparta it
lasted eleven days (Plut. Lijc. 27).
Certain special rites were used in particular
cases. A spear was carried in front of the
body of any person who liad died a violent
death (Eur. Tro. 1148). In the case of those
who had committed suicide, the hand which had
done the deed was cut off and buried separately.
(Aeschin. in Ctes. § 244). Certain criminals
who were put to death by the state were also de-
prived of burial (Plut. Them. 22 ; Thuc. i. 134).
2. Roman. — Among the Romans also the
burial of the dead was a solemn duty (see Hor.
Od. i. 28). If no funeral rites had been per-
formed, the soul of the dead man could not be
received among the shades, and wandered
homeless upon the earth.
A near relative of the dying person caught
the last breath in his mouth (Verg. Aen. iv.
684 ; Cic. Verr. v. 45, 118). As soon as he was
dead, his eyes were closed by one of those
present (claudere, premcre, condere &c.,
oculos : Lucan, P7tars. iii. 740 ; Verg. Aen. ix.
187; Ov. Trist. iii. 3, 44, iv. 3, 44). Then
followed the conclatnatio, variously explamed
as (1) a cry in articulo mortis (Ov. Trist. iii.
3, 43) ; (2) the recall of the dead by uttering his
or her name three times (a custom still in use
at the death-bed of a Pojie) ; (3) as commonly
the female figures by the corpse are prae-
ficae; on the riglit side sit thiee females,
wearing the Filleus (probably manumitted
Lectus Funebris. (From a iloinan relief.)
slaves) ; below is the family of the deceased.
Among the Romans, as among the Greeks, it
was customary to place a small coin in the
or lamentation for the dead. (From a Roman relief.)
understood, the lamentation after death. Tlie
mourners, led by hired women (praejicue, Plant.
True. ii. 6, 14), called rei^eatedly the name of
the deceased, with loud cries, and exclamations
such as vale (Luean, Phars. ii. 22 ; Catull. ci. ;
Ov. Met. X. 62, Fast. iv. 852). (See fig. 576.)
The body was then washed>^ith warm water
(Verg. Aen. vi. 218), anointed with perfumes
and spices (Pers. iii. 103 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 858),
and clothed either in the toga (Juv. iii.
173; Mart. ix. 58), or in the state robes of
any office which had been held by the de-
ceased (Liv. xxxiv. 7). Precious ornaments,
such as rings, were often added, and sometimes
burnt with the body. If the deceased had
received a crown as a military reward, or for
success in the games of the circus, it was placed
upon his head (Cic. Legg. ii. 24, 60). Flowers
were also used for the adornment of the couch
on which the coi^ise was laid ; and a censer
(acerra) was placed beside it. In fig. 577,
mouth of the deceased, to pay Charon's passage-
' money (Juv. iii. 267 ; Prop. iv. 11, 7).
I The preparations necessary for laying out
j the body were performed by pollinctores (Plant.
I Asin. v. 2, 60 ; Mart. x. 97). A mould of
I the dead man's face was taken, from which
I the wax imago was made, to be kept in the
atrium of the house by his descendants. The
pollinctor was furnished by the libitinarius or
undertaker, who entered into a contract for
conducting the whole funeral (Liv. xl. 19, xli. 21 ;
Juv. xii. 121). Deaths were also registered at
the temple of Libitina (Suet. Ner. 39) ; and the
offering called lucar lAbitinae was made
[Lucar]. Cf. the expressions exercere Libi-
tinam., vitare Libitinam, evadere Libitinam
(Hor. Cami. iii. 30, 6, cf. Sat. ii. 6, 19 ; Juv.
xii. 121).
When the body had been thus prepared and
adorned, it was laid out upon a couch, generally
in the atrium, with the feet towards the door
FUNUS
\Pers. iii. 105). Outside the door of the house
were placed braiiflies of cypress or pine (Plin.
XAri. §§ 40 ; Verj,'. Am. iii. (U).
Funerals were conducted by the family of the
deceased (funus privatum), except in cases
where a public funeral was voted, either by the
senate (Cic. FItil. ix. 7), or in provincial towns
by the decuriones, as a mark of honour or
respect to the deceased. We find this honour
paid in the case of foreign kings who died in
Italy, as Sj-phax and Perseus, and men wlio
had fallen in the service of their country, as
Hirtius and Pansa. In imperial times it became
more common. A particular kind of funeral
WHS api)r<)i)riate to each grade of the magistracy ;
the highest being the censorimn funus (Tac.
Attn. iv. 15, vi. 27, xiii. 2, Hist. iv. 47).
[Censor.]
321
The most striking part of the procession wau
probably formed by the imagines, or wax
masks of ancestors of the deceased. These
were brought out from the atrium, and each
was worn by a man clothed in the dress of 'he
office whicli the prototype of the nnisk had held.
Each rode in a chariot, and was accomi)anied
with due pomp of lictors and other insignia of
office. Thus all the distinguished ancestors
of the dead were present in etligy at his funeral
(Plhn. XXXV. § 6). Other families to which he was
related were also represented by their imagines
(Tac. Ann. iii. 76, iv. '.)). At tlie funeral of Mar-
cellus there are said to have been (iOO imagines.
Sometimes spoils, crowns, and other records
of victories and triumphs were carried before
the bier (Tac. Ann. 1, 8). The i>rocession was
also followed by slaves liberated by the will of
A public invitation was given to all important ' the deceased, all with shorn heads, wearing the
funerals by a herald (praeco). Hence the 2'*^''^''* (Liv. xxxviii. 55).
])lirases funus indicere, funus indictivum
(Suet. ltd. 84 ; Cic. Legg. ii. 24, 01). The
formula of invitation has been preserved ;
' Ollus Quiris leto datus. Exequias, quibus
est commodum, ire iam tempus est. Ollus ex
aedibus ecfertur ' (cf. Ov. Ant. ii. 6, 2; Ter.
Pliortn. v. 9, 37). Translaticium funus is used
for an unceremonious burial (Suet. Iser. 38).
In ancient times all funerals took place by
night ; in later times only those of children
[acerba funera) and poor people whose means
did not admit of sufficient display for the dav-
time (Mart. viii. 75 ; cf. Hor. Ep. i. ti, 42). The
torches with which funerals were always accom-
panied were probably a relic of burial bj- night,
though no doubt they also served for lighting
the pyre (Verg. Aen. xi. 142, vii. 337 ; Tac. Ann.
iii. 4 ;" Pers. iii. 102 ; Mart. viii. 43).
Sumptuary laws are found in the Tables of
the Decemviri (Cic. Legg. ii. 23, 59) and the
enactments of Sulla (Plut. SuU. 35), to curtail
extravagant expense at funerals. The order
of the funeral procession was regulated by the
master of the ceremonies (designator or dissig-
nator), whose attendants (lictores) were dressed
in black (Hor. Ep. i. 7, 6). The order of the pro-
cession is uncertain, but it is generally supposed
that at the head of it were the musicians
{aiticines) with tubae (Ov. Am. ii. C, 6), tibiae
(Suet. lul. 84 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 653), and comua
(Hor. Sat. i. 6, 44). The number of iibicines
was by the Twelve Tables limited to ten (Cic.
Legg. ii. 23, 59). Then followed the praeficac
(Hor. A. F. 431), who sang the naenia or lessus,
a mournful song in praise of the dead man (Cic.
Legg. \u. 24, 62). Next came, in some cases,
dancers and mimes (Suet. lul. 84), who were
allowed, as in a triumph, free licence of jesting
The body was placed uncovered on a bier or
couch (feretrum, torus), which in great fune-
rals was elaborately decorated (Suet. Jul. 84).
In some cases the body was placed in a coffin
(capuhis), and a waxen effigy {tfjigies) was ex-
posed to view instead (Tac. Attn. iii. 5). The
bier was carried bj' liberated slaves, by near
relatives (Plin. vii. § 146 ; Cic. Tusc. i. 35, 85 ;
Hor. Sat. ii. 5, 86), or, in the case of emperors,
by magistrates and senators (Suet. lul. 84,
Aug. 100 ; Tac. Ann. i. 8).
In the Ijurial of the poor and of slaves, hired
bearers (vespiillvnes), six (Mart. vi. 77, 10) or
four (ib. viii. 75, 9) in number, carried tlie body
in a simple wooden coffin or bier (sandapHa),
which was not buried with the body (Mart. ii.
81 ; Suet. Dom. 17 ; Hor. Sat. i. 8, 9).
The relatives of the deceased followed the bier,
dressed in mourning {pullati). The sons of the
deceased had their heads veiled, tlie daugliters
went uncovered and with dishevelled hair.
Mourning was shown by the absence of adorn-
ment and the wearing of black garments
(Juv. X. 245, iii. 213 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 2). Under
the emperors white seems to have been substi-
tuted for black as the mourning colour for
women. The women cried aloud, tore their
hair and lacerated their cheeks in the funeral
procession itself (Prop. iii. 13, 27 ; Ov. Am. ii.
6, 8, 40).
The funeral train proceeded to the forum,
and halted before the rostra. The wearers of
the imagines took their seats upon curule
chairs, and the laudatio funebris was pro-
nounced, generally by a near relative of the
deceased (Hor. Sat. i. 6, 48), sometimes, in
a funus publicum, by a magistrate. Tliis cus-
tom at Rome was very ancient. The funeral
orations were preserved and sometimes pub-
lished (Suet. lul.Q; cf. Cic. Brut. 16, 61 ; Liv.
viii. 40, 4).
From the forum the procession moved on to
the i)lace of burning or burial (bustum), which,
according to a law of the Twelve Tables, must
be outside the city, though special exceptions
were sometimes nnxde (Cic. Legg. ii. 23, 58).
[Sepulcrum. j Both burning and liurial were in
use among the Romans. Cicero [Legg. ii. 22,
6()) and I'Uny (vii. § 187) both Jiold the view
that burial was the more ancient custom. In
certain families the practice of burial was kept
up, after burning had become general. Sulla
was the fust of tlie Cornclii whose b<Kly was
Tt was the custom for the leader (arr/frw/wn/s) burnt. Infants (Juv. xv. 140) and those who
to wear a mask in the likeness of the deceased, [ had been struck by lightning [Bidental]. and
to imitate his speech and manners, and even to ' persons of the poorest classes, were always
Fig. 57«.— Praoflorie. (From an ElniscTiii relief.)
maKo jesls at his expense (Suel. Vexp. 19).
buried. After the introduction of Christianity,
Y
322
FUNUS
and probably througli its influence, burial again
came into use instead of burning. Earth
(glaeba) was cast upon the face of the corpse
(Cic. Legg. ii. 22, 57). Some portion of the body,
usuall-y a finger, was cut off and buried {os
resectuni).
The remaining rites varied, according as the
body was to be buried or burnt. In the case
of burial the body was placed in the grave
either on the bier on which it had been carried,
or in a sarcophagus. Numerous objects were
also placed in the grave [see Sepulcrum]. A
pig was sacrificed, and an offering was made to
the Lares. A funeral feast called silicernium
was also held by the grave. The period of
mourning lasted nine days (novendiale) (Hor.
Epod. 17, 48). At the end of this period a
sacrificium novendiale was offered to the dead,
and a cena novendialiswas held (Tac. Ann. vi.
5). A service for the family was also held,
called Feriae denicales; the object of which was
to purify the family and house and to make the
grave a locus religiosits. The persons present
were thrice sprinkled by a priest with pure water
from a branch of olive or laurel, for the purpose
of purification (Verg. Aen. vi. 229) ; after which
tliey were dismissed by the solemn word Ilicet.
When those who had accompanied the funeral
returned liome, they underwent a purification
called siiffitio, which consisted in being sprin-
kled with water and stepping over a fire. It
was then also perhaps that the house was
swept {e[ex]verriatio, exverrae) with a special
kind of broom.
Sometimes the funeral pile [rogus, pyra)
was erected over the trench which was subse-
quently to be the grave (bustum). The body,
however, was often burnt at a place near the
monument, called ustrinum. The pyre was
built of wood, in the form of an altar (Verg.
Aeii.vi. 177). It was sometimes painted; the
sides might be covered with dark leaves (Verg.
Aen. vi. 216), and cypress-trees were planted
in front (Ov. Trist. in. 13). On the top of the
pile the corpse was placed, with the couch on
which it had been carried (Tibull. i. 1, 61).
Many things were placed on the pyre by the
relatives and mourners, such as clothes, arms,
ornaments, hunting-nets and apparatus, horses,
dogs, birds (Plin. Ep. iv. 2). It was also
sprinkled {respersio) with perfumes, gums, and
spices (Mart. x. 97 ; Lucan, viii. 729 ; Plin. xii.
§83).
The pyre was lighted by one of the relatives,
with face averted (Verg. Aen. vi. 224). When
it was burnt down, the glowing ashes were ex-
tinguished with water or wine (Verg. Aen. vi.
226 ; Plin. xiv. § 12). Those who had taken
part in the funeral uttered a last farewell (Verg.
Aen. ii. 644), and departed, while the nearest
relatives remained to collect the bones and
ashes when they were dry. The bones were
sprinkled with wine, dried with a linen cloth,
and placed in an urn or box with perfumes and
spices. The um was then placed in the sej)ul-
chre.
The cei-emonies of the feriae denicales were
used when the corpse was burnt, as in the case
of burial, including the throwing of earth upon
the remains of the dead.
In the case of important funerals, scenic or
gladiatorial exhibitions were often given. Gla-
diatorial combats were originally specially
appropriated to funerals. Munera in connexion
with funerals are frequently mentioned by
Livy (xxiii. 30, xxsi. 50) and others (Suet. Tut.
26 ; Cic. Sest. 58, 124 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 84, &c.).
FUSCINA
Scenic exhibitions were less common. We
also hear of distributions of food (visceratio
Liv. viii. 22, xli. 28) and public banquets (Suet
lul. 26 ; Liv. xli. 28).
Certain days in February (13th-21st) were
set apart as dies parentales, or parentalia.
The last of these days was specially known as
feralia (Ov. Fast. ii. 569 ; Liv. xxxv. 7). Offer-
ings to the Manes (inferiae) were brought to
the tomb, consisting of wine and milk (Verg.
Aen. V. 77, 98, iii. 66), honey and oil, the blood
of victims, especially of black sheep, pigs and
cattle (Verg. Ae7i. iii. 67, v. 96), fruits, bread,
salt, and eggs. The tomb was adorned with
\vi-eaths and flowers, especially roses and violets
(Suet. Ne7: 57 ; Verg. Aen. v. 79; Tib. ii. 6, 32,
&c.). A meal was eaten at the grave (Cic.
Place. 88, 95). A triclinium funehre, in-
tended apparently for this purpose, was found
Fig. .WP.— Funer'il Triclinium at Pompeii.
at Pompeii. During the dies parcntalrs tem-
ples were shut and marriages foi'ljidden (Ov.
Fast. ii. 557 sqq.), and the magistrates laid
aside the insignia of their office. The terms
parentare, pareyitatio, were also applied to
similar rites performed on other days of the
year, such as the day of birth, death or burial
of the person to be honoured. Special days
were also appropriated to roses and violets
{rosatio, rosaria, rosalia ; violatio).
Furca, dim. Fu'rcula, Furci'lla {^Mpavov,
Z'lkpovv ^vKov). A fork. (1) A tuo-pronged
fork used for various igricultural purposes, e.g.
haymaking.
(2) A wooden fork used as a prop, e.g. for
vines (Verg. Georg. i. 264) ; for planks to stand
on in the Circus Maximus (Liv. i. 35, § 9) ; for
supporting a two-wheeled carriage while the
animals were being yoked to it (Greek a-rrjpiy^,
Lys. ap. Poll. x. 157). (3) The end of the pole
of a carriage, forked like the letter A where it
joins the axle. (4) From the earliest times the
furca was a common instrument for punishing,
not only slaves, but freemen (Liv. i. 26). It was
a piece of wood in the form of the letter A,
which was placed upon the shoulders of the
offender, whose hands were tied to it. Slaves
were frequentlv flogged under the furca (Liv.
ii. 36 ; Cic. Div. i. 26, § 55 ; Ter. Andr. iii. 5,
12) ; whence furcifer as a term of reproach
(Cic. Vatin. 6, § 15 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 7, 22). For
the furca in crucifixion, see Patibuluiu. (5)
Forks (fuscinula) were used for kitchen pur-
poses, such as taking down meat from the
carnariuin ; but forks were rarely, if ever, used
for eating.
Furnus. [Fornax.]
Furtum. See Appendix, Eoman Law.
Fu'SCina irpiaiva). A trident ; more com-
monly called tridens, i.e. tridens stimulus.
Neptune was supposed to urge his horses with
such a goad, and it thus became his usual attri-
bute. (Horn. II. xii. 27; Yerg. Georg. i. 13;
Cic. N.D. i. 86, § 101.) The trident is also attri-
buted to Nereus (Verg. Aen. ii. 418), and to the
Tritons (Mart, de Spec. 26, 3).
4
FUSCINULA
In the contests of gladiators the Betiariua
was iiriiu'd with a trident (Juv. viii. 203).
[Oladiatores.]
It has been sug^'t-sted that tlie trident may
be a development of the lotus-headed sceptre.
(See cut under Eleusinia.)
Fusci'nula. Furca (fi).]
Fustua'rium ({yAo«a7riai, culled also fnsti
verciiterr, was a military punishment inflicted
for the highest ofTences. When a soldier was
condemned, the tribune touched him slightly
with a stick, ujion which all the soldiers of the
legion fell upon him with sticks and stones,
and generally killed him u|>on the spot. If
he escaped, he might not return to his native
country, nor to the house of his relatives.
The fustuarium was inflicted for desertion,
cowardice in action, quitting a man's com-
mander, his standard, or his jx)st (Liv. v. C,
{} 1-J ; Cic. riiil. iii. G, § 1-1 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 21 ;
I'ol. vi. 37); as also for any neglect of duty
which might endanger the safety of an army.
[Exercitus.]
This punishment must be distinguished from
the ritis, the badge of a centurion's authority,
and used by him at his discretion in keeping
the gregarii inilites up to their work (Juv. viii.
247).
FUSUB iirpoKros, Hdt. v. I'i; Ar. linn. \MH\
t also means an arrow, Thuc. iv. JO), the
-pindle, was always, when in use, accompanied
ny the distaff {colus, t/Aokottj), as an indispens-
able part of the same apparatus. (Ov. Met. iv.
•J20-y.) The distafi was sometimes (see cut) a
-trong pin which was stuck into the mass of
w(K>l or flax ; sometimes (as in modern Greece)
■ basket formed by splitting a cane. The wool,
:lax, or other material, having been prepared '
for spinning, and having
sometimes been dyed (Hom.
Od. iv. 185), was rolled into
u ball (toAutttj, glomus, Hor.
Ep. i. 1.3, 14 ; Ov. Met. vi.
19), sufficiently loose to allow
the fibres to be easily drawn
out by the hand of the
spinner. The filires were '
drawn out, and at the same
time spirally twisted, chiefly
by the use of the forefinger
and thumb of the right liand
(Eur. Urrst. 1432); and the
thread (Jilujn, stamen, vrifxai
so produced was wound ujion
the sj)indle.
The spindle was a stick,
10 or 12 inches long, having
at the top a slit or catcli
(tlcns, iyKiaTpov) in which
the thread was fixed, so tliat
the weight of the spindle
might continually carry down I
the thread as it was formed.
Its lower extremity was in- I
serted into a small wheel
called the whorl {<T<p(ivhvKoi,
Plat. 7^7).filf. c ; vrrttcillus, |
riin. xxxvii. § 37; turhn, Catull. Ixiv. !tl4), the
use of which was to keep the spindle mon-
-'(•ady and to promote its rotation (Hdt. v. 12;
' >v. ,V/,/. vi. 22). For deUiils see Catullus (Ixiv. i
311-19). I
The distftfT {colus, ■^Aokotij) was Hometimes i
of rich materials and ornamented. Theocritus
i IS left a poem {lilijll. xxviii.) on an ivory
•listafl. Golden spindles were sent as presents
to ladies of high rank (Hom. Od. iv. 131 ; IMt.
G.\LLI
823
iv. 162) ; and xP«"'''?'^'"f<''roi is an epithet of
Artemis (Hom. Od. iv. 122, in the sense of
Pl«. .WO.-Splndle«.
Fig. Ml. -Spinning. (I^'rom u relief. I
'arrow'), Amphitrite (Pind. 01. vi. 178), Leto
(Nem. vi. 61), the Nereids [ib. v. 05).
The basket to hold the distaff and spindle is
called Calathus ((Jv. M,t. xii. 475).
The distaff and spindle, with the wool and
thread upon them {coins compta), were carried
in bridal processions; and were often suspended
in temples by females as offerings ex votv.
The spindle and distaff of Tanaijuil were pre-
served at Rome as relics in the time of Varro
(Plin. viii. § 194). [Donaria.J The distaff and
spindle were attributes of Minerva and of the
three Fates.
Fu'tile. A vessel with a wide mouth and
narrow bottom, like a 'tumbler,' so that it could
not be set down without spilling {/undo) its
contents. Such vessels were used in the service
of Vesta, as water drawn for her must not touch
the ground (Serv. ad Verg. Arn. xi. 339 ; Ter,
Andr. iii. 5, 3, Phorm. v. 1, 19).
G.
Gabi'nus cinctus. fDress, Toga.]
Gaesum. Arms and Armour, Spkars.]
Galata'rches. Tiic iirincipal magistrate of
Galutia (f. Asiarchae wlio, t<)g<'tlier with the
high priest (apx(fp«i;s raAoTiasI, was ]>robably
appointed for four years — i.e. llie irtj'TfTTjp/j of
the Augustal games, exhibited under his presi-
dency at .\nkyra in the name of the three Gala-
tian tribes.
Ga'lea. [Arms and Armour.';
Gale'rus or Gale rum, dini. Galericulum
(probably 7(1 /(■(/, and ya\fti'\. (1) Originally a
cap of skin or fur, fit ting close to t lie head, worn
by rustics (Vt-rg. Mont. 122), Ininters, gym-
nasts (Mart. xiv. 50). (See also Cudo, Apex.)
(2) A wig (Ov. .1. ,-1. iii. H')5 ; Suet. Oth. 12.
Nero, 2C.; Juv. vi. 120).
(31 .\ shoulder-guard worn by gladiators.
[Oladiatores. |
Oalli (TaAAoi). The eunuch priests of Kybele
or the Great Mother, whose worship had its
original seat in Phrygia. The myths of Mar-
syas and Hyagnis, inventors of the tlut<>, gather
round the same region, and are connecl<>d with
the orgiastic worship of Kybele. Whether
Indo-Euro]M>an or Semitic in origin, this cultus
spread rapidly ovi'r tlie whole of ,\sia Minor;
Ky/.ikiis was one of i* s oldest wats (Hdt. iv. 7fl),
another was Sardis (Hdt. v. 102), but it was
esi^ccially connected in historic timoH with
y3
324
GALLICAE
Pessinus, in the country afterwards called
Galatia, wliere Attis was said to be buried.
Tlie name of Galli was doubtless a native
Phrygian word, and has nothing to do with the
Galatae or Gauls, whose first appearance in
these countries dates from 278 B.C. Tradition
derives it from a river near Pessinus, whose
water was fabled to cause this particular form
of religious madness (Ov. Fast. iv. 363). In
their wild rites the Galli recalled the legends
of the Korybantes (Hor. Carm. i. 16, 5 sqq.J.
According to an ancient custom, they were
always castrated (spadones, semi mares, setni-
mri), and it would seem that, impelled by re-
GAMES
num), halls (ffcpa^pa, pila) of all kinds and mate-
rials, bells {tiiitiiinaliiilinii) ; animals, such as
the Trojan liorse (the lorerunner of the NoalTs
ark) ; birds, e.g. the swallows which the xe^'So-
viarai carried about with them ; snakes of wood
or leather, horses, carriages (Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 247,
plostellum ; a;Uo|i's, Ar. Nuh. 864), little figures
Fig. 582— Gallus. (From Daremberg and Saglio.)
ligious enthusiasm, they performed this opera-
tion on themselves (Ov. Fast. iv. 237 ; Mart,
iii. 81, xi. 74 ; Catull. Ixiii.).
The worship of the Magna Mater was nitro-
duced at Rome in 204 B.C. from an oracle in the
Sibylline books. (See Liv. xxix. 10-14, and Ov.
Fast. iv. 179-372.) The temple of the Magna
Mater was dedicated in 191 B.C. (Liv. xxxvi. 36).
For the festival then instituted, and the college
of priests with an archigallns and sacerdos
maxima at its head, see Megalesia. The Galli
were a poor and despised class of people, and were
allowed to beg on certain days. ['AvvpTat.]
Ga'llicae. [Calceus.]
Gallina'rium. [Agriculture.]
^a^JL■T1\la. See Appendix, Greek Law
[Matrimonium].
Gaines. The subject of Greek and Pioraan
games has been fully treated by M. Becq de
Pouquieres in his Les Jeux des Anciens (Paris,
1869) from which work the gi-eater part of this
article is taken. ^ ^ ^
1. Toys and Pl-WTHInos {rcaiyvia, advpfiara,
ludicra, crepundia, ioculi).
Battles, irKarayf] (Arist. PoL viii. 6, 2), irKara-
ydcviov, crepitaculum, crepitacillum (Lucr. v.
230), crepundia (Plant. Mil. v. 1,
6, Biid. iv. 4, 37), Sistrum (Mart,
xiv. 54). To these may perhaps be
added castanets {Kpefx^aAa, Kp6-
raKov), Crotalum). Such were
often given as birthday presents
[jevedKios S6<Tis), and were also
used by nurses to accompany their
lullabies {KaTa^avKd\ri<Tis, nae-
nia). Eattles were sometimes
made in the form of an earthen-
ware or metal globe or cup, con-
Crepi^acSum, twining a ball (;|.fi<|>os), and called
jrom Pompeii. \j/ri<poirepipofJ.piiTpia.
(Daremberg Wldstles, sometimes in the form
and Saglio.) , . , '
of animals.
Brums or tambourines {p6irrpov, Tympa-
Fig. 584.— Go-cart. (From a vase in Brit. Mus.)
of all kinds {Cva, sigilla) of clay (and perhaps
also of dough), such as were given at the
SigiUaria [Saturnalia]. Many of these had a
further meaning as charms [Amuletum ; Fasci-
num], or had a sacrificial origin, as many of the
Greek irefjLfi.ara and TrSirava, made in the forms
of animals, &c. [cf. Argei ; Sacrificium; see
also cut under Monile].
Dolls and their furniture and clothes [K6pr\,
vvfx.<p-r)\ jnipa, plagu7icida).
Greek and Roman children commonly had
dolls, made often of terracotta, but alao of other
substances — wood, ivory,
wax, &c. Wax dolls were
by no means uncommon,
and for these the Greeks
had special names, hiyv-
vov or Sayvs and TrKayydu
(Theocr. ii. 110). They
were frequently made
with moveable limbs.
Greek girls before their
marriage dedicated their
dolls to Artemis; at Rome
girls dedicated their dolls
to the Lares, as boys did
their bullae, or to Venus
(Pers. ii. 70) : if they died
as children, the dolls were
buried with them ; many
have been found in tombs.
Those which had their
limbs moved by strings
were called vevpScriracTTa,
and figures so constructed
were exhibited as regular
marionettes on a stage, or
for entertainment in pri-
vate houses (Xen. Symp.
iv. 55 ; cf. Hor. Sat. ii. 7,
82).
Knucklebones [affTpa-
ya\oi, tali : see below ;
ocrrofiaxia) '■ S'lso a kind of Chinese puzzle played
with fourteen pieces of bone.
Hoop (rpox^s, Kp'tKos, trochus). The Greek
and Roman hoop was a bronze ring, and had
sometimes bells attached to it (Mart. xi. 21, 2,
xiv. 168, 169). It was propelled by a hook with
a wooden handle, called fAari^p and clav/s
(Prop. iv. 14). The Romans adopted from the
Greeks the hoop and its name (Hor. Carm. iii.
24, 57). The hoop was used at the Gymnasium
(Ov. Trist. ii. 485).
Fig. SHo.— Terracotta
doll. (From British
Museum.)
GAMES
325
Fig. 5»W.
Fig. 587.— Hoops, from ancient gems.
Top, turbo (ffTp6$i\os, aTpo/xfios, /3*Vj3i|),
anything that turns round with a whirring
noise : hence a top (Cic. de Fato, 10, 42 ; Verg.
Aen. vii. 378, Tibull. i. 5, 3 ; Pers. iii. 51 ;
Horn. II. xiv. 413) ; wliethor wliipping-top or
luiniming-top. In Greek j8«M^'? '•* '^ wliipping-
top (Ar. Av. 14C1); ffTp6^i\os in Plato, licp.
iv. 436 e) and Plutarcli {Lysand. 12) is ii
liumming-top, spun by a string, without tlie
hish to keep it going. We find in Homer (//.
xiv. 413) the fonn trrpJ/i/Soj.
2. Games.
Lancing. [Saltatio.]
Swinginy. Tlie swing was sometimes a
simple rope, sometimes a chair suspended by
one or two ropes, as in fig. 22 [Alupal. See-
saw (osciUum) is shown in vase-paintings.
Cliildren also used to skip over a rope.
Other games phiyed by girls and boys were
Hiding {i(pfSpi<Tft.6s, also iyKorvKrj and
i-Kirds) sometimes combined with a sort of
blindman's buff. The rider covered the
horse's eyes with his hands, and the horse had
t« find and touch with his foot a stone called
biopos. This game is also called ifKOTvKri,
l>ecause the shins of the rider were held in the
palms ( KoTvKai) of the other's hands. Riding
im astit-k is mentioned by many authors: e.g.
Horace (Sat. ii. 43, 248).
The ' Tortoine' (veAcii'i}). A girl sits in the
middle of a ring of playfellows — all that remains
of tlie game is the rhyme beginning 'Tortoise,
tortoise, what are you doing in the ring'/'
(XeA(x*A(i»'T/, ri ttokis iv rw KVK\<f> ;).
Other giinies played in a ring are :
BatriAiVSa, 'King': one of the players was
chosen, ' king ' and another ' fag ' ( uirr/pf ttj j), who
had to do whatever the king bade him (Hdt. i.
114; Hor. Eji. i. 1 ; where part of the naenia
or rhyme is given, ' rex eris si recte facies, si
non facies non eris ' ; cf. Suet. Ner. 35). A
similar game played with a ball is mentioned
by Plato {Thcaet. p. 15(i .\), where the unsuc-
cessful player was called uvos, and had to sit
out: the best was fiacrtKfvs.
AafivpivOos was a kind of winding dance or
measure, in which one player placed himself at
the head and the rest j(3ined hands and fol-
lowed in single tile, something like our ' hen and
chicken ' or 'drop the handkerchief.'
Another labyrinth was played with or without
pieces on a maze marked on the pavement.
OrA^/^M
Fig. 589.— LabyrlnthuB. iFrom Pompeii.)
'OffTpaKivSa was played as follows :■ — Two sets
stand opposite, divided by a line drawn on tlie
ground ; a boy throws uii a shell or a dish oi.
potsherd, white on one side and black on the
other, and each set of boys has one or other of
these colours allotted to them. As he throws
hisstnti (KvmiTivSa) formed some part of a .,,„ „i,„ii i, ,,ii. > »• < - . i r .i ij .
■', ' ,,• I t ^ ■ I • 1. ♦! , ^he shell, he calls vvfr]uipa: and if the ' day
L'ame i>erhai)8 resembling forfeits, m which tlie , •„ ..\i\ :■> r n . » .i ■> i
'^ , f ' . " ,•,, ' (i.e. wlute) side falls upiiermost, the day set
/iris chose partiKT'i ns 111 a coti Ion. '„_,.,„ i »k .i. .. . ■» .>
' '■ pursues, and tlie other set runs awav if the
'night' side falls uppermost, the fugitives and
pursuers are reversed. As soon as any boy is
caught he is called vvos, and is out of the game
(ovos KdBriTat : see also /SacriAiVSa, and cf. Plat.
Phaidr. p. 241 ii).
\vTpivta. A game in which one jilayer, called
the ' pot' (xi^Tpa), sat in the middl . uhili- the
Kj. MB.— 'EyicoWAT) or fi>tiot<Tp.6v. (From a va»o al
llorliu.;
Fig. SOO. ' XvrpiVSa. (From k pulnllng at Kaplo* :
.UllJ. Ilorl,. »1. tA I
others pinched or struck him till he could catch
one without moving from his seat. The one
326
GAMES
caught became x^"^?"-- -A- similar game was
the game of the peg and string, where one
player was tethered to a peg fixed in tlie
ground, and tried to catch any one of tlie others.
The boys in Greece play a game of ' pot ' at
the present da)-. Here a cap or other object is
' pot ' and the single plaj'er guards it within a
circle drawn on the ground, while the other
players try to kick it out of the circle.
'A7ro5t5pa(rKiV5a, also (pevylvSa or cpvyivSa.
One playercovers his eyes whilst the others hide.
He then opens his eyes and seeks: anyone
found has to get back to Buff's station witliout
being touched.
Fig. 591.—' Hide and seek.' or ' I spy I.' (From Pitl. Ercol.
Mi/tVSa. A game in which one was blindfold,
or was obliged to keep his eyes shut (fxveiv).
There were other varieties of the game besides
our ' blindman's buff ' included under this name.
(1) Either one player blindfolded {KaTaixvaiv)
cries (pv\6.Trov, and compels anyone whom he
catches to be blindfolded in his place; or (2)
he searches for the others, who hid themselves
while he had his eyes covered, till he finds
them ; or (3) still blindfold, when anyone
touches him, or if anyone gives a sign [wpoff-
Sfl^Ti), guesses who it is until he gives a right
name. Clearly the second variety is our ' hide
and seek ' (much the same as airoSiSpacKivSa) ;
the first and third are two forms of blindman's
buff. The guessing by the blindfold occurs
also in the game KoWa^itrnos {i.e. buffeting =
Ko\a(pi<Tfx6s), to which, rather than to fxv'ivSa, we
must refer St. Luke xxii. 04. Another game of
a similar kind was called ;faA.K7J /xvla. The
players blindfolded one of their number with a
band or ribbon (rati/ia) who cried xo^'f')'' M"'^'"'
dripdcra), to which the others answered 6r)pa(Tfis
dAA.' oil \r,\i/ei, and struck him with whips of
papyrus till he caught one of them. The xoA/cf)
fj.via was a sort of bronze-coloured cockchafer,
which boys let go in the dark after they had
tied a small lighted wax taper to it (cf. Ar.
Vesp. 1322, AcJi. 920).
"Efxirovcra. A hopping race (the (fxirovaa
being a diahle boiteux) or a game in which
one player hopped and tried to catch the
others.
Games of Strength or Skill. Aie\Kv(TTivSa
or eKKViXTivSa, ' French and English ' or ' tug of
war.' This was principally practised in the
palaestra ; each party tried to drag the other
across a line {ypafxfx-ri\. It was also played by
two persons with a short rope passing through
a hole in a post, or plaited into a circle, or
attached to short bars, one of which each player
held in both hands.
'Akh/tjtiVSo, or shoving, was a similar exer-
cise.
Other gymnastic exercises are named irepj-
Xi^Tjj, a kind of wrestling; Kovro/j.oi'ofiov, jump-
ing with the pole ; throwing the lance (/ftJi/ral)
and javelin {aKOfrifffMos) &c.; 'ducks and
drakes ' (iiro<TTpaKia/j.6s : in Latin iaculatio
testarum).
Games of Chance (Kvffeia, alea). These
were all included under the term alea.
KyySe/a, playing with kv^oi (tesserae) was a
very common form of gambling among the
Greeks. Another term is (rKipa(peia, derived
from the temple of Athena in the Athenian
deme 'S.Kipov or SKlpa. The dice were sometimes
thrown from the hand ; more usually from a
dice-box of a cj'lindrical shape, but tapering
towards the top. The dice-box was called
(pifios, (TKipacpos, fritillus,phimus. (See below,
Talus, Tessera.) Another name, from the
tower-like shape, was nvpyos (see below, Duo-
decini scripia), in Latin pyrgus, iurris, turri-
cula (Mart. iv. 14, xiv. 16 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 7, 15 ;
Juv. xiv. 5). It was furnished inside with
parallel indentations lilte steps {gradus), which
Kig. .Wi-2.— Dice-boxes. iRich.'
gave an irregular spin to the dice. The material
was wood, ivory, or horn. The game was
played on a board {alveus) with a raised rim.
Gaming was discountenanced at Rome (Cic.
Cat. ii. 10, 23, Att. xiv. 5; Juv. xi. 17G,
xiv. 4). It was also forbidden by special laws
during the time of the Republic and under the
emperors (Hor. Carm. iii. 24, 58 ; Cic. Phil. ii.
23,56; Ov. Tn's/. ii. 470 sqq.). Three such laws
occur — the Leges Titia, Publicia, and Cornelia
(probably enacted by Sulla) — and likewise a
senatusconsultum, and the praetor's edict.
Those who were convicted of gaming incurred
a fine and became infames. [Infamia.] Games
of chance were, however, tolerated in December
at the Saturnalia (Mart. iv. 14, v. 84 ; Suet.
Aug. 71; cf. Plaut. Cure. ii. 3, 75; Cic. Sen.
16, 58). Under the Empire gambling was car-
ried to a great height (cf. Juv. i. 88-90).
Augustus and other emperors were fond of
gaming (Suet. Aug. 70, 71, Cal. 41, Claud. 33,
Dom. 21 ; Dio Cass. lix. 22, Ix. 2). There were
treatises on the art, among them a book written
by the emperor Claudius (Ov. Trist. ii. 471 ;
Suet. Claud. 33). All gaming was forbidden
finally by Justinian.
Capita et navia (navia is nom. sing.),
pitch and toss, heads and tails, is called from
the head and prow of a ship on the obverse and
reverse of an as (see fig. 356, p. 183). XoA/ciVSa
(xaAK/feji/, xa^f 'O'M*'^) is ^ similar game played
by the Greeks.
Par impar (apriatr/xos, apTjcifeii', &pTta y)
irepirrd [or (vya ^ &^vya] irai^eiv, iroffivSa). The
game at ' odd and even ' was a favourite game
among the Greeks and Romans. A person
held in his hands a number of astragali or
other things, and his opponent had to guess
whether the number was odd or even. The
game irocriVSa differed slightly, as it was neces-
sary to guess the exact number held in the
hand, not merely whether it was odd or even
(Xen. Eq. Mag. 5, 10; cf. Ar. Plut. 1055 ; Plat.
GAMES
327
Lys. p. 20() e; Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 248; [Ov.J
Nux, T2).
Micare digitis. Tlie game of ' mon-a,' played
in Italy now precisely as in ancient times. It
was known also to tlie Greeks. Tliis },'anie is
played by two persons, who siniultaneouBly
hold up their right hands, of which some
fingers, or all, or none, are extended. At the
same moment eaeli calls out a number, which
he guesses to be the sum of the fingers e.\-
tended by himself and his opponent. If he is
right, he wins; or, according to one form of
the game as now played, marks a point by
opening one finger of the left hand for eacli
correct guess. The winner is he who first
guesses right five times, and so opens all th(!
fingers of the left hand. It was sometimes tin;
custom to play holding each one end of a stick
with the left hand, as a security against that
hand being used dishonestly, or in the excite-
ment of the game (see Cic. Off. iii. 19, 77).
i'ig. .193.— Game of Morra, from a vai^e painting.
CliQumci ter, lienknUil'T. 'Mlj
Sometimes both hands were used. (See fig.
693.) The game was used also instead of cast-
ing lots for a chance decision— e.<7. which shall
begin ; which shall pay the bill ; and Suetonius
(Aug. 13J mentions, among other cruel actions,
that Octavianus, after the battle of Philippi,
made a father and son decide in this way
which of them should be spared.
Nuces. We include under this head several
Greek and Roman games of skill, wliich were
played with nuts, though fre(juently otlier
objects were used, such as pebbles, shells,
knucklebones {affTpdyaKot, tali), or in some
cases, coins (Pers. i. 10 ; cf. Catull. l.\i. 131).
Five of these games are given in the poem
Nux, formerly ascribed to Ovid. Except
in the game of par impar, the games with
nuces were trials of skill, not of chance.
(1) The simplest foiTn consisted in pitching
the nutsora.<!/rrt(7rt/(' into a liole from a distance.
The Latin name for thisgame wasprobablyorrrt,
because the nuts were pitched into a narrow-
mouthed jar (Pers. iii. ."it)). In this game the
Greeks pitched their a.itragnU either {a] into a
circle drawn on the ground, ealh'd HifxiWa, or
(6) into a hole in the ground, called 0ii6pos or
BSOvyoT, wlience the game was called f/y
068vvov. Tpo-rra (d) was another variety ;
^<^fT.V5a is also found : and pfriiaps identical
with rpiira was the gani<' called (rrpfTTTiVSa,
which consisted in throwing a shell or coin or
o.<TTpiya\os so as to turn over to the reverse
side a shell, coin, &c., lying on the groun<l.
Probably in all these games the nut or other
missile which fell outside the jar or hole or
circle was forfeited. Kuv5aAt<rjuoy, like peg-top,
was to knock one peg out of the ground by
another. Hence tlie proverb TJAy 6 ri\os
itKKpovfTai) (Arist. I'ol. v. 11, 3).
12) Castella (see [Ov.] liux, 7S-76). Three
nuts are placed on the ground with a fourth rest-
ing on them, so as to form a pyramid. The first
player aims with his nut so as to scatt«T
(dilaminarv) the pyramid (cfistellum). Per-
liaps in some of these games tiiws of agate or
onyx Arc, may have been used.
(3) Tabula. Tlie nut was sonietimes rolled
down a sloping board.
(4) Delta ([Ov.] Nux, Hl-di). A triangle was
chalked on the ground, divided by lines drawn
parallel to the base (virgae) ; the player wins
as many jioints as he crosses bars, provided he
does not roll his nut out of the triangle.
Talus (acTTpdyoLXoi}. The name of a bone in
the hind leg of cloven-footed animals which
articulates with the tibia and helps to form the
ankle-jomt (Arist. Hht. Au. ii. 1, § 31). In the
language of anatomists it is still called astra-
galus ; the English name is sometimes 'huckle-
bone,' but more commonly ' knucklebone."
The astragali of sheep and goats, from their
squareness and smoothness, have been use<l
as playthings 'rom the earliest times, and
have often been found in Greek and Roman
tombs, both natural and imitated in ivory,
bronze, glass, and agate (Propert. iii. 24, 13 ;
Mart. xiv. 14). Those of the antelope (SopK'-
dSeioi) were specially valued. They were used
to play with, principally by women and children
(Plut. Alcib. 2), occasionally by old men (Cic.
Sen. 16, § 58). Polygiiotus executed a picture
Fig. r>94.— Tall. (From a painting at Hcrculanoum.)
at Delphi, representing the two danghters of
I'andarus thus employed. A more celebrated
production was the grouj) of two naked boys,
executed in bronze by Polykleitus, and called
the ^K(TTpaya\i(^avTti (I'l' xxxiv. Jj ."i5; cf. Honi.
//. xxiii. 8H), To play ai this game was some-
times called irfVTfKi6i(.tiv, because five bones
or other objects of a similar kind were employed;
and this numb<>r is retained among our-
selves. This game, in ancient as in modern
times, consisted in a great variety of exercises
requiring quickness, agility, and accuracy of
sight.
The n.imo tali was also given to dice for play-
ing games of chance (aim ; see above) ; at first,
merel}' the luitnnil bones, usually marked with
pips, afterwards of a conventional slinpe repro-
dncing the peculiarities of the knucklebone
Of the four long sid^s of the bone, which alone
328
GAMES
were marked, two were broader tlian the others.
One of the broad sides was convex (r) irpr)V7is,
or TTpavrjs), the other concave {inrTia) ; while
of the narrow sides one was flat and called
rb Xiov, the other indented. This was called
rh K'foi', and as the rarest was also the luckiest
throw, marked 6 : the Xiou was marked 1, the
broader sides 3 and i, so that the numbers 2
and 5 were wanting. It was the under side of
the die, not the upper, that counted.
The Greek and Latin names of the numbers
were as follows (Suet. Aug. 71 ; Mart. xiii. 1, 6) :
— 1. ixovds, €is, Kvooy, X7os lP6\os) ; 2. Ion, Oivrj :
unto, volturius, cams (Ov. A. A. ii. 206,
Trist. ii. 473) ; 3. rpids : ternio : 4. rerpas :
quaternio; 6. k^as, e^irris, Ki^os: senio. The
bone was said to fall 6pd6s, rectus, or irpTjf jjs,
pronus, according as it fell on a narrow or a
broad side (Cic. Fin. iii. 16, 54).
Two persons played together at this game,
using four bones, which they threw up into the
air, or emptied out of a dice-box (fritillus).
The numbers on the four sides of the four
bones admitted of thirty-five different combina-
tions. The lowest throw of all was four aces
(Plant. Cure. ii. 3, 78). But the value of a
throw {^6\os, iactus) was not in all cases the
sum of the four numbers turned up. The
highest in value, Venus, or iactus Venereus
(Plant. Asin. v. 2, 55 ; Cic. Div. ii. 59, § 121),
was not four sices, but that in which the num-
bers cast up were all different (Mart. xiv. 14),
the sum of them being only fourteen. It was
by obtaining this throw that the king of the
feast was appointed among the Romans (Hor.
Carm. i. 4, 18, ii. 7, 25) [Symposium], and hence
it was called basilicas (Plant. Cure. ii. 3, 80).
Certain other throws were called by the par-
ticular names of gods, heroes, and illustrious
men and women. Thus the throw consisting of
two aces and two treys, making eight, was de-
nominated Stesichorus. When the object was
simply to throw the highest numbers, the game
was called TrAeicTTo^oKii'Sa. Before a person
threw the tali, he often invoked either a god or
his mistress (Plant. Capt. i. 1, 5, Cure. ii. 3,
77-79). Tali were also used in divination (Suet.
Tib. 14).
Tessera. A cubical die marked on all six
sides, commonly made of ivory, bone, or some
close-grained wood suoh as box or privet.
Tesserae were numbered on all the six sides,
like the dice still in use (Ov. Trist. ii. 473 sqq.),
and thus differed from the tali. In playing, only
three tesserae were employed. Hence arose
the proverb, i) rpls €|, /) Tpe'is Kv&ot, i.e. ' either
three sices or three aces,' meaning, all or none
(Plat. Legg. xii. 968 e) : kv0os = the ace (Ar.
Ban. 1400 ; cf Aesch. Ag. 33). ^
Latrunculi (irecrcroi, weTToi, }p7J(poi, irerTev-
eiv, Trerreia, calculi). A game of skill resem-
bling draughts, known to the Egyptians (Plat.
Phaedr. 274 d), and played by both Greeks
and Romans. The invention of it was com-
monly ascribed to Palamedes (Soph. Fr. 380,
381 ; Eurip. Iph. Aul. 196). Homer represents
the suitors of Penelope as amusing themselves
with it (Od. i. 107).
In the annexed cut, each player has five
men, distinguished, not by colour, but by their
shape.
Among the Greeks two kinds of irsTTeia at
least are clearly distinguishable, though there
were probably others. Of the two modes of
play of which we have distinct accounts, the
simpler, and doubtless the older, was the game
of the five lines, TreVre ypajj-fxai, played with
five men (j//^(^o», TrerToO- There were eleven.
lines, the sixth of which was called hph. ypafifii}.
(Hence the proverb, Kivelv rhy acp' Upas, ' to
Kg. 695.— Egyptian Draughts. (From a papyrus in the
British Museum.)
try one's last chance.') Nothing is known of
the manner of playing the game.
The other kind of weTTfia was called tto'Ais or
rather -rrSKeis, another name for the squares.
Distinct mention is made of squares instead of
lines, and of the different colours of the men
(\l/ri<poi, in this game called Kvvfs or irerroi). The
board was called irKivdiov, and the squares into
which it was divided, x'^P"" ! *h® ganre was
called Tr6\iis irai^nv: (pfpetu (Plat. Rep. 487
b) or Ofordai is to make a move, avadecrdai to
take back a move (Plat. Hipparch. 229 e), the
giving of odds, Kpuaaov (Eur. Suppl. 409).
The object of the player appears to have been
to hem in ((rvyK\eieii', aTTOKAeifiv) the adversary
by placing his piece between two of one's own.
The number of \pri(poi seems to have been
thirty on each side. The pieces were merely
round or oval stones (xpricpoi, calculi), and, as
with us, the same men might be used for
draughts and backgammon. (See below,
Duodecim scripta.)
In none of the Greek forms of draughts is
there any mention of pieces more powerful than
the rest, like the crowned kings or dames of
the modern game. This distinction first
appears in the Roman latruticuli, which in
other respects were very like the nSKeis just
described. The calculi were here called
latrones (not 'robbers,' but 'soldiers'); more
commonly the dim. latrunculi, or in verse
niilites (Ov. Trist. ii. 447). They stood on the
squares of the board (tabula latruncularia.
Sen. Ep. 117, § 30), not on the lines. Neither
the number of squares nor of men is anywhere
mentioned. Glass was a common material for
the pieces (Ov. A. A. ii. 208; Mart. vii. 72, 8);
sometimes they were made of earthenware^
ivory, gold, or silver. The colours are distin-
guished (Mart. xiv. 17).
The distinction between ' officers ' and ' men '
existed in the Roman game. Some are called
ordinarii, some vagi ; others inciti. Probably
ordinarii moved one square at a time, vagi on
a line (like bishops or rooks), inciti were fixed
pieces (inciti, however, may mean a state of
check, not a species of pieces : ad incitas [i.e.
calces^ redigere [Plaut. Poen. iv. 2, 85, Trin. ii.
4, 136], used also figuratively, means ' to bring to
a dead lock '). Ma)tdra may be either an enclo-
sure, i.e. a square (or some corner of the board
like the King's ' castle ' at chess), or a drove or
string, i.e. a row of pieces. The object of the
GAMES
329
3. VICTOB
NABICE
BALBUS
i. INVIDA
IVBENT
LVDEIIE
5. ABEMU8
PVLLVM
PEKNAM
vrxcAs
KEEI.IX
KEDIAS
PfNCTA
FELICE
UOCTVM.
I.NCENA
PISCEM
PAONEM.
game fas in the Greek game also) was to }jet
one of the adversary's men between two of
one's own, and then take it ofl the board (Mart.
XIV. 17) ; or else reduce him ad iiicita.t. To
attack a man is ullKjare, ublicjarr, or liyart.
The winner, as in other games, was termed rvx
or imperator.
It apjM-ars that the oflicers all moved alike ;
that the fewer pieces the winner lost, the more ,
complete the victory ; that tlie game was iilto- I
gethcr more like draughts tlum chess, notwith-i BENatokes.
standing a superficial resemblance to the latter.
Chess was unknown to the Greeks or liomuns, Nos. 1 and 2 are divided in the middle by a
and cannot be traced in the West before the representation of the calculi with which the
time of Charlemagne and Uarun-al-Hashid game was played ; No. U by the figure of a
(a.I). 800). sailing ship. JJos. 2 and 4 are metrical. The
Duodccim scripta (kv^oi, StaypaixfjLt(Tn6s: in forms lebate {leva te, 'take yourself off'),
late Greek, Td0\a). A game of mixed chance nabice (naviga), s.\lbi'b and iienatoues show
and skill, which must have been substantially the confusion of h and v in late Latin. Nos. 1
the same as our backgammon. The game was and 3 were found in a t'liristiuii tomb.
played on a board of twelve double lines, with It is conjectured tiiat tliese letters belong to
fifteen white and fifteen black men ; the throws a game in which each player tried, under certain
were counted as we count them ; ' blots ' : unspecified conditions, to get three men into a
{a(vyts) might be captured ; the pieces had to row (Ov. A. A. iii. ;H')'>, Trint. ii. 4811.
be brought iiome ; and the winner was he wiio A tabula liisuria dfscribeil by Martial (xiv.
first clciired off liis men. On the other hand, 17) had backgammon and draught boards on
there were tliree dice instead of two (see above, opposite sides.
tessera) ; and it is impossible to say where the , Ball (<r<pa7pa, pila, pila lusoria). We find
men started, or how blots taken up re-entered, the earliest mention in two passages of the
In the initial position the pieces may have stood Odyssey (vi. 100, viii. 370). In tlie former,
in three rows of five or five rows of three. The where Nausikaa is playing with her attendant
board was irii'o|oraj3a|,Abacu8,more generally maidens, the ball is merely tossed from one to
tabula, tabula lusuria, or from its raised rim the other, as a graceful and healthy exercise.
alvcus, alveolus; the men \f/ii<poi, calculi; the In the other passage of the Odyssey two per-
situation at any point of the game, biats; formers dance rhythmically, throwing up a ball,
to move, Ttdfvai, dare; to retract a move and catching it as they dance. The ball-danco
afaOfo-Bai, reducere. had early a strong hold, with other gymnastic
The classical Greek writers mostly use Kvfioi, exercises, at Sparta. This is also indicated by
KvBfiieii', of games into which skill entered, as the term cripatpfis applied to Spartan youths
wt-11 as of mere dicing. (See Plat. Hep. G04 c, between the btage of f(pTi0oi and that of
Fhardr. 274 D.) duSpfs. The exercise was highly regarded by
More than a hundred ancient boards, serving the Athenians, and the gymnasia had therefore
forsix different games, had been found in Rome a special room ((T<paipt(rTr,pioy) for the purpose
alone down to 1H77, and several tables are LCrymnasivun J.
scored on the marble pavement of the Busi- At Rome, it was played by all ages — men,
lica lulia; but only a single example shows and even old men, as well as boys (Suet. .iMr/.
the twelve lines. (See fig. 5'JO.) This is to ; 83, TVs/;. 20; Hot. Sat. i. 5, iH; Plin. ii>. iii. 1,
f<). It would appear that the exercise was not
indigenous at Rome. The old Roman followed
the severer exercises of hunting and riding ; the
j'ila came in with Greek customs iHor. Sat. ii.
2, 10). The Thermae at Rome had their
sfihaeristcriutn [fialneae] ; this exercise was
taken before the bath (Hor. Sat. i. ti, 125 ;
.Mart. vii. 32, xiv. lt;3). Attached to large
i-ountry-houses there was a similar court (I'lin.
I'^p. ii. 17; Villa). Where greater spivce was
wanted, the play was in the Campus Martins.
The Ai'PAUATUs Foii IM.avino. — We find
live varieties of ball in Roman usage : (1)
ihirpastum, (2) pila triyonali.s or triijuti, the
l»ila par excellence, (3) harenaria (iH.'rhaps the
same as harpastum), (41 patjaiiica. (Ti) jollia.
all intents and purposes a backgamnion board, The ordinary ball was stuffed with hair. The
exhibiting the four half-tables of six liiK's i-ach. 'i|uarters' or lajipets (as in a
Most of the tabulae hisoriae found agrei- in fives ball) {<pv\Ka] were secured
littving 3G Icttt-rs or signs, arranged in three by scams {cummissurac), ami
double rows of six each. In order to nnike often coloured (Ov. Mit. x. 2C'2i.
each row consist of six letters, it will be seen The smallest and hardest of the
that some liberties are taken witli the si>elling. balls is in Latin the harpastuvi
(|M>rhaps al.so harenaria). The
[ next in size, also a hard ball, is
the especial pil<i, the pila triyu-
\n(:!i.i; and then follows the parjanira, which
, was loosely stufied with leathers l Mart. xiv. 4o).
j Its name was probably derived Ironi its iM-ing
' used at games between the country pagant
^rrr
.V ; I T
A 9 " •
Q 6 * •
Fig. UU.—TabvUa lutoria for duoilecim tcripUi.
VICTVS
I.EIIATE
LVDEKE
NESrIS
DALISO
kiloci;[m]
SEMPER
IN IIANC
TABVI.A
HILAUE
LVDAMV
SAMICI.
Kl«. f.!l7.-nall.
I Kri'iit n viuic Ui
llrlt. Mu«.)
330
GAMES
(Mart. vii. 32), like the modern pallone (which
is played with an arm-guard) ; though the ball
used in that resembles the foUis, or K€i/r), the
air-blown ball. There is no trace of football
among the Romans.
We do not hear of any sort of racquet or
bat ; all our accounts speak of striking with the
hand or arm ; and all games like tennis,
racquets, or polo, are post-classical.
To throw a ball to another is Si56uat, fidWeiv,
apievai, dare, mittcre, iactare ; to catch it
\an^aveiv, Sex^cOai, accipere, excipere, cap-
tare ; to toss it backwards and forwards
datatlm ludere (Plaut. Cure. ii. 13, 17). The
words remittere and reddere {avTnrifxireiv,
avTa<piivai) mean to throw the ball back to the
sender. To strike or ' five ' the ball with the
hand, whether on the ground, against a wall, or
to another player, is repercutere, (jeminare,
expulsare (Mart. xiv. 56), or expellere ; in
Greek perhaps airoppa^ts. Expulsini ludere is
to strike with the palm or fore-arm. Raptim
ludere is to catch the ball while it is flying
between two other players. Lastly the feint of
pretending to throw the ball to one person and
throwing it to another is probably expressed hy
the word (pevivSa or eKKpoveiv (Athen. i. p. 15 a)
and in Latin by fallere (Prop. iii. 4, 5) ; revo-
care is to ' save ' the ball before it touches the
ground.
Ball-exercises. — Here we must class (1)
ovpavia, datatim ludere, which is the simple
practice of ' catch ' ; it might or might not be
made a rhythmical exercise by accompanying
music and dance ; (2) various forms of making
the ball rebound against a floor or wall ; (3)
various kinds of posturing with the ball, for
display of skill, or exercise.
Sphaeromachiae or Games at Ball : i.e. those
in which there are sides which win or lose :
games, therefore, at which a number of persons
can play together.
(1) The game called iiricrKvpos, i(pr]$iKrt, or
iTTiKoivos. In this game the ground was
marked by two base lines (ai Karo-mv ypanfiai)
and another line drawn parallel to them
through the middle of the ground, which was
called (TKvpos or Aotuttij. The ball was placed
upon this line, and the players started at the
same moment from their respective base lines.
The player who first seized the ball threw it as
far as he could towards the enemy's base line.
The object wjis to force the line of enemies
back by constantly returning the ball further
and further over their heads until they were
driven over their own base line.
(2) Harpastum (or ^aiviv^a, (peuivSa, &c.).
This game cannot with certainty be recon-
structed, but the following is a possible outline.
(Mart. iv. 19, vii. 32, xiv. 48.) There were two
sides {i.e. it was a sphaeromachia) ; there are
presumably base lines as goals ; the ground
was probably rectangular, the two ends being
base lines, and was divided by a line in the
centre (tranies) into two equal camps. There
was always one middle player or ' Jack,' a spe-
cial feature of the game, called inedicurrens or
6 /uera^v (cf. Mart, vii 32), each side in turn
having thus an ' innings.' How the ■inedicur-
rens was ' put out,' we do not know. It is
probable that a ball dropping dead (i.e. falling
again after the first rebound) was a point
against that side in whose camp it dropped,
and that a point was scored by that side which
could send it so as to drop over the base line
of the enemy. The ball could be caught, either
as a volley or at the first rebound (Mart. xiv.
48) ; hence pulverulent a and harenaria. The
ball was, no doubt, started from one of the
base lines, and the object of the medicurrens
was to catch it as it went past, in which case
he would throw it over the enemies' line or
into some unguarded spot of their camp, where
it would fall dead, or to some friend who was
advantageously posted. The other players were
permitted to ' charge ' the medicurrens, and
grapjjle or wrestle with him, or with one another,
in any way they chose, one side trying to spoil
his catch, the other to protect him and foil his
assailants. For this purpose they may use the
; rpaxil^i(Tfi.6s, avTi\ri\peis TraAaicTTpiKai, &c.
[Luctatio]. The (TcpoSpSraTov yevos, which
involves throwing, running and wrestling, is
the place of medicurrens ; the wrestling alone
is the part of those wlio try to thwart him : for
j the rest of the players the advance and the KUTa-
I (TTpo(p7}, or sudden turn, supply the running,
j while others can stand almost at rest near
their base, and merely tlu-ow when the ball
comes to them.
(3) Trigon. This favourite Roman game
• was not strictly a sphaeromachia, since there
were not sides, but each played for himself ; still
it was a legitimate game, played for winning or
losing. Tliere were three players, standing in
the form of an equilateral triangle ; each player
had one ball, or perhaps two, and played for his
I own score ; he would wish both his fellow-
; players to miss their strokes, and drop the ball
as often as possible. He might send his ball
to either player, either by catching and throwing
Fig. .598.— Lesson in Trigon. (From the Baths of Titus.)
the ball wliich came to him, or by ' fiving ' it, so
as either to strike it back to the sender {reper-
cutere) or sideways to
the third player {ex-
pulsare) (see Mart. xii.
83, xii. 72, xiv. 46).
In this game the pili-
crep us, or pilarius, was
employed somewhat
like a marker at tennis
or racquets, to count
the points {nu^nerare,
imputare) and give in-
struction in playing the
game. See fig. 598,
where the fourth figure „.„.„„ t, ■ • ., .n,
, ,, -T Fig. .5fl{).— Boy playing with
may be the ptlicrepus. several baUs. (From Eich.)
(4) The Equestrian
\ Sphaeromachia, played in the middle ages at
I Byzantium, differed Uttle from polo.
GAiFES 381
It remains only to speak of the 7J(74>re;;//a, or munbers ; and some show (^i an ol.jeot like a
juggler with balls (also called pilariua), who candelabrum (id/38oi or x«pa^). «''t'' a tiiuali
exhibited feats of skill, instructed, and also saucer {itKainiy^) balanced on tlie t<j|> of it,
acted as marker. We have nuiiiy ropresenta- whidi the |)luyer is endeavouring to dislo<lge
tions of single performers, male and female, by throwing tlie AitTa^ into it. An a<-tual
tossing up several balls; even throwing and ^irra/S jj apjiaratus, niaile <if bronze, has Xtvvn
catching tliem with the f<et. found in an Etruscan tomb at Perugia (fig.
K^TTo/Sos (Ion. Koffaa&os). A Sicilian game UOl). It resembles a candelabrum on a base,
much in use at Athenian symiKJsia, especially .\t a tliird of its height, the stem is surrounded
in the tiftli and fourth centuries ».c. I y a basin. In a socket at the to]> is fitted a
The word K6Trafius itself is applied variously small bronze niviti, with one ann and one leg
(1) to the game, ('2) to the wine thrown, («| to raised. The stem of this instrument could be
the sound it produced. It is further ijualified raised or lowered at will,
by adjectives describing tlie different forms of Tlie ^ij-tjs represents a slave being beaten, or
siinnking from a blow. (The^i/Tjj is not alwuyi
rfpresenle<l.i
the game: Kirrafios ayKu\riT6i, kotoktos, 5i'
6^v0d(f>wy. The vessel into wliicli the wine
was thrown was called KOTTafifiov, Karayftov,
XaKKfioy, Af/ci«'7j, aK2.(pr): Korra^iov. tlie prize,
which consisted of cakes or sweetmeats ; Korra-
Bi((», K0TTa&i(TfjL6s, itc, refer to the action of
the game.
Two main forms of the game are distinguish-
able in the written accounts, apart from minor
variations: (1) /cdxToiSot 5i' o^vfii^wv. In this,
a Kparlip or mixing-bowl, fille<l with water, was
set in the midst, and in it a number of empty
saucers (6{u/3a<J)a) floating. The object hero
was to sink the saucers by throwing the wine
{Kdra^j into them, and he wlio sank the greatest
number received the KOTrdfiiov.
The Kdrra&ji KarojcrSs ('i), on the other
hand, required a special apparatus. It con-
sisted of a ^d$ios, or bronze rod, on a stand ; a
7rAa<rTi7{, or bronze saucer, like those belong-
ing to a balance ; and a fidyrji, or small bronze i
figure (of a slave).
The game was played in various ways. i
(1) The AoTol struck the jUOfTjs, and fell into ,
the TrKaffTiyf.
(i) There were two ■)rAa(7-TJ77«s and a (.uy6u, '
as in a jiair of scales, and under each of them a
pLavris standing immersed in a bowl of water, The action of throwing the wine was called
the object of the player being to throw the wine ayKvK-/). The kStth^os was used as a method
into the irAiffTjyJ with such force that it would of Inve-augury.
Coik-Jiglitinff, dc. (aKtKrpvovoiJtxLxia, oprvyo-
Koiria, Ac.). We may here notice a favourite
amusement of both Clreeks and Romans — coek-
lighting. At Athens i)ublic cock-fighting nt the
expense of the city took place once a year in the
theatre of Dionysus. This was said to be in re-
meinbraiic*' of Tiiemistokles, who before the
; battleofSalamis, bade the Athenians imitate the
courage of cocks. On tlie arms of tlie marble
chair occupied by the priest of Dionysus, in
Fig. C02.— Dionysus playing! at kotto/So?. (From i
In lint. Mus.)
t
FiK. atn.-Cock'flKhting. (From Mu*. Qrrilortano.)
the theatre at Athens, may be s(>en sculptured
r c7__-jj--™/ a figures of cocks.
^v. I*)"^-^ ^ ••^ '^''•^ "lost game and jjugnarious {ytyvaioi,
'' - ' nd.xiuoi\ cocks were tliosi- from Tanagra and
Kho<les. Tliey had garbc [<tk. pn^ov) and leeks
or onions {Kp6fjivny\ given tliem liefore fighting
to oat, which was 8up|Hised to nnike them nmre
descend {KaTaKrSr) and hit the head of the courageous i .\r. Ei/. VM. ^(TieopoitiTfityoi). Tliey
uiyrii. wore metal spurs iirA>)<(Tf)o»', Ktvrpov). They
Vase-paintings representing one fonn of the fought on a lioanl with a raised rim (ttjAio,
game with the ■irAo<rTi7£ exist in considerable i Aesohin. c. Timarch. 58) like a bakers tray.
Fig. iw -KotUhon aUnd
iKrnm r.rlt. Slu».)
Fig. noi.— Tho nivmc.
(From I'orugli* )
332
TAMOPOI
Heavy bets were laid upon the birds. To
match a jmir of cocks is ffun^dWetv, commit-
tere. A wreath or palm-branch was given to
the winner, as in other games. Allusions to
cock-fighting are common in the classics (cf.
Aesch. Bum. 860; Find. 01. xii. 20).
'OpTvyoKOTTia (the player is called (XTvcpoKoiros,
Ar. Av. 1299) was a game with quails. The
quail was put on a ttjAio, in wliich a ring
(yvpos) was drawn. The quail was tapped on
the liCti d with a stick, or flipped with the fore-
finger {Kixavos), or the head-feathers were
plucked out. If it defended itself, it won ; if it
flinched and ran out of the ring, it was beaten.
The owner of the beaten quail used to call into
the bird's ear (ivTpvKiCeiv) to drown the con-
queror's cry. The stake was sometimes tJie
beaten bird (tV avTo7s).
rajxopoi. rreciJjJLopoi.]
Ga'nea. [Caupona.]
Gau'sape, Gau'sapa, or Gau'sapum, a kind
of thick cloth, baize, or frieze, witli the nap
longer on one side than the other. Horace {Sat.
ii. 8, 11) mentions a pui-ple gausape used for
wiping dinner tables between the courses ;
Martial (xiv. 138) speaks of it as a table-cover
to protect the costly table.-; of his time. It was
used as a counterpane (Mart. xiv. 147), and
as a mantle or wrapper after taking a bath,
or in general as a protection against rain and
cold (Mart. vi. .59). The Paenula might be
either of fur (Mart. xiv. 130) or of gausajn; {ib.
14.J); the latter, Martial says, was equally
suitable for summer or winter wear.
reXeovTcs, the name of one of the four old-
Ionic tribes in Attica. [ATiM.09, r€vos. Tribas
(Greek).] The word probably means ' illus-
trious ' : cf. ijlariex, (fldnzcn, tjlunce, &c.
Gemma. [Scalptura.]
Gene'sia. [Funus.
Te'vog. The word ytvos (\/gen) has refer-
ence ])rimarily to birth; and may equally
denote the closest natural ties of a common
family (Hom. Od. viii. 503), or the widest natural
ties of the race or nation {ib. xx. 2G7). The
notion of kinship is essential to the yfvos, as
distinct from the larger and more definitely
political forms of association such as the tribe
{(pvK-!)) or deme — since the latter may be arti-
ficially created, and based on arbitrary dis-
tinctions of locality or rank. The ascription
of eponymous hero and use of common reli-
gious rites by these associations was probably
borrowed from institutions to which such
traditions naturally belonged, as having ori-
ginated out of real consanguinity : olKia and
yevos. But the Greeks never merged the one
conception into the other. Kleisthenes, while
he distributed his new citizens into tribes and
demes, and possibly into phratries, could not
enrol them in the existing yetn). Foreigners
obtaining the freedom of the city were admitted
to a tribe or deme, but never enrolled in a yevos
([Dem.] c. Neaer. p. 1380, § 104) ; and even
within the Athenian ytfri themselves there was
a distinction between the ancient members of
the gentes, the yevvrjrai, and the opyedives, who
shared only in some of the sacred rites of Uic
gfcus. This distinction could only have origi-
nated in the belief that these ancient members
of the gens were connected tlirough true family
ties ; and though this belief may have little to
do with fact, and does not necessarily represent
the belief of the yivvrirai themselves, yet the
bonds which united the gens, tlie transmitted
saored rites and the eponymous hero, liad to
the Greek mind the force of true family bonds, i
rEN05
' Peculiar rights in a Greek gens v«re taken as
a mark of some ultimate racial connexion be-
: tween its members. Thus the Gephyraei at
! Athens perpetuated the tradition of a common
j Phoenician descent by peculiar sanctuaries
and rites in which no other Athenian shared
I (Hdt. V. 57 and CI) ; being themselves excluded
I from certain Ionian religious privileges (Hdt. v.
I 61 ; Thuc. vi. 56, 1). The distinctive marks of
a gens were, then, a common mj-thical ancestry,
and common rites and common assemblies
{ffvyoSoij of its members. The common gen-
1 tile name was not used in Greece (as it was at
] Rome) as a personal name. The bond of union
i between the yevvriTai was thus ahnost exclu-
I sively the community of worship. Thus the
1 position of the kings at Sparta depended largely
. on their sole connexion with Zeus through
! Herakles his son (Hdt. vi. 56 ; Thuc. v. 16, 2).
Hence, too, the importance of some of the
greater Attic gentes ; e.g. the Butadae, or true
Butadae {'Ereo^ovTciSai) as th^ called them-
selves, who furnished the holders of two of the
greatest priesthoods of Athens (Aeschin. F. L.
§ 147). The Eumolpidae and Kerykes at
Athens were the sole exponents of the mystic
ritual of the Eleusuiian Demeter (Thuc. viii.
53, 2). [Eleusinia.] The Asklepiadae of Cos
with their transmitted medical skill, the Ho-
meridae of Chios with the gift of poetry, and
the lamidae and TeUidae of Elis with that of
prophecy (Hdt. v. 44), are instances of similar
transmitted gifts associated with transmitted
cults. At Sparta the restriction of certain crafts
to certain families — e.g. the Talthybiadae, the
state-heralds (Hdt. vii. 134) ; the hereditary
Hute-players (oiiA.TjTai) and cooks {fidyeipoi)
(Hdt. vi. 60) — formed almost a caste system,
although marriage without the gens was appa-
I rently not forbidden. As a rule the chief token
; of descent was community in peculiar sacred
rites. Into this community, however, aliens
can be received by adoption (Mame, Ancient
Laws, pp. 130, 131) : by this means even the
' descendants of newly-created citizens might be
admitted into an Athenian gens, and such new
members would in a few generations adopt un-
[ consciously the belief in a common origin. The
Greek conception of the y4vos (or Ktiifir] locally)
j looked upon it as an aggregation of kindred
families or oinlai. The fact, however, appears to
be that small communities, from the universal
, exclusiveness of ancient societies, claimed a
common origin connected with common rites,
and attributed to themselves a common ances-
tor. There is no need to suppos3 a patriarchal
ramification of families in all cases : families
dwelling as neighbours would fall into these
conceptions as a matter of course.
In Greek statesgenerally, politically privileged
yivT) are of frequent occurrence. \Vhen such
exist, the government is to a greater or less de-
gree a hwaarua. This was the case at Corinth
under the Bacchiadae ; at Sparta as regards the
two kings ; in Crete, the Koanot, (Arist. Pol. ii.
10, 10) ; and in Thessaly, famihes, such as the
Aleuadae, bore rule (Thuc. iv. 78, 3 ; Hdt. vii.
6; Plat. Meno,jy. 70 Ji).
In the accounts of the Athenian gentes we
find a sjTnmetrical division and distribution of
the gentes into the larger units of the state, the
0paTpia or rptrrvs and the <^i»Ar) [Tribus,
Greek]. Eacli of the four Ionian tribes of Attica
is said to have been divided into three phratries,
each pliratry into thirty yivj}. Side by side with
this division was that into three rpiTTuey and
twelve pauKpapiai to each tribe. The trittys, a
rEN02
(probablj' local) subdivision of the tribe for
political purposes (as the pliratry was tor social
and religious purposes), was retained under the
political reform of Kleisthenes ; the naukraria
disappeared ; the phratries and gentes, us social
units, still i-eraained intact. The gens and the
phratry belong to the same categorj' of state
divisions ; their rights and duties are those of
private law. While the gens is a communit}',
the members of wliich recognised a common
ancestor and cultus (including tlie rites of the
home fire [epKos, iarTia, ^trxapaj) the dead and
the common ancestor i€(p4(TTios, iffrtovxos Tjpcosj),
the pliratry was an association of several such
gentes recognising that cultus which was com-
mon to all the gentes, and the participation in
which was a certain sign of citizenship : viz. the
worship of Apollo Uarpijios and Zeus 'EpKflos.
It would seem, then, that every citizen, whether
born in or admitted to the citizenship, belonged
to a phratry in so far as lie sliared in the
worship of these gods. There may, however,
have been other rights to \vhicli the Sr;/xo7roi7jTos
citizen was not admitted. (Ar. Ban. 419, Av.
765.) A natural citizen could name three de-
grees of relationship. He had first (Tvyyeuels,
kinsmen where the blood-descent could be
proved, including also adoptive children and
wives of avyyeve'is ; yevv?irai, where the common
descent was believed, but could not be proved ;
and (ppdrepes, where the relationship was merely
that of religious unity, carrying with it certain
natural rights and obligations between the
members called by this name (Dem. in EuhuL
p. 1306, § 24). The gens had a family register
XypafjitiaTiiov) in which the names of the child-
ren of the members were enrolled. The recep-
tion into the gens was performed at the same
time as the reception into the phratry at the
Apaturia ; and the registers of the phratry and
of tlie gens were apparently identical. All the
duties that we read of as belonging to the
phrators must have applied a fortiori to the
gennetes : the duty, for instance, of taking
vengeance on a murderer, which attached to the
phrators of the murdered man (Dem. c. Macart.
p. 1069, § 57), must have belonged in the first
]>lace to the ayxi-f^Tfis, or nearest blood-i'ela-
tions, in the next to the y(vvr\Tai. Gentes had
also family names, usually patronymic. They
owned a common burial-place, and a common
Ktffxv, and other property. The tendency of
such property was to become personal, but
hereditary and inalienable. When land was
divided among brothers (Hom. Od. xiv. 208)
the right of the eldest was called wpea-fifia and
his share irpfff^ela. The gentile nobility was
entirely territorial. The growth of tlie civic
idea (irJAis) by degrees weakened and politically
destroyed that of kinship.
As the (pparpiapxos stood at the head of the
phratry, so at the head of the genos stood the
a,px<^v rev yivous, who was at the same time
high priest of the gens [apxtepfys Koi yevedpxv^)
During the democracy there was the distinction
noticed above between yevfriTai and d/jLoyd-
\aKTfs, true members of the gens, and opyewvfs,
members of the cult. Every phratorwas either
one or the other of these. Within the circle
of the yevvrjTai, who regarded themselves as
connected by blood, we have the inner circle
of the ayxirrnls, who were obviously so con-
nected. 'Ayxi(rTeia marked the limits of
direct inheritance in cases of intestacy, and
extended to four generations, i.e. to the child-
ren of cousins, avfipiwv TraTSes (Dem. c. Macart.
p. 1058, § 27) ; within tliis circle the Agnates
GENS
338
took precedence over the Cognates. [See Ap-
pendix, Roman Law, Agnati.] Outside the
circle of ayxKrTels the y(vv7irai had tlie in-
heritance in tlie last resort, like the gentiles
at Rome. The desire of keeping property and
Upd in the male line of the family may be traced
in the custom of marriage of near relations, and
especially in the curious law of Athens that half-
brothers and sisters by the same father might
marry, lint not those by the same mother.
Gens. The word gens is identical witli yei/os.
(1) In the sense of common origin, tlie most
marked characteristic of a distinct nationality,
cjens is applied to whole peoples, as in the ex-
presaions gens Numidar 1(711, grns Aeffy2^tioru7)i,
and in the juristic formula of ins gentium. It
is also used for a section of a nation.
(2) At Rome, the gens was a wider union than
that o'f the family, but narrower than the bonds
of the state or tribe. It was a social union
which had as its basis the notion of descent from
a common ancestor. Tlie juristic theory of the
gens was that all the individuals constituting it
would have ultimately come within the patria
2]ofesfa.H of one common ancestor, and would, ac-
cordingly, have borne a common name. The first
of these elements, common descent, was mainly
traditional ; the second element, comninnity of
name, was the distinctive mark of the right to
participation in a gens. Those individuals who
could through this token lay claim to a common
origin were called gentiles: their relation to-
wards one another and to the gens as a whole
was called gentilitas. Tlie distinction between
the relation of gentilitas and the relation of
agnatic is to be sought in the fact that the
former was a conventional, the latter a real and
ascertained, kinship. A gens might include
families which were not agnati, but all members
of a gens were gentiles, and used, as a token of
rei^uted descent from a common progenitor, a
common name.
It is probable that the origin of Roman gentes
is a union of j)(itres, i.e. householders, who alone
were full citizens. It follows tliat the Roman
gentes were, as they are represented by tra-
dition, originallj' exclusively patrician, and that
the terms gentilis and gentilitas connoted a
perfect equality of status among the members
of the several familiae forming the gens. To
the original gentes of Rome, those formed by
the association of pafres properly so called,
there had from the first been attached a hetero-
geneous mass of half-free residents (pleheii) in
Rome. An element in the state, but yet not
in the strict sense a part of the state, these
plebeians lived in a stat(> of protected freedom,
and in a partial dei)eiideiiee on the full citizens
who alone constituted the gens. In this body
two main elements may be distinguished :
foreigners who had come to Rome as settlers
on the ius exuhoidi [ExiliumJ; emancipated
slaves and their descendants [Plebsl. Amongst
this body there was clearly the same capacity
for distinction as among the patricians. There
were groups of individuals who bore a common
name and claimed a common descent. Their
original unity might only have been the unity of
dependence on a common patrician house ; but,
as plebeian rights as such came to be recognised,
the unity of name and supposed unity ot blood
among plebeians would be as clearly marked as
among patricians ; and the original dependants
on the patrician gens would form a stirj^s of their
own. It is impossible to say exactly how plebeian
gentes came into existence. But it is probable
tliat there were three main constituents of the
J!34
GENS
plebs ; (a) clients of the patriciaxi houses, some
bearing the same name ; (b) Latin subject com-
munities gradually emerging from the condition
of perioeki ; {r) individual settlers exercising
the ancient Latin ius exulandi. The second of
these classes would as Latins be already divided
into gentes with sacra.
It was natural that the patricians should refer
all plebeian institutions to clientcla and claim
their own as the only true gentes (Liv. x. 8),
the plebeian gentes being merely stirpes. But
though the presumption, in the case of jjlebeian
and patrician gentes bearing the same name,
was apjiarently that the former had once been
clients of the latter, as in the case of the Claudii
and Claudii Marcelli (Cic. de Orat. i. 39, 176 ;
see Plebs), yet these are not sufficient proofs of
the denial of gentilitas to plebeians as a whole.
The gens rested in theory on a natural basis.
Itrepresentstlie widest limits of blood-relation-
ship possible. The gens, then, is intimately
connected with those other units, the familia
and agnati, which rest on the basis of kinship.
The characteristic features of a gens are:
(a) Its common religious rites [sacra], such
as those of the home-fence {hercttivi, aiiibitus),
the home-fire (focus), the family purification
{lustrnin), the common sepulchre, the Lar
Familiaris or Genius, the name-hero (e.g.
Calpus, Attus, lulus).
(6) Its common possession of rights of private
law : the gens is not and never was a political
division. The gens and familia are a kin-
ship association connected with common name,
origin, sacra (private law) ; the tribus, curia,
decuria, dating front a prehistoric (rvvotKi<r/x6s,
and probably a local division, or tending to be
such (public law).
Tlie distinction between gentes maiores and
gentes minores is said to liave originated, in
the reign of Tanjuinius Priscus, with the re-
ception of fresh members into the body of the
patrician senate (Cic. llep. ii. 29, 36 ; Liv. i.
35, 6), the members now received being called
the iiatres minoruin gentium as opposed to
the patres maiorum gentium or original
members :'maiores and minores thus meaning
older and newer. It is probable that the dis-
tinction did not arise in the senate, but is an
instance of the division into two which is seen
in, e.g., double colleges of priests, the three pairs
of Vestal Virgins, the pairs of Lares Compitales;
and which may be supposed to have had its
origin in the amalgamation of the Quirinal or
CoUine city with the Palatine, the new citizens
being drafted into the old tribes but retaining
their sacra intact, only converted into institu-
tions of the united community.
The political division of the curia is not into
gentes, according to the best tradition, but into
dccuriae ; and it is improbable that there was
ever a fixed and normal number for the gentes
of Rome. The connexion of gentes, 300 in
number, with the 300 senators, one from each
tribe, is very doubtful. So also is the exact
partition of each tribe into 100 gentes.
That the gentes had not, or, if they had, could
not have retained, the fixed numbers which the
above-mentioned political distribution attri-
butes to them, is shown by the fact that it was
possible for new gentes to be added to the
community, and even for old gentes to quit it.
Thus at least six gentes that had once be-
longed to the parent state of Alba — the Cloelii,
Curiatii, Geganii, lulii, Quinctilii (or Quinctii\
and Servilii — were added (cooptatio, Liv. iv. -t;
Suet. Tib. 1) to the Roman community (Liv. i.
30) ; and not only were Latin families so re-
ceived, but Sabine families as well, such as the
Valerii. We hear of the recejjtion of gentes, the
reception of individuals into gentes, and even the
transference of gentes from the plebeian to the
patrician order by the act of the curiae or the
king alone, as in the case of Servius and Numa,
who were transferred by the populus to the
patrician order, and in that of a whole gens,
the Octavii being raised by Servius Tullius to
the patrician order (Suet. Aug. 2). But in these
cases we must probably understand a joint work-
ing of the magistrate and the people. As a gens
might be received into the Roman community,
so a gens might quit it, e.g. the Tarquinii.
The gentes in the earliest times appear
to have had a local (tottj/ct)) as well as a
family (yei/iK-fi) unity. The Claudii, e.g., on
receiving the civitas were granted lands beyond
the Anio for themselves and their clients. And
there are traces of a common ownership of the
soil by the gentes. If the members of a gens
were neighbours and gave their name to a local
settlement, so, on the other hand, a settlement
of neighbours called by a local name would be
likely to grow unconsciously into a belief of
common origin.
The common gentile ownership of land
Crtnnot be proved. But a connexion between
the gens and the soil agrees with the triple divi-
sion of land into (a) heredium; (b) ager pri-
vatus; and (c) ager publicus. Of these (a)
was private property (2 iugera) attached to the
homestead of the paterfamilias; (c) belonged to
t!ie Populus Romanus ; (b) may have belonged
to the gens as a corporation. Again, the terms
which denote individual possession (manus,
7)i(niC!j)iM?« I referred originally only to moveable
property and not to fixed property in land, and
point to a time when some aggregate wider than
the family was the owner of the soil. The
heredium was in primitive times hereditary
and inalienable ; but as females could inherit,
it might pass out of the gens.
There were also certain reversionary rights
of inheritance possessed by the gentiles, which
may be a relic of such a system. In the case of
failure of a suus heres, a man's property passed
to his agnati, and on the failure of agnati to
the gentiles. This right of the gentiles to
inherit in the last resort lasted down to the end
of the Republic (Suet. lul. 1), but was extinct
in the second century a.d. The gentiles had
also rights in their collective capacity. The
guardianship (tutela) of vtomen and children
and of the insane was placed in the hands
of the gentiles by the laws of the Twelve
Tables. In this respect the gens is regarded
as capable of corporate action ; and we hear
of the gens as a whole repudiating the use of
a praenonien on which dishonour had been
cast by the actions of one of its possessors :
e.g. the Claudii (Lucius, Suet. Tib. 1), and the
Manlii (Marcus, Cic. Phil. i. 13, 32). The
circle of the gens was drawn closer by the
common worship and sacrifices that belonged
to special gentes as such. Their maintenance
was regarded as a fact of extreme importance :
not so mucli perhaps out of regard for the wel-
fare of particular gentes, as from the fact that
if the special sacra of a race died out, the
community would lose the favour of the divinity
to wliich they belonged. Hence the close con-
nexion of gentile sacra with property and in-
heritances (Maine, Ancient Law, pp. 6 and 27),
and the difficulties that beset the marriage of a
woman outside the gens (gentis enuptio) as
I
FEnMOPOI
fihowTi in the case related by Livy (xxxix. 19,
5). For by the old Roman law of marriage the
wife and her property passed wholly under the
power (manus) of her husband; and with this
dissociation of pi-operty from the gens there
was a danger of a corresponding dissociation
and consequent non-continuance of the sacra
(of. Liv. X. 23 ; Cic. pro Domo, 13, 35, Legg.
2, 22). [Adrogatio.]
Certain rites became attached to particular
gentes. In some cases they may have gone
back to the ante- Roman traditions of the gens,
as may have been the case with the peculiar
sacrifices of the Claudii. Other instances are
the cult of Hercules by the Potitii and Pinarii
(Liv. i. 7, ix. 29), of Apollo by the lulii, of
Faunus or Lupercus by the Quinctii or Quinc-
tilii and Fabii, &c. Some such rites were pri-
vate, others performed on behalf of the state.
Connected with the question of the sacra gen-
tilicia is the question of the changing of his
gens by an individual. Membership of a gens
is either natural, as that by birth, or artificial;
and all the artificial modes of attaining member-
ship, such as adoption, adrogation, or marriage,
are necessarily also modes of exchanging one
gens for another. The ancient or religious form
of marriage necessitated a change of gens on
the part of the wife ; but the secular form of
marriage by consensus did not lead to a woman's
being in the potestas of her husband, and so
did not make her a member of his gens.
Adoption by will, which took the place of
adoption through fictitious sale, and adroga-
tion, or the definite renouncing of old family
ties bj' a man who is sui iuris, for the purpose
of seeking others, were performed, first through
the action of the pontifices, to consider the
question of the continuity of the sacra, next
through the action of the curies, for the purpose
of declaring the change of family or gens, and
the fact that the rights of the old ones were
renounced ^Detestatio sacrorum] before those
of the new ones were assumed. A new gens in
these cases is acquired through a new familia.
[Adoptio ; Adrogatio.]
recojJLopot (Doric, ya/xopoi). The second of
the three classes into wliich the inhabitants of
Attica were anciently divided (Plut. Thes. 25).
Aristotle calls them yecopyoi. This class, toge-
ther with the third, the SrjfjLioiipyol, was ex-
cluded from the great civil and priestly offices
which belonged exclusively to the Eupatrids.
[Ev-irarpiSat.] The name may either signify
independent landowners, or peasants who cul-
tivated the land of others as tenants. It is
probable that both classes were included (see
Hdt. v. 77, vi. 22 ; Thuc. viii. 21).
In Samoa (Thuc. viii. 21), and at Syracuse
(Hdt. vii. 155), the aristocratical party was
called ye(t}fj.6poL or yajxipoi, in opposition to the
TepovaCa, the council of elders {ytpovTes),
was the name of the Senate in most Doric
states, and was especially used to signify the
Senate at Sparta.
This body was the aristocratic element, not
at Sparta only, but in other Dorian states, just
as a 0ov\r} or democratical council was an ele-
ment of most Ionian constitutions.
The yepovffia at Sjiarta (also ytpovria,
yepcoxia) consisted of twenty-eight members,
exclusive of the two kings, its presidents.
The qualifications for meinb(!rship of the
Gerousia were age (01 years) (Plut. Lycurg.
26), and distinguished character and station
(koAoI Kayadoi). The election was determined
GLADIATORES
335
I by acclamation, as the candidates presented
themselves successively to the assembly of
electors. These manifestations of esteem were
! noted by persons in an adjoining building, who
could judge of the shouting, but could not tell
in whose favour it was given. The person
whom these judges thought to have been most
applauded was declared the successful candi-
i date. The office of a senator was held for life,
and was irresponsible ; a previous reputation,
and the near approach of death, being con-
! sidered a sufficient guarantee for integrity and
moderation.
The functions of the senators were partly
deliberative, jiartly judicial, and partly execu-
tive. They prepared measures (Plut. Agis, 11)
for the popular assembly, having thus the pri-
vilege of initiating all changes in the govern-
ment or laws. As a criminal court they could
punish with death and civil degradation (Arist.
Pol. iii. 1). They also exercised a general
superintendence over the lives and manners of
the citizens.
See Arnold, Thucydides (vol. i. App. ii. in the
2nd and subsequent edd.), Thirlvvall, vol. i. cli.
8 ; Grote, chap. vi.
Teppov (Lat. gerra). Anything made of
wicker-work. 1. Persian shields, made of
wicker-work covered with ox-hide, of an oblong
shape, and smaller and shorter than the Greek
shields (Hdt. vii. 61; Xen. Auiib. ii. 1, g (i,
Cyrop. vii. 1, § 33). 2. Wattled screens or
hurdles in the Athenian Agora (see 'EkkXt)-
CTLa).
['iyyKv\x.o<i, or TiVYXvp-os. (1) A jointed
hinge, as opposed to the pin and socket hinge
[cardo, (TTpo(pfvs, (TTpdcpiy^) generally used by
the ancients [lanua]. (2) The hinge or clasp
which secured the two pieces of the 6c!>pa^.
[Arms and Armour.]
Girgi'llus. The roller of a well, turned by a
windlass, as now. [Antlia.]
Gladiato'res (ij.ovo/j.dxoi) are said to liave
been first exhibited by the Etruscans, and also
in Campania and Latium, and to have had
their origin from the custom of killing slaves
and captives at the funeral jiyres of the
deceased (Verg. Aen. x. 519). [Funus.] A
show of gladiators was called munus — i.e. a
ivLneral' duty (Suet. Tib. 7; Cic. Fam. ii. 8):
hence the term bustiiariiis — and the person
who exhibited it {edcrc), editor, tniincrator, or
dominus, who was honoured during the day
of exhibition, if a private person, with the
official signs of a magistrate (Cic. Att. ii. 19, 3).
Gladiators were first e.vhibited at Rome in
264 B.C., in the Forum Boarium, by Marcus
and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral of their
father (Liv. Epit. xvi.). These exhibitions were
at first confined to public funerals, but from
the first century B.C. were given at the funerals
of most persons of consequence, and even at
those of women. (Suet. luL 26.) Private
persons sometimes left a sum of money by
will to pay the expenses of such an exhibition
(Cic. Vat. 15, 37 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 84). Shows
of gladiators were also given at public festivals
by the aediles and other magistrates, who some-
times exhibited immense numbers with the view
of pleasing the people (Cic. Mm: 18, 37 )
[Aediles]. After Trajan's triumph over the
l)acians more tlian 10,000 were exhibited.
Gladiators were shown bj- Autiochus Epi-
plianes at Antioch 174 B.C. (Liv. xli. 20). The
Greeksconsidered thisan outrage ; but it pleased
the Orientals. Gladiators consisted of (a)
prisoners of war ; (b) slaves sold to a lanista
336
GLADIATORES
(Suet. Vit. 12) (these were the large majority) ;
(c) malefactors inoxii) condemned to death :
these were freemen, ingenui or libertini ; con-
demned slaves and freedmen being sent to the
venatio. Of those who were condemned, some
were said to be condemned ad gladium, in
which case they were obliged to be killed
within a year; others, sentenced to j^oenae
viediocres, ad luditm, who might obtain their
discharge at the end of five years. Freemen
who became gladiators for hire were called
■auctorati (Hor. Sat. ii. 7, 58; cf. Suet. Tib. 7).
They could redeem themselves (redimere).
Even under the Republic freeborn citizens
fought as gladiators (Liv. xxviii. 21) ; but they
appear only to have belonged to the lower
orders, and the profession was considered de-
grading, and involved infamia, as did also that
of lanista. Under the Empire both equites and
senators fought in the arena (Suet. lul. 39,
Aug. 43, Ner. 12), and even women (Tac. Ann.
XV. 32; Suet. Dom. 4).
Gladiators were kept in schools (ludi), where
they were trained by persons called lanistae
(Suet. lul. 26). Discipline of the severest kind
was maintained under rules called leges gladia-
toriae, sanctioned by an oath [Sacramentum]
which gave the lanista power of life and death.
The horrors of the ludus were proverbial, and
suicide was very common. The whole body of
gliidiators under one lanista was frequently
ciMcdfa)nilia (Suet. Aug. 42). They sometimes
were the property of the lanistae, wlio let them
out on hire, but at other times belonged to citi-
zens, who kept them for the purpose of exhibi-
tion, and engaged lanistae to instruct them (also
doctores, magisfri). Towards the end of the
Republic gangs of gladiators were kept by party
leaders, such as Catiline and Clodius, to
intimidate their political opponents. The
superintendence of the imperial ludi was
entrusted to a person of high rank, called
curator or procurator. (Tac. Ann.xi. 35, xiii.
22 ; Suet. Cal. 27.) The gladiators fought in
these ludi with wooden swords, called rudes
((xifiSos, vdpdr]^) (Suet. Cal. 32, 54). Great
attention was paid to their diet (Cic. Pliil. ii.
25, 03). They wero fed with nourishing food,
called gladiaforia sagina (Tac. Hist. ii. 88).
There were at Rome four principal ludi : L.
tnagnus, near the Coliseum, L. Dacicus, L.
Gallicus, L. matufinus for venationes. The
men were kept in cellae. In each ludus there
were also a sanarium, an armamentarium,
and a choragium. Some camaraderie existed
among members of the same ludus. We meet
in inscriptions with the terms coarmarins and
convictor. They were divided into decuriae
under curatores, and had burial clubs.
Gladiators sometimes fought at the funeral
pyre, and sometimes in the Forum, but more
frequently in the Amphitheatre. [Amphi-
theatrum.] The editor of the sliow pub-
lished some days before the exhibition bills
{Itbelli) containing the number and sometimes
the names of those who were to fight (Cic.
Fam. ii. 8, Phil. ii. 97 ; Suet. Caes. 26) : e.g.
at Pompeii we have ' A. Suettii Certi aedilis
familia gladiatoria pugnabit Pompeiis prid.
Kal. Jun. venatio [a combat with beasts]
et vela [awnings] erunt ; ' and similar notices.
Programmes (edicta) were issued, and liand-
bills (libelli muneratorii) sold in the streets.
Advertisements with pictures of the gladiators
were written and drawn upon the walls in char-
coal and red chalk {rubrica^B.ov. Sat. ii. 7, 98).
The gladiators were often given a cena libera
in public the day before the munus. Wlien the
day came, they were led along the arena in
procession [jjompa, 5t€'|oSos) and matched by
pairs ( -par, a pair ; so many jJaria ; Hor. Sat.
i. 7, 20) ; and their swords were examined {j^ro-
bare ; Suet. Tit. 9 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 37). At first
there was a kind of sham battle, accompanied
by music, caMed j^raelusio {batuale, (TKia/jLaxia),
in which they fought with wooden swords [gludii
hebetes, arma lusoria, 2'^'aepilata) (Cic. de
Orat. ii. 78, 317 ; Ov. A. A. iii. 515), and after-
wards at the sound of the trumpet the real
battle began. When a gladiator was wounded,
the people called out habet or hoc habet ; and
the one who was vanquished lowered his arms
in token of submission, and held up his hand
to ask for mercy. His fate, however, depended
upon the people, who turned up their thumbs
if they wished him to be killed (Hor. Ep. i. 18,
66 ; Juv. iii. 30), and ordered him to receive the
sword {/errum recij^ere). (Cic. Tusc. ii. 17, 41,
Mil. 34, 92.) The token to spare seems to
have been given by waving handkerchiefs
[mappae, 3Iart. xii. 29, 7). They also cried
' iuguln ! ' or ' )nissum ! ' If the life of a van-
quished gladiator was spared, he obtained his
discharge for that day, which was called inissio
(Mart. I.e.); in an exhibition of gladiators sine
rnissione (Liv. xli. 20), the lives of the con-
quered were never spared (Suet. Aug. 45).
The bodies of the dead and dying were
dragged with a hook {uncus) or carried on
stretchers by the libitinarii (sometimes dressed
in the habit of Charon or Mercury) through the
Porta Libitinensi.i [Amphitheatrum] to the
spoliarium, where they were stripped, and
those still living despatched. At the end of
the day the list was gone over and marked
{ddvaTos), -e- (obiit) or P (2)eriit), M (missus),
V (vicit). Tlie lists were published in the Acta
Biarna.
Palms were usually given to victorious gladia-
tors (Suet. Cal. 32 ; Cic. Pose. Amer. 6, 17) :
gladiators are mentioned on funeral cippi as
V, X, XV palmarum. Crowns also (r corona-
rum) were given, and money (Juv. vii. 243 ; Suet.
Claud. 21). Old gladiators, and sometimes
those who had only fought for a short time,
were discharged {liberare, airoTd^curBai) from
the service bj' the editor at the request of the
people, who presented each of them with n
rudis or wooden sword : hence they were called
Budiarii. (Cic. Phil. ii. 29, 74; Hor. Ep. i. 1,
2; Suet. Tib. 7.) Rudiarii were, however, not
always discharged with the pilleus, and seldom
under five years' service. Of rudiarii there
were three classes : (a) exauctorati ; (b) those
who remained in the ludus to finish their time ;
(c) volunteers.
Gladiators were also hired for a single fight,
sometimes for a miserable sum (sestertiarii),
but well-known gladiators got high prices.
Shows of gladiators were abolished by Con-
stantine, but appear notwithstanding to have
been exhibited till the time of Honorius, by
whom they were finally suppressed.
Gladiators were divided into different grades,
as gregarii, meliores, summi (also veteranus,
2)rimus and secundus palus, prima a,nd secunda
rudis). The names of the most important of
these classes are given in alphabetical order :
Andabatae (Cic. Fam. vii. 10) wore hel-
mets without any aperture for the eyes, so
that they fought blindfold.
Catervarii, gladiators wlio fought, not in
single pairs, but several together (Suet. Aug.
45, Cal. 30J. These parties sometimes con-
GLADIATOEES
listed of several liuudreds each, divided into
jjarmiilarii and sciitarii.
Esscilarii, from chariots. [Essedum.]
Hoplomachi wore a complete suit of armour
:iiid a large scutum (Suet. Cal. 'd'> ; Mart. viii.
74,1 ; perhai)s the same as tlie Sainnites.
Laqiiearii used a noose to catch their
idversaries.
Mi'i-idiuni, light-armed men, who fought in
the middle of the day, after the morning vena-
tioties (Suet. Claud. 341.
Minnilloneaov M(jrmillu)ies are said to have
been so called from tlieir having the image of
a fish (nioniit/r, ixop^vpos) on tlieir lielniets.
Their arms were like those of the (iauls. They
were usually matched with rctiarn or Thra-
cians. (Cic. Phil. iii. 12, 31; Juv. viii. '200;
Suet. Cal. 3-2.)
The licfiariusworc a guard (gah'rus) on the
left arm, and carried only a three-pointed lance,
called tridcns or Fuscina, a dagger, and a
GLANS
837
be recovered by a spirn or lasso rope attached
to it from the ami of tlie thrower (Juv. viii. 203).
His adversary was usually a secutor or a mir-
millo. (Suet. Cal. 30, Claud. 34.)
Samnitcs wore a helmet with a high crest
(Juv. vi. '250), and pinnae or cheek pieces, a
guard on the arm, a greave (ocrea) on the
left leg, and a short sw-ord, but were particu-
larly distinguished by the oblong scutum. (Liv.
ix. 40 ; Cic. Sest. C4,"l.04.)
Thraccs or 'Threccs were armed, like Thra-
cians, with a round shield or buckler, and a
short curved sword or dagger (sica. Suet. Cal.
3'2 ; falx, Juv. viii. 201;, and wore greaves on
Fig. 007.— Thracians. (Winclielmann.)
both legs. They were usually matched with
mirmillones. The annexed woodcut represents
a combat between two Thracians, though here
the swords are straight. A lanista stands be-
hind each.
Velites had light spears (Ov. Ih. 45). All
wore the sabligticulum, and the mauica or
net {retr, iaculuni), which he endeavoured to tjalerus. Gladiators were furnished with gay
tlu'ow over his adversary, and then to attack and splendid armour and equipments, ostrich,
him with the fuscina while entangled. The and peacock plumes, i^'c.
Fig. G04.— Mirmillo and Ketiarius. (Winckelmann,
Munuiii. hied. pi. \»1.)
Fig. liOJ.— Gladiators. (From a tomb at Pompeii.)
retiarius was dressed in a short tunic, and wore I Gla'dius. [Arms and Armour.]
nothing on his head. If he missed his aim in I Glans. A leaden bullet, to be thrown from
tlirowing the net, he betook himself to flight, to a sling. Many have been found: one is in-
Fig. 60G.— Gladiators. (From a tomb at Pompeii.)
prepare for a second cast, while his adversary scribed Fkki Pomp[kii m ; other inscriptions
followed him round the arena. The net could , are Accipe, Flgitivi Pkkistis, TPflFAAION
338
GLOMUS
('bon-bon'), TPHFE, nP02EXE, &c. Others
have the name of a general, a legion, &c.
Fig. COS.— Glans. (From British Museum.)
Glomus. TFusus.]
Gluten, Glu'tinum (koWo.). Glue, made of (a)
ox-hide (Taupo/coAAo) ; {h} fish, especially stur-
geon (IxOvoKuWa) ; (c) gum (K6fini) ; id) flour-
l)aste, used both in carpentry and to gum to-
gether papyrus-sheets into a roll (hence itpo3t6-
KoWov (protocol), and iax^roKoKKiov, for the
first and last pages of a book). Slaves employed
to do this were called {fliitina tores (Cic. Att. iv.
4). [Liber.] Gluten was also used medicinally.
Gnomon iyvwiu.'jii'}. [Horologium.]
r6M.<t)09 if/om/>ltus, rldrii^:), A bolt or dowel
in shipbuilding [Navis] (Horn. Od. v. 248), car-
pentry (Hes. Op. 429) ; an iron rivet (Aesch.
Theb. 542) ; r/o))iphiis is also used for the large
projecting kerbstones placed to stiffen a Roman
paved road (Stat. Silv. iv. 3, 45). [Viae.]
Gossy'pium. [Carbasus.j
Grabatus {Kpal^&arTos). A low bedstead
(Cic. Dir. ii. t;3).
Gradus i/3^^a), (1) a step, as a measure of
lengtii, was half a pace (passus), and contained
2i feet. (See Tables, IV.) (2) Bed-steps
[LectusJ.
Graeco'stasis. A platform close to the
Rostra, lirst in tlie Comitium, afterwards (novn
llostra) at tiie north-west end of the Forum in
front of the Temple of Concord, where foreign
envoys stood to listen to speeches (see Middle-
ton, lirinaiim of Ancient Rome, chap. vi. ;
Cic. Q. Fr. ii. 1; Varro, L.L. v. 155; Plin.
xx.\iii. 19; Class. Diet. Roma, p. 802).
Grallae iKaKo^adpa). Stills, said to have been
used by panlomimi acting Satyrs (Plaut. Foen.
iii. 1, 27).
rpa|j,jjLaT€vs (Lat. seriba). A secretary or
clerk : the name of many officials of various
kinds in Athens and other Greek states. The
higher sort were everywhere concerned in the
drawing up of public decrees, and their names are
usually recorded in the inscriptions. Sometimes
the functionary isciiUed^poju.uoTfvs t?isit6\(ws,
sometimes ypafxixarfvs T7)y fiovKrjs. At Athens
a long list of ypaufiaTfh has been recovered : a
ypcLixixaTihs ruiv 'Y.\Ky)VOTaai'l'V, rwv rauiuv,
Twu AcyiiTTcic, tUv eySfKa, Twf tTri(TTaTU>v, twv
elo'aywyfwi', twv ctTpaTfjywv, ruiv firiixe\r)Tci>i^
TWV ViWplttlV, T(tlV (TlTWviJilV, TWV (flTfOplOV €jr«-
Three ypajj^aarels, all connected with the
fiovKTf, stand out from the rest as real state
officers [BovXtj]. Next to the a»'Ti7pa(^€i/s t?)?
$ov\ris the most important official in this body
was the first secretary, whose full title was 6
Kara irpvTai'dai' yp. tFjs Pov\ris. He was ap-
poii\ted by lot from among tlie ^ovKivrai to
serxe the time of each prytany (himself always
belonging to a different prytany), and his duty
was to keep the public records and the decrees
of the people made during his term of office,
and to deliver to the thesmothetae the decrees
of the senate. The name of the ypafifiarevs is
given in tlie decrees both of the 0ov\-fi and of
the ^K/c\7jcria t6 Se'iva ^ypafindrfve).
The second ypa/xuaTfvs was elected by the
GROMA
senate, by x^'poTOi'ia, and was entrusted with
: the custody of the laws (Dem. c. Timocr. p.
I 713, § 42). His usual name was yp. rf/s fiovKy/s.
I A third ypa/xixarevs was called yp. rrjs
TToKews (Thuc. vii. 10), or yp. ttjs fiovKr/s kcu
Tov Siijuiou. He was appointed by the people,
I ^y X^^poTOvla, and the principal part of his
office was to read any laws or documents which
were required to be read in the assembly or the
senate (Dem. F. L. j). 419).
' The assistants to these three ypap-fiwrtis, and
to some others, were called inroypafj.fw.Te7s or
under-clerks (Dem. de Cor. p. 814, § 261).
These persons were either public slaves
[Arm-oaioii or citizens of the lower orders
(Dem. de Cor. p. 269, § 127, &c.). They were
not allowed to hold the same clerkship for two
successive years.
See also 'AvTU7pa4»tis.
Gramma'tica {ypafifiariKt',). 1. Greek. — (1)
: Tlie word ypafifxariKii includes all ypift-aara,
> i.e. literary education, excluding fiov(TiK-i] and
I yvfivaffT iK-lj ; but especially the rudiments, viz.
' reading [irvWafii^eiv : ovofiara, (Sij^ara, " ffvif-
SecTfia), writing, and the first studv of the poets
(Plat. Theag. p. 122 ; Arist. Pol. viii. 3). (2) In
a larger sense it 'may be rendered 'philology,'
I and was canned to great completeness by the
I Alexandrian school of the third century B.C. A
I department of tlus is grammar, i.e. accidence,
syntax, and the origin and usage of words, in-
I eluding lexicography and prosody.
2. Roman. — 11) The first instruction (//Y/rrrt-
tura) in reading, WTiting, and in arithmetic
(elcmenta) was given by the litterator {ypafi-
fiaTi(TTi)s}. Then came gramvmtica proper,
the jjrovince of the graminaticus ovUtteratiis,
consisting of tlie study of correct pronuncia-
tion, grammar, and reading the poets. Homer
and Virgil to begin with (Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 42;
Plin. Ep. ii. 14). The third step in education
was taken under the guidance of the rhetor.
(2) Tlie pliilological writings of the Romans
are vei-y numerous, and extend in date from the
aiTival of Krates at Rome (159 u.c.) [Ludus
litterarius] to the sixth century a.d. — tlie
pi-riod of Priscian. Their treatises {artcs) dealt
witli grammar proper, orthography, etymology,
prosody, &c.
rpa^.^aTo4>v\dKiov. ["Apx^iov: Tabu-
larium. j
rpa.<^r\. Rpo Appendix, Greek Law.
Graphia'riura, Gra'phium. [Stilus.]
Graphis. iPictura. I
Grassato'res. [ Latrociniom.]
Griphus {yp~i<pos, Ar. Vmp. 20; aHyiy/xa,
Plat. liep. V. 479 ; ahiTTfcrBat, Soph. Aj. 1158,
iV'c). A riddle, such as
formed part of the amuse-
ments at a <rvfnr6ffioi',
whether Greek or Roman.
For instances see Becker-
Glill (Charikles, Sc. vi.
Exc. ii. Tlie Symposia).
Groma <ir Gruma. Tlie
instrument from wliich the
Roman gro)n(itici or land-
surveyors took their name.
Two small bars crossing
one another at right angles
are supported on a column
or post {fcrramentitin).
Plummets are suspended
from the bars to guide the operator in securing a
vertical position of th.e column, and a horizontal
one for the cross-pieces. Two bars meeting or
crossing each other at right angles, mounted
Tig. 000.— Gromu
(From a gravestone
louud at Ivrea.)
i
I
GUBERNACULUM
GYMNASIUM
33S
on a pole were called tetrans. Sighting the
marks was comprehenclere signa or vietas ;
verifying, reprehendere metas. [Agrimetatio.]
The instrument was intended to guide a sur-
veyor in di'awing real or imaginary lines at
or
right angles to one another, more especially in
fixing the car do (or N. and S. line) and decu-
vianus (or E. and W. line) essential to the
orientation of any te»qilnm ox to t\ie division
of a Roman camp [Castra]. A large T square
was sometimes used for the same purpose. The
right angle 75e (fig. GIO a) being thus drawn,
then, by similar triangles, a^ : eS::^7 : 87. Of
these distances the last three are known.
Another ancient method of drawing long
lines at right angles was to stretch a rope
round three pegs fixed in the ground, at such
distances from one another that the sides of
the triangle formed by the rope were in the
ratio 3:4:5 (fig. 610 b). The angle contained
between the shorter sides is a right angle (Eucl.
i. 48). This method was very early used by the
Egyptians, e.g. at the building of the Temple of
Edfu, as the inscriptions declare. The know-
ledge of the ratio 3:4:5 for the sides of a
right-angled triangle was introduced into Greece
by Pythagoras.
But the groma and all other instruments of
the same kind were ultimately superseded by
the dioptra, an instrument which closely re-
sembles the modern theodolite. There were
several varieties of the dioptra, the best known
being that described by Heron (c. 250 B.C.).
Tlie principle is that of a flat brass rod with
sights, mounted so as to turn on both vertical
and liorizontal axes. [Agrimensores.]
Guberna'culum. [Navis.J
Gusta'tio. [Cena.]
Guttae. [Architectura.]
Guttus {\riKveos). [Pottery.]
Gymnasia'rclius {yvfji.va(na.pxf)s or -os). A
magistrate at Athens mentioned as early as the
laws of Solon. His office was one of the regular
liturgies, like the choregia and trierarchy, and
was attended with considerable expense. He
had to maintain and pay the persons who were
preparing themselves for the games and contests
in the public festivals, to provide them with
oil, and perhaps with the wrestlers' dust {kovio).
It also devolved upon him to adorn the gymna-
simn or the place where the agones took place.
(Xen. Bep. Ath. 1, § 13.) The gymnasiarch
was a real magistrate, and invested with a kind
of jurisdiction over all those who frequented or
were connected with the gymnasia. He had also
the power to remove from the gymnasia teachers,
philosophers, and sophists, whenever he con-
ceived that they exercised an injurious in-
fluence upon the j'oung (Aeschin. c. Tiinarch.
§ 12). Another part of his duties was to con-
duct the solemn games at certain great festivals,
especially tlie torch-race {\aiJ.TTaSri(t>opia.), for
which he selected the most distinguished among
the ephebi of the gymnasia. Tlie number of
gymnasiarchs was ten, one from every tribe.
Among the external distinctions of a gymnasi-
arch were a red cloak and white shoes (Plut.
Ant. 33). In early times the office of gynmasi-
arch lasted for a year, but under the Roman em-
perors we find that sometimes there were twelve
or thirteen gymnasiarchs in one year. Tliis
office seems to have been considered so great an
honour that Roman generals and emperors ac-
cepted it. Other Greek towns had gymiiasiarclis.
Gymna'sium (yvfxvdcnov). The whole edu-
cation of a Greek youth was divided into three
parts : grammar, music, and gymnastics {ypdiJ.-
(Uara, /jLOvcriKt'), yufj.va(rTiK'o, [Plat.] Tlieng.
p. 122 E ; to which Aristotle (Pol. viii. 3, p.
1337) adds a fourth, the art of drawing or
painting. Gymnastics, however, were thought
by the ancients a matter of such importance
that this part of education alone occupied as
much time and attention as all the others put
together, and continued to be cultivated Ijy
persons of all ages, though those of an advanced
age naturally took lighter and less fatiguing
exercise than boys and youths. (Xen. Symp.
i. 7 ; Lucian, Lexiph. 5.)
Gymnastics, in the widest sense of the word,
comprehended also the agonistic and athletic
arts {ayccvicrriKij and adK7\TiK-i]) ; that is, the art
of those who contended for the prizes at the
great public games in Greece, and of those who
made gymnastic j)erformances their profession
[AthletaeJ. Both originated in the gymnasia,
in so far as the athletae as well as the agonistae
were originally trained in them. The athletae,
however, afterwards formed a distinct class of
persons unconnected with the gymnasia ; while
the gymnasia became at last little more than
agonistic schools, attended by numbers of spec-
tators, and had, with few exceptions, nothing
to do with the public contests, but were places
for physical education and training.
Gymnastic exercises among the Greeks seem
to have been as old as the Greek nation it-
self; they were in early times of a rude and
mostly of a warlike character. They were
generally held in the open air, and in plains
near a river, which afforded an opportunity for
swimming and bathing. The Attic legends re-
ferred the regulation of gymnastics to Theseus ;
but it seems to have been about the time of
Kleisthenes that they were reduced at Athens
to a regular and complete system. About the
same period the Greek towns began to build
regular gymnasia, which became common
meeting- places for the citizens. There was pro-
bably no Greek town of any importance which
did not possess its gymnasium. The earliest
remains are those of the gjniinasium at Olympia,
which cannot date further liack than the end of
the fourth centurj- B.C. Athens possessed tliree
principal gymnasia — the Ljxeum {A.vKeiov),
Kynosarges {Kvv6ffapyes), and the Academy
('A/fa5?7yUia). All places of this kind were built
on the same general plan. The most complete
description of a gymnasium which we possess
is that given by Vitruvius (v. 11).
The peristyiion (D) is in the form of a
square or oblong, and is two stadia (1200
feet) in circumference. It consists of four colon-
nades. In three of them (A B C) spacious
exedrae with seats were erected. A fourtli
colonnade (E), towards the south, was double,
so that the interior walk was not exposed in
bad weather. The double portico contained
the following apartments: The Ephebeum (F).
On the right is the Coryceum (G) [KcSpvKog] ;
then came the Conisterium (H) adjoining, where
the body was sprinkled with dust, and the
cold bath, \ovTp6u (I). On the left of the
Ephebeum is the Elaeothesiura (K), for anoint-
ing. Adjoining it is the Frigidarium (L), or
z2
340
GYMNASIUM
perhaps the Tepidarium, where there was a ] or to become professional atliletes. The word
lukewarm bath. From thence is the entrance ! yu/j.i/dffioi', however, is sometimes used generic-
to the Propnigeum (M), on the returns of the ' ally, and in later usage indiscriminately with
portico ; behind the place of the Frigidariuni is ira\ai(TTpa ; while iraKaiffTpa may mean (1) a
the vaulted Sudatory (N), the Laconicum (O), training school for boys ; (2) a wrestling gi-ound
and the hot bath (Pj. [Balneae.] These are \ forming part of a gymnasium. The master of
the palaestra was called iraiSorpi0r]s : he was
the ordinary ti'ainer in gymnastics {Plat. Lack.
1H4 K ; Ar. Nub. 973, £q. 1-238), just as tlie
ypo.ixjxaTL(TT/is was the ordinary schoolmaster
in our sense of the word ; and the two are often
mentioned in connexion (Plat. Frotag. 312 b).
He trained all the boys who did not want either
to compete in the games or to become profes-
sional atliletes. The latter were trained by the
yv/xuacTTriS, who had more special scientific
knowledge, and who prescribed diet as well as
exercise. The naiSoTpifirjs was only expected
to know how to do the exercises and to show
his pujiils how to do them, and put them
througli a traditional course. The iratSoTpifiTjs
directed each several motion of beginners
((TXW'''«Cf"') > more forward pupils he in-
structed by showing (iiriSeiKi/vvai) liimself how
the exercise was done, while the most advanced
pupils he simply told (irpocTTarTiiv e'l ov6pia.Tos)
what exercise was to be performed. In Plato's
time the distinction of iratSorpi^rts and yvfj.-
vaffTTJs was not marked (Crit. 47 B, Protag.
313 e). This distinction gradually grew up in
after times, owmg to the gi-eater nmnber of boys
wlio wished to attain excellence in atliletics.
The exercises practised in the palaestra
were ruiuiing (hp6fios), jumping (aA;ua), throwing
the spear {Sxtov) and the discus {5/<r/cos), and
the more essential and primitive parts of a especially wrestling (TraArj) — wliich formed what
gymnasium. The Xystus (|u(rTo's) (R), a covered was called the Pentathlon; boxing (Trvyfirj)
stadium for winter exercise, with groves or and the pankration were mostly confined to the
plantations between the two colonnades (S), gymnasium.
and uncovered walks (U) (ir6p(Spo;Ui5es), to which I Among the games we may mention: (1) tlie
the athletae, in fair weather, go from the winter bfjH {(T<paipt(ns, (T<paipoij.axio; &c.). [Games;
xystus to exercise. Beyond the xystus is the Pila.J Every gymnasium contained one large
stadium (W). I room (crcpaipia-Tjjpiov) for playing at bull.
The Greeks adorned their gymnasia with ' (2) Tlal^etv eKKvffrivSa, SifAKvffTivSa, or Sia
-J-X JiJ. J I iiJ.__J._l I
hi 1 hn
Hg. 611.— Plan of Gymnasium. (Vltruvius.)
the statues of gods, heroes, victors in the public
games, and of eminent men of every class.
Hermes was the tutelary deity of the gymnasia,
and his statue was consequently seen in most
of them.
The laws of Solon forbade all adults to
enter a gymnasium during the time that
boys were taking their exercises, and at the
festival of the Hermaea. The gymnasia were
not allowed to be opened before sunrise, and
were to be shut at sunset. Another law of
Solon excluded slaves from gymnastic exercises
(Plut. Solon, 1). The education of boys up to
the age of sixteen was divided into the three
I^arts mentioned above ; but during the period
from the sixteenth to the eighteenth year the
instruction in grammar and music seems to
have ceased, and gymnastics were exclusively
pursued. In the time of Plato we find persons
of all ages visiting the gymnasia. (Plat. Me})-
V. p. 452; Xen. Si/inj). 2, § 18.) Athens now
possessed a number of smaller gymnasia, in
wliich persons of all ages used to assemble.
The difference between a waXaiffrpa and a yun-
vdcTiov is that the ira\a7(TTpai, as a general rule,
were ordinary schools kept as a private specu-
lation, where boys were trained in physical
exercises : while the yv/jLvdma were public
establishments to which full-grown youths,
and even adults (Plat. Bcp. 452 b ; Xen. Si/mp.
2, 18), resorted for exercise, but where there
was no regular instruction given except to
ypafifirjs, was a game like our ' French and
English.' (3) The top (^f/x^rj^, )36>/3i^, p6fi$os,
(TTpo^iKos). (4) Tlie irei/reAiOos, a game played
with five stones, which were thrown up from
the back of the liand and caught in the palm.
The games and exercises of the gymnasia and
palaestrae seem, on the whole, to have been the
same throughout Greece. Among the Dorians,
however, they were regarded chiefly as institu-
tions for military training ; among the lonians,
and especially the Athenians, they were intended
to give to the body and its movements grace
and beauty, and to make it the basis of a
healthy and sound mind.
An ofiice of very great importance, from an
educational point of view, was that of the So-
phronistae {<ra>cppoi't<TTai). Their province was
to inspire the youth with a love of auxppoavvri,
and to protect this virtue against all injurious
influences. In early times their nmnber at
Athens was ten, one from every tribe, with a
salary of one drachma per day. They were
bound to be present at all the games of ti^J
epliebi, and to watch and correct their conduct
wherever they might meet them, both within
and without the gj-mnasium. Xystarches {^var-
dpxv^) a.nd Kosmetes {KO(rfj,r]rr]s) are also titles
found in imperial times. See also Gymnasi-
archus.
Women were, at Athens and in all the Ionian
states, excluded from the gymnasia ; but at
Sparta, and in some other Doric states, girls
those who were training either for the games were not only admitted as spectators, but also
TTMNOnAIAIA
took part in the exercises of the youths. 'Ma.v-
ried women, however, did not frequent the
gjmnasia. (Phit. Legij. vii. HOC) .v.)
The gymnasium was not a Roman institution.
The regular training of boys in the Greek gym-
nastics was foreign to Roman manners, and
was even held in contempt, as leading to idle-
ness and immorality ; and besides, they were no
training for war (Plut. Qiiacst. lioiiiAO ; Sen. Ii^p.
8«, IS ; Plin. E2J. x. iU, '>). But still gymnastics
were practised a good deal by the Romans,
sometimes as a prejmration for the bath, but
generally by young men who wished for some
not very violent exercise (Hor. Sdt. ii. -2, « aqq.,
Cann. i. S, S). Towards the end of the Re-
public wealthy Romans used to attach to their
villas small gymnasia or palaestrae, and to
adorn them with works of art (Cic. Att. i. 4,
Verr. ii. 14, 36). The Emperor Nero was the
first who built a public gymnasium at Rome
(Suet. No: 1'2). But the magnificent thermae,
amphitheatres, and other colossal buildings
had always greater charms for the Romans
than the gymnasia. •
(See Becker-Goll, ChariJcles, vol. ii.; Mahafly,
Old Greek Education, chap. \\\.; consult also
separate articles summarised in tlie Index.)
rvuvo-rraLSia or -ai (always plural in the
best writers : Hdt. vi. 07 ; Thuc. v. 83 1. A festi-
val celebrated at Sparta every year with gj-m-
nastic contests in honour of Apollo XlvSaevs
or Kapvilos, Artemis and Leto. The statues of
these deities stood in a part of the Agora called
Xopos, and it was around these statues that, at
the gymnopaedia. Spartan youths performed
their choruses and dances in honour of Apollo
(Paus. iii. 11, §7). The festival was held in
the middle of summer, and lasted for several
daj's : on the last daj- grown men also performed
choruses and dances in the theatre, and sang
the songs of Thaletas and Alknuin, and the
paeans of Dionysodotus. The leader of the
chorus {■npocrrdrris or ^opsTowj) wore a kind of
chaplet, called (Trf<pavos dvpeariKos, in com-
memoration of the victory of the Spartans at
Thyrea. The dances of the boys imitated the
exercises of the palaestra and the dance of
tragedy called i/j-fxeKeia. The whole season of
the gymnopaediae, during which Sparta was
visited by great numbers of strangers, was one
of festivity (Xen. Mem. i. 2, § 61 ; Plut. Ages. 29).
The first celebration is generally assigned to
the year 005 b.c.
rvvaiKtdvlTus- [Domiis.]
rt)vaiKov6(xot were magistrates, in many
Greek states, who exercised a certain censor-
ship over the conduct of women and to some
extent of men also, especially the young. At
Sparta there were flaiSovojiot, but not
yvvaiKovo/xoi. Aristotle mentions them as a
well-known institution of an aristocratic cha-
racter in the Politics (iv. 12 (l.'j), § '.), vi. 5
(8), § 13). We find them at Chaeroneia as
late as the time of Plutarch (Sol. 21), at Syra-
cuse, Samos, and elsewhere. The legislation
of Solon included many regulations for the
government of the Athenian women. They
wore forbidden to go abroad with more than
three changes of apparel and a stated S7nall
{6fio\ov) quantity of provisions ; to pass through
the streets by night otherwise than in a carriage i
(o/ua^o) and with a light carried before them ; to |
disfigure their faces ; to wail extravagantly at
funerals (Plut. Sol. '21). These rules were no i
doubt enforced by the Areiopagus, then at the I
height of its power. The Athenian yvvaiKov6iJ.oi,
however, were first instituted by Demetrius '
AMAHA
341
Phalereus (317-307 B.C.). They were asso-
ciated with the Areiopagus in the maintenance
of public decency and the enforcement of
sumptuary laws. They superintended even the
meetings of friends in their private houses, e.g.
at weddings and on other festive occasions!
Meetings of this kind were not allowed to
consist of more than thirty persons, and the
yvvaiKovo/jLoi had the right of entering any
house and sending away all the guests "xbove
that number. They also controlled the eccen-
tricities of female attire ; women who went un-
suital)ly dressed in public were liable to a fine
of 1000 drachmas. The number of these officers
and the mode of their appointment are alike
unknown.
H.
Habe'na or -ae (mostly plm-al : TO fiv'ta, eu
■^i/i'oi ) was, generally speaking, a leathern thong :
r.g. (1) a bridle [Frenum] ; (2) = amentum,
Jiagellum [Hastaj ; (3) a sling [Funda] ; (4) a
shoe-strap [Calceus] ; (5) the lash of a whip
[FlagellumJ.
Haeres. [Heres.]
'A\ia. [Pepo-UCTta.]
"AXia, 'AXCcia. A festival celebrated in
the island of Rhodes every summer, in honour
of Helios [aAtos, Doric), the sun-god. The
prize was a wreath of white poplar. On this
occasion the Rhodians drove into the sea a
quadriga as an offering to the god.
"AXp-a. (Pentathlon.]
'AXtoa. ['AAioa.]
'AXriipes. Dumb-bells of stone or metal
for gjmnastic exercises. They were also used
Fig. Gl'>.— 'jVAn/pfS- (From a Tasc.1
to increase the impetus of the body in leap-
ing. [Pentathlon.] (Juv. vi. 421 ; Mart. xiv.
49, vii. 07, 0.)
Fig. r.i:i,— 'A\T>)p. (British Museum.)
A|xa£u. 'A^.aS6Tro5€5, "Ap(xa, 'Aptid-
jtaga. fCurrus.
342
APM02TAI
'ApixoCTTai. (1) Spartan magistrates, twenty
in number, charged with keeping order among
the Perioeki. (2) Governors whom the Lacedae-
monians, after the Peloponnesian War, sent
into their subject or conquered towns to
maintain order and to estabHsli a government
similar to their own (Xen. Hell. iv. 2, § 5 ;
Thuc. viii. 5). This consisted of a board of ten
citizens, responsible to tlie harmost and his
Lacedaemonian garrison. The character of
their rule is sufficiently described by the word
Karexe'i', which Isokrates {Paneg. § 117) and
Demosthenes {de Cor. p. '258, § 96) use in speak-
ing of the harmosts. (Compare Dem. c. Tinio-
crat. p. 741, § 128.) Even Xenophon [Bej).
Lac. 14, § 2) censures the La<3edaemonians for
the manner in which they allowed their har-
mosts to govern.
It is probable that the office of a harmost
lasted a year (cf. Thuc. iv. 53). [AeKaSapxta.J
Ha'rpagO (apirdyr], \vkos, Kpedypa, Kpeaypis).
A grappling-iron, a drag, a flesh-hook (1 Sam. ii.
13, 14, LXX = fuscimda, Vulg. ; Ar. Eq. ll-l,
Vesp. 1155, Eccl. 1002). The iron-fingered flesh-
hook {Kpedypa cnSr]po5dKTv\os) is described by
the Scholiast on Aristophanes {Eq. 1. c), as
' an instrument used in cookery, resembling a
hand with the fingers bent inwards, used
to take boiled meat out of the caldron.'
Four specimens, in bronze, are in the British
Fig. CW.— Harpago, flesh-hook. (British ATuseum.)
Museum. One of them is here represented.
Into its hollow extremity a wooden handle was
inserted.
A similar instrument (Eur. Cijcl. 33) was
used to draw up a bucket or to recover any-
thing which had fallen into a well.
In war the grappling-iron seized the rigging
of an enemy's ship, and was then used to drag
the ship within reach, so that it might be
easily boarded or destroyed (Liv. xxx. 10, § 10 ;
maniis ferreac [Caes.l B. (.'. i. 57 ; Plin. vii.
§ 209). ICorvus.]
Harpa'stum. [Gaines; Pila.]
Harpe (dpin), Eur. Ion, 192; Ov. Met. v.
170). A falchion, used by Mercury, Perseus, &c.
[Falx,]
Haru'ndo. [Calamus.]
Haru'spices, or Aru'spices (not from liara,
a pig-sty, but from %/h.ui- [xopSv;, hi)-a, &c.]
= ' twisted,' hence ' entrails'). Etruscan sooth-
sayers or diviners, who interpreted t-he will of
the gods (Liv. xxvii. 37; Cic. Cat. iii. 8, 19;
Div. ii. 4, 11). The art of the haruspices re-
sembled in many respects that of the augui-s ;
but they never acquired political importance,
nor were they personally much respected (Cic.
tb. 41, 92). They did not form any part
of the ecclesiastical polity of the Roman state
during the Republic ; they are never called
sacerdotes, they did not form a collegium, and
had no magister at their head. The mere fact
that they were salaried marks them off from
the national priesthoods. Claudius, who at-
tempted to revive the art, first foimded a
collegium of haruspices, which consisted of
sixty members (Tac. Ann. xi. 15).
The art of the haruspices, which was called
HrEMONIA
haruspicina, consisted (1) in explaining and
iuteii^reting the will of the gods from the ap-
pearance of the entrails {exta) of animals
offered in sacrifice, whence they are sometimes
called extispices, and their art extispicium
(Cic. Div. ii. 11, 26; Suet. Ner. 56); (2) in
dealing with the significance of Portenta (Cic.
Harusp. Besp. 9, 18 ; Liv. i. 56) ; (3) in in-
terpreting the meaning of hghtning. Their
art is said to have been invented by a fabulous
Etruscan dwarf Tages (Cic. Div. ii. 23, 50), and
was contained in certain books called lihri
haruspicini, fidgurales, and tonitruales (Cic.
Div. i. 33).
The senate at one time decreed that ten
young Etruscans from each of the states, be-
longing to the princii^al families, should always
be instructed in it (Cic. Div. i. 41, 92). Tfie
senate sometimes consvdted the haruspices (Cic.
Div. i. 43, 97 ; Liv. xxvii. 37), as did also pri-
vate persons (Cic. Div. ii. 29, 62). In later
times, however, then- art fell into disrepute
among well-educated Romans ; and Cicero
{Div. ii. 24, 51) relates a saying of Cato (often
absurdly misapplied to the augurs), that he
wondered that one haruspex did not laugli
when he saw another. Cicero [Fain. vi. 18) is
indignant at the admission of a haruspex into
the senate. Haruspices appear as late as the
time of Alaric.
The name of haruspex is sometimes applied
to any soothsayer or prophet (Prop. iii. [iv.] 13,
59 ; Juv. vi. 550).
Hasta. (1) [Arms and Armour.] (2) (Car-
j libaris ha.sta) [Matrimonium.J (3) [Auctio.]
; (4) [Pentathlon.] (5) Haata pura, a spear-
i shaft without head, given as a military decora-
tion (Verg. Aen. vi. 760 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 21).
Hasta'ti. [Exercitus.]
Haustrum. A scoop or box on a water-
wheel I Lucr. V. 517) ; also called modiolus ( Vitr.
X. 51. See cuts under Machinae, Antlia.
'EKaTO|ji3atc5v. [Calendarium, Gkkek.j
'EKaTOM-Pri. [Sacrificium.J
Hecato'mpedon. [Pes; Parthenon.]
'EKaTOCTTTl. [neVT-nKOCTTTl.]
"EkTTI, 'EKTetJS, 'HjJLLeKTOV, 'H|Xt€KTtOV
(see Tables, IX.). A Greek dry measure = Lat.
inodius orone-sixth of a /j.eSifJLvos (Ar. Nub. 64oi.
In late Greek the word eKrevs became obso-
lete, and fxoStos took its place.
I 'EKTT|n6pioi. A name given to a class of
] cultivators in Attica before the time of Solon.
! Among the unenfrancliised classes in Greece,
{ some agriculturists had to pay a fixed quantity
I of produce and take all the risks of bad seasons :
such were the Perioeki and Helots in Laconia
[Decnmae ; Helotes]. We also find what is
now known as the metaijcr (L.L. medictarius)
i system, under which landlord and tenant divide
j the produce in a certain proportion. The land-
, lord's share was called fxopri), and land held
under metairie was iirifji.opTos yri. The Attic
kKry]ix6pioi were probably tenants who paid a
\ sixth portion to the landlord, and retained five-
sixths for themselves (Plut. Sol. 13) : according
to another account, they received only a sixth
part, and paid five-sixths. The fKryj/uLopioi be-
longed to the class of di/Tes. They were also
sometimes called ireKdrai, i.e. clients or de-
pendents (Plat. E uthyphr. 4 c).
For the Roman metayers called partiarii,
see Agriculture, p. 17.
"ESva. [See Appendix, Giieek L.\w, Dos.]
'H-yeM-ovia. (1) The leadership among the
states of Greece wliich belonged in the Persian
War to Sparta, and the rivalry for which be-
EIPFMOT AIKH
twi-en Sparta and Athens was one of the causes
of tlie Peloponnesian War. In later times it
was held by Sparta again, bj' Tliebes, Sec. See
Grote, chap. xlv.
(•2) The presidency in a court of justice.
[See Ai>poiidix, GitEKK L.\W, Eltra-ywYcls.]
Elp-yjioxi 61KT1. See Appendix, Gkeek
Law.
Hele'polis leAeVoAis). An engine eon-
■-tiiicted by Demetrius Poliorketes when be-
sieging Salaniis in Cyprus, 30(! B.C. It was a
: uwer 120 feet high, each side of which measured
i'() feet; it was divided into nine stories for
rtillery, and was carried on four wheels of 1'2
[ii't diameter. It was manned with liOl) sol-
iliers, besides those who moved it by l)ushing
the parallel beams at the bottom.
At the siege of Rhodes, 305 B.C., Demetrius
fmi>loyed a still larger helepolis. Besides
wlieels it had casters (oi'TiirTpeTrTa), so as to
.idmit of being moved laterally as well as
directly. Its form was pyramidal. It was
armed on tlu'ee sides with iron plates. In
subse<iuent ages we find the name applied
:o moving towers which carried battering-
!ums, as well as machines for throwing spears
md stones: e.g. at the siege of Jerusalem
under Titus (Joseph. B. J. ii. 19, § 9). [ArieS ;
Tormentum. ;
' HXiacTTiis- [AiKaaTirig.]
Helix {(\i^j. (1) A screw. ('2) The volute
of a Corinthian or Ionic capital. [Archi-
tectura.]
'EWavoSiKai. CI) [Olympia.] (2) Judges
of court-martial in the Lacedaemonian army
(Xen. Jlcji. Ldc. I'd, § 11; ; they were pro-
bably first called by this name when Sparta
was at the head of the Gi'eek confederacy.
'E\XT|voTajj,iaL, or ti'easurers of the Greeks.
Magistrates apiiointed bj' the Athenians to
receive the contributions of the allied states.
They were first appointed 477 B.C. to receive
and keep in the treasury at Delos the money
[laid by the different states, orij^'inally fixed at
4(j0 talents. The office was retained after the
treasury was transferred to Athens (Pint. Arist.
2.5), but was abolished on the conquest of
Athens by the Lacedaemonians, and not re-
stored with the democracy. The Hellenotamiae
'.vere ten in number, and c:hosen by open voting
( Xf'poTui/rjToi)) one from each tribe. During
tlie period of Athenian supremacy, the Helleno-
tamiae were the most important financial
officers after the treasurers of Athena {TUfxlai
t7]s 6iov)y into whose treasury, the O])istho-
ilomos [Parthenon], they carried the collected
tribute. A mina in the talent, or one-sixtieth,
was retained as an airapx^ for the goddess ;
the rest was disbursed as it was wanted by the
treasurers to the Hellenotamiae, and by them
applied mostly to Thcoric and military objects.
See <t>6pos ; 'EKXo-yeis, No. 2.]
Helo'tes or -ae (Ei'AwTfs, ^Ixiirai: Ilotac.
fjiv. xxxiv. 27 : v'liKi.-, i.i'. captivesl. A class of
bondsmen subject to Sparta. The whole of
the inhabitants of Laconia were included in
the three ctisses of Spartans, Perioeki, and
Helots, of whom the Helots were the lowest.
They formed the rustic jiopulation of the
country, dwelling in small villages or on de-
taclied farms, botli near Sjjarta and around the
towns of the Perioeki. Their condition was
that of serfs attached to the land, ofhrripti
(jlarlxic, and they could not be sold away from
it; they were regarded as the property of the '
state. The difference between the jrasition of I
the Helots and the Perioeki may be due either I
HELOTES
348
to their having been subject to the latter at
the time of the Dorian invasion, or to their
having surrendered at discretion, whereas the
Perioeki made terms : probably the former.
At the end of the second Jlessenian War (068
B.C.), tlie conquered Messenians were reduced
to slavery, and included under the denomina-
tion of Helots. Their condition appears to
have been the same, with some slight differ-
ences, as that of the other Helots.
The Helots formed by far the most numerous
class of the population ; probably from a half
to two-thirds. They occupied both the 9000
larger estates (K\apui) of the Spartans and the
30,000 smaller lots of the Perioeki. Several
families resided in dwellings of their own upon
each K\apos. They cultivated the land and
paid to their masters a measure of corn, an
annual rent, fixed for each K\upos at eiglity-
two medimni of barley, and a proportionate
quantity of oil and wine (Plut. Li/c. 8). [' E ktti-
(iopiot.] The domestic servants of the Spar-
tans were mostly Helots. Bought slaves were
rare at Sparta, but not altogether unknown.
In war tlie Helots served as light-armed
troops (\pt\oi), a certain number of them attend-
ing every heavy-armed Spartan to the field ; at
the battle of Plataeae, there were seven Helots
to each Spartan, and one to every hoplite of
the Perioeki (Hdt. ix. 10 and 2«l. These atten-
dants were probably called afiiriTTapis (i.e.
aiicpiffTavres}, and one of them in particular was
termed Qepairoiv or orderly (Hdt. vii. 229; vn-
affTnaTr,s, Xen. Hell. iv. 5, 14). The ipvKTtjpes
were probably Helots serving in war and not
yet free, though they generally became so if
they showed distinguished bravery. The Helots
only served as lioplites in particular emer-
gencies ; and it was a universal rule that such
service was followed bv the bestowal of freedom
(Time. iv. 80, V. 34, vii. 19 ; Xen. Hell. vi. 5,
S 28). On the other hand, in the Spartan fleets
the general body of the sailors were Helots, and
while serving in this capacity they were called
Se(nro(nopavTat.
The Helots are said by the later Greek
writers, to have been treated cruelly and
roughly (oofius Koi wiKpus). We are told that
they were beaten annually for no fault, in
order that they might never fo"rget their con-
dition. And JPlutarch {Lye. 2H) states that
Helots were forced to intoxicate themselves,
and perform indecent dances as a warning to
the Spartan youth. The Helots, however, had
some at least of the privileges of freemen ;
their family rights were respected ; and they
had a certain powxT of acquiring properly. For
instance, in the time of Kleomenes no fewer
than f.OOO juirchased their freedom for the sum
of £20 each (Vint. Cleoni. 231. On the other
hand, the chronic, dread of insurrection over-
came every scruple of good faith or humanity^
and the measures of repression described under
KpviTTeia were had reeoursi- to. There can
be no doubt of the fact related by Thucydides,
that on one occasion 2000 of the Helots who
had rendered the greatest service to the state
in war were induced to come forward by the
offer of emancipation, and then were mysteri-
ously put to death iThuc. iv. KOi.
Helots, when emanciiiated, formed a distinct
body in tlie state, known by the general term
of veoSa/jxiSets (Thuc. v. 34), but subdivided
into several classes ; oiw of them being that of
the fjiuOuvfS or fxudaKfs, who were domestic
slaves brought up with the young Spartans,
and then emancipated. These were the ille-
344
HEMEEODROMI
gitimate sons of Spartan lords by Helot mothers, !
and in many cases they attained not merely
freedom, but civic rights and even high com-
mand ; Kallikratidas, Lysander, and Gylippus :
are all said to have been of Mothakic origin. |
For the classes of Spartan citizens, see Civitas j
(Gkeek).
Hemero'dromi (^/xepoSpo'/xoi). Couriers in
the Greek states, trained to run an entire day. '
They could perform long journeys in a sur-
prisingly short space of time (Hdt. vi. 105 ;
Plat. Protag. 335 e ; Corn. Nep. Milt. 4). The
Greeks had no system of posts, and but few
roads : but couriers appear to have been kept by
most of the Greek states, and were in times of
danger stationed at certain look-out points.
Hence we find them called 7}fx^po(rK6iroi (Hdt.
vii. 183 ; Xen. Hell. i. 1, § 2) and Spo/jLOK-ripvKfs. \
Hemicy'clium irifxiKvKKiov). A semicircle, j
[Exedra, cf. Sigma.] (1) A recessed seat, j
semicircular or segmental in shape : e.g. the
tribunal of a basilica. (2) A hall or colonnade
furnished with such recesses, and employed for
purposes of conversation, either in private or
public buildings (Cic. Amic. 1; Plut. Alcib.
17, Xic. 12). [See Ae'ox'n.] (8) A semicircular j
stone or marble alcove in the open air. (4) [See i
Horologium.] |
Hemi'na (rifj.iva or Tj^uva). The name of a
Greek and Roman measure, the half of the
te(TTr]s, and therefore equivalent to kotvKtj.
In the Roman metrical system it is used with
the same meaning :t namely, half the Sex-
tarius (Plaut. Mil. Glor. iii. 2, 18; Pers. Sat. i.
13(1). (Tables, IX., X.) _ 1
"EvScKa, Ol, tlie Eleven, were officials at
Athens of considei'able importance.
The time at which the office of the Eleven .
was instituted is disputed. They were annually '
chosen by lot, one from each of the ten tribes,
and a secretary (ypaiuL/j.aTevs), with one or more
vTToypa/j.fj.are'is under him.
The principal duty of the Eleven was the
care and management of the public prison
(Sea/xoiT-^piov), which was entirely under their
jurisdiction. [Career.] WHien a prisoner was
condemned to death, he was immediately given
into the custody of the Eleven, who were bound
to carry the sentence into execution (Xen. Hell.
ii. 3, S 54). The most common mode was by |
hemlock juice {Kuveiov), which was drunk after
sunset (Plat. Phcied. 116 B sqq.). The Eleven had
under them gaolers, executioners, and torturers
(oj TrapaffraTai, 6 rwv eVSeKo virr)pfrr]S, 6 Srj- '
fxdaios or Sti/jlios, &c.).
The Eleven possessed a r)yefj.ovia 5tKa<Trr]piov
in the summary proceedings called *A'7ra7a)Y''i,
'E<J>T)YTicris, and "EvSti^tS (see Appendix
Greek Law), in which the penalty was fixed by
law, and might be inflicted by the court on the
confession or conviction of the accused ; and also
in the case of KaKovpyot — viz. thieves, house-
breakers, man- stealers, and other criminals of a
similar kind (Antiph. de Caed. Her. § 9 sq. ;
Lys. c. Theomn. i. § 10; [Dem.] c. Lacr. p. 940,
§ 47).
'HpdK\eia. Festivals celebrated in honour
cf Herakles at Thebes and in Attica, and many
other parts of Greece (Dem. F.L. p. 379, § 125";
Ar. Ban. 651).
'Hpaia. Festivals celebrated in honour of
Hera in many towns of Greece. The original
scat of her worsliip was Ai-gos. Her service
was perfoi-med by the most distinguished
priestesses of the place ; one of them was the
high-priestess, and the Argives counted their
years by the date of her office (Thuc. ii. 2).
HERMAE
The Heraea of Argos were celebrated in the
second year of every Olympiad, and were called
a iravfiyvpis. A number of young men assembled
at Argos, and marched in armour to the temple
of the goddess between Argos and Mykenae.
They were preceded by a hundred oxen
(whence the festival is also called (KarofM^aia).
The high-priestess accompanied this proces-
sion in a chariot drawn by two white oxen, as
we see from the story of Kleobis and Biton
(Hdt. i. 31; Cic. Tiisc. i. 47, § 113). The sacri-
fice itself was called Kex^pva. The victor in the
games of the Heraea received a bronze shield
(Pind. Nem. x. 41) and a garland of myrtle.
Heraea were held at Aegina, Samos, Elis, and
other places.
Here'dium. [Actus ; Agrimetatio ; luge
rum.]
Heres. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Hermae (^p/j.a'i), and the diminutive Her-
muli (Ip/ii5ia). Statues composed of a head,
usually that of
the god Hermes,
placed on a term,
or quadrangular
piUar, the height
of the human
body (Thuc. vi.
27). One of the
most important
features in the
mythology of Her-
mes is his presid-
ing over the com-
mon intercourse
of life, traffic,
journeys, roads,
boundaries, and
so forth, and it
was chiefly in
such relations as
these that he was
intended to be
represented by
the Hermae of
the Greeks. There
were in many
parts of Greece F'g- fil.-,.-Terminal figure of
, I i Hermes, from a vase. (Couze.)
heaps of stones
by the sides of
roads, especially at their crossings, and on
the boundaries of lands, which were called
epfxaia or epfiara, ipfiua, and epfiaKes (Horn.
Od. xvi. 471). Similar monuments were un-
hewn pUlarsof stone (cf. Genesis xxviii. 18, 2'J,
xxxi. 45-48).
Of these heaps of stones and pillars, those
which marked boundaries were, among the
Dorians, dedicated, not to Hermes, as in Attica,
but to Apollo 'Ayvievs, the guardian of the
streets and highways.
With respect to the form of these works, the
pointed beard {acprivoTruiyctiv) belonged to the
ancient type. A mantle (IhAtiov) was fre-
quently hung over the shoulders. Originally
the legs and arms were altogether wanting
(olkooKol), and, in place of the arms, there
were often projections to hang garlands
upon ; later, the whole torso was placed
upon a quadrangular pedestal, tapering down-
wards, generally of stone or marble. (See
Aa£Sa\a.) The phallus formed an essential
part of the symbol, probably because the
divinity represented by it was, in the earliest
times, before the worship of Dionysus was im-
ported from the East, the personification of the
reproductive powers of nature (Hdt. ii. 51).
EPMAIA
In the historical times of Ctreece, it was at
Atliens that the Hennae were most numerous
and most venerated. So great was the demand
for tliese works that the words ip^oy\v<pos,
ipfxoy\v<piiai ts'x'''?' ^^'^ kpixoyKv<piiov were
used as equivalent to d7aA/xaTt»7Au(^os etc. (Plat. .
Si/i>ip. p. 215).
Houses ill Athens had usually a Hermes
placed at the door, called 'Ep/nTjs arTpo(pa7oi or '
(TTpocpevs (Time. vi. 27), or in the court-yard,
which was worsliii)ped by the women as con-
ducive to fecundity. The great reverence at-
tached to the Hernuie is shown by the alarm and
indignation felt at Athens in consequence of
the mutilation of the whole number in a single
night, just before the sailing of the Sicilian
expedition. (Thiic. vi. 27; tirote, Hist, of
Greece, eh. Iviii. : cf. kpfioKOTvi^ai, Ar. Lijs. 1094.)
They were likewise placed in front of city
gates ('E. irpoirvXaios), temples, and tombs, in
the gymnasia and other public places, at the
corners of streets, on high roads as sign-
posts, with distances inscribed upon them, and
at the boundaries of lands and states. Small
Hermae were also used as pilasters, and also as
supports for furniture and utensils. (See also
Circus.)
Many statues existed of other deities, such
as Poseidon, Zeus, Aphrodite, of the same
fonn as the Hermae, and called by the same
name.
Some statues of this kind are described by a
compounded name, as Hermaiuibis, Herm-
atliena (Cic. Att. i. 1 and 4), Heriiicracles,
itc. These were probably temis with heads,
not of Hermes, but of other deities. Teniiinal
Janus-heads, however, have been found: e.g.oi
Hermes and Athena.
Hermae of all kinds were in great request
lunong the wealthy Romans, for the decoration
of their houses and villas (Cic. Aft. i. H).
"EpM^o-tO'. Festivals of Hermes, celebrated
in various parts of Greece, e.g. Crete, Pellene,
Tanagra. The boys at Athens celebrated the
Hermaea in the gymnasia.
'Hpvov. The shrine of a hero, most fre-
quently erected over his tomb, which thus
became a place of pilgrimage. The altar was
lower than that of a god, and the sacrifices and
libations offered upon it were such as were
offered to the dead. [Funus.]
The T)p(^ov was generally an open shrine with
o);/c/^' and a i^ediment.
Heros (ifipws). In Homer, a chieftain or
warrior. According to Hesiod, Vipuei were of
divine origin, and such an origin was fabled of
all the famous heroes of legend. The worship
of heroes, national, family, or local, was uni-
versal in Greece in historical times. They had
their proper sacrifices, priests, and shrines
ivpcfia), which were originally at their tombs.
Besides the ancient legendary heroes, mortals
were also admitted to heroic honours, e.g.
Leonidas, Harmodius and Aristogeiton, and
frequently the founders of colonies, e.g. Brasidas
at Amphipolis ; and later, kings.
' EtTTiaCTig was a species of litnrgj% and con-
sisted in giving a feast to one of the tribes at
Athens (tt/j/ 0v\y]u tariav, Deni. r. Mid. p.
r)C5, § 15C). It was provided for each tribe at
the expense of a person belonging to that tribe,
who was called eo-Tiarotp (Deni. r. Lrpt. jv 4()3,
§ 21). The fffTidropfs were doubtless ap-
pointed according to the amount of tlieir pro-
perty in some regular succession ; fortunes
under three talents seem to have been excused
this and other liturgies. These banquets of
ETAIPAI
845
tlie tribes, called <f>v\fTiKa Sf'iirva, were intro-
duced for sacred purposes, aiul forkee])ing up a
friendly intercourse between persons of the
same tribe. They are mentioned as given at
the gi-eat festivals of the Dionysia and Pan-
atiienaea, as well as at the Thesinophoria, when
married men entertained tlie women on behalf
of llioir wives.
'Eralpai. 1. Greek. The word traipo signi-
fies originally a female companion, but in its
most connnf)n use denotes any woman who lived
with- a man in any other connexion tlian law-
ful wedlock. It included every sluide of mean-
ing from a concubine, who might be a wife in
all but the legal qualification of citizenship (cf.
Concubinai, to the lowest prostitute. The
latter was projierlj- called iropirr], a more
opprobrious term; but usually by the euphe-
mistic name iraipa. Between different classes
of iraipai we find much tlie same distinctions
as in modern times, modilied of course by the
prevalence of slavery ; the New Comedy, with
its Latin adapters Plautus and Terence, exhi-
bits slave girls owned by iropvo^offKoi, lenonex ;
mistresses, whether bond or free ; private
hetaerae living in houses by themselves, or
sometimes two or three together ; the (ralpai
TToAuTeAeiSor /xeya\6iJ.t(T0oi, represented by the
historic courtesans, Phrj-ne, Lais, iS;c. ; and
finally the assertors of women's rights to edu-
cation and culture, whose lives were compara-
tively without reproach, and of whom Aspasit
is the tyiie.
The fact that unmarried and even married
men at Athens spent a great part of their time
I in the company of hetaerae was leniently
viewed. Such connexions after marriage were
' not disapproved, provided a man did not offend
against public decency, or altogether neglect
his legitimate wife and the affairs of his house-
hold, as was the case with Alkibiades (Andoc.
c. .Urib. S 14).
Tlie state not only tolerated the hetaerae,
I but protected them, and obtained profit from
I them. All hetaerae had to pay to the state a
' licence-duty {icopviKhv rf\os), which was every
year let by the senate to TfKwvai or wopvo-
TfAuivat. The hetaerae were under the super-
intendence of the ayopavofnoi. Their places
of abode were chiefly in the Kerameikos.
[ The number of private hetaerae, or such as
' did not live in a iropfelov, was very great at
I Athens. They were generally flute players or
cithara players and dancers, and were f recj uently
ejigaged at family sacrifices and symposia.
Some of these hetaerae took care to acipiirc!
accomplishments, and also paid considerable
attention to tiio cultivation of their minds.
Instances are Lasthcneia, Leontion, &c.
The town most notorious in Greece for its
hetaerae was Corinth (Plat. luj). iii. j). 404 I) ;
Ar. Pint. 149). Those attached to the temi)le
of Aphrodite in this town were called l(p6-
' Sov\oi.
Those TrSpvai who were kept at Athens in
public TTopvela were generally slaves belong-
ing to the TTopvofioffKoi. The owners of these
; vipvai (who were very seldom Athenian citi-
zens) were held in gi'eat contempt. All such
women, whether kept in public or private
houses, were either slaves or at least looked
I upon and treatt'd as such. Those hetaerae, on
the other hand, who lived alone, were almost
invariably strangers or aliens, or freed-women ;
not daughters of Athenian citizens,
2. RoM.vN. — {Merrtrires, scorta, ite.) The
state of morals and sentiment on this subject.
346
ETAIPEIA
was much the same as in Greece. A class
of women, Uhertitiae, are often mentioned
as following the profession of meretrix. Be-
sides these and women of less degi-aded type,
there were the common prostihula, who were
generally slaves, maintained by leu ones for
profit in hipanaria. The rooms in the lupa-
naria were called celiac. The worst regions of
the city were the Subura and the Circus
Maximus.
Meretrices were under the control of the
aediles, and paid a tax to the government.
They wore, not a stola, but a sliorter dress
{tunica) than matrons, and over it a toga of
dark colour [pulla). Not many free women
were meretrices.
'EraipeLa (Iratpia) was a general term for all
kinds of clubs or societies in Greek towns (for
dining-clubs or benefit societies see"" Epavos).
Such were trading companies (vavK\r}poi kou
f/xwopot), mining companies (oi Koivtavovvr^s
/j.eTO.WoVj'Dem. c.Pant.j}. 977, §38), companies
for privateering {oi eVl Aei'aj/ olx^fJievoi), farm-
ing the taxes [TeXwvris] (Andoc. dc Mijst.
§ 133) : the president WA^a.px<^vr]s), Arc. These
associations were also called avvo^oi, and were
more or less recognised by the state, and trials
arising out of them were conducted by the
Thesmothetae. In a special sense kraipetai
meant political clubs. These were not, like the
preceding societies, recognised and authorised
by the state, but were at best only tolerated.
Political clubs played an important part in Athe-
nian politics. One of them was instituted by
Kimon. Themistokles owed much of liis power
to a kraipeia (Plut. Alcib. 2) ; Thukydides,
the son of Melesias, united the aristocrats into
■an association in opposition to Perikles, unoil
lie was ostracised and the eraipda in conse-
<iuence broken up (Plut. Fcricl. 11, 14).
After the death of Perikles these clubs became
■established associations for the management
of trials and elections (Thuc. viii. 54, cf. iii.
.S2-85; Plat. Theact. p. 173 d), which were
tainted with false testimony and corruption
(Dem. c. Mid. p. 560, § 131), c. Pantaen. p.
978, § 39). They were secretly conducted (Plat.
Bep. ii. p. 365 d), and used against the
democracy {lirl KaraXvaei rov 5r)/xov), and
on that account forbidden. The mutilation of
the Hermae was proposed at a convivial meet-
ing of the club to which
Andokides belonged (An-
doc. de Mijst. %% 36,61;
Thuc. vi. 27, 61).
'ETaipTi(T€(i)s Ypo-4>^-
See Appendix, Gkeek
Law.
Hexa'phorum. [Lec-
tica.l
Hierodu'li (i6p(^5oi/A.oi)-
Persons of both sexes
who were devoted, like
slaves, to the worship of
the gods. They were of
Eastern origin, and are
most frequently met with,
sometimes in vast num-
bers, in connexion with
the worship of tlie deities
of Syria, Phoenicia, and
Asia Minor. The Greek
temples had slaves to per-
form the lowest services ;
but we also find men-
tion in some Greek temples of free persons of
both sexes who had dedicated themselves
Mg. 616.— 'Ifpo'SowAos.
(Baumeister.^
HIPPODPiOMUS
voluntarily to the services of some god, and to
whom the term of 'i€p6Sov\oi was generally
applied. We find, again, predial slaves attached
to temples, and cultivating their sacred domains
(re/iej/Tj) on condition of contributing to the
temple a fixed share of the produce. Such
were the Kraugallidae in the plain below Delphi,
the Venerei of Mount Eryx, who included freed-
men as well as slaves (Cic. Verr. ii. 8, § 21 sqq.i,
and the Martiales at Larinura in Southern
Italy (Cic. Cluent. 15, § 44). Slaves were some-
times freed by being presented to some temple
as tepoSouAot under the form of a gift or sale.
'Upoixavxeia. [Divinatio.J
'UpoM-Tivia (ra tepo/uV'i, Thuc. v. 54). The
' holy season ' of the great festivals, Dionysia,
Eleusinia, &c., during which aU hostilities be-
tween different states were suspended (Thuc. v.
54, 2), and nothing was lawful except what had
reference to the feast. (See Dem. c. Mid. p. 571,
§ 176 ; Plat. Crito, 43 ; Ar. Nub. 620.) The law
forbade yUTJr' ISia, /j-rire Koiv^ fj.riSey a.\\ri\ovs
j aSiKuv jJ.r)Se xRV/J-O'T'iC^iv o ti av fx}) Trept tTjS
I eopTTjs t). The leponTjvia extended both before
■ and after the great festivals, and special heralds
I {<TirovSo(p6poi) visited the different states of
Greece and proclaimed the (TirovSai. The
' (TTTOvSai of the Greater Mysteries lasted fifty-
five days, thus enabling those at a distance to
travel to Athens and back in safety. Instances,
1 however, are not wanting of the non-observance
' of this international law (cf. Xen. Hell. iv. 7 ;
' Aeschin. F. L. § 12 ; Plut. Arat. 28).
'l€poM.vfin,ov£s- 1. [Amphiktyones.] 2. Offi-
cers in Athens and other Grecian states, mostly
, bearing no trace of a sacred character, but
acting as custodians of state papers and judicial
1 records, and discharging other secular duties.
I 'lepo<})d.vTT)s- r E^euaLvta.]
I 'lepo-iroioi. Commissioners of sacrifices at
Athens, not priests, but classed with rafxiai,
yao(pv\aKes, ^owvai, and iirifi(\y)Ta.i, as con-
nected with the arrangements for public sacri-
fices. [Botovat : AfpnaxtKov.] TYieUpoiroiol
kot' iviavrov were a body of ten, appointed an-
nually by lot for the state sacrifices in general.
They provided the victims with the money voted
them for the purpose, and afterwards accounted
for their hides ; the actual slaying was probably
done by inferior priests, but the Upo-Koioi had
to begin the sacrificial ceremonies {Karap^aafai
I rwv Upaiv, Dem. c. Mid. p. 552, § 115).
] 'lepoavXtas vpa-*'^- See Appendix, Gkeek
I Law.
I 'lixdrtov. [Dress.]
I "l-n-n-apxog. [ExercitUS.]
j 'iinreis. [Equites.]
'Ittttikov {sc. (TToiSioy). A Greek measure of
[ distance, equal to four stadia. (Tables, III.)
j Hippo'dromus (iVTroSpouos). A race-course
both for horses and cliariots. The funeral
games in honour of Patroklus give us the
i earliest example of the chariot-race (II. xxiii.
262-650). There is no made race-course : the
race takes place on the plain, and an exist-
ing land-mark ((Ttj/uo) is chosen as the goal
{rep/xa), round which the chariots had to pass,
leaving it on the left hand, and so returning
! to the point from which they had started. The
chariots were five in number, each with two
horses and a single driver, who stood upright
' in his chariot.
I In a race of this nature, success would de-
! pend on the courage and dexterity of the driver,
as well as on the speed of the horses ; and the
dangers of the race, and the skill to be used in
' avoiding them, are weU set forth. The whole
mPPODROMUS
S47
passage ahould be carefully studied and com-
pared with the cliariot race described in Soph.
FA. 680-7Ga.
Later poets, such as Pindar and the trage-
dians, transfer to the heroic age the customs of
tlieir own time. The chief points of difference
somewhat longer than the left, B, for tlie
following reason. The starting-jjlace (ai^ecrisl
was in the form of the prow ((p.^oKov) of a shij),
with its apex, c, towards the area. Along both
of these sides were the stalls {oiKi]fi.aTa) for tlie
chariots about to start, which were so arranged
Fig. 017.— Chariot-race. (From a vase-palntlng.)
were the following : (1) the race took place, not
in the open, but in a closed course, and con-
sisted of several laps or double lengths (5/ai»Aos)
of the wliole course instead of only one ; (2) tin;
number of chariots was greater, and required
some arrangement by wliich the chariots might
start without confusion and on equal terms.
The following is the ground-plan of the
Hippodrome at Olympia (now entirely destroyed
that the pole of each chariot, while in its stall,
was directed to a normal point E, at which, as
nearly as possible, each chariot ought to fall
into its proper course. Tlie front of eacli stall
liad a cord {Ka\<Lbiov, ucrirMjl) drawn across it.
On the signal being given for the race to begin,
the cords in front of the two extreme stalls,
7i, 7i, were let fall simultaneously, and the two
1 chariots started ; then those of the next pair ;
Fig. 618.— Ground-plan of Hippodrome at Olympia (restored by Hirt.)
"by the action of the river Alpheius), as restored
by Hirt from the description of Pausanias.
A, B, the sides; C, the rounded end of the
hippodrome, with raised seats for the spectators ;
a, ))lace for the magistrates and for musicians ;
b, side door ; c, seats for the Hellanodikae, the
judges of the games ; d, principal entrance ;
h fe, h g e, starting-place (&<pe(ns) ; e, its apex
{€fji$o\ov) ; h, i, &Q., up to I, stations (olKfiixaTa.)
of the chariots converging towards the point E ;
and so on; and when all the chariots formed
an even line abreast of the apex of the a.(f>eais
e, it was a fair start.
About the centre of the triangular area of the
aphesis an altai', /(, of stuccoed brick was set
[ up, surmounted by a bronze eagle with out-
I stretched wings ; and above the apex of the
aphesis was a bronze dolphin, m. As the signal
I for the race to begin, the eagle was made to
I soar aloft, and the dolphin fell to the ground.
Fig. 019.— Eaco of single horses. (From a viibc.)
P, G, the goals (vvaaai, Kaixirrripes) or turning- The chariots, thus started, had to pass several
posts; H, a bank of earth (xa>Ma) dividing the times round two goals (vvcraai). One of these
course ; q, the winning line ; m, dolphin used j had upon it a bronze statue of Hippodameia,
as a signal ; n, altar, with eagle for signal ; probably the one abreast of the wiiniing line,
O, o, o, (TTod of Agnaptus. | F ; the otlier, G, round which tlie cliariots
It will be noted that the right side, A, is made tlieir first turn, was the round altar, dedi-
848
HIPPODEOMUS
cated to Taraxippus, probably a name of Posei- 1
dou "lirirtos (see Eur. Hipi). 1201), at which
the charioteers, before the race began, offered
sacrifices and made vows.
Tlie same arrangements were made for the
start in tiie race of single horses (KeA.rjTes) ;
and in both cases, as in the race described by
Homer, the stalls were assigned to the com-
petitors by lot. How many chariots usually
started cannot be determined ; but that the
number was large is jiroved by the fact that
Alkibiades alone sent seven chariots to one race.
Sophokles [Elect. I.e.) mentions ten chariots as
running at once in the Pythian games ; and the
number at Olympia was no doubt greater than
at any of the other games.
Respecting the dimensiojis of the Olympian
Hippodrome, we have no precise information ;
but from the length of the measure called
'iTTirLKOV, and on other grounds, it seems
jirobable that the distance from the starting-
place to the goal, or perhaps from one goal to
the other, was two stadia, so that one double
course [biavKos) was four stadia. How manj' such
double courses made up the whole race we are
not informed. The width must have been some-
what greater than the length of each side of the
aphesis — namely, more than 400 feet. The
whole length may have been about 1600 feet.
The chief points of difference between the
Greek hippodrome and the Roman CircilS are
the smaller width of the latter, as only four
chariots ran at once, and the different arrange-
ment of the carceres. The periods at which
the Olympic horse-races were instituted are
mentioned under Olympia.
Among the Romans the term hipjjoilroinns
was also applied to an enclosed space for
riding and (h-iving in, attached to a, garden
or villa, and planted with trees (Mart. xii. 50, 5).
Hi'strio \uTzoKpLT-i\s). 1. Greek. An actor,
from inroKpivf(T6ai, i.e. the quick exchange of
dialogue between the actor and tlie chorus,
viroKfyiyecrOai implying a more ready and instan-
taneous reply than aTroKpiVecrflat.
It is shown in the articles Chorus and
Dionysia that the Greek di'ama originated in
the chorus danced around the altar of Dionysus,
and that at first one person detached himself
fi'om the chorus and related his story, with
mimetic gestures, either to the chorus or in con-
versation with it. Thespis first employed an
actor distinct froni the chorus. Aeschylus added
a second actor (Arist. Poet. 4, § 16), Sophokles
a third : there is also a third actor in the Aga-
memnon, Clioephoroe, and Eumenidcs of
Aeschylus. The number of three actors was
scarcely ever exceeded in any Greek drama,
at least in tragedy. In comedy a somewhat
greater licence was taken.
Some real or ajiparent exceptions to this rule
may be explained by the circumstances of the
piece. For instance, the Prometheus is apiece
for two actors, yet in the opening scene there
are four persons upon the stage — Prometheus,
Hephaestus, and the allegorical Kparos and
Bi'a. But Bia does not speak ; nor does Prome-
theus, till Kparos has ceased speaking.
The three regular actors were distinguished
by the technical names of TrpoiTaywviffTris,
Sevrepay<iiVLaTr)s, and rpiTayaivKTrrjs (Dem. de
Cor. p. 315, g§ 265, 267), indicating the more or
less prominent part each had to play in the
drama. The protagonist regularly made his
entrance from a door in the centre, the deuter-
agonist from one on the right-hand side, and
the tritagonist from one on the left. The
HISTEIO
protagonist naturally undertook the character in
which the interest of the piece was intended
to centre. The second and third actors divided
the other characters between them.
The title-role is not always the principal part
(e.g. in the Trachiniae of Sophokles).
The number of ' supers ' was unlimited : tliey
were usually silent [iccixpa irpdaanra), but some-
times spoke a few words. Persons of rank
i and dignity always came upon the stage suit-
ably attended, as in the Homeric poems : the
j body-guards {Sopvcpopoi.} of royal personages
I were a conspicuous feature.
1 The acting of female characters by men was-
I greatly assisted by the use of masks. In early
I days the dramatic poets themselves acted.
Aeschylus was usually protagonist in his own
[ plays. He also trained his choruses to dance
i without the aid of aprofessional opXflCToSiSdffKa-
! \os. Sophokles appeared only twice on the
stage ; he then gave up acting, on account of the
weakness of his voice. After his time it became
' exceptional for the poet to be also an actor.
I Among a long list of famous actors during the
I great period of the Athenian drama, the mo.st
, conspicuous names are those of Polus and Ari-
stodemus, the latter a political character a--
well, having twice been sent on embassies to
Philip (Dem. F. L. p. 343, § 12). Both of these
received enormous salaries : sometimes as much
as a talent for two days' or even one day's per-
formance.
No social stigma attached to the actor's calling.
Distinguished Athenian citizens appeared on
the stage, and the rule of a TpnaywviaTriS did
not detract from Aeschines' position as a soldier
and orator. Bad actors were not spared ; dis-
I^leasure was shown by whistling or hissing
{(Tvpimiv, 0opv$e7v) (Dem. clc Cor. 315, § 265,
c. Mid. 586, § 226), throwing of fruit or nuts
and sometimes even of stones. The practice
of encoring ( ' aidis ' ) is inferred from Xeu.
Symj}. 9, § 4.
At a later time, we find troops of actors, stroll-
ing or stationarj% formed into regular companies
or guilds {(TvvoSoi), with common officers, jiro-
perty, and sacra. Such companies existed at
Athens, Thebes, Argos, in Cyprus, &c. But these
actors are generally spoken of in very contemp-
tuous terms ; thej' were perhaps in some cases
slaves or frecdmen, and their pay was low.
[Tragoedia ; Comoedia ; Chorus.]
2. Roman. — The word histrio is said to have
been formed from the Etruscan ister or hister,
which signified a ludio or dancer (Liv. vii. 2).
The origin of scenic representations at Rome
has been related under Comoedia. The name
histrio thencefonvard only meant an actor.
Only the Atellanae [Comoedia] and Exodia were
played bj' freeborn Romans, while the regular
drama was left to the histriones, who formed a
distinct class of persons.
In the tunes of Plautus and Terence we find
the actors gathered into a company igrex,
caterva), under the control of a manager {do-
minus gregis or actor). It was through the
actor that a magistrate who was giving games-
engaged the services of a dramatic company.
The pay {tncrces : see Lucar) was on as varied a
scale as in modern times : in the first century
of the Empire an ordinary actor seems to have
received five denarii and his keep ; while in the
time of Cicero ' stars ' like Roscius and Aesopus
made ample fortunes. Cicero tells us that
Roscius could have honourably made 6,000,000
sesterces (HS. sexagies, about £50,000) in ten-
years, had he chosen to do so (Rose. Com.
J
OAonoioi
8, § 23) ; while Aesopus left a fortune of 1
20,000,000 sesterces (HS. ducentias, or upwards
of i.'lU5,000), acfjuired solely by his profession
(Hor. Sai. ii. 3, 23i»).
It is clear from Livy (vii. 2) that the his-
triones were not citizens. They were usually
either freedmen, foreigners, or slaves ; the
hitter specially educated for the stage to tlieir
master's profit. Even if iiujetiui, they were
logiilly i It/antes (Cic. licj). iv./r. 10 ajj. Aug.
Ji: Civ. Dei, ii. 13), and socially in low estima-
tion (Cic. Arch. 5; Suet. Tib. 35). Aesopus
seems to have been a freedman of the Clauduin
gens, but Roscius, the amor et dcliciac oi
Cicero, was certainly ingenuus, and probably of
good birth (Cic. l)iv. i. 30) ; bulla gave him
the gold ring of equestrian rank. When Caesar
forced Laberius, an eques advanced in years, to
appear on the stage in his own mimes, he was
thought to have exceeded the powers even of a
dictator, and his victim took a dignified
revenge (Macrob. Sat. ii. 7, § 3 sqq. ; see Class.
Diet. L.\BERius). Under the emperors men
of equestrian rank often appeared, with or
without compulsion (Suet. Aiitj. 43, Tib. 35,
Nero, i, 11; Tac. ^-l^/Kxiv. 14, Hist, ii.60); and
tliis circumstance, together with the increasing
influence of Greek manners, tended to improve
the social position of actors. Their legal
status remained the same ; but the old law
was now somewhat modified, by which the
magistrates might coerce the histriones at any
time and in any place, and the praetor had the
right to scourge them (ius virgaruin in his-
triones) (Tac. Ann. i. 77 ; Suet. Aug. 45). Au-
gustus, however, inflicted, of his own authority,
severe punishments upon those actors who,
either in their private life or in their conduct
on the stage, committed any impropriety (Suet.
Aug. 45 ; see Tac. Anti. iv. 14, xiii. 28).
At an early date (probably about 150-100 B.C.),
we find partisanship {ambitio) in full operation
(Plant. I'oen. prol. 37 sqq.). At first palms and
inexpensive crowns of gold or silver tinsel
were the reward of popularity (Varro, L. L. v.
178; Phaedr. Fab. v. 7, 34; Plin. xxi. S O ",
afterwards, under the Empire, presents of
money and rich garments (Juv. vii. 243 ; Suet.
Claud. 21). There was a regular organised
and paid claque (the thcatrales ojwrae of
Tac. vl?i?i. i. 10: cf. Mart. iv. 5, 8), and over
and above that, the backers (fautores) re-
sorted to actual violence and even bloodshed.
Hence Tiberius on one occasion expelled all
iiistriones from Italy (Tac. Ann. iv. 14). The
emperors as a rule tolerated the excesses of
tlie stage. We read of the emperor's private
companies {histriones atilici), who performed
during dinner time CAuet- Aug. 74), and were
sometimes allowed to play in tlie theatres
before the people {j)ublicabantur).
'08o-iroLoi. Public ofhct^rs at Athens, who
had to take care of the roads (oi 65oiv iirifxiKt]-
rai, Aeschin. c. Ctes. § 25).
"Ojioiot, the ' Equals,' were those Spartans
who possessed the fnll rights of citizenship,
and are opposed to the viroixe'ioves or citizens
whose position was in some degree subordinate
(Xen. Hep. Lac. 10, § 7). This distinction
seems to have rested not so much upon law
as upon custom. As far as legal right was
concerned, all Spartiatae were equal, forming a
ruling and privileged nobility. But within this
ennobled demos of ofj.0101 again tliere was a dis-
tinction of rich and poor, the \i\.iU'r ( (mofifiovps)
being excluded from their full rights by incapa-
city to pay th« requisite contributions (Grote,
HORA
34;)
cli. vi. ; Arist. I'ol. ii. 0, 211. The requisites
for full Spartan citizenship, which did not begin
before the age of thirty, were (1) ascertamed
Spartiate birth, (2) education on the Spartan
system, and a life in conformity with it, (3) pay-
ment of subscriptions to the avaa'iTia. Who-
ever failed in any one of these particulars was
excluded from the o/xoioi. In the institutions
ascribed to Lykurgus, every citizen had a
certain portion of land : the impoverishment
of many through the loss of their lands caused
trouble in later times (Arist. Pol. ii. 0, 21).
The ofxaioi were probably represented in tlie
select bodies called tKKKr]TOt and uiKpa (KK\r](rla
i"Ekk\t)toij ; the vrrofjidoi'is had no doubt a
place in the jiopular assembly laKia or aTtiWa).
(See Grote, eh. vi.) [ rtpovaia..]
Honora'rium. ,^Advocatus ; Lex Cincia.]
Hono'res. The word honoren, in its more strict
and technical use, is applied to the ordinary
administrative magistracies, whether of the
Populus Eomanus, of the Plebs, or of a muni-
cipium. It is in this sense ihat wo hear of the
ius Iwnorum as a part of the qualities of a full
citizen which might be withheld when other
rights were granted. (See Tac. Ann. xi. 23.)
(For the cursus honoruni see Leges annales.)
The distinction drawn between honorcH and
munera resembles that between ' ofiQce ' and
'duty.' Dignity also attached to //o«or<'.s. not
to munera. There is no clear instance of a
man being compelled to take or hold a Roman
magistracy against his will. The duties, on the
other hand, of a priest (Liv. xxvii. 8) and of a
iudex (Cic. Bab. I'ust. 7, 17) were certainly
imposed even against the will of the person ; and
it does not appear that the status of a senator
could be declined or laid down by any man who
had held a qualifying office (Tac. A)ui. i. 75).
The municipal magistracies under the Emj)ire
were not avoidable by the properly qualified
persons.
Among provincial munera under the Empire
we find such services as transport by land and
water ; labour requisitioned for the repair of
the walls or streets of a town ; the duty of
registering the assessments ; and the superin-
tendence of the provision of corn, of water, and
of horses for the public games. The duty of
sitting in the local senate was probably among
the munera personalia of municipals and
provincials.
'OirXiTat. [Arms and Armour; Exer-
citus.l
Hoplo'machi. [Gladiatores.]
Hora (uipa), in the signification of hotn- — that
is, the 24th part of the natural day — did not
come into general use among the ancients until
about the middle of the second century n.c.
The equinoctial hours, though known to astro-
nomers, were not used in the affairs of common
life till towards the end of the fourth century
of the Christian era. The division of the day
was marked roughly by the jiosition of the sun.
As the division of the natural day into twelve
equal parts, both in summer and winter, ren-
dered the duration of the hours longer or
shorter according to the dilTerent seasons of tlie
year, it is not easy, with accuracy, to compare or
reduce the hours of the ancients to our equi-
noctial hours. The hours of an ancient day
would only coincide with the hours of our
day at the two equinoxes. [Dies and Horo-
logium.]
The following table givea approximately the
length of the day in Italy at the four seasons
of the year;
850
Days of the year.
(45 B.C.)
Dec. 23 . .
March 23 .
June 25
Sept. 25 .
OPI2TAI
Their duration in equi-
noctial hours.
8 hrs. 45 minutes
• 12 „ „
• 15 „ 6 „
. 12 „ „
The following table contains a comparison of
the Roman hours with our own :
Summer Solstice.
Moman Hours. Modern Hours.
1st hour
=
4 A.M. 27' 0"
3rd „ . .
=
6 „ 58' 0"
6th „ . .
=
10 „ 44' 30
9th „ . .
=
2 P.M. 31' 0"
12th „ . .
=
6 „ 17' 30'
End of day .
=
7 „ 33' 0"
Winter
Solstice.
1st hour
=
7 A.M. 33' 0"
Srd „ . .
=
9 „ 2'0"
6th „ . .
=
11 „ 15' 30'
9th „ . .
=
1 P.M 29' 0"
12th „ . .
=;
3 „ 42' SO'
End of day .
=
4 „ 27' 0"
Tlie night was divided in the same way into
twelve equal hours, differing in length accord-
ingito the time of year (Plant. Pseud. lt'.07).
Sun-dials were introduced at Rome in the
third century B.C., and clepsydrae about the
middle of tlie second century [Horologium] ;
but the old unequal division of day and night
continued in common use, and until the fourth
century of the Christian era was recorded on
the Calendaria. [Dies.]
The expressions 2^ri)na, altera, fcrtia hora,
&c., moan the hour which is passing, and not
that which has already elapsed. Hence 6 to
7 A.M. is hora pnma (at the equinoxes); horn
nana cenare means to dine when the ninth
hour is beginning, i.e. about 2 p.m.
'OpiCTTai. Officials chosen to settle boun-
daries, mostly of sacred places. These opiirrai
were not magistrates of the denies, but a state
commission appointed ad hoc. They are found
in other cities also.
"Opoi. Stone tablets or pillars set up on the
boundaries of land, or on some conspicuous
part of a house, with
an inscription stating
that the land or house
was mortgaged to
such and such a per-
son for so much
money. Such opoi
might be :
(1) Of creditors on
the property of
debtors.
(2) Of the wife on
the property which
her husband was
obliged to give as
security for the dowry
which he received
with his wife [irpoiKhs
aTroTLfifffia) ; or on
account of money due
to a husband for the
dowry of a wife.
(3) On the property
(Daremberg of those persons to
whom tlae estate of
an orphan was let by thearchourEirtTpoiros].
(4) On property sold eVl \vaet, i.e. a sale
HOROLOGIUM
! with power of redemption within a fixed time
I (Dem. c. Pant. 967, § 5j.
' The following inscrij)tion will serve to show
the usual form of such notifications :
I 'Etti Qeo<ppda'Tov apxovTOS bpos x^piou ti/xTiS
ivo^iikofx.4vr]S ^avo(TTpa.TCf Tlaiavnl XX [/.«.
OitrxiAiaij/ hpaxft-'^v].
The practice of placing opoi upon property
was of great antiquity at Athens : it existed
before the time of Solon, who removed all
stones standing upon estates when he re-
leased or relieved the debtors (Plut. Sol. 15 ;
cf. Solon, Fr. 36 Bergk).
Horolo'gium (wpohoyiov). The name of the
various instruments by means of which the
ancients measured the time of the day and
night. The earliest and simplest horologia of
which mention is made, were called iroKos and
■yvdiixiiiv. Herodotus (ii. 109) correctly ascribes
their invention to the Babylonians. These
were sun-dials, and divided the day into twelve
equal parts. The yi/co/^wj/, also called aroix^i-ov
and orKtaBiipas, was the more simple of the two,
and probably the more ancient. It consisted
of an upright, the shadow of which was measured
by feet marked on the place where the shadow
I fell. The longest shadow of the gnomon, at sun-
j rise and sunset, was 12 feet. In later times the
I name ' gnomon ' was applied to any kind of sun-
I dial, and especially to its finger (index), which
i threw the shadow, and thus pointed to the hour.
! The ir6\os or rjKiorpoTnov, on the other hand,
seems to have been a more perfect kind of sun-
; dial, but not to have been much used. It con-
i sisted of a basin {\eKavis), in the middle of
I wliicli the perpendicular staff or finger {yvwfjiwv)
was erected, and in it the twelve parts of the
I day were marked by lines.
Fig. 620.— Opos or boimdary
Btone, Athens ""
and Sagllo.)
Fig. G21.— Horologium (irdAo!).
Another kind of horologium was the water-
clock (K\e\f/vSpa, clepsydra) : originally used only
for the purpose of measuring the time during
which persons were allowed to speak in the
courts of justice at Athens, but in the age
of Aristophanes (see Ach. 692, Vesp. 93 and
857) in common use. The orators frequently
use the tCTin i;5aip instead of the time allowed
to them (eV tcjj eficji vSari, Dem. de Cor. p. 274,
§ 139, &c.). An especial officer (o e<p' S^wp)
was appointed in the courts for the purpose of
watching the clepsydra, and stopping it when
any documents were read, whereby the speaker
was interrupted (au Se eiriKafie rh vScop) (Dem.
c. Steph. i. p. 1103, § 8). The time varied, ac-
cording to the importance of the case, from
ele\-en amphorae to one. In a ypa<pri irapairpeff-
&eias the water allowed to eacli party amounted
to eleven ampliorae (Aeschin. F. L. § 126),
whereas in trials concerning the right of in-
heritance only one amphora was allowed (Dem.
c. Macart. p. 1052, § 8). Those actions in
HOROLOGIUM
which the time was thus measured to the
speakers are called SiKai Trpos vSup : others are
termed St'/coi dvev vSaroi, in which the speakers
were not limited.
Smaller clepsydrae, made of glass, were used
in fiimilies for measuring time. As the length
of the hour vai-ied according to the season of
tiie j'ear, the inaccuracj' had to be met by
mechanical arrangements, of which no clear
account can be given. Plato is said to have
used a vvKrepivhv u)po\6yiov in the shape of a
large clepsydra, which indicated the liours of
the night as well as of the day. Ktesibius of
Alexandria (about 135 B.C.) invented the wpo-
\6yiov vdpavXiicdv, wliich is described by Vitru-
HORTUS
351
Fig. Cii. — Horological monument ot Audronlkus
Eyrrbestes at Athens.
Fig. 023.— Ground-plan of the above,
rt a, channels for water ; b, clepsydra.
vius (ix. 9) ; the principle of which was that of
a wheel turned by a constant flow of water,
and a registering index (Vitr. ix. 9).
The structure still standing at Athens, for-
merly called the Tower of the Winds, but
now kno\\ai as the Horological Monuvwnt of
Andronikus Kyrrhestes, was a horologiuni, and
contained a clepsydra, a series of dials, and a
weathercock.
The first horologiuni with which the Romans
became acquainted was a sun-dial {s<dariuvi, or
korologimn sciotlicriciim), brought to Rome by
L. Papirius Cursor, 293 B.C., and placed before
tlie temple of Quiriims. The Censor Q. Marcius
Philippus erected, 159 B.C., by the side of the
old solarium a new one, which was more care-
fully i-egulated according to the latitude of
Rome. To mark the time in cloudy weather,
P. Scipio, in 159 B.C., established a public cleps-
ydra, which indicated the hours both of day
and night. This clepsydra was in after-times
generally called nolarium. A gnomon in the
shape of an obelisk was erected by Augustus in
the Campus Martins : and other solaria were
set up on the fronts of temples and basilicas.
Horologia of various descriptions were com-
monly kept by private individuals (Cic. Fam.
xvi. 18, 3) ; and wealthy Romans used to keep
watchmen to announce the hours of the day to
their masters (Juv. x. 210 ; Mart. viii. 07).
Clepsydrae were used by the Romans in
their camps, to measure the four vigiliae into
which the night was divided (Caes. Ji. (1. v. 13!.
The custom of using clepsj-drae as a check
upon the speakers in the courts of justice pre-
vailed at Rome also. Cicero (Veri: i. 9, 25)
speaks of his legitimac horae (cf. Bah. j^trd.
2, 0, Flacc. 33, 82). The clepsydra seems to
liave run for half an hour. (Compare Plin.
E^). ii. 11, vi. 2; Mart. vi. 85, viii. 7.) [Hora;
Dies.]
Horo'scopus. [Astrologia.]
Ho'rreum {aipilov : also (riTo<t>v\aKe7oi>, airo-
dr,Kri). A fruit chamber or granary (Ver"'.
Gcorg. i. 49 ; Tibull. ii. 5, 8-1 ; Hor. Cann. 1.
1, 7). During the Empire the name horremn
was given to any warehouse or store-room
{horrca suhtcrranea, vinaria), e.g. a cellar,
a depot for merchandise, and all sorts of pro-
visions (horreum j^cnarium). Hon-ea were
often built, like our owni, upon dwarf piers, and
were then called lioiTea j'ensilia or xiihUniia.
In imperial times Rome possessed three kinds
of liorrca : (1) public warehouses for deposit of
goods, and even money, securities, and other
valuables ; (2) private horrea built on specula-
tion in order to be let as strong rooms ; (.3)
public granaries, buildings in which a supply
of corn was constantly kept at the expense
of the state, for distribution or sale in seasons
of scarcity. These dated from C. Gracchus and
his Lex Scnipronia fnn/iciitaria. The ruins
of the hoiTca 2i02ndi liomani which h(> built
were to be seen down to the sixteenth century
between the Aventine and the Monte Testaccio.
(Plut. G. Gracch. 5 ; Cic. Scxt. 25, § 55.)
During the Empire we find a number of jiublic
horrcd, called after the names of their founilers :
e.g. Horrea Seiani, Augusti, Doniitiani, Arc.
Tlie number of these at length mounted up to
nearly 800. The officers who superintended
them were called Jinrrrarii or vilici ex horreis.
[Frumentariae leges.]
Hortus {kiittos), a garden. 1. Greek. — The
mythical garden of Alkinous (Horn. Od. vii.
112-130) is divided into a fruit garden, a vine-
yard, and a garden of herbs : there is no trace
of the cultivation of flowers.
Gardening was little practised among the
Greeks in historical times. The sacred gi-oves.
352
HORTUS
e.g. that of the Gryneian Apollo (Paus. i. 21),
contained ornamental plants and fruit trees,
particularly olives and vines (Soph. Oeil. Col.
16; Xen. Aiiab. v. 3, § 12).
Aristophanes speaks of Kriirovs evciSeis {Aves,
1066). At Athens the flowers most culti-
vated were probably those used for making
garlands, such as violets and roses. The rose-
garden in Demosthenes (poSaivid, c. Nicostr. p.
1251, § 16) was doubtless cultivated for profit,
not for the owner's pleasure. The suburbs of
Athens abounded with gardens, serving to
supply the city with flowers and vegetables
(Plin. xxxvi. § 16; Paus. i. 19, § 2). In Egypt,
in the time of the Ptolemies, a succession
of flowers was obtained all the year round.
Longus (Past. ii. 3) describes a garden contain-
ing, ' in spring, roses, lilies, hyacinths, and vio-
lets ; in summer, poppies, achrad'^s [axpo-^^^ '■
['?] wild pears), and other fruits ; in autumn,
vines and figs, and pomegranates and myrtles.'
The paradises (irapctSeicroi) of the Persian
satraps (Xen. Anab. i. 2, § 7, ii. 4, i^ 14) were
HOSPES
viii. 14 and 68, xiii. 127). They were used both
to preserve foreign xjlauts and to produce
flowers and fruit out of season. There were
also forcing-houses for grapes, melons, &c. In
every garden there was a s^Jace set apart for
vegetables Qiolera).
Flowers and plants were also kept in the
central space of the peristyle [Domus], on the
roofs, and in the windows of the houses. Some-
times the walls of a small town-garden were
painted in imitation of a real garden, with
trees, fountains, birds, &c., like a Spanish ^;«^/o,
and the small courtyard was ornamented with
flowers in vases.
The phrase liortus pensilis is used in two
senses : (1) Hanging gardens, i.e. terraces
rising one over another on arches, of which the
Isola Bella on the Lago Maggiore exhibits a
modern instance. (2) A moveable frame placed
on wheels, and employed in forcing by market-
gardeners (liolitores).
An ornamental garden was also called vivi-
darium, and the gardener tojjiariiis or cirida-
Fig. (i^l.— A Komau garden, ti rom a painting at Herculaneum.)
not gardens, but enclosed parks for the preser-
vation of game.
2. RoJiAN. We have two verj'' full descrip-
tions of Roman gardens in the letters of the
younger Pliny, referring to his Laurentine and
Tuscan villas (Plin. Ep. ii. 17, v. 6). In front
of the ^Jor</c«.s there was generally a xijstus, or
Hat piece of ground, divided into flower-beds of
different shapes by borders of box. Some-
times these beds were raised so as to form
terraces, and their sloping sides planted with
evergreens or creepers. The most striking
features of a Roman garden were lines of large
trees, among which the plane appears to have
been a favourite, planted in regular order ;
alleys or walks (anibulationcs) formed by
clipped hedges of evergreens ; beds of acan-
thus, rows of fruit-trees or vines, with statues,
pyramids, fountains, and summer-houses (diae-
tae). The gardens of the Roman nobles much
resembled those of modern Rome. It should
be noted that a pleasure-garden is generally
hortl, not hortus, which means a garden for
domestic use.
Attached to the garden were places for exer-
cise, gestationes and hippodronii. The ges-
tatio was a sort of avenue, shaded by trees, for
the purpose of taking gentle exercise. The
hipjiodromus was in the form of a circus, con-
sisting of several paths divided by hedges of
box, ornamented with topiarian work, and sur-
rounded by large trees (Plin. Ep. v. 6, § 32 ;
Mart. xii. 50, 5). [Hippodromus.]
The principal garden-flowers of the Romans
seem to have been violets and roses : they also
had the crocus, narcissus, lily, gladiolus, iris,
poppy, amaranth, aaid others.
Conservatories and hot-houses are not men-
tioned by any writer earlier than the first
century of our era. AVe then find them closed
with specidarla, i.e. windows of talc (lapis
specularis) (Plin. Ep. ii. 17, §§ 4, 21; Mart.
' rius. The common name for a gardener is
vilicus or cultor Jiortornm. We find also the
special ivdmesv i)iitor, holitor. ThewovAhortii-
laniis is unclassical. A slave called aqiiariiis
had charge of tlie fountains both in the garden
and in the house.
Hospes, Hospi'tium (feVoy, leria, npo^ei'La).
1. Greek. In ancient Greece the stranger,
as such (|eVos and hostis), was looked upon as
an enemy (Cic. Off. i. 12, § 37 ; Hdt. ix. 11) ;
but appearing among another tribe or nation
without any sign of hostile intentions, lie
was considered as a suppliant, and under the
])rotection of Zeus (Z. ^euLcs and iKfrricnos:
Hom. Od. xiv. 57, vii. 164 ; cf . Od. xvii. 484). On
his arrival tha host did not inquire who the
stranger was, or what had led him to his
house, until the duties of hospitality were
fulfilled (Od. i. 170, &c.). During his stay
his person was sacred, and the host's house
was a perfect asylum to him. On his de-
parture he was dismissed with presents and
good wishes (Od. iv. 37 sqq.). On the de-
parture of the stranger the host broke a die or
, tally (acTTpdya^os) in two, one half of which he
i himself retained, while the other half was given
to the stranger. Hospitality was transferred
' as an inheritance from father to son (Hdt. vi.
I 35 ; Thuc. ii. 13 ; Plat. Crito, p. 45 c). To
violate the laws of hospitality was a crime,
and -was punished by men as well as gods
'. (SiKai KaKo^evias ; Paus. vii. 25). But a more
j regular and frequent intercourse among the
I Greeks led to the establishment of inns
(Trai'SoK€7ov, Karayciyiov, KaraAvcris, KaTa.\vfJ.a).
[Caupona.] For such occasions as a riavri-
■yupiS the state or the temple provided for
the accommodation of the visitors either in
I booths or temporary inns erected about the
i temple (Pind. 01. xi. 51 and 55 ; Plat. Lcgg.
! xii. p. 952 E ; Thuc. iii. 68). In the houses of
I the wealthier Greeks a separate part (hospitiuin
HOSPES
853
or hospilaha and i^ivwvis) with a separate en-
trance was destined for the reception and
habitation of straiij^ers. On the first day after
their arrival tliey were generally invited to the
table of their host; but afterwards their pro-
visions ({fVio), consisting of fowls, eggs, and
fruit, were either sent to them, or they hod to
purchase them for themselves.
What has been said hitherto only refers to
hospititiin privatuin : tliiit is, the hospitality
existing between two individuals or families of
different states. Of far greater importance,
however, was the hospitium publicum (irpo-
i^ivia). There were two classes of irpu^tvoL :
1 1) citizens living in their own state and ai)-
puinted by another state to act as its rei)re-
sentatives ; and ('2) citizens appointed by their
own state to show hospitality to foreigners in
it>i name. The second class of iTp6^ivoi appear
t.i have been, not a regular magistracy, but
appointed on special occasions, at Sjjarta and
in other cities.
The ordinary irpS^eyoi have been compared to
our modern consuls. There is, however, this
difference, that the proxcni were not citizens of
I lie state sent out to reside in the foreign state,
luit weKe selected from amongst the citizens of
that foreign state to represent its interests.
Tlie hospitium jiJibUcum among the Greeks
arose presumably from the liospitium privatum,
of which it yet bore certain trac(;s: e.g. in the
public dinners given to the irpo^evoi in the irpv-
ravelov. The first proxenus of Athens recorded
is Alexander, king of Macedon, 6 ^iKtWi^v.
wliom Mardonius sent to Athens on a political
mission (Hdt. viii. 136). The oldest extant
decree conferrinf:^ proxeny dates from the middle
of tlie fifth tentury. The principal duties of a
proxenus were to receive those i)ersons, espe-
cially envoys, who came from the state which
tiiey represented {Dem. Cor.yi. '252, §82); to
procure for them admission to the assembly
and seats in the theatre, and in general to look
after the interests (commercial or jmlitical, as
the case might be) both of the state by whom
they were appointed, as if it were tlunr Sfvrtpa
irarpii (Plat. Legg. i. p. ti42 u), and of any
individual citizen of that state. A proxenus
would assist such persons in the law courts,
advance money to them and ransom them when
made prisoners of war (Thuc. iii. 70). Nikias,
as proxenus of Syracuse, did his best to
dissuade his countrymen from warring against
that city; the Athenians heard of th<! intended
treachery of the Mitylenaeans from Doxander,
their proxenus (Thuc. iii. 2, cf. ii. 2'J| ; and Alki-
biades reminded the Lacedaemonians that he
had done tliem many good oflices, especially
after their misfortune at Pylos (Thuc vi. 89;
Plut. Alcib. 14). Proxeni were usually sent on
embassies to the states by which tliey liad been
iippointed (Aeschin. c. Ctes. § 138 ; Time. v. 43 ;
I'lut. Alcib. 14, Cim. 18).
At .\thens, in very few instances only is
jiroxeny alone conferred : it is usually couiiled
with the title of eiifp^fTTys (cf. Hdt. viii. l;{();
Dem. c. Lept. p. 475, §60), and sometimes with
the honour of a golden crown (usually of the
value of 1000 drachmas) ; and at a later time
of an olive wri ath. Amongst the iirivileges
wliicl: were included in the proxeny was the
protection of Athens everywhere and as against
all persons whatsoever, for themselves and
their property, so that offences against the
proxenus were an offence against the Athenian
state. It would seem that some states guar-
anteed the safety of their proxenus even in case
of war with his native city, and Polybius (v.
95, 12) tells of a pro.xeuus being set free without
ransom ; but Nikias experienced no such
mercy at the hands of the SjTacusans, whom
he had served so faithfully (Thuc. iii. 52, 68J.
A second privilege wliicii the Athenians granted
to their proxeni was free access (TrpdcroSos) to
the 0ovK-lj and dKKKrjaia. Other privileges were
the right to accpiire jiroperty in Attica {fjKTr]-
(Tis), tcruTf\fia, and oiTfAfio; possibly also
citizenship, a connnon thing in some other
states.
In some cases, e.g. where the recipient of
proxenj- resided at Athens, the title was com-
plimentary and honoraiy, and diil not entail
the performance of duties. Such honorary
TTpo^tuia was granted to foreigners who showed
zeal in furthering the interests of Athens (to
(Tv^KpfpofTa Tif SrjfjiCf), and in return for such
services as bringing corn to Athens, selling it
cheap, making gifts of money, <tc. The title of
TTpd^fuos was often coupled with that of fv-
fpy4rt\s, and made hereditarj'.
Decrees granting irpo^evia were engraved on
(Tr7]\ai : it was a further distinction when a
<TrrjKr\ with the decree engraved was placed in
the Acropolis. A copy of the decree was sent
to the city of the new proxenus, and frequently
a second aTr,\7\ erected there. In some citieo
there were ofhcial lists of proxeni.
2. Roman. — Private hospitality (h. privatuin)
with the Komans seems to have been more ac-
curately and legaUy defined than in Greece. The
character of a hospes, i.e. a person connected
with a Koman by ties of hospitality, was held
even more sacred, and tliought to have greater
clairup upon the host, than that of a person
connected by blood or affinity. The obligations
which hospitium with a foreigner imposed upon
a Roman were to receive into his house his
hospes when travelling (Liv. xlii. 1), and to
protect and, in case of need, to represent him
as his patron in the courts of justice (Cic. Div.
in Care. 20, § 6(i)- I'rivate hospitium was es-
tablished between individuals by mutual pres-
ents, or by the mediation of a third person
(Serv. ad Aen. ix. 3(50), and hallowed by the
sanction of lupjiiter Hospitalis (Cic. Verr. iv. 22,
§48, Deiot. 6, § 18), and the violation of it was
as great a crime and impiety at Rome as in
Greece. When hospitium was formed, the
two friends used to divide between them a
tessera hospitalis (Plaut. Foen. v. 2, 87 sqq.), by
which they or their descendants might recog-
nise one another. (See cut under Tessera.i
This relation could not be dissolved except by
a formal act {roiuntiatiu, Liv. xxv. 18 ; Cic.
Verr. ii. 36, § 89), and in this case the tessera
horpitalis was broken (Plaut. Cistell. ii. 1, 27).
Public hospitality, also, seems to have existed
at a very early period among the nations of
Italy (foedus hospitii, Liv. i. 9). But the first
direct mention of public hospitality between
Rome and another city is the establishment of
public hospitalitv between Rome and Caere,
390 it.c. (Liv. v". 50). The Coerites thus ob-
tained the eivitas without suffragiuni and
honores fCivitas; Colonia'. In the later
times of the Republic we no longer find public
hosi)itality established between Rome and a
foreign state ; hut towns were raised to the rank
of luuuiripia (Liv. viii. 14), and the custom of
granting the honour of iivspcs publicu.i to a
distinguished foreigner by a decree of the
senate seems to have existed down to the end
of the Republic (Liv. i. 45, v. 28, xxxvii. 54).
The privileges of such a pnblic hospes included
A A
S54
HOSTIA
a claim to honourable reception, entertainment
at the public expense, admission to sacrifices
and games, a complimentary present on certain
occasions, and the rights of buying and selling
in his own name, and of bringing actions at law
without the inter\ention of a Roman patron.
Public hospitality was hereditary in the family
of the person to whom it had been granted.
The honour of public hospes was sometimes
also conferred upon a distinguished Roman by
a foreign state.
Ho'stia. [Sacrificium.]
'YaKiveia. A great national festival, cele-
brated every summer at Amyklae ))y the Amy-
klaeans and Spartans. The festival dated from
pre-Dorian tunes, but, like the Kapveia, had
been taken over by the Dorians ; and was held
in honour of the Amyklaean Apollo and of the
youthful hero Hyakinthus, whom he accident-
ally struck dead with a (juoit. This Hyakinthus
is a personification of the di-ying up of vegeta-
tion by the heat of summer : the (juoit {S'ictkos)
is the sun's disk. The Hyakinthia lasted for
three days. The ceremonies of the first and
third days were of a solemn character, with
sacrifices to the dead and laments over Hyakin-
thus. The second day was spent in public
rejoicings, with musical performances, horse-
races, singing of national songs, dances, a pro-
cession of maidens in wicker chariots (KavaOpa),
&c. Numerous sacrifices were also offered on
this day, and the citizens kept open house for
their friends and relations ; and the slaves were
allowed to enjoy themselves. Great importance
was attached to this festival by the Amyklaeans
and Lacedaemonians (cf. Paus. iii. 10, § 1, iv.
19, § 3 ; Thuc. V. 23 ; Xen. Hell. iv. .5, § 11).
"Y3pLS. "Y3pe"S ■ypa'4>Tl- See Appendix,
Greek Law.
Hydra'letes (vSpaAfTTis). [Mola.]
Hydrau'Ius (v5pav\os). A water-organ ; said
to have been invented by Ktesibius of Alexandria
[Ctesibica machina] about 250 b.c. (Plin. vii.
38, § 125). He evidently took the idea of his
organ from the Syrinx or Pandean pipes, a
musical instrument of the highest antiquity
among the Greeks. He contrived the means of
adapting keys with levers (dy/coji'io'/coi), and
with perforated sliders {ira>ij.ara), to open and
shut the mouths of the pipes (yAaxraoKoixa), a
supply of wind being obtained, without inter-
mission, by bellows worked by the pressure of
water (Vitr. x. 18 ; Claud, de Cons. Mall. Theod.
316). Its pipes were partly of bronze and
partly of reed {dSvaxes, seges aena, Claud. I.e.).
HYPOCAUSTUM
The organ was used in the Circus in the
splendid entertaiiunents provided for the people
by the emperors and other opulent persons.
(See fig. 626, showing the hijdraules or
organist.) Nero was very curious about organs,
both in regard to their musical efiect and their
Fig. G2S.— Organ, £rom a contorniate of Nero. (British
Museum.)
The number of stops, and consequently of rows
of pipes, varied from one to eight.
Fig. 626.— Hydraulus. (From Baumeister.)
mechanism (Suet. Nero, 41, 54). Fig. 625 is
l^robably a medal given to a successful organist.
Hy'dria (vhpia). [Pottery.]
Hydriapho'ria ivSpia(popia) was one of the
services which aliens {/x^toikoi) residing at
Athens had to perform to the Athenians at the
Panathenaea. The hydriaphoria was performed
by the wives of aliens ; their daughters had on
the same occasion to perform the (TKiaSricpopia
(the carrying of parasols) for the Athenian
maidens, and the men the aKa(p7](popia (the
carrying of vessels containing offerings of cakes,
&c., for the goddess). The hydriai^horia was
the carrying of a vessel with water (ySpi'a, Ar.
Eccles. 738), which service the wives of aliens
performed to the matrons of Athens when they
walked to the temple of Athena in the great
procession at the Panathenaea.
Hypae'thros. [Templum.]
'Y-mfiptTTis. The word (ipicraw, ipiTr)s) ori-
ginally signified a rower : but in later times
virripecria (not vvripirai) was applied to the
crew of a vessel, as distinct from the iTn^irai,
soldiers or marines (Thuc. vi. 31 ; Polyb. v. 109,
§ 1). [Navis.] The name vTrriperai was also
given to those men (commonly called crKeuo-
(popoi) by whom the hoplitae were accompanied
when they took the field, and who carried the
luggage, the provisions, and the shield of the
hoplite (Xen. Cyr. ii. 1, § 31).
At Athens the name uTr?jp6TT)S, or the abstract
vTTTjpearia, seems to have been applied to a whole
class of officers. Aristotle {Pol. iv. 15) divides
all public offices into tlrree classes — apxai. or
magistracies, eirjjueAeioi or administrations, and
wrjpeffiai or services. A public officer, when
he appointed another person to ijerform the
lower or more mechanical parts of his office,
could not raise him to the rank of a public
officer, but merely engaged him as a servant
(6irrjp€Tr)j), and on his own resj)onsibility.
These vin]peTai, therefore, were not public
officers, properly speaking. The original and
characteristic difference between them and real
public officers was, that the former received
salaries, while the latter had none.
The word vwrjpfTTjs also conxmonly means a
slave.
'YirspcSov. [Domus.]
Hypocau'stiun. [Balneae.]
TnOKPITH2
'YiroKpiTTis. Histrio.]
'YiroSTijjLa. Calceus.J
'YiTotJLt Coves i"Om.oi.oi.]
'Yircjp.oCTia. ["AvaKpiCTis
AtaLTTiTat
L\NUA »55
The term antcpagmentutu, wliich wuh applied
to the lictrel as well ax the junibs (aiUfpaymcH-
ACkti.]
Hypo'nomus. [Emissarium.]
'YirdpxTlM-ti was a lively kind of mimic
danio whii'li ai-<-ompanied the Kon>,'rt used
ill tlie worship of Apollo, especially among
the Dorians. It was performed l)y men and
women (Atlien. xiv. p. (iSl c). A clmrus of
siugerfs at tlie festivals of Apollo usually danced
around the aitar, while several other persons
were ajipointed to accomjiany the action of the
song with an appropriate mimic perff)nnance
(uTopX*'"'^"''- '^''^ hyporchema was tlms a
lyric dance, and often .passed into the playful
and comic.
'I'he poems or songs which were accompanied
liy tile hyporchema were likewise called hyp-
orcliemaI:i. Their character was light and play-
ful. Sec I'ind. /•'/-. 71-M'2.|
Hyposce'nium. fXheatrum.]
Hypothe ca. iPignus.
'YTTOTpaxTiXiov. Architectura.)
"Ya-irXTiYg. [Stadium; Hippodromus.]
I.
The
laculato'rea {irH^aKovTiaTai). rne same as
velitrs or rornrii. 'Exercitus.l
la'culum. [Arms and Armour, Spear.]
la'nua itfupal. A door. Besides being ap-
plicable to the doors of apartments in the
interior of a house, which were properly called
>\tia (Verg. Aen. vi. 43, HI), this term more
• specially denoted the front or street door,
wliich was also called anticum, and in ftreek
Oi'pa oCAetoj, aiiKfia, avKios, av\ia (Oil. x.xiii.
11»; Pind. Still, i. 11); Theocr. .w. VA). The
houses of the Romans commonly liad a back-
door, called posticinn, postira (Hor. J£p. i. 5,
81; I'laut. Most. iii. 3, '27 Suet. Claud. IH),
and in (ircck irapdOupoi, dini. napadvpiov: also
ifTjiroi'a, sc. Bvpa, because it often led into a garden
at the back. ([Dem.] c. i'rer^. p. 1155, § 53;
cf. Plaut. Stick, iii. 1, 40). ^evS6dvpov, pseudo-
ihijruiii was a secret door (Cic. Terr. ii. '20,
§ 50, post lied, in Soi. G, § 14). (For the
internal doors, like the fi.f<Tav\os or fifTav\os,
see DomUB.)
The doorway, when complete, consisted of
four indispensable parts — the threshold, or sill ;
t)ie lintel ; and the two jambs.
The threshold (//wif/i, /BrjAdj, ovS6s, 656s) was
un object of reverence, and it was thought un-
lucky to tread on it with the left foot. On this
account the steps leading into a temple were of
an uneven number, so that the worship]HT, after
placing his right foot on the bottom step, should
place the same foot on the threshold also (see
fig. 53, under Antae).
The lintel {iii(fiiiii)'ntum,supcrriliuvi)\vafni\iin
nilled liinrn (Juv. vi. '2'2H), and liiiitn siijuriiiii,
to distinguish it from the sill, which was called
limrn inferum (Plaut. Mrrc. v. 1, 1). It was
gene-rally a single jiiece, eitlu-r of wood or stone.
In large edifices the jambs {postra, ffraB^iol;
inifrp(iffiiirfil<i,\itT. iii. 4) were made to con-
verge towards the top, ac«-ording to certain
l)rojMirtionH (Domus^. The jamb was made of
a snigle stone even in the largest edifices.
The door of a teinide, as it reached nearly fo
■'le ceiling, allowed the worshipiwrs to view
:r.>m without the entire image of the divinity,
mid to observe the rites jK-rfonned before it.
Fig. C27.— Door of a temple. iFrom ii biu.rollet.)
tuvi fiuperius, Vitr. iv. 6, § 1), implies that
the doors opened inwards. The door was in
every j)art behind the door-case. It was for-
merly assumed from Plutarch (Piihlir. -lO] that
in the older (Ireek houses the doors regularly
opened outwards. But it is probable that such
doors were always regarded as encroachments
on the rights of the public. In a single instance
only were the doors allowed to open outwards
at Rome: an excejition was uukIi- as a >-p,.(ial
privilege in honour of ^1. Valerius I'ublicola
(Piut. i.c. ao).
Kin. (WH.-Tcmiilr- ;
of Uio I'aiitlUKiii , .,,.
ttoii In wood cloaoly
.' Cor«. Thp bronu< door*
'i'> Ihp dptaiU of KCuDklruc
ribllng tho out.
356
lANUA
The lintel of the oblong door-case was in all
large and splendid buildings, such as the great
temples, sunnounted either by an architrave
and cornice, or by a cornice only. This super-
structure was called hi/perthyriun (jirepdvpop).
The next woodcut (fig. fi'29) shows one of two
consoles (Sira, TropoiTiSes, ayKuves) in the temple
of Athena Polias at Athens.
The door itself was called /or/s or valva, smd
in Greek travis, dvperpov, or KKetffids — usually
in the plural, as the doors of all important
buildings were double ; and frequently in pri-
vate houses also (Ar. Thesm. 487; Horn. Oil.
ii. 344, &c. ; Suet. Aug. 82). [Cardo.]
The remaining specimens of ancient doors
are all of marble or of bronze ; those made of
wood have jjerished. The leaves of the doors
were sometimes overlaid with gold, an Eastern
practice (1 Kings vi. 3"2-35) ; at other times
they were enriched with carving, and inlaid
with gold and ivoi"y (Cic. Verr. iv. 56, § 124,
1, 23, S 61 ; Ov. Met. viii. 703 ; Verg. Georg.
iii. 26; Hom. Od. vii. 83-94; Plin. xxxiv.
13).
Qtiadnfores ianuae were doors with hinged
valves like shutters (Vitr. iv. 6, 5).
Fig. 629.— Doorway of Erechtheium.
Before the door of a palace there was a pas-
sage leading to the door from the public road,
called oestibulum (Plaut. Most. iii. 2, 133), and
■jrpodvpov (Vitr. vi. 7, 5 ; Hom. Od. xviii. 10-100;
Hdt. iii. 35, 140). [Domus.] It was provided
with seats (Hdt. vi. 35), and sometimes covered
by an arch [Camara], which was supported by
two pillars (Verg. Aen. ii. 469), and some-
times adorned with scul]ptures (Verg. Aen. vii.
181 ; .Tuv. vii. 126).
The Donaria offered to the gods were sus-
pended not only from the Autae, but likewise
from the door-posts and lintels of their temples
(Verg. Aen. iii. 286 ; Ov. Trist. iii. 1, 34 ; Hor.
Carm. iv. 15, 8). Victors in the games sus-
pended their crowns at the door of a temple
(Find. Nem. v. 53). In like manner spoils
taken in battle were iixed to the doorways of
temples or houses (Plin. xxxv. § 7). Stags'
B
D
horns and boars' tusks were on the same prin-
ciple used to decorate the doors of the temples
of Diana. Owls and other birds were nailed
upon doors as in modern times. Also garlands
and wreaths of flowers were suspended over the
doors of temples and private houses : laurel for
a victory, myi-tle for a wedding, cj'press for a
death, &c. (Ov. Met. i. 562, Trist. iii. 1, 35 ;
Verg. Aen. vi. 70 ; Juv. vi. 51, ix. 85 ; Plin. xv.
127).
Notice before entering a house was given at
Sparta by shouting ; elsewhere by a Isnocker
{poTTTpov, Eur. Ion, 1612; Ar. Fr. 103), by
rapping with the knuckles or with a stick
(Kpoveiv, KoTTTfiu, Plat. Protag. 310 b). In the
houses of the rich a porter (ianitor, custos,
6vpwp6s) was always in attendance to open the
door (Tibull. i. 1. 56). He was commonly a
eunuch or a slave (Plat. I. c), and was chained
to his post (Ov. Am. i. 6). [Domus.]
Door Fastenings. — The fastenmgsof the door
I {claustra,obices,re2)ag2ila}comuionly consisted
in (1) a crossbar or
I bars {/jLox^os, kAtj/j,
i Hom. Od. i. 442 ;
K-A.77($ in Homer means
bar, bolt, or key;
ox^'^s, Od. xxi. 47, II.
xii. 456; (TrifiKris, II.
xxiv. 455 ; or sera,
repagula [plur.], &c.).
K\rjtipov (as well as
/uoxA-os, Ar. Lys. 310)
is also used (Soph.
Ant. 1186, O.r. 1262:
see Jebb's note on
each passage ; Xen.
Anal), vii. 1, 17) for a
bar drawn across the
doors inside, and shot
into a socket irrvdixT)v, Soph. O.T. 1261) in the
jamb, or perhaps lifted into a staple, as in tlie
common fastenings of shutters.
In Homer, the bar, whether for a single
door {dvpri, Od. i. 441) or folding-doors {ffaviSes,
Od. xxii. 128, &c, Qvpai), went right across from
jamb to jamb. It was moved aside (jueToxAifu;,
II. xxiv. 567), or lifted {avapiox^^^w, Eur. Med.
1316), according as it passed into a socket or
rested on a staple ; to remove tbis bar is irapo-
(p€p€iv, avafiox^evetv (Eur. Med. 1317), X"^^"
{Av. I.e.; V\ut. Pelop. 11).
(•2) Aholtiijessulus; fjLdvSa\os,KaToxfvs,&c.;
sera, &c. : the same words often serve for bar
and bolt ; Soph. O. T. 1262) placed at the base
of each /oris, so as to admit of being pushed
into a socket made in the sill to receive it ; or,
like the heavier /xox^iis, shot from door into
jamb {(TTadfios).
Smaller bars, or rather bolts, moved horizon-
tally in staples fastened on the inside of door
or jamb, and had attached to them a thong
{ifxds), the end of which passed through a slit
in the door near the door-post.
The door is as seen from outside : parts in-
dicated by dotted lines are inside the door and
would not be seen from outside. If the thong
is pulled tight {fTavva-ae, Od. i. 442) by the end
h, the end g being secured to the bolt, the bolt
c would be shot home into the socket e.
The thong, when the bolt was shot, was
secured to a hook or handle called Kopa>vr)
or K6pa^ (which also served as a handle to pull
to {eTriffTraadat, eirepvetv, Od. i. 441) the door:
handles of this kind, often rings, were also
termed i-n-iffiTaai^p or Kp'iKos, and fastened in
a complicated Imot {-KoiKiXos SefffxSs, Od. via.
Fig. fi30.— Door -latch.
a a, door and jamb ; b. bolt or
latch : the dotted lines
show it lilted ; c, staple.
II
lANUA
357
448), to undo which, without violence, required ' a javelin is used to ' spike ' the barl ; in whicli
special knowledge. Such knots [Nodas] are case the /SaAova^po was a tube, and litted round
mentioned elsewliere. (Cf. Hdt. iii. 12'J ; Plut. tlie ^dKavos ; or the ^oAaror itself may have
Alex, lis ; Plin. xxviii. C. 17, nudiis Hcnulis.) hecn a pipe or tube, into wliich the y3aAoi'07po
When llie door was to be opened the knot fitted, probably with a catch,
was untied {a.irf\v(re, Od. xxi. -Ki) ; and if the i Anotlier variety existed in E^'ypt and Xortli
thong had two ends on the outside of the dour, Africa, made of wooil. A wooden bolt about
the bolt at the other end was pulled, and tlie li ft. long passes through the lock on the
bolt so shot back; if not, a key (jcAtj/'j, Ud. xxi. outside of the door into a socket in the jamb.
tf, where it lias an ivory handle) was used : i.e.
A piece of metal furnished with a hook (cf.
clavus trochi [Games]) or other contrivance to
catch the bolt.
On the upper side of the bolt are five holes,
into which, when tlie door is to be locked, tivr
pegs fall from the lock and tlius hold, the bolt
firm. The bolt is partly hollowed out Uj
permit of the insertion of a key formed of a
slip of wood, with irt)n pegs corresponding in
position to the holes in the bolt. The key can
be inserted into the lock from below in order
to raise the pegs and free the bolt. This kind
of lock seems to explain passages in Aratus,
Apuleius, and Augustine — also the expression
clavem suhiccre. The name for the key is
0aKavdypa : for the five pegs, fiaKavoi. We also
find iron keys iu Egyjit, consisting of a long
Fig. r^a.-Door and bolt. (Homer.) Pig- GSS-Iron Egyptian koy. WIIkinBon.)
4l,door: ^. jamb; c e, bolt; dd, Btaple of bolt: <>, socket i cfvnio-lif oli-mb- ,..;♦!. *1,«^„ „.. ,
or Btaple of Jamb; /, sUt in door; g. thong; ft. end of ^""^ S^'^^ Shank, witli three or more projectmg
thong hanging outside ; A-, Kopiunj. teeth, like the one in fig. G33. Probably,
/T„ ♦! • 1 i 4. r tr n tt ,, • locks on tliis or a like principle were in use in
(In the wieket-gate of Haddon Hall is an Greece also. Tlie keys to such locks were
aiicient wooden bolt with vertical grooves, made to lift not to ^ ^
When the bolt is to be moved, a piece of hoop latch keys '
iron is inserted between the door and the
turn — like some of our
\d
!i' L' g i;
Keys of copper and bronze were found by
Schlieinann at Hissarlik, some of which ap-
pear to have been made to turn in the lock.
In course of time locks and keys were made
much like those of modern times. Pliny (vii.
1 § 1!)8) ascribes the invention of keys to Theo-
donis of Samos; and the ancient writers speak
of Karian and Lakonian keys (Ar. Tlusiti. 423 ;
Plant. Most. ii. 1, 57). Keys are mentioned by
Aeschylus (Eum. 8^7), Euripides (Med. tiCl),
Lysias [de Caed. Erutoxth. 4, 5), and other
writers.
Many Roman keys have beun found, some
made to lift, some to turn : the larger ones
usually of iron, and the smaller of'^ bronze.
Some Roman locks were made on the cog-
wheel principle. Doors often had locks botli
inside and outside (cf. Plant. Mi>xt. ii. 1, .■>7).
The street door was usually fastened inside
by bolts (iHssuli : a word which sometimes
seems to mean the pegs or wards of the lock
itself), and a bar {neru} ; but there was also a
door-key. At Rome, as in (ire.ce, the front
door was secured at night by means of a
. , , . , ^, . , ' wooden or iron bar (mra, rfpagitlu, u.oxK6i)
jamb, which fits into the grooves, and by this placed across it, and inserU-d into soc'kets or
means the bolt is worked baclnvards and for- I staples on <nich side of the doorway (Ov int i
wanis The Homeric jcAtjis may have been | 6, 24-50). To unbar the door is /v.v,VY;r/ ("plaut
fwmell.mg of tliis kind.) j Cist. iii. 18; Ov. MH. v. I'M). C'hamber-doorH
Jii iatir t Miles l)ars were locked by a peg , were secured in the same manner. We read
Klg. «fi.-noIt of wicket-gate,
* «, w Icket ; h h. groat gate ; c
wicket and gate; id/, bolt; ci', staple inside wicket
//. socket in giite ; j; <;, grooves in iKjlt. Seen from
outside, as aliovc, (Ig. (j.')l ; dotted lines indicate parts
inside the door.
(Haddon Hall.)
aperture between
apic
<-xtracted by a key calle<l ffaKavdyna (Hdt. iii
155; Polyb. vii. 16, <• 5). The 0a\avos ma^
When a Roman bride entered her husband's
- ,., '"'^v liouse, the keys of the store-rooms were han<led
iiave been a solid peg (as ,„ the passage of to her. Hence the formula of divorce iu the
1 hncydides, where the butt- spike (o-Ti'paVjo.') of Twelve Tables (cliivcs adimerc, txi.jcre, re-
358
lATRUS
mitto-e, Cic. Phil. ii. 28, 69). The key of the
street door was kept by the ianitor, and the
keys of the other departments of the house by
Fig. G34. — Doorkey found at Pompeii.
slaves to whom such departments belonged
(Mart. V. 35).
False or skeleton keys, called adulterinar or
aditUi'rae, were used by robbers (Sail. B. 1. 12).
The Romans also made use of padlocks, to be
removed at pleasure. Small keys were at times
Fig. 635.— Keys and lock. fOuhl and Koner.)
attac-hed to rings worn on the hand. [Anulus.]
In the annexed cut (fig. 635) from Guhl and
Koner, a represents a ring-kej', b a lock with
wards, for which a key of a complicated form
raust have been necessary, and c. a ring with
several keys attached.
The gates of a city were- looked by keys (Li v.
sxvii. 24, 28 ; Juv. xv. 158).
The epithet (cAr/SoCx"? or claviger, is given
to several of the gods, as lanus (Ov. Fast. i.
228) and Hekate.
liocks were sometimes, as an additional pre-
caution, sealed witli wet clay or wax (Aesch.
Agam. 614 ; Hor. Ep. i. 20, 3, lif/illa) [Signum].
'la'trus (tarpor). |"Medicu8.]
Idus. (Calendarium, RoM.vx.]
lenta'culum. I Cena.J
Ignia'ria (irvpf7a). Fire-sticks. This method
of producing fire was known to the Greeks and
Romans, as well as to many primitive socie-
ties (cf. Lucr. V. l'.)9; Thuc. ii. 77; Soph. Phil.
3(!). The invention is ascribed to Hermes
(Hymn, ad Merc. 111). Virgil (Georq. \.
135), supposes the striking of flints to be the
original method. This was the method pre-
scribed for relighting the Vestal fire, if by any
negligence it went out (Vestales). In Greece
the sacred fires seem to have been relighted
from the sun's rays by means of concave mir-
rors (Plut. Nu))i. 8).
The irvpela, or igniaria, consisted of the
iffxa-pa- !!■ block of soft wood, e.g. ivy, with a
Iiollow in it, and the rpviravov of hard wood
(laurel or ilex) which was twirled round, like an
auger, in the hollow of the eVxapa. The sparks
produced by this friction were caught in shav-
ings of wood or dry leaves and grass (J'omes) ;
fungus was also used as tinder (Plin. xvi. 208).
The flint appears generally as lapis, the
word silcx being used for any hard stone or
rock. Pi/rifes was the name for the best fire-
stone ; it was struck either by a piece of iron
or by another stone (cf. Verg. Georg. i. 135,
Aen. I. 174, vi. 6; Soph. Phil. 296). Burning
glas.ses were also known.
llamenta sulfurata, i.e. chips of wood dipped
in sulphur, were commonly used at Rome
(Mart. X. 3). These were an improvement upon
IMAGO
the simplerkind of tinder, to catch more quickly
the spark from the flint or fire-sticks. These
sulfurata ramenta were provided by vendors
of sulphur, who drove a double trade, mending
broken glass with sulphur, and also selling the
suli)hur matches, or exchanging them for
broken glass (Mart. i. 41, x. 3, xii. 57 ; Juv.
v. 48). [Vitrum.]
Ignomiinia. See Appendix, Rom.\x Law,
Infamia.
Illex. A decoy bird. [Auceps.]
Illu'stres (Inl-). When Diocletian and
after him Constantine reorganised the Roman
administration, the principal magistrates and
officials were divided into three classes: (1)
the Illustres, who held the first rank, viz. the
Consules, the Patricii, the Praefectus prae-
torio, the Praefectus urbi, the Praepositus-
sacri cubiculi, the Magistri militum, and some
other great officers. The titles Sublimissimi,
Excellcntissimi and Magnijici are used as
synonymous with Illustres. (2) The Specta-
biles, and (3) the Clarissimi.
Imagini'feri. [Exercitus ; Signa mili-
taria.J
Ima'ginum ius. [Nobiles.]
Ima'go. Imago was the ordinary Latin word
used to signify the copy or likeness of any-
thing, and includes pictures, statues, busts, or
any mode of artistic representation. More
particularly, however, 2?«n^() was used to denote
the ancestral likenesses [see Domus] which'
were exhibited in a Roman noble's dwelling
(cf. Juv. viii. 19). Those images were por-
trait masks in wax (Plin. xxxv. § 6) ; and the
origin of tlie waxen masks is to be sought in
the ancient beliefs connected with burial and
with the life after death. Thus the primary
use of the imago was for the purposes of fune-
ral ceremonies [Funus], and the original part
it played in these ceremonies is showni by the
analogies that we meet with in most of the civi-
lised nations of the ancient world. The Roman
imagines bear a close resemblance to the por-
trait-masks for covering the faces of the dead
which are found in a great many ancient civili-
sations ; they are analogous to the portrait-
heads of the Egyptian mummies, and the light
masks of gold, silver, bronze, iron, or tin, which
are found used for this purpose in Nineveh,
Phoenicia, Carthage, and by Schliemann at
Mykenae in Greece. The original use of the
Roman portrait-masks must similarly have
been for covering the faces of the dead. The
mask was probably made by a poUinctor, by
taking a mould of the face from nature. From
this mould he would take a cast in wax, and
put the finishing touches {emendare) and the
colouring on this waxen image, which was then'
laid either on the dead man's face or on his
effigj'. The original waxen mask was no doubt
burnt or buried with the body, but a fresh
mask might be made from the mould, which,
fitted on a bust, was the imago placed in the
atrium of a Roman house, and afterwards
carried at funerals (Juv. viii. 8). Sometimes,
as in the Apotheosis of an emperor, the mask
was fitted to a complete figure, like the ' effi-
gies ' used in England till the beginning of this
century, some of which are preserved in West-
minster Abbey. These busts were placed along
the walls of ihealae in smaH shrines (arinaria,
Plin. xxxv. S 6), and under each imago was
an inscription [tifuhis, index), giving the niinie
and deeds of the person represented bj' it (Liv.
X. 7, 11 ; TibuU. iv. 30). These inscriptions,
also called elogia (i.e. ' excerpts ' from the
IMBREX
commentarii gentHicii), were brief records
of tlie person's history -writteu in prose or oc-
casionally in verse (C. Nep. Attic. 18). Tlie
imagines were arranged iu such an order that,
when connected by lines (li)ieaej drawn upon
the wall, they showed the stcmma or family
tree (Plin. xxxv. g 0; Suet. Ner.dl ; Juv. viii.
1). On festal days the recesses in which thesv
im igiues were kept were thrown open, and the
busts crowned with hiurel (Cic. Mur. 41, fi b8).
Statues also of famous ancestors (especially
tnuiiiphatores) were placed in the vestibulum
or atrium (Juv. vii. 1'25, viii. 2). The new
nobility during the Empire, who had no waxen
imagines, put up in their houses instead ciipca-
tae imagines, bronze or silver medallions,
Buch as were used for the decoration of temples
and public places (Plin. xxxv. Ji 6 ; Tac. Ann.
ii. 37, 83). [Clipeus.j In Pliny's time no new
waxen imagines were made (Plin. xxxv. § (>).
The older imagines are found as late as the
third century after Christ.
The lus imaginum (i.e. the conditions that
had to be satisfied by a man before his imago
could be exhibited in the funeral processions of
any of his descendants) was confined to those
who had filled the offices of dictator, consul,
censor, praetor, and curule aedile. The lus
itmigimnn must originally have been confined
to patrician families ; but on the equalisation
of the two orders, it became a privilege of the
noble plebeians as well : and the distinction
between those who had the lus imaginum
and those who had not was equivalent to the
distinction between iwbiles and 7\ovi homines.
A citizen who had died not in full possession
of civic rights lost tlie privilege of having
liis imago exhibited (Tac. Ann. ii. 82, 2, iii.
70, 5).
Public exhibition of statues, busts, etc., of
living men is said to have been forbidden in
early times. One of the earliest instances
known is that of M. Claudius Marcellus, consul
152 B.C. The setting up of the busts and
statues of forefathers in public, or represent-
ing them on coins, seems never to have been
forbidden. Statues were also voted by the
senate or the people (Liv. ii. 10-13), or granted
by the emperor, e.j/. to Seianus {Ta.ii.Anyi. iv.
2, 4 ; 74, 3). To the emperor's statue, and
even to his head on coins, a peculiar sanctity
attached ; to clasp his imago was equivalent
to taking sanctuary. (See also Tac. Ann. iii.
;iO, 1.) The right of individuals to have statues
(luring their lifetime was also extended under
the early principate to triumphatores and
public benefactors.
Imbrex. ITegula.l
Immissa'rium. [Aquaeductus.]
Iminu'iiitas. An exemption from burdens
(*;n^/(7/.s = o/(//.s) imposed by the state. Such a
remission might either be granted to individual
citizens of a sp<!cial state or to classes of indi-
viduals throughout the Roman world; or to
wliole states: and in this, its most usual form,
iiiiiiiunitas is generally equivalent to exemption
from triljute.
iiiimiinity conferred on states was, in the
earlier Roman Empire, insep.Trable from the idea
of socictas. Alliance witli Rome excluded xti-
jiendium of any kind. The fnrdrratar and
lihrrar riritatrs invariably appear as inivninrs
I SCO Sociij, except in the case of certain out-
lying tribes (Liv. xlv. 2(>). The gnneral prin-
ciple of the taxation of free civic communitii's
did not begin until the period of tin- later
Republic or the early Empire. After the organi-
IMPERIUM
859
sation of Asia by Pompeius, immunitas was not a
necessary or even a common accompaniment of
autonomy or of Latinitas. Sometimes it was
a special immunity (as e.g. from port-dues);
sometimes a general exemption from all ex-
ternal burdens. A state enjoying iu.s ItuUcuvt
had quiritarian ownership of the soil, and con-
sequently exemption from the land-tribute
(vectigal). This was generally, but not always,
conferred when a state was declared a colonia.
The immunitas which was conferred on
classes of individuals invariably took the form
of an exemption from local burdens : e.g. in the
Lex Antonia de Tenncssensibus the publicani of
Rome are exempted from the portoria of Ter-
messus. The Roman soldiers in the Empire
were exempt from duties on all goods which
they might carrj' into or purchase in the pro-
vinces for their own use (Tac. Ann. xiii. 51).
During the Empire, and probably by an edict
of Augustus, all who belonged to the senatorial!
order, i.e. senators and their direct descendants,
were freed from the munera and honores of
the community to which they belonged. Such
immunity was much sought after. The effec-
tive grounds of excusatio were various. One
was the number of children possessed by the
claimant, another the exercise of certain pro-
fessions which required release from state bur-
dens : thus merchants and ship-owners who
supplied the state with corn, conductores vecti-
galium, and certain collegia and corpora of
artisans excused such duties; and a general
exemption was granted to rhetors, philosophers,
grammarians, and physicians.
Special immunities might further be granted
to individuals. Exemption from military ser-
vice (vacatio militiar) was the most frequent
of these privileges (Liv. xxiii. 20, 2), but the
power extended to other munera as well.
The acts conferring such immunities on
states or individuals were called beneficia
(Cic. Phil. i. 1, 3) ; they were, during the Re-
public, ordained or ratified by a decree of the
people (Cic. Phil. v. 4, 10), and were generally
revocable by the same authority. In the Em-
pire such beneficia were conferred by the
princeps (Suet. Aug. 40, Tib. 8). The principle
was finally established that immunities granted
to states were continued to subsequent genera-
tions, whilst personal immunities granted to
individuals ceased in most cases with their
death.
Impe'ndium. [Fenus.]
Impe'rium and Impera'tor. Iraperium is
the name of the power, civil and inilitai-j%
attaching to any higher magistrate of the
Roman people, as soon as he has been fully
installed in office by the passing of a Lex
curiata. It is qualified by the nature of
the office : we have a kingly imperium, a con-
sular imperium, a praetorian imj>erium, and a
dictatorial! imiierium. [See Appendix, Ro.m.^n
L.\w (lurisdictio).]
Jnij>rriuw doini el militiae. — Instead of
dividing the functions of civil and military com-
mand, the Romans distinguished locally two
spheres of administration. Outside the walls
(»n7/7!'f7p, ' on service ') the imperium exists in
all its fulness, and is exercised at pleasure by
every provincial governor. Inside the walls
(dnmi) the imperium is limited by the inter-
cessin of a colleague, provocatio ad popiihnn,
and extinction by the lapse of the i>eriod as-
signed to tlie office. From the year 41(4 B.C.
the imperium at home is likewise crossed by
the rival power of the magistrates of the pleba.
360
IMPERIUM
From all these restrictions the imperium abroad
is free.
The magistrate legally qualified to act both
domi and militiae marked his entry on the
freer field of authority by a solemn exit from
the city under special auspices, by the change
of dress from Toga to Paludamentum, and by
the assumption of tlie axes (secures) into his
Fasces (for an exception see Cic. Fam. viii. 10).
Acquisition of the Imiyerium. — It would per-
haps be going too far to say that the_ imperium
was always conferred by a Lex curiata. Ac-
cording to strict constitutional law, imperium
could only be conferred by a Lex curiata ; but
in practice such rules might be evaded, and
their breach covered by a qui optima iure
clause.
Collision of Imperium. — For the rules as to
the collision of imperium, when two magistrates,
whether equal or inferior and superior, are act-
ing in one sphere, see Magistratus. When two
magistrates of equal power are acting together
' at home,' their relations are ruled by the prin-
ciple of intercessio. In the field, two equal
magistrates must either agree between them-
selves who is to command (Liv. xxii. 30, 4), or
must divide the army between them (ih. 27, 9),
or take command alternately (ih. '27, C>). In
any case there is always some one whom each
soldier is bound to obey without question.
Transition to the Principate. — After the
Second Punic War the assignment of definite
districts to each single magistrate becomes the
rule, and a double command is rare. Each
magistrate or pro- magistrate cwm imperio, has
now his province, in which he is supreme.
Instances, however, of infinitum imperium
overriding this are found : e.g. M. Antonius,
74 B.C. (Cic. Verr. ii. 3, § 8), Pompeius, 67 B.C.
against the pirates, and again 57 B.C. (Cic. Alt.
iv. 1, 7).
The general rule, that the magistrate must
govern his province personall}', was also broken
through in favour of Pompey, who was pro-
consul of Spain from 55-49 B.C., but governed
through legati, while he remained at Rome.
Proconsular Imperium of the Principate.
In 27 B.C. the senate assigned certain jiro-
vinces to Augustus. He governed them as
{)roconsul, by means of legati, who were in-
vested with the subordinate imperium pro
■praetore. Besides his proconsular authority
over his own provinces, Augustus had an ' in-
finitum imperium maius,' concurrently with
■ his brother proconsuls in the senatorial pro-
vinces. The infinitum imperium was espe-
cially convenient for the command of the fleet
rClassis]. Lastly, every soldier in the empire
had pronounced tlie sacramentum ' in ^erba
Caesaris Augusti,' which bound the whole
army to the emperor. He either commanded
them personally or by his legates, or else lent
them to his colleagues in the proconsular im-
perium or to the proconsuls of the senatorial
provinces. The emperor retained the sole ap-
pointment of the officers, the sole charge of
recruiting and discharging, in virtue of his pro-
consular imperium.
The emperor being regarded as continually
a general at the head of his army, not only
keeps, as imperator, the laurel wreath and
laurelled fasces, but the imperator's guard of
lionour attends the einperor at home, and be-
comes the garrison of the town of Rome [see
Praetoriani] ; the power of the general to
settle his invalided veterans on the lands he
has conquered is interpreted as conferring on
the emperor the right to grant away the ager
pubiicus ; and the jwwer ot granting ctvitiiji
as a military reward to the auxiliary soldiers
(Cic. Balh. 8, 10) [Princeps] develops into the
right to make Roman citizens at will.
Title of Imperator under the Bepublir. —
luiperator means, of course, ' one possessed
of the imperium.' But the title of imperator
is never assumed by, nor used of, the
magistrate discharging civic functions. In the
army ' Imperator ' is the regular mode of
address of the soldier to his commander, pro-
vided that the commander is invested with the
imperium, not merely a legatus. This address
could be used from the first moment that the
general took the field, and not only after a
victory.
After a victory it was the custom for the troops
to greet (consalutarej their commander with a
solemn acclamation. In so saluting they em-
ployed their every-day title of address, and the
cry ' Imperator, Imperator,' sounded from rank
to rank. This ceremony conferred UTpon the
general so honoured a kind of popular sanction
for the use of the title. Henceforth he appends
the word Imperator to his name, and the title
is used even by civilians who have occasion to
address him. In the later Republic the senate
sometimes invited or sanctioned the assump-
tion of the title by a victorious general. This
assumption is commonly the first step towards
claiming a triumph. Though not every pos-
sessor of the imperium is justified in styling
himself imperator, it is unpossible for anyone
to be called imperator unless he is vested with
the imperium. No legatus can be imperator,
and the title expires with the imperium ; this
occurs for the proconsul the moment he comes
within the city walls. [See Triumplius.]
Use of the title bij Caesar.— Julius Caesar
during the last fourteen years of his life always
stj'led himself Imperator. From the day of liis
victory over the Helvetii in 58 B.c, down to his
death he was continuously vested with the
imperium, first as Proconsul, then as Consul
(48 B.C.), and then as Dictator. As the im-
perirmi never lapsed, there was no legal neces-
sity to lay down the title, though his retention
of it in the city was considered arrogant. Tlie
title follows Caesar's name in all official docu-
ments. [Princeps.]
Praenomen Imperaforis. — Octavian in the
triumvirate in 40 B.C. dropped his praenomen
Caius and adopted instead the word Imperator
as a praenomen : a precedent which was fcl-
lowed by many of the succeeding emperors—
' Imperator Caesar Divi filius.' From Domitian
onwards the titles Imp. Caes. were always pre-
fixed and ' Augustus ' added at the end. [Augus-
tus.]
Sahitatio pro Imperio. — As every princeps
possessed the proconsular imperium, and was
therefore qualified to be addressed as imperator
either by his troops or by the senate, it became
the custom at the beginning of each reign for
the senate and soldiers to attest their recog-
nition of this qualification in a solemn greeting
which exactly follows the precedent of the
greeting after a victory.
Such a salutation by the senate counted as
the dies imperii, the day from which the
emperor dated the commencement of his reign.
The soldiers sometimes gave this salutation
to a man who did not possess the imperium.
This might be done in a case where the
imperator had fallen in battle, or where
a private person had raised troops. And
IMPILIA
under the Principate, troops the command of
which was vacant by tlie death of liini whose
soldiers thej' liad been, might, irre^uhu-ly but
not mutinously, oiler a provisional allegiance
to a new commander. Tliis was done by the
praetorians to Claudius after the assassination
of Caligula. In the decay of its power no
choice was left to the senate but to confirm the
initiative of the soldiers. Generally, however,
the soldiers in giving this salutjition discard a
prior allegiance : e.g., when the army of Ger-
nuiny greeted its legate VitcUius as Imperator,
this acclamation was an act of revolution and
civil war. It ascribed tlie proconsular im-
perium to one who not only did not already
possess it, but who could not possess it without
supplanting his legal commander. It further
proclaimed the intention of these soldiers to
prove their assertion good at the point of the
sword.
History of the Title under the Principate. —
Tlie suitreine importance of the proconsular
imperium and of the functions attached to it
added lustre to the derived name of Imperator.
It might indeed attach to other persons than
the reigning princeps ; and it was still con-
ferred in its military sense on princes of the
imperial family (who often bore it on their
coins), and even on others. (Tac. Ann. iii. 74.)
But by the time of Domitian the word had be-
come so distinctive as an emblem of the supreme
power that an unfortunate senator was put to
death because by a bli|i of the tongue on the
part of the crier he had been proclaimed Im-
perator instead of Consul. And by the second
century ' Imperator ' becomes the title of the
chief magistracy, and to a great extent sup-
plants that of ' Princeps ' by which Augustus
had chosen to describe himself.
Impi'Iia iirtKvfTpa). Felt socks or shoes.
(I'iin. xix. 10.) [Pilleus; Coactilia.]
Implu'viiim. [Domus.]
Impu'bes. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Inaugura'tio was in general thS ceremony
througli which the augurs souglit the sanction
of the gods to something which had been decreed
by man ; especially the hallowing of the king's
title to reign. The king himself asked the gods
for the sign of their approval : the augur at-
tended to recite the proper formula of consulta-
tion, and to interpret according to the rules of
his art the answer given. The interrex alone
was capable of nominating the king : as soon
as an interrex had named a rex, the right of
auspices passed to the latter, and he himself
asked the gods for their approval of his nomina-
ti(m (Liv. i. 18 ; Vlut. Num. 7). Under the Re-
yiublic the term inauguratioai)plies to the offices
of the rex sa<'rificulus, the fiamines, the pontiffs,
augurs, vestal virgins, Salii, and other priests.
The ceremony took place in some cases at the
coinitia cnlato, in others, ^ro coUegio.
The higher magistrates were summoned by
the augurs (conclictio, denuntiatio) to ajipear
on the Capitol on the third day after their elec-
tion. This inauguratio confen'ed no priestly
dignity upon the magistrates, but was merely a
method of nl)taining the sanction of the gods
to their election, and gave them the right to
take the auspicia. (Cic. Div. ii. 80, 7(5.) A
building was ' inaugxirated ' only when it was to
be Used for meetings of the senate, or wlicn thi'
ritt^s to be jierformed there required tiiat it
aliould bo a femplum. The iiunigiinitin
hallowed the sitcj and the consecratio the
building. [Auspicia.]
Inau ris {^ivwTiov, iKK6^iov [Aoi3({r, the lobe
INCUBATIO
SGI
of the ear]; also '(ipfiara. ; cf. opfioi : Honi. 7/. xiv.
182, Hijmn. ii. in Ven.H; Plin. xii. g 2). An
ear-ring.
Ear-rings wore worn by both sexes in Oriental
countries (Plin. xi. § IStl). Among the Grifcks
and Romans they were woi-n only by females.
Fig. WW.— Ear-rinRs. (Britibh Museum.)
Tills ornament consisted of the ring (kp'iko^)
and of the drops {stalagiuia, Plaut. \fr)i. iii. 3,
IM. The ring was generally of gold. The ear-
rings worn by Hera (Hom. II. xiv. 1K2) had three
drops {y\fivai). See fig. i'>:'A\, (>. Pearls and
Fig. (B7-— InaurlH. (Drillsb Miisoum
precious stones were often used as drops (Ov.
^f'■/. \. •.](•,.-,; Juv. vi. -ir.!)!.
Ince ndium. See Ap|)endix, Roman Law.
Ince nsuB. See Appendix, Roman Law, Ca-
put. Census.
Ince 'stum. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Incuba tio {4yKotixa(T0ai). [Oraculum. j
362
INCUNABULA
Fig. fuis.— Incus, anvil, from a gem.
Incuna'bula or Cuna'bula {<nrapyaya). Swad-
dling-clothes.
Infants in Greece and Rome were vsTapped
in swaddling-clothes, as in many countries
at the present day. The Lacedaemonians
did not use a-irdpyava (Plut. Lye. 16). See
rHom.] Hynm. in ApoU. Del. 121, in Merc.
151; Pind. Pyth. iv. 114; St. Luke ii. 7;
Ezek. xvi. 4 {Vulg.) ; Eur. Icm, 3'2, &c. ;
Plaut. Amph. v. 1, 55, True. v. 13. [Cunae ;
Fascia.]
Incus l'a(f/icoi'). An anvil. The representations '
of Vulcan and the Kyklopes in various works of j
art show that
the ancient anvil |
was formed like
that of modem
times, and set on |
a block of wood I
{aKjxoSirov, Horn. '
//. xviii. 410, Od. }
viii. 274 ; Verg. '
Aen. vii. 629, viii. |
451). It appears !
that in the brazen
age the anvil |
itself, with the \
hammer and the
tongs, was made
of bronze (Horn.
Od. iii. 433, 434).
In later times
it was made of
the finest wrought
iron, specially
hardened for the purpose (Plin. xxxiv. § 144).
[Malleus.]
Inda'go. TRete.]
Index ((TiTTujSos). A tag of parelunent con-
taining the title of a book, affixed to the roll.
[Liber.]
Indi'getes, Indigitame'nta. See Classical
Diet. s.v.
Indu'sium, Indu'tus. rDress.]
Infa'mia. See Appendix, Roman L.\w.
Infans. See Appendix, Rom.\n Law, Im-
pubes,
Infe'riae. [Funus.]
I'nfula. A flock of white and red wool, which
was slightly twisted, and drawn into the form
of a wreath or fillet, used by the Romans for
ornament on festive and solemn occasions. In
sacrificing it was tied with a white riband [Vitta
to the head of the victim (Verg. Georg. iii. 4S7 :
Lucret. i. 88; Suet. Calig. 27), and also of the
priest (Cic. Verr. iv. 50, § 110 ; Verg. Aen. ii.
430, X. 538). The ' torta infula ' was worn also
by the Vestal Virgins (see cut under Vestales).
It would seem that the infula was itself knotted
at intervals with the vitta (Rich), For the
infula at a Roman marriage, see Matrimonium.
(Lucan, ii. 355 ; Plin. xxix. § 30 ; Servius ad
Verg. Aen. iv. 459.)
Inge'nuus. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Iniu'ria. See Appendix, Roman Law.
'Ivtba. Festivals celebrated at Megara, Epi-
daurus Limera, and elsewhere, iu honour or
the ancient heroine Ino.
Inquili'nus. See App., Roman Law, Locatio.
Insa'nia, Insa'nus. See Appendix, Roman
Law, Curator.
Insi'gne \(rr\iJi.iLOV, ima-inua, iirla-rtixov, Trapd-
ffrifjiov). A badge or mark of distinction.
(1) Those belonging to officers of state or
civil functionaries of all descriptions, such as
the Fasces carried before the Consul at Rome,
the latus clavus and shoes worn by senators
INSIGNE
[Calceus; Clavus], the Carpentum and the
sword bestowed by the emperor upon the prae-
fect of the praetorium.
The Roman Equites were , ^ ^^ ^^
distinguished by the ■^ '^ ' ' ^^ ^
equus publicus, the
golden ring, the angustus
clavus [Clavus], and the
seat in the theatre and
the circus (Hor. Epod. 4,
15; Mart. v. 8 and 14).
The insignia of the kings
of Rome — viz. the trabea,
the toga praetexta, the Fig. (OT.— Coin of Kyrene,
crown of gold, the ivory "'"'' "ip'""'" Pi'^"^.
sceptre, the sella curulis, and the twelve lictors
with fasces, all of which, except the crown and
sceptre, were transferred to subsequent denomi-
nations of magistrates — were copied from the
usages of the Etruscans and other nations of
early antiquity (Sail. Cat. 51; Verg. Aen.x'ii.
187, 612, xi. 334).
(2) Badges worn by soldiers. The centurions
in the Roman army were known by the crests
of their helmets [Galea], and the common men
by their shields, each cohort having them
painted in a manner peculiar to itself iC-a.es.
i?. G. vii. 45). [Scutum; Corniculum.] Among
the Greeks the devices sculptured or painted
upon shields [Arms and Armour], both for the
sake of ornament and as badges of distinction,
employed the fancy of poets
and of artists of every de-
scription from the earliest
times (Hdt. i. 171 ; Paus. iv.
28, §§ 5-7; Verg. Aen. ii.
889).
(3) Family badges, often
shown upon corns, such as
the torquis of the Torquati,
the cincLnni of the Cincin-
nati, and the cognomen
' Magnus ' (Suet. Calig. 35).
(4) Signs placed on the front of buddings :
e.g. a figure of Mercury as the sign of a
Gymnasium. Cities also had heraldic emblems :
such are the owl of Athens, the Pegasus of
Fig. 640.
Coin of L. Manliua
Torquatus with
torquis.
Fig. G12.— Coin of Corinth,
with Pegasus.
GorLnth, the lyre of Megara, the sUphimn of
Kyrene, &c. See Coinage.
(5) Figure-heads of ships. Tlie insigne of
a ship was an image placed on the prow,
and giving its name to the vessel (Tac. Ann.
vi. 34 ; Caes. B. C. ii. 6 ; Acts xxviii. 11).
Instances are : the helmet of Minerva (Ov.
Triat. i. 9, 2) ; Hope, Concord, Victorj- ; the
Mincius (Verg. Aen. x. 206), the Delia, the
Syracuse, the boar's head of Samos (Hdt. iii.
59), the swan, the tiger (Verg. Aen. x. 166).
After an engagement at sea, the insigne of a
conquered vessel was often suspended in some
temple as an offering to the god (Plut. Themist.
15). Figure-heads were probably used from
the first origin of navigation. It would appear
that the irapda-tuxa of Greek ships were some-
I
INSILIA
times distinct from tlieir names ; which latter,
among tlie Greeks, were always feminine.
Besides the badge which distinguished each
individual ship, and which was either a figure-
head or a niinie and figure painted on both tlie
bows of tlie vessel, other ensigns were employed
in naval manouuv'res. These were probably
flags or standards, fix-ed to the aplustre or to
the top of the mast, and serving to mark all
those vessels which belonged to the same fleet
or to the same nation. A purple sail indicated
the admiral's ship among the Romans, and
Hags of didei-ent colours were used in the fleet
of Alexander the Great. [Navis.]
Insi'lia. (Tela.]
I'nstita {trepnToSiov). A flounce or broad
band sewn to the bottom of the tunic and
reaching to the instep (Hor. Hat. i. 2, 29 ; Ov.
.•1..I. i. m).
I'nstitor. A retail dealer or hawker (Hor. Od.
u.. (1, :!(); Ijiv. xxii. 26).
Institutio'nes. See Appendix, "Roman Law.
Insu'bulum. A cloth-beam. [Teld.]
Insula. LDomus.j
Inte'ntio, [Actio.]
Interce'ssio. 1. C'onstiti;tion.u>. — Inter-
cessio is used to denote the right of veto pos-
sessed by Roman magistrates, whether of higher
or of equal power, and whether prohibitory or
annulling acts alreadj' done. The latter is
the more common meaning : i.e. the right ot
a magistrate to render ineffective the com-
l)leted actions of his inferior or equal ; and
is an attribute not only of niaior but of par
putestds. When the double magistracy was
instituted in place of the monarchy, the inter-
cessio originated within the limits of j)ar
2)otestas ; with the creation of the lower magis-
trates of the i)eople originated the concep-
tion of maior juitestaa as giving the right of
veto : finally, the tribune of the i)lebs had
maior jwtestas over every magistrate of the \
state except the dictator. Intercessio was :
thus a supervision, exercised by closelj' related
magistrates over one another's functions, for I
the prevention of illegal or inequitable actions; I
and on the part of the tribune a general super-
vision over all other magistracies in the in-
terests, originally of the plebs, later of the
whole community.
The dictator has intercessio against his in-
ferior colleague the consul, the consul against
his inferior colleague the praetor, and perhaps
against the aedile and quaestor, who are not
his colleagues. The tribune, outside the bounds
o5 his own college, can exercise tlie right of
intercession against all the patrician magis-
trates except the dictator — the consul, praetor,
aedile, and quaestor. No relation of this
kind could be established between the aedile
and quaestor, or between the consul and
censor, between whom there is no relation of
tiiaior or jxir poicstaa, and accordingly such
magistrates have no power of vetoing one
inioth<T's actions. Anotlior necessary restric-
tion was that the veto could not be vetoed ; the
intercessio is final, and the act declared void
cannot be re-established by any further exercise
of this power. Another limitation of tin' inter-
cessio is found in its jiurely civil chanicter:
for the purjioses of administration iiiilitiiif such
a division of authority was never tolerated
(Cic. Legg. iii. 3, (1). A further limitation rests
on the theory that the intercessio is only
valid when directed against the actions of a
magistrate. It was not, therefore, jiermitted
against the decisions of juries in civil cases;
INTERCESSIO
S63
the magistrate's functions being confined to
proceedings in iure [ladiciomj, at any stage
of which intercessio might come in : all proceed-
ings in iudicio were outside the sphere of the
veto. In the qiuicstiones, in which the distinc-
tion between proceedings 77; iure and in iudicio
disappeared [ladicium publicumj, the veto was
similarly not permitted against the finding of
the magistrate and jury. (See Intercessio, 2.)
Intercessio may conveniently be considered
from three points of view : the decree (edictum),
the rogatiu, and the senatusconsuitum.
(1) Intercessio was most frequently directed
against the magistrate's decree (edictuui),
whether as forming a part of civil juris<liction
exercised by the praetors, or of criminal juris
diction conducted bj' the consul, aedile, or
quaestor. Intercessio in all these cases rests on
ap])ellatio, the request for help {auxiiiinu} put
forward by an individual who appeals against
the decree by which he feels himself injured.
The (i])})ellatio must be made personally to the
niagistntte, and the intercessio exercised per-
sonally by him. Thus we find tribunes attach-
ing themselves to consuls, to prevent the
execution of their edict (Liv. iv. 55, 3), and a
praetor taking up his position next to the chair
of his colleague, waiting for appeals from the
latter's decisions (Caes. B. C iii. 20 ; Tac. A)in.
i. 75, 1). The general principle was to confine
intercessio to magistrates possessing somewhat
similar authority, with the exception of the
tribune. The tribune's interferences were for
the most part against criminal jurisdiction in
iurc, and against the exercise of administra-
tive power, more particularly that of the con-
sul (C!ic. lirp. ii. 83, 58, ' contra consulare
imperium tribuniplebisconstituti '). In matters
of state-administration an appellatio from the
magistrate's right of cocrcitio might be taken
up by the whole collegium of tribunes, by a
quasi-judicial process {cognitio). See Liv. ii.
43, xlii. 33.
(2) Intercessio might be dii'ected against
the rogafio as against any other act of the
magistrate, and might take effect in either
of two ways: (a) by forbidding the question
being put at all, a right belonging to any magis-
trate with maior 'jKiteatds; (b) by interceding
against the (juestion after it has been put,
which became the exclusive right of the tri-
bune. It might be pronounced in any of
the assemblies, and against any kind of act
brought before these assemblies: against elec-
I tions (Liv. iv. 50, 1, xxv. 2, 01, Irgrs (Cic. Leg.
Agr. ii. 12, 301, and plcbisrita (Pint. Tib.
Gracch. 10). It seems to liave been irregular
to pronounce intercessio before the day of
voting ari'ived (Cic. Ait. iv. IG, (!) and speeches
I for and against the law luvd been made (Liv.
I xlv. 2).
(31 Intercessio against a scuufunconsuUum
] was exercised by tlie tribune against the tri-
I bune, consul, and praetor, and originally by
the consul against the t-onsul (Liv. xxx. 48,
1). The magistrate who intended to veto
the resolution in the senate declared that he
would not allow any business to proceed (wore
pnsxurum quicquaw agi, Liv. xxvi. 2l>, 7, xxx,
10, W). This threat did not necessarily suspend
the particular business in tlie senate ; the
motion on which the veto was jiut was. if passed
by a majority, drawn up as an Auctoritas sena-
tU8. The veto on a senatnsconsultuni was
usually pronounced after or during the voting
on the measure (Cic. Finn. x. 12, 3); never,
apparently, during the debate.
I
364
INTERCESSIO
Interce'ssio. 2. Legajl. See Appendix, i
Roman Law. j
Interdi'ctio aquae et ignis. [Exilium.]
Interdi'ctum. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Inte'rpres. An intei-preter. Embassies from
foreign nations to Rome, and from Rome to
other states, were generally accomi^anied by i
interpreters to explain the objects oi the em-
bassy to the respective authorities (Cic. Div. ii.
64, 131, Fin. v. 29, 89 ; Plin. xxv. § 6 ; Liv.
xxvii. 43). In large mercantile towns the in-
terpreters, who formed a kind of agents through
whom business was done, were sometimes very
numerous.
Roman officers in the provinces carried on
aU their official proceedings in the Latin lan-
guage, but had always amojig their servants
[Apparitores] one or more interpreters, liired
in the province, who were generally Romans,
but in most cases freedmen (Cic. Balh. 11, 28).
Inte'rrex (in Greek historians, /^etro/SaCiA.eus),
Interregnum. The fundamental principle
of the Roman constitution was that the popu-
lus, tliough sovereign, could only act tlirough
its representatives the magistrates ; and hence
when the regular magistracy was through any
reason vacant, that part of the political life of
the people ceased. Originally there was but one
supreme and responsible magistrate at Rome,
the king holding office for life ; and it was to
supply the vacancy caused by the complete
cessation of this magistrate's functions that
the interrex was instituted. The interregyium
was one of the most enduring survivals of
the early regal constitution : it lasted till
43 B.C. Like the monarchy, it was not a
purely Roman but a Latin institution. Since,
tlirough the vacancy of the supreme office, the
interrex was the sole representative of the
people, he was not a delegate nor^ro magistratu,
but magistratiis, and still continued to be a
magistrate under the Republic in spite of the
fact that he was not elected by the people. It
is probable that tlie king was in all cases nomi-
nated, not by his predecessor, but by the inter-
rex ; since nomination of the future king
during the lifetime of his predecessor would be
a breach of the Roman legal principle that no
formal act can be conditioned by time or other
circumstances. If so, the interregnum, as a
part of the standing procedure of the Roman
commonwealth, ceased when the election of
successors by those in office was permitted
in the supreme magistracy, as it was on the
institution of the consulate. It then became
only an occasional office, necessarily resorted to
whenever there were no supreme magistrates of
Rome, and no one duly qualified to hold the
election for their successors. This state of
things was realised in the case of the com-
plete vacancy of the consulship, either by
the informal election or by tlie deatli of both
consuls.
When this took place, the other magistrates,
i.e. the patrician magistrates [magistratus
populi, or patricii, Liv. vi. 41), retired from
office, and the senate appointed an interrex.
The interregnum is said by tradition to have
dated from the first vacancy of the regal office,
after the death of Romulus (Cic. Hep. ii. 12 ;
Liv. i. 17). The first interregnum was an exer-
cise of collective rule by the senate. The
senate was divided into decuries : each decury
having fifty days' government allotted to it,
within which period each individual of the
decury in succession for five days had the
fasces and all the external symbols of the regal
ISTHMLA.
power (Liv. i. 17), the decury jointly possessing
the (delegated) imperium. The first inter-
rex was elected, and nominated his successor,
each successive interrex holding office for five
days. There was no definite limit for the
number of interreges that might be nominated
in succession, the only fixed rule being that
there must Ise at least two interreges (Liv.
vi. 1, 8), the first appointed being incapable
of holding the consular elections. The teclmi-
cal expression for the appointment of an
interrex is jprodere interregem (Ijiv. vi. 41);
and this expression applies, in republican
times, not only to the appointment of the first
interrex by election, but to the nomination oi
each of the other interreges by his predecessor
(Liv. V. 31, 8).
The interrex could properly be chosen by
patricians only (Cic. pro Dom. 14, 38 ; Liv. iii.
40) : on the other hand, we find that the repub-
lican senate, which was not exclusively patrician,
was sometimes bidden to appoint an interrex.
There is no doubt that in strict law the repub-
lican senate as such had nothing to do with tlie
appointment of an interrex. They might, how-
ever, in the later Republic, suggest that tlie
patricii should meet for the appointment of an
interrex, the tribune, no doubt, putting the
question. Who these patricii were that met
to appoint the interrex, and how thej' assembled,
is uncertain ; probably they were the patrician
members of the senate, who met for this pur-
pose (cf. Auctoritas patrum). Two necessary
qualifications of the interrex were that he should
be a patrician (Cic. pro Dom. 14, 38) and a
senator. They were probably chosen from the
senafores curules patricii, the senatorts pa-
tricii peiiarii being excluded. [Senatus.J
Inte'rula. [Dress.]
Intesta'bilis. See Appendix, Rojian Law.
Intu'sium. See Indusium.
Inve'stis. [See Appendix, Rojun Law,
Impubes.]
Irpex, Hirpex, or Urpex. A harrow with
iron teeth, drawn by oxen ; used to clear the
fields of weeds and to level and break down
the soil (Cato, B. B. 10 ; Verg. Georg. i. 95).
[Agriculture ; Crates.]
Iso'domum opus. [Murus.]
McTOTeXels. [Civitas.]
I'sthmia ("IffBfj.ia, to). One of the four great
Hellenic festivals. It was celebrated at the
Istlunus of Corinth ; and tliough inferior to the
splendour of Olyrapia, it probably surpassed the
Nemea in brilliancy. A sacred enclosure planted
with pines, within which was the temple of the
Isthmian Poseidon, surrounded the scene of the
games (Strab. viii. 380). Pausanias saw here a
theatre and a stadium of white marble (\idou
\evKov), and no doubt a hippodrome (Paus. ii. 1,
7) ; (f OToA. vo-e IS, or lodging-places, for the athletes
who came to the Isthmian games from all parts
of the world ; a gymnasium called Kpa.vuou, and
other buildings.
The myth which seems to be of greatest
antiquity ascribes the institution of the festival
to Poseidon and Helios.
According to another tradition, the Nereids
appeared to Sisyphus, and commanded him to
found the games in honour of Melikertes.
Another attributes the foundation of the
Isthmian games to Theseus after his victory
over the giant SinisPityokamptes (Pind. Isthni.
p. 514 b). In almost all the legends we see
that, as the mythic history of the Olympic
games takes us back to Zeus, so that of the
Isthmian refers us ultimately to Poseidon.
ITINERARIU3I
In the time of the Kypsulids at Corinth, tlie
celebratiou of these games was suspended for
seventy years. It is noteworthy that even the
destruction of Corinth hj' Mummius in 14<i ii.c.
did not break the continuity of the games.
They Hourislied under the Konian Empire, and
until about Ol. 21)3 (440 a.d.), when Chris-
tianity became the established religion of the
lioman empire.
Of the four great Panhellenic festivals, two
— the Olympia and Pythia — were pcnteteric.
i.e. recui-ring after intervals of four years *
two — the Nemean and Isthmian — were trie-
teric, i.e. recurring after intervals of two years.
(Cf. Pind. AVm. vi. 40.) Eusebius plao-js
the first historic Isthmiad in Ol. 49, S (IW3
B.C.). The Isthmia occurre<l in the first mid
third years of each Olympiad. As to the
season in which they were held, we know
that the Istlimia whicli fell in the first vear
of an Olympiad took place in summer (Time,
viii. 10), and that those which fell in the
third took place in spring (Liv. xxxiii. 32,
33).
The programme of the Isthmian games in-
cluded gynmic, equestrian, and musical con-
tests, the gymnic being probably the oldest. The
Isthmian contests no doubt resembled in the
main those of the other three gi'eat festivals.
They were open to men, youths {ayeyeioi), and
boys.
As at other Panhellenic festivals, a general
truco prevailed during the Isthmian games
('ladfiiKat a-irofSai).
The Eleans alone of the Hellenic states held
aloof from these games.
The Isthmia were from pre-historic times
under the control of the Corinthians (Pans. v.
2, 1 ; Plut. Thcs. 25 ; Pind. Nem. ii. 20). When
Corinth was destroyed by Mummius (14C M.c.),
the management of the festival passed to the
Sikyonians, who retained it until the restoration
of Corinth by Julius Caesar, when the ayuipo-
Otffia returned to its original possessors (Paus.
ii. 2, 2).
The prize of victors at the Isthmia in his-
toric times was a wreath of wild celery {ffeKivov :
cf. Pind. Nem. iv. 8H, Of. xiii. 31). But under
tiie Emjiire victors (l(Tdfj.iov7Kai) are regularly
represented as crowned with the pine, called
simply n TTiTus, like the Olympian garland, 6
KOTivos (i^lut. Sijmp. v. 3, 1-3 ; I'aus. v. 21,6, vi.
13). [Corona. J Tlie pine was characteristic of
I lie worsliip of Poseidon. Here, as in the other
^reat games, the victor received with the crown
a palm branch in token of his victory (Plut.
Sijiii]). viii. 4, 1 ; Paus. viii. 48, 2). At these
games Flamininus (and Nero afterwards)
declared the autonomy of Hellas (liiv. xxxiii.
32 ; Suet. Ner. 22, 24). Itluloriciaiis, poets,
and other writers brought their productions
under public notice at tlie Istlimia. Visitijrs
came from Italy, Sicilj-, Ijibya, Tiiessaly, the
Ionian States, and even the Borysthenes, to bo
present at the great Isthmian festival.
As the Olympia, Pythia, and Nemea lent
lh<'ir names to minor festivals, so Isthmia were
held in various places out of Greece.
Itinera'riom. (1) A list of distances and
stations on the Roman roads. Siicli are the
two Antonine itineraries of the third century,
and the Itinerarinm Burdigalense of the fourth
century, from Burdigala (Bordeaux) to Jeru-
salem.
(2) A jMisting map: such as the Pcutinger
Tabula now at Vienna,
Judex. See Api)endix, RoM.vx L.vw .
lUSIURANDUM 365
ludi'cium po'puli; ludi'ciiun publicum.
See ;Vi)pendix, Roman Law.
luga rius. A rustic slave whose business it
was to tend the working oxen. Those wero
regularly groomed every uay. L'Agriculture.j
luga'tio. The training of vines ; either in
straight lines along espaliers (/. direrta\, or
on a trellis forming a roof (/. coitipluviata).
[Vitis.)
lu gerum or lugus. A Roman measure of
surface, 240 feet in length and 120 in breadth,
containing therefore 2H,800 8<)uare feet (Varr.
U. Ji. i. HI). It was the double of the ActuM
Qiuitlratii.s. The word is a by-form of iiiijinn ;
'quod uno iugo boum in die e.xarari jiosscl.'
The iugerum was not, like the ActUS, a mea-
sure of length as well as of surface. Tlie niu-iul
or duodecimal division was apjilied to the iugc-
riini, its smallest fraction being the scrupuliini
of 100 square feet. (See Tables, XIII., XIV.)
lugum (i^vy6v). That which joins two tilings
together.
(1) A yoke [CurruB\
(2) A yoke to carry burdens - Aeilla.
(3) Any cross beam or bar, as of a building
(Vitr. X. 8, 19), a loom (Ov. Mcf. vi. r,r,} [Tela ,
a trellis (Col. IL Ii. iv. 17, 20), a lyre (Horn. //.
ix. 187), a balance (Cic. Div. ii. 47) [LibraJ ; tli<
thwart or transverse beam of a ship (Aesch.
Aq. 1()18 ; Hom. Od. ix. 99, &c.; Verg. Aen. vi
411). [Navis.J
(4) A ' yoke ' or pair of animals ((Ik. (tvyoi).
(;■)) The quantity of land which a yoke of oxen
could plough in a day [lugerum ; ActusJ.
(0) The yoke under whicli a beaten army was
made to pass, composed of a s[)ear supported
transversely by two others placed upright (Liv.
ill. 28, ix. 4", (■)).
lugume'ntum. [lanua.J
lunio'res. Comitia.]
lure, ce'ssioin. Se.^ Appendix, Roman Law.
luri'dici conve ntus. Provincia.]
lurisconsu'lti or lureconsu'lti. Se<' .\ppen-
dix, liuMAN Law.
lurisdi'ctio. See Appendix, Roman Law.
lus. See Ai)pendix, Roman li.vw.
! lus La'tii. Latinitas.]
I lusiura'ndum ibpKos). An oath. An oatii
I is an api)eal to some divine being, calling on
I him to bear witness that the swearer spuaks
I the truth, or intends to jierform the jiromise
I which he makes. Hence the expression tarw
■ Zfi/s, 6ehs "kttui. &c. (Soph. Track. 399, Aid.
I 184; St. Paul, Kp. Galat. i. 20.)
I 1. CrHKKK. — Sometimes all the gods \ver«' in-
voked : ofxvvo) Tom Otovi Kal ras titas airayras
Kol atrdffas (Dem. c. Conon. p. 12fi9, § 41) ; i -yf;
Koi Ofol (Dem. c. Boeot. i. p. 1000, § 21). At
other times the occasion suggested a special
deity: thus, Ijihigeneia swore by Artemis (Eur.
l])h. Taiir. 7231; AntihK-hus by Poseidon the
etjuestrian god, tin- subject being hor.ses [II.
xxiii. 584 ; cf. Ar. Niih. 83). The commonest of
all is yij A/a, f^ rriu "Hpav (Plat. I'haiilr. p.
230 It), ct; t7Ji/ Ai)/xr)Tf)a (Dem. F. L. p. 425, <;
2Ci2). Women too had tlieir s|M'cial oaths: fui
Tui 0(u, i.e. Denieter and Persephone ( Ar. Kccles.
• ir>(>), Kjj TiV 'AtftpoSlrrji' (Ar. Eccles. 189 sqq.).
The LiK-edaemonians swore by Kastor and
I I'olydeukes (fol tu.' ffitii, Ar. L;/.v. 148 ; Xen. lirU.
iv. 4, 10); tli<' Corinthians by Poseidon (Ar.
\ Kq. C09. Ac), the Athenians jwincipally by
tliree deities, viz. Zons, Poseidon, and Athena,
' or Zeus, Poseidon, and Uemeter, or Zeus, Apolhi,
and Deniet<'r (Ar. lui. 941; Schol. Aesciiin. r.
Tim.), or Zeus. .Vpollo, and Athena (Dem. c.
.U/i/. p. .'■)78, § 198). The Greeks also swore by
366
lUSIURANDUM
sacred objects or persons : Acliilles swears by
his sceptre (//. i. 234), Telemachus by the sorrows
of his father (Od. xx. 339), Helena to her hus-
band by his head (Eur. Hel. 835), warriors by
their weapons (Eur. Phoen. 1677), Demosthenes
by those who fought at Marathon, &c. Ule Cor.
p. 297, § 208). The god, however, by whom the
most solemn oaths were cwoni was Zeus
i'opKtos, Soph. Phil. 1324; Eur. Rippol. 1025,
Med. 208, &c.). The gods swore by the Styx
{II. XV. 36 sqq., Od. v. 184 sqq.). Zeus, with Dike
at his side, punishes the violation of oaths (Ar.
Nub. 397; Soph. Oed. C. 1381; [Dem.1 c.
Aristog. i. p. 772, § 11 ; cf. //. xix. 260, iii. 279 ;
Piud. 01. 2, 71 ; Ar. Ban. 275).
Anciently the prince who took an oath
stood up (II. xix. 175), raised his sceptre (II.
vii. 412, x. 231, &c.), and lifted up his eyes and
hands to heaven, as in prayer {II. xix. 257 ;
Find. 01. 7, 65). Oaths were accompanied with
sacrifice and libation ; the victims on such occa-
sions were not eaten, but were either biuned in
the ground or thrown into the sea (II. iii.
310, xix. 268) ; the wme used was undiluted
{II. iii. 269, iv. 159). Those who swore laid
their hands on the victims (Ar. Li/sistr. 202 :
Dem. c. Eubul. p. 1306, § 26), or on the altar
(Andoc. Myst. § 126; irphs rhv \idov ayovrfs,
Dem. c. Canon, p. 1265, § 26), or on the heads
of their children {Kara naiSwir, Dem. c. Canon.
p. 1270, § 40), pronouncing a solemn form of
imprecation (Dem. c. Conan. p. 1270, § 41;
Ar. Eq. 660 ; for barbarian rites see Xen.
Anab. ii. 2, 9; Hdt. iv. 70). To make the
taking of an oath more impressive it was some-
times done in temples or other sacred localities
(Plut. Mcrr. p. 218 D ; Hdt. vi. 74 ; Plut. Dion.
56, &c.).
Oathswcre taken on such occasions as treaties,
alliances, vows, compacts, and agreements,
both between nations and between individuals
(cf. II. iii. 276; Hdt. i. 69, 146; Time. v. 18, 47).
Treaties were as a rule cut in ffrrfXcu, together
with imprecations upon perjurers, and such
(TTi}\ai were set up in or near temples. Every
new constitution had to bi' confirmed and
ratified by an oath. Thus the Athenian senate
swore to observe Solon's laws for ten years
(Plut. Sol. 25; Hdt. i. 29) ; after the overtluow
of the Four Hundred, all Athenian citizens
made oath to stand by the democratical consti-
tution (Dem. c. Lept. p. 505, § 159). An oath
was imposed as an obligation upon persons
invested with authority, or entrusted with the
discharge of responsible duties. The Athenian
youth who liad completed his seventeenth year
before being registered in the \T)^iapx"<i>i'
ypafj.fjLo.Tf'iov had to take a solemn oatli in the
temple of Aglauros (Dem. F. L. p. 438, § 303 ;
Plut. Alcib. 15). All apxcd were required to
bind themselves by oath to perform their
respective duties (Lye. c. Leacr. § 79). The
archons first took the oath at the 0aai\fios
(TTod (Plut. Sol. 25), and repeated it on the
Acropolis. The aTpaTr\yoi (Thuc. iv. 66) took
their oath fjurai^v toC eSoois [i.e. the aya\fj.a of
Athena Polias] ical rrjs Tpoire'^Tjy (on which the
myrtle branches lay). The (SouAeuTai swore to
act according to the laws and for the benefit
of the Athenian people (iTDem.] c. Neaer. p.
1346, § 4; Ar. Eccl. 442, Pliit. 972); the
Ti\ia(rTai, to give a lawful verdict neither by
favour nor for ill will, to take no bribes, to listen
to both sides, &c. (Dem. c. Timocr. p. 746, § 149).
Other instances are the oaths of the judges at
the games (Dem. c. Mid. p. 520, § 17 ; Plut.
Cim. 8 ; Ai-. Eccl. 1160), the atliletes (Paus. v.
24), the demotae and all the officers of the
deme. Both the accuser and the defendant
had to swear an oath in the ' AvdKpitrug.
For other judicial oaths see Maprvpta, Atak-
TTiTa£. The importance attached to oaths in
courts of justice is proved by many passages
in the orators.
The practice of swearing in daily life was
very common amongst the Greeks, and in vain
did lawgivers and philosophers try to check it.
, Rhadamanthus did not allow swearing by the
1 gods at all, but ordained swearing by beasts
(Schol. Ar. Av. 521) ; Sokrates used to swear
by the dog (Plat. Apol. p. 21 z), &c., in order
; that he might not take the names of the gods
, in vain (cf. jm rhv with the name of the deity
suppressed, Ar. Ran. 1374; Plat. Garg. p.
466 E, etc.). Complaints about perjury are
as old as the oath itself (Hes. Op. et 1). 190
I sqq.; Eur. Iph. T. 1171; Plat. Legg.xn. p. 948,
I &c.), and the Greeks never enjoyed the repu-
tation of observing their oaths very strictly.
i The Spartans especially had (at least at Athens)
1 a bad name for violating oaths (Isocr. de Pac.
I § 96 ; Eur. Andr. 447 sqq. ; Ar. Ach. 308) ;
\ cf. the story of king Kleomenes and the
I Argives (Plut. Moral, p. 223 b), and the saying
' of Lysander, that ' if the lion's skin is too small,
it must be pieced out with the fox's' (Plut.
Lys. 7). The Cretans were proverbially per-
jurers (Callim. Hymn, in Jav. 8 ; St. Paul, Tit.
i. 12, &c.), and so were the Tliessalians (Deni.
Oh/nth. i. p. 15, § 221).
2. RoM.vN. — (i.) Oaths taken btj magistrates
or other persons ivho entered the service of the
Republic. — In the later periods of Roman
history we find evidence of an oath which was
taken by candidates immediately on their elec-
tion and before the renuntiatia was made. The
gods appealed to were Jupiter and the Dii
Penates, to whom were added later the genii of
the deified emperors. There was also a general
oath in leges, which was required of all magis-
trates already elected before entering on their
official functions, and which had to be taken
five days after entrance on office (Liv. xxxi.
50) ; and was generally taken on January 1.
Vestal virgins and the flamen Dialis (Liv. xxxi.
50) were not allowed to swear on any occasion,
unless by deputy, if necessary. During the
later Republic, magistrates, when the time of
their office had expired, swore before the people
that tliey had served the Republic faithfully
(Cic. Fa7n. v. 2, § 7, Sul. 11, pro Dom. 35).
Augustus took this oath after the holding of the
census, as it had been taken by the censors of the
Republic (Liv. xxxix. 37) ; and Trajan, when lay-
ing down the consulship (Plin. Pan. 65). Other
laws bound candidates for office to swear to
their observ-ance (Cic. Att. xi. 18, 2). Ana-
logous to the oath in leges was that which
was required to be taken during the Empire, to
observe the acta of the emperors (in rare in
acta Caesaris) ; the formula rmming se nihil
' contra acta Caesaris facturum. This oath
bound both magistrates and senate to obsers'e
. tlie ordinances of all past emperors (Suet. Tib.
! 67; Tac. Ann. i. 72, xii. 11), and was renewed
yearly on January 1.
(ii.) For the military oath see Sacramentum.
During the Empire tlie sacramentu m became
an oath of fealty to the emperor as imperator. As
j the republican soldier swore in verba consulis,
so the subjects of the emperor swore in verba
\principis or in nomen principis (Tac. Ami. i.
7). Tliis oath was only fornialiy necessary
I for the soldiers, but was often taken as a
1
I
lUSIURANDUM
voluntai"y act on the part of magistrates, bur-
j,'esses and provincials (Tac. Ann. i. 7 ; Plin.
ad TraJ. 52j. It was renewed on the anni-
versary, as well as on every new year's day
(Tac. Ann. i. H, Hist. i. 55): and it was ad-
ministered both at Rome and in the pi'o-
vinces. The form of the oath was i)robably
the same a» tliat of tiie sacranientum taken
to the repnblican imperator, with a clause luided
in which the soldiers declared their devoticjn
to the emjieror (Suet. Cal. 15 ; Dio Cass,
lix. i>).
( iii.) Oaths taken in transactions with foreign
nations in the name of the liepublic. — There
were two main forms of agreement with a foreign
nation : the .yjunsio (the formula of (juestion
and answer), and the foediis or sworn ti'eaty.
Tlie latter was usually ratified by two or more
members of the college of Fetiales, under the
authority of the magistrates of the state. The
conclusion of the terms of agreement was the act
of the commander in the field ; but after ho had
dictated or accepted the terms of agreement,
the Fetiales came forward (Liv. i. '2-1, x.\x. 43),
and swore, on behalf of the state, that they
should be observe<l. It was necessarily under-
stood that the oath which they took was taken
by the imperator (Liv. i. 24, 9), and the state
was bound by this act of magistrate and priest.
The absence of the Fetiales at the Caudine
Forks made it none the less binding, but
rendered its violation less of an open breach of
religion than would have been the case had
they been present and sworn its observance
(Liv. ix. 5). The Fetiales did not accompany
the general to the field ; and iu every case of a
treaty being sworn to at a distance from Rome,
they had to be sent to the seat of war (Liv. xxx viii.
39, 1, xxx. 44). The oath which they took was in
the form of an exec ratio, or imprecation pro-
nounced on the state they represented, in the
case of its wilful violation of the terms of the
treaty (cf. Fetiales, where the formula and
ceremonies are recorded). For the evasion of
such oaths, see Liv. iii. 20, xxii. 61 ; Cic. Off.
iii. 27.
(iv.) Oaths or various modes of swearing in
common life. — The practice of swearing in
ordinary conversation was as common among
the Romans as among the Greeks.
(1) Simple invocations of one or more gods,
as Hercle or Mcherclc, Pol, Perpol or Edejml ;
per lovem Lapidem ; per snperos ; per deos
iinmortales ; mcditis fidius ; ita me deusamet,
or dii anient (cf. Plant. Bncchid. iv. 8, 51;
Ter. Andr. iii. 2, 25). A man would swear
by his own genius, or by that of a friend, and
during the Empire by that of an emporor (Hor.
Ep. i. 7, 94 ; Suet. Calig. 27). Women as
well as men swore by most of the gods ; but
women never by Hercules, and men never by
Castor (Plaut. ^Iw;;/(i7;-. ii. 2, 210; Tibull. iv.
18, 15; Juv. ii. 98 ; Ov. Am. ii. 7, 27, ii. H, l,s).
(2) Invocations of the gods, together with an
execration, Dii me perdant {]^hi\it. Mil. (Hor.
iii. 2, 20), interficiant (Plant. Mostell. i. 3, .^5) ;
dispcreani (Hor. Sat. i. 9, 47) ; ne vivam (Cic.
Fam. vii. 23 ; Mart. x. 12, 3) ; ne salvus sim
(Cic. Att. xvi. 13), itc.
(3) People also swore by their own or another
man's head (Ov. Trist. v. 4, 45, Heroid. iii.
107 ; Juv. vi. 16), eyes (Plaut. Menacrh. v.
9, 1 ; Ov. Am. ii. l(i, 44), by their own welfare
{salus) or that of their children (Plin. Epist. ii.
•20), by the welfare of an emperor, i^'c.
(v.) For Legal oaths see Appendix, Roman
h.KVf [lusiurandum].
LABYRINTHUS SC7
lusti'tium. (Inns statio), the suspension of
certain public and private business, wliicli was
ordered by tlie higher magistrates at Rome,
when occasion seemed to demand it. Tlio
declaration of a institium was usually pro-
nounced by the highest magistrate present in
\ Rome who possessed the imperium, by the
I dictator (Liv. iii. 27, 2), or tiie consuls', and
! was generally called forth by some gi-eat jtublic
: event, such as a war, or a calamity affecting
j the whole state. But such a suspension of
business might be declared for the purposes of
party warfare ; and was often so employed
I by the tribunes. [Intercessio.] (Plut. Tib.
I Gracch. 10.)
But though a tribune might declare a sus-
pension of business on his own authority, such
I action was considered unconstitutional, both in
j regard to the purpose for which it was em-
t ployed, and in its being employed at all without
I the previous advice of the senate. As a rule
1 the iustitium was proposed only on a vote of the
senate (Liv. iii. 3, 8 ; Cic. Phil. v. 12, 31) and to
! meet certain definite contingencies. It might
I be pronounced on the occasion of a festival ; but
I the most usual circumstances that called for it
I were a sudden war or tumult us (Liv. iii. 5, 4,
vi. 7, 1; Cic. PJiil. v. 12, 31), or public mourn-
( ing, e.g. after the death of the dictator Sulla,
and generally, under the principate, on the
I death of a member of the reigning house (Tac.
A mi. i. 16, ii. 82 ; Suet. Tih. 52). The cessation
I of the iustitium (' iustitium remittere,' Liv. x.
I 21, (j) was pronounced by a decree of the same
I magistrate who had enjoined it.
I A iustitium caused the suspension of almost
: all the business of the state, including the a<l-
: ministration of justice both civil and criminal,
■ and was accompanied by the closing of the
Aerarium and the suspension of the senate's
■ sittings (Cic. Plane. 14, 33). It even extended
to private business ('claudi tabernas tota urbe,'
! Liv. iii. 27, 2 ; cf. ix. 8, 7). Necessary public
business, however, was still carried on (Liv. vi.
; 7, 11; Cic. Brut. 89,304).
I luvena'lia, or luvena'les ludi. Scenic
games instituted by Nero in .k.V>. 59, in com-
memoration of his shaving his beard for the
first time, and parsing from youth to manliood.
j lie was then in the twenty-second year of his
; age. These games were not celebrated in the
j circus, but in a private theatre (Plin. xxxvii.
j § 19) erected in a pleasure-ground (nenms),
I and consisted of every kind of theatrical per-
: formance, Greek and Roman plays, mimetic
I pieces, and the like. The most distinguished
I persons in the state, old and young, male and
I female, were expected to take part in them.
I The emperor set the example by appearing in
, person on the stage. The name was also given
to those games which were exhibited by the
emperors on January 1 in each year. They no
j longer consisted of scenic representations, but
of chariot-races and vcnationes.
La'barum. Signa militaria.]
Labnun. iBalneae.J
Labyrinthus (Ka&vpivOos : 'elpa-rohnnt* =
'the Trmplr of the Mouth of tlie Lake'
[BrugschJ. Others coiniect the word with
\avpa). A large and complicated subterranean
building, with chambers and intricate passages.
Pliny (xxxvi. § 84) notes four labyrinths.
I
368
LACERNA
(1) The earliest, largest, and most famous is
tliat of Egypt, described by Herodotus (ii. 148),
near Lake Moeris. The remains have been
found 11^ miles from tlie pyramid of Hawara,
I'll the province of Fayum. It was founded
)y Amen-emha of the I'ith Dynasty (twentieth
century B.C.). It was built in the shape of a
liorseshoe, and covered 8800 square yards, en-
closing a central court of about sixty acres.
The descriptions given by Herodotus, Diodorus
(i. 61, 89), and Strabo (xvii.), are borne out by
modern investigations. This labyi'uith had
3000 chambers, 1500 under ground and the
same number above, and the whole vv'as sur-
rounded by a wall of white stone. It was
divided into twelve courts, each of which was
surrounded by colonnades of white marble.
Herodotus was not permitted to enter the sub-
terranean part, and he was told that the kings
by whom the labyrinth had been built, and the
sacred crocodiles, were buried there.
(2) The Cretan labyrinth, which was said to
have been built by Daedalus, near Knosus, after
the model of the Egyp-
tian (Verg. Aen. vi. '27 ;
Ov. Met.' viii. 159; sea
Class. Diet, under Dak-
D.\Lus). Some subterra-
nean passages in lime-
stone rock near Gortjui
(apparently ancient quar-
ries) correspond to the
ancient description of the
Fig. f!«.— Coin of Knosus. labyrinth. Entrances of
subterranean passages,
apparently sepulchral, have also been found in
the rocks.
(a) That in the island of Lcmnos (Plin.
xxxvi. 13, § 19).
(4) The tomb of Porsena at Clusium (Pliny,
sxxvi. § 91), which has been identified with
some remains existing in a tumulus at Poggio
Gajella, tliree miles north of Cliiusi.
The garden labyrinth, or maze, is purely
modern ; but Pliny (/. c.) speaks of the word
()rMjf\j
Fig. 6i4.— Labyrinthus. (From Pompeii.)
as applied to an intricate pattern drawn or
scratched on the ground in a boyish game.
Lace'ma. [Dress.]
Laci'nia. [Dress.]
Laco'nicum. ^Balneae.]
Lacu'nar. [Domus.]
Lacus. (1) Tons.] (2) [Torcular.] (3) Also
the bath {^a.<pi]) in which the smith xaA/cei^y
or fabcr ferrarius) plunged the hot iron to
give it the harder qualities of steel. (Verg.
Georg. iv. 172 ; Ov. Met. ix. 170 ; Lucr.
vi. 968 ; Mart. iv. 55, 15 ; Plin. xxxiv. § 146.)
By this method a kind of steel {xa,Kv^, chalybs)
was manufactured as far back as the Homeric
•age (Od. ix. 391). Copper was also hardened,
Lafore the introduction of bronze. Tlie words
CToixovv, ffToyiUKTis, ffTOfiu/JM all refer to the
AAMnAAHAPOMIA
steeling effect of the fia(pi), and this corresponds
to the Latin significance of acies (cf. French
acier). (Cf. Plut. An. rat. iiti, 16, p. 988 d,
avSpfias oiov ^a<pr) ris 6 Ovfids iffri Ka\ ffrS/jLUfia,
and Soph. Aj. 650.)
There was also a practice of dipping smaller
steel implements, such as needles and brooch-
pins, in oil, to make them less brittle, as was
supposed (PUn. xxxiv. § 146); but the allusions
to ^a<p-fi in earlier Greek writers (Arist. Pol.
vii. 14, &c.) invariably (as Latin lacus) refer to
hardening or steeling.
Aaicrniov. rArms and Armour.]
AaixiraS-nSpopLia (Kafj.Trds, AauTraSoCxos
aydiv or foprr] \ajjLirdSos, Aa/U7ra5TjiJ)opia). A torch-
race, celebrated at Athens and elsewhere, in
honour of various deities, as well as in funereal
games.
At Athens we know of five celebrations of
this game : to Prometheus, to Athena at the
Panathenaea, to Heph-
aestus, to Pan, and to the
Thracian Artemis or
Bendis. The first three
are of unknown anti-
quity ; the fourth was
introduced soon after the
battle of Marathon ; the
last, towards the end of
the fifth century.
The race wai run at ^ Fie- '"«5-Torch used in
j.ne race was run at ^^ ^^^^ (From a. coin.)
night, usually on foot,
by ephebi, horses being first used in the tune
of Sokrates. The administratioa of it belonged
Fig. <M6.— Torch used in the race. (Krause.)
to the gymnasiarch [Gymnasium], and was a
liturgy involving emulation and cost. The
gymnasiarch had to provide the Kafxirds, which
was a candlestick with a shield or guard
set at the bottom of the socket. The torches
are sometimes represented as formed of thin
Fig. 647.— Torch nsed In the m«o. fKranse.)
strips of wood held together by the disk, which
served as a guard to the hand from the dripping
of the pitch ; or as in fig. 647, where the torch
has a flame, apparently from a wick steeped in
oU or liquid pitch, in the hollow at the top. The
gymnasiarch had also to provide for the train-
ing of the runners, amounting to some twelve
J
AAMOAS
ininae. The discharge of this office was called
yvfj-vaaiapx^^" A.au7ra5i (cf. Ar. Venj). 1203, lian.
1087). Tlie victdiidus gymnasiarch presented
his Aajttirar as a votive offerin{» {avadrifxa) ; the
victorious runner received a vSpia. 1
It appears that there were twf> different ^
methods. (1) Herodotus (viii. !tH) speaks of
this game to illustrate tlie Persian sj-stem 07-
yaprjioi' (cf. Phxto, Lcr/cj. vi. 770 u). Wo are
dearly to understand lines of runners (Xo;U7ra-
SiiTTai or AaM7ra5Tj4>opoi), posted at intervals •
A', B>, C, itc. I
A-', B-', C-', X-c.
A\ B', C3, etc.
.V (and similarly B', C, itc, in their own ,
orders) takes the torch from the altar, runs at ;
his best speed to the place where A- (and simi- '
larly B-, C-, itc.) is posted, and delivers the
torch to him. A- in his turn runs to the stu-
tion of A\ and hands the torch to him. The
last of the A series runs uj) with it to the
appointed spot. The victory {vlkuv \afnrd5i)
fell to tliat line of runners whoso torcli first
readied the goal alight. All the runners in
the winning line or chain contributed to the
victory, and this may be the true explanation
of the well-known lint; of Aeschylus (.\g. 314),
I'lKO. 5' d irpcvTOS Kal rfAevroLOS Spafiwv — 'the
last and the first [i.e. all alike in the chain] are
successful.' ' Tlie beacons are all victorious
because all belong to the successful chain of
light.
Another method, described by Pausanias (i.
30, § 2), was a foot-race in wliicli each competi-
tor carried a torch. Several torch-bearers are
started, perhaps one for each tribe ; the first
who reaches the goal witli Ids torch alight wins :
the competition is individual, not one chain of
runners against another.
The starting-point atl Athens was the altar of
Prometheus (or that of Eros) in the Academy,
and the course passed througli the Keranieikns
to the city {trphs ttjv ttoXiv), perhaps to the
Prytaneion under the north side of tlie Acro-
jiolis, a distance of a little over a mile. Tlie
archon basileus presided, and gave the prize.
The mounted race in honour of Bendis was
run in tlie Peiraeus.
The origin of these games may be sought in
the worship of Hephaestus, Athena, and espe-
cially Prometheus, as the patron of those arts
and manufactures in which fire is an agent.
It sliould be noted that Aa/UTra? is always in
classical Greek a torch, not a lamp.
Aajiirds. [AantraSTiSpoixia : Taeda. 1
Lante'ma (in late Latin /f//(//(a; Avxfovxoi,
'nri'6s, Ar. Pax, 841). A lantern. The frame
was of metal, the sides of horn (Lucret. ii.
388), bladder (Mart. xiv. CI, 62), or linen
(Plaut. Bacch. iii. 3, 42), and in later times
glass.
When the lantern was required for use, the
himp (lucerna) was lighted and placed within
it (Mart. I.e.). It was carried by a slave called
laritcrnartus or serviis vrarlnccns (Plant.
Amph. Prol. 149).
Perforated pitchers were also used as lan-
terns.
Lanz. (1) A general term for a metal dish,
usually a large and deep dish (Mart. xi. 31 ;
Vorg. Georg. ii. 194 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 40) used
for bringing fish or meat to the table (Juv. v.
LAKARIUM
869
80 ; Plaut. Cure. 823). Lances were used at
sacrifices (Verg. I.e., Aeii. viii. 284). Lanx is
' This slioulil strictly he x.it Tt\fVTa.'io<;. We niny
IM-rhaps render ' drst [to arrive] ifiid lust [iu the '
oliaiii].'— G.E.M. I
Kig. r>.|8.— Lantern found nt ITcrcnlanenni.
apparently only used for a metal dish, usually
of silver (Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 40; Plin. xxxiii.) :
sometimes chased or embossed {Jilicata, Cic.
.iff. vi. 1, 13). Patina is earthenware.
[Catinus.]
(2) The scales of the balance [Libra] were
called lances, and sometimes lanx ( = libra
hilanx) was used to express the balance (Suet.
Vrap. 25; Verj;. Acn. xii. 725, A'c).
La'quear. IDomus.]
Laqueato'res. [Gladiatores.J
La'qtieus. Properly a rope with a noose
in it (Verg. Gcorcj. i. 13!)), used to signify the
punislimeut of death by hanging called tri-
fonvirale suppliciinii (Hor. Sat. ii. 2, 99 ; Juv.
X. 52; Tac. A>i)t. v. 9). This mode of punish-
ment was never performed in public, but
only, in the presence of the Illviri capitales,
in prison, as in the Tullianum (Sail. Cat.
55). Hence we find laqueiis joined with career
(Tac. A7tn. iii. 50), and with carni/ex (xiv. 4H).
The punislunent was not uncommon under
Tiberius (Suet. Tib. 01) ; but in the ordinary
course of law exile was the penalty for crimes
which in old times were capitally punished,
and executions were mainly reserved for ofTen-
ees against the emperor (Tac. Ann. xiv. 48).
Lara'rium. A chapel or shrine in a Roman
house for the worship of i\w Lar familiaris or
(later) Lares. Originally this shrine, with the
image or images, was in the atrium or ' house-
place,' where the hearth stood and the family
assembled for meals ; but, when the hearth and
the kitchen were moved to the back part of the
house, the lararia were placed in some other
part of the house. At these shrines, to which
the family paid reverence as they went out or
iu, was placed a lighted candle or lamp, and
an offering of food was made at the secumhi
»/f;(.srt (Serv. ad Aen. i. 730; Ov. Fast. ii.
033 ; Hor. Cann. iv. 5, 31). The Images
of the Lares were sometimes brought to
the table ; but more usually a small table
was placed before the larariuni, with a salt-
cellar upon it (Liv. xxvi. 3(1 ; Hor. Cann. ii. 1(!,
14). According to an old Honinn custom tiie
master of the iiouso with his household mode
an olTering in the morning with prayers to the
Lar familiaris. On the occasion of J'criur
privatae on the Kalends, Nones and Ides, at>
the Saturnalia (Mart. xiv. 70), and the birthday
of the master of the house (TibuU. i. 7 ; Hor.
Carm. iv. 11, A'c), the Lares were crowned and
special offerings were made to them, and iu the
BE
370
LAEENTALIA
lararium also was hung up the bulla of the
son who assumed the toga virihs.
Larenta'lia, sometimes written Larentin-
a'lia. A Roman festival in honour of Aeca
Larentia, the wife of Faustulus and nurse of
Romulus and Remus ; celebrated on December
23 (Ov. Fast. iii. 57) by the Flamen Quirina-
lis as the representative of Romulus, in the
Velabrum, near the Porta Romanula. At this
place Acca was said to have been buried.
Lares. See Class. Diet.
Largi'tio. [Ambitus ; Frumentariae leges.]
Lata fuga. [Exilium.j
Later, dim. Late'rculus (irXtVOos, dim. ir\iv-
6is,irKivQiov). A brick. Brick was employed on
a great scale by the Babylonians (Hdt. i. 179 ;
Nahum iii. 14) and Egyptians. The Egyptians
used sun-dried bricks exclusively. The Baby-
lonians faced their buildings with baked brick
also (Hdt. i. 179), the Egyptians with stone.
The clay was carried in shovels (ft^uai) and
placed in troughs (\iKavai), to be manipulated
iopya^iiv) or trodden, and moistened with water.
It was mixed with straw, chaff {&x"Pov, Exod.
V. 7), or rushes, pressed into wooden moulds,
and dried in the sun. For cement bitumen was
generally used, but sometimes bricks were laid
moist without cement. Bricks were (1) sun-
dried /ttAiVOoi wixai), (2) kiln-bumt (ttA. birrai).
Fig. 649.— Later. (From Blumner's Techn
The usual proportions of Egyptian bricks
are: length, 3; breadth, 1^ ; depth, 1. Greek
bricks were 5 or 4 Sipa long ( = 15 to 12 inches :
see Tables, I.). No mention of bricks occurs in
Homer ; but from early times (as seen at My-
kenae) sun-dried bricks were used. No baked
liricks were used in Greece, at least till the time
of Alexander. Walls of Greek cities were gene-
Fig. 650.— Egyptian brick-makers. (From Thebes.
See .Vr. Aves, 1132-1152.)
rally of stone, but there are also instances of
sun-dried brick walls (Pans. viii. 8, § 7, of Man-
tinea ; Ar. Aves, 1136 ; Thnc. iii. 20, of Plataea ;
and Bee Xen. Mem. iii. 1, 7).
LATINITAS
I Roman bricks were uwhumt {lateres crudi)
till the end of the Republic. Raw bricks were
[ also used for dwelling-houses, baked bricks
j {lateres cocti, coctiles, Ov. Met. iv. 58) being
I onl J' used for facing. The earliest baked bricks
are found in the Rostra (44 B.C.), and even in
the time of Augustus crude bricks only were
used. The baked Roman bricks are of various
colours — red, yellow, more rarely brown. Their
1 thickness varies from 1 in. to IJ in. The com-
j monest size is 15 inches long and 14 wide.
We find baked bricks stamped at Rome in tiie
second century a.d. ; but in other parts of Italy
the stamped bricks are found earlier. These
j stamps have a figure of some god or animal, as
a trade- mark, encircled by the name of the
brick-maker, sometimes of the consul also,
and, in the case of bricks made by soldiers,
I of the legion to which they belong. For the
I methods of building with bricks see Murus
I Ind Paries.
Lati'nitas, La'tium, las La'tii Uxdnov,
AaTiov SiKatou). The Romans, after the con-
quest of Alb.". Longa, entered into an aeqmim
foedus with tlie Latini, or peoples of Latium,
who at that time were leagued together in a
federation of thirty to\vns. The attempt of
Rome to assert a sort of suzerainty over this
league led to a war which resulted in the
I Latins, though nominally remaining socii
of Rome, being practically reduced to depend-
ence on her (Liv. i. 3.5-88). After the Etrurian
I war, in 493 B.C. a new alliance was concluded
on terms of absolute equality {icroiroXinia}, the
members of the league and Rome enjoying re-
ciprocal rights of conubiiim (Liv. i. 49), ccmi-
mefcium (Liv. xli. 8), and of settling on one
another's territory with some public rights (Liv.
xxiii. 3, 16). In 340 B.C. occurred the Latin
war, wliich terminated in the dissolution of
the league : the interchange of commerciiim
and rotubium between its members ceased
(Liv. viii. 14, ix. 43, 2, 4), and the towns which
liad belonged to it were brought into a direct
relation of dependence with Rome. From tliis
time onward the Italian civitates or commimi-
ties are roughly divisible into those which ]>os-
sess the Roman civitas in whole or part (nmni-
cipia and coloniae Bomanae; see Colonia),
and those which retain their independence by
treaty, furnishing a contingent of troops to the
Roman army {c iv itates foederatae and coloniof
Latinae). Colonies called Latinae were
founded both before and after the destruction
ni the league (340 B.C.), outside the limits of
Latium. The colonists were in the main Latins ;
but among them there were often some of the
poorer Roman citizens. Latin colonies were
in a large measure independent of Rome, not
being bound to adopt the Roman law, having
their own coinage, and their citizens being, in
relation to Rome, peregrini (Gaius, i. 79 ; Liv.
xliii. 13), though oblige(J to serve in the Roman
army. As possessing the rights of conubiniii
and commerciiim, and of acquiring at least
a limited civitas by settling at Rome, they
were described as socii Latini nominis, of a
privileged order. But these privileges were
by degrees reduced to little more than com-
mercium.
Thus before the Social War there were only
two classes of persons, dues &nd peregrini, the
Latins being included under the latter denomi-
nation, along with the socii and tlie provincial
subjects of Rome. The Leges lulia and Plautia
Papiria (89 B.C.), passed at the end of that Wiir
[Civitas], extended Roman citizenship aU over
LATRINA
Italy, so tliat Latinitas in the old sense dis-
appeared. But the term was retained to denote ii
-tatus which tlie Romans conferred on towns and
rountries outside Italy by way of favour. Tlie
Krst step in this direction was made by a Lex
Pomix'ia, 89 B.C., which conferred this Latinitas
on the Transpadane Gauls, and expressly pro-
vided that the attainment of a honor should be
a title to the civitas. Latinitas was fjranted by
the emi>erors to many foreij^ii cities and tribes ;
and tlie number of communities possessed of the
same rights was increased by the establishment
of Latin colonies in the provinces after the Social
War: thus (<■.</.) Comum was made u coUmta
Latina by Caesar (i>\) n.c.) under the name of
Novum Comum. [See CoIonia.J
.\ new class of Latins orij;inated with the Lex
lunia Norbana (c. 11* .\.i).) wliicli j,'ave to a
cerUiin class of manumitted slaves the cotn-
jiifrciuiii without the conubium or the public
rigiitsof civitan: hence they were called //«</««
Inniani. The rights of cuinmrrciuin, however,
were curtailed largely in their case by statutt^s
depriving them of tlie power of making a will,
of benefiting under tlie will of another person,
and of competence to be appointed guardian
under a testiiment : consequently their property
went inevitably on their decease to the patron.
The children of a Latinus lunianus inherited
tiieir father's status. [Civitas. J
The status of Latinitas disappeared when
Caracalla (212 .\.D.) bestowed Roman citizenship
on all the free subjects of the Empire [Civitas],
jind was uljolished by Justinian.
Latri na. Domus.'
Latroci'nium, Latro'nes. See Appendix,
Roman Law.
Lau tia. Provisions and other allowances
given by the Senate to foreign ambassiulors
{ V LAV-, pro^Ksrly water to wash tlie feet). No
doubt tlie custom had a ceremonial and reli-
gious origin (Liv. xxviii. 39, &c.).
LECTICA 371
At'PTis. A vessel, large or small, made of
copper or iron, and put on a trivet (TpiVuuti
over the fire to cook (//. xxi. 302; Thuc. iv.
100; Aesch. A<j. 112'J). Also a basin for wash-
ing tlie hands of guests at dinner, which were
held above the silver Af07js wh'le wat-er wan
jxiured over them from a jug (icp6xoo%. Oil. i.i
137, Ac). l'ausanias(v. 10, (j4) sjxtaksof Af^jjTf t
overlaid with gold, set as an ornament on the
corners of the tem|>le roof at Oiympia. An urn
for holding asiies (Aes<h. A</. U4. <ti;.); a
kettledrum (Hdt. vi. f.H) ; a prize ut Homeric
games 17/. x.xiii. 259). See also Pottery
Lecti'ca (<pupf7ov or crKiuirdSiovl. A liUer or
palanquin in whicli jwrsons were carried in a re-
cnmlx-nt position, ^optia were intro<luced from
Asia, and were at Athens employed for carrying
ladies ((p.-yjcajfCfia); and soinetiniesused hymen
on account of health or lameness, or by jmrsons
of efleminate character. 'Dw ipopua were ligfit
bedsteads with mattress and pillows, and an
awning {(p. HardaTfyov) supjxirted by four posts,
with curtains. After the .Macedonian conquests
<t>opf'ia were more generally used an<l ma^ii-
ficently a<l<jrned (J'lut. Arat. 17). The bearers
were called (popfcupdpoi, and were usually four
in number.
Litters were probably first introduced into
Rome from Asia after the vict<irie« over An-
tiochus, and then used chiefly for travelling;
rarely in Rome itself. The earliest mention of
them is found in a s|iee<h of (Saius (iracchu.s.
The lectica had four posts, an arched roof (Tac.
Ann. XV. 57) of leather, with curtains (vela,
plague or jdagulae) at the sides (Suet. Tit. 10,
Tib. 64). In the Empire, lecticae were closed
at the sides with windows mivde of talc {lapis
specularis; Juv. iv. 20, iii. 239). Licticaajiertii
(Cic. Fhil. ii. 24, .IS) probably means that the
' curtains were drawn aside. The occupant of
I the lectica reclined with his heiul on a pillow,
I BO tliat he could read ami write in it with ease.
Fig. CIl.-LoeOcB 'SpoC
BB 2
872
LECTISTERNIUM
Feather beds seem to have been used (Juv. i. I
159): tlie framework and other furniture were I
olteu adorned with ivorj' and silver. The lec-
tica, when standing, rested on four feet : it was ]
curried by slaves (lecticarii) by means of poles ,
(asseres) attached to it, wliich could be drawn
out (Suet. Caliy. 58 ; Juv. vii. 122 ; Mart. ix. 1
23, 9). The assercs rested on the shoulders ;
of the lecticarii, being passed through leathern j
loops {lura) (Juv. iii. 240; Mart. li. 57) fixed |
ou the lectica; sometimes they were earned ,
lower by straps round tlie necks of the bearers
(see Suet. Otho, 6). The number of lecticarii
employed in carrj-mg a lectica varied from two
(Juv. ix. 142) to eight, and the lectica is called
hexaphoron or octophoron, accordingly as it
was ean-ied by six or eight persons (Juv. i. 64 ;
Mart. ii. 81). Wealthy Romans kept certain
slaves solely as lecticarii (Cic. Fain. iv. 12 ;
Catull. X. 16) ; and for this purpose selected the
tallest and most handsome men, and dressed
thorn in red liveries. Liburnians (Juv. iii. 240),
and Bithynians and Syrians are specially men-
tioned. The lectica was generally preceded by
a running footman called anteambxilo (Mart. iii.
46). [Cursor.]
Julius Caesar restrained the use of lecticae
to certain persons and certain days (Suet. Caes.
43). In the reign of Claudius the privilege of
using a lectica in the city was a distinction
granted by tlie emperor to especial favourites
(Suet. Claud. 28). But this privilege became
gradually a right assumed by all, and besides
]irivate equipages we hear of lecticarii pnbliri,
wlio stood ready for the service of the magis-
trates, and probably also for general hire (Juv.
vi. 853). They were of the class of freedmen.
(See also Sella.)
Lectiste'miam ((rrpwixvai). A sacred feast
at which certain of the gods were represented
as reclining {accubantes) on a lectns, each
with the left arm resting on a cushion {pul-
vinus), whence the lectus was called 2fulvi7iar.
It was Bet in the open street, and before it
was placed a table with offerings of food from
the people. Livy (v. 13) gives an account of
its origin : that it was ordained by the Sibj'Uine
books in a time of pestilence, 399 B.C. Duoviri
sacris faciendis were appointed to hold the
feast for eight days. There was a general
celebration also through the city by the citizens.
LECTUS
statues, covered with drapery, or perliaps
draped wooden figures with heads of bronze,
wax, or marble, were so arranged. The early
lectisternia were in time of trouble to appease
the anger of heaven [Supplicatio], being adopted
from the Sibj^lline books when other means
failed.
It appears that this was a Greek custom
introduced into Rome, and afterwards more or
less amalgamated with other older institu-
tions of native origin. Similar festivals were
celebrated at Athens to Zeus laiTrp and Athena
2&)T€4po; at Alexandria to Adonis and Aphro-
dite (Theocr. xv.) ; and in other places.
Fig. 652.— Pulvinar at the Theoxenia.
vase. Roil. Soc. Lit. N. S. ix.
the doors were thrown open and hospitality
offered to all comers. The deities were placed
on the couches in pairs — Apollo and Latona,
Diana and Hercules, &c. — that is to say, their
Fig. 653. — Pulvinar of a Lcctisterniutn.
Glyptothek at Munich. >
Lectus (K\ivT], Ae'xoy, fvirf)). A bed. In tlie
Homeric poems we find three kinds of beds
distinguished : (1) Ae'xos, a heavy compact
bedstead — even a fixture, as the famous bed-
stead in the palace of Odysseus ; (2) Se/xvia,
easily transportable, like a camp-bed; (3) a
' shake-down ' upon the floor, with no frame-
work at all, expressed by the words x<iA"iS<^
aropfffcu (Od. xix. 599). On the Af'xoy or
Sf'/u^'o were placed (a) }>{\yea = mattress and
pillows; (b) TonrriTes, woollen blankets, not for
a covering, but to make the bed softer : both
fi'fjyea and raiTT/Ttj were under the sleeper, and
over him were (c) x^i'^""' b^s a coverlet ( Od. iv.
296), or in the simpler kind, fleeces {Kwfa, Od.
XX. 1). Tlie word fvirf) in Homer is merely a
sleeping-place with or without a bed (cf.
Od. vii. 347). The complete bed consisted in
later times of the following parts: K\ivri,
iTTiTovoi, rvXiiov or Kv(<paK\ov, Trpo(rKe(pa\at.ov,
and ffTpwixara.
KAiVtj. though used generally for the whole
(evrrj being rare in prose), is, properly speaking,
onlj" the bedstead, and seems to have consisted
only of timbers fitted together and resting upon
four feet. At the head part there was usually
a board [avoKKivrpov or iirlKKivTpov) to support
the pillow and prevent its falling out. Some-
times the bottom part of a bedstead was like-
wise protected by a board. Bedsteads were
generally made of wood, solid or veneered with
maple or boxwood, or ivory or tortoise-shell, and
sometimes with silver feet (Aelian, F. H. xii. 29 ;
Athen. vi. p. 255).
Tlie bedstead was provided with girtlis
(t6voi), iwiTovoi, Kfipia, on which rested the
bed or mattress {Kvf(pa\\ov [kvo-], Tv\f7ov, or
tvAtj). The cover or ticking of a mattress
was made of linen or woollen cloth or leather,
and the usual stuffing (Tr\r,pa>iJ.a) was dried
reeds or wool. At the head part of the. bed lay
a round pillow {irpotrKftpaKatov). The covers
of such pillows are striped in several pictures
on ancient vases (see under Sjnnposium), and
were therefore probably of various colours.
The bed-covers were called by a variety
LECTUS
• ) JO
of names, such as eVf/SAi; uara, t(p«TTpi5€S, ' in rich houses of costly make, dyed purple
X^alvai, fni$o\ata.Sd-mSes.Ta.Tnjres. The com- ' and embroidered in gold (Attalicae vestes).
nion name, liowever, was ffrpdfiara. They The name stragnia belongs to the lower
were generally made of wool. Poor people blanket ; the upper was strictly called oper-
,s^ toriut)i.
Fig. G54.— Lectus, in wliich the usual luulms
(From a Pompeian painting.)
5 wanting.
used sheepskins. The places most celebrated
for the manufacture of splendid bed-covers
were Miletus, Corinth, and Carthage (Ar.
Jiiin.iH); Cic. Vcn: i. 34). It apix^ars that
the Greeks, though they wore nightgowns
(XtToiv ivv7}Tr,p), did not simply cover them-
selves with the arpdi^aTa, but wrapped them-
selves up in them.
Tlie bedsteads of the poorer classes ai'e
designated by the names ffKifi-Kovs, atTKavr-qs,
Kpd&^aros, xa/xewTj (Ar. Fliti. 540, Ac, Lijsistr.
916). The words xa^ewj? and x°-l^^vviov also
signified a bed of straw made on the ground
(Theocr. xiii. 33; Plut. Li/ciirg. Ki).
2. RoM.vN.— (1) Tlie beds 'of the Romans
(lecii cubiciilares) in the earlier periods of the
Republic were probably of the same descrip-
tion as those used in Greece. In later times
tlie bedstead was generally rather higli, so that
persons reached the bed by means of a foot-
stool (.sc"rt»t/ii/w() ; it was veneered with costly
woods, tortoise-shell, and ivory, or overlaid
wth plates {lamnae) of gold or silver (Mart.
ix. 231, or gold leaf (hratteae: Mart. viii. 33,
5). We liear even of massive silver bedsteads.
At the head was a sloping pillow-rest (see fig.
<;55 ; Lectica), the ends of which were supported
by an ornament called fulcrum {frons, Juv.
xi. 9.5). Tlie fulcra, which were usually of
bronze, but sometimes of richer material, elided
above in the figure of an ass's head wearing a
vine-garland and a collar. At the lower end
was a boss or medallion ornamented with the
head of the Genius (cf. genialh Icctiis and
Verg. Aen. vi. G03, 004). Many specimens of
fulcra following this design have been found
at Pompeii and elsewhere. The bed or mattress
(<orMs) with the pillow (culcita, cervical) rested
upon girths (fasciae, institae, resten or (uncs:
Cic. Div. ii. 65, 134; Mart. v. 62). The side at
which the bed was entered was open, and called
(2) Lectiis tricliniaris (for the use and
arrangement of which see Cena and Tricli
nium) was in most points like the Icciiis
cufjicularis. It was, however, lower ; at one
end only there was a raised ledge with a cushion,
on which the left arm rested. Among the
Romans it held three persons ; among the
Greeks, two. It hiul a mattress (torus) over
which coverlets of fine stuffs were thrown. The
toral was a sort of valance from the torus to
tlie ground.
(3) Lectiis genialix or adversus was the
marriage couch, to which the newly-married
were led by the pronuba. It was placed in
the atrium opposite the door (Prop. v. 11, 85).
Fig. Cw5.— Fulcrum and scnmnnm of Dronze lectua.
U'oniptii.i
The lecfus genidlis was higher than an ordi-
nary bed, and was ascended by steps. (Lucan,
ii. 356.1
(4) Lectus lunibra4orius,n(ten simply lectus
- — - ■;• -■'■ — ■■""'"1^^", ".IV. v-iiiicu or lectulus, a reading couch, smaller and no
sponda; he other side was protected by a doubt usually simple^ than k bed bu o thei^
hl^h' /"'"'•"'• 1 TY'" ''r '-'^'"''^f, 'M wise of much the same construction Hore the
head-board a one end (also perhaps called | Roman of literary habits sp.-nt much of his day!
pluteus, winch won! may mclude also the especially in the morning, reading an wHt-
meanmg of the sloping head-rest agamst wh.ch ing (Hor! Sat. i. 4, l:t3, IcrtMlus ; SuH. . L 7?)
bnnr^l Tl T ^ T"^' """? ««'"*:"'""' 1^ 'r'- <^' Lectus fu,u-bri:s, also in poets fcntul
board. The two sides arealso distinguished as the couch or bier on which the dead were
torus or sponda exterior and torus interior] ®
(Hor. is>of/. iii. 22; Suet. Jul. 49). The ordi-
nary stuffing (Co)h.»hC«7«) of the mattresses and ] ( P^
pillows was wool ; for cheaper bedding, straw I ] ^
or dried reeds (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 117). Later, I <- ^-~^='
feathers were commonly used, especially ■
for pillows ; so tiiat pluiiia is used for tiie I I
pillow itself (e.g. Juv. vi. 88). The blan- ; ^^^«- d7—\.^r^
kets or coiuiterpanes (vestes stragulae) were . fic g.v!-t^„»., . .. , . «.t=r-^rfr
" ' '= • "K- e"«-LectUBfunebrls. (Irom an ancient tombstone.)
•^.wi v.i niiiLii Liie ueuu were
874
AHKT0O2
borne. Thoy were sometimes elaborately
ornamented : e.g. the bier of Augustus was
adorned with gold and ivory (Dio Cass. Ivi.
34). iFunus.]
AtiKvGos. rAmpuUa.]
Lega'tum. Hce Appendix, Roman Law.
Lega'tus. A person despatched on an official
mission. The various uses of the word may be
reduced to two : (1) a commissioner despatched
by a magistrate, under advice of the senate ;
(2) a person formally attached to a general-m-
cliief or provincial governor, as lieutenant or
staff officer. There is no difference in consti-
tutional law. The principle of appointment
was the same in both cases, and the form was
technically the same at all times, all state
legati being in the eye of the law the messen-
gers of the m;vgistrate presiding in the senate
at the time the iLpi)ointnjj'nt was made.
1. (a) Duri)i<i the licpuhlic : Legati as State
Unvogs (legati ail aliqueinj. — The first appear-
ance of legati of this kind is in the year 456 B.C.,
when thr»'-e envoys (Liv. iii. 25) were sent to
the Aeijui ' questuni iniurias et e.v foedere res
repetitum.' Up to tliis time it would appear
thattlie duties of diplomacy and treaty-making
had been discharged by the college of Feti-
ales (Liv. i. 24). [Fetiales.j Henceforward
the function of the Fotiales seems to have been
restricted to the actual declaration of war.
Mode of Ajijioiiifiiient. — The usual and
natural metliod was for a magistrate to consult
the senate about the mission, when a senatus-
consultum would authorise him to select the
envoys (Liv. v. 35) ; in any case the authority
of the senate was needful (Cic. Vat. 15, 55).
The selection of the individual envoys
rested technically with the magistrate; but
towards tho close of the Republic the choice
was sometimes made by lot (sortitiv) from the
several ranks of senators {c(»isula res, praetorii ,
&c.) (Cic. Att. i. ly, 3; Tac. Hist. iv. G, 8),
probably as the lucrative character of these
po.sts gavi' occasion to favouritism.
Qualification. — It was the general practice
to select senators only (Cic. Att. xiii. 20, 3 ; Liv.
xxxi. 8). In almost all important missions, one
legatus at least was a consularis; the senior
legatus was jrrincrps legationis (Sail. lug. 10).
Tluoughout republican times legati were usually
ex-magistrates. Thus the legatio of 18i) B.C.
which settled terms of peace with Antiochus
consisted of three consulares, four praetorii,
and three quaestorii (Liv. xxxvii. 55).
Number. — In the earliest Icgationes, the
numb(!r of legati was three (Liv. iii. 25, G). But
we have instances of two, four, and other num-
bers, and after the Second Punic War most
embassies were of ten (Liv. xxxiii. 24). Single
legati are found from time to time (Liv. xxi.
8, 4).
Authority and Uesponsibilitji. — No legatus
could hold Imperium, for unperium could not
be delegated ; their powers may best be expressed
by the word auctontas; i.e. they acted under
the sanction of tlie home government. Being,
!U5 a rule, unable to communicate easily with the
authorities in Rome, they were in fact plenipo-
tentiaries; but on the subject of their instruc-
tions {mandata) and responsibility we know
little. They had, however, to declare in the
senate the results of their mission {e.g. Liv. xlv.
18), and might be impeached (Liv. xlii. 47).
Caesar's law de liepetinulis, of 5i) B.C., first
made all kinds of legati liable for misdoing in
their office, in so far as they had been guilty of
pecuniary corruption or extortion.
LEGATUS
Emoluments. — All legati travelled at the ex-
pense of the state, to wliich they were entitled
by virtue of the ring which they wore. [Anulus.]
Ships of war were, on important occasions,
allotted them for transport (Liv. xxx. 20). It
seems also that in the last age of the Republic
one or two lictors each were allowed them, at
the discretion of the provincial governor in
whose province they travelled (Cic. Fam. xii.
21). All were personally inviolable (Liv. iv. 17 ;
Tac. Hist. iii. 80).
Legatio libera. — The advantage and emolu-
ments just mentioned led to an abuse of the
legatio in the last century of the Republic, when
rich senators frequently had private business
and interests in the provinces. A senator could
obtain from the senate a free mission [legatio
libera) on stating the province for which he
desired it, and perhaps also the nature of liis
affairs (Cic. I.e.). Cicero made a vigorous at-
tempt in his consulsliip to abolish this prac-
tice ; but the feeling of the senate was so strong
against any reform, that a tribune interposed
his veto, and Cicero was forced to be content
] with a senatusconsultum limiting these lega-
' tiones to one year (Legg. iii. 8, 18). A law of
I tlie dictator Ciiesar confirmed this limitation ;
but the legatio libera was not abolished, and we
I hear of it under the Empire (Suet. Tib. 31).
(b) Under the Emjjire. — All negotiations with
I foreign peoples passed into the hands of the
! princeps, who appointed his own deputies by
I virtueof his unlimited 7>roft»H,s«?a/'<' imperium.
The right of tlie senate to send legati remained,
I however, in theory (Tac. Hist. iv. 0-8).
' ((•) Envojis from foreign jieoples. — The
! word legatus was used by courtesy of an
I envoy or commissioner from another state.
I All such, if coming from a friendly power,
I were inviolable, and treated with high consider-
i ation. They were lodged and boarded (locus
I et lautia.) at the public expense, and some-
times presented with gifts. (Liv. xxviii. 39).
[Lautia. J On arriving they gave in their
names to the praetor or quaestor urbanus at
the temple of Saturn (Liv. x. 45), and in due
time were introduced to the senate (senatus
datus est), where they stated the object of
I their mission ; this was done in Latin or
1 tlu-ough an interpreter. They were liable to be
questioned by individual senators (Liv. xxx. 22),
; under the usual formalities of senatorial proce-
dure ; they then withdi'ew^ to a platform outside
the Curia called the Graecostasis, wOiere they
waited until called back to hear the response of
the sena,te (Liv. xxvi. 82) ; or it was communi-
cated to tliem by a magistrate (Liv. xlv. 20).
Occasionally a committee of experienced sena-
tors was appointed to hear them (Liv. xxxiv. 57).
Envoys from a nation at war with Rome were
not admitted into the city, but, if an audience
were granted them, were lodged in the Campus
Martiu.s, and the senate met in the temple of
Bellona or in that of Apollo {extra urhem, Li\-.
xxxiv. 43). If no audience was accorded, tlu y
were required to quit the city and Italy within
I a certain time, and in their journey through
' Italy were escorted by a senator (Liv. xxxvii. 1).
The same title of legatus was used of com-
missioners from the provinces, bearing either
I compliments or complaints.
2. Legati as Staff Officers. — We have no cer-
tain notices of military legati, though they
' probably existed, in early times. But from the
Second Punic War onwards every commander
and provincial governor had legati with him
I (Liv. xxxviii. 28, 12).
LEGATUS
Mode of Appointment. — As in the case of
legati as envoys, a senatusconsultum authorised
tlie presiding magistrate to select the legati out
of the members of the senate (Liv. xliii. 1). As
it frequently liappuned that this magistrate
was a consul or praetor who was himself about
to become a provincial governor, he thus became
entitled to nominate his own legati (Sail. Jiir/.
28; cf. Plut. Flam. 3; Cic. Att ii. 18, a) : aiid
tliis mode of appointment became the usual one.
As a rule, liowever, the consent of the senate was
no doubt formally obtained. Conditions also
might be imposed liy the senate ; as in the case
of the Lex Gabiniaof (i? u.c , under which Poni-
peius received a command against the pirates
(Plut. Fomp. 2.5). Under the Empire legati were
nominated by the holder of the iuipcriuin jtro-
co7isulare, whether the princeps himself, or
the proconsuls who continued to govern the
senatorial provinces, subject to the consent of
tlie princeps.
Qualification. — The general rule was that
legati must be senators ; and this rule held good
under the Empire.
Number. — After the Second Punic War, the
number of legati in attendance on a praetor is
generally two, while a consul has tlu'ee. By the
Ijex Gabinia, Ponipeius had twenty-five allowed
him, Caesar ten by the Lex Ponipeia Licinia of
55 B.C. Under the Empire a pro-praetor had
one legatus, a proconsul three.
Duties. — No legatus could have indepen-
dent authority of his own ; all were strictly
under the orders of their chief. But legati
were frequently employed by their generals-in-
chief as commanders of division (i.e. of a legion),
and thence gained a standing position in the
army beyond that of a mere counsellor. This
first becomes apparent in Caesar's Gallic war.
From the time of Augustus onwards each legion
had its own legatus (legatus legionis), and the
governors of imperial provinces had as many
legati as legions (Tac. Ann. i. 44), all selected
by the princeps.
Legati pro praetore. — Towards the close of
the Republic legati were often deputed by the
provincial governor to act for him in some special
locality or department. Thus Caesar, who from
59 to 49 B.C. was in command both of Cisalphie
and Transalpine Gaul, used to leave the one or
the other in the charge of a legatus when he
himself was necessarily absent (Caes. B. G. i.
10). Pompeius governed his province of Spain
by legati while he himself remained in Italy.
In such cases it became the practice to style the
deputy legatus pro praetore (Caes. B. G. i. 21).
A legatus pro praetore had full power under the
auctoritas of his chief, but no technical impe-
rium.
The practice of governing by deputies with
this honorary title led directly to the system
by which, under the Empire, the princeps, as
liolder of infinitum imperuim, governed all the
provinces not under senatorial authority (see
Provincia and Proconsul) through legati pro
/</v/('/orf' appointed by and responsible to himself.
This system began in 27 B.C. From that time
down to the complete reconstruction of the pro-
vincial system by Diocletian, the imperial jn'o-
vinces were governed by legati, either of (consu-
lar or praetorian rank, according (as a rule) to
the number of legions stationed in the province ;
l>ut all alike were styled legati Augusti [or
( 'aesari.i] pro praetore.
Le'gio. The primary division of the Roman
army ui all ages. (1) Under the Kings the legion
consisted of 3000 infantry, with which were
LEGIO
875
associated 300 or 400 cavalry. Under the
Servian constitution these wereaiTanged accord -
ing to their property in classes. [ Ezercitus ;
Comitia.J
(2) After the siege of Veil (340 B.C.) it is believed
that the army was reorganised by Camillus as
follows. The legion was divided into 15 mani-
puli of 60 men each (or 80 centuriae of 30
men), commanded by the same niunber of ceii-
I uriiines, for the Hastati or first line ; 15 mani-
piili (Hi) centuriae), for the Pri7icipes or second
line ; and the same for the Triarii or third line.
The maniples of the Triarii were divided each
into three Vexilla. (Liv. vii. 8.)
Citizens of the first Servian class served as
cavalry. [Equites.J
Irregular infantry, Aeceiisi and JBoran'i, were
added extra numcrum.
(3) From 300-100 B.C. the legion may be reck-
oned at 4200 men, though its numbers often
varied from this.
They were marshalled, as before, in three
lines; but a fourth was added (211 B.C.), the
Velites, representing the former Borarii and
Accensi, 1000 iu number, light-armed skir-
nrishers.
Every legion contained 10 cohorts, 30 viani-
ples, and 60 centuries. Cohors is also used for
any detachment of infantry not serving in a
legion.
The Triarii are now also called Pilani ; the
Hastati and Principes, antepilani ; and the
Hastati, aiitesignani.
The cavah'y (iustus equitatus) attached to
each legion was 800 : divided into 10 squadrons
(turmae) and 30 decuriae. Each decuria was
commanded by a decurio and an optio. The
whole body was under an officer named 2>^'(ie-
fectus alae. Ala is the common term for the'
legionary cavalry.
The Italian allies [Socii] furnished an equal
(sometimes a much larger) number of infantry
and a double number of cavalry. Tliey were
armed and drilled as the legions, but were
divided into cohortes, not legions.
A consular army usually consisted of two
legions, which were enrolled anew each year.
[Exercitus, Dilectus.]
(4) In the time of Marius the division of the
army according to the Servian classes was
abolished, and the infantry reduced to one model
of arms and drill. The Italian allies, now
Roman citizens, were distributed into cohorts
of light-armed infantry and took the place of
the Velites. The legion was divided, as before,
into 10 cohorts, which now became the princi-
pal military unit, 30 maniples and 60 centuries.
The legionary officers were 6 tribuni who
commanded the legion in pairs by tuni ; cen-
turions and optio7tcs. The tribunes were ap-
pointed by the consul ; but after 361 k.c. some
of tliem were elected in the comitia tributa.
The time of service was now from 16 to 2(-l
years; the army was no longer a militia, but
became a professional army ; and the legions
were peiinanent, with titles and insignia, not
re-drafted every year, after the manner of the
old militia.
The strength of the legion is now from
5000 to 6000 infantry.
(5) Under the Enqiire the army is still more
bound together and to the emperor by the
Sacramentam ; and the legions were supplied
by a regular conscription in all parts of the
enqiire.
Besides the legions, the provinces also fur-
nished auxilia, divided into battalions, each
376 LEGIS ACTIO
equal in strength to a legion, and commanded 1
by 6 praefecti sociorum., nominated by the
consul, and 60 centurions.
The number of legions at the death of
Augustus was 25 ; it remained at 30 till the end
of the second century a.d., and gradually rose
to 175. The legions were usually permanently
established each in its own cantonment in the
different parts of the empire.
The strength of a legion in the early Empire
was from 5000 to 6000 men, exclusive of
cavalry ; after the second century the numbers
were greatly diminished. For further details,
see Exercitus.
Legis a'ctio. See Appendix, Roman Law,
Actio.
At UTOvp-yCa, or down to the third century B.C.
\-)novpyia, from Kiiros or \-n'iTOs( = 57ifj.6(Tios\.
*epy(t}. Certain public sei-vices, consisting
partly of money and partly of personal labour,
rendered by wealthy individuals {AeiTovfyyoi)
to the state, in Athens and other states of
Greece, e.g. Thebes and Aegina.
The idea of the liturgies was that rich men
should give their substance and labour for the
benefit of all ; the honour and glory of thus ad-
ministering to the entire nation being a suffi-
cient reward.
There were two kinds of liturgies at Athens :
tliose relating to the amusements of the city,
which were called ' ordinary ' (iyKVK\iot) ; and
others which related to the defence of the
state in war.
The ordinary liturgies were principally the
XopT)7ia, rvfiva(napxia, Aa/uiraS7j5po/uia, 'EffTt-
a<Tts, and 'ApxtOf^P'a- These offices were not a
mere tax in money upon the holder of them;
they also involved personal labour and skill.
[See XoptiYog, Gymnasium, Aa.\i.Tra.8r\-
Spo^Lta, 'EarCaCTig, OeupCa.] Every citizen
whose property amounted to three talents or
upwards was liable to be called upon to under-
take an ordinai-y liturgy ; citizens of less means
were not liable.
The extraordinary liturgies were the TptTip-
apxia, or the fitting out of a ship of war, and
the irpoii(T<popa, or advance, in time of need, of
the t la4)opd, or war-tax, due by less wealthy
citizens. (See those articles.) The Trierarchia
was the most expensive of all the liturgies,
sometimes costing as much as a talent. Hence
after the time of the Sicilian expedition it be-
came common to join two ^lersons in the per-
formance of it; and in 858 B.C. it was enacted
that it should be contributed by companies
{ffvufioplai).
The tribe was primarily responsible for the
appointment of the various Aetrovpyoi, and par-
ticularly the overseers of the tribe (eTrj/ifATjrat
TTJs (pvXris) ; and it is probable that direct elec-
tion by the votes of the tribe was not unfre-
quently resorted to.
The method of appointment to the extra-
ordinary liturgies was also connected with the
tribes; but here tlie general {a-rparriyos) was
the authority by whom the appointment was
made ; at any rate with respect to the trierarchy.
No man could be required to pei-form two
liturgies, ordinary or extraordinary, at once
(Dem. c. Lepl. p. 462, § 19) ; nor to perform a
liturgy during two successive years (p. 459, § 8).
The connexion with the tribes, in the ordinary
liturgies, existed not only in respect of the
appointment of the liturgus, but also in respect
of any victory won by his chorus of singers, his
gymnasts, &c. On the tripod which he was
privileged to put up after such a victory, not only
/E2XH
his own name, but that of his tribe was in-
scribed.
The archons were free from all liturgies, as
were also heiresses and orphans. No one, how-
ever, but the nine archons was by law free from
the trierarchy (Dem. c. Lept. pp. 462-65). Even
the descendants of Harmodius and Aristogeiton,
who were free from tlie other liturgies, were
obliged to perform the trierarchy.
Of all the customs connected with the litur-
gies, none was more singular than the custom
of 'AvTiSoais, by which any citizen who was
nominated for one of them might propose to
any other citizen equally liable with himself
and of greater wealth, either to take the
liturgy in his place or to exchange properties.
The origin of liturgies was ascribed by the
Athenians to Solon. An early date is probable ;
not later, at any rate, than the sixth century
B.C. The increase of the Athenian power during
the next century fostered them into splendour,
and produced instances such as that of KJeinias,
Nikias at Delos, and Alkibiades at Olympia.
The Sicilian disaster and the defeat of
Athens at the close of the Peloponnesian War
ruined all, and the liturgies reflected the
general poverty. It was, however, the trier-
archy that suffered most from this comparative
poverty ; this is clear from the very institution
of the (Tvfjiuopiai.
Lembus. Navis.]
Lemniscus {\t)fxviaKos). A band, properly
of bast from the lime (cf. Hor. Cnrm. i. 38, 21,
used to tie up garlands : then a riband or fillet
of wool, itc, commonly used as an ornament
attached to honorary crowns, palm-branches,
&c. (Liv. xxxiii. 33; Suet. Ner. 25; Plin. xvi.
25, xxi. 4). [Corona.]
Le'mures. ^ee Did. of Greek and Roman
Bio(jraphy and Mythology.
Lemu'ria. A very ancient festival to prn-
' pitiate the souls of the departed, celebrated at
Rome every year on the 9tli, 11th, and 13th of
May. It was said to have been instituted by
Romulus to appease the spirit of Remus (Ov.
Fasf. V. 473, &c.) It was celebrated at night
and in silence. During this season the temples
of the gods were closed, and it was thought
unlucky for women to marry at this time and
during the whole month of May (' mense malas
Maio nubere vulgus ait,' Ov. Fast. v. 490).
Those who celebrated the Lemuria walked bare-
footed through the house, washed their hands
three times, and threw black beans (which were
sacred to the infernal powers) nine times behind
their backs. At the same time they recited
the words, ' I redeem myself and myhouseholil
with these beans,' and the ghosts were bidden
to quit the house. The Lemures, as the Larva<',
represented the spirits of the wicked, ami
haunted a house for evil.
Lenae'a. [Dionysia.]
Leno, Lenoci'nium. See Appendix, Roman-
Law.
Ac(oviS€ia. Solemnities celebrated every
year at Spai^ta in honour of Leonidas.
Lepton. [Coinage.]
AtCTXT). In early times, a place for lounging
and gossip, such as the village smithy (Hes. Op.
491 ; and see Od. xviii. 329). It is probable
i that even then there were covered places,
l)orticoes or verandahs, open to the sun, which
were used as a village club. At Athens there
were several AeVxai.
In the Dorian states the word is used for a
sort of club-room and as a place for consulta-
tion. At Sparta every <pv\i] had its lesche.
LEX
Pausanias names the Ktaxv Kporavwv. and the
Afffxv TTOiKiKri. Tliey were used for business
as well as for the relaxation of the citizens, in
contrast to their severe bodily exercises (Plut.
Lye. XXV. § 55). Most famous of all was the
Lesche of the Knidians at Delplii, a court sur-
rounded by colonnades or cloisters and painted
by Polygnotus with Homeric subjects.
Lex. This term indicates generally a n7le of ■
law bindiiijj universally on the citizens of a '
state : its function (virtus) being ' imperare, •
vetare, peniiittere, punire.' In the works of '
the Roman jurists it is used to denote an '
enactment of any body constitutionally em-
1 towered to legislate, but mure properly it is
used only of the enactments of the comitia
<-enturiata.
The earliest leges of which we read, down to '
the time of Servius Tullius, were those made in
the comitia curiata. These, like other primi-
tive laws, were more or less of a religious .
character. [Comitia curiata.] The last relic ,
of them was the formal bestowal of the impe-
riam by a Lex Curiata only.
In the sense of a genuine enactment lex de-
notes the legislation of the comitia centuriata,
in which the law was proposed {rofjabatur) by
a magistrate of senatorial rank, usually a consul.
For the enactments of the plebs see Plebi-
scita. From an early period i)lebiscita came not
uncommonly to be called leges, lex becoming a
generic term, to which was sometimes added
the specific designation, as ' lex plebeivescitum '
(cf. Cic. ^);"o Tullio). Such leges or ])lebiscita
were the Leges Aquilia, Canulcia, Rubria, &c.
The term rogatio means a bill (projct dc loi)
proposed to the legislative Iwdy : hence the .
expressions popnlwm rogarc (Cic. Phil. i. 10, j
2G), 2^^''^»)ii rugare (Legg. iii. o, K), legem
rogare {Rep. iii. 10, 17), magistratum
rogare, to offer a magistrate for election
(Liv. iii. 65, vi. 42; Cic. Aft. ix. 15, 2, &c.).
The form of such rogation began with the
words 'Velitis jubeatis,' and ended, ' ita vos
Quirites rogo.' Assent was expressed in the
form ' uti rogas ' ; rejection by the word
■antiquo' (Liv. iv. 58; Cic. Of. ii. 21, 73,
Att.i.l'd). '■ Pnimulgare legem' denotes the,
publication of its terms for ])nblic information, ;
such publication being usually followed by '
ccmtiones in which the bill was explained and
recommended to the people by its proposer or
supporters (suaaores) : this promulgation and ,
informal discussion is expressed by the phrase
*■ ferrc legem' (not the formal rogare): the
general term used for acceptance is ' rogationem
accipere.' ' Legem perferre ' is to convert a
rogatio into a lex (Liv. xxxiii. 46). To repeal is :
abrogarc: dcrogare to repeal part of a law,'
ohrogarc to alter, auhrogare to add clauses. I
The Romans always adhered to the old ex-
pressions, and used few superfluous words. To '
such clauses as were intended to alter a pre-
vious lex a non obstante clause was added
(Cic. Att. iii. 23) : though the general prin-
ciple seems to have been that a subsequent lex
repealed or modified a prior lex with wliicli it
was inconsistent. The leges were often divided
into chapters {capita). In order to preserve a
permanent record, the h^x was engraved on
bronze {acs) and deposited in the Acrarium
(Suet. lul. 2H) ; but it also seems to have been
usual to cut statutes on tablets of oak { Albtuu],
which were whitened over and then fixed in a
public place for all citizens to read (Cic.
Att. xiv. 12). The title of the lex was generally
derived from the gentile name of the magis-
trate who proposed it, and sometimes from
those of both the consuls or praetors (e.g. Lex
Papia Poppaea, A'c.) : and it was sometimes
further described by reference to the topic to
which it related (e.g. Lex Cincia dc donis et
muneribus, &c.). Leges were often designated
by a collective name, as Leges agrariae, siirnji-
tuariae, &c. A law dealing witli miscellaneous
matter was called Lex satura.
The terms in which a statute was expressed
were fixed by the proposer, assisted by experts :
it was proposed to the comitia for acceptance
or rejection in its entirety, and without dis-
cussion. One important part of the lex was its
satictiu—i.e. that part of it wliich provided a
penalty for its infraction (Cic. Invent, ii. 49,
146). If the sanctio declared that the act
against which the statute was directed should
be void, the lex was said to be perfecta ; if
there was no such provision, it was iiiiperfeeta
(e.g. the Lex Cincia).
The number of leges, generally in the fonn
of plebiscita, was largely increased towards
the end of the republican period (Tac. Atin.
iii. 25-28), and Julius Caesar is said to have
contemplated a revision of them. Augustus
was careful to conduct his legislation under
republican forms, though the emperor's sanction
was expressed. The comitia assembled and
gave the force of law to the proposal submitteil
to them : most of the Leges Iiiliae were enacted
in the ordinary way, and some of those of sub-
sequent emperors down to the time of Nerva,
96-!)8 A.D.
For some reigns after that of Augustus legis-
lation was most ordinarily conducted by re-
solutions of the senate [Senatusconsultum'.
Originally senatusconsulta did not acquire
the force of law until they had been con-
firmed by the comitia, but during the last half-
centm-y of the Republic the senate asserted
and established an independent right of legis-
lation. Hence senatusconsulta, as well as ple-
biscita, came to be called leges (Ta.c. Ann. i. 15|.
No senatusconsulta occur after the reign of
Septimius Severus (193-211 a.d.). TJie consti-
tutions of the emperors were also called Irgcs.
[See Appendix, Roman Law, Constitutiones. .
(A less common signification of lex is that in
which it denotes the conditions under which
parties contract with one another: e.g. 'leges
venditionis' or 'emptionis,' conditions of sale
[Cicero speaks of Marcus Manilius" work on
sales as ' Manilianas venalium vendendornm
leges,' de Orat. i 58, 246]; 'legem traditioni
dicere,' Dig. 8, 4, 1/, 3 ; ' lex donationis,' Dig. 1,
5, 22. So ' leges censoriae ' is used to express
the conditions on which the censors let the
public property or taxes to fann. Similarly
the term is used of conditions imposed on a
testamentary disposition.)
The following is a list of the principal
Leges :
Aci'lia de eoloniis deducendis, 198 B.C. (Liv.
xxxii. '29). [Colonia.]
Aci'lia repctinularum, 102 u.c. (Cic. Verr. i.
17, 51, ii. 1, 9). [Eepetundae.]
Ae'li.\ gave every magistrate the right of
declaring beforehand his intention of taking
the omens on a fixed day, and therelty (on the
plea of their being unfavourable) of preventing
the assembly of the Comitia (obniintiaiio\.
This right was frequently exercised against the
tribunes of the people (Cic. Vis. 5, 10, Vat. 7,
9, <kc.).
Ae'lia de eoloniis deducendis, 195 b.c. (Lit.
xxxiv. 53). [Colonia.]
LEX
Ae'lia Se'ntia, passed 4 a.d., to prevent a
too free exercise of the master's right of making
his slaves citizens of Eome by manumission
[Libertus]. It contained the following pro-
visions :
(1) Slaves who had been put in irons or
powered the dictator Caesar to add to the
number of the patricii, in order to prevent their
extinction. C. Octavius was made a patrician
by this lex (Suet. Aug. 2).
Ci'ncia or Muneka'lis de donis et mune-
ribus, a plebiscitum carried by the tribune M.
branded by their masters as a punishment, or Cincius Alimentus, 204 B.C. (Cic. Att. i. 20,
put to torture on a criminal charge and con-
\ icted, or consigned to the gladiatorial school,
were not by subsequent manumission to attain
any higher status than that of peregrini dedi-
ticii [see Dediticii and LibertusJ. (2) Slaves
under thirty years of age could not in future be
numumitted so as to become cives unless the
form of manumission were per vindictam and
a sufficient reason for it were proved before a
consilium of senators and equites at Rome. By
the Lex lunia Norbana, 19 a.d., they acquired
the status of Latini, and could then obtain the
civitas [LatinitasJ. Manumission, except for
a iusta causa, by a master under age, in fraud
of creditors, &c., was declared void.
Aemi'lia de censoribus, passed by M. Aemi-
lius when dictator, 433 B.C., gave the censors a
year and a half instead of a whole lustrum for
tlie discharge of their functions, so that the
state was without censors for intervals of three
years and a half (Liv. iv. 24, ix. 33, 34).
Agra'riae. [Agrariae leges.]
Anna'les were those statutes which deter-
Senect. 4, 10; Liv. xxxiv. 5). (1) It forbade
gifts beyond a certain maximum ; but did not
avoid gifts in excess of the limit, or even im-
pose a penalty on the donee for taking the
excess: it was, in fact, a lex imperfecta.
(2) It prescribed a form in which gifts
must be made, so as to be valid. Certain
classes of donees were excepted (' Legis Cinciae
exceptae personae '), on the ground of being
connected with the donor by the tie of kinship,
betrothal, guardianship, &e. [Frag. Vat. 2913-
309).
But though the lex was imperfecta, there
were means by which gifts in violation of its
provisions could be rescinded, by the donor's
having practically a power of revocation.
Tacitus {A)in. xi. 5) refers to another enact-
ment of this statute, forbidding a person to take
anything for his pams in pleading a cause. A
senatusconsultum under Augustus imposed on
the advocate a x^enalty of four times the sum
received. Under Claudius, however, advocates
might take fees, but not in excess of 10,000
mined at what age a man might be a candidate ' sesterces for each suit ; a sum which under
for the several magistracies : if he was elected j
to one at the earliest possible age, he was said |
to become praetor, consul, &c., ' anno suo ' (Cic. j
Of. ii. 17, 59; Tac. Ann. xi. 22). The first of
them was a Lex Villia, proposed by L. Villius, [
a tribune, 180 B.C. (Liv. xl. 44), by which a man j
could be elected quaestor at the age of thirty- I
one, aedile at thirty-seven, praetor at forty, and
consul at forty-three ; with an interval in most
cases of two years. These regulations were
later modified by the substitution of ten years '
of military service ((/crew stipendia) fortheage-
iiualification; and many exceptions (dispensa-
tiones) were made. The ordo magistratuum '
or gradus {curstis) hoiborum was quaestor, tri-
bune, aedile, praetor, consul, censor. j
There were no leges annales under the
Empire. !
Anto'ni.ve. Various enactments proposed
or passed by M. Antonius after the death of
the dictator Julius Caesar (Cic. Phil. iii. 4, 9,
itc). One abolished the dictatorship ; others
related to the constitution of the indicia {Phil.
v. 5, 12, viii. 9, 27, to appeals, to honours to be
paid to Caesar at the ludi Romani, and to an
agrarian division of land.
Ati'nia, perhaps 198 B.C. [See Furtum.]
Caeci'lia de censoribus or censoria, carried
by Metellus Scipio, 52 B.C. ; it repealed a plebi-
scitum of Clodius (58 B.C.), and restored to the
censors their freedom of action in selecting the
senate [Censor].
Caeci'lia ui'dia, 98 B.C., forbade the propos-
ing of a Lex satura (i.e. of enactments relating
to different matters in one rogatio : cf. in Eng- j
lish legislation ' tacking '), lest people might be
compelled either to vote for something which
they did not approve, or reject something which
Nero was represented by 100 aurei (Suet. Nero,
17). In Trajan's time the fee could not be
taken until the work had been done (Plin. Ep.
v. 21).
Clo'dia de civibus Bomanis interernptis,
which led to Cicero's exile ; it interdicted from
fire and water [Exilium] those who had put
a Roman citizen to death uncondemned.
Cicero himself considered it a privilegium
aimed at himself (Att. iii. 15, 6).
Clio'dix fru7)ientaria, directing the free dis-
tribution of corn to the poorer citizens instead
of its sale at a low rate (Cic. Sest. 25 ; [Fru-
mentariae leges]).
Cokne'li.vk. These comprise (I.) leges passed
by Sulla in his dictatorship and (II.) other
statutes passed by Cornelii.
(I.) Cokse'llu-: agra'klve, assigning forfeited
lands to old soldiers (Cic. Bull. ii. 28, 78).
Cokne'lia do 2>roscriptione (Cic. Vcrr. i. 47,
123, Sext. Base. 43, 125-128; Plut. Sulla, 31).
[Proscriptio.j
Cokne'lia de repetundis (Cic. Bab. 4, 9).
It was under this statute that Verres was
prosecuted. [Bepetundae.]
Cokne'lia de sicariis et veneficis. The
Twelve Tables contained some regulations as
to homicide, but probably little more than a
i-epetition of the law of Numa Pompilius
which punished wilful homicide with death :
unintentional killing was atoned for under the
old religious law, and possibly by the Twelve
Tables, by the offer of a ram (Serv. ad Verg.
Eel. iv. 43, Georg. iii. 387). The Twelve
Tables also penalised incantations and
poisoning, both included under parricidium
[PoMPEiA de parricidiis^ : the murderer of a
parent was sewn up in a sack (culleus) and
they did (Cic. PAJL V. 3, 8, ^ro Do?«. 16, 41, and ! thrown into a river. The Lex Cornelia de
20, 53, Att. ii. 9, 1 : see Licinia Iunia).
Canule'ia, 445 B.C., legalised connbium
between patricians and plebeians ; so that issue
of such a marriage would in future be in the
patria potestas (Liv. iv. 1, 4, 6 ; Cic. Bep. ii.
37, 63).
sicariis ct veneficis, passed c. 81 B.C., inflic-
ted penalties not only for actual killing, but for
going about with weapons for the purpose of
murder or thieving ; for incendiarism ; for pre-
paring, having, or selling poisons for the destruc-
tion of human life [Veneficium] ; and for pro
Ca'ssia (Tac. Ann. xi. 25 ; Suet. lul. 41) em- j curing or promoting a false sentence on a capital
LEX y79
charge. The penality which it inflicte<l was Tho Twelve Tables formed the fouiulation nf
aquae ft iijilis intv.nUctiu (later depurtatiu ; legal education ; Cicero learnt them by heart as
see Exilium), to which .Julius Caesar added a boy (Z/Pf/*;. ii. 4, 23), and down to his time tiie
forfeiture ; in the case of meaner criminals,
even death.
Cornk'i.i.v indiriaria, 81 ii.c, took the
indicia away from the equites exclusively and
divided them between equites and senators
(Tac. Ann. xi. '22 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 82, 3: see
ludez).
Cokne'lia trUiunicia, HI n.i'., took away to a
chief juristic work ot the lawyer class seems to
have been their- hiterprvtntio — the extension
of the Twelve Tables to cases not strictly
within their letter. Of actual commentaries
on the Twelve Tables we hear of one by Sex-
tus Aelius Paetus Catus in his T riprrt ita, a
Work whiiii existed in the time of Pomponius
lus AelianumJ. The ilecemviral legislation,
large extent the tribunes' right of intcrcessio, tlmugh largely modificil by snbsecjuent enact-
and disabled those who had serveil this office nicnts, was not formally repealed till the time
from attaining a patrician magistracy. They of Justinian, nearly 1000 years after its first
were reinstated by tiio Lex Pompeia tribuni- establishment,
cia, 70 li.c. The contents'of the Twelve Tables appear to
(II.) Corne'i.i.v Bak'hi.v dr uinldtu, IHl B.C. have been as follows :
(Liv. xl. 1!)). I. The personal freedom and civil equaUty of
Cokne'lia C.ve'cilia dr Cn. Fompeio, 57 citizens was secured by the exclusion of all
B.C., gave Cn. Pompeius extraordinary powers , capital sentences except those delivered by the
for five years for the management of tlie corn Comitia Centuriata (Cic. Legg. iii. 19, 44,
su))ply of Rome (Cic. .4//. iv. 1, 7 ; \u\\. Epit. Hep. ii. 8G, 61); and by the prohibitiou of
civ.; Plut. Pomp. 4'J). [Frumentariae privih-gia.
leges.] II. Freedom of individual action within the
Cokne'lia de edictis, (57 ii.c, enacted that domain of private law was secured by the re-
praetors should not vary the rules proclaimed cognition of contracts and testaments,
ni their edict ii in perpetitum. by subsequent III. Certain points of private law were more
cdicta repentina, or not abide by them ' pi'ecisely defined which would otherwise have
(Cic. Verr. iii. 14, 36). [Edictum.] endangered the security of rights of property,
Corne'lh de litsti allowid betting at gym- or opened the door to harshness and oppres-
nastic exercises. I sion : e.g. (a) usucapio, [b) the law of debt, (c)
Cokne'lia dc restitucndo Cicerone. 57 B.C., j family \a\v {nianiis, patriu 2)otentiis,tutela, and
(Cic. Pis. 15, 85). coniihiuni between patricians and plebeians) ;
Cokne'lia de sponsurihiis, «1 B.C., pro- ' and (d) inheritance,
bably enacted by Sulla : to limit the amount ] IV. Caj.ital penalties (with an appeal) were
lor which a person might become suretj'
I^Intercessio.J
Cokne'lia ne quis legihns «o/ uerc^wr, passed
by C. Cornelius, tribunns plebis, 67 B.C., to
limit the dispensing power exercised illegally
by the senate ; in future such a dispensation
prescribed for false witness, judicial corruption,
incendiarism, libel, and certain other crimes
(Cic. Kcp. ii. 31).
V. Private poennc were established for
iniuria and other ofTences.
VI. The procedure in actions generally was
re(juired the presence of 200 members in the i defined and regulated, to control the arbitrary
senate, and confirmation by the Comitia | action of the magistrate.
Tributa; but no tribiuie was to be able to veto ' VII. Sanitary and sumptuary rules were laid
the proposal. down respecting interments.
Dii'lia Wak'nia deunciario fennre,^Tyl B.C., Fla'via agka'kia, tiO n.c. By this the tribune
establishing or confirming !i rate of interest at ' L. Flavins proposed a distribution of lands
.s^ per cent. (12 unciae to 100 ussen) per annum ! among Pompeius' soldiers (Cic. .1//. i. 18, 6).
(Liv. vii. 16, I'J). ! G.^bi'ni.v dc uno iviperatorc, iVc, passed
Dlo'decim TabulVbitm, Lex. For the cir- j by Aulus Gabinius, 67 B.C., conferring extra-
cumstances of the enactment (4-li» n.c.) of the j ordinai-y powers on Cn. Pompeius for con-
Laws of the Twelve Tables .sec Decemviri
They are mentioned by the Roman writers
under a variety of names (e.g. LegcH Decern vi-
rtilcs, Leges Duodecini, or Ice or leges simply);
and are spoken of throughout Roman history
as the fundamental element of the system.
There is no reason to doubt the stf>ry of the
embassy to the Xlreek states; and the foreign
source of some of the laws was acknowledged
by the Romans themselves. Hut the main
body of the laws was doubtless nf Roman origin.
The law as previously established seems to
have been handed down by oral triwlitioii ; and
it is certain that the plebeians had suffered
from having no certain or full knowledge of it.
What they desired primarily was a plain and
clear statement in writing of the law as it
stiK)d ; it was only in the ius }>uhlicii>n tliat I
they wished for so inucli changi' as was recjuirfd
to place the two orders on ii tolerable e<|Uality
in respect of civil and political rights.
The laws were cut on tablets of bronze and
put up in a public place (Liv. iii. 57). It is
coniinonly supposed, but witliout sufticicnt
ground, that they were destroyed in the burn-
ing of the city by the Uauls (see Liv. vi. 1).
ducting the war against the pirates (Plut.
Pomji. 25; Cic. Leg. Man. 17-r.»).
Gem'cia de/cnorr, 843 B.C., forbade taking
interest for the use of money (Ijiv. vii. 42; Tac.
Ann. y{. llj). It was persistently evaded (Liv.
XXXV. 7), and eventually altogether disregarded
(Plut. Cat. Mai. 21).
Hoka'tia, 44!) B.C., made the i>erson8 of the
tribunes, aediles, and decemviri sacrosancti
(Liv. iii. 55). [V.vlekiae et Hokatiae.]
Hokte'nsia (//• plebiscitis, 287 B.C., enacted
' ut eo iure quod jilebs statuissetoniiius Quirites
tcncrenlur.' [Plebiscitum ; Pi'blilia>: leges.]
Ici'lli de Aeentino piihlicando, 460 B.C.,
granting the Aventine, hitherto [)osse88e<l by
the patricians, as a dwelling-pla<"e t<i the plebs
(Liv. iii. 31, 32).
Ici'lia de secessionc, 440 B.C. (Liv. iii. 54).
Ici'lia tkibijni'cia, 4f.i) bc, against interfer-
ence with a tribune in the exercise of his con-
stitutional powers (Cic. Sest. 39, 84).
Iu'liae i.EdKs, mostly passed in the time of
C. Julius Caesar and Augustus : among them
are :
Iu'lia aoba'ria, 59 «.c., provided for an
j assignment of , lands in Campania (whence Lex
880
LEX
Campana in Cic. Att. ii. 18) to the Pompeiau
veterans and the poorer citizens generally.
Iu'lia de adiilteriis, 17 B.C. [Adulterium.]
Iu'lia de aiiibitu. [Ambitus.]
Iu'lia de aiutoiia, directed against attempts
to raise in any way the price of corn, and mak-
ing it a criminal offence.
Iu'lia de bonis cedendis, to relieve insolvent
debtors by enabling them to make a cessio
honoruDi to their creditors, and so escape
manus iniectio and bonorum venditio (Caes.
j3. C. iii. 1; Suet. lid. -12 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 16;
Gaius, iii. 78).
Iu'lla de civitaie, 90 b.c. (Cic. Balb. S,
'21; Gell. iv. 4,3). [Civitas; Foederatae civi-
tates.]
Iu'lla de fenore (or de pecimUs nmtuiis or
creditis), passed by Julius Caesar when
dictator, 49 B.C. It compromised the claims of
creditors and debtors, by estimating property at
the value it had held before the depreciation
occasioned by the Civil War, and compelling
the creditors to take it at this valuation ; and
by allowing debts to be discharged without
payment of the accumulated interest. The
creditors lost about one-fourth of what was
their due (Caes. B. C. iii. 1 ; Suet. ltd. 42 ;
Plut. Caes. 37).
Iu'lia de maritandis ordinibus. [Iulia kt
Papia Poppaea].
Iu'lla de provinciis, passed by Julius
Caesar ; it limited the govei'norship of a
praetorian province to one year, that of a con-
sular province to two.
Iu'liae iudu'ia'biae. One of Julius Caesar
deprived the tribuni aerarii of their share in
the iudicia pablica (Suet. lul. 41 ; Cic. Phil.
i. 8) ; others, more probably of Augustus than
Julius, instituted an ' album selectorum iudicum '
for the hearing of civil causes (Suet. Aug. 32).
[ludex.]
Iu'lia maiesta'tis (Cic. PJdl. i. 9, 23).
[liaiestas.]
Iu'lia et Pa'pia Pt)i'PAE'A. Augustus appears
(28 B.C.) to have issued an edict (Tac. Ann. iii.
28) on the subject of marriage, which he fol-
lowed up (18 B.C.) by proposing a law to the
senate regulating certain marriages, imposing
disabilities on unmarried persons (cat'lihes),
jind establishing rewards for those wlio had
married and reared children. This he carried
through the senate, but it was rejected at tlie
Comitia, owing to the resistance of the equites
(Suet. Auff. 34). Towards the end of his reign,
however (3 A.n.), he succeeded in carrying it,
with its rewards increased and its penalties
mitigated : it is referred to in the Carmen
Saectdare of Horace, which was written 17
B.C. ; and is mentioned under tlie name Lex
Iulia de inarifandis ordinibiis. Augustus
passed (9 a.d.) another statute (called Papia
Poppaea from the consules suffecti for the
year, M. Papius Mutilus and Q. Poppaeus
Secundus; Dio Cass. Ivi. 1-10), containing
further enactments on the same subject. These
two laws are commonly spoken of as one, under
the title given above.
Among the enactments of these statutes are
the following :
(1) Prohibition of certain marriages under
penalties : viz. of ingenui with infanics ; of
senators with freedwomen, &c.
(2) Avoidance of conditions against marriage
annexed to legacies and inheritances.
(3) Provisions to encourage marriage. Cae-
libes were disabled from taking either as heirs
or as legatees under a will unless the testator
1 were related to them within the sixth degree,
or unless they married within 100 days (Suet.
j Aug. 34). Males were released from its pro-
! visions in this respect on attaining sixty,
1 women on attaining fifty years of age ; but
; Tiberius enacted that they should be regarded
j as caelibes in perpetuity if they postponed
marrying till so late in life. Males escaped the
I penalties of orbitas by having a single (even
j adoptive) child (Juv. xix. 83, 86-89), but women
I were not so well off, ingenuae being released
I only by three, libertinae only by four children.
j Legacies and inheritances which could not be
taken owing to these provisions of the Lex
Iulia or Lex Papia Poppaea, became caduca
[Bona caduca].
i After this date it became not unusual to obtani
; a gi'ant of a fictitious ins liberoram by special
favour from the senate, and later from the
emperor (Suet. Claud. 19).
The penalties of caelibatns and orbitas were
abolished by Constantine and his sons.
Iu'lia the.vtra'lis (Suet. Aug. 40) permitted
Roman equites to sit in the fourteen i-ows of
the theatre appropriated to them by the Lex
Ruscia the.\tk.alis, 67 b.c.
Lici'ni.a.e. In 375 b.c. C. Licinius Stolo and
L. Sextius, two of the tribunes of the plebs,
proposed a number of rogationes in the inter-
ests of the plebeians (Liv. vi. 35). The latter
were aggrieved by tlieir practical exclusion
from the chief magistracies : but they were still
more distressed by the burden of their debts,
and in comparison with the patricians were
taxed out of all proportion to their real means
(Liv. iv. 00, v. 10) ; they were largely in debt to
the other order, which was" rapidly buying them
out of their land (Liv xxxiv. 4), and cultivating
its new acquisitions by slave labour.
The Licinian rogation which was intended to
settle the financial question proposed that all
sums which had been paid by way of interest
should be struck off the capital debts, and that
three annual periods should be allowed for the
])ayment of the residue (Liv. vi. 85, 39). Tlie
second {de modo agrurum, Liv. xxxiv. 4) ]ne-
scribed a limit upon ownership, or more probably
occupation (possessio) of ager jmblicu.i beyond
500 iugera of land and a proportionate right of
pasture. Some hold that the prohibition ex-
tended to ownership and^jossss.s/o alike. It was
also proposed that a certain number of frei;
persons should be employed on every estate.
A third rogatio was for the abolition of tlie
! military tribunate and for the election of one of
' the consuls every year from the ranks of tlie
1 plebeians (Liv, vi. 35, vii. 1, 21, 22). The
patricians prevented the enactment of these
rogations by inducing the other tribunes to veto
them.
In 368 B.C. the same two tribunes proposed,
and carried [in 366 B.C.] a new ro/za^ro that there
' should be a collegium of decemviri for the cus-
tody of the Sibylline books, and that one-half of
these decemviri should be plebeians (Liv. vi.
' 42). In the next year (365 B.C.) the three
original rogations were at last carried to-
gether in the form of a Lex satura (Liv. vii.
; 39), and L. Sextius was elected consul, being
I tlie first plebeian who attained that dignity.
The patricians retained the monopoly of the
praetorship (urbana).
1 The penalty fixed for an infraction of the Lex
j Licinia de modo agrorwm was an arbitrary fine
I sued for before the populus by the plebeian
aediles. The history of the later agi'arian
I legislation, however, makes it clear that in some
LEX
881
way or other tlie Lex Licinia de mode agroruui
was persistently evaded. [Agrariae leges.]
Lici'nia Mu'cia de civibus regundis (pro-
bably redigutidis), passed 95 B.C., ordained a
strict e.xaniiniition into the title to citizenship
Pe'di.v, 44 B.C., interdicted from fire and
water all who hud taken part in the murder of
J ulius Caesar.
Pekfkct.v ; Impekfkcta. See above, p. 377, b.
Petuo'nia, S'J B.C., forbade masters to make
(for many non-civvs had contrived to get them- | their slaves fight with wild beasts, unless they
selves put on the census), and ordered back to | had committed some serious offence, and the
their own civitates all who could not make out i magistrate had assented to their being so
a good title. This measure partly led to the , treated.
Marsii- war (Cic. oy. iii. 11, 47, ibes?. 13, 8(»|. ! Plau'tia or Plo'tia ildicia'kia, 89 B.C.,
Li'viAE. Various enactments carried by M. ' enacted that fifteen persons should be selected
Livius Drusus the younger, when tribune, I annually from each tribe, without reference to
91 B.C., for establishing colonies in Italy and I their rank, to act as judges in criminal trials.
Sicily, distributing corn umong the poorer Pokte'i.ia, a plebiscitum of 358 b.c. : the
citizi'iis at a low rate, and admittnig the/of(/r- ! first law against (unbitiis (Liv. vii. 15).
ratnc civitates to the K(jmau citizenship. He ' Poiiimo'ia. MU u.c, passed by Cn. Pompeius
was also the author of a,lfx iudiciaria,Ai\'\d,nv^ | Strabo, father of Cn. Pompeius Magnus, when
the indicia ecjually between the senate and the consul : it conferred Latin rights I Latinitas] on
eijuites (Liv. Epit. 70 ; Cic. Cluent. 5(5, 153), i the Transpadani, and probably the civitas on
and instituting a penal procedure against the Cispadani.
Pomi'e'ia de ambitu. [Ambitus.]
PoMPEiA de imperiu Caesari j/rorogando,
55 B.C. (Cic. F/iil. ii. 10, 24).
Pompe'ia de iure viagistratuum (Suet.
lid. '28; Cic. Phil. ii. 10, -li) forbade candi-
judges who allowed themselves to be bribed.
Drusus was assassinated, and the senate de-
clared his laws not binding.
"iilkiAi'iA.K Jinium regit ndoriint ('? 110 B.C.) re-
enacted the provision of the Twelve Tables,
that a space of five feet along tlie boundaries of dature for public offices by persons who were
landed estates should be excluded from usu- i not at Rome : C. Julius Caesar bein" excepted,
capio, and ordained a new procedure in cases of This was doubtless the old law, but it appears
dispute (Cic. Lcgg.i. '21, 55). [Agrimetatio ; to have become obsolete.
Appendix, Roman Law, Usucapio.J Pompe'ia de 2'arricidii.'i, 5'2 b.c. [Parrici-
Mani'lia, proposed by the tribune C. JIani- diuni.J
lius, (50 B.C., and conferring on Cn. Pompeius the Pompe'ia de vi, a privilegium relating to
command in the war against Mithradates. It the trial of T. Annius Milo by a (7Maei■h■oe•ar^m-
was supported by Cicero when praetor in his ordinaria for killing P. Clodius, though there
s\}eec\\ jjvo lege Maitilia. j was a q. perpetua for offences of this class
Ma'nlia de viccsi/iin vta^iumissoruvi, 357 i (Cic. Fhil. ii. 9, •2'2).
B.C., imposed a tax of one-fifth {vicesiina) on the Pompe'ia tribunicia, 70 b.c, restored the old
value of all manumitted slaves (Liv. vii. 16; , tribunicia jJOtestas, which Sulla had almost
cl. xxyii. 10). [Manumissio.j \ destroyed (Suet. lul. 5). [Tribuni.j
Ma'kia, proposed by C Marius, when tri- Pi.bi.i'lia, proposed by Publilius Volero,
bune 119 B.C., for narrowing the 7;o»t<es at elec- ' when tribmie, and carried 471 b.c It pro-
tions (Cic. i/cj/jf. iii. 17, 38 ; Plut. J\/«nMs, 4). vided 'ut plebeii nuigistratus [tribunes and
Me'nsl\ or MiNi'ciA enacted that the children plebeian aedilesj tributis comitiis fiereut ' (Liv.
of parents, either of whoni was a peregrinits, ii. 5G) ; i.e. regulated the forms of election by
should be 7;t'regfrrni themselves. the plebs. One feature of this law was the
Ogu'lnl^, proposed by two Ogulnii who omission of augural and other religious cere-,
were tribunes 300 B.C. : it increased the number monies. By the same enactment the number
of the Pontifiees and Augurs from four each to of the tribunes was raised from two to five
eight and nine respectively, and enacted that ; (Liv. ii. 58), and 454 b.c to ten (Liv. iii. 30), who
four of the former and five of the latter should j were elected in equal proportions from the five
be taken from the plebs (Liv. x. G-8).
Op'pia, 215 B.C. (Liv. xxxiv. 1, 8). [Sumptu-
ariae leges.]
Pa'pia Poppae'a. [Iulia et Papia Poppaea.]
Papi'hia or Iu'lia Papi'ria de inultanini
arstiinatiunc, 430 B.C, substituted money fines
for those in cattle and sheep, a slieep being
valued at ten, a bullock at a hundred asses (Liv.
iv. 30; Cic. Rep. ii. 35).
Papi'jua de cotisecratione aedium, c. 303
B.C., (Miacted that no land, temple, or altar
should be consecrated without a plebiscitum
(Cic. pro Doni. 49, 50; Liv. ix. 4(5).
classes of the Servian constitution ; this change
was acquiesced in and perhaps even suggested
by the patricians. Possibly, too, the office of
tribune was opened to the patricians, two of
whom appear to have been tribunes in 448 B.c
(Liv. iii. (55);
When Publilius faih-d in the first attempt to
carry his measure, he added a fresh provision,
enabling the Couiitia Tributa to discuss and
resolve on matters of public importance,
and establishing the tribune's right 'cum plebe
agere,' i.e. to propose and carry resolutions in
, the Comitia Tributa. This was carried along
Papi'hia de sacramento, a plebiscitum of L. with his earlier jiroposal : it thus became easy
Papirius, providing that the Ires viri cajiitale.i ^ for the tribunes to unite the plebeians on anv
should be elected by the people, and should j matter on which they had to vote in the
exact from unsuccessful litigants the stake j Comitia Centuriata, and also to consult them
{sacrainentum) which they lost in the /<!gi« as to the submission of propo.sals for legislation
actio of that name, and which was forfeited to to the senate : these, if approved, could then be
the aerariuni. referred in the ordinan,- way to the centuries,
Papi'hia Plau'tia, 89 b.c, enacted that all and thereby become genuine enactments (/e<7(s)
rives andincolae o( focderatae civitate.H, domi- of the sovereign populus. See Pubuliae and
ciled in Italy, should be able to obtain the
Roman civitas by giving in their names to the
)>raetor urbanus at Rome within sixtv days
(Cic. Arcfo. 4 7, Fam. xiii. 80). [Civitas ;
Foederatae civitates. I
Plebiscitum.
Pi hli'liae i.eoes. Three laws carried 339
li.c. by the Dictator Q. Publilius Philo ; their
substance is described by Livy (viii. 12; : (1)
' Ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent ' : (2)
S82
LEX
' Ut legum quae comitiis centuriatis ferrentur
ante initum suffragium Patres auctores fierent : '
(3) ' Ut alter utique ex plebe censor crearetur.'
The first of these seems to stand in connexion
with one of the leges Valeriae Horatiae, 449 B.C.,
which enacted ' ut quod tributim plebs iussisset
populum teneret ' (Liv. iii. 55) : i.e. restored
the Comitia Tributa after the second secession
of the plebs, and perhax)H also provided that
plebiscita relating to matters of private law
should have the force of statutes, without con-
firmation or enactment by the centuries, but
retaining the sanction of the Patres [Auctoritas
Patrumj. It is possible that it merely re-
enacted the Lex Valeria Horatia, as our early
charters often repeat former charters. Li
339 B.C., the patricians having come to take
regular part in the business of the Comitia
Tributa, confirmation by the centuries must
have seemed a superfluity in any case ; and
accordingly the first Lex Publilia seems to have
dispensed with it for all plebiscita whatsoever.
They still, however, required to be sanctioned
by the senate before they acquired complete
validity; but the necessity of this seems to
have been abolished by the Lex Hortensia,
287 B.C., which enacted ' ut eo iure, quod plebs
statuisset, omnes Quirites tenerentur.' There
is, however, great difference of opinion as to the
real import, and relation to each other, of these
three leges, which, if literally taken, seem all to
liave enacted the same thing. [Comitia; Plebi-
scitum ; Auctoritas Patrum.]
Re'gia, properly Lex dc imperio priticipis.
[Imperium.] Augustus united in his own
person most of the republican powers and
magistracies, though they were bestowed upon
him by the populus separately and at different
times. [Princeps.] Tlie practice of investing
the emperor with these various powers or autho-
rities by distinct leges was followed for a con-
siderable time. It was not till the time of
Alexander Severus tliat the whole of the
imperial powers (including the proconsulare
imperium, the principatus senatus, and the
tribunicia jjotestas) were conferred on the
emperor by one enactment ; but from his time
the practice became usual, the formal impe-
rium, however, being bestowed first by a sepa-
rate resolution of the senate.
The phrase ' lex regia ' does not appear to
occur before the third century. (See Tac. Hist.
i. 57, iv. 3, 6 ; and Merivale, Hist. chap. 31.)
Ro'sciA theatr.\'lis, carried by the tribune
L. Roscius Otho, 67 B.C., assigned to the equites
the fourteen rows of seats in tlie theatre next
to those of the senators, who sat in the orchestra
by a kind of prescriptive right (Liv. Epit. xcix. ;
Cic. Mur. 19, 40, Att. ii. 19 ; Juv. xiv. 324 ;
Hor. Epod. iv. 16).
Rupi'liae. These are not leges proper, but
regulations for the organisation of Sicily, judi-
cial and otlierwise, comprised in a decretum
issued by P. Rupilius, its proconsul (131 B.C.),
(Liv. xlv. 17), when the organisation of a pro-
vince was being settled (Cic. Verr. ii. 13, 16, 40).
There is frequent mention in Cicero's speeches
against Verres of the regulations (leges) of
Rupilius.
Sacra'tae (Liv. ii. 33, 41, &c. ; Cic. Off. iii.
31, 111, Legg. ii. 7, 18, &c.). The term seems
properly to have been used of laws to which a
religious sanction was attached, so that the
person who was convicted of violating tliem
became sacer : i.e. consecrated to some deity,
witli his family and property. This was termed
■ sacratio capitis, and a person so devoted might
be slain without impiety: si quis eiini qui eo
jilebei scito sacer sit occiderit parricida ne
sit. Among such leges sacratae were the Ijcx
\a\er\Si de provocatione, the statute affirming
the inviolability of tribuni plebis (Liv. ii. 8, 33,
, iii. 55 ; Cic. Legg. iii. 4, 11), and the Lex IcUia
1 de Aventino (Liv. iii. 32).
j Sa'tuba. See above, p. 877, h.
: Sempro'nia agba'ria, carried by Tiberius
Gracchus when tribune, 133 B.C. In settling
: its provisions he was aided by the advice of
: Crassus, Mucins Scaevola, and Appius Claudius
(Pint. Tib. Gracch. 9) ; their main objects
bemg to relieve the poverty of the humbler
Roman citizens, and to establish a population
of free and independent yeomen over the vast
tracts of public land in Italy, which were
' sparsely peopled by shepherds, herdsnien, and
a few slave cultivators. Its main enactment
1 was a repetition of the Licinian law (see above)
that no person should occupy [possidn-e)
; more than 500 iugera of ager publicus ; adding
to this holding 250 iugera for each of two
I sons ; but in no ease was the public land helil
in one hand to exceed 1000 iugera. From the
J estates recovered from the present tenants^
holdings were to be provided for the poorer
I and landless citizens, which they were to have
no power of ahenating or even letting ; tlie
taxes assessed on the land were to be jiaid by tlie
tenant. The execution of the statute was en-
trusted to a commission of tluree, which was to
be elected every year, the first three commis-
sioners being Tiberius Gracchus liimself, his
brother Gains, and his father-in-law App.
; Claudius Pulcher ; but it was attended witli
great difficulties, partly in consequence of the
neglect of vested interests where persons had
held portions of ager publicus"" for generations
as private property. Proposals were originally
made for compensation for buildings and uii-
exliausted improvements, but were withdrawn.
Thb execution of the measure was stopped by
a senatusconsultuin wliich extinguished the
powers of the commissioners; but it was
revived by the Lex Sempronia of C. Gracchus,
123 B.C. The senate, however, practically
rendered it a dead letter by employing M. Livius
Drusus, another of the tribunes, to bring for-
ward agrarian proposals even more popular
with the proletariate than that of Gracchus ;
especially one permitting alienation of the
holdings, whereby the new tenants got money
instead of land, and the rich were enabled to
buy back the estates of which they had been
temporarily deprived. (Plut. C. Ghracch.)
[Agrariae leges.]
Sempru'nia de capite civium, carried by
Caius Gracchus, 123 B.C., reaffirmed the old
legal principle that no judgment should be
jjronounced mvolving the life or freedom of a
citizen without the assent of the Roman people
(Cic. Cat. 4, 5, Verr. v. 63, 163).
Sempro'nia de provinciis consularibus,
passed by C. Gracchus, 123 B.C., enacted that
before the election of consuls the senate should
in each year determine the two provinces which
they were to have at the termmation of their
year of office ; which of the two each was to
take was to be settled by them afterwards by
lot (sortiri) or othei-wise (comparare inter se ;
Liv. xxiv. 10, 2, &c. Sail. lug. 27 ; Cic. pro
Dom. 9, 24, Balb. '11, 61, Fam. i. 7, lo).
Sempro'nl*. de suffragiis, passed by C.
Gracchus, enacted that the order in which the
centm-ies should vote should be determined by
lot.
LEX
Skmi'uo'nia irniciA'RiA, caiTie<l by C. Gruc-
chuB, 1'2'2 H.C., took the iuilicui publica from tlie
senate and transferred tliem to the equites (Cic.
I'err. i. 13, 40; Tac. Ann. xii. GO).
Sekvi'i.ia agha'kia, hrouglit forward by the
tribune P. Servilius Rullus, (iS ii.c, proposed to
divide certain lauds in Campania aniiin<; the
poorer citizens (Cic. Jiiill. 2, iJH), to compensate
:l11 who liad been robbed of their jnoperty by
.'>ulla by the sab' of all tlie a^jer publicus in
Italy and the provinces, and to purchase lands
111 Italy for the poor with tlie money derived
from the recent conquests of Pompeius. It
was successfully opposed by Cicero as consul,
but was carried in substance by Julius Caesar,
•M) 11. c. (Cic. Fis. 2, 4, Fam. viii. (5, .") : see
luLiA a<;r.uua).
Sekvi'lia iudicia'kia, lOCi li.i'. ; by this the
consul Q. Servilius Caepio restored to the
senators tlie monopoly of the iudicia publica of
which they had been deprived by the Lex
Senipronia iudiciaria (Tac. Ann. xii . CO ; Cic.
Bnit. 43,44, 80, Clucrd. 55, 151); it was re-
jtealed by the Lex di'. repetundis of Servilius
Olaiu'ia [Bepetundae].
Sulpi'ciak, proposed by the tribune P. Sul-
picius Galba, HH b.c, and enacting the recall of
the Marian exiles ; conferring the command in
ilie Mitliradatic war on Marius in lieu of Sulla,
and pi()hil)iting senators from incurring debts
beyond 20,000 asses (Plut. Sulla, H).
Tebenti'lia, the proposals of the tribune C.
Terentilius Arsa (4(52 B.C.), which led to the
enactment of the Twelve Tables (Liv. iii. 9, 10).
[DuoDECiM Tauul.uilm, LkxJ.
Testamknta'uiae. See Appendix, Roman
Law. Testamentum.
Tiio'kia. This agrarian law, proposed by a
lr;bune named Sp. Thorius (Cic. Brut. 3(>, 130;
ill- Orat. ii. 70, 2H4), was one of threi; statutes
passed to complete tlie legislation of M. Livius
Drusus, 122 B.C. The first, passed 121 B.C., 1
apparently confinned the enactment of Drusus i
which permitted the sale of lands assigned to
' he poorer citizens under the law of Tib. ]
(rracchus; the second (Lex Tlioria), 11!) or |
118 B.C., prohibited all future distributions of j
ager publicus, abolished the lllviri agris j
ilandis a.s.signandis, and confirmed tlie old '
/tossfssorrs in their holdings subject to the
payment of a tax (vcctigal), wliiih was to be
divided among the needier citizens in lieu of .
land; the third. 111 B.C. (Sail. lug. 32, 33), |
relieved the jiossrssares of this tax altogether.
Tribl'ni'cia. Plebiscita are commonly de-
scribed as ' leges tribuniciae ' ; but the term is '
also applied by Cicero (Vt-rr. i. 1C>, -i'l) to the
lex by which Pompeius restored to the tribunes
the powers of which they liad been shorn by
Sulla.
Tu'llia de ambitu, carried by Cicero 03 B.C.
{Mur. 3, 23, 82, &c., Sest.CA, 163). TAmbitus.'
Tu'lma de liberis legationibus. [See Lega-
tus.J
Valeria de aere alifno, carried HO b.c. by j
L. Valerius Flaccus, reducing all debts by
three-fourths (SAll. Cat. 38 ; Cic. Font. 1, 1). I
Vale'ria de Sulla diet afore, carried by L.
Valerius Flaccus, 82 B.C., giving the force of '
aw to all Sulla's actB (Cic. Leg. Agr. iii. 2, 7 ;
Plut. Sulla, 33).
Vale'riak, proposed and carried, r>OM ii.c, by
the consul P. Valerius, known as Piiblicola or
Poplicola. Tlie first of his laws is that which
enacted that every citizen, whether ])atrician or
pl(;b<!ian, should have an apj>eal ( profntiitiu) to
the Comitiu (probably crnturiata] from any
LIBELLUS
383
sentence by which lie was condemned to death
or flogging (Cut. Hep. ii. 31 ; Liv. ii. ;!0), or to
payment of any line larg.-r than two sheep and
five oxen (Plut. Popl. 11). The right of appeal
only applied to Rome and its precincts within a
mile of the city ; beyond which boundary the
iiiiperium of the consuls was unliniited (Liv.
iii. 20). The second Lex Valeria of Publicola
declared anyone sacer who fonned designs to
grasp the kingly power (Plut. Pupl. 12).
[Sacer.]
Vai.e'riae Hoba'tiae, carried, 44» U.c, by
the consuls L. Valerius Potitus and M. Hora-
tius Barbatus. For one of the.se, relating to
the binding force ol plebiseita, tma Vvui.iia.kv.
leges, a second was intended to secure the
principle of the Lex Valeria dr prmuirationr
that appeals should lie from all magistrates
without exception (Liv. iii. 55; of. Cic. Hep. ii.
31, 54).
A third Lex Valeria Horatia made ' sacro-
sancti ' the persons of the plebeian tribunes and
aediles (Liv. iii. 55) : anyone wiio violated the
enactment being made 'sacer' to Jupiter, and
his property confiscated to the temple of Ceres
and Liber.
V.vn'NiA de iviperio C. Cuesaris, carried, 5'.)
B.C., by the tribune P. Vatinius, conferred on
Julius Caesar the province of Cisalpine tlaul,
with lllyricum, for five years ; Gallia Trans-
alpina was subsequently added by a senatus-
consultum (Suet. lul. 22).
Voco'nia. passed on the motion of Q. Voconius
Saxa, trib. pleb., with the strong support of the
elder Cato, 109 B.C. (Cic. Sen. § 14 ; Liv. Epit.
xii.). Its provisions appear to have been two :
(1) that no one enrolled in the burgher list as
having a property of 100,000 asses {qui eentuvi
niilin aeris cf-nsiis e.it) sliould make any
woman his heir (Cic. Verr. i. 42, >i 107). This
sum was the maximum qualification for the
first class of Servius Tullius' arrangement (Liv.
i. 43).
(2) Another clause provided that no single
legatee should take a larger share of the whole
estate than the heredes. Even thus, if there
were many legatees, the portion left to the heir
might be very small. This second clause was
practically repealed by the Lex Falcidia.
A father, thougli unable to make his only
daughter heir by his will, could bequeath her
one-half of his estate, but not more; or leave
her an equal share with other children. If he
made a will and expressly disinherited her.
she could contest the will, as undutiful (inoffi-
ciosuni).
A-n^iapxoi [' EKK\Tia£a.]
ArigiapxiKOv. iAfijiO?.]
AritiS- .AixT).]
Libe'lla. il) Ste Coinage. (Iuhk.
(2) A carj>ent«'r's level, called by the Greeks
Sia0TiTr)s, and also <rTO<^i;Ai7
(Hom. //. ii. 705 ; cf. Plin.
xxxvi. 172; Liicr. iv. 510).
Libe'llus. Tlie diminutive
of lilirr [see LibetJ ; applied
particularly to books of
poeti-y : most frequently a
memorial of any kind, either
an accusation (whence our
libel) or a ])etition ; and also
any official notifications. In
all these senses libelliis
implies a roll made up of
very few pages, or a single
page. Technical ineaniiigs are the following :
(II Libelli accuaatorum or accuaatorii \sc\i
KIK <v,7.-rjb««ll». a
carppiitcr > IcvoL
384
LIBELLUS
the written accusations which in some cases a
plaintiff, after having received the permission
to bring an action against a person, drew up,
signed, and sent to the judicial authorities.
The accuser had to sign the libellus, or, if he
could not write, to get somebody else to sign
for him.
(2) Libelli famosi were libels intended to
injure the character of persons. A law of the
Twelve Tables inflicted severe punishments
on those who composed defamatory writings
against any person (Cic. Rep. iv. 10, 33).
This law appears to have fallen into disuse
(Tac. Ann. i. T2; Cic. Fani. iii. 11). Augustus
ordained, by a If.x maiestatis, that the authors
of libelli famosi should be brought to trial.
Such works were accordingly collected and
burnt, and some of the authors were punished.
(3) The word lihelluH was also applied to a
variety of writings, which in most cases pro-
bably consisted of one page only :
(ft) Any short letters or reports addressed to
the senate or private individuals (Suet. lul. 56,
Aug. 84 ; Cic. Fain. xi. 11).
(b) Bills or programmes called libelli glacli-
atorii, or muncrarii. fGladiatores.]
(c) Petitions to the emperors (Juv. xiv. 193 ;
Suet. Jwf/. 53; Mart. viii. 31, 3). The empe-
rors had their special officers or secretaries
who attended to all petitions (libellin prac-
fectus, or macji.iter libellorum, or a libellis),
and who read and answered them in the name
of the emperor (Suet. Domit. 14).
(d) Bills of different kinds referring to
absconding delators, lost property, itc, exposed
in the most fnnjuented parts of the city.
Liber (/3i0Ao?, &i&Kiov). A book, i.p. a roll :
the modern book shape was used only for the
codex (Greek, nxixo^ \ see Codex), and not for
literary publications. The word librr itself
means 'rind' or 'bast,' e.g. of the lime tree,
properly called philyra. Such material was
used for writing, but was not made into paper
(charta). Linen also was used in very early
times by the Romans (libri lintei, Liv. iv. 7).
These were not books, but public records with
lists of magistrates, kept in the temple of Juno
Monetit. Tlie Egyptian papyrus of which paper
{chart a) was made formed an article of com-
merce before the time of Herodotus (v. (is). He
calls the plant fiu&Kos or $ifi\os, but irdtrvpos
is distinguislied as the plant and fii^Kos as the
pith, the true material of the paper. It was
largely exported from Egypt, where it no
longer gi'ows.
Tlie following was the method of making
paper. The pith of the papyrus was cut into
strips called xchcdae or scidae ; these strips
were placed alongside one another on a wetted
board, and, if tlicre was not glutinous propertj-
enough in tlie papyrus, they were smeared with
paste; upon tliem was placed a second layer
LIBER
a shell (^Mart. xiv. 209), forming a single page
( pagina, <re\is), which was called in its manu-
facture plagula, because of the network pat-
tern in the initial stage. Pliny reckons^nine
sorts or qualities of paper, of which the first and
second qualities were called Augusta and
Livia, hieratica being the third. One sort
called Claudia was a foot in breadth, and was
thick enough f<n- writing on both sides {opistho-
graphos), whereas the Augusta was thin and
transparent, and could only take writing on one
side. Macrocolla was 18 in. wide.
Parchment (membrana) was also a common
material for writing; but the uses of charfii
and membrana were distinct until late in th.-
Empire. Skins of animals {Si(pdfpai) had been
used for writing in very ancient times : as
in Asia among the Persians and the Jews.
Eumenes II., King of Pergaraum (c. 180 b.c),
and Attains, have been credited with the inven-
tion of parchment. They probably improved
the preparation of Si<p6epai, whence the term
pergamcna, parchment. Formerly SicpGepai
were used (like charta) only on one side, but
now they were smoothed for writing on both
sides, and in this improved form exported to
Rome. Charta, however, was until long after
the Augustan age exclusively used for literary
publications. Parchment was bound in the
codex fonn {ov book shape), and used for
account books, for wills, and for notes. In
fact, it competed rather with wax tablets than
with paper. Membrana in Horace (Sa^ ii. 3,2,
A. P. 389) is used for the rough copy of poems
to be altered and published later (the writing
could be washed off, and the parclunent used
again: cf. Juv. vii. 24). For books, 7.e. literarj-
publications, the word coder was used first b}
Christian writers, beginning with the codices of
the sacred writings ; for other writings scarcely
before the second half of the third century, and
in general use not before the fifth century.
[Codex.] See, however, Mart. xiv. 188, 190,
192; but the membrana there may refer to the
' wrapper, which enclosed the roll: cf. Mart. i. 3,
3. Letters were written on wax tablets or on
paper, not on pii-chment.
The pa^es {ff(\iS(s, paginae), having been
prepared in the manner described above, wen-
pasted together {congliitinatae) hy glutina torra,
to fonn a long roll (Cic. Att. iv. 4). The writ-
ing was in columns, so that the lines of writing
were parallel to the sides of the roll : on each
page there was a column, and blank spaces
were left between the columns. Official
documents were sometimes written transversa
I charta : that is to say, across the whole
I breadth of the roll, so that the lines of \vriting
were at right angles to the sides of the roll (cf.
I Suet. lul. 50). Tlie shape; and appearance of
I Greek and Roman books will be understood
! from the following woodcut.
Fig. 658.— .Ancient writing materials, (i'rom a painting at Herculanoum.)
transversely ; the whole was pressed and beaten The roll was sometimes ot considerable
into a consistent form and smoothed down with length. We hear even of Thucydides and
an vory instrument (hence cJiarta dcntata), or i Homer being written each in one long roll.
LEBER
But this was certainly not the usual systsiu,
and the roll rarely exceeded 100 pages (cf.
Mart. viii. 4-i), and was usually niucli smaller.
It was customary to divide a long work (upus
or corpus) into several books (Ubri, fii^Aia,
ffvyypafj.fia.Ta), each liber being in one roll
(volumen; in Greek, to/uos or KvKiv^pos). Tlie
pages, and sometimes tlu! lines, were numbered,
or at any rate the total number Avas usually
put on the titulus. The price of the book was
in part estimated by this number, and Uie pay-
ment of the copyist was so much for everj'
hundred lines.
The writing was usually only on one side of
the paper. The other side in cast books was
utilised for schoolboys' exercises (Mart. iv. 8C),
or as scribbling paper (Mart. viii. 08). Books
written on both sides were called o^is^//o<7ra2(/i/
(Plin. Ep. iii. 5 ; see Mart. iv. 87 ; Juv. i. 6).
Tlie roll was protected against worms by
being dressed with cedar oil, which gave the
paper a yellow tinge (Ov. Trist. iii. 1, 13 ; Mart,
iii. 2; Hor. .1. F. 331); then the last leaf was
pasted on to a thin piece of wood or rolled paper
called the umbilicus or oyu0aA.({s (Mart. i. 66).
Hence the last page is called escliatocoUion,
from KoKXa, glue (Mart. ii. 6 ; cf. Hor. Epoch 14,
8 ; Mart. iv. 89). The edges (frons) of the roll
were carefully cut, and also smoothed with
pumice-stone (Ov. Trist. iii. 1, 13 ; Mart. i. 67,
viii. 72 ; Catull. xxii. 8). The ends (comua) of
the iiinbilicuswere sometimes gilded. The edges
themselves (frontes) were also coloured (Ov.
Trist. i. 1, 8). A strip of parchment on which
the title or subject of the book was written in red
was pasted on to the roll. This strip was called
titulus or index, in Greek aiTrv^os ov (rirrvfir]
(Cic. Att. iv. 4). Finally, a cover for the roll
(membrana, Si<p04pa) was made of parchment
coloured red or yellow (Tibull. iii. 1, 9 ; Mart.
X. 93, xi. 1). If one work was in several Ubri,
they were tied in a bundle (fascis, fasciculus,
Sifffxri). Occasionally the portrait of the author
was placed on the first page of the book (Mart.
xiv. 186) : e.g. the portrait of Virgil in the
Vatican edition.
In reading, the roll (liber or voluvicn) was
held in botli hands and unrolled with one, while
the other rolled it up : the unrolling was called
evolvere, revolvere, or volvere; going right
LIBERTUS
885
Fig. 1)59.— Book lu'ld by n crowned I'oet. (From a paiiitini;
ui Hurculanuuiu.)
through was called explicare (Mart. xiv. 1) :
rolling ui> again, convolvere, replicare, or coin-
plicarc. (Hence the mediaeval ' explicit,' i.e.
explicit us, though the word is treated as the 3rd
pers. sing, of a verb.)
The multiplication of books at Rome began
after the conquest of Italy, but booksellers'
shops were not known until the end of the Re-
public. The earliest mention of such shops is
in C'ic. Q. Fr. iii. 4 ; but they were then still
uncommon, and we find Atticus selling books
for the copjring of which he had a large number
of slaves (Cic. ^«. ii.4). Booksellers were called
librarii and also bibliopolae (Mart. iv. 71, &c.).
Horace gives us the name of the Sosii(.Bp.i.'20, 2,
A. P. 345). Martial names several, and specifies
Argiletura as the booksellers' quarter (i. 3,117).
Thei-e were booksellers, too, in the provincial
towns (Plin. Ep. ix. 11; cf. Hor. Ep. i. 20, 13).
As to the price, w(! have no very clear informa-
tion ; that the cost of production was not great
may be seen from the fact that Statius (Silv. iv. 9,
9) speaks of a book in a neat puqile cover cost-
ing about fivepence : the first book of Martial,
in the shop of Atrectus, cost five denarii (Mart,
i. 117 ; cf. xiii. 3). The author's profit could be
made (1) by selling his original copy to a book-
seller, (2) by selling copies made by his own
slaves.
Booksellers [^ifiKioypa<poi, Pi^KioirwAai) ex-
isted at Athens as early as the fifth centurj'
B.C. There was a book-market (to. 0ifiKla) at
Athens in the time of Eupolis (cf. Ar. iia7i. 1109).
Liber, Libe'rtas. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Li'bera lega'tio. |Legatus (legatio libera).]
Libera fuga. [Exilium.J
Libera'lia. A feast celebrated on March 17 in
honour of Liber, the Italian Bacchus. On this
day the boys who took the toga virilis (called
also toga pura and toga libera) went in proces-
sion and made an offering at the chapel of Liber
in the Capitol, of cakes (liba), which were bought
in the streets at little altars.
Libera'lia manus. [Manus.]
Libera'litas. [Ambitus. |
Libero'rum iu«. [Lex lulia et Papia
Poppaea.
Libe'rtus (aireKevdepos). A freedman. 1.
Gkkkk — Concerning freedmen, as concerning
slaves, our information mosl ly relates to Athens ;
but we have reason to believe that there was a
general likeness between all the Greek states
in this respect, though Sparta had some distinc-
tive peculiarities.
Emancii)ation was of course generally the act
of the master of the slave ; but sometimes the
state would gi^e freedom as a return for ini-
[ portant public services, compensating the master
I (Plat. Legg. xi. p. 914). Thus, among otlier
I instances, the slaves who fouglit in the battle
of Arginusae received freedom and even citizen-
ship as a reward (Ar. Ban. 33, 192, 693).
When an individual master set his slave free,
it would either be from gratitude or affection,
or because the slave purcliased his freedom.
Slaves could often earn money on their own
account ; but they could not personally make a
legal contract with their masters. Hence, by a
legal fiction, the slave deposited the money in
some temple ; tlie god to whom the temple was
dedicated then bought the slave from his mas.
ter, and in the contract thus made the provision
for tlie freedom of the slave was inserted.
Conditions are in most cases found attached to
the emancipation : certain duties to be per-
formed, or i)aymeuts to be made, by the freed-
man for liis former master ; or perhaps the
freedman has to serve his master until the
death of the latter. More females than malt -•
CC
386
LlBITINARn
were liberated. It was not unfrequent for a
master to emancipate his slaves by testamen-
tary disposition ; directions of this kind are
contained in the wills of Plato, Aristotle, Epi-
kurus and others.
The act of emancipation often took place in
a theatre or other public place, that there
might be as many witnesses as possible.
When the emancipation was complete, the
freedman took the status of a fieroiKos, or
resident alien; and as such was bound to
choose as a patron {Trpoara.r7)s) the master who
had set him free ['A-rrpo<TTacriov vpa-(J>TiJ. He
had then certain duties towards his patron, on
the transgression of which he was liable to be
proceeded against atlawP A-rroaTaaiov Sikti].
He had to pay the fieToiKiov, or tax of 12 drach-
mae yearly, and a triobolon besides, probably
to indemnify the state, which would otherwise
have lost the slave-tax. A freedman was said to
be Kad' kavr6v {Deva. pro Phorm. p. 945, § 4), or
oiKiiv xa>pis (c. Euerg. et Mnesib. p. 1161, § 72).
Freedrnen might receive citizenship.
We have no mention of any emancipation of
public slaves at Athens. But at Sparta the
emancipation of the helots (who were, properly
speaking, not slaves, but serfs) was frequent.
They were called NeoSajuwSets {fia.fj.os) when
emancipated, and formed a considerable part
of the Spartan armies. Another class of eman-
cipated slaves at Sparta were the ij.60aK6S or
n60wves, who were children brought up with the
children of citizens. [EiXuTeg.] Other freed-
rnen are called a.(f)(Tai, aSeairoToi, ifec.
2. Roman. See Appendix, RoM.^N Law.
Libitina'rii. [Funus.]
Libra. The unit of weight among the
Romans and Italians. The libi-a or pound of
copper was also the. unit of value, and was called
As {<[. v.). The weight of the libra has been
fixed by metrologists as 5050 grains (327'5
grammes), nearly 12 ounces avoirdupois. It was
tlivided into twelve unciae or ounces. See
Coinage, and Pondera.
Libra. 1. {crTaB/jids), a balance, a pair of
scales. The principal parts of tliis instrument
were : (1) the beam (iugum, (^vy6v) ; (2) the two
scales, called in Greek TaKavTa (Hom. II. viii.
69, xxii. 209, ifec. ; Ar. Ban. 797), and ttKcut-
T1776 (Ar. Ran. 1378), and in Latin lances
(Verg. Aen. xii. 725, &c.). [Lanx.] The beam
was sometimes made without a tongue, being
held by a ring or other appendage fixed in the
Fig. 6G0.— Libra, from a bronze Etruscan mirror at
Madrid. (Gerliard.)
centre (ssc the woodcut). When the tongue
Tvorkuig in aneye(a5'i?^«)isused,as in our scales.
LICTOR
it is called examen or ligula (Suet. Vcsp. 25 ;
Pers. i. 6). The word frutina and the Greek
TpvrdvT] were used of this sort of balance, as may
be seen from Juv. vi. 437 and Dem. p. 60, where
there are clearly two scales. [Statera.]
2. Libraaquaria,A water-level. (Vitr. viii. 51.)
3. The constellation Libra (in Greek (vy6s).
(Verg. Georg. i. 208 ; Lucan, viii. 467.)
Librame'ntum, Libra'tio aqua'rum, the fall
or gradient of an aqueduct : generally not more
than 1 in 200. [Aquaeductus.]
Libra'rii. Slaves employed for writing or
copying in any way. They must be distin-
guished from the Scribae publici, who were
freemen [Scriba], and from the booksellers,
who were also called librarii (see under Liber).
Slaves called librarii may be divided into
1 three classes :
i (1) Librarii who were employed in copying
j books (Hor. A. P. 354), or who had charge of
libraries, and those who made up the book-
rolls, more properly called glutinatores (Cic.
I Att. iv. 4). L^-iber.]
' (2) Librarii a studiis were slaves employed
as secretaries, to make extracts from books, itc.
1 (Suet. Claud. 28). To this class the notarii, or
short-hand writers, belonged. (Mart. xiv. 208.)
I [Notarii.]
' (3) Librarii abej)istiilis, a manu, or amanu-
j enses. [Amanuensis.] Secretaries for corre-
' spondence.
Libra'tor is in general a person who examines
things by a libra.
I (1) Librator aquae, an engineer whose busi-
i ness it was to examine by a hydrostatic balance
1 (libra aquaria) the relative heights of the
I places from and to which water was to be con-
I ducted.
(2) Libratores [libritores, according to some
MSS.), soldiers who are coupled with slingers
{funditores,'Ya.c. Ann. \\. Id). (Deriv. libro,noi
libra.) Tliey threw stones and glandes, but
whether from slings or not is not clear.
Liba'rna, Libn'rnica. Light galleys (in
Lucan iii. 534 biremes) built on the model ot
the pirate boats built by the Libumi. [Navis :
Classis.]
Li'cium. [Tela.]
Lictor {pa$5ovxoi or ^aPSo<p6pos). An
attendant upon certain magistrates and other
persons discharging official duties at Rome
and in the provinces. The word is probably
derived from licere, 'to summon,' and their
original function was to summon assemblies.
Livy (i. 8), laying stress on the favourite
Etruscan number twelve, derives the office from
Etruria. Whether this be true or not, this at-
tendance was in earliest times ' insigne regium '
(Liv. iii. 36). There were two kinds of lictors :
(l) lictores qui magistratibus [or Caesari] ap-
parent ; (2) lictores qui sacris publicis api)a-
rent [Apparitores] : of which the former class
is the more important. They were the outward
mark of authority, and at all times attended the
magistrate like his shadow : if he is at home,
they are in his vestibule (Liv. xxxix. 2) ; if he
goes to the rostra, they precede him (Liv. xxiii.
23) ; when lie takes his seat on the tribunal,
they stand by him (Cic. Cluent. 53, 147) ; when
he pays a visit, the lictor knocks for his admis-
sion (Mart. viii. 66 ; Juv. iii. 128). The sove-
reignty of the people is admitted by the lictors
lowering the fasces when the consul comes to
the cotttio (Liv. ii. 7). So also, if a magistrate
of lower rank met a superior, his lictors lowered
(submittere) the fasces, or, if with Lmperium,
removed their axes. The magistrate must.
] L
LICTOR
however, dismiss his lictors when he enters the
territory of an allied independent state.
The lictors bore fasces with axes, to show
that the king or magistrate had the power of
life and death. [Imperium.] Tlie withdrawal
of the axed shows the witlidrawal of summary
jurisdiction or martial law. The axes were
allowed also to consuls in the triumph, because
they still held the imix'rium [TriumphusJ.
The lictors, as repre.sentatives of the consul,
actually carried out the sentence of death under
the old system, upon all lioman citizens who
were condemned, in later times, the death sen-
tence was carried out by a carnifcx. The ordi-
nary duty of the lictors in the city was sum-
iiiovrre turbam, i.e. to clear tlie way for the
magistrate, by the cry ' Animadvertite' (Suet.
liil. 80), and to disperse any crowd which
might interfere with the business in hand (cf.
Hor. Carin. ii. IC), 10). The lictors are also the
instruments of the magistrate for vucatio, i.e.
tlie summons of any citizen who offends ; where-
as tribunes, as being without lictors, could only
arrest by their own hand, or by their viator,
but could not summon.
The number of lictors was originally ten, as
is showni by the word decuria ; but twelve is
given by Cicero and Livy as the number in
attendance on the king. As the consuls origi-
nally performed the regular duties of adminis-
tration by tunis in alternate months, so the
officiating consul was attended by twelve lictors,
the other only by an accensus (Liv. ii. 1 ; Cic.
lieji. ii. 31, 55). Similarly the decemvir of the
day had twelve lictors, the others an accensus
each (Liv. iii. 33).
The dictator had twenty-four lictors, at least
from the time of Sulla (Polyb. iii. 87 ; Liv. Ep.
H9). The magister equituyn had six lictors ; six
aIho i\\e praefectus urbi nominated by Caesar
in his dictatorship. The praetor at Rome had
two, but in imperial times six (Mart. xi. 98, 15) ;
praetors in the provinces six. Proconsuls out-
side Rome had twelve under the Republic ;
and those of Africa and Asia, at any rate, had
the same number in the earlier Empire. Six
was the number for propraetors, five for a
quaestor or legatus piro praetore (Cic. Att. x.
1, 9).
Tlic emperors had twelve lictors to the time
of Domitian, to whom twenty-four were as-
signed, but in the later Empire the attendance
of lictors fell into disuse.
The lictors were ranked before viatores and
praecones, but after scribae and accensi (Cic.
Verr. iii. 66, 153). Most lictors were freedmen
(Tac. Ann. xiii. '27) ; at Rome, whether freebom
or not, they were always free. At Rome there
was a community of three decuriae of lictors
under ten directors (decern primi).
In Rome lictors wore the toga, perhaps girded
with the liciuiiit, or limits: outside Rome, and
at triumphs, the red saf/u-
lum. The fasces, tied with a
red strap, were held in tlie
left hand and carried on the
left shoulder: at funerals
they were carried reversed
(Tac. Ann. iii. 2; cf. Verg.
Aen. ii. 45). The fasces of
a victorious imperator, and
of the imperial lictors, were
wreathed with laurel (lau-
reati).
The lictors always walked
in single file (Liv. xxiv. 44) before the magis- i
trate in office : the principal lictor was last in i
LIMBUS
387
Fig. ffil.— Coiu repre
Benting the children
oJ Brutus led tc
death by Lictors.
order (proximus) (Cic. Div. i. 28, 59 ; Tac. Hist.
iii. 80 ; Liv. I.e.).
(2) Lictores curiatii (not ciiriati) were
employed originally to summon the Comitia
Curiata. Of these there were thirty, according
to the number of the curiae ; and, when the
meeting of the Comitia Curiata became a mere
form, it was represented by the thirty lictores
curiatii (Cic. Leg. Agr. ii. 12, 31). They
attended specially on the Pontifex Maximus,
probably tlie same number as had belonged to
the king; and are called 'lictores curiatii qui
sacris publicis apjmrent.' The Flamen Dialis
was attended by one of these (Plut. Quaest.
Bum. 93) ; a similar distinction was granted
to Vestals (Plut. Ninii. 10), and widows of em-
perors, as thougli they were priestesses of a
deified husband (Tac. Ann. i. 14).
(8) Lictors were specially assigned to attend
for the time on the givers of games who had
not otherwise the right to lictors (Cic. Legg. ii.
24, 61).
Ligo. A hoe, formed either of one broad
iron head (yuo/ceAAa), or of two curved iron prongs
(Si/ceAAo), fixed at right angles to the handle ;
used to clear the fields from weeds (Ov. Font. i.
8, 59 ; Mart. iv. 64), or to turn up and break
the clods. (Hor. Carm. iii. 6, 38, Ep. i. 14, 27 ;
Ov.^?;(. iii. 10, 31.)
Li'gula. (1) A Roman measure of fluid capa-
city, containing one fourth of the Cyathus
(Tables, VIlI.j. (2) A spoonful, like cuchar;
only ligula was larger than cod car (see
Mart. viii. 33, 71, xiv. 120). See under Coclear,
where the larger spoon is the ligula, the
smaller the coclear. (3) The leather tongue
of a shoe. [Calceus.]
Lima (yivri). A file, of iron or steel, of the
same form as the instruments used for similar
purposes in modern times (Plant. Men. i. 1, 9 ;
Xen. Cyrop. vi. 2, 33).
Limbus (Trapvcp-l]). The border of a tunic or
a scarf, chiefly in w-omen's dress (Verg. Aen. iv.
137). This ornament was like the Cyclas and
Instita, but less expensive, more common and
more simple. It was sometimes sewn on, oftener
woven in the same piece with the entire gar-
ment, and had sometimes the appearance of a
scarlet or purple band upon a white ground ;
other patterns resembled foliage (Verg. Aen. i.
649; Ov. Met. vi. 1271, or the scrolls and mean-
-ii^^^x^^M!!^^
[>li^-r)l£Tl,Lr]j^lP-||_C
mmM
'^ \MMisA
^g^^^g^^ ^
mmm
Kig. 0C.-2.--Linibl. (From ancient vuMis.)
ders introduced in architecture. Gold thread
was sometimes interwoven (Ov. Met. v. 51 ;
Verg. Aen. v. 251).
An ornamental baud to surround the temples
cc '2
388
LIMEN
or the waist was also called Umbits (Stat. Theb.
vi. 367). A later name for the limbus was
lorum, whence dresses with one or more rows
of stripes were called monolorrs, dilores,
trilores, &c. The makers of limhi were called
limbolarii (Plant. Aid. 514). [Cyclas, Instita.]
Limen. [lanua.]
Limas. The apron, tied round the waist and
reaching nearly to the feet, worn by the popa,
or slaughterer who attended on the priest at a
LOCUPLETES
Corinthian stater (5e/caAiTpoy arar-iip). [Coin-
age, Gkeek.]
Li'tuus. (1) The crooked staff borne by tlit
augurs, with which they divided the teinplum
into regions (regiones) (Cic. Div. i. 17, ii. IB, 4'2,
30). [Augur.] It is probable that the pastoral
Fig. fi6S. -Limus. from a bas-relief. (Afon. Intiit.)
sacrifice (Serv. ad Aen. xii. 120), and by sei-vi
publici in general. Hence servi puhlici were
known as limo cincti.
Li'nea. Any tliread or string. (1) A fishing-
line (Mart. iii. 58, 28), also liniim (Ov. Met
xiii. 9281.
(2) [Formido.]
(3) ((TTctfl/uT/). A carpenter's or mason's line,
I'ubbed with chalk (creta) or red lead (rubrica)
(Vitr. vii. 3, 5; Cic. Q. Fmt. iii. 1).
(4) A chalked rope drawn across the circus
which was dropped when the chariots, starting j
from the Carceres, had arrived at the spot even
abreast. It was to avoid false starts. [Circus.]
The winning line {ypafxixii), Eur. El. 956 ; Hor
Ep. i. 16, 79).
(5) A line marking off the seats {gradus,
sedilia) in a theatre (Ov. Am. iii. 2, 19, A. A.
i. 141).
Linter. (1) A trough made out of the
trunk of a tree (Verg. Georg. i. 262 ; Tibull. i.
5, 23). (2) A boat or ' dugout ' (cf. Alveus) coi;-
structed in the same way (Liv. xxi. 26 ; Caes.
B. G. i. 12; Tibull. ii. 5, 34): also called
monoxyJon. (3) Any kind of boat (Ov. Fast.
ii. 864).
Ai-TTOM-apTvpiov Slkt). [MapTupia.]
AiirovavTiou vpacjjTi : ALTroCTTpaTiov
■ypa<})Ti : ALTTOTa^Lov 7pa(t)Ti. [AaTpa-
T€Las VP°-4>Tij
Lithostro'ta. [Pavimentum ; Pictura.]
Litis contesta'tio. See Appendix, Roman
Law.
Litra (AiVpo). A Sicilian measure of weight
= about 3366 gi'ains (218 grammes) divided into
12 ounces (oyKiai). The word is used in Greek
to render the Latin libra [Pondera]. The
equivalent in silver of a litra of copper was a
small coin weighing 12"5 grains, which was in
common use in Sicily, and was the tenth of uhe
Fig. 664.— Lltuus, the angviral stafi.
staff of bishops was borrowed as regards it -
form from the augur's lituus.
(2) [Cornu.l
Lizae. Sutlers, or petty traders, who fol-
lowed the Roman legions; mentioned with
mercafores. Negotiatores were speculators on
a larger scale (cf. Liv. v. 8, xxi. 63, xxxix. 1 ;
Caes. B. G. vi. 37). These traders had booths
for their goods outside the camp, which were
called canabae [Castra], so that ad canabtis
legionis means in the market quarter or bazaar.
They are sometimes coupled with caloncs, the
slaves who attended soldiers, merely because
both were distinct from the fighting army, and
might in emergencies be pressed into the ser-
vice (Liv. xxiii. 16).
Loca'tio condu'ctio. See Appendix, Roman-
Law.
Lochus (\6xos). [Exercitus.]
Lo'cnli. A small coffer or casket with com-
partments, whence it comes that in this sense
the word is only used in the plural. It was
smaller than the Area
(Juv. i. 89). It was used
to hold monev (Hor.
Sat. i. 3, 17; Mart. v.
39, 7) ; for jewels (Juv.
xiii. 139), keys, d'c. It
could be locked (Hor.
Sat. ii. .3, 149), or sealed
(Plin. xiv. 18). Loculi
were made of wood,
ivory, etc. (Ov. Fast. vi.
749; Juv. i. 89, xiii. 139;
Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 140). In
Hor. Sat. i. 6, 74, the
word loculi is used for
a small case holding a
schoolboy's libri, char-
tae, and stihis. which
would generally be called capsa (Juv. x. 117^ i -
thera (Suet. C'lnud. 85).
Lo'culus. fFunus.l
Locuple'tes (or adsidui. i.e. settled on tho
land : cf. A.-S., landsittmde, G., avsassiij^
Roman freeholders of land included in the fi\ c
classes of Servius as liable for summons to
service or tribvtutn. Under this head came all
who held land valued over 11.000 asf<rs
Tomitia.] The state was therefore dividctl
into adsidui (or locupletes), i.e. those who had
property, and Proletaril, ' begetters of chil-
Fig. 66.1.— 7,oru!i, mono;
box. The slit at the tc
is for putting In tl
money.
LODIX
dren,' who weie counted by heads {capite censi),
not by property (Cic. licji. ii. 22, iO).
Lodix, (////(. lodi'cula {aayiov). A small
r<iugh blanket (Juv. vii. 66 ; Mart. xiv. 148 ;
Suet. Aug. 83). It was also used as a carpet.
The Romans obtained these blankets from
Verona (Mart. xiv. 152; of. sagulum, Tae.
Ct-rm. 0). ISagum.]
Logi'stae (\oyiaTai). [Evievvri.]
Logi'stica [KoyicTTiKr,, Kc. Ttx"^) Plat. Gorg.
•150 1), A'c. : tlie nearest Latin equivalents appear
to be rat loci nan di am, dintnuf ratio, rdtioiiiv
subductio, or conijjutatio} means 'the art of
calculation ' as opposed to the ' theory of
numbers' [ArithmeticaJ. Neither, of course,
can exist without the otlier ; but the operations
of aritlimctica were generally performed by
means of geometrical figures, those of logintica
i V numerical symbols.
I. NuMEKic.u. Signs.
1. Greek. — (1) Finger-signs. — From the
general use among Aryan peoples of a denary
or vigesimal notation, it may be inferred that
these nations at a very early time used the
ingers and toes as symbols of number. A
flic of a yet earlier notation, the quinary, sur-
vives in the w'ords wf/xTrd^fiv, we/xTrd^fffdaL,
TreyuTTOffTTjs (Hom. Od. iv. 412; Aesch. J'/rn. 9>il,
&c.). Long after the deuiuy notation was
adopted, the Greeks used both hands to count
no higher than 10 (cf. Hdt. vi. 63, 65 ; Arist.
Prob. XV.), and no doubt this simple practice
was never lost. In a more develojied form of
tliis system, units and tens were represented
on tlie left hand, hundreds and thousands on
the right : different numbers in these scales
being denoted, according as the fingers were
held straight, bent, or closed. Tlie tliumb and
forefinger of the left hand were devoted to tens,
those of the right to hundreds ; the remaining
fingers of the left hand belonged to the units,
those of the right to thousands. Various posi-
tions of the left hand on the left breast and
hips indicated the ten thousands, corresponding
positions of the right hand on the right side the
hundred thousands, and the hands folded
together represented a million.
(2) I'chO/f-.'iign^. — Under this head may be
included all the representative signs used with
the reckoning-board. [Abacus.]
(3) Written Characters.— We are told that
among the earliest Greeks numbers were rejire-
sented in writing by repeated strok(;s. It is
possible that witli the Greeks, as with the
Phoenicians and Egyptians, the signs of the
units, tens, &f., wei-e at an early date repeated
nine times without any intermediate compendia.
At a later date, however, strokes served for
units less than 5, and the chief higher nunil>ers
are represented by their initial letters, P for
TreVre, A for 5e'/ca, Hlor fKUTOv, X forxiA.(0(, M
for fivpioi, with further compendia, H] for 50, f^j
for 500, itc. These signs alone (called Hero-
dianic, from the gi'ammarian Herodianus, r.
160 A.D., who revived them) are us:'d in all the
known Atlienian inscriptions of any date D.c.
But at some date which cainiot now be ascer-
tained, the letters of the alphabet, a, 0, (tf.,with
some additions, came to be used as numeral
signs. It is said tliat this notation was origin-
ally Semitic, but it does not appear on Phoeni-
cian inscriptions, and is not found on any Hebrew
coins before about 140 n.c. There is, however,
a peculiarity in the Hebrew and Greek alj)lia-
betical numerals which suggests some connexion
LOGISTICA
380
between them. In both cases the proper alpha-
bet is deficient, and is supplemented up to the
same limit. Tlie Hebrew alphabet of twenty-
two letters gives numbers only up to 400 ; and
the deficiency is made up as far as 900 by using
the final forms of letters the medial forms of
which had been used earlier in tlie scale. The
Ionic alphabet of twenty-four letters, which
was formally adopted at Athens in 403 B.C.,
could give numbers only as far as 600. Three
letters are wanting to complete the hundreds,
and for this purpose the three eViVTjuo, r, 9 »
aad^', two of which had certainly been used in
older alphabets, but arc omitted in the Ionic,
are introduced. [Alphabetum.]
The existence in the Greek system of these
obsolete letters, not at the end of the series to
complete the missing hundreds, but at widely
distant places (r [the Semitic vau /] = 6 ;
? [kaphj =. 90 ; ^' [shin or tsade"} = 900), would
seem to point to the existence of the whole
system at a time when these letters were cur-
rent : possibly earlier than the Hebrew nume-
rical system. But against this it must be
observed that (1) the common alphabetic
j numerals do not appear on inscriptions proper
I before the second century B.C. ; (2) no Attic
inscriptions before imperial times contain
alphabetic numerals at all ; (3) the earliest
certain numerical or quasi-numerical use of the
j Greek alphabet is not the same as that now iu
I question. The tickets of the ten panels of
Athenian ^Aioittoj were marked with letters
from a to «-, omitting r. The books of Homer and
I Herodotus are headed with the letters of the
Ionic alphabet, omitting r and y . The books
I of Aristotle are numbered in the same way ;
I and this division is ancient.
The evidence of Greek inscriptions shows
that alphabetic numerals do not appear at all
until long after r and 9 had disappeared from
I the literary alphabet, and that these letters are
[ nevertheless used, and used in their riglit
places, for numeration. It appears probable
i that, however devised, alphabetic numeration
had its rise in Egypt under the first Ptolemies,
I and that the ordinary Greek alphabetic numera-
' tion was first used at Alexandria on coins, for
I which its brevity, its sole advantage, would
make it especially useful. Jewish usage may
I have suggested it or been suggested by it ; but
Alexandrian coimnerce and learning would soon
disseminate the new system throughout the
Hellenic East.
The numerical values attributed to eaoh
\ letter in the Greek alphabet are familiar to all.
! The letters a — S', including r' for (!, i-e])resent
the units, i' — 9 ' the tens, p' — ^' the hundreds.
For the thousands the alphabet reconunences,
I but the stroke or acute accent is now placed in
front of the letter, and rather below it, so that
I ,a—fi represent 1000—9000. For 10,000 Mu or
I M, the initial letter of /xvpiot, w*s generally
j used, on the Herodianic principle ; and witli
, multiples of 10,000 the coeflicient might be
I placed before, after, or over this M. In the
I case of high numbers, accents were usually
omitted and a stroke was drawn over all tin-
component letters; and as those wereunanged
in the modern order, witli the highest on the
left and the lowest on the right, the distinguish-
ing mark of the thousands was also often
omitted and the value of the letter was indi-
cated by its place, e.g. firt is 2305 (i.e. /3 = 2
[put for 2000J, T-800, e = 5;.
390
LOGISTICA
The representation of fractions (Xeirrd) in
^ISS. is also various, but the most common
fractions are represented by writing, either the
denominator over the numerator, or the nume-
rator once with one accent and the denominator
Ka _ <ca'
twice with two accents, e.g. if or i^ or tf '
Ka" Ka". For fractions of which the numerator
is unity, the numerator is omitted and the
denominator is written, above the hne, or is
written once with two accents.
2. Roman. — (1) Finger-signs. The later
mode of representing numbers on the fingers
seems to have been the same among the Ro-
mans as tlie Greeks. The best known reference
is Juv. X. 249.
(•2i Pebble-signs. — The Romans used at least
two forms of abacus, one in which buttons
(claviculi) moved in grooves (alveoli), another
in which the stones were loose. [Abacus.]
(3) Written characters. — There are some
signs that the Romans occasionally used their
alphabet for numerical purposes; but little is
known on the subject.
Tlie ordinary Roman numerals are too well
known, and are still in too common use, to re-
quire detailed exliibition. One theory of their
origin is that 10 was represented by two strokes
(X), 100 by three (Cl, and 1000 by four (M),and
that V, L and K or D are the lialves of these
signs. Anothta- interpretation is that V repre-
sents an open hand. X is double of V. C the
initial of centum, M of mille, L and D as
above. The more commonly adopted theory is
that L, C, and M or /fi are corruptions of f
(the Chalcidian form of x. written ±), G and <t>,
while X is referred either to ®, tlie old form
of 0, or to the Greek X ; V is half X, D half <J> ;
so that all these signs would be adopted from
the letters of the Greek alphabet, tliough not
with their Greek values. Such forms as IX,
XL, XC, are so original as to suggest the
originality also of the signs of which they are
compounded. (Still stranger forms, as XIIX
for IH, IIXC for US, are also found.)
A few of the more unconnnon Roman numerals
should be here mentioned. The sign for 1000
being fh ("ot M till post-Augustan times), that
for 10,000 was (rh), and that for 100,000 ((rh)) ;
the ordinary sign for a million was ^, and any
higher multiple of 100,000 was similarly en-
closed with side and top lines. But it was
usual, with intervening multiples of 1000, to
\vr\ic the coefficient with a stroke over it, or
with III ilia, or merelv M appended, e.g. XIIDC,
or XII milia DC orXII.MDC.
The fractions generally used by the Romans
were the divisions of the as and iincia, the as
being, for all purposes, the t^•pe of unity. (See
Tables, XIII. and XIV. ; and Roby, Lat. Gram.
i. App. D, vi.-xiii.) The signs from nncia
to quincunx are merely arrangements of hori-
zontal strokes or dots, as . , ^ i I • . t T , ; t - .
Semis is represented by S, and from this to
tleunx the signs are S with those for uncia
ifec. added to the right of it. .Is is an upright
stroke |. The signs below iincia are usually
veniuncia, L or € or I/, sicilicus O, sextula \,
<\)or 2. dimidia sextula i or Xt scriptulum T
n. CALCULATION.
The actual work of calculation was done with
the abacus or with written signs among both
Greeks and Romans; but the abacus was used
LUCERNA
by the Romans for more complicated proceeses
tlian by the Greeks. Addition and subtraction
were always done with the abacus. So also
were multiplications and divisions where tlie
multiplier or divisor was a low number, but as
a general rule multiplication was worked witli
written signs, and division by both methods
together. For a fuller description of this
question, the reader is referred to tlie larger
edition of this work (vol. ii. i^p. 75-77, art.
LOGISTICA, II.J.
Ao-yoYpd4>ot. (1) The earher Greek his-
torians previous to Herodotus. The lonians
were the first of the Greeks who cultivated
history ; and the first logographer, who lived
about Ol. 60, was Kadmus, a native of Mile-
tus, who wTote a history of the foundation of
his native city. The logographers previous
to Herodotus seem to have aimed more at
amusing their hearers or readers than at im-
parting accurate historical knowledge. They
wrote in the unperiodic style called \4^is
eipofxfvr] ; describing in prose the same sub-
jects which had been treated of by the epic
and especially by the cyclic poets. In many
cases they were mere collectors of local and
genealogical traditions.
(2) Persons who wrote judicial speeches or
pleadings and sold them to those who were in
want of them. These persons were called A.070-
TTotoi as well as \oyoypd<poi. Antiphon, the
orator, introduced this practice at Athens,
towards the close of the Peloponnesian War
(Arist. lihet. i. 33). After this time the cus-
tom of making and selling speeches became
very general (Dem. F. L. pp. 417, 420 ; Plat.
Phaedr. p. 207 c ; Euthyd. p. 272 a), and
orators of great merit wrote sp)eeches of various
kinds for other persons (see Jebb's Attic
Orators, i. 3).
AoiSopCas SCk-h. [KaKTiyopia? Sikt).]
Lora'rii. Flagrum.j
Lori'ca (0wpa{). A cuirass. [Arms and Ar-
mour.]
Lucar, money derived from sacred groves,
luci, was the money paid from the state treasury
to those who presided over the ludi scenici. as
the state contribution towards the payment of
actors especially and other expenses of the
games. (Tac. Ann. i. 77.) The holder of the
games [e.g. the privetor, Juv. vi. 379) paid the
mercedes to actors and the other expenses in-
curred ; but towards this he received the lucar
from the state. According to a regulation of
Servius Tullius, at each death a piece of money
had to be presented to the goddess Libitina.
This money was eiUled lucar Libitinae. (See
Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 19.) [Funus.j
Lu'ceres. A patrician tribe. [Tribus.J
Luce'rna {\vxvos). An oil lamp. Ancient
lamps were made of terracotta (rpox^j^oToi,
Fig. 666.— Lucerna (dimysos). (ITu.-. Borb. iv. pi. 11.
' made on the wheel,' rpox6s, Ar. Feci. 1), or of
bronze. They were made to burn one or more
i
LUCERNA
LUCTA
391
wicks {ellychnia) ; each wick passing through a ! celebrated wrestler in the heroic age was Hera-
liole or nozzle, called ;ay|a, or yui/KTifjp ; according kles. A description of a ^vrestling match is
to the number of these nozzles, lamps were called I given in the Iliad (xxiii. 710, &c. ; cf. Od. viii.
inonotnyxos, dimyxos or biiychnis, tritnyxos, \ 103). In the early period wrestlers contended
01 polymyxos (Mart. xiv. 41j. ^_
Fig. 667.— Lucema. (Miis. Borh. i. pi. 10.)
Lamps were sometimes hung by chains from
the ceiling of the room (Verg. Aen. i. 726 ;
Stat. Theb. i. 521), but generally stood upon a
stand. [Candelabrum.] Sometimes a figure
holds the lamp, as in fig. 668, which also ex-
hibits the needle (acus, Verg. Moret. 11, 'Et
producit acu stuppas umore carentes ') which
served to trim (irpo^veiv, Ar. Vesp. 249 ; ^j;-o-
diicrre, Verg. I.e.) the
wick, and is attached to
the figure by means of a
chain.
We read of lucernae
cubiculares, bah/earcs,
tricUniares, sep u Icra ies,
&c. ; but these names
were only given to the
lamps on account of the
purposes to which they
were applied, and not on
account of a difference
in shape. The lucernae
cubiculares were burnt
in bed-chambers all
night. (Mart. xiv. 39.)
Perfumed oil was
sometimes burnt in the
lamps (Petron. 70 ; Mart.
X. 88, 9). The sepulchral
lamps were not merely
placed and left, but were
lighted as a pious duty.
So in the following clause
of a will : ' Saccus servus
mens et Eutychia ancilla mea sub hac condi-
tione liberi sunto, ut monumento meo alternis
mensibus lucernam accendant et solemnia
mortis peragant' (Dig. 40, 4, 44). From this
Roman custom is derived the use of lamps in
churches.
(Birch, Ancient Poftrri/, ii. 277; Becker-
GoU, Charikles, iii. 86, Gallus, ii. 390.)
Lucta, Lucta'tio (TraAr;, Trd\aia/xa, iraKai<TiJ.o-
(TVV1)). Wrestling. The word ttciAtj is sometimes
used in the wider sense of gymnastic exercise.
[Palaestra.]
The Greelvs ascribed tlie invention of wrest-
ling to mythical personages, such as Palaestra
the daughter of Hermes, Antaeus, or Theseus.
Hermes presided over the irdXt). The most
Fig. 668.— Lucema. (.Mils,
liorb. vii. pi. 15.)
Fig. 669.— Wrestlers wtth wep'Cuiixa. (Krause.
naked, with the exception of the loins, which
were covered with the irfpi(wfj.a or (wfxa {II
xxiii. 683), and this custom remained through-
out Greece until Ol. 15 ( = 720 b.c), from which
time the perizoma was no longer used, and
wrestlers fought entirely naked. (Thuc.
6.) [Cursus.J The custom of anointing the
body for wrestling is not mentioned in the
Homeric poems ; but it was said to have been
adopted bj* the Cretans and Lacedaemonians at
a very early i^eriod (Thuc. I. e.)
The contest in wrestling was divided by the
ancients into iraATj dpd'l] or 6p6ia {opdoffTaSriv
naKaUiv), that is, the stand-up fight, and
aKivSr]ais or Kv\icris {lucta volutatoria), in
which the athletae struggled with each other
lying on the ground. Unless they contrived to
rise again, the dAiVSTjcris continued until one of
them acknowledged himself to be conquered
(aTrayopeviif, a.irfnre7v). The ttccAtj opdr} appears
to have been the only one known to Homer,
as well as afterwards in the great national
games of the Greeks ; and as soon as one
wrestler fell, the other allowed him to rise and
continue the contest. But if the same athlete
fell thrice, the victory was decided, and lie
Fig. 670.— Wrestlers— aAi'i'5rj(ris. (Krause.)
was not allowed to go on (Aesch Bum. 589).
Hence the words rinuKrhp (Aesch. Ay. 171) and
arpiaKTOs [Chocph. 338). Tlie place where the
wrestlers contended was generally soft ground,
and covered with sand (Xen. Anab. iv. 8, 5j 26).
There were certain rules for wrestling (Plat.
Leyg. viii. 833 e), but within those rules all
kinds of feints and tricks were practised. Before
the contest each combatant used to anoint the
other, and rub him over with fine dust or saud
392
LUCTA
(Ov. Met. ix. 35). Jars of sand were found in
the Thermae of Caracalla at Rome. The oil
was useful to make the wrestlers more flexible
and agile (evTovdrepoi), and the dust to allow
the adversary to get a grip. There are many
technical terms applied to different kinds of
wrestling, such as —
(1) 'A/cpoxeip'Cyu<^s : seizing the fingers of the
adversary, and sometimes even breaking them.
[Pancratium.]
(2) Apdffffew or Spdcr(readai : grasping, get-
ting the ' grip ' (\a07), 0.1x^0). The ordinary
method appears to be this : the wrestlers
approached one another with upraised and ex-
tended arms, with the right leg advanced and
the upper part of the body drawn somewhat
LUDl
his thighs (of. Theocr. xxiv. 109, eSpoffTp6<t>ot
perhaps = ' cross-buttock men').
Fig. 671.— Wrestlers getting the ' grip • (Spa(T(reiv).
(Krause.)
back. Then each advanced his left leg till
tliey were close together (axxnaais or napd-
dfffis), arched his neck and shoulders, contracted
((rcpriKctXTas) his body as much as possible, and
thus standing each tried to get his gi-ip (Ov.
Met. ix. 33 sqq.). Frequently both wi-estlers took
'body-grips' (SioAo^jSafeiv) (cf. II. xxiii. 711).
In that case, if one fell, the other did too, he
who was uppermost
being considered the
victor in that fall ( Aesch.
Suppl. 90).
(3) "A^x*"', airoirvi-
yetv, choking : either by
throwing both arms
round the neck (Theocr.
xxv. 268) or round the
body, as Herakles
strangled Antaeus (Plat.
Leejg. 796 A ; Stat. Theb.
vi.'897).
(4) Avyii^eiv is a gene-
ral term for Ijending and
twisting (Hes. Sent.
302).
(5) 'AyKvpi^eiv, inro-
<TKe\i(^ftv, some trick of
hooking the leg round the leg of the adver-
sary.
((■)) 'E/x/SaWen/, irapefj.fidWeii', apdffcreiv,
probably pushing in front or on the side.
(7) TlapaKpoveiv, to make a feint of grasping.
(8) 'Tiro<TKe\l(fiv, ■siqjj'^antare : a general
term for tripping up one's opponent. (See
//. xxiii. 726, when Ulysses strikes Ajax be-
hind at the hollow of the knees, KwKr)\p.) This
appears to have been also called WTepvl^eiv (cf.
LXX, Gen. xxvii. 36).
(9) 'Avarpeiretv, the general word for upset
ting.
(10) 'Xrpecpfiv. This consisted in one wrestler
turning his adversary right round by suddenly
springing on him. After the turn was ellecteil,
he generally leaped on his adversary's back (Ov.
Met. ix. 52 sqq.), twisting his legs tightly round
_ Fig. 672.— Wrestlers—
dyxeiv. (Heraltlos and
Antaeus.) (Krause.!
(11) KXifiaKiCeiv appears to mean that, after
suddenly turning his opponent round, the
wrestler clambered up his back, as it were up a
ladder (Soph. Track. 521).
(12) AiaKauPdveiv, to seize round the middle
(At. Eq. 262).
(13) Tpox7?A.i{'€i«', to bend the neck back.
Wrestling was practised in all the gymnasia
as well as in the palaestrae, and in 01. 37
( = 682 B.C.) \vTestling for boys was introduced
at the Olympic games, and soon after in the
other great games, and at Athens in the Eleu-
sinia and Theseia also. (Pind. 01. viii. 68 ; Plut.
Si/mpos. ii. 5.) The most renowned of all
the Greek wrestlers in tlie historical age was
Milo of Kroton (Hdt. iii. 137).
Ludi. A general term comprising the various
spectacles and contests of the circus and aniphi-
theatre (ludi circense.i), and those of the theatre
[ludi scenici) and stadium at Rome.
, (1) Kinds OF G.\MES. — (a) Public. Originally
the games were religious ceremonies, the
two oldest being the Equirria and Con-
sualia], held in honour of Mars and Consus.
But games were frequently vowed (ludi
votivi) on the eve of or during times of
war, especially to Jupiter (hence called ludi
magni, maximi), which gradually came to be
solemnised every year, and afterwards estaV)-
lished by law as annual (Liv. i. 35, 9) TLndi
KomaniJ. During the time of the Republic
there were seven such games — the hidi Bo-
ttiani, Pl^beii, Ceriales, ApoHinares, Mrga-
Icnses, Floralcs, Victoriae Sullanae. 'Tlie
first two were called sacri, and had an epulum
connected wth them. During imperial times
many new games were added. The birthday
feasts and games {ludi natalicii, yeveQXia),
celebrated in honour of the reigning em-
perors, were allowed by all tlie Caesars ; but
they seem to have been retained after death
(yivecria) only for those emperors who were
consecrated [Apotheosis ; Consecratio]. Ludi
votivi, too, were often instituted after a war,
e.g. ludi Fartkici, Alcmannici, Sarmatici,
&c. (b) Private. Besides these, there were
ludi privati,es'pech\\'\j l-idi funebres. Though
the whole people took part in them, still they
were private games, as being given by private
individuals and not by the state. "The ludi
funebres or novendiales were celebrated on the
ninth day after death. Gladiatorial exhibitions
in the Forum were frequently included in these
games. The beginning at Rome of gladiatorial
contests, which came from Etruria and Cam-
pania, dates from the funeral games of D. Junius
Brutus in 264 B.C. Exhibitions of gladiators
i
LUDI
39»
were often ordered by will to be given at the
funeral of the testator (Cic. Vat. 15, :i7 ; Hor.
Sat. ii. 3, 84). Dramatic rexJresentatioiis were
also held at funeral games. Generally the
games only lasted one day, and only a few pairs
of gladiators fought ; but we hear also of three
and four days (Liv. xxiii. 30, xxxi. 50). It was
unusual for women to be present at ludi fune-
bres. Another kind of ludi privati were those
given by people of high rank voluntarily, on
occasions of great public rejoicing. Private
exliibitions were often given by the emperors ;
such as the Ludi Palatini, the luvenales
{Suet. Cal. 54 ; Tac. Ann. xiv. 44).
Other public games of less importance are
mentioned, devoted to Janus, Venus Verti-
cordia, Quirinus, Osiris and Isis, &c. (C I. L.
i. 405).
The games may be divided into (a) ludi
eircenses [Circus], which include both the
laces in the circus and the gladiatorial shows
[Gladiator], and baitings of beasts in the
amphitheatre [Venatio ; Amphitheatrum] ; (h)
ludi scenici, or dramatic and spectacular
shows in the theatre. [Comoedia ; Tragoedia ;
Theatrum; Histrio; Mimus; Pantomimus.]
(c) Greek contests of musicians and athletes,
strictly called Agones, which were first intro-
duced into Rome by M. Fulvius Nobilior in
186 B.C. (Liv. xxxix. 22, 2). In the last century
of the Republic Sulla, Pompeius, Caesar (Plut.
Caes.x 39), and otliers, gave exhibitions of
athletes. In imperial times there were three
principal 'a^o«es : (a) the Actia; (6) the ^.^on
Nerotieus [Quinquennalia] ; (c) the Agon
C apitnlinus. This last agon was established
in 86 A.ii., and celebrated every fourth year in
early summer. It lasted even into mediaeval
times: for it was on Easter Sunday 1341, on
the Capitoline hill, that Petrarch was crowned
(Gibbon, viii. 227, ed. Smith). It comprised
contests in Greek and Latin poetry, Greek and
Latin oratory, and music. The victors were
crowned with oak leaves (Mart. iv. 1, 6).
(2) The Length of the Games. — They ori-
ginally lasted each only a portion of one day
(Liv. xlv. 9, 4). From one day they gradually
increased, during the Republic, the Ludi Ro-
mani to sixteen, tlie Ludi Plebeii to fourteen,
&c., sixty-six in all. Various games were added
during the Empire. Gradually, too, the whole
of each day came to be filled up with events,
beginning from eai'ly morning (Cic. Fain. vii.
1, 1 ; Suet. Cal. 26, Claud. 34, /. viafutiiii), and
continuing on into the night (Suet. Cal. 18 ;
Tac. Ann. xiv. 20, xv. 44), when lights were
sometimes used. Night festivals probably began
with the Floralia (Ov. Fa.sf. v. 301 eqq.). After
61 B.c there was a pause in the middle of the
day for the audience to dine; and this period
was filled up with the exhibition of inferior
gladiators, the vieridiaui.
(3) Instaukatio. — The anxious scrupulous-
ness with which the Romans observed ritual is
often insisted on (see Liv. v. 17, 2, xxxii. 1, 9).
In any case when the games were performed
von rite, non recte, mimi.s diligrnter.thoj had
to be held over again, either entirely, or the
ceremonies of certain days were performed
again. The strict jphrase for the repetition of
the games was ludi toil instaurati sunt; for
the repetition of the ceremonies of c:ertain days,
ludi [semel, tor, quinquies, &c.) instaurati
sunt. Games so repeated were called instau-
rativi (Cic. Div. i. 26, 55).
(4) The Givers of the Public Gajo-.s.— («)
Consuls, Ludi votivi were always adminis-
tered by a magistrate with the imperium, usually
by the consul (Liv. xxx. 2, 8). The giving of the
games held out great .opportunities of bribery
for the higher magistrates. The shows of
gladiators given by consuls elect date from
the beginning of the second eenturj- a.d. (b\
Aediles. From the time of their appointment
in 366 B.C., the administration of tlie Ludi Ro-
mani (of. Liv. vi. 42, 13) was given to the con-
suls, and gradually they had entrusted to them
the care of all tlie games except the Ludi
Apollinares and Ludi Piscatorii, which were
administered by the praetor urbanus (Liv. xxv.
12, 10). The Ludi Plebeii were held by the
plebeian aediles, and bo too were the Ludi
Ceriales. In 22 B.c. Augustus took the cura
ludorum from the aediles and gave it to (c)
the Praetors. Under the Empire, games were
given also by quaestors, and curatores ludo-
rum or munerxim. Gladiatorial exhibitions
during the Republic were confined to the pri-
vate funeral games. In imperial times they
were given as public games, tnunera, not ludi
(Suet. Claud. 24 ; Tac. Ann. xi. 22, xiii. 5).
(5) The Cost of the Games was defrayed
partly by the state and partly by the giver of
the games. The state part was called Lucar.
A definite sum {pecunia certa) was voted for
the games, which, however, fell so far short
of the actual amount expended that the
magistrates who gave the games had to resort
to the help of their friends and to extortions
from the provincials to supply what was con-
sidered necessary (Liv. xl. 44, 11 ; Cic. Q. Fr.
i. 9, 26). Martial (v. 25, 10) tells us, e.g., that
the chariot-races sometimes cost 400,000 ses-
terces (4000/. nearly). The expense, in fact,
was so enormous that in 28 B.C. no senator cotild
take the aedileship.
(6) The Audience. — In early times slaves
were not allowed to attend the games, nor were
any strangers present except state-guests. But
in later times this was not the case (Juv. vi.
353 ; Mart. Spcct. 3). Seats were reserved
for the magistrates (Cic. Att. ii. 1, 4 ; Suet.
Nero, 12), priests and Vestals, and other per-
sons or collegia. The emperor had a regular
box {cubiculum. Suet. Kero, 12). A free seat
was sometimes given in pci^petuity to a dis-
tinguished man and to his descendants (cf. Liv.
ii. 31 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 83). Reserved seats could
be transferred or sold (Tac. Ann. iv. 62). At
the ordinary games there appear to have been
three kinds of seats : [a) those reserved by the
exhibitor to give away ; [b] the seats which he
reserved to sell (cf. Suet. Cal. 86) ; (c) places
which were open gratis to the public. Box-
keepers (locarii, Mart. v. 24, 9) derived a large
income from buying up the reserved seats and
selling them at a raised price.
Gifts were often thrown among the specta-
tors to be scrambled for (missilia) ; such as
fruits, vegetables, and other eatables, but
generally tesserae, which admitted to various
kinds of pleasures (3Iart. viii. 78, 9 ; Suet.
Nrro, 11). One of these tesserae -wh'wh we have
is marked 2'>'(tndiuM. To avoid the crush,
many people left before the scrambling began.
The people used the g.nnes as an opportunity
of giving free expression to their opinions (Cic.
Att. ii. 19, 3, Se.st. 54, 115). In imperial times
we hear of the audience rising (assurgo) up when
the emperor or a distinguished man entered,
clapping (Suet. Aug. 56 ; cf. Verg. Eel. vi. 66),
or waving handkerchiefs, cheering or the con-
trary (Juv. V. B : Tac. Arm. -ax. 13). They would
1 clamour for the liberation of slaves or criminals
394
LUDI ACTIACI
who had made a good exhibition in the contests,
for the discharge of distinguished gladiators ;
gibe at unpopular people (Juv. v. 3; Tac. Ann.
xi. 13) ; declare against laws, ministers, e.g.
Tigellinus, and make many other appeals and
demonstrations (cf. Tac. Aoai. vi. 13 ; Suet. Dom.
15, Tit. 6). Frantic excitement, and some-
times even breach of the peace, accompanied
the celebration of the games, especially the
chariot-races (Juv. xi. 197).
Roman citizens wore the toga at the games,
and the liigher ranks and magistrates appeared
in official dress (Suet. Aug. 40). ^V^lite cloaks
(lacernae, Mart. xiv. 137) could be worn over
the toga in bad weather, but were laid aside on
the entry of the emperor (Suet. Claud. (5). We
are told that Caligula, also allowed, besides
cushions for the senators, the broad-brimmed
Thessalian or Macedonian hats[Cau8ia] as a pro-
tection against t'.ie sun (Mart. xiv. 29). Domitian
compelled the, audience to appear in white
(Mart. V. 8 ; 23, 1), though the favourers of the
different factions still wore their colours (cf.
Mart. xiv. 131). When owing to windy weather
the awning {velarium) could not be used, the
spectators were allowed to hold up umbrellas
(Mart. xiv. 28).
Ludi Acti'aci. [A'ctia.]
Ludi Apollina'res. These games were estab-
lished in the year 212 B.C., in accordance with a
prophecy of the old seer Marcius [carmina
Marciana, Liv. xxv. 12, 2), and after an in-
spection of the Sibylline books, to the god who
warded off evil, Apollo Averruncus. They
were celebrated by the praetor urbanus (Liv.
I. c. § 10 ; Cic. Phil. ii. 13, 31). After 211 B.C.
they were celebrated every year; and after
208 B.C. on July 13. The number of days
gradually increased from one till it reached
eight or nine. They were for the most part
theatrical exhibitions ; but sometimes there
was a venatio, or a race, or Ludus Troiae.
Ludi Capitoli'ni. Livy (v. 50, 4) tells us
that in the year 390 u.c, after the defeat of the
Gauls, on the motion of Camillus a decree of
the senate was passed that Ludi Capitolini
should be instituted to Juppiter Opt. Max., and
that the dictator M. Furius should appoint for
that purpose a collegium, consisting of those
who dwelt in the Capitol and Arx (Liv. v. 52,
11). After 384 B.C. no patrician was allowed to
live in the Arx or the Capitol (Liv. vi. 20, 3),
so that from this time plebeians only could be
members of this collegium.
Ludi Ceria'les, Compitali'cii, Flora'les, &c.
(See Cerealia, Compitalia, &c.)
Ludi Martia'les, or rather Martis Ulto'ris.
Annual games held by the consuls in honour of
the dedication by Augustus of the temple of
Mars Ultor, 2 B.C.
Ludi Megalenses, Megale'sia, Megale'n-
sia. Early in the second century B.C. this festi-
val was celebrated at Rome on April 4 to 10, in
honour of tlu; great mother of the gods (Rhea
or Cybele, ixeyaKy] Qecis, called at Pessinus by the
name Agdistis), and as a thank-offering at the
close of the Second Punic War (see Liv. xxix.
14 ; Cic. Har. Besp. 12, 24). The sacred stone,
probably an aerolite, representing the goddess,
was brought to Rome from Pessinus in the year
204 B.C., and the day of its arrival was solem-
nised with a magnificent procession, lecti-
sternia, and games, and presents were carried to
the goddess, whose temporary resting-place was
the temple of Victory on the Palatine (Liv.
xxix. 14). The celebration of the Megalesia,
however, did not begin till 194 B.C., and the
LUDI PLEBEn
temple which had been vowed in 204 B.C. was
completed and dedicated by M. Junius Brutus
(Liv. xxxvi. 36) on April 10, 191, B.C. after
which tune the celebration was annual. The
temjjle {Matris Magnae Idaeae) was on th3
Palatine, within the laomeriuni, for the goddess
was not regarded as a foreign deity : she came
from Ida, the home of their race. The rites
were under the charge of Phrj'gian prie-sts (who
were eunuchs) and priestesses with an Archi-
gallus and a Sacerdos maxima mains at their
head. These Archigalli bear Roman names ;
but the ordinary Galli were foreigners. The
dress of the priest was a mitra (Prop. v. 7, 61), a
veil, a necklace {occabus), and a purple dress :
a small image of the goddess or of Attis in an
aedicula was suspended at his breast : in his
hand he bore a basket of fruit, cymbals, and
flutes. See cut under Galli. The season of
this festival was one of private festivity, and
led to much extravagance.
The games which were held at the Megalesia
were chiefly scenic. They were at first held
on the Palatine, but afterwards also in tlie
theatres (Ov. Fast. iv. 377). Four of the extant
plays of Terence were performed at the Megal-
esia. [Ludi.] The procession of Galli, which
began the festival (Ov. Fast. iv. 179 sqq.), bore
the sacred image in a chariot through the city.
The priests sang Greek hymns and collected
coins from the people as they went. (See
Lucret. ii. 618 sqq.)
Under the Empire there was a great increase
in the ceremonial, which took a new character,
more Oriental, and more elaborately symbolical.
In its later form Cybele represents the earth
and fruitf ulness ; Attis, the sun. The Phrygian
rites were not fully celebrated under the Re-
public, and perhaps not before the time of
Claudius (Suet. 0th. 8 ; Lucan, i. 599). The
festival so developed began on March 15, which
day stands in the Calendar as Canna intrat,
because there was then a procession of men
and women bearing reeds (cannophori), which
were sacred to Attis. On March 22 was the
day of Arbor intrat, when the sacred pine of
Attis (Ov. Met. x. 103), hung with wool and
with violet crowns, was borne by dcndrophori
to the temple of Cybele on the Palatine.
March 24 was Dies sanguinis, on which, to
commemorate the wounds of Attis, the archi-
gallus cut his arm with a knife ; it was a fast
and a day of mourning (Mart. xi. 84) ; on
I March 25 was the day of rejoicing {Hilaria) ;
1 and, finally, on March 27, a procession of priests
bore the sacred image on a chariot down to
the Almo (Mart. iii. 47), to wash it in the place
where the Almo joins the Tiber. The image
was the sacred black stone, to which a female
head of silver was added. The ceremonies ended
with a general carnival. Traces of the Megal-
esia remained as late as the fifth century a.d.
Ludi Palati'ni. A private festival in honour
of the Numen of Augustus, held in January of
each year. Besides the imperial family, only
the highest nobles and their families were in-
vited (Tac. Ann. i. 73).
Ludi Piscato'rii. Annual games held in the
Transtiberina Regio in the month of June, bj-
the fishermen of the poor quarter. They were
under the care of the praetor urbanus (Ov.
Fast. vi. 239).
Ludi Plebe'ii. Held in the Circus Flami-
nius, and probably instituted 220 B.C. They
were celebrated by the plebeian aediles in the
month of November, and lasted several days.
The principal function was the Epulum lovis
LUDI ROMANI
on the Ides (13th), which day in each month
was sacred to J upiter. Plaj's were acted at the
Ludi Plebeii.
Ludi Roma'ni. These games (the chief
lloniaii festival) were held in honour of Jupiter,
and are said to have been established by Tar-
quinius Priscus on the occasion of his victory
over the Latins at Lake Regillus (Cic. Div. i. 20 ;
but see Liv. i. 35, '2). At first they lasted for one
day only ; but other days were added, and in
the time of Augustus the Ludi Romani lasted
from September 4 to 19. These included the
Epulain luvis (associated with Minerva and
Juno) on the Ides (13th), an Eqiiontm j^ro-
batio, and games in the circus. The celebra-
tion was in the hands at first of the consuls,
afterwards of tlie curule aediles.
The institution of the Ludi Romani probably
began from a vow made by the commander of a
Roman army. They were celebrated as extra-
ordinary games, and not as established by law.
They were soUcmnes, 'customary,' but had not
yet become annui (Liv. i. 35, 9). Ifc appears that
ludi magni is the term applied to extraordinary
games originating in a vow [ludi votivi), while
ludi Bomaniis that applied to the games when
tliey were regularly established as annual {ludi
stati). The fixed festival, the ludi Botnant,
was probably established as annual on the
occasion of the first appointment of the curule
aeiUli's, in 367 B.C., who were to be the cura-
torcs ludorum aollemniuni (Cic. Lcejg. in. 3, 7).
The actual ludi Eomani consisted of, first, a
solemn procession, jjoDipa [Circusj; then a
chariot-race, an exhibition of horsemanship
[DesultorJ, and minor events, such as boxing,
dancing, and ludun Troiac. The whole cele-
bration of these games appears to have had
something of an archaeological character. After
the introduction of the drama in 364, plays were
acted at the ludi liomani, e.g. the Fhormio of
Terence, 161 b.c.
Ludi Saecula'res. Saeculum has a twofold j
meaning. There is the saeculum civile of 100 !
years, and the saeculum naturalc, the length j
of which was never established by the Romans.
The earliest form of these games was the Ludi
Terentini, so called from Teretdiim, a volcanic
cleft in the Campus Martius, at which the gens
Valeria sacrificed dark victims to Dis and Pro-
serpina (Mart. x. C3, 3). We have no certain
information about their celebration till '249 B.C.,
when the Sibylline books ordered ' ut Diti patri
et Proserpinae ludi Terentini in campo Martio
fierent tribus noctibus et hostiae furvae im-
molarentur, utique ludi centesimo quoque anno
fierent.' The next celebration was, not in 149 B.C.,
but in 146. In tlie year 49 B.C. religion was
silent amid the turmoil of the civil war ; and
the games were not solemnised till the well-
known celebration of Augustus in 17 B.C.
Tliere were many Greek myths of certain
ages of the world — the golden iigc, the silver
age, itc. — and in particular a theory that the
whole order of the universe began anew when
tlie planets returned to their original positions
after what was called a viagnus aiuti/s, or
vaKiyytveffia (cf. Verg. Eel. 4, 34 sqq.). This, it
was said, would happen after four periods of
110 years each (cf. Hor. C. S. 21). Again, in
Etruria a sacrifice was made at the beginning
of what they considered a saeculum, i.e. that
space of time whicli embraced even the longest
life. The propitiatory offering was made for
all alive at the time : when that whole race
had passed away, the gods signified that the
cycle was over by sending prodigies, and a new
LUDI SAECULARES
895
sacrifice had to be offered. The first four
saecula of the Etruscans lasted 100 years each,
the fiftli 123, the sixth and seventh" 119. The
definite Greek theory that the saeculum lasted
110 years was taken up by the Quindecimviri,
wlio invented celebi-ations for 456 B.C., 346, 236,
120, Augustus's games being celebrated in the
last year of the saeculum, 17 b.c. Claudius
declared a saeculum in 47 A.D., the 800th j'ear
of Rome; Domitian in HI a.d. (841 a.u.c.)
(Suet. Dom. 4 ; Tac. Ann. xi. 11 ; Mart. iv.
1, 7, X. 03, 3). The last celebration was in the
1000th year of the city (247 A.D.) by the Em-
peror Philip. After this the secular games
disappear till they were revived in tlie Middle
Ages as tlie Papal Jubilee instituted by Pope
Boniface VIII. in 1300 (Gibbon, ch. vii. note).
The Ludi Terentini, then, and their con-
tinuation, the Ludi Saeculares, are not a
genuine Roman ceremony. They rest on re-
ference to the Sibylline books (Hor. C. S. 5),
are celebrated by the Quindeciinviri (Hor. C. S.
73; Tac. Anil. xi. 11) outside the pomerium,
the gods honoured are not Roman, and the
Roman antiquarians considered the solemnities
to be derived from Etruria.
The rites of the celebration were as follows :
heralds summoned the people to a bjiectaclt!
which they had never seen before and would
never see again. Then in the Capitoline temple
of Jupiter and the Palatine temple of Apollo the
Quindeciinviri gave to all present purificatories
(KaQapffia, sujfimenta), consisting of torches,
sulphur, and bitumen ; and in the same temples,
and that of Diana on ilie Aventine, wheat.
Fig. (i71.— Coin of .\ugustus commcnioniliiig Ludi
Sueculuri'b. 17 u.c.
barley, and beans were given to the people to
make an offering with. The feast lasted three
nights and tlu-ee days. Offerings were made to
Jupiter and other deities. The emperor, as
magisteroi the Quindecimviri, sacrificed to the
Fates, at the Terentuni, on the border of the
Tiber, three rams on three altars. A stage was
then erected, torches lighted, a newly-composed
hymn was sung, and shows were exhibited. On
the next day a sacrifice was made on the
Capitol of white bulls to Jupiter and a white
cow to Juno ; there were dramatic representa-
tions in honour of Ajwllo. On the second night
a white pig and a wliite sow were sacrificed to
Tellus, and dark victims to Dis and Proserjiina.
On the second day the matrons offered supplica-
tions and sang hymns to Juno on the Capitol ;
and on the third day in the Palatine temple of
Apollo there was a sacrifice of white oxen (Hor.
C. S. 49), and thrice nine noble boys and
maidens whose parents were still alive (ifKpi-
flaAfis, pafrimi ac matrimi) sang hymns in
Greek and Latin for the preservation and pro-
396 LUDI VICTORIAE CAESARIS
speiity of the Roman empire. Such a hymn
was called Carmen Saeculare, and we still
possess the hymn which Horace wrote for the
celebration of the games by Augustus. A tab-
let found near the Tiber embankment in 1891 j
contains the words CARMEN • COMPOSVIT
■ Q • HOR[Ar]IVS ■ FLACCVS, and the
names of the XVviri.
Ludi Victo'riae Caesaris or Ve'neris Gene-
tri'cis. First celebrated in 40 b.c. by Julius
Caesar on the dedication of tlie temple of Venus
Genetrix, vowed at the battle of Pharsalia
September 24, 48 B.C. : Victoria being another
name for Venus Genetrix, tlie patroness of the
lulia Gens. They were celebrated by a special
collegium (Suet. Aiuj. 10).
Ladi Voti'vi. See at head of article.
Ludus littera'rius (SiSaa-KaKuoy). A school.
1. Greek. — A general distinction is to be
drawn between Doric and Ionic races. In
Doric states there was much gymnastic and
little mental training. A boy at Sparta was
taken from his parents' control at seven, and
his subsequent training was supervised by the
Bidiaei, under whom was the Paedonoraus
[BiSialoi : naiSov6M,oi], who instructed his
charge in bodily exercises and chorus-singing.
The state took no heed of literary education,
and, if any was to be gained, it was a private
concern of the parents. Many no doubt
learned to read and write, and acquired some
amount of simple arithmetic ; but even this
was far from being universal. Music, how-
ever, was learnt by all, the cithara and flute,
and especially singing in chorus.
In Ionic states more attention was paid to
literary culture. Herodotus (vi. 27) mentions
a school of 120 boys at Chios in the year 500
B.C. ; and when the Athenians went to Troezen
during the occupation of 'Athens by Xerxes,
special provision was made to supply teachers
there (Plut. Thcmist. 10). But notices of state
payment for education are rare and doubtful.
We may pass from Greece in general to Athe-
nian education. It does not appear that there
was any state payment of schools at Athens
before the Roman imperial age, when Hadrian
endowed chairs of rhetoric and philosophy.
There was certainly a law of Solon fixing an
obligation on parents and guardians to provide
for the education of boys (Plat. Crit. 50 d).
The neglect of this duty was noticed by the
Areiopagus, and brought with it some public
stigma. [Areiopagus.] Whether, however,
state officials (' y. the arpaTrjyoi) controlled
and inspected schools or not, there is no doubt
that feeling and custom made some considerable
amount of literary education universal for boys
at Athens. There were no schools for girls :
what they did learn was from their mothers
or from female slaves, and consisted chiefly in
domestic work, such as spinning ; sometimes at
any rate they learnt to read and write. (Dem.
c. Spud. pp. 1030, § 9, and 1034, § 21.)
School period. — At the age of six the boy
was entrusted to a iraiSaywyAs [Paedagogus],
who conducted him everywhere — to scliool, to
the palaestra, &c. — carrying his books and
other school requisites. (Plat. Legg. vii. 808
D ; Lucian, Am. 44 ; Ar. Nub. 972 ; Xen. Anab.
ii. 6, 12, &c.). The school began early in the
morning and ended at sunset, according to
Solon's law (Thuc. vii. 29) ; with an interval
for aptffrop at midday. In grammar schools
the MovfffTa was a school festival (Theophr.
20), and there were holidays at great festivals,
especially in the month of Anthesterion. Dis-
LUDUS LITTERARIUS
cipline was often severe (Ar. Nub. 972, Xen-
Afiab. ii. 6, 12).
Subjects.— The regular school course (iyKv-
k\ios iraiSfia) included, besides reading and
\vriting, a knowledge of the poets, music and
gjTnnastics {ypa.fifw.Ta, yv/xvaffTiKi), and /ju>v-
crtK-f)). In the Soeratic age some mathematical
training was added (Plat. Legg. vii. 819 c).
Simple arithmetic, however, was taught mainly
at home by means of a calculating table
[Abacus ; Logistica] ; and accordingly Ari-
stotle (Fol. v. or viii. 1) speaks of three school
subjects. The literary course consisted of
reading and explaining the best poets, such as
Homer, Hesiod, Theognis, Phokylides ; but of
these especially Homer. (Cf. Xen. Syvtp. 3,
5.) Prizes were given for avdyi/wcns, koAAi-
ypa(pia, fXi\oypa(pia (musical notation), {ivdfio-
ypa(pia (metrical notation), iroAuyuaCj'a.
To this literary course was sometimes added
special teaching in tactics and strategy for
those who looked to a military career (Plat.
Euthydem. 273 c ; Xen. Mem. iii. 1). Draw-
ing was also taught. This was chiefly outline
drawing without colour, on boxwood tablets.
The musical teaching began at twelve or thir-
teen, and was so ordered that the pupils might
appreciate and accompany lyric poetry. The
reason is given by Aristotle, viz. that, though
of no practical use, music provides a noble and
liberal employment of leisure. The instrument
taught was the lyre. The 5j5a<r»caA«Ta lasted
till 7}3i?) i.e. till sixteen ; and afterwards, for
those who wished for advanced learning, came
the schools of the rhetoricians and Sophists,
who taught various departments of knowledge.
Place of Education. — The schoolroom itself
was called hibaaKa\iiov or Troi5a7a>7f?oi' (Dem.
de Cor. p. 313, § 258) ; also <t>w\i6t> or <pa>\e')S.
Some scliools were held in the open air (Anth.
Gr. xi. p. 437). Theboyssat on benches {$d6pa),
the master on a chair (0p6vos). In the vase-
picture given below (fig. 675), we see the various
(i) CD
Fig. G75.— Athenian School. (From the Duri3 Vase.)
departments, each group representing a class :
(1) repetition of poetry ; (2) music lesson on the
lyre; (3) the writing master with a tablet; (4)
a singing lesson.
LUDUS LITTERARIUS
Paytnent. — The Athenian schoohiiaster
(ypa/j.fj.aTi(TTi^s) was ill-paid, and often not
paid at all (Dem. c. Aphob. i. p. 828, § 46). The
Sophists, however, in the more advanced school,
were able to charge as much as 100 minae for
their complete coui'se to each pupil ; and the
chairs founded in later times by Hadrian had
a stipend of 100 minae a year attached to them.
2. KoM.vN.- — At Home, education, though
not made obligatory by any law, was always
considered of importance. In early days tlie
father taught his son (Plin. Ep. viii. 14 ; Plaut.
Most. i. -1, 42; Cic. Hep. li. 21, 37; Plut.
Cat. Mai. 20). This old training no doubt
consisted much in living with the father and
learning his business of public life ; but there
was also direct instruction in reading, writing
und arithmetic, and in saying by heart the
Twelve Tables. Wealthy parents employed
educated slaives or freedmen as private tutors
at home (Plut. Cat. Mai. 20; Plaut. Bacch.
in. 1, 27). It is probable, however, that even
ill the earliest times there were schools to
which those who could neither teach themselves
nor provide competent slaves as teachers sent
their children, boys and girls alike. (See Liv.
iii. 44, V. 44, vi. 25.)
Among teachers we must distinguish (1)
litterator, or magister litterarius ( = 7po|i-
/xaTKTTTjs), the elementary schoolmaster ; (2)
(jrammaticua (also litteratus), a more advanced
teacher ; (H) rhetor. In tlie later times of the
Republic and under the Empire it was common
for persons of the highest rank to send their
sons to schools: e.g. Sulla (Plut. Brut. 9).
Place. — The elementary schools and those of
the granimatici were usually in a verandah
partly open to the street, and the schoolroom
is accordingly caWed pergula, taberna, or por-
ticus (Suet, (le ill. Gram. 18 ; Juv. xi. 137 ; Liv.
iii. 44 ; cf. Mart. xii. 57, &c.). Boys and girls
were taught in the same school (Mart. viii. 3 ;
Ov. Trist. ii. 369).
School-time. — The school began early (Mart.
ix. 68) ; so that the boys brought lamps with
them (Juv. vii. 226) ; there was a break for the
prandium, after which school was continued.
Each boy was accompanied from his home by
his paedagogus, or slave (who acted as a sort of
private tutor, in regard both to control and to
teaching), also called custos (Juv. vii. 218 ; cf.
Hor. Sat. i. 6, 86), and by an inferior slave
called capsarius, carrying the books and tablets
(Juv. X. 117). In school, the master sat on a
chair (cathedra), the boys on benches [subsel-
lia). Schoolrooms were furnished with busts
of poets, and we also hear of waU-maps and
tables of authors and dates.
Discipline. — Corporal punishment was com-
mon (Juv. i. 5). On the other hand, prizes were
given to encourage the industrious — some valu-
able or prettily got-up book (Suet, deill. Gram.
17).
Schooltime and Holidays. — The Roman
school year began on March 24, after the Quin-
quatria, when the new boy brought his entrance-
fee {(TvffTaTiKou, Minervalieiiim, see Juv. x.
116). Sometimes the money for the whole
previous year (Minerval, SiSaKTpa) was brought
then (Juv. vii. 242), but (Hor. Sat. i. 6, 72) it
was usually paid each month. Other fees or
customary presents were strena on the Ka-
lends, and sportula at the Saturnalia (Hier.
Connn. in Ep. ad Eph. ii. 6). The status and
emoluments of schoolmasters, qrammntistae
and grammatici alike, were low (Suet. Gr. 9 ;
•hiv. vii. 228-243). What their ordinary fee
LUPERCALIA
397
was cannot, however, be determined. The
rhetor seems to have received twice as much
as the graiin/iaticiis, and rhctores sometimes
made money (Suet. Vesjy. 18 ; Juv. vii. 197).
The regular holidays or vacation were the week
at the Saturnalia in December and the five days
at the Quincjuatria in March, but there was also
a holiday on eacli uundinae, and at the time of
the important games.
Subjects. — The school life began usually at
seven years of age (Quint, i. 1, 15) ; but before
tliis cliildren had often learnt to talk Greek
from a nurse (Tae. Dial. 29). In the elemen-
tary schools the course consisted of reading,
writing, and simple arithmetic. The writing
lesson was on a wax tablet, with lines or furrows
[sulci) to guide the hand. The arithmetic
master [calculator] was paid more highly than
the teacher of reading and writing. [Logis-
tica.J In the schools of the grammarians
came the study of poets. This school differed
from the elementary school, as being nearer the
ideal Greek training, an eruditio liheralis or
' liberal education ' (Cic. Tusc. ii. 11, 27). The
central point was to read with full explanation
Greek and Latin poets. The boy must first
learn to read with understanding and witli
correct emphasis; for the Romans laid great
stress on elocution as a necessary qualification
for public life (Tac. Dial. 37 ; Cic. de Orat. i.
4, &c.).
With this object the master read over the
passage [praelegere, Mart. i. 36) and made the
class repeat it, as we see from the frequent
reddere dictata (Hor. Ep. i. 1, 55, i. 18,
13). Besides this, however, the passage was
thorougUy threshed out as to its meaning, its
metre, the questions of geography, history,
mythology,andethicsconnectodwith it (Quint, i.
4, 4 ; Juv. vii. 231-236). There were also learning
by heart and practice in verse composition. As
regards the authors read. Homer universally
held the first place (Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 42; Plin.
Ep. ii. 14), next to him, perhaps the favourite
was Menander (Ov. I'rist. ii. 23), and then
the tragedians. Hesiod, Theokritus, Pindar,
Sappho, and others, are also mentioned. The
Latin authors most read in the first century
A.D. were Virgil, Horace, and Lucan. An antf-
quarian reaction took place about 100 A.r>.,
when the older prose writers and the poets of the
third century B.C. — Gracchus, Naevius, Ennius,
Plautus, Accius, and Lucilius — were adopted as
school-books. Music began to be studied
towards the end of the first century (Sen. Ep.
88, 9 ; Suet. Tit. 3) ; and the above subjects,
with the addition of geometry, formed the usual
course (iyKvKKtoi TraiSeia). Many, however,
proceeded to the school of the rhetor. Like
the school of the grainmaticus, this was
originally formed after the Greek pattern, and
the Greek teachers were preferred (Suet. liJiet.
2). In these schools prose authors took the
place of poets ; but the principal part was the
prose exercise, which, for the beginner a mere
prose narrative, passed on to the dcclamatio.
The easier kind of dcclamatio was suasorin,
adopting some view on an historical or mytho-
logical subject and arguing it (see Juv. i. 16),
The students then advanced to controversiae
or declamations on some legal point.
Ludus Troiae. [Troiae ludus.]
Lupa'tum. A horse's bit. [Currus.]
Luperca'lia, probably the most ancient of the
Roman festivals, and of uncertain origin, was
held every year on February 15, in honour of
a deity who is described as Faunus or Pan
398 LUPERCI
(Ov. Fast. ii. 268), Inuiis (Livy, i. 5), or
Liipercus.
The rites were as follows : on the Ides of
February the members of the two colleges of
Luperci met at the cave of the Lupercal, under
the Palatine, where Romulus and Remus were
said to have been nurtured by the she-wolf, and
there sacrificed goats and young dogs, and at
the same time offered the sacred cakes (mola
casta or salsa) made by the Vestal Virgins from
the first ears of the jjrevious harvest (Serv. ad
Verg. Eel. 8, 82) [Vestales]. Then two young
men of birth were brought forward ; these had
theu: foreheads smeared with the knife still
bloody from the victims, and then wiped with
wool dipped in milk, after which they were
obliged to laugh. They theu, or other Luperci,
girt themselves with the skins of the slaughtered
goats, and partook of a banquet ; after which
they ran round the Palatine hill, striking at all
the women who came near them with strips of
skin cut from the hides of the victims. Tliese
strips bore the name oi februa, a word applied
by the Romans to many kinds of instruments
of purification (Plut. Bom. 21, Caes. 01 ; Ov.
Fast. ii. 267 ; Juv. ii. 142).
Tlie immediate object of this striking was
believed to be that of rendering the women
fertile, and also was regarded as a purificatory
rite or Lustratio of the Palatine city round
which they ran (Tac. Attn. xii. 24), the ideas of
purifying, averting evil, and fertilising being
combined in lustratio.
The Lupercalia were celebrated till the fifth
century, and finally prohibited, 496 a.u. by Pope
Gelasius.
Lupe'rci were the members of a very ancient
corporation of priests at Rome. Their institu-
tion was attributed by tradition to the Arcadian
Evander (Liv. i. 5 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 423 ; Plut.
Rom. 24), or to Romulus and Remus (Ov. Fast.
ii. 361). There is, however, little doubt that th'j
priesthood belongs to the oldest tribal settle-
ment on the Palatine, and derives its name
from neither of the above-mentioned legends.
The deriviition of the word maybe from lupus-
arceo : i.e. ' the protectors of the flock from
wolves.' The priesthood was in the hands of
two collegia, of which tiie sodales were called
Luperci Quinctiliani and Luperci Fabiaiii,
or sometimes Quinctilii and Fabii. It was
originally a gentile sacred rite, and was in very
ancient times under the exclusive charge of tlie
gens Fabia and the gens Qainctia or Quinctilia,
it is doubtful which. The Quinctii (or Quinctilii)
represented the Montani, the Fabii the CoUini.
Julius Caesar, in the beginning of the year 44,
added a third corporation of priests, called the
Luperci lulii (Suet. lul. 76), and assigned to
them revenues which the senate aftechisdeatli
took away (Cic. Phil. xiii. 15, 32), and of this
collegium Antonius was magister. The mem-
bers {sodales, eraipot) were ordinarily of the
equestrian rank, rarely senators. [Luper-
calia.]
Lupus fe'rreus. [Aries.]
Lustra'tio {luo, to purify), called by the
Greeks KiSxpcris, is a term which covers a great
variety of ceremonies in the religious usage of
the ancients.
The various usages of lustration may con-
veniently be gro uped under the following heads :
(1) purification before entering holy places;
(2) purification from blood-guiltiness ; (3) puri-
fication at birth, marriage, and death ; (4) puri-
fication of house, land, city, or people, on certain
occasions, or with some special object.
LUSTRATIO
(1) Both in Greece and in Italy worshippers
could not enter a temple without a previous
symbolic act of washing. Even before en-
gaging in ordinary prayer this was proper
(Hom. Od. iv. 750; II. xvi. 228 sqq.) ; but in
temple-worship it was indispensable. At the
entrance of temples were placed vessels holding
pure water [ireptppavTijpta), in which the wor-
shippers dipped their hands ; or the water was
sprinkled over them by a whisk, frequently a
lanrel-branch. In Italy this purification was
as indispensable as in Greece (Liv. xlv. 5, 4).
The temples themselves were purified in the
same manner as the worshippers ; e.g. the
Vestal Virgins daily sprinkled that of Vesta
with water brought from the holy springs of
Egeria or the Camenae (cf. Eur. Ion, 101).
(2) The idea of symbolic purification for
bloodguiltiness does not appear in the Homeric
poems, according to which homicide is visited
by exile or compounded for by a fine. In later
times it was thought indispensable, and the
idea was transferred (as in the case of Orestes)
to the prehistoric age. Herodotus (i. 85} tells
us that the Kadapffis of the Greeks was identical
with that used by the Lydians; and it may
have come both to Greeks and Italians from
the East. There is no certain sign of it in
Roman antiquity, and it seems probable that a
murderer was totally and permanently excluded
from temple-worship (Liv. xlv. 5, 3).
(3) Purification was necessary after the birth
of an infant, as is shown by the Roman expres-
sion dies lustricus for the day on which the
child received its name. In the corresponding
Athenian rite of the 'AM-<t)i8p6|jLia, the women
who had attended at the birth washed their
hands. At marriage in Greece both bride and
bridegroom bathed, on the day before the
wedding, in water from a holy spring (e.g.
Kallirrhoe, at Athens). So at Rome, the bride,
on arriving at her husband's house, was
sprinkled with lustral water, and her feet were
washed (Serv. ad Aen. iv. 167). In Greece,
after a death, all who were in the house, and all
who subsequently came in contact with the
corpse, were unclean and in need of purification
(Hom. Od. X. 481 ; Eur. Iph. Tain: 380), and a
cask of water, called apSdviov, was placed out-
side the house with this object. Among the
Romans we find the same ideas prevailing : a
day was fixed (feriae denicales) on which, by
sacrifices and other ceremonies, the polluted
household was cleansed.
(4) The words Kxdaipetv and lustrare were
applied to a great number of other purificatory
rites, which may have combined the ideas of
purification and dedication, occurring either on
days fixed in the calendar of religious opera-
tions, or on peculiar occasions affecting certain
lands, cities, or communities.
Such were : (a) the lustration of Athens by
Epimenides after the Kylonian massacre (Plut.
Sol. 12) ; (b) that of Delos by the Athenians
in 426 B.C. (Thuc. iii. 104). "With these ex-
amples may be compared the Roman amb-
urbiutn, only celebrated on occasions of great
distress, as, for example, after the battle of the
Trebia (Liv. xxi. 62, 7 ; Lncan, i. 592 sqq.).
Every meeting of the Ekklesia at Athens was
preceded by a lustration {-irepia-rta), when the
wepKTTiapxos sacrificed young pigs, which were
afterwards thrown into the sea. f EKKXTitxCa,
p. 264.] At the karvest festival of the Thargelia
two men.called ipapixaKoi, were driven out of the
ciiy A'e. Koidaffia or KaQ^piiara.
The Greek Mysteries were accompanied by
LUSTRUM
lustral I'ites. In the Bacchic rites, fire, sul-
phur, and air, as well as water, were used as
means of purgation (Serv. ad Aen. vi. 741).
At Rome it was sometimes the land that
was the object of lustration ; sometimes it
was the people, whether as a public assembly
or as an army or fleet. At the lustration of a
farm, the Suovetaurilia (boar, ram, and bull)
were driven round the farm, libations were
offered to Janus and Jupiter, and a fixed form
of prayer used to propitiate Mars, the special
deity of the agriculturist (Cato, It. B. % 41).
Exactly the same ritual was applied to the land
of the state on May 29 of each year, in the
Ambarvalia (Verg. Georg. i. 345). At the
Palilia the flocks and herds were made to pass
through the fire. Other instances are the
Lupercalia, the Argei, &c.
A complete lustration of the whole Roman
people took place at the end of every luntram,
in the Campus Martius. All Roman armies
before they took the field were lustrated.
Lustrum. The term lustrum (Vlu-) pri-
marily meant a purification by sacrifice. In the
regal period this sacrifice without doubt had
been one of the duties performed by the king
in his capacity of priest. Thus Livy (iv. 44)
represents Servius TuUius as celebrating the
first lustrum in 566 B.C., when he had com-
jileted the census. When the censorship was
established, the performance of this rite
devolved on the censors. [Censor.] The
lustration took place in the Campus Martius.
All the men of military age were assembled
there ; thrice round them were borne on spears
a boar, a ram, and a bull (Suovetaurilia),
which were sacrificed by the censors to Mars
for the fulfilment of the vows made by the
preceding censors [Lustratio.] They then led
the whole host to the city gate, and as a mark
of the completion of the lustrum drove a nail
(Clavus annalis], into the wall of a temple,
and then deposited the new register of the
citizens in the treasury. After this the censors
iinmediately laid down office. The solemn
rite was thus regarded as completing the quin-
quennium (also termed lustrum), and hence
the term condere lustrum was used to describe
it. The period of five years, however, was not
quite regularly observed [Censor], and lustrum
sometimes stands for a period of four, not tive,
years. The last celebration of a lustrum took
place under Vespasian, 74 a.i>.
Lycae'a (Au/caia). A festival celebrated by the
Arcadians in honour of Zei/s Avkoios on Mount
Lykaeus. The word is probably derived, not
from \vKos, but from ^LUK-, light. Pausanias
(viii. 38) says that it was founded by Lykaon,
son of Pelasgus, and that on that occasion,
besides the games, there was a sacrifice to Zeus
of a child, whose blood was poured over the
altar, after which Lykaon himself was turned
into a wolf. It is not improbable tliat these
were-wolf stories are a perversion of something
older still from a false connexion of the name
with KvKos. The sacrifice was particularly con-
nected with prayers for rain ; and it is probable
that human sacrifices were retained to a late
period.
Lyceum. [Gymnasium.]
Lychnu'chus (Kvxfovxos). (1) A lantern of
horn (Ar. Fragm. 114; cf. Rutlierford, New
Phrynichus, xl.). (2) Lat. lychnu(hus,i\, lamp-
stand for indoor or outdoor use (Suet. Cues. 37,
Dom. 4 ; Cic. Q. Fr. iii. 3, 2). [Candelabrum.]
Lyra (Lat. fides). A lyre, the chief stringed
instrument used in Greek music. Two main
LYRA
899
' varieties arc known to us from ancient art and
I literature, viz, the lyra (Kvpa) properly so called,
I and the cithara {Kiddpa). (Plat. liej/. iii. p.
309 D ; Arist. Fol. viii. 6.)
My thologists generally taught that the cithara
was invented by Apollo, the lyre by Hermes.
The difference be-
^ tween the two
instruments is
clearly shown in
the representa-
tions of them
found on ancient
monuments. The
lyra {Kvpa) is de-
veloped from the
original tortoise-
shell of Homer
(Hym n. Merc. 41).
The lower part or
body of the in-
strument consists
of a tortoise-
Fig. 676.— Lyra. (Elauchini.)
Fig. 677.— Cithara.
(Guhl and Koner.)
shell covered with a parchment drum, or of a
wooden case in which the original tortoiso-
sliell is more or less reflected. In this shell
are fixed two cun-ed arms (Trrjxe's) or horns,
joined at the upper end by a cross-bar ((vyov).
The strings pass from the bottom of the shell,
over a bridge or fret of I'eeds (5oVo/c6s), to the
^11701/. In the instruments of the other type
{cithara, Kiddpa, Kidapis, Horn.), the shell is
replaced by a wooden case, usually square or
angular, and instead of irrixus, we find the
sides of the case prolouf/ed upwards, so that
tlie whole framework acts as a resonance box
of considerable
power. The first
of these was the
instrument of edu-
cation and of every-
day life ; while the
second was the
technical instru-
ment, seen in the
hands of profes-
sional players {ki-
dapipSoi) who Wear
the long robe (d^-
irfxovoy opOoffrd-
Sioir), and mantlo
(4irnr6pirr)fj.a) pro-
per to musical con-
tests and other
festivals. ^6pixiy^
{(popfxi^o), Od. i.
153) appears to be
synonymous with
Kidapts {II. xviii.
569).
Tlie word \vpa
is post- Homeric, and does not seem to have
been in common use before the time of Pindar.
Fig. 67P,- Kii9opt<rT^?.
(From a vasc.j
400 LYRA
The derivatives \vpi((», \vpiffrr)S, &c., are un-
known in good Greek, Ki6api^<» and Kidapia-rris
being always used of the Ijrre andcithara alike.
(1) Avpa. Various forms of this appear, but
all agree in the small round or oval sound-
box and the slender Trrjx*'^- The strings
appear to have been tuned by being wound
around pegs inserted in the C^ov {inl
Ko\K6iroiv a-rpe^Aovv, Plat. Bep. 531). In the
Kidapa there seem to have been pulleys or
disks moving on the C"7"»'' by which each
string could be regulated. Perhaps the whole
pitch of the instrument could be raised or
lowered by the large round projecting ends
of the ^vyov. It is to be note^ that in both
histruments all the strings (made of sheep's
gut) were of the same length, and therefore
must have been of different thickness. The
question is obscure : we can only be certain that
it must have been possible to tune each string
separately to the fine intervals of Greek music.
Regarding the original number and tuning
of the strings, contradictory accounts were
current. According to one statement Hermes
was the autlun- of harmony, and invented a
lyre with three strings, answering to the three
seasons. According to the Hymn to Hermes
(1. 51) the primitive lyre was of seven strings.
On the other hand, the increase of the number
of strings from four to seven is claimed for
Terpander (700-C50 B.C.).
A different account, however, is given by
Aristotle {Probl. xix. 32), who says that the
scale was formerly one of seven notes only,
and that Terpander left out the note called
rp'iTT), and added the v^ttj (veaTTj) at the upper
(i.e. lower in our notation) end of the scale (the
octave of the inrdTrj, or lowest note).
The earliest scale of the heptachord appears
to have been —
i ._
■ — 19-
The later scale, containing a whole octave —
MACELLUM
Hermione is said to have inci-eased the num-
ber of strings, and TimotUeUis of Miletus
(c. 400 B.C.) to have
completed the number
of twelve (Plut. Mus.
29, 30). The object of
the additional strings
seems to have been not
so much to obtain
greater compass as to
make it possible to com-
bine different modes or
keys, perhaps also diffe-
rent genera (see Mu-
sica), on the same in-
strument, and to pass
easily from one tc
another.
Figs. 679, 680 show
the method of holding
the lyre, in playing
' with the right hand
only or with both. It
was also played sitting, _
I and supported on the Fig. 679.— KtOapio-nj? .with
knees. The cithara j^^ "^nd plectrum. <Mii-
, , , . ., lingeu.)
was held m the same
manner, and supported by a band which
passed over the shoulder of the player.
The harp tj-pe, in
which the strings are
of different length,
was represented in
Greek music by the
rplyuvov or trian-
gular harp, a Phry-
gian instrument,
with which we find
associated the Ly-
j dian irnKris- (Plat.
I Bep. lii. p. 399 ;
1 Soph. Frag. 861.)
The ftdyaSts,
which was closely
akin to the TTTjKTi'y,
was so called from
the bridge or fret
(fiayds), by which a
string could be di-
vided by the player,
so as to yield a
higher note. It had
twenty strings, and
admitted of playing
yig. 6X1 — Citharistc N^-flVi lyre
cDeiiiiis s Etniriii.)
The term irapafxeffrj was inserted when the
instrument came to be tuned with 8 strings.
This addition was given by tradition to Pytha-
goras (540-510 B.C.). [Musica.]
The lyre was originally played without the
aid of a plectrum (irKiiKrpoy). The plectrum was
made of metal or ivory ; the shape was thus :
(r^^
It was held in the whole hand (see figs. 678,
679). Wlien the plectrum was used (KpeKfiv,
irKTtTTeiv, Kpovei', psaUere), the strings were
also touched from behind {xl/dWeiu, intus
cavere) with the left hand (see fig. 680).
The seven-stringed lyre was still in use in
uhe time of Pindar, 522-442 B.C. (Pgtii. 2, 70,
Nem. 5, 24). About the same date Lasus of
the same tones simultaneously in different
octaves {fiuyaSlCfiy)- The fiayds in the lyre and
cithara is a bridge. In the fxdya^is it would seem
rather to resemble a fret. The e7ri70j'6roi/,
invented by Epigonus of Anibrakia, had forty
strings. Besides these, we hear of the fiip0iTos.
which is thought to have been nearly related to
the lyre, also the »/<i)3\a, perhaps derived from the
Phoenician or Hebrew nevel or Egyptian nefer
Hh, and the aanfivK-r) (see cut under Sam-
buca). These instrumentt. evidently enjoyed
much popularity, but were never regarded as of
equal dignity with the lyre and cithara.
M.
Uacellum {o^onrojKia, o\\ioiTw\ilov, KpeoiraiK-
e7ov). A ])rovision market for butchers, fish-
mon^ers, poulterers, fruiterers, and confec-
tioners (Ter Eun. ii. 2, 24; Hor. Sat. ii. 3,
MACERIA
2-29, Ep. i. 15, 31) probably founded by Au-
gustus.
1. Greek. — The Athenian provision market
was called, as a general term, 6»|/07raiA.ta (Athen.
p. (5 a) ; but more frequently we find tlie different
departments ol Ix^vs, ru u\l/ou, to d\(ptTa, &c.,
which were in divisions in the market-place
called kvkKoi. The signal for a sale was given
by a bell (KciiSicv) ringing. ['Avopd.]
2. Roman. — Provisions were formerly found
at Rome in their separate markets — the forum
boarium, piscatorium, olitorium : but for con-
venience the market was brouglit together in
the macellum, built 17'J B.C., to
the north of the Forum. The
Macellum magnum was in the
second region on the Caelian hill,
and was probably a circular coii-
MACHINA
401
(2) Compound Mechanical Powers, or Ma-
chines for raising heavy weights (machiaae
tractoriae). Of these Vitruvius (x. 2-5) describes
three principal sorts, all of them consisting of
a proper erect framework, from which hang
pulleys [troclea, rechamus) in sheaves {orbi-
CIllllS).
In fig. 082 we see (a) the two upright
beams (tigna) supported in place by {/;)
forestays (antarii funes) and (i) backstays
{retina oil a), tied at the top by [b) a fibula.
From the top hangs (c) a fixed pulley-block
{troclru, TpoxiA.ia) : to this the funis due-
Fig fisi.— Macellum.
struction. It is by some identified
with the church of S. Stefano
Rotondo. The Macellum Livia-
num, built bj' Augustus and
named after Livia, was near the
Porta Esquilina. The salesmen
in it were called inacellarii (Suet. lid. 26, Vesp.
19). Julius Caesar put themacella under police
control, and the same was attempted by Tibe-
rius (Suet. Iiil. 43, Tib. 34).
Mace'ria (ai/uafia)- An enclosure-wall: pro-
perly of soft clay (maeero, to soften) or earth
rammed together (cob xvall) ; also of rough
stone ; and generally any wall, not of a house
[Paries] or a town [Muriis].
Ma'china {fjir)xo-vh) ^^^'^ O'rganuin [vpyavov).
The general but loose definition which Vitru-
vius gives of a machina (x. 1, § 1) is a wooden
structure having the virtue of moving heavy
weights. A tnachina differs from an organum
as being more complex and powerful. Under
the class of organa, besides common tools and
simple instruments, as the plough, for example,
are included the simple mechanical powers.
The word organum was also used in its modern
sense of a musical instrument (Juv. vi. 380).
[Hydraula.]
I. Mechanical Engines.
(1) Tlie Simple Mechanical Powers were
known to the Greek mechanicians from an
early period. Vitruvius (x. 3, § 8) explains the
action of the lever [ferreus vectis), and its
three different sorts, according to the position
of the fulcrum (uiro/uo'xAioi'), and some of its
applications, as in the steelyard [Statera],
and the oars and rudder-oars of a ship ; and
alludes to the principle of virtual velocities.
Tlie inclined plane also was known to Vitruvius.
Under the head of circular motion may be
classed the various forms of wheels and screws
— plaustra, redae, tympana, rotae, cocleae,
scorpiones, ballistae,prela, about which see the
respective articles.
Fig. 682.— Machina Tractoria. (Bliiraner. Tnhv. iii. fig. 10.)
tarius (d) passes from the lower moveable
block (c'), to which again the weight which is to
be raised is attached by iron shears (forfices,
KapKivos). In this case the sheaves in each
block are double {diqdices ordines orbiculo-
rum). The two portions of the funis ductarius
are then fastened to an axle (o), with ( p) a
wheel [tympanum or rota, irepirpoxioi') upon it.
The sockets on the beam which receive the
pivots of the axle are called chelonia (xeA.'ii'f la).
A second rope passing round the tympanum is
taken back to a capstan (ergata, ipyaroKiiKiv-
Sos), which is worked round by levers (vectes).
(Cf. Lucr. iv. 905.)
^0
^
^^'
-
-^ »'
Fig. fifi-S.— Machina Tnictorla. from a relief at Capaa.
ilililDiner.i
Fig. 083 is from a relief found in the
amphitheatre at Capua, where it had been
placed by the redemptor of the work. It
represents the raising of a pillar.
DD
II. Military Eitfjines. Aries ; Helepolis ;
Testudo; Tormentiim; Turris, &c.)
III. Theatrical Machines. [Theatrum.j
IV. Hydraulic Engines.
(1) Conveyance and delivery of water
through pijjeii and channels. [Aquaeductus ;
Emissarium ; Fistula ; Fons.] The ancients
knew, and applied in practi'ce, the hydrostatic
i02 MAEANDER MAGISTRATUS
They had also to superintend the building or
repairs of the Sacella of the Lares. In the
exercise of their religious office they wore the
toga praetexta, and had two lictors assigned to
them.
Magistra'tUB. Magistratus is used indif-
ferently to indicate the office and the person
who holds it. Magistratus is commonly re-
law, that water enclosed in a bent pipe rises to i stricted to the person or office of the governors
the same level in both arms. They were also of the Populus Romanus, of the Plebs, and of
acquainted with the law of hydraulics, that the the municipia and colonies,
quantity of water delivered by an orifice in a Everj' such magistrate has coercitio, the
given time depends on the size of the orifice ' power within his office to compel the citizens
and on the height of the water in the reservoir; to obey him {in ordinem cogere). He has like-
and also, that it is delivered faster thi-ough i wise the power of addressing the people by
a short pipe than through a mere orifice of equal word of mouth {ius contionis) and by written
diameter. ' proclamation [ius edicendi).
(2) Machines for raising tvater. [Antlia.J i The magistrates are grouped in colleges ;
(3) Machines in which loater is the moving \ there are two consuls, ten tribunes, and so
power. [Hola.] ' forth. But these colleges do not usually (see
(4) Otlier applications of water, as to the 1 Liv. ix. 46, 7) act as boards. Each individual
measurement of time, and the production of | magistrate is invested ■with the full powers of
musical sounds, in the clepsydra and the \ his college, if not inteiTupted by liis colleagues.
hydraulic organ. [Horologium ; Hydraula.l A particular subdivision of duties (^rowiwcme)
V. The word machina in Latin also signifies may, however, be prescribed by the senate or
the scaffolding on which plasterers or masons | people for the individual members of a college,
work (Plin. xxxv. § 120). as in the case of the praetors at home and of
Maea'nder. The ' key-pattei-n ' or ' Greek the governors of the transmarine possessions
fret ' used as an ornamental border. (See of Rome.
Limbus.) \ Magistratus Populi Bomani. — Our autho-
Maenia'nam. A projecting balcony above ; rities trace all magistracy back to the regal
the arcades of shops on the south-west of the power. By the institution of the consulship
Roman forum, erected for the use of the spec- this power was put in commission (Cic. Legg.
tators of the gladiatorial combats, by the censor I iii. 3, 8; Liv. ii. 1, 7).
C. Maenius, 318 B.C. ; and hence balconies in j Exceptions to the consular power are the
general came to be called maeniana. [Amphi- dictator, interrex, and tribunes with consular
theatrum ; Cancelli ; Donms, fig. 470, p. 244.]
Maga'lia and Mapa lia. Punic words, signi-
fying a circular encampment or zereba of reed
huts. Mapalia appears to be used of shep-
herds' cottages (Sil. Ital. xvii. 89), and of the
suburbs of a town. (See Verg. Aen. i. 421,
iv. 259.) The distinction between magalia and
mapalia is not clear.
Magi'ster. The title of many officials under
the Empire; as, e.g., M. arniorum, M. auctionis,
M. a crnsibus, &c. For M. bibendi, see
Symposium.
Magister EgiiTUM. [Dictator.]
Magister Faxi in coloniae and municipia
was appointed each year by the duumviri of the
town, to arrange the ceremonies, sacrificia, pul-
vinaria, &c. The Roman equivalent is aedituus.
Magister Populi. [Dictator.]
Magister Societatis. The equites, who
farmed the taxes at Rome, were divided into
companies or partnerships, and the president
was called Magister Societatis. (Cic. Verr. ii.
74, 182, Fam. xiii. 9, Plane. 13, 32.) [Societas.]
Magistri Vicorum. These officials had
existed under tlie Republic (Liv. xxxiv. 7).
They were entirely reorganised by Augustus in
the year 7 B.C., when he divided the city into
14 regiones and 265 vici, and assigned four
magistri vicorum to each vicus, who were
power. Each one of these officials had the
Imperium. Further, certain functions were
committed to assistants not invested with im-
perium : such were tlie censors, curule aediles,
and quaestors, besides the lesser officials, who
collectively made up the vigintivirate. [Viginti-
sexviri.] Imperium being denied to these,
the generic term poiestas serves as descriptive
of their authority. Those who had imperium
(including the censors) were termed maiores
magistratus ; the others, minores.
The greater magistrates receive their office
from the populus assembled by centuries, the
lesser magistrates from the populus assembled
by tribes. All the magistrates with imperiunj
are colleagues, and so their auspices may collide
{turbare, retinere, vitiare, obtinere), in which
case those of the superior override those of the
inferior : e.g., a praetor acting in the field in
conjunction with a consul could not, though
he had an imperium of his own, claim a
triumph, because his imperium and his auspices
were overborne by those of the consul.
The magistrates cum imperio alone had the
ius agendi cum populo. The voice of the
Roman people could be uttered only in answer
to a question (rogatio) put to it by such a
magistrate.
As all magisterial power is derived from the
elected annually by the inhabitants of the | people, those magistrates who have the ius
vicus (Suet. Aug. 30). Their functions were I agendi cum populo must provide for the sue-
partly civil, partly religious. Wlien Augustus cession, not only in their own college, but in
appointed them, they had (with servi publici all the other magistracies. The choice of a
under them) especially to guard against fires, censor or curule aedile must be submitted to
which duty was afterwards transferred to the
cohortes rigilum. They had other duties
regarding the maintenance of order within their
district.
As regards their religious duties they pre-
sided over the Compitalia, besides the worship
of Stata Mater, the protectress against fire.
the populus by the consul or praetor. The
presiding officer is said rogare or creare the
newly elected magistrate. The co-optation of
the dictator is an exception. Neither the Rex
Sacrificulus nor the Pontifex Maximus was
elected by the people — probably from a reli-
gions scruple.
MAGISTRATUS
lurisdictio, the power of administering
justice between the citizens, belongs in its full
extent only to the magistrate cum iniperio.
But all serious litigatio)i at Rome is specially
reserved as the provincia of one or other of the
praetors. A limited jurisdiction in special
cases belongs to the curule aediles, the decem-
viri litibus iudicandis, and the municipal
magistrates. [See Appendix, RoiUN Law,
lurisdictio.]
Criminal justice falls likewise under the im-
perium. But the action of the magistrate in
this sphere is early limited by the right of
appeal to the people {provocatio ad jJOjmlum)
when the punishment to be inflicted is serious.
But lest the dignity of the superior magistrate
should be lowered by an adverse decision, the
task of condemning or accusing was devolved
on the duoviri perduellionis and the quaestors.
Wlienever -provocatio is suspended, as, e.g.,
on the appointment of a dictator, the superior
magistrate is seen as criminal judge, and inflicts
death by virtue of his imperium (Liv. Xxxix.
14-19).
Consuls and praetors retaiiied a right of im-
prisonment (vocatio et prensio). This right
was not possessed by the inferior magistrates.
Only those magistrates of the Roman people
who as holding the imperium represent the
kingly office can summon and consult the
senate, which was the consilium of the chief
magistrate. They had, however, the right of
addressing the senate officially (verba facere).
This power is absent from the censor, the curule
aedile, and the quaestor.
The office of the magistrate ceases imme-
diately ou the expiry of the period for which
he has been elected. If he is present in the
city (domi), his powers lapse witli his office ;
but if he is absent oil service (luilitiac), he
remains in office, acting ^;ro consule, pro prae-
tore, or pro quaestore, as the case may be.
By the time of the Second Punic War it is
recognised that a simple decree of the senate,
without a vote of the j^eople, which was con-
sidered necessary a century earlier, is sufficient
for the prorogation of an existing command.
When a command jJi'o consule is conferred on
a private man — as for instance on P. Scipio,
211 B.C. — a law of the populus or the plcbs was
necessary.
Magistratus plebis.—When the non-patrician
Romans formed themselves into an exclusive
corporation on the Mons Sacer in 449 b.c,
their first act was to elect magistrates of their
o^vn ; and these officers, the tribunes and
aediles of the plebs, existed from thenceforth
side by side with the magistrates of the Roman
people. The authority of the plebeian magis-
trates was from the first acknowledged by the
whole community. As the corporation of the
plebs gradually assumed to itself the right to
legislate on matters concerning the whole state,
its officers became more and more magistrates
of the Roman state. When the Hortensian
Law (287 B.C.) gave to plebiscita the force of
laws, the distinction between patrician and
plebeian magistrates disappeared.
The tribune had, as tlio consul had, the ius
agcndi cum populo. The senate likewise is
assigned as a consilium of advisers to him
as well as to the consul, and he has the
same right of summoning it and eliciting its de-
crees. The tribune had not the imperium. He
could neither command in war nor administer
justice between the citizens. He was, how-
ever, sacrosanctus, and his sacrosanctitas could
IMALLUVIUM
403
be used in attack as well as iu defence. If the
tribune thinks fit to throw the consul into
prison or to drag the censor to the Tarpeian
rock for execution, no one but anotlier tribune
can hinder him. The veto of the tribune,
again, is absolute over the actions of consul, of
praetor, and of censor, while these have no
corresponding power over him. Such powers
would be nothing short of a legalised tyranny
were they placed in a single hand. But the
number of the tribunes was a check upon their
power. In ordinary times the college of
tribunes, divided against itself, excluded from
military command, and incapable of action
outside the city walls, became the instrument
of the senate, and a convenient check on any
vagaries of the superior magistrates. (See
Liv. xxviii. 45 ; xlv. 21.) These contradictory
powers, however, became dangerous in times of
revolution. In the hands of the Gracchi the
tribunician power overbore the other elements
of the constitution, and could be resisted only
by violence and bloodshed. Under the control
of Marius, of I'ompoy, and of Caesar, the same
office afforded an effective support to the mili-
tary chiefs against the senatorial government ;
and the power of the plebeian magistrate,
united at last with military and provincial
command, became the basis of the despotism
of the emperors.
Maie'stas. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Malleus, dim. Malle'olus. (1) A hammer
or mallet. In Greek the general term is trcpvpa ;
If
Fig. 081.— The forge of Vulcan. (From a bas-relief
the large smith's hammer is called ^laicrTrip (also
KtffTpa, Lat. marcus) ; Kporacpls is a hammer
with one end shai-pened, like a coal-pick.
But, besides the employment of the hammer
upon the anvil for ordinary work, the smith
{xa.\Kfvs) wrought with this instru-
ment figures called tpya <r<pvpi)KaTa
(or 6\o(r(pvprira), which were either
small and fine, or of
colossal proportions,
being composed of sepa-
rate plates, riveted to-
gether {<T<pvpii\aTos KO-
KoffffSs, Theocr. xxii.
47) ; e.g. the Colossus
of Rhodes. [Colossus,
of. Aes.]
By carpenters and
other artificers the ham-
mer was used in con-
junction \vith the chisel
[Dolabra].
Mallu'viam (xfipdvnrrpov). A
basin.
MalTnvliun
wasli-haiid
Dr>2
404
MALUS
Malus. (1) [Navis.J
(2) The spars used in the amphitheatre to
Fig. 687.— Mali, masts and rings, in the Coliseom.
suspend the velarium. (See fig. 38, under
Amphitheatrum.)
MaluB o'culus. [Fascinum.]
Manceps ; Mancipa'tio ; Uanci'pii causa ;
Ma'ncipi res. See Appendix, Rom.vk L-a.w.
Manda'tum. See Appendix, Rom.an Law.
Mandra (fj.a.vSpa). (1) A pen or fold for cattle,
horses (Soph. Fr. 587). (2) A herd or drove
(Juv. iii. 237) of mules (Mart. v. 22).
(3) [Games, L-iTRUNcuLi.]
Uan^o. [Servus.]
Ma'nica (xeipi's). (1) A sleeve, regarded as
barhai ic or effeminate until the later Empire
(Verg. Aen. ix. 616). Besides the use of sleeves
sewn to the tunic, which, when so made, was
called chiridota or manicata tunica, sleeves
were also worn as a separate part of the
dress.
(2) A glove. In Homer (Od. xxiv. 230)
X^pi^is are fingerless gloves, worn on the
hands to protect them from briars and thorns.
Gloves with fingers are called x!*'P'5es Soktu-
Aa)TC7.i. Gloves with fingers (digitalia) were
Fig. C88.— Jianica.
worn among the Romans for the performance
of certain manual operations, and in winter to
protect the hands from cold.
(3) A guard, used by archers to protect the
left arm from the string. The Roman gladi-
ators wore a sleeve or guard on the right
arm and hand (Juv. vi. 255). [Gladiatores.]
(4) A handcuff (Verg. Georg. iv. 439 ; Hor.
Ep.i. 16,76; Plaut. .l.sm. ii. 2, 38, Cajyt. iii.
5, 1). Such were those used to attach a
prisoner to the soldier who guarded him (Acts
xxviii. 20; Eph. vi. 20 ; Phil. i. 7, 13 ; see Bp.
Lightfoot on Phil. p. H).
Mani'pulus ; Manipnla'res ; Manipula'rii.
[Exercitus; Signa militaria ; Cursus pub-
liens.]
Mannus. Manni were Gallic ponies, much
used at Rome for use in harness, generally
MARMOR
driven in pairs (Lncr. iii. 1076; Ov. Am.
ii. 16, 49; Hor. Carm. iii. 27, 7, Epod. iv. 14,
Ep. i. 7, 77), but also for riding. [Currus.]
Ma'nsio {(nadixos). [Cursus publicus.]
Mante'le. In the imperial times, a table-cloth
(Mart. xii. 29, 12), but originally, as its etymo-
logy shows, a towel or napkin used by priests at
sacrifices (Verg. Georg. iv. 377, Aen. i. 701 ;
Ov. Fast. iv. 933), and by guests at table
[Mappa]. We may gather from Horace [Sat.
ii. 8, 10) that no tablecloth was used in his
time.
Ma'ntica (ir^po, 6v\aKos). Properly a travel-
ling bag, in which provisions and a change of
clothes could be carried. It was carried in the
hand or slung over the shoulder (CatuU. xxii. 21 ;
Pers. iv. 24), or strapped on behind the saddle of
the horse (Hor. Sat. i. 6, 106). The Greek word
ffTpu/MLTa (Ar. Av. 616, Ran. 12), carried on a
journey by the slave, means a roll of clothes as
well as bedding ; these could also be packed in
a ffTpwfiaroSefffj.ov, a large bag or ' hold-all '
(Plat. Theaet. p. 175 e ; Aesch. F. L.^ 99).
Manu'biae. Spolia.J
Maniun, Conve ntio in. [Matrimonium.]
Manumi'ssio. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Manus fe'rrea. [Harpago.]
Manus inie'ctio. See Appendix, Ro>ux
Law.
Mappa (xfipofxaKTpov, (Kfmyelov). A linen
napkin. Among Greeks and Romans, both
before and after eating, a slave carried round a
basin {inalluvium, trnlleuin, pohibrum; in
Greek, \i^i)s, x*'P<^''''''^P<"')> whilst another
poured water (xtpvi^\>) from a jug (urceolus,
irp6xovs), and carried also a napkin or towel
to wipe the hands ; this was called Kara x««P^s
vSwp. See Hom. II. xxiv. 304, Od. i. 136 ; Plat.
Sijmj). p. 175 A, &c. The mappa in Horace's
time was provided by the host (Hor. Sat. ii. 4,
81). In Martial's time the guests brought their
own napkins (see Mart. xii. 29, iv. 46, ii. 37).
We hear of napkins embroidered with the
latus clavus (Mart. iv. 46) and with gold. For
the mappa at the games, see Circns.
Marmor (fiApfxapos). Marble, properly a cal-
careous stone which will take a polish ; but
also applied to other choice stones, such as
granite and serpentine.
The Greek tenn for white marble such as
was used in building is Kidos \€vk6s '. fiapna-
pos till late times means merely a block of
stone.
The principal quarries (Xarofjiuov, fieraWov)
of white marble in Greece were those of Pen-
telikus and Hjmiettus in Attica. The former is
finer in grain than the Parian. With time and
exposure it takes the fawn-coloured hue which
is so much admired in the buildings of Athens,
especially the Propylaea and the Theseion.
The sculptures of the Akropolis, as well as the
buildings, are of Pentelic marble. The quarries
are still used, and are inexhaustible. Hymet-
tian marble is also white, but coarser, and with
grey striatious.
Parian marble (of which the whole island of
Paros is composed) is the finest statuary marble.
The grain is more crystalline than that of the
Pentelic, and it is slightly translucent. The
principal works of Greek sculpture were cut
out of this marble.
Other marbles were quarried in Naxos,
Tenos, Thasos, and other islands. In Prokon-
nesus was found a fine white marble with
black veins, called also KvCtKr)vhs \i6os.
The Greeks did not make use of coloured
marbles till imperial times.
I
MARRA
The Romans, besides the white marbles of
Greece and Phoenicia, imported marbles from
all parts of the world. These were used for
monolithic columns and architraves, for pave-
ments and in Crustae for veneering walls.
The principal sorts are :
Marmor Luneyise, white marble from Luna,
in the district of Carrara. It has a crystalline
grain.
M. Carystium, white alternating in beds
with greyish green, from Karystos, in Euboea —
the modern cipollino : very common at Rome.
M. Taenarium, of two sorts, the blood red,
rosso antico, and (probably) the black, nero
antico. Other black marbles came from
Karia, Miletus, and Bithynia.
M. Numidicuin,Lihycum, yellow with shades
of orange and pink : giallo antico.
M. Phrygium or Synnadicuni, with blood-
red (the blood of Atys) or purple markings :
jjaonazzctto.
M. lasium from lasus, a variegated marble
now called Porta Santa.
Of otlier stones may be mentioned :
Porphyry, red (porp/iyrites, \€irT6\pn<pos) and
green {lapis Laccdaononiiis), from Taenarus,
inLakonia: perhaps ce/'tfeart^ico. No modern
examples of this marble exist, and the quarries
are unknowai ; unless those near Pydna, re-
cently discovered, from which came the mono-
liths of Sta. Sophia, are those which supplied
the true verde antico.
Basalt (balanites, fiaaavirrjs), black, green,
and brown.
Granite, red Syenite, from Syene (Assuan)
lapis pyrvliopoecilus ; grey {Syenites or psaro-
nius), n\8o from Egypt, and from Ilva(Elba);
black, Aethiopiciis.
Serpentine {oj^liites, oc^i'ttjs), white, black,
green, and grey. The green serpentine {lapis
Atracius) from Atrax, in Thessaly, is also, but
incorrectly, known as verde antico. (See
above.)
'Oriental ' alabaster (oj^/a*, alahastritcs, aKa-
Paa-TiTTis), at first chiefly used for perfume-
bottles (Alabastrum), but in later times also
in monoliths and for pavements and wall in-
crustation, as well as in coloured statuary.
This was imported from Thebes in Egypt,
Arabia, Syria, India, &c. The white Italian
alabaster was also used, but seems not to be
distinguished from marble.
The quarries in all parts of the Empire were
worked by slaves and criminals, and managed
by pracfccti marmorum, procuratores »wn-
tivm, &c. The engineers are machinarii, the
workmen lapicidae and metallarii.
The blocks, numbered and marked, often with
the Emperor's name.
MATRIMONIUM
4U5
Mercury
holding a MarbU-
pliun.
IMP. DOM. AUG
-)f C ^ GERM. PER
CHREZ. LIB. I
(i.e. sent to Rome by the freedman Chresimus),
were sent to Ostia and deposited at the Mar-
moratum or marble-wharf. (See Middleton,
Ancient Borne in 1888, chap. i. ; Bliimncr,
Technologic, &c. vol. iv. p. l.S, § 1.)
Marra was apparently a broad-headed mattock
with teeth, perhaps heavier than the ligo, used
for breaking up the hard ground in preparation
for lighter digging and hoeing (Plin.xviii. § 1-17;
Juv. XV. 167).
Marsu'pium {ixapaviriov, ^aKXavnov). A
purse (Plant. Men. ii. 1, 29 &c. ; Sen. Symp.
iv. 2).
The marsupium was a small leathern bag
closed by being drawn together at the mouth
(Plat. Symp. p. 190 J), fiaK-
KduTiov). It is a conunon
attribute of Hermes. (See
also Crumena ; Zona.)
MapTvpCa. See Appen-
dix, Gkkkk Law.
MaaTL-yo<j)6poi or Maa-
Ti7ov6jjLoi. Lower police
ofilicers in the Greek states,
who carried into execution
corporal punishments inflicted
by the higher magistrates. In Kig. i>
the theatre the fxa(TTiyo(p6pot
preserved order, and were sta-
tioned for this purpose in the orchestra, near the
thymele. [See also 'Pa3Sovxoi..] At Athens
these offices were discharged by the public
slaves, called bowmen (to|otoi), or Scythians
j {l,Kv6at). [ATm,6<Tioi.J
Ma'tara. rArms and Armour ; Hasta.]
Mathema'tici. f Astrologia. |
Matra'lia. A festival celebrated at Romo
' every year on June 11, in honour of the god-
! dess Mater Matuta (identified with Leukothea),
i whose temple stood in the Forum Boarimn
I (Liv. V. 19). It was celebrated by Roman
, matrons only, and the sacrifices offered to the
goddess consisted of cakes baked in pots of
earthenware (Ov. Fast. vi. 475, &c.). The
matrons bore in their arms the children of their
sisters, not their own, and offered prayers for
them. The statue of the goddess was then
crowned with a garland. Slaves were not
allowed to take part in the solemnities, or to
enter the temple of the goddess.
Matrimo'nium, Nu'ptiae {ydfios). Marriage,
1. Greek. — At Athens the institution of mono-
gamy was referred by tradition to Kekrops.
There are traces of the early existence in
Greece of polyandry. Hence the Lykian cus-
tom (Hdt. i. 173) of reckoning families according
to descent on the motlier's side : a survival from
those times when paternity was uncertain, and
when the only known relationships were
through the mother.
The Iliad and Odj'ssey describe a society in
which monogamy, and on the whole a pure
monogamy, is the rule. No doubt ' concubines '
are mentioned, as well as ' wedded wives ' {Od.
xiv. 203, TraAAoKi's) ; and the connexion of
Odysseus \vith Kirke and Kalypso did not dis-
parage the position of Penelope as KOvpiSirf
&\oxos. It appears probable that the rela-
tionship through mothers was in the Homeric
period recognised, as well as that tlirough
fathers, over the whole of Greece ; and this
would partly account for the high position
attributed to women in Homer.
After the Homeric age, the position of women
declined. This may be due partly to the de-
velopment of city life and of dutii'S for whicli
women wei'e less lilted than for those of the
simpler patriarchal community ; partly to
Oriental influence through Ionia ; i)artly also to
the importance attached to purity of race as
citizenship came to be handed down from father
to son. All these influences tend to separate
women from men and confine them to a com-
parative set'lusion, as in the East.
In spite of instances to the contrary, such as
those of Korinini at Thebes, .500 B.C., and
Sappho in the sixth century, women in the
whole of Greece no longer share the life of the
406
MATRIMONIUM
men, as the matrons and maidens of the
Homeric poems do.
liy the middle of the fifth century B.C. the
restriction of the liberty of free-bom citizen
women attained its fuU. development in North-
ern Greece, the colonies in Asia, the islands of
the Aegean, and the northern part of the Pelo-
ponnesus itself.
In Sparta, however, women enjoyed an au-
thority and distinction rarely accorded to them
even in modern times. With Sparta, Crete and
Kyrene may be reckoned.
The dowries of wives at Sparta were large,
and there were many heiresses. Aristotle
tells us {Pol. ii. 9) that two-fifths of the soil of
Lakonia was possessed by women. Hence the
Spartan women enjoyed a higher consideration
than those of the rest of Greece.
Before marriage, the Spartan girl passed an
open-air life of continuous exercise ; she
wrestled and raced with her equals (Xen.
Mcp. Lac. i. 4) ; the society of young men
was not forbidden to her, and she was present
at the public games. The form of marriage was
a mock capture ; after marriage the bridegroom
did not at once take his bride home, but visited
her in her parents' house clandestinely, and
this secret intercourse sometimes continued till
children were born to them. The married woman
was forbidden to attend gymnastic contests;
and when she went out of doors, wore a veil.
Polyandry was not unknown at Sparta, in
cases where a woman had no children by her
husband. A wife might be divorced on the
ground of barrenness (cf . Hdt. vi. 39). Conjugal
infidelity seems to have been uncommon. The
Spartan women were the finest and handsomest
ill Greece (Ar. Lys. 78-84), and their sayings and
deeds recorded in Plutarch give an impression
of nobleness not inferior to that of the men.
At Athens women were under restrictions
greater than elsewhere in Greece. The object
of marriage was to maintain the name of a
family and provide citizens to serve the state
(.see, however, Plut. Sol. 20) ; and the domestic
side of marriage was much less prominent than
among Christian nations. The current view of
Athenian marriage and love is set forth in the
plays of Plautus and Terence. The sentiment
is romantic, but business comes first ; and the
female characters, though often tender, are
not of any moral elevation, and rather re-
semble those of Moliere than those of Shake-
speare. In consequence of the seclusion of
women, opportunities for young people to meet
each other were rare, and no ideas of sentiment
entered into the Greek conception of marriage.
Love affairs were as a rule confined to relations
with hetaerae and iraWoKai. The inclination
of young men was little regarded ; that of the
young women not at all. The business was
arranged by the fathers or guardians of each,
and the young people had only to obey. In
cases where girls did not get married in time,
professional matchmakers {irpo/xvr)aTpiai) were
sometimes employed (Xen. Mem. ii. 6, 36), who,
however, did not stand in high esteem (Plat.
Theaet. p. 150). After marriage the wife was
exjjected to superintoud the household, to help
in the education of the boys, and take charge
of the girls till they married ; to spin, weave,
and make clothes ; and to be seen or heard of
little outside her own house.
It was considered indecorous for a woman,
married or single, to converse with any man,
except a near relation ; to go out of her own
house except for causes of necessity, or to join
I in processions or witness the tragedies in the
I theatre. Men were not admitted to the yvv-
aiKwvlris. These rules did not apply so fully to
women of the lower class, or in the country. It
may be noticed that these customs prevail in
1 Greece to a considerable extent at the present
I day.
(Cf. Eur. Iph. Aul. 738, Med. 230-266, Andr.
{858, Or. 108, Troad. 642; Dem. c. Eubul. p.
1308, c. Neaer. p. 1367, c. Everg. p. 1157 ; Ar.
j Thesm. 448, Pax, 980 ; Plut. Sol. 21 ; Ai-ist. Pol. i.
12, Eth. viii. 14 ; Plat. Legg. vi., Rep. ix. p. 579 ;
j Thuc. ii. 45 ; Xen. Oec. vii. 12, Mem. ii. 2, &c.)
Men generally married later than women.
Plato (Legg. iv. p. 721) and Aristotle [Pol. vii.
j 16) put the respective ages at 25-35 and 16-20.
Monogamy is assumed by the Athenian law.
Marriage, we are told, was made compulsory by
Solon (Plut. dc Am. Prol. 2 ; but if so, the
law fell entirely into disuse. A citizen was not
allowed to marry until his name was entered in
the tribal register (K-rj^iapxtichy ypafifune'iov).
A man might not marry a direct ancestor or
descendant ; nor might he marry stepmother or
stepdaughter, mother-in-law or daughter-in-
law ; nor a sister. The marriage, however, of a
brother with a half-sister on the father's side
did sometimes occur (Dem. c. Eubul. p. 1304,
§ 20; Plut. Themist. 32). Marriage with a
niece was common ; with an aunt naturally less
so, but there was notliing to forbid it.
The prohibiting of marriage between a citizen
and an alien would hardly seem to have existed
in the early period of Athenian history ; Mega-
kles (Hdt. vi. 130) and Miltiades (vi. 39) both
married foreigners ; Abrotonon, the mother of
Themistokles, was a Tlirakian (Plut. Themist.
1). In the time of Perikles mai-riage with an
alien was forbidden (Plut. Pericl. 37 ; Scliol.
ad Ar. Vesp. 717). This law, having been ne-
glected, was re-enacted in the arclionship of
Eukleides (403 B.C.) (Dem. c. Eubul. 1307, § 34).
The right of intermarriage was gi-anted by the
Athenians at various times to other peoples : as
the Thebans, Plataeans and Euboeans.
Man-iage at Athens took place in two ways ;
either by eyyvi^a-is or by i-iriSiKcurta. ^Eyyvr)-
ffis was the ordinai-y method, and meant the
solemn act of the father or guardian (Kvpios) of
a maiden in giving lier in betrothal to her future
husband. The relatives of either side were
witnesses. Whenever any woman had a Kvptos
marriage could take place by no other method
than this. If, however, a woman were left an
lueiress ('E-itCkXtipos) without having a Kvpios,
then the next of kin might, and usually did,
claim her in marriage (e'7ri5i/co^6<r0ai), preference
being given to kindred on the father's side ;
such a claim was called iiriSiKoxria, and was
brought in the first instance before the archon.
(For other details see'EirCKXTipos.)
At the time of the betrothal the dowry of the
bride was settled : an important point, since
the wife could not inherit either from her hus-
band or her own children. Hence the dowrj-
\ was the only security to the wife against ex-
1 treme poverty, in the event of her husband's
' death, or if she were divorced ; the husbiuid
therefore had to give a guarantee for its return
in the shape of some piece of landed property
{(pfpvT^, irpori), the use of which was hers, as
\ against her husband or his creditors. The
dowry (except as a voluntarj' gift) did not exist
in Homer's time, and was a gradual growth.
Even in later times the dowry was not an
' absolute necessity, though the want of it might
entail difficulty and discredit.
MATRIMONIUM
407
In spite of the formal betrothal and mar-
riage, the husband was not Kvpios over his wife.
The father, or whoever had been the previous
protector, retained his ofhce, and had in certain
circumstances the right of taking away his
daugliter or ward from lier husband and marry-
ing her to another. If the father or guardian
died, the husband did not become Kvpios, unless
the fatlier had adopted him or made him
Kvpios by will. In default of this, the pro-
tectorship of the wife remainerl with her
own familj'. and whoever was Kvpios had the
entire disposal of her, just as if she had been
unmarried (cf. Dem. c. Eubul. p. 1311, § 40).
Supposing, however, the husband was Kvpios
over his wife, either (1) in consequence of
adoption by her fatlier or (2) under his will, he
could give her in marriage to another person
just as if he had not been her husband (Dem.
pro Fhorni. p. 953, J 28) ; or he could direct by
his will that she should be married to another
[KM-son. In short, a woman, whether maiden,
wife, or widow, was always under guardianship.
Her own sons would be her guardians, sup-
posing she were left a widow without any other
Kvpios.
The marriage ceremonial at Athens, among
the higher classes, was more elaborate than
with us (see Bpavpuvia). When the marriage
itself drew near, the sacrifice to the tutelar
gods of marriage {Q(o\ yafj.i)Kioi) took j^lace.
Tliis was performed by the father, and might
take place some days before the marriage (Eur.
Iph. Aiil. 71H), or on the day itself. Ajnong
the tutelary deities Zeus and Hera, Artemis,
the Fates, and the Nymphs are named. The
sacrifice itself was called 7rpoT6A.eia yd/j.wi', or
npoydfieta, and some locks of the bride's hair
(dirapx*') were offered as a symbol of her
dedication. On the wedding day bride and
bridegroom bathed (Xovrphv ya/juKou} in water
drawn from the fountain KalHrrhoIl or evvea-
Kpovvos (Thuc. ii. 15). The water from this
fountain was carried either by a boy or a girl
called \ovTpo<p6pos. Late in the evening of the
wedding day, the bridegroom fetched his bride
from her parents' house, on a carriage (0|Uo|a)
drawn by horses, mules, or oxen ; on either side
of her sat the bridegroom and his ' best man '
{irapa,vvfx.(poi or irapoxos, Ar. Av. 1740). In front
of the car, clothed in white, went the torch-
bearing procession C&a^is vv/xcpiKai : cf. Ar. Pax,
1317), the nuptial toi-ch having been lit by the
mother of the bride (Eur. Ijjh. An I. 732)
or of the bridegroom (Eur. Med. 1027, Pliocii.
344) ; bride and bridegroom were crowned with
chaplets, the bride being covered with a long
veil ; and the cry 'TyuV 'Tfx&ai' S> was raised,
with playing of flutes (Ar. Pax, 1310-1350;
Hom. //. .xviii. 490, Oil. vi. 27). At the entrance
to the bridegroom's house, sweetmeats {rpa''^,-
fj.aTa, KaTaxvafxaTo.) were poured upon the
wedded pair; the doors of the house were
decked with garlands, as were those of the
bride's liouse. Then followed the wedding-
feast {Qoivr\ yafjuid)), usually in the house of the
l)ridegroom — one of the most important parts
of the entire ceremonial; for the guests were
the witnesses to tlie marriage, since docu-
mentary evidence was not looked for nor pro-
vided (Dem. c. Oiirt. p. 8C9, § 20). At the
wedding-feast women were allowed to be pre-
sent, though at different tables from the men,
the bride still l)eing veiled. Sesame-cakes
(ire/ijuara) symbolical of a fertile marriage,
formed a part of the feast (Ar. Pax, bG9). At
the conclusion of the feast, the bride was con-
ducted veiled into the bridal chamber, and the
bridegroom closed the door. The epithalamium
was tiien sung before the door of the bridal
chamber (6d\afxos, iraffrds) by a chorus of
maidens, and the song was accompanied with
dancing (Theocr. xviii.).
On the day after the marriage, or perhapa
the next to that (the words tiravKia and airavAia
are not clearly distinguished), the bride for the
first time showed herself without a veil, and
the gifts which she on that day received from
her relatives were thence called a.vaKaKvTnr\piaL
or oTTTTipia. Another account is that the gifts
mad(! on the day after the marriage were
called airavKia, and that among them was a
white mantle (aTrai/AKTTTjpm) presented by the
bride to the bridegroom, who on the succeed-
ing night did not sleep with his bride laTraiiAia),
but in his father-in-law's house, the bride being
unveiled and the a.vaKa\vKri)pia presented the
day after. A similar custom prevails in the
East.
An offering to Aphrodite was made by the
wedded pair, either on the wedding-day or on
the day after. Another ceremonj' was the feast
given by the husband on the occasion of his
bride being registered among his own phrateres
(Dem. c. Eubul. pp. 1312, § 54, 1320, § 84).
Marriages generally took place in the winter
(Arist. Pol. vii. 10); and the month Gamelion
(our January) derived its name from the
favour in which it was held for this purpose.
The fourth day of the month, according to
Hesiod (O/;. 800), was the most favourable,
that being the day when sun and moon met in
the same quarter of the heavens, and therefore
the day when man and woman might best meet
in wedlock. Pindar, however (Isthni. vii. 44),
and Euripides (Iph. Aul. 717) prefer the full
moon.
After marriage the wife lived with the other
female inmates of the house in the yvvaiKuviTis,
or women's apartments : in a large house this
would be a separate building, connected by a
passage with the men's rooms ; in smaller
houses it might be on a different floor (Lys. dr
Caed. Er. p. 92). [Domus.]
The subjects of divorce and adultery are
treated under the articles Divortiom, Adul-
terium in the Appendix.
Athenian law did not concern itself, as far as
we know, about the marriage of the fxtroLKoi
(resident aliens). Slaves, of course, were in-
capable of marriage.
2. Roman. — The actual ceremonies of Roman
marriage are described below : but it must
be understood that a great deal of them was
often omitted, and the marriage rites narrowed
to little beyond the dednctio in donuiiu. ]\lay
and the first half of June were unlucky for
nuxrriages (Ov. Faat.x. 487, vi. 225) [Lemuria ;
Argei]. It was also necessary to avoid the
dies Jill rcnfalfls, Feb. 13-21 (Ov. Fast. ii. 555) ;
the first half of March (Ov. Fa.'it. iii. 393);
the three days of the opening of the lower
world (mundiis patet), viz. Aug. 24, Oct. 5.
Nov. 8 ; and also all Kalends, Ides, and
Nones.
At the sponsalia, besides the formal words
of tlie parent or guardian, 'Spondesne? spon-
dee' (Plaut. Aid. ii. 2, 78), the bridegroom gave
the bride a present, as an earnest or pledge
{arra, pif/niis, Juv. vi. 27), which was often a
ring (Plin. xxxiii. § 12), placed on the fourth
or ring finger of the left hand.
On the day before the marriage the bride put
aside her toga practcxta (Prop. v. 11, 33),
408
MATRIMONIUM
which, with other helongings of childhood, was
laid before the Lares or Fortuna Virgo, and
])ut on the white tunica recta, or regilla, and
a yellow reticulum, both woven at the ancient
upright loom (tela pendula, stans) (Ov. Fast.
iii. 819) TTela]. The bride wore this dress
also at the marriage, and a yellow veil (Flam-
meam, Lucan, ii. 361 ; Plin. xxi. § 40), with
which she was said nubere caput. The dress
was fastened by a woollen girdle (cingulum)
in t!ie nodua Herculeus. Hercules was iden-
tified with the Sabine deity Semo Sancus
( = Dius Fidius), the i)rotector of matrons in
their married life, as well as the deity of good
faith and stable treaties. The bride's hair was I
arranged in six locks (sex crines) parted by the
point of a spear (hasta caolibaris), and held in
place by vittae or bands (Ov. Fast. ii. 559, ;
Trist. ii. 252 ; Plant. Mostell. i. 3, 69 ; Prop. I
V. 3, 15). The custom of parting it with a i
spear is perhaps a relic of the old marriage by
capture. The bride had also a wreath of flowers [
and sacred herbs (verbenae) gathered by her-
self, and the bridegroom wore a similar wreath. ■
In the house of the bride, which was decked I
with garlands (Juv. vi. 227), were assembled I
the relations, friends, and clients, as an officium
(ii. 132). Then the omens were taken and ]
announced by the auspices (Cic. Cluent. 4, i
14; Juv. X. 336), with the sacrifice of a sheep ,
(cf. Verg. Aen. iv. 56). The omens being '
favourable, the marriage ceremonies began.
They were in four main parts : (1) the con-
tract ; (2) the giving away of the bride ; (3) the
conducting (deductio) to her husband's house ;
(4) her reception there. First the marriage
tablets (tabulae nupt tales or dotales) were
signed before witnesses (signatorrs, Juv. x.
336). When tlie form of marriage called I
coemptio was adopted (where either or both |
were plebeians), the formalities of an imaginary |
sale were gone through before not less than '
five witnesses, and a libripnis. A married !
woman acting as ;jro««l)a. led the bride up to
the bridegroom and joined their right hands.
It seems probable that there was always some [
formaloxpressionof willingnesstomarry ; inco«-
farreatio and coemptio (Cic. Mar. 12, 27) the set !
form of response from the bride was ' ubi [oirov, I
Plut. Q.B. 30] tu Gaius, ego Gaia.' When the
rite of con/arreafio was followed, the bloodless ,
offering was made; a cake of spelt (farreuin :
libum) was offered by the Pontifex Maximus and
the Flamen Dialis to Jupiter in tlie presence of
ten witnesses, probably representing the ten
gentes of the Curia. With the offering to
Jupiter, a prayer was recited by the Flamen, !
to Juno as the goddess of marriage, and the
deities of tlie country and its fruits — Tellus, i
Picuranus, and Pilumnus (cf. Verg. Aen. iv.
166, and Serv. ad loc). During this ceremony
the bride and bridegroom sat together upon
two seats which were placed side by side and
covered with the skin of the sheep sacrificed
before for the auspices : they sat to the left of
tlie altar in the atrium and looked towards it :
meanwhile a CamilluB, i.e. an attendant boy
who WHS patrinius et niatritnus,\ie\A. a covered
basket called cumerus.
In what follows, marriages in general of all
forms are described. The prayer where there
was no confarreatio was pronounced by the
auspex, and was addressed to five deities —
Jupiter, Juno, Venus, Suadela, and Diana.
There was next a formal congratulation from I
the wedding-guests in the word ' feliciter ' I
(Juv. ii. 119). Then came the cena 7iuptialis, I
MAUSOLEUM
which was given by the bride's father, or some-
times by the bridegroom, before the procession
(Catull. Ixii. 3). The wedding-cake (mus^oce/ow ),
which was made of meal steeped in must and
placed on bay-leaves, was cut up and distributed
to the guests. Afterwards came the procession
(deductio), the invariable jmrt of the matri-
monium. This took place usually at dusk, and
was accompanied by torches (Catull. Ixii. 1 ;
Verg. Fcl. viii. 29). The bride was taken with
! simulated force from her mother's arms (Catull.
Ixi. 3) : a survival of the marriage by capture
(cf. the rape of the Sabines). Flutes and torches
went in front (Ter. AdelpJi. v. 7, 5). The bride
was conducted by three hoys patrimi et matri-
mi, two leading her by the hand, the third carry-
ing a torch of whitethorn for luck (Ov. Fa.<it. vi.
129, 145, spina alba). In the j)rocesaion, besides
the general crowd, there came also the camillus
with his cumerus; and the bride's spindle and
distaff were carried after her (Plin. viii. § 194).
Fescenniiie songs were sung during the pro-
cession (Catull. Ixi. 126), with interjections of
Talassc (Mart. xii. 42; Catull. Ixi. 134, S:c.:
Liv. i. 9) probably the name of a Sabine deity :
Other forms are Talasius, Talasio, Talassus,
Tlialassius, Tlialassio. The part of the bride-
groom in the procession was to scatter nuts for
the boys in the crowdlVerg .BrZ. viii. 30; Catull.
Ixi. 131), as a symbol of fruitfulness and plenty.
When the bridal train reached the bridegroom's
house, the bride bound the doorposts with
wool, and anointed them with oil or fat to
signify health and plenty. AU these actions
were personified in a Dea Iterduca, Domiduca,
and Unxia. The bride was lifted over the
threshold (Plant. Cas. iv. 4,1; Catull. Ixi. 166;
Lucan, ii. 359 sq.), which may symbolise the
marriage by capture. At the entrance she
repeated the formula 'ubi tu Gaius, ego Gaia;'
and the husband met her bearing fire and
water, to signify that he admitted her to a
share in the family hearth and the family
lustral rites (Serv. ad Aen. iv. 104 : the bride
on her part brought three coins ; one she gave
as symbol of the dos to her husband, another
to the Lares, a third, dropped in the street, for
the Lares compitales. The torch of whitethorn
seems to have been scrambled for by the guests,
and the ceremonies were over. The Irctus
genialis had been prepared by the pronuba in
the atrium fLectasj. On the following day the
second wedding-feast, called repotia, was given
in the new liome (Hor. Sat. ii. 2, 60), and the
bride as a niatroua offered at the family slirine.
Matrona'lia, also called Matrona'les fe'riae.
A festival cek-brated by the Roman matrons on
March 1, originally the beginning of the year,
in honour of Juno Lucina. It was celebrated
only by married women and maidens, and com-
memorated the dedication of the temple to
Juno Lucina on the Esquiline, 375 B.C., soon
after the Gallic occupation, and the first
Roman marriages witli the Sabine women (Ov.
Fast. iii. 229). An offering was made in the
houses of married people with prayers that the
married life might prosper (Hor. Carm. iii. 8, 1).
At this festival wives received presents from
their husbands (Suet. Vesp. 19); and gave a
feast to the female slaves (Mart. v. 84 ; Juv. ix.
53). Girls also received presents from their
lovers (Tibull. iii. 1, 2; Mart. v. 84, ix. 90).
Mausole'um. Tlu> tomb of Mausolus or
Maussollus, satrap of Karia (377-353 B.C.), is
usually knowni to us as the Mausoleum,
and this name was later applied, as in modern
times, to other conspicuous tombs. The sue-
MAUSOLEUM
cesser of Mausolus in his dominions, his sister
and consort, Artemisia, erected at Hahkarnas-
sus (353-351 B.C.) the magniticent tomb which
commemorated for all time the fame of her
husband and her own sorrow. It consisted of a
rectangular peristylic edifice {Trrepov) in the Ionic
style, raised on a base of 109 ft. by 88 ft., and
surmounted by a pjTamid of steps which ended
in a platform 20 ft. by 1(5 ft. On this, stand-
ing in a four-horsed chariot, was the colossus of
Mausolus himself, and at the side of this figure
a di'aped female figure, probably of a goddess
as r]v'i.oxos. The height of the whole structure,
including the figures in the chariot, was 140 ft.
Other groups of sculpture were disposed in
various parts of the building, and the whole
Kg. G90.— The Mausoleum of Artemisia as restored
by Mr. Fergusson.
was surrounded by a wall. The most renowned
architects and sculptors of her time were em-
ployed by Artemisia. The architects were
Satyrus and Pythius ; the sculptors, four artists
of the later Athenian school — Skopas, Leo-
chares, Bi-yaxis, and Timotheus. The sculptor
<if the chariot group which crowned the pyra-
mid of the Mausoleum was Pythius, one of the
Fig. C91. -Mausoleum as restored by Mr. E. 01dfl?ld.
two architects mentioned above. The sculpture
and arcliitecture were executed in Parian
marble of the finest quality.
Many restorations of the Mausoleum have
been attempted from the accounts in Pliny
(xxxvi. § 30), Vitruvius (ii. 8), and other ancient
writers, and from the remains discovered by
409
Sir Charles Newton in situ, 1857, and now in
the British Museuia.
Fig. 692.— Mausoleum as restored by Mr. Cockerell
Other buildings known by the name of Mau-
soleum were :
(1) The Mausoleum of Augustus, erected
by Augustus in his sixth consulship, '28 B.C.
in the northern part of the Campus Martius,
between the Via Flaminia and the Tiber (Suet.
Aug. 100; cf. Tac. A)i7i. iii. 9; Verg. ^e». vi.
875; Mart. v. 64). It consisted of a circular
building of white marble, 220 feet in diameter
and 60 feet in height, raised on a square base-
ment of travertine. Above this rose a cone of
earth (a survival of the primeval tumulus),
divided into terraces, planted with trees, and
surmounted by a bronze colossus of Augustus.
The construction was a core of concrete faced
with o^jits retirulatum and lined with marble
within and without. In the interior were
sepulchral chambers, containing the ashes of
Augustus and his family. The ground romid the
Mausoleum was laid out in groves and public
walks. (Strab. v. p. 236.) Several members of
the family of Augustus were entombed in the
Mausoleum before the ashes of the emperor were
deposited in it, as Marcellus, in 23 B.C. (Verg.
Aen. vi. 873), Agrippa, Octavia, Drusus, the
brother of Tiberius (Ov. Cons, ad Liv. 37) ; for
tlie burial of Augustus liimself, see Suet. Aug.
101. The ashes of Livia, the mother of Tibe-
rius, were also deiiosited there (Dio Cass. Iviii.
2) ; and it was the regular burial-place of the im-
perial family till the time of Hadrian {tumulus
Caesarum, Tac. Ann. iii. 9). Caligula had the
ashes of his mother, Agvii)pina, and his brother
Nero interred here with great pomp (Suet. Cal.
15). Nerva's was the last interment here, 98 A.n.
It was converted into an amphitheatre for bull-
lights till the time of Pius VI., and is now
covered with a dome of glass and iron and used
as a circus and theatre (.Tea fro Correa)
410
MAZONOMUS
(2) The Mausolklm of Hadrian, also called ]
the Moles Hadriani, now the Castle of S.
Angela, a much more splendid building than
the Mausoleum of Augustus, was erected (135
A.D.) by the Emperor Hadrian on the right bank
of the Tiber, near the Aelian bridge {Ponte
Sant' Angclo), also built by Hadrian. The
general form of the building was a circular
drum, set on a square basement, 300 feet square
and 85 high, and surmounted by a conical
cupola.
The lower squai-e story was divided into
panels by columns ; the circular drum had two
tiers of columns with statues in the intercolum-
niations. (See Middleton, Borne in 1888, chap,
xiii.) . The height of the whole building was 300
feet. It was faced entirely with marble.
In the Moles Hadriani were buried, besides
Hadrian himself, all the subsequent emperors
and their families do\\ni to Commodus in 192 A.D.
Mazo'liomus (/uafoi/tJ/ios ; from fxaia, a loaf, or
a cake). Properly a dish for distributing bread ;
but the term is applied also to any large dish
used for bringing meat to table ; made either
of wood (ir of metal (seeHor. Sat. ii. 8, 86).
Meddix Tu'ticus ( = ' community manager').
The chief magistrate among Oscan or Sabellian
communities, e.g. at Capua. The origin of the
word is uncertain ; but it is probably comiected
with Vmel- orMKD- {p.eKoi, meditari, &c.), and
taut a or iota, town. The inscriptions give us two
meddices at Messuna, but in most Sabellian
communities there was only one. We learn
from Livy that the meddix of Capua was annu-
ally elected, as su7W7/iMsma5ts(ra<MS Campanis;
he summoned the senate, presided at religions
rites, appointed commanders of troops, and
acted himself as general ; the ofiBce ceased with
the Second Punic War. (Liv. xxiii. 4, xxvi. (5.)
Mediasti'ni, the name given to slaves of all
work (viilgaressvrri), either in town (urbani) or
country (ritstici) (Hot. Ep. i. 14, 14).
Medici'na (laTptKi)) The art and science of
medicine. Tlie invention of medicine was almost
universally attributed by the ancients to the gods
(Cic. Tiisc. IJis. iii. 1 ; Plin. xxix. § 2). Aeschylus
(Pr. 478) claims it for Prometheus; Pindar
Nem. iii. 45), for Asklepius as taught by
Cheiron. The development of medicine was
also traced to observations made of means
resorted to by animals when labouring under
disease (Plin. viii. § 97). These speculations,
however, are probably as mythical as the for-
mer. Medical and surgical means were com-
bined with religious and magical rites from the
earliest times to the latest, as is sho^vn by
mention of dirwSai in the poets (e.g. Soph. Aj.
582), and by the evidence of votive tablets in
Greece and Italy.
For information as to the medical literature of
the ancients see Class. Diet. Hippocrates, Cel-
SUS, DlOSCORIDES, G.ALEN, CaELIUS, OrIBASIUS.
The most celebrated schools of medicine were
those of the Asklepiadae of Rhodes, Kos, and
Knidus; and the schools of Kroton in Italy, and
Kj-rene and Alexandria in Africa. In subse-
quent times tlie medical profession was divide<l
into different sects, the oldest of which was tliat
of the Dogviatici, founded about 400 B.C., by
Thessalus, the son, and Polybus, the son-in-law
of Hippokrates, and thence called also the
Hippocratici. The Empirici were founded
by Serapion of Alexandria and Philinus of
Kos, in the third century B.C., and so called
because they professed to derive their know-
ledge from experience only. In the fii'st cen-
tury B.C., Themison founded the sect of the
MEDICUS
Methodici, who held doctrines nearly interme-
diate between those of the two sects already
mentioned; in later times we hear of Pneuma-
tici and Eclectici, founded about the middle
or end of the first century a.d.
Me'dicus {laTpdsj. The name given by the
ancients to every professor of the healing art,
whether physician or surgeon. 'IrjTpo/, jTjrfjpej.
such as Machaon and Podaleirius, are men-
tioned in Homer as Sttfiiofpyoi [Od. xvii. 383)
attached to the army, being not only skilled in
their craft, but also favoured by the gods. (For
army surgeons in later times cf. Xen. Ctjrop.
i. 6, 16, Anah. iii. 4, 30.) In Greece and Asia
Minor physicians seem to have been held in
high esteem ; far more so than at Rome. This
was at least to some extent due to the religious
sense, larptK-n and jxavTiKri being regarded as
akin. High honours are said to have been
conferred upon Hippokrates by the Athenians :
he was voted a golden crown, publicly initiated
into the Eleusinian mysteries, and maintained
in the Prytaneum at the state's expense.
[FlpvTavciov.]
The physician made up his medicines him-
self, and either sat in his iarptlov, which was
both a consulting-room and a dispensary (called
also epyaffrr)piov, Aeschin. in Timarch. § 124).
or went a round of visits (Plat. Legg. iv. 170 c).
He had also assistants and apprentices or impils
(Plat. Legg. iv. /. c. ; Aescliin. i)i Timarch. % 40).
Slaves as well as free men were employed as
doctors.
Though hospitals are mentioned by Roman
writers after the time of Augustus [see Vale-
tudinaria], they are seldom mentioned by
Greek writers before the Roman period. The
function, so far as it was perfonned at all, was
discharged by the temples of Asklepius, and
accordingly the chief places of stud\' for medi-
cal pupils were the 'A.aK\7)iri(la, or temples
of that god. The Asklepiadae [Medicma]
were very strict in examining into and over-
looking the character and conduct of their
pupils, and the Hippocratic oath represents
them as bound by the strictest ties, profes-
sional, personal, and moral, to their calling and
their masters.
Some idea of the income of a physician in
those times may be formed from the facts men-
tioned by Herodotus (iii. 131), about Demo-
kedes. whose salary from the public funds of
Aegina, and afterwards of Athens, amounted to
between 300?. and 400/. of our money. A phy
sician called by Pliny both Erasistratus (xxix.
§ 5) and Kleombrotus (vii. § 123), is said by
him to have received one Imndred talents, i.e.
considerably over 20,000/., for curing king
Antiochus.
State physicians were selected on the ground
of knowledge evidenced in their private practice
(Xen. Mem. iv. 2, 5 ; Plat. Gorg. 455 b, 514 d).
They were distinguished from those who prac-
tised privately : tlieir practice and official status
are described by the word Zri^ocTKVfiv specially
applied to them, and in their public capacity
they received salary, but took no fees (Ar.
Acharn. 994) ; their expenses, however, were
paid besides their salary, and they received pub-
lic honours for distinguished service.
As regards the medical profession at Rome,
we must distinguish between the slaves skilled
in medicine, who were kept in the largerhou.se-
holds, and the physician in general practice.
The treatment of sickness was by traditional
family recipes {commentarii), partly founded
on experience, partly on superstition. The
MEDIMNUS
first professed physician is said to liave been a
Greek, Archagathus, who came to Rome c. 219
K.c. He was made a citizen and started in a
sliop at the public expense (Plin. xxix. S 12) ;
but his treatment was unpopular from its
severity (Plin. xix. § 11). The Romans regarded
with suspicion the skill of the foreigners, and
shunned the calling itself as a degradation.
Gradually, however, the number of foreign
physicians in Rome increased, alike those in
private houses, who were either slaves (cf. Suet.
Ner.2; Cic. Cluent. 08, 176) or freedmen, and
those who had general practice. The practising
l)hysicians at Rome were nearly all of the
ireedmen class. They had booths (tahernae),
where they practised, with slaves or freedmen as
their assistants and pupils, who accompanied
them in their visits (Mart. v. 9). Few Romans
1 ook up the profession, and Julius Caesar, to
I'licourage their residence, gave the citizenship
to foreign physicians (Suet. lul. 42).
Among physicians who rose to repute we
have Asklepiades of Prusa (Cic. de Or. i. 14,
()2) ; Asklapo of Patrae (Cic. Fani. xiii. 20);
Alexio (Cic. Att. xv. 1) ; Antonius Musa, the
freedman and trusted physician of Augustus
(Suet. Aug. 59; cf. Hor. Ep. i. 15, 3) ; the cele-
brated A. Cornelius Celsus ; Eudemus (Tac.
Ann. iv. 3), &c.
The professional gains of physicians under the
Plmpire seem often to have been large : Sterti-
nius made more than 5000/. a year, Alcon
nearly 100,0007. bv a few years practice in Gaul
(Plin. xxix. §§ 7,' 22; cf. Mart. xi. «4). Court
physicians had salaries varj'ing from 250,000 to
500,000 HS.; there were also doctors for the
army, for gladiatorial schools, and for the
poorer public arcliiatri, one for each region
I if Rome [Archiater]. There was no public
training or legal control of the profession. The
doctors made ' experimenta per mortes ' (Plin.
xxix. §18).
Besides the archiatri at Rome itself (one for
each region), there were, by order of Antoninus
Pius, in each city of Asia Minor state physicians,
paid by the state, in numbers varying from five
to ten according to the size of the town. There
were specialist physicians also, such as oculists
{ocular ills or ab oculis), aurists (anrarius),
dentists (see Cic. Legg. ii. 24, 60 ; Mart. x. 56),
and female doctors [medicae) for attendance
on women, as well as midwives {ohstetrices).
See also Exercitus; Pharmacopola; Chirur-
gia; ArcMater; latrosopMsta.
Medi'mnus {/xeSiixvos or fxeSinvos (TtTr]p6s).
The principal dry measure of the Greeks;
especially used for measuring corn. The Attic
medimnus was equal to six Roman niodii, or
two amphorae = 52"53 litres, or nearly 12 impe-
rial gallons (11'556 gallons) or 1^ bushel. The
Aeginetan and Ptolemaic were about half as
much again, or in the ratio of 3 : 2 to the Attic.
The Sicilian was equal to the Attic. The sym-
bol in Greek MSS. for medimnus was M" (see
Tables, EX.).
Megale'sia, Megale'nsia, Uegale'nses ludi.
[Ludi.1
Melite'nsis vestis. A fine and soft linen for
dresses and the covering of couches, made at
Malta, a relic probably of the Phoenicians,
who colonised it (Cic. Verr. ii. 72, 176 ; 74, 183;
cf. Lucr. iv. 1129).
Membra'na. [Liber.]
Membra'nula {aiWv^os, ff'mv^os). A parch-
ment ticket for labelling books (Cic. Att. iv. 4,
1). [Liber.]
Mensa {rpiiri^a, i.e. T€Tpa.-KiQa). A table.
MENSA
411
1. Gkekk. — In Homeric times, beside the seat
(dp6vos) of each guest a small table was placed
to receive his portion of food, wiiich was cut
Fig. 693.— Table, from a Greek vase. (British ?ruseura.1
up on the large dresser (i\t6s). The boartl was
probably separate from the legs (iTauucra-f,
Od. i. 138, &c.). In paintings on vases, the
tables are usually represented with four legs;
the top (67ri'07jyuo) was either square or round.
They were always small (see Horn. Od. xxii. 74),
and in most cases lower than the dining-couch.
The tables used for the symposium {Sevrepa rp.)
were usually tlu-ee-legged, and smaller still.
They were made of choice woods, especially
maple {(r<p€vSafj.vos). The tripod or other stand
is called /ciAAt/Sas. The legs were often
fashioned as those of animals ; cf. fig. 694.
2. Roman. — Dining-tables were usually round,
for the convenience of the triclinium. Horace
used a dining-table of white marble {Sat. i. 6,
16). Tables {orbes) were made of the most valu-
able and beautiful kinds of wood, especially the
citrus {Ki^pos) of Africa, which was a species
of cypress, the Thtija art icv lata of the Atlas
range (Cic. Verr. iv. 17, 87 ; Mart. ii. 43, xiv.
Fig. C94.— Table. (From Cell's Pmnitciana.)
85, 89 ; Plin. xiii. §§ 91-99). For this purpose
the Romans made use of the roots and knots
(t libera) of the tree, which, when cut, displayed
the greatest variety of marking {-KoiKiXioi).
These were called tigrinae, jianfhrriiuu:, jiav-
oninae, or apiatae. The finest specimens of
tables so adorned were sold for large sums.
Pliny {I.e.) mentions a table bought by Asinius
Pollio for a million sesterces ( = about 9500?.).
Antique or historical tables were also valued
(Plin. xiii. § 92).
One of the principal improvements was the
invention of the monopodiiivi, a round table
{orbis) supported by a single foot; this with
other kinds of expensive and elaborate furni-
ture was introduced into Rome from Asia
Minor by Cn. Manlius after the war with An-
tiochus, 187 B.C. (Plin. xxxiv. § 14 ; cf. Liv.
xxxix. 6). The value of the orbes, which
were sections of the trunk of the tree, depended
on their size. Pliny (xiii. Si 93) mentions tables
of four feet in diameter. Orbes were often
supported on ivorj' feet (Juv. xi. 122 ; Mart,
ii. 48, ix. 22). Sometimes tlie citrus or maple
was only a veneering (Plin. xxxiii. § 146).
Tables were also made of bronze, silver (Petrou.
412
MENSARII
73) or gold (Mart. iii. 31) ; the legs of ivory (Mart,
ix. 23). Wealthy Romans prided themselves
on the number of their orbes (Juv. i. 137 ; Mart,
vii. 48) : Annius (Mart. vii. 48) had 200 ; Sen-
eca 500. Mensa Delphica was a round three-
legged table. The tables among the Greeks,
and until later times among the Romans, were
not covered by cloths [Mantele]. They were
cleansedby wet sponges (Horn. Od.\. lll,xx. 151;
cf. Mart. xiv. 144 ; cf. gausape, Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 11).
At Rome, the courses (fercula or missus)
were brought in on trays (repositoria), which
were set down on the mensa. Such phrases as
mensas removere, &c. (Verg. Aen. i. 216, itc),
mean the conclusion of the meal; and the
phrase ine?isae secundae means, not ' second
course,' but dessert. [See Cena ; Lararimn.J
Other tables, such as those placed by couches,
used in workshops, &c., might, of course, be
square or oblong (see fig. 403, under Corona).
tVLIA AEQIALE |
VIXIT-ANNIS •
XXIX
ul
I«
tt
O z
H ~
>
3S
•3M-3S
1I03J-3VAS
Fig. 695.— Tabic beside a dliiingcouch. iFrom a vase.)
3. The name of rpdirf^a or iiirnsa was also
given to a flat tombstone (Cic. Lcrjr/. ii. 2(5, 60).
4. Of mensnc sacrac in the temples there
were two soils : (1) a sort of subsidiary altar
set before the image in the
cella, to receive offerings of
fiuit, flowers, coins, &c. ;
and (2) metisac anclabres,
tables about the temple
upon which vessels, &c., re-
quired ill the sacred rites
might be placed, like cre-
dence tables.
5. = Catasta, a stand on
which slaves were exposed
for sale (Tib. ii. 3, 61 ; Plin. xxxv. 18, 37).
6. [Argentarii.]
( Becker- Gcill, Charikles, iii. p. 81, Gallus, ii.
350 ; Marquardt, Privatleben, p. 723 ; Mayor's
notes on Juv. i. 137.)
Mensa'rii. [Argentarii.]
Menso'res. Measurers or surveyors. This
name was applied —
|l) To land-surveyors [Agrimensores].
(2) To military officers, who measured the
ground for the camp, and usually called meta-
tores (Cic. Phil. xi. 5, 12). [Castra.] They
also provided quarters for the soldiers in the
towns througli which they passed, and looked
after the corn-supply (mensores frumenti).
(3) Mensores {frumentarii, Portuenses) was
the name of officers who had to measure the com
conveyed up the Tiber for the public granaries.
They were stationed in the port of Ostia, and,
were employed under the praefectus annonae.
Menstruum. [Servns.]
Mensu'ra (n^Tpov). The simplest and pro-
bably most primitive measures are those de-
rived from the various parts of the body, such
as foot, hand, ell or cubit, finger.
Pleasures of capacity are probably first ob-
MENSURA
tained from natural products of a uniform size
such as hens' eggs, mussel shells (coclear), &c.
There are many local variations in such mea-
sures, and only a strong centralised government
can introduce universal standards. Of such re-
gulation of standards in ancient times we have
examples in the case of Pheidon of Argos, who
fixed the standard measures used by the Pelo-
ponnesians (Hdt. vi. 127), of Solon at Athens,
and of Augustus at Rome.
The Tables at the end of the volume give a
general view of the various systems of mea-
sures of the ancients, setting forth as accurately
as possible their value according to modern
standards.
It is probable that the Greeks borrowed
their anthropometrical standards either from
I the Babylonians or the Egj'ptians. The Egyp-
tian cubit = 24 SaKTvKot, or 0'450 m. There was
also a Royal irrjxvs or cubit (Hdt. i. 178) used
1 in building, measuring 27 SdKTvKoi, or 0'525 ni.
This was used in Mesopotamia and Palestine
I as well as in Egypt. The Persian cubit was
I nearly the same.
I. HoiiERic Measures. — In Homer the fol-
lowing measures of length are found : — hupov
( = the later TraXaiari)), a palm ; vovs, a foot ;
■Kvytiiv, the width of the body across the hips,
or a short cubit — viz. the length from the point
of the elbow to the knuckles (the irTjxfs or
cubit does not occur) ; fi4rpov, of uncertain
length, perhaps 10 feet (II. xii. 422, measuring
rods) ; vpyvia, the spread of the arms ; irKiQpov
{ir4\fdpov), froniTreA- or iroA-, the turning place
(of the oxen) like vorsns, probablv 10 Spyvtai
( = 60 ft.), or 10/i€'Tpo(100 ft.), being the breadth
of the yvrjs or acre strip, or the distance be-
tween the ovpa or balks dividing one yvT]s from
another.
The unit employed by the later Greeks was
the square of the vKedpov, which = 10,00(1
square feet. The Italians used similarly the
square of the vorsus, which was of like size.
Superficial measure. — The unit of superficial
measure in Homer, besides ireAeOpov, is the
yvrjs (TTfvTriKovToyvos, reTpdyvos) which pro-
bably meant the space traversed by the plough
in one day's work. It derived its name from
the ancient form of the plough {avT6yvot',
Hesiod), and was thus analogous to the English
plough-gate. The term was applied to the
strips of ground in the common field (II. xii.
422), which were separated from each other by
land-marks (odpa) made of stones {II. xii. 421,
xxi. 405), corresponding to Latin limes. In
such common fields of early communities the
furrow was always of a customary lengtli,
hence our fur-long (/wrroet^-long), which doubt-
less depended on the distance for which a yoke
of oxen could drag, and a man could steer, the
plough without a rest. (See Actns, = 120 ft.)
The breadth of the 7urjy was the distance be-
tween the ovpa, which bounded each side. The
Scholiast sets it at about 10 fathoms = 60 feet.
But we know from Homer (II. x. 351, Od. viii.
124) that the breadth (ir\idpov) varied, and it
is not improbable that irKidpov might mean
both 60 and 100 feet. The ffrd^iov, otherwise
called av\os, was of 600 feet, or ten timeo the
breadth (Tr\4Qpov) of the yirris; (rrdSiov is sup-
posed to be (rirdSiov, and analogous to actus ;
av\os to o5Aa|, a furrow. Tlie length of the
English furlong (660 feet) would thus corre-
spond nearly to the Greek (rrdSiov, but not to
the Latin actus.
It is obvious that a superficial measure is
derived from a long measure. The length of
MENSURA
418
the aiKos or ardBiov being fixed by convention,
a certain width (i.e. a certain number of fur-
rows) was adopted as the breadth of a day's
ploughing. This would tend to vary to some
extent. We find, in fact, two standards of
superficial measure : (1) the stadium or acre
of 600 X 00 feet, or thereabouts ; and (2) the
■nKedpov or square of 100 x 100 feet (among the
'Rovaa.ns.actus quadratus oillO x 120 feet); and
in Egypt &.f)ovpa, a piece of ground 100 cubits
square ( = 21,904 s(j. feet), the regular Egyptian
land unit from early times (Hdt. ii. 1C8).
(1) 27ra5tov, the Doric form of ffTaSwy
[stadium = 600 feet) indicates that it was
the distance traversed in a single drauglit
by the plough. It thus was probably
the length of the y{ir\s strip, just as the
irKeQpov was its breadth. It always contained
100 orgt/iae or 600 feet, no matter what tlie
size of the foot might be. If the Homeric yirris
[vide supra) was in breadth 10 opyviai, the
stadion was ten times the breadth of the yvr)s.
A similar proportion is found between the length
(furlong) and breadth of English and Irish acre
strips. For (2) see Actus.
Measures of Capacity. — Homer has but the
word fxerpov to express the unit of both Drij
and Liquid measure (Od. ii. 355), probably
more or less equivalent to the ij.lSifji.vos of later
times. The fiirpov used for liquids diflered
from that used for dry measure, and was pro-
bably of less capacity (Od. ix. 208).
II. Greek Measubes after Homer. — (n)
Itinerary and Linear Measures. [For nX^dpov
(in classical times 100 feet) and (rrddiov (600
feet), see above.]
XlapacrdyyT^s, a Persian road measure, used
by Greek authors writing about Asia Minor, as
Herodotus and Xenophon. It contained 30
stades (18,000 Attic feet), or 4 Roman miles. It
is roughly equivalent to the hour (Stu7ide) of
German and other measurements (e.g. league) ;
but was probably settled at a period anterior
to the division of time by hours.
Sxoj'i'os, usually counted equal to the Persian
parasang ( = 30 stades), but actually containing
32 stades of the common Greek standard. It
was probably also in use among the Hebrews.
"AKaiva = 10 feet. It probably means the
goad used in driving the plough oxen, which
was finally fixed at 10 feet and employed as the
special land measure.
'Op7i;ict (d) or upyvia, fathom, the space which
a man can stretch with both arms, = 6 feet.
Bfifia, gradus, pace, = 2^ feet.
Passus, double pace or stride, = 5 feet. The
later Greeks employed dixireKos as its equivalent.
n^ixi'St cubitus, cubit or ell, distance from
the point of the elbow to the point of the middle
finger, = 24 fingers. Roman %vriters employ
cubitus when following Greek sources ; the
native Roman term is sesquipes.
For the Egyptian cubit, see above.
Uvywv (Horn. Od. x. 517 ; Hdt. ii. 175, and
some other isolated passages), the distance
across the hips, or from the elbow to the first
joint of the fingers, = 20 fingers. The Romans
employed as its equivalent the palmipes --
palm us + pes.
Uovs, foot. We liave no ancient foot-rules
surviving ; we fix therefore the Greek (Attic)
foot from the testimony of ancient writers that
it was about the same as the Roman, confirming
this by the measurements of buildings, such as
the Parthenon, from which DiJrpfeld Jnis shown
the Attic foot to be 295-7 mill. The Olympian
foot is derived similarly from the testimony of
ancient writers comparing it with other feet, and
from the actual measurement of the .stadium.
In Greece proper at least three different foot-
standards were employed — Attic, Olympic,
and Aeginetan. The Attic foot was 2957 mill. ;
the Olympic foot 320'5 mill. ; the Aeginetan
foot 333 mill. See note to Tables, I. and U.
The Greek foot was divided into 16 SuKrvKoi.
The Romans used their national uncial system
in dividing the pes, thus giving it 12 parts.
See Tables, XIII. The finger-breadth (Sok-
Tv\os, digitus) was the smallest measure em-
ployed in both the Greek and Roman systems
of linear measure, and was regarded as the
unit (/jLovds). Later writers mention the use
of the barleycorn as the unit, 5 barleycorns
making a fingei-, 7 making a thumb (pollex).
KdvSuAos, the middle joint of the finger,
-- 2 fingers.
TlaKatffTri {iraXauTT'fis, TraKaffT-fj), Supov
(Homer and Hesiod), or Soxfj^'fl (i^«/wMs), hand-
breadth = 4 fingers. This measure was in very
common use with both Greeks and Romans.
Aixds (A.ix«^) or T]/jiiir6Siov = 2 hands = 8
fingers.
'S.-iriQafj.-i), span = 3 handbreadths ^ 12 fingers
^ h cubit. This measure, much used by the
Greeks, was not employed by the Romans, who
used instead the dodrans = ^ pes.
(b) Measures of Capacity. — The most im-
portant products of ancient agriculture are, on
the one hand, wine and oil, on the other, various
kinds of corn. Hence naturally arose two
kinds of measures, liquid and dry. Tlie
smaller units are common to both sj'stems (see
Tables VII. to X.).
Liquid and Dry. — KvaQos, cyathus (perhaps
originally a kind of gourd), was the unit in
common use. It contained about 4 centilitres
= -08 English pint.
KotuAtj, at Athens, was a kind of bowl,
called rpvfiXiov in other parts of Greece, and
the same as the Sicilian rj/xit/a (the half mina =
TiHiixvatov), which, borrowed by the Romans, =
h sextarius = 6 cyathi.
s.e(rTris, sextarius = 12 cyathi. s-iffTris is a
loan-word from the Roman sextarius, so named
as being J of cungius.
So far the measures are common to both
systems, but they now diverge as follows :
Liquid. — Xovs, congius (derived from
KSyxv) — 12 Korv\ai.
'Afi^opevs, amphora (afxcpKpopevs, Horn. Od.
ii. 290, &c.), the large wine jar with handles on
both sides, as it was used for the storing of wine,
was used as the chief unit of liquid measure.
[Pottery, Amphora.] It was also called »cd5oj,
cadus.
Dry. — The Greek diy measure starts from
the kotvKt), the Roman from the sextarius.
Xo7vt^ (Hom. Od. xix. 28) = 4 KorvAai.
'EKTfvs, or /m6Sios, modius, ^ of the chief
unit, medimnus.
M^Smvos at Athens = 6 modii.
III. Roman Measures. — For Roman mea-
sures as distinguished from Greek, see Tables.
The chief points of difference have been men-
tioned above :
(a) Till' land system rested upon the actus or
square of 120 ft., pes constratus or quadratu.i
being the unit. For iugei'um, scripulum, and
other multiples and fractions of the actus see
Table VI.
(b) The Romans measured all long distances
by milia passuum, or, shortlj', milia (M.P.).
The distance- system rested upon the iniliarium
(/jiikioy).
414
MHN.Y2I2
The passus being 5 feet, mille passus or
passuum = 5000 Roman feet or nearly 4854
English; = 1618 yards, or 142 yards under an
English statute mile.
The Roman mile was reckoned at eight Attic
stades. The milestones along Roman roads are
called lapides or lapides miliarii : ad tertium
lap. or ad tertium means 3 miles from Rome ;
tniliarium is a late word.
The system of thus marking distances along
the roads is at least as old as C. Gracchus
(Plut. Gracch. 6, 7) and was perfected by
Augustus. The measurement of the roads of
the empire had been begun by Julius Caesar. ' of donatives gradually gave to Roman troops
Augustus set up a pillar of gilt bronze on a the character and the danger of a merceimry
square marble pedestal, on which were in- ! force ; and when the provincials received tlio
scribed the names and distances of the chief civitas, the poor became soldiers, and the rich
towns of the empire on the roads which supplied money,
radiated through the thirty-seven gates of Under Constantine we f3nd the army recruited
METALLUM
this Demosthenes at Athens protested in wise
and statesman-like language (Dem. Phil. i. p.
46, c. Aristocr. p. 666 ; see Grote, chap. Ixxxvii.).
Among the Romans before the Empire, the
non-Roman part of the army was composed of
auxiliary troops from states alhed or subject,
which cannot strictly be called mercenaries.
But even in the Punic and Jugurthine wars
light troops were hired as archers and slingers,
from Africa, Crete, SjTia, &c. (Liv. xxii. 37,
xxiv. 20, &c.) Carthage, on the other hand,
depended for her protection on mercenary
troops. As the Roman empire grew, the system
Rome. This column, the miliarium aureum,
stood at the N.E. corner of the Vicus lu-
garius at the head of the Forum Romanum,
close to the Rostra (Plut. Galb. 24 ; Plin. iii.
§ 66 ; Tac. Hist. i. 97 ; Suet. 0th. 6), and the
temple of Saturn. Other towns, e.g. Byzan-
tium and Londinium (London Stone in Cannon
Street), had also their miliarium aureum.
(c) The Roman foot and its division into the
fractions of the as.
In Western Europe we find three foot-stan-
dards : the Italian, of about 275 mill.; the
Boman, of 29o mill.; and the pes Drtisianus,
used in Gaul and Germany, of 333 mill.
The Attic and Roman standards are prac-
tically identical.
Several bronze and iron foot-rules have been
found at Pompeii. There was anciently
from slaves and barbarians, and in great mea-
sure of a mercenarj' character. In the wars oi
Justinian we find a twofold army : (1) levied
by conscription of citizens in various provinces,
and of barbarians who occupied lands on con-
dition of military service ; and (2) provided by
princes dwelling on the borders of the empire,
such as those of the Heruli and Gepidae, who
received subsidies and provided troops under
their own leaders. [Exercitus.]
Mere'nda. [Cena.j
Merg^a, Merges. [Agriculture.]
Meridia'ni. [G-ladiatores.]
Mesau'los. [Domus,]
Metae. [Circus.]
Meta'llum {fxeraWoy). The Greek word bears
only the meaning of mine or quarry ; the Latin
means either a mine or its product, mineral or
standard foot measure kept in the Capitol, ' metal,
called the /jes monetalis, which was probably I. Metals in Antiquity. — Of the precious
lost at the burning of the Capitol under Vitel- metals — gold, silver, electrum, and copper — we
lius or Titus. But by comparison of (1) ancient have spoken under Aurum, Argentum, £lec-
measures still in existence, including feet laid trum, and Aes. It remains to speak briefly of
down on monuments, and foot-rules found in the commoner metals.
various parts of the Roman empire, (2) mea- j (1) Iron (ferrum, ffiSripos). Although iron
surements of kno\vn distances along roads, (3) | ore is common in all countries, yet the difficult}'
measurements of buildings and obelisks, we are I of smelting and manufacturing iron is so great,
justified in setting the Roman foot at 296 mill., , that it is one of the latest of metals to come into
or a little less than the English foot (301 mill.). ' use. The heroic age is represented by Hesiod
MTivvcris. See Appendix, Greek L.\w. as an age of bronze {Op. 150). The transition
Mercenna'rii (/uio-tfoTot, nt(T0o(p6poi, coram, from the age of bronze to an age when iron was
^evoi). Merceuai'y troops. At an early period commonly employed was very gradual. In the
mercenaries were not employed, the defence of Iliad swords are often made of iron (x^•iii. 341
each state being committed to the national j but it is specially in use for ploughshares and
militia, the richer citizens serving in the i other agricultural implements {II. xxiii. 826).
cavalry, the poorer as hoplites or xpiKoi. I But defensive armoui', as well as the heads of
Karians, Cretans, and Arkadians were first hired i axes and points of spears and arrows, were ib
as mercenaries (Hdt. i. 171, viii. 26 ; Xen. Hell. ! the Homeric age still made of bronze,
vii. 1, §23). The tyrants maintained foreign In Of?, ix. 391 knowledge is shown of the pro-
troops {Sopv(p6poi, ixiffdocpSpoi), e.g. lason of cess of hardening {(papfxaaffeiv) iron by repeated
Pherae and the rulers of Sicily. plunging {^iirreiv) when hot in water [Lacus;.
The Athenians were the first Greek people \ From the seventh or sixth century iron was used
who made use of mercenaries on a large scale, in Greece not only for arms and utensUs, but
having command of a great revenue, and being also for works of art.
able to hire troops of different kinds, such as , We are told by Pliny (xiv. § 139) that when
Thracian peltasts, Cretan archers and slingers, I Porsenahad conquered the Romans, he forbade
etc. (Thuc. vi. 25, vii. 27 ; Ar. Ach. 159). After I them to use iron except for agricultural pur-
the Peloponnesian War, many disbanded I poses ; which would indicate that they were
soldiers hired themselves to the Persian satraps ' already accustomed to use arms of iron. The
as well as to serve in the Greek armies (Thuc. " Cimbri who invaded Italy in the time of Marius
viii. 5 ; Xen. HM. i. 6, § 3, iii. 4, § 5, Anab. i. 3, had iron arms and armour. In Caesar's time
§21,&c.). The 10,000 were mercenaries. So were the Gauls were expert in working iron, and
the peltasts of Chabrias. The Phokians carried even made chains of it for their ships
on the Sacred War by means of mercenaries. {B. G. iii. 13).
Greeks served under Darius against Alexander. In Greece the cities of Chalkis (Alcae. xv. 6)
Military service went out of fashion at home, ^ and Lacedaemon were celebrated for their iron
and war abroad became a commercial service j goods. Iron was also used as a material for
like that of the mediaeval condottieri. Against ' works of art (Plin. xxxiv. § 141). As a rule, how-
METALLUM
ever, the Greeks did not excel in the working of
iron, hut imported goods in this metal from bar-
barous nations, such as the Chalybes of Pontus
(Aesch. Prom. V. Hi ; Xen. Anab. v. 5, 1),
and the Cyprians, who were famed for their
manufacture of arms and armour. In the time
of Plinj' (xxxiv. § 145) iron came from China
and Parthia. It was also found in the island of
Aethalia (Elba), and theuce exported to Popu-
louia, where it was worked. Toletum (Toledo)
ill Spain was celebrated even in Roman times
for sword-blades.
We are told that a currency of iron was in
use at Sparta in antiquity ; and iron coins have
been found at Argos and other Peloponnesian
cities.
(2) Lead {pluinhiun nigrum, fj.6\vPSos). An
account of the sources and uses of lead in
antiquity will be found in Pliny (xxxiv.
§§ 156 sqq.). Its easiness to work anc its im-
jierishable nature made it useful for certain
purposes, as for coffins and waterpipes. Its
value in medicine as a cooling remedy was also
fully recognised. But it was scarcely used for
purposes of art.
(3) Tin {plumbum album). Few metals
were in antiquity more widely used than tin.
The implements and arms of the bronze age
contain almost invariably a proportion of tin.
Tin (KaffcriTepos) was in the Homeric age largely
used for the decoration of arms. Herodotus
fiii. 115) gives as its source islands of the
Western Sea, the Kassiterides, generally iden-
tified with the Scilly Isles. Pliny (xxxiv. § 156)
says that it came from Gallaecia and Lusitania
in Spain. The likeness of the Greek word Kaacri-
Ttpos to the Sanskrit kastira suggests that the
chief source of tin was the coast of India. In
any case it is probable that the purveying of
tin to the peoples of South Europe was an em-
ployment of the Phoenicians, and one of the
chief sources of their wealth.
(i) Stannum was produced by the fusion of
silver and lead (Plin. xxxiv. § 159). Stannum
was used for plating bronze vessels, for mirrors,
horse-trapi)ings, and other purposes.
(5) '^w.c\iii\\\'er(argentu7nvivum, vSpdpyvpos,
&pyvpos x^'TOS : Plin. xxxiii. § 99) was com-
monly produced artificially out of cinnabar.
(6) Zinc does not seem to be mentioned by
ancient writers; but in the analysis of Roman
coins it is found in considerable proportions.
(7) Nickel was used for coins by some of the
Greek kings in India in the third century B.C.
(8) Brass (opet'xaA/fos, orichalcurn), i.e. an
artificial alloy of copper and zinc, principally
used in Roman coinage. [Orichalcum.]
II. Working of Mines in Aiitiqu it ij. Among
the richest mines known were the goldmines of
Aquileia and of Vercellae, and the Spanish
silver and iron mines. The gold and silver
mines of Macedonia were closed by the senate ;
iron was still allowed to be worked. There were
also various mines in Tlirace, Illyricum, Nori-
cum, Africa, Sardinia, and Britain. The silver
and lead mines of Laureion in Attica were
worked from time immemorial (Xen. Vect.
4, 2). The mines were worked by means of
shafts and adits, and by the removal of whole
masses, so that supports alone (fxfffoKptviis)
were left standing. The smelting processes
were rude and wasteful, as is shown by the
profits made at the present time from working
the scoriae at Laureion. The ores were
smelted by means of charcoal {&.pQpaKei), the
cliief supply of which came from Acharnae.
The state was sole proprietor of the mines ;
MET0IK02
A\h
but they were never worked directly by the
state, nor did the state ever let them for a term
of j'eai-s, like other landed property. Portions
of them were sold or demisecl to individuals,
with the reservation of a perpetual rent of
}^ of the net produce, and tliese leases were
transferred by inheritance, sale, and every kind
of legal conveyance. The sale of the workings
was managed by the FloXTiTaC. The pui-chase-
money was paid direct to the state ; the
metal-rents were, in all probability, let to a
farmer-general. The revenue from the mines
fluctuated considerably. Boeckh estimates it
in the time of Themistokles at 83^ talents.
Only citizens and l(TOTf\us could possess
mines. The number of owners was consider-
able. The common price of a .share in a mine
was a talent, or a little more. The labour was
performed by slaves either belonging to the
mine-owners or hired at the rate of about a
drachma 2>c'r diem. There was a special mining
law (fMeraWiKhs vofios) and a peculiar course of
legal procedure in cases relating to mines (Si'/cat
fxiTaWiKai). ["EtijATivoi SiKai.] Occupiers of
mines who neglected to register were liable to
'AYpd<})ou M.€TdA\ov Ypa.4)-n. [See Appendix,
Gkkek Law.]
Diodorus (v. 36) describes the elaborate system
of shafts and galleries employed in the mines of
Spain, the methods of draining tlieni by cross
drains and the use of the puniii invented by
Archimedes, and the miserie-- of the workmen,
wliowere slaves and criminals; iovme.tullum was
one of the regular penalties for lesser offences.
Much gold was obtained in Lusitania and
Gallaecia by washing the river sands in wicker
baskets or cradles. Gold found in imggets
(iraAaj, ^ovAoi) was first refined by means of an
astringent clay containing vitriol (cnvnnjpi-
wSris yrj) : the metal thus obtained was called
electruvi, a mixture of silver and gold. This
was again refined, the silver was burnt away
{airoKafffOai) and the gold remained. Gold dust
was obtained by washing in pits dug in the
beds of the streams. F'urnaces or 'cupolas'
were built for smelting the silver, that the
fumes might be carried high into the air.
Under the Roman Empire the provincial
mines and quarries of all kinds were worked
for the emperor, and formed part of the revenue
for the Fiscus, and also for the emperor's
private purse {patrimonium).
Each mine or mining district was worked
separately under an overseer (procurator, e.g.
procurator aurariorum), probably himself a
slave ; sometimes the mines were let to a com-
pany of j>ublicani. Under the Empire the
workmen were slaves, free labourers, soldiers,
or criminals. [Vectigalia.]
MsToiKOS. also TriapoiKOs. A resident
foreigner, a permanent settler in an alien state.
Metoeks or resident aliens were common in
nearly all Greek cities, especially centres of
commerce, the sole known exception being
Sparta, wliose |ej/7jAa(rtoi wei'e i\otorious (Thuc.
i. 144, ii. 39).
The MfTotKot at Athens. (1) Institution of
the class. — Solon (Pint. Sol. 24) is said to have
encouraged foreigners to i-eside at Athens.
But it is probable that the institution was
first organised by Kleisthenes, as an ordo inter-
mediate between the fully enfranchised iroK'iTai
and the non-enfranchised ^ivoi.
(2) Numbers. — Thucydides (ii. 13) states the
number of metoek hoplites as 3000, the whole
armed population of Athens being 2(i,000. This
would make tlie whole immber of aliens from
416 MET0IK02
10,000 to 12,000. Li the time of Demetrius of
Phalerum there were 21,000 iroAiTat and 10,000
fiSTOLKoi in Attica. Among the utroiKoi were
Phoenicians, Lydians, Phrygians, Syrians, and
other barbarians (Xen. Vect. ii. 3), besides
Greeks.
(3) Position. — Any stranger not a slave who
remained more than a certain time at Athens
was compelled to register himself as fieroiKos.
During the days of grace he was termed irap-
eiriSr}iJi.os.
The neToiKoi had no share in the ri/j-ai of the
state (Arist. Pol. iii. p. 1275 a). These rifiai were
(a) apxai, '-e. the right of serving as magistrate
and dikast, and of voting in elections; (b) eiri-
yaixia, of marriage with -jroA-rToi ; (c) yfjs Kol
oiKias fyKTTjffLs, of acquisition of land or house
property; [d) Upoxrvvr], of performing public
sacrifice.
Each fxfToiKos was obliged to enrol himself
{airaypdpecrdai, ■iiriypd.'peffda.i) under a patron
(ttpoo-tottjj, Ar. Pax, 633). A y.eToiKos who
failed to register himself under a TrpocrTctTTjy
incurred 'AirpDaTaaCow SCkt) ; one who de-
serted his TT^otrTOTTjs incurred " A-n-ocxTaCTiov
SiKT). [See Appendix, Greek Law.]
The fiSTOiKos was devoted to trade and could
undertake long journeys on business. Hence
IxiToiKoi wei-e valuable to the state and were
encouraged to settle there. (Ar. L;/s. 579, Ach.
508 ; Isocr. de Pace, § 21 ; Xen. Vect. iv. 40 ;
Grote, Greece, Part II. oh. xi.) Their wealth
often made them an object of oppression, espe-
cially in matters of taxation (Dem. Timocr.
166 ;" Xen. Hell. ii. 3, 30 ; Lys. xii. § 6).
Each fxiroiKos paid an annual tax {ixeToiKiov)
of twelve drachmae. This tax, like all others
at Athens, was farmed out (I'Dem.] Aristog. i.
p. 787, i^ 68).
(4) Duties. — Of the public Keirovpyiai the
Xopy)yia. alone is certainlj- known to have been
open to fxtToiKoi. (See Dem. Lept. pp. 462, § 18 ;
Lys. xii. S 20.) Meroi/coi were liable to GIct-
(t>opaC, which they paid on a rating of (pro-
bably) one-sixth of their property, a rating high
in comparison to the iroKtrxi. (Dem. Androt. p.
612, § 75). [ElcT4>opd; 'Zv\i.\i.opia.\ Census,
Greek.] With regard to military service,
Perikles (Thuc. ii. 13) appears to speak of the
fjifToiKoi as onlj- manning the walls. Yet they
seem to have taken part in expeditions, both as
hoplites and oarsmen (Thuc. i. 143, ii. 31, iii.
16). They were not allowed to serve as lirirrjs
(Xen. Vect. ii. 5).
The difference between /ueroiKoi and iroXlrai
is naturally most marked in religious matters.
They took a subordinate part in the Pan-
athenaea, the men carrying skiff-shaped bowls
((TK3.<pr)(p6f)oi),tho matrons pitchers {v5pia<p6poi),
the maidens parasols (cTKiaSripopoi).
(5) Special Privileges. — Individual ^eroiKoi,
as a reward for distinguished state services,
might receive by vote of the iKK\ri<ria special
privileges, such as irpo^ey'ta, a.Te\eta, eyKTri<ri?
77JJ Koi otKiar, Trp6ao5os irphs rriv ^ovKr)v Kal
rhif Srifxoy. A special class of fxeroiKOi were
termed IffoTeXiii. These had no 7rpo(7T<£T7js,
paid no jxeToiKiov, and were, as far as pajTnent
of taxes and service as hoplites were concerned,
on an equality with iroKlrai. They were ex-
cluded from office, eKKKrjffia, and ^iKa(TTr)pia.
Actions at law in which fxeroiKoi were con-
cerned, either as plaintiff or defendant, were
heard before the noKefmpxos. While liable
SiS6vai SiK7]v in all cases, they were only able
\afx^av(iv BiKTiv in matters in which /xeroiKOi
were specially concerned.
MIMUS
Me'topa (fj.fT6ir7]), metope, is the name given
to the interval between the triglyphs in the
frieze of the Doric order [TriglyphiJ. The
word is derived from fxtTd and otttj, i.e. the
apertures between the triglyphs.
It is probable that the metopes were origin-
ally open (Eur. Iph. T, 113) ; but in existing
examples the space is invariably filled with
plain or sculptured slabs.
Metopes ai-e of particular importance from
the use of sculpture to ornament them. From
Athens we have metopes of the finest period,
those of the so-called Thesemn and the Par-
thenon. At OljTnpia, the great temple of Zeus,
which is of a somewhat earlier period, has all its
external metopes plain. The subjects treated
in metopes are most commonly various contests
or battles, those of the Gods and Giants or the
Lapithae and Centaurs, or the labours of
Herakles or Theseus. [ArcMtectura.]
MeTpTiT'ns,a/x(/)opei;s ^erprjTrjs, the standard
amphora {kolSos, Hdt. i. 51), the principal
Greek liquid measure. It was three-fourths of
the medimnus, the chief dry measure, and
half as large again as the Roman amphora
quadrantal [Tables, VIII.]. It contained
39-39 litres =69-33 pints, or slightly over 8i
gallons = a water-weight of Ii talent. The
Aeginetan metretes contained 54-56 lit. or a
little over 12 gallons (Hdt. i. 192). [Tables,
VII.; Mensura; Pondera.]
McTpovotJLoi. Ofiicers in the Athenian
police appointed by lot, whose special duty was
to see that proper weights and measures were
used in the market and to proceed against
those who used false measures. They also pro-
bably had charge of the standard weights and
measures kept in the slirine (vpcjjov) of the hero
Stephanephoros, and supervised the coinage.
Their number was probably ten, one from each
tribe : five for the city, and five for Peiraeus.
Mica're di'gitis. [Games.]
Mi'mus(urMoj). 1. Greek — In Greek litera-
ture the word mime is associated with the
name of Sophron of Syra cuse (fifth century B.C.)
and his son Xenarchus. Sophron, we are told,
wrote ninovs avSpelovs and /jLifiovs yvvaiKfiovs
in the Doric dialect. The names of some of
the mimes are ""AyyeXos. Qvvvodripas, Tepovns.
'Wiels. The Second Idyll of Theocritus is
borrowed from the 'AKearoiai, and the Fifteenth
from the 'l(T6fxtdCov(Tai. In 1890 a papyi-us was
discovered containing seven of the mimes of
Herondas or Herodas of Kos, who lived about
the third century B.C. They are sketches of
common life at Kos. The metre is choliambic
{i.e. trimeter iambic with a spondee in the last
place), the language Ionic with a mixture of
Doric. (See Class. Diet.)
2. Roman. — The Roman mimus (a term ap-
plied to the piece as well as to the actor) was,
like the Atellan farce, an improvised character
play, representing the humorous side of the low
life of the town rather than of the country. Its
character was broad and coarse, with a certain
amount of stage wisdom and wise saws taken
from the works of the Greek New Comedy.
Mimi and mimae first appear about the time
of Sulla (Plin. vii. § 158; Pint. Sulla, 2, 36).
They were played in front of the stage before
the siparium (Juv. viii. 185). The actor had no
buskins (Juv. viii. 181), and no mask ; he wore
a sort of harlequin costume (centunculus)
[Cento], with the Bicinium and the phallus.
Along with the principal character (inimus or
archimimus) was a sort of pantaloon called
parasitus or stupidus, got up with jniffed
MINA
cheeks mid sliaved head, who used to have to
siiiid a great deal of noisy shipping {alapae,
IxxwifffMira) and abuse from the principal actor
(Mart. ii. 7'2, 4). The female parts wore played
)iy women : for example, Thymele in Juv. i. 3(5 ;
Arbuscula (Cic. Att. iv. 15, 6; Hor. Sat. i. 10,
77); Cytheris (Cic. Phil. ii. 8.20). Tlieir per-
formances were given originally at the Floralia,
later at all the exliibitions. The dancing and
gestures in the mimus were of a grotesque and
indecent nature, accompanied bj- gi-imaces,
r.bald abuse and blows (Mart. /. c. ; Juv. v. 171,
\ iii. 192).
The subjects were of the most varied kinds,
V>ut nearly always involved some incident of an
amorous nature (Ov. Trist. ii. 497 sqq., 515 ; Juv.
vi. 44). Sudden changes of fortune were often
introduced, beggars becoming millionaires (Cic.
I'liil. ii. 27, 65) and vice ver.ia (Senec. EjJ. 114,
()), mimicry and parodies of people of the day,
general character pieces (e.g. Augur, Colax,
Ephebus, Hetaera, Virgo), scenes from the life
of tradesmen (e.g. Eestio, FuUo), description of
popular festivals (Compitalia, Parilia, Saturn-
alia), representation of the career of notorious
rliaracters, such as would attract the imagina-
! On of the people (e.g. Laureolus, Juv. viii. 187),
:ythological caricatures, &c. Plutarch tells us
<if a mime in which a dog took a prominent
part. A great deal of political criticism was
always allowed in the mimes (Cic. Att. xiv. 8,
'2 ; Suet. Aug. 53, 08, Tib. 45).
The iirincipal writers of mime under the late
Itepublic were Laberius (Hor. Sat. i. 10, 09) and
Publilius Syrus. The mimographi under the
Empire are numerous. The mimes were not
so fashionable as the pantomimes, and we hear
less about their performers.
Mina. [Talentum.j
Mi'ssio. [Exercitus; Gladiatores.]
Mio-6ioCT€tos 4)dcri,s. See Appendix, Gkeek
Law.
Mitra (^iVpa : dim. Mite'lla, Verg. Copa, 1 ;
Cic. l{ab. Post. 10, 20). A band of any kind,
and so (1) the Homeric /xirpi}. [See Arms and
Armour.] (2) ^ Cdvrj TrapBeviKT), the maiden's
girdle [CingulumJ.
(3) A band fastening the hair ; also called
a-<pei'S6i'7i and (Tolkkos, a regular head-dress for
women, with lappets hanging over the ears,
apparently something like a Kp-riSefxvov or
Calautica (Serv. ad Aen. ix. IG ; see Coma). It
does not seem to have been worn either in
MOLA
417
nantly of the miteUa being worn l)y e£feminate
young men (liab. Post. 10, 26).
(4) As an Asiatic head-dress it was sometimes
shaped like a turban, as in the mosaic of the
battle of Issus, sometimes in a peaked form, as
worn by Paris (see fig. 697) ; also with lappets
iredimicula, Verg. Aen. ix. 616). [Diadema;
Tiara.]
MoxA.6s. flanua.l
Modi'olus, tiie diminutive of Modias, is used
for various kinds of small vessels ; for a drink-
ing-cup ; for any kind of bucket or small cistern
in hydraulic machinery (Vitr. x. 10) ; for the
box or nave (TrKr,fivr)) of a wlieel (Plin. ix. § 8 ;
Vitr. X. 14); for a socket such as that into
whicli the axle of the crusher in an oil press
fits (Trapetum), &:c.
Mo'dius. the princrpal dry measure of the
Romans, was equal to one-third of the amphora,
and therefore nearly two gallons English (see
Tables), or one-sixth of the Greek Medimnus.
As a land-measure tlie third part of the iugerum
was called ffTropifios fj.6Stos = castrensis modi its.
The symbol in Latin MSS. is M°, in Greek M*,
H". (See Tables, X.)
Mo'dulus (efifidrris). The standard measure
used in determining the parts of an archi-
tectural order : ui-ually the lower diameter of
the column ; but in the Doric order the lower
semidiameter. Modern architects use the semi-
diameter in all the orders. The ancient archi-
tects did not divide the module into minutes.
[Architectura.]
Moe'nia. [Murns.]
Mola (ij.v\r] or /xiiXos). A mill. Millstones are
mentioned in Homer (11. vii. 271), and ' saddle-
querns ' of trachyte were found at Hissarlik.
All mills were anciently made of stone, a
volcanic trachyte or porous lava (pyrites, Plin.
xxxvi. § 30 ; silices, Verg. Moret. 23-27 ; pv7ni-
ceas, Ov. Fast. vi. 318) being used, which was
obtained especially from the volcanic island of
Nisyros. The upper mill-stone, which was
smaller and moveable, is called catilliis, vvos,
the lower mrta, fxiiAr). which was fixed. The
stones were kept rougli by cutting or scratching
them when they wore smooth. Four kinds of
mills are mentioned by ancient authors: the
hand-mill, the mill worked by animals, the
water-mill, and the saw-mill. Windmills are
an invention of the Middle Ages.
(1) The hand-mill, or quern, called twoZa vtartu-
aria, versatiUs, or trusatilis. (Plin. xxxvi.
§ 135 ; Gell. iii. 3 ; Cato, P. P. 10.)
This, the most ancient form, similar to the
old Scottish quern, consists of two flat round
stones. The upper stone is turned by a handle
Fig. (»7.— Paris, with Phrygian mitre. (Apginn rrmrble-
Ik' -■■ IT.i^d.Tnin.
n, mrtn , h, ratn'.uf ; <■. pivot ; </, perforated plate
I supporting rnliilu.f (see flg. KVi.
Greece or at Rome by women of a respectable | (KciTnj) inserted at one side, and has a hole in
class until later times. Cicero speaks indig- the middle into which the corn is poured By
E E "
418
MOLA
the process of grinding the corn makes its way
from the centre, and is poured out in the state
of flour at the rim. In a very improved state it
has been discovered at Pompeii. (See fig. 699.)
The most essential part of it is the cone (meta),
which is surmounted by a projection containing
a strong iron pivot. The upper millstone (6)
Mill complete.
Fig. C99.— Mills at PompeU.
ti. meta ; 6, catillus ; c, socket ; <(, pivot.
approaches the form of an hour-glass, consisting
of two hollow cones, jointed together at the apex,
and provided at this point with a socket, r, by
which the upper stone was suspended uponf the
iron pivot, d, at the same time touching on all
sides the lower stone as it revolved. The pivot
could be made slightly longer if coarser meal
was desired. Two bars of wood were inserted into
square holes (one of which appears in the right-
hand figure), and were used to turn the upper
stone. These bars or levers, whether worked
by hand or by an animal attached to them,
were called KtHnrai, in Latin molilia. The
bottom of the upper half of the catillus was an
MONAKCHIA
the meta, and, as it proceeded down the cone'
was ground into flour by the friction of the two
rough surfaces, and fell into a channel formed
for its reception. The mill represented in fig.
699 is five or six feet high.
Hand-mills were worked among the Greeks
and Romans by slaves : the pistrimon was
consequently ])roverbial as a place of
punislament for refractory town slaves.
Smaller hand-mills were worked by women
(Horn. Ocl. vii. 104 ; Exod. xi. 5 ; Matt.
xxiv. 41). In the palace of Odysseus there
were twelve mills, each turned by a sepa-
rate female slave (Od. xx. 105-119).
(2) The mill worked by animals (nioia
iumeyitaria, mola asinaria : Lucian,
Asin. 28; Ov. Fast. xi. 318, etc.). The
horses so used were old and worn out
(Juv. viii. 67; Phaedr. 19). The animal
was blinded by blinkers or a bandage
{6d6vri), and prevented from eating the
corn by a contrivance called icava iKairr) or
Kap^oire'iov. Slaves also were sometimes
so muzzled. The mill-driving animals
had a holiday at the festival of Vesta.
(Ov. Fast. vi. 311 ; Prop. v. 1, 21.) [See
cut under Signum.]
(3) Water-mills {mola aquaria, vSpa-
XfTTjs, vSpofjLvKos) appear not to have
been used at Rome till the time of
Augustus. A cogged wheel, attached to the
axis of the water-wheel, turned another which
was attached to the axis of the upper mill-
stone : the com to be ground fell between the
stones out of a hopper {infujidibulum), wliich
was fixed above them (Vitr. x. 10).
(4) Tlie floating-mill. When Rome wasbesieged
by the Goths, 586 A.D., and the stoppage of the
aqueducts rendered it impossible to use the
public corn-mills (ol rfjs TrdAsojs ^uAcDves) in
the Janiculum, Belisarius supplied their place
by erecting floating-mills upon the Tiber. Two
boats being moored at the distance of two feet
from each other, a water-wheel suspended on its
axis between them was turned by the force of
the stream.
(5) Saw-mills for marble, grindstones, worked
with a treadle, and miniature pepper-mills are
also mentioned.
Fig. 701.
-ilola acuminaria, a knife-grinder's wheel.
(From a gem.)
iron plate pierced with holes {d of fig. 698),
through the centre of which the pivot, c, passed,
whilst the corn, poured in at the top, gradually
fell through the other holes upon the summit of
Mona'rchia (jjLovapxia). A general name for
any form of government, whether customary,
legal, or usurped, in which the supreme func-
tions of political administration are in the
hands of a single person (Arist. Pol. iii. 15,
2, = p. 1287). Absolute monarchy (Tra/u/SocrjAe/a)
did not belong to Greek states except in cases
of usurpation. Monarchy of the more consti-
tutional kind, as described in Homer, probably
MONAULOS
existed throngliout Greece ut tlie time of the
Dorian coiu]uest, and gradually gave way to
the power of the people. M6vapxoi might be
(1) &a(ri\e7s, .as in the Homeric times, or at
Sparta, with powers more or less limited ;
(2) a'.avixvriTai, or elcctpil <lcspots ; CA) Tvpavvoi,
or usurpers. Kex, Archon, Tyrannus, Pry-
tanis, AlCTutJLVTiT-ns, Tagus.J
Monaulos. A single Hute (Plin. vii. 50 ;
Miut. xiv. (11, -2). fXibia.]
Moneris. [Navis.]
Mone'ta, (apyvpoKuTrflov). A mint. The mint
of Konif was a building on the Capitoline liill,
attached to the temple of Juno Monela, which
was dedicated by L. Furius Camillus when
dictator, 345 B.C. Hence the words mint,
moiicij, ct'c. (Liv. vii. 28 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 183.)
(1) nights of Coinage.— 1\\e righi of coin-
ing money belonged to the sovereign or the
state : as in Asia, where the royal Darics or tj''^6-
rai were the royal standard gold coin. But uhe
(ireek cities of the coast seem to have enjoyed
the privilege of issuing silver and copper money
at pleasure. Satraps also, at least in the western
provinces of Asia, e.g. Pharnabazus, liribazus,
Datames, were allowed to issue silver money
bearing their own names. In Greece proper and
in the Greek colonies each separate state or
TToAis claimed and e.xercised the full right of
issuing such money as it chose. We know of
Slime '2000 Greek mints which issued coin of
their own before the fall of the Roman Empire.
Coin issued by colonies was commonly quite
different in character from that of the mother-
city. There are exceptions to this rule: r.g.
Athenian klerncin'es appear to have used the
coins of Athens ; and towns united in close !
alliance for any ])oliticalor commercial purpose
simietimes issued coins of a common character.
In late times those cities of Gi'eece which had
become dependent ujwn the Hellenistic kings
of Pergamum, Macedonia, and Syria, appear
Mtill to have preserved to a considerable extent !
their right of issuing money, though they
placed on it the etifigy of their regal ])rotector.
In the Roman age the issues of Greek silver
money came to an end, except in the case of a
few favoured cities ; but the issue of copper
money was still permitted. I
MONILE
419
The Roman state gradually introduced uni-
formity in tlie place of wide diversity. In
the fourth century B.C. the Italian coinages
present the same variety and autonomy as
those of Greece. At that time Rome issued
only the heavy libral asses of copper. But
as soon as denarii in silver were coined at
Rome, in 209 B.C., the senate adopted the policy
of putting down rival issues : and from this
policy the rulers of Rome never swerved, until
m the reign of Diocletian coinage was uniform
throughout the length and breadth of the
emi^ire. In consular times the mint was
governed by regularly appointed officials,
usually three in number, Illviri nio7ietalcs.
Abroad, Roman iniperators minted such coin
as suited their military necessities, and placed
upon it their name or even their image.
Augustus took into his own hands the issue of
all Roman gold and silver money, leaving to
the senate only the issues in copper, each
specimen of which bears thereafter the letters
S. C.
(2) Organisation of Mints. — At Athens, an
elaborate system of marks ensured the re-
sponsibility of the minters, and almost de-
stroyed the possibility of forgery. At Rome,
the name of the person who ordered the coin
to be made, whether imperator or monetalis, is
after a certain time never wanting. We meet
on coins such inscriptions as IIIVIR ■ AAAFF,
i.e. ' triumvir auro argento aere [ = i] flando feri-
undo' (Cic. Fam. vii. 13, Lcgg. iii. 3, 7);
AEO CVR - EXSC ' aedilis curulisex senatus
consulto,' (S:c.
For the processes used in minting see
Coinage.
Moni'le (opfios). A necklace. In Homer the
words bp/xus and iadfjuov are both employed for
ornaments worn round the neck : bp/aos was
loose, and might be of any length ; tadfjuov
fitted close to tlie neck.
The Homeric opfios is described as made of
gold and amber {Od. xv. 400) ; of golden threads
(Hijnin. ill A/joll. 104); or of gold inlaid work
(Hymn, in Ven. 88). Necklaces were worn by
both sexes, but chiefiy by women and boys
(Ov. Met. V. 52, Her. 9. 57).
The simplest kind of necklace was called
Fig. 702.— Necklace Irorn Mclos. CBrltlsh Musenm.l
420 MONOPODIUM
vionile haccatum, or bead necklace (Verg. Aen.
MUXICIPIUM
! Before the invention of mills [Mola] corn
i. 654), of glass, gold, amber, crystal, &c., beads, ; was pounded {pinsere) in mortars : hence jiistri-
strung together. (See fig. 159, p. 79.) , num. The ancient process is identified with a
The beauty as well as the value of necklaces
was enhanced by the addition of pearls and
(c)
^ ^
Fig. 703.— Etruscan necklaces. (British Museum.)
precious stones, such as emeralds and rubies
(Juv. vi. 363). These were either set in tlie
gold necklace or suspended from it. The hooks
Fig. 704.— Monile witli crepundia. (From Daremberg
and Sagllo.)
or clasps (clusurac) were also various, and
sometimes neatly and ingeniously contrived
[Catena].
Necklaces were sometimes placed as dedi-
cated offerings upon the images of goddesses
(Suot. Galbu, 18) ; and occasionally on the
statues of deceased women. Horses and other
favourite animals were also adorned with neck-
laces (Verg. Aen. vii. 278 ; Ov. Met. x. 113).
[Torques.]
Monopo'dium. [Mensa.]
Mono'pteros. A circular domical temple
witli one irrfpov, without a ceUa
(Vitr. iv. 8). [Architectura.]
Mora (1) [Exercitus.], (2)
See Appendix, RoM.vx Law'. (3)
{KvdSwf) a stop or cross-bar on
a spear (Xen. Cy7i. x. 3 ; Grat.
Fal. Cyn. 110), sometimes of a
crescent shape ; the hUt of a
sword (Soph. Aj. 1025, Antig.
1233).
Morta'rium, also called Pilum (oAjuos, Ovda).
A mortar.
Kg. 7a'i.— Mora,
stop of spear-
bead.
Fig. 706.— Egyptian pestles and mortars.
special deity, Pilumniis. Mortars were used
for bruising corn in imperial times in many
parts of Italy (Plin. xviii. § 97). The material
was sometimes wood, sometimes stone (cf . Plant.
Aid. i. 2,17; Cato,i?.7f.74,76). Hesiod(0/>. 421)
directs tlie farmer to cut a mortar three feet,
and a pestle (J/irepos. 5or5i;|, jiilum, pintiUiim)
three cubits long. Small mortars used in pliar-
macj' were sometimes made of Egyptian ala-
baster. See fig. 706 (6) : (c) is another form. For
the inortnriimi of the oil-press, see Trapetum.
MoOaKes. MoQiJves. ' Civitas ; Helotes.'
Mull Maria'ni. A kind of frame (aeruiiina.
furca), used to carry baggage, introduced into
the Roman army by Marius.
Mu'lleus. rCalceus.j
Mulsum. 'Vinum.J
Multa. "Poena.j
Mu'nera. TGladiatores ; Honores.l
Mu'niceps. Colonia; Foederatae civitates.]
Munici'piTUn, I. In early times Italian towns •
formed treaties of equal alliance or isopolity
witli Rome {foedus aequum ; see Foederatae
civitates). These had the Boman civitas, but
were independent.
Municipia of this kind {= foederatae civi-
tates) came to an end with the subjugation of
the Latins in the war of 340 B.C., and were
included in II.
II. Other towns entered into a closer relation
with Rome, either willingly or in consequence
of war, and these were called municipia (from
viunus capere, i.e. [1] to undertake burdens, or
[2] to receive hospitality).
The inliabitants of a mimicipium {municipes)
if they came to live at Rome were subject to
all the obligations of Roman citizens. At home
tney administered their own local affairs.
These were of two classes —
(a) Municipia ctim suffragio were cives B.
Optimo iure, and at Rome could exercise all
the rights of citizens. Their municipes were
enrolled in Roman tribes, and were liable to
pay taxes and ser\-e in the legions.
(b) Municipia sine suffragio, the municipes
of which were circs R. yion optimo iurc, i.e.
had Conubium and Commercium, but could
not vote in tlie comitia or be elected to an
office at Rome. Their mmiicipal officers were
Duoviri, quitiqucnnales, and a senate, usually
of 100 decuriones, and they had their own
municipal leges, comitia, and sacra.
The bm'dens of municipia sine suffragio
were determined by special covenant in each
MOTNTXIA
case ; of tliose which counted as foederntae civi- 1
tates, ex fordcre ; of colonies, ex formula.
(c) Pracfecturae, Italian towns governed by
a magistrate, jjraefectus iuri diciindo (ID),
sent from Rome. They probably had not their
own laws, but had sonic municipal or corporate !
rights (quaedditi resjiii bl ica). They were strictly i
inferior to coloniae and municipia, but may be
reckoned among municipia sine sulfrutjio.
After the Social War, by the Lex tulia de
ciritate, B.C. 90, Lex Plautia Papiria, h9 b.c, ,
giving the civitas to all Italians, all municipia |
became ni. cam suffrat)io, and the distinction |
between municipia and coloniae ceased to be
important.
In later times, provincial towns also were
made inunicijiia.
Movvvx'-a-. A festival celebrated in April
in honour of Artemis Munychia, as the goddess
of the full moon shining alone by night {nouuvx'a
for /uoi'oi'uxia), instituted to conunemorate tli-
victory over the Persians at Salamis. It \v;i
held every year on the sixteenth of Munychiou,
near the port named after the goddess. It was
believed that the goddess had helped the
(ireeks with her light on the night before the
battle. The sacrifices which were offered to
the goddess on this day consisted of cakes
called aij.(t)i<pwvTes, adorned all round with burn-
ing candles.
Murex. iColores; Tribulus.]
Mu'rrhina, or Mu'rrea vasa, is the name
given to small vessels of a jirecious material,
opaque, fragile, iridescent, and of various shades
of colour between purple and milky white. It
was only met with in small pieces ; it was
believed to be a natural mineral production :
perhaps fluor-spar, or more probably some kind
of agate ; not (apparently) porcelain. It came
from Parthia. (Mart. iii. ti'2 ; Juv. vii. 133 ;
I'lin. xxxiii. § 5, xxxvii. § 20.) See Mayor on
Juv. I.e.
MUTUS, Moe'nia (Tf7xos). Originally a wall
surromiding an unroofed enclosure, in contra-
distinction to Paries {roTxos}, the wall of a
roofed building, such as a temple or a house,
and Maceria (ai'juao-i'a), a fence-wall; but usu-
ally applied to city walls only.
Prc-Roman Methods of Construction.
I. Bricks. — Sun-dried bricks were used on a |
very large scale in Egypt, Babylonia, Greece, I
and Italy, down to the Christian era. [Later.]
The walls of Tyre were built of large stones
set in lime (mortar). A Phoenician wall n('ar |
Banias (Syria) still exists in jjlaces to a height
of 35 feet, varying from 16 to 30 feet in thiclc-
ness. It is built of roughly-dressed blocks of
limestone. The remains of the Punic citadil
at Eryx in N. Sicily are of similar character.
The fortifications of Thapsus, near Carthage,
shown in Hg. 707, were built partly of stone and
pai-tly of sun-dried brick.
The citadel of Tiryns (fig. 708) is surromided
with a wall built of stones of such vast size that
the building was attributed to the Kyklopes.
Some of tiu^se are ten feet long, roughly shaped,
with smaller stones to fill uj) the interstices,
and the whole bedded carefully in clay, used
instead of mortar. Above the wall and its gal-
lery was a second gallery of unbaked brick. (See
Class. Diet. TiKYNs.)
The ancient walls of Athens were built of
brick in the upper portion, with a covered gallery
at the top, suppoi-ted on columns, and rows
of windows closed by wooden shutters. Tlio
roofing consisted of wooden beams or joi.its,
MURUS
421
on which were laid tiles of burnt clay. At
Athens, as at Tiryns, square towers were built
at intervals.
43 .Jin-' ■ -i,:,>- "■^<^,;^PP^#^^^^
Scale of Feet
30
40
SO
Fig. 707.— Section of wall of Thapsus.
At Mantineia the stone basement is 4 feet
high by 10 feet thick. The upper portion of
crude brick has perished.
II. Stone Constricction. — The most primitive
type of stone masonry is that in which large
blocks are used, very roughly dressed with an
axe or hammer; small stones being used to fill
flOCIi '
Fig. 70S.— Tiryns. Section of outer wall.
up the open joints, and, as a rule, a bedding of
clay instead of a lime mortar. Tlie walls of Tiryns,
dating probably not less than eleven or twelve
centuries before Christ, :ir<' the most remark-
able existing examples. This method of build-
ing was not, however, employed on account of
want of sufficient skill to work stone neatly, but
422
MURUS
because neat workmanship was not required for
fortifications. Tlie walls of Mykenae, certainly
earlier than 1000 B.C., consist in most places
20Feet
Fig. 709.— Lion Gate of Mykenae.
of large blocks very accurately squared, with
perfectly fitting beds and joints; enunuous
monoliths are used for the jambs, lintel, and
tiiresliolds of the principal gate.
The name Cyclopean or Pelasgic has been
popularly given to masonry constructed of
polygonal blocks, whicli in many cases are
fitted together with great care and skill. Ex-
After the Persian War, in the first half of the
fiftli century B.C., the Athenians began to use
marble for their finest buildings. In the walls,
for example, of the Athenian Propylaea and the
Parthenon, the blocks of marble are cut in
courses of regular depth ; and, no cement being
used, each block was made to fit with absolute
precision to the adjacent blocks by being moved
backwards and forwards over its bed, till its
surfaces were rubbed perfectly smooth. The
contact is so perfect that in certain places,
where the wall is broken, the fracture has gone
tlirough the solid mass. Each block was clamped
horizontall}' with iron or bronze to the next
one on the same course; and vertical wooden
dowels were used to fix each block to the next
courses above and below. In most cases the
metal clamps were fixed by pouring in fluid lead.
Where marble was not at hand, rougher stone
(irwpos) was used, and faced with stucco of marble-
dust : e.g. in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia,
and that of Apollo at Bassae. It was not till the
fourth century, when many of the great temples
I of Western Asia Minor were reconstructed on so
I magnificent a scale — as e.g. those at Didj-me,
Ephesus, Teos, Magnesia, and the Smintheion in
i the Troad — that the use of marble was con-
sidered necessary for the construction of a
magnificent building.
During the fifth to the third century B.C. stone
niasonrj- of almost equal beauty to that of the
temples was often used for tlie fortification
walls of Greek cities. The usual scheme of
defence was to have, on the outside, a deep fosse
amples of this exist at Signia (Segni), Norba,
and many other ancient sites in Etruria and
Central Italy, and in Greece itself. This style
of building is in itself an evidence of great anti-
quity. The latest dated example of it is the
cella of the Temple of Tlierais at Rhamnus, not
earlier than the fifth centui-j' B.C.
During the historic period of Greece, the
more important buildings, such as the temples,
were usually built of quadrangular blocks of
stone, each course having a level bed running
from end to end of the wall. Wlienever stone
was used by the Greeks it appears to have been
the custom to cover it with a thin skin of very-
fine white gesso, made of lime and powdered
marble or limestone mixed with some kind of
size : this formed an excellent ground for the
application of the coloured ornament which
seems to have been always used on Greek
buildings. The modern word ' stucco ' gives a
very erroneous notion of this beautiful material
[Paries]. The chief existing examples of this
fine stone masonry are those at Selinus and
Akragas in Sicily, and Paestum iu Magna
Graecia.
Fig. 711. — Ground plan of wall and gateway of Posidonia.
(eUpiiros), either dry or filled with water. The
wall was from 10 to 15 feet in thickness, with
a walk for sentinels on the top, and a parapet
with battlements all along. At regular inter-
vals were towers, usually square, but sometimes
rounded in plan. The walls of Messene, on the
slopes of Mount Ithome, are among the most
perfect remains of Greek building in the Pelo-
ponnese, and are a beautiful example of Hel-
lenic masonry during the best period. Tliey
are wholly built of neatly-dressed blocks, regu-
larly bedded without mortar in horizontal
courses.
In the rougher sort of walling the blocks
were less carefullj- dressed, and a fine lime
mortar was used to bed each course. Tlie
famous Long Walls from Athens to Peiraeus
were of this latter sort (Pint. Ch». 13). Parts,
however, of this wall appear to have been of
MURUS
4J3
the finer kinci of masonry, with large blocks
(afx.a^ia7oi \i6oi, Thuc. i. 93), closely fitted and
secured by metal cramps run with lead, like
those used in the Parthenon.
Pre-Boman Methods of Mural Decoration.
Painting on stucco is perhaps the most
widely used method of wall-decoration among
all classical races and at all periods [sie Pic-
turaj. Another very costly and magnificent
method of wall-decoration, largely used in early
times, was to cover the surface with plates of
bronze, beaten into relief, and usually gilt.
Traces of this method of enriching wall-surfaces
have been found in the so-called treasuries of
Blykenae and Orchomenus, and in the palace
of the Tirynthian Acropolis. The Treasury of
Myron and the shrine of Athena XaA/c/oi/coj,
mentioned by Pausanias (vi. 19 and iii. 17), were
probably examples of tlie same method of decor-
ation by bronze rei)ousse plates.
lleliefs moulded in clay, and then coloured
witli brilliant enamel pigments, were used for
wall-decoration in Egj'pt, Assyria, and Persia.
Tlie decoration of wall-surfaces bj' thin
marble linings does not appear to have lieen
nmch used by the Greeks. According to Pliny
(xxxvi. § 47), thin slabs (cruntae) of Prokonne-
siau marble were used to decorate the Palace of
Mausolus at Halikarnassus, c. 300 B.C.; and
the same decoration was applied to the interior
of the Hereon of Queen Artemisia's Mauso-
leum. But as a rule the incrustation of walls
with marble linings is of later date.
The Roman Period.
The systems of wall-building in Rome may
be classified thus : — I. Sun-dried bricks (lateres
C7-udi), of which no examples now exist. II.
Ojtns quadratiim, solid walls of squared stone.
III. Concrete, o;)»A' cacmrnticium: (a) un faced
concrete; {h) faced with opua incertum; (c)
faced with ojyus reticulatum ; (d) faced with
burnt brick {latcrcs cocti) ; (e) faced with the
so-called oiius mixtum [Caementum].
I. Sun-dried bricks in Rome, as in Greece,
appear to have been largely used for all except
the more important buildings, till the first cen-
tury B.C. Care was taken to dig out the clay
at the right season, and also to keep the bricks
for a long time before being used. Careful
directions are given by Vitruvius (ii. 3) as to
the formation of good 'bond,' by alternate
courses of ' headers ' and ' stretchers.' [Later.]
II. Opus quadratum, masonrj- of solid nsUar.
The earliest existing example of this in Rome
is the pre-historic fortification wall of Roma
Quad rata on the Palatine, popularly called the
' Wall of Romulus.' This consists of blocks of
the local tufa (^o/>//Ms), with very even beds, but
less careful vertical joints. The bknks run in
courses of nearly two Roman feet in depth, but
vary in length. The bond is imperfect: joints
are often allowed to come one over another ;
and no mortar is used. The Servian wall shows
the next stage ; liarder stone is used, the
courses are more regular, the surfaces more
truly dressed, and tlie bond more workmanlike.
Under the later Republic the hai'der pcperino
ilajris Gahinus or Albauus) was usually em-
ployed for external work, the soft tufa being
used for internal walls. The most perfectly
developed ojius quadratuni is to be seen in the
walls of the Capitoline Tabularium, which, on
the exterior, are built of perfectly regular blocks
of peperino, each exactly '2 Roman feet x 2
ft. X 1 ft., arranged accurately in alternating
courses of 'headers' and 'stretchers.' This
kind of masonry was called ffXTr\eKTov ; in ficjnie
m'-
cv;'ACcaMUL/
H^^^'^^^^^
Fig. 71'2.— Existing piece of tlie ' Wall of Romulus.'
cases ' through stones ' (Siaroroi) were intro-
duced, reaching through the whole thiclniess of
a wall (Vitr. ii. 8, 7). These blocks are em-
bedded in a very thin layer of pure lime, used,
not as a binding cement, but as a method of
obtaining perfect contact in all the adjacent
surfaces.
In the first century B.C. the hard, cream-
coloured limestone, called lapis Tiburtiiius
(travertine), came into use for the more costly
buildings, but the principal examples of its use
date from the first and second centuries a.d.
In these the blocks are worked with courses of
varying thickness, and the beds and joints are
rubbed to such a perfect surface that abso-
lutely close contact is obtained without the
use of the thin skin of lime mortar. As among
Fig. 7ia.— Method of costing concrete walls.
the Greeks, the blocks of the finest masonry
are fixed by iron cramps run with lead, or l)y
wooden dowels.
424
MURUS
In all cases in ancient Roman buildings,
whether tufa or peperino were used, the stone
was coated with fine marble or limestone stucco
[opus viarmoreum), such as was used in Greece.
Thin coatings of this were used in some cases
to cover travertine, and even marble walls.
III. Concrete. — The use of concrete, among
both Greeks and Romans, is older than has
been supposed. It was largely used in the
palace of Tiryns, especially for floors ; and in
Rome still exists as backing to part of the
Servian wall on the Aventine. Concrete in
Rome was made of broken stones, together
with lime and jjulvis Puteolanus (pozzolana),
or broken pieces of burnt brick. The pozzolana
forms, when mixed with lime, a very strong
hydraulic cement, applicable to a great variety
of purposes, such as concrete walls, mortar,
and stucco. The best and most durable kind
of concrete was made with pieces of lava, tlic
silex of Pliny and Vitruvius, with which the
Roman roads were generally paved.
Concrete walls were formed in a framework
of boards, as shown in the annexed cut. When
the first layer of concrete had set hard, the
is£CIiON OF ANCi.£-^''
Fig. 714.— Concrete wall faced with (A) opus incertum and
(B) opxis rcticulatum. C shows the section, similar in
both.
wooden framing was removed and refixed on
the top of the concrete wall. The process was
then repeated till the wall was raised to the
Fig. 715.— Concrete arch: half with its brick facing
removed.
required height. Walls and vaults thus built,
especially if the hard lava or travertine were
used, were more durable than even the most
solid masonry ; forming as they did one perfectly
solid and coherent mass.
"ffeet
Pig. 716.— Concrete wall faced with brick.
Except when used for foundations, the Roman
concrete was usually faced. During the Ro-
f
A, original height of wall.
B, upper part of clitf. now crumbled away.
C, cistern cut in tufa rock.
D, levelled platform to receive base of wall.
E E, clifE made steeper by cutting.
MURUS
423
publican period, the methotl of facing was opus \ dated 27 B.C., has bricks lA inch thick, with
inccrtum. In this method irreguhirly shaped joints averaging | inch. In tli(> Aurdian walls
bits of tufa, 'i to 5 inches across, were cut of Rome, c. 27U a.d., bricks and joints average
smooth on one face, and roughly pointed behind, the same tliickness, viz. about Ij inch.
The whole face of the concrete wall was | The term opus mixtutn is used to denote
studded with these stones, the points sticking ' wall-facings of a late period (4tli-(')tli cent. A.D. ),
into the wall, and the smooth ends appearing with altematinir courses of brick and small
on the surface. rectangular blocks of tufa. [Caementum. ]
Opus reticulatwm, which in the reign of i The above methods of Roman construction
Augustus superseded opus incertuin, is very I are those which were employed in the greater
like f)jjus ntrrrfum, except that each little
block of tufa is tut to a true stiuare atone end,
and all are arranged to run in regular diagonal
lines, like a piece of network, whence came its
name. Though very neat in appearance, this
also, like the incertuin, was usually, if not
always, covered with stucco. Facing with kiln-
Fig. 718. -Section of Wall and Agger of - 111 o-aaot
the
A A, undisturbed earth of fossa. K, bacli rutainiii»j wall of ugtjor.
K, eartli excavated from fossa. F, level to whicii tlie fossa was tilled up
C, road at brink of fossa. and built upon under tlic Empire.
1>. wall and buttress.
part of Italy ; but in distant provinces the
systems of building were often inodifi(Ml to suit
the nature of the materials which tin- country
supplied. Tlius, where it was diHicult to make
a strong hydraulic cement, concrete was less
extensively used for walls. In Britain one of
the favourite Roman metliods was to build the
wall with dressed stone
for the facing, and an
internal filling in of
rubble. At regular inter-
vals ' lacing courses ' of
bricks were built, ex-
tending through the
whole thickness of the
wall ; large rectangular
bricks {tegular) being
used instead of the tri-
angles of Rome itself.
in all cases the mor-
tar used in Roman walls
is of a very hard and
durable character, owing
to the great care taken
in preparing and mixing
the materials. Much
of the Ronnin mortar
owes its strength to the
lime being mixed with
finely-pounded brick or
pottery {opus e testis
* tunsis) ; a much better
fired brick appears not to liave been used in substance for the purpose than such sand as is
Rome before the first centui-y B.C. I now commonly used.
In ancient Rome burnt brick was seldom used |
to build walls, but merely as a thin facing. Fortification Walls of the liomans.
Except in a few instances, of which the Pan- : Many different systems of fortification were
theon is the most conspicuous, tliere is no such adopted, according to the varying natures of the
thing as a solid brick v, all anions; all the ruins sites. Thepre-historic wall of iiowa y«a<£ra<«,
on the summit of the
Palatine hill, was ar-
ranged as is shown in
fig. 717.
The rock was either
scarped to a perpendi-
cular surface ; or where
the tufa was soft, it was
cut back, and a perpen-
dicular wall built on
the shelf made by the
cutting. Where the wall
crossed level ground, ;v
fossa and aggerof eartli
were constructed, the
agger being faced by a
retaining wall i) feet
thick, with buttresses.
For the Servian wall,
see fig. 718.
of Rome; the actual wall being of concrete, | The later fortification wall of Rome, which en-
with a thin facing of triangular bricks, arranged closes a very much larger area than the lie-
as is shown in fig. 714. Even parly-walls of fjiniirs of Servins, was |)laniied and in great
small houses, sometimes only 7 inches thick, } part built by Aurelian, in •J70-5 a.p. It is built
are not built of solid brick, but have an inner I of concrete faced with brick, and extends along
core of concrete faced witli small brick triangles. 1 a circuit of about twelve miles. Like the early
In course of time we find the bricks thinner Greek walls, the lower part is solid, to resist
and the mortar joints thicker. The Pantheon, battering-rams, and the upper part contains in
$IX OP THCSC OPEN ARCHES
BETWEEM EACH PAIR
OF TOWERS .
Fig. 719.— .Vtirclian's Wall. Plan showing one of tho towers and the passage in the
thickness of the wall.
426
MUSCARIUM
its thickness a passage for the garrison, extend-
ing all along its circuit. At intervals of in feet,
tall and massive square towers were set, 383 in
all, with a guard-room below, and a sleeping- j
room for the garrison above (see fig. 719). The
passage formed a covered walk along the whole
12 miles of the circuit. The height of the wall
averaged nearly 50 feet ; the towers rising about
'20 feet above the top of the intermediate wall.
The walls of Pompeii, which are in parts very
perfect, are an interesting example of the de-
fences of a smaller city. They, too, have towers,
square in plan, set at close intervals, and near
the top a broad platform for the defenders of
the town.
In other cases — as, for example, in the Roman i
fort at Old Cairo (the mediaeval Babylon,
'Babhln') — towers of circular plan are used.
Musca'rium {(r6$ri). [Flabellum.] '
Mu'sculus. A shelter for soldiers engaged
in underiuiaiug the enemy's wall or towers
(Caes. B. C. ii. 10), or in filling up the ditch so
as to bring the battering-rams, &c., up to the '
wall. As described by Caesar [1. c), in the '
siege of Massilia it was strongly made of wood,
CO feet long, 4 feet wide, and 5 feet high, with a
sloping roof. The roof was solidly constructed
and of groat thickness, to resist fire or heavy
weights thrown from above. The difference be-
tween musridus and vinea was that in the vinea
one of the long sides was open for working, while
the musculus was open at the ends, giving a long
sheltered gallery, which was moved on rollers
lengthways up to the wall. The vinea was rolled
broadside up to the wall. [Testudo ; Vinea.]
MoiJcreia. A festival with contests cele-
brated, every fifth year, in a grove on the slopes
of Mount Helicon in Boeotia, in honour of the
Muses.
Muse'um {Vlovtriiov). (1) A school of litera-
ture and art founde<l at Athens by Theo-
})hrastus in honour of Aristotle his master, and
to encourage the study of his philosophy.
There was also a ^ovffflov at Stageira.
(2) A similar institution at Alexandria
founded on a grand scale by Ptolemy Soter
(c. 300 B.C.), or perhaps by his son, Ptolemy
Philadelphus. The Museum formed part of the
palace, and contained cloisters (TrepiiroTos), a
piililie theatre or lecture-room (6|e5pa), and a
large hall (oIkos /xeyas), where the learned men
dined together ; and botanical and zoological
gardens. The Museum was supported by a
connnon fund, supplied apparently from the
l)uhlic treasuiy ; and the whole institution was
under the superintendence of a priest. The
studies at the Alexandrian Museum were ar-
ranged in four faculties: literature, mathematics,
astronomy, and medicine ; and it is said to have
received at one time as many as 14,000 students.
Mu'sica. The term (jlovctlki) signified the art
or circle of arts over which the Muses pre-
sided, viz. poetry in its various kinds, with
accompanying music, whether of -voice or in-
strument. The word which most nearly denotes
what we call the science of Music is apfj.ovtK'fi,
but that word does not include the subject of
rhythm or time {^vdfj.iKi\). 'ApfioviKt} deals
only with sounds and their relations in respect
to tune ; pvQunKT) with everything susceptible of
rhythmical division, including musical sounds,
spoken language, and the movement of the
dance. fRhythmica.]
The (Ireek technical writers on Harmonic
usually treat the subject under seven heads : —
I. Of Sounds {(pe6yyoi). II. Of Intervals (5ta-
(TT^/jiaTa). III. Of Genera [yevr]). IV- Of
MUSICA
Systems or Scales {(Tvcrri/xaTa). V. Of Keys
{touoi). VI. Of Transition (fieTaQoXii). VII.
Of Composition (/j.e\oTroiia).
I. Sounds. — A Sound is musical when it has
a determinate pitch {rdais) : that is to say, when
it is produced by vibrations in which waves of
a particular length sensiblj- predominate. When
two musical sounds differ in pitch, one is said
to be more acute (o|u$), the other more grave
{^apvs) : in common language, one is called
higher, the other lower.
II. Intervals. — An Interval (Sicto-TTj/io) is
the difference in respect of pitch between two
musical sounds.
If two strings, similar in material, and equal
in thickness and tension, be made to vibrate,
the rate of vibration is inversely proportional
to their length.
If the ratio be 2 : 1, the interval is au Octave.
.3 : 2, „ „ Fifth.
4 : 3, „ „ Fourth.
9 : 8, „ „ Major Tone.
The discovery of these ratios is attributed to
Pythagoras, and probably with truth.
Intervals were distinguished as consonant
{(Tvti.(pwva) or dissonant {5id<pwva). The inter-
vals reckoned as consonant were the Octave
(Sia -Kaffoov), the Fifth (Sia ircj/re), the Fourth
(Sia Tftrffapicv), and anj' interval produced by
adding an octave to one of these. All other
inter\-als (as the Third, Sixth, Tenth) were
considered as dissonant. In this class may be
included the double tone (SiTouov) and the tone
and half {Tpi-quiTOvioy), identified with the
Major Third (5 : 4) and Minor Third (6 : 5^ ;
6 ixocpuvia is the term for unison, avTKpwvia for
tlie consonance of the Octave.
III., IV. ScALKs OR Systems {(rvcrrfifjLara'.
Genera (7e;/r)), .\xd Species {dSr]). — An aggre-
gate of sounds separated from one another
by a particular series of inten-als constituted a
System ((rv(TTr}fj.a) or scale.
Every system capable of use in music (ffv-
(TTfi/jLa ffifxfKfs) is based upon the Tetrachord,
and could be analysed as a combination of
Tetrachords or systems of four notes. Tetra-
chords are conjunct ((rvvrjij.fi.fi'a) when the
highest note of one is the sanie as the lowest
note of the otlier (as with the octaves of a
modern scale). They are (Usjunct iSie^fvy/j.ei'a)
when the highest note of one is separated by a
Major Tone from the lowest note of the other.
This Tcne is called rovos SiaCfVKriKos- In
reality the Octave scale had much the same
place in ancient as in modern music : but the
Tetrachord was taken as the theoretical unit.
A.— Tetrachords.
(n) Diatonic. (h) Chromatic.
z^=m^=t^
m
'3 2 'S 2 £ "?
, , „ , . Moilcrn method
(c) Enharmonic. ^procealing by semitones).
E=^=m^E^l
zfcziim=*=i^
bo 5 S 're-
(d) Conjunct tetrachord (e) Disjunct tetrachonl
(trvi'tjuMtVior). ( Sie^evyp-ii'iov).
(«:
B. — Genera.
(1) Diatonic Genus.
Greater {ffvaTrina T^Ktiov (lil^ov) —
Added First
tc-tracliorJ. tetr;ichord.
Second Added
tetrachord. tetnicliorJ
'3 <3 '3 <3 '3 -3 ,b
b b fe a. i a.
;i -a -a -»
m F" P" " *-
3- ■« ■« S *=
3 -pr a OQ. B-
«o KS
(ii) Lesser (crvaTTifia reKeiou iKarrov)-
First Second
tetrachord. tetracliord.
Tliird
tetracliord.
i-1*
■m- -m-
* Notes niarkeil S are the same in all scales ; called
by Yitruvius (Book v.) Maiiles or perpfliii (eoTwre?,
oict'i'TjToi). as opposed to the variable notes, mobiles or
tujanlfs ( (^fpoVf •'01, Ki.voviJ.evoi).
(2) Chromatic Genus.
(a) Greater —
(3) Enharmonic Genus,
{a) Greater —
■m A m w-
(6) Lesser —
A
T»::xp;
MUSICA 427
All WTiters reco;,'nisf tlio natural prioritj* of
the Diatonic genus (Trpoiroj' koI Trpfd^vTarov).
Next to it conies the Chromatic, the most
difficult bein<? the Enharmonic.
Kegardin{^ the systems actually employed in
Greek music, we find evidence at an early
jjeriod of an octachord system or octave scale
of eight notes, named as follows :
viraTt], lit. ' highest,' in our tenninology
the lowest (sc. xop5'/;).
irapviraTr), ' next to virarr).'
\iXayos, the 'forefinger' note.
/le'ffTj, the ' middle ' note.
TrapaiJ.4(Tr].
TpiTTj, the ' third finger ' note.
irapavYiTTj.
ffdrr] or pi'}tt}, the ' lowest,' our highest.
The octave consisted of two disjunct tetrachords,
(1) from vTrdrr) to /xecrrj, and ("2) from irapafiecrrj
to i/yjTTj. In the Diatonic genus it may be
represented in our notation by the octave
e f (I a — b c d e.
This scale was in ordinary- use in the time of
Plato and Aristotle (see Plat. Rp]). p. 443 D ;
Arist. Prohl. xix. esp. §§ 3, 4). From this octave
(or double disjunct tetrachord) two systems were
obtained by the addition of the 7rpo(T\afj.$a.v-
6fj.fvos at the lower end of the scale, and of
a conjunct tetrachord at each end. This was
called the greater jierfect system. Another
system, called the smaller 2>erfect system, was
composed of three conjunct tetrachords, called
{maTWv, ixecrwv, and (rvvrnx/xfuwy, with TrpocrAoju-
^uv6ij.evos or ' added ' note (A), and these two to-
gether constituted the immutable system, i.e.
system without ' transition ' or modulation
(ffvff-TTiixa d/x6Ta/3oAoi'). See above, B. 1 (a)
and (b).
The sounds in these systems were named in
the way liefore described, the names of the
tetrachord (TeTpdxopSov vTzaruiV, fxeffwv, 5te-
^evy^4vwv [or avvr\iJLfi4va>v\, inrepPoKaicov) only
being added, except in the case of /x^crrj and
irapoyueVrj.
C. — Spp'.crES {(iSr)). The term species (elSos)
was applied to partial scales or gamuts in each
genus. The species of a scale is the relative
pitch of the notes which compose it. Let us
suppose that a partial scale, of a certain num-
ber of notes, is to be taken on the Perfect
System. By taking different notes as limits,
the order of the intervals in any such partial
scale may be varied, while the genus remains
the same. The varieties obtained in this way
are called Sjiecies; and tlie number of species
of a scale of a given compass is the same as
the number of its intervals. Thus the Dia-
Systems were classified according to Genera
iyfvri), deix'nding uix^ii the relation of the three
intervals into which the tetrachord was divided.
Some of these intervals corresponded with those i tonic tetrachord has three species, as the semi'
recognised in modern music (tones and semi-
tones), some to other ratios of length in the
metrical chord. Tlie Greeks made use of three
Genera: the Diatonic, the Clu'omatic, and the
Enharmonic; and of the two former of these
there were certain varieties called Colours
iXP^ai). The intervals of one Genus or Colour
were sometimes combined with tliose of an-
other, so as to produce ' mixed ' divisions of
the tetrachord. The different forms of the
Chronuxtic and Enharmonic genera were
broadly distinguished from the Diatonic by
the useof two small intervals in succession —
so small tlvit taken together tliey were less
than the third. The Enliarmonic again is dis-
tinguished from the other genera by the use of
the Siea-ts or ([uartei'-tone (approxinuvtely), the
smallest interval known to Greek music.
tone is first, second, or third :
1st. i 1
1 (e-a
.
2nd. 1 h 1 (<l~fj)
Srd. 1
1
h ('•-/)■
The Octachord has
seven species, viz. in tlie
Diatonic genus —
1st.
h 1 1
1 1 1 (h—h)
2nd.
1 1 i
1 1 A [r—c)
3rd.
1 4 1
1 i 1 ul—d)
4th.
h 1 1
h 1 1 ('•-'")
5th.
1 1 1
1 1 4 (/-/)
Gth.
1 1 i
1 h 1 (g—p)
7th.
1 4 1
1
i 1 1 («*—«)
the semitones changing their place by suc-
cessive steps. Similarly in the Enharmonir;
genus there were seven species, to whicli named
were anciently given as follows :
428
MUSICA
1. Mixolydian i ^ 2 ^ i 2 1
2. Lydian . . i 2 ^ ^ 2 1 ^
3. Phrygian . . 2 a ^ 2 1 ^ ^
4. Dorian . . ^ a 2 1 ^ i 2
5. Hypolydian . ^ 2 1 i i 2 ^
6. Hypophrygian . 2 1 ^ ^ 2 ^ a
7. Hypodorian . 1 ^ ^ 2 ^ a 2
V. Modes (apfioviai), and Keys {t6voi). —
Besides the species of the Octachord, we hear
also of six very ancient divisions of scales, the
six ' Modes ' (apfj.oviai.) of Plato {Bep. p. 398).
The order of the intervals is as follows (as-
suming that Siecris — some fraction of a tone
smaller than a semitone — may be represented
by a quarter-tone, the value given to it by
Vitruvius) :
Lydian . . ^ 2 1 i i 2 J
Dorian . . 1 ^ ^ 2 1 \ i '2.
Phrygian. . 1 i ^ 2 1 i i 1
Ionian . . i ^ 2 1^ 1
Mixolydian . ^ J 1 1 i i 3
Syutonolydian . ^ ^ 2 IJ
According to Westphal and Gevaert there
jire tliree groups of modes {modalites fonda-
inentales, Gev.) : the Dorian, based on the
■octave a — a, the modern Minor scale with a
flat seventh ; the Phrygian, based on g — g (the
Major with a flat seventh) ; and the Lydian,
based on/ — -/(the Major with a sharp fourtli).
Each of these, again, has three possible varieties,
distinguished by the melody ending on the
tonic, the dominant, or the third.
(It may be mentioned here tliat the so-called
Modes of ecclesiastical music are in no way to
be identified with the ancient Modes, though
the mediaeval nomenclixture was borrowed from
them, and they are based on the Diatonic
scale.)
These Modes, or apfnoviai, are identified by
Mr. D. B. Monro with the rdvoi or keys, which
are usually considered to be a distinctive I
division in Greek music. The word ap/xoci'a
has many meanings, and is not always used in
;i technical sense : e.g. it is used by Plato and
.Vristotle as synonymous with avcnyfiia. The ,
word t6vos, or key, was doubtless used in con-
junction with the names Dorian, &c., which
suggested a distinction of pitch, and from
' Dorian scale ' to ' Dorian key ' is an easy step.
The distinction of keys was of high antiquity ;
but the arrangement and completion of the
system was first carried out by Aristoxenus
(c. 320 B.C.), till whose time there was a great
want of agreement as to the names and relative
pitch of the keys.
A system is a series of notes whose relative
pitch is fixed. The key in which the system is
taken gives the absolute pitch of the series. If
we speak of vTrdrrj or fj.4arj we mean as many
different notes as there are keys ; but the
Dorian virdrT] or the Lydian fiear) has an ascer-
tained pitch. The t6voi of Aristoxenus, hi
short, are so many transpositions of the scale
called the Perfect System.
The most generally recognised t6voi or keys
were :
Mixolydian ' ■ , , r -,
T T • i niterval of a semitone.
Lydian i ,
■DT • f i; 7) tone.
Phrygian I " " ,
■r» ■■ i >) 51 tone.
Dorian { " " .,
TT 1 • } ,, „ semitone.
Hypodorian t " "
which scaled downwards by intervals of a
tone or a semitone, the Mixolydian being the
highest.
To these six keys Aristoxenus added
others,
follows :
Hypolydiau
Hypoaeolian
Hypoplirygian
Hypoionian
Hypodorian
The final arrangement of keys was as
Lxdiuii [Hyperlj'dian]
.leolian [Hyperaeoliaii]
Plirygiau Hyperphrygiaii
luiiiaii Hyperiduian
Dorian 5Ii.\olydiau
Each of these keys was a transposition of the
(Tuo-TTj/uo OLfierdfioXov : but we are told that only
that part of each was used which was within
the compass of the human voice.
The fifteen keys kept their ground, at least
in theoi-y, imtil the time of Ptolemy, in whose
Uarmonics a new scheme is set forth at gi-eat
length. In this scheme the keys are again
reduced to seven, and are brought mto direct
relation to the species of the Octachord. The
use of different keys, according to Ptolemy, is
that different successions of intervals may be
brought within the ordinaiy compass of the
voice ; and that object will be fully attained if
I every octave contains as many different scales
I (successions of intervals) as possible. But the
I number of possible scales is not greater, in any
I one genus, than the number of species, viz.
seven. Let us take, then, as the part of the
1 scale most completely within the reach of all
voices, the old central octave, from viraTT)
fxeawv to vr)Trj Sie^fvyfx^vwv, in the Dorian key.
It is also of the Dorian species (e — e). If now
■we take an octave a tone lower on the scale
{d — (/), we have tlie Phrygian species. But if
we at the same time raise tlic scale into the
Phrygian key, we obtain the Phrygian species
in an octave of the same pitch as the Dorian,
xix. e /If g a b fU d e. Similarly the Lydian
species, taken on a scale in the Lydian key,
is e /5 gU a b t-ff dU e. Proceeding thus, we
obtain what Ptolemy aims at — an octave of
fixed absolute pitch, furnishing every possible
succession of intervals or species.
VI. Transition (^erajSoArj). — MeTa/SoAV) was
the transition from one genus to another, from
one system to another (as from disjunct to
conjunct or vice versa), from one key to
another, or from one style of melody to an-
other, and the» change was made in the same
way as in modern mod ii lation (to whichyuera^oA'/j
partly corresponds), viz. by passing through an
intermediate stage, or using an element common
to the two extremes between wliich the transi-
tion was to take place.
VII Composition {/j.eAoiroua). — MeKoiroua, or
composition, was the application or use of all
that has been described under the preceding
heads. On composition properly so called
nothing has come down to us but an enu-
meration of different kinds of sequence of
notes, viz. (1) aywyi), in which the sounds
followed one another in a regular ascending
or descending oi-der ; (2) ttAo/ctJ, in which
intervals were taken alternately ascending and
descending; (3) TrerTcia, or tlie repetition of
the same sound several times successively;
(4) Tovi), in which the same sound was sus-
tained continuously for a considerable time.
Besides this division, there are several classi-
fications of melodies, made on different prin-
ciples. Thus they are divided, according to
genus, into Diatonic, &c. ; according to keij,
into Dorian, Phrygian, &c.; according to si/.sfrni,
into grave, acute, and intermediate {vTraToeiSi)s,
vTjToeiSrjS, /j.e(roeidi)s). This last division seems
to refer to the general pitch of the melody.
Each of the three classes is said to have a dis-
tinct turn {Tp6iros), the grave being tragic, the
acute nomic {vo/xik6s), and the intermediate
J
MUSICA
ilitliijramhir. Again, melody is distinpruished
hv its c/iaracfer (7)6*0$), of wliicli three priiiiii)iil
kinds are nieiitionod,5ia£rTaATj/co;',(riiffTaA.T(Koi',
and rjcrvxaf^TiKui', and these terms are respec-
tively explained to mean aptitude for expressing
a magnanimous and heroic, a low and effemi-
nate, or a cabn and refined character of mind.
Otlier subordinate classes are named, as the
erotic, epithalamian, comic, and encomiastic,
liut little of all this is known beyond the terms
employed.
Whether the Greeks were acquainted with
harmony — in the modern sense of the word — is
u (juestioii tliat has been much discussed. It is
clear that tlie Greeks were ac(iuainted with the
phenomena on which harmony depends, viz.
the efifect produced by sounding certain notes
together. It appears also that they made some
use of harmonj' — and of dissonant as well as
consonant intervals — in instrumental accom-
paniment (Kpovais). On the other hand, it was
unknown in their vocal music, except in the
form of treble and bass voices singing the same
melody (fiayaSiCe'y) ii-t the interval of an octave
(Arist. Frobl. xix. IH, ri 5ia Ttaffwv (Tvfxcpwvia
dSerai fj.6pr] ' /xayaSi^ovcri yap Tavrr/v, aW-qu 5e
ovSefiiaf). In the instrumental accompaniment
it was only an occasional ornament, not a
necessary or regular part of the music. (See
Plat. Legg. p. bl2.) Evidently there was no
system of harmony, no notion of the effect of
successive harmonies, or of two or more distinct
parts or progressions of notes harmonising with
each other, nor any treatment of discords and
tlieir resolution. Indeed there is no certain
trace of the use of chords, i.e. groups of more
tluin two notes sounded simultaneouslj'.
It is clear, then, that the harmonies of the
Greeks were of a very simi^le kind, and that
they held a verj- subordinate jilace in Greek
music.
Greek music was primarily vocal. The
woi'ds (A6|is) were an integral part of the
whole composition. They contained the ideas,
the music with its variations of time (pvO/xos)
and pitch {ap/jLOvia) furnished a natural vehicle
for the appropriate feelings. Greek speech was
more akin to music, and Greek music more
akin to speech, than modern speech and music.
VIII. Notation {(rrj/xaaia). — The musical
notation (a-Tj/jLaaia) of the Greeks consisted of
two distinct systems of signs — one for the voice,
the other for the instrument. The vocal
signs are taken from the common or Ionic
alphabet. The notes of the middle part of
the scale are denoted bj' the letters in their
usual order; those of the lower part by an
alpluvbet of inverted or otherwise altered letters ;
tlie upper notes are distinguished by accents —
an accent signifying that the note is an octave
higher than that of the unaccented letter. The
nature of the instrumental notation was first
explained by Westphal. The following is a
brief summary of his discoveries:
(1) The instrumental notation was derived
from the first fourteen letters of a Peloponnesian
alphabet, possessing <li gamma, F, the old form
of iota L, and two forma of lambda, < and
f-. In a few cases the forms of the letter liave
been modified : thus alpha (originally >fl) aji-
pears as' VI, Ix'ta as C, drlta asT, theta as C,
mn (originally IV) as K, iofa as h- By
treating the two forms of lambda as distinct
ciiaracters the number is raised to fifteen.
(2) These characters are applied to deuote a
scale of two octaves, as follows :
-MYSTERIA 4i>0
HhEI-rPFC Kn<LN2VJ
y. f e
S \- p V ( a
"jrz^EEz^^ m— .-^_gz*!s
' the second line containing the letters from
wliich the musical characters were derived [a
being the highest note in the scale) ; the third
line, the musical value in modem notation.
(3) A character may be varied by being re-
versed, i.e. written from right to left (air-
fcrTpa/UyueVof), or by being turned half round
backwards {aviffTpafifxivov, vittiov). When re-
versed, it denotes a note half a tone higher ;
when half reversed, it denotes a note a quarter
of a tone higher.
I It is remarkable that we find no trace of a
' distinction between Greek and Roman music.
The Latin writers — the chief of whom are IMar-
tianus Capella and Boethius — derive their
I material from Greek sources.
! The extant fragments of Greek music are as
follows :
Hynm to Kalliope, by Dionysius, of iinknowu
J date.
Hymn to Apollo, ascribed to the same.
Hynni to Nemesis, probably by Mesomedes,
a musician of the second centurj- a.d.
Fragment of the Orestes of Euripides (338-
■344).
I An inscription discovered in 1888 by Mr.
I W. M. Ramsay, containing a few lines of music
composed by one Seikelus.
Fragments of a Hymn to Apollo, found at
Delphi in 1893, dating probably from the third
centurj'B.c, written in the vocal notation. The
metre is the cretic or paeonic (^^J^^v<^) and
the key is the Phrygian : i.e. the scale of C;
' minor, with the chromatic conjunct tetrachord
i avvrffxfjLivoiv M A K r = c — t) d — d — f. The open-
I ing i^assage and the end of the fragment are in
i the diatonic scale.
' Another fragment of a Hjnnn to Apollo is
I referred to the first century B.C.
I Musivum opuc. [Pictura.]
Mvara^. [Barba.]
I Mustum. [Vinum. 1
Mu'tulus. [Columna; Architectura.]
j Myrmi'llo. j Gladiatores.j
! Mystae, Mystago'gus {jxiarai, /jLvaTayuyos).
[Eleusinia.]
Myste'ria i/xv(TTi)pta). Though the term
lj.u(TTi']pta is that wliich has survived, other
terms are more commonly used, e.g. ipyia and
TeAfTttj. Mvffrrjpia is applied both to the ob-
t jects of secret worship and al.so the secret
ritual; airSppriTa is similarly used. TtKeri)
signifies the consummation of the votary's pro-
gress in his religion.
(1) The Kinds of Mysteries. — Though other
ceremonies jiartook of a mystical character, the
mysteries properly so called, viz. those which
I were recognised by the state and required a
regular initiation, may be divided into («)
those |)crf(nnK'd l)y a si)ecial sex, e.g. (i.) the
Thesmophoria, celebrated by women only, and
(ii.) some few restricted to men ; (/;) those open
t to all Greeks, such as the Eleusinian and Sanio-
thrakiau mysteries. Though the L'hthonian
gods are the gods princii)ally worsliipped in
mysteries, there are some Olympian gods to
whom mystic worship was performed, e.g. Zeus
Idaeus. Foreign mystic worships are those of
Kybele, which were wild and enthusiastic, with
flutes, drums, and cymbnls (Hdt. iv. 76); the
430
MYSTILE
trieteric worsliip of Dionysus [Dionysia]; and
of Hekate at Aegina and in Saraotluace. This
goddess was especially worshipped in the Roman
empire just before it became Christian ; during
which period, too, and indeed earlier also, the
mysteries of Isis, Sabazius, and Mithras were
much in vogue. (See those names in Class. ,
Diet.) I
The Eleusinian mysteries were founded on
the adoration of Nature, transferred into divine
figures and histories by a kind of theological
poetry, which went off into pantheism on the
one side and into anthropomorphism on the
other.
(2) The Origin of the Mijsteries.— They were
probably for the most part old Pelasgian wor-
sliips, which were driven into the background
by the conquering races, and accoi-dingly carried
on as mysteries (see Hdt. ii. 171). These
appear to have been primitive worships,
attended with dances, feasting, elaborate purifi-
cations and sacrifices, analogous to those prac-
tised by most savage nations.
This old religion and its ritual were preserved
by certain families and tribes, which may have
formed themselves into brotherhoods. These
rites were gradually adopted into the state-
religion, and in particular the mysteria of Eleu-
sJs. [Eleusinia.j
(3) Silence enjoined on the Votaries. — This
is an imi)ortant feature in the mysteries ; the
votaries could not divulge the mysteries to
non- initiates. Its original reason doubtless
lies in a fear lest any outsider should learn how
to get the favour of the god ; and it was
retained in later periods to enhance the solem-
nity of the ritual.
(4) The Cerctiiony was of a splendid, solemn,
vague nature, such as fettered the imagination
of the votary ; and, if it only put the worshippers
in a certain state of emotion, and did not teach
anything, yet it made some of them think of
things spiritual and proceed on the task of
working out their own salvation. To the majority ,
of the worshippers the impression of the whole,
not the perception of each particular, was the
important part.
Connected with and symbolised by the mid-
night ceremonies, appears to have been some
system of cosmogony. But the true value of
the mysteries did not lie in this kind of dog-
matic teaching, l)ut in the moral improvement
apparent in the votaries, in the comfort they
gained in the present life and the glad hopes
for the world to come.
It is improbable that the religion anciently
taught in the mysteries contained any protest
against polytheism ; but there seems reason to
think that the Orphic mysteries prepared the
way for the reception of a monotheistic belief :
Zens being regarded as an impersonation of the
unity of Nature.
The doctrine of transmigration, an original
idea of the Aryan race, may have been purified
by the mysteries and developed into the doctrine
of a Future liiie. [Eleusinia ; Orphica.]
MvCTTpov. A Greek liquid measure = -,}^ of
a KorvKr). or \ of a iciiados — about ^ of a jjint.
[Tables, VII.J
N.
Nabla. [Lyra.]
Nae'nia. [Funus.]
Nam. Dv>arfs, kept as an amusement in rich
Homau houses. The fashion of keeping dwarfs
NAVACRHUS
may have come from Syria and Egypt. At
Rome great ladies especially delighted in them,
as Livia (Dio Cass, xlviii. 44), and Seneca's wife
(Sen. Ep. 50).
There is no clear distinction between nanus
or pumilio or jiumilus, 'dwarf,' and morio
(yf\ci)TOwoi6i), ' jester,' since the jesters seem
to have been selected, like mediaeval fools, for
their absurd appearance as well as for a power
of making comical remarks (Mart. vi. 39, xiv.
212; Suet. Tib. (U. cf. Doin. i; Jnv. v. 171,
viii. 32). Misshapen limbs as well as small
stature added to their price, and the deformity
was sometimes caused by artificial means, the
children being kept in a case or frame (yAcor-
rSKoiiiov) which would stunt and distort their
growth. The Romans kept female as well as
male dwarfs and jesters (nanae, fatuae. Sen.
Ep. 50).
Narthe'cium. A tube of cane [vdpdn^^ Vlwi.
Alex. 8, of a casket for a roll) or ivory for keep-
ing unguents or medicines (Cic.
Fin. ii. 7, 22; Mart. .xiv. 78).
Nassa (»c»j/ios, kvpttj). A weel
or funnel-shaped basket for catch-
ing fish.
Natali'cii ludi. [Ludi.]
Nata'tio, Natato'rium. [Bal-
neae.j
Nava'les so'cii. [Exereitus ;
Socii; Classis; Navis.]
Nava'lia. Dry docks where
ships were built, or drawn up {sub-
tluctae) to be repau'ed or laid up
till they were again needed. Those
at Rome were opposite the Prata
Quinctia in the upper bend of the
Tiber (Liv. iii. 26, viii. 15). In Liv.
xiv. 42 we are told of navalia in
the Campus Martins. The use of
the Roman navalia for large ships
was generally lessened under the Emj)ire, when
the mouth of the Tiber was much silted up,
and Puteoli became the harbour where vessels
trading to Rome discharged their cargo and were
docked. The docks at Peiraeus {v«i)(roiKoi or
vfcipia : see below) were constructed by^ Perikles
at a cost of 1000 talents, and, having been de-
stroyed after the Peloponnesian War, were re-
stored in the administration of Lykui-gus, c. 335,
B.C. For their management see EirijieXTiTat
(0). Ntwffia (Arnold on Thuc. vii. 25) are strictly
the dockj'ards, vaiaoiKoi, the sheds for the
reception of ships laid up ; but the words ai"e
sometimes used as synonymous (Thuc. i. 108).
Nava'rchus (vavapx os). A naval commander,
whose rank varied in different states. As an
official title in Crreece, it belongs particularly to
the Spartan head of naval affairs. How early
this office {vavapx'i-o.) existed at Sparta (as dis-
tinct from the mere admiral of a fleet in com-
mission) is not quite certain. It is probable
that the office did not begin mitil Sparta had
greater naval operations than in the Persian
War. In the Peloponnesian War, after the
campaigns at Syracuse, the sphere of Spartan
naval enterprise was extended, and henceforth
the Spartan army and navy were rarely subor-
dinated to the same commander. Hence the
vavapxiCL became a cause of disunion, being a
sort of second kingship (Arist. Pol. ii. 9.) The
Spartan navarchus had the supreme direction
of all naval affairs, whether he was actually
Commanding in the fleet at sea or not, and had
under him an iwiaToAevs.
At Athens the word vavapxos was applied as
en official title only to the commanders of the
i
XAVARCHUS
sacred trirenais [©€(i>pis], the naval administra-
tion ami commiind of tieets being under the
strategi [ZrpaTTiYoi].
At Konif the title navarchiis is not used of
supreme naval coinniaud or a<liiiiiiistralit>u lor
which see Duo Viri navales and Praefectus
classiSj. The navarchus was the captain of a
ship. The title trierarchus was applied strictly
to the captains of triremes, navarcltus to the
captains of quadriremes, quinqueremes, ifcc.
(Tac. Hist. ii. 10) ; but it is likely that the dis-
tinction was not always observed.
Navis {vavs). 1. Pi4K-Ho.MERic. — There is
sufficient evidence to show that a point far in
advance of the primitive ty))es of navigation
and ship construction had been reached by
peoples inhabiting the littoral of the Mediter-
ranean at a very early period : as is shown by
an Egyptian monument of the twelfth or
eleventh centnry B.C., representing naval opera-
tions of Mediterranean races at that date. The
bas-relief at Medinet Habu (tigs. 721, 722), which
represents a victory of Rameses III. over a Medi-
terranean enemy, probably from the Cilician
coast, is the earliest known representation of a
NAVIS
431
time enterxjrise and naval construction in the
Mediterranean at a very earlj' period.
Homer mentions (Oil. xiv. 245 sqq.) a raid
upon the Egj'ptian coast as a common occur-
rence ; and the ancient intercourse of the
Greeks with Phoenicia, Egj'pt and Italy
points to an early acquaintance with navigation,
such as is implied in the Homeric poems.
Among the nations who held sea-power are
named the Lydians, Pelasgians, Tlirakians,
Fig. 723.— Egj'ptian Ship. (From Delr-el-Hilharl. Keduced
from Torr, Ancient Hhips, pi. i. flg. 5.)
Rhodians, Phrygians, Cyprians, Phoenicians,
Egyptians, 3Iil('sians, Karians, between I'JdO,
Fig. 721.— Naval battle of Rameses III. (Medinet Habu.)
naval battle. In this bas-relief two distinct
types of vessels are apparent : first, the Egyp-
tian, to the left of the picture : secondly, the
Asiatic, to the right. The Egyptian ships have
stem and stem following the curved line of the
keel, and the prow ends in a lion's head. At
the bows is shown a small platform or forecaf^tie,
and the bodies of the rowers are protected by a
side planking, from under which the oars pro-
ject. At the st'-rn there is a similar platform,
from which archers are discharging their anns,
and where the steersman is seated.
The vessels of the Asiatics show much less
camber of keel, with stem and stern post rising
abruptly, curving outwards and finishing in a
swan or goose-head (of. the Greek yrji/iV/fos).
Their vessels also have raised platforms fore
and 700 B.C. (cf. Hdt. i. 94, iv. 14.'), vi. 137, vii.
75 ; Time. iv. 109).
Pig. 723 is a drawing of one of the shijjs
which Queen Hatshepset (c. IGOO B.C.) sent
into the Red Sea, some centuries before the
time of Rameses III.
We have little evidence regarding the vessels
of the Phoenicians in early time. Herodotus
in his opening chapter speaks of them as
migratuig from the Indian Ocean to the Medi-
terranean coast, and carrying Egyptian and
AssjTian wares to Argos and elsewhere (cf.
Hom. Ocl. XV. 415 sq. ; Ezek. xxvii. 19). Tlieir
vessels seem to have been only half-decked
[Od. XV. 479) ; these were probably traders,
Fig. 722.— From a, bos relief at Modlnet Habu.
Fig. 72-1.— Blreme. (Belief from Kouvunjik, about 700
K.c. British Jluseum.)
and aft, and a side planking as protection for the '^opTl?if y eiipelai. But to the Phoenicians in .nil
rowers. Tliese details give indications of mnri- probability, if not to the Egj-ptians, must be
432
na\t:s
ascribed the invention of the system of banked
vessels. To them also probably belongs the
invention of the ram. The representation of
the war-galley in motion (fig. 724) dates from
about 700 B.C. It is a bireme, with fighting deck
and fish-like snout for ram, similar in con-
struction to those which are depicted upon the
Greek vases of the 6th-5th century, but
without ornamentation.
We hear in the earliest times of corsairs or
raiders [\-i)'i(TTnpis) in the Greek waters (Hom.
Od. iii. 73 ; Thuc. i. 4 sqq.), and this implies the
possession of sea-going craft and familiarity
with maritime enterprise, as well as a contem-
poraneous commerce upon which it may prey,
and leads to attempts on the part of rulers and
states to put it down. We have thus from
early times three types of vessels :
(1) The trader, wide and roomy {Od. ix. 322,
(popriSos eiipeiris), trusting mainly to sail for
Fig. 725.— Trading Ship. (From a Greek vase.)
movement, but furnished with oars (ittKotrS-
poio). (2) The corsair vessel, sharper, but still
capable of stowing plunder, and of using sail as
well as oars. (3) The long ship, the sliip of
war {vavs fxaKpa.), the business of which was not
Fig. 720 —'War Ship (biremel of the eoi^air type. (From
Greek vase.)
(Figs. 725, 726 are from a vase in the British Museum.)
plundering, but fighting. Tlie development of
the latter finds its highest expression in the
Attic trireme, and terminates in the huge ves-
sels of fifteen and sixteen banks, built for
Demetrius Poliorketes. The trader varied but
little in type.
The chief points noticeable in the traders as
compared with the war vessels of the same
date are the height of the hull above water,
and the form of the bow, wliich curves upwards
and outwards, terminating in a point. All
the ships have two broad-bladed paddles
for steering purposes, and a landing-ladder
astern, for use when the ship was beached.
The sail is attached to a yard; the mast is
kept in its place by two stays ; or these ropes
may be halyards for raising the yard.
2. Homeric Ships. — The figures given above
(figs. 725, 726) probably give us representa-
tions of vessels of about 500 B.C. But for the
description of the early Greek vessel of the
corsair type we must turn to Homer, whose
familiarity with the sea and with ships is
everywhere apparent. Thucydides (i. 10), in
his reflections upon the relative magnitude of
the Greek fleet that went to Troy and the fleets
employed in the Peloponnesian War, remarks
that the Greek ships which went to Troy
caiTied from 50 to 120 men, and were rowed by
their own warriors {avTeperai) ; the vessels
being unfenced (not KaracppaKra), and in the
old fashion fitted out more like pirate vessels
(\r)(TTtK(iiTepov).
And further he observes (i. 14) that many
centuries later the triremes possessed by the
naval powers were few in number, and that the
gi-eater part of the vessels in use were pente-
! konters and long gallej's {fiaKpols irAoiots, not
i/avffi), as in Homer's time. The Sicilian tyrants
and the Korkyraeans were the first Greek powers
who possessed any large number of triremes.
Even the Athenian vessels 'which fought at
Salamis were not decked throughout.
With regard to the construction and parts of
the vessel, we have mention of the keel, rp6iris
(Od. xii. 420), which probably was first laid
upon Spvoxoi, short upright baulks of tim-
ber (Od. xix. 574; cf. Plat. Tim. 81 B ; Ar.
Thesm. 52 ; Eustath. ad Hom. I.e., &c.), and the
TOixot or walls (iriVaKes, Od. xii. 67) of the vessel
attached to it, and also the stem-post. The
are'ipa or stem-post was carried upwards from
tlie keel, and finished high in the ciKpa. K6pv/j.&a,
as the stern-post in the a<p\a(rTov (II. ix. 241,
XV. 716), the stern ornament. As yet no spur
or ram seems to have been attached to the
bows of the vessels (11. i. 483). The sides
(TOixoi) were tied together by the beams (^ijyd)
and thwarts (/cATjtSes), which served as seats
for the rowers, and lengthways amidships
there was a gangway (Od. xii. 228; Ap. Rhod.
iv. 1661). Dr. Warre thinks that Cvyd and
K\T]7d€S are identical, and served to stiffen the
ship by supporting the sides as well as for
•War Ship. (From the Frani;ois vase at Florence.)
NAVIS
433
rowers' benches. At the bows there was a
raised platform, or deck (ffcpia irpajpTjs) upon
which armed men could stand and fijlht ; and
a deck {'iKpia) at the stern, upon which the
chiefs had tlieir jjlace, and laid their weapons
{Od. xiii. 74) and under wliich was room for
stowage (Od. xv. '20G).
The dprivvs of 11. xv. 729 may be the stem-
most rower's seat = k Atji'j, or the helmsman's
seat : probably the former.
The Homeric galley was propelled by sail as
well as by oars. The mast c<juld be raised and
lowered. It had a step (icTToireSr}) — a solid
block of wood fixed upon the keel — with a
socket cut in it, in which the foot of the mast
rested ; and was raised so as to rest in and
against a mastbox or ' tabernacle ' (fxf(r6Sfi.r))
fitted amidships (cf. Merry, Odyssey, Appendix,
§ 12, p. 541). [Or, fxi(T6^^i.T] in Od. ii. 424 may
be the mid-stay {^xryov) running horizontally
between the toTxoi, with a piece cutout (koiA.7js)
to receive the mast ; or the ' mid-stead ' or
centre part of the hold (cf. Od. xix. 37).] The
mast was kept in its place by fore-stays (Trpd-
rovoi), by which also it was lowered. When
lowered, it rested on a crutch (jVtoScJkt)) 11. i.
434). A backstay {(irirovos) is also mentioned
\0d. xii. 423).
The sail (IcrTiov, usualh" larria, pi. ; ffire7pa, Od.
V. 2G9) was hoisted upon a yard {i-wlKpiov, Od.
V. 254), which had braces {wrepat) and halyards
(or brailing-ropes ?) (koAoi, Hdt. ii. 36) attached
to it. The sails were white (\evKd, 11. i. 480,
Od. ii. 42G) and square in shape. To the ends
(irdSfs) sheets were attached, which were either
fastened or held in the hand. The ropes with
which the sail was hoisted and the stays appear
to have been of plaited or twisted ox-hide
{eiicrrpfirTOiffi fiofvffi, Od. ii. 425). Larger
cables (oTrAa, irdaixara) were made of byblus
[Od. xxi. 391 ; cf. Eur. Tro. 129) ; o-Trapro {II.
ii. 135) may have been of hemp or rushes.
Large poles for pushing the ship {kovto'i)
were also in use {Od. ix. 487). The ship was
steered by a single paddle (TrTjSoAiof, oir}iov,
Od. iii. 2*81, ix. 540, xii. 218), fastened to the
side of the vessel. Some are merely broad-
bladed oars or sweeps ; otliers approach more
nearly in form to the modern rudder. Or
oli\ioi/, olriia, may be a projecting handle at the
upper end of the loom, by which the steersman
could turn the blade at an angle to the vessel's
course.
Tlie oars, ^peryua — of which the parts were
Kciirt), the handle, and Trrj^ov, the blade — were
made of fir {^fffrij^ iKa-rpffi, Od. xii. 172). The
blade was wide : it is compared to a winnowing
shovel in Od. xi. 128. The oars were fastened
to tliowls {cTKoXfiol) by thongs {rpoirol Sfpfxa-
riuoi), and, when not in use, dravvni in and
fastened with the blade projecting (Od. viii. 34).
The Kv0fpvriTrts had his ])lacc on the If/cpia
TTpvixvris, where he could handle tlie steering
paddle and see over the heads of the crew.
From Od. xii. 409 and similar passages we
learn that the bilge (6.vr\os) was open. The
place for stowage w^as under the {,vya, against
the sides of the vessel. The i<pn\Katov {Od. xiv.
350) may have been the landing ladder (K\7tj.a^).
The vessel was moored by meaiiK of stern-
cables (irpvixviicna, irfifffxara) to stones (eiivai,
II. i. 43(>, Od. XV. 498), which served both as
ballast and as ancliors.
Tlift following passages illustrate the sea-
faring life as depicted in Homer : — Preparation
for starting, Od. iv. 780, viii. 51, xv. 282.
Setting sail, II. i. 480, vii. 44, Od. ii. 412.
; Storm, II. XV. 625, Od. ix. 70, v. 313, xii. 405,
xiv. 295. Crming into harbour, //. i. 433, Od.
iii. 10, xv. 496. A safe harbour, Od. ix. 125.
Arsenal, Od. vi. 203. See also Hes. Op. 622,
for housing ship for winter.
The ordinary number of rowers in a Homeric
ship is 20 (Od. i. 280, iv. 669, ix. 322), but 50 is
also mentioned {II. ii. 719, Od. viii. 35) ; and in
one instance 120 (//. ii. 5091.
3. PosT-HoMEKic. — The post-Homeric period
receives its best illustration from the early
vases. Between Homer and Herodotus there
is but little information to be gathered from
literature.
The unseaworthy character of the early
Greek vessel is amply testified by the use and
application of the word &vt\os, avrKfiv. Baling,
if the weather was at all rough, was the con-
stant duty of the sailor, and the term became
expressive of labour and sorrow (cf. Theog.
673). It is to be noted that the early Greek
vessel had to be built as light as possible,
because it was necessary to draw it up on
shore. It was frequently subjected to the rack
and strain which this process implies. Hence
it is not surprising that it was liable to leak.
'^^
Fig. 7-29.— Stern of liireme. with icAi^of. (From FicororU
cista.)
This lightness of construction, and the neces-
sity of drawing up the vessel on shore, must
not be lost sight of when we come to consider
the trireme ; tlie burden of which was no more
than 600 talents ^ 15 tons, the average weight
of the crew and the tackle.
Fentckontcr (vavs Trevri)K6vTopoi) and Bi-
reive {St-fipns, bironis). — The pentekonter of
one bank of oars was tlie tj-picul war vessel.
Tlie /cATjTSey, twenty-five in number, seated two
men each, one on either side. Of this type
were the j^ey fiaxpal (warsliips as opposed to
V. (TTpoyyvAai), wliicli according to Herodotus
(i. 19(i) were first used by the Pliokaeans. We
may take the normal iuterscahuium, or mea-
sure of interval between thowl and thowl, to
have been 2 cubits ( =^ 3 feet). Any increase in
the number of rowers involved also an additiou
to the length and weight of the vessel. Hence
F P
484
NAVIS
arose the idea of a second bench of rowers.
The motive power was doubled ; the length and
bulk of the vessel hardly increased.
Trireme (rpiTjprjs, trirernis). — Prom the bi-
reme to the trireme was but a small step in
advance. Where this step was made is not
certain ; probably in the dockyards of Tyre or
Sidon. Corinth was the first place in Greece
in which triremes were built (Thuc. i. 13).
Quadriremes (Terprjpeiy) were built at Athens
nearest the bow, the zygite next behind him,
and the thalamite nearest the stem in each set
of three, which was thus arranged obliquely,
probably in the same vertical plane : the rowers
being thus seated in a rectangular frame, which
did not follow the lines of the ship either verti-
cally or horizontally.
In the trireme the number of thraniteswas 62 ;
of zygites, .54 ; thalamites, 54. This gives on each
side the series of 31, 27, 27 ; the reduced number
in the lower ranks, within the eyKcairov or rowing
space, being necessitated by the curvature of the
vessel's sides from stem to stern. The whole
ordinary rowing strength of the triremes was
170. Sometimes the supernumeraries (TrtpiV*^)
had to help with oars (also called TrepiVecfi), the
length of which is given in the inscriptions :
these are supposed to have rowed from the
parodus or from the KaTaffTpaifxa, and to have
Fig. 729.— Coin of Sidon.
850 B.C.
Fig. 7.30.— Coin attributed
to Kyziltus. 4IM B.C.
first in 330 B.C. and quinqueremes {irevTripfis)
a little later. They were used along with the
triremes.
The timber used was fir, pine, cedar, and for
different parts beech, cypress, oak for keels,
&c. Half-seasoned timber was used, in order
to bend into shape more easily. The seams
were calked with tow, wax and tar (Kara-
iriTTOvv, iTznz\6.TTeiv, vira\oi<t>ii) ; paint was
mixed with the calking grease, and run on
hot (eyKaav, KTipoypa<pia, encaiistira, inurere:
cf. uncta carina, coloribus ustis). Lead-
sheathing also was not unknown.
Before proceeding to the description of the
trireme, it is necessary to insist on the fact that
the principle of one man to each oar was always
observed. A trireme did not resemble the
mediaeval galley with its long sweeps worked
by three or more oarsmen apiece.
The terms Aphract and Cataphract are of
importance, as denoting a difference and an
improvement in the construction both of bi-
remes and triremes — a difference which has not
to do with the deck (KaTatrTpw/ita), but with the
sides of the vessel. In tlie aphract vessel the
upper tier of rowers were unprotected and ex-
posed to view, and consequently to the enemy's
missiles, though in some of the earliest vessels
we see some attempt at protection in the way
of planking, and (as commonly in the Vikings'
ships) shields set up round the bulwarks to
afford a covering to the crew. But in the cata-
phract class, the rowers of the upper tier were
entirely under cover, behind the side-planks of
the irdpoSos, a gangway, which screened them
from the sight of the enemy.
The termination -opos refers to number of
oars — e.g. rpiaKdyropos, invT-qKivTopos : -"hp-qs,
or -KpoTos, to banks of oars — e.g. p.ovr)pr)S,
5ir)prjs, Tpj7)p7jy, Tfff<TepaK0VTi]p7}s, ixov6kpotos,
SiKpoTos, TpiKpoTOS, ttc. The banks or ranks of
oars were called ffTixoh (Tto'ixoi, or collectively
rdpffw/xa [rapp-^ {rdpffos, an oar-blade) : the spiice
of the vessel occupied by the rowers, eyKccirov ;
the portions fore and aft of this, irape^ftpfcria.
In the trireme there were three ranks of rowers
(counting downwards), called respectively dpa-
viTai {i.e. on the rowers' bench, dpavos or dpiivvs),
Cvyioi or (vyTrat (i.e. on the ivyd or thwart-
beams), and 0a\di.p,ioi, da\afx7Tat, or daKdfiaKfs
{i.e. in the dd\a/xos or hold). The rowers in
three ranks in the trireme were not separated
by decks (Ar. Ban. 1074). The thrauite sat
Fig. 731.— Complexns remigum. (From Cartault.l
struck the water beyond the thranite oars.
Their length is given as I45 feet. We have
said that the oarsmen sat probably in the same
vertical plane, disposed obliquely one behind
the other, the thranite of each set of three
being nearest the bow.
What the actual disposition of the seats was
must be to some extent matter of conjecture ;
the following arrangement, as proved by expe-
riments made by Dr. Warre, gives the oarsmen
room for working their oars.
The horizontal space between two men of the
same bank was probably about 3 feet ; the zj'gite
seat 1 foot behind the thranite ; the thalamite
the same distance behind the zygite ; the zygite
seats 2 feet below the level of the thranite, and
the thalamite the same below the zygite. The
motion of rowing was with very little forward
inclination of the body. The arms were well ex-
tended, and then the weight of the body thrown
on the oar, the course of the stroke following
the whir OTT, or the {)VTnrairai, with the incidence
of the blade in the water at the last sound {e.g.
w6v marking the recovery, uir the stroke).
Fig. 7S2.— Waist of «, Trireme, 5th cent. B.C. (.From relief
found on ilie -Acropolis at Athens. Bannieister.>
In rowing, the zygites would fall back between
the knees of the tliranites, and the thalamites
between those of the zygites ; the rowers in the
two upper banks using as a stretcher the bench
below. The deck of the trireme appears to
have been about 8 or 9 feet above the water-
line. Taking the interscalmium of 2 cubits
as the normal scale, we have 90 feet (from seat
NAVIS
435
to seat) for the eyKwirov or rowing space of the
trireme.
Viewed from within, tlie trireme wouM tluis
have the appearance of a long passage amid-
ships, and on eitlier side uprights correspond-
ing to the vessel's riV>s, 3 feet apart, and form-
ing the support of the deck. Diagonal beams
or planks probably connected these uprights,
reaching from the foot of each to the head of
the upright next to it nearer the stern. Between
tliese and the vessel's sides were attached the
rowers' seats.
Each rower had a cushion (uir7}pf<Tiov) to put
upon his bench. The rowing port-holes were
protected by leathern bags (affKccfxara), through
which the looms of the oars passed. These, if
the sea was rough, prevented the wash from
coming through the oar-ports. The oars were
apparentlj' rowed with tlie lower hand over and
the upper hand under the oar ; and this implies
a considerable angle to the water. It is a moot
point whether the men rowed against the
aKa\fjL6s, the wooden pin or thowl, or else
against the thong {TpoireiJT7)p) by whicli the oar
was fastened to it. (See Arist. Mcch. 5, where
the crKa\fj.6s is called vTro/uc^x^'ov, tlie fulcrum.)
The floor of the vessel {eSa(pos) was 1 foot
above the water. Below tliis was the liold, and
in the floor a hole through which the buckets
used in baling were passed. There were at least
two keels : (1) a fal.se keel yxf^vafxa), necessary
for vessels which were frequently drawn up on
shore ; (2) above the Xf^^^M") rpdiris, the true
keel ; and possibly (3) the kelson, under
which the lower ends of the ribs, probably 3
feet apart were fastened ; (4) an upper false
keel (SfVTfpa rpoiris), into which the masts were
.stepped.
The stem-post ((rrflpa) was carried in a cun'c
upwards, terminating in an ornament called
aKpocrr6\ioi'. Of this every variety is to be
seen upon coins.
The stern-post carved upwards and forwards,
and terminated in an ornament called &(p\a<r-
Tov, ajjlustre. Sometimes the stern-post was
the ship from stem to stern, and tightened by
shrinking when wet.
On either side of the vessel, about the level of •
tlie thranites' bench, ran the fenced gangway
(TTopoSoj, fori), giving probably a passage of
about 3 feet wide. Upon the ribs, above tlie
heads of the thranites, were placed the cross-
beams {cTTpairrjpfs) whicli supported the deck
{KardaTpu/xa). This was a clear 3 feet above
the TTopoSor, thus allowing the marines (^TijSa-
rai) in action free play for their weapons over
the heads of the supernumerary seamen
(irepivecfi), whose place was in the irdpoSos. Mr.
Torr thinks that the itipivfif worked their oars
from the KaTaffrpw/xa ; and that the irdpoSos
was inboard. (If so, the KaraffTpw/xa would be
carried on the uprights which supported the
rowers' benches.)
Beyond the space (iyKwirov) occupied by the
rowers was the irape^fipfffia at bows and stern.
In the bows there was an elevated forecastle.
On either side of the bows was a hawse hole
which figured as the eye (o(/)CaA.;aciy) of the
vessel. Here also was the itapdir-tiixov or badge
of the vessel. Behind this projected the cat-
heads (eVcoTi'Ses) on either side, which in the
Corinthian build were greatly strengthened and
backed with stays (dj/TTjpi'Ses, Thuc. vii. 36)
within and without.
In front of the stem the two upjier waling-
pieces, meeting from either side, projected
xii, ,.>— Part of ship (early Greekl, from a DIpylon
vaae. i,l/"H. </./; /«»/. ix. 40.)
beyond the stem -post to form the TrpoejujSoAis
or ■npoifi^6Kiov). Underneath, the lower waling-
pieces, and probably the keel itself, met and
formed the ffi^oKos (efxfio\ov},
rostrum, or beak, at about the
water-level : this was generally
cased with metal. In the earlier
Attic vessel it jirojected some H
or 10 feet, but in later models
Fig. 735.— Prow nnd beak (f;ifloAo?i,
from u cola of iSiiu>|io.
was shorter, and divided into
three teetli, whicli took the place
of the long sharji spur.
[The Kev. E. Conybeare
{Camhriiigr lirvicir, June 10,
ISH.")), from a comparison of tlie
Acropolis bas-relief dig. 732),
the prow of the Sanii)llirakian
Nike, and the niurlilo quin-
omamented by a swan or goose head (xTj^i'tr/foj), quereine at Rome (called the Navirrlla), con-
pointing towards the bows. eludes that the deck beams were jirolonged
Round tlie hull of the vessel, horizontally at through tlie sides of the ship so us to carry a
about tlie level of the feet of each bank of gangway (fyKunrov) outside tlie ship, supported
rowers, stretched waling-pieces (foxTT^pfs), and by earlins (i,"i/7(ii; and that the seats of the
in the case of the Attic triremes the sides of (."i/^irai were on (his gangway, on n level with
the vessel were again strengthened by long the feet of the Spafrroi, who sat in the TripoSos,
cables {inro^wfiara), which were bound round a gangwav raised above the deck {KaraffTpaifia)
y K 2
Fig. 738.— Orook ehlps.e. BOO B.C., showing ui^XaoTOv. cV|3o\o9. and (cAi'naKt?.
IJou'-n. Hell. Slud. pi. i9.>
436
NAVIS
paviTai
, between those of the (vylrai above and the
inboard. The daXa/xlrai sat immediately under ' specially in larger vessels to the brailing-ropes
the Qpavlrai, whose oars struck the water I (Eur. Med. '278J.
The sail [IcTTiov) was often made up of pieces
made separately and stitched together (whence
the plural laTia often means only a single sail).
The only kind of sail known to the Greeks was
the square sail. The sail was fastened to the
yard by the ireptrdviov. At the lower extremities
of the sail were the sheets (iroSfs) and tacks
(irp6TroSfs).
The ancients, instead of reefing, appear to
have brailed up their sails {(rriWeiv, avcntK-
Keiv), so as to reduce the area exposed to the
wind. The word dj/a<rT€'AA.€ij' seems to have
Fig. 736.— Section of trireme. (Mr. Coiiybeare.)
a a, Bide of ship.
b, seat of thraiiite.
e, stretcher of thranite.
■ d, seat of zygite.
e e, (vyov.
/, seat of thalamite.
(7, stretcher of thalamite.
Ii. oar of zygite.
I. oar of thranite.
A', oar of thalamite
1. water-line,
m, cyKtoiToi'.
}t, 7rapo6o9.
o. ivyd.
daKufuTcu below. The trireme did not draw
more than 3 or 4 feet of water. The deck was
about 4 feet above the waterline. The da\a-
furai rowed through a porthole with a leather
cover (&<TKwfj.a), the others with a thong
(TponwTrip) for rowlock.]
Quarter-decks. — At the stern was a raised
quarter-deck on which the helmsman {Kvfiep-
vflTTjs) and tlie trierarch or captain had their
place. Here was the image of the patron god
or goddess (Eur. Iph. A. 239).
Steering gear. — The trireme was steered by
two sweeps or paddles, which worked in sockets
or rings attached to either side of the vessel.
These had tillers (ofaKes) in the upper part of
the loom (ai'X'j'').
Masts, d-c. — The trireme had two masts
(IffThs fieyas, iffrhs aKaTeios) and yards {Kepaiai
ueyd\ai, Kepa7ai. aKareiot), but the use of sails
was auxiliary, and not its normal mode of
propulsion. Wlien any fighting had to be
done, the large sails, if possible, were left
asliore.
The heel or foot {-rrTdpi/a) of the mast, when
fixed, was stepped into the \riu6s or mast-hole ;
\vheu moveable, it was at-
tached to uprights (TTopo-
(TTOTat). and held in iilace
by wedges {(rcpiives). At
the top of the mast was
the crow's nest (■i]\aKa.Tri
or Kapxvc^ov) which was
surrounded by a breast-
work {dccpaKiov). Above
was the end of the mast
i&TpaKTos), which carried
the pennant (iiri(T(ici>t>).
The sail was carried on
a, «7rt<rei(o.' ; b, arpaK- »■ i'^^'^ {iiriKpiou, Kepalat),
Tos ; c, to-Tos; (i. usually made of two pieces,
7JAa(taT>) or Kap\rj<T- and hence called K€pa7ai,
101' : Kopx^crioi', how- not Kepaia. The yard was
Xie'to;,'lnd°som" 'attached to the inast by
times had the form a collar (perhaps ayKoiva),
of a ciirchi-sium or j liniwtpfl hv Iml
two-handled cup (see >^^^ ^^'1=' HOlsleU Dy Ual-
Pottery) with rings yards (Ifxavres) which
haly^ds.^**^'""'''^ passed over rpoxiAiaJ in
the KapX''l<^tov. The tenns i
KaKcos (pi. Kd.?\.if>), Ka\<^Siov, were generally ap-
plied to all the cordage of the rigging, and I
Fig. 738.— Brailing the sails. The efficreiwr is shown at
the mast-head. (Mazois, Pomp. i. 'ii.)
been used for unbrailing the sail, where we
should 'shake out a reef (cf. 4^i(vat, Pind.
Pyth. i. 176; Eur. Med. 278). The brailing-
ropes passed through rings (KpiKoi) fastened to
the surface of the sail (Hdt. ii. 36).
Braces (inrfpai) were in use in order to give
the yard a position oblique to the keel (cf.
Verg. Aeii. v. 16).
The Athenian triremes carried (till the middle
of the fourth century B.C.) two masts, the main
mast (IcTThs fxtyas) and a small fore-mast (jVrby
aKareios, ' boat-mast ') placed near the fore-
castle. Later the larioy aKareiov, spritsail,
was called S6\wv, and later still aprffxojy (Acts
xxvii. 40 ; ' foresail,' R. V.). The Greeks never
used sails for combat. The large sail (as
mentioned) was sent ashore before a battle,
and the only use of the dfcareioc would be for
flight (Xen. Hell. vi. 2, 27; Liv. xxvi. 89).
Hence dpai or apaadat rh aKareiov (Ar. Lijs?
64; Plut. dc and. Poet. 1) meant to run
away. The attempt to combine the use of
the sail, where great agility in turning and
much backing water (irpvfj.vr]v ayaKpovffaaOai)
were constantlj" required, could only have com-
plicated matters unnecessarily, and led to dis-
aster.
Anchors. — For anchors, the Homeric vessels
used stones (evi/ai), thrown out from the bows.
The anchors used in historical times had no
flukes, but arms (ayKiff-
Tpa), stocks and crowns.
By the ring fastened to
the latter they were
buoyed with cork floats
{(pfWoi, ffTj/jLua). The
anchor was carried in
the bows, sometimes
oyer the catheads (firoi- ^ig. 739.-Aiieient .\nohors.
TiSes) at tlie bow (Pmd. (Baumeister, Iienkm.)
Pyth. iv. 342 : ififiSXov
Kp€fxa(rav aynvpas Vntpdfv). Large vessels
carried two or more anchors (Acts xxvii. 29)-
NAVIS
437
Anchors were usually of iron, and weighted
with lead or stones ; sometimes made entirely
of lead. The shank was sometimes of wood.
The length of a trireme was something under
150 feet, and its width something under '20
feet ; those being the dimensions of the docks
at Zea in Attica. The height of the KaTaffTpaifia
was about 8 or 9 feet above water.
Taking the proportions in the Acropolis tri-
reme (fig. 732) to be nearly exact, and the dis-
tance from seat to seat and hand to hand to
be the normal 8 feet, the height of the aphract
trireme would appear to be not more than 8
feet from the under- side of the deck to the
water-line.
As all the Attic triremes were made on the
same model, their gear was interchangeable ;
an arrangement which, in a fleet of from 300 to
400 vessels, was of the utmost importance for
refitting.
The complement {Tr\ripa>fia, vavrai, virripeffia)
of a trireme appears to have been as follows :
(1) Crew (ipeTat), 170, viz. :
( Opavtrai. . . .02
T ^vylTuu . . . . .54
\6aKafUTai . .54
■/repivecfi 30, viz. :
J vavTUi, epfTUL . . .20
' firiBa.TaL . . . .10
fTripaTai
^^)0
This was the number of hands for which pay
was regularly supplied.
(2) Officers—
Tptripapxos
KV^ipVT]Tt]S
irpwpivs {irp({}pdrris) .
irevTTiKuuTapxos
Tpi7]pav\r]s
Total ....
6
206
Or 201, if the Kv^epvr]T7\s &c. count as ireptVe^.
The pay supplied by the treasury (tJ) Sriix6<riov)
for a trireme in the Peloponnesian War (Thuc.
vi. 8 and 31) was a talent per month = 1 dracluna
per day for each man. Cyrus gave lialf of
this, 3 obols per man, and raised it at Lysander's
request to 4 obols (Xen. Hell. i. 5, 5). It is not
certain how the officers and petty officers were
paid : probably in some degree by tlie trierarchs.
[Tpi-qpapxCa.]
The «7rij3aTat (marines) were usually drawn
from the lowest class of citizens (©rJTes). The
number of iiri^drai varied greatly, and de-
pended on tlie style of fighting preferred. The
Athenians held to speed and dexterity in the
use of the ram, and so carried but few fighting
men : usually 10. Xerxes' fleet carried 30
marines to each trireme. Eacli Chian vessel
at the battle of Lade (494 B.C.) had 40 picked
men as marines on board (Hdt. vi. 15). The
Corinthians and Korkyreans had their decks
crowded at the battle of Sybota; and the
Athenians, at the battle in tlie Great Harbom-
of Syracuse found themselves obliged to imitate
their en(!my'8 tactics, with disastrous results to
themselves (Thuc. vii. 70).
The rest of the ship's company, besides
rowers and marines, consisted of sailors under
the orders of the Kv^fpvi)rris, whose duties
were connected with the mast and sails and
tackle of the ship ; they are supix)sed also to
have manned the oars called TreptVey (super-
numerary) in the inscriptions, which would not
be used in action, when decks would have to be
cleared.
Besides these were the officers, four of
superior rank, viz. :
(1) The Trierarch or captain, who was
supreme on board his own vessel, though under
the orders of the (rrparrtySs when in company
with the fleet (Dem. c. Polycl. p. 1212, § 19)
[TpuTipapxCaJ.
(2) The Kvfi(pvr\Tt\s, a practical sailor (Ar.
Eq. 541), originally the actual helmsman, but
in later times the master of the vessel, under
whose orders were tlie seamen and the whole
crew. The inferior officers were immediately
under his command, and through them the
crew (Xen. Anah. v. 8, 20).
Next of the navigating officers imder the
Kv^epvrinjs was (3) the irpcfpevs (Pint. Agis, 1;
Dem. 884), who was responsible for the look-out.
The discipline of tlie motive power was thus
provided for, while the voice of the KeKfvffTijs
and the flute of the rpiTjpauArjs provided the
rhythm to which tlie pulsation of the stroke
and the throb of the recovery against the
thowl-pin responded in unison.
(4) The wevTriK6vTapxos had to buy stores,
to feed and pay the crew, and attend to the
general economy of the vessel (Dem. 1212,
1214). Under his orders for these administra-
tive purposes the KeAeutrr/js seems to have
been placed.
The speed of a fast sailing trireme, using
sails as well as oars, may be reckoned as 8 to 9
knots an hour, under favourable circumstances.
At this point we may touch on the develop-
ment of the ram or beak, and its effect upon
Fig. 740.— Coin of riiaselis. 4k0 B.C.
naval tactics. It is probable that the invention
of the beak was adopted by the Greeks from
the Egyptians or Phoenicians. As we have
seen, there is no indication of its existence in
Homer. The Assyrian bireme given above
(fig. 724) is perhaps the earliest actual repre-
sentation of it. The early Greek types as
shown on the vases pre-
sent a projection for a
beak, often fashioned into
the likeness of some sea-
monster's head. Behind
tliis the line of the fore-
castle ascends sharply at
almost a right angle. We
trace in the coin of Pha-
selis and in the coin of
Samos figured liere, a
tendency to fill up the
angle thus formed, and
the fore-part of the vessel thus assumes the
look of the boar's head (cf. Hdt. iii. 59), which
became typical of the Samian navy (see figs.
733, 734).
The Attic trireme was on finer lines; the
lowest waling-pieces on either side, prolonged
to meet a strong timber projecting from the
end of the keel, met so as to form a beak just
Fig. 741.
-Coin of Samos.
4y4 B.C.
438
NAVIS
above the water-level. With this exception,
the lightness necessary to the sjjeed of the
Athenian trireme forbade any accumulation of
heavy tunbers else-
where. Hence when
the Corinthians,
cutting down the
bows of their ves-
sels, shortening the
beaks, and greatly
strengthening the
two catheads (eirw-
TiSes) on either
side, determined to
meet the Athe-
nians stem - on
{Trpo(T$o\7)), which
was thought by
the latter an un-
seamanlike man-
oeuvre, the solid
work of the Dorian
vessels was suffi-
cient to receive
the blow of the
Athenian beak and
to break up the
light work behind
it, while the great
catheads served to
tear away the irap-
e^fipfffia and irdp-
o5oy, and exposed
the (yKunrov.
From this time
the increase of
weight giveii to the
prow naturally led
to the attempt to
increase the motive
power ; and first,
quadriremes, then
quinqueremes, and
then in quick succession ships with from six
up to sixteen banks of oars came into vogue,
culminating in the gigantic toy of Ptolemy
Pliilopator, the tesserakonteres, according to
Athenacus (v. p. 203) 420 feet in length, with
oars more than 50 feet long, 4000 rowers and
2800 epibatae.
Maiininfj. — The Athenian fleet was manned
iu its best days by metoeks and slaves, as well
as freemen, but of a lower class than those on
the KUTaKoyos for service as hoplites (Isocr.
p. 169; Time. vi. 43). At the time of the
Peloponnesian War, the pay of an ordinary
oarsman was a drachma a day, diminished
towards the end of the war to three obols.
There were, liowever, many causes that led to
the employment of forced labour, and with it to
the deterioration and unpopularity of sea-ser-
vice. The absolute discomfort in a cataphract
ship must have been extreme. Besides the
discomfort, the actual danger was very great.
The crews might at any time be drowned or
burnt, or, as at Sybota (Thuc. i. 50), butchered
in cold blood.
Manwnvring. — The manceuvring of a fleet
can only be glanced at briefly here. Sailing in
'column line ahead' {iirl Kepuis), in as many
lines as the admiral {(TTpaTriyos) ordered, the
fleet when in view of the enemy came into
' column line abreast ' by the manceu\Tre called
7rapaTa|is. The formation of a circle, sterns
inwards, is not without instances (Thuc. ii. 83).
The formation of a semicircle (lunata classe,
fjaquonSei (Tt6\(p) was also common (Hdt. viii.
Fig. 714.-Leukas. aOO B.C.
IC ; Lucan, iv. 45). The common manceuvrc.i
of attack were : first the SitKirXovs (Hdt. vi. 12,
15 ; Thuc. i. 49, vii. 3(3), i.e. rowing through
the enemy's line, doing what damage was pos-
sible with missiles in passing, and then turning
suddenly and ramming him before he could get
round. To effect this skilfully was regarded as
the acme of skill. Second, the irepiirKovs (Xen.
Hell. i. 6, 31 ; Thuc. ii. 84 ; Ar. lian. 535), in
which, while the front line attacked as usual, a
portion of the squadron wheeled round (as in
cavalry tactics) and took the enemy's fleet in
flank.
Ships were lightened before naval action
(Polyb. i. 61 ; Liv. xxxvi. 43).
Sails were taken in before fighting and masts
lowered (Xen. Hell. vi. 2, 27).
For orders of battle see Liv. xxxvi. 44, xxxvii.
23; Polyb. i. 49,61.
Semicircle (Lucan, iv. 45 ; Propert. iv. 6, 25 ;
Hdt. viii. 15).
The defeat of the Athenians at SjTacuse, and
the success of the Peloponnesian shipwrights
in their improvements in the build of their
vessels, led to fm-ther innovations. The quad-
rireme said by Pliny (vii. 57) to have been
invented by the Carthagmians added the
motive power of 66 more oars to a length and
breadth but slightly increased. The quinque-
reme (perhaps invented by Dionysius the elder
c. 400 B.C., and used by Athens first in the
middle of ths fourth century b.c), which prac-
tically superseded the trireme as the typical
man-of-war in the third and second centuries,
had a complement of 300 oarsmen, according to
Polybius (i. 26, 7), while the increase in height
and general dimensions was not very great.
After the battle of Actiuni (31 B.C.) biremes
became the usual rate of war-vessels.
Merchantmen {(popris [Hom. Od. ix. 323],
SKkus, pads cTTpoyyvKr] \yav\oi, 'iinrot, ffira-
ywyoi, <popTT]yoi &c.]. These were built on
different lines from those of the warships (f^es
fiUKpai) as being intended for carriage, not for
speed. They were propelled by sails, but also
carried a few oars, usually twenty (Hom. I.e. •
Dem. 929, eiK6(ropos), and from their build were
called crrpoyyvKai (round) as opposed to the
ficucpai or warships (Hdt. i. 163 ; Thuc. ii. 97 ;
Xen. Hell, v.' 1, 21, &c.). So 'navis longa and
oneraria in Latin. These ships were of all
sizes. The tonnage is reckoned in raXavra or
amphorae ( = 1 cubic foot of water or 57 lbs.
nearly) ; and we read of ships of 300, 2000,
3000, &c., talents burden. The largest mer-
chantmen are of 10,000 talents {fj.vpio(p6pos) =
250 tons or 150 register. An Egyptian corn-
ship of unusual size is described by Lucian
{Navig. 5) as measuring 180 feet in length and
something over 45 in width, and about as
Fig. 745.— Roman As. S50 B.C.
much in depth. Some of the larger ships had
three decks {(rrfyai, rpia.piJ.eva. irKoia). Thoso
NAVIS
439
vessels were for the most part built of pine
(ireu/cTj) ; war ships of fir (^Aott)) ; with false keels
(Xf^vcTfj-a) of oak or beech. Masts, yards, and
oars were made of fir or pine. Other woods
were also used for different purjioses. The
timbers were held to-
gether bj- wooden pegs
or trenails, bronze or
iron nails (y6fj.cpoi,fi\oi).
The planking was usu-
ally from 3 to i inches
thick. Half - seasoned
timber was used in ship-
building, for conveni-
ence of bending.
4. The Romans were
early acquainted with
the sea. Duoviri navales are mentioned as
early as 311 B.C. ; and coins of 350 B.C. bear the
importance of the ram was thus much dimin-
ished. On the other hand, the Sf\<pis (Ar. Eq.
IT)-! ; Time. vii. 41), great beams and grappling
hooks {co7-vi), iron hands {maints ferreae, Liv.
xxxvi. 44), and falces [hopv^piirava) with curved
steel heads (Caes. B. G. iii. 14), were used.
Towers {ttirrcs, Thuc. vii. 25 ; Hor. Ej)od. i. 1)
were placed in the bows, from which missiles
could be showered on the enemy's deck. In all
the naval battles in which the Roman fleets
engage, the main object of tlieir tactics seems
to be to come to close quarters and a hand-to-
hand fight as soon as possible. In a word,
boarding tactics superseded ramming tactics.
Tlie student will find interesting accounts of
Roman naval actions in Polyb. i. 61 ; Liv.
xxxvi. 44, 45, xxxvii. 24, 30.
Lihurnae.~T\\e Liburnian galleys were bi-
remes (Lucan, iii. 534). The name was taken
Fig. 747. -Komiin As. 'ilG-lUU B.C.
representation of the bows of a ship, of a type
more rude and bluff than the Greek, but still
Fig. 74^
-Tlr.nvin denarius.
yi B.C.
Fig. ULi.- Itomaii denarius.
a«B.c.
very possibly borrowed from the Greek cities
in Magna Graecia.
At the battle of Mylae, 260 B.C. boarding
tactics were adopted by the Romans, with the
invention of the Corvus, a swinging l)ridge with
a heavj^ iron spike, which, when let fall on the
enemy's deck, not only gnxpi)led his vessel, but
gave the boarders access to it. The battles of
Mylae and of Ecnomus, in wliich the Cartha-
Flg. 750.— Blreme. (From Winckelmann, Mon. Inrd. 207.)
ginians were defeated with great loss, were the
prelude of maritime dominion to Rome. The
Fig. 751.— Bircme. (Coiu o! the time ol Hadrian.)
from the vessels of the Liburnians, a piratical
tribe in Illyria. The name Lihurna came
afterwards to be used for any ship of war.
Under the Empire larger rates than biremes
were also built, such as triremes and quinque-
remes.
Fleets. — Augustus established two great
naval stations for the Mediterranean fleets : (1)
at Ravemia, for the east ; and (2) at Misenum,
on the Campanian coast, for the west. Squad-
rons were regularly stationed on the coast of
Gaul at Forum Julii (Frejus) and Tortus
Herculis Monoeci (Monaco) (Tac. A)ni. iv. 5).
Fleets were also maintained in the British,
German, and Eastern seas. [Classis.J But
after Actium there is little to interest us in
naval afTairs, with the exception perhaps of
Germaniciis's operations in the North Sea, and
at a liiter date the war with the Vandals.
Matmitig. — The Romans manned their fleet
by levies from the lowest orders and by forced
service of the allies (Liv. xxi. 49, 50, xxiv. 11,
tVc). Hence the term socii navales = nautae,
including reviiges, as well as epibatae ; the
remiges, however, were mostly slaves contribu-
ted as suV)stitutes. They also emploj'ed marines
{(■pibatdf, classiarii). Those levies were con-
ducted by Duoviri navales. (Liv. xli. 1.)
Among lilt' Kiiiiians themselves, service on board
ship was most unpopular (see Liv. xx^i. 35), and
it was chiefly left to allies ; libertini (Liv. xl. 18,
xlii. 27); slaves and criminals (Liv. xxiv. 11).
Smaller eessels. — "'Akutos, aKariov, cutter
(Thuc. iv. 07). Sometimes carried on board ship.
Actuariae : used as a general term opposed
both to ships of war and to onerariae (Caea.
B. G. V. 1). The number of oars varied (Liv,
xxxviii. 3S ; Cic. Ait. xvi. 3).
KeATjy, KtXiriov iKfWw, cello), a swift boat.
This kind of boat was especially employed as
attendant on the fleet, either for bringing news
or negotiating with the enemy (Thuc. i. 53).
; Further, each state appears to have had such
440
NAVIS
boats for various official purposes, just as we
hear of hr\fi.6(TLaL a-Karoi at Athens. They had
no decks, and only one bench of oars. The
word is used of pirate craft (Thuc. iv. 9 ; Liv.
xxxvii. 27).
KtpKovpos, cercurus, cutter (Plin. vii. § 57 ;
Hdt. vii. 97).
Corhita (i) (whence Sp. corbeta, corvette),
merchantmen of the larger class, so called be-
cause they hung out a corbis at the mast-head
for a sign.
'Vifjii6Kiai. Famished with \h bank of oars.
"ETTo/CTfJa, iiraKTpihis, lisliing-boats, which
were also sometimes used in war (Xen. Sell. i.
1, 11).
TavKoi or yavXoi, onerariae (Ar. Av. 598):
Phoenician originally (Hdt. iii. 136, viii. 97);
merchant sliips of large burden.
AffjL&os, leinhus (Liv. xxxiv. 35) : called also
dromo. Used as scouts (Polyb. i. 53, 9) ; swift,
with fine bows and light draught ; usuaDy at-
tached to vessels; 6 \4fifios is the common term
for ' the ship's boat.' (Dem. c. Zcnoth. p. 883;
in Theocr. xxi. 12, a fishing boat.) They carried
up to sixteen oars or more (Liv. xxxiv. 35).
Vivoirdpwvfs, myoparones, small pinnaces
chiefly used by pirates : Cic. Verr. passim.
Phasehis or Faselus, named from its shape : '
the word means the pod of the Egyptian bean
(colocasia) : name used also poetically ; miglit
be large or small (Catull. 4 ; Juv. xv. 127) ; not
a ship of war.
Glossary of Naval Terms.
"AfKoiva, anquina : Isid. Hisp. xix. 47, ' An-
quina funis quo ad malum antenna constringi- '
tur.' Mr. Torr (Ancient Ships, p. 83, n. 180)
takes it to be a fore-stay = npOTovos. '
'AKpoffrSXiov: used of ornament both at bow
and stem (cf. aKpoKopvfifia) ; but more properly
of the bow ornament : &<p\a(rTov and Kopwytj of
the stem.
"AffKwfia. Leather bags fitting over the oar
at the oar-ports, to prevent the wash of the sea
from entering (Ar. Ban. 3G4, Ach. 97). i
KoA^. Brailing-ropes; /coAijJSta, small cordage.
Carchesium (Kapxh'^to--^- The 'top' above
the yards of a ship, which with tlie OwpaKiov
formed an elevated place for look-out or for
sigmJling, or for discharging weapons from in
■warfare. This top sometimes revolved, and
into it could be fastened a horizontal beam,
whicli was used as a crane for loading and
■unloading tlie ship. Kapxrt<nov also means a
block of pulleys (rpoxiAioi) at the top, thi-ough
which were ran the ropes used for hoisting the
sail (see fig. 737). I
Kara^Xri^jia, 'Tir60\rifia. Probably awnings of
hide, to keep off missiles. i
Kfpaia. Usually in the plural (Kepaiai), as
two spars were tacked together ; a sail-yard
{antennae). \
Kp'iKot. Rings set in eyelet-holes for ropes to ,'
pass through inside the sails (Hdt. ii. 36). |
AeKipis. A mass of lead armed with bronze [
or iron, used for sinking an enemy's ship (Ar.
Eq. 759; Time. vii. 41, where it is attached to I
the yards of merchantmen). In action, the |
delphis was hauled up from the deck to the
point of a yard-arm {Se\(pivoip6poi Kepa7ai),
which was swung round by braces till over the i
liostile deck : tlie macliine was then let fall.
'ItTToStJ/cTj. A crutch to hold the mast- when
laid down astern (Horn. II. i. 434).
Noyuers. Dr. Warre takes these to be waling-
pieces (Hdt. i. 194, ii. 96), i.e. longitudinal
pieces from stem to stem ; or ' ribs ' fiom keel
NATKPAPIA
to gunwale : Mr. Torr {Ancient Ships, p. 39)
prefers the latter.
nopa/3A.T7;uaTo, FIopapu/naTa (Xen. Sell. i. 6,
19, ii. 1, 22). Two kinds appear in the inscrip-
tions, Tpixiva, of felt {cilicium), and AeK/cd,
probably of canvas. The difference between
/caTo/3A.Tj^o, vTr6fi\rifj.a, irapapv/xa, is not clearly
made out. All seem to have been of the
nature of a shelter against missiles, and were
part of the regular ship's furniture.
Portisciilus, a mallet or hammer used in Ro-
man ships to give the time to the rowers.
2x<'(»'ia, cables ; <t. ayKvpua, anchor-cables ;
(T. iiriyva, stern-cables.
Siparum,Supparum (rr'Kpapos). A triangular
topsail set without a top-gallant yard (Sen. Med.
827 ; Lucan, Phars. v. 429).
TappSs, Topphs ivTf\r]s, rdppufia. Used of
the whole equipment of oars for a trireme ;
properly of the blade of the oar (Ar. Nub. 226,
Schol. ; Thuc. vii. 40).
ToTreio. Cordage generally ; including KdK<fi,
Ka\<^&ia, ffxotvia, ir6S(s, virepai, &c. ; chain-
cables were also used.
TponSs, rpoirwrrip. The thong which fastened
the oar to the thowl {rponovaOai). (Aesch. Pers.
376 ; Hom. Od. iv. 782 ; Thuc. ii. 93.)
'Tirripecrtov. The oarsman's cushion (Thuc.
ii. 93 ; Isocr. p. 169 ; cf. Ar. Eq. 785).
Xa\iv6i. Doubtful: it may be the tackle for
raising or lowering (1) the mast or (2) the yard
[or (3) the back-stay of the mast = ivlTovos}.
List of articles of equipment for one tri-
reme : from inscriptions. — 1 Iffrhs fxtyas, 1 Icrrhs
aKaTfios, 2 Kfpalai fityoAai, 2 Kepaiat d/cctTcioi,
1 Iffriov fj-fya, 1 icniov aKareiov, rapphs ^vTf\ris
(viz. 170 Kuwai, 30 Kcoirat wepiveif>), 2 -tttj-
SaKia, 2 KKi/xaKiSfT, 3 kovto'i, 2 vapacTTaTat,
2 vKo^wfiara, 1 ayKoiva, 2 Ifxavrts, 2 irihis, 2
virepai, 1 x<*^"'<^5i - irapapv/xaTa rpixtva, 2
napapvuaTa KevKti, 1 KarafiKrifia, 1 {nr6fi\r)jjLa,
4 (Txoivia ayKvpua. 4 ffxoivia iiriyva (stern-
cables), 2 dyKvpat, nripvfj.aTa (coils) KaKcfiSiwv.
NavKpapCa. A subdivision of the inhabi-
tants of Attica in early times, for purposes of
taxation as applied to military equipment.
Out of the members of each of the four old
Ionic tribes, three large divisions were consti-
tuted, called rpirrves, each Tpirrvs being sub-
divided into four vavKpapiai. Thus there were
in all (4x3 = ) 12 rpmifs and (12x4 = ) 48
vauKpapiat. In the formation of the vavKpapiai,
neiglibouring members of the same tribe would
seem to have been grouped together in such a
way that a vavKpapia was practically a local
district or parish, and came to be so regarded.
The date of this institution is uncertain ; but
it was anterior to Solon ([Arist.] 'Ad. ■ir6K. 8 ;
Hdt. V. 71).
The derivation of the word (vavs and v/kar-, by
metathesis kb.\-, as seen in Kpaivai) suggests the
object of the institution, which was to provide
Athens with a fleet. The vavKpapiai were thus
the predecessors of the trv/jL/jxipiai. It is, how-
ever, possible that the word is derived from
■v/n.\s- {yaioi, to dwell, cf. vavK\i)pos ii., Liddt-ll
and Scott), and so means a householder.
Besides superintending the building of the
ships and acting as their captains when built,
the vavKpapoi assessed the amount of taxation
annually due from each vavKpapia, and dealt
with the money tluis collected.
Each vavKpapia provided two horsemen and
one ship. The wliole organisation, as part of
the military force of Attica, was subject to the
iro\4fiapxos. The number of denies instituted
by Kleisthenes being 100, the number of nan-
NAUMACHIA
kraries was probably raised from 48 to 50, the I
duties of each naukrary being transferred to a
pair of contiguous demes. The business for-
merly done by the vavKpapoi was now trans-
ferred to the demarchs. [A-rifios.] ([Arist.] 'Afl.
iroA. 21; of. Hdt. vi. >s9.)
With the institution of Stj^oj by Kleisthenes,
or with the reorganisation of the Athenian
navy by Themistokles ((Jrote, ch. xliv.), tlie
vavKpapiai probably ceased to exist, at all events
as a working part of the state organisation.
Nauma'chia. (1) Tlie representation of a
naval battle among the Romans ; ("2) the place
where such exhibitions took place. These sham
fights were sometimes aiTanged in the Amphi-
theatre, sufficient water being introduced to
float the ships [Amphitheatrum] ; but more
frequently in places specially constructed for
the purpose.
The first representation of a sea-fight was
given in 46 B.C., by Julius Caesar, who caused
a basin to be dug for the purpose in a district ,
NEGOTIATORES
441
The combatants in these sea-fights, called
nau7nachiarii, were prisoners of war, or crimi-
nals condemned to death, who fought, as in
gladiatorial contests, till one pai'ty was killed,
vmless spared by the emperor (cf.iSuet. Claud.
21). The ships were divided into two parties
(Kor-Ej). i. IB, 01), and the crews were dressed
to represent different maritime nations, as
Tyrians and Egyptians (Suet. lul. 31), Per-
sians and Athenians, &c. These sea-fights
were exhibited with the same magnificence
and the same lavish expenditure of human life
which characterised the gladiatorial combats
(Suet. Ner. 12; Mart. Sjiect. 24).
Nauta. [Navis.]
NaxiTiKov. [Fenus.]
NauToSiKat. Judicial authorities in the
SIkul (fx-KopiKai and 5i/cai ^fvlas : appointed every
year by lot in the month of Gamelion.
Ne3pCs. a fawn's skin (cf. Aegis), worn
originally by hunters and others as an appro-
priate part of their dress, and afterwards at-
^>:^X^^^kX^\V^
Fig. 752.— Nej3pis, fa-wn's skin. (From a Greek vase.)
called Codeta Minor (Suet. ltd. 89), either in j
the Campus Martins or in the Transtiberine
region. The second was given by Augustus,
2 B.C., at the dedication of the temple of Mars
Ultor, and for this purpose a basin was dug,
1800 feet by 1200, in the Nemus Caesarum in
the Transtiberine region, traces of which still
remain. In it more than 80 ships and 8000
men, besides the rowers, were exhibited by
Augustus {Mon. Ancyr.). This naumachia
continued in use after others had been made.
The most remarkable naumachia was that
given by Claudius, 52 a. I)., on Lake Fucinus, to
celebrate the draining of the lake (Suet. Claud. '
21 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 56). On this occasion 100
ships and 19,000 men were employed. Nero's
namnachiae were sometimes given in tlie Am-
jihitheatre, sometimes in the star/na Neronis,
a great basin in Nero's Golden House. Nau-
machiae were not confuied to Rome: in the am-
phitheatres at Capua and Nimes, for instance,
the arrangements for flooding the amphitheatre
have been traced.
Fig. 703.— Eleusinian AaSouxos wearing fawns skin.
(Biiumeister.)
tributed to Dionysus (Eur. Bacch. Ill ; Ar.
Ban. 1211, &c.), and consequently assumed by
his votaries in processions and ceremonies
[Dionysia]. It was commonly put on in the
same manner as the alyis or the KfovTrj, by tying
the two forelegs over the right shoulder (Ov.
Met. vi. 598).
NeKvcria. [Funus.]
Negotiato'res signified specially during the
later times of the Republic Roman citizens
settled in the provinces, who lent money upon
interest or bought up corn on speculation (Caes.
B. G. vii. 8). Their chief business, however,
was lending money upon interest as usurers ;
hence we find the words iicgoiifi, negotiari,
and nrgotiatio used in this sense. Nrgoiia-
iorns are distinguished from publirani (Cic.
Att. ii. 16, Verr. ii. 3, 7, Leg. Manil. 7, 18), and
from virrcaiores (Cic. Plane. 26, 64). Hence
the ncgutiatures in tlie provinces corresponded
to the argoitarii and frnrratures at Rome.
The negotiatores, like the puhlicani, belonged
to the equestrian order, but meu of senatorial
442 NEMEIA
rank indirectly shared the gains, in return for
their countenance and support. They were
often accused of exacting immoderate interest
from provincials ; and instances of great cruelty
are recorded against them.
NeM.€La or Nen.€a. The famous games held
NOBILES
and other cities the epithet N E H K O PO Z (see
Conybeare and Howson, St. Paul, ch. xvi. fn. ;
Acts xix. 35). No city was allowed to assume
this office without the permission of the Roman
senate (Tac. Ann. iv. 55, 5tJ). The name be-
longed to the city, not to any religious official,
at Nemea in Argolis (Pind. Nem. ii. 4, 5, vi. 15, j These local cults were directed by a sacerdos
01. xiii. 14). The valley of Nemea belonged to or apxiepevs. [Asiarchae.]
the people of Kleonae, who for a longtimewere NeoSajj-wSets. [Helotes.]
presidents of the games (aywi/odtrai). But be- Neptuna'lia. A festival of Neptune, cele-
fore Ol. 53, 1 (509 B.C.), the Argives obtained brated at Rome on July 23. In the ancient
possession of the temple and the presidency at i calendaria this day is marked as Nept. ludi
the games. \ ei feriae, or Nept. ludi, from which we see
In prehistoric times we find the institution of that the festival was celebrated with games.
the Nemean festival connected with the exj^e- Respecting the ceremonies of this festival
dition of the Seven against Thebes, or with the nothing is known, except that the people used
slaying of the Neniean lion by Herakles. . to build huts of branches and foliage {um-
Writers who held the former opinion describe brae). (Hor. Carm. iii. 28, 1.)
the festival as an ^^(iiv iiriTd(pios, established Nervus^ A sort of stocks {^vKoy, also iroSo-
to commemorate the youth Archemorus, who KaKKt], x"*^"'!)) "i which criminals were confined,
was killed by a serpent. j used frequently as a punisliment for slaves. The
As regards the first historic occurrence of the original meaning was probably a thong or a
festival, we have but scanty evidence. It is strap with wliich the feet were tied to a post
probable that the series of historical Nemeads, (Plaut. Poen. v. 4, 99). The words numella
held as a Panhellenic festival, began in the and hoiae had the same sense. The nerv'us
winter of 01. 51, 2 (516 B.C.). The Nemean included a wooden framework with holes for
games were biennial {a.ya>v TpiiTripiK6s), i.e. two hands, feet and neck, which were kept in their
complete years elapsed between one festival and places by iron bands and coUars (Ar. Eq. 1049).
the next. Accordingly they fell twice within the [Boiae ; Collare.] (The K\oi6s seems to have
Olympic period, occurring alternately in winter confined the neck and hands only ; the Ktxpwv
and summer in the second and fourth years held the neck.) Stocks were used for the un-
respectively of each Olympic neuTeTtipis- prisonment of freeborn malefactors as well as
The games comprised musical, gymnic, and for slaves, both among Greeks and Romans;
equestrian contests. The gymnic contests at for thieves (Plaut. .4j</. iv. 10, 13) ; for debtors,
Nemea corresponded closely with those at by Law of Twelve Tables (cf. Liv. 15). Nervus
Olympia. The following are expressly men- is often used as equivalent to career (Ter.
tioned: the simple foot-race (yv/j.vhi' ffrdSwv) \ Plionn. iv. 4,15, &c^; Acts xvi. 21)
for men and boys; the wrestling bout (iraA.7j)
for men and boys ; the ir^uradKov for men and
boys; the Tray/cpaTioj/ for men and boys (Pind.
Ne»t. passim ; Hdt. vi. 92, ix. 75). Boxing
(■KvytMaxia) u-l^<"> ^^'"•^^ "• subject of competition.
Besides the simple foot-race, the Nemean
games included the armour-race
5p6ixos) and the long race (S6\txos)
Neurospa'sta. [Pupa.]
Nexum. See Appendix, Rom.vn Law.
NiKTiTTipia. Prizes (see 'E-irivCKia) in the
circus, or medals, collars, &c., worn as memorials
of a victor}- (Juv. iii. 68).
No'biles, Nobi'litas. In the earliest period
(6irAiTT;s I of Roman history the Patricians or Patres, who
belonged to the older organisation of the popu-
The games were presided over by twelve i lus in curiae, gentes, and familiae, were the
Hellanodikae ('EWoi/oSi/coO. | nobles as opposed to the Plebs: they mono-
Like the other great Panhellenic festivals, polised political power and the distinction which
the Nemean was an dya);/ <XTe<paviTr}s, i.e. one in such power brings.
which the victor obtained a wreath in token of In 366 B.C. the plebeians obtained the right
his victory. The Nemean wreath was of wild of being eligible to the consulship, and finally
celery (atKivov, apiiim). \ were admitted to all the curule magistracies.
During the celebration of each Nemean Thus tlie two classes were put on the same
festival a cessation of hostilities (^k€x*'P''<») i footing as to political capacity.
airovhai) between belligerents was an imperative : The sharp distinction between plebeians and
duty (Pind. Nem. iii. 2). A sacred embassy, \ the old patricians became blxuTed no less by
too (diwpis), was on these occasions sent by their political equalisation than by the greater
each of the several Hellenic states to Nemea, ; frequency of marriages between the two orders
with offerings to Nemean Zeus (Dem. Mid. p
552, § 115).
In later times the Nemean games came to be
regularly held in Argos (Polyb. v. 101, 5 ; Liv.
XXX. 1). Local festivals, named after the great
Nemea, were established in many places, e.g.
at Aetna in Sicilj' and at Megara.
Neo'corus iviuKopos). Originally a temple
attendant. The word was applied, even in early
times, to priestly officers of high rank, who had
the superintendence of temples and their
after the enactment of the lex Canuleia (445
B.C.); but the descendants of plebeians who had
filled curule magistracies formed a class called
Nobiles, or men known, in contrast with I/jno-
biles, or men unknown. The nobiles had no
legal privileges as such : but they were bound
together by a common distinction and by a
common interest in confining the election to
all the high magistracies to their own body,
the Nobilitas ; and the plebeian nobiles com-
bined to exclude other plebeians from the
treasures (Plat. Zif-f/f/. vi. p. 759 a; Xen. .-iMrti. distinction which their own ancestors had
V. 3, § 6). Under the Empire the word was transmitted to them.
especially applied to those cities in Asia which The external distinction of the nobiles was
erected temples to the Roman emperors. These ' the lus imaginum, a right established on usage
sanctuaries for the cult of the emperor began \ only, and probably assumed from the ancient
in the lifetime of Augustus, at Kyzikus (Tac. ; custom of the patricians, who carried back their
Atm. iv. 36) and elsewhere. Accordingly we j pedigrees (Stemmatai to the remotest period
frequently find on the coins of Ephesus, Smyrna, | (Tac. Ann. iv. Uli.
NODUS
A plebeian who first attained a curule ofiSce
was the founder of his family's nobilitas {prin-
ceps nohiUtatis — auctor generis). Such a per-
son could have no imagi.ies of his ancestors ;
and he could have none vi his own, for such
imagines of a man were no- made till after he
was dead. Such a person, then, was neither
nobilis nor ignohilis. He was called by the
Romans a noviifs Iioiiio or ' new man,' and his
condition was known as 7iuvitas (Sail. lug. 85).
The term yiovus homo was never applied to a
patrician. The first novus homo of Rome
was the first plebeian consul L. Sextius, and
the two moat distinguished novi homines were
C. Marius and JNI. Tullius Cicero, both natives
of an Italian municipium, Arpinum.
The patricians were jealous of the new
nobility, which, however, soon united with the
old aristocracy to prevent more novi homines
from rising to their own order (Sail. lug. 08).
As early as the Second Punic War, the new
class, composed of patricians and plebeian
nobiles, was able to exclude novi liomines from
the consulship (Liv. xxii. 34). They maintained
this power to the end of the Republican period,
and the consulship continued almost in the
exclusive possession of the nobiles.
The term Optimates is used to denote the
Nobilitas and the chief part of the Equites, a
rich middle class, and also all others whose
support the Nobilitas and Equites could
command. Optimates in this sense are opposed
toPlebs the mass of the people: and Optimates
is a wider term than Nobilitas, inasmuch as
it would comprehend the Nobilitas and all who
adhered to them. (Cic. Scst. -iS, Clucnt. 40, 111.)
Those of the opposite party, whether patrician,
noble, or neither, were termed Pop ulares.
The Greek equivalents for Optimates ai"e
bvvaroi and irXovcnot.
Nodus, in a special sense, was applied to the
following parts of dress : (1) the knot used in
tying on the scarf [Dress, Waixvs] or other
article constituting the Amictus, when no
brooch [Fibula] was used (Verg. Aen. i. 320, vi.
801, xi. 77C). (-2) The knot of hair {K6pvnfios,
KpwfivKos,) either at the top or at the
back of the head (Verg. Aen. iv. 138; Hor.
Epod.yii.lH). [Coma.] (3) The knot of leather
[bulla scurtea) worn by boys of the poorer
classes at Rome instead of the golden Bulla
(Juv. V. 1(55).
Nomen (ufoixa). Name. 1. Greek. — The
Greeks bore only one name, and it was one of
the especial rights of a father to choose the
names for his children, and to alter them if he
pleased (Dem. c. Boeot. i. p. 1000, § 30 : but
see Eur. Phoen. •G8; Ar. Nub. GO). It was
customary to give to the eldest son the name
of the grandfather on his father's side ; and
family names were commonly given to other
children as well. Similarly girls were called
after the grandmother. A boy also sometimes
received the name of his father, as in the
cases of Deniostlienes and Demades, or one
similar : Nausinikus, son of Nausiphilus, thus
called his son Nausiphilus, and Kallikrates,
son of Kallistratus, called his son Kallistra-
tus. In some cases the name of a son was a
patronymic formed from the name of the father,
as Phokion, the son of Pliokus.
To prevent confusion, the name of the father
was usually added in the genitive case, as
'A\Kt0tdST)T d KKeLflov, U\ei(Trodva^ 6 Uavcra-
viuv: sometimes the name of the place oreountry
in which a person was born, as idovKvSiSrjs
& 'Adr]vaios, 'HpdSoros 'A\iKapt/r)(r(Tevs, &c.
NOMEN
448
The custom of adding the father's name was
called TraTpodev ovofxa^ecrdai (Xen. Oec. 7, § 3).
The Greeks also made frequent use of nick-
names, expressive of mental or bodily peculiari-
ties and defects. Thus Demosthenes was from
his childhood called BaToA.os, ' Stammerer '
(Dem. de Cor. p. 288, § 180). Many such nick-
names are to be found in Aristi^phanes, e.g.
Av. 1291.
The day on which children received their
names was the tenth after their birth (Ar. Av.
922, &c.). This was called Se/carTj, and friends
and relations were invited to take part in a
sacrifice and a repast. ['AjjL<|)i8p6jj.ia].
2. RoM.\x. — At Rome in the most ancient
times, as in other primitive societies, men were
known by one name only, e.g.lioniulus, Faustu-
lus. The Latins and Etruscans are said to have
borne one name, the Sabines two (Titus T alius,
Quintus Claudius, &c.) : sometimes these
were both gentile, those of the father and
mother. Probably in a somewliat later age
the Roman custom was to have two names :
the second in the genitive, representing
the father or head of the household, as
Marcus Marci, Caecilia MetcUi. In process
of time we find for freeborn men a triple name,
the nomen to designate the gens, the
cognotnen the family, and the jrraenomen the
individual. The order was jiraetwme)!, nomen,
cognomen [Marcus Tullius Cicero) ; but in
metrical writing this is not preserved: e.g.
^Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbatus,' as an
epitaph in Saturnian verse. For formal de-
scription the name of the father, grandfather,
and even great-grandfather was added, as M.
Tullius M. f. \Jilius] M. n. [nejJO.^] M. pr.
[jironepos] Cicero. Sometimes the tribe was
added, e.g. M. Tullius M. f. M. n. M. pr.
Cornelia tribu Cicero. When the praenomen
was omitted, the order does not appear con-
sistent in all writers, both Claudius Pulcher
and Pulcher Claudius being found (the latter
is followed by Cicero) ; Caesar keeps the
cognomen after the nomen, Livy and Tacitus
vary their practice. For everyday use the
praenomen alone was used for relations or
intimate friends addressing each other (Hor.
Sat. a. 5,32: '■ Marce, pida, aut Publi'); the
cognomen alone in ordinary intercourse ; the
nomen for formal purposes.
(1) Nomen. — The gentile name in patrician
families always ended in -ius, probably a
patronymic. Other terminations of the nomen
are -acus (e.g. Divitiacus) Gallic; -enus
Umbrian ; -na [Caccina, &c.) Etruscan : some
others are formed from the names of towns, as
Norbanus, &c.
(2) Praenomen. — The individual name was
given to boj's on the ninth day after their birth
on the dies lustricus [Lustratio]. Among
ancient praenomina, disused by the first cen-
tury B.C., were Agrippa, Ancus, Caesar,
Faustus, PostumuSjProculus, Statins, Tullus,
Volero, and others ; some of which survived as
cognomina.
The following 18 are praenomina : Anlus
[A.), Decimus [D.], Gains (('.), Gnaeus [Cn.],
Kaeso [K.), Lucius [L.), Manius [M'.), Marcus
[M.), Publius (P.), Quintus (Q.), Scrvius [Scr.),
Sextus [Sex.), Sjiurius (Sp.), Tiherius [Ti.
or Tib.), Titus (T.), Mumcrcus [Mam), Appius
[Ap.), Nnmerius [N.). The inimber, no doubt,
decreased from the custom of different families
using only a few praenomina, usually only five
or six (the Cornelii used only Cn., L. and P. ;
the Domitii Gn. and L.). Some were used by
444
XOMEN
particular families and by no other : K., for in- '
stance, by the Fabii and Quinctilii alone. In
plebeian families there was not the same restric-
tion, and a greater variety appears (Novius,
Vibii(s,&c.) ; but those who became nobiles (as
the Domitii) followed the patrician rule.
(3) Cognomen. — Every Roman citizen was a
member of a familia or stirps, and as such I
might have a cognomen or third name, which i
marked off that familia from others of the same
gens. This was during the Republic probably \
universal in patrician families. In plebeian {
families it was not the rule : e.g. the Marii, 1
Sertorii, and Mummii had none (Plut. Mar. 1) ; I
but many afterwards gained them, as Pompeius,
when he took the cognomen Magnus. As to
their origin we can have little doubt that they
were personal names transmitted from the first
liearer to all his familj'; some descriptive, as
Pulcher, Calvtis, Naso ; some local, as Sabi-
nus, Maliiginen.'sis ; some like ' augmentations
of honour,' as Torqitatiis, Corviis, and corre-
sponding to family emblems [Insigne].
The nobiles proceeded to multiply cogno-
mma ; such additional names were still called
cognumina (Cic. Mur. 14, 31) : the practice of
calling them agnomina did not begin till the
grammarians of the fourth century .^.D. Under
this head we have {a) tlie adoptive names, for
which see Adoptio. Adoptive names ended !
in -anus, e. g. Octavianus, Aemilianus; some-
times in -inns, as Antoninus. From the time I
of Sulla the original cognomen was often i
added: as M. Terentius Van-o LucuUus. (b) ;
Thecognomen ex virtute: Africanus,Asiaticus,
&c. These, like other cognomina, were heredi- ,
tary. (c) Those added luore like nicknames, as
Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer (cf. Plin. vii. § 54). |
The name-system became altered or alto- |
gether lost under the Empire. The emperors,
as Gains and Titus, used sometimes the prae- '
nomen alone, sometimes the cognomen aJone, \
with the imperial title, as Imp. Caesar Ves- '
pasianus [Imperator] ; for the citizens no rules
eitlier of order or number seem to have been
observed. Instances of pure nicknames (signa
or vocabula) are Caligula, Cedo alteram (Tac. :
Ann. i. 23, 41). |
Naynes of Women. — Wives and daughters i
added originally the name of the man in whose
vianus they were, the wife her husband's, the
daughter her father's, as Metella Cra.tsi, Caeci-
lia Metelli ; but later it became usual for the
daughter to express the relationship by adding
/. after the father's name. The praenomen
might be used also before the gentile name, as !
Secunda Valeria M. f. Diminutives, such as
Tulliola for Tullia, are also found. In the
later Republic the single gentile name is more
comnion ; under tlie Empire we find two names,
formed from the nomen and cognomen of the
father, or the combined gentile names of father
and mother Caecilia Metella, Valeria Attia) :
three names are exceptional (Suet. Claud. 26).
Praenomina of women, where they existed, were
expressed in writing by an inverted capital.
Slaves originally bore the affix por{ =puer) to
the master's praenomen, as Marcipor or Mar-
por, Quintipor, &c. : we find it also for freed-
men, 'Aldus Caecilius, Auli lihertus, Olipor
[for Aulipory
Freedmeti originally took before their own
names the gentile name of their patronus and
any praenomen, as L. Livius Andronicus, the
freedman of M. Livius Salinator.
Nomen. [Fenus; Appendix, Roman L.\w,
Obligatio.]
N0M02
Nomencla'tor. [Ambitus.]
Nomina'tio and No'mino are used to denote
the first stage in the appointment to the augur-
ship and other priestly colleges, under the law
of T. Labienus, 63 B.C. On a vacancy in their
coUege, each of the augurs ' nominated ' a can-
didate for the post, and the choice between
those so nominated was decided by a vote of
the people. (Cic. Phil. ii. 2, 4.)
The term nominare is likewise used of a
function of the emperors in the election of
magistrates from the time that these elections
were transferred (Tac. Ann. i. 15) from the
populus to the senate. This ' nomination ' is
different from the right of recommending
candidates (commendare) which the emperor
possessed ; but the difference appears to be one
of technical terminology.
No^Ca^jLaTo; 8ia4>opd9 ypa.<i)r\. See Ap-
pendix, Gkeek Law.
No(xo(J>\5\aK£s- Officials in Greek states
whose duty it was to see that nothing un-
constitutional was proposed, and to punish
those who acted unconstitutionally (Xen. Oec.
9, 14 ; Cic. Legg. iii. 20, 46) : they had also
to provide for the safe custody of written laws
and records. Other terras are vo/jMSelKrai and
deaixo<pv\aK(s (Thuc. v. 47). At Sparta there
were five voixo(pi)\aKis and a ypafj.fj,aTocpvAa^ or
keeper of records.
At Athens this supervision had originally
belonged to the Areiopagus, and when Ephialtes
deprived that body of its power [AreiopagUS
these functions were entrusted to a board of
seven NomophyLikes, chosen annually by lot,
who sat beside the Proedri in the senate and
in the assembly. Their activity was, however,
in practice superseded by the rpa(t)'f) irapa-
vo^uv.
N 6(jLos. In the heroic ages the king's divine
authority (rtjurj 5' iK Ajdj 4(Tti, 11. ii. 197) was
not absolute, but limited by tradition (eVJ ^7jto?s
yepoffi, Thuc. i. 13). The kmg received from
Zeus the sceptre, the symbol of the judicial
authority, and with it the 64fuar(s (H. ii. 206,
Od. xvi. 403) ; so that his decisions had a
divine sanction. Thus Lykvirgus was believed
to have received instruction from the Pythia
at Delphi, Zaleukus, the lawgiver of the
Epizephyi-ian Lokrians from Athena, and
Numa from Egeria. The great fundamental
conceptions of morality, common alike to all
mankind, the &ypa<poi v6fj.ot, were believed to
have come from the gods (Soph. O. T. 864 sqq.,
Antig. 454 sqq.; Eur. Suppl. 19; Thuc. iv. 97,
&c.) ; as opposed to the tSios vofios, which applies
only to the citizens of each individual state
(Arist. Bhet. i. 10, 3).
The dinKTTes of the king were not laws,
but single judgments; but they rested upon
custom, and, no doubt, also established the
customary law which was fully developed in
the era of aristocracies following upon the
period of kingly rule. These aristocracies
claimed tliat they alone possessed the know-
ledge of the law : this, then, is the epoch of
customary law, of the unwritten law known
exclusively to one class. The Spartans never
went beyond this stage. Lykurgus' laws were
not written : and the yepovrts in Sparta could
punish with death and exile (Arist. Pol. vi. 7, iii.
1, 7) without being responsible or being bound
by a written code (Hdt. vi. 57 ; Arist. Pol. ii.
7, 6, of the Ephorsi In Crete the position of
the ytpovres or ^ov\ri (Arist. Pol. ii. 7) was the
same as in Sparta : they were not bound
in their sentences by a written code ; but
N0M02
private law was reduced to writing. [Kdcrjioi.]
This brings us to a new epoch, the era of
Codes, which coincides with the period of
popular movements. Laws written on tablets
and published to the people took the place
of usages deposited in the recollection of
a privileged class. The first written code, we
are told, was that of Zaleukus. Li 6'21 B.C.
the archon Drake was appointed to draw up a
written code of laws for Athens (Arist. Pol. ii. '.)) ;
these are usually called defffxoi, and by that
name generally distinguished from the y6fioi of
Solon. We know very little about Drako's laws
with the exception of those on homicide, which
Solon retained (Plut. Sol. 17), and which were
a reduction to writing of established customs,
transfen-ing to the state, as guardian of the law,
the office of the avenger of blood. The extreme
severity of Drako's punishments was not due
to any cruel disposition on his part, but to the
spirit of the age. In 59i B.C. Solon was chosen
archon and SiaWaKTiji koI .vo/xod^Tris (Plut.
Sol. 14, cf. 16 ; Hdt. i. 29). No divine inspira-
tion was claimed for Solon's laws. They pur-
ported to be 'the best laws which the Athenians
would accept ' (Plut. Sol. 15), and were not, as
those of Lykurgus, declared to be aKivriroi
(Plut. Lye. 29). Any additions or alterations
made after the specified period of ten years
were regarded as of the nature of a contract or
{Tvvdi^KT) on the part of the state (Arist. Bhet. i.
15, 21 ; cf. Plat. Legg. i. p. 644 d).
Solon's laws were inscribed fiov(TTpo<p-t)^6v
[Alphabetum] on square white wooden tablets
['Atoves] on a pivot. Solon is said to have
divided his laws into v6jj.oi vepl toiv Upwu, v6fjioi
Tro\iriKoi, and vSfxoi inpl twv lSkvtikwv. They
were preserved first in the Acropolis, subse-
quently brought by Ephialtes eh rh ^ov\evrr\-
piov /(ol T7)v ayopav, and ultimately to the
prytaneum, where some remnants existed even
in the days of Plutarch {Sol. 25). There were
besides, in the offices of the different magis-
trates, copies of those laws which they had to
administer.
Within a year after the deposition of the
Four Hundred the complete democracy was
restored, and a revision of the laws ensued :
commissioners ((Txryypa(pels) and clerks [ava-
ypa<p€7s) were appointed to copy the laws within
four months after the revision. This revision
was interrupted : but in the archonship of
Eukleides, 403 B.C., the senate selected ten
NojiioSeTai, who drafted and published pro-
posals for new laws. These were examined
first by the senate, and secondly by 500
nomothetae elected by the Sij/j-irat, and were
then handed over to the apxai, i.e. the
magistrates by whom they were to be ad-
ministered. During the discussion before the
senators every private citizen was to have liberty
to enter the senate and tender his opinion.
.\11 the laws tlius approved were written out
in the Ionian alphabet fAlphabetum]. At the
same time it was enacted that no magistrate
should act upon any law not among those in-
scribed ; that no i]/r\<pi(Tpia either of the senate
or of the people should overrule any law ; and
that in future the code as revised in the archon-
ship of Eukleides should be used (see .\ndoc.
dc Mj/st. SS «2-S9). After the Lamian War the
democratic constitution was overthrown by
Antipater (322 B.C.) ; Demetrius of Phaleron,
the third Wyuofl^TTjs of Athens, established again
a professedly democratic government ; and
three years after his death, in 304-3 B.C., a
new avaypa<pii of the laws took place.
NOMO0ETAI
445
Tlie magistrates and dikasts were bound by
solemn oaths to adminster the laws, executive
and judicial : and the dikasts in court were
judge and jury at once, deciding, without direc-
tion from a judge, questions of law and questions
of fact. In an Athenian trial at law, the parties
I)rocured copies or extracts of such laws as
were material to the questions to be tried, and
brought them before the riye/j.wv SiKacrrriptov at
the dfaKpiffis, by whom they were put into the
box (e'x'^J'os), together with the other evidentiary
documents, and produced at the trial to be read
to the dikasts by the ypafx/jMrevs (see Appendix,
GuEEK Law, Actio). Tliere was at Athens no
class of persons corresponding to our counselor
attorneys, whose business or profession it was
to expound the laws. Every Athenian on
coming of age swore to obey the laws, and
Perikles pointed to the fear of the laws as the
source of every civic virtue (Tliuc. ii. 37).
In later times the practice grew up of passing
legislative measures in the shape of occasional
decrees. The mere resolution of the people in
assembly was a \pr)<piafxa; such decrees were
originally ordinances or measures of govern-
ment, relating to individuals or to particular
occasions. They had the force of laws so far
as regarded the obedience due to them, and
sometimes v6fjLos and ^ri<pi(rfj.a. seem to be used
indiscriminately ; but one psephisma might at
any time be set aside by another. ' This
practice,' says Burke {Beflections on the lie-
vohdion in France), ' soon broke in upon the
tenour and consistency of the laws ; it abated
the respect of the people towards them, and
totally destroyed them in the end ' (cf. Arist.
Pol. iv. 5).
NoM-oOexai, at Athens, commissioners ap-
pointed from time to time to revise the laws
\fT7ixi ipoTovia Twv vd/xcvv).
The method of procedure at the i-Kixeiporovia
ru)v v6fjMv was as follows : — After speeches re-
commending new laws and defendingthe old ones
had been delivered, the question was put to the
vote {xfipoTovia) whether the laws should be
confirmed as they stood, or be revised. If a re-
vision was voted for, the appointment of voyio-
derai was taken into consideration. All projects
of law had to be set up in public, and also read
out in the ekklesia, together with the old law
which was to be annulled or amended (irapava-
yvovs, Dem. c. Tim. p. 712, § 3H). The popular
assembly, thus fully infonned, selected by lot
from the heliasts such a number of fofji.odfTai as
was required (usually from .")0(l tolOOd). With
them five avvi\yopoi were appointed to argue in
defence of the laws which it was proposed to
repeal. The meetings of the nomothetae re-
sembled the assemblies of the people : the
piytanes convened them ; irpdeSpot and an eVi-
cTTOTrjs presided over them. Tlie law in favour
of which tlie nomothetae voted, whether the
established law or the proposed one, was Kvpios.
Besides this, the thesmothetae of each year
were directed to examine the whole code of
I laws (St6pdci}(ns riHiv vdfxaiv), and to see if there
I were any lawscontradictory or useless (Aeschin.
c. Ctes. § 38 ; Dem. c. Lrpt. p. 484, S 90). If they
j found such, the prytanes, in their report, con-
I vened an assembly of the peo])le for the appoint-
! ment of nomothetae [iiriypi^avrfs vo/iodfTas).
I If, after the repeal of an old law by the
' nomothetae, it was found that the law proposed
I in its stead was not expedient (ovk ^irtTriSfios)
for the Athenian people, or was contrary to any
' of the established laws (Dem. c. Tim. p. 710,
I § 83), the proposer was, within the limit of a
446
N0R5L\
year, liable to prosecution (Dem. c. Lejot. p. 501,
§ 144).
Norma. [Regula; Canon.]
Nota. [Census ; Infamia.]
Notae ((TTj/uera) in a technical sense means
those signs and abbreviations which were used
(1) for secret writing, cipher; (2) for rapid
writing, i.e. shortliand or stenography.
(1) We have frequent mention of the use of
cipher, for de<»patches or letters of an important
or compromising nature, at the end of the Re-
publican period. The cipher used by Caesar,
according to Suet. lid. 56, consisted in making
D stand for A, E for B, and so on through the
alphabet. Thecipher usedby Augustus was even
sunpler, B for A, C for B, &c. (Suet. Aug. 88).
(2) The Notae Tironianae or Notae Tironis
et Senecae may be taken as the representative
of ancient shorthand writing. The use of this
art is not directly mentioned among Greeks or
Romans before the time of Cicero. Plutarch
{Cat. Min. 23) traces its origin to (jicero, who,
he says, employed clerks to take down a
speech of Cato in signs (tr^jyueia). From Cicero's
own account of his freedman Tiro (Fam. xvi.
4) it is probable that the real labour of the
work was his, not Cicero's, and that the title
' notae Tironianae ' is just. Maecenas, Ennius
the grammarian, and others (among them
Seneca), are said to have perfected the system :
5000 signs are said to have been arranged and
perfected by Seneca and his notarii.
From this time the use of stenography spread.
It served for taking down public speeches and
lectures, and for any writing from dictation, e.g.
tlie rough drafts of wills, which were after-
wards written out (perscribrrc) in a fair copy.
It was taught in schools. Many Romans kept
slaves trained for the purpose [Notarii].
The Tironian system consists mainly (a) in
using an alphabet more or less based on the
Roman letters so modified as to facilitate the
junction of letters.
(b) In representing terminations by arbitrary
signs and points, such as B. for -bam, .B for
-bant, &c.
(c) In employing abbreviations (sigla).
(d) In adopting arbitrary signs (compendia)
for common words. j
Nota'rii. Shorthand writers, slaves or freed-
men, whom wealthy Romans kept in their [
ser\-ice and often took about with them on
their travels (Plin. Ep. iii. 5; Mart. x. 62).!
They were employed for taking notes in the
law-courts (Mart. v. 51, itc), and were sometimes
called actuarii (Suet. lul. 55). In course of
time the title of notarii was exclusively applied
to the private secretaries of the emperors, who
were persons of high rank. The shorthand
writers were now called exceptores.
Nova'le. [Aratrum; Agriculture]
Nove'Uae. See Apjx'ndix, Ro.^[.A.N Law.
Novendia'le. rSacrum ; Funns.]
Novi ho'mines. [Nobiles.]
Noxa, Noxa'Iis actio. See Appendix,
Roman- Law.
Nummula'rii or Numula'rii. [Argentarii.]
Nummus. [Coinage.]
Nuncupa'tio. [Testamentum.]
Nu'ndinae (in an older form noundinae =
novendinae). The market day. The Romans
had a system of eight-day weeks, which, like our
seven-day weeks, ran on without starting afresh
with the new month or year (Ov. Fast. i. 54).
By the ordinary inclusive reckoning the eighth
day was counted as the ninth and called nun-
dinae ; tlae whole week or period of eight days
OCTOBER ECUS
being termed iiiter mindimim, or, in one ad-
jective, interniindimim (tempus). The days
were marked in calendars by the letters A, B, C,
D, E, F, G, H, and it would naturally be sup-
posed that H would always be the letter of the
nundinae ; but this was not so, because the 1st
of January always began afresh with A, while
the first nundinae of the new year was in-
variably the eighth day after the last nundinae
of December, and was marked by its own letter,
which was the nundine letter for the whole
year. Hence the ecclesiastical Sunday Letter.
[Dies ; Comitia ; Ludus litterarius.]
O.
npT^. [Tribus; Tepovo-Ca.]
Obba. A vessel either of wood or common
earthenware, broad at the bottom and narrow-
ing towards the top, used for holdmg wine
(Pers. V. 148). ^
Obeli'scus (60e\lffKos), diminutive of 6$f\6s
(Hdt. ii. Ill), which properly signifies a skewer
or spit.
(1) An obelisk is properly a single block of
stone, cut into a quadrilateral form, the sides of
which diminish slightly fi-om the base to the top
of the shaft, which is crowned by a quadrilateral
pyramid. Most of the Egj-ptian obelisks were
made of the red granite of Syene, from which
place they were carried to different parts of
Egypt. They were always placed in pairs at the
entrance to a temple ; but the Romans, regard-
ing them as trophies, set them up singly. An
exception to this were the two obelisks at the
Mausoleum of Augustus.
Obelisks were first transported to Rome
under Augustus, who caused one to be erected
in the Circus and another in the Campus
Martins (Plin. xxxvi. §71). Both of these are
in existence, one in the Piazza del Popolo, the
other on the Monte Citorio. Another obelisk
was brought to Rome by Caligula, and placed
on the Vatican in the spina of the Circus of
Caligula (Plin. .xxxvi. § 74). It stands at pre-
sent in front of St. Peter's, where it was
placed in 1586. The largest obelisk at Rome is
that which was originally transported from
Heliopolis to Alexandria by Constantine, and
conveyed to Rome by his son Constantius, who
placed it in the Circus Maximus (Amm. Marc,
xvii. 4). Its present position is before the
north portico of the Lateran church, where it
was placed in 1588.
There are nine other obelisks at Rome besides
those mentioned above, but none of them is of
historical importance. There are also obelisks
in various other places, as at Constantinople,
Aries, etc., some of which are works of Egyptian
art, and others only imitations.
(2) Obeliscus and obelus are both used to
denote a grammarian's mark (f) against a sus-
pected passage.
Obliga'tio, Obliga'tio littera'rum. See Ap-
pendix, Roman L.vw.
O'bolus. [Coinage, Greek.]
O'creae. Greaves. [Arms and Armour.]
See fig. 754.
Occupa'tio. See Appendix, Roman Law.
October ecus (equus). On the Ides of Octo-
ber in each year there was a race of bigae in the
Campus Martins, after which the off-horse of
the winning biga was sacrificed by the flamen
Martialis at the altar of Mars : the tail was cut
oH ioffa penita, Plaut. Mil. Glor, iii. 1,165;
Fig. 7K4.— Greek \rarr5or
putting on tJreaves. ( From
a vase, British Museum.)
ODEUM
Prop. V. 1, 20), and, taken to the Eegia, the
blood from it was sprinkled on the hearth of
Vesta: the blood was kept and stored up within
the Regia, for future
sacred rites [Parilia].
There was a struggle
for the head of tJie
victim between the
inhabitants of the
Sacra Via and those
of the Subura.
Odeum. [Thea-
trum.]
Oeno'phorum. A
large two - handled
vessel for holding
wine, of uncertain
shape (Juv. vi. 4'25 ;
Hor. Sat. i. 6, 109;
Pers. v. 140).
OiFe'ndix. [Apex.]
O'lea, Oli'va {^Kda,
or, in older Attic
and Trag. e\aia) ;
Oleum, Oli'vum («Aaiov) ; Ole'tum, Olive'tum
{i\atwv).
The cultivation of the olive was probably not
practised by the Greeks in the earliest times of
which we have record. It would seem, too,
that oil was used at first neither for light nor
for food, but only for anointing the body. The
wood of the olive is used in Homer for axe-
handles, clubs, &e. (II. xiii. 612, Od. ix. 320),
which does not prove cultivation : oil is used
for anointing frequently in the Odyssey (e.g.
vi. 79), but seems to be somewhat rare and
costly ; which may point to its having been, in
the earliest Homeric period, an imported
luxury, used as an unguent by the rich instead
of the ordinary &\(t<pap of fat. In the later
Homeric poems (Od. vii. K?; II. xvii. .55) it
would appear that the cultivation of the fruit-
bearing olive (iKairi as opposed to k6tivos or
aypte\aios, and perhaps <pv\'tri in Od. v. 47<i)
had been introduced from the East. In Northern
Greece it was certainly later than the time of
Hesiod, who does not mention the tree at all.
The cultivation of the olive at Athens may be
dated not much later than 700 h.c. Attica
was possibly its earliest home in Greece (Hdt.
V. 82). Its identification with the goddess
Athena probably dates from a time when the
olive had become a source of wealth in Attica.
No trace of this is found in Homer. It is
probable that the Greek colonists brought the
cultivation of the olive to Magna Graecia and
Massilia, and that it spread thence over Italy,
perhaps in the time of Tartiuinius Priscus
(Plin. XV. § 1), and Southern Gaul.
Mopiai i\aai or /xopiat. At Athens, besides
fStai, which were {private projierty, there were
other olives, growing both on public and pri-
vate lands, which were the property of the
state. From these came the oil which was
used for prizes in special jars. They were
called fiopiai from the tradition that they had
been propagated (ne/j.opTj/jLevai) from the sacred
olive of Athena in tlie Acropolis : they were
placed under the control of the Areiopagus,
who sent monthly inspectors (tVi/if Atjtoi) and
annual commissioners (yi/wfji.oi'fs) to visit them.
Anyone who destroyed a moria was punishable
with banishment and confiscation. The stump
of a moria which had been cut was guarded liy
a fence (crriKos), (Lys. nepl tov ffrjKov, Or. 7 ;
Soph. O. C. 701).
VAiOETiES. — The Olea Europaea is the only
OLEA
447
species of the natural family of OZeacene which
yields oil, but there are many varieties of
the plant. The following seem to have been
the most important: — (1) Faiisia or Posea;
(2) Regia; (3) Orchis (Orchitis, Orchita,
Orchas) ; (4) Eadius ; (5) Licinia or Liciiiiana ;
(6) Sergia or Sergiana. Of these the berry of
the Pausia was the most pleasant in flavour
while green ; that of the Regia was the finest ;
while both of these, together with the Orchis
and the Radius, and in general all the larger
varieties, were better suited for eating than for
making oil. The Licinia, in the Venafrum
district, j'ielded the finest oil ; the Sergia, the
chief olive of the Sabine district, the greatest
quantity.
Soil and Climate. — The soil considered
most congenial was a rich soil, whether clay or
a mixture of clay and sand, a gravelly subsoil
being essential in either case to carry off the
water.
The olive is vei-y impatient of frost, and
scai-cely any of the varieties known to the
i.ncients would flourish in very hot or very cold
situations. Under ordinary circumstances, a
western exposure lying well open to the sun
was prefen-ed, and within from 30 to 50 miles of
the sea. If the olives of Italy held the first
place, Baetica and Istria came next (see Mart.
I xii. C3).
Propagation and Culture. — Previous to
J the formation of an olive-yard (oletuni, olive-
j turn) it was necessary to lay out a nursery
I (seininarinin) for the reception of the young
i plants. It was the practice to trench (pasti-
I nare) this to the depth of tlireefeet, and then
' to leave it toci-umble down under the influence
I of the atmosphere.
I (1) The method of propagation generally
I adopted was to select from the most productive
trees young healthy branches (ramos novellas},
I of such a thickness as to be easily held by
^ the hand. The branches were sa^v^l into
lengths of a foot and a half each, great care
being taken not to injure the bark ; these seg-
I ments (taleac, clavulae or triinci), were then
I tapered to a point at each end with a knife, and
I the two extremities were smeared with dung
I and ashes ; they were then buried upright in the
i ground, so that the tops were a few fingers'
! breadth below the surface. During the first
year, the ground was frequently loosened, and
1 in th(! heat of summer water was regularly
I supplied. In the third and fourth years the
I plants were pruned, and in the fifth the young
trees iarhusciilae) were transplanted (liabiles
translationi), in autumn, or in spring, a short
time before the buds were formed. Pits
[scrohes) four feet every way were prepared a
year beforehand, so that the earth might be
thoroughly pulverised ; small stones and gravel
mixe<l with mould being placed at the bottom
to the depth of a few inches. The young tree
was lifted with as large a ball of eartii as pos-
I sible attached to the roots, iind planted in the
pit, surrounded with a little manure. The
trees were placed at a distance of from 50 to 25
feet apart, according to the nature of the soil.
Every year the soil around the roots was
loosened with hoes (bide?ts), or with the plough,
the roots themselves laid bare (ablaqitearc,
ahlaqueatio), suckers cut away, and lichens
scraped off; every third year, in autumn,
manure was thrown in ; every eighth year the
I trees were pruned. Besides this, the whole sur-
face of the ground was regularly ploughed at the
I usual seasons, and cropped in> alternate years.
448
OLEA
(2) A second method of propagation was to
cut the roots of wild ohves into small pieces,
each containing an eye (oculiis) ; and these
pieces were treated as the taleae described
above.
(3) A third method (Verg. Georg. ii. 30) is
still pursued in some parts of Italy, where an
old tree is hewn down and the exterior part of
the wood, retaining the bark, cut into small
pieces {twvoli). These are put into the earth,
and transplanted at the end of one year, and in
three years are fit to form an olive-yard.
Grafting and budding (inserere, insitio,
oculos inserere) were also resorted to.
Olive-gathebing (oleitas, olivitas). — The
olive usually comes to maturity, in Italy, about
the middle or latter end of December ; but it
was gathered in various stages of its progress,
either while yet green {alba), or when changing
colour (varia), or when fully ripe {nigra). The
fruit was picked by gatherers {legiili) as far as
possible with the bare hand, but such as could
not be reached by the aid of ladders was beaten
down with long reeds.
Fig. 765.— Olive-gathering. (From a vase in the
British Museum.)
Different Uses. — The chronological order
in the uses of the olive appears to have been —
(1) For anointing (from the Homeric age
onwards).
(2) For burning in lamps (post- Homeric).
(3) For food : (a) as a fruit, either fresh or
presented {Od. xi. 58H); {b) oil as food or for
cooking purposes.
Preserving Olives (condere oleas, oliva-
rum conditura, conditio).
Olives might be preserved in various stages
of ripeness.
Green olives, the pausia being used princip-
ally for this purpose, were preserved in strong
brine {muriu}, or beaten together into a mass,
steeped in several waters, then pressed and
thrown with salt into a jar of vinegar, with
spices or condiments, sweet, acid, or aromatic.
Half-ripe olives were picked with their
stalks and covered over in a jar with the best
oil.
Ripe olives, especially the orchitis, were
sprinkled with salt and dried in the sun. Or
they were preserved sw eet in defr lit um without
salt.
Ejntyritm was made by extracting the
stones, chopping up the pulp, and throwing the
fragments into a jar with vinegar, coriander
seeds, cumin, fennel, rue, and mint, enough oil
being added to exclude the air.
OiL-M.\KiNG {oleum conficere). — The fruit
of the olive-tree consists of two parts, the pulpy
pericarp {caro) and the stone {nucleus).
The caro or pulp yielded two fluids : one of
these yielded a slight perfume, was of a watery
consistence, dark in colour, and bitter to the
taste ; it was called afi6pyr]s by the Greeks,
OLIGARCHIA
amwrca by the Latins, and was extensively
used as a manure, and for other domestic pur-
poses. The other fluid which flowed from the
pulp, when subjected to more forcible pressure,
was the oil {oleum, olivum), mingled, however,
to a certain extent with am urea and other im-
purities {/races, faeces). The finest oil was
made from the fruit before it was fully ripe,
and from this circumstance, or from its green-
ish colour, was termed oleum viride, and by
the Greeks 6fj.<pdKtyoi' or wfiorptfies.
Under ordinary circumstances, the ripe fruit
when gathered was carefully cleaned, and con-
veyed in baskets to the farmhouse, where it
was placed for a short time in heaps upon
sloping wooden floors [in tabulato), in order
that a portion of the amurca might flow out,
and a slight fermentation take place.
The olives when ready were placed in bags
or baskets {fisci), and subjected to the action
of a machine consisting partly of a bruising
and partly of a squeezing apparatus, called
Trapetum, mola olearia, canalis et solea,
torcular, prelum, tudicula. The oil was
received in a leaden pot {cortina plumbea),
placed in the cistern {lacus) below the press.
From the cortina it was ladled {capulare) by
an assistant {capulator), with a large flat
spoon {concha), first into one vat {labrum Jic-
tilc),M\di then into another, thirty being placed
in a row for this purpose. It was allowed to
rest for a while in each, and the operation was
repeated until all impurities had been removed.
Salt or carbonate of soda {nitruvi) was some-
times used to facilitate this. The oil was finally
poured into jars {dolia olearia) thoroughly
cleaned and seasoned and glazed with wax or
gum, the MAs, {opercula) were carefully secured,
and they were then delivered to the overseer
{custos), by whom they were stored up in the
vault {cella olearia).
After a moderate force had been applied to
the press, the bruised pulp {sampsa) was taken
out of the bags, separated from the kernel, and
pressed a second, and again a third time. The
oil first obtained {oleum primae preasurae)
was the finest, and the later pressings were
proportionally inferior.
The quantity of fruit thrown at one time
into the press {/actus, host us) varied from 120
to IRO modii, according to the capacity of the
vessels.
Oliga'rchia {dXiyapxia), the government of a
few, is distinguished (1) from apicrroKparia,
government by the best citizens for the common
good, and (2) from 5^/uos, government by the body
of freemen ; as being the rule of the dominant
portion of the community when it had ceased to
be the exponent of the general interests of the
state, and became the ascendency of a faction,
whose efforts were directed chiefly towards
their own maintenance and aggrandisement
(Arist. Eth. Nir. viii. 12, Pol. iv. 4, p. 1290;
Polyb. vi. 8, § 4). The preservation of power
under such circumstances of course depended
chiefly upon the possession of superior wealth
and advantages. Thus it came to be regarded
as essentially characteristic of an oligarchy
that the main distinction between the dominant
faction and tha subject portion of the com-
munity was the possession of greater wealth
on the part of the former. An oligarchy was
generally developed from an aristocracy of
birth ; but high birth was not an essential
condition.
Aristotle {Pol. iv. 5, p. 1292 b) distinguishes
various species of oligarchy: (1) where a
I
1
OLYMPIA
449
certain large amount of property is the only-
requisite for being a member of the ruling
class (TifioKpaTia} ; l'2) where the members of
tlie government themselves supply vacancies in
their ranks by electing otliLrs to till them ;
(o) where the son succeeds to the power of his
father ; (4) where, besides this being the case,
the rulers govern according to no fixed laws,
but arbitrarily. The first kind is called by
Aristotle (Fol. iv. 11) 6\tyapx'i-a noKtriKT], that
is, an oligarchy so moderate as to be nearly
a TToKiTi'ia : where more extensive privileges
were given to large property, it was called
TrAouTOKpaTf'a (Xen. Mem. iv. (5, 22).
To tJie condilions of i'd) and (4j, where arbi-
trary power has come into the possession of a
few ruling families, the name hwaariia is given
(Arist. Fol. iv. 5, 2, p. 1292 b) ; this is described as
the extreme oligarchy and corresponding [avri-
arpocpos} to the extreme democracy or ox^oKparia
(see Thuc. iii. (12, iv. 7H; Arist. Fol. ii. 10, v. 3).
The term apiaroKparla is not unfrequently
used as synonymous with oKiyapxi-o- (Cf. Thuc.
iii. 82 ; Xen. Hell. v. 2, § 7 ; Ar. Av. 125.)
Oly'mpia ('OAu^Tna). The Olympic games,
the greatest of the national festivals of the
Greeks. This festival was celebrated at Olym-
pia in Elis, the name given to a small plain to
the west of Pisa. For the place and its histoiy
see Class. Diet.
The origin of the Olympic games is buried
in obscurity. The legends of the Eleian priests
attributed the institution of the festival, in-
cluding the crown of wild olive {kStivos), and
the irevTeT7)pis, to the Idaean Herakles, and
referred it to the time of Kronos. Most ancient
writers, however, attribute the institution of
the games to Herakles the son of Amphitryon,
while others represent Atreus us their founder.
Pindar (01. xi. 24-77, iii. 14) says that they
were founded by Herakles Amphitryoniades
to commemorate his victory over the Mo-
liones and Augeas. We may conclude that
religious festivals had been celebrated at
Olympia from the earliest times, which alone
would account for their paramount importance
in Greece. The first historical fact connected
with the Olympian games is their revival by
Iphitus, king of Elis, who is said to have
accomplished it with the assistance of Lyk-
urgus, the Spartan lawgiver.
The most important point in the renewal of
the festival by Iphitus was the establishment
of the fKex*'P'o, or sacred armistice, pro-
claimed by peace-heralds {(nrovSo(p6poi} first in
Elis and afterwards in the other parts of
Greece; it put a stop to all warfare for the
month in which the games were celebrated,
and which was called (epo/UTji/ia.
The Olympic festival was probably confined
at first to the Peloponnesians ; but at length
became a festival for the whole Greek nation.
No one was allowed to contend in the games
but freemen of pure Hellenic blood, and under
no religious or civil disabilities; barbarians
might be spectators, but slaves were entirely
excluded till after the conquest of Gn-ece
by the Romans, when they were allowed to
take part in the games. The emperors Tiberius
and Nero were both conquerors. During the
freedom of Greece, even Greeks were some-
times excluded. Thus the horses of Hieron of
Syracuse were disallowed from the chariot-race
through the influence of Themistokles, because
he had not tak(^n i)art with the other Greeks
against the Persians (Plut. Them. 25 ; cf. Thuc.
v. 49) ; and other similar cases are recorded.
No women (except the priestess of Demeter)
were allowed to be present or even to cross the
Alpheius during the celebration of the games
under penalty of being hurled down from the
Typaean i-ock (see Paus. v. 6, § 5). Women
were, however, allowed to send chariots to the
races (Paus. iii. 8, § 1). The number of spec-
tators at the festival was very great ; and it
served not merely as a religious iTavT\yvpis and
si)ectacle, but also as a fair. Many of the
persons present were also deputies (diupoi)
from tlie various states of Greece ; and we find
that these embassies vied with one another in
munificence and splendour to support tlie
honour of their native cities. The most illus-
trious citizens of a state were frequently sent
as dicopoi (Thuc. vi. 16).
The Olympic festival was a Penteteris {trfur-
eTTjp/s), /.('. a space of four years elapsed
between each and the next succeeding festival.
It was celebrated on the first full moon after
the summer solstice, and lasted five days, from
the eleventh to the fifteenth days of the month
inclusive.
The festival was under the immediate super-
intendence of the Olympian Zeus, whose temple
at Olympia, adorned with the statue of the god
made by Pheidias, was one of the most splendid
works of Grecian art (Paus. v. 10, etc.). The
festival may be divided into two parts, the
games or contests (aycoy 'OKv/niriaKos, a.€d\wv
afxiWai, Kpiais aeOKaiv, reSjuby aeOKuv, vlko.-
(popiai), and the festive rites (eoprri) connected
with the sacrifices, processions, and banquets
in honour of the conquerors.
The contests consisted of various trials of
strength and skill, which were increased in
number from time to time. There were in all
twenty-four contests, eighteen in wliich men
took part and six in which boys engaged, though
they were never all exhibited at one festival,
since some were abolished. The principal con-
tests were as follows : — 1. The foot-race (Spo'/uos),
the only contest during the first thirteen Olym-
piads. 2. The Siav\os, or foot-race, in which
the stadium was traversed twice. 3. The 5oAi-
Xos, a still longer foot-race than the Slav\os.
[Cursus.] 4. Wrestling (ttciAtj) [Luctal, and
5. the Pentathlon (ireVraOAoj'), wliich con-
sisted of five exercises. 0. Boxing {irvyfxi]).
[Pugilatus.] 7. The chariot-race with four
full-grown liorses (VTrTrair reKeiwv Spo/xos, apfxa).
The Pancratium [-KayKpaTiov). 9. The horse-
race (iTriros /ceA?;?). 10. The foot-race, in which
men ran with the equipments of heavy-armed
soldiers (oTrAiTTjs ^p6iJL0'i). [Cursus.] 11. The
contest of heralds iK-l^pvKfs) and trumpeters
((Ta\TriyKTal). Besides these, there were other
kinds of races with horses, mares ((coAtttj),
mules, and foals, with and without chariots ;
and similar contests for boys.
The order of the games is uncertain. It is
not improbable that the first day was occupied
by sacrifices and preliminary arrangements;
that the contests of boys came next, and the
third day contests of men ; on the fourth day
the Pentathlon and the chariot and horse
races. The fifth day appears to have been
devoted to processions and sacrifices, and to
the banquets given by the Eleians to the con-
querors in the games.
The judges in the Olympic games, called
Hellanodikae ('EAAaro5i/faO, were appointed by
the Eleians, wlio had the regulation of tlie
whole festival. It appears to have been origin-
ally under the superintendence of Pisa. But
after the return of the Heraldeidae, the Aeto-
GG
450
OLYMPIA
lians, who had been of great assistance to the
Herakleidae, settled in Elis, and from this
time the Aetohan Eleians obtained the regu-
lation of the festival, and appointed the pre-
siding ofificei's.
The Hellanodikae were chosen by lot from
the whole body of the Eleians. Their number
varied in the course of centuries ; but in 01.
108 (348 B.C.) was finally fixed at ten.
The Helkmodikae were instructed for ten
months before the festival by certain of the
Eleian magistrates called No^o^uAouces, in a
building called 'EWavoStKaiwv. Their office pro-
bably only lasted for one festival. An appeal lay
from their decision to the Eleian senate. Their
office was considered most honourable. They
wore a purple robe {wop(t>vp'is), and had in the
Stadium special seats appropriated to them.
Under the direction of the Hellanodikae were a
certain number of aKvrai with an aKvTdpxv^
at their head, who formed a kind of police, and
carried their commands into execution.
All fi-ee Greeks who had complied with the
i-ules prescribed to candidates were allowed to
contend in the games. The equestrian con-
tests were necessarily confined to the wealthy ;
but the poorest, as well as tlie noblest, could
contend in the athletic contests. Alkibiades
sent seven chariots to one festival (Thuc. vi.
16), and the Greek kings in Sicily, Macedon,
and other parts of the Hellenic world contended
with one another for the prize in the equestrian
contests.
All persons who were about to contend had
to prove to the Hellanodikae their qualifica-
tions as competitors. They further had to
swear before the statue of Zeus "OpKios that they
had undergone tlie preparatorj- training (irpo-
yvuvdanaTa) for ten months previously. The
different contests, and the order in which they
would follow one another, were published upon
a notice-board (KivKic/jux).
Tlie competitors took their places b}' lot.
The herald then proclaimed the name and
country of each competitor. When they were
all ready to begin the contest, the judges ex-
horted them to acquit themselves nobly, and
then gave the signal to commence. Anyone
detected in bribing a competitor to give the
victory to his antagonist (a not uncommon
practice) was heavily fined.
The only prize given to the conqueror was a
garland of wild olive (/cdTicos), cut from a
sacred olive-tree, called ^Aaia KaWiarfipavos,
whicli grew in the sacred grove of the Altis.
Herakles is said to have brought it from the
country of the Hj-perboreans. and to have
planted it himself at the T(pfj.a of the hippo-
drome outside the Altis (Pind. 01. ii. 14). A
boy, both of whose parents were still alive
{a.ix(pida\i)s irais), cut it with a golden sickle
{Xpva(}) SpfTrdvw). The victor was originally
crowned upon a tripod covered over with
bronze {rptirovs firix<i^Kos), but afterwards
upon a table of ivory and gold. (Pans. v. 12,
§ 3.) Palm branches, the conunon tokens
of victory on other occasions, were placed in
their hands. The name of the victor, and tliose
of his father and his country, were then pro-
claimed by a herald before the representatives
of assembled Greece.
The most powerful states considered an
Olympic victorj' gained by one of their citizens
to confer honour upon the state to which he
belonged : and a conqueror usually had
immunities and privileges conferred upon him
by his fellow-citizens. The Eleians allowed his
OLYMPIAS
' statue to be placed in the Altis. On his return
home, the victor entered the city through a
breach made in the walls (Pint. Symp. ii. 5),
; in a triumphal procession, in which his praises
' were celebrated in the loftiest strains of poetry.
Hence the term elffeXaffrtKhs oryuv. [Ath-
letae.]
Sometimes the victory was obtained without
a contest, in which case it was said to be
OLKOvirl. This happened either by default of
the antagonist, or when an Athletes possessed
such strength and skill that no one dared to
oppose him. (Pans. vi. 7, § 2.)
As persons from all parts of the Hellenic
world were assembled together at the Ohnnpic
games, it was the best opportunity which the
artist and the writer possessed of making their
works known. Accordingly, literary works
were often recited or read at the Olympic
festival. Herodotus, e.g., is said to have read
his History at this festival. In the siune way
painters and other artists exhibited their works
at Olympia.
The Olympic games continued to be cele-
brated with much splendour under the Roman
emperors down to the sixteenth year of Theo-
dosius, 304 a.d. (01. 293), when the Olympic
festival was abolished for ever.
In course of time festivals were established
in many Greek states, such as Athens, Alex-
andria, Ephesus, Smyrna, Antioch in Syria,
itc, in imitation of that at Olympia, and under
the same name. Some of these are only known
to us by inscriptions and coins ; but others, as
the Olympic festival at Antioch, obtained great
celebrity.
Oly'mpias ('OAi;/Liiridj), was the period of
four years which elapsed between any one and
the next following celebration of the Olympic
games. The OljTupiads began to be reckoned
from the victory of Koroebus in the foot-race,
which happened in the year 776 B.C. (Pans. v.
8, § 3). Timaeus of Sicily, however, who
flourished 264 B.C., was the first writer who
regularly arranged events according to the
conquerors in each Olympiad. His practice oi
recording events by Olympiads was followed
by Polybius and others. It is adopted by
Thucydides (iii. 8, v. 49) and Xenophon (ffe//. i.
2, § 1, ii. 3, § 1). The names of the conquerors
in the foot-race only were used to designate the
OljTnpiad, not those of the conquerors in the
other contests.
The writers who make use of the eras of the
Olympiads usually give the number of tlic
Olympiad (the first corresponding to 776 B.C.),
and then the name of the winner. Some writers
also speak of events as happening in the first,
second, third, or fourth year, as the case may
be, of a certain Olympiad.
I The rule for reducing Oh-mpiads to years
' B.C. is to take the number of Olympiads elapsed,
I multiply by four and deduct the result from
776 : e.g. to find the first year of 01. 46 : 45 x 4 =
180; 776-180 = 596 B.C." Similarly, to reduce
years B.C. to Olympiads, subtract the year B.C.
from 780 and divide bv four. Thus 780-596 =
184: 184-h4 = 46, i.e. 6\. 46, 1. For a table of
I Olympiads and years B.C. see Appendix.
j The old Ohnnpiad era appears only to have
I been used by writers, and especially by his-
' torians. It was not official, and is not found
I on coins or inscriptions. A new Olympiad
era came into use under the Roman emperors,
I which was used in public documents. This era
begins in Ol. 227, 3 (a. p. 131). in which year
Hadrian dedicated the Olympieion at Athens ;
OLYMPIEION
and accordingly we find 01. 227, 3 spoken of
as the first Olympiad.
Olympiei'on. The great temple of Olympian
Zeus at Athens. The earlier temple was begun
(on the site of a smaller temple) about the
year 530 B.C. by the Peisistratid tyrants of
Athens : it was designed on a very large scale
but was never completed. The existing temple,
designed by a Roman architect named Cossu-
tius for Antiochus Epiphanes about 170 B.C.
(see Vitr. iii. 2, 8; Paus.'i. 19), was not com-
pleted till the I'eign of Hadrian, who was a
liberal benefactor to Athens. It was an octa-
style dipteral temple, with twenty columns on
the flanks, and tliree rows at each end. Part
of the cella behind the statue of Zeus was
divided by a cross wall, so as to form an opistho-
ORACULUM 451
OxifOv(VPAK-,7re7r-, e^z-c). The non-fari na-
ceouspart of a meal, i.e. that which was cooked,
but by usage almost restricted in post-Homeric
times to fish, wliicli was not largely used for
food in the Homeric age (see II. ix. 480, xi. 680,
Od. iii. 480).
At Athens, u\pov means anything cooked
which was eaten with bread, but in practice it
is used almost exclusively of fish ; so d\l/uve7v
&c. : and in Hellenistic Greek 6\pdpiov (like the
modern Greek \f/dpi) may be used as absolutely
==lxdvs. As regards the cost, one obol paid
for a simple dinner of fish and vegetables. As
to the fish supply, the commonest were the atpvai
(Motella glauca, 'mackerel-midge,' Yarrell)
caught off the Attic shores, which were so
abundant that they were looked down upon at
^•^ «Vt{,,
Fig lab — Euins of the Olymp eimn
domus. The size of the temple, measured on
the top step of the stylobate, was 354 feet
by 171 feet. The magnificent Corinthian col-
umns, of which fourteen are still standing, are
6 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and more than (50 feet
high. The gold and ivory statue within the
cella was a copy of that by Pheidias at Olympia
(Paus. ii. 27, 1). The columns from this temple
which Sulla (c. 86 B.C.) removed to Rome to use
in the Temple of the Capitoline Jupiter, were
probably monolithic shafts of coloured marble
from the interior of the cella (see Plin. xxxvi.
§45).
O'peris novi nuntia'tio. See Appendix,
Roman Law.
Opistho'domus. [Architectura, p. 60.]
Opistho'graphi. [Liber.]
O'ppidum. Originally the stronghold (Celtic
tun) commonly overlooking the plain {ob
pedum), which served as a refuge for the in-
habitants of the surrounding district. Hence
it did not differ essentially from urbs. But
while the latter word came to be used espe-
cially of Rome, oppiduni became the general
name for country towns, including vi unicipia,
praefecturae, and coloniac [Colonia; Muni-
cipium].
Athens as the o^ov of the poor : Lake Kopais
produced the eels regarded as the gi-eatest of
luxuries (Ar. Ach. 880, &e.). We may notice
the great consumption of salt fish {rdpixos). Of
this supply the Euxine was the chief source ;
abundance also came from Egypt, Sardinia,
and Spain (Hdt. ii. 215). Salt fish was sent
to Athens in jars {Kepd/uia or afjLcpoprjs). The
most useful fish for salting were various sorts of
thunny ; avraKaios (sturgeon ?) is also named ;
the roe was made into a sort of caviare in early
times : fish sauce or pickle (oAyUTj, ydpov) was
made principally from the ffKOfikpos. (For the
fish-market at Athens, see Agora ; Macellum.)
The Romans ate more flesh meat than the
Greeks, and the words obsonare (-i), obsuiiiuin,
&c. have a wider meaning (cf. Hor. Sat. i. 2,
9, ii. 2, 41 ; Juv. iv. 64 ; Mart. xiv. 217 ; Plant.
Stich. iii. 1, 36, Aid. ii. 4, 1 ; Ter. Ad. i. 2, 37 ;
Plin. xxxii. 87). In the sense of a sauce or
relish, {luliucntariii iii answers to S^ov.
Optima'tes. [Nobiles.]
O'ptio. Exercitus.]
Opus alba'rium. [Paries.]
Opus musi'vum (Mosaic). [Pictura.]
Ora'culuni(|<aj'Tero»', xpTjCT^^ptor). An oracle
in some special locality supposed to be chosen
G G 2
452
ORACULUM
by a god, hero, or shade of the dead, as an abode '
from which he might give answers to his
worshippers. The answer itself is also known |
as an oracle, alike in Greek, Latin, and
English. Oracles were given (1) orally in the
form of a message from the god ; (2) by signs
such as the rustling of leaves, the disposition !
of sortes, chance answers (<?>T}yuai, 6/x(paij, sacri-
ficial signs, &c. ; (3) in dreams (iyKoiixaadai,
incubatio) sent to a person sleeping in the j
temple ; (4) by necromancy or consultation of the
spirits of the dead (veKvia). \
The oracle at Dodona in Epirus, where Zeus
was believed to send messages to men by the
rustling of the leaves of an oak, probably the |
earliest in Greece, is mentioned by Homer
(II. xvi. 233) According to Herodotus (ii. 52) '
it existed before the names of the gods were
introduced from Egj-pt. The Zeus of Dodona
was worshipped under a peculiar name, Natos,
and with him was worshipped a goddess, Dione, i
probably the feminine of Zeus. |
At Dodona were the ScAAol aviirroTrohts
{II. xvi. 235) ; who, according to Od. xiv. 327,
xix. 296, ' heard the counsel of Zeus from the
high-leaved oak.' These Selli appear to have '
been originally, not a caste of priests, but a
tribe (Arist. Meteor, i. 14). !
The story of the sacred women carried off by i
Phoenicians from the Egyptian Thebes (accord- I
ing to the Dodonaean legend, two black doves), I
one to Libya, the oracular seat of Zeus Amnion, '
the other to Dodona, is told by Herodotus
(ii. 54-57).
From the story itself, and from other con-
siderations, it appears likely that at a certain
early period of the Dodonaean oracle, an impor-
tant change took place owing to the Egyptian in- ;
Huence ; and with this change may be connected '
the institution of priestesses. The priestesses
communicated the divine messages under the
control of a council of men whose president
was styled vaiapxos- i
The original method of divination was by the
interpretation of sounds (viz. the rustling of !
leaves) ; but in Plato's time we find (Phaedr. I
244 b) tliat the priestesses, like those at Delphi, '
prophesied in a state of divine frenzy. Again,
we learn from Cicero (Div. i. 34, 7(>) that div-
ination by lots was practised at Dodona. In '
later times brazen vessels were used to pro- i
duce sounds of prophetic import : a circle of '.
such vessels was suspended, which being moved
by the wind struck against one another ; and
at a still later date we hear of a fountain which
kindled torches when applied to it, and whose
murmurings had also a prophetic quality |
(Plin. ii. § 228).
Dodona, though the most ancient of the I
oracles (Hdt. ii. 52) was very inferior in politi-
cal importance to Delphi during the historical j
period. Kroesus consulted it (Hdt. i. 46), but
was dissatisfied with its answer. The Athenians
were encouraged by it in their Sicilian expedi-
tion (Paus. viii. 11, § 6). It was bribed b}' j
Lysander, when he wished to make himself king j
of Sparta (Plut. Lijsand.). Demosthenes in the
Meidiaa appeals to Dodona and Delphi as
equal authorities, and we read of honours paid
by the Athenians to the oracle of Dodona at a ,
still later date. Dorimachus, the Aetolian
general, razed the temple to the ground (219 B.C.),
and the oracle never recovered its prestige ;
though Hadrian probably rebuilt the temple.
The actual site of Dodona, pointed out by ,
Bishop Christopher Wordsworth in 1836, was j
identified and thoroughly explored in the year |
1876 by a Greek explorer, M. Constantin
Karapanos, in the valley of the Tcharakovitza,
about eleven miles south-west of the town and
lake of Janina.
The Oracle of Delphi. — The notice of the
treasure of Delphi (TlvOw, II. ix. 404) is of a
later date than the original Iliad : and the
oracle was probably still in its infancy when
the greater part of the Iliad was written.
The tradition among the Greeks was, that it
had first been an oracle of the Earth (7010) : so
say Aeschylus [Eumen. 1, 2) and Euripides
(I. T. 1249). Night and Themis, and perhaps
Poseidon, are also associated with the Delphian
oracle.
The peculiarity of the Delphic inspiration
was the frenzy of the Pythian prophetess ;
which we may confidently believe to have been
one form of that religious exaltation which
prevailed so strongly in. central Greece in the
early times, and which sent the Bacchanals to
wander and rave on the heights of Parnassus
itself (Eur. Ion, 714-718, I. T. 1243-4, cf.
Aeseh. Fr. 383, Eur. Bacch. 298). Delphi and
the region round were full of memorials of
Dionysus (Paus. x. 33, § 5) ; but the tradi-
tions do not make Dionysus the actual
possessor, at any period, of the Delphic oracle.
Many ancient and modem writers agree in
the belief that part at least of the trance of tlie
Pythia was produced by an exhalation from
the cavernous chasm over which the tripod, or
prophetic seat, was placed. The existence of
this may be doubted ; at any rate it is spoken
of as something abstract and impalpable.
Pausanias, who used the word aT/x6s to describe
the influence (x. 5, § 3), also ascribes it to the
•water of the fountain Kassotis.
Special solemnities accompanied the pro-
mulgation of an oracle. There were unlucky
days (anoippaSfs) when no consultation was
permissible (cf. Plut. Alex. 14). The 7th of
the month Bysius (March) was, on the other
hand, regarded as the birthday of Apollo, and
specially favourable.
Three days before the day of oracular utter-
ance, the Pythia began her preparation for the
solemn act by fasting and bathing ui the
Kastalian spring, or possibly Kassotis, which
flowed through the shrine. Bathing in Kastalia
was a duty for all who either asked for or wlip
assisted in giving out the oracular reply (Eur.
Ion. 94-101 ; Pind. Pijth. v. 39) ; and a rock-
hewn bath still remains near the Kastalian
spring. The Pythia herself was chosen from
among the virgins of Delphi (Eur. Ion, 1323) ;
she was not allowed to marry, and in early
times was always a young girl ; subsequently,
women above fifty were selected for the office,
though they were still dressed as j'oung
maidens. In early times there was but one
Pythia ; later there were two.
The turn of the various consultants was
determined by lot, except in cases of right of
precedence (irpojuacTeja) : e.g. Kroesus and the
Lydians (Hdt. i. 54). Before the god was con-
sulted, omens were taken by the sacrifice of an
ox, a sheep, or a boar (Eur. loyi, 229), which
must be pronounced sound bj- special signs.
If the omens were good, the Pythia, after
burning laurel leaves and flour of barley (Plut.
Pijfh. Orac. 6), or perhaps myrrh (Eur. Ion, 89),
in the never-dying flame (Aesch. Cho. 1036)
on the altar of the god, and dressed in
a costume which resembled that of Apollo
Musagetes. took her seat on the Kffiris {cor-
tina) containing the bones of the Python, and
1
ORACULUM
453
supported by the tripod, wliicli stood over the i questionably directed and encouraged tho
chasm. Close beside her was a golden statue colonising spirit of the Greeks, as in the case
of Apollo. It is inipoHsible to speak decidedly j e.g. of Kyrene, the foundation of which appears
about the state of to have been entirely due to the Delpliic
frenzy into which slie j oracle (Hdt. iv. 150-159), of Syracuse, Kroton,
then fell. Imposture Rhegium, &c. The Pythian oracle sent word
may have been pre- | to the Lacedaemonians to spare the captive
sent ; but the reli- i Helots at Ithome (Thuc. i. 103) : on the other
gious element cannot
be ignored.
l>y the side of the
Pythia stood the
prophet (Trpo4>r)TT]s,
spokesman, Hdt. viii,
the noble families of
Delphi being appa-
rently eligible. Be-
sides the irpocpriTat,
there were five iiatoi,
chosen from the de-
scendants of Deukalion (Pint. Qiiaest. Grace.
9). The responses of the oracle were at first
always given in hexameters, but subsequently
in prose
Fig. 7."7.— Pythia seated on
tripod, from a vase. (British
Museum.)
hand, it countenanced the futile and rapacious
attempt of Kylon (Thuc. i. 12C). The most im-
portant act of the Delphic oracle was the
command to Sparta to liberate Athens from
the despot Hippias (510 B.C.). The sixth
century u.c. is that whicli shows Delphi at tlie
3t)), whose office i height of its power. It begins with the first
was to interpret her j Sacred War, in which the severity exercised to-
vague cries, and put wards Kirrha and Krissa is a blot on the fair
them into ordered ; fame of Delphi. In the middle of the sixth
language. The irpo- \ century the great gifts of Kroesus were made ;
<piiTt)s was selected | shortly after whicli (548 B.C.) the temple was
by lot (Eur. Ion, \ burnt down, but rebuilt with great splendour
41()), any member of i by the Alkmaeonidae.
During the Persian wars the oracle coun-
selled submission, in its utterances to the
Knidians (Hdt. i. 174), to the Argives (vii. 148),
and to the Kretans (vii. 109, 171). But the
famous answei- of the ' wooden walls ' (Hdt.
vii. 140) was in fact the very best for Athens
that could have been given.
During the Peloponnesian War, the oracle
supported the Spartans (Thuc. i. 118, 123) ; but
it had no real command over the combatants.
It is implied in various ways that the Pythia After the beginning of the fourth centuiy B.C.
was not a mere insti'ument in the matter, but , its influence falls. Agesilaus (Plut. Agesil. 10)
really in part directed the answers. There set it below Dodona ; and Epameinondas
seems not to have consulted it, though
he sent it gifts after the battle of
Leuktra, as Lysander had done at the
close of the Peloponnesian War (Plut.
Lys.).
The Second Sacred War (357-346 B.C.)
marks the beginning of the definite
decline alike of Greece and of Deli)hi, by
the introduction of Philip of Macedon
into Central Greece, and by the disper-
sion of the vast Delphian treasures seized
by the Phokians. In the preceding cen-
tury, such a sacrilege would have been
impossible. But Demosthenes could now say,
We must not, however,
Fig. loS. — 'Oji^'aAo's of Delplii. (From Greeli vases.)
were also dreams (Eur. I. T. 12C3) and omens
(f/jLTTvpa, Andr. 1'21'd). But the presence of the ! ^ Uvdia 4>i\nnri(^ei.
0jx<pa\6s or sacred stone in the temple served
to put the oracles under the highest guarantee,
that of Zeus himself, who, by the meeting here
of a pair of eagles, had
detennined the earth's
forget the memorable answer to Sokrates.
Oracles of Zeus {other than Dodona).
(1) Oracle of Zeus at Olympia. This was a
very ancient oracle. A family of priestly
centre (Pind. Pyth. iv. 3, ' diviners, the lamidae, descended from lamus,
131). I a son of Apollo (Pind. 01. vi. 47-121), intro-
The general impression I duced methods of divination unknown to the
of the Delphic oracle earliest times, by the observation of the en-
which we receive from trails of victims (Hdt. i. 59) and of the flames
history is, that it acted of sacrifices (Pind. 01. viii. 4). The divination
for good ; and that in the was performed before the altar of Zeus Olym-
freedom of its own action, pius (Pind. 01. vi. 118).
and the freedom of action (2) Oracle of Zeus Amnion, in an oasis of
of those who consulted it, Libya, in the north-west of Egypt, visited by
the Greek race was enabled I Alexander in 331 B.C. (sec C/«.s.s. Diet. Alex-
to combine the sense of religious mystery in a I andek). This oiacle came immediately after
rare degree with individual energy; but that it ; Delphi and Dodona in importance and fame;
failed, when Greece had reached a certain it was in all probability founded by Egyptians,
degree of development : partly from the decay and then modified through the Greek influence
of religious belief, partly from the corresponding of Kyrene.
recourse to evasion and deception. j Zeus, in this oracle, was represented as
The real good which the oracle did, and j having a ram's head {Kpioirp6auTros, Hdt. iv.
especially in the earlier days, lay in the courage : 181, ii. 42), like the Theban god Amun Ra,
which it imparted to those who consulted it. who from the time of the Ethiopian (XXV.)
It is said to have supported Lykurgus and dynasty (seventh century B.C.) was also repre-
Solon (Hdt. i. 65 ; Plut. Sol. ; 148), it uu- ; sented with a rain's head. Herodotus tells us
Fig. Tnn.— Apollo seated
on the omphalos.
{From a coin of Kal-
chedon [ChalkedonJ.i
454
OEACULUM
that the oasis of Ammoii was colonised by
Egyptians and Ethiopians, and it aj)pears from
recent discoveries that it was under a king of
the Ethiopian dynasty, Taharqa (Tirhakah :
692-664 B.C.); that this oasis was colonised.
From the Kyrenians, the worship of Zeus
Ammon spread to their kindred in Greece, the
Si^artans and Thebans (Paus. iii. 18, § 2). The
Greeks never took kindly to ' brutish gods,' and
did not easily identify this deitj' with Zeus.
Pindar, however, completely identifies Ammon
with Zeus {Pyth. ix. 89). On the other hand,
in Plato, Ammon is always Ammon, never Zeus.
Alexander, of course, identified Ajnmon with
Zeus.
We know but little of the methods of divina-
tion employed at this oracle.
Oracles of Apollo [other than Delphi).
The oijacular impulse first came to birth in
Greece, while the worship of Apollo originated
on the coasts of Asia Minor. But gradually
the worship of Apollo crossed over the Aegean,
and found a centre at Delphi. Hence the
oracular impulse revisited Ionia.
(1) Oracle at Abae, in the N. E. of Phokis.
This oracle, traditionally of great antiquity, is
first mentioned in the sixth century B.C., when
Kroesus included it among the seven oracles
which he consulted before making war on
Cyrus (Hdt. i. 46; Soph. 0. T. 893). This
oracle lasted till 346 B.C., when the temple was
burnt by the Thebans.
(2) Apollo had several oracles in Boeotia,
among which may be named that of Apollo
Ismenius, south of Thebes — the national sanc-
tuary of the Thebans {Soph. O. T. 21). A
stone at the entrance of the temple was pointed
oirt as the prophetic seat of Manto, the daughter
of Teiresias. In this oracle a boy was selected
yearly as priest and termed ia(pv't](p6pos [Aa(|)VTi-
(j>opCa].
(3) That of Apollo Didymaeus, or of the
Branchidae, in the territory of Miletus. This
oracle was the fourth in importance of all
in the Grecian world : it is not mentioned
in the Homeric poems, and was probably an
offshoot from Delphi. It was the oracle chiefly
consulted by the Greeks of Asia Minor, and
was one of the seven oracles selected by
Kroesus to answer his test question, and was
honoured by him with magnificent gifts (Hdt. i.
92). The oracle at Branchidae had a tripod
and a prophetess, and a sacred spring of water.
The account of the transplanting of the Bran-
chidae into Sogdiana in the fifth century B.C.
(Hdt. vi. 19), and their massacre by Alexander,
may be read in Grote's History of Greece, ch.
xciv.
The oracle of Apollo Didymaeus (Ai^vixalos,
AiSvfJLeios) revived from the ruins in which the
Persians had left it. In the time of Alexander
we find it under the direction of the authorities
of Miletus. The priests were chosen annually
by lot from among the principal families of the
city ; the cliief of the priestly body was called
(rT€<pavri<l>6pos. Besides these, there was a
prophet, also annually ordained. The oracle
became rich, and was less affected by a decline
in prestige than the oracles in Greece proper.
It shared in the oracular revival of the third
and fourth centuries A.D., but after the death of
Julian (363 a.d.) fell into ruin.
(4) Oracle of Klaros, north of Miletus, near
Kolophon. The oracle at Klaros had its centre
in a cave with a pool in it, near a sacred wood.
A prophet, who drank the sacred water, was
the revealer of the divine will and pronounce i
oracles in verse. Germanicus consulted this
oracle, which was said to have prophesied his
death (Tac. ii. 54) ; it was sometimes consulted
by letter (Ov. Fast. i. 20) ; and was patronised
by Apollonius of Tyana (Philostr. Vit. A2)oll.
iv. 1).
Other oracles of Apollo existed : at Patara
(Hor. Carm. iii. 4, 64) ; Seleukeia in Kilikia ;
at GrjTieia, an Aeolic oracle (Verg. Eel. vi. 72,
Aen. iv. 345) ; and at Delos, which last, in spite
of the celebrity of the island, is little mentioned
(see Verg. Aen. iii. 92).
Oracles of other Gods.
The Earth was to the primitive populations
the chief discloser of the future. At Patrae, in
Achaia, Earth, associated with Demeter and
Persephone, gave oracles respecting the sick.
A mirror was let down by a rope into a sacred
well, so as to float upon the surface. Prayers
were then recitefl and incense offered, where-
upon the image of the sick person was seen in
the mirror either as a corjjse or in a state of
recovery. (Paus. ii. 24, § 1.)
There was an oracle of Pluto and Kore (Per-
sephone) at Acharaka, in the basin of the Mae-
ander, and another, of Dionysus, at Amphikaea
ill Phokis, to which sick persons resorted, and
were tended by priests, who slept at night in
the open air and directed the mode of cure by
their dreams.
Oracles of Pan were at Troezen and in the
cave at Paneas, one of the sources of the river
Jordan ; the oracles were given through dreams.
Hermes had an oracle at Pharae in Achaia,
wliere his altar stood in the middle of the
market-place. Incense was offered, lamps were
lighted, a copper coin was placed upon the
altar, and after this the question was put to
the god by a whisper in his ear. The person
who consulted him immediately left the market-
lilace. The first remark that he heard made
by anyone after leaving the market-place was
the answer of Hermes.
Oracles of Heroes.
Asklepius, or Aesculapius, was the god of
healing, the sou of Apollo, in whose temples
the sick would spend a night (iyKoiixaa-Oai,
inciibare) in hope of being miraculously re-
lieved by the morning (Paus. ii. 27, § 2).
Epidaiu-iis was the chief seat of his worship;
there Asklepius had a temple and a grove, and
a gold an<l ivory statue, and innumerable
votiive tablets on the walls attested the cures
wrought on sick persons by the method of
incubation.
There were oracles of Herakles in Boeotia
and elsewhere.
One of the most celebrated of the Greek
oracles was that of Trophonius, the legendary
builder of the temple at Delphi, at Lebadeia,
in Boeotia. The rites necessary before con-
sulting it were complicated and terrifying.
First, the consultants had to purify themselves
by spending some days in the sanctuary ayaOov
Aaifiovos ical ayadrjs Tvxtjs ; to live soberly and
purely ; to bathe in the river Herkyna ; to
offer sacrifices to Trophonius and his children,
to Apollo, Kronos, and other gods. If ad-
mission to the cave was granted, two boys led
the consultant again to the river Herkyna, and
bathed and anointed him. The priests then
made him drink from the well of Lethe, and
from the well of Mnemosyne. They led him
to the sanctuary, dressed him in linen gar-
ORACULUM
ments, with girdles and a peculiar kind of
shoes (/cpT/TTiSss) ; and bade him descend a
ladder into the cave. Close to the bottom was
an opening into which he put his foot; some
invisible power then drew his whole body
through the opening. In each hand he held a
honeycake (/xeKiTovTTa) to appease the subter-
ranean deities. The vision then seen by him
was told to the priests on his remounting to the
light, and the priests informed him of the
meaning of the oracle. This oracle preserved
a certain reputation even down to the time of
Plutarch. It was much consulted by the
Romans.
There were two oracles at which Ainphiaraus
was invoked : one near Thebes and Potniae,
the other near Oropus. The first was among
the seven consulted by Kroesus. The oracles
were given through dreams to persons sleeping
in the temple (Hdt. viii. 134) : they had to
prepare themselves for this incuhatio by fast-
ing and abstaining from wine.
The other oracle, that of Oropus, was espe-
cially consulted by the sick, who had to purify
themselves and sacrifice a ram, on the skin of
which they afterwards slept in the temple.
The means of recovery was then intimated to
them in dreams.
Oracles were also connected with the names
i)f Mopsus, Kalchas, Protesilaus, Odysseus,
Proteus, and other heroes.
Oracles of the Dead.
It was thought that at certain places the
shades of the dead could rise from chasms in
tlie earth and give answers to the living. Such
a place was called veKvofxavrflov or xpvxoTrofj.-
ireiov. The most ancient oracular seat of this
kind was near lake Aornos among the Thes-
yirotians (Hdt. v. 92). Others were at Phiga-
leia, Taenarus, il'c. As at other oracles, sacri-
fice was necessary before tlie shade could be
moved to appear, and also prayers (see the
veKvia in Hom. Od. xi. 23-37).
Italian Oracles.
Generally speaking, oracles, in the sense of
special places whei'e divine answers were given
to men, were not known to the Italian nations.
Their modes of divination were different. Yet,
according to Virgil and Ovid, there were true
oracular seats of Faunus at Albunea (Verg.
.ieti. vii. 81 sqq.) and on the Aventine (Ov.
I-'tist. iv. 650 sqip).
The temjiles of Fortune at Praeneste and
Antium were real oracles, and the only certain
instances in Italy. Tin- story of the foundation
of the Praenestine oracle is told by Cicero, dc
Die. ii. 41, H'). Wooden sortrs or lots were kept
in a box made of the wood of a sacred olive tree :
and once a year, in the month of April, a two-
days' festival was helrl at Praeneste in honour
of Fortune and Jupiter, the box was opened,
and a child drew out the lots at random. See
further Prop. ii. M'i, 3 ; Suet. Tib. (i3, Dmnit. ITt.
The temj)le of Fortune at Antium has been
Jnade famous by Horace iCarm. i. '29, 1 ; cf. Mart,
v. 1, 3). Two sister Fortunes were represented,
and were said to give the oracles by bending
their heads.
At Caere (Liv. xxi. 02) and Falerii (Liv. xxii.
1) omens were given by sortea.
Egyptian and Sijrian Orarlrs.
The oracles of Serapis at Alexandria (Tac.
Hist. iv. 81-84; Suet. Wsp. 7) and at Canopus
ORDO
455
had great fame. So had the oracle of Apis at
Memphis, and that of Isis at Philae.
Of Syrian oracles, at those of Heliopolis
(Baalbek) and Hiorapolis the Sun was the
revealing deity. Oracles were also at Nike-
phorium, and at Apanieia, Gaza, Aphaka, Neo-
caesari'a in Pontus, iVc.
Oratio'nes pri'ncipum. See Appendix,
Roman L.vw.
Ora'tor, originally a forensic word, is never
used, as in English, for a public speaker, nor
does it necessarily imply eloquence. An orator
(see Cic. dc Orat.) must be conversant with lus
Civile and Ins Publicum, and he should have
acquired a knowledge of all important acts and
things, so as to be able to speak well on any
subject. He must also have command of
language and of arguments adapted to con-
vince, as well as competent voice and action
and sufficient grace and ease.
The profession of the orator, who with refer-
ence to a client's case is also called patro-
nus (de Orat. i. 56, 237), was distinct from that
of the consulting juiist, who gave responsa
out of court jTurisconsulti', and also from
that of the Advocatus, who assisted a party
with legal advice, and accompanied him int<j
court, but did not speak for him. The orator
or patronus argued the case in court. After the
fall of the Republic, however, the functions of
advocatus and patronus or orator are con-
fused, as the greater jurists ceased to go into
court.
Among the most famous oratores of early
1 limes were M. Antonius (Brut. 41, 152) and T.
I Licinius Crassus, the interlocutor in Cicero's
: de Oratore. Cicero himself, thougli not a
learned lawyer, stood in the first rank of ora-
tores ; Servius Sulpicius was great both as a
! lawyer and as an advocate (de Orat. ii. 72, 292).
I Forensic oratory and the career of arms were
the two roads open to ambition at Rome, where
professions properly so called did not exist.
Hence the great value set upon the practical
power of speaking to a cause. The whole
education of Roman youths had this end in
view.
Roman oratory reached its perfection in the
century which preceded the Christian era : its
decline dates from, and was caused by, the
destruction of liberty under Augustus and
his successors. The old orators (Cic. Brut. c.S4)
learnt their art by constant attendance on some
eminent orator, and by actual experience of busi-
ness : the orators were formed in the schools of
Rhetoric, and their jiowers were developed by
exercises on fictitious niattirs.
Orbas. fLez lulia et Fapia Poppaea.]
Orca. 'Situlai
Orchestra. Theatrum]
Ordo. ' A row ' of oars, tiles, plants, il'c.
Special meanings are : (1) in a military
sense ordu (rdyfia, Polyb. vi. 24, 5) is used of
the manipulus of two centuries (see Liv. viii.
8) ; ordinem durcre means ' to be a centurion,'
two of whom held joint command in each
maniple (Liv. xlii. 34, 5); (2) of any distinct
class of persons (Cic. Verr. ii. 6, 17; Liv.
xxiii. 23, 4); (3) (most commonly) the word
ordit is ajiplied to the two dominant classes in
the Roman state, the Senate and the Equit-es,
and likewise to the corresponding classes in
the municipia, the irrdo decurionum and the
ordit Auf/uslaliuni. At Rome the senate and
equites are not nnfre<|ucntly called uter(]ur
ordo, with no other qualification. A Roman
senator did not refer to a speech made in th£
456
ORGANON
senate as being delivered ' in this House,' but in
hoc ordine (Sail. Cat. 52, 13). So hie or
noster ordo.
The term equester ordo is used in some
places of the eighteen centuries of Knights
(Cic. Phil. vi. 5, 13) ; but oftener, and specially
under the Empire, ordo is used of the equites
Roniani in the wider sense : of all, that is, who,
not being senators, possessed the qualifying
property of 400,000 HS., and were therefore
eligible for the eighteen centuries, and had the
right under the Lex Eoscia to sit in the front
rows of the theatre (of. Hor. Eji. i. 1, 62, Epod.
iv. 16 ; Juv. iii. 159).
The term ordo is used of other bodies, e.g.
the tribuni aerarii, the lihertini (Cic. Verr. i.
47, 124, and Livy),and the pnbUcani (IAy. xxv.
3, 12). We have also an ordo lictorum, scrib-
ariun, seviraliiitn, haruspicum, &c.
The term extra ordinem is used of special
exceptions from rule, e. g. praeturae extra
ordinem (Tac. Ann. ii. 32). In criminal pro-
cedure, a trial which was to have precedence of
all others is said to be taken extra ordinem,
and the accused in such a case is extraordi-
nariii.s reus (Cic. Fam. viii. 8, 1). In civil
procedure, iudicia ordinaria are those tried
under the formulary system, where the points
at issue are referred to a single juror subject
to instructions {formula) given him by the
praetor [Actio]. When the praetor himself
decides without this reference to a iudex, we
have a cognitio extra ordinem (Tac. Ann.
xiii. 51) ; and when the magistrate delegated
the task to a substitute without binding him
down by a formula the deputy-judge was called
iudex extra ordinem datus.
O'rganon. [Machina.]
O'rgia. [Mysteria.]
'OpYutd i^Opyvia, Hom.). A fathom, the
distance from extremity to extremity of the
outstretched arms (Xen. Mem. ii. 3, 19). It
was = 6 TToSes or 4 iriixfis, and was i^rv of the
stadium (Hdt. ii. 149). (Compare Mensura
and Tables, III.).
Oricha'lcum (opeixahKos). Brass — an arti-
ficial alloy of copper and zinc. The chief
extant objects made of this metallic com-
pound are the sestertii and dupondii of
Augustus and the earlier emperors. The
' copper ' coins of the Roman Republic are not
of brass, but made from an alloy of copper and
tin, i.e. bronze.
Orichalcum had the appearance of gold (Cic.
Off. iii. 23, 92) ; hence the mistaken ortho-
graphy aurichalcum.
In Greek literature, opiixo-^Kos occurs in
[Horn.] Hymn. Ven. 9 (ear-rings) ; Hes. Sc.
Her. 122 (greaves) ; Callim. Lav. Pall. 19
(mirror).
In the Latin writers, from Plautus onwards,
the word orichalcum is frequently found; gene-
rally, it would seem, with the meaning of
brass (Plaut. Cure. i. 3, 46 [202], -M/Z. iii. 1, 69
[660], Pseud, ii. 3, 22 [688] ; Verg. Ae)i. xii. 87).
Orni'thon. [Agriculture.]
O'rphica. (1) Orpheus. — The Thracian Or-
pheus (prophet, poet and priest) is said by
Aristophanes [Ran. 1032) to have given the
Greeks reKiras (povwv r' dTrexecOai- In later
times the invention of writing, music, medical
art, oracles, heroic versification, and other
things, was attributed to him. During the
seventh and sixth centuries B.C. there was
a great influx into Greece of Thracian and
Oriental worships, consisting of purificntory
and mystic rites, quite foreign to the ordinary
ORPHICA
Hellenic ideas. [Eleusinia.] It was round
the name of Orpheus that these Thracian and
Oriental ideas clustered ; he was held to be
the founde;: of the sect, and the author of the
works written by the members of the sect.
Tlie sect continued to exist from the classical
Greek times during the Alexandrine era on
into Roman times, gradually gathering round
it all sorts of superstitions and speculations,
till in the third and fourth centuries a.d. it
made the last intellectual struggle against
Christianity.
(2) The Orphic Life. — It enjoined abstinence
from certain foods — meat, fish, eggs, and beans.
The votaries wore white garments. No bloody
sacrifices were allowed (Plat. Legg. vi. 782 i>),
for transmigration of souls was a cardinal
feature of the Orphic doctrine. They believed in
the original sin of man, and tliat the human
soul passed from one body to another — that is,
from one charnel-house to another (ercoyua,
CTTj/uo) — till the purified soul was translated to
the stars. The necessary purifications were
supplied by the Orphic rites. The curious
ceremonial of the Orphics, who formed an
ascetic religious brotherhood, their fastings,
washings, and ceremonial, made them con-
temptible in the eyes of the Athenians. But
women and the uneducated and superstitious
were attracted both by the genuine Orpliic
system and by spurious imitations of it, such
as were practised by a certain class of religious
beggars, called 'Op(peoTe\eaTai or uriTpayvpTai,
who went about with books and sacred utensils
(Ar. Ban. 159), promising expiation from crimes
both for the living and for the dead (Plat. Eep.
ii. 364 b). There was no lack of votaries
among the superstitious (cf. Theophr. xvi.).
Similar superstitions were the Phrygian wor-
ship of Sabazius, full of purifications and
superstitious magic, muesli aftected by women
and the lower orders (Ar. Lys. 388). Priestesses
called Trepiiu.aKTpiat administered these rites.
When the Pythagorean brotherhood was broken
up in Italy, the scattered Pythagoreans joined
naturally to the Oii^hics, and introduced into
their doctrines the speculative principles which
their master had taught them : and this influx
of Pythagorean members gave an important
impetus to the development of Orphic doctrine
and Orphic life.
(3) The Orphic Authors generally. ^Onoma,-
kritus, who lived at the court of Peisistratus,
was a xpV^/J-o^'^'YOS and SiadeTT]s (arranger and
editor) of the Oracles of IMusaeus (Hdt. vii. 6)
and the works attributed to Orpheus, adding to
them works of his own under the names of
Orpheus and Musaeus. Other ^vriters fol-
lowed, especially Pherekydes of Athens. The
Orphic poems gained considerable popularity
(Plat. lou, 536 B), but it was specially by the
priestly family of the Lykomidae that the
Orphic ritual was used ; they also introduced
Orphic speculations and rites into the Eleu-
sinian worship [Eleusinia].
(4) The Orphic Literature may be divided
into (a) Theological, (6) Liturgical, (c) Theur-
gical.
(a) Theological. — These dealt with such sub-
jects as the universal soul and the individual
souls, the Unity of the Gods, the action of
the winds or their guardians {rpiTOirdropes) in
breathing souls into bodies, the transmigration
of souls, and cycle of births ; the descent of
Oi-phous to Hades (Plat. Symj). 179 d ; Eur.
Med. 557) ; the formation of the human frame,
which is compared to the weaving of a net
ORPHICA
(SiKTvov) ; geograpliy, cosmogony (7r*VAos) ;
and other works, religious, scientific, or mys-
tical.
iIj) Lifiirffical. — (1) "T^i/ot to the gods.
(2) QpovLfffiol fjL7]Tp(^ot Koi BoJcytKOL, prayers
and liymiis sung at tlu' Opovcvais of votaries
in the worship of Kybele and Bacchus :
(S) "OpKot, (i) 2a>TT)pta, prayers and thanks-
givings for safety. (5) 'Oro^ioim/co, lists of
names of the gods. (6) Neoreu/CTiKa, forms for
dedication of temples.
((•) Theurgical. (1) ''Epya /col rifxepai, or
i<prinepiSes, a kind of astrological and mytho-
logical calendar (cf. Juv. vi. rAt\) ; Plin. .\xix. § 9),
treating of lucky and unlucky days. ('2) Ilepi
(pvTwv, fioTavwv, (papnaKwv, irtpX fiT(pSiKu>v Kal
IxayiKuiv and such like : combinations of medicine
and magic ; other poems of mystical, magical,
and ritualistic contents. Among these may be
mentioned AifliKo, a poem, still extant, on the
magical properties of stones. 'AfivoaKoiria (or
avifj-ocTKoiria), woaKoiriKO, and uodurtKO, treated,
as their names indicate, of various kinds of
divination.
(5) Till' Orjjhic Theofjoiiij. — The theogonies,
and tlie questions connected with the date and
place of their origin, have been much dis-
cussed. The Orphic cosmogonies and theo-
gonies trace the origin of all things to Night,
to Earth, Sky, and Sea, to 0|)hion and Euiy
nome, Kronosand Kliea, Adrasteia, Phanes an I
Eros, and a multitude of symbolical figures,
who combine to produce the Egg of Creation.
The theogony called that of the Rhajisodists
was the one ordinarily in vogue, and was
regarded by both Christians and Neo-
Platonists as the genuine Oi'phic theogony.
These led to the received theogonies, such as
in" Hesiod. The developed forms of these
theogonies are late in date, but they have
their roots in earlier speculations, such as
those mentioned by Plato {C>(if.-iO'lJi,Lcf/(/.
iv. 715, Phaedr. 2-i« c) which in one form or
another i)ermeate Greek religion from the
earliest times, and cannot now be unravelled.
The Zagrens-leffcnd is the most important
feature of the later part of the Orphic
theogony. Zagi'eus the hunter-god, son of
Zeus and Persephone, is killed and cut to
pieces by the Titans. His heart is buried by
Apollo under the ofupaKos at Delphi, and from
it rose Dionysus. This is an Oriental myth,
and may be compared with those of Osiris in
Egypt, of Atys in Phrygia, and of Adonis or
Thammuz in Phoenicia; and its later form
may have arisen from a blending of Eastern
religions in the Greek mind, from about the
third century B.C.
In this legend Zagreus is considered as a
Chthonian god, and sometimes identified with
Hades. He is taken by some to personifj- the
vital force of Nature. The passion of Zagreus-
Dionysus is the main feature of the legend,
and was represented at Eleusis [Eleusinia],
where he was identified with lacohus. A car-
dinal feature of this Zagreus worship was llie
wfnocpayiai (Eur. Bacch. 13!)), which ])oint dis-
tinctly to primitive savage rites. That the
sacrifices were originally hunniii, and that the
remeiiilirance of them was not entirely extinct
in 4M0 H.c, is proved by Themistokles's sacri-
fice of three Persian prisoners to Dionysus
'Ci.fi7)(Trits (Pint. Them. 13). Thus Dionysus
was called Tavpo<f>dyos a,n(\ Mo(Txo<pdyos (Soph.
Fniff. (iO'i; Ar. Hun. .'i'lT, Schol.). Sacrifices
calh'd wfxocpayiai were also celebrated at Chios
and elriewhere. Tlie rite was supposed to be
OSCILLA
457
a representation of Zagreus torn in pieces
by the Titans. To the same order of ideas
belong the stories of Pentheus and of Or^jheus
hin.s,lf.
Orthodo ron. [Tables, I. i
'0<Txo<{>6pi«. or 'n(Txo<J>6pia. An Attic
festival, in honour of Dionysus and Athena,
the givers of wine and oil, and also of Theseus
(Plut. Thes. 22, 23 1. The time of its celebra-
tion was the 7th and 8th of the Attic month
Pyanepsion. It was a vintage festival ; and on
the day of its celebration two youths, called
6(Txo<p6poi, selected froin among the noblest
citizens, dressed as women, carried branches of
vines with fresh grapes from the temple ol
Dionysus in Athens to the ancient temple of
Athena Skiras in Phaleron. These youths were
followed by a procession, and a chorus sang
hymns called waxo<popiKa. fxf\ri, which were
accomjianied by dunces.
Osci'lla, small figures or masks, representing
either the whole human figure or a part of it,
generally the face, which were hung up as
offerings in various ways, and in connexion
with various rites. We may notice especially
(1) the figures like wooden dolls, called inaniae
and ^;(7«p, hung up to Mania Larunda, the
Mother of the Lares [see Compitalia]. Oscilla
Fig. 7C0.— Oscilla and other ofFerings at a rustic festival.
From an engraved cup. (liotticher.)
were also hung up at the Feriae Latinae, and
at the festival of Sementivae and the country
Paganalia. To these refer the lines of Virgil,
Geui'fj. ii. 3S'2-89l). These masks or figures,
whether in honour of Bac-
chus, Liber pater, or any
deity connected with the
fruits of the earth, were
hung upon the boughs of
trees; offerings were made
below, and songs were
sung, like those of the Amb-
arvalia.
On the Saturnalia, too,
presents were made of
little earthenware figures Fig. Tni.— Mnrblonmbk
or faces. ','.' ■.'.'".''«'"''• '" ""^
Oscilla m marble and m
pottery may be seen in the British Museum;
but the ordinary oscilla were no doubt made of
wax or wood.
458
OSCIXES
The origin of this custom may be traced to
human sacrifice, whether expiatory or proi)iti-
atory. The same substitution for human
Fig. 762.— Olive-tree -with oscllla. fistula, and pedum.
(From an engraved gem.)
sacrifice appears in the rush images of the
Argei thrown from the Sublician bridge [Argei ;
Pons; cf. Altopa].
O'scines. [Augur.]
Ostia'rius. [Domus.]
O'stium. rianua.]
Ostracismus. [Exilium.]
Ova'tio. A lesser triumph (pi'obably from
^^AV- \avoi], ' to shout,' not ovis : -rre^hs dpian^os,
ela(TTi)s or euaj 0pia,a0o5. It was distinguished
from Triumphus in the following particulars :
the general did not enter the city in a
chariot drawn by four horses, but on foot ; he
was not arrayed in the gorgeous gold-em-
broidered toga picta, but in the simple toga prae-
texta of a magistrate ; his brows were encircled
with a wreath, not of laurel, but of myrtle
{ovalis corona) [Corona] ; he bore no sceptre
in his hand ; the procession was not heralded
by trumpets, nor headed by the senate and
thronged with victorious troops, but was en-
livened by a crowd of flute-players, and attended
chiefly by knights and plebeians, frequently
without soldiers ; the ceremonies were con-
cluded bv the sacrifice, not of a bull, but of a
sheep. (Plut. Marcell. c. 22 ; Liv. iii. 10.)
In later times, the victor entered on horse-
back (Serv. ad Verg. Aen. iv. 543).
Strictly speaking, neither a triumph nor an
ovation was granted except to the victor in a
bellumiustum: that is to say, it could not be
claimed upon the defeat of revolted citizens or
slaves in a belhini civile (Tac. Hist. iv. 4;
Lucan, i. 12). This rule held with regard to
triumphs, but was relaxed for ovations from
an early time (Cic. de Orat. ii. 47, 195 ; Suet.
Aug. 22).
An ovation was granted when the advantage
gained, although considerable, did not give a
claim to the higher distinction of a triumph ; or
when the victory had been achieved with little
bloodshed ; or when the war had not been
completely terminated (Liv. xxvi. 21) ; or when
the contest had been carried on against un-
worthy foes, as in the Servile War.
OvMlt = Saepta. rComitia ; Pons.]
'OgvPat^ov. [Acetabulum; Cymbalum.]
Pa'ctio, Pactum. See Appendix, Roman
Law, Obligatio.
Paean iwaiav). Strictly, a hymn relating to
relief from plagues and sickness, but extentled
also so as to refer to safety from danger of any
kind. It was originally connected with the
PAELEX
ancient god of healing, nar/;cov, but transferred
to Apollo, who took to himself the especial
function of healmg {Xeach. Agam. 146; Soph.
O. T. 154). It then became associated with
victory, traditionally the victory of Apollo over
the Python; and hence, lastly, was used as
a war-song. The paean is a hymn (1) of
supplication during pain or danger (Hom. II.
i. 472 ; Soph. O. T. 5 ; Thuc. i. 50, the paean
before the battle) ; (2) a thanksgiving after it
is past {II. xxii. 391). It was sung at festal
gatherings by several persons, one of whom led
(f l^jpxe) the others (Plat. Synip. p. 176 ; Xen.
Sijmp. ii. 1; Plut. Conv. 5; Alcman, Fr. 11).
In war it was sung while marching to battle
(iraiav ifi^arriptos) (Plut. Lye. 22) ; and at festi-
vals of Apollo, especially at the Hyakinthia
(Xen. Hell. iv. 5, § 11, Ages. ii. 17), and also
from very earlv times in the temples of the
god (Eur.' Jo?i, i25, etc.).
In later times, paeans were sung in honour
of kings and benefactors.
Paedago'gUS (iraiSaywyos). A slave, to whose
care in an Athenian family the sons of the
house were committed from the age of six
(Hdt. viii. 75). His duty was rather to guard
them from evil, both physical and moral, than
to instruct them, though it is probable that
before they went to school he gave some home
instruction. His chief duty was to accompany
them to and from the school, the gymnasium,
and out of doors generally (see Plato, Lysis,
p. 223 ; Eur. Ion, 853 sqq.). It is probable that
he sat with them in the schools (see fig. 675,
p. 396, where the seated figure may be a
7rai5a7a>7<is). Paedagogi are usually repre-
sented as bearded, wearing a short-sleeved
chiton and a small rough liimation, and holding
a walking stick with a crook. See fig. 573, under
Funus. [Ludus litterarius.] Being .slaves,
they were foreigners, and spoke bad Greek
(Inro^apfiapi^eiv, Plat. Lysis, I.e.).
At Rome the custom of having a,paedagogiis,
instead of only a cusfos, was borrowed from
Greece towards the end of the Republic, when
it became common to teach children to speak
Greek. [See Ludus litterarius.] (Tac. Dial.
29.) The care of the paedagogus lasted till
the toga virilis was assumed. The feminine
paedagoga occurs in inscriptions : a teacher of
Greek to the very young children, and perhaps
an attendant upon the daughters afterwards.
In imperial times, or shortly before, slaves
were trained up under slave instructors (cf.
Plut. Cat. 21; Cic. liosc. Am. 41, 120, Mil.
10, 28). Such boys (Mart. iii. 58, 29) lived
together in a pages' room or haU called paed-
agogiiini, having over them paedagogi, sub-
2>aedagogi, and decani. Slave boys of this
class themselves were called paedagogia
(Sen. Vit. Beat. 17); hence the word page.
naiSovonos was a magistrate, at Sparta
(and in some other Doric states) who had the
general superintendence of the training or
education of boys. [Ludus litterarius.] His
office was honourable ; the appointment by
election. He had control over the boys, at
Sparta after the age of seven; he inspected
them, and punished those who were negligent
or disobedient. For this purpose ij.a(TTiyo<p6pot
were assigned to him by Lykurgus. The more
immediate inspection of the gymnastic exer-
cises belonged to magistrates called BiStaioi
or ^iSfoi. In Crete also we find iraiZovOf/iOi for
boys of seventeen and upwards.
nai5oTpi3Tis- [Gymnasium.]
1 Faelex, Pellez. [Concubina.]
PAEN'ULA
Pae'nula. [Dress.]
Paga nica. ^ [Gaines, p. 3-29 6.]
Pagana'lia. The Italian pagi had their tute-
lary deitit'S and sanctuaries. Here were cele-
brated in January at the end of seed-time, the
countvy jjctgaitalia, which corresponded to the
feriae sementivae. An offering was made to
Tellus, masks were hung up [Oscilla_], and
there were games and rustic songs. (Ov. Fast.
i. CG7 sqq. ; Verg. Geoff/, ii. SH5 ; Hor. Ej). i. 1,
4'J.) The I It at ratio payi at this festival was a
rustic Ambarvalia, whieli, besides its religious
significance, had the advantages of fixing the
Ixmndaries of the pagus. [Ambarvalia ;
Lustratio.J At the festival of the Pa^'iuialia
tlie iiiaf/istcr pagi presided, and his wife
yiiiagiatra) assisted.
Pagus. A canton or parish. Latium was
anciently divided into a number of clan-settle-
ments or villages, each of which was an aggre-
gate of dwellings gathered round a central
enclosed or fortified space, an f/r.r or castellum
[cf. OppidumJ. As regards the terms viciis
and pugiis in reference to these ancient settle-
ments, we nniy gather that vicus meant a
village or hamlet of a continuous street, ^^flf/ws
a district including scattered houses or scattered
hamlets. The pagus was purely local, and was
in no way identified with the gois, though it is
jirobable that originally it was so, and that after-
wards in some cases iwv or more gentes might
have joined in the same pagus ; thus we find
that a few pagi have gentile names, as pagus
Valerius, pagiift Julius, though most are local.
Whether or not the original pagi were purely
independent clan-settlements, we know them
in historical times only as single members of a
state called ci vitas or j'opulus, which gathered
together in fora or conciliahula for markets
or for legislation, and, as one people, combined
for defensive or offensive warfare.
The pagus had an organisation analogous to
that of a collegium : magistri or acdilcs jx^oi
are annually elected with priestly functions,
to look after the sacred rites of the i)agus,
with some police control also of such matters
as the roads and the water-supply, and a
common council for local business. The ad-
ministrative im[)ortance of the pagus dwindled
to ahnost nothing, but to a late period it re-
mained as a geographical term for the district
of woodland and tillage outside a town and
attached to it for purposes of administration,
containing within itself villages (uici), country
houses (viUae), and farms (fu)i(U or praedia):
often several iiagi attached to one large town,
as, for instance, eleven pagi to Beneventum.
The pagi thus resembled in many respects
village communes or Geuirindeu (particularly
those in Switzerland), the Egyptian vofjLoi, and,
in some respects, the Athenian Srjjuo'-
Pagani. — At Rome the inhabitants of the
old city [Septimontium] were called mon-
tani; the accretion of other settlements, or
pagi, later included in the city, furnished the
■pagani. Hence in the age of Cicero monta)ii
et pagani would come to mean all tlie inhabi-
tants of the city (Cic. de Domo, 27, 74). The
Capitol, the Aventine, and the Janiculum
were pagi, not ifwntes ; and the terms jiagus
Ianiculc7isis, 2>agus Aveniinoisis lasted down
to the year 7 B.C., when Augustus rearranged
the city.
We find 7J«.(/rt«/ used in contradistinction to
militrs or to (irmati (Juv. xvi. >{3 ; Suet. .\ug.
27 ; Tac. Hist. i. 58, iv. -20). The original dis-
tinction was between regularly enrolled soldiers
PALA
459
and irregular undrilled and half-armed bands
of rustics. (See Verg. Aen. vii. 505.)
The modem use of the woi'd ' pagan,' from
the fact that the old religion lingered longest
in the rural districts, first appears 3GM .\.i).
The Celtic pagus or canton at the time of
the Roman conquest, had more organisation of
local government than the Italian, being
loosely grouped in the civitas. A certain
number of pagi made up a civitas (Liv. Ep.
Ixv.); of the Helvetii there were four pagi
which made up the civitas Helvetica (Caes.
B. G. i. 37) : and four was probably the normal
number.
After the Roman conquest and the dissolu-
tion of the Helvetic civitas, the political and
administrative importance of the pagus ceases,
and it retains only its religious functions.
Analogous to or identical with the Gaulish
pagi were the Ttrpopxiai, into which the three
Galatian (dvr) or ciiitntcs were divided, four
to each eOvos and their Tfrpapxoi, correspond-
ing to the four rrr/es or tetrarchs of the Cantii
(Caes. B. G. v. 2'i).
Pala (probably = (rKa7roj'7j, <r/co(^eroi'). (1) A
spade. The spade was comparatively little
used in ancient husbandn-, the implements
used besides the plougli for breaking ui) and
cleaning the ground being mostly of the i)i(k-
axe or hoe shape [see Rastrum, Ligo, Marra,
SarculumJ. The j^a^a was used, like our
spade, for digging ; it was of iron, with a broad
Fig. 7G3.— Pala, falx, and bldens. (From a relief
cutting edge curved at the end. Notice in the
cut the cross bar above the blade. In this
form the instrument was called bipalium
(mod. \ii\.\'\Anv a ng a). By means of this imple-
ment the ground was dug {jiastinare) to the
depth of two spades or nearly two feet. The
cross-bar was placed higher when a deeper
spit was required.
Cato mentions wooden shovels (juilar lig-
itrar) among the implements necessary to the
husbandnnm. One principal application of
them was in winnowing. The winnowing-shovel
{rrvoi', I'entilabrum and y((;/(j) is still genenilly
used ill Greece.
(■2i The blade or broad jiart of an oar.
[Remus (^peTftoV).] (3) In a ring the broad part,
which held the gem, was called jtala. [Anulus.j
^60
PALAEOGRAPHY
Palaeography. The science of interpreting
and chissifying ancient handwriting : distin-
guished from Epigraphy as being connected
witli writings on papyrus, parcliinent, or vel-
hnn, not with inscriptions cut on stone or
metal.
Palaeograpliy as a. science dates back no
further than the end of the seventeenth cen-
tury. Its founders were the French Benedic-
tines J. Mabillon {de lie Diplomat ica, Paris,
1681) and Bernard Montfaucon (Paheugraphia
Grceca, Paris, 1708). The recent writers are
numerous, the study of handwriting being
recognised as an important element in the
settlement of dates and correction of texts (see
below. Authorities).
Ancient books, when written on papyrus,
were usually transcribed in columns about two
inches wide by six inches long. The first column
was written at the left hand end of the roll,
the second parallel to it on the right, and so
on, so that the reader as he read unfolded the
roll (voliimen) from left to right. The division
of the works of ancient authors into books
(/3i)3Aos, ^t^Klov, a roll of papyrus, fivP\os)
was a division by rolls. Papyrus pages {(rxf-
Sai) were written usually on one side only :
when parchment {charta Pergameita, Si(p6epa)
came to be used, the skins were folded into
quaternions of four double leaves or six-
teen pages, and bound like a modern book
(codex). The date of this change may be
placed about the beginning of the fourth
century .v.d., to which period the earliest
existing codices belong. Codices, i.e. books
on parchment or vellum as distinguished
from rolls, were introduced at Rome from
Egypt in the third century B.C. Some
Greek papyri have been discovered in
Egypt dating as far back as the third cen-
tury B.C. ; and this discovery lias thrown
much light on ancient methods of \vriting,
as distinguished from the engraving of in-
scriptions.
Greek. — The form of letters given in the
Tables mider Alphabetum are epigraphic,
and are more rectilinear than the forms used
in writing, for the reason that it is easier to
cut a straight line than a curve, whereas
handwriting with reed or quill runs natu-
rally into curved lines.
Throughout all periods two classes ot
Greek writing were current, the literary or
Bookhand, used (but not exclusively) for
literary pur])f)ses, and the Cursive or com-
mou handwriting.
In Greek and Latin palaeography large
letters are called inajuscules, small letters
minuscules. There are two kinds of large
letters : Capitals, derived from, or identical
■with, the rectilinear epigraphical forms, and
Uncials, which are moi'e curvilinear : e.g.
E capital, £; uix;ial. The derivation of the word
■uncial is uncertain. In early Greek papyri the
ordinary character is the uncial, with recti-
linear capital forms in the earliest MSS.
The oldest known example of Greek book-
hand is of the first half of the third century
B.C. (fig. 764). The letters are but little re-
moved from the epigraphic form, and there is
no trace of the formation of a conventional
alphabet differing from that used in inscrip-
tions.
Later example- show more departure from
the epigraphic capital type, and the introduc-
tion of a round hand much resemViling uncial
writing : e.g. the Hyperides of the first century
B.C. has conventional forms of a, 6, A., j3 ; and
letters are run together, as, e.g., 5i, av, w, n, fio,
6i, &c.
00 SicriTOTO tr6po[7ri]
7) Safiaaios Ovylarrip]
Kat T7JS 6r)Kr]s
[ojcrjirep /xev ovv a[5i/ca]
fxr) TVXftv iK Tr[aiSuv]
KaTa0oir]s ev[8vTa]
Fig. 7C4.— PapjTUS of Artemisia, third century B.C. Early
lepigraphic) bookhand.
j^eAe XT'. TC^MXM 2:^'CC
^ n <^ n.cD Mi-^v ^>j X
jrc^ cY ^s) crT{ eoTi cxcif^
— 5i Tacprjvai eav ovv ] Ke\evr)Te u apdpes |
SiKacTTai Ka\w rtva | fioridr^crovTa ava \ fir]di fiot
0eo(pt\f I Kai avveiire o ri exeiJ I KiXevovaiv oi
diKa I (TTot il airoKoyia vnfp \ \vKo(ppovos
Fig. IK
— Oration of Hyperides for I-jkophron,
first century B.C. Half-unciiil.
Sloping characters come in later.
Cursive. — In the earliest extant instances
(dating from the third century B.C.) the forms
of letters follow the majuscule or uncial alpha-
bet, with some slight variations. The distinc-
tion between the uncial bookhand and that
form of writing which (gradually developed from
uncial writing as modified by the current busi-
ness-hand of oi-dinary life) took form at last in
the Greek alphabet as it is seen in printed
books, is a distinction of very slow growth, and
carried out on many lines. It is often difi&cult to
decide whether a MS. is to be classed as uncial
or cursive, majuscule or minuscule ; since forms
belonging to all may occur in the same hand.
PALAEOGRAPHY 4(U
The cursive hand, as finally accepted by the the pay of scribes and the value of a volume
pi-iiitinj( l^ress, is that of the fifteenth century, were calculated on the basis of so many (ttjxoi-
brouglit into Western Europe after the fall of Books {codices) were usually writte)i in two
Constantinople by Greek professional calli- columns (as Codex Alexandriniis), sometimes
in three (as Codex
\,/ »>'■»«# ' /X Fa^/r«;i«s)or four(as
'(rtTTrpl^ypail/^VDUlOC? ^^Iri^^^'MSSere
is neither division of
t*UirKlUd^UiOJ'mJ»%aj.QuiOU.axnb%)Qy^a:^LL words nor punctua-
tion, the letters being
written continuously.
In the EuSoloi; Tex'^»
however (second cen-
tury B.C.), some divi-
sion of words is ob-
servable, and in some
later MSS. the words
are separated, as in
inscriptions,by points.
But the complete
separation of words
did not prevail till
the eleventh centuiT
A.i>. Regular punctu-
ation is of late date.
The earliest mark to
mark a paragrapli is
< ; later, a blank is
left ; later still, the
who were employed by patrons of ' paragraph-mark is replaced by a capital letter ;
and finally the present system of graduated
points came in by degrees. Systematic punc-
tuation is only found in printed books.
Pali»i2>sest {iraKifj.\l/Tj(Troy [$ifi\iov]). — Pro-
perly a manuscript the surface of wliich has
been rubbed or scraped so as to efface the
writing and prepare the surface for fresh
matter. The word is, however, applied, not only
to vellum scraped with the knife, or softened
with milk and meal and then treated with
^ytrKi^da^OJ'nvfUauguioy^axj-ibpo^ujojiU
* / '^ ' V ' v' r^' O /- - ^ » ' *^
CU S^ abjf£KUi ncoto <> ooc tu-m;^*!!/ f >^o r*
( — ''Cls (<paT^ ovK aTTidrjCTi Trtpicppccv fvpvKAeia'
fjveyKev 5' apa Trvp Kai Orjior, avTap uSvrraevs
(V Stedelwo'ii' fjLiyapov Kol Swfxa Kat av\ TJrJ.
yprjvs 5' opt' aTTf0ri 5io Sci/xara KaA' uSuarjos.
ayye\4ovcTa yvvat^l Ka\ orpvviovaa veeaOai '
a'l S' fcraf ^k /xfydpoio ddos yuera x^P'^"' eX"'"'''"-)
gi'aphists
literature as copyists or correctors for the press.
The earliest Greek type was used by Diony-
sius Paravisinus of Milan, 147G. That conunon
in England during tlic last fifty years was cast
in imitation of the Greek handwriting of Person.
TO fxeu iu6vs, TO Be kol Siauoov-
Fi({. 7(!7.— From .\rnoId8 Tliiiriiili<h-x: \M1.
The earlier founts of Greek type were nearer to
the MS. originals.
MeAav ojAfAfi yo^yov eVw,
rig. TCi.— From .\nacreon ; IHth century.
S tirhom it n/.—Ancie\\t MSS. were divided'
into (TTi'xo' oi" lines, a certain number of which
made a ku)\ov or column. The normal (ttixos
was an average line of Homer, containing ^4-
SH letters. This system of computation was
i< li[ilied to prose works as well as to poetry, and
rO^C) NXYTOH^»H
lOlAriHAQON riN»^
TCOKTCY^J HMIMe
n I TO M M H M I O rsl |>
^YrONJOtTeuCKA
(oipaKtvai 01 \f i yovcrtv aurou (riv \ koi awnXOov
Tij/es I riiiv aw rjixiv e | irno ^vi)jXiov Kai | fvpov
ovrws Ko. I
Fig. 7C0.-Codex Slnaitlcus; Ith century a.i>. Uncial.
Fig. 770.— Palinipsost iSyrltic upon sixth century Gi'
Gospol according lo St. Luke).
4(;2
PALAEOGEAPHY
pumice stone, but also to papyi-us or vellum
from which the original writing has been efiaced
by washing. In the former instance the writ-
ing would be irrevocably effaced ; in the second
(chiefly in the case of vellmn or parclxment
MSS.), it has been recovered by the reappear-
ance from natural causes of the effaced writ-
ing, or by its reproduction through chemical
reagents. In this way many ancient MSS.
have been recovered. Amongst the most con-
spicuous palimpsests are the Codex Ephraemi,
a fifth century MS. containing part of the Old
and New Testaments in Greek, and the Codex
Ambrosianus (fourth century) of Plautus.
Contractions d-c.^These we find early ; but
they were only perfected in the later Greek cur-
sives (fourteenth and fifteenth centuries), and in
the Latin wi-iting of the thirteenth centui-y.
[Alphabetum.J
Latin. — Much of what has been said above
of Greek writing applies also to Latin.
(I.) Majuscule writing is of two sorts : (ft)
Capital ; (b) Uncial.
(a) Capitals, again, are of two kinds : (1)
Square; (2) Rustic.
(1) Square capitals are imitated from epi-
gi-aphic alphabets ; the angles are right angles,
and the letters are mostly finished off with
thick and thin strokes and small ornamental
additions as in modern printing (A, not A).
Very few examples of square capitals now exist,
probably of the fourth or fifth centuries a.d.
(2) Rustic capitals are imitated from epi-
graphic alphabets, but more freely. It is a pen
hand, not a chisel hand. The uprignt strokes
are often sloped to angles, and often not right
angles ; there is no distinction of thick and
thin strokes, and curved forms are ireely used.
Some specimens of this style of writing are as
early as the first century after Christ.
cervicibus • aspridej
[somn]um " trahiturq[ue]
brevis • hunc • s[ine]
[tenjui • pars ' inlita • p[arva]
Fig. 771.— Poem of the battle of Actium : before A.D. 79.
Rustic capitals. (Papyrus from Herculaneum.i
(b) Roman uncials were a modification of
square capitals. Uncials are a round hand.
Most of the early MSS. existing, from the
fourth to the ninth century, are in uncial hand-
writing. A mixed hand (half-uncial) follows,
uncial in the main, but with cursive forms and
long vertical strokes.
The cursive minuscule hand was developed
after the eighth century (chiefly in the course
of the so-called Carolingian revival of letters),
partly from the Roman half-uncial, partly from
the Roman cursive ; resulting in national hand-
writings of various types. Prom one of these
types arose the ' Roman ' and ' Italic ' characters
used at the present day ; from another the
' Gothic ' or ' black letter,' which prevaQed in
|lUt 155 l(^XFF.>^B^t ^ n N4
[5umcurwtLocoet rioes
[ — ]ri oppido posset ante ipsa[m]
[faujcibus situm Macaedonia[e]
tutissima praebet et in
opportunum Macedo[nibus]
[decur]smii cum et loco et praes[idio]
Fig. 772.— Livy, fifth century. Uncials. (Now at Vienna)
Western Europe till the revival of letters and
the invention of printing ; from another the
various forms of ' court-hand ' or ' diplomatic '
■writing.
fuaar rrndtruruf- Vt qu
prdidcm poft fc factrc
Cundcm fxccrcc pUnu
bobcntcm tnfe cc dig^ni
fuerat traditurus " Ut qu[em]
presidem post se facere
eundem faceret plenu[m]
habentem in se et digni[tatem]
[prae]celleret • et potestatem
Fig. 77.'}.- Homilies. Italian MS., twelfth century.
■ Koiuan ' type
incnunTitmf.ctlttttiiu'fQu dbitrfpf^ina
nr AvsitSs^TSparmtottoS' Con^ttjmntr
icfptqixtivib cAo ftmr tnlwtmi ttmrni ;
'«|pI^a^a^^a.fcfli^^tm.C^tJ«mtt^&
iatstmn imam mijiCjtUioncsfj; anpta;:
affritAtnrjtiana.Ccmdtrcto <5» orton
tatD CcmimfrttrralifrtQtn utttntcm/t
^tiKctii Tnncniltgnuni pnitfhvfhct
[firjmamento. Et facttim est ita. Vocavitq?/e
firma | mentum deus celum. Et iactura est
vespere & ma | ne dies secu7idus. Dixit vero
deus. Congregentur | aque que sub celo sunt
in locum unum : | & appareat arida . iactumqiie
est ita. Et vocavit deus | aridam ten-am : con-
gregationesq«(? aquari/;H | appellavit maria.
Et vidit deus quod esset honum | & ait. Ger-
minet terra herbam virentem & ( facientem
semen it lignum pomiferi/7« faci[ens].
Fig. 774.— Bible, written at Canterbury, a.d. 1225-liV2.
' Gothic ' or ' black letter ' type.
As in Greek, so in Latin, abbreviations and
contractions were freely used. By the fifteenth
century these were multiplied to such an ex-
tent as almost to amount to a sj'stem of short-
hand, often extremely difficult to decipher.
PALAESTRA
(Authorities: Sir E. M. Thompson, Greek
and Latin Palaographtj, London, 1887, and
art. ' Palaeography ' in Encyclop. Britannica;
E. Wolfflin in Baumeister's Denkindler, art.
' Paliiogriii)hie.')
Palae'stra. i Gymnasium.]
Palla, Pa'llium. [Dress.]
Pali'lia. Parilia.]
Pa'lmipes (i.e.jicfirt jiahnus). ARomanmea-
sure of length, equal to a foot and a palm ; or
a foot and u quarter, or 15 inches, or 20 digits
[Tables, II.]
Palmus (also palma), properly the width of
the four fingers, was used by the Romans for
two different measures of length: (1) = na-
KacTTO (TraKaiffTii) or Siopov, 4 digits ; ('2) (in late
writers) = (TinOafxr], 12 digits (Tables I., II.).
The Romans had no special word in classical
times for ffiridaixi], but expressed it as dodrans
(■f of a foot).
Paludame'ntum. In the extant literature it
is only employed to denote the Sagum or mili-
tary cloak ; and in writers of the best age is
applied only to the sar/um piirpiirriint wornhj
the Imperator, as distinguished from the sagum
fjrcgale of the common soldier. It was also
worn by lictors (Liv. xli. 10, 7, xlv. 39 11).
[Lictor.]
With such rave exceptions the 2^<i^"damen-
titin is the cloak wliich was put on by the
Roman general when leaving the city invested
with the iinjierium, and was doffed when he
re-entered and became once more an ordinary
citizen. (Caes. B. C. i. C ; Liv. xli. 10; Cic.^«.
iv. 13.) Thus paludatus is regularly used to
denote a general in command of an army on
active service (Cic. Verr. ii. 7, 13 ; Juv. vi. 399) ;
PANATHENAEA
463
89; Suet. Vit. 11). The paludainentum was
larger and of thicker and better material than
the ordinary sagum. It was frequently fringed,
Fig. 776.— Figures wearing paludamentum. (Trajun's
Column.)
and togam paliidamento mutare is 'to get
peace in exchange for war.'
Purple, thougli the usual colour, was not the
only one, as is shown by the story of Crassus,
who on the fatal mom of Carrliae went out
dressed in a dark-coloured, not in a purple or
white paludainriituiii. It was worn regularly by
the emperors (Suet. Claud. 81 ), and was usually
laid aside on entering the city (Tac. Hist. ii.
Fig. 770.— Roman Emperor in paludamentum. (Maffei.)
and was worn as a rule with the clasp at the
right shoulder, but sometimes at the left. (See
fig. .514, p. '2()1, under Dress.)
Palus. A pole or stake, (1) used in agriculture
as a vine-prop, &c. (Ov. Fast. i. 665) ; (2) for
criminals: alligare, deligare ad palum (Cic.
Verr. ii. 5, 11 ; Liv. ii. 5). (3) Used in the
military exercises of the Romans. It was stuck
into the ground, and the tiro, armed witli a
heavy wicker shield and a wooden sword, had
to attack it as if it were a real enemy. This
kind of exercise is sometimes called jialaria.
It was used for exercise {e.g. before the bath)
as well as for military drill. (See Mart. vii. 32,
8 ; .Tuv. vi. 247.)
^a^l,Pot(3Tla. A festive panegyris of all the
Boeotians, like the Panathenaea of the Atti-
cans, and the Panionia of the lonians. The
principal object of the meeting was the common
worship of Athena 'Irwvia, who had a temple
at Iton in the neighbourhood of Koroneia, near
wliich the panegyris was held. During this
national festival no war was allowed to be
carried on, and in case of a war a truce was
concluded.
Panathenae'a (Vlava0i\voua). A verj- ancient
festival in honour of Athena Polias and Ere-
clitheus, said to have been foimded by Ere-
clitheus or Erichthonius 729 years before the
first Olympiad (= 1505 u.c), called at first
'ASi\vaia, but after the aw oik iff fids by Theseus
[ZvvotKia I Xlavad^)vaia (Plut. Then. 24). Peisi-
stratus renewed it with increased sj)lendour in
honour of his protecting divinity, Athena.
(1) The Greater and Lesser Banaiheuaea. —
The Greater Panathenaea was a irfvrfTripls, and
was merely an extended and more magnificent
performance of the Lesser Panatlienaea, which
were held every year (cf. Hom. 11. ii. 551). As
each fourth year came round the Lesser were
incorporated in the Greater; which coincided
with the Pythia, held in the third year of each
Olympiad.
(2) The Date of tJie Panathenaea.— The
priucipal day was the third from the end of
4G-4
PANATHEXAEA
Hekatombaeon (about August 13th), on which
day Athena is said to have been born.
(3) The Musical Contest. — This was only held
at the G-reater Panathenaea. Peisistratus in-
troduced this, as well as recitations of the
Homeric poems: cf. Plat. Hipj}- 228 b. The
poems were now sung in much longer portions
than before, and probably both the Iliad and
the Odyssey. In later times other poets ob-
tained the privilege of being recited at the
Panathenaea.
The musical contest proper was introduced
by Perikles, who built the new Odeum for the
purpose (Plut. Pericl. 13). The KiOapCjiSoi re-
ceived golden crowns and large prizes in money
(1000-100 drachmas). The auArjrai also got
prizes, and there were contests for boys as well
as men. No dramatic representations were
given at the Panathenaea. This part of the
ceremony may have occupied two days.
(4) The Gymnastic Contest. — There is fre-
quent mention of this contest at the Greater
Panathenaea, none for the Lesser : it was a late
addition, first made by the Archon Hippokleides
in 566 B.C., or perhaps by Peisistratus himself.
The competitors were divided into ■jroiSes (those
from 12 to 16 years of age), ayfi/eioi (from 16 to
20), and &vSpes (above 20). The boys and strip-
lings had their events first : then there was an
interval, and on reassembling the men's events
took place. The iralSes and aytvewi had five
contests — (TTd^iov, irfVTadKov, iraKr], TrvyfXT},
TrayKpaTiov. The men's contests were 5oAiX(5s,
(TrdSiov, Siav\os, 'Imrios (a double SiavKos),
■KevraQKov-, ird\7], irvyixi], irayKpariov, d-rrKirris.
The races were run in heats (rd^fis) of four each ;
the victors in the heats afterwards . running
together. There were prizes for the first and
second in the deciding heat in the ratio of 5 : 1
( = ox : sheep, cf. Plut. Sol. 23). The prizes
consisted of oil from the fxripiai in the Academeia
[Oleaj, given in special pri/.(! amphorae, whicli
were called dix<popris Uavad-qvaiKoi. The oil
might be sold and exported free of duty. The
number of amphorae given was about 1450,
and each amphora was worth 6 drachmae. The
gymnastic games probably lasted two days,
certainly not less than one.
(5) The Equestrian Contest. — There appears
to have been an equestrian contest at the
(xreater Panathenaea, none probably at the
Lesser. The first and chief event, that which
(according to the legend) Erechtheus intro-
duced, was that of the airo0drT]s. A charioteer
(rivioxos eyl3Lfid(^cot') and a companion, as in the
Iliad, occupy the chariot. The companion (ciTro-
fidrris, not irapaifidrT!}s\ leaps out and again up
(hence also called aua^drris), partly helped by
the driver, partly by wheels called aTro^ariKol
rpoxoi- The second division was ordinary
riding and driving. Here the horses are yoked
either singly, or two or four together, &c. ;
and the races arc divided into SiauAoi and
aKd/uLTTioi. The third division consisted of mili-
tary competitions. The fourth, a SiavKos of
four horses. The fifth, of javelin-throwers
on horseback. Sevei'al events are for all
comers : others for Athenians only. The prizes
were reckoned in jars of oil.
The place for both the gymnastic and eques-
trian contests was perhaps the Eleusinion or
the deme Echelidae, W. of the Peiraeus.
(6) The Smaller Contests.— (a) That called
evauSpia was a means by which the leaders
of the procession were chosen. It was a
\€irovpyia, and he who performed it chose
out of his tribe a certain number of the tallest
and best looking members, and arrayed these
in festal garments. From this contest strangers
were expressly excluded.
(b) The Pyrrhic dance [Pyrrhica], performed
at both the Greater and Lesser Panathenaea.
This belonged to the more strictly religious
part of the festival, and commemorated the
Pj'iThic dance of Athena after her victory over
the Giants. The prize was an ox for sacrifice,
and bore the special title of viKr\Tr,piov. There
were Pj-rrhie dancers of all three ages — irorSey,
ayeveioi, and dv^pes. A full body of irvpptxi-O'To.i
was twenty-four, the number of a comic chorus.
They wore a light helmet and a shield, but
were otherwise naked. [Saltatio.]
(c) The Aajj.TraSTi5po|xia, the prize of
which was a liydria of oil, value 30 drachmas.
(7) The Uavwxis. — This was the night of
the 28th. The KauLwaSriBpoiuia was the first
event in it. Then followed during the greater
part of the night litanies {d\o\vyij.aTa) by the
elder priestesses, which were originally prayers
and tlianksgivings for the harvest, and subse-
quently songs of joy for the birth of Athena.
'There were also dances by the younger priest-
esses, and towards morning songs by cj'clic
choruses of j'ouths and men (Eur. Heracl.lld).
(8) The Procession and Sacrifices. — The
procession comprised the victors in the games
of the preceding daj's, the iro/jLirrjs or leaders
of the sacrifices, both Athenian and those of
strangers {i.e. colonists and kleruchs), a large
quota of cavalry (Deni. Phil. i. p. 47, § 26 ; Ar.
Nu h. 386), the chief officersof the army, Toliapx"'
and (TTparriyoi, dignified elders {da\\o<p6pot),
bearing olive branches (OdWoi), doubtless with
their neroiKoi as crKacpricpopoi following, the
ephebi splendidly equipped : while of women
there was a long train of Kavr]<p6poi, with the
wives and daughters of the /xeToiKoi as their
(TKia^rjcpopoi and Si(ppo<p6poi [Ms'toikosJ : then
the Atlienian people, generally marshalled ac-
cording to their denies. (See also Hydria-
phoria.)
One of the most striking features of the pro-
cession was the ireirKos, worked by epyacrrlva.,
superintended by two a.ppr}<p6poi and certain
priestesses, which was destined for the ancient
statue of Athena Polias. Peisistratus probably
intended that a new peplus should be brought
every four years ; but in republican Athens a
new peplus was made each year (Ar. Eq. 566).
The peplus was suspended like a sail from the
yards on the mast of the Panathenaic Ship,
which was an actual ship, very large and beauti-
ful. On tlie peplus were represented the
apicrTfta of the goddess, especially her victory
over Enkeladus and the Giants (Eur. ifec. 466).
The procession, marshalled mainly in the
outer Kerameikus, partly inside the town, passed
through the agora to the Eleusinion at the east
end of the Acropolis, and passed along the
Pelasgikon, north of the Acropolis, and so
reached the Propylaea. Then some of the
members performed the sacrifice to Athena
Hygieia, while others offered a preliminaiy
sacrifice on the Areiopagus. Pr.aj'ers accom-
panied these offerings (Hdt. vi. 111). On enter-
ing the Acropolis, access to which was only
granted to genuine Athenians, the liecatomb
was offered to Athena Polias, on the large altar
in the eastern part of the Acropolis. After the
procession followed the ecTTiWis. The flesh of
the victims was given, according to demes, to a
certain fixed number out of each deme. The
(rKa<t>T)cp6poi supplied bread and cakes.
(9) The Boat-race was a supplementary
nAFKPATION
event on the 29th of Hekatombaeon, the day on
which shijjs are to be drawn down to the sea
(Hes. Op. al5). It was held every four years in
the Peiraeus in honour of Poseidon-Erechtheus
and Athena.
(10) T)ie. Officials of the Festival— (a) Tlie
ten ad\o6fTai, one from each tribe. They lield
office for four years. (/;) Tlie 'lepoirotoC, wlio
managed the Lesser Panathenaea. (c) The
yv/j.ya(na.pxat [Gymnasium], who especially
superintended the Lampadedromia. ((/) The
A-(\it.a.pxoi., who marshalled the people in
demes for the procession and for the taTiaffis
(Ar. Null. o7).
riaYKpaTiov (pancratium) consisted of
boxing and wrestling (irvyfjLV and ttciAtj : Plat.
Hep. 338 c, I)), and was reckoned to be one of
the heavy or hard exercises (aywuiffixaTa fiapea
or $apvT(pa), on account of the violent exer-
tions and great weight of body it required.
At Sjjarta the regular irayKpaTiov was for-
bidden, but the name was there applied to a
rough-and-tumble fight not controlled by any
rules, in which everything, even biting and
scratching, was allowed. The Greeks regarded
Theseus as the inventor of the pancratium, who
for want of a sword was said to have used this
mode of fighting against the Minotaur (Pind.
Nem. V. 49). Once introduced at Olympia, it
soon made its way into the other great games
of Greece.
The pancratium was fought partly standing,
partly on the ground (aAivSriais, Kv\iffis).
Boxing was considered the chief element (Pind.
Nem. iii. 17, Isthm. iv. 75). But the aAiVSrjcts
on the ground was an important feature of the
pancratium. It is to be noticed that the fist
does not appear to have been closed ; the usual
way to hold the hands was with the fingers
curved (see fig. 777). Neither the Caestus nor
the lighter gloves called /j.ei\ixai were used.
The name of these combatants was wayKpa-
Tiaarai or irdixiMXoi (Plat. Euthijil. 271 i>).
The combatants fought naked, and had their
HANinNIA
4C5
Fig. 777 — runcratlum. (From Panulheuuio vase In
Dritlah Mu8uum.)
bodies oiled and sprinkled with sand, by which
they were enabled to take hold of one another
(Ar. Pax, 897).
Wlien two irayKpariaffTai began their contest,
they stood with outstretched arms: and the
first object wliich each of them endeavoured to
accomplish was to gain a favourable position
and gi'ip. AVhen the real contest began, each
of the tighters might commence by boxing or
by wrestling, as he preferred. The victory was
not decided until one of the parties signalled
his defeat [airayopiiniv) by lifting up a finger.
If one of the combatants fell to the ground, the
wrestling which then commenced was called
iivaKKivoiraXi], and continued until one of the
parties declared himself conquered. Various
tricks of the art are designated by the terms
iiTTTtaa fios, /xftTov \aix0dvfiv, /u€(roAa/3e?»', 5ia
fjLi)pwv cnrdu, d-Kpoxfi-ptCH-os, &')'X'"'i ^''7^C*"'»
cTTpf^Kovp or crTpf<p(iv, (vaWtaBat, &c.
At Rome the pancratium is first mentioned in
the games which Caligula gave to the people.
After this time it seems to have become ex-
tremely popular.
Several of tlie Greek pancratiastae have been
immortalised in the epinikian odes of Pindar,
e.g. Nem. ii., iii.,
v., Isthm. iv., vi.,
&c., and besides
these the names
of many other
victors in the
pancratium have
been preserved.
A victor in wrest-
ling and the
pancratium on
the same day
at Olympia was
called irapaSo^o-
viKiis, and con-
sidered to be the
successor of He-
rakles.
The diet and
training of the
Tray K par laoTTai
were tlie same as those of other athletes. [Ath-
letae.J They generally wore their hair in a
bunch {cirrus. Suet. Nero, 45) on the top of
the head ; see fig. 778.
Pande'ctae. See Appendix, Roman L.\w.
ndvSia or HavSla. A festival celebrated
at Athens after tlie Dionysia, in the middle of
the month Elaphebolioii (Dem. Mid. p. 517,
§9). Its origin is disputed ; but it was prob-
ably a full-moon feast in honour of Pandia, an
equivalent name for Selene, or of Ai'temis,
identified with Selene.
Pane gyris (iTavr,yvpis) signifies a meeting or
assembly of a whole people at fixed periods,
for the purpose of worshipping at a common
sanctuary; whether belonging to (1) one jnir-
ticular town and its vicinity [Ephesia ; (2| a
whole district, province, or tribe [riaixPoiuTia.
riavKdvia] ; or (3) the whole Hellenic world, as
at the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean
games. Such in its origin also was the gi-eat
Amphiktj'onic meeting. Although, in all such
assemblies, the religious character forms the
most prominent feature, the spectacles and
amusements were the attraction to the larger
number, nor were political discussions and
resolutions excluded. Every panogyris, more-
over, included a fair. Festivt; orations (K6yoi
iravriyvpiKoi) were also frequently addressed t<>
a panegyris. The Sojiliists made this the occa-
sion for addresses (^iri5fi|«is, iiriSfiKTiKol \6yoi)
to the assembled Greeks; as when Oorgias or
Lysias at Olympia preached national unity. Li
later times any oration in praise of a person
was called panegijricus, as that of Pliny on the
Emperor Trajan.
riavicivta. The great national panegj'ris of
HH"
1 ig. 77«.— Paj.cratium. (lij-uusej
466
PANTOMIMUS
the lonians on Mount Mykale, near Priene and
Jjetween Ephesus and Miletus, where their
national god Poseidon Helikonius had his
sanctuary, called the Panionium (Hdt. i. 148).
One of the principal objects of this national
meeting was the common worship of Poseidon,
to whom sacrifices were offered on the occasion.
The lonians also discussed at these meetings
political questions, and passed resolutions (Hdt.
i. 141, 142, 170).
Pantomi'mus {iravTS/j.tiJ.os) was the performer
in that kind of dramatic piece in which a story
was represented by mere dancing and rhyth-
mical movement by a single dancer. The word
pantomitnus is never, like tnimus, applied to
the piece represented, but only to the performer.
The custom of pantomunic dancing is almost
entirely confined to the tune of the Roman
Empire.
When the public lost interest in the full
acting out of tragedies, parts of those dramas
used to be acted, especially ca«^ica, and among
the cantica chiefly monologues and choruses.
Here by heightS'ning the expression in two
directions the action became dancing and the
speech became song ; and the two performances
could not be combined by a single actor, but
had to be separated, one person singing and
the other dancing. Pylades of Kilikia and
Bathyllus of Alexandria, both skilled dancers,
about 22 B.C. succeeded in making this kind of
dancing a fully recognised species of amuse-
ment at Rome. The striking scenes in dramas,
tragic, comic, and satyric, came then to be
acted for the niost part by mere dancing ; and
pantomimic dancing, and especially of subjects
from tragedy, became the fashionable exhibi-
tion for the upper and more cultivated classes
to frequent, the lower classes preferring the
coarser mimes when they went to the theatre
at all. Poems of Ovid, not written for the
theatre at all, were pantoniimised, and even
orations were set to music and adapted for
dancing (Ov. Trist. ii. 519 ; Tac. Dial. 26).
The best poets wrote pieces specially for the
pantomimes — fahidae salticae. The subjects
were various, but were generally love adven-
tures, such as Mars and Venus, Phaedra and
Hippolytus, &c. ; also Hercules Furens, Poly-
krates, Glaukus, Turnus, and other mythical
and historical subjects. The dancing was per-
formed by a single actor, who would appear
successively in several characters in the one
piece. A chorus sang cantica, accompanying
the various dances. The accompaniment to
the dancing and the chorus was performed by
an orchestra, consisting of pipes and cymbals,
lyres andcitharae (Ov. Ron. Am. 753 sqq.). The
music appears to have been of a florid and
showy description. The time was given by
scahiHarii, who beat with their feet a kind of
wooden or iron instrument, called scabilluin or
scabcllimi (Kpoime^a). (See fig. 449, under
Cymbalum.)
The real cliarm lay in the performance of the
dancer. The dancing of the pantomimi was in
the highest degree sensuous and expressive. The
whole art, however, came to be conventional ;
but with all the artificiality the effect of the
performances of the pantomimi on the audience
was most powerful : and in the relaxation of
morals in the first century B.C. these exhibitions
may have had a share. Christian writers of a
later age considered them more insidious and
corrupting than the circus and the amphi-
theatre.
But it was not on this ground that the law
PARASITI
generally proceeded against the actors, though
it was sometimes put forward. The heats of
the rival factions of the performers caused
frequent disturbances; and on these grounds
the histriones or pantomimic actors were
banished from Italy by Tiberius and Nero
(Suet. Tib. 37, Nero, 16, Dom. 7). But for
the most part the emperors let the people busy
themselves with the actors, and be thereby kept
clear of politics. The actors were mostly slaves
or freedmen, and, if free-born, foreigners ; they
were always legally infaines, and their calling
I was despised (Juv. viii. 183). But the cele-
j brated pantomimi were flattered and petted.
[ They became men of considerable influence,
I especially when they were court favourites like
I Mnester (Suet. Cal. 56) and Paris (Tac. Ann.
, xiii. 19-22, 27) : and they were able to make
large fortunes. Wealthy Romans used to keep
troops of pantojnimi and j:tantoniimae for
private exhibitions; but paniomimae did not
appear on the public stage till later times.
Par impar lu'dere. [Games.]
Para'basis. [Chorus.j
napd3o\ov: napaKaTaPo\Ti : Hapa-
\<.a.Ta.Qr\Kr\. See Appendix, Grf.kk Law.
n apdSeKjos. The name given by the Greeks
to the parks or pleasure-grounds which sur-
rounded the country residences of the Persian
kings and satraps. They were generally stocked
with animals for the chase, were planted with all
kinds of trees, and enclosed with walls. (Xen.
Anab. i. 4, § 10, Cijr. i. 3, § 14, 4, § 5, Oec. iv. 13,
&c.) These paradises were frequently of great
extent ; thus Cyrus on one occasion reviewed
the Greek army in his paradise at Kelaenae
(Xen. Anab. i. 2, § 9). The Latin equivalent is
vivarium [Agriculture]. In Greece they were
first borrowed from the East in the time of the
Diadochi.
napavpa<t>ii. See Appendix, Greek L.\w.
ndpa\o9. [©eupCj.]
riapavotas Sikt) : napav6^.(i>v •Ypa<J)ii.
See Appendix, Gkkek Law.
napaire'Tacr^.a. [Velum.]
napd(|>Epva. See Appendix, Geeek Law,
Dowry.
napairpeffPeCa. See Appendix, Greek
Law.
Parasa'nga {irapaffoyyrts). According to
Herodotus (vi. 42), parasang was the name
given by the Persians to a distance of 30 stades.
It varied, however, from 21 to 60 stades. The
modern farsang is from 3i to 4 English miles.
It was never a Greek measure, but was em-
ployed by Greek writers who wTote about dis-
tances in Asia. The origin of the measure is
not very clear : some explain it as the distance
traversed by an active walker in an hour of
equinoctial time, i.e. the time during which the
sun traverses a distance in the heavens equal
to thirty times his own diameter. According to
those metrologists, the Persians borrowed the
parasang from the Babylonians. But it is more
probable that it was a multiple of some native
miit of land measure, such as the length of the
furrow [Mensura]. This view is supported by
the fact that the Persians used the parasang
as their unit of measurement when dealmg with
large tracts of country (Hdt. vi. 42).
napdcT-n(jLov. [Insigne.]
Parasi'ti {irapaairoi). Those who dine with,
or beside, others. Xlapdcnros differs from (rxicr-
(TiTos : avatnroi. are those who dine together ex
officio ; TrdparriTOi are those who are mvited to
join them. Heiice in the original civil meaning
the -Kapaairoi were those who dined in the
I
PARASTADES
Prytaneum (or in the Tholos) not being magis-
trates, but invited guests (Plut. Sol. 25). After
the separate official dinners in the Tliolos were
instituted, tlie terms irapaanoi included those
subordinate clerks, itt-., wlio were later termed
aeiaiToi. [Prytaneum.] The irapdcriToi of the
priests were ministers in the temples above the
rank of mere temple servants, who assisted the
priests and dined with them after the sacrifice.
The irapdffiTOi had, besides their ritual duties,
to collect certain dues, to see to the repairs of
the temples, ifcc. The name irapaffnos was
first applied to parasites in the modern sense
by writers of Middle and New Corned}'. In
the later comedians the parasite is a standing
character.
The features common to all these j)arasite8
are importunity, love of sensual pleasures, and
above all the desire of getting a good dinner
without paying for it. They may be divided
into three classes, yiKwroiroioi, or jesters (cf.
Theophr. xi. 4), K6\aK(Si or flatterers, such as
Gnatlio in the JEJuniirJiiis and Artotrogus in
the Miles Gloriosus, and depaweuTtKoi, or the
officious, such as the parasites in the Asinaria
and Menacchmi. We find the parasites
haunting the market, the palaestrae, the baths,
and other public places in search of a patron.
For a like state of things under the Roman
Empire see Hor. Sat. ii. 7, 102; Mart. ii. 18, 53,
72 ; Juv. v., and Plin. Ep. ii. 6.
Fara'stades. [Antae.J
riapdcrTaCTts- See Appendix, Gkeek Law,
AiaiTT|TTlS-
ndpeSpoi. See Appendix, Greek L.^w.
napeYYPa-'""'"oi. See Appendix, Greek
Law .
Parenta'lia. [Fuims.]
Pa'ries (toixos). The wall of a roofed build-
ing, in contradistinction to murns (rflxos), a
fence wall, and maceria, the wall of a garden or
yard. For the methods of construction of the
more solid sorts of /)a>Yt'^<'s, see Mams.
The ^ja?"ie.s' solid us was a blind wall unbroken
by openings for doors or windows : opposed to jp.
/ornicatus, pierced with arches (Verg. Aeii. v.
589). The party- wall common to two houses was
called p. communis (Ov. Met. iv. 66) or inter-
gerinus, in Greek Koivhs ro7xos, fxtaoToixos, or
jxtcrdroixov (Thuc. ii. 3). Cross walls for sepa-
rating the rooms of a house were calledparietes
directi.
Wall-decoration was varied and elaborate :
for painting and mosaic see Pictura; cf. also
Domus and Murus.
Stucco or gesso {opus tectoriiwi) was very
largely used by the Romans, both for exterior
and internal walls. Great care and skill were
expended in producing a hard durable sub-
stance, quite unlike the soft friable material
which we now call stucco (see Vitr. vii. 2-()).
For internal work, three to five coats were laid
on {trullis.san') with a square board or ' float '
at the end of a long handle. The first coat was
of lime and coarse pozzolana {lapis Putcolanus).
Over this another rough coat was spread
{opus signinum), composed of lime, sand, and
pounded pottery (testae tuiisae), whicli set as
hard as stone, and was impervious to moisture.
Tlie third coat was of lime and coarsely pounded
nnirble ; the finishing coat was of pure white
lime or gypsum, mixed with marble ground to
an impalpable powder, which usually had some
glutinous substance, size made of parchment
or tree-sap, mixed witli it. The earlier coats
were mixed with water only. Tlie finished
surface of this stucco set to a very hard con-
PARIES
467
I sistency, and had a beautiful ivory-like texture,
' capable of receiving a high polish. The final
coats were called ojjus albarium or caemen-
tum marmoreum (Vitr. vii. 16), and the work-
man dealbator.
For external work, the same beautiful marble
cement was used, but with fewer undercoats.
A wall so treated {paries dealbatus) looked
like white marble. Reliefs modelled in this
fine stucco (generally by Greek artists) were
verj' largely used by the Romans as a decora-
tion for their walls and vaults. Mouldings of
elaborate character were formed in the marble
cement by the use of long wooden stamps, the
\ work being finally touched up with the model-
ling tool. Not only were cornices of rooms
made in this waj-, but very often the whole
wall-surface was divided up into panels {abaci)
framed with enriched mouldings — the central
, space being decorated by figure reliefs or by
painting on the flat. Gold, silver, and colours
j of all kinds were used to increase the decorative
j effect of the reliefs, which seem very rarely, if
I ever, to have been left white.
I The use of marble for decorative purposes in
Rome did not begin before the first century
B.C. [Marmcrj, but became very connnon in
the reign of Augustus (Suet. Aug. 29). Large
wall-surfaces were covered with veneers {crus-
fae) of costly marbles. The usual scheme was
to have a moulded plinth, a dado above that,
and at the top of the wall a richly-moulded
cornice, marbles of different colours being
used for all the various parts ; and the main
wall-surface itself was often divided into panels
of different coloured marbles. These marble
linings were backed with a thick coating of
cement, and each piece of marble was tied to
the wall beliind by long cramps of iron or
bronze. The slabs were cut witli iron saws and
r^
Fig. 779.— Marble lining, from the Cellii of the Temple
of Concord.
A, slabB of Phryi^liin marble.
H, plinth moiiliiint; of Niiinldliin marMe tgialio).
C. sliib of clpolUno iKarvBlliin miirble'
T>. DEivln^tof Porta SiuiU'l iIiiHliin ninrble>.
E. K. .V«r(.ii.» and i ii.fiM of concrete beddlni;.
Q U, iron crampK run with lead to flx marl>le lining.
H. bronze cr
J J. cement backlnK
tinii
sand and water, or, in the case of the harder
marbles, with emery (cos) from Cyprus (called
H H 2
4r.s
PARILIA
Naxiitm, Plin. xxxvi.
[vi.J 73) and Armenia.
D E
«zz
D E
D
10; cf. Find. Isth. v.
The best sands came
from Aethiopia,
India, Naxos, and
Egypt (Plin. xxxvi.
9). Jewel-tipped
drills, both solid
and tubular, were
introduced into
Rome from Egypt,
p along with the
Egyptian granites
and basalts. Fig.
shows the
of fixing
Fig. 780.— Method of flxing marble rjan
wall-linings.
A. marble slab; B, moulding: C. method
plinth : D, concrete backing ; the marble linings
E, stone wall; F, cramps of ,■ j.i,„ m ,„„i (
b^nzeorlrou. '" *"© Temple of
Concord, rebuilt
in the reign of Augustus (Suet. Tib. 20).
Pari'lia or (less con-ectly) Pali'lia. A festi-
val celebrated at Rome and in the country on
April 21 in honour of Pales, and for the lustra-
tion of the flocks and herds, over which Pales
presided. April 21 was also the day on which,
according to tradition, Romulus began the
building of the city, and the festival was (and
still is) solemnised as the dies natalicius of
Rome (cf. Ov. Fast. iv. 731-805).
The sacred rites were in old times directed
by the king ; afterwards by the Pontifex Maxi-
mus. The first part of the solemnities was a
public purification by fire and smoke. The
things burnt in order to produce this purifying
Bmoke were the blood of the October Ecus, the
ashes of the calves sacrificed at the Fordicidia,
and bean-straw, which were all fetched from
the Atrium Vestae. The people were also
sprinkled with water ; they washed their hands
in spring-water, and drank milk with must.
Towards the evening laurel-branches were used
as brooms for cleaning the stables and for
sprinkling water thi-ough them, and lastly
the stables were adorned with laurel-boughs.
The shepherds then burnt sulphur, rosemary,
fir-wood, and incenso, to purify the stables and
the flocks. The sacrifices consisted of cakes,
PARTHENON
Parma, dim. Pa'rmula (Hoi. Cnrm. ii. 7, 10).
(1) A round leather buckler, three feet or less
in diameter, carried by the vclites in tho ] 'oman
army. In the Pyrrliic dance it was raised above
the head and struck with a sword. The parma
was also worn by the Equites.
Fig. 781.— Gladiators wearing narma.
(2) A votive shield (also clipcus) hung up as
an ornament (see fig. 340, under Clipcus.)
Pa'rochi (also called copicrii). Persons paid
by the state to supply the Romar. magistrates,
ambassadors, and other official persons, when
travelling, with those necessaries which they
could not conveniently carry with them. Tliey
existed at all the principal stations (inansiones)
on the Roman roads in Italy and the provinces
[Cursus publiciis]. The Lex lulia de Bepe-
tiindis of Julius Caesar, 59 b.c, defined the
things which the parochi were bound to
supply, of which hay, firewood, salt, and a
certain number of beds, appear to have been
the most important. (Hor. Sat. i. 5, 46 ; Cic.
Att. v. 16, xiii. 2.)
Paro'psis. A large square dish (Mayor on
Juv. iii. 142).
Parrici'da, Parrici'dium. See Appendix,
Roman Law.
nap9€v£ai. ['EirevvaKTOi,.]
Pa'rtlienon [Uapdevuv). The chief orna-
ment of the Acropolis at Athens, and the
masterpiece of Grecian architecture, was the
temple of Athena Tlapdfvos. called thence
Uapdevciu, the Virgin's chamber. It was built
between 447 and 434 B.C. during the admini-
stration of Perikles, who was himself director
of the work, Iktinus being the architect, and
Fig. 7x2.— The Parthenon restored.
millet, and milk. After a prayer to Pales, 1 Pheidias the designer of the sculjiture. Its
heaps of hay and straw were lighted, and the
sheep were compelled to run througli the fire,
and the shepherds themselves did the same.
The festival was concluded by a feast in the open
air. (TibuU. ii. 5, 87 ; Prop. v. [iv.], 4, 73 sqq.)
present ruinous condition is owing to the
explosion of a Turkish powder magazine fired
by a Venetian shell in the siege of Athens by
Morosini in 1687 ; until that date, though much
disfigured, it was complete.
PARTHENON
The Parthenon is of the Doric order (with
some Ionic additions in the interior) and in the
purest style. It is built entirely of Pentelic
PATERA
469
I
Fig. 7R3.— Ground plan of the Parthenon.
Perlstyllum
B. Pronaos or I'rodomus.
C. Opisthodomus or Pos
ticom.
marble.
D. Hekatompedos.
(I . Statue of the Goddess.
E. Parthenon.
ucludiiig the roof, and rests on a rustic
basement of limestone ;
upon this basement
stands the marble sty-
lobate of three steps.
The dimensions of the
temple are about 228 ft.
by 101 ft. by 06 ft. to
the top of the pediment.
The temple belongs to
the class called peripte-
ral octastyle. [Archi-
tectura.]
Tlie principal statue
in the Parthenon was
the chryselephantine
figure of Athena Par-
thenosbyPheidiaSjforty
feet high, which stood
in the first (the eastern)
chamber, or vtus pro-
perly BO-callcd, behind
the irp6vews, or jiortico.
This chamber, from
its length, was also
called Hekatompedos, a
name given also to the
whole buililing, the fa-
(.•ade of which measured
100 (Greek) feet. The
second chamber, to the west, with a western
Fig. 781.— statuette aft^r
the Athena Parthonos
of Pheidias.
' chamber, or oiriaQ6hofx.oi (C), was the Parthenon
' proper, and served as a treasury. Both these
I chambers had inner rows of pillars in two
I stories. The building was iwlorned botli witliin
and without with colour, gilding, and sculpture.
The marbles of the Parthenon, many of
which were brought to England by Lord Elgin
in 1810, and are now in the British Museum,
were executed under the direction of I'lieidias.
They adorivid tlie two pediments (those of
the western pediment have disappeared), tlie
metopes, and frieze on the two sides of the
building. The architraves of the two ends
beneath the triglyphs were ornamented by
gilded shields ; and much of the interior was
painted. Immense treasures in gold, silver, and
works of art, were preserved in the temple.
The question of the lighting of the interior
lias been much disputed. Mr. Fergnsson be-
lieved that there was a kind of clerestory in the
roof, not visible from outside. Other authori-
ties hold that the temple was hypaethral : the
statue of Athena, however, must liave been
protected from the weather. A third theory is
that there were skylights in the roof itself.
Pa'scua pu'blica. [Scriptura.]
Passus (from jHindii). A measure of length =
five Roman feet. The jxismts was not the
single step (qradiis), but tlie double step, i.e.
from heel to heel of the same foot (Tables, IV'.).
[Mensura.J
Pasti'llus, Pasti'llum. Strictly, a small
round cake of tin<; meal (Plin. xviii. § 102), used
in sacrificial offerings. There was a guild of
imatUlarii. In the masculine form the word
was used for small round lozenges or troches
(rpox^cKoi), compounded from herbs or fruits,
and used for medicines (Plin. xx. S 3) or
sweetmeats; and especially scented lozenges of
aromatic herbs, eaten to make the breath sweet.
(Hor. Sat. i. 2, 27; Mart. i. 87.)
Pasto'phori iira(rTo<p6poi). Egyptian priests
who carried in processions small shrines (TrofrroO
of their deity. They formed an inferior order
of the priesthood. Tliey were introduced into
Italy along with the worship of Isis, and fonned
into collegia in various towns. Their lodgings,
attached to the temi)le which they served, were
called TraaTocpupiov.
Pata'giuin. [Limbus.]
Pate'Ila (KeKaviov, \fKavis, AfKaviSiov,
\(Kavi(TK-q, XoirdStof : diminutive of Patina l^s«'e
fig. 789^, not of Patera), (l) A small round
dish or plate used for holding solid food, meat
or vegetables, either in cooking (Plin. xix. g 171),
or for serving up at table (Hor. Ep. i. 5, 2 ;
Mart. V. 78; Juv. v. 85), usually of earthen-
ware (Mart. xiv. 114), but sometimes of metal
(Juv. x. ()4). [For (lie deeper cooking vessels,
see Aenam, Lebes, Pottery.J (2) Patella was
also a sacred vessel of the same shape, but
reserved for domestic sacred rites, especially
for the offering of food to the liares [LaiUt]
(Ov. Font. vi. 810). This sacred dish was,
if possible, of silver ; even in comparatively
poor households it was customary to have at
least a patella, patera, salinum, and censer of
silver (Cic. Verr. iv. 21, 40) ' deormii causa'
(Liv. xxvi. 80).
Pater patra'tus. [Fetiales.]
Pa'tera {<piaKv)- A round shallow vessel, like
a large saiuer, without foot or stem, used for
li(iuids only. The Homeric <ptd\r] was diflereiit
from this, as being used, not for drinking, but
as a \(^j)s and set on the fire (Horn. //. xxiii.
270), and as an urn for ashes.
The post-Homeric <pid\T) is identical with the
470
PATERA
PATINA
Fig. 7*5.— Fragment of a Phoenician tfnaKr). (From Cyprus.)
Latin ^tatera. It sometimes had a low base,
and sometimes was supported on knobs or balls
be either earthenware or metal. It was used
for drinking (Plat. Symp. 228 c), but most
commonly for pouring libations (Hdt. ii. 151 ;
Plat. Crii. 120 a).
The Italian patera was identical in shape
with the (piaKt).
Some paterae had a handle, which the <ptd\-q
never had. The addition of the handle may
I be an Etruscan invention.
Fig. 78G.— <I>idAt) 6ja(^aAioTo'<:. 1 1 rora the Uritish
Museum. I
(affTpdyaKoi, &d\avoi) and in the centre was
usually a boss (ojU<^aA.os). The material might
-Marble patera from Hadrian's
(British Museum.)
Fig. 788.— Patera from Pompeii.
The word phiala is used by Latin authors
(Mart. xiv. O.') ; Juv. v. 39.)
Fati'bulum iivompatere). Any beam placed
horizontally ; as the cross-bar of a door, or of
a trellis for vines (Plin. xvii. 4) 2121, or the
transverse beam of the cross (Crux). The
word, however, is almost always useci as an
equivalent to ciiix or Furca.
Pa'tina (dim. patella) (Tpv$\tov). A deep
dish, usually of earthenware, used alike for
cooking (Plaut. Asiii. i. 'S, 27) and for serving
up food (Plaut. Pseud, iii. 2, 51 ; Suet- Vit. 13) ;
sometimes a covered dish (Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 43).
The patina was, however, often the dish for
serving up what had been cooked in other
i
PATRES
vessels, and was sometiiues made of silver
(Plin. XXXV. § 163).
As regards the Greek equivalents, rpv0Kiou
(Ax. Av. 77, Eccl. 25'2) perhaps comes nearest
PECTEN
471
Ftg. Tf®.— Patina or Patella. (British Museum.)
in shape and use : XeKamj is a basin (Ar. Nub.
907) or pie-dish ; Aoiras, a flat dish (Eq. 1034) ;
Xvrpa ( ^ 011a), a deep dish.
Patres. [Patricii; Senatus.]
Pa'tria pote'stas. See Appendix, Roman
L.wv.
Patri'cii. According to Livy and Cicero
the Roman state was divided from the first into
ordinary citizens and a privile^'ed class who
are generally described a.s jjat ricii. These are
further stated to have been tlie families of one
hundred persons selected by Romulus for his
senate. Another account makes ^.ia<r<<-i'i ~-
ingenui. It is probable from the etymology
of the word that the pafricii (ov patres, Liv. iv.
4, 5) were the patres familiarum, or house-
holders, of Rome, and so the only burgesses,
the remainder of the people being either (1)
rlientes. dependents of the patricians, or (2)
independent freemen (plchcii). The patres
were not a created nobility, but formed ori-
ginally the whole body of freemen. When in
course of time outsiders became patres familia-
rum (which took place at a very early period),
they were not admitted into the order of the
patricii, partly no doubt from religious reasons ;
and fron^ the moment when plebeian patres
familiarum come into existence the patricii must
be counted as a nobility among their fellow-
citizens. It is possible that the power to vote
in the assemblies [see Populusj was for a time
a privilege reserved to these nobles. But in
the history of Rome, as delivered to us, the
plebeians were always freemen, and had a vote
in the assembly.
For a long time the patricians alone were
eligible to the gi-eat offices of the state. When
the plebeians became eligible, about the year
800 B.C., the members of tlie two orders were
not left in a position of absolute equality.
Both places in the consulship and the censor-
ship were open to plebeians, but only one to
patricians. The patricians were likewise, as a
matter of course, excluded from the offices of
tribune and plebeian aedile. On the other
hand, tlie great colleges of pontiffs, augurs, and
decemviri sacris faciundis were divided as
equally as possible between the two orders (in
favour, therefore, of the chances of a member
of the less numerous one), and certain other
functions, chiefly religious (the Rox Sacrorum,
Flamines, Salii, &c.), still remained for which
patricians alone were qualified. (Cic. ^^roDowio,
14, 88 ; Liv. vi. 41.)
In spite of the decay of their political privi-
leges, the patricians retained to the end of the
Republic the dignity which attached to the
oldest and purest blood in Rome. The number
of families known from the lists of ma),'istrates
of tlie later Republic amounts to about thirty.
It appears, however, that outside the ranks of
the nobility of office there remained a certain
number of patricians in equestrian station
whose ancient birth was fully recognised.
The patriciate could not be recruited. With
the doubtful exception of the Claudii, no in-
stance is known in Republican times of any
man or family attaining the patriciate.
When Caesar as dictator wished to increase
their numbers, there being no constitutional
machinery for admitting fresh members, kliis
admission was accomplished by a special law
(Lex Cassia) of the sovereign people. The
same precedent was followed by Augustus.
Claudius seems to have made such creations on
the strength of his power as censor (Tac. Ann.
xi. 25), and after him the emperors conferred
the rank freely.
Period from the time of Constaiitiue to tlie
Middle Ages. — From the time of Constautine
the dignity of j^d-tricitis was a personal title,
which confeiTed on the person to whom it was
granted a very high rank and certain privileges.
Hitherto patricians had been only genuine
Roman citizens, and the dignity had descended
from the father to his children ; the new
dignity was not hereditaiy, but held for life ;
and when dui-ing this period we read of patri-
cian families the meaning is only that the head
of such a family was a patricius. Those who
! were thus distinguished occupied the highest
rank among the ill list res; the consuls alone
ranked above a patricius. The titles by which
a patricius was distinguished were magnifi-
centia, celsitudo, eminentin, and magnitiido.
They were created by writ called Diploma.
The new dignity was not confined to Romans
\ or subjects of the empire, but was sometimes
gi-anted to foreign princes, such as Odoacer,
prince of the Heruli [c. 480 a.d.), and others.
Patrimi et Matrimi (also called Patrimes
et Matritnes : the quantity of the -i is not
ascertained). Those children whose parents
were both alive (aufpidaXeis) and had been
man-ied by the religious ceremony called con-
farrcatio [Matrimonium]. The children called
jJutrimi et matrimi are almost always men-
tioned in connexion with religious rites and
ceremonies (Cic. Har. re.sp. 11 ; Liv. xxxvii. 3 ;
Tac. Hist. iv. 53), as being thought more suit-
able for the service of the gods than the off-
spring of other marriages. For the religious
functions which required iittendtmcc of pritri mi
et iiiatniiii, see Camillus, Arvales, Matri-
monium, Vestales.
narpovoixoi. Magistrates established by
Kleomenes III. at Sparta when he abolished
both the yfpovffia and the ephorate, and set up
the TraTpoi/vfj.oi in their stead (Paus. ii. 9, 1).
His constitution came to an end after the battle
of Sellasia, 221 b.c, but the 7raTpoi'6fj.ot were
retained as the chief magistrates. Apparently
they were six in number ; the chief, or irp(<T$vs
Tuiv ■n-aTpou6fxa>v, was iTrwvvixos, i.e. gave his
name to the year, instead of the first eplior.
Patro'nus. See Appendix, Roman L.\w.
Pauperies. See Appendi.x, Roman L.\w.
Pavime'ntum. [Domus; Pictura.J
Pecten {KTtis). The use of the comb is of
prehistoric origin, since combs have been found
in the cave-dwelhngs of the early Stone Age.
Most of these seem to have been used for
weaving, or for cai-ding wool or heckling flax,
as well as for dressing the hair (see fig. 1058,
under Tela; and for carding, Horn. Od. xsii.
423, xviii. 310). The heckler or carder is called
2>ectiiiator (KTei'i(rTr)s} or carminator.
1 Much more common than carding or heckling
1 combs are the combs for hair- dressing. For
472
PECUARn
the Spartan custom of combing their hair before
a battle see Hdt. vii. 208.
Combs appear on some Roman portrait busts
of ladies, stuck as an ornament into an elabo-
rate head-dress; double fine-toothed combs
have been fomid
in great numbers
in Greece proper,
the Crimea, Pom-
peii, &c., made of
wood, bone, and
ivoi-y, all precisely
similar to those
found in Egypt
and to those used
in the present day.
Boxwood was a
favourite material
(Ov. Fast. vi. 229 ;
Juv. xiv. 194).
Ivory and bronze
were also used ;
but this latter, at
any rate, in most
cases only for
combs with highly decorated handles, evidently
intended to be worn ui the hah-. Barbers cut
hair per pectinem, to ensure its not being
too short (Plut. Capt. ii. 2, 18).
Pecua'rii. [Scriptura.]
Pecula'tus. See Appendix, Rom.\n Law.
Pecu'lium. [Servus.]
Pecu'lium castre'nse. See Appendix, Roman-
Law, Patria potestas.
Pecu'nia. In the use of this word for
' money ' we liave a record of the fact that in
primitive times in Greece and Italy values
were calculated in sheep and oxen. Stamped
money was introduced into Asia Minor and
Greece in the seventh century ; into Rome in
the fifth. [See Pondera ; Coinage.]
Pecu'niae repetu'ndae. See Appendix,
Roman Law, Repetundae.
Peda'rii. [Senatus.]
Pedi'sequi. [Servus.]
Pedum {KopvvT), Theocr. vii. 43). A crook.
(See also woodcut to Oscillum.)
Fig. 790.— Comb. rFrom British
JIuseum.)
Fig. 791.— Pedum. Cirom a painting.)
The crook is an attribute of Pan and of
Thalia, tlie Muse of pastoral poetry.
Pegma {Triiyua). A structure of planks joined
together, and so, in its simplest form, shelves
in the atrium for imagines, or book- shelves
(Cic. Att. iv. 8) ; but in a special sense (hence
pageant) an edifice of wood consisting of two
or more stages, which were raised or depressed
and moved at pleasure by weights acting with
ropes and pulleys. These gi-eat machines
PELLIS
were used in the Roman amphitheatres, and
for spectacles in general (Juv. iv. 121 ; Mart,
i. 2 ; Suet. Claud, 34). They were moved on
wheels ; sometimes they were richly decorated,
and even overlaid with silver (Plin. xxxiii.
16) or gold (Mart. viii. 38). At other times
they exhibited a display of fireworks. Gladi-
ators or other performers were borne aloft
upon pegmata.
neXdrai. Free labourers working for hire,
like tlie ©-nTts, in contradistinction to the
Helots and Penestae, who were bondsmen
or serfs, having lost their freedom by con-
quest or otherwise. The work of the 7reA.o'T7js
was probably as a rule, if not always, field
labour; whether a gi-oom who was niadwros,
not •>, slave, as in Plat. Li/s. p. 208 a, could
rightly be called ireA.arrjs, cannot be deter-
mined (Plat. Euthyphr. p. 4). The word is also
used by Plutarch (Ages. c. (5) for Helots.
Pellex, Paelex. App. Rom. Law, Concubina.
Pellis. In Homeric times skins were worn
as a mantle over the shirt by the poor {Od.
xiii. 436 ; cf. Hes. 0/j. 545), by archers (Paris,
n. iii. 16), and by warriors
when recoimoitring (II. x.
23). See figs. 753 [NegpCsj
and 929 [Sagitta].
I Skins of wUd and domes;
tic animals, especially
fleeces (Ktiea) were also
used as rugs and bedding
(11. ix. 661, &c.), and as a
covering for chairs (Od. xix.
! 101, &c.). Leather, too,
was used for the manufac-
ture of shoes, caps, harness,
I armour, &c.
I Among the aKvrivai ia-
I dTiTes are those mentioned
by Aristophanes :
(1) AKpdfpa, a shepherd's
cloak or coat of goat-skins
se\vn together . (Nitb. 71 :
cf. EccL 80; Plat. Crit. p. 58). It had a hood
and could be pulled over the head.
(2) ^iffvpa (ii, Ar. Vesp. 738), a tunic or cloak
with sleeves of skins, with the hair turned in-
wards, worn for warmth by day, or by night
(Ran. 1459) to sleep in as a blanket (Av. 122,
EccL ^21). BoiTo, a shepherd's cloak (Theocr.
iii. 25), was pi'obably the same.
(3) Karcijj'axr;, a coarse timic trimmed with
sheep- skin, woni by slaves and labourers in the
country (Ar. Lysistr. 1151).
(4) 2iroA.os, a leather jerkin worn by slaves
over their tunic (Av. 933, 935, 944). It was also
worn by soldiers (Xen. Anab. iii. 8, 20, iv. 1, 18).
Tanning, or at anj' rate the careful dressing
of skins, was known as early as the Homeric
age, when we find various kinds of leather in
use for harness, armour, and clothing.
Among the common people many doubtless,
like Eumaeus (Od. xiv. 34 ; cf. Hes. Op. 519),
made their own shoes and garments from raw
hide, dressing them roughly with oil to make
them soft. However, there were even at this
period professional workers in leather, such as
Tychius (II. vii. 322), who made Ajax's shield.
Shoemaking and tanning seem to have been
carried on by the same trade even in classical
times (Ar. Eq. 314, 869). [For the process of
tanning see Coriarius.]
In Roman literature garments made of skiHS
are not verj' often mentioned. Shepherds and
goat-herds woi-e, as they do to this day, skin
coats with sleeves.
Fig. 792.— Figure of
Hermes. (From
Francois vase.)
PELTA
Beiir-skins were worn by Arkadian auxiliaries
in the first Messenian war, and by the signiferi
in the later Roman army (see Stat. Theh. iv.
304; Sil. Ital. iv. 558; Verg. Aen. v. 37); for
beds we have bear-skins mentioned in Verg.
^e/(. viii. 3(!8 ; Ov. Mff. xii. 319.
One of the most important uses of skins at {lixwv or oKOvriov), and wrestling (iraKt))
Rome was as a covering for military tents
[TabernaculumJ, whence sub j)eUibus, ' under
canvas' (Caes. B. G. iii. 29, A'c). There were
guilds of ^Jc//(o/ies (Plaut. Men. ii. 3, 54,400),
pelliarii and jjelUoiiarii at Rome.
The custom of using furs, both as rugs
PENTATHLON 478
n€VTaKoaiojjLe'8iM.voi. [Census.]
Penta'thlon InevraOKov, (jiiinquertiuTn). A
group of five contests ; one of the competitive
games of the great festivals of Hellas. These
five were leaping (oA/ua), the foot-race {Sp6/j.os),
throwing the quoit (Si<TKOs), throwing the spear
oiA/xa, noSujK(ir)f. SitrKOV, aKOvra, TTa\T]v,
.Sitnoiiiiles, 153.
Of these five contests the SiV/cos, 5po/uos,
and TraATj are described under Discus, Stadium,
and Lucta. The leaping {a.\^ia) was what we
{stragula pellicia), and as articles of dress call ' the long jump,' measured by distance on
(pelles iii(Jutoriac), did not become customary the ground. The jumper habitually aided him-
until tlie time of the Empire, when contact with self by holding in his hands aKrripfs, weights of
fur-wearing peoples, such as the Germans, metal or stone, something like our dumb-bells
brought them in (cf.rewo[?7ie/!o] a German coat (fig. 612, under 'AAT-fipss), whicli he dropped
of reindeer skin : Caes. B. G. vi. 21), and the when he 'took off,' thereby gaining additional
growing demand for them supported a lively impetus. The greatest leap recorded is that
trade at the factories in Southern Russia {e.g. of Phayllus of Kroton, who is said to have
Tanais on the Don), as well as hi Cappadocia. , cleared a distance of fifty-five feet. Modern
In the Edict of Diocletian skins of oxen, goats, jumps do not attain to even half this distance:
sheep; lambs, deer, wild sheep, stags, martens, 23 ft. Gi in. being the longest on record. Witli
beavers, bear, wolves, foxes, leopards, hyenas,
lions, and seals are enumerated, as well as
Morocco leather of different kinds.
Pelta (Tre'ATTji. [Arms and Armour, p. 80.]
Pelta'stae. [Exercitus.]
the assistance of aAr^pes a leap of 29 ft. 7 in. was
made at Chester in 1854. It is possible that
the aA/io may have resembled the ' hop, step,
and jump,' the highest modem i-ecord of which
is 49 feet 3 in. This exercise is practised in
Pelvis (TroSaj/iTTTiip). A vessel for washing the Greece at the present time,
feet : sometimes of earthenware (Juv. iii. 277), The aKoWior, a spear or javelin, was probably
thrown! at a mark, but definite details of this
contest ai-e wanting. The spear was thrown by
a thong, amentum, which gave it a rotatory
,t z — L motion and thus increased the steadiness of its
Fig. 7!t3.-Pelvis. (British MuReum.) flight, on the principle of our rifled gmis.
There remains the perplexing question of
but more often of bronze (Juv. X. 04) ; ^^e^^Mtija, how the total conii>etition of the pentathlon
pelluviu7n, poJhihnnn, truJhum, have the was regulated and decided; and with this is
same meanings ; Malluvium is a basin for the connected the question, already touched on, of
hands (xepvi^ilov, x^P"
vifiiov, x*'P<^''"'"'"po*': SPG 7 /\ ,-^ tS?N^ 4
Od. i. 137, &c.) [Ae0Tis.]
The water (xfp»'i'|'> X*P*''i8es)
was ordinarily poured from
the jug (TTp6xovs, urceolus)
over tlie feet or hands into
the basin. The pelvis was
also used for washing up
cups and dishes.
rievearai. Thessalian
serfs. The word is from
the root of irevofxai, irSvos,
TTe'njs. The Penestae of
Thessaly were old inhabi-
tants of the land conquered
and reduced to villonage
by the Thesprotians, pos-
sibly Perrhaebians and
Magnetes. Others call them
Pelasgi, i.e. the primitive
indigenous people of Thes-
salj- ; or Aeolian Boeotians
(cf. Thuc. i. 12). Tliey
were serfs in an interme-
diate position between purchased slaves and the order of the five distinct but component
freemen. Tliey were apparently not, like the events. The order of the events seems to have
Helots, serfs of the state, but belonged each to been as follows : leaping, tlirowing tlie quoit,
some family for whom the personal service was throwing the spear, the foot-race, wrestling,
performed, for whicii reason they were some- At the beginning tlio competitors were drawn
times called (dfTTa\oiKfTai. They were vei-y in pairs — A against B, C against 1), E against
numerous, for instance, in the families of the F, and so on. Tiie winners of three events out
Aleuadae and Skojiadae (Theocr. xvi. 35) ; but of five were drawn again in pairs. If anyone
they were not only tillers of the soil : they was victorious in the first three, the other two
were the retainers of these great families, and were omitted.
served under their masters as cavalry (Dem. c. The labour involved in the pentathlon being
Arist. p. 687, § 199). very severe, the munber of entries was probably
Fig. 7M.— Pentathlon. (From a vase.>
1. Holds a\TT)pe<;, 2. 4. aKuif. .'I. fiiVxof.
474
nENTHKOSTH
small ; and as in the Oljinpian games three
Hellanodikai were appointed to judge in the
pentathlon, three matches could be going on at
once.
The pentathlon was greatly esteemed in
Hellas for its influence on health and comeli-
ness, and it was in especial favour among the
Spartans.
rievTTiKoaTTi. A customs-duty of 2 per
cent, levied probably upon all exports and im-
ports at Athens. It is known to have been
levied on woollen cloth and other manufactured
goods (Dem. Mid. p. 558, § 133), on cattle,
and on imported com ([Dem.] Neaer. p.
1353, § 27 ; Plut. Solon, 24). On imports the
duty was payable on the unloading (Dem.
Laarit. p. 932, § 29) ; on exports, probably
when the goods were shipped. In paying the
duty the merchant was said irei/rriKoaTevfffdai.
The customs were farmed out, probably from
year to year. They were let to the highest
bidders by the ritoXTiTai acting under the
authority of the senate. The farmers were
called TeXiovai, and were said wvelcrBai r^v
■irtvrT)KO<rTr\v. The collectors of the duty
{irivrr)KO(noK6yoi) kept books, to entries in
which (ano-ypatpi)) Demosthenes appeals (c.
Fhorm. p. 909, § 7). [' EWujjieviov.]
nevTTiKocTTvs. [Exercltus.;
Peplus. (Dress.]
Per condictio'nem ; Per iu'dicis postula-
tio'nem ; Per pi'gnoris capio'nem. See Appen-
dix, Roman Law.
Pera (irTJpa). A bag for carrying provisions,
worn either slung over the shoulder and under
<me arm, or hanging from a belt. It was used
by travellers and country folk (Hom. Od. xiii.
437, xvii. 197, &c.), and was part of a beggar's
outfit (Ar. Nub. 923). In later Greek times it
was adopted, along with the beggar's staff
i^aKTrjpia) and rags, as their professional cos-
tume by the Cynics (Mart. iv. 53, 3).
Perdue'llio. [Maiestas.j
Perduellio'nis duo'viri. See Appendix,
Roman Law.
Peregrinus. [Civitas.]
Pe'rgula. (1) A verandah, roofed but open
at the sides, on the ground floor of a house ;
used as a painter's studio (Plin. xxxv. § S4).
Being not very^ different from a taberna, or
booth, it was also a shop (Aus. iJ/jj'sf. iv. 6)
and a school (Juv. xi. 137). (2) A loggia or
covered balcony above the ground-floor, or on
the house-top, which could be used as an
observatory (Suet. Aug. 94). (3) An arbour or
tvellised walk in a garden (Plin. xiv. § 11) : the
Italian prrgola.
nepCoiKoi. This word is generally used to
describe a dependent population, living with-
out the walls or in the country provinces of a
dominant city, and, although personally free,
deprived of the enjoyment of citizenship and
the political rights conferred by it. It was
probably from the Spartan use of the term
Perioeki that the notion of ' subject population '
became so closelj' attached to it. 'The word
does not appear to have been used by ixny other
state in the same sense.
A political condition such as that of the
Perioeki of Greece could hardly have originated
in anything else than foreign settlement by
conquest. It appears probable that the Perioeki
were a mixed race, partlj' Achaean and partly
Dorian ; that either by oppression on the part
of the Dorians or after a revolt of the native
population, the Perioeki, who had been freemen
before, were brought into a subject condition.
PERISCELIS
The population of Lakonia, thus subdued,
was forced to pay tinbute to Sparta, probably
in the form of a land-tax : whether as a tribute
or as rent for the use of the land is uncertain.
The best land, that in the plateau in the
interior, was occupied by the Spartans ; the
lands of the Perioeki were mostly in the rugged
territory that fringed this plain. They had no
civic rights at Sparta, and no uis conubii existed
between them and Spartan citizens. It is even
said that the Ephors could put Perioeki to death
without trial. It does not, however, appear
that the Perioeki (especially in historic times)
were generally an oppressed people. They
served in the Spartan armies as heavj^-armed
soldiers, and not like the Helots, as light-amied
only, and had a Helot apiece to wait upon them
(Hdt. viii. 6). We also read of Ka\ol KayaOoi,
gentlemen, amongst the Perioeki serving as
volunteers in the Spartan service (Xen. Hell.
v. 3, 9). We occasionally find a Perioekus in
high command (Thuc. viii. 6), and on one occa-
sion in the responsible post of admiral [vavapxos)
(ib. viii. 22), commanding an allied fleet. On
the rising of the Helots in 464 B.C., some of the
Perioeki joined them (Thuc. i. 101 ; cf. Xen.
Hell. vi. 5, 251.
The Perioeki, then, though they resented
their subject condition, do not seem to have
been harshly treated. They were not subjected
to the restraints and severe discipline imposed
upon the Spartans. The trade and maimfac-
tiu'es of the country were exclusively in their
hands, and were carried on by tliem with the
more facility and profit as many of them occu-
pied maritime towns. The cultivation of the
arts, also, as well in the higher as in the lower
departments, was confined to the Perioeki, the
Spartans considering it beneath themselves ;
and many distinguished artists were found in
the Lakonian schools, all of whom were prob-
ably Perioeki. Moreover, it seems natural to
suppose that they enjoyed ci\nl rights in the
communities (irrfAets) to which they belonged,
though, no doubt, under Spartan control.
The number of Lakonian (as they are called)
or subject cities is said to have formerly
amomited to 100. Several of these lay on the
coast, as Gythium, the port of Sparta, wlience
the whole coast of Lakonia is called -rj TrfptoiKis
(Thuc. iii. 16). Many lay more inland, e.f/.Thyrea.
The Perioekic towns of the coast were de-
tached from Sparta by T. Quinctius Plamininus,
and placed under the protection of the Achaean
League (Liv. xxxiv. 29, 30, and xxxviii. 31). The
Emperor Augustus also released 24 townis from
their subjection to Sparta, and formed them
into separate free communities {Eleutherola-
kones, Pans. iii. 21, 6).
A Perioekic population existed in other Greek
states where immigration had taken place : the
Perioeki of Ai-gos were called Omeatae from
the town of Orueae.
We find Perioeki also in Crete, which re-
sembled Sparta in having a large subject popu-
lation. [See Koajioi.]
Other instances are
Leukas, Anaktorium,
and Elis (Thuc. ii. 25,
81).
Peri'poli. [Ephe-
bus.]
Peri'pteros. [Tem-
plum.l
Pori'BPeHa (.TT^r,, Fig. 795.-PerisceUdes.
reri SCeUS ^Trepi- ,va^se j^ British Museum.)
(TKfKis). Greek and
Roman women wore anklets and bangles. Such
PERISTYLIUM
anklets were sometimes called compcdes, but
the Romans borrowed also the Greek word irtpt-
(TKeXis (Hor. E^'- i- 17, 50), and inpKTKfKiov
{periscclium).
Peristy'lium or Peristy'Ium (also Peri-
Sty'los, ni. and f., TrepicrruAosj. Eitlier a court
surroiuuk'd by colonnades on the inside, or a
building' surrounded by them on the outside.
Pero. Calceus.]
Perso'na l /«/•(.•«, irpuffunrov or ■Kpoffoiiruov). A
mask. Masks were worn liy Crrcck and Roman
actors in nearly all dramatic representations.
Whatever the origin of this custom, it was both
ancient and universal. It has been traced to
the colouring,' of the face with wine-lees at the
Dionysia, or with other pigments such as
il/t/iu6(o«', or white lead. Tlie invention of masks
has been given to Thespis and to Aeschylus.
Phrpiichus is said to have introduced female
masks. Some masks hid the face only, but
they appear more generally to have covered the
whole head like a visor, fastened with bands
under the chin. The term for having a mask
put on is irepiTldea-dai : for wearing, iiriKutrdat,
TrfpiKiladai: for putting off, airoriQfffdai, a<p-
€\e7i/. The masks were made by crKfvoTrotoi.
I. Tk.vuU' M.vsks.— The use of masks of
course excluded all possibility of facial expres-
sion, so important in modem acting. But it
must be remembered that (1) in the large
theatres the actors' features could not be well
seen; (2) the dramatis jirrsonue were gods and
heroes, whose conventional representation was
PERSONA
475
Pig. 79C.— Mask of a younfc' man. (.Viis. Tiorb. xi. tav. xUi.)
well known to the audience; (3) the use of
the cothurnus rendered a proportionate en-
Flg. 797.— Woman's tragic mask. ( I i
Horculuncum.)
painting at
' not admit of a variety of expressions of the
countenance. Whether the open or half-open
mouth of a tragic mask also contributed to
raise the voice of the actor is douljtful.
The masks used in . ancient tragedies were
thus, for the most part, tjqiical of certain cha-
racters, and quite conventional. Each mythical
character had his or her fixed type and could
I be recognised at once. Where the personal type
I was not strongly marked (as in the subordinate
characters), the mask was always in character.
Thus there were conventional ma.sks for old
men, j'oung men, slaves, women, messengera,
largement of the countenance necessarj-; (4)
the solenui character of ancient tragedy did
Fig. 79S.— Mask. (From u.
painting at Pompeii.)
Fig. 799.— Ma.sks,
tragic and cuniic.
iFrom Pompoii.i
rustics, &c. All agreed in having the mouth
and eyes widely open and the eyebrows strongly
marked ; and most had an uyKo^ or mass of
hair above the forehead, raised up to give height
and dignity as well as tragic expression. ( See
figs. 79(5, 797.)
II. Co>nc JM.vsKS.— In the Old Attic Comedy,
in which living and distinguished persons were
so often brought upon the stage, the masks,
though caricatures, must have been portraits.
We know that no aK(voiToi6s ventured to make
Kleon's mask; the mask of Sokrates in the
Fig. KX). -'Hyfuuf 7^peo•^UTT)9■ (I'"rom a terracotta
mask found at VuIci.J
Clouds was a faithful representation. Of
course, the choruses of Birds, Wasps, Clouds,
&c. had peculiar masks of their own. A change
was made in the comic
masks when it was for-
bidden to represent any
Athenian citizen upon the
stage (cf. Ar. A'm6. 31,
Ach. 1150, .-li'. 1297). The
masks henceforth, like the
characters, became not
individual but typical; >. ,y- -, . ,
and a number of standing \\)^^-\.A'*'
characters or masks were
thus introduced in co-
medy.
These, like the tragic masks, were divided
into many conventional classes: such as old
Fig. SOI,— Comic mask
for an old man.
476
PERSONA
PHALERAE
men {irdiriros, ■n-peo'/SvTrjs), young men of various being introduced from Greece at so late a period,
they had the same defects as those used in
Fig. 802.— Masks in British Museum
drama were intended to represent the Satyrs, Si
complexions, parasites, slaves, women old and
young, iraWaKai, eraipai, &c. Tlie features
were exaggerated to burlesque.
The chief points of distinction in the masks
lay in the colour of the face, in the colour and
arrangement of the hair, in the size of the ojkos,
and in tlie eyebrows.
III. Masks used in the Satybic Deama. —
The masks used in this species of the Greek
Fig. S04.— Cupid playing in mask. (From Becq de
Fouquieres, Les Jeux des Anciens, p. 18.)
Greece at the time when the arts were in their
decline.
The Roman mimes did not wear masks.
[Mimus.]
Pe'rtica. [Mensura; Decempeda.]
Pes. [Mensura.]
Pessi (TTfcraoi). [Games, Latrunculi.]
Pe'ssulus. [lanua.]
Petali'smus. [Exilium.]
Pe'tasus. [Pilleus.]
Petau'rum {Tveravpov, Trerevpoy). A pole or
perch upon which fowls roosted (Theoc. xiii. 13) :
hence a spring-board for acrobats {petaurintae).
(See Juv. xiv. 265; Mart. xi. 21, ii. 86, &c.)
Peti'tor. See App. Roman L.\w, Actor.
Peto'rritum. [Currus.]
netfTaipoL, [Exercitus.]
Phala'ngae {(paKayyts., KvKivSpoi). Long
cylindrical pieces of wood, such as trunks of
lenus, and similar companions of Dionysus. The trees (Hdt. iii. 97; Plin. xii. § 17), trmicheons
other characters wore the ordinary tragic masks. (Plin. vii. ^ 200). Hence: (1) poles used to
carry burdens, being supported on tlie
shoulders of the cai-riers with the burden
hanging below by ropes. (See Asilla.)
The carriers were called phalangaiii,
and also hexapliori, tetrapJiori, &c.,
according to their number. (2) Rollers
placed under ships to move them on dry
laud, so as to draw them up (siibducere)
or down {dedxicere) (cf. Hor. Cartn. i. 4,
2). The rollers were aided by levers
and ropes. They were employed in the
same manner to move military engines
(Caes. B. C. ii. 10).
Phalanx. [Exercitus.]
Phala'rica (Falarica). [Arms and
Armour.]
Pha'lerae ((pdXapa, to.). (1) ^d\apa
is used only once in Homer {II. xvi. 105)
as an appendage to a hehnet, probably
a metal addition to a leathern cap.
Aeschylus also speaks of the (paKapov of
the Persian king's tiara. The word is
As regards the earliest representations of the , elsewhere used of the metal disks or crescents
regular drama among the Romans, it is stated , with which a horse's harness was ornamented,
that masks were not used, but merely the , npOyU6Tcoir(5<a {=frontalia) were on the brow
galerus or wig, so that the colour of the hair (Xen. Cyr. vi. 4, 1, vii. 1, 2), wapriia (Hom.
alone indicated in a way who the character was : II. iv. 141) and irapayvadiSes on the cheeks,
white for the old, black for the young, or red j avO-fiXia and irapwiria near the eyes, irpo-
for slaves. In the time of Terence there appear i (rrepvi^ia (Xen. Anah. i. 8, 7) and irporTrrjdiSia
to have been no masks (cf. Ter. Plwrm. i. 4, on the breast. Phalerae were occasionally worn
32 sqq., Andr. iii. 3, 20) ; and it was not till by other animals, as, for instance, by the
about 110 B.C. that Roscius, as he was not good- elephants of Antiochus (Liv. xxxvii. 40; Plin.
looking and had a squint, introduced them into i viii. § 12). They were made not only of bronze,
tragedy. One Cincius Faliscus is said to have | but of silver (Liv. xxii. 52), and even of gold
introduced them into comedy ; it was some (Hdt. i. 215). They were sometimes jewelled,
time, however, before they met with approval and often richly ornamented (Cic. Vevr. iv. 12,
(Cic. f?e Orni. iii. 59, 221). Aesopus sometimes 29). One of the most favourite ornamentations
acted without a mask (Cic. Div. i. 37, 80). ' was the Gorgon's head (Eur. Bhes. 306).
Masks, however, had been used long before (2) The Romans attached even more import-
that time in the Atellanae. As for the forms ance to jij/taZerae than the Greeks (Juv. xi. 106).
of Roman masks, it may be presumed that, This was no doubt, to a large extent, owing to
Fig 80.S.— Satyric maslt in front and profile, found in a grave
at Vulci.
PHALERAE
the Roman custom of bestowing them as dona
militaria, not only to the cavalry, but also to
the infantry. Fhalerae were worn by the
soldiers themselves along with torques, armil-
PHAROS
477
Fig. H05.— Phalerae, from statue of Alexander.
(Naples Museum.)
lae, caiellae, fibulae, and other military decora-
tions (Verg. Aen. ix. 359 ; Liv. ix. 46). Those
were maile of gold and silver as well as bronze
(Plin. xxxvii. § 74).
rig. 80C.— String of Roman phalerae. (From Uritish
Museum.)
Many phalerae have been found all over the
ancient world. Those found in the Crimea are
round, lenticular, and crescent-shaped. All are
of the same make, consisting of a bronze plate,
to the top of which a thui piece o£ luetal with a
design in hammered
work is soldered. The
designs represent
Greeks and Amazons
and gods and giants
in combat. The Gor-
gon's head is the
most favourite design,
showing that the
figures were intended
to be prophylactic
{a.iroTp6iTaia).
Roman plialerae as
worn by soldiers are
shown on many grave-
stones of veterans.
The phalerae and
other dona militaria
were worn on a frame-
work of leather straps,
which hung from the
shoulders and was
braced across tlie
chest.
Oape'Tpa, Pharetra.
<t)apjJLdKaJv ■Ypa(t>Ti.
Law.
Fharmacopo'la {(pap^tx3.K0Trdi\r)s). Quack doc-
tors and druggists kept shops or booths for their
goods at Atlicns, and also hawked them about
(a.iroKi)pvTT(iv : cf. Ar. Thcsm. 504, Nub. 7C0 ;
Plin. x.xix. § 18). In Rome there were many
quacks of this sort, who, besides the sale of
di'ug.s, professed to cure patients also.
[Medicus.] Regular medicines were sold with
a label (€7ra776Aio) afHxed, which specified the
name of the drug, its composition, virtues, and
use. The drugs were often brought from
distant places and obtained from drug- sellers.
The physicians, liowever, commonly bought
the drugs ready compounded, and the pharma-
copola traded on his o\ra account (Hor. Sat. i.
2, 1), carrj-ing his drugs about to country towns
(Cic. Cluent. 14, 40).
Pharos or Pharus {<pipos). A lighthouse.
The most celebrated lighthouse of antiquity
was that of Alexandria. It was built by Sos-
tratus of Knidus on the island of Pharos, at an
expense of 800 talents (Plin. xxxvi. 18). It
was of great size, square, constructed of white
marble (Caes. 13. C. iii. 112). It contained
many stoi'ies (iroKvupocpos), which diminished
in width from below. The upper stories had
windows looking seawards, and fires were kept
Fig. sOS-ThrncInn wearing
quiver. iKrom vase,
British Museum.)
A quiver. [Arcus.]
See Appendix, Gkekk
'■mi
Tig. «07.-Clppns of M. CaelluB
Hnman Ughthousos In BrltAin.
burning in them by niglit to guide vessels into
the harbour.
Lighthouses stood at Ostia, Capreac Suet
478
*A2I2
Tib. 741 Portus Augusti (Juv. xii. 75), Ra-
venna, and many other places. The name of
Pharos was given to them in allusion to that
of Alexandria (Suet. Claud. 20). The Pharos of
Brundusium was an island with a lighthouse
upon it. Trajan's brealrivater at Centum-
cellae (Civita Vecchia) had a lighthouse at
each end (Plin. Ep. vi. 31).
Fig. 809 shows two phari remaining in
Britain. The first is within the precincts of
Dover Castle. It is about 40 feet high, built
of brick and stone alternately. A similar
pharos formerly existed at Boulogne (Suet.
Cal. 46). The other is on the summit of a
hill on the coast of Flintshire.
Kg. 810.— Pharos. (Bronze medallion o/ Commodus.)
<t>dais. See Appendix, Greek L.\w.
Pheidi'tia. [Zvaairta.]
Pherne {cpepvr}). Appendix, Gr. L.\w, Dowry.
PM'ala {(pidx-n). L*atera.]
<t)6vos- See Appendix, Greek Law.
<J>6pos. The tribute paid to Athens by her
allies in the fifth century B.C. Upon the forma-
tion of the Confederacy of Delos in 476 B.C., the
Asiatic and insular allies undertook, with a
view to carrying on the war with Persia, to pay
to the Confederacy a fixed amount of ships,
money, or men, as settled by Aristeides. The
total annual <p6pos was fixed at starting at 460
talents (Thuc. i. 96, v. 18). The treasury was
to be at Delos (Thuc. i. 104), where also the
delegates of the Confederation were to meet.
But the delegates soon ceased to meet ; the
League was kept together by Athens, and the
treasury was removed to Athens (Plut. Arist.
25), probably about 454 B.C. The Hellenotamiae
and Logistae took charge of the funds at
Athens. ['E^\T^voTa^l,lal.]
Athens now, if not earlier, charged herself
with collecting the tribute. Many states were
now sending money instead of their original
contingents (Thuc. i. 99), the only states which
still sent contingents of ships and men being
Samos, Chios, and Lesbos. Lideed, by that
time the Confederacy had been changed into
an empire of Athens (Thuc. il. 63). This em-
pire included the coasts of Asia Minor, Mace-
don, and Thrace, and most of the Aegean
islands. Loosely connected with it were the
Western islands of Kephallenia, Korkyra, and
Zakynthos (Thuc. vi. 85), and the Peloponnesian
states of Troezen and Achaia (Thuc. i. Ill,
115) : these did not pay <p6pos.
As more states joined the League, the quotas
of single states fell, till a reassessment in 442
by PerLkles raised the total (Plut. Arisf. 24).
At the time of the outbreak of the Pelopon-
nesian War (431 B.C.) the <p6pos amounted to
*TAOBA2IAEI2
an average of 600 talents (Thuc. ii. 13). With
this fund the Athenians had driven the Per-
sians from Greek waters, and adorned their own
city. Tlie money was at first brought by the
allies; later, collected by dp7iipoA.d7ot I'fjej. The
tribute was thought a grievance (Ar. Pax, 621),
but was rather vexatious than oppressive (see
Thuc. vii. 28). In 425 B.C. the sum was doubled,
and the (popos raised to 1200 talents or more
(Andoc. de Pace, § 9).
The League or Empire was divided into five
financial provinces — Ionic, Hellespontine, in-
sular, Karian, and Thracian. The tribute was
reassessed everv four years (cf. Xen. Mejp. Aih.
iii. 5).
In 413 B.C. the direct tribute was turned into
an indirect one, and an eiKoffTr) or tax of 5 per
cent, was imposed on all exports and imports, to
be collected by Athenian agents in the harbours
of the allies (Thuc. vii. 28;. [ElKoaTii.]
When an Athenian League or Empire was re-
vived about 378 B.C., the term crvi'Ta^is was
used instead of <j>6pos for the contributions of
the allies.
<t>paTpCa, Opdrpa. [Civitas ; Tribus.]
OviXapxoi, rarely OvAdpxai, and <t)u\o-
PaaiXets- In ancient times the tribal system
prevailed everywhere in Greece ; the Dorians
having a threefold, the lonians a fourfold,
division of this kind. [Tribus.] This institu-
tion remained till the latest period, with certain
modifications. The phylarchs seem originally
to have been the chiefs of the various tribes
((pvKai), whether in peace or war.
There is no evidence to show whether or
not there were in primitive times four <pvKapxoi
as well as four (t>v\o$a(ri\e7s. Herodotus (v.
69) speaks of four phylarchi ; but it is reason-
able to suppose that he means phylobasileis,
and that anciently the phylobasileis discharged
both civil and religious functions, till Klei-
sthenes created a new office of ten phylarchi to
relieve the phylobasileis of military and civil
duties, whilst preserving the ancient institution
of four fiaaiKits, connected as they were with
the religious treatment of cases of homicide
(<t>6vos); in the same way as on the institution
of archons the name and ceremonial ofiice of
0a(Ti\(vs were preserved. Their civil duties
would appear to have passed into the hands of
the e7riju6\7jTal rcov (pvKwv.
The word <pv\apxos would thus have two
distinct meanings :
(1) = <pv\o$a(n\evs, as Hdt. v. 69, retained
for religious purposes (see above).
(2) Under the constitution of Kleisthenes,
ten <pv\apxoi, one for each tribe, were ap-
pointed by open voting {xeiporovia) in the
ekklesia ([Ar.] 'A6. ttoA. 61). They commanded
the cavalry contingent (100 men) of each tribe,
as the ten ra^iapxot commanded the infantry,
and were under the control of the 'iTnrapxoi. As
the cavalry belonged to the TrevTaKO(noiJ.4Stfj.vot
and iTTTTTJs, we may suppose that the <pv\apxoi
also belonged to these classes.
The (pvKapxoi as cavalry officers [Equites, 1]
are to be distinguished from the 'Eirtn.cXTi-
Tal ra>v (pvKoiu, of whom it appears (Dem.
Mid. 519) that there were more than one (per-
haps three) to each tribe. [Ezercitus.]
OuXoPaauXels- The <l>v\ofia(Ti\tis (also
called ^a(ri\€?s) were originally the chiefs of
the ancient Attic clans or tribes (<pvKcu). In
later times, while their number probably con-
tinued to be four, their military and civil
powers were transferred to the <pv\apxoi and
eTTi/neATjTOj, and thev were confined to judicial
*YAON
and priestly functions. In cases of homicide
(<J)6vos) they appeal- to have sat as assessors
with tlie arciion basileus in the BafftXeTov, and
pt'rliai)s as president of the court of the '
'E<}>e'Tat in tlie Prytanoum. '
As the archon basileus dealt with all cases
of blood-guiltiness, whether murder or homi-
cide, it is evident that the functions of his
assessors would be priestly rather than judicial.
The fact that the phylobasileis were Eupatrids
is of importance when we recollect that in
cases of death by violence members of certain
Eupatrid families were lonsulted as e^Tj'yTjTOi.
These priestly functions were left untouched
by the reforms both of Solon and of Klei-
sthenes. They had also the office of offering
sacrifices on behalf of their tribes, representing
in their priestly functions the ancient chief-
tains {Pa(n\ri(S, Horn. Od. 304, &c.) of the
several separate tribes which were ultimately
fused into a single community. Many traces
of these ancient chieftains can be found else-
where in Greece as well as in Athens : as at
Elis, Kyme, Mytilene, and other cities.
0v\ov. [Tribus]
Pictu'ra (7pa<^'^, ypa(piK7i, ^ci)ypa<pia). Paint-
ing.
(1) Definition of Terms. — The word ypa<pai
(engraving) was used for drawing, painting, and
^vriting; ypa<f>tKri (or, as dislin^'uished from
writing, ^wypacptKr)) is painting in the abstract,
with special names for various branches, as
fjifya\oypa(pia, for large subjects ; ^oi>TToypa<pia,
for trivial or miniature eulijects ; elKovoypacpia,
portraiture; and crKTjvoypcKp'ia, scene-painting.
nepiypa<prj,Staypa(pi'], and vnoypacpi], are used
to denote ' outline ' ; ' drawing ' as opposed to
' colouring ' the Greeks called 7po/x^irj : hence
ypannas e\Kv(tv, airoreivfiv, &c.
In Latin, the art of drawing in the abstract
was cjrophica, and the practice of it adumbrare
or deUneare; outlinmg was circumscribere.
The outline of a picture was linea (hence
lineas duccrr, lincamenta).
For instruments and materials we find Stilus,
ypa(pis or ypacpuov : ypacpis was also used for
penicillus, a fine brush, made either of bristles
(saetae) or sponge, employed either on wood
or on parchment : the usage of red pencil
and of charcoal is likewise attested ; oKptfias,
KiWifias, machina, is an easel.
For colouring matter, the ancients spoke of
(papfjxiKov, ynedicamcnttim, pigmentum, as dis-
tinguished from xpi^M"') color, the actual colour
prepared for use. The laying on of colour is
XP'o^'eii', XP"-^"^^"-
Such woi'ds as (TKia, lumen, umbra, t6vos,
apfwy-fi, are difficult to represent in modern
terms ; but they are moi'e or less expressed by
light, shade, chiaroscuro, harmony.
(2) Wall-pal)itin(j. — Wall-paintings on a
prepared surface of lime, resembling the
Egyptian paintings, have been found at Tiryns
and Mykenae. Of fresco-painting in Greece
proper we hear nothing further until the time
of Polygnotus: that it was kept up, however,
in Italy, at least, we know from the wall-paint-
ings of Etruscan tombs of the seventh century
B.C. It was not until the fifth century tliatthe
compositions of Polygnotus and his contem-
poraries raised this art to its highest level ; so
that in this era we hear very little of any other
kind of painting. In the fourth centurj' and
onwards, the work of the greater artists, such
as Zenxis and Parrhasius, lay almost entirely
in the execution of easel pictures.
The groundwork for fresco- painting is formed
PICTURA
479
by a wet stucco, Kovlapui or tectorium, laid on
the wall. This stucco for fresco was specially
prepared, and applied to the wall in several
layers of different cements Tsee Paries] {opus
albarium), the outer coats being of a finely-
pounded white marble mixed witli cement and
size. This by a chemical xjrocess forms a per-
manent glaze upon the surface, and protects the
colours in such a way that washing causes no
injury.
The thickness of the mortar has an advantage
in working over the modern method, since it
retains moisture longer, and gives the painter a
larger and more uniform surface to work upon.
On this surface the painting was laid with
a brush and water-colours ; other vehicles also,
such as milk, gum, or white of egg, were em-
ployed in some cases.
(3) Easel j^ic^u >'<''>■ — Most easel pictures
were probably executed a tempera in water-
colours on a dry ground, usually a thin slab of
wood (TTiVaf, TTivaKiov, sometimes <Tavls, tabula,
tahella), of box or cedar, also of cypress, pine,
or larch ; carefully dried, and secured against
warping, and primed with whitening (AeAeu/c-
aifievos). Canvas {linteum, Plin. xxxv. § 51)
was rare, but not unknown.
Lastly, we have stone and marble, both in
architectural paintings and in the decoration
of rooms, where pictures on panels of marble or
stone were either hung or inserted in the walls :
as, e.g., at Herculaneum.
(4) Colours.— The colours of the ancients
were kept dry, and pounded ((pap/xoKa rpifieiv,
colores trrere) when required for use in a stone
mortar by the assistants, in preparation for
the mixing (xpci/Mxra KepdaacrQai, crv/xfii^aerdat,
colores miscere), done by the master himself
according to the tints he required. [Colores.]
(5) E^icaustic. — Little is known of this art
beyond what we learn from Pliny (xxxv. jig I'i'i,
149), who tells us that the painting was in wax-
colours and burnt in {inurere), and that the
tool employed was called oestrum {Kecrrpov),
prolDably a leaf-shaped spatula, or possibly
some kind of stump.
Pictures discovered in Egypt by ISIr. Petrie
ai-e shown by him to have been painted with
colours ground in with wax and laid on in a
fluid state, no solvent or drying compound
apparently being used. To keep the wax-
colour at the right temperature for working
would be difficult and tedious, as tyKavaTiKi) is
stated to have been. On the other hand, the
words iyKCLiiv, inurere, naturally suggest some
process of fixing the colours by the application
of a hot iron after they are laid on, not merely
painting in colours fused by heat ; and this is
borne out by the accounts of the process given
by Pliny.
As no certain specimens of encaustic paint-
ing have been preserved, and the accounts of
the process are obscure, no very clear idea of
the process can be arrived at.
As regards encaustic painting on ivory, our
knowledge is very limited : it may be assumed
that such pictures were small, and possibly in
the nature of our miniature painting. On the
pimels of an ivory box from Egypt now in the
British Museum are designs formed by en-
graving or hollowing out certain portions and
filling in these spaces with a wax paste in
various tones of colour. It is possible, but not
certain, that this is an instance of encaustic.
(ti) Encaustic of Statues. — After the marbles
statue left the sculptor's hands, it was usually
handed over to an assistant or another artist
480
PICTURA
to undergo the processes of wax-toning and
colouring (ydvcoffis). The tonmg was effected
by means of melted wax, and is called by Plu-
tarch (de Glor. Ath. 6) eyKavffis, as opposed to
painting.
(7) Polychromy of Sculpture. — Greek statues
were usually, if not invariably, treated with
colour {circumlinere) . Hence the remark of
Praxiteles, who, when asked which of his statues
he most admired, answered, ' Those to which
Nikias [the great jjainter] had lent his hand '
(' quibus Nicias manum admovisset ') ; so highly,
says Pliny (xxxv § 133), did Praxiteles esteem
the circuvilitio of that painter. The colouring
was applied only to certain parts, such as the
lips, eyes, hair, and decoration of the dress,
while the remaining surface of the flesh was
treated with an encaustic toning of wax.
Greek buildings also were invariably coloured,
more or less ; and in order to adapt a statue or
relief to the temple or other building for which
it was intended, it was necessary to bring it
also into the general scheme of the colouring
of its surroundings. The colouring of archi-
tectural statuary was subject to strict laws,
dependent upon that of the architecture of the
time : probably the flesh was usually coloured,
and the general effect was like what we see in
the terracotta statuettes of Tanagra. In case
of independent sculpture, which had no tec-
tonic intention, the artist had freer scope ; and
here probably, in the best period at any rate,
most sculptors were content with circumlitio :
thus the Hermes of Praxiteles, when it was first
discovered, showed only traces of red and gold
on the sandals.
(8) Polychromy of Architecture. — While no
Greek temple was left uncoloured, the colouring
was applied only to certain parts and under
strict laws of distribution. As in sculpture,
too, the usage differed considerably according
to period and locality : in the best or marble
period, very little colour was added. Broadly
speaking, colour was reserved throughout for
those members which projected from the sur-
face, such as the cymatium, triglyphs, &c., and
for those parts of the actual surface which
gave a background for the sculptures : the
background of a frieze or tympanum of a
pediment being usually red or blue. The
colouring of Ionic architecture seems to accord
mainly with the principles of Doric. The
colouring serves principally as a background
for moulding. In Corinthian architecture the
colouring is still further enriched. The colours
were probably for the most part laid on by the
encaustic process.
(9) Mosaic. — In Roman writers we find the
words emblema and lithostrotum, which they
seem to have adopted, with the process, from
the Greeks.
The best known (but later) term is opus
musivum or pi ctura de musivo (also museum
or musiuvi, hence ' mosaic '), of uncertain deri-
vation.
Of the history of mosaic little is known. In-
laying in various coloured glazes was known to
the Egyptians from an early period, as weU as
to the Assyrians and the Persians. In aU
probability Greek mosaic was inspired from the
East, after the conquests of Alexander. The
earliest Greek mosaic as yet known is the pave-
ment made of inlaid marbles and pebbles wliich
decorates the floor of the pronaos of the temple of
Zeus at Olympia, which cannot be earlier than
the first half of the fourth century B.C., and is
probably considerably later. Everything points
to the third century B.C. for the introduction of
mosaic into Greece ; and probably it was never
practised to any great extent there. It appears
to have been developed at Alexandria and thence
imported to Rome.
Fig. 811.— Inlaid pavement at Olj-rapia.
The simplest kind of mosaic consisted in
laying in a pounded cement a series of
patterns, figures, or inscriptions in white or
coloured tesserae or tessellae {^prjipot, xprjcplSes)
[Abaculus]. The tesserae were made of marble,
stone, terracotta, and glass of all colours. The
ground was carefully laid in three layers of
concrete, statumen, rudus, nucleus, the upper
bed, nucleus, being the cement proper of
pounded brick and lime (like opus signinum :
see Paries), in which the tesserae were laid.
Of the ordinary mosaic, the finest kind was
opus vermiculatum, so called because the
tesserae are arranged in long wavy lines sug-
gesting the movement of worms, vermes.
Opus sectile was a mosaic made of slabs of
different colours and sizes, and cut in triangles,
squares, and other geometric forms. A special
kind of this class was the opus Alexandrimim,
in which only two kinds of marble were used,
generally speaking, red porphyry and green
Lakedaemonian marble.
(10) Vase Painting. [Pottery.]
(11) History. I. Greek. — The history of
painting in classical antiquity is one which is
difficult to treat, from the fact that no single
example of a masterpiece has come down to us ;
indeed, of one great brsinch of the art, that of
easel-painting, not a single specimen has sur-
vived. And yet we have every reason to believe
that the Greeks achieved as signal success in
painting as they had done in the sister art, and
that the masterpieces of the Greek painters
were worthy to rank beside the marbles of
Pheidias or the bronzes of Lysippus.
The secondary evidence consists of painted
vases, painted works in stone or marble, mo-
saics, and principally mural paintings from
Pompeii and Herculaneum.
The earliest painting in Greek art is found
on a class of vases wliich come at the end of
the Hissarlik and at the commencement of the
Mykenae period [Pottery]. These show the
first introduction of painted ornament as distin-
guished from the primitive engraved patterns
with which the decoration of Greek pottery
begins ; starting with decorative devices bor-
rowed from marine fauna and flora, and pro-
ceeding to such designs as that of the warrior
vase fomid at Mykenae. At Tiryns and
Mykenae fragments of wall-paintings have
been discovered. These subjects are marked
by a strong native originality, tinged with the
influence partly of Egypt, partly of Asia Minor.
PICTURA
481
With the downfall of the Mykenaean power, a chair, and around the picture is an inscrip-
the progress of iii't in Greece doubtless received tion recording that tliis is the monument of
a check. But the traditions of Mykenae passed tlie physician Aeneos or Aeneios. Assuming
to Asia Minor and the islands, and the little this to be a contenijwrary portrait of the great
tvidence which we possess seems to show uncle of the famous Hipjiokrates, the date
that in the seveTith century B.C. this style of would thus fall at about 520 n.c.
painting was ])ractised throughout an extensive The old Ionic or Asiatic painting most pro-
area of Eastern Hellas, as well as at Corinth | bably flourished at the same time with the
fe!g:i;aafeaaijij--a yyafe.^kii inas^ ^^BBii»iniiMn
Fig. R12.— Wall-painting from Tlryns. (Murray's Atilnrology.)
and Sikyon. It is wortliy of remark that the
influence of Oriental ta])estries is largely felt
in the Greek paintings, especially of the coast
and islands of Asia Minor, of this period : e.g.
the sarcophagi recently found at Klazomenae
(see Journ. of Helleuic Stud. iv. p. 1).
Among the earliest names of Greek painters
are those of EKi'ir.\NTi:s and Ki.e.\nthes of
Corinth, and of Ei"M.utus of Athens, who
appears to belong to the Solonian period.
KiMON of Kleonae may have been the in-
ventor or improver of the style shown in the
red-ligured vases of the school of El'lKTKTUS,
the date of which is now assigned to the age
of the Peisistratidae. With the growing popu-
larity of the athletic exercises of the palaestra
comes in the preference for rei)reseiitation of
the nude figure, in new attitudes and move-
ments; iiuiovations in the drawing of dress,
the improved treatment of the
eye, the fine inner markings
indicating veins and muscles,
are all to be traced to these
vases.
A notable monument of this
period is the Stele of Lyseas, a
marble shaft of about .').">()-.')25
B.C., with an inscription stating
that it is the tombstone and
portrait of Lyseas. (See fig.
818.) The colours (in tempera)
are purjile, white, green, Idack,
and red. The similarity of tliis
figure to the carved sti'Ie of
Aristion (by Aristokles) shows
the close connexion which then
existed between marble paint-
ing and marble relief.
Another interesting monu-
ment, which nniy probably be
referred to this period, has recently been dis-
covered at Athens : it is a disk of white
nnirble pierced with two bronze nails for at-
tachment to a wall ; on it is painted, pro-
bably in tempera, a bearded man seated in
Fig. «1 3 - stoic of
I^yBeus.
Ionian architecture, and continued as an in-
dependent sdiool until tlie middle of the sixth
centurj' B.C., when the lonians lost their liberty
(Hdt. i. 1C.4). There was also a flourishing
school of painting in Ramos (Hdt. iii. CO, iv.
152). We know that a school of sculpture was
early in existence there ; and several Samian
painters of the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.
are named by Pausanias and Athenaeus.
Samos presen-ed always the tradition of a
great school of painting, as we see from the
fact that the famous contest between Par-
rhasius and Tinumthes took place there; more-
over, the tenii)le of the Samian Hera was a
storehouse of pictures, which lasted even down
to the time of Strabo (flor. B.C. c. 54-.\.n. 24).
The works of the art of the sixth century at
Athens were almost entirely destroyed in the
sack of the Acropolis by the Persians in 480
B.C. Some few fragments may have been saved,
and probably the early red-figured vases, made
at Athens and exported thence to various places,
reflect the art of the painters of Peisistratid
times.
With PoLYc.NOTTs, the histoi-j' of Greek
painting as an independent art may be said to
begin.
The fame of Polygnotus of Thasos is chiefly
associated with Athens. Of the details of his
life we know very little ; as his great con-
temporary Phoidias started life as a painter,
so Polygnotus is spoken of as having had
some experience in sculpture : an association
between the two arts which is clearly re-
flected in the sculpture of the (im<'. His period
of activity seems to have lain betwet'U 475 and
and 4!?0 B.C. Attracted to Athens, where he
worked with the artists whom Kimon was era-
ploying to reconstruct the city after the in-
vasion of Xerxes, he became the leader of a
school of painters who worked on the same
monuments, principal !tmong whom were Pan-
aenus, a near relation of Pheidias. and Mikon.
The nnijority of the works of I'olygnotua
were executed at Athens ; his earliest paintings
II
482
PICTURA
were probably the large compositions with
which he decorated the Lesche or assembly
hall of the Knidiaiis at Delphi, representing
the Sack of Troy and the Vision of Hades.
Intended as they were for the decoration of
architecture, they were subservient to tectonic
laws: what was not absolutely necessary to
illustrate the principal object was indicated
merely by symbolism.
Polygnotus is said to have given expression
to the faces which he painted, and it is in his
works that we have the first glimpse of portrait-
Y)ainting in the modern sense.
Of Mikon's birth and life we know very
little. He was an Athenian, and worked chiefly
at Athens. Six of his works are known to us,
viz. (1) Battle of Amazons, and (2) Battle of
Marathon, both in the Stoa Poekile ; (3) an
Argonautic scene ; (4j Battle of Amazons, (5)
Battle of Centaurs, and (6) The Recognition
of Theseus, all in the Theseion.
P,\NAEN us, the brother or nephew of Pheidias,
was chosen to paint the Battle of Marathon,
and to decorate the throne-rails and walls of
the great temple of Olympian Zeus.
Other names belonging to this period are Aris-
TOPHON ; the tragedian Euripides, 480-40(5 h.c,
who began life in this profession, and pictures
by whom were to be seen at Megara ; and Pauson
(426-389 B.C.), mentioned by Aristophanes.
Apollodokus of Athens f5th cent. B.C.) is
said to have been the inventor of aerial
perspective and the fusion of colours. But
such phrases convey no information. It is
from this age that the establislmient of easel-
painting may be supposed to date.
Chief of the successors of ApoUodorus was
Zeuxis of Herakleia. His date is not certain ;
but at any rate he belongs to the last years of
the fifth and beginning of the fourth century.
More stories are told of Zeuxis than of any
other painter; but veiy little can be learned
from them.
The most famous perhaps of his paintings
was the Helena, executed for the temple of
Hera Lakinia at Kroton (Cic. de luvfiit. ii. 1).
He is said to have himself applied to this
painting the lines of Homer describing Helen
in II. iii. 156-158. Other paintings of Zeuxis
were an Alkmene, an Infant Herakles, a Pan,
an Eros, &c.
The greatest rival of Zeuxis was Par-
K.HASIUS of Ephesus. He lived at Athens about
the time of the Peloponnesian War. About
twenty pictures in all are attributed to him,
among which were the Healing of Telephus,
the Madness of Odj'sseus, and Philoktetes on
Lemnos. Parrhasius is the immediate prede-
cessor of the perfected colouring of Apelles.
The school of Sikyon had been one of the
earliest afoot in the field of painting, but it is
in the age following Zeuxis and Parrhasius
that its sphere of activity is most strongly
marked.
In the Sikyonian school we may include the
name of Timanthes, whose most famous picture
was the Sacrifice of Iphigeneia. The maiden was
represented as being carried to the altar on
which she was about to be offered up, and grief
is exhibited in different degrees on the faces of
the bystanders, culminating in the climax with
the father of Agamemnon, whose head is veiled
from view.
EupoMPUS, Pamphilus, and Melanthius
also belonged to the Sikyonian school of the
fifth and fourth century b.c.
Pausias, a pupil of Pamphilus of Siliyon,
worked chiefly in encaustic, and on a small
scale (Hor. .S'fl^. ii. 7, 95).
NiKiAS of Athens brings us into the Alexan-
drine age. He is said to have laid stress on the
Fig. S14.— Sacrifice of Iphigeneia. by Timanthes.
(.Painting at Pompeii.)
importance of a noble subject, and to have
painted a Vision of Hades, a Neki/omanteia, a
Nemea, and an lo. He seems to have worked
in encaustic. Connected also with his encaustic
work was doubtless the circiiinlitio of the
statues of Praxiteles which has already been
mentioned.
Among the many painters of the Alexandrine
epocli one stands unquestionably at the head,
Apelles, son of Pytheas of Kolophon : who
was ' court painter ' under Philip of Macedon
and Alexander. Nmnerous anecdotes and
sayings are attributed to him, such as mamnu
dp tabula, nulla dies sine liiiea, up si/tor
supra crepidaiu, Plin. xxxv. 12 (36). Most of
his works seem to have been in the sphere of
portraiture. Plinj' says that it is useless to try
and enumerate the many portraits of Alexander
and Philiii painted by him : besides these
we hear of portraits of Kleitus, Archelaus,
Antigonus, &c. He painted also personifica-
tions, such as the Calumnia in Alexandria,
of Charis, Tyche, &c. But his most famous
picture, one of the most famous in the history
of art, was the Aphrodite Anadyomene, painted
for the people of Kos (Cic. Orat.ii.; Ov. ^..4.
iii. 401). Augustus carried the picture to
Rome.
His greatest contemporary was Pkotogenes
of Kaunus, in Karia.
Other contemporary names are Antiphilus,
Theon, AiETioN, Helena (daughter of Timon
the Egyptian), the painter of the Battle of
Issus; and, of a later date, Timomachus of
Byzantium, who painted the Medea : both of
which works are familiar from the Pompeian
copies or imitations. With Timomachus the
history of Greek painting jjroper may be said to
have come to an end. Under the successors of
Alexander, the art had become cosmopolitan,
and when the Romans robbed the treasuries
of Greece, the chief interest was finally trans-
ferred to Italian soil. But throughout antiquity,
painting continued to be an essentially Hellenic
art.
II. Italian. — Italian painting has no inde-
pendent history. The Etruscan tomb-paint-
ings, if not always the work of Greeks, are the
reflection of Greek art : and the vases found in
PICTUEA
Italy show that the earhest Itahan paintings
were executed under foreign inHueiice.
The earhest examples of the art in Italy are
the wall-paintings from tombs at Veii ; these
consist principally of friezes of animals, con-
ventionally or fantastically drawn with thin
bodies and long slender legs, nearly resembling
the designs of Mykenaean art — a style which
we know to be Oriental, and wliich was doubt-
less connected with tlie tapestry work of
Mesopotamia. There are also evidences of a
connexion with the Egyptian town of Nau-
kratis, wliich Psammetichus I. (G5G-(J11 B.C.)
gave to the Greek traders from the coasts of
Asia Minor ; so that we have, at the end of
the seventh century, evidence of a combined
Aegj'pto-Asiatic intlueuce on Italian art.
PILLEUS
483
Fig. .115.— EtruBCan painting from Caere. (From
Jounuil of Jleli. atud. vol. x. p. -'ii.)
The same influence was also communicated
through another channel, that of Phoenician
trade. Tlie site of Caere in Etruria marked
the Phoenician settlement of Agylla. At pre-
sent the earliest paintings which we have from
Caere are certain terracotta slabs, which served
as the wall-decorations of a tomb, so that they
may be considered in reahty as wall-paintings.
Fig. 816.— Etruscan 'wall-palntlnif. from tomb at Cacro.
(British Museum.)
The technique is very mucli the same as that
which we have on the Corinthian vases of the
seventh century, and shows traces of a marked
Asiatic influence, probably communicated from
Assyria and Chaldaea, either by the Asiatic
Greeks settled in Egypt, or from the Greeks
of Asia Minor.
From the dawn of the fifth century we begin
to hear the names of painters in Italj', but ex-
clusively Greeks. In the time of the kings at
Rome, painting seems to have been principally
in use for the decoration of works in terra-
cotta, e.g. the vermilion-coloured Jupiter of
the Capitol. The earliest painters named in
connexion with Rome are Damoi'Hii.i's and
GoKG.vsus in the fifth century u.c, about the
time of Polyguotus. These artists decorated
the temple of Ceres in the Circus Maximus.
From this time forward we hear little of Ro-
man i^ainting until tlie middle of the tliird
centui-y B.C., wheu we meet with Fabius Pictou
(304 B.C.), whose wall-paintings in the temple of
Salus are praised, but whose profession was
considered to liave degraded his noble name ;
other Roman artists were Pacuvius, the tra-
gedian ("219-129 B.C.); Iaia or L.a.A, a painter
in encaustic (about 100 B.C.) ; Tukpilius, Titi-
Dius Labeo, Q. Pedius, and Fabullus, who
lived in the time of Nero.
The large number of scenes from daily life
whicli occur in Italian paintings maybe divided
into two main classes, the Hellenistic genre
pictures and the Romano-Campanian realistic
scenes. The Hellenistic group gives ideal treat-
ment of daily life, principally of women, youths,
and children ; girls with Erotes, or with Pan ;
toilet scenes and love scenes : much the same
range of subjects, in fact, as those whicli we
have in the idyllic poetry of the time, aud in
the ten-acotta statuettes.
The other class are genre paintings of a
humbler kind : mechanics at their occupations,
incidents of the market, bakers, fishmongers,
gladiatorial scenes ; usually appropriate to the
locality in which they stand, and painted with
[ a certain rough realistic dexterity. (See fig.
310, under Caupona.)
j The art of landscape painting was much
practised. Commencing with such mytho-
logical subjects as easily lent themselves to
it, it soon came to idyllic scenes of mei"e
decoration ; shrines in the open air, from tlie
simple tree hung with dedications, to temples
and elaborate buildings, vistas of city archi-
tecture thronged with people, village land-
scapes with goatherds and sheep, and coast
scenes; among which, as a reminiscence doubt-
less of Alexandrian originals, Egyptian laiiil-
scapes also occur, as, for instance, tlie cele-
brated Palestriua mosaic (fig. 'iTii, Camara).
One of the most celebrated painters in this
style was LuDit's.
Almost all the paintings liy which we can
test the Hellenic art were executed in Italy.
Very few have as yet been found there of the
Republican period. The pictures found in
Rome mostly belong to one style. In Pompeii
the majority belong to tlie last ten years before
the destruction of the city in 79 a.i>. Vitruvius
(vii. f>), writing at about the time of Augustus,
laments the decadence of painting, shown by
the taste for monstrosities and the want of
reserve and common sense shown in the fashion-
able art of the time.
Pili'crepus. rGames, Tn'gon, p. 330 b.]
PiU'eus or Pilleum (ir?Aoy). The art of
making {v\l \,y bcjitlng hair or flocks of wool
into a compact mass seems to be as old as the
art of weaving, and to have been known over
Ii2
484
PILLEUS
the greater part of both Europe and Asia. The
art is called ttiAtjtiktj, (Plat. Po//<. p. 280 c), ars
coactilaria, and the person wlio practised it
lanarius coactilarius, lanarius coactor.
Pelt was put to a large number of different
uses, such as to provide a covering for the
sheds of military engines, clothing (Plin. viii.
§ 191 ; Caes. B. C. iii. 44). Boots or socks
[Calceus, Udo] were also made from felt. The
most important use of it, however, was to pro-
vide a covering for the head in the shape of
hats and caps.
1. Greek.— Among the Greeks of the clas-
sical period nothing was worn on the head ;
but the labouring classes, for the most part,
wore caps ; and so did the upper classes when
exposed to rough weather, as did sickly or
delicate folk. The general name for all such
hats was ir7\os or kvvTi, both words being
applied not only to caps of felt and skm
respectively, but even to helmets of metal.
Fig. P17.— Patroklus wearing a felt Kvver).
In Homer -iriKos is used of the felt which
lined the helmet {Kvvtri) of hide which Odysseus
wore (II. X. 26,5). Elsewhere the Kvv4r] is of
bronze, or of leather, strengthened with it ; in
the Odyssey Laertes wears a Kwif) of goatskin
while working on the farm (Od. x.kIv. 231 ; cf.
Hes. Oil. 546). The invisible cap of Homer
{II. v. 845) is called aC^hs Kvverj.
These caps were like a fez, of a conical shape,
with a crown like the end of an egg, and were
loose enough to be dragged over the ears to
keep off the cold or i-ain.
This fez-like sliape of felt cap seems to have
been known as tlic 7riAi5(oi' {=pilleolirm).
The cap itself was worn universally by
artisans and sailors, along with the e|co^/ j ; it is
worn by Hephaestus and Daedalus as crafts-
men and by Charon and Odysseus as sea-
farers.
Fig. Bit'.— Saiiors with ttlMSlov. (From a vase-painting.
nrA.01 were worn by Athenian soldiers (Thuc
iv. 34, 3), and a Tr7\os xoAkoCs is mentioned by
Aristophanes (Li/s. 562).
The wiKiSiov or fez was frequently worn
with a band, which made it fit tighter on
the head. Below the band there is a piece
of the edge left free, and by a natural process
this becomes a brim. We see on the monu-
ments hats [nexaaos] with brims of every
widtli.
Fig. 819.— Warrior in wiAo? and efa)/«i5, from a relief.
(Blumner.)
The broad-brimmed hat, the constant attri-
bute of Hermes, was known by the name of
Tre'racros, and the
fashion of wear-
ing it came from
Thessaly along
with the xAo^ws,
which it accom-
panies almost in-
variably, the two
forming the cha-
racteristic cos-
tume of the Athe-
nian youth when
serving in the
cavalry.
The TreTocros, as
worn by travel-
lers and hunters,
had a band which
fastened it tightly
round the head,
and a strap which
passed under the
chin, and enabled
the wearer to let
it hang down his
back.
The brim of
the TreTOTos was
usually not even
all round, but cut
into various convenient or fantastical shawes
(see fig. 821). ^
Fig. 820.— neVao-os and x\anvi.
(From a vase.)
Fig. W.;.— Penatlus
of ISrulus.
PILUM
111 Hellenistic times a Macedonian variety of
the iriraffos, called Kavcria, was worn, but
chiefly as an emblem of power ^Causia . I
2. Etkuscan and Roman. — The pilleus,
which was identical with the conical ttTAos, '
was worn by the Etruscans,
by both men and women. i
It was the characteristic !
headgear of the Pontifices,
Flamines, and Salii on so- i
lemn occasions. It is, how- |
ever, even better known as
the symbol of Liberty, occur-
ring as such on many coins :
doubtless from the fact that
it was worn by slaves who had been freed, on
leaving the temple (Serv. ad ^-Ip«.vii.56i). Hence
piUetim capere (Plaut. Amph. iG'2) means to
gain freedom. So vocare ad pilleinu (Liv.
xxiv. 34, 9 ; Suet. Tib. 4) was a recognised
expression for raising a servile revolt, the
standard being a pilleus raised on a pole. (Cf.
Liv. xlv. 44; Suet. Nero, 57; Mart. xi. 6,4.)
Crladiators on being discharged were given the
pilleus, two years after they had received
the rudis. Among other customs connected
with the piUciis is tliat of putting it on the
liead of slaves whom the master wislied to sell
without a warrant. The ^ji7/eMS is the attribute
of Castor and Pollux (Catull. xxvii. 2).
Vegetius and Polybius tell us that soldiers,
when not using their helmets, wore jjjV/ei
pannonici of skin (Veg. Milit. i. 20).
The Romans, like the Greeks, seldom wore
;iny covering on the head (but see Hor. E}'- ^■
i;i, 15 ; Suet. Nero, 20). Li Imperial times the
custom of using hats became much more
common ; and Augustus in his later life never
went out of doors without a petasiis (Suet.
Aug. 82). Caligula allowed them to be worn
in the theatre as a protection against the sun.
Pilum. (1) rArms and Armour, Hasta.]
(2) rMortarium.J
riivdKLov. See Appendix, Greek L.\W,
ALKacrTTi$.
Pinacothe'ca (irtvaKodTiKT]). A picture gallei-y.
The taste for Greek art, dating perhaps from
tlie capture of Syracuse by Marcellus, wns gra-
dually matured by the conquests of L. Scipio,
Flamininus, L. Aemilius Paullus, and Mum-
niius. Sculptures and paintings were at first
employed exclusively for the decoratiou of
temples and places of public resort (Cic. Verr.
i. 21, 55) ; but private collections were soon
formed (Cic. 'fuse. v. 35, 102). In the time of
Augustus, Vitruvius includes the pinacotheca
among the apartments of a complete house : it
was to be large and lofty, and facing the north
( V'itr. i. 2 ; Plin. xxxv. ^ 4). The pictures were
either let into the wall or hung against it (Cic.
Vrrr. iv. 55, 122). A special attendant, called
a plnitidtheca, was employed to attend to it.
Pince'rna {otvox6os). A cuj>bearer, also called
ad cyathum (Hor. Carm. i. 29, H). Such slaves
were usually boys, and often barbarians.
Piper (irfnfpt), pojtper, was used as a season-
ing by Greeks and Romans. It is not mentioned
l)y Aristoplianes. It was brought by camel
caravans from India to Alexandria, wlience it
was sent by sea to Rome (Pers. v. 13(>; .luv.
xiv. 293). Tlie two kinds of pepper, bla<'k and
white, were obtained by different treatment of
the berrj'. A pejijier-box (piprratoriuiii) is
mentioned among r«.sa argcntea.
Fisci'na iKo\vix$-i)6pa, Sefa^ei/v)) is properly
a fish-pond, either of salt water or of fresh. It
denotes also any kind of reservoir, especially
PISTOR
485
those connected witli the aqueducts and the
baths [Aquaeductus ; Balneae_.
Reservoirs win-e made as in modem times, by
damming up the upper end of a valley. One of
the largest and finest was constructed at Agri-
gentum, nearly a mile round and thirty feet
deep. (Cf. Emissarium.)
The Romans, with their unbounded com-
mand of water-tight cement, were particularly
successful in the excavation of underground
reservoirs. In the so-called Sette Sale on the
Esquiline, the water was made to flow through
no less than eighteen subdivisions, in a devious
course, so that any sediment it contained might
be deposited on the way.
An unrivalled work of this description is the
Piscina Mirabile as it is now called, on tlie road
between Baiaeand the promontorj' of Misenum,
probably constructed by Agrippa, and still in
perfect preservation. It is 223 feet long and
b3 broad, with a vaulted roof of massive
masonry, supported by pilasters, and forming
five distinct galleries or compartments.
Pisti'llum. [Mortarium.J
Pietor tapToiroius,]>i»sor [Varro], from pin-
sere, to pound the grain). A baker. Both
among the Greeks (as in Homer) and the Romans
the bread was originally prepared and baked
at home. In large households this practice was
long continued. In the Hellenistic period and
under the Roman Empire there were numerous
slaves skilled as bakei's and confectioners ; and
several of the private houses at Pompeii have
baking-rooms on the premises.
At Athens as early as the fifth centui-j- B.C.
we find working bakers (aproKSirot) who sold
their wares in the market and streets through
female vendors (aproirtiiKtSis) (Ar. Ban. 85H,
Vesj}. 1389, &c.). At Rome thei'e was no
baker's trade till about 172 B.C. Many freed-
men were engaged in the trade, which was
under the control of the aediles. A baker's
guild {corpus or collegium j^'^lorum) was
organised by Trajan. The businesses of
miller and baker were usually combined : cf.
Serv. ad Aeti. i. 179.
Confectioners and makers of the finer kinds
of bread-stuff are distinguished by various
names, as ir\aKovvToirot6s, irifjifxaTovpy6s,
TTonayoTrotos, pisturcs candidarii, siliquiarii,
cliba)iarii, dulciarii (Mart. xiv. 222), libarii,
crusfula7-ii,/ictores,6:c. Some kinds were made
specially for religious festivals and sacrifices.
I A baker's shop at Pompeii has as its sign a
relief of a mill turned by a mule ; and a similar
figure is found in the bas-reliefs of the tomb
of Eurysaces at Rome. See fig. 823, and fig. 990,
under Signum.
Wheat was the grain chiefly used for bread
by the Greeks and Rt)nians. Barley was also
used, but at Rome bailiy-bread {jianis hor-
dcaceus) was the food only of slaves, soldiers,
and barbarians. Spelt [Cftd, far) was also
sometimes used for bread, especially by the
Romans at an early period. Rye {secale) was
considered unwholesome by the Romans.
As with us, several kinds of flour were pro-
duced from the same grain. Bread made of
pure and finely bolted whiat-ttour was called
by the Greeks oAfup/xTjj, yvpir-ns. Kptiafplrijs
(from Kpr)<T^pa = KiaKivov, crihruni), \"c., and
was described as ' white ' bread {\fVK6i, Ka0ap6s).
By the Romans, the bread made of pure wheat-
flour {siiuila, sitiiilago) was called jiauis sili
gineus. If the bran was mixed with the wheat
flour, the bread was called by the Greeks auyKo-
! iu<n6s, auT6irvpos, irvpnov (or irirvpi(U — bread
486
PISTOR
of bran only), and was spoken of as aKaOapros,
pvirapos, &c. By the Romans, bread made of
coarse flour or of flour with the bran was called
panis cibarius, plebeius, castrensis, rusticiis,
secundus, furficreus, &c.
The dough was prepared by moistening the
flour with, water, adding salt, and careful
PLANETAE
or more parts (apros ^Kaiixtalos, Terpdrpvcpos,
jyanis qiiadratus). Hence, perhaps, the hot-
cross bun (of. quadra, Hor. Ej}- i. 17, 49 ; Juv.
V. 2 ; Mart. ix. 19, 17 ; Verg. Moret. 49). Loaves
I were also made in other forms, such as cubes
(kv0oi).
Pistrinum. [Mola; Mortarium; Servus.]
Fig. t^-2.',.— Bas-reliefs from tomb of the baker Eurysuctb at Rome.
kneading {narro}, (pvpaw, subigo, depso) in '
a kneading-trough duLaKTpa, /J-ayis, a-K3.<pri,
KapSoTTos, alveus), which was generally made
of wood, but sometimes of stone or pottery.
The kneading was sometimes done by a ma-
chine. (See fig. 823, last figure r. below.)
Both fermented and unfermented bread were
known to the ancients, but the fermented was
the kind usually made. The leaven (fv^nj,
(,vtJL03tia, fcrinentum) for mixing wdth the dough
was produced in several ways (see Plin. xviii.
§ 102, &c.), usually during the vintage time [
by kneading millet with must, or by kneading t
wheat-bran with must and drying it in the sun. !
The dough when jjrt'pared was placed on a board
and shaped, gi'iicrally with the hand, but some-
times in moulds (arioptue, Plant. Aul. ii. 9, 4).
It was then by means of a shovel {pala) placed in
the oven (iirvos^fnrims). The dough was occa-
sionally biuked on the
hearth among the
embers, or on a spit ;
or it was sometimes
placed in a vessel
(icAi/Sai/os or Kpi$a-
vos), usually of pot-
tery, provided with
a cover and pierced
with small holes.
Hot embers were
then heaped up
round it.
The loaves of the Greeks and Romans were
usually flat, circular, and indented into four
^D
,,r
4:5^^-^^■-u ,
■■- f
n
Fig. 824.— Baker s (
iPompeii.)
Fig. 825.— Loaves found at Pompeii.
nteos. ;^Pottery.]
Place'nta, Placenta'rium (irXoKoCs). --V
flat round cake made with cheese and honey,
like ine\tTovTTa (Hor. Sat. i. 6, 115 ; Mart. vi.
75, etc) ; it was divided, like the loaves, into
quadrae (Mart. ix. 91, 17).
Plaga. [Rete.]
Pla'gium. See Appendix, Rom.\n L.\w.
Pla'gula. (1) A curtain, whether spread as a
screen round a triclinium (Liv. xxxix. 9), or to
close a Lectica (Mart. xi. 98, 11 ; Suet. Tit. 10).
(2) [Liber.]
Plane'tae, s. Stellae erra'ntes (irXavrirai
or TrAavw/jLevoi acrrepis as opposed to to. airKavi}
Twv acTTpwv).
Both the Morning Star {'Ewa^6pos) and the
Evening Star ("'Effirtpos) are named in the
Homeric poems {II. xxii. 318, xxiii. 22G ; cf.
Od. xiii. 93), and there is no hint that they are
unlike the other stars in their nature. Either
Pythagoras (612 B.C.), or Ibykus {r. 540 B.C.)
surmised that ^coa(p6pos and "EcrTrepos were one
and the same, but the honour of the complete
I discovei-y is ascribed to Pannenides (c. 425
B.C.). Tlie term irAavriTai seems to have been
recognised as early as the epoch of Anaxim-
ander {c. 000 B.C.). Empedokles (r. 450 B.C.)
supposed tlie fixed stars to be imbedded in the
crystalline sphere which enveloped all things,
but the planets to be detached from it. Demo-
kritus (r. 430 B.C.) wrote a treatise Hepl tu>v
vAavrjTwu, among which he reckoned the sun,
the moon, and ^axrcpopos. Philolaus, a Pyth-
\ agorean (c. 425 B.C.) was acquainted with the
whole five. In the Timarus of Plato (p. 3«)
the planets are mentioned specifically as five
' in number. In the Epinamis (p. 987), the
work of some disciple of Plato, the whole five
are eniunerated with the same names which
they have at present; but other names are
foimd in later Greek and Roman lists.
The Pythagoreans, regarding the earth as
the centre of the universe, assumed the place
of the five planets to be between that of the
fixed stars, on the one hand, and the sun and
moon, on the other, a doctrine folltnved by
Plato, Eudoxus, and Aristotle. Arcliimedes
assigned the following order : (1) Satiun ; (2)
PLANIPES
Jupiter; (3) Mars: (4) the Sun; (5) Venus;
(C) Mercury ; (7) the Moon : and this order
was <;enerally adopted, e.g. by Cicero (Div. ii.
43, 91), Pliny (ii. § «), d'c.
Tlie periods of revohition were calculated
approximately for Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars,
incoiTectly fur Venus and Mercury. [Astro-
logia; Astronomia.]
Pla'nipes. A mimic actor who ])liiyed without
soccKs <ii- (iifJiiiniiis (Juv. viii. 11(1 1. Mimus. ]
Plaustrum or Plostrum; Ploste'llum.
fCurrus.j
Plebes or Plebs, Plebe'ii. The word plebea
is formed from the same root as appears in
jileniis, ttAtjCos, itc. It properly signifies 'the
multitude ' as opposed to any privileged
classes. This sense was to a certain extent
obscured by the circumstance that many of the
noblest men in Rome belonged to the plelieian
order. Nevertheless, the natural sense of the
word survives, e.g. Liv. xxxix. 17, C ; Gic. Verr.
i. 47, 122. Under the Erajiire, the word was
used of the poorer citrcens who were qualified
to receive com largesses (plebs fnimrntaria ;
cf. Tac. Ann. i. 8; Pliu. xxxiii. 29; Hor. Ej).
i. 1, 57).
Originally, as has been pointed out under
Patricii, tlie Patres or Patricians were the
only citizens, and had dependent on them other
lialf-free men who were called Clicntes. At a
period anterior to history, and almost to tradi-
tion, a class of freemen grew up around and
amongst the Patres, consisting probably of
communities either conquered by Rome oi"
included in consequence of foreign invasion.
The settlement on the Aventine is an instance
of a process which must have gone on during
a long period. The neiglibours, whether
Latins or Sabiues, thus included brought with
tliem their own clienteH, their own division
into grnfes, and their own .sacra.
(1) Our ancient authorities give us a plebs as
coeval with Romulus, but consisting wholly of
the clients of the patricians. It is probable
that as the clients passed out of the condition
of dependents into that of freemen, they were
admitted (though by what legal process we do
not know) into the ranks of the plebeians.
The existence of plebeian gentes with the same
names as patrician gentes nuiy indicate a time
when the clients had become separate from their
patrons but were not amalgamated with the
plebeians in their gentes, and retained their
former gentile names and organisation. But
no period of Roman histoi^y is known in whicli
there were not plchrii as well as j/atririi, in full
enjojTTient of liberty and in a political condi-
tion which made them part of the pnpiiliis
lioiiianK.i, though imperfectly enfranchised.
We find in very early times two relationships
established amongst the kindred communities
of Latium, the ius eonnnrrcii and the ins
exulandi. The first relates to the privileges
mutually accorded to the citizens of the con-
tracting states, when trading or teniporarily
sojourning in each other's territory. The
second grants the right of permanent settle-
ment and transfer of civic allegiance to those
who wish to renounce their old state and to
migrate to anew home ('solum vertere exilii
causa'). The privileged foreigner has the
same right to acquire i)roperty and the same
standing in the law-com-ts as a citizen.
Many exiles would, no doubt, make appli-
catio to a Roman, and enter into the relation
of cliens mvX patroinis. But while the mass of
fugitives whose original domicile was unknown
PLEBES
487
would arrive in Rome witliout rights, and could
gain protection only by subjecting themselves
to a citizen, those who were openly exercising
the ius exulandi, secured to them by the
common law of Latium, would be under no
such necessity. They might set up at once
AH patrrs/a imiiaru ni on their own account, and
we must consider them as from the first citizens,
though citizens of an inferior order (ho» ojitimo
hire). It is obvious that the existence of such
a class, distinct from and yet personally in-
dependent of the ruling citizens, would render
more easy the acquisition of a similar status
by the clients of the latter.
(2) Some at least of the plebeians must
have been the inhabitants of conquered dis-
tricts, reduced to a condition of vassalage, but
in full possession of personal freedom ; but
communities would insensibly aim at citizen-
ship, though no record of the fact would be
preserved.
(3) Other plebeians were the people of con-
quered towns deported to Rome, e.g. Alba.
That these were not regarded as serfs or helots
is proved by the fact that some of them, such
as the lulii (Liv. i. 28, 7), were admitted to the
patriciate.
It appears that some plebeians could, some
could not, claim the full right of //cnfilitas.
This could be accounted for if wc snjipose that
the latter were descended from .svrc/ or f7/V'«fr.s,
the former from alien freemen, adopted either
as individuals or as members of a community,
witliout passing through the condition of clien-
trJa.
Wlien Livy (x. 8, 9) makes Decius Mus say,
' Semper ista audita sunt eadem . . . vos solos
gentem habere,' he is not to be taken as ad-
mitting the claim, but rather as illustrating the
insolence of the patricians, who spoke as if all
the plebeians were their clients, and ignored
the more respectable origin which belonged to
many of them. When there was a patrician
and a plebeian family of the same name, it
seems to have been the legal presumption
that the latter had once been the clients of the
former.
It was probably owing to the admixture of
servile blood in their order, that the plelieians
were so long debarred from the right of inter-
marriage with the patricians. The prohibition
of conubium is first mentioned as part of the
law of the Twelve Tables ; but there can be no
doubt that this law only formulated and con-
finned a more ancient disqualification. Mar-
riage between the oi'ders was legalised by the
Lex Canuleia of 445 B.C.
The struggle of the plebeians for admission
to the magistracies of the Roman people occu-
pies a large portion of the internal history for
the first two centuries of the Republic. The
quaestorship was held for the first time by a
plebeian in 400 n.f., the consulshi]) in 3f)C, the
dictatorship in &r>(\, the censorshij) in 351, and
the praetorship in 337. The jiriestly colleges
were not opened to plebeians till 300. From
that time onwards, though certain disqualifica-
tions survived on the one side and on the other
[see Patriciil, the niembers of the two orders
were on a footing of ))racli(al equality, and the
distinction between them (chiefly ceremonial)
remained only as an historical reminiscence,
with the smallest possible effect upon practical
politics.
But in the meantime tlie plebeians ha»l
formed themselves (on their secession to the
Mnos Sauer in 494 b.c.) into an exclusive ordeiv
488
PLEBES
wtli magistrates and assemblies and powers of j
corporate action of their own. From that time ,
to the end of the Republic plebs generally
nieans not so much the vague and lowly mul-
titude as this clearly defined body, which com-
prised families as honourable and powerful as
those of the purest patrician stock (Plebi-
scitum; Populus].
Every Roman who was not a patrician
belonged to this order, so that, unlike the
patriciate, the plebeiate was constantly being
recruited. All newly-made citizens, whether
they had formerly been slaves or foreigners, <
passed at once and without any special act of
admission into this body. A person bom a
patrician became a plebeian if he was dis-
missed from his ancestral house by eman-
cipatio, or became by adoption the son of a
plebeian. But besides these indirect methods
of transfer, the plebeians had (unlike the patri-
cians) a corporate assembly of their own, and
so were able to admit new members by their
own act. This is the process properly called
' transitio ad plebem,' by which a patrician
renounces his old order and sues for admission
to a new one. Some genealogists of the time
of Augustus invented for the plebaian Octavii
a history of this sort, which the emperor him-
self was sensible enough to ignore (Suet. -
Aug. 1). !
Plebisci'tum is the name for the decrees
passed by the corporation of the plebs in answer
to the rogatio of one of their o\vn magistrates. '
When in later times these decrees acquired the
force of law, the term lex was likewise applied
to them. [Lex.]
The plebs as a self-governing corporation
asserted from the first the absolute power to
pass decrees binding on all its members, obedi- 1
ence to which must override the ordinary course
of law. The most important of these were the
leges sacratae by which the plebeians affirmed
that their officers were sacrosancti, and bound
themselves every man to avenge instantly any
outrage directed against them: 'Si quis eum,
qui eo plebiscito sacer sit, occiderit, parricida ne
sit' (Fest. p. 317, s. V. .S'rtcp;-). These ordinances I
were held to have binding force down to the
last days of the Republic. The plebeians also '
claimed to be judges in their own quarrels and i
to direct the vengeance of their oi-der against j
its enemies (cf. Liv. ii. 52, 54, 61, v. 12), and |
generally to enact matters of private law con-
cerning their own order.
The history of the later Roman republic pre- '
sents a different picture. By the time of the
Punic Wars the whole power of sovereignty has
been delegated to the plebeian assembly. Side
by side with the populus, the old sovereign, a
new sovereign, the plebs, exercises in its exclu-
sive concilium, under its own magistrates and
with its own forms of procedure, precisely the
same powers of legislation as the populus. All
the legal writers ascribe the delegation of these
powers to a law of the dictator Hortensius,
287 B.C. : ' lex Hortensia lata est, qua cautum
est ut plebiscita nniversum populum tenerent.'
Livy gives us, besides the Hortensian law of
287, two previous and similar enactments :
(1) the Valerio-Horatian law of 449 B.C., ' ut
plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent ' (Liv. iii.
55) ; (2) the law of Publilius Philo (339 B.C.),
' ut quod tributim plebs iussisset populum
'eneret ' (viii. 12). [Comitia tributa],
The history shows that matters of national
interest were gradually coming to be treated of
in the plebeian assembly or concilium plebis,
PLEBISCITUM
e.g. the proposal to remove the habitation of
the Roman people to Veii ; the TerentUian pro-
posal de legibus conscribendis, which led to
the codifying of the Roman law in the Twelve
Tables; and the Lex Icilia dc Avcntino publi-
cando. The protracted contests over these
laws seem, however, to point to some power
possessed by the patricians of checking and
limiting the force of the decrees which origi-
nated with the tribunes.
According to the ancient tradition, the formal
legislative power lies solely with the populus
Romanus. The vote of the concilium of the
plebs is not in early times a legislative act at
all. It is merely a strong and formal petition,
an appeal to the sovereign assembly, the comitia
centuriata, to grant their request. But this sove-
reign assembly can be convened and the ques-
tion put to it only by a consul. The consul
may refuse to put any such bill to the vote, or
even to entertain the question, by taking the
opinion of his authorised advisers, the senate,
as to how he ought to act. Thus the consulta-
tion of the senate, as a means of stimulating
the official action of the consul, becomes a
point on which the reformers are bound to
insist ; and to bring it about the tribunes must
use their powers of compulsion over the consul.
An adverse vote in the senate would of course
justify the consuls in their resistance, and the
delay might be prolonged until the plebeians
were reduced to their last resort, the threat of
secession. In practice the senate commonly
yields before this crisis is reached. The peti-
tion of the plebs is backed by the recommenda-
tion of the senate ; and the consuls cannot,
without grave responsibility, now refuse to put
the question to the populus. By this time the
controversy has been already threshed out.
All the powers which the nobles could bring to
bear against the carrying of the proposal in a
popular assembly, whether by tribunician inter-
cession, or by alarms of war, or by violent
interference, or by their own influence with the
voters (Liv. v.' 30), would naturally have been
exhausted at an earlier age of the proceeding,
while the proposal was still before the plebeian
assembly. No instance is recorded of the
sovereign populus negativing a bill so brought
before it. Any law which rendered one or
other of these stages more easy might be
roughly described as giving legislative power to
the plebs. What precise obstacles were re-
moved by each law can onlj' be conjecture lly
determined. Possibly the law of Valerius nnd
Horatius formally laid down that the consul
must consult the senate. It is possible likewise
that the law of Publilius Philo (339 B.C.) may
have struck out the intervening consultation of
the senate, and may have required the consul
to bring the petition of the plebs at once before
the populus. If such were the tenor of the
Publilian law, it would be only a very slight
i inaccuracy to describe it as conferring legisla-
I tive power on the plebs. The majority in the two
1 assemblies, the concilium plebis and the comi-
\ tia centuriata, being substantially the same
persons, the reference to the one of a proposal
already affirmed by the other would be little
more than the constitutional affirmation of
a foregone conclusion. The Hortensian law
of 287 B.C., which formally transferred the
sovereign power to the plebs, would thus be a
change greater de iure than de facto. In
formal law it was a mighty revolution.
This view assumes that when the plebs had
in the concilium plebis passed a measure, it was
PLECTRUM
presented to the consul witli a request that he
would obtain the approval of the senate. The
senate liaving assented, the measure came with
the constitutional auctoritas before the comitia
centuriata. As this was composed in great
measure of tlie same persons as the concilium
plebis, it was merely formal, or analogous to a
' third reading.'
From the time of the passing of the Publiliaii
law in 339, the auctoritas patrum was little if
anything more than a form. The Lex Hortensia
of 287 B.C. formally admitted the power of the
concilia plebis to pass a law, i.e. henceforward
leges and plebiscita were of eciual and similar
authority. [Auctoritas Patrum.j
For the distinction between concilium plebis
and comitia tributa, see Comitia.
Plectrum, [ Lyra.
Plethron. [Mensura ; Tables, III.]
n\tv9cs. il) A brick or tile [tater], a
squared stouu for building ; (2) (rarely) a block
of stone or marble squared for building ; (3)
(also plint his) the square block that sometimes
forms the lower member of the base in the
Ionic and Corinthian orders ; (4) an ingot of
gold t)r silver (TiiJ.iit\ivdiov, Hdt. i. 50). [Archi-
tectura.]
Pluma'rii. Persons who made stuffs of ojnis
jilitmatunt or jylumariiim, embroidery of
needlework ; in which the stitches (often of gold
tliread) were laid lengthwise, so that they seemed
to overlap one another, like the feathers in the
plumage of a bird (cf. Verg. Aeit. xi. 770).
Plumbum. [Metallum.J
Plu'teus. Any kind of upright, unroofed
protection or shelter. (1) A fixed breastwork,
whether of planking or of wicker work, and
sometimes covered with hides to protect it from
fire. These breastworks, mantlets, or blinds
were used to shelter combatants on board ship
(Caes. B.C. iii. 24); on the stages [tahiilata) of
towers (Cives. B. G. vii. 25) ; or on ramparts
(Caes. B. G. vii. 41). (2) A moveable shelter for
the besiegers, distinguislied from viiira and
viusculus by being unroofed (Liv. xxi. CI, xxxiv.
17). It was shaped like the half of a beehive
divided perpendicularly, was open behind, and
carried on three wheels. (3) The board at the
side of a bed [Lectus]. (4) A shelf for holding
busts and other ornaments (Juv. ii. 7), or books.
(5) A low wall like a breastwork, closing up
spaces between columns (Vitr. iv. 4).
n\vvTTipia. A festival celebrated at Athens
on the 21-25th of Thargelion, in lionour of
Athena. The festival, traditionally connected
with the death of Agraulos, was a rite partly of
purification, partly of expiation, at the beginning
of the harv-est. The temple (Erechtheum) was
roped off {irepKrxoifiCeifj to guard it from pro-
fane entrance ; tin? sacred image (/SpeVas) was
stripped, the irpa^iepyiSat taking off tlie helmet
and spear, and tlie two female attendants called
Kom-pibfs or irKwrpiSes removing the dress
(TreVXos), wliicli it was their duty to wash, and
covering over the statue in the meantime (cf.
I'lut. Alcib. 34). The image itself was bathed,
probably in the sea at Phaleron. Tlie statue
and the clothes were taken in a chariot attended
by the priests and priestesses and foliowe<l l)y
ephebi and the general crowd : it was brought
back by torcldight. In the procession strings
of figs were carried (iraKadr) rtyrjTopia). The
pedestal of the image was waslied iiy a Kara-
I'lTTTTJS.
Pnyx. f'EKK\TiCT£a.j
Po'culum. Any kind of drinking cup. [Pot-
tery.J
nnAHTAI 489
Podium. Tlie continuous base that forms
the lower part of a wall or building, e.g. (1) the
basement or stylobate of a temple (Vitr. iii. 3) ;
(21 marble panelling or 'dado' round a wall
(Vitr. vii. 4) ; (3) the lower part of the scena-
wall in a theatre, or (4) the wall surrounding the
arena in an amphitheatre [Amphitheatnunl.
Poena. See Appendix, Hom.vn L.iw.
noX€'M.apxos. Tliis official title is known
at Alliens as the name of tlie third archon
[Archon , among the Dorians of Sparta, the
Aeolian peoples of Thessaly and Boeotia, in
Aetolia, Arkadia, and Euboea. It appears to
have been an offslioot of the office of the king in
his capacity of commander-in-chief of the forces
of the state, and is in all cases connected witli
military affairs. At Sparta the polemarchs
appear as forming the immediate military staff
of the king, and commanding tlie aniiy in his
absence. The polemarchs were usually, but
not always, members of the kingly house. They
came next to the king, and were superior to the
Koxayoi, over whom they were placed to com-
mand Ao'xof on important occasions (see Tliue.
V. 0(5, 71). The polemarchs continued in tliis
position until the reorganisation of the Spartan
amiy in 404 B.C., when the polemarchs were
made the regular commanders of the new /ut'pai
(six in number), each containing two /o(7ii under
lochac/i (Xen. Hell. iv. 4, 7). Xenophon {licsp.
Lac. 12, 6) speaks of a irponos wo\efxapxos,
who may possibly be the same officer whom he
calls (oj}. cit. 13, 7) irpecrfivTaTos tuv irtpX
Sa/docriai'. They probably fonned part of the
Aap,oCTia, or king's bodyguard. (Xen. Hell.
vi. 4, 14.)
The polemarch was assisted by officers called
ffvij.(popets. When not in active service, the
polemarchs superintended the Phiditia or
public messes at home. They were six in num-
ber, one for each mora.
In the various cities of Boeotia the office of
polemarch was universal. There were usually
three in number, in some cases two. Their
duties were similar to those of the polemarchs
at Sparta.
In Thessaly the League {to Kotv6y) of four
ancient divisions, called rfrpdSfs, had for each
Terpas its polemarch, who with tlie irt^apxoi
under him commanded the infantry of his rtrpis-
Polenta. [Puis.]
n a)\Ti Tai. A board of ten officials or magis-
trates wliich formed one of the departments of
the Treasury. They were chosen by lot, one
from each tribe, and were under the super-
vision of the Boule. It was their duty to let
out to farmers by a kind of auction the revenues
arising from all tolls, customs, and taxes ; to
let on lease public lands, and plots of ground
at Laureion for iniiiing purposes. They super-
intended the Archiiekton in giving out the
contracts for works to be done for the state,
such as tlie building and repairing of the walls.
Tliey put up for puljlic sale tlio property
of public debtors making default (vTrtpT\n.(poi),
and of those wlio were in arrears with tlu'ir
income-tax (fla(popa), as well as the property
and persons of defaulting aliens and nietoeki.
[MtToiKOi.] They likewise put up for sale all
pro|>erty confiseated l57)/xidirpoTa, hritjitv6fi.(v3),
set up public iiiscri|)tions, and let out on leases
the property of minors. They elected a presi-
dent (irpvravis) ; and their office was called t^
irw\riT-i)piov.
We find the office of iraiA»jT^y in other parts
of Greece, as, for instance, at Halikarnassus,
Kos, and Epidamnus.
490
nOAITEIA
noAuTsta, rioXiTTis- [Civitas.]
Pollinctor. [Funus]
Polus \Tr6\os : v^TToA-, wfA-). A sphere of
revolution. (1) (The most coinnion lueanmg) the
lieavenly sphere or spheres, or vault of the sky,
originally conceived of as solid (Aesch. Prom.
427; Eur. Or. 1685). (2) {= Hemicyclium)
a hollow hemisphere, placed so as to catch the
sun's rays on its interior surface, the axis of
the hemisphere being parallel to the polar axis
of the heavens. On this interior surface, the
path of the sun was marked by means of the
shadow of a bead or index {yvdiixuv) fixed on
the axis of the hemisphere. When to the
simple rod or yvwfjiwv was added the hemi-
sphere or ir6Kos, the result was a scientific
sun-dial. Herodotus (ii. 109) tells us that the
Greeks derived Tr6Kov koX yvci>iJ.ova from the
Babylonians. [See fig. 621, under Horologium.]
Poly'mita. [Dress.]
Pome'rium or Pomoe'rium (the former spel-
ling is the more correct). A space left vacant
on the inner side of a city wall (post-moerium ) :
it did not, however, necessarily run parallel
with the line of fortification ; where this was
not the case, it was marked by a line of stone
pillars (ci/i/Jt, lapides, Tac. ^«». xii. 24j, placed
at intervals over its whole course. The original
pomeria, it may be conjectured, followed the
original ring-walls of associated bodies of
citizens : hence if new citizens were brought
in and a larger iirbs became necessary, the
ring-wall, and with it the pomerium, was en-
larged. The custom was common to Latins
and Etruscans, and a town in the earliest
times was founded as follows: a steer and a
heifer were yoked to a plough, and a furrow
was drawn round the place which was to be
occupied by the new town, in such a way that
the clods fell inwards : the furrow marked the
ditch, the mound the ring-wall within it, and
within that again was a certain space called
the pomerium, upon which no buildings could
be erected.
The space within the pomerium was called
ager effatus, i.e. the point beyond which the
auspices would no longer be urbana auspicia.
Thus the auspices for comitia curiata were
within the pomerium, those for comitia cen-
turiata outside, because this in its origin was
a military levy. Crossing the pomerium did
away with the effect of the military auspices :
hence, if the general came back to Eome, he
must take the urbana auspicia over again for
his return, and the bellica auspicia after he
reached his army. (See Tac. Ann. iii. 19;
Augur.)
The antiqidssimum pomerium ran within
the old walls of the Palatine city (Roma
qiiadrata). Tlie line taken appears to have
been from the Forum Boarium, at the SW.
angle of the Palatine, through the Vallis Murcia
(Circus Maximus), passing the Ara Maxima at
the N W. end of the valley, and the Ara Consi at
the SE. end : thence to the Curiae Veteres, the
NE. limit, and across the Velia past the Sacel-
lum Larum, marking the N. side : it then
turned SW. through the Velabrum, NW. of the
Palatine Hill, and so round to the Forum
Boarium again (Tac. Ann. xii. 24). Of the
Serv'ian cippi we have neither remains nor
record, exce]^ that they did not include the
Aventine, though his walls did.
Enlargement of the Pomerium. — The ins
proferendi pomerii belonged to the king who
had added territory to Rome, and was never
exercised after Servius until the dictatorship
PONDEEA
of Sulla (Liv. i. 44). What his extension was,
we do not know. Caesar professed to follow
his example (Cic. Att. xiii. 20), but did not
do so, prevented perhaps by death. Augustus
did not enlarge the pomerium, from reluctance
to assume the kingly state, but constituted
the fourteen regiones instead. Several of the
succeeding emperors extended the pomerium
without increasing the circuit of the walls.
Po'ndera (aTad/jLoi}. In the ancient world
coins were always struck on one or another of
the weight-standards in use for commercial
purposes, and in Greece the stater of gold or
silver always bore a simple and definite relation
to the talent and mina in use in the state where
they were struck. In Rome the as was origin-
ally merelj' a standard pound of copper.
Weights of Babylon. — The hasis of the
Babylonian system of notation was neither
decimal nor duodecimal, but sexagesimal : that
is to say, the first figure in the line represented
units, the second sixties, the third 60 x 60 ( =
3600), and so forth. The convenience of this
system will be clear if we consider that sixty is
divisible by ten, twelve, and fifteen.
Of the Babylonian sexagesimal division traces
remain to our own day : sixty seconds make
a minute, sixty minutes an hour, six times sixty
degrees a circle, and sixty miles a degree. We
also inherit from the Babylonians the division
, of a foot into twelve inches.
I Mr. Layard brought from the ruins of
\ Nineveh a number of weights, some in the
] shape of a lion and some in that of a
1 goose or duck, bearing legends which state
. their metrical value. These show that under
' the Assyrian Empire there were in use in
I Mesopotamia. Syria, and Asia Minor two prin-
• cipal standards of weight. The minas (mand
Skt., manah Bab.) of these two principal stan-
dards were related one to the other in the pro-
portion of 2 to 1 ; the heavier standard being
; specially Syrian or Phoenician, the lighter
I Babylonian. The mina of the heavier standard
weighed about 1010 grannnes or 15,600 gi-ains
troy ; the mina of the lighter standard, 505
grammes or 7800 grains. The talent was 60
minae ; the sixtieth part of the mina or shekel,
the heavier sixtieth weighing 260 grains (16'H
grammes), and the lighter weighing 130 grs. (8'4
grammes), were the weights according to which
many of the earliest gold coins of Asia Minor
were struck. This fact seems to prove that
the weights in question had long been in use in
that district for the precious metals, before
coins were invented. The heavier sixtieth
appears to have been the accepted unit in
Phoenicia, in Lydia, and in the Greek colonies
of the coast of Asia Minor. ^
A gold bar of the lighter standard (130
grains) would seem to have been regarded in
Homeric times as the equivalent of an ox {II.
xxiii. 262, 705. 751, xviii. 507, ix. 124, Od. i.
430). There is no doubt that the primitive
unit of value in Greece, as among other peoples
(India, Persia, Italy, the Celtic tribes), was an
ox. A slave was worth three or four oxen.
The armour of Glaukus was worth 100 oxen (II.
vi. 236). Smaller values were represented in
fractions of an ox. Ancient Attic money bore
the figure of an ox (hence possibly fiovs firl
yXdiffcrri), and ancient Roman money (pecunia)
also (fig. 355, Coinage). It is probable that
when gold bars or ingots came to be current in
Greece, the customary value of an ox would
adapt itself to the ijigots imported, doubtless
by the Phoenicians. These agreed with the
PONDERA
491
Babylonian standard, whether that standard
was indigenous or adopted fi'oni India, wlience
gold was imported overland into tlie southern
lands. (See Prof. Ridgeway in Juurmd of
Hellenic Studies, vol. viii. [l!Sh7j, pp. 133-158).
From the gold shekel of 130 or 200 grains,
whencesoever derived, the peoples of Asia
Minor and of Syria seem to liave formed metro-
logical sj'stems. By multiplj'ing by 50, they
formed minae of 6500 and of 1300 grains, and
from these minae again talents of sixty times
tliose weights. All this appears to have taken
place while the currency of the precious metals
consisted only of bars or rings (cf. the ' ear-
rings ' or nose-rings of Gen. xxxv. 4).
Ci his list of the Persian tribute Herodotus |
(iii. 89 sqq.) reckons the proportionate value of '
gold to silver as 13 to 1. This proportion seems
to have been fixed by custom, and not to have
changed under the Assyrian and Persian
empires, though in large sums a more coiTect
proportion (13^ : 1) may luive been used. ;
The Phoenician standard for silver, which
was certainly in use from early times to late
times, was formed from bars of gold weighing
2(J0 grains. Multiply 12G0 by 13^, and we get
tlie weight of the silver equivalent of this unit,
3460 grains. Divid'mg this again by 15, we get
a convenient bar of silver of the weight of 231
or 230 grains of the value of tlie fifteenth part
of a gold shekel. Thus four gold shekels would
be equivalent to 60 bars of silver formed on
this new unit. W'e have reason to believe that
the silver currency in Syria and Phoenicia,
before the invention of coining, was composed
of bars of silver of about 230 grains each, of j
which fifteen went to a gold shekel. i
In Asia Minor and Lydia the ordinary unit
of value in gold weighed but half this amount,
130 grains. Its silver equivalent was 1720 or
1730 grains. This sum was represented in the
currency by ten bars of about 172 grains each, I
which would together be equal in value to a
bar in gold. From this new silver unit, 172
grains, were formed, by multiplying by 50, a
mina of about 8600 grains, and a talent of
516,000 grains, which were known among the
Greeks as the Babylonian silver talent and
mina.
Attempts have been made to derive the
weight current in historical times in Greece
from Egyptian standards. But so far as
research has at present gone, it would seem that
the monetary systems of Syria, Asia Minor,
Greece, and Italy were derived from Babylon,
not from Egypt.
The silver talent in use among the Jews was
that of the Phoenicians in its heavier fonn. To
quite a late date the Jewisli mina weighed
11,500 grains and the shekel 2.'i0.
The Phoenician weiglit was probably in use
also at Carthage, for tlie coinage of Carthage
is chiefly struck on the Phoenician standard.
Derivation of Greek Monctanj Standards.
The principal monetary standards in use in
Western Asia were the following. First, there
was the heavy Babylonian gold standard, with
its shekel of 260 grains. Next, there was the
light Babylonian gold standard, with its shekel
of 180 grains. Next, there was the Babylonian
silver standard, of which the unit weighed 172
gi-ains. Last, there was the Phoenician (or
Graeco- Asiatic) standard, used only for silver,
the imit of which weighed about 230 grains.
[Coinage, Greek.]
The Phoenician standards spread to the
Greek cities of the Asiatic coast in the ninth
and eighth centuries B.C. Ephesus and IMiletus,
Phokaea and Smyrna, learned to accept as units
of value the heavy Babylonian gold shekel of
260 grains, and the Phoenician silver sliekel of
230 grains. And from Ephesus and Smyrna
the Phoenician silver standard passed to Sardis.
The credit of inventing the idea of money —
Part of
Ete:VVY SYSTE-M
Light System
Avoirdupois :
Avoirdupois
Talent
Grammes
Grains
Ib.s.
oz.
Grammes
Grains
lbs. oz.
I. Babvlonic Talent for
weighing goods.
Talent ....
1
C0,600
936,000
133?
30,300
468,000
60?
Mina ....
is
1,1110
15,600
2
■6^
605
7,81)0
1 IS
Sixtieth
Jo'nB
10-83
260
8 41
130
A
11. Babylonic Gold
Talent.
Talent ....
1
50.490
780,000
111?
25,245
390,000
554
Mina ....
s\s
841-5
13,00U
1
13?
420-7
6,500
H«
Shekel ....
III. Biiliylonic Silver
1^
16-83
260
M
8-41
130
'°
Talent.
Tiilont ....
1
C7.320
1,032,000
147?
33,660
616.000
73f
1 Minii ....
is
1,122
17 200
2
561
8,6U0
1 31
Sliekel ....
IV. Phrienician Silver
nAns
22-4
344
11-2
172
i
Talent.
Talent ....
1
44,700
690.000
W\
22,360
345,000
^^
1 Miim ....
is
746
11,5U0
1
10?
372-5
5,750
131
Shekel ....
iiss
14'9
230
i
7-45
116
J
To these mnst he arldcd—
1. Heavy SvsrR.M.—(n> The cnmnion Babylonian goM standard, in which the shekel weighed about 263
grains. (6) The coiumon Babylonian .'iilver stAiuiard of about 108 ^rrniiis.
2. LlouT SYSTt»i. — The common Babylonian gold stondard, in which the shekel weighed about 126-5
grains.
432
PONDERA
that is, of stamping an ingot of metal of fixed
weight with an official die, which should gua-
rantee its quality and value — belongs to the
Lydians (Hdt. i. 94). The earliest coins were
neither of gold nor of silver, but of electrum,
which is a natural mixture of those two metals,
found in the bed of the Paktolus and other
rivers of Asia Minor, and reckoned by the
Greeks as a separate metal. [See Electrum.]
It is probable, though not certain, that elec-
trum stood to silver in the relation of 10 to 1.
Electrum pieces on the Phoenician standard
were struck in many cities ; including Sardis,
Miletus, Chios, Samos, Lampsakus, and even
Aegina. [Electrum.J (See Coinage, PI. I. figs. 1,
2, 3.)
Kroesus, or perhaps Cyrus, superseded the
electrum coinage of Asia by one of gold and
silver, substituting pieces of pure gold on the
liglit Babylonian gold standard (12(5 grains) and
pieces of fine silver struck on the Babylonian
silver standard (168 grains). Ten of the silver
pieces were equal in value to one of the gold.
Darius, son of Hystaspes, introduced into Persia
a state coinage on the model of that of Lydia,
which continued unclianged until the over-
throw of the empire by Alexander the Great.
The staters of Darius, or Darics (AapeiK6s),
were in weight identical with those of Kroesus
This was identical with the liglit Babylonian
gold standard. But about the middle of the
sixth century B.C. the Attic standard arose, and
it is impossible to distinguish henceforth the
liistory of the Euboic from that of the Attic
standard.
In the time of Solon the standard used at
Athens for weighing both merchandise and the
pi'ecious metals was the Aeginetan. Solon, as
we are told by Plutarch (Solon, 15), introducing
his laws for the relief of debtors (creKraxOeia),
ordered that the standard weight of the drachm
should be lowered to ^^y^, of what it had pre-
viously been ; i.e. from 95 grains to 68 ; but
that debts contracted iu the old currency might
be discharged in the new, the debtors thus
gaining 27 per cent. The new standard was
borrowed from Egypt, with which country Attica
had at tliis time a close connexion.
The weights of the units of the Solonic
standard, henceforward known as the Attic,
are as follows :
Grammes. Grains.
Talent . . . 26,430 408,UUU
Miha . . . 44U-G 6,8o0
Drachm ... 4-4 68
Obol ... -7 12
The ordinary coin was the teiradrachm of about
272 grains. (See Tables, XVn.)
The only remaining standard early used in
Greece proper was the Corinthian. This has
the same unit of value as the Euboic : namely,
a stater of 130 or 135 grains. The Corinthian
drachm was not half but a third of tliis unit,
and the obol again a sixth i^art of that :
Grammes.
Grains.
Stater .
8-8
135
Uraoluii
293
45
Obol .
•49
7-5
Fig. 626.— <a) Gold Daric; (')i Silver Daric (Actual size.
British Muaeum.)
(128-130 grains). Darius issued also silver
pieces called aiyXoi or shekels weighing about
86 grains, twenty of which were equivalent
in vahie to a Daric. [Coinage, AapeLKOs,
Ziy\os : PI. I. figs. 4, 5.]
The coinage of Greece proper (excepting
Euboea) begins with Pheidon, king of Argos,
in the 7th century B.C. (Hdt.
vi. 27), wlio struck electrum
and silver money at Aegina,
bearing only the type of a tor-
toise (the emblem of Astarte,
goddess of trade), and weigh-
ing about 200 grains. The
scale of the coins with the
tortoise on them, hencefor-
ward called tlie Aeginetan
scale, soon spread over Greece,
sixth century the customary
Its weights
Fig. 827.— Coin of
Aegina.
It was
the
standard in most parts of Greece
are as follows :
Grammes
Talent . . . 37,800
Miua ... 630
Stater (didrachm) 12-6
Drachm . . 6-3
Obol ... 1-U5
Grains.
585,000
9,750
195
97
16
We here reach new terms— stater, drachm,
and obol. The first is a rendering of the Se-
mitic word shekel. The other terms are of
Greek origin. (Coinage, ZxaT-np ; PI. i ficr 7
ApaxM-Ti.] °
The only other standard in use in Greece
proper before the time of Solon was the Euboic.
The Greek cities in Italy and Sicily, beginning
with the Euboic standard, gradually adopted
the Attic.
Monetary Standards of Greece at the time
of the Peloponnesian War. — In Sicily the
Attic standard was universal ; the ordinary
coin was tlie tetradrachm ; didrachms, liemi-
draclmis, and obols were in use, and deca-
drachms occasionally struck. [See Coinage,
Aajtape'Teiov.] In the Greek colonies of S.
Italy, the Euboic standard was in general use;
but the standard coin was not the tetra-
draclmi, but the didrachm, which is said at
Tarentum to liave been called vovfjLfxos
( — vonos, nummus). In Hellas proper, the
Aeginetan standard was almost universal. The
exceptions were Athens, where the Attic stand-
ard was used ; and Corinth, which minted on
the Corinthian standard. On the shores of the
Black Sea, and in Asia Minor, the Persian
standard commonly prevailed.
History of Coinage in the Levant after
420 B.C. — In 408 B.C. the city of Rhodes was
founded. The Rliodians adopted from the first
a standard of their own, which seems to liave
been a variety of the Phoenician. This standard
made its way rapidly among Greek states in
the fourth century, and was adopted by Philip
of Macedon for his silver coin.
In the early years of the fourth century a
copper or rather bronze coinage sprang up in
most cities of Greece proper and the Greek
colonies '\u Italy and Sicily. Hitherto for small
change the Greeks had used minute pieces of
silver. Copper money was at first unpopular
(Ar. EccL 818), but gradually made its way by
its superior convenience. At about the same
time gold was first minted by Greeks.
PONDERA
493
"When Philip of Macfdon acquired tlie gold
mines of Thrace, lie began issuing large quanti-
ties of gold coins witli his own types. He
adopted the Attic standard already current in
Chalkidike, and minted gold didrachms of the
Attic weight — those didrachms which soon be-
came current coin all over the world.
As in other departments of Greek activity,
so in the coinage, the greatest of epochs is
furnished by the life of Alexander the Great.
Alexander adopted throughout his vast do-
minions the Attic standard of weight for both
silver coins and gold.
In the time of Philip of Macedon, conse-
quently on the active use made by that king
of the gold mines of Thrace, the value of gold
in proportion to that of silver fell. Alexander
seems to have perceived that in consequence of
this it was impossible to maintain a double
standard, and to secure that a certain number
of silver staters should always pass for a gold
one. He therefore minted both metals on one
standard, that of silver, to which the gold had
to accommodate itself. It was no doubt stated
or implied in all promises of payment whether
gold or silver was to be the metal employed.
The successors of Alexander coined immense
quantities of money in gold and silver. The
Ptolemies of Egj'pt used the Phoenician
standard for both gold and silver, but the Attic
standard was the one m general use bj- the
kings of Macedon, Syria, Pergamus, Bithynia,
Bactria, and India, as well as by the Parthians.
Cities also, such as Ephesus, Miletus, Kolo-
phon, and Rhodes, continued tlieir old coinages
unchanged. But the cities of the new Achaean
league issue a uniform series of Aeginetan
hemidrachms, or Corinthian drachms. The
Akamanian and Aetolian leagues follow the
Aeginetan standard.
The only great innovation which takes place
after this in the coinage of Asia Elinor is the
introduction of the coins called Cistophori
[Coinage]. These coins were first struck in
the times of the later kings of Pergamus, and
were peculiar- to the West and interior of Asia
Minor. They follow the Aeginetan standard.
When the Romans conquered Asia, they
introduced a tariff according to which the various
coins in circulation exchanged against the
denarius.
For weights and metal or monetary values of
Greek coins see Tables, XII.
Their equivalents in purchasing power cannot
be determined. We can only say quite roughly
that in many respects a silver drachm in the
fifth century in Greece would go almost as far
as a sovereign with us. The inHux of gold after
Alexander's conquests made prices rise ; but
the difference of conditions is such that no con-
clusions can be drawn.
Greek Systems of Weight for Coynmodi-
ties. — From the testimony of a few coins we
can easily discover the weight of the talent and
mina according to which they were minted.
And as a rule (but with many exceptions) the
talents and minae used for coins were those
used for other goods.
Athens. — There was (1) the usual Attic or
Solonic standard. This is the standard on
which all the coins of Athens from first to last
were struck. It was also used for weighing all
precious articles of gold and silver, and also for
drugs.
(2) Other weights were regulated according
to a standard just double tlie weight of the
Solonic.
(3) The third standard in use at Athens was
the Commercial or Emporic, identical with the
Aeginetan standard for coins ; with a mina of
about 9700 gi-ains (G'285 grammes). It corre-
sponded in use to our weight avoirdupois, being
the ordinai-y weight in use in the market*
The Emporic mina (jxva. efj.noptKTt, 'Jr niina
of tlie Agoranomi) weighed 13S Solonic drachms
(or draclims of the Stephanephoros) ; 12 Solonic
drachms were to be throwai in, and all sellers
were to act as if it weighed 150 drachms.
Alexandria. — (1) The standard in most
general use at Alexandria seems to have been
based on the Attic mina. In the prescriptions
of doctors this was universal until a late time.
The Weight of this mina was 10 Roman ounces
or 680U grains. ("2) For money and perhaps
other things the standard usually employed
was the Ptolemaic. The Ptolemaic mina con-
tained the weight of 100 Ptolemaic drachms,
which, as we have seen, were struck on Phoeni-
cian weight. Its weight was that of I'iJ Roman
ounces, or 5500 grains.
Italian Systems of Weights. — The Roman
libra or jiound was from the earliest times used
alike for money and for other commodities. It
remained unchanged in standard as late as the
time of Diocletian and Constantine. At first
pieces of copper were cast, in all Roman parts
of Italy, of the weight of a pound, and of the
various fractions of a pound. Soon, as we have
seen [Coinagej, the standard of the coins fell
rapidly. But the weight continued unchanged.
When, at a far later period, the coinages of
silver and gold were introduced at Rome, the
gold and silver pieces were struck so many to
the pound.
The dominion, then, of the libra as a weight
is as durable and extensive as the dominion of
Rome herself. Of the libra of money we have
spoken under Coinage. It has been fixed by
modern investigations at nearly 327'5 grammes,
or 50.">0 grains.
It is not improbable that the Roman pound,
which was not in its origin connected with the
Roman measures of length, was derived from
the Phoenician mina, as was probably the
national or Aeginetan standard in Greece.
Of the Roman librae which have come down
to us, many are considerably above standard.
It must not be supposed, however, that either
in earlier or later times the Roman libra pos-
sessed anything like a monopoly in the markets
of Italy. There, e.g., at Pompeii, as in Greece
and Asia, local customs largely prevailed. The
Greek colonies in South Italy used, until they
were absorbed by Rome, theGri'ck standards of
Phokaea, of Athens, and of Corinth.
Sicilian Weights. — In Sicily the jjound of
copper was the unit of value in very early
times, and was adopted to some extent by life
Greek colonies. These, however, a<l()pted late
in the sixth century B.C. the Attic standard for
coinage, and struck silver of the denominations
of tetradrachm, didrachm, drachm, hemidraclun,
and obol. Into this system by a ju'euliar pro-
cess thej' incorporated the litrn or imund of
copper. Theweiglit of the silver lilra was 13'5
grains. Multiplying this amount by '250, which
represents the proportion in Italy and Sicily
between silver and copi>er, we reach a sum of
!}375 grains. This is just half thi- w»'ight t)f
the Attic silver mina. The weight, tlien, of
the Sicilian litra was 3375 grains or '218-7
grammes, nearly the weight of H Roman ounces.
It is probable that the same system of the litra
in silver and copper passed in the fifth century
494
PONDERA
from Syracuse into Etruria, and is the base of [
the whole of the later Etruscan coinage. The |
Etruscan silver pieces which bear marks of '
value are all multiples of a litra of the Sicilian
weight (13'5 grains), and the Etruscan aes >
grave is of the standard of 8 Roman ounces, i
3366 grains. The litra was divided, like the '
Roman libra, into twelve parts ; but the names
of the parts were difEerent.
1
2
e
Corre- :
3
•5
.tj
spouds to
1
c
^
Roman 1
Litra . .
218-7
3375
■
Airpa
libra
Hemilitron .
109-3
1087
■}jlJ.i\lTpOl'
semis
Pentuncium
91-1
1406
T7€VTtoyKtOV
quiucuux
Tetras . .
7-2-9
1125
Terpis
trieus '
Trias . . .
54-7
844
Tptas
quadrans
Hexas . .
36-4
562
efis
sextans
XJucia . .
18-2
281
ovyxta
uncia
Thus the tetras coiTesponds to the Latin
triens, and the trias to the Latin quadrans.
Pons (yicpvpa). A bridge. A primitive idea
is that the erection of a bridge is an impious
act, or an injury done to the god of the river.
Thus, in ancient Rome, the most primitive
duty of the pontifex or bridge-builder was to
propitiate Father Tiber by regidar annual
sacrifices. Li early times human victims were
ofEered by being flung into the Tiber from the
Sublician bridge; but in later times thirty
figures or dummies called Argei, made of
rushes, were solemnly thrown into the Tiber
by the Pontificesand Vestal Virgins every year
on the Ides of May, as is recorded by Ovid
{Fast. V. 622).
Another notion, connected with the same
class of ideas, is that a light and, as it were,
temporary structure is less offensive to the
river-god than a more permanent bridge.
Hence the primitive reason for building the
Sublician bridge of wood, not fastened together
with iron in any form (Plin. xxxvi. Jj 100).
The oldest bridge of wliich we have any
record, that at Babylon, was of wood, though
built on stone piers. This, according to
Herodotus (i. 178-186), was built across the
Euphrates by Queen Nitokris, c. 600 B.C.
Temporary floatmg bridges ((TxeSiai) for
military operations appear to have been used
in very early times, boats being used for the
points of support, with cables of twisted flax
{KiVKdKivov) and papyrus {^v^Kos), tightly
strained by help of windlasses, to support the
intermediate planking. A bridge of this kind
was thrown across the Tliracian Bosporus by
Darius (Hdt. iv. 83). A similar bridge was
constructed for Xerxes across the Hellespont
between Sestos and Abydos (Hdt. vii. 34).
Permanent bridges do not appear to have
been constructed in Greece till after the
Roman conquest.
Tliroughout the Roman dominions, especially
dm-iug the Luperial period, stone bridges with
wide-spanning arches of tlie most massive kind
were erected in great numbers, such as the
bridge over the Acheron, wliich was a thousand
feet in length, and that which miited the island
of Euboea to the mainland. The Roman
bridges were as a rule rather narrow : the
central roadway for horses and vehicles
was called iter ; at the sides were slightly
raised foot-paths (decursoria), defended on the
outside by a low parapet wall. The main
PONS
arches were decorated with simple mouldings
adapted from Greek buildings ; and between
them, over each pier, a smaller arch was fre-
quently introduced to relieve the pressure of
water during flood-time. Rows of corbels
were commonly inserted at the springing of
each arch, the use of which was to support the
wooden centering while the arch was being
built ; thus doing away with the necessity of
tall supports resting in the water. Li many
cases a gate-tower was built as a defence at
each end of the bridge.
The chief Roman bridges were built either of
concrete and brick, or of solid stone masonry,
fixed with iron clamps and lead.
Under the later Roman Empire the city of
Rome possessed the following bridges :
(1) Pons Siiblicius, so called from the sub-
licae or wooden beams of which it was con-
structed. Till the second century B.C. this
was the only bridge in Rome. According to
tradition, the Sublician bridge was originaDy
erected by Ancus Martins. Even in the time
of Augustus the bridge was still of timber. In
09 A.D. it was carried away by a flood (Tac.
Hist. i. 86), and does not appear to have been
rebuilt. The Roman bridges were a favourite
resort for beggars (Juv. xiv. 134).
(2) The first stone bridge in Rome, called on
that account the Pons Lapideus, was also
known as the Pons Aemilius. It was begun
in 179 B.C. by M. Fulvius Nobilior and the
censor M. Aemilius Lepidus, and finished in
142 B.C. (Liv. xl. 51: Juv. vi. 82; Plut. Num.
91. Tlip mediaeval Ponte Rotto occupies the
site of the Pons Aemilius.
(3) Pons Fahriciiis, which unites the In-
sula Tiberina to the left bank of the river, was
built in 62 B.C. by L. Fabricius, one of the
curatores viarum, as is recorded in in-
scriptions (still partly legible) deeply cut in
large letters on either side of its arches.
Like the other existing bridges of Rome, this
is built of peperino and tufa, faced on both
sides by massive blocks of travertine. A frag-
ment still exists of the parapet : namely, a
marble pilaster crowned by a quadruple head,
lanvs quadrifrons, from which the bridge
takes its modern name of Ponte Quattro
Capi. The pilaster is grooved to receive an
open bronze screen or canceUi, which formerly
Fig. 828.— r.rass coin of M. Aurelius.
filled up the intermediate spaces between the
pilasters.
(4) Pons Cesfius, which joins the Insula
Tiberina to the right or Janiculan side of the
Tiber, was probably built by L. Cestius, Prae-
fect of the City in 46 B.C. The Pons Cestius
consists of one arch only, with an opening for
dood-water on each side of it.
(5) Pons Aelius, modern Ponte Sant' An-
gelo, was built in 135 a. I), by Hadrian to
connect his mausoleum and circus with the
PONS
the
495
Tiber, it was built by the censor M.
Aemilius Scaurus, 109 B.C. ("see Cic. Cat. iii.
•2). In A.D. 312 the Pons Mulvius was the scene
of the defeat of Maxeutiu« by Constantine.
A very large number of fine stone bridges
Campus Martius. The five arches of this noble still exist throughout the greater part of the
bridge are of peperino faced with travertine. Roman empire, in various sr.ates of preserva-
(6) Pons Aurelius was probably on the site tion : such as that at Ariminuni (Rimini); the
1^-
T^TZTT.
Fig. b29.— Bridge at Eimini.
of the modern Ponte Sisto. The date of its
foundation is not known.
(7) Pons Neronianiis or Vaticaniis was
begun by Caligula and completed by Nero, to
give access to the Horti Agrippinae and the
great circus which stood by the present Basilica
of St. Peter.
at
6 " " •jiMi || III Ife"^'
* C--
PLAN
a, rough joists ; (■. wattle-work ; <■. roudway of earth.
Pont du Gard near Nemausus (Nimes
Coblentz, Alcantara, Toledo, ttc.
Julius Caesar describes {B. G. iv. 17) a
wooden bridge which he constructed across the
Rhine in the short space of ten days. It was
supported on a series of double piles, formed of
two baulks of timber, each 18 inches square (in
section), pointed at one end, and driven into the
bed of the river by 'monkeys ' (fistucae) ; they
were set in a sloping direction, so as to resist
the force of the current. A corresponding
jKirallel row of piles was driven in at a distance
of 40 feet, thus forming a wide roadway. The
cross-pieces were 2 feet tliick, and were suj)-
ported by cross struts so as to diminish the
bearing. A little higher up the stream a third
row of piles was fi.xed to support ' fenders,' to
secure the main structure from injury in case
the enemy sent heavy trees to float down the
river and strike against the supports of the
bridge.
Other temporary bridges were supported on
floating casks {dolia or ci/pae) (Lucan, iv.
420) ; on small boats or 'dug-outs' (niotioxuli),
hollowed out of a tree-trunk, together with
planks, ropes, and nails to form the roadway.
[Ratis.]
Fig. 831, from a relief on Trajan's Column,
shows the construction of this sort of doatiut:
TRANSVERSE SECTION
Ctt? ' 22 t"
-■ »M I- — '
-rfcr-
Fig. ^31.— Bridge on boats. (From Trajan's Column.)
bridge. Another relief on the same column
shows a more permanent kind of military
LOfJGITUDlNAL SECTIOf^
I'lg. KK).— Caesar's bridge over lUo Khuio.
1 Fig. KU.— Part o( the bridge ucroKS the Ituuube. (From
(h) Pons Mulvius, modern Ponto Molle, is
about a mile and a half outside the Aurelian bridge, which was constructed by Trajan across
wall of Rome, where the Via Fluminia crosses! the Danube (Dio Cass. Ixviii. p. 776^ and Pliu.
196
PONS
Ep. viii. 4). This bridge has stone piers sup-
porting trusses of wood, framed like a low-
pitched roof.
The word pojis was also applied to the
wooden gangway {pons saffragioruin) by which
the voters at the coraitia
passed into the enclosure
(ovile or saepta) ; and also
to the gangway leading to
the deck of a ship.
Po'ntifex ((€po5i5d(r/ca-
Aos, lipovofj-os^ Upo<pv\a^,
i(po(pa.vT7)s). The origin of
_ this word is variously ex-
Fig. 882 A.-Coin from plained. One derivation
Cohen's Mniinau-s ii,- makes pontifex = ])ompi-
Linf^^"*"'"*'' '^"' fex; another makes /acere
= pefe^'i and refers the
word to the sacrifice of the Argei on the sacred
or Sublician bridge [Argei]. The title was
used in many Italian towns.
The Roman pontiffs formed the most illus-
trious among the great colleges of priests.
Their institution was ascribed to Numa (Liv. i.
20; Cic. de Orat. iii. 19, 73). According to
Livy (x. 6), the original number was four ;
Cicero (Rep. ii. 14, 2(j) says five. Li the year
800 B.C. the lex Ogulnia raised the number of
pontiffs to eight, or nine, four of whom were to
be plebeians (Liv. x. 6). Tib. Coruncanius ('2.54
B.C.) was the first plebeian Pont. Max. (Liv.
Epit. xviii.). This number of pontiffs remained
for a long time unaltered. The dictator Sulla
increased it to fifteen, and Julius Caesar to
sixteen. During the Empire the number,
including the Pont. Max., remained generally at
fifteen.
It appears that by their institution the
college had the right of co-optation : that is, if
a member of the college died, the members
elected a successor, who after his election was
inaugurated by the augurs. This election was
called captio [Flamen]. But in the course of
the third century B.C. tlie choice of the
Pontifex Maximus from the other members
was transferred to a popular election by
the votes of seventeen of the tribes. The
ordinai-y pontiffs were still coopted. In
104 B.C. the Lex Domitia transferred the right of
electing the members of the great colleges of
priests to the seventeen tribes ; these elected
one from a list of candidates approved by the
college, who was then made a member of the
college by the formal cooptatio of the priests
(Cic. Leg. Agr. ii. 7, 18 ; Suet. Nero, 2). Except
during the Sullan reaction, this method of
election continued till the time of Augustus.
Under the Empire tlie right of appointment
belonged formally to the senate, but virtually
to the emperor.
The college of pontiffs had the supreme
superintendence and judicial decision of all
matters of religion, public as well as private (cf .
Liv. i. 20). It was their duty to guard against
neglect of the ancient customs, or introduction of
foreign rites ; to settle the ritual for the worship
of the gods, and to interpret signs ; to determine
the proper form of burials, and how the souls of
the departed {nianes) wtere to be appeased. In
cases where the existing laws or customs were
found defective, they made new laws and regu-
lations {decreta pontificuni). They watched
over the conduct of all persons who had any-
thing to do with the service of the gods. The
pontiffs were not responsible either to the
senate or to the people. The details of their
duties and functions were contained in books
PONTIFEX
called libri pontificii or jjontificales, and com-
7nentarii sacrorum, which were preserved
under the charge of the Pontifex Maximus in
the regia. One part of the libri pontificalcs
was called indigitamenta, and contained the
names of the gods and the manner in which
these names were to be used in public worship
(Serv. ad Verg. Georg. 1. 21). A second part
must have contained the formulas of the ius
pontificium, which were in the course of time
increased and more accurately defined by the
decrees of the pontiffs, and formed a large
corpus of pontifical law (Cic. de Orat. i. 43,
193, /»?-o DoJHo, 13, 34). The a nnales max i mi
were records of the events of each year kept by
the Pontifex Maximus, from the earliest times.
The pontiffs were not priests of any par-
ticular divinity, but a college which stood
above all other priests, and superintended tlie
whole external worship of the gods (Cic. Legg.
ii. 8, 20). In the management of the sacra
puhlica they were in later times assisted by the
tres viri epulones [Epulones], and had in their
keeping the funds from which the expenses
of tiie sacra publica were defrayed [SacraJ.
The pontiffs convoked the assembly of the
curies (comitia calata or curiata) in certain cases.
As regards the jurisdiction of the pontiffs,
magistrates and priests as well as private
individuals were bound to submit to their sen-
tence, provided it had the sanction of tliree
members of the college. In most cases the
sentence of the pontiffs only inflicted a fine
upon the offenders (Liv. xxxvii. 51, xl. 42), sub-
ject to an appeal to the people. In the case of
the Vestal Virgins the pontiffs had criminal
jurisdiction, and might pronounce sentence of
death (Liv. xxii. 57). Incest in general belonged
to the jurisdiction of the pontiffs, and might be
punished with death (Cic. Legg. ii. 19, 47).
The meetings of the college of pontiffs were
lield in the damns regia on the Sacra Via, to
which were attached the offices of the Pontifex
Maximus and of the rex sacrorum. (Suet. ltd.
4(1 ; Verg. Aen. viii. 3(53 ; Plin. Ep. iv. 11.) All
tlie pontiffs were in their appearance distin-
guished by the conical cap [galerus or Tutulus),
with an npex upon it, and the toga praetexta.
(See cut under Albogalerus.)
The Pontifex Maximus was the president of
the college, and in its name exercised the full
rights of the king in religious matters. He was
generally chosen from among the most distin-
guished persons, and such as had held a curule
magistracy, or were already members of the
college (Liv. xxxv. 5). Two of his especial
duties wei'e to appoint (capere) the Vestal Vir-
gins and the flamines [Vestales ; Flamen], and
to be present at every marriage by confarreatio.
A pontifex might hbld any other military,
civil, or priestly office, provided the different
offices did not interfere with one another. He
was not allowed to leave Italy ; but this law
was in later times frequently transgressed.
The college of pontiffs continued to exist
until the overthrow of paganism ; but its
power and influence were weakened, as the
emperors had the right to appoint as many
members of the great colleges of priests as they
pleased (Suet. lul. 31). In addition to this,
the emperors themselves were always chief pon-
tiffs, and as such the presidents of the college.
There .v/ere other pontiffs at Rome, three in
number, who were distinguished by the epithet
minores, who appear to have been deputies or
vicars of the pontiffs when these (as e.g. Jnlius
Caesar in Gaul) were absent from their duties.
POl'A
Popa. ^Sacrificium.
Popi'na. Caupona.
Poplifu'gia or Populifu'gia was cele-
brated on July 5, to coiumemoriite the flight
of the Romans shortly after the burning of the
city by the Gauls ; the subsequent traditional
victory of the Romans was commemorated on
July 7 (called the Ao/fdc Caprotinae).
Popula'res. [Nobiles.]
Po'pulus. The collective name for the whole
citizens of Rome, of whatever rank and class.
There was probably a time when the Patricii
were the only persons who possessed the rights
of citizens. At that time the assemblies
{co)iiiti(i) of the pop ul us would consist wholly
of patricians. The enfranchisement of the
outsiders was no doubt gained by degrees.
But there is no (jvidence, from the earliest his-
torical period, that the plebeians were ever
excluded from any kind of assembly of the
populus Romanus.
The populus Romanus is in theory sovei'eign
in all matters. Every difKculty can be solved
in the last resort by its interposition, and its
command is the definition of law : ' Lex est
(juod populus iubet atque constituit.' The
populus cannot be bound even by its own
pi'evious decisions. It may ordain and alter
what it pleases in its own constitution, or in
the powers and tenure of its magistrates, or
in the delegation of rights to other persons or
bodies, or finally in the ordinances of religion
itself : but in the sphere of religion it takes the
advice of learned men, pontiffs and augurs, who
are supposed to have special knowledge in these
subjects.
In order to utter its supreme command the
]>eople must be properly summoned and have
the question properly put to it ('consul populum
iure rogavit.') The magistrate, selected by the
communitj- to be its leader and to consult the
gods on its behalf, is the only person who can
elicit its sovereign will by putting the question
with the proper solemnities {aitspicato). The
initiative residing in the magistrate is thus of the
highest practical importance. The assemblj'can
only answer Yes or No to his rogatio. But he
does not ordain, but only requests the people
to ordain ('Velitis iubeatis, Quirites').
The fonnal assemblies of the populus
Romanus are called by the distinctive title of
romitia. The populus Romanus assembles in
historical times in three ways — by curies, by
centuries, and by tribes. [ Comitia.]
From the time of the secession to the Mons
Sacer, the populus Romanus, consisting of '
patricians and plebeians, has side by side with
it another great corporation, that of the plebs.
The two corporations, though consisting in the :
main of the same persons, remained to the end
of the Republic distinct in law. But the fact '
that the assemblies of both are popular assem- j
blies, and that both the words ;^(»/j«/«.s and '
plebs may be used in a loose and general as well I
as in a technical sense, causes much confusion |
when we are dealing with the expressions of
politicians or historians (see Liv. xxvii. 5, 18).
By the Hortensian law of '287 B.C. the decrees
of the plebs received e<iual force with those of
the pojjulus [Plebiscituml.
The law of Hortensius was an enormous act
of sovereigntj- on the part of the i)opulus
Romanus. The populus saw fit in the plenitude
of its power to decree that an alter ego should
be set up in the person of the plebs. Whoever
then denies the competence of the plebs, limits
the power of the populus, and sets at naught all
PORTA
497
the sanctity which the law may have acquired
from the regal prerogatives of the dictator's
office, and from the ausijices and prayers with
which doubtless Hortensius conunenced the
business of the day.
The equivalence of the powers of the two
corporations naturally increased the tendency
to use indiscriminately the technical terms be-
longing to each ; and the contrast between
populus, comitia,lex, iubere, on the one hand,
iind j>lrbs, co/iciliimi , plebiscitutn, sciscere on
the other is practically disregarded. The cor-
poration of tlie plebs, which before the law of
Publilius Volero in 471 B.C. probably assembled
in its concilia by curies, after that date assem-
bled by tribes, and by tribes only. [Comitia.]
Thus, while in the case of a curiate or a cen-
turiate assembly we know at once that the body
which is meeting must be the populus, in the
case of a tribute assembly it is not always
clear whether the populus or the plebs is in-
tended. The assembly by tribes which is called
together by the tribunes cannot be an assembly
ofthe populus Romanus, for the tribunes cannot
summon the patricians. On the other hand,
the assembly (concilium) of the plebs cannot
strictly be identical with lliat tribute assembly
which confers the lesser auspicia patricioruiii
[see Magistratus ), which is presided over by a
pati'ician magistrate (see Cic. Fam. vii. 30, (fee),
and which passes laws on the rogatio of a
consul. The two corporations remained form-
ally distinct ; though the plebs always, and the
populus sometimes, assembled by tribes.
Each of the two corporations liad the election
of its own officers ; and the populus assembled
in centuries was alone competent to hear au
appeal from the sentence of a magistrate affect-
ing the life of a citizen. With these exceptions
the assembly of the populus by way of tribes
or of centuries and the assembly [conciliujii) of
the plebs were equally competent to pass sove-
reign decrees in all matters, and there are both
leges and plebiscita relating to all manner of
subjects of legislation.
The distinction between populus and plebs,
all important for the antiquarian and the con-
stitutional lawyer, was practically of no signifi-
cance for the statesman. The effect of doubling
the sovereigntj- was merely to commit the
initiative to the tribunes as well as to the con-
suls and praetors. [Comitia.J
nop-TTTi. (Fibula.]
Porta (irvKr], usually in the plural). The gate
of a city, citadel, or other open space enclosed
by a wall, in contradistinction to lauua, the
door of a house or covered ed'iice.
Fig. t«t.S. U.it« at I'hiitiilcla.
In tracing out the walls of an Italian cily
[see Pomerium], the plough was lifted and car-
ried across the openings to be left for the gates.
KK
498
PORTA
The gates in ancient Greek walls were formed
in various ways, showing progressive art in
building. We may give four distinct methods :
(1) the simple straight lintel, consisting of a
long and massive block, as in the ' Lion ' Gate
of Mykenae (fig. 709, under Murus). (2) Stones
corbelled out from each side, and so gradually
approaching till they can be topped by a flat
lintel : an example is afforded by a gate at Phi-
galeia (fig. 833). (3) A gabled shape, formed by
two massive stones meeting in an angle, as
shown in a gate at Delos. (4) A refinement
Fig. S34.— Gate at Delos.
on (2), where the stones approach gradually,
cut into shape, sometimes with a slight curve,
till they join at the apex. [See Arcus, p. (>«.]
For defence of gates, flanking bastions were
used ; these were at first simple projections of
the wall at right angles, and then developed
into bastions formed by circular swellings of
the wall on each side of the gate, and thence
/^5
PORTICUS
given by a double gateway, having an outer and
inner gate with a space between. This system
of double gates was very early in use, as in the
second and third gateways of the fortress at
Tiryns.
At Como, Verona, Trier (Porta Nigra), &c.,
the gate contains two passages close together,
the one designed for can-iages entering, and
the other for carriages leaving the city. In
other instances we find one gate for carriages,
and a smaller one on each side of it for foot-
passengers, as at Lincoln. When there were
no sideways, one of the
leaves of the large gate
sometimes contained a
wicket {portula, irvXis:
ptvoTTvXTi). (Polyb. viii.
20, 24 ; Liv. xxv. 9.)
The contrivances for
fastening gates may be
Understood by reference
to fig. 836. Until the
0d\avos [lanua] was
taken out, the bar could
not be removed either to
the one side or the other
(Thuc. ii. 4 ; Ar. Vesp.
200, Av. 1159). Another
'•' piece of iron, fitted to
the $d\avos and called
fiaXavdrypa, was used to
extract it. [For the port-
cullis, see Cataracta.]
The gateway had com-
monly a chamber (irvKwv).,
either on one side or both,
which served as the resi-
dence of the porter or
guard. (See fig. 835.)
Porte'ntum. [Prodigium.]
Po'rticus (ffToa). A colonnade : i.e. a build-
ing of which tlie roof is supported at least on
one side by colunuis ; it is thus open to the air,
but protected from sun and rain. Three plans
of porticus are shown in the accompanying
Fig. 886.— Vertical spc-
tion of gate-post
and bar.
<(, gate-post ; b b, bar
(jAoyAos); c, corre-
t-ponding holes in
bar and gate-pott,
in wiiich was in-
serted tlie pdAavo;,
an iron pin.
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ "~g~ ■ ■ »~
■ ■■■*■■■■■■
Fig. 835.— Roman gate (Porta Nigral at Trier
into regular flanking towers, round or square.
[Turris; Murus.] Additional security was
Fig. 837.— Porticus.
(,1), (S) duplex. i2) simplrx. The inner row of columns in
(») are termed mcdkiiiae coliimiKie (Vltr. v.).
diagram. Sroai were frequently adorned with
paintings ; hence the name (rroa iroi/ciArj
applied to one at Athens and another at
Olympia. Statues were frequently placed in
front of colonnades. Greek stoae were named
from their cliaracter, e.g. jxaKpa, TlepcriKri ; or
from their purpose, /SacriAeios, where the archon
basileus held his court ; later also from those
who erected them, as that of Attains at Athens.
Besides their oiticial or commercial uses, crroai
in Athens also served as covered resorts for
meeting and conversation ; thus Zeno fre-
POETISCULUS
quentod the Stoa Poekile, whence his followers !
were lalled tlie Stoics. Stoae were also attaclied
to gymnasia and to baths.
The numerous colonnades in Rome were
erected in imitation ot the (i-reek, and served
similar purposes, botli public and private.
They were constructed (especially in impcriul
times) of extraordinary extent and riclmcss.
Tlie spaces between the columns were some-
times (as in the Basilica lulia) filled up with
low marble screens (canccHi). Tliey were also
a favourite addition to the private houses of
rich Koniaiis. [SeeA^ora; Domus.]
Porti'sculus. ' Navis, Glossary, itc.]
Porto'rium. (l) Transit-dues or tolls on
goods carried tln'ougli a countiy or over a
bridge, or a toll paid by travellers (Suet. Vit.
14 ; Sen. Const. Sap. 14).
(2) Duties paid on goods imiwrted and ex-
])orted : the value and incidence of which varied
according to circumstances.
Under the Empire portoria were a branch
of the regular icvenue, and, like other vecti-
galia, were farmed out by the censors to publi-
cani, who employed portitores to collect them
[Vectigalia; Piiblicani]. By degrees the
provinces were giou))ed into more or less natu-
ral unions ; each of these reckoned as one
customs-district, on the frontiers of which
duties were paid. The following districts are
known to us : Italy, Sicily, Gaul, Spain, Britain,
lUyricum, Asia, Bithynia, Africa, and Egypt.
As regards the articles subject to duty, the
rule was that all commodities (including slaves)
which were imported to be sold again paid the
portorium ; whereas things wliich a person
brought with liim for his own use were exempt,
(loods imported for the use of the state were
exempt. Such goods as weri' duly declared to
the portitores were called script a, and those
whicli were not, iiiscripta. The latter were
confiscated on discovery.
As to the amount of the duty we have but
few statements in ancient writers. The Sicilian
portoriiun in the time of Cicero was 5 per cent.
(viccsima) ad valorem on taxable articles (Cic.
Verr. ii. 75, 185) (probably a common i)ropor-
tion : see EIkocttti). We hear also of 2 per
cent, (qiti nqiiagesima) in Gaul.
Fosca (o^os, St. Matt, xxvii. 48), vinegar
mixed with water, was the common drink of
tlie lower orders among the Romans (Suet.
Vit. 12), of slaves (Plant. Mil. iii. 2, 23), and
of soldiers on Bervice.
Posse'ssio. See Appendix, Roman L.\w.
Fostile'na. A crupper or breeching for
horses (Plant. Cas. i. 1, 37) [EphippiaJ. Anti-
lena is a breast band.
Postliminium. See Ai)iiendix, Rom.vn Law.
Postsigna'ni. [Txercitus.]
Po'stumus. [Herea.J See Appendix, Roman
1>AW. I
Pote'stas. See Appendix, Roman Law,
Patria potestas.
Pottery.
I. Technical Methods.
The general words for pottery in Greek arc
Kfpafios and ocTTpaxov ; in Latin, testa and opus
jif/ulittitm, the latter expression used of finer
ware as opposed to oj'iis doliarc, rough ware.
A potter is ^I'Tpeuy or Kfpafxtvs, figidus', or
specially, KoSoTrotds, \-r)KvQoiroi6s.
(1) The Prepakation ok the Clay. — As to
the proceBses adopted by the ancients in the
preparation of the clay we have little infonna-
tion ; as regards the sources whence the clay
POTTERY
4CD
was obtained, the yellow clay pits may still be
seen near Corintli to whicli tlie Corinthian
pottery in antiquity owed its reputation ;
and the fine clay of Attica, and especially that
of Cape Kohas, was celebrated in antiquity not
only for its hardness and toughness, but also
because it mixed well witli ruddle or red ochre
(/ui'Atov, rubrica) ; this would be a quality
specially desirable for the manufacture of
painted vases.
At Athens the K(pa^(<K(is or potters' quarter
was witliout the city and adjoining the necro-
polis ; a site whicli was no doubt convenient
for the makers of painted vases, so largely in
use for dedication at the tomb. The potter's
ware was also used for dedication in the
temples, and in some cases for jn-izes in the
sacred games. Tliis painted ware was largely
exported from the chief centres of the different
manufactures; from 550 to 400 B.C. most of
it came from Athens ; later. Southern Italy
became the chief seat of the fabric By the
end of the tliird century the art of painting
vases had disappeared.
In Italy pottery was almost entirely employed
for domestic purposes, and almost every vil-
lage liad its own manufactory ; the ware was
mostly rough, unglazed, and without decora-
tion. Of Roman glazed ware there were two
main classes, Aretine and the so-called Samian.
Tlie term Aretine is given because large
quantities of this ware liave been found at
Arezzo, but it must also have been produced
at other places, so that the term must be re-
garded as more or less conventional. This ware
was in vogue in the last century n.c. and the
three following ; it is of a fine clay of a brilliant
red colour, higlily decorated with reliefs.
The Samian bowls, erroneously supposed to
have been made in Samos, are also decorated
with reliefs, but are of a harder clay and have
less brilliancy of colour than the Aretine ware.
Provincial imitations of this latter ware are
very common, especially in Great Britain.
(2) The Mo])ELi.iN(i ok the Clay. — The
use of the potter's wheel {rpox^^ K(paixiK6s or
rdpvos: rota figularis or vrhis) was known in
Egypt in very remote times, and in Greece
went so far back as to be credited with a
legendary origin. It is familiar to Homer (II.
xviii. 600), and the vases of the jieriod which is
Usually referred to the time of Homer are
certainly wheel-made. The vases, liowever, of
the primitive tombs at Hissarlik, in Cyprus,
and the Greek islands, are handmade, and
show no trace of the wheel.
In the earliest vases from Italy we have the
same stage of primitive hand-ware, which pre-
cedes all other fabrics and is of the rougliest
description. From their brownish colour these
vases have received the name of Brown Ware,
as opposed to the black wheel-made vases
styled Bucchero Nero. The most remarkable
of the Brown Ware are the so-called hut-urne
[Domus] in the form of the primitive Italian
tiu/itriiim (fig. 846) ; one of these in the British
3Iuseum is filled with tlie ashes of tlie diMid.
Another class of vases should be mentioned
here, which were probably at all periods mode
by liand. The large 7r/Pot (doliitm) used by the
ancients for the fermentation of new wine, and
sunk partially into tlie ground, were often of
enormous size ; tliese must always have been
miule by hand, and were probably built up
from the bottom on a wooden fnune or core
{Kivva&os or Kava&os).
As to the form or method of handling of the
K K 2
500
POTTERY
potter's wheel ancient literature tells us very
little, but it was probablj- turned either by the
foot or by the hand. The wheel consisted of a
circular disk placed horizontally upon an uj)-
light post, upon which it rotated. Tlie accom-
panying illustration shows a potter at work
In fig. 839 we have the ground- plan of the
furnace, of which a represents the mouth ; b
the jyraefurnium and fire-space, from which
the flames spread throughout the building.
The fire-space to the right of b is divided into
two parts by a wall shown in No. 3, which
serves as a support for the floor of the vase-
space seen in No. 2 ; this floor is (lerforated
Ki«. S3«.- Potter at work fFrom a tablet ai lierUn.)
making a vase upon the wheel. From it we '
see that the process of making pottery at this
early date differed but little from that of the
prt-sent day. The potter phvced a lump of clay
on the centre of the wheel, and wliile he turned
the wlieel witli one hand (rpox^^' ^^avvny) he
moulded («A(cetj', ilucerr) the clay with the other.
When the l)ody of the vase was complete,
the surface was smoothed, perliaps as now,
with a piece of hard leatlier or a small strip of
wood. It was then placed in tlie air to dry,
and the handles — as well as, in the case of
larger vases, the neck and foot, which liad lieen
m;ide indejifudently — were attjiched. Cireat
U-chnical skill was sliown by the tlreek potter in
the attachment of the handles, wliich are rarely
found broken away at the jKiint of juncture.
(^^) Thk Baking.— Some va-ses needed no
baking: these were called aifuL, criitla; but
almost all those which have come down to
us are undoubtedly baked. Tlie process {orray,
coqtiere) was one of the most critical in the
potter's art. The necessary amount of heat
n-quired to be accurately adjusted, according
to the character of the ware. The va.sea were
liable to manv accidents, such ao discoloration
*-~)r-i>~n"tr--i~in'~~'
□aziaaac
'■ ■ ■- " " " ■■ 1
or distortion of shape, either from too great or
too little heat, or other causes. These mishaps
were often attributed to the influence of evil
spirits.
Fig. H40.— ExttTioi- if tarniicc : ...... I
with square lioles at regular intervals, through
which the heat passes to the vases. No. 1
represents the front elevation, and No. 2 the
vertical section, of a complete bniMin<r. m;\'lp
up from the actual
remains of a fur
nace at Heddern-
heim in (termany,
restored from
the evidence of
certain painted
phwjues found at
Corinth and now
at Berlin ; tlie
jKirtion restored
is marked in
dotted lines. In
No. 2, d reprf-
sents tlie door,
nearly on a lev«-l
with the rt<X)r ci
the oven, through
which the vases
are inserted : the
smaller aperture
within d serves
as an eyehole
' through which the vases in process of baking
; might be jieriodically ins^iected ; e is the chim-
ney with vaulted roof.
(4) P.\iNTiNo Pbocesses. — In the archaic
vases witli simple ornamentation, the decora-
tion, linear or geometrical, is applied directly
on the ground with the brush. The usual
colour is a yellowish or brownifth red, often
passing into black. In the painted vases of
the sixth, fifth, and fourth centuries B.C. the
clay is of a ricli colour varying from red to
pale orange, and covered with a fine lustrous
glaze produced by tiring at a great heat. Over
this is applied a beautiful black varnish : in the
earlier (' black-figured ') vases, for filling in the
outlines of the actual figures, and t«i a certain
extent over the undecorated portion of the vase
itself; in the later (' red-figured'), covering the
whole surface of the vase except the figures
and ornamental patterns. The great charm
of these vases consists in the contrast between
I
Ul ^
H
X
^
Q ^
UJ <
i
II
POTTERY
501
the rich red of the clay and the lustrous,
aluiost blue-black varnish. This varnish, the
composition of which is unknown at the present
day, was applied after the vase had been dried
and once lightly baked. Its effect is often spoiled
by imiierfect firing, which produces a greenish
or red-brown colour instead of the black.
In the older method, where the figures are
painted in black on the red glaze, the first
proceeding was to trace out the general out-
lines on the clay with a sharp instrument, and
the figures were then filled in with the brush;
next, the details, such as features, patterns of
dresses, or muscles, were incised with the sharp
instrument. The final stage was to enhance
tlie details with purple or white pigments ; after
■wliich the vase was submitted to another and
final firing, which by liquefying the black
varnish caused it to become as it were one
substance with the clay. For a typical black-
figured vase see coloured plate.
In the vases with red figures the first pro-
cess was, as with the former, the incising of
Fig. M2.— Frafrment) of Unfinished vase. (Birch, A iicient i^oUcnj.)
the general outlines on the red chiy ; but the
difference of the two methods is seen in the
next stage. Instead of filling in the figures
with the black pigment, the artist employed it |
to fill in the whole of the background, thus
leaving the figures to stand out in the red of
the clay. A narrow border of black was first i
painted round each figure, as may be seen !
from the accompanying cut (fig. H-1'2), wliich is '
from an incomplete fragment of a i-ed-figured
vase. It should be noted that the inner details
of the figures in this method, such as hair,
features, folds of dress, etc., were not indicated |
by incised lines or accessory pigments, but by
the black varnish applied with the brush. For
a typical red-figured vase see coloured plate.
The purple and white colours used as
accessories were opaque pigments, without
lustre, and more earthy in appearance. On the
more elegant vases of the later fifth and early
fourth centuries u.c. gilding becomes common,
applied in the form of gold-leaf, or later still
in the form of gold pigment applied through
the medium of a white slip.
A special method of painting is employed for
what are known as white ground vases, includ-
ing the Athenian sepulchral lekythi. Their
chief characteristic is tlie white slip or cnrjobe
with which the whole surface to be painted is
covered ; this slip is of the nature of pipe-day,
and varies from almost pure white to a buff or
drab hue. The figures are painted either in
brown or black outlines, or frequently in what
is known as polychrome, in which a great
variety of colours are employed, besides the
ordinary black and ^jurple. This variety is
chiefly confined to the sepulchral lekythi, on
some of which red, green, blue, and purple are
employed, the outlines of the figures being
traced with the brush in dark red. For an ex-
ample see coloured plate.
A late development of vase-painting is that
in which the figures are no longer left in the
ground of the clay, but the whole vase is
covered with the black varnish ; and on this
the figures are painted directly in various
colours, chiefly white and purple.
(.5) Plastic Decoration of Vases. — Under
this head we may include the processes of
modelling, moulding, and stamping ; we meet
with such ornament in the earliest pottery,
and to a considerable extent also in the decline
of taste ; but at the best Greek period the form
of the vase is as a rule as simple as possible,
and the decoration is confined to that of colour.
(rt) The plastic forms in the earliest Greek
pottery usually imitate vases of metal : a ten-
dency which is always making itself
felt among the makers of vases in
clay. Another influence was that
which Greek potterj' undenvent in
the importation of objects from Egypt
and elsewhere. To the Egyptians
was due the idea of the so-called
Ciinopic vase : that is, a vase made
more or less in the likeness of the
being whose remains it was intended
to contain. Thus from the Egyptian
alabaster vases in form of a female
figure we have the Greek alabastra
imitating the same form (see fig.
843) ; from tlie porcelain vases in the
fonn of a head, or of various animals,
we have a whole series of aryballi,
mostly dating from early in the sixth
century B.C. In the period of deT
cline {i.e. the fourth and beginning
of the third centuries B.C.) among the vases of
Greek manufacture from Southern Italy we
find the same tendency springing up again.
Kl(?. «43.
M.ilmstrum.
(I'cnnis.A'/nfrm
i. p. cxxv.)
Fig. 844.- Vhsc with reliefs.
(IlritiBh Museum.)
(h) The same tendency to imitate metal work
leads to the use of decoration in relief or
502
POTTERY
applique. Among the earliest vases it is rarely
found, but in the fourth century this method
becomes vei-y popular, when in the vases, now
often crowded with painted figures, the desire
is felt of emphasising the principal actors in
the scene : these are at first gilded, then
moulded separately and applied to the vase ;
and finally we liave the entire scene rendered
in relief (fig. 844).
(c) The introduction of Oriental cylinders
and seals rScalptura] into Greece no doubt
suggested the adaptation of stamped ornament
to Greek potteiy : an engraved cylinder, re-
volving on a awivel, needed only to be pressed
against the soft clay as it turned on the wheel,
and it would give a continuous band of pattern.
After the sixth century B.C. this style of deco-
ration seems to have dropped out of use.
{d) The practice of producing complete
vases from moulds is only found in the later
periods of Greek pottery ; many rhijta were
probably so made, in the form of objects such
as the heads of Seileni or nymphs, or heads of
animals (see an example below).
Fig. W,">.— Drinkiiib'horns (pura) from Pompoli.
In Etruria, previously to the free importa-
tion of Greek pottery, we find the potter's art
following much the same line of development.
We have first of all the primitive hand-made
ware, modelled into grotesque and fanciful
shapes, such as the 'hut-urns' of pre-historic
times found in the early cemeteries of Central
Italy and elsewhere; these are succeeded by
have been mainly similar to the Etruscan, or
to have relied largely on imi)orted patterns.
From an early site on the Esquilme we have
evidence of a fabric no doubt of Egyptian
origin, which has a greenish-yellow glaze with
floral and other patterns in relief. In the
third century B.C. Roman potters were working
in the Greek method, and in the next century
the Aretine ware (fig. 847 ; see p. 4991 comes in,
and appears to liave held the field almost ex-
clusively throughout Roman times. It is of
remarkably fine and smooth character, and iu
most cases has plastic decoration iu reiisL
Fig. ttlb. — Hut urn. from Alba.
the Bucchero or black ware, in which the
forms are frequently moulded in imitation of
metal. The decoration follows one or all of
three processes : (a) reliefs pressed separately
in a mould and attached, {b) reliefs modelled
in free-hand on the vase, (c) bands and patterns
stamped on the vase.
Tlie Roman pottery of early times seems to
Fig. M7.— Specimen of Aretine wart.
The vases of this ware which are decorated
with reliefs are usually made entirely iu a
mould ; or else the relief was executed en
barbotlne — that is, by laying on the surface a
thin slip which was then worked up with a tool
into the required form. Moulds of uncoloured
clay, from which these vases were made, are
still in existence. The stamps for decoration
were usually of clay, but were also made ui
gypsum, wood, or metal. The moulds or
matrices were made of absorbent clay to facili-
tate di-j'ing ; some are provided with a hole in
the base, through which the nioistm-e might
drain out.
Most of the ordinaiy lamps wliich have come
down to us are also made in this process
II. Classes of Greek Pottertj.
Only a summary of the principal fabrics and
methods is here given ; for further details, see
Diet, of Ant. vol. ii. art. Vas.
(1) Hissarlik (Troij). — The earliest pottery
unearthed on Hellenic soil is represented in the
finds of Dr. Schliemann at Hissarlik, and is of
a rude tj'pe. There are vases of very various
forms, one of the conunonest of which is given
below (fig. 848). Another marks, in its rude
imitation of the human form, a first attempt to
establish, in the analogy between a vase and a
living thing, a principle of design and decora-
tion (see Diet, of Antiq. vol. ii. p. 920, fig. 2).
The Hissarlik vases are hand-made, and are
generally of a dull-black colour produced by
the smoke of the furnace ; they have been
rubbed after firing, so as to dress the surface
and impai-t a certain polish. The place of
handles is usually taken by bosses or 'ears,'
POTTERY
503
jiierced to allow of the vase being suspended
iij^ttinst a wall. The viises are never i)ainted,
but on some of them scratches have been made
Fig. «4H.— Two-handled vase fro^ii Hissiirlik.
(Schlieniiiiin, Ilioa.)
to ser\-e a first rude idea of design. Strips of
clay are also applied in relief.
I'i) Primitive Cypriote potterij. — This is in
many ways analogous to the pottery of His-
sarlik, and has been discovered on several sites,
notably Alambi'a near Dali, and Kitium. The
vases are either covered with a vitreous slip
and baked to a lustrous red, and ornamented
with lines incised before firing, or made of extra
fine clay moulded to a delicate texture and of a
greyish colour. The two most charactei'istic
shapes are a rejn-oduction of the long-stalked
gourd used to this day in Cyprus as a water-
bottle, and a broad, shallow bowl or saucer.
The patterns take the form of lozenges, cables,
and bands of hatched lines ; or strips of clay
are applied in the form of serpents.
i^;. f^fi). \ a:^e or ■ kchjitic-
trical style Irom Uyprus
(Cesnula).
and bowls, with patterns of concentric circles
painted in black on red ground, or black and
purple on drab (see fig.
B50). The execution is
generally good, and it is
probable that this style
lasted to a compara-
tively late date. Both
(6) and (c) are very com-
mon all over Cyprus.
(4) Thera produced
perhaps the earliest
painted pottery known
to us in Greece ; the
vases are now first made
on the wheel and sup-
plied with a foot. The
colours are red, brown-
black, and white, on
prepared grounds of
grey, buff, and brown-
ish-red ; the ornamenta-
tion shows a great pre-
ference for plant life, but also admits animal
fonns. It has been supposed, from geological
evidence, that the Thera ware may date from
'2000-1500 B.C.; but some scholars place it
much later.
(5j Mykenaean ware divides itself broadly
into vases painted (a.) with opaqua or matt
colour, and (6) with
lustrouscolour. (The
term ' matt ' denotes
a thin dull colour, as
opposed to the thick
black varnish-like
pigment.)
(a) The first divi-
sion is of greater
antiquity ; the deco-
rations are in opaque
colour on red or
pale clay, with vio-
let-brown, and red,
and white tints ; the
surface polished.
(h) The introduc-
tion of lustrous co-
lours is peculiar to Greek ceramics, and has four
varieties : (i.) ground covered with black var-
nish and designs painted in matt white or red ;
(ii.) ground sujiplied by a whitish or yellow-
brown slip, with decoration in lustrous black or
brown ; (iii.) a lustrous warm yellow sui'face
—Vase of Mykcuuean
(British Museum.)
Fig. 849.— Early vase from C>-prus fCesnola).
(3) Later classes of Cypriote pottery Juay also
bo briefly mentioned here. («) Pottery con-
temporaneous with theMykenae style (iH-obably
:ibout the eighth century B.C.) : bowls and large
jugs covered with a white coating and i)rol)ably j
liand-made ; patterns painted in black or red
forming l>ands of lozcngi! or cheijuer patterns
I see fig. 849). (h) So-called Phoenician style,
with designs of birds, human figures, and elabo-
late lotus-patterns in black and puiiile on red with paintings in all shades from yellow to dark
..'round, ic) 'Geometrical' style, made on the brown; (iv.) lustre and ground duller; opou
\vheel ; large and small jugs, two-handled jars, vases varnished on the inside. The Mykenaean
Kig. k;2.— Vase oi .'Mvlvoinoin type with figure of sopta.
(Biui..li .Miisiuiii.i
501
POTTERY
ware is probably Greek, and is generally sup- colours are used, including red of all shades,
posed to be pre-Dorian ; others, however, attri- brown, and black ; the ground is generally pre-
bute it to the eighth century B.C. It shows pared, and varies from stone-colour to deep
traces of connexion with Egypt, Phoenicia, red. „, ,. ^ , ,
Crete and Karia. (See figs. 851, 852.) ' (7) Melian vases, a smaU but important class,
(6) 'Geometric or Dipijlon style.— This new show a great development both m the group-
method of decoration begins to claim notice ing of the figures, and the teclmical skill and
about 700 B.C. Owing its origin to the influence richness of ornamentation; mythological sub-
of metal-work, it makes its first appearance in jects are found.
the Athenian Dipylon vases, already a matured (8) The ware kno\vn as Phaleron forms
and established convention. The finest and another small but important class, so named
most numerous specimens come from Athens, from the place of its discovery ; the vases are
especially from the neighbourhood of the chiefly jugs of the form knowni as oAtttj. They
Dipylon Gate in the Kerameikus, whence the seem to unite the characteristics of the Dipylon
"^ vases with those of the
newly springing up Oriental
style next to be considered.
"(9) Oriental sti/le.—Thi^
falls into two great sub-
divisions — Rhodian and
Corinthian vases. It may
be said to have come in
about the middle of the
seventh century B.C. Under
its influence the vase-painter
evolved a system of decora-
tion effective and of true
beauty, while the potter
condensed the earlier mul-
tiplicity of forms to a few
simple and elegant types,
the most characteristic
among which is an olvoxorji
as shown in fig. 854.
name ; and it is certain tliat Athens was the i Equally characteristic among Rhodian vases is
main seat of its manufacture. It appears to the iriva^, or circular plate, while in the Coriii-
have lasted dowm to about 600 B.C., and tliree ] thian style the amphora and kvKi^ are taking
stages are visible in its development: (n) purely shape; but the forms that find most favour in
geometrical ornaments, such as meander, the latter style are the apvfiaWos and a.\d$aa-
Fig. M:!. — Vase of Geomet
style. (British Museum.)
cliequer, and zigzag patterns ; (b) introduction
of animal forms, especially birds, horses, and
Toy, or the KyiKvBos.
Two alien arts exerted a special influence
over the birth of the styles : textiles, in par-
ticular embroidery, and metal-work ; both arts
impel the painter towards polychromy. Paint-
ing at first with brown-black varnish on a plain
I polished ground, Rhodian potters effected a new
combination of silhouette and outline drawing,
and left the light parts in ground-colour. A
fresh advance is made when the red clay is
covered with a dull cream-white slip or engobc,
which is also frequently emploj-ed to represent
flesh-colour with greater fidelity to nature.
Then white and violet-red are employed, and
generally laid on in broad unbroken masses, and
details and outlines are rendered by incised
lines.
The Corinthian vases exhibit a less conven-
tional style, more freedom in the choice of
animal tj-pes, and a preference for such orna-
ments as the Egyptian lotus-flower ; the Rho-
dian admit no animals but the lion, bull, and
goat, and are more definitely Oriental.
(10) Earlij j)ohjchrome vases. — There is a
small class of vases of a peculiar type found in
Rhodes, Naukratis, and Etruria, the distinctive
trait of wliich is the clay, which is black through-
out ; the designs are painted in scarlet, purple,
white, and blue. This is known as Polledrara
ware. Closely resembling it in material, but
distinct in ornament, are the early Italian
Bucchero vases of lustrous black ware with
decoration in relief. The polychromatic style
reaches its highest development at Naukratis,
i the peculiar ware of which place in many
deer ; (c) human figures admitted, chiefly in ; respects resembles that of Rhodes. An opaque
scenes from daily life, such as funeral proces- white slip is used, with designs painted in
sions and sea-fights. Both matt and lustrous colom- ; new tints are also employed, peilmps
Fig. 854.— Ehodiaa olvoxorj. {Birch )
POTTERY
505
copierl from the Egyptian wall-paintings, such and the oniaincuts in tlie field jrradaally dis-
as liglit sienna, umber red (for male figures),
and fluke wliitu for female figures.
(11) Kijrenaic vases (so called). — This class
is not large, but highly distinctive ; its favourite
shape is the kv\i^. A ground-surface is given
by a dull smooth slip of ligiit stone colour ; on
tliis the design is painted in black with purple
as a subsidiary colour, and frequent use of
incised lines. Tiie subjects include mjiihology
and genre, and some relate to the legendary or
true history of Kyrene, whence the fabric lias
been attributed to that place. The techni<|ue
of the vases points to an extensive imitation of
metal-work.
(1'2) Frutocorinthian vases. — A name given
to certain diminutive Ickythi and two-handled
cups of Corinthian make and apparently of
early date. The clay is of a clear yellow, and
the decoration consists of zones of animals or
human figures, with an elaborate honeysuckle
and lotus ornament. In some examples the
drawing is extremely minute and delicate.
(13) Later CoHnthian vases. — In these.
Orientalism reaches its zenith, though the de-
velopment of the latest examples shows that
they were principally under the infiuence of the
newly-appearing Attic black-figure ware. The
surface of the vases is crowded with ornaments,
especially rosettes and leaves, so as to leave
scarcely a vacant space. The ^;l■ound is a clear
Fig. S55. T.id nl C
nae. (Birch.)
yellow, the painting black with purple details,
and much use of incised lines. Subjects at first
are mainly animals and monsters, but in the
later specimens human figures become frequent,
and occasionally scenes from ordinary life or
mythology appear. On these vases we may
note the first appearance of inscriptions, names
being frequently given to the figures in battle or
other scenes (see fig. 8551, while one or two
vases are signed with the artist's name. Female ,
figures are now distinguished by painting the
Hesh white (at first this was done by merely
leaving them in outline). The inscrii)tions i\\
the date of thesj; vases at CiSO-S.'iO n.c. Under
appear.
(14) Before we como to the Athenian vases,
a few side groups call for notice, (a) Imitations
of the Corinthian style ; these combine Athe-
nian and Corinthian characteristics; friezes of
animals are introduced. Some of these vases
are thought to have been manufactured in the
Peloponnese, others in Asia Minor. (6) Chal-
kidian vases (so called) : these show very a<l-
vanced technique, and bear evident signs of
imitation from metal-work; the inscriptions
wiiich they bear are in the characteristic
alphabet of Chalkis and its colonies [Alphabe-
tum]. (c) Vases from Dai)hnae in Egypt ; a
small but remarkable class, manufactured by
resident Greeks under strong Egyj)tian influ-
ence, which is seen both in sluipes and subjects.
[d) Caeretan hydriae, a class with very marked
characteristics, probably manufactured in Asia
Minor, and of comparatively late date ; some
singular imitations of this class by Etruscan
artists are also in existence.
(15) Athenian vases hold the field from the
middle of the sixth to the end of the fifth cen-
tury B.C., almost without rival. They fall into
two epochs, the olack-figure and the red-figure,
united by a period of transition and e.xijeriment.
(a) Blaclifigured vases. — With few excep-
tions the great mass of these are from Athens :
two shapes are especially in vogue, the amphora
and the hydria. A new discovery con-
tributed to the rapid advance of Atheniau
ceramics, viz. the black vaniish men-
tioned above. Of the subsidiary colours,
purple is at first the most popular, but
aftenvards is almost entirely superseded
by white, which is used for details such
as the hair of old men or the long chiton
of the charioteer, as well us for the
fiesh of women.
Drawing is almost entirely in profile ;
the eyes of men are large and round,
those of women oval and small. Land
scape is entirely conventional. Orna-
mental patterns become conventional :
e.g. the honeysuckle and lotus pattern
for the neck of an amphora, or the ivy
borders for the panels of a hydria.
The subjects are mainly mj-thologi-
cal, but often taken from daily life. The
Dionysiac cycle and tlie lui)ours of Hera-
kles supply most of the mythological
scenes; many are also takeii from the
Epic cycle.
Artists' signatures are found chieHy
on the kylikes. which, however, did not
now receive the attention which was
paid to them in the next stage. Ergo-
timus and Klitias made and painted the
famous Francois Vase, a niasteq)iece of the
earlier Attic school, and other notable names
are Exekias, Aniasis, and Xeiiokles. By far the
most prolific maker is Nikosthenes, wlio is best
knowni by a group of small amphorae of metallic
form. He is also supposed to have introduced
and popularised at .Vthens the method of
painting in black on a wliiti' i ngole ground :
i.e. a sli]) or coating of thick whiti- pigment.
This white-ground process was fine of many
that were tried and rejected about this time
before the final adoption of the red-figure
method. Besides Nikosthenes many artists
the influence of Athens, the smaller shapes signed vases of this i>eriod, some combining ,„
mentioned above are largely rejihiced by the a curious manner the features of both styles
amphora, uSpi'a, and Kpa-Hjp. The clay ground The final perfecting of early red-figure painting
becomes redder, white is more largely employed, ' is seen in the works of Epiktetus ; the evidence
505
POTTERY
lor its first introduction is uncertain, but it
probably came in iibout 520 B.C. and existed for
some years side by side with the earlier method.
Hitherto Greek ceramic art has been purely
decorative, but from this point it becomes a
branch of painting. The kylix is the commonest
shape; next are the (rrdfxvos, aficpopevs, vSpia,
and Kpar-qp, followed by the olvoxoVi ^--flKvdos,
wu^is, and other smaller shapes.
The technique is simple, and has been de-
scribed more or less in detail above. Polyclrromy
is introduced at an early period, but at first
confined to paintings on a white ground ; i.e. a
slip or coating of thick white pigment
Throughout, a steady advance in draughts-
manship is to be observed. In the school of
Epiktetus, known as the ' severe ' stjde, a
simple, broad treatment is in vogue ; the sub-
jects in favour are scenes from the palaestra or
banquets. There follows a period in which
details are more fully rendered, and a great
variety of motif, pose, and composition is
attained. The faces are nearly always drawn in
profile, with the eye as in full face, and fore-
shortening is rarely attempted. This period of
transition to what is known as the ' fine ' style
is represented by tlu'ee great artists, Euphronius,
Duris, and Brygus, dating about 500-450 B.C.
Vase-painting owed its progress to a close rela- j
tion with art, probablj' painting rather than
sculpture, and above all must be ranked the
influence of Polygnotus. This influence was,
however, at first restricted to improvements in
composition and drawing ; but in the finer poly- j
chrome vases we see an attempt to produce the
tecluiifjue and pictorial eSect of his fresco
paintings.
From this time onwards the vase-artist
rapidly attains perfect command over subject ,
and technique. Action is dramatic and pic- •
torial; mutifs are studied from common life and
from sculpture and painting. Signed vases
become fewer, and only one or two names of |
artists in the ' fine ' style are known. I
In the polyclirome ware one class stands out
conspicuous : the sepulchral lekythi, which ;
were made almost entirely for use at funerals,
and bear subjects generally funereal, but some- I
times drawni from family life. They appear to i
extend from the beginning of the fifth century
nearly to the end of the fourth, when the red-
figure method, in Athens at least, liad died out. |
Many vases of the later red-figure period are '
covered with a lustrous black varnish, and orna-
mented with gilding or figures in polychrome. ^
la fact, the fashion of polychrome painting
became almost universal, and manj' of the later
Athenian vases, especially those fomid in the
Crimea and the Kyrenaic district, are lavishly i
decorated with gilding or white and blue opaque '
pigments.
The manufactm-e of vases at Athens appears
to have fallen into disfavour after the Pelopon-
nesian War, and those that can be referred to
the fourth century are mostly inferior produc-
tions. There are, however, a few exceptions. ,
(16) It is to Southern Italy that we must now i
turn as the chief centre of Greek vase-painting.
Hitherto Italian potteries had not ventiu'ed
beyond imitations of the products of continental \
Greece ; now, however, with the spread of Greek j
civilisation in the Hellenistic period, art becomes
provincial, and Magna Graecia now inherits the I
potter's art. The decadence of style which had
already begun at Athens is everywhere appa-
rent ; the teclmique of the vases is still that of
their Athenian predecessors, but their artistic .
merit is corrupted by a perpetual striving after
effect in size, ornamentation, and fantastic
shapes. As regards the subjects, two traits are
characteristic : (a) a relation between the use
of the vase at the tomb and its decoration;
(b) the borrowing from the stage, whether of
tragedy or farce, and the rendering of scenes
with dramatic accessories.
Three separate fabrics of Southern Italy may
be distinguished, Lucanian, Campanian, aud
Apulian. The Lu-
j canian vases are
j weak in drawing,
j with little poly-
chromy or orna-
mentation. The
Campanian vases
; show a great fond-
ness for polychro-
my, especially wliite
and yellow, and
attempts are some-
times made at shad-
ing; the vases are
mostly of small
size, and out-of-
the-way myths are
popular.
I The most impor-
tant class, and that
of the highest merit,
is the Apulian,
which falls into two
j periods : the earlier
vases are mostly of large size and are a blaze
of decoration from head to foot ; the later are
small, and present great variety of shape,
though little choice of subject, the latter being
. confined to scenes of courting or toilet and
• figures of Eros.
The small class of genuine Etruscan painted
j vases may be mentioned here ; they
are unsuccessful imitations of Greek
I ware, and generally have a coarse
effect.
III. Shapes of Vases.
I 1. Greek V.vses.
j 'A\d$cuTT0S, aKafiaxTTpov N.T.
{alabastruvi), so named from the
fact that vases of this shape were
I originally made of alabaster ; found
' at all periods, but most common in
the earlier. Glass vessels of this
^ shape are also verj- common. It usuallj' has
two small 'ears' in place of handles, and has
no foot. It was
used for holding
I perfumes or oint-
' ments.
'AiJ.<popevs, for
a.ijL(pL(popevs (a»i-
pliora). A large
vase which de-
rived its name
Fig. 85C.-
-Apulian vaso.
and Koiier.i
^
Fig. H57.
Alabastrura.
Fig. «•■><).— Tyrrhene amphora.
(Dennis, Etruriit.)
POTTERY
507
from having a handle on eacli side of tlie neck, games in honour of Athena at Athens (cf. Pind.
whence it was also called diuta (having two AVwi. x. 35) ; o» one side they bear a figure of
ears) ; for the sake of distinction the latter term Athena Proniachos, on the other a representa-
is applied to the variety witli a pointed base. \ tion of the contest for which the prize was
given [Panathenaea, p. 4G4]. The so-called
Nolan amphora is common in the red-figure
period, and is of a very elegant and beautiful
typo, with great simplicity of decoration.
'KpvfiaWos. A small globulai- vase, used for
carrying oil to the palaestra ; chietly found in
the earlier period.
'AffK6s. Originally a goat skin, used for the
i ti-ansport of wine. Illustrations are here given
of the vases to which this name is api)lied;
Fig. N(0.-Nol.i
iphirn. I Dennis. I'Jmrin.}
It was used for keeping wine, oil, or fruit, and
was frequently half-buried in the ground of a
cellar.
The amphorae intended for decoration were
furnished with a base, and throughout the
Fig. 86S.— 'AtTKOt.
they belong chiefly to the later periods of vase-
painting.
Bon&v\i6s. A small, narrow-necked vase, so
called from the gurgling sound made by the
licjnid when poured out of it.
KuAi|. The most popular form of Athenian
drinking-cup. It had a high stem and two
curved handles. The earlier examples are
distinguished by a deeper bowl and higher stem,
and have a set-off lip (see tig. 278, p. 135);
Fig. 864.-KvAif .
in the later, the bowl is wide and shallow, and
the stem lower and tiiicker. Cups of tiiis shape
were usually painted both inside and out ; they
were used in the game of kottabos lOamOB,
/coTTa)3os , as is frequently seen on vases.
T
Fig. Hi-.V-KvAjf.
Fig. Wl.— I'aniitlionulc iiniphora. (Rrltlsli Mu»eum.)
During the best period of Greek vase-painting
(.")'20-450 II. c.) they were evidently held in great
estimation, as we see from the beauty of their
(•reek period were extremely popular. The decoration, and from the fact that nearly all
most interesting class is formed by the Pan- the signatures of Athenian artists that arc
athenaic amphorae, which bear inscriptions known have been found on these vases,
stating that they were given as prizes in the i KavOapo^ (rnntharits). A graceful two-
508
POTTERY
handled drinking-cup. It is the special attri- ' broad body, and a base ; also two handles,
bute of Dionysus on painted vases ; and is dis- 1 sometimes high up and vertical, sometimes
tinguished by the elegant vertical handles ex- i horizontal and nearer the base. The handles
tending to the lower j are often of an elaborate form. Varieties are the
O, < l( — V, rim of the body ; it j Ke\40ri, with columnar liandles, the 6^vBa(t>ov,
I \\ II usually has a high or bell-shaped crater (peculiar to the later
— -^ v I stem. periods), the calix- shaped crater, and the large
Fig. 8CG.— Kdi/Sapos.
Xvrpa. A general
term for a large pot
of common earthen-
ware, especially when
used for cooking.
(See fig. 320, p. 162,
and fig. 875 below,
A€';377s.)
K(i)6wy. A Lako-
nian drinking-cup, the exact shape of which is
not known.
KoTv\ri or k6tv\os (cotyla). A deep drink-
ing cup with two horizontal handles on the
rim. It is almost identical with the <TKv<pos
{scyphus), which was said to be the special cup
Fig. «i7.— KotvAt).
Fig. 808.— 'H/iiKOTuAioi'.
of Herakles ; the sides are curved instead of
straight, and the handles are inserted at an
angle lower down the vase. A small cotyla
in the British Museimi bears the inscription
HEMIKOTTAION, showing that it had been
used as a measure of capacity.
Kparijp {crater, cra-
tera, creterra), was the
large bowl used at feasts
Fig. 869.— KotuAj). (From
the Louvre.)
for mixing the wine for the whole company : it
is found at all periods of vase-puiuting, with
Fig. SU.—'Kpa.Trfp.
comparatively slight alterations of form. Its
characteristics were a neck of varying size, a
forms with elaborate handles.
Kfpvos. A name given to a number of small
vases united together and arranged in a double
circle round a central stand. The purpose ot
these vases is unknown ; they may have held
flowers or perfumes. See cut under Alaba-
strotheca.
Kvados {cyathus). A small cup or ladle, used
for transferring liquids from a larger to a
Fig. 87;
smaller vessel. It has a high handle and
sometimes a high stem. These vases were
Fig. 87.'!.— Kvados. (Dennis. EIruria, i. p. cxx.
usually of metal, and the fictile examples are
imitated from the former material.
Kvfj.0iov {cymhium). A small vessel of the
askos type, shaped like a boat.
Afiras. A cup with two handles, frequently
mentioned by Homer. The shape is not
exactly known, and it is supposed that the
word was a generic term like iroT-f]piov. It was
usual!}' of gold or silver, and was used in liba-
tions. Tlie epithet a.fjL(piKvireK\ov applied to it
by Homer has been much disputed : it may
mean with a hollow bottom, so as to stand on
either end (Arist. H. A. ix. 40, of the cells of
POTTERY 500
The gold cups of the ilykeii- gf nerally has a trefoil mouth ; some of the
The irpSxoos liuB
a honeycomb)
afiin period found by Dr. Scliliemann may be rorms are very beautiful
instances of the simple Se'irar
"fSpia (hydria). A generic term for any water-
jiir or water-pot, but specifically applied to the
form shovni in fig. 874. Its distinctive mark is
that it has three handles ; the earlier variety lius
tlie shoulder sharply defined from tlie neck and
the body ; in the later variety (KoKiris) this dis-
tinction is obliterated. It was can-ied on the
head by women, as we frequently find depicted
on vases of the black-
figure period.
A40r]s or xt'Tpa (/r/yc.s).
Originally a kettle or
a slenderer body, high foot, and high handle,
while the oAtttj is more like a plain water-jugj
Fig. KTI.-'YSpi'a.
Fig. 873._A^j3r,f .
caldron of copper or iron used for cooking and
wasliing purposes (see fig. 320 under Xvroa) ;
like the tripod, it was often given as a pi'ize in
Homeric games. It was rounded at the bottom,
and was suspended or placed on a tripod when
in use. Examples of this form among painted
vases are not numerous, and belong mostly to
the earlier periods ; another name applied to
them is Stlvos or S7foi.
AeKotfr). The term usually applied to a species
of covered vase probably used for containing
dried fruits or sweetmeats. It is only found
among the later painted vases of Southern
Italy.
Ar]Kvdoi (ampulla). A tall, slender, narrow-
necked vase with handle and foot, used for
holding oil or perfumes. These vases were in
constant use at the toilet of Greek ladies, and
are frequently so represented on Greek vases;
they also contained the oil used in the
\. / , palaestra. Large numbers of lekythi J
) {(] I have been found in tombs, especially
V_2_-( '" Attica, with painted subjects, gene- |
I 1 rally of an appropriate nature. They I
were used for anointing the bodies of
the dead, and were placed round the
coi-pse during the laying-out [Funus,
irp66e(ris] and then buried with it. '
Many funerary lekythi have been
Fig. H7fi. found at Athens, and in the neigh-
XriKvOoi. bourhood, dating from 500 to 300
B.C., with polyclirome paintings on a
white ground; the subjects invariably have
reference to funeral rites, or represent mourners
at the tomb, or fancied scenes in the futui'e
existence of the deceased. These vases were
expressly manufactured for funerals (cf. Ar.
Eccl. 996). I
Aeirdffrr). A sliallow two-handled vase on a
stem, with a cover. It is chiefly found in the
later periods, and was used for containing wine
or sweetmeats.
OivoxOT]. Tlie generic name for a wine- jug, in
which the wine was carried round and served
at a meal, having been previously filled by a
ladle from the crater. This form presents
more varieties than any other Greek vase,
each variety having its special name. The
most common are tiie irp6xoos (Att. irp6xovs),
o\Trrj, and Mxvcrts. The oivoxit) itself answers
moat closely to our modem beer- jug, and
lig. 877.— IljioYovc.
(Dennis. J
Fig. 87S,
(Dennis.)
and has no distinction between body and
neck. The inixv(Tis is a vase of peculiar shape.
_ and only found among the late Apulian vases;
it is imitated from a metal form, and has a
long, narrow spout, the object of
which was to make the liquid
l>our out slowly. The form of
the body appears to have been
adapted from the irv^is (q.v.)..
*taA7j (patera). A round shal-
low vessel like a saucer, but some-
what deeper, without handles or
foot. The <pta,\T] mentioned in
Homer appears to have been a sort
of small KfPijs. A common feature
in this vase is the 6fx(pa\6s, whence
they are named 6fx<pa\ooToi, or more correctly
fii<r6fj.<pa\oi ; it was a hollow boss in the centre
of the interior, into which a finger might be in-
serted undemeath, the better to support the
_ Fig. H7:,.
I't;. HSO. — "I'loiAt; /tie<rd(xiiaAo9.
bowl. The material was either earthenware or
metal, and there are examples in the British
Museum of a silver and terracotta phiale, the
designs on which have apparently been taken
from the same mould. These vases were used
for drinking, but their most characteristic use
was for pouring libations. The Roman ;m/errt
(see below) is identical both in shape and in
usage.
Uivci^. A square plaque or circular plate,
often employed by the Greeks for decorating
with subjects in the nninner of the painted
vases. The most noteworthy instances are the
series found at Corinth and now at Berli?i,
dating from about (iOO ii.c. They were ofton
hung up as votive offerings.
nidos {tloliuiii). A large earthenwan; jar
into which new wine was put to let it ferment.
Owing to the peat size of these jars tlieir con-
struction was difficult ; they were usually buried
up to the shoulder in the ground, and were lined
with a coating of pitch. It was in a iriOos that
Diogenes took up his abode, and such was
510
POTTERY
supposed to be the irlOos into which the
Danaids emptied their vases.
characteristics being the short neck, high
shoulder, bulky ^^od7, oi^d small handles.
Fig. 881.— Ilt'Coi; of Diogenes.
Csrcm tragment of lamp in British Museum. Bircli.)
"VvKT-ho. A vessel for cooling wine or water ;
it was made with a double body and a spout
Fig. SS5.— StoMVOS. (Dennis.)
Among painted vases it is rare except in the
best period.
2. Roman Potteby.
Many of the vases used by the Romans are
identical in name or shape with those already
described under their Greek names, and do not
tlierefore require further description here.
Acetabulum (Gk. o^is or 6^vfia(pov). A
shallow vessel for holding vinegar or sauces,
into which the food was dipped. Small
varieties were placed in large dishes, each con-
taining some particular condiment.
Acratoplioruin. A vessel for containing i)ure
and umnixed wine, which was placed upon the
table. The shape varies considerably.
Amphora. The Roman amphora is identical
with the diota (or vessel with two ears), it?
Fig. 882.— *i'KTTjp. (British Museum. '
from the outer cavity, and the cooling was
produced by putting snow,
or less commonly ice, into
this outer space.
rii^^is Ipyxis). A casket
or jewel-box, so called
because it was, strictly
speaking, made of box-
wood. We possess a large
number of painted ex- I
amples in terracotta, of
all periods, those of the !
fifth century B.C. being j
painted with particular delicacy. They are of i
cylindrical shape with a cover,
and often three feet. I
"Pvt6v. A drinking-horn,
originally called Kepas. The
oldest form was probably
the horn of an ox, but in
later times one end, of it
was always ornamented with
the head of an animal or bird.
^rdfj-vos. An earthenware jar used for hold-
ing wine or oil and sometimes sweetmeats. It
is practically a variety of the amphora, its chief
^/v/7./Aj/y\^^^
Fig. 883.— Terracotta
7rv$ii. (Dennis.;
Fig. 88(3.— Amphorae. (British Museum.)
chief characteristics being a nan-ow elongated
body, and a pointed base, so that it could be let
into a stand or buried in the ground in a cellar.
It was usually of earthenware, and the name
of the maker or place
of manufacture was
often placed on the
handle. Its most im-
portant use was, like
the Greek amphora,
for the preservatioii
of wine.
Ampulla. The Ro-
man equivalent of the
Greek \t}kv6os (see
above).
Cad us (KaSos). A
term for earthenware
vessels, common in
Latin but rare in
Greek. It was com-
monly used for keep-
ing wine, but various other kinds of produce
were stored in cadi. Another name for cadus
is situla.
Capis. [Sacrificium.]
Carchesium. A drinking-cup with two
Fig. 8b7.— Cadus.
POTTERY
handles, probably a variety of the KavOapos.
We never hear of it as made of clay, but always
Fig. 888.— Carchpsinm. (Birch and Donnis. '
of metal or precious stone, with embossed work,
and it often occurs in lists of temple-offerings.
Concha. A vessel in the form of a mussel or
cockle-shell. It was used as a salt-cellar (Hor.
Sat. i. 3, 141; for holding perfumes, unguents,
and oil ; and painters' colours. Large-sized
vessels of this shape were used for washing
and similar purposes. Vases in the shape of
shells are often depicted in works on art.
Dolium. A large jar of earthenware (Gk.
iridos), opposed to citpa, which was of wood.
Dolia were usually buried in cellars, and re-
garded as part of the fixtures of a house.
Serta was a similar vessel, but smaller. The
makers of dolia were called doliarii, but the
term opus dolidrevfus
applied to all kinds of
coarse ware, such as
tile-making. Dolia
were occasionlilly used
in graves for holding
corpses.
Guttus. A vessel
\vith narrow mouth or
neck, from which
liquids were poured in
drops ; it was used in
sacrificial libations. It
was usually of coarse
pottery ; one variety
resembles the Greek
a,(TH6s, and seems to
have been used as a
lamp-feeder.
Lagena, hiijotia,
lagoena or lag una.
An earthenware one-
handled jug will I long
narrow luvk, widened
mouth, and swelling
body. It was used for
hohling wine, like a
modern decanter.
Obba. A wooden
f)r earthenware bowl,
broad at the bottom
and narrowing towards
the top, used for liold-
ing common wine
(Pers. V. UH).
Oil a (olcUrr form
aula), jierliaps corn
ITPAKTOPE5 511
Most commonly oUae were of eartlienware, fur-
nished with a cover, and used for cooking, or for
sacrificial puriwses. Tlieollawas also used for
storing money or household reijuisites (cf.
Plant. .-!'(/«/. jiashim). Italsolia<l an extensive
use as a Kepuldiral or cinerary urn, being fre-
(pienily placed in the columbaria of tombs,
holding ashes.
Patera (Gk. (pioKrt) (see cuts under Patera l.
.\ bowl or saucer, sometimes supplied with a
long handle, most commonly in the In-oiize
examples. Like the Greek tpioKi), it was used
ng. 891.— Section of <tnaAij. Sco fig. 88a
hugely in sacrifices and libations, and occurs
very frequently on Roman coins in this manner.
Sim^juluni. A ladle-shajwd vessel, like the
Greek Kvados but generally with a longer
handle. It was u primitive vessel, handed
Fig. 802.— Simpulum. (.Viisco liorhonico, vol. Iv. pi. la)
down from early Roman times, but was largely
supplanted by the cyathus, when Greek shapes
began to prevail. In sacrifices it was used to
transfer wine from a large vessel to a small
one, or else to pour it directly in libation.
[Sacrificium.]
Sitiild. See Cadus.
Trua. Another kind of ladle used for taking
wine out of a crater, with long handle and fi.it
Fig. Hoo.-oiia.
Rixjuding to the Greek x^'^P"^ '^ word used for
jars or pots of any shape, material, or capacity.
British Muftcum.)
shallow bowl; the material varied. TruUa is
another form with ileei)er bowl, resembling a
saucepan.
Ulceus (Gk. olvoxiW- ''^ name applied to
any kind of jug with one handle, used for
jMiuriiig: especially for wine, or hot and cold
walt'T, at till lie.
ripdKTopcs- Officers who collected the fines
and penalties (iiriBo\ai and npiyjfxara) imjKised
by nnigistrates ami courts of justice, and pay-
able to the state. Tliere were ten ■Kpaxropti,
chosen by lot, one from eacli tribe. The magis-
trate who imposed the tine, or the riytftwi'
BiKaffTTjplov, gave notice of it in writii:g
512
PRAECINCTIO
{iiriypdcpett') to the irpdKTopes. The name of |
the debtor, with the sum whicli he was to pay, '
was entered by the npaKTopes in a tablet in the
Acropolis. Hence the debtor was said to be |
fyyeypafjifjievos r^ Srifj.oai(f>, or iyy. iv rfj aKpo-
TToAei. It was the business of the irpa/cTopes on
receipt of this sum, to pay it over to the
OTroSefCTOi, and also to erase the name of the
debtor in the register (^^a\el(petv or d7raA.6i</)eii').
An fi>Sei^i.s (see Appendix, Greek Law, s.v.)
lay against any man who made or caused to be
made a fraudulent entry or erasure of a debt.
The collectors took no steps to enforce i^ayment ;
but after the expiration of a certain time, if it
still remained unpaid, it was doubled, and an
entry made accordingly. (Dem. c. Pant. p.
973, § 22, c. Neaer. p. 1347, § 7). Thereupon
immediate measures might be taken for seizure
and confiscation of the debtor's goods. [See
App., Greek Law, '£-^30X11, TiiJ.Ti|xa.]
Praeci'nctio. rAmphitlieatrum.]
Praeco. A crier. Of these there were two
distinct kinds — those in private employment,
and those employed and paid by the state as
subordinate attendants. The praecones of the
former kind were (1) criers of lost goods (Plant.
Merc. iii. 4, 78), and (2) especially auctioneers
[Auctio] ; besides advertising the time, place,
and conditions of sale, they also acted the
part of a modern auctioneer in calling out the
biddings and amusing the company, though the
property was knocked down by the iiuiijister
aucfionis. (Hor. A. P. 419 ; Cic. Att. xii. 40.)
The official /)rrtero»es were those whose duty
it was to attend iapparere) consuls and cen-
sors, curule aediles, (juaestores aerarii, and
tribunes ; perhaps also for otlier magistrates.
They attended the same magistrates in the
provinces (Cic. Ven: ii. 10, 27 ; Liv. xlv. 29).
[Apparitores.]
Their duties were (1) to summon the i^eople
to comitia or contiones (Liv. i. 59, vii. 4) ; (2)
to proclaim silence (Liv. xxviii. 27, &c.) ; (3) to
announce the bill which was to be voted on,
when the scriha dictated (subicit) the words
already written down which the 2J'>'(i't'<^o was to
announce aloud (pronuntiare) ; (4) to an-
nounce the votes of different sections at an
election (Cic. Leg. Agr. ii. 2, 4) or the de-
cision of the majority (Cic. Mil. 35, 96); (5)
to summon the senators to the senate-house
iLiv. i. 47; Suet. Claud. 36); (6) to make
known the orders of the magistrate (Cic.
Harusp. Resp. 12,26; Liv. ii. 37). (7) In trials
they summoned the accuser, the accused, and
the witnesses (Suet. Tib. 11; Liv. viii. 32),
announced the conclusion of the pleadings,
gave the dismissal of the indices (by the word
ilicet), and ordered the executioner to do his
office (Liv. xxvi. 15). (8) At public funerals
(fumti indictivum) they summoned those who
were to take part, in a set form of words
[Funus]. For their attendance at sacrifices,
see Sacriiicium.
The official dress of the praeco was marked
by the angustus clavus. The j^^'necones were
mostly freedmen (Mart. v. 56, 10) ; those who
had held the office {praeconiiun) could not
hold office in the mimicipia ; many p)raeco7ies,
however, became rich (see Juv. iii. 33, vii. 6 ;
Mart. V. 56 ; Cic. Fam. vi. 18, 2 ; Hor. Sat. i.
6, 86).
Fraeda. Moveable things taken by an enemy
in war : when captured by a Roman army, they
were either distributed by the general among
the soldiers (Liv. ii. 42 ; Sail. lug. 68), or sold
by the quaestors, the proceeds being paid into
PRAEFECTUS
the Aerarium. Praeda denotes the things
themselves that are taken in war, while manu -
biae is money obtained by their sale.
When prisoners were sold, they were said to
be soldSM& corona; other things were sold in
one lot or in several large lots. This mode of
sale was called sectio (Cic. Inv. i. 45, 85),
and the purchaser was called sector. It was
the practice to set up a spear at such sales.
[Auctio ; Hasta.J
Prae'dium. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Praefectura. [Colcnia; Municipium.]
Praefe'ctus. A title given to various officials,
appointed, not directly by the people, but by
some magistriite, to discharge special functions.
(1) Pe.aefectus Aegypti. Egypt was not
included by Augustus either in the senatorial or
in the imperial provinces, but was reserved for
his more immediate control. It was governed
by A procurator of equestrian v&rik, praefectus
Aegijpti (Tac. Hist. ii. 74, etc.), or in Greek
T]ye/xwy. His staff consisted of freedmen of the
emxseror. Everything but the fixing of the
revenues and the right of appointment to
certain posts was in his hands : the administra-
tion of finance, the judicial authority, and the
supreme military conunand. The Praefectus
Aegypti held rank second in the scale of the
non-senatorial dignities, coming after the prae-
fectus praetorio, but before the praefectus an-
nonae.
(2) Praefectus annonae. Augustus created
an officer under the title oi praefectus annonae
to see to the due supply of the corn -market.
Under him worked procuratores, and a large
staff of clerks (tabularii) and superintendents
of granaries [horrearii). This office was a
permanent one, and only held by one person at
a time : he had jurisdiction over all matters
appertaining to the corn-market, and was
chosen from the Equites. The office continued
till the latest times of the Empire (Tac. Ann.
i. 7).
(3) Praefectus .^qu.vrum. [Aquaeductus.]
(4) Pr.\efecttis castrorum, prefect of the
camp, is first mentioned in the reigu of Augustus.
There was one to each legion. [Exercitus,
p. 294.] He seems to have taken rank between
the tribunes and the centurions, and after the
legatus legionis.
(5) Pr.'Lefectus CLASSis. This title was fre-
quently given in tho times of the Republic to
the commander of a fleet (Liv. xxvi. 48, 7), as
contrasted with praefecti navium, the com-
manders of the several ships. Augustus ap-
pointed two permanent officers with this title,
one of whom was stationed at Ravenna and the
otlier at Misenum, each in command of a fleet
(Suet. Aug. 49; Tac. Ann. iv. 5, Hist. iii. 12)
[Classis.]
(6) Praefectus fabrum. [Paber.]
(7) Praefectus iure dicundo. [Colonia.]
(8) Pr.^efectus PR.iETORio. The commander
of the troops who guarded the emperor's person.
[Praetorian!.] This office was instituted by
Augustus, and was at first only military, and
had comparatively small power attached to it
(Suet. Aug. 49) ; but under Tiberius, who made
Seianus commander of the praetorian troops,
it became tlie second office in the state (Tac.
Ann. iv. 1, 2). The praefectus praetorio was,
as the officer of highest rank, always present at
court ; and from the reign of Severus to that
of Diocletian, the prefects had the superinten-
dence of all departments of the state, the
palace, the army, the finances, and the law :
they also had a court in which they decided
I
PRAEFERICULUM
cases, mainly as the representative of the
emperor in appeals from the provinces.
Originally there were two prefects, after-
wards sometimes one and sometimes two. For
the late history of the ofKce, see Gibbon, c.
xvii.
cO Praefectus socioRi'M, vioiLUM. [Ex-
ercitus.]
(10) Pk.\efectus I Hill, (d) The title given to
the deputy who, under tlie kings, was appointed
to represent the supreme authority (iiiijwriiiiii)
during the king's absenct? in war or for any
other reason. Under the Republic the prae-
fectus itrbi was nominated by the consul who
last left the city (Liv. iii. :J, 5, '24; Tac. Ann.
vi. 11). Persons of consular rank alone were
eligible. In the early period of the Republic
the praefectus exercised within the city all tlie
powers of the consuls, if they were absent : he
convoked the senate (Liv. iii. t)), held the
comitia (Liv. iii. 24), and, in times of war, even
levied and commanded civic legions.
(h) When the office of praetor urbanus was
instituted, the wardenship of the city [vuistodia
ttrhis) beciuiie obsolete. But as the praetor
himself was absent during the Latin festivals,
;i praefectiin urhi feriariiui Lcttinanim was
still annually appointed by the consuls, solely
for this period, and thus held a mere shadow
of the former ofKce. The ofiice of i)refect of
the city was always given to young men of
illustrious families (Tac. Ann. iv. 80), and
Julius Caesar even ap^winted to it several
youths of equestrian rank under age.
(r| An ofKce different from this, though bear-
ing the same name, was instituted by Augustus
on the suggestion of Maecenas (Suet. Au(j. 37),
and became a permanent post of great import-
ance under Tiberius. The new praefectus urbi
was a regular magistrate, whom Augustus
invested with all the powers necessary to
maintain peace and order in the citj', which he
exercised in the absence of the emperor, even
when a praetor or indeed a consul was present
at Rome. None but consulavs were appointed
to the office. The praefectus urbi was at the
head of the police of Rome and the country
100 miles round. Besides extensive executive
pDwcrs he had also criminal jurisdiction;
wliicli by degrees superseded all other judicial
iiuttiority, civil and criminal. The power of
the praetor urbanus was gradually absorbed by
that of the praefectus urbi ; and at last there
was no appeal from his sentence, except to tlu;
jierson of the princeps himself (Suet. Aikj. ;•!;{).
His jurisdiction in criminal matters was at
first connected with the (/«a^«/fo/t<'S (Tac. Aiin.
xiv. 41). During the first period of the Empire
the office was generally held fur a number of
years, and in inanj' cases fur lifi'.
Praefericulum. rSacrificium.
Praeficae. iFunus
Praefurnium. ,Balneae; Fornax
Praeiudi cium. S.v .\p|icndix, Ro.man Law.
Praelusio. IGladiatores.j
Prae petes. Augur.
Praerogati'va. (Comitia.]
Praes. Stc Ajipendlx, Human Law.
Praescri'ptio, Praescriptio pro reo. See
•Xpni'ndix, Human I-aw.
Praeae'pe i^ipaTvi]). \ stalilc iVt-rg. Aeu.
vii. 'llTt) for horses, but more correctly a pen or
bjTB for cattle (prne-,sep-). Pracurpr is used
for a manger (Suet. Cal. 55), for which llir
proper word in /xitrmi (f) ((pdrvrj). IMandra.
Praeses. [Provincia.J
Praesul. [Salii.]
PRAETOR 61S
Praete'xta. [Dress, Tooa.]
Praetor. This title is found among the
Latin races as well as at Rome. Among the
Romans we first read of it immediately after
the expulsion of the kings: for a single here-
ditary ruler they substitut<jd two annually
elected magistrates, first known as praetors
{i.e. commanders, (TTpaTTfyoi, the regular Greek
equivalent of praetor: cf. Praetorium), and
only later as conmils.
The praetorship proper is said by lAvy (vi.
4'2, vii. 1) to have been instituted 3(U! n.c. As
soon as the office became permanent, the
)ira«'tor was elect<-d annually from the patri-
cians only, no plebeian attaining the praetor-
ship till 337 11. c. ; he was termed 'collega' of
tlie consuls, and was elected with the same
auspices at the comitia centuriata (Liv. vii. 1).
His chief functions were judicial ( ins in urlie
(Ucere, Liv. vi. 42 ; redderr, vii. 1 1, liis office
being primarily to relieve the consuls of this
class of business; but, the consuls being con-
stantly engaged on active military service, he
frecjuently liad to take their place in the city
(Liv. xxiv. U ; Cic. Fam. x. 12), in the senate
and in the comitia (Liv. xxii. 3.S), and in some
cases of emergency even commanded the
Roman annies. He was a curule magistrate
and had the imperium (Liv. xliii. 14), but
owed obedience and all external marks of
reverence to tiie consuls. His insignia of office
were six lictors (arparrtyhs f^aireK(Kvs).
A second praetor was created in 240 B.C.,
who for distinction's sake was called praetor
percgrinus, for the administration of justice in
all disputes between peregrini, or between
peregrini and cives ; and from this time onward
the two offices seem to have been regularly
divided between the patricians and plebeians,
it being determined by lot (pcregrina, nrbana.
sors) which of the two should be urbanus and
which peregrinus (Liv. xxiv. 44). When the
territories of Rome were extended beyond the
limits of Italy, new praetors were created for
the government of the provinces (Liv. Kpit. 20,
xxxii. 27) ; it being settled by lot which of the
praetorian provinces each of the four pnu'tors
who went abroad was to govern. Sulla increased
the number of praetors from six to eight, who
exercised judicial functions at Rome during
their proper year of oflice, becoming propraetors
in the provinces for the following year : under
Caesar the number was raised successively to
ten, twelve, fourteen, and sixteen (Suet. lul. 41),
and by Augustus reduced to twelve; under
Tiberius there were again sixteen.
The main Imsiiifss of the praetors was
judicial [Edictum, Judex, and lurisdictioj.
Other duties were addi d. ordinary and extra-
ordinary ; aniung tliem tlie presidency of the
liudi A])ollinares. The praetor was permitted
to leave the city for only ton days at a time.
With criminal prosecutions he had originally
no more to do than any other magistrate; but
his functions were gradually extended to the
presidency of the (/(/ru-.s//i)«/s instituted by Sull;i
and others, for tlu- trial of anilntus, falsutn,
parricidium, Ac. [ladicium publicum.]
Any place in which the praetor exeri'iM'd his
magisterial functions was called iux. Some of
these functions, however, could not be j>erfornied
elsewhere than pro tribuuali, where his curule
chair was set in the comitium, the patrician
|iortion of the Forum: contrasted with the
tribunal were the suhsellia, or \Aiic>^ occujiied
by the indices or other persons who were
present. Other judicial acts could l>e per-
LL
614
PRAETOEIA COHORS
formed by liiin anywhere, such as in iure
cessio, &c. In such cases he was said to
exercise jurisdiction de jilano, and at length
regular sessiones de j^idno were held.
The office of the praetor continued to exist
till the publication of the edictum perpeticum
of Salvias Julianas in 131 a.d. [Edictum].
Praeto'ria cohors, Praetoria'ni. [Exer-
citus.]
Praeto'rium in its primary sense was the
tent of the general (praetor), the headquarters
of the camp [Castra]. Hence we find it used
for the palace of a provincial governor (Cic.
Verr. iv. 28, 65), even when the residence of a
jjroconsxil or even of a procurator is meant (cf.
St. John xviii. 28) ; for the palace of a foreign
prince, as Prusias (Juv. x. 161), or Herod (Acts
xxviii. 35). It was used also for any large
country house (Juv. i. 75 ; Mart. x. 79 ; Suet.
.4 ug. 72) ; but it would not rightly be used of a
.house at Rome. The villa was the whole
property, dwelling-house, gardens, farm, &c. ;
the house itself, as the head-quarters of the
owner, was the 2}>'(i'^torium. [Agriculture.]
The word is also applied to a body of men
forming the council of war which met in the
general's tent (Liv. xxvi. 15) ; and later to the
imperial body-guard (Tac. Hist. ii. 11 ; Suet.
Nero, 9). A legionary is said to serve in
legione, a guardsman i>i jiraetorio (Tac. Hint.
i. 20). Tliese p)^''^'^^oriani or praetorian
guardsmen [Exercitus] were by Tiberius con-
centrated in a camp outside the Colline gate
(Tac. Ann. iv. 2; Merivale, Bom. Hist. v. 221);
their camp was called, not prartorium, but
castra praetoria, castra praetorianormn, or
castra praetorii (Tac. Hist. i. 31).
Praevarica'tio. See Appendix, Rom.\n L.\w.
Pra'ndium. [Cena.]
Preca'rium. See Appendix, Roman L.^vw,
Interdictum.
Prelum. Part of the oil and wine press
[Torcular]. The name is also given to other
presses, as (1) that used in making paper (Plin.
xiii. § 77 ; cf. Liber) ; (2) the press for clothes
used at the end of the fuller's process [FuUo],
(3) a clothes-press or wardrobe for linen, &c.,
(Mart. ii. 46, 3, xi. 8, 5). The Greek name was
tiros; a later synonym wasp7'esso?-j»«;.
Primipila'res, Pfimipi'lus. [Exercitus.]
Princeps (^lyifxwv). The title of courtesy
given to the Roman emperors of the first cen-
tury, and less commonly to those of the second
and third. The use of the term was familiar to
the writers of the later Republic, and the term
itself is aj^plied to both Pompey and Caesar
(Cic. Att. viii. 9, Fam. vi. 6; Suet. JmZ. 26). It
was not an official title nor an abbreviation of
princeps senatus, but a title of courtesy pure
and simple, marking out its bearer as the
' first citizen ' (princeps civium, or princeps
civitatis), and implied not only a general prece-
dence (Tac. Ann. iii. 53), but a constitutional
pre-eminence (irp6Kpicris) among free citizens
as opposed to despotic rule (Tac. Hist. iv. 3).
Principatus. — 'The principate dates, properly
speaking, from January 27 B.C. The summer
of 29 found Octavian the undisputed master of
the Roman world. The first step towards a
concentration and legitimation of his power was
taken by Octavian, wlien in his sixth consulship
(28 B.C.), he put an end by edict to the provi-
sional regime of the triumvirate, laid down the
extraordinary authority which he had held since
43 B.C., and formally gave back the government
of the Comnionwealth to the senate and people.
(Tac. Ann. iii. 28 ; Suet. Aug. 28). This restora-
PRINCEPS
tion of the Republic was followed in January 27
by a settlement of Octavian's own position. By
a vote of the senate and people, lie was legally
reinvested with the essential elements of his
former authority. The proconsular jn-ovincia
now assigned to him included with one excep-
tion the important frontier provinces, and car-
ried with it tlie sole command of all the armies
of Rome, and the exclusive right of levying
troops, of concluding treaties, and of making
war and peace for a period of ten years, at the
expiry of which it was renewable. (Suet. Aug.
47). [Provincia.] Octavian escaped the disad-
vantages and difficulties of a collision with the
powers of other proconsuls by retaining the con-
sulship, and by wielding the imperium as consul.
As consul he was chief magistrate of the state,
with precedence over all other magistrates at
home and abroad (Cic. Phil. iv. 4, 9, Aft.
viii. 15) ; while the province of his imperium
was not confined to Rome and Italy, but ex-
tended over a great portion of the empire. His
control of the administration at home was fur-
ther confirmed by his retention of the tribu-
niciii potestas, granted to him for life in 36 B.C.
Finally, to mark liis pre-eminent dignity, he
was invested by senate and people with the
cognomen of Augustus (Ov. Fast. i. 590).
In 23 B.C. a change was made which gave to the
principate a somewhat different shape, and one
which in the main it retained down to the time
of Diocletian. On June 27 in that year Augus-
tus laid down the consulship which he had held
year after year since 31 B.C. His consularr
imperium, with its wide province, he still
retained, but he now held it only ^?-o consule ;
and it therefore ceased to be valid in Rome and
Italy, i.e. within the sphere assigned to the
actual consuls. He further lost both the pre-
cedence (mains imp)erium) over all other magis-
trates and pro-magistrates which a consul
enjoyed, and the various rights attached to the
consulship. He had, lastly, no further claim
to the consular dignity and insignia. These
losses were made good by the following
measures. (a) He was allowed, though no
longer consul, to retain consular imperium in
Rome as proconsul, (b) His imperium was to
ranlc as ' mains ' over that of proconsuls abroad.
(f) He was given the consul's prior right of
convening the senate and of introducing busi-
ness, (d) He was granted equal rank in Rome
with the actual consuls, by the bestowal of the
twelve fasces, and by the permission given him
to sit between the consuls on an official seat. It
was now that he brought forward into special
prominence the tribunicia potestas, wliich
henceforward (23 B.C.) appears among his titles
(Tac. An77. iii. 56). Henceforward the tribuni-
cian power ranked highest among the preroga-
tives voted to the j)rinceps ; higher even than
the imperium itself. The new form thus given
to the principate was retained as long as the
principate lasted : for the future the princeps is,
strictly speaking, not a magistrate at all ; he
stands by the side of the consuls and over the
heads of all magistrates, with a definite pro-
vince of his own, but vested also with a pre-
eminent authority in all departments of state.
The prerogative of Augustus was now deter-
mined by a series of grants conferring upon
him various powers, privileges, and exemptions.
Of these a customary list was gradually formed,
and embodied in a single statute, under the
terms of which the citizen designated for the
principate received from the hands of the
senate and people the powers, lionours, and
PRINCEPS
ill
l)rivileges once voted to Augustus, and after |
liim to eux'h successor in turn.
This ' Augustan settlement ' was a compro- j
mise, or ratlier a constitutional fiction, which \
aimed at securing the needed centralisation of
tlie executive authority witli the least possible
disturlnmce of the traditional machinery of the '
Kepuhlic. Even in the latti-r half of the third I
centurj' the princeps was in strictness only a
citizen invested by senate and people with
certain powers. His position remained always '
extra-magisterial, and was created only for each
princeps for his life, conveying no power to I
nominate a successor. Accidents, sucli as j
kinship by blood or adoption, military ability,
or popularity with the senate, determined the |
selection ; and the invitation ' suscipere imjie- i
rium ' might come from distant legions, from I
the praetorian guards, or from the senate. i
To the consulare imperium as held by j
.\ugustus was assigned a definite area or pro- j
vince, within which he was as exclusively '
supreme as Cicero in Cilicia, or Pompey in Asia, i
It included (a) the command-in-chief of all the
forces of the state, and the right of taking a
census in the provinces ; (h) the sole right to 1
declare war and peace, and to conclude treaties ; !
(c) the right to coin gold and silver ; (d) the
ius edicendi ; (e) the government bf certain
specified provinces.
These provinces were originally eight in num-
Iw-r ; but at the close of the first century they .
were twenty-five. [Provincia.] In the so-called
senatorial provinces Caesar possessed exclusive
control over the troops, over foreign relations,
and over the census. A certain portion of the i
revenues drawn from these ])rovinces was also
appropriated to him ; and the amount of these
steadily increaseil. Fiscus.] The imperial
procuratores [Procurator . who collected tliese,
from being privatt^ agents, gradually came to
form a distinct financial executive, independent
of the proconsul. To Caesar, lastly, belonged
the right of fo\uiding colonies and cori)orations,
and of conferring both Latin rights and the
Roman franchise. Civitas.J
Rome and Italy, like the senatorial provinces,
lay outside the proper province of Caesar ; but
here, too, one department of administration
after another was brought within the area of
his authority by the creation ex stnmtuscon-
sulto of senatorial curatorea; who were all
sooner or later replaced by imperial jiraefecti
and procuratores. The care of thi'corn supply,
of the a(|Ueducts, and of other public works, had
all by the time of Claudius passed into Caesar's
hands. The praefectura vif/ilinn dates from
<J A.D. The far more important jirurfrrtura
iirhis became a permanent office under Tiberius.
,Praefectu8 (l(i).]
In Italy, the exclusive military authority
vested in Caesar made him responsible not only
for the levj-ing of troops and for the i>rotection
of the Italian coasts and harbours, but alsf)
gave him the right to siijipn-ss disorder iiy
militarj- force (Hm't. An ff. !12, Tib. 87; Tac
Ann. xiv. 17). Closely connected with the
niaintejiance of order in Italy was the care of
the main roads [Viae', the iniperiul lands and
other revenues Fiscus ; Provincia ; Colonia .
Tile i 1)1 pen II III of .\ugustus ranked as iiiuius
over that exercised by all other holders of
imperium ; and he could claim the deference
due in republican times to the consul ; and in
<'ourse of time praetors and proconsuls were
placed almost as entirely under (.'lu-sar's con-
trol tts his own legates, prefects, and procurators.
The proconsul was in theory in a wholly dif-
ferent position to the iin|H-rial legate, being
responsible, not to Caesar, but t<i the consuls,
senate, and people of Rome. The earlier em-
perors generally abstained from exercising
authority over proconsuls and proconsular ]>ro-
vinces outside the limits of their sjtecial riglits,
and down at least to the end of the first century
Caesar's control over these provinces was less
absolute and direct than over his own. But in
the course of the second century the distinction
gradually ceased to have any practical import-
ance ; and on the strength of his tiiiiiitx inipe-
rill in Caesar's control over proconsuls was
virtually as complete as his control over his
own legates. The appeal to consuls and senate
disajipeared in favr)ur of tlie ai)]M'al to Caesar;
and the proconsul was controlled, directed, and
instructed in the work of administration by the
rescripts, edicts, and constitutions of Caesar;
which gradually assumed th(> force of law.
The degradation of the ri'gular nitif/isfratus
rum imprrio in Rome, from their original posi-
tion as the chief executive oflicers of the state to
that of municipal officials of the city of Rome,
began under the Republic, and was completed
by the trail sference to Caesar of one depart-
ment of a<lministration after another even iu
Rome and Italy.
The Augustan system left the consulship
still the sn])reine magistracy of the state, and
this pre-eminence was formally recognised
throughout the first century (Tac. .-l^^. iv. 19 ;
cf. Suet. Tib. 81). Even in the third century
there was no apjieal to Caesar from the juris-
diction of consuls and senate, and the consuls
(onlinarii) still gave their names to the year.
I Consul.] But the course of events robbed the
consuls of all but purely domestic duties, while
it entrusted to the })rinceps tlio general guar-
dianship and government of the empire ; and
they descended to a rank inferior to that, not
only of the emperor, but of the pracfectus urbi.
The jurisdiction of the praetors was gradu-
ally restricted to certain well-delined depart-
ments marked out for them by imperial order.
(Praetor.] The appointment of magistratux
cum imperio came to the emperor in virtue of
his consular imperium, by the right of uomi-
natin (Tac. Ann. i. 81) and niinmcndatio
(i. la). This in time was exten<led to the con-
sulship. More freedom of choice was allowed
in the case of the lower magistrates : but by
tlie third c«'ntury the emperor appointed all.
Iiy the end of the second century the senate
had lost all importance asCaesar's partner; by
the end of the tliird it was virtually discarded
even as an instrument of his government.
[SenatuB.]
These changes brought about a corresponding
change in the jiersonal position of the princejis.
The more absolute he became, the more difficult
it was to treat him as anything but a momirch.
It was desirable to organise and settle the
principate and its succession, and to maintain
the sujH'rior nnijesty of the Ronuin Ciu-sar to
that of all Oriental kings. This policy was en-
couraged by the increasing intluence of Ori-
ental habits and beliefs in the imperial cotirf
and in Roman society.
The limitation of time, obsen-ed in form by
Augustus, disappeared at his death. Til)erius
and his successors n-ceived the inip<>rium for
life. [Imperiom. I The various powers and
jirivilegt'S of the |)rinceps were confem>d rti
hlor, and transferred with little or no alteration
from one emperor to another. The authority
L L 2
516
PRINCEPS
conferred upon Augustus was not only built up
out of various distinct powers, but was limited
by the extent of these, and was generally sub-
ject to the laws. But by the close of the second
century the authority of the princeps was
regarded, not only as single, but as j)lenarj' and
absolute. The emperors are exempted from
the laws, and it is their privilege to give laws,
not their duty to receive them.
Another monarchical tendency is seen in the
elevation of the emperor's family and friends
above the level of private persons, and of
his personal servants and agents to that of
state officials. The family of Caesar {domus
Caesaris) had not properly any public rank
or privileges. Under Augustus there was no
public recognition of the domus Caesaris,
domus Augusta, &c. Honours were heaped
upon members of the imperial famUy, but
within the forms of the Republic. After
Augustus, lionours of a distinctly royal charac-
ter were given. The title of ' Augusta,' first
given to Livia, was b}' the end of the first cen-
tury commonly granted, not only to the wife of
the reigning princeps, but to his sisters and
daughters. The honour of deittcation was freely
granted in the second century, and after the
time of Domitian the heads of female members
of Caesar's house a^jpear frequentlj- on the
coins. [Apotheosis. J
Under Tiberius the friends of the princeps,
the cohors amicorum, was divided into two
classes, with varying privileges; admission to
it was a formal act (Tac. Ann. vii. 9), expulsion
from it a penalty (Suet. Tib. 56; Tac. Ann. iii.
12, 24). At Rome it constituted a court, with
a regular ceremonial and scale of precedence.
In the second century the term amici denoted
broadly the regular frequenters of the imperial
court, and more especially the innermost circle
of these, the comites; which name by degrees
became a regular title of nobility.
A similar promotion was extended to the
emperor's household servants and subordinate
agents. The household service of Caesar was,
like that of private persons, limited at first to
slaves and freedmen. But even under the
early emperors, some of the household offices
rose to the level of the highest magistracies of
state (eg. the Uberti a ratiunihus, a libellis,
ab epistulis). In the second centurj' these
ministeria jmncipatus were held by Roman
knights [Procurator.] Thus there arose a
strictly imperial service, which was distinct from
that of the state, and which finally ousted the
latter from all but an insignificant share in the
administration of the empire. Even by the close
of the second centui"j' we find spread over
Rome, Italy, and the pro\'inces an army of
officials, who are in the strictest sense the ser-
vants of Caesar only. There was a regular
system of promotion upwards from the less
iva^ortsMi ijrocurationes to the procuratorship
a rationibus, and finally to the coveted prefec-
tures of Egj-pt or the praetorian guard ; and
throughout promotion came from Caesar alone.
This private service constituted the really effec-
tive part of the machinery of government.
The designation of the early emperors ad-
hered tolerably closely to republican usage,
except that the gentile nomen was dropped by
Augustus, Tiberius, and Gains. But from the
Flavian emperors onwards, titles were multi-
plied. Under the Flavian emperors ' Imperator
Caesar ' took the first place, and the only
official cognomen was that of Augustus. Trajan
assumed cognomina commemorative of his
nPOBOTAOI
I victories : ' Pius,' ' Felix,' ' Invictus ' became
official titles preceding that of ' Augustus.'
Other additions. ' dominus noster,' ' pacificator
j orbis,' ' restitutor orbis,' &c., became common,
[Nomen ; Imperium, p. 360.J
The language used in addressing the emperor,
or in speaking of him, departed even more
widely from republican practice. Tlie use of
the term ' dominus,' against wliich Augustus
I and Tiberius protested, was common in the
time of the j'ounger Plinj'. By Greek writers
and on Greek inscriptions the emperor is
frequently styled fiacriKfvs. The influence of
Caesar-worship is early seen : ' caelestis ' and
: ' sacer ' are common attributes of imperial acts
and qualities. But not untU the time of Aure-
lian was the emperor directly and officially
styied 'deus.'
The ceremonial and general arrangements of
the court of the third century became more
stately and Oriental. Wliile the households of
the earlier emperors differed from those of
great Roman nobles mainly by their greater
numbers and magnificence, the courts of Cara-
calla and their successors are-genuinely Oriental
in character. We have chamberlains, cup-
. bearers, "keepers of the imperial robes, &c., the
jealously-guarded royal chamber, with its hang-
ing curtains and attendant guards, and even
I the prostration {adoratio) of the subject before
I his royal master.
I The dress and insignia of the emperors of
I the first two centuries are all of republican
origin. The consular chair and lictors were
granted to Augustus m 23 B.C. The right to
wear the ordinarj- magisterial toga was prob-
ably conferred at the same time, and do\vn to
the close of the second century this was the
regular dress of the emperor when in Rome or
Italy. On the other hand, the triumphal robes
which Augustus was authorised to wear in
Rome on special occasions became the mono-
poly of Caesar, and were commonly worn by
later emperors on public occasions at Rome,
and even in the senate. The purple pallida-
uicntum belonged from the first to Caesar, in
virtue of his exclusive and supreme military
authority. In the third centuiy it was fre-
quently worn, even in Italy luid at Rome, and its
assumption was the recognised symbol of acces-
sion to the principate. The laurel wreath of
I the vir triumphalis and the sword and dagger
' of military authority were reserved to the prin-
1 ceps. But not imtil the close of the third
i centuiy did the Roman Caesar openly copy in
1 his dress the fashions of Eastern monarclis.
! The corona radiata regularly appears on
coins after the middle of the tliird century
[Corona]. Gallienus and Diocletian anticipated
the Eastern splendour of the Byzantine em-
perors, by appearing in Rome with a barbaric
display of gold and precious stones.
Princeps iuventu'tis. [Equites.]
Princeps sena'tus. [Senatus.J
Pri'ncipes, Princi'pia. [Exercitus.]
Privile'gium. A law directed for or against
a person or persons (Cic. Legg. iii. 19, 44, Sest.
30, 65). [Lex.]
npoa7a)Y€ias YP°'<t>''i- See Appendix,
Gkeek Law.
ripoPoXifi. See Appendix, Greek Law.
npo3o\5\ev(ia. [Bov\ti.]
np63ov/\.oi. A name applicable to any
commissioners appointed to consult or take
measures for the benefit of the people (Hdt. vi.
7, vii. 172). The word is also used to denote a
sort of committee for initiating measures in an
npoxoT2
olicjarchy. Where it coexisted with the 3ouAv7,
it was cstabhshed as a check upon it to prevent
more democratic tendencies (Arist. Fol. vi. 15,
11). Such was the government at Corinth after
tile fall of the Kypselids. A board of ten
irp60ov\oi were appointed at Athens, after the
end of the Sicilian War, to act as a committee
of public safety (Thuc. viii. 1 ; Ar. Li/s. 467).
npoxovg. [Pottery, Urcrus.}
npoKXriCTig. See Appendix, Giieek Law,
AtauTTiTai.
Proco'nsul. The oflfice of proconsul was
one resting on the theory of delegated authority.
Delegation of the powers exeix-ised by the
supreme magistracy of Rome, elsewhere than in
the city, for certain specific purposes, was a
theory always recognised by the Roman com-
monwealth. Without the walls the full con-
sular imperium might for a temporary purjiose
be conferred on an individual, who was then said
to act in the consul's stead (pro consnle).
But in practice this delegation usually assumed
the form of a prolongation of existing command
(prorogntiu). The first known instance of the
proconsulate as a delegation of the consular
imperium outside Rome is that of Q. Publilius
Philo, in 327 B.C. (Liv. viii. '23, 12). The office
was not conferred in the usual elective comitia,
but in the concilium plcbis, on the motion of
the tribunes, who themselves acted on the ad-
vice of the senate. This was the usual consti-
tutional procedure, originally observed in the
prorogatio : but the prorogatio was sometimes
ordered by the senate alone (Liv. ix. 42), and
the initiative proceeded regularly from the
senate, whether or not the measure was always
passed by ])lebiscitum ; the senate being con-
stitutionally the proper body for taking the
initiative in this matter, as in all matters of
foreign administration.
A proconsul thus appointed had only the
military extra-jjomerial imperium. For a
Roman commander to triumph he must be
invested with the imperium domi. The pro-
consul had no imperium within the walls (domi) ',
consequently, for him to triumph, a special
decree of the people was necessary, conferring
the imperium on him for the occasion. The
senate, on recognising the proconsul's claim to
a triumph, asked the trii)unes of the people to
propose the matter to the concilium plebis,
and get a plebiscitum sanctioning the arrange-
ment (Liv. xxvi. 21) ; this was done ex auctori-
tate senatus.
When the office of proconsul was delegated to
a person who did not possess the imperium at
all, the procedure was one of election in the
coraitia centuriata, the regular comitia for con-
sular elections. P. Cornelius Scipio was created
proconsul in this way, in 211 B.C. (Liv. xxvi. 18).
With the formation of the Roman provinces
outside Italy the prolongation of proconsular
command became a definite constitutional
necessity; and wIumi the number of provinces
increased, their administration was divided be-
tween the two consuls and the two city jjraetors.
In the interval between the Second Punic War
and the reforms of Sulla, the proconsulshi)) be-
came an annual institution, created for the
purpose of administering tliose provinces where
the largest military forces were required. The
appointment of a proconsul was now in the
hands of the senate, without the sanction of a
plebiscitum. But the formality of a lex eurinta,
a law i)assed in the assembly of the curies, still
remained, being a fonnal recognition of the
nnperium vested in the proconsul by the senate.
PROCONSUL
517
This was done away with by Sulla, as a consti-
tutional necessity, but, as the formal popular
recognition of the imperium, it continued down
to the end of the Republic.
The proconsular inii)erium without the walls
was unlimited bj' any of the restrictions im-
posed on it within Rome itself. Outside th"
walls it maintained all its original regal
character (Cic. Jtep. i. 40, (53, Lei/f/. iii. 3, t>l.
It was limited by definite rights of provincial
cii'itates (Cic. Att. v. 11, 2; Tiic. Ann. ii. 53, 3i,
but in the field it was unlimited and with-
out appeal (Cic. Legg. 3, C). After the Second
Punic War the riglit of appeal (provocatio)
seems to have been granted to Roman citizens
on service (Sail. lug. <)1)).
After the creation of the provinces, the dura-
tion of the proconsulate hiwl been fixed generally
at one year, for the purf)ose of provincial
government. Sulla (in Hi B.C.) defined this
arrangement by law (Lex Cornelia dcprovinciis
ordinandi.s), and so established a complete
separation between home and foreign com-
mands ; which lasted imtil Caesar, in 40 B.C.,
fixed the tenure of consular provinces at two
years (Cic. Phil. i. 8, 19). Augustus restored
the original limit of one year (Tac. Ami. iii.
5b), and this rule remained in force. The date
at which the proconsul entered on his office
during the Republic w-as probably in theory
March 1, the commencement of the official
year, but depended partly on circumstances,
since the previous governor had to retain the
connnand, or delegate it to an officer within the
province, until his successor arrived (Cic. Alt.
vi. G, 4). Hence arose Caesar's dispute with
the senate. A senatusconsultum of 52 B.C.,
provided that proconsular governorships should
not be filled uj) until five years after the consul-
ship had been held. The regulation as to the
five years' interval between home and foreign
commands was maintained by Augustus, but
not strictly adhered to. Some consulares were
set aside by the senate, others by the emperor
(Tac. A)tn. iii. 71). Proconsuls were now con-
fined to the senatorial provinces, and the
governors of these provinces had the title, even
though they may only have been praetors. The
two chief senatorial provinces, Asia and Africa,
were always given to consulares, and hence the
title 2)roronsul consnlaris ; the other proconsuls
were only praetorii. In Africa, as one of the
corn-supplying provinces, the senatorial pro-
consul had a legion, sometimes two ; but the
ajipointment, instead of being regulated by
allotment among the senior consulares, was
thrown on the princeps (Tac. Ann. iii. 35, 74).
Each senatorial proconsul had three legati pro
prartore, nominally chosen by himself, but
appr»jv('d by tlie emperor; he drew, from tlie
time of Augustus, a salary from the treasury
(salarinm proeonHitlare, Tac. Agr. 43,3); he
was attended by lictors, and had the other
insignia of his rank, but did not wear the mili-
tary dress, to show that his connnand was nf>t a
militarj' one.
Subordinate command is incompatible with
the idea of the proconsular imperium. For
this reason the consulares whoRf>verned the im-
perial i)rovinces were .never called jiroconsuls,
but legati pro ]>raetore. becanse their command
was not an independent one. When in special
cases proconsular imperium, together with full
l)ower to exercise it in a military capacity, was
conferred upon anyone, he became a colleague
of the emperor (cullega imperii), and the con-
ferring of this honour was one of the most
518
PROCUKATOR
distinctive modes of nominating a successor to
the principate.
Procura'tor. The term procurator is used
to denote the transaction of agency of ahnost
any description. It was applied chiefly to the
managing agents of property at Rome. It is
used especially of the managers of the landed
property of a dominus or owner, who transacts
business and directs his agricultural operations
through a procurator ; such an agent had the
management and control, subject to direction,
of one or more estates (Plin. Ep. iii. l'.>, 2).
They were generally freedmen, or even favoured
slaves.
In the civil law of Rome, procurator is a
parallel term to Cognitor ; and is almost equi-
valent to the modern attorney [Actio j. Like
the cognitor, he was the person through whose
agenc}' a legal action might be undertaken ;
the appointment was simple, only depending on
the expression of will on the part of the procu-
rator so appointed.
The political sense of the word 2f'>'OCurator
originated wilh the Empire and the personal
government that it brought about. In that
division of state administration which was man-
aged by the princeps, certain state functions
were delegated to praefecti ; most, however, were
managed by the imperial agents, the prociira-
tores Caesaris. Thej' were in a strict sense the
servants of the emperor, with no independent
but only representative authority {wininhria
principatun, Tac. Hist. i. 58). [Princeps.]
Tliey were originally slaves or freedmen, gene-
rally the latter (Tac. Ann. iv. G, 7). Pallas, e.*;.,
the fi'eedman of Claudius, was \\i^ procurator a
rationibiis. Gradually, however, these posts
came to be of more importance, and the more
responsible procuratorships were given, not to
freedmen, but to equites {eqitestris nohilifas)
(Tac. Hist. i. 58, 1;. The lower grades were
held either by equites or freedmen. The quaes-
torship, and certain lower oftices that led to it,
formed the road to senatorial nobility : a pro-
curatorship in the emperor's household was the
stepping-stone to a i)refecture, which was the
crown of equestrian nobility. The procurators
soon gained judicial authority in tlie provinces,
especially in financial matters, in which they
were responsible to tlic emperor alone ; while
they kept within the terms of their commission,
their acts had the authority of those of the
emperor himself.
There were several classes of procurators ;
most of theni finance officers [prociiratores
fisci). The officer connected with the fiscus at
Rome was originally a procurator, as well as
the agent for collecting the Roman or Italian
dues for the fiscus, such as the vicesima
hcreditatium. There were also jtrocuratores
rationiDti summarum, keepers .and auditors of
the imperial accounts. Other titles were
rationalis siunmac rei, dispensator or dispen-
sator summaram (Suet. Vesp. 12), and vllicus
summarum, &c. The central director of the
fiscus was called a rationihus and rationalis,
and after Hadrian's reign was always an
eques.
Another class of procurators administered
the finances of the imperial provinces, like the
quaestors in the senatorial provinces. They
were connected, therefore, with the fiscus
provinrialis, and managed the collection of
taxes due to it, as well as their disbursement.
There was another treasury connected with the
military station in an imperial province (fiscus
ccistreusis), with a corresponding agent {pro-
PRODIGIUil
curator castrensis) ; and an agent of the mint
(procurator monetae) is also found. Other
provincial procurators collected imperial dues
imposed on all the provinces alike, such as the
portoria, lapsed legacies (bona caduca), and
the property of condemned persons (bona
damnatorwm), vicesimae, and the centesirna
rerum venaliuni; special procurators being
attached to each branch of the revenue, both
in imperial and senatorial provinces. The
emperor's vast provincial estates were adminis-
tered by procuratores patrimonii.
Another class of procurators connected with
the imperial administration of the provinces
were the procuratores Caesaris pro legato,
governors of outlying and comparatively un-
important districts classed with the imperial
provinces, e.g. Raetia, Thrace, ilauretania,
Cappadocia (Tac. Ann. ii. 56), and Judaea,
which was under the government of Pontius
Pilatus, its procurator pro legato (26-36 a.d.).
These procurators were more or less under the
control of the nearest imperial legate (legatus
pro j^raetore) : Judaea, for instance, was at-
tached to the larger province of Syria, and
Pilate was deposed from office by Vitellius the
governor of Syria (Jos. Aut. lud. xviii. 4, 2).
The imperial procurators were continued in
office for terms of indefinite length ; and had
fixed salaries from the treasm-y. The words
trecenarius, ducenarius, and centenarius do-
note the value of these posts, according as the
salary varied from one liundred to three hun-
dred sestertia (Suet. Claud. 24). Little is
known al>out the scale of promotion in these
offices. As the system became organised, an
order of promotion would become customary,
sul)ject to the favour of the emperor.
Prodi'giom in its original meaning differs
little from ostentum, monstrum, portentum
(Cic. iJic. i. 42, '.yd). In its widest accepta-
tion the word denotes any sign by which the
gods indicated to men a future event, whether
good or evU, and thus includes omens and
auguries of every description (Verg. Aen. v.
638 ; Cic. Ten', iv. 4'J, 107) ; but usually in the
sense of a bad omen affecting the state.
Yox yrodigiuin i}i privato loco (Liv. xliii. 13)
and its procuratio, see Bidental.
Such prodigies were viewed as manifestations
of the wrath of heaven and warnings of coming
vengeance, and might be expiated by the pr(i]ier
rites and sacrifices. Rules for expiation were
laid down in the sacred books of the Etruscans
(Cic. Div. i. 33, 72) ; and m unprecedented cases
recourse might be had. not only to the haru-
spices, but to the Sibylline books or even the
Delpliic oracle [Haruspices ; Sibyllini libri].
When the senate received information of a pro-
digy happening in piublico loco, the first pro-
cess was to examine witnesses either them-
selves (Liv. xxii. 1) or by the pontifices (Liv.
i. 20). If the fact was proved, and also judged
important, then they were said suscipere pro-
curationem ; when the fault was known, the
first necessity was atonement bj' punishing the
criminal (cf. Liv. ii. 42) ; the next point was to
settle what deities were to be appeased. Wliere
no god was specially pointed to, there was a
sacrifice m general terms, ' deo aut deae ' ;
finally, when the offended deity was ascer-
tained, it remained to determine what claim
(postilio) for atonement he made (see Cic.
Harusp. Besp. 10, 20). An edict then declared
how the expiation should be made, by hos-
tiae maiores or Jiovendiale sacrum or obse-
cratio, or, in the gravest cases, Supplicatio or
nPOAOSIA
ifiiiniiim ; and the matter was entrusted to
the consuls.
ripoSoCTila. See Appendix, Greek Law.
ripocSpia. The right or privilege of
the front seats at games and in theatres or
pubhc assemblies, granted bj- Greek states
(often with dT«A.€Jo) to citizens (Ar. iJq.
575), ambassadors (Acschin. 04, 20), and dis-
tinguished foreigners : e.g. Se56iT6aiSf aurt^ /col
iy-ydvois (Ky-] 'tpoeSpiav Kal aTiKnav iravTwv
K.T.K. (Hicks, Grtrk Inner. 9'Jj.
npdeSpoi. [BovXtj.]
npo€iCT4)opd. At first, after the institu-
tion of tlie new census and the introduction
of the avfjLfxopiai in the arclionship of Nausi-
uikus (37H-7 B.C.), the state collected the
(l<T(popd directly from those liable to it, and
those wlio fell in arrear were proceeded against
in the same way as all debtors to the state
(Dem. c. Androt. p. 009, ij 54, c. Ti^noir. p.
752, § 160). To avoid delay the Trpofi(r<popd
was introduced, viz. certain individuals had to
advance the whole amount of the tax, and to
recoup themselves from tlie otliers liable to the
tax. This burden naturally fell upon tlie richer
citizens. It is not known how it was assessed.
By this means the possibility of taxes falling
into arrears was prevented. To recover money
thus advanced was called ■irpoet(r(popdv KoiJ.i(f-
ffdat, ilairpaTTfcrdai (Dem. c. Fantaot. p. 977,
§ 87), and all actions arising from it belonged
to the jurisdiction of the strategi [Ela<t)opd].
npovdjieia. [Matrimonium.J
Proleta'rii. The state, according to the Ser-
vian constitution, was divided into those who
had property (/ocz/^-i/cit's or adsidid) arranged
in classes, and those who had not and were
outside these classes ; these unclassed citizens
were called capite crnsi [Caput], or pmletarii,
i.e. ' begetters of children ' (Cie. lirp. ii. 22,
40). These included all who were assessed at
not more than l.'iOO as.ics. For their military
service, see Exercitus.
riponvTiCTTpia. [Matrimonium.
Promu'lsis. [Cena.]
Prona'os. [Architectura, Tl.mples.]
Pro'nuba. | Matrimonium.]
npo<|>TiTTi9. [Oraculum.]
Propla'sma {iTpuirKaffij.a). The first sketch iu
day, preparatoi-j' to the execution of a work in
Ijronze, marble, or other material.
Propnige'um. [Balneae.]
Propraetor, Pro praeto're (wTicrTpaT-nyos).
The propraetorship was, like the proconsulate,
technically a delegation of the])raetoriaii inipe-
rium outside the pomerium ; but, instead of the
delegation of a new imperium iiiilitiae, tlie
course usually adopted was the prolongation nf
an imperium already existing (prvruf/dtio). The
title pro praetore seems to be an older title
than that of pro consule, and to have, lilcc
praetor, a military signification. This view
the propraetorship as a delegated milit
imperium never died out. When, e.g., tin-
military imperium was to be conferred on an
individual who had held no magistracy, or only
a minor one, it is generally conferred with the
title «ro praetore.
When the number of the Roman provinces
increased beyond the four original provinces,
for which special praetors were ap|)()inted, the
)>rolongation of the imperium of the; two city
l)r;ietor3 became usual. The provinces were
divided between the past consuls and ))rac-
tors, the propi'aetors obtaining those jirovinces
where least military forces were recpiired. As
provincial governors they were inrested with
PROPYLAEA
319
the imperium, with the religious ceremonies
of the vota and auspida, and the Lex Curi-
ata, or popular sanction for all iiiagistrdtus
cum imperio (Cic. Leg. Agr. ii. 11, 2()). The
tenure of his im|>i-rium by the praetor was now,
as a rule, biennial, one year being spent inoflice
at home, tlie other as governor of a province
(see Provincial. The senatusconsultum of 52
H.c. postponed tlie coinnumdof a |)roviiice until
live years after the praetor had ended his period
of office at home (see Proconsul).
When, under the Empire, the provinces were
divided into senatorial and imjierial, the mili-
tary provinces were given to governors with the
title of jiropractor, the non-military to i)rocon-
suls. The senatorial proconsuls, however, were
Accom-puniedhy Icgati proconsii lis pro ])raetore.
They were assessors of the senatorial governor,
and were all alike called propraetors. The
legati were selected by the proconsuls them-
selves, subject to the approval of the princeps.
The title guar.itor pro praetore may mean
(1) (during the Republic) one who replaced an
absent or dead superior in a iirovince for the
purpose of temporary government; or (2) one
who, though still only a quaestoi-, was appointed
to an independent command by senate or
people ; (3) (during the Empire) in a senato-
rial province, the quaestor, who is the finance
oftic'er in such a province, had this title.
The governors of the imperial provinces,
under the Emj)ire, were all legati Caesaris pro
praetore (see Procurator). They were legati
of the emperor : hence they could not have the
proconsulare imperium, which was vested in
the princeps. These propraetorial governor-
ships had no definite limit of time, and their
tenure dejiended on the emperor's discretion
(Tac. A)ni. i. 80), their holders having fixed
salaries from the imperial treasury. The impe-
rial provinces all involved military commands;
and hence the legati Caesaris wore the militarj'
dress and sword, which were not worn by the
proconsuls of senatorial provinces.
Propylae'a (7rpo7ri;Aaia: occasionally Trponv-
j \aiov). The name ajiplied to a porch or entrance
1 of elaborate architectural construction, e.g. the
I ' Pylous ' of Egyptian temples (Hdt. ii. 101, &c.).
Fig. Kft',.— Oroundplftn of tho Propylaon.
I>r>', contritl portico: .\ A', wliii^s; E E', pntuuigo; P F".
ou«t porlico : A, niioKodrJKi} ; 11. Temple of Nike
.\ptoro8 : C, I'cdOHtal of Atirlppn.
Tlic name is, however, used almost exclusively
with reference to the great entrance of tho
520
PROSCENIUM
Acropolis at Athens, built by the architect
Mnesikles under Perikles (Plut. Pericl. 13).
It was built in five years (437-432 B.C.) by
Mnesikles, the execution of whose original plan
of a still grander conception was cramped, pro-
bably by religious reasons. The south wing of
the building is therefore not symmetrical with
the north.
The plan of the Propylaea is a wall pierced
with five doors. The buildings consist of a
central portico, DD', with two advanced wings,
AA', leading to a passage flanked with columns,
EE', and a second portico to the east, FF',
opening on the platform of the Acropolis. The
building is of white Pentelic marble, and in
the Doric order, though here, as in the Par-
thenon, the newly introduced Ionic style was
associated with the more dignified Doric. It
covered the whole of the western end of the
Acropolis, 168 feet in breadth. The central
Fig. fW!.— Elevation of the Propylaea. rBaumeister.l
A, Xii.va.Ko6r]Kr). K. building corresponding to Wt-vaKoS-qKi]. C, Temple of
Nike Apteros. I>, roof of east portico.
PROVINCIA
should seek to protect them. Sulla's political
pretext was that the proscripti were hostes, or
enemies to the state, through their complicity
with its foreign foes. The fact that those pro-
scribed were regarded as hostes naturally
affected the status of their children and descen-
dants, who suffered a capitis deminntio. The
object was to debar them as far as possible
from all chances of a public career. The pro-
scription list was published before the dicta-
torial power was conferred on Sulla by the Lex
Valeria (Plut. Sulla, 32). When this was con-
ferred, a special clause granted him the power
to adjudicate on the lives and property of
the citizens (Cic. Leg. Agr. iii. 2, 7). The
legality of these regulations was never ques-
tioned, and the disabilities imposed on the
children of the proscribed still remained in
force after many of Sulla's laws had been
repealed. Tlie number actually put to death
in the SuUan proscrip-
tions may not improbably
have amounted to 4700,
of which number 2000
were senators and equites.
The precedent set by
Sulla was taken up by
the triumvirs Antony,
Octavian, and Lepidus, in
43 B.C. (Suet. Aug. 27).
The number of the upper
classes now proscribed
exceeded that of SuUa.
For the chief party aimed
at by the triumvirs was
that of the optimates ;
and accordingly 2000
equites and 300 senators
were in the list. Tht-
proscription was carried
out from motives of per-
sonal hatred and greed —
except, perhaps, on tlie
part of Octavian — quite
as much as from con-
porticoes, of which the eastern was the higher, [ siderations of political necessity. The pro-
vere hexastyle. The roofs were of white marble. ' scription, however, did not definitely commence
No sculpture was introduced into any part of | until the triumvirs had been invested with
the building. I extraordmarypo-wersreipublicaeconstituendae
There were also propylaea at Eleusis and at (Liv. Ep. xx., xxiv.).
Corinth
Prosce'nium.
npoCTKAriCTis
AlKT|.
Proscri'ptio
[Theatrum.]
See Appendix, Greek Law,
The word proscriptio, signi-
fying primarily the ' writing up ' of anytliing,
was generally used to denote a written public
notice of sale; jJi'oscriptio bonoriun was thus
applied to the notice of property sold by
npocTTds. Domus, p. 243 (4).]
npocrrdTTig. Libertus ; MsToiKoi]
ripoCTTdTTis ToO 6ii(jLov. The leader of a
popular party, as opposed to an oligarchical
party (see Thuc. iii. 70, iv. 66, vi. 35), in a
democratical state. (See Grote.) Its meaning is
l)ractically the same as itiiiaycayos. The title
was no more official than the corresponding
term ' leader ' in English. It is given to Peri-
auction, and hence applied co the sale of the kles (Thuc. i. 127), Kleon (Ar. Ran. 569), Ephi-
confiscated goods of persons declared public altes (Plut. Cim. 15), Thrasybulus (Aeschin.
enemies by the state. Sulla (82 B.C.) ex- F. L. § 176), &c.
tended the term to the outlawry of his political In Dorian democratical states nrpoararris
enemies, such outlawry {cle capite civis et de t. 5. was sometimes an official title.
bonis proscriptio) involving forfeit of life as I npocrTaTrjj was also the official title of various
well as of goods. Such persons were called functionaries in the cities of Greece.
HpotTTijiTijia. See Appendix, Greek Law,
TC(j,Ti|j,a.
ripoOecTLs. rFniius.]
r\poQta\i.ia.. See Appendix, Greek Law.
Provi'ncia. This term originally denoted
the names of the victims, with certain decrees the functions prescribed for a Roman magis-
necessary for its execution attached. This trate (e.g. urbaiia jirovincia, Liv. xxxvi. 6).
notice offered rewards, both for information The more common meaning is that of a country
which might lead to their death, and for their outside Italy under Roman dominion and
execution at the hands of either citizens or , governed by a magistrate of Rome,
slaves, and imposed penalties on those who | The Roman state, in its complete develop-
proscripti. Sulla was the first to ' proscribe '
in this new sense, and to make a declaration of
outlawry against political enemies a definite
political measure. The form which the measure
took was the posting up of a list setting forth
PROVINCIA
521
raent, consisted of two parts with distinct
organisations, Italy and the Provinces. Its
j)rovincial dominions commenced with Sicily,
which became a Roman province 241 B.C. (Cic.
Verr. ii. 1, 2). Sardinia and the two Spains
came next ; Gaul was added by Caesar, and by
the time of Augustus there were fourteen pro-
vinces, including the whole of the Mediterra-
nean lands. When a new district was added
to the empire, the conquering general as a
rule sketched the main princii)lfs (forma) of its
settlement subject to the approval of the senate
(Plut. Marcell. 28), though in very important
^ases a senatorial commission (decemviri) of its
own members was sent to settle the forma
j>rovinciae (Liv. xlv. 17 ; Sail. lug. 16 ; Plut.
Lucull. 85). The arrangements made by such
ordinances (lex) concerned primarily finance
and judicature, and invariably comprised a
minute division of the country into districts for
purposes of taxation. With these exceptions,
the Romans, as far as possible, left pre-
existing institutions intact. In Sicily, for
instance, the Lex Hieronica established by
Hiero, the ally of Rome, was maintained in its
♦•ntirety (Cic. Verr. iii. C, 12-15). [Decumae.j
The same policy was followed in Egypt (Mar-
quardt, Riim. Staatsverwoltii tig, i. 270, 296),
and in the Greek East. The settlement of the
municipal constitutions of the towns was gene-
rally left to the citizens ; and the Senate and
People still continued as tlie component parts of
the old Greek cities. In Sicily there was a body
of 130 men, called Censors, appointed to take
the census of Sicily every five years after the
Roman fashion (Cic. Verr. ii. 55). The island
was also bound to furnish and maintain soldiers
and sailors for the service of the state, and to
I>ay tributuin for the carrying on of wars ; and
Rome also appropriated the j'ortoria or harbour
dues, which were let out to farm to persons in
the metropolis.
Tlie first provincial governors were praetors
specially created for the purpose, in addition to
the two praetors who administered justice at
Rome (Liv. Epit. xx.), holding office for a year
only. As new provinces were created, the
government of these was provided for by pro-
roguing (by plebiscitum) for a year the nn-
perium of the consuls and the two praetors
whose functions properly lay in the city, two
ex-consuls and two ex-praetors being thus
annually available for provincial command.
The Lex Sempronia of C. Gracchus, 128 n.c.
(Cic. Prov. CouH. 2 and 7, Balh.-ll, 61) enacted
that the senate should each year determine
before the election of the consuls what pro-
vinces they were to govern, the object of this
being to prevent intrigue and favouritism.
From the time of C. Gracchus to that of Sulla
the provinces were divided into consular and
praetorian, aiid governed by proconsuls and
propraetors, the two former as a rule obtaining
those in which the largest number of troops
was required (Liv. xli. H). The exact province
of each was determined by lot or by agreement
among the persons entitled to them (for further
details see Proconsul). The jiroconsul or pro-
))raetor united in liis single jierson both civil
and military authority. The first thing he did
was to issue his Edictum, by which he stated
the rules of law which lie intended to apply
jind enforce during his year's lulniinistration.
By this, including as it did much of the edic-
tum urhannm or perpefiiiim, the law of the
provinces was gradually Romanised.
A provincial governor was principally engaged
with matters military and judicial. For judi-
cial purposes each province was divided into a
number of departments called Fora or Con-
ventUB, wliich latter term al.so denoted the
cliief city or place ' in quein conveniebant,' as
well as tile assize or court over which the
governor presided, and wliich was attended by
the Romans who resided in the district, and
generally by all persons who had any business
to settle there. Tlie jihrase for holding a
court at the assize towns \\a,n forum or coti-
ve/itum agere, Liv. xxxi. 22. Tlie procedure in
civil causes seems to have been much the same
as that in vogue at Rome during the formulary
period [ActioJ ; the governor appointed a index
or indices, usually Romans, to try each cause,
but did not hear and decide the case in person.
I'he relations between the jurisdiction of the
go\ernor and that of the local magistrates were
usually defined by the Lex Provinciae ; but in
most cases provincials could be tried before
their own countrymen and by their own laws.
The governor's judicial assistance was largely
needed for the legitimation of maniunissions,
adoj)tions, and emancipations (lurisdictio
volioitnria). His criminal jurisdiction was in
the nature of that exercised under martial
law : he decided in person on the guilt or inno-
cence of the accused, though under the advice
of a consilium formed from the leading Roman
citizens of the neighbourhood (Cic. IVjt. i. 2!»,
T6) ; and over a condemned criminal he had
power of life and death, though if the criminal
were a Roman citizen he enjoyed the right of
provocutio to the tribuni plebis, which enabled
him to remove the matter to Rome.
Provincial soil belonged, as a whole, to the
Roman state (ager puhlicus), and could not be
owned ex iure Quirifium by individuals,
but only held in possessio (Cic. Att. vi. 1, 12).
The great bulk of the taxes was levied en these
possessions in the hands of the proviuciaJs,
who from this point of view are termed atipen-
diarii. The tax levied on the stipendiarii was
either tithe (Decumae) or atipendium. The
second was charged both on the land (trihutum
soli) — in which case it was sometimes paid in
money, sometimes in kind — and on persons
(trihutum capitis), who were taxed on account
of their incomes, trades, and professions. The
Romans also derived large sums from the cus-
toms-dues (Portorium), sliip-money, mines, itc.
The practice of letting out the taxes topubli-
cani to farm is well known, and a firm of these
capitalists often engaged to pay the state a
fixed sum per annum for five years in exchange
for all the taxes of a ]>rovince — vectigal, decu-
mae, scriptura, portoria, X'c. In theory the
quaestor had the entire management of finan-
I cial matters, though he was often largelj' inter-
j fered with by the governor (Cic. Verr. iv. 9,
I 20, Fam. iii. 7). Tliough properly a financial
officer, he had jurisdiction in matters which fell
under his official cognisance, like the aediles
at Rome ; and he had to give a full account
( of his receipts and expenditure on liis return
from the province (Cic. Verr. i. 14, 30).
I The stafT (cofiors praetoria) of a provincial
administration comprised also (1) Leg'ati, of
whom there were usually three in a consular,
one in a praetorian province ; (2) comites, per-
sonal friends and em/iloi/cs. appointed by the
governor himself, and maintained at the public
charge; (8) praefecti, military lieutenants,
three in number, and, lastly, a large miscel-
I laneous body of lictors, praecones, scribae,
I haruspices, &c.
622
PROVINCIA
Pay was first attached to the office of pro-
consul or propraetor by Augustus (8uet. Aug.
30) : under the RepubHc the governor had
to pay himself as best he could during his
tenure of power ; and many jjrovincial governors
made large fortunes out of the proceeds of
their office. The old rule that a governor and
his retinue must pay for their lodging and
entertainment was seldom observed, and his
progresses tlirough the province entailed vast
expenditure on its inhabitants ; the extortions
practised by himself and his subordinates were
even outdone bj' those of the publican i and the
negotiatores or money-lenders. Practically no
remedy for all these evils was afforded by the
nominal control of the senate, which was itself
ruled by such men as Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar.
A number of laws were passed to protect Roman
citizens residing in the provinces from ill-treat-
ment by these officers. The Lex Calpumia
(149 B.C.), the first statute against repetundae
or extortion, was followed by a Lex Acilia (125
B.C.) and a Lex Servilia (111 B.C.) dealing with
the same offence; and the Lex lulia defined
the requisitions which a governor might make
upon the inhabitants of his province without
payment. The laws on the subject of maiestas
a,nd peculatas were also weapons which might
be turned against provincial governors. But
in consequence of the corruptness of the indicia,
these statutes produced but little result ; and
it was in the Empire that the provmcials first
found relief from oppression, and redress for
wrong inflicted on them by Roman magistrates.
With the establishment of the imperial power
under Augustus a considerable change was
made in the administration of the provinces,
the control of some of which he reserved abso-
lutely to himself, while the rest remained under
the nominal management of the senate. The
imperial provinces {prupriac Caesarix) were
those in which the presence of consideriible
forces was necessary, especiallj- those which
which formed the frontiers of the empire ;
those in which peace was assm'ed were osten-
sibly left to the senate {propriae popidi Bam A
(Suet. Aug. 47). Subject to frequent inter-
change of provinces (Tac. A)ui. i. 70, 80; Suet.
Claud. 25), these arrangements subsisted until
the third century.
The list of Roman provinces under the early
Empire is as follows :
I. Senatoriae. (1) Africa ; (2) Asia ; (3) His-
pania Baetica ; (4) Gallia Narbonensis ; (5)
Sicilia ; (6) Sardinia et Corsica ; (7) Illyricum
et Dalmatia; (8) Macedonia; (9) Achaia; (10)
Creta et Cyrenaica; (11) Cyprus; (12) Bithynia
et Pontus.
U. Imperatoriae. — (1) Hispania Lusitanica;
(2) Hispania Tarraconensis ; (3) Gallia Lugdu-
nensis ; (4) Gallia Belgica ; (5) Noricum ; (0)
Pannonia ; (7) Vindeliciaet Raetia; (8) Moesia;
(9) Alpes Maritimae ; (10) Cihcia ; (11) Galatia ;
(12) Syria.
Subsequently the following provinces were
added to the Provinciae Imperatoriae:
(1) Gemiania Sup. ; Germania Lif. ; (3) Cap-
padocia; (4) Mauretania; (5) Lycia ; (6) Alpes
Cottiae ; (7) Britannia ; (8) Commagene ; (9)
Thracia ; (10) Dacia ; (11) Armenia ; (12) Ai-a-
bia; (13) Mesopotamia.
Egypt was governed by a Praefectus Aitgiis-
talis, as part of the private estate of the em-
peror.
The provinciae populii were ad:niuistered for
one year according to usage (Suet. Aug. 4) by
tJie old republican magistrates : two of them,
viz. Africa and Asia, by ex-consuls ; and the
rest by ex-praetors. They enjoyed imperium,
includmg unlimited iurisdictio, and the admin-
istration of justice was their main business. In
the provinciae Caesaris the emperor was him-
self proconsul, but conducted their government
through lieutenants, a legatus August! pro
praetore having the same power and authority
here as a proconsul in the provinces of the
people. [Legatus; Proconsul; Propraetor.]
These imperial governors were also termed
' provinciarum praesides ' (Suet. ^;/^. 23, Ti7>.
42). Sometimes a portion of a province was
governed by a Procurator with the powers of an
ordinary governor, as, e.g., Judaea by Pontius
Pilate (Joseph. A>it. lud. xvii. 13, 5). Eg5'pt
(Tac. Hist. i. 11) was placed under the govern-
ment of a praefectus Augustalis, and a special
magistrate for judicial purposes called iuridicus,
stationed at Alexandria.
The senatorial provinces, however, were in
reality hardly less under the control of the
emperor from the beginning than those wliich
were propriae Caesaris : from him the pro-
consuls as well as the legati pro praetore
received instructions and mandata as to the
administration, and in all important matters
not already provided for they had to apply to
him for advice. [Procurator.]
Julius Caesar abolished the Decuuiae in Asia
and probably also in Sicily, and under Augustus
a complete survey was made of the provinces,
and a census taken of their inliabitants.
The taxes consisted of (a) vectigal of the
domain land {ager publicus); {b) annona, a
payment from the land in kind; (c) the old
revenue from poll-tax {tributnm capitis), mines
and portoria ; {d) 5 per cent, duty on legacies
[vicesima hereditatiutn), the centesima on res
venules, and a tax of 4 per cent, on all pur-
chases of slaves; (e) the private estates of the
emperor {patrimonium Caesaris). Some of
these payments were made into the Aerarium,
or senatorial exchequer, some into that of the
emperor, the Fiscus, which bore the costs of the
naval and military forces, the civil organisation,
the construction and maintenance of public
works, such as roads and aqueducts, the supply
of corn to Rome, &c.
The Romanisation of law in the provinces was
continued by edicts, statutes, imperial ordin-
ances, and senatusconsulta, till the edict of
Caracalla (215 .\.D.), by which all free subjects of
the empire were made Roman citizens. Within
half a century Italy itself was subdivided into
provinciae, and had to pay tributnm equally
with the most distant parts of the empire.
Diocletian divided the whole Roman world into
twelve dioeceses (SjoiXTjcreis), eachof which com-
prised a nmnber of provinces with new geo-
graphical limits : the total number of provinces
was 101. Each dioecesis was under the adnim-
istration of a new officer called vicarius, who
was answerable only to the praefectus praetorio
as lieutenant of the emperor ; the governors of
the provinciae were proconsuls, consulares, or
praesides, and enjoyed different ranks in the
hierarchy or peerage of the empire. The ad-
ministration of justice was revolutionised by
Diocletian's abolition of the formulary procedure
in civil causes [Actio], the magistrates being
directed to hear and determme all suits in per-
son. The empire was resurveyed for fuiancial
purposes, and rated on a division of the soil
into iuga of equal value but various acreage.
Provincial Towns. — In the republican period
the vast majority of these were subjected abso-
PROVOCATIO
lutely to the power of the governor, uiid had no
free municipal constitution (jrindein-nilentjuris-
diction. Some of llieni, however, were privi-
leged. Foederatar civitutts owed no duties to
Rome beyond those imposed on them by their
treaty with her (Cie. it/r. v. l'J-'i4, §§ ib-Ol).
Some towns were declared free by a lex or
senatusconsultum (jxijnili Ubcri), whereby their
citizens became caimble of owning land, and
a<'quired riglitsof self-government ; otliers were
liberae et iihiuiiiicx, released from the taxes !
usually paid to Rome, and from the liability to
have troops quartered on tliem. In many pro- ^
vinces there were colonies, either Latiiuie or
civiuin Rt)manoruni Coloniaj ami some towns
were endowed with the ius Latii. [Latinitas.^
riidtr the Empire we find also numerous |
Muaicipia in the i)rovmces. i.e. towns on which
tile Roman civitas had been bestowed (Liv.
J'Jpit. ex. ; Suet. .luy. 47). These had the ordi-
nary free municipal constitution of Italian
towns, with elected duoviri or quattuorviri, who
|>os8essed civil and criminal jurisdiction, aediles,
iiuaestors, an ordo decurionnm, and assemblies
ior their citizens : in fact, their condition was
much the same as that of the coloniae civium
Romauorum, except that the latter ranked
above them in dignity. Finally, there were
towns endowed with the ins Italicuiii, granted
only to coloniae and municipia.
Provincial towns which belonged to none of
these privileged categories {rivittitts stipen-
diariac) had some sort of municipal constitu-
tion, and the Romans as a rule interfered as
little as [lossible with arrangements which they
found already established. But such constitu-
tions were not free ; they did not exclude the
jurisdiction of the governor of the province.
The towns liad their own magistrates of various
denominations, but their functions are regarded
as burdens (muncru) rather than as privileges
(liOHorrs), and there was no local jurisdiction,
the administration of justice, civil as well as
criminal, being in the hands of the governor
alone. Most provincial towns seem to have had
elective senates (curiat'}, an arrangement en-
couraged by R(mie herself. [Decurioues;
Decern primi.J Under the Empire the electo-
rate was controlled from Rome, no one being
I)ernutted the fidl local franchise uidess his
income reached a certain minimum. The pro-
vincial towns had no independent right of
legislation, even in relation to municipal affairs,
but were obliged to resort to tlie emperor; and
upon nearly all matters wliicli with us are trans-
acted by the corp>oration or vestrj' of a town,
they had to refer to the governor. It does not
appear that the religion of the provincials was
intcrfcri'd with.
Provoca'tio. Si.e Appendix, Roman I,aw,
Appellatio.
npoStvia, ripo^tvos. fHospitium.]
ripvTaveia. See .\])piiuhx, (iuhKK Law.
Prytane'um (npvravftovj. The special char-
acter of a tirick I'rytaneum is tliat it was the
centre of the civic worship. Every (ireek tribal
Hettlement of primitive times had a conmion
hearth in the chief's house, where the sacred
lire was scrupulously preserved. The pei'iH-tual
nuiintenance of this tire was tin- duty of the
chief, but delegated by liim to daughters or
slaves. [VeBtales. If the settlement was moved,
or if colonists left l!ie mother city, fire was taker,
from the sacred lieartli and carrie<l with them.
The same usage survived in civilised Greek
and R<^>man states. Wlien one state or irtiAtt
absorbed others, the chief town alone retaiued a
PRYTAXErai 523
irpvravflov common to all (Thuc. ii. 15). We
may then assume that the Prytancuni in Greek
states was originally tin- house of the king t>r
chief nnigistrate, and that similarly at Rome the
temple of Vesta was once part of tlie king's
house or Regia.
The original Prytaueum of the ' Kekropian '
city seems to Imve been ui>on tlie Acro|>oli8.
The historical I'rytaneum was in the old Agora
of the ' Theseian ' city, south of the Acropolis.
Here it is likely that there were both the
Prytaneum or state hearth and dining-place
for state-guests, and a Thesmotliesion for the
archons to dine in.
In later times, the Kerameikusijuarter having
become the centre of Athenian life and business,
the 06\os or ffKtii was built near the fiovKtv-
TTipiov (Pans. i. 57); and there the Prytanes
thenceforth dined ; and in the same neighbour-
hood was the dining-place of tin- archons, the
&(p^/xuti((Tiov : here too was the ffroa 0a(Ti\(ios,
the othce of the Ardion Basileus, n-prescnting
the old fiaaiKfiov of kingly times. Tiie Tholus,
a round building with a pointed roof, i)resen-ed
the orthodox shape of the old I'rytaneum, i.e.
the primitive circular wattled hut, with conicitl
roof and hearth in the centre, where dwelt the
chief of the tribe: this will apply also to the
circular temple of Vesta [Domus, p. '2-10, «.]
At a later time, probably after the Roman
conquest, a larger building was constructed on
the northern side of the Acropolis, containing
amongst other relics the statue of Hestia, and
the remains of Solon's tables of law. [N 6^,05 ;
'Agoves-J
At Athens the trvp aa^fffTov was kept up, not
by vestal nuiidens, but by aged widows.
SiTTjtris. In the invitation to dine in the
Prytaneum wx- have a relic of the custom that
the yfpovTes or chief counsellors, with other
honoured guests, sliould dine at the king's
table. This custom was not peculiar to Athens,
but is mentioned at Thasos, Mytilene, Rhodes,
itc. There is little doubt that the early rulers
of Athens thus entertained three classes of
persons, viz. magistrates, jiriests, and unoflicial
guests, whether distinguished Athenians or
foreign princes or envoys. Those who by right
of ofiice dined with the king were avnanot
(also f i/(TiT0i) • unothcial jiersons invited to dine
besides were irapoffiToi. [Parasitl. { We must
notice also a threefold division of place in his-
torical times: (11 the Pryl.in<'uni ; (2) the
Thesmotliesion; (3) tiie Tlidlos.
\ (1) The meals in the Prytaneum continued as
I before, for (a) foreign jirinces and envoys of
other states, the formula for whose invitation
I by the senate or the ififws is xoAfVai rovi
\ irpf(r0fis ^TTi Sf'tiri/ov (or ^irl ^tVia) fh rh trpvTa-
vfloy tii at'pioy, as tiie conclusion of their mis-
I sioii (Deni. F. L. p. ;'.5(), § 31) ; (/<) citizens who
I had done good service; (c) citizens honoured
with this entertainment for life, such as victorB
I at the games (Plat. /uy/. v. p. UIG n; Pint.
I Arist. 27), distinguished generals or statesmen
' (Ar. E(]. 709 ; Aeschin. F. L. § MO), and the
. representatives (o» irpta^vrarot raiv iKyivwv)
of certain families, in which the honour was
hereditary.
(21 The meals of the Archons were tniiis-
ferred to the Thesmotliesion in the New .\gora.
j (3) In the Tholos or Skias Prytanes and
certain other oflicialH, during their tenure of
I oflice, tiM)k their meals together, after sacrifice
I offered at the staU- hearth in the Tholos.
' The a.ti<nroi (a late U-rm) did not enjoy this
I privilege fur life, but only during tenure of their
524
■*H<I>I2MA
offices. Among the aslcrnoi were (1) the Eleu-
sinian priests, the So^oi/xos, iepo(pdvTris, &c.,
(2) the lay and sacred officials of the Prytanes :
among the latter 6 e-rrl crKid^os, who was ap-
parently both tlie custodian of the Tholos or
Skias, and the priest who offered the daily sacri-
fice at the state hearth for the Prytanes ; the
iepav\T}s, or flute-player at the sacrifices, &c.
»4Jii4)iCT|xa. [BovAkTi: 'EKK\r\aia. : Noijuo-
©e'rat.]
4»-n<|505. In voting by ballot the Greeks used
sea-shells (xoipivat) or imitations of such in
metal, beans ((ppjKToi), crpovSuXoi of metal,
and \f/r)(t>oi of metal (TerpvTrr]/j,€vai and drpvirri-
tol). At Athens in early times sea-shells were
in use (Ar. Eq. 1332, Vesp.
332), and probably also
beans (Ar. Eq. 41), and
pebbles {Vesp. 110), black
ones for condemnation and
white ones for acquittal ;
in the times of the orators
the dikasts used i|/^</)oi of
metal. These were disks
with a cylindrical axis
(avKiaKos) running tlirough
the centre and projecting
on either side, and this
cylinder was either solid
{ir\ripr)s \pri<pos), for acquit-
tal, or pierced (reTpu-
irrm^vrj), for
condemnation
(Aeschin. c.
Tim. § 79).
Fig. 897 shows
one of such
\f/?]<poi. The
disk bears on
one side the
inscription
ffia, and on
the reverse a
letter[AiKa(T-
Tils J. Special
officers {oi \a-
Xovres iirl rds
\l/i)<povs) gave to each dikast one of each kind in
sight of the parties, when both sides had spoken,
and the dikast went up to the ^rjixa, where two
boxes (kixSoi, KaSiffKoi) stood, into each of which
he placed one >|/fj(fos. Of these KaSicTKOi one,
called Kvptos (because the dikast put into it the
\pri<pos by which he gave his vote), was made of
metal ; the other, called oKvpos, was made of
wood ; into this he dropped the second iJ/7)<^os.
In this way absolute secrecy was secured.
After all had voted, the Kvpios KaSiaKos was
emptied out on to a table, and the \f/?i(poi were
counted (cf. Ar. Vcsjj. 331 sq.). Even votes
amounted to an acquittal (Antiph. de Caed.
Her. § 51 ; cf. Eur. Elect. 1269, I. T. 1470 sq. ;
Aesch. Eum. 741). A heliastic court always
consisted of some multiple of a hundred, + 1, to
prevent even voting (Dem. c. Tita. p. 702, § 9).
A similar system of balloting was employed when
tlie dicasts voted on the question of penalty
(Ti/jLciu, Tiii.rni.a.) ([Dem.] c. Ai-ist. p. 676, § 167) ;
hence the verdict on the question ' guilty or not
guilty ' or ' for the plaintiff or defendant ' is
called TrpwTT] \pri(pos (Dem. F. L. p. 434, § 290).
Another method is mentioned by Aristophanes
(Vesp. 167). Each dikast had an oblong waxen
tablet (ttivolkiov ti/xtjtikSv, Ar. I.e.), on which, if
he awarded the heavier penalty, he drew a long
line (from end to end of the tablet) ; if the
Fig. S97.— Ancient iJ<^'/)Os.
^rrKTHP
lighter penalty, a short line (across the tablet) :
cf. TLixav rrjv fxaKpav, sc. ypafj-fxriV (Ar. VesjJ. 106).
A different system of voting was that in
which there were two boxes, one for condemna-
tion and the other for acquittal, and each
dikast had one \\iii(pos onlj'. It is not known
what arrangements were made to ensure
secrecy.
As regards the senate, on the question of the
expulsion of an unworthy member, the votes
are said to have been written on leaves (eKCpvWo-
(popelv) ; it was followed by a second vote where
\f/rj<poi were used (Aeschin. c. Tijii. § 111 sq.l,
when the person expelled might be restored to
his place in the senate. When an El<ja.yy ekia.
was laid before the senate, they gave their
verdict, whether the defendant was guilty or
not, by secret ballot ; and if he was found guilty,
they voted on a second day by show of hands
{Staxf^porovla) whether they should sentence
him summarily to a fine of 500 drachmas, or
hand him over to a court (Aeschin. c. Tivi.
§ 35, lex). Secret voting in deciding the
question ' guilty or not guilty ' was here the
j rule. In the popular assembly the usual
method of voting was by show of hands (x^ipo-
! Tovta) ; but on special occasions the ballot was
I employed, e.g. to pass a psephisma for the
naturalisation of a foreigner, or to grant liberty
j (aSeia) to speak concerning a disenfranchised
j person or a state debtor (Dem. c. Tim. p. 715,
§ 46). The same regulation applied to ostra-
kism [Exilium], both as regards niunber of
voters and secrecy of votmg. In such cases
voting probably took place according to tribes
I (6000 votes being the minimum), and with two
KaSiaKoi or vSpiai for each tribe.
Secret voting was also practised when the
members of a phratry registered a new-born
child or an adopted son in the (ppareptKuv
■ypafXfjiareLOV (Dem. c. Macarf. p. 1078, § 82);
j when the demotae entered the name of the
' youth in the A.7)|iopX"f^»' ypafjifiarelov (Dem. c.
\Enbul. p. 1318, § 61); and in a 5iwf/7](ptcns
(Dem. c. Eubul. p. 1302, § 13 sq.).
! The people or senate or jury were said if/vP--
(,6(r0ai, \pTJcpov <p4p€iv or TidfcrOai (not riBevat,
i ' to calculate ') or Statpfpfiv (Thuc. iv. 74 ; Xen
I Sijmp. 5, 8), ' to vote, or give their vote or
judgment.' The presiding magistrate or
officer was said fTni\ir]cpi^fiv or eirdyav or
Si^ovai TTjy }prj((>ov (Dem. c. Mid. p. 542, § 82,
&c.), the people, eirjil/Tjc^i'^'ecrSai : \p7]<piCeff0ai
■nvi is senientiam ferre pro aliquo — }l/ri(pov
BtSovcu or (pepeiu rtui (Dem. c. Mfd. p. 575,
§ 188, etc.). H'ri<piC€(T6ai, ' to vote, to resolve,'
a-n-o\^ri<t>i(f(r6ai,' to acquit,' and other derivatives
j from \liri<pos, are often used where the method
' of voting was x^^poTovia, and conversely.
ipfuSeYVPoict)!!? VPCL't'TI. See Appendix,
Greek Law.
I UJeuSoKXTiTeias ■yP°-4>^. See Appendix,
Greek Law.
Psilo'thrum or Psilo'trum {\pl\cc0pov). An
application for removing superfluous hair, a
depilatory. The favom-ite kind was made of
heated arsenic and unslaked lime. The roots
and juices of various pungent plants were also
used ; the root of the wild vine ; other vege-
table and animal substances are mentioned by
Pliny, with the remark appended that the hairs
must first be pulled out fVulsellae], when
psilothrum will prevent their growing again.
Pitch-plaster (8pa)7ra|) was used for the same
purpose (Mai't. iii. 74, x. 65). The Greek tenns
are TrapaTiWfcrdai, AeoiVftrCai.
1 ipVKTTip. A vessel for cooling wine or
Fig. mS.-'i'VKTT^p-
PUBES
water. Wine was also cooled more simply by
putting it in wells, or mixing it with snow or
ice. Special wine-coolers were introduced to
keep the snow sepai'ate from tlie wine. The
vessel bore various
names, in Greek usually
\l/uKT7]p or y^vyfiii, but
also 0avKa\ii and Kd\a-
flo? ; in Latin rdldtliim
(Verg. Eel. 5, 71 ; Mart,
xiv. 107) or (jiUu. Vuk-
rf/pej were of various
sizes, from two quarts to
fifty-four gallons. Tlie
material was metal as
well as eartlienware,
and therefore the cool-
ing cannot have de-
pended on evaporation
through a porous substance. The xj/vKTr,p was
Bometimes rounded at the bottom (Sivoi) (Ar.
Nub. 1474, Ve.yj. t>18), and might stand on a
tripod or on little knobs {a(TTf)ayaKi<TKOi). [See
Pottery, 'Vvkttip, Arrntdj/hdnnn.]
Tlie name might probably be given to any
vessel in which wine was cooled, but the con-
trivance specially so called consisted of a
smaller vessel placed within a larger one. The
wine (or water) to be iced might be placed
either in the smaller or the larger vessel.
Iced water, tlie ijcliihi of Juv. v. O.S {friqida,
Tac. Ann. xiii. IG; also drcvcta, i.e. previously
boiled), which like the calida, was handed
round to mix with the wine, or was used as a
drink by itself, was jn'epared in a \l/vKTrip as
ab(jve described (Mart. xiv. lit!, la<jomi \ Plin.
xix. § 55 ; Juv. V. 50).
The snow for this purpose, or for use in the
coins or saccux nivarius, was kept through the
summer in pits covered over with chaff and
woollen cloths (IMut. Si/mp. vi. til. It was also sold
in the streets. Sometimes i/Spiat Kfpaufai were
placed on straw on the top of the liouse at
night, a method of freezing by evaporation
t (.11111111)11 in Persia at the present time.
Pubes, Pubertas. See Appendix, Rom.vn
Lwv. Curator; Impubes.
Publica'ni. Tlu; farmers-general of the
Itoman revenues; tlie words jmhlicum and
publicani denote both state revenue and state
service (Tac. Ann. xiii. 51; Liv. xxiii. 40,1).
From a very early period the Uoman state em-
ployed a system of indirect collection by means
of middlemen, intermediate between the
government itself and the sul)jects of govern-
mental taxation (cf. Liv. ii. 0, f>). The system
was that of the purchase or lease by a publi-
canus of a prospective source of revenue, which
he fanned at his own risk and for his own
profit. In cases where the publicanus was
directly employed in working the source of
revenue, he is more jiroperly i<iyU'(\ possessor.
To this class belong the revenue-farmers
who worked certain fixed sources of wealth,
such as mines, salt-works, fisheries, forest-
lands (silva cacdita), and the like ; which
belonged wholly to the state, and which the state,
for purjioses of revenue, leased directly to the
publicanus as a contractor {roiidiictor). Tiie
terms of his contract are fixed by a Irx censoria
made with the censor as the representative of the
state; which, besides specifying tin- revenue that
the state re<iuires, also states certain coiKhlions
under which the coiitra<-t is to be undertaken.
These contracts were all in the nature of state
monopolies; and new mono|)olieH might be arti-
ficially created, by forbidding the exi>ortation of
PUBLICANI
625
such goods to anyone but the government con-
tractor. The system cif direct farming was not
applied to remunerative moni)i)olies only ; it
was applied, in eertain exceptii>nal cases, to
Roman domain land. The only land in Italy so
dealt with was the Campanian land (Cic. Lfij.
Aijr. ii. "29, 81, Att. ii. 10, 1): but certain
lands in the jirovinces, which had been royal
domains of the kings, were also managed in
this way.
As u whole, we find the public land of
Home {ugrr publiciis] dealt with in a different
manner by the state. The greater part of this
land was either tilled land Utijrr) or pasture
{nilvd pasciia, saltiis). As such it was enjoye«l
by the possessor or jiuslor : but the state makes
no fixed bargain with either of these, it only
tolerates them, and deals with a publicanus,
who makes himself responsible for the revenue
{vectifful, a,iro<popd) due from the jwrson who
uses the land. The revenue to be paid is deter-
mined by the lex dicta, under which the censor
sold the right to the publicanus. The possessor
paid a proportion (one-tenth to one-fifth) of
the produce of the laml. The pastor paid a
vectigal, which in this case was called srri/itiira.
The third great class of revenues <i)lie<ted in
this manner were the custom-dues iPortoriami.
The first province to which this system was
directly applied was the province of Asia. In
Sicily and Sardinia it had been found already in
force at the time of the Roman occupation. The
theory was that most of the provincial land was
ager publicus, and that the dominium had there-
fore passed to the Roman peo|)le : that its occu-
piers were only possessores and should therefore
pay the customary revenues, the decumae and
script lira on the land, as well as the portoria,
all included under the generic name vectigal
{Cic. Lrc/. Man. Ci, 15), wliich were xmid in Italy
(for Sicily, see Provincia).
The connexion of the publicani with the pro-
vinces was much closer than that of being
merely its tax-farmers. They invested their
money largely in the i)rovince (Cic. Leg. Man.
7, 17), and themselves carried on business as
Negotiatores there (/6. 7, IH). This double
char;utei- of public contractors and private in-
vestors gave them an opjiortunity for unfair
exactions. The provincials were r)ften in
arrears with the publicani (Cic. Att. vi. 'i,
5), and had to borrow from these same ])ubli-
cani in their character of negotiatores. Another
source of unfair dealing was the interest which
provincial governors sometimes had in these
; exactions (Cic. Verr. iii. 10), and it is clear how
I the publicani could increase their exaetions. if
backed \i\> by the representjitive of Roman
authority in the provin<e ((7*. iii. 7H, Isl).
Charges were made for the exaniiiuition of the
corn-dues {pro special ione), for discount on
foreign money ( pro coih/bo), for writing nuite-
rials and slamii {]>ro cerario), four per cent.
[binae quinqiiagrsiniar) for the secretary, and
six per cent, [ternar iiuinniiagrsiinur) for an
additiomil present to the colleetor.
With the Emjiire came a great restriction of
the o|HTations of the jniblicani. Tax-fanning
as a general mode «)f raising provincial revenue
had ceased, and private enterpris*' in the work-
ing of mono]M)lies was also largely restricti-d
(Suet. Tib. 40). Publicani, however, are still
I found employed for a great many public pur-
I poses in the reign of Til>erius. But they were
' subject to greater s<'rutiny than fornn'rly.
( Nero increased the powers of the praetors at
I Rome and the governors of the provinces, of
52G
PUBLICANI
PUGILATUS
Jealing summarily with such matters (Tac. duced at Olympia, as the contests in wTestling
Ann. iv. 6, xiii. olj ; and many laws were made and racing had been can-ied on here by persons
by later emperors to restrain the illegal exac- entirely naked ever since 01. 15 (720 B.C.) fcf.
tions of the publicani. Luctatio]. Respecting the boxers' gloves, see
From the earliest tunes we find that the Caestus.
publicani do not undertake their contracts It was a point of skill in boxing not to attack
smgly. They worked in companies (societates the antagonist, but to remain on the defensive.
publicanoruni or socii puhlicarum vectiga- As regards the position of the hands, in art re-
liiim), which were composed of shareholders presentations we see sometimes the right arm
{socii), who might have a greater or smaller guarding and the left striking, sometimes the
share in the concern {partes or particulae). contrary: the blows were directed against the
These companies had a legal representative upper parts of the body, and the wounds-;
{manceps) who acted for the societas as its {Inrwiria) inflicted on the head, especially when
formal head {princeps puhlicanorum). The the fjLvp/xrjKes [Caestus] were worn, were often
contract usually ran (Cic. Att. vi. 2, 5) for a severe (Horn. Od. xviii. 96 ; Theocr. xxii. 120 ;
Y)eviodoi G.Yeyea,rsi {lustrum). Fresh contracts Verg. Aoi. v. 469). The ears especially were
were made at the close of each lustrum, and , exposed to hard usage (Plat. Gorg. p. 51(5,
open competition invited; and any company; Protag. -p. 3i2; Mart. vii. 33,5). In order to
that outbid all the others might undertake the ' protect the ears from severe blows, covers,
collection of tlie vectigalia, provided it could find called d/it^wTi'Ses, were invented : of. Theocr.
xxu. 45.
The fist was not constantly doubled, as with
us, but the fingers were often merely curved
over, sometunes almost extended.
Boxing, like all the other games, was regu-
lated by certain laws. Thus pugilists were not
allowed to take hold of one another, or to use
their feet for the purpose of making one another
fall, as was lawful in the Pancratium (Plut.
Symp. ii. 4 ; Lucian, Anach. 3). Cases of death,
sufficient security. The conditions of the con-
tract were contained in the lex censoria or lex
dicta or lex locationis. Each company of
publicani had a central manager and banker
at Rome, called magister societatis. They had
under them a staff of subordinate officials who
were said in operis esse jjubliranorum (Cic.
Fam. xiii. 9), and who were also called the
familia of the publicani. The correspondence
of the publicani with Rome by means of letter-
carriers {taheU(irii) was made use of by
general corresi)oiidents (Cic. Att. v. 15)
{see Cursus publicus). The companies
of publicani received their names from
the respective dues it was their busi-
ness to collect. Thus the collectors of
dectimae were called deciunani ; the
collectors of srriptura were called
pecuarii, scriptaarii or pascuarii ;
and the contractors for salt-works and
the collectors of portoria were termed
socii salarii and portitores respectively.
The great capitalists of Rome were
always at hand wlien capital was needed
for state purposes. (See Liv. xxiv. 18,
xxiii. 48.) Their political importance
was jieightened by the organisation of
the capitalists of Rome as the body of
Equites. The Equites had also, as the
judicial body at Rome from 123 to 81
B.C., the power of approving, by their
treatment of provincial governors ac-
cused of extortion, the regulations of
these governors connected with the
position of the provincial tax-farmers.
In Cicero's letters publicani is used
almost indiscriminately with equites, to
denote a political power in the state
(Cic. Att. i. 17, 9).
Pugila'tUS (Trv|, iruyixi], iruynaxia,
TTuyfxocrw'Tj). Boxing. Boxing was one of
the earliest atliletic games among the Greeks, either during the fight itself or soon after,
Hence gods and heroes are described either as appear to have occiuTed not uiifrequently (Pind.
victors in the TTuyw^, or as distinguished boxers, 01. v. 34); but if a fighter wilfully killed his
such as Apollo, Herakles, Tydeus, Polydeukes, antagonist, he was severely punished. If both
&c. (Pans. V. 7, § 4 ; Theocr. xxiv. 113). Theseus the combatants were tired without wishing to
was believed to have invented the art of boxing give up the fight, they might pause av.-hile to
(cf. Hom. II. xxiii. 691, OfZ. viii. 103, &c.). The recover their strength. The contest did not
contest in boxing is called by Homer a,\eyeii'ri end until one of the combatants declared him-
{II. xxiii. 653). Boxmg for men was introduced self conquered {airayopeveLv), which was gene-
at the Olympic games in 01. 23, and for boys ^ rally done by lifting up one hand (Plut. Lycurg.
in 01. 37. Contests in boxing for boys are also 19).
mentioned in the Nemea and Isthmia. The lonians were more distinguished pugilists
In the earliest times boxers {pngiles, iruKTai) < than the Dorians, and at Sparta boxing is said
fought naked, with the exception of a fcSyua or to have been forbidden by the laws of Lykurgus
Staftdjua round then- loms (Hom. II. xxiii. 683) ; j (Plut. Lycurg. 19).
but this was not used when boxing was intro- I In Italy boxing appears to have been practised
Pig, sffl _ i>i
(1 'ennis.)
PUGILLARES
from early times (Liv. i. 35). It continued as
a popular sport during the whole period of the
Republic as well as of the Empire (Suet. Aug.
45, CaL l«l.
Pugillares. [Tabulae.]
Pullarius. [Augur.j
Pulpitum. [Theatrum.]
Puis. A tliick ^'nicl or porridge made of
spelt (J'dir, atlor): set- Agriculture. We are
told tluifc this porriiij^'e formed the staple of
Komai) food in early times in place of bread
(Plin. -wiii. § 83), and was used in sacred rites
(cf. Juv. .\vi. 89 ; cf. pultipluuiuit, in Plant.
Mostell. HIH, for a Roman). It remained a
common food for the poorer class or those who
aifected homely fare (Juv. xiv. 170; Mart. v.
7H, xiii. 8). Puis must be distinguished from
tlie later polenta, which was made of barley-
meal (Plin. xviii. § 72), and was borrowed from
(ireece ; the Greek fj.a(a in its more Huid state.
The na,mc polenta now means a stiff porridge
of Indian meal, and is a principal food of the
peasants in North Italy.
Pulvi'nar. A cusliion : specially used of the
couches on wliicli the busts of tlie gods were
l.ii<l at a Lectisternium (Cic. Phil. ii. 43; Liv.
XXX. -Jl).
Pulvi'nus (also pulvinar, culcita, irpoff-
KtipaKaiov). A cushion, used for beds, couches,
and litters, whether a cervical, to support the
head in beds, or a rulital, to support the ami on
couches. The stuffing was usunUy of feathers;
the covering often of bright coloured silk (Hor.
Epoil. 8, 15; Mart. iii. 82). The pillow was
supported on a raised framework or head-board
{fulcrum) [LectUS], sometimes being merely
the end of the tomis, or mattress, passed over
this framework (Juv. xi. 95; cf. Prop. iii. 5, 5 ;
Ov. Pont. iii. 3, 14).
Pupa. Games.]
Pupi llus. See Appendix, Rom.\n I>.\w, Im-
pubes; Tutela.
Pu'teal. Tlie stone kerb round the mouth of
a well. Tliis was sometimes nearly flush with
the ground, a flat stone with a circular opening.
But in most cases it was an enclosure suiTonnd-
ing the opening, about tliree or four feet from
the ground, and either round or square. From
PYRRHICA
527
. POl.- DpniirluB of
o ScrllMinliiii Kcn«.
there were two sacred putealia, one in the
Comitiura, wliere the wlietstone and razor of
Attus Navius were buried (Cic. Div. i. 17, 33;
Liv. i. 30), another in the Forum. Tliis latter
was the Puirul Libonis or Puttal Srribonia-
num, consecrated probably by L. Scribonius
Libo, wliich is often shown <jn coins of the Scri-
bonian gens. Some remains of a circular tra-
vertine structure, found to
tlie E. of the Temple of
Castor, have lieen identified
with it (Middleton, lie-
mains <>/ Ancient Home, i.
284;. Libo erected in the
neighbourhood of tliis pu-
teal a tribunal for the prae-
tor, in cons«'(|nence of wiiich
the place was frequented by
tliose who had law-suits,
money lenders, iVrc. (Cf. Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 85, Ep.
i. 10, 8 ; Ov. Prnt. Am. 'Ml ; Cic. Sest. 8, 18.)
nvave»|/ia [Trvav6\\fia, irtu'd^/jo). A festival
celel)rated at Athens every year on the 7th of
Pyanepsion (October) in honour of Apollo,
said to liave been instituted by Theseus
after his return from ('rete (Plut. Then. 22 ; cf.
'Offxopupia). Tlie festival, and the montli in
whicli it took place, are said to have derived
their names from vvafios, another form for
Kvafws, i.e. pulse or beans, which were cooked
at this season and carried about. A proces-
sion appears to have taken place at the
Pyanepsia, in which tlie flpffficivr] was carried
to a temple of Apollo. The (Iptaidivri was an
olive-branch entwined with wool and laden
with the fruits of the year; for tlie festival was
in reality a Imrvest feast.
ntiVM.ii, DvvtJv. Tables, I.]
rivXa-ydpat. [AmphiktyoneB.]
Pyra, Funus.]
Py'rrhica {irvppixi)^ was properly the mili-
tary dance of the Lacedaemonians and Kretans
— dance, that is, in the sense of rhythmical
marchings and evolutions, forming a kind of
ornamental parade. Plato {Lrg(j. vii. p. 815)
Fig. nno— OropV wpllcovor. MniJrIJ.
its rcBemblance to a well-enclosure, that which
surrounded a place struck by lightning [Bi-
dental], and therefore consecrated, was some-
times called putcal [Prodig^uml. .\t Rome
Fig. 903.— Pyrrhic diuioe.
describes it as an imitation of military actions
and attitudes. Athenaeus calls it irpoyvixvacrfxa
rov iroKffwv, and says that it reijuired the Iwst
music and most stirring strains. It was prac-
tised at Sparta by children when they were us
young as live years. Exhibitions of pyrrliic
dancers also took jjlace at the Panathenaea at
Athens, and it was a common \fiTovpyla to
furnish them. Tin- Romans sonielinies gave
somrwhat similar exhibitions, which tlii'V called
pi/rrhicae viilitarrs. lint with the Uoiiians
pyrrhica, for tlii' most part signified a dramatic
repr«'sentation by several dancers, male and
528
PYRKHICA
female, like our ballet, with all kinds of march-
ing, evolutions, groupings, and scenery (Apul.
Met. X. 29). The subjects were various: e.g.
the Judgment of Paris, Ikarus, &c. ; but a very
common one was something connected with
Bacchic worship, which lent itself to picturesque
treatment. Thus we hear of the invasion of
India by Bacchus and Pentheus. The dancers
were of all sorts, from the children of Asiatic
princes (Suet. Caes. 39) to slaves and criminals.
They wore masks and purple cloaks (ih.). Pliny
(viii. 5) tells us that elephants were taught to
dance the pyrrhica, and Lucian (Pise. 36) men-
tions a ballet of monkeys. In a pyrrhica repre-
senting the Judgment of Paris, we are told of
characteristic music, solemn, martial, or volup-
Fig. 1103.— Pyrrhic dancer, from a tomb at Chiusi.
(Dennis.'
tuous, elaborate scenery, Mount Ida with real
bushes and trees, real goats, and real water in
its many fountains. These at the end shot up
a stream of saflfron (crocus) and wine just
before the end of the performance. (See PantO-
mimus.i
Py'thia (Uvdia). One of the fom- great national
festivals of the Greeks. It was celebrated in
the neighbourhood of Delphi, anciently called
Pytlio, in honour of Apollo, Artemis, and Leto.
The place of this solemnity was the Krissaean
plain, which for this purpose contained a hippo-
dromus or race-course, a stadium of 1000 feet in
length, and a theatre, in which the musical
contests took place (Lucian, adv. Indocf. 9). A
gjnnnasiuni, pi-ytaneum, and other buildings of
this kind, probably existed here, as at Olympia,
although they are not mentioned. Once, in
221 B.C., the Pythian games were held at Athens
(Plut. Demetr. 40), because the Aetolians were
in possession of the passes around Delphi.
The Pythian games were, according to most
legends, instituted by Apollo himself ; other
traditions referred them to ancient heroes,
such as Amphiktyon, Adrastus, Diomedes, and
others. They were originally, perhaps, nothing
more than a religious panegyris, connected with
the oracle of Delplii. The Pj-thian games
must have become a national festival for all
PYTHIA
■ the Greeks at a very early period ; but the
time at which gymnastic exercises were intro-
duced at them is uncertain ; there is no record
of them earlier than Ol. 48 (529 B.C.). Till
then, the Delphians themselves had been the
agonothetae at the Pythian games ; but in 527
B.C., after the Krissaean War the Ampliiktyons
became the agonothetae, and the institution of
the Pythian games is commonly dated from
this time.
Contests in music (KiOapq^Sia) formed a part
in these games from the first. The so-called
vofjLOS YIvOlkos consisted of five parts, viz.
avaKpovais, aixirupa, KaTaKeKevcr/xds, "ta/xfioi Kal
5a.KTv\ot, and crvpiyyes. The whole of this
vofjLOs was a musical description of the fight of
Apollo with the Python and of his victory over
the monster.
Such gj-mnastic and equestrian games as
were then customary at Oljnnpia were either
revived at Delphi or introduced for the first
time in the first Pythiad, 527 B.C. The
chariot-race with four horses (redpiinros) was
added in the second Pytliiad. Other contests
came in later, such as the foot-race in arms,
the chariot-race with two full-grown horses
iiTvywpiSos Spoyuos), the pancratium for boys;
and various musical contests, contests in
tragedy as well as in other kinds of poetry,
and in recitations of historical composi-
tions. Works of art, as paintings and
sculptures, were exhibited to the assembled
Greeks, and prizes were awarded (Pliu.
XXXV. § 35). The musical and artistic con-
tests were at all times the most prominent
ifeatm-e of the Pythian games, and in this
respect they even excelled the Olympic
games.
Pre\ious to 01. 48 the Pythian games
had been an ivvasTTipiS, but in 01. 48, :>
(527 u.c), they became, like the Olympia,
a irevTeTripis, i.e. they were held at the end
of everj' fourth year. The Pythian games
were in all probability held m the spring,
when the Amphiktyons met at Delphi
(Aeschin. c. Ctes. § 254). The games lasted
for several days (Soph. El. 690, &c.).
The concourse of strangers at the season
of this panegyris was verj- great. The dewpiai
sent by the Athenians were always particularly
brilliant (Ar. Av. 1585). [©eopot.] The sacri-
fices, processions and other solemnities re-
sembled in a great measure those of Olympia.
The persons appointed for the purpose of
conducting the games and of acting as judges
were called 'ETri^ueATjTat (Plut. Si/nip. ii. 4. vii.
5), and answered to the Olympian Hellanodikae.
Their number is unknown. The eiriixiXi)rai
had to maintain peace and order, and were
assisted by fj.aaTiyo<p6poi, who executed any
punisliment at their command, and thus
answered to the Olympian dAurai.
The prize given to the victors in the Pythian
games was at first a money-reward (xp^ft-aTO),
but from the time of the second Pythiad a
laurel chaplet (to (pvrhv ttis Sd(t>vr]s) ; so that
they then became an aywv (TTe<paviTris, whereas
before they had been an 07011' XRV/^-o-Tirris. The
laurel sprays of which the chaplet was com-
posed were brought by boys whose parents were
both alive (iraiSes a/ii(ptOa\us) from the Vale
of Tenipe, accompanied on the way by a flute-
player (Plut. TTepl Movtr. 14). In addition to
this chaplet, the victor here, as at Olympia,
received the sj-mbolic pahu-branch, and was
allowed to have his statue erected in the Kris-
saean plain (Plut. Symj). viii. 4). Apples were
nToioi
also sometimes presented to victors in the
Pythian games iis prizes (Lucian, Anach. •
9,"l0). . i
The Pythian games probably lasted as long
as the Olympic games, i.r. down to 3'.I4 a.d.
Pvthiiin games of less importance were cele- I
brated in Greece and elsewhere.
ni36i.oi. Fonr officers at S])arta who were
chosen by the kings, two by each king, us their
assistants in their religions and priestly func-
tions. Their most important duty was to go as
envoys to Delphi, to receive the oracles. They i
were in innnediate attendance on the kings, I
and messed witli them at the public expense.
[Aaixoaia.] (Hdt. vi. .'i? ; Plut. P^-Zo/;. '21.1
Pyxis (irv^is). A casket, a jewel box (Mart.
ix. aS) ; aNo a small box for holding di-ugs or
Fig. SOI.— Pj'xis, Herculaneum.
poisons (Cic. Carl. 25,61; Quintil. vi. 3,25).
Pyxides were made of gold, silver, ivory.
I
Fig. 905.-Tcrraoi.i
mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, A'c. (Suet. A>r.
12). They were also enriched with sculpture.
[Pottery.]
Q.
Quadrans. [Tables, XIII., XV., XVII.]
Quadra'ntal (or Amphora quadra'ntal. or
Amphora only). Tlie princijuil Koman measure
of capacity for fluids; originallj' the space
occupied by eighty pounds of wine. See Tables,
VIIL, X.
The qtiadraiifal was connected with the
measures of length, by the law that it was the
cube of the j'^"-, whence its name quadrantal,
or amphora ciihiis.
A standard model of the amphora was kept
in the temi)le of Jupiter in tlie Capitol, and
was called amphora Capitulina. It was under
the charge of the aediles.
Of the liquid measures: the Roman amphora,
or quadrantal, was two-fiftlisof the Aeginetan,
and two-thirds of the Attic aixcpoptiis or /xt-
rprirTis; and the conf/iiis of the Roman system
was equal to tlie xovs of the Attic. Again,
comparing the Roman liquid with the tlreek
dry measures, the quadrantal was one-third of
the Aeginetan, and one-half of the Attic fitSift-
vos. Consetpiently, of the dry measures, the
tnodiuH (wliich was one-third of the quad-
rantal) was one-ninth of the Aeginetan, and
one-sixth of the Attic uu-diminin. The con-
necting subordinate unit in all tliese sets of
measures is the Roman srxtariiis, or sixth ))art
of the comjius (Greek {f'ffTTjs : Tal)les, VI H).
The exact capacity of the Roman amphora
= 577 imperial gallons, i.e. a very little over 5
QUAESTOR 529
gallons and 6 pints. For rough calculations,
therefore, if we reckon the sextarius as a pint
(instead of '9(i of a pint) and the quadrantal
or amphora at gallons, it will be a close enough
a)>proximation.
Quadra. (1) The divisions of a loaf made by
marking the dough across and across (decim-
Hare, i.e. to mark with X; cf. i/c.v. Op. 44f),
apTov . . . TfTparpvcpov, oKTafiKw/xov) with a
knife (Mart. ix. '.<1, 17; Verg. Munf. i'.t; Hor.
is;>. i. 17, 4\>). A loaf so scored was called quad-
ratus. Also quadra caaci (Mart. xii. 32, 18).
(2) A sqmire or oblong dining-table (opp. to
orhU: peril. Jnv. v. 2; and Serv. ad Verg.
Acn. vii. llTi witli tlie double sense).
Quadriga'tus. (Coinage, Roman.]
Quadrire'mis. (Navis.J
Quadrupla'tor. See Appendix, Rohan Law.
Quaestiones. See Appendix, Roman Law,
ludex.;
Quaestor {rafxlas). The name of a class of
Roman officers. The origin of the quaestorshiji
is uncertain, but it is probable that the office
came into being along witli the consulship, as
a part of the earliest rciiublicaii constitution.
As early as 421 K.f. the iiumber of quaestors
was raised to four, one being assigned to each
consul for domestic affairs and one for war.
In 2G7 (or perhaps 241) B.C. four more were
added to take part in the administration of
Italy. The number probably increased with
the addition of new provinces ; but we are only
told that Sulla raised the annual total to
twenty (Tac. Aim. xi. 22, 1), and Julius Caesar
to forty ; Augustus reduced it again to twenty.
The quaestorship was the first of the
ordinary magistracies to be thrown open to the
plebeians : in 421 B.C. it was agreed that
patricians and plebeiaiis should be eligible with-
out distinction (Liv. iv. 4:{). Tlie quaestors were
at first nominated by tlie consuls (Tac. Ann. xi.
22), and not elected by the people till after the
passing of the Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 B.C.
The quaestors were elected in the comitia of
tribes. The office was held for one year : but
the quaestors of the year accompanied the pro-
consul as proquaestors. The quaestors had
the usual insignia of magistrates, but a sella
which was not curulis. but
had straight legs. They
were attended by scribae,
viatorcs, and praecones.
When the provinciae had
been determined by the
senate, they were distri-
but<'d among the quaestors,
partly by selection by the
superior magistrates, to
whom they were severally
attached (Liv. xxx. 33; Cic. Att. vi. (>, 4), con-
firmed by the senate, partly by lot (Cic. Mar.
S, 18). Under the Empire the selection was
made by the emperor and by the consuls (Plin.
Ep. iv. 151.
The duties of the quaestors will be best dis-
cussed under the head of the various ^iroy/wrio/".
(1) Quaestorcs urban i. The two tjuaestors
whose duty re<piired them to remain in Rome
during their year of office. Their primai-j-
function was ti> lie officials subordinate to the
consuls as whose deputies they acted. Tiiey
had no functions in connexion with civil juris-
diction ; but in <'riniinal jurisdiction tliey took
an important i>art, from which indeed they
originally derived their mime {quacsir>r ---
quarHi'tiir). In tlie Twelve Tables they appear
under the full title of qiiacstorvs parriridit.
iM M
530
QUAESTOR
We hear very little of the criminal juris-
diction of the quaestors, because they had
nothing to do with political prosecutions. The
tribunes prosecuted only political offences ;
the aediles only offences against special laws
entailing a fine for their violation ; the tres
viri capitnles acted as police magistrates, and
in cases of ordinary offences where individual
citizens were the complainants. Hence it
seems clear that the quaestors must have tried
cases of murder and arson until these were
brought under the jurisdiction of the quaes-
tiones perpetuac.
The second main branch of the duties of the
quaestors likewise devolved upon them as sub-
ordinates of the consuls. It is probable that
the first quaestors were quaeaiores aerarii as
well Asparricidii. The consuls indeed retained,
subject to the senate, the supreme control of the
treasury, but the quaestors had the actual charge
of the money and kept the accounts, receiving
the former h-om the consuls and paying it out
on their order. They held the keys of the
treasury in the temple of Saturn [Aerarium],
and had cliarge of all that was in it, including
not only coin and bullion, but also tlie military
standards (Liv. iii. G9). State papers of all
kinds were also preserved there, such as ac-
count-Viooks, contracts, and lists of magistrates,
senators, iScc, and also decrees of the senate,
and all laws and proposals of laws.
It was further the duty of the quaestors to
see to the payment of arrears of taxation (Liv.
xxxiii. 42), probably through the tribnni
aerarii, and to keep lists of defaulters ; to
receive the suras due from tlie publicani (Cic.
Flacc. 32, 79), and other public moneys (Liv.
xxxii. 2).
In cases of default the quaestors had the
right to proceed against the debtor's person
per maniiH inicctioncm, or liis property, which
could be seized and sold bj- auction (sectio).
The quaestors also conducted certain sales of
state property, including prisoners of war and
booty, and also estates coming to the nation
by will or by confiscation ; paid salaries, and
defrayed the cost of maintenance for the public
slaves, and the expenses of entertaining distin-
guished strangers (Liv. xlv. 13, 12).
The quaestors being young and inexperienced
magistrates, and changing yearly, were no doubt
instructed and assisted by permanent officials.
The duties of criminal prosecution and of
the charge of the treasury were the main if
not the sole duties of the quaesfores iirbani,
and made their continuous presence in the
city necessary.
(2) Quaestores were regularly attached to
generals or governors of provinces, as adju-
tants. Tlie dictator alone was not required to
have any such assistant. If the term of office
of the quaestor expired before that of his
superior, it was extended by proroqatio : if
the quaestor died or left the province, the
governor nominated some one, usually one
of his Icgati, to be pro quaestore (Cic. Vei-r. i.
4, 12).
The special duties of provincial quaestors
wei-e financial. All receipts and pa>-ments
l>assed through the quaestor's hands ; and the
accounts of the campaign had to be given in
by him, although the commander shared the
responsibility.
Even from a military point of view the
quaestor ranked next to the commander : he
had three sentinels, the legatus two, and the
quaestorium was an unportant centre in the
QUINQUATRUS
' camp [Castra^. In case of the death of the
commander, he succeeded to the vacancy ;
j and if the former left the camp, it was usually
I the quaestor whom he chose to replace him jjrn
\praetore. (Cic. Fain. ii. 15, 4). Similarly, in
I judicial business, the quaestor exercised the
I jurisdiction of the aediles, and issued the
I appropriate edicts. The quaestor was re-
I garded as the consul's deputy, and in that
[ capacitj- he accompanied the consul when lie
: took the field, as a military adjutant. When
1 the custom came in for a consul to proceed at
i the end of his year of office to govern a pro-
j vince as proconsul, it was the regular thing for
his quaestor to accompany him as^7'0 qunr.itore.
I From 38 B.C. each consul had two quaestors,
selected by himself, who assisted him, among
I other things, in his duties as presiding in the
senate. Under the Empire we meet with
quaestores principis or Augusti; they were
two in number, assigned to the emperor as
holding proconsular power, and employed by
him, when he thought fit, to read in the senate
any written conununication to that body.
{'.'>) Quaestores closs'ici \yeve four in number,
established after the reduction of Italy in
267 B.C., originally subordinates of the consuls,
charged especially with the defence of the
coast. Their duties were generallj' those of
the provincial quaestors ; but they had inde-
pendent powers, including military authority,
as we see from Tac. Aun. iv. 27. They had
also the duty of seeing that the allies furnished
the proper contingents for the fleet, and the
quaestor at Ostia had important and onerous
functions in connexion with the corn supply
(Cic. Mur. N, IM.
Quaesto'ria mu'nera. [Ludi.]
Quaestorium. rcastra.j
Qualus. [Calathus.
Quarta Falcidica. See Appendix, R<)M.\n
L.^w, Fideicommissum ; Heres.
Quarta rius (TfrapTov). A Roman measure
of capacity, one fourth of the sextariiis, and
consequently a little less than a quarter of a
pint inqieriiil. See Tallies, VII., VIII., X.
Quasillum. [Calathus.]
Quatuo rviri iure dicu'ndo. [Colonia.J
Quina'rius. Coinage, Dknwkivs.]
Quincunx. [Pondera."
Quindeci'mviri. [Decemviri].
Quinquage'sima. (1) A duty of 2 per cent,
levied at Athens on exports and imports
[ricvTTiKoaTTil.
(2) A tax of the fiftieth part, or 2 per cent.,
upon tlie value of all slaves who were sold;
instituted by Augustus.
Quinqua'trus (fem. plur.) or Quinqaa'tria
(neut. plur.). A festival celebrated on March 19.
■The word signified the fifth day after the Ides
(cf. triatriis, sexatriis, &c.). A false etymology
led to its being afterwards regarded as a five-
days' festival (Ov. Fast. iii. 809 ; Liv. xliv. 20),
and as such it was observed under the later
Republic and the Empire from March 19-23.
Strictly, it was a one-day festival, celebrated
originally as a lust ratio of the anna ancilia,
when the arms were brought out to be ready
for the campaigning season (see Armilustrium).
A sacrifice was offered, and there was a dance
of the Salii in the Comitium, the ceremony
being under the direction of the Pontifices and
Tribuni Celerum. [Salii.]
The day acquired a fi"e.sh significance from
being selected for the dedication of the temple
of Minerva on the Aveutine, and, instead of
being purely military, became the festival of
QUINQUENNALIA
Yiirious trades and arts (Ov. Fast. iii. 809-834).
Hence it became also a lioliday for the schools,
extending over the wliole five days of Quinqua-
tria (Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 197; Juv. x. 115; Ludus
litter arius).
The first and regular day of the festival
was marked by the offerings, &c., above men-
tioned, and the commemoration of the temple
dedicated to Minerva ; on the other four days
there were shows of gladiators, and a season of
general merrymaking (Suet. Aiiff. 71, Tac. ^4/i«.
xiv. 4). On the fifth day, March 23, was the
tiihiliLstrmm, when trumpets used in the
sacred rites were passed in review, and purified
by the Salii Palatini and the tubicines sacro-
rum populi llomani.
There was a festival called Quinquatrus
Minusculae on June 13 (Liv. ix. 30 ; Ov. Fast.
vi. (>51).
Quinquenna'lia. Games instituted by Nero
GO A.])., and celebrated, like the Greek irfVT-
(TjTpiSes, at the end of every four years ; they
consisted of musical, gymnastic, and equestrian
contests, and were called Neronia, or Agon
Nfronctis (Suet. Ner. I'J ; Tac. Ann. xiv. 20).
Quinquenna'lis. [Colonia.]
Quinquere'mis. [Navis.]
Quinque'rtium. [Pentathlon.]
Quinque'viri. Five was a common number
for commissioners or extraordinary magistrates
appointed to carry any measure into effect.
Thus Quinqueviri mensarii, or public bankers,
were occasionally appointed in a financial crisis,
to manage loans and other banking business
Argentarii ; see also Colonia]. Quinqueviri
were created to superintend the repairs of the
walls of the city (Liv. xxv. 7), as well as for
various other purposes.
There were also permanent officers, called
Quiiif/iteviri cis Tiberini (Liv. xxxix. 14), or
CistLbcres, who wei'e responsible for the safety
of the city after sunset, especially to guard
against fires.
ftuinta'na. [Castra.]
Quirina'lia. A festival sacred to Quirinus,
celebrated on February 17, on which day
liomulus was said to have been carried up to
heaven (Ov. Fast. ii. 457). This day was
also called StuJtorum Feriae (see Fomacalia).
Quiri'tes. The law of Rome appears to have
been called in early times /«s Quiritinin. The
expression ' populus Ronianus Quirites ' has
given rise to much discussion. According to
IMomnisen, the distinction between Romani and
Quirites (literally, lance-bearers : quir, a lance)
is that where fhe locality was meant to be
i-eferred to ' Quirites ' was never used, but
always ' Rome ' and ' Romans ' {urbs lionia,
popidits, civis, ager lioina>ias), because the
term quiris had as little of a local meaning
as civis or miles. The Romans did not say
civis (7 ««m, because both denoted, tliough from
different points of view, the same conception in
law. The solemn annomicement of the funeral
of a burgess ran in the words, ' this warrior has
been consigned to death' (alius quiris Icto
ilatiis) ; and in like manner the party aggrieved
employed the word in calling the burgesses to
aid him [quiritare) : the king addressed the as-
sembled community by this name, and when he
sat in judgment, he spoke according to the law
of the warrior freemen {ex iiire quiritinm). The
phrase ' populus Romanus Quirites ' thus moans
the community and the individual burgesses.
(From Mommsen's Hist, of Home, Dickson's
transl., ed. 1807, i. 78.) Accordingly ius Qitiri- '
tium was equivalent to ius ciuium, ius civile. |
RATIS 531
I Ius Quiritium may also mean the entire rights
I of a Roman citizen, being equivalent to civitas.
[See Appendix, Roman Law, Dominium.]
R.
Ra'dius. (1) A straight pointed rod used by
geometricians for describing figures on tlieir
abacus, a table covered with sand (Cic. Tusc.
v. 23, 64, N. D. ii. 18, 48 ; Pers. i. 131 ; Ar. Nub.
177). [Abacus, (1).!
(2) [Tela.]
(o) fCurrus.]
Ranines. A patrician tribe. [Tribus.]
Rapi'na. See Appendix, Rom.w L/,w,
Fnrtum.
Rastrum, Rastri, Raste'Uus. A clear dis-
tinction must be made between (1) the rastrum
quad rideus, -which is a rake ; and (2) the ras-
trum bidens, which is a mattock. When rastrum
stands alone, the quadridens or rake is usually
meant, but not always in poetry, e.g. in Verg.
Georg. i. 94, Aeii. ix. 608, rastrum = bidens. (1)
The quadridens or four-toothed rake (in Greek
probably \i(TTpov) was sometimes of iron ; it is
mentioned by Cato in his list of ferrameiita,
for an olive garden (Cat. B. B. 10), and for a
vineyard {ib. 11) ; lignei rastri were used to
rake the earth over seeds. The diminutive
rastellus isnearlj' always a wooden rake.
(2) The two-pronged rastrum, rastrum
bidens (nearly always bidens alone), was used
for breaking up the ground ( = Greek Si/ceAAa
or (T/xLvvri). It was probably always of iron,
and was used for stony ground, while the paid.
or spade suited marshy ground (Plin. xviii. § 46) .
The woodcut under Pala shows a bidens witli
curved prongs.
Ratis (iTxeSia). A raft, such as was used in
early times or among primitive people for voy-
ages across narrow sti'aits or from island to
island (Thuc. vi. 2), also for crossing rivers,
whether as amoving raft (Liv. xxi. 28), or as a
fixed pontoon bridge (Liv. xxi. 27 ; Hdt. iv. 97),
or as a bridge of boats. Lucan (iv. 420)
describes a large moveable raft supported on
casks icupac), such as were used also for pon-
toon britlges.
I'^ig. M7.— Jlodern oatan-.i;
In Od. v., Ulysses was to leave Ogygia upon
a raft, ^irl (rxfS/Tjs TroAuSfVjuou (33, 338; of.
Hdt. ii. 9G). Kalypso had pointed out the place
where the material for the raft was to be found
in the shape of trees, alder, fir, and poplar,
standing long witbTed and dry. Twenty trees
M M 2
532
RECTA TUNICA
arc thrown, and trimmed with the axe. Then
the skilful shipwright makes with the adze two
smooth surfaces which are straight to the line
(d!/T(|oo).
To join the timbers he bores them with augers
(reperpa), using two kinds of fastenings, com-
monly called trenails (yo/xKpoi), and dowels or
coaks (apfxoviai). The trenail (tree-nail) is a
long peg of tough wood tapering from an inch
and a half in diameter, to three-quarters of an
inch. The holes into which these are driven run
c
c
c
a
a
h
w
b
^
Fig. 908.— Method of fastening timbers. tSection,
Ct, Sovpa ; b, apixoviai, ; C, y6p.<f>oi..
through both pieces of timber. Trenails, how-
ever, are not thick enougli in diameter to stand
a vertical strain tending to wrench one timber
from tlie other ; and to meet a vertical strain
shipwrights join the timbers not only with tre-
nails but with dowels or coaks. These are
short pieces of hard wood, from three to four
inches in diameter and four to five inches long,
and are let in at intervals between the trenails
witli shallow hok's bored to correspond in each
timber. Being short and of hard wood, they
will take a great vertical strain, as long as they
remain fast.
Ulysses having planed his spars with the
adze and bored them all and fitted them exactly,
then knocks them togetiier (&pa(Tcrfv) so tiiat
trenails and dowels tit into their respective
holes and the inner surfaces of the .spars meet
together. The floor of the raft is next marked
out {TopvaxreTai) with string and pencil.
The floor completed, the next work was the
raising of the deck. First of all, he had to set
up his (TTafiivfs. The ffrafiipfs, uprights, not
ribs like those of a ship, would be let into holes
bored in the floor of the raft, and the deck
timbers also bored and fitted on to the tops of
tliem. Upon these uprights the deck timbers
were laid and fastened. There can be no
doubt as to iKpia meaning 'deck, platform'
(KaTa.(TTpwjxa v(ws).
After setting up his platform or deck by
fitting these cross-beams upon the uprights, he
finishes off and makes fast his Xxpia by long
rails {iirriyKiviZfs). These laid lengthwise on
either side would prevent the timbers of the
deck from jumping, and would so finish the
deck as such. The word firrtyKey'tSes does not
imply a planking alongside of the ffrafjiives.
The raft is open, and the water would wash
freely through the front and sides of the stage
carrying tlie deck.
The carpentering is concluded with the
fashioning of mast and yard and paddle for
steering. There still remained the construction
of a bulwark to protect the sailor from the wash
of the wa\e. Tliis is effected by a wattlework
of osiers set up on the fwpia as a fence all round.
For a different interpretation of Od. v. 252-260,
see Merry, Odyssey, Appendix I.
Recta tu'nica. [Matrimonium.]
Beda. [Currus.]
REGULA
Bede'mptor. [Xocatio conductio, Manceps
(Appendix, Roman Law); Publicani.]
Eedimi'culum. [Mitra.J
Be'gia {rh ^affikeiov, p7)yia). At first the
building in which the king, as the head of the
state religion, performed the functions belong-
ing to it ; after the overthrow of the monarchy,
it served as the office of the Pontifex Maximus,
and perhaps also of the Rex Sacrorum. It is
probable that the Pontifex Maximus and the
Rex Sacrorum had each his official dwelling-
house elsewhere in the Sacra Via.
The Regia was said to have been
built and occupied by Numa (Ov.
Tnst, iii. 1, 28 ; Tac. Ann. xv. 41) ;
it was partly destroyed by the Gauls,
B.C. 391, and again in great part
burnt 210 B.C. (Liv. xxvi. 27). Julius
Caesar as Pontifex Maximus had his
office by day for religious functions
in the Regia, and lived in the house
in the Sacra Via which was assigned
to the Pontifex (Suet. lid. 48 ; Phit.
Caes. 10).
Besides the above-mentioned use,
the Regia contained a sacrarium of
Mars, in which were the sacred spears [see
Salii], and a sacrarium of Ops, perhaps also of
Janus and of Jupiter. In one or other of these
sacraria were preserved the libri pontijicum
and til." Calendars (compare Fontifez, Rex
Sacrorum, Vestales).
Regifu'gium. An annual festival at Rome
on February 24. On thiu day the Rex Sacro-
rum, probably representing the King, offered
sacrifice in the Comitimn, and after the sacri-
fice liastily fled from the spot. The offering was
an atonement and purification for the city; it is
possible that the victim received, like a scape-
goat, the guilt upon itself; and that the officiating
minister therefore fled from it, as from some-
thing polluted: see, howcxcr, Sacrificium, (3).
Regi'Ua. [Tela ; Matrimonium. j
Re'gio (for topograi)hical details, see Classi-
cal Dirt. Roma and Italia, and Middleton's
HeiiHihis of Aucient Rome). The word regio
meant merely a district, or nolpa, of land, and
signified thus the tcrri tori urn round the
Italian towns and subject to the same jurisdic-
tion with them. The whole re^o so attached
might comprise several pagi. [^PagUS.]
At Rome we have, after the extension of the
Palatine city, four regiones which dated from a
period older even than the Servian city [Pome-
rium], and mark the settlement of the four city
tribes (see Quinqueviri, Tribuni Aerarii, anil
Tribus). The regiones of Rome with wliicli we
are more often concerned in Latin litei'ature
are those of Augustus, who did not enlarge the
pomerium, but divided the whole inhabited
city within and without the walls into fourteen
rryioiies, and each regio into vici [Vicus]. Each
of these regions was under the immediate con-
trol of an annual magistrate (Suet. Aug. 30);
one cohors vigiliim was assigned to each two
regions fExercitus].
Augustus divided Italy into eleven regions,
Rome being the twelfth. These seem to have
been intended for convenience of denomination.
I only.
j Ke'gula (Kavciv). A ruler for drawing right
lines, used bj- carpenters, masons, tfec. (cf.
\ perpcudiculum). (Ar. Ban. 798; Vitr. vii. 3,
: § 5 ; Plin. xxxvi. § 188.) It was marked with
I equal divisions, like our carpenters' rules. The
substance with which the lines were made
was raddle (red oclure) or some other red
RELATIO RETE 533
colouring material (rubrlcct, ininium, ixiKros). . Eepetu'ndae. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Linea (crxoivos, axoiviov, (nrdpTov, fxiKrelov) Keposito'rium. A dish or waiter for tbt3
was a line or cord for the same purpose, either i dishes forming a course or ferculiim (Plin.
red or chalked (Cic. Q. Ft. iii. 1, 2 ; Vitr. vii. 3)^
A regula is often represented on carpenters'
tombs [Canon]. Begula is also the thread of
a screw [Coclea ; Torcular].
Norma (perhaps= «o»-//ift, as car-men, ger-
men, for can-men, gcn-men, &c., the ninth
letter, i.e. L ; so sexta for F in Quintilian),
(ywvia, Plat. Phileb. p. 51
Categ. 14). A square used by carpenters,
masons, and other artificers, to make their
work rectangular (Vitr. vii. 3 ; Plin. xxxvi. § 172).
The norma was either a T-square or a half T
(L) square ; another form is shown in the cut as Ro.man Law.
a rectangular piece taken out of a board. '° *■■'—'■-■-•-
EYomtheuse of tliis instrument a right angle
•was also called a normal angle. Anything mis-
xviii. 'JOj, and placed with them on the table.
Repositoria were covered, round or square in
shape, and sometimes were built of several
stages, and ornamented with silver, tortoise-
shell, &c.
Bepo'tia. [Matrimonium.]
Repu'dium. See Appendix, Roman Law,
yuwfjLvoy, Ai-ist. ! Divortium.
Res. See Ai)pendix, Roman Law, Dominium
Rescri'ptum. See Appendix, Roman Law
Constitutiones.
Restitutio in i'ntegrum. See Appendix,
See Appendix, Roman
J-
Restituto'ria a'ctio.
Law, Interdictum.
Rete; dim. Reticulum (Siktvov, Kiva). A
net : inaculac, Ppoxoi, meshes. Nets were
made of flax from Egypt, Kolchis, Spain, and
other countries, of liemp, of airdpTos or broom,
and of fibres of pahn leaves.
(1) In fowling, tlie use of nets was one among
many metliods (Ar. Av. 528) ; thrushes were
caught in them (Hor. Epod. ii. 33, 34) ; and
pigeons with their legs tied, or fastened to the
ground, or with their eyes covered or put out,
were confined in a net as decoys (Ar. Av.
1083). [Auceps.]
(2) In hunting it was usual to extend nets in
a large circle, with an onening left on one side
(Tibull. iv. 3, G sq. ; Plin. xix. § 10). This
range of nets, which was called indago, was
flanked by cords, to which feathers dyed scarlet
and of other bright colours (formido) w-ere
tied, so as to flare and flutter in the wind.
The hunters then came out with their dogs,
dislodged the animals from their coverts, and
by shouts and barking drove them first within
JNSTRVIvIEN . TABR . TIGNAR.
Pig. u09.— Norma. (GruterJ
shapen was called abnormis (Hor. Sat. ii. 2,
3). Vitruvius (vii. 3, 5) says that measure-
ments must have longitudines ad regidani et
lineam, altitudines ad perpendiculicm, anguli
ad )ior»iam respondentes.
Perpiendiculum. (/cafleros, /xoXvfiSis, (TTd.djj.rj).
A plumb-line, a string with a piece of metal
attached, used by masons, carpenters, &c., to
test the correctness of their vertical lines
<Cic. Vcrr. i. 51, 133; Caes. B. G. iv. 17,
&c.). Cicero (Q. Fr. iii. 1, 2) distinguishes it
from li)iea { — Kavdiv), a line for measuring a
horizontally. This linea was called in Greek
also (Txolvos and airapTe'iov, and from its being
coloured to make a mark ixi\re7oi/. Sto^jutj is
used in both senses.
Rela'tio. [Senatus.]
Relega'tio. [Exilium.]
Remex. [Navis.J
Remu'lcum (pvfia, f)vtxov\Ki'iv). A rope for j (o-ToAi/ces; amites, Hor. Epod. ii. 33; ancones,
towing a ship (Caes. .B. C ii. 23; Liv. xxv. 30). varae ; retia ponere, Verg. Georg. i. 307, or
The word remulcuui is borrowed from the [ tendere, Ov. A.A. i. 45). The net was strung
Greek, and has no connexion with rcvius. 1 on a strong rope, which was called (rapSwv
Remu'ria. [Lemuria.] (Xen. Cgn. C, 9). The crapSwv ui some nets
Remus {ip(Tix6v). [Navis.] had loojis {(yTp6<f)ia.) or rings {Kp'iKoi) which
Reno, or Rheno. A short cloak made of , attached it to the inpi^pofjLos or eViSpo/xos (of.
hide (perhaj)s reindeer, Swed. lien) witli the ■ Plin. xix. § 11), i.e. the drawing-cord, which
Fig. ;ilO.- Hunting net.
the formido or indago, and then vsrrthin the
circuit of the nets (cf! Verg. Georg. iii. 372 sq.,
Aen. iv. 121, 151-159, x. 707-715 ; Ov. Her. iv.
41, 42: Lucan, iv. 435 sq. ; Eur. Bacch. 86G-
876). Nets were supported by forked stakes
.d
Fig. 911.— Hunting net.
a, aapSiav ; I), TTcpiSpopLOi ; c, arpo^na or KpiKOt ;
<(, OTaAtKes.
hair ; used by Germans (Caes. B. G. vi. 21 ;
Serv. ad Verg. Georg. iii. 383) and Gauls (Varro,
L. L. V. 167).
Repa'gula. [lanua.]
was itself supported on the forked stakes.
Besides the nets used to enclose woods and
coverts or other large tracts of country, two
additional kinds are mentioned, which were
534 RETIAKII
placed at intervals in the same circuit with the
large hunting-net or ' haye.' The road-net
(plaga, ivddiov) was smaller than the others,
and was placed across roads and narrow open-
ings. The purse-net or funnel-net {cassis, apKvs)
was made with a pouch {KeKpvcpaKos), intended
to receive the animal when chased towards the
Fig. 912.— Servants bearing home reiia and nmites.
enclosure, like the purse-net or funnel-net of a
decoy.
(3) Fishing-nets (aKievTiKO. S'lKTva) were of
various kinds. Of these the most common
were the a.fj.<pi0\ri(npov, or casting net (funda,
iacnlum), and tlie craywri, i.e. the drag-net, or
sean (tragiun, tragula, verriculum or everri-
cnlnm; cf. Cic. Verr. ii. 14, 24; Verg. Georg.
i. 141, 142, Ov. A. A. i. 763, 764).
Other kinds of nets are KaXvuixa, yp7^os,
perhaps the same as KafivpivOos (Theocr. xxii.
11), and scir2)us (Plant, dipt. iv. 2, 30), a
basket trap made of rushes: 7a77a;U0j' (Aesch.
Ag. 352), probably a circular casting-net, like
a.lx<pi&K-ri(TTpov (Hes. Sc. Here. 213-215; Hdt.
i. 141 ; Is. xix. H ; St. Matt. iv. 1« ; St. Mark,
i. K;, LXX and Vulgate versions).
The English term scan, or seine (cf. Litti-e,
Diet, de la langue frane. s. v.), has been
brought into our language from the Greek
aayi]v7) through the Vulgate (sagena, Ezek. xxvi.
5 ; St. iVIatt. xiii. 47, 4b). This net was of great
length : as now used both by the Arabians and
by our own fishermen in Coi'nwall it is some-
times half a mile long. (Hom. Od. xxii. 384-
387.) Thus, to sweep a country of its popula-
tion by an uninterrupted line of soldiers was
called ffaynvfvfiv (Hdt. iii. 145, vi. 31 ; Plat.
Legg. iii. sub fi)i.). The use of corks (<pf\\ot,
cortices suberiiri, Plin. xvi. § 34) or wooden
floats, and of leads {/jLoKv^SiSes), is frequently
mentioned by ancient WTiters (Ov. 'Trist. iii. 4,
11, 12).
Nassa (Juv. xii. 123) or naxa (Cic. Att. xv.
20) {kiiij.6s, Kvprri, -os, Kupris, KV'^f\7)) was
especially used for catching the murex used for
purple dye. It was a small net in the shape of
a wide-mouthed bag with thick close meshes of
cord ; or a sort of basket of rushes (Plin. xxi.
18, § 114) or osiers (Sil. v. 48) baited with shell-
fish. Others describe the nassa as constructed
like an eel-pot [see fig. 720, Nassa].
Retia'rii. [Gladiatores.]
Rex (Pa(Ti\evs). King. 1. Greek. — Govern-
ment by a single king was probably the rule in
the towns of prehistoric Greece. The fia<n\fvs
was the senior member of the most dis-
tinguished family, and these petty ^acriKries or
chieftains must have been very numerous.
Thus we find traces of kings, many of them
more or less mythical, in Thebes, Athens,
Argos, and Blykenae, besides many other cities.
In other cases we find kings of a district, e.g.
Minos, king of Crete and the Kyklades (Thue.
i. 4) ; the Theban kings dominate Boeotia ; the
Athenian, Attica ; the Spartan, Lakonia.
REX
Accordmg to Aristotle (Pol. i. 12), the rela-
tion of a king to his subjects is analogous to
that of Zeus to the other gods, or to that of a
father to his children. In the earliest times
his sacerdotal functions were an important
part of the king's duties. As the house-father
was priest in his own house, so the king, the
state-father, was priest of the state ; he offered
sacrifice for the citj', his virgin daughters
tended the Koiyr] ecTTia of the city. The king
appears to have been called indifferently &pxuv,
irpvravis, or fSaaiKevs.
Absolute monarchy was unknown among the
Greeks. The nearest approaches to it were the
rvpavvis and the Macedonian military kingship.
Aristotle {Pol. iii. 14) classifies )3a(riAeicu as
follows : (1) the heroic {ri Kara robs rtpwiKovs
XP<ivovs), (2) the barbaric (r) ^ap^apiKT]), (3) the
alavti.vr)Tiia, or elective tyranny [aipf-ri] Tvpav-
j/j's) [Alo-ujivTiTTis], (4) the Lakonian, or here-
ditary life-generalship (ffTparriyia Kara yevos
aiSios).
The Heroic king, as represented in Homeric
poetry, does not possess absolute power. Every
chieftain bears the title of fiaariKevs : in
Phaeakia alone there are thirteen fia<xt\Ties
(Od. viii. 390). Agamemnon is fiaffiKevraros
(II. ix. 69), suzerain of the rest. The obedience
of his people is voluntary ; his rights are subject
to definition (Arist. Pol. iii. 14). Thucydides de-
fines the heroic kingships as eirl prirois ye'paffi
irarpiKol PacriKelai (i. 13). Sometimes an oath
was interclianged between king and subjects.
The heroic kingship was hereditary (II. ii.
186). Each successor was hailed by the ap-
proving voice of the ttAtjOos. The office was of
divine institution, and the kings are Storpttpf^s
or Sioyeve^s (cf. Hes. Theog. 96), and de7oi
(Od. iv. 691). The genealogies of both the
royal lines at Sparta are traced back to
Herakles, son of Zeus (Hdt. vii. 204, viii. 131).
The king's office is derived from Zeus (II. ii.
197, cf. 101, 205). The kings in Homer are
characterised by personal beauty and vigour of
body and mind (Od. xi. 174, 495), and skill in
manual arts (Od. v. 243, 261, xxiii. rJ5sq., xviii.
36(> sq., xxiv. 226 sq. ; II. iii. 54).
The king succeeds to certain royal posses-
sions termed his refieyos, granted for signal
services in war or peace, and passing from
father to son (II. ix. 578, vi. 193 sq., xii. 313;
Od. xi. 184, xvii. 299, xxiv. 205, vii. 150 ; Hdt.
vi. 161). The king's re/ievos was perhaps the
solitary instance of private property in land,
which was otherwise managed on the conmion-
field system, held in temporary tenure.
The heroic king inherited the threefold func-
tions of high priest, judge, and general (Arist.
Pol. iii. 14).
As high priest he performed, on behalf of the
state, all such functions as were not specially
assigned to other priests (Arist. Pol. iii. 15 ; cf.
also II. ii. 402 sq.). As general, he liad supreme
control of matters in the field, and power of
life and death during expeditions (Arist. Pol. iii.
14 ; see also II. ii. 891 sq., xv. 348). As judge,
the king dispensed the d^/juffres or ' dooms,'
which were divinely suggested to him by @f/j.ii,
the assessor of Zeus (II. ix. 97 sq. ; Hes. Theog.
85). The regal symbol was the ffKrjirrpoi',
which was transmitted from father to son (II.
ii. 100 sq., 186 sq.). The crown is only worn
by the king as high priest.
The king convoked the Council of the Elders
(jSouArj yepovraiv, II. ii. 53) to deliberate on
all matters of policy, military- as well as
civil (II. ix. 89, 100 sq., vii. 382 sq.). The
REX
535
decisions of the king, or of the king and council,
were iniule known to the general assembly of
adult male citizens {ayopd, ayuiv). No debate
was allowed ; the multitude received the will
of the king with silence or with applause ;
objectors were summarily dealt witli (//. ii. "21)5,
Thersites). In the Odyssey, however, some
regard is paid to the S-o/xov ^Tj/Jiis (vi. 273, xiv.
239).
The aiffVfxvriTela or a'tpeTr] rvpavvis was a
non-hereditary despotism, lasting sometimes
for life, sometimes for a specified time, or for a
certain purpose.
The Lakonian kingship was, as defined by
Aristotle [Pol. iii. 14), limited and constitu-
tional (koto v6fi.ov) ; his power only begins
when he is outside Lakonian territory. The
Spartan kingship, originally of the heroic type,
was weakened in course of time by the en-
croachments of the yepovaia, the ecpopui, and tlie
vavapxio.. [TepovaCa : ''E4)opoi : NaTjapxcg.]
The Macedonian kings traced back their
origin to the Herakleid race of Argos. Per-
dikkas I. was the fomider of the monarchy
(Hdt. viii. 137, v. '22). The succession was
hereditary. The Macedonian monarchy of
Philip and jUexander approaches more nearlj-
to the military imperialism of Rome than anj'
other Greek institution. The king and the
army appear to be the sole instruments of
government. The later Greek monarchies
derived from the Macedonian.
2. R()M.\N. — That Rome was once governed
by kings was the universal belief of Roman
antiquity, and has never been doubted. There
is every reason to believe that this form
of constitution was in no degree peculiar to
Rome, but that in this, as in other respects,
Rome was merely a typical Italian community.
A district survival of an original kingly power
is found in the standing dictatorship of certain
Latin towns, such as Lanuvium (C'ic. Mi/. 10, 27).
The ultimatesovereignty resided, not with the
king, but with the community which he repre-
sented, and from which his authority was dele-
gated ; and the constitutional limitation was,
not that of personal rule by the people, but that
of the people by personal rule. This is shown,
firstly, by the fact that the sovereign attribute
of pardon rested with the people in the last
resort (Liv. i. 26 ; Cic. Bej). ii. 31) ; secondly,
by the fact that the Roman people was the sole
source of law, which, though elicited by the
king through his sole right of initiative, could
only be rendered vali<l by the assent of the
burgesses [Lex curiata] ; and, finally, that
tradition affirms it to have been the source of
lionour. (Cf. Cic. Eej). ii. 31 ; Tac. Ann. xi. 21.)
The king, thus representing the authoritj- of
the people, had the whole of the executive, and
so much of the legislative power as is implied
in the sole right of initiative. As supreme
judge he was index, as leader in war praetor
iprae-itor]. The title wliich summed up all his
Ijowers, was tliat of Rex, the "onUrer'of the
state, the regulator of all things imman and
divine; and this title of Rex, when it had
ceased to apply to civil duties, was still applied
to the Rex Sacrorum, the orderer of religion.
Similarly the personal position of the Rex was
denoted by the word rrfjnmn (Cic. Hep. ii. 27) :
but the king's official powers were sununed up
under the word imperiam.
The unique position in the state of tlie
Roman king was expressed by certain special
marks (in.sie/nia). Tlie chief marks of the
regal as of the later consular imperium were
the Fasces and lictores [lictor]. The king
could have the axe borne within the fasces,
even within the walls, as being exempt from
provocatio, and exercising the same full juris-
diction iloini and militiae. Next, the wearing
of the purple must have been wholly reserved
for the king, but whether merely in the form
of the later consular jiraetej-ta (Liv. i. 8) or of
the full purple robe besides the praetexta is
imcertain ; the latter, liowever, is more prob-
able. The purple robe must, however, be
identical with one variety of the trabea, part
of the insignia of the king, and of Latin origin.
It is connected with the name of Romulus
(Quirinalis trabea, Verg. Aeii. vii. 612), and is
associated in the later Republic chiefly with
the officers of religion. If the distinction
between the three kinds of trabea (Serr, ad
Aeu. vii. 612) — the purple one for the priestly
office, that of purple and safifron for the augurs,
and that of purple striped with wiiite for the
king, existed in this early period, tliey nmst have
been all worn by the king for the iierformance
of the several functions of his office (cf. Serv.
ad Aeii. vii. 187, xi. 334 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 503).
Tradition also attributes to the king the eagle-
headed sceptre and the golden crown, as well
as the soliuin or ivory throne (Cic. Fin. ii.
21, 69) and the chariot within the walls, from
which the sella curulis was derived. Most oi
the regal insignia, the crown, the toga picta or
purple robe embroidered with gold [Dress,
Toga] and the chariot especially, reappear in
the Roman triumph, and render probable the
statement that the triumphal insignia of the
Roman magistrate were the revival of those of
the monarchy.
Amongst the privileges of the king must be
counted that jiortion of the jjublic domain (Cic.
liej). V. 2, 3 ; Liv. ii. 5) set apart as rffifvos for
the king's use. This was the private estate or
patrimonium of the king. He was also in a
peculiar degree master of the services of the
cUentes, the body of half-free citizens (Cic.
Rei). 1. c).
The mode in which the Roman kings entered
on their position in the state was certainly
elective (Liv. i. 17 ; Cic. liep. ii. 17, 31), and
conducted in every case with the regular
formalities of the couiitia, the unctorifas
patruni, and the interregnum. The non-
burgess Numa, the foreigner Tarquin, the
slave's son Servius, are all represented as hav-
ing been elected kings of Rome (Liv. i. 18, 35,
42, 46). According to tradition, however, the
fir.st king was not elected (Liv. i. 7, 19). The
monarchy was not hereditary (Cic. liep. ii. 12,
24). The Rex Sacrorum was not elected, but
nominated by the Pontifex Maximus (I^iv. xl.
42, 8) ; nor was the dictator elected. I'rovo-
catio and election went together ; and pn>-
vocatio lay neither from the king nor from the
dictator. It appears that it was the right, and
Iierhaps the duty, of the king of Rome to nomi-
nate his successor; that tiiis noniinntii'. which
became oidy a form under tlic U<'pnblic, was
the chief mode of transmission of office in the
regal period. On the death of the king, the
auspicia (puhlica ; see Augur I lapsed to the
patricians (rcdire ail jialres) represented by
tlie senate. The senate created ( /irailere} an
Interrex, who received tlie auspices from
them, and appointed a new king, transferring
iin|it>rium and auspicia to him, by the unthority
of the senate [attctoritas jiatrnni) wiiii'h was a
necessary condition for the ap))ointment of a
successor to the monarchy \\j\\. i. 17,22, :!2,
536
REX
41, 47) ; and it may be assumed that the king
would be obliged to consult the senate in nomi-
nating his successor. It was an essential
Roman principle that no man in authority
should act without taking advice of his con-
silium. Another principle is that of the
formal ratification of the king's power by the
people, which continued into the Republic
under the title of Lex curiata; and was
the formal sanction always required for the
ratification of an imperium already assumed
(Cic. Le(j. Agr. ii. 10,26, Fam. i. 9, 25; see
Lex curiata and Proconsul). The king him-
self proposed the Lex curiata which was to
sanction his own power (Cic. Rep. ii. 13, 25), as
was indeed necessary, since no other person but
the king had the right of putting the question to
the people (see Liv. i. 42 ; Cic. Bep. ii. 17, 31).
We may then suppose the king to have
first been nominated independently of the people,
(viz. by the interrex, auctoribKs patribus) and
tlien to have challenged their allegiance in this
manner. No exercise of the regal imperium was
valid which was not sanctioned by these two
acts of senate and people, the expressed will
of the one and the declared allegiance of the
other (Cic. Rep. ii. 24, 44).
The king's assumption of his power was
regarded as incomplete until a religious act
had been performed which showed that the
gods sanctioned the rule which he had assumed.
Tliis was the Inauguratio. Tlie ceremony
of inauguration through the spectio of an augur
is represented as having been from the time of
Numa the standing procedure in the act of
entering on the regal office (Liv. i. 18).
The king was first priest, as he was first magi-
strate (Plut. Tih. Gracch. 15), and possessed
the nomination of all other priests. Thus tradi-
tion tells us that the three great Flamines, the
8alii, and the Pont. Max. were instituted by
Numa, altliough most of the important cere-
monies of religion wei'e performed by himself
personally (Liv. i. 20). All the powers that passed
to the Pontifex Maximus as the head of the
Roman priesthood may without hesitation be
attributfd to tlie king.
Tlic Roman kings j)ossessed the sole executive
power of the state, without any of the limita-
tions with which the magistrates of the
Republic were hampered. The king held
ofhce for life ; he had no colleague, and could
therefore be trammelled by no veto. Again,
he was freed from the necessity of allowing the
appeal, and from the necessity of delegating
his power to other officials or ajipointing special
standing offices for special purjKises. The
regal imperium, being thus unshackled, was
exercised both domi and militiae ; and gave
the king full power over the lives and persons
of the citizens, as well within as without the
walls of Rome. But the king's power could
not have been free from the limitations imposed
by custom and constitutional usage. The acts
of one king must have bound the acts of his
successor, and it was hardly possible for a king
to overstep the constitutional usages of his
predecessor (cf. T&c. An)i. iii. 26). Such usages
are said to have been those embodied in the
leges regiae collected by Papirius, the earliest
customary i)nblic law of Rome. [Iu8 Papiri-
anum ; Edictum.J Amongst such constitutional
obligations was that of consulting the senate in
any important matter ; and on certain occasions
(as e.g. declaration of war), the people. The
king had the entire disposal of the booty taken
in war and of the conquered lands (Cic. Rep. ii.
REX NEMORENSIS
9, 14), and the right of making treaties with
conquered states. Not only was the senate
consulted as a body on matters of state,
but the special consilia, we are told, which
the king chose to advise him in special
matters, as in the exercise of his jurisdiction,
were taken from this body ; again, regular
delegates were appointed Ijy the king for the
exercise of special functions, especially the
praefectus urbis, an alter ego left behind by
the king for the control of the capital, when
himself absent on foreign ser^^ce (Tac. Ann. vi.
11; Liv. i. 59). The collective imperium of the
king may be described by its three sides — of
(a) command in war, [b] jurisdiction, and (c) the
ius rogandi. For (a) military command the king
possessed delegates such as the tribunicelerum
(Liv. i. 59). In the matter of jurisdiction (6) we
are told that a distmction was made, the more
important cases being tried by the king in
person, assisted by his consilium, the less im-
portant transmitted to judges chosen from the
senate, probably under directions (formula)
furnished by the king (Liv. i. 26). There is
reason to suppose that duumviri perdiiellionis
or quaestorcs existed under the kings. Whether
they were a permanent or an occasional insti-
tution, or whether they sat alone or as tlie
king's assessors, is uncertain. We are further
told that all civil jurisdiction was performed in
the king's courts (iudiciis regiis, Cic. Rep.x.
2, 3), and that these were generally relegated to
indices along with a formula such as that given
in criminal jurisdiction. The king has no dis-
pensing power; pardon resides witli the people,
the ultimate sovereign. Though the provocatio
existed in the regal period (Liv. viii. 33 ; Cic.
Mil. 3, 7, Rep. ii. 31), yet the citizens have no
standing right of ai)peaJ against the king. The
king TuUus Hostilius allows the appeal (Liv.
i. 26), but as a matter, not of law, but of consti-
tutional usage (cf. Liv. ii. 18, iii. 55, viii. 33).
The limitation of tlie king's power came here,
as elsewhere, from the force, not of law, but of
custom. It was the violation of these checks
by the last king which brought about the
revolution ; and this accounts not only for the
revolution itself, but for the associations which
immediately gathered round the words rex and
I regniim, and remained connected with them to
the close of the Republic (Cic. Rep. ii. 30),
these names becoming still more hateful as
contact with the outer world made the Romans
realise in single rule only the evils of Oriental
I desjiotism (cf. Liv. ii. 8; Plut. Poplic. 12).
The mere charge of regnum adfectatum often
proved the ruin of eminent men in Rome,
I such as Sp. Maelius and Tib. Gracchus (Cic.
i&. 27), and lastly of the dictator Caesar (Cic.
I Fam. xi. 27, 8 : cf. Q. Fr. i. 2, 16, Att. viii.
11, 3). (c) The king, as supreme magistrate,
had tlie sole right to ask (rogare) the people to
pass a law.
Bex Nemore'nsis. The priest of Diana in the
grove by the lake of Nemi {L. Neinoreiisis)
near Aricia (Verg. ^(?/i. vii. 761 ; Ov. Met. xv.
497, Fast. vi. 75()). This priesthood was
gained by killing the holder of it : the aspirant
must be a fugitive ; he must pluck the golden
bough (pei'haps the mistletoe) from a tree in
this grove (Serv. ad Aen. vi. 136), and then fight
with the priest, who went about ever on guard
with a drawn sword. If he wins in this duel,
he takes the office and title of the slain : if he
falls, the priesthood is unchanged, till a stronger
assailant comes (Suet. Cal. 35; see also Ov.
Fast. iii. 266).
REX SACRORUM
Hex Sacro'rum or Sacrtlm. When the
moiiaicliy Ciuiie to an end, the cliief sacred
functions of the king passed to the Pontifex
Maxinuis [PontifexJ, hut a certain part fell to
tlie Rex Sacrorum, a priest who preserved tlie
name of king as the ^aaiKtus did at Athens.
The oflice was not peculiar to Rome ; there was
a Rex Sacrorum at Tusculum, at Lanuviuxn,
and at other places.
The Rex Sacrorum helonged to the collegium
of which the Pontifex Maxinius was the
head, and tlie iiontitices and tlamines wore
nienihers [Pontifexj. His wife was called
rcfjiiia sacrorum. In the ordo sacerdutum he
stands first, above the three chief tlamines,
and at the priestly banquet he sat in the first
place, and next to him the flamen dialis. He
ranked, however, below the Pontifex Maxi-
nius in real dignity as well as in political
importance (Liv. ii. '2), and was practically only
a subordinate member of the college of ponti-
tices, nominated by them, appointed by tlie
PontiiVx ]\Iaxiinus, and inaugurated by the
augurs. The office of Rex Sacrorum was held
for hfe, and he was always a patrician (Liv. vi.
41).
On the kalends of eacli month, the state of
the moon having been announced to liim by
one of the pontitices, the Rex summoned the
people m Comitia calata to the Curia Calabra
on the Caiiitol, announced when the nones
of that month would fall, and offered sacrifice
tliere to Janus, wliile his wife offered in the
Regia ; on the nones the people were again
gathered in the Arx to learn from his declara-
tion (edictnm) what festival days fell in that
month, and he oilered the sacra )ionalia in
arre : see also Agonia; Eegifugium.
The Rex Sacrorum was cut off from political
power and incapable of holding any other office
(Liv. xl. 4'2). The office, being purely ceremo-
nial, and regularly divorced from power and
influence in the state, became less and less
coveted (cf. Jjiv. xxviii. (!), though it survived
at any rate till the middle of the third century
of the Clu-istiaii em. [Sacerdos.]
Rhetor. [Ludus litterarius ; Declamatio.]
Rhetra {p-i^rpa). A law, covenant, nr decree,
a pledge, a treaty, a resolution or prujct dc loi,
&c. It is also used as an oracle (or tlie expla-
nation in prose of an oracle) given at the
shrine of Delphi. Certain pTJrpai, which Lyk-
iirgus is said to have received from Delphi,
were preserved at Sparta. Tliey are : the
building of a temple to Zeus Hellanios and
Athena Hellania ; tlie division of the people
into (pvKai and ojjSai ; the establislunent of the
yepovaia of '28 y4povTis with the two kings ; the
tailing together of the peoj)le at the time of the
full moon (see Thuc. i. 67).
The real dates of these ^Tjrpai are very
<loubtful. It is antecedently probable that the
story of the visit to Delphi and the oracle
given is a mythical representation of what
Lykurgus effected, not the historical basis of
his action.
This explanation applies also to the other
prirpai, which were merely general formulae,
and by no means explicit laws. The second
rhetra runs, n^ xprjcrdai vofxots eyypa,(pois, i.e.
the Lacedaemonians had no written code of
laws, never going beyond the stage of customary
law [Nomos] ; the third enacts that the roofs
of all houses should be built of timber ; the
fourth forbade frecpient expeditions against the
same enemy, for fear of teaching them the art
of war.
RHYTHinCA
537
A late ^Vjrpo, attributed to the kings Theo-
pompus and Polydorus (c. 750 B.C.), gave power
to the senate and the king, 'in case the jieopli!
decided crookedly,' to reverse their decision ;
and another in the same reign (7.57 B.C.) esta-
blished or remodelled the institution of Ephors
["Eejjopot].
Rhombus. (1) = a-rpofiiKos [Games, Top'].
(2) Turbo.,
Rhomphae'a (Ru'mpia; (>oncpata). A Thra-
cian broadsuord. Tlu' word is late Greek
(Gen. jii. 24, LXX ; St. Luke, ii. :^.5, &c.). The
^ofi.(paia was of great length (Liv. xxxi. 39), and
had a long liandle (Val. Fl. vi. 9H).
Rhy'thmica. The sources from which our
knowledge of Greek rhythm is to be dra\m are
the remains of Greek poetry and music, and
the extant Greek and Latin writings on rhythm
and metre ; especially those of Aristoxenus (...
320 B.C.) and Hephaestion (c. 150 .\.D.)
Rhythm in its strict sense consists of a
continuous succession of short eipial intervals
of time, marked off from one another as sepa-
rate groups, equal or unequal, by the alterna-
tion of an accentuated and an unaccentuated
element: accent (it must be understood) being
used in the sense of stress or ictus, not of musi-
cal pitch (tSvos), which is the proper meaning
of the word. The Greek acute accent marks
the syllable on which it is placed as being pro-
nounced on a note higher in the musical scale
than the other syllables in the word : but accent
has no influence on rhytlmi, which is deter-
mined by time (quantity) and stress (icfi(.s).
Rhythmical intervals may be marked in differ-
ent ways, e.ff. by musical sounds, or by syllables,
or, as in dancing, by the motions of the body.
Rhythm implies inequality and proportion.
There is no rhythm in the ticking of a clock.
The accentuated part (syllable, mora) of any
group of sounds is called by the ancient Greeks
^dffLS, or Didis, the unaccentuated part &p(ns.
Other names are, for the dftris, 6 koltw xpovos
or rh KUTO) ; for the dpcris, 6 &vw xp^^o^ or to
&v(i} (cf. Plat. llcp. iii. p. 400 B). These terms
originated in the fact that the accentuated por-
tion of the group was marked by setting down
the foot, the unaccentuated by lifting it uji. But
most modern writers, following the example of
Bentley, and the Romans, give the terms the
I exactly opposite meaning, arsis denoting the
I I'aising of the voice, i.e. the accentuated syllable,
i thesis the dropping of the voice, i.e. the unac-
I centuated syllable. In this article the words are
[ used ill their modern (Roman) or conventional
senses.
j The SyUahlc. — Rhythm when applied to
I language is marked by an alternation of accen-
j tuated and luiaccentuated syllables. In Greek
i and Latin there is afurtlier distinction between
I long and short syllables. Tlie rhytlimical
groups or ' feet ' are generally, but not invari-
ably, marked by an alternation of long and
short syllables, the icttis falling more fre-
quently on the long tliuii on the short syllable.
Tlie long syllable in its normal value isc(iual to
two short syllables, but s(nnetimes lias tlie value
of three, four, and even five short syllables, tlie
symbols of these values being as follows : —
k— for the long syllable wliicli = tliree sliort si'llables.
I— I „ ,, =four „
uj „ „ =tive „
These values may be compared with ' dotted
notes ' in modern musical notation. The short
syllable being regarded as the usual unit of
time (xpovos irpuTos, cr-qixeiov), the long syllable
538
may be either Sixpovos (or 5laT]/xos), rpixpovos
(rpiffrifMos), &c. The name ruvn was apphed
to the prolongation of the long syllable beyond
its usual value. The Greeks also recognised
rests (Kiuoi sc. xpovoi, Ki'i^fxaTa), or pauses
{■npoaSiffeis), which were noted in a similar
manner.
A, Kevo% ^paxv's (or A€r/n;ixa=one short syllable).
A, Ktvoi fjLCLKpos (or 7rpda9e<ns=one long syllable).
't, Kevoi /ixaxpo? Tptxporos = three short syllables.
"^i Kevoi /jLOKp'o^ TCTpaxpovoi = four short syllables.
I. The Foot. — The smallest rhythmical
groups marked by alternation of arsis and thesis
are called 'feet' {wodes, peclt'sj.
Genus. — These feet are divided into three
genera, according to the relations between
the arsis and the thesis. (1) Feet in which
arsis : thesis :: 2 : 1, as e.g. the trochee or
choreus
,' - ^ 2 IN
Xvrja-os ~ . ^ J,
or 1 : 2, the iambus
/ w I- 1 ! 2\
\K(iK\(t>v '-'\~ ),
RHYTHMICA
(3) tribrach, rpi^paxvs, trihrachya
\iro\ifJiOS, ^ vy v^j.
The yevos iffov comprises two species :
(1) dactyl, Sd/cTuAos, dacti/lus
\oupavos, — ^ ^),
anapaestus.
(2) anapaest, a.va.irai(TTos,
antidacfi/his
\Tro\i/ji.ov, ^ sj —)•
The yivos iraiwviKov three species :
(1) cretic or amphimacer, kp7)tik6s, cifjL(pi-
fjMKpos, creticus, amphimacrus
i ")
\ovpavov, — ^ —J,
(2) bacchiac, 0aKxe7os, bacchius (T)
\IJ.evovTwv, ^ - —),
(3) antibacchiac, Tra\ifj.^a.Kx^i-os or inro-
fiuKX^ios, antibacchius
avQpoitros
.--J.
belong to the yet/os SiirKdcriov or laufiiKou;
(2) those in which arsis : thesis :: 2 : 2, as e.g. (The last two names are sometimes reversed).
the dactyl
{KOi\pauos -I--A ! (1) 1^^^ (-2)^1^
(We may add to these the four paeons
or anapaest
/^ ^ - 1 1 2 \
Kvcrofxivos
(3) V. «. - ^
SiaKTOpos /j.axeo'o.tTu
to the yfvos Icrov or SoktvAikov; (3) those in
which arsis : thesis :: 3 : 2, as e.g. the cretic
\ovpavov ^ ),
or the bacchiac, and antibacchiac,
/vj - - 1 2 ■2\ /- - ^ - i - M
VA^tj^'oi ^ ~ ~/, \avQpwiros ~ \ ~ ^J,
to the yevos r}fj.i6\tov or iratwviKOf.
Again, in a line like
(o TfKva KaSl/Jiov Tov ira\ai •&C.
(4) v.^^-)
iro\€ixiwv.
I Combinations of feet. — Combinations of
] feet containing an etjual number of vmits of
I time are called eirnrAoKai.
' 1. (a) - v^ I w -, or ifi) ^ - I _ ^ is 4iriir\oKT)
■ rpi(rr)fjios, of three units
/2 1 ^ 1 1 1\
SvaSiKri, because containing two species, (a)
, trochee and (j3) iambus.
I 2. (a) _ ^ v., I ^ „ _, or (3) ^ ^ _ 1 _ ^ ^, is
' hr. TerpaffTj/uos, of four units
/'2 1 1 ^ 1 1 1 i\
V — \^ \./ \j \^ \^ %^/»
the first and fifth syllables, occupying each the '.
place of a short syllable in a pure iambic line, ,
are counted as neither long nor short, but ' SwoSiffTj, because containing two species, (a)
intermediate in the proportion of lito2; 1 | dactyl and (3) anapaest. , ^
representing the normal short, and 2 the normal i 3. (a) Ionic a maiore, IwviKhv airh /xu^ovos,
long syllable. This proportion is called ' in-a- I
tional ' {a\oyos xpofos). \
In the tragic or senarian iambic the following j
substitutions for the iambus are found : ,
Io7iicns a maiore
5 _ f r;_
(6) Choriambic, x'^P'^M^aJ ('•^- Xopf^o^
— "^ + iau0os ^ ~), choriambua.
in the comic senarian a dactyl is admitted in ,
the 1st, 3rd and oth places, and an anapaest
in aU but the 6th. |
Species. — The subdivisions or equivalent
forms of each yevos are called ttSri {S2>ecies).
Thus the yevos SnrKdmou contains three etSTj:
(1) trochee, rpoxofos, xopf'o^) trochaeus,
choreus
iV - ^ ^ -I.
yatSo/xevaiv
(c) Ionic a minore, iaviKov an i\d(r(Tot'os,
lonicns a minore
(s.^ - - \
XAyafxeuvaiy ^ ^ '.
[vrjffos, - „ j,
(2) iambus, foyu/Sos, iambus
\iyoi, ^ -),
(d) Antispastic, avTlairaffros, antispasticus
\fpiySovnos ^ ^),
is ivLirKoKT] e^darifjLOS
/'2 211^111111\
rerpaSiKii, because containing four species, (a),
(6), (f), and (d).
The metres which are combined in each genus.
RHYTHMICA
539
as r.(j. the trochaic and the iambic, are said to
be opposed to one another, avTnraOri.
SdiiK! of the feet given above are usually
combined in couples, the ictus on one foot being
stronger tlian the ictus on the other with which
it is combined.
Thus : - ^ - ^, yj - ^ L, ^ ^ '1 ^ ^ L ;
or, - ^ -
\-/> \J — v.*—) \J \^ — vy^^— •
A verse which is scanned in double feet is said
KOTO (Tvi^vyiav fiaivfirdai {j8oiV«(rflai — ' to be
scanned '), and the combination of two feet is
called a 5(7ro5ia, 0dats, or fxeTpov. Hence the
(senarian) iambic line of six feet is called a tri-
meter, the anapaestic line of four feet a dimeter,
A-c.
II. The Sentence (kwXov). — A series of feet
recurring without a break would soon become
monotonous. Hence the feet are combined in
larger groups called KwKa or ' sentences.'
The structure of these KwKa is similar to
that of the feet. The three genera of KwKa
are given below :
r yeVos to-or.
!■ = 12
^1.
^-\
yfVo? StwAacrior.
j = 15 yeVos r}iii6\i.ov,
— v.^ — v^ — wi — v^ — ^^ I
The dactyl or anapaest may form /ccDXa of two,
thi'ee, four, or five feet :
:::(=
= 12 yeVo? Si7rAo<r:oi'.
= 2(1 yeVos rjfj.i.<i\i.ov.
Similar distributions of feet in Ku>\a apply to
the paeonic or cretic, and to the ionic or chori-
ambic rhythms.
It is probable that the unity of the KoiiKov
was marked by its having one ictus stronger
than the rest and dominating the group.
In each of the Ka>\a liitherto considered the
feet are all of the same metrical value, i.e. all
trochees, iambics, dactyls, anapaests, i<:c. The
only exception is that of the ' irrational ' spon-
dee in trochaic and iambic metres, r.fj.
I I "^ - (w T6/CV o KaSfx ov) for
' \\ K>>v \ lovr i).
There is, however, a class of metres in which
feet of different metrical value, viz. trochees
and dactyls (or iambics and anapaests), e.g.
-^[-0| -v^w| --/ |-v^||, are combined in
the same kQiKov. These metres are called
' mi.xed ' (ixiKra), or logaoedic {KoyaoihiKo.,
' prose-verse '). The latter name was probably
given to these metres because, from their
apparent irregularity, they seemed to be inter-
mediate between prose (\6yos) and poetry or
song (dotSri). It is generally supposed that the
time occupied by the trochee and the dactyl
nmst have been equal. There may, liowever,
have been some loss of value in the longer feet
in such systems, which may be expressed in
figures as follows : If in the trochee the long
syllable = 2 and the short syllable = 1, then in
the dactyl the long syllable = ", the short
syllable = ^. Tlien the trochee = 2 -)- 1 = 3,
tiie dactyl = 'I + ^ + J^^ t^ r- 3. Possibly,
however, the ear was satisfied if tlie time occu-
pied by the two feet was approximately equal,
the difference between them being imper-
ceptible, without any obvious violation of the
usual proportion between long and short
syllables.
The logaoedic kwXov may consist of either
two, three, four, five, or even six feet.
The principal logaoedic verses are :
1. Adonic {b.'5aiviK6s)
— \j \j I — o
(rvij.fi.axos ' t(T(To
(the last verse of the Sapphic stanza).
2. Pherecratic {(pep€KpaTiK6s)
eTTTOiri/A oiat
&ri0ai9
(catalectic)
Teyyofj.fl/ oi ko posA .
(6) - G - ^^ w - G
KoiKa Sv(T({>opov arav '.
(catalectic)
— w — ^^ v-/ — G
KOV(pov a.Kfj.a iro Swvf\.
3. Glyconic {yKuKun/iKos)
fxr] Kara i tov vt avi av j.
('») - G - vy ^ - v./ - A
67)^a TCiiv trponp oiv (pa. 1 os
(porta I ^avra ] ■navcrayi I a \.
4. Alcaic. 5. Sapphic, in which the prin-
cipal difference between the Greek and the
Horatian verse is tiie admission of a short
syllable in the 5th place of the former.
Gi-v./1-CI-vyv./l-wlvyA (Alcalcl.
— V./I— Gl— ^vjI— v./!— G (Sapphic).
If the account of the logaoedic kwXov here
given is correct, the time occupied by all the
feet whicli compose it is the same ; but there is
one peculiar metre, the dochmiac, hixfiios,
dochtuins, tlie fcwAa of whicli are composed of
feet which probably dilTer from one another in
duration. Tlie normal form of the dochmiac
is s^ v^ -, but it assumes as many as thirty
various forms by resolution of - into ^ ^.
It is doubtful whether the chief ictus is on tiie
first or on the second long syllable, i.e.
^ /- - - v' - \
'-' ^ ~ \ uKoinav Ta\as /,
or ^
( ^ - - - -\
'-' ^ ~ \KaKwv irrifjartuv J .
The dochmiac seems to consist of a union of
feet in which there is a real change of rhythm,
one foot being in three time, the other in fivo
time, /.('. w-|-v^- or \j 1^.*— ■
A KwKov may either be completelj' filled by
the syllables used in their ordinary metrical
5i0
EHYTHMICA
value, or it may require for its completion a
pause {\e7fj.ij.a, TrpuTdfcris) or a prolongation
{rov-l}) of a syllable beyond its ordinary value.
The trochaic tetrapody -w|-0|-^|-v^|],
e.g., is complete [acatalectic, aKara-XriKTiKov),
while the kuiKov -^\-^\-'^\ -\\ is in-
complete {catalectic, KaTa\r]KTiK6v) and requires
either a pause -v^|-^|-v./|-a|| or a
in-olongation -v./|-^^|-^^|i_|| for its com-
jjletion. A KU)\ov scanned in couples of two
feet (Kara ffv{vyiav) which wants one foot
{- v^ I - w ||- w a" II) is called brachijcatalec-
iic {^paxuKaraKtiKTov). Wlien a KwAof which
is scanned Kara crv^vyiav has one apparently
superfluous syllable exceeding the last dipody
in the kSjAov, as e.cf. in v^ — ._» - | >^ - v^ - | ^, it
is said to be liypercatalectic {uirepKaTd\r]KTOv).
in. The Period. — As a combination of feet
fonns a Kw\oy, so a combination of KcoAa
forms a irepiohos or period. As the unity of
the Ka>Kop was marked by one ictus stronger
than the rest, so the imity of the period
was marked (probably) by the modulation of
the voice varying in pitch and intensitj' with
the beginning, middle, and end of the period,
and certainly by the admission of a distinct
pause at the end of the period, separating it
from what follows. This pause is indicated in
three ways. (1) Each period ends with the end
of a word. (2J Hiatus, i.e. the concurrence of
two vowels without elision, is allowed at the
■end of a period. (8) The last syllable of each
period may be either long or short (avKKa^^i
a.did(popos, syllaba anceps) without reference to
the quantity strictly required by the rhythm.
This is explained by the pause at the end of
the period, which makes up the required length.
The pause may occur at the end of a single
KwKov : in this case the k(i>Kov is a period.
Tlie word period is the most general term for a
KuKov (or a combination of kmKo.) after which
a distinct pause is admissible.
In the anapaestic and some other lyrical
metres the rhythm is continuous, i.e. no pause
occurs till the end of a system or Strophe.
This continuity is called synaphea {<rvya.<peia).
The iambic trimeter (six feet) and the dac-
tylic hexameter (six feet) are each called arixos.
Another name for a period not exceeding eight
feet is ixerpov.
The commonest form of the ' veVse ' in non-
lyrical poetry is that which is formed by two
KuKa: this structure is illustrated by the dac-
tylic hexameter (a), the iambic trimeter (6),
and the trochaic tetrameter (c) :
(6) 1. ^ _ ^ _ ^ * _ : !| ^ _.
2. ^ ^-11^*-^
(c) -s^-G-^-ctll-w-G-v-HA!!-
The comma and the colon in this notation indi-
cate the end of a word. When a verse of two
/ccSAo is divided in such a way that the thesis
of the first kwXov is formed by the beginning of
a word belonging to the second kcvAov, it is
said to have a caesura (to/xt}) ; when the end of
the first KoiKov coincides with the end of a
word, it is said to be divided by Siai'petns. The
dactylic hexameter (<■() and the iambic trimeter
{h) have caesura marked by * : the trochaic
tetrameter has diaeresis, marked by t. In the
iambic specimens (b) given above, the caesura
(i.e. the end of a woi-d) occurs (1) after the third
thesis (penthemiijieral, ■KipOrt^iiixtpos^TrivTi-
rifilfifpos), (2) after the fourth tliesis (hepthe-
mimeral, e<p67)fj.iiJLepos). It may be familiarly
stated as a change from iambic to trochaic
rhythm ; thus :
(1)
"C/
'•^^
Padus Matlna * laverlt cacumina.
(2)
* <?>.
Qnid iste fert tumiUtus * aut quid omnium.
Iambic lines are also not unfrequently divided
by diaeresis, e.g.
aKTlvas upfj.r]97] f ffecrctXTfifyos Kvpii.
ois KapTa jMoi (Xaipuis f eS-fiKucras KaKti.
Arj^ai 9fo0\aPovi/d' t virepKSirtfi Opdaet.
(The last of these differs from the other two,
in having an elision after the fifth syllable,
forming a quasi-diaeresis.)
In these verses the Kci>Ka belong to the same
species ; there are, however, verses or periods
in which the combined KuAa belong ap-
parently to different genera. Such rhytluns
are called fj.eTpa. iiriavvdiTa. Such is the verse
— v^v^ — vy^ 11 — w-G — V- — w II, which ap-
pears to be a combination of the Kw\a con-
tained in the dactylic hexameter and the
trochaic tetrameter. These episynthetie metres
are also called dactijlo-trochaic or dactyJo-
epitritic, according as the trochees are pure
{e.g. - _ - v^), or admit the 'irrational' syllable
There is another term for certain combina-
tions of dissimilar KwXa in periods. This is the
word asynartete. Bentley, in a note on the 11th
Epode of Horace, arrives at the conclusion that
asynartete verses are those in which there is
a combination of Kco\a belonging to different
rhythmical genera, e.g. dactylic and trochaic, as
in the verse — ^^J-C^^ — v^w-s./v^-ji — v^ — ^— g||,
and in wliich, although the two KwKa coalesced
to form a verse, the preceding kuAov was sepa-
rated by a pause from the following, so that
hiatus and ' syllaba anceps ' were allowable, as
in the lines of Horace : (dactylic — iambic)
nrgiiit ft latere petltus imo spiritus
Epod. xi. 10.
fervidiore mero || arcana promorat loco
Epod. -xi. 14.
Another instance is the 13th Epode : (iambic^
dactylic)
reducet in sedem vice || nunc et Achaemenlo
But as this explanation will not apply to all
such verses, the meaning of the term asjmartete
cannot be determined with certainty.
IV. The Strophe. ^When either a single
rhythmical period exceeding the limits of a
verse, or a combination of periods, is repeated in
the same form, such a period, or combination of
periods is called a strophe., and, if it is repeated
only once, it is called on its recurrence an anti-
strophe. A simple instance is the strophe (or
PTTON
distich) formed by the dactylic hexameter and
pcntiimeter, being aciitalectic in the first verse
and catalectic in the second. Other famihar
(i.xaniples are the Alcaic and Sapphic and some
asck'piudic strophes (or stanzas), each consist-
ingot fourlines. In the odes of Pindar a further
development is found. The strophe and anti-
strophe are here usually succeeded by a strophe
of another metrical form, which is called an
ejxulc (iir(pS6s). The triad formed by strophe,
antistroplie, and epode, is then repeated. The
metrical structure of tlie fourth Pythian ode of
I'indar is formed by a strophe, antistroplie, and
ei)ode, each of which occurs thirteen times.
In Pindar and the dramatic jwets tliere is, as
a rule, an exact, not merely quantitative, but
syllabic correspondence between strophe and
antistroplie.
Metrical compositions ai"e either Kara crTi'xoi'
or Kara av(rTr\ixaTa {ffvmr)ixaTiKa}, an<l in the
latter case they fall into fuilher subdivisions,
e.g. TO. Kara (rxfcnf and to. e| dfioiimv. They
are Kara (rrixou when thej' are composed in
' verses ' of the same length which do not fall
into definite gi'oups : c.i/. the Greek epics in
hexameter verse. They are Kara crxiffi-v when
they contain strophes and antistioplies, as
the odes of Pindar and most of the lyrical
portions of the drama. They are ^| b^ioioiv
when they are composed of a series of K<ii\a
of the same metre, forming groups which are
vmequal in extent, and each of which exceeds
the limits of a verse. Such are the ana-
paestic hypermetra used often in tragedy,
consisting mainly of groups of anapaestic di-
meters ocatalectic, e.g. \j\j - \ ^^^j - | v>^- |
^^ - II, terminated by a catalectic dimeter, e.g.
ToiovS' I OTrejSrj I ToSe Trpay/x | a '
and the basis anapaestica or monometer (lialf-
verse)
Vy Vrf — I ».* N-/ — II
ffTepOTTTJS I foTTupOl ||
errootS | ataiv ||
Tons aovs j Se irovov% ||.
Sometimes a lyrical passage is composed of
periods of different metrical form and length
without aiitistropliic responsion (oiroAf Au/ueVor),
as in melodies sung by actors on the stage (to
airh ffKr\v7)s) in the Greek drama. A composition
containing all these different forms of metrical
structure (as e.g. a Greek play), is called fiiKTov.
AuthoriticK : Rossbach and Westphal, Metrik
d. Gi:\ Gleditsch, Metrik, Ac; Schmidt, Gr.
Metrik; Jebb, Introd. to Oecl. T//r. pp. Ixiv-
xcviii.
'PvTov. A drinking-cup, commonly in the
form of an animal's head or other fantastic
ROSTRA nil
Eun. iv. 6, 15, where a cistella is said to be in
riscu).
Bobiga'Iia, a public festival in honour of
tlie god Robigus, to preserve the fields from
mildew, said to have been instituted by Xuma,
was celebrated on Ajiril 2.^. A procession
was made to the grove of Robigus (or Robigo,
five miles out of Rome on tin: Via Claudia,
where sacrifices were offered by the Flainen
Quirinalis, a sheep and a dog (Ov. Fast. iv.
907). It is probable that the deity Robigus.
represents ^Nlars KusticuB.
Robur. [Career.]
Roga'tio. (Lex. I
Rogus. [Funus.
Rora'rii. [Exercitus.i
Rostra. A stage or )ilatform (trihiinnl. sug-
gesting) at Rome, first between tlie Comitiuni
and Forum, afterwards in the Forum, froia
which orators addressed the people [Contio.]
This platform was originally called templum
(Liv. ii. 5(>, viii. 14), because it was consecrated
by the augurs (Cic. Vnt. 10, 21) [Templum] ;
but received the name of liostra at the con-
clusion of the Latin "War, 338 K.c, when C.
Maenius adorned it with the beaks (rostra) of
the ships taken from the Antiates (Liv. viii. 14 ;
Plin. xxxiv. § 20).
The ancient Rostra were near tlie middle of
the north side of the Forum, between the
Comitium, or place of meeting for the curies,
and the Forum, or place of meeting for the
>"v' .'.•■■'.».•.',■.■ r.\;iv?^.'','>".'i-'-.'v;";>:.'- j-r-
v:.|
COHRETE WALL FACED WIT.1 CKICK
1
■ ■■■■ ■■■
PAVINO or HERRING-BONE ORICK ■
5."
Fig. 914.— Plan of later Hostra. (Middlcton.)
whole people, so that the speaker might turn
to the one or the other. It became a mark of
democratic principles to turn the back on tlie
Comitium and speak towards the Forum (Cic.
Lael.ln, 96; Plut. C. Gracch. 0). Here the
Gracchi propounded their laws, and Cicero
spoke against Catiline. Here were exposed the
Front of Rostra
Fig. 918.— Etruscan rhyUr. (Pennls.)
shape. It was held above the montli, and the
liquor flowed from the point. [Pottery.]
Rica, Rici'nium. [Dress; Flamen; Mimus.]
Riscus (J>l(TKos). A coffer or cupboard (Ter.
i lif (J IJ 1? IJ
I? B^ (J U IJ IJ
Fig. 91.'..- EIoTBtlon of part of later Rostra, (tllddlcton.)
B, rostra; C, plinth : 1>, cornice; E, cancclll.
heads of the victims of the proscrijitions of
Marius and Sulla. According to Dio Cassias
(xliii. 49), Julius Caesar (44 B.C.) transferred the
position of the Rostra to the western end of the
512
ROSTRATA COLUMNA
Forum. It was reached by steps from the back,
and was a rectangular platform, 78 feet long, 33
feet broad, and 11 feet above the pavement of
the Forum ; along the front, facing the Forum,
there were marble railings [cancelli], except in
the centre, where the speaker stood : in this
central portion it is probable that there was
originally a lower stage, the locus inferior, 5g
feet beneath the level of the higher platform,
or Rostra proper, and as many above the pave-
ment of the Forum. At each end were colossal
seated figures (cf. Cic. Phil. i.x:. 2, 5). In the
remains of the Rostra holes and metal pins may
still be seen where the thirty-nine ships' beaks
Fig. 016.
-Rostra, from the Arch of Constantine.
(Middleton 8 Home.)
were fixed. On the Rostra were also fixed the
Twelve Tables of the law, and ancient honorary
statues (Plin. xxxiv. 24).
Tlie liostra Iidia formed tlie projecting
podium of the Aedes Divi luli, built by
Augustus, on which were fixed the beaks of
ships taken at Actium. The locus inferior
was the place whence a^^rtya^iis could speak
in the suasio or discussion of a rogation. The
superior magistrate who convened the assembly
luiglit order anyone to speak from the lower
platform {ex inferiore loco) (Cic. Att. ii. 24, 3;
cf. Suot. lid. 15). At a later time the Rostra
had only one ])latform.
Rostra'ta colu'mna. [Columna.]
Rostrum. (1) iNavis.J (2) [Falx.] (3)
[Aratrum.l (4) [Lucerna.]
Rota. Tlie various kinds of wheels are
desiribod under Currus, MacMna, Mola, Tym-
panum, Antlia ; rotti (if/uhiris I Pottery].
(Plant. Epid. iii. 2, 35; Hor. ^.P. 21.)
Rubri'ca. Red ochre ; used for writing and
painting advertisements, dec, on an Album.
Tlie first words of a law were written in ver-
milion (miniiini) : hence (Pers. v. 90) riibrica
= lex; and the title ( = titidiis, Ov. Trist. i.
1, 7) of any book. Horace {Sat. ii. 7, i)0) men-
tions posters of gladiatorial games with pictures
sketched in rubrica and charcoal.
Rudia'rii, Rudis. [Gladiatores.]
Rudis. (1) [Gladiatores.] (2) (diin. Rudi-
CUla, K\)Kr)Qpov, Plin. xxxiv. 54). A wooden or
iron rod or spatula for
&c..
[Dress.]
A female
stirring liquids,
while boilinsr.
Ruga. (1
(2) [Coclea.]
screw.
Runca'tio. [Agri-
culture.] (Plin. xviii.
21. etc.) _
Runci'na {pvKxvr) ;
Kg. 917.-Rvmcina (plane), runcinare, ^vKai'a,'). A
plane. Planes some-
"tixnes, but not always, had a wooden box, with
SACERDOS
two holes for the passage of the shavings, one
on each side of the handle.
Runco. A weeding-hook with a cutting edge
and curved outline like a Falx.
Rutrum, dim. Rute'llum, Ruta'bulum. A
kind of hoe, shovel, or spud, probably of iron,
which had the handle fixed perpendicularly
into the middle of the blade, thus differing from
the Rastrum. It was used before sowing to
level the ground, by breaking the clods (cf.
Verg. Georg. i. 105). A wooden rutrum was
used in mixing lime or clay with water and
straw to make plaster for walls (Plin. xxxvi.
23, § 55). In Vitr. vii. 3 it appears to be a
plasterer's trowel of iron.
Hutelluni is also a small implement like a
banker's shovel, used as a strickle or strike to
level or strike a measure (Lucil. ix. 18).
The word rutabulum denoted a wooden hoe
or rake of the same construction, which was
used for stirring the hot ashes of a baker's
oven, and to mix the contents of the vats in
which wine was made.
S.
Saccus. A bag of any kind; especially (1) a
form of female head-dress. [Coma.] (2) A
strainer, saccus vinarius {(xaKKos), i.e. a linen
bag, limun (Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 54; Mart. xiv. 103,
104), or liiitea. [Cf. Colmn.] (3) Saccus
nivarius, 'VvKTrjp.
Sace'llam, a diminutive of sacer, signifies a
small place consecrated to a deity with an altar
in it. It is further defined as being without a
roof. Often besides the altar there was a shrine
[Aedicula] (Ov. Fast. v. 130). The sacred
spot was usually pi'otected by a fence {cancelli,
concameratio ferrea, maceria). The word
caulae duavSpai, ■mpifioKos), properly used of
sheep-hurdles, is also used as a general term for
this fence (see Serv. ad Verg. Aen. vii. 610, ix.
(50). These sacella, if publicly consecrated, were
distinguished as sacella publica [cf. Magister
vicorum], and, with luci and deluhra, were
included under the general term /a «a [Fanum].
Such was the sacellum of Hercules in tlie
Forum Boarium, of the Lares (Tac. Ann. xii.
24), &c. These were of earlier date than tlie
more costly aedes or templum. The Romans
dedicated also sacella privata on their own
properties (Cic. Att. xii. 18).
Sace'rdos, Sacerdo'tium. A priest (sacer-
dos) is a person appointed to perform sacra.
Priests in Greece. — The most general
word for a priest is hpevs (for a priestess /f'peia).
This word is found in Homer, and lasted
throughout Greek history. At all periods it
denotes a person charged with regular and
permanent duties towards a particular deity
on behalf of a particular community, and
acquainted with the traditional mode of per-
forming those duties, whether they consisted
of prayer, sacrifice, purification, prophecy, or
all of these. These methods and rules, too
technical for ordinary individuals, must neces-
sarily be in tlie charge of a specialist.
The word kpels also implies the existence of a
holy place to which the person so denominated
was attached. The priest was in Greece es-
sentially a minister in the service of a temple
(Plat. Legg. 759 a). He was the servant of
the god (Plat. Pol. 290 c ; Eur. Ion, 94, 309),
to whom the temple was sacred, and had the
charge of the god's house and its kpd. He
would thus be a priest of a single deity, for
SACERDOS
543
each temple was the dwelhng of one only. To | cure of the perpetual fire (Plut. Ninn. 9). Boy-
the Greek a priest was always the priest of priests are occasionally mentioned.
some local Zeus or Apollo. (6) Mode uf ajjjjoint»ifiit.^\\'e ynny Aiscem
Thus the word contains no idea of a sacred | three principal methods, which in rou^h chrono-
caste, or of any settled distinction between ' logical order would be— (aj by hereditary
clergy and laity. The Upevs was a nuin of descent, /.p. by devolution or selection out of a
professional knowledge, but only in respect of gens or family; (3) by i)ublic election, either
the ritual of his own temple. As every temple by means of open voting or the lot; (y) by
liad its own strict rules, tliere was no common purchase.
professional interest, nor was there at any time (o) Many priesthoods descended in the same
a common school of the priesthood. Kings family or gens. The Telinidae, the family of
and other magistrates, as well as the heads of , Gelo of Syracuse, claimed to be hereditary hiero-
families and gentes, offered sacrifices and phants of Demeter and ]'ersephone in the city
prayers on behalf of their respective com- of Gela (Hdt. vii. 158). At Athens the Eumol-
munities. This regular sacrificial system had pidae held the office of hierophant of the
two results, which are important for the Eleusinian mysteries, the Eteobutadae the
religious history of antiquity : (1) the ne- j priesthood of "Athemi Polias, the Hesychidae
cessity of a trained priesthood to carry on the that of the Eumeuides, &c. ; and in later times
tradition of ritual ; and (2) the gradual degra- | such hereditary priesthoods were granted by a
dation into formalism and the loss of its original state as a l)enefaction. Succession was from
meaning. father to eldest son, from brother to brother
(1) In Homer, priests are not mentioned and their descendants alternately, or by lot
among the prophets, poets, physicians, cV"c., in within the family.
the catalogue of SrjfxiOfpyoi in Od. xvii. 38'2 sqcj. : (fi) Of appointment by voting we hear little,
and this may show («) that they were not a An instance seems to occur as early us Homer
trained professional body or guild ; {b) that they {I/, vi. 800). At Athens, and elsewhere in Greece,
were distinguished from the /uafTtes, or wander- the commonest practice seems to have been to
ing diviners. Their duties seemed to have been
chiefly, as in later times, those of prayer and
elect by lot, as being an indication of the
divine will (Plat. Lcgg. 759 c ; cf. Verg. Aen.
sacrifice; hence the names a.pr)r-i,f) (11. i. 11, ii. 201). In some cases this sortition seems to
V. 7H) and Qv6ffKoos {H. xxiv. 221). They were have been preceded by some kind of selection
held in high honour (II. v. 7«, cf. xvi. (505). The of candidates for whom the lot might be cast,
local priest is represented in II. v. 10 as wealthy (7) The practice of purchasing priesthoods is
and important. In Od. ix. 200 we hear of a proved by inscriptions to have been not un-
local priest dwelling in a house in close common, at least in Asia Minor and the islands,
proximity to his temple, with his wife and in the third century B.C. The prices paid for
children. Further details of tlie Homeric the priesthoods were various, as high as 4600
priests are wanting, even in the Odyssey. ; drachmas in one case.
(2) 1)1 Historic Times. Duties.— These were (a) liturgical, (h) ad-
(fl) Qualifications. — It was essential that a ministrative. In no case did they include edu-
jtriest should be a full citizen of the state to cation, either moral or intellectual. The litur-
which the temple belonged of which he had gical duties («) would include the whole of the
charge ; and if that worship were the peculiar
property of a gens or family within the state,
he must be a full member of that gens or
family. Thus, at Athens, no ixiroiKos could hold
temple-service : viz. the conduct of sacrifices,
both public and private (Ar. Ar. 864 sq.) (see
Sacrificium), including the offering of the
])n)pcr jirayers and invocations. To these
a priesthood (Dem. Eiibiil. p. 1313, <:)§ 46-48). duties may also be added that of the care of
So Plato {Ler/r/. 759 c) lays it down for his the image of the deity to whom the temple was
ideal State that the priest should be 6\6K\r}pos dedicated, which, in some cases at least, had to
Kol yvi](Tios. These regulations, however, did be constantly washed, dressed, and served with
not exclude women from priestlioods, and repasts on Tpa7r€<,''oi (cf. Eur. /o«, 131).
priestesses are met with in all parts of Greece. (h) The priest's duty was to take chai'ge of
At Atliena a priestess could plead before the the fabric and contents of the temple {Koafiflp
council, sign documents, &c. For priestesses , rhv vahu Ka6' riij.fpav), and to see that the stoa in
persons of rank and substance seem to have front of it was swept clean, and that the regula-
been preferred. The Pythia of Delphi seems tions of the temple in respect of the conduct of
to have been an exception to this rule, as she , worshippers were thorouglily carried out (cf.
was chosen at large from among all the women | Hdt. v. 73). In enforcing these rules the
of Delphi (Eur. Ion, 1323). j priests of larger temples were assisted by
The second chief qualification was that of 1 vergers and constables under various names
purity, bodily and mental. At Athens no one (^a^Soc^opoi, kXh^ovxoi, C°-Kopoi, vfwK6poi, itc),
could hold a priesthood who had led a vicious as well as slaves and diaconi. With the more
life (Aeschin. Timarch. § 19), or who had j important management of the revenues, re-
neglected his parents (Xen. Mem. ii. 2, 13). I pairs, itc, and tlie general administration of
Bodily purity was equally essential. Cere- the property of the temple, the jiriest in
monial uncleanness, such as contact with a historical times seems to have had little to do,
dead body, defiled a priest : and the occun-ence the management of sacred property being
of a death in a priestly fajnily might suspend I chiefly vested in the state "from tlu; latter half
or forfeit the priestly office. The priests of of the fifth century li.c. As tlie tejnples de-
the Ephesian Artemis were eunuchs ; and the vt'Iojied into jniblic and also jtrivate banks,
priest and priestess of Artemis "tfxvia at public officers (to^:'oi, Upoiroiol, i^(ra(nul,
Orchomenus, in Arkadia, were cut off from all ^iri^6\7jTO(, itc.) were appointed to take charge
mtercourse with the world. Sueli asceticism, of the treasures njid other property, execute
however, was undoubtedly of Oriental origin, rejmirs, account for fees |iaid by worshiii)>ers,
There was no general nilo against the man-iage i^'c. (See Argentarii, AepjxaTiKdv, Sacri-
of a priest. Old men and women occur, as at 1 ficium, and Vectigalia templorum.)
Delphi and Athens, instead of virgins, for the I Privileges. — At all times the priests were
544
SACERDOS
held in hij^li honour, and their persons were ' Arvales Fratres and Sodales Titii (see also
deemed inviolable (//. v. 78; Hdt. vi. Hi, &c.). Curia and Sacra).
At Athens they were reckoned as equal to the j The pontiticcs and augui-s may have advised
magistrates, accompanied them in public pro- ! the king on religious matters ; and the king
cessions, and had seats of honour witli them at
the dramatic representations. They had, more-
over, large perquisites arising from sacrifices,
which must have formed a considerable source
of income. Priesthoods were sold at high
prices, and priests frequently made large en-
dowments to their temples. [Sacrificium ;
AepixaTLKOV.]
was probably at the head of each of them, and
chose them from the patrician gentes, to which
all priesthoods were confined. The augurs
advised the king, or acted for him in the old
Italian ritual of dedication and inauguration
(see Templum and Auspicia) ; the pontifices,
in matters of the t/in (lirinum, i.e. of the laws
of marriage, burial, portents, and general reli-
The Greek priests wore no distinctive dress. ' gious supervision (Liv. i. 20). With the de-
The wreath on the head was worn by all per- i \elopnient of the state under the last two
sons when sacrificing, and was as much the , kings tlie administration both of the auspiria
mark of the magistrate as the priest. On the
monuments priests generally appear in a long
chiton, of tlie old-fashioned kind discarded by
the Athenians in the Periklean age. These
garments were usually white (Plat. Lege/, p.
956 a; Plut. Arat. 57). A more ornamental
dress seems to have been used occasionally in
later times, e.g. at the Eleusinian mysteries.
Thus the aegis of Athena was worn on certain
and the ins divinum must have tended to
pass more and more from the king into the
hands of these expei'ts.
Period of the liepublir. — Three great, though
gradual, changes are to be noted in this period.
The first of these is the development of the
influence of the pontifices and augurs, and the
corresponding decay of the purely sacrificial
priesthoods. The king was the centre of all
occasions by her priestess at Athens. Nothing ! state religion and hiniself a priest ; but when
is known of any special ceremony of priestly the state came to be governed by j'early elected
consecration beyond the existence of the words : magistrates an opportunity was offered to the
bffiwffis and avaOicris. experts both in the ins divinum and in the
Pkiests .\t Rome. — In the earliest times it ' ritus aitspiciornin, of which full advantage
is probable that the Roman priest was assigned, was taken. The pontifices became the advisers
as among the Greeks, to the worship of a of the republican magistrates on all technical
particular god, and exercised no direct political matters relating to religious law, and thus
influence. The general name for such priests gained a permanent hold on state machinery
was flamen (i.e. kindler of sacrificial fire), and as well as on private life.
they continued in existence to the latest times. ■ Secondly, we have to note the rise to power
But their influence was steadily overshadowed in this period of a third great priesthood,
by that of the great colleges of the pontifices instituted by tlie last king— the decctnviri (at
and angurs ; and thus an element was Intro- first duoviri, later i{iiindecimviri) sacris
dueed unlike anything we meet with in Greece. ' faciundis. [See Decemviri; Sibyllini libri.]
Period of the Monarchi). — Every Roman
was the priest of his own household [Sacra].
and every action of the household had its reli-
Thirdly, the decay of tlie older jiriesthoods
As new forms of religion came in, and as Rome
advanced in conquest and the absorption of
gious aspect. In the state the king was priest foreigners, they lost influence, and at length
for tlie wliole people. This is sufficiently began to disappear altogether. One onlj' of
[iroved (1) by the appointment of the rex these priesthoods retained its life and prestige
sacrorum to keep up the virtue of certain throughout the whole of Roman history — that
sacrifices which had been performed by the of the Vestal virgins, partly from its feminine
king; (2) by tlie position of the Pontifex Maxi- and unpolitical character, and still more by the
mus : his office was in the king's house [RegiaJ, nature of the worship of Vesta as the religious
the flamens and vestals were in his putria focus of the state-life, and the legends which
■potriitas, and it was he who succeeded the rex \ connected it with the foundation of the city,
in most of liis religious functions. I While the offices of Rex Sacrorum and the
To maintain, then, the full rights of the god ; older sacrificial priesthoods were always con-
as against the state, i.e. to fulfil the state's , fined to patricians, the three great collegia
duties towards the gods, was an important part , were in course of time thrown open to plebeians
of tlie king's sphere of action. The gods are also [Augur, Decemviri, Pontifex]. Thus it
always in direct relation to the state and to its came about that the Roman religion and its
magistrates. They are regarded as interested ministers, in spite of the minute and technical
Jn the state as a state, and as calling for the character of their ritual, never became a
fulfilment of duty fi-oni the state in the person j priestly caste (Cic. dc Dom. 1, 1).
of its appointed rulers.
In the earliest form of the state the king
and his household sufficed for the performance
of these duties. His unmarried daughters were
The Haruspices were not properly a priest-
hood. [Haruspex]
Period of thr Empire. — The history of the
priesthood under the Empire is a subject of
the vestals who attended to the sacred fire of ' great difficulty, and as yet imperfectly investi-
the state in the king's house, and the king s sons
were probably the fl.imines, who kindled the
sacrificial fire for the worship of particular
deities. Both flamens and vestals were in the
patria potest as of the rex, as afterwards of the
Pontifex Maximus.
As the state increased in size, and the judi-
cial and military duties of the king grew more
complex, certain colleges of priests were insti-
tuted, besides the vestals and flamens. Such
were the Augures, Pontifices, Salii, Fetiales,
and Tribuni Celerum [Tribunus (1)], the
gated.
The subject falls into three divisions : (1) the
union of the priesthoods in the person of the
emperor; (2) the new priesthoods connected
with the worship of the emperors ; (3) priest-
lioods of foreign worships.
(1) Julius Caesar was already Pontifex Maxi-
mus when he attained to supreme power. Au-
gustus was not elected till the death of Lepidus,
11 B.C. From that time onwards the office was
an invariable accompaniment of the imperiuin.
and was reckoned at the head of all the other
SACERDOS
ofifices. With this the emperor also held the
augurship, and was a member of tlie collegia
of the qwindecimviri and the rpidoncs. I71
his hands also was the power of filling up
vacant places in these colleges ; so that the
union of the secular and religious powers in
the state was again complete. These great
priesthoods, however, served to increase the
(liguitas rather than the potestas of the em-
peror, who was seldom present at meetings of
the collegia ; and the actual work, such as it
was, was probably done by substitutes (pro-
viafjistri). They were, in fact, little more
than ornaments which increased the prestige
of the emperor, and carried it into the remotest
parts of the Empire. In the same way the
right of filling up the collegia became a
powerful source of patronage. These priest-
hoods, indeed, were valued at a higher rate
even than magistracies. Thus the greater
priesthoods of the Republic were absorbed into
the personal equipment and patronage of the
emperors. Meanwhile the more antique priest-
hoods, which were in a state of decay at tlie
end of the rei^ublican period — the Rex Sacro-
rum, Flamines, Fi'atres Arvales, Salii, Sodales
Titii, &c. — had been revived by Augustus ; but
in most cases their functions were transferred
from the worship of the gods to that of their
patrons.
(2) The deification of the emperor naturally
produced new priesthoods. In Rome and Italy
it was the policy of Augustus $0 discourage his
own worship (Suet. Aiifj. 52) ; but in spite of
this there was an unauthorised cult of him
even in his lifetime in several Italian cities,
presided over by flamines or sacerdofes.
Tiberius, while declining divine honours for
himself, encouraged the worship of his pre-
decessor, and in the first year of his reign
(14 A.D.) was established the well-known order
of Augustales, which reckoned thenceforward
as one of the great priesthoods, and received
as its spnbol the bitcraniutn or ox's skull. To
it were associated Sodales Augustales Claudi-
ales, Plaviales, Titiales, etc., iu honour of suc-
ceeding emperors.
The new turn given to religion was now every-
where present. Thus the names of Augustus
and other imperial personages were included
in the cat-men Saliare, and the imperial house
was associated with the Sodales Titii, the
Luperci, and the Arvales Fratres.
In the provinces the priesthoods of the new
worship came to be of great importance.
Augustus here associated his own cultus with
that of Dea Roma; and this conjunction was
steadily retained and systematised. In almost
every province we find a saccrdos (or flamcn)
liomae et Aiigusti provinciae, or simply sacer-
dos provinciae. This great priest was elected
yearly by the general meeting of representa-
tives from the various cities of the province
(communia, concilia, koivo), and was charged
with such duties as the collection and manage-
ment of the funds for the temples of th(; cult,
the presidency of the games, &c. [NeocorUB.]
The importance of this functionary in the de-
velopment of the imperial system can hardly
be over-estimated.
The cities of the provinces, as well as the
communia or Koivd, possessed priests of the
worship of Rome and Augustus.
(3) The Roman world had outgrown the nar-
row formulae of the native religion, and the
Roman priesthood had become at first political,
then imperial, in its character. Ever since the
SACRA
54S
attempted introduction of the Bacchic rites in
the second century n.c. [Bacchanalia] there
was a growing desire in Italy for some more
emotional form of worship, wiiicji that priest-
hood could not supply, and which could not be
satisfied even by the invasion of Greek rites
under the influence of the Sibylline liooks and
their keepers. The Roman priests luul little or
no desii-e or o])portunity of inculcating virtue ;
the notions of sin, penitence, regeneration,
brotherhood, were foreign to their worship.
Oi'iental ideas of religion transported to the
West, though foreign, found there a congenial
soil. Such ideas of worship tend, moreover, to
magnify the influence and mystic power of the
priesthood ; and thus the last type of priest
existing before the final victory of Christianity
was, in its relations with individuals, the most
powerful and efficacious of all.
Among these may be mentioned {a) the
priests of Cybele or the Magna Mater, whose
worship was introduced as early as 208 B.C.
[Megalesial. Of tiie same character was the
Taurobolium, wlune the priest (taurobolus)
underwent a baptism in the blood of the
victim, the virtue of which he then communi-
cated to others.
(b) Another cult was that of the Cappado-
ciaii Bellona, whose priests and priestesses
walked the city robed in black (Mart. xii. 57),
wounding themselves as a sacrificial act (Tibull.
i. 6, 45).
ic) But the most striking of all these jiriest-
lioods was that of Isis and other Egyptian
deities, especially notable for the important
share obtained in it by women, for its com-
bination of licence and asceticism, and its
doctrines of conviction of sin and the necessity
of purific-ation and atonement. The same
tendencies are also seen in the cult of Jupiter
of Heliopolis, and especially in that of Mithras
in the third and fourth centuries of the
Empire. In all tliese the priests work privately
and independently of the state, preacliing a
definite yet mystic doctrine to all comers ; and
in all there is a process of initiation and dis-
cipline. Thus by degrees there spread over
the whole Empire a new idea of the jiriestly
office and its duties ; and this, eventually coin-
ciding with the old Roman idea of a state
religion, paved the way for an official recogni-
tion of an organised Christian hierarchy.
Sacra (= things dedicated). The general
Roman term for worship, including the ritual
observed in it and the utensils used in it (Ov.
Am. iii. 13, 28).
Sacra were both piihlica and ^);'jua/<i.
Publica sacra were those observed by the
state and for special localities; privata, those
connected with persons or families.
Sacra pkivata. — (1) Pro singulis liomini-
bus; (2) j)ro familiis ; (S) pro goitibus.
(1) Pro singulis hominibus. — A few examples
are found of prayers and sacrifices performed
by an individual for his own benefit {e.g. in
Verg. Aen. vi. 51, viii. 71 ; Plin. xxviii. § 10) ; but
the more common form which these take is that
of vota, which may be illustrated abundantly
by the votive tablets of the later Roman age.
(2) Pro fainiliis. — Each fiunily was a reli-
gious unit, of which the paterfamilias was the
priest, and the special gods were the Lar and
Penates, the former representi)ig the primeval
ancestor, and the latter being the protecting
deities of the jjsmms or storeroom of the house-
hold. To these deities daily invocations were
offered, and also libations at meals ; and on all
N N
546
SACRAMENTUM
Feriae privatae, such as the anniversaries of
births, the kalends, nones, and ides, and on the
Saturnaha, tlieir images were adorned with
garlands. The family also had its festivals of
mourning, such as the Caristia and the Paren-
talia, when the tombs of deceased members
were visited, and certain rites performed
there. Lastly, the greater gods were invoked
for the family in the ceremony of domestic
field lustration (Cato, It. B. 141).
All sacra ^^ro familiis were imperishable
(perpetua : Cic. Legg. ii. 19), except by the
extinction of the family : hence in Roman law
the inheritance of a dead man's property in-
volved the acceptance of his sacra (cf. the
phrase ' hereditas sine sacris,' Plaut. Trin. 484,
Capt. 775). (See the whole passage, Cic. Legg.
ii. 19.)
(8) Pro gcntihus. — Sacra genfilicia have to
be distinguished from those of the family. They
belonged, however, only to patrician gentes
(Liv. X. 8, 9), and as these gradually died out,
their sacra disappeared with them. But in
early times each gens had its own particular
place and day for the performance of its sacra
(Liv. v. 46, xxii. 18). Eech gens also, no doubt,
had a common burial-place (Cic. Legg. ii. 22,
55, de Domo, 13, 85). Certain gentes liad special
worships in their charge : thus the Potitii and
Pinarii had the care of the sacra of Hercules,
the gens lulia of that of Apollo, being state
worships entrusted to a particular gens. All
sacra privata were under the supervision of the
pontitices (Cic. Legg. ii. 12, 30). See Gens.
Sacka miBLicA. -(1) Sacra pro populo.—
These comprise the whole cycle of the religious
festivals of the year. Their distinctive features
are : (a) that they were maintained at the ex-
pense of the state {publico aitniptu); (6) that
they were conducted in the earliest times by
the rex or his substitute, and in later times by
the rex sacrificulus, the flamines, or the reli-
gious colleges.
(2) Sacra popularia were divided as follows:
{a) Fro montibns. — One of the ancient local
di\isions of Rome was that into Montes and
Pagi, i.e. the dwellers on the Palatine and
Esquiline, and the dwellers in the open country
(Cic. pro Domo, 28, 74). The common festival of
tlie former was called Septimoutiuin, Septi-
■montlale sacriuti {Hviet. Do in. 4), or Agonalia;
it took place on December 11.
(6) Pro pagis. — These are of an agricultural
character, such as the Sriiioifirae (Ov. Fast.
i. 657 sq.), the Ambarvalia or Lustratio Pagi,
in May, and the Terminalia (February 23).
These festivals or their ecjuivalents were among
, the sacra of the ancient Roman pagi, and were
presided over by a vuigisfcr pagi, together
with his wife, the magistni pa;//.
(r) Pro curiis. [Fordicidia and Foma-
calia.]
(d) Pro sacellis. — These sacella were the
twenty-four sacella or sacraria Argeornm.
What was done at the sacella we do not know
(see Ov. Fast. iii. 791). [Argei.]
Sacrame'ntum. (1) A legal oath. [lusiuran-
dum; Vindiciae.] (2) The military oatli.
[lusiurandum, 2 (i) ; Exercitus, p. 295 (The
Levi/).
Sacra'rium. A sacristy or place in which
sacred things were deposited and kept, whether
a part of a temple or of a private house. (Cf.
Cic. Verr. iv. 3, 5, Fain. xiii. 2; Suet. Tib.
51.) In a temple it was probal)ly directly
behind the wall of the cella, and only the priests
could enter it. Thus in the sacrarium of the
SACRIFICIUM
Capitoline temple the thensa lovis Opt. Max.
was kept (Suet. Vesji. 5) ; the Itastae Martis in
the sacrarium of the Segia ; the lituus of
Romulus in the sacrariaiu Martis or curia
Salioruiii on the Palatine. [Salii ; Lararium.J
Sacrifi'cium (dvala). That part of ancient
worship which usuallj' consists in presenting to
a deity some animate object on which human
life is supported, or even human life itself.
Both the Greek and Latin words exclude the
idea of the presentation of votive gifts in the
shape of inanimate objects, ho%vever valuable ;
such as, e.g. the treasures deposited in Greek
temples. These are mentioned in Homer (Orf. xli.
347), and are found throughout Greek history ;
being a substitute of service for sacrifice.
In the same categoiy may be reckoned the
dedication of human beings to the service of a
god, as at Delphi and Delos, and of other gifts,
amongst which first-fruits and tithes may be
counted. The redemption of the whole due by
a part leads easily to the substitution of a vic-
tim for a human sacrifice and of symbols foif
realities, e.g. cakes in the form of oxen, &c.
These gifts are made the property of the god
mider the primitive idea that he, like kings,
could be pleased and appeased by attention,
and that to ask him for a favour without a gift
was hopeless [evxt^^V^ firtp.ep.<perat ri 6' (Karup.-
&r)i, II. i. 65 ; cf. ix. 497 sqq.).
(1) HoNOKiFic Sacrifices. — These, whether
their object were petition or thanksgiving, wer^
originally regaaded as a meal for the god in
which the worshippers shared, and therefore
included edibles only. Evidence of this is fomid
in Homer (//. iv. 48, vii. 201, Od. iii. 435), and
is illustrated in the vase-paintings by the pre-
sence of the deity at the sacrifice. This grosser
idea became spiritualised in later times, but
survived in the offerings to the dead in tombs,
and in Italy also to the Lares and Penates, and
in the lectisteniia. But the notion of the
communion of god and man in the meal may
be traced from the Homeric age (e.g. in Od. iii.
1 sqq.) down to the great city festivals of later
times, which supplied the population with food
at the expense of the state.
Honorific sacrifices might be either occasional
or regularly recurring. In Homer the sacri-
fices are occasional and with a definite tempo-
rary object. Such were called at Athens Bvcriai
Kara ^i)<pi(rpaTa (Dem. de Cor. p. 301, § 217) :
they were often suggested by an oracle, or
sometimes were the result of a public vow, as
before Marathon. Such were also those ex voto
and those which occurred in family life on
birthdays, at admission into the plu-atria, at
funerals, &c.
In historical times regular sacinfices recur on
fixed days of the year, and are a part of organised
city life. This city sacrificial sj'stem was itself
developed out of the regular religious life of the
famUy and the gens.
Honorific sacrifices consisted either of drink
offerings, incense, or offerings of animal and
vegetable food.
Drink offerings. — These include libations of
all kinds performed at meals, or on occasions
such as the entering into any treaty or engage-
ment (II. iii. 295; cf. ii. 341), by throwing a few
drops from the drinking vessel on the hearth
and the ground. Here also belong the Greek
Xoai, or libations to the dead (Od. x. 518 ; cf.
Verg. Acn. v. 77), and the Roman practice of
profnsioiies, i.e. pouring libations on the grave,
of wine, water, milk, oil, &c. [Parentalia.j
Libations consisted of unmixed wine (Od. xii.
SACRIFICIUM
363; Aeseh. Eum. 107); milk and honey mixed
{jxeKiKpaTov), or milk alone (Ud. x. 519; Soph.
El. HQo). So, too, in the worship of the oldest
Roman deities milk was used : i.e. in that of
Kumina, Cuniua, the Caraenae, Faunus, Sil-
vanus, Pales.
Incense offerings. — The gods were pleased
by tlie swee{ savour of the sacrifice ; hence the
burning of sweet-smelling wood {6vov, Od. v.
5», II. vi. 269 ; Hes. Op. 33«), and at Rome of
sweet-smelling garden herbs (Verg. Eel. viii. 05,
and especially Ov. Fast. i. 3o9). Tiie offering
of frankincense [Tus] was both rare and costly.
Offer'uKjs of fruit and cakes. — Fruits were
offered in Greece cliietly as tithes or toll of the
harvest of some crop, not only to Demeter and
Dionysus, but to other deities also. At Athens
there were in most temples tables, near tlie
statue of the god, laid out with fruits of all |
kinds, as well as with cakes, honey, &(:. (Ar.
Plut. 678). Fruits figure in some Athenian
festivals, e.g. at the Oschophoria, Pyanepsia, and
Thargelia (see those articles). At Rome fruits
are less often mentioned ; as a rule the grain
or fruit was cooked. Cakes of all kinds were
used in abundance botli combined with animal
sacrifices and independently ; and sometimes
made in the shape of animals. In Greece these
were called ireAavoi, and irifXfjjiTa or ■jr6iTava^
and were especially used in the cult of Apollo.
At Rome, cakes were also in common use,
especially in the form of mola salsa — i.e. salt-
cakes prepared by the Vestal Virgins from the
first ears of each harvest, and used at the Ves-
talia, Lupercalia, and on the Ides of September
— and of Jiba, for the making of which special
fictores were employed under the orders of the
pontifices.
Offerings of Animals. — These were of great
variety, both as regards the animals themselves
and the ritual used.
Setting aside human sacrifices, which came
for the most part under (2) Piacular offerings,
the ordinary honorific animal sacrifices con-
sisted mainlj' of those animals whicli had been
already tamed by man, and used for food, e.g.
the ox, sheep, goat, pig, and fowl.
The following general principles may be
traced, (a) Male victims were usually sacrificed
to male deities, and female to goddesses, both
in Greece and Italy. (6) White animals were
offered to heavenly deities, black to those of
the under-world (Hom. II. iii. 103), Od. xi.
33; cf. Juv. X. 65). At Rome the im{)ortance
and difficulty of getting a white victim for
Jupiter led to whitening with pipe-clay (Juv. x.
65, ' cretatum bovem.' (c) Soundness was
always demanded, though it could not always
be secured, (d) Animals sacred to a deity were
not usually sacrificed to tliat deity. This prin-
ciple, which has a totemistic origin, and is found
in many primitive religions {e.g. the Egyptian
and Mexican), must generally be traced in
obscure survivals. Thus at Athens the goat
might not be offered to Athena, wliose aegis or
goat-skin points to tlie goat as the totem of th(^
Aegidaeor goat-clan, which had tlie care of her
worship. To her were usually sacrificed bulls
and sheep, to Zeus bulls or heifers, to Demeter
swine. It is possible that in tlie Dionysia the
ox sacrificed may have been identified with
Dionysus.
Combinations of animals for sacrifice were
not uncommon. The best known example is
that of the Suovetaurilia at Rome, where the
bull, ram, and boar were coinl)ined in tlie
worship of Mars : with this may be classed the
TpiTTvs of the Greeks, a combination of ani-
mals, but not always of the same three. (See
Hom. Od. xxiii. 277, xi. 130).
Lastly, where the proper victims could not
be had, substitutes in the form of cakes were
used (Thuc. i. 130; cf. Hdt. ii. -17). In Thebes
apples with wooden feet and horns to imitate
sheei) were used in the cult of Apollo ; and we
hear of oxen made of pastrj' ((TTa'iTivoi). Such
substitution was also known at Rome, and the
substituted objects were called maniae (Serv.
ad Aen. ii. 110). But these substitutes are
more common as survivals of human piacular
sacrifice.
(2) PiACUL.ui S.\CRiFiCES. — These had as
their object the expiation of some sin, gene-
rally in early ages blood-guiltiness within a
group of kin ; or of purification from pesti-
lence, &c., brought about by some sin. The
original idea was that tliis was inexpiable for
the defiled kin, save by the death of the slayer.
As the practice of substitution was extended,
it came to be applied to such cases, and thus
we find not only the sacrifice of human beings,
both in Greece and in Italy, but survivals of it
in the form of substitutes (either of animals or
of some kind of puppet), or of symbolic actions
which indicate an originally real sacrifice.
The idea of guilt demanding a human life as
expiation is plainly seen in the myths, e.g. those
of Theseus, Orestes, and Iphigeneia (cf. also
Eur. PJiocn. 914, El. 1024). At Alliens we find
it surviving in the Thargelia, when two men
called (papfjLaKoi were driven out of the city and
stoned. The human sacrifices connected with
the worship of Zeus Lykaon in Arkadia, and of
Dionysus in Chios, and the occasional sacrifice
of captives (as by Theniistokles) may be survivals
of cannibalism (Plut. Thcmist. 13, Pelop. 21).
At Rhodes a public victim was annually sacri-
ficed, for whom a criminal was afterwards sub-
stituted. At Leukas a criminal was sacrificed
to Apollo by being cast from a rock : an age of
greater humanity supplied him with featliers
to break the descent, and rugs to fall on. Some-
times an animal was substituted for the human
victim, as at Potniae, where a goat was substi-
tuted for a boy. In Eur. I. T. 1458, Athena
orders the human sacrifice in expiation for the
deatli of Iphigeneia to be conuiiuted for the
drawing of blood by a sword. So, too, at the
Roman Lupercalia, the young men were
smeared with the victim's blood, which was
then wiped off with wool dipped in milk (cf.
Ap. Rhod. iv. 700). Examples of the substitu-
tion of pup]iets are not wanting, especially at
Rome. [Argei; Oscilla.]
In the Roman religion proper we have no
trace of a regularly recurring human sacrifice
without substitution. It may probably be
traced, however, in the Ver sacrum, in which
the first-born of a tribe were devoted to a god,
and sent forth from the city; in the rite of
devotio (Liv. xxii. 57), in the consecratio of a
criminal, who was thus made sacer and the
property of the gods, ^:c. In Etruria, and
lierhups in other parts of Italy, human sacrifice
was well known.
At Rome other ordinai-y piacular sacrifices
form a distinct class, and their ininiediate
object was to expiate any error or omission
which might occur in tlie performance of ritual,
or some sacrilege, however slight [Arvales
Fratres], Of this kind were the hostiae prae-
eidaneac, offered before the main sacrifice, in
oi'der to ensure the efiicacy of the latter. Here
also belong the piacula of the supplications
N N 2
^
548
SACRIFICIUM
[Supplicatio], and all sacrifices ordered to be
performed after the occurrence of prodigia.
Greek examples of piacular sacrifices not siib-
stitutes for human offerings are tlie x^'-poKTovoi
KadapjjLoi of Aescli. Eicm. 273 ; the Boucpouia
or AittroXi.a at Athens; the holocaust to Zeus
MsiAi'x'os. Piacular sacrifices can be distin-
guislied from honorific by the fact of the victim
being burnt whole (d\oKj.vTe'iv) or not cooked
at all, and at Rome by tlie fact of its not beuig
used for divination. Tkey did not constitute a
meal, but were whole burnt offerings, and, unlike
the honorific sacrifices, did not always consist
of edible animals.
(3) Mystic or Sacbamental Sacrifices.^
These are believed to have their origin in the
age of totemistic religion, in which gods are
formed out of the totem animals. In tliat age
we find : (1) tliat the totem is not usually
sacrificed to the god out of which it was de-
veloped ; ('2) that on these occasions the
sacrifice is of the nature of a sacrament, the
totem being eaten by aU the worshippers.
In the myth of Dionysus Zagreus, the god
when captured by the Titans was torn asunder
in the form of a bull. This mytli reflected tlie
nature of his sacrifices. In these, living
animals were torn to pieces — bulls or fawns —
and eaten raw by the worshippers ; who also
danced about dressed up in the skins, i.e. took
the god-nature upon them. Again, in the
Diipolia at Athens, the sacred bull was sacrificed,
but the skin was sewn up and stuffed, and all
partook of the flesh, ' the life of the victim being
renewed in those who ate of it.' A Roman paral-
lel may probably be found in the Lupercalia.
In this festival of the Diipolia we notice
another feature which suggests a totemistic
origin. Among totemistic peoples it is a crime
to kill the totemistic animal. Thus the axe
which slew the bull at the Athenian Zeus-feast
was solemnly tried and condemned. At Tene-
dos the sacrificer of the booted calf was stoned
and driven into the sea (rh apnyeves fipecpos
KaradvovcTi, viroSrjaai'Tfs KoQ6pvovs, Ael. H. N.
xii. 34). We may also compare the mysterious
ritual of the Regifugium at Rome [Regifu-
gium].
(4) RiTU.^L. — 1. Greek. The ordinary ritual
of honorific sacrifice must now be more exactly
described. The process to be described is
found in all its main features in the Homeric
poems. In later times, au endless variety of
local usage arose.
In Homer (see esp. Od. iii. 430-463, II. i.
446 sqq.) the rite is as follows. The victim,
which must be in a general sense TeKeios {II.
i. 66 : i.e. free from blemish), and of a kind
appropriate to the god, was led to the altar,
where, if an ox, its horns were or might be
gilded (Treptx*"*"')- Water (x6p'"4') for lustra-
tion was brought, together with a basket
(Kciveov) of grain (ovXal, ovKox^Tai : whether
ground or not is uncertam) ; with the former
the hands of the bystanders were sprinkled
(x^pvi'^o.vTo), and the latter was cast on the
victim and the altar. When this was done, the
chief sacrificer, whether priest or not, offered
his prayer, and at the same time cut some hair
from the victim's head (airapxf'^o'i Od. xiv.
422) with a knife {fxa-xcipa, II. iii. 27) and cast
it into the ilame. Then the victim's head was
drawn back {avepvav), the sinews of the neck
severed with the axe (7re'A,€/cus) and its throat
cut ((r<J)af€tj') with the knife; it was killed
kneeling, with its head turned upwards if the
sacrifice were to celestial deities, downwards if
to those of the under- world. During the act of
slaughter the bystanding women, if any, uttered
cries of joy {o\o\ij^eiv). Lastly, the flesh was
cut up, the thighs were sliced, and the slices
wrapijed in double layers of fat and j)laced on
the altar to be wholly consumed for the god,
after wine had been poured on them. The
entrails {(TirKdyxvo-) are then tasted, and the
sacrificers roast the rest of the meat. The feast
is accompanied by hymns (pKuKvyai, euxai,
irairiwf) to the god.
This ritual remained practically the same
throughout the history of Greek religion. We
may note a general development in the way of
elaborate regulations, and especially as re-
gards (1) the choice of victims ; (2) the cere-
monial adornments; (3) the apportionment of
flesh and skins.
(a) The tendency of temple-worship and
priestly influence was to create a number of
artificial requirements in respect of the colovu-,
sex, i)urity, and perfectness of victims, espe-
cially on great public occasions [Bouvat ;
'lepo-iroioCj. In the case of private sacrifices,
it was no doubt the business of the priest of
the temple to examine the victhn.
{b) In regard to ceremonial adornment, we
find a development chiefly in two jiarticulars,
viz. the wearing of wreaths, and the use of in-
strumental music. Wreaths and garlands are
not mentioned in Homer. The place of the
women's cry {d\o\vyii), as represented by
Homer, at the moment of slaughter, is taken
bj' the playing of flutes, as is often to be seen
on sacrificial vase-paintings. Other details,
such as the use of oil and honey, the sprinkling
of the altar with the blood of the victim, &c.,
may probably have been at aU times in voguo
in the temples, though unnoticed in the Ho-
meric accounts of sacrifice.
((•) In regard to the apportionment of the vic-
tim's flesh, we have in later times a vast number
of details and regulations. Most of these define
the portion which is the perquisite of the priest
{dfofjioipia, yepri, iepw(Twa). This differed in
different worships : frequently it is the legs
and skin ; sometimes the tongue and shoulder ;
Fig. ;)18.— Greek sacriflce, from a vasepainting (Bliimner^.
The emblematical figure of Nilie filling the (^laAij
shows that it is a sacrifice for victory.
the thighs, flank, and left side of the head are
also mentioned. The rest of the animal might,
in the case of private sacrifices, be taken home
by the sacrificer to be used for a meal, or sent
in the form of presents to friends. In public
saci-ifices undertaken by the state, the disposal
of the carcases came to be an important matter
of jmblic revenue called A6p^JLaTlK6v. In
334 B.C. the revenue arising from the sale of
the skins was no less than 5500 drachmas.
SACRIFICIUM
549
2. Roman. — The introduction of Greek reli-
gious practice at an early period overlaid tlie
true Roman cult, and by degrees almost ex-
tinguished it, though a distinction was always
maintained by the learned between the ritus
lluDtanus and the ritus G-raccus. What fea-
tures of ritual are to be understood by the
former term, it is hard to say, except the veil-
ing of the head of the worshipper, and the use
of laurel or other wreaths. It may also be
noted that the use of music and dancing at
sacrificial rites never developed at Rome into
more than the mere accompaniment of tibicines.
Rude hynnis, such as those which we still
possess of the Salii and the Arvales Fratres,
were at one time in use. But tlie leading
characteristic of the ritus lioinauus was its
solemnity and stillness, especially at the time
when prayer was bemg led by the priest. The
prayer was often not spoken aloud, but only
muttered. Worship in Italy also was not
developed into a matter of public feasting, as
at Athens. Another characteristic strongly
marked in Italy was the extreme precision re-
quired in the whole ritual. The form of prayer
which the priest led and the worshippers re-
peated after him must be gone through without
the slightest error; otherwise the whole liad to
be repeated again. The same rule applied to
the ritual of sacrifice itself; and in all such
cases error had to be wiped out by a pia-
cular sacrifice in addition. The same preci-
sion was observed in regard to the postiu-e of
the worshipper; in the ritus Boinanus it is
likely that this posture was a kneeling one in
the act of prayer, while usually the person
praying stood with outstretched arms, and
looking to the east.
The persons engaged in a Roman sacrifice
were: (1) the sacrificer, a consul or other
magistrate ; (2) a pontifex or tlamen, to dic-
tate the form of words; (8) Victimarii, Popae,
Gultrarii, &c. ; (4) Hanispex ; (5) Tibicen ; (6)
Praeco, whose ofiice it was to say ' Favete
Unguis.'
The victim (victima is used of the larger,
hostia of the smaller animals) was led to the
altar adorned with the sacred band of white
wool {infula) and ribands {vittar) ; the horns
were sometimes gilded. As in the Greek rule,
the victim must come willingly. Then fol-
lowed the imiunlatio, also a comiterpart of the
Greek ritual, which consisted in dedicating the
animal by strewing on its head the rnola salsa
or prepared cake (perhaps also called frrtuui)
with wine and ijicense, and with the words
macte esto hoc ture et hoc vino. The beast
was then slain, the larger ones with axe
(Secnris) or hammer (malleus), the smaller
with the knife (Culter) ; this was the business,
in public honorific sacrifices at least, not of the
priest, but of assistants (cultrarii, popae, vic-
timarii). When the victim was dead, the blood
was poured on the altar from a basin, and the
extraction und examination of the cxta (liver,
gall, lungs, and heart, with the interior skin)
began, and the preparation for burning them
on the altar [DivinatioJ. If the inspection
were satisfactory {lit arc is the technical word),
the priest proceeded to prepare the r.rtti either
by boding or (in tlie case of slieep or Iambs)
by roasting on spits. They were then laid on a
dish, together with certain other parts of the
flesh, and in this form were called jirosrcta ; on
this again the mola salsa was sprinkU'd and
wine poured (Cic. Div. ii. 16, 87), anil it was
then ready to be placed on the altar (rxta
porricere or reddere). The additions to tlie
exta from other parts of the victim were called
augme.nta ; the macjuienta (uiaijis, a dish),
sometimes mentioned, appear to have been
separate dishes, also placed on the altar for
consumption. The rest of the flesh or viscera
(Serv. ad Aen. vi. 253), was eaten by those offer-
ing the sacrifice, or by the priest in the case of
piucular sacrifices, wliere tlie victim was not
burnt whole (cf. Arvales Fratres). But we
hear very little of priests* portions or of sacrifi-
cial feasting. The inspection and preparation
of the exla remained the chief object and fea-
ture of sacrifice ; and thus, in spit(^ of the pre-
dominance of the ritus Graecus, the peculiar
characteristics of the Italian religious temiiera-
ment were preserved till late times in the
Roman ceremonial.
(5) Implements. — Among these may be men-
tioned :
(a) Asjjcrgillum or Aspersurium (the word
Fig. 019.— Aspergillum upon brass coin of M. Aurelius.
is post-classical), a whisk for sprinkling holy
water.
{h) Capis (also capedo, capula), an earthen-
ware vessel with a handle, used in sacrifices,
probably a small pitcher (urceolus). It
is joined with the lit u us
among the sacred imple-
ments of the augurs (Liv.
X. 7). (See fig. 197 under
Augur.)
(e) Cultri, knives of dif-
ferent shapes. [Culter.]
[d) Guttus, a small bottle
for wine or oil.
(.) Lances, large dishes ^'l-p^J^^^lruuT'oW
on which the sacrificial flesh the obverse.
I was served.
I (/) Malleus, hammer or pole-axe to fell the
I victim. (See fig. 92G.)
' {g) Patera, a flat dish, bowl, or ladle, used
, for libations ; usually shown in the right hand
' of the sacrificer.
(/() Praeferieulutn, some sort of brazen dish
or bowl without a handle, used in sacrifices ;
it was part of the apparatus
for sacrifice belonging to the
state-priests, and was kept in
the Regia in the Sacrarium of
Ops. [t was not, as some-
times figured, a small ewer.
(/) Secesjrita (Suet. Tib.
2.")). Described as a long iron
knife with an ivoi-y handle. Fig. iwi.— Secospita.
1 V ii n'l • trt Binipuviuiii. and
used by the rlannnes, 1? hi- sccuris. d-rom a
minicae, and Pontilices. But coin.i
tlie exact shape of the soces-
pita as well as of other sacrificial knives
(cultri) is not certainly ascertained. Its proper
purpose seems to have been for openmg the
550
SACRIFICIUM
SAGITTA
body of the victim which had been slain bj- larger vessel, or crater, and either transfer it
the popae or victimarii. It is therefore appro- , to the capis, or pour it directly in libation,
priated to tlie higher order of priests, to whom
this function belonged, but who did not them-
selves slay the victim [Sacrificium]. The
Fig. 922.— Sacrificial knives and case
Argentariorum.)
From the Arcus
sacrificial implements shown in fig. 922 may be
(a) a secespita in its. sheath ; (6) cultri in
their case. (See figs, under Culter.)
{k) Ser/iris, the sacrificial axe, used by the
attendant ministers (popae) for the slaughter
Fig. 'J23.—Sccitiis, sacrificial axe.
of the larger victims. The distinction was axe
or hammer, malleus, for slaughtering cattle, a
Fig. 92i.Securis, sacrificial axe. (From tlie Arcus
.\rgentariorum.)
See also fig. 663 [Limus].
stone for swine, and a knife for sheep. A
smaller hatchet or Dolabra was colled scena
or sacena.
Fig. 927.— Simpula.
Sacrile'gium. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Sae'culum. [Ludi saeculares.]
Saeptum. (1) A fence or enclosure of any
material, esp. a fold for cattle (Verg. Eel. i. 34,
&c.), a net, a preserve for fish, &c. (2) = Ovile
(Juv. vi. .529) [Comitia; Pons]. See Class.
Diet. p. 804, Roma.
Saga. A witch (Cic. Div. i. 31 ; Ov. Am. iii.
7, 29; Hor. Carm. i. 27, 21, Ep. ii. 2, 208)
[Superstitio].
Xd.ya.pis (a). A weapon used by the Massa-
getae and Scythians (Hdt. i. 215), and shown in
representations of the Amazons (Xen. Anab.
iv. 4, 16), more probably a sword than an
axe.
Sage'na (aayriyv). [Rete.]
Sagi'tta {oiffTos, I6s; Hdt. r6^evfia). An
arrow. The account of the arrows of Heraklcs
(Hes. Sent. 130-134) enumerates and describi-s
three parts, viz. the point, the shaft, and the
feather.
(1) The point was called &pSis (Hdt. i. 215,
iv. 81).
The Aethiopians in the army of Xerxes tipped
their arrows with a sharpened stone, which they
Fig. l>25.- Dolabra.
(l) Simpulum or simpuvium, a ladle-shaped
earthenware vessel, like a cyathus, but of ruder
form. It was specially attributed to the pon-
Fig. gap.— Arrows. (British Museum.)
also used for engraving gems (Hdt. vii. 69).
Black flint arrow-heads which may have be-
longed to the Persian army are often found in
the large tumulus of Marathon. Those used
by the Greeks were commonly bronze [11. xiii.
tifex. It seems that in the ancient Latin ritual 650, 662). Iron was also used (Hdt. vii. 69).
not the patera but the simpulum was used in | The Homeric arrow-head was three-tongued
sacrifices ritu Romano to take wine from the {Tpiy\wxis,Il. v. 393) and had barbs (oyKoi, II.
Fig. U26.— Simpulum and malleus.
SAGITTA
iv. 151, 214). Its form is kIiowh in fig. 930.
The two smaller, one of wliicli rIiowh a rivet-
hole lit tlie side for fastening it to the shaft, are
from the plain of Maratiion.
Fig. 931.— Eros whetl ing htx darU.
Onnni'- Anticlv.)
Fig. 929.— Herakles. -with lion's skin. club, and bow und
arrows. iGerliard.i
The use of poisoned aiTows {venoiatac sa-
gittae) is always represented by the Greek and
Homan authors as tlie characteristic of bar-
barous nations, e.g. the Sauromatao and Getae
Fig. L»:tO.— .iriow-heads found In .\tticn.
(Ov. Trist. ii. 10, 63, (U), the Scythians and
tlie Arabs and ."floors (Hor. Cariii. i. 'l^, 3).
Hence the word toxicuin (to^ik6v) ajiplied to
poisons in general.
(2) The excellence of tlie shaft consisted in
being long and straight, and in being well
polished (Hes. Scitt. 133). Tlie arrows of the
SAGUM 551
Karduclii were more than two cubits long, and
were used as javelins by the Greeks (Xen.
Auab. iv. 2). The shaft often consisted of a
smooth cane or reed, and on this account the
whole arrow was called ixietically either Ita-
lunilo (Verg. .-!<'/(. iv. 73 ; Uv. Mit. viii. 3H2,
or ca/a;wM.s (Verg. Ecl.m. 13; Ov. Met. vii.
778; Juv. xiii. 80). A notch (y\v(pi%, liom. II.
iy. 122, 0<7. xxi. 419) was cut in the reed for
fixing it upon the string.
(3) The feathers are shown on ancient
monuments of all kinds, and are indicated by
the terms alar. (Verg. Aen. ix. 578) and irrfpo-
ei/Tts oiffToi (Hom. //. v. 171).
Besides the use of arrows in the ordinary
way, they were sometimes employed to carry
lire. Xerxes captured tlie Acropolis in this
manner (Hdt. viii. 52). Octavius at the battle
of Actium attempted to set Antony's ships on
fire by sending /Ss'Atj nup<p6pa from" the bows of
his archers (Dio Cass. 1. 3M.
In the Greek and Konian armies the To^6rai,
sagittarii, moil- anciently called arquites, i.e.
archers, or bowmen (Festus, ». v.), formed iin
important i)art of the light-armed infantry
(Caes. B. C. i. HI, iii. 44; Cic. Fain. xv. 41.
They belon^'ed, for the most i>iirt, to the allies,
and were princi))ally Kretans. (Arcus; Cory-
tu8 ; Pharetra ; Tormentum.J
Sagma {rrdyua [Strabo, (>!t3; Gen. xxxi. :;4,
LXX , (Ta77jl. A pack-saddle. See Ephippium.
Sa'gmina, tlie stune as vcrbcnac, sacred
herbs, especially those which were torn up by
their roots from the enclosure of the Capitol,
and given by the consul or praetor to the
Fetiales when they went tt) demand reparation
or to make a treaty [Fetialesj. They were
carried by one of the body called Verljcnariiis,
and served to mark the sacred character of the
aiiibass;idors. (Plin. xxii. 2.) The true verbena
is the Vrrbctui officinalis or vervain. It was
used for lustrations, for sweeping the tables of
the gods at the Ei)ulum lovis or at the lecti-
sternia; also for decking the altar (Ter. And.
iv. 3, 11 ; Hor. Canu. i. 19, 14 ; Ov. Mif. vii. 242).
The Greek name seems to be Upa fiordfri, or
TTfpKTTepewu, but the Greek equivalent for the
purpose of lustration or for decking the altar
was the myrtle (cf. Eur. Jon, 120). Lastly,
we find a curiously widespread use of the plant
in divination and magic.
Sagum, dim. Sa'gulum. A thick woollen cloak
or i)lai(l fastened rt)uii<l tiic neck with abroocli,
the distinctive garb of the Roman citizen in
time of war. It was not only worn in tlie field,
but was put on bj' the whole male population of
ttie city on the occasion of a tumultus or other
sudden alarm, the consuls alone retaining the
toga (Cic. Fliil. v. 12, 31). Hence it is con-
trasted with the toga, the dress of peace, in
such phrases as naga sumerc, in sagis esse, und
ad naga ire. Tlie sagum was in no sense a
uniform, but was worn by country-folk and
slaves, and was chosen by soldiers as allowing
the arms full play. It was put on and
fastened in the same manner as the pahida-
mrntuin, which was in fact the special sagum
of the iniperator. It was the custom in camp
for soldiers to amuse Iheniselves by tossing
their comrades in a sagum (sagatio) : and the
same is recorded of Otlio as a joung iiiaii in his
nightly walks about Rome (Suet. 0//u), 2 ; cf.
JIart. i. 3, 'ibisabexcusso missus in astra sago').
The word sagum is also a]>p]ied to the varieties
of cloak known as birriis, larna, lacerna (cf.
Mart. viii. 5H; Juv. ix. 28), and rt6o//<t. Besides
this, the national dress of the Germans (Tac.
552
SALAMINIA
Germ. 17), Giiula (Cues. B. G. v. 4'2), Ligurians
and Spaniards (Liv. xxix. o, 5), went by the
Kame name. In later Latin clilamys in ordi-
nary use supplanted the old word. Tliere was
naturally luucli variety in shape, cut, and ,
material in saga ; and the Gauls preferred cloth
of a check pattern (tj/?'c/a^t</« : ' virgatis sagu- [
lis,' Verg. Ae)b. viii. 660 ; ' versicolor sagulum,'
Tac. Hist. ii. 30, v. 23), the Spaniards black. !
In the late Empire Gallic and Spanish saga
were worn at Rome. The saguni was some-
times Morn with a hood, and without the fibula. I
Salami'nia. [©ecopCs.] \
Sala'rium. Allowance of salt for soldiers
and officers : then allowance for salt ; and so
— stipendinm or mOitary pay generally, though
the word salariuni still included rations.
Augustus instituted in 27 B.C. a further sala- 1
rium for governors of provinces, senatorial or
imperial. Tlie outfit and travelling expenses
of governors {vasarmm) had previously been
voted them by the senate. In addition to this,
Augustus paid a fixed money-allowance to
provincial governors (Suet. Aug. 36). The
amounts varied with their rank, but are not
known to us. Salaria were also given by
various emperors to other persons : the comites I
of the emperor (Suet. Tib. 46) ; legal assessors;
lioor senators (Suet. Nero, 10) ; rhetoricians |
and philosophers in all the provinces (cf. Suet. I
Ves2J. 18) ; grammarians, doctors, haruspices, '
<tc. The various curatores and procuratores
were divided accordmg to amount of salai'y
into sexagenarii (60,000 sesterces), centciiarii,
duccnarii, &c.
Sa'lii. A %ery ancient guild of iiriests,
traditionally first instituted by Numa for the
service of Mars and the guardianship of the
sacred shields (Liv. i. 20 ; Ov. Fast. iii. 378) ;
other traditions represented them as derived
from Greece, but we should rather regard
these rites as a primitive Italian religion. They
were widely spread through Italy, for we find
them at Alba, Lanuvium, Tibur, and othei
towns; nor was tlte name restricted to the
priests of a single deity. In Rome {i.e. in the
Palatine city) there were originally twelve,
forming a collegium with ofiicials, a niagister,
praestd, and votes : they were consecrated to
Mars ; they assembled at the Curia Salioruiu
on the Palatine, and were called Salii Palatini
to distinguish them from the other similar
guild of twelve Salii Collini (called also
Agonales or Agonenses), who had their sa-
erarium in the Quirinal (Liv. i. 27)) and were
consecrated to Quirinus. The doubling of the
Salii, like the doubling of the Luperci, tells of
the amalgamation of the Quirinal with the
Palatine city [Luperci].
The Salii were patricians (Cic. pro Dovi. 14,
38 ; Lncan, is. 477), cliosen (by co-optation of
the college) from iiatrimi rt matriiiii in early
youth, but, as they held the api)ointment for
life, the colleges contained seniores and
iiiniores (Verg. Aen. viii. 285) : if, liowever, one
of them became a fiamen, augur, pontifex, or
consul, he jmssed out of the college of Salii bj'
exauguratio (Liv. xxxvii. 33). The distinguish-
ing dress of the Salii was an embroidered tunic
(tiuiicii pirta),iihn\,7.e\\ breast-plate, thetrabea
and the priestly cap [Apex], a sword girt at
the side, on the left anu the ancile or sacred
shield, and in th(! right hand a short staff with
which the shield from time to time was struck.
Thus in dress they were half priests, half
warriors. Each (-ollegium had charge of twelve
anciha (Liv. v. 52).
SALII
The great festival season of the Salii began
with March, the birth month of Mars, the god
of war, and perhaps, also, the god who drove
away darkness and winter. Hence the season
was regarded as the beginning alike of the
campaigning and the agricultural season,
and occupied the greater part of the month.
On March 1 they were said arma niovere, and
went through the city in a procession which
was continued for several days. They were
preceded by trmnpeters, and they themselves
as they walked beat the shields with their
staves, the praesul leading their dance (tripu-
dium) and being said aviptruare, while his
followers redamptruabant, and the vates lead-
ing the Salian chant (see below). There were
various stations (mansiones) at each of which
the ancilia were deposited for one night (see
Hor. Carin. i. 37, 2; Suet. Claud. 33; cf.
CatuD. xvii. 6), on the next day the procession
passed to another mansio. The exact progress
of the procession cannot be traced out. At the
end of the festival, the shields were replaced
[condita) m their sacrarium. The close of the
campaigning season was marked on October 19
by an armilustriiun, when the Salii again
Fig. !).32.— .Vncilia. from a gem. Above is the rod with
which the shields were struck.
brought out the ancilia, and then stored them
in their sacrarium tiU the next season.
Carmen Saliare. — This chant, led by tlie
vates of each Salian college, belonged to a very
ancient ritual (Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 86) ; the surviving
portions may be seen in Bp. Wordsworth's
Fragme)tts of Early Latin, 564-56() : one
fragment of which has been thus emended :
cume tonas Leucesie prae tet tremonti
quom tibpi cuuci decstumiim tonan)nt :
i.e. 'cum tonas, Lucetie [ = Juppiter], prae te
tremunt, cum tibi cunei [flashes of forked
lightning] dextruni [i.e. on the unlucky side]
tonuerunt ' {decstumum is superlative of dex-
fruvi) : (see Allen, Bemjianis of Earl g Latin,
p. 74). The verses were called axamenta. In
their chant the Salii sang not only of Mars and
Mamurius, who is doubtless the same as Mars,
but also of Janus (Janus Quirinus), Jupiter
(Lucetius), Juno and Minei'va. In later times
they included the names of the reigning emperor
and imperial princes. [Sacerdos.]
Ancilia. — These sacred shields were, accord-
ing to the legends, at first twelve, viz. the
shield which fell from heaven and the eleven
copies. These twelve were in the charge of the
Salii Palatini, and were probably kept in the
Curia Saliorum on the Palatine. It was into
this sacrarium Martis that the praetor or con-
sul setting out for war entered, when, touching
SALIXAE
ihe shields, he said, 'Mars vigilu.' The other
twelve sliields were kept by the Sahi Col-
liui iu the sacrariuin on the yuirinal. The
ancile (for ancUUlc, aiii-
caedo, i.e. cut on botli sides)
was an oval shield, with a
curved indentation on each
side, like tlie so-called Boeo-
tian sliield. [Anns and
Armour.J
Sali'nae, sc. fodinae
(oAoi, a.\oirr)yiov). A salt-
Fig. 033.-Ancma and work. The ancients had
apex. , ,
(From a coin.) many ways ot procunng salt
(cf. Plin. .\xxi. §§ 7a-9'2).
They were acquainted with roek-salt, sal nati-
I'HS (Hdt. iv. 181-185). They obtained salt also
from inland lakes (Hdt. vii. 30), from natural
springs or brine-pits, and from coasts where
the sun di'ied it out of the sea-water (Hdt. iv.
53). But the largest supplies were obtained
from works constructed on the seashore. In
order to aid the natural evaporation, shallow
rectangular ponds [lacus) were dug, divided
from one another by earthen walls, and probably
like the old salt-pans still visible on the English
coast. The sea- water was admitted by channels
which could be closed by sluices [Cataracta].
As the water flowed from one evaporating-
pond to another, it became more strongly
hnpregnated with salt. When the brine began
at last to crystallise, the maker (salinator,
a\0Tn)y6s) raked out the salt and left it to drain.
Works of this kind gave the name of 'AA.01 or
Salinae to several places in Attica.
Brine made as above (coacto humore, Plin.
xxxi. § 73) was called by the Greeks aKfir^, by
the Latins salsitgo or salsilafjo, and by the
Spaniards muria (ih. § 83). It was used by
the Egyptians to pickle fish (Hdt. ii. 77), and
Ijy the Romans to preserve olives, cheese and
meat.
Under Roman government salt-works were
common public property, and wei'e let to the
highest bidder (cf. Liv. i. 33). In Liv. ii. 9
(508 B.c) we find the sale of salt becoming a
state-monopoly. In 204 b.c. (Liv. xxix. 37) a
new uectigal was raised out of salt. The price
of salt was at the same time limited. In the
provinces salt-works were usually leased to
piibliruni. The inoiio)ioly of salt was main-
tained under the Emiiire.
Sali'num, dim. Sali'llum. A salt-cellar.
Among the poor a shell served for a salt-cellar
(Hor. Sat. i. 3, It); but uU who were raised
above poverty had one of silver, which de-
scended from father to son (Hor. Garm. ii. 16,
SALTATIO
553
(Plat. Legrj. vii. pp. 814, 81G ; Ov. .1. A. I
595, ii. 805).
Dancing is frequently mentioned in the
Homeric poems (//. ix. 180, xiii. 687, Ud. i.
15'2, viii. 205, xviii. 304, x.\iii. 134).
But a distinction must be made between the
dance of the heroic age and that of later times.
In Sixirta, and probably in Doric stat< s gener-
ally, tiie dance was taught both as a gymnastic
training and witli a view to religiousfestivals
(see below, opixos) ; but even in Doric states we
do not gatiier that it was, as in the Homeric
poems, an ordinary amusement in domestic
life. At Athens, dances were used in certain
religious festivals and in the drama [Dionysia;
Chorus] ; but as regards dancing for aniuse-
ment in iirivate houses the custom differs alto-
gether from that described in the Homeric
poems. Social dances of men and women
together were wholly unknown [Matrimoniom].
Women, however, in private liou.ses danced
together at family festivals such as the 'A|x4>u-
6p6^ia.
Dancing was originally closely connected
with religion. The dances of the Chorus at
Sjiarta and iu other Doric states were con-
nected with the worship of Apollo [ChoruB ;
Hyporchema] ; and in all the public festivals
of the Greeks, dancing formed a prominent
part. These consisted of gentle movements of
Fig. a:il.— Sniinum. il'.ritish MuBcum.1 ,
13 ; Liv. xxvi. 36), and was accompanied by a
silver Patella, wliich was used together with
tlie salt-cellar in the domestic sacrifices (Pers.
iii. 24, 25). [Compare Lararium.] j
Salta'tio (6pxi)<^i-s, opXTJ^M'^s, Horn.). The
dancing of the Greeks as well as of the Romans
may be divided into two kinds, gymnastic and
mimetic, and was always accompanied by music \
Fig. O.'V).— Dance imitating the fliglit of birds. (From a
vase. British Muscuiu.)
the body with various turnings and windings
around the altar. The Dionysiac or Bacchic
and the Korybantian were of a very different
nature. In the former the life and adventures
of the god were rei)resented by mimetic
dancing [Dionysia]. The Korybantian was of
a wild character; it was chiefly danced in
Phrygia and in Crete ; the dancers wer<' armed,
struck their swords against their shields, and
displayed the most extravagant fury; it was
accompanied chiefly by the flute. For dances
in the theatre, see Chorus.
Among mimetic diuu-es was the Kapiraia,
wliich represented the tilling of the ground, and
a contest with a robber who comes to steal the
cattle. All the movements are rhythmical,
accompanied by the flute. Su<:h dances may
be seen in Greece at the present day. (Xeii.
Anal), vi. 1, §§ 7, H.) Tliese dances were fre-
quently i>erfornied at banquets, and accom-
panied (cf. Hom. Od. iv. IH) by exhibitions of
(cujSiffTTjTTJpes or tumblers (//. xviii. (i05 ; Plat.
Entitled, p. 2!)4 n ; Xen. Si/iiiji. ii. 14).
The opyuos was danced at Sparta by youths
and maidens together. .\nother common
dance at Sjiarta was the /3i/3a(nj, which was
practised both bj- men and women.
In nniny of the Greek states the art of dancing
was carried to great perfection by hetoeroe at
8}'mpa8ia (Xen. Syiiip. ix. 2-7). These were
554
sometimes of
SALTU3
dramatic character, e.g. that
described by Xenophon (I.e.) which represented
the loves of Dionysus and Ariadne.
Dancing was common among the Eomans in
ancient times in connexion with religious
festivals and rites. [Salii; Pyrrhica.] Dan-
cing, however, was not performed by any
Eoman citizen except in connexion with
religion. In the later times of the Republic
we know that it was considered highly dis-
graceful for a freeman to dance (Cic. Mur. 6,
la, Pis. 10, 22; cf. Hor. Carm. iii. 6, 21).
[Pyrrhica; Pantomimus ; Funambulus.]
SaltUS. A woodland and pasture estate such
as formed part of the latif undid of the later
Repablic. The bailiff of such an estate was
called saltiiariiis and belonged to the familia
rnstica [Servus]. The public saltus formed
part of . the quaestorial provincia tenned
Calles.
Salnta'tio. The name given to one of the
forms of attention {officio) expected from clients
by their patrons at" Rome. The client would
wait even before daybreak (Juv. iii. 127, v.
19) in the vestibule until the doors of the
atrium were opened. There he attended until
the patron appeared, and the nomeuclator an-
nomiced the name of the dependent, who
brought his morning greeting (ave). The
callers were commonly divided into various
admissiones 'AiraisaiO', according to their rank
and intimacy (Juv. i. "^100). The clients who
wero invited to do so, accompanied the patron
wherever ho might be going. [Sporttlla.]
Sambu'ca. 1. (<Ta,u)3u/crj, or aafivK-n). A
harp, probably the same as the Hebrew X33D
(sabbeca : Daniel iii. 5, 7, 10). The perfonn-
ances of sambiicistriae {(ra/j.fivKtffTpiou) were
only known both to Greeks and Romans as
luxuries brouglit over from Asia (Plant. Stick.
ii. 3, 57 ; Liv. xxxix. 6 ; Juv. iv. 04^. TLyra.]
SARCOPHAGUS
Sanda'pila. [Funus.]
Sapa. [Vinum.]
Sapo. A Gallic or German invention ; it was
not, however, soap (for which see Fullo) but a
sort of pomade or wash made of fat and ashes,
and used to give a golden tint to the hair (ef.
Tac. Hist. iv. 61 ; Juv. xiii. 161 ; Mart. viii. 33,
xiv. 26). This fancy for light hair was as old
as Cato. Washes for restoring hair also came
fiom Germany (Ov. ^. A. iii. 163). The effects
of these herbae and veiienayvere sometimes dis-
appointing (id. Am. i. li passim); and recourse
was had to the same comitry for false hair.
Saraha'lla (Dan. iii. 94.' Vulg.), Sara'bara
{crapd^apa, Dan. I. c. LXXj. Wide trousers.
[Bracae.]
Zdpa-n-ts (a-)- A caftan worn by the kings
of Persia : it was red, striped or shot with white
(jiecToAfvKov, Xen. Cijr. viii. 3, 13).
Sa'rcina, Sa'rcinae. A pack or bundle such
as soldiers can-ied. It is used generally for any
load. [Exercitus.^
Fig. 937.— Sarcinae. . Colnmn or Trajan,>
Sarcina'tor, Sartor. A person who mends
clothes. As the ancient garments were not
made to fit, there were no tailors or dress-
makers, and the material was made up, as far
as was needed, at home by the slaves.
Sarco'phagus. Properly an epithet of /a^/s,
a stone from Assos in the Troad, said to have
the property of consuming bodies enclosed
in it (Plin. ii. § 211, xxxvi. § 161). Hence any
coffin (Juv. x. 172), especially a coffin in stone
with sculptural decorations. The introduction of
sarcophagi into Greece and Italy was due to
foreign influence ; and they are not found in
either country before the period of decline.
Tlie Egyptian sarcophagus, as the dwelling
of the dfcea«;pd, wu^; •^oiiK'tiines made in the
iig. jai;.— .\iicient Egyptian harp, iliruce.)
2. Sambiica {(xau^vKri or (ravSi/Kt)) was also
the name of a military tnigine used in sieges.
It was a moveable bridge for passing from either
the ships or the towers of the besiegers on to
the walls : in the former case it was raised by
pulleys on the masts, and the soldiers nioimted
to it by a ladder sheltered with SpvrpaKToi ; i"
the latter, it was supported on a high column
or cylinder made as a screw, which was turned
in any direction by a capstan ; the whole being
fixed on a platform with wheels, so that it
combined tower and bridge.
Samni'tes. [Gladiatores.]
Sandalium. [Calceus.]
Fig. 938.— Sarcoptiagus foand at Patras. (Arch. Zeii. 1872.)
form of a house ; and a similar architectural
form is found in Greece and Italy : such as the
Etruscan tombs and the earthenware ' hut-
urns ' (see fig. 846). [Pottery.] Tlie earliest
SARCULUM
savcopliagus showing the influence of Greek
style comes from Cyprus. In Greece we do not
find sarcophagi till the Hellenistic period, when
foreign infliu'uces were common. The subjects
are often purely decorative ; mythological sub-
jects also occur, such as the combat with the
Amazons.
Sarcophagi of stone with architectural deco-
ration were made in Rome as earlj' as the third
century (e.g. that of L. Scipio Barbatus in tlie
Tomb of the Scipios) at Rome ; and a vast
RATRAIW S55
Sarra'cum. [Currus.l
Sarta'gO (r7)yavov, ra'Y7)vov). A frj'ing-pan
(Juv. X. oai, of tlie same shape as the moderr.
utensil.
Sa'tira or Sa'tura. The word, it would ap-
pear, originally meant a mixture or medley.
VaxTO defined satura as a dish or compound,
of various ingredients, among them, raisins,
polenta, and pine-seeds. The phrase per
aatunuii thus meant 'promiscuously,' 'in no
definite order.' As a technical term of law
Fig ■'<> - SarcophagUB from Golgi in Cj prus. (Cesncla )
number of marble sarcophagi belonging to
imperial times exist. The execution of these
varies from fair Graeco-Roman work to the
last and worst attempts of classical art ; but the
style does not rise above that of handicraft,
and figures and groups are repeated from con-
ventional models. The variety of subject (prin-
cipally mythological) is very great.
The word sarcophagus is often loosely used
for a cofi&ii of any material, especially of terra-
Kg. 040.— I'lirt of the front of asarcophngus from Genzano-
The Labours of HerculCB. iliritisii MuBeum.J
cotta, such as are common in Etruria. A figure
of the deceased often reclines on the top.
Sa'rcaltim {(TkoKIs, aKaKiarr^piov ; sarrirr,
(TKdWfiv, (TKaXfiiftif). A hoe (Hor. Carm. i. 1,
11 ; Ov. Met. xi. 86, Fast. i. «09 ; Juv. xv.
16(1). It was lighter than the Marra, and was
sometimes a simple blade, sometimes two-
pronged. It was used like the Bastrum to
cover the seed when sown, and in mountainous
countries it served instead of a plough.
Sari'sa. [Exercitus, 1 (8), p. 'iH7.J
Sari'tio (Sarr-). [Agriculture.]
2ier safuram or in satiiram denoted a bill the
various provisions of which were proposed and
voted on, not separately, but in a lump. As
applied to voting, 2>c)' saturam seems to have
meant that the votes were taken, not individu-
ally, but by show of hands, acclamation, or
some such method.
In literature, satura perhaps meant satura
fabula, a story or piece of writing of miscel-
laneous contents. According to Livy (vii. 2, 4 1
the word was originally applied to a rude fonu
of drama, with or without musical accompani-
ment and corresponding gestures. Livius An-
dronicus gave up .laturae, and, under Greek
influence, introduced a regular drama.
The word was later applied to a literary com-
position (not dramatic), dealing with a niiscel-
, laiieous vaiiety of subjects or characters, and
' composed sometimes in prose and verse, some-
times in verse only, but in a variety of metres.
The fragments wliich remain sliow that the
satura in the liands of Ennius was a literary
conversation composed in various metres.
Tlie principal writers of s^itura were Ennius
(b. 2:!!) B.C.), Pacuvius ('iSO-ia-J H.c), Varro (116-
27 li.f.) (whoso Satiinie Mtnijijtcae are well
known by reputation), Petronius (ob. c. (<<■> .\ u.),
but above all Lucilius (167-103 B.C.), the master
of Horace, Persius, and Juvenal (see Classical
Dirt . under those jiames).
Sa'trapa, Sa'trapes, Satraps (fl-oTpoTnjs —
the word i^- also spflt f^arpdinjs and (^aj^paTTTjs
— old Persian khshatrajid, ' tlie Shah's officer ').
A pasha or viceroy under the Persian king.
Herodotus (iii. 89) says that the number of
satrapies ( (TaTpaTTTj/ai) under Dareius was
twenty ; but no doubt the nunilier varied at
different times. The satraps lield their office
at pleasure, but appear to have governed
as they thought good, provide<l they paid
the fixed tribute regularly, supplied a certain
military force wlien required, and did not
give the king trouble by ambitious schemes or
556
SATURNALIA
dangerous misgovernment. The power of the
great satraps was always a cause of danger to
the Persian monarchj', as is seen, e.g., in the
story of Cyrus the Younger, satrap of Lydia,
Plirygia, and Kappadokia. Satrapies were
divided into sub-satrapies ; and this division
bore some relation to the subdivision of the
whole empire into revenue-districts, the col-
lection of tribute {<p6pos, Hdt. i. 192, iii. 89 ;
Zaafxos, Xen. Cyrop. vii. 4) from which was
part of the duty of the satrap. This tribute
was paid partly in gold, partly in silver, and
its collection was supervised by a royal secre-
tary {ypafj.fj.aTi(rT7is, Hdt. i. 128) or resident, who
might be useful in other ways as a check upon
the satrap. (See Grote, chaps, xxxiii., Ixxii. ;
Hdt. i. 128, iii. 89 ; Xen. Cyrop. vii. 4, viii. 6,
Anab. i. 9.)
Saturnalia, the festival of Satumus, to whom
the inhabitants of Latium attributed the intro-
duction of agriculture and the arts of civilised
Ufe. Falling towards the end of December, it
was celebrated in ancient times by the rustic
population as a sort of harvest-home, and in
every age was viewed by all classes of the
community as a period of relaxation and
merriment. During its continuance uo public
business could be transacted, the law courts
were closed (iustitium) and schools kept holi-
day, to commence a war was impious, to punish
a malefactor involved pollution (Mart. i. 8(j;
Suet. Auij. 32). Special indulgences were
granted to the slaves of each domestic estab-
lishment ; they were relieved from all ordinary
toils, were permitted to wear the Pilleus, were
granted full freedom of speech, partook of a
banquet attired in the clothes of their masters,
and were waited upon by them at table.
(Macrob. Sat. i. 7; Hor. Sat. ii. 7, 5; Mart,
xi. 6, xiv. 1, &c.)
The public festival began with a sacrifcinm
publicum in front of the temple of Saturn in
the Forum, and then followed the convivium \
publicum, at which senators and knights wore ^
the synthesis. In private the day began with
the sacrifice of a young pig (Mart. xiv. 70 ; Hor. ,
Carm. iii. 17, 14) ; all ranks devoted themselves ]
to feasting and mirth, presents were inter-
changed among friends, and crowds thronged
the streets, shouting lo Saturnalia {clamare
Saturnalia : see Catull. xiv. ; Suet. Aug. 75 ;
Mart. v. 18, 19).
Many of the peculiar customs resembled the
sports of our own Christmas and Twelfth
Night and of the Italian Carnival (cf. Mart.
v. 84, vi. 21, xi. 6, xiv. 1, xiv. 141; Tac. Ann.
xiii. 15).
The institution of the Satunialia is lost in
the most remote antiquity. In legend it was
ascribed to Janus, to the wandering Pelasgi, or
to followers of Hercules. The festival was, no
doubt, an old Italian rite of prehistoric date,
but the adoption of the ritus Graccus in its
ceremonies [Sacrificium] was due to the order
from the Sibylline books in the year 217 B.C.
(Liv. xxii. 1, 19). [Lectisteftiiuin.l
During the Republic, although the whole
month of December was considered as dedi-
cated to Saturn, only one day, xn*. Kal. .Ian.,
was set apart for the sacred rites of the
divinity. Owing to a confusion introduced by
the Julian Calendar, Augustus gave three whole
days, the 17th, 18th, and 19th of December;
a fourth day was afterwards added, and by
Caligula a fifth, with the title Itivenalis (Suet.
Cat. 17).
But although one day only, during the
SCALPTURA
Republic, was consecrated to religious obser-
vances, the merry-making lasted during seven
days.
Among the presents of all kinds which were
made at this season (Suet. .4 u^. 75; Mart. iv.
46, vii. 53, &c.) we must notice especially the
cerei and the sigillaria. The cerei were wax
tapers (funiculi ovfunales) and were the most
ordinary gift (Mart. v. 18). The sigillaria
or s-igilla, which were especially characteristic
of the Saturnalia (Sen. Ep. xii. 3 ; Suet. Claud.
5 ; Mart. xiv. 182), were small figures of terra-
cotta, perhaps relics of a human sacrifice to
Saturn (cf. Oscilla).
Scabe'llum, dim. of Scamnum. (l) A low
stool, used as a bed-step (Varro, L. L. v. 35,
168. (2) A footstool. (3) [Cymbalum.]
Scalae (»cA.rua|). (1) A ladder. (2) [ava-
fiaOfjuii). The staircase of a house [Domus]. The
stairs in ordinary houses were like ladders,
except that they had flat treads instead of
rungs : they sometimes led directly into the
street (Liv. xxxix. 14j. Scalae Graecae had
the risers enclosed.
Scalmus {(tkoKixos). [Navis.]
Scalprum (dim. scalpellum). A sharp instru-
ment used rather for scraping, paring or en-
graving than for cutting. It appears to corre-
spond to -/Kvfpavov, a chisel {scalprum fabrile)
or graver.
(1) A shoemaker's knife {crfuXt}, (r/juKiov,
culter crepidarius ; Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 106) ;
perhaps different from ro/j-evs or irepiTO/ueus,
which had a crescent-shaped blade. [Cori-
arius.J
(2) Scalprum librarium {KaKafj.oy\u<pos), a
penknife (Tac. Ann. v. 8 ; Suet. Vit. 2).
[Calamus.]
(3) A grafting-knife (Plin. xvii. § 119).
(4) A surgeon's knife (Cels. viii. 3) : both
(TjuiAt) and TOfievs are names of iarpcov ipya\(7a
(Poll. iv. 111). [See fig. 318 mider Chirurgia.]
(5) A chisel. Scalprum fabrile (y\v(pavov}
(Liv. xxvii. 49), alike for wood and stone (see cut
under Circinus] ; KoKatr-riip is a mallet, not a
chisel.
Scalptu'ra [jKinrTiK)} a<ppayi5u)v). The art
of engraving gums or hard stones (see Anulus).
The Technical Methods of Gem Engraving.
The gems first employed were of soft mate-
rials, such as steatite, and could be engraved
either with metal tools, or with pieces of harder
stones, such as obsidian (cf. Hdt. vii. 69). But
nearly all engraved gems were too hard for
instruments of metal. Accordingly, the differ-
ent methods of gem engrav-
ing are methods for applying
minute fragments of a very
hard material to the gem to
be engraved.
The diamond was some-
times used set in a pencil
(Phu. xxxvii. § 60), or minute
dust of diamond or corundum
(emery, native crystals of
alumina) was mixed with oil,
and applied bv friction, either Fig. 941— Bow and
with a blunt metal pencil ^m^ ^^Middieton's
worked with the hand, or by ^i ^^^j^ ^, original.)
a mechanically revolving
tool. This tool might either be a drill worked
with a bow, like a watclunaker's drill (fig. 941),
I or a minute revolving wheel fixed in a lathe.
' (See Plin. xxxvii. § 200.) The drill, which
[ was much used in early times, had either a
' pointed end, which made hemispherical de-
SCALPTURA
557
pressions, or a tubular end, which produced
ring-like grooves.
In the later- Greek period the drill was sup-
ptiintod by the wheel, which bit into the Btone
Egj^jtain beetle, ScaniLacDS sacrr, with a ball
of mud containing its eggs, wuk emblematic of
the deity Klieper, the principle of ligbt, and
the creative power of nature. The scarab thus
with its cutting edge. At tlie j became a sacred emblem and amulet, and from
best time the design was after- early times was
wards carefully worked over buried with the
with the blunt point {ferruin Egyptian dead.
retasum) and emery powder, | As a rule the
so as to obliterate the traces base of thr sca-
rab, in Egypt,
contained some
simple hierf)-
glyphic inscri|i-
tion, such as l\u:
name of a king
or of a private
of drill or wheel. The dia-
mond pencil was only used for
tlie finest work and for tlie
minute finishing touches.
Fig. 942.-Ep.rT7
engraved gem.
Fig. 944.— Phopniclan Fparab :
.1. side view; b, ace.
B'"tff/^ >$^' I Historij of Gem Engraving.
^trL^^S. /?- The stones associated with
the Mykenaean period of cul- - person. The
ture, usually known as 'gems materials most
of the islands,' are found at commonly used
IMykenae, Menidi, and Spata, were steatite or
and also in the islands of the porcelain.
Aegean, and at lalysos in Rhodes. The stones When worn
are for the most part either lenticular {i.e. I the scarab was
beanshaped) (fig. 943, c), or glandular (in the ' eitlier strung on
form of the sling-bolt, gUui^) (fig. 943, a). TJie a string, or set
material most frequently used is steatite, which in a ring with a
is compara- swivel (cf. cut under Anulus ; and see Plat.
tively soft; but lirp. u. 359); or in an immoveable box-setting
instances occur of gold, forming part of a ring,
(especially in j When it liad been imported into Etruria by
the earliest spe- ; the Phoenicians, it took firm hold of the
cimens) of the 1 national taste, probably because the form was
use of jasper, I convenient and attractive. It enters largely
agate, and other into the designs of their jewellery, e.g. neck-
hard stones. laces and rings.
Tliis class of gems in the earliest Etruscan tombs only the
shows a continuity of imported Egyptian or Plioenician scarab of
development between steatite or porcelain occurs. Etruscan scarabs
the periods of My-
kenae and historical
Greece. They are
found in Mykenaean
graves, and also in
tombs dating from
tlie seventh to the
fifth century. Tliis
clas8,however, stands
by itself, apart from
the general history
of Greek and Etrus-
can gem engraving.
The Greeks and
Etruscans, when
brought into contact
with Oriental cus-
toms, by the agency
of the Plioenicians,
wore introduced to
two forms of gems of
great antiquity — namely, the cylinder of Baby-
lonia and Assyria, and the scarabaeusof Egy])t.
The cylinder was perforated longitudinally for
suspension by a cord, or more rarely mounted
on a swivel, and had a device engraved ri)und
it. Cylinders had been used in Babylonia as
seals from time immemorial, but instances of
their nse by the Greeks or Etruscans are very
rare. Cylinders have been found in places
subject to Oriental influences, as at Kamiros,
Fig. 943.— ' Island ' gems: a
and 6 from Menidi, c from
Melos.
Fig. 94.'>.— Gem found at Perugiii, representing five heroes
In the war against Thebes. (The names are Tiitr.
Tydeus, I'hulniii-, Polynikes. Avtihliitrf. Amphlaraus,
-itrcsthe, AdrastuB, and I'drlhaiui/xifs, I'arthenopucus.)
proper are most comi7ionly of red sard. The
beetle form is carefully preserved. The sub-
jects are usually taken from Greek mytho-
logy. The inscriptions are in Etruscan,
and generally gl^'e in Etruscan form the
names of the persons represented. Etruscan
scarabs may be divided according to their
technique into two classes: (1) gems princi-
pally engraved with the bhmt tool and with
in Rhodes, in Cyprus, Sardinia, and at Kertch, emery powder, often liard to distinguish, apart
but not in Etruria. See Juv. ii. dl ; Plin. ] from the inscriptions, from early Greek work ;
xxxvii. 20, 34.
The scarabaens, on the other hand, is inti-
mately connected with the history of Greek
and Etruscan gem engraving. It owes its
origin to Egyptian theology, in which the
('2) gems executed almost fiitireiy by the drill
making small hemisiiherical deiiressions in
the intaglio. Tliese arc known as gemsrt globolo
iondo, and were probably the later of the two
kinds.
558
SCALPTURA
The native Etruscan scarabs are probably
not older than GOO B.C.
Gem Engraving in Greece.
That which has given the strongest impulse
to the art of the gem engraver has always been
the use of gems for seals. Though gems were
used for seals by Oriental nations long before
the time of Homer, and engraved rings and
stones were found amongst the Mykenaean
and analogous deposits, it would appear that
the use of seals was unknown to Homer (cf. i
II. vi. 169, Od. viii. 447 , and Plin. xxxiii.
§ 12). By the beginning of the sixth century I
B.C. it would appear that -seals were used at
Athens. [Anulus.] I
The first gem engraver known by name was
Mnesarchus of Samos, father of Pythagoras, '
who must have lived about 580 B.C. j
The second name is that of Theodorus, son i
of Telekles, maker of the famous ring of Poly-
krates (Plin. xxxvii. §§ 4,8 ; Hdt. iii. 41), which
was (T'pp-r]y\s xpv(T68eTos, i.e. an engraved seal
mounted in gold. There is no further mention
of gems in literature till the time of Alexander.
The inscriptions, however, sufficiently mdicate
the common use of rings and seals, and the
practice of dedicating them to a deity, e.g.
the entries in the treasure lists of the Par-
thenon. ^
The employmenb of the public seal {Sriixotna
(T^payis) also makes its appearance early in the I
fourtli century. The public seal seems to have |
served as the seal of an official witness, or to j
mark an official copy of a document. |
Pyi-goteles is said to have been chief of his ,
craft in the time of Alexander. The remaining
engravers known to us are ApoUonides, Kro-
nius, and Dioskurities, who made a portrait of
Augustus, used as a seal by him and his suc-
cessors (Plin. xxxvii. § 4 ; Suet. Aug. 50). i
Greek Gem Engraving before Alexander. |
Few Greek examples, comparatively speak-
ing, have been discovered of the scarab ; and
this form, wiiicli was so universally employed
by the Phoenicians and the Etruscans, seems
to have been but little used by the Greeks,
except in the earliest times, and in half-Oriental
regions, such as Cyprus.
Those scarabs which are proved to be Greek
are inscribed either with a sentence (^.g. Qipffios
7lfil(TrJtJ.a, fxii ^6 ^"0176), or with a proper name,
which may be in some cases the signature of
the artist (e.g. Supiijs eTroTjo-e), in others the
name of the owner, or both together (e.g. Aeja-
fievos, MiKTjs, fig. 949).
Among the Greeks the details of the scarab
were abandoned early, probably in the fifth
but there is no attempt whatever to suggest
the details of the beetle.
The scaraboid form was that employed by
one of the most distinguished of Greek gem
Fig. 948. — Agate scaraboid.
Grasshopper and heron ;
signed by Duxamenus.
Fig. 949.— Chalcedony scarab-
oid. Lady at toUst ; signed
bv Dexamenus.
engravers, Dexamenus of Chios, who appears
to have worked towards the close of the fifth
century.
-^. 951.— CltBariBt: ec-
graved on section ot
truncated gland. (Brit-
i£h Museum.;
a, back view, b, base,
■with inscription
and dolphin.
Fig. 947.
Chalcedony scaraboid.
Hying heron ; signed by Dexa-
menus.
century ; but the general form was retained,
which is known as the scaraboid. These gems
have the flat base and convex back of a scarab,
Fig. 930.— Scaraboid. Seal of Stesikrates.
Towards the close of the early period forms
for gems other than the scarab and the scaral)-
oid begin to come into
use ; and from the be-
ginning of the fourth
century the usual form
is a thin slice of stone,
of an oval outline.
The early gems are
distinguished by a cer-
tain dainty minuteness
and precision, showing
that the artist is tak-
ing pains with his
work, and devoting pa-
tient attention to every
detail. This is combined
with a restraint charac-
teristic of aU archaic work, but particularly of
gems.
Gem Engraving from the Time of Alexander.
From the time of Alexander, as the engraver
had obtained complete mastery over his mate-
rials, the history of the art is marked more by
the introduction of new features, such as the
cameo and portraiture, than by a marked de-
velopment of style.
Portraits. — The development of portraiture
on gems was, for the most part, subsequent to
the reign of Alexander, though a few earlier
examples can be quoted. The portrait of
Alexander was used as a signet by Augustus,
who afterwards sealed with his own efligy
(Plin. xxxvii. § 4), and as a family cognisance
on the rings and other property of the Macriaui.
A man might have a portrait engraved on a
gem as being that of an ancestor, a teacher,
a patron, a friend (Ov. Trist. i. 7, 6), or of himself
(Suet. Aug. 50).
Cameos. — Cameos are works engraved in
relief; intaglios have a sunk design. Early
Greek cameos seldom occur, because the main
SCALPTURA
object of the engravers was to produce seals ;
and it was not till after the time of Alexander
that cameo cutting became an art of import-
ance. There is a remarkable series of portrait
cameos of the Seleukidae and Lagidae, between
800 and 150 a.c. Tlie tameor, in question
\
Uft
<:^
a
Fig. 952.— Sardou>"X caincu of tin SaiateCliapello at Paris (Li via,
Tiberius, and Germanicusi.
commonly represent the busts of a male and a
female figure, presumably a sovereign and his
consort. The male figure is usually in full
armour.
At the beginning of the Roman Empire the
great cameos appeared which are a develop-
ment of the regal cameos already described.
Fig. i)5.1.— Tho Portland Vase. (British Museum.)
The largest cameo in existence is that of the
Sainte-Chapelle, a sardonyx of three layers,
measuring 12 in. by 10.^ in. It represents
Livia and Tiberius entln-oned, receiving (lor-
manicus on his return from his camiiaign in j or (rKa<t>f7ov is used to reii<;lit the sacred fire
Germany in .\.i). 17. (Fig. 95'2.) i [PrytaneumJ, being doubtless a primitive
SCAPHIUM 559
Akin to the great cameos are the vessels
carved in precious stones of surprising magni-
tude, with designs in relief (Cic. Verr. iv.
27, t>2). First among these is the cup of
Oriental sardonyx, known as the cup of St.
Denys, ii inches hitrli, and Sjlj inches in di-
ameter. The Portland Vase in the
British Musemn is an example of the
tort; II mat a ritri, or cameos engraved
on glass. Tile material here consists
of a ground of dark blue glass, and
an upper layer of opaque white glass,
in which the design was engraved, as
in a sardonyx. (Fig 953.)
Intaglios of the lioman Empire.
For the first two centuries of the
1 '.mpire, intaglio engravuig maintained
;i liigh degree of excellence, especially
III its technical qualities and in its
1 lower of rendering portraits. After
that period a decline may be observed,
indicated by the increasing use of
ilic wheel for executing the whole of
lie design.
With the fall of the Roman Em-
pire, gem engraving became ruder
and finally died out. Like many other
arts, it only lived on at Byzantium to
l)(' communicated again to thf West
at the Renaissance. One result of this
was the multiplication of forgeries,
(■specially in the case of gems purport-
ing to be inscribed with the names of
tlie artists. With the revival of learn-
ing the art was practised, and ancient
gems became objects of interest from
the antiquarian and artistic points of
view.
Amongst the many works dealing
with this subject may be mentioned
C. W. King, Handbook of Engraved Gems,
180(5, and Antique Gems and Rings, 1872 ;
A. S. Murray and A. H. Smith, Catalogue of
Gems in the British Museum, 1)S88 ; and
the Catalogues of the Berlin and Paris col-
lections.
ZKd^,)xa. A piece of ground dug in the
sand for jumpers in the palaestra to alight on ;
or a space or ring marked out by a furrow
or line marked in the ground ; ra ifTKa/jLixtva
means the score to mark the longest leaj),
throw, etc. (Plat. Crat. 413 a) : CKaipuov, the
spade.
Scamnum. (1) A bed step (Ov. A.A. ii. 211)
(see Scabellum). (2) A footstool (Ov. .4..1. i.
1G2). (3) Any kind of bench or seat, e.g. in
the theatre (Mart. v. 41), before the fire at
home (Ov. Fd.it. vi. :!05). (1) [Agrimetatio.]
Sca'ndula (nr Sci'ndula : from whicli later
form conic the English word .shiiig/e and CJ.
sehindel). A shingle, used anciently at Uoiiic
for roofing (Plin. xvi. 3G; Vitr. ii. 1). [Domus ;
Tepula).
Scapha. [Navis.]
Sca'phium {(TKatpiov). A shallow vessel with-
oftit a handle, so called because it was shaped
something like a boat (cf. Pottery, CvMiiUM.and
the English ' sauce-boat '). used us a drinking
cup (Plant. .S'</t7t. iv. 5, 11, lUirrh. i. 1, 37);
sometimes of earthenware, sometimes of metal
(Lucr. vi. 1045; Cic. Verr. iv. 17, 37). It was
used also for dipping and pouring water over the
body in the bath (.\tlieii. xi. p. 501 k; Plant.
I'ers. i. 3, 43). In I'lut. Num. a brazen (TKcicpiov
660
SCAPUS
substitute for a concave mirror or burning-
glass, and retained by religious conservatism.
For (TKa.<piov KeipeirBai, see Coma.
Scapas. A cylinder or shaft : viz. (1) the
shaft of a column [Architectura]. (2) The
centre pillar of a newel staircase. [Coclea.]
(3) The stile of a door, esp. scapus rardinalis,
the main stile which can-ied the pivots {car-
dines). (4) The shaft of a Candelabrum.
(5) Any cylinder, as, e.cj., the roller of a loom
(Lucr. V. 13(')1); but see Tela.
Scena or Sace'na. [Sacrificium.]
Scenogra'phia. A drawing in perspective
(Vitr. i. 2, '2J ; ortltographia being an architect's
elevation.
Sceptrom ((TK^nTpov). In Homer the king
carries a sceptre as the badge of royalty (II.
ii. 86, 206, &c.). The word is used, however, of
staves of other kinds down to the beggar's
Fig. 0J4.— Sceptres of silver plated witli sold.
(Scnllemann's .Vi/ctikic.)
cudgel orl>6Tra\ov (Od. xvii. lO.'i sq.). The king's
(TK7)vrpov is plated with gold (II. i. 15), and
studded with gold nails (i. 245). See fig. 954
for sceptres found at Mykenae. In classical re-
presentations sceptres are carried by gods and
lieroes : e.g. the Zeus of Pheidias, whose sceptre
was adorned with various metals, and sur-
mounted by an eagle.
In the tragedians the word aKrjinpov is
general in meaning, the old man's staff or the
wayfarer's stick being so called (Soph. 0. T.
456, O. C. 14 ; Aesch. Again. 75), as well as the
sceptre of gods and kings.
At Rome the sceptre (scipio, sccptrum) was
unknown except as a relic of the heroic and
SCRIBA
kingly age (cf. Verg. Aru. xii. 206) and an attri-
bute of the gods. The sceptre of ivory, sur-
mounted by an eagle (Juv. x. 43), worn by the
magistrate in the processus consularis at the
games, was an emblem of apotheosis, and was
never carried on other occasions during the life
of the triutnphator, nor borne at his funeral.
Scheda, Scida. A strip of papyrus bark,
several of which giunmed together formed a
page (plagida, piagiiid, o-eAi's) [Liber] : hence
it is used as a page (Mart. iv. 91 ; Cic. Fain.
I XV. 16, 1). The diminutive schedula is our
I ' schedule.'
I Schoeno'bates (Juv. iii. 77, xiv. 265). [Fun-
ambulus.]
Schoenus. [Mensura, Tables, III.]
I Schola. (1) [Ludus litterarius.] (2) [Bal-
' neae.l (3) A gallerv for pictures or sculpture
(Plin. xxxvi. 5).
ZKipo4>6pia. A festival celebrated at
Athens, in honoiu" either of Athena or of
Demeter and Kore, on the 12th of Skirophorion,
at which the priestess of Athena and the priests
of Poseidon and Helios, overshadowed by a large
white umbrella, a-KidSeiov (see Umbracalom),
proceeded from the Acropolis to a place called
Skiron. The umbrella, the symbol of tlie
protection of the Attic soil against the scorch-
ing heat of the sun, was carried by the priest
of Erechtheus or a member of the family of
the Eteobutadae.
Sci'rpea. "Currus, Pi.austrum.]
Scissor. A car^■er. fCena.]
Scobi'na, Scobi'na fabri'lis. A rasp or
carpenter's file, rougher than lima, used for
smith's work ( Varro, L. L. vii. 68 ; Plin. xi. 87).
Scobis, sawdust, was sprinkled over the
floor, especially in dining-rooms, so that the
dust and any impurities might be swept up
with it (Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 11 ; Juv. xiv. 67 ; cf.
Plin. xxxvi. i^ 184). In great houses the saw-
dust was dyed with saiTron and vermilion ; and
Eiagabalus is said to have used gold dust, i.e.
filings {l>ivqfxa), for this purpose.
Scopae. A broom (Hor. iS'a^ ii. 4, 81), com-
monly made of the wild myrtle or butcher's
broom (ritscus) and of the tamarisk (Plin.
xxiii. § 166). but also (in a temple) of myrtle
(Eur. Ion, 121), and often of palm-twigs.
(Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 83 ; Mart. xiv. 82 ; cf. Juv.
\-iv. 60. )
Scorpio. [Tormentum.]
Scotia (ffKOTia, rpoxi^os). [Architectura.]
Scriba. The clerks, or rather secretaries,
who formed the highest class of the officials
attached to the senate and the Roman magis-
trates. The ■ scriba was much more than a
mere librarius or copyist : scriba librai-ius is
used to denote a superior kind of librarius ;
hence the quaestorian clerks often appear as
scrihae librarii. These were divided into
three decuries, presided over by the sex primi
(Cic. Nat. Deor. iii. .30, 74) ; and had as their
especial charge the administration of the trea-
sury and the keeping of the public books.
Every governor of a province had two treasury-
clerks assigned to him to keep his accounts
(Liv. xxxviii. 55, 5), and to draw up his official
statement of accounts (Cic. Pis. 25, 61). He
would have his o^vn clerks for his private
accounts. As the treasury contained the state
archives, all the business connected with them
passed through the hands of the scribae.
They also had to supply the magistrates
with all the written formulae required in
their office. The praetors and the judicial
authorities generally were regularly aided
SCRIBLITA
by scribae, who read the documents laid before
the court (Cii-. I'crr. iii. 10, 2()), and drew up the
decisions and sentences in due form (Cic. Claod.
53, 147). Tlie censors especially sometimes ap-
'pear in charge of the whole body of public clerks
(Liv. iv. 8, -1). Most of the clerks may have be-
longed to the class of jiublic slaves ; otliers must
have been officials holding a respectable position.
At least the more important of the clerks
must have been taken from the decuries of
the scribae quaestoni. The number of the
quaestorian clerks was 27 before the time of
Sulla, and was raised by him to 3(5. The
clerks of the curule aediles, mentioned by
Cicero (Claent. 45, 126) and Livy (xxx. 39,
7), formed one decuria, presided over by 10
head clerks. The first two classes contained
men of great knowledge of Inisiness and even
of law, and may be compared to the permanent
officials of our own public offices. They formed
collectively an ortlo (Cic. Verr. iii. 79, 184),
claiming to rank with that of the equites, and
could dispose of their offices by sale. Thus
Horace scrijitum quaestorium comparavit
(Suet. Vit. Hoi:). In the provinces they
ranked immediately after the staff officers of
the governor ; but they were mcrcennarii, i.e.
in receipt of pay [merces, salariu7n), and a
scriba was not allowed to stand as a candidate
for office until he had laid down his scrijjtiis or
official position. (Hor. Sat. ii. 5, 50; Cic. Off.
ii. 8, 29; cf. Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 36.)
Scribli'ta. Pastry made with honey and
served cold or hot at mensae secundae (Mart,
iii. 17, 1 ; Plant. Poen. Prol. 43).
Scri'niuni. Capsa.]
Scriptu'ra. Tliat portion of the revenue of
the Roman commonwealth which was derived
from letting out part of the ager publicus as
pasture-land (Cic. Flacc. 8, 18). Such parts
were called pasciia puhlica, saltus, or silva
(cf. Verg. Georg. iii. 323), the last name point-
ing to the feeding of swine on acorns. They
were let, like other sources of Vectigalia,
by the censors to publicani ; and the persons
who grazed cattle on the pastures [pecuarii)
had to pay a certain duty to the publicani ac-
cording to the number and size of the cattle.
For fines levied on the pecuarii who evaded this
payment, see Liv. x. 23 ; Ov. Fast. v. 283-294.
The leges Liciniae of 367 and the agrarian law of
111 B.C. set limits to the number of cattle which
any one person might feed on the public land.
The state revenue hence derived through the
publicani seems to have been very considerable. |
From registering the cattle on the lists of the
publicani (scrihere) came the name of the duty
itself, script lira \ the land itself was called;
scripturarius ager, and the publicani and their I
servants scrijiturarii. Public pastures were i
found in Italy (especially in Samnium, Lucania,
and Apulia ; Liv. xxxix. 29) and in the provinces '
(Cic. Verr. ii. 3, 6, Leg. Manil. 6, 14, Fam.
xiii. 65j.
Scriptura disappeared in Italy, as the pasture- j
land was assigned by agrarian laws to individual j
owners. Even in the provinces scriptura comes [
to an end under the Empire, the emperors
taking to themselves the management and use
of the pascna. I
Scrupulum, or more properly Scri'pulum or [
Scriplum (7pajUjua). (1) The smallest denomina-
tion of weight among the Romans. It was the
24tli part of the Uncia, or the 288th of the
Libra, and thmrfdre about 18 grains English, i
[Mensura ; Pondera ; Tables, XIV.] |
Though the scripulum was the smallest !
SCUTUM
5C1
weight in common use, we find divisions of it,
as the oboltis = i of a scruple, the semi-obolus
= i of an obolus, and the siliqua = i of an
obolus, = j' of a scruple, originally the weight
of a certain number of seeds.
(2) As a square measure, see lugerum and
Tables, VI.
(3) The smallest Roman gold coin, weighing
'i of a denarius, 17'5 grs.
Sculpo'neae {Kpovirei^ai). Wooden sabots
made in one piece and hollowed out. They
were worn by peasants and slaves in country
work (Cato, Ii. Ii. 59, 135; Plant. Cas. ii. 8,59).
It seems that there were also wooden shoes
called calones. The Greek Kpovire(ai, KpoviraKa,
Kpovire^ta were originally wooden shoes, worn
by Boeotian peasants. But the name be-
longs especially to the instrument made of a
double block of wood with a hinge fitted to the
foot, and used by fluteplayers to beat time.
[See fig. 449 under Cjrmbalum.]
Scurra in its earlier sense = urbanus (Cic.
Scst. xvii. 39) as opposed to rustirus (Plaut.
Most. i. 1, 14) or militaris (Plut. Epid. i. 1,
13j. Later, one who makes it his business
to amuse ; opposed to orator (Cic. de Orat. ii.
! 00), to amicus (Hor. Ep. i. 18, 2, 3; cf. i. 17,
19-22. Hence it comes to mean a person wl;o
was invited to dinner to amuse the other guests,
and so almost = parasitus (Plaut. Trin. i. 2,
165, ' urbani assidui cives quos scurras vocant ' ;
I Hor. Sat. i. 5, 52) ; and lower still, scurrae are
j included with inoriones and other acroamata,
such as aretalogi (Plin. E]i. ix. 17 ; cf. Suet.
Aug. 74), as mere hired buffoons.
j Scu'tica. [Flagrum.]
Scutra (Plant. Fers. i. 3, 8). A tray : dim.
scutcHa (Cic. Tusr. iii. 19, 4(>) and scutula.
Scu'tula. (1) (or Scy'tale, (jKVTa.\r\). A
cylinder, (a) A roller used for transporting
ships ([Caes.] B. C. iii. 40, 4). (6) = ZkutoLXti.
((■) A kind of snake mentioned among others
by Lucan (ix. 717).
(2) (prob. connected with scM<«?w, but ?<). (a)
A small dish, jierhaps of a diamond or lozenge
shape (Mart. viii. 71, xi. 31).
(b) A piece of marble &c. cut into the shape
of a lozenge or rhomb used for inlaying (Vitr.
vii. 1, 4 ; Plin. xxxvi. 25 ; cf. Tac. Agric. 10.
where the shape of Britain is compared to a scu-
tula); or a check
woven in cloth
(Plin. viii. 36,74);
hence scutulatus
(J6. 35, 73; Juv. ii.
97 ; of a spider's
web, Plin. xi. 24,
28). [Tela.] See
fig. 294 under Ca-
pistrum.
Scutum {dv-
pf6s). The oval
or oblong Roman
sliield worn by
the heavy-armed
infantry after 340
B.C., often curved
so as in part to
encircle the body.
These Roman
shields are called
scuta lo n g a
( Verg. ^en. viii. 062; Ov. Fast. vi. 302). Polybius
(v. 23) says the dimensions were 4 feet by 2},,r)r
slightly more. Tlie shield was held on the "left
arm by means of a handle, and covered the left
shoulder. [Arms and Armour, 3, Shield.^
00
Fig, 95i.— Scutum. (Biirtolisdrciis
Triumphalis.)
56'2
SCYPHUS
Scyphus. [Pottery.] !
XKVTdXTi {scytale; also Kovrd\r): from
(TKiiTos, KvTos, leather or hide). The name
applied to a secret mode of writing by which
the Spartan ephors communicated with their
kin^s and generals when abroad (Plut. Lysancl.
19 •,'Thuc. i. 131 ; Ar. Av. 1283 ; Xen. Hell. v. 2,
§ 37 ; Corn. Nep. Pausan. 3). When a king
or general left Sparta, the ephors gave to him
a staff of a definite length and thickness, and
retained for themselves another of the same
dimensions. In order to send a despatch, they
wound round the staff a narrow strip of
leather, and then wTote upon it the message
which they had to send to him. The strip of
writing material was taken from the staff, and
sent to the general, who, after having wound
it around his staff, was able to read the com-
munication.
ZKv9ai. [Arinoaioi.."
Sece'spita. [Sacrificium.]
Se'ctio, Sector. See Appendix, Rom.\n L.\w.
SECURIS
1. The workman's axe, when used for felling
trees, is spoken of in general terms as ireA.SKus
(II. xxiii. 114 ; Xen. Cijrop. vi. 2, 36, &c.; and
s
Fig. 9.W.—Securis simplex. (Trajan's Column.)
securis (Verg. Aen. vi. 180; Plin. vi. § 192,
&c.) ; but of these woodcutters' axes there were
two patterns, (a) the single-headed (eTep6-
ffTOfios, r]nnr4\eKK0v, II. xxiii. 851j, and (6) the
Fig. 9o9.— Bipennis. (From a vase-painting.)
double-headed, 7re'A.€/cus a.fi<pi(TrofjLos or SiaTo/juos
(Eur. Fr. 534) or a^ivTi, Lat. bipennis (Hor.
Carm. iv. 4, 57).
The cai-penter's or shipwright's axes are dis-
tinguished in Greek as the heavy TreAe/cus for
Fig. 956.— Sacrificial axe.
SeCU'ris {ir4\eKvs, o|iVt) [t]). An axe. Under
this head are included (1) the workimvn's axe.
Fig, fiOO.— Egyptian sliip'w-rights, with the axe.
rough-hewing the wood, and the small adze
(ffKeirapvov) for afterwards shaping it more
finely (Od. ix. 391). [Ascia.] The head of the
adze was set at right angles to the helve. The
preceding cut of Egyptian shipwrights is worthy
Fig. 957.— IlfAexvs. From a vase. (British Mnseum.!
i2) the battle-axe, (3) the sacrificial axe [Sacri-
icium], (4) the axe of the lictors [Lictor;
Tasces].
Fig. 961.— Death of Tenthesileia.
sarcophagus.)
(Reliel on a
of notice, since the form of the irf\eKvs there
depicted explains what is meant by ' shooting
SECUTORES
through the axe-heads ' in Od. xx. 574. The dif-
ficulties whicli commentators have found under
the idea that the arrow passed tlirou-jh the
rings which fastened the axe to the handle, etc.,
all disappear, if we understand that the Tr(\€Kus
of the Odyssey had a rinj,'-shaped head : this
shape being proljably used to economise the
precious metal, iron. For the Romau carpen-
ter's axe, see Ascia ; Dolabra.
2. The use of the axe in war was especially
an Asiatic practice. This may possibly be
alluded to by Homer {II. xiii. Ol'i). The battle-
axe is the characteristic weapon of the Asiatic
Amazons, who use both the single and the
double (or Karian) axe (cf. Hor. Carm. iv. 4,
20 ; Verg. Acn. vii. 184, xi. OOC), &c.). Primitive
races both in Italy and in Northern Europe
fought with the axe (cf. Hor. I.e.).
Secuto'res. [Gladiatores.]
Segme'ntuin. A stripe or border sewn
on to a dress (Ov. ^'1. A. iii. 1(59; Juv. ii. 124),
generally of gold tissue or iiurple.
Z€iad.xO£>-a, a disburdening ordinance,
preceded the legislation of Solon (Plut. Sol.
15). It was probably neither a complete cancel-
ling of debts (xpew/coTTia, novae tabulae), nor a
mere reduction of the rate of interest (t6kwv
jueTptcJrij j), coupled with a lowering of tlie silver
standard. It seems probable that all those
contracts in which the debtor had borrowed on
the security either of his person or of his land
were cancelled, and that to prevent the recur-
rence of similar social evils it was forbidden
henceforth iir\ rots ffwixaai Sauei(^eiv, and a
limit was fixed beyond which no one was
allowed to buy up land (Arist. Pol. ii. [vii. 4]).
Tlie author of [Arist. J 'Ad. iro\., however, states
(§ 6), that all existing debts, whether owed to
private persons or the state, woa-e cancelled.
After completing this legislation, Solon effected
a reform in measures and in the coinage, with
the object of opening up new fields for Athenian
trade, by adopting the Euboic instead of the
Aeginetan system. [Pondera.]
Sella. A seat or chair. Sitting, as a religious
and ceremonial posture, was in itself an act of
SELLA
363
altar of Zeus at tlie taking of Troy, and Orestes
on the om{)halos at Delphi. When being purified
from the stain of blood, the sinner sal on the
altar. In taking omens from birds, the seer,
among Ijoth Greeks and Romans, was seated
(cf. Soph. -Iwh'.^. 'J'J'J; Ycr^. Aen.ix.4). Chairs
formed an important part of the sacred furni-
ture in many ceremonial processions (cf. Ar.
Eccl. 734, Ac. 155'2).
The customs by which difference of rank,
dignity, or authority was tyi)ified by variety
of seats are numerous [Thronus] : cf. such
words as crvveSpta, npotSpia, coii-wssus, praeses,
sessio. Even in the Homeric age it was part of
the welcome of a guest to bid him be seated
(e.g. Od. i. 130). It was also considered neces-
sary to rise (assurgcre) in the presence of an
older or more honoured man (cf. Cic. Sen.
18, 63 [assurgi] ; Juv. xiii. 55 ; Suet. Cues. 78).
At banquets, where men reclined, it was
usual for boys and women to sit (Xen. Sijiiip.
i. 8 ; Suet. Claud. 32). In art goddesses are
represented as seated, wliile gods rechne ; and
Fig. ".HK!.— Prlnm seated on the altiir. CUaumelBtor.)
supplication (cf. Aesch. Suppl. 224, 265 ; Soph.
O. T. 2), not merely in the heroic age, but also
in classical times (Thuc. i. 135). In art it is very
often shown : for instance, Priam seated on the
Fig. 9ra.— Sella. (Parthenon frieze.)
while the latter were honoured at Rome by
lectifiternia, the former were given selhstcrnia.
Seats in antiquity may be divided into three
classes: (1) those which have a straight back
and arms [Thronus ; : (2) those with a back,
but no arms [Cathedra] ; and (3) those which
have neither back nor arms.
In Greece, before Homer,, seats both with
and without backs were used, as is shown by
carvings in ivory found at Mykenae. In Homer
the general term for seats of all kinds is eSpTj :
but, with the exception of the dp6vos, whii'h
belongs to the first class, no information as to
their shape is given.
KXia/xOs, which came next in honour to
6p6i'os, was apparently an easy chair (Od.
xvii. 90, 97), but without arms, with (usually)
a stool {dpfivvs, Od. iv. 131 : vTroirodiov) for tlie
feet. The K\icrix6s was decorated with metal
plates and inlaying, xpi^Cfios (//. viii. 43('i) and
■jrotKiKos {Od. i. 132), and was used only by
people of rank. KAkt/tj is used onlv bv women
^(11. iv. 123): K\tvTijp {Od. xviii.'l89l is
perhaps the same.
Ai<ppos is a seat without back or arms :
hence used for the cbariot board and the
chariot itself. The word Si<ppos retained its
Homeric meaning of a stool, e.g. to translate
sella eurulis. It was besides called (TKifiirovs,
though this name is also given to benches {0d6pa
or x<'''f''^Kv^oi [Si(ppoi] wliich were sometimes
long enough to serve as a bed (cf. Plat. Frot.
p. 310 c).
o o 2
SG4
SELLA
In the classical period the generic name for \ had a right to drive (cf. Liv. iii. 11). Even out
chairs and stools was KadeSpa. Chairs are of of Rome, the magistrate carried with him, as
every variety of make, from simple four-legged j sjTnbol of his rule, a sella castrensis (Suet,
stools to chairs with richly-turned legs, oma- \ Galba, 18). The importance of being seated
mented with inlaying and chased or embossed when acting officially runs through the whole
metal work
Ai<ppos also means a bench in a workshop.
In schools the master sat on a higher and
more dignified KadeSpa, and the pupils on stools
of Roman ceremonial etiquette, subordination
being expressed when the people stood before
the seated magistrate, equality when the senate
Fig. 9&i.Si(f)poi, from a vase-painting'. (Baumeister.)
{Siippot, si(hsfiUia) or benches {0i0pa: cf. Plat.
Prot. p. 31.5 c). See cuts under Ludus litte-
rarius, Cathedra. The Si(ppos was also used
out of doors (Ar. Eq. 1384-6). A camp-stool
is Sicppos OKKaSias.
Chairs of all kinds were covered with skins
and fleeces (Kwas) in the Homeric age, and at all
periods with shawls and coverlets. Cushions
{Kv4<paKKuv, iroTiKpavov, Theocr. xv. 3 ; wpoff-
K«paKaia, Tv\r]) were also used, but chairs
were not stuffed.
The manufacture of chairs flourished espe-
cially in Thessaly, Miletus, and Chios. Maple
and beech were the woods chiefly used, but
harder and more expensive sorts were neces-
sary for those which were inlaid with ivory.
Wicker-work chairs are also mentioned. For
fixed chairs in theatres &c., see Thronus.
The Romans do not seem to have had any
peculiar shapes of their own. The general
term in Latin is sedile ( = KaOiSpa) ; the varieties
are scamnum or siibseUium (= $idpov), sella
( = Si(ppos), cathedra, and solium.
Sella was the commonest form, used by
all ; cathedra was an easy chair. Sellae were
Fig. 965.— Sella castrensis.
covered when in use by a cushion (pulvinus),
but not upholstered ; and made, not only with
four upright legs, but in the form of a camp-
stool ; such as the sellae curules of the higher
Roman magistrates. If curulis is derived from
currus, tlie word bears out the idea of a juris-
diction not confined to any one place, like a
iribunal, but extended wherever the magistrate
Fig. 96G.— Sellao curules, trora Pompeii. (Mus. Borhon.
\\. tav. 2H.)
sat in his presence. The sella curulis was
confined to the consuls, praetors, and magis-
trates w^th the consular or praetorian imperium
(cf. Liv. iii. 44, 9, iv. 7), the dictator, magister
equitum, censor, and flamen Dialis.
The sella cvrulis was a folding stool which,
when open, had a square seat ; it was with-
out back or arms. The legs were curs-ed
(ayKv\6Trovs). The seat was made of leather
straps and furnished with cushions. The sella,
Fig. 967.— Sella qnaes4oria.
Fig. 96fl.— Subsellium.
castrensis (fig. 965) had straight legs: so had
the subsellium, of the tribunes and inferior
magistrates (fig. 968).
Bisellium was confined to the municipia,
where it was given as an honour to the Au-
gnstales. It was in this case a double seat,
set apart in the amphitheatre and theatre.
The decuriones seem to have had it by right
of their office.
Sedan chairs were known as sellae gestato-
riae, portatoriae, or fertoriae {Si(ppos Kard-
(TTeyos, (popelov), and are usually contrasted with
the litter {lectica : cf . Mart. x. 10, 7, xi. 98, 10 ;
but see Mart. iv. 51). These were used at Rome
by ladies, but under the Empire their use be-
came common with men, e.g. Augustus (Suet.
Aug. 53) and Claudius, and in later times
almost universally. They were often large
enough to hold two persons (Plin. Ep. iii.
5, 15), and were either open (apertae) or
covered over (opertae), and could be shut
close (cf. Juv. i. 124), sometimes with glass
windows (Juv. iv. 21). Cathedra is also used
for a kind of sedan. The roof of the sella was
called arcus (cf. currus arcuatus, Liv. i. 21).
(Buchholz, die horn. Bealicn; Becker, Chari-
kles, Gallus ; Daremberg and Saglio ; Bau-
meister; Mayor, Juv. i. 124, iv. 21.)
SELLISTERNIUM
Selliste'rnium. A bumjuet offered to god-
desses alone (Tac. Ann. xv. 44). [Lectister-
nium. ]
Sembe'Ua. [Coinage, Libella.]
Sementi'vae. jFeriae.]
Semici'nctiuin (aT]iJ.tKivdiov, aifiiKivQiov). A
short apron (Mart. xiv. 153; Acts xix. 12, Gr.
and Vulg.).
Se'mita. A footpath (Verg. Aen. ix. 383, &c.)
narrower ihan callis, iter, or actus. Also as =
Tnargo, or crcpido (Juv. v. 8 ; Plaut. Trin. ii. 4,
80). [Viae; Vitis.]
Semu'ncia. [Pondera ; Tables, XIV., XVII.]
Sena'tus. The senate or council of elders
(seniorcs: 7€poi/(ri'a) ranked with the kingship
and the assembly of l)urgesses among the
oldest of Roman institutions, and like the two
latter, existed also among the kindred com-
munities of Latium. Its creation was ascribed
to Eomulus (Liv. i. 8). The members of the
senate were scnatores. The collective appella-
tion 2^c-trcs (Patricii) belonged of right to tlie
purely patrician senate of the earliest days,
but was transferred to the mixed patricio-
plebeian body of later times (Cicero, Sallust,
and Livy, passim), and used as equivalent tq
senatus. The fact that the patrician patres
had once formed the whole senate, and that
plebeians were not admitted until a later
time, was possibly conunemorated by the offi-
cial term 2)atres [et] conscripti; conscripti
denoting originally the plebeian members called
up by the magistrate. But this t^rm is also
taken to mean ' assembled fathers.'
I. Number of the Senate. — Roinan tradi-
tion represents the st-nate as consisting origin-
ally of 100 members (Liv. i. 8), and as having
been gradually enlarged to 300, which remained
the normal number down to the time of Sulla.
Hulla added (81 B.C.) 800 equites elected by the
people. From this date to the dictatorship of
Caesar, the nominal maximum wasfiOO. Under
Caesar the numbers rose to 900 ; under tl;e
triumvirs to over 1000 (Suet. Aug. 35). Au-
gustus reduced them once more to a nominal
600 (Suet. U.).
II. Admission and Expulsion of Senators.
Admi-ssion to the ranks of the Roman senate
was always given, not by popular election or
by co-optation, but by the act of the magistrate
who has for the time being the authority legere
[sublegcre of filling up vacancies] in scnatum;
though under the later Republic the lectio
senatus was reduced to little more than the
formal enrolment of persons wlio had a legal
claim to be enrolled. The constitutional theory
was that the senate was only a council of advice
(consilium) for the magistrate, and that the
magistrate selected his councillors. The early
senate, no doubt, was composed exclusively of
patricians, and was closely connected with the
gentes : but nomination (lectio) seems to have
been a part of the original institution, so far as
it has been handed down to us.
(1) The prerogative of choosing (Icgerc) sena-
tors belonged at first to the king. From the king
it passed to the consuls, and was during a brief
period granted to their temporary substitutes,
the tribuni militum ronsulari })otcst(itr. The
date at which it was transferred to tlie censors
is uncertain ; but it is stated that it was effected
by a Lex Ovinia tribunicia, and i)robably after
the passing of the Lex Publilia (381) B.C.), which
enacted that one censor must be a plebeian
(Liv. viii. 12), and before 312 n.c, the date of
the first recorded lectio senatus by censors
(Liv. ix. 29). Tlie duty remained with the
SENATUS
565
'censors down to the close of the Republic,
though on two occasions, in 21G and in Hi B.C.,
it was entrusted, as an exceptional measure, to
a dictator appointed ad hoc. Both Julius
Caesar and the triumvirs selected senators in
virtue of the extraordinary powers vested in
them. Augustus combined the lectio senatus
with the census of the citizens in 28 B.C., and
probably in 8 B.C., and 14 .\.i). During the first
century a.d. admission to the senate of jjersons
who liad served the quaestorship [see below (2)3
and notification of vacancies took place annu-
allj'. But admission (adlcctio) to the senate by
grace of the emperor was only effected in virtue
of the censorial authority, e.g. by Claudius,
Vespasian, and Titus, till tlie time of Domitian,
who, as censor for life, first exercised it con-
tinuously. From his time onward the right
was used by all emperors at their discretion,
as a power inherent in the imperial preroga-
tive.
(2) The old constitution left the king or
consul free to choose as senators any men
qualified by full citizenship, free birth (inge-
nuitas), and good character. Plebeians were
excluded by custom, not bj' law. Their admis-
sion is represented in tradition as the free act
of the king or consul, not as the consequence of
special legislation (Liv. ii. 1). But this early
freedom of choosing optimutn qucmque was
gradually restricted. It is probable that the
consuls and praetors at the end of their year of
office had always a claim to be enrolled as
senators. When, owing to the transference of
the lectio senatus to the censors, the revision
of the senatorial list took place not annually
but quinquennially, the ex-magistrates who had
a claim to be enrolled were permitted, after the
end of their year of office to enter the senate-
house and, though not yet senators, to give their
votes (sententiae) with the rest (Liv. xxiii. 32).
The number of magistracies carrying this privi-
lege increased as time went on, and by the time
of Sulla included tribunes, plebeian aediles, and
quaestors. Thus any citizen who had filled the
lowest of the great offices became ex officio a
senator. Of senators admitted by free selection
of the magistrate there is no trace after 70
B.C., until we reach the dictatorship of Caesar.
The formal lectio continued, but as a rule the
number of ex-quaestors must have been suffi-
cient to fill the vacancies, and have left no room
for others. The votes of the people in comitia
in fact gave admission to the senate. (Cic.
Cluent. 5G, 153.) But the lectio of the magis-
trate was still indispensable, and with the
Empire became once more a reality ; for though
Tiberius transferred the elections for the quaes-
torship to the senate, the enipei-or jiossessed
and exercised the old right of direct admission,
now known as adlcctio. The increasing fre-
quency of adlectiones indicates the use of this
method as a means of promoting the friends
and proteges of the emperoi*. Vacancies by
death or disqualification were often filled up
by adlectio.
No qualification of age or property was origi-
nally fixed by law for a seat in the senate : but
the legal age for the quaestorship, viz. thirty,
and from Augustus onward twenty-five, became
practically that for the senate also. [Quaestor.]
A property qualification of one million sesterces
(decies IIS.) was first introduced bv Augustus
(Suet. Aug. 41 ; Tac. Ann. i. 75, ii. 37).
With tiie right of creating senators was
closely connected tluit of removing them (loco
movcre), or omitting them from the revised
366
SENATUS
list (praeterire). Tlie Lex Ovinia, carried as | senatu3 customarily, a patrician [Interrex],
itwaswhen the senate was slowly establishing ■ ' '^' ' -^ '- ^ ^^ ~ " ' '
its ascendency (339-312 B.C.), by transferring the
revision of the list to the censors substituted
a quinquennial for an annual revision ; and the
censors were obliged, not only to be agreed in
the removal or omission of a name (Liv. xl. 51 ;
Cic. Cluent. 43, 122), but to state in writing
their reasons for inflicting the penalty (Liv.
xxxix. 42). This arrangement gave a senator
fixity Af tenure, except in cases of deprivation
of office for misconduct, loss of civic rights, con-
viction in a court of justice, gross immorality
or extravagance, &c.). After 70 B.C. the power
of expulsion or omission remained in abeyance.
Under the Empire it came again into exercise,
and was freely used by Augustus in 29-28 B.C.,
and though in certain cases the patrician
members may liave been charged with special
duties [see Interrex ; Auctoritas patrum], no
distinction is traceable in later times between
patricians and plebeians as regards the right
sententiam dicendi ; and the term pedarii
probably denoted the lower ranks of senators
{i.e. the non-curules), whose names were rarely
reached in taking the sententiae, and who were
therefore, as a rule, obliged to vote witliout
s-peaking, jjedibus ire in sentejitiam, i.e. to cross
to one side or the other of the senate-house.
During the period from the Lex Ovinia to
the dictatorship of Sulla the senate came by
degrees to consist entirely of officials and ex-
officials, all belonging to a single section of
and again in 18 B.C. (Suet. Aug. 35), and by ! Roman society, that of the Nobiles ; though
Vespasian after the civil wars of 69 a.d. (Suet, j nominally, as we have seen, ingenuitas was the
Fes;/;. 9), and at the periodical lectiones held by only qualification; and Caesar appointed as
the emperors as censors; and at the yearly revi- | senators lihertiyiorum filii.
sion of the senatorial list, those senators were Besides the changes mider the Empire, noticed
€xpelled who were held by the emperor to be above, Vespasian admitted numerous Italians
unworthy (Tac.yl«/2. ii. 48, iv. 42, xi. 25; Suet. ' and provincials (Tac. Atm. iii. 55). But while
Domit. H). This power of removal combined the senate thus became more representative of
with the more frequent use of the right of the whole Empire, a narrowing efEect was exer-
adlectio to destroy the independence of the ; cised by the tendency to confine the senatorial
republican senate. The senate under the dignity to a particular class, by making it here-
Principate became again a body of nominees, ditary. In the time of Cicero, the male mera-
removeable by the chief magistrate. | bers of the great families passed into the senate
(3) The lectio or revision of the list by the | through the quaestorship, almost as a matter of
censors immediately preceded the recognitio
equitum (Liv. xxiv. 18, &c.). It was usually
conducted by both censors jointly (Liv. xxxii. 7 ;
cf. xxvii. 11). The first point was to select
the senator whose name should stand at the
head of the list as princeps iienatus,a,nd enjoy
the privilege of giving his sententia first. This
course. The son of a senator thns qualified
himself for senatorial rank (Cic. Cluent. 5(>.
153). But as yet the son of a senator had
no legal claim to be himself a senator ; and the
first attempt to make the senatorial dignity
formally hereditary dates from Augustus. Ac-
cording to his regulations, the sons of senators
honour belonged by ancient custom to the old- | were authorised to assume the broad stripe
est patrician ce/woriMs (Liv. Z.c). After 209 B.C. 1 {latus clavus) on the assumption of the toga
any patrician censorius might be chosen irre- ! virilis, and to attend meetings of the senate,
spective of seniority. From 81 B.C. onward, it j They entered the army as trihuni inilitum or
is not clear that any princeps senatus in the praefecti alarum, and were distinguished as
old sense was appointed. The emperors, follow- I /a<j(;/a«u (Suet. Aug. 38) from other young
ing the example of Augustus, placed their own ! officers {angusticlavii, Suet. Otho, 10). From
names at the head of the list, but without the [ military service they passed on to the quaestor-
old title of princeps senatus [Princepsj. The : ship, and a seat in the senate. This obligation,
old list of the senate was next gone through, the however, was not complete, and the honour
names of deceased or legally disqualified mem- might be declined (Suet. Vesp. 2 ; Tac. An7i. xvi.
bers struck out, and any whom the censors 17 ; Ov. Tr/'si. iv. 10, 35). Claudius, however, as
judged unfit struck off the roll. Vacancies I censor, deprived such persons of the equestrian
were then filled up according to the order de-
scribed above, subject to the approval of the
censors. In the completed list (album sena-
dignity as well (Suet. Claud. 24). Augustus
prohibited both senators and their sons from
marriage with libertinae ; and by the close of
torium, Tac. Ann. iv. 42), the senators were i the second century we find the two orders,
arranged according to their official rank, from senatorial and equestrian, clearly and sharply
■dictatorii and censorii to quaestorii. Down j distinguished, each with its own privileges,
to tlie time of Sulla, the patricians in each ' [Equites ; Princeps ; Procurator.] By the
magisterial category took precedence of the
plebeians; in the post-Sullan period, the mem-
bers of each category were arranged simply
by official seniority. The list when made up
was in Republican times read aloud from the
rostra (Liv. xxiii. 23) ; under the Empire it was
early part of the third century the sons and
grandsons of senators are born into the sena-
torial order, and cannot escape either the honours
or tlie burdens attached to the dignitas sena-
toria : and the ordo became in fact an hereditary
peerage, succeeding the nohilitas of the Re-
regularly published. It held good until the next public, as that had superseded the patriciate,
quinquennial revision. Under the Empire the IV. Insignia, Privileges, d-c. — In Republi-
revision was annual. can times the senator bore no distinctive title.
III. Composition and Character of the : The title of courtesy clarissimus was first
Senate. — The first important change in the formally assigned to senators and their families
composition of the senate must have beeu ' in the second century after Christ. The outward
effected by the admission of plebeians in the insignia of the senator were always the broad
sixth century B.C. ; a measure ascribed by I purple stripe (Latus clavus) on the tunic, and
tradition to Brutus, and certainly anterior to the red shoes [Calceus] with the crescent-shaped
their admission to the consulship. At the ivory buckle [luna, Juv. vii. 191), and the black
close of the Punic Wars the plebeian element leathern thongs wound round the leg [lora or
largely outnumbered the patrician. Though, cor rigiae: Hor. Sat. i. 6, 28). The calcei,
the interrex was necessarily, and the princeps lu7ia, and lora were originally patrician in-
SENATUS
567
signia. The Anulus aureus was worn by exercise of tliis power had become unusual in
equites also. Separate seats in the orcliestra the later Republic, but was revived by Augus-
of the theatre were first assigned to senators in tus, who fixed a quorum and mcreased the
194 B.C. (Liv. xxxiv. 44 ; cf. Suet. Claud. 21). penalties for non-attendance.
A vai-iety of fresh distinctions, chiefly of an On the assembling of the senate, usually in
ornamental character, were conceded as the the early morning, the senators took their
senatorialonlerby degrees assumed the cluirao- seats, as they chose, upon the benches {sui-
ter of an hereditary peerage, e.g. the right of .sellia) ranged in rows to the right and left of
entree {adntissio} to the imperial presence, and the curule chairs of the presiding magistrates,
of banquets at the public cost (Suet. Aug. 35), the latter being so placed as to face the door
the use of covered carriages and of running foot- [ of the house. Under the Empire the emperor's
men (cursorcs). To these were added exemp- | chair was placed between those of the consuls,
tion from public burdens and immunity from and separate seats were assigned to the praetors
the jurisdiction of municipal authorities, but I and tribunes.
ulso exclusion from trade and money-making j The magistrate who summoned the senate
(' quaestus omnis Patribus indecorus visus,' also presided at its meetings, and determined
Liv. xxi. ()3), as well as from military commands. I the course of business. Tlie proceedings opened
Other restrictions, such as the prohibition of j with a sacrifice, followed by the inspection of
marriage with libertinae, partly tended to pre- the victim's entrails. Then the presiding
serve the dignity of the order, partly were magistrate communicated {deferre) to the
grounded on jealousy of senatorial interference • senate any news of importance, read despatches
with the army. Senators were not allowed, ex- from abroad, and introduced deputations (Cic.
cept on special occasions, to leave Italy. The Fam. x. 12, 3; Liv. xliv. 20, 31). The term for
separate taxation of senators did not exist as a \ introducing business for debate is referre ad
system before Diocletian. [See also Appendix, senntum, said of the presiding magistrate.
RoM.\N L.\%v, Comitia, ludex, Quaestio.] | The formal consultation of the senate (re-
V. Procedure. — The riglit to hold a meeting j latio) was governed by a variety of customary
of the senate {senatum habere), to consult it rules. After, usually, an explanation of the
(consulere, referre, relationem jfacere), and to [ business in question {verba facere, Cic. Fam.
carry a decree (senatusconsulhim facere) be- i viii. 8, Phil. viii. 14, &c.), the magistrate
longedin the Ciceronian age to consuls, praetors, | asked the senate ' quid de ea re fieri placet?'
and tribunes of the plebs, with the consent of the without himself submitting a definite proposi-
consuls ; if all present in Rome together, only - tion (Sail. Cat. 80; Cic. Cat. i. 10, iii. 13).
in the above order of precedence. The right Occasionally the magistrate indicated his o\vn
was also given to the interrex, dictatoi", magister i view (Liv. xxxix. 39), or made a definite motion
equitum, and praefectus urbi. Any one of these j (Suet. lul. 28). The latter was the usual
magistrates could be prevented by Intercessio ! jn-ocedure under the Empire. The reference
from exercising the right. Li the earlier times, to the senate might either be general {infinite
when the consuls were absent in the field, the j de repuhlica: cf. Liv. xxvi. 10) or special (j?n/<e,
duty of summoning the senate devolved upon Cic. Phil. vii. 1). The usual course of business
the praetor urbanus (Liv. xxii. 7, xlii. 8, &c.). ' was de rebus divinis priusquam humanis (cf.
In the last centurj' of the Republic it is i (Liv. xxii. 9) ; the senators, however, might
regularly performed by the consuls (Cic. Fain, either directly demand urgency for a particular
xii. 28 ; Consul). The emperors from 23 B.C. \ question( postidare, /lagitarerelationerii) (Cic.
could call the senate at their pleasure. But Fam. x. 1(5), or refuse to give opinions upon
even under the emperors it was usually the any matter until the desired point had been
consuls who convened the senate and pre- i submitted to them (Cic. Att. iii. 24, Pis. 13,
sided at its meetings (Plin. Ejj. ii. 11).
The magistrate who convened the senate
determined also the place of meeting. A law-
ful senate could only be held in a 'Templuin,
and, except in special cases, within the pome-
rium. The original place is said to have been
29). The right of reference {ius referendi,
ronsulendi senatum, cum jjatribus agendi)
belonged to consuls, tribunes of the plebs, and
praetors. The emperors had the right of
making the first relatio at each meeting of the
senate, before the regular magistrates took
the Vulcanal above the Comitium. Among the i their turn. At first, at any rate, the emperor
ordinary meeting-places of the senate in re- made his relatio in person, or in writing
publican times were the Curia Hostilia and the i through the consuls (Suet. Nero, 15). But
temples of Concord, Castor, Jupiter Stator, ! from the close of the first century a.d. onwards
and Tellus, and later the Curia Pompeii and ' the practice of employing the (;ttaes#»rpri?!r?/)is
C. lulia. As meeting-places outside the pome- | as the emperor's mouthpiece became the regu-
rium the temples of Apollo and Bellona are j lar one [Quaestor]. The rclationes of the
mentioned (Liv. xxxiv. 43; Plut. SuU. 30). emperor thus took the form of written speeches
The senate could not be summoned to meet {orationes) or letters (litterae, epistulae), and
before sunrise or sit after sunset. But under
the Republic there were no fixed days for its
meetings. Augustus first enacted that there
should be two regular meetings {legitimus
senaius, regular; indictus, sijecial) held in each
month (Suet. Aug. 85), on the Kalends and the
Ides.
The usual mode of summoning the senate
(cogere, vocare senatum) was by consular pro-
clamation, naming the date and jilace of meet-
ing, and occasionally stating tlie special busi-
ness to be considered (see Liv. xxviii. 9). The
magistrate could compel the attendance of
senators by taking pledges or by fining ab-
sentees (Cic. Legg. iii. 4, Phil i. 12). The
are usually referred to as sucli (Suet. Tit. 6).
The formal introduction of the business was
followed, not by a debate, but by the taking
of the sententiae {sententias rogare, perro-
gare) of the individual senators (in>iniriatim)
in order, a phrase whicli includes both speech
and vote.
The magistrate, in taking the sententiae, was
expected to follow an order of precedence
{gradatim], corresponding in tlie main to that
observed in the official roll. Down to the time
of Sulla, the first sententia taken was that of
the princeps senatus. In the Ciceronian age
the consulars were first consulted in order of
seniority, consuls designate having precedence
568
SENATUS
(Sail. Cat. 50 ; antiquior sententiae dicendae I Empire. To divide a motion into heads is
locits, Cic); after them the praetorii, aedilicii, ' dividere relationem ; to sum up several heads
&c. The magistrates of the year did not vote, i in one motion, per saturam sententias ex-
being in theory the consulting and not the ' quirere.
consulted parties (Liv. viii. 20), but had the The relationes of the magistrates disposed
right of speaking on all occasions. The ques- of, the presiding magistrate dismissed the
tion was put to each senator in turn in the ! senate with the words ' niliil vos teneo ' (Cic.
simple form ' Die M. TuUi [quid censes ?] ' j Q. Fr. ii. 2), or ' nihil vos moramur.' The
(Liv. i. 32; Cic. Att. vii. 1), but the modes of resolution or resolutions were then formally
reply were various. (1) The senator might drafted as senatusconsulta {senatusconsultinn
rise, discuss the question in a set speech, and ! perscribere, Cic. Cat. iii. 6, Fam. viii. 8) by
close with a formal statement of his opinion the magistrate who had made the relatio and
(decemo or censeo), so worded as to form the taken the division, in the presence of two or
basis of a decree (Liv. xxvii. 34 ; Cic. Att. i. 14,
Phil. xiv. 29). It was occasionally drafted in
writing beforehand {Phil. iii. 20 ; Liv. xxvii.
34). (2) He might, without rising, express
his agreement either verba (Cic. Att. vii. 3,
' Cn. Pompeio adsentior '), or by a nod, or by
holding up his hand (Liv. xxvii. 34 ; cf. Sail.
Cat. 52 ; Cic. Fam. v. 2). (3) He might cross
more senators (' scribendo adfuerunt,' Cic. Fatn.
viii. 8, Att. iv. 17). A senatus auctontas
{i.e. a resolution defeated by the intercessio of
a tribune) was drafted in the same manner
(Cic. Fain. viii. 8 ; Tribunus). The regular
form of the senatusconsultum ran as follows : —
' Pridie Kal. Oct. in aede ApoUinis scribendo
adfuerunt . . . quod consul verba fecit de pro-
over {pedibus ire) to the side of a senator with j vinciis consnlaribus, de ea re ita censuere, uti,'
whose opinion he agreed (Liv. xxvii. 34). To &c. (Cic. ib.). The names of the assenting
ask each senator in turn was termed j;erro^are senators were added as «!<c<ori^a^e.s/>ersc?*Jp^af'.
sententias. , The senatusconsultum was then entrusted to
To introduce irrelevant matter, as was fre- ! the quaestors, by them placed in the aerarinm
quently done, was termed egredi relationem and entered in the tabulae publicae (Tac. Ann.
(Tac. Ann. ii. 38 ; Cic. Fam. x. 28). Thepresid- iii. 51 ; Cic. Att. xiii. 83 ; Tabular ium).
ing magistrate could not compel a senator to j Although the terms of a senatusconsultum
speak to the question, and it is doubtful how were communicated to the parties interested,
far he was able to limit the duration of his \ and occasionally to the public, by the presiding
speech. To 'talk out' a measure was tempus, ; magistrate (Liv. xlv. 20), no official record of
diem eximere ; to ' count out ' the House, ' the proceedings in the senate was published
numerare senatum. i until Caesar's first consulship in 59 b.c. The
The perrogatio sententiarinn was the regu- ' acta senatus instituted by him on the model
lar proceeding, and there is no evidence that | of the acta urbana were published after each
the magistrate could, by any form of closure, j sitting of the senate, and contained, besides
abridge the process. The growth of the busi- , the decrees passed, some account of the various
ness brought before the senate, and the in- | sententiae given, &c. (Suet. Caes. 20). Acta
creasing importance of its decisions, together '■ senatus continued to be regularly compiled
with the rise in its numbers from 300 to (500, j under the Empire, but Augustus discontinued
necessitated a more exact method of taking a i their publication (Suet. Aug. 36). Extracts
vote, i.e. of determining where the majority of from the acta, however, were occasionally pub-
sententiae lay. During the Ciceronian age lished by order of the senate, and the acta
sententiae, in the shape of speeches, were as a , themselves could be consulted by privileged
rule only given by the highest category of i students.
senators, the consulares and praetorii, while' VI. Powers of the Senate. — One of the most
the rest contented themselves with a brief j important powers of the senate, which was
assent {verba), or ranged themselves behind ] retained even under the Empire, was the
the speaker they agreed with (hence pedarii). regulation of the state religion. The senate.
On the perrogatio followed, at least in Cicero's in concert with the priestly colleges, fixed the
time, the pronuntiatio sententiaruni, or read- dates of moveable feasts and games, decided
■ '^ . . ■ . when the Sibylline books were to be consulted,
and took cognisance of new or foreign religious
rites. The ancient political prerogatives of the
senate were two — those of (1) ratifying votes
of the assembly {patrum auctoritas) and of
(2) appointing an Interrez. ( For the former of
these, see Auctoritas patrum; and cf. Liv.
viii. 12; Cic. Brut. xiv. 55; Liv. i. 17.)
ing out of ' motions before the House,' which
might involve the consideration of other sen-
tentiae than the original motion, or, as we
should call them, amendments. As a rule
these additional sententiae were put to the
vote in the order in which they had been
given. The sententia once put {pronuntiata),
the magistrate took the division by bidding the
' ayes ' cross to the side of the senate-house on | Apart from these prerogatives, the senate had
wliich its author sat, the ' noes ' to the other constitutionally no right or duty but that of
(Plin. I.e., ' qui haec sentitis in hanc partem, j advising the magistrate when consulted by
qui alia omnia [='of different opmion or
opinions,' cf, Cic. Fam. i. 2, ' frequentes ierunt
in alia omnia '], in illam partem ite '). He then
declared on which side the majority was (' haec
pars maior videtur '). A vote ' nern. con. ' is sine
uUa varietate.
In certain cases the perrogatio sententiarum
might be dispensed with, and a division taken
at once {senatusconsult U7n per discessionem
facere) ; and under the Empire imperial pro-
posals, complimentary votes, &c., were often
passed by acclaniatio, though as a rule the
republican order of procedure was maintained
throughout the first three centuries of the
him. Subject to certain restrictions, he con-
vened it when and where he would. He deter-
mined what business should be laid before it,
and the duty of the senators was merely to
vote. The senatusconsultum was technically
nothing more than a recommendation to the
magistrate, and its force depended on his
adoption of it {facere senatusconsultum). Thus
even in Cicero's time the senate was formally
dependent on the magistrate. It had no direct
relation with any department of administration,
and the extent to which it controlled affairs
depended, not upon any prerogatives of its own,
but upon custom and precedent. In ancient
SEXATUS
5G9
I
times, no doubt, the senate was no more than
the comicil Icousilium) of the magistrate. But
throughout the period of the great wars (300-
146 B.C.) the senate directed the pohcy and tlie
administration of tlie state ; and the magis-
trates, from having been the masters of tlie
senate, became its servants, consulting it at
every step, and conceding to its advice tlie
force of a command. The change was due to
various causes: principally, (1) the frequent
absence of the consuls in the field; ("2) the
increase in the numbers of the magistracy,
which gave the senate additional importance,
and also (3) weakened the power of the in-
dividual magistrates; (4) the intimate con-
nexion of the senate with the nohilitas. To
such a height did the ascendency of the senate
grow, that it even came to be questijned
whether any measure could be brought before
the people ' non ante consulto seiuitu ' (Liv.
xlv. 2), and whether the senate had not a dis-
pensing or invalidating power over the law
(connected with their undoubted right to annul
informal or irregular laws), and even some
prescriptive power of independent legislation
by ordinance (Decretum or Senatusconsul-
tum). It became the custom that the magis-
trate should in making his rclatio abstain
from anticip.iting the decision of the senate by
any definite i)rop()sal.
The limits of tlie authority of the senate, at
the period of its most complete ascendency
(c. 300-133 B.C.), are not easy to define.
Certain things {e.g. the election of magistrates)
belonged entirely to the people ; other matters
(e.g. alterations in the constitution, the declara-
tion of war, the ratification of a formal treauy)
were finally decided by the people upon a
senatusconsultum ; tliough the reference to
the people was sometimes omitted. Finally,
the ordinary routine business of each depart-
ment was left to the magistrate in charge of it.
But within these limili,, there were hardly any
administrative questions which the senate
might not be called upon to discuss and decide.
Year after year, the consuls consulted the
senate dc provinciis ; and the senate decided
what these should be, which of them should be
consular and which praetorian, and when a
jirorogatio imperii was desirable (Liv. xxxii. 28,
.icxxLx. 38; Sail. lug. 27; Cic. Prov. Cojis. 17;
Liv. xlv. 10, xxvi. 28, &:c. ; see Impcrium ; Pro-
vincial ; and determined what equipment (orna-
tio) should be granted to each magistrate or
pro-magistrate (Cic. Att. iv. 18). Finally, the
actual administi-ation of the various depart-
ments was subject to senatorial supervision ;
especially in (1) the management of the
finances, (2) the government of the transmarine
provinces, and (3) the regulation of foreign
affairs. (1) The management of the jniljlic
lands, mines, &c. was under tlie supervision of
the senate. As to taxation, the burden of
which after 167 B.C. fell chiefly upon the jiro-
vincials, the senate determined what a province
should pay, and in what form (Ijiv. xlv. 18: see
also Cic. Vcrr. iii. KJ, 42). The case was much
the same with regard to the accounts of the state.
The senate sanctioned all public expenditure,
directed the payments to be made from the
treasury, and controlled the coinage. (2) The
organisation of a new province was usually
carried out by a commission of senators under
a decree of the senate 'Provincia] ; any subse-
quent modifications and administrative regula-
tion were made by the senate; and provincial
despatches were addressed and provincial
deputations sent to the senate (Liv. xliii. 2 ;
Cic. Ven: ii. S", Att. v. 21). (3) In foreign
relations, it is not easy to define exactly the
functions of the senate, as distinct from the
rights of the people, and from the immediate
authority of the magistrate in the field. For
a formal declaration of war or conclusion of
peace the consent of the people was constitu-
tioiiallj- necessary. Ordinary operations of war
were within the authority of the magistrat-e him-
self ; but formilitary expeditions on any consider-
able scale, he was expected toobtain the sanction
of the senate (Liv. xxxix. 3, ;">;"), xliii. 1) ; and
the terms of a proposed treaty were ditcusseil
and settled in the senate; which also luanl
foreign ambassadors, sent out Roman legati,
and concluded alliances with foreign states.
To all this is to be added a general sui)er-
vision of matters touching pubhc peace and
order in Rome and Italy.
In the last century of the Republic (70-49
B.C.) the growing ineffectiveness of senatorial
control in the government of the provinces
gave rise to the attacks upon the power of
the senate made by the Gracdii, and by the
leaders of the popular party after them. The
question of the legality of the senate's claim to
initiate all legislation by its auctoritas was
answered by the passing of the Sempronian
agrarian laws ' contra auctoritatem senatus.'
Sulla endeavoured to reassert the claim by
making the senatus auctoritas legally necessary
(88 B.C.), but his work was undone in 70 B.C. ;
and thenceforward the independent right of the
magistrate to propose and of tlie pe()])le to pass
any law was allowed and exercised (see, how-
ever, Cic. Bep. ii. 36, Legg. iii. 12).
Gains Gracchus (122 B.C.) invited the people
to deal by law with a variety of questions long
left by custom to the decision of the senate,
such as the distributions of corn, the conditions
of military i:;Tvice. a;id tin- taxation of the pro-
vincials. [Leges Semproniae.]
The appointment of provincial governors
directly by the people (as e.g. by the Gabinian
and Manilian laws, 66 B.C.) was at once a sym-
ptom and a cause of the decay of the senate's
authority, i.e. that of the official nohiles. They
were finally beaten in a conflict, not with the
popular assembly and its leaders, but with the
powerful proconsul of the Gaulish provinces.'
VII. The Senate under the Emperors. — Tlie
restoration of the Republic professedly accom-
plished by Augustus formally replaced the
senate in its ancient position as the council of
advice for the magistrates. These were now
elected by the senate ; senatorial decrees took
the place of laws ; and the senate exercised a
criminal juritdiction ; thus taking the i)lace
both of coinitia and of iudicia. [Princi-
patus.]
But the political and administrative ascend-
ency of the senate was gone for ever, and its
partnership with Caesar in the government was
' It .slionlU be iioticeil that till the cud of tlie
Republic the .-ionate never lost f.ie power ( 1 ) of riilling
ujiou thecon.-ful.s to name a dictator, uml CJ) of (;iviD)f
dictatorial jHJwer to the consuls by the formula ' vide-
iint coiisules ne quid Re-spublicn ditriiinnti ca[iint.'
They also retained t'le ri^'ht (if calleil u|kih ) of iiouii-
iiatin^; the emperor. The senate had formally no
juilicial iiower, except in matters afTectinc the" pro-
vinces, ancl on extraordinary oeceiisions in Italy ; but
down to the year l'."J ii.r. all indices were drawn from
its ninks [Itidex, .\ppenilix, Homan Law]. .\ f.irmnl
juri-dii'tion was (riven to it umier tin- Kmpire, espe-
cially in eases of Maiestas : which, however, by
degrees, was absorbed by Llie imperial courts.
570
SENATUS
unreal and delusive. What remained to the
senate was the conduct of mucli public busi-
ness, covering nominally the administration of
affairs in Rome, Italy, and the public (i.e.
non-imperial) provinces. But this sphere of
activity became continually narrower as the
imperial system became more comprehensive
and absolute, to a degree which deprived the
senate of all real independence. In the dis-
cussion of matters brought forward by magis-
trates, or trials held before the senate, the
emperor, if present, took part as an ordinary
senator, but his sententia carried a weight
which was usually decisive. (Tac. Ann. i. 74,
ii. 36, iv. 81.) In virtue, moreover, of his Tribu-
aicia potestas, the emperor could and did in-
terfere at any stage of proceedings (cf. Tac. Ann.
i. 13, iii. 70, xiv. 48) : and even under the early
emperors, the consciousness of the sovereign's
overwhelming strength made the senate anxious
to transfer all serious responsibility to him.
(Tac. Ann. ii. 35, iii. 8'i, 52, xiii. 26, Hist. iv. 4;
Plin. Ep. vi. 19, vii. 6.) In tlie three depart-
ments of (1) finance, (2) provincial government,
and (3) foreign relations. (1) The aerarium or
old state chest was gradually merged in the
Fiscus, and its custody was transferred by
Nero to imperial officers (prarfccti aerarii,
Tac. Ann. xiii. 29). (2) For the government
of the provinces, see Principatus ; Provincia.
(3) Over foreign I'elations the senate retained
no independent control whatever, though
announcements as to foreign affairs were con-
stantly made in the senate or communicated to
it by the emperor (Tac. A7in. i. 52, ii. 52, iii. 32,
47), and foreign embassies were sometimes
introduced to it by him (Tac. Ann. xii. 10,
Hist. iv. 51) ; since the exclusive command of
all troops, and the plenary autliority of war
and peace given to Augustus and his suc-
cessor deprived the senate of all real power.
Lastly, by the close of the second century even
the criminal jurisdiction of the senate seems to
have been exercised only at the invitation or
by direction of the emperor.
But the senate was also the council of advice
for the emperor, who referred many matters of
state to the consideration of a committee of
senators, partly official, jiartly selected (Consi-
litun, 4) ; and from this point of view the
activity of the senate was determined by the
willingness or reluctance of the emperor to
consult it and to use its decrees as instruments
of his own government.
Such a use of the senate gave to imperial
rule an appearance of republican tradition,
and divided responsibility. By nearly all the
emperors of the first and second centuries the
senate was consulted on a variety of subjects
directly connected with the general adminis-
tration of the Empire (Suet. Tib. 30 ; Tac.
Ann. xi. 23, xii. 61, &c.), as a subordinate
instrument of government : but even in this
capacity it ceased after a time to fill any but
an insignificant place. By the time of the
younger Pliny, the emperor's relationes,
whether oral or written, were assuming the
form of definite proposals, accepted by the
senate as a matter of course, and sometimes
without even a formal taking of sententiae ;
and the imperial oratio or epistula, rather
than the senatuseonsultum which followed, is
quoted as authoritative. From the reign of
Septimius Severus onwards, govenuiieut by
imperial edicts, constitutions, and rescripts is
the rule ; and the impotence of the senate as
a portion of the constitution was brought into
SEXATUSCONSULTUM
relief by the creation of a nobility or senatorial
order outside the senate (see above).
Admission to the order — that is, to senatorial
rank — was gained either by hereditary title, or
as in old times by election to the quaestorship,
or lastly, as under the early emperors, by im-
perial adleetio. But admission by adlectio
was now attached to the tenure of certain
offices in the imperial service. The senatorial
order of the fourth and fifth centuries is in
consequence a nmnerous body, and includes
most of the officials and ex-officials of the
Empire. The title clarissimus, originally
common to the whole order, had been by the
time of Justinian restricted to the lowest class
within it, and above the clarissimi stood the
specfabiles, and highest of all the illustres : a
classification corresponding with a set scale
of precedence among the offices of state.
But of this numerous body only a minority
actually sat and voted in the senate-house at
Rome or Constantinople, for the ius sentential-.
once the right of every senator, was now limited
to the highest class in the senatorial order,
that of tlie illustres ; i.e. to the holders and
ex-holders of the great offices of state, including
ex-consuls, consulares. This select consistory
of high officials and ex-officials, all appointed
by the emperor, still chose the consules suffecti,
the praetors, and quaestors— offices of purely
municipal importance — but their choice re-
quired confirmation by the emperor. They still
passed decrees as to the public games and
the schools of the city, and managed an aerarium
which was now only a city chest ; and on rare
occasions the emperor submitted to them an
edict or constitution, or entrusted to them the
trial of a case of treason.
Sena'tusconsu'ltum. For the power of the
senate in republican times and the consequent
authority of their resolutions, see Senatus.
With the change of the constitution under
Augustus, legislation by the emperor through
the senate, as expressed in senatusconsulta,
superseded the older practice of enacting leges
and plebiscita in the popular assemblies, and
continued for about two centuries. Hence
senatusconsulta came themselves to be termed
leges, though they had, in republican times, no
legislative force.
Senatuseonsultum differed from lex, a^
regards its scope, as being chiefly concerned
with administration (Liv. xxxv. 7 ; Cic. Att.
v. 21, 13). As regards its effect, it was not law,
for the execution of a SC depended on the will
of the magistrate ; and if SCa were to be made
obligatory they were transformed into leges
by a rogatio (cf. Cic. Att. i. 18, 3, Mur. 32,
67 ; Liv. xxxix. 19). As regards the effect of a
senatuseonsultum on the magistrate, the obli-
gation to carry it out was moral, not legal ; the
senate, however, could put pressure on the magis-
trate who either neglected to consult them
more maiorum, or slighted their resolution.
They might appoint a dictator ; they might
appeal to one of the tribunes (Liv. xiii. 21) ;
they might refuse to entertain any other matters
until this was settled (Cic. Pis. 13, 29) ; lastly,
the magistrate's office was for a year, theirs for
life (see Senatus). For an instance of such a
conflict, see Liv. xiii. 9, 10. The following are
instances of SCa under the Republic : a SC ' ne
quis in urbe sepeliretur ' ; the SC ' de Baccha-
nalibus ' ; a SC ' de Macedonia ' (Liv. xlv. 18) ; a
SC ' de provinciis quaestoriis ' ; various SCa
' de collegiis dissolvendis,' itc. These and other
SCa had for the most part an administrative
SEMIS
or disciplinary force, resembling that of ' ordin-
ances ' in English constitutional history, and
are jirincipally concerned with religion, finance,
the Italians and the provincials (cf. Liv. xxvi.
34, xxix. 3).
The resolutions of the senate were called
consulta because given by the senate when
consulted by a magistrate. Censere and de-
cernere are the terms commonly used.
The form of a SC was as follows : (1) SC (or
auctoritas) ; (2) pracscriptio : ' A or B [the rela-
tor] senatum consuluit ' ; (3) the date ; (4) the
place of meeting ; (5) the witnesses : ' scribendo
adfuerunt ABC'; (0) the relatio (as a pre-
amble =' whereas, &c. ') : 'quod verba fecit A
or B ' ; (7) the decree : ' D. E. R. I. C. [de ea re
ita censuerunt] uti,' &c. ; (8) (sometimes) C
{censuerunt) ; (9) (if a law was desired) ' ut de
ea re ad populum ferretur.'
A SC was named by its subject {e.g. 'de
Bacchanalibus '), not after its relator until the
imperial period.
The right of intercessio (see Auctoritas
senatus : Intercessio) belonged to tribunes
against each other or against consuls or tri-
bunes (tribuni intercessio) ; and to consuls
against each other [interc. collegae) and against
praetors, but not against tribunes.
For a list and some account of SCa passed
in imperial times and having the force of laws.
see Diet, of Gr. and Rom. Antiq. vol. ii. pp.
638-643, Sknatusconsultum.
Semis, Semi'ssis. [Tables, XIII., XVII.]
Senti'na. Bilge-water. [Navis.]
Septa, Saepta. [Comitia.
Septunx. LTables, XIII., XVII.]
Sepu'lcrum. 1. Greek. — Sepulchral cham-
bers cut in tlie rock are found at all periods
and in all parts of the Greek world : 6.17. the
' prison of Sokrates ' at Athens.
In the greater part of the Hellenic world
rock- tombs are rather the exception than the
rule ; but in Asia Minor, and especially in
Phrygia and Lykia, they are found in enormous
numbers.
(1) The commonest type of rock-tomb in
Lykia is a close imitation of a wooden structure,
in which a framework of beams, the interven-
ing spaces being filled with wooden panels,
supports a flat roof with projecting eaves. The
minutest details of wood-construction are re-
produced in stone. The interior, partly or
wholly cut in the rock, consists of a small low
chamber, generally furnished with three stone
couches upon which to place the bodies. In
some cases a pointed arch is found above the
flat roof, perliaps representing a tent. In the
later examples the whole fa(,'ade is gradually
assimilated to the typical facade of Greek
architecture.
(2) Of sarcophagus tombs there are some
two thousand in Lykia.
In the earlier examples the peculiarities of
wood-construction are very closely followed.
As in the case of the rock- tombs, there is some
assimilation to ordinary Greek architecture in
the later examples. The assimilation has been
carried some way in the tomb represented in
fig. 969.
(3) Tombs in the shape of a high square
column or pedestal, with a projecting cornice at
the top, are found at Xanthus and elsewhere.
Phrygian tombs are, in some cases, architec-
tural in character with geometrical or sculp-
tural ornament. The interior shows a sloping
roof, as in the Etruscan tomb (fig. 974), couches
and seats of stone.
SEPULCRUM
571
Large temple-tombs or r}pi^a are found in
various parts of Asia Jlinor. A central cham-
ber stands upon a high basis or j>odium, ami
is surrounded by a colonnade. This type found
its highest development in the MauBOleum ub
^^S^^i^^
Fig. 9C9.— Sarcophagus tomb at .Vntiphellus in Lykia.
(Follows.)
Halikarnassus in Karia. Large stone or marble
structui'es of this type are seldom found in
Greece proper.
An early form of tomb is that known as the
beehive, or domed tomb. The best known
example of this type is the so-called ' Treasui"y
of Atreus ' at Mykenae (fig. 971). A large circu-
lar chamber is built of courses of stones, whicJi
Fig. 970.— Tomb called tho ' Midas tomb' in Phrygia.
gradually overlaj) until they meet at the apex,
so as to form a dome-shaped building, but not
a true dome. It is aiijiroaclied by a stone-lined
passage or dpd/xos cut into tlie slope of the hill.
A door at one side of tho domed chamber leads
into the small sepulclirul chamber cat in the
rock.
Other graves of a similar tj'pe have been
found at Mykenae, and other places on the
572 SEPULCEUM
eastern shores of Greece. Tombs or graves are sometimes set up as funeral monuments. (</)
f^enerally found in groups or cemeteries. AovTpo(p6poi, figures bearing vases, (h) &?ikcu,
1. Place of Burial. — In the earliest times it i stone receptacles for the ashes after cremation;
was the custom, in Attica at any rate, for the i round or square, with a lid. (i) Sarcophagi,
dead to be buried in their own houses (Plat. The word cttv/At) is also used in a general sense
Minos, 315 d). In historical times, however, to include most kinds of funeral monuments.
PLAN
Fig. 971.— 'Treasury of Atreus ' at Mybenae.
A, 6pd/oios and entrance ; B. principal chamber ; C, small
side chamber.
as a general rule, the places of burial were
outside the city walls, and frequently by the side
of roads and near the gates of the city. Thus
at Athens the place of burial for those who had
fallen in war was the outer Kerameikus (Thuc.
ii. 34 ; Ar. Av. 395 ; Pans. i. 29, 4) ; and the
common place of burial was outside the Itonian
Gate, near the road leading to the Peiraeus :
burial within the walls was strictly forbidden
(Cic. Fam. iv. 12, 3).
2. The Forms of Graves. — These are {a)
graves cut in the rock or dug in the earth, some-
times covered with stone slabs or tiles, or lined
with stone ; (6) vaulted chambers, single or with
niches radiating from a central chamber, as in
Cyprus ; (c) round pits. No rule of orientation
has been found to exist.
3. Outer Adornment or Monument. — The
earliest mark placed over a grave was the simple
tumulus. In later times a grave-stone of some
kind was generally set up. The shapes of
these grave-stones are extremely various, (a)
KioyicTKoi (the commonest form), small round
columns, often with a simple moulding near the
top, below which is the inscription, (b) YlKaKes,
rectangular slabs, lying upon the ground, (c)
2T7JA.ai. [^ttiXti, and cuts there.] (d) Aedi-
culae or shrine-shaped stones. The top is gene-
rally of pedimental form, supported by pilasters
or free columns. The space thus enclosed is filled
by a sculptured representation, (e) Mensae,
large rectangular blocks of stone, with architec-
tural ornament at the base and on the cornice.
(/') Hydriae, large marble vases, in the shape of
a lekythus, or of a tall amphora [Funus] were
[2Tii\Ti ; Sarcophagus.] (k) Altar tombs
are also found.
4. The Contents of the Grave. — It was the
universal custom, at all periods and in all parts
of the Greek world, to bury objects of a great
variety of kinds with the corpse. The scores
of thousands of vases and terracottas contained
in the museums of Europe wei'e, with few ex-
ceptions, discovered in tombs.
In the very early Mykenaean graves were
found gold and silver cups and ornaments ;
bronze caldrons and other vessels ; bronze
weapons, etc.
The objects usually placed in tombs may bo
thus classified. («) The vase which contained
the ashes, if the body had been burnt. This
was most often of pottery, but sometimes of
precious material. If the body had not been
burnt, a coffin was often used, of wood, earthen-
ware, or stone, {b) Objects which had ap-
parently belonged to the dead, such as strigils,
mirrors, perfume bottles, needles, rings,
brooches, and other personal ornaments, [c)
Vessels holding meat and drink for the dead.
{d) Small terracotta figures. These are si)e-
cially frequent in Boeotia, and are usually
named after Tanagra, where they were first
found in large numbers. They were sometimes
iatentionally broken before being placed in the
tomb [Terracotta]. (c) Charon's coin [see
Funus, p. 31S]. To these must be added a
variety of miscellaneous objects, such as en-
graved gems, earthenware lamps, small objects
of bronze, glass bottles and cups.
2. Itali.\n. — -Among the nations of Italy
the Etruscans are remarkable for the care which
they gave to their graves. The more sumptuous
tombs consist of excavated chambers, either in
the face of the rock or approached by a shaft
from above.
It will be observed that the tomb figured
here is hewn in imitation of wood-construction ;
and in fact the sepulchral chambers generally
imitate the abodes of the living. In these
tombs the bodies were generally placed upon
stone couches, accompanied by numerous vases
SEPULCRUM
573
and other objects. The walls also are fre-
quently adorned with paintings, representing
the cult of the dead, and scenes of daily life,
and, in some of the late examples, subjects from
Greek mythology. The types of Italian graves
are(l) Umhridii. These are oblong, polj"gonal,
or square holes lined with stone. In each tomb
is a large earthenware vase, containing the
ashes of the burnt Ijody, or, in a few cases,
unbumt skeletons. Anns, knives, and orna-
ments of bronze or iron, vases, s))indles, and
whorls of pottery, are found in gri'ut numbers.
tions were made in tlie case of specially dis-
tinguished persons, and generally in the case
of those who had celebrated a triumph. Vestal
Virgins also were buried in the city. Trajan
was the only emperor for whom the privilege
was used.
The customary place for the tombs of wealthy
families was by the side of the roads leading
out of the city. These private tombs are of
various kinds. In some cases we have under-
ground chambers similar to those found in
Etruria: as, for instance, the tomb of tli«
Scipios on the Via Appia. But generally tho
tomb consists of a building enclosing a cliamber,
in which are placed the urns containing the
ashes of the dead. Besides the form shown
above, we find the pyramid, as the tomb of C.
Cestius ; the round tower, as that of Caecilia
Metella ; and the conical turret, as the ' tomb
of Virgil ' ; probably an Etruscan model.
Anotlier form of grave is the columbariutn,
or dovecot, found not unfrequently at Rome,
Fig. '.174.— Tomb of the Tarquius at Cervctri.
(Dennis.)
(2) Etrimran. The earliest Etruscan tombs ap- !
pear to be of about the same date as the latest
Umbrian : possibly of the si.xth century d.c.
The bodies are usually buried without burning,
one-third only being burnt. The pottery is
almost all of Greek workmanship, or imitated
from Greek models. The Greek vases are for
the most part red-figured. (3) Gallic. A cer-
tain number of graves, of a rather late period,
appear to be Gallic in character.
At Rome a large cemetery lay on the Esqui-
line Hill, outside the Porta Viminalis, which
was still in use in the latest times of the
Republic. This was the place of burial for
slaves and poor freemen (Hor. Sat. i. 8, 8). The
graves are of various lands ; among others
Fig. 976.— Columbarium at Kome.
but hardly known elsewhere. It consists of
a building provided on the inside with a large
number of niches, flat at the bottom, arched at
the top. Each niche, as a rule, is intended to
hold two urns (oUac ; Pottery, fig. 890), in which
the aahes were placed. Columbaria were some-
times provided by great families as a burying-
place for their slaves, freedmen, and dependents ;
but most frequently they were erected by burial
societies fonned bj- persons who were too poor
to purchase a place of burial for themselves.
(For the Catacombs see Diet, of Christ. Ajitiq.)
Contents of Tombs. — If the body was not
burnt, it was placed in the tomb citlur en-
closed in a coffin or sarcophagus [Sarcophagus]
or unenclosed, as shown in fig. 977. The
Fig. 075.— Tlie Slroot of Tombs at PompcU.
puticuli, or pits which served as a common
grave for the bodies of slaves and poor citi-
zens. Here, too, the bodies of executed crimi-
nals were thrown unburied (Hor. Sat. i. 8, 10,
£!])Oil. V. !)9). This cemetery was disused from
the time of Augustus onwards, and was turned
into gardens (Hor. Sat. i. 8, 14).
Burial within tlie city was forbidden from
the time of the Twelve Tables; but excep-
bodies of children who died before the fortieth
day were buried in nichcm-aUodsiiffffruridaria.
If the body was burnt, the ashes were placed
in an urn or pot [tiriia, olla).
The urn takes many forms. The hut-urns
found at Alba [Pottery, fig. 846] are made of
earthenware, and re])resenl a primitive hut,
with a peaked straw roof. The urus in the colum-
baria also are generally of earthenware. In
574 SEQUESTRES
Etruriii a favourite form is a miniature sarco-
phagus with a recumbent figure upon the lid.
Marble, stone, alabaster, and earthenware, are
commonly used. Other materials used are
glass, and various metals — lead, bronze, silver.
Fig. 977.— Tomb at Veil. (Birch.)
and even gold. The um figured below (fig.
978) is of marble.
As in Greek tombs, a large number of other
objects were generally placed in the tomb,
sucli as weapons and armour, agricultural
implements and tools ; and in the case of
women, articles of the toilet, scent- bottles.
Fig. 978.— Roman sepulchral urn.
ornaments, and so forth. Clothes, money,
food and drink, and vessels for containing
them, were often added. Lastly, altars, lamps
and candelabra, intended for ritual purposes.
[Funus.]
Seque'stres. See Appendix, Roman Law,
Ambitus.
SERRA
Sera. [lanua.]
Se'ria. An earthenware jar, used for keeping
wine and oil (Varro, B. B. iii. 2, 8), burying
a hoard of money (Pers. ii. 11), and apparently
for cooking (Plant. Capt. iv. 4, 9). It was
smaller than dolium, but larger than ainphora
(Colum. xii.28). [Pottery.]
Se'ricum {crriptKov, ^ofx^vKia). SUk appears
in Roman literature under three different
names — vestes Coae, bombi/cinae, and sericae.
Coa vestis is mentioned by no writer later
than Pliny, and we may suppose this industry
to have died out early in the Empire. The
bombyx of Kos was a species living on the
oak, the ash, and the cypress ; that of Assyria
was the true mulberry silkworm. The material,
therefore, was originally different, but was
treated in the same way ; for in both districts
the insect was allowed to develop itself in its
natural state, and the pierced cocoons were
used as gathered from the trees. (Verg. Georg.
ii. 21 ; Pliu. vi. § 54). It was impossible to
unwind these, because the tlureads had been
broken ; so they were carded, and then spun
like cotton, and gave a coarser silk whicli is
called galette.
Tlie produce of the mulberry silkworm was
used at all tunes in India, Persia, and Assyria,
but the Cliinese alone discovered the method
of unwinding the cocoon before it was pierced,
and while it was entire, and cultivated the
silkworm for that purpose, instead of carding
the pierced cocoons. This true silk was im-
ported from China, usually overland through
Samarcand to the Persian Gulf, thence to
Phoenicia or Egypt, and finally to Rome.
Chinese silk (vrifxa cn)ptK6i'), or raw silk
(jU6Ta|o), appears to have been combined with
cotton or flax — by what process is not known —
into a material called sericum, a cheaper,
lighter, and more transparent stuff than the
Chinese silk. Tliis material became more and
more fashionable. Even men dressed in silk.
(Tac. Ann. ii. 33.) Rigorous measures were
adopted by those emperors who were cha-
racterised by severity of manners, to restrict
tlie use of sUk, while others, like Caligtila,
encouraged it (Suet. Cal. 52 ; Mart. xi. 9, 27).
Pure woven silk stuffs, called holosericae,
were introduced by Elagabalus. This silk was
said to have been sold for its weight in gold.
Subsericae (or traniosericae) is the name for
a fabric in which the woof was silk, and the
warp of flax or wool.
The production of raw silk [p.era^a) in Europe
was first attempted under Justinian, 530 a.d. ;
and the manufacture of silk, having been lorfg
confined to Greece, was at length in the twelfth
century transported into Sicily, and thence ex-
tended over the South of Europe. (See Gibbon,
ch. xl.)
Serpera'strum. A splint to put a crooked
limb in place (Varro, L.L. ix. 11; Cic. Att.
vii. 3).
Serra, dim. Se'rrula {irpiuv). A saw. The
invention of the saw was attributed either to
Daedalus (Plin. vii. § 188) or to his nephew
Perdix (Ov. Met. viii. 246). [Circinus.] The
iron blade of the saw was called rdptros in
Greek, lamina in Latin (Verg. Georg. i. 143) ;
the teeth, oh6vT€s and denies ; sawdust, scobis,
serrago, pivrtiJ.a. The form of the larger saw
or frame-saw used for cutting timber is seen in
fig. 979 from Pompeii. It was held by a work-
man (sector serrarius) at each end. The saw
was guided by a ILie, and the timber kept open
by wedges. The hand-saw on the right in the
SERVITUTES
cut is the figure of an ancient Egyptian hand-
saw {serrula niaiiuhriata).
The saw without teeth was used, as now, by-
workers in marble, with the assistance of
emery or various kinds of sand (Plin. xxxvi.
^ 51). In tliis manner the ancient artificers
SERVUS
575
Fig. 079.— Ancient saws.
were able to cut slabs of the hardest rocks,
such as granite and porphyry.
A serrula is mentioned by Cicero (C/mcm^ 64,
§ 180) as a burglar's implement, which appears
to have been of a cylinder or hoop shape,
attached to a brace or bit-stock (Class. Rev.
Oct. 1889).
Servitu'tes. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Servus (5oCAos). A slave. 1. GiiEEK. —
.Slavery existed almost throughout the whole
of Greece ; and Aristotle defines a slave to
be a living instrument {upyavov) or chattel
(KTTiixa) (Eth. Nic. viii. 13, Fol. i. 4). He
defends the justice of the institution on the
ground of a diversitv of race, dividing mankind
into the free (iXfvBepoL) and those who are
slaves by nature (oi cpvffet SoCAoi), 'i.e. all bar-
barians, in the Greek sense of the word.
There was a tradition tlnit in the most
ancient times there had been no domestic
slaves in Greece, but that the women in all
ranks did the housework themselves (Hdt. vi.
137). AVe find them, however, in the Homeric
poems: usually prisoners taken in war, 5opi-
oAojToi. but also kidnapped, and freely bought
and sold among the wealthy (Od. xv. 483).
Tiie fortune of war levelled all distinctions ;
men and women of princely birth accepted
slavery as part of the chances of life. Eumaeus
the swineherd and Eurykleia the nurse of
Ulysses are instances of the better side of
slavery ; but there was nothing to prevent the
owner from misusing or killing his slave (see
0(1. xxii. 433 sqq.).
Predial slavery does not seem to have
existed in the Homeric age; the Oris was in
all probability a free man [©fJTts]. But
not long afterwards we find serfs aurri/iti
glebae, as the result of conquest and migration.
Snch were the Helotes of Sparta, the Fenestae
of Thessaly, the Aphamiotae or Klarotae of
Crete. Domestic slaves acquired by purchase
iapyvpu'VTiToi) were entirely the property of
their masters, and could be disposed of like
iiny other goods and chattels. These were the
SoOAoi that existed at Athens and Corinth.
In commercial cities slaves were verj' nu-
merous, as they performed the work of the
artisans and nianufucturers of mo<lern towns.
In poorer republics which subsisted wholly
by agriculture they would be few : e.g. in
Phokia and Lokris. The majority of slaves
were purchased ; few comparatively were bora
' in the family of the master, the cohabitation
of slaves being discouraged, as it was con-
sidered cheaper to purchase slaves than to
rear them. A slave bom in the house of a
master was called olKorpiy^ : one purchased was
I OlKrTTIS.
I It was a recognised rule of Greek natior.al
law that prisoners of war became the property
1 o/ the conqueror (Xen. Cyr. vii. 5, ^ 73} ; but it
was the practice for Greeks to give liberty to
I Greek captives on payment of a ransom. Con-
sequently almost all slaves in Greece, with the
I exception of the serfs above mentioned, were
j barbarians. Tlie cluef supply seems to have
come from the (ireek colonies in Asia Minor.
A considerable number of slaves also came .
from Thrace, where parents frequently sold
their children (Hdt. v. 6).
-\t Athens, as well as in other states, there
was a regular slave-market, called kvkKos,
because the slaves stood round in a circle.
They were also sometimes sold by auction
from a stone called the irparrip Kidos. '[ Auctio.j
Prices of slaves ranged from a talent to a
minaor less. A common labourer in the mines,
in the time of Demosthenes, might be worth
lA nnna ; an artisan who could work at a trade
from '2 to minas ; while ornamental slaves
fetched 20 and SO minas (Xen. Mem. ii. 5,
§ 2 ; Dem. in Aphoh. i. p. 81(5, c. I^eaer. p. 1354.
Ter. Ad. iii. 1, 87, Phonii. hi. 3, 24).
The number of slaves in Athens was veiy
great. From the report of a census made
309 u.c, the male citizens of full age are com-
puted to have numbered 90,000, the aliens
45,000, and the slaves (including women and
children) 850,000. But such comj)utations are
not based on accurate records.
At Athens, even the poorest citizen had a
slave for the care of his household ; and in
every moderate establishment many were em-
ployed for all kinds of occupations, as bakers,
cooks, tailors, iV:c. The father of Demosthenes
possessed about 50 slaves ; Lysias and Polem-
arclius had 120, Hipponikus GOO, and Nikias
1000 slaves in the mines alone (Xen. Vect. 4,
§§ 14, 15). A great majority of Greek slaves
were employed in various workshops, mines, or
manufactories ; the number which a person
kept to attend to his own private wants, or
those of his household, was probably never
very large.
Slaves either worked on their masters' ac-
count or their own (in the latter case paying
their master a certain sum a day) ; or they were
let out by their master on hire either for labour,
or as hired servants for wages {a.iro<popd). Most
of the rowers on bowd the siiijis were slaves,
belonging either to tlie state or to private per-
sons, who let them out to the state on payment
of a certain sum. Many persons kept large
gangs of slaves for the purjiose of letting out,
as an investment for cai)ital. Great numW'rs
were required for the mines, in which, as a
rule, none but inferior slaves were confined ;
they worked in chains, and nniny died from
tlie effects of the unwholesome atmosphere.
The rate of profit upon tiie purcluise-nionej' of
the slaves was high, as their value was destroyed
by age, and those who died liad to be rejilaced
by fresh purchases. The proprietor was also
exposed to the danger of their running away,
! when it became ni'cessary to pursue them and
I offer rewards for their recapture {ffwffrpa, Xen.
! Mem. ii. 10, § 1, 2; Plat. Protag. \>. 310 c|.
! Slaves who worked in the fields were under a
1 bailiff or overseer {i-Kirpoiros), to whom the
576
SERVUS
whole management of the estate was frequently
entrusted ; the household slaves under a steward
(ra/iias), the female slaves under a stewardess
(ra/Lttoj (Xen. Oecon. 9, § 11).
The Athenian slaves did not, like the Helots
and the Penestae, serve in the armies; the
battles of Marathon and Arginusae, when the
Athenians armed their slaves (Pausan. i. 32,
§ 3 ; Schol. ad Ar. Ban. 33), were exceptions to
the general rule.
The rights of possession with regard to slaves
differed in no respect from any other property.
Greek slavery, however, especially at Athens,
will compare favourably with the same insti-
tution at Rome, or as practised by Christian
nations in the New World. At Athens there
was no slave costume regulated by law, and
differing from the dress of the citizens ; only
the wearing of long hair was not allowed them.
They did not make way in the street; they
could not be struck, for fear of assaulting a
freeman ; and they enjoyed much freedom of
speech (lariyopia). Slaves were excluded from
the gymnasium and the ekklesia (Ar. Thesin.
294 ; Plut. Phoc. 34) ; but they were not for-
bidden to enter the temples and shrines, or to
assist at sacred rites, whether public or private
[Dem.] c. Neaer. p. 1374, § 85). In his relations
with his master a slave might naturally expect
corporal chastisement, which could not lawfully
be inflicted on a freeman (Dem. c. Timocr. p.
752, § 167) ; but in the case of extreme cruelty or
outrage he could take sanctuary in the temple
of Theseus [Asylum], and claim the privilege
of being sold awav from his oppressor (■irpaa'iv
aireTy, Plut. Thes'SQ; Ar. Eq. 1312). His hfe
was safe even from his master ; he could not be
put to death w-ithout legal sentence (Eur. Hec.
291, 292). Against assault or outrage by anyone
else than his master the slave was protected by
law. [Appendix, Greek Law,''Y3pis-]
This comparative humanity, however, was not
incompatible with the barbarous rule that if a
master were murdered and the perpetrator
remained undetected, the whole household
should be executed ; and with the fact that the
evidence of slaves, female as well as male, was
at Athens taken under torture.
There is no doubt that this actually took place ;
but in most cases the challenge to produce
slaves for torture {7rp6K\T]<Tis els $i(ravov) was
refused. It appears to have been looked upon
as a test to decide a question, rather «than a
method of eliciting evidence, and may have
been a relic of some ancient form of ordeal. In
private actions (in wliich alone Trpd/cATjtris els
)3i(roi/ovv/as used), either party might challenge
(irpoKaXe'iffOai) the other to give up his slaves
for torture, or tender his own to be similarly
examined. To call for the production of slaves
in this way wac e^aiTf7v, to comply with the
demand 6/c5i5(5;'Oi (Dem. c. Ortcf. i. p. 874, §§ 35,
30). It appears that in the time of Aristophanes
the torture was a frequent incident in the law
courts (Nub. 620). Afterwards, though the law
remained the same, some feeling of humanity
made the Athenian practice less inhuman than
the theory (cf. Dem. c. Nicostr. p. 1253, c. Con.
p. 1265 ; Lys. 4, § 12 ; Tormentum).
The bad as well as the good side of slave-life
at Athens may be seen in Plautus and Terence.
Greek slaves not unfrequently mutinied (Plat.
Legff. vi. p. 777 c) ; but in Attica these out-
breaks were mostly confined to the mining
slaves, who were treated more harshly than the
others.
Blaves were sometimes manimiitted at Athens,
though not so frequently as at Rome. Manu-
mitted slaves {aireKfvtiepoi) did not become
citizens, as they did at Rome, but passed into
the condition of metoeks. They were obliged
to honour their former master as their patron
(TrpocrTciTjjs), and to fulfil certain duties towards
him, the neglect of which rendered them liable
to the SiKT] airocTTaaiou, by which they might
again be sold into slavery. [See Appendix,
LibertUB ; 'AiroaTaaiov Sikt), 'Airpoara-
CTioii -YpaijjTi.]
Respecting the public slaves at Athens, see
At|p,6(tiol.
It appears that there was a tax upon slaves at
Athens : whether a licence duty paid annually,
or an import duty and tax on sales, ic not
certain.
2. ROM.A.X. — Slaves existed at Rome in the
earliest times of which we have any record ;
but they do not appear to have been numerous
under the kings and in the earliest ages of the
Republic.
For the legal aspect of slavery see Appendix,
Roman L.\w, Servitus.
In ancient times trades and mechanical arts
were chiefly carried on by the clientes of the
patricians, and the small farms in the country
were cultivated for the most part by the pro-
prietor and his family. But as the territories
of the Roman state were extended, large por-
tions of the ager publicus occupied by patricians
began to be cultivated almost entirely by slave
labour (cf. Liv. vi. 12). As slaves became more
plentiful and cheap, their number became so
great that the poorer class of free men was
thrown almost entirely out of employment.
There was accordingly a provision in the Lici-
nian Rogations (367 B.C.) that a certain number
of free men should be employed on every estate.
The lands, however, still continued to be almost
entirely cultivated by slaves (Suet. lul. 42). In
Sicily the number of agricultural slaves was
immense, and the oppressions to which they
were exposed drove them twice (in 134 and
102 B.C.) to open rebellion.
The number of domestic slaves still con-
tinued to be small. Persons in good circum-
stances seem usually to have had only one to
wait on them (Pliu. xxxiii. § 26), who was
generally called by the name of his master with
the word por (piicr) affixed to it : as Gaipor,
Lucipor, Marcipor. Cato, when he went to
Spain as proconsul, took onlj- three slaves
with him. During the later times of the Re-
public and under the Empire the number of
domestic slaves greatly increased (Cic. Pis.
27; Juv. iii. 141). Horace (Sat. i. 3, 12) seems
to speak of ten slaves as the lowest number
wliich a person in tolerable circumstances
would keep (cf. Sat. i. 6, 107)- The immense
number of prisoners taken in the constant wars
of the Republic augmented the number of slaves
to a prodigious extent. Thus a freedman under
Augustus, who had lost much property in the
civil wars, left at his death as many as 4116
slaves (Plin. xxxiii. § 135). Two hundred was
no uncommon number for one person to keep
(Hor. Sat. i. 3, 11). The mechanical arts, for-
merly in the hands of clients, were in later
times entirely exercised by slaves (Cic. Off. i. 42,
150). The games of tiie amphitheatre required
an immense number of slaves trained for the
purpose. [Gladiatores.]
Under the Empire various enactments were
made to restrain the cruelty of masters towards
their slaves ; but the spread of Christianity tended
most to ameliorate their condition, though the
SERVUS
577
possession of them was for a long time by nu
means condemned as contrary to Christian sen-
timent. Justinian did much to promote the
ultimate extinction of slavery ; but the number
of slaves was a<;ain increased by the invasion
of the barbarians from the North, who not only
brought with them their own slaves, but also
reduced many of the inhabitants of the con-
quered provinces to the condition of slaves.
Under the Republic one of the chief supplies
consisted of prisoners taken in war (cf. Li v. s.
42, 40). Consequently slave-dealers generally
accompanied an army, and frequently after a
great battle had been gained many tlioHsands
were sold at once (Caes. B. G. iii. 1(>), when the
slave-dealers obtained them for a mere nothing.
The slave trade was also carried on to a great
extent, and, after the fall of Corinth and Car-
thage, Delos was the chief mart for this traffic.
A large number came from Thrace and the
countries in the North of Europe, but the chief
supply was from Africa, and more especially
Asia, whence we frequently read of Phrygians
SjTians, Lydians, Kappadokians, »&c., as slaves
(Cic. Flacc. 27, 05).
The trade of slave-dealer {tnango) was con-
sidered disreputable ; but it was very lucrative,
and great fortunes were frequently realised
from it (Suet. Aug. 69; Plin. vii. §56; Mart,
viii. 18).
Slaves were usually sold by auction at Rome.
They were stripped and placed either on a
raised stone {de lapide emj)tus, Cic. Pis. 15, 36 ;
Plant. Bacch. iv. 7, 17) or a raised platform
(catasta, Tibull. ii. 3, 00 ; Pers. vi. 77), which
was sometimes made to revolve, so that the
slave might be seen from all points. Newly
imported slaves had their feet whitened with
chalk (Plin. xxxv. § 199; Ov. Am. i. H, 64).
The slave-market, like all other markets, was
under the jurisdiction of the aediles. The
character of the slave was set forth in a scroll
(titulus), hanging round his neck, which was a
warranty to the purchaser (Prop. v. 5, 51) : the
vendor was bound to announce fairly all his
known defects (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 284, Ep. ii. 2,
1-19), and if he gave a false account had to take
him back within six months from the time of his
sale or make up the loss to the purchaser
[Appendix, Roman Law, Emptio venditio].
The chief points which the vendor had to
warrant were the nation of the slave, his health,
especially freedom from epilepsy, and that he
had not a tendency to thievery, running away,
or committing suicide (Cic. Off', iii. 17, 71).
Slaves sold without warranty wore at the time
of sale a cap (pilleus) upon their head.
Under the Republic slaves were not dear, and
Cato never gave more than 1500 drachmae for
a slave (Plut. Cat. Mai. 4) ; but under the
Empire we hear of such sums as 100,000 or
200,000 sesterces each. Slaves who pos-
sessed a knowledge of any craft or art which
might bring in profit to their owners, also sold
for a large sum. Thus literary slaves and doctors
frequently fetched a high price. Five hundred
drachmae (perhaps at that time equivalent to
about 18/.) seems to have been a fair price for
a good ondinary slave in the time of Horace
(Sat. ii. 7, 43), and the average price in the
time of the Antonines must have been about
tlie same. Female slaves were generally cheaper
than male. Six hundred sesterces (about .">-0/.)
were thought too much for a slave girl (ancilla)
in the time of Martial (vi. 66).
Slaves were divided into many classes : the
first division was into public or private. The
former belonged to the state and public bodies,
and their condition was preferable to that of
the common slaves. They were less liable to be
sold, and were under less rigid control than
ordinary slaves (cf. Liv. xxvi. 47). Public slaves
were employed to take care of the public build-
ings (Tac. Hi.it. i. 43), and to attend upon magis-
trates and priests. They were also employed as
lictors, jailors, executioners, watermen, itc.
A body of slaves belonging to one person was
called familia. Private slaves were divided
into urban {familia urbana) and rustic (fami-
lia rustica). When there was a large number
of slaves in one house, tliey were frequently
divided into decuriae, each under the charge of
a decurio ; but they were also arranged in cer-
tain classes, according to the nature of their
occupation.
Ordinarii seem to have been confidential
slaves who had the superintendence of certain
parts of the housekeeping. They generally had
certain slaves under them, often called vicarii.
To the same class also belong the cellarii,
promi, &c. [Cella.]
The majordomo in the familia urbana was
termed ^rocMraior or agent (cf. Cic. Att. xiv. 16).
The actor in the familia rustica was almost
the same as the vilicus or bailiff. The dispen-
sator was the slave in charge of the cash and
the accounts. In earlier times the atricnsis
had a general charge of the money and of the
household (Plaut. Fseud.ii. 2, 15).
' Vulgares included the great body of domestic
! slaves. There were distinct slaves or a distinct
! slave for almost evei'y department of household
economy, as bakers (pistores), cooks (coqui),
, confectioners (dulciarii), picklers (salsameu-
I tarii), &c. This class also included the porters
! (ostiarii), the bed-chamber slaves [Cubicu-
I larii], the litter-bearers (lecticarii) [Lectica],
the pedisequi, and all personal attendants.
Mediastini (much the same as vulgares):
slaves of all work whether in town (urbaita
^■familia) or county (rustica f.).
Littmifi, literary slaves, such as readers
I FAna^nostae], copyists, or amanuenses [Li-
; brarii ; Amanuensis], &c. Others, again,
j were employed as mcdici, chirurgi, or iatra-
! liptae.
I The treatment of slaves, of course, varied
i greatly according to the disposition of their
masters ; but they appear upon the whole
to have been treated with greater severity
than among the Athenians. In early times
they received more indulgence (Hor. Ej). ii. 1,
; 142). But with tlie increase of numbers the
ancient simplicity of manners was changed.
A certain quantity of food was allowed them
I (dimcnsujH or demensum), either monthly
(menstruum, Plaut. Stich. i. 2, 3), or daily
(diarium, Hor. Ep. i. 14, 41 ; Mart. xi. lOH).
Their chief food was the corn called far, of
which either four or five modii a month were
granted them, or one Roman pound (libra) a
day (Hor. Sat. i. 5, 69). They also obtained an
allowance of salt and oil, and a small quantity
of wine, with an additional allowance on the
Saturnalia and Compitalia, and sometimes
1 fruit, but seldom, if ever, vegetables or butcher's
meat. [Agriculture. II. a, p. 16.]
Under tlie Hc])ublic slaves were not allowed
! to serve in the army (see, however, Liv. xxii. 67,
xxiv. 14-16).
The offences of slaves were punished with
severity, and frequently with the utmost bar-
barity. One of the mildest punishments was
the removal from the familia urbana to the
PP
578
SESTERTIUM
rustiea, where they were obhged to work in
phains or fetters (Plaut. Most. i. 1, 18; Ter.
Phorm. ii. 1, 20). They were frequently beaten
with sticks or scourged with the Flagrum.
Slaves were also punished by being hung up by
their hands with weights suspended to their
feet (Plaut. Asin. ii. 2, 31), or by being sent to
work in the Ergastulum or Pistrinum. [Er-
gastulum ; Mola.] The Furca and Crux were
specially servilia siqipHcia. For the cruelty
of Roman ladies at their toilet, see Ov. Am. i.
14, 15, A. A. iii. 235; Mart, ii. 66; Juv. vi.
498, &c.
Runaway sli\.xes{fugitivi) and thieves {fures)
were branded on the forehead with a mark
{stigma), whence they are said to be notati or
ins'cripti (Mart. vii. 75, 9) ; or wore an iron
collar with a badge [Collare, fig. 357].
Masters might work their slaves as many
hours in the day as they pleased, but they
usually allowed them holidays on the public
festivals. [Saturnalia.]
There was no distinctive dress for slaves.
Male slaves were not allowed to wear tlie toga
or bulla, nor females the stola ; but otherwise
they were dressed in nearly the same way as
poor people, in tunics and cloaks of a dark
colour {pvllafi) -And slippers (cre2;wZae),or inthe
country Sculponeae or clogs (Cic. Pis. 38, 93).
The rites of burial were not denied to slaves.
Slaves were sometimes even buried with their
masters, and we find funeral inscriptions ad-
dressed to the Di Manes of slaves. It seems to
have been considered a duty for a master to
bury his slave. In 1726 a.d. the burial vaults
of the slaves belonging to Augustus and Livia
were discovered near the Via Appia.
Authorities : for Greek slavery, Becker,
Charikles ; Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece.
For Roman slavery, Becker, Gallus ; Gibbon,
ch. ii. ; Marquardt, Privatleben; Wallon, His-
toire de VEsclavage ; Friedlander, Mceurs
Bomaines, &c.
Seste'rtium, Seste'rtiu8( = se»?/s tertius, i.e.
2^ : e.g. ]>es scstertiii s, 2h feet). In common use
the numus sestertius or sestertius (Eng. ses-
terce) was the unit of Roman money almost
throughout historical times. The symbol ex-
pressing sestertius is 1 1 S (two units and a semis),
++Sor HS.
For the monetary value of the sestertius see
Coinage.
Sums up to a thousand sestertii were simply
stated in sestertii. Sums of several thousand
sestertii were expressed as so many milia ses-
tertioTum [nu?norH7n~\ or sestertium [iuimum~\.
Thus clecein milia sestertium is 10,000 sestertii;
and the same amount is usually expressed by
the formula decern sestertia. Suras of a million
sestertii and upwards are expressed by a use of
the numeral adverbs in -ies : centena milia, a
hundred thousand, being expressed or under-
stood. Thus a million sestertii is decies centena
milia sestertium , a phrase abridged to decies
sestertiu7n. Similarly, vicies and tricies sester-
tium stand for two and tlxree million sestertii,
and so on. Cicero, e.g. (Verr. Act. II. i. 39, 100),
thus expresses 2,235,417 sestertii : ' vicies du-
centa triginta quinque milia quadringentos xvii
numos' (i.e. sestertios). The distinction be-
fcween units, thousands, and hundreds of thou-
sands of sestertii is conventionally expressed
(as in all numerals) by adding lines above
or beside the numeral: thus HS X = 10 ses-
tertii; HSX = 10,000 sestertii or 10 sestertia;
HSIXI = decies sestertium or 1,000,000 sestertii.
SIBYLLINI LIBRI
The English equivalent of sums stated in
sestertii cannot be accurately ascertained ; but
a sufficient approximation will be reached if the
metal value of a sestertius or sesterce is taken
at twopence, and that of a sestertium at from
8/. to 10/. sterling. What was the equivalent
of a sestertius in modern money as regards
purchasing power, is a different and an in-
soluble problem.
Sevir. [Augustales ; Equites.]
Sextans. [Tables, XIIL, XVII.]
Sexta'rius. A Roman dry and liquid measure,
equal to the ^earris of the Greeks. [Quad-
rantal.] It was one-sixth of the congius :
whence its name. It was divided in the same
manner as the as, into parts named uncia,
sextans, &c. [Tables, VII., VIII., XIII.].
Se'xtula. The sixth part of the U7icia; as
a fraction, =yV. [Uncia ; Tables, XV.]
Sibylli'ni liBri. The three books known by
this name at Rome down to the destruction of
the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in B.C. 83,
were said, according to the well-known story,
to have been bought from the Sibyl by Tar-
quinius Superbus (or Tarquinius Priscus). It
is probable that these books were actually
acquired about this date, and that they are a
symbol of the introduction of Greek worship
into the Roman world. The centre-point of
these changes is the Capitoline temple of
Jupiter, where the books were kept. That
temple expressed the union in a religious centre
of the entire populus of Rome, comprising both
patricians and plebeians. All members of the
state, whether Latm, Sabine, or Etruscan,
might worship in it ; and any god might be the
object of worship there.
Whence these books came, and how they
were originally compiled, are questions of great
obscurity. Sibylla was no doubt a Greek
word signifying a certain type or ideal of the
inspired prophetess [see Divinatio; Oraculum].
The earliest mention of a Sibylla is in a frag-
ment of Herakleitus of Ephesus {c. 518 b.c.)^
who knew of one only ; but in course of time
the type became localised in various cities, and
we hear of no less than ten Sibyllae — Persica,
Libyca, Delphica, Cimmeria, Erythraea, Samia,
Cumana, Hellespontica, Phrygia, Albunea (or
Tiburtina). Tarquinius, on his expulsion from
Rome, is said to have taken refuge at Curaae,
and the great majority of ancient authorities
derive the books directly from Cumae (cf. Verg.
Eel. iv. 4, Ac)i. vi. 42 sqq. ; Ov. Fast. iv. 158,
257). The truth seems to be that these oracles
came to Rome from Cumae, having been
brought there from Erythrae, the seat of a very
early collection of oracles.
The oracles were said to have been written on
palm -leaves (Verg. Aen. iii. 444), but this may be
merely a fragment of tradition of which the sub-
stance is lost. It is probable that owing to the
secrecy with which all such transactions were
guarded by the Roman priests, the method of con-
sultation was unknown even to the Romans
themselves. We may perhaps conjecture that a
verse was taken at chance, and twisted in any
way so as to suit the circumstances. [Sortes.]
And it is at least possible that the interpreters
sometimes invented not only the application,
but the response itself (see Liv. xxix. 10, 5,
xxxviii. 45, 3). The prophecies were in the
Greek language, and probably in hexameters.
The leaves or rolls containing them were
deposited in the temple on the Capitol, and
placed in charge of duo viri sacris faciundis
(Liv. v. 13, 6). These officials or j)riests were
i
1
SIBYLLINI LIBRI
self-electing, retained office for life, were free
from military service, and renmini'd patrician
until by the I iciniaii rogations (307 B.C.; tlieir
number was increased to ten, half of whom
were to be plebeians. This was the first priest-
Ijood opened to the plebeians (Liv. vi. 87, I'J).
Towards the end of the Republic thi'v wcif
again increasGd to fifteen. [See Decemviri ;
SacerdoB.] Tliis college of fifteen lasted until
the time of Stilicho, 405 a.d.
The decemviri were not competent to consult
the books on their own account, nor without a
decree of the senate. The books were the pro-
perty of the state, the decemviri only their
guardians and interpreters. Tlie books were
only had recourse to in the face of alarming
prodigies, pestilences, and other such disasters
(Liv. iii. 10, X. 47, xxi. 62, xxii. 1, 9, xli. 21).
Tlie senate ordered the decemvirs to inspect
(adirCy iiispicerc) the books, and to interpret
the oracle, the sot terms of which were rarely if
ever made public, but only the general tenor of
the reply of the exj)erts. We seldom hear of
anything like a definite prophecy (Liv. xxix.
10); the result of the consultation is almost
always an admonition to adopt a certain ritual,
in order to expiate evil or avert calamity.
The ancient and purely Italian element in
the religion of the early Romans was sober,
practical, and unimaginative. All worship had
an immediate practical object. Warmth of
religious emotion was absent from the Italian
religious mind ; the legal side of ritual took its
place, and at Rome was at all times maintained
by the paramount authority of the pontifices.
The college of decemvirs may be regarded
liistorically as rivals to the pontifices — the
latter as championing tlie ritus Bomaniis, the
former the ritus Graecxis — through the re-
mainder of Roman history.
The introduction of a series of new deities
was due to these influences : either entirely
(1-reek, as Apollo, Latona, Aesculapius; or
Greek deities attached to a Latin name and a
pre-existing Roman idea, as Diana (= Artemis),
(Jeres f=Demeter), Proserpina ( = Persephone),
and Hercules ( = Herakles). The immediate
cause of these introductions was the occurrence
of pestilence, famine, or defeat (Liv. v. 13, x. 47,
xxi. 62) ; the motive was the feeling that where
the home deities did not aid, strangers wliose
worship would be open to all, and not only to
patrician gentes, might be found efficacious.
In particular the sacred stone of Cybele or
tlu' Magna Mater Idaea, the earth-deity of the
original home of the oracles, was carried to
Rome from Pessinus in Galixtia, 204 B.C. in
order to secure the expulsion of Hannibal from
Italy, and bo end a long series of disasters.
Ecjually important was the change in ritual.
This may be traced in the great development
in the Roman institution of ludi, wliether
circenses or scenici [see LudiJ ; and espe-
cially tlie Ludi Apollinares (Liv. x\v. Vl\, and
Saeculares ; and above all ii\ the Lectisternia,
as compared with the ritual of the Fratres
Arvales or that of any of the purely Roman
festivals.
The Sibylline books had fairly done their
work when they perished (m3 b.c.) in the; con-
flagration which destroyed the temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus ; in combination witli
other tendencies and circumstances, they had
wrought a revolution in Roman religious ideas,
in morals, as well as indirectly in literature
and art.
Wliile the temple of Jupiter Capitolinua was
SIGNA MILITARIA
679
rebuilding, envoys were sent to various towns
in Asia Minor, Greece, and Sicily (and especially
to Erythrae, where about 1000 verses were
collected), to gather a fresh supply of oracles,
which were deposited in the vaults of the new
temple, and given into tlie charge of the A'T'i-/ri
[Decemvirij. After this a great mass of Sibyl-
line literature grew up, some of which may bo
ancient, but the princiiml part of wliat is extant
is of Jewish or Christian origin. Augustus,
finding spurious verses in circulation, ordered
2000 so-called prophetic rolls to be bunit, and
removed those which were pronounced genuine
to the temple of Apollo on the Palatine, which
he himself had dedicated (Suet. Aug. 31; Tac.
Ann. vi. 12).
Under the Empire the books were rai-ely
I consulted : tlie duties of the quindecimviri were
confined chiefly to the superintendence of
the ■ Cybele-worship, and their influence was
lessened by the arrival of other new cults, and
by the personal supervision of religion by the
emperors. Nero ordered tlieni to be consulted
after the great fire in 64 a.d. (Tac. .■1«?2. xv. 44).
In 241, under Gordian, and under Aurelian in
270, they were again consulted. Julian was
one of the last to make use of them. Tliey
were in existence in 391, but in the year 405
they were burnt by Stilicho (Prud. Apoth. 439
[ sqq.).
Other collections of prophecies are men-
tioned, some of which were kept with the
Sibylline books in the Capitoline temple : e.g.
the Etruscan oracles of Begoe or Vegoe. the
surtes of the nj-mpli Albunea of Tibur, and the
Carmina Marciana (213 b. c.) of an unknown
Marcius (Cic. Div. i. 40, 89; Liv. xxv. 12). All
these books and others, such as the books of
Veii (Liv. v. 15, 11 ; Cic. Div. i. 44, 100), are in-
cluded in the general expression Ubri fatales
(Liv. xxii. 9, 8).
Sica. A short curved sword used by Tlirakians.
It was the weaiJon of the Threces in the gladia-
torial combats (Suet. Cat. 32; Mart. iii. 16;
Juv. viii. 201). [Gladiatores.J Like the modern
stiletto, the sica was used by
robbers and murderers {si-
carii) (Juv. iii. 305 ; cf. Cic.
Cat. iii. 3, 8, Mil. 14, 37);
and hence, as a legal term,
inter sicarios comes to mean
' on a trial for murder.' [Lex
Cornelia dc sicarii.H.]
Sici'licus. Pondera;
Tables XI V.J FlK.lKl.-Slca.
Sici'nnis, Sici'nnium {(tIkivvis, (riKivyov, al-
Kivva, (TiKtvvKT-n'js'i. .\ dance of Satyrs, used in
the Satyric diania 'Chorus] (Eur. Cijcl. 37);
originally a Kretan dance in honour of Sabazius.
Siclus {(Tiy\os or frtVAos). A transliteration
of the word shekel used by Semitic nations of
Western Asia. Tlie onlinary Persian silver
aiy\os weighed about HC. grains, or 1^ Attic
driR'lim ; the gold shikil of Ph<»>nicia weighed
nearly 2CiO grains. [Pondera ; Coinage.]
Sigilla'ria. Saturnalia.
Sigi'llum iditn. of Signum). (1) A small
statu.- (Ov. .1. .1. i. 1(17; II. .r. Ep. ii. 2,180;
Cic. Verr. ii. 4, 22). (2) The impress of a seal
(Cic. Ac. ii. 26, 66; Hon Kp. i. 20, 3).
Sigma. A semicircular ( C ) couch, to suit
an iirliis or round dining-tablo (Mart. ix. 69).
[Mensa.J
Signa milita'ria. I'assing over the bundle
of hay [mdiiijiiihis] said to have been a staml-
ard in the time of Romulus (Pint. Horn. 8),
we may class the principal kinds of military
P P 2
580
SIGNA MILITARIA
standards as (1) signa (in the special sense),
(2) vexilla, (3) imagines, (4) aquilae.
(1) and (2) Signa and Vexilla. — The chief
distinctive feature of Roman warfare was that
it was mainly carried on with the sword, and
that the tactical unit was a small one, viz. the
maniple of 120-60 men [Exercitus]. Each
maniple had a signum (Liv. xxvii. 14, 8); but
there appear to liave been generally, if not
always, two signiferi in the maniple. From
thus having a separate standard
of its own, each maniple came to
be called signum, arifxaia: e.g.
Liv. XXV. 23, 16 ; Polyb. vi. 24, 5.
The signa were carried at the
head of the column on the march,
. . - but probably stood in the hind-
{f\'\ I most rank of the maniple in
- ' battle. Hence the term aiite-
signani [Exercitus.] Their great
importance, as the centre-point
of the tactical unit, may be shown
from the number of phrases in
which the word signa occurs
{signa tollere, signa moverr,
signa foire, signa convertere.
Fie 982 signa constititcrc, signa ohicere).
Legionary The word of command was always
S'Snum iFrom directed to the standard-bearers
(Liv. v. 55, 1, vi. 8, 1). The sig-
niferi (or vexilliferi) wore on their shoulders a
bearskin, the head of which came over the
head in place of a helmet. (Fig. 981).
The signa of the legions, then, were the stan-
dards of the maniples. (Fig. 982). Even after
the regular introduction of cohorts and centuries
as administrative units, the tactical unit re-
mained the maniple of two centuries. Under
the Empire also the manipular arrangement
remained in force as far as the standards
were concerned. But during the Empire the
manipular arrangement gi-adually disappeared,
and later each century had a signum.
There was no special signum for cohorts;
but Trajan introduced a standard (draco)
representing the head of a serpent, with a body
made of variously-coloured stuffs. Its bearer
was called draconarius.
(2) Vexillum, ' flag,' was the oldest standard
of the Roman army. It was raised on the
Janiculum while the comitia centuriata were
being held (Liv. xxxix. 15, 11) ; floating over
the general's tent, it gave the signal for battle
(Caes. B. G. ii. 20, 1) ; it was the rallying-
point of the soldiers in the case of a tumultiis.
The signa of the maniples during the Republic
seem to have had a vexillum on them. It is
probable that the new form of signutn which
had no vexilluui at all was introduced by
Augustus.
Vexilla were also the peculiar standards
(a) of divisions of infantry detached for some
special duty, (b) of troops of discharged vete-
rans called out for further service.
(3) Imagines (medallions of the emperors).
In the early Empire imaginiferi are found be-
longing to the legions and to the auxiliary
cohorts ; each legion and each auxihary cohort
had one imaginifer.
(4) Aquilae. — From the time of Marius the
aqtalaviSis the standard of the legion. Besides
being the sign of union of the whole legion, it
marked where the commander happened to be,
and accordingly where the main body of the
legion was stationed. During a battle it was
in charge of the pi-imus jii^i'S (T&c. Hist. iii.
22 ; Liv. iii. 69, 8). In the camp it was placed
in a little shrine (aedicula) (Cic. Cat. i. 9); for
the standards were held as sacred (Plin. xiii.
§23).
The Form of the Standards.
(1) Signa. — The signa of the legions were in
their main essentials similar to one another.
The pole was a lance (^vcttov) with a point at
the lower end for fixing into the ground
(ovpiaxos ; cuspes. Suet. lul. 62) and a cross-
piece of wood (mora) a little above this point
to prevent the pole sinking too deep into the
ground (see tig. 988). The pole was plated witli
sUver. Towards the top was a transverse bar
with ribands hanging from it ; and these often
had at their ends silver ivy-leaves. Along tliis
transverse bar there appears to have been placed
a plate containing the name of the legion,
cohort, and maniple to which the signum be-
longed. Below the transverse bar came a series
of disks, probably of silver (Plin. xxxiii. § 58),
like the phalerae. These were military decora-
tions given to the maniple or century. These
Fig. !)»«.— Signa aquilae).
Coin of 83 B.C. Coin of 4!) B.C.
disks could be taken off the pole ; and poles
without them were called inconijyta signa.
and were carried at military funerals (Tac.
Ann. in. 1). Ornare signa
(Suet. Claud. 13) seems to
have been the expression
used for putting these
disks on the pole. Below
the disks was a crescent,
probably a kind of amulet.
Above the cross-bar was
sometimes a corona aurea,
sometimes a small shield,
sometimes a small vexil-
lum (Sail. lug. 85, 29),
sometimes an upstretched hand, the token of
fidelity. Again, figures of animals are some-
times found below the disks.
The standards of the auxiliary cohorts are
Fig. 984.— Signa
(various). Coin of
c. 260 A.D.
SIGNA MILITARIA
so like those of the maniples that there is no j
need to give a special representation of them.
The standards
of the nut i ones '
or Humeri (bar- |
barian mercen- '
iiry troops [Ex- '
ercitusl) appear !
to have had [
figures of ani- i
nials on the top :
cf. Tac. Hist. I
The standards
SIGNUM
581
Fig. OHG.— VexlUum. (Dritlsh Museum.)
of the praetorians had, like the sigua of the
legions, the transverse bar and the ribands and
FiR. W7.
VexiUuTQ. (From
Trajan's Column.)
i^•y-leaves. The principal difference between
these standards and tliose of the legions was
that crowns (aurea, iiiuralis, clas»ica, or lal-
laris ; see Corona) take the place of the pha-
lerae. In the middle of the pole was placed
a medallion containing a portrait of the em-
peror, above and below which were generally
crowns.
(2) Vexilla. — The chief feature of the vexil-
lum was that hanging down from the transverse
bar was a rect-
angular fringed
piece of cloth,
which bore the
name of the le-
gion and probably
that of the em-
peror. This flag
was sometimes
white, sometimes
red, sometimes
purple. Occasion-
ally above this
piece of cloth,
which was the
vcxiUiun proper,
was placed a
statue of Victory.
Fig. 087 is such a vexillum from
Trajan's column.
(3) Imagines. — These were me-
dallions of the emperors affixed
to i)oles. Other medallions — no
doubt those of the divi imjjera-
tores — were carried on the stand-
ards (Tac. Hist. iv. 62).
(4) Aquila. — The eagle was
placed on the top of a pole ;
sometimes immediately, some-
times resting on a metal plate.
It generally held a thunderbolt
in its claws, and had its wings
extended for flight. Occasionally
the eagle was represented as
holding an oak-leaf in its beak.
It was made generally of silver
(Cic. Cat. i. !), 24), sometimes of
gold. Any regimental decoration belonging to
the legion was affixed to the pole, as in the
case of the signa.
(5) La'barum. — A form of
standard adopted by Con-
stantiiie after liis conversion
to Christianity. It consisted
in the sacred monogram
vB or -H, i.e. XP, the first
two letters of Xpiar6s, to
which An was added later.
From the cross-bar was
suspended a vexillum of purple silk, inwrought
with the figures of the emperor and his chil-
dren (Gibbon, chap. xx.
and note).
Signum. (1) A statue
(Cic. l)iv. i. 85, 77;
Verg. Aen. ix. 2(i3, fee).
(2) A militarv stand-
ard [Signa militaria|.
(3) A seal or device
on a seal (Cic. Cat. iii.
r., 10, Att. ix. 10, 4;
Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 88, Ep. KIk wo -Slim of a bakers
ii. 2, 134; &c.). Seals »'•"»' „'i'omi»U)- J'"'"
, , ' , and mill.)
were placed, not only on
documents, but also on doors (usually a luni))
of clay stamped with the ring) (Paus. vi. 20, 1),
(ri
Kig. !*8.
.\quilu. (From
u relief at
Verona.)
(From a coin.)
582
SILEX
as is done to this day in Greece ; boxes, chests,
wine casks and jars, &c.
(4) The sign of a shop (Quintil. vi. 3, 38).
(Fig. 990.)
(5) [Astronomia.]
Silex. (1) Any kind of flint or hard stone
(Verg. Aen. i. 174 ; Ov. Met. vii. 139 ; &c.).
(2) A sacrificial knife of flint (Liv. i. 24 ; of.
Catull. Ixiii. 5).
(3) Polygonal blocks of lava used commonly
for paving both at Rome (Juv. vi. 350) and in
the country (Verg. Eel. i. 15). [Tiae.]
Fig. 991.— Pavement of lava (silexj.
Silice'rnium. [Funus.]
Si'liqua [Kepdnov). The smallest Roman
weight, being the sixth part of a scruple, scri-
pulum, or Yj^ of an ounce. [Pondera ; Tables,
XIV.)
Sima. [Architectura.]
Si'mpulum or Simpu'vium. [Sacrificium.]
Sindon. LByssus ; Carbasus.l
Sinum (?) and Sinus. A bowl (Verg. Eel. vii.
33; according to Servius ad loc. sjnionymous
with Acratopho-
rum fPlaut. Cu7-c.
i. 1, 82, Bud. V. 2,
32, &c.).
Sinus. [Dress,
To(;a.]
Sipa'rium.
[Theatrum, p.
626, b.J
Sipho, Sifo (Sta-
fir)Tr]s). A siphon
(1) for emptying
vessels ; (2) for
supplying a foun-
tain [Fons.j A
Fig. 992.— Sipho.
forcing pump [Antlia] used as a fire-engine
(Plin. Ep. X. 42, 2) : hence siplionarii, firemen.
Sistrum {(relarpov). A mystical instrument
of music, used by the ancient Egyptians in
. 994.— Sistrum.
Museum.)
Fig. 993.— Sistra.
their ceremonies, and especially in the worship
of Isis (Ov. Met. ix. 684, Pont. i. 1, 38 ; Tib. i.
2IT02
3, 4). Its form is seen in fig. 993; fig. 994 is
from a specimen in the British Museum. It
was made of metal :
sometimes of silver
or gold.
Sistrum is some-
times used for a
child's rattle [Crepi-
tacnlum] (Mart. siv.
54).
Site'lla. [Situla.]
ZiTO()>v\aKEs. A
board of oflBcers,
chosen by lot, at
Athens. Their busi-
ness was partly to
watch the arrival of
the corn ships and
take account of the
quantity imported,
and to see that the
import laws were
duly observed ; part-
ly to regulate and
control the sales of
com in the market,
duties much re-
sembling those of
the 'A-yopav6ji,oi
(or ayopdvoixoi) and
M€Tpov6n.oi with
regard to other saleable articles. Their num-
ber was ten, viz. five for the city and five for
the Peiraeus.
ZiToirtbXai. r^iTos.]
ZiTos, corn. The soil of Attica, though
favourable to the production of figs, olives,
and grapes, was not so well suited for com ;
and it was necessary to import corn for the
subsistence of the population.
According to the accredited calculation, whilst
the soil of Attica could grow no more than 2h
millions of medimni of com, chiefly barley, the
consumption of the whole population would be
about 3^ millions of medimni, requiring, there-
fore, an importation of about a million medimni.
It came from the countries bordering on the
Euxine Sea, and more especially from the
Kimmerian Bosporus and the Thrakian Cher-
sonese ; also from Syria, Egypt, Libya, Cyprus,
Rhodes, Sicily, and Euboea. The necessities
of the Athenians made them take every pre-
caution to secure a plentiful supply. Sunium
was fortified, in order that the com vessels
{(TiTaywyol u\Ka.Ses) might come safely round
the promontory. Ships of war were often em-
ployed to convoy the cargo (Trapaire/jLireLv rhv
a'nov) ; and it was of the greatest importance to
Athens to command the entrance to the Euxine.
A regularly organised com trade was thus a
matter of the first necessity to the Athenians.
The object of the Athenian government was to
keep do\vn the price of com and discourage
speculators ; exportation was entirely forbid-
den ; and the consignment of corn {aiTr)yiiv)
to any other port than Athens was made a
capital offence (Dem. c. PJiorm. p. 918, § 37).
This was the rule for Attic traders, whether
citizens or metoeks ; while of the corn brought
into Peiraeus in foreign bottoms two-thirds
was to be carried up into the city and sold
there. No one might lend money to a ship that
did not sail with an express condition to bring
a return cargo, part of it in corn, to Athens.
Strict regulations were made with respect to
the sale of corn in the market ; and the pro-
i ceedings of the ffnoTTwXai or middlemen were
2IT0T AIKH
narrowly watclied both by the citizens and the
importers (e/jL-iropoi). Combinations to buy up
com (crwuivuffdai) or to raise tlie i)riLe .
(ffvviaTavai tos Tijuas), could be punished with [
death. These laws, however, were system- i
atically evaded in the pursuit of giiin (Lys.
Or. 12, passim). I
Scarcities of corn (triToSeTai) frequently
occurred at Athens, either from bad harvests,
the misfortunes of war, or other accidental j
causes. The state then made great efforts to i
supply the wants of the people by iinportinj;;
large quantities of corn, and selling it at a
low price. Public granaries were kept in the
Odeion and elsewhere : ofHcers called aiTwvai
and wKohiK-rai were appointed to get in the
supply and manage the sale. Public-spirited ,
individuals would sometimes import grain at ,
their own expense, and sell it at a moderate
price, or distribute it gratuitously (Dem. c.
Phorm. p. 918, §§ 38, 39). We read of the |
Athenian state receiving presents of corn or
facilities for importation from kings and princes,
sucli as Satyrus, king of Bosporus {c. 400 u.c),
Leukon and his sons Spartokus and Paerisades,
kings of Bosporus, to whom honours were
voted at Athens 347 B.C. (Hicks, Greek In-
scriptions, p. 189, No. Ill ; cf. Dem. c. Lept. I
4G6, 4C7), and Psammetichus, an Egyptian
prince, 445 B.C. As to tlie duty payable OQ the I
importation of corn, see rievTTiKoaTii. I
STtoj is strictly wheat-Hour, 6.\(pira barley-
meal, irvpoi wheat, Kpidai barley, &pTos wheat-
bread, jua(.a barley-bread. Sitos, however, is i
often applied to all kinds of com, and to pro-
visions in general. For ctTtos (alimony) see ,
Divorce, 'E-n-£K\-npos, Appendi.x, Gk?;ek L.\w.
ZiTou SCkti. See Appendix, Gkeek L.\w.
Si'tula, cit7n. Site'Ua (vSpia). A bucket for
drawing or carrying water (Plant. Amph. ii. 2,
SO). Those for carrj-ing water were cither of '
Fig. !>JO.-Coln of
Alexandria.
showing Apollo
Sminlhcus.
Fig. WS.-Rllnlinf 1
earthenware (as in Egypt) and carried two
together by a yoke (asiU'a; see fig. 189, p. 89),
or of bronze. In the sense of a voting-urn, we
usually find the diminutive form sitella (Liv.
XXV. 3, .xli. 18), as also unta and orca (Verg.
SOCn E88
Aen. vi. 431 ; Lucan, v. 394). The urn in which
the lots were placed was filled with water;
and when this was poured out, the lot which
appeared first Hoating on it was decisive (see
Cista).
ZjALveia. A festival celebrated at Rhodes
in lionour of Apollo Sfjitvdfvs, the mouse-god,
represented in a statue by Sko-
pas with a mouse at his foot :
probably an instance of trans-
ferred animal worship (see
Class. Diet. p. 89 6). Ho had
a temple near Alexandria.
Soci'etas. See Appendix,
Roman Law.
So'cii. The term socii is the
most ge)ieral of the many terms
used to denote a class of states
which, tliough in partial dependence on Rome
and acknowledging her hegemony, were yet not
regarded as subject or provinciaJ states. The
basis of this union was the idea of a military
alliance, of whicli Rome was the head. The
original nucleus of tlie alliance was the Latin
League. But the Latins were distinguished
from the socii, on account of their peculiar
privileges [Latinitasj. This distinction is
shown in such expressions as socii ac nominis
Latini (Liv. xli. 8, 9), socii et Latium (Sail.
Hist. i. 17). On the other hand, subject states
are sometimes loosely called socii, especially
after the Social War had merged the Italian
states, the original socii, in Rome.
The earliest political union under Rome, the
Latin League, was subsequently extended by
the break-up of confederacies such as the
Hemican and tlie Samnite, and the reception
of the south of Italy into the Roman con-
federacy ; mixed nationalities were thus merged
in one; and Italy (Greek, Latin, and Oscan),
a united whole, became a new nationality, geo-
graphical and political, that of the Italiri. Rome
now entered into a similar connexion with
states outside Italy, gi-anting the same recogni-
tion of independence and autonomy which was
necessary to constitute alliance, but with dif-
ferences according to circumstances: e.g. in the
matter of military duties. The Italians fur-
nished the large portion of the land forces
which were Rome's chief source of power : the
Greek states, like Neapolis and Rhodes, were
generally requisitioned to furnish ships; and as
the marine of the Romans was far less im-
portant than their land army, fixed requisitions
on the extra-Italian allies were less frequent.
But the power to make requisitions always
remained part of the theory (Liv. xlv. 25), both
for Italian and non-Italian socii.
A community that sought a definite status in
the Roman empire had first to surrender itself
(deditio) to the power (in dicionem, Liv. xxxvii.
45, '2; (/( ]jatcst(itcnt, Liv. xxxix. 54, 7), or the
honour (in Jidoii, Liv. viii. 2, 13) of the Roman
people. If an alliance was sought and accepted,
tlie terms of this alliance were dictated entirely
by the Romans; the various relations towards
herself which Rome imjiosed on such com-
iminities, expressed liy tlie terms avToyofUa.
lihrrtas, foetliis. A state is (1) self-governing
iavTovofwv) in virtue of the enjoyment of its own
laws: i'l) tree (libera) in virtue of the nominal
independence it enjoys in relation witli Rome :
(3) /o«/ms existed between Rome and any sti\te
that had a sworn compact with Rome. The
distinction between /or</<'ni/j and /j'ten is the
distinction between covenanted and uncove-
nanted independence. But in all cases, whether
584
SOCII
or not a foedus existed, the superiority or
suzerainty of Rome was implied.
The real dependence of the socii on Rome
was marked by the perpetual renunciation of
the free right of declaring war, which was
accompanied by the loss of the parallel right
of making independent treaties ; the sole ex-
ceptions are to be found in the case of the more
distant reges socii, such as those of Mauretania
and Cappadocia, who exercised the right of
conducting border wars on their own account.
The Romans also insisted on the breaking up of
the standing national confederations within
allied states, both in Italy and in the provinces.
The usual requisition on the Greek states
was ships of war. The amount of the contin-
gent was definitely fixed, or changed from time
to time. But it was from the land army of the
Italians, the togati, or socii nominisve Latini,
that the main strength of the auxiliary forces
was derived. The nmnber of troops required
was decreed every year by the senate (Liv. xli.
5, &c.), and the consuls fixed the proportionate
contingent from each allied state. The names of
persons so liable were contained in the charters
(formulae) of the several states (Liv. xxii. 57),
service being regulated by the census, which
was modelled on that of Rome (Liv. xxix. 15).
The consuls appointed the place and time of
meeting (Liv. xxxiv. 56, xxxvi. 3, &c.). The
contingents of the several states remained
together in separate cohorts, each under its
own commander, who was, probably, in most
cases the magistrate of the state (Liv. xxiii.
19, 7), and the soldiers of the separate states
took the sacrament um to their own com-
mander. Besides these officers, the consuls ap-
pointed twelve prefects, apparently Romans, as
commanders of the whole body of the socii, whose
power answered to that of the military tribunes
in a consular army. These prefects selected one-
third of the cavalry and one-fifth of the infantry
of the socii, who formed a select body called
extraordinarii. The remainder were then
divided into two large divisions, called the right
and the left wings {alae, Liv. xxxv. 5) ; each of
these alae, composed of cohorts and commanded
by six praefecti, closely resembled a Roman
legion (cf. Liv. xxxvii. 39). Pay and clothing
were given to the allied troops by the states
to which they belonged; but Rome furnished
them with provisions at the expense of the
Republic, the allied infantry receiving the same
as the Roman, the cavalry somewhat less [Sti-
pendium]. The right of the allies to share in
the distribution of the spoils of war and of
conquered lands was freely recognised, and on
some occasions, but not always (Liv. xli. 13),
they received an equal share with the Romans
(Liv. xxxix. 5, xl. 48). The contingents of the
Italian socii are sometimes called auxilia, those
of the allies outside Italy auxilia externa or
provincialia (Liv. xxii. 37, 7). After the Social
War, however, the ItsiUiin auxilia or togati dis-
appear, and the word auxilia, during the later
Republic and the Empire, signifies non-Italian
contingents, chiefly light-armed troops. [Ex-
ercitus ; Castra.]
Some of the dependent kingdoms paid a
tribute which was in the nature of a war-
indemnity ; but during the early period of the
Roman Empire, neither the Italian allies nor
the liberae or foederatae civitates in the pro-
vinces were subject to it ; foedus implies liber-
tas, and libertas (eAevdepia) is invariably con-
joined with Immunitas (are'Aeia). Thus
Stipendiarii are opposed to socii (Cic. Balb.
SOLEA
9, 24). The allies had freedom of local ad-
ministration both in respect to jurisdiction and
local ordinances or local laws. As regards
jurisdiction, the allied state was outside the
authority of the Roman magistrates. The
allies, however, were more or less affected by
Roman legislation, especially the near neigh-
bours of the Romans, the Italici, and many
institutions of the Roman civil law were ex-
tended to them : e.g. laws of inheritances,
testaments, &c. — some accepted voluntarily,
some imposed by Rome : e.g. the Senatuscon-
sultum de Bacchanalihus (Liv. xxxix. 19) The
tenure of independence by a, foederata civitas
lasted theoretically as long as the conditions of
the foedus were observed : but the notorious
abuse of self-government by a foederata civitas
might cause a foedus to be rescinded : the con-
dition of the states that were merely liberae was
always precarious (Suet. ylM^. 8). The tendency
of the imperial administration was towards an
equalisation in the position of provincial states,
and the supervision of these by the Siopdurai
or iiravopQooTai (correctores) and the Xoyiarai
[curatores] appointed by the emperor rendered
their position but little different from that of
the provincial subject towns; but the name
liberae still continued to be applied to certain
states as an honorary title.
Soda'les. See Appendix, Roman L.\w, Col-
legium.
Solarium. [Horologitim ; Domus.]
Solea. (1) jCalceus.]
(2) A shoe for horses or mules. In Greek
literature of a date before the Roman
conquest there is no trace of any shoes for
animals, except in the case of camels, which
(Arist. Hist. Anim. ii. 6) on a campaign had
a sort of shoe (KapfiarivT]) bound beneath the
foot. The epithets xo'^'^'^'roi'S (11. xiii. 23)
XaKKOKporos (Ar. Eq. 551), merely refer to the
noise of the horses' hoofs. Xenophon (de Be
Eq. 4) gives directions for the sort of pave-
ment which would best harden the hoofs (cf.
Colum. vi. 12). We have no representation
of shoes on horses (e.g. on the frieze of the
Parthenon), and we are told that hoofs wore
out quickly on roads (cf. Thuc. vii. 27).
In Roman literature we find mention of shoes
for mules (Catull. xvii. 26 [iron]; Suet. Vesp.
23, Nero 30 [silver]; Plin. xxxiii. 49, § 140
[gold]). These shoes were not nailed, but bound
on as described below.
Horses' feet when tender or injured were
sometimes shod (calceati), the shoes being
made of iron or hemp (sjjartei) and attached by
bandages (lemnisci or fasciolae).
The earliest mention of nailed horse-shoes is
probably in the tactica (v. 4) of the Emperor
Fig. 997.— Horseshoe.
Leo in the ninth century x.d. ; but numbers of
ancient horse-shoes, not differing in shape
from those now in use, have been discovered
in France, Switzerland^ and Germany, and a
SOLIFERREUM
few in this country. Tliut they aro of ii high
antiquity there is no doubt, but probably later
than the time of Caesar : otherwise it is likely
that he would have noticed them. The objects
figured below represent what are often called
' Koman horse-shoes.' Tliey are found in
Franco and elsewhere. They are perhaps
SPECULUM
585
Fig. 008.— Horoeehoe Or
saudal.
Fit!. ;i;):i.— Jlcthod
of lufitening tiliou.
horse-sandals, attached as represented in
fig. 99'.), but used only exceptionally for injured
or cracked hoofs.
Solife'rreum or Sollife'rreum. An iron
missile mentioned by Livy (xx.xiv. 14) : from
Sdllus (~ totus) iind frrrtDii.
Solium. (1) [Thronus.J (2) An armchair
(Cic. Lrr/fj. i. :i) [Cathedra]. (3) [Balneae.]
(4) = Sarcophagus (Suet. Nero, 50).
Sortes. Lots. Among tlie modes of divina-
tion practised by the Italian nations, the
drawing of lots was one of the most common.
We find it also m Greece (Cic. Div. i. 34, 7(5),
but there it was entirely overshadowed by the
prophetic frenzy, and inspiration through
dreams. In Italy we must distinguish between
sortes localised in special temples [Oraculum],
and those which could be drawn by any person
and in any place. Of the former kind, we
hear specially of the sortes at Praeneste (Cic.
Div. ii. 41, 8.5 ; Propert. ii. 82, 3 ; Suet. Tib.
63), at Caere (Liv. xxi. (52), at Falerii (Id. xxii.
1), at the temple on the Clitumnus (Plin. Ep.
viii. 8), and at the fons Aponus near Patavium
(Suet. Tib. 14) ; and probably at the oracular
seat of Fortuna at Antium. Tlie .lortes were
little tablets or counters, made of wood or
other materials ; after they had been mixed
together a boy drew one at random, which
then was taken as an omen. Some verso or
proverb was wTitten on each, e.ff. 'Mavors
telum suum concutit ' (Liv. xxii. 1). As a
prognostication of misfortune, the lots became
miraculously smaller (attenuari, cxt.) in size
(Id. ib.). Seventeen lots in bronze, oblong, and
pierced with a hole (so that they could be strung
together) have been discovered near Padua:
one inscription is ' Est equos perpulcer, sed tu
vehi non potes istoc ' (see Situla). By the
time of Cicero, this kind of divination was
obsolete, except at Praeneste. Sortes, liow-
ever, was still a customary name for any kind
of oracular deliverance (cf. Cic. Div. ii, 56,
115 ; Verg. Am. iv. 346, 377, vi. 72).
Wliile, however, the use of sortes as abrancli
of official religion died out, as an irregular
superstition they were the most long-lived of
all the elements of heathenism, and lasted
far into Christian times. Sortes Verrjiliauar
were commonly taken, and gave rise to .lortes
sacrae or satirtormii, from tlie Bible and
Psalter (cf. Gibbon, ch. xxxviii. note 51).
[Superstitio.]
Sortes Con vivales or Con vivia les were tablets
sealed up, which were sold at entertain-
ments, and upon being opened or unsealed en-
titled the purchaser to things of verj' unequal
value; they were therefore a kind of lottery.
(Suet. A II I/. 75.)
Spa'rsio. Gifts, such as fruits, «X:c. or tickets
entitling to gifts [TesseraJ throwni to the
spectators in tlie circus Ludi ((i)i (Mart. viii.
78; Suet. Xer. 11, Jjuiii. 4; Stat. Silv. i. 6
tU!).
Sparus and Sparum (spar, si)ear). A hunt-
ing spear (Veig. Ai n. xi. 682, ' agrestis sparus ') ;
used also in war.
Spatha. (II Tela.] (2) A broad two-edged
sword (Tac. Ann. xii. 35). Hence It. sjjada,
Fr. t/ier, Arc.
Spatha'lium ffTTraToAiof). rArmilla.]
Specillum. Chirurgia, fig. 31H.1 (Cic. Nat.
l)i nr. iii. liiii.
Specula. A watch-tower or beacon (Verg.
Aen. iii. 239; Cic. Verr. ii. 5, 35, in Sicily;
Liv. xxii. 19, in Si)ain).
Specula'ria. Windows of talc (specitlaris
Jiipis) (.Mart. viii. 14 ; Juv. iv. 21). It was
luought from Cyprus, Africa, Spain, Kappa-
dokia, &c. Panes of glass have also been
found at Pomjieii and elsewhere.
Speculum [KaToirrpov, (croirTpov, fvoirrpoy).
A mirror. Tlie mirrors of the Greeks, Romans,
and Etruscans consisted almost invariably of
small circular disks of metal, which could be
placed upriglit on a table or held in the hand.
Mirrors of glass are mentioned by Pliny (xxxvi.
t} 66) as being made at Sidon, and we learn
that glass mirrors were coated with tin, not, as
with us, with quicksilver. No remains of such
mirrors exist, however, and they were evidently
little used. The usual material was bronze,
i.e. an alloy of copper (iW to 81 per cent.) and
tin (19 to 32 per cent.). The majority of
extant mirrors are of l)ronze, but some made
of silver have also come down to us. Silver
mirrors came into fashion under the Republic
(Plin. xxxiii. § 45), and in Imperial times were
frequently used. Mirrors were also coated
with silver, or composed of a mixture of copper
and lead.
Though commonly used in Egj-pt, there is
no mention of mirrors in Homer, and the
earliest Greek min'ors extant are not earlier
than c. 500 B.C. Wall-mirrors were little
used in antiquity. Large metal mirrors were
Fig. 1000.— Hand. mirror. (From n relivt In the lirllUh
Museum.)
suspended in barbers' shops ; and we hear,
under the Roman Empire, of mirrors large
enough to reflect tlie whole person.
(luEKK IMiKHous. — Exanii>les of mirrors of
Greek workmanship aii<l provruancr are rare.
Like other articles of tlie toilet, mirrors were
buried by the Greeks with the dead. They
have two forms: (1) tlie disk-mirror with a
handli' or a staml, (2) the box-mirror.
(1) The disk-mirrors have one side (usually
slightly convex) left plain and poli.shed for
586 SPECULUM
reflexion. The other side is engi-aved with a
design, or is left phiiu. The handle is often
ornamented, or consists of a statuette. Many
Fig. 1002.— Mirror -witli
handle.
Fig. 1001.— Disk-mirror on a pedestal.
have a foot, to enable them to stand upright
on a table.
(2) The bos-mirror consists of two circular
disks shutting into one another, and sometimes
united by a hinge. The
upper disk or cover is
ornamented on the out-
side with a design in
I'elief, and its interior is
polished for reflection.
The lower disk, or box
itself, is adorned inside
with engraved figures.
The best specimens may
be attributed to the
fourth century B.C. The
reliefs usually consist of
subjects relating to the
cycle of Aphrodite and
Dionysus.
It is not impossible that bronze mirrors may
liave been etched as well as engraved.
Etruscan Mirkoks. — The extant examples,
from tombs in Etruria and Latium, are
extremely numerous. They resemble the
Greek mirrors in form. Box-mirrors occur,
but most of the extant specimens are disks
with a handle made in one piece with the
mirror, and sometimes inserted in an outer
handle of bone or wood. The Etruscan mirrors
that have come down to us are mainly of the
fourth and third centuries B.C. The subjects
represented are chiefly drawn from Greek
mythology, especially the Trojan legends.
Various scenes from daily life are also repre-
sented. The names of the personages depicted
are often written near them in Etruscan cha-
racters {e.g. Aplu or Apulu = Apollo; Achle=^
Achilles; Atunis = Adonis). The designs are
nearly always inferior copies of Greek models.
Roman MlrB(jks. — These are of little artistic
importance, and are usually disk-mirrors with
an ornamented handle, sometimes in the form
SPOLIA
of a figure. The back of the disk, if engraved,
is usually ornamented with decorative patterns
and not with a subject-design.
Z<j>i)pa. [Malleus.]
Spica (Spica'ta) testa'cea. Oblong tiles set
in a ' wheat-ear ' or ' herring-bone ' pattern for
floors (Pliu. xxxvi. 62 ; Vitr. vii. 1, 4). [Pic-
tura ; Domus, p. 250.]
Spi'culum. [Arms and Armour, Speaes.]
Spina. [Circus.]
Spinter, Spinther {crcpiyKTTJp) (Plant. Men.
iii. 3, 4, ctc.j. An elastic bracelet [Armilla].
See cuts under Armilla.
Spira. (Ij Any coil or wreath, of rope, hair,
a serpent, &c. ; in Juv. viii. 208 (see Mayor's note)
it appears to mean a lasso-roj^e attached to the
net of the retiarius to recover it when thrown.
(2) The base of a column. [Architectura.]
I-mGaixTi. A span, a Greek measure equal to
three-fourths of the foot. [Mensura, Tables, I. ]
Sple'nium. A patch of piaster spread on
white linen or leather (Mart. ii. 29, viii. 33),
used both medicinally (Mart. x. 22 ; Plin. xxix.
131) and as an ornament.
Spo'lia. Four words are commonly em-
ployed to denote booty taken in war — praeda,
mamibiae, exuviae, spolia. Of these, praeda
is used for plunder of every description
[Praeda]. Manubiae was the money which tlie
quaestor realised from the sale of praeda (Cic.
Leg. Agr. ii. 22, 59). Exuviae indicates any-
thing stripped from the person of a foe ; spolia,
armour and weapons, although both words are
applied loosely to trophies such as chariots,
standards, &c.
In the heroic ages no victory was considered
complete unless the conquerors could succeed
in stripping the bodies of the slain, the spoils
thus obtained being the only unquestionable
evidence of successful valour (cf. Hom. II. vii.
77, ifcc, xxii. 258, &c.). Among the Romans,
spoils taken in battle were considered the most
honourable of all distinctions (see Liv. xxiii.
23). Spoils collected on the battlefield, or
found in a captured town, were employed to
decorate the temples of the gods, triumphal
arches, and other places of public resort (Liv.
xxii. 57, xxiv. 21), but those which were gained
by individual prowess were the i^roperty of tlie
winner, and were exhibited in his dwelling,
being hung up in the atrium, or arranged in
the vestibuhuu, with appropriate inscriptions
(Liv. X. 7, xxxviii. 43; Cic. Phil. ii. 28, 68;
Suet. Nero, 38; Verg. Ae7i. ii. 504; Ov. A. A.
ii. 743). They were regarded as peculiarly
sacred, so that if the house was sold the new
possessor was not permitted to remove them
(Plin. XXXV. § 7) : e.g. the ' rostrata domus ' of
Pompey, which was decorated with the beaks
of ships captured in his war against the pirates,
retained its ancient orna-
ments till the third cen-
tury A.D.
S2}oliao2nn7a. — This term
applied only to spoils which
were won on the field of
battle from the leader of
the opposing army by a
Roman soldier : and strictly
by the commander-in-chief j-jg kkw.— spolia
of the Roman army (having opima. (From a coin.)
the auspicia). This condi-
tion was only fulfilled on three occasions : first,
by Romulus ; secondly, by A. Cornelius Cossus ;
and tliirdly, by Marcellus (Liv. i. 10, iv. 20,
Epit. XX.; "Plut. Bom. 16, Marcell. 8). In this
case alone could they be dedicated in the
SPOLIARIUM
temple of Jupitpr Feretrius ; hut the term was
applied also to the case of officers {spot. op.
seciniild), and private soldiers {sjjol. op.teriia).
Spolia'rium. [Crladiatores.]
Sponda. i^^Lectus.]
Spo ndeo. See Appendix, Roman Law, Obli-
gatio.
Spo'ngia {cr-rr6yyos). A sponge. The use of
sponges has come down from very early times,
for the cleansing both of the body (Hom. U.
xviii. 414) [Strigilis] and of furniture (Od. i.
111). For the latter purpose it is more especi-
ally noticed in Latin literature (Mart. xiv. 144)
Small sponges fastened on a stick were called
peniculi (Ter. Eu7t. iv. 7, 7 ; cf. Mart. xii. 48),
and were used for cleaning walls itc, and also
with short handles for cleaning boots (Plaut.
Mrii. ii. 3, 40) ; for painters' brushes see
Fictura : for laying on colour broadly a peni-
cillus made with sponge was also used (Plin.
ix. § 148). For its use to obliterate writing
see Mart. iv. 10. [Liber.] Pliny (ix. §§ 148-
150) mentions especially the neighbourhood of
Torone, the Syrtes, the Hellespont, and Malea
as hunting-grounds for sponges, and the coasts
of Lykia for the softest kind. Three kinds are
distinguished — the hard and coarse rpdyos, the
softer fj.av6s, and the fine dxiAAeioc.
Sponsor. See Appendix, Roman Law, Inter-
cessio.
Sporta (dim. sportella, Cic. Fam. ix. 20, 2 ;
Suet. Doni. 4). A basket or hamper (Cato, It. B.
xi. 4) ; a fisherman's creel (Mart. x. 37, 17).
Spo'rtula. The diminutive from sporta =
ffmp'is, a wicker basket. In the days of Roman
freedom clients were expected to attend their
patron in his atrium at an early hour, and
escort him when he went abroad. As an
acknowledgment of these courtesies some of
the number were usually invited to partake
of the evening meal. Under the Empire
(probably as early as the time of Nero) the
custom was introduced of bestowing on each
client, when he presented himself for his
morning visit, a certain portion of food as a
substitute and compensation for the occasional
invitation to a regular dinner {crna recta) ;
and this dole, being carried off in a little
basket provided for the purpose, received the
name of sportula. It soon became common to
give an equivalent in money, the sum estab-
lished by general usage being a hundred
quadrantes (Juv. i. 120 ; Mart. x. 70, 75).
About the year 87 the pi'actice of inviting
clients to the ccna recta appears to have been
revived under the influence of Domitian (cf.
Mart. iii. 7, 14, 60, &c.) ; but the change
was disliked both by patrons and by clients :
and a return was generally made to the monej'
dole. The donation in money, however, did
not entirely supersede the sportula given in
kind (see Juv. iii. 249). A list was kept at
each mansion of the persons, male and fennile,
entitled to receive the allowance ; the names
were called over in order, the individuals were
required to appear in person, and the almoner
was ever on his guard to keep off impostors.
The morning was the usual time for these
distributions (Juv. i. 12K), but they were some-
times made in the afternoon (Mart, x, 70).
Spuma. [Unguentum.] j
Squamma. Scale-armour. [Arms and Ar-
mour, LnuiCA.]
Stabula'rius. See Appendix, Riuian Law,
Recepta ; Cursus publicus.
Sta'dium {(TrdSmi'. ]>!. in prose most often
ffTaStot: Doric aTrdSiof, cf. Lat. spatium, the
STADIUM
587
drawing or draught space, i.e. ploughland
[v/o-Tra-]). [^Mensura.J (1) The foot-race course
at Olympia and the other places in Greece where
games were celebrated. It was originally in-
tended for the foot-race, but the other contests
I OlympiaJ were also exhibited in the stadium,
exeei>t tile liorse-i'aceK, which were run in the
Hippodromus.
Tlie plan of the Olympic staditun was rect-
angular. Most others known to us were
terminated at one end bj'a straight line, at the
other by a semicircle. Round this area were
ranges of seats rising above one another in steps.
It was constructed in three different ways,
according to the nature of the ground. Tin-
simplest form was that in which a place could
lie found whicli had by nature the required
shape (cf. the Circus Maximus at Rome). Most
commonly, however, a position was chosen on
the side of a hill, and the stadium was formed
on one side by the natural slope, on the other
by a mound of earth (y^s x'i'M")> "•*' *'' Olympia,
Thebes, and Epidaurus. Sometimes, however,
the stadium was on level ground, as the
Pythian stadium at Delphi and the Pana-
thenaic at Athens.
The stadium at some places formed a part of
the buildings of the gymnasium [Gymnasium],
at others, as Athens, it stood entirely by itself.
The size of tin; Grecian stadia varied both in
length and breadth; but the length of the
course, between the pillars which marked the
beginning and the end of the race, was always
(iOO (Greek) feet [MensuraJ.
At one end a straight wall shut in the area,
and here were the entrances, the starting-place
for the runners, and (at Olpnpia) an altar of
Endymion. At the other end, at or near the
centre of the semicircle, and at a fixed distance
from the starting-place, was the goal, which
was the termination of the simple foot-race :
the race itself is called ffrdStoi' or Spu/jios I the
runners, (TTaSto5p6fxoi I : in the Siav\os Spo/xoj the
racers turned round this and came back to the
starting-place. The starting-place and goal had
various names: the former was called dcpeais,
7pa^jU7), v(T7rA7j|, and )3aAj3is: the latter Tf pfxa.
)3aT7}p, TfAos, KOiUTTTTip, and viiffffa. These terms
are often applied inditTerently to the starting-
place and goal ; probably because the starting-
place was also the end of all races, except the
simple ffTaSiov. Both dcpfais and ripfxa were
marked by a square pillar ((tttjAoi, kIov(s kv^o-
6i56?$), and half-way between these was a third.
On the first was inscribed the word dpicrrfvf,
on the second crirfvSf, on the third Kd/xri/ov.
Tlie semicircular end of the area, which was
called (r<pfi'S6i'T], and was not used in the races,
was probably devoted to the other athletic
sports.
Opposite to the goal, on one side of the sta-
dium, were the seats of the 'EWavoSiKat.
The Panathenaic stailium at Atlniis niea-
sunnl about 204 x 33 metres. That at Ephesus,
built probably in the time of Augustus, was
about 212 metres in length.
The stadium at Olympia was rectangtdar,
with a breadth of about 32 and a length of 211
metres. The foot of tiie embankments which
enclosed the area was bordered by a ledge of
stone. In the simple course — the ardStov or
SpdfiLoi — the runners merely traversed once the
si)aee from the starting line to the goal. The
judges were stationed at the end wliere the
goal stood. Hence runners in the SiavXos and
the S6\txos started from this end, in order to
tinish before the judges. A row of flags was
588
STADIUM
placed across the course at either end. Stand-
ing here in a line, tiie runners were separated
from one another by posts inserted in the
stone, the sockets of which are stiU visible, at
intervals of about four Olympian feet.
Stadia were in later times used also for wild-
beast shows or hunts {Kvvr]yeaiai). Hence
an amphitheatre was sometimes built in con-
nexion with the stadium.
Julius Caesar (Suet. lul. 39), Augustus (Id.
Aug. is, 45), and Domitian, built stadia at
Rome. But the exercises of the stadium never
STATUARIA ARS
In mathematical geography the ordinary
computation was 600 stadia to a degree of a
great circle of the earth's surface.
Stala'gmiiun. An ear-drop (Plaut. Men.
iii. 3, ISj. [Inauris.j
Stater. [Coinage.]
State'ra. A steelyard. This seems to have
been an Italian invention, and was called
trutina Cainpana. There can be no doubt
that the balance [Libra] was a far older con-
trivance than the steelyard.
The several parts of the steelyard are the
beam or yard {scapus) suspended by a hook or
chain which is called the handle (ayisa) ; in
tliis is the point of revolution {centruni), and
near it is the caput, from which depends the
scale {lancula) ; on the other side of the
centrum the scapus is marked with points
(puiicta), which express the weight of objects
in the scale as the aequipondium, or hanging
weight, moves along the beam. The aequi-
2. Cross- section irom A »o B in fig^l.
Fig. 1004.-
attained at Rome the same degree of popu-
larity as those of the circus and amphitheatre.
(2) The word also signifies the chief Greek
measure for itinerary distances, which was
adopted by the Romans also, chiefly for nauti-
cal and astronomical measurements. A stade
was equal to 600 Greek or 625 Roman feet, or
to 125 Roman paces ; and the Roman mile con-
tained 8 stades (Hdt. ii. 149; Plin. ii. 23, § 21).
(For the exact measurement, see Tables, III.)
This standard prevailed throughout Greece,
under the name of the Oljanpic stadium, so
called because it was the exact length of the
stadium or foot-race course at Olympia.
The length of the Olympic stadium is proved
by actual measurement to be from starting-
point to goal 192-27 metres. This gives '3205
metre as the length of the Olympic foot.
It is probable that the stadium is simply
the ancient fuiTOw-length or furlong {a.v\6s in
SiavKos = ai\a^).
The SiavKos was two crraSja, and the So'Ajxos
six or more. The iinnK6v of four stadia we
may presume to have been the length of one
double course in the chariot-race.
Fig. 1005.— Statera. (From Mnsenm at Rome.)
pondium was generally in the shape of a head,
human or animal. (Vitr. x. 3, 4.)
Statera is also often used for a weighing
machine of any kind (Suet. Ves]). 25).
Statua'ria ars. This title will be used in
the present article in its widest interpretation,
including, in fact, all that we call by the name
' sculpture,' whether in relief or in the round,
and whatever be the material in which it is
executed.
I. Materials and Technique.
As to materials, we may distinguish (1) stone
and marble ; (2) metal ; (3) wood, sometimes
inlaid and gilded, or with portions in marble
(acrolithi) or gold and ivory {chryseleplian-
tina) ; (4) terracotta.
(1) Stone or Marble. — This is the most
important to us, because, from the nature of
the material, nearly all the statues still pre-
served are of this class. But this material,
though extensively used, had no such pre-
ponderance over the others in ancient times as
it has in modern museums.
Archaeologists disagree as to the extent to
which ' pointing ' from a finished clay model was
used. In some cases points are still visible ;
but this is only in the case of late Hellenistic
or Roman works. Unfinished Greek statues
show no sign of it. The block is worked away
in successive layers, more delicate instruments
being used as the sculpture progressed. The
tools mostly used were the punch, with a
mallet, and various chisels ; in a more advanced
STATUARTA ARS
589
stage of the statue a claw chisel was used ; it
was then finished with an ordinary cliisel (see
fig. 250, under Caelum). Tlie drill was not
■used for sculptural purposes till later times,
when it was extensively used for the hair
and the deeper folds of the drapery. A very
highly polished surface is characteristic of
works of the Hellenistic period, and especially
of the Pergamene school. Wliere rougli stone
was used, colour was applied to all ))arts, more
or less conventionally — red for the nude parts,
and blue for hair, clothes, etc., being the
colours most used. But as marble came to be
more extensively used colour on the nude parts
was disused. In the archaic female statues on
the Acropolis at Athens, we find the skin and
Hg. 1006.— Scene in a sculptor's studio. (From a Greek
vase in Herlin ; Blilmner.)
the whole mass of the drapery left uncoloured ;
red is applied to the hair, lips, and eyes, and
the drapery has borders and scattered orna-
ments painted on it in various colours. The
use of colour continued, at least to some ex-
tent, throughout the finest period.
In the earliest times all kinds of local marble
were used ; that of Paros, sometimes called
lychnites, was afterwards the favourite mate-
rial. Pentelic marble was used at Athens
during and after the fifth century ; Hymettic
only for inferior work. In the Roman i^eriod
the quarries of Luna (Carrara) were worked
very extensively. [Marmor.J
('2) Bronze, die. — Bronze was the material
most used by the great artists of antiquity,
but most of their work has been melted down.
Besides statuettes, which are innumerable,
only a few life-size or larger statues remain.
[Aes.]
In the most primitive method of bronze-
working, plates of metal were hammered into
the required shape, and then riveted together.
(Pans. iii. 17, 6). Such works were called
(T<pvpT]\ara. Bronze-founding (x(>3Viveiv) for ob-
jects such as bowls, &c., may date as far back as
the sixth century H.c. Bronze statues were also
cast in pieces and soldered {koWuv) together.
It is doubtful at what period hollow casting of
complete statues became usual. This was
probably done, as it is now, by the cirr perdue
process. In this process the figure is moulded
in a fire-proof clay, and a layer of wax put over
this, on which the modelling is finished. A
casing of clay is added, and the wax is then
melted out and bronze poured in tlirough metal
tubes at different points. Other tubes pro-
vide for the expansion and escape of heated
gases. Care was taken to make the space
between the two surfaces (i.e. the coating of
■wax) as thin as possible, so as to save metal.
The final polishing and finish of detail took
place after casting. [Caelatura.]
Silver and gold, as well as bronze, w^ere
occasionally used for statues: e.g. o. gold
(T(pvpr]\arov of Zeus was dedicated by the
Ky]>selidae of Corinth at Olympia.
('A) Wood, often gilt and enriched with other
materials. The primitive ^6ava were frequently
of wood. The development of this material is
as follows. First comes the use of ivory and
ebony ; then the wood is coated with gold, and
so tlie transition is easy to the chryselephantine
works, in which gold and ivory only are seen.
Of course such statues have had a core or
framework of wood. 'AKpoXiGoi, in which the
ivory is replaced by marble, and the gold by
gilded wood, were a cheap substitute for
chryseJeph an Una.
(i) Terracotta was very little used for
monumental purposes by the Greeks, but
figurines in terracotta, mostly made for dedica-
tion in temples or burial in tombs, arc ])reser\'ed
in very large quantities. [Terracotta.]
It is not certain how far finished clay models
were used by the sculptors of antiquity. In
bronze works, as we have seen, the clay core
was essential, only the finishing being done in
the wax : cf. the saying of Polykleitus, xaAfirci-
rarov rh fpyov, orap iv tjvvxi ^ i 'irrj\6s. In
the case of marble, execution was more or less
free hand in the best period, and pointing
from a finished clay model was certainly not
universal till Roman times, if even then. At
any rate, tlie practice of making first a clay
model, and leaving the rest to copying by more
or less mechanical means, was not in use among
Greek sculptors, who always carried out the
details of practical execution in the final mate-
rial as far as possible with their own hands.
II. Historical Sketch.
The beginnings of Greek sculpture may be
assigned to about the year (!00 b.c.
(1) Before 600 B.C. Earliest traditions;
foreign influences.
(2) 000 B.C. — 480 B.C. Greek archaic — Early
schools.
(3) 480 B.C.— 400 B.C. Greek fifth century—
Pheidias, Polykleitus.
(4) 400 B.C. — 320 B.C. Greek fourth century
— Praxiteles, Skopas, Lysippus.
(5) 320 B.C.— 150 B.C. Hellenistic— Asiatic
schools.
(()) 150 B.C.— 800 A.D. Graeco-Roman and
Roman.
(1) Before 600 B.C. Earliest traditions ;
foreign influences. — Egyptian art had in the
seventh century reached a low ebb, but a
revival took place under the rule of Psam-
meticlms, who favoured foreign intercourse,
and in whose reign the Milesian colony at
Naukratis was founded. The princii)al in-
fluence of Egyptian art on Greece must, how-
ever, have been conveyed through the I'lioeni-
cians, who also conveyed to Greece the influence
of Assyrian art. Direct importation of works
of art must have been confined to snuiU and
portable articles, arms and utensils, reliefs,
statuettes and carvings in ivory, wood, metal,
itc, such as could easily be )nade articles of
traffic. With the arts of Asia Minor the case
is different. The numerous Greek eolonied
here superseded any need of Phoenician inter-
mediaries. Oriental art became- known also
by the way of Phrygia, Lydia, I<ykia, and Karia.
and especially through tlie islands, several of
which (e.rj. Rliodes) served as centres where
Oriental and Greek art met.
Tlie earliest artists mentioned in Greek
500
STATUARIA ARS
tradition are the Kyklopes, Daktyli, and Telcli-
ines, to whom are attributed the building of col-
ossal walls, the lions at Mykenae, the thunder-
bolts of Zeus, the trident of Poseidon, the art
of working in iron, the use of magic, &c. These
traditions appear to be connected locally with
Asia Minor.
The next step in tradition brings us to Dae-
dalus and other names of what is sometimes
called the Heroic period of art. In Homer
Daedalus is only referred to as devising a xop^s
(i.e. a dance or dancing-place) for Ariadne — not
necessarily as a sculptor. Epeius is said to have
been the maker of the Trojan horse. By the
earlier Greeks he was regarded as a mythical
inventor and magician. He became later the
personification of early Greek art.
The Sliield of Achilles (described by Homer,
II. xviii.) and the Shield of Herakles (ascribed
to Hesiod) belong to the same class.
We may compare these poetical descriptions
of imaginary works with the Chest of Kypselus
dedicated at Olympia, which Pausanias de-
scribes. [Area.] Kypselus reigned in Corinth
657-629 B.C. ; and the chest may probably be
assigned to the end of the seventh century.
The scenes carved upon it were taken entirely
from mythology. Sculpture proper is said to
be unknown to Homer. He mentions, how-
ever, a figure of Athena in Troy, upon whose
knees the matrons lay a robe. But this may
have been a hoKavov or KiQos apySsoi the rudest
kind.
(For more details as to this period, see
'AKpoXieoi, AaCSaXa, and the artists' names
in Glass. Diet.)
(2) 600 B.C. — 480 B.C. Gi-eek Archaic — Early
Schools. — During the rise of Greek sculpture,
the artists recorded by literature belong to
local schools or families,
which have a character of
their own. Tradition tells
I if Cliian marble-workers,
Samian bronze-founders,
K retans working in marble
and wood, the 'Daedal-
ids,' who worked also on
the mainland.
Among the most primi-
tive statues extant is that
of Hera from Samos, in
Paris (fig. 1007), wliich is
merely a round column
below, with elaborate
drapery.
It appears probable that
the Ionic style was in
early times of great influ-
ence and importance.
Such were the seated
statues at Branchidae
near Miletus, and the
sculptured columns of the
ancient temple of the
Ephesian Artemis, some
of them dedicated by
Kroesus, and other works
from the Troad, Lykia,
and the islands. All these
works have the common
characteristic of softness
and laxity of style, as
opposed to the hard and precise sculpture
of the Peloponnesian schools. The Winged
Victory (fig. 1008) is probably the work of Archer-
mus of Chios. Other names of the Asiatic-
Ionic school are Endoeus and Aristokles.
Of early Attic art we may mention a set of
female figures, which were found where they
were buried just after the Persian invasion, and
may therefore be dated approximately 550-480
B.C. In these it is possible to trace the gradual
Fig. 100f>.— Winged Victory by .irchermus. (Athens.)
development of Attic style, from the rude figures
of Ionic art to the works of Kalamis, the
representative of this Ionic-Attic school in the
fifth century. The nude male figure (fig. 1010),
called the Apollo of Tenea, is one of a series of
.similar statues belonging to this school and
date. These Attic sculptures oiTer the greatest
contrast to Aeginetan and Peloponnesian works,
lively and excellent in muscular detail, but
angular and forced in attitude.
Ionic influence is traced also in Lakonia and
Boeotia. The Apollo of Orchomenus (fig. 1011),
is an instance of Boeotian work.
In the development of the rendering of the
nude male figure, the influence of the various
athletic games can hardly be over-estimated.
The first portraits of victors in the games are
said to have been dedicated at Oljrmpia about
540 B.C. These statues were doubtless at first
mere reproductions of the conventional male
type, not to be distinguished from the ' Apollo '
statues ; but a specialisation of the type for
various kinds of atliletes followed, and even
individual portraits. This class of athletic
statue was especially, but not exclusively, asso-
ciated with the schools of Argos and Sikyon.
The best known early Argive artist was
Ageladas, master of Pheidias, Polykleitus, and
Myron. The Argive type was transmitted to
and perfected by Polykleitus ; Pheidias seems
to have added under this influence a Doric
earnestness to the Ionic grace of Attic sculpture.
The artists of Aegina were of wide reputation
in early times, and worked (chiefly in bronze)
at Olympia, Athens, and elsewhere, as well as
in their own land. In historical times Kallon
and Onatas are the most prominent names.
They flourished about the beginning of the fifth
century. The pediments from Aegina, though
STATU ARIA ARS 591
of marble, not of bronze, supply the most cer- mentioned. These are Antenor, Kritius, and
tain evidence as to the Aeginetan style. The Nesiotes. The very tine, but dry and sinewy
sculpturesque rendering,' of all details and the treatment of tlie Ixxly is remarkable, and more
Fig. lOfti.— rioad o( statue on .Vcropolib. Athens.
careful study of the nude male form recall the advanced than the treatment of the face, dra-
athletic schools. pery, and hair — exactly the reverse of what we
The influence of athletic sculpture was felt ' find in the Ionic-Attic style. Here nuiy be
also in Athens, where there was another set of mentioned also He-iias, said to have been the
first master of Pheidias.
The year 480 B.C., here adopted as the con-
clusion of the archaic period, forms a convenieub
Fig. lOia.— Kallon warrior, from Aegluo.
boundary, as the Persian wars mark the be-
tiinning of a new era in Greek art as well as iu
Greek history.
To sum up : according to tradition, sculj)-
ture took its rise, so far as Greece is con-
cerned, among the islands, Samos, I'hios, and
Crete; and it spretul on the tme hand tlirough
Asia Minor, the Aegean Islands, Northern
Greece, and Attica, in what we nuiy con-
veniently name tlie softer or Ionic style ; whih-
on the otlier hand the Krelan artists had
scliolars in the Peloponnese, Central Greece,
and elsewhere : in most of tliese regions we find
a harder style, which may be luiined Doric ;
but even here we sometimes find Ionic artists
employed. Tlie two styles concentrated them-
selves in Argos, Sikyon, and Aegina on the one
hand, and iu Athens on the other. To^vards
sculptors representing a different tendency the close of the archaic |x?riod they seem.
from the development of the Ionic stylo already while retaining their essential characteristics.
Fig. 1(110. -Apollo, frora
Tonoa. (Munich.)
Fig. 1011.— Apollo, from Orcho-
melius. (Atliona. I
592
STATUAKIA ARS
to have influenced each other to a considerable
extent.
(3) 480 B.C.-400 B.C. Greek Fifth Century.
In the fiftli century, though Aegina disap-
pears, Argos and Sikyon remain, as before,
noted for atlilete statues in bronze, Athens for
Pig. 1013.— Apollo, from Temple of Zeus at Olympia
(attributed to Alkamenes).
the variety of its artists and for the use of
marble. The attainment of a complete mas-
tery over material difficulties prepared the way
for the highest attainments of Greek art. This
rapid advance in sculpture corresponds with a
similar advance in literature and in thought
and feeling, which leads up to the great century
of Greece. The superstitious awe with which
the ancient nations of the East had been re-
garded was dispelled by the victories of Sala-
mis and Plataea ; and the growth of national
wealth and civic pride combined to stimulate
art in Greece, and especially at Athens, where
so many monuments were erected from the
spoils of the Persians, or in commemoration of
their defeat.
This spirit was exhibited in the common re-
ligious centres, Olympia and Delphi. Olympia
was also noted for the great temple of Zeus,
built by the Eleians themselves, and probably
completed about 460 b.c. The two pediments
of this temple are attributed by Pausanias to
Paeonius and Alkamenes respectively. All the
sculptures of the temple show a freedom of pic-
torial composition which contrasts strongly with
the strict symmetry of the Aegina pediments ;
but in the execution there is none of the preci-
sion and delicacy which mark those groups.
Defects must have been remedied to some ex-
tent by colour ; and the distant effect was more
considered than sculptural accuracy.
Before considering the great architectural
sculptures made at Athens under the direction
of Pheidias, three artists must be mentioned
who are as it were the forerunners of the
highest period — Kalamis and Myron, both Athe-
nians, and Pythagoras of Ehegium. Kalamis
represents the liighest development of the grace
and delicacy of treatment properly belonging
to the Attic development of the Ionic style, and
especially for the treatment of drapery. Myron
inherits the vigour of the atliletic Attic school
of Kritius and Nesiotes ; the best known works
by or after Myron are the Diskobolus and the
Cow.
Pythagoras also represented figures in vigo-
rous movement, and excelled in atliletic
portrait statues. Both Myron and Pheidias
studied in the Argive school under Ageladas.
The architectural sculptures of Athens give
a good notion of the state of art at this period.
The sculptures of the Parthenon fall into three
divisions — the metopes, the pediments, and the
frieze which runs round the outside of the
cella. The metopes are of uneven merit. The
eastern pediment represented the birth of
Athena ; the western her contest with Poseidon
for the land : the surviving statues of these
pediments are perhaps the finest works of
sculpture extant. The frieze is in very low
relief, and shows the most perfect mastery of
composition and technique ; it represents the
Panathenaic procession advancing to the assem-
bly of the gods on the eastern pediment. There
is no special reason for attributing the architec-
tural sculptures of the Parthenon to Pheidias,
who is known to have made the chryselephan-
tine statue within the temple, except that he is
said to havS had the general superintendence
of the works of this period in Athens; the
Parthenon sculptures show the excellence of
those who worked under him. The 'Thesemn'
sculptures consist of ten metopes at the east
front of that temple, and four on each of the sides
adjoining : they may probably be attributed to
the school of Myron ; they resemble some of the
earlier metopes of the Parthenon. Thus tlio
Theseum and Parthenon seem to be almost
contemporary, and were built between 450 and
430 B.C. The Erechtheum, as it now stands,
was later : we know from inscriptions that it
was still unfinished in 409 B.C.; a great feature
of this building is the portico borne by six
Caryatids. The
temple of Nt'icrj
"AwTepos is most
famous for its
balustrade, with
figures of Athena
and winged Vic-
tories erecting tro-
phies, &c. ; they
must belong to the
close of the fifth
centurj% and show
the most beautiful
studies of flowing
draperies as an ac-
companiment and
background to the
figures. The influ-
ence of these great
works spread even
to the workmen
who made tomb-
stones ; so that
early in the fourth
century we find
numerous grave-
reliefs, votive offer-
ings, headings of
decrees, &c., which
recall by their style
the great period of
sculpture of the
end of the fifth
century.
So far works of architectural sculpture have
been considered, because they alone survive to
show us the style of the Pheidian school. The
1 ig 101 1 — Dorjphorus after
I'oh lilcitui. (Naplcb)
STATUARIA ARS
59a
great woi-ks of which the master himself or
nis most (listinguislieil pupils most carefully
superintended the execution were the colossal
temple statues of gold and ivory I'see XpvatKi-
4)dvTiva], such as the Zeus at Olympia and the i materials
Atliena Partlienos at Athens by Pheidias,
wliich were regarded in antiquity as the highest
attainments of sculpture.
Though the Attic school had so widespread
and so varied an influence, that of the Argive
Polykleitus was also of the utmost importance.
Polykleitus was reported to excel even Pheidias
in the treatment of bronze, his favourite mate-
rial. His Diadumenus, Doryphorus, Wounded
Amazon, &c., are well known from copies. One
of his most famous works was the chryselephan-
tine statue of Hera in the Heraeum at Argos.
Polykleitus fixed a canon of bodily proiiortions,
which was accepted by later sculptors till the
time of Lysippus. [Caaon.] His school, in
Argos and also in Sikyon, numbered manj' im-
portant artists.
(4) 400B.C.-320B.C. Greek Fourth Coif II r;/.
During this period we find that much more
depends on the individual character and pre-
dilections of the various artists ; there is
greater freedom, both in choice of subject
and in execution ; and art was less confined
by convention, religious or national. Thus
in the place of great works like the Olym-
pian Zeus or the Athena Parthenos, we meet
in the fourth century with ini])ersonations
such as the Eros, Potlios, and Himeros of
Skopas, or the half-human beings of the cycle
of Dionysus. Again, instead of sculpturesque
representations of pemianent character (?idos),
we notice renderings of more transient passions
(ira6r)),as in the Maenad of Skopas.
Sculpture now belongs less to particular
schools. Thus Skopas, a native of Paros,
worked in the Peloponnese, and later in many
parts of Asia Minor. [Mausoleum.] The two
greatest artists of this period were Skopas and
Praxiteles. Copies of their works are common.
Some original fragments from the hand of
Skopas have been discovered, and tlie Hermes
of OljTiipia is undoubtedly by Praxiteles.
Other statues of I'raxittles known by copies
are the Faun, the Aphrodite of Knidus, and the
Apollo Sauroktonus.
Praxiteles represents the highest attainment
of the Attic school of marble sculpture, and is
famous for the
most beautiful
forms, as Pheidias
for the noblest
ideals, of Greek
sculpture.
Lvsippus of
Sikyon (c. 340
B.C.) continued
the traditions of
the scliool of
Polykleitus ; lie
modified the ca-
non so as to
make the head
smaller in pro-
portion, and the
body more slen-
der. These cha-
racteristics may be seen in the Apoxyomenos
or athlete of the Vatican. I
The younger Attic school carried tlie softness ■
of Praxiteles to an extreme, while elsewhere
athletic works tended to harden into anatomical
studies. I
We find also some artists striving to
retain the higlier ideals of the fifth centurj- :
the most notable is Daniophon of Messene
whr) seems in liis choice of subjects and of
' ' U) hn
inrtuenced by the
school of Phei-
dias, and thus
may be regarded
as the first in-
stance of a great
artist who con-
sciously imitated
the style of an
earlier period.
To this period
belongs Leocha-
res of Athens (c.
3r)5-:340 B.C.), one
of the artists of
the Maus<jleum.
The Belvedere
Apollo and the
Ganymede of the
Vatican are by
some attributed
to him.
(5) 320 B.C.-150
B.C. Hellenistic ;
Asiatic Schools.
— As in every-
thing else, so also
in art, the era of
Alexander intro-
duced changes.
The principal art centres of the next period are
Pergamus, Rhodes, Tralles, Ephesus, Alexan-
dria, Antioch. In the case of sculpture, the
influence of Alexander was in part direct and
l)ersonal, in part indirect. The numerous por-
traits of Alexander by Lysippus and bis fol-
lowers, in all characters and surroundings, led
Fig. lOlB.-Statne of Hermes b7
Praxiteleb.
Fig. 1017.— Vatican Cmnymedo.
to a remarkable modifieiition of the cnstomarv
type of face. Undir Oriental influences art
strove to make up liy the colossal scale of its
works and the dramatic effect of its expression
for the grandeur and simplicity that were lost ;
and academic study led. to eclecticism. On the
QQ
594
STATUAEIA ARS
otlier hand, a reaction against the artificial life ' Greeks and Gauls, Persians, or Amazons, and
of coui'ts and cities found expression in pas- between gods and giants, on the Acropolis at
toral literature, and naturalistic sculpture and
painting. We may instance the boy struggling
with the goose, by Boethns.
The colossus of the Sun-god at Rhodes was
made by Chares, a pupil of Lysippus. A great
statue of Victory from Samothrace (now in
Paris; fig. 1018) was erected by Demetrius
Poliorketes about 300 B.C. But Pergamus was
Fig. 1018.— Statue of Victory from Samothrace. (Paris.)
the most important art-centre, and the victories
of the Greek kings over the Galatians afforded
occasions and subjects for great dedicatory
groups. To the period of Attains I. ( '241-197
B.C.) belongs the Dying Gladiator (or Gaul) of
Fig. 1019.— Athena and Giant, from Great .Utar ac
Pergamus. (Berlin.)
the Capitol at Eome. Attains I. also dedicated
statues in bronze of contests both between
fig. 1020.— Laokoon. fRome. Vatican.)
Athens. Under Eumenes II. (197-15'J B.C.) wirs
erected the Great Altar a.t Pergamus (now in
Fig 1021 — Vphrcdite from ^U lo^ 1 u m "Murray,
Ancient Sui i uiii )
Berlin) : this, witli its dramatic expressions of
excitement or pain, is the fullest example of this
STATUARIA ARS
style (fig. 1019). In all the works of this period,
tho interest is iiathetic and dramatic rather
than sculpturesque. An even more extreme
instance may be seen in the Laokoon (fig. 1020),
made by Agesandros of Rhodes and his com-
pauions ; another famous group is tlie Farnese
IjuII, or punishment of Dirku (in ilie Naples
Museum), by Apollonius and Tauriskus of
Tralles. .:\il these works are remarkable for
their magnificent rendering of anatomy and
their spirited eiince[>tion and treatment, though
the selection of subjects marks a period of
decadence. An instance of the attempt to re-
tain the noble ideals and breadth of treatment
of an earlier time may be seen in tlie Apln-odite
of Melos ('Venus de Milo,' fig. 1021), whilst in
the artificial arniiigement of the drapery the
spirit of the Hellenistic age betrays itself.
(0) 150 Ji.c.-31'2 .\.D. Graeco-lioman and
Roman. The sack of Corinth, 146 B.C., may be
regarded as the beginning of tlie Graeco-Roman
era : the era, that is, in which Greek artists
worked to please the taste of their conquerors.
The collection in Rome of works of art was both
li sign and a cause of the decay of original local
schools. Among the artists of this period are
Arkesilaus and Pasiteles, who both lived in the
first contm-y n.c. Of Pasiteles and his scholars,
Stephanas and Menelaus, we possess some
extant works (fig. 1022). Most of the sculp-
2TH.\H
595
I of Alexander domin.ited tlie art of the Hellenistic
I age. Under the emperors sculpture was called
I upon to commemorate historical events, and
especially victories over the barbarians. The
I reliefs of the Column of Trajan and the Cohunn
; of Antoninus exhibit the decline of sculpture
from tli<.- age of Augustus to that of Constan-
tine. Another favourite field for decoration in
Roman tunes was offered by the monumental
Sarcophagi, which were covered with reliefs of
historical and mytliical subjects.
The works of ancient sculpture that survive
may be divided into four classes, as follows :
I (1) Originals: that is to say, statues actually
I made by the artists to whom they are assigned :
j {a) from tlie hand of known artists, such
I as the Hermes of Praxiteles; {h) works, such
: as architectural sculptures, designed by some
I master, but the execution of whicli must have
j been left to assistants ; (r) works made in the
j i>eriod and by inferior artists of the school to
wliich they must be assigned. The best ex-
I amples of this class are offered by the Attic
I grave-reliefs (see cuts under ZTiiXT)).
(2) Cojiies from originals by earlier sculptors.
To this class belong the great majority of the
statues in European museums, and esi)ecially
in Rome and Italy.
(3) Works of artisf.H ivlio studied or imitated
the stijle of an earlier period : such as the
Aplu-odite of Melos (fig. 1021).
Fig. 1022.— Orestes and Elektra, by Stephanos. (Naples.)
tors during this period were employed in meet-
ing the enormous demand for sculpture to
decorate baths, gymnasia, villas, iVc, by the
production not so mncli of original works as of
copies of celebrated statues of every date. It is
this class of copies which now fills the museums
of Europe and more especially of Italy. The
art of portraiture in marble, begun in the sciiixil
of Lysippus, was continui'd through lli<! Hellen-
iatic age, and furtiier developed under Ronniu
influence. Roman portrait statues and busts
are of unequalled excellence in execution and
character.
In the age of the Emperor Hadrian, who
was a great patron of the arts, some revival
nniy be noticed ; this is especially associated
with the portraits of Antinous, wliose type domi-
nates the ivrt of this period almost as the type
Fig. 1023.— Dedication to .\pollo KiOapwfio's. ,l;urUu.j
(•1) Archaifitic irorks : that is to say, works
that imitate tlie mannerisms and details of
execution of the archaic period. This affecta-
tion is introduced either from hieratic infiuence
for dedications ; or on decorative princijiles,
the archaic stiffness supplying a conventionality
suitable to such use; or, at a later ])erio(l, from
a mere seeking after the (jnaint or uncouth.
Thus, in arcliaistic works the figures walk on
tiptoe, and the fioating ends of drapery are
worked into the stiffest of conventional zig-
zags, and even curved up in an impossible
manner; while in really archaic works, tiiough
some conventionality may bo seen, yet we can
also see the attempt of the artist to render
nature so far as his pou<r of expression per-
mitted (see fig. 1()2:J ; also Wi;. -JUO, Oress).
Of the ninnerous works Itearing on ancient
scidpture we may mention Mitchell, Hinfuri/ of
Ancient Scnlj)tiirr, Ivondoii, 1MH3 ; Murray,
History of (rrrrk Si-nljitiirr. T.ondoii, ]8H()-;i) ;
P»'rry, History of (Irrrk Sml/iturr, London,
1882; Paris, La Sciilptiirr antique, Paris,
18H8 ; liaumeister, JJenkmti'lrr des klassiachen
Altrrthiims. Leipzig, 1H8.'>-H.
iTT^Xti is the name given to any block
(usually of marble) sot up for a monumental
qq2
59G
2THAH
purpose ; e.g. the block on which a public
document is to be incised. A common use
of the term is to denote a monument set up
over a tomb, plain or with decorations. The
simplest form of stele consists of a plain marble
slab or pillar, surmounted by an anthemion,
and inscribed with the name of the deceased.
The most common sub-
jects of grave-reliefs
may be thus classified :
(1) Bepresentations
of the deceased, often
in some common em-
ployment of daily life :
e.g. a soldier with his
arms ; an athlete exer-
cising ; a lady playing
with her jewels (fig.
1025); a child playing
with a pet animal.
('2) Parting scenes. —
The deceased, standing
or seated, takes leave of
his or her relatives or
friends; family scenes
are usually depicted
(fig. 1026).
(3) Banquet scenes,
perhaps originating
in ancestor - worship.
These scenes are prob-
ably a development of
the representation in which the deceased, as a
hero, receives offerings from worshippers, and
reminds his descendants to give him more;
the enjoyment of those presents in another life
is doubtless included (fig. 1027).
The most important stelae are those found
in Athens, and preserved either in situ in
Fig. 1024.
Stele with anthemion.
(British Museum.)
STILUS
Elsewhere, and commonly later, x^'pf oi" XP'JCTe
X^ipe is added.
Fig. 1025.— Tombstone of Phrasildeia. (Athens.)
ilie Outer Kerameikus, or in the National
Museum.
The inscription on a grave-stele usually
gives merely the name of the deceased, with
his father's name and his country or deme, and
her husband's also in the case of a woman ; but
simple metrical inscriptions containing like
information are found from the earliest times.
Fig. 1026. — Parting scene ; stele oJ Damasistrate. (Athens.>
(Authorities, Di'e antiken G>ribreliefs,lier\iny
1890; Journal of Hellenic Studies, 1884, &c.).
Fig. 1027.— Tomb-stone with banquet scene. (Marm. Oxon.y
ZT6(j[,(ji,a (stemvm). (1) [Corona.] (2) A
pedigree, properly the imagines in the atrium,
with the painted and inscribed festoons or
liueae which connected them (Plin. xxxv. 6;
Juv. viii. 1, where see Mayor's note ; Mart. iv.
40, V. 85).
Stereo'bata. [Architectura.]
Stigma ((Triyfia). A tattoo-mark, such as
those used by theThracians and Britons (nutae
Thraciae, Cic. Off. ii. 7, 25 ; Hdt. v. 6) ; a brand
for slaves (Hdt. vii. 35) or criminals (Ar. Av.
7C0, Ban. 1511 ; Suet. Cal. 17 ; Mart. vi. 64,
26, &c.). Hence (rTiy/xaTtas {stigmatias) (Ar.
Lys. 331 ; Cic. Off', ii. 7, 25 ; Plant. Gas. ii.
8,'l0).
Stilus (not stijlus : from V stig- ; ypacp'is,
ypa<t>e7ov : in late writers (TtvXos). The stilus
signifies :
1. An instrument of iron or otlier material,
such as ivory (Ov. Met. ix. 521 ; Mart. xiv. 21),
STIMULUS
nsed for wTitinj,' upon waxed tablets fPlaut.
Havrli. iv. 4, Oa; I'lin. xxxiv. § 139). At one
STIVA
597
Fig. 102S.— Barbarian ■with crriyuarn.
oncl it WHS sliarjjened t(i ii point, wliile the other
end, beinj; Hut or rounded into a knob, served
to obliterate wluit had been written. Hence
the expression vrrtere stilum
p C ) (Hor. Sat. i. 10, 72 ; Cic. Vcn:
/ also termed graphiuin (Ov.
Amor. i. 11, 23; Suet. /(//.
H2), and the case in which it
was kept tjrajiltiariuni (Mart.
xiv. 21) or graphiaria theca
(Suet. Claud. 35).
2. For other meanings of
stiluii, see Latin Dictionary.
Sti'mulus [Kfvrpov). A
goad for drivinj; cattle (Tib. i.
1, 30) or slaves (Plant. Mm.
V. 5, 48, .{ill. i. 1, C, 10, ltd.
Stipendia'rii. (1) Persons
who rcccivi'd a fixed pay or
salary, as .-itipriidiariae co-
hortcH (Liv. viii. N).
^pJ|^ (2) Those populations in the
Roman provinces were called
/ IJ s</^;p/u/irtr/;" who had to pay a
fixed money tribute, stipcn-
diin/i, in contradistinction to
the rrrfifpilrs (Cic. Verr. iv.
60, 134 ), who paid drriDtinr, or
a fixed percentage of tlie produce of their lands
or nth«r income [see Decamae ; Vectigalia;
Provincial. The word .sti/^i ndiuin w;is used
for 'triljute,' because it was orit,'inally ap-
propriated to the purpose of furnishing the
Roman soldiers with pay [Htiprudium ; Liv. iv.
3r>, ()0 ; Tac. Hist. iv. 741. All provinces paid
stipendium, except Sicily, and Asia between
123-4H n.c. The money was for tlie most part
rai-<e(l and paid over by ciu-h townshi)).
Stipe'ndium (stipi-pendium, from i>tip.s
[snnvll coin) and prnilo). Its earliest meaning
is that of pay for tlio army, from wliicli two
other miMuings are derivecl: (1) military ser-
vice, a camitaign ; I'ii a Uix or tribute (see
Stipendiarii, 2 ; Tributumi.
In 40(1 II. f. a regular jiayment (nflprndiutn)
w IS first made to the army ; pri'vionsly to
tliis the infantry (iiiilitrs) hiul served eiu-h at
his own cost (Liv. V. 4). Some jirovision hiul
bei'n made for tlie equiU-s, as horse-allowance
Aes eqnestre ; Aes hordearium ; see also
Fig. lOai.-Still for
writing.
Liv. v. 7]. Tliis original stipendium was not
a regular payment for services {fiiad6s\, but an
indemnity for exin-nses {^(poSia, triTrtpftrtov,
6\iiwvia(Tfj.6s. The payments were made eithiT
half-yearly or yearly, according to the length of
the campaign. Hence the meaning of 'length
of service ' or ' campaign.' The legal year of
war-service began on March 1, tin- old'oflicial
New Year's day. ami the six-months' service
(seinrstre sfipcndiiim) ended with the close of
August. The usual mode of payment before
the time of the dictator Caesar was probably
half-yearly ; during the Phnpire, the trotips were
paid every four months.
The cost of the provisions, uniform, and arms
(Tac. Ann. i. 17) given to the Roman legionary
, soldiers was subtracted from their pay by the
quaestor down to th(! early Emiiire. The
allowance for the infantrj' soldier of Rome was
the same as that for the infantry soldiers of the
allies, viz. <Jof a medimnusof wheat per month.
The Roman eipiites received two medimni of
wheat per month and seven of barley ; the allied
cavalry about one-third less. Under tlie lat<T
Empire com, arms, and accoutrements were
' provided by the state.
As regards the rate of payment; in the time
of Polybius (vi. 3',(, 12), the foot-soldier re-
ceived ^ denarius, or 3^ a.isi:.<i a day (Plant.
Mnstcll. ii. 1, 10). For the year of 3C.0 days
this makes for the annuum .itijirndiinn of
the foot-soldier 120 denarii or 1200 as.srs
(3(i0 X 3;!) ; of the centurion, who received
double this amount, 2400 asses; of the eques,
who received a full denarius, 3000 assfs. In
217 B.C. the new uncial measurement was intro-
duced [Coinage', and the denarius is thence-
forward worlli sixteen instead of ten assrs.
.\ftc-r this date the pay was still 120 denarii a
I year ; but this, instead of being 1200 assrs a vear
I (120 X 10), was 1920 asses a year (120 x Kli, or
!i>f asses a day instead of 3^ asses, the former
rate of payment. Till the time of Caesjir the
daily pay of the legionaries was .l'^ asses;
Caesar (Suet. Jul. 20) raised the pay to t<-n
, a.'<ses (Too. Ann. i. 17). The soldiers now,
I instead of 1920 asses a year, received 3000
I (1200 ■: 3); that is, as Tacitus says, ten a.'ises a
day; or, reckoning the stijK'ndium in denarii,
the soldiers from tlie time of Caesar, instead of
I receiving 120 new denarii (1920 asses) a year,
received 22.'> new denarii (3('>00 a.ises). Domi-
tian increased it to 300 new denarii. ('a«'sar,
, in raising the pay to three stipendia a year,
miwle the payments every four months. Wliat
I the amount of the stiiiendinm was in the time
I of the old libral as is nnkiiuwii; it may have
been 240 libral asses, or 1200 of the later a.sses,
at their value l>ef<>re tlit- year 217 n.r. Tho
soldiers of the priw-torian cohorts under the
Empire received either double pay (20 a.ises) or
two full denarii— that is, 32 asses a day I "Tac.
Ann. i. 17; cf. 20K The i>ay of tin- liiglier
officers in the jieriod of the early Empire is not
known ; that of a tribune seems to have l>ern
high (Juv. iii. 133). ami we find that it was as
much as 2."iO aurei or 2.'i,000 s<>sterce« (2(M)/. to
2.'iO/.) in tin- third century.
Stipes. (1) A i>ost; tliicker than sudrs (Caos.
B. G. vii. 73. Ii. C. i. 27), used as a landmark
(Ov. Fajit. ii. 042), a stake for criminals (Snet.
AVro, 29) : for mooring a Ixiat (Ov. J-'a.st.iv
3311, Ac.
(21 : pains.
Stipula'tio Seo Appendix, Roman Law
Obli^atio
Stiva. Aratrum."
598 STOLA
Stola. "Dress.]
Stra'gulum. [Lectus.] Coverings for couches,
beds, iVc. ; to lie upou, not as a coverlet or
blanket.
XrpaTTiYoS was the title applied to the
chief military commanders in most of the
constitutional governments of Greece ; as a
rule they had the direction of foreign affairs as
well as the leadership in war : and hence the
(TrpaTtjyia was practically the chief magistracy
in the communities in which it is found,
Strategi were set up in the Ionian states of
Asia Minor after the despotisms had been
overthrown in 504 B.C. (Hdt. v. 88); at Argos
we find five c-rparTiyoi in command of the live
Argive \6xoi (Thuc. v. 59, 72) : similar magi-
strates are also met with at Syracuse (Thuc.
vi. 72), in Boeotia, &c. They are also found
frequently at the head of leagues, such
as the Arkadian, Achaean, and Aetolian. In
Egypt, under the Ptolemies and under Roman
rule, the (TTparriyoi were the governors of the
nomes ; over these were the iiricTTpaTriyoi, the
governors of the three provinces of the Delta,
Heptanomis, and Thebais, under the authority
of the Praefectus Aegypti.
The (TTpaTvyia at Athens was the liighest
political office in the state, involving as it did
important duties of administration and a
special initiative in legislation.
The strategi were in early times elected, one
from each tribe, and were re-eligible. A
strategus must be married, and have children
over ten years of age, and a jjroperty qualifica-
tion, perhaps of ten minae. Later, they were
chosen from the whole body of citizens. The
number continued unaltered till the time of
Caesar, when the College of generals was re-
X^laced by a single magistrate bearing the title
6 (TTparriyos. Tlu' strategi were in early times
(cf. Hdt. vi. 109, 111) of lower rank than the
archons, and subordinate in military rule to
the polemarch. The five senior strategi had
fixed duties assigned to them : (1) the com-
mand of hoplites (in foreign service ; (2) home
defence; (r!) Munychia ; (4) the coast; (5) eiri
Tos- (Tvixfjiopias, all business connected with the
trierarchies. The other five were employed irphs
TO. irapovra TrpdyfiaTa. This differentiation of
duties may have been established about 320
it.c. Such duties as eirl rh vavTiKov, iir\ rohs
^evovs &c. may have been distributed among
the five juniors.
Amongst the powers of the strategi, the
most distinctive was that of summoning the
assembly. Such assemblies took precedence
of all other meetings of the e'/c/cATjiria, but
the regular forms of procedure were ob-
served in them. The generals no doubt set
forth the estimates of the military budget
for the year, together with proposals for
raising the requisite supplies. They had also
the control of the details of expenditure : tlie
moneys voted from the treasuries of Atliens
ior military purposes were placed in their
hands, and there were other extraordinary
sources of revenue, such as those from booty,
from the payments for the convoy of merchant
ships in time of war, and from fines. As
minister of finance for foreign affairs, it was
the strategus who nominated to the trierarchy,
and who had the r]yefj.ovia 5iKa<rT7jpiou in suits
arising from it, as well as a similar presidency
in the court for settlement of disputes arising
from the el(T<)>opd. In the case of certain
levies the generals exercised the right of
personal selection. They had also jurisdiction
2TPATHr02
in militarj' matters ; and the i/yefxavia
SiKucTTripiov in the case of military charges
wliich the}' either undertook in person or
remitted to the To^iapxoi (Dem. adv. Boeot.
p. 999, § 17). Besides this jurisdiction at
home, the general, while on service in the
field seems to have had the power to punish
military offences with imprisonment or fine,
and even with death, and to confer honours foi
bravery in. the field (Lys. c. Alcib. i. § 22 ; PJut.
Alcib. 7) ; while the public funeral for citizens
who had fallen in battle (57j/U($(rios Ta<^os) was
proposed by him (Ar. Av. 895 sq.). The
initiative in cases of treason seems also to
have been amongst his duties ; and one of his
chief responsibilities was the corn-supply of
Athens. The duties of the generals as regards
foreign administration must have given them
much power and responsibility. They must
also have been the commanders-in-chief of the
(ppovpapxoi and the (ppovpai which we find in
the subject states. As commanders of the
apyvpo\6yoi vTjes, they saw to the exaction
of tribute and probably had the levying
of contmgeuts from the allies in ships and
men.
Thus the generals at Athens were at once
leaders in war, ministers of war, foreign
ministers, and to a great extent ministers of
finance. It is difficult to see how such powers
could have been exercised collectively by a
board of ten ; but as we have shown above, the
powers of the office were variously distributed
among the strategi, at least in later times.
The general who stood at the head of the
college and was elected to the first place by
the people was called 6 iirl ra ottAo, or simply
6 aTparqySs.
The only known insignia of the generals were
the chlamysor military cloak, and the (TTf<pavos
which was worn bj' all Athenian magistrates.
They had specially reserved seats in the
theatre, and conducted the militai-j' proces-
sions at the Panathenaea. Their place of
business w^as the ffTpaT-fiyiov, where they
dined at the public cost (Dem. F. L. p. 490,
§ 190). Special honours were sometimes con-
ferred on successful generals, such as statues,
public dinners in the Prytaneum (Ar. Eq. 709),
or HpoeSpia (ib. 575, 702). There is some
evidence that the generals received payment
on foreign service, perhaps at tlie rate of three
drachmae a day (Ar. Ach. (502).
The generals were elected in Munychion
(April or May), and entered office on the first
of Hekatombacon (July), the beginning of the
Attic year, the interval being employed no doubt
for the purpose of the SoKifxaffia. But in time
of war the command was often extended. The
generals gave in their names before the nine
archons, and the elections were conducted by
them on the Puj-x : election seems to have
been preceded by canvassing (Plut. Fhor. 8),
and was not unfrequently tainted by bribery.
The generals took an oath on coming into
office (Lys. de Mil. § 15). There was appa-
rently no qualification of age, but he ffTparr]-
yia was usually not held before the age of
forty. Re-election was frequent : Perikles
was general for fifteen years and Phokion forty-
five times (Plut. Per. 15, Phoc. 8). A general
might be deposed from office at the iirix^^po-
Tovia held at the beginning of each prytany,
and at the close of his office was subject to the
usual audit (evfluca) (Thuc. ii. 155; Plut. Per.
23). Besides this, a special ypa<pi} kAotttjs,
TTpoSocrias or ScipoDU might be preferred, either
STRATOR
f,t the eVdvvat or afte • the arrox^iporovia [see
ECGvva; ' Eirtx^^POTOvia].
In tlie early period of Athoiiiiin liistory the
ten generals were elected one Ironi each tribe
(fArist.] 'Ad. iro\. 37); at
Marathon each giMieral com-
manded a tribe (Plut..lmf.
f)). At a later period the
genei'als were chosen out of
all the citizens, though some
relation to the ten tribes
was always maintained. A
general might be appointed
avToKpxTuip for a definite
service. Only tlie most
general instructions were
given to such a commander ;
he was freed from the ne-
cessity of consulting the
)3ouAr) and the e/c/cATjcria ou
the details of administra-
tion, and could raise sup-
plies at his own discretion ; three generals were
so appointed for the Sicilian expedition (Thuc.
vi. 2(5).
It appears not improbable that the senior
iTTpaTriyds, 6 eirl to. oirXa, was TrpvTavis or
president of the board, with larger powers
than his colleagues; and if so, tliis president
of the board was the first minister of Athens.
Such a position was held by Tliemistokles at
Salamis (Plut. Arist. S), by Perikles during
the last fifteen years of his life, and byNikias
in 425 B.C. (Thuc. iv. 28) : in these cases a
definite leadership of the college seems to be
implied.
Strator. rcursus publicus.]
Strenae (the French ctrennes). Presents
given on the 1st of January, ' ominis boni
causa' (cf. Plaut. Stick, v. 2, 24). The custom
was supposed to be connected with the goddess
Strenia, who brought good luck to the house-
hold). The custom is described in Ovid {Fast.
1. 185 sqq.). Besides other presents, coins were
given, and a gold coin was the best of omens in
Ovid's time {Fast. i. 221) : the poorer client
brought a copper coin, and, to represent the
gold, a gilded date (Mart. viii. 33, xiii. 27).
New year's gifts were presented to Augustus
in the Capitol (Suet. Jm^t. 57). [Vota publicaj.
Tlie person who received such presents was
accustomed to make others in return (afroiariDii
commcrcium) ; but Tiberius, who did not like
the custom, fretjuently left Rome at the begin-
ning of January, that he might be out of the
way (Suet. Tib. 34). The custom, having thus
fallen into disuse during the reign of Tiberius,
.so far as the emperor was concerned, was
revived again, and we find it mentioned as late
as tlie reigns of Theodosius and Areadius.
Striae. [Architectura, p. 51 i.]
Strictu'ra. Wrought iron, or iierhaps steel
after the third smelting. In Verg. Aen. x. 173,
viii. 421, strirtiirn probably means iron reduced
to a forgeable condition by successive smeltiugs
and hammerings. [Metallum.]
Striea. [Castra ; Agrimetatio, (10).]
Stri gilis (cTTXtyyls, ^varpls). An instrument
used by the (ireelcs and Romans to scrape oflf
sweat and dirt at the bath (dcfrirarc) (Plat.
Hipp. Min. 3GH c ; Juv. iii. 203 ; Mart. xiv. 51,
itc.) or after exercise in the palaestra. These
instruments, many of which have been dis-
covered amongst the ruins of baths, were made
of bone, bronze, iron, and silver. The strigil
had a sharp edge (which was softened by the
application of oil, dropped from a small narrow-
STROPHIUM 599
necked vessel called guttus), and a handle
{clausula, Mart. xiv. 51), and was grooved into
a channel by which tlie moisture ran off.
Strigils, ampullae and otlier utensils for the
Fig. miO.— Bathers uDii g the strigil. (From a Greek vase In the British MoseuJu.)
bath were can-ied by the bath-slaves, hung
together upon a ring.
Invalid-8 and persons of a delicate habit made
use of sponges.
Fig. lO.'^l.-StrigUs. (Brit. Mus.)
The common people were supplied with these
necessaries in the baths; the more wealthy
carried their own with them (Pers. v. 12C).
Fig. 1032.— StrlgllB and guttus. (Found in Iloman bath.i
Stro'phium. (1) TDress.] (2) A garland of
flow.us (Verg. Copa, 32). (3) The head-dres.s
or turban worn by the Eleusinian hierophant
[Eleusinia].
600
STRUCTOE
Structor. [Cena.]
Structu'ra. [Murus ; Paries.]
Stylo'bata, Stylo'bates. [Architectura.]
Subiu'gium. [lugum.]
Sll'blica. A beam or post driven into the
},'round ([Caes.] B. C. iii. 4'J ; Liv. xxiii. 37) ; the
piles of a bridge (Caes. B. G. iv. 17 ; see
cut under Pons) : hence Pons Sublicius.
Subliga'culum, Su'bligar. A piece of cloth
■worn as an apron or loin-cloth is one of the
most primitive of garments, and is found in
some form or other all the world over. It is
■worn by the liunters on the inlaid sword-blade
found at Mykenae [fig. 48.5, Dress]. It appears
on archaic bronzes, and early black-figured vase-
paintings, as the dress of smiths and other
craftsmen, as well as of labourers ; and also as
■worn by warriors below their armour. [See
also fig. 755, under Olea.]
In Homer Euryalus the boxer {II. xxiii. 683)
wears a (coixa, which is undoubtedly a loin-
cloth. In early times, SiaCoofjuxTa were worn at
the Olympic games (Thuc. i. 6). The custom,
however, fell into disuse after Orsippus, victor
in 01. 15 (720 B.C.), had run naked.
At Rome, as iu Greece, the kilt, apron, or
loin-cloth seems to have been an older under-
garment than the tunica. It was worn not
only by men, but also by women (Mart. iii. 87,
4), and was known as subligaciduni, subligar,
or catnpestre. In the Twelve Tables it goes by
the name of licium. Its use in imperial times
was chiefly confined to servants {succincti
linteo, Suet. Cal. 26), and it was indeed gene-
rally regarded as part or the characteristic garb
of the early Republic (cf. Hor. A. P. 50). So, too,
candidates for election had it as part of their
old-fashioned costume (Plut. Coriol. 14), while
ascetics, like Cato the younger, adopted it as a
protest against luxury (Plut. Cat. Min. 6).
One form of the apron, the campestre, was
especially used by soldiers (cf. Hor. Ep, i.
11, 6).
Drawers were worn by actors (Cic. Off. i. 35,
129), dancers, and bathers (see cut under
Saltatio).
Subte'men. [Tela.]
Subu'cula. [Dress, Subucula, Tunica.]
Su'bula. A cobbler's awl (Mart. iii. 16, 2;
Exod. xxi. 6, Vulg.).
Fig. 10.S3.— Cobbler's a,vfl. (Rich.)
Succe'ssio. See Appendix, Roman L.uv,
Heres.
Suda'rium {aovSdpiov, St. Luke xix. 20). A
linen handkerchief, carried in the hand or in
the sinus of the toga, answering to our pocket-
handkerchief. It was a comparatively modern
introduction, when fine linen came into use at
Rome, which may be placed in the time of
Cicero (Cic. Verr. v. 56, 146). Other terms are
TjfXLrvfitou (Ar. Plut. 729) and Ka^ptSpdnou :
and in late Latin orariunt, facitergiuni^ maiin-
■jiiariiim.
Besides its use for wiping the face, the suda-
rium was worn round the neck (Suet. Nero, 51),
and was waved in the circus to signify applause,
for which the lappet of the toga had formerly
been used (Ov. Am. iii. 2, 74). It is a question
whether or not the ancients used pocket-hand-
kerchiefs for blowing the nose. The word
muciniuni occurs 300 a.d.
Suda'tio. [Balneae.]
Suffi'bulum. [Vestales.]
SUMPTUARIAE LEGES
Suffla'meil (rpoxoTre'Srj, eTroxA.fws). A drag to
check the wheels of carriages or waggons (Juv.
viii. 148, xvi. 50). It was sometimes a drag-
chain, sometimes a log of wood attached by
two chains so as to check the wheel, as in
waggons of the present day. We have no
indication of anything like a 'slipper' drag.
See, however, cut under Solea.
SufFra'gia sex. [Equites.]
Suffra'gium. [Tabella ; Civitas.]
Sugge'stus, Sugge'stum. Any elevated place
made of materials heaped up {suh and gero),
and is specially applied : (1) to the stage or
pulpit from which the orators addressed the
people in the Comitia [Rostra] ; (2) to the
elevation from which a general addressed the
soldiers (Tac. Hist. i. 35 ; Caes. B. G. vi. 3) ;
(3) to the elevated seat from which the
emperor beheld the public games (Suet. lul.
76); alao called ciibiruhim. [Circus.]
Suggru'ndae, Suggru'ndium. The eaves of
a roof. [Domus.]
Suggrunda rium. [Sepulcrum.]
Sumptua'riae leges. The main object of
sumptuary regulations, where they were not,
as at Sparta, of the essence of the state, was
to effect an equalisation in individual life (Arist.
Pol. ii. 9, 6, V. 11, 8; Thuc. i. 6, 4 ; Liv.
xxxiv. 4). Other objects were, to preserve the
financial resources of the state (Tac. Ann. ii.
54), to prevent the encroachments of the rich
upon tlie poor, and the jealousy of the poor
against the rich (Arist. Pol. iv. 11, 6 ; Liv. xxxiv.
4). Sometimes this legislation attempted to
remove definite moral evils, such as drunken-
ness and other forms of vice. The censorship
at Rome, and similar institutions in the Greek
states, were often employed for the restriction
of luxury (Arist. Pol. iv. 15, 13).
A rhetra of Lykurgus is said to have for-
bidden the Spartans to have their houses made
with any other implements than the axe and
the saw (Plut. Lye. 18) ; simplicity of food and
clothing was enjoined (Arist. Po/. iv.9, 8); iron
money was originally the only coinage in use,
and private possession of gold and silver was
forbidden. Similar enactments are found at
Lokri in the laws of Zaleukus and in the
Solonian legislation at Athens (Plut. Sul. 20,
21 ; Dem. in Macart. p. 1071).
Roman sumptuary legislation did not ori-
ginate until a comparatively late period in the
history of the state. The difficulty of enforcing
these laws is amply attested (Tac. Ann. ii. 55),
but the same attempt was continually repeated.
The earliest sumptuary regulations were those
contained in the Twelve Tables limiting the
expenses of funerals (Cic. Leqg. ii. 23).
Lex Oppia, 215 B.C., provided that no woman
should possess moi'e than h vncia of gold, or
wear a dress of different colours, or ride in a
carriage in or near the city, except during
public religious ceremonies (Liv. xxxiv. 1-8 ;
Tac. A7in. iii. 33).
Lex Oechia, 181 b.c, prescribed a limit to
the number of guests that might be invited to
entertainments.
Lex Fannia, c. 161 B.C., controlled expenses
at public entertainments during the Ludi-
Megalenses (Plin. x. 71).
Similar enactments were Lex Didia, 148 B.C.,
and Lex Licinia, c. 55 B.C., which determined
the sums that might be spent on the table at
marriage feasts, &c.
The Leges Corneliae of the dictator Sulla
were passed in 81 B.C. He carried a law re-
stricting the expenses on sepulchral monuments
SU0VETAURII>1A
(Cic. Att. xii. 35), ivnd regulatiug the cost of
funerals iPlut. Sulla, 35). Another law re-
stricted the luxurj' of tlie table.
The dictator Caesar enforced the former
sumptuary laws respecting entertainments,
which had fallen into disuse (Cic. Fit in. ix.
15, 5) ; they were not attended to during his
absence (Cic. Att. xiii. 7), but during his pre-
sence in Rome the enforcement of them was
rigorous ; guards were placed round the
market to seize forbidden luxuries, and some-
times dishes were taken from the tables of
private individuals (Suet. ltd. 43). He also
passed a law prohibiting the use of litters, of
purple garments, and of pearls, except in
special cases.
The Emperor Augustus, 22 n.c, passed laws
regulating the expanses to be incurred on
ordinary and festal days (Suet. Au/j. Si).
Tiberius, however unwilling (see Tac. A»ii.
iii. 53, 54), was forced into making regulations
to check extravagance in banquets (Suet. Tib.
•34 ; Plin. xxxiii. S b). To his reign also belongs
a senatusconsultum forbidding the use of gold
plate, except in sacred rites, and proliibiling men
from wearing silk (Tac. Ann. ii. 33). Further
sumptuary regulations made by Nero (Suet.
Nt'rn, 10), Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius,
and others, limited the expenses of gladiatorial
shows.
Suovetauri'lia (or solitawrilia). The triple
sacriiice of bull, ram, aud boar, in the old
SUPERSTITIO GOI
in the country round the farm. In each cane
the ideas lying at the root of the ritual were
expiation and purification.
The same ritual of the triple socrifico was
api>lied to other ceremonies : v.ij. the driutio cf
Decius iLiv. viii. loi— liere also in connexii'ii
with Mars — and the winning of spolia opiii.a
(cf. law of Numa, Wordswortli, Fragments, &c.,
p. 253). The rite was extended to the worship
of otiier deities al.so, as in the triumph, in
lionour of Jupiter and otlier deities.
Superci'lium. ' Architectura.j
Superficies, Superticia rius. See Appendix,
RoMA.N IjAW.
Superati'tio. Superstition in the senBe of
unlawful dealing with supernatural iwwerts is
witchcraft, not religion. We find, it is true, mi
early literature tlie union of medicine with
incantation (Hom. Otl. xix. 457; Pind. Pyth.
iii. 51), whicii lasted into later times (Plat.
I'harmid. p. 155 k, Hep. iv. p. 42C U ; Soph.
Aj. aH'l) [Medicina]; but this was beneficent
action, and belonged to the medical practice of
the day, and was, inoreovur, connected with
a religious idea of prayer to the gods for re-
covery (cf. Pind. I.e.; Plin. xxviii. § 10). (»f
what would strictly be called witchcraft there
is rarely any mention in the great Gre«k
authors down to the end of the fifth century
B.C. The legendary Kirke of the Odyssey is
rather a goddess than a witch. The sorcereKS
Medea comes of a non-Hellenic race. There
Fig. 1034.— Suovctaurllla. (From a relief.)
Italian ritual of lustration [Lustratio, Amb-
arvalial This sacrifice was doubtless of great
iintiiiuity in Italy. In Gate's treatise on Hus-
bandry the ritual is given for the lustration of
the farm ; the animals (maiorcs hostiae) and
their young (lactrntcs, minores h.) were driven
t:
KIK. lOtU.— Suovetourllla. (Relief In the Loavre.)
throe times round the fields, and sacrificed with
a prayer to Mars. Next we liave tlie same
ritual ai)])lied to towns, as in the Anibnrbia (see
Ambarvalia), and to the lustration of the people
alter tlie census (liiv. i. 44). The victims were
here driven round the host before sacrifice, as
is no mention of witchcraft in the Works anil
Days of llesiod. In Herodotus witchcraft is
just mentioned (ii. 33, iv. 105, vii. 191); but
in the two former passages only as practis»d
by barbarous nations. The Magi of Persia aie
priests of a lawful and regular worsliij), sup-
posed to enjoy certtiin sujiernutural poweis.
Magic is said (Plin. xxx. II to have bei-n intro-
duced into Greece from Persia about the ilate
of the Persian wars. Neither ni Aeschylus or
So|)hokli's, nor in Aristopliunes, is there any
mention of witchcraft. Euripid«'8 alludes t^i
the y6Tis (sorcerer) and the iir<fih6s (muttenr
of inciintations, Hippol. 103H, liurrh. 234). In
Antij.hon (112, 2(i(, at the end of the fifth cei.
tnry, we read of a love-potion or (plKrpov. Plato
mentions sorcerers, f.y. in Synip. 203 1), aid
s|)eaks {Gory. p. 513 .v) of the Thessalian women
who ' are said ' to draw down the moon from
heaven. [Dem.] r. Aristoyit. p. 7!I3, fj 71. is jmt
haps the earliest historical instance of a w<i)nan
being condemned to death on the charge if
wit<'hcraft.
The suix-rstition of the ' evil pyc ' i« perliajs
first mentioned in Aristotle (Probl. xx. 34,»,
G03
SUPERSTITIO
but the idea represented by the word fidtncavos
existed earlier. [Fascinum.J
111 Tlieokritus, at the coinmencement of the
third century B.C., witchcraft appears in full
force (see Idijll. ii. 2^assim and vi. 39).
At Rome, magical arts are mentioned as early
as the laws of the Twelve Tables, which forbid
the ' charming away ' {excantare) of another
person's crops (cf. Sen. Qioaest. Nat. iv. 7 ;
Plin. xxviii. § 17). In 329 B.C. a large number
of Roman matrons were accused and con-
demned of the practice of poisoning, and per-
haps witchcraft as well (Liv. viii. 18, ix. 28).
All through Roman history we find amulets
worn to avert the malign influence of witch-
craft or of the evil eye [Amuletum ; Fasci-
num]. In the earlier times the amulets bear
the symbol of the indigenous gods of Italy
(Picumnus, Ciirna, &c.), whereas in the later
times various foreign gods, Oriental and Egyp-
tian, are indicated upon them.
It is in the closing years of the Roman Re-
I)ublic and the times of the emperors that we
lind the greatest development of magical arts
which the ancient world affords. At this period
attempts were undoubtedly made to injure
enemies, and to obtain private advantages,
through supernatural means, in such a way as
to exhibit magic as a really malevolent prac-
tice.
Among the methods were, the WTiting of the '
names of obnoxious persons on tablets, and
marking them with
magical signs and
characters ; the
forming of a waxen
image (Sayvs) of a
person, and caus- ;
ing it to melt
away, in order that
the person him-
self might waste
in like manner
(Verg. lul. viii.
80; Hor. Sat. i. 8,
32 ; Theocr. Idyll.
ii.) ; and the col-
lection of magical herbs and animal matter.
Several incantations have been recently found
in tombs in Cyprus (dating probably from the
lirst century A.r>.), consisting of thin strips
of lead, papjTus, or talc (Tac. A)7n. ii. 69), on
which the incantation is scratched, beginning
in some such ways as ' I bind with this spell
UaTaSsoi) So-and-so, his shop and all his pro-
l)8rty.' Often words of magic jargon are inserted.
The strips have been rolled up and nailed on the
walls within the tomb. The essential point was
to effect an entrance into any tomb, no matter
whose, since the spirits would then receive the
message, and work the evil. If the tablet could
be placed in a temenos of the Furies, it might
be laid above ground without so much trouble
or risk of fine [see Vectigalia templorum ;
Tv|i,P(i)pt)xCa-] ; otherwise the interior of a
tomb was the only sure place. Bones were
sometimes placed under the house of the
doomed man, or used in other ways (Hor. Sat.
ii. 8, 22). Besides such malevolent aims as
these, magic also had for its object the ob-
taining of the love of an unwilling person, the
search into futurity, and the making of gold
(Plin. xxxiii. § 79).
Few Roman writers from Cicero's time on-
wards are without some mention of witchcraft.
The passages in Virgil, Horace, and Lucian
are well known. In Juvenal and Tacitus the
SUPPLICATIO
astrologers (matlieinatiri) are often mentioned
(Juv. vi. 5G2, xiv. 248 ; Tac. Hist. i. 22, Ann. ii.
69 sq.).
J exb.i7cNrecTt,^?'"->^^e Tj ro> -
Fig. 1036.— Bronze disk with part
of incantation.
/t6 Tor/^^e^c^Aoyo^; ox^3oroce-n) 7^cin=\fr-vy
■-Q^^CKe*c^^T£?v^nG:^.TeToY£^^/r/^koy■^y
^ KMyr T yopKic z '-jo >'/W.^'^<fm aW Cr\
/OMe WM UJ T I KHN Toy CO roA^fNO VKe^N iA \
Thus interpreted :
napa\d$€Te tov 'AplffTwyos rhv 6vfxbv rhv
irphs e'yue €X' ''''>'' Sorr/piafov t6u Ke hlfx^apov
Ke Tr)v 6pyi)v, k€ acpfXfffde auTov rqv ^vvatxiv Ke
rrjv a.\Kr]v k€ TroiTJceTe avrhi' \pvxphv Ke apbovov
Ke anveu/xovav ypvxp^f, k.t.\.
Fig. 1037.— Formula of ijicantation (devoting.
(British Museum.)
This is a typical formula of incantation.
Supplica'tio. A religious rite, or series of
rites, decreed with two different objects, viz.
(1) as a solemn act of thanksgiving to the gods
on account of a victory or successful campaign ;
or (2) as an act of humiliation, on account of
some calamity, actual or impending, such as
pestilence or defeat ; or of tener in order to avert
i/irocurare) the evil results of prodigies and
portents, which were supposed to threaten evil
to the state.
When a supplicatio was decreed in the sense
of a thanksgiving, the procedure was as follows.
The senate was consulted by a magistrate,
and authorised the consuls to issue an edict
(indictio) fixing the number of days over
which it should extend, and to what god or
gods special adoration should be paid (cf. Liv.
xxvii. 51, xxxiv. 42, xlv. 3 ; Cic. PJiil. xiv. 14,
37). This method of procedure was continuod
under the Empire.
A supplicatio, in the sense of prayer and
expiation, might also be set on foot by senatorial
decree, on the advice of a college of priests.
In simple matters of expiation the pontifices
decreed the necessary piacula, according to
old Roman custom (Liv. xxiv. 44, 9), in the
form of a novendiale sacrum or ohsecratio ;
, but in difficult matters the senate referred the
question to the keepers of the Sibylline books
[Decemviri (3)!, who, after consulting the
t books, advised a supplicatio, sometimes with
the addition of a fast (ieiimium) or of a no-
vendiale sacrum (Ijiv. xxxvi. 37). In most
SUSPENSURA
cases an ex|iiatory supplicatio was the result
of an examination of the sacred books, and
tlu; ritual of the ceremony was rather Greek
tluin Italian [see Sibyllini librij.
The elaborate ritual of the lectistcriiium
formed tlie chief part of a supplicatio. All the
prominent features of the It'ctisteniiuni were
Greek : the reclining position of the images of
the gods, the prostration of the worshippers,
and the garlands thej' wore. Some of the
features of tlio Icctisteniia, however, may pos-
sibly be traced to an Italian origin.
A supplicatio in early times lasted from one
to five days (Liv. iii. Ga, 5, v. '23;. In later
times its length was increased to ten, fifteen,
twenty, and even fifty days. A supplication of
ten days was first decreed in honour of I'om-
peius at the conclusion of the Milluadatic war
(Cic. Frov. Cans. 11, "27) ; one of fifteen days
was held after Caesar's. conquest of the Belgae'
(Caes. B. G. ii. 85) ; and one of twenty days
after his victory over Vercingetorix (B. G. vii.
5)0). From this time the senate often increased
the length out of mere comjjlimeut to the
general (Cic. Fhil. xiv. 14, 37). A supplicatio
was in the last age of the Kepublic usuallj-,
but not always, regarded as the prelude to a
triumph (Cic. Fant. xv. 5). The same honour
was conferred upon Cicero on account of his
suppression of the conspiracy of Catiline ; this
being the first occasion on which it had been
awarded to anyone acting in a civil capacity
(lugattia) {Cat. iii. G, 10, Fis. 3, G, F/iil. ii.
G, 131.
Suspensu'ra. [Balneae, p. 108.]
Sycopha'nta (avKo0di'Tris), a word of doubt-
ful interpretation. Plutarch {Sol. 24) explains
(rvKo<pat'Tflv as the informing against a man
for exporting figs, and refers to an ancient law
forbidding the export. Another explanation is
that of information against persons who robbed
the sacred fig-trees. Another makes (reUiv koI
<TVKo<pavTi~iu mean to shake the tree, and so
cause the figs {i.e. the plunder) to fall olT.
Another, and the simplest, is, to move aside
the leaves, and so show the fruit. ' Figs,' in
the sense of money, is a common metaphor in
Aristophanes (cf. Eq. 324, c^'c).
Whatever the terni may have signified ori-
ginall}', it came to be applied to all malicious
and vexatious accusations: it is defined by
Suidas, rh i|/6i;Sais rivhs Kar-qyopfiv.
The Athenian law permitted any citizen [rhv
fiovK6ixevov) to give information against i)ublic
offenders, and prosecute them in courts of
justice (Plut. Sol. 18). This was done to en-
courage the detection of crime, and a reward
(Inilf or tliree-quarters of the sum claimed, tuiv
<pavdfVT<iiv) was frequently given to the suc-
cessful accuser. Such a power, with such a
temptation, was likely to be abused; and the
character of the Athi-nian democracy and the
temper of the judges fnrnislied additional incen-
tives to the informer (Isocr. c. CnUiiii. jJSi !(,
10; Xen. Mem. iv. 8, '>). Eminent jiublic men
and all persons of wealth and intluence, were
regarded with jealousy by tlie people. The ,
more causes came into court, tlie inort.' fees
accrued to the judge, and fines to the public
treasury. The prosecutor, therefore, or plaintiff,
was looked on with a more favourable eye tlian
llie defendant, anil the chances of success
made the emplovment a lucrative one (Ar. A v.
](•.!».'■) sqq. ; Xen". Jlell. ii. 3, 12, &c.). It was '
not always necessary to take legal proceedings, j
The timid defendant was glad to comju'oiniHP
the cause, so as to escape » public trial, or to
2TAAOrEI5 003
save his reputation (Lys. dr Aff'irf. Tijrait.
Ajjol. § 3, c. Frutontli. >^ i,pio Muiitith. § 12).
liich people especially tried to be on good
terms witli infoniiers {Hfpaifdeiv, Xen. Stjinp.
4, 29 sq.). Thriving informers found i' n»jt
very difficult to procure witnesses. The in-
crease of litigation and perjury was in some
measure owing to the establishment of clubs
[(Taipi'tai) and political associations, and the
violence of party spirit (Thuc. viii. r>4 ; Dem. < .
Bocot. i. p. 995, g 2, ipyaari^ptov avKotpai/ruivj.
The Athenian law did indeed provide a
remedy against tliis mischievous class of men.
There was a ypatpi) avKoipanias tried before the
Thesmothetae. Ai\y jierson who brought a
false charge against another, or extorted money
by threat of legal i)roceediiigs, or suborned
false witnesses to give evidence that a summons
had been served, was liable to this ypa<pi.
He might also be proceeded against bj' elaay-
ye\ia, 7rpo/3oAv';, or (pdcris (see those articles,
I Appendix, GiuotK Ij.\w). The trial was an
ayai'Ttfj.riT6s (.Appendix, GitKKK L.\w. Ti(j.Tm.a)
(Lys. c. Agonit. § 05; Aeschin. F. L. ^ 177).
The penalty was ordinarily capital punishment.
Besides this, if any man brought a criminal
! charge against another, and neglected to i)ra-
secute it {iire^fKQfl}'), he was liable to a penalty
of 1000 drachmas. The same consequence fol-
lowed, in most cases, if he failed to obtain a
fifth part of the votes at tlie trial iDem. c.
Aiiilmf. p. 001, S 20). The 'ETTCjPeA.Ca |Ap-
pendix, Giiekk Law) (payable tf) tlie other
party) in civil actions was a penalty of the same
kind and having the same object : viz. to pre-
vent the abuse of legal in-ocess, and check
frivolous and unjust actions.
ZvXai. When a Greek state declared war
against another (Xen. Hell. v. 1, 1 ; Dem. c.
Mill. p. 570, § 173), or when it or any of its
members had received an injury or insult from
some otlier state or some of its members, and
the injured state was unwilling to declare open
war, it was not unusual to give a commission
or grant public authority to privateers ioi tirl
\eiav olxo/j-fvot) to make reprisals (Time. \.
115; [Arist.j Oecoii. ii. j). 1347). This was called
ffvKas or tri^Ao SiSovat (Di'in. c. Lacrit. pp. 927,
931, ii 20), or \a<pvpov firiKripvTTeiv, pvata Karay-
ytWfiv (Polyb. iv. 20, 30, 53, itc). When booty
was taken by Athenian citizens, the peojile of
-Vthens reserved to themselves the right of
determining wheflier it was lawfully taken,
whether it ought to be kept or restored, and
what should be done with it (Dem. c. Timocr.
p. 703, <; 12) ; Athena of the Parthenon receiveil
the tithe (Lys. c. Foli/str. § 24) [Decomae, 1
(1)]. It would s»'em that special treaties were
made between states for the protection of i>ro-
perty against rejirisals. Sometimes as a special
privilege 'AavKla was granted to individuals.
The Athenian grain Heet was usuallj' acconi-
jianied bj' a convoy of men-of-war to protect
tiiem against privateers (Dem. tie Cor. ]>. 25 J,
§ 77). The ancient practice may be compared
with the modern one of granting letters of
marque. 'Pvtria ahdaOai was a general fenn
for claiming satisfiU'tiun {res repetere) (I'olyb.
xxxii. 17).
2vWov€is. The wKKoyus tov hiifiov. or
Collectors of the People, were tiiirty members
of the senate {^ovK(vrai) chosen annually,
three from each tribe: probably identical with
the thirty assistants of the Lexiarchi, men-
tioned as cjiccking the attendance at the as-
sembly ('EKK\T|aCa, p. 2(54). They had r!sa
duties ill connexion with the state festivals.
604
2TMBOAAION
ZvjJL06\aiov, ZvvdWavM-a, "ZvvQ-riKr] are I
all words used to signify a contract, but are
distinguishable from one another. 'S.vfj.^oKaiov
is used of contracts and bargains between pri-
vate persons, and peculiarly of loans of money
(Dem. c. Aphob. p. S2'2, § 27, c. Zowth. p. i
884, § 7, c. Phorm. p. 907, § 1, &c.). 'S.uvaX- '
Aay/jLa signifies any matter negotiated or trans- ;
acted between two or more i^ersons, whether a
contract or anything else (Dem. c. Onet. p. 867,
§ 12). S.vi'OriKrj is used of more solemn and im-
portant contracts, not only of those made be-
tween private individuals but also of treaties
and conventions between kings and states
(Thuc. i. 40, viii. 37 ; Xen. Hell. vii. 1, 2 ; Dem.
c. Aristog. i. p. 774, § 16, &c.). {'S.wQnKai, the
plural, is more commonly used than <rvv9r,Kr),
the difference being, that the former strictly
signifies the terms or articles of agreement, in
tlie same manner as hiaQriKat, the testamentary
dispositions, is put for SiadriKr), the will.)
National compacts were almost always com-
mitted to writing, and commonly inscribed on
pillars {(TTrjXai) or tablets of some durable
material (Thuc. v. 23, 47 : see Ar. Ach. 727).
Upon a breach, or on the expiration, of the
treaty, the pillars were taken down (Dem. pro
Megalop. p. 209, § 27;.
For breaches of contract various actions were
maintainable at Athens : (1) in a general way
av^0o\aia)v (Lys. de Fee. Publ. § 3), or (2)
more specially under the heads xp^ovs, apyvpiov,
a4>opfj.ris, j3Adj37)S. In a general action for breach
of contract, the plaintiff claimed unliquidated
damages, which the court had to assess ;
whereas upon a claim to recover a debt or
certain sum the court had nothing more to
do than to determine whether the plaintiff
was entitled to it or not ; the aycvv was arlfj.-
T)ros. All such actions were tried before the
TcTTapCLKOVTa.
3:i3fj.3o\ov. Tessera.]
Zijjj.36\ci)v, AiKai dirb. See Appendix,
(Ikeek Law.
j-ujjL|jLopia. The sijmmories at Athens
were, in the fourth century B.C., groupings of
citizens for two main pui-poses, (1) the contri-
bution of the war-tax (eicrcpopd} when required,
and (2) for the fitting out and general super-
vision of ships of war (Tpirjpopx'o).
(1) The symmories for the elacpopa or war-tax
came first in point of time. They were instituted
at an important era of Athenian histoiy, the
archonship of Nausinikus in 378 B.C., when
Athens renewed the confederacy with the islands
in the Aegean, and assumed maritime sway for
the second time. Polybius (ii. 62) tells us that at
this time the Athenians made an entire revision
and classification of their landed and personal
property. The fourfold Solonian classification
of Athenian citizens was not necessarily abo-
lished by the symmories ; but it seems to have
been of little i^ractical importance after this date.
It appears probable that the reform under
Nausinikus included, besides a revision of the
entire property of Athenian citizens, also the
establishment of a body of Three Hundred, thirty
from each tribe, divided into twenty symmories,
every thirty being divided into two symmories
of fifteen men each, and the whole number being
the richest men in Athens. These Three Hun-
dred were set apart for the purpose of advancing
the war-tax, in order that the state might obtain
the money without delay. The Three Hundred
were permitted to recover from the less wealthy
citi: ens their share of the tax in due course.
The ■irpoii(r<popd (by which name the prei^ayment
SYMPOSIUM
was known) probably became the normal me-
thod of levying the el<T(popd after the reform in-
troduced under Nausinikus ; the Three Hun-
dred being the only persons liable to make this
prepayment. [Elatfiopd.: npoeua<j)opd.]
If this view is correct, the 300 wealthiest
citizens formed the (TVfxfji.opiai for the war-tax :
their duty being to find the required sum of
money, and advance it {iTpoei.a<pip€iv) to the
state on the security of the tax, which they
were empowered to collect.
(2) The symmories for the rpirjpapx'^oL were
established in consequence of the attempt of the
Thebans upon Euboea in 358 B.C., which occa-
sioned an urgent need for ships of war (Dem.
de Cor. 259). A law was introduced by Peri-
ander (Dem. c. Eiierg. 1145) whereby a new
set of symmories, of 1200 members, was consti-
tuted expressly for the purpose of furnishing
triremes expeditiously. [Tpi-npapxia.] The
Three Hundred formed an important part as
leading members of the Twelve Hundred (Dem.
j c. Mid. 564 1 . There were altogether twenty
symmories (Dem. de Sijnnii. 182, 184), two sym-
mories to each tribe, and sixty members to a
symmory. Those members of a symmory (five,
six, seven, or even sixteen) who provided a
I single ship were called ffwreKfls, or collectively
I avvTfKfia, which word must be distinguished
from the avfJLfxopia out of which the ffwrfXils
I were taken.
I Every^ symmorj', whether for the war- tax or
' for the trierarchy, had a leader {rjyeficiv), and
j an overseer (fTriij.e\r]T-l]s). whose business was
j to recover the money due, and officers called
Siaypa<pe7s, who drew up lists of property, and
of the rates due.
It appears, then, that the trierarcliical sym-
mories were neither identical with, nor yet
wholly distinct from, the war-tax sj'mmories,
[ but a development and enlargement of them.
It is probable that the symmories of both kinds,
both for war-tax and trierarchy, lasted as long
as Athens continued to be an independent state.
The strategus d eVi rds ffvixfioplas [XxpaT-n-
I 769] made a list of those liable to the trier-
archy, managed all questions of 'AvrtSocrts
(Appendix, Greek L.^w), and acted as daay(c-
yfvs in suits affecting them (i Arist.]'A6. wo\. 61).
Sympho'llia (av/j.0wvia) is mentioned by Cic.
Vi'rr. iii. 44, 105 ; Hor. A. F. 574; Liv. xxxix.
10, as being a musical entertainment at ban-
quets. We hear also of specially-trained slaves,
who were called syniplioniaci, and were kept
by rich men to provide this music (Cic. Mil. 21,
55, Verr. v. 25, 64). It was one of the luxuries
introduced from Asia in the second century B.C.
(Liv. xxxix. 6).
There has been much difference of opinion
on the question whether the symphonia was
an instrument, or an orchestra of vocal or of
instrumental music. It has been variously
identified with a drum, a bagpipe (Ital. sam-
pogna), and a flute (cf. Dan. iii. 15, LXX).
In the passages cited above from Cicero,
Horace, and Livy, the sense suits vocal or
instrumental music equally well. The word is
used of some instrument or concert of mstni-
ments played on board ship (Cic. Div. in Caec.
17, 55), and if so, may have been a tuba or
tibia. The symphoniaci seem to have played
in concert.
In late Latin the meaning of ' flute ' seems
to have prevailed.
Sjnnpo'sium {avfj.w6(nov, covtissatio, con-
vivinm). A drinking-party. 1. Gkeek. Suju-
TTOffiov, or Trdros, must be distinguished from
SYMPOSIUM
60a
SiTirvov : for though drinking ahnost alwaj-s an immense cup, containing eight kotyhie, or
followed a dinner-party, yet the former was nearly half a gallon. Amystis.j
regarded as distinct from the latter, and fre- ^ The cups were always carried round from left
(jueutly received the addition of guests who to right {tirl S((ia, a siiininu,'P\i\.ut. Peru. v. 1,
were not present at the dinner (cf. t'ena). I'J, Asiii. v. 4, 1), and tlie same order was
The enjoyment of symposia was heightened observed in everything that took jjlace in tho
by conversation, music and dancing, and amuse- entertainment (Vlat. 2(fj). iv. p. 4'J() i:, Sijiiip. p.
meats of various kinds : sometimes, too, philo- , '214 n). The company frcfjuently drank to the
sophical subjects were discussed at them. The , health of one another (itpoirivfiv (piKoT-qcrias),
name, however, shows that the enjojnnent of | especially to the one to whom the cup was
drinking was the main object of the symposia, handed. (Compare Cic. Tiisc. i. 40, 96, and ilie
and the Athenians frequentl}' concluded their storj- of Theramenes.)
drinking-parties in a riotous maimer. It was ;\Iusic and dancing [Saltatio] were usually
to guard against this tluit such parties were , introduced, as already stated, at symposia,
forbidden at Sparta iind in Crete. (Plat. Miii. \ The female dancers and the players on the
p. 'd'M a; cf. Ar. Vcujj. 1'253 ; Dem. lit Cunon Hute and the cithara were often iraipai. The
1257). (TKoKia were a more refined and intellectual
The wine was almost invariably mixed with kind of music, as they were usually sung by
water, and to drink it unmixed {aKpaTuv) was selected guests known to be skilled in music or
considered a characteristic of barbarians (Plat, jjoetical composition. The song being started
Lffjfj. i. p. 637 EJ ; and the Greeks in general by one singer, was continued by any other to
considered unmixed wine as prejudicial to whom he handed the lyre and myrtle bough
physical and mental health (Hdt. vi. 64). The (Ar. Fesp. 1219).
word olvos is always applied to a mixture Two guests usually reclined on each coucli
(/cpa/ua) of wine and water, unless the word (/cAiVtj), but sometimes four or five.
ojcparos is expressly added. , ., ^^,
To mix wine and water equally {^cov iffcp) ] ■«=^. ih^0 ^vS^'^^^f^^^^
was considered injurious. The most eonunon ""^v'', >n«ir A\« U . . Q^ ^Z .
proportions of water to wine were S : 1, or
2 : 1, or 3 : 2. Hesiod (OjJ- 596) recommends
!> : 1 (cf. Ar. E(j. 11«8) ; 8 : 2 was the usual pro-
portion for moderate drinkers.
The wine was mixed either with warm or more
fre(iuently cold water. [Calda. ] Both snow
and ice were employed to cool the mixture.
[Pottery, 'VvKT-fip.] Honey was sometimes
added, and also spices : in the latter case it
received the- name of rpi'/U/uo.
The mixture was made in a large vessel called
the KpoTTJp, from which it was conveyed into
the drinking-cups by means of oivox^ai or
KvaQoi. The cups usually emploj-ed were the
KvKi^, <pid\ri, Kapx^W^ov, {>vtui/, and Kavdapos.
[Pottery.]
Tile guests at a sj-mposium reclined on
couches and wore garlands of flowers. A master
(From a vase-painting.)
Games (e.g. the KoTTapogl and riddles
[Aenigma] fonned jiart of tlie amusements at
a symposium. (See also T.u.1, Tesskkae, La-
TBUNCULi, under Games.)
2. EoMAN : CoMissATio. — As in Greece, so at
^ - , , Rome also the distinct break between the cciia
of the revels (apxwv rfis TrcVecos, (Tv/xTroffiapxos and the comissatio is noticeable, so that there
or ^affiKivs) was usually chosen to conduct
(Trai5a7cti7f?j', Plat. Lcgg. i. p. 641 a) the sym-
posium ; whose commands the whole conipiniy
had to obey, and who regulated the whole order
of the entertainment. The choice was gene-
rally determined by the throwing of astragali
or tali; but in Plato's Siimposiuin (p. 21.S e)
Alkibiades constitutes himself symposiarch.
The symposiarch fixed the proportion of wine
to water, and the size of the drinking vessel.
He imposed penalties (<^t)ixia, miilfti. Plant.
Stick. V. 4, 43) upon those who disregarded his
authority (Plat. Synip. I.e.; cf. Hor. Sat. ii. 6,
69). The servants (oiVoX"'oi), usually young
slaves, were al.so under his orders. A well-
trained cupbearer in presenting the <pta\n, held
it on his finger-tips, ^ttI rwf SaKTv\uu aKpuv
(Xen. Cyrop. i. .H, H). This api>lies only to the
<pii\r). Otiier cujts, such as the KuAif, were
often filled at the crater and handed round ;
but the more usual jiractice was that the gnest
held the kylix, and the slave filled it with a
small wine-jng (oiVoxoi?) which Iw lia<l dijtped
in the crater and carried round the table {Od. might bo the one without tlve other (cf. Snot.
IX. 10 ; Xe"- ^'.Pnp. ii. 27). Dom. 21). Besides the legnlar t.'nn connssatio,
At Athens they usually began drinking out Cicero uses sometimes the word rompniafio;
of small cups, but, as the entertainment went and co»r/iw>/?», being a general term for any
on, larger ones were introduced (cf. Hor. Sat. convivial meeting (Cic. Scu. l.H. 45, Tiixr. i.
II. H, 85). In the Si/,„posium of Plato (pp., 40, 96), may signify tho wine-party as well as
21o, 214) Alkibiades and Sokratcs each empty the dinner.
Fig. lORO.-Sjinposlain. (From a vasopninting.)
606
2TNAIK02
It is not certain how far contisaatio was a
genuine Roman custom and liow far Ijorrowed
from the Greeks. The larobable account is that
the ' Graecus mos bibendi ' brought in the
regular organisation of the comissatio, on much
the same lines as the symposium described
above. We may tiierefore venture to set down
as the ' Graecus mos ' at Eome (1) the wreaths
and perfumes [Corona ; Unguentum] ; (2) the
appointment by tlie dice of one among the
company as president, = the symposiarch, and
called rex (Hor. Carm. i. 4, 1«), arbiter (Hor.
Carm. ii. 7, 25), and magister (cf. Hor. Sat. ii. 2,
123) ; (2) the method of drinking healths (_pro-
pinatio), which is specially noted as Graeco
more hihrre (cf. Cic. Verr. i. 26, 66, Tusc. i.
40, 96). This consisted in naming some person,
and then, after touching the wine with the lips,
handing the cup to him. Before the general
propinatio there was a custom of naming some
deity (cf. Plaut. A>iin. iv. 1, 35 ; Hor. Carm. iii.
19). In imperial times there was the formal
toast to the emperor (Ov. Fast. ii. 637) ;
and then the propinatio of different persons,
especially sweethearts, or 'toasts,' according
to the fancy of the guests.
There is some difficulty as to the numbers
imposed by the mag inter. These numbers
range from one cyathus (Mart. i. 106) upwards.
We find septunx (Mart. iii. 82), hes, ternos ter
cyathos, &c. (= dodrans, Hor. Carm. iii. 19,
14). Also the number of eyathi sometimes cor-
responds to the letters or initials of the toast
(Mart. i. 71, xi. 36, viii. 51).
Two explanations are proposed : (1) that the
numbers represent the proportion of wine to
water ; (2) that each toast was to consist of so
many eyathi (cf. Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 35) : e.g. Gaius
gives five eyathi, Julius six, &e. (2) is the
more likely solution.
2vv5iKos. See Appendix, Greek L.vav.
ZuvTJvopos. See Appendix, Gkkek Law.
ZvvYpa(})Ti signifies a written contract
{ypaiJ.fj.aT€7ou) ; whereas ffvfx^6Kaiov does not
necessarily import that the contract is in
writing; and 6/j.oKoyia is, strictly speaking, a
verbal agreement ; x^'-poypo-<\>ov is a term
foreign to Attic law, but commonly found in
the orators as = a document. [Chirographuill.J
No particular form of words was necessary to
make the instrument valid in point of law,
proof of the parties' intention being sufficient.
The agreement itself was valid without any
writing, and would form the ground of an
action against the party who broke it, if it
could be sufficiently proved. Hence it was the
practice to have witnesses to a parol agreement
(Dem. c. Everg. et Mnes. p. 1162, § 77 ; Plat.
Symp. p. 196). This was especially the
practice in early times (II. xxii. 255, 261,
Od. xiv. 393). But as the art of writing became
more widely known, parol agreements grew
rarer, and contracts were as a rule written upon
waxed tablets or papyrus. Such contracts
were leases {^laQdaeis : cf. Dem. j;ro Fliorm. p.
945, § 4), loans of money on bottomry and real
property (Dem. c. Phorin. p. 908, § 6 ; ffvyypacpdi
vavTLKai and eyyeiat, c. Lacrit. p. 932, § 27), and
all executory agreements under conditions,
such as contracts according to specification
(Dem. de Cor. p. 268, § 122 ; Xen. dc Be Equest.
2, 2). The rent, the rate of interest, with other
conditions, and also the penalties for breach of
contract (Dem. c. Dionysod. p. 1291, § 27, etc.),
were particularly mentioned in these agree-
ments, and the names of the witnesses (c.
Olympiad, p. 1170, § 11, &c.), and of the sure-
SYRINX
ties (if any, c. Apatur. p. 904, § 35) were speci-
fied. The agreements tliemselves were sealed
by the parties, and deposited, before witnesses
(c. Lacrit. p. 927, § 14), with some person
mutually agreed on between the parties (c.
Phurm. p. 90S, § 6, c. Ajjatur. p. 904, § 36).
Bankers were often chosen as the depositaries
of agreements and other documents. Money
was put into their hands without acknowledg-
ment, and often without witnesses. They
entered these and also the loans made by them-
selves to others in tlieir books {ypd/xfj-ara or
inro/jLvrj^J-ara), and such entries served i^racti-
i cally the same purpose as a (rvyypa<pi), being
accepted as evidence in courts of justice [pro
Phorm. p. 950, § 20). At Sparta such agree-
ments were called K\dpta (Plut. Agis, 13) or
, ZKVTdAai.
j For another sense of crvyypacpai see No(jlo-
Ge'xai..
ZuvoiKia. A dwelling-house adapted to
hold several families, a lodging-house (Lat.
insula) (Aeschin. c. Tim. § 124). Suvoi/ciai
were let mostly to foreigners who came
to Athens on business, and especially to the
/uLfToiKoi (numbering about 45,000), whohi tlie
law did not allow to acquire real property, and
who therefore could not purchase houses of
their own (Dem. pro Phorm. p. 946, § 6).
Houses in the city were more valuable than
those in the Peiraeus or the country, caeteris
paribus. The usual return was 10 per cent, at
least on the purchase-money. The summer
season was the most profitable, when many
merchants and other visitors resorted to Athens.
The rent was commonly paid by the month.
Lodging-houses were frequently taken on
speculation by persons called vavKKripoi or
(TTaOixovxoi, who made a i^rofit bj' luiderlettuig
them.
ZwoLKia or ZuvoiKe'cTLa; also MexoCKia).
A festival celebrated evaiy year at Athens on the
16th of Hekatombaeon in honour of Athena. It
was believed to have been instituted by Thes-
eus to coimnemorate the concentration of the
government of the various towns of Attica at
Atliens {ffwoiKiieiv: Time. ii. 15; Ar. Pax,
1019). An unbloody sacrifice was on this day
offered to the goddess of peace (Elprivri). It was
not connected with the Panathenaea.
ZvvTagig. A contribution, assessment.
Under the revived Athenian empire in the fourth
century B.C. the <t>6pos of the fifth century was
called by this name (cf. Plut. Sol. 15). The re-
assertion of maritime supremacy by the Athe-
nians dates formally from tlie archonship of
Nausinikus (b.c. 378-7) ; but there are indica-
tions that the levymg of tribute had begun as
early as 380. The pretence of equal and
honourable alliance was soon dropped, and the
new confederacy became as unpopular as the old.
ZuvreXeua. [Svti^opia.]
synthesis. [Dress.]
Syrma (Juv. viii. 228, xv. 30 ; Mart. iv. 49,
xii. 94). The robe worn J)y tragic actors.
[Tragoedia.]
Syrinx (ffvpiy^). Any sort of pipe or tube,
but especially (1) the Pan's Pipe, or Pandean
Pipe ; the apjsropriate musical instrument of
the Arkadian and other Grecian shepherds, and
regarded by them as the invention of Pan,
their tutelary god (Verg. Eel. ii. 32, viii. 24 ;
Faimus, Hor. Carm. i. 17, 10), who was sometimes
heard playing upon it (see Theocr. i. 3, 14, 19)
on Mount Maenalus. The Latin equivalents
a,re fistula (Verg. Eel. ii. 36 : Hor. Carm. iv. 12,
10; Ov. Met. viii. 192; Mart. xiv. 63, itc);
Fig. laiO.-SjTlnx.
Irom a Greek
viise. (Uriliah
Musouni.)
SYRINX
liarundo (Verg Eel. vi. b) ; cahtmus (ib. i.
10^; cicuta (v.H'y). In general seven (or nine,
Tlieocr. viii. IH) hollow stems
of these plants were fitted to-
gether b)' metiiis of. wax, hav-
ing been previously cut to the
proper lengtlis, and adjusted
so as to form an octave (Verg.
Eel. ii. 32, 30). The instrument
was further strengthened by
two ti'ansverse bands.
From tlie sjTJnx was ilove-
loped the organ [Hydraulus 1.
The aiipiyi fxovoKakanos (said to have been
invented by Hermes I was played transversely
like our tlute, not by a mouthpiece like the
av\6s [see Tibiaj.
('2) The word crvpiy^ is used in several places
to denote part of a chariot-wheel (Aeech. ,Sii/)pl.
181; Soph. Elcrtr. 270; Eur. Hipp. 1234;
itc). Ifc is generally taken to mean the hole
through whicli the axle passes, or a perforated
'box' inserted in the wheel. Dr. VeiTall
{Joiinidl of Hell. Stud. vol. vi. pp. 304-370)
thinks that the (rvpiyyfs were parallel staves
(not spokes) of gi'aduated length, crossing the
solid wheel from side to side (see fig. 443,
Currust. i3i ^ Cuniculus.
ZvcraiTia. The custom of taking the prin-
cipal meal of the day in public prevailed exten-
sivel}' amongst the Greeks from very eai'ly
ages. It existed not only with the Spartans
and Kretans, but also at Megara and at Corinth
in the time of Periander, who, it seems,
abolished the practice as being favonralilc to
aristocracy (Arist. Fol. v. 111. [See Prytanetun.]
Nor was it confined to the Hellenic nation.
The origin of the usage may be referred to
infant or patriarchal communities, the members
of which, being intimately connected by ties of
])olitical union and kindred, may have lived
together almost us members of the same family.
Such an institution was not invented, but may
have been organised and perpetuated, by Lyk-
urgus and IMinos.
TheKretan name for the Syssitiawas'Ai/5p€?o
or "AvSpia (Arist. Pol. ii. 10). This title shows of
itself that the public meals were confined to
men and youths (cf. Plat. Lrjjt/. vi. p. 780 e) ;
the women and children were supported out of
the same revenues, but at their own homes.
All adult citizens among the Kretans partook
of the public meals; the companies or messes
(€Toipe7ai) into which they were distributed for
this purpose were likewise called a.vSp(7a. Tbe
<livinity worshipiX'd as Zsus tratpfTos was con-
sidered to preside over them. [K6a\i.oi.]
There were in every town of Crete (TracToxof')
two public buildings, one for the lodging of
strangers (koihtiti'piov), the other a common
hall (avSpuoy) for the citizens. In the latter of
these the syssitia were given, and two tables
wore laid for the entertainment of foreign
guests (^fviKol Tpair6(,a(). There was also a
third table on the right of the entrance dedi-
cated to Z(vs Ifvios.
The syssitia of the Ivretans were distin-
guished by simplicity and temperance. They
always sat at their tables, even when the custom
of reclining had V)eeii intrfxluced at Sparta
(Cic. Miir. 35, § 74). The entertainment
began with prayer to the gofla and libations.
Each of the adult citizens received an equal
l)ortion of fare, with the exception of the
' Archon,* or ' Master of the Table,' who
received a fourfold portion (cf. Horn. Od. iv.
ti3G). The management of all the tables was
2r22ITIA C07
; under the superintendence of a woman of free
I birth, who look the best portion, and pre-
I sented it to the citizen who was most eminent
! in council or the field. She had male assistant;-.
. under hei-, and menial servants (Ka\o(p6poi, or
! wood-carriers). On each of the tables was
I placed a cup of wine, from which the messnuitei.
of the saine company drank.
Till they had reached their eighteenth year,
the youths accompanied their fathers to the
syssitia, where oi-phans also were provided for;
and the boys waited upon the men. Sons weri'
seated near their fatliers on a lower bench, and
received a half-portion of meat. The boys had
also a cup of mixed wine in common. The mei.l
was acconijianit'd by music and singing, followeil
by conversation. To each avSpt'iov there was a
irai5oi'(ijUos, who controlled the liehaviour ar.d
manners of the youths, j nai8ov6ji.ot.i
In most of the Kretan cities, tin- <'X)(eiises of
the syssitia were defrayed out of the revenues
of the public lands and the tribute i)ai<l by the
Perioeki, the money arising from which was
applied partly to the service of the gods, and
partly to the maintenance of the citizens
(Arist. Pol. ii. 101, no difference being made
between rich and poor.
The Spartan syssitia were so similar to
those of Crete that one was said to be borrowed
from the other (Arist. Pol. ii. 10). They were
anciently called aySpfla, as in Crete, but lat<'r
<fci5iTia (pi-obably from Vej)-, to eat, the (t>
rei)resentiiig a lost diganmni; or perhaps from
s' j^ED- or SID-, to sit). The Sjiartan syssitia
differed from the Kretan in the following re-
spects. Every head of a family was obliged
to contribute a certain portion at his own
cost and charge; those who were not able
to do so were excluded from the public tables
(Arist. Pol. ii.; "Oixoioi). The guests were
divided into companies generally of fifteen
persons each, and all vacancies were filled up
by unanimous ballot. No persons, not even
the kings, were excused from attending at the
public tables, except for some satisfactorj-
reason (Plut. Li/eur/j. 12, Afjis, c. 10). Eacli
iserson was supplied with a cup of mixed wine
The repast was of a i>lain and simple character,
and the contribution of each member of a
mess or (piSirris was settled by law. The prin-
cipal dish was the fxf\as (wfios or black broth,
with pork. The ^irdiKKov or second course
was more varied, and supjilied by presents of
game, poultry, fruit, Ac. The entertainment
was enlivened by cheerful conversation and
singing. The anangements were under the
superintendence of the Polemarchs.
The institutions described above united the
citizens by the closest ties of intinuK-y and
union, nniking them consider themselves as
common children of one mother, the state.
They nuiintained a strict and perfect separation
between the higher and the subject classes
both at Sparta and in Crete. At Sparta also
they were useful from a military point of view,
for the members of the syssitia were formed
into corresponding military divisions, and fought
together in the field, with more bravery and
a keener sense of honour (alSwi) than could
have been the case willi merely chance com-
rades (Hdt. i. 05). Mori'over, they concentrated
and strengthened the i)ower of public ojiinion.
Their political tendency was aristocraticul.
Tlie simplicity and sobriety characteristic
both of the Sjiartan and Kretan syssitia wi're
afterwards, in Sparta at least, supplanted by
luxury and effeminate indulgence. Agis en-
608
SYSTYLOS
deavoured in vain to restore the old order of
tilings, and perislied in the attempt.
Systy'los. [Architectura, Glossary, In-
tsrcolutnniation.]
Tabe'Ua. A voting tablet.
(1) In the assemblies the votes were originally
the verbal answers (cf. voix, Stivnne, Ayes and
Noes) of the individual citizens to the magis-
trate who consulted the people as to their will
and pleasure [rogavit populum quid vellent
■inherent). In the case of an election the
rogatores in attendance on the magistrate
pricked each vote on the tablet which bore
the name of the candidate in whose favour
it was given, who was said puncfiiin ferrc
(Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 99, A. P. 343). The result
was then reported to the magistrate, by whom
the candidates with a majority wei-e declared
elected {creati). This view, however, does not
account for the word snffragium. The ballot
was introduced first for the election of magis-
trates, 139 B.C. [Tabellariae leges]. After
this date each voter received one tahella, on
which were written the names, or more pi"o-
bably (cf. Cic. pro Domo, 43, 112) only the
initials, of the candidates ; and apparently the
vote was given by pricking the tablet at the
name of the favoured candidate.
In voting upon laws after the introduction of
the ballot, each citizen was provided with two
tickets, one inscribed V. R.,
i.e. uti rogas, for assent;
the other A., i.e. aittiqno,
' I approve the old law,' for
rejection (cf. Cic. Att. i.
13, 3).
(2) In trials the iudices
were provided with three
tahellar, one marked A.,
for absolvo, ' I acquit ' ; the
second with C, for con-
dniuio, 'I condemn'; the
third with N. L., for noa
liquet, ' It is not clear to
inc.' The first of them was called tabeUa ahso-
lutoria, the second tahella damnatoria (Suet.
Atig. 33).
i'abella'riae leges. The laws by which the
ballot was introduced in voting in the comitia;
tahellae being the tablets overlaid with wax
on which votes wore secretly inscribed. Secret
voting was introduced for the purpose of
weakening the power of the optimates. [Ta-
beUa.] There were four enactments known
by the name of Tabellariae leges, which are
enumerated by Cicero (Legg. iii. 16, 35).
(1) Lex Gabinia, proposed by the tribune
Gabinius, 139 ]!.c., introduced the ballot in the
election of magistrates (Cic. /. c).
(2) Lex Cassia, proposed by the tribune
L. Cassius Longinus, 137 B.C., introduced the
ballot in the 'ludiciura Populi ' — i.e. cases tried
in the comitia by the whole body of the
people — with the exception of cases of per-
dnelUo [see Ap-j-i'^rdix, Roman Law, ludex ;
Judicium populi].
(3) Lex Papieia, proposed by the tribune
C. Papirins Carbo, 131 B.C., introduced the
ballot in the enactment and repeal of laws
(Cic. Legg. iii. 16, 35).
(4) Lex Caelia, proposed by C. Caelius
Caldus, 107 B.C., extended the ballot to cases of
perdneUio (Cic. Plane. 0, 16; Plin. Ep. iii. 20).
TABULAE
Tabella'rius. A letter-carrier. As the-
Romans had no public post, they employed
slaves, who were called tahellarii, as special
messengers to convey their letters fCic. Pfiil.
ii. 31, 37, Fam. xii. 12, xiv. 22). Those who
were out of Italy could get their letters con-
veyed not only by ships' captains, but also bj'
the special tabellarii of the provincial governor
(Cic. Att. v. 19), or by those of the publicani
(Cic. Att. V. 15 and 16). [Cursus publicus.j
Tabe'llio. A notary. Under the Empire
tabellioncs succeeded to the business of
the Scribae in the times of the Republic
[Scribae]. They were chiefly employed in
drawing up legal documents, and for this pur-
pose usually took their stations in the market-
places of towns.
Tabe'rna. (1) {a-Krjvai, yeppa). A shop or
booth. [Domus ; Agora.]
(2) A wine-shop or tavern. [Caupona,]
Taberna'culum, Tento'riuin (kAkt/t], o-Krjf/j).
A tent. The former of these words was no
doubt originally applied to a shed or hut of
boards [cf. Fest. s. v. tabernacula ; Tugurium] ;
but it became the ordinary term for a tent
Fig. 1041.- Voter put-
ting tabclla into
voting -urn (cislaK
From a coin of the
Cassia Gens.
Fig. 1042.— Tabernaculum. (Harburg.)
(Cic. Brxt. 9, 37; Liv. xxii. 42) made of skins-
stretched from wooden supports. The tent-
maker was called tahemacularius. Constant
supplies of hides for this purpose were drawn
from the provinces by armies in the field (Cic.
Verr. ii. 2, 5, coria. Pis. 36, 87 ; pelles, Liv.
V. 2). To keep soldiers in tents {sub pellihus)
during the winter was a mark of severity (Tac.
Ann. xiii. 35 ; cf. Caes. B. G. iii. 29). [Contu-
bernales.]
The KXiffiai of Homer were wooden or
wattled huts ; that of Acliilles was built of fir-
planks and thatched with reeds {II. xxiv. 451) ;
the epithet finrriKTos implies carpenter's work
{ih. 675). In later Greek warfare we find gene-
rally tents of skins, like those of the Romans,
which are usually called ffKrjvai (Xen. Anab.
i. 5, 12), and Zi<peipai (Xen. Anab. i. 5, 10) ;
wooden huts were also used and termed
(TKrivai (Xen. Anab. iii. 2, 27). [See also
Augur ; Templum (1).]
Tabli'num. [Domus.]
Ta'bula luso'ria. [Games.]
Ta'bulae (Tabe'Uae) or pugiUares (inVa|,
irtvaKis, SfXros, Trv^iou, ttivolkiov, ypafj-fiareTov).
Writing tablets. Although Livy (i. 24) seems
to make a formal distinction between tabulae,
i.e. bronze tablets, and cera or cerae, yet in
general the plural of tabula and tahella ia
used to signify thin slips of wood or other
material, usually of an oblong shape, covered
over with wax. The wax, which was written
upon by the stilus or ypacpis [Stilus], was
coloured (red in Ov. Am. i. 12, 11, but generally
TABULAE
black), so that the letters marked by the
stilus were white. The layer of wax was
sometimes so tliin that tlie writing was marked
on tlie wood itself below. The tablets were
renewed by scraping off the old and pouring
fresh melted wax over them (Ov. A. A. i. 437),
see Hdt. vii. 239. Ordinary Greek writing
taV)l<'ts were covered witli ^oA^, a composite
and softer wax : tablets intended for more
permanent documents were covered with gyp-
sum {KfvKwiJLa, but also /xdAOr} and Krip6s :
Ar. Vcsj}. 108, and Fr. 2m). The schoolboy's
writing tablet was sometimes a single tabula
which he carried suspended l)y a ring (Hor.
.S'rt^ i. 6, 74). See fig. 675, under Ludus litte-
rarius.
Tablets were made of citron-wood or ivory
(Mart. xiv. 3, 5), but more commonly of beech,
rir, and box (whence the name irv^ioy). [See
Codex; Diploma.] Tablets so folded and
IiouikI to^'fthcr were called codex or codiciUi
(Catull. xlii. 5 and 11) ; whore a large number
were combined, they had a handle, by which
to carry or to hang the7ii up, and yvere called
codices ausati [Codex; Diptycha]. The Latin
word pngillarcs,
which is the name
frequently given to
tablets covered with
wax (Mart. xiv. 8 ;
Plin. Ep. i. 6), is
derived from juig-
niis, pugillus, be-
cause they were
small enough to be
held in the hand
(cf. II. vi. 169;
Jebb, Homer, p.
112). Two tablets
fastened together
were called diptycha {Slirrvx") \ tliree, ti-i-
piycha {rpiirrvxa.) ; and sopentapiyclia (Trfvrd-
iTTuxa) [LiberJ. The pages were called cerdr,
as prima crra, altera ccra (Suet. Nero, 17;
Hor. Hat. ii. 5, 53; Mart. iv. 72). For legal
documents, especially wills, see Testamentum,
^Appendix, Roman Law).
Wax-covered tablets were used among the
Romans for short writings of all kinds. Letters
written upon them were secured with pock-
tliread and sealed. The impression of the seal
waa made either upon wax (Ov. Am. ii. 15, 16;
TAEDA
609
Fig. 1043.— Pugillares and gtilus,
with iiii&a, from a Greek vase.
(Oerhard.J
Fig. inn
Plin. ii. § 137) or upon a specially prepared clay,
called cretula (Cic. Verr. iv. '26, 68), crrta
Asiatica (Cic. Flacc.16, 8), y?) <njfjuwrpis (Hdt.
ii. 38). [Signum.l
Legal documents, and especially wills, even
■when written on parcliment or papyrus, were
8till technically called tabulae. Tablets were
also used for accounts {tabulae or codex
accepti et expensi, Cic. Itosc. Com. 2), whence
novae tabulae means an abolition of debts
(Suet. Jul. 42; Cic. Of. ii. 23).
Two ancient waxen tablets have been dis-
covered in a jjerfect state of preservation.
Both the tabulae are triptychs. One is mode
of tir-wof)d, the other of beech, and each is
about the size of a small octavo. The inner
part is covered with black wax. The middle
tablet has wax on both sides, with a margin
around each ; so that each of the twt) tabulae
contains four sides or four pages covered witli
wax. The edges are pierced, in order that they
might be fastened together. Wooden tableis
written upon with ink have been found in Egypt.
Tilt, tablets used in voting in the comitia
and the courts of justice were also called
tabulae as well as tabellae. Tabula also means
tlie list on which tlie cu.stodes checked off the
votes, as they were taken out of the ristae.
Ta'bulae pu'blicae. [Tabularium.J
Tabula'rii. Notaries or accountants, first,
mentioned under tlie Empire (Sen. J'Jp. 88).
Public tabulani were first established by SI.
Antoninus in the provinces. Part of tlieir duties
was to register births. fSee also ExercitUS.]
Tabula'rium. The place, at Rome and
elsewliere, where the tabulae publicae, or
state archives, were kept, coiTesponding to
the /iT/rp^oi' at Athens fApxeiovJ. The tabulae
publicae comprised rogations, senatusconsulta,
and plebiscita; records of finance, of public
contracts, of debtors to the state, the censors'
registers (tabulae censoriae), registers of
births and deaths; records of judicial matters,
not only of trials, but also jury lists and
records of elections [Aerarium ; Quaestor .
From the date 447 B.C. the plebeian aediles ha<l
chai-ge not only of plebeian archives, but also
of senatusconsulta (Liv. iii.55): when the state
archives were removed to the aerarium (187 B.C.),
the (juaestors were associated in tlieir custody,
till 12 B.C., when Augustus took it away from
them. Tiberius, 16 a.u., appointed special ctira-
torcs tabulariorum publicorum to assist the
regular of!ieers of the treasury.
The permanent depository, or tabulariuni,
for plebiscita and senatusconsulta was in the
Temple of Ceres until the year 187 B.C., when
they were transferred to the Aerarium (Liv.
xxxix. 4), which was thenceforward the sole per-
manent tabulariuni at Rome. The censors kept
their records in the Temple of the Nymphs
and the Atrium Libertatis during their tenure
of office. At the expiration of their office they
deposited all their records in the Aerarium
(Liv. xxix. 37).
Treaties and agieements with foreign states,
and senatusconsulta ratifying such agreements
were deposited in the Temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus; but these were always engraved
on bronze jilates (tabular aiiirae, xaA«ti/xaTa),
and were not included in tlie tabular jiublirac,
nor was their repository called a tabulariuni
(Cic. Phil. iii. 12, 80;" Suet. Vesp. 8; Liv.
xxvi. 24).
In the chief town of every province there
was a tabulariuni in wlii(>li records of surveys
and the registers of the census were pres«'rv<Hl.
There were also tabularia in Italian towns for
municipal records (Cic. .1 »•,/;. 4. 8). [See also
SenatuBconsultum ; Scriba : Exercitus.j
Taeda (Sais, Att. 5a\. ((')//;. SaSiovi. \ torch
of fir- wood, called on this account /<i>ica taeda
(Catull. Ixi. 1.1; Ov. Fa.it. ii. 558). Hence
the name tacda is given to the tree itself (Hor.
RR
610
TAros
Carm. iv. 4, 43). Before the adoption of more
artificial modes of obtaining light, the inhabi-
tants of Greece and Asia Minor practised the
following method, which still prevails in several
countries. A tree having been selected of the
species Pinus tnaritima, Linn. (Trei^/crj) (Horn.
J^. xi. 494, xxiii. 328), a large incision was
made near its root, causing the turpentine to
accumulate there. This highly resinous wood
was called has, i.e. torchwood (Thuc. vii. 53) ;
a tree so treated was called 6»/5aSos, the
process itself ivhahoi/v or hahovpyeiv, or
more fully SaSoKoireTv irevK-qf. The workmen
employed in the manufacture were called
8aSovpyo[. After the lapse of twelve months
the portion thus impregnated was cut out and
divided into suitable lengths. This was re-
peated in subsequent years, till the tree was
killed. These strips of resinous pine-wood
are now called SaSia by the Greeks of Mount
Ida. [Matrimonium.]
Tay6^. A commander or ruler, particularly
in Thessaly.
From the date of the Epirotic invasion (Hdt.
vii. 106 ; Thuc. i. 12) to the Persian wars there
was always a king of Thessaly, chosen from the
Herakleidae, and usually from the family of the
Aleuadae (Hdt. vii. 6, vi. 63). It is possible
that the names fiacrtKevs and Tay6s were inter-
changeable ; or that rayos may have been one
of the titles of tlie king, at a time when mon-
archy was giving place to aristocracy. The
Tagus was ajiparently elected by a majority of
the states (Xen. Hell. vi. 1, 8), and the whole
military force of the country was placed under
his command and levied by him.
We meet with no actual instance of the ap-
pointment of a Tagus until after the PeloponHe-
sian War. The monarchy probably contniued, in
name at least, down to the year 454 B.C. (Thuc.
i. Ill) ; it was followed by a general break-up of
the union {koiv6v) of Thessaly ; and the different
states were largely independent of one another
both in foreign and domestic affairs, and almost
entirely under the control of their separate
hereditary oligarcliies.
In 404 B.C. Lykophron of Pherae attempted
to raise himself to the position of Tagus of
Thessaly (Xen. Hell. ii. 3, 4). Unable to secure
his election, he made himself tyrant, and at-
tempted to unite the whole of Tliessaly under
his sway. This object was actually accom-
plished by his successor lason in 375 b.c, under
whose successors the office of Tagus developed
into ail irregular tyranny (Xen. Hell. vi. 4, 33),
for the suppression of which tlie aid of the
Thebans under Pelopidas wa!s repeatedly
called in.
The usurpations of Sisiphorus and Lyko-
pliron induced the aristocracy to call in the
assistance of Philip of Macedon, who deprived
Lykophron of liis power in 352 B.C. (Dem.
Oli/nth. ii. p. 19, § 7) ; and finally effected the
subjection of Thessaly to Macedonia in 344 B.C.
During the Macedonian and Roman rule we
find the word Tayds occurring frequently as a
title of the magistrates of tlie Thessalian states.
TaivCa {taenia). (1) Ribands or long strips
of coloured material, much used in all kinds
of ceremonial in Greece, to deck altars, tem-
ples, doors, funeral biers, etc. Tlie word, and
to some extent the custom, passed into RomMi
usage [Vitta]. See cuts under Funus.
(2) = vitta, the riband inwoven with an
infula or other wreatli, and tied in a bow behind,
commonly seen in coins. When distinguished
from vitta (as Verg. Ae)i. vii. 352), taenia is
TAMIA2
the floating end of the riband which formed the
vitta or headband.
(3) [Architectura.]
T&l8,'Tia,{irTep6et'TairfSi\a). Coverings forthe
feet, either boots or sandals, with small wings
attached. They are represented in ancient
art and literature as the attributes of Hermes
{II. xxiv. 340, Od. V. 44 ; Verg. Aen. iv. 239)
and of Perseus (Hes. Scut. 216-220; Ov. Met.
iv. 6()4 sqq.), and had the property of carry-
ing their wearers through the air, over land
Fig. 1045.— Foot with talaria. (From statue of Hermes at
Naples.)
and sea. Hermes is often depicted as wearing
these winged boots or sandals. In the Hellen-
istic and Roman periods the wings are some-
times attached to the bare ankles of Hermes or
Mercury. See also, for an early example, fig.
1008 (Nike).
Tala'ssio. rMatrimoniam.]
Tale'ntum, TdXavrov. The heaviest unit
of wfigiit in use among the Greeks ; also used
as a monetary unit. A large number of talents
were in use in different parts of Greece — the
Euboic, the Aeginetan, the Phoenician, itc.
[See Pondera ; Coinage.] The talent of each
district contained 60 minae of that district, and
the mina 100 drachmae.
There were, however, one or two talents of a
peculiar cliaracter which require special men-
tion. The talent of gold of Homer (//. ix. 124 ;
xviii. 507, xxiii. 262) was some quite small
amount, possibly of the weight of a daric (128
grains).
Like all other nations, the Greeks used
various talents for different classes of goods.
The Babylonians had one talent for gold, one
for silver, and one for goods. In Athens in
historical times the emporic or commercial
talent was different from the talent of the mint,
bearing to it a relation of about 3 to 2. For
different sorts of heavy goods special weights
were employed ; and in all places the Attic
weights seem to have been used for drugs.
[Pondera ; Tables, XI.]
Tali. [Games]
Talio. See Appendix, Roman Law.
TanCag. Any person who had the care,
management, or dispensing of money, stock, or
property of anydescription,confided tohim,asa
steward, butler, housekeeper, storehousekeeper,
or treasurer. But the rafxiai noticed in this
article are more especially the treasurers of the
temples and the revenues of different Greek
states.
Tlie name and office of ranias occur in in-
scriptions throughout the Grecian world. One
of the duties most commonly assigned to them
was that of paying the expenses of public sacri-
fices ; they are likewise mentioned as respon-
sible for paj'inents for the setting up of (rrrjKai
with inscriptions, for lionorary crowns, for the
entertainment of foreign ambassadors, for the
TAMIA2
salaries of those sent out to malce contracts for
leases on behalf of the state, for lending at
interest on its account, &c.
In ancient times every temple of any impor-
tance had property belonging to it, besides its
furniture and ornaments ; and a treasury where
such property was kept. Temples had also
lands, rents, tines, &c., and the custody of tro-
phies and other valuables, and sacred offerings
made by individuals. Tlie temple of Athena
on the Acropolis was the treasury of Athens.
Here was kept the spoil taken from the Per-
sians {to. apiarela riji iroAfws) besides innu-
merable works of art. To the goddess Athena
of the Parthenon large fines and tithes were
specially appropriated by the law or given by
decree of the courts or the assembly. ["EWtivo-
TafJiCai]. Her treasurers were called rajxiai
Twv tepwv XPVM-°''''^'' ''"'J* 'Adrjvaias, raixiai rrjs
d(ov, or simply Ta/j.iai. They appear to have
existed from an early period (Hdt. viii. 51,
53). They were ten in number, chosen annually
by lot ([Ai-ist.] 'A0. iro\. 47).
In early times there seem to have been as
many boards of ra/iiat as there were temples ;
but in the year 435-4 B.C. they were all united
into one board (probably also of ten members),
the ra/Jiiai twv clKKoiv Oewv : while those of
Athena still remained distinct. Their treasury
was at this time transferred to the Ojihistho-
domus of the Parthenon, where the state-trea-
sures were also kept (Ar. Pint. 1193).
All the funds of the state were considered as
being in a manner consecrated to Athena ; while
on the other hand the people claimed the right
of making use of sacred property (Thuc. ii. 13).
The state treasure (bcrta xp'JM'''''") ^^^^ the
sacred treasure {ifpa xpVl^o-'^o-) were kept for
security in the same place, the Ophisthodomus ;
but in case of need they were placed under
distinct management.
Payments made to the temples were received
by the treasurers in the presence of some mem-
bers of the senate, and then the treasurers
became responsible for their safe custody.
The treasurer of the revenue, rafj.ias or eVi-
jUsAtjtt^s TYjs KoivTJs irpoffdSov, was an important
personage ; a general jiaymaster, who received
through the 'A-iro8€'KTai all money which was
to be disbursed for the purposes of the admin-
istration (except the property-taxes) [ElCT<t)opdJ,
and tlie tribute from the allies [06pos], and
then distributed it in such manner as he was
required to do by the law : the surplus (if any)
he paid into the war-office or tlie Tlieoric fund
©eupiKov]. He is variously called rafxias
TTJs Koivris irpocrSSov, or rwv koivcSv irpoaodwv
i'Plut. A rist. 4), or (3 eirl tj? StoiK-qad (Ar. Eq.
948). He was elected by x^'POTOvia, and held
office for four years, at the end of which time
he was capable of being re-elected. Any indi-
vidual (6 fiovK6fievos) was at liberty to propose
financial measures, or institute criminal pro-
ceedings for malversation or waste of the public
funils ; and there was an avnypacpehs t7)s
SioiK7](Tews appointed to check the accounts of
his superior.
Many public functionacios had their own
Ta/LLiai, or paymasters, who wi -ri^ dependent on the
TafjLtas TTJs Koivris irpocruSov, nci'iviiig their funds
from him, and then distributing them in their
respective departments. Such were the rpiripo-
TTOiOl, TflXOTTOloi, d^OTTOloi, Ta<ppOiroLoi, fTtifXeK-
VTol Twv vfwpiwv. The payment of the judicial
fees (SiKatTTiKfii') was made by tlic KuXaKpe'raL.
The TUfiiai of the ndpaAos and the 2aAa/uifia,
the sacred vessels [©eopCg], acted both as
TAUROBOLIUM
611
treasurers and as trierarchs ; the expenses being
provided by the state. They were elected by
XeipoTouia (Dem. c. Mid. p. 570, § 171). [See
also'EXXTivoTajiCai.]
The war fund at Athens (independently of
the tribute) was provided from two sources,
(1) the property-tax [Elcr(l>opd], and (2)
the surpllis (if any) of the yearly revenue, and
administered by the ZxpaTTi-YOi, who had
under them a treasurer, called ran'ias rSiv
(TTpariWTlKWV.
Lastly, we have to notice the treasurers of
the demi and those of the tribes. The demes,
as well as the tribes, had their common lands,
which were usually let to farm, and rafilai to
keep the accounts.
Tape'te {Tdinjs, rdiris, or Sdiris). A piece of
tapestry, a carpet.
The use of tapestries was in very ancient times
characteristic of Oriental rather than of Euro-
pean habits. They were nevertheless used by
the Greeks as early as the age of Homer, some-
times as pillows, sometimes as coverlets (II. x.
159, iv. 224, Od. iv. 298). The places most re-
nowned for the manufacture were Babylon,
Tyre and Sidon, Sardes, Miletus, Alexandria,
Carthage, and Corinth. In reference to the
texture, those which were light and thin (v|/tAo-
TciTriSes) were chiefly made at Sardes ; those in
which the nap {ij.a\\6s) was more abundant
were of two sorts, viz. those which had the nap
on one side only (erepS/jLaWot), and those which
had it on both sides, called a/u-cpiTairoi. They
were frequently of splendid colours, being dyed
either with the kermes (kokkos, coccus, Hor.
Sat. ii. 6, 102-lOG) or with the murex (coii-
chyliata, a\ovpye7s, a\iTr6p<pvpoi) [Colores], and
having figures, especially hunting pieces, woven
into them (Lucr. ii. 35). These fine specimens
of tapestry were spread upon chairs and couches
(Hom. II. ix. 200, Od. iv. 124, xx. 150; Verg.
Aen. i. 639, 697-700; Ov. Met. xiii. 638; Cic.
Tusc. V. 21, 61; Catull. Ixiv. 47-220; Lectus).
They were also used to sleep upon (Hom. II. x.
156; Theocr. xv. 125; Ar. Pint. 540), and for
the clothing of horses (Verg. Aen. vii. 277).
[Aulaea.]
The toralia (valance, cf. Lectus) were some-
times segmentata, i.e. either patchwork, or
ornamented with ' applique ' work, of tapestry
or gold embroidery.
Other terms are tricUniaria, cuhicuJaria,
vestis straguJa, crTpw/nvai, (TTpwixara.
Tapp6s. [Navis.]
Taurobo'lium. This rite was introduced at
Rome when the worship of Syrian and Persian
deities was established or extended there under
the Antonines, and especially that of Mithras,
the Persian sun-god, which lasted down to the
end of the tliird century, and of Cybele in its
later development [compare MegalesiaJ. A
temple of the Magna Mater where these rites
were celebrated stood on the Palatine, a Mith-
raeum or temple of Mithras in the Campus ;
another on the Esquiline, others in different
parts of Italy. Priesthoods were established
with grades and titles, K6paKis, Kpv(ptoi, leones,
leaenae, r)Kio^p6fxoi,patreH. A special feature
of these mysteries was the baptism of blood
from a slaughtered bull or ram (taurobol iiivi or
crioboliiDit], which was supposed to regenerate
those who were so sprinkled. [Sacerdos.] The
persons who were to be so consecrated to re-
generation, wearing the itiitra with a golden
cirilet and the cinvtiix Gdhiiiiis, were placed
beneath a platform ujion wliich a bull or a ram
was slain: the blood flowing tlu-ough the chinks
BR2
612 TAEIAPXOI
in the platform streamed over those beneath.
The votive altars have symbols on them :
e.g. a pine-tree with a syrinx, pedum, tympana,
Fig. 1046.— Taurobollum : figure of Mithras. (From a
relief.)
and the heads of a bull and a ram and the
words ' taurobolium percepi.'
TagCapxot. Military officers at Athens next
in rank to the strategi [ZrpaTTiYos]. They were
ten in number, like the strategi, one for each
tribe, and were elected by x^^poTovia (Dem.
Phil. i. p. 47, §§ 26, 27). lu war each com-
manded the infantry of his own tribe (Dem. c.
Boeot. i. p. 999, § 17), and they were sometimes,
at any rate, summoned to the council of war
(Thuc. vii. 60). In peace they assisted the
strategi in levying and enlisting soldiers ; the
preparation of the register (KaraKoyos) of those
liable to service rested upon the demarchs for
each deme, and the taxiarclis as representing
the tribes, under the strategi.
The taxiai'chs were so called from their
commanding Ta|€is, which were the principal
divisions of the hoplites in the Athenian anuy.
Each tribe (<pv\ri) formed a Td|tj, whence we
find <pv\-i) used as synonymous with Ta|is.
Among the other Greeks the Ta|is v.-as the
name of a much smaller division of troops. The
Arfxos among the Athenians was a subdivision
of the Tct|ts, and the Aoxa7oi were probably
appointed by tlie taxiarchs. [Exercitus.]
Tecto'rium opus. [Paries.]
Teges (dim. tegcticala). A mat (Juv. v. 8,
vii. 221 ; Mart. vi. 39, ix. 93, xi. 32) used as a
bed by slaves and beggars ; such mats were
made of liemp, flax, rushes, palm-leaves, &c.
Te'gula [Kfpafxos, Kspatxis). A tile, made of
baked clay, yellow or red. Under the name of
tegidae are included (1) wall-tiles = testae or
lateres cocti, so called to distinguish them
from the latcres or sun-dried bricks [Later ; see
also Murus and Domus] ; (2) floor-tiles 1^ foot or
2 leet square [tcgulae sesquipf dales, hi pedales,
Vitr. V. 10, 2), or laid in small i^ieces {tesserae)
to form patterns [Balneae ; Pictura] ; (3) flue
tiles, whether tubiov tegiilae mainmatae [Bal-
neae;; (4) roofing tiles. At Rome the houses
were (after the period of the ruder thatch)
roofed with shingles (scandulae), down to the
time of Pyrrhus, when tiles began to supersede
the old roofing material (Plin. xvi. § 36). [For
Greek roofs, see Domus.]
TEGULA
Tiles were originally made perfectly flat, or
with nothmg more than the hook or nozzle
underneath the upper border for fixing them
upon the rafters. They were afterwards foi-med
(r\
^L^
^f%
=!l
Fig. 1047.— Section of tiles at Pompeii.
with a raised flange on each side, as is shown in
fig. 1049.
In order that the lower edge of any tile might
overlap the upper edge of that which came
next below it, its two sides were made to con-
verge downwards. Li order to cover the lines
of junction between the rows of flat tiles, semi-
Fig. lOls.— Tegulae and imbrices.
cylindrical tiles called imbrices {KaXvTrrrjpes)
were used. See fig. 1048, representing a tiled
roof, from a part of which the joint-tiles {im-
brices) are removed in the cut, in order to show
the overlapping and the convergence of the sides.
The roof, by the exact adayitation of the broad
tegulae euad the narrow imbrices throughout its
Fig. 1049.— Flange tile found m London. (Birch.)
whole extent, became like one solid and compact
framework, down which the water descended
into the gutter [canalis] to be discharged
through openings made in the lions' heads shown
in the woodcut. Each row of flat tiles tenui-
iiated in a variously ornamented fronton, which
rose immediately above the cornice : four speci-
im^^ £^
Fig. 1050.— Ornamented fronts of tUes.
mens of them are sho\vn in fig. 1050. [Antefixa,
fig. 54.] The frontons, which were ranged along
the cornice at the termmation of the rows of
TEixonoioi
joint-tiles, were either painted or moulded in
various forms.
For greater splendour, especially where tiles
were to be used in temple-roofs [Architectura,
Temple Architectuke], marble slabs cut like
TELA
613
Fig. 1051.— Frontons of tiled root.
tiles were used (marmoreae tegulae, Liv. xlii.
3). We hear also of bronze and bronze-gilt tiles
(as, for instance, those on the temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus, Plin. xxxiii. § 57).
TeixoirotoC. Among the various persons to
whom was entrusted the management of public
works at Athens ((TrKTrdrai S-qixocricov (pywv)
were those whose business it was to build and
keep in repair the public walls. The reixoTroiot
appear to have been elected by x^'^poTovia, one
from each tribe, and for a year. They were
considered to hold a magisterial office (apx^l),
and in that capacitj' had a rjyffxovia Si/facrTTjpiou.
Funds were put at tlieir disposal, for which
they had a treasurer (ra/jiias), dependent on
the treasurer of the revenue (Aeschin. c. Ctes.
§ 27). [TaM-Cas.] They were liable to render
an account (evdvvai) of their management of
these funds, and also of their general conduct.
(Dem. de Cor. pp. 243, 266; Aescliin. c. Ctes.
§§ 14, 17, 24.)
Tela {IcttSs). A loom. The elementary xorin-
ciple of weaving being merely tlie crossing of
threads over and under, it is probable that it
first took the form of simple plaiting (Lucr. v.
1349 ; Plat. Bep. p. 282 e) ; but we have no
record of a time when the real loom in some
form or other was unknown to the Greeks and
Koinans.
Everything woven consists of two parts,
the fixed tlu-ead or warp {stamen, (TTrifjiwv),
and the woof, weft, or tram (suhtnnen, later
trama, KpoK-fi). Instead of KpoK-i] we sometimes
find i<pv(pr\ used (Plat. Lcgg. v. p. 734 e). The
threads of the former were strong and firm,
while those of the latter are comparatively soft
and j-ielding (Plat. Rep. p. 283 e). Another
name for the weft or tram was (>o5dur).
Fig. 1052.— Ancient Greek loom, from a vaso In the Brltlsli
Museum. (Journ. Hell. Stud. vol. xlil. pi. 1.)
It may facilitate reference to arrange the
parts of the loom under different heads, noting
the terms discussed in each. (1) Words con-
nected with the arrangement of the stame7i
{<rTr]ixuiv, warp I: viz. tlie framework, iugum,
KiKeovTes ; ordiri, 5<a(,"e(r0ai, Koipos ; 2>ondera,
ayfvdfs, AoTai. (2) Those connected with the
licia or ^iVot (shedding by leaslies or heddles) :
viz. harundv, liciaioriitm, perhaps insilia
{kuvup, perliaps aj/rioj/ = heddle-leaf ). (3) With
the nidi us (KfpKts, sliuttle) : viz. TrfjuT], panus
(bobbin or spool), suhtemrn, trama {kpokt}, weft,
woof or tram). (4) With the spatlta, and the
later ^;ef<e« ((rirder] and KTfls = reed, lay, batten).
(5) The question of upright and horizontal
looms. (6) Style and pattern.
(1) The threads of the warp were called
stamina, <nr]fj.ovfs, because they were origin-
1 ally fixed at certain intervals in a row, peqien-
dicularly from the top (iugu7n, yam-beam) to
the bottom of the loom (cf. Horn. Od. ii. 94 ;
Ov. Met. iv. 395 ; Hes. Op. lid). This trans-
verse beam with the two upriglit side-posts
(l(TTOw65es or KeKeoyres, Theocr. xvii. 34) formed
the whole framework {i<TT6s or tela) of the
primitive loom. There was, apparently, no
cloth-beam or second cross-bar on which to
roll the cloth as it was completed.
The fastening of the warp to tlie top-bar or
ill gum was called specially SidCeerBai, (rrtifiovi-
CeaOai, and in Latin ordiri, exordiri (Plaut.
Pseud, i. 4, (5 ; cf. Cic. de Or. ii. 33, 145) : the
handing of the threads for this process, when
two persons were setting up the loom, is irpo-
(popflcrdai (Ar. Av. 4).
The mo\ang backwards and forwards fre-
quently mentioned {l(TThv iiroixeo-dai, Od. x.
222, &c.) belonged to the old fasliion of stand-
I ing to weave, before the fashion of sitting and
; beginning the web at the bottom of the loom
was introduced from Egypt. In setting the
warp for lighter fabrics the threads wore
stretched fewer and further apart, and the
web was then apat6(TTriixos or ixav6<TTt)nos, as
opposed to the thicker and coarser (TTr)fjL6viov,
TToKvffTiiijLos or ■KVKv6aT7)u.os (cf. also Hes. 0».
538).
The threads of the wai-p would fall out of
place and become entangled unless they were
secured at both ends : this in looms where the
cloth is made from below upwards is effected
by the yam-roll or yarn-beam at one end, and
the cloth-roll at the other. In the older Greek
and Roman looms, in which the weaving pro-
ceeded from above dowmwards, the warp was
fastened to the iugu m (or perhaps to a second
horizontal beam or roller below the iugum)
at the top, and the lower end of each warp-
thread was passed through a loop (KaTpos, cf.
Katpo(TfCA>v, Horn. Od. vii. 107), and also had
a weight attaclied to it to make it hang
straight. This row of loops is called Kalpw/xa.
The weights attached to tlie end of each warp-
thread {ayvvOfs or Xalai [\f7at]. jioiidt ra), were
either stones with a hole bored through them,
or made of pottery : a great number of these
have been found. In the Scandinavian ode
translated by Gray as The Fatal Sisters,
the ' weights that play below ' are warriors'
skulls. In the Egyptian loom shown in fig.
1059, the upright threads are secured to a cross
bar below.
The upright loom remains almost in its
primitive state in Iceland. In a vase-painting
from Chiusi we observe underneath the iugum
a roller which is turned by a handle, and on
which the web is wound as the work advances
downwards. Tlie threads of tlie warp are
divided into tliirty or forty parcels, to each of
which a stone is suspended. The knotted
614
TELA
parcels of threads to which the stones were
attached often remained after the web was
finished, in the form of a fringe. [Fimbriae.]
In the centre of the web we see the attacliment
Fig. lOM.— Icelandic loom.
of the threads of the wai-p by means of leashes
to tliree rods iKav6vfs, Uciatoria). (Fig. 1054.)
(2) Decussating (decussare, to cross, lit. ' to
mark with X ') or Shedding. — In the most
primitive method of weaving, the passage for
the weft was opened merely by a transverse
rod {harundo, Kavwv) passed through the warp,
Fig. 1054.— Penelope's loom, from a vase from Chiusi.
(.Uon. Inst. ix. 42.)
separating the threads so that they were
alternately on either side of the harundo. Such
a method only admits of plain weaving without
a pattern, since in order to make any pattern
it would be necessary to raise or depress each
thread separately, as in plaiting. By a leash,
or ' heddle ' as weavers term it, we are to
understand a thread having at one end a loop,
through which a thread of the warp was passed,
the other end being fastened to a horizontal
rod (Kavdv, harundo ; later liciatorium). Thus,
supposing that only plain weaving without a
pattern is required, so that the weft is merely
to pass over and under alternatelv, and we
number the«wai-p-tlu-eads 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., all the
Fig. 1055.— Rods (icavoves)
of loom.
leashes holding the threads of uneven numbers
1, 3, &c. are tied to one rod or liciatoriuin (fig.
1055, k), while all those holding the even
threads, 2, 4, &c.
are tied to another
rod ; and by simply
moving each rod
alternately forward
a free passage is
opened for the weft
to shoot through.
But here, though
there might be a
coloured stripe by
changmg at regular
' intervals the colour
of the thread in the
weft, or other varia-
I tions by colouring
different threads of
1 the warp (see below),
there could be no
I elaborate colour
I pattern, and no variety at all of the tex-
j ture. Tliis was produced, just as it is now,
by a contrivance for passing over at requisite
places a number of warp-threads together, so
that the weft might pass under one and over
two, or under one and over three, and so on.
It is necessary that there should be an ad-
ditional set of leashes or ' heddles ' for every
increase of variation, so as to vary tlie threads
which are brought forward or kept back. When
there was one additional set, the weaving was
called bilix, Si/xitos, of which the Icelandic
loom in fig. 1053 gives an example : with two
additional sets it was trilix, and then could
pass under one and over three : for com-
plexity of pattern many sets of leashes were
used. The details of this part of the subject
can be studied in modem weaving. The
principle of varying the pattern was exactly
the same as in the loom of to-day : the only
difference lies in the mechanical contrivances
which make the work more rapid. In the
earliest times not only the shuttle, but the
Uciatoria, Kav6ves, or leash-rods (' heddle-
leaves '), were worked by the hand (cf. Horn.
II. xxiii. 760). It is possible that the Greeks
and Romans of later times used treadles for
moving the Uciatoria, but we have no direct
evidence of it, nor any word to express it.
Some indeed explain insilia in Lucr. t. 1352
as treadles, but it probably = liciatorium (see
Munro ad loc). 'Avriov (Ar. Thesm. 822) is
perhaps the same as kcwwv.
(3) We have now to speak of the shuttle
which conveyed the weft or woof across. This
implement was called KfpKis in Greek and
radius in Latin (Hom. Od. v. G2 ; Plat. Bep. p.
281 E, Cratyl. p. 388 c ; Ov. Met. iv. 275 ; cf.
Hom. II. xxii. 448) : it was usually of wood
(Ov. Met. vi. 132) : the end pointed (Soph. Ant.
976 ; Ov. Met. vi. 56) : the humming sound is
expressed by Ar. Han. 1315. The KfpKis or
radius was strictly, like our shuttle, the re-
ceptacle for the bobbin (iriivr}, injviov, panus,
'— i1Miia?^>^
Fig. 1056.— The shuttle.
panuvellium) on which the weft was wound
(Hom. II. xxiii. 762; Eur. Hec. 470). The
annexed woodcut shows tJie form in which it
TELA
615
is still used in some parts of England, and
which may be regarded as a form of gi'eat
antiquity. The small stick passes through a
liollovv cane, which our manufacturers call a
quill, and on which the woof is wound, and
drawn through a round hole in front of the
shuttle ; so that, whenever the shuttle is
thrown, the bobbin revolves and delivers the
woof through this hole. The process of wind-
ing the yarn so as to make it into a bobbin was
culled injviCecrdai (Theocr. xviii. 32). The process
by which it was delivered through the hole in
front of the shuttle was called iKirr]viCec6ai (cf.
Ar. lian. 58(i).
(4) Supposing the wai-p to have been thus
adjusted, and the shuttle to have been carried
through it, it was then decussated or shedded
by drawing forwards the proper rod, so as to
carry one set of the threads of the warp across
the rest, after which the weft was shot back
again (the shuttle being thrown by the hand),
and by the continual repetition of this process
the warp and woof were interlaced ; and in
fancy weaving, with several sets of leashes, the
pattern was produced. It was necessary further
to make the weft threads lie close :
worked in a flat horizontal frame instead of
hanging vertically in front of the weaver. The
parts of this loom are the same in nature and
object as those described above, except that, as
the warp frame lies flat, the leashes or heddles
must be worked vertically up and down instead
of backwards and forwards; and if tlie Romans
used such a loom, the licia and liciatoriitm
depended from a cross-beam over the horizontal
tela. It is, however, doubtful whether the
Greeks and Romans used the horizontal loom.
They had the iVtJ/s upBios, the Homeric loom,
resembling that of Iceland, at which the weaver
stood ; and the later Egyptian loom, in which
the weft was driven close downwards, and the
weaver sat at his work. Both of these were up-
right looms.
The essential distinction between the early
Greek and Roman looms and the later was
that pointed out by Herodotus (ii. 35), that the
web in the former began at the top, and there-
fore the weaver always thrust the weft up-
wards (ivcD TTjj/ KpoKTf\v wBovffi) lu Striking it
close with the airddr]. The tunica recta or
regilla, enjoined with the consen-atism of re-
ligion for the marriage garment [Matrimo-
thus
not thu'^
This had to be done upwards or downwards,
according as the piece was woven from above,
as originally in Greece and Italy ; or from below,
as commonly in Egypt (Hdt. ii. 85). The
simplest and most ancient instrument used for
this purpose was a large wooden sword or batten
Fig. 1057.— Batten, mrdOri.
{spatha, (TirdBri, Plat. Li/ais, p. 208 ; Aesch.
Cho. 220). Hence cnraddoii, anaBriTos, Ktirro-
(rnddriTos, &c. From the verb aTraddoo, to beat
with the spatha, cloth rendered close and com-
pact by this process was called rriraSTjTo's
(Athen. xii. p. 525 d) ; when the weft is not
driven close, as in light, transparent fabrics, it
is called \€iTTo(rirdQr]ros (Soph. Fr. 400) : the
close texture TroKva-iradris (Anth. Pal. vi. 39).
This instrument is still used in Iceland exactly
as it was in ancient times (see fig. 1053).
The spatha was superseded by the comb
(prcteu, KTfis), the teeth of which were inserted
between the threads of the warp to drive the
threads of the woof close together. (Ov. i^'as^. iii.
820, jVfe^ vi. 58; Juv. ix. 20 ; Verg.,4r/i. vii. 14.)
It is a late introduction for the (rirddri, and is
mentioned only in late Greek writers : it origi-
nated in Egypt (Mart. xiv. 150j. The office of
Fig. 105C.— Weaving comb used in .\bia M
the comb is now executed by the reed, lay, or
batten.
(5) The two hinds of iijiright looms and tltr
supposed horizontal loom. — At some time or
other a more convenient form of loom was
introduced into Europe, in which the web was
Fig. 1059. — Loom, from an Egyptian painting.
nium], was woven at this ancient loom, i.e.
from the top downwards (Plin. viii. 74) : it was
woven also in one piece of the size of the loom
frame, as there was no rolling up of the cloth-
beam or unrolling of tlie yarn-beam.
At a later time, probably quite at the end of
the Republic, the Egyptian fashion (Hdt. /. c),
cf beginning the web at the bottom and so
weaving in a sitting posture, was introduced.
The cut of an Egyptian weaver (fig. 105!)) illus-
trates this kind of loom. With this Egyptian
form came in gradually tlie other improvements
described in (1) and (4), the substitution of the
pecten for the .spatha, and the discontinuance
of the weights {&yvvd(s, A«?ai or Kdtai. pondera).
(6) After enumerating those parts of the
loom which were necessary to produce even the
plainest piece of cloth, it remains to describe
the methods of producing its varieties, and
more esjiecially of adding to its value by making
it either warmer and softer, or more rich and
ornamental. A striped pattern (^a/35a>T(Js :
virtjatus, Verg. Acn. viii. 000) was produced by
using a warp of one colour only, but changing
at regular intervals the colour of the weft. Of
tliiskind of cloth the Roman trahea (Verg. Aen.
vii. 188) was an example. [Dress, Toga.] A
616
TELAMONES
checked pattern [scutuUs dividfire,'P\m.Yn\.li,
§ 196; scutulata, Juv. ii. 97), by arranging the
threads of the warp in alternate parcels or bands
of (say) black and white ; each band or strip of
threads being of the same width as the square
of the check to be woven. When one set of
squares was completed, the threads of the weft
were changed from black to white or vice versa.
Checked and striped goods were no doubt, in
the first instance, produced by combining the
natural varieties of wool, white, black, brown,
&c. The weft also was the medium through
which almost every other diversity of ap-
pearance and quality was efiected. After
the piece was woven, the fuller drew out its
nap by carding, so as to make it like a soft
blanket (Plat. Bep. p. 302) [Fullo] ; and, as
stated above, when a warm material was to
be made, the warp was diminished and the
weft or nap (KpoKvs) made more abundant in
proportion (Hes. Op. 537). In this manner was
made the soft x^o'^^'o or laena [Dress, 1. I.].
Thus the vestis subserica, or tramoserica, had
the weft of silk [Sericum]. In other cases it
was of gold (Verg. Acn. iii. 483), or of wool
dyed with Tyrian puiijle (Ov. Met. vi. 578, &c. ;
Tyrio suhtemine, Tibull. iv. 1, 1'21). Hence
the epithets (poivLK6KpoKos (Pind. 01. vi. 39),
dvQoKpoKos (Eur. Hec. 470), xP'"^^o^^''V'''os
(Or. 841), eijirnvos (I. T. 1465), &c.
An endless diversity was also effected by the
manner of inserting other materials into tlie
warp : the number of leashes being unlimited.
The terms bilix and Sifjuros probably denoted
what we call dimity or twilled cloth, where by
passing over a certain number of w^arp-threads
a ridged pattern is produced.
Sprigs or otlier ornaments produced in the
texture at regular intervals were called flowers
iavdi) : 6p6va, Hom. II. xxii. 440) or feathers
(plumae) ; of. vestes undulatae, papaveratae
(Plin. I.e.).
Although weaving was amongst the Greeks
and Romans a distinct trade, carried on by a
separate class of persons {u^dvrai, textores,
textrices, linteones), who more particularly
supplied the inhabitants of the towns (Plat.
Phaed. p. 87 b, Hep. ii. p. 370 d), yet every
considerable domestic establishment, especially
in the counti-y, contained a loom, together with
the whole apparatus necessary for the working
of wool {la)tijiciit»i, TaXacria, TaKaffiovpyia).
(Hes. Op. 779 ; Verg. Georg. i. '285, 294.) [Cala-
tlins.] The slave household (familia rustica)
at least was thus clothed, and the commoner
stray III a were made at home. In Greece as at
Rome in earlier times the matron and her
daughters, assisted by female slaves, wove
garments for husband, sons and brothers (Plat.
Leyg. vii. p. 805 e ; Aescli. Cho. 231 ; Eur. Ion,
1417) : so of the Roman matron weaving iu the
atrium, Liv. i. 57, Ac.
When the farm or the house was sufficiently
large to admit of it, a portion of it called the
IdTuv, textrina or textrinum, was devoted to
this purpose (Cic. Verr. iv. 26, 58, 59 ; cf. Hor.
Carm. ii. 18, 6). The work was there principally
carried on by female slaves [quasillariae,
epidoi, Theocr. xv. 80 ; Hom. Od. vii. 235) under
the superintendence of the mistress of the
house. Weaving, however, as an inventive and
dejcorative art, was almost entirely Oriental.
[Chlamys ; Dress, P.vllilm ; Tapete.]
For the weaving of sacred robes in Greek
temples, see 'AppTn^dpta, 'Hpala, Panathe-
naea.
Telamo'nes. [Atlantes.]
TEA02
TeXcjvTis- Most of the taxes and dufciss
at Athens were farmed by private persons
(reAcDj'ai)- The farmers of any particular tax
were named eiKocrTccvai, TrevTriKocrTwvai, &c. ;
or, as the farmers and collectors were often the
same persons, elKocnoKoyoi, Trevr7jKO(rTo\6yoi,
&c. The tax or duty was let to the highest
bidder. Several persons (like a societas of
'Roma.n. publicani) often joined in the specula-
tion ; the principal or chairman of the com-
pany, who gave security and was responsible to
the state, was called apx<^vris. The office was
frequently undertaken by resident aliens. The
farmer had power to search for and seize con-
traband or uncustomed goods ; he watched the
harbours, markets, and other places to prevent
smuggling; brought a Odais or other legal
process against suspected xsersons, or even
arrested them and took them before a magis-
trate. He was exempted from military senice
([Dem.] c. Neaer. p. 1353, § 27). The taxes or
duties were let out [reKri e/cSiSorat) by the ten
ira}\T)Tai acting under the authority of the
senate [FltoXTiTaC]. The payments (/cara-
0o\al T€\ovs, Dem. c. Timocr. p. 731, § 98) were
made at stated times in the senate-house
([Dem.] c. Neaer. 1. c). On any failure in pay-
ment the farmer became ari/jMS if he was a
citizen, and might be imprisoned (Dem. c.
Timocr. pp. 745, 746). After a time it was
doubled, and, if it were not then paid, the
debtor's property was forfeited to the state
(Dem. c. Timocr. p. 730). (See [Dem.] c. Neaer.
and c. Timocr.)
Te'Xo s ■ A tax. The chief sources of Athenian
revenue may be divided into three groups:
(1) taxes paid at Athens; (2) taxes paid abroad
or by foreigners for the benefit of Athens ; (3)
income derived, not from taxes, but from the
corporate property of the state.
(1) The taxes imposed by the Athenians and
collected at home were either («) ordinary or
(b) extraordinary.
(a) The ordinary taxes were generally farmed
out ; see TeXuvTig. They included (i) the
customs and harbour dues ; see r\€VTT\KO<jrr\.
(ii) Duty, probably 1 per cent., on all sales in
the market (ewwvia). (iii) AiairuA.io;' or gate-
money, (iv) TpicofioKov paid by freedmen. (v)
The same amount was probably paid by slave-
owners for each^elave (Xen. de Vect. 4, 25). (-vi)
TlopviKhv TfKos. (vii) Law-court fees (Appen-
dix, Greek Law, npuraveia, napaCTxaCTig,
riapaKaraPoX-n) were a lucrative item, espe-
cially during the time when the allies brought
suits to be decided at Athens (Thuc. vi. 91).
(viii) AepfJMTiKov, the value of the skin, horns,
&c., of the victims slain at certain public sacri-
fices (Hdt. vi. 56, 57). (ix) MiroiKiov, the
poll-tax of the resident aliens [Me'TotKou]: 12
drachmas annually, probably paid by men only,
(x) The iuL€TotKoi appear to have also paid a
special entrance-fee for the sale of their goods
in the market.
(b) The extraordinary taxes at Athens were
(i) ELa4>opd or property-tax. This fell on
fx.fr otKoi also (Dem. Androt. pp. 609, 612).
(ii) The services called Kfirovpyiai [AeuTovp-
vCa]. Some of these at least were shared by
fieroiKoi. (iii) Voluntary contributions on ex-
traordinary occasions ['EiriSoo'ti.s].
(2) Taxes paid by foreigners for the benefit
of Athens, (a) The tribute (<t)6pos), of the
allied states formed in the flourishing period
of the Republic a regular and most important
source of revenue. In 413 B.C. it was changed
to a 5 per cent, duty on all commodities
TEMEN02
exported or imported by the subject states
[ElKOCTTii]. (ii) A temporary duty of 10 per
cent. (SfKaT-fi) on merchandise passing from or
into tiie Euxine was estabhshed in 409 B.C.
(Xen. Hell. xi. 2-2; Dem. Lepf. p. 475, § 00).
(iii) Plunder taken in war : sale of prisoners
for slaves.
(3) Other sources of revenue were derived by
the Athenians from (i) certain lands of which
the state held the tithes. [Decumae.] (ii) Rents
from public lands (Ar. Vesjj. 058) : from pas-
tures, forests, mines {/jLeraKKa), saltworks,
rivers ; also, the sum paid by the lessee of the
theatre. The mines must have here constituted
tilt! largest item. The silver mines of Laureion
afforded a considerable sum to the state, being
rented by persons who worked for their own
profit. The valuable gold mines of Skapte
Hyle in Thrace (Hdt. vi. 40) became Athenian
property by the conquests of Kimon. (iii) Fines
and confiscations: see Appendix, Greek L.vw,
Tiii.r\\j.a., ATm-toirpaTa, and 'EttiPoXti.
These various sources of revenue produced
in 423 B.C. an annual income of between 1000
and 2000 talents (Ar. Vesp. 665, compared with
Xen. Anah. vii. 1, 27). But during the Pelo-
ponnesian War the income fell enormously,
and it is not easy again to arrive at anything
like a fixed sum.
TeVevog. ("Vectigalia templorum.]
Temo. iAratrum; Currus.]
Templum (y tem-, cut : cf. refxevos).
(1) //(. Augury. — The word tenrplum in
augury (its original Roman use) had a twofold
meaning : (a) the space of sky which the augrur
marked off with his lituus by imaginary lines,
the cardo from north to south, and the decu-
■ntanus from east to west, thus dividing the space
observed into four regions (Verg. Aan. i. 92).
(b) The space of earth to be included for obser-
vations, which was a rectangular space called
locim effatus conccptin verbis, i.e. a space
bounded by points which he announced aloud,
naming (conceptis verbi.'i) stationary objects in
view as the limits for observation in each direc-
tion. This space also was divided into four
regions by lines {cardo and dccumanus, as
above), and the observer sat at the point
(decussis [= cross; X, decern']) where these
imaginary lines intersected (Liv. i. 18 ; Cic.
Div. i. 17,31). In the place where the observer
was to sit (see Augur, p. 98 b) he pitched a tent
[Tabernaculum] of canvas or leather (linteis vel
loris), also quadrangular in shape, with a single
opening. It is probable that for observing light-
ning by the tonpla i)i caclo the tabernaculum
looked to the south, but for observing birds by
the tcnipla in terra it faced the east, whence,
as in Liv. i. 18, the south is on the right hand,
the north on the left. The tabcniaculuni was
called tciiipluin 7ninus. [Auspicia; Pome-
rium.]
Tlic word templum, in its extended meanings,
is still confined to such spaces or buildhigs
as liave been 'inaugurated ' by the augurs, and
the shape is still rectangular. Such inaugurated
and consecrated places were (a) those for the
assembly of the senate, curiae (Hostilia, Pom-
peia, lulia), or actual temples of the gods;
(b) the Comitia Curiata and Centuriata (Liv.
V. 52); (c) the Rostra (Liv. viii. 14); {d) a
temple in the ordinary sense. For the build-
ing of a temple, or for any permanent temj^lum,
it was necessary that the ground should be
effatus and also liberatus : that is to say. any
prior claims upon the ground had to be abro-
gated [ExauguratioJ, and the ground and
TERENTINI LUDI
017
building assigned by the augurs to that deity
to whose service it was to be dedicated ; and
next, the temple itself was consecrated by the
pontifices (Liv. i. 55).
Te)nplu)u, however, in the sense of a god's
house, was probably a comparatively modern
equivalent for aedes ov aedes sacra. A circular
building, such as the Aedes Vestae, was not
properly a templum : and, in fact, this round
aedes was consecrated by the pontifices but
not inaugurated by tlie augurs, and hence not
a possible meeting-place for the senate.
The word delubrum ( V LU- ' wash,' l.w-, Ao-,
A.OU-) meant originally a place of purification :
such a rite of purification belonged to the old
unroofed loca sacra, and the delubrum is pro-
perly the sacred precinct, as distinguished from
the aedes; but in course of time delubrum, like
saccllum, was used both for the sacred enclosed
spot and the shrine upon it. In the poets, and
in later pro.se (though not in Livy), no distinc-
tion between aedes, templum, mudi delubrum is
observed (cf. Plin. xxxv. § 144).
Though /««;<;/! is found in a general sense
for any locus sacer consecrated by the ponti-
fices but not inaugurated [Fanum], yet the
strict use of fanu m includes only spaces si7ie
tecto, and when used of temples belongs only
to temples of non-Roman deities.
Though not what we should call ' temples,'
yet, in the Roman sense, the Curia or senate-
house and tlie
Rostra were tem-
1 2)la, as having
been consecrated
by the augurs.
I (2) For an ac-
j count of Greek
and Roman
t e m J) 1 e s see
, Architectura.
Tensae.[Then-
sae.]
Tepida'rium.
[Balneae.j
Te'rebra, Te-
re'bra [rpviravuv,
Tpviraviov, repe-
Tfiov). Any in-
strument for bor-
ing wood, stone,
or metal. We
find a distinction
between terebra antiqiia, which produced saw-
dust (scobis), and terebra gallica, which pro-
duced rameiita or shavings. This would
seem to show that the anti<iua was a drill-
borer, in principle like that described in the
Odyssey, and the gallica au
auger witli a large spiral.
We find on monuments one
kind of terebra exactly like
our gimlet (b) ; another kind
in common use was the ' bow-
drill,' a borer twirled round by
means of a bow, the string of
which was twisted round the
handle of the drill (a) : see
cuts under Begula ; both
parts of the bow-drill are
there shown separately ; the
compasses {circiu i) lie between
them. The shipwright's borer (rpwrai/oj/) men-
tioned in Od. ix. 384, Eur. Ci/cl. 460, was similar
in principle, but on a larger scale. The tools
figured were fitted into wooden holders (vagifia).
Terenti'ni ludi. [Ludi.]
Fig. lOGO.-Terebrae. fnidraner.)
<i, bow drill ; /), gimlet ; <■. .(, drUIa
of variuud kiiids.
FU. lOi-il.— Bowaud
drill. (From a
gvm.)
618
TEEMINALIA
Termina'lia, a festival in honour of Ter-
minus, the god of boundaries (Plut. Num. 16).
His statue was merely a stone or post stuck in
the ground as a landmark or boundary-stone
(Ov. Fast. ii. 039). The stone at its first setting
up was consecrated with peculiar ceremonies.
A trench was dug, and a victim was sacrificed :
the blood was poured into the trench, the
ministrants being veiled (a Roman use : cf .
Sacrificium) ; the body of the victim, with corn,
fruits, incense, honey and wine, was cast into
the trench, and the whole consumed by blazing
pine-brands; and the boundary- stone was set
upon the bed of ashes. [Agrimetatio, p. '24
(14J, (15).] On the festival the owners of
adjacent property crowned the statue with
garlands and raised an altar, on which they
offered up com, honeycombs and wine, and
sacrificed a lamb (Hor. Epod. ii. 59) or a
sucking-pig. They concluded with singing the
praises of the god (Ov. Fast. ii. 639, etc.). The
Terminalia were celebrated at the sixth mile-
stone on the road towards Laurentum, the
ancient limit of the Roman territory.
The festival of the Terminalia was celebrated
a. (1. vii. KaJ. Mart., or February- 23, on the day
before tlie Regifugium. [Calendarium.J
Tentorium. rTabernaculum.J
Terracotta (Ital. : ' baked clay '). The term
KepaixLKTi rex""!) included the whole of the potter's
art. The Greeks also called the maker of
statuettes a KopoirXaffTr^s or KopoTrKados ; a
relief made from a mould was an (ktv-kov or
fKTvirwfjia; and in general terracottas were
aryaXjxara oittjjs ylfS. The Romans, while
using such special
words as antefixa
.Hid ectijpa for
reliefs, designated
statues and sta-
tuettes of terra-
cotta as signa fie-
tilia, and the
makers of them as
jictores or plastae.
In Greece tlie
oldest application
of terracotta (i.e.
burnt clay) as an
art independent of
the vase-maker was
for the roofs and cornices of temples. Designs
for cornices and frontons were made in moulds
(titttoi), and one mould of a lion's head, for
TERRACOTTA
early centre of work in terracotta. When
marble finally took the place of terracotta for
architectural purposes the same designs and
processes ©f colouring were transferred to the
new material.
In Etruria and ameng the early Romans the
application of terracotta to arcliitecture appears
to have been more extensive than in Greece
(Plin. XXXV. § 157). The ancient statue of
Jupiter CapitoUnus, and the quadriga which
stood on the front pediment of this temple,
were of this material (see Plut. Public. 13). A
sarcophagus from Caere (Cervetri) now in the
Etruscan saloon in the British Museum (date
about 550 B.C.) may be taken as an illustration
of the style of art presented by the early Roman
ctatues in terracotta, such as the quadriga and
the Jupiter already referred to. Probably also
the pediments of the Temple of Jupiter Capi-
tolinus, as of other temples, were filled with
statues in terracotta (Vitr. iii. 3, 5; Cic. Div.
i. 10, 16). Among the trade guilds instituted
by Numa was one of workers in clay (Phn. xxxv.
§ 150).
Terracotta figures combined with vases are
of frequent occurrence in the black ware of
Chiusi (Clusium), and, like this ware itself,
appear to be imitated from designs in bronze or
other metal.
Etruscan urns of terracotta are for the most
part of a late date, and deal with popular Greek
myths and legends, or parting scenes, according
to designs evidently invented by Greek artists.
There are numerous portraits in this material,
also of a later date. It is probable that this
art, or at least a strong impetus to the practice
of it, was derived from Corinth in the seventh
century B.C.
By far the most nimierous class of Greek
terracottas consists of statuettes, and the great
majority of them represent more or less youth-
ful draped female figures, whence arose the
name of KopoTr\ddos or KopoirKdffrrjs, applied to
the makers of them. Few of these are repre-
sentations of deities and heroes. Scenes from
daily occupations are frequent; so also are
Fig. 10(!2.— Terracotta figurine,
from Tanagra.
Fig. 1063.— Temple of Jupiter CapitoUnus. (From a
coin of Vespasian.)
example, would be sufficient for a whole cor-
nice. The uniformity of effect was compensated
by brightness of colouring. According to tra-
dition, tills invention came from Corinth, an
Fig. 1064.— Terracotta (copy of
Hermes K.uoAo'pos by
Kalamis). from Gela. (Brit-
ish Museum.)
Fig. mv,. — Terracotta
from Ccntorbi in
Sicily. (British Mu-
seum.)
dolls and plajrthings, more or less comic, many
of which are still found in the graves round
Corinth.
Except the earliest examples, which are
TERRACOTTA
rudely modelled with the hand, these statuettes
are made from clay moulds, many specimens of
which still exist in the British Museum. (See
fig. 521, Ectypus.) The scope allowed for variety
in the finisliiug of the figures enabled the koro-
plastes to give a different app3arance to figures
of the same mould, in whicli also he was greatly
aided by the use of colour. To produce a
mould, the first step was to model the desired
figure in clay or in wax ; if in clay, a core of
wood (/caj'tt/Sos) was used ; if in wax, the model
was covered with clay and subjected to fire, and
the wax melted away. The clay covering
(■{]/jLi\iySos) was pierced with a number of small
holes for the escape of the vapour arising from
the melting wax. In most cases the colours are
simply painted on the terracotta, and arc easily
destroyed, but sometimes the whole figure is
covered witli a glaze. In the best period of
this glazed ware the colour is a uniform white.
Somewhat later we find white, brown and green.
TESSERA
619
Pig. 10«j.— Perseus aud Medusa ; from Melos. iFrom a
terracotta in the British Museum.)
These terracotta statuettes, like the Athenian
lekythi, were probably in many cases made for
funeral purposes. Others, doubtless were des-
tined for domestic use.
A comparatively small number of terracotta
figures can be considered as reproductions of
celebrated statues of the
Greek masters.
The oldest Greek sta-
tuettes are well repre-
sented in the British
Museum by a series found
in tombs at Kamirus in
Rhodes, in which, while
the head is modelled with
some skill and care, the
body is only a rudi-
mentary trunk. Colour
is sparingly employed.
Equally rude is a smaller
series from Tegea, in
Arkadia. At a later stage
the drapery is modelled
and colour more freely
used. This period did
not close till it had at-
tained what may be con-
sidered the ideal and best
stage of archaic terra-
cottas, as represented by
numerous female figures,
tall, severe in attitude
and aspect, with drapery falling in simple but
stately lines, the left hand holding tlie skirt
and the right hand raised to the breast. Of
Fig. IO157.— Terracotta
figurine Irom Tanagra.
this stage are the masks from Kamirus, vases
modelled in the form of Sirens, or to imitate
the head of Herakles, or Achelous, or the forms
of apes and other animals : so also the archaic
reliefs (emhleniata) from Melos (fig. 1066). The
age of Pheidias is represented by a few terra-
cottas from Athens.
The next period of art is known from the
sculptures of the Mausoleum, and some few
examples from other localities, as Athens and
Corinth. The climax of this stage is reached
in the ordinary type of the terracottas which
have been found in great numbers in the tombs
at Tanagra, in Boeotia, since 1873, when this
cemetery was first discovered. Most of them
represent subjects taken fron» daily life, or
youthful ideal figures. Many interesting terra-
cottas have also been found at Myrina, in Asia
Minor. Other terracottas of a late period come
from the Cj'renaTca, Centuripa (Centorbi), in
Sicily, and Canosa, in Italy, intended mostly to
be attached to large ornamental vases.
Teru'ncius. [Coinage.]
Te'ssera, dim. Tesse'rula and Tesse'Ua
{kv^os). a square or cube ; a die.
(1) [Pictura (9).]
(2) [Games.]
(3) Similar objects were used as tokens
(crvfjifioKa) ; such were (a) the ticket or badge
{avfjL^oKov) used by dikasts, &c., at Athens ;
hj s?^F'^t•T^i?iJ^:.^/X^c
r?a*^MM'
.ue-r^s>-
r [3rd section] 'Api<rTO<i>a)r 'AptCToS^iaov KoO(d[ki6'))sJ.
Owl and wreath. (Hicks, Hisl. Inscr. p. iOi.)
Fig. 1068.— Ticket (cnJ/u.^oAoc) of an Athenian dlkast.
(Britisli Museum.)
(6) the tessera hospitalis [Hospitium]. This
was usually of earthenware, having the head
of Jupiter Hospitalis stamped upon it (Plant.
Pocn. V. 1, 25). Others were in the form of
a sheep's head (fig. 1009). (c) Tesserae frii-
mentariae and 7iumaHae were tickets given
Fig. 1009.— Tessera hospitalis. (British Museum.)
<i, obverse ; b, reverse.
by Roman magistrates to the poor, in exchange
for which they received a fixed amount of
corn or money (Suet. Aug. 40, 42, Nero, 11).
620 TESSERAKONTERES
[Frumentariae leges.] (d) Tessera theatralis,
giving Iht^ beartr admission to a theatre.
Various tesserae are preserved in museums ;
the materials are bone, ivory, stone, and porce-
lain. One class of these are tickets of admis-
sion to the theatre, and answer to the ffu/xjSoXo
of the Greeks; another class were probably
issued on the occasion of public games or con-
tests. Others, agam, are Sortes convivales, or
sparsiones, tickets thrown to be scrambled for
in the circus (Mart. viii. 78; Suet. Nero, 11).
The gladiatorial tesserae are usually carved
out of a piece of ivory or bone, and inscribed
TESTUDO
roofs used to protect men or engines (Xen. Hell.
iii. 1, 7). There were different kinds of such
shed-like constructions, all of which were made
of wood and mounted on wheels.
(a) XeAwvri Kpio<p6pos {testudo arietaria).
[Fig. 140, Aries.]
(b) XeKwvT} SiopvKTpis, used for protecting
soldiers whilst undermininer a wall. Its front
Fig. 1070.— Tesserae theatrales. (British JIuseum.)
with the gladiator's name, his trainer's, the
letters SP. { = sjpectatus), followed by the month
and day, and the consuls, marking the year.
S IP ^ BDIf'H
® U
<S ^'
Fig. 1072.— XeA<5n7 Siopunrpij.
was perpendicular, so that it could be run up
close to the wall (Vitr. x. 21).
(c) XeAaivr; xuiaTp'is is said to have had on
the front next the enemy a sloping roof, as in
the subjoined cut.
Fig. 1071.— Gladiatorial tesserae. (British Uuseam.j
At one end is a hole by which the tessera was
suspended. These tesserae were given by the
'munerwrius to a gladiator when spectatus or
approved by passing through a certain number
of contests (cf. Hor. Ep. i. 2, 2).
(4) Tessera tnilitaris {(rvvdrifia) the militaiy
password given out and passed through the
ranks before battle. Thus at the battle of
Kunaxa the word was Zei/s SoiT'Jjp Kal Nikt]
(Ken. Anab. i. 8, § l(i ; cf. vi. 8, § 25). A similar
(TvvB-nfia was used in camp by night (vii. 3,
i> 84). On the tessera or watchword in the
Roman camp, see Castra.
■Tesserakonte'res. [Navis.] I
Testa. [Pottery.] |
Testame'ntum. See Appendix, Rom.\n Law. i
Testis. A witness. 1. Greek. [See Appen- |
dix, Greek L.\w, MapxvpCa.] 2. Roman.
[See Appendix, Roii.\N Law, lusiurandum.]
Testudo (xsAcili'T/), a tortoise, was the name I
given to several other objects.
(1) [Lyra.]
h) [Domus.] '
(8) A generic term for all kinds of moveable !
Fig. 10(3.— XcAwiT) xuxTrpi'S.
Testudines were as a general rule covered
with a double layer of raw hides, which were
stuffed with non-inflammable substances.
These coverings were called centones [Cento].
(Caes. B. C. ii. 9.)
(4) The name of testudo was also applied to
the covering made by the shields of a close body
of soldiers: the soldiers of the outside rank
placing their long semi-cylindrical shields in
front, and the others placing their flat shields
over their heads to secure themselves against
the darts of the enemy. The shields fitted so
closely together as to present one unbroken
surface without any insterstices between them,
and were also so firm that men could walk upon
them. A testudo was formed {testudinemfacere,
agere) either in battle to ward off the arrows and
other missiles of the enemy (cf . Liv. x. 29, 6, 12 ;
Caes. B. G. i.2i,phala7ix), or, more frequently,
to form a protection to the soldiers when they
advanced to the walls or gates of a town for the
purpose of attacking them (Liv. x. 43; xxxi. 39,
14; Caes. B. G. ii. C; Sail. lug. 94; Tac. Ann.
xiii. 39, Hist. iii. 27, 81). Sometimes the shields
were disposed in such a way as to make the
testudo slope {t. fastigata). The Romans were
TETRADRACHMON
■ ^iJjstomed to fonu this kind of testudo, as an
e.tfercise, in the games of the circus (Liv. xliv. 9 ;
Polyb. xxviii. 12),
THEATRUM
G21
Fig. 1074.— Testudo of shields.
Tetradrachmon {tetrachmiun^lAv. xxxiv. 52).
[Coinage, Greek.]
Tetra'rcha or Tetra'rches (nrpapx-ns). This
word was originally used, according to its etymo-
logical meaning, to signify tlie governor of
the fourth part of a country (rerpapxi-a f'l'
rerpaSapxio), e.ff. Thessaly, Galatia, &c. Some
of the tribes of Syria were ruled by tetrarchs,
and several of the princes of the house of Herod
ruled in Palestine with this title (Plin. v.
§ 16, lit ; Joseph. Antiq. xiv. 13, § 1, A'c. ; St.
Luke, iii. 1).
In later times and under the Empire, the
Romans seem to have used the title (as also
tliose of cthnarch and phylarch) to designate
tributary princes who were not of sufficient im-
portance to be called kings. (Cf. Lucan, vii. 227 ;
Sail. Catil. 20; Cic. Mil. 28, 7t!; Hor. Sat.
i. 3, 12; Tac. Ann. xv. 25.)
TexTapdKovTa, Ol. Tlie Forti/ (Dem. c.
Panfacn. p. 070, § 33) : one of the minor magi-
stracies at Athens, also called SiKaaral Kara
Si}fj.ovs, 'district judges' (Dem. c. Thnocr. yt.
735, § 112). Their number was originally
thirty, l>ut was increased to forty after the expul-
sion of tlie Tliirty Tyrants. They were chosen
by lot, four from each tribe ([Arist.] 'A0. ttoA..
53) ; no qualification of property or ability was
re(juired. They went on circuit through the
demes, and decided causes whei'c tin; matter
in dispute was not above the value of ten
drachmas ; beyond that amount they carried
the cause (as uaaywyels) before the StoiTTjTot.
In cases of atKia and ra irep] rwf fiiaioiv (Dem.
Pant. 1. c.) their power of decision was limited
to slanders and assaults of minor importance.
In aggravated assaults [BiaCtov 8iKTi|, tbeir
office must have been that of E tcra7<i)7«ls
(Appendix, Gkeek Law).
Like other magistrates, the rtTrapoKovra
were responsible (vT!-evdvvoi)ior their conduct in
office. '\\'hether tliey exercised tlieir jurisdic-
tion jointly as a board, or in certain divisions,
is not expressly stated ; but it is almost certain
tliat they sat by tribes, i.e. in boards of four.
Thalamus {ed\aixos). (1) A chamber [Do-
musj. (2) Abed [XectusJ. (3) A cabin on board
' ship ; hence, ilialamegus, a barge with cabins
(Suet. ////. -,■>}.
0a\\o(i>6poL. [Panathenaea.]
©a\\5CTLa. A festival celebrated in honour
of Dionysus and Demeter, or of Demeter alone
(Theocr. yii.); held in autumn, after the harvest.
©ap-yiiXia. A festival celebrated at Athens
on tlie (ith and 7th of Thargelion (^ about
May 24) in honour of the Delian Apollo (A.
Trarptjios) and Artemis, as their birtlidays (cf.
Delia).
The Thargelia and the Delphinia were the
chief festivals of Apollo at Athens.
The first act was tlie sacrifice of a sheep on
the Gth to Demeter Chloe (Soph. O. C. ICOO),
who appears to have had a temple on the Acro-
polis (Ar. Lys. 835). Then followed, still on
the Gth, a gi-eat purificatory sacrifice. The
manner in which this purification was effected
is a remnant of vei"y ancient rites. Two persons
were put to death on that day, one on behalf of
the men and tlie other on behalf of the women
of Athens. The name by wliicli these victims
were designated was <Tv0aKxoi, or more usually
(pap/xaKoi. The victims were led to tlie different
temples of Apollo in the city, and afterwards to
a place near the sea. The neck of the one who
died for the men was surrounded with a gar-
land of black figs, that of the other with a gar-
land of white figs. They were at last burnt on
a funeral pile made of wild-fig wood, and their
ashes were thrown into the sea and scattered
into the air. We are not informed whether
this sacrifice was offered regularly every year,
but it appears probable that an actual sacrifice
only took place in case of a heavy calamity
having befallen the city, such as the plague, a
famine, &c. ; and that in ordinary times the
solemnity was merely formal.
On the second day of tlie Thargelia, the 7th,
a thank-offering was made to the Sun-god, and
children bore about branches of olive, bound
with wool, called eipfaiwvai, which they finally
hung up before the house-doors (Ar. Eq. 729,
Pint. 1054). There was also a procession, and
a cyclic chorus of men and boys. The prize
of the victor was a tripod, which lie was re-
quired to dedicate in the Temple of Apollo
built by Peisistratus. The Archon (Epony-
mus) had the management of the festival. On
this day it was customary for persons who
were adopted into a family to be solemnly
registered and received into the gens and the
phratria of the adoptive parents. This solem-
nity was the same as that of registering
one's own children at the Ajiaturia. [See Ap-
pendix, Greek L.\w, El<Tiro£Tiais.]
It is probable that tliis expiatory sacrifice was
instituted by Epimenides (see Class. Diet. Epi-
MENIDES).
Thea'trum. As the Greek drama sprang from
the choral dances round the altar of Dionysus,
so the architectural form of the Greek theatre
was develojied from the circular dancing-place,
tlieopxVjffTpa. Chorus.) At first tlicre was no
chorus (bstinct from the general body of worship-
l)ers, allof whom were free to join in the dance.
As soon as a regular chorus was instituted, it
became necessary to reserve a circular s])ace of
ground for it. A ring of stones sulliced to mark
off this circle. Tlie altar of Dionysus was placed
at its centre. Tlie spectators stood around
it, and watched the dance. So long as there
was but one actor, lie could stand in the middle
of the chorus, and address liiniself to various
points of the circle in turn. When Aeschylus
added a second actor, it became necessary that
622
THEATRUM
the actors should play towards some one side.
The spectators were now arranged in a semi-
circle. But the whole circle of the dancing-
place was still kept clear for the chorus. The
actors stood facing the spectators, not within
the circle of the dancing-place, but on the
further side of it. Behind them was the tent or
new orchestra was to the north of this ■^^^•
ing. Rows of stone seats for the spect^t "^
were now constructed. After the time of Lyk-
urgus no change, except of detail, took place
in the auditorium. (-S) At some later date,
which cannot be fixed, a permanent stone
proscenium (B), adorned with columns, and
about 10 or 12 feet high, was built in front of
the wall erected by Lykurgus.
The stage (KoyeTov) was probably raised
several feet above the bpxho'Tpo.- With regard
to the fifth century B.C., before the stone build-
ing was erected, it was not to be expected that
any remains of a raised stage should be found ;
temporary wooden structures would leave no
trace. There are some passages in the Greek
plays which indicate that the place where the
actors stood was accessible to the chorus (e.g.
Soph. 0. C. 836 sqq.) ; as would be the case if
we supposed a stage with steps leading up to
it. It would appear from Ar. Vesp. 1514 (Kara-
fiar4ov), and Plat. Symj). p. 194 a, that the
stage (a wooden structure) was raised at that
period ; and in some vases of Lower Italy
(300-100 B.C.) comic scenes acted on a \oye7ov
are depicted (fig. 1077). Even in the days
before Thespis, when one member of the
chorus held a dialogue with the rest, he was
mounted, we are told, on a kind of table or
dresser (eAeJs). It may also be observed that,
if the chorus had been on the same level with
the actors, the distinguished spectators, who
sat in the lowest row, would hardly have seen
the actors.
Dr. Dorpfeld, however (with whom many
scholars agree), thinks that the stage was on
the same level as the 6px'>i<^Tpa, until Roman
times.
Fig. 1078 shows the plan of a Greek theatre
as described by Vitruvius. It will be seen that
it is constructed on three squares inscribed in
a circle, which forms the orchestra.
The auditorium is shut in by lines I L, K M,
which bisect the right angles at I and K.
The space between G H and C D is a raised
green room (tr/crji'T)) in which they dressed. The I stage.
screen which concealed the actor when off the The fourth century B.C. was the period at
stage was the TrpoffK-fiviov — that which masked which stone theatres became usual in Greece.
the ffKr]vf]. The ' proscenium ' was thus the We may now proceed to consider their charac-
background visible to the audience, whether teristics more in detail.
this was a temporary wooden structure, or, as ' The opx^CTpo- — Even in the matured theatre,
in later times, a permanent wall. The crKrivr) the ' dancing-place ' was still a complete circle,
came to denote that part of the theatre which as in the old days of the cyclic choruses. At
belonged to the actors, as distinguished
from opxriffrpa, the place of tlie chorus.
The oldest theatre of which we have
any knowledge is the Dionysiac theatre
in the Ar^raiov at Athens. (1) In the
fifth century B.C., and down to about 330
B.C., the precinct contained no permanent
building for scenic purposes. There were
in it two temples of Dionysus (fig. 107.'J,
D, E), both to the south of the present
theatre. Close to that marked D, on the
NE., was a circular dpxvffrpa, about 78
feet in diameter. This 6px'hc'''pci was
then the only permanent provision for
drama. All scenery, therefore, was tem-
porary ; and the spectators sat on wooden
benches. (2) The first permanent build-
ing for drama in the A7)vaiov was that com-
pleted by Lykurgus, about 330 B.C. It con-
sisted of a stone wall with two small wings,
like towers, projecting from it on right and left
(A, A). The temporary decorations (of wood,
with canvas hangings) were erected in front of
this wall, and supported by the wings. The
Fig. 107.
Fig. 1070.— Stage of theatre at Epidaurus.
its centre the altar of Dionysus was placed.
This altar was called the dv/jLe\ri : or possibly
Ov/j.e\ri may denote a raised platform on which
the altar stood.
The Auditorium. — In default of a special
term like cavea, tliis is sometimes called
diarpov. In the older Greek theatres the public
THEATRUM
G23
entered by the side-passages (wdpoSoi) between
the proscenium and the orchestra — the same
which the chorus used. Sometimes, as at
Athens, access was gained by a path traversing
Fig. 1077.— Scene from a comedy (showing raised \oye~ov). (From a vase.)
high ground, and leading directly to one of the
upper tiers.
Flights of steps ascending from the orchestra
to the highest tier of seats divided the audi-
torium into wedge-like segments. The Greek
word for such a segment was /cep/cis, the Latin
cuneus. A further division into upper and
lower zones was effected by passages (one or
more) called Sia^w/xaTa, ' girdles ' {praecinc-
iioncs), which ran completely round the semi-
circle. Above the highest tier, another open
passage ran round the house. When stone
seats were introduced — at Athens c. 330 B.C. —
such seats were based, where it was possible,
on the natural rock of the slope. The material
used for the seats was sometimes marble ; at
Tlie privilege of Fl poeSpCa in the theatre was
given chiefly to four classes of persons: (1)
certain priests and priestesses, among wliom the
priest of Dionysus was foremost ; (2) certain
magistrates ; (3) foreigners
honoured in an ofhcial
character, as irpfaBfts or
Vfwpoi ; (4) citizens or
foreigners honoui'ed as
benefactors of the state.
For such persons special
^.eats were provided, like
anncliairs, called dp6vot or
KaBfSpai. At Athens these
chairs, made of Pentelic
marble, occupy the whole
of the lowest row, while
others are placed in differ-
ent parts of the house :
those assigned to priests
or officials bear their titles;
thus the central chair of
tlie semicircle is inscribed,
lEPEnS AIONT20T EA-
ET0EPEn2.
The acoustic properties
of a Greek theatre would
be naturally good, since the
actors had a high wall be-
' hind them and a rising slope in front. In the
time of Vitruvius (c. 20 a.d.), at least, artiflcial
aid was sought from bronze vessels, ' which the
Greeks call rixf^o.,' so placed in the auditorium
as to reverberate the voices of the actors. Tlie
VXf^o- were carefully tuned to certain intervals,
and placed in position by elaborate calcula-
tions.
The outer wall enclosing the auditorium
ordinarily followed the curve of the semicircle,
Fig. 1078.— Greek theatre of Vltruvlua.
Athens and Peiraeus it is white limestone.
The tiers of seats were called fidOpa or di-o-
fiadfioi. At Athens the s|mce allotted to one
person was indicated by a line engraved on the
stone : it is described as (Spa, T6iros, X^P"'^
X<^piov, or simply 0ea.
Fig. 1079.— Theatre of I>ionyBU8. (From coin.)
unless the nature of the ground caused some
deviation ; but in some instances tlie walls en-
closing the auditorium wore I'ectangular, as,
e.g., in the smaller theatre at Pompeii.
Scenic Decoration. — The principal evidence
for tliis, in regard to the usage of the fifth and
fourth centuries, is that derived from tlie Greek
di'amatic texts themst-lves.
In the extant plays of Aeschylus, Sophokles,
Euripides, and Aristophanes, the action most
often takes place in front of a house, with
a ' practicable ' door ; sometimes before a
temple, a cottage, a tent, a cave, or a rock.
Painted canvas hungings, erected on a wooden
frame, would sufHce for such a background.
Aristotle (Poet. iv. 10), in sketching the growth
of Tragedy, attributes the earliest use of scene-
painting ((TK-nvoypcupla) to Sophokles. The
artist's name is given as .\<4atliarc]ius. But
even before this, some ruder kind of drawing
may have been used. Thus in the Persae of
624
THEATRUM
Aeschylus (472 b.c.) the palace was probably
indicated. In the Ion of Euripides (c. 421
B.C.), where the scene is laid at Delphi, the
chorus of Athenian maidens point with admira-
tion to the sculptures which adorn the front of
the temple ; and we may suppose that some
representation of these appeared on the pro-
scenium.
With regard to ' massive ' decoration, as dis-
tinguished fi-om a painted background, the
objects required by the texts are simple, such
as altars, statues of gods or heroes, rocks, and
seats. But certain mechanical appliances were
also used. (1) The iKKvK\r]pM was a small low
stage on wheels, which could be rolled forward
through the door in the proscenium. There
was room on it for three or four persons. The
most frequent use of the iKKvKX-qfxxi was when
the corpse of a person slain within the house
was to be shown to the audience. The moment
at which the iKKvK\T\fui was pushed forward is
often marked in the text by a reference to the
opening of the door (see Aesch. Ag. 1372,
Choeph. 973 ; Soph. El. 1466, Ant. 1293 ; Eur.
E. F. 1172 ; Ar. Ach. 408, 409). But this appH-
ance could also be employed for any tableau in
the interior of a house (see Aesch. Earn. prol. ;
Soph. Aj. 1003). The use of the iKKVKKt)na is
proved by several passages in Aristophanes : e.g.
Ach. 408 sqq., Thesm. 265. The exact nature
of the e^wffTpa is uncertain, but it was evidently
akin to the eKKVK\r]fjLa. (2) Machinery for show-
ing persons in the air was required by the ap-
pearances of the gods, and other supernatural
beings; the ' deus ex machina ' (Eur. Med.
1319; Ar. Prt.T, 80, 174). One contrivance was
oM apparatus worked by a wheel (rpoxos) and
ropes {alwpai), and called alwpTHjux, which was
used when the person was to be seen gradu-
ally rising into the air or descending from
above. Another device was a sort of plat-
form, projecting from the w-ings at the back of
the proscenium. This was the 6fo\oye7ov, used
when the apparition of a god or hero was to be
sudden, as it is in Soph. Phil. 1409, and in Eur.
I. T. US5,Uel. 1642, Stippl. 1183. The Kpefiddpa
in which Sokrates is suspended (Ar. Nub.
218) is a burlesque of the tragic appliances.
(3) Akin to the OfoXoyuov must have been the
contrivance {SicTTfyia) used when a person is to
appear on the roof of a palace (as the watcher
in the prologue of Aesch. Ag., and the paed-
agogus in Eur. Fhoen. 88 ; &c.). A wooden
platform, high up behind the proscenium, would
have sufficed.
These seem to be the only forms of decoration
or mechanism which can be certainly inferred
from the texts of the tragedians and of Aristo-
phanes. When, in the fourth century B.C.,
stone theatres became usual in Greek lands, the
character of scenic decoration was perhaps not
at first affected thereby. A permanent wall
stood behind the proscenium, forming the front
of the building assigned to
the actors. But the pro-
scenium itself probably con-
tinued, for a time, to be a
wooden structure, with
painted hangings.
It maj' have been at this
period that irepiaKTot were
introduced. These were tri-
angular wooden prisms, revolving on a pivot,
with scenery painted on each of their three
faces. One iirepiaKTos was placed at the left
wing, and another at the right. The irepioucTos
on the spectator's right hand represented the
Fig. 1080.— Diagram
of mpCcLKTOi.
locality in which the action was taking place ;
the TrepiaKTos on his left hand, a region outside
of that locality. If, for instance, the scene
of the play was laid at Delphi, the right-
hand TTipiaKTos would illustrate that place,
while the other might represent the road lead-
ing to Athens. If the scene was to be changed
from one spot near Delphi to another in the
same vicinity, the left-hand nepiaKTos would be
turned so as to present a new face, but the
right-hand one would be left unaltered. If the
scene was shifted from Delphi to Athens, both
nepioKToi would be turned. The first case was
technically a change of tottos : the second, of
Xi^po- There are only two extant Greek plays
in which it is necessary to assume a change of
scene. In the Eumenides the action is trans-
ferred from Delphi to Athens: in the Ajax,
from the front of the hero's tent to a lonely
place on the sea- shore. There is no evidence
that, in addition to revolving scenery, the Greek
theatres had scenes which could be shifted on
grooves ; though the Roman stage had both
. {scaena versilis — scaena ductilis).
Entrances for the actors. — There were
1 usually three doors in the proscenium, or some-
i times five (the two extreme doors perhaps open-
I ing on the irapaaidivLa.), the central one being
j called Bvpa ffaaiKeios, because the chief persons
; of the play used it. Besides the door or doors
in the proscenium, there were also entrances for
the actors from the sides, right and left.
j When ghosts appeared on the scene they
came up either by dfairieVjuara, 'trap-doors,'
or by the X'^P'^''"" KKifiojcfs, stairs either
j leading from the orchestra to the stage or con-
j necting the stage with a passage beneath it.
No curtain was used in the Greek theatre.
The actors simply walked on to the scene, and
assumed their position. When the background
had to be changed, that change took place be-
I fore the eyes of the spectators.
I The Administration of the Theatre. — A
Greek theatre was the property of the state,
and the performances in it were acts of public
worship, under state control. At Athens in the
fifth and fourth centuries B.C., drama accom-
panied two Dionysiac festivals — the Lenaea, in
January, and the Great Dionysia, in March.
[See Tragoedia, Comoedia, Choregia] The
cost of tlie performances was defrayed from
three sources : (1) the rent paid for the use
of the theatre by a lessee {apxiTfKTttiv,
Qiarpwirrfs, dfarpoirdKris), who received the
entrance money, and was responsible for the
good condition of the building and properties,
some of which he had to provide ; (2) the
Choregus, who furnished the chorus and pro-
vided them with all dresses, properties, music,
&c. ; (3) the state, which paid the actors (not
the chorus), and the marshals (JiafiSovxoi) who
kept order in the theatre.
A few days before the Great Dionysia, the
ceremony called TTpodycuv was held in the old
Odeion near the 'Ei/ffaKpowoT. The competing
poets, w'ith their respective choregi, were then
formally presented to the public ; the actors
and choruses were also present, and the titles
of the plays to be produced announced. When
the first day of the Great Dionysia arrived,
a public herald simimoned the first on the list
of competing poets. He entered the orchestra,
attended by his choregus and chorus, and
poured a libation at the tliymele to Dionysus.
His procession then withdrew and the play
began. One prize for Tragedy and one for
Comedy were awarded by ten judges (KpCrTis),
THEATRUM
625
taken by lot from a large nuiiiber of persons
chosen from the tribes. At the close of the
contests, five of the judges announced the
awards. The successful poets were then
crowned, before the audience, by the archon.
Shortly after the festival, at a public meeting
held in the theatre, complaints of misconduct
whicli might have arisen were heard, and
officials who had distinguished themselves re-
ceived public commendation.
The Audience. — According to a recent esti-
mate, the Dionysiac tlieatre was capable
of seating about 27,">00 persons. Plato is
only using round numbers when he speaks of
' more than 80,000 Greeks ' as present in the
Dionysiac theatre at the tragic contests (Sym]'.
175 e). Tlie theatre at Megalopolis held more
than 40,000 persons. It must be remembered
that the Greek dram-a was essentially a festival
for the entire civic body. Even young boys
and women were present at Tragedy ; and i)i
the fourth century b.c. (if not indeed earlier)
at Comedy also. At Athens tlie /j.4toikoi were
admitted to the theatre ; and foreigners,
whether officials or private persons.
In the earliest days of Athenian drama,
admission to the wooden theatre was doubtless
free of charge. But the crowding to get in was
inconvenient and dangerous, and after an
accident to the timbers about 500 B.C. it was
resolved to charge a 54£D/3€Aia (jDem.] de Sijiit.
p. 169, § 10) or entrance-fee of two obols ( = not
quite 4(7.), for each day of the Dionysiac festivals,
payable to the lessee of the theatre (deaTpcovris).
The pajmeut continued to be exacted after
the theatre was built of stone. Perikles (Plut.
Pe7\ 9), to relieve the poorer citizens, passed a
law entitling them to receive the price of
admission from the state — i)erhaps because
plays were part of a religious ceremony from
which it would be impious to exclude citizens.
This QewpiK6v, or theatre-dole, probably began
about 454 B.C. Though it was first devised in
the interests of the poor, the only condition
of obtaining it seems to have been inscrip-
tion on the A-q^iapxtKhv ypaf/.fj.aT(7ov of the
deme. The number of persons receiving
the 6itiipiK6v in 431 B.C. has been computed
at 18,000. All seats were of the same class,
except those reserved for persons having
the right of irpoeSpia, who paid nothing. (Cf.
Dem. de Cor. § 28.) The places of pay-
ment were probably in the irdpoSoi leading to
the orchestra. The theatre-tickets [Tessera]
were small leaden counters, bearing on one
was a small round disk of bone or ivory for
persons who had irpoeSpia. The numbers
probably indicate divisions of the house. It
appears probable that at Athena a certam por-
tion of the house (perhaps a whole segment,
Fig. 1081.— Theatre-ticket with view of theatre (Ivoryi.
(British Museum.)
side some emblem of the theatre, such as a
Dionysus with a tripod, or an actor's mask ;
and on the obverse, the name of an Attic tribe,
or a numeral. Another kind of theatre-ticket
Fig. 1082.— Theatre-ticket with name of holder CEvpo-
Aoxos = EvpuAoxo9) and number of seat. (British
Museum.)
KepKis) was allotted to each of the Attic <pvKal.
The members of the senate sat together in
a definite part of the Dionysiac theatre {rh
fiov\euTiK6p, Ar. Av. 794). For youths between
the ages of eighteen and twenty-one, a space
was similarly preserved {rh i<pr)^iK6v).
The performances began in the morning,
after the morning meal {&pi(TTov), and lasted
till evening. In the fourth century, however,
we hear of performances beginning at daybreak
(Aeschin. in Ctes. S 7C). The older Athenian
custom was for all the spectators to wear
wreaths, as at a sacrifice. As the whole day
was spent in the theatre, the visitors brought
light refreshments (Tpayrj/xara} with them.
Choregi sometimes distributed cakes and wine.
An Atlienian audience was closely attentive
and critical, and higlily demonstrative. Loud
clapping of hands, and shouts of applause, ex-
pressed their delight; disapproval found vent
in stamping with the feet, hissing, and hooting
(dopvfie7v, aupiTTfiv, KKtii^eiv). Persons of note
who entered the house were recognised with
frank favour, or the reverse.
From the latter part of the fourth century B.C.
onwards, it became usual to produce dramas on
any occasion of special rejoicing : a result partly
due to the personal taste of Alexander the
Great for theatrical shows. Hence the theatres
gradually lost their sacred character, and began
to be used for various entertainments, such as
the exhibitions of conjurers or acrobats, and,
in the Roman age, glatliatorial sliows, or com-
bats with wild beasts (veitatiunes).
In the latter part of the fifth century we hear
of meetings of the citizens in the theatre at
Munychia, and in the Dionysiac theatre itself
(Thuc. viii. 93 sq.). By 250 B.C. ordinary meet-
ings of the ekklesia were held in the Dionysiac
theatre. Public honours, such as crowns, had
long been bestowed there. In later times a
theatre was often also the scene of an exemplary
punishment : «7.(7. the execution of Hippo in the
theatre at Messana (c. 338 B.C.; Plut. Tiniol. 34).
As statues of Themistokles and Miltiades stood
in the Dionysiac theatre, so, at every period of
Greek antiquity, such places were adorned with
monuments of statesmen and soldiers, no less
than of poets, musicians, and actors.
The Roman Theatke.
Rome possessed no theatre of stone till 55 B.C.
Just a century earlier such an edifice had been
in progress, when P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica
SS
626
THEATRUM
procured a decree of the senate for its destruc-
tion (Liv. Epit. xlviii.). Wooden theatres were
erected, and pulled down when the occasion
was over. But before the middle of the first
century B.C. these temporary structures were
sometimes built on a grand scale. The building
put up by the aedile M. Aemilius Scaurus in 58
B.C. contained 80,000 seats ; and the proscenium
was adorned with pillars of marble and statues
of bronze. Three years later Pompeius was
allowed to erect, near the Campus Martius, the
first theatre of stone. The model is said to
have been the theatre of Mj-tileue, and the
number of seats was computed at 40,000. The
theatre of Marcellus, built by Augustus, and
named after his nephew, was also of stone, and
could hold 20,500 persons. A third such build-
ing, with a capacity of 11,510, was completed in
13 B.C. by L. Cornelius Balbus (Suet. Aug. 45).
Before this many provincial towais in Italy and
elsewhere had possessed stone theatres.
The Roman type of theatre is the Greek tj'pe
modified in certain particulars. The ground-
plan is described by Vitruvius. Instead of the
three squares mentioned above (see fig. 1078),
Fig. lOftS.— Roman theatre of Vitrurlus.
three equilateral triangles are described in the
circle of the orcliestra. One side of any triangle
is the back wall of the stage, scaenac frojis
(A, B). A diameter of the circle (C, D), drawn
parallel with A, B, will represent the line divid-
ing the stage from the orchestra. The seats for
the spectators are arranged round the orchestra
in semicircles concentric with it. From the five
points above the line C, D (a, b, c, d, e), where
the angles touch the circumference, five flights
of steps lead up to the seats, dividing them into
six cunei. Above the first zone, or semicircular
passage (praecinctio), the seats are divided
into twelve cunei by eleven stairways. Just
above the points C and D access is given to the
orchestra by two vaulted passages which pass
under the upper rows of seats (E, F). The
platform of tlie stage is prolonged right and
left, so that its total length (G, H) is equal to
twice the diameter of the orchestra. In the
back wall of the stage are tliree doors, the
positions of which are marked by the points I,
K, L. Thus the distinctive features of tlie Ro- |
man theatre are these two : (1) The orchestra .
is only a semicircle. The diameter of the
orchestra is now the front line of a raised stage.
Consequently the auditorium, also, forms only
a half-circle. The primary cause of this change
was that, the Dionysiac chorus having dis-
appeared, the orchestra had no longer a dra-
matic use. (2) In the Greek theatre the
auditorium and the scene-buildings were not
architecturally linked. In the Roman theatre
the side-walls of the scene-building were carried
forward till they met the side-walls of the
auditorium. Thus the whole theatre was made
a single compact building.
The richest embellishments of architecture
and sculpture were lavished on the Roman
proscenia, built in two or more stories ; and a
similar magnificence was shown in the external
facjades. A Roman theatre was often built on
level ground. From archways in the exterior
walls numerous wide staircases beneath the
auditorium ascended to the several rows of
seats. The exterior of the semicircular wall
of the auditorium was adorned with columns
and arcades, rising in three or more successive
stories. Thus a Roman theatre had the ex-
ternal aspect of a stately public building.
With regard to the internal arrangements
of the Roman theatre, the following points
claim notice. (1) The raised stage (jiuljntum,
Koyelov) is in some instances on a level with
the lowest row of seats behind the orchestra,
sometimes higher. (2) Awnings of canvas
{carbasiiia), and of various colours — red, blue,
yellow (Lucr. iv. 75) — were spread over the
theatre to protect the spectators from sun or
rain. These were usually called vela (velaria
in Juv. iv. 122). Pliny (xix. 23) says that they
were introduced by Q. Catulus, in 78 B.C. They
were supported by masts (mali) [Mains, fig.
687", and cross-beams (trabes), fixed to the outer
walls of the theatre by metal rings or sockets
built into the masonry [Amphitheatrum (figs.
38, 41)]. (3) Until the play began, the stage was
concealed by a curtain, which was then drawn
down on a roller under the front line of the
stage. At the end of the piece the curtain was
drawn up. Hence the terms aulaeum mittitur
or subdticitur, aulaeum premitur, aulaeum
tollitur, corresponding to 'the curtain rises, is
up, falls.' The word sipariuvi meant a folding
screen, used perhaps at the wings. The word
siparium is regularly associated with comedy
or mimes (Juv. viii. 186). (4) Allocation of
seats. The orchestra was reser\-ed for senators.
As a special mark of distinction, ambassadors
and other foreigners were occasionally admitted
to it (see Tac Ann. xiii. 54). The rest of the
auditorium was called cavea. The Lex Boscia,
67 B.C., provided that the fourteen rows of seats
in the cavea nearest to the orchestra should be
reserved for the equites — excluding, however,
any bankrupts (Cic. Phil. ii. § 44). Owing to
the large number of equites ruined by the civil
wars, Augustus decreed that the privilege given
by the Lex Roscia should be enjoyed by any
eques who had at any time possessed, or whose
father had possessed, the amount of the equester
census, viz. 400,000 sesterces (Suet. Aug. 40).
He fui'ther assigned special portions of the
cavea to (1) women; (2) prartrxtati (i.e. boys
who had not yet assumed the toga virilis) and
their paedagogi ; (3) soldiers ; (4) married men
belonging to tlie lower orders, as a premium on
marriage. Corresponding to the ' royal box '
in a modern theatre was the tribunal, im-
mediately over the stage on the spectator's left.
This was occupied by the emperor, or by the
I
THEATRUM
president of the perfoi'mance. A correspond-
ing tribunal on the left side was assigned to
the Vestals, among whom sat the empress.
Thus, from the Augustan age onwards, instead
of the simple Greek distinction between those
who had or had not irpoeSpia, the Roman
auditorium exhibited an elaborate classification
by sex, age, profession and rank.
Odeum.
The oldest recorded example of an (^Sf7ov, i.e.
a theatre for musical performances, is the 'Skio.s
at Sparta, which is said to have been round,
and to have been named from the resemblance
of its top to an umbrella (aKids or tr/ciaSefor).
It was said to have been built by the architect
Theodoras of Samos (<•. 600 B.C.).
Athens possessed three (^SeTa. (1) The
oldest of these stood near the fountain
Enneakrunus by the Ilissus. Its origin has
been referred to Peisistratus, or even to Holon.
It was probably a semicircular building,
arranged on the general plan of a Greek
theatre, but with a roof. It was in this Odeum
that the irpoayoiv was held before the Gi'eat
Dionysia. It was also used for a law-court
(Ar. Vesjj. 1109), as a rendezvous or a lodging for
troops (Xen. Hell. ii. 4, §§ 9, 24), and as a place
for the distribution of corn (Dem. c. Fhbrm.
§ 37). It appears to have been restored, or
built anew, by Lykurgus (c. 330 B.C.).
(2) The Odeum of Perikles stood a little
SE. of the Acropolis and NE. of the
Dionysiac theatre. Plutarch preserves a
tradition that the shape of the building was
intended to recall the tent of Xerxes {Fcr. 13 ;
Pans. i. 20, § 4). As the final act of the Great
Panathenaea was celebrated in the Parthenon,
so the Odeum was the place for the perform-
ances with which tlie festival began — contests
of flute-players, singers, and rhapsodes. The
Odeum of Perikles was completed about 444 B.C.
(3) The third Odeum at Athens was built
by the eminent rhetorician Herodes Atticus
c. ICO A.r>. The Odeum of Herodes is on tlie
south slope of the Acropolis, W. of the Diony-
siac theatre. It was a theatre of the ordinary
Roman type, with a roof superadded {theatrum
tectum). It was distinguished by the great
splendour of the internal decoration. It was
used (as the ancient Odea) for music or recita-
tion ; and for other entertainments also, such
as mimes, or even regular drama.
Trajan built a circular Odeum at Rome.
Remains of Greek and Roman theatres
exist at the following places.
(1) Greece P'ropek. — Attica : the Dionysiac
theatre, those at Zea in the Peiraeus, at
OropuH and at Thorikus. ArgoUs : at Epi
daurus (the best preserved and finest example
of a Greek theatre of the classical age ; it was
built about 350 B.C.) ; and at Argos. Arkudia :
theatre at Mantineia; here the cavea rested on
an artificial mound supported by polygonal
walls. At Megalopolis: the largest known to
Pausanias; the site was a natural slope, but
recourse was had also to an artificial embank-
ment at each horn of the auditorium.
(2) IsL.\NDs OF THE A£GE.\N. — The oldcr
theatre at Delos. The Kretan theatres at
Gortyna, Hierapytna, and Lyktus.
(3) Asia Minoii. — Wide, Myra, Telmessus, Per-
gamum, &c. Tlie Roman theatre at Aspendus
(Panii)hylia) is the best [ireserved ancient theatre
in existence. The prostenium has five doors.
(4) Italy. — Two theatres at Pompeii. A
small theatre at Tusculum ; one at Folerii.
©EnPIKON
627
I (.')) SicnA'. — Theatres at Syracuse, Akroe,
Katana, Tauromenion, Tj-ndaris, and Egesta.
(6) France. — The Roman theatre at Orange
I (Arausio) is well preserved.
Thensae or Xensae. Sacred vehicles, wliich.
in the solemn pomp of the Circensian gomes
' [Circus ; Ludi Romani], conveyed the statues
I of certain deities with all their decorations
! (exuviae) to the i)ulvinaria, and after the
I sports were over bore them back to their
shrines. (Cic. Vcrr. ii. 1, 59 ; Verg. Aen. i.
21 ; Tertull. de Sped. 1.) The thensae were
kept in a special building, called acdrs theris-
arum, on tlie Cajjitol. Their form seems to
have been that of the two-wheeled Currus,
but they were elaborately ornamented. They
were drawn by horses (I'lut. C'oriol. 25), and
escorted (deducere) by the cliief senators in
robes of state, who, along with pueri Patrimi,
laid hold of the bridles and traces, or perhaps
assisted to drag the carriage (Liv. v. 41) by
means of traces attached for the purpose.
So sacred was this duty considered, that
Augustus, when labouring under sickness,
deemed it necessarv to accompany it in a litter.
j (Cf. Liv. v. 41 ; Suet. Auc/. 43.)
The only guds carried in thensae were
Jupiter and Minerva (Suet. Vesj). 5 ; Dio
j Cass, xlvii. 40, 1. 8, Ixvi. l),and probably Juno,
I the third Cajiitoliiie deitj" ; to this number
Mars is usually added. Among the honours
given to Caesar, it was decreed that his statue
in ivory should accompany the images of the
gods to the circus in a chariot {i.e. a thensa),
! and that this chariot should stand in the
Capitol immediately opposite to that of
Jupiter. (Suet. Jul. 76 ; Cic. Att. xiii. 44.)
Under the Empire the statues of deceased em-
perors and members of the imperial house were
born in the procession, but on Fercula and in
carpenta, sometimes drawn by elephants (Suet.
Cal. 15, Claud. 11, Tit. 2; Tac. Ann. ii. 83).
Similar homage was paid upon high festivals
to the images of their gods by other ancient
nations: e.q. the Egyptians (Hdt. ii. 63).
©€o<t)dvta (Hdt. i. 54). A festival cele-
brated at Delphi on the 7th of the Delphic
month Bysios (=^ approximately February), the
birthday of Apollo, and also the sole day iu
ancient times for consulting the oracle (pro-
bably the alffia hh^po- '^^ Eur. Ion, 521).
[Oraculum.] The word itself signifies the
manifestation of the deity. (The calendar of
the Greek Cliurch still has ra ayia (deocpdveia:
in the Western Church Thvojiltania was
applied to Christmas Day as late as the fourth
century.) The time of the year agrees with its
being a festival for the opening of spring, sym-
bolised by the return or the new birth of the
god of light, to whom belonged the nine
summer months, as the three winter months
in the Delphic year were sacred to Dionysus.
The ceremonies of the day seem to have
been as follows: (1) A procession with laurel
boughs (5o(^j'7)(;)op(o; cf. Ov. Fast.m. 1.'!). (2)
Prayers and offerings beK>nging to the oracular
day [Oraculum]. (3) A feast with (a\ offerings
of the cake called (pOots or <p06'Cs ; {b) libations
of wino (Hdt. i. 51).
©eojpiKOv, T6 (to Biu'fHKci, sC xp^M""'"'*)'
Under this name were comprised the funds
expended by tlie Athenian state on their very
numerous festivals, sacrifices, and public enter-
tainments.
Some festivals were confined to the members
of a particular tribe, deme, or house (AfJijLOS ;
<t>v\o3aai\cis], and j)rovided for out of the
s s2
628
0Enpi2
private funds of the community. At the 1
public festivals [see Aiovvaia., Panathenaea, I
0ap7TiA.ta] there were not only sacrifices, but
processions, theatrical exhibitions, gymnastic
contests, and games, celebrated at great ex-
pense. A portion of this expense was defrayed
by those who undertook AeiTovpyiaL, but a con-
siderable part was met by the public treasury
(rh Srifj-offiov, rh koiv6v). (See Plut. Nic. 3 ;
Thuc. vi. 16.)
Among these expenses must be reckoned
largess to the people, such as the Stwfie\ia
or SicofioKov in the theatre [Theatnim].
This fee, paid to the lessee {Qearpd^v-qs) of the
theatre, was first charged about 500 B.C., and
was transferred to the public account by Peri-
kles, to relieve the poorer citizens. It was
presently extended to entertainments other
than theatrical, e.g. the Panathenaea (Dem.
Leoch. p. 1091, § 37), the sum of two oboli a
day being given to each citizen who attended.
The money was paid by demes (Dem. Leoch.
I.e.). In the time of Demosthenes, well-to-do
citizens also seem to share in the distribution.
It has been calculated that the sum thus spent
annually was 25 to 30 talents or more.
This mode of expenditure naturallj' starved
other state services, and everj'thing tliat could
be spared from other branches of expenditure
was diverted to the theoric fund (Dem. Ohjnth.
iii. p. 31, § 11) ; and the supplies needed for
war were left to depend on extraordinary con-
tributions or property-tax (el(r(popd). In 350
B.C. Apollodorus carried a decree empower-
uig the people to determine whether the
surplus revenue might be appHed to mili-
tary purposes, but he was fined a talent for
this under a ypatpi] napavo/xooi', and the decree
was annulled (c. Neaer. pp. 134G-8). This
decision crippled the resources of Athens in the
war against Philip (see Dem. Olynth. i. and
ii. ; Grote, chap. Ixxxviii.).
Money appropriated to the theoric fund was
probably at first disbursed by the HeUeno-
tamiae. After the Peloponnesian "War, however,
it was controlled by a board of managers
(oi fTri Tw dewpiK(ji, Dem. de Cor. p. 264, § 113 ;
[Arist.] 'ke. TToA. 43).
It has been pointed out by Grote that the
great expenditure upon festivals was not
merely in order to provide amusement for the
citizens, but had a religious and patriotic sig-
nificance as weU.
OeupCs. A trireme kept for sacred em-
bassies [see ©eojpoCJ. Of these ships there
were at Athens in early liistoric times three :
the Delian (A7j/\ia or AtjAkxs), the Salaminian
(^aAafjLivia), and the Paralus (jldpaXos). The
first was so called because it was used (prob-
ably exclusively) for Delian theoriae ; the
second because it was originally manned by
natives of Salamis (SoAojuiVioi) ; and the third
because it was manned by sailors from the
Paralia (ITapaAoi or napaAiTai). The Delia was
a very old ship, traditionally dating from
Theseus, and constantly renewed with fresh
timbers. The Salaminia was a fast-sailing ship
used for various state purposes, and even in
naval battles. When the embassy to Delos
was started, the stern of the Delia was first
crowned with laurel by the priest of ApoUo ;
the period of its absence gave a respite to
criminals (Plat. Phaed. p. 58 B, c, Crito, p.
43 c ; Delia).
The Salaminia and Paralus were built and
manned for speed, and were used also to carry
state despatches and to bring tribute, &c. ;
0EOEENIA
they served, moreover, as warships (Thuc. iii.
33, vi. 53, 61, viii. 74 ; Ar. Av. 147, 1204 ; Aesch.
i7i Ctes. § 162). The crews of the Paralus and
Salaminia were always held in readiness, re-
ceiving four obols a day throughout the year.
The expenses of the sacred ships were borne
by the state.
In later times we find also the names of
Ammonis or Ammonias (Plin. xxxv. § 101),
Antigonis, and Demetrias, and, stiU later,
Ptolemais. The first of these, built in the time
of Alexander, was specially intended to convey
theoriae to Zeus Ammon : it seems to have
taken the place of the Salaminia (see [Arist.]
'A0. TToK. 61). The Demetrias probataly re-
placed the ancient Delia, which lasted only till
the time of Demetrius (Plut. Thes. 3).
©6(opoC (V THE-, as in 0€ao/iai). Originally a
magistrate or overseer, like ecpopos; and so used
of the chief magistrate of a city (cf. Thuc. v. 47 ;
Xen. Hell. vi. 5, 7) ; hence the word acquired
the sense with which we are most famUiav,
sacred ambassador or delegate ; and most
conunonly to denote persons sent on special
missions (Bewpiat) to perform some rehgious
' duty for the state, to consult an oracle, or to
represent the state at some festival in another
laud, where among other ceremonies sacrifice
wovdd be offered on behalf of their state. These
sacred deupoi were specially appointed for each
occasion from among the citizens [Eleusinia ;
'EXevSe'pia]. There were no standing officials
so called at Athens, but the name was given to
. citizens appointed from time to time to con-
: duct religious embassies : principally those that
I were sent to the four great games, to Delphi,
'■ and to Delos for the ApoUinean spring festival,
^Delia]. The exj^ense of any such embassy
was defrayed i^artly by the state, partly by a
wealthy citizen, called apxiOewpos. This was a
sort of \eiTovpyia, and frequently a very costly
one. In the case of the Delphic theoria for
consulting the oracle, the expense was pro-
bably moderate, but a considerable sum was
provided for the Delian theoriae. But the
magnificence depended mainly on the apxi-
dewpos, to whom it became a point of honour
to discharge his office handsomely, to wear a
golden crown, to drive into the city with a fine
chariot, retinue, &c. (See Grote, ch. li. [Nikias],
Iv. [Alkibiades] ; Thuc. vi. 16.)^ [©etopis.]
©EogEvia (often simply {eVio: sometimes
BeoSaicria). Sacred feasts provided for gods
or heroes, at which the deities were usually
regarded as the guests, but sometimes as the
hosts, inviting certain mortals to partake. (See
Horn. Od. i. 22, II. i. 423.) From these Greek
feasts the Roman lectisternia were borrowed
[Lectistemium]. We have early indications of
these feasts, both among the Greeks and among
other nations (cf. Hom. U. i. 425). The cult of
special gods or heroes was from a very early
time preserved in certain families or tribes,
who set apart a table on certain occasions in
their honour (Eur. Ion, 805 ; Hdt. vi. 127 ;
Pind. 01. iii. ; Plat. Lys. p. 205 d ; cf. Liv. i.
71 ; Sacra). The entertainment is commonly
spoken of merely as ^evia (cf. Eur. Uel. 1666).
From the gentile or family cult probably
arose the more public or national Theoxenia,
among which should be specially noted the
Delphic Theoxenia, in honour of Zeus, Apollo
and Leto, which gave the name to the Delphic
month Theoxenios (March — April). In this
ceremony the gods were supposed to feast at
; several tables, singly or in pairs : a couch
\ {(TTpwuvT) = pulvinar) spread with cushions
THERMAE
was placed by each table. It does not appear
to have been necessary in Greek custom to
place the statue of the deity on the couch ;
but the god or goddess was imagined to
be present on the allotted couch, and in vase-
pictures this spiritual presence is indicated, as
in the picture of a ffrpuiixvr) for the Dioskuri in
lig. C5'J under Lectistemium. The favour of
Apollo to Pindar was shown by a special in-
vitation to his table, the inspired priest crying
Tlivhapos tTCD iirl SiTirvof tov dfov — an honour
whicli was continued for his descendants.
The Delphian priests were ex officio guests
with the gods on this day, as representing the
mortal participants [Parasiti].
Similar entertainments were dedicated to
Zeus SwTrjp and Pluto at Athens, and to
Bacchus and Asklepius (Eur. Hcl. ICGG; Pind.
01. iii.) ; but most frequently paid to heroes,
such as the Dioskuri and Herakles. Next to
tlie Dioskuri perhaps Bacchus was more often
tlie entertained or entertainer {^€vl^(iv) at
mortal feasts than any other divine being.
Thermae. [Balneae.]
Thermopo'lmm. [Calda; Caupona.]
Thesau'rus (ti-qcravpus). A storehouse, trea-
sury.
(1) At Olympia the whole row of treasuries
described by Pausanias has been unearthed.
In architectural form they are like small
temples of the Doric order. They consist of
an oblong chamber with a small prodomus,
usually in antis (Architectura, lig. lid a, c).
The treasuries of various cities at Delphi were
probably of similar form, and served a similar
purpose (Paus. x. 11).
(2) For the circular sepulchral buildings,
incorrectly called ' Treasuries,' such as that of
Atreus at Mykenae, see Sepulcrum.
0T|CT€ia. The festival in honour of Thesefls
dates from Kimon, who, in obedience to an oracle
from Delphi (409 B.C.), brought the bones of
Theseus from Skyros and buried them in the
spot upon whicli the Theseum was built.
From this act date the annual (■KLTd<pia, or
funeral rites in honour of national heroes and
of all who died in battle for Athens, including
in war-time a funeral oration over the dead on
the day of nvave'\|/ia (Time. ii. 35); (cf.
Funus). The ceremonies of the i-mrdcpta were
conducted by the polemarch : the oration was
made by some man specially chosen for the
occasion.
The word Orjo-eTa may be used generally of
the whole festival (Ar. Pint. 027), but when
used alone it commonly refers to the offering
and banquet on 8th Pyanepsion and the games
of the following day.
The Calendar of the whole festival may be
thus described :
0th Pyanepsion, the Kv$epvl}cria or steers-
man's festival, to commemorate the return of
Theseus, celebrated at Phalerum, where there
were shrines {rip(fa) of Nausithous and Phaeax,
the Kv^(pvT)TT\s and irpcfipevs of the expedition
(Pint. Thes. 17).
7tli Pyanepsion, the day of Tlvav(\pia : the
f\pr}(Tis Tc5«/ oairpiwv having begun with the
evening of the 0th. In the morning took place
the'Oaxo<t)6pta; in the afternoon the 4iTna.(pia.
8th Pyanojjsion. On the evening of the 7th
t(n)k place the offering and banquet in honour
of Tncseus, and a torch-race ; in the day,
gymnastic contests.
9th Pyanepsion. Equestrian exercises, pro-
cessions, and contests. To these last two days
belonged especially the name ©Tjcreto.
0E2MO*OPIA
629
©eCT^LocJjopLa. The Eleusinia and the
Thesmoplioria were the two great festivals
held in Attica in honour of Demeter. The
Athenian Thesmoplioria, v/hich is the best
known festival of the name, was solemnised
exclusively by women at the time of seed-sow-
ing in October in honour of Demeter.
(1) L>ei)uter 6eafMu(p6pos. — The idea in
dea/jLoi, Qifjuarfs, is ordinances as the expres-
sion of the will of a divinity (Aesch. ilwm.
391) ; and as such the term is sometimes
applied to written laws, e.g. those of Drako (Plut.
SoL. 19) and Solon. Tlie dffffioi or ordinances
given by each god inside his own sphere were
the law of the early patriarchal ages. Now,
Demeter was the divinity who presided over
agi-iculture and all the civilisation which it
involved, especially the rites of marriage
(Lucian, Tim. 17 ; cf. Aesch. Theh. 753 ; Soph.
O. T. 1498; Eur. Phoeu. 18; Plat. M,-nex.
238). As such, Demeter is 6f(r/jLo(p6pos, dfcrfMia,
&c. ; and as the goddess of laws and civil
society, it was in her temple tliat the Amphi-
ktyonic assembly at Thermopylae was held
(Hdt. vii. 200).
(2) The Origin of Thesmoplioric worship. —
The worship of Demeter was said to have been
introduced into Attica by the Gephyraei of
Tanagra (Hdt. v. 57, 01). The Athenians made
them citizens on special terms, (ttI ^7Jto7s.
They had temples and rites special to them-
selves ; and among these the temple and rites
of Demeter 'Axota, the Mater dolorosa of
the ancients, so' called from her mourning
iflxos).
(3) The Athenian Festival lasted for five
days, and was conducted partly at Halimus on
the coast of Attica, partly in the city.
(a) The Participants in the Thesmophoria.
It was to Demeter, chiefly as the goddess pre-
siding over marriage, that the Thesmophoria
was celebrated. It was a festival embracing
many mystic and secret rites (Ar. Thesni. 472 ;
Eccl. 443), in which women alone could take
part ; and was open to all free women of
respectable character, married or unmarried
(Ar. Thesm. 294 ; Theocr. iv. 25 ; Cic. Verr. iv.
45,95; Plaut. Aul. Prol. 30). Accordingly it
was the popular Demeter-festival, in contrast to
the Eleusinia, which was the mystical and
aristocratic one.
{h) The PreUininaries. — During the first
nine nights of Pyanepsion the women who
were to take prominent part in the festival
were required to observe chastity (Ov. Met. x.
438) ; and amongst other things were forbidden
(as generally in Deiucter-worship) to eat the
pomegranate. [Eleusinia.]
Prior to the begiuiiiiigof the festival proper,
each deme chose two women to perform the
necessary sacrifices, and also to prepare a feast
for tlieir fellow demes-woinen ; the expense
was borne by tlie husbands, and was of the
nature of a \eiTOvpyla.. Accordingly the wives
of the richest only were chosen as presidents
(Ar. Thesm. 834).
(c) 'S.rrivta. — The boginning of the festival
proper. The women apjicar to have gone
down during the night of the 10th to Halimus ;
probably the women of each deme together. As
they went they exchanged with one another
those kinds of jokes and abuse (crTTji'toixTai)
which characterised so many Greek festivals,
especially those in honour of Demeter. The
derivation of the name arr)via is uncertain.
{d) The Mysteries at Halimus. — Halimus
I was a village near I'lialcrum and Kolias, on
630
0E21VIO*OP1A
the west coast of Attica. Here, into certain
pits (xd(Tfj.aTa), kno^vn as ij.eyapa or crypts,
swine were driven and buried alive (^jLeyapi^eiv),
together with figures of sei-pents and other
mystical objects. At some subsequent time
the putrefied remains were dug up, and mixed
with seed-corn by women called avT\7]Tpiai.
This ceremony was called apprirocpSpia, and was
supposed to ensure the fertility both of the crops
and of the citizens.
Similar rites were x^erformed at Onkeion in
Arkadia, at Potniae, and at Halikarnassus
(where Sir Charles Newton found figures of
swine in raarh'e, and the bones of swine and
other animals in a circular pit or /xfyapov).
But though these savage rites came soon to
be transmuted into i>arts of a poetical drama,
still their savage character remained to the end,
intertwmed with the legend of Demeter and
her lost daughter. For the mysteries at Hali-
mus were a more or less complete dramatic
representation of a portion of that story, iDro-
bably the portion which described the rape of
Persephone.
Swine were sacrificed to Demeter probably as
a symbol of fecundity, though other reasons
are given (see Serv. on Verg. Georg. ii. 381 ;
Ov. Fast. iv. 348) ; and at the Thesmophoria
swine's flesh appears to have been eaten (Ar.
Ran. 338), perhaps an instance of the sjnnboli-
cal eating of the flesh of the deity. [Sacrifi-
cium.]
(e) ■'A»'o5os (sometimes called KadoSos : Ar.
Thesm. 58.5). — On this day, the 12th, the women
returned to Athens in procession, carrying on
their heads the sacred books of the ordi-
nances of Demeter (Ar. Eccl. 222), and went to
Eleusis.
(/) ^Kipa. — Keturned to Athens (or perhaps
at Halimus), still on the 12th, the women met
for the secret conclave called "XKipa. (Ar. Eccl.
18, Thcsm. 834).
{g) The Fast (vrjcrTeia) took place on the
13th. Seated on the ground and in the deepest
gloom, the women fasted, and did not even
offer any sacrifice (Ar. Av. 1517). Originally
they appear to have uttered wild mourning and
lamentations, Kon^oi Kol BprjvoL. These lamen-
tations point to introduction from the East (cf.
Hdt. vi. 58 ; Plut. Sol. 12, 21). This fast was
in imitation, as is supposed, of the fast of
Demeter in her grief for the loss of her
daughter.
In Rome fasts in honour of Ceres were solem-
nised under Greek influence, e.g. the ieiitnium
Cereris appointed by order of the Sibylline
books in 191 B.C. (Liv. xxxvi. 37, 4), to be held
every five years (cf. Cic. Balb. 24, 55).
(h) KaWiyepna. — This was the name given
to the last day of the festival, the 14th, the
day of rejoicing and holiday after the pre-
vious ceremonies. KaWiyeveia is probably an
epithet of the goddess herself as the mother of
a fair child, just as Persephone is KuWiirats
dad (Eur. Orest. 964).
During the Kalligeneia there was much
festivity, with sacrifices and dances {Kvt(T/i6s
and oKXaajxa) peculiar to this occasion, as well
as cakes (KxeVes).
(i) Zy)fxia. — The concluding act of the whole
festival at the end of the 14th was called (ri/xia,
a kind of sin-offering, probably for any offences
committed during the festival (cf. 7rA7j^ox<^at-
[Eleusinia.]
(k) The Date of the Festival.— The Thesmo-
phoria were held in the middle of Pyanepsion
( = latter half of October and first half of
November),
as follows :—
THP.ONUS
The order of the festival is given
Ordinary
Reckoning.
Mommseu.
^r^via 9 Pyanepsion ( = Oct. 22) 10
Mysteries at Halimus 10 „ „ 23 11
'AcoSos and 2(cipa .11 „ .,24 12
Ny,o-T6ia 12 „ „ 25 13
Ka\Xiyei/€ia and Zrjma 13 ., „ 26 14
(4) Thesmojjhoric Worship outside Attica. —
(a) Greece. The house of Kadmus in Thebes
became the temple of Demeter Thesmophoros,
and Xenophon {Hell. v. 2. 29) tells us that the
Thebau women celebrated the Thesmophoria
in the Kadmeia. At Dr5^uaea in Phokis, Ajrgos,
Aegina (Hdt. vi 91), and elsewhere, were
temples of Demeter Thesmophoros, in which
Thesmophoria were held; and especially in
Arkadia (Hdt. ii. 171).
{b) The Islands and the Colonies. — Thesmo-
phoria were celebrated also at Eretria, in
Crete, Paros, Thasos, Delos, Cyprus, Ephesus,
Miletus, Macedonia, Thrace, Sicily, Naples, &c.
The rites of Demeter were readily accepted by
the Romans (Cic. Lcgg. ii. 9, 21), who made
the Neapolitan priestesses of Demeter Roman
citizens (cf. Cic. Balb. 24, 55). At Cumae to be
priestess of Demeter Thesmophoros was the
highest honour to which matrons could aspire.
0€CTjj.oe£Tat. [Archon.]
0fiTes. In earlier times this name denoted
any freemen who worked for hire (Hom. Od. iv.
644) ; not adscrijjti glaehae, like the Penestae
or the Helots, as appears from Od. xi. 489 and
xviii. 357 sqq. [Servus.]
The persons best known by the name of Orjres
are the members of the fourth or lowest class
at Athens, according to the poUtical division of
Solon. [Census (Greek).] They did not serve
in the Athenian army as hopUtes, only as i|/iA.oi;
but on becoming kleruchs they passed into the
class of ^eii7rToi, and therefore of hoplites.
The Athenian armies during the war were thus
reinforced by at least 10,000 men.
06Xos. A round building, probably the
most primitive form of hut, and so presen-ed
traditionally in a house or city. In the Homeric
house it stood in a corner of the auA.?) {Od. xxid.
466). It is stated to have served as a storehouse.
For an account of the Tholus at Athens, see
Prytaneum. The Tholus at Epidaurus was
built by Polykleitus. It was round, and had an
external colonnade of the Doric order and
Corinthian internal columns, and contained
pictures by Pausias. The name tholus is used
later for any circular building.
0(3pag {lorica). [Arms and Armour.]
Thronus (Qp6vos). In Homer &p6vos is dis-
tinguished from all other forms of seat [Sella],
and was used by kings and princes. It was not,
however, wholly confined to them, for any guest
whom the prince wished to honour was given a
dp6vos {Od. i. 130). The seats of all the guests
in palaces, such as that of Alkinous or the house
of Odysseus, are called dpuvoi {Od. xvi. 408).
The seats of the gods also are always Qp6voi,
except in one passage {II. viii. 436), where all
except Zeus sit on kAkt/xoi, he taking a 6p6vos.
The Homeric dpovos was high (inJ/rjAds, Od.
viii. 422), and always had a footstool {Qpiivvs,
Od. i. 131, xix. 57). It was covered with rugs
and carpets {Od. i. 130) ; it was made of
wood, often overlaid with gold {xpvcreios, 11-
viii. 442). One may trace in the magnificent
thrones which later ages provided for temple
idols, a traditional survival of the gorgeousness
of Heroic times. Instances of thrones attri-
THRONUS
Luted to deities are the throne of Apollo at
Amyklae and that of Zeus at Olyiiipia, the work
of Pheidias. Pausanias (v. 11) gives a full de-
scription of the structure and decoration of the
latter. It was made of ivory and gold, orna-
mented with gems and ebony, sculptured, inlaid.
Fig. lasj.
Coin of Elis. showing Zeus
enthroned.
Fig. lOH',.
Coin of Nikomedia, show.
ing Sarapis enthroned.
and painted. The back was high and sur-
mounted by sculptured groups of the Graces
and Seasons. Below the feet was a footstool.
The whole was covered with a multitude of
mythological figures and groups.
The best known of the grave-reliefs of the
type in which the dead man appears enthroned
and receiving the homage of his descendants
Fii,'. lOf^j.— Thrones, from tlie Ilarpy Tomb. (Murray.)
is the Harpy Tomb from Lykia, at the British
Museum.
It appears probable that some models of
thrones were borrowed by the Greeks from
Egypt and Assyria.
Thrones were also used by men of authority,
such as priests, judges at the games, teachers in
schools, it'c. In later times, esp(!ci;illy under the
Roman Empire, it became the custom to dedi-
cate honorary seats or thrones in public places,
generally the theatre, to the use of distinguished
persons. Such are the seats of benefactors,
priests, archons, generals, and other officials,
which still remain in the Theatre of Dionysus
at Athens.
Besides these ceremonial seats, each head
of a house had a chair in which he sat and
entertained guests, whicli was not unlike the
old 6p6vos in shape and went by its name.
Such also was the case at Rome, where the
solium was only used by the paterfamilias, who
sat in it of a morning when giving audience to
iiis clients (Cic. Lfiig. i. 3, 10). The solium
was in form practically the same as the Greek
di)6voi, and, like it, was the seat of gods. The
seat of the teacher was not called solium but
Cathedra. Solium is also the name for a
TIARA 631
peculiar kind of bathing-chair, in which the
bather sat and had hot water thrown over him
[Balneaeu
Thymele (du/xeKri). [Theatrum.]
Thyrsus (diifxros). A wand or sceptre carried
by Dionysus (Bacchus) and by Satyrs, Maenads,
and others engaged in Bacchic rites (Eur.
Bacch. 25, 80, &c., Cijcl. 62 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 390 ;
Hor. Carm. ii. 19, 8, itc). It usually consists
of a straight staff surmounted by a pine-cone,
or a bunch of vine-leaves and grapes or i%'y-
leaves and berries (Ov. Met. xi. 27, 28 ; Pi-op.
iii. 3, 35). A riband or fillet is attached to it,
just below the pine-cone or the bunch of leaves.
Fig. 1087.— Thyrsi, from a Greek vase. iHamllton.)
The pine-cone or leafy bunch of the thyrsus
was sometimes supposed to conceal a spear-
head, used as a weapon by Dionysus and his
followers (Ov. Met. iii. 6G7). (See also fig. 1136,
under Vannus.)
Tia'ra. To the Greeks the ridpa or Ttdpas
was known only as the head-dress of the Per-
sians. Herodotus says that it was of soft felt
(irlKos, vii. 61, cf. iii. 12), and was worn by the
Persians not only when camjiaigning but also
when sacrificing (i. 132; cf. Am.\'n.2i7). Later
writers add that it was the distinctive head-
dress of the Magi.
One particular form, the upright ridpa, is
often mentioned as being the peculiar badge of
Fig. lORS.— Tiara. (From a coin Fig. lOCii.-Tlaru. (From
of Tlgranes, king of .Vrrao- a coin of Abgiirus
nia, B.C. K3-6y.) king of Edcssa.l
the Great King ; no one else being allowed to
wear it (Xen. Aitab. ii. 5, 23). Aristoplianes
{Av. 487) compares it to a cock's comb. The
tiara which Xerxes in his flight after Salamis
632
TIARA
Fig. 1090.-Tiara. (From a
vase ; British Museum.)
gave to the people of Abdera was adorned with
gold (Hdt. viii. 120). The ordinary tiara is a
Phrygian ' cap of felt. It is long and conical,
and the point falls forward over the brow of the
wearer, and, like the
upright form, has lap-
pets at each side of the
ear, which could be
tied under the chin.
Other accounts say
that the upright tiara
was properly called
Kirapis or KiSapts, and ,
that it was bound
round with a blue and
white band.
Another name for
the tiara is Kvpfiacria
(Ar. I. c. ; Hdt. V. 49,
vii. 64).
Roman writers use
the word for a Phry-
gian head-dress, both
of men and women
(Juv. vi. 516). Thus
in Graeco-Roman art
it was generally given
„ ,„,„ ^ „ to Paris, Mithras fsee
iig. 1046 under Taurobolium), and other Asiatic
characters ; while Priam wears the kingly tiara
( Verg. Aen. vii. 246 ; Juv. x. 267).
^ The tiara had no connexion with the Asiatic
fiiTpa. [Mitra.]
£ a'-^^^*- ^^'^ ^'Oi''^ av\6s, commonly translated
flute,' denotes any kind of wind instrument,
with tlie exception of trumpets and horns. As
a rule, however, it is used in a more restricted
sense for the double oboe or clarinet, commonly
known as the 'double flute.' This is quite
wrong, for the av\6s had a mouthpiece (Cfvyos)
and a vibrating reed {yKwrraj, whereas the flute
has no reed. The Greek flute is the aOpiyf
fiofOKaKajuosi fistula). Both forms— the aOpiyf,
or flute, and the clarinet or avKos proper
—are as old as Homer (//. x. 13). The flute
was held in but low esteem, and was thought
only a fit instrument for shepherds and other
country folk. The art of playing the av\6s, or
av\T,TtKr), was, on the otlier hand, a necessary
part of education, thougli of less dignity than
KieapiffTiK-t). The av\6s was a pipe (06fi0uf),
which in the simplest form was made of reed,
but might be of bone, metal, or ivory. To this'
was attached by means of a socket of bone
(oA^iof or v<p6\niov) the mouthpiece (^ivyos),
in which was fixed the reed (7AaiTTa). The
instrument thus formed seems to have been
played, not alone, but always in pairs. The
player wore a leather strap which covered the
mouth, ran under the ears, and was fastened at
the back of the head by a knot or buckle. This
curious piece of gear served to keep the two
mouthpieces^ in tlie proper position. It was
called <pop0eia, (rrofxis or xet^aiTrip (cf. Ar. Vesn.
582) : m Latin, Capistrum (see fig. 294).
The notes were given by holes (rpi/TnjyuaTo) ;
and as both pipes were played at once, there can
originally have been only four or at the most
five of these on each. Two overtones, however,
at least could be blowni on each of these. The
compass was still further extended by the use
of additional holes with stops {TrapaTpinrr)/j.aTa).
The simplest form of stop was a peg, which
could be withdrawn when the hole was needed.
Extra notes were sometunes given by short
cylinders attached to the pipe near the end.
Another invention was to cover the extra holes
TIBIA
with moveable rings, which the player could
slide over or off them as he wished. Such no
doubt, or something like it, was the new-fangled
tibia contrasted by Horace with the old-
Fig. 1091.— Tibia. (From a relief at Naples.)
fashioned one (A. P. 202-3). The two pipee
were tuned at the inters-al of an octave.
Many kinds of wind instruments are com-
prised under the word av\6s, some of which are
fifes like yiyypas, flutes like (piiriyf, or horns
like e\vfj.os. The last-
named deserves special
mention, since it was
used in the worsliip of
Kybele, and was also
known to the Romans
as tibia Berecijntia (cf.
Hor. Carm. iii. 19, 18,
iv. 1, 22). It ended in
a curved bell mouth,
and was of great power.
Originally and in its
proper use it was played
alone, but it apparently
became the fashion to
convert the left-hand
pipe into a Bereeyn-
tian by adding a curved
mouth.
The invention of the
av\6s was attributed
, by the Athenians to the
; goddess Athena. From her it was adopted by
the Satyr Marsyas (see Maksyas in ClasH.
■Liict-} The myth points to Phrygia as the
ongmal home of the instrument. It was in-
dispensable in religious rites, to accompany
hymns and provide music for the dance,
fig. 1092.— Tibia. (From a
Vttse, British Museum.)
and to hallow the libation at every sacrifice.
It was equally popular in private life. A
contest for avXrjTai was early founded by the
Amphiktyons at the Pythian "games. A flute-
player engaged in such a contest is shown in
fig. 294, under Capistrum. The case in which
TIBIALIA
the instrument was carried was callfd (Tvfirjvn
or ouAoOVj/crj, and was sometimes covered witli
the skin of a lynx or leopard, sometimes made
of ivory and gold, or other costly material.
To its side was attached a little box, the
yKaiTTOKo/xeiov, in which a change of mouth-
pieces was kept. (See fig. 675, under Ludus
litterarius.)
At Home the tibia held even a more impor-
tant place in ritual than in Greece, especially
at funerals. The laws of the Twelve Tables
restricted the number of tihicincs at a funeral
to ten (Cic. Legg. ii. 23, 50 ; Ov. Fast. vi.
654). Thej' were also called in to enliven
feasts, as well as to take part in the libation.
Besides these uses, tibiae were used in
the drama at Rome as in Greece, both to
accompany the singers and to amuse the
audiences in the interludes (cf. Hor. A. P.
204-6). From the Didascaliae to Terence's
comedies we learn that four different varieties
were used in the theatre : (1) tibiae jjares, in
which both pipes were equal; (2) tibiae im-
pares, in which thej-- were unequal ; (3) duae
ilcxtrae, in which the right was identical in
key and note witli the left ; and (4) Serranae
or Sarranae.
The dextrae or Lydiae (or Phrygiae) are
described as appropriate to the graver comedy,
the sinistrae or Sei-ranae (or Sarranae) to
the lighter ; when both were combined (as, e.g.,
in the Heauton Timorumenos of Terence) the
mixed character of the subject was indicated.
Tibiae dextrae are said to have been of higher
pitch than sinistrae : they are also called
incentivae, as giving the melody, in distinction
to succentivae or accompaniment. Tibiae
sinistrae had a curved mouth like that of a
horn. The exact meaning of tibiae pares and
impares is uncertain.
As distinguished from fistula, tibia is a single
pipe, fistula (usually) the ffvpiy^ or Pandean
pipe.
Tibia'lia. [Fascia (3).]
Tibi'cen, Tibi'cina (avKrjTrip, avAr^Tpi^). A
player on the Tibia. [Funus ; Census ; Comoe-
dia; Symposium.]
TLM.Tip,a. See Appendix, Greek Law.
Tintinna'bulum, Campa'na, or Aes (kcoSwv).
A bell. Handbells were used among Gi'eeks
and Romans for signals of various kinds : e.g.
for the opening of the market (Plut. Si/nip. iv.
4, 2) or the baths (Mart. xiv. 163) ; to wake
or summon slaves; for sentry duty at night,
passed from post to post, as a proof of wake-
fulness (Thuc. iv. 135; Ar. A v. 841), and for
the use of night watchmen ; for the necks or
harness of animals, as at the present day (Eur.
Ehes. 307 ; Ar. Ban. 963).
Bells were used in connexion with the wor-
ship of Rhea and of Dionysus, and were carried
by Bacchantes or attached to the thjTsus or
tympana. Bells were also used as amulets.
Such a use may have suggested the bells
attached to shields (Aesch. T/ieb. 385).
The forms of bells were various. In the
Museum at Najjles are some of the modern
form : others are more like a Cliinese gong.
1 in the following woodcut is a simple disk of
bell-metal (see cut under Oscillai. 2 has a
clapper attached to it liy a t'haiii. 5 and 6 may
have been used at sacrifices, in Bacchanalian
processions, or for lustration. 7 represents the
manner in which bells were attached to the
collars of chariot-horses.
Ti'ties or Titie'nses. [Tribus.]
Ti'tii soda'les. A sodalitas or college of
TONSOR
638
priests at Rome, said to have been instituted
by T. Tatius (Tac. Ann. i. 54) or by Romulus.iu
his honour (Tac. Hist. ii. 95). They represented
Fig. 1094.— Bolls.
the second tribe of the Romans, tlie Titles:
that is, the Sabines, who, after their union with
the Ramnes or Latins, continued to perform
their own ancient Sabine sacra. These priests
also preserved the ancient Sabine auguries dis-
tinct from those of the other tribes. This
priesthood, having fallen somewhat into neglect,
was restored by Augustus as a distinguished
sodalitas, in which the members seem to have
been of senatorial rank :
among them we find Au-
gustus himself, Nero, son of
Germanicus, and Claudius
the emperor.
Ti'tulus. Any announce-
ment or placard ; the title of
a book; a bill of sale; the list
of conquered tribes or cap-
tured cities in a triumph, &c.
Toga. [Dress.]
T6kos. [Fenus.]
Tolle'no. [Antlia.]
Toma'culum (also hilla
[Hor. Sat. ii. 4, V>0\,fartum,
farcimen, Lucaiiica [Mart,
iv. 46, &c.], aWas [Ar. Eq. 208, &c.]). A sau-
sage or black pudding (botulus). Sausages
were served hot from the gridiron, or on a
silver gridiron ; they were also commonly sold
in pojiiiiar (Mart. i. 41, itc).
lome'ntum. Stuffing for a bed (Jlart. xiv.
160 ; Suet. T/6. .54). fLectus]
Tonsor (Kovpevs). The fashions of wearing
the hair and beard among tlie Ctnu'ks and
Romans are described under Barba and
Coma.
1. Greek. — At Athens, and generally in
Greece, this part of the male toilette was per-
formed in the shop {Kovp(7ov) of the barber,
who, besides cutting hair (Kfipfiv, tundcrr) and
clipping or shaving beards {^vp«iv, raderc) with
, scissors (SiirA.^ /xoxaipo, fj-axatpi^es, v//o\ij, for-
634
TOPIAEIUS
fex) or razor {^vp6v, Kovpis, novacula), trimmed
the nails of his customers (ovux'C*"') ^^^th
an ovvx^(r'riipiov (sc. ,aaxaip'5ioc), cut corns
[rvKoi, Xen. Mem. i. 2, 54), and removed hairs
[irapariWeLV, irapakiyiLV, TrapaXeaiveiv) with
tweezers (rpixoAajSioj', vulsellae) or ointment
{\pi\co6pov, drojjax).
As men liad not often the necessary apph-
ances, nor slaves instructed to use them, they
generally resorted to the barber's shop {Kovp-
elov, tonstrina), and this became a conmion
morning lounge (Ar. Pint. 338; Plut. Sij7np.
V. 5; Plaut. Aid. ii. 4, 34; Hor. Sat. i. 7, 3,
Ep. i. 7, 50).
2. Ro>L\.N. — Barbers, according to Varro
{B. B. ii. 11, 16), were imported into Italy from
Sicily 300 b.c. Before that date the Romans
wore beards (Plin. vii. 59, § 211). Tondere
properly means to clip ; to shave with a razor
[novacula) is radere. The custom of shaving
is said by Pliny (I.e.) to have been introduced
by Scipio Africanus the elder. [Culter.]
The tonstrinae were used as a place of con-
versation by the Romans in the same way as
at Athens ; and generally what has been said
above applies to Roman customs.
Rich men had their own slaves for barbers ;
and women made their own toilette at home,
or in the balneae, with the assistance of to7i-
strices.
Topia'rius. [Hortus.]
Toral. riectus; Tapete.]
To'rcular or To'rculum. A press for making
wine or oil : in Greek, irifffTrip, iriecrTiipioi', or,
generally, Arjvds, strictly the vat in which the
fruit was trodden or pressed.
The grapes which had been trodden by the
feet [see under Vinum] required further pres-
sure to extract the remaining juice ; and the
pulp (sainpsa) of the olive, when separated
from the stones by the Trapetum [Oleum],
was crushed in a similar machine to extract
the oil. The simplest and earliest contrivance
for this purpose was a heavy stone placed
over a basket containing the grapes or the
olive pulp, and pressed down by a lever. A
pestle {tudic.ula) also was sometimes used. A
more complicated press is described by Pliny
(xviii. § 317) and Vitruvius (vi. 6) in which the
lever or press-beam {prelum) was worked by a
windlass (sucula). The word prelum, though
strictly meaning the press-beam, often stands
for the whole press (Hor. Carm. i. 20, 9; Plin.
xvi. § 193).
This kind of press was in great measure
superseded by a screw-press, like an ordinary
clothes-press [see Coclea], an upi'ight {mains)
working as a male screw in an upper cross
beam, and being screwed down upon what
Pliny calls a tijmpanum, probably a round
board, beneath which the fruit was placed
(Plin. xviii. § 317).
Torcula'rium. A shed or out-house where
the presses for oil or wine were worked
[Oleum].
Toreu'ma {r6pfvfj.a,TopevriK7]). [Caelatura.]
Torme'ntum (^ao-az'os). (1) Torture. 1. Gkeek
(see the articles 'A-iroTvpLTravicrnos and
Crux). Such modes of capital punislmient
as burning, impalement, and crucifixion were
known to the Greeks of the best period only
as practised by barbarians or tyrants, and
foi-med no part of legal procedure. The earliest
crucifixion recorded to have taken place in
Greece is one which took place at Sikyon 314
B.C. No such deeds as these disfigure the
annals of free Greece ; they follow rapidly on
TORMENTUM
the incursion of Macedonian barbarism (see,
however, Kpvrcnia.).
Judicial torture, employed to extract evi-
dence, was likewise confined at Athens and
among the Greeks generally within narrower
limits than in those Eui'opean countries which
had adopted it from the later Roman law. By
a decree of early date it was ordained that no
free Athenian could be put to the torture
(Andoc. de Myst. g 43) ; and authorities are
agreed that we have no example of the torture
of an Athenian citizen. Free aliens, whether
leVoi or fjLfToiKoi, stood in general upon the same
footing ; the masters of emancipated slaves (a7r-
f\evdfpoL) retained, but never exercised, the
right of giving them up for torture (Dem. c.
Aphob. iii. p. 856, § 39). Even under the Thirty
there was no torture of citizens (Lys. c. Agorat,
§§ 54, 59, 61). But freemen, not being citizens,
were sometimes tortured at moments of panic :
e.g. the barber who first spread the news of the
Sicilian disaster (Plut. Nicias, 30; Dem. de
Cor. p. 271, § 133). These i-emarks apply only
to the free ages of Greece : the record of later
times in Polvbius and Cicero is very different
(Cic. Fart. Orat. 34, § 118).
It was in taking the evidence of slaves, whose
willing testimony was not accepted, that the
torture was most commonly employed (see
MapTwpia, Appendix, Greek Law ; Servus).
Evidence thus extorted was considered of more
value than that of freemen. Either party
might offer his own slave to be examined by
torture, or demand that of his adversary, and
the offer or demand was equally called irp6-
KKTiffts fls fiicravov. The irp6K\r]cns was usually
in w^riting. Only one mode of torture was
in general use in the Attic courts, the rack
I [rpox^^ '■ Tpoxt'Cf "' • o-va^i^d^iiv eVl Thv Tpox^v '.
(TTpefiKovf. cf. EculeuS). There seem, how-
ever, to have been exceptions (cf. Ar. Ban.
618 sqq. ; Antiph. de Choreut. § 23). The suitor
who put an opponent's slave to the torture was
liable for damages for any loss of time or bodily
hurt resulting from it (Dem. c. Pantaen. p. 978,
§ 40; Ar. Ban. 624). The state torturer, a
slave, was called Sitfj.ios or Sr}fi6Koivos ; the
parties might themselves agree to act as fiaffa-
viarai, or choose other persons for this purpose
(Antiph. de Venef. § 10 ; Dem. c. Pantaen. p.
978, §§ 40, 42). The torture was usually ad-
ministered in private, but sometimes in open
court (Aeschin. F. L. § 126). The depositions
of the slaves, which were called fidaavoi, were
read at the trial.
2. RoM.\N. During the time of the Republic,
freemen were never put to the torture. The
rule as to slaves' evidence was the same at
Rome as in Greece ; they were tortured to
make them confess what it was sought to prove.
Slaves, however, could not be tortm-ed to
prove the guilt of their own master, except in
some special cases : e.g. in the Catilinarian con-
spiracy (Cic. Mil. 22, § 59). After Augustus,
the law of Maiestas (seeAppendix, Roman Law)
was extended to the torture of free persons ;
and we read of cases in which senators and
equites were exposed to it (Suet. Tib. 58, Cal.
27 sqq.). The general law of imperial times was
that only slaves and freemen of low degree
{liumiliores) could be tortured in prosecutions
for maiestas.
As to the modes of torture, see Eculens and
Flagellum. Cicero mentions cases of burning
and roasting {Verr. v. 63, § 163 : cf. Cliicnt. 63,
, § 177) ; but in general we get few details. The
j hooks {unci) with which the bodies of criminals
TORMENTUM
635
were dragged after execution f Juv x. GO) were
likewise employed to lacerate the livin<?. The
torturers (tortorcs. ((irnifices) were probably
public slaves (Carnifex).
(2) Tormoitnm was a general name for
artillery among the ancients.
I. Descriptive. — The two main classes of
tormenta are tliose which discliarged their
missiles (1) point blank {iiiQvrova) or practi-
cally so ; (2) at a high angle with the ground
(■KakivToua). The ordinary names of the engines
were o^v^eXets and Aido^oXoi. The former
shot arrows, hence their name o^vfieKus, and
were called catapultae by the Romans : the
latter discharged stones (ireTpol36Kot, Kido-
fidKoi), and were called in Latin ballistae.
Catajtulta was also used as a generic term
embracing both classes (Caes. B. C. ii. 9, 3).
The structure of both the engines is in
principle the same : both deriving their force
from torsion of rope, not from the elasticity of
a bent body like a bow.
(i) Cat(rpulta (KaTaTreKrris), also called
scorino (from its shape) in Caes. B. G. vii. 25, 2 ;
Vitr. X. 10, 15. Tliis engine consisted of three
Fig. lOOG.— Catapulta or scorpio. (From Kiistow
and Kochly.)
parts, which we may call (F F) the Frame
{TTXivdiov, capifidiivi), (B) the Pipe {(rvpiy^),
and (C) the Stand (^dcris). See fig. 109C.
The Frame (F F) {Tr\iv6iov, capifiduiu) con-
sisted of two strong horizontal beams (rj (j, g g),
into which four vertical beams were morticed,
r, d (irapaffrdTai), e, f (fxecroardrat, medianae).
In the outside two compartments were strained
vertically ropes (tSvoi) made from the sinews
of animals {p, p) which passed through the
beams at g g g g, and were secured above and
below by strong fastenings, m ni m tn. The
layers {SS/jloi) of rope were generally about ten.
Into each bundle of rojie was inserted a bar
of stiff wood, A A. These formed the arms
(cyKwves) of the engine, and tlieir outward
ends, y y, were joined by a string, to^7tis, in
the loop of which, when strung, tlie arrow
notch rested.
In the central space between e and /, and
extending in a fore and aft direction was fitted
a hollow trough B, called the (Tvpty^ or pipe ;
at the rear end of which was a windlass worked
by handspikes {(TKurd\ai) for drawing back
the projector (SidxTTpa: fig. 1097). One end
of a rope (KaTayaiyls) passing over tlie wind-
lass was fastened to a ring | attached to the
back of the Siuffrpa (see fig. 1097, b), which
fitted into and moved along the trough of the
(TvpLy^.
The ropes were kept stretched by means of
an instrument called 4vt6viov, which fitted into
the frame of the catapult.
The crvpiy^ ]iroper {(rvpiy^ in the narrov?
sense, canaliculus), was a long narrow trough-
like construction of wood, open at the end
towards the enemy. Sliding in tlie (xiipty^ was
a box called SiaxTrpa, containing the mechanism
for releasing the bowstring, in which the
arrow was placed. At the rear end of the
Siaxrrpa was a hook v fj. (x^'Pi ejjitoxis), of
which a plan and a vertical section are given
in fig. 1097. The hook pivoted on an axle A. A.,
working in a frame (o-TTf/iora, .^ A). The hook fj.
itself was double, with the ends turned down,
to catch the bowstring. The rear end v behind
cirin^
^
string
// , • position of handle
position of handle -t/, ; ', when the string
when secured. "- i.: is released.
Fig. 1097.— («) Plan and (6) section of the StuxTTpa.
the pivot A was heavily weighted, so that, in
order to keep the hook down on the bowstring,
the hinder part liad to be kept up in its place
by a handle (p ((TxaCTTlpia, vnutiicht), which
tiorned horizontally on a vertical axis tt, called
irep6vr).
When the engine was to be used, the pro-
jector was pushed forwards in the avpiy^ till
the hook could catch the loop of the bowstring
(toIjtis). The hook /j. was then fastened down
so as to hold the string firm, by means of the
horizontal crxao-TTjpia, (p, passed under the tail
of the hook v. The pK)jector was then, along
with the string, drawn back by means of the
Karaywyis and the windlass, as far as was
required, and the windlass made fast so -that
the projector could not move. The arrow was
then laid in the trough of the dtuxTrpa (see
fig. 1097, a), with its notch engaged in the
bowstring between the turned down prongs of
the hook. Wlien all was ready for the shot,
the handle was pushed from under the tail of
the hook, which fell down by its own weight
(or was perhaps struck by u hammer), and so
released tlu; string, which shot forward the
arrow with great velocity.
C, the Banc of the catapult, consisted of a
beam ij (opfloirraTTjs, columella ; fig. 1099), sup-
ported on four feet, s, by four stays, r. In the
top of this beam (see fig. i09.H) was along vertical
pivot u, on which the whole catapult frame could
revolve horizontally and be turned to face in
any direction, while elevation was gained by
raising or lowei'ing the tail of the avpiy^, tlio
forward part of which rested on a horizontal bar
X passing through the lower part of the catapult
frame a fi y S. At the rear end of the avpiy^
was a stay (fi^. 1099J r (dvairavcrTijpia), which
G36
TORMENTUM
a?— -£B
u
could move up and dowu on the support lo (iivr-
epejSisJ, which latter was attached by a ring
to the main beam
"^^v^^^,^^ ^^^^~<^ [opdocrr arris), q.
^^ ^~"-^ The limits of change
of elevation of such
an engine must
have been at all
events 8°.
The length of the
arrow gave the
name to the size of
M the engine. Thus a
machine thro'wiag a
three-span (26 inch)
arrow would be
called TpiaTri.Qafj.os \
three-ell Tpiirr\xvs,
&c.
^. ,„ „ T . ■, . . . < The weight of a
Fig.l09S.— Detail ol lower paL-: of ,. »
catapult frame in which the rpiavidaflOS waS
avpiyi lay. about 85 lbs., and
its arrow about ^ lb.,
and it required two or three men to work it.
At 1000 feet an arrow from a three-span catapult
would be driven 2 inches into a board : so that,
on the whole, we may take the ordinary efiective
range at about 400 yards.
inclined at an angle of 30°. The whole engine
was much larger and stronger than the cata-
pults. It was used to discharge beams or
stones. The rope (ToltTisjj extending from the
A A A J, a. h, &o., frame of upper part.
B B, pipe (O'l^p'yf )• I', ''. H-^croa-TdTai.
g, g, springs of twisted sinews (topoi, funca).
h, h, arms of bow (ayKutviS).
i, I, bowstring (To^t-ts). k, k, nuts (crwA^ves).
TTk, projector (SiiocTTpo).
n n, windlass (oi/iVfcos, sucxUa).
o, hook (X^'p. ciiitoxis).
p, handle (<TxacrTr)p{a, maniu-la).
q, main upright beam i.opdo<nafr\<; . columella).
r, r, stays. s, », teet.
(, box of pivot lor elevation and direction.
u, pivot.
V, moveable stay (ai'an-avo-njpto), working on
w, back-stay or support (ai'TepeiSiS).
Fig. 1099.— Catapult. (Baumeister.)
(ii.) TheBallisfa{ira\ivTovov). The principle
of this engine was the same as that of the
catapult, the only essential differences being
(a) that, to obtain a high angle fire, the
hinder part of the pipe rested on the groimd,
to which the pipe itself was inclined at an
angle of 45° ; (b) that the wooden arms
{ajKcoves) in the position of rest were not
horizontal as in the ctxzQ of the evdvTova, but
Fig. 1100.— Ballista. (.^. Miiller. in Baumeister.)
ends of the ayKuves, had at its centre a ring
(not represented in the plate) which was
caught by the x^'P-
The weight of the missile inminae (1 mina =
about Ig lb.) gave the unit of measurement
for the engine and all its parts. Thus the
size of the engine varied according as the
missile was 10, 15, 20, 30, 50, 60minae: the
latter ( = 1 talent) was the heaviest missile that
was ordinarily used. The average range was
probably about 400 yards ; but a large GO minae
ballista appears to have been barely able to
tlirow 220 yards. The price of a 10 minae
ballista may have been 4000 draclinaas; that
of a SiTTTjXf s catapult, 480 drachmas. Ballistae,
from their weiglit, cannot have been much used
in the field, so that they always appear in less
numbers than the catapults. At New Carthage
Fig. 1101.— Taar palpal Tfis- (Riistow and Kiichly.)
(according to Livy) Scipio had 120 large cata-
pults and 23 large ballistae (Liv. xxvi. 47, 5) :
at Jerusalem the Jews had 300 catapults and
•40 ballistae (Jos. B. J. v. 9, 2).
(iii.) The ya(TTpa<p€rr]s or 'stomach-bow,'
also called o-kSpttios, derived its name because
it had to be pressed against the stomach and
the ground or a wall, when it was being stnmg.
TOPN02
Fig. 1101 gives an idea of it. It was not
strictly a tormentum, but a cross-bow, with
a SicixTTpa like that of the catapult. The
novel featvu'e of it was that the sides of the
(Tvpiy^ had a series of teeth, into whicli two
pegs {KaraKKeTSes) on each side fitted, so as to
hold the SiwcTTpa at the f>oiiit required. It was
probably the same as the arcvballista (arba-
lest, arblast, arnibrust, harquebuss).
(iv.) The onager. A Roman construction of
post-Constantinian times. It maybe described
TRAGOEDIA
637
■Fig. 1102.— Onager. JIarquardt.)
as a horizontal one-armed ballista, which shot
a shower of small stones from a bag. The
name is said to have been derived from the
fact that the wild ass in its flight dashed back
stones with its hoofs on its pursuers. The
strings or sinews which supplied the force were
stretched horizontally, and the arm {ayKtiiv)
inserted vertically into them. When the engine
was used, the upper end of this arm was pulled
down by a windlass till it was horizontal, and
then secured by a hook, the missiles being
hung in a bag at the extremity. Then the
hook was struck away with a hammer and the
missiles discharged.
n. HisTouic.VL. — In the Hellenic world
tormenta first appear in the great prepara-
tions made by Dionysius against Cartilage
in 399 B.C. It was from Sicily that they came
into Greece proper. The first mention of them
there is in an inscription at Athens between
356 and 848, and the siege of Byzantium
by Philip of Macedon (340 B.C.) is the first
occasion on record of the use of artillery on a
large scale in Greece. Polyeidus of Thessaly
was one of the most celebrated engineers.
The first mention of \ido$6\ot appears to be at
the siege of Halikarnassus by Alexander in
834.
During the period of the Diadochi, Greek
artillery reached its highest perfection. The
engines are repeatedly mentioned, and artillery
practice (KaTaira\Ta<pe(ria) became a regular
part of military training. The Romans did not
make any decided improvement or invention in
military engines till late in the Empire. Caesar,
after the battle of Pharsalia, had to get engines
from Greece and Asia to besiege Alexandria.
It was in siege work, particularly defence, that
these engines were employed (Liv. xxvi. 6, 4 ;
Polyb. viii. 7, 6) ; if they were used it was only
for the attack or defence of some strong posi-
tion (Caes. B. G. ii. 8, 4, viii. 14, 5) or to pro-
tect some movement, such as crossing a river.
During the Roman Empire each legion (Tac.
Hist. iii. 28), and pcrliaps each praetorian
cohort (Tac. Ann. xii. 5(>), had its own engines.
(3) = inr6Cuiixa. [Navis.]
T6pvos (S7vos, tornua ; ropvevtiy, r6pufvna,
itc. ; Bivovv, yKv<pnv, tornarc, &c.). (1) An in-
strument for marking a circle, probably a pencil
and string (Hdt. iv. 36: Plat. Fhileb. 51 c;
Eiu-. Bacch. 1067 ; Hom. II. xxiii. 255, Od. v.
249, Topuoo/xai).
(2) A turning lathe. The idea was probably
developed from the potter's wheel. It is not
clear whether the earliest fomi of the lathe
was worked by a bow, somewhat on the principle
of the rpvTrafou [TerebraJ i Od. ix. 884 sqq. ; Eur.
Cycl. 460), or by a treadle, like the grindstone
[Cos] ; probably the former.
(8) A graving tool or chisel (Verg. Eel. iii.
38 ; in Gcurij. ii. 449 it may be either the lathe
or the chisel, and so in Aesch. Fr. 55). (See
cuts under Caelum.)
Torques or Torquis (o-TpfirTJs). An orna-
ment of gold, twisted spirallj- and bent into a
circular form, worn round the neck by men of
distinction among the Persians, the Gauls, and
other Asiatic and northern nations. Tore in
Celtic languages was probably borrowed from
the Latin word.
Ornaments of this kind have been frequently
found in France and Great Britain and Ireland,
varying in size and weight, but almost always of
the fonn shown in the cut. Another form of
torquis (t. hracchiaUs) is shown in fig. 145, b,
imder Armilla. Such bracelets and torques
Fig. liai.-Torques.
are often found together, having been worn by
the same person.
It was by taking a collar from a Gallic warrior
that T. Manlius obtained the cognomen of
Torquatus (Cic. Fin. ii. 22, 78, Of. iii. 31, 112).
Torques were an impoi'tant portion of the
spoil, when any Celtic or Oriental army was
conquered, and they were among the rewards
of valour bestowed after an engagement (Juv.
xvi. 60; PliH. xxxiii. § 10). The monu-
ments to Roman soldiers often mention the
nmnber of torques conferred upon them. In
Verg. Georff. iii. 168 torquis is used of an ox-
collar made of osiers ; and in iv. 276 of garlands
hung upon an altar. [Phalerae.]
To'rulus (dim. of torus). A wrcatli or plait
worn round the head under a hat (Plant. Ainjih.
Prol. 144).
Torus. (1) [Lectus.] (2) [Architectura.]
To'xotae iro^^rai). |ATiM,6fftot.]
Tra'bea. _ [Dress, Tex; a.]
Tragoe'dia. The pur[x)se of this article is
to sketch the progress of Greek Tragedy from
its origin to its maturity ; and to give some
account of Roman Tragedy, which was derived
from the Greek.
The Ditlujranib. — The Dorian worship of the
gods, and especially of Apollo, had been accom-
panied from an early time by choral lyrics, to
which an artistic development was given by
Alkman of Sparta (660 B.C.) and Stesichorus of
688
TRAGOEDLA.
Himera (620 B.C.). Arion, of Methymna in
Lesbos, about UOO B.C., gave a finished form to
the SidvpaiJ.0os, or choral hymn in honour of
Dionysus. The kvkAios xop"^ — ^•^- tlie chorus
which stood, or danced, round the altar of
Dionysus — received from him a more complete
organisation, its number being fixed at fifty.
The earliest kvkXioi x^poi oi this kind were
trained and produced by Arion at Corinth in
the reign of Periander (025-585 B.C.). It is well
known that the dithyramb had existed before
Ai-ion's time. Tlie earliest occurrence of the
word is in Archilochus (c. G70 B.C.), Fr. 79.
Herodotus (i. 23J speaks of Arion as the inventor
of the dithyramb. The etymology of Sidvpan&os
is unknown.
Earliest Traffic Choruses. — At Sikyon,
rpayiKol x^P"' '" honour of Dionysus were
in use at the time when Arion perfected the
dithyramb at Corinth.
Whatever its origin, there is no doubt of
the primitive association of the goat with the
Diouysiac worsliip. This appears (1) ni the
goat-skin worn by the chorus as (rdrupoi
( = TiTvpoi, 'he-goats') wlio attended on
Dionysus; (2) in the sacrifice of a goat to
Dionysus; and probably (3) in the giving of a
goat as the prize. When in early times the
country jieople spoke of a ' goat-chorus,' or a
' goat-song ' (rpaytfiSia), no doubt the literal
and the allusive meanings were blended : men
thought partly of the goat which was the
sacrifice or the prize, partly of the goat-like
satyrs who formed the chorus. The word
rpaycpSia is often applied to the purely choral
performance in honour of Dionysus, when as
yet there was no ' tragedy ' in the later sense ;
and it is not strictly ax^plicable to dramatic
dialogues.
The fact that at this date rpayiKol X^P^^
were not necessarilj' restricted to the worship
of Dionysus, but could celebrate the fortunes
of a hero such as Adrastus, illustrates the
peculiar position of Dionysus among the Hel-
lenic deities, as a person who was at once a
powerful god, and a hero who had striven like
Herakles. Tlie ' tragic chorus ' whicli sang
the dithyramb, commemorated his Trddri — the
varying fortunes which had preceded his final
triumph.
Transition from Lyric to Dramatic Tra-
gedy. — A certain dramatic element must have
entered into the Dionysiac worship from the
first. The energy of the dithyrambic style
would itself lead to animated gesture. It would
also be natural that their leader should enact
the part of Dionysus himself, or of a messenger
from him — reciting some adventure, to which
the satyr-chorus would then make a lyric
response. Greek tradition clearly associated
some such rudiments of drama with the pruni-
tive rpaywSia. Thus, when Aristotle states
that tragedy was at first ' extemporary ' {avro-
(TxeSiairTiicrj) and took its rise ' from those who
led off the dithyramb ' (Poet. 4), he refers to an
effusion, more or less unpremeditated, by the
leader, as distinguished from the hymn chanted
by the chorus.
Thespis, a native of Attica, flourished about
536 B.C., in the later years of Peisistratus.
He was a trainer and leader of dithjrambic
choruses, who made an improvement in the
mode of performance. Hitherto the leader,
who recited an adventure of Dionysus, liad
addressed the chorus, and had been answered
by them. Thespis now set apart a person
specially for dialogue with the leader or cory-
phaeus (»copu(|)o?os). As this person had to reply
to the leader, he was called ' the answerer,'
inroKpiT7)s — which became the regular term for
an actor. This was another step towards
drama. If the viroKpiT-fis was made virtually a
second actor, then 'Thespis might fairly be re-
garded as the founder of drama proper. If the
whole performance continued to be essentially
lyric, then Thespis had merely modified the
Sikyonian tradition. The latter view seems
the more probable. The ancients themselves
were divided ; and when all the evidence has
been sifted, Thespis remains to us a famous
name, and little more. In the light of such
': knowledge as we possess, Aeschylus, not
I Thespis, must be regarded as the true founder
1 of Tragedy.
The Period between Thespis and Aeschylus.
(1) Choerilus, an Atheniim (523-463 B.C.), who is
said to have composed 160 plays ; (2) Pratinas,
a native of Phlius {c. 500 B.C.) ; and (3)
Phrynichus, an Athenian (511-476 B.C.), said
to have gained the tragic prize first in 511 B.C.,
and for the last time in 470 B.C. (whose tragedy
MiAtJtou aKwais, on the Capture of Miletus
[Hdt. vi. 21] must have been produced soon after
the date of the event, 494 B.C., and of whose
other plays the titles of eight are known), were
contemporaries of Aeschylus. We know of
Phrynichus that he was the most popular tragic
poet of the time. His IjTics, in particular, were
admired for their simple grace and sweetness
(Ar. Av. 748 sqq.. Ban. 910). These lyrics had
probably more of an Ionian than of a Dorian
or an Aeolian stamp.
Aeschylus, a native of Eleusis in Attica, was
bom in 525 B.C. About 499 b.c. he was already
exhibiting tragedy, but it was in 484 that he
first gained the prize. The great change which
he introduced consisted in adding a second
actor, and in making the dialogue more im-
portant than the chorus (Arist. Poet. 4). So
long as there was only a single actor, that actor
might, indeed, assume different parts in suc-
cession, but there could be no drama in the
jiroper sense of the word. Aeschylus also gave
a new grandeur to the scenic accessories of
tragedy. He improved the masks, and intro-
duced new costumes. Aeschylus is essentially
the creator of the tragic drama as it existed at
Athens in the fifth century B.C.
Sophokleswas born in or about 495 B.C., and
gained the tragic prize first in 408 B.C., against
Aeschylus. He added a third actor. He also
raised the number of the tragic chorus from
twelve to fifteen. One of the three additional
men was now appointed coryphaeus ; the other
two were destined to serve as leaders of rjmx^pM
when the chorus was required to act in two
divisions {(;{. AJ. 806 sqq.). Aristotle mentions
scene-painting {(TKi]voypa<pia) as an improve-
ment distinctive of Sophokles (cf. Theatrum).
The external form of Attic tragedy was now
complete.
Occasions on which Tragedy was acted at
Athens. — Before the time of Peisistratus, the
rursU Dionysia (to /car' aypovs) afforded the
only occasion for the Bacchic choruses in
Attica. It is conjectured that Peisistratus was
the founder of the Dionysiac festival culled
Ar^vaia. Tliis was held every January in the
A-iivaiou (so named from \riv6s, a wine-press),
the precinct sacred to Dionysus on the SE.
slope of the Acropolis. A regular contest (ayaiv)
for the tragic prize at the Lenaea seenis to have
existed as early as the days of Thespis and
Choerilus. The institution of the Great, or
dl
TRAGOEDIA
689
City, Dionysia (ra /car' daru) may probably be usual for a poet to bear a part in the perform-
referred to the time immediately after the ance of his own tragedies. Thus Sophokles is
Persian wars, c. 478 B.C. The Great Dionysia recorded to have played the title-rOle in his
then became the chief occasion for Tragedy ; ; own Thamyris, and the part of Nausikaa in his
and from the middle part of the fifth century ! Plyntriae. But, when the tragic drama had
till about 416 B.C. Comedy alone seems to ; once been matured, the art of the tragic; actor
have been represented at the Lenaea. At the became a distinct profession. According to the
Anthesteria, the February festival, no drama j degree of the actor's skill — which was tested by
was exhibited. ' special trials — he was classed as a player of
Trilogy and Tetralogy. — The form in which , first, second, or third parts. The first actor or
Aeschylus produced his tragedies — during, at ! npwTayu)vi<TT7)s played the most important cha-
least, the latter part of his cai-eer — was that of racter of the piece. He might take more than
the rpiKoyia, or gi'oup of three. To these was one part : thus in the AJax the protagonist
appended a satjT-drama (craTvpoi, or aaTvpiKhv would plaj' Ajax and Teucer ; in the Antigone,
Spafj.a), so called because the chorus consisted the heroine, Teiresias, and Eurydike. The
of satyrs attendant on Dionysus. A mingling SevrepaywuiaTris usually played the person, or
of seriousness and mirth was characteristic of persons, most directly concerned with the
the Dionysiae worship. Tragedy represented \ principal character : as Ismene and Haemou
one side of this mood, and Comedy the other, i in the Antigone. Tlie rpiTaywviaTrjs took the
The satyr-drama was nearer to Tragedy than | smaller parts : e.g. Kreon in the Antigone
to Comedy, but contained elements of the i (Dem. F. L. § 247). The Athenian actor went
latter also. The trilogy, or group of three ; through an elaborate preparation. Great care
tragedies, and the sat)T.--drama, together made j was given to the training of the voice (TrAair/ia
up the TiTpaAoyia. It is not certain, though j (^coj'tjs), with a view to flexibility and strength,
very probable, that Aeschylus was the inventor Deportment was also carefully studied. In
of the trilogj'. His Oresteia is the only ex- ' Attic Tragedy the movements were usually
tant example. In that trilogy, a ' fable-trilogy,' j slow and stately: much, also, depended on
the three plays form successive chapters of one statuesque effects. As the masks excluded
story. The Persae belonged to a ' theme- play of feature, it was all the more necessarv-
trilogy,' containing the idea or ' theme ' of i that the actor should have command of express-
Hellenic victory over the barbarians. The first \ sive gesture. Now and then, though not often,
play {Phineus) related to the Argonauts, and he was required to dance (cf. Eur. Phoen.
the third {Glaukus} to the victory of the 316); hence his professional training included
Sicilian Greeks at Himera (480 B.C.). In addi- j bpx'r)(rTiK'i].
tion to the Aeschylean examples, ten tetra- Costvyne. — How the tragic actor was dressed
logies can be traced, ranging in date from 467 - before the time of Aeschylus, we do not know ;
^M.
I// /J /// Ul /J/ ill ill ui /// /// U U/ IJ Ul /J
Fig. 1101. -Scene from'HpoKATJs (loivrf/tteroT. (Baumeister.l
to 405 B.C. Five of these belong to Euripides;
the other five, to minor tragic poets. The year
340 B.C. is the earliest in which it is proved
that the tragic poets exhibited less than three
plays each ; and in that year they produced
two each. The conclusion is that tetralogy
continued to be the rule in Tragedy down at ,
least to 400 B.C., and perhaps somewhat longer.
Anything less than a tetralogy would have
seemed an incomplete tribute to the god.
Comedies were always produced singly.
The Actors. — In the time of Thespis, poet i
and actor were identical. In the early j-cars of
Aeschylus and Sophokles it was still not un- i
the dress of the Dionysiae priests may have
been the model. Aeschylus introduced a type
of costume which remained in use throughout
the classical period. Its chief elements were the
following. (1) A tunic, with stripes of bright
colours, or riclily embroidered with jjatterns
of flowers or animals. It was girt up high
under the breast, and fell in long folds to
the feet. The sleeves reached to the hands.
Such a timic was called ttoikiKov (Pollux).
Women sometimes wore a purple robe, with a
long train {crvpThs Tropcpvpovs, avpixa [^syrnia] :
Juv. vii. 229 [used generally for the tragic
dress], xv. 30 ; Mart. iv. 49). (2) Over the
640
TRAGOEDIA
tunic, or robe, an upper garment was worn : '
either the ludrtov or a mantle, x^^juvs, cut
in a circular form, and fastened by a clasp
on the right shoulder. Padding (awfidria,
irpoffTepviSLov, irpoyacTTpiSiov) was worn under
the costume, which was designed to exaggerate
all the actor's proportions. (3) A boot, which
the Greeks called i/j.$a.Tr]5, and the Romans
cothurnus {K6dopvos). [Calceus.] The sole
was wooden, and the shape such as to fit either
foot. The object of this boot was to increase
the actor's apparent stature ; and the sole seems
to have varied in thickness from some two
inches to six, or more. (4) Masks {Trp6(Tw7ra}.
Thespis, according to the tradition, first used
pigments to colour the actor's face, and after-
wards adopted masks of linen or canvas.
Aeschylus is said to have applied painting to
the plain linen masks of the earlier period.
In the Alexandrian age, if not earlier, the
workmanship of tragic masks had become
higlily elaborate. [Persona.] (5) Special attri-
butes. A king carried a sceptre ; Hermes, a
herald's staff {KripvKnov) ; the bacchant, a
thyrsus, &c. Such an emblem was usually
borne in tlie left hand, in order that the right
might be free for gesture (Ov. Am. iii. 1, 13).
Warriors had swords, spears, &c. But, except
by indications of this nature, the dress was not
adapted to the particular part which the actor
played. The tragic costume was festal and
Dionysiac first, and dramatic only in a secondary
sense, because, at the Dionysia, art was merely
the handmaid of religion. In satyric drama
the costume of gods and heroes wiis the same
as in tragedy, but the chiton was shorter.
Silenus, an important figure in satyric drama,
was dressed either in fleshings set with tufts
of goat's hair, or in a tunic and hose of goat skin.
The Chorus. — Even after Aeschylus had
made the dialogue more important than the
lyric element, he continued to compose choral
odes of a length which seemed excessive to the
next generation (Ar. Ran. 914). Here, as in
other respects, Sophokles represents a golden
mean. With him, the dialogue holds the
first place, and the chorus continues to be an
organic part of the drama. His choral odes
have always a direct bearing on the action.
With Euripides, the chorus is little more than
an external adjunct to the drama ; the choral
songs have nothing to do with the action.
This could hardly be avoided. When the
gods and heroes were handled in the new
spirit, the old meaning of the chorus was lost.
Euripides wisely modified the use of the
chorus in accordance with his dramatic aim,
and in perhaps the best manner which tliat
aim admitted.
The chorus was trained and equipped by the
choregus whom the Archon had assigned to
the poet [Choregia ; Theatrum]. The tragic
chorus of fifteen entered the orchestra three
abreast (Kara, ffroixovs). The av\r]T-fis walked
in front. The leader of the chorus (Kopvcpalos)
walked tliird in the file nearest the spectators.
On reacliing the orchestra, the chorus made
an evolution to the right, so as to change from
three files, five deep, into three ranks, facing
the actors, with five men in each rank (Kara.
Cvya) : the five men who had been nearest the
spectators {apiaTepoffTdraL) now forming the
front rank. The corj-phaeus was in the middle
of the front rank, having on his right and left
the two leaders of the half-chorus (irapaa-rdTai).
(See diagram on p. 160, Chorus.) In dialogue
between the actors and the chorus, the cory-
phaeus spoke for the chorus. In the delivery
of choral odes the strophe was accompanied
by a dance-movement towards the right, and
the antistrophe by a corresponding movement
towards the left ; while, Quring the singing
of the epode, the chorus remained stationary.
In some cases, one part of the chorus executed
the dance, while another sang. The dance
proper to Tragedy {rj TpayiKT) opxijtris) was
technically called eixfj.i\eia, a name denoting
stately movement in time to music : as the
dance of Comedy was the K6pSa^, and that
of satyric drama the aiKivvis. 'TTropxiMt ^^s
a more lively kind of dance or ballet. In
a Koij.fj.6s, or lyric dialogue between actor and
chorus, parts were sometimes assigned to
single choreutae. The v-erses with which the
chorus close a tragedy were recited to a
musical accompaniment. The chorus usually,
but not always, consists of persons belonging
to the scene of the action. The first song of the
chorus on entering the orchestra was called
irdpoSos. The irdpoSos sometimes began the
play, sometimes came later. In some except-
tioual instances the chorus entered singly or in
small groups (trTTopaSrji') ; as in Aesch. Theh.
and Soph. 0. C. The costume of the chorus
was, like that of the actor's, conventional — a
chiton, shorter than the actor's, and a himation:
with occasional variations suitable to the
character presented by the chorus (e.g. in
Soph. Phil., and Eur. Bacch.). The general
type of costume remained the same. They
wore the half-boots called K-pT/irTSes, which were
sometimes white. In satyric drama the chorus
wore a close-fitting dress [awfj.dria) with a short
apron or girdle of goat's skin. [Choms.]
The Innovations of Euripides. — The growth
of democracy and the decline of the old popular
religion, as well as the bent of his own genius,
led Euripides to renounce much of the ideal
grandeur with which Tragedy had been in-
vested by Aeschylus and Sophokles. He made
a step from typical towards indi\ndual por-
traiture of human passion and human suffering.
He was not afraid of being homely, so long as
he touched the springs of natural feeling.
The praise awarded to such a conception
must be tempered by regard for the conditions
under which the experiment was made. Euri-
pides inherited and maintained the old frame-
work of Attic Tragedy. He had still only
three actors. He had still a chorus in the
orchestra. His materials were still drawn ex-
clusively from the heroic myths. Such Tragedy
could be great only so long as it was ideal.
Every step by which its persons were brought
nearer to everyday life was a step which in-
creased, as Aristophanes saw, the danger of
burles(j[ue. Euripides stands between ideal
and romantic drama ; his Tragedy has lost the
noblest beauty of idealism, witliout attaining to
the full charm of romance. But, just for that
reason, it was through Euripides, rather than
his forerunners, that the tradition of Tragedy
was derived in the later periods of ancient
literature.
The Aristophanic jests on Euripides, how-
ever unfair, are often instructive. This is par-
ticularly true of the satire in the Frogs. One
of the jjoints made by Aristophanes was his
use of the prologue to introduce the persons
of the drama and explain its subject. Another
noveltj' ascribed to Euripides is the undignified
practice of dressing his suffering heroes in rags:
a departure from the conventional type of
tragic costmne described above. With regard
TRAGOEDIA
641
to his too frequent use of the deus ex machina,
it may be said tliat, while in some instances his
deus ex machina is really no better than a
mechanical expedient {e.ff. in the A)ulroniache
and the Orestes), in some other cases the inter-
vention is dramatically warranted by the plot,
as in the Hippol ijt as and in the Bacchae. In
respect to lyrics, Aristophanes represents
Euripides as having admitted the more florid |
style which was becoming fashionable, and j
destroyed the grave dignity of the old choral [
song. Euripides also introduced lyric solos :
{fwi'(fi5iai), to be sung by an actor on the stage i
(see Ar. I{a7i. 1331).
After 400 B.C. Greek Tragedy declined. I
Numerous tragic poets appeared, indeed, but '
no one of them rivalled the great masters. In
the fourth century B.C. an ordinance was made
that some work of Aeschylus, Sophoklcs, or 1
Euripides should always be produced at the
Dionysia along with the new tragedies. |
Lykurgus (c. 330 B.C.) caused a standard text of
those three poets to be deposited in the public
archives. Down to about 300 B.C., Athens con- ,
tinned to be the chief seat of Tragedy.
Alexandria afterwards became so. The seven
poets who flourished there about 250 B.C. were
known as the ' tragic Pleiad.'
Aristotle defines Tragedy as the imitation
of an action serious, complete in itself, and
of a sufficient magnitude or compass ; by
means of metrical language, action, and some-
times music. The elements of Tragedy are
six: fivdos, the story; rjdr], the moral qualities
or characters of the persons; Ae|is, the verbal
form ; Siduoia, the thoughts or sentiments ;
o\|/is, the presentation to the eye (including
scenic accessories, gesture, and dancing) ; jueAo-
TTOiia, musical composition. In every tragedy
there must be SeVis, a tying of a knot, and
Averts, its solution. The most effective kind of
Kvcris is that which is inti'oduced by a irepi-
irereia, a sudden reversal of fortune for the
persons of the drama; or by an avayvdopicris,
the discover}' of a previously concealed relation-
ship between the persons ; or both together.
Again, a tragedy is TraSrjTKcrj when the chief
person acts mainly under the influence of
irddos, a strong impulse of the mind — as Medea
does. It is 7]QiKr) when the chief person acts
mainly in accord with a deliberately formed
purpose {TTpoaipicrts), as Antigone does. As to
the so-called ' unities,' the unity of action is
the only one upon which Aristotle insists.
The action represented by tragedy must be
one : it must not be a series of incoherent or
loosely-linked episodes. About the unity of
place he says notliing at all. As to the unity
of time, he says that Tragedy now seeks to
confine the supposed action within the com-
pass of a single day, or nearly so ; but in the
earliest form of Tragedy the time was indefinite.
Viewed as a composition. Tragedy consists of
the following parts. All that which precedes
the first choral song is called irp6\oyos. The
dialogue which comes between two choral
songs is an (Treia6^iov, i.e. the reappeai'ance,
(ireicroSos, of tlie single actor in primitive
Tragedy. The irdpoSos is the first utterance
of the whole chorus. The «|oSo$ is the part
after the last choral song. The (TTaffi/dov is
a choral song without anapaests or trochaics.
The term aTaenixov fi.4Kos means, literally, a
song by the chorus ' at its station ' in the
orchestra. A koij.ij.6s is a Oprjvos Koifhs xopov
Kal airh trKjjr/^s, a lyric lament, sustained partly
by the chorus and partly by an actor.
Tragedy is described by Aristotle (Port. vi. 2)
as ' effecting, by means of pity and terror, that
purgation [of the soul] (/caOopo'ii') which belongs
to [is proper for] such feelings.' The word
Kadapffis involves a medical metaphor, from the
use of purgatives. Tragedy excites pit}' and
terror by presenting to the mind things which
are truly pitiable and terrible. When pity and
terror are moved, as Tragedy moves them, by a
worthy cause, then the mind experiences that
sense of relief which comes from finding an out-
let for a natural energy. And thus the im-
pressions made by Tragedy leave behind them
in the spectator a temperate and harmonious
state of the soul. Similarly Aristotle speaks of
the enthusiastic worshippers of Dionysus as ob-
taining a KadapffLs, a healthful relief, by the lyric
utterance of their sacred frenzy.
TJw Didascaliac. — Aristotle compiled a
work (now lost) called Ai^a<TKa.Kiai, being a
list of the tragedies and comedies produced
(5i5ci(T/C6ii') at Athens in each year. His
materials were contemporary records. In the
fifth century B.C. the archon, after each festival,
drew up a list of the competing poets, the choregi,
the plays, and the protagonists, with the order
of the competitors. At some time between
450 and 400 B.C. it became usual to engrave
such records on stone tablets {ffrr\\ai), and to
set them up in or near the Dionysiac theatre.
Further, the choregus whose poet gained the
prize received a tripod from the state, and
erected it in the same neighbourhood. Works
of a similar kind to the IJidasraliae were
written by the poet Kallimachus ('200 B.C.),
Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 200 B.C.), and
other scholars of Alexandria and of Pergamum.
Roman Tragedy.
The first half of the third century B.C. was
the period at which the influence of Greek
literature began to be directly felt by the
Romans. After the fall of 'Parentum, the
greatest of the Greek colonies in Italy, in
272 B.C., the intercourse between Romans and
Greeks became more familiar. Just after the
close of the First Punic War the first attempt
at a Latin reproduction of Greek tragedy was
made by Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.). He was
a Greek, probably of Tarentum, and had
received his freedom from his master, M. Livius
Salinator, whose sons he had educated. It
may be conjectured that most of his plays were
translated from the Greek, and were on Greek
subjects. Among the titles are Aegisthus, Ecus
Troianus, Aiax, Terens, Hertniona. His
Latin style appears to have been harsh and
crude (Cic. Brut. 18, 71 ; Hor. Eji. ii. 1, 02, t!9).
Five years after the first essay of Livius
Andronicus, a Latin dramatist of greater
originality came forward (235 B.C.). Cn.
Naevius, probably a Campanian, may be re-
garded as the earliest Roman poet. Comedy
was the form of drama in which Naevius chiefly
excelled ; and, like Aristophanes, he turned it
to the purposes of political strife. But he was
also a writer of tragedy. His Lycurgus was
akin in theme to the Barchae of Euripides;
other plays were Androniacha, Ecus Troianus,
and Hector Proficiscrns. At the same time he
occasionally composed tragedies founded on
Roman history. Tliese aro culled fahulne prae-
textatae, i.e. in which the cliaracters wore Roman
dress {toga prartcxta), as opposed to palliatae,
in which the subjects and the characters were
Greek. The early prarfrxtafne on record are
his ; one of them was called Bomuhis. In the
TT
642
TRAGOEDIA
scanty fragments of his works we can recognise
his ardour, his self-confidence and vigour, and
his gift for terse and nervous expression.
The career of Naevius was drawing to a close
when Q. Ennius, a native of Rudiae in Calabria,
came to Rome (204 B.C.). Although the Annals
and Satires of Ennius were more chariicteristic
products of his genius, he was also the most
popular tragic dramatist who had yet appeared.
About twenty-five of his tragedies are known
by their titles. Two of these were prae-
textatae, Sahinae and Ambracia. The other
pieces were on Greek subjects — about one half
of them being connected with the Trojan War.
His Medea was translated from the play of
Euripides.
M. Pacuvius (219-129 B.C.), a nephew of
Ennius by the mother's side, was also a South
Italian, being a native of Brundusium. Of his
tragedies, one, called Paullus, was a praetex-
tata; twelve more, among them an Antiopa,
are known to have been on Greek subjects.
About 400 lines of Pacuvius are extant, but
many of these are merely single verses.
L. Attius was bom at Pisaurum (Pesaro), a
Roman colony in Umbria, in 170 B.C. The
extant notices and fragments of Attius indicate
some forty or fifty pieces. Two of these were
practextatae, Brutus and Aeneadae. Among
his tragedies were Atreus, Epigoni, Philocteta,
Antigona, Telejjhus.
Tragedy continued to be a favourite form of
composition in the later years of the Republic
and in the earlier part of the Imperial age. In
the Augustan age C. Asinius Pollio wrote tra-
gedies praised by Virgil ; but he is called durus
et siccus by Tacitus {Dial, de Orat. c. 21). Ovid
wrote a Medea, and Varius a Thgestes. But for
Ovid and for Varius, as for other less famous
poets. Tragedy was now a mere irapepyov, not
the province of poetry in which they sought to
establish their permanent renown. In the
middle of the first century a.d. we have eight
tragedies on Greek subjects by L. Annaeus
Seneca, the philosopher: Hercules Fureiis,
Thyestes, Phaedra, Oedipus, Troades (Hecu-
ba), Medea, Agamemnon, Hercules Oetaeus:
also part of an Oedipus Coloneus (362 lines),
and of a Phoenissae (302). Tlie general cha-
racter of the plays is rhetorical and fanciful
rather than poetical or dramatic. The pieces
of Seneca were primarily designed, doubtless,
for recitation ; but it is not impossible that, in
Nero's age, they were also acted. The last
Roman writer of Tragedy who claims mention
is Curiatius Maternus, whose activity extended
from the reign of Nero to that of Vespasian.
He had a high reputation as a writer of tra-
gedies (as Medea, Thgcstes) and praetextatae
(as Domitius, Cato) (Tac. Dial. 2, 3, &c.).
Roman Tragedy, as a whole, like Roman
Comedy, was altogether dependent on Greece
for inspiration and material. Euripides was
more especially the master of the Roman
dramatists, because in his hands Tragedy had
become less distinctively Hellenic. In the plays
of Euripides the chorus was already ceasing to
be an organic part of drama ; and the Roman
dramatists banished the chorus from the
orchestra, leaving to it merely an occasional
part in the dialogue. Lyrics were introduced
with a musical accompaniment at the more
impassioned moments ; but, save for these, the
lyi'ic element of the great Attic drama had
vanished. In dialogue the iambic and trochaic
metres were retained ; yet even here the Roman
imitation was far inferior to the Greek original.
TRAPETUM
At the same time the Roman Tragedy of the
Republic was marked by earnestness and ora-
torical power ; the tones of the statesman and
of the soldier were heard in it. It taught the
men who were conquering the world how they
should work, how they should suffer, and how
they should rule. But this moral and political
significance departed with the Republic ; and
then it was inevitable that Roman Tragedy
should descend to the place which it occupies
under the Empire.
Tra'gula. (1) A spear used by the Gauls
and Helvetians. It was thrown by means of
a thong, amentum (Caes. B. G. i. 27, v. 35, 48;
Liv. xxi. 7). (2) [Tribulum.]
Traha, Tra'hea. [Tribulum.]
Trama. [Tela.]
Transe'nna. Lattice-work. (1) Across a win-
dow [Domus] [tr. reticulatae, Cic. de Or. i.
85, 162). (2) A lattice-work cage for trapping
birds "Auceps].
Transve'ctio. [Equites.]
Trape'tum. A machine for performing the
first process in oil-making — that of crushing
the olives (BKau, a.\e7t>, frangei-e, molere), so
as to separate tlie pulp from the stone. The
mola olearia appears to have been the same
in principle as the com-miU [Mola], formed
Fig. 1105.— Mola olearla, from a relief at Aries.
of two stones. The distinction from the com-
miU is that the stones are in inverse order :
instead of the lower fixed stone being conical
and the upper revolving stone hollowed (see
fig. 69s, under Mola), the fixed lower stone is
cup-shaped, and the revolving stone is conical.
The form of the trapetum, as shown in the
cut below, is ascertained from a press found at
Stabiae.
The berries were placed in a circular stone
basin or mortar {mortarium, 1), of which the
Fig. 1106.— Trapetum in elevation and section.
1. .Uorforium, basin. 5. Ti/pd. box.
2. Milianum, column. 6. Modioli, poles.
3. Orfcfs. stones. 7. Fislu:ii. pin otcupa.
4. Columella , pivot. 6. .irmilla, c&p.
sides were called labra ; in the centre of this
basin stood a column (miliariutn, 2), in the
top of which was fixed a vertical iron pivot
(columella, 4). On this pivot revolved hori-
zontally a rectangular box of wood, plated with
TPAHEZITAI
metal, called cupa ('■>) into which the handles
or arms of the mill {modioli, 6) were fixed.
These modioli passed through the crushing-
stones {orbes, 3), but were not fixed to them.
A cap (aniiilht, H) kept the stones from slipping
off the modioli, and kept them upright, though,
as the stones were not fastened to the poles,
they revolved to some extent on their own
axis under the pressure of the fruit, whence
there was a double motion and a more yielding
pressure, the object bemg as much as possible
to avoid crushing the kernels, wliich would
give an unpleasant taste to the oil.
Tpa-rreCtTai. [Argentarii (Greek).]
Trapezo'ph.oron (TpaTre(o<p6pov, Cic. Fam.
\ii. '23). Proijorly the leg or pedestal of a
sideboard [Abacus], often of bronze, silver, &c.,
TRIBULUS
643
I
■ Fig. U07.— Trapezopliorun. (From Pompeii.)
and in the form of a lion, griffin, sphinx, &c.,
and hence used as = abacus.
Tpa\5p,aTos £k iTpovoCas vpatt)!!. See
Appendix, Greek Law.
Trechedi'pna (rpex^SfiTi/a, Juv. iii. 67).
Either an avafioKr} or light cloak or wrap for the
evening, or slippers: rpex^Sinri/os — parasitus.
Tre'sviri. [The forms triumvir, gen. plur.
triumviruin, are legitimate, but it is doubtful
whether the nom. plur. can be triumviri:
MSS. give iiiviri.'] The following is a list of
the most important trcsviri, whether ordinary
officials, or coixmiissioners appointed for some
special purpose, arranged in alphabetical order.
(1) Tkesviri Aoro Dividundo. [Tresviri
Colon lAE Deduce ndae.]
(2) Tresviri Capitales, regularly appointed
first in about B.C. 290 (Liv. Epit. xi.). At first
the tresviri cairitalcs were not chosen by the
people, but nominated, probably by the praetor
urbanus.
In criminal cases their main duty was to
look to the safe custody of the convicted, and
to execute capital punislnnent (Liv. xxxii. 26).
The usual form of execution was, for the upper
classes and for women, strangling in prison
(triumviralc siippHcium,'Yi\,c. Ann. v. 80; Sail.
Cat. 55) ; slaves were crucified, also, under their
supervision. They had also the duty of arrest-
ing offenders, and generally of looking after
the police of Rome, for which i)urpose they had
a post in the forum near the Columna Maenia
(Cic. Cluent. 13, 39). They patrolled the streets
by night, to seize and punish disorderly char-
actei's, and had to be present at once in cases
of fire. They had some power of summary
punishment, but no independent criminal juris-
diction. They appear generally as the assistants
of the praetors. Under the Empire their
functions were mainly discharged by the prae-
fecttts vif/iluni.
(3) Trksntri Coloniae Deducendae.
[CoIouia.J
(i) Tresviri Epulones. [Epulones.]
(5) Tresviri Monet.\les. [Moneta.]
(6) Tresviri Reipublic.\e Ck.nstituendae.
Magistrates under this title are believed to
have been appointed in early times. We have
not, however, any certain mention of such
officers till towards the close of the Republic,
when the supreme power was shared between
Lepidus, Antonius, and Caesar (Octavianus),
who administered the affairs of the state under
the title of Trcsviri licipuhlicae Consti-
tuendae. This office was conferred upon them
in B.C. 43 by a law of P. Titius the tribune for
five years (Liv. Epit. cxx. ; Plut. Cic. 40) ; and
on the expiration of the term, in B.C. 38, was
conferred upon them again, in B.C. 37, for five
years more. The coalition between Julius
Caesar, Pompeius, and Crassus, in b.c. 60 (Liv.
Ki)it. ciii.), is usually called the first trium-
virate ; but it must be borne in mind that they
never bore the title of tresviri, nor were in-
vested with any office under that name, whereas
Lepidus and his colleagues were recognised as
regular magistrates imder the above-mentioned
title.
Tria'rii. [Exercitus.]
TpCPcov, a variety of IfjA-riov, was the national
garb of Sparta, worn by every male over
twelve years of age. Its use spread to Athens,
having been introduced by such imitators of
Spartan life {KaKwvi^ovris) as Kimon. It
is best known in history^ as the dress of
Soki-ates (Plat. Si/nip. p. 219 b), adopted
afterwards by the Cynics, both men and women,
with whom it became a professional costume.
The chief merit of the rpifioiv was that it was
worn alone, without a shirt ; (see Juv. xiii.
122). The rpifiuv was of a dark colour {(j)at6s)
and of coarse woollen cloth, and commonlj-
worn with a brooch. [Dress.]
Tri'bulum (rpi^o\os, a word borrowed from
Latin). A corn-drag, consisting of a wooden
board, anued underneath with pieces of iron or
sharp flints, and weighted. It was drawn over
the corn for the purpose of separating the grain
and cutting the straw for fodder (Plin. xviii.
§ 298). Traha, fra/ica, or tragula was another
kind of drag or sledge (Verg. Georg. i. 164). A
third xariety, plostelluni Pioiicnm, placed upon
rollers, was used for threshing. The tribulum
and traha are still used in Greece and in the
East. Agriculture.]
Tri'bulus (rp/ySoAos). A caltrop, also called
murex, used to impede cavalry. Taleae (Caes.
B. G. vii. 73) and haini, stimuli, or stili {Bell.
Afr. 81) were for the same puiijose. These
T T 2
644
TRIBUNAL
were pieces of wood with curved iron points,
buried in the ground.
Tribu'nal (^7i/j.a). A raised platform or tri-
bune, on which the Sella of the praetor or
presiding magistrate was placed, when he sat
to administer justice in any place which might
be selected (Liv. xxiii. 32). [Basilica.]
There was a tribunal in the camp, generally
formed of turf, but sometimes of stone, from
which the general addressed the soldiers. On
such occasions the standards were planted in
front of it, and the army placed round it in
order. [Adlocutio; Castra.]
Tribuni'cia pote'stas. After the battle of
Pharsalia, 48 B.C., the senate granted to Julius
Caesar for his life the powers of a tribune of
the plebs [tribimicia potestas); the same
grant was made in 23 B.C. to Augustus, and
afterwards to all emperors in succession. This
grant included (1) the character of sacrosanc-
tity ; (2) the right of convening the senate and
bringing business before them ; (3) the ius
i7htercessionis.
Trib wnicia potestas wa,sTega,rded as a gift of
the senate, and when conferred on others, as
e.g. members of the imperial family, it was
always done through the medium of a senatorial
decree.
The emperors, being all patricians, could not
be tribunes, and did not assume the title of
Tribunus Plebis. They were not subject to the
limitations of place and time attached to tlie
office of tribune, and their potestas was valid
throughout the empire.
The ius intercessionisvf&s the most valuable
element of the tribunicia potestas, since it gave
the emperor a constitutional veto on all legisla-
tion not initiated by himself. The popular
character of the tribunician office also put for-
ward the emperor as the protector of the
commons, and took away the appearance of a
military despotism which might attach to the.
proconsular imperium. The inviolable cha-
racter thus assumed made all offences against
the emperor's person treasonable.
The ancient right of appeal to the protection
of a tribune made the emperor, now the only
magistrate effectually discharging tribunician
functions, the final court of appeal with the
right of acquittal or pardon.
The association of monarchical powers with
a popular title made Augustus and his succes-
sors set tlie tribunicia potestas at the head of
their titles, even before the imperium; and the
years of the reign were counted by the number
of times that the tribunicia potestas was
granted ; as it was the custom for the tribunicia
potestas to be continued annually at the same
time with the appointment of the regular tri-
bunes.
Tribu'nus. This word originally indicated
an officer connected with a tribe {tribus), or
representing a tribe for certain purposes. We
subjoin an account of all the Eoman officers
known under this name.
(1) Tribunes of the thbee ancient tribes.
At the time when all Roman citizens were
contained in the tliree tribes of the Ramnes,
Tities and Luceres, the three divisions of in-
fantry, wliich together made up the legion, were
commanded by three tribuni militum {<pvK-
apxot, nominated by the king for the duration
of the campaign.
The tribuni celerum were the tlu-ee com-
manders of the cavalry of the tribes. The
tribunes of the tribes ceased to exist when the
ancient tribes were done away with in the
TRIBUNUS
changes ascribed to Servius Tullius. They ap-
pear to have also exercised certain priestly
functions on behalf of their respective tribes.
(2) Tribunes OF the Servian tribes. Under
the Servian constitution, each of the four city
tribes, and possibly each of the country pagi,
which afterwards developed into the sixteen
country tribes, had its curator, whose duty it
was to keep the register of the tribe, and to
collect the war-tax (tributum), and the capita-
tion money (acs) levied upon non-citizens
[aerarii; see Tribus). These cwra^ores tribuum
were also probably called tribuni aerarii;
and if they were the body of men who under
the old name of tribuni aerarii were added as
a third decuria of indices by the Lex Aurelia
of 70 B.C., there must have been a certain
property qualification for the office. It is pos-
sible tliat when the tribes were divided into
centuries, 220 B.C., the curatores centwriarum
may have popularly retained the name of
tribuni aerarii, their number now being 350,
10 for each tribe, 5 each for seniores and
iuniores. They seem to have been elected
annually, and were often re-elected.
(3) Tribuni aerarii. L.Cotta, praetor 70 b.c,
carried a law depriving the senators of the ex-
clusive right of serving on juries, which had
been restored to them by Sulla, after the reforms
of C. Gracchus, and instituted three decuriae —
one of senators, one of knights, and one of
tribiuii aerarii [ludex, Appendix, Roman L.\w].
Of this last body — whether or not identical with
the tribuni aerarii mentioned above, (2)^ — we
know that they were recognised as an ordo ; that
they were a fairly numerous body, not restricted
to Rome, but living also in the municipia (Cic.
Plane. 8, 21) ; and were closely connected with
the equites, and indeed appear to have been
sometimes loosely included under this name
(cf. Cic. Cluent. 43, 121, Flacc. 2, 4; Liv.
Epit. xcvii.). Julius Caesar took away their
judicial function (Suet. lul. 41), but Augustus
(Id. Aug. 32) restored it, and added to the three
decuriae a fourth, consisting of ducenarii, i.e.
men who had half the equestrian census. It
has been supposed that they were citizens who
had the equestrian census of 400,000 sesterces
but not the equus publicus. From Liv. xxiv.
11, 8, it might appear that they had a census of
300,000 sesterces.
(4) Tribuni militum consulari potestate.
In the earliest times, as we have seen, the
Roman infantry had been conmianded by three
tribuni. But when the old tribes were divided,
each into a ^rior and & posterior, the number
of the tribunes came to be six. At this time
legio was the term applied to the whole army.
When, at some time in the course of the fourtli
century, a varying number of legions was raised
each year, the practice was still retained of
appointing six tribuni militum for each legion.
For their duties and the manner of their ap-
pointment, see Exercitus. If the needs of the
state required that more than two armies
should be sent out, instead of two consuls a
larger number of commanders was appointed
under the title of tribuni militum consulari
potestate. The first notice of such an appoint-
ment (though it may not have been the first
instance) is in 445 B.C., when the plebeians were
pressing their claim to be held eligible for the
consulship, and the senate, in order to avoid a
decision upon the point, resolved tliat consular
tribunes should be elected indiflPerently (pro-
miscue) from tlie two orders. But it would
appear that the original institution was based
'&\
TRIBUNUS
645
upon a military, not a political, necessity (Liv.
iv. 0, b). The jastl show that the number
varied between throe, four, and six.
It is probable tliat the tribuni miUtum con-
sidari potcstate were tlie ordinary six tribunes,
holding office with special powers conferred
ui)on them.
The consular tribunes possessed the full
consular powers, including judicial as well as
military functions, and the right of appointing
a dictator (Liv. iv. 31). They were elected
auspicato in the comitia centuriata (Liv. v.
52, 10), and enjoyed all the insignia of the
consuls ; but they had no right to triumph,
nor did they become coiisularcs, and, as such,
enter the higher ranks of the senate. The
office was definitely abolished by the Licinian
law, 370 B.C., and never revived.
(n) TiiiiiU.Ni PLEUis. The name of these
officers of the commons was derived from that
of the tribunes of the soldiers. When the
plebs acquired the right of serving in the army
and voting in the assembly of the centuries,
they constituted themselves into an assembly
of their own, the concilium plehis, presided
over by magistrates of their own, the tribuni
and aediles plebis. At first the election was
made comitiis curiatis,\\\\\c\\ is taken to mean
that the plebeians alone assembled by curies
for the election . There is some doubt as to the
number of the original tribunes. The tradi-
tion is that they were at first two in number,
afterwards five, and, according to Livy (iii. 30),
ten in 457 B.C. It is certain that after the
decemvirate there were always ten tribunes
(Liv. iii. 54, 11, &c.).
The tribuni jilebis were always plebeians,
and were elected under the presidency of the
outgoing tribunes. No interregnum was al-
lowed, as in the case of the consuls : the plebs
was never to be left without its tribunes (Liv.
iii. 55). The office was held only for a year;
all the tribunes were colleagues in the sense
that each could exercise the full power of the
office, but could be prevented from acting by
the interposition of any of the others.
The functions of the tribunes varied with the
legal position of the plebs, of which they were
the representatives. During the early period,
when the plebs, as such, had no political rights,
the tribunes were non populi scd pilcbis
magistratuH. Next, the tribunes acquired
the acknowledged right of veto [Intercessio]
(494 B.C.), and all that followed from it. Finally,
the plebs was so far identified with the com-
munity that the action of the plebs was legally
regarded as the action of the <'()nimunity. This
is the stage reached in the Hortensian law of
287 B.C. The tribunes now become magistrates
of the community, with positive as well as
negative powers, and especially with the right
to transact business directly with the senate.
The tribunes had none of the insignia of
magistracy, no lictors, fasces, or purple border
to their togas ; nor had they the curule
chair. They had, however, the right of sitting
on the subsellium, which became a kind of
token of their office. They had no right of
consulting the gods (auspicia imvrtrativa) on
behalf of tlie Roman people, though there may
have been a kind of plebeian auspices, so that
the place where the plebs met was called a
tetnplum (Liv. ii. 50, 10). The plebeiiin magi-
strates were created inauspirato (Liv. vi. 41,
5), and a plebiscitum was a Jex inauspirata.
On the other hand, they were 7iot at liberty to
neglect omens sent by the gods (auspicia obla-
tiva), and an obnuntiatio broke up a concilium
plebis as much as the comitia [Augurium '.
The tribune's functions never included the
imperium : he had neither military command
nor civil jurisdiction ; and his powers did not
extend beyond the first milestone from the
city. Before the Hortensian law of 287 B.C.
the tribunician power consisted essentially in
three functions :
(a) The right to summon meetings of the
plebs, and to take votes on resolutions proposed
I to them.
' (b) The right of Intercesslo (or, as we term
it, 'veto') was assigned to every magistrate
in relation to a colleague or an inferior magi-
strate. But it acquired an imjiortance in
practice with the tribunes, which transcended
anything to be found elsewhere ; partly because
they had no more active duties, and partly
because circumstances made them leaders of
an opposition. Undoubtedly it was mainly
employed for uuxiliuin, i.e. for the protection
of any citizen (Liv. iii. 13, 9; 50, 5) against a
magistrate's sentence. To secure this, the tri-
bunes were forbidden to sleep out of the city
during their time of office, and required to leave
their house-doors open night and day. Their
official duties were always discharged in public,
and at a later time their office was the Basilica
Porcia.
The right of intercessio extended to pro-
posals brought before the populus in the comitia,
as well as to those brought before the plebs.
We find it employed in a consular election as
early as 483 B.C., and in a prosecution by the
quaestors in 459 B.C. (Liv. iii. 24, 7). The
right of stopping a resolution of the senate
existed (Liv. iv. 0, ; 445 B.C.) at a Lime when
the tribunes had no right to enter the senate,
but sat on their subsellia before the doorways.
[Senatus.]
((•) The right of intercessio was enforced by
that of coercitio, or enforcing obedience, and
the latter was a necessary result of the claim
of the commons to self-defence. Every action
which was regarded as threatening to the com-
mons or the tribunes was liable to punish-
ment by fine, confiscation, or death. The only
limits set to this power of the tribunes were
those resulting from the interposition of another
colleague or from an appeal to the people ( 2)ro-
vocatio). The sanction of these powers was
the inviolable character {sacrosancta potestas)
of the tribunes, acknowledged by the leges
sacratae of 494 B.C.
The cessation of all strife between the orders
in 287 B.C. marked tlie stage at w^hich the tri-
bunes became legally magistrates of the com-
mmiity. From this time down to the end of
the Republic their power was on the increase.
Li 81 B.C., it is true, Sulla greatly reduced it by
depriving them of all power of i>rop(>siiig laws,
and by enacting that anyone who had held the
tribuneship should thereby be disqualified from
standing for any other office, thus excluding
all men of energy and ambition (Liv. Ep.
Ixxxix.). But in 70 B.C. Pompeius restored to
the tribunes all their old powers and rights.
The right of veto now became a mere imple-
ment of political warfart!, as often used against-
as for the interest of the popular party. With
regard to their legislative powers, after the
Hortensian law any matter could be brought
forward by the tribunes before the tribes,
though usage left some questions, especially
that of declaring war, to the centuries. The
power of coercitio, developed into a general
64G
TRIBUNUS
right to prosecute for offences against the
community, especially in the case of offending
magistrates (particularly consuls), upon the
expiry of their term of office (cf. Liv. ix. 26, 12).
Sulla took away from the tribunes their power
of prosecuting, and conferred it upon the
quaestio maiestatis ; and this disability con-
tinued to exist after the tribunes had had their
powers restored to them by Pompeius. Finally,
as magistrates, probably in the third century
B.C., the tribunes acquired the right, not only of
sitting and speaking in the senate, but also of
convening and consulting it (Liv. iv. 4i, 7, xxii.
61 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 18) . It never, however,
became usual for a tribune to convene the
senate, instead of the consuls or the praetor
urbanus. [Senatus.] The tribunes had also a
general right of joining in the common action
of the magistrates in times of national danger,
or meeting special emergencies by their inde-
pendent authority (cf. Cic. Off. iii. 20, 80 ;
Tac. Hist. ii. 91).
Under the Empire the office of tribune con-
tinued to exist, and tribunes were appointed
annually by the senate with the approval of the
emperor, from those who had served as quaes-
tors (qiaiestorii). After a time the tribunate
sank so much in repute that, as candidates did
not come forward, they were chosen by lot out
of the younger quaestorians. The effective
power of the tribunate was exercised by the
emperor in virtue of his Tribunicia potestas;
and tlie title at last became merely honorary.
Tribus (<pv\-l)). A political division of a people.
1. (rKEEK. — The word <^i;Ai7 does not occur in
Homer, and the political idea of tribeship is
undovibtedly post-Homeric. The (pvKof of
Homer is a race or breed, e.g. of gods, men,
annuals, even insects (//. xix. 30) ; more rarely,
a tribe in the sense of nation or people {11. ii.
a62, Od. xix. 177).
In the early historic period we find the ir6\is
or state divided into (f>v\ai, with more or less
reference to a sacred number which varied in
different races. Thus the Ionian number was
four, the Dorian three. These tribes were in
the first instance genealogical (yeviKai), after-
wards local {roTTiKai: cf. A-fjuos). The three
Dorian tribes were called 'TAAeTs, Av/xavaTai
or Aufxaffs, and Tld/j.(pvKoi (Pind. Fijth. i. 120
sqq. ; Hdt. v. 68). The luimes were said to
have been derived from eponymous heroes —
Hyllus, Dymas and Pamphylus. The Hyllean
tribe ranked first in precedence ; the Paniphy-
lians, as a mixed multitude, came last ; but at
Sparta all the freemen were by the constitution
of Lyknrgus on a footing of equality. To these
three tribes others were added in different
places, either from foreign allies or from the
old inhabitants. Eight tribes are mentioned in
Corinth, four in Tegea, twelve in Elis.
Traces of the three old Dorian tribes occur
at Megara, Argos, Sikyon, Troezen, Syracuse,
Dorian tribes were divided into (pparpiai or
irarpat, yfvr], TpiTTves. We also hear of
TpioAcaSes and irffTriKoffTves. The TerpaSfS of
Thessaly, and tlie four fiovKai of Boeotia,
may have had a like origin [Pepovcria]. At
Sparta, in the time of Kleomenes, the old
system of tribes was changed ; new ones were
created corresponding to the different quarters
of the town, and seem to have been five in
number.
The number four, of Ionian tribes, is of im- 1
memorial antiquity, and is found in Attica and
in other Ionian communities. In some states
TRIBUS
diversity of race, in others democratical or-
ganisation, gave rise to variety. The usual
numbers were four or ten.
Various mythic names of Attic tribes, as-
cribed to reigns of early kings, are found :
mythical, as KeKpoiris, Kpavais; topographical,
as UapaKia, Meffoyala; religious, as 'Al)r]vais,
&c. But all these tribes were superseded by
four others, whose appearance corresponded in
time with the Ionic settlement in Attica, and
which seem to have been in use among other
Ionic colonies out of Greece. The names
FeAeof res, "Oir\rjTes, 'Apyabels, AiytKopf7s are
said by Herodotus (v. 66) to have been derived
from the sons of Ion, son of Xuthus (see Eur.
Ion, 1596, &c.). It has been thought probable
that of these the Hopletes are the warriors ;
the Argadeis, labourers or husbandmen ; the
Aegikoreis, goatherds or shepherds. For the
first name, see article reXeovres.
In the division of the inhabitants of Attica,
traditionally ascribed to Theseus, the people
were divided into EuirarpiSai, reoo/xdpoi {"Aypoi-
K}i), and Ariixtovpyoi, of whom the first were
nobles, the second yeomen, the third labourers
and mechanics. Theseus is said to have
enlarged the city of Athens, made it the seat
of government, and transferred to it the in-
habitants of some smaller towns [ZvvoCKia].
The tribes or <pv\ai were divided, each into
three (pparpiai {cpparpia is the Attic form) or
(fipirpai (cf. the Roman curiae), and each
(pparpia into thirty yevq (gentes), the members
of a yevos being called yeuvrirat or S/ioyaKaK-
res. Each yevos was distinguished by a parti-
cular name, derived from some hero or mythic
ancestor [Gens (Greek)]. The (pparpiai and
y^vr] had their respective religious rites and
festivals, which were preserved to a late period.
After the abolition of monarchy, the whole
power of the state, civil and religious, fell into
the hands of the Eu-iraTpi8ai or nobles, who
held all civil offices, and liad besides the manage-
ment of religious affairs and the interjiretation
of the laws. Shortly before the legislation of
Solon, we find the people of Attica divided
into three parties: rieSiaroi or lowlanders,
AiaKpioi or highlanders, and TldpaKoi or people
of the sea-coast. These three parties appear
in some measure to represent the classes
established by Theseus : the first being the
lowlanders, nobles, whose property lay in the
champaign ; the second, the highlanders,
smaller landowners and shepherds ; the third,
the trading and mining class. To appease
their discords, Solon framed his celebrated
constitution and code of laws. He retained
the four tribes (with Tptrrves and (pparpiai),
but substituted for the existing distinctions of
rank a property qualification, or division of the
peojjle into Vlfi'TaKocriofj.eSi/J.voi, 'lTnre7s, ZeuY?-
rai, and Qijrfs. The enactments of Solon
continued to be the law at Athens, though in
great measure suspended by the tyranny,
until the democratic reform effected by Klei-
sthenes. Klcisthenes abolished the old tribes,
and created ten new ones, according to a geo-
graphical division of Attica, and named them
after ten of the ancient heroes: 'Epex^ij'^S)
Aiyrj'is, Tlav5ioi/is, Atoovris, 'AKa/Mivris, Olmrjis,
KeKpoiris, 'linroOcin'ris, Alauris, 'Avriox's: the
names being furnished by the Delphian oracle
([Arist.] 'Ay. TToK. 21).
These tribes were divided (as anciently) into
rpirrvts, three to each tribe, and by a local
division into ten Srjfioi '. one rpirrvs of each
tribe being assigned to the atrrv, one to the
TRIBUS
647
irapaKia, and one to the fxtaoyaia. The city
(aarv) and ports now formed ten Srj/xoi, one
belonging to each tribe. The arrangement was
BO made that several Stj/xoi not contiguous or
near to one another were joined to make up a
tribe. [Af|p,os-] The object of this arrange-
ment was to avoid local parties and disjiutes,
and effect a perfect and lasting revolution in
the habits and feelings as well as in the poli-
tical organisation of tlie people. The ancient
(pparptai still existed, but were deprived of all
political importance. All foreigners admitted
to the citizensliip were registered in a phyle
and demus, but not in a phratria or genos
(see Ar. Ba)t. 41H, Av. 705), unless by a
special complimentary vote [Civitas]. The
functions which had been discharged by the
old tribes were now mostly transferred to the
Srj/j.01 [see also NavKpapCa]. The reforms
of Kleisthenes continued to be in force until
the downifall of Athenian independence. The
ten tribes were blended with the whole ma-
chinery of the constitution. The choice of the
senate of five hundred, the allotment of SiKacr-
Toi, the election of the principal officers of
state and public functionaries, judicial and
magisterial, civil and military (e.g. AiaiTT)Ta£,
TafjLiai, Teixo''''o''0^' OuAapxot, Zxpax-
"nyoi, itc), were all based on the tribal division.
In 307 B.C. the Athenians increased the number
of tribes to twelve by creating two, named
'hvTiyovls and Ar]fj.r]Tpids, afterwards styled
riToAe^uais and 'ArTaAis ; and a thirteenth was
subsequently added under Hadrian, bearing
his name {Plut. Deinctr. 10). [Civitas
(Greek); A-om-os ; 0ijXapxoi ; <t>vAo3aCTt-
A€lS, &C.]
2. Rojux. The Patrician Tribes.— The \
original sense of tribus, whatever the deriva- I
tion of the word (which is more likely to be
connected with tribuo than with tres), is j
probably the territoriuyn of a community or I
aggregation of families or gentes. Such a dis-
tinction would most commonly arise in the
case of a migration in consequence of war or
treaty. The successive steps in this process, |
connected with the successive occupation of :
the hills of Rome, can no longer be traced.
It is not, however, certain that the division
into three tribes was essential to the primi-
tive Roman state. According to tradition, |
the three ancient tribes — Titienses (or Tities), I
Ramnes (or Ramnenses), and Luceres — were i
created by Ronuilus after the death of Tatius I
(Cic. Bep. ii. 8, 14 ; cf. Liv. i. 13). But it
is more probable that tlie Roman state grew ;
up by a gradual awoiKiaixos of independent
communities, the number tla-ee being acci- 1
dental and not essential. The legends con-
necting the Titienses with Tatius, the Sabine 1
king, seem to showtliat the Titienses, a Sabine I
tribe, entered into an already existing Latin I
conmiunity, and not improbably as conquerors.
Tlie Ramnes were certainly of Latin race.
The origin of the Luceres is uncertain (Liv. i.
13). What seems certain is that the avvoiK-
i<Tn6s took place in prehistoric times. Pos- j
sibly the three tribes coincided locally with the '
original city which took part in tlie festival of \
the Septimontium, the Titienses perhaps occupy- i
ing the Subura, the Ramnes the Palatine, and i
the Luceres the Esquiline (but see Liv. i. 33). I
At some later period, the neighbouring city on
the Quirinal seems to have been amalgamated
with that of the Soptimontium ; and the three !
ancient tribes were now extended by a division
into maiores and minores gentes, the Hillmen |
{Collini as opposed to Montani) being limited
to the latter, so that there were now priini and
secuiuli (or 2iriores and posteriores) Titienses,
lia/nncs, and Luceres (Liv. i. 36; Cic. Bep.
ii. 20, 30).
In the pre-Servian period the patrician tribes
were used as the basis for taxation and the mili-
tary levy. For the army each tribe is said to
have furnished 1000 foot-soldiers, commanded
by a Tribunus. The cavalry were originally re-
presented l)y three centuries, one ceiuury from
each of the tliree tribes (Liv. i. 13), or ten men
from each of the thirty curies. When the city
was enlarged by the addition of the gentes
■minores, these three centuries were increased
to six, each apparently containing 800 men
(Liv. i. 36), but retaining the old names. In
later times, it is only in connexion with these
sex snffragia {equitum) [Equites] that the
names Titienses, Ramnes, and Luceres are re-
tained, since for all other purposes they were
superseded by the Servian tribes.
The Servian Tribes. — As an integral part of
the so-called Servian refonnation — by which
the census was established, and the land-hold-
ing plebeians made to share the burdens of
citizenship — there was a new division into
tribes. The tribes so created were local, and
four in number, and embraced the city rs
enclosed by the Servian walls (Liv. i. 43). The
territory outside the city was probably not yet
distributed among individual owniers, but held
in common by the gentes, and, if so, was not
applicable for division into tribes. The division
was probably into regianes or pagi [Pagusj.
The names of the four city tribes were Sucusana
(later, Suburana), Palatina, Esquilina, and Col-
lina. These tribes were evidently in the first
instance a division of the land. They may have
been engrafted on to the old patrician divi-
sions, Sucusana corresponding with that of the
Titienses, Palatina with that of the Ramnes,
Esquilina with that of the Luceres, while
Collina would embrace the Quirinal city. In
this way at least the order of the tribes would
be satisfactorily accounted for. Neither the
Capitol nor the Aventine was included in the
Servian tribes, because they were still public
and not private property (Liv. vi. 20) ; and the
four tribes were limited to the inhabited parts
of the city.
Extension of the Tribes. — At what date, and
in what number, the first rustic tribes were
added to the four Servian tribes, it is impossi-
ble to say with certainty. That there were
twenty-one tribes in 387 b.c. we know (Liv. vi.
5), but that the increase from four to twenty-
one was made at one time is improbable.
Probably at one time there were sixteen
country tribes, all bearing the names of
patrician gentes, with some sort of relation
to the Servian division into pagi ; and it is
not improbable that the sixteen tribes were
made when the common gentile property in
land was transformed into individual owner-
ship; the gentile ownership leaving traces in
the gentile names of the tribes (see Liv. ii. 16).
Though named after patrician gentes, these
sixteen tribes were as much local divisions as
the earlier and later ones.
As more and more land became the private
property of Roman citizens, either by distribu-
tion or by the foundation of colonies or by the
reception of prrcgrini into the citizen-body, the
number of tribes gradually increased, but till
the year 387 B.C. it still remained at twenty-one.
In 388 land was distributed among new citizens
G48
TRIBUS
from Etruria (Liv. vi. 4) ; and in the next year
(o87) four new tribes were created (Liv. vi. 5).
Other tribes, all with local names, were added
as new districts, received the civitas (Liv. viii.
14), and were arranged in the census. The
latest additions were Quirina and Velina (Liv.
Epit. xix.)), in 241 B.C., making in all thirty-five
tribes, which number was never exceeded (Liv.
i. 43).
Italia tribatim descripta. — Up to 241 B.C.
the tribes were more or less definitely bounded
districts, of which the positions are generally
known. The oldest rustic tribes were all in
the immediate neighbourhood of Rome : those
added later were situated in S. Etruria, Latium,
the territory of the Volsci and Hemici, part of
Campania, and the ager Sabinus. Every as-
signation of land to Roman citizens, however
small, and the establishment of every colony,
increased this amount of land to be distributed
among the tribes. New colonies were assigned
to tribes : e.g. Tusculum to Papiria, Minturnae
to Teretina, Aricia to Horatia. But after the
number of the tribes was closed, geograpliical
compactness was lost. All fresldy assigned terri-
tory had now to be distributed among the exist-
ing tribes ; and the further from Rome this
process extended, the more disjointed and
broken up did the tribes become. This break- j
iug up of the tribes was not completely effected
till after the Social War, when the civitas was
given to all the peregrinae civitates south of
the Po ; and in consequence almost all the land, [
falling into full Quiritary ownership, had to be
distributed among the tribes. Some attempt
at local grouping was made here and there,
after the Social War.
The Tribe and its Members. — The tribe was
thus primarily a division of the land held in
Quiritarian ownership, but it was also applied
in a personal sense to the owners of tlie land,
and involved certain rights and privileges,
duties and responsibilities. Originally only
land-owning citizens (adsidui) were members
of tlie tribes, but witliin this limit both patri-
cians and plebeians belonged to them. But
this strict connexion between landed property
and membership of the same tribe must soon
have been modified, (1) by those cases in which
a citizen owned property in more than one
tribe : in whicli case, as personal membership
of more than one was impossible, probably the
censor decided to which he should belong; (2)
where communities possessing civitas sine
suffragio were admitted to the full franchise,
and their territory assigned to some one tribe :
in which case the citizens of the newly-enfran-
chised civitas would as a rule take the tribe
of the territory, even if their landed property
lay elsewhere (Liv. xxxviii. 30). In time, too,
the tendency became greater for membership
of a tribe to become hereditary, and so prac-
tically unchanging. But censorial interference
would take place whenever the qualification
of landed property was lost, a loss which
was at first followed by loss of tribe and trans-
fer to the acrarii (Liv. iv. 24, etc.) ; while
the censors acquired the disciplinary power, by
way of punishment, of treating land-owning
citizens as though they were not adsidui, and
placing them also among the aerarii (cf. Liv.
xxiv. 18. &c.). Conversely, of course, if dis-
qualification was removed, citizens would pass
from the aerarii into a tribe (Cic. dc Or. ii. (SO,
208). And when the tributum, which was in
close connexion with the tribes, was made into a
tax assessed on moveable as well as immoveable
property, the connexion between landed pro-
perty and tribe-membership was weakened. In
305 B.C. Q. Fabius RuUianus, when admitting
landless citizens to the tribes, limited them to
the four urban tribes, while the landed pro-
prietors still retained exclusive possession of
the rustic tribes (Liv. ix. 40). As a consequence
of this measure, all Roman citizens were from
this time ipso facto members of a tribe, and the
disciplinary power of the censors was limited to
degrading from the rustic to the urban tribes,
and this is all that is meant henceforth by the
phrases ' tribu movere,' ' aerarium facere.'
Prom this time, too, the tribe was regularly
added to the full citizen's name, being placed
between the father's name and the cognomen :
e.g. Ser. Sulpicius Q. F. Lemonia Rufus (Cic.
Phil. ix. 7, 17).
The position of libertini m the tribes dif-
fered from that of the other citizens. At first
they were probably admitted on the same
conditions as the rest, but about 220 b.c.
all libertini, whether landowners or not, were
limited to the urban tribes (Liv. Epit. xx.).
After the Social War, equality in the tribes for
the libertini was part of the popular pro-
gramme ; but Sulla restored the former state of
things, and the disability of libertini seems to
have continued under the Empire. But, with
the exception of the libertini, after the Social
War, all citizens alike were admitted into the
rustic tribes, and personal membership in a
tribe was decided in the case of each individual,
provided that he was ingenuus, by his domus
or origo in one of these municipalities. Rome
was now the ' communis patria ' of all Roman
citizens, who were also with few exceptions
(Cic. Phil. iii. 0, 15) municipcs of some local
community ; and it was this local connexion
which was marked by the tribe. How entirely
the tribe was made dependent on the domus or
origo is shown by the fact that a Roman citizen,
if transferred to a colony, took the tribe of his
new domus. Under the Empire the urban
tribes contained citizens who, tliough free-born,
were on account of some personal grounds ex-
cluded from the rustic tribes: e.g. (1) sons of
libertini ; (2) individuals of Greek birth ; (3)
illegitimate children ; (4) actors and sons of
actresses; and (5) many individuals, probably
of Greek origin, living at the great trading
ports, such as Ostia and Puteoli, are assigned
to the urban tribes.
Tribes in the Provinces. — All provincial
land, except in cases where the ius Italicum
was specially conferred, was ager publicus, and
therefore necessarily stood outside the tribes.
But as soon as the practice began of conferring
the Roman franchise upon provincial towns, the
tribe to which their citizens were to belong was
specified ; while probably, even in non-Roman
towns, such as Latin colonies, itc, the rule
grew up that all individuals within them who ac-
quired the franchise should be eiu-olled in some
specified tribe. Thus the colonies of Julius
Caesar in Gallia Narbonensis were assigned to
Papiria, Teretina, Pupinia, and Aniensis ; but
Augustus appears to have generally assigned
Galeria for the Spanish provinces, Voltinia for
Gallia Narbonensis, Collina for the Oriental
provinces, &c. Later emperors made use of
their own tribe in grants made by them of the
franchise to provincials. Thus Claudius, whose
family appears to have been transferred to
Quirina, assigned his Mauritanian colonies to
that tribe ; while later in his reign he gave the
preference to the original tribe of his house,
TRIBUS
G49
and so Colonia Agrippinensis, Savaria, &c., be-
long to Claudia. The Flavian emperors, again,
belonged to Quirina, and accordingly we find
all Flavian colonies, in all parts of the empire,
assigned to that tribe. Vespasian and Trajan
followed the same rule.
The Tribes as organised for administrative
and political ends. — The original aim of the
tribes was purely administrative, and had refer-
ence (1) to the census, (2) to the levy, (3) to the
tributum and military pay. As to (1), there is no
doubt that the tribes were primarily constituted
by Servius as a basis for the census, which
formed the essential part of his constitution.
(2) It appears from Polybius (vi. 20) that the
tribes were sununoned one by one in an order
appointed by lot, four men being taken succes-
sively from each tribe, one for each legion, until
the full number of four legions was made up,
so that in theory there were to be an equal
number of men from each tribe in every legion.
(See also Liv. iv. 46.) In later times the equal
proportion of troops from every tribe was given
up ; but probably during the whole of the Re-
public and even under the Empire, the levy
was in some way based on the tribes. (See Tac.
Hist. iii. 58, and Suet. Ner. 44.) It was only in
cases of emergency that legions were enrolled
from the urban population (Tac. Ann. i. 31).
(3| Since the tributum was originally levied
only upon land, and all adsidui were in the
tribes, the collection of the tax was naturally
and most convenientlj' made tributim. The
tributum was collected from the various tribes
by the tribuni aerarii, who had the tribal re-
gister showing to what class each tribesman
belonged.' The primary object of the tributum
was to provide pay for the soldiers in war. Up
to the year 406 B.C. (Liv. iv. 59) the stipendium
was apparently paid by the tribes themselves :
after 406 by the aerarium ; in both cases it was
paid tributim by means of the tribuni aerarii.
When campaigns were prolonged beyond a
single year, payment was made in camp by the
quaestor, and connexion with the tribes and
tributii aerarii ceased.
As far a-s political activity is concerned, the
tribes have no importance prior to 471 B.C. Up
to that time, the tribuni plebis were elected
by the plebs assembled according to curies.
[Tribunus.] The Lex Publilia (Liv. ii. 56)
enacted ' ut plebeii magistratus tributis comi-
tiis fierent' (cf. also Dionys. ix. 41). By the
term ' tributis comitiis,' however, we are prob-
ably to understand the meeting of the land-
owning plebeians assembled in their tribes as
concilium plebis. For the growth of the conci-
lium plebis, and how eventually the comitia
tributa, i.e. the whole populus, patricians and
plebeians together, assembled by tribes, became
established as one of the recognised organs of
legislation, see Comitia tributa. We may notice
here how the local associations among the
members made previous informal deliberation
possible, and rendered the members more ac-
cessible to the influence of leading men. In
the third century B.C. the Comitia centuriata
were reorganised so as to combine the tribal
with the centurial arrangement. Each tribe
was now divided into seniores and inniorcs,
and each of these divisions again into live cen-
turies, corresponding with the five property
' The tribuni aerarii were officials appointed to
preside over the tribes, probably at first one for each
tribe, later ten, viz. five eacli for the seniores and
iuiiiores. It is probable that the tribuni aerarii were
also called curatores iribuum.
classes. As the 70 centuries of the first class,
or possibly the 35 centuriae iuuioruni, drew
lots among themselves for tlie privilege of
voting first, we get such descriptions as ' prae-
rogativa Aniensis imiiorum ' (Liv. xxiv. 7 ; cf.
xxvii. 6, &c.).
Belation of Tributes to one another. — The
tribes being originally local districts, the
majority of their members were neighbours
(Cic. Sext. Hose. 16, 47) and acquaintances
(see Ter. Ad. iii. 3, 85 ; Hor. Ep. i. xvi. 5 ;
Cic. Fam. xiii. 23). Sometimes this esjirit de
corps showed itself in a traditional jealousy of
some other tribe (Liv. vi. 37), but more usually
in the active support which contributes afforded
one another in ordinary life and in elections.
For the relation between tributes with regard
to elections and canvassing, see Cic. Plane.
16-18, while the fact that Vatinius failed to
secure the vote of his own tribe Sergia is men-
tioned as an exceptional disgrace to him [Vat.
15, 37). So again candidates give banquets
and spectacula tributim ; and Augustus gave
largess to the members of his two tribes Fabia
and Scaptia (Suet. Aug. 40). As the tribes
were constantly coming together to elect their
own ofiicers or indices, or to celebrate suppli-
cationes, etc., decreed by the senate (Liv. vii.
28), these meetings might easily be adapted to
purposes of political action.
Ordo Tribuum. — There was a certain definite
order of tribes, properly applied to decide the
order of voting in the Comitia tributa. In this
order the four urban tribes came first, arranged
aa follows : Suburana, I'alatina, Esquilina,
Collina. Of the rustic tribes we onlj' know for
certain that Romulia came first and Amiensis
last (Cic. Leg. Agr. ii. 29, 79).
The Tribes under the Empire. — Under the
Empire the administrative and political import-
ance of the tribes disappears (Tac. Ann. i. 15).
From this time in the provinces and in Italy,
membership in the tribe was merely the formal
mark of Roman citizenship. In the city itself
the organisation of the tribes was chieliy em-
ployed as the means by which presents of
money or corn were given to the citizens either
by the state or by individuals. The enormous
largesses and congiaria given under the Empire
were limited to the citizens resident in the
capital, whether or not they belonged to the city
tribes (Suet. lul. 83, Tib. 20 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 42,
&c.). The phrase plebs urbana used in this
connexion is proof of this. These money pre-
sents were given tributim. So the legacy of
Julius Caesar was given by Augustus to the
curatores tribuum (cf . Suet. Aug. 101 ; Tac. A7in.
xii. 31 ; Mart. viii. 15, 4). The montlily /;v/?«e»-
tationes, also, or grants of corn [Frumentariae
leges], like the money-gifts, were limited to the
city. Probably they could be claimed by every
citizen resident at Rome, and the libertini were
certainly not excluded. It appears that mem-
bers of the senatorial and equestrian orders were
not included in the list of recipients [Tessera].
The recipients of corn, then, being the members
of the thirty-five tribes resident in Rome, the
tributes formed themselves into corporations
analogous to the collegia so common under the
Empire. There was no common chest, but
there were probably tribal granaries (Tac. Ann.
XV. 18), and the tribal collegia have the officials
usual in a collegium, scribae and viatores, ap-
paritores, accensi, &c. ; they had also common
burial-places. As this organisation was confined
to the plebs urbana, the four urban tribes were
the most numerously represented. But all the
650
TRIBUTUM
tribes shared in the organisation, as is shown
by the phrase ' plebs urbana xxxv tribuum.'
In course of time it became possible even for
non-citizens to buy the tessera frumentaria,
and so a place in the tribe (cf. Juv. vii. 171), and
thus ' tesseram emere ' = ' tribum emere ' ; and
the custom of thus buying a place in a tribe
was frequently resorted to by the rich as a con-
venient way of providing for old servants and
retainers.
Tribu'tum, as paid by Romans, took two
forms.
(1) A charge on fecial classes of the Roman
people. [Aerarii ; Equites.]
(2) An extraordinary source of revenue,
opposed to the ordinary vectigalia. This was a
property- tax, raised when needed, and chiefly to
cover the expenses of war (e.g. Liv. vi. 32). (See
Tribus.) When regular pay was given to the
soldiers [Stipendium], tributum must have been
raised every year. It was levied, not upon land
held in 2)ossessio [Agrariae leges], but only on
property (res mancipi) held by a full title.
The usual amount of the tax (tributum sim-
plex) was one per thousand of a man's estate
(Liv. xxix. 15) ; in 215 B.C. it was doubled {tri-
butum duplex, Liv. xxiii. 31), and in 184 B.C.
it was raised to three per thousand (Liv. xxxix.
44). It was raised by the tribuni aerarii (Liv. j
i. 43), and was not let out to farm. It rested
originally with the senate to appoint (indicere) \
when the tax should be levied, and to what |
amount. Later, the censors are found fixing j
the amount (184 B.C. ; Liv. xxxix. 44). No citi-
zen was legally exempt (see Liv. xxxiii. 42).
After the third Macedonian War, tributum |
ceased to be levied on Roman citizens. This ]
state of things lasted till 43 B.C., when in the
crisis of the civil wars a similar tax was again
levied (Plut. Aem. Paul. 38).
For the tribute of the provincials, see Vecti-
galia.
Tri'chila. A bower or arbour (see Camara),
either liglitly constructed of trellis- work with
climbing plants, or a solid building open to the
air (Verg. Co}>a, 7 ; [Caes.] B.C. iii. 96. See
fig. 1101).
Tricli'nium. Properly a set of tliree couches
round a dining-table, but commonly used also
TRICLINIUM
Pulvinar contain accounts of the furniture
used to adapt these couclies for the accubatio,
i.e. for the act of reclining during the meal
[Cena]. As each guest leaned upon his left
elbow, so as to leave the right arm at liberty,
and as two or more lay on the same couch, the
head of one man was near the breast of the
man who lay behind him, and he was therefore
said to lie in the bosom (in sinu) of the
other (Plin. Ep. iv. 22). Among the Romans
the usual number of persons occupying each
couch was three, so that the tlu'ee couches
of a triclinium afforded accommodation for a
party of nine. It was the rule of Varro (Gell.
xiii. 11) that the number of guests should be
' neither less than the number of the Graces,
nor more than that of the Muses.' Sometimes,
however, as many as four lay on each of the
couches (Hor. Sat. i. 4,86).
The couches were elevated above the level of
the table. Each guest laj" flat upon his breast,
or nearly so, while eating, and stretched out his
hand towards the table ; afterwards he tiu'ued
upon his left side, leaning on his elbow (see
Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 39, Carm.i. 27, 6).
The relative positions of two persons who lay
next to one another are conuuonlj- expressed
by the prepositions super or supra and infra.
Infra aliquem cubare (Liv. xxxix. 43) was
the same as in sinu alicuius cubare, i.e. the
person in front was infra the one behind him.
Thus No. 1 in fig. 1110 lay above No. 2, No. 3
below No. 2, and so on. In tlie dinner with
Nasidienus in Hor. Sat, ii. 8, the guests were
arranged as in fig. 1111.
The host usually (not in this instance) sat at
7. No. (■> was the place of honour (tnraTiK6s =
consular is).
lectus medius
.
3
•-
g
"•
S
n
■
6
s
4
a
summus
7
3
unus ]
q
n
medius
8
2
medius
1
imus
9
1
summus
Fig. 1110.— PUces in triclinium.
Supposing the annexed arrangement to repre-
sent the plan of a triclinium, it is evident that,
as each guest reclined on his left side, the
countenances of all when in this position were
Fig. 1109.— Summer triclinium. (Pompeii.)
for the dining-room of a Roman house ; for its
usual position, see Domus. It was of an obi Dug
shape, and usually twice as long as broad. A
summer triclinium often oiiened to the virida-
rium, and was shaded by a Camara or Trichila
(see cut).
The articles Lectus, Lectisternium, and
Maecenas
Vibidius
Servilius
Nomentaiius
Xasidienus
Poicius
[| Meusa. j
Variiis
Viscus
Fundauius
Fig. 1111.— Arrangement of places in Horace, Sat. ii. 8.
(See above.)
directed, first, from No. 1 towards No. 3, then
from No. 4 towards No. G, and, lastly, from No.
7 towards No. 9.
TWDENS
The general superintendence of the dining-
room in a great house was entrusted to a slave
called tricliniarcha, with other slaves under
liim.
Tridens. [Fuscina.]
Triens. [Coinage ; Tables, XIII.]
Tpfnpapx'o-. One of the two extraordinary
iniblic services to which wealthy Athenian
citizens were liable (the other was the FlpoeiCT-
4>opd) : it was classed among the liturgies
(KetTovpyiai), but it was not an ordinary or
periodically recurrent (iyKVKKtos) liturgy. The
object of it was to provide for the maintenance
and the complete equipment of tlie ships of war
belonging to the state. The person on wliom
tlii.s duty fell was called a Trierarch {rpiijpapxos) ;
and it would appear that in early times he was
captain of the ship which he maintained.
The office of the trierarchy passed through
four distinct forms or stages. The first stage
was from the era of Tliemistokles to the Sicilian
expedition, during which period each ship was
provided for by a single trierarcli ; the state was
wealthy, and no difficulties seem to have been
felt in the discharge of the office. The second
stage was from the Sicilian expedition to 358
B.C. ; two trierarchs to a ship were now the rule :
a fact to be attributed to a diminution in the
wealth both of the state and of individuals.
From 358 B.C. to 340 B.C. the system of Xvti.-
p,opiai was introduced into the trierarchy,
whereby the number of trierarchs to a single
ship was still further increased ; and lastly,
from 340 B.C. to the close of Athenian indepen-
dence, the double trierarchy again became the
rule, through a law carried by Demosthenes.
(1) The beginning of the trierarchy in the full
sense of the word dates from that large increase
of the Athenian fleet which Tliemistokles per-
suaded the Athenians to make with the produce
of the Laureian silver mines, very shortly before
the invasion of Xerxes (Hdt. vii. 144). Before
that time the naukranes [NavKpapta] had
furnished a ship ax^iece to the commonwealth (i.e.
50 in all. Individuals at this time (Hdt. viii. 17)
and later (Dem. Mid. p. 560, § 1(51) sometimes
made donations of triremes to the state. But
the state generally provided the ship itself.
In Herodotus (viii. 4(5, 93) the name TpLTjp-
apxos first occurs ; in Thucydides (vi. 31) there is
the first statement of a trierarch's duties, so far
as these are indicated by what was done in the
Sicilian Expedition. It appears from the latter
passage (when compared with Ar. Eq. 918,
and Dem. dc Cor. Trierarch. p. 1'229) that the
state furnished, besides the hull, the sails and
necessary tackle, while the trierarchs intro-
duced such ornaments and improvements as
were not of absolute necessity. In Thuc. vi. 8
also, the irapaaKevr) seems to be mentioned as
something funiislied by the state.
So far the work of the trierarch was simply
tlxat of completing and extending the work
done by the state ; and this jiart of a trierarch's
work was more or less voluntary. But to
launch the ship from the harbour, to main-
tain it in full efficiency and restore it unim-
paired {SSKtuof Kol fVTfKri) was a trierarch's
absolute duty. This obligation ceased when a
trierarch had held his office for a year ; after
which time, if necessary, a successor would be
sent out to him. A trierarch who through any
accident was obliged to serve more than his year
could charge the extra expense (^TriTpiTjpapx^Mo)
on his successor, and bring an action to recover
it if necessary (see Dem. c. Foli/cl. pp. 1209-
1211).
TPIHPAPXIA
651
The maximum number of ships of war was
reached in the early part of the Peloponnesian
War, when the trierarchs numbered 400, one to
a ship.
(2) The second form of the trierarchy, in
which two persons, called (ru»'Tpir,popx'"> shared
the office, probably began after the failure of
the Sicilian Expedition. From 409 B.C. on-
wards we have frequent mention of the trier-
archy. In this period, as in the former, the
state was supposed to find and pay the crews.
This obligation, however, was by no means
always properly discharged.
The syntrierarchy did not entirely supersede
the older and single form, instances of which
occur so late as b.c. 361. In the case of a syn-
trierarchy, the two trierarchs commanded their
vessel in turn, six months each, according as
they agreed between themselves. Sometimes,
however, a trierarch, or pair of syntrierarchs,
would let out the whole duties of the office to a
contractor (nia-dwcrai tV rpi-npapxiav)- This
was a great abuse ; the work was done ineffi-
ciently, and the contractors at timesprivateered
on their own account, which led to reprisals on
the part of the injured against Athens herself.
[ZOAai.]
(3) In 358 B.C., the third form of the trier-
archy began. In that year Periander (Dem. c.
Everg. et Mncsib. p. 1145, § 20) introduced a
law, whereby the SJ^nmories, already in use for
the war tax [Ela4)opd], were adapted under
altered form to the trierarchy (see Zv^l.^iopCa).
The intention of the law of Periander was
doubtless to increase the efficiency of the navy,
by increasing the amount of property applicable
to the puqjoses of the trierarchy. But the
system was not properly managed; and rich
men soon found means to use it for the pur-
pose of escaping public burdens. Rich and poor
should have been properly combined in each
(TwreAfia. But in fact, as Demosthenes says
((/(' Cor. pp. 260, 261), the na^-y went to ruin,
whilst the rich earned immunity from other
liturgies on the score of trifling expenditure in
this, and persons of moderate income lost their
property.
The group of citizens who joined in maintain-
ing a single trireme was called ffwr^Kua, and
the individual contributors cvvreKe^s. (^vv
T(\(ia and av/xfiopia are perfectly distinct terms,
but the members of a avvT(\fta were always
members of the same avixfxopia.)
(4) At last, in 340 B.C., Demosthenes was
appt)inted superintendent of the navy (^iri-
(TTaTTjs Tov vaxjTLKov) and carried a trenchant
reform, which introduced what may be called
the fourth form of the trierarchy. What this
was we do not exactly know ; but it appears
that it did to a certain extent restore the syn-
trierarcliy (Dem. de Cor. p. 261, §104). Whatever
the nature of the law, we have reason to believe
that its effect was successful. Demosthenes
(de Cor. p. 2(52) tells us that during the whole
war carried on after the law was in force, no
trierarch implored the aid of the people
(iKervplav (OriKf), or took sanctuary in the
temple of Artemis at Munychia, or was put m
prison by the airoa-roKus, nor was any trireme
lost at sea.
(5) General Observatioiis.—TvieTaTchB were
(a) liable to punishment in case of inefficient
performance of duties, but a reward also {i.e. a
crown) was sometimes given to the most effi-
cient, as appears from Demosthenes' speech on
the Crown of the Trierarch;/. Trierarchs
1 were (b) imfvdvvoi (Dem. c. Foh/cl. p. I'.i22,
652 TPIHPOnOlOI
§ 52), i.e. accountable for public property and
public money entrusted to them (Dem. de Cor.
Trier, p. 1231). [Eiieuva.]
Triremes were assigned bj' lot to the different
trierarchs. The sacred triremes [OeiopCs] had
special treasurers (ra^iai) appointed to them.
The expenses of the trierarchy seem to have
varied from about 40 minae (Dem. c. Mid. pp.
539, 540) to a talent {ib. p. 564). A syntrier-
archy would cost half this sum.
(6) On the Exempt ions from the Trierarchij.
Legally no person, except the nine archons.
could claim exemption from the trierarchy
who was of sufficient wealth to perform it, not
even the descendants of Harmodius and Aristo-
geiton [AeiTOvpvia.J
Exemptions, however, were allowed in cases
of sudden loss of wealth; wards, unmarried
heiresses, orphans, kleruchi (colonists absent
by command of the state), and partnerships
(koivwviko,) were also exempt (Dem. de Symm.
p. 182, § 14).
(7) On the Legal Proceedings connected
tvith the Trierarchy. — These were either be-
tween individual trierarchs, or between trier-
archs and the state, and therefore in the form
of a AiaSiKaCTia (Appendix, Greek Law).
They generally arose from a trierarch not deli-
vering up his ship and her rigging in proper
order, either to his successor or to the state.
The presidency of the courts which tried
matters of this sort was vested in the strategi,
and sometimes in the superintendents (^iri-
/u6A.7)Toi) of the dockyard, in conjunction with
the a.iTo(TTo\iiS. The senate also appears to
have had a judicial power in these matters.
In certain cases the trierarch might be called
upon to repair the ship, or else to rebuild it at
an average cost of 5000 drachmae. The penalty
forneglectof this was 10,000 drachmae {^iirKovv
T^v TpiTJpr;).
See the articles AeiTovp-yCo- and XvfjifjtopCa.
TpiTipoTTOioC. A board at Athens, reckoned !
among the directors ('E-rricTTdTai) of public
works, and having a treasurer (ra/uias) of their
own. Their principal duty was to provide for
the building of a certain number (probably
twenty) of new triremes every year. They were
appointed by the senate, one for each tribe,
and either chose their own treasurer or had
one chosen for them by tlie senate ([Arist.J
'A0. TToA. 4(5).
Trigon. [Games, Ball (3).]
Tri'glyphus (rpiyA-uc^os or -ov). The name
given to one of the alternating members of the
frieze of the Doric
order, the other being
called Metope. The
"^^ triglyph is divided by
two vertical cuts (ca-
naliculi) into three
bars (fj.t\poi, femina) \
hence its name. It
also has a semicana-
liculus at each side.
Triglyphs seem always
to have been painted
blue. They are sup-
posed to have origi-
nated from an imita-
tion of the visible
ends of jimjc^cting
beams in a wooden structure. [Architectura.]
Trilix. [Tela.]
Tripos {tp'iwovs). a tripod, i.e. any utensil
or article of furniture supported on three feet.
More especially —
TRIPOS
(1) A tripod or trivet to receive the \4^7\s
or caldron for boiling meat, etc. [Ae3'ns.J (Cf.
Horn. II. xxiii. 702 [iixnrvpifi'i)-rris] ; Soph. Aj.
1405; and fig. 320, under X\;Tpa.) The bronze
caldron and its stand were often made in one
.V^^
Fig. 1115.— Coin of KrotoB,
7th-6th century B.C.
Fig. 1112.— Canaliculi.
<sdJ
Fig. 1113.— Tripod trom Frejus. Fig. 1114.— Delphic tripod.
piece, and then the whole boiling apparatus
was called Tp'nrovs (Horn. II. xviii. 344, Od. viii.
434), and Ae'^rjs Tp'nrovs (Aesch.Fr. 1). Tripods
were also used as stands for mixing-bowls
[ipvKTiip], and then
were called &,irvpoi. rpi-
TToSes. For their use
as prizes in games cf.
AePti9.
(2) A bronze altar,
or tripod.
All the most ancient
representations of the
sacrificial tripod ex-
hibit it of the same
general shape, together
with three rings at the
top to serve as handles
(oCoTo, Hom. //. xviii.
378). Since it has this form on all ancient re-
mains which have any reference to the Delphic
oracle, it is concluded that the tripod from
which the Pythian priestess gave responses
was of this kind. Fig.
1114, besides the three
legs, the three handles,
and the vessel or cal-
dron (Ae/STjs) shows a
flat, round plate, called
oKfios [Cortina], on
which the Pythia seated
herself in order to give
responses, and on which
lay a laurel wreath or
spray at other times.
Lmumerable ' Del-
phic tripods ' were made
to be used in sacrifice,
and still more fre-
quently to be presented
to the treasuries of
temples [Donaria]. Tri-
pods were chiefly dedi-
cated to Apollo, to the
Muses, and to Herakles.
It was given as a prize
to the conquerors at
the Pythian and other
games, which were celebrated
ApoUo (Hdt. i. 144).
Fig. inc.— Pythia seated on
tripod. (From a vase.)
honour of
At Athens the successful
Choragus received a bronze tripod as a prize.
TEIPUDIUM
Tho choragic monuments of Thrasyllus and
Lysikiiites were erected by tliem to preserve
and display the tripods awarded to them on
such occasions [XoptiYos.] The XVviri at
Rome, as priests of Apollo, kept in their houses
tripods of bronze.
A famous tripod, consecrated to Apollo at
Delphi, was that made from the spoils of the
Persian army after the battle of Plataea. It
consisted of a golden bowl, supported by a
three-headed bronze serpent (Hdt. ix. 81 ;
Thuc. i. 132). The bronze serpent, about 1,'5
feet high, was taken to Constantinople, and
is still to be seen in the Hippodrome (fig. 1117).
The use of bronze tripods, whether for
domestic use or to serve as altars, arose from
their suitableness to be removed from place to
place. They are sometimes made to fold to-
gether into a small compass (see fig. 1118). A
patera or a plain disk of metal was laid on the
TRIUMPHUS
668
I'"ifi. 1117. -r.ronze serpent Fig. 1118.— Portable tripod
from Delphi, at brazier, in the Lritish Museum.
Constantinople:.
top when there was occasion to offer incense,
or a grating when a vessel to be heated or kejit
hot was placed there.
(3) A three-legged table. [Mensa.]
Tripu'dium. [Augur.]
Trire'mis. [Navis.J
TpiTT\5a. [Suovetaurilia.]
TpiTT\J9. [Tribus.]
Triu'mplius is probably derived from the
shout triumphe (connected with Bpia/x^os)
uttered by the soldiers and jiopiilace during
the procession. It also occurs in the chant of
the Arval Brothers.
The triumph was no douV)t originally simply
the return of the victorious army headed by
its general, his first act being naturally the
ofifering of sacrifice to the chief god of the city.
A prominent feature in such an entry would be
the display of captives and spoil (Liv. iii. 29, 4).
In later times a triumph was granted only by
consent of the senate, and in cases of excep-
tional success.
Tlie triumjjh had two aspects, religious and
military. (1) Before a general loft Rome for
the seat of war, his last act was to go to the
Capitol, and there (if a magistrate) procure the
auspices, without which the war could not
properly be begun, and in every case make
vows for the success of his arms (Liv. xlv. 39,
&c.; Caes. IS. C. i. 6). If the campaign was
successful, and a triumph was granted him,
this took the form of a progress to the Capitol,
there to pay liis vows and offer sacrifice to
J upiter. In this ceremony the general appeared
in the character of J upiter. His dress was that
of the god, and was the property of the temple,
and brought thence for the occasion. Hence
it is spoken of as exuviae lovis (Suet. Aug. 94 ;
cf. Juv. X. 38; Liv. x. 7, 10). So, too, the
golden crown and the sceptre with its eagle
belonged to the god ; the body of the general
was, in early times at least, painted red like
that of the image in the temple ; and the white
chariot horses (Liv. v. 23, 5) recalled the white
steeds of Jupiter and the Sun. [Sacerdos.]
(2) The triumph was also a military act, the
last performed by tho general in his command,
and therefore it was essential that he should
during its performance be in possession of the
imperium inherent in the ofifice of consul,
praetor, or dictator. Such magistrates were
allowed by a vote of the senate to exercise the
imperium on that occasion within the city. So
long as the command of the army was regularly
taken by one of the chief magistrates during
his year of office, tho right to a triumph
belonged to this class exclusively, and hence
triumphs were refused to commanders during
the Second Punic War who were not at the
same time holders of one of the regular chief
magistracies (Liv. xxviii. 38,4, xxxii. 7, 4, xxxiii.
27, &c.). Later, when it became the practice
that the command of an army in a province
should only be taken after the expiration of
the year of office in Rome, it was found neces-
sary to relax the rule, as otherwise no triumphs
whatever could have been granted. Accordingly,
for the later period of the Republic, the
triumphs celebrated are ordinarily those of
proconsuls and propraetors. Sulla legalised
the practice of retaining the imperium until
the general reached the city (Cic. Fam. i. 9, 25).
Such extension, however, only availed up to the
pomerium, and special legislation {privilegimn)
was necessary to keep the imperium alive
within the city on the day of the triumph (Liv.
xxvi. 21). Until the i^rivUegium was passed
the general remained without the walls, for if
he had entered the city he would have become
a ^.»?'iva<MS, and thereby excluded from a
triumph. (Cf. Cic. Acad. pr. ii. 1, 3, Att. vii.
10.)
After an important victory the general was
saluted by his troops as Imperator. He as-
sumed the fasces laureati (Cic. Lig. 3, 7),
and forwarded to the senate litterae laureatae
Liv. V. 28, 13; Tac. Agr. 18), i.e. a despatch
announcing the victory. If the intelligence
proved satisfactory, the senate decreed a public
thanksgiving [Supplicatio], which was usually
the forerunner of a triumph. (See Cic. Fam.
XV. 5, 2.) After the return of tho general with
his army to the neighbourhood of Rome, the
next point was to obtain tho consent of tlio
senate, which involved certain conditions.
(a) The triumphator must to the end of the
ceremony be in possession of the imperium con-
ferred in regular constitutional course. As tlio
imperium could only be exercised outside Rome
by one person in the same district and at the
same time, if there were two commanders only
one triumph was given, cither to the one of
higher rank (Liv. ii. 31, iv. 29, 4), or, in the
case of two consuls, to tho one to whose turn
the imperium and auspicium camo on the day
of battle (Liv. xxviii. 9, 10), if the battle was
fought in his province. The lesser triumph
654
TRIUMPHUS
(ovatio) was generally granted if the greater
honour was refused. So, too, one who com-
manded alienis auspiciis was excluded from a
trianii)h. Caesar, however, granted triumphs to
his legati Q. Fabius Maximus and Q. Pedius.
[b) The victory must have been won in a
legitimate contest against public foes (Cic.
Deiot. 5, 13), and not in a civil war or insurrec-
tion of slaves (Lucan, i. 12, bella geri placuit
nullos habitura triumphos ; Plut. Caes. 50).
Hence there was no triumph after the capture
of Capua in 211 B.C., or of Fregellae in 125.
Caesar's triumphs after Thapsus and Munda,
and Octavian's after Actium, do not violate
this rule, for in each case the victory was
represented as having been won over foreigners ;
while, on the other hand, Caesar celebrated no
triumph for Pharsalia.
( •) Tlie war must have been brought to a
conclusion (debcllatiDn), so that the army
could be withdrawn {deportatio exercitus), the
presence of the victorious soldiers being an
essential part of the ceremony (Liv. xxvi. 21).
The condition of deportatio was dispensed
with in later times (Liv. sxxix. 29, 4).
Special successes were sometimes treated
as the conclusion of separate wars : e.g. in the
Hannibalian war triumphs were granted after
the battle of the Metaurus and the caj)ture of
Tarentum (cf. Tac. A)m. i. 55, ii. 41).
The rules affecting a triumph rested on the
authority of the senate (Liv. iii. 29, 4, &c.),
whose decision was regularly treated as final
(Liv. X. 36, 19), and only exceptionally set aside
by an appeal to the people (Liv. iii. 63, 8), or
by violence (Liv. x. 37; Suet. Tib. 2). The
senate, no doubt, made its authority felt by
the senatusconsultum, without which there
could be no grant of public money for the
expenses of the triumph (Polyb. vi. 15, 8; Liv.
xxxiii. 23, 8). The senate also passed the
privilegium required in the case of pro-
magistrates, whose imperium rested on proro-
gaiio. The senate met for these deliberations
outside the walls.
the priests with their implements, and followed
by Camilli, bearing in their hands ^aierae and
other sacred vessels and instruments. The
principal victim was a white bull decorated
with infulae and a rich dorsiialium or back-
cloth. (See cuts under Suovetaurilia.)
(e) The principal captives, in chains : e.g.
Perseus, lugurtha, Vercingetoris, Zenobia;
the dead Cleopatra was represented by an
(/) The lictors of the general, in red tunics,
and wearing laurel wi-eaths, their fasces (with-
out the axes) wreathed with laurel.
iff) Citharistae or ludiones, dancing and
singing.
[h) The general himself, in a chariot of
circular form [Currusj, drawn by four horses.
Fig. 1119.— Triumphal chariot, from a relief, (ilontfaucon,
Anl. Exp. iv. pi. cv.)
After CamiUus (Liv. v. 23 ; Plut. Cam. 7), we
hear of no general venturing to introduce white
horses, which were sacred to Jupiter, till
Caesar, but his example appears to have
usually in the temple of been regularly followed by the emperors (Suet.
Bellona (Liv. xxvi. 21) or in that of Apollo (Liv.
xx.Kix. 4), in order that the general might be
present in person.
When the day appointed had arrived, the
whole population kept holiday. The temples
were thrown open, garlands of flowers deco-
rated every slirine and image, and incense
smoked on every altar (Plut. Aetn. Paul. 32 ;
Ov. Trist. iv. 2, 4). Meanwhile the general,
who had passed the night in the Campus
Martius, addressed his soldiers in a contio, and
announced the rewards that were to be dis-
tributed to tlie officers and men (Liv. x. 30, 46 ;
rxx. 45, 3, &c.).
The procession {pompa) was then marshalled
in the Campus, where it was met by the senate
and magistrates. Generally the followmg order
was preserved.
[a) The magistrates and senate.
(6) Trmnpeters (tubicines).
(c) Spoils of armour and treasures, repre-
sentations of conquered countries, cities, rivers,
&c., by means of pictures, models, and alle-
gorical figures carried on stages [Ferculum]
(Liv. xxvi. 21, 7 ; Cic. Phil. viii. 6, 18 ; Tac.
AiDi. ii. 41), together with boards on which were
painted the names {titidi) of the vanquished
i. 214 ; Prop.
Fig. 11-20.— Co'n of Germanl-
cus. showuig triumphal
chariot.
Nero, 25; Ov. A. A
32). Both chariot and
horses were adorned
with laurel (Suet. Aug.
94; Ov. Pont, ill, 58).
In the third century,
if the triumph was over
the Parthians (tri-
uinphus Persicus), tin'
chariot was drawn !■,
four elei>hants (cf. Plul.
Pomp. 14). License
was burnt in front of
the chariot. The dress
of the general con-
sisted of a tunica palmata and toga picta,
both of purple (Liv. x. 7, 9). In his right
hand he carried a laurel bough (Plin. xv.
§ 137), and in his left an ivory sceptre crowned
by an eagle (Juv. x. 43). In early times his
body seems to have been painted red (Plin.
xxxiii. § 111). On his head was a wreath
of laurel (Plin. xv. § 137). Behind him stood
a public slave, holding over his head the heavy
golden crown of Jupiter, made in the form of an
oak-wreath (Juv. x. 39). That this cumulation
of human and almost divine honours might
nations and countries. (See cut under Titulus.) not provoke the evil consequences of pride —
The bearers of these wore laurel -wreaths. namely, invidia, and the evil ej-e — an amulet
(d) The white oxen for sacrifice, with gilded , {fascinum} was worn by him or was attached
boms, decorated with infulae, vittae, and to the chariot, together with a little bell and a
serta, preceded by tibicines, and attended by | whip, and the slave who rode behind him is
A
TRIUMPHUS
665
said to have whispered in his ear, ' Respice
post te, hominem te meineuto ' (cf. Juv. x. 41).
A state chair (sella) also appears to have be-
longed to the triumphator (Liv. x. 7, 9; Suet.
Jul. 70). His children who were under age
(of both sexes) rode with him in the chariot ;
those who were jrraetcxtati, on the horses
which drew the car (Liv. xlv. 40, 8; Tac. Ann.
ii. 41; Cic. Mur. .5, 11; Suet. Tib. C!). His
Fig. 1121.— Triumphus Persicus. (Froehuer.)
growai-up sons rode behind (Liv. xlv. 40, 4)
after the apparitores, together with his legati
and trihuni (Cic. Pis. 25, (iO). Then some-
tunes came the Roman citizens rescued from
slavery, in the character of freedmen (Liv. xxx.
45, 5, xxxiv. 52, 12). The rear was brought
up by the infantry in mai'ching order, their
2iila adorned with laurel, shouting Jo triumphe
(Hor. Carm. iv. 2, 49 ; Tibull. ii. 6, 121), and
singing songs in long trochaic metre, which con-
tained the praises of the general as well as the
coarsest ribaldry at his expense (Liv. iv. 20 ; 53,
11, &c. ; Suet. lul. 49, 51 ; Mart. i. 5, 3). Some
such lines have been preserved, e.g.
Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat qui subegit Galli
and
Millc mille mille mille mille deeollavimus ;
Tautura viui habet uemo, quantum Iiabet sanguinis.
The procession entered the city by the Porta
Triumphalis, which seems to have been be-
tween the Temple of Isis and the Circus Fla-
niinius, and was apparently only opened on
these occasions (Tac. Ann. i. « ; Joseph. Bell.
lud. vii. 5, 4). Here sacrifices were offered.
It then passed through the Circus Flaminius,
and by the theatres in the same region, and
probably entered the city proper by the Porta
Camientalis (Suet. lul. 37; Cic. Verr. i. 59,
154). The route then led through the Circus
Maximus, and finally by the Sacra Via to the
Forum (Hor. Carm. iv. 2, 35, Epod. 7, 8) ;
then along the south side of the Forum, and
up the Clivus Capitolinus : and as the general
was about to ascend this the principal captives
were led aside into the adjoining prison, and
there put to death (Cic. Verr. v. 30, 77 ; Liv.
xxvi. 13). Originally such were beheaded with
the axe ; in later times they were strangled :
cf. Liv. xxvi. 13, 15. To spare the lives of such
captives was exceptional. Tlie earliest case is
that of Perseus, spared by Aemilius PauUus
(Plut. 37), whose example was followed by
Pompey (Appian, Mithr. 117), Tiberius in
12 A.D. [0\'.Pont. ii. 1, 45), and Aurelian in the
case of Zenobia. The sacrifice in the temple
could not begin until the execution, which was
also part of the religious service, had taken
place.
At some point on the route a temporary arch
was erected, under which the procession passed.
This is the origin of permanent triumphal
arches.
The general then ascended to the Capitol,
and deposited the laurel branch and the
wreaths of the fasces in the lap of the god, and
in later times a palm branch. After this the
victimswere sacrificed. The insignia triumphi,
i.e. the most notable spoils, were afterwards
placed in the temple of Mars Ultor, built by
Augustus (Suet. Aug. 29). Finally, the general
with the senate was entertained at a public
bancjuet in tlie temple (Liv. xlv. 39). A similar
entertainment was provided for the soldiers,
and for the citizens in the temple of Hercules
(Plut. Lucull. 37).
The whole of the proceedings were generally
brought to a close in one day ; but a longer
period was sometimes granted. Thus the
Macedonian triumph of Flamininus continued
for three daj's in succession (Liv. xxxix. 52).
The honours of the triumphator did not end
with the day. At public spectacles he ajjpeared
with the laurel Avreath, and even in the vesti^
triiunphalis, (e.g. L. Aemilius PauUus and
Pompey). It was customary to provide him at
the public expense with the site for a house,
such mansions being called triumjjhales do-
nius. His name was inscribed in the Fasti
Triumphales ; he w-as allowed to decorate the
entrance to his house with trophies (Cic. Phil.
ii. 28 ; Liv. x. 7, 9), which were not removed
if the house changed hands ; and a laurel-
wreathed statue standing in a triumphal car,
displayed in the vestibulum. transmitted his
fame to posterity (Juv. viii. 3). Finally, after
death, his ashes might be deposited within the
walls of the city.
Triumphus in Monte Alhano, a procession
to the temple of Jupiter Latiaris on the Alban
Mount (Liv. xxxiii. 23, 3), was only resorted to
in case of the refusal of a regular triumph by
the senate (Liv. xxxiii. 23). Although recorded
in the Fasti Triutnj)hales, it was not equiva-
lent to a triumph in the city.
Triumjjhus naval is. — Tlie earliest on record
was celebrated by C. Duilius for his naval vic-
tory over the Carthaginians in 2G0 B.C. (Liv.
Ep. xvii.). Of its special details nothing is
known. C. Duilius and M. Aemilius Paullus
erected coluinnae ro.i-frafae to commemorate
their victories (Liv. xlii. 20, 1).
Triumphus castre)isis. — A procession of the
soldiers through the camp in honour of some
exploit performed by a subordinate officer (Liv,
vii. 30).
Under the Empire, when the monarch be-
came the sole possessor of the imperium and
auspices, the condition stated above as to the
possession of the imperium was strictlj- applied,
and the precedent created by Caesar in favour
of his legati was only followed by Augustus at
the beginning of his reign (Suet. Aug. 38).
Even in the case of the holders of the secondary
proco7iS'ulare imperium, the triumph became
rare, and then only if tlioy were members of
the imperial family. Triumphs were celebrated
by Tiberius (7 n.c. and 12 B.C., Suet. Tib. 20),
Germanicus (2G a.d., Tac. Ann. ii. 41), and
Titus (71 A.D., Suet. Tit. 6).
Instead of a triumph, the ornamcnta trium-
phal ia vmro sometimes granted (with or with-
out the addition of the toga proctcxta, or even
the tunica palmata [Dress, Touaj), i.e. the
right to appear on festivals wearing the laurel
wreath. Such honours were decreed, usuallv
656
TRIUMVIRI
auctore iniperatore, by the senate, sitting in
the temple of Mars Ultor (Suet. Aug. 29, Claud.
17; Tac. Ann. ii. 52). The indiscriminate be-
stowal of the honour by the Julian emperors
(Tac. Ann. xi. 20, 3, xiii. 53 ; Suet. Claud. 24,
Nero, 15) degraded its dignity. In the time
of the Antonines and later the only military
distinction that remained was a statua inter
triumphales, i.e. in the Forum of Trajan or
other place reserved for such memorials.
The last triumph recorded is that of Dio-
cletian in 302 A.D. The total number of
triumphs upon record down to this period
amounts to about 350.
Under the Empire the triumphal costume
became an official imperial dress, but Augustus
and his successors wore it only on festivals and
at spectacles. It was also worn by the consuls
when they entered upon their ofi&ce.
Triu'mviri. [Tresviri.]
Tri'vium. Properly a place where three
roads meet : hence generally a street or public
place. Trivium is perhaps properly the open
road space ; Compitum icom-peto) the street
corner where stood the altars to the Lares.
Tro'chilus = scotia. [Arcliitectura.J
Tro'chlea. A sheaf or case containing pulleys
or blocks (orbiculi). (Vitr. x. 2, 1 ; Cato, B. B.
iii. 5 ; Lucr. iv. 906.)
Trochus {rpoxos, Kp'iKos). (1) A hoop
[GamesT (Ov. Trist. iii. 12, 19). (2) A potter's
wheel [Pottery].
Troiae ludus (more frequently Troia, in
the phrase Troiarn ludere ; rrj;' Tpoiav linrfv(rai
(of. Suet. Cal.lH; Tac. Ann. xi. 11). An eques-
trian sham fight, performed in the Circus
Maximus by boys of high rank. It was sup-
posed to represent an exercise introduced by
Aeneas and the Trojans, and celebrated after-
wards by Ascanius at Alba (Verg. Aen. v. 597).
The earliest mention of it in liistorical times
is the exhibition by Sulla in his dictatorship,
81 B.C. (Plut. Cat. 3j. Similarly Julius Caesar,
when he returned in triumph to Rome and dedi-
cated the temple of Venus, celebrated the Troia.
Augustus celebrated it twice (cf. Suet. Tib. 5,
Aug. 43 ; of Nero, Suet. Nero, 7).
The method of celebration may be gathered
from Verg. Aen. v. 553-603. In this account
the usual division into two squadrons, imder
two leaders, is complicated by the appearance
of three leaders, Ascanius, Priamus (son of
Polites), and Atys. Virgil, imder cover of the
story of Aeneas, is probably describing what he
actually saw in the celebration of 27 B.C. In
that contest we know that Tiberius was one
leader (Suet. Tib. 12), and it may be inferred
that Marcellus was another (cf. also Verg. Aen.
vi. 8G0 sqq.). A third leader may have been
Sextus Appuleius, the son of Augustus's col- ;
league in the consulship, who afterwards mar-
ried Marcella, daughter of Octavia.
Tropae'um (Tp6Traiov). A trophy erected on
the field of battle where the enemy had turned
(Tpeircij, TpoTTT)) to flight, and, in case of a victory
gained at sea, on the nearest land. The expres-
sion for raising or erecting a trophy is rpdiraiov
ffrfi<Tai or aTr)aa<r6ai. The trophy was often
left standing for a number of years (see Thuc.
iv. 67, V. 10).
When the battle was not considered decisive, i
both parties erected trophies (Thuc. i. 54, 105 ;
ii. 92). Trophies usually consisted of the arms
&c. of the defeated enemy. These were placed
on the lopped trunk of a tree, which was fixed
on an elevation (Verg. Aen. xi. 5 ; Lncan, i.
135 ; Juv. X. 133). Trophies were consecrated
.TRUA
to some divinity with an inscription (iiri-
ypafifxa) recording the names of the victors
and the defeated party (Eur. Phoen. 583 ;
Verg. Aen. iii. 288 ; Tac. An7i. ii. 22), and
hence were regarded as inviolable, even by the
enemy (see, however, Thuc. viii. 24). Trophies
Fig. 1122.— Trophy ol -Augustus. (Mut. Capitol, i. tav. v.)
were usually made of wood, not of stone or
metal, and were not repaired when decayed.
The trophies erected to commemorate naval
victories were usually ornamented with the
beaks or acroteria of ships fAKpoiT-ripiov;
Bostra] ; and were generally consecrated to
Poseidon or Neptune. Sometimes a whole ship
was placed as a trophy (Thuc. ii. 84, 92).
The Macedonian kings never erected trophies.
The Romans, too, in early times did not set up
trophies on the field of battle, but used the
spoils taken in battle to decorate their public
buildings and private houses [Spolia]. Subse-
quently, however, the Romans adopted the
Greek practice of raising tropliies on the field
of battle : the first trophies of this kind were
erected in 121 B.C., after the conquest of the
Allobroges. It was, however, more usual to
erect some memorial of the victory at Rome
than on the field of battle. In the later times
of the Republic, and under the Empire, the
erection of triumphal arches was the most
common way of commemorating a victory.
Fig. 1123.— Trophy. Coin of JI. Furius Philus.
[Arcus.] "We find trophies on the Roman coins
of several families.
Trophies also appear to have been erected for
gladiators.
Tro'ssuli. [Equites.]
Trua {ropvvT)). A ladle : (1) for holding or
J
TRULLA
stirring liquids ; (2) perforated like a Colum, for
skimming.
TURRIS
657
=@
Fig. 1121. -Trua. (Rich.)
Trulla. (1) A ladle for stirring and skimming
{ = Topwr]) ; also trua.
(•2) Trulla vinaria, an instrument like a
punch-ladle, with a long handle {manubrium),
Fig. ll-25.-.TruIla. (Pompeii.)
used for taking wine from the Kpon-rip [Pottery]
(Hor. Hat. ii. 3, 144). The material was various,
wood or copper, silver or Murrhina .
(3) A mason's trowel for plastering walls,
whence trulUssare.
Tru'lleiun. [Pelvis.]
Tru'tina. [Libra, 1 ; Statera.]
Tuba. [Cornu; Funus.J
Tu'bicen. [Tuba.]
Tubus, Tu'bulus. [Fistula.]
Tugu'rium. A peasant's hut or cottage
(Varro, R. B. iii. 1, 8; Cic. Sest. 43, 93), made of
wooden planks, or wattles, stuffed with grass or
plastered with mud (cf. Tabernaculum). The
roof was of thatch (Ov. Fast. iii. 184), or bark.
In the earliest times the hut was circular
[Domus], with a conical roof covered with thatch,
turf, or skins, and kept in place by brandies
slung over it, as is seen in the ' hut-urns.'
(See fig. 84G, and articles Tholus ; Prytaneum).
From this shape was derived that of the doKos
at Athens and the Aedes Vestae at Rome.
Similar buildings are called Magalia or mapor-
lia (Verg. Acn. i. 421,
Georg. iii. 340, where see
Conington's note). (Cf.
Verg. Ed. i. (59.)
TuUia'num. [Career.]
Tu'mulus ((TTj^o). A
barrow or cairn raised
above a grave (Horn. II.
xxiv. 78 ; Cic. Arch. 10,
24) ; often surmounted by
a Ztt^Xti (cf. Hom. Oct.
xi. 77 ; Verg. Ed. v. 42,
Acn. iii. 322, <S:c.). [Se-
pulcrum.]
Tu'nica. [Dress.]
Turbo {n-Tp60iKo<!,fieix-
/3i|). (1) [Games, Toj>.]
(2) Turbo is also used
(Cat. Ixiv. 314) for the
whorl {<T(l)6vSv\os\ of a spindle, for which the
usual name is vcrfirillus [Fusus].
(3) It is difficult to decide tlic precise fonn of
the instrument used in religious mysteries and
witchcraft, and spoken of as turbo, rhombus,
Kwvos and ^dfxfios. It was cylindrical, or coni-
cal in shape, and was attached by a string and
wliirled in the air
with a humming
noise (cf. Eur.
Hel. 1362; Prop,
ii. 28, 85; Ov.
Am. i. 8,7). The
uses of the turbo
in Hor. Epod.
xvii. 7 and the
rhombus in Mart,
ix. 30, are clearly
identical. See
also Theocr. Id. ii.
30, where the
metal (>6fj.fios is
whirled round
while the incan-
tation is sung ; iu
this instance the
ivy^ is bound on it (cf. Xen. Men^ iii. 11, 17).
It is possible that the original use of the
Kwvos may have been (as among savage nations
at this day) to raise the wind (cf. A. Lang,
Custom and Myth, pp. 29 sqq.).
Turi'bulum (Qv^iaTripiov). A censer. The
Greeks and Romans, when they sacrificed,
commonly took a few grains of frankincense
out of the Acerra and let them fall upon the
flaming altar. [Ara.] They also used a censer,
which was a small moveable
foculus. The turibulum was
like a candelabrum, with a shal-
low brazier on the top : the
material was usually bronze, but
sometimes silver (Thuc. vi. 40)
and of costly workmanship (Hdt.
iv. 162; Cic. Verr. iv. 21, 46).
These turibula could be carried
in processions (Liv. xxix. 14).
Fig. 1127.— Turbo (popi^o;). from a
vase. (13ritit>)i Museum.)
Fig. 112().— Tunica.
(Gerhard.)
Fig. 1128.— Terracotta turibulum
(Egyptian i.
Fig. 112!).— Bronze
turibulum (Etruscan).
The turibulum was lifted by cords or ribands
attached.
Tunna. [Exercitus.]
Turris (irvpyos). A tower.
{1} Stationary Totvcrs. — Among the earliest
of theise no doubt were gate-towers [Portaj.
From these was developed tlie round, square, or
polygonal tower, originally open to the towii, but
afterwards enclosed on all sides. It became
customary to have many such towers at inter-
vals along the walls. Sucli were the towers
on the walls of circumvalhition at Plataea,
and on the Long Walls at Athens [Murus].
As a further development, towers were
erected within cities, to form a last retreat
uu
Fig. 1130.— 'Woman wearing
tutulus. (Etruscuuj
TvuPupvxCas vpa<J>Ti. See Appendix,
Greek liAW.
Ty'mpanum, Ty'panum (rvfinavov). (1)
658 TUS TYMPANUM
in case the city ehould be taken, and in some I into a conical mass (meta). Tutulus is also
cases to overawe the inhabitants. | used for a cap of similar shape, and as a
We find also towers or 'peels' standing alone ^ synonym for Apex (Varro, L. L. vi. 3)
as strongholds, such as the tower of Hannibal
on his estate near Thapsus (Liv. xxxiii. 48),
and the turris regia of lugurtha (Sail. lug.
103). Such towers were common in the frontier
provinces of the Roman empire.
(2) Moveable ToM^er.s.— These were among
the most imjwrtant engines used in storming a
fortified place. They were of two kinds. Some
were made in x^eces, and were portable. These
were called folding towers {irvpyoi irTVKToi
or i-mvyp.ivoi, turres j'Hcatiles', see Liv. xxi. \
11). The other sort were constructed on
wheels, and hence called turres ambulatoriae, \
subrotatae, or mobiles, vvpyoi vv6Tpoxoi (Liv.
xxi. 11).
The first invention of such towers has been
ascribed to the Greeks of Sicily in the time of ,
Dionysius I. (405 B.C.). In Greece they appearto I
have been first used by the engineers in the
service of Pkilip and Alexander, Polyeidus, a
Tliessalian, and his pupila Chaereas andDiades.
Respecting tlie towers used by Demetrius
Poliovketes at the siege of Rhodes, see Hele-
polis.
These towers were generally made of timber, small drum carried in the hand. Some of these
and covered, at leastoutlie three exposed sides, resembled in all respects a modern tambourine
with iron. Tliey were also protected by raw with bells. Others presented aflat circular disk
hides and quilts, moistened, and sometimes on the upper surface and swelled out beneath
dressed with alum, to secure them from fire, like a kettledrum. (See fig. 1132.) Tympana
Some towers were as much as 180 feet high;
and were divided into from 10 to 20 lofts or
stories (fabuluta or tectd), and hence called
turrrs contabulatne (Liv. xxi. 84). The stories
decreased in height from the bottom to the
top, and were pierced with windows.
The use of the successive stories was to i-eceive
the Tormenta, or engines of war; and slingers
and archers were stationed in them and on the
tops of the towers (Liv. xxi. 11|. In the lowest
story was a battering-ram [AriesJ ; and in the
middle one or more bridges { jiDiitm) made of
beams and planks, and protected at the sides by
hm-dles ; or drawbridges [Sambuca\ Scaling-
ladders (scalar) were also carried in the towers.
The wheels on which they moved were placed
for security inside tlio framework of the tower.
The tower was built out of the enemy's reach,
and then pushed up to the walls by men
stationed inside and behind it (Caes. £. G.
ii. 80, 81).
The defenders of the town opposed the siege-
towers by fire, mines, iron-shod beams {asscres,
trabes), catapults, and countenvorks, by raising
the liuight of their own wall, or by building
wooden towers upon it (Caes. B. G. vii. 22).
(3) Towers in every respect similar to the
turres ambulatoriae were constructed on ships,
for the attack of fortified places by sea (Caes.
B. C. iii. 40; Liv. xxiv. 34).
Tus (\iPavoyr6s). Incense. Tlie best came
from Saba in Arabia (Verg. Georg. ii. 110).
Some was also brought from Lydia (Plin. xii. 81).
The principal market was at Alexandria (ib. 32).
It was very costly. The methods of collecting
it, so far as they were known to the Romans,
are described l)y Pliny, I- r.
Tute'la, Tute'lae actio. See Appendix,
Roman Law.
Tutor. See Appendix, Roman Law, Tutela.
Tutulus. A head-dress of ancient Italian
origin, used formerly by matrons, and preserved
in the ceremonial dress of the Flaminicae
[Flamen] and Vestals. The hair was bound
with a red riband {vitta purpurea) and coiled
Fig. 11.S2.— Tympiuiislriae.
were covered with leather (Ov. Fast. iv. 342) ;
they were beaten with the hand (Ov. Met. iv.
30), and were much employed in all wild enthu-
siastic religious rites (Ar. Lysistr. i. 387), espe-
cially the orgies of Bacchus and of Cybele
(CatuU. Lxiii. 8, Ixiv. 262; Verg. Aeii. ix. 619;
Hor. Carm. i. 18, 14 ; Suet. Aug. 68).
(2) A solid wheel without spokes, for heavy
waggons (Verg. Georg. iv. 444; see fig. 448 under
Currus, Pl.\ustrum). These are to this day
common in the rude carts
of Southern Italy and
Greece, and are often made
of two or three pieces held
togetlier by an iron tire.
'Currus, Pl.\iistbum; Sar-
RACUM.]
(8) Hence, wheels of
various kinds : a sort of
crane worked by a wheel
for raising weights (Lucr.
iv. 903; Vitr. x. 4) [Ma-
china]; a wheel for drawing water [Antlia;
Rota] ; a solid toothed wheel forming part of
the machinery of a mill ; and the like.
(4) In architecture the flat surface or space
within a pediment, and also the square panel of
a door (Vitr. iii. 3, iv. 0). [Architectura.]
(5) A wooden cudgel, or a beating- post, for
beating malefactors : hence rv/xirayl^fiy and
Fig. ll.V!.— Solid wheel,
or tympanum.
TYRANNUS
659
airoTVfnraviCeiv (Ar. Plat. 476; Ep. Hebr. xi. '
35).
tyra'nnus {rvpavvos). The etymology of the
word Tvpavvos is uncertain. Aristotle [Pol. iv.
10, 4) defines tyranny proper as 'that arbitrary
power of an individual which is responsible to
no one, and governs all alike, whether equals or
betters, with a view to its own advantage, not
to that of its subjects, and therefore against
their will.' The main point of separation be-
tween Tvpavvis and fiaaiAeia was the self-inter-
ested nature of the former government (Pol.
iii. 7, 5, Eth. viii. 10, 2), although the early
kingships of Greece were also limited by custom
(Thuc. i. 13, 1) ; and thus a lawful king who
over-stepped the limits of his hereditary power
was accounted a tyrant (Arist. Pol. v. 10, 6).
We may distinguish two main periods of des-
potism, that of the seventh and sixth centuries
on the one hand, and that of the fourth century
on the other ; the difference between the earlier
and the later of these periods is this, that while
the former was a result of the natural course
of internal development in the states, and pre-
pared the way for the free constitutions, tlie
latter was a consequence of the downfall of the
free governments. The early tyrannies grew
for the most part out of the oligarchical govern-
ments which took the place of the monarchies.
In Corinth and Thebes the monarchy fell about
the middle of the eighth century : in Sparta it
was saved by a limitation of its powers : in
Athens it dwindled down to the archonship.
Everywhere its power had been replaced by
the rule of a nobility whose claims to honour
were the exclusive possession of the higher
religious rites of the state, the knowledge of
its laws, and the sole possession of political
aperri, resulting from higher birth and from
inherited wealth and culture. But in the
seventh century B.C. the wealthy but un-
enfranchised trading classes were growing to
power by the side of the old nobility. These
elements of discontent fostered the rise of
despots in Greece (cf. Thuc. i. 13). The tyran-
nies that arose out of oligarchies in Sicily and
southern Italy during the close of the sixth
century b.c. (Arist. Pol. v. 12, 13) were probably
due to the same assertion of their claims by
the rich and unprivileged classes ; in other
states the despot based his claim to power
on the championship of the poorest class (Arist.
Pol. V. 5, y ; Hdt. i. 5'J) ; sometimes the
element of race entered into the struggle
(Hdt. V. 68). Throughout Greece we see a
period of transition, during which difficulties,
national and social, called tor settlement ;
and the adjustment that ensued took the form
either of a constitutional dictatorship or of an
unconstitutional monarchy. In the former case
the contending factions combined in appointing
an arbitrator like the Italian jiadcstd (Hallam,
Middle Ages, ch. iii. pt. i.), who bore the title
of Alaij(xvtiTTi5. Such an office was held
by Pittakus at Mytilene, Zaleukus at Lokri,
and Solon at Athens ; it was the only constitu-
tional form of despotism in the Greek world,
and Aristotle describes it as an ' elective
tyranny ' {Pol. iii. 14, 8). The aesymnetes was
given a sufficient body-guard, and held office
either for life or for a term of years or until
certain duties had been performed. In some
states, such as Teos, Kyme, Naxos, and Megara,
the aesymnesia developed into a standing
magistracy. But such a legitimised des-
potism was rare in the Greek world. The
demagogue who united military prowess with
zeal far the popular welfare was the most
ordinary type of despot ; such as Orthagoras
at Sikyon, Kypselus at Corinth, Peisistratus at
Athens (Arist. Pol. v. 5 and 10 ; Hdt. i. 59j ; but
this type is found even in the fourth century :
e.g. in Dionysius of Syracuse (Arist. Pol. v. 5, 10 ;
cf. Plat. Be}}, viii. 565 d). The earlier tyrannies,
however, effected, as no other power could have
done, the unity of the nations which they
governed, and created a national spirit (Hdt.
V. 66) ; they were thus the precursors of the de-
mocracy, or, as at Corinth, of the dynastic
government of the older oligarchies. The dem-
agogues who made their way to the throne were
sometimes sprung from the people ; in other
cases they were members of the oligarchies they
overthrew. It was thus that Phalaris rose to
be tyrant of Akragas (Arist. Pol. v. 10, 6) ;
Lygdamis of Naxos belonged to the old nobility,
and Kypselus of Corinth is said to have thus
used the office of noAefxapxos. The despot
was sometimes enabled to retain his position
through popular support, but as a rule the
band of foreign mercenaries (iTriKovpot), for the
support of which the subjects were taxed, was
the accompaniment of rvpavvls (Arist. Pol. iii.
14,7 ; Hdt. i. 61). The rise to the tyranny was
often effected by a coup d'etat, as in the case
of Peisistratus (cf. Hdt. iii. 120 [Polykrates],
V. 71 ; Thuc. i. 126 [Kylon]). The first exercise
of the despot's power was usually the banish-
ment of the more powerful members of the
opposite faction (Hdt. v. 92 [Kyjiselus], vi.
103 [Peisistratus]). The wiser despots ruled
in accordance with the existing laws (Hdt.
i. 59; Thuc. vi. 54, 6 [Peisistratus]). When
radical changes were introduced, these had
more of a social than of a political character,
and were calculated either to raise tlie position
of one class of the population at the expense of
others, as at Sikyon (Hdt. v. 67, 68), or to unite
the jieoples by means of common festivals, such
as the Panathenaea, or to give an impulse to
democracy by substituting the universal and
popular cults (e.g. that of Dionysus at Corinth,
Hdt. V. 67) for the aristocratic and exclusive
worship of the nobles. A further object of the
despots' policy was to strengthen their position
by adding a lustre to their courts. To effect
this they patronised arts and letters, as was done
by Periander, Peisistratus, Polykrates, and
Hiero (Hdt. iii. 39) ; they raised great build-
ings, such as the temple of Olympian Zeus
originated by the Peisistratidae, and the build-
ings of Polykrates at Samos (Hdt. iii. 60), and
sent rich oii'erings to the religiovis centres of
Greece, probably with the object of obtaining
personal distinction in their own states and in
Greece. Tyranny was productive of many
evils; but there was jjrobably no jjositive
oppression of the general mass of the citizens,
and taxation was generally light. The external
policy pursued by the early despots was at
once vigorous and prudent : e.g. Kypselus
founded some of the most important colonies
of Corinth ; Periander, besides founding Poti-
daea and capturing Epidaurus (Hdt. iii. 50 and
53), is also credited with the institution of the
Isthmian games, and certainly raised Corinth to
her greatest height of power. Other instances
are Peisistratus of Athens (Hdt. i. 64, v. 94 ;
Time. iii. 104), and, in a still greater degree,
Polykrates of Samos, and the early despots of
Sicily, Gelo and Hiero in particular.
The tyrannies, however, did not last lon<T
No t jTanny lasted more than a century ; most,
only for a few years (Arist. Pol. v. 12 ; Hdt. i. 60).
u u 2
6G0
ULNA
They marked a period of transition in Greek
]^x)litics; they were rarely transmitted by
inheritance, and fell rapidly through the
degeneracy of the holders. The actual over-
throw of a tyranny was sometimes due to a
rising of the people, sometimes to conspiracies
inspired by private revenge, but was not un-
frequently effected by external force as, e.g., at
Athens (Thuc. i. 18; Hdt. v. 92; Arist. Pol.
V. 10, 30).
The later despotism of the fourth century
differed from the earlier, in that it did not
arise from internal changes in the Greek
communities, but was a product of general
degeneration and of the uifluence of merce-
naries. Many of them were due to the power
of Macedon, which sought, like Persia, to rule
its dependent states through despots; and
most of them were a sign of the decay of free
civic life.
The so-called ' t}T:ants ' of the Greek cities
in Asia Minor in the sixth and fifth centuries
B.C. were merely native princes who governed
the Greek dependencies of Persia, and who
were kept in their position by Persian support.
U.
Ulna {o)\ivri), properly (1) the fore-arm from
the shoulder to the wrist, is also used for (2)
the whole arm, and even for (3) the whole span
of both arms ; and hence, as a measure of
length, it appears to be used with different
significations. In most of the passages in which
it occurs (Verg. Georg. iii. 355 ; Ov. Met. viii.
750 ; Hor. Epod. iv. 8) it is probably one-third
of the opyvia. or arm-stretch of nearly 6 feet,
and therefore about = 2 feet. Pliny, however,
uses it as equivalent to the opyvia. or fathom.
(See fig. 293, under Canon.)
Umbe'Ua, Umbra'culum [aKiaS^iov, <TKia-
SiV/cTj). Umbrellas and fans are shown on
both Assyrian and Egyptian monuments before
the seventh century B.C., and they probably
Fig. 1134.— Umbraculum. (From a vase-painting.)
came to Greece about that period. By the fifth
century, the use of sunshades was so estab-
lished at Athens that they were carried by the
daughters of the /ueVoj/cot after the Athenian
UNGUENTUM
maidens in the procession at the Fanathenaea :
and on the Eastern frieze of the Parthenon
the god Eros holds the parasol of his mother
Aphrodite. Such umbrellas and parasols ap-
pear on vase-paintmgs, from those of the perfect
Attic style down to the latest South Italian
wares. In other paintings ladies sit on chairs
shading themselves with parasols. All these
pictures show a framework of ribs (virgae)
which could be opened and shut (Ar. Eq. 1347 ;
Ov. A. A. ii. 209).
The use of umbrellas was almost confined to
women. Some fops, however, occasionally used
them.
At Rome the practice of using parasols pro-
bably came in, in the third century B.C., with
other Greek fashions. The Roman lady walked
with her parasol carried by an attendant slave
{pedisequus or pedisequa, Mart. xiv. 73, (j).
Parasols were in great demand at the amphi-
theatre, and were sometimes of the colour —
o'reen, &c. — of a favourite faction (Juv. ix. 50 ;
Mart. xiv. 28). [Circus.]
TImbili'cus. [Liber.]
IFmbo. (1) The central boss of a shield
(Verg. Aen. ii. 546). (2) [Dress, Toga.] (3) An
edge-stone of a side-walk or crepido (see fig.
1145 under Via).
TJ'ncia. [As ; Pondera ; Tables, XIII.]
Uncus. Any kind of hook (more commonly
haitiua), especially that by which the bodies of
slain gladiators were dragged to the s/ioZtrt77'«»i
[GladiatoresJ, or those of criminals from the
career to the Scalae Gemoniae. The hook
was fixed under the chin (Prop. iv. 1, 141 ;
Suet. Tib. 54, 01 ; Ov. Ibis, 163).
Ungue'ntum {i\aiov, fivpov, ffixrjfia oi'
(TfjirjyiJia). The term includes all the products of
the perfumer, whether used for health or luxury ;
oils, ointments, pomatums, essences, salves.
The first and simplest of unguents, oil, is men-
tioned repeatedly in Homer, usually in con-
nexion with the bath (II. xxiii. 186, xxiv. 587,
and frequently in Od.) ; and to the latest times
it remained associated with bathing and atldetic
contests [Athletae ; Balneae]. The more elabo-
rate arts of perfumery were early developed in
the East (cf. Esther ii. 12) ; the Greeks acquired
the same tastes ; the Romans learnt these arts
at an early period from the cities of Magna
Graecia.
Various and costly oils were used partly for
the skin and partly for the hair, made of a
great variety of substances. The best known
were those made from myrrh (Prop. i. 2, 3),
malobathruni (Hor. Carm. ii. 7, 8), costum (id.
ih. iii. 1, 44), amomum (Verg. Eel. iii. 89, iv. 25),
balanus, crocus (Prop. iii. 10), roses, &c., be-
sides mineral products. Soap (Sapo), a Gallic
or perhaps rather a German invention, was
used as a pomatum rather than as a detergent,
and imparted to the hair the red or j'ellow
tinge so much in fashion among the Romans
(Plin. xsviii. § 191) ; doubtless identical with
the spuma Batava, caustica spuma, and Mat-
tiacae pilae of Martial (viii. 33, 20, xiv. 26
and 27).
In addition to these oils the ancients also
used various kinds of scented powders, called
by the general name of SiaJrcttr/xaTO. People
sometimes anointed themselves twice or even
three times a day. In 89 B.C. the censors posi-
tively forbade the sale of exotic unguents. The
wealthy Greeks and Romans carried their oils
and essences with them to the bath, in small
boxes of costly materials and beautiful work-
maushii), which were called narthecia (Mart.
UNIVERSITAS
xiv. 78). Another verj- common kind of scent
bottle was the Alabastrum. The traffic which
was carried on in these perfumes in several
towns of Greece and Southern Italy was very
considerable. The persons engaged in manu-
facturing them were called by tlie Greeks
fivpexpoi and fivpoiraiKai, by the Romans un-
guentarii (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, '22H), and uii-
guentariae. For the cosmetics employed in
painting the face, see Fucus ; for the detergents
used Un- washing, see FuUo.
Unive'rsitas. See Appendix, Rom.\n Law.
U'reeus. [Pottery.]
Urna. (1) [Pottery.] (2) [Funus.]
Usuca'pio. See Appendix, Roman Law.
Usufructus, TJsus fru'ctus, Usus. See
Appi^iidix, RoiLVN Law.
Uteri'ni. See Appendix, Roman L.\w,
Cognati.
Uti posside'tis. ' See Aiipendix, Roman
Law, Interdictum.
Iltricula'rius. [Ascaules.j
Vadimo'nium. See Appendix, Roman Law,
Actio ; Praes.
Vagi'na. [Arms and Armour, Gladius.]
Valetudina'rium (yoaoKo^ifiov). An infinnary.
We have no satisfactory evidence of anything
that can be regarded as a public infinnary or
hospital in Italy until the end of the fourth cen-
tury a.d. The valetiidinaria. which Seneca
mentions are infirmaries for slaves in private
houses. [For military valet utUnaria, see
FxercitUS.] The earliest mention of an in-
finnary or hospital for the poor in Italy seems
to be that established by Fabiola (380 a.u.), who
took care of the sick brouglit from the streets
into a building of this kind (St. Jerome, Ep.
iii. 10). Probably such institutions were bor-
rowed by the Romans from the Greeks, whose
lead they followed in everything connected
with medicine [see Medicina, Medicus]. The
state physicians, who treated the poor gra-
tuitously in return for their state salary, had
in many Greek cities their medicines and
surgical appliances provided for them by the
state, and also a room, called laTpdov, which
served as a consulting-room and dispensary:
hospitals properly so called do not appear in
Greece earlier than the fourth century n.c. The
function of hospitals for the poor was, to some
extent, jierfornied by the temples of Asklepius
[Medicus], where the priests no doubt com-
bined a certain amount of medical knowledge
(cf. Liv. xlv. 28) with a great deal of quackery
and superstitious observance (cf. Ar. Pint. 0(35
sqc].), and probably the disuse of tliese temples
in Christian times led to the institution of
hospitals.
Vallum. A term applied either to the whole
or a portion of the fortifications of a Roman
camp. It is derived from vallu.s (a stake), and
properly means the palisade whicli ran along
the outer edge of the top of the agger ; but it
very frequently includes the agger also. The
vallum, agger, and fossa outside tlie vallum,
formed a complete fortification [Agger], and
accordingly the word vallum is almost always
found in connexion with/o.s-sa.
ValU (xapa/ces) or sudcs (Caes. B. G. v.
40, 6) were eitlier sharpened stakes, or young
trees or arms of larger trees with the side
brandies on them. From their similarity to the
antlers of a stag, they were sometimes called
VARA 661
Cervi (Caes. B. G. vii. 72, 4 ; Tibull. iv. 1, 84 ; cf.
Liv. xliv. 11, 4), or cervuli. The Greeks placed
their valli in the agger at considerable intervals ;
the Romans fixed theirs close together, and
made the branches interlace, and sluirpened
their points carefully. The Greek valli were
cut on the spot ; the Romans prepared theirs
beforehand, and each soldier carried three or
four of them when on a march (Polyb. I. c. ;
Verg. Geoi-g. iii. 346, 347 ; Cic. Tusc. ii. 16, 37).
They were made of any strong wood, but oak
was preferred.
In the operations of a siege, when it became
necessary to establish a blockade, defences
similar to those of a camp were drawn round
the town, which was then said to be circum-
vallatam. There was often a double line of
fortifications, both against the town, and against
any force that might attempt to raise the siege.
This kind of cii-cumvallation (d7roTeiX"''/^s or
■KfpiTiixKTiJLOs), was emj)loyed by the Pelopon-
nesians in the siege of Plataeae (Thuc. ii. 78,
111. 20-23). Of the Roman mode of circum-
vallation some of the best examples are that
of Carthage by Scipio, that of Numantia by
Scipio, and that of Alesia by Caesar [B. G. vii.
72). [Castra.]
Valvae. [lanua.]
Vannus {KIkvov). A winnowing fan, i.e. a
broad basket, into wliicli the com mixed \vith
chaff was received after threshing, and was then
thrown up into the wind so as to disperse the
Fig. U.S.'}.— Vannus containing frnit.
chaff and leave the grain (Verg. Georg. iii. 134).
The same process was performed by the wooden
shovel {iTTvov, adrjpr]\oiy6s, Hom. Od. xi. 128).
[Pala.] The XIkvov /jlvcttikSi' (im/stica vainiiis,
Verg. Gcorg. i. 106) was connected witli the
worship of Dionysus, hence called \iKviT-r]%
Fig. 11S6.— The Infant Plonysns In the XUvov. (From a
tcrrucotta in thu Itritish .Museum.)
(see fig. 1136). The A.iKva/ui'(rTiKo were covered
with ivy, and contained serpents as belonging
to the cult of Dionysus.
Vappa. [Vinum.]
Vara (o-raAil, (rxaA.is, (TtoAis, Xen. Cijn. ii.
8). (Ij A forked stake to support a hunting
6G2
VAS
net (Lucan, iv. 439). See fig. 910 under Eete.
(•2) Any kind of trestle (;ciA.A.i/3as) : e.g. a
carpenter's bench. The croas piece is vihia.
-»-'?-
■=^-
I'ig. n.:
tached by c, ioups
Vas (Legal). See Appendix, Roman Law,
Actio ; Praes.
Vas (1) {vasa, generic name for earthen-
ware). [Pottery.] (2) Vasa colligere is a
phrase for the packing up of impedimenta in
a Roman camp. [Castra, ]}. 147.]
Vectiga'lia. A term used either (I.) in a
narrow sense, for dues levied on ager publiciis ;
or (II.) in a wide sense, for all regular and
ordinary sources of Roman revenue, as distinct
from the extraordinary Tributum. Such were :
I. (1) Tithes paid to tlie state by those
who occupied state-domains in Italy or the
provinces [Decumae ; Agrariae Leges]. Rents
of liouses and buildings on ]5ublic lands
(solarium).
(2) Sums paid by those who kept their cattle
on the public pastures [Scriptura].
(3) Products of the public forests; money
raised by sale of timber and of tar (picariae ;
Cic. Brut. 22, 84).
II. (1) Income from jniblic buildings and
works ; markets ; bridges 1 PortoriumJ ; sewers,
water supply [Aquaeductusj, baths [Balneael.
(2) Revenue derived from salt-works [Sal-
inaej.
(3) Revenue derived from mines (mctalln,
fodinae aurariae, fei~rariae, etc.) and from
minerals of every description. This branch of
tlic public income cannot have been veiy pro-
ductive in early times. The mines of Italy
were worked, but this was at some time or
other forbidden by the senate, possibly to dis-
courage local minting. The mines of conquered
countries were, like the saiinae, left to in-
dividuals (Tac. Anu. vi. 19), companies (Cic.
FJiil. ii. 19, 48), or towns, on condition of a
certain rent being paid ; or they were worlced
for the direct account of the state, or farmed
by j)ublica)u. The emperors by degrees got
nearly all mines into their own hands, as
belonging either to the ftucus or to the patri-
moidum Cacsaris, both in imperial and in
senatorial provinces [Aerarium ; Fiscus].
These were then either let to contractors (con-
ductores metalli), or worked directly for the
emperor by lyrocuratores, or else the right of
working was sold to private persons and the
produce was taxed. Revenue was also raised in
like manner from sandpits [arenariae), chalk-
j)its [cretifodinae), marble and ordinary stone
quarries (lajncidinae), grindstone and mill-
stone quarries {cotoriae), and the vermilion
works in Spain [Metallum (2)].
(4) Revenue fi-om letting-out public fisheries.
(.')) Customs duties [Portoriumj.
((■>) Quinquagesima mancipioruni venalium,
a 2 per cent, duty on slaves sold [Quinqua-
gesima].
(7) Gentesimarerum venalium [Centesimal,
a 1 per cent, duty on other articles sold [Aera-
rium].
VECTIGALL\
(8) Vicesima hcreditatium, (9) Vicesima
lihertatis, maiiumissionum. [Vicesima.]
(10) Tribute imposed on foreign countries.
The provincial tribute took difi'erent forms.
It might be (a) decumae of the produce of
land. The persons paying this charge were
called vectigales. Or the charge was [h]
stipendium, a tax of fixed amount. The
persons who paid this were called stipendiarii
[StipendiariiJ. Stipendium was (i) tributum
soU, a land-tax, payable in money or in kind
Ann. iv. 72) ; or (iij trihutum cajntis, which
might be a property-tax on wealthy people,
or a tax on trades, or a poU-tax {iTnKe(pa.\aioi'),
so as to reach people who had no land, or no
cultivated land. But little is known of these
charges. The poll-tax {exactio capitum, Cic.
Fam. iii. 8, 5) amounted in Syria and Cilicia to
1 per cent, of a man's census, and was specially
heavy for the Jews. It was fanned to publicani
in Cicero's time.
To the above items of provincial tribute
must be added a payment in kind : a supply of
com [AnnonaJ or other necessaries (wine, oil,
meat, fodder) [Provincia]. In most i^rovinces
it was annona militarise i.e. it fed the army of
occupation and the officials, and was paid over
on the spot. Africa and Egypt had to meet
the annona civica also, i.e. they had to find
food for Rome, and later for Constantinople.
Africa fed Rome for eight months, Egj'pt for
four. For Britain, see Tac. Agr. 19, 31.
(11) Taxes on professions or trades (Suet.
Cal. 40).
(12) A tax on celibacy [Aes uxorium; Lex
lulia et P. Poppaea; Tac. Ann. iii. 25].
(13) Temporary taxes, (a) A kind of ship-
money, levied on coast towns for defence
against the pirates (Cic. Verr. v. 17, 19, 24).
(b) Octava, a tax of 12i per cent, on the
property of libertini living in Italy, 31 B.C. (Dio
Cass. 1. C, li. 3). ((■) Temporary exactions im-
posed for political purposes at various times.
AVe may add :
(14) Aurum coronarium: booty taken in
war [Spoliaj ; jnofit on coinage [Moneta].
(15) Legacies to emperors (Suet. Ang, 101 ;
Tac. Ann. ii. 48).
Under the Republic the senate was the
highest authority in matters of finance, but the
censors carried out or supervised the details.
The collection of duties, taxes and tributes
was let for the most part to publicani for a
fixed sum and a fixed number of years [Censor;
Publicani!. For imperial finance see Aera-
rium : Fiscus. The chief finance-minister of
the early Empire was described as a rationibus ;
afterwards called 2>^'ocurator a rationibus or
rationalis.
The total income of Rome from all sources
cannot be even approximately discovered for
any period. Plutarch [Pomp. 45) says that
before Pompey's Eastern conquests the vecti-
galia (to TeArj) amounted to 200,000,000 ses-
terces ; and beyond this we cannot well go.
Vectiga'lia templo'rum. Revenues of
temples.
1. G-REEK. — Ancient temples, like modern
churches, often contained large accmnulated
treasures ((cet^7)A.ia). The productive employ-
ment of such treasures dates from a very remote
period, and the temples were the earliest banks
in Greece before the rise of the Tpane^irat
[Argentarii].
Of other revenues the first and most impor-
tant was the rent of land. The same word
Teuevos denotes both the roj'al domain and
J
VECTIGALIA
estates belonguig to a temple (Horn. II. viii. 48, I
Od. viii. 3C3). Sometimes the entire territory
of a city was sacred to a god (//. ii. 500).
Wealthy priests are mentioned who are either
royal or noble : Chrj'ses {II. i. 13) is a king as
well as a priest of Apollo (cf. 11. v. 9). This
state of things existed many centuries later
in Asia Minor and other countries.
Temples were also endowed with tithes of
various kinds, described under Decumae. We
add here some further examples. The Athe-
nians, when they divided lands among klevuchs,
assigned re/xefri to Athena or other deities
(Thuc. iii. .iO, iv. IIG). The well-known in-
stance of the Kin-haean plain on the coast
below Delphi may be here mentioned.
Among the produce of sacred lands are to be
reckoned cattle, timber, fruits such as vines,
figs, or olives, fislieries, and mines. Some
sacred herds of cattle were called d<p€Toi, and
were inviolable; others formed part of the
substantial endowments of temples. Such were
the :!(IOO sacred cattle at Minoa in Sicil}-. In
Attica certain olive-trees {fxopiai), growing upon
private lands, were themselves the property of
the goddess, and the oil from them was given
away at the Panathenaic festival. [Olea.] In
the deme Lakiadae was a grove of sacred fig-
trees. There wei'e also fish-ponds and sea-
fisheries which no one might disturb. The
people of Siphnos granted a tithe of their gold
and silver mines to the Pythian Apollo (Hdt.
iii. .57).
Temple property was let on much the same
terms as other property {fx.i(rdwfj.a, Te/xevtKal
■irp6(roSoi). The Athenian government required
those who purchased animals for sacrifice — the
fiocijvat, iepoTTOioi, &c. — to account for the skins
of the victims. [AepixariKdv ; see also 'lepo-
SovXot.]
The more popular shrines were enriched
by votive offerings [Donaria], and further
derived a large income from sacrifices and pay-
ments by worshippers. This was more particu-
larly the case with oracles (Eur. Io)i, 323 ;
Lucian, Alex. 23).
2. Roman. — The Roman system was based
upon a different idea from that of the Greek
temple-treasuries. Religion at Rome was in
great measure an affair of state, and religious
revenues were under state control. The temples
had property : (1) that which belonged origin-
ally to the deity and his temjile ; (2) lands
and dues subsequently given or assigned.
The temples had a treasury (area), such as
the ai'ca of thePontifices, the Vestals, aud the
Fratres Arvales. The revenues of these trea-
suries arose from
(1) Lands: originally part of the king's
domain. Under the Republic the priestly col-
leges had lands within and without the citj'.
The use of the Lucar, or income from sacred
groves for games under state control, shows
clearly the secular management of the trea-
suries. Gifts of land to temples were dedicated
by the Pontifex Maximus, and had to be con-
firmed by a vote of the peojile. The priests
had nothing to do with managing the land;
sales and leases were under the authority of the
magistrates. The temple land revenues lasted
till Christian times.
(2) Fees on admission to a priesthood (p7"o
introitto sacerdotii) (Suet. Claud. !)).
(3) Fees paid by subordinate ministers of the
temples.
(4) Profits on victims.
(5) Votive offerings made to the temple.
VENATIO
663
The area pontificiim (under the control of
the senate, with an arcarius pontificalis to
manage it) received the proceeds of various
forfeits, fines, lajised inheritances, &c.
The temple buildings were kept in repair by
the state with funds taken from the Aerarium
under the authority of the Censors : but the
current expenses for regular sacrifices were
bonie by the temple-treasuries. The great
priesthoods were posts of honour and were un-
paid ; but the working staff of priests, or per-
manent officials, Curiones, Vestals (Liv. i. 20 ;
Tac. Ann. iv. 10), the haruspices and pullarii,
and the subordinate attendants, calatores, via-
tores, etc., were paid by the state from the
revenue from sacred lands and any other funds
belonging to the temple treasuries. The
Roman temples possessed no sacred slaves,
such as we find in Greece and in some parts
of Italy and Sicily [' lepoSovAoi^.
Velame'ntum, besides the common use as
= rchnnen, means also anything with which
persons, especially suppliants, vcluntur: i.e.
wreaths of olive, rods or olive branches twined
with woollen infulae (iKT-fipioi kKoSoi, Soph.
O. T. 3 ; cf. Hdt. vii. 19 ; iKfTrtpiai \ikt- Aesch.
Siippl. 1921 ; Hdt. V. 51). See Ov. Met. xi. 279 ;
Liv. xxiv. 30 ; Tac. Hist. i. 60.
Velum. (1) A sail. [Navis.] (2) A curtain
or portiire hung over a doorway or window,
made either to draw up (allevare) or aside
{rcducerc) (Suet. Claud. 20 ; Juv. vi. 228, ix.
104 ; Mart. i. 35). (3) The curtain in a Roman
theatre [Theatrum]. (4) The awning in an
amphitheatre. In this sense velarium is once
used (Juv. iv. 122 : cf. Lucr. iv. 73; Ov. A. A.
i. 103).
Vena'tio. (1) (d-r)pa, Kwr^yecria). Hunting is
frequently mentioned in the Homeric poems
(7/. V. 49, xxi. 485, Od. vi. 102, xix. 429-440) ;
both for food (Od. ix. 154) and for sport (II.
ix. 543). The animals hunted are lions (11.
xvii. 132), panthers (xxi. 573), wild boars (xi.
414), deer (xi. 473, Od. x. 159, xix. 227), ibex
(Od. xvii. 295), hares {ib.). As regards the
method and appliances, we notice especially
the absence of nets [Rete]. The huntsmen
(eiraKTiipes) take the hounds forward to track
the boar (cf. Od. xvii. 312), and the hunting-
party follows, armed with spears. The Homeric
hunting weapons are spears (S6pv, tyxos, Od.
X. 161, xix. 437), javelins (aKovres, II. xi. 551 ;
alyavfOLi, Od. ix. 150), bows and arrows (//. xi.
473), clubs (Od. xi. 575).
The later Greek hunting may be best studied
in Xenophon's treatise Cijncijcticus. The
equipment of the hounds (kO(Tij.os Kwiiv) con-
sists of collars (Sepaia), leashes or couples
(t/j.di'Tfs), and broad belts (o-TeA^oj/iai) with
spikes sewn in. They are never allowed to hunt
foxes, because it takes them off their jiroper
game. The dpKuwpos goes out early and sets
the nets (apKves) into which the hunted aninuil
is to be driven : the KvvrjyeTtjs brings on the
hounds, and the hare is either driven into the
nets or run till she falls exhausted, or some-
times is killed by a {)6iraKoi' (\ay(c$6\ov, Theocr.
iv. 49). For hunting deer a larger and stronger
hound ('Ij/5jkt; kvoiv) is used, and the hunter has
javelins ; snares also (irfSoffTpdfiai ) are set. For
wild boars, besides the boar-hounds and nets,
we find mention of boar-spears (Sopu, vcnahii-
linn), which are not thrown as javelins, but
slanted to receive a charge (cf. Verg. iv. 131,
ix. 553 ; Plin. Ep. i. 6). Lions and panthers are
trapped bv pitfalls (witli a decoyi, or poisoned
(cf. Plin. viii. § 99). The Roman method of
bGi
VENATIO
hunting hares, deer, or wild boars was much
the same as that described by Xenophon.
(2) The name venatio was given among the
Romans to an exhibition of wild beasts, which
fought with one another and with men. These
exhibitions were originally confined to the
games of the Circus. Julius Caesar first built
a wooden ampliitheatre for the exhibition of
wild beasts ; the venationes were still held in
the Circus. The persons who fought with the
beasts were either condemned criminals or
captives, or individuals who did so for the sake
of j)ay and were trained for the purpose. [Besti-
arii.J
During the latter days of the Republic and
under the Empire an immense variety of
animals was collected from all parts of the
Roman world, and many thousands were fre-
quently slain at one time. The spectacle was
called especially Indus matiitinus, as coming
before the gladiatorial combat. The first re-
corded occasion of a venatio is in 186 B.C. ; in
these games lions and panthers were exhibited
VENEFICIUM
Caesar also introduced bull- fights with Thessa-
lian horsemen. Other animals mentioned are
snakes (Suet. Aug. 43), rhinoceroses, tigers,
(rarely) bears, hyenas, leopards, zebras, wild
horses, wild boars, ostriches, hippopotami, &c.
At the consecration of the great amphitheatre
Fig. 1189.— Coin of M. Livineius Ecgulus.
of Titus, 5000 wild beasts and 4000 tame
animals were killed (Suet. Tit. 7) ; and 11,000
in the games celebrated by Trajan, after his
victories over the Dacians. Under the em-
perors we read of a kind of venatio in which
the beasts were given up to the ^leople, who
were allowed to rush into the area of tlie cdrcus
Fig. 113H.— Reliefs from the tomb of Scaorus.
(Liv. xxxix. 22). In the Ludi Circenses, 1C8 B.C., '
there were sixty-three African panthers and
forty bears and elephants (Liv. xliv. 18). A
hundred lions were exhibited by Sulla in his
praetorship, which were destroyed by javelin
men sent by King Bocchus for the purpose.
Scaurus (curule aedile 58 B.C.) exhibited a
hippopotamus and five crocodiles. At the
venatio given by Ponipey in his second consul-
ship, 55 B.C., at which Cicero was present
(Cic. Fain. vii. 1), 600 lions and eighteen or
twenty elephants were slaughtered : the latter
fought with Gactulians, who hurled darts
against them, and they attempted to break
through the railings (clathri) by which they
were separated fi-om the spectators. To guard
against this danger Julius Caesar surrounded
the arena of the amphitheatre with trenches
{euripi). Men of straw (pilac) were thrown
into the amphitheatre, to try the temper of the
animal, whether he would sulk or charge, or to
divert his attention.
In the games exhibited by Julius Caesar in
his third consulship, 45 B.C. the venatio lasted
for five days. Camelopards were then for the
first time seen in Italy (Suet. lul. 39). Julius
and carry away what they pleased. On such
occasions large trees were planted in the circus,
and no savage animals were admitted into it.
These spectacles were continued till the 6th
century a.d., but had gradually become less
destructive to human life, since the bestiarii
Fig. IMU.— liesUarius.
had more contrivances afforded for protection
and escape. [Amphitheatnuii.]
Veneficium, the crime of poisoning, is fre-
quently mentioned in Roman history. Women
were most addicted to it ; but it seems not
improbable that this charge was frequently
brought against women without sufficient evi-
dence of tiieir guilt, like that of witchcraft in
Europe, in the Middle Ages. Though many
accusations of this crime may be attributicd to
I
VENTILABRUM
popular panic (see Thuc. ii. -IS), the criiue of
poisoning seems to have been more frequent
in ancient than in modern times. Respecting
the crime of poisoning at Athens, see Appendix,
Gkeek Law, cJJapudKcov YPa(t)7i.
The first instance of its occurrence at Rome
in any xjubhc way was in 3ol B.C., when the
city was visited by a jiestilenco. On the infor-
mation of a slave-girl, the curule aediles sur-
prised about twenty matrons, among whom
were Cornelia and Sergia, in the act of prepar-
ing drugs over a hre ; and being compelled by
the magistrates to drink these in the Forum,
they perished by their own wickedness.
Further informations were laid, and as many
as a hundred and seventy matrons were con-
demned (Liv. viii. 18). We next read of
' poisoning in connexion with the introduction
of the worship of Bacchvis (Liv. xxxix. 8) in 184
i B.C., when '2000 persons were condemned (Liv.
xxxix. 38, 41), [Bacchanalia.] Similar in-
vestigations were held in 180 and 154 B.C. The
speech of Cicero in behalf of Cluentius supplies
us with several particulars on this subject.
Under the Roman emperors it was carried on
to a great extent, and some females who ex-
celled in the art were in great request. One of
the most celebrated of these was Locusta, who
poisoned Claudius at the command of Agrip-
pina, and Britannicus at that of Nero. Locusta
gave instruction in the art (Tac. Ann. xii. (56,
xiii. 15; Suet. Nero, 33; Juv. i. 71).
The first legislative enactment directed
agiiinst poisoning was a law of the dictator
Sulla — Lex Cornelia de sicariis et vencficis —
passed in 82 B.C., which continued in force, with
some alterations, to the latest times. It con-
tained provisions against all who made, bought,
sold, possessed, or gave poison with intent to
murder (Cic. Cluent. 54, 158). The punish-
ment fixed by this law was the dcjJortatio in
insulam and the confiscation of jjroperty, or
■interdictio aquae et ignis [Lex Cornelia]. By
asenatusconsultum all druggists ( jiignicntarii)
who administered x^oisons carelessly were liable
to the penalties of this law. [Pharmacopola.]
The word veneficium was also applied to
potions, incantations, &c. (Cic. Brut. 60, 217) ;
whence we find veneficus and venefica used in
the sense of a sorcerer and sorceress in general.
[Superstitio.]
Ventila'brum (eptvai,, Ar. Pax. 557). A win-
nowing fork, used in threshing legtunina. ; in St.
Matt. iii. 12 (Vulg.) = vannits. [Agriculture.]
Verbe'na. [Sagmina.]
Vere'dus, Vereda'rius. A post-horse. [Cur-
sus publicus.]
Verna. [Servus.]
Ver sacrum {eras lepSv). It was a custom
among the early Italian nations, especially of
the Umbro-Sabellian stock, in times of danger
and distress, to vow to the deity the sacrifice of
everything born in the next spring ; that is,
between the 1st of March and the last day of
April, if the calamity under which they were
labouring should be removed ; it might also be
vowed as a thank-offering (Liv. xxii. 0, 10, xxxiv.
44). This sacrifice in the early times compre-
hended both human beings and domestic
animals. But in later times the children
were allowed to grow up, and in the sjpring of
their twentieth or twenty-first year they were
driven with covered faces across the frontier of
their native country. Several Italian nations
traced their origin to an emigration of this
kind in a ver sacrum : Samnites, Lucanians,
Bruttii, Picentini, Hirpini ; the Umbri and
VE STALES
605
Sabini being regarded as aboriginal. Mars,
the national god of Italy, sends guides for the
homeless warriors, in the case of the Hirpini a
wolf {hirpus), of the Picentini a woodpecker
(piciis), of the Samnites an ox. It is probably
a truer view to recognise in these legends the
ancient animal totems of these tribes than to
suppose that the legend arose from the tribal
name. The Mamertini, or ' sons of Mars ' in
Sicily, traced their origin to a ver sacrum.
In the two historical instances in which the
Romans vowed a ver sacrum — that is, after
the battle of lake Trasimenus and at the close
of the Second Punic War — the vow was confined
to domestic animals (Liv. xxii. 10).
Versu'ra. [Fenus.J
Vertici'llus ((r<^oVSuAos, Plat. Bep. 616 c).
The whorl of a spindle (Plin. xxxvii. 11).
[Fusus ; Turbo.]
Veru, Veru'tum. (1) [Arms and Armour,
Speaks.] (2) A spit, laid upon dogs (varae)
and turned by hand (Verg. Aen. i. 212).
Vesi'ca. A bladder (Ov, Met. xv. 304) ; or
anything made of bladder, as a j)urse, a lantern
(Mart. xiv. 62), a cap (Mart. viii. 33) worn by
women when engaged in household work to
keep their hair from dust.
Vespae, Vespillo'nes. [Funus.]
Vesta'les {Virgines Vestales, Sacerdotes V.).
The virgin jjriestesses of Vesta, who ministered
in her temple and watched the eternal fire.
They belonged to the most ancient class of
Xiriesthoods [Sacerdos] whose duties were
limited to the service of particular deities.
Their existence at Alba Longa is connected
^vith the earliest Roman traditions (Liv. i. 20) ;
and they are known to have survived at Alba
down to the age of the later Empire. The in-
stitution is also found at Lavinium and Tibur,
and was no doubt originally common to all
Latin comnmnities. The original number of
the Vestals was four, two representing the
Ramnes, two the Tities ; to these two were
added by Tarqtiinius Priscusor Servius TuUius,
to rejiresent the third tribe, Luceres.
The germ of the cult of Vesta is to be found
in the great difficulty experienced by x^rimitive
man in obtaining fire, and in the consequent
veneration with which he regarded it. Con-
venience suggested that in one house in every
settlement a fire should be kept xjerpetually
burning, from which the members of the com-
munity could at any time jirocure the flame.
This house was that of the king or chief, whose
unmarried daughters were charged with the
duty of keeping up the fire ; their brothers
also, as 'kindlers' (//a/«i«es), had duties of the
same kind, perhaps more especially sacrificial
[Prytaneum]. From the first, probably, this
duty of the chief's daughters was a religious
one, and the flame was a sacred flame (Ov.
Fast. vi. 291) ; and thus the fire became a
deity, and the duties of the chief's daughters
were transferred to an organised virgin priest-
hood. What had been matter of utility be-
comes symbolic of the life and unity of the
state ; and the purity and antique simijlicity of
the maiden priestesses recalled their hmnble
origin even in the latest ages of Roman history.
(1) QuaUjications. — The maiden who was
to be a Vestal must not be under six or over
ten years of age ; she must be jierfect in all
her limbs, and in full enjoyment of all her
senses; must be 'i:)atrimaet matrima,' /.e. have
both parents living; and these parents must
be, if not patricians, at least free and free-
born, and residing in Italy.
666 VESTALES
(2) Mode of Appointment. — When a vacancy l the 15th the jJ^nus or temple-storehouse of
occun-ed, the Pontifex Maximus named at his I Vesta was cleaned out, and the refuse curefullj'
discretion twenty girls, qualified as above, one ; removed to a particular spot. At the harvest
of whom was publicly fixed on by lot, an , festivals of Consus and Ops Consiva in August
exemption being granted, amongst others, in they were present, and again on the Ides of
favour of those who had a sister already a | September. At the end of the religious year
Vestal, whose father was flanieu, augur, &c. they provided mola salsa for the Lupercalia,
When the c'irl was chosen, the ceremony of the feast of fructification.
captio by the Pontifex Maximus took place.
This was an application of the old legal pro-
To the Vestals was committed the charge
of the sacred relics which fonned the fatalc
cedure of mancipatio per aes et librani. The t pignus imperii, deposited in the inmost ady
Pontifex Maximus took the girl by the hand , turn, which no one was permitted to enter save
and addressed her in a solemn fonnula, ending j the virgins and the chief pontifex. Some sup-
with the word ' capio.' By this ceremony the ' posed that these included the Palladium, others
girl passed out of the potestas of her father [ the Samothracian gods can-ied by Dardauus to
into that of the Pontifex Maximus, and entered I Troy and transported to Italy by Aeneas; but
a new and sacred familia, the centre of which all agi-eed in believing that something of awful
was the hearth of Vesta, the members the
Vestals with the flamines and flaminicae,
and the paterfamilias the Pontifex Maximus.
»She suffered by the process no capitis dc-
mimctio, but on the contrary was henceforth
qualified to hold property independently and to
make a will.
After this ceremony the new Vestal was con-
ducted to the Atrium Vestae ; her hair was cut
sanctity was here preserved in a small earthen
jar closely sealed, while another exactly similar
in form, but empty, stood by its side (Ov. Fast.
vi. 365 ; Lucan, ix. 994).
A Vestal who violated the vow of chastity
was to be stoned to death, according to the law
of Numa. By that of Tarquinius Priscus,
when condemned by the college of pontifices,
she was stripped of her vittae and other badges
off and hung on a branch of the sacred lotus f)f office, was scourged, attired like a corpse,
tree, but was suffered to grow again. She was placed in a close litter and borne through the
then clothed in the wliite garments of a Vestal, , forum with all the ceremonies of a real funeral,
and was sworn to abide in her office and to ! to a rising ground called the Campus Scelera-
maintain her virginity for not less than thirty tiis, within the city walls, close to the Colline
years. If she chose tl»en to resign her office, gate. There a small vault underground had
she became a i^rivate individual, and was en- been previously prepared, containing a couch,
titled to marry. a lamp, and a table with a little food. The
(3) Duties. — The Vestal is said to have spent Pontifex Maximus, after secret prayer, opened
the first ten years of her service in learning these, [the litter, led forth the culprit, and, placing
the next ten years in practising them, and the her on the steps of the ladder which gave
third decade in teacliing them to novices. The access to the subterranean cell, delivered her
chief duty, however, was the simple one of : over to the common executioner and his assist-
tending the sacred fire, the extinction of which | ants, who led her down, drew up the ladder,
was the most fearful of all prodigia. If such i filled the i^it with earth, and left her to perish,
extinction was the fault of the Vestal on duty, ' The paramour was publicly scourged to death
she was stripped and scourged in the dark in the forum (Plut. A'«w!rt, 10; Liv. iv. 44, xxii.
by the Pontifex Maximus; he rekindled the ! 57; Suet. Dom.H).
flame by the friction of two pieces of wood] (4) Privileges. — The Vestals were maintained
from a feiix arbor (Liv. xxviii. 11). Their at the public cost and from sums of money and
other daily duties, so far as we know them, land bequeathed from time to time to the cor-
were such as the daughters of a primitive poration (Suet. Aug. 31, Tib. 7C). From the
household might have performed. They had moment of their consecration they were re-
to bring fresh water on their heads from a leased from all parental potestas. They had a
sacred spring, e.g. that of Egeria ; and no right to make a will, and to give evidence in a
water was ever supplied to them in pipes. A court of justice without taking an oath. Each
marble tank in the peristyle of the house Vestal was preceded by a lictor, like tlie Flamen
served as a receptacle for the water which Dialis, when she went abroad ; consuls and
they brought ; when used for sacrificial pur- praetors made way for her, and lowered their
poses, this was mixed with iiiurics, i.e. salt fasces ; even the tribunes of the plebs respected
pounded in a mortar, thrown into an earthen , the holy character of the Vestals (Suet. Tib. 2).
jar, and baked in an oven. They also daily Augustus granted to them the /((S <rt(/?« /(7«'ro-
sprinkled the temple with holy water, and rum, and assigned them a conspicuous place
adorned it with laurel, which was renewed in the theatre (Suet. Aug. 44; Tac. Ann. iv.
once a year. The same homely character of l(i), a privilege whicli they had enjoyed before
their service is seen in the antique simplicity at the gladiatorial shows (Cic. Muren. 35, 73).
of the utensils they used ; wliich wei'e all of Great weight was attached to their interces-
the most ordinary ware, made of baked clay, sion on belialf of those in danger and difficidty
and v.itliout ornament (Ov. Fast. vi. 810). " I (Suet. lul. 1, Vitell. 16 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 69), and
The Vestals also had certain public duties in : if they chanced to meet a crmiinal as he was
connexion with fixed festivals of the calendar, . led to punishment they had a right to demand
all belonging to the oldest class of Italian his release. Wills, even those of the emperors,
rustic rites. The Vestals began the year with were committed to their charge (Suet. lul. 83;
the renewal of the sacred fire on the 1st of Tac. Ann. i. 8), for when in such keeping they
March. The Fordicidia and Parilia followed were considered inviolable ; and very solemn
in April, and the women's festival of the treaties were placed in their hands. Their
Bona Dea on May 1. From May 7 to 14 they persons were inviolable iPlut. Xuma. 10) ; and
made their sacrificial cake {inula salsa) from as one of the privileges of the ancient royal
the first ripe ears of com, by pounding it. On household, they were buried within the
May 15 they were present at the rite of the pomerium.
Argei. On June 9 was the Vestalia, and on . The Vestals were attired entirely in white.
VESTIBULUM
Originally, perhaps, their dress was the ^0,170.
But the portrait statues of Vestals lately dis-
covered, dating from the second century a.d.
show tliat they wore a stola or long gown, con-
fined by a girdle at the waist, and usually sleeve-
less ; and over this a pallium. On tlieir head
was an infula, or diadeni-liko band, from wliich,
VIA
CG7
Fig. 1141.— Statue of Virgo Vestalis Maxima from the
Atrium Vestae. (Jordan.)
on each side, depended vittae ; and when sacri-
ficing they wore also the siiffihidum, a white
woollen hood with a purple border, folded over
the head and fastened below with a brooch
{fibula). (See fig. 1141.)
Of the organisation and interior life of the
Vestals, we know very little. They seem to
have risen gradually in dignity by seniority
{gradiis sacerdotii) ; and the senior, under the
title of Virgo Vestalis Maxima, was a kind of
Mother Superior. The Vestalis Maxima had
also the title of antistes (Liv. i. 20, 3). All
were equally under the supervision and direc-
tion of the Pontifex Maximus (cf. Liv. iv. 44).
All resided together in a house adjoining the
Regia and the round temple of Vesta, at the
south-eastern corner of the Forum Romaniun,
immediately under the Palatine Hill.
The ample size of this house seems to show
that after the first century a.d. the Vestals were
no longer content with their former simplicity
of life ; it may have been necessary to their
reputation and dignity that they sliould live in
comfort, if not in splendour. It was partly
rebuilt after the great fire of 191 a.d., and con-
tinued to be occupied by the Vestals for two
centuries after that date, in spite of the public
recognition of Ch-istianity. In the latter half
of the fourth century some Vestals seem to
have become Clu'istians. After the entry of
Theodosius (394 a.d.) into Rome, tlie Vestals
were dispersed and their order abolished.
Vesti'bulum. [Domus; lanua.]
Vexilla'rii. [Exercitus.]
Vexi'llum. [Signa militaria.]
Via. In legal Latin the word via signifies
(1) a rural servitude ; (2) a regularly made
street or road. In the first sense it is dis-
tinguishable from the servitudes of iter and
actus. Iter is the right of walking or passing
along a road ; actus is the right of walking or
passing and driving cattle or light vehicles
along a road. Via includes both iter and actus,
and is the right of traffic of any description
along a via properlj' so called, i.e. a regularly
made street or road [see Appendix, Roman Law,
Servitus]. By the laws of the Twelve Tables
the minimum width of a via was fixed at 8 feet.
Three kinds of viae are distinguished :
(1) Viae puhlicae, consulares, j^i'aetcyriae,
or viilitares : public high or main roads, con-
structed by the censors whose names they
bore, and maintained at the public expense,
and with their soil vested in the state. Such
roads led either to the sea, or to a to\\'n, or to
a river, or to another public road. They were
repaired by contractors (redeinptores), at the
public expense ; a fixed contribution bemg also
levied from the neighbouring landovniers.
(2 Viae ^;riv«<ae, rusticae, or agrariae:
private or country roads, originally constructed
by private persons, in whom tlieir soil was vested.
(3) Viae vicinalcs : village, district, or cross-
roads, leading through or towards a vicus or
village. They were considered iiublic or pri-
vate, according to the fact of their original
(■(instruction out of public or private funds or
materials. They were repaired by the viagis-
tri pagorum or magistrates of the 2^(19^8 or
canton. They could require the neighbouring
landowners either to furnish labour or to keep
in repair, at their own expense, a certain length
of road passing through tlieir respective pro-
perties.
I. History.
The public road system of the Romans was
military in its aims and spirit. ' With the
exception of some outlying portions . . . the
whole empire was penetrated by these iters. . . .
They reach the Wall in Britain ; run along the
Rhine, the Danube, and the Euplu'ates ; and
cover, as with a network, the interior provinces
of the empire ' (Guest, Origincs Celticae, ii.
102).
In the time of Augustus, a map or chart of
the empire, engraved 011 marble, was exhibited
Fig. 1142.— Part of a Eoman road at lilackstoue Edge in
Lancashire.
for public reference in the Porticus of Polla, in
the Campus Martins at Rome.
Probably upon this was founded the map of
the empuo known as the Peutinger Table,
supposed to be based on an original constructed
in the fourth century A.D. It is now in the
Imperial Library at Vienna. In this map all
the territories and seas depicted are drawn out
into a continuous narrow strip, almost witliout
regard to their true geograpliical conformation
and relative position. It runs east and west,
and its existing remains comprise all the known
world between the east coast of Britain and the
668 "VTA
limits of Alexander's Indian conquests. The
Table shows the course of the public roads of
the empire, and gives the distances in miles
from station to station.
The construction and care of the public roads
was in early times part of the function of the
censors. In Eome and the immediate neigh-
bourhood, the roads were under the control of
certain official bodies. In Italy the censorial
responsibility passed to the commanders of the
Roman armies, and, later, to special commis-
sioners (curatores). In the provinces, the
consul or praetor and his legates received
authority to deal directly with the contractors
(Cic. Font. 4, §§ 7, 8).
The care of the streets and roads withm the
(1) Via terrena, a plain road of levelled
earth.
(2) Via glareata, glarea strata, an earthen
road with a gravelled surface (Liv. xli. 27).
(3) Via viunita, lapide qiiadrato strata,
silice strata, a regular metalled road, paved
with rectangular blocks of the stone of the
country, or with polygonal blocks of lava.
The first paved road was the Appian, 312 B.C.
Earlier roads were probably levelled earthen
tracks, or like modem roads, mended with
road-metal. Such were the Via Gabina (Liv.
ii. 11, about 500 B.C.); the Via Latina (ii. 39,
about 490 B.C.) ; the Via Nomentana or Ficu-
lensis (iii. 52, 449 B.C.), &c.
Via strata and via munita were identical in
Roman territory was committed in the earliest ; construction, except as regards the top layer,
times to the censors. Roads named from the
censors who buQt them are the Appian (Liv.
ix. 29), the Flaminian (Liv. Epit. xx.), the
Aemilian, &c. Q. Fulvius Flaccus and A.
Postumius Albinus (censors 174 B.C.) made
contracts for paving the streets inside Rome
with lava, and for laying down the roads out-
side the city with gravel. Side-walks were
also provided (Liv. xii. 27).
The official bodies which first succeeded the
censors in the care of the streets and roads
were two in number, viz. (1) the Quatuorviri
viis in urhc piirgandis or viarum curanda-
riim, with jurisdiction inside the walls of Rome ;
(2) the Duoviri viis extra urbem 2)arga)idis,
with jurisdiction outside the walls. Their au-
thority extended over all roads between the
city wall and the first milestone {primus lapis)
beyond
or surface. This consisted, in the former case,
of marble or mosaic, and, in the latter, of blocks
of stone or lava.
The general construction of a via viunita
is shown in the following woodcut.
Fig. 1113.— Via munita.
A. Dorsum or agger viae {agger puhlicus
= viapiibUca; Aurelius Agger = ViaAurelia):
the elliptical surface or ' crown ' of the road
Augustus put the roads near Ronie under made of polygonal blocks of silex (basaltic
commissioners called Vigintiviri, including
the Quataorviri, and accepted as censor the
post of superintendent (inii;/istiT}, representing
thus in himself the paramount authority which
belonged originally to the censors. He ap-
pointed men of praetorian rank to be 65o7roioi
or road-makers, assigning to each of them two
lictors ; and made the office of curator of each
of the great public roads a perpetual magistracy,
appointing to it men of senatorial or equestrian
rank.
Hitherto men of influence and liberality had ,
been appointed from time to time as curatores i
or temporary commissioners to superintend
the work of repair. Thus Julius Caesar be-
came curator (67 B.C.) of the Via Appia, and
spent his own money liberally upon it (Plut.
Gaes. 5). The expenses of road-making and
repairing were met out of various funds, pubUc
and private, estates, taxes and rates levied for
the purpose.
It was the duty of each curator, under the
system established by Augustus, to issue con-
tracts for the maintenance and repair of his
road, and to see them properly caiTied out.
The Itinerary of Antoninus, published under
one of the Antonine emperors, remains as
standing evidence of the minute care which
was bestowed on the service of the public roads
under the Empire.
In Rome itself each householder was legally
responsible for the repair of that portion of
the street which passed his own house.
II. Matekials and Methods of
Construction.
Viae are also distinguished according to the
materials and methods employed. Thus we
have —
lava) or rectangular blocks of saxum quadra-
tum (travertine, peperino, or other stone of the
country). The lower surfaces of the separate
stones, here shown as flat, were sometimes cut
to a point or edge ui order to grasp the next
layer (B) more firmly.
B. Nucleus; kernel or bedding of fine cement
made of broken potsherds and lime.
C. Eudus; broken stones and lime.
Fig. 1144.— Street in Pompeii. (Mazois.)
D. Statumen; stones of a size to fill the
hand.
E. Native earth, levelled and, if necessary,
rammed tight.
VIA
P. Crepiclo, margo or semita: raised foot-
way, or sidewalk, on each side of the via. It
WLis strengthened by umhones or edge-stones
(U), and goiiiphl or kerb-stones of greater size
and height, which were placed at intervals in
tlie line of umbones.
Where the foundation was of rock, the statu-
men and rudus were dispensed with, and the
nucleus and dorsutn sufficed. This is the case
VICESIMA
G69
H
'W
Fig. 1145.— Umbones and gomphi. (Hicb.)
with an existing i^ortion of the Via Apx^ia near
Albano.
Caius Gracchus was the first to provide the
public roads systematically with milestones
(miliaria) (Pint. G. Gracchus, 7), though
milestones existed on certain roads at a much
earlier period [Mensura, III. p. 414]. The
distances recorded on the milestones of each
road were measured from the gate by which
that road issued from Rome. In 28 B.C.
Augustus erected in the Forum, at the foot
of the Capitol, the Miliarium Aureum or
Golden MQestone (Tac. Hist. i. 27 ; Suet. Otho,
0). It was, properly speaking, not a mile-
stone, but an Imperial Itinerary or Table of
Distances.
Travelling on the public roads was facili-
tated by the establisliment of (1) mutationes
iaWayai) or x^osting-houses, and (2) viausioiies
[KaTaKiKXiis), stations or resting places, where
the journey could be conveniently broken.
For an account of the postal or despatch system
created by Augustus, and developed by his
successors, see Cursus publicus.
The following illustration of a part of the
Via Stabiana at Pompeii shows some of the
stepping-stones which are to be found in nearly
every street in the town, whatever its breadth.
The narrower streets are practically blocked by
Fig. 1146.— Via Stabiana at Pompeii, with steppiiih oLun
(From a photograph.)
single large stones in their centres ; the broader
streets are crossed by rows of from two to
five stones. They measure, commonly, about
3 feet by 18 inches, and have their longer
axis liarallel to the footway on either side of
the street. The height of the footway ranges
from 12 to 18 inches above the carriage-way, and
the particular height is, in most cases, that
of the stepping-stones also. Many streets are
marked with wheel-ruts, some of tliem deeply
cut. They are found both in the interstices
between the stepping-stones and elsewhere.
Until the reign of Septimius Sevenis (19:J-
211 A.D.) riding and driving, both in Rome and
in the provincial towns, were closely restricted,
and at times forbidden, by law. Thus tlic
street traffic of the ordinary Roman proviiK-ial
town seems to have resembled that of Tangier
or Tetuan to-day. Heavy burdens were carried
on the backs of horses, mules, or cattle. Walk-
ing was the rule, riding on horseback or in a
litter was the exception, driving almost un-
known. In the case of Pompeii carriages and
horses were, beyond a doubt, confined to certain
streets. An e.xtant inscrijjtion shows that the
station of the cisiarii was not even witliin the
town walls. [See Cisium.] Other streets were
always resented for foot-passengers, and i)os-
sibly for litters.
The deep ruts already mentioned were the
natural result of confining the traffic to a few
streets.
The reason for the erection of very large
stepping-stones was, probably, to provide for
the convenience of foot-passengers crossing the
street when the roadway was flooded by hea^-y
rain. It has not been fully explained how
carriages were got past them.
Via'ticum {e<p6^iov) is, properly speaking,
everything necessarj' for a person setting out
on a journey, and thus comi^rehends money,
provisions, dresses, vessels, &c. (Pint, lipid, v.
1, 9; Plin. Ep. vii. 12; Cic. Sen. 18, m).
Wlien a Roman magistrate went to his f)rovince,
or an envoy on any mission from the senate,
the state provided him with all that was neces-
sary for his journey. But as the state preferred
paymg a sum down to having any part in the
actual business, it engaged contractors {rc-
demptores), who provided the magistrates with
the viaticum, the principal parts of which
app)ear to have been beasts of burden and tents
. (Liv. xli. 1). Augustus fixed a sum in jiro-
portion to their rank to be given to magistrates
on setting out for their provinces (Cic. Fam.
xii. 3 ; Suet. A2<g. 36). The jiower of demand-
ing these supplies was wan-anted by the insignia
of the magistrates. Envoys were accredited
by a ring [Legatus].
Via'tor was a servant who attended upon cer-
tain Roman magistrates, as the lictor attended
upon others, being chiefly employed either to
call upon senators to attend the meeting of
the senate, or to summon the people to the
comitia, (tc. (Cic. Scu. 16, 56; Liv. ii. 56,
iii. 56; Tribunus). Those magistrates
who had lictors used the lictors as their
personal attendants [Lictorj, but viatores
to summon the senate and for other
official messages (Liv. vi. 15, viii. 18;
Cic. Sen. 16, 56, Clueut. 27, 74).
Viatores were mostly freedmen or of
low birth ; but those of the quaestores
'^ aerarii were of equestrian rank. There
were probably three decuriae of viatores
"■ for the superior magistrates, and one
decuria for tribunes. Viatores were
employed also as attendants by Augurs, Sep-
temviri, Epulones, and Sodales Augustales.
Vice'sima. A tax of 5 per cent. (1) Vice-
siiyia libertatis, vianuniissio)iu>7i. Wlien a
slave was manumitted, the state claimed 5 per
cent, on his value, by a law passed in 357 n.c.
(Liv. vii. 16 ; Cic. Att. ii. 16, 2). The tax, like
others, was farmed to pnhlicani; but under
the Empire was managed by procuratorcs.
The slave paid it ; if the master chose to pay,
the slave was said to enjoy gratuita libertas
(Suet. Yesp. 16).
670
VICTIMAEIUS
(2) Vicesima hereditatium et legatonim,
legacy-duty. This differs from all other vecti-
galici by touching Roman citizens only. Every
Roman citizen had to pay to the aerarium
onilitare [Aerarium] 5 per cent, on any in-
heritance or legacy left him. None were exempt
except the nearest relatives of the deceased
{sui heredes) and persons whose legacy or
inheritance did not exceed a certain sum. It
is said to have been introduced by Augustus,
in 6 A.D. ; but it is probably older [Lex Vo-
conia]. The tax was farmed out to j^i'blicain,
and afterwards managed by ijrocuratores Au-
gusti vicesimae hereditatiuiii.
Victima'rius. [Sacrificium.]
Vicus (akin to oJkos). A term used in dif-
ferent applications.
(1) In the earliest times the various Italian
nations appear to have lived, not in towns, but
in cantons (i^agi), consisting of an indefinite
number of vici or homesteads, with one common
place of shelter (arx or castellurn) in time of
war, sometimes itself called pagus. The term
pagiis fell out of use, but vicus continued to
denote a hamlet or similar group of buildings,
attached to a town.
(2) in towns the word vicus means a ' street '
or ' quarter.' Strictly speaking, it seems to have
denoted a block of buildings bounded by streets
(plateae) and alleys (angiportus).
(3) Servius Tullius is said to have divided the
city of Rome into four tribes, each subdivided
into vici, while the country tribes were divided
into pngi; and when Augustus in 8 B.C. re-
divided the city into fourteen regions, each
region was still subdivided into vici (Suet. Aug.
30). The vici in the different regiones varied
in number : the total under Augustus was '265
(Plin. iii. 66). The vici were administered by
magistri vicorum, elected, four for each vicus,
mostly libertini.
Besides the oversight of the drains and foun-
tains, and a general police supervision under
the aediles, the chief duty of the magistri
vicorum consisted in providing for the worsliip
of the Lares compitales, at the sacella usually
erected at the cros^^ways.
Vi'dulus. A trunk or basket covered with
leather (Plaut. Had. iv. 3, 54, 4,88, Men.v. 7, 49).
Vi'giles. [Exercitus, III. p. '293, b.]
Vigi'liae. [Castra, p. 147.]
Viginti'viri from the time of Augustus, or
Vigintise'xviri under the Republic. A name
given to a group of minor magistrates at
Rome. They were: (1) tresviri capitales; (2)
tresviri auro argento acre fiando feriundo
(A. A. A. P. P.), sometimes called tresviri mone-
tales; (3) quattuorviri viis i)i urbc purgandis;
(4) duoviri viis extra urbem purgandis; (5)
decemviri litibus iudicandis ; (6) quattuor
praefecti Capuam Cnmas. The number was re-
duced to twenty by Augustus. They were pro-
bably all elected at one time by the tribes ; under
the Empire they were chosen by the senate. It
was necessary that candidates should possess
the census senatorius and the latus cJavus.
Tlie vigintivirate lasted till the third century.
Villa. A farm- or country-house. The Roman
writers mention two kinds of viUa : (1) villa
rustica or farm-house, and (2) villa urbana
or pseudo- urbana., a residence in the country
or in the suburbs of a town.
(1) ViUa rustica. [Agriculture.]
(2) Villa urbana or pscudu-urbana was so
called because its interior arrangements corre-
sponded for the most part to those of a town-
house. [Domus.]
VILICUS
A striking difference in the general aspect of
a country-house from that of a town-liouse lay
in the fact that the blank walls of tlie latter
were replaced in the villa by long colonnades,
broken by towers, apses, and the like.
Our chief sources of information on this sub-
ject are two letters of Plinj% in one of whicli
(ii. 17) he describes his Laurentiue villa, in the
other (v. 6) his Tuscan.
The Tuscan villa was approached by an avenue
of plane-trees leading to a colonnade, in front
of which was a xtjstus divided into flower-beds
by borders of box. The xystus formed a terrace,
from which a grassy slope, ornamented with
box-trees cut into the figures of animals, de-
scended to the level. Next to the colonnade
was a small atrium. Next to the atrium in the
Laurentine villa was a semicircular peristyle.
The intervals between the columns of tliis
peristyle were closed with talc windows (sjjecu-
laria ; see Domus). The open space in the centre
of the peristyle seems to have been covered
with moss and ornamented with a fountain.
Opposite to the middle of this peristyle was a
cavaedium, and beyond it a triclinium, stand-
ing out from the other buUdings, with windows
in the front and sides, which thus commanded
a view of the grounds and of the surrounding
country.
There is mention of several chambers, a
library, and servants' rooms ; while the other
wing is occupied with dining-rooms, baths, and
two towers, with various other rooms. A colon-
nade (cryjytoporticus) ran round the garden.
In the villa at Pompeii the arrangement is
somewhat different, and corresponds in its main
features with the rules laid down by Vitruvius
(vi. 9). The entrance is in the Street of the
Tombs. The portico leads into a large square
peristyle paved with opus signimim [Paries],
and having- an impluvimn in the centre. Round
this are various bedrooms and other small
chambers, and a set of bath-rooms. Beyond it
is an open hall or tablinum. Next is a long
gallery, and bej^ond it a large oecus. This
room looks out upon a xystus or garden, sur-
rounded on aU sides by a colonnade of square
pillars, the top of which forms a terrace. In
the farthest side of this court is a gate leading
out to the open comitry.
The other rooms were so arranged as to take
advantage of the different seasons and of the
surrounding scenery (cf. Hor. ii'7;. i. 10, 23,
Carm. iii. '29, 6).
Attached to it were a garden, ambulatio,
(Pompeii.)
gestatio, hippodromus, sphaeristerimn, and all
necessary arrangements for enjoying different
kinds of exercise. [Hortus ; Gymnasium.]
Vi'licus {iirirpoTTos). A slave who had the
superintendence of tlie villa rustica, and of all
1
VINALIA
the business of the fai-m, except tlie cattle,
whicli were vnidfi- the care of the maxjister
^(■coris. [Agriculture.]
Vina'lia. There were two festivals of this
name celebrated by the Romans : the Vinalia
urbana or pi'iora, and the Vinalia riistica or
altera. The Vinalia urbana were celebrated on
the 23rd of April. This festival answered to tlie
Greek iriOoiyia. Before the new wine was
tasted, a libation was offered to Jupiter, which
was called calpar.
The rustic Vinalia, which fell on the 19th of
August, was the day on which the vintage was
opened. On this occasion the Flanien Dialis
offered lambs to Jupiter, and during the sacri-
fice broke with his own hands a bunch of grapes
from a vine, by which act he opened the vintage
(vindcmiam aiiS2)irari). This day was sacred
to Venus also (Ov. Fast. iv. 877).
Vindex. Vindica'tio. See Appendix, Roman
Law, Actio.
Vi'nea [cTToiSioi') differed from Testudo in
not being so large and in having the sides opeu.
VINUM
671
Fig. 1148.— Vinea.
Vineae were used behind engines of assault to
protect the men working the eftgines. [See
Pluteus (2).]
Vinum {olvos). The use of wine appears to
have come to the GreelfS from a Semitic source,
and the word is believed to be of Semitic origin.
Both in Greece and in Italy wine was the only
drink (besides water) in common use, and even
slaves wei"e freely supplied with it in historic
times. But it is plain that wine, if known at
all, was both rare and costly in the earlier ages
of Italian and Roman historj'. Romulus is
said to have used milk only in his offerings to
the gods (Plin. /. c), and Nunia to have pro-
hibited the sprinkling of wine upon the funeral
pyre. To stimulate the culture of the vine,
Numa is also said to have ordained that no
libation should be offered of wine whicli had
flowed from an unpruned stock. Pliny says that
wine was racked off into amphorae and stored
up in regular cellars as early as the era of the
Gracchi. But even then the produce of different
localities was not distinguished, and the jar
was marked with the name of the consul alone.
For many years after this foreign wines were con-
sidered far superior to native growths ; and so
precious were the Greek vintages esteemed in
the times of Marius and Sulla, that Greek wine
was only handed round once at a banquet. Four
different kinds of wine are said to have been
presented for the first time at the feast given
by Julius Caesar in his third consulship (4G B.C.) ;
Falernian, Chian, Lesbian, and Mamcrtine.
During the reign of Augustus and his imme-
diate successors the study of wines was greatly
developed, and their production and preserva-
tion brought to perfection.
The pi'ocess followed in wine-making was
essentially the same among Greeks and
Romans. After the grapes had been gathered,
they were first trodden with the feet, and after-
wards submitted to the action of the press.
[Torcular.]
The sweet unfermented juice of the grape
was termed y\evKos by the Greeks and mustuin
(' new ' or ' fresli '} by the Romans. That which
flowed from the clusters by their own weight,
without pressure, was known as ■Kpdxvim or
protrojnun. That which was obtained next,
before the grapes had been fully trodden, was
Fig. 1149.— Treading the grapes. (From a relief.)
mnstum lixivum. The result of a third press-
ing was called mustuni tortiviim or circumcis-
iciiim, {circumcidaneum), which was set apart
and used for inferior purposes.
A portion of the must was used at once,
being drunk fresh after it had been clarified
with vinegar. This was sometimes preserved
in the sweet state. A considerable quantity of
must from the best and oldest vines was inspis-
sated by boiling, known in Greek as 'e\pi]/j.a or
y\v^LS. In Latin it was called caroenuni, when
reduced to two-thirds ; when one-half had eva-
' porated, defrutum, when two-thirds, sapa.
I The iirocess wvxs carried on in large caldrons
{vasa defriitaria), over a slow fire, the scum
being removed with leaves (Verg. Georg. i. 296,
iv. 2t59j, and the liquid constantly stirred to
prevent burning. These grape-jellies were
used for giving body to poor wines and making
them keep, and entered as ingi-edients into
many drink.s, such as the hurranicapiotio, which
was formed by mixing sapa with milk (of. Ov.
Fast. iv. 782).
The rest of the mustum was conveyed from
the lacus to the cdlu viiian'a (olvodriKrj, indeoiv),
an apartment on the ground-floor or a little
below the surface. Here were the dolia (irieoi),
otherwise called srriar [Pottery, Dolium],
long bell-mouthed vessels of earthenware lined
witli a coating of jiitcli {iria-awdfUTa, picata),
and carefully purified and fumigated. They
were usually sunk {drprcssa, dcfos.m, dernersa)
one-lialf or two-thirds in the gi-ound. In these
dolia the process of fermentation took place,
which lasted for about nine days ; and as soon
as it had subsided and the mustum had become
vinuui, the dolia were closely covered, the
mouths and the lids {oprrcula doliorum) having
b(!en previously rubbed over with a compound
of defrutnra, saffron, old pitdi, mastic, and fir-
cones. The o])crcula were taken off occa-
sionally, in order to cool and give air to the
contents, and to remove any impurities.
The commoner sorts of wine were drunk
direct from the dolium, and hence draught wine
was called vinum doUare or vinum de cupa
(Hor. Epod. ii. 47; Cic. Fis. 27, 07); the
finer kinds were drawn off (diffu)idere, /jLtr-
ayyi(eiv) the next spring into afiqyJiorae,
(-.72
VINUM
cadi or lagoenae. Amphorae were made of
earthenware, occasionally of glass; they were
stoppered tight by a plug of wood or cork
(cortex, suber), coated with pitch, clay, or
gypsum (Hor. Carm. iii. 8, 10). On the outside
the title of the wine was painted, and the names
of the consuls then in office. The amphorae
were then stored up in repositories [ajiothecae,
liorrea, tabulata) distinct from the cella vina-
ria, and usually placed in the upper story of
the house (Hor. Carm. iii. 21, 7, iii. 28, 7).
Wines prepared in this manner must have
contained a great quantity of sediment, and it
became necessary to separate this before it was
drunk. This was sometimes effected by fining
with yolk or white of eggs (Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 56),
but more commonly by straining tlirough small
colanders of silver or bronze. [Colum.] Occa-
sionally the wine was filtered through a piece
of linen cloth (ffaKKOs, saccus) (Mart. viii. 45).
The double purpose of cooling and diluting
was accomplished by placing ice or snow in the
filter, which thus became a colum nivarium
(Mart. xiv. 103) or sacciis nivarius (xiv. 104).
See fig. 361, under Colum.
The wine procured from the mustum torti-
vum must have been thin and poor, but a yet
inferior beverage was made by soaking and
pressing the husks and stalks after they liad
been fully pressed. This was given to labourers
in winter instead of wine, and was called Od^va
or SevTepios, lor a or vinum operariuin.
Another drink of the same character was fac-
catum, made from wine-lees, and vinum jirar-
Uganeuni, apparently made from half-ripe fruit.
Several kinds of sweet wine were manufac-
tured by checking the fermentation, or by par-
tially drying the grapes, or converting them com-
pletely into raisins. Tlie first class of these
was produced by shortening the period of fer-
mentation. For the vinum dulce the grapes
Fig. 1150.— SUenus on a wine-skin, IMus. Borbon.)
were dried in the sun for three days after they
were gathered, and trodden on the fourth.
Passuyn or raism-wine was made from grapes
dried in the sun until they had lost half their
weight. The stalks and stones were removed,
the raisins were steeped in must or wine, and
then trodden or gently pressed. A second
quality of i^assum (secundarium) was made by
adding an equal quantity of water to the pulp,
and pressing again. The passum of Crete was
most prized (Mart, xiii 106; Juv. xiv. 270),
and next in rank were those of Cilicia, Africa,
and Italy.
The Greeks recognised three colours in
wines: red {fj.e\as), white (\evK6s), and brown
{Kipp6s).
When wine had to be transported from one
place to another, it was put into bags made of
goat-skin (dcr/coi, litres), well pitched over so as
to make the seams perfectly tight. Larger
affKoi were made out of a number of hides
sewn together. [Pottery, Amphora.]
The ancients had various devices for prevent-
ing or con-ecting acidity, heightening the
flavour, and increasing the durability of the
inferior kinds of wine. The object in view
was accomplished by blending different kinds
of wine, or more frequently by adding various
condiments or seasonings [apTvaeis, medica-
mina, conditurae), such as sea-water, tur-
pentine, pitch [pix], or resin {resiiia), lime, in
the form of gypsum, burnt marble or shells ;
inspissated must, aromatic herbs, spices, and
gums.
Pitch or resin in powder was commonly
added to the must during fermentation, to give
body and flavour. In Greece at the present
day the conmion wine is treated with resin
(^eTtrivaTo), which is supposed to be a whole-
some corrective to bad food.
A common danger in wine-making is that of
a second fermentation, which converts the
wine into vinegar (3|os, acetum); and this
again, if exposed to the air, loses its properties
and becomes insipid, in which form it was called
vappa by the Romans.
To prevent acescence, the must was treated
with a great variety of substances, both as cor-
rectives and preventives, among which we may
mention alkalis (in the form of vegetable ashes),
lime, and various preparations of turpentine.
In addition to these we find some traces of the
use of the poisonous salts of lead for the same
purpose.
Defnitum also was employed for the same
purpose. It was also customary to flavour
wines by a large admixture of perfumes, x>lants,
and spices.
There was another family of wines, olvoi
vyieivoi, into which drugs were introduced to
produce medicinal effects. Such were vinum
marrubii (horehound) for coughs; scilliies
(squill-wine) ; absinthites (wine of wormwood),
and myrtites (myrtle-berry wine).
Pliny, under the head of vina ficticia, in-
cludes many others, like our British home-
made wines, made from, or flavoured with, figs,
cherries, medlars, roses, asparagus, parsley,
radishes, laurels, junipers, cassia, cinnamon,
saffron, nard, malobathrum, and many other
fruits and vegetables. The Greek process was
to steep these in wine already fermented ; the
Romans mixed the flavouring ingredient with
the sweet must, and fermented them together,
thus obtaining a much more powerful extract ;
and this is the plan pursued for British wines,
except that we substitute sugar and water for
grape-juice.
Besides all these ingredients or additions,
even the precious perfumed essential oils (un-
gtienta) were mixed with wine (Plant. Mil.
Glor. 824, Pseud. 745; Plin. xiii. 25; Mart,
xiv. 110 ; Juv. vi. 803).
VINUM 673
The most popular of all these compound I place was conceded to the Cliian, of which
beverages was the olv6fif\t of the Greeks, ' the choicest varieties were brought from the
mitlsum of the Romans. This was of two j heights of Ariusium (Verg. iit^. v. 71 ; and from
kinds : in the one honey was mixed with wine, the promontory of Plianae in Cliios (Verg.
in tlie other with must. The former was con- j Georg. ii. 98). The Tliasian and Lesbian occu-
sidered best wlien made of some old rough pied the second place, and the Koan disputed
{auHteruin) wine, such as Massic or Falernian the palm with them. In Lesbos tlie most
(Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 24), and new Attic honey (Mart. : highly prized vineyards were around Mytilene
iv. 13, xiii. 108). Various spices and perfumes, and Methymna (Verg. Georg. ii. 89; Ov. A. A.
such as myrrh, cassia, &c., might be added. | i. 57 ; Hor. Carin. i. 17, 21).
Tlie second kind was merely a very rich fruit i The finest Greek wines, especially the pro-
sj-rup, in no way allied to wine. Mulsum was ducts of the islands in the Aegean and Ionian
drunk immediately before a meal, and the seas, were not of a luscious sweet cliaracter
giiatatio coming before the cup of mulsum was but ai-e termed avarrjpos, aK\-qp6s, Kftrrds an4
called the pronialsis (Cic. Fam. ix. 16, 8, and 1 the like.
20, 1). [Cena, 2.] All the most noble Italian wines, with few
Mulsum (sc. vinum) or olv6iJ.e\i is distinct exceptions, were derived from Latium and
from mulsa (sc. aqua) The latter, or mead, Campania, and for tlie most part grew within a
i.e. honey and water mixed and fermented, is
tlie fxiXiKparov or vSpSfxeKi of the Greeks.
Again, vSp6/j.T]\ov {hi/dromelu»i) was cider ;
o^vfifXt was a compound of vinegar, honey,
salt, and pure water, boiled together and kept
for a long time ; ^o56fj.fKi. was a confection of
expressed juice of rose-leaves and honey.
Generally speaking, Greek wines do not
seem to have required a long time to ripen
(Theocr. vii. 147: but cf. Hom. Od. iii. 391),
six or seven years being the usual time (Plin.
xiv. 79). Many of the Italian varieties, how-
ever, required to be kept for twenty or twenty-
five years before tliey were ripe, and even the
short distance of the sea.
In the first rank we must place the Setinum,
the cliosen beverage of Augustus and his
courtiers. It gi-ew upon the hills of Setia,
above Forum Appii, looking dovni upon the
Pomptine marshes (Mart. xiii. 112, vi. 8G, ix. 3,
&c. ; Juv. V. 34 ; Plin. xiv. 59 sq.). Before the
age of Augustus the Caecubum was the most
prized of all. It grew in the poplar swamps
bordering on the gulf of Amyclae, close to
Fundi (Mart. xiii. 115). It was a full-bodied
and heady wine, requiring to be kept for many
years (Mart. xiii. 115; Hor. Carw. i. 20, 9, iii.
23, 2, etc.). Pliny (xxiii. 35) says that in his
humble gi'owths of Sabinuni were stored up for : time it was no longer made,
from four to fifteen (Hor. Car in. i. 9, 7). Hence j Falernum came in tlie second rank, of which
it became a matter of importance to hasten, if ! the Faust ianum was the most choice variety,
possible, the natural process. This was at- The Falernus ager extended from the Massic
tempted sometimes by sinking vessels contain- hills to the liver Vultunius. Faleniian became
ing the must in the sea {thalassitcs) ; but more fit for drinking in ten years, and was good for
usually by the application of heat, either by i ten years more (Plin. xxiii. § 34). Pliny distin-
exposing the amphorae for some years to the guishes tlu-ee kinds, the rough (austerum), the
full heat of the sun, or bringmg the hot air and i sweet (dulcc), and the thin {tenue). It was a
smoke of the bath-furnaces into the ajjotlieca; white or amber-coloured wine (Plin.xxxvii. 47).
and hence the name /(OHftJ'io. applied to such The wine which grew upon tlie liill-tops was
apartments, and the phrases /itmosMs, /if mii?/i I called Caucinum, that on the middle slopes
bibere,fuligine testae in reieience to the -wines \ Faustianum, that on the plain Falernum
(Tibull. ii. 1, 26; Hor. Carm. iii. 8, 11 ; Juv.
85 ; cf. Mart. x. 36, iii. 82).
The lowest market price of the most ordinary
quality of Italian wine was 300 sesterces for 40
umae : that is, 6d. a gallon nearly.
The price of native common wine at Athens
was four drachmas for the metretes ( = 8 gallons)
— that is, about ihd. the gallon — when prices
were high : we may perhaps assume one-half of
this sum as the average of cheaper times, but
there is not much evidence on the subject.
High prices were given for the varieties held
in esteem. In the time of Hokrates a me-
tretes of Chian sold for a mina (= 10s. per
gallon).
In the older Greek writers we find but a
small number of wines defined by specific ap-
pellations, the general term olvos usually
standing alone. The wine of most early cele-
brity was that which the minister of Apollo,
Maron, the Thrakian, gave to Odysseus {Od. ix.
208). Homer mentions also {II. xi. 638, Od.
X. 234) Pramneian wine {olvos ITpa/uj'eios), an
epithet which is variously interpreted as an
ingredient in the KxiKeoiv.
The best Greek wines were grown in the
islands of Thasos, Lesbos, Chios, and Kos, and brought into fashion by Julius Caesar (Mart
in a few spots on the opposite coast of Asia, xiii. 117).
such as the slopes of Mount Tniolus (Verg. I The wine of Etruria was proverbially bad,
Georg. ii. 97; Ov. Met. vi. 15); Mount Mes- e.g. that of the Mons Vaticanus (Mart. i. 26, 6;
sogis, the environs of Ephesus, Knidiis, Mile- vi. 92, 3, etc.). At Ravenna wine was very
tus, and Klazomenae. Among these the first , cheap and abundant (Mart. iii. 56, 57), and the
XX
(Hor. Carm. i. 20, 10; Prop. iv. 6; Mart. ix.
95). The name is not found in Plautus and
Cato, but occurs in Catullus and Varro.
In the third rank was Albanum, from the
Mons Albanus (Mart. xiii. 109), of various quali-
ties ; it was in perfection after being kept for
fifteen years (Plin. II. cc. ; Mart. xiii. 109 ; Hor.
Sat. ii. 8, 14 ; Juv. v. 33). Here too we place the
Surrentinum, a dry wine which required a long
time to ripen. Of equal reputation were the
Massicum, from the hills which formed the
boundary between Latium and Campania (Hor.
Sat. ii. 4, 51 ; cf. Carm. i. 1, 19, i. 7, 21, iii. 21 ;
Mart. xiii. Ill), and the Gauraiium, from the
ridge above Baiae and Puteoli ; the light Cale-
num from Cales, and the full-bodied Fundanum
from Fundi (Hor. Carm. i. 81,9; Juv. i. 69;
Mart. X. 35, xiii. 113). The 2^o;-;/(/«««w, from the
gulf of Caieta (Hor. Carm. iii. 16, 34), is asso-
ciated by Horace with the Caecuban, Falernian,
and Calene (Hor. Carm. i. 20). This list is
closed by the Velitcrnum, Privernas, and Sig-
iiinuin, from Velitrae, Privernum, and Signia,
towns on the Volscian hills.
The fourth rank contained the Mamertinum,
from the neighbourhood of Messana, first
674 VIRGAE
Raetian wine of Verona was famous (Verg.
Georg. ii. 96 ; Plin. xiv. § 67).
Of the wines in Southern Gaul, that of Baeter-
rae alone bore a high character. The rest were
looked upon with suspicion, in consequence of
the adulteration practised by the dealers in the
province.
The produce of the Balearic isles was com-
pared to the first growths of Italy, and the
same praise was shared by the vineyards of
Tarraco and Lauron in Spain (Plin. xiv. § 71 ;
Mart. xiii. 118). 1
Returning to the East, several districts of
Asia Minor, Cj-prus, TripoUs, Tyre, &c., claimed !
distinction ; and above all the Chalyboniiim, j
grown at Beroea, and afterwards near Damas- [
cus also, the chosen drink of the Great King
(Plin. xiv. § 73) ; to which we may join the
Bahijlonium, and the fivfi\ivos from Phoenicia
(Hdt. ii. 35).
Among Egyptian wines the Mareoticum,
grown near Alexandria, was preferred. It was
white, sweet, fragrant, and Ught {Keirr6s): but
superior even to this was the Taenioticum,
so named from a long narrow sandy ridge (raj-
i/ia) near the western extremity of the Delta :
it was aromatic, slightly astringent, and of an
oily consistency, which disappeared when it was
mixed with water ; other wines were the Seben-
mjticum and those of Antylla, the Thebais, and
especially Coptos (Hor. Carm. i. 37, 14; Verg.
Georg. ii. 91; Lucan, x. 16'2; Plin. xiv. 74).
Martial appears to have held them all very
cheap (xiii. 122).
We read of several wines which received
their designation, not from the region to which
they belonged, but from the particular kind of
grape from which they were made, like the
Pramneian, or from some other circumstance.
Thus, down to a late period, we hear of the
Aminneiim [' Piiiivaios ohos) ixovalhe Aminnea
vitis, a wine of high character, of Grecian
origin, grown chiefly in Campania around
Naples, and in the Falernus Ager (cf. Verg.
Georg. ii. 97). Others are y^iidios olvos 'Verg.
Georg. ii. 93) and (cairi/ias, made near Bene-
ventum, from the Kairvios {Kairvtos) ayiiireAoSj a
dusky or smoky grape.
Virgae. The lictor's rods (Liv. vi. 34 ; Mart,
viii. 66). [Fasces.]
Vis. See Appendix, Rom.\n Law.
Vitis. 1. Soil. — Light, hilly soil was the best
for vines ; but larger crops were got from rich
low-lying land.
2. Propagation. — Many methods were used;
among them
(1) Layering (propago). (2) Malleoli, i.e. a
young shoot {novellas palmes), and a short
piece of the last year's wood {p)rioris anni
Jiagellum), from which it grows, so as to give the
appearance of a hammer {malleus). These were
allowed to remain three years in a nursery
{seniinarium), and then transplanted (they
were now called viviradices), either (a) in
pastinato, i.e. in the open ground, carefully
trenched and pulverised, or (b) in sidco, in
trenches, or (c) in scrobe, in pits.
The young vines were planted in rows
[ordines) at a distance of from four to ten feet,
according to the soil ; the distance between plant
and plant being the same as that from row to
row. These rows were either parallel
VITRUM
or arranged in quincunx.
The main road through the vineyard was
called decumanus, other paths seniitae or viae ;
the whole ground was thus divided into jjlots
[antes or horti) each containing one hundred
vines.
In an arbustum {arbosetum = arboretum)
the vines were trained on elms or poplars,
and the ground around was tilled for other
crops. The trees were either kept low or
pinined in stages (tabulata).
In a vinea or vinetunt the vines either
trailed on the ground or were trained to stakes
(adminicula), upright or with a cross piece
I I {iugum) ; or to a square trellis [quadruplex
iugum), the cross pieces being of wood (per-
ticae) or rope {funiculi).
The young vines were frequently cut back,
and in some cases not allowed to bear for seven
j-ears (Plin. xvii. 35).
The ordinary annual operations were :
(a) Pastinatio, trenching: done three or four
times a year (Verg. Georg. ii. 398) with the
bidens. [Rastrum.]
{b) Pampinatio, i.e. stripping off the leaves.
(c) Putatio, pruning after the vintage with
the falx vinitoria.
(d) Ablaqueatio, i.e. digging round the plant
and uncovering and pruning the roots. This
was done in October.
Vitriim(i;oA.os). Glass. Glass was in common
use at a very remote epoch, and was employed
as an ordinary material for all manner of do-
mestic utensils by the Egyptians, Greeks, and
Romans. A vitreous glaze is found in remains
dating from the earliest periods of Egyptian his-
tory, and the process of glass-blowing is repre-
sented in paintings at Beni-Hassan, execu-
ted c. 2300 B.C. The Assyrians also attained to
a high degree of skill in glass-making. The
Phoenicians probably learnt the art of glass-
making from the Egyptians. They imported
sand for glass-making from the Syrian coast to
the workshops of Sidon, long the most famous
in the ancient world. At a later date, Alexandria,
another centre of the industry, sustained its
reputation for. many centuries ; Rome derived
thence a great portion of its supplies, and as late
as the reign of Aurelian we find the manufacture
still flourishing (Cic. Babir. Post. 14, 40).
Glass is not mentioned m Homer, unless,
as is probable, Kvavos is a blue vitreous glaze.
In the deposits of Mj-kenae and kindred sites,
numerous beads, rosettes, and other ornaments
of glass paste occur.
The term vaXos denotes not only artificial
glass, but rock-crystal, or any transparent
stone or stone-like substance (Ar. Nub. 768 ;
Hdt. iii. 24). The earrings of ' melted stone,'
which Herodotus (ii. 69) tells us were worn by
the sacred crocodiles, must have been made of
some vitreous substance for which he knew no
appropriate name. Seals of paste and vessels
of glass appear to be mentioned in the treasure-
lists of the fourth century. It may, however,
be doubted whether glass was manufactured in
Greece itself, even as late as the time of the
Diadoehi.
Among the Latin writers Lucretius appears
to be the first in whom the word vitrum
occurs (vi. 991) ; but it must have been well
VITRUM
knowm to his countrj-nieii long before as a
common article of merchandise brought from
Egypt (Cic. Hub. Post. 14, 40). It was used in
profusion bj' Scaurus (aedile 58 n.c.) as a
decoration of a theatre built by him. In the
poets of the Augustan age it is introduced in
such terms as to prove that it was a familiar
object (e.g. Verg. Georg. iv. 350, Aen. vii. 751);
Ov. Am. i. 6, 55; Hor. Carm. iii. 13, 1); and
it was so common in tlie time of Juvenal and
!llartial, that old men and women made a liveli-
liood by bartei-ing sulphur matches for broken
fragments (Juv. v. 48; Mart. i. 42, x. 3).
When Pliny wrote, manufactories had been
established, not only in Italy, but in Spain and
Gaul also, and glass drinking-cups had super-
seded those of gold and silvei-.
The ancients were well acquainted with the
art of colouring glass ; they were probably less
successful in rendering it perfectly pure and
free from all colour, in which state it was con-
sidered most valuable. It was fashioned into
the required shape by the blowpipe (Jiatu), cut
or ground upon a wheel (torno), or engraved
with a sharp tool {caelo).
We may now briefly enumerate the chief
uses to which glass was applied.
(1) Bottles, vases, cups, and cinerary urns.
These specimens are extant in immense num-
ber and variety. Many are shaped by the
blowpipe only. Some have been blown out
into moulds, by the blow|3ipe. Others are of
the most delicate and complicated workman-
VITTA
675
Hg. H6L— The Portlaucl Vase. (British 5Iuseum.>
ship. See cut under Diatreta. But the great
trimnph of ancient genius in this department
(toreumata vitri, Mart. .\ii. 74) is the celebrated
Barberini or Portland Vase in tlie British
Museum, made of dark blue glass, and overlaid
(verre double) with figures in relief wrouglit with
the wheel in opaque white glass. Sec Scalptura.
(2) Glass pastes presenting facsimiles, either
in relief or intaglio, of engraved precious
stones. These were in demand for the rings
of such persons as were not wealthy enough
to purchase real stones. Large medallions also
of this kind are still preserved.
(3) Imitations of coloured precious stones,
such as the carbuncle, tlie sapphire, the ame-
tiiyst, and, above all, the emerald. These
counterfeits were admirably executed, and
great profits were realised by dishonest
dealers (Plin. xxxvii. 197).
(4) The cubes (abaculi) used in mosaic pave-
ments and pictures {opus musivuiu) were fre-
quently composed of opaque glass as well as of
marble. [Pictura (9).]
(5) One method of decoration employed by
the ancients consisted in enclosing designs in
gold leaf between two layers of transparent
glass. This is most common from the third
century after Christ.
(G) Tliick sheets of glass of various colours
appear to have been laid downi as floors, and
attached as lining to walls and ceilings, just
as scagliola is frequently employed in Italy.
Rooms fitted up in this way were called r (7 rtae
caiucrae, and the panels vitreac qiiadraturae.
Such, probably, was the kind of decoration
introduced by Scaurus for his theatre (see
above).
(7) Glass windows were known to the
ancients, as has been shown by the excavations
at Pompeii. [Domus, p. 250 (5).]
Vitta, or plural Vittae (raivla), a riband, is
to be considered (1) as an ordinary portion of
female dress ; (2) as a fiuieral decoration ; (3)
as a decoration of sacred persons and sacred
things.
(1) When considered as an ordinarj- portion
of female dress, it was simply a band encircling
the head, and serving to confine the tresses
{crinales vittae), the ends, when long {longae
taenia vittae), hanging down behind (Ov. Met.
ii. 413). It was worn [a) by maidens (Verg.
Aen. ii. 168; Prop. iv. 11, 84); (6) by married
women also (Ov. Trist. ii. 252; Prop. v. 8, 1",
and 11, 34 ; Plaut. Mil. Gl. iii. 1, 194).
Fig. 1152.— Vltta, from a vase. (British Museum.)
The vitta was not woi-n by libertinae (Tibull.
i. 6, 67) nor by meretriees ; together with the
stola and iiistita [Dre88_, it ser\ed to point out
the freeborn matron (Ov. ^..4. i. 31, Bern. Am.
386, Trist. ii. 247, Pont. iii. 3, 51).
The colour was probably a matter of choice :
white and purple are both mentioned (Ov. Met.
ii. 413, Ciris, 511). Vittae were sometimes
embroidered, or set with pearls.
For (2) see Funus.
(3) When enii)loyed for sacred purposes, the
vitta was usually twisted round the Infula,
holding together the loose strands of wool, and
depending in streamers (Verg. Georg. iii.
iSl,Aen. X. 587; Lucan, v. 142). Under this
form it was employed as an ornament for {(i)
priests, and those who offered sacrifice (Verg.
Aen. ii. 221; Tac. Ann. i. 57); (h) priestesses,
especially those of Vesta (Verg. Aen. vii. 418;
Ov. Fust. iii. 30 ; Juv. iv. 9 ; Vestales) ; (r) pro-
phets and poets, whose vittae were frecjuently
intertwined with chaplets of olive or laurel
(Verg. Aen. iii. 81) ; ((/) statues of deities (Verg.
Aen. ii. 168) ; (e) victims decked for sacrifice
(Verg. Georg. iii. 487 ; Ov. Pont. iii. 2, 74) ; (/)
altars (Verg. Eel. viii. 64 ; (g) temples (Prop.
v. it, 27; Tac. Hi.st.'w. 53); (/() tlie 'iKtT-ijpia
of suppliants (Verg. .ien. vii. 237). Here the
vittae seem to have served to bind the festoons
of wool upon the branches which were borne
in the hand (Verg. Aen. vii. 237 ; Horn. //. i.
14 ; Soph. O. T. 3).
The sacred vittae and infulac, were made of
wool (Ov. Fast. iii. 30; Verg. Ecf. viii. 64).
xx2
676
VOCATIO IN lUS
They were white (Verg. Georg. iii. 487), or
purple (Prop. v. 9, 27), or blue (caerideae) when
wreathed round an altar to the manes (Verg.
Aen. iii. fi4). [See Taivia,]
Voca'tio, Voca're, in ius. See App., Actio.
Vomer, Vomis. [Aratrum.]
Vota pu'blica. These rested on the same
principle as the vows and votive offerings made
at critical moments by private jjersons, de-
scribed under Donaria. Public vows were
made in time of war (Liv. v. 21, xxxvi. 2 ; of.
Ov. Fast. V. 573), or of pestilence (Liv. iv. 25).
The things vowed were of various kinds, offer-
ings at shrines or at pulvinaria, a tithe of the
spoil, votive games [Ludi], or a temple. The
most remarkable of all vows was the Ver sacrum.
The consul or praetor who had been ordered
by the senate suscipere votum (i.e. to under-
take the obligation), or the dictator in times of a
dictatorship, publicly announced {nunciipavif)
the vow and its object in formal words dictated
to him by the Pontifex Maximus (Liv. iv. 27,
xxxvi. 2). The vows were entered in the public
records in the presence of witnesses.
Besides these extraordinary public vows, there
was an annual votum puhlicum (of victims to
be offered) made by the new consuls on the 1st
of January, ' pro reipublicae salute ' (cf. Liv.
xxi. 63; Tac. Ann. iv. 70). After the end of
the Republic a special vow was added for the
emperor's safety on the 3rd of January, and
this day accordingly appears in the Calendars
and elsewhere as votoruin nuncupatio or
simply as vat a (Tac. Ann. xvi. 22).
Vulcana'lia. A festival celebrated at Rome
in honour of Vulcan, on the 23rd of August
(x. Kal. Sept.), with games in the Circus Fla-
minius, where the god had a temple. The
sacrifice consisted of fishes, which the people
threw into the fire, and of a red heifer and a
boar. That the festival was propitiatory is
shown by the fact that Stata Slater, who
stayed the fire, and lutuma and the Nymphs,
who supplied water, were associated in the
festival. There were feriae Vulcani also on
the 15th of May (Ov. Fast. v. 725).
Vulga'res. [Servus.]
Vulse'llae (TpixoAo)3is, TpiXoAo/Stov). A pair
Fig. 1158.— Vulsellae, tweezers ; actual size. (From a
Roman villa at Brading, Isle of Wight.)
of tweezers (Mart. ix. 28, 5). [Psilothrum ; Ali-
pilus; Tonsor.]
X.
"Eiva-yoL. The Spartans, as being the head
of the Peloponnesian and Dorian League
formed to secure the independence of the
Greek states, had the sole command of the con-
federate troops in time of war, provided that the
league did not disappi-ove of tlie war (Hdt. v.
75) ; they ordered the quotas which each state
was to furnish by sending the (TkutciAtj, and
appointed officers of their own to command
them, called i^ivayoi. The generals wliom the
allies sent with their troops (&pxovTfs, cTTpar-
7)yoi) were subordinate to the ^evayoi, though
they attended the council of war, as repre-
sentatives of their respective countries (Thuc.
ii. 7, V. 54 ; Xen. Hell. iii. 5, § 7, Agesil.
ii. 10). After the peace of Antalkidas, the
league was still more firmly established^ and
ZYTHUM
the required military service was rigorously
exacted. Li case of desertion they could fine the
state one stater a day for each man who was due.
= evTi\aaia. The Lacedaemonians appear
in early times to have been averse to intercourse
with foreigners {^epoiat aTrpda/xiKToi, Hdt. i. 65).
Lykurgus made an ordinance forbidding
strangers to reside at Sparta, without special
permission, and empowering the magistrate to
expel any stranger who misconducted himself,
or set a bad example (cf. Hdt. iii. 148). With
the same view the Spartans were themselves
forbidden to go abroad without leave of the
magistrate. Both these rules were relaxed in
the later times of Spartan ambition. Even at
an earlier period the Spartans observed hos-
pitality upon proper occasions, such as public
festivals, the reception of ambassadors, &c.
They worshipped a Zfi/s l^j/ios and 'Adava
^evia. The connexion called by the Greeks
npo^ei/ia was cultivated at Sparta both by the
state and by individuals; of which their con-
nexion with the Peisistratidae is an example,
and that of a Spartan family with the familv of
Alkibiades (Thuc. v. 43, viii. 6 ; Hdt. v. 91).
[Hospitium.] Many illustrious men are reported
to have resided at Sparta with honour, as Terp-
ander, Theognis, and Xenophon. The |fr>)-
Aoeria existed at Apollonia, a colony founded
bv the Corinthians and Korkyraeans. See
further, Tlnic. i. 144 ; Ar. Av. 1013.
=€vCa, =£'vLa. Hospitium.]
= evta§ vpa(|)Ti. See App. GREEK Law.
=e'voi. [Mercennarii.]
=€'cTT-ns. [Mensura; Tables, IX.]
Xystus. [Gymnasium; Hortus.]
Z.
Zcipd. A mantle or horseman's cloak,
worn by Arabians (Hdt. vii. 69) and Thrakians
(vii. 75), covering the feet of the rider. It is
probably a Semitic word.
ZriTTiTaC, commissioners of inquiry, ap-
pointed at Athens on special occasions as
extraordinary officers, were of two kinds :
(1) Criminal investigators or inquisitors, to
discover the authors of some crime against the
state and bring them to justice [cf. Areio-
pagus]. During the panic consequent on the
mutilation of the Hermae, the jSouArj received
absolute power to investigate (Andoc. Myst. §
15) ; but ^TjTrjrai were also appointed.
(2) Ztjttjto/ were more frequently appointed
to search for and receive information about
confiscated property, the goods of condemned
criminals and state debtors, and to deliver an
inventory {ia.iToypa<pi\) of all such goods to the
proper authorities. The delinquent was then
prosecuted, either before the ZOvSiKoi, or, in
some cases, before the ^TjTTjra/ themselves.
Persons having claims against the goods in
question might petition (iviTriaicii^affdai) to
have such claims settled (see Z'jXXovei9).
The (^riT-riTaL were technically an apxh- Another
name for commissioners of inquiiy into con-
fiscated property was /iotTTrjpey.
Zev-yiTai. [Census.]
Zona. rCingulum.]
Zo'phorus ((^(i)o<p6pos, CvP^pos, 'bearing
animals or figures'), of a panel or relief; espe-
cially applied to the continuous carved frieze of
the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. [Archi-
tectura, Gloss miv.]
Zothe'ca, Zothe'cula. A small room or
study (Plin. Ep. ii. 17, 21).
Zythum {ivdos). [Cervesia.]
APPENDIX
GREEK LAW
ArPA*IOY rPA<J>H
'Aypa<i>lov ypa.<i>i\. The names of all per-
80US at Athens who owed any sum of money
to the state (ol tw Sriixocricij otpeiXovres) wei'e
registered by the npaKTopes upon tablets kept
for that purpose in the temple of Athena, on
the Acropolis (Dem. c. Arifitog. i. p. 791, § 70) ;
and hence fyyeypan/xei/os ev 'AKpoTroKei means
a state-debtor (Dem. c. Theocrin. p. 1337,
§ 64). Any person whose name was improperly
erased from the register was subject to the
a.ypa<p'iov ypactyf] before the thesmotlietae. This
action might also be brought against public
officers who, through favour or carelessness,
omitted to register debtors.
'AYpd<})o\) M-erdWotJ -ypactjii. An action
brought before the thesmotlietae at Athens
against an individual who worked a mine with-
out having previously registered it, and thus
shirked the tax of one twenty- fourth payable
on the produce.
' Ayxi-o-Tiia.. [ KXt|pov6(jlos-]
'Aycjv. [AiKT), rpa4>T).]
'AyiiV TIIXTITOS, dTip.T|TOS- [TlM.Tl(JLa.]
"ASeia. Freedom from fear, or security, in
any public action. When anyone in Athens,
not being a full citizen, such as a foreigner, a
slave, &c., wished to accuse a person of anj'
oflEence against the people, he was obliged to
obtain permission to do so, which permission
was called &Seia. (Andoc. ilc Myst. p. 2, § 11 ;
Plut. Pericl. 81.) The aStio of a citizen did
not protect the false accuser. An Athenian
citizen who had incurred arifxia was also
obliged to obtain aSeia before he could take
part in public affairs (Plut. Phoc. 2()). "ASeia
was sometimes granted as an honour to aliens.
' ASvvaTot. Persons supported by the Athe-
nian state, who, on account of infirmity, bodily
defects, or wounds received in wai', were unable
to obtain a livelihood. The sum which they
received varied from one obolus a day to two
oboli.
AlKiag SCkti. A private action for assault,
Sfipews yparpri being a public prosecution for the
same class of offences. The Athenian law, in
case of offences against person and pro])i'rty
gave the injured party redress [KXoirfi 9 6Ckti]
by action for damages or by criminal informa-
tion. In bringing this action it was necessary
to prove that the defendant had struck the
plaintiff with the intcntinu of insulting him {e<p'
v$pfi) (cf. Dem. c. Con. p. 1'201, § 13, 14), and
that the defendant struck the plaintiff first.
ANAKPI2I2
The sum of money to be paid by the defend-
ant as damages was not fixed by the law, but
settled in court [TC(j.T|ji,al. The party who
lost his suit, whether plaintiff or defendant, was
liable to pay npvxavcta in addition to
damages and 'EiruPtXCa (Dem. c. Everg. p.
1158, § 64). In the case of slaves there was no
action for alKia, but the owner of an injured
slave might proceed either by vfipews ypa<p'fi or
0\a0rjs S'tKri.
'AKoi]v jjuapTvpeiv. The general rule of
Athenian, as of English jurisprudence, was
against the admission of hearsay evidence.
The one exception was the attested declaration
of a deceased person, p.g. in will cases, which
was carefully distiiiLCnishcd from the 'EK(iap-
TTjpia or written deposition of an absent wit-
ness. The law is expressed in Dem. ii. Stejfh.
p._1130, §8.
'A\o7Lov SuKTi- An action before the
Koyicrrai at Athens, against persons who
neglected to pass their accounts when their
term of office ex]>ired. The punishment was
arin'ia. [Eiievva.]
'A(x<|>iopKia, 'AtJ,4)(i)(xocTCa. ['AvdKpiats-]
'A(j,(f>LaPTiTTio-is- The act of claiming an
inheritance, or, more properlj', of disputing the
title of the first claimant. None but direct
heirs might take possession of the estate im-
mediately after the owner's death; more dis-
tant claimants had to make application to the
Archon.
Proclamation of the claim was made in the
ekklesia, and the claimant made a deposit (irapa-
KaTafiaXXftv) to the amount of a tenth part of
the value of the property in dispute, which
was returned to the jiartv if successful. (Dem.
c. Macart. p. 10.51, § .5, c. Leoch. p. 1090, § 34,
&c.) [KXTipovopiCa.]
'Ava7<i)7fi5 Sikti. An action for false
warranty against the vendor of a slave who
had some disease, without informing the pur-
chaser. The plaintiff had to report {avayeiv)
to the proper authorities the nature of the
disease ; whence the action was called avayuiyrts
5l/(7J.
"AvaSiKCa. [''E<t)€ais.]
'AvdKpiais. (1) The preliminary investi-
gation of a case by an archon or other magis-
trate before it was brought before the courts of
justice at Athens. Both parties, the com-
plainant and defendant, were sununoned sepa-
rately ; and if either of them failed to appear
678 ANAKPI2I2
without putting in a formal application for
delay (JTrui/jLOcria), judgment went against him
by default. The anakrisis began by both the
plaintiff and defendant taking an oath, the
former thereby attesting that he had brought
the charge honestly and conscientiously ; the
latter, that to the best of his knowledge he was
innocent. According to the grammarians, the
oath of the former was called irpow/xoaia, that of
the latter avroo/xocria, the two together Sicoyuocria
or a/xcpiopKia : but the words are not used con-
sistently. If the defendant did not bring for-
ward any objection to the matter being brought
before a court of justice, the proceeding was
termed ivdv^LKia (Bern. c. Phorm. p. 908,
§ 4). Objections might be raised in regard to
the competency of the court to which the
matter was to be referred, or in regard to the
form in which the accusation was brought
forward, and the like (Lys. c. Panel. § 5)
[napavpa(|)fi : 'AvTLVpa(t>ti]. In the ease of
a Sia^aprypia, either party might bring witnesses
to support his contention. If the Sia/j-aprvpla
was resorted to in a civil case, the party who
made use of it had to deposit a sum of money
(irapaKaTa^oK-ri) ; and when the i^laintiff lost
liis suit, he had to pay to the defendant a fine
for vexatious accusation. The Trapaypa(pri was
a special plea in bar of a suit, which was made
by the defendant and argued without calling
witnesses.
The audKpKTis consisted of simple evidence
contained (a) in laws, (b) in documents, {c) in the
statement of free witnesses, (d) in the statement
of slaves, and (d) in oaths.
(a) Copies of the laws which either party
might adduce in its support.
(b) Other legal documents, such as contracts
(TwdrJKai, (rvyypapai), wills, books of accounts,
and other i-ecords (Dem. pro Phorm. p. 950,
§ 18 sqq.). These not only required the signa-
ture and seal of the party concerned, but their
authenticity had to be attested by witnesses
(Dem. c. Onet. p. 809, § 21).
(c) Evidence (^apTvpia) was given not only
by free-born and grown-up citizens, but also by
strangers or aliens ; and even from absent
persons evidence might be procured fEKp-ap.
TvpCa], or a statement of a deceased person
might be referred to ["Akotiv jjLapTvpclv].
If anyone was called upon (K\t)TiViLv) to bear
witness, he could not refuse it ; and if he re-
fused, he might be compelled to pay a fine of
1000 drachmas (Dem. F. L. p. 896, § 170), unless
he could establish by an oath (' Ego)jiLO<7ia), that
he was unable to give his evide«ice in the case.
Anyone who had promised to bear witness, and
afterwards failed to do so, became liable to the
action of \iiTo/j.apTuplov Si/crj [MapxvpCa] or
B\d0Tis 5Ckt|. All evidence was eitlier taken
down in writing as given by the witnesses, or,
if sent in previously in writing, it was read
aloud to the witness for his recognition (Dem.
c. Steph. i. p. 1115, § 45). The testimony of
slaves was valid only when extorted by instru-
ments of torture, to which either one party
might offer (e/cSiSoVai) or the other might de-
mand [izpoKaKiiaOoLi, i^aiTelv) the exposure of a
slave (Dem. c. Nicostr. p. 1253, § 22 ; Ar. Ban.
610).
If the evidence produced was clear and satis-
factory, the magistrate could decide the case
summarily. During the anakrisis as well as
afterwards in the regular court, the litigant
parties might settle their dispute by an amicable
arrangement. But the public abandonment of
an accusation by the plaintiff was punishable
ANTirPA*H
by the fine of 1000 drachmas, or in civil cases
by the loss of the caution-money. When the
parties did not come to an understanding
during the anakrisis, all the various kinds of
evidence brought forward were put into a vessel
called ix^fos, which was sealed and entrusted
to some officer to be kept until the day of trial
(Dem. c. Conon. p. 1265, § 27). The day
fixed for the trial was called Kvpia tov v6fj.ov
(Dem. c. Mid. p. 541, § 84). But either
party might petition for a postponement of the
trial ; and there are instances in which the
ends of justice were thwarted in this manner for
a umnber of years (Dem. c. Mid. p. 541, § 82).
(2) The examination which an archon mider-
went before he entered on his office was like-
wise called avaKpiffis (Dem. c. Eubul. p. 1319,
§66).
'Avavn-axCov 7pa<})Ti. An impeacliment of
a trierarch who had kept aloof from action while
the rest of the fleet was engaged. In a cause
of this kind, as in actions aarpanias, SejAi'aj,
Xiirovavriov, \iiroTa^iov, the strategi were the
presiding judges. The penalty was atimia.
'Av5pa-rroSia|jLOV 7pa4>Ti. A public prose-
cution against two distinct offences. (1) Kid-
nappuig or enslaving a free person. (2) Steal-
ing slaves from their lawfvd owners. The
penalty was death (Xen. Memor. i. 2, § 62) ;
and the offender might be summarily brought
to the Eleven bj- d'7ra7ai7rj.
'Av5po\Tn|/£a. and ' Ai/SpoXr^il/iov. "Wlien
the state or city in whose territory a murder had
been committed refused to bring the murderer
to trial, the law allowed the relatives of the
deceased to arrest three citizens of the offend-
ing state, and to hold them as hostages until
satisfaction was given or the murderer deli-
vered up ; and the property found upon the
persons thus seized was confiscated. It is not
to be regarded as a peculiarly Athenian insti-
tution, but was part of the public law of Greece.
The guilt of blood attached to the soil of the
country wdiere a murder had been committed,
only so long as the murderer remained upon its
tei-ritory unpunished: the curse (apa) ceased
when he either went into exile or was brought to
justice. 'Ai'5poA.ij>//('a did not, therefore, include
extradition. [Exilium.]
The duty of relations in such cases was com-
mensurate with the right of inheritance, and
extended yuf'xP' a.v€\}/ia5a>v, ' as far as second
cousins' [K\Tipov6|xosl. (See Dem. c.Macart.
p. 1068, § 57.)
'AvSpoXrjif/iov is the right of reprisals ; avSpo-
\r]\pia is the act or process by which the right
is enforced.
'AvTi7pacf)'n originally signified the writing
put in by the defendant in all causes, whether
public or private, in answer to the indictment
or bill of the prosecutor. But we find the term
employed not only for the answer of the defend-
ant, but also for the statement of the plaint
(Plat. Apol. p. 27 c).
In Attic law, the defendant's answer might
consist in a direct denial of the facts alleged, or
a justification, leading to a trial on the merits
of the case (fvOvSiKia).
The defendant might also, by pleas asserting
the incompetency of the court, the disability of
the plaintiff, and the like, try to show that the
cause in its present state could not be brought
into court (yu^ tlaaywytfxov flvai rrji' S'lkt^v). This
form of the d«'Ti7pa0rj was called flapa-ypa^)!!.
A third ease is that in which the defendant
neither meets the allegations of the plaintiff
with a direct negative, nor with a Tropoypocfi),
ANTIA02I2
but resorts to a 'cross-action.' As an example
of this, Ac'scliiiU'S, iniiKMcht'd by Tiinarchus
for niiscoinluct on an embassy {irapaTrpfaBeia),
arraigns tlie life and morals of his accuser on a
charge which, if proved, involved the penalty
of UTi/xia, and so disqualified Timarchus from
appearing as a prosecutor in a court of law.
' AvTiSoCTis was applied to proceedings undei
a law ascribed to Solon, but probably of a later
date. By this law, a citizen nominated to per-
form a leiturgia, or to rank among the proi)erty-
ta.x paj-ers in a class disproportioned to his
means, was empowered to call upon (irpoKa\-
uadat els ai/TiSoffiv) any qualified person not
so charged to take the office in his stead, or sub-
mit to a complete exchange of property. For
these proceedings the courts were opened at a
stated time every year by the proper magistrates :
such as the strategi in cases of trierarchy and
property-tax, and the archon in those of choregia.
(Lys. (Jr. 24, pro Inval. § 10.) If the person
challenged could prove that he had already
discharged the leiturgia, or was otherwise law-
fully exempted, the magistrates might dismiss
the case ; otherwise the parties proceeded to a
SiadiKaffia or legal award of their respective
claims. Each litigant could now repair to the
houses and lands of liis antagonist, and secure
himself from fraudulent encumbrances of the
real property, and against clandestine removal
of the effects, by sealing up the chambers that
contained them, and by i^utting bailiffs in the
house. (Dem. c. Flidcnipjj. pp. 1040, 1041.) An
inventory {aTr6(pa(Tts) of each property was fur-
nished to the other party. All immoveable and
moveable property was transferred in the ex-
change, with the excejttion of mines ; and all
claims, obligations, and particularly all debts,
were included in the transfer.
Some recent authorities hold that the ex-
change of estates never took place, but that the
A€iToup7io was compulsorily transferred in such
cases.
' AvTU|j,oaia. ['AvdKpiaLS-]
'ATrayt,iyr\. The act of arresting a person
and carrying him off to prison. It was usually
carried out by the magistrate or his officer,
whether after evSei^ts, or the laying of a written
information, or by (<pr,yr\cns, when the j)rose-
cutor applied first to the magistrate and con-
ducted him to the spot where the capture was
to be effected pEvSct^Ls]- As a law term,
airaycoyr) had also a more technical meaning as
distinguished from fi/dei^ts and i<pi)yri(ns. In
certain specified cases the complainant was
allowed to apprehend a culprit cauglit jlcigrniitc
delicto (stt' avTO(pu)p(fi}, and carry him off to
prison (if the charge came within the jurisdic-
tion of the Eleven, atrdyeiy to?s ej/Se/co, Dem. c.
Titnocr. p. 730, § 81|, or bring him before a
magistrate, afterwards giving the i)articulars of
the charge in writing. If the prosecutor failed
to get one-fifth of the votes in court, he forfeited
1000 drachmas ; he also ran the risk of resist-
ance from a powerful criminal (Dem. c.Androt.
p. (501, § 2G).
The proceeding by aTraywyf) was most fre-
quently adopted against those wliom the law
designated as KOKovpyoi, such as murderers
{avSpo<p6t'oi), adulterers (fxolxoi), thieves (KKf-rr-
Tai), temple-robbers {Up6(TvKoi), pirates (AjjffTo/)
&c., clothes-stealers {KwTToSinai), burglars (toj-
X<^P^XoiU kidnappers (ai'SpaTroSifrTai). cutpurses
(jSaAAoi'TioTd^uoi), and persons who contravened
the market regulations. The same proceeding
was extended also to those charged with impiety
(do'6j3fia), ill-usage of ori)hans {k3,k(i)(Tis), and
AnOPPHTA
679
metoeks who had not paid the fjuroiKiov. As
regards the a.Trayu>yi) twv KKfirrwi', it could be
adopted only in the aggravated cases of stealing
by night, or stealing in daytime property of
greater amount than 50 drachmas. The magis-
trates before whom such cases were brought
were generally the Eleven or the thesmothetae
The complainant was said aTrdyeiv Ttjv air-
ay<iiyi]v (Lys. 138, 7) : the magistrates, when
they allowed it, irapahi^aadai.
Generally the Eleven presided ; in a trial for
KaKwais 6p(pavu)v, the arclion ; for affd^eia, the
basileus; in the case of returned exiles, the
thesmothetae. The punishment was generally
death (Dem. c. Lept. p. 4«7, § 100). Metoeks
who had not paid the fifroiKiov, were sold
as slaves ([Dem.] c. Aristog. i. p. 787, §§ 57,
58). Jhe usual mode of proceeding was by
ripoPoXTior E to-a-yveXCa.
' AireviavTLCTiJLOs, ' A-irevLavTCCei-v. [<P6-
vosj
'ATTOvpa4)Ti. Literally 'a list, or register ' ;
but in the language of the Attic courts, the
tei'ms aTzoypa.<piLV and airoypd<pe(rdat had three
sepai-ate applications : (1) in reference to an
accusation in public matters, the bill of indict-
ment : almost the same a,Hypa<p7i. (2) A solemn
assertion before a magistrate, to be preserved
by him till required in evidence. (3) A specifi-
cation of property, made with a view to the
confiscation of such property to the state. Suits
iaistituted against the di:oypa(pi, belonged to the
jurisdiction of the Eleven. In some cases the
opposer of the aiToypa<pi\ had to deposit a
certain sum, which he forfeited if he lost his
cause (irapoKaTaBoAr,) ; in all, he would prob-
ably be obliged to pay the costs or court fees
(npuravfTa) upon the same contingency.
A inivate citizen, who prosecuted an indi-
vidual by means of diroypa^i], forfeited a thou-
sand draclunas if he failed to obtain the votes
of one-fifth of the dikasts, and reimbursed the
defendant his -rTpvTavila upon acquittal.
■ATTOKiipvgig implies the method by which
an Athenian father could dissolve the legal tie
between himself and his son, and disown or
disinherit him. Demosthenes (c. Boeot. de Noin.
p. 1000, § 39) is explicit as to the absolute power
of the father over the status of the son, the
Attic law in this respect resembling the Roman.
Substantial reasons, however, were required to
insure the ratification of such extraordinary
severity : such as deficiency in filial attention,
and profligacy. A subsequent act of pardon
might annul this solemn rejection. Causes of
this kind were brought foi-ward in the court of
the archon; and the rejection would be com-
pleted and declared by the voice of the herald
(cLTroK-rfpii^at).
'AiToppTriCT€&)9 SiKTi. Public notice was
required to be given of every sale of landed
property, for the protection ot mortgagees and
other ci'editors ; and anyone having a claim
upon the estate might interdict the sale by au
air6ppriats. The vendor, on the other hand, hud
his remedy against fraudulent or malicious ob-
struction in an action for damages, called dirop-
prjafws S'lKTj.
'A-ir6ppT|Ta. (1) Contraband goods, »'. p. those
of which the export (not the import) was pro-
hibited. The chief of these were corn and
articles used in the building and equipment of
the fleet (cf. Ar. Eq. 282, licui. 302 siiq.).
(2) Certain contumelious epitliets, from the
application of which both the living and the
dead were protected by special laws : such as
avSpocfyovos, TrarpaAoios and /uTjTpaAoios ; and
680
An02TA2I0r AIKH
other words, as pix^atyins, XwttoSvttjs, and avSpa-
iroSiffTris, seem to have been actionable. The
penalty for using these words was a fine of
500 drachmas, recoverable in an action for
abusive language [KaKriyopia).
'AirocTTacrCoti SCkt). A private suit, brought
before the polemarch, against a freedman (dir-
e\evdepos) by the citizen to whom he had been
indebted for his liberty, for some default in
duty to the prosecutor : e.g. the selection of a
patron {irpoa-raTris) other than the former
master. If convicted, the defendant was pub-
licly sold (Dem. c. Aristog. i. p. 790, § 77) ; if
acquitted, the freedman was entitled to the full
privileges of a ixiroMos.
The airoffTacTiov Slkti, against an cnreKevdepos,
must be distinguished from the ypacpT] airpo-
araaiov, a public action brought against a fieT-
OIKOS.
'AiroTTJM.-iravicrtios- Beating to death with
sticks, cudgels, or clubs, mentioned as a mode
of execution at Athens and elsewhere. It
resembled the Roman Fustuarium.
It seems probable that this and other cruel
punishments were by Attic law confined to
slaves and aliens, but the practice in bad times
may not have been on a level with the theory.
' ATr64)aCTi9 and ' A'ir6(}>o,VCTt9, a declaration,
was : (1) the proclamation of the decision or
arbitration at the end of a trial (Siaira), ap-
parently made by a herald under the direc-
tion of the presiding magistrate (Dem. c.
Apatar. p. 899, §§ 20, 21). (2) The day on
which the trial took place (Dem. c. Everg.
p. 11.53, § 45). (3) The account of a person's
property in a case of 'AvrCSoats. (4) A re-
port made by the Areiopagus to the Demos in
a case of undetected crime [Areiopagus]. See
also rpa(t)ii.
'A-n-o<t)pd8£s ihM'«'P°-'" Unlucky or unfor-
tunate days {dies nefasti), on which no public
business, nor any important affairs of any kind,
were transacted at Athens. Such were the last
tliree days but one of every month, and the day
of the nXuvTiipia.
'AiPOCTkXtITOS SlKT). [AlKT).]
'AirpoCTTaaCoTJ -ypa^Ti. An action falling
under the jurisdiction of the polemarch, which
was brought against jxfTOiKOi who had neglected
to provide themselves with a patron (TrpoffTaTTjj;.
'Apviag "vpact)-!!. Vagrants and idlers were
from early times not tolerated at Athens (Hdt.
ii. 177). The earliest laws against vagrancy
have been attributed to Peisistratus, to Solon,
and even to Drako. In accordance with the
law called apyias vo/xos, aU poor people must
signify that they were carrying on some honour-
able business by which they gained their liveli-
hood (Dem. c. Eabiil. p. 1308, § 32) ; and if a
person by his idleness injured his family, an
action might be brought against him before the
archon eponymus, who seems to have laid the
charge before the Areiopagus. A first offence
was punishable by tine ; a second or third con-
viction, by drijuia. It seems proljable, however,
that the apyias ypa(pr) was not under the e.'cclu-
sive jurisdiction of the Areiopagus, but came
also before the dikastae in the ordinary courts.
'ACT€3eCas vpacjjTi. One of the many forms
prescribed by the Attic laws for the impeach-
ment of impiety. Such offences were, first,
breaches of the ceremonial law of public wor-
ship ; and secondly, indications of heterodoxy
or heresy. The former comprehended encroach-
m.ent upon consecrated grounds, the plunder
or other injury of temples, the violation of
asylums, the interruption of sacrifices and
ATEAEIA
festivals, the mutilation of statues of the gods,
the introduction of deities not acknowledged by
the state, and various other transgressions, _
such as profanation or divulgation of the Eleu-
sinian mysteries, injury to the sacred olive-trees,
(fMopiai) or offering sacrifice irregularly. The
heretical delinquencies may be exemplified by
the expulsion of Protagoras, the persecution
of Anaxagoras, and the condenuiation of So-
krates (Xen. Ajjol. iiocr. 10, Meinor. i. 1, § 1).
But as Aristophanes and Epikurus were not
prosecuted for impiety, it is difficult to ascertain
the limit at wliich jests or scepticism ended,
and penal impiety began.
With respect to the trial, any citizen that
pleased (o ^ovKofitvos) seems to have been a
competent accuser.
The magistrate who conducted the previous
examination {avaKpiais) was the king archon ;
the court into which he brought the causes was
the Areiopagus, or tlie common heliastic court,
accordmg to circumstances.
If the accuser failed to obtain a fifth of the
votes of the dikasts, he forfeited a thousand
draclrmas, and incurred pyrobably a modified
arifxia (Dem. c. Euhul. p. 1301, § 28).
Other forms of prosecution for this offence
were airaywyi] (Dem. c. Androt. p. 601, § 35),
f<pr)yr)(rLS, fuSet^is (Andoc. de Myst. § H), irpo-
fioAri, and in extraordinary cases 6tVa776A.i'a
(Andoc. ib. § 43).
'AcTTpaTeCas ypa<pi\. A citizen of Athens
was liable to indictment for — (1) Failure to join
the army {acTTpareias). (2) Cowardice in battle
(SetAias). (3) Desertion of his post (AjTroTo^iou).
(4) Desertion from the army (KnrocTTpaTiov}. Of
these terms, KiiroTo^iov was that used in the
widest sense, and might include any of the
others.
All these actions belonged to the jurisdiction
of the strategi : the accuser was any qualified
citizen that chose to come forward {6 0ov\6-
fifvos, oTs e^fffTt), and the court was composed
of soldiers who had served in the campaign.
The punislmient of dxi/uja is regularly attached
to this class of offences (Dem. Mid. p. 533,
§ 58, Xeaer. p. 1353, § 27), with, of course,
further penalties for usurping the forfeited
rights (Dem. c. Timocr. p. 732). ['Avau-
H-axLou vpa^JT).] Anroffrpariov ypa(pri must
be distinguished from AvTojjLoXCag 7pa4)Ti.
'AxeXeua. Immmiitj- or exemption from
some or all of the duties wliich a person has to
perform towards the state ; granted either as a
privilege to citizens of a state, or given as
honorary distmctions to foreign kings, states,
communities, or even private individuals.
With regard.to the latter, ateleia was usually an
exemption from customs duties on the importa-
tion or exportation of goods (see Hdt. i. 54,
ix. 73 ; Dem. c. Lept. p. 466 sqq.). General im-
mmiity (arfXeia airavTCtii' : Dem. I. c. p. 475)
included exemption from customs duties ; from
liturgies, other than the trierarchy ; in some
rare exceptions, from the fl(T(popd or property
tax, and in the case of resident aliens, from the
neTo'iKiov. Partial are\eia consisted in exemp-
tion from any one or more of the above burdens.
The most common case was that of immunity
from customs duties ; from the trierarchy none
could be exempt but the nine archons. Exemp-
tion from military service was enjoyed by all
members of the )3oi»A^ or senate, by the arclions
for the time being, and certain others. In the
times of Demosthenes areKfia was almost
obsolete, being enjoyed by not more than ten
foreigners and five or six citizens.
ATIMIA
ATHhia- The undiminished possession of
the rights of an Athenian citizen was expressed
by the word (irnt^Lia : its opposite, drifxia, de-
notes total or partial disfranchisement, or dis-
ability. The word art/xia occurs in Attica as
early as the laws [Qiffixoi) of Drako. Atimia
might be either [a) temporary or (6) perpetual,
and the latter again might be either total or
partial.
(1) Any citizen of Athens who owed money to
the public treasury was in a state of total atimia
as long as he did not pay the sum which was
due. If it remained unpaid at the end of the
year, the debt was doubled, and the debtor's
property sold (Dem. c. Nicontr. p. 1'255, § '27). If
the sum obtained by the sale was sufficient to
pay the debt, the atimia appears to have ceased ;
but if not, the atimia not only continued to the
death of the public debtor, but was inherited
by his heirs, and lasted until the debt was paid
ok. Tills atimia for public debt was some-
times accompanied by imprisonment, as in the
cases of Alkibiades and Kimon.
(2) Perpetual atimia, sometimes also here-
ditary, is denoted by the phrase Kaddtra^ arifios
(Dem. c. Mid. p. 524, § 32). An atimos
was not allowed to hold any civil or priestly
office ; he could not be employed as herald or
as ambassador ; he could not take part in the
proceedings (Kfyfiv Kal ypdcpetv) either of the
public assembly or the senate; he was not
allowed to appear within the agora ; was ex-
cluded from public sanctuaries and sacrifices;
could neither bring an action nor appear as
a witness in any court of justice: on the other
hand, no one could bring an action against him
(Dem. c. Neaer. p. 1353, § 27, c. Mid. p.
542, § 87). In some cases he might not even
be buried within the limits of Attica. Con-
fiscation, however, it is probable, did not foUow
atimia except in the case of public debtors.
Total and perpetual atimia was inflicted
for the following offences: the giving and ac-
cepting of bribes, embezzlement of public
money, various military offences, false witness
{ipfvSo/xapTvpia, tpevSoK\r]Teia), false accusation,
bad conduct towards parents, injurious treat-
ment of a magistrate (Dem. c. Mid. p. 524, § 32),
extravagance, and some other offences, moral or
political, e.g. putting an illegal motion to th6
vote, or giving a partial decision as SiaiTrjTrjs.
(3) A third and partial kind of atimia de-
prived a man of a xwrtion only of his rights as a
citizen. Partial atimia, when once inflicted,
lasted during the whole of a man's life.
(4) Enforcement of the penalties. If a
person, under whatever kind of atimia he was
labouring, continued to exercise any of the
rights which he had forfeited, he might imme-
diately be subjected to dvaywyi) or li'Sei^ts;
and if his transgression was proved, he might,
without any further proceedings, be punished
immediately, and with imprisonment, or even
death.
(5) Rehabilitation, or release from atimia,
was not impossible, but was extremelj' difficult.
It was only in times of great danger that an
atimos might hope to recover his lost rights,
and in suc;h circumstances the atimoi were
sometimes restored en masse to the full citizen-
ship. (Xcn. Hrll. ii. 2, § 11.)
The offences which were punished at Sparta
with atimia are not so well known. In general,
it apjiears that everyone who refused to live
according to the national institutions lost the
rights of a full citizen (o/j.oios, Xen. de Rej).
Lac. X. 7, iii. 8). It was a positive law that
BIAinN AIKh
681
whoever did not give or could not give his con-
tribution towards the syssitia lost his rights
as a citizen. (Arist. Fol. ii. 1271 a, 35.) The
highest degree of infamy fell upon the coward
(rpfffas), who either ran away from the field of
battle or returned home without the rest of
the army (Hdt. vii. 231). The Spartans who
surrendered to the Athenians at Sphakteria
were punished with a kind of atimia. After-
wards, however, they recovered their rights
(Thuc. V. 34). Unmarried men were also sub-
ject to a certain degree of atimia.
AvTOM.o\£as ypa.<^-r]- The accusation of
persons charged with having deserted and gone
over to the enemy. The punishment was death
(Dem. F. L. p. 380, § 126). Such causes were
probably tried before the Areiopagus.
'A<})avTis oiiaia and the correlative temi
(pavepa ovaia have been variously explained.
It is probable that <pavfpd ovffia denoted im-
moveable or real proijerty, a.(pavr]s ovaia move-
able property or personalty.
'A4)op(XTis SCkti was the action brought
against a banker or money-lender {rpairf^ir-qs)
to recover funds advanced for the purpose of
being employed as banking capital.
"AiJ/iixMv 8£kt). An action against inanimate
objects [dii/vxo.) which had caused the death of
a human being. It thus somewhat resembles
the ancient English law of deodand. It was
tried in the court of the Prytaneum, and par-
took more of the nature of a religious ceremony
than a judicial proceeding. If the instruments
of a murder were captured, and not the murderer
himself, these, after the 'E<|>6Tai, had pro-
nounced their sentence, were conveyed out of the
country bj' the <pv\o^affLKrts. Animals likewise,
by which anyone had been killed, were here con-
demned to death, and then conveyed out of the
country.
B.
Be3a->-uae(i39 SCkti, an action to compel the
vendor to make a good title, was had recourse
to in the following cases :
(1) To compel performance of contract, when
the vendor, after receiving the dppafiwv or
deposit, repents of his bargain.
(2) To confirm the riglit or possession of the
purchaser when impugned or disturbed by a
third person. If the present owner were not
inclined to defend the action himself (outo-
fxaxf^v), he referred the claimant to the vendor
asthe proper defendant.
(3) If tlie third party so claiming had es-
tablished his right, the ejected purchaser was
entitled to sue the vendor for reimbursement
(TTjr Ti/j.Tjv Kol Tr)v (^rj/j.iav, the actual price J)/"S
compensation for loss and inconvenience).
Sales by the state gave an indefeasible title
(Dem. c. Timocr. p. 717, § 54).
Biaiojv SCkti. This action might be brought
in any case of brutal violence (Dem. c. Pan tarn.
p. 976, § 33) ; it came under the jurisdiction of
the TeTxapcLKOVTa. It was, however, mainly
restricted to two cases : the illegal and forcible
seizure of property of any kind, but especially of
slaves ; and the rape, or abduction with a view to
rape, of a free person ['Egaiptaetos 8Ckti]. All
such acts of violence were considered to be not
merely civil injuries, but crimes against society
(Dem. Mid. p. 528), and the fiiaiaiy Si'ktj might
be taken up by a third party as a ypafpi) or
public prosecution. With respect to aggres-
sions upon property, the action /Sioicdi/ implies
C82
BAABH2 AIKH
the employment of actual violence, i^ovKrjs 1
merely forcible detention of property. ]
B\a3'ns 8Ckti. This action was available
in all cases in which one person had sustained
a loss by the conduct of another, actual or pro-
spective, whether a fault of omission or com-
mission. BAajSai were of two kinds, the first
(e^/fleo-yuoi) including all causes arising from the
non-fulfilmeut of a contract to which a penal
bond was annexed, and those in which the law
specified the penalty to be paid by Uie defend-
ant upon conviction ; the second (adecriioi), all
injuries of property which the law did not
specify nominatim, but generally directed to be
punished by a fine eiiual to twice the damage,
if the offence was intentional ; if otherwise, by
a bare compensation (Dem. c. Mid. p. 5'2S, § 43).
The declaration of the plaintiff seems always to
have begun with the words "Z^Kcal/e fxe, then
came the name of the defendant, and next a
description of the injury, as ovk airoSiSovs 4fj.ol
rh apyvpiov in Demosthenes (jjru Phorm. p.
950, § 20; cf. in Pantaen. p. 973, § 22).
The proper court was determined by the sub-
ject of litigation. A $\afirj in the market (Ar.
Vrsp. 1407), would come before the 'A-yopa-
v6^JLot ; dangerous buildings, before the ' Acttv-
v6\i.oi ; commercial and mining cases, as a rule,
before the thesmothetae ; those arising out of
the law of inheritance, before the Archon
(iirtivviJLOs).
Bov\eva£(i>9 -ypacjjyi. An impeachment for
conspiracy. Bou\iv(Tfuis, being in this case the
abbreviated form of (■n-ifiov\fvafws, is the name
of two widely different actions at Attic law. (1)
The accusation of conspiracy against life, which
might be instituted by the parson thereby
attacked, or his or her legal patron (Kvptos). In
case of the plot having succeeded, the deceased
might be represented in tlie prosecution by near
kinsmen (oi ivrus dfeiJ/tiiTrjTos). The penalty,
upon conviction, was tlie same as that incurred
by the actual murderers. Capital punisliment
was, however, not inflicted unless deatli fol-
lowed. The presidency of tlie court upon a
trial of this kind, as in most SiKai (pouiKai, be-
longed to the king archon, and the court itself
was composed of tlie ephetae, sitting in the Pal-
ladium ['E<^^Tai].
(2) The other action $ov\fV(Tfws was em-
ployed when a person found himself wrongfully
inscribed as a state debtor, against the person
who had so inscribed him, i.e. the public
treasurer. It was thus closely akin to the
IpevSe-yvpacJ)!!? vpacJjTi. In both cases, if
the plaintiff was successful, his name was
erased, and the defendant became indebted to
the state for an equal sum. Both ypacpai,
fiovXevaeus, and i^eu5€77pa</)^s, were brought
before the thesmothetae.
rajjLTiXCa. [Matrimonium, 1.]
rpa<|>Ti, in its most general acceptation, com-
prehends all state trials and criminal prosecu-
tions whatever in the Attic courts : but in its
more limited sense, those only which were not
distinguished (as the evOvvat, evSei^is, elaayyt-
Kia, &c., were) by a special name and a peculiar
conduct of the proceedings. The principal
characteristic differences between public and
private actions are mentioned under ACkt),
and the peculiar forms of public prosecutions
are separately noticed. Of these forms, together
with that of the ypa^i), properly so called, it
AEKA2M02
fraquently happened that two or more were
applicable to the same action (e.g. Dem. c.
Mid. p. 523, § 2H, c. Androt. p. 601, § 27) ; and
the discretion of the jDrosecutor in selecting the
most advantageous of his available remedies
was attended by results of great importance to
himself and to the accused. Thus, if the prose-
cutor's case did not appear to the jury to justify
his proceeding by ypa<pri, the rifirifia might be
smaller in consequence : or if the action were
a.Tifxt]Tos they might refuse him a verdict or
fine him.
The courts before which public causes could
be tried were verj' various : there were the
ordinary Heliastic bodies under the control of
the nine archons, or the Eleven, or the logistae,
or the generals ; and besides these, the /SouAt;,
and even the eKK\rj<ria, occasionally became
judicial bodies for that pui-pose (Dem. c. Lept.
p. 484, § yOl. The court was usually determined
by the subject-matter of the accusation. It
was in general requisite that the ostensible
prosecutor should be an Athenian citizen in
the full possession of his franchise {' AQj^vaiuiv
ois ^^e(TTij ; but in some cases fifTotKoi antl even
slaves were invited to come forward and lay
informations (Thuc. vi. 27 ; cf. Andoc. dr Mijst.
§§ 13, 15 sqq. ; Antiph. de Cited. Herod. § 34).
In most cases (but see 'AiravoYTi/EvSeigis,
ElaavYcXiai, a public action against a citizen
commenced like an ordinary lawsuit (Sikjj) with
a summons to appear before the proper magis-
trate on a fixed day. The 'AvaKpiaig then
followed. A public prosecution could not be
referred to an arbitrator (AiaiT-riTaCj, and
if it were compromised, this would render the
accuser ipso iure liable to a fine of a thousand
drachmas ([Dem.] c. Theocr. p. 1323, § C).
The same sum was also forfeited in most cases
when the prosecutor failed to obtain the
votes of a fifth of the dikasts. Besides this
penalty, partial orijuia was incurred upon seve-
ral occasions. Upon the conviction of the ac-
cused, if the sentence were death or prison, the
presiding magistrate delivered over the prisoner
to the Eleven (wapa^ovvai to7s fvBiKa). If the
punishment was confiscation of property, the
demarch, as a rule, made an inventory [airS-
(pacris, airoipaivfiv) of the effects of the criminal,
which was read in the assembly of the people,
and delivered to the riwXTiTaC, that they
might hold a sale of the goods, and pay in
the proceeds to the public treasury ; and simi-
larly if the accused was condemned to pay a
fine, the magistrate made account to the npa.K-
Topes, &c.
AaTTiTaC, distributors or liquidators, were
employed in the winding-up of a partnership
concern, when any one or more of the partners
wished to retire. This might be effected ami-
cably, without the intervention of the law
But if the parties could not agree, those who
insisted on the winding-up might bring an
action by irp6aK\i\(ni or summons for the ap-
pointment of liquidators. The award of these
5aT7)Tai seems to have been binding on all
parties.
AeiXCas Ypa<()i^. ['AaTpareCas •ypaij)!^.]
AcKacT^os- Briberj'. There were two ac-
tions for bribery at Athens : (1) SeKocr/xoO ypa<pi],
against the person who gave the bribe ; (2)
Swpwv or Su'poSoKias ypacp-lh against the person
who received it. These actions applied to the
briberj' of citizens in the public assemblies of
I
AHMIOnPATA
the people, of the Heliaea or any of the courts
of justice, of the ^ov\r\, and of the truyrjYtipot or
pubhc advocates.
Actions for bribery were under the jurisdiction
of the thesmothetae. The punishment on con-
viction was death (Aeschin. c. Tim. § H7), or
payment of ten times the vahie of the gift re-
ceived, with or without an additional punish-
ment {■Kpo(TTiix7)ixa) at the pleasure of the court.
Atimia followed as a matter of course on con-
viction (Dem. c. Mid. p. 551, § 113).
ATip-ioirpaTa. Property confiscated at
Athens and sold by public auction (Ar. Vesp.
659, Eq. 103). These sales were under the
direction of n&jXTiTaC, who set up lists of
Sr]/j.i6TrpaTa upon tablets of stone in the Acro-
polis, at Eleusis, and elsewhere.
AiaSiKacrCa, ni its most extended sense, is
almost a synonj-m of S'lKr], but regards the
point in question as a dispute between equal
claimants, not an action by one against another.
Thus it is apx^lied to a settlement out of court
(Dem. c. Onet. i. p. 8G4, § 2). Technically, 5ia-
SLKacria denotes the proceedings in a contest
for preference between two or more rival
parties, either as to the possession of proiDerty
or as to exemption from personal or pecuniary
liabilities : e.g. cases of disputed inheritance
(Dem. c. Leochar. p. 1082, § 7) ; of contests for
priesthoods or temple property, claims of rival
creditors, and contests between informers
claiming rewards (Andoc. de Myst. § 28). Aia-
$iKaaia also includes questions as to who should
undertake a trierarchy or a choregia (Xen. liej}.
Ath. 3, §§ 4, 5 ; Dem. c. Ajyhob. ii. p. 841, § 17 ;
see 'AvTiSoais), or as to who was to be held
responsible for debts due to the state (Dem. c.
Timocr. p. 704, § 13).
AiaiTTiTai. Arbitrators, umpires. The
diaetetae mentioned by the Athenian orators
were of two kinds ; the one public and ap-
pointed by lot (KKripocTol), the other private
and chosen (alperoi) by the parties who referred
to them the equitable decision of a disputed
point, instead of trying it before dikasts (Arist.
Bhet. i. 13, § 19).
(1) Public Diaetetae. A certain number of
citizens — of just sixty years of age ([Arist.]
'Ad. TToA. c. 53) — were appointed to serve as
diaetetae in such cases as might arise. A cer-
tain number (perhaps 20) from each tribe (Dem.
c. Everg. p. 1142, § 12) were chosen by lot in the
ekklesia annually. They were bound to serve
(under the penalty of art/jLia) for the first year
after their superannuation from military ser-
vice. The diaetetae, as the heliastae, gave
their verdict on oath.
The diaetetae of the different tribes appear
to have sat in different places — as temples, halls,
and courts of justice, if not wanted for other
purposes : the Heliaea, the Delphinium, the
erroa irotKi\ri, the Hephaisteion, are mentioned.
The only remuneration of tlie diaetetae was
a drachma deposited by the plaintiff on lodg-
ment of his plaint, and one by the defendant on
lodgment of his answer {avroofioaia). This fee
was called irapiaTaats luid SpaxM-V to'" AiTro^ap-
Tvpiov (Dem. r. Timoth. p. 1190, § 19).
The pul)lic arbitrators were pi-obahly not
vTrevdwoi in the technical sense [EuevvaJ ; but
anyone who had a cause of complaint against
them might proceed against them by Elo-a-y-
yeKia., or information laid before the senate. For
this purpose (see Dem. c. Mid. p. 542, § 8Ci), the
public diaetetae were towards the close of their
yetir of office required to present themselves to
answer any charge brought against lliem, of
AIAITHTAI
683
which they received a previous notice. The
punishment, in case of condemnation, was
aTL/j.ia, \\-ith or without a fine of 500 drachmas.
The diaetetae had no criminal jurisdiction.
In civil actions for restitution or compensation
recourse was very frequently had to them, partly
to save the state payment to the dikasts, partly
because the proceedings were to some extent
informal, and the pleading rather popular than
forensic.
Besides hearing cases of this sort the diae-
tetae sat as commissioners of inquiry on matters
of fact which could not be conveniently examined
in a court of justice. Either party in a suit
could demand or challenge (irpoKa\ei(T6at) an
inquiry of this sort before an arbitrator, the
challenge being called 'irp6KX-t)<ns- Instances
of such7rpo/cAr((r€is are the challenge to i:)roduce
iK'5ovvai) a slave for torture ; to abide by the
evidence of a third person, or of documents to
be examined, or to accept as a verdict an oath
by either party.
The proceedings in the trials before the public
arbitrators were of two kinds : (a) when two
parties agreed by a regular contract to refer a
matter in dispute to a judge or judges selected
(alperoi) from them, in which case the award
was final ; (b) when a cause was brought before
a jiublic arbitrator, without any such previous
compromise, and in the regular course of law.
Tn this case an appeal {((peais), or rather a motion
for a new trial, was allowed to another court.
It rested with the complainant whether to go
before a SiaiTTjTv'jy or into court at once. If he
chose the former; the proper magistrate
[E lo-a-vu-yeis] assigned him one or, sometimes,
more arbitrators.
The process before the public diaetetae, whe-
ther selected by the parties or assigned by
the elcraywyevs, was conducted in the follow-
ing manner. After complaint made, and pay-
ment of the TTapdaraffis, the plaintiff supported
his averment by an oath, to the effect that his
accusation was true ; which the defendant met
by a like oath as to the matter of his defence.
"When the oath (a.vToofj.o(rla, Siw/xoaia) had been
thus taken by the parties, the arbitrators entered
uj)on the inquiry, heard witnesses, examined
documents, and held as many conferences
icrwoSoi) with the parties as might be necessary.
The day (ri Kvpia) of pronouncing judgment
(air6<pa(rLS, Dem. c. Everg. p. 1153, § 45), pro-
bably fixed l)y law, might, with consent of both
parties, be postponed.
If the defendant were not present on the
proper day to make his last defence, judgment
went against him by default (4prin.T)v 6(p\iLv), the
arbitrator being obliged to wait till the evening
(6i\ie Tj/oLfpas, Dem. c. Mid. p. 54], § 84). The
vTrwixoaia might be met by a counter-statement
{a.f6viroc/j.o(ria) from the opposite jiarty. Suffi-
cient cause for absence, however, might be
alleged on oath {inrcofj.oala) by the party default-
ing, either in person or by jn'oxy.
If judgment was merely deferred, there was
no need for a new trial. This could only take
place when a judgment given by default was set
aside (Kiifiv rijv iprifxriv), and the parties went
again before an arbitrator.
(2) Private Diaetetae. Private arbitrators
were chosen {alpfroi) by mutual agreement be-
tween contending parties, and not selected from
the diaetetae {KKrjpcoToi) of the tribes. The
powers with which they were invested varied
according to the circumstances ; sometimes they
were merely StaWaKTai, or chosen to effect a
compromise ; sometimes they were referees, with
684
AIAMAPTTPIA
powers depending upon the terms of the agree-
ment of reference ; if these powers were Umited,
the arbitration was a Siaira eirl pr]ro7s. The
agreement was drawn up in writing [iirtrpoTr^
KaTO. (TvvOyjKas, Dem. c. Phorm. -p. 91'2, g 18), and
signed by the parties ; it fixed the number of
referees (generally three), and probably reserved
or prohibited, as the case might be, a right of
appeal to other authorities and other conditions
(Dem. c. Apat. p. a97, § 15).
If there were no limitations, these diaetetae
had full power to decide, and no appeal could
be brought against their judgment (Dem. c.
Mid. p. 515, § 94). The award was frequently
given under the sanction of an oath, and had
the same force as the judgment which proceeded
from a court of law. These private diaetetae
sat iv T(fi l€p<fi, iv T(fi 'H(j)atcTTeicfi, &c., and had
in other respects a quasi-public character.
Ata^,apT-upta. ['AvaKptcrus- 1
Aia\|/Ti<J>io-is- A political institution at
Athens, the object of which was to prevent
aliens, or such as were the offspring of an un-
lawful marriage, from assuming the rights of
citizens. Intruders (irapey-ypaTTTot) could be
proceeded against by ypacpr) ^evias or ypa(pr}
dwpo^evlas : but a more effectual remedy was
provided in Siarp-ltcpKTis, a trial held by the de-
motae within whose deme intruders (Aeschin.
F. L. §§ 70, 177 ; Ar. VesjJ. 716) were suspected
to exist. The assembled demotae were swoni to
judge impartially. The president then read the
names of the demotae from the register, asking
the opinion of the assembly {Sia\l/ri(f>i(€rydai} re-
specting each individual, whether they thought
him a legitimate citizen or not. If any name was
questioned, evidence was heard before the vote
was given. An adverse vote is aTro\l/rj<pi^€(T0at.
If a person was found guilty, his name was sti'uck
(4^aK(i(p(iu) from the Arj^iapx^Khv ypa^fxanlov,
and he himself was degraded to the rank of an
alien (fxfTOiKos). If he appealed (etpeais) to the
great courts of justice, at Athens, and was found
guilty there also, he was sold as a slave, and his
property was confiscated by the state. {Arg. ad
Dem. c. Euhul.)
The oldest known Siaip-fitpicrts occurs in 445
B.C. (Plut. Pericl. 87).
AiKaCTT-qpLov indicates both the aggregate
judges who sat in court (ALKaffTiis), and the
place in which they held their sittings. For the
ancient courts which had cognisance of the
graver causes in which the loss of human life
was avenged or expiated, viz. the Areiopagites
and the Ephetae, see <t>6vos, Areiopagus,
'E4)€'Tai.. The places remained after the office
of the judges who originally sat there was
abolished ; and they appear from Demosthenes
(c. Neaer. p. 1348, § 9) to have been occasionally
used by the ordinary Heliastic judges when
trying a cause of the kind to which they were
originally appropriated. The Heliaea itself,
and probably the majority of the Heliastic
courts, were situated in the Agora; otliers in
various parts of the city. Besides the Heliaea,
the following are named : the Parabyston
{■n-apdfivffToi/), in which the" Ev8eKa presided, in
a remote quarter of the city (cf. Dem. c. Timocr.
p. 715, §47); the Dikasterion of Metiochus.and
tliat of Kalleas (rh KaKKeiov) ; the Green Court
(Barpaxiovv) and the Red Court (^oiviKiovv),
the Middle Court (Meffov), the Greater Court
(Me7(ov), the New Court (Kaii'Oi'), the Triangular
Court (Tpiyajvov), and the Dikasterion at the
holy place of Lykus {i-rrl AvKCfi), probably near
the Lyceum ; with some others. The dikasts
eat upon wooden benches, which were covered
AIKA2TH2
with rugs or matting {\l/iddia), and there were
tribunes {^■tjfj.araj for the speakers. The court
was protected by a railing (dpv<paKTOi) from the
intrusion of the bystanders.
AiKaaTTis, in its broadest acceptation a
judge, more particularly the Athenian function-
ary of the democratic period, commonly ren-
dered ' juryman.' The dikastae are frequently
styled Heliastae (^AiacTTai, r]ktaia}, and their
courts the Heliastic courts. Their jurisdiction
extended to matters of every kind without excep-
tion. The heliastae or dikastae were instituted
by Solon, but little is known about their early
constitution. At the time when democracy was
fully developed, when the causes even of the
subject allies were brought before the Athenian
courts, there were 6000 dikasts or heliasts,
600 for each tribe, chosen by lot. The ballot
{K\r]povv, eiriK\T)povv to, SiKaffrripia, Dem. c.
Everg. p. 1144, § 17) was conducted annually
by the nine archons. The heliastae were swom
to judge according to the laws and the evi-
dence. The whole number of 6000 was divided
into ten sections of 500 each, so that 1000
remained over to serve for the filling of vacan-
cies in the sections. These sections, as well as
the places of meeting, were called Dikasteria,
and in each section members of all the tribes
were mingled together. Each heliast received,
as a certificate of his appointment, a bronze
tablet {-Kivaxiov, ffvfi^oXov : cf. fig. 1068, under
Tessera) with his name and the number or
letter of the section to which he belonged (from
A to K), e.g. E. AE1NIA2 'AAAIET2 : they bore,
besides, devices symbolic of the Athenian people.
The courts in which each section had to sit
for the day were assigned in the Agora by the
thesmothetae by lot. The process of allotment
appears to have been as follows :
(1) Assigrunent (eVi/cArjpaiffjj) of a letter
A M N, &c., to a court.
(2) Assignment of courts to magistrates
(dpxoO. ^
(3) Drawing of jurors' tickets {avix$oXa) from
boxes {Ki^diTia) into which they had been
thrown by their holders, and fixing them up
I {eixirr)yvvvai) on a frame (Kca/ovis).
j (4) Drawing (Kv^da) for the service Of the
' day. The tickets were taken successively from
the frame by their owners, and simultaneously
a white or black cube was drawn by the archon
i from a box called KX-qpurpis. A white cube
i meant that the holder of the corresponding
ticket had to serve that day.
(5) Assignment of jurors to a letter, i.e. a
I court. The jurors selected by the Kvfieia
I took each of them a ball (jSdA.avos) marked with
! one of the letters A M N from a vSpia, and
, showed it to the archon, who thereupon took
the ticket {avfx^oKov) from the juror and threw
it into a box (ki^cvtiov) marked with the same
I letter. Finally, the av/xfioXov was returned to
I the juror on his appearance in the court to
which he was assigned.
I Provision was made that the number of
dikasts should be always an uneven one, 201,
1001, 2001, &c. The usual number appears to
have been 501.
After the ballot on the day of the trial each
member of the section received a staff ()3a/CT7jpt'a) j
^vith the colour and letter of the court in which
he had to sit. The dikasts were not swom afresh
before every case ; the oath originally taien at
the annual election sufficed. The legal age of
the dikastae was at least tliirty, and of course
the full franchise (eiriTiimia) was required. For
an firi.uos to attempt to earn the dikast's fee
AIKH
was a capital offence (Dem. c. Mid. p. 573,
§ 182).
This payment (nicrdhs StKa(TTiK6s, more
usually rb SiKaffriKdv) is said to have been
first instituted by Perikles. There is no proof
that it was ever less than three oboli (rpi-
(ii^oKov), which occurs as early as 4'25 B.C. in
the comedies of Aristophanes, and is after-
wards mentioned frecjuentlj' (e.g. Eq. 51, Venp.
300, &c.). The pajnnent was made at the end
of the day's work by the KcoXaKptTai, in ex-
change for the staff (;3o«T7jpiaj and the pro-
duction of the ticket {(rvfxfioKov) with which
each dikast was already provided on enter-
ing the court (Ar. I'lut. 277): the bronze
<rvfi$o\ov was retained by the dikast, as it was
inscribed with his name, and had to serve him
thi'oiighout the year. Those who liad come too
late had no claim to the TpiuifioKof. [BovKr[.\
The amiual amovmt of these fees is reckoned by
Aristophanes {Vesj}- 663) at 150 talents, imply-
ing 300 days' pay for e\ ery dikast.
ACkt). Any proceedings at law by one party
directly or mediately against others. Public
causes at Athens were generally termed ypa<pai ;
private causes St'/cai. These terms do not exactlj'
coincide with ' criminal ' and ' civil ' ; since
criminal actions (Si'/cai Kara Ttvos, ex delicto)
might be brought by individuals, as well as
non-criminal actions (5//coj irpSs riva, for non-
fulfilment of obligations ex contractu). The laws
of Athens gave the prosecutor an ample choice
of methods to vindicate his rights by pri\ ate or
public proceedings (Dem. c. Androt. p. (101, § 25).
In a SIkt], only the person whose rights were
alleged to be affected, or his legal protector
{Kvpios), if incapable of appearing ano tare, was
permitted to institute an action as jiliiintiff ; in
most public causes any free citizen was em-
powered to do so. Ill most private causes the
penalty or other subject of contention was ex-
clusively recovered by the plaintiff ; in most
others the state alone, or jointly with the
prosecutor, profited by the pecuniary punish-
ment of the offender. The court fees (irpu-
Tttfeia) were paid in private but not in public
causes. A private suitor might compromise
the action with the defendant ; a i)ublic pro-
secutor who did so was liable to a fine of 1000
drachmas and partial arifiia.
The proceedings in the Siktj were commenced
by a summons to the defendant (Trpocr/cATjo-i?)
to appear on a certain day before the proper
magistrate {€l(rayu>ytvs), and there answer
the charges preferred against him (Ar. Nub.
1221). This summons was often served by the
plaintiff in person, accompanied by one or two
witnesses [KXTiTTip€s], whose names were en-
dorsed upon the declaration A^|is or ey/cArj/ua).
If the summons was insufficiently served
(a,irp6(TK\7)TOS S'lKTi), the case was dismissed.
Between the service of the summons and ap-
pearance of the parties before the magistrate,
it is probable that the law prescribed the inter-
vention of a period of five days. If both parties
appeared, the proceedings commenced by the
plaintiff putting in his declaration, and at the
same time depositing his share of the court
fees (npuTavda). If the subject of litigation
was rated at less than 100 drachmas, nothing
was paid ; if a sum between 100 and 1000
drachmas, 3 drachmas was a sufficient deposit,
and so on in i)r(>p()rtion. Sec also flapaKara-
PoXfi, riapdCTTacjts. AtaixTiTaC. The de-
posits being made, the magistrate caused the
declaration to be wTitten out on a tablet, and
exposed for the inspection of the public.
DIVORCE
685
The magistrate then appointed a day for the
further proceedings of tlie 'AvciKpio-is, wliich
was doife by drawing lots for priority of hear-
ing ; hence the phrase \ay xaffiv SiKr]v, to
bring an action. If the plaintiff failed to
appear at the anakrisis, the suit fell to the
gi-ound ; if the defendant made default, judg-
ment passed against him. Either i)arty, how-
ever, might show cause for non-attendance. The
plaintiff making default was said iprmriv [i.e.
diK-rju] eA.*?!/ : the defendant ipi]fxr]v 6cp\uv. The
anakrisis began with the affidavit of the plaintiff
(Trpodi/jLoala), then followed the answer of the de-
fendant (aj/TOJ/ioo-io or "AvTiYpacljyi), then the
parties produced theirrespective witnesses, and
reduced their evidence to writing, putting in ori-
ginals, or authenticated copies, of all the docu-
ments that miglit bo useful in establishing their
case, as well as memoranda of offers and chal-
lenges (npoKXriaeis, &c.). The whole of the docu-
ments were then, if the cause took a straight-
forward course {(vOuSiKia), enclosed on the last
day of the anakrisis in a i)ox (exivosl, wliich was
sealed and entrusted to the custody of the presid-
ing magistrate, till it was produced and opened
at tile trial. No further evidence was producible
at the trial. The parties might defer the day
(Kvpia) by mutual consent (Dem. c. Phacn. p.
1042, § 12). Upon the court being assembled,
the magistrate called on the cause {fladyeiv),
and the plaintiff opened his case. At the com-
mencement of the speech, the proj)er officer
(6 f<p' vdoip) filled the clepsydra with water. As
long as the water flowed from this vessel, the
orator was permitted to speak ; when evidence
was read by the officer of the court, or a law
recited, the water was stopped till the speaker
recommenced. The quantity of water, or, in
other words, the length of the speeches, was
not the same in all causes. After the speeches
of the advocates, which were in general two on
each side, and the incidental reading of the
documentary and other evidence, the dikasts
proceeded to give their judgment by ballot.
[U;fi<j)09.]
When the principal point at issue was decided
in favour of the plaintiff, there followed, in the
case of a 5i/c7j ti/xtjti';, a further discussion as to
the amount of damages, or jienalty, which the
defendant should pay. (Ti|i.TipLa.] If the
penalty was already prescribed by law, the suit
was described as ari'/iiTjTos, not requiring assess-
ment (Dem. c. Mid. p. 543, § 90). The method
of voting upon this question seems to have
varied, in that the dikasts sometimes used
instead of a ballot-ball a small tablet, upon
which those that approved of a higher penalty
drew a long line, the others a short one
[ip-fi<J)os] (Ar. Vcsj). 167). Upon judgment
being given in a private suit, the successful
party was empowered to seize the moveables
of his antagonist as a pledge for the paj'inent
of the money, or institute an action of eject-
ment (4^ov\r]s) against the refractory debtor.
Tlie judgment of a court of dikasts was in
general decisive (5iktj aiiToTfAVjsl ; but in cases
of perjury, conspiracy, and the like, the cause
might be commenced de novo, f E<()€ais.] In
cases of default, the defaulter, on showing cause
for non-appearance, could revive the cause (t^Ji/
ipi'lfjLTjv, T^v jUT) ovcraVy arriKaxtlv). See also
AiaLTT)Tai.
Divorce. The term for this was airi^Tre^i^is
or aTToAeiiJ/is, the foniier denoting the act of
a husband dismissing his wife, and the latter
that of a wife leaving her liusband (Dem.
c. Onct. i. p. «65, § 4, c. Ncacr. p. 1362, § 52,
686 AinMOSIA
1365, § 59). At Sparta, a husband, or at any 1
rate a king, might dismiss his wife if she bore
him no issue (Hdt. v. 39, vi. 01). The law |
at Athens allowed a man to divorce his wife |
simply by sending her out of his house {iKire/j.-
■Kiiv, airoire/jLireLi/), uj)on which she returned to !
the guardianship of her nearest male relation
(Deni. c. Unet. i. p. 8GH, § 8 ; of . Kvpios). The 1
husband was bound to return her dowry, or to
pay her interest at the rate of 18 per cent, per
annum (eV ivvea o/3oAo7s, Dem. c. Aph. i. p. 818,
§ 17J, and in addition to this to provide alimony
((r?Tos) [XiTOv 8iKTi]. The Kvpios was bound to
enforce these claims, if necessary, by a irpoiKhs
5/«:r) or a (titov S'ikt) (c. Neaer. 1. c). A husband
thus dismissing his wife usually did so in the
presence of witnesses (Lys. c. Alcib. i. § 28). ,
The children jirobably remained with the
father. Divorce sometimes took place when a
next-of-kin, being already married, became the
Kvpios of an heiress ['EtriKX-nposJ and wished
to man-y her (Dem. c. Eubul. p. 1311, § 41).
Proved adultery on the part of the wife com-
pelled her husband to divorce her, or incur the
penalty of atimia. When a wife wished to leave
her husband, mutual consent was sufficient to
dissolve a marriage. If the husband objected,
she was obliged to appear in person before the [
chief archon, and state in writing the grounds
of her application (Plut. Alcib. 12). She had
to conduct her case alone, for as she was in her
husband's power until judgment was given, no
one coultl be her advocate. The action thus i
brought by a woman was called airo\el\iiews
S'lKrj. [See KdKUCTts-] The archon kept a
register (airoypa(p-ri) of all divorces.
AiujJLoata. [' AvaKptcrts-] i
AoKi)xaaia, the pulilic proof of qualifica-
tions at Athens, was of several kinds. (1) Of
each citizen on attaining legal majority and full
civic rights — i.e. after the completion of his
thirtieth year. Full age, as regarded private
legal relations, began at the completion of the
eighteenth year [Ephebus] ; after -20 they were
admitted to the ekklesia ; to the ^jvKtj and
law-courts, not till 30. At 18, ephebi were
subjected to the SoKi/xacria. The object of
this was to ascertain vyhether they were capable
of bearing arms and of managing their property,
and were lawful citizens. Tlie examination
with regard to the first and third point was un-
dertaken in an assembly of the elder Demotae
(Ar. Vesp. 578). That relating to the second
point might be instituted before the Phratria.
The phrase (ttI Sierer rj^Tjffai denotes the com-
pletion of the time between ?i0r] at sixteen
years old and majority at eighteen.
(2) Of magistrates and public officers. When
any citizen of Athens was appointed by lot or
suffrage ((cATjpoirbs Kal alperos) to liold a public
office, he was obliged to submit to a dokimasia,
or scrutiny into his previous life and conduct,
in which any person could object to him as un-
fit. This examination was carried on in public
by the archons before the senate. The term for
rejection was ctiroSo/ctjud^'etv (Dem. c. Aristog.
i. p. 779, § 30).
(3) Of orators (pTjTopes). Though not hold-
mg any office, orators are opposed to ISiurai as
iroAireudyusroi or public characters [(Dem.] Phil.
iv. p. 150, § 70). As such, they were liable to
the denouncement of an inquiry {iirayye\la
SoKi/jLaffias) against those who spoke in the
assembly while leadmg profligate lives, or after
having committed crimes. The party complained
of had to appear before a court of justice
and give an account of his life and conduct.
DOWRY
The penalty was ctriyuio, and exclusion from
the assemblies (Dem. c. Androt. p. 602, §29).
[" EiraYYgXta.]
(4) Of the cavalry {'nrwfcov) : a muster before
the ^ovK-i) (Xen. Oec. 9, § 15). The neglect
of it involved expulsion from the service and
atimia (Lys. c. Alcib. i. § 8).
(5) Of invalids [AS^vaxoi..]
Dowry {irpoi^, ^epvlj). In ancient times the
presents made to the bride's father, or the
price paid for hei", was called eSva or eeSva
(\/had = sfad). This was, no doubt, originally
a compensation for the loss of the daughter
as a domestic servant (cf. Gen. xxxiv. 12 ;
Ex. xxii. 16). Among the ancient Germans
the husband gave presents, not to his wife's
father, but to herself (Tac. Germ. 18). (See
Horn. II. x^^. 178, xxii. 472, Od. xi. 282, xix.
529.) The amount is reckoned in oxen and other
cattle (//. xi.243). On the other hand, to grant
a daughter without eSva was a high compliment
to the intended son-in-law (II. ix. 141 sqq., Od.
vii. 311 sqq.). Sometimes the eSva appear to
come from the bride's family (Od. i. 277); these
must be either really a marriage portion, the
Homeric hoipa, later iptpvl], or a gift to furnish
the bride's outfit and provide the wedding feast.
It was, however, not unusual for the family
to give a woman a portion when she married;
especially in the royal and noble classes. Thus
Andromache and Penelope are spoken of as
&K0X01 ■KoKvSoipot (II. vi. 394, Od. xxiv. 294).
If, on the death of the husband, the widow was
not pennitted by the heirs to remain in the
house, the money she brought with her was
refunded (Od. ii. 132).
Tlie Doric term for a portion was Swrivri.
Daughters in Sparta had originally no dower,
but were married with a gift of clothes only
(Plut. Lysaiid. 30). But in the time of Aristotle
(Pol. ii. 9, § 15 = p. 1270, 23), so great were the
I dowers given, that nearly two-fifths of the whole
ten'itory of Sparta had come into the possession
of females. At Athens, at some time earlier
than the age of Solon, the dower in the modern
sense arose, and the bride was portioned by
her father or guardian (/cupios). The terms
(pepvi] and irpot^ were probably at first distin-
guished ; (pfpvfi being the outfit and the wedding
presents wliich the bride brought to her hus-
band ; irpoi'l the sum in money or realty which
her father settled upon her, of which the
husband had the usufruct. In aftertimes the
words (pfpvi) and Trpoi'f were used indiscrimi-
nately. The Roman dos is usually rendered
in Greek by (pepvt), whence parapherna, para-
phernalia. Dowers were usually from -jL of
the father's property upwards. A dowry was
thought necessary to mark the distinction be-
tween a wife and a TraWaKT]. Poor heiresses
were either married or portioned by their next
of kin. (Dem. c. Macart. p. 1068, § 54.)
The security given by the husband consisted
generally of a piece of real property (iyyuos
ovcria), and was called diroTt'/iTj/ua, the usual word
for a mortgage. The dowry would have to be
accounted for in other cases besides those noticed
under Divorce. Thus, if a husband died, and
the wife left the family (aire\nre rhv oIkov),
she might claim lier portion even though child-
ren had been born, and in the event of the wife
dying without issue, her portion reverted to her
Kvpioi. After the death of the wife, her portion
belonged to her children, if she had left any.
(Dem. c. Boeot. pp. 1010, 1023.) When the
husband died before the wife, and she remained
in the family (fjLfvovcrrjs iv T(j5 oXKCf), her portion
I
J
AHPOHENIAS rPA*H
went to her sons, if of age, subject to an allow-
ance for her sujijiort {(t7tos).
Aojpo^tvtas Ypa4)Ti. ^Eevias Ypacjjii.]
Abipuv, A<>>po5oKias YPO-4>^- L^CKaa-
IxoSj
E.
Eifractor (roixopvxos)- A burglar.
In Attic law roixwpvxoi reckoned among the
KUKovpyoi whose crimes were capital (Dem.
c. Lacrit. p. 9i0, § 47 ; Plat. licp. i. 34-4 b) ;
and the summary processes called cnraywyr) and
((piiyrjcris were available against them.
' b.yyvr\. Bail or sureties, were in very frequent
requisition, both in the private and public
affairs of the Athenians. Private agreements,
as, for instance, to abide by the decision of
arbitrators (Dem. c. Ajxitur. p. 897, § 15), or
the torture of a slave (Dem. c. Pant. p. 978,
§ 40), were corroborated by the parties recipro-
cally giving each other such sureties ; and the
same took place generally in all money-lending
or mercantile transactions (Dem. c. Ajiat. p
894, § 7, p. 895, § 10) ; and was invariably neces-
sary when persons undertook to farm tolls,
taxes, or other public property (Dem. c. Timocr.
p. 713, § 40), or undertook public works.
In judicial matters bail or sureties were pro-
vided upon two occasions : first, as a guarantee
for the appearance of tlie accused at the trial ;
and, secondly, for the satisfaction of the award
of the court. Athenians could not be arrested
or forced to find sureties except when proceeded
against by way of apagoge, endeixis, ephegesis,
and eisangelia, the senators being bound by
their oath not to put in prison (except in certain
special cases) any Athenian who offers three
sufficient sureties. If the principal in a con-
tract made default, the surety was bound to
make it good, or, if he refused to do so, might be
attacked by an iyyinis SIkt).
The technical term for becoming surety is
eyyvaa-dai riva, avaSexfC^ai fyyvrjf, or simply
araSexfcflai : e^eyyvaadai (also SieyyvacrBai)
means to free one by giving bail ; Kareyyvay
means to require bail of an accused person, and
Kareyyvcicrdai. to give bail.
'EY-yTJTiCTis- [Matrimonium.]
"EvKTTiCTig (Doric e/x-Kaffis). The right of
possessing landed property and houses in a
foreign country, which was frequently granted
by one (ireek state to another (Dem. de Cor.
p. 265, § 91 ; Xen. Hell. v. 2, 19) or to separate
individuals of another state. The privilege was
not hereditary. The term eyKTT}fj.aTa was also
applied to landed property or houses which an
Athenian possessed in a different Stj^uos from
that to which he belonged by bii-th, and with
respect to such property he was called iyK(-
KTvfifvos. A tax {iyKTTiTiK6v) was paid to the
hrifjLos by the person enjoying the right of
(yKTr^cTis.
"E5va. [Dowry.]
ElpvpLov 6tKT|. This was an action for keep-
ing a free person in private custody : «? tij
TiVo I57}(r«v ^ avvicrxtv aS'iKois (cf. Dem. c. Mid.
562, § 147).
ElaavveXCa. In its primary and most
general sense, a denunciation of any kind. In
the language of the Attic courts, however, it
was peculiarly applied to impeachment before
the senate or assembly, in three classes of
causes : (1) cases of conspiracy to subvert the
state ; (2) delivery to the enemy of a tow^n,
ship, navol or military force ; or desertion to,
EI2ArnrEI2 687
or taking money from, the enemy ; (3) corrupt
and treasonable speeches from a pr,Ta>p. Other
offences, however, besides those named above
could be proceeded against by eisangelia, and
the use of this procedure grew into an abuse.
Eisangeha could be laid before the senate
{fiovK-'n) or the ekklesia. In the former case
the accuser laid his infonnation in writing (also
called ejVo77«Aio) before the prytanes, who
reported to the senate on the case iLys. ds t.
(TiTOTT.). The senate had a discretionary power
to accept or reject (Lys. c. Nicovi. 22) ;"if they
accepted the information, the accused was
arrested if he did not give bail, and in case of a
charge of high treason not released, even if he
offered to find sureties.
On the first day, after both parties had been
heard, the senate gave, by secret ballot, their
verdict whether the defendant was guilty or not ;
and, if he was found guilty, tlie senate voted on
a second day by show of hands iSiaxftpoTovelv)
on the question whether they should summarily
sentence him to a fine of 500 drachmas, or hand
him over to a court, presided over by the
thesmothetae. The number of dikasts was
1001, or more. In some instances the senate
referred eisangeliae to the popular assembly
(Xen. Hell. i. 7, 3). Eisangeliae might also be
laid directly before the people at the first
(Kvp'ia) assembly of every prytany; and after
the accuser and the defendant had spoken,
the people voted on the question whether the
information should be accepted or rejected. If
it was accepted, the senate was commissioned
to make a TrpofiovKev/xa for the trial (Xen. Hell.
i. 7, 7) ; the pojiular assembly could either sit
in judgment on the case itself, or refer it to a
heliastic court (Dem. c. P/ioriii. p. 922, § 50,
and Ar. Vesji. 590 sqq.). In the fonuer case
the proceeding was by psephisma ; in the latter
case the thesmothetae were eiaayaiyf7s, the
generals with not more than ten (rvvr,yopoi
chosen b}' them from the senate, and any other
citizen who chose to join them, were prosecutors.
The penalty was that of irpoSotri'a, viz. death
and denial of burial in Attic territory. Vexatious
prosecution w-as guarded against by a fine of
1000 drachmas, in the event of the accuser not
obtaining the votes of one-fifth of the dikasts.
Of the two other classes of causes which
equally bore the name of eisangelia, the former
consists of cases of alleged KaKooffis, i.e. wrong
done to orphans, heiresses, and widows, tried
by the archon or polemarch : a tijutjtos aywv,
i.e. one in which the damages were assessed by
the court.
The other kind of eisangelia was available
against AiaiTTiTai. The SiatrriTai had to
meet annually in the last month but one, pro-
bably in front of the senate-house, to be at
hand in case a person wished to complain of a
verdict given by any one of them ; such a com-
plaint was called eisangelia, and was preferred
before the senate.
Elaavbivels. as an Attic law-term, denotes
two classes of pers^ons. (1) In a wider sense
tlie name was given to tlie ordinary magistrates
when application was made to them for the
purpose of bringing a cause (flffdyfiv) into the
proper court [A uaiTTiTai, ACk-t).. The cause
itself was tried according to its nature before
arbitrators or dikasts respectively ; but all the
preliminary proceedings (iiulnded, with the
presidency^of the actual trial, in the so-called
riytfiovla StKacrrrjpiov} were conducted by the
magistrate regularly assigned to that class of
cases. Various public officers, the strategi, tlie
688 EISnOIHSIS
logistae, &c., had the riye/jiovla 5iKo.arrifiov in
cases specially relating to their own depart-
ment : in general it belonged to one or another
of the archons, or in some cases to the " EvSeKa.
Of all these magistrates the thesmothetae seem
to have had the widest jurisdiction. (2) Ot
€t(ra7a>7erx were particular magistrates, probably
ten in number, chosen by lot to try SUai ■npoiK6s,
ipauLKui and f/xiroptKai, and some others of the
" Eji.jji,Tivoi SiKau.
ElaiToCTicrig. Adoption was called by the
Athenians elcrvoiriffis, Troirjffis or deais. The
adoptive father was said TroLe7adai, (iairoii7adai,
or sometimes irotelv : and the father was said
iKiroie7v. The adopted son was ttoitjto's, €iV-
iTOiijrds, or deros : in opposition to the legiti-
mate son (yvrtffios).
A man might adopt a son either in his life-
time or by will, provided he had no male off-
spring and was of sound mind. He might also,
by testament, name a person to take his pro-
perty, in case his son or sons should die under
age.
Only Athenian citizens could be adopted;
females could be adopted as well as males. The
adopted child was transferred from his own
family and demus into those of the adoptive
father, whose property, sacra and honours he
inherited. It was not necessary for him to
take his new father's name. The adopted son
might return {iTrave\8(7i/) to his former family,
but only in case he left a child to represent the
family of his adoptive father.
Various precautions were taken in the inter-
est of the estate, and of the next of kin, to pre-
vent fraudulent adoptions.
'EKixapTvpCa signifies the deposition of a
witness, who by reason of absence abroad, or
illness (Lex ap. Dera. c. Steph. i. p. 1131, § 9),
was unable to attend in court. His statement
was taken down in writing, in the presence of
persons expressly appointed to receive it, and
afterwards, upon their swearing to its identity,
was read as evidence in the cause. They were
said naprvpiiv Trfv fKfMapTvpiav : the absent
witness, iK/xaprvpe'iv : the party who procured
the evidence, eKfiaprvpiav iroieladai. It was
considered as the testimony of the deponent
himself, and therefore did not come witliin the
description of hearsay evidence, which (except
the declaration of a deceased person) was not
admissible at Athens ['Akotjv naprvpeiv].
The deponent (like any other witness) was
liable to an action for false testimony. (Isae.
Or. 3 [Pyrrhus], §§ 20-27; Dem. c. Steph. i.
pp. 1130, 1131, p 7, 8 ; Aeschin. de F. L. § 19).
"E^JL3a.(7Ls, 'E|x3aTECa. In Attic law, a
formal taking possession (entry) of real property.
Thus, when a sou entered upon the land left
him by his father, he was said ifi^aTevetv, or
/SaSifeij' els ra irarpcfa, Tropfvecrdai eh to,
Kr7}fjiaTa (Dem. c. Leoch. p. 1090, § 321, and
thereupon he became seised or possessed of
his inheritance. The right of e/LL^areia was
confined to sons and other male descendants
(Isae. Pyrrh. § 59), and to sons adopted during
the testator's lifetime ([Dem.] c. Leoch. p.
1086, § 19). If anyone prevented the owner
from taking possession (i^ayuyf)), he might
maintain an action of ejectment, 'E^ovXtis
SiKT). 'Efx^areveivisaAso used of creditors who
took possession of mortgaged property when
the time of payment had expired (Dem. c. Ajiat.
p. 894, § 6), and of plaintiffs who seized de-
fendants' property ([Dem.] c. Evef-g. p. 1155,
§ 52 sqq.).
"EjxixTivoi 8£KaL. Suits in the Athenian
ENAEIEI2
courts, which were not allowed to be pending
above a month. The most important suits
under this head were disputes respecting com-
merce {efxiropiKol SiKai), which were heard
during the six winter months, so that the mer-
chants might obtain their rights quickly and
sail away (Dem. c. Apiat. p. 900, § 23).
All causes relating to mines (/jLeraWiKal
S'lKai) were also e/xfirtvoi S'lKat (Dem. c. Pant.
p. 966, § 2). Other efj.fj.7ivoi St/cot were causes
relating to''Epavot, suits respectmg dowry and
marriage-contract, the ypa(pr] v^peoos, and sonie
others. There were five magistrates, called E Ict-
a-yuveis, who presided at these trials.
' E(xiropi.Kal SiKai. [''E^l.^J,Tlvol SiKat.]
'Ejj,4)avd)v KaTCLCTTaaiv, AIkt) els- A form
of ijrocedure at Athens somewhat similar to
the Roman actio ad Exhibendum, by which
the production of a thing in dispute was de-
manded. In ancient law the thing was prob-
ably shown in court. This action, therefore,
only applied to moveables, e.g. slaves forming
part of an inheritance, who, it is contended, Iuk I
been sold ; money lent on bottomry : the owner
claims that the ship should be specified.
The S'lKTi els efx<pavwv Karaaraaiv was a pre-
liminary to a trial for breach of contract, itc.
It began with a Trp6K\r\ffis or summons to pro-
duce. If the defendant complied, the action
was at an end. If he refused and lost his cause,
the magistrate ordered him to produce. In
certain cases the defendant was liable to a fine.
"EvSei^t-S. ''E»'5ei|is, airaywyf) and e<pr)yr)(Tts
have a great deal in common, and are frequently
mentioned side by side (Dem. c. Lept. p. 504,
§ 156 ; c. Timocr. p. 745, § 146) ; and sometimes
tlie same case is now called airaywyt], now
ev^ei^is. In strict language, airayoiyi) was
action taken by summary arrest ; ev^ei^is and
e<f)TJ77j(ris through the magistrate's intervention.
In both evhei^is and ^070171^ there was no
iTp6(TKK-r](ns ; and when the magistrate accepted
the charge the defendant was kept in prison,
unless he could find three sureties {eyyvT]Ta'i)
(Dem. c. Timocr. p. 746, § 146).
'Airayooyii (1) was a summary process in
which the prosecutor led the culprit caught
flagrante delicto (eV avro(p(!)pcp = (pavepois)
(Dem. c. Steph. i. p. 1126, § 81) either directly
into prison, if the charge belonged to the juris-
diction of the Eleven {ajrayeiv tois eVSe/co, Dem.
c. Timocr. p. 736, § 113), or before the proper
authority, who sent the culprit to prison. For
cases in which airayttiyr) was lawful, and for the
procedure in such cases, see 'Airay 0)711.
A person who did not feel himself strong
enough to effect an a7ra7co77) had recourse to (2)
4(p-i]yriais, i.e. he applied to the magistrate and
conducted him and his ofiScers to the spot where
the capture was to be effected (Dem. c. Androt.
p. 601, § 26). Ephegesis was also resorted to
instead of apagoge, when the culprit was hiding
in a house ; for no private person was allowed
to enter a house ^vev \pT](pL<rfj.aTos (Dem. de Cor.
p. 271, § 132).
Instead of taking the law into his own hands,
by airaycoyr] or e<pi]yr](ns, the prosecutor might
put the law in motion by giving information (3)
{(v^iiKvvvai) to the proper authority, who, upon
receiving the charge in writing (ev^ei^is), was
bound to arrest or hold to bail the person crimi-
j nated. The proceeding by endeixis was allow-
able against anyone who, being arifxas, acted as
j eiriTt/xos, e.g. as dikast or plaintiff, or transgressed
I any specific exclusion or disability; also for
] irregular conduct in the assembly (Plat. A]3ol.
I 32 B ; Dem. c. Timocr. 707, § 22). Sometimes
ENEXTPA
ivSfiKvwai seems to be used in a general sense
(Isocr. c. CaUim. § 22).
Endeixis was in most cases laid before the
thesmothetae (Dem. c. Timocr. p. 707, § 22).
The penalty on condemnation in a trial by
ivifi^is was in some cases death (Dem. c. Lcpt.
p. 504, 4) 156; in others, was left to the court
to adjudge. The accuser, if he did not receive
tlie fifth part of the votes, liad to paya tliousand
drachmas, and became arifxos (Dcni. c. Arifitucr.
p. (>47, §80). (See also EtaaweACa, 'Etra-y-
7«\ia,'npoPo\Ti, and <t>dCTis)
'Evt'x'upoi jiioiierly meant goods, commonly
nu>\ cables, hum led over to a creditor as security
(a security in real proi)erty is usually vTroQ-i]Kri)
([Dem.] c. Timoth. p. IIDO, § 21), or mortgaged
to the creditor.
In private suits at Athens, whether tried by
a court of law or before an arbitrator (Dem. c.
Callipp. p. 1240, § 15 f.), whenever judgment
was given against a defendant, a certain period
{i) Trpo0fff/j.ia) was at the same time fixed, before
the expiration of wliicli it was incumbent upon
him to comply with tlie verdict. In default of
doing so, he beciime vTrep-qfiepos, and the plaintiff
was privileged to take steps against him. The
plaintiff could seize the goods and chattels of
the defendant (^rexi'pixCf'*') fvfx^P"' ^af^^o.t'eiv
or cpfpetv). It seems probable that goods thus
seized, if not redeemed, were publicly sold or
Tiilued. If the damages could not be covered
by goods taken in execution, the claimant
might satisfy himself by seizure of the de-
fendant's land.
No seizure of this sort could take place during
several of the religious festivals of the Athe-
nians, such as the Dionvsia, the Lenaea, the
Thargelia, i^'c. (Dcni. r. SliiL p 517, § 10).
'EvoukCou SiKTi. An action brought to re-
cover rents witlilield from the owner during
the jjeriod of his being out of possession. If
tilt! property recovered were not a house, but
land, tlie action for the rents and profits was
called KapTTov 5i/c7j. If tlie defendant, after a
judgment in one of these actions, still refused
to give satisfaction, an oixrias 5i'k7j might be
commenced against him, with the ultimate
remedy of an 'E|o\5\tis 5Ckt|.
'Ega-Y<iJ7Ti. ['E^oijA.r.s 5£kti.]
'EgavuvTis ypa.<i>r\ might be instituted
against one who, acting as Kvpios of an
Athenian woman, sold her to a foreigner in
a foreign land. The penalty was death.
' E^OLipitTtd)^ or 'A<j)aLp€'(Tefa)s Sikt) was an
action brought to recover damages for the
attempt to deprive the plaintiff of his slave, in
a case where the defendant asserted the slave
to be a freeman. If a re]iuted slave wished to
recover his rights as a freeman, he could only
do it by the assistance of a freeman, who was said
4^atp€7(r0ai or atpatpelffdai avrhu els i\fv0fpiav
(of. the Latin term hi Uhcrtatem rindirnrc).
The cause came before the polemarch, who was
bound to set tlie man at liberty ijriiih-ntr Ute.
At the trial before tlie TeTTapaKOvra which
followed, the reputed owner liad to jirove his
right to the slave, and, if successful, obtained
each compensation as tlie jury chose to award,
this being a Ti/xriThi aywv, and the defendant
had to pay to the treasury a sum equal to the
damages.
"EStTao'TaC. (1) Special commissioners sent
out by the Athenian people to investigate any
matters tliat iniglit claim attention (Aeschin.
c. Ctes. § 140, c. Timarch. § 113).
(2) Auditors of accounts at Athens, 300 B.C.,
and in some other Greek states.
EOArrEAIA
689
' 'EgiCTTacrOai tuv ovtgjv. 'To surrender
[lit. to remove fronij one's property.' The sur-
render by an insolvent debtor of all his pro-
, perty to be sold for the benefit of his creditors
: (Dem. c. Apat. 900, § 25).
I *Egov\Tis SiKTi y^iWfiv = ^^uOdv). An
■ action of ejectment, which might be brought
I either (1) on general grounds of fact (like inter-
dictum nude vi of Koman law; or (2) on a
I judgment {actio iudicati). The latter appears
to have been earlier in use than the former.
A SiKi} i^ov\T}s of the former class was laid
before the rtrTapaKovra, and was rifj.rjT6s : one
I of tlie latter, before the magistrate who had
I heard the case from which it arose, and was
I Ti^TjTos or OTi'yuTjTos according to the nature
of tlie case. The (^ov\r}s Sikt; was an action
' on the part of an heir or creditor to get pos-
I session of property from wliicli lie was excluded
, or disturbed by another claimant.
1 It might be brought under the forms of a
legal fiction : e.g. a son or other male descend-
ant might entvr (4ti0aT(v€Lu} ("EM-Paaisj and
become possessed of the estate immediately
after the owner's death ; he made a formal
entry upon the land, and thereby became seised
or possessed of it ; the adverse claimant came
i and turned him off (d^dyav, ^^ayccyq) in the
I presence of witnesses ; then the heir might
bring against him an action for ejectment.
The losing party in a Siktj ^^ovKtjs paid, be-
sides the compensation to the other party, a
TrpoaTifjLTJixa of equal amount to the state ; his
action being considered to be of the nature of
contempt, or of violence.
These proceedings by entry, ouster, itc, were
a relic of ancient times, when, before writs and
pleadings and other regular processes were in-
vented, parties adopted a ruder method and
took the law into their own hands. There was
then an actual ouster, accompanied often with
' violence and breach of the peace, for which the
person in the wrong was not only resjionsiblc
to the party injured, but was also punishable as
a public offender. Aftenvards, in the course of
civilisation, violent remedies were discontinued ;
yet the ceremony of ejectmg was still kept up
as a form of law preliminary to the subsequent
legal process ; and the state penalty still at-
tached to the offender. In Attic law 4^ov\ri9
Slkt) was primarily an action for ejectment out
of real proi>erty, and only by a legal fiction
transferred to otlier property.
'E$<<>^,oala. (1) Any Athenian citizen, when
called upon to appear as a witness in a court
of justice, was obliged by law to obey the sum-
mons, unless he could establish by oath that he
was unacquainted with the case in question.
Tliis oath was called ^^wfjioffia.
(2) As a rule, candidates for an office (opx^J
' in its proper sense) gave in their names to
the archons (Isocr. Ant id. § 150). A person
appointed in his absence or against his will to
serve in any public capacity, was at liberty to
decline the office if he could take an oath,
] either himself or by proxy, that the state of his
I health or other circumstances rendered it im-
possible for him to fulfil tlie duties connected
witli it (i^ofjLvvffdai T7}y irpeafieiav, t^v apxV''}-
'EtrayyiKLa.. If a citizen of Athens ha<l
j incurred art/uiia, the privilege of taking part or
speaking in the public assembly was forfeited
[ ArijiCa]. But it sometimes might liaitjien lliat
a i)erson, tliough not formally dedareil ari/xoj,
ha<l committed such crimes as would involve
I this punishment. Whenever such a person
I ventured to speak in the uiisembly, anv Athenian
Y Y
690
EniBOAH
citizen had the right to come forward in the
assembly itself, and demand of him to establish
his right to speak by a trial or examination of
his conduct (Aeschin. c. Tun. § 32, 64, 81).
The accuser had to lay his charge in wi-itmg
(Dem. c. Androt. p. (iOO, § 23) before the thes-
mothetae, who brought such cases to trial
(SoKifj-acria) in the courts of law (AeschLn. ib.
§ 45, &c.) ; and if the defendant was convicted,
a formal declaration of aTifj.ia followed (Dem.
F. L. p. 432, § 284).
'Eira77eA.ia is different from ej/Seilis: ej/Sei|is
is an accusation against persons who had Ije-
come &Ti.fxoi ; whereas €Trayye\ia applied only
to those who had not yet been convicted of the
criraelaid to their charge, which, if proved, would
draw upon them ariixia as pmiislunent. There
were four classes of crimes which justified eiray-
yeKia SoKifiaffias [AoKifiaaia (2)]: KaKWffis
yovfoiv, affTpareia, eraipTiffis, and wasting one's
patrimony.
' E-ttiPoAt). a fine imposed by a magistrate,
or other official person or body such as the
Areiopagus, and the senate of Five Hundred,
for a misdemeanour. The various magistrates
at Athens had (each in his own department) a
power of sununarily imposing {fin0dWeiv) a
fine, not exceeding a fixed amount; if the offen-
der deserved further punishment, it was their
duty to bring him before a judicial tribunal, the
magistrate i)roposing the penalty. If the p.er-
Kon fined would not submit, the magistrate liad
to lay the case before a court. The amount of
the fine {rh reXos) which the individual magis-
trate might inflict, we do not know ; the senate
of Five Hundred was competent to fine to the
extent of 500 drachmas ([Dem.J c. Even/. ]>.
1151, § 43); the priests, and the Trp6e5poi of the
public assembly, to the amount of 50 drachmas.
The person fined might appeal to tlie courts : if
the fine was affirmed, he paid double.
The magistrate wiio imposed the Hue made a
return to the treasury officers {eTriypa<peiv els
Toiis TTpaKTopas). wliereupon it became a debt
of record, to lie demanded or recovered by the
collectors. In case of delay, the fine was
reported to the TUfiiai of the goddess, and the
debtor became oTt/uos.
These epibolae are to be distinguished from
the penalties awarded by a jury or court of law
(Tifx-ilfxaTa) upcm a formal prosecution, and from
the fine of a thousand draclimas in a public
action.
'EiTiSiKaCTia, 'E-iriSiKos ['EttCkXtipos :
KXtipovoM-osl
' EitlkXtipos (e7rtfcA.7)prT(s ; tyKK-qpos, Eur.
Iph. 2'. ()82). The name given to the legitimate
(yv7)ffia) daughter or daughters of an Athenian
citizen who had no lawful son to inherit his
estate, or whose sons had died without leaving
male issue. When there was but one daughter,
she was called eiriK\r)pos eVi iravrl r(fi oiKiii
(Isae. Aristarch. § 4) ; if there were more, they
inherited equally. The iiriKKripos was never,
in our sense, an heiress ; she was, strictly speak-
ing, a person who went with the estate. The
heir was eitlier the person to whom her father
had devised the property on condition of marry-
ing her, or her son or sons. It was deemed an
object of importance at Athens to preserve the
oIkos. This was effected, where a man had no
child, by adoption {elairo'niais); if he had no
sons or grandsons, but a daughter, he might be-
queath his property to any person, but the
devisee was obliged to marry her ([Dem.] c.
Macart. p. 1067, § 51) ; on the other hand, if
he died intestate, her nearest relative in order of
EniTPonos
d7X"'''''eia might claiin her in marriage, and
the inheritance was transmitted through her to
a grandson, who was, when of full age, adopted
into the maternal grandfather's family ([Dem.
c. Macart. p. 1053, § 12). Such an eiriKKrjpoi
might be claimed in marriage by her fatherV
brothers, or other next of kin. If the daughter
was poor {drjartTa), the nearest of kin was bound
by law either to manry her liimself , or to portion
her according to a fixed scale. If there were
several in the same degree of consanguinity,
each of them had to contribute his share {wphs
/ue'pos). Upon the nearest relative making his
claim {\.TJ^is, fTriSi/cocrio) before the archon (or
in the case of fjifToiKoi before the xjolemarch),
public notice was given of the claim ; it was
written on the cravis, and read out in the follow-
ing assembly (cf. KXtipovojjios). If no one
appeared to dispute the claim, the archon
adjudged the heiress to him (eViSiKoC.'eif) ; if
other claimants appeared, the archon instituted
an anakrisis, and a court was held for the
decision of the right (SmSi/catrio), which was
determined according to the Athenian law of
consanguinity. The heiress who was the sub-
ject of the dispute was termed iiriStKos- Even
when a woman was already married, her hus-
band was obliged to give her up to a man with
a better title ; and sometimes men put away
their former wives in order to marry heiresses
(Dem. c. Euhul. p. 1311, § 41). The estate never
passed into the possession of tlie husband of
the heiress ; their son, when of full age, was
adopted into his maternal grandfather's family
([Dem.] c. Macart. p. 1053, § 12), and took pos-
session of the estate. He then became his
mother's legal protector iKvpios), and was bound
to find her mauitenance [alros). If there were
more sons, they shared the property equally
([Dem.] c. Steph. ii. p. 1135, § 20). An heiress
was under the special protection of the archon
([Dem.] c. Macart. p. 1076, § 75).
According to the Code of Gortpi in Crete, the
father's estate passed into the jiossession of
the heiress, and remained with her to her death,
and had not to be given up, as at Athens, to
her son or sons when of full age ; the right of the
next of kin existed, but might be defeated by
the woman's handing over to the nearest ap-
plicant (d iirifidWciiv} a portion of her estate.
If the nearest of kin refused to maiTy the heiress,
her kinsmen were to bring an action, and the
judge was to order him to marry her within
two months ; and if he did not do so, he for-
feited his claims to the next of kin.
The information we possess as to heiresses
in Sparta (Trarpoiixoi, Hdt. vi. 57) is scanty and
contradictory. It would appear that the father
could appoint by will a husband for his daughter
from among his a.yxi'C'''f^s, and tliat if he made no
disposition, the heiress was claimed as of right
by the nearest of kin ; the kings having the
decision between rival claimants (Hdt. vi. 57 ;
Plut. Cleoin. 1). According to Aristotle (Pol.
ii. 6) nearly two-fifths of the whole Spartan
country belonged to women. [K\tipov6(j.os.]
\ 'Ein.vo|jLia. The right of pasturage on state
lands ; granted as a favour to individuals (or
more commonly compounded for by a payment
called iirivo/xiov), the management of which with
the jjrofits was farmed from the commune by a
vo/xwvrts. [For the Roman usage, see Scrip-
tura.]
I 'ETriaKT|\J/is- [MapTVpCa.]
'EirCTpoiros. Generally any person in charge
(Hdt. iii. 63) ; more frequently in the sense of a
I guardian of orphan children. Of such guardians
EnnsEAiA
there were at Athens two kinds : (1) those
appointed (KaTaXeiireti') iu the will of the de-
ceased father, usually, but not necessarily, near
relatives. (Flat. Alcib. i. p. 104 u, Lef/(/. xi. p.
9-24 A ; Plut. Ahib. 1 ; Dem. c, Aphob. p.' «14, § 4.)
{'!) In the absence of directions by will, the next
of kin, the archou deciding who were best en-
titled to the office and authorising them to act as
guardians ; or, if there were no relatives or none
lit to undertake the office, such i>orsons as the
archon selected from the whoh; body of Athenian
citizens. The number of guardians required
is uncertain ; perhaps five (Plat. jLe^gr. 924 B).
At Athens the duties of the guardian compre-
hended the personal care, the maintenance
(rpocpr)}, education (irojSeio), and protection of
the ward, the assertion of his rights, and tlie
disposition of his inheritance during his mi-
nority, besides a proper provision for the widow
if she remained in the family (oIkos) of her
late husband. The guardian w-as bound to
appear in court in' all actions in behalf of or
against his ward, to perform the annual funeral
rites to the deceased parent on behalf of the
ward, to give iu an account of the taxable
capital (ri^iTjiUa) when an flcrcpopd was levied.
With reference to the administration of the
ward's estate, the guardian was bound to exe-
cute the trusts of the will. If the deceased had
left no will or no specific directions as to the
management of his estate, the guardian might
either let it out to farm to the highest bidder
(fjnaSovv), or keep it in his own hands and em-
ploy it as he best could for the Ijenefit of the
minor {SiotKe'iy). In the former case, the inherit-
ance was let by the archon to the liighest bidder,
in one or more lots. In the latter case, he
might lay out the money in buying land, or
might lend it out on good security under the
supervision of the archon.
If the guardian violated his duties, by neglect,
ill-treatment, or mismanagement, he was liable
to a criminal prosecution which any Athenian
might bring against him during the term of the
ward's pupilage, viz. an eiaayyfKia KaKwcrecoi.
The guardianship expired when the ward at-
tained his eighteenth year; and the guardian
had to make account. The heir might institute
ixSiKT] eTTiTpoTTTis agaiust his late guardian ; this
action was Ti^iy\T6s, and the plaintiff was liable
to 'EiruPeXia. The right to sue a guardian
for breach of duty was barred by the lapse
of five years. The tenn iirirpoiros was used
in a similar sense at Sparta and elsewhere.
'E'n-u3£XCa, i.e. one obolus per drachma
(= i) of the assessment (rt/iTj/io), was pay-
able to his successful opponent by the litigant
who failed to obtain the votes of one-fifth of
the dikasts in a case of (pacts and in 5i/cai
Xprj/xoTi/cai. The distinction between t-iroi/SeAio
and the fine of 1000 draclmias similarly incurred
in certain cases is generally that the epobelia
applied to private suits (5i/foi), and was paid to
the oilier i)arty : the X'''^"" were paid to the
state in a ypa<pi}.
'Epi^(jiT|v kkilv, 6<t)\eiv. [ACkti.]
'ETaipticreus YPa-4>Ti- This action was main-
tainable against such Athenian citizens as liad
led infamous lives or acted as procurers, if after
such degradation they ventured to exercise
their political franchise, e.g. speak in the pub-
lic assembly or bear office in the state, Arc.
(Aeschin. c. Tim. § 19 sqq. 195 ; cf. Dem. r.
Stejih. i. p. 1125, § 79). Surli actions belonged
to tlie jurisdiction of the tliesniotlietae. Tlie
penalty was capital punisluneut (Aeschin. c.
Tim. §§ 13, 72,87).
KAKn2I2
691
E<J>€<jis or 'Ava5tKLa. In Attic law there
was little opjjortunity for bringing appeals pro-
perly so called ; and in general, a cause was
finally and irrevocably decided by the verdict
of the dikasts (Si'/cr; avTOT(\r,s).
A new trial might be obtained, if the loser
could prove that it was not owing to his negli-
gence tliat judgment had gone by default, in
which case he was said epy^fxriv avTiKaxi^y, or
that the dikasts had been deceived by false
witnesses {S'ikt] ypeuSofiapTuptuf). Applied to
this class of causes we find the phrases S'lKr)
wdSiKos, avaSiKia, avaSiKa^fffBat, iraXifSiKia,
Tra\ii'5iKe7v.
An appeal properly so called {f<pfffts) is thus
dctineil : ''E(p((ns is when one transfers a cause
from the arbitrators (SiaiTTjroi), or archons, or
men of the township (Sn/j-drai) to the dikasts,
or from the senate to the assembly of the people,
or from the asseml)ly to a court (SiKafrrripioj'), or
from the dikasts to a foreign tribunal ; and the
cause was then termed ((pea-i/xos. These suits
were also called (kkKijtoi Sikm. The deposit
staked in appeals was called TrapafiuKtov or
irapd0o\ov.
'E4>r[yr\<ri?. ["EvSeilig.]
I.
'l£poo"u\Ca9 -YpacJjTi. Robbery from a
temple. This action must be distinguished from
tlie ypa<p)] kXotttjs iepwi/ xPW^''''»"'i which was
directed against peculation rather than theft of
sacred money. Tlic oiTendcr upon conviction
was invariably put to death, whether the value
of the thing stolen was great or small, his pro-
perty confiscated, and his body denied burial
within Attic territory, sacrilege being considered
one of the most heinous crimes next to murder
and high treason (Antiph. de Caed. Herod. § 10).
Cases of sacrilege were tried before a heliastic
court.
I K.
KaKT|7opias 8ikti. An action for abusive
language in the Attic courts. This action is
likewise called KaK-qyop'wv, AoiSopias, and koko-
j \oyias SiKT] (Dem. c. Mid. p. .544, § 38 ; Ar. Vesj).
j 1207). Tliis action could be brought against an
I individual who applied to another certain abu-
I sive epithets, such as dvSpo<j>6i'os, ■jroTpoAoios,
I &c., which were included under tlie general
I name of 'AiroppTiTa. The truth of the cliargr
might be pleaded in justification (Dem. c. Arisf.
i p. 035, § 50) : but to taunt a citizen, e.g., with
being a retail dealer, was to insult his or her
poverty, and actionable in all cases (Dem. r.
I Eubnl. p. 1308, §§30, 32). A person who sjiokc
■ evil of the dead was liable to this action, which
' could be brought against him by the nearest
relation of the deceased. AoiSopfa of a public
I official carried with it the penalty of arifxia
' as well. The penalty was 500 drachmas, pay
j able to tlie plaintiff. This action was probably
before the thesmothetae (Dem. c. Mid. p. 644,
i § 9H).
KaKOTtxvi.wi' SCkt| might be instituted
against a party to a previous suit, whose wit-
nesses had already been convicted of falsehood
j in an action rpevdonaprvptwi' (Dem. r. Everg. p.
I 1189, § 1), and perhaps included other cases of
conspiracy and contrivance (Plat. Lcgg. xi, }>.
83ti I>).
I KdKuais, in the language of the Attic law,
i signifies :
Y y2
692
KAPnOT AIKH
(1) The ill-treatment of parents by their chil-
dren (yovfcijy). (2) Of women by their husbands
{yuuaiKwv). (3) Of heiresses {e-triK\r)pciM/). (i)
Of orphans and widows by their guardians or
any other persons {pp<pav(iiv koL xtP^'^ovawv
yvvaiKuv).
(1) KaKccffts yoveccv was committed by those
who struck or reviled their parents, or even
were disobedient ; by those who refused them
the means of support when they were able to
aflord it, or did not bury them after their death
and pay them proper lionours (Xen. Mem. ii.
2, § 13; Ar. Av. 757, 1356). The term •yoj'srs
included ancestors surviving. It was no justi-
fication for children that their parents had
treated them badly.
(2) KaKuia-is yvvaiKOiV was committed by hus-
bands who were unfaithful to their wives, or
otherwise ill-treated or neglected them.
(3) KaKdiffis iiriKK^pcoy was committed by the
nearest relatives of poor heiresses, who neither
married them themselves, nor gave them a
dowry in order to marry them to persons of
their own rank in life.
(4) KaKwais opcpavwv Koi xVP^^ojffcov yvvaiKwv
was committed by those who injured in any
way either orphans or widows, both of whom
were under the protection of the chief archon.
All these cases of kukuktis belonged to the
jurisdiction of the archon in the heliaea, in
the case of citizens, or to the polemarch in
the case of fitroiKoi. In the case of orphans,
heiresses, or widows, the archon had also a
summary jurisdiction and power of imposing a
fine. Any private individual could also accuse
parties guilty of KOKoxris by Elaa-yv'^'O' or
by a regular indictment {ypa(pri).
Tlie punishment extended to arifila, but did
not involve confiscation of property.
Kap-rrov Sikti, a civil action under the
jurisdiction of the thesmothetae, might be in-
stituted against a farmer for default in pay-
ment of rent. It was also adopted to determine
the right to land, as the judgment would
determine whether the plaintifl could claim
rent of the defendant.
KaraXvaeos tov St^ixov ypact)!^- An
action brouglit against persons wlio had altered,
or attempted to alter, tlie democratical form of
government at Alliens. It was closely con-
nected with, and scarcely distinguishable from,
the irpoBocrias ypacpv (Dem. c. Timocr. p. 745,
§ 144). The form of proceeding was, in both
cases, by dcrayyiKla. In the case of KaTaKvaews
Tov Srifjiov, the punishment was death; the
property of the offender was confiscated to
the state, and a tenth part dedicated to
Athena.
KaraCTKOiTTis •yp<''<t>"'i' -^n action brought
against spies at Athens. If a spy was dis-
covered, he was questioned on the rack, and
afterwards put to death. (Dem. de Cor. p. 272,
§ 137.) Foreigners only were liable to this
action, citizens being subject to irpoSocrias
ypoupi).
Kky\pov6\i,os, -(■a.- The Athenian laws of
inheritance are to be explained under this title,
under the following heads :
(1) Of personal capacity to inherit. — To ob-
tain the right of inheritance as well as citizenship
{ayxtcrreia, i.e. nearness of kin, and woKireia),
legitimacy was a necessary qualification. Those
oliildren were legitimate (yvfiaioi) who were
born in lawful wedlock or in concubinage with
an Athenian woman : in the latter case, after
legitimation {Koielffdai). Without legitimation,
such children had no rights of inheritance.
KAHP0N0M02
(2) Of the rules of descent and succession.^
When an Athenian died leaving sons, they
shared the inheritance equally, whether real or
personal {ia6noipoi, Isae. Fhiloct. § 25), like our
heirs in gavelkind, and as in France. The
eldest son had no essential advantage (irpetriSf i"a)
over the others. Sometimes the sons lived on
the joint, undivided property, sometimes they
divided the money and possessed the other in-
heritance in common ( Aesch. c. Tim. § 102 ;
Dem. c. Leoch. p. 1080, § 18).
Sisters had no claims to a share, but the
brothers had to give them suitable marriage
portions ; tliey were then called fTriirpoiKoi.
There was no positive law as to the amount ;
but the moral obligation to assign the sister a
fortune corresponding to her rank was strength-
ened by custom and public opinion, insomuch
that if she was given in marriage portionless,
it was deemed a slur upon her character.
On failure of sons and their issue, daughters
and daughters' descendants succeeded ["^Eiri-
kXtipos] ; daughters and the descendants of
deceased daughters took per stirpes.
On failure of lineal descendants, the collateral
branches were resorted to. First came the
issue of the same father with the deceased ;
and after them sisters and sisters' children,
taking per stirpes.
Next come the descendants of the same
grandfather with the deceased; uncles, cousins
and cousins' children, aunts and their issue;
males being preferred to females. Thus the
grandson of an uncle would exclude the
daughter of an uncle, and the grandson of
iin aunt would exclude the daughter of an
aunt.
The succession of parents to their children is
a matter of dispute. It is probable that parents
could not inherit at Athens. But the maxim
hereditas nnnquam ascend ifheidi only of lineal,
not of collateral ascent : and so an uncle might
inherit, or marry the heiress, as next of kin.
(3) Of the power of devising. — The owner
had power to alienate his property during his
lifetime, and such alienation was valid in point
of law, both as against the heir and against all
others.
Every man of full age and sound mind, not
inrfvdvvos (Aesch. c. Ctes. § 21), nor under
durance or improper influence ([Dem.) c. Steph.
ii. p. 1133, § 16), was competent to make a wDl;
but if he had a son, he could not disinherit
him (Dem. c. Lept. p. 488, § 102). Legacies
might be given to friends and relatives, espe-
cially if executors or guardians (Dem. c. Aph^b.
i. p. 814, §§ 4, 5, p. 827, § 43, pro Phorm.
p. 955, § 34 sq. ; c. Steph. i. p. 1110, § 28).
Also a provision, not exceeding a thousand
drachmas, might be assigned to an illegitimate
child. Nor could a man separate his estate
from his daughter, though he might devise the
estate to any person on condition of his marry-
ing her.
It was only when a man had no issue that he
was at full liberty to appoint an heir. His
I
' Acconling to the Code of Gortyn in Crete, on the
death of the father the property p.issed to the children
or grrandchildreu or prre.it-irnvn(U'lLiMron ; iu default of
direct descendants, brothers, their oliildnMi and grmnd-
children, &c., succeeded : last of all d xAapo^ ras _f oi-
Ki'a?. i.e. ' the whole number of householders belonging
to the family, the KXapCnai' [K6a^oL]. In the
(li^^siou of property we meet here with a principle,
almost unknown! elsewhere amonjist the Greeks — viz.
that the daughters shared with the son.s.
In Sparta it was a common practice for brothers to
live ou the joint estate.
ll
KAHP0N0M02
house and heritage were then considered deso-
late (eprifj.os Kal avwuv/xos), a great misfortune
in the eyes of a Greek (see Horn. 11. v. 158),
for every head of a family was anxious to trans-
mit his family name and religious usages to
posterity. To obviate this misfortune an
Athenian might adopt a son either during his
lifetime or by will from any citizen's family.
[ElCT-irOlTlCTLS.]
Wills were in writing (Soph. Track. 157 sq.),
and usually had one (Dem. c. Aphoh. ii. p. 840,
S 15) or more attesting witnesses, wliose names
were inserted in the will (eyyeypdcpdai iv r<p
ypafifiareiif)), but who were not required to sign
it nor were even necessarily made aware of its
contents. These witnesses could therefore only
bear witness to the fact that a will had been
made {KaraKiirelv SiadrjKas), not to the genuine-
ness of the will produced. It was not necessary
that the testator should write or even sign the
will himself; but he sealed it (Ar. Vesp. 584),
and deposited it (sometimes in several copies,
Lys. c. Diog. § 7) with friends or a inagistrate
(Dem. pro Phorm. p. 94G, § 7). The testator
might revoke his will (aveKilv, Kvcrai, Isae.
Ch'on. §§ 14, 18 sqq.) either by destroying it or
by declaring before witnesses that it was void,
or he might make additions either to the will
itself {TTpoaypd^ai) or by a separate codicil.
(4) Ontlieremcdiebofthe heir for recovering
Ills rights. — A son, whether lawfully begotten
or adopted during the owner's lifetime (Dem. c.
Leach. 1086, § 19), or other male descendant,
might enter and take possession of the estate
immediately after the owner's death (e/x/Sareuei;/
ei's TO ira.Tp(^a, eis ti)v ovaiav). If he was pre-
vented by e^ayooyi) from so doing, he might
bring an action of ejectment against the in-
truder. [■E§oij\tis 6iKTi.] If anyone brought
forward legal claims to the estate, he declared
by affidavit (Sia/jLapTvpia) that the estate was
not the subject of litigation (fjLTj i-KiSiKov eJfai
rhu K\7}pov) ; he also deposited the tenth part
of the value of the property in dispute (irapa-
KarafioKi]). When the parties proceeded at
once to the trial without 5iafj.apTvpia, it was
called evOvSiKia ilcrUvai.
Other heirs-at-law and claimants by adoption
or devise were not at liberty to enter, until the
estate was formally adjudged to them. The
proper course was to make application to the
archon, or, in case of metoeks and foreigners,
to the polemarch. This application was caDed
A.^|is or (wtSiKaaia rov K\i}pov : to make an
ai)plication, \fi^iu Kayxo-v^iv, or Kayxo^^^i-v or
eViSocaC.'ecrSai rov KKrjpou. The deposit (Tropa-
KarafioKr)) was the tentli part of the value of the
property in dispute : it was returned to the party
if successful ; if not, it went to the treasury.
If no other claimant appeared, the archon
adjudged the estate to the first suitor before a
heliastic court (eTreSi'/cotrei' avT(fi rhv K\ripov :
cf. Isae. Pyrrh. § 43). If there were adverse
claims, he proceeded to prepare the cause for
trial (SiaSi/cacr/a tov K\r\pov). First came the
uvaKpiffis : the bills in which the parties set
forth their respective titles were called uvti-
ypacpal. Tlie dikasts were then to be sum-
moned, and one court was held for the decision
of all their claims. The speeches were mea-
sured by the klepsydra. Each claimant had an
d/xcpopevs of water for his first speech and three
XoffS for the second.
The verdict, if fairly obtained, was final,
unless upset by a SiKn \i/evSo/j.apTvpta!v.
(5) Of the obligations to icIiirJt, the heir
succeeded. — The first duty of an heir, as with
KAOnH2 AIKH
693
us of an executor, was to bury the dead and
perform the customary funeral rites (to vofjLi(6-
juLeva TToiely, Aesch. c. Tim. § 13 sq.). If no
money was left to pay the expenses of burial,
still the nearest relatives were boiuid to defray
them ; and if they neglected to perform their
duty, the chief magistrate (S7]fj.apxos) of the
demus in which the death took place, after
warning them by public notice ave\e7v koI
Karadd^pat Kai Kadupai rhv Srifj.oi', got the work
done by contract, paid for it himself, and was
then empowered to sue them for double the
amount.
Children who neglected to bury their parents
were liable to a criminal prosecution {ypa(pr)
KaKdoffiws yov(wv).
Among heritable obligations may be reckoned
that of marrying a poor heiress {driffaa), or
giving her in marriage with a portion fEirC-
kXtipos].
A son or a grandson could not renounce
{atroffrrivai, Dem. c. Lacr. p. 924, § 4) the suc-
cession. The heir succeeded to all the claims
and the liabilities of the deceased, even beyond
the value of the assets, and entering upon an
involved (vir6xpf<>is) property might lead to the
loss of the heir's own property (Dem. c. Ajihob.
ii. 836, § 2).
State debtors were disfranchised {arifioi)
until they had settled the debt ; and the dis-
ability extended to their ijosterity.
The posterity of those who were jjut to death
by the people, or were convicted of theft or
corruption, inherited the cnifxia of their ances-
tors. This may be compared to the ' corruption
of blood ' following upon attainder in the feudal
law. Privileges, on the other hand, a'nyjais iv
TlpvTaveicfi, irpoeSpia, areKeia were hereditary
in the families of Harmodius, Aristogeiton, and
others (Dem. c. Lcpt. p. 466, § 29 ; Pint. Dem.
31 ; Prytaneum), areAeia m the families of
Konon and Chabrias ; in most instances the
granting of such a privilege was personal.
We find no mention of property escheating
to the state for want of heirs, since Athenian
law suffered no civic family to expire; and
therefore the property of an intestate was
always assigned to such person as was most fit
to be his successor and representative.
If a manumitted slave died without leaving
children, his property fell to his patron and his
patron's family (Isae. Nicostr. § 9). The pro-
perty of fxeroiKot fell to their relatives ; in
default of relatives, it fell to the state, or to
the TTpocrTarris.
KXriTtipes or KXtitop^s- Summoners.
The Athenian summoners were not official
persons, but merely witnesses to the prosecutor
that he had served the defendant with a notice
of the action brought against him, and the day
for his appearance before the proper magistrate.
The names of the summoners were subscribed
to the declaration or bill of the prosecutor, and
were essential to the validity of all proceedings
founded upon it. In the event of persons sub-
scribing themselves falsely as summoners, they
exposed themselves to an action (i|/ei;5o/cAijT€i'os)
at the suit of the party aggrieved.
KXcirfis S£kt| or ypa-^)"^. The action for
tlic^ft at Athens might be either private or
public, i.e. civil or criminal, and in tlie former
case either before a diaetetcs or a court, pro-
bably that of the thesmothetae. Tlie various
modes of procedure are enumerated bv Demo-
sthenes (c. Androt. p. 601, §§ 26, 27). The
safest course was the private action before an
arbitrator; proceedinga might also be taken by
694
KTPI02
way of ypa(j>ri, and, when the delinquent was
detected in the act, by airayajyT) or e<p7]yTi(Tis :
subject to the risk of forfeiting 1000 draelinias if
the prosecutor did not getone-lifth of the votes.
In some cases, a person who had been robbed
was permitted to enter a house and search for
his property ((pwpav, Ar. Nub. 469 ; Plat. Legg.
xii. p. 954 a). The searcher himself was closely
watched, and had to divest himself of all cloth-
ing in which anything could be concealed about
his person [yvfjiv'bs f) xtTwi/jV/fov tX'"'') o-^o}<jtos.
Plat. I.e.).
As regards the penalties of theft, the law
drew a distinction between trifling and serious
offences. Amounts under ten drachmas could
be settled summarily by the Forty, probably
by a fine (ewifioKi]) ; above ten drachmas, they
had to call in diaetetae [TeTTapdKOi'Ta].
Next came ' ordinary ' theft : i.e. stealing in
the day-time to an amount not exceeding fifty
drachmas. The criminal upon conviction was
obliged to restore twofold if the property were
recovered ; if it were not, twofold plus a certain
sum for damages, called iiraiTta: the court
might inflict an additional penalty {trpoffTi^iav,
■jrpo(TTlij.T]/xa), and the offender be put in the
stocks (iroSo/co/c/crj) five days and nights.
In ' aggravated ' cases of stealing in the day-
time property of greater amount than fifty
drachmas, or above ten drachmas from the
gymnasia or public baths (\co7ro5u(ria) or from
the ports, or by night anything whatever, the
law expressly directed an awaywyr) to the Ele-
ven, and, upon conviction, the death of the
offender (Dem. c. Timocr. pp. 735-6, §§ 113,
114). If the 7pa(^i7were adopted, it is probable
that the punishment was fixed by the court ;
but both in this case and in that of conviction
in a SiKTj, the disfranchisement (ortjuio) of the
criminal would be a necessary incident of con-
viction.
K\3pios. Lord or guardian. The early law of
all countries takes notice of families only : i.e.
of persons exercising /(a^rja^jo^esias. Ancient
law, therefore, subordinates a woman to her
family ; though relieved from her parent's
authority by liis death, she continues subject
thi-ough life to her nearest male relations as
guardians, except during marriage, when her
husband was her Kvpios. The tei'm Kvpios is
applied to males only during minority : the
Kvpios of such was first the father, secondly the
guardian appointed by his will, thirdly the
nearest male relative.
For the laws relating to the wardship of
orphan children at Athens, see 'ETriTpoiros.
If a citizen died intestate, leaving an orphan
daughter, the son or the father of the deceased
was bound to supply her with a sufficient dowry,
and give her in marriage ; likewise to take care
that the husband made a proper settlement in
return for dower. In the event of the death of
the husband or a divorce, the Kvpios had to
receive her back and recover the dowry, or at all
events alimony (cfiTos), from the husband or his
representatives. If an orphan daughter had no
near relations, the nest of kin became her Kvpios,
and had the option of marrying her himself, and
taking her fortune with her. If the fortune
was small, and he was unwilling to marry her,
he was obliged to make up its deficiencies in
proportion to his own means ; if it was large,
he sometimes put away his own wife in order
to marry her. He could even take her away
from a husband to whom she had been married
in her father's lifetime. ['EttCkXtipos.] See
KdKcoai;.
MAPTTPIA
Women could only appear in a court of law
through their Kvpios : hence the qualifications
of a Kvpios were the male sex, years of discre-
tion, freedom, and, when citieens, iirmpiia
['ATip.CaJ. If the Kvpios were a resident alien
(uEToi/cos), he was represented by his Athenian
patron (npocTTdTTis).
M.
MapTvpta signifies strictly the deposition
of a witness in a court of justice. We shall
here explain — (1) what persons were competent
to be witnesses at Athens; (2) what was tlie
nature of their obligation ; (3) in what manner
their evidence was given ; (4j what was the
punishment for giving false evidence.
(1) At Athens, the capacity to give evidence
was limited to free and adult males. A woman
could, however, take an oath if tendered to her
by challenge (irp6KKr]ffis) ; and this oath had
an evidentiary value, being in fact a substitute
for evidence.
Slaves were not allowed to give evidenco
(except in cases of murder), unless upon exami-
nation by torture (jSacraros). The party who
wished to obtain the evidence of a slave be-
longing to his opponent challenged him to give
up the slave to be examined {i^airelv tuv
^ov\ov). The challenge was called irp6K\i](Tis.
The owner, if he gave him up, was said
iK^ovvai or irapa^ovvai. rTormentum.]
Citizens who had been disfranchised [rjriynti-
IJ-ivoi), and debtors to the state, could not ap-
pear as witnesses in a court of justice. But
there was no objection to alien freemen (Dem.
c. Lacr. p. 927, § 14) bearing evidence.
Neither of the parties to a cause was com-
petent to give evidence for himself, though each
was compelled to answer the questions put by
the other; but friends appearing for the defence
{(Tvvrtyopoi) could give evidence in the cause.
The obligation to attend as a witness, both
in civil and criminal proceedings, was binding
on all citizens, and could (but not always) be
enforced by a \nrouapTupiov Si'/ctj.
Witnesses were summoned to attend by irpoff-
KKrjais. The attendance of the witness was first
required at the *AvdKpiCTis> where he was to
make his deposition before the superintending
magistrate (riyefjiwy SiKaa-rripiov). The party in
whose favour he appeared, generally wrote the
deposition at home upon a whitened tabh-t
{\i\(vK(i}iji(vov ypa/j.fj.areloi'), which he brought
with him to the magistrate's office, and, when
the witness had deposed thereto, put into tlie
box («x««'os) in which all the documents in tlie
cause were deposited. If the deposition were
not prepared beforehand, the evidence might be
written in court upon a waxen tablet. All
testimonial evidence was required to be in
writing, in order that there might be no mistake
about the terms, and the witness might leave
no subterfuge if convicted of falsehood. (Dem.
c. Steph. i. p. 1115, § 44.) The avaKpiffts
might last several days. On the last day the
box was sealed by the magistrate, and kept so
by him till the dav of trial. (Dem. c. Aplioh.
i. p. 836, § 1, c. Cohon. p. 1265, § 27.)
The form of a deposition was simple. All
documents put in evidence at the trial were
certified by a witness, whose deposition was at
the same time produced and read. (Dem. pro
Phorm. p. 946. c. Steph. p. 1120.)
The witness was obliged to be present at the
trial, in order to confirm his testimony, unless
he was ill or out of the countrv, in which case a
MAPTTPIA
commission might be sent to examine him.
["EKfiapTVpta.] All evidence was produced by
the party during his own speech, the /fA.eif u5pa
being stopped while the depositions ip.dpTvpfs,
IxapTvpia) were read. (Lys. c. Panel. SS 4, 8,
11 ; Dem. c. Eiibul. p. ISOo, g '21.) The witness
was called by an ofiScer of the court, and
mounted on the raised platform (0Ti/j.a) of the
speaker, wliile liis deposition was read over to
liiiii by the clerk; he tlien signified liis assent,
either by express words or bowing his head in
silence. (Dem. c. Mid. p. 560, § 139.)
If the witness was hostile, he was required by
a solemn summons (KA-qT^veiv) either to depose
to the statement read over to him, or to swear
that lie knew nothing about it {jiapTvpelv ^
i^6ixvv(rdai). If he refused, he had to pay a fine
of a thousand drachmas to the state. This
oath (e^w/uLoa-ia) was of course liable to the
penalties of perjury. (Dem. F. L. § 17C.)
An oath was usually taken by the witness
at the avaKpiffis, where he was sworn by the
opposite party at an altar {nphs rhv ^co/j.hi'
ilopKi^eiv). If he had not attended at the
woKpiais, he might be sworn afterwards in
court. Wliether the witness was always bound
to take an oatli is a doubtful point. It seems
certain, however, that the other side could put
a witness on his oath {f^opKovv, Dem. c. Steph.
i. p. 1119, § 58; irphs rhv XiQov &.y(iv Knl e^op-
Ki^eiv, c. Conon. p. 1265, § 26, with Sandys on
both passages).
The oath of the witness (the ordinary v6niixos
opKos) must not be confounded with the oath
taken by one of the parties, or by some one out
of court, with a view to decide the cause or
some particular point in dispute. This was
taken by the consent of the adversary, upon a
challenge (TrpJ/cATjo-js, [Dem.] c. Tiutoth. p. 1203,
§ 65) given and accepted ; it was an oath of a
specially solemn kind (Kara rSiv iraiSwy, Dem.
c. Aphob. iii. p. 852, § 20; c. Conon. p. 1269,
§ 40 ; KaQ^ lepa>v reXeiwv, [Dem.] c. Neaer. p.
1365, g (■)() ; Kar H^wKeias, c. Eubid. 1. c). [See
also 'AKOiflv iJLapTvpelv.]
The above remarks apply equally to causes
which came before the dikasteries in the ordin-
ary way, and to those which were decided by the
public arbitrators (AiaiTTixaC).
If the witness in a cause gave false evidence,
the injured party was at liberty to bring an
action against him (Si'/crj \f/evSo/j.apTvpici>v). The
proceeding was sometimes called eTri<TKT]\pis
(€7ri(r/CT)7rTf trflat tc^ /xaprvpi, Dem. c. Aphob.
iii. p. 846, S 7, p. 856, !:! 41). The action for
false testimony was a rifj.7]Ths aywv, in whii^h
the plaintiff laid his own damages in the bill ;
the dikasts might also inflict the penalty of
aTifjiia bv a TrpocrTifiTjais. (Dem. c. Aphob. iii. p, I
849, § 16.)
If the party convicted by false evidence had
been put to death or banished, any citizen might
proceed against the witness by yparpr]. Persons
suborning others to give false evidence were
liable to KaKOT€xvi<I>v 8£kt|.
In c'crtain cases of false evidence a reversal
of tin; judgment (Si'/ctj avdSiKos, avaSiKia) could
be obtained by convicting a majority of the
witnesses of 4/6i/5o/xaf)Tupio. ["E^jccris] i
We conclude by noticing a few expressions.
Maprvpeiv tivi is to testify in favour of a man, !
KarafxapTvpflv rivo^ to testify against ; Sta/xapT-
vpeadai and sometimes iirifxapripiffQai rovs
TTopoi'Tas, to call upon those who are present to
take notice of what passes, with a view to give
evidence. The /xaprvs (witness in the cause) is
to be distinguished from the /cArjrrjp or K\i)Twp,
EENIA2 rPA*H
695
who merely gave evidence of the summons to
appear.
MiaducTEus 4)d,CTLs, also called ixiffd-Jifffws
oXkov (paais. The action brought against a guar-
<lian for either having neglected to make profit-
able use of the property of liis ward, or for
iiaving made no use of it at all. Use might be
made of suck property either by letting it, if it
consisted of lands or liouses, or by putting it out
to interest, if it consisted of cajiital. This
action might be brought against the guardian,
during the minority of his ward, by any person
who took an interest in the welfare of tlie
orphan. After the orphan came of age, the re-
medy lay in his own hands by a S'ikt) ^irirpoirris
[see <t>dCTis]. Complaints of this kind were
brought before the archon. In ease the guar-
dian did not wish to administer the property of
his ward, he might request the archon to let
the whole property to the highest bidder at a
public auction (Dem. c. Aphob. ii. p. 837, § 5 ;
Isae. Or. 6 [Philoct.\ § 36 sqq.). The person
who took the property had to pay an annual
percentage (often 12 per cent, per annum or
more) for the right of using it, and to give
security (aTroTi'/UTj^a) on liis own estate, the
archon sending aTroTi/irjTai to value his pro-
perty, and to ascertain whetlier it was sufficient.
The technical terms for letting and renting the
property of an orphan were fxiffdovv and jxicQ-
ovffdai.
Moixeia. Adultery. Among the Athenians,
if a man caught another in the act of criminal
intercourse (/uoix*'o) with his wile, he might
kill him with impunity. According to Lysias
{de Caedc Erai. § 2) the law was the same
in all Greek states, and without reference to
the rank or position of the offender. Other
punishments short of death are alluded to in
Aristophanes {Nub. 1083, Flut. 168). The right
of vengeance extended to the cases of a wife,
mother, sister, daughter, or even a concubine
(TroAAa/CT)), if she were the mother of free chil-
dren. The husband might, if he pleased, take
a sum of money from the adulterer by way of
compensation, and detain him till he found
sureties for the payment. If the adulterer was
convicted he was delivered bj' his sureties to
the husband before the court, to do what he
pleased with him, except that he was not to use
a knife or dagger.
The husband might also prosecute the adul-
terer in the action called /u.oix(ia-s ypa<pT). If
adultery was proved, the husband might no
longer cohabit with his wife under pain of dri/jua.
The adulteress was excluded from all temples.
The infidelities of a husband gave the wife no
right of action for divorce.
N.
No|jLCap,aTOS 8i.a4>opds •Ypa<l>ii. A public
action which might, at Athens, be brought
against anyone who coined money either too
light in weight or not consisting of the pure
metal prescribed by the law. The punishment
on conviction was death. (Dem. c. Lrjif. p. 508,
§ 07, c. Timocr. p. 765, § 212.)
= €vias ■Ypa<j)ri. A prosecution at Athens
for unlawfully usurping the rights of citizen-
ship. As no man could be an Athenian citi-
zen except by birth or creation ((pvfffi, ytvfi,
or iroiiiffti, Sopfo), anyone having neither of
696
nAAAAKH
these titles, and assiuning to act as a citizen, |
was liable to a ypacprj ^evias, which any citizen
might institute against him (Lys. c. Agor. § 60 ;
Dem. c. Boeot. i. p. 999, § 18, c. Timoth. p. 1204,
§ 66, &c.) ; or he might be proceeded against
by ElcravY€\ia. If condemned, his projjerty
and person were forfeited to the state, and he
might be forthwith sold for a slave (Dem. c.
Tiniocr. p. 741, Sec). He could, however, bring
a Si'ktj \\/fvhoixapTvpLiiiv against the witnesses who
had procured his conviction. [MaprvpCa.]
A person bringing an action xf/evSo/j.apTvpiwi'
fraudulently was liable himself to the penalties
of a ypacpri Scopo^fvlas. The jurisdiction in
these matters belonged to the thesmothetae
in the time of Demosthenes.
AJrin to the ypa<pr] ^evias was the action of
the Sr]iJi6Tai in expunging from their register
{Kij^iapxiKov ypa^ifjuoLTiiov) the names of such
persons as had been improperly admitted.
From their decision there was an appeal
["'E<(>«ois] to a court of justice, upon which
the appellant, if he obtained a verdict, was
restored to the register, but if judgment was
given against him, was sold for a slave (Dem.
V. Eubid. p. 1317, § 60 sq. [A-njio? : flap-
e'YYpaTTTOt].
riaWaKTi, riaWaKts. The TraA.\cuc;7 occu-
pied at Athens a middle rank between the wife
and the fTaipa. Such relations, generally with
slaves, but also witli Athenian women, were
recognised by law, and scarcelj' proscribed by
public opinion. The children of a iraWuKT}
were not admitted to the phratry of the father ;
they were not yv7}crtoi, but they were iXivdepoi,
i.e. possessed civic rights ; and by an act of
legitimation {iTOiiiffdai, Andoc. i. 124) the father,
if the mother was an Athenian, could procure
for them all the rights and privileges of children
born in wedlock.
riapdPoXov; flapaPdXiov. A fee paid by |
the appellant i>arty, on an appeal {((pecrLs).
napavpa<})iti. This word does not exactly i
correspond with any term in our language, but |
may without much impropriety be called a
plea, or a special plea. It is an objection raised |
by the defendant to the admissibility of the |
plaintiff's action ; arising, not out of the adver- |
sary's own statement of his case, like our ;
' demurrer,' but depending on facts stated by the i
defendant himself, and introducing new allega-
tions into the cause. A irapaypaipr} might be
put in, not only when the defendant could show i
that the cause of action was discharged, or that |
it was not maintainable in point of law ; but
also when the form of action was misconceived,
or when it was conceived at a wrong time (Dem.
2>ro Phorm. p. 952, § 26 sq.), or brought before !
the wrong magistrate (c. Pantacn. p. 976, § 33
sq.). In the last case the ■Kap(xypa<pr) would
answer to our ' plea to the jurisdiction.'
The irapaypcKp-ti, like every other answer
(a.vTiypa<pr]) made by the defendant to the
plaintiff's charge, was given in writing, as the
word itself implies (Dem. c. Phonii. p. 912,
§ 17 ; IT. avTiKayxayeif or Sovvai, or irapaypdcp-
fcrdai). If the defendant merely denied the
plaintiff's allegations, or (as we might say)
' pleaded the general issue,' he was said fi/OvSiKta
elcrievai (Dem. c.Steph. i. p. 1103, § 6). In this
case a court was at once held for the trial of
the cause. If, however, he put in a irapaypapi)
{Trapfypd\l/aTo /u.^ elaayci>ytfj.oi/ dyai rrjv SiKrjvj,
and the plaintiff acquiesced in the ground of
nAPAKATA0HKH
objection raised, the action was either brought
before a different magistrate or in a different
form, or it was dropped altogether ; if the
plaintiff did not acquiesce, a court was held to
try the preliminary question, whether the cause
could be brought into court or not. Upon this
previous trial the defendant was considered as
plaintiS, and hence is said by Demosthenes (c.
Pliorm. p. 908, § 4) Kariiyopelv tov Sia>Koin-os :
he began and had to maintain the ground of
objection which he relied upon (Dem. c. Steph.
i. J). 1103, § 5 sqq.). If the plaintiff succeeded,
the jury merely decided elffaytliyiixov elvai t^c
SiK-qv, and then the original action, which in the
meantime had been suspended, was proceeded
with (Dem. c. Zenoth. p. 888, § 22 sq.). Both
parties on the trial of the irapaypa<p7) were
liable to the 'EiruPeXia, on failure to obtain a
fifth part of the votes (Dem. c. Steph. i. p.
1103, § 6).
The course of proceeding on a irapaypa<^ was
obviously calculated to delay the progress of the
cause. It was therefore not looked on with
favour bj' the dikasts, and is often spoken of as
one of the manoeuvres of defendants to defeat
justice (Dem. c. Mid. p. 541, § 84).
There was no such thing as proceeding by
irapaypacpT), where the defendant had the advan-
tage of begiiming, until after the expulsion of
the Tliirty Tyrants. Before this time aU special
objections to the adversary's course of proceed-
ing seem to have been called by the general
term of a.vTiypa(pal.
riapaKaTaPoX'n. A sum of money required
of a plaintiff or petitioner in certain cases, as a
security that his complaint or demand was not
frivolous. Such was the deposit made in cer-
tain inheritance causes, viz. by a person who
claimed an inheritance already adjudged, or by
a person who claimed an inheritance as having
been adopted or by testament. The amount of
the deposit in such causes was a tenth part of
the value of the property claimed : it was
returned to the petitioner, if successful ; other-
wise it went to the opponent, or, in case of rival
claims, to the state. The word irapaKara^oKii
signifies both the paying of the deposit and the
money deposited ; and we find it used to denote
other kinds of deposits, as the npvTavela and
riapdaTaCTis.
napaKaraGTiKTi (irapaOrtKrf, Hdt.). A de-
posit of something valuable with a friend or
other person, for the benefit of the owner : e.g.
money with a banker (Dem. j'f'O Phorm. p.
944), or a pledge with a creditor ; and the word
is often applied metaphorically to any important
trust committed by one person to anotlier
(Dem. c. Aphob. ii. p. 840, § 15, c. Mill. p.
572, § 177, &c.). The Athenians gave a iropa-
KaTaQi)Kr)s 5i/c7j against a bailee who unjustly
withheld {kiriaTipy\ae) his property from the
owner (Ai-. Pint. 373, Sec), or who used it with-
out the o\vner's permission for his own benefit.
A pledge given to a creditor could not be re-
covered, except on payment of the money owed
to him ; but, after selling the article and satis-
fying his debt out of the proceeds, he would be
bound to restore the surplus (if any) to the
pledgor. The difficulty of procuring safe cus-
tody for money, and the general insecurity of
moveable property in Greece, mduced many rich
persons to make deposits in the principal
temples, such as that of Apollo at Delphi (Plut.
Lijsand. 18), or Artemis at Ephesus (Xen.
Anab. v. 3, 6; Plant. Bacch. ii. 3, 78; cf.
Posidon. Apam. Fr. 48, in Fragm. Hist. Graec.
iii. p. 48). It may be observed that irapa-
i
i
nAPANOIAS AIKH
KararidecrBat is always used of a person making
a deposit for his own benefit, with the intention
of taking it up again, and wapaKaTaKuadai of
the tiling thus deposited ; KOfnii^effdai is to re-
cover your property.
riapavotas Sikti. This proceeding may be
compared to our 'cornmission of lunacy,' or 'writ
(If liDiutico inquireiido.' It was tv suit at
Athens which might be instituted by a next-of-
kin against one who, by reason of madness or
menial imbecility, had become incapable of
managing his own affairs. The intention was
to take the management of property out of the
hands of such a person, not to provide for his
confinement (Ar. Nub. 845 ; Xen. Metnor. i. 2,
§ 49). This S'tKT) came before the ai-chon (as
rjytfjiwv SiKaffTTipiov}, as being a matter con-
nected with family rights, and a court of dikasts
decided the case.
riapavojiuv •ypa<}>Ti. An indictment insti-
tuted against a person who had proposed or
carried an illegal, or rather unconstitutional,
IJsephisma or law. The illegality might consist
either in its form or in its contents, or in both.
Thus a psephisma might be impugned for
matter of fonn, if it was aTrpofiovKevTov, i.e. had
not been submitted to the senate ; or a proposal
to restore an &Tifxos or other defaulter, if per-
mission ("ASeiaj had not first been granted by a
proper assembly (Dem. c. Timocr. p. 715, § 40).
As to the contents, a psepliisma was illegal
if inconsistent with a law (Dem. c. Aristocr. p.
04!), § 87, and c. Lept. p. 485, § 92). A law
might be impugned as being inconsistent witli
some other law that had not been repealed
(Dem. c. Timocr. p. 711, § a4). Though the
ypa<pr) irapavofxcov strictlj' lay against unconsti-
tutional legislation, not inexpedient legislation,
it was often employed for party purposes.
Against the projjoser of a psephisma a ypa(pri
TTapav6fxu)v might be preferred either before or
after the taking of the votes (Dem. c. Aristocr.
p. 625, § 14, c. Androt. p. 594, ^ 5, de Cor. p.
228, § 9). Any citizen might prefer this indict-
ment; if he declared in the popular assembly
on oath (virw/uLOcria) that he intended to proceed
against the proposer by means of a ypa(f>7]
'napav6fx<iiv, such a declaration had the effect of
suspending the psepliisma until the court liad
given its decision.
The indictment was directed against the
mover personally, who, if the court decided
against him, incurred pmiishment, ranging from
the penalty of death to a fine of 25 drachmas ;
and the law or the psephisma was repealed. A
person thrice so convicted lost the right of
making proposals in the popular assembly in
future (Dem. de Cor. trirrarch. p. 1231, § 12).
The prosecutor who failed to obtain one-fifth of
the votes at the trial (Plut. Brut. 24) incurred
a fine of 1000 drachmas, and lost tlie right of
instituting a ypa(pii ■Kapav6fjL03v in future.
The ypacpr) ■iTapav6fx<iiv may ha\e been intro-
duced by Perikles, but its importance dates
only from the disuse of ostracism (417 K.c.) In
411 B.C. it must have been firmly established
as a bulwark of the democratic constitution, or
the Four Hundred would not have repealed it
before proposing their revolutionary changes
(Thuc. viii. ()7).
The ypacp^ Trapav6/ji<iiv may almost be said to
have transferred legislation from the iKKKTjcrla to
the StKa(TT7}pia (Dem. c. Timocr. p. 748, § 154).
Cf. iiJii<t>icrpLa.
napa-n-p€CT3«ia. Any corrupt conduct, mis-
feasance, or neglect of duty on the part of an
ambassador; for which he was liable to be
nAPErrPAnroi
C97
called to account and prosecuted on his retmni
home (Dem. F. L. -p. 430, § 278 sq., r. Mid. p.
515, § 5). Ambassadors were usuallj' electe<l
by the people in assembly ; on rare occasions
by the senate. At the time of the Pelopon-
nesian War and before, only men above fifty
years of age were eligible as ambassadors
(Plut. Per. 17) ; this restriction had been
removed by the time of Demosthenes. Persons
fit for the post and jie^sonae gratae to the
state to which the embassy was to be sent
(Thuc. V. 44, iSrc), such as ■icp6^(voi, were pro-
posed by their friends (Aeschin. F. L. § 18), or
might even propose themselves (Lys. c. Agar.
§ 9). In most cases the ambassadors received
definite instructions; but sometimes tUey had
to act according to their own judgment (Time,
ii. 67). Ambassadors empowered to act as
plenipotentiaries within their instructions were
called avTOKpdropfi (compare Thuc. v. 41 with
Lys. c. Agar. § 8 sqq.).
For ambassadors to act contrary to their
instructions (Trapa rb >\i7](piff ixa irpeff^eveiv, Dem.
F. L. p. 346, § 17) was a high misdemeanour
(Plat. Legg. xii. init. p. 941 a). On their return
home the commissioners were required inune-
diately to make a report of their proceedings
(airayyeWiiv t V irpffffidai'), first to the senate
and afterwards to the people iu assembly (Dem.
F. L. p. 342, § 4, &c.). If the report made to
the senate and the conduct of the envoys
seemed satisfactory, a member of the senate
moved a vote of thanks to the envoys and an
invitation to dinner in the Prytaneum (/caAfVai
eVl SfiTri/oj' [eVi leVia^ is Th irpvravflov)-, and this
motion was afterwards submitted to the popu-
lar assembly. When objections were raised to
the conduct of the ambassadors, no such vote
of thanks &c. was proposed in the senate {F. L.
p. 350, § 31). This vote of thanks had in course
of time become a mere fonnality (F. L. p. 414,
§ 234). Ambassadors had also to render an
official account of their conduct in the embassy
in the usual way [EvBvva]. At the anakrisis
held by the logistae, their Kripv^ asked if anyone
intended to accuse the fuuctionai-y who was
rendering his account (ris fiovKerat Karr/yopiiv ;
F. L. p. 341, § 2). If an accuser appeared, he
had to establish his complaint and reduce it to
the fomi of a ypacfii], and th© prosecution woidd
be conducted in the usual way, stopping the
proceedings of the edOui'ai. The ypa<pf] nrapa-
nperrfieias which might be brought on Occasion
of the evOvvai'wo.sintfxriThs a7air, and tbe defen-
dant might, in serious cases, have to ajiprehend
the heaviest punishment (F. L. p. 42H, }i 273).
Besides this ypacpi), an tiffayyeKia jnight be
brought against an ambassador (F.L. p. 374, §
104 sq.).
riapdo-Taais, a ffe of one drachma paid to
an arbitrator by the plaintiff, on bringing his
cause before him, and by the defendant, on
putting in his answer. [AtatTT)Tai.j
The same name was given to the fee (pro-
bably a drachma) paid to the state by the
prosecutor in certain public ypatpai, viz. ^tyias,
Saipo^evias, x^fvSeyypatpTJSy \j/evSoK\jjT(ias, fiov\-
(vcTfcos, aypacplov, and uoiyefay.
nape'v-YpairTOt, napewPQ-<l>oi. Persons
who had their names enrolled in the register of
citizens without being such either by birth or
special grant {<piin-fi or Soop(a). Such a one was
liable to a =ev£as YPCL<l>'n, which any Athenian
citizen might institute against him ; and if con-
demned, his person and property was forfeited
to the state and lie was sold for a slnve, or he
might be proceeded against by Elaa-yy€\Ca.
698
nAPEAPOI
Moreover the St^/motul mighfc eject any person
illegally enrolled amongst them. If he ac-
quiesced in the verdict, he was degraded to
the rank of an alien ; if lie did not acquiesce,
but appealed to a court of dikasts, and judg-
ment went against him, he was sold as a slave,
and his property confiscated Ly the state.
{Dem.c.Eubul. p."l317,§60sq.) [Aiax|;Ti(}>icris.]
ridpeSpoi. Assessors attached to the three
superior archons, the evdvvoi, and the'EWiivo-
TafiiaL. Each of tlie three superior archons
was at Uberty to have two irdpeSpoi chosen by
himself, to assist liim by advice and otherwise
(Aeschin. c. Tim. § 158). The assessor, like
the magistrate himself, had to undergo a pre-
liminary doKifjLa(ria in the Senate of Five Hun-
dred and before a judicial tribunal. He was
also to render an account {evdvvai} at the end
of the year. The ofiice is called an apxri- The
thesmothetae had no official assessors : if they
chose to have unofficial advisers {(TVfj.&ov\oi), it
was their own private affair, and had no state
recognition. The office of TrdpeSpos was called
irapeSpia, and to exercise it irapeSpeveii/.
npoaYCi)7€£as ypa.4>r{. A prosecution
against pimps or procurers {irpoayu^yoi : cf.
Plat. Theaet. p. 150 a). The penalty, according
to the ancient law of Athens, was death.
ripoPoXti (usually in the plural, irpo$o\ai).
An accusation of a criminal nature, preferred
before the people of Athens in assembly, with
a view to obtaining their sanction for bringing
the charge before a judicial tribunal. The
irpofio\7] was reserved for those cases where
the public had sustained an injury, or where
the prosecutor might deem it hazardous to
proceed in the ordinary way, without being
authorised by a vote of the sovereign assembly.
In this point it differed from the fl<Tayye\ia,
that in the latter the people were called upon
either to pronounce final judgment or to direct
some peculiar method of trial ; whereas in the
vpofioKr], after the judgment of the assembly,
the parties proceeded to the trial in the usual
manner. The court was under no compulsion
as to their verdict ; nor was the complainant
bound to proceed to trial.
The cases to which the irpofioK-f) was applied
were complaints against magistrates, against
common informers irruKopivrai), and against
those who outraged public decency at certain
religious festivals {d^iKeiv Trepi rT)v eoprriv :
especially at the Dionysia and the mysteries).
This is the charge in the irpo^oKy) brought by
Demosthenes against Meidias. The six gene-
rals who were impeached after the battle of
Arginusae, 406 B.C., were proceeded against by
irpo&oKai (Xen. Hell. i. 7, § 35).
The complaint was made {irpoffdWecrOai
Tiva), probably in \vriting, to the Proedri, who
had t® bring forward the charge as soon as pos-
sible at an assembly of the people. Both jjar-
ties were heard (Dem. c. Mid. p. 580, § 206),
and then the people proceeded to vote by show
of hands. Those wlio voted in favour of the
prosecution were said KaraxetpoToyelv : those
against it dirox^tpoToveTv. In certain cases of
a serious nature the defendant might be required
to give bail for liis appearance, or (in default
thereof) go to prison. The persons on whom
the r]ye/j.oy'ia SiKaarripLov devolved were the
thesmothetae.
ripoSoo'Ca. Under this term was included
every species of treason and mipatriotic action,
especially the attempt to subvert the constitu-
tion (/caToAvcrts toD Stihov) and to establish a
despotism (rvpayyis). In the eye of the law.
2ITOT AIKH
however, only the betrayal to the enemy of the
state or part of the state, such as a town, a
watch-post, a gate, a dockyard, a fleet, an
army, or the entering into treasonable commu-
nication with the enemy, amounted to irpoSofria
[ElacLyyeKioL].
Tlie ordinary method of proceeding against
those who were accused of treason or treason-
able practices was by ElaavYcXia.
The punishment appointed by law for treason
appears to have been death, refusal of burial
within Attic territory, and confiscation of pro-
perty (Xen. Hell. i. 7, 22). To this might be
added tlie rasing of the traitor's house and the
drifxia of his descendants.
ripoSeajJLia means generally an appointed
day (sc. rjixipa). The term is speciallj' applied
(1) to tile time which was allowed by law to a
defendant for paying damages, after the expira-
tion of which, if he had not paid them, he was
called inreprifj.epos (or virepTrpodeffixos, or eKirpu-
0€(TflOs).
(2) Prothesmia denotes the term limited for
bringing actions and prosecutions at Athens.
The Athenian j/Oyuos Tt}s irpo6e<Xfx.ias corresponds
to our Statute of Limitations. The time for
commencing actions to recover debts, or litiga-
tion with guardians, appears to have been
limited to five years at Athens (Dem. }>/-o
Phorm. p. 952, § 26 sq.). Inheritance causes
stood on a peculiar footing. When an estate
had been adjudged to a party, he was still
liable to an action at the suit of a new claimant
for the whole period of his life, and his heir for
five years afterwards. The liability of bail
continued for a year (Dem. c. Apat. p. 901, § 27).
It is doubtful whether any period was prescribed
for bringing criminal prosecutions, at least for
offences of the more serious kind. The ypa<pri
ira.pav6fx.ci3v could only be brought against the
proiioser of a law or psephisma witliin a year
after the propounding of it (Dem. c. Lept. p.
501, § 144) ; and the evQvvai against magistrates
were limited to a certain period, probably thirty
days.
hpvTaveia. Comt fees, payable by both
parties in a civil cause, computed on a scale
according to the amount of damages claimed :
3 draclimas for 100 to 1000 drachmas, 30 up to
10,000, and so on. There were no ■Kpvrave'ia in
cases under 100 drachmas, nor in cases of assault
and batti>i-y (vfiois, aiKia). They were paid into
court at the avaKpiffis. [Aikti.]
2.
ZiTov SiKTi. As the marriage portion
(irpoi'l) was intended as a provision for the wife,
although it was paid to the husband by lier
natural guardian (Kvpios), if anything happened
to dissolve the marriage, or if the intended
husband refused to perforin his engagement
(Dem. c. Aphob. i. p. 811, § 17), the husband
or his representative was bound to repay it ;
or, if he failed to do so, he was liable to pay
interest upon it at the rate of 18 per cent,
per annum (iir' ivv4' o^o\o7s roKocpopelv,
[Dem.] c. Neaer. p. 1362). Marriage was dis-
solved by (1) death, (2) Divorce. (1) Upon
the death of the husband without children,
the wife and her money went back to the
natural guardian ; if he died leaving children,
she had the option of staying with them or
going back to her Kvptos. If she did the latter,
the children were bomid to pay back the
portion to the Kvpios, or 18 per cent, interest in
STMBOAflN, AIKAI AnO
the meantime ; and if she married again, lier
Kvptos was bound in lionour to give the same
sum to her new husband. If she stayed with
her children, she renounced thereby her riglit
to her portion, which became the property of
the chiklren, who on their part undertook to
provide for all her wants (Dem. c. I'hacn.
p. 1047, § "iT). Upon tlie wife's death without
children, her portion went back to her guar-
dian; but if she died leaving cliildren, tliey
inherited their mother's portion. CJ) In the
case of divorce, the portion of the wife had to
be restored to her Kvpios or interest paid as
above, botli wlien the husband sent liis wife
away (a.'ir6Tr€fj.\iiis}, and when the wife left her
husband (aTrdKiixpis : Dein. c. Onct. i. p. «(U),
§ 8). Upon the transfer of a woman from one
husband to another, the irpoi'l was transferred
with her, or the former husband paid interest
upon it so long as he retained it (Dem. c. Onet.
i. p. 8G6, § 7).
A woman's fortune was usually secured by a
mortgagoof the husband's property ["O pot]; but
whether this was so or not, her guardian might
bring an action against a party who unjustly
withheld it — Siktj irpoiKOs to recover the princi-
pal, SiKTj ffirov for the interest. The interest
was called <T~iroi (alimony or maintenance^, be-
cause it was the income out of wliich the
woman had to be maintained. The Siktj alrov
was tried before the archon in the Odeion
([Dem.] c. Xrao: p. 1302, § 52). This cause,
like the S'lKri itpoik6s, seems to have belonged
to the enfirji/oi StKat. It was a.rlfxy\Toi, for the
damages were clearly liquidated, being a mere
matter of calculation, when the payment of the
marriage portion was proved.
ZvtJL36\(i>v, AiKai dirb. The ancient
Greek states had no well-deiined international
law for the protection of tlieir respective
members. In tlie earlier times troops of
robbers used to roam about, and commit aggres-
sions upon individuals, wlio in their turn made
reprisals. (For the system of state reprisals,
see ZCAai.) As the Greeks advani'ed in civili-
sation, disputes between the natives of different
countries were settled (whenever it was possible)
by friendly negotiation. It soon began to be
evident, that it would be mucli better if, instead
of any state interference, such disputes could
be decided by legal process, either in the one
country or the other. To obviate tlie danger of
partiality in native prize courts, it was necessary
to have a special agreement, declaring the con-
ditions upon whicli justice was to lie recijiro-
cally administered. International contracts of
this kind were called <Tv/j.$o\a. in older livn-
guage ^vfjL0o\ai; and the causes tried in jmrsu-
ance of such contracts were called SiKai airh
ITVIX0 '>K(iiv. Such agreements in tlie case of
.\thens were ratified by a lieliastic i-ourt under
the presidency of the tliesmothetae. The
other contracting state was therefore compelled
to send envoys to Athens with power to con-
clude tlie treaty as it was drawn up and
settled by the tliesmothetae and the lieliastic
court.
Tliere was as between the citizens of tlio con-
tracting cities reciprocity of suing and being
sued (cf. Arist. Pol. iii. 1, ;i S).
The princi])le of such agreements was causa
srqiiifur forum rri, i.e. the decision was given
in the court of the defendant's city, the laws
according to which the cases were decided
being, not those of tlie adjudging city, but
international conventions made binding by
the <rvfi0o\a.
2TNAIK02
r,90
There were some essential iiointsof dilTerenco
between 5»»cai airh <tvix06K(jjv and SiKoi i/xiropiKai.
In the latter the suit was held in llie slate wlierc
the contract was made, i.e. causa sequiiur
furitni cuutnictus, and was decided by the gene-
ral laws of that state, and not by the particular
stipulations of the avfx^oXa. In the case of an
individual citizen of one state bringing a suit
against another state, resort was probably had
to the court of a tliird state called in to
decide the dispute (cf. Time. i. 28, v. 79) ; such
causes were called (KK\r)Toi S(/cai, and the
city chosen by the parties to tlie suit iKK\i\Tos
v6\i.s.
The name S/koi dirJ* avfifiu\wv was given
also to causes sent by tlie subject allies of
the Athenians to be tried at Athens. The
Athenians had (Tvfx0o\a both with autonomous
and subject allies. 2uyu)3oAo involve recipro-
city, and trials held under tliem were main-
tained in the courts of the defendant's city ;
most of sucli suits, however, would, even by
the terms of tlie treaties, be tried in Athenian
courts. For in most cases tlie Athenians
would be the defendants ; in the great majority
of such cases it would be the citizen of an allied
state who was the plaintiff, and he must neces-
sarily, therefore, sue in an Atlienian court. In
course of time, after the allies hiul been de-
prived of most of their independent jurisdic-
tion, all the causes of subject allies (inriiKooi)
were tried at Athens. It was, however, only
by degrees that the Athenians claimed this
supreme jurisdiction over the members of their
first confederacy. In the time of the Pelopon-
nesian War, not only were all charges of treason
or hostility against Athens carried thither for
trial, and tlie allied cities interdicted from tlie
power of capital punishment, but civil suits
also were decided by the Athenian tribunals.
It is not probable that all tlie private suits
between citizens of the allied cities were
carried up for trial to Athens ; yet with our pre-
sent information it seems impossible to deter-
mine whicli suits were tried at Athens and
which were decided in the local courts ; perliaps
the amount involved decided the point.
It should be observed that 5/»cai (ri/;uj8oAarcu
or (Tvfj.0o\aiwv are suits concerning the terms
of a private contract; SiKai airb avfi06\<i>v (ot
avjx^oKiiJMtai, Time. i. 77), suits arising on a
public contract or treaty between two states
(avu^oKa).
ZuvSiKos, an advocate, is frequently use<T
as synonymous with aviniyopos, to "denote
anyone wlio pleads the cause of another,
whetlier in a court of justii'C or elsewhere.
2i'»'5i«'fr»' also is used indifTerently witli crui'-
7]yopf7y or (rvvaywvi^fcrOat or (rut'(tirf7t' (Dem.
c. Oncf. i. p. 872, § 31, c. Mid. ]>. r)70, § 100,
c. Zcnoth. p. HH5, § 12, r. Stcjj/i. i. p. "1127,
S H4). The state or a corporation or a
private individual might be represented by
them. Thus, the five public advocates ap-
pointed to defend the ancient laws before tlie
No(j,o9^TaL wlieii new laws were ])niposed
are called crvvSiKot (Dem. c. Lejil. \>. 5(ll,§14(!i
or <Tviff)yopot (Dem. r. Timocr. p. 711, § 86i.
The same mime was ajiplied to orators sent by
the state to pleail before a foreign tribiinai.
The deniarchus ami (rvi/StKoi ajipear as accusers
of defaulters before a court of Demotae.
livvStKoi, annually elected, took part in the
SoKtfiaala of new membors of an fpcwos.
2fi'5iKoi was also tlie name of extraordinarv
functionaries at .\tliens, ajipointed soon after
the overtlirow of the Tliirty Tyrants, who
700
STNHrOPOS
exercised jurisdiction in disputes or claims
concerning confiscated property. Such a claim
was called eVeTrtV/CTjjU/aa, and to prosecute it
iv^iria-Kiixl/atTdai ([Dem.] c. Timoth. p. 1197 sq.,
§ 45 sq.).
ZvvTivopos- According to the ancient
practice of the Athenian law, parties to an
action were obliged to conduct their own causes
without assistance; but it was a common
practice to deliver in court a speech made by a
professional Aovo-ypdcjjos. Antiphon is said
to have been the first who made a profession
of this. As a general rule, except in cases of
physical or mental unfitness (as e.g. in the case
of Miltiades) the party was expected to address
the court himself, for the judges liked to form
an opinion of him from his appearance ; and
thei'efore, if a man distrusted liis own ability,
he would open the case himself by a short
speech, and then ask permission for his friend
or friends to come forward ([Dem.] c. Phorin.
p. 922, § 52, c. Neaer. p. 1319, §k 14 : cf. |
ZvvSiKos). This was seldom refused; and \
in the time of the orators the principal speeches ,
in the cause were not unfri'<juently made by ;
the advocate. But as no fees were allowed to
be taken, we find in most of the auvi)yopiKo\
Aoyoi, that the speaker states what his motives
are : as, for instance, that he is connected by
blood or friendship with the one party, or at
enmity with the other, or that he has a stake
in the matter at issue between them. (See
Dem. c. Lept. and c. Androt. &c.) The law
which prohibited the advocate from taking fees,
under peril of a ypa(p7\ before the thesmotlietai'
(fDem.] c. Steph. ii. p. 1137, §2()), made no pro-
vision against the infiuence of political asso-
ciations {ipya(TTiipta, irapaarKevai), which in-
duced men to sujiport the members of their
club or party without regard for the right
or justice of the case. [See'Epavoi : Zvko-
<}>dvTTis.]
SfcViYopoj (or Karr^yopoi) was also the name
given to the i>ublic advocates, not more than
ten in number, chosen annually by the people
or the generals to manage the prosecution in
causes of public importance, more especially in
those which were brought before the court
upon an E laayyiXla.. The fee of a drachma (to
iTvi'riyopiK6v) mentioned by Aristophanes ( Vcsp.
(')91) was probably the sum paid per diem to
the public advocate whenever he was employed
on behalf of the state.
In ordinary cases the accuser or prosecutor
(KarT)yopos) was a distinct person from the
(Tvvriyopos, who acted only as auxiliary to him.
It might be, indeed, that the <Tvvi\yopos per-
fomied the most important part at the trial ;
but he was in point of law an auxiliary only,
and was neither entitled to a share of the
reward nor liable to a penalty of a thousand
drachmas, or aTi/xia. This, however, does not
aijply to joint prosecutors or co-plaintiffs, who
had equal rights and liabilities.
The number of persons who might appear as
advocates, either in public or private causes,
was limited only by the time allotted for the
speeches by the klepsydra ; which was the same
whatever the number of persons who were to
speak on one side. Both parties were usually
allowed to make two speeches, the plaintiff
beginning, the defendant following, the plaintiff
replying, and lastly the defendant again.
There were also ten aviniyopoi appointed by
lot to assist the ten Koyiarat [EvQvvai] to
audit the accounts of the magistrates ([Arist.]
'Ae. Tro\. 54).
TIMHMA
Ti^.T)(j,a. The penalty imposed in a court
of criminal justice at Athens, and also the
damages awarded in a civil action, received the
name of Tijurj/xa, because they were estimated
or assessed according to the injury which the
public or the individual might respectively
have sustained. The penalty was either fixed
by the special finding of a court (n'/iTjcrtv [Dem.
F. L. p. 434, !^ 290], rifjLTifxa notelffdai) or merely
declared by the court, having been fixed before,
whether (1) by law or decree of the people, or
(2) by previous arrangement of the parties in a
civil suit. "When the penalty was fixed by the
court (ri/Mffdai) the trial was called aywv
TtfiTirds; when fixed before, either by law or
private arrangement, aywv arinriTos, a distinc-
tion which applies to private as well as to pub-
lic actions. Among the former class (of ayuvfi
TifiT^Tof) must be reckoned also those trials in
which the court had to choose between two
penalties fixed by law, as e.g. in the Swpuv
ypa<t>ri [A€Kao-M,6s].
(1) Criminal Causes. — In cases of murder
and high treason sentence of death was im-
posed by the law [<l>6vos : PIpoSoCTta], and
in many other cases the punishment was
fixed by the lawrElaa-yYe^ta] [Dem. c. Arist.
p. 67(5, § 167, c. Lept. p. 481, § 79). Such aywves
ari^riroi were the ypa<pa\ iepocrvXias, \pevSey-
ypacprjs, $ov\ev(reci)s, ^ei/'ias, Bcvpo^evias, (xoi-
Xei'as, fTatp-fiatoiiS, irpoaywyeias, apylas, rpav-
naros iK ■trpovoias, acTTpaTfias, &c. But where
the exact nature of the offence and its circum-
stan(-es could not be foreseen by the lawgiver,
the law directed that the same court which
jiassed sentence on the culprit should impose
the penalty which his crime deserved. To this
class belong the ypa<pa\ v$p(ws, irapavofxttiv,
irapair pefffifias, \\/fvSoKKriT€ias, kKotttis, (fcc.
(2) Civil Causes. — Here the sentence of the
court would vary according to the nature of the
complaint. When the plaintiff sought to recover
an estate in land, or a house, or a specific thing
{i.e. in all Si'koi irp6s nva), nothing further was
required than to determine to whom the estate,
house, or thing demanded, of right belonged.
[KAtipov6m.os ; OlKLas SCkt).] The same
would be the case in an action of debt (xpeovs
5iK7j) where the amount of the sum in question
was not disputed. On the other hand, wherever
no provision had been made concerning the
damages, either by the law or by the agreement
of the parties, they were assessed by the dikasts,
e.g. in the hinai iiriTpoTrfis, aiKtas, i^aipeaeccs,
<|/eu5oyuapTi;p(«5i/, ^laiwv, etc.
The following was the course of proceeding
in the tijutjto! a7(i«'€r. The accuser proposed
in the bill of indictment some penalty. The
indictment of Meletus ran : iiSiKii '^coKparrfs,
&c. . . . Tifxruxa ddvaros. The plaintiff was
said rifjMcrQai Tcp (pivyovri, 4iriypa<peiv or 4vi-
ypdipfffOai t/jutj/uo, and the penalty proposed is
called (TTiypaiuifui. The defendant being found
guilty, the prosecutor was called upon to speak
in support of the allegation in the indictment.
He was not bound, however, to abide by the
proposal made in the bill, but might withdraw
liis own proposal in favour of the counter-
Iiroposition of the defendant ((rvyx<>'pf^^' '''V
Ti/urj^oTi). This was often done at the request
of the defendant himself, or of his friends.
Such a withdrawal, however, was not binding
upon the dikasts. If the defendant thought the
punishment proposed on the other side too
. severe, he made a counter-proposition, naming
TOIXnPTXOS
the penalty which he considered would satisfy
the demands of justice {auTiTLfj.ciaOai). He
WAS allowed to address the court : to say what
he could in extenuation of his offence, or to
appeal to the mercy of the dikasts. Tliis was
frequently done for him by his relations and
friends ; and it was not unusual for a man to
produce his wife and children in court to excite
compassion (irapct/cArjfris, irapaywy!)). After
both parties had been heard, the dikasts gave
their verdict (rifxcw tQ (pevyovTi davarov,
XpTjjuaTOJj', &c. J. The dikasts had to cliooso one
or other of the two propositions of the accuser
and defendant ; and this course was, perhaps,
the only course that could be adopted with so
large a number of dikasts.
The usual course of proceeding seems to
have been as follows. The prosecutor pro-
posed the highest penalty which the law or
the nature of the case would admit of, and
the speakers often made allusions to the
punishment before the first verdict had been
given. In the course of the trial there might
be various indications on the part of the
dikasts of a disposition to favour one side or
the other. They were very animated listeners.
They frequently interrupted the speaker, and
expressed pleasure or dislike in a marked
manner [dopv^slv) (Ar. Vesp. 622, 979; Lys.
G. Eratosth. § 73 sq. ; Dem. c. Eiihul. i. p. 1299,
§ 1, &c.). All this enabled both parties to feel
the pulse of the court before tlie time had
arrived for the second verdict. If the prosecu-
tor saw that the dikasts were incensed against
his opponent, he might persist in asking for
the highest penalty. If not, or if he was him-
self disposed to be merciful, he would relax in
his demand. Similar views would prevent the
defendant from asking for too small a penalty.
The case of Sokrates was a very uncommon
one. The parties submitted widely different
estimates to the dikasts, and left them no
alternative but the extreme of severity on the
one side, and the extreme of leniency on the
other (see Grote, Ch. Ixviii.).
As a general rule only one penalty, personal
or pecuniary, might be imposed by the court
(Dem. c. Lept. p. 504, § 155). Sometimes the
law expressly empowered the dikasts to impose
an additional penalty {irpoa'Tl^Tjixa) besides the
ordinary one.
In public suits a compromise between the
opposing parties was not permitted ; but private
suits were frequently settled by arrangement be-
tween the parties, even after the trial had begun,
and with the assistance of the dikasts (Dem.
c. Pantaen. p. 978, § 39 sq.). The liability of
the plaintiff to the iTrufieKia, which was cal-
culated upon the sum demanded, operated as
an additional check upon exorbitant demands.
For Ti/iTJ/ua in the sense of the rateable value
of property with reference to the Athenian
property tax, see Elcr4)opd.
Toix^pOxos. Sec p. 687, a, Effractor.
Tpai3(xaTos Ik ivpovoCas ■vP°-4>'n. It ap-
pears that in order to bring this action it was
necessary to prove that there had been an
intention (irp6vota) to murder the person who
had been wounded (Lys. c. Shu. § 41 sq.). Cases
of this kind were laid before thearchon basileus
and brought before the Areiopagus ([Lys.]
c. Alcid. § 15 ; Dem. c. Aristocr. p. 628, § 24). If
the accused was found guilty he was exiled
(Dem. c. Boeot. ii. p. 1018, i? 32) and his property
confiscated (Lys. c. Sim. § 38).
TvfiPtop-ux^O'S YP°'4>T1. Aji action to main-
tain rights of ownership in a burying-place
*APMAKnN rPA*H
701
against a person who opened it to inter .some
one who was not entitled to burial there
There was some provision for such cases in the
laws of Solon (Cic. Legg. ii. 26, 64), and a
fine was imposed. The offending person was
also laid under a curse. Similar laws were in
effect in many jDarts of the Roman Empire
T.
"YPpis, "Y3p€(J9 vpa<J>Ti. The Athenians,
and tlie Clreeks generally, had from an early time
a strong dislike to violence (D'^Spis) in all its
forms, though they were not careful of human
life. The Greeks had abandoned the habit of
going armed {ffiZ7]po<popilv) almost at a pre-
historic period ; and the Athenians were thw
first to set the example (Thuc. i. 5, 6). In strict
keeping with this sentiment, all approaches to
\ iolence were guarded both by law and public
opinion. Even slaves were to some extent pro-
tected by it (Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece,
ed. 3, pp. 388, 390).
In Attic law, abusive words (A.oi5opto) made
the speaker liable to a small summary fine
(eiTi/SoATJ), especially if uttered in a court of
law or a sacred precinct ; if they extended to
certain definite charges against a man's charac-
ter, the remedy was a KaKriyopias Si'/ctj [KaKT)-
70pta9 8tKTi ; cf. 'A-rroppTiTa (2)] : it was
a legal defence to prove that the charge was
true (Dem. c. Aristocr. p. 635, § 50). For an
assault, whether common or aggravated, th(;
plaintiff had his choice between a j)rivate action
for damages, whicli involved less risk [AlKiag
8£kti], and a public and criminal xarosecutiou
[vfipews ypacpT}), in which, as a Tj/xrjrbs aycii',
any x^enalty might be demanded, and in ex-
treme cases death (cf. Dem. c. Canon, p. 1256,
§ 1, c. Mid. p. 526, § 38 ; Arist. Bhet. i. 13, § 10).
In the use of the term vfipis there was a fur-
ther distinction between indecent (Si' alaxpovp-
yias) and other assaults (5ta iT\7)ywv). The
ypacpT] vfipews protected even slaves, at any
rate in cases of attempts upon their chastity.
It was not, however, because slaves had any
rights that they were thus protected, but for the
good of the citizens, that they might leam to
repress the habit of personal violence (Aeschin.
c. Timarch. § 17). The legal representative
(Kvpios) of a female citizen or a minor might, if
he pleased, consider such an injury as a private
wrong, and sue for damages in a civil action
[BiaCuv 8£kt|]. To justify an action for vfipis
Sta -KXriyobv, it was necessary to prove that the
defendant struck the first blow {orav &PXV
Xfipoov aS'iKoiu/, Arist. Bhet. ii. 24, § 9). Injury
to a slave, if slight, might entitle the master to
recover damages for the battery (aiVia), or, if
serious, for the loss of his services by a B XcLPt) s
The v&pews ypa<pT) does not seem to have
been frequent. Besides the more serious char-
acter of the ypa(pr) or public prosecution, it was
more profitable to obtain compensation for the
wrong than the mere punislnnent of the wrong-
doer; the penalty in the ypacp^ ifjSpecus accrued
to the state and not to the plaintiff. He had
also to forfeit 1000 drachmas {6(t>\f7i' x'A.(as) if
he either relinquished the suit or failed to obtain
a fifth of the votes. The sentence might extend
to confiscation or death.
<t>ap|xdKcov ■ypa<})Ti (Dem. c. Aristocr. p.
627, S -'•^1 &c). An indictment against one who
702
*A2I2
caused the death of another by poison. It was
tried by the court of Areiopagus. Mahcious in-
tent {irp6voia) was a necessary ingredient in the
crime. The puuisliment was death. Poisonous
drugs were frequently administered as love
potions or for other purposes of a similar nature.
Wills made by a man under the influence of
drugs (virb (papixaKcmu) were void at Athens (Dem.
c. Steph. p. 1133, § 16). Women who practised
sorcery were called (papftaKiSes or (papfxaKevrpiai
(Theocr. ii.).
0dCTts was used in a general sense to denote
any kind of information, but technically it was
one of the various methods by which public
offenders at Athens might be prosecuted. The
charge, as iu 'ypa(pi], was made in writing (also
called (pdcris), with the names of the prosecutor
and defendant, tlie proposed penalty {rinTj/xa),
and the names of tlie K\7]Trjpes affixed. The
peculiar feature of the (pdais seems to have
been that, if the prosecution was one of a
purely public nature, the prosecutor receis'ed
half the penalty (to rmicn] toiu <pavdivTU)v,
[Dem.] c. Theocr. p. 1325, § 13 ; Plat. Lcfjg. v. p.
745 a). <(>a(ris might be brought against five
classes of offenders : viz. (1) against those who
committed offences against the mining laws ;
(2) against those who committed offences
against the laws and customs — e.g. those who
conveyed corn anywhere but to Athens, or lent
money for any other mart but Athens (Dem. c.
Phorin. p. 91H, 37), or contravened the regula-
tions of import and export by dealing in contra-
band of war (Ar. Ach. 819 sq., Eq. 278, Ban.
362) or defrauding the customs (Ar. Eq. 300) ;
(3) against those who appropriated state pro-
perty ; (4) against (rvKo<pdvrat, i.e. those who
brought false accusations against others in
matters enumerated above ; (5) against guard-
ians who wronged their wards (Dem. c. Natif:.
rt Xcn. p. 991, t^ 23). All (pdcTfii were tiij.t]toI
aywues. In most cases the rifxrifxa was shared
by the state and the prosecutor. The prose-
cutor was iirobably liable to the payment of
wpvTavf'ia, and ran the risk, if lie failed to obtain
a fifth part of the votes, of tlie fine of a thousand
drachmas and jiartial disfranchisement (Dem.
c. Throcr. p. 1326, § 6) [<t)6vo9].
06vos. Homicide. The feelings and customs
of the Greeks with regard to homicide in general
underwent a great change during the early
historical period. From the Heroic age down-
wards, two i)rimitive and universal notions may
be traced at work : the right and duty of pri-
vate revenge, passing subse(juently into public
prosecution and ])unishment ; and the feeling
that all liomicidc required a ceremonial purifi-
cation. [AiKaaxTipiov.]
At Athens the right of private vengeance was
•liscountenanced as early as the Drakonian
legislation. But adultery might be avenged
and violation resisted even by bloodshed. The
kinsmen of the deceased became prosecutors,
instead of avengers of blood.
By the Attic law of historic times, homicide
was either fKoiKXios or aKovcrtos, a distinction
which corresponds in some measure with our
murder and manslaughter. All (/>of iKai 5i/cai be-
longed to the jurisdiction of the &pxai»' ^oirjAeuy
as riyifxoiv SiKaffr-qpiov. He was ancientlj' the
sole judge in cases of unintentional homicide ;
for such an act was considered from a religious
point of view, as being a pollution of the city ;
and the fia<rt\evs, as guardian of religion, had
to take care that the pollution (iyos) was duly
expiated. ['E(J)^Tai.J
Solon enacted that the court of Areiopagus
*0N02
should try cases of murder and malicious
wounding (tiv . . . s'/c irpovoias atroKreivri tj
TpwcTTi) besides arson {irvpKdia) and poisoning
(Deni. c. Arist. p. 627, § 22). Effective instiga-
tion to murder was counted as murder (Dem.
c. Con. p. 1264, § 25 ; [Arist.] 'Ad. iro\. § 57).
Besides the court of Areiopagus, there were
fom* other courts, of wliich the e(p4rai were
judges. To the court eVl noAA,a5iV belonged
cases of accidental homicide, manslaughter,
and attempts {^ovKevans) to commit murder.
Tliis procedure applied to cases of slaves,
metoeks, and aliens, as well as citizens ([Lj's.]
Andoc. p. 212). To the court eVt AeAcpivlc/} were
refen'ed cases where the party conffssed the
deed, but justified it. In the court itri TlpvTaveicf
the objects of prosecution were inanimate
things, as wood, stone, or iron, which had
caused the death of a man by falling on him
{aypvxtiiv S'lKri). The court eV ^pearro^ was re-
served for a case where a man, after going into
exile for an unintentional homicide, and before
he had appeased the relations of the deceased,
was charged with having committed a second
(intentional) homicide. He was brought in a
ship to a place in the harbom- called ^peaTTu,
and there pleaded his cause on board ship,
while the judges remained on land. The object
of this contrivance was to avoid pollution for
the unexpiated manslaughter, and at the same
time to bring the second offence to trial (Dem.
c. Arist. p. 645, 646, §§ 77-79).
The task of prosecution devolved upon the
nearest relatives of the deceased ; and in case
of a slave, upon the master. To neglect to
prosecute, without good cause, was deemed an
offence against religion, and made the relations
liable to an d^ffidas ypa<pii (Dem. c. Androt.
p. 593, § 2).
The first step taken by the prosecutor was
to give notice (irpSpp-qcris) to the accused to keep
away from all public places and sacrifices. This
was done at the funeral of the deceased (Dem.
c. Lept. p. 505, 5i 158). After this he gave a
public notice in the agora, warning the accused
to appear and answer to the charge {Trpoenreif
or irpoayopfvfiv (povov) (Dem. c. Macart. p. 1068,
§ 69). The next thing was to prefer the charge
before the arclion basileus. To such charge
the term imaKriimadai or iirf^ifvai was pecu-
liarly applied. The charge was delivered in
writing ; the prosecutor was said diroypd<pf(Tdcu
S'tKTjv <p6vov. The basileus having received it,
after first warning tlie defendant OTrexeo'Sat
T&JJ' fj.vffTT]ptwv Kcu Twv SA\au' vofiifxoL'v, pro-
ceeded to tlie preliminary inquiry {avaKpiais).
Three months were allowed for this, and there
were three special hearings, one in each month,
called SiaSiKacrlat or wpoStKaffiai ; after which
the arclion elcrriye rrji' Siktii/. Tlie defendant
was allowed to put in a napa'ypacj)^!, if he
denied the jurisdiction of the court.
All the ^oviKa SiKa(rT'f}pia were held, for re-
ligious reasons, in the open air (Antipli. de Caed.
Her. § 11). The arrhon basileus pi'esided, without
hisgarland. [Bov\t^.] The four <t>wXo3aCTt\€ls
were his assessors. The parties were bomid by
the most solemn oaths. The witnesses on botli
sides were sworn in like manner (Antiph. I.e.
§§ 12, 15) ; and slaves were allowed to appear
as witnesses. Either party was at liberty to
make two speeches, the prosecutor beginnuig.
Subsequently, (rwfjyopot were admitted to
speak. Two days were occupied in the trial.
After the first day the defendant was at liberty
to fly the country, except in the case of pan'i-
cide. The property of the exile was confiscated
XPEOT2 AIKH
(Dem. c. Arist. p. G34, § 45). On the third day
the judges proceeded to give their votes ; for
whicli two boxes or urns were provided (vSpiat
or a,/x<pope7s), one of bronze, tlie other of wood :
the former for the condemning ballots, the
latter for those of acquittal. An equal number
of votes was an acq-uittal.
Justifiable homicide might be (1) accidental;
(2) in case of adultery, or (3) self-defence or
defence of property ; (4) tyrannicide or the
slaying of a public enemy; (it) misadventure,
as in tlie case of a doctor who Icilled his patient.
Justifiable homicide left the perpetrator entirely
free from pollution [KaQapiv). That which,
though unintentional, was not perfectly free
from blame, required to be expiated.
Wilful murder was punished with death.
It was the duty of the thesmothetao to see
that the sentence was executed, and of the
Eleven to execute it (Dem. c. Arist. p. 630,
§ 31). Malicious wounding was punished with
banishment and confiscation of goods. So were
attempts to murder (^ouAeuceis).
Persons convicted of uuiuteutional homicide,
not perfectly excusable, were banished for a
year {aireviavri^eiv). They were obliged to go
out {i^epxfcrdai) by a certain time, and by a
certain route (raKTr^v 6S6p), and to expiate their
offence by certain rites. [Exillum.] It was
their duty also to appease the relations of the
deceased, or his (ppdropes, by presents or by
entreaty. If the offender could prevail on them
to forgive kini (aiSe'icrOai, Dem. Aristocr.]). 043),
he might even return before his time had
expired. The property of such a criminal was
not forfeited, and it was unlawful to do any
injury to him either on his leaving the country
or during his absence. (Dem. c. Arist. p. 634,
§ 44).
The jurisdiction of the i(piraL in later times
was greatly abridged ['E(t)e'Tai] ; and most
of the (poviKal S'lKai were tried by a common
jury.
No extraordinarj' punishment was imposed
on parricide. Suicide was not considered a
crime in point of law, though an offence against
religion.
Little is known as to the (poviKoi vo/xoi of
other states.
X.
Xpeovs 5Ckti. An action for debts. Small
debts under ten draclmias, recoverable before
the itinerant magistrates, SiKacrTal kuto. S-fi/xovs,
afterwards called the Forty (TeTTapaKOvra) :
above tliat amount, they came before the courts
of the tliesmothetae, or, in some cases, the
polemarch. In certain cases the ))hiintiff would
forfeit a sixth part of the sum contested, upon
failing to obtain the votes of one-fifth of the
dikasts. ['EiTGiPeXCa]
XpricTis, Aav€icr|jL6s. Loan. Xp^(r4s is the
loan without interest of some material object
which, after the time has elapsed or the purpose
^ETAOKAHTEIA2 TPA-J-H
708
has been served, is to be returned to the lender.
Aavei(rfj.6s is the transfer of the ownership of a
thmg in consideration of interest paid. Money
loans come under this head. In any case, at
the expiration of the term, the thing or its
equivalent had to be returned. The defaulter
was liable to a StWTj ;8Aa/3r;y.
U^eveevYpaeJiTig ypa(i>r\. Tlie name of
every state debtor at Athens was entered in a
register by the flpaKTopes, whose duty it
was to collect the debt, and erase the name of
the party when he had jiaid it. The entry was
usually made upon a return by some magi-
strate. If the authorities neglected to make
the jjroper returns, any individual might, on liis
own responsibility, give information to the
registering officers (TrpaKTopes) ; and thereupon
the officers, if they thought proper, might, after
inquiry, make an entry accordingly. If they
made a false entry, the aggrieved party might
institute a prosecution against them. It would
lie also, where a man was registered as a debtor
for more than was due. Such prosecution was
called ypa(pr] ipevS^yypacpris, and was brought
before the thesmothetae. If tlie defendant
were convicted, the name of the complainant
was struck out of the register, and that of the
defendant was entered in his stead, as debtor
for the same amount. It is also ju-obable that
he had to pay damages to tlie plaintiff. See
also Bov\tVCTeo)s ■ypa'4>''i.
HJ€v5oK\T|T€tas vpacl)!!. A prosecution
against one who had falsely ajjpeared as a
kAtjttJp or K\r]Twp, i.e. a witness to prove that a
defendant had been duly summoned ; and who
had thereby enabled the plaintiff to get a judg-
ment by default. To prevent fraud, the
Athenian law directed that the names of the
witnesses (usually two in number : KXti-
Tfip€s) who attended the summons should be
subscribed to the bill of plaint or indictment
(iyKKT]fia), so that the defendant, if he had
never been summoned and judgment had
nevertheless been given against him by default
{ipV/J-V Si'/CTj), might know against whom to pro-
ceed. The false witness (kAtjttJp) was liable to
be criminally prosecuted, and punished at the
discretion of the court. Even death might be
inflicted in case of gross conspiracy (Dem. c.
Nicostr. p. 125, § 14). A person thrice con-
victed of this offence was, as in the case of
other false testimony, z^jso iurc disfrancliised;
and even for the first offence the jurj- might, if
they pleased, by a ■n-pocrri/j.riais inflict the
jjenalty of atimia upon him. Cases of fraud
might be met by the injured party, according
to circumstances, by a Siktj auKocpavrias,
KaKOTix^i^'^^i o'' )3Aa)37js. The ypacpy/ xpfvSo-
K\r]reias came before the thesmotlieta*>, and
the question at the trial simplj- was, wliether
the defendant in the former cause had been
summoned or not.
704
ROMAN LAW
ABIGEI
Abi'gei, Abigeato'res, or Abacto'res. Thieves
who make a practice of cattle stealing (abi-
geatus), which was distinguished from ordinary
furtum and punished as a special offence.
Abigeatus was the stealing of beasts of pasture,
as horses, oxen, sheep, goats, and pigs ; but
only if the theft was of a sufficiently serious
kind. Abigeatus fell under the extraordinary
jurisdiction of the magistrate, who punished it
according to his discretion. The punishments
included different fonns of death, the mines,
and other kinds of penal servitude for a term
or for life, but a person of superior rank was
only liable to banishment (relegatio) and de-
gradation from his rank. For an abigeus to
carry arms was a great aggravation of his
offence.
Abo'rtio, Abo'rtus (ayu/SA&xris). Procuring
abortion, not an uncommon practice among the
Romans, was a criminal offence under the Le.x
Cornelia de sicariis, 81 B.C., the penalty being
death if the patient died ; if not, then banish-
ment and partial confiscation for persons of a
higher rank, work in the mines for those of a
lower rank.
Of the law in Greece little is known ; but
it appears likely that the practice was pun-
ished as a religious offence.
Absolu'tio. [Actio.]
Acceptila'tio, a term borrowed from book-
keeping (accejjtum ferrc), is a formal mode of
extinguishing a verbal obligation. The debtor
says to the creditor, ' Quod ego tibi promisi,
habesne acceptum ? ' and the creditor answers,
' Habeo.' Tlie spoken words constituted an
acceptilatio, but a record of the act (apocha)
would, as in other cases, be written and pre-
served. In form an acceptilatio must be abso-
lute, not conditional, and must release at once,
and not at a deferred date. [Adversaria ;
Commentarii.]
Acce'ssio. (1) In some bargains it was not
unusual, besides the price, to stipulate for
certain extra payments ; these were called
accessiones : e.g. we have mention of allow-
ances both in money and kind made to a con-
tractor for gathering olives ; of allowances of
oil and salt to tlie contractor for pressing the
oil, besides a small sum for the use of vessels
(vasarium) ; and of wood and other extras,
besides the rent, due from farming tenants
{coloni). So Pliny (xxxiv. § 11) calls a dwarf
thrown into the bargain with a candelabrum in
a sale, accessio candelabri.
(2) In the law writers both noun and verb are
used in speaking of such appurtenances and
accessories as share the legal condition of the
principal. Such accretions are buildings erected
on land (superficies solo cedit), trees planted
in gradual deposits on a river bank, writing
on paper, gold setting of a jewel, embroidery
on dresses [Confusio .
Accresce'ndi ius. [Heres.]
A'ctio. An action or proceeduig at law.
ACTIO
i Actio in rem; Actio in personam. The
distinction between actions in rem and in
' personam is of great importance. An action
in rem is a suit to estabhsh your right to a
particular thing or animal, or to a share of or a
right to use a particular thing, or to establish a
personal right, such as liberty. Such rights are
; maintainable against all the world — that is,
against anyone who infringes them. But an
actio in jjersonam is a right only against a cer-
tain party who by some contract, action, or
neglect on his part has become bound {obli-
gatiis) to us. By a real action [actio in rem)
we claim rem nostram esse or ius aliquod
: nobis competere; by a personal action [actio
I in personam) we claim that some one dai-e
I oportere. Real actions are called yJwdicatzoHcs,
; vindicatio in its strict sense being the real
action by which possession of a corporeal thing
: is claimed for another on the ground of o-mier-
! ship ; personal actions (at least of some kinds)
were called condictiones.
The following are the legis actiones in Ro-
man law :
I. [a) Per sacramentum. The earliest mode
of legal action (legis actio, lege agere) of whicli
we have any account is as follows. A plaintiff
sunmions his opponent into court [in ius voca re) :
if he does not go, the plaintiff calls a bystander
I to witness the summons and refusal (antestari),
and then takes the defendant by force if he still
does not comply. The antestatio was accom-
' panied by the plaintiff's touching the ear of the
I witness, as a symbolical way of bidding him listen
I to the summons. (Hor. Sat. i. 9, 76.) The de-
; fendant had two courses open to him in lieu of
, obedience : viz. he might either find an adequate
' defender (vindex) to accept suit in his place,
i or he might settle the difference at once. If
' no settlement was made, then both parties
. before noon, either in the comitium or in the
: forum, stated their case [causam coicere). If
only one party was present, the property in
question was after noon assigned to him. The
proceedings were not continued beyond sunset ;
and if the case was not concluded, bail (vades)
was given for future appearance. If some piece
of property was claimed by vindicatio (-/\ks-,
^'E^^-, ' will,' and Vdic-, ' announce, declare ')—
e.g. a slave, an animal, or some other moveable
article — it was brought into court, or some object
in its stead : e.g.a,\ock of wool to represent a flock
of sheep ; a sod for a piece of land ; a piece of
timber for a ship. Then the claimant, holding
a rod (Festuca), laid hold of the slave or other
article claimed, and said ' Hunc ego Qiominemj
ex iure Quiritium meum esse aio secundum
suam causam. Sicut dixi, ecce tibi vindictam
imposui,' and at the same time put his rod
upon the slave, thereby giving physical expres-
sion to the claim (' sicut dixi '). (Cf. Liv. viii. 9,
§ 8.) The rod [festuca, vindicta) represented
a spear, the symbol of the most absolute
right of ownership, that acquired by conquest
ACTIO
705
in war. A similar claim (vindicatio), with i
like words and gestures, was made by the |
other party, and there was thus a symbolical I
strife (»ianum coiiserehant) over the thing. I
The praetor bade them take their rods off;
the first claimant then demanded of his oppo- '
lu'nt on what ground he had made his claim ; |
tlie other answered, ' lus feci sicut vindictam [
imposui.' The former then replied by denying j
the rightfulness of the other's claim, and 1
challenging him to a trial by the devotion
ucraincitto) of a certain number of pounds of
ipper (asses). The other claimant then went
iirough the like forms and made the same
rhallenge. The praetor assigned the interim
[wssession {vindicias dare, dicere) of the dis-
puted thing to one of the parties, and ordered
liim to give sureties (jjraedes litis et vindicia-
rum) for its eventual delivery if the possessor
were defeated.
The next step was for a judge (iudex) to be
appointed (within thirty days) to try the case.
On the judge being api)oint('d,)iotice was given
of trial on the next day but one [coinjierendiiuim
diem denuutiare). They appeared before the
judge and stated their case briefly [causam
coicere), and then proceeded to the fuller state-
ment.
Anciently the praetor accompanied the parties
to the place where the thing {e.g. a piece of
land) was, and the formal claims were made on
the spot. Later, the parties left the court and
went to the place and brought a turf or piece of
the disputed pi'operty into court. A still later
stage is given us by Cicero in the speech pro
Murena, c. 12. The legis actio sacramcnti
might also be used mutatis mutandis for main-
taining an actio in ■personam.
(b) The second legis actio is that^Jer iudicis
postulationem. It is reasonable to suppose
that this was the proper proceeding when an
inheritance was to be divided, or boundaries to
be regulated, or accounts to be taken between
guardian and ward, or like matters requiring
judicial administration. Nothing is known of
this actio except the formula tejiraetor iudicem
arbitruvive postulo uti des. (See Cic. Mur.
xii. 27.)
(c) The third legis actio is ]}er condictionem.
Apparently the first stage of the formal pro-
ceedings before the i)raetor [in iure) was dis-
pensed with, and the action was commenced by
notice (condictio = denuntiatio) by the plaintiff
to the defendant to appear on the thirtieth day
to have a judge assigned. Either party might
tender an oath to the other as to the truth of
his contention, and thereby all further proof
be saved ; and if this were not done, a wager
[sponsio) to the amount of one-third of the sum
in question was entered into. The name con-
dictio was afterwards applied to other personal
actions.
(d.) The fourth legis actio (per manus iniec-
tionein) was the early form of execution of a
judgment, and was sanctioned by the Twelve
Tables. If a man admitted tlie debt (aes con-
fessum), or if judgment was given against him
[rebus iure iudtcatis), the plaintiff laid hold
of him, stating in a recognised formula the fact
of the judgment or admission, and the amount
thereby due. The defendant then had two
courses only open to him, either to pay the
amount, or to find a vindex who would assume
entire responsibility in his stead. He was no
longer allowed to defend himself. If neither
course was taken, he was assigned (addiccre) to
the plaintiff, who led him off to his own house.
and bound him either in the stocks (nervo), or
with sliackles on his feet [compedibus), weigh-
ing not more than fifteen pounds. If the pri-
soner did not find his own provisions, his
creditor had to give him at least a pound of corn
(far) a day. This situation lasted for sixty days,
during which the debtor had to be produced on
three market days [nundinae) in succession
before the praetor in the comitium, and the
amount of his debt declared. On the third
occasion, if the debt was not paid, the final
step was taken, by the execution or sale of
the debtor {capitc poenas dabant aut trans
Tibvrim 2)eregre venum ibant). If there were
more creditors than one, the Twelve Tables
said 2)artes secanto, which has been inter-
preted as (1) the division of the debtor's body,
('2) the declaring a dividend, and application of
the proceeds of the sale of the debtor's person
and property. In the case of a single creditor,
the debtor would probably either be sold or
kept and made or allowed to work off his debt.
At any rate the class of addicti are spoken of
as numerous. [Cf. Nexum.J
(c) The fifth legis actio, pignoris capio
( = cajjtio), was a formal proceeding by which
certain privileged creditors could distrain on
the property of their debtors.
Agere Sacramento (a) was probably the gene-
ral and earliest form of conducting a suit at law
which admitted of being brought to a simple
issue. The 2)ostulatio iudicis (b) was probably
applicable to matters where several persons in
common sought authoritative arrangement or
distribution. The condictio (c) was probably
a summary method of enforcing a perfectly
simple claim for a liquidated amount. The
ma)ius iniectio (d) was a mode of obtaining
execution of a judgment, (e) pignoris capio
was legal self-redress carried out in a set form
prescribed by statute.
The smallest error in procedure was fatal to
a man's case. The very words of tlie statute
had to be strictly followed ; a suitor must
appear in person, and could not be represented
by any agent or attorney except in certain
cases. Matters in defence might be urged
before the magistrate, who, if he found them
valid, refused to allow the legis actio ; or if
investigation were needed, a wager (s2)onsio) to
determine the point was entered into between
the parties.
II. Per formulas Utigare. The procedure
on the statute was succeeded by a method
more flexible and equitable. The change con-
sisted in omitting the ancient ceremonial, and
giving the praetor power to state the issue so
as to enable the equitable claims of both par-
ties to be duly regarded. The proceeding
commenced as before, by a summons to the
defendant to appear in court. The defendant
was said vadimonium facerc, the plaintiff
vadari reum. Such vadimonium was defined
by the edict according to circumstances : either
a simple promise (purnni vadimonium) to ap-
pear in court when called, or a promise secured
by bail (vadcs), or an oatli, or a forfeit. On
the parties appearing and stating the nature of
their case the praetor appointed ii judge (or
judges) to determine the questions of fact, and
gave him instructions which showed both the
claim of the plaintiff and the duty of the judge
if the facts wi-re found to supjjort or negative
the claim. These instructions were comprised
in a short formula. The essential parts of it
were two : the claim {intentio), and the judge's
duty {adiudicatio or condcmnatio). In some
Z Z
706
ACTIO
cases the formula closed with a direction to tlie
judge to adjudicate this or that thing or part to
the claimant or to the defendant iadiudicatio) ;
in other cases with a co/ifZewnah'o or ahsolutio,
i.e. with a direction to the judge, if certain things
were found to be or not to be the fact, to order
the defendant to pay so much money as damages
to the plaintiff, or to acquit the defendant of
all liability. Frequently the matter on which
the claim was founded required to be first briefly
stated: this was called demonstratio. As an
example of a simple formula of condemnatio we
may take this :
L. Titius index esto.
Quod A. Acjerius N. Negidio hominem vendi-
dit, {Deinonstratio)
Si paret N. Negidium A. Agerio sestertium
X milia dare oportere, (Intentio)
L. Titi, N. Negidium A. Agerio sestertium
X milia condemna : si non paret, absolve.
(Condemn<Xtio.)
As an example of a formula of adiudicatio
may be taken this :
L. Titius iudex esto.
Quod fundus Cornelianus A. Agerio et N.
Nurnidio communis est, (Demonstratio)
Quantum eius fundi A. Agerio adiudicari
oportet,
Tantum Titius A. Agerio adiudicato : reli-
quum N. Nuinidio adiudicato. (Adiudicatio.)
The intentio may state a matter of fact or a
question of law.
In the case of all formulae the condemnation
directs, not this or that act to be performed,
but, if the sentence is against the defendant, a
sum of money to be paid. The injury, be it
what it may, is estimated at its money value,
and this money value it is for the judge to de-
termine and for the defendant to pay. ^VTle^e
the award, owing to the fault of the defendant
or some other cause, could not easily be deter-
mined, the judge could allow tlie plaintiff to
assess the damages himself on oath (in litem
itirare), and the assessment so sworn would
as a rule V)e entered as judgment against the
defendant unless the judge thought the amount
excessive.
A direct denial by the defendant was out-
side of tlie formula, being open to the defendant
as matter of course; but any special plea which
he miglit urge, if recognised by the praetor as
equitable, was by him inserted in the intentio
of the formula in the sliape of an exception or
negative condition. Pleas regularly in use are
such as fraud, agreement, intimidation, &c.
The defendant's plea (exceptio) may be met
by a counter-exception or counter-plea (repli-
catio) on the part of the plaintiff ; this by a
rejoinder, dupUcatio, on the other part, a tri-
plicatio, and so on.
A still further extension of the formulae was
due to the praetor's recognition of equities re-
quiring protection by action. A person, e.g.,
whom the praetor had recognised as equitably
entitled to a deceased's estate, obtained the
bonorum possessio, i.e. the de facto rights of
an heir, but was not the heir de iure. The
difficulty was got over by a fiction. (See
below, Fictio.) The formula was made to apply
to him, on condition that it would have applied
if he had been heir.
The proceedings before the praetor were said
to take place in iurc ; those before the iudex,
iyi iudicio. [Index, Indicium.]
Actions were brought or defended either by
the parties in person or by attorneys. In the
ante-Justinian Law an attorney was either a
ACTOR
cognitor or procurator. A cognitor was an
attorney appointed in set words by the pirty in
person in presence of liis opponent. X procu-
rator might be appointed bj' simple mandate,
and neither the presence nor knowledge of the
adversary was necessary to his appointment.
Some persons were disqualified from acting
as attorneys for others. Such were soldiers,
women, blind persons, criminals, and all in-
fames. f^Infamia.] Persons under guardian-
ship were represented in suits by their guardians
(tutores et curatores).
Checks were provided against heedless litigar
tion. The plaintiff was exposed to four risks.
(1) To an action for Calumnia. i2) To a
counter-trial (cuntrarium iudicium). (3) In
some actions a wager (sponsio) and counter-
wager (restipulatiu) could be made. (-4) The
defendant might put the plaintiff on his oath
as to his honesty in bringing the suit.
The defendant was similarly exposed to risk
if he allowed the action to proceed. (1) In
certain actions the damages were doubled. (2)
In other cases a wager was made, and the de-
fendant had to pay if he lost the suit. (3) An
oath might be tendered him on the lionesty of
his denial. (4) Further, anyone condemned in
certain actions (theft, robbery with violence,
insult [iniuriae'], actions of partnership, trust,
guardianship) became disgraced (ignominiosus).
For actio civilis and actio honoraria ; actio
directa tmAactio utilis; actio directa and actio
contraria ; actio stricti iuris and actio bonae
fidei ; actio poenalis, see Diet, of Antiquities,
vol. i. p. 22, Actio.
The word actio proj)erly applies to actions
in personam ; petitio to actions in rem ; per-
secutio to actions rei persequendae gratia;
but actio is also used as a general term ; and
iudicium is often found as equivalent to it.
The plaintiff is usually called actor or is qui
agit, sometimes agens or (especially in actions
in rem) petitor. The defendant is reus, or is
unde petitur, or cnim quo agitur, or qui con-
venitnr, or (in actions in rem) possessor. The
plaintiff is said agere, pietere, or actionem
intendere, or experiri, con venire ; the defendant
convenire, suscipere, actionem or iudicium,
&c.
III. Beside this formulary procedure, in which
the praetor gave instructions to a judge who
tried the issue as directed, there were certain
causes which the praetor himself heard and
decided in virtue of his imperium (causa cog-
nit a decernere). From this hearing by the
praetor himself, these trials were called cogni'
tiones, cognitiones praetoriae. These were
partly of an executive character, such as issuing
injunctions (interdicta) to stop apprehended
wrong. But there were other matters, such as
trusts (fidei commissa), which, on account of
the delicacy of their character, were not passed
through the usual forms. For the development
of these, and the cognitiones extraordinariae
under the Empire, see below, Cognitio; Crimen;
Indicium.
Actor. (1) Generally, a plaintiff in a civil
action ; sometimes, a prosecutor in a public or
criminal trial. The plaintiff in a civil action is
also called petitor, and one who prosecutes
another for a crime accusator. The defendant
was called reus, both in private and public
causes ; reus, however, is used by Cicero for
the plaintiff as well as the defendant (de Or.
ii. 43). In a private action, either party might
be called adversarius in opposition to the other.
Actions on behalf of wards (pupilli) below the
ADDICTI
age of seven were brought by their guardian
(tutor) ; actions on behalf of wards above the
age of seven were either brought by their
guardian, or in the name of the ward with the
sanction (aucturitas) of the guardian.
(2) Persons who appeared in actions as repre-
sentatives of the parties directly concerned
were called cognitores ov ■procuratores [Actio].
A universitas or corporate body was represented
for the purposes of procedure by an agent, who
was called actor or syndicus.
(3) Actor has also the sense of an agent or
manager of another's business generally : e.g.
a slave who was given the management of an
estate (Plin. Ej}. iii. 19, § 2).
(4) The actor publtcus was the officer who
had the superintendence or care of slaves belong-
ing to the state or a community ; he was him-
self a slave or freedman (Plin. JEp. vii. 18, § 2).
Addi'cti. [Nexum.]
Addi'ctio. The assignment by the praetor of
a person or property (bona) or damages {damna)
to one of the parties m an action. [Actio ;
Nexum.] Do (actionem et indices); dico(ius),
addico [bona- vel damna), are the tria verba
of the praetor (Ov. Fast. i. 47).
Addi'ctio bonc'rum liberta'tis causa.
[Servus.]
Adgna'ti, Agna'ti. [Cognati.]
Adi'tio heredita'tis. [Heres.]
Adiudica'tio. [Actio.]
Adole'scens. [Impubes.]
Ado'ptio. This was the subjecting of a Ro-
man citizen to the patria potestas of another
otherwise than through marriage. The person
adopting became the lawful {iustus) father of
one who was not his own child, but who
thereupon became his lawful son or daughter,
and a member of his family. Accordingly the
adopted child received the name of the adopter,
adding to it, as an additional cognomen, the
name, or a derivative from the name, of his
former family. Thus the son of L. Aemilius
PauUus, when adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio,
became P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus. [No-
men.] The person thus entering into a new
family might be either (1) dependent (Jiliws
familias) or (2) independent (sui iuris), and
presumably having property and perhaps chil-
dren.
(1) Adoptio apud praetorem (of persons not
sui iuris). — The natural father had to give
his consent. The adoptee's children, if any,
did not leave the family of their grandfather.
The first part of the procedure was a tlireefold
mancipation by his father of the person to be
adopted, in order to break the link with the
natural family. Manumission took place only
twice : after the tliird mancipation, the adopter
claimed [viyulicat) him as his son, and on no
counter-claim being asserted the magistrate
assigned (addicit) him to the adopter. A child
did not lose by adoption all his rights in his
natural family. He was still a Cognatus, and
if emancipated by his adoptive father, lie re-
verted to the position of an emancipated son
of his natural father. [Mancipium ; Eman-
cipatio.]
(2) The adoption of a person sui iuris was in
the form of a bill (rogatio) proposed by the
pontifices, and passed by the curiae, who were
represented (in Cicei'o's time) by thirty lictors.
It was termed adoptio per j)opulum or adro-
gatio. The adoption of P. Clodius (see Class.
Diet. Clodius) was an instance of this. The
adopter must be one who had been married, who
had no children, and was at least eighteen years
ADULTERroM
707
older than the adoptee. A minima capitis
deminutio accompanied adoption. [Caput.]
Under the Empire, a rescript of tlie emperor
was substituted for the formalities of adrogatio.
The detestatio sacrorum was probably part of
the ceremony, viz. the formal abandonment of
the sacred rites of the gens on the part of the
arrogatus.
The effect of arrogation was to transfer, as a
whole {per universitatcm), the property and
future acquisitions of the person arrogated to
his new father. All the children who were in
his power fell under the same power as himself,
and became grandchildren of the adopter of
their father (Suet. Tib. 15).
A person under the age of puberty {impzibes
or pupillus) could not, in early times, be arro-
gated. The consent of all the guardians was
required, and the adoption must be shown to
be for the youth's interest.
In all adoption a person adopted became
agnatus to all the agnati [Cognati] of his adop-
tive father. Emancipation of an adopted child
broke all connexion between him and the adop-
tive family, excepting that of prohibited de-
grees. Important changes in the law of adoption
were made by Justinian.
Testators sometimes coupled the grant of
part of their estate with a direction to the heir
to bear the testator's name ; and this is often
spoken of by historians as an adoption. (Cic.
Brut. 58; Nep. Att. 5; Suet. lul. 83 [of
Augustus], Tib. 6.)
Adroga'tio. [Adoptio.]
Adse'rtor or Asse'rtor is the name given to
the party who asserts or vindicates in an action
{liberale iudicium) the freedom of another.
In the course of the action the adsertor laid his
hand on the person whose liberty he claimed
(adsertus), and formally asserted the right of
the latter to his freedom. Hence adserere in
libertatem, liberali adserere majiu. (Ter. And.
ii. 1, 40 ; Plant. Poen. iv. 2, 83.)
The expression adserere in servitutem, 'to
claim a person as a slave,' occurs in Livy (iii.
44, xxxiv. 18).
Adse'ssor or Asse'ssor. The consuls, prae-
tors, governors of provinces, and the indices
were often imperfectly acquainted with the law
and the forms «f procedure, and employed legal
advisers, who sat in court by the functionary
who was administering justice, and were hence
called assessores (Cic. Vcrr. ii. ly). This cus-
tom continued under the Empire.
As a rule, no magistrate sat without one or
moi-e assessors, leai-ned in the law {iuris
studiosi). The magistrate was often the mere
mouthpiece of his assessor. If the latter gave
improper advice, he, and not the magistrate,
was responsible.
Adulte'riujn. Adultery. AduUerimn T[)i-o\iev\y
signifies, in the Roman law, unlawful relations
between a man, married or unmarried, and a
woman whom he knows to be another man's
wife. Stujjrum {(pdopd) signifies intercourse
with an unmarried woman. Cohabitation by
consent without marriage, hut subject to certain
conditions, came under neither of tliese heads.
[Concubina.] By the early Roman law, tlie
husband and also the father of the adulteress
were allowed to take the law into their own
hands, and put to death the two guilty persons.
(See Suet. Tib. 35.) Tlie Lex lulia dc adul-
teriis coercendis (17 B.C.) and the Lex lulia et
Papia Poppaea (9 a.d. : passed by Augustus)
formed a matrimonial code, and may be con-
sidered as one of the sources of Roman mar-
z z2
708
ADULTUS
riage law. [Lex lulia cle adult eriis ; Lex
Papia Poppaea.] The Lex lulia de adulteriis
first made adultery an indictable offence, and
deprived the husband of the right of killing
his wife taken in adultery, but left the father,
under strict limitations, the power of killing his
daughter. A woman convicted of adultery was
mulcted in half of her dos and the third of her
separate property, and was banished (relegata)
to some island. The adulterer forfeited halJE
his property, and was banished in like manner,
but to a different place. This law did not inflict
the punishment of death on either party (but
see Tac. Ann. ii. 50, iii. 24). Constantine made
the offence of the adulterer capital.
Adu'ltus. [Impubes.]
Advoca'tus, originally any person who sup-
ported another in a cause or other business, as
a witness, for instance, or as an assistant in
taking possession of disputed property (Cic.
Caec. 8, § 22). It was specially used in the time
of the Eepublic for a person who accompanied a
party to an action into court, in order to give
him legal advice or the support of his presence.
The advocatus did not, like the orator or
patronus, speak on behalf of the party he was
assisting. The 'junior counsel' for the prose-
cution are called subscriptores (Cic. Chient. 70,
Mur. 27) : they might be two or three in num-
ber. The counsel for the defence consisted
often of iouT 2)atroni, sometimes of as many as
twelve, all on an equal footing, with no leader.
[Orator.] Under the Empire the terms patronus
and advocatus ceased to be distinct in meaning.
(Tac. Attn. x. 6.) The office of advocate or
patronus was originally regarded as honorarj'.
The Lex Cincia muneralis (204 B.C.) expressly
prohibited patroni from taking any I'emunera-
tion for their services. Under Augustus, advo-
cati who accepted pay were made liable to a
fourfold penalty. Fees were admitted later
under limitations. (Tac. xiii. .5.) [Lex Cincia.]
Affi'nes, Affinitas, or Adfi nes, Adfi'nitas.
Afifinitas is the term used in Roman law to ex-
press the relationship of the husband to the
co(7»rt^/of his wife, and of the wife to the cognati
of her husband. The cognati of the husband
and of the wife are not affinex to one another.
The father of a husband is the socer of the
husband's wife, and the father of a wife is the
socer of the wife's husband ; the term socrus
expresses the same affinity with respect to the
husband's and wife's mothers. The correlative
terms are nurus or daughter-in-law, and gener
or son-in-law. The avus, avia — pater, mater
— of the husband and wife become by the mar-
riage respectively the socer viagnus, prosocrus,
or socrus magna — socer, socrus — of the wife
and husband, who become with respect to them
severally pronurus and nurus, jirogener and
gener.
The son and daughter of a husband or wife
bom of a prior marriage are called privignus
and ^jrtw/<7«rt, with respect to their stepfather
or stepmother ; and with respect to such children
the stepfather and stepmother are severally
called vitricHS and noverca. The husband's
brother becomes levir with respect to the wife,
and his sister becomes glos.
Affinity within certain degrees was an impedi-
ment to marriage (see Incestxun).
Allu'vio. An addition (accessio) of soQ to land
by a river. Alliivio was considered by the
Roman jurists as a mode of acquiring property
in a tiling which belongs to the ins gentium or
naturale; it was a x^aa-ticular kind of title.
[Accessio, 2.] A man might protect his land
AMBITUS
against loss from the action of a river by
securing the banks of his land, provided he did
not injure the navigation.
An island that was formed in the middle of a
public river [flunien publicum) was the common
property of the owners on both banks of the
river ; if it was not in the middle of the stream,
it belonged to the proprietors of the nearer
bank, on the principle that, though the river was
public, its bed was not.
Am'bitas may be expressed by our word
' canvassing.' After the jilebs had formed a
distinct estate at Rome, and the number of
citizens had increased, solicitation of votes, and
open or secret influence and bribery, were
among the means by which a candidate secured
his election to office.
A candidate was called petitor ; and his op-
ponent, ^vith reference to him, competitor ; a
candidate (candidatus) was attended by his
friends (deductores), or followed by the poorer
citizens (sectatores), to show their good will
(Cic. Mur. c. 34).
The candidate was accompanied by a nomen-
clator, who gave liim the names of such persons
as he might meet ; the candidate was thus en-
abled to address them by their name, whilst
accompanying his address with a shake of the
hand (prensatio).
Ambitus (Gr. t^KaxTfiSs) as a criminal offence
signifies interference with the free choice of
electors to an office by means of corrupt prac-
tices. Money was paid for votes, and persons
called interpretes were employed to make the
bargam, sequestres to hold the money till it
was paid (Cic. Cluent. 26, 72), and divisores
to distribute it (Cic. Att. i. 16). Tlie offence of
ambitus belonged to the iudicia publica, and
the enactments against it were numerous.
The earliest enactment nientioned is the Lex
Pinaria tribunicia (432 B.C. ; Liv. iv. 25), which
prohibited candidates from ' adding white to
their dress.' The practice, however, of using a
white dress on occasion of canvassing remained
in use. [Dress, Tog.\.] A Lex Poetelia (358
B.C.; Liv. vii. 15J forbade candidates canvassing
on market days, and going about the countrj-.
The Lex Calpumia (67 B.C.) imposed penalties
and disabilities. The Lex Tullia, passed in the
consulship of Cicero (63 B.C.) added to these a
punishment of ten years' exile (Cic. Mur. 2, 3,
itc). This law forbade any person to exhibit
public shows for two years before he was a
candidate. The Lex Licinia de sodaliciis was
passed (Cic. Plane. 15, 36) 55 B.C. It was
specially directed agamst the employment of
agents [interpretes, divisoi'es, sequestres) to
mark out the members of the several tribes
into smaller portions (decuriatio, Cic. Plane.
c. 18, Q. Fratr. ii. 3, 5) and carry out
a complete system of corruption. The Lex
Pompeia (52 B.C.) imposed more stringent
punishments. Julius Caesar took the nomina-
tion of candidates practically into his own
hands (Suet. lul. 41). The Lex lulia de
ambitu was passed (18 B.C.) in the time of
Augustus ; consolidating previous legislation,
but imposing milder penalties. Under this law,
if a candidate resorted to any violence, he was
liable to be punished under the Lex lulia de vi
by exile.
The popular forms of election were obsei-ved
during the time of Augustus. Under Tiberius
they ceased, the right of election being trans-
ferred to the senate. (Tac. Ann. i. 15.)
While the choice of candidates was thus
partly in the hands of the senate, bribery and
ANQUISITIO
corruption still iiiHiienced the elections, though
the name of ambitus was, strictly speaking, no
loni,'er applicable. But in a short time the
appointment to ijublic offices was entirely in
the power of the emperors, and the laws de
nmhita became a dead letter, except so far
as they dealt with municipal elections to a
sacerdotiwni or a magistratus.
Trials for ambitus were numerous in the
time of the Republic. The speeches of Cicero
pro L. Murena and pro Cn. Plancio contaiu
much information.
Anquisi'tio. ludicium populi.]
Antesta'ri. [Actio.]
Appella'tiO. Under the republican constitu-
tion the word appellatio and the corresponding
verb appcUare are used to express the applica-
I tion of an individual to a magistrate, and par-
[ ticularly to a tribune of the people {tribuiii-
cium aiixilium), for their interference in order
* to prevent a ^vrong being inflicted on the appli-
cant by the order of some other magistrate.
The magistrate or tribune to whom such appli-
cation was made, had the power of nullifying
the order of the magistrate appealed against.
The application had to be made within a pre-
scribed time. There are many instances re-
• corded of criminal, civil, and administrative
. decrees of magistrates being set aside on such
; applications.
Appellatio, in the above sense, is to be dis-
tinguished from jirovocatio.
Provorafio (ad jiojudum) is the term used
for the right of appeal, in criminal cases, from
a magistrate to the populus. Provocatio was
an ancient right of Roman citizens (Liv. i. 26),
but could not be brought against the king's
decisions without his permission.
There was subsequently a right of appeal
from the consuls, subject to the same restric-
tion, but by the Valerian law (b.c. 508) the
consuls were obliged to give 1 eave to appeal
from sentences of capital or corporal punish-
ment. The decemviri took away the provocdtlo,
but it was restored by a lex consularis de pro-
vocatione, and it was at the same time enacted
that in future no magistrate should be made
without being subject to the right of appeal.
The plebeians were thus protected (Liv. iii. 55)
by the provocatio and the tribiinicium aiixi-
liufn, or appellatio properly so called (iii. 13,
5('>). The complete phrase to express the pro-
vocatio is provocatio ad populuui; and the
phrase which expresses the ajt/u-Jlatio is
appellare, and in late writers appellare ad.
The provocatio was an appeal (in a criminal
case) in the strict sense of the term : i.e. it con-
sisted of a rehearing of a case previously tried,
and a new judgmeiit upon it. The appellatio
was not a rehearing and revision of the previous
decision, and so not an appeal in the strict
sense ; it was rather in the nature of a stay of
execution.
The provocatio was limited to criminal
matters.
Appellate jurisdiction in civil causes can
hardly be said to have existed under the Re-
public, but it became an institution in the time
' of Augustus, when a regular gradation of aj)-
peals from inferior to superior jurisdictions
was constituted.
Under the Empire the terms provocatio and
appellatio are used indiscriminately for a civil
appeal ; but provocatio seems to be tlio only
term used for an appeal in criminal matters.
Civil appeals came, in the last resort, either
to the emperor or to the senate. This division
BENEFICIUM 709
of the supreme appellate jurisdiction between
the emperor and the senate was in accordance
with the dual system of government which
Augustus contrived. The emperors, however,
besides hearing appeals from the imperial pro-
vinces, also took cognisance of appeals from
Rome, Italy, and the senatorial provinces.
(Suet. Cali(j. IC, Ner. 17; Tac. Ann. xiv. 28.)
No appeal lay to the emperor from the decisions
of indices or from the senate, although he
might annul a decree of the latter body by
intercessio. By the third century the emperor
was supreme in criminal as well as in civil
courts.
The emperor, and the senate also, either
heard civil appeals in person, or delegated
the hearing of them to others.
The process by which an appeal was brought
in civil cases might be either oral or written.
The written appeal or libelli appellatorii
showed who were the appellant and defendant,
and the nature of the judgment appealed from.
The time within which app.als could be brought
was limited. If the appellant was unsuccessful
in his appeal, he was subject to a pecuniary
penalty.
Aquae et ignis interdi'ctio. "Exilium.]
Aquae plu'viae arce'ndae a'ctio. An action
against an owner who altered the natural course
of rain-water, and by so doing injured the land
of an adjoining owner. The action could oidy
be brought on accomit of injury done to land
[ager); injury to a town or building was not
covered by it.
A'rbiter. [ludex.]
Arroga'tio. [Adoptio.]
Auctor. (1) With reference to dealings
between individuals, auctor has the sense of
owner (Cic. Cacc. 10, 27). In this sense auctor
is the vendor {venditor), as opposed to th«
buyer {emptor).
(2) A partner, co-trustee, or other person
sharing responsibility.
(3) Used generally, any person under whose
authority a legal act is done : e.g. a tutor
appointed to aid or advise a woman (Liv. xxxiv.
2) ; a guardian {tutor) who approves of certain
acts on behalf of a ward {pujiillus).
(4) In the criminal law auctor signifies the
instigator of a crime (Suet. Tit. 9 ; Sail. lug.
30).
B.
Benefi'cium, Beneficia'rius. The word bene-
ficiuin is of frequent occurrence in the Roman
law, in the sense of some special i)rivilege or
favour granted by the jn-aetor or the emperor
to a class of persons on some special ground of
equity. It is used in the republican period
with reference to patronage. It was usual for
a general, or a governor of a province, to rejiort
to the treasury the names of those under liis
command who had done good service to the
state : those whose names were entered in such
report were said in bcneficiis ad aerariiim
deferri (Cic. Arch. c. 5). The military tri-
bunoships are called bencjicia cotisuluin (Liv.
ix. 30) ; and the honours and oflices of the
Roman state, in the republican period, were
called bcneficia Populi liomani.
Beneficia also signified any distinction con-
ferred on or grant made to soldiers, who were
thence called bcncjiriarii (Caes. H, C. ii.
18).
Grants of land and other things mode by the
Roman emperors were called bcneficia, and
710 BONA
were entered in a book called Liber Benefici-
orum.
In later Latin, lands granted for life on con-
dition of personal service were called hene-
ficia{=feoda or fiefs). Grants made for the
purpose of endowing churches were also called
beneficia : hence the word ' benefice ' for an
ecclesiastical preferment. (See Du Cange, s.v.)
Bona. The word bona is used (1) to express
the whole of a man's property; and in the
phrases bonorum emptio, cessio, possessio, the
word bona expresses all that concerns a man's
proprietary position, whether as owner, posses-
sor, creditor or debtor. (2) In some places the
word bona is used to signify a man's assets, i.e.
bis property after the deduction of that which
he owes. It is also used (8) for separate por-
tions of a man's property.
The legal expression in bonis, as opposed to
dotninium or quiritary ownersliip, means that
property is held under a praetorian or equit-
able, and not under a civil or legal title. The
ownership of certain kinds of things, called res
mancipi [Mancipium], could only be trans-
ferred from one person to another with certain
formalities : but if it was clearly the intention
of the owner to transfer the ownership, and the
necessary forms only were wanting, the pur-
chaser was protected in the ' beneficial ' enjoy-
ment of the thing by the praetor, though the
transferor remained legally the owner until the
TIsucapio was completed, notwithstanding he
had parted with the thing. Only those who
were capable of acquiring the legal quiritary
ownership [dominium ex iiire Quiritium)
could be beneficial or bonitary owners (in bonis
habere). As a man might have both the quiri-
tary ownership and the right to the enjoyment
of a thing, so one man might have the quiritary
o^vnership only, and another might have the
enjoyment of it only : thus in English law pro-
perty may be vested solely in trustees, but en-
joj-ed solely by another ])erson. This bare
ownership was sometimes called 7iudum •2«-s
Quiritium. The successor to an inheritance
under the praetor's edict (bonorum possessor),
and the purchaser of a debtor's estate (6onorMrM
emjitor) under the praetor's order {addictio),
were not quiritary, but only bonitary owners
of property assigned to them.
The praetor, tliough he could not give quiri-
tary ownership, protected the owner in bonis in
the beneficial or bonitary ownership by accept-
ing the plea (among others) of a bona fide
sale and delivery [exceptio rei venditae et
traditae), and by giving him an action for re-
covery, based on the fiction of o^vnership.
There is no trace of this double ownership in
the writings of Cicero. The rights of the boni-
tary owner were, with some limitations, the
same as those which belonged to a complete
quiritary owner.
Justinian put an end to the distinction be-
tween quiritary and bonitary ownership.
Bona cadu'ca. Caducum, in its general
sense, might be anything without an owner, or
what the person entitled to neglected to take
(Cic. de Or. iii. 31) ; but the strict legal sense of
caducum and bona caduca is as follows :
If a thing is left by will to a person, so that
he might take it by the ius civile, but from
some cause does not take it, that thing is called
caducum, as if it had fallen from him : e.g. if
a legatee were caeJebs or orbus, or died before
the opening of the will.
Caducum, or lapse of a devise, implies that a
valid devise has been made : thus caduca are
BONORUM COLLATIO
different from devises which are void, ea quae
pro non scriptis habentur.
By the Lex lulia et Papia Poppaea only
parents or descendants of the testator among
those to whom he had left his inheritance were
allowed to retain their rights to caduca. In
default of these, the law specified other heirs.
In default of claimants, the right of claiming
caduca was given to the aerarium.
The law of caducity was unpopular, and
many legal devices were employed for the pur-
pose of preventing its application. Testators
were in the habit of making substitutions in
order to provide against lapses {ne fiant
caduca). Justinian entirely abolished the leges
caducariae and re-established the ius anti-
quum with some modifications.
Bona fides. This term frequently occurs
in the Latin writers, and particularly, in a
technical sense, in the Roman jurists. It im-
plies such conduct as may be expected from
men of fair dealing, and so is constantly
opposed to mala fides, fraus, and dolus malus.
Actions containing a clause in their formula
by which the index was authorised (Cic. Off.
\ iii. 15, 17) to decide the case according to bona
I fides were called bonae fidei indicia or acti-
ones. The effect of the addition was to give
I the iudex latitude in dealing with the case,
i and so to take equitable considerations into
I account.
I Bonae fidei possessio is the possession of a
I person who has acquired a thing from another
; under a title which he has no reason for sup-
j posing to be defective.
I The bona fid^ possessor of a thing could ac-
quire ownership of it by prescription, unless it
I was furtiva or vi possessa, or of the res man-
cipi of a female not conveyed under the aucto-
ritas of lier tutor.
Bona rapta, Rapi'na. [Fnrtnm.]
Bono'rum ce'ssio. The principle of relieving
insolvent debtors, who fulfilled certain condi-
tions, from liability to imprisonment, was recog-
nised to some extent under the Republic. Julius
Caesar, when consul, 48 B.C., after the Civil
War, discharged debtors who made over their
property to their creditors from their debts.
Cessio bonorum was introduced by a Lex
lulia, probably one of the Leges luliae of
Augustus. This law allowed an insolvent
debtor to make a voluntary assignment of his
property to his creditors. By making such
assignment the debtor obtained three advan-
tages. (1) He escaped imprisonment. (2) He
did not become infamis. (3) In respect to
property acquired subsequently to the assign-
ment, he had the benefidum competentiae
when sued by his former creditors : i.e. he could
retain sufficient for his bare maintenance. The
property assigned by the debtor was sold by
the process of Bonornm emptio, the proceeds
being distributed among the creditors.
Bono'rum colla'tio. By the rules of the
civil law, emancipated children had no rights
to the inheritance of their father, since they
had become strangers to his family. But. in
course of time, the praetor granted to emanci-
pated children the privilege of equal succession
with those who remained in the power of the
father at the time of his death ; on condition
that they should give up what they had gained
from their proprietary independence, and bring
into one common stock ('hotchpot '), to be distri-
buted with their father's estate, any property
they had at the time of the father's death. Tliis
was called collatio bonorum.
BONORUM EMPTIO
Bono'rum e'mptio and emptor. The early
form of execution for debt, termed rnanus in-
icctio, was personal, not real : i.e. it was
directed against a debtor's person, not against
his property. [Actio, I. (d) ; Nexum.J Subse-
quently a complete process of real execution
was established through the action of the
praetor, which is known as honorum emjjtlo or
bonorum vcnditio. There was now a direct
execution against the property, and the debtor
was no longer liable to be sold traits Tibcrim,
or to be put to death, though personal arrest
continued to be the ordinary form of execution
(see Liv. viii. 28).
The bonorum emptor succeeded, under the
order of the praetor, to the debtor's estate ^;cr
universitateni. In the case of a living person,
his property was liable to be sold if he concealed
himself for the purpose of defrauding his credi-
tors ; or if he made a bonorum cessiu; or if he
failed to satisfy a judgment debt within the
prescribed period. In the case of a dead
person, his property was sold when it was ascer-
tained that there was no legal successor.
The property was sold by auction in one lot
under the praetor's order to the highest bidder
{emptor). The purchaser obtained by the sale
only a praetorian or bonitarian title.
Bono'ram posse'ssio is the technical term for
the succession which the praetor gave to the
inheritance of a deceased person. He who
received the bonorum. possessio did not thereby
become heres or civil {i.e. legal or quiritarian)
successor, for the praetor could not make a
heres. Thus, when the bonorum possessio be-
came established, there were two titles under
which an inheritance might be claimed, (1)
resting on civil law {hereditas), (2) on the
praetor's edict {bonorum possessio). By giving
bonorum p)ossessio to jDersons who had no civil
title to the inheritance, the praetor instituted
a new system of succession which differed from
that of the civil law.
The praetor expressed in his edict [Edlctum]
the general rules which he followed in giving
bonorum possessio. The bonorum possessio
was promised by the praetor's edict (1) contra
tabulas, (2) secundum tabulas, (3) intcstati.
(1) Bonorum possessio contra tabulas, i.e. in
opposition to the will of the deceased, was
instituted for tlie benefit of emancipated chil-
dren. According to ius civile, an emancipated
son had no claim to the inheritance of his
father ; but if he was not expressly exheredated
in his father's will, the praetor's edict gave him
the bonorum piossessio on condition that lie
would bring into hotchpot (Bouorum collatio),
with his bretliren who continued in the parent's
power, wliatever property he had at the time of
the parent's death.
(2) Bonorum possessio secundum tabulas.
By tliis bonorum possessio the praetor gave
effect to wills which were invalid at civil law,
as not having been executed m the form requi-
site for making a civil will, or having become
invalid on some technical grounds.
(3) Bonorum possessio intestati. In the case
of intestacy there were several classes of per-
sons who might claim the bonorum possessio,
each in his order, upon there being no claim of
a higher class. Such classes included persons
who had no civil title to the inheritance such
as those had who claimed by nearness of kin.
The praetor gave bonorum 2>ossessorcs the
same actions, and allowed the same actions to be
brought against them, as if they had been /(e;T(?cs.
A fictitious clause was inserted in the formulae of
CAPUT 711
such actions, by which the iudex wasdirectedto
decide the case on the assumption that the
bonorum possessor was heres. [Fictio.J The
bonorum possessor only acquired a bouitary,
not a civil title to the property which belonged
to the inheritance, until by usucapion his pro-
perty was converted into quiritarian ownership.
[Bona.]
Justinian established a uniform system of
inheritance, and by so doing almost entirely
abolished the bonorum possessio.
C.
Cala'mnia signifies generally the vexatious
and fraudulent taking of legal proceedings,
criniLiial or civil, against another person; and
on the part of tlio defendant in a civil action it
also means defending the suit without believing
himself to be in the right.
From calumnia in criminal charges persons
were deterred by the following provisions. (1)
The accuser had always to take the oath of
calumnia, i.e. swear that he believed the charge
to be well founded (Cic. Fam. viii. «, 3). (2)
Certain penalties were established for calum-
niatores (Cic. Bosc. Ain. 19J ; among them pro-
bably being that of being branded on the fore-
head (Cic. ib. 20, 57) with the letter K, the initial
of Kalumyiia. The jDrovisions of this statute
seem to have been superseded by Trajan's enact-
ment that a false accuser should be hable to
the punishment which the accused would have
suffered if condemned. If the charge had been
one of treason, he could be tortured in order to
discover the names of his instigators. (3) An
accuser might not, as a rule, drop criminal
proceedings after their commencement without
the consent of the accused and of the court ;
he had to bind himself with sureties to x^ush
the charge to a verdict, and if he failed to do
so, he forfeited the sum in which he had bound
liimself, and was also liable to punisluuent.
A defendant in a civil action (1) could call
on the plaintiff to take the iusiuranduvi
calumniae. (2) In default of this he might, if
acquitted, bring the calumniae iudicium (Cic.
Cluent. 59, 163), by wliich, if he proved his
integrity, he could recover part of the value in
dispute in the previous action.
Ber contra, in certain cases the plaintiff could
require the defendant to take the iusiuranduiu
calumniae.
For the Athenian law see ZvikocJjcLvttis.
See also Praevaricatio.
Caput. (1) A human being regarded as
capable of legal rights ( = j)^'sona). (2) That
capacity or those legal rights themselves.
The rights enjoyed in the aggregate by any
free person under the protection of Roman law
are denoted generally by the terms caput or
Stat us. The Romans themselves regarded them
as referable to three momenta or capacities —
freedom, citizenship, and membership of a
Roman familia. The free man, as such,
whether civis or peregrinus, possessed some
legal rights : the civis possessed more, even in
the domain of private law; but there were many
wliich he enjoyed only as belonging to a specific
familia. Properly speaking, the slave, not
being free, nullum habci caput : he has no
persona, is aiTpSaunros. But a free man always
had a crt^jwf, and this he might lose: so that,
according as the caput which ho lost was
that of freedom, citizenship or familia, he was
said to suffer capitis minutio (or deminutio)^
712 CAUTIO
maxima, media or minor, or minima. (Hor. '
Carm. iii. 5, 42.) Loss of civitas involved
loss of familia, and loss of libertas involved 1
both. I
Capitis deminutio mxixima occurred when a i
free man, whether ingenuus or Ubertiyius, be-
came a slave, as he might (1) by being taken
captive by an enemy of the Roman state.
[PoBtliminium.] (2) By being lawfully sold as
a slave : e.g. by the state, for evading public
burdens, or for attempting to escape mihtary
service (Cic. Caec. M) ; by a creditor as an in-
solvent debtor ; or as a libertas convicted of '
ingratitude towards his patron (Suet. Claud.
25; Tac. .4/m. xiii. 26, 27). (3) Condemnation
on a criminal charge to hard labour in the
mines made the convict a servus poenae. '
Cajntis deminutio media or minor occurred ,
(1) when a civis Bomanus accepted citizenship
in anotiier state (e.g. a civitas peregrina or
colonia Latino), no civis of which could also be i
a full citizen of Rome. (2) As a result of con- '•
demnation to loss of citizenship for crime.
Anciently this was effected by aquae et ignis
interdictio (Liv. xxv. i), but under the Empire
by deportatio in insulam or banishment [Ex-
iliumj (Cic. Caec. 33, 34).
Capitis deminutio m.inima is a status com-
mutatio. It took place (1) when a person sui |
iicris became alieni iuris by arrogation, legiti- |
mation, or by subjection to the manus of a
husband ; (2) when a person already alieni |
iuris entered a new family; or (8) when a per-
son alieni iuris became sui iuris by emanci-
pation. I
Legal proceedings which affected either
libertas or civitas are said to be ' capital ' :
the term is not necessarily, though commonly, ,
confined to the iiunishnient of death : capite
puniri, plccti, lucre.
Cau'tio has a variety of meanings, of which
the following are the most prominent.
The giving of security for the future perfor-
mance of a legal obligation. This might be
(1) a merely personal undertaking by the party
liable (nuda cautiu), or (2) the promise might
be fortified by the promisor's giving the pro-
misee a right of hypotheca or pledge, or by
the subsidiary liability of sureties : in these
cases the cautio was said to be idonea. And
from the act by which the security was given, ]
cautio came also to mean the protection wliich [
it afforded. j
Roman law made a very extensive use of |
cautiones, especially those fortified by sureties j
{satisdatio) for the protection of legal rights ;
which otherwise might have been brought into
jeopardy. Thus the defendant in an action
was frequently required to give security that
the judgment, if it went against him, should be
satisfied, or that the property, the title to
which was in question, should be delivered up
on a verdict ; and if the plaintiff appeared by
an attorney, the latter had to bind himself
with sureties that his principal would be bound
by his acts. This principle applied to vendors,
guardians and curators, usufructuaries, &c.
A security was usually attested by a wi-itten
instrument, which is itself called cautio or
chirographum. Hence the common use of
cautio (a.) to denote a memorandum acknow-
ledging an existing debt or liability, especially
acknowledgment of loans of money; (6) the
acknowledgment of payment or performance,
i.e. a receipt.
Centu'mviri. One of the two permanent courts
or collegia of plebeian judges, instituted pro-
CODEX lUSTINIANEUS
bably by Servius Tullius, and continued to a
very late date. The antiquity of the institution
is shown by the planting of a hasta (the symbol
of quiritarian ownership. Suet. Aug. 8) before
their tribunal. The number of centumviri
varied at different periods. They were nomi-
nated by the praetor, three from each of the
thirty tribes : the ninety thus obtained would,
with the presiding decemviri, make up the exact
sum which the name denotes. In 241 B.C.
there were 105 centumviri ; under the em-
pire there were as many as IbO (Plin. Ep. vi.
33). The centumviri sometimes sat together
under a praetor, sometimes separately in four
divisions ; anciently in the Forum, later in the
Basilica Julia.
The procedure before the centumviri was
always that of the legis actio called sacra-
ment um [Actio].
It seems that the jurisdiction of the centum-
viri was limited to civil causes, especially those
known as real actions (Cic. de Or. i. 88, 173),
i.e. all suits claiming property or iura iti re
aliena, such as a right of way, a usufruct, &c.,
and those relating to inheritances.
The constant tendency, however, was to
narrow the jurisdiction of the centumviral
court ; until under the Empire they were con-
fined to actions relating to inheritances [causae
centumvirales, Plin. Ep. v. 1, 7), especially the
querela inojfficiosi testamenti.
Ce'ssio bono rum. [Bono'ram cessio.]
Ce'ssio in iure. A fictitious action in Roman
Law. A, wishing to transfer to B a thing or a
right, goes witli him before the praetor (in
iure: ius dicitur locus in quo ius redditur)
S Actio]. B claims the thing in the formula
lanc ego rem ex iure Quiritium meam esse
aio. The praetur asks A whether he also
claims it. On his denying or remaining silent,
the praetor rem addicit ei qui vindicavit.
Both parties must be capable of quiritarian
ownership, and the thing, whether mancipi or
necviancipi < Dominium], must be also capable
of being held by dominium quiritarium.
In iure cessio was employed for (1) manu-
mission per viitdictam, (2) emancipation, (3)
adoption, (4) transference of property and
tutela, (5) for creating servitudes.
In iure cessio existed till the time of Con-
stantiiie (30l)-337 a.d.), but was obsolete in the
time of Justinian (527-568 .\.D.).
Codex lastiniane'ns. In 528 a.d. the Em-
peror Justinian appointed a commission of
codification of ten persons, among them being
Theophilus, professor of law at Constantinople,
and the celebrated Tribonian. Their instruc-
tions were to compile a single code out of those
of Gregorianus, Hermogenianus, and Theo-
dosius II., and the imperial constitutions issued
since the enactment of the last : they were
authorised to omit all that was unnecessary or
supei-fluous, to reconcile inconsistent enact-
ments, and, where convenience required, to
combine several into one, or to make any altera-
tions in individual constitutions which they
should deem necessary. The separate laws,
whether teclinically edicta, rescripta, or de-
creta, were to be arranged in chronological
order under generic titles. The work was com-
pleted in 529 -A^.D., and was published under the
name Codex lustinianeus. The older codices
and constitutions were at the same time de-
prived of all validity.
In 584 A.D. Justinian appointed a new com-
mission, consisting of Tribonian and four others,
to comjilete the Code, by adding to it certain
i
CODEX THEODOSIANUS
constitutions lately made. The original Code
and the constitutions issued after its enactment
were deprived of all authority and withdrawn
from circulation, their place being taken by
the Code which has come down to us. It con-
sists of twelve Books, each of which is divided
into Titles and Laws : the single constitutions
are arranged under their several titles in the
order of time and with the names of the em-
perors by whom they were respectively made,
and their dates.
Codex Theodosia'nus. In 435 a.d. Theodo-
sius II., Emperor of the Eastern Empire, ap
pointed a commission of sixteen to form a com-
pilation of constitutions issued from the time of
Constantine (306-387 a.d.) to his own day. The
result of their labours, known as the Theodo-
sian Code, was published in 438 a.d.
The constitutions are arranged in chrono-
logical order under Titles and Rubrics, in six-
teen Books.
One important result of Theodosius's com-
pilation was to secure to a large extent identity
of law in the two empires. In contradistinction
to the Code, single enactments made in either
empire were called novellae leges or Novels.
The joint style of enactment was followed till
455 A.D., and there are several collections of
Novels which belong to this period. The Code
of Justinian was largely indebted to that of
Theodosius. The Theodosian Code was also to
a large extent the basis of the edict of Theodo-
ric, king of the Ostrogoths, of the Lex Eomana
Visigothorum, and of the Burgundian Lex Ro-
mana, usually termed 'Papian.'
Cogna'ti. Cognatio naturalis, or cognatio
simply, is what we call relationship by blood.
All those persons are cognati of one another
who are sprung from one and the same person,
whether male or female ; and the relationship
may be either lineal (as between ascendants
and descendants) or collateral (as between
brothers and sisters, uncles and nephews,
cousins, &c.). Tliose who were brothers and
sisters of the same blood by both parents are
properly termed germuni ; consanguinei are
those born of different mothers by a common
father ; uterini, those born of the same mother
by different fathers. Illegitimacy was no bar
to cognation. The paternity of children born in
concuhinatus [Concubina] was to some extent
recognised by lavv, but other illegitimate chil-
dren, though deemed in law to have no father,
were regarded as the mother's children, and
were cognati of her as well as of one another.
Agnatio was relationship through males only,
whether such relationship be natural, adoptive, or
quasi-adoptive as produced by iiiafius (as in the
case of a woman, who, by passing in manum
mariti, became filiae loco to her husband and
agnate to her own children and her husband's
agnates in general), and between whom no
baiTier has been interposed by capitis demi-
nutio ; and agnation is the tie between two or
more persons which is based on the potestas
or manus to which all of them would be subject
if the head of the familia were still alive.
Cogni'tio. (1) Under the liepuhlic. The
praetor, in virtue of his imperium, decided
summarily certain cases of trusts (Jidci coni-
tnissa) &c. by his own authority, instead of
sending them to a index. Such proceedings
were terminated in iure, and did not proceed to
iudicium.
(2) Under the Empire. The praetor, and in
some cases the consuls, were still empowered to
decide summarily [cognoscere). But the em-
COLLEGIUM
713
peror interfered as sovereign in cases net
jsrovided for under the ancient law, and, either
personally or by commission, acted extra ordi-
nei7i. These decisions were called cognitiones
extraordinariae. The emperor or his deputy
was to be judge, but was assisted by a Con-
silium.
More causes were gradually withdrawn from
the courts, especially matters involving ques-
tions of honour and propriety, which were not
subjects for ordinary procedure, but required
the special cognisance of a high officer of
state. Such were claims for alimony between
parents and children ; questions of the proper
remuneration of jihysicians, teachers, advocates,
&c. In the course of time this system became
universal. The various of&cials of the empire
heard and decided all suits themselves, and the
distinction of praetor and index, ius and
iudicium, ceased, the general principles of
decision remaining the same. To the time of
Diocletian cognitiones extraordinariae existed
side by side with the old procedure. From
that time onwards this by degrees super stided
all the ordinary trials, as all the republican
institutions were absorbed into the monarchy.
Co'guitor. [Actio.]
Colle'gium. A collegium is an association
of at least three persons for some pennanent
and lawful purpose, recognised by the state as
possessing the attributes of a corporation (Liv.
s. 13, 22 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 31). The members of
the collegium were called collegae or sodales,
the Greek equivalents being kratpoi and traipela.
[TJniversitas.]
A corporation has a life, rights, and duties,
indef)endent of those of the persons who com-
pose it. Thus, a collegium could possess
common property and a conunou chest or area,
and have its suits conducted for it by a syndicus
or actor : debts owed to it were not owed to its
members, nor were its own debts theirs; its
property was liable to be sold for such debts,
but if it was insufficient the creditors could
not, as in an ordinary partnership, resort to the
separate property of the individual members.
It was governed by its own regulations, which
the members could settle at their pleasure,
f)rovided they were not contrary to law ; the
voice of the majority of members present
was final. The collegimn still subsisted,
though all the original members were changed.
But if all the members died, its existence
terminated.
We meet with a great variety of such collegia
in Roman history. The augurs and pontifices
were incorporated (Liv. xxxi. 9), as wei'e the
priests of many, if not all, of the different
temples (Suet. Calig. 16). Associations of
scribae and of other magisterial officials were
collegia. Magistrates holding the same office
were not strictly collegia, though each was
called collega in respect of the other. Other
collegia were formed for the advancement of
finance, trade, or other industry (Liv. ii. 27 ;
T&c. Ann. xiv. 17) : e.g. those of the j)iiblira)ii;
of salinae, aunfodinae, and argcnti/odinae,
fairorum, pistorum, &c., which more nearly
resembled our city companies and guilds ; and
finally the collegia sodalicia, associations or
clubs for less definite ])ui-poses, sometimes reli-
gious, sometimes political. Any number of per-
sons exceeding two might form tliemselves into
a collegium. About ()4 k.c, owing to the use
which was made of them for secret associations
and plots, all collegia, except a few whose utility
was recognised, were dissolved by a scnatus-
714
COMMEKCIUM
consult (Cic. Pis. 4, 9). Under the Empire, a
special authority from the senate or emperor
was required to give any such association a cor-
porate character.
The principle of mortmain existed in Koman
law ; and collegia, as incertae jiersonae, could
not take legacies under a will. But many ex-
ceptions to this rule were made ; and no restric-
tions were imposed on the acquisition of pro-
perty by corporations in other ways.
Conune'rcnim (ius comme'rciii. (1) Of i^er-
sons. One of the rights of citizenship attach-
ing to the status of Latinus, and granted in
some cases by treaty to peregrini, of making a
contract or acquiring property according to the
strict Roman law by Mancipatio, Cessio in
iure, Usucapio. Peregrini could by the jms
gentium, without commercium, acquire all
proprietary and legal rights, but on a lower level
(see Dominium) under the jurisdiction of the
Praetor peregrinus.
(2) Of things. Things capable of dominium
maybe subject to commercium ; res cornniunes,
such as the air, the sea, &c., res nullius, such
as temples, &c., and res puhlicae, such as fora,
theatres, &c., were extra commercium. Land
in the provinces, being the property of the
Koman people, was also extra commercium.
Commisso'ria lex. (1) A conditional agree-
ment lietween pledgor and pledgee, by which, if
the debt was not paid by the day fixed, the thing
pledged became the property of the pledgee.
[Pignus.] (2) In the law of sale, an agreement
between vendor and purchaser that the former
shall be at liberty to rescind the contract if the
latter does not perform his obligations under it
in due manner and at the proper time.
Commoda'tam. An obligation contracted re,
by delivery. The thing lent has to be returned
by the borrower (commodatarius) ; whereas in
liutuam not the very thing, but an equivalent
in quantity and quality has to be returned {e.g.
money, com, oil). In mutuum the property in
the thing lent passed to the borrower ; but in
commodatum the borrower acquired only de-
tention or naturalis iwssessio. The loan in
either case was gratuitous ; if for a considera-
tion, instead of commodatum it became locatio
conductio.
The borrower was to use reasonable dili-
gence in taking care of the thing lent, and
to return it in good condition at the time
agreed upon.
Comperendina'tio. [Actio.]
Compromi ssum. [Index.]
Concubi'na. Concubinatus is cohabitation
other than marriage (?'.e. without affectio mari-
talis) between free persons who are already
unmarried, or between an unmarried free man
and an ancilla. Anciently this was viewed as
an offence (Livy x. 31, xxv. 2) ; but in later
times the cohabitation of an unmarried man
with his liherta or ancilla ^vas regarded with-
out censure. By the Lex lulia and Papia
Poppaea co7iCM6irta<MS was legalised and exemp-
ted from penal provisions. A man who already
had an uxor could not have a concubina at
the same time, nor apparently could a man
have more than one concubina at a time ; and
widowers who had children, and did not wsh
to contract another legal maiTiage, took a con-
cubina, as we see in the case of Vespasian
(Suet.Fes^. 3), Antoninus Pius, and M. Aurelius.
Concubinatus differed from lawful marriage
in three especial respects : (1) In the relation
of the parties, there being no affectio maritalis.
(2) In the loss of reputation to the woman if
CONSTITDTIONES
honesta. (3) In its legal effects: it was not a
marriage, and therefore the children were not
in 2}Citria j'otestate, though their paternity was
recognised ; but they could be made legitimate,
and had some rights of succession on the father's
dying intestate. Concubinatus was not made
unlawful till the ninth century a.d.
Cohabitation between two slaves was called
contubemium, a name also applied to that
between a slave and a free person. The
paternity of the children was recognised.
Concn'rsns delicto 'rum, is the case where the
same person committed several illegal acts, or
when a single act included the violation of
more laws than one : e.g. Milo was accused at
the same time before several commissions
iquaestiones) imder several distinct laws, dcvi,
de ambitu, de sodaliciis. The senate could
take cognisance of several acts in the same
prosecution; and a larger discretion still was
granted to the indicia extranrdinaria. One
act could involve the penalties of more laws
than one.
Condi'ctio. [Actio.]
Conductio. Locatio.]
Confarrea'tio. [Matrimoninm.]
Confe'ssio. The ordinary course of a civil
action was summarily interrupted if the defen-
dant, while the case was before the praetor {in
iure), made an acknowledgment {confessio) of
the plaintiff's claim instead of disputing it
{infitiari). From an early time a confessio
thus made was considered to have the same
effect as judgment {confessus pro iudicato est) ;
the defendant, by condemning himself, dis-
pensed with the necessity of a trial {indicium),
and gave the plaintiff a right to execution.
A confessio had to be made before the praetor
in the presence of the plaintiff ; impossibility
or mistake made confession nugatory. The
silence of the defendant {in iure nihil respon-
dere) was treated as equivalent to admission.
Confisca'tio. [Proscriptio.]
Confu'sio. The mixing together of things of
the same kind, so that they become insepar-
able: e.g. by pouring together liquids, mixing
grain, fusing metals together. Where the
mixture was accidental and the two portions
were separable, each of the owners retained his
former property, and might separate it from the
mass ; but where it was made by consent, and
in all cases where separation was impossible,
they became joint owners by a new title of
confusio or commixtio; and the same held
good if the mixing was done in good faith by
one only without the other's consent.
Specificatio is the making of a new ' species '
or substance out of another man's material :
e.g. wine out of his grapes, a ship or bench out
of his timber. The nova species belonged to
him who made it, provided it could not be un-
made; though of course he was bound to pay
for the materials. (See Accessio.)
Confusio is also used to express the union
in one and the same person of a right and its
corresponding duty, and the consequent extinc-
tion of both (merger) : e.g. when a creditor
becomes his debtor's heir or a debtor his
creditor's. So too in the case of iura in re
aliena ; if the person who has the right be-
comes dominus of the property over which it
exists, tlie right is extinguished.
Constitutio'nes are the statutory enactments
of the Roman emperors, in the exercise of their
legislative authority. They comprise the fol-
lowing varieties :
(1) Orationes, by which, in the earlier im-
CONTUMACIA
perial period, the emperor submitted a ' bill '
to the senate.
(2) Edicta, general rules of law made by the
emperor, resembling at first the edicta of a
magistrate.
(3) Mandata, by which the emperor dele-
gated his authority to other magistrates, such
as lefjati, praesulcs, and j)racfectL
(4) Decreta and rescrijda, issued by the
emperor in his capacity as praetor, judge, or
sui)reme jurisconsult ; these were the com-
monest kind of constitutio. Decreta were de-
terminations of suits; rcscripta provisional
decisions on the legal point at issue, the facts
being left to another magistrate or index.
Contuma'cia. Refusal to obey the command
of a lawful authority. It is generally confined
to cases where the accuser or more commonly
the accused, did not appear in court, or stood
mute. In such cases the cause was decided as
by default. Penalties also could be imposed.
Crimen has two ordinary meanings : (1) a
punishable offence ; (2) an accusation.
In the first of these senses crimina were
anciently regarded as wrongs against religion
and the gods (Liv. i. 26 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 8), and
their punishment as an expiation offered to
Heaven (Liv. ii. 8, iii. 55). In the Twelve
Tables we find a distinction between offences
which are punished by a solemn legislative act
of the state, and offences atoned for by a mulct
paid to the injured person. [Talio.] From
this distinction arose another, between drlicta
privata and crimina 2}u,bHca. Delicta privata,
or delicta simply, are civil offences, or what we
call ' torts ; ' crimina puhlica are criminal
offences, committed against the state or com-
munity.
The peculiarity of the Roman delicts seems
to be that, besides the obligation to indemnify
the plaintiff for loss or detriment, they entail
on the defendant also a liability to pay a pecu-
niary penalty to the injured person. Under
delicts are comprised theft ( furtiim). robbery
(bona vi rapta), damage to property (damnum
iniuria datum), and intentional wrongs to the
person or reputation of a free man (iniuria).
The notion of crime as a public wrong, not a
private wrong only, came in by degrees, and
rules of criminal procedure were of very slow
development at Rome. At first, heinous
offences for which there was no remedy in the
civil courts were solemnly tried by the people
under legislative forms. Towards the end of
the Republic, however, there is a series of sta-
tutes relating to the cliief classes of crimes, and
establishing a permanent court iqiiacstioncs
]>crpetuac) for the trial of each, and jirescribing
both procedure and punishment. Tlie earliest
is the Lex Calpurnia dc rcj)etu)idis, 140 B.C. ;
otliers are the statutes of Sulla (Leges Cor-
neliae) as to forgery and murder, of Pompoy
as to parricidium, and of Julius Caesar and
Augustus as to treason, adulterj-, peculatus, &c.
Crimes not falling under these statutes were
still tried by a legislative act of the whole
people, or by a quacstio or commission ap-
pointed for the particular case ('extra ordinem
quaerere,' Cic. Fin. ii. 10, § 54 ; Mil. (5, § 14).
Under the Empire the quae.itioncs jicrpctuae
were gradually superseded by special (extra-
ordinary) commissions issued by the senate or
i\\a pracfcctus urhi (or ordo iudiciorum puhli-
corum) ; and criminal offences and courts were
commonly termed extra ordinem. Among the
penalties of such offences were loss of life, of
freedom, of civitas, infamia, imprisonment, and
CUSTODIA
715
pecuniary fines. Crimes jmnished by death,
loss of libertas, aquae et ignis interdictio, and
deportatio were called capitalia. [Caput.]
Culpa in Roman law is distinguished from
dolus mains ; dolus malusheing an intentional
and deliberate violation, whether by act or
omission, of another's rights, and culpa an un-
intentional violation, consisting in the omission
or neglect of some legal duty, owing to the
absence of such dilifjentia as according to the
subject and the relation of the parties may be
required by one of the other.
Cura'tor. Curators were persons appointed
either by law or by the magistrate to look after
the property of certain classes of people, unfit
or unable to take charge of it themselves.
Those classes are : minors or adolescentcs (i.e.
persons who were sui iuris and from 12 to 25
years of age ; lunat ics ; and prodigals.
When a male i)erson wlio was sui iuris
reached puberty, and was no longer under the
supervision of his guardian [Tutela], he was
regarded as of age ; he might marry, serve in
the army, vote in the comitia, and hold public
office ; and he had the complete management
of his own affairs. But it was thought neces-
sary to give him some legal protection against
designing persons, and this was done by the
Lex Plaetoria, passed at some time before 183
B.C. This statute established the distinction
between minority and full age, and protected
minors by subjecting anyone who fraudulently
overreached them to a indicium publicum or
prosecution (Cic. Off. iii. 15, § CI), entailing
a pecuniary fine and infamia on conviction.
The statute apparently went on to provide that
minors who wished to contract or deal with
other persons should apply for a curator, whose
assent to the transaction protected the other
party.
Minors were competent to perform legal acts,
but the praetor, by means of restitutio in inte-
fjrutn, protected them against indiscretion caus-
ing them proprietary loss (laesio) ; he could set
aside transactions into wliich they had entered,
not only on the ground of fraud, but on con-
sideration of circumstances, j)rovided applica-
tion were made to him within a year after the
attainment of majority. (See Impubes.)
M. Aurelius provided that a minor might, if
he chose, on apislicalion to the proper magis-
trate, obtain a permanent curator to look after
his pro]3erty generally and aid him with advice.
The curators of minors were always appointed
by the magistrate, and the minor had to apply
for a curator himself. The munus, like that of
tutela, was a public one, and could not be de-
clined except on specific gi'ounds. Curators
were responsible for their behaviour, and were
liable to prosecution.
The cura oi furiosi (lunatics and idiots) and
interdicted prodigals or spendthrifts originated
with the Twelve Tables, which placed furiosi
under the cura of their nearest agnates (Cic.
Invent, ii. 50, § 148). Similarly the near rela-
tions of a prodifjus might petition the magi-
strate for his interdiction from the management
of his own affairs, and his subjection to the cura
of his nearest agnates. In default of these
legitimi curatorcs, one would be appointed for
such persons by the magistrate.
Custo'dia. Confinement or personal restraint.
The ins prensinnis or right of taking a person
into custody belonged to all superior magis-
trates, but the exercise of this right was checked
under the Republic by the apjiellatio and by
custom. Persons accused of a crime were not
716
DAMNUM
ordinarily committed to prison if they could
find bail (vades, sponsores, fideiussores) for
their appearance in court (Liv. iii. 13). But for
open and flagrant crimes the tresviri capitales
imprisoned olfenders at once (Liv. xxix. 19 ;
Cic. Cat. ii. 12 ; Suet. Ner. 26). So, too, those
who confessed crimes were imprisoned before
trial (Cic. Att. ii. 24). In cases of crimes com-
mitted against the state, ijersons of rank were
put under surveillance in their own houses or
in the house of a magistrate (libera custodia)
(Liv. xxiv. 4.5; Sail. Cat. Al ; Tac. J.mi. vi. 3).
A prisoner in the custody of a guard of soldiers
was said to be under militaris custodia. Only
provincials and slaves could be lawfully put in
chains when mider arrest.
After the establishment of the Empire, the
security afforded by the appellatio was taken
away.
D.
Danmuni in its particular legal sense means
loss or injury which a person has sustained in
his property {dam?MW datum, factum).
The causes of damnuyn are either chance
(casus) or acts or omissions of reasonable
human beings, for which they are held to be
responsible.
As a rule, no liability arises out of loss or
injury to property caused by accident. Nor is
a person liable for dantnutn which he causes
to another by the just exercise of a right which
belongs to him : such damnum is sine iniuria.
Dolus malus or culpa, i.e. wilful or negli-
gent misconduct, is, as a rule, but not in every
case, necessary in order to constitute liability.
The liability to make good a loss is pracstare
damnum.
A person liable for damages is, as a rule,
bound to put the injured party in the same
position as if the act had not been committed.
He may also be subject to a penalty.
Damnuta infe'ctum is damage, not done, but
apprehended, on account of the dangerous con-
dition of neighbouring jn'operty.
The praetor reciuirtd tlie owner of land or
building in a dangerous state to give the latter
security (cautio) against such damage.
If the owner or possessor did not give satisfac-
tion, the defendant was ejected, and his right
to the property was transferred by the praetor
to the complainant.
Damuum iniu'ria datum was a delict com-
mitted by a person who damaged something
belonging to another liy a positive act, intended
by him or due to his n ".'■ligence (dolo aut culpa).
The Twelve Tables mentioned under this head
various offences, such as arson, damage to crops
by cattle trespassing, cutting trees, injury to
slaves or beasts. The term for cutting and
wounding is rupitiac; of other injuries to pro-
perty, noxia. To make good is in either case
sarcire, i.e. to make over to the plaintiff some-
thing exactly similar to that which was damaged.
This principle of reprisals (talio) was used in
early times in respect to damage to property as
well as to personal injuries, until the principle
of pecuniary damages came to be substituted
for it.
The law of the Twelve Tables respecting
damage to property was superseded by the Lex
Aquilia, a plebiscite of uncertain date. By this
law, if a man has unlawfully (iniuria) killed a
slave of another or one of his cattle, he shall
pay to the owner whatever within the previous
year was their highest value. Again, if anyone,
DELATOR
short of killing, unlawfully damages the property
of another, he shall be similarly liable for value
within the last thirty days ; and the praetor in
his edict gave actiones utiles in various cases
which could not be brought within the direct
terms of the law.
Dece'mviri li'tibus (or stli'tibus) iudi-
ca'ndis were magistrates forming a court of
justice which took cognisance of civil cases.
Their function was to decide in private suits
(Cic. Lcgg. iii. 3, 6), and especially in causae
liberales, suits affecting personal freedom, a
fact which makes it probable that they were
instituted after the downfall of the Decemvirs.
In the time of Cicero the office still existed,
and the proceedings in it took place in the
ancient form of the sacramentum [Actio, I.
(a)]. (Cic. Caecin. 38, 97.) Augustus trans-
ferred to these decemvirs the presidency in the
courts of the centumviri (Suet. Aug. 36).
Decre'tum. That which isdetermined in a par-
ticular case after examination or consideration.
It is thus applied to a resolution of the senate :
differing from a senatuscojisultum, in that it
was limited to the special occasion and circum-
stances instead of being of general application.
Decretum is the technical term for the deci-
sion and order which a magistrate gives in a
particular case after an inquiry into its circum-
stances (causae cognitio). A iudex is said
condcinnare not decernere; the latter word
being appropriate in judicial proceedings to a
magistrate who has iurisdictio.
A decretum, as one of the kinds of imperial
constitutions, was a judicial decision in a case
before the emperor in his capacity of supreme
magistrate ; cases were brought into the im-
perial court (consistorium principis) by su])-
j plicationes or provocation's of suitors.
I As the interpretations of law laid down by
I imperial decreta were binding on all courts in
subse<iuent cases, the emperor by his decreta
could make new laws. rConstitutiones.]
Deie'cti effusive a'ctio. If any person threw
or poured anything or allowed anything to drop
from the room of a house upon a place of public
resort, and thereby caused damage, the praetor's
I edict gave the injured party an action against
the occupier of the house or part of the house
1 from which the thing had been thrown or
' poured.
j As many of the houses in Rome were lofty,
I and inhabited at the top by the poor, and as
j there were imperfect means for carrying off
accumulations of rubbish, it was necessary to
provide against accidents which might happen
by such things being thrown through the win-
dow (Hor. Ep. i. 1, 91 ; Juv. iii. 268, x. 17).
Dela'tio no'ininis. In Roman criminal pro-
cedure the first step was to apply to the praetor
to allow the accusation to be made (postulare) ;
the next, formally to arraign the defendant
(novien dcfrrre). The postulatio and nominis
delatio occur most frequently in prosecutions
of magistrates and provincial governors for
misconduct in office. [Repetundae.]
Dela'tor. A prosecutor before any of the
quaestiones pierpetuae. The first step in the
process was postulatio ; the second, nominis
delatio. In certain cases the accuser, if suc-
cessful, obtained as a reward four times the
sum named in the indictment. Hence the word
quadruplator. Accusations of tliis kind were a
useful check upon Roman provincial governors.
(Tac. Ann. iv. 29, 30, xii. 42, xiii. 33, &c. ; Suet.
Tih. 31, Tit. 8, Nero, 10 ; Juv. i. 155, iv. 48.)
The term delator subsequently received a
DELICTUM
wider application, covering two classes of in-
formers : those who themselves acted as prose-
cutors and those who simply gave infonnation.
The legislature of Augustus granted pecuniary
rewards to those who secured the conviction of
offenders against his laws relating to marriage
(Tac. All)!, iii. '28). The Lex lulia de tnaiestate
[Maiestas], by rewarding the successful prose-
cutor with a fourth part of the estate of the
condemned (Tac. Ami. iv. '20), gave a fatal en-
couragement to this class ; and the evil grew to
ahead in the reign of Tiberius (Tac. Ann. iv. 30).
Successive emperors, down to the time of Con-
stantine, attempted to repress the delatores.
But the need of constant I'epression proves
what a standing evil this class must have been
to tlie state.
Delictum. Crimen.^
Deme'ntia. [Curator, furiosi.']
Depo'situm is a real contract which consists
in one man entrusting a moveable thing to
another to keep until it is demanded back, and
without any reward for the trouble of keeping
it. The party who makes the depositmn is
called deponent or dejiositor, and he who re-
ceives the thing is called dej^osifarius. The
depositarius has, as a rule, no right to make
use of the thing deposited. If money is pro-
mised to a person for taking care of a thing, the
contract is locatio conductio, and not deposi-
tum. The depositarius is bound on demand to
restore the thing deposited to the de})07iens or
hif deputy. In case of loss or injury due to
his wilful misconduct [dolus) or to gross negli-
gence (culpa lata), he is liable ; but he is not
usually liable on account of ordinary negligence
(culpa Icvis). With the thing itself he must
restore all appurtenances and any fructus
which the thing has produced. The remedy
of the deponens is the actio depositi directa.
If the deptositariits lost the action, he suffered
infamia. The depositarius on his side is
entitled to be secured against all damage which
he may suffer from the deposit through any
dolus or culpa on the part of the de2>onens, and
to all costs and expenses incurred by his
charge : his remedy against the dej)onens is
by an actio drjxisiti con/raria.
Detesta'tio sacro'rum. Sacra, whether fa-
miliaria or gentiliria, went with the property
of a familia or qois. In the case of a change
of gens or fa)»i/ia, as in adoption, the person
leaving a family had to make a solemn renun-
ciation (detesfatio) of the sacra of his own
family before the comitia calata. [GenS.]
Divina'tio. If in any case two or more ac-
cusers came forward against the same individual,
it was decided by divinatio who should be tlie
chief accuser, wliom the others then joined as
subscriptores : i.e. bj- putting their names to the
charge. The word divinatio, in this sense, has
no religious character, but is only used because
'quasi divinandum est ' which accuser is to be
preferred. The term is applied to the speech
of the claimant as well as the trial itself : e.g.
Cicero's Divinatio in Caecilium.
Divo'rtiam. It is probable that divorce (re-
pudium) on account of the misconduct of the
wife was in use from a very early period ; but
the earliest instance of divorce for any other
cause is that of Sp. Carvilius Ruga (•2!J8 n.c),
who divorced his wife on tlie ground of barren-
ness.
The marriage by which the husband acquired
manus over his wife, as well as the later free
marriage, was dissoluble. A marriage entered
into by con/arreatio was put an end to by a
DOMINIUM
717
similar ceremony, called diffarreatio ; if a wife
had passed into the manus of her husband by
coemptio, she could only be released by a re-
ma acipatio, which the husband could be com-
l)elled to execute. These formal restrictions
disappeared under the free form of marriage,
which did not bring the wife in manum viri.
\ According to the Roman theory of man-iage,
the consent and conjugal affection (maritulis
affectio) of the parties were regarded as neces-
sary for the continuance as well as for the
creation of a marriage. Accordingly either
party might declare his or her desire to dissolve
the connexion. No sanction by any public
authoritj' was necessary to dissolve the marriage.
A divorce which was brought about by one party
only renouncing the marriage was called a re-
pudium. The ceremony of breaking the nup-
tiales tabulae (Tac. Ann. xi. 80), or of taking
the keys of the house from the woman ancl
turning her out of doors, was probably con-
sidered to be sufficient ; but the general practice
apparently was to deliver a written notice, and
perliaps to assign a reason. By the Lex lulia
de adulteriis (17 B.C.) it was required that a
repudium should be executed in the presence
of seven adult Roman citizens (Suet. Avq.
34). ^
Not only the wife herself, but also her father,
if she was under his power, might dissolve the
marriage. Towards the latter part of the Re-
public and under the Empire, divorces became
very common (Cic. Att. i. 12, 18, Fam. viii. 7;
Mart. vi. 7 ; Pint. Cic. 41, Cat. Min. 25).
From an early time, however, penalties were
imposed on those who divorced without good
cause, and also on those who by their conduct
made a divorce necessary. A man was punished
by nota censoria, a woman by loss of dos.
There was the retentio dotis propter mores
when the divorce was caused by the fault of the
wife, and also the retentio dotis projitei- iiberos :
i.e. the right of the husband to deduct an
additional amount of dos in case there were
children of the marriage. The exercise of the
right of divorce was severely restrained, by the
Christiiui emperors.
Domici'lium. A man's permanent home. A
man ac(jnired doniiciliuni by making a place
his residence and intending to remain in it
permanently (animus manendi). Dmniciliuvi
was lost by abandonment. The terms incolam
esse and do)iiiciJium habere are equivalent. A
person might be ciris of one to\vn by origin
and be domiciled in another. In such a case
he was bound to obey the magistrates of the
place where he was an incolo, and also the
magistrates of the place where he was a ciris;
he was not only subject to the municipal juris-
diction in both municipalities, but he was
bound to perform all public functions (publica
munera) in both. A man's legal relations were
governed by tlie law of the place in wliicli he
was a citizen (le.r originis], and not by that of
the place of domicile ; but if he was not a citizen
of any municipiuni, he was subject to the lex
domicilii.
Domi'iiium. Dominium or rerum domi-
nium signifies ownership of property, and
dominus is the owner. Projjrietas is fre-
quently used as an equivalent to dominium.
The tenn dominium or dominium legitimum
is, strictly speaking, confined to civil or qniri-
tarian ownership (e.r iurr Quiritium), and does
not include praetorian or bonitary ownership
[Bona ; Possessio.]
Ownership is a right which, subject to ccr-
718
DOMINIUM
tain legal limitations, entitles a person to exer-
cise full control over a corporeal thing to the
exclusion of all other persons. The limitations
to which ownership in Eoman law is subject
are either general or special. General limita-
tions are imposed for the purpose of enforcing
the precept 'sic utere tuo ut alienum non
laedas.' Special limitations on ownership arise
by persons acquiring rights over property owned
by some one else. (See Servitus.) Ownership
is in its nature single and entire ; consequently
the same thing cannot belong to each of several
owners, but several persons may be joint domiiii
or owners of one thing.
The subject of ownersliip may be conveniently
iareated under the following heads :
(1) Of the things which may be the objects
of ownership. .Res is the general term for
anything which is the object of a right. Ties
are divided into corporales and incorporales.
Res corporales are physical objects; incor-
porales are those ' quae in iure consistunt ' —
a« hereditas, ususfructus, ohligationes.
The objects of dominium Siveres corporales;
divided into immohiles and rtiobiles.
The ground (soluin), and that which is at-
tached to the ground, as buildings and other
fixtures, trees, and standing crops, are res im-
mohiles. Res mobiles are things which can
move or be moved from place to place.
Fructus are the products of a thing, as the
crops of a field. Fructus sometimes includes
profits of a thing which are not produced by it,
e.g. minerals taken from the land, and profits
derived from legal use, as interest from a loan.
Res communes ow/iHtm are objects of com-
mon use, such as the air, the sea, the seashore,
running water.
Things capable in themselves of being objects
of ownership might become legally incapable of
ownership on account of their appropriation to
some religious purpose. Things which have
this character are called res divini iuris.
Res publicae, res universitatis, are things
which belong to the state or to a public body.
Res privatae or res singulorum are things
which are objects of individual ownership.
Tenants of ager publicus'wuretnTm.edjJOSSes-
sores, and their tenure possessio.
(2) As to the powers which a man may have
over objects of ownership.
An owner has, subject to general and special
limitations, a right to the possession and enjoy-
ment of his property ; and could assert it by the
action called ret vindicatio, if he was out of
possession. If in possession, he could maintain
the actio negatoria in rem.
(3) As to the modes in which ownership may
be acquired and lost.
A title to property may be acquired from
some one previously entitled to it, in which case
it is called a succession, or independently, as by
occupatio.
A succession may be either universal (suc-
cessio per universitatem) or singular (res S'in-
gulas acquirere). A universal succession is
the succession of one person to the entire pro-
perty (universitas) of another, whether living
or deceased. [Adoptio ; Bonorum emptio ;
Heres; XTniversitas.]
Single rights of ownersliip were acquired by
Cessio in iare, Mancipatio, TJsucapio;
Adiudicatio, which is the assignment of pro-
perty to a person by the award of a index
[Actio] ;
Lex, which is a title by which property de-
volves on a person by operation of a rule of
DONATIO MORTIS CAUSA
law without any act of the party acquiring : e.g.
the devolution of a lapsed legacy (caducum) ;
Tradifio, which is a conveyance of property
by informal delivery of possession according to
the ius gentium. [See Occupatio ; Accessio ;
Alluvio; Confusio.]
(4) As to the persons who are capable of
acquiring or losing ownership.
Juristic persons [universitates personarum)
as well as natural persons might be owners.
Only persons who had the ius cow wzercu could
acquire quiritary or bonitary ownership. Per-
sons in the power of another, free persons or
slaves, could not acquire for themselves, but
what they acquired belonged to the person in
whose power they were.
Pupilli could acquire property, but could not
alienate without the auctoritas of their tutor.
Do'minus means master, owner [Dominium].
The word was applied as a title of respect to a
superior. Thus the head of a family was some-
times called dominus by the free members of
his family as well as by his slaves (Suet. Aug.
53). The title of dominus came to be ascribed
to tlie emperor (see Princeps).
Dona'tlO, or gift, is an agreement between
two persons, by which one, without remunera-
tion and without being under any legal obliga-
tion (nullo iure cogente), gives, and the other
accepts, something that has a pecuniary value.
It is properly called an agreement, because it
is not sufficient that there be a person to give ;
there must also be a person who consents to
accept the gift, and there must be the animus
donandi. The object of gift may be anything
which increases the property of the donee and
diminishes that of the donor, as transfer of
ownership or possession to him, entitling him
to sue as creditor, releasing him from a debt.
Bona'tio inter virum et uxo'rem. It was
a rule of Roman law, which had its origin in
custom, that neither husband nor wife could
during marriage make a gift of anything to one
another. The general rule as to donations
between husband and wife is subject to some
exceptions. Thus gifts of a trivial kind, as
birthday presents, were allowed ; if a house
belonging to one of the parties to a marriage
were destroyed by fire, it might be rebuilt at
the expense of the other ; a woman might make
gifts to her husband to qualify him for certain
honours and other distinctions.
Dona'tio mortis causa. A donatio mortis
causa has been defined to be ' a gift which a
man makes with reference to the event of his
death, and so makes that the right of the donee
either commences with the death of the donor,
or is in some suspense until the death.' It
j resembles, in some respects, a legacy. It was
necessary that the donatio should be accepted
1 by the donee, and consequently there must be
a conveyance by traditio or delivery, or at
least an offer which is assented to. A donatio
mortis causa was a disposition of property
made in the donor's lifetime, and not a charge
on his inheritance. As the gift was not com-
plete untQ the death of the donor, it became
void in the event of the donor surviving the
donee. The donor always had it in his power
to revoke his gift, unless he had expressly
I agreed not to do so. No person could make
I or take under a donatio mortis causa who was
[ not capable of making or acquiring a testa-
mentary bequest. Property subject to such a
gift was liable for the debts and other claims
I upon the estate of a deceased person as if it
! were part of his inheritance.
DOS
Dos. Dos (res tixoria) is everything brought
to the husband on the part of the wife, as her
contribution towards supporting the expenses
of tlic marriage state (oncra matrimonii).
Tlie whole property of a married woman
might be made dos, or only a part of it : that
which was not made dos continuod to be her
own separate property, and was teimed para-
pherna; over this the husband had no control.
It was the duty of the wife to provide her
husband with dos, but she could not be legally
compelled to fulfil it. A woman could claim
her dos from her father.
The husband was owner of the dos, and so
had a right to the sole management of it, and to
the //v/cfw-s derived from it; but his power of
alienation was limited. He could dispose f reelj'
of such parts of the dos as consisted of things
moveable; but the Lex lulia de adulteriis pre-
ventid him from alienating dotal land [fimdus
dotalis, dofalia praedia, Cic. Att. xv. 20; Hor.
Jip. i. 6, 21) without the wife's consent.
■ Dos is put an end to by the termination of
the marriage for which it was created : where-
upon the (question arises as to the devolution of
the property. A wife who survived her hus-
band could claim her dos from his heredes.
If the marriage was dissolved by the death of
the wife, her father or other paternal ascendant
was entitled to recover the dos profectic/a (i.e.
that part of the dos which had been furnislied
by them) ; but if there were children of the
marriage, the husband might deduct a x^ortion
on account of each child. The dos adventicia
(i.e. property not so acquired), in case of the
wife's death, became the absolute property of
the husband ; but covenants to the contrary
might be made {dos recepticia). According to
Justinian's legislation, however, if the marriage
terminated by the wife's death, the husband
was bound to restore the dos to her heredes.
In case of divorce the wife forfeited her claim
to dos if the divorce was due to her misconduct ;
otherwise her rights were the same as when the
marriage was tenninated by death.
Duplica'tio. [Actio.]
E.
Edi'ctuin. The ius edicendi, or power of
issuing edicts— public and authoritative notices
on matters which formed part of their official
business — belonged to all the higher magistrates
at Rome, censors (Liv. xxxix. 44), consuls, tri-
bunes, and aediles. Such magisterial edicts, so
long as they remained in force, were reckoned
an integral part of the law of Rome (Cic. Top.
5). But the edicts of which we hear most are
those of the praetors, called i MS ^j>"ae<or«'««i and
ius honorarium.
The term edictuni signifies generally any
public notice made by a competent authority
(Liv. ii. 30 ; Tac. Ann. i. 7), and in particular,
under the Republic, rules promulgated by a
magistrate by writing them in alho and placing
them, like the leges, in a public and conspicuous
place. It became usual for the praetor, at the
commencement of his year of office, to proclaim
by an edict the principles which, apart from the
established rules of the ius civile, he intended
to observe in the administration of justice ;
and this usage developed into a constitu-
tional obligation. Such edict was called edic-
tuni 2^crj^etuum, as contrasted with edicta
repentina (Cic. Verr. iii. 14), isolated orders
made by the praetor in the course of his year of
office.
EDICTUM
71!)
Technically speaking, no edictum perpetuuin
had validity for a longer period than its author's
tenure of the praetorship, for it was upheld only
by his imperium. But it became the rule for
each successive praetor to adopt, in substance,
the edict of his predecessor, with such changes
as he deemed expedient (Cic. Verr. ii. 1, 44),
such part as he adopted being called edictum
tralaticium. In this way the edict gradually
grew into a considerable and pennanent body
of law, into which judgments, formulae, and
actions were embodied : e.g. edictum Carbo-
nianum ; formula Rutiliana, Aquiliana ; iudi-
cium Cascellianum ; interdictum Salvianum ;
actio Publiciana, &c.
The edicts of the praetors x>^'>'s9'>^i''>i''^s a-rid
urhanus fonned the chief part of this perma-
nent and constantly growing body of law. The
edicts issued by the praetors who governed pro-
vinces were tenned edicta provincial ia ; some
parts of them appear to have been handed on
from governor to governor (Cic. Fam. iii. 8,
Att. V. 21), others to have been taken from the
edictum urhanwm (Cic. Verr. ii. 1, 46; 3, 05).
The urban edict is of the greatest imjjortance
and interest, because it was binding on Roman
citizens inter se, and therefore formed part
of the Roman law in the strictest sense of
the term. In Cicero's time (Legg. i. 5, ii. 23)
the edict was regularly read in the course of
legal study, and the jurists who were his con-
temporaries had begun to comment on it in lieu
of the Twelve Tables and other early statutes.
Under the early Empire it continued to receive,
year by year, fresh development from the hands
of successive praetors, principally in order to
accommodate procedure to the new conditions
introduced by imjierial legislation.
In the year 131 a.d. Hadrian issued, through
Salvius Julianus, praetor designate, a revised
edition of the edictum urbanujn, combining
with it the edict of the curule aediles, and pro-
bably also that of the praetor peregrinus and
parts of the edicta provincialia. This was
called the ' edictum perpetuum ' par excellence,
and was published with the foi-ce of law for
the whole empire, so that the ius j'raetoriunt
from this time onward had statutory validity,
instead of depending on an annual re-enact-
ment. Henceforward, too, the old practice by
which each praetor issued an edictum per-
petuum at the conunencement of his year of
office was abandoned.
The scope and purpose of the edict was to
supply wants in the civil law, and to reconcile
apparent and correct real discrepancies.
Teclmically speaking, the praetor had no
legislative authority ; but he had the complete
control of the courts and of the system of
procedure, and thus could alter and extend
the substantive law almost as absolutely as
any legislator. He could assist a defendant
by new forms of defence (exceptioyics), award
possession of property under an equitable title
and protect it with interdicts | Interdictuml,
cancel legal rights and duties by restoring
parties in statum quo, and allow or disallow
actions or other forms of legal process. The
characteristic features of the law which he thus
created were its liberality and common sense.
It has none of the formality of the ius civile ;
the vast majority of its rules are what we
should call rules of equity, fitted by their reason-
ableness and simplicity to endure through all
time, as being l)iised on the natural sense of
right, the naturalis acquitas, in which was
grounded the ius gentium.
720
EFFRACTOR
Juristic commentaries on the edict began to
be written as early as tlie time of Cicero ; and
gradually the commentaries obtained more
authority than the edict itself, and became the
basis of instruction for law jitudents ; especially
those of Ulpian and Paulus.
Elfra'ctor. A burglar. Among the Rolnans
the crime of effractio was not visited with death.
The penalty was hard labour for life {opus per-
petiLum), and, for burglai-y by night, in the
mines [poena nietalli). The trial was before
the Praefectus Vigilum.
Emancipa'tio was an act by which the
potestas of a paterfamilias over a person in his
power was voluntarily dissolved by him, and it
was so called because it was effected in the guise
of a sale with all the ancient solemnities of the
aes et libra (mancipatio). One of the rights of
a paterfamilias under the archaic law of Rome
was that of selling his children. The Twelve
Tables enacted that if a father sold his son three
times, the latter should be free from his potestas.
This rule gave a means of voluntarily releasing
children from patria potestas, which before
seems not to have been possible. The process
of emancipating a son was as follows. Tht?
2Jater sold him by inancipatio to a third person,
who then manumitted him by vindicta. This
restored him to the patria potestas. The ope-
ration was repeated twice ; and the third man-
cipatio released him iroxa. potestas, but left him
in inancipio to the purchaser, who remancipated
liim to the ^Ja^er ; the father then manumitted
him by vindicta (being no longer his pater-
familias), whereby the son became free, and the
father his quasi-patron and also his tutor legi-
timus if the child was impubes. For the
emancipation of a daughter or any other de-
scendant, only one sale was required. [Adoptio.]
The emancipated person became sui instead
of :ilieni iuris, and able to bring actions in his
own name, make a will, and own property. He
underwent capitis deniinutio {ininima), the
agnatic tie between him and his family being
broken. [Coenati.]
Emphyteu sis {iix<pvT€V(ns) is a perpetual
and real right in (agricultural) land which
belongs to another person, entitling the cmplnj-
teuta to cultivate it practically as though it
were his own, on condition of paying a fixed
rent (pensio, canon) to the dominus or owner.
The origin of emphyteusis is traceable to the
agri vcctigalcs : large tracts of grazing land in
Italy, belonging to the state, religious corpora-
tions, or towns, but held and enjoyed by private
persons subject to the payment of a perpetual
rent (vectif/al), or let out upon very long leases.
The rights of such occupiers acquired a ' real '
character from the praetor, who protected their
possession by interdicts, and by a utilis actio
in rem.
The emphijteuta is opposed to the dominus,
or owner, of the land over which his right
extends : but may do almost anything with the
land that a judicious owner would do, unless
there are special restrictive covenants. His
rights are heritable, and alienable both inter
vivos and by will. If he proposed to transfer his
interest, he had to give notice to the dominus,
who had a right of pre-emption and a commis-
sion on the purchase-money. The emphyteuta
also had the right of letting the land on lease
to a third person, and could pledge or mortgage
it and create servitudes which bound it so
long as his own interest endured. His duties
were to keep the land in good tenantable con-
dition, to pay all taxes assessed upon it, and
FALSUM
his rent with regularity. Non-payment of rent
for three years empowered the owner to evict
him by legal process.
E'mptio vendi'tio. The contract of buying
and selling is one of those in which the Romans
said the obligation was imposed consensu, be-
cause no form or delivery in writing was re-
quired to give it force ; mutual consent being
legally binding. The vendor was under no
obligation to deliver the res vendita until he
had been paid the price ; but it was at the
purchaser's risk from the moment the con-
tract was concluded, so that if it was lost, stolen,
or accidentally destroyed, the loss fell on the
purchaser, unless he could show that the vendor
had failed in his legal duty of diligcntia [Culpa].
As a set-ofi to this the vendor was bound to
deUver with the thing itself all its fruits, acces-
sions, increase, d'c, from the date of the con-
tract. If tlie purchase-money was not paid, it
canied interest. The vendor was bound to give
free and undisturbed possession of the thing
sold ; and if the property was recovered from
the purchaser by a third person who proved a
better title, the vendor was bound to indemnify
him [Evictio]. Every sale contained an implied
warranty of quality, and the vendor was legally
answerable for defects. (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 286,
Ep. ii. '2.) Originally, however, a seller 'was
not liable to the buyer for any faults or defects,
unless he was aware of them and did not dis-
close them, or unless he had warranted their
absence ; but the curule aedUes, who had juris-
diction over the market, promised in their edict
to give actions to buyers against sellers, on
account of any non-apparent faults or defects,
for rescinding the sale on this ground (actio
redhibitoria), or for obtaining an abatement in
the purchase money (actio quanti minoris).
Evi'ctio. Evincere means generally to de-
prive a person of a thing or right, of which he
is in the enjoyment, by legal process ; but the
commonest case of evictio is that of the con-
tract of sale [Emptio venditio]. The vendor
not being bound to make the j^urchaser owner
of the thing sold, things were often bought and
sold which did not belong to the vendor ; and as
the latter could give no better title than he had
himself, the purcliaser was liable to be deprived
of the res vendita by the lawful owner. In
ordinary sales it was usual for the purchaser to
stipulate for a penal sum of twice the amount
of the purchase-money (stipulatio duplae) i!'
so deprived of the property. Eventually it be-
came a general rule of law, that if the purchaser
was evicted by legal process, the vendor must
indemnify him (evictionem praestare).
Exhibe'ndum, A'ctio aa, was a praetorian
action in personam, usually of a preliminary
character, to cause the owiier or possessor of a
thing to produce it with a view to a trial : e.g.
to cause the production of a slave, when it was
not certain what slave had committed tlie
offence.
Li default of production, the defendant would
be condemned in damages estimated by the
plaintiff on his oath. (Cf. 'Ettcfjavuv KaTcL-
CTTaats, Appendix, Greek Law.)
Falsum. The crime of falsum consisted of
acts of fraud which were injurious to fides
Xiublica, such as forgery, counterfeiting money,
and perverting the course of justice by perjury.
The laws of the Twelve Tables provided that
i
FAMILIA
a person who gave false testimony should be
thrown from tiie Tarpeiau rock, and that a
judge who took a bribe should be liable to
capital punishment. The next legislation in,
falsum, so far as we know, was contained in a
Lex Cornelia de falsis passed by the dictator
Sulla, which instituted a quaestio ad populum
for this crime.
The Lex Cornelia appears to have included
two specific kinds of falsum : (1) forgery and
suppression of wills, and (2) adulteration of the
coinage. An offence against either branch of
this law was fx,crime7i ■publicum, and was under
the cognisance of a standing quaestio. The
punishment of falsum was banishment for the
lionestiores. and the mines, crucifixion, or other
degrading punishment for the humiliores.
The Lex Cornelia was subsequently made to
apply to other instruments, private or public,
as %vell as wills.
Persons guilty of falsifying documents are
called falsarii. The Lex de falsis was further
extended to fraudulent assum^jtion of names or
rank. The crimen falsi was also made to in-
clude perjury, the corruption of judges, con-
spiracy against innocent persons, tlie use of
false weights and measures, and kindred
offences.
Faini'lia (O. L. famelia, in Oscan famelo),
is probably derived from Osc. faa-ma (' house '),
not from Osc. famel, a slave. The adjective
familiares and the substantive/a«^«/^ signified
originally the members belonging to a house.
The meaning was extended so as to comprehend
all that is subject to the maniis or control of
a paterfamilias, free persons, slaves and pro-
perty, the Greek oIkos. But the word has gene-
rally narrower significations : i.e. property as
an adjunct or appendage of a household (Liv.
ii. 8, XV. 41).
Familia sometimes signifies onlj- persons :
i.e. (1) all those who are in the power of a head
of a family, such as descendants and slaves ;
(2) the free persons in the power of a pater-
familias, and (3) all those who are connected
by agnation : that is, all who would be in tlie
power of a common a,ncestor if he were living.
[Cognati.j Members of the se^vae familia were
familiares.
Familia is frequently used to signify only
the slaves belonging to a head of a family (Cic.
Fam. xiv. 4). It may also he = hereditas.
The head of a familia or household, known
originally as esus or erus, was a Roman citizen
who was sui iuris. As master of his house
(domus) and its belongings he was dominus;
as governor of the familiares, or members of
the household, he was paterfamilias. His
wife, if subject to his manus, was materfami-
lias, or house-mother. [Matrimonium.] A
filius- or fliafamilias was a male or female
descendant in the power of a paterfamilias.
[Patria potestas.]
Fami'liae erciscu'ndae iudi'cium. When
several heredes succeeded to an inlieritance,
they held together in common according to
their respective shares. Every heres was en-
titled to a division of tlic hereditas. In case the
coheirs could not agree, the division was made
by compulsory process. For this purpose every
heres had against each of his coheredes a
indicium or actio familiae erciscundae, given
by the Twelve Tables. It was the duty of the
arbitri, who were appointed by the magistrate
for the purpose, to divide the familia, which
here signifies the property or hereditas. The
heredes were bound to bring in for division any
FIDEICOMMISSUM 721
property received from the deceased in his life-
time, as part of their share of the mheriiance.
The judicial award (adiudicatio) of the arbitri
could not be disputed in any subsequent pro-
ceedings.
The origin of the root erc- or nERC- is uncer-
tain, but it probably means ' to divide.'
Fa'rreum. [Matrimonium.]
Fi'ctio. Fictions in Roman law, as in
English law, are ' those things that have no
real essence in their owi body, but are so
acknowledged and accepted in law for some
especial purpose.' The main pui-poseof fictions
is to serve as a means of making new law with-
out formulating new rules. They effect this
by supposing some fact or condition to exist
which is absent, the thing supposed being of
such a nature as, being admitted to exist,
enables rights or duties to arise or to be put
an end to : that is, they extend law by connect-
ing cases outside it with cases covered by it.
Fictions arose from the ceremonial character
of ancient law, which itself is based upon the
supposed religious sanction attaching to tradi-
ditional formulas.
One instance of such a fiction is where an in-
heritor only has Bonorum possessio by the
praetor's edict. He lias no civil title as heres,
and can bring no civil action, nor be legally
entitled to the property owned by the deceased.
The praetor, therefore, framed /or;/; i//ae// r<j-
tiae, by which it was feigned that the bonoruin
possessor was heres. [Similar fictions are de-
scribed under Cessio in iure, Mancipatio,
and Postliminium.]
The change from tlie legis actio to the formu-
lary procedure seems to have been partly carried
out by means of fictiones. [Actio.] The per-
sonifying of a people, city, corporation, office
[e.g. aerarium), foundation {e.g. a temple), so
as to assimilate them to individual persons,
was originally an instance of fiction, but has
come to be no longer metaphorical. Fictions
gradually disappeared in the later period oi
Roman law; and several which still survived
were disposed of by Justinian.
Fideicommi'ssuin was a bequest which a
person made by desiring his heir or legatee to
transfer something to a third person. Such a
bequest was one of a fiduciary kind, its execu-
tion being entrusted to the good faith of the
party to whom the request was made. De-
visees charged with fideicommissa were at
first only under a moral obligation to carry
out the wishes of the deceased. (Cic. de Fin.
ii. 17, 18.) It was not till the time of Au-
gustus that fideicommissa were made legally
binding.
The practice of creating fideicommissa arose
from the desire of obtaining greater freedom in
respect to the disposition of property after
death than the civil law rules of inheritance
adnaitted. A fidoicommissum could be more
easily created than a legatum. A legatum was
not valid unless made by will or by codicil
confirmed by will, with particular forms of
words, and in Latin. A fideiconnnissum, on
the other hand, might be left without a will by
simple words of request, such as fdrirom-
mitto, volo dari, and the like. It might either
be contained in written documents, called
codicilli, or expressed orally. It required no
particular form of words, and might be ex-
pressed in Greek. The informal character of
fideicommissa made them specially convenient
when a man was called on suddenly to make a
disposition of his property.
3A
722
FIDUCIA
Ficleicommissa were much used for the pur-
pose of leaving property to persous who were
incapable of taking directly under a will, such
as peregrini, women, caelibes and orbi, corpo-
rate bodies, incertae persouae, &c.
The differences between fideicommissa and
legata disappeared in later law, and Justinian
entirely assimilated legata and fideicommissa.
A heres requested to transfer the whole or
part of an inheritance to some one else is called
fiduciarius ; the person to whom the transfer
IS to be made being termed fideicommissarius.
The heres fiduciarius by accepting the inheri-
tance became personally bound to transfer it to
the fideiconunissarius.
Fideicommissa were, however, sometimes
lost, because the fiduciarius would not accept
the inheritance if he was unwilling to incur the
liability of heres, or if he got little or no ad-
vantage in so doing ; to prevent this, the heres
who was charged with a universal fideicommis-
Bum was given the right of transferring the in-
heritance together with the liabilities attaching
to it, or of retaining one-fourth of the inherit-
ance, if so much had not been left to him by the
deceased. If the fiduciarius refused to accept
the inheritance, the fideicommissarius could
oblige him by action to do so.
Flda'cia is a lex dicta or supplementary pro-
vision sometimes incorporated in a mancipium
or in iure cessio, whereby a party to whom a
right is transferred is obliged to transfer it again
at some future time or on some condition being
fulfilled. This species of provision is called
fiducia, because the obligation which it creates
is expressly based on the fides of the party to
whom the transfer is made. Fiduciam coti-
trahere is to contract such an obligation ;
fiduciam accipere, to receive property so trans-
ferred (Liv. xx.xii. 38, 2). A fiduciarius, or party
who acquired a right but was subject to a
fiducia respecting it, if he did not discharge his
obligation was liable to an actio fiduciae, which
was an actio bonae fidei, involving infamia as
well as damages for the loss his dishonesty had
caused (Cic. Base. Com. 6, § 16). The fidu-
ciarius was owner of the res fiduciaria, but
was liable if he did not take proper care of the
res, and he had to account for all profits de-
rived from it {Cic. Caecin. 3, § 7) ; ou the other
hand, he could claim to be indemnified for ex-
penses. It was common to make a fiducia with
a friend in order to secure the safe custody of
property ; and, in fact, this seems to have been
in early law the only legal means of making a
deposit or a loan of a specific thing.
A fiducia was entered into with a creditor for
the purpose of mortgaging property to him, the
legal estate being conveyed to the mortgagee
on the understanding tliat there should be a
re-conveyance when the debt was paid, as in the
English common law mortgage. [PignuB.J
Fiducia as a form of mortgage continued in use
for some time after the forms of pignus and
hypotheca were recognised, on account of the
great security which it gave to the mortgagee.
Fo'rmula. [Actio.]
Furtum, 'theft,' is the act of unlawfully
handling a thing capable of being stolen, with
the wrongful intention either of appropriating
it or making use of it for the sake of gain.
Moveable things only could be objects of furtum.
Things without an owner (res nuliius), such as
wild animals or things abandoned by tlieir
owner, could not be stolen; but everything
subject to the wiU of a paterfamilias which was
not res immobilis was capable of furtum.
HERES
There could be no furtum unless there was
an animus furandi, or wrongful intention of
appropriating property with a view to gain.
There must also be contrectatio rei, or moving
of a thing from its place. The act must be
invito fZo?« J HO, otherwise the principle ' volenti
non fit iniuria ' was applicable. A person was
guilty of theft who assisted in carrying it out,
though he did not himself handle the res ; but
merely to instigate a furtum without taking
part in its execution was not furtum.
Furtum was either manifestum or nee mani-
festum. It was manifestum when the person
was caught in the act, or even if the fur was
detected before he reached the place to which
he designed to carry the thing.
The punishment for furtum manifestum was
by the law of the Twelve Tables capital [Caput] :
a freeman was flogged and assigned as a bonds-
man [addictus) to the injured party, unless he
could buy ofE the claim of the latter to vengeance
(Cic. Tull. § 50) : a slave was flogged and
thrown from the Tarpeian rock. The Edict of
the Praetor subsequently substituted for this
punishment an actio quadrupU, which entitled
the injured party to claim from the thief four-
fold the value of the thing stolen. The action
by which the penalty was recovered on account
of furtum is called actio furti. It was brought
by the person interested in the safe custody of
the thing, whether as owner or not : e.g. a
creditor might have this action against the
owner of a thing pledged, if the latter unlaw-
fully deprived him of possession. Besides his
claim to a penalty, the injured party had a
civil action for the recovery of damages, which
is called condictio furtiva. This action might
be brought by anyone who had a real right in
the res furtiva. The defendant in tliis action
was the fur, or, in the event of his death, his
heredes.
Furtum was not a criminal offence in the time
of the Republic, but only a civil wrong ; subse-
quently the injured party was given the alter-
native of instituting a criminal prosecution or
of suing for the twofold or fourfold penalty. In
the pursuit of a thief the hue and cry might be
raised, ' Preruie furem.' The owner of the
stolen property conducted the search for it
(quaestio), claiming the right of searching the
house where he supposed his property to be.
Anyone who prevented a person from searching
for a furtum or stolen thing was liable to the
actio furti prohihiti. From the time of Jus-
tinian a person who received property which he
knew to have been stolen was liable to the actio
furti, and the search for stolen property was
conducted by public officials only.
Violent taking of the property of another was
rapina. Here the praetor gave a special action,
known as actio vi bonoru/n raptorum. The
origin of this action is referred by Cicero {Tull.
c. 8) to the time of the civil wars, when robbery
with violence became common.
Heres. Heres or heredes signifies the per-
son or persons who succeeded to the entire
inheritance fUniversitas] of a deceased person
under the rules of the lus Civile. Such a
succession comprehended all the rights and
liabilities, including debts, of the person de-
ceased, except in so far as they terminated with
his life ; and was expressed by the term heredi-
tas. Several heredes (coheredes) succeeded
t
SEjSiEjS
723
together to the entire inheritance, though they
might take in different proportions. The word
hereditas may also mean, not the succession
itself, but the property and other rights which
are the object of the succession. The succes-
sion of a legatarius differed from that of a
heres, in that it was only a singular one, limited
by the legatum, and a legatarius incurred no
liability for the debts of the deceased.
A person might become a heres (1) by being
named as such (histifiitus, scriptus, f actus) in
a lawful will [Testamentum] ; or (2) if a person
died intestate (iutfstatus), or having made a
will which was not valid, the inheritance came
to those to whom the law gave it under the
rules of intestacy, and was called hereditas
legitima or ab intestato.
(1) The institution of a heres was that for-
mality which could not be dispensed with in a
will. If the testator named no heres or heredes,
and complied with all the other legal forms,
still his disposition of his property was not a
will. The testator might either name one per-
son as heres or several persons as coheredes,
and he might divide the hereditas among them
as he pleased. The shares of the heredes were
generally expressed by reference to the divi-
sions of the as : thus, ' heres ex asse ' is heres
to the whole property ; ' heres ex dodrante,'
heres to three-fourths. (Cic. Att. xiii. 48,
vii. 8, Caec. 6, 17.) [As.] If there were several
heredes named without distinction, the pro-
perty belonged to them in equal shares. A
heres might be instituted either unconditionally
{pure), or on the fulfilment of a condition [siib
condicione), but the institution could not be
made defeasible on the occurrence of a future
event, nor could it be limited to take effect for
a certain period, since a person who once be-
came universal successor always remained so
{semel heres, semper heres). Conditions en-
forced on the heres, to be binding on him, must
be lawful, and neither immoral nor impossible.
In order that a testamentary succession should
take place, the testator must have the legal
capacity of making a will (testatnenti factio
activa). [Testamentum.] Also the person
who is instituted heres must have a legal
capacity to be heres, at the time of the institu-
tion, at the time of the testator's death, and at
the time of his accepting the inheritance. As
a general rule, only Roman citizens could be
named as heredes in the will of a Roman citi-
zen ; but a slave as well as a filiusfamilias
could be named heres. Persons not Roman
citizens, who had received the commercium
(except Latini luniani), could be instituted
heredes, and could take legata.
Heredes were either necessarii, sui et ?irces-
sarii, or extranet. The heres necessarius was a
slave of the testator, who was made a heres and
liber at the same time, and became heres by
operation of law {ncccssario) without any act
of his own. The heredes sui et necessarii were
those filii- or filiae-familias, lawfully begotten
or adopted, in the power of the deceased at the
time of his death, who by that event became
sui iuris. A wife in manii, as being in loco
filiae, was sua heres. Sui heredes arc called
necessary, because, willing or unwilling, they
become successors. Thus the succession of the
auus heres is assumed in the Twelve Tables as
a matter of course. The involuntary succession
of this class of heredes was a hardship to them
in the event of an insolvent inh(?ritance (da)n-
nosa hereditas) ; hence the praetor permitted
them to abstain from the succession [abstincre
se ab hereditatc), and to allow the creditors to
sell the property. All other heredes, being not
in the power of the deceased, are called ex-
tranei.
Extranei or voluntarii heredes did not
acquire the inheritance until they had accepted
it by their own free act. The act of entering
on an inheritance [hereditatem adire), if once
carried out, could not be revoked, except on
some special ground. A testator might fix in
his will a certain time for the cretio heredita-
tis : that is, for a heres to determine [cernere)
whether he would take the hereditas or not ;
hence the phrase cernere hereditatem. The
formal words of cretio, which were declared
before witnesses in the house of the deceased,
were 'eam hereditatem adeo cernoque.' The
formalities of cretio had become obsolete before
the time of Justinian.
It was not unusual to make several degrees
of heredes in a will {sub stitutio) to take effect if
the heres first named [primo gradu) did not
accept. The person first named became heres
by the act of cretion, and the substitutus
{secundus heres, Hor. Sat. ii. 5, 48 ; Tac. Ann.
i. 8) was then entirely excluded. (For heres
fiduciarius, see Fideicommissum.)
If a man's own slave was made heres by his
will, it was necessary, before the time of Jus-
tinian, that he should be made free also by
the will ; the words were, ' Stichus servus mens
liber heresque esto.'
If a man had a son in his power, he was
bound either to make him heres, or to exhere-
date him [exheredem facere) expressly (nonii-
natim). If he passed him over in silence
[silentiopraeterierit), the will was void {inutile,
non iure factum).
Daughters and grandchildren, who were sui
heredes, could, in the time of the classical
jurists, be exheredated by a general clause
' ceteri exlieredes sunto.' If they were passed
over in silence, the will would still be a valid
will ; but they took a certain portion of the
inheritance by accretion, as it was termed
{scriptis hercdibus adcrescunt).
For cases in which a valid will became in-
validated, see Testamentum.
If an ingenuus died intestate, the succession,
according to the law of the Twelve Tables
(legitima hereditas), came to the sui heredes,
who took the hereditas in equal shares, if they
were children of the deceased. The distribution
among grandchildren was in stirj)es — that is,
among the stocks or stems sprung from the
ancestor — and not in capiita, or among the
individuals in equal proportions. If an intestate
had no sui heredes, the Twelve Tables gave the
hereditas to the agnati, i.e. all those who would
be under the power of a common ancestor if he
were alive. [Cognati.] The hereditas did not
belong to all the agnati, but only to the nearest
of kin at the time when it was ascertained that
a person had died intestate. In case there was
no suus heres or proximus agnatus, or if the
proximus agnatus was unwilling to accept, the
succession devolved on the gentiles (see Gens).
The hereditates of women intestate came to
their agnati just as the inheritance of males;
but women were not allowed by the ius civile
to succeed as agnates, if further removed than
sisters. A mother or a stepmother who had come
in manum viri thereby obtained the status of a
daughter to her husband, and shared as one of
his children. If (as was usually the case) she
was not in manu viri, she had no legitimate
succession to her husband ; and as the mother
•i .k2
724
IMPUBES
and her children belonged to different familiae,
they had no reciprocal rights of consanguinity
or succession to one another. It was not until
the time of Hadrian that a mother was given
the right of succeeding to her children. Children
were given the right of succeeding to their
mother in 178 a.d.
The heres represented the testator or intes-
tate (Cic. Legg. ii. 19), and had not only a
claim to all his property, and all that was due
to him, but was bound by all his obligations,
except those which were put an end to by death.
He succeeded to the sacra familiaria, as
attached to the property, and was bound to
maintain them. Hence the expression 'sine
sacris hereditas,' i.e. hereditas unencumbered
with sacra (Plant. Capt. iv. 1, 8). It was a
religious duty of the heres to bury the deceased
(cf. Plaut. Men. iii. 2, 27).
The heres on acquiring an hereditas was, as
we have seen, personally liable on account of
the obligations of the deceased, but Justinian
provided that he should not be bound beyond
what the property would satisfy, provided lie
made out an inventory {inventarium) of the
property in a certain form and within a certain
time. Tlie heres, after satisfying the debts of
the deceased, was bound to jiay the legacies
out of the surplus ; but before doing so he was
entitled to deduct a fourth for liimself (called
the Fakidian fourth). [Legatum; Fideicom-
missum.J
Coheredes shared among themselves the
property and bore their share of the debts in the
same proportion. For the purpose of parti-
tion and settHng the affairs of the testator,
a sale was often necessary (Cic. Att. xi. 15).
If the parties could not agree about the parti-
tion, any of them might institute a partition suit,
called acHo familiae erciscundae [Fam. ere.
iudiciuml.
From the time of a man's death until it was
determined who was his heres, the hereditas
was without an owner, and was said iacere.
When a heres was ascertained, such person was
considered to possess all tlie rights incident to
the hereditas from the time of the death of the
testator or intestate.
Impu'bes, Infans. Persons were distin-
guished with reference to their age as follows :
(1) Infantes, from birth to the end of the
seventh year.
(2) Infantia maiores, from seven years to
the end of fourteen years for a male, twelve for
a female.
These two classes are impuhercs.
(3) Adolescentrs, aditUi, puberes, minores
a-xu annis or simply minores, from the age of
puberty to the end of the twenty-fifth year
[Curator].
(4) Maiores, from the age of twenty-five.
Of the two classes of impuberes:
(1) Infans, infantia. — In a legal sense the
expression qui fari jwtest expressed not only
the use of speech, but also the capacity of using
legal forms of words, and being legally re-
sponsible. The termination of infantia was
fixed at the end of the seventh year.
(2) Impibberes, infantia maiores. — An im-
j)ubes who had passed the limits of infantia
and was not in the power of a father could do
any legal act with the sanction (aiictoritas) of
his tutor ; without the interposition of his tutor
INCESTUM
he could only do those acts which were for his
benefit, not such as might injure him. He
could acquire the ownership of propertj' alone,
but he could not alienate it unless with the
concurrence of his tutor. He could enter into
a betrothal (sponsalia) alone, because sponsalia
did not give rise to any liability to be sued :
but he could not contract a valid marriage.
An impubes could not without the sanction of
his tutor be plaintiff or defendant in a suit.
An impubes could acquire an hereditas with
the sanction of his tutor [Heres].
An impubes inaior infantia was liable on
account of his delicts, if he understood the
nature of his acts.
The attainment of puberty by a man was
celebrated by sacrifices and by the assumption
of the toga virilis. On attaining puberty, a
man became capable of exercising public rights,
but could not participate in the Comitia Cen-
turiata, and was not liable for military service
till lie had reached inventus, i.e. completed his
seventeenth j-ear.
Ince'ndium. The crime of setting any object
on fire, whereby the property of another is
endangered. It does not (as arson) necessarily
imply malice or forethought. To set property
on fire wittingly [prudens] was a serious
offence under the Twelve Tables. If done by
accident (casu, id est neglegentia), the early
law obliged the offender to repair the injury he
had committed. The crime of incendium was
the subject of various enactments in the last
century of the Republic. Sulla in his Lex Cor-
nelia de sicariis punished malicious (dole mala)
incendium witli aquae et ignis interdictio.
It was, included in the Lex Pompeia de vi,
.52 B.C., and in the Lex lulia de vi of the
dictator Caesar, the penalty being aquae et
ignis interdictio (Cic. Phil. i. 9, 23). The crime
of incendium fell equally under vis publica and
visjirivata : and besides criminal prosecutions, a
person could also bring actions to recover com-
pensation for injury. In the imperial period
distinctions were made in tlie crime, according
to the greater or smaller danger of the incen-
dium : and according as the act had been per-
formed dolo, culpa, or casu. Where there was
negligence but not malice, compensation was
due. If the incendium was purely accidental
[fortuitum), no compensation was necessarj'.
During the Empire incendium gave rise to a
cognitio extraordinaria, held usually by the
praefectus urbi, but in some cases by the prae-
fectus vigilum. Malicious incendium in the
town was in all cases punished capite, humi-
liores being thrown to wild beasts, or burnt
alive ; those in a better position were punished
by the sword, and for those of a still higher
rank depoTiatio was the penalty. Milder cases
of incendium were tried summarily by the prae-
fectus vigilum [Vigiles], who might dismiss
with a caution or punish fustibus or fiagellis.
He had to remit the more aggravated cases to
the jurisdiction of the praefectus urbi.
Ince'nsus. [Caput; Census.]
Ince'stum. Incestus, derived from ifi and
cast us, is applied as an adjective to any act that
may be regarded as a breach of morality or
religion. Hence the substantive incestum in
its earliest signification was applied to acts
which religion, or natural morality which had
a religious sanction, forbade. It was applied
therefore (1) to breaches of religious obligation,
such as the unchastity of a Vestal, and (2),
whether under the name of marriage or not,
to sexual relations within certain degrees of
INFAML4
consanguinity: such as (a) incestutn iure
yentiaui, or offences against common rules of
morality, and {h) incestum iure civili, which
includes such actions as were forbidden by
positive law.
The old Roman law probably took cognisance
of incestum only as a religious offence. A sur-
vival of this view is found in the sacra and
piacula which even at a late period followed a
condemnation on this charge (Tac. Ann. xii. 8).
The Vestal was tried before the pontilices (Liv.
viii. 15; Cic. Lege/, ii. 9, 22), and, if found
guilty, was led through the forum and buried
alive in the Campus Sceleratus near the Colliue
gate (Liv. viii. 15, xxii. 57; Juv. iv. 9), her
paramour being scourged to death (Liv. xxii.
57).
To constitute the incest which arose from
marriage within the prohibited degi-ees of rela-
tionship, dolus was necessary ; and thus ignor-
ance of the fact was always excused. The
prohibited degrees of relationship might exist
either (1) between ascendants or descendants,
i.e. those who bore to one another the relation
of parents to children, whether by (a) cognatio,
(6) affinitas, or (c) adoptio ; or (2) collaterally
{ex latere). The relations of affinitas were
possibly not an absolute bar to marriage in
Cicero's time (Cic. Cluent. 5, 11), tliough a mar-
riage between affines might be contrary to boni
mores ; they were perhaps first made a ground of
invalidity by the Lex lulia, 3 a.d. (2) The other
class of prohibited degrees included those who
were collaterally related either by nature or
(in most cases) by adoption or aflfinity. Mar-
riage between uncle and niece, aunt and nephew,
was prohibited until the time of Claudius, who
married his niece Agrippina (Suet. Claud. 2(5 ;
Tac. Ann. xiii. 5 and 7), but was subsequently
made illegal. The law relating to marriage
between cousins was subject to much change.
Under the law of Justinian marriage even
between first cousins was allowed. Brothers
and sisters in law, as a general rule, could not
marry.
In the case of a marriage within forbidden
degrees, the marriage was void and the children
illegitimate, and the man was subject to punish-
ment extending to relegatio, in a case of dolus ;
in the case of adultery with a married woman
within the bounds of relationship, the punish-
ment was deportatio in insulam for the man,
relegatio for the woman; and thirdly, stuprum,
when the related woman was unmarried, was
punished in the case of the man by deportatio.
Infa'mia. Infamia was a moral censure
pronounced by a competent authoritj' in the
state (the censor or the praetor) on individual
members of the community, as a result of
certain actions which they had committed, or
certain modes of life which they had pursued.
The persons so censured were called infamcs,
Infamia could be inflicted either by the censor
in the interest of public morals, or by the
praetor to uphold the dignity of his own court,
and as the consequence of a conviction for
certain offences.
(1) Tlie original view of infamy being that it
was a course pursued in the public interest, the
causes of infamy were those acts which would
render a man unworthy of continuing to perform
public duties. The power of pronouncing this
moral verdict rested with the censor, and arose
naturally out of his duty of registering the
names of Roman citizens in their several orders
on the occasion of a census, and according to
the different standards required in consideration
INGENUUS
725
of the status of the person. A proiession, for
instance, which disqualified for office need not
disqualify for the right of voting ; while some
professions, such as that of an actor, disqualified
for every honour. There were no fixed rules to
bind the magistrate : and much as the censor's
decisions resembled a trial at law in outward
appearance, they differed from it in the fact that
there were no fixed rules of procedure for con-
ducting the case, and no fixed rules of law for
binding the decision arrived at (Cic. Cluent.
45, 126). It was not a iudicium, says Cicero,
but an uniniadversio and an exercise of axicto-
ritas {ib. 42, 117), and it was not followed by
strictly penal consequences. Though it might
disqualify, it did not punish, and the result of
the censor's judgment was only z;5r«o»;iHin. (Cic.
Rep. 4, 0.) The process was spoken of as a,
notatio, from the nota (or subscriptio) which
the censor wrote under the name of the person
affected (Liv. xxxix. 42, 0; Cic. Cluent. 45,
118), the offence which formed the ground of
censure being usually spoken of as probrum.
Censors were not bound by the acts of their
predecessors. Certain disqualifications, how-
ever, were permanent, and thus the censorian
infamia came to assume in time a tralaticiary
character.
In this way the ex-magistrate might be
degraded for a misuse of his powers (Plut.
Tib. Gracch. 2; Liv. xhv. 16, 8), the index
for accepting bribes (Cic. Cluent. 42, 119),
the soldier for shirking service (Liv. xxiv. 18),
for cowardice, or disobedience in battle (Liv.
xxvii. 11). Further, misuse of the right of
voting, false witness and perjury (Cic. 0^'.
iii. 81, 111), criminal condemnation, theft and
some other private delicts (Cic. Cluent. 42,
120), and dishonourable conduct in trade (Suet.
Aug. 89), involved infamy. It was also the
result of certain professions, such as that of a
mime, and of dishonour in private life, arising
from non-performance of the sacra gentilicia,
misuse of the powers of divorce, and even from
bad husbandry, neglect of property, and pro-
digal living (Plut. Tib. Gracch. 14).
(2) Praetorian infamia always follows as the
result of a personal act, and depends either
on a judicial sentence or on an extra-judicial
matter of fact. From the praetorian point of
view, viz. the maintenance of the dignity of the
court, we find that infamia followed condemna-
tion in a iudicium publicum, and was attached
to perjury of certain kinds; to certain private
delicts, theft, robbery, injury, and deceit (dolus
mnlus) (Cic. Cluoit. 42, 111), to breaches of
certain obligatory relations, to insolvency, and
to certain acts concerning the relation of the
sexes.
The effect of infamia was always a disqualifi-
cation for certain public rights. The senator
was removed fnim the album, the knight was
forced to give up his position in the eques-
trian centuries (Liv. xxix. 37, 9), and the com-
moner was removed from the tribe (tribu
vioveri) : i.e. either removed from a higher
to a lower tribe (Liv. xlv. 15 ; Cic. Cluent
43, 122), or relegated from all the thirty-five
tribes to the position of an aerarius (Liv. xlii.
10) : i.e. civitas sine suffragio. The extreme
penalty, however, might also be inflicted upon
senators or equites (Liv. xliv. 16, 8). In private
law infamia disqualified from acting as cognitor
or procurator, etc.
Inge'nuus in its original sense was probably
synonymous with gentilis, implying pure de-
scent as an essential condition for sharing in
726
INIURIA
aacra, and applying to patricians only. Later,
however, with the growth of plebeian privileges,
ingenuus came to be used as denoting a distinc-
tion within the plebeian community. Free men
(liberi) are divided into ingenui and libertini
(Liv. vi. 00). The term lihertiiii, we are told,
was origirally used to cover, not merely manu-
mitted slaves, but their descendants in the
first degree (Suet. Claud. 24). It was employed,
therefore, to signify one who was bom of free,
but not of freeborn parents. Ingenuifas was
the opposite status to libertinitas, and inge-
nuus denoted one who was sprung from freeborn
parents. The sons of libertini were subsequently
considered as ingenui. Ingenuus, then, first
denoted one who had free ancestors in the
second degree, and freeborn ancestors in the
first degree ; later it denoted one who was him-
self freeborn.
At the time of Justinian all that was neces-
sary to constitute ingenuitas in the child was
that it should be the son of a free mother, the
status of the father not being taken into con-
sideration, and the condition of marriage not
being required. A libertinus could not by
adoption become ingenuus. But under the
Empire ingenuitas or the iura ingenuitatis
might be acquired by the favour of the princeps,
indirectly by the gift of the gold ring (ius
aureomm anulorum), or directly by the nata-
libus restitutio. The gold ring had long been
the mark of equestrian rank, and the conferring
of the gold ring on a libertinus carried with it,
in the early principate, not merely ingenuitas,
but admission to the equestrian order.
Iniu'ria. Iniuria, in the general sense,
signifies a violation of law, what is not ius.
The person is called iniurius, later iniustus.
[Damnum, &c.]
Iniuria, in a special case, is the term which
denotes a particular kind of wrong or delict,
committed against a man's person, as distinct
from his projierty : i.e. any unlawful act by which
an insult {contumelia, v0pis) is conveyed by one
person to another. It follows from the nature
of this delict that it cannot arise without an
intention to act unlawfully (dolus). Thus it
might be done by assaulting a man, as by strik-
ing or beating him ; by other conduct likely to
bring a man into contempt or derision, as by
insulting gestures, vociferous abuse (convi-
ciu}7i\, scurrilous songs and verses, libellous
writings (Plant. Cure. iv. 2, 17 ; Cic. Quint.
Fr. ii. 3, 2) ; by demanding a debt in a way
likely to injure a man's character ; by summon-
ing a debtor to court in an illegal manner ;
by illegally distraining on a man's goods, &c.
A man miglit sustain iniuria either in his own
person, or in the person of members of his family
who were in his power. Iniuria to a wife was
also iniuria to her husband. No iniuria could
be done to a slave, but certain acts done to a
slave were an iniuria to his master.
The Twelve Tables had various provisions on
the subject of iniuria. The i)enalty of iniuria
for a limb broken was retaliation [Talio] ; for a
bone broken or bruised, three hundred asses if
the person injured was a freeman, one hundred
and fifty if a slave.
The ordinary penalty for iniuria in the Twelve
Tables was twenty-five asses. Libellous songs
or verses (occeittus : cf. Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 145) at
public festivities were followed by an additional
punishment affecting the caput of the offender,
which involved scourging as well as loss of liberty
(cf. Hor. Ep. I. c. 154), or perhaps even death (Cic.
Mep. iv. 10). Later, an action was established
INSTITUTIONES
by the praetor (actio iniuriarujn aestiniatoria)
in which the injured party was allowed to claim
such damages as he thought he was entitled to,
and the iudex might give the full amount or
less. This became the ordinary remedy on ac-
count of iniuria.
In determining the damages in the actio
aestiniatoria the praetor had to distinguish be-
tween an outrage {atrox iniuria) and an offence
of a less serious kind. An iniuria had the cha-
racter of atrox, either from the act itself, or the
place where it was done, or from the condition
of the person outraged. Inf amia was a sequence
of condemnation in an actio iniuriarum [In-
famia].
The actio iniuriarum being regarded as a
personal and vindictive action (vindictam
spirans) could not be maintained by the heir of
the person outraged. It became the rule that
every kind of iniuria might be made the subject
of either criminal (extra ordinem : see Crimen)
or civil proceedings. Various imperial consti-
tutions affixed the punishment of death to
libellous writings [Libelli].
Institntio'nes. A student beginning the
study of law was instituted in the subject (in-
stitui); i.e. he went through an elementary
course of legal instruction, beginning with the
Twelve Tables, under the direction of a com-
petent lawyer. Such introductory study led to
the publication of law books of an educational
kind, which were called lustitutiones.
The most important treatise of this kind that
we know of is the Institutes of Gaius, written
about 150 A.D., in four books or commentaries.
The palimpsest MS. of Gaius was discovered in
the library of the Chapter of Verona, by Nie-
buhr, in iyi6. The work has some appearance
of being made up of lectures which Gaius had
previously delivered. It was the favourite text-
book in the law schools till it was superseded
by the Institutes of Justinian.
The subject-matter of the treatise of Gaius is
distributed under the three heads of (1) persons,
(2) things, (3) actions : a division of law probably
known already in the Roman schools. The law
of persons consists of the divisions of men into
free and slaves, free-bom and freedmen, and
then notices the different kinds of power which
one person may exercise over another, potestatr,
tutela, Arc. The second part, things, treats of
property in the widest meaning of the term,
comprehending the law of ownership and the
law of obligation, which two divisions occupy
the second and third books. The fourth book
treats of actions or procedure.
It was the object of Justinian to comprise in
his Code and Digest or Pandects a complete
body of law. But these works were not adapted
to elementary instruction, and the Commen-
taries of Gaius, the favourite text-book of the
schools, were antiquated. It was therefore ne-
cessary to prepare an elementary treatise, for
which purpose Justinian appointed a commis-
sion consisting of Tribonian, Theophilus, and
Dorotheus. rsee Pandectae.]
The commission was instructed to compose
an institutional work which should contain the
elements of the law (legum cuimbula), and
should not be encumbered with useless matter.
Accordingly tliey produced a treatise, under the
title of lustitutiones or Elementa (de iuHs
docendi ratione), which was chiefly compiled
from the Institutes of Gaius and his res cotti-
dianae ; and from other works, such as those of
Ulpian and Florentinus.
The arrangement is generally the same as
INTERCESSIO
that of the work of Gaius. They treat almost
exclusively of Privatum lus.
The Institutiones were published and given
statutable authority on tlie 21st November,
633 A.D., shortly before the publication of the
Digest.
Interce'ssio. Leg.vl. Intercessio is when a
person takes upon himself the debt of another.
To become intercessor a person must incur
liability by entering into a contract or other
transaction with some one else's creditor. He
who intercedes may either (1) take upon himself
the debt of another and become debtor in place
of that other (privative intercession), or (2) be-
come debtor while tlie person for whom he inter-
cedes is also Aehiov (cionulative intercession),
as in the case of becoming surety for another.
Women were incapacitated from doing certain
acts on account of the weakness of the sex. In
the early part of the reign of Augustus, and in
that of Claudius, it was declared by the Edict
that women should not intercedere for their
husbands. Subsequently, in the reign of Clau-
dius, 40 x.n., the Senatusconsultum Velleianum
absolutely prohibited women becoming sureties
or borrowing money for others.
Interdi'ctum. In certain controversies, chieHy
when possession or quasi-possession [Servitus]
I is in dispute, the praetor or proconsul intervenes
in a paramount or sovereign capacity [princi-
jpaliter), and commands some performance or
forbearance ; which commands, formulated in
solemn terms, are called ' interdicts ' or ' decrees '
— ' decrees,' when he commands that something
be performed ; ' interdicts,' when he forbids some
act. Interdicts, then, are orders either of restitu-
tion (restitutoria, obliging a person to make over
property to another), or of production [exhibi-
toria), or of abstention {prohibitoria). In the
case of an actio, the praetor pronounces no
decree, but simply issues a formula appointing
a index. He neither orders nor forbids a thing
to be done, but he says simply, ' Indicium dabo '
(I will grant a trial). In the case of an inter-
•dict, the praetor makes an order that some-
thing be done or not done, and his words are
accordingly words of command : ' Restituas,
•exhibeas, vim fieri veto.'
It is probable that interdicts were first execu-
tive orders given by the magistrate, as guardian
of public order, in cases where there was no
statutory action [legis actio), and that they were
issued and enforced by the magistrate after
holding an informal inquiry to satisfy himself
that the law had been broken. In granting in-
terdict process the magistrate did not exercise
iurisdietio, but simply an act of imperium, and
he determined at first without the assistance of
a iudex whether his authority should be inter-
posed.
But in course of time the interdict lost its
■summary character, interdict cases being trans-
mitted to a iudex. Accordingly, the pi-aetor
made his command or prohibition conditional.
'Thus, if a party to whom an interdict was directed
refused to admit the claim of his opponent, the
subsequent jiroceedings resembled in their main
features those of an ordinary action.
The interdict laid down the conditions which
■were to determine whether the defendant was
liable or not. If he had violated its terms, he
was bound to make restitution to the com-
plainant; and if he did so, the dispute was of
course at an end, in which case the proceeding
"would be a summary one. But if the parties
disputed whether the terms of the interdict had
heen violated or not, it was necessary that
IUDEX, lUDICIUM
111
further application should be made to the prae-
tor within a year from the time when the inter-
dict had been granted. The praetor then
directed that an action should be tried, and for
this puq^ose framed a formula by which the
iudex, recuperatores, or arbiter named in it were
instructed as to the case they were to try. The
inquiry would be, whether anything had been
done contrary to the praetor's interdict, or
whether that had been done which he had
ordered to be done.
The chief division of interdicts was into resti-
tutoria, exhibitoria, prohibitoria. Among
them are interdictum de via pvblica, de fi li-
mine publico, do locis sacris, de Iwmine libera
(corresponding to our writ of habeas corpus), de
liberis exhibendis. But the greater number of
interdicts were given for the protection of pri-
vate property, and more especially for the pro-
tection of possession.
Interdicts relating to possession are divided
into those for the purpose of acquiring posses-
sion [adipiscendae piossessionis), retaining pos-
session (retinendae p.), or recovering possession
[recujjerandae p.).
The Interdictum Salvianum was granted to a
landlord, to enable him to take possession of the
stock of his tenant [colonns) who had hypothe-
cated it for his rent. The interdictum quorum
bonorum was tlie means by which a bonorum
possessor obtained the inheritance.
The interdicta retinendae p. were those by
which a person in possession was protected,
named Uti possidetis, and Utrubi, from the
initial words of the edicts. The Interdictum uti
possidetis applied to land or houses, and Utrubi
to moveables. The Uti possidetis protected the
person who at the time of obtaining the inter-
dict was in actual possession, provided he had
not obtained possession from the other party
{adversarius) either by violence (t)»), or by fraud
[clam), or as his tenant at will {precario), which
were the tliree vitia posscssionis.
An Interdictum recuperandae posscssionis
might be claimed by him who had been forcibly
ejected {vi delectus) from his possession of an
immoveable thing, and its effect was to compel
the wrongdoer to restore the possession or to
make good all damage. The initial words of
the interdict were, ' Unde tu ilium vi deiecisti ; '
and the words of command were ' ei restituas'
(Cic. Caecin. 30, 88).
Intesta'bilis. In the Twelve Tables and in
subsequent law, a person was said to be itites-
tabilis, who for any reason was incapable of
being a witness to a solemn legal transaction
(Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 181). Such reasons might be
age, sex, bankruptcy, certain crimes, &c.
The woi'd had its meaning extended in the
time of the emperors, being used to express one
who could not summon witnesses to attest his
will : that is to say, one who was incapable of
making a will.
Iudex, ludi'cium. ARomanmagistratuswas
generally assisted in the exercise of his jurisdic-
tion by private persons, who were appointed to
act as judges {indices) in determining cases. In
a civQ action or private cause the whole pro-
ceedings were expressed bj' the two phrases ius
and iudicium, of which the former compre-
hended the preliminary proceedings before the
magistratus himself (iniurr); and the latter,
all that took place before the iudex at the
actual trial of the issue [in iudicio). The office
of iudex [iudicandi micnns) in private causes
was either performed by public bodies — that is,
the decemviral or centumviral colleges [Decern-
728
lUDEX, lUDICIUM
viri ; Centumviri] — or, as became the ordinary I
rule, by private persons selected by the magis-
tratus, with the co-operation of the j)arties, from
such classes of persons as were qualified to serve.
[Actio; lurisdictio.]
Index, arhitri, and recuperatores are the
different terms used for indices in civil actions.
Little is known of the special characteristics of
recuperatores. A recuperator never acted singly,
but was always associated with others; he
might be jieregrinus.
ludex, in the strict sense of the term, acted
singly [unus index) ; he must be cwi's ; indicia
legitima had to be tried by a iudex of this
kind (see lurisdictio).
Sometimes the iudex was called arbiter.
Arbiter (ar = a^and bitere = zre), as opposed to
iudex, is a judge (or judges) appointed to try a
case according to the principles of bona fides,
the case being of such a kind as is best left to
the free discretion of an impartial person,
whereas the province of a iudex proper was
defined by the magistratus. The distinction
between iudex and arbiter led to a division
of actions into indicia and arhitria, though
iudicium in a general sense includes arbi-
trium. In a iudicium the demand was of
a certain sum {pecuniae certae) or definite
object {certae rei) ; in an arbitrium the amount
or object was not determined {incerta). In
a iudicium the plaintiff obtained all that he
claimed or nothing ; in an arbitrium as much
might be awarded as the arbiter thought just.
From the arbitria the actions called bonae
fidei were derived, while the actiones stricti
iuris were indicia in the strict sense [Actio].
Arbitri acting under a private agreement
between the parties to a suit for the purpose of
settling it {arbitri ex coinpromisso) are to
be distinguished from arbitri appointed by a
magistratus (cf. AiatTfixaC).
Indices were also employed in criminal trials
(the quaestiones), when their function was to
some extent analogous to that of an English
jury. In the quaestio there was not the same
separation between the provinces of the magis-
tratus and of the indices as in an action ; the
magistratus or a index quaestionis presiding
over the consilium or body of indices, always
considerable in number, which was selected to
co-operate with him in deciding the case. (See
Iudicium publicum.) Wlien the quaestiones
lierpetnae were established, the indices for
trying them were selected with the assistance
of the accuser and accused from the body of
senators; and since many of those who were
tried belonged to the class of optimates, it
often happened that persons were acquitted
who would have baen convicted by impartial
indices. Accordingly a struggle arose between
the popular party and the optimates, whom
the popular party wished to exclude from the
office of iudex. The first -Lea; iudiciaria which
excluded the senators from the Album iudicum
selectorum was a Lex Sempronia of C. Gracchus,
123 B.C., in accordance with which the iudices
were taken only from the equites (Liv. Epit.
Ix. ; Tac. A^iti. xii. 60). This arrangement lasted
above forty years, and gave some satisfaction
to the popular party ; but it did not work well
in all respects, because of the rapacity of the
publicani, who belonged to the equestrian order
(Cic. Verr. iii. 41, 94). Various modification of
it were made by subsequent enactments.
A Lex Plautia, 89 B.C., enacted that the
iudices should be chosen from the tribes, with-
out any distinction of class. The optimates
triumphed under L. Cornelius Sulla, who by a
Lex Cornelia, 80 B.C., enacted that the iudices
should be taken from the senate and the
equites. But a Lex Aurelia (70 B.C.) gave the
indicia to the three classes — of senators,
equites and Tribuni aerarii (Liv. Epit. xcvii. ;
Cic. Cluent. 47, loU). Thus tlie three decuriae
of iudices were formed; each of which had
its own balloting urn for designating iudices,
so that the votes of the three classes were
known.
A Lex iudiciaria of Julius Caesar (Suet. Inl.
41 ; Cic. Phil. i. 8, 19), took away the decuria
of the tribuni aerarii ; but after his death it
was restored by M. Antonius, attaching as a
sole qualification that a person should have
been a centurion or have served in the legions.
The law of Antonius, besides taking away the
pecuniary qualification opened the iudicia to
the soldiers (Cic. Phil. i. 8, 20; Suet. Inl. 41).
Augustus, who altered the whole constitution
of the body of iudices by his leges iudiciorum
publicorum et privatorum, added to the exist-
ing three decuriae iudicum a fourth decuria,
called that of the Ducenarii, who only decided
in smaller matters (Suet. Aug. 32). Caligula
(Suet. Calig. 16) added a fifth decuria. The
whole number of iudices was raised by Augus-
tus to near 4000 (Plin. xxxiii. § 30), chosen by
the praetors out of the persons who had the
property qualification ; and the duty of serving
as a iudex thus became one of the burdens
{munera pnblica) to which all citizens with
any property were liable.
It seems probable that the earlier leges iu-
diciariae were only intended to apply to
criminal trials, but ultimately the iudex in
civil actions was selected from the general
album, which in course of time was made for
all trials.
The quaestio borrowed from the civil action
the notion that the parties to a trial should
agree to select the judges who were to try the
issue between them, the parties each making a
list, and choosing from his opponent's list. The
general rule which came to be established was>
that the presiding praetor chose the iudices for
a quaestio by lot from his album, both the accu-
sator and the reus having certain rights of reject-
ing or challenging [reiicere) such iudices as they
did not like (Cic. Att. i. 16). The exercise
of the right of challenge might make a fresli
ballot for iudices {snbsortitio) necessary (Cic.
Verr. i. 61, 157). In some cases the prosecutor
designated four tribes, of which the defendant
couldreject one, the prosecutor then nominating
the judges (ntdz'ces editicii) from the remaining
three without any challenge being allowed to
the defendant.
Editicins index is properly a iudex whom
one of the parties has allowed the other to
select (Cic. Plane. 15-17, §§ 36-43).
There was an idea of agreement between the
plaintiff and defendant in the selection of a
iudex, though the actual appointment {iudicis
datio) was made by the magistratus. If the
parties could not agree, the plaintiff proposed
some one {iudicem ferre, Cic. Rose. Com. 14,
42 ; 15, 45) ; but the defendant could defeat
his appointment by a protest on oath (iniqunni
eiurare, Cic. de Or. ii. 70, 285, Verr. iii. 60,
137). Under the Empire the magistratus
selected the iudex in all cases, the parties
having simply a right of challenge on certain
grounds.
A iudex when appointed was bound to dis-
charge the functions of the office, it being a
lUDEX PEDANEUS
munus publicum, unless he had some valid
excuse [excusatio). On entering upon his duty
[officiuni) he had to take an oath that he
would discharge it faithfully. There were cer-
tain seasons of the year when legal business
was done at Rome {cum res ayuntiir), and
at these times the services of the iudices were
required. A iudex was liable to a line if he
was not in attendance when he was required.
The magistratus could fix the place and the
time at which the trial was to take place.
It was an injunction of thy law of the Twelve
Tables that the trial should terminate in a
day from sunrise to sunset; but adjournments
(cunphatio, conipercndinatio) were common.
The original theorj% however, was that on the day
of adjournment a new action commenced. Hence
the iexm.& prima, sccunda, and tertia actio.
In a civil action the case was submitted by
the magistrate in ix for) mil a to a single iudex
or to several iudices, who sat alone, though
assisted by exjierts.
In a criminal trial (quacstio) the consilium of
iudicfs appointed to decide (like our jury) was
presided over by a praetor, or his deputy a
iudex.
Under the Empire criminal procedure became
more inquisitional in character and less like
that employed in a civil action than it was under
the free Republic ; but the tendency in both
kinds of process was to take the administration
of justice out of the hands of private iudices and
to commit it to permanent officials. (See Iudex
pedaneus.j
For an account of Roman civil process see
Actio, and for criminal trials see Crimen,
ludicium publicum.
Iudex peda'neus. This term is used by the
Roman classical jurists to distinguish a iudex
privatus from a magistratus. We nuiy compare
the use of the worApedarii ovptda nci as applied
to senators or decuriones who had not attained
the office of magistratus. When the formulary
procedure came to an end, and with it the
institution of iudices privati, the praetor or
praeses, who was sometimes designated as
iudex ordinai'ius or iudex simply, generally
decided civil actions himself ; but in order to
prevent him being overburdened with judicial
work, a body of paid official judges was ap-
pointed to assist him in trying such actions,
who were called iudices pedanei. Diocletian
expressly allowed magisterial jurisdiction to be
delegated to these iudices, but at the same time
he enjoined praesides generally to decide cases
themselves, and only to make use of iudices
pedanei when it was absolutely necessary.
ludi'cium po'puli. Mention is often made of
the Indicia Populi in the Latin writers. These
were trials by the comitia on appeal {pruvo-
catio) from the decision of a magistratus.
These appeals at first belonged to the comitia
centuriata, and were only allowed in capital
cases. Subsequently tlie comitia tribuia ac-
quired an analogous jurisdiction in cases within
the competence of plebeian magistrates. A
indicium of this kind, though a kind of appeal,
had to be commenced by the magistratus de-
claring in a contio that ho would on a certain
day accuse a certain person, whom lie named,
of some offence, which he also specified. This
was expressed by the phrase diem dicrrc (Liv.
iii. 11). The accused was required to give
security for his appearance on the day of
trial ; the security was called vadcs in a causa
capitalis, and j't'aedes when the penalty for the
alleged oSence was j)ecuniary. If such security
JUDICIUM PUBLICUM
729
was not given, the accused was kept in confine-
ment (Liv. iii. 18). If nothing prevented the
inquiry from taking place at the time fixed for
it, the tria proceeded, and the accuser had to
prove his case by evidence. The investigation
of the facts at the trial was called anquisitio
(Liv. xxvi. 3). When the investigation was
concluded, the magistratus iiromulgated a
rogatio, which comprehended the charge and
the punishment or line. The rogatio was made
public during three nundinae, like any other
lex ; and proposed at the comitia for adoption
or rejection. The accused sometimes withdrew
into exile before the votes were taken ; or ho
might make his defence, of which we have an
instance in the oration of Cicero for Rabirius.
A lex of P. Valerius Publicola, B.C. 508 (Liv.
ii. 8; Cic. Hep. ii. 31), gave such appeal to the
populusfrom the nn\gistratus. As tlie standing
quaestiones were established, indicia populi
became rare ; they ceased altogether with the
free Republic. Fludicium publicum.]
ludi'cium pu'blicum. The original distinc-
tion between civil and criminal jurisdiction at
Rome was always kept up by differences of
procedure. Civil jurisdiction was regularly
divided into i^roceedingstw iurc and inindicio
that is, into proceedings, in the first instance,
before the ordinary civil magistrate, the
praetor ; in the second, before' a iudex ap-
pointed by the praetor. Criminal procedure,
on the other hand, was an inquiry (quaestio)
undertaken by the magistrate, alone or more
often under guidance of a consilium ; and the
decision of the magistrate, when questioned
by the employment of the right of provocatio,
led to a trial before the people, a iudicium
populi. During the last century and a half of
the Republic a kind of procedure grew up
which may be described as an application
of civil procedure to criminal cases. The pre-
siding magistrate is usually the civil magis-
trate, the praetor, and the case is heard before
a bench of iudices as in civil jurisdiction. But
it differs from civil procedure in that the old
distinction between ius and iudicium dis-
appears, and the magistrate sits with the
iudices, guides their decisions, and pronounces
the verdict. Hence the custom of speaking
of the iudices as the consHitim of the magis-
trate (Cic. Cluent. 30, 83), the number of the
iudices that formed this consilium being
considerably larger than the number which
decided an ordinary civil suit. The magistrate,
who is sometimes said in civil terminology
iudicium exercere, is also called, in the termin-
ology of the criminal law, a quaesitor (Cic.
Cluent. 20, 55), while the indicia themselves
are usually spoken of as quaestiones ; and the
criminal character of these courts is shown
further by the facts that anyone might be the
accuser, and that condemnation was followed
by strictly isenal consequences. But, formally,
the civil character of the court predomi)uitea;
and in every case what the accuser demands is
compensation for a delict and in the inteiest of
the injured party. Such trials were followed
by an assessment of danniges {litis acsdmatio,
Cic. Mur. 20, i'l), but also involved penalties
in the interest of the state, as well as compensa-
tion to the injured party, and so belong, not to
private, but to iiul)lic law.
The indicia i)ublica were usually presided
over by the praetor, but tlic growtli of business
rendered it necessary that other judges sliould
preside, and the court was sonu'times directed
, by a foreman chosen from the jury. The
730 lUDICIUM PUBLICUM
qiia^sitor or quaesitor iudicii is often distinct |
from the praetor who grants the trial ; and the I
index quaestionis, who presided in the courts |
de veneficis et sicariis, was a regular criminal
judge of somewhat lower rank than the prae-
tor (Cic. Clucnt. 54, 148). The iudices who
formed the consilia of the several presidents of
these courts were selected from the album
iudicum, the register which furnished the
juries both for criminal and civil cases [ludex],
and the law by which each quaestio was estab-
lished directed the mode in which the iudices
should be chosen for that particular quaestio.
The Lex Pompeia de vi and de ambitu (52 B.C.)
determined that eighty iudices were to be
selected by lot, out of whom the accuser and
the accused miglit reject thirty. The number
of iudices comjiosing a consilium varied, but
was always considerable : 56, 70, &c. The pre-
siding magistrate assisted in the investigation,
directed the finding of the jury, and pronounced
the sentence which was based on the verdict.
The iudices voted by ballot, and a majority
determined the acquittal or condemnation of
the accused. If the votes were equal, there
was an acquittal (Plut. Marius, 5). Each
iudex was provided with three tablets (iaitttee),
on one of which was marked A., Absolvo; on a
second C, Condemno ; and on a third N. L.,
Non liquet. The iudices voted by placing one
of these tablets in the urn (urna, Juv. Sat.
v. 4), which was then examined for the purpose
of ascertaining the votes. It was the duty of
the magistratus to pronounce the sentence of
the iudices ; in the case of condemnation, to
adjudge the legal penalty; of acquittal, to
declare him acquitted ; and of doubt, to declare
that the matter must be further investigated
{a^nplius cof/noscendum). The sentence was
fixed by law ; and there was no appeal from
the decision of tlie iudices (Intercessio).
The substitution of the iudicia publica for
the iudicia populi was effected by a gradual
extension of the former process. New standing
courts [quaentioncs perpetuae), modelled on
the new system, were from time to time con-
stituted by special enactment. To the last
these iudicia bore on them the marks of their
gradual growth, and there was little attempt at
arrangement or logical classification of crimes :
so that an accuser might choose whether he
should prosecute a man under repetiindae or
pecidafus,m.\Aev vis or tnaiestas, or wliether he
should bring the crime of incendium under the
law de sicariis or the law de vi.
The earliest of these iudicia publica or
quaestiones was that constituted by the Lex
Calpurnia repetundarum in 149 b.c, and in
\^1 B.C. a. quaestio de sicariis was established
{Cic. Fin. ii. 10, 54). A quaestio de ambitu
existed before Sulla, who established several
additional (/Mrtesh'owps, and may be said to have
given the final form to criminal procedure at
Rome. (See Leges Corneliae repetundarum,
de maiestate, de sicariis, de falsis. Other
quaestiones were de vi, de parricidiis,
de plagiariis. Further changes were intro-
duced by Caesar. Besides his alteration in the
constitution of the album iudicutn [Iudex], he
reconstituted several courts by new laws.
Amongst quaestiones established by him or by
Augustus are those created under the Leges
luliae de vi publica, de vi privata, peculatus,
ambitus, de adulteriis, and de annona.
Penal consetiuences were from the first
attached to condemnation in a indicium publi-
cum, ranging from a fine to exile. Caesar added
lURISCONSULTI
to exile confiscation of half the property of the
condemned (Suet. lul. 42), and in the time of
the Empire death was not an unfrequent con-
sequence of condemnation in these courts,
confiscation being usually added. The jurists
divide iudicia publica into capitalia and 7ion
capitalia. Capitalia are those the penalties
of which were death or aquae et ignis inter-
dictio [Exilium]. Non cuintalia were the
subject of fine or imprisonment. Condemna-
tion in a indicium publicum also involved
disqualification of various degrees: such as
exclusion from office or the senate, and finally
infamia.
lurisconsu'lti or lureconsu'lti. For some
considerable time after the enactment of the
Twelve Tables, the function of interpreting the
law, both sacred {fas) and profane iius), appears
to have been a monopoly of the college of pon-
tifices. [Pontifex.] The pontifices alone had
an exact knowledge of the legal calendar, and
were familiar with the intricate forms of action
which prevailed in the courts. [lus Flavianum;
Iu8 Aelianum.] The opening of the office of
pontifex to plebeians, the growth of the prae-
tor's jurisdiction, and the gradual separation of
the lus Civile from the Ins Pontificium, tended
to make the law a more open profession.
Tiberius Coruncanius, a plebeian, consul 281
B.C., the first plebeian pontifex maximus, is
mentioned as the first who publicly professed
(publice professus est) to expound the law (Liv.
XXX. 1). A distinct profession of lawyers existed
before the time of Cicero, and the persons be-
longing to it were called by the various names
of iurisperiti, iurisconsulti, or consulti simply.
They were also designated as iurisprudentes,
prudentes, and iuris anctores (Plut. Tib.
Gracch. t), vo/xoSeiKT-ris, Sulla, 86, vofxiKds).
Cicero's definition of a iurisconsultus (de Or. i.
48) is a person who has such a knowledge of the
laws (leges) and customs (consuetudo) which
prevail in a state as to be able (peritus) to give
answers to questions submitted to him {respon-
dendum}, act (agendum), [draw (scribendi),
Mur. 19], and secure a jjerson in his dealings
(cavendum). At a later period some of these
functions were performed by persons who were
paid a fee. The iurisconsulti gave their advice
gratuitously. [Lex Cincia.] They did not, as
a rule, argue cases in court, this task being left
to the orators or advocates. [Orator ; Advo-
catus.] Before the time of Cicero the study of
the law had become a distinct branch from the
study of oratory, and a man might rise to emi-
nence in tlie state solely by his reputation as a
lawyer.
Iurisconsulti gave their advice or answers
either in public places or in their own houses
(Cic.(fe Or. iii. 33, Mur. 22: cf. Hor. Sat.i. 10).
They gave advice not only on matters of law but
on any other business that might be referred to
them. The Iurisconsulti, though not professors
of law in the modern sense, were attended by
students (auditores). Towards the end of the
Republic and under the Empire the systematic
teaching of law gradually became a distinct
professional function.
Tliere were many distinguished iurisconsulti
in the last two centuries of the republican period,
among whom are M. Manilius, consul 149 B.C.
(cf. Cic. de Or. i. 48, iii. 33, Brut. 21, 22, &c.) \
P. Mucins Scaevola, pontifex maximus 131 B.C. ;
Q. Mucius Scaevola, the augur, and Q. Mucins
Scaevola, the son of Publius, consul 95 B.C. and
afterwards pontifex maximus : he was one of
the masters of Cicero (Cic. de Or. i. 39, Brut.
lURISCONSULTI
89). This Scaevola, the pontifex, was the first
who gave the lus Civile a systematic form, by
a treatise in eighteen books.
Servius Sulpicius Rufus (Cic. Brut. 42), the
friend and contemporary of Cicero, consul 51 B.C.,
was as great an orator as the pontifex Scaevola,
and even more distinguished as a scientific
jurist. We may perhaps view him as the founder
of that methodical treatment of the matter of
law which characterised the subsequent Roman
jurists. (Cic. Brut. 41.)
The jurists of the imperial times are distin-
guished from those of the republican period by
two circumstances — the ins respondendi and
the rise of two schools of law. The ius respon-
dendi or right of giving responsa, under the
emperor's sanction and authoritatively, appears
to have been granted by Augustus and Tiberius
and their successors to eminent jurists selected
by them. The responsa, or 'judgments,' of
those who had the lu^ respondendi were given
■sealed {sir/nata). The responsum of a privileged
iurisconsultus in a particular case would be an
authority for the decision of a index, and so
also the writings of those jiu'ists who by the ius
■respondendi were given the condition of iuris
auctores. These are termed responsa pruden-
tiuni.
Under the early Empire there are two schools
(scholae) of jurists, the origin of which is attri-
buted to the opposition between Antistius Labeo
and Ateius C'apito, two eminent jurists who
lived in the time of Augustus. (See Class.
Diet.)
The schools, however, did not take their names
from Labeo and Capito. The followers of Labeo
were named Proculiani from Proculus. The
followers of Capito derived their name of Sabi-
niani from Masurius Sabinus, who lived under
Tiberius: they were sometimes also called
Cas.s^iani, from C. Cassius Longinus.
Jurisprudence made considerable progress
under the early emperors, since the law was the
most independent profession ; especially in deve-
loping the principles of Ius Gentium as con-
tained in the praetor's edict, and in giving the
law a more systematic character.
The literary age of Roman jurisprudence, that
of the classical jurists, is generally understood
to begin under Hadrian and to end with Alex-
ander Severus. The great Julian (Sabinus
Julianus), the compiler of the Edict, may be
regarded as the earliest classical jurist ; subse-
quent jurists of the first rank were Marcellus,
Papinian (the most distinguished of all Roman
lawyers), Ulpian, Paulus, and Modestinus. (See
Class. Diet.)
Towards the end of the classical period juris-
prudence showed signs of decay : compilations
were taking the place of original work ; the in-
fluence of the jurists was chietly exercised in
the council of the emperor ; the rescripta were
supplanting the responsa as a source of law.
The Digest of Justinian is mainly composed of
the writings of the classical jurists [Fandectae].
The later jurists commented on the writings of
the earlier jurists. They also wrote elementary
irea,i\^es [clementa, r(tminentarii), r\iq\\ as the
Institutes of Gains rinstitutiones], the earliest
work of the kind; Ixxiks called regulao and
definitiones, probably collections of maxims
and legal principles ; collections of cases and
answers, under the various names of respo/isa,
epistolae, sententiae, and opiniones ; systematic
treatises and various works, such as dispufa-
tiones, quaestiones, notae, cnchiridta,res cotti-
dianae, &c.
lURISDICTIO 731
With the exception of the fragments preserved
in the Digest, tiiis great mass of literature is
nearly lost [Fandectae]. The most important
survivals are the Liber singularis Begularuni
and the Fragnienta of Ulpian, the Institutes oi
Gains, and the Sententiae of Paulus.
The method of teaching law at Rome in the
republican pei'iod was of a practical nature, the
iurisconsulti allowing young men to be present
as auditores when they delivered their legal
opinions, and to see how they conducted their
business (Cic. Brut. 89). Previously, however,
young men were taught (instittii) the elements
of law. Accordingly, institui and audire ex-
pressed the two parts of a legal educatioH. But,
besides this practical training, a more systema-
tic legal education was established under the
Empire.
Jurists taught law at fixed places — stationes
ius publice docentium — near the law courts.
The Proculian and Sabinian schools may have
been institutions of this kind. A class of
teachers of law — called professores, i^riyriTai,
antecessores — thus came into existence, who
were entitled to a honorarium for their ser-
vices.
The student went through a regular curricu-
1 lum of studj'. Law schools were gradually
j established in the principal cities of the empire,
1 the principal schools in the time of Justinian
i being those at Constantinople, Rome, Bcrj'tus,
I Alexandria, and Caesarea.
I lurisdi'ctio. The power which belonged to a
j Roman king and magistratus of administering
justice in suits between x^rivate persons {inter
privatos) : that is, in civil as opposed to
criminal causes. This right was part of the
imperium or supreme executive power of a
Roman magistratus ; accordingly iurisdictio
{ius dicere) belonged to the ofHcium of the
higher magistrates only, who were invested with
Imperium. An exception, however, was made
in the case of the curule aediles, who were
given iurisdictio in matters relating to the
market [Aediles]. Moreover municipal magis-
trates had iurisdictio without imperium. Iuris-
dictio is defined (from the Irgis actio procedure
of early times) as consisting in (1) ius dicere, i.e..
defining the issue between the parties, and
declaring it in formal words, which was iuris-
dictio in its strict sense ; (2) iudicium dare (or
addicere) the appointing of a iudex; (8) rem
addiccre, to give a decree or judgment.
These three words do, dice, addico [Addictio],
are the tria verba sollemnia which could not be
uttered on dies nefasti [Dies]. (Cf. Ov. Fast.
i. 47.) The place of jurisdiction at Rome was
the formn.
The tenn t«r/s(firi/o is included in iviperiutii
where it existed. But an opposition between
the two might also exist, as is illustrated by the
division of actions into indicia legiinna and
indicia '/"f'Fa'lcVUf.l?" contincntur. Indicia
legitima,i ^ satisfacto'rv remedy irisdictio, were
actions ^t,^tor gave more than threeJyJ.thin the
first miperty in legacies, these must abate 'pW-
""'^^)-iuitely, the heir or heirs being in all cases
stone w,(j ^^Q ^ clear fourth of the inheritance.
Ihis Ogg,^j.y ^y,jj( y^^{^] if i^.ft, t^,, ,^ person who
periurnp). j),g com mere ium (in particular jjrre-
acts of|^ fgj. ^vithout the commercium he had no
^ .^ ^Mientifactio. Latini luniani, though pos-
* F'^1 1 of commercium, were expressly disabled
princi][jg j^g^ Inula Xorbana from taking any
uictio gj. jj„(i(,j. ^ y;{\\ eitlior as heirs or legatees
P^^^nitasi.
A legacy of a res extra commercium ^e.g
732
lURISDICTlO
the terms impcriuni mixtiim and imijeriam
merum. This tenn iurisdictio is, however,
very commonly used in a wide sense, so as to
signify the power of the magistratus to grant
civil remedies of any kind. It did not apply to
the coguitio extraordinaria [Actio] under the
Empire, whereby the magistratus decided cer-
tain cases himself by a decretmu.
Iurisdictio sometimes signifies the right of
the praetor to declare law, and so to establish
rights by his edict {ius edicendi). Praetoria
iurisdictio, i.e. edictal law, is found in opposi-
tion to ius legitiinum.
Ius (O. L. ious, VIU-, 'join,' and connected
with iuhere, O. L. ioiibere) has the following
legal, senses : (1) law, or a system of law ; (2) the
place of declaring the law ; (3i power or autho-
rity ; (4) right to do a thing ; (.5) what is right or
lawinl = iustum; (6) in the jslural, rules of law,
legal decisions, and so legal authority.
Ius, in its general signification, includes all
law, whether made by statute or otherwise ; but
in a narrower sense it is opposed to lex, a special
written enactment of the people. Thus, though
lex, in its strict sense of a written enactment, is
opposed to ius, ius, or rather iura, may be
used to express legal pro\'isions or rules of law
contained in a lex or a part of a lex. Iura, in
the sense of rules of law, is of frequent
occurrence : describere, dicere, dare, reddere,
iura, &c. Ius is specially used to signify
law as contained in the writings of the Jurists.
{For Ius as opposed to iudicium see ladiciom;
for ius dicere, Iurisdictio.)
Ius was not only the general law of the
state, but also the law which a superior was
entitled to administer to his subordinates. So
persons are divided into those who are sui iuris,
and those who are alieni iuris — that is, subject to
the law or rule of another. Further ius
signifies a 'right,' e.g. ius utendi, agendi,
cundi ; et iura ' rights,' us iura parentis.
Ius, in its general sense of human law, is
opposed to fas, what is declared by divine
authority. The knowledge and determination
of what was fas or nefas belonged to the ponti-
fices, except such matters as were regulated by
the Fetiales. But the distinction between
fas and nefas, on the one side, and between
iustum and iniustum on the other, was not
clearly marked till the office of praetor was
instituted; and the pontifices were the chief
interpreters of ius as well as of fas. In later
times also the two departments overlapped.
[Adoptio.] (Liv. ii. 14, vi. 1, xxxviii. 48;
Sail. lug. 22; cf. Tac. Ann. i. 42; Cic. Legg.
ii. 14.)
The conduct of a Roman was regulated
by boni mores as well as by ius and fas.
Obsequium and reverentia on the part of the
dependent members of a family to their head,
dementia on the part of sunpr'ors, pudicitia.
and bona fides
.ninal
'ties attri-
buted to t^- ..eges Corneliae repet^it
^K.Ljcate, de sicariis, de falsis. .s origin-
qilaestiones were de vi, de pan * consti-
de plagiariis. Further changes were of time
duced by Caesar. Besides his alteration ^till re-
constitution of the album iudicum [ludt • Lex
reconstituted several courts by new letimes
Amongst quaestiones established by him 'arts of
Augustus are those created imder the : origin
luliae do vi publica, de vi privata, pecu civile,
ambitus, de adulteriis, and do annona. > early
Penal consequences were from the such
attached to condenniation in a iudicium p rship
cum, ranging from a fine to exile. Caesar adi
IUS
The Ius Civile or civil law of Rome was
divided into publicum and privatmn by the
Roman jurists. Publicum ius is that which
relates to the status rei Romanae, or the
Romans as a state ; privatum ius is that which
relates ' ad singulorum utilitatem ' : that is, to
the interests of private individuals. Publicum
ius comprehends the law of religion and
constitutional law, and in fact all the rest of
the ius civile which is not ius privatiim ; ius
privatum comprehends the law of status and
family law, the law of property and the law of
civil procedure.
Besides the Ius Civile, the Romans also
recognised Ius Gentium. The ius gentium
appears to have been a body of rules which
the praetor recognised as governing the rela-
tions of aliens at Rome with one another and
wth Roman citizens, the ius civile being ap-
plicable to cives only. It is probable that
till some time after the enactment of the
Twelve Tables, aliens were incapable of enter-
ing into any transaction wliich could be legally
enforced, but the growth of commerce and the
settlement of foreigners at Rome during the
fifth and sixth centuries occasioned the estab-
lishment of a special law, distinguished from
the ius civiuin by its informal and equitable
character, treating all freemen as on an equality
without consideration of political status. This
new law, the ius gentium, was perhaps at first
confined to transactions in which aliens were
interested, but it soon came to be applied also
to the relations of cives ; and accordingly (from
this point of view) Roman private law was
composed of two parts, the ius civile or law of
cives exclusively, and the ius gentium, the
general law of free persons. The conception of
a natural law — i.e. one ' which natural reason
(naturalis ratio) has established among all
mankind,' and which ' is equally observed by all
people' (Gaius, i. 1| — grew out of the existing
ius gentium of Italy, interpreted by philosophi-
cal theories.
Other Roman jurists distinguished ius natu-
rals, the law taught by nature, and so common
to men at all times and in all places, from
the ius gentium or gentile law of positive
enactment : e.g. slavery was a recognised and
universal institution, but not consonant with
natural justice. The conception of the ius
naturale was a philosophical one derived from
Greece. The preference which the jurists
showed to the ius gentium over the ius civile
was partly due to the fact that they conceived
it to be more in harmony with the law taught
to man by an indwelling natural reason {natu-
ralis ratio).
The Romans sometimes use the expression
Ius Gentium in a sense which corresponds to
some extent to the modern phrase Law of
Nations, or, as it is more frequently called.
International Law.
Ius Civile is opposed to the ius praetorium
or honorarium TEdictum].
The tei-ms ius scriptum and non scriptnm
comprehended the whole of the private law of
Rome. Ius scriptum signified all law em-
bodied in writing, whatever its source might be,
and so in the later history of Roman law com-
prehended all except customary law (quod us»is
comprobavit). i.e. (Gaius, i. 2) 'leges, plebiscita,
senatusconsulta, constitutiones principum, the
edicta of those who have the ius edicendi, and
the responsa prudentiuni.'
The subject-matter of private law is distri-
buted in the Institutes under the heads of the
lUS AEDILICIUM
Law of Persons (lus Personarum) ; of Things
(ius quod ad res pertinetj ; and the Law of
Actions (quod ad actiones pertinet). [Institu-
tiones.]
Ius aedili'cium. [Aediles ; Edictum.]
Ius Aelia'num was a compilation published
by Sextus Aelius Paetus, called Catus, 103 B.C.
(Liv. xxxi. 50, xxxii. 7, xxxv. 9 ; Cic. Brut. 20, 7H,
Bpjj. i. 18, 30, &c.). This work, or possibly
another by Sextus Aelius, was called Tripcrtita.
It contained the law of the Twelve Tables, the
interpretation of the law [interprctatio), and
the Icgin arfioncs.
Ius civi'le. I'Iu^.t
Ius civi'le Flavia'num. Appius Claudius
Caecus, censor 31'2 B.C.. is said to have drawn
up a book of actiones or forms of procedure,
with a calendar of days on which actions might
or might not be tried : this was made public by
his clerk, Cn. Flavius, and was known as the
Ius Flaviannni (Cic. dr Or. i. 41, 18(1, Mnr.
xi. 25). The effect of this publication was to
extend the knowledge and the practice of the
law to the plebeians, and to separate to some
extent the ins civile from the ius pontificium
(Liv. ix. 45; Plin. xxxiii. § 17).
Ius civi'le Papiria'num is said to have been
a compilation of the Leges regiae, or laws
passed in the kingly period of Rome, and to
have dei'ived its name from Papirius, its com-
piler. It seems to have consisted of rules of
law prescribed by the jiontifiees, concerning /as
and Hpfas. (See Liv. i. 32.) [lus.]
Ius comme'rcii. conu'bii, hono'rum, La'tii,
suifra'gii. [Civitas.j
Ius edice'ndi, honora'rium. [Edictum.]
Ius fetia'le. [Fetiales.j
Ius Flavia'num, Papiria'num. [Ius civile
Flav., Pap.l
Ius gentili'cium, [Gens.]
Ius ge'ntium. natura'le, priva'tum, pu'bli-
cum. [Ius.]
Ius ima'ginum. [Imago; Nobiles.]
Ius Italicum. [Colonia.]
Ius libero rum. [Lex lulia et Papia Pop
paea.]
Ius Pontifi'cium. I'Augur ; Pontifex.]
Ius Quiri'tium. [Civitas ; Quirites.]
Ius relatio'nis. [Senatus.]
Ius responde'ndi. [lurisconsulti.]
Ius, voca'tio in. [Actio.]
lusiura'ndum, Oatlis ofimrties to an action.
The iusiur(Ui(him in inrc is the oath which
one party proffered idctulit) to his adversary
when they were before the magistratus that
he should take about the matter in dispute, the
effect of taking or refusing it being equivalent
to that of judgment. If the plaintiff thus chal-
lenged the defendant and the latter refused,
such refusal was equivalent to confession, and
so he was in the position of a judgment debtor.
A defendant might, however, throw back the
oath on the plaintiff (iusiurandum rrferre),
in which case, if the plaintiff accepted the oath,
the action was concluded in his favour ; and
on the other hand, if he refused it, his claim
was extinguished.
The iusiurandum in iudicio, which is an oath
proffered by one party to the other at the trial
of the action, had not the effect of the iusiuran-
dum in iure ; it was merely evidence, and the
index could give it such probative force as to
him seemed just. The oath was not compulsory
(neccssarium), as that in iure was, but the
refusal of it was regarded as strong evidence
against the party refusing.
In some cases the plaintiff was allowed to
legatu:m
733
make an estimate on oath of the damages he
had suffered, which is called iusiurandum in
litem. [See also Calumnia.]
L.
Latroci'nium, La'trones. Armed persons who
robbed others abroad on the public roads or
elsewhere were called latrones, and their crime
latrociniuin. Under the Republic latrones
were apprehended by the public magistrates,
and forthwith executed (Liv. xxxix. 29, 41). By
the Lex Cornelia dc sicariis of the dictator
Sulla, they were classed with sicarii and
punished with death, and this law continued in
force in the imperial times. Grassatores were
another kind of robbers and kidnappers (Suet.
Aug. 32, Tib. 8 ; cf. Juv. iii. 305). The name
grassator seems strictly to belong to the un-
armed footpad : if they used arms, they were
subject to the penalties of latrociniuin.
Lega'tum. By Roman law there could be
no legatmn or legacy in tlie strict sense without
a will (but see Fideicommissum) : which im-
plied the devolution of tlio deceased testator's
universitas iuris on the lieir or person in loco
heredis [Heres ; Bonorumpossessio]. The tes-
tator first bestows his hcreditas — the aggregate
of his proprietarj- relations— on his heir or
heirs, and any legacies (legata) which he may
proceed to give are so much deducted from
what the heir would otherwise have. The fact
that the heir suffered by every legacy given
explains the phrase ab herede legare, to give a
legacy away from the heir (Cic. Cluent. 12 ;
Dig. 30, 16). The Roman term for the legatee
is Irgatarius.
Originally there were four forms, called per
vindicfitionem, per damnationem, sinendi
modo, and ^;e?- 2}raece2}tio7iem, in which alone
legata could be given ; and up to the time of
Nero, unless they were given in one or other of
them, they were void.
A senatusconsultum of Nero, 64 A.D., allowed
all legata to pass under the form per damna-
tionem, if they would have been void under
the other forms in consequence of some infor-
mality. Justinian finally assimilated all legata
to the laxer rules by which fideicommissa were
governed.
The words of the Twelve Tables ' uti legassit
suae rei ita ius esto ' were interpreted by tho
jurists to have given testators absolute free-
dom to dispose of their property as they
pleased. The result was that they were often
so lavish in legacies as to leave practically
nothing to the instituted heres, so that tho
latter refused the inheritance, and the deceased
became intestate. Hence several statutes were
passed restricting freedom of testamentary dis-
position.
The Lex Falcidia, passed 40 B.C., eventually
provided a satisfactory remedy by enacting that,
if a testator gave more than three-fourths ot
his property in legacies, these must abate pro-
portionately, the heir or heirs being in all cases
entitled to a clear fourtli of the inlioritance.
A legacy was \-oid if left to a person who
had not the commercium (in particular jjp»"e-
grini), for without the commercium he had no
testatnentif actio. Latini luniani, though pos-
sessed of commercium, were expressly disabled
by the Lex Innia Norbana from taking any
l>nnefit under a will either as heirs or legatees
[Latinitas].
A legacy of a res extra commercium (.e.g
734
LENO
a basilica or a temple) was void ; as also was
cue of property which at the moment of the
execution of the will already belonged to the
legatee. There were various other grounds of
invalidating legacies.
The objects of a legatum (things which could
be bequeathed) comprise tangible objects,
whether the testator's owai or some other
person's, or any other legal benefit to the
legatee, such as release from a debt owed to
the testator by the legatee, or a claim of the
legatee against a third person. The legacy
need not be of any single thing, corporeal or
incorporeal, nor even of any aggregate of them ;
the heir might be directed to transfer a half or
any other definite quota of the hereditas to a
legatee [legatarius -partiarius). In such a case
the instituted heir not unfrequently refused to
accept unless guaranteed pro rata portione
against creditors' claims and other expenses, so
that it became usual for the heir and partiary
legatee to enter into a formal contract by which
the latter engaged to indemnify the former
against liabilities in proix)rtion to the share of
the estate transferred to him, and the former
engaged that he would hand over to the legatee
his fair proportion of the assets.
Leno (fem. Lena), Lenoci'nium. Lenocinium
is the keeping of slaves or free women for the
lupanaria. The trade was not forbidden,
though it seems to have been requisite for
lenones to be registered with the aedile, and by
the praetor's edict they were branded with the
stigma of Infamia.
Liber, Libe'rtas. [Servus, Libertus, In-
genui, Caput, Civis.]
Libe'rtus. Freedmen, as a class, are de-
noted by the term libertini,h\i.i each freedman,
in relation to liis late master, is called libertus
(i.e. liberatus).
Originally there was but one species of libcr-
iini, viz. liberti cives ; they possessed in sub-
stance all the rights, private and public, of a
free-born citizen of Rome. In other words, if
a full owner of a slave ex iure Qiiiritium set
him free in one of the three civil or statutory
modes of manmnission [vindicta, census, testa-
tnentum), he became a civis: no other kind of
manumission was strictly valid in law. The
children of liberti cives were ingenui.
Legislation imder the first two emperors had
the effect of creating two new classes of freed-
men. One is described under Lex Aelia Sentia
(passed 4 a.d.). The Lex lunia Norbana, aire.
19 A.D., gave a legal status to slaves manu-
mitted under circumstances which prevented
their becoming cives without being dediticii
(see Dediticii). These had the rights of Latini
Coloniarii {i.e. coninierciuni without conubium)
(see Latinitas) : they were called Latiui luni-
ani. .Justinian made all manumitted slaves
Roman citizens.
The main point in which a libertus civis was
inferior to an ingenwiis was his relation to his
fatronus or quondam master. Towards him he
was in the relation of a child towards his
father, and could bring no action against him
without the praetor's permission. He was also
bound to provide the patron, his parents, and
children with alimony, if their circumstances
became reduced. Finally, the patron had
certain rights of inheritance in respect of the
freedman' s property
The rights of the patron devolved on his
decease upon his children, and could not be
bequeathed away by will to an outsider, because
they were based upon the fiction of relationship.
MAIESTAS
The patron might lose his rights, either in
whole or part, by their abuse or by neglect of
his own duties towards the freedmen. [Patro-
nus.] By special imperial favour, too, a libertus
could become partially or wholly ingenuus.
Litis contesta'tio. In the legis actio pro-
cedure, at the close of the formal proceedings
before the magistratus, it was the practice for
both parties to appeal to the bystanders in the
words ' testes estote,' so that evidence might be
preserved of the proper formalities having been
observed. This was the litis coiitestatio, after
which the case came before a index for trial.
In the formulary procedui'e litis contestatio
denotes the point of time when the magistratus
has settled the formula by which the iudex is
to try the case, the written formula supplying
evidence of the proceedings in iure, and doing
away with the necessity of oral evidence. [See
Actio.]
Loca'tio condu'ctio, or letting and hiring,
like sale [Emptio venditio], is one of the four
Roman contracts which were said to be made
coyisensu, because neither form nor part per-
formance was required to make the agreement
actionable.
Locatio conductio rei is the letting or hiring
of a res. The lessee of a house was called
inquilinus, of agricultural land colotius. The
letter (locator) of a 7-es was bound to allow the
other to have it for the time or purpose agreed
upon; but as he remained its owner, he could
always recover it back at the cost of having to
pay damages for breach of contract. The hirer
was bound to pay the merces agreed upon, to
show proper diligentia [Culpa] in his charge of
it, and to redeliver it at the termination of the
contract in good condition.
Locatio conductio operarum is the letting
by a free man (locator) of his services at a fixed
merces. But the builder of a house or maker
of furniture, etc., not the employer, was called
conductor or redemptor (Hor. Carm. iii. 1, 35),
and the employer locator, and such transaction
is sometimes called specifically locatio con-
ductio operis (faciendi).
M.
Maie'stas. Tlie only term for treason in
early Roman law was perduellio. Perduellis
originally signified a pronounced public enemy
of the state, and then came to mean one who
assisted a public enemy by his treacherj- ; but
the offence, like that of treason in early English
law, was not clearly defined.
The earliest trial and form of procedure is
that which is given by Livy (i. 20). In the regal
period the jurisdiction over this and other capital
offences belonged to the king, in person or by
commissioners. Under the Republic, all trials
for perduellio took place eitlier before the co-
mitia or before commissioners appointed for
each occasion by the comitia (duoviri perduel-
lioni iudicandac). There was always an appeal
(provocatio) from the duoviri to the popu'us.
Perdueliio was regarded as a religious offence
in early times, the tutelary god being propitiated
by the death of the offender (deo necari) (Liv.
i. 26, 6). In course of time the punislmient was
aquae et ignis interdictio. For instances, see
Liv. viii. 19, 20, 37 ; Cic. Legg. iii. 16, 86.
The term perduellio was still used imder the
Empire, but was probably merged in the crimen
maiestatis.
The word maiestas signifies the magnitude
MANCEPS
or greatness of a thing. Accordingly the phrases
inaiestas Popidi Boinani, Imperii maiestas
(Hor. Carvi. iv. 15), signify the sovereign power
of the Roman state. The expression minuere
maiestateni signifies any act by which this
inaiestas was impaired ; and the crimen maies-
tatis, or, to use the complete expression, crimen
laesae, imminutae, deminutae, minutae ma-
iestatis, is the offence of injuring or attempting
to injure the sovereign power of the Roman
people.
Various leges were passed for the purpose of
determining more accurately what should be
maiestas. The most important of these are a
Lex Cornelia, passed by L. Cornelius Sulla, 81
B.C., which appears to have consolidated and
made considerable additions to the law of ma-
iestas, niAking 7naiestas the subject of a quaes-
tio jperpetua (Cic. Cluent. 35, 97, Fam. iii.
11) ; and the Lex lulia de maiestate, which
continued in force imder the Empire, and re-
ceived later additions and modifications. This
was probably one of the Leges luliae of Augustus.
The offences comprised under the head of
crimen maiestatis may be divided into two
heads : (1) attacks against the public security
generally ; and (2) treason specially directed
against the person of the emperor.
(1) Under this head we may include acts
such as making war upon the state, mutiny and
inciting to mutiny, sedition directed against the
state, killing a Roman magistrate, the refusal
of a governor to leave his provmce, the forgery
of public instruments, &c.
(2) Under the Empire the term inaiestas
was applied to the person of the reigning Caesar,
and we find the -phvases maiestas Augusta, im-
peratoria, and regia. It was by the extension
of the crime of maiestas that the emperors first
raised themselves above the ordinai-y law. They
were not content with the protection which they
enjoyed under the Lex Cornelia, but the most
trivial acts of disrespect to the emperor's person
or authority became treasonable in course of
time. Augustus availed himself of the Lex
lulia for prosecuting the authors of famosi
libelli (Tax:. Ann. i. 72; Suet. Aug. 55). [Li-
bellus, 2.] Under Tiberius the offence of
maiestas was extended to all acts and words
which might seem to be disrespectful to the
princeps. (See Tac. Ann. i. 73, 74, &c.) This
was afterwards extended to representatives of
the emperor, such as statues, and even coins
(Tac. Ann. i. 73). (For the mode of procedure
in trials on account of laesa maiestas see
Crimen, Quaestio.) An inquiry might be made
into an act of treason against the Imperator
even after the death of the offender. Women
were admitted as evidence in a case of laesa
maiestas. In case of treason against the em-
peror, all persons, whether freemen or slaves,
were liable to the torture (Tac. Ann. xv. 56).
The old punishment was perpetual interdic-
tion from fire and water ; but under the Empire
persons of low condition were thrown to wild
beasts, or burnt alive ; persons of better condi-
tion were simply put to death. The property of
the offender was confiscated, and his memory
became infamous (damnatio memoriae).
Manceps = is qui inauu cap it or qui man-
cipat : that is, it means an acquirer or purchaser
of a thing by the form of conveyance called
mancipium or mancipatio [mancipio acci-
piens, see Mancipiam). But at an early time
the word was also used to signify the party so
conveying [mancipio dans) property (emanceps)
(Plaut. Cure. 4, 2, 2'J).
MANCIPIUM
735
Manceps also means a person who purchases
or hires a thing at a public auction. Mancipes
were the publicani who bid at the public lettings
of the censors for farming any part of the public
property. These maitcipes accordingly had dis-
tinctive names, as Decumani, Portitores, Pecu-
arii, Conductores Thermarum et Salinarum,
Mancipa'tio. [Mancipium.]
Manci'pii causa. The three expressions by
whicli tlie Romans distinguished the different
species of power (manus or potestas) to which a
free person might be subject in the hands of
another, were in potestate, in manu, and in
mancipio. This last kind of power arose when
a paterfamilias transferred a filiusfamilias to
another person by process of mancipation or sale
[Mancipium], as he had a right to do. The
legal effect of such mancipation was that the
filiusfamilias who was the object of it ceased to
be in the power of his paterfamilias, and came
into the jnancipium, or power, of the person to
whom he was given in mancipation : thereby he
was degraded to a servile state in respect to
the person to whom he was sold l/« mancipii
causa), though he did not become a mancipium
or slave in relation to others. In course of
time the mancipation of free persons became
mere matter of form [dicis gratia), the form
being a fiction used in order to free a filius-
familias from patria potestas in the case of
adoption [Emancipatio ; Adoptio]. It could,
however, be put into effect when a filiusfamilias
was surrendered by his paterfamilias to some
one on account of a delict which the filius-
familias had committed against the person to
whom he was thus surrendered.
The semi-servile position of persons in man-
cipio is expressed by the plu-ase causa man-
cipii.
The property of a person in mancipio belonged
to the manceps. Mancipiujn was put an end
to by manumission vindicta, censu, or testa-
mento.
Man'cipi res. [Mancipium.]
Manci'pium, or, according to an earlier form,
mancupium, is the formal legal proceeding ^er
aes et libram, by which power and dominion
over persons and over tilings was transferred by
one person to another. The word is used in
this sense by Cicero, but later writers express
this act of transfer by the more modern word
mancipatio.
The party who made a transfer pursuant to
the form of mancipation was said mancipio
dare ; he to whom the transfer was made was
said mancipio accipcrc or mancijmre. Manci-
patio was effected in the presence of not less
than five witnesses, who must be Roman citizens
and of the age of puberty (/juberes), and also in
the presence of another person of the same con-
dition, who held a pair of brazen scales, and
hence was called libripens. The purchaser
{qui mancipio accipit), taking hold of the
thing, says : ' I affinn that this slave (homo) is
mine ex iure Quiritium, and he is purchased
by me with this piece of money [aes) ; ' and he
gives it to the seller {ei a quo mancipio accipit)
as a symbol of the price [quasi pretii loco).
(Gains, i. 119.)
Mancipation was instituted at a time when
only copper money was in use, and when money
was weighed in scales, there being no coined
money, though subsequently tlie scales were
struck with a coin. Mancipation, like all early
conveyances, is of a public ov scnii-public nature.
The presence of witnesses (prol)iibly representing
the conmiunity) points to a time anterior to
736
MANDATUM
written covenants. (Cf. Litis contestatio ;
A.ctio.)
The libripens was supposed to be an impartial
bliird person, and the scales used in the sale
were probably public, kept in the market to
enable persons to mancipate slaves and cattle.
Mancipation was an assertion of title to the
thing on the part of the piu'chaser, as well as
the pm-chase itself ^jer aes et librani. (Compare
the claim made by a person acquiring a thing
by in uire cessio.) The sale j?e?- aes et lihram
was no doubt at first a real one, but the formal
payment of a small piece of copper {aes, raudus,
raudiisculum) was the legally sufficient symbol
of the transaction, the nature of which would,
however, appear in the instrument, which was
generally drawn up as a record of title. Con-
ditions accompanying an act of mancipation
were termed leges mancijni. [Lex.] Manci-
pation was a general form of transfer, and was
used not only in the conveyance of property,
but in other transactions, as in emancipation,
adoption, co-emption. (See also Testamentuiu.)
Mancipatio and in iure cessio were the only
means of transferring ownership recognised by
the law of the Twelve Tables. After a time,
however, only certain kinds of things, called
res mayicipi, were required to be conveyed by
mancipatio, other res {nee mancipi) being al-
lowed to pass by mere informal delivery of
possession {traditio).
The foUowiug res were res mancipi : — Lands
and houses in Italico solo, praedial rustic servi-
tudes, slaves, and beasts of draught or burden.
[Dominium.]
The word mancipium is used as equivalent
to complete owmership, and may thus be opposed
to usus or fnictus (see Lucr. iii. 971 ; Cic.
Fam. vii. 29, 30). Sometimes the word man-
cipium means the thing mancipated, and hence
it very frequently signifies a slave, as being a
most important res inancipi (Hor Ep. i. 6, 39 ;
Liv. xli. 6 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 2).
Mauda'tum. (1) itfaMfZa^wm, ' a commission,'
is the name of a contract which arises from
consent ; i.e. it requires no special form of
words, no entry in a ledger, no passing of pro-
perty or possession from one party to the
other : as soon as the two parties have mutu-
ally agreed to employ and to be employed, the
legal relation exists, subject, however, to two
conditions. The employment must be one
which is not merely for the benefit of the per-
son employed, and payment for the service
must not be part of the agreement. The person
who gives a commission is called mandator or
mandans ; the person who undertakes the com-
mission is called is qui suscipit, or recipit,
mandatum, cui tnandatum est, mandata-
rius, &c.
(2) Mandata is technically used of the ' com-
mission ' or instructions given, especially to
provincial governors, by the emperor. These
instructions, like the Edicts, appear by fre-
quent repetition to have assumed the character
of standing orders.
Manumi'ssio { = e or de manu missio) was a
legal act by which slaves and persons in man-
cipii causa were released from the mamis or
power of their masters, thereby acquiring free-
dom. There were three modes of effecting a
legal manumission so as to make a servus a
civis — vindicta, census, and testamentum. Of
these the manumissio vindicta [Vindicta] was
probably the oldest and, at one time, the only
mode of manumission.
Manumissio by the vindicta was originally
MAXUMISSIO
an action between a third person, who vindicated
the freedom of the slave to be manumitted be-
fore the praetor, and the master of the slave,
who was in the position of defendant. [Vin-
diciae.] The form of the vindicta supposes,
not that the person manumitted was a slave,
but that he was a person whose freedom (libertas)
was the matter in issue. The proceeding before
the magistratus was in form an assertion of the
slave's freedom (Plant. Poen. iv. 2, 83), to which
the owner made no defence, but allowed the
slave to be declared by the magistratus a free-
man.
The proceeding, then, was a species of in iure
cessio — in fact, a collusive action, based on the
fiction of the slave's freedom. When the magis-
tratus had pronounced in favour of freedom ex
iure Quiritium, there could be no fiu'ther dis-
pute about the libertas or about the civitas
which was attached to libertas. The ceremony
of the manumissio by the vindicta was as fol-
lows : — The master brought his slave before the
praetor, since it was his province to exercise
jurisdiction in civil causes. The praetor's lictor,
holding a rod {vindicta or festuca) with one
hand, and with the other laying hold of the
slave, said, ' Hunc ego hominem ex iure Quiri-
tium liberum esse aio,' at the same time touch-
ing him with the rod ; the master then usmg
the same formalities, and, turning the slave
round and then releasing his hold of him (Pers.
Sat. V. 78), admitted his freedom, which was
followed by the pironuntiatio of the magistratus,
' Quandoque Numerius Negidius non contra
vindicat, hunc ego hominem ex iure Quiritium
liberum esse dico.'
In course of time the formalities of manu-
missio per vindictam were very much curtailed.
All that seems to have been required in the time
of Justinian was that the master should take
his slave before the magistratus, wherever the
latter was to be found — it might be in the
public road (iti transitu), as when the praetor
or proconsul was going to the bath or to the
theatre — and that he should declare to the
magistratus his desire to have the slave manu-
mitted.
Manumission j}erce«si<?n was when the slave,
in the presence of his master, declared his
census {vfhethev pecitlium or his master's gift
as a qualification) to the censor, and so was
enrolled with the rest of the cives.
The republican institution of the census
became obsolete under the Empire, and with it
this mode of manumission. [Census.]
Another method of manumission, recognised
by the Twelve Tables, was liy will i testamentum
per aes et librani). [Testamentum.]
A slave who was made free directo was
called orcimis libertus, because he had been
made free by a person who was dead.
Where a slave was maumnitted by au heir
or legatee at the request of the testator, the
slave did not become libertus o»'ci?ti(s on manu-
mission, but was the libertus of the heir or
legatee who manumitted him.
The legal act of maumnission was often
followed by a religious ceremouj^ in the temple
of Ferouia, where the freedman appeared clad
in the toga or dress of a Roman citizen, and
with a Pilleus, or particular kind of cap, on his
shaven head. (See Liv. xxiv. 8'2 ; Plant. Amj^li.
iii. 4, 16.) The pilleus was still worn in the
time of Justinian (527-560 a.d.).
The modes of manumission above described
were of a formal and public character, but iu
coirrse of time other ways of giving freedom to
MANUMISSIO
;i slave of an informal and private kind came
to be recognised : e.g. one form of manumission
intrr amicos was a declaration of a slave's
fi-eedom made by his master in the presence of
friends, or it might be done bj' inviting the ,
slave to table, or bj" letter. These manumis- j
sions originallj' had no le^'al effect ; but after a
time the praetor protected the liberty of slaves '
who had been made free in this manner, so
lluit tliey were free in fact (in lihertate esse),
though they had not the legal status of free- ,
\]ifi\ i/lbrri). jLatinitas.J By degrees all such
restrictions were removed. A new form of
manumission — VKUiuini.'isio in ecclesiis, i.e.
before the bisliop and the congregation — was
established by the Church, and recognised by
Constantine, 31<) a.d.
Laws were passed uiider the early emperors
for the purpose of preventing the degradation
of rii'itas by an incautious exercise of the right
of manmnission. (See Lex Aelia Sentia.j A !
ta>: on manumission was levied Ijy a Lex
Blanlia, 357 B.C. ; it consisted of the twentieth '
part of the value of the slave, hence called !
vice.iinia (Liv. vii. l(i). 1
The act of manumission, which made the ,
slave a new man, established the relation of
2>atroiias and liberties between the manumissor ,
and manumitted, wliicli was a quasi-parental
relation [Libertus ; Patronus]. When manu- I
mitted by a citizen, the libertus took the prae- |
nomen and tlie gentile name of the manumissor,
and became in a sense a member of the gens
of his patron.
Freedmen who became cives had not the ius
hoiioruDi, and could only vote in one of the
four fribiin inba )nir. not in the tribusrusticae.
[Libertus; Civitas.j
Matrimo'nium. Marriage was among the
Homans a complete union for life between a
man and one woman, an intercommunion of
sacred and human law, which had for its main
object the procreation of children (liberinn
qiiaesiindum gratia), who could keep up the
sacra favtiliaria, and discharge their duties
as citizens. [Lex lulia et Papia Poppaea. )
The only marriage recognised in early Roman
law was that which was conformable to tlie Ius
Civile, or law applicable to cives, which was
called lustae Nuptiae, in later times also lustum
Matrimonium.
A Roman civil marriage was either cum con-
vcutione uxoris in jnanutn viri, or it was sine
in nianum conveiUione.
By the marriage cum conventione, the wife
cnme into the power (manus) of her husband
(or, if he were a filiusfamilius, of Iiis i)ater-
familias) ; leaving her own /(i)iiili(i, slie passed
into the familia of her husband, and was to
liim in the relation of a filiafamilias. In mar-
riage sine conventione the wife did not pass
into the power of her husband ; she was, as it
were, a stranger (extranea) in his household,
her relation to her own family renuiining as
before the marriage ; she did not share in the
faniiliaria sacra of her husljand, and was no
civil i-ehition to her own cliildren.
A marriage cum co/iuf/i^?o«<' .was a necessary
condition to make a woman a matcrfamiUas in
the strict sense of the word ; not merely an
uxor or niatrona as in the marriage sine con-
voitionr.
The right of entering into a valid civil mar-
riage, uxoris iure ducendae facultas, is called
the Ius Conubii. The Ius Conubii belonged
properly to Roman citizens only, and with
Roman female citizens {liomanae cives). i
MATRIMOXIUM
737
Originally there was no conubinm between
the patricians and plelxians. Jlarriage, liow-
ever, had long been estal)lislied by the ple-
beians, and had been a means of acquiring
jjotria j)otestas.
By the Lex Canuleia, 445 n.c. (Liv. iv. 1),
roiuibium between tlie patricians and plebeians
was declared. A female gentilis could not, as
a rule, marry anyone outside her gens [ecnuptio
gentis) uidess witli the consent of the gens.
The Lex lulia et Papia Poi)paea (3 a.d.)
jjlaced certain restrictions on marriage as to
the parties between whom it could take i)lace.
[Lex lulia et Papia Poppaea ; Infamia. i
Thus certain marriages were prohibited on
account of disparagement or certain prohiljited
degrees of relationship.
In early times tliere could be no marriage
between cognates [Cognati] within the seventh
degree. There could be no marriage between
ascendants and descendants, whether by blood
or by adoption. Brothers and sisters, whether
of the whole or half blood, could not marry.
It became for a time legal, though not customary,
to marry a brother's daughter after Claudius had
set the example by marrying Agrippina (Tac.
Ann. xii. 5; Suet. Claud. 21!), but such mar-
riages were afterwards made void. The law as to
marriages between cousins differed at different
periods. Ultimately marriages between first
cousins were recognised.
There was also no right of intermarriage
between persons within certain relations of
af&nity, as between a man and his socrus,
nurus, privigna, and noverca. [Affines.]
When marriage was dissolved, the parties to
it might marry again, but public opinion made
it improper for a woman to marry again, at
least within the year, a second marriage being
regarded as showing a want of pvdicitia (Liv.
X. -23, 5, 9).
Betrothal (.s/;o?iSfl//«) was the proper and
usual preliminary of marriage, though it was
nf)t legally necessary. In s2)onsaUa a maiden
was promised in solemn form to a man as his
bride. Such promise was made by the pater-
familias of the woman, or, if slie was not under
patria 2>otestas, by her tutor, who were said
spondere, the betrothed becoming sponsa
(Plant. Aul. ii. 2, 79 sq. ; Liv. xxxviii. 97) ; the
promise was accepted by the man {drspoiiderc).
It was always possible for the i)erson whi>
had entered into the sponsio on account of the
woman to renounce it — rcjnidium rennntiare,
rcnuntiare (Plaut. Aul. iv. 10, 53, 69: Ter.
I'horni. iv. 3, 72; Dig. 23, 1, 10). The re-
nunciation was generally made bj- means of a
nu)itiiis. Impnberes miglit be betrothed if
they were not under seven years of age.
The essence of marriage was consent of tlie
parties. It was conunonly shown at the time
ol tlie marriage by the acts of tlie parties, as
by dcxfrarum iunctio, and in later times by
the subsignatio tubularum, but the subject
members of a family were bound to marry at
the bidding (iussus) of their jiaterfamilias, and
without his consent tliey could not marry. A
(mterfamilias, however, miglit be compelled
to allow a reasonable marriage by order of a
magistrate.
A marriage (•;/»( ronrcntiitnc might be effected
by conjdrrcatio, cocmptio, or usus. Con-
farreatio, or farrcum, a form peculiar to tlie
patricians, was a religious form of marriage,
which principally consisted in an offering, with
solemn words, of panis farreus to Jupiter
Farreus, in the presence of ten witnesses, the
3B
738
MUTUUM
Pontifex Maximua and Flamen Dialis taking
part in the ceremony.
This form of marriage fell into disuse, but
was maintained to some extent, because certain
priestly offices could only be lield by those who
were born of confarreated parents, and the
holders of these offices had themselves to be
married by confarreatio.
Coemptio was a form of mancipation {manci-
piuvi) or conveyance by fictitious sale ; and
was j)robably a survival of the early form of
marriage by sale or purchase. The woman
was mancipated in marriage to the man by her
paterfamilias. Manus could also be acquired
according to the law of the Twelve Tables by
usus. If a woman lived with a man con-
tinuously for a whole year as his wife, she came
in manum viri by virtue of this matrimonial
cohabitation (cf. TIsucapio).
The bringing of the bride [uxorem ducere,
yvvalna ayeiv) from her father's house to her
husband's house (in clomum deductio) was
customary among the Romans, as among the
Greeks and others. A marriage required con-
sent for its continuance as well as for its forma-
tion, and so might be put an end to at any
time by the renunciation [repudium) of either
party. [Divortiiim.]
As regards the consequences of marriage, the
position of a wife married cum conventione
differed materially from that of one married
sine conventione. In marriage cum conven-
tione the wife ceased to belong to her family
[Caput] and assumed the position of a daughter
to her husband. All her property passed to
her husband or to his father by a universal
Buccession.
When marriage was without manus, as it
came to be in all cases, the woman remained a
member of her own family, her legal status
continuing as it was before ; she was capable
of acquiring and holding property, and of
bringing actions ; she had for all pui-poses a
legal personal existence independently of her
husband, and consequently between husband
and wife there was no community of property
in Eoman law. The husband acquired no right
by marriage to the property of his wife: the
dos which his wife usually brought to him he
acquired, not by act of law, but under tlie dotal
instrument, and during the marriage he was
sole owner of the dos. (See Dos, Donatio
inter virum et uxorem, Heres.)
Iiistue niiptiar had an important effect on
the position of the children of the marriage,
since only those who were born from such
marriage were subject to the patria potestas.
[Patria potestas.] At Rome, the iustae nuptiae
was originally the only marriage. But in Ititer
times consortium omnis vitac with affectio
maritalis, between Peregrini, or Latini, or of
Romans with either, was recognised as marriage
according to the Ins Gentium [Matrimonium].
Kutuum. 'Commodatum.]
N.
Nexum. There was a very old contract form
among the Romans called nexum, in which the
obligation or iuris vinculum was established
by the use of the aes et libra [Mancipium], and
which, as long as it was prevalent, possessed
one peculiar characteristic. This peculiarity
was that, if the day fixed for payment passed
without such payment being made, the creditor
was under no necessity of bringing an action
at law to prove the existence of the debt ; the
NOXA
debtor stood on the same footing with a defend-
ant against whom a judgment had been given
iiudicatus) ; he became nexus himself and
liable forthwith to the severe execution pro-
cedure by mamis iniectio. As soon as the
day fixed for repayment had passed, the creditor
could arrest him at once, take him before the
praetor, and, after proving the contract, have
him, along with the children in his power (Liv.
ii. '24 ; Dionys. vi. 29, 37), asssigned (addictus)
in the usual way to himself by the magistrate.
Among earlier writers there appears to have
been considerable confusion between nexuni
and addictio. Addicere apparently expresses
the magisterial award of one person to another;
under the older and more severe procedure, for
private execution or sale into foreign slavery :
under the later system, to work out by his
labour the sum due to his unsatisfied creditor.
A man might be addictus either because he
was iudicatus or confessus, or because he had
failed to perform a contract into which he had
entered by nexum.
A Lex Vallia hiuited the operation of manus
iniectio in its strict form to the case of judg-
ment debtors. A statute usually called Poete-
lia or Poetelia Papiria, probably put an end
to nexum as a form of contract altogether (Liv.
vhi. 28; Cic. Rep. ii. 34, 59; Varr. L.L. vii.
105). The general result of the statute seems to
have been to release all private prisoners under
nexum, and to prohibit manus iniectio in any
form against debtors who had incurred an
obligation in this manner.
Nove'Uae or Nove'llae Constitutio'nes
{vfapaX SLard^eis) are the disconnected enact-
ments of Roman emperors following upon a
codification of the existing legislation. The first
such codification was that effected, 439 A.D., by
Theodosius II., and the first Novellae were
those issued by Theodosius himself nine years
later, and confirmed for the Western Empire by
Valentinian III., 448 .\.D.
The Novellae Constitutiones of Justinian were
his enactments subsequent to the publication
of his second Codex, 534 A.D., and form a portion
of the Corpus Iuris Civilis.
Noxa, Noxa'lis a'ctio. Those actions were
' noxal ' which were brought on the delict (e.g.
theft, assault, damage to property) of a slave or
child in potestate, or on damage done by an
animal, against the master, paterfamilias, or
owner. Primarily they claimed damages for
the wrong, but the defendant could escape the
pecuniary loss if he preferred it, by surrender-
nig (noxae or noxam dedere) the guilty body
to the plaintiff : and from noxa (meaning that
guilty body) the name of the action was de-
rived (though by some writers noxa is used to
express the wrong itself [Liv. xxi. 30] or the
punishment; but noxia only for the wrong).
The defendant, if the judge pronounced against
liim, was condemned either to pay the damages
assessed, or to give up the delinquent (noxae
dedere, ex noxali causa mancipio dare).
Justinian took away the father's right of
surrendering sons in his power, but retained
the master's right of evading damages by noxal
surrender of his slave. For the deditio of
animals in a noxal action, see Pauperies.
The surrender of Postumius to the Samnites
by the Romans with all the forms of noxae
deditio (Liv. ix. 10) was made as atonement for
non-observance of the treaty which he had con-
cluded with them, and from which the Romans
wished to release themselves — ' ut populus
religione solvatur.'
OBLIGATIO
O.
OBLIGATIO LITTERAEUM
730
Obliga'tio. Obligatio is a legal relation be-
tween two ascertained persons, respectively
debtor and creditor, in virtue of whicli the
creditor is entitled to a certain act or forbear-
ance fi-oni the debtor. It differs from the legal
relations exemplified in ownersliip, servitudes,
or possession, in that it involves only what
jurists call rights i>i jxrsoiiniii.
The result of an obligatio is the partial sub-
jection (in hiwj of one person's will to another,
the debtor's freedom of action being partially
limited in favour of the creditor. This must
not be taken to imply that the creditor can in
all cases enfoi'ce his right by action at law.
For when the ideas of e([uity and the itis gen-
tium began to gain ground, the praetor came
to recognise other legal incidents to an obligatio
than actionabihty, and would allow the credi-
tor's right to be enforced or realised in other
ways, as hy retentio aoliiti, compcnsatio, iVc.
Hiuce the distinction of obligations into nafii-
Ttiles and civiles : a civil obligation is one en-
forceable by action; a natural obligation is one
whicli, tliough not actionable, possesses some
of the other legal incidents uf nbligationes in
general. The causes which made obligations
natural instead of civil are mainly two : insuffi-
ciency of form in contracts, and defective (capa-
city of legal right or legal action in a party.
As regards the fij'st, agreements according to
Roman law were as a rule actionable only if
they were expressed in a definite form.
Agreements on which no ac'tion lay were
termed by the Romans jxtcta niiila ; they
could be relied upon in defence, but could
not be sued upon : ' ex undo pacto inter cives
Romanos actio non uascitur.' As regards the
second, there were certain classes of persons
between wliom there could be no civil obligation.
Between a slave, e.g., and another person, or
between pater- and filius-familias there could be
natural obligatio, but not civil.
Obligations might arise from contract, quasi-
contract, delict, quasi-delict.
Perhaps the oldest of the Roman contracts
was Nezum. But there were two other very
old formal contracts, viz. Stipulatio and Expen-
silatio or literal contract. Stipulatio is the
common form of contract made rcrbln. It was
a contract whicli gave rise only to a unilateral
obligation (i.e. one which bound only one party,
as e.g. a money debt), the ))roniiser binding
himself to the .stipulator or promisee by return-
ing an oral alliiinative answer to tlie oral ques-
tion of the latter (Cic. pro (Jaec. 3, 7). Origi-
nally the only terms which could be used were
Simmies? Spondeo (Plant. Capt. iv. 2, 117), and
the strictest correspond(Mice between question
and answer was insisted upon. Later, other
words became sanctioned by usage : e.g. Pro-
tnittis / FroDiifto ; Dahis ? Fades ? ttc, by
employment of which the form was made acces-
sible to aliens as well as Roman citizens (see
also Impubes. Infans).
For Expensilatio, or literal contract, see
Obligatio litterarum. The ' real ' contracts,
tliose in which tlie obligation is genernted
rf, i.e. by delivery of i)ro])erty or possession,
lire four in number, viz. two varieties of loan,
Dfutuum and Commodatum, Deposit [Depo-
«itum] and Pledge PignusJ.
Tlie Consensiuil Ccjiitracts, agreements on
which an action lay in virtue of the mere con-
sent of the parties, a^iart from all form, or
delivery, are sale [Emptio venditio"', hire
Locatio conductioj, partnershi)) SocietaBi,
and gratuitous agency [Mandatum].
Among the agi'eements which were actionable
without being termed contractus by the
Komans, the first place is to be given to Inno-
minate Contracts, so termed because tliey have
no specific names, such as Sale, Pledge, &c. ;
their characteristic marks are mutuality and
part-performance : until one of the parties has
done what he has engaged to do, no action lies,
whereby they are clearly distinguished from
tiie contracts which are actionable in virtue of
the mere fact of agi-eement. The commonest
example of Innominate Contract is exchange
{2>cnnutatio, lust. iii. '23, '2).
Other agreements, whicli in early law were
nit da pacta, were made actionable by the
praetor or by the emperor. The chief pacta
praetoria are Constitutum [IntercessioJ, and
Hyjiotheca [Pignus].
Obligationes arising qvasi ex contractu are
illustrated by the relation of guardian and
ward [Curator, TutorJ, joint-ownership arising
from gift, inheritance, or legacy, &e. In all
these cases, wli< re the party or parties are bound
by an obligation similar to one arising from
contract though not under any agreement, the
obligation is said to be quasi-contractual.
Obligationes arising from Delict denote the
vinculum iuris which the law creates in certain
cases of wrong-doing between the injured
person and the delinquent. As soon as a
' delict,' in the Roman sense, is committed, the
wrong-doer is 'bound' to the person he has
wronged, to pay him a penalty ; and, in case of
loss of or damage to property, he is also bound
to indemnify the person. Such delicts are four
in number, viz. Theft (furtuni), Robbery {bona
vi rapta or rapina). Damage to property
idaninum iniuria datum), and Assault, Libel,
Slander, iVrc. (ijiiuria). (See Crimen.) Quasi-
delictual obligations are those which partake
of the nature of delictual, but do not come
strictly under any of these four heads : e.g. when
a man employs careless or dishonest servants.
Of tlie modes in whicli obligations could be
extinguished {.solvere), the first to be noticed is
pei'formance (' solutio .stricto sensu '). Secondly,
certain obligations could only be discharged by
an 'imaginaria solutio per aes et libram'
rNexumj. A third mode of extinction was
Acceptilatio, a formal release, by stipulation
from an obligation incurred by stipulation
(Ter. Adelph. ii. 1, 10). A fourth was Novatio,
i.e. the extinction of one obligation by the
substitution for it of another. This could
be effected in two ways: by Transcriptio (see
Oblipatio litterarum i or Stipulatio.
Obliga'tio littera'riun. One of the four
modes in which contractual obligations could
bo incurred was litteris. The contract was
made by the creditor's entry of so much as c.r-
petisum to the debtor in his account book
, {codex accepti ct expcnsi). Tlie debtor's assent
\ to the entry was necessary (Cic. Uosc. Com.
I i. 5). In tlie Roman system of book-keeping
I the items of receipt and expenditure appear to
. have been entered without distinction, in the
order of their occurrence, in a day-book {adver-
• saria), and transcribed at tlie end of each
month into a ledger {tahulac, codex accepti ct
ex])ensi). The entry in this ledger {nomen
r'licere, Cic. Verr. i. 36, 9'2 ; 39, 102) made
the contract, and bound the debtor to re]iay
the specified sum — it was not merely evidence,
iulmittiug of the possibility of rebuttal.
3n 2
7i0
OCCUPATIO
Such a contract was called expensi latio (in
cue word expensilatio). Such an entry referred
to other debts than actual money loans. The
true contract was the entry in the creditor's
book. The entry in the debtor's book was
evidence that he had accepted the entry in the
creditor's book. Nomeii arcarium is the
jnoper phrase for a loan of money actually
paid, which was an obliged io re not litter is.
Occupa'tio is the advisedly taking possession
of a thing which belongs to no one {res nidlius),
with the intention of appropriating it : the
property in it is thereby ipso facto vested in
him who takes possession (Cic. Off. i. 7, 21).
Occupatio is one of the acquisitiones naturales,
or modes of acquiring property based on the
ills gentium or naturale. Among things sub-
ject to occupatio are wild animals, enemies'
property on Roman soil, islands which rise in
the sea, treasure trove, and res derelictae,
property abandoned by its former owner.
'peris novi nuntia'tio was a summai-y
oxtra-judicial remedy provided by the edict
[Edictum] against a person who was making
an o/ms novum, by which is to be understood
tlie building, altering, or demolishing of some
structure attached to the soil ; and its object
was eitlier the maintenance of a private right,
the prevention of damage, or the protection of
the i)ublic interest.
In fonn tlie nuntiatio was a notice, given on
the spot, to discontinue the opus.
The result of nuntiatio was that any continu-
ation of tlie work was unlawful, so tliat the
injured person, in that event, was entitled by
the ' Interdictum de demoliendo ' to be restored
in statttm quo.
Oratio'nes pri'ncipum. Many of the ora-
tiiiiirs of the Roman emperors are merely
communications to the senate, e.fj. the an-
nouncement of a victory ; others relate to
legislation only. Under the earlier empei-ors
the orationes were projets de loi submitted by
the prince'is to the senate, which in ajipearance,
though not in reality, still possessed legislative
power : the consuls, as presidents of the
assembly, would then open a discussion on the
]iro|.v)sal, which was embodied in a senatus-
consultum with little or no alteration, and so
invested with the force of law.
But, as the emperor's own ordinances also had
the force of law, the oratio itself, apart from
the scnatusconsultum which was founded on it,
\vas recognised as law : and the consultation of
the senate gradually became a formal acclama-
tion. Unless the emperor delivered the oratio
in person, which seems not to have been very
usual, it was embodied in anepistolaor libellus,
wliich was read to the senate by one of the
quiii'stors (Suet. Tit. 6, Aug. 65; Tac. Ann.
ii. i52, xvi. 7).
Pande'ctae or Dige'sta. Justinian, having
determined at the beginning of his reign to
reduce the entire bodj' of Roman law to a new
and more compendious form, first caused a
compilation or codex to be made of imperial
statute law {lex), and then proceeded to the
digest of the law contained in the writings of
the jurists {ius). In 530 a.d. Justinian, in a
constitution called from its first words Deo
(lurtore, empowered Tribonian, to whom it was
addressed, to name a commission, of winch he
was to be the head, for the purpose of making a
Digest from the writings of those jurists to whose
PAERICIDA
works legal authority had been given by em-
perors. The compilers were not bound by rules
of law, but had full power to declare the law as
they thought fit. The instnictions of the
emperor were, to select what was useful, to omit
what was antiquated or superfluous, to avoid
unnecessary repetitions, to get rid of contradic-
tions, and to produce out of the mass of ancient
juristic writings a useful and complete body
of law. The work was to be distributed into
fiftj' books, and the books were to be sub-
divided into Titles [tituli). The compilation
was to be named Digesta, a Latin term indi-
cating an analysis or arrangement of the works
of an author, or Pandertae, a Greek word
expressive of the comprehensiveness of the
work. Justinian strictly prohibited any com-
mentaries being written on the Digest, so as to
prevent his work being buried under a mass of
interpretation. Tlie writings of the jurists were
deprived of all independent authority, and the
Digest, together with the other parts of Jus-
tinian's legislation, was to be the exclusive
source of law. The work was completed in
three years, and became law on December
30, 533 A.D. Besides Tribonian, who had the
general conduct of the undertaking, sixteen
other persons are mentioned as having been
employe<l in the work, among whom were Con-
stantinus, an official of high rank, the professors
Dorotheus and Anatolius, from the law school
of Berytus, and the professors Theophilus and
Cratinus, from C<mstantinople. Besides these,
there were eleven practising lawyers. The
compilers made use of nearly 2000 different
treatises.
In accordance with the instructions of Jus-
tinian, the Digest is distributed into fifty books,
divided into Titles, of which there are 432.
Books 30, 31, and 32 are not divided into
Titles. Under each Title are placed the ex-
tracts from the several jurists, numbered 1, 2,
3, and so on, with the writer's name and the
name and division of the work from which the
extract is made.
Justinian divided the whole fifty books into
seven large masses, called partes, which perhaps
corresponded with the seven main divisions of
the works on the Edict, and had also a special
reference to the course of instruction then
established (cf . the Siete Partidas of Alfonso X.
of Aragon).
The number of writers from whose works
extracts were made is thirty-nine, ranging in
date from the time of Cicero.
The chief defect of the Digest, according to
modern ideas, consists in its want of systematic
arrangement ; subjects belonging to the same
department of law being sometimes separated
in the most arbitrary way. It will be remem-
bered that the emperor's instructions required
the compilers to arrange (digerere) the whole
body of the law comprised in the Digest accord-
ing to the Code and the Edictum Perpetuum.
This order of subjects would have been familiar
to the lawyers of Justinian's time, and was a
convenient one for practical purposes.
This article, if read in connexion with the
articles Codex, Codex lustinianeus, and In-
Stitutiones, will give some general notion of
the Legislation of Justinian.
Parrici'da, Parrici'dium. It is difficult to
ascertain the precise meaning of these words in
early Roman history and literature. The
offence seems at one time not to have been
confined to killing (Cic. Legg. ii. 9, 22).
Later, it apparently denoted the taking of
P ATRIA POTESTAS
"the life of any free pei'soii. But by the
time of Cicero parricidiiim seems to have
acquired tlie specific sense of killing near
relatives : the application of it to Catiline and
to the murderers of Caesar, tliougli he refers
to Caesar as parens jnitriac {Suet. Inl. Ht* ;
Cic. Phil. ii. l;-!, 31), may perhaps be regarded
iis oratorical. The Lex Cornelia de nicariin et
vcncficis contained provisions as to the killing
of near relations : the Lex Pompeia de parrl-
cidiis, 55 B.C., apparently re-enacted these, and
defined the crime of panicuUum as the deli-
berate and wrongful slaying of ascendants,
husbands, wives, cunsobrini, brothers and
sisters, uncles and aunts, stepfathers and step-
mothers, fatliers and mothers in law, patrons
and descendants ; but the killing of a cliild by
its father was excepted. Hadrian sentenced a
man who killed his son to dcjJortatio ; but it
was not jjarricidiiDiito kill one's own children
till the age of Constantine, who prescribed for
it the punislunent of tlie sack, or ciilleus. This
■consisted in the guilty person being first beaten
with rods (virgis naitguineis), sewn up in a
leathern bag with a dog, a cock, a viper,
and an ape, and thrown into the sea or a river
{insiii in cuUctnn). (Cic. lionc. Am. 25, 70,
Q.Fratr. i. 2; Juv. iii. S, 'il'i sq. : Cicero in
tliese passages, and Livy, Epif. Ixviii., make
no mention of the animals.) The selection
of animals was supposed to be symbolical.
Accessories to tlie crime were punished under
the Lex Cornelia as severely as principals.
Pa'tria pote'stas. Potestas is a legal power
or authority to which a person was entitled.
Potestas applied to magistrates is hnpcriuin ;
in the case of children, it is the patria jjutesttis ;
hi the case of slaves, it is doniininni or du-
iiiinica 2'otf'stas. Lnperium and i)otestas are,
however, not always distinguished. Patria
l)otestas signifies the patriarciial power of a
Roman paterfamilias over liis children and
descendants through males in his familia {,pJii-
J'lnnilias, filiaefamiliaii} [Familia]; to which
grown-up children were subject as well as those
of tender years. The paterfamilias had origin-
ally absolute power over the persons of filiifanii-
lias, having the right of inflicting on them the
punishment of death {las vitue iiecmjae),
slavery, or any lesser punishment. It was
customary for him to inflict cajiital or other
serious puiiisluneiit on a filiusfainilias only-
after the latter had been condemned by a
family tril)unal (iudiriuin donienticitm). In-
stances of this, though rare, occur even in late
times, e.g. M. Fabius Buteo, •21!) B.C. ; A.
Fulvius Nobilior, 02 B.C. ; Augustus, 1 B.C. (see
Cla.ss. Diet.).
The paterfamilias was not criminally respon-
sible on account of tlie abuse of his powers.
But the nota cen.soria, religious censure, cus-
tom and public opinion kept it within due
bounds.
Under the Empire the occasional cruelty of
fathers was pmiished and the powers of tlie
father over the persons of his cliildren were
curtailed. It became th;^ rule that a fatlier
could not kill his son unless the latter had
been tried before the praefectus or xiraeses and
convicted. The power of the father was limited
in the later period of Roman law to moderate
chastisement. The fatlier might sell his son
into slavery or maiici])ium (Cic. Caec. 34,
ytl). The sale of cliildren was obsolete in tlie
time of the classical jurists, excejit as a mere
formality, and in the case of cliildren sur-
rendered by the paterfamilias on account of
PATRONUS 741
their delicts [Noxalis actio]. According to
early custom, the father had the right of re-
pudiating a new-born child. The child was
placed at the feet of the father immediately
after birth, and if, instead of being lifted up
by the father (lib/: nun tullcie, Humipcrf,
rrri/wrc), he was left on the ground, lie was
excluded fiom the familia. Even under the
legislation of Justinian, it was lawful, in case
of poverty, to sell new-born children. The
father was a party to the betrothal, marriage,
or divorce of his children in early times, and
the consent of the father was always an essen-
tial condition of a valid marriage [Matri-
IIlOilium{. If a marriage was accompanied with
vonvcntio in inaninn, his wife came into the
l)ower of the father and not into the power
of the son. The father could give his child in
adoption and emancipate liim.
The patria potestas did not interfere with
the public rights and duties of filiifamilias.
Thus a son could vote at the coinitia tributa ;
he could fill a magistratus, &c. ; he liad conu-
bium and commercium like any Roman citizen
' who was sui inris, but no ])ower of ownership.
A conveyaiK e to him, or an inheritance actjuired
I by him, or an obligation in his favour, would
give rights, not to himself, but to the person
who had potestas over him, just as in the case
of a slave. The property of which the filius-
fainilias had actual enjoyment was his pecu-
liuin, and of this the paterfamilias was owner.
The filiusfainilias could maintain no actions
which implied that he was owner of projierty,
e.g. vindicatiu ; but he could maintain actions,
such as the (U-tio iniiiridnini, .which were not
based on jjroprietary claims. About the time
of Augustus, a filiusfainilias was allowed to
I dispose of by will whatever he had actiuired
in active military service, and after a time to
treat such acquisitions as his own for all pur-
poses. This was the caatrense pecuUion, with
respect to which the son was treated as a
person sui inris (Juv. xvi. 51). In later times
a filiusfainilias became capable of acquiring
property for himself in ordinary cases. The
l)atria jiotestas was acquired by the l)irth of a
I child in a Roman marriage [iustnc niipfiac')
I Patria potestas could \w acquired by either
I of the modes of adoption [Adoptioj; and under
\ the Christian emperors by legitimation of cliil-
^ dreii born out of lawful wedlock.
j The patria potestas was dissolved in various
\ ways. It was dissolved by the death of the
father. It could also be dissolved during the
life of the father: e.g. by a capitis deminutiu,
either of the pater- or filius-fainilias.
The commonest mode of dissolving the patria
jiotestas was by emancipation, which was a
capitis deminntiu ini)iiina, having the effect of
making the eniancipatus the head of a new
familia distinct from that of his father.
Fatro'nus. The act of manumission gave
birth, as it were, to a free person, and created
a new relation between the manumissor and
the slave, which was analogous to tliat between
father and son. In respect of this new relation
the manumissor was called patronus (from
\2Mter), or j)atrona (not niatrona), and the
manumitted person libertus or libcrta.
The libertus was attached to the family, and
adopted the gentile name of his manumissor:
I e.g. Cicero's freednian Tiro was called M. Tul-
I bus Tiro. fNomen. i The patronus and liber-
I tus owed reci))rocul duties to one another, tlie
i one being bound to afford protection and
I support, the other to show loyalty {obscquium
742
PAUPERLES
vt reverentia) to and render such other services
as were due. These services (opcrae) were of
two kinds : officialcs, customary tokens of
respect and affection, due apii.rt from contract ;
and fabiHles, which are explained by the term
itself, and which required an exjjress stipula-
tion.
The patron could not command any services
which might have the effect of imposing a
burden on the liberty of the slave, or any
services which 'vere disgraceful [turpes) or dan-
gerous to life ; but if the liliertus exercised any
art or calling [artificium), even if he learned it
after his manumission, operae in respect to it
might be reserved for the benefit of the patron.
The Lex lulia et Papia Popptiea released freed-
men from all obligations as to gifts or operae
(imposed lihertatis causa) who had begotten
two children and had them in their power, or
one child five years old. The patron was the
statutory guardian (tutor legitimus) of liis
freedman who was under age.
In ancient times the libertus was subject to
a kind of dom.estic imperium, and might be
punished in a summary way by his patron. In
later times the patron had the power of rele-
gating an ungrateful freedm.in to a certain
distance from Rome, under a law probably
passed in the time of Augustus (Tac. Ann. xiii.
28). The patron might prosecute his freedman
for ingratitude [ut ingratum aceusare), and so
rcn'oke his manumission. An ingratus was
also called lihertus impius, as being deficient
in pietas. Disputes between patrons and freed-
men were subject to the extraordinarj- juris-
diction of the praetor. [lurisdictio.]
(1) By the law of the Twelve Tables, if a
libertus died intestate, without sui heredes,
a id always in the case of an intestate liberta,
t!ie patronus was heir. These patronal rights
belonged both to a patronus and a patrona,
and tiieir liberi, natural or adoptive. A freed-
man had free power of disposing of his pro-
party by will, according to the Twelve Tables,
and so of excluding his patron from the suc-
cession.
(2) The law regulating the succession to the
property of deceased freedmen was supple-
mented and amended by the edict of the
praetor [Edictum], who extended the rights of
p itrons. The Lex Papia Poppaea still further
curtailed a freedman's power of free disposition,
in order to secure the patron's reversionary
interest.
According to the old law, as the liberta was
ill the legitima tutela of her patron, she could
make no disposition of her property by will
without his sanction [patrono auctore). By the
Lex Papia a liberta was freed from this tutela
i; she had four children, and she could then
make a will without the sanction of her patro-
nus ; but the patronus took an equal share [jyars
virilis) with her surviving children.
The property of Latini liberti was regarded as
l>eculium on their death, and so belonged to the
patron as if he had previously been owner of it,
not b}' title of inheritance. A Latinus Junianus
could not make a will.
A capitis deminutio, either of the patron or
the libertus, dissolved the relation between
til am. [Caput.] (Tac. Hist. ii. 92.) The chil-
dren of a freedman were ingenui.
As to the other meanings of patronus, see
Cliens, Colonia, Orator.
Paupe'ries. Damage to property done to a
]i^rson by a domesticated animal, without any
faalt of its owner. If the damage done was
PER PIGNORIS CAPIONEM
due to the fault of the owmer, it was not pau-
perics, l)ut unlawful damage [Damnum in-
iuria datum . It was required that tlie damage
should be contrary to the ordinary nature of
the animal. In case of pauperies arising, the
law of the Twelve Tables gave the injured per-
son an action against the owner of the aaiimal.
The right of action ceased if the ani-
mal died. By this action the owTier of the
animal was required either to give up the
animal to the injured party (noxae darr), or to
pay the full amount of damages. Thus the
actio de paii,j)erie belonged to the class of
noxales actiones. [Noxalis actio.] Xoxal sur-
render oi'igLnated in an archaic state of society
(probably from a primitive notion of vengeance)
and traces of it are widespread.
Fecula'tus is the misappropriation or theft
of public or sacred property, whether it was
done by a public functionary or by a private
person. The person guiltj- of this offence was
peculator. Peculatus was punished in early
times by the infliction of a heavy multa on the
offender (Liv. i. 37, xxv. 34). Originally trials
for peculatus were before the jiopulus or before
the senate (Liv. v. 82). In the time of Cicero
matters of peculatus were one of the quaestiones
perpetuae (Cluent. 53, 147, Mur. 20, 42).
The Lex lulia de residuis applied to those
who had received public money tor public pur-
poses, and had retained it when they ought to
have paid it over.' The offence differs from
ordinary peculatus in that it is constituted by
a mere omission. The penalty under this lex
on conviction was a third part of the sum re-
tained, besides liability to restitution. Sacri-
legiuni is treated as a kind of peculatus under
the Lex lulia, a sacrilegus being one who
plunders sacred property of a public kind.
rSacrilegium.j The Lex" lulia peculatus em-
braced certain coinage offences, falsification
of public accounts or documents of title to
public land, &c. The punishment for peculatus,
wliich under the Lex lulia was aquae et ignis
intcrdictio, was subsequently changed into de-
jmrtatio : the property of the offender was
forfeited.
Per iu'dicis postulatio'nem. [Actio.]
Per pi'gnoris capio'nem. This legis actio,
or form of statute ])rocess, was a legal mode
of self-redress, by which certain privileged
creditors could distrain on the property of their
debtors who were in default. The obligations
enforceable in this way were of a religious or
pubuc character, and probably did not give rise
to any civil action.
Pignoris capio depended in some cases on
custom (yuoribus), and in others on statute
(lege). (1) It was founded on custom in obli-
gations relating to military service. A soldier
might seize as a material guarantee (pignus)
anything belonging to the pajTiiaster or ]):'rson
who had to funiish the aes niilitare or sti-
pendium, the aes equestre, or the aes hordea-
rium, in case he did not make the proper pay-
ments (Liv. i. 43 ; Cic. Hep. ii. 20, 86).
(2) The law of the Twelve Tables made liable
to pignoris capio, on default of payment, the
buj-er of a victim (hostia), and the hirer of a
beast of burden, when the hire money was in-
tended for a sacrifice (in dapeni). The publi-
cani also had the right pignoris capionis in
respect of vectigalia publica.
The distress itself was not an action in the
ordinarj- sense, but a kind of self- redress ; it
must, however, have very frequently given rise
to an action in court, where the right to distrain
PER CONDICTIOXEM
-was disputed. It is probable that if the debtor
did not redeem (rclucre) the pignus within two
months, it became the property of the distrainer,
or that the latter had the riglit to sell it {caed-
ere pignns, Cic. de Or. iii. i. 4).
Per condictio'neni. A general action [legis
actio) for recovery of debt, so called because
the plaintiff gave notice {condicere) to the de-
fendant to be present m court on the thirtieth
day after the notice, in order tliat a iudex
might be appointed. It was a form of personal
action : that is, an action founded on an obliga-
tion between the parties with resj)ect to certa
pecunia or certa res, and was introduced by a
Lex Silia (424 B.C.). In the case of an obliga-
tion to transfer [dari oportere) there were be-
sides the actio per condictionem the forms of
action by sacramentum and per iudicis p)ostu-
lationem. It seems probable that a spo)isio and
restijiulatio, a kind of judicial wager, had to be
entered by the parties when they came to re-
ceive a iudex. The condictio was the ordinary
personal action when the formulary system was
established, and was considered in later times
as the typical actio in personam. As actio
strict! iuris, condictio was opposed to actio
bonae fidei. [Actio.]
Perduellio'nis duo'viri (more correctly duo-
viri perduellioni iudicatidae), two judges ap-
pointed, on special occasions, to try cases of
pcrdiu'llio. Cases of pcrducllio were usually
conducted by tribunes or quaestors. Whether
duo viri were appointed, appears to have been
determined in each instance by a special reso-
lution of the people. The sentence passed was
liable to an appeal to the people, and in this
case the duo viri appeared to support their
decision, \nz. virtually to act as prosecutors.
[Maiestas.]
Pignus ( ypAG-, pa[n]go, ■KViywui, etc.). A
thing is said to be pledged to a man when it is
)nade security to him for the satisfaction of
some debt or obligation due to him, tlie creditor
acquiring a right in the thing pledged, though
the pledger remains owner of the thing.
In the law of the Twelve Tables there was
no independent right of pledge as distinct from
a right of ownership, the only mode of giving
security in- early times being by a transfer
of quiritarian ownership of the thing to the
creditor by mancipation or in iure cessio, on
condition of its being re-conveyed when the
debt was paid. [Fiducia.] The first step ni
advance from the conveyance and a re-convey-
ance was the establishment of pignus, i.e. the
simple delivery of a thing to the creditor as
security for his debt, without conveymg the
ownership of it to him. The creditor acquired
by the delivery legal i^ossession of the tiling ;
but he could not dispose of the pignus to obtain
satisfaction of his claim, nor could he make use
of it while in his possession, but had simply a
right of retention. It was a connnon practice,
however, for the parties to a pledge to make a
condition called Lex Commissoria,hy which, if
the debt was not paid, the thing became the
X)roperty of the pledgee.
Ultimately the praetor made a reform in
the law of pledge by allowing a pledge to be
constituted by simple agreement [nudd con-
veiitio). This change was first instituted to
enable a landlord to recover the stock (iiwcvta
ct illata) of his farming tenant {coIo)iuh) wliicli
had been pledged to him for his rent {])ro mcr-
cedihuH fundi). The creditor also accjuired the
power of selling the thing pledged if his debt
was not satisfied. The special term for a simple
POSSESSIO
743
pledge without delivery, derived from Greek
law, is hypotheca.
The person who had given a pledge was still
owner of the thing that was pledged. He could
therefore use the thing and enjoy its /r«c<MS, if
he had not given up possession, uiiless there
was a contract entitling the pledgee to make
use of it {ajitichresis). In case of a sale the
creditor must give the debtor three separate
notices of his intention to sell, and wait two
years before he could legally make a sale. The
act of pledging required no particular form.
The pledge was extinguished by pajTnent of
the debt for which it was security, by a release
of it on the part of the creditor, also by the
destruction of the thing, for the loss was the
owner's ; it was also extinguished if the thing
was changed so as to be not capable of being
restored to its former state ; further, it was
extinguished by Confusio — that is, when the
pledgee became the owner ; or by a prescrip-
tion of ten or twenty years under certain con-
ditions.
Pla'gium. The concealing or kidnapping of
an ingenuus or libertus against his will, or per-
suading or aiding a sla\e to run away from his
or her owner. The penalty of the lex Fabia,
the law which applied to this offence, was
pecuniary, and the consequence was infamia;
later, persons who offended against the lex were
punished, either by being sent to work in the
mines or by crucifixion if they were humiliures,
or with confiscation of half of their property or
perpetual relegation if they were honestiorcH.
These punishments were imposed by the prae-
fectus urbi and the praesides provinciarum.
He who conunitted plagium was 2'i(iffi(>-'>'itts, a
word which Martial (i. 53) applies to a person
who falsely gave himself out as the author of a
book; and in this sense the word has come into
common use in our language.
Poena (iroiW)). Composition paid by a delin-
quent to the i)arty injured by him, or to liis
kinsmen, in order to escape vengeance. When
crimes came to be visited with punislinient by
the state, the word jyo<^?ia meant a legal penalty
or punishment on account of offences, whether
exacted at the suit of the injured party or as a
consequence of a indicium iiublicum.
The conception of poena dillers from that of
vutUa (not ■mulctn), which was a pecuniary
penalty. A multa was imposed according to
the discretion of the magistrate who also deter-
mined its amount, unless a maximum was fixed
by law. A poena was only inflicted when it
was imposed by some lex or some other legal
authoritj' [quo alio iure). A poena was not
necessarily pecuniary, but might affect a per-
son's caput and exislimatio. Such were viii-
cula, verbera, talio, ignoininia, exiliuni, morn,
and servitus. A poena might be inflicted by
anyone whose function it was to take cognis-
ance of crime.
Posse'ssio, in its jirimary sense, is the control
which a man has over a corporeal thing, so that
he is able to deal with it at his pleasure, and to
exclude other persons from meddling witli it.
Possessio is not in any way to be confounded
with owniership. Ownership {dominium) is the
legal right to exercise control over a thing
according to a man's pleasure, and to exclude
everybody else from doing so ; possessio is the
exercise of this right, whether as an owner or
not.
Though incorporeal things are not, strictly
speaking, capable of possession, yet the actual
enjoyment of them (as, for instance, in the case
744
POSTLIMINIUM
of servitudes) is sometimes equivalent to pos-
session of a corporeal thing, and is called iuris
quasi possessio.
The rights attached to possession in the legal
sense were the following :
(1) Such possession gives a right to the pos-
sessor to the protection of the possessory inter-
dicts {interdicta retinendae — recuperandae
j)OSsessionis) against interference with his pos-
session and dispossession. [Interdicttun.] Bj-
virtue of being possessor, the possessor is pre-
sumed to have a better right than anyone else,
and is only obliged to surrender the thing to
the owner who proves his superior title in the
proprietary action called vindicatio.
(2j Possession for a certain time may give a
title to ownership by usucapion, but usucapion
must have been acquired bona fide and iiista
causa. He who buys a thing from a man who
is not the owner, but whom he believes to be
the owner, and obtains possession of the thing,
is a bona fide possessor with a iusta causa.
[Usucapio.J
(8) Possession of a res nullius gives rise to
ownership at once by title of occupancy.
In order to acquire possession, apprehension
(corpus) and intention (animus) are necessary.
Actual corxjoreal conttict with the thing is not
necessary to apprehension. Thus a man may
acquire possession of what is contained in a
warehouse or granary by delivery of the key
which gives him access to the contents.
Every possession continues so long as the
corpus and the animus continue. If both cease
or either of them ceases, the possession is gone.
The possession is lost corpore ct animo, when
the possessor gives up a thing to another or
he abandons it (dcrelictuni).
The origin of the Roman doctrine of posses-
sion may probably be traced to the possessio of
the ager publicus. [Agrariae leges.] Pos-
sessio, possessor, and ponsid-n-e are the terms
used by the Roman writers to express the pos-
session and enjo^nnent of the public lands.
Such possession is not quiritarian ownership,
the ownership being in the state. Property
in provincial soil came to be called possessio ;
such property was not ownership, but it was a
right to the exclusive enjoyment of the land
[Provincial. Thus the word possessio, which
properly means (a) the fact of possession, some-
times signifies (b) a right to the j)ossession of
land, i.e. a right of property ; it is also used to
signify (c) the object of the right, 'possessio,'
not ' ager,' being used of land that could not
be the object of quiritarian ownership, such as
iwovincial land and the old ager publicus.
Postlimi'niuin seems in origin to have been
derived from the Ins fetiale.
If a Roman citizen during war was captured
with arms in his hand, and thus came into the
power of an enemy, he underwent capitis demi-
nutio maxima, and all his civil rights were in
abeyance, because he thereby became a slave.
But if he returned to his ovm country, he was
able to vecoyev hy jwstlim inium all the rights
which belonged to him at the time of his
capture or which had accrued to him since :
a doctrine which was based on the fiction that
he had never been absent from home (Cic.
Ball. 11, 1'2, 27, 30, de Or. i. 40, 181). Origi-
nally marriage was dissolved by the capture of
either party, and it could not be restored by
postliminium, a fresh consensus being required
if the captive returned ; but eventually capti-
vity was regarded as in no way differing from
ordinary absence, proof being required of the
PRAESCREPTIO PRO REO
absent party's death before the other could
lawfully marry again. Finally, if a man made
a will before he was taken prisoner, and after-
wards returned, the will was upheld by post-
liminium notwithstanding his intermediate
slavery.
Sometimes a man was given up to an enemy
by an act of the state. This was the case with
Sp. Postumius, who was surrendered, 820 B.C.,
to the Samnites (Liv. ix. 10), and with C. Hos-
tilius Mancinus, who was given up to Numantia.
137 B.C. (Liv. Ep. Ivi.). It was held that in
such a case postliminium had no operation
(Cic. de Or. i. 40, 141, Off. iii. 30, 109, Caec.
34, 98).
Prae'dium, a word of doubtful derivation,
signifies land with a view to occupation or tillage,
fa)idus or solum meaning simply the soil.
Provincial praedia were called either stipen-
diaria or tributaria, because the land tax was
termed stipendium in senatorial, tributum in
imperial provinces.
Fraeiiidi'ciuin. A praeiudicium is sometliing
which when established becomes an exemplum
for following judges, whether of the nature of a
precedent or of a rule determined for the case
in hand. A 'prejudicial ' action was one whose
object was merely to ascertain judicially facts
which were of legal importance, or the existence
of alleged legal relations. The name of the
action was derived from the fact that the deci-
sion of the judge formed, or might foi'm, the
basis of subsequent litigation (e.g. it having
been ascertained by praeiudicium that B is the
illegitimate child of A, the mother can proceed
by action against A for its maintenance).
Praeiudicium sometimes means 'inconveni-
ence ' (probably from the notion of a thing V)eing
prejudged without being fairly heard ; and
hence our own legal plirase ' without prejudice
to other matters in the cause ').
Praes (prae-vas : Vw.^dh, connected with G.
wette, N. ved, O.H.G. luetti, a ' wad ' or pledge),
a surety who, besides his person, pledges his
property for the discharge by another of his
obligations, or for his appearance in court.
Praescri'ptio originally signified a part in
the formula of an action which stood first and
before all others. Such praescriptio might
be inserted for the benefit of the plaintiff
(pro adore) to save a right of action in future
cases ; or for the benefit of the defendajit
(pro reo).
Praescri'ptio pro reo was the mode of ex-
pressing ill the formula of an action certain
indirect defences against the plaintiff's case,
being similar in principle to the excrptio
[ActiOj. Among them were the pleas that tin;
suit in question ought not to be tried at all,
because its decision would prejudge a causa
maior [Praeiudiciuml, and that the action was
bej-ond the jurisdiction of the court (prae-
scri2>tio fori), or barred by lapse of time (prae-
scriptio temporis) (cf. napa-Ypa<J>Ti).
The praescriptio temporis, or plea by the
defendant that an action is barred or pre-
scribed by lapse of tune, has furnished general
jurisprudence with one of its most famous
terms. Under the older Roman law all suits
were, as it is said, perpetuae ; there being
no rule, or Statute of Limitations, providing
that rights of action should be barred unless
sued upon within a definite period. Tlie praetor,
however, ordained that many of the new actions
which he introduced through the edict should
lie only within an annus utilis from the mo-
ment at which the right of bringing them first
PEAEVARICATIO
ju-crued. In course of time, too, a period of
prescription was fixed for other suits.
B^jr the history of tlie Praescriptlu lonyi
teiiiporis, see Usucapio.
Praevarica'tio. l<'ran(liilent or collusive mis-
conduct of u criminal cluuge, by such practices
<is not calling important witnesses, packing the
jurj' by means of dishonest challenges, &c. The
penalties were the same as those of calumnia:
viz. branding on the forehead with the letter
K, exile, relegatio in insulam, or degradation
from rank. [Caltunnia.j
Q.
Quadrupla'tor. A professional accuser in
<'ases involving a pecuniary penalty (Cic. Vrrr.
ii. H, '2'2 ; Liv. iii. 72). The index was an offender
who, by coming forward as an informer, gained
immunity for himself and a reward ]iaid by the
state treasury (Liv. ii. 5, iv. 45, xxxix. 10 ; Cic.
(Jat. iv. 5 ; Suet. Jul. 17). The quadruplator
<lif[ered from the index in the fact that he was
not himself liable, but took uj) the at-cusation
jis a means of making money, and because he
derived his gains from a share of the penalty,
and so from the property of the accused, not
from the state. [See Delator.]
The word is probably derived from the four-
fold penalty in certain cases ; as, e.g.. violation
•of tlie laws'of usury (Liv. vii. 'it*; Fenust.
Quanti mino'ris, or Aestimato'ria actio.
rEmptio venditio.]
Quorum bono'rum, Interdi'ctum. The ob-
ject of this interdict was to give a person who
"had a prima facie claim to an inheritance in-
terim possession of things belonging to it, until
a suit respecting the inheritance was deter-
mined. Thus it was an interdict for acquiring
possession (aclipisccndae posseHsionin causa}.
If the bonoruni possessor continued in posses-
sion for the period of usucapion, lie became
■civil owner. [Usucapio; Interdictum.J
The name of the Interdictum (piorum bono-
rum is derived from its introductory words;
'quorum bonoi'um ex edicto meo illi )iossessio
data est,' itc. [Heres; Bonorum possessio.j
E.
Rece'pta; De rece'pto a'ctio. Tlie praetor
<]eclared that he would allow an action against
rxcrcifoi'cs, i.e. against luniiae or sliii)owi\crs
(exerritoria actio), cai/jioiu's (innkeepers),
and stabularii (livery stable keepers), in re-
spect of any property which they had taken
under their charge if they did not restore it.
They were liable to this action if the thing
were lt)st or injured, even witliout any negli-
gence on their part, and were only excused
in case of damnum fatale, such as shipwreck,
piracy, and so forth, or in case of negligence on
the part of the dei)ositor. English law follows
the example of Koman law in making inn-
keepers and common caiTiers similarly respon-
sible, as such depositing is an act of necessity,
nut choice, on the part of the traveller.
Tlie |)raetor also gave a i)ena] action with
<louble damages against iiaiiiar, caupoites, and
Jitdhiilarii on account of jirojierty received, if
such loss or damage was due to the dishonesty
•or iH'gligeiifc of tliuse in tln'ir (■iiii)l<)ynifnt.
Redhibito'ria a'ctio. ' Emptio venditio. ]
Repetu'ndae, or Pecuniae repetu'ndae. Ec-
petuiidae pecuniae (' recovery of moneys ') in
RESTITUTIO IN INTEGRUM 7-15
its widest sense was the term used to designate
such sums of money as the socii of the Roman
state or individuals claimed to recover from
public officials, improperly taken or received
by them in theProvinciae or in tlie UrbsRoma,
in respect of any public function. Hence the
word rejietundac came to be used to express
illegal acts of officials {hwpccv Sikt], Plut. Sull.
o\, and the crimen repetundaruni for the crime
of official corruption and oppression.
It is stated by Livy (xlii. 1) that before the
year 73 B.C. no complaints were made by the
socii of being put to any cost or charge by the
Roman magistratus. Subsequently, wlieii com-
plaints came to be made, inquiry was instituted
by extraordinary commissions of tlie senate
(Liv. xliii. 2, xxxii. 27). The first lex repe-
tundarum was the Lex Calpurnia, proposed
and carried by the tribunus plebis L. Cal-
purnius Piso (149 B.c:.). This law established
for the first time a perpetua quaestio to try
persons charged with this offence, a special
praetor being appointed to conduct tlie trial
(Cic. Off. ii. 21, 75). The lex only applied to
provincial magistrates. The penalties of the
Lex Calt)urnia were pecuniary, and did nut
comprise exilium. The penalties of the Lex
Servilia Glaucia, 100 B.C., were fine and exile.
The penalty appears to have been double tlie
amount of what hatl been wrongfully taken ;
and subsequently by the Lex Cornelia it was
made quadruple. This lex gave the civitas t<3
any provincial on whose complaint a person
was convicted of repetundae (Cic. Balb. 23, 24).
The Ijex Cornelia, i)assed in the dictatorship
of Sulla, ^>1 B.C., extended the penalties of repe-
tundae to other illegal acts committed in the
provinces, to iudices who received bribes, and
other persons abetting the crime, or failing to
give into the Aerarium their jiroconsular ac-
counts [jrrocotisularcH rationes). This lex also
allowed ampliatio and comperendinatio [ludez J.
The j)enalties were fourfold pecuniary damages
and aquae ct ignis intcrdictio.
Restitu'tio in i ntegrum signifies the re-
scinding of an act by the magistratus in order to
prevent the legal consequences which ordinarily
attach to such an act from taking effect, the
parties affected by it being restored to the same
position which they occupied before it took
l)lace. Tlie in integrum restitutio is an extra-
ordinary remedy (extraordinarium auxilium),
available in cases of conflict between strict law
and cipiity {ius strictuni, ac<j ii i t as), nitplwd by
tlie magistrate through his Imperium, as dis-
tinguislicd from his lurisdictio.
In order to entitle a person to the restitutio,
he must have sustained some injury in conse-
quence of the contract or act in (piestion, and
not through accident or any fault of his own.
A restitutio might be decreed on account
of vis et nictus, or dolus [Culpa], error or
mistake : a person who had bound liiinself by
a legal act might sometimes obtain restitutio
in respect of it on tiie ground of mistake.
Other cases are: tlie case of iniintres xxv
annorum; a person above the age of puberty
could bind himself by a legal act, but up to
the age of twenty-five could obtain redress by
restitutio, if it could be shown tliat an im-
proper advantage had been tak<'n of his inex-
perience. The case of cajiiiis drininutio
through arrogatio [Adoptioj or in vianuui
eonrentio ["MatrimoniumJ, which according to
the Ius C'ivilr was fiijlowcd by the extinction
of all tlie ilcbts of the jierson arrogated or
brought ill, nianuin : such debts could l>c
746 SACRILEGIUM
recovered bj' restitutio. The case of absentia
during the period hniited by law: e.g. unavoid-
able absence on account of metus or on state
service {reipuhlicae causa), or imprisoiunent
(in vinculis), or capture by the enemy {in- hos-
tium potestate).
S.
Sacrile'gium. The robbery of sacred things ;
that form of peculatus which affects sacred
property not in private hands : i.e. the rob- '
l)ery of anything publicly dedicated to the
service of the gods. According to the Twelve
Tables (Cic. Legg. ii. 9, 22), the sacrilegus was
tried by tlie quae.stores parricidii. In later
times there wc re clianges both in the procedure
and in the definition of the crime. It was tried
under the quaestiones perpetuae [Peculatusj ;
and the crime of sacrilege, besides meaning
robbery of temples, was extended to include
damage or insult to anything consecrated, e.g.
the wails of the city; and further, under the
Empire, to want of respect for the emperor or
his appointments [Maiestas]. The punisliment
of sacrilegium under the Lex lulia was inter-
dictio aquae et ignis, for which banishment
{depnrtatio) was substituted : under the Em-
pire heavier penalties were affixed — for breaking
into temples by night, daninatio ad bestias or
burning alive : for the same act by day, labour
in the mines or banisliment. (For sacrilege
among the Greeks, see 'IcpoavXia.)
Se'ctio. Property was said venire jnihlire
when a man's whole belongings were .sold by
the state ; which occurred when he was con-
demned (1) for certain crimes for which for-
feiture was part of the penalty ; (2) in cases of
jiroscriptio (Liv. xxxviii. GO; Cic. Ffrr. i. 20,
52), and (3) wlien the state had an unsatisfied
claim against a wrongdoer (Liv. xxxviii. .OH, (>0 ;
Cic. Rab. Post. 4, H). The quaestors gave
notice of the sale [sertio), which took place sub
hasta (Cic. Fhil. ii. 2(), C4), and transferred
quiritarian ownership ; the property being sold
in the lump, and the purchaser taking it with
all its liabilities. The names sector and sectio
are explained by the subsecpient breaking up
of the property into lots, by the sale of wliich
the sector made his profit ; the property itself
is sometimes called sectio.
Se'rvitus. I. Legal. Where one pei'son has
a right over property of another, which he can
assert by legal remedy against anyone who inter-
feres with its exercise, and not merely against
tlie owner of the property, he is said to have a
jus in re aliena, and his right belongs to those
which are ' real ' or in rem. By the existence
of such a right the legal position of the owner
is diminished in value : his ownership, which
otherwise would be unrestricted, is curtailed,
not in duration, but in extension. Two classes
of such iura in re aliena are knowni to
Roman law : one class recognised by the old
lus Civile, and termed servitutes ; the other
of praetorian origin, and known by specific
names, viz. Emphyteusis, Pignus, and Super-
ficies.
The term servitus properly denotes the quasi
non-free condition of an object over which rights
f.re enjoyed by a person other than its owner, but
more commonly it is used to express the de-
ducted right itself.
The Roman classification of servitudes is
into praedial and personal. A praedial servi-
tude can belong to a man only as being
owner or tenant of a parcel of land or a house
SERVITUS
(prae.dium), whereas he can have a perijonal
servitude without any such restriction.
A personal servitude (servitus personarum,
or personalis) is one which belongs simply to a
man as such, and not as owner or tenant of this
or that land or house ; it is limited in duration
at least by that of his own lifetime, and can
exist over any object of property whatever.
Personal servitudes are four in number, viz.
Usus, XJsufructus (see those articles), habi-
tatio, and operae servorum sivc aninialiani.
Habitatio is the right of living in another per-
son's house. Operae servorum or animalium
consisted in a man's having a right to the use
and services of another's slave or beast, so long
as he or it lived.
Praedial servitudes are either rustic or urban
(iiird praediorum rusticorum, urbanorum).
The following are instances of praedial servi-
tudes. 1. Ubban. — (1) Oneris ferendi: the
right which a man has to use the wall or edifice
of his neighbour as a support for his own. (2)
Tigni itnntittendi : the right of planting a
beam in or upon a neighbour's wall (Tac. Ann
XV. 43; Cic. de Orat. i. 38, 173). (3) .S7;7//-
(•/(/// : the right to have the rain-water drip in
its natural course from one's roof on to a
neighbour's land; including servitus Jiuminis
rccipiendi, imniittendi, or avertendi , the right
of throwing such water on adjoining land from
a pipe. (Cic. de Or. i. 88, 173, Top. 4, 22.)
(4) Aldus nan tollendi: the right of prevent-
ing a man from building (or raising buildings
already standing) above a certain height. (5)
Ne I u minibus and ne prospectui officiatur:
the right of having one's supply of daylight
and one's view uninterfered with by any act of
one's neighbour, such as by planting trees or
erections of any kind (Cic. de Or. i. 3i», 179).
2. Rustic. — (1) Via, actus, and iter; dif-
rerent forms of right of way over another man's
land. (2) Aquaeductus : the right of conduct-
ing water on or over another's land away to
one's own. (3) Pecoris ad aquam appulsus :
the right of watering cattle on the land of
a neighbour. (4) lus 2^(iscendi : the right to
pasture cattle there. Other rustic servitudes
are iura silvae caeduae, cretae eximendae,
lapidis eximendi, arerme fodiendae, calcis
, coquendae, &c.
■ Some general limitations were imposed on the
' exercise of ownership at Rome, either upon
religious grounds or in the interest of neigh-
1 hours or of the public generally, and these are
sometimes called ' legal servitudes.' Such are :
(1) /inis, a space of five feet in width between
adjoining estates, which could not be cultivated,
but was held sacred and was used by the owners
of the adjoining lands as a common road, and
for sacrifice. (2) A man's duty to fell, at his
neighbour's request, or cut branches of trees
which grow in his own land, but which hang
over the other's liouse or other building. (3)
The rule permitting a man to go on his neigii-
bour's premises to gather fruit which had fjdlcn
1 thereon from his own trees. (4) [Aquae pluviae
^ a. actio.]
i II. Slavery. In the \vritings of the Roman
jurists and philosophers slavery appears as the
chief, if not the only, instance of an opposition
between the ('((.s gentium and the iusiuiturale.
' It was contra natural?!, but at the same time
j due to the ius gentium, or universal practice of
' mankind (cf . Arist. Pol. i. 2, 15, 18 ; Cic. Hep.
iii. 25, 37).
The relation of the master to his slave is
expressed by the terra dominium. The master
SERVITUS
is domimis of his slave just as he is domi)uis
of his horses or any other object of property,
imd the master may deal with him just as he
may with any other res of whicli he is owner ;
he may sell him, and has -ii/s vitae necisque
over his person. Tlie slave was, however, a
human being, and over him as such the master
is said to exercise potcstas. It was through
i\u?. potestas that the slave became capable of
acting as the agent of the dominus in com-
merce, and acquired capacity to be heir or
legatee under a will. Again, a slave could be-
come free, and thus a persona. Lastly, the tie
of kinship is recognised.
The exercise of a master's right to deal with
the person of his slave in any way he pleased
was considerably restrained by usage. In the
older times slaves are said to have been well
treated, and to have eaten frequently at the
same table witli their masters, of whose chil-
dren they were the instructors, nurses, and
playmates (Cic. Sen. S, 20; Plin. H. N
xxxiii. § 26) ; and a master whose treatment of
his slaves outraged public opinion might be
punished as a bad citizen bj- tlie censors. The
slaves also shared with the free in many of
the privileges and offices of religion. Under
the Empire measures were taken against exces-
sive cruelty. Various enactments forbade the
arbitrary sale of slaves for combating wild
beasts in the arena, even though they had done
some act deserving punishment (Dig. 2it, 5).
Claudius bestowed freedom on slaves whom
(heir masters exposed on account of ill-
health, and threatened penalties for killing
them under such circumstances (Suet. Claud.
25) ; and Hadrian forbade the killing of slaves
in any case without judicial sanction. On the
other hand, the ancient practice of putting
slaves to the torture for the purpose of disco-
vering their master's murderer was legalised
by Augustus, 10 .\.d. Antoninus Pius granted
slaves the right of making complaints to the
praefectus urbi or praetorio of ill-treatment at
their masters' hands. Regulations were also
made to prevent the breaking up of families
and the removal of slaves from the land, in
case of sale or division of property. Yet these
enactments did not confer any legal rights upon
the slave : they merely limited the general
rights of ownership on grounds of expediency.
Slaves were incapable of marriage (sensic
Ipgali) of any kind, but a permanent connexion
between two slaves, or a slave and a free per-
son, was called contuhcrnium.
A slave was incapable of proprietary as of
other rights, and everything conveyed to him
became v/jso/ac^o the property of liis master.
If a slave were instituted hercs, he could only
accept the hereditas with the consent of
his master, in whom it vested immediately on
acceptance.
As, however, slaves were commonly employed
by their masters in every variety of service and
occupation — as mechanics, artisans, clerks,
stewards, business managers, actors, surgeons
and physicians, teachers, etc., they might
accumulate wealth ; and this they were usually
allowed bj' special concession {ro)icessio) to
administer on their own belnxlf under the name
of ycculium. The pccidiitm technically re-
mained ijart of the master's pro]ierty, and
could be resumed or appropriated by him at
pleasure; but this does not appear to have been
commonly done, the ])ractice being to promise
slaves their freedom if they could accumulate a
pcciiUum of a certain value (Tac. Ann. xiv.
SOCIETAS
747
42). On manumission a slave was by lav;'
allowed to retain his peculi urn unless expressly
reserved by the master. The institution of
vrcuUum made it possible for contracts to be
entered into between master and slave, from
which, it is true, no right of action arose, but
which nevertheless created a ' natural ' obliga-
tion [Obligatioj ; so that, e.g., debts incurred by
either party before manumission were binding
after.
The contracts which a slave made with third
persons did not bind" the owner unless he had
either expressly or by implication directed or
subsequently ratified the slave's contract. In
such cases he was made as fully liable in per-
son as if he had actually been the contracting
party. Where the slave engaged in trade with
ixpcculium with his master's knowledge, and
became bankrupt, his trade creditors could
demand a distribution of the pe milium among
themselves, so far as it was invested in the
business (merx ^:)t'c(iZirt?7's), in the ratio of
their several claims : the division was made by
the master, who was treated as an ordinary
creditor and shared alike with the others.
For delicts committed by a slave against
his master, the latter might inflict punishment
himself. Wrongs perj)etrated by slaves against
third persons came under Noxalis actio : in
criminal cases they were subject to the ordi-
nary procedure, though sometimes the execu-
tion of the sentence was entrusted to the
master himself.
It was unlawful to receive or Imrboiu- run-
away slaves (fugitivi) in the pursuit of whom
the law co-operated with the master by re-
quiring the authorities to render him every
assistance : penalties were also imposed on
their alienation and acquisition, and a special
class of persons, csilled fiigit i varii, made their
pursuit a regular business. The kidnapping or
decoying away of slaves was dealt with by a
Lex Pabia de plagiariis.
Children born out of lawful wedlock followed
the condition of the mother, whatever might
be that of the father : tlms, in general, the chil-
di-en of a female slave (anrilla) were slaves
themselves, and if born in their master's house
were called vcrnae.
A free person might become a slave by cap-
ture in war. Prisoners taken by the Roman
armies were sold as slaves by the quaestor fur
the aerarium (Liv. iv. 34, vi. 4) or reserved by
the atiite as servi 2>i<blici (LW. xxvi. 47): very
rarely they were distributed among the soldiers
by lot (Liv. iv. 34). Tlie practice of selling
prisoners with a wreath on their heads is
alluded to in the common expressions sub
corona venire and vcndcrc (Liv. v. 22 ; Caes.
B. G. iii. 10). [Postliminium.] In certain
cases the law allowed a free person to be sold
as a slave. (See Caput; Furtum.) A free
man who was condennied to deatli, to penal
servitude in the mines, or to fight with gladi-
ators or wild beasts, became and died a slave.
Of the modes in which a slave might become
free, the chief were Manumissio and Postli-
minium. There were, liowiver, a number of
other ways in which liberty was bestowed by the
law, without the master's having anything to say
in the matter, and the tendency of the law in
later times was to make manumission easier.
Soci'etas. ' Partnershi]),' a contract wliich
arises when two or more persons agree together
to conduct on their joint account any lawful
business, or to share the profits and loss of any
single piece of business, or even of all Hieir
748
SPECIFICATIO
havings and doings. The partners may contri-
bute and sliare equally or differently. In default
of agreement, the shares will be equal.
(1) Socictas universoriun hoiwruni was a
partnership in which all the corporeal property
of each partner, including all future acquisi-
tions, became at once common to both.
(2) Societates publicanortua. The companies
which farmed the public taxes were on a vei-y
large scale ; but little is known of tlieir legal
character. Tlie shares {partes) in these com-
panies were sold and rose and fell in pi-ice (Cic.
Bah. Post. 2, 4, Vat. 12, 29, Verr. ii. 70, 77).
Specifica'tio. rConfusio.]
Succe'ssio. J^Heres.]
Superficies, Superficia'rius. The doctrine
of the civil as of our own law, in respect of
things attached to the soil, was that ' superficies
solo cedit,' i.e. they became part of the soil itself,
and so the property of its owaier. Hence, if
A built on the land of B, he luid no remedy
against B if he claimed the land by vindi-
catio. If the house were built on land held
imder a lease, it acquired the name of aedes
superficiariae, but was not excepted from the
general rule : the house belonged to the land-
owner : superficies, the interest of the other
party, acquired, however, the character of a iiis
in re aliena, the sui)erficiarius or tenant being
legally in nmch tlie same position as if he w^ere
owner of the building, liaving a heritable right
which was fully protected and freely alienable
(cf. Emphyteusis).
T.
Ta'lio, from talis, signifies an equivalent, out
it is used only in the sense of a penalty the
same in kind and degree as the mischief which
the guilty person has done to the body of another.
According to the Twelve Tables, a defend-
ant declared guilty in the actio de membris
niptis of having broken the limb of the plaintiff
was condemned to the penalty of retaliation
at the hands of tlie individual injured or his
friends, unless he could agree upon a pecu-
niary composition (pactum de redimenda
talione). In later times, the party who had
<;ommitted the wrong might demand an arbitra-
tor of the magistratus for the purpose of having
the damages fixed at a fair composition. For
the breaking of a bone [propter os fractum)
as distinct from a limb {memhruin nipt urn)
the penalty was 300 asses if the person injured
was a freeman, and 150 if a slave ; for other
injuries, 25 asses.
The principle of talio is generally foimd in
systems of primitive law, gradually giving place
to that of pecuniary damages. Talio was a part
of the Mosaic law (Levit. xxiv. 20) ; also of the
Punic law.
Testame'ntuni. A formal disposition of pro-
perty to have legal effect after the death of the
testator.
In order to be able to make a valid Roman will
the testator must have legal capacity (tcsta-
tnentifactio ; Cic. Fam. vii. 21). [Heres.j The
right of making a will was the privilege of
Roman citizens wlio were patresfamiliarum (but
see Patria potestas). The following persons
had not test amen tary capacity : those who were
in the potestas or iiianits of another, or in
mancipii causa [Mancipii causa], Latini
luniani, ■peregrini, inipiibrrcs, iitufi, siirdi,
furiosi, iind prodifji. (See also Intestabilis.)
Women had originaUj- no testanivntijactio,
TESTAMENTUM
and when they acquired the power of disposing
of property they could only exercise it by means
of certain juristic contrivances, such as co-
emptio fiduciao causa. In course of time all
formal difference between women's wills and
those of men was removed.
Libert ae could not make a wiU without the
auctoritas of their patronus, unless they had a
certain nmiiber of children. [Patronus.]
In order to constitute a valid will, it was
necessaiy that a heres should be instituted,
which might be done in such terms as th«;
following : — ' Titius heres esto ; Titium heredem
esse jubeo.' All persons who had the com-
mercium could be heredes ; slaves also could
under certain circumstances be made heredes.
Among persons who could not be lieredes we
may mention peregrini and Latini luniani.
There was a rule that incertae personae could
not be instituted ; hence it was originally im-
possible to institute persons postumi and
quasi-postumi, though in course of time tins
was provided for. THeres.]
The earliest will or testament was made
calatiscomitiis: that is, in the comitia curiata,
wliich were summoned (calata) twice a year fur
this pm^pose. The testamentum calatis comit iis
was probably an adoption of an heir by a person
who had no children ; such adoption to take
effect at the deatli of the testator. Tlie
proceeding would be of a legislative character
in its fonn, though no doubt the consent of the
populus was merely formal. [Adoptio.] A
will was also valid made in procinctu by a
soldier publicly in the presence of his comrades
when in the field before the enemy : procincta
classis meaning an army in battle order. A
third mode, the source of the modem will, was
per aes et libram: that is, by mancipium,
whence the name of testamentum per ucs it
libram, or t. mancipativmn.
According to the law of the Twelve Tables,
if a man had neither made his will at calata,
comitia nor in procinctu, and w-as in imminent
danger of death, he would mancipate (mawc/y^/o
dare} his familia — that is, his patrimonium or
family property — to a friend, and request him
to caiTy out his wishes after his death. The
familiae emptor was now in the place of heres
(loco heredis), but only as trustee or executor ;
the testator having instructed him as to what
he wished to be given to each legatee after his
death. The familiae emptor became successor
by the mancipation to the property of tin-
testatoi'. The mancipative will in its rudi-
mentary form was thus not properly a will at
all, but a transaction inter vivos made for the
puiijose of distributing property to legatees.
Li course of time a change took place in the
character of the mancipative will. The testator
by his will, expressed either in writing or by
word of mouth at the time of the mancipation,
instituted a heres as his universal successor,
who took the mheritance subject to any legacies
with wliich the testator had charged it. Hence-
forward a testamentum may be defined as a last
will by which a heres is instituted. The will
might be oral or written, but the ordinary prat--
tice was to make a written will. The testator,
after having written his will (tabulae tcsta-
menti), called together five witnesses, who must
be Roman citizens, and a libripens, as in tln^
case of other mancipationes, and mancipafed
his property (familia pecuniaquv) [Familia]
to some person in a set form of words. Thi-
emptor then struck the scales with a piece of
money, which be gave to the testator as tlie
TESTAMENTUM
price of his piu'chase ; after which the testator,
taking the will in his hand, tleelarcd before the
witnesses his acceptance of tiie transaction.
This was called the niincujiatiu or publishing
of the will.
In the time of the classical jurists the man-
cipative testanientum per aes et libram was
the ordinary form of testament, according to
lus Civile ; it is probable that the testanientum
Ciilatis comitiis and in procinctu had long pre-
viously liecome obsolete.
The Edict [Edictum] established a less
formal kind of will, since it acknowledged the
validity of a wTitten will when there had been
no mancipatio, provided there were seven wit-
nesses and seven seals, and the testator had
the testamentifactio at the time of making the
will and at the time of his death. The Edict
(inly gave the bouorum possessio or praetorian
title to the inheritance.
The praetorian testament prepared the way
for the abolition of mancipatio, and in the
legislation of Justinian a will signed and sealed
by seven witnesses was the ordinary form of
legal testament.
There was no rule of law that a testament
must be written. Written wills, however, were
the common form among the Romans, at least
in the later republican and in tlie imperial
periods. They were written on tablets of wood
or wax, whence the word rcra is often used as
equivalent to tabella ; and the expressions
priiiui. srrunda ccra are equivalent to ^;7*/7Hrt,
nmmda ^jfl_(7 /'?/«. The wili might be written
either by the testator or by any other person
witli his consent, and sometimes it was made
with the advice of a lawyer. It was written in
the Latin language, until 43!) A.D., when it M'as
enacted that wills might be in Greek. It does
not appear that there was originally any signa-
ture by the witnesses. The will was sealed,
but this might be done by the testator in secret ;
the witnesses testified only to the formal act of
mancipatio, and to the testator's declaration
that the tabulae vvhich he held in his hand con
tained his last will. In practice, however, the
witnesses (testes) sealed and signed the will.
It was customary for the witnesses both to sea'
(sifjuare) — that is, to make a mark with a ring
{a It 111 us) or somethinsr else on the wax — and to
add their names yadscriherc). The seals and
adscriptions were both on the outside. The
tablets were tied with a triple thread {linvyii)
on the upper part of the niargui, which was
)>erforated at the middle part, and tlie wax was
imt over the tliread and sealed. Tabulae which
were secured in any other way had no validity
(Suet. Ner. 17). When sealed, tne will was
deposited with some friend, or in a emple, or
with the Vestal Virgins ; and after the testator's
death it was opened (resignarc, Hor.) in due
form. The witnes.ses or tlie major part were
present ; and after they had acknowledged their
seals, the thread (liniini) was broken and the
will was opened and read, and a co))y was made ;
the original was then scjaled with the public
seal and placed in the record-office {archiiim).
Penalties against fraud in the ciise of wills
and other instruments were fixed by the Lex
Cornelia. [Falsum. )
A testament which was invalid from the first
\\A9iimustum or non iiire fartiiiii, when tlie
l>roper forms had not been obser\ed ; a void
will is sometimes said to be niillinii or viiUhis
iiioiiieiiti. A testanientum in stum might be-
come riqitum or irritam or di'stitiituiii in con-
sequence of subsequent events.
TUTELA, TUTOR
74»
A testament became r upturn if the testator
made a subsequent testament in due form as
required bj' law. If the heredes named in the
will for any reason did not receive the hereditas,
the testanientum became dcstitutum, giving
place to the heredes ah intestato.
The testator must have, and continue till his
death to have, a capacity to make a will, other-
wise the will became irrituvi.
A testament was called inoffieiosiim which
was made in legal form, ' sed non ex ofKcio
pietatis.' For instance, if a man had exheri;-
dated his own children, or passed over his
parents, or brothers or sisters, the will was in
form a good will, but the persons aggrieved
might have querela iuoffieiosi. The ground
of the complaint was the (fictitious) allegation
that the testator was ' non sanae mentis.' If
the index declared the testanientum to be
inofficiosum, it was rescinded either wholly or
partially, and the querelant succeeded ah in-
testato.
CodiciJU were an informal will ; though
neither the direct appointment nor exhereda-
tioii of a hcres could be made by codicilli, he
who was appointed heres by a testament might
be requested by codicilli to give the hereditas
to another altogether or in part, even though
the codicilli were not confirmed bj" a testament
[Fideicommissum]. A testament which was
defective as testanientum might be effectual
as codicilli. The power to make codicilli was
the same as the power to make a testament.
I The articles on Heres. Bonorum possessio,
Legatum, Fideicommissum, \c., should be
read with this article.
Tute'la, Tutor. The two forms of Roman
guardianship are tiitela and ciira [Curatori.
According to the law of the Twelve Tables, per-
sons not under patria potestas who by reason of
age or sex were incapable of acting for them-
selves were under the protection of a tutor for-
their own interest and' that of their heredes.
In the case of such persons a tutor supplied to
some extent the place of a paterfamilias.
The tutela was a kind of potestas similar to
the patria potestas, but of a more restricted
character. The power was to be used for the
purpose of protection, and hence tutela implies
dutj' (officium) as well as right. The object
of this right and duty was in tutela (Cic.
Rose. Com. 6, 10). Tutela is of two kinds
(genera), (1) of imimberes (jiiijtilli, juipillae),
and (2) of women.
Every paterfamilias hud power to appoint
(dare) by testament a tutor for his children
who were in his jiower. If a tutor was appointed
for a male, the pupillus was released from tutela
on attaining puberty (fourteen years of age),
but the female still continued in tutela, unless
she was released from it by a special exemption.
A man could appoint a tutor for his wife in
mattu, and for his daughter-in-law (7)«rMs) who
was in the mamis of his son
The nearest kinsmen were usually appointed
tutores (testamentarii) ; and if a testator passed
over such, it was a reflection on their charac-
ter (Cic. P. -SVj-^ 52). If the testator ap-
pointed no tutor by his will, the tutela was
given by the Twelve Tables to the nearest
agnati of the iin]>ubes, and such tutores were
called legitimi. As the nearest agnati were
also the heredes in case of the impubes dying
intestate and without issue, the tutela was a
right which they claimed as well as a duty
imposed on them. If there were no agnati,
the tutela belonged to the gentiles. For the
750
TUTELA, TUTOR
tutela of freedmen see Emancipatio ; and for
tutor fiduciarius, Fiducia.
If an impubes had neither a tutor testa-
mentarius nor legitimus, he had one given to
him by the praetor urbanus and the tribuni
plebis, or in the provinces by the praesides.
[Lex lulia et Titia.]
Only cives or those who had the ins cotii-
inercii but not Latini luniani, could be tutores.
Peregrini and women were excluded. The
tutela was a publicum niunus, and hence
persons were bound to serve when called on,
unless they were under some incapacity or
could excuse themselves on some valid legal
ground.
The power of the tutor was mainly concerned
with the property and pecuniary interests of
the pupillus. But it was his duty to see that
the pupillus was properly educated and cared
for. In respect of property tlie tutor's office
Was (1) ' auctoritatem interponere,' and (ij ' rem
gerere.'
(1) Auctoritatem interponere. — A pupillus
who was an iafans — that is, below the age of
seven — couhl not perform any legal act; and
the tutor represented him at law A. pupillus
niaior in/antia could do no act by which he
diminished his property without the sanction
(aiictoritas) of his tutor, but any act to which
he was a party was valid if it was for his ad-
vantage. [Imnubes.]
(2) Rem gerere. — The tutor had the adminis-
tration of the property of the pupillus {rem,
ncgotium gerere), and was bound to exercise
this part of his function according to the best
of his ability. The tutor was liable to the
pupillus, not only on account of dolus, but also
for negligence. The tutor might be removed
from his office, if he was misconducting himself,
by the accusatio siispecti.
When the tutela c ima to an end, the actio
tatelae directa could be brought against the
tutor by the pupillus for a general account of
the property managed by the tutor, and for its
delivery to the pupillus, now become pubes. If
the tutor was condemned in this action, the
consequence was Infamia. The tutor could
claim to be indemnified for what he had ex-
pend id or done in the interest of his pupillus.
Tlio tutela was terminated by the death or
capitis deminutio, maxima or major, but not
by capitis demnutio minima except the tutela
legitima, or by abdicatio (which was only
allowed on reasonable grounds), of the tutor;
by the death of the pupillus, his capitis demi-
nutio, or his attaining the age of puberty, which
in the m.ile sex was fourteen. [Impubes.]
Thetutelaof women who are puberos requires
a separate examination. A woman who was
not in patria potentate or in manu viri was
always under a tutela (in perpetaa tutela), not
being capable, like a man sai iiiris, of acting as
she pleased ou attaining the age of puberty,
i.e. the completion of her twelfth year. The
tutor of a woman who was pubes had not,
however, the administration of her propex'ty;
she managed her own affairs, but the auctoritas
of a tutor was required in order to give validity
to her acts in certain cases. The original
object of the law seems to have been to in-event
the alienation of her property, and so to secure
the succession of her agnati or of her gens, who
in early times would always have been her j
tutores. [Cogaati.] I
A woman might have a tutor appointed by
will. A wife in her husband's manus might ]
rcceivo from his will the t uteris optio or right I
UNIVERSITAS
of choosing a tutor for herself {tutor optivus)
(Liv. xxxix. 19, 5). If no testamentary disposi-
tion was made, she was in the tutela legitima of
her agnati ; and a tutor dativus was given to
women by the magistratus, when there was
no other tutor. The Vestal Virgins were exempt
from tutela ; and both ingenuae and libertinae
were exempted from tutela by the lus Liberorum
or title of maternity.
A woman could not make a will without tlie
sanction of her tutor. [Testamentum.]
The tutela mulierum existed at least as late
as Diocletian, "293 .\.D, though it had long been
a mere matter of form. There is no trace of
it in the Code of Theodosius, or in the legisla-
tion of Justinian.
U.
TJnive'rsitas. Every thing which is in its
nature divisible can be conceived as consisting
of parts, in contrast with which it is itself a
unit or universitas (e.g. ' universitas agroruni,'
' fundi ') ; but each of those parts may be a ri s
or miit : e.g. the stones of a house. But some
things consist of parts which cannot be divided
from it without a change in their nature, and in
relation thereto sucli a thing cannot be re-
garded jjro diviso: e.g. the right arm of a slave.
But a thing, even though physically indi-
visible (as a slave), may be conceived as con-
sisting of ideal or intellectual parts : e.g. one
person may own a slave in one-third, and
another may own him in two-thirds. Here the
whole is cori^oreal, the parts are intellectual or
conceptual. Conversely there are cases in
which, though the parts are corporeal, the
whole is intellectual or ideal only : e.g. a library,
and the shelves and books comijosiug it ; or a
flock of slieep.
But the term universitas is not applied
merely to ' things ' in the narrower significa-
tion. It is used in the sense of an aggregate of
proprietary rights (hence the phrase univer-
sitax iuris, the complex of a man's assets and
liabilities [Heres]), and also in the sense of the
aggregate of persons belonging to a cori)oration
(hence universitas personarum).
Of corporations the following kinds oc-
cur : — (1) The Roman State, Respublica, con-
sidered as the subject of rights and duties
comprised under Private Law. (3) Political or
local subdivisions of the people, such as civi-
tates, municipia or municipes, vicus, colonia,
provincia, &c. (3) Military subdivisions, such
as legions. (4) Associations of official persons
and administrative authorities, such as the body
or guild of Scribae. subordinate corporations
and their Decuriae librariorinn, fiscalimn, cen-
sualium, &c. (5) Associations of religious per-
sons, collegia templorum, such as the priests
of the various gods and the Vestal Virgins. ((!)
Associations for trade and commerce, as among
fabri, pistores, navicularii, the bond between
whom was their common calling, tlunigh each
worked on his own account. Under this head
also fall certain partnerships, such as the asso-
ciations for farming the taxes {sorietates publi-
cauoruni), and for working mines {sali)iar).
(7) The associations in the nature of modern
clubs which were called Sodalitates, Sodalitia,
Collegia Sodalitia. These were in origin friendly
associations for purposes of common feasting
and woi'ship, but in course of time acquired a
political character. (8) There were also in llu>
imperial period Collegia Tenuiorum, friendly
societies of poor people for mutual support, and
USUCAPIO
especially to secure decent burial for their
members. [Collegia.]
Uiiivcrsitates hunoruiii are so much pro-
perty, or aggi'egates of rights and duties,
personified and regarded as capable of per-
petuating their separate existence and fictitious
unity indefinitely. These were uncommon at
Kome before the adoption of Christianity as
the state religion, when churches, monasteries,
and religious and charitable institutions gene-
rally, became owners of property.
The term Univcrsitas was adopted in the
Middle Ages to denote certain great schools,
considered as corporations, i.e. as associations
of individuals : e.g. at Bologna, the expression
' Universitas scholarium ' was in common use :
at Paris, ' Universitas niagistrorum.' The term
'university ' has no connexion witli tlie univer-
suJity of the subjects taught ; it merely means
a body corporate.
TTsuca'pio is the acquisition of full quiri-
tarian ownership by possession continued for
a prescribed period of time. Tlie laws of the
Twelve Tables regulated, if they did not intro-
duce, the law of usucapion. The difficulty (in
many cases) of proving ownership, legal capa-
city, validity of title after lapse of time, ifcc,
would naturally give rise to an equitable custom
in these matters, which would gradually obtain
the force of law, even before it was confirmed
by positive enactment.
As to the acquisition of property by lapse of
time in general, we find two distinct sets of
rules in the Roman law : (1) those of Usucapio,
which are part of the lus Civile, and (2) those of
Longi temporis possessio or praescriptio [Prae-
scriptio], which were introduced by the i)raetor
through the Edict.
The time during which the thing must be
possessed in order that the possession may be
converted into o\«iership was by the Twelve
Tables a year for res mobiles, two years for
' fundus ' or land, and during this period the
possession must be continuous and unbroken;
the effect of interruption (unurpatio) or trans-
ference to another party was that the previous
possession counted for nothing, the time having
to commence afresh and run again in full.
The possession must be civil or juristic pos-
session : that is, to the actual detention there
must be superadded the intention to deal with
the property as one's own (see Possessio), and
it must have been acquired by a iuntd causa
or iustus titulus, such as gift or sale. The
causa in which the possession originates is
expressed by the preposition 2>ro (' possidet pro
empto, pro derelicto, pro donato, pro soluto,' &c.
A person whose possession, notwithstanding
the existence of a iustus titulus, did not origi-
nate in bona fides, could not acquire by usucapio.
Bona fides in this connexion includes excusable
ignorance of fact : e.g. where a non-owner sells
and delivers property, the purchaser, besides
this causa {jiro empto), must not know that it
belongs to some one other than the ^ eudor, or
that the vendor has no authority to sell. Bona
fides was required by Roman law only at the
inception of possession, but not (as under the
canon and modern civil laws) tliroughout the
whole period of possession.
Usucapio being a ' civil ' mode of ac(iuisition,
by which the possessor became dominns ex iure
Quiritium, it followed that no person could
avail himself of it who had not the fo»i-
merciuni ; this in particular excluded peregrini.
Similarly, things which were not in commrrcio,
incajmble of bemg owned by private individuals,
VINDICTA
751
were excluded from its operation : e.g. res
ili villi iuris, such as temples and dedicated
lands, sepulchres, res communes and res jjub-
licae, especially provincial soil.
Certain things were withdrawn from the
operation of usucapio. Such were (Ij res
mancijii of women under guardianship ; (2)
property of towns; (3) res imniobiles of churches
and charitable foundations ; (4j property of the
fiscus ; (,5j res f urtivae ; (6) f ugiti\e slaves ;
(7) land from which the tenant had been
forcibly ousted : being all cases where a wrong
might be covered by prescription and thus
injustice i^erpetuated.
Hereditates, too, were regarded as acquirable
by usucapio, including even the sacra.
Justinian (528 a.d.) definitely established
longi temporis praescriptio, which under the
praetor's edict only gave a defence against the
owner's action, as a mode of acquiring domi-
nium, and abolislied the old two years' usucapio
for land, enacting that land, whether in Italy
or in the provinces, should be acquirable in
absolute ownership {dominium) by a posses-
sion of ten years if both the parties were
domiciled in the same province, twenty if in
different provinces
TJsufru'ctus and Usus were two of the per-
sonal servitudes of Roman law. [Servitus.]
Usufructus is the ' real ' right of using
and taking the fruits of property, moveable
(including slaves) as well as innnoveable,
the use of which does not diminish its sub-
stance. Fructus include not only the natural
produce of a thing, but also money ma^le by
letting it {fructus civiles). The person entitled
is called usufructuarius or fructuarius; the
owner of the property subject to the right,
proprietarius or dominus projyrietatis. Unless
otherwise provided, a usufruct endured for the
lifetime of tlie person entitled and no longer.
Usus is defined by the negation of /r»i. The
right of user was not strictly confined to the
personal needs of the usuary ; e.g. the person
who had a usus of a house was entitled to
lodge there his family, slaves, servants, and
freednien, and apparently even a guest; but
anything which came under the notion of
fructus was as a rule denied him, so that he
could not let or transfer the exercise of his
right to a third person even gratuitously.
"Vindex, "Vindica'tio. [Actio.]
Vindi'ciae. [Adsertor.]
Vindi'cta. The rod or wand {festuca), in
place of a spear, by which eacli vindicant
forcibly asserted his doniinium [Actio] ; also
the rod with which a slave was struck when
he was manumitted before the praetor. [Manu-
missic] Another meaning of vindicta was
self-redress exercised by an injured party
against the party committing the injury ; and
hence vindicta came to signify ' vengeance,'
' revenge,' the Italian vendetta. To i)revent this
irregular justice, money compositions were
gradually substituted in the i)laceof vengeance,
and actions were instituted for their recovei^y.
But there were certain actions which had for
their special object satisfaction to the perscmal
feelings of the injured party, and the term
vindicta is used in reference to these. The
following are cases of actioncs vindictam
spirantes:
(1) Actio iniuriarufn, or action on account
of insult, by assault, libel, slander, &c.
752
VINDICTA
(2) Actio srpidcri violati, or action given on
account of an intentional act of outrage to a
grave or sepulchral monument.
(3) Actio lie effusis et eiectis, in respect of
injury to a free person by something ijoured or
throwm from a house.
(4) Querela inofficiosi testamenti. [Testa-
mentum.]
(5) Actions for penalties on account of adul-
tery.
Vis. Laws were passed at Rome for the pur-
pose of making various acts of violence criminal.
The Lex Plotia or Plautia, 89 b.c, appears to
have first made vis the subject of a special
indicium ])ublicum, crimes of violence having
previously only been punished when they could
be brought under the head of maiestas or of
the crimen de sirariis et reneficis. The Lex
Plautia was enacted against those who devas-
tated houses, or who occupied public places and
carried arms, or who attempted to influence the
magistrates and senate by assembling bodies of
armed men (Cic. Ait. ii. 24).
There was also a Lex lulia of the dictator
Caesar which made certain kinds of vis subject
to aquae et ignis interdictio CCic. Pliil. i. 9,
21). . Under Augustus two leges luliae were
passed which consolidated previous enactments
de vi and became the basis of subsequent laws.
VIS
These leges were respectively entitled de vi
puhlira iind de vi 2irivata. According to the
law of the Digest, it was vis publica to collect
arms (tela) in a house except for lawful pur-
poses, such as travelling or hunting ; to attack
houses with armed men ; to evict a person with
an armed force ; to appear in a puVjlic place
with arms for the purpose of intimidation ; to
cause a mob {turba) to assemble for various
unlawful purjjoses; to interfere violently with
the due administration of justice ; to assault or
insult ambassadors ; for a magistrate to cause
a Roman citizen to be tortured (cf. Acts xxiii.
25), or to be executed without allowing au
appeal to Rome (cf. Acts xxv. lQ-12) ; to levy
illegal taxes, etc.
The punislunent for the violation of the Lex
lulia de vi publica was aquae et ignis inter-
dictio (subsequently deportatio in insulani),
or, in some cases, death. Riots resulting in
injury but not death, came under the Lex de
vi privata. So also did the offence of wrecking
ships. It was vis privata to take the law into
one's own hands by an act of violence on tlie
property of a debtor, unless under judicial
authorit}-. The penalties of this lex were tlie
loss of a third i>art of the offender's property ;
and lie was also incapacitated from enjoying any
honour, quasi in/amis.
753
TABLES OF GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES,
WEIGHTS AND MONEY.
Table
I. Greek Measures of Length.
(1) Smaller Measures.
II. Eoman Measures of Length.
(1) Smaller Measures.
III. Greek Measures of Length.
(2) Land and Itinerary.
IV. Roman Measures of Length.
(2) Land and Itinerary.
V. Greek Measures of Surface.
VI. Roman Measures of Surface.
VII. Greek Measures of Capacity.
(1) Attic Liquid Measures.
VIII. Roman Measures of Capacity.
(1) Liquid Measures.
Table
IX. Greek Measures of Capacity.
(2) Attic Dry Measures.
X. Roman Measures of Capacity.
(2) Dry Measures.
XL (A) Oriental and (B) Greek Weights.
XII. Greek Money. Attic Copper and
Silver.
XIII. Roman Weights.
(1) The As and its Uncial Divisions.
XIV. Roman Weights.
(2) Subdivisions of the Uncia.
XV. Roman Money. (1) Weights.
XVI. Roman Money. (2) English Values.
XVII. Greek Coinage.
XVIII. Fractional Parts of the As.
XIX. Parallel Years.
8C
754
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TABLE XL
N.B. — One pound avoirdupois is exactly 7000 grains : one ounce avoirdupois is 487i grains ;
1 gramme is 15-43234 grains.
(A.) Various Oriental Weights.
1. Egyptian.
Kat
10 j Outen or Ten ....
Grammes.
(Approximate.)
Grains.
(Approximate.)
Avoirduiiois.
(Approximate.)
9
90
140 i oz.
1400 31 oz.
2. Babylonian Heavy Gold (Royal).
Shekel
■~50^ Mina
16-83
841-5
50,490
260
13,000
780,000
f oz.
1 lb. 13f oz.
111^ lbs.
3000 60 1 Talent ....
3. Babylonian Heavy Silver (Royal).
Shekel
~^50 Mina
'3000' ' CO [ Talent ....
22-4
1,122
67,320
345-8 ± oz.
17,200 ; 2 lbs. 71 oz.
1,032,000 1474 lbs.
4. The Royal Babylonian Light Gold
exactly half tlie heavy gold and heavy
silver respectively, so that :
Light Gold Shekel ....
Light Silver Shekel ....
8-41
11-2
1
130 . 1^ oz.
172-9 1 oz.
5. Phoenician Silver.
Shekel .
50 Mina
14-9
745
44,700
230 VV oz-
11,500 1 lb. lOf oz. '
690,000 98^ lbs. |
For the Common Babylonian Standards, gold and silver, see Coinage, pp. 177, 178.
(B.) Aeginetan and Attic Commercial Weights.
Obol .
Grammes.
Grains.
105
6-3
12-6
630
37,800
16^
971
195
9,750
585,000
6
Dracl
un
Didrachm [cnaThp) ....
12
2
600
100
50 Mina
36,000
6000
3000 60 1 Talent ....
(C.) Euboic Weights.
Obol .
6
Drachm ...>....
Grammes.
Grains.
■70
4-2
8-4
420
25,200
10-83
65
130
6,500
390,000
12
2 ' Stater .......
600
36,000
100 50 1 Mina
6000 1 3000 j 60 1 Talent ....
N.B. — As the Euboic drachm is \ of the Aeginetan stater, so the Corinthian drachm is \ of
the Euboic stater.
(D.) Attic Weights (Solonian Coinage).
Grammes.
Grains.
Dracl
2
im
Didrachm or Stater
4-4
8-8
440
26,400
67-5
135
6,7.50
405,000
100
50 Jlina
6000
3000 1 60 ! Talent . ....
N.B. — It will be seen that the ratio of the Aeginetan stater (195 gr.) to the
(135 gr.) is a good deal "larger than 100 : 73 or 138 : 100 or 83^ : 60, which are the
ascribed to Solon's reduction of the Attic coinage. The later Attic Standard is the same
Enboic.
Attic
ratios
as the
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1— (
rH
1—1
l-H
X
a
H
O
ro
i-h"
no
1— t
T-l
I-H
cq
oq
cq
h-i
3
o
CO
CO
■g
-rX
-h[N
n|*
cq
r-H.
-hC^
rtW-
CO
^
H
I-H
I-H
tH
cq
cq
cq
CC
■73
o
a
I-H
<?q
cq
CO
CO
CO
Tt<
c3
f3
cq
oq
CO
CO
■<#
->*
»©
CD
<
1— 1
cq
cq
CO
•«*
CD
00
rH|M
oq
CO
'^
o
o
•>
00
05
O
I-H
l-H
I-H
cq
l-H
•s
- I -^
r-T --^ t fl
tH iH O
TABLES OP "WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
767.
I
OQ
H
K"
a
i — 1
X
l-H
H
w
^
>-l
pq
:zi
<
<
£h
g
o
P5
o
cq
,
-TtH
CO
t-
'^
CO
a
<M
t~
■^
o
OD
00
t-
o
cq
o
CO
o
CO
o
t-
l-H
•r?
2
o
c-
o
o
r-l
cq
Ol
':*<
Xi
o
cq
X
L~
o
O
o
o
o
o
o
T— 1
t-
o
-7^
1—1
cq
o
o
<!
3
S3
S
ft
O
1^
1-1
o
CC
■X
cc
CO
X
o
CO
X
X
X
768
TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
TABLE XV.
NORMAL WEIGHTS OF EOMAN COINS IN ENGLISH GRAINS.
Gold.
350 B.C.
269 B.C.*
210 B.c.t
1
89 B.C.
1
1
Augustus.^
Nero.
Caracalla.§
Aureus . .
52-5
126
112
101
Silver.
Denarius . .
70
60
60
60
52
...
Quinarius . .
...
35
30
...
30
26
...
Sestertius . .
17-5
15
15
Victoriatus .
...
...
45
...
Antoninianus
...
...
84
Copper.
Sestertius
(brass) .
...
...
• •t
420
420
Dupondius
(brass) .
• •-
210
210
As (libella) .
5050
1750
421
210
200?
200
Semis . . .
, 2525
i
875
210
105
100?
...
* In 269 B.C. 1 detiarius = 4 sestertii = 10 asses or libellae : libella not being a coin,
but money of account.
t In 210 B.C. 1 denarius = 1 Attic drachma = 4 sestertii = 16 asses. (1 aureus =
I') denarii.)
J Temp. Augusti, 1 aitrciis = 25 denarii = 100 sestertii = 400 asses.
§ Temp. Caracallae, 1 aureus = 20 Antoniniani = 100 sestertii = 400 asses.
The gold solidus of Constantine and his successors weighed a little over 80 grains.
N.B.— The English sovereign weighs 123-27447 grains; the shilling 87-27272 gr. ;
the penny 145-83333 gr. These weights form the basis of Table XVI.
TABLES OP WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
769
TABLE XVI.
KOMAN COINS COMPARED, IN WEIGHT, WITH ENGLISH.
Gold.
350 B.C.
269 B.C.
210 B.C.
89 B.C.
Augustus.
Nero.
Caracalla.
Aureus . .
^1^5-
J>1
^I'V
Silver.
Denarius . .
is.
1 ic
1 1
U.S.
3„
Quinarius . .
Is.
llo
1 1 <;
3 e
TO*'
...
Sestertius
Is.
lis.
1 Iq
Victoriatus .
...
...
Antoninianus
...
2S„
^9*'
Copper.
Sestertius
(brass) •
2ld.
2ld.
...
Dupondius
(brass) .
...
l-^,d.
llV.
As ... .
S4:^d.
12d.
2ld.
l^ad.
Vid.i?)
If^.
Semis . . .
n^d.
Qd.
lA^.
^d.
Note. — The above table gives a good idea of the size of the coin, but not so accurate
a notion of its intrinsic value, for the English sovereign contains ^ih alloy, the shilling
;^ths alloy, the penny ^^gth alloy.
The intrinsic value of a gold coin may be determined from the fact that the Bank of
England is bound to buy gold bullion at the fixed rate of £3 17s. 10\d. per oz. troy of
480 grs. Hence, for instance, the mircus of Augustus would fetch £1 Os. 9-ofZ. But the
price of silver bullion is not fixed, and has varied within the last 30 years from .5s. to
2s. per oz. troy ; and similarly the value of copper varies. The relative values, again,
of gold to silver and of silver to copper fluctuated considerably in ancient times, as they
do now, and the intrinsic values of, e.g., the aureus to the dcitarius, taken now, would not
correspond to their relative values of 1 aureus = 25 denarii. Cf. also the Article Coinage.
For practical purposes, the aureus of Augustus = £1 sterling; the denarius = a franc
(95(Z.) ; the sestertius = 2fd. or j^th of i'l. A sum given in sestertii may be converted
(approximately) into pounds sterling by dividing it by 100.
3 D
770
TABLE XVII.
GEEEK COINAGE.
Weiglit iu
grains.
Dodekadrachm
Dekadraolim
Octadraclua
Tetradruclun
Tridrachm .
Didrachm .
Trihemidrachm
Drachm . .
Tetrobol . .
Hemidraclini
Diobol . .
Trihemiobol
Obol . . .
Tritartemorion
Hemiobol .
Tetartemorion
Phoeni-
No. of
drachms cian.
12
10
8
4
3
2
1
i
i
i
^
i*
690
575
400
230
115
Baby-
Ionic,
Persian.
172
57-5 t 86
38-3 ! 57-3
28-7
19-2
14-3
9-6
7-2
4-8
2-4
43
28-6
21-5
143
10-7
71
3-6
Samian.
Aegijie-
tan, Cisto-
phoric.
Euboic.
Attic.
Ooriii-
tliiau.
675
210
260
270
135
105
194
130
135
67-5
52-5
97
66
67-5
45
35
488
45
26-2
48-5
82-5
38-7
22-5
17-5
32-8
21-6
22-5
15
131
24-2
16-8
11-2
8-7
161
121
10-8
11-2
8-4
7-5
4-8
8
5-4
5-6
3-7
*
2-8
1-8
Viil
Aeginetan.
PhoenUiaH,
Silver.
£ s. d.
303 2 6
5 1 Oi
10 1^
4 Oi
2 Oi
10
6
2
1
Electrum.
£ s. d.
2156 5
35 18 9
3 11 lOi
1 8 9
14 4i
7 2i
3 7
1 2i
7J
Silver."
£ s. a.
179 13 9
2 19 \Qi
6
2 4|
1 2i
7i
3i
li
0^
Talent
Mimv
Dekadrachm
Tetradrachm
Didraclun
Drachm .
Hemidrachm
Obol .
Hemiobol .
* N.B. — Tliese silver values are calculated at the rate of 5 shillings per ounce troy : the
present value (1897) of silver is about 'lis.
I
GREEK COINAGE
771
Persian {silver stcuidard).
Value.
Gold.
Electrum.
Silver.*
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
Talent
4300
3225
268 15
Mina
71 13 4
53 15
4 9 7
Dekadrachin
7 3 4
5 7 6
8 IH
Tetradrachm
2 17 4
2 3
3 7
Didraclim
18 8
116
1 9i
Drachm .
14 4
10 9
lOJ
Hemidrachm
7 2
5 4i
5i
Obol .
2 44
1 '.)i
If
Hemiobol .
1 2i
10|
Of
* N.B. — These silver values are calculated at the rate of 5 shillings per ounce troy :
present value (1897) of silver is about 2s.
the
Talent .
Pentamnoun
Dimna
Mina
Hemimnaion
Tritemorion
Tetartemorion
Pemptemorion
Hemitetarte-
morion
Tetradrachm
Draclim .
Hemidrachm
Obol
Part of
Mina.
Attic— Solonian.
Attic— E
Grammes
Grains
Grammes
60
26,436
408,000
52,872
5
2,203
34,000
4,406
2
881-2
13,600
1762-4
1
440-6
6,800
881-2
h
220-3
3,400
440-6
1
3
146-9
2,266
293-8
4
110-2
1,700
220-4
1
88-1
1,360
176-2
1
8
55-1
850
110-2
a_
17-6
272
35-2
100
4-4
68
8-8
200
2-2
84
4-4
600
•7
12
1-4
Grains
816,000
68,000
27,200
13,600
6,800
4,532
3,400
2,720
1,700
544
136
68
23
Aegiiietan,
Attic commercial.
Grammes
37,700
3142-5
1257
628-5
314-2
209-5
1571
125-7
77-6
25-1
6-2
3-1
1-0
Grains
582,000
48,500
19,400
9,700
4,850
3,238
2,425
1,940
1,212
388
97
48
16
Ptolemaic,
Late Attic.
Grammes
Grains
21,384
330,000
1,782
27,500
712-8
11,000
356 4
5,500
178-2
2,750
118-8
1,833
89-1
1,375
71-2
1,100
44-5
687
142
220
3-5
55!
1-7
27
•6
9
TABLE XVIII.
FRACTIONAL PARTS OF THE AS.
Denomination.
Part of
Part of
Weight.
Weight.
Sign in
libra.
tmcia.
Grammes.
Grains.
notation.
Libra or As .
1
12
327-45
5,050
1
Deunx
li
11
300-16
4,629
s = = -
Dextans .
^
10
272-88
4,208
s = =
Dodrans .
9
245-59
8,787
s = -
Bes .
2
8
218-30
8,366
s =
Septunx .
■h
7
191-02
2,946
s-
Semis
6
163-73
2,525
s
Quincunx .
A
5
130-44
2,104-1
= = -
Triens
i
4
109-15
1,683-3
= =
Quadrans
*
8
81-86
1,262-5
= -
Sextans .
X
2
54-58
841-6
=
Sescuncia
1
H
40-93
631-2
- £
Uucia
JU
1
27-28
420-8
-
Semuncia .
t
13-64
210-4
x-x
Sicilicus .
_1_
h
6-82
105-2
o
Sextula .
_1_
1
4-54
70-1
I, ~
Scripulum
2^8
2.*
113
17-5
l.H
3d2
772
TABLE XIX.
PAEALLEL YEAES.
ir.c.
OL.
B.C.
u.c.
OL.
1. 1
725
29
13. 4
2
724
30
14. 1
8
723
31
2
4
722
32
3
2. 1
721
33
4
2
720
34
15. 1
3
719
35
2
4
718
36
3
3. 1
717
37
4
2
716
38
16. 1
8
715
39
2
4
714
40
3
4. 1
713
41
4
2
712
42
17. 1
3
711
43
2
4
710
44
3
5. 1
709
45
4
2
708
46
18. 1
3
707
47
2
4
706
48
3
6. 1
705
49
4
2
704
50
19. 1
3
703
51
2
1
4
702
52
3
2
7. 1
701
58
4
;5
2
700
54
20. 1
4
3
699
55
2
5
4
698
56
3
6
8. 1
697
57
4
7
2
696
58
21. 1
8
8
695
59
2
9
4
(i94
60
3
! ^"
9. 1
693
61
4
11
2
692
62
22. 1
12
3
691
63
2
IS
4
690
64
8
14
10. 1
689
65
4
15
2
688
66
28. 1
16
3
687
67
2
17
4
686
68
8
18
11. 1
685
69
4
19
2
684
70
24. 1
20
3
683
71
2
21
4
682
72
8
22
12. 1
()81
73
4
23
2
680
74
25. 1
24
3
679
75
2
25
4
678
76
3
26
13. 1
677
77
4
27
2
676
78
26. 1
28
3
675
79
2
B.C.
U.c.
OL.
B.C.
U.C. 1
OL.
B.C.
U.C.
674
80
26.
3
623
131 i
89. 2
572
182
673
81
4
622
132
3
571
183
672
82
27.
1
621
133
4
570
184
671
83
2
620
134
40. 1
569
185
670
84
3
619
135
2
568
186
669
85
4
618
136
3
567
187
668
86
28.
1
617
137
4
566
188
667
87
2
616
188
41. 1
565
189 '
666
88
3
615
139
2
564
190
665
89
4
614
140
3
563
191
664
90
29.
1
613
141
4
562
192
668
91
2
612
142
42. 1
561
193
662
92
3
611
143
2
560
194
661
93
4
610
144
3
559
195
660
94
30.
1
609
145
4
558
196
659
95
2
608
146
43. 1
557
197
658
96
3
607
147
2
556
198
657
97
4
606
148
8
555
199
656
98
31.
1
605
149
4
554
200
655
99
2
604
150
44. 1
553
201
654
100
3
603
151
2
552
202
653
101
4
602
152
3
551
203 '
652
102
32.
1
601
153
4
550
204 1
651
108
2
600
1.54
4.-). 1
.549
205
6.50
104
3
599
155
2
548
206
649
105
4
598
156
3
547
207
648
106
33.
1
597
157
4
546
208
647
107
2
596
158
46. 1
545
209
646
108
3
595
159
2
544
210
645
109
4
594
160
8
543
211 '
644
110
84.
1
593
161
4
542
212
643
111
2
592
162
47. 1
541
218
642
112
3
591
168
2
540
214
641
118
4
590
164
8
539
215
640
114
85
1
589
165
4
538
216
689
115
2
588
166
48. 1
537
217
638
116
3
587
167
2
536
218
637
117
4
586
168
8
535
219
636
118
36
1
585
169
4
534
220
635
119
2
584
170
49. 1
533
221
634
120
3
583
171
2
532
222
633
121
4
582
172
3
531
228
682
122
37
1
581
173
4
530
224
681
123
2
580
174
50. 1
529
225
630
124
3
579
175
2
528
226
629
125
4
578
176
8
527
227
628
126
38
1
577
177
4
526
228
627
127
2
576
178
51. 1
525
229
626
128
3
575
179
2
624
280
625
129
4
574
180
8
523
231
624
130
39
1
573
181
4
522
232
PARALLEL YEARS
<7S
B.C.
u.c.
OL.
B.C.
U.C.
OL.
B.C.
U.C.
OL.
B.C. 1
U.C. 1
OL.
B.C.
U.C.
OL.
521
233
64. 4
465
289
78. 4
409
345
92. 4
353 1
401 '
106. 4
297
457
120. 4
520
234
65. 1
464
290
79. 1
408
346
93. 1
352
402
107. 1
296
458
121. 1
519
235
2
463
291
2
407
347
2
351
403
2
295
459
2
618
236
3
462
292
3
406
348
3
350
404
3
294
460
8
517
237
4
4C.1
293
4
405
349
4
349
405
4
293
461
4
516
238
66. 1
4 CO
294
80. 1
404
350
94. 1
348
406
108. 1
292
462
122. 1
515
239
2
459
295
2
403
351
2
347
407
2
291
463
2
514
240
3
458
296
3
402
352
3
346
408
3
290
464
3
513
241
4
457
297
4
401
353
4
345
409
4
289
465
4
512
242
67. 1
456
298
81. 1
400
354
95. 1
344
410
109. 1
288
466
128. 1
511
243
2
455
299
2
399
355
2
343
411
2
287
467
2
510
244
3
454
300
3
398
356
3
342
412
3
286
468
3
509
245
4
453
301
4
397
357
4
341
413
4
285
i69
4
508
246
68. 1
452
302
82. 1
396
358
96. 1
340
414
110. 1
284
470
124. 1
507
247
2
451
303
2
395
359
2
339
415
2
283
471
2
506
248
3
450
304
3
394
360
3
338
416
3
282
472
3
505
249
4
440
305
4
393
361
4
337
417
4
281
473
4
504
250
69. 1
448
306
83. 1
392
362
97. 1
336
418
111. 1
280
474
125. 1
503
251
2
447
307
2
391
363
2
335
419
2
279
475
2
502
252
3
446
308
3
390
364
3
334
420
3
278
476
3
501
253
4
445
309
4
389
365
4
333
421
4
277
477
4
500
254
70. 1
444
310
84. 1
388
366
98. 1
332
422
112. 1
276
478
126. 1
499
255
2
443
311
2
387
367
2
331
423
2
275
479
2
498
256
3
442
312
3
386
368
3
330
424
3
274
480
3
497
257
4
441
313
4
385
369
4
329
425
4
273
481
4
496
258
71. 1
440
314
85. 1
384
370
99. 1
328
426
113. 1
272
482
127. 1
495
259
2
439
315
2
383
371
2
327
427
2
271
483
2
494
260
3
438
316
3
382
372
3
326
428
3
270
484
3
493
261
4
437
317
4
381
373
4
325
429
4
269
485
4
492
262
72. 1
436
318
86. 1
380
374
100. 1
324
430
114. 1
268
486
128. 1
491
263
2
435
319
2
379
375
2
323
431
2
267
487
2
490
264
3
434
320
3
378
376
3
322
432
3
266
488
3
489
265
4
433
321
4
377
377
4
321
433
4
265
489
4
488
266
73. 1
432
322
87. 1
376
378
101. 1
320
434
115. 1
264
490
129. 1
487
267
2
431
323
2
375
379
2
319
435
2
263
491
2
486
268
3
430
324
3
374
380
3
318
436
3
262
492
3
485
269
4
429
325
4
373
381
4
317
437
4
261
493
4
484
270
74. 1
428
326
88. 1
372
382
102. 1
316
438
116. 1
260
494
130. 1
483
271
2
427
: 327
2
371
383
2
315
439
2
259
495
2
482
272
3
426
328
3
370
384
3
314
440
3
258
496
3
481
273
4
425
329
4
369
385
4
313
441
4
257
497
4
480
274
75. 1
424
330
89. 1
368
386
103. 1
312
442
117. 1
256
498
131. 1
479
275
2
423
' 331
2
367
387
2
311
443
2
255
499
2
478
276
3
422
332
3
366
388
3
310
444
3
254
500
3
477
277
4
421
338
4
365
389
4
309
445
4
253
501
4
476
278
76. 1
420
334
90. 1
364
390
104. 1
308
446
118. 1
252
502
182. 1
475
279
2
419
335
2
363
1 391
2
307
447
2
251
1 503
2
474
280
3
418
! 336
3
362
392
3
306
448
8
250
504
3
473
281
4
417
337
4
361
393
4
305
449
( ^
249
505
4
472
282
77. 1
416
338
91. 1
360
394
105. 1
304
450
119. 1
248
506
133. 1
471
283
2
415
339
2
359
' 395
2
303
451
2
247
507
2
470
284
3
414
340
8
358
396
3
302
452
3
246
508
3
469
285
4
413
341
4
357
897
4
301
453
4
245
509
4
468
286
78. 1 412
342
92. 1
356
398
106. 1
300
454
120. 1
244
: 510
134. 1
467
287
2 411
! 343
2
355
399
2
299
455
2
243
511
2
466
288
8
1 410
i 344
1 3
354
400
3
298
i 456
3
242
512
3
774
PARALLEL YEARS
B.C.
u.c.
OL.
B.C.
241
513
134. 4
185
240
514
135. 1
184
239
515
2
183
238
516
3
182
237
517
4
181
236
518
136. 1
180
235
519
2
179
234
520
3
178
233
521
4
177
232
522
137. 1
176
231
523
2
175
230
524
3
174
229
525
4
173
228
526
138. 1
172
227
527
2
171
226
528
3
170
225
529
4
169
224
530
139. 1
168
223
531
2
167
222
532
3
166 '
221
533
4
165 i
220
534
140. 1
164
219
535
2
163
218
536
8
162 !
217
537
4
101
216
538
141. 1
160
215
589
2
1.59
214
540
3
158
213
541
4
157
212
542
142. 1
156
211
543
2
155
210
544
3
154
209
545
4
153
208
546
143. 1
152
207
547
2
151
206
548
8
150
205
549
4
149
204
550
144. 1
148
208
551
2
147
202
552
3
146
201
558
4
145
200
654
145. 1
144
199
565
2
143
198
556
3
142
197
657
4
141
196
558
146. 1
140
195
559
2
139
194
560
3
138
193
561
4
137
192
562
147. 1
136
191
568
2
135
190
564
8
134
189
565
4
133
188
566
148. 1
132 :
187
567
2
131
186
568
8
180
OL.
148. 4
149. 1
2
3
4
150. 1
2
U.c.
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582 i 152
588 I
151.
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
8
4
154. 1
2
158.
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593 j
594 i 155
595
596
597 ;
598 156. 1
599 2
600
601
602 157. 1
603
604
605
606 158. 1
607
608
609
610 I 159
611
612
618
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
160. 1
2
8
4
161. 1
2
8
4
162. 1
2
3
B.C.
u.c.
OL.
B.C.
U.C.
OL.
B.C.
U.C.
129
625
162. 4
73
681
176, 4
17
737
128
626
163. 1
72
682
177. 1
16
738
127
627
2
71
683
2
15
739
126
628
3
70
684
3
14
740
125
629
4
69
685
4
13
741
124
630
164. 1
68
686
178. 1
12
742
123
631
2
67
687
2
11
743
122
632
3
66
688
3
10
744
121
633
4
65
689
4
9
745
120
634
165. 1
64
690
179. 1
8
746
119
635
2
63
691
2
7
747
118
636
3
62
692
3
6
748
117
637
4
61
693
4
5
749
116
638
166. 1
60
694
180. 1
4
750
115
639
2
59
695
2
3
751
114
640
8
58
696
8
2
752
113
641
4
57
697
4
1
758
112
642
167. 1
56
698
181. 1
111
643
2
55
699
2
110
644
3
54
700
8
A.D.
109
645
4
53
701
4
1
754
108
646
168. 1
52
702
182. 1
2
755
107
647
2
51
703
2
8
756
106
648
3
50
704
8
4
757
105
649
4
49
705
4
5
758
104
650
169. 1
48
706
188. 1
6
759
108
651
2
47
707
2
7
760
102
652
8
46
708
3
8
761
101
653
4
45
709
4
9
762
100
654
170. 1
44
710
184. 1
10
768
99
655
2
43
711
2
11
764
98
656
3
42
712
3
12
765
97
657
4
41
713
4
18
766
96
658
171. 1
40
714
185. 1
14
767 1
95
659
2
89
715
2
15
768
94
660
8
88
716
8
16
769
98
661
4
87
717
4
17
770
92
662
172. 1
86
718
186. 1
18
771
91
668
2
85
719
2
19
722
90
664
8
34
720
8
20
773
89
665
4
33
721
4
21
774 ■
88
666
173. 1
82
722
187. 1
22
775
87
667
2
81
723
2
23
776
86
668
8
SO
724
8
24
777
85
669
4
29
725*
4
25
778
84
670
174. 1
28
726
188. 1
26
779
83
671
2
27
727
2
27
780
82
672
3
26
728
8
28
781
81
673
4
25
729
4
29
782
80
674
175. 1
24
780
189. 1
30
788
79
675
2
23
781
2
31
784
78
676
8
22
782
8
82
785
77
677
4
21
738
4
83
786
76
678
176. 1
20
734
190. 1
34
787
75
679
2
19
785
2
35
788
74
680
3
18
736
S
S6
789
I
I
PARALLEL YEARS
775
A.D.
u.c.
OL.
A.D.
U.C. 1
OL.
A.D.
u.c.
37
790
204. 1
90
843 ]
217. 2
143
896 1
3«
791
2
91
844
a
144
897
89
792
3
92
845
4
145
898
40
793
4
93
846
218. 1
146 '
899 i
41
794
205. 1
94
847
2
147 '
900
42
795
2
95
848
3
148
901
43
796
3
96
849
4
149
902
44
797
4
97
850 '
219. 1
150
903
45
798
206. 1
98
851 j
2
151 ;
904
46
799
2
99
852 j
3
152
905
47
800
3
100
853 j
4
153
906
48
801
4
101
854
220. 1
154
907
49
802
207. 1
102
855
2
155
908
50
803
2
103
856
3
156
909
51
804
3
104
857
4
157
910
52
805
4
105
858
221. 1
158
911
53
806
208. 1
106
859
2
159
912
54
807
2
107
860
3
160
913
55
808
3
108
861
4
161
914
56
809
4
109
862
222. 1
162
915
57
810
209. 1
110
863
2
163
916
58
811
2
111
864
3
164
917
59
812
3
112
865
4
165
918
60
813
4
113
866
223. 1
166
919
61
814
210. 1
114
867
2
167
S20
62
815
2
115
868
3
168
921
63
816
3
116
869
4
169
922
64
817
4
117
870
224. 1
170
923
65
818
211. 1
118
871
2
171
924
6(!
819
2
119
872
3
172
925
67
820
3
120
873
4
173
926
68
821
4
121
874
225. 1
174
927
69
822
212. 1
122
875
2
175
928
70
823
2
123
876
3
176
929
71
824
3
124
877
4
177
930
72
825
4
125
878
226. 1
178
931
73
826
213. 1
126
879
2
179
932
74
827
2
127
880
3
180
933
75
828
3
128
881
4
181
934
76
829
4
129
882
227. 1
182
935
77
830
214. 1
130
sri
2
183
936
78
831
2
131
8^4
8
184
937
79
832
3
132
885
4
185
938
80
833
4
133
886
228. 1
186
939
81
834
215. 1
134
887
2
187
940
82
835
2
135
888
3
188
941
83
836
3
136
889
4
189
942
84
837
4
137
890
229. 1
190
943
85
838
216. 1
138
891
2
191
944
86
839
2
139
892
8
192
945
87
840
3
140
893
4
193
946
88
841
4
141
894
230. 1
194
947
89
842
217. 1
142
895
2
195
948
OL,
230.
231.
233.
235.
3
4
1
2
3
4
232. 1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
234. 1
2
3
4
1
2
8
4
236. 1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
8
4
239. 1
2
3
4
1
2
8
4
241. 1
2
3
4
242. 1
2
8
4
1243. 1
2
3
237.
238.
240.
A.D. j
u.c.
OL.
A.D.
U.t.
OL.
196
949
243. 4
249
1002
257. 1
197
950
244. 1
250
100b
2
198
951
2
251
1004
3
199
952
3
252
1005
4
200 i
953
4
253
1006
258. 1
201 1
954
245. 1
254
1007
2
202 i
955
2
255
1008
3
203
956
3
256
1009
4
204
957 !
4
257
1010
259. 1
205
958
246. 1
258
1011
2
206
959
2
259
1012
3
207
960
3
260
1013
4
208
961
4
261
1014
260. 1
209
962
247. 1
262
1015
2
210
963
2
263
1016
3
211
964
3
264
1017
4
212
965
4
265
1018
261. 1
213
966
248. 1
266
1019
2
214
967
2
267
1020
3
215
968
3
268
1021
4
216
969
4
269
1022
262. 1
217
970
249. 1
270
1023
2
218
971
2
271
1024
3
219
972
3
272
1025
4
220
973
4
273
1026
263. 1
221
974
250. 1
274
1027
2
222
975
2
275
1028
3
223
976
3
276
1029
4
224
977
4
277
1030
264. 1
225
978
251. 1
278
1031
2
226
979
2
279
1032
3
227
980
8
280
1033
4
228
981
4
281
1034
265. 1
229
982
252. 1
282
1035
2
230
983
2
283
1036
8
231
984
8
284
1037
4
232
985
4
285
1038
266. 1
233
986
253. 1
286
1039
2
234
987
2
287
1040
3
235
988
3
288
1041
4
236
989
4
289
1042
267. 1
237
990
254. 1
290
1043
2
238
991
2
291
1044
3
239
992
3
292
1045
4
240
993
4
293
1046
268. 1
241
994
255. 1
294
1047
2
242
995
2
295
1048
3
243
i 996
3
296
1049
4
244
j 997
4
297
1050
269. 1
245
998
256. 1
298
1051
2
246
999
2
299
1052
3
247
1000
3
300
1053
4
248
ilOOl
4
301
1054
270. 1
776
GEEEK INDEX
The letters a and b indicate the first and second columns respectively.
A.
'AfiaKiffKos, 1, a
"A^Sal, 1, a; 51, b
'Ayadofpyoi, 10, b
'AyaKfiara owtTis 7^s, 618, a
'Aya\ixaToy\v4>os, 345, a
'Ayyapeia, 11, a
^Ayyapeloy, 2'24, b
'Ayyapr)Cov, 369, a
"Ay^apos, 11, a; 224, b
'AyeAa, 215, a
'AyfKaijTos ireTpo, 271, a
'Ayfvf los, 94, b; 464, a
"AyvfM, 288, a
"AyKKTTpov, 323, a ; 436, b
''A7/coti'o, 436, a ; 440, a
"AyKvKn, 81, a; 331, b
'A7»cuA(^7roi'S, 564, b
'AyKvpL<^fiv, 392, a
'AyKiiv, 37, a ; 635, a
'AyKwviffKos, 354, a
'A7»c&ij'os, ^iLTTvuv firi, 152, a
''A7;'u0€S, 613, b
'Ayopd, 12 a
„ apyaia, 264, a
„ Kal TTaparpaffia, 96, a
„ irATJ^ot/cra, 13, a; 151,b;
235, a
" Ay opouos, 12, b
OX^OJ. 284,b; 236,b
'AyopavSfioi, 13, b
'A7opas Sid\vffis, 13, a
,, irArjOwpr], 13, a
'Ayopacrrl^s, 13, a
'AypavXia, 15, a
"Aypa^oi vSfioi, 444, b
'Aypa<piov ypa<p'f), 677, a
' Ay pd(pov ixeTuWov ypacpr),
677, a
'A7ptaj'€S, 288, a
'Aypiwyia, 25,4a
"AypoiKot, 646, b
'A7poTtpas 0u(n'a, 25, a
'A-yuiei/s, 25, a
A7vpTai, 25, a
''A7xei>', 392, a
'Ayx^/J-axo^i 81, a
'AyXta-reia, 333, a ; 692, a
'Ayx^crrevs, 333, a
'A7a)7i^, 428, b
'Aydou, 11, b
„ arifjLVTos, 689, b ; 700, b
„ el(Tf\affTLK6s, 94, b ;
450, b
'A7ii' einTd<pios, 442, a
„ AojUTraSoOxos, 368, b
„ crraSiaKos, 269, a
„ (TTfCpayiTTis, 442, a;
528, b
„ rLuriT6s, 687, b ; 700, b
„ to^ik6s, 67, a
„ TpteTr]ptK6s, 442, a
„ xPVfJ'^Ti-Trts , 528, b
„ x'^P"'"^) 236, b
'A7aiTOpX')S, 12, a
'Aywviff/xa. 465, a
'AywvicTTiKri, 339, b
'A7cofo5t/<7)j, 12, a
'AywuodfTai, 11, b
'ASStl, 5, a
"ASfia, 677, a
'ASfffiroToi, 386, a
'ASr](payia, 94, a
'A5u)/aT0t, 677, a
'ASuTor, 58, b ; 60, a
'ASwvia, 5, b
'ASciyiSos Krjirot, 5, b
'ASwviKos, 539, b
'Aetc^iryia, 298, b
'AeiaiTos, 119, b ; 467, a ; 523, b
'A6tJs, 55, a ; 91, a; 303, a
'AfTWfia, 55, a ; 61, a ; 303, a
''ACvyes, 329, a
'Adrjva fiovKaia, 119, a
'A^j/aja, 403, b
'Adrivatou, 93, b
'A07jp7jAot7(5s, 661, b
■^AflAo, 93, b
'Ad\T]Tai, 93, b
'A0A77T/}p€y, 93, b
'Ad\rjTLK-h, 339, b
'A0Ao0€Tai, 11, b ; 465, a
'Advp/xara, 324, a
Ata;/T6io, 25, b
Aiyavfai, 663, b
AiyiKope7s, 646, b
A(7ioxo$, 7, b
Alyis, 7, b
Aly6Kep'j.'S, 91, b
AfSeo-ij, 298, a
Aleepo$dTr)s, 317, b
A^eouo-a, 25. b ; 240, b
AiKtas SiKt), 677, a
Alfiacria, 401, a
AXviy/xa, 8, b ; 338, b
A?|, 91, a
Al(rv/xvr]Teia, 535, a
AtVuyufv'jTTjs, 10, b; 12, a; 659, a
! Alxt^ri, 78, b
! Ald)pa, 8, b
J Aiwpr)fj.a, 624, a
'AKaSTj/jLeia, -ia, 339, b
"Axaira, 413, a
i 'A/cajuTTios, 464, a
'A/caroA'rjfCTj/cdj', 540, a
I 'AKaTftou, 436, b
j 'AKanoc, ''A/cotos, 439, b
'AKepcrfKofiris, 193, a
'AKtcTTpa, 4, b
*A(fii'dK7)s, 3, a
'AhM/TjTiVSo, 326, a
'AkAtjtos, 152, a
'AKfiodfTov, 362, a
'AK/iCDj/, 124, a ; 362, a
'Akoj]u fxapTvpf?!/, 677, b
'AkovitI, 450, b
'AKSvTtoy, 83, b ; 473, b
'AKovTicrfjL6s, 285, b
'AKoPTiffrrjs, 288, a
'AKOff/xia, 264, b
'A/cpo, 88, b
' 'A/fpa KSpvfjL^a, 432, b
i *A/cpa|ovto;', 219, a
I 'AKpdTifffjM, 3, b ; 151, b
I "AKparos olvos, 605, a
i 'AKpi0as, 162, b
'AKp6aiJ.a, 3, b
'A/cpo76i(T»o»', 52, b
^AKpoOivwv, 251, a
'AKpoKo/uLos, 193, a
'A/cpoAeioi', 251, a
"Afcp($A»eoj, 3, b ; 589, b
'AKpoppvfjLiov., 219, b
*AKpo(rT(iiAioj', 435, a; 440, a
'AKpocndixiov, 318, a
'AKpocpvffiov. 313, a
'A>cpoxf ip'O'M'^Si 392, a
'AKpuTTtpiov, 3, b ; 55, a
"A/cTio, 4, b
"AKvpos KaSicKos, 524, a
''AkwKos, 344, b
'Akoji', 8:5, b ; 473, b
'AAa/SacTTiTT/J, 405, a
'AKafiacTTodijKTt, 26, a
*AAa3<x<rTos, 26, a; 506, b
'A\a0aaTpo6riKT], 26, a
'AAo/Soo-rpoj', 26, a ; 506, b
"AAaSe /jLvarai, 268, b
'AAai, 553, a
'AAaAo, 171, a
'AAoAtjtJs, 171, a
'AAe?!/, 642, b
i
I
■ 'AKeiTTT-fipiov, 27, a ; 104, a ;
^ 1U7, b
'AAerTTTai, 27, a ; 94, a
"AKeicrov, 27, a
'AKeKTpuovo/xaxia, 331, b
'AAi'a, 117, a; 26G, a
"AAio, 'AAi'eia, 341, b
"AA-i^^oi, 3'.}, b
'AAiVSjjo-is, 391, b; 465, a
'A\nr6p(pvpos, (ill, b
'AAAayat, (i09, a
'A\\airoirw\Tjs, 176, b
"AAAil, 254, a
"AAjua, 473, b
"AA/xjj, 451, b ; 553, a
'A\oytov Sjktj, 077, b
AAo7r7)7(o»', 'AKoTT-qySs, 553, a
'A\ovpyr)s, 611, b
'AAr^pes, 341, b; 473, b
'AAwr;, 49, a
"AAutris, 149, a
'AAi^rai, 450, a
'AAurapx'JJ, ■^'''O, a
'A\(pd0riTos, 27, a
■^AAf^iTo, 13, a; 401, a; 588, a
; 'AAuJa, 'AA&Ja, 27, a
'AAaii7, 'AAojrj, 15, b ; 18, a
^' 'AKwneKrj, 27, a
! "AAa>s, 18, a
"Afxa^a, "A/uola, 90, b ; 222, a
A/xa^6no5es, 223, b
'AfiapvyOta, 'Afj.apv(ria, 29, b
"Afi^Awcris, 704, a
'A/uera^oAoi', 427, b
"Afir), 370, a
"Ayttjuo, 392, a
'AfiyTjffria, 30, a
'AfMyoffKOTria, 457, a
'Afxopyrjs, 448, a
A/iTreAos, 413, a
'AyUirexoi'Tj, 254, b
'Afiirexovov opdoa-rdSiov, 399, b
'Afiir'tTTapes, 343, b
'Afj.TrvKTTip, 35, b
"AjuTTyl, 35, b ; 233, a
'A^uySoAa, 19, b
'A/xuKAai, 'AixuKAaiSfS, 129, a
'Afxvari nivnu, 36, b
'AfjLv(TTi(eiv, "AjuvffTis, 36, b
'A^(^t;8A7j(rTpoj', 318, a; 534, a
'A/x(piSp6ij.ta, 30, b
'Afi(pidd\aiuos, 243, a
'A/j.(piea\€7s, 395, b
'A/j,<pid(aTpov, 31, a
'AfupiKTvovis, 30, a
'AfjL<pifj.aKpos, 53H, b
'AfjLcpiapKLa, ()7H, a
'AiJ.<pmpi)ffTv\os, 59, b
'Afj.<picT$-nTri(ns, 677, b
'AfKpiTairos, 611, b
'A/ji(pi<pa\os, 79, a
'Afji<pi(popfvs, 413, b
'A/j.<pi<pcouTfs, 421, a
'AM<i>op€iys,413,b; 506, b; 529, a
„ neTpy\T-l)s, 416, b
„ irai'aflTjj'aiVos, 464, a
■ 'Aix<pwriSes, 94, b ; 526, b
k. 'Ava$adfj.oi, 243, a; 556, b:
623, a
'AvdIBadpov, 274, a
'Avaffdrris, 464, a
'Ava0t0d<^eii>, 278, a
'AvafioKevs, 274, a; 278, a
'Ava$o\-fi, ()43, a
'Ava^etj/, ()77, b
'Afa-y/caro;/, 141, b
'Aj/ayKo<payia, 94, a
GREEK INDEX
'^z'a^i'iiJpKrty, 641, a
'Ai'a7»'W(ris, 396, b
'Ai/a7co76us, 128, b
'Az^oYioY^s 5i/c7j, 677, b
'Aj'aSeo'iy koI mipLixdrwv
(iriOfais, 269, 1)
'Ai/aSexetr^ai, 687, a
'AvaSiKia, 691, b ; 695, a
'Ai/aSjfcos 5(»fT), 691, b; 695, a
'AraOecrts, 544, a
'AydOrj/xa, 151, a ; 250, b
'AfaKa\vTrTT}pia, 407, b
'Az'a/caioi', 141, b
*Aj'aK-6ijuei'a, 250, b
'A;'a/f6?o'Sa(, 152, a
'Aj/a/f ATjTi/cof, 287, a
'Aya/cATjTos, 292, b
'Ai/o(fAj»'o'7raAi7, 465, b
'AvdK\LVTpov, 372, b
'Am/fpitris, 282, b ; 677, b
'Ara/CTopor, 58, b
'A;/aAo7ia, 'AvdKoyos, 74, b
'Ai'ayiioxAeuo), 356, b
'Ava^vpiSes, 119, b
'AraTraifTTos, 161, a ; 538, b
'AvairavcTTripia, 636, a
' AvairavffT-'rjpiov, 287, a
^Ava-KTjZav, 278, a
'AvaTrieafjLa. 6?4, b
*Aj'airTi;(r(r6if, 287, a
'Avdppvffis, 40, b
'Arair/coAorrifo;, 216, a
'Avaa-iracTT-fipta, 1 48, b
'AvdcTTaTos, 85, a
'AvacTTaiipiia), 216, a
'AvacrreWeiv, 436, b
'Ava(TTpo(p-)), 287, a
'AraTo/cicTyUcJs, 36, b ; 305, a ;
306, a
'Avarpiireiv, 392, a
'Avavixax'^ov ypa(pr], 678, b
'Avd<popov, 89, b
'Aj/Spo7ro5i(r^oG ypacpi], 078, b
'Aj/5pa7ro5((rTii;s, 680, a
'Aj'Spera,'A;/5pio, 260,b; 607, a
"Ai/Spes, 464, a
'Ai/5poA7jv//ia, 'AvSpo\r)\piot',
078, b
'AvSpofieSr], 91, a
'Ai'5po(|)(^i/os, 298, b ; 679, b
'AvSpwy, 37, a ; 243, a
'AySpcoz/rrfs, 243, a
'Ave/jLoaKOTrla, 457, a
"Ai/ey i/'5aTos SZ/ctj, 351, a
"Af 06(0, 3H, a
'AvOeaTiTpia, 236, a
'AvdfffTTjpicoi', 132, a
' Avdf (T(popia, 37, b
"Avdri, 616, a
'AvdrjKia, 476, b
'AvBiinraa-ia, 285, b
"AvQpaKes, 415, a
'Av0pa/c(oi/, 38, a ; 243, b
'AvOvTra>ij.o(Tia, (iN3, li
■'AfoSos, 030, a
„ (TKo\td, 60, b
"AvoirAos, 82, »
'Ai/Ttt/cotoj, 451, b
'Az'Tixprjs, 91, b
'Avreiripp7i/j.a, 161, a
'Aj'T6p6(5is, 630, a
'AvTTipiSfs, 435, b
'AyTtypa(pfvs, 38, a ; 231, b
„ Tf;s)3oiiA^r, 118, b
Oil, 11
'AvTiypcup-fi, 678, b ; 096 a i
777
'AvTiSocrts, 376, b; G/9, a
'AvTiov, <>13, b; 614, b '
"AfTiTTafl^, 539, a
'AvTi<Tna<TT0S, 53M, b
! 'AyTt(TTparr]y6s, 519, a
j 'AyTiffrpeTTTa, 343, a
I 'Avri<Trpo<pri, 100, b
I 'AcTiTi(uarryai, 701, a
I 'Ar'TiTi'/UTjais, 156, b
'AvTttbcofia, 426, b
*A»'Tix<'poTOj'er;', 157, b
'Aj'TiXop'ttj 1'"'0, b
'AvT\7^Tpiat, 630, a
j "Ai/rAia, 38, a
""AvrKos, 433, a
"AcTvl, 219, a
'A«'tod5i7, 101, a
'AvTw/jLOffia, 678, a
'Aj'Ta)j'67(T0at, 96, b
"Az/co Ttt Sijpara, 287, a
'A|tV7j, 562, a
"Aloves, 102, b
"aIcoi', 219, a
'AoiSo'y, 151, b
"Aop, 78, a ; 81, a
'Aoprrip, 78, b
'A7ro7op6U6ii', 526, b
'A7ra7co7'ir), 679, a; 688, b
'ATrapTia, 'Airdprioi', 96, a
'ATTopxai, 22.S, a
„ SfKaTTi(p6poi, 228, a
„ fcJyurjs, 251, a
'A7raT0"pia, 40, b
'Airai^Aicz, 407, b
'ATrauAtrrrripia, 407, b
'ATreipoces, 39, b
'AneKfvdepos, 385, b; 576, b;
034, b
'AireAAa, 170, a; 265, b
'ATreAAaros, 132, a
'A7r6j'tai;Ti(,'€t>', 703, a
'Air-l)vri, 222, a
'ATrAaj'Tj rivv affTpoov, 486, b
'AirofidTTis, 232, a ; 464, a
'Airoypacpri, 679, b
'AiroSeKTai, 41, a; 583, a
'AnoSea/jLos, 301, b
'A7ro5i5pao'AciJ'5a, 326, a
'ATruSoKi/xd^dv, 686, a
'AwoSvTiiptov, 104, a
'Airodepa-jreia, 27, a ; 94, a
'ATrSdea-is, 51, b ; 299, b
'ATTodfwais, ]], b
'AnodijKr), 41, b ; 351, b
'AiroiKia, 188, 1)
'A-koiki(tt!)s, 189, a
''ATroi/cos, 188, a
'ATTo/cJipflis, 679, b
'A7roA6ii|/ec<js Si'/c?;, 686, a
'A7r(5A6n|/is, 685, b
'ATT^AeKTos, 14(i, b
'A7rona75aAia, 152, a
'ATT6fxaxos, 2.S(i, b
^Airovi^eiv, 152, a
'ATrdTroTos, 243, b
'A7r(}7r6,u;|/ir, 6.sr), b
A7ro7r»'('7€(>/, 392, a
'A7ro7rTi'7jao, 254, b ; 256, b
'Airoppri(Tfws 5i'»crj, 679, b
'ATToppTjra, 429, b ; 079, b
'Airh irvfj.$6\wi' 5i/C7j, (>99, a
'Airoaraffiov SIkt), 080, a
'AiroffToKevs, 41, b ; 651, b
'Air6(TTo\os, 41, b
'ATTOTflXKTjuJs, 89, b
'A7roTeA€(r;UaTi»C(^s, 89, b
^ATTOTlfiTjfia, 686, b
778
'AiroTifirirai, 695, b
' Air OTponaia, 477, b
'AnoTvuiravi^eiu, 659, a
'ATroTv/jLiravLff/jios, 680, a
'Arr6(f)ay(ns, 680, a
'A7r({</)ao-is, 70, b ; 679, a ; 680, a
' Anoipopd, 41, b; 525, b; 575, b
' ATro<p6pT]Ta, -41, b
'A7ro(|)pa5es r]fj.€pai, 452, b ; 680 a
'Airocpvyri, 51, b
' Air ox^ipoTovilv, 157, b ; 698, a
' ATTo^r)(\>iifffQai, 524, b ; 684, a
'ATrpo0ovkeuTa, 118, b
' AtrpofiovKfvrov \pr}(pi<Tfj.a, 697, a
'Awp6aK\T)Tos SiKT], 685, a
'AirpO(TTa(riov ypa(p-i), 680, a
'ATrpocrcoTTos, 711, b
''ATTUpOS TpLTTOUS, 652, b
'Apa, 678, b
'Apafidpxv^i -i^j '^
'Apat6(rTrinos, 613, b
'Apdaaeiv, 392, a
'Apdreia, 48, a
"ApaTpou, 48, b
'Ap/3uArj, 12H, b ; 131, a
'Ap7o5€?s, 646, b
*Ap7ia$ ypa(pi\, 680, a
„ v6fj.os, 680, a
'Ap7oi \idoi, 71, a
'ApYupaffTTiSfs, 73, a; 288, b
'Ap7i;p(o^, 177, b
^ ApyvpoKoiretov, 73, a ; 419, a
'ApyvpoK6yoL, 73, a
„ j/^es, 598, b
"ApYupos Aeu/ctls, 267, b
„ xuTos, 415, a
'ApyvpdvriToi (SovKoi) ,575, a
'Ap7o;, 91, b
'ApSdKiov, 70, a
'Ap5ai/(o»', 70, a ; 319, a ; 398, b
'ApSiod-ftpa, 314, a
"ApSis, 550, b
"Apeios ndyos, 70, a
'ApfTai, 71, a
'ApiaSj/eia, 73, a
'Aptdfj.r]TtKi), 74, a
'ApiCTTeta Trjs TrciAe&'y, 611, a
'ApifTTfpoaTdTai, 160, a; 640, a
^ApiaToKparla, 73, b ; 449, a
"Apicrrov, 151, a
'ApKn'ia, 121, a
'Ap/CTfueic, -e(r(Joi. 121, a
"Ap/CTOS fiiydXi), 90, b
,, fjLLKpd, 90, b
'ApKTovpos, 91, a
'ApKTO(pv\a^, 91, a
'ApKi/s, 534 a, 663, b
'Ap/ci/copos, 663, b
"Ap^a, 21H, b
' Apfidfia^a, 223, a
'Apixoyri, 479, a
'Ap/xoviai, 428, a ; 532, a
' AppLOviKT], 426, a
'Ap^uoffTTJs, 170, a; 342, a
'ApuaKLS, 129, a
■'ApoToi lipoi, 84, b
"ApoTpov TTr)KT6v, 48, b
''Apovpa, 84, b
'Ap7ra77j, 342, a
"ApTrr;, 300, b ; 342, a
'Appa^dov, 681, b
'Appr]T0(p6pia, 630, a
'Appr]<p6pia, 85, a
'ApcTis, 537, b
'AprajSr;, 85, a
"Aprefiis ^ov\aia, 119, a
'Apnixiaia, -ov, 85, a
GREEK INDEX
'AprffjLQiu, 436, b
''ApTia ^) Ttf pirrd, 326, b
'Apriacrfios, 326, b
""Aprioi, 74, b
'ApTOK6iros, 'ApToiroios, 485, b
'ApTOVoiKis, 485, b
"Apros, 485, b ; 583, a
„ fiAwfiiatos, 486, b
„ i(Txo-p'tTr)s, 176, b
„ rerpdrpvcpos, 486, b
"AprOi/ot, ''Aprvvoi, 87, a
'Aprutrejs, 672, b
'ApvffaKKos, 507, b
'ApuTttti'o, 104, a
'Apxo-h 416, a
'Apxato'', 304, b
'Apxa'peC'Oi 157, b
'Apx«'^o»', 65, a ; 274, b
'Apx'h alperii, 65, b ; 157, b
„ kAtjpoittj, 157, b
,, x^'POTofrjTr), 65,b; 157, b
'ApXT?7e'T77S, 188, a
'ApX'ttTpos, 50, b
*Apx'epa'''o''''V)s, 280, b
■ApX'ep«'^y> 05, a
„ 'Ao-ios, 89, b
„ roA.OTios, 323, b
'ApxiOfopos, 230, a ; 628, b
'Apxi'''<K'''o»'ia, 'ApxiTeKTOviKT},
50, b
'Apx^TfKTwv, 50, b ; 624, b
""Apxt^v, 65, a; 189, a; 534, b
„ /3a(riA.eus, 702, a
„ ToD 7€'i'ouy, 333, a
„ iirtivv/xos, 161, b
„ ^f To7y rewptois, 276, a
„ TTis ir6(Ttws, 605, a
,, ruv cTKivo<p6pitiv, 284 b
'ApYci^'rjs, 61(>, b
'AffaixivBos, H8, b ; 103, a
'Aff^SoAos, 316, a
'A(rf$fia, 159, a ; 298, b
'A(Tf0eias ypa<pi), 680, a
'AfTiapxa'. 89, ii
'Ao-iAAa, 89, b
'Atr/fcifTTjs, 373, a
'Atr/cauATjy, 8K, b
'Aff/cATjTrejo, 23l"i, b
'A(r/fA7/7r<6?a, 410, b
'AfT/fds, 89, a ; 507, b ; 672, b
'AcKwKiaffixos, 89, a
"'AcTKwiJ.a, 435, a ; 440, a
'AcTiris, 77, a ; 80, b
'AffTTtcTTai, 81, a
'Affadpiov, 39, a ; 181, a
'Aarepes dyadonotoi, 89, b
„ dix6p<(>WT0i, 90, h
„ (triKOivoi, 90, a
,, KaKowoioi, 89, b
„ TrAaviifXfvoi, 486, b
'AffT^p oTroipifiis, 92, b
'AtTTpajSjj, 274, a
'A(TTpa7oAi(r/cos, 525, a
'A(rTpa7aAoj, 89, b; 268, b;
327, b ; 352, b
'AffTpayaKcuT'o, 310, b
'AffTpaTfias ypa(pr}, 680, b
'A(TTpo\oyia, 89, b
'AcTTpovou-la, 89, b
■'Ao'Ti', 646, b
'Aarw6iJ.oi, 93, a
'AcruAia, 93, a; 603, b
"AcrvKov, 93, a
'Acrui'apTrjTa, 540, b
'AreAsja, 584, a; 680, b
' Arepafiuoy, 95, b
'At<;Uio, 681, a
"Atihos, 141, b : 689, b
'ATkayyiViis, 91, a
"ArAoi'Tes, 95, a
'Arfj.6s, 452, b
"ArpaKTos, 323, a ; 436, a
'ArpiaKTos, 391, b
'ATTjKoi'p7f s, 96, a
Aijyovpfs, 97, b
AvyovcTTa, 101, a
AvyovcrrdKia, 100, b
AvSwalos, 132. a
Auee^^Tjj, 102, a
AuAoi'o, 101, a
AvKeia, 243, a ; 355, a
Aij\fios dvpa, 243, a
Ai-Ai), 240, b; 243, a
AvKrirrip, Ai)\r]Tpis, 633, a
AuArjT^s, 160, b ; 464, a ; 632, b ;
640, a
Av\riTiKr], 632, a
AiiAia 6upo, 243, a : 355, a
ACAioj, 355, a
AiiKlcTKos, 524, a
Av\o67]K7]. 633, a
ASAos, 412, b
AuAcis, 78, b ; 124, a ; 632, a
Avr6yvov, 48, b; 412, b
AiiToKpdrwp, 169, b ; 599, a ;
697, b
AvTo/jLaxf^i't 681, b
AuTo/uoAioy ypa(pi), 681, b
AvTovo/j.ia, 583, b
AuToro/ios, 102, a
AvrSirvpos, 485, b
AvT OCT x^StacTTiKT], 638, a
AiiT0TeA7';r Siktj, 685, b; 691, b
AvxV''t ■^^^1 0,
'A<paip(aeus SIkt], 689, a
'A(pav^s oiiala, 681, b
"Acpeffts, 347, a; 587, b
'Aiperai, 386, a
''A<pfTot, 663, a
*A^6Toi Tffxdpai, 119, a
■'A^AacTToc, 432, b; 435, a
'A^oSos, 160, a; 243, b
'A^opjUTJs 5t'/ci7, 681, b
'A<po(Ttov(T0at, 159, b
" A<ppaKTos, 434 a
'A(l>poSiffia, 41, a
'A^inj, 451, b
'Axdvri, 3, a
'AxOo(^<$pos, 103, a
'Ax«AA€io»', 587, a
'Axvpoi/, 18, b ; 370, a
"A^Tjc^oj, 39, b
'Aii-is, 2, b ; 219, a
'A^j/vxw StKTj, 681, b ; 702, b
BdBijv iropevfffOai, 278, a
Boepa, 563, b ; 623, a
BoiTuAos, 5.S, b
Ba/cTTjpt'a, 102, b ; 474, a ; 684, b
BaKTpov, 102, b
Ba/fXf^os, 588, b
BaAavdypa, 857, a ; 498, b
BoAo^'eroi', 103, a
BaAai'6i''s-, 104, a
Ba\avo56K7), 357, a
BdKayos, 357, a ; 498. b ; 684, b
„ <poivi^, 19, b
BaKdvTiov, 216, a
BaA/3is, 238, a
BaWdyriov, 216, a; 405, a
BaWai'Ti6TO/xos, 216, a
.
BaWvTvs, 269, a
hdvavaos, fS6, a
BoTTTai, 111, a
Bapadpov, 111, a
Bap/3iTos, iOO, b
Bapjs, 111, I)
BaaaviffTai, 0S4, b
Bacravirris, 405, ii
Bairai'os, '215, b ; G34, a
BatriAeia, 659, a
BoeriAeiai, 534, b
BacriXetov, t6, 53'2, b
Bao-tXei^s, 65, a ; 169, a ; 478, b ;
534, a ; 610, a
BacrtAiK?) Oepairfia, 288, b
„ (TTod, 112, a
BofTiAiKoi irarSes, 287, b
BacriKivSa, 325, b
Bao'iAii'ra, BarriKiaffa, 66, a
BatnAifTKos, 91, a
Baffis, 138, a ; 537, b; 635, a
BaffKavia, 802, b
BdffKayos, 602, a
Bacrcrdpa, Bacraapis, 115, a
BoTi'ip, 587, b
BuvkuKls, 525, a
BavKiSes, 128, b
Ba(pri, 368, a
Bej8aiaj(rea)s Si'/cTj, 681, b
BeATj irvpcpSpa, 551, b
BeAoj'Tj, BeAovi's, 4, b
Be^iStl, 325, a
Bet-Si'Seia, 115, b
BepoviKr^s ^oarpuxos, 91, b
„ 7rAd/ca/xos, 91, b
BrjAo's, 355, a
Brifia, 264, a ; 338, a ; 413, a ;
644, a
Biaicev S'lKr], 681, b
BilSacris, 553, b
Bi0\ia(p6pos, 288, b
Bi0\io'Ypd<pos, 385, b
Btj3Aio977/c7j, 116, a
BijSAiottcoAtjs, 385, b
Bi^Aos, Bi/3Aio»', 384, a
BiSiaroi, Bideot, BiSuot, 116, b
Bt'Js, 67, ii
B\d^ai a.df(Tfxoi, ()82, a
,, (vdiCTfiuL, 68'2, a
BKdfir)s Si'/CTj, (i82, a
BAauToi, BAavTia, 128, b
BottY^s, 116, b
BoriSpu/iiia, 116, b
BorfipojjLiwv, 132, a
Boflpos, 47, a ; 327, a
B(Seuj/os, 327, a
Buidirdpxv^i 116, b; 286, a
BoiuiTCLpx'tSi 116, b
BoXi^eiv, BoAis, 148, b
BofjL^vKia-i 255, a ; 574, b
Bofx^vXios, 507, b
Bo^/3u|, 632, a
Bopeaff/jLii, or -or, 117, b
Bt^iTTpuxoy BepoviKTjs, 91, b
BoTdvT] Upd, 551, b
BoTavi(^iLV, 15, a
BoTavojiiavTeia, 239, a
Bouai, IIC), b; 2()6, b
Bovayop, Bovay6s, 116, b ; 266, b
Bov^vytov, 84, b
Bou/cepois, 19, a
BovKo\e'iov, BovkSXos, 117, b
BouAevtreis, 702, b
BovXevcrecas ypa<p-l], 682, a
BooXevTai, 117, b
Boi/AcuTiipio;', 119, a; 218, b
Bov\evTiK6y, t6, 625, b
GREEK INDEX
BovXt), 12, a; 117, b ; 444, b
BovXoi, 415, b
BovXvt6s, 235, a
BOLi(7TpO(^7)S(^«', 27, b
BovTvpov, -OS, 121, b
Bovcpovia, 235, b
BocSi/ai, 117, b
BocuTTjs, 91, a
Bpa^eioi', 167, a
Bpo/Sevs, 12, a
Bpa0fvrl)s, 12, a ; 167, a
BpoffiSeio, 120, a
Bpouptoi'ta, 120, b
BpaxvKaTdX7)KT0v, 540, a
BpeVas, 489, a
Bpox'y, 96, a
Bptixo'i 533, b
Bi'')3Ai(/os, 674, a
BvfiXos, 384, a
Buptr- vs, 209, a
Bupo-oSt^'^yi 209, a
Bv(T(Tos, 121, b
BcdAcc, 215, a
BajfjLoviKTis, 233, a
Bco^uds, 47, a
Fayya/uor, 534, a
rdXXoi, 323, b
Taix7)Xiwv, 13'2, a
Tafx6poi, 74, a ; 335, a
roMOJ, 405, b
Vavdiffis, 480, a
Vdpvov, 419, b
ra(rrpa(peTr]s-, ("'36, b
TaiiAoi, 440, a
TauAos, 122, b
r€i(rnT65i(T/j.a, 51, b ; 243, b
Telcroy, 51, b
reXeoures, 332, a ; 646, b
TeXooTOTToios, 235, b ; 430, b ;
467, a
refedXia, 392, b
rej'60AiaAo7ia, 89, b
rfvetoi/, 111, a
revea-La, 319, b ; 392, b
rej/ems, 90, a
rewTjTOi, 169, b ; 332, a; 646, b
rfv-n, 427, a ; 646, b
FeVos, 332, a ; 538, a
Tepaipat, Fepapai, 286,
r«pas, 283, b
repoj/Ttj, 335, a; 444, b
repovria. 335, a
repoutria, 218, b ; 835, a ; 565, a
r/ppoi/, 78, a ; 215, b ; 335, b ;
608, b
Fepcoxia, 335, a
recpvpa, 494, a
re^vpiCfiv, 200, b
re<pvpicr/x6s. 268, b
reipvpiffrai, 200, b
Teaiuopoi, 1C)9, a ; 335, a ; 646, b
reonroi/i/fct, 15, a
Fewpyoi, 335, a
ri) sTTijUopTos, 842, b
„ (Ty)fJMVTpis, 609, a
,, (TTVTrTr]picoSris, 415, b
ri77Ai'Mos, ri77Ai'/u<is, 142, b ;
335, b
ri'77pos, 6, a ; 632, b
rXevKos, 671, 1)
rxfivai, 361, b
rXvKcvyiKds, 539, b
rAu|is, 671, b
rXviTTiK^ (r(l>payiSa>v, 556, b
779
r\v<pT}, 52, a ; 136, a ; 219, b
rXv(pat'oy, 556, b
rXvipavos, 125, a
rAiKj^eTc, 637, a
rAufl!)i56x, 219, b
rXwcrffoKouov, 354, a
rXcorra, 632, a
rAoiTTOKO/ueioj', 633, a
TAaiTTd/co/uoj', 430, b
Ti/ai^evs, 316, b
rvT}(Tioi, 672, a
Fvu/jLoiv, 74, b ; 90, a ; 276, a ;
350, b ; 533, a
ro77i;Ais, 19, a
TJtjs, 601, b
T6ij.(t>os, 48, b ; 172, b ; 338, a ;
532, a
roveaiy KaKciicris, 692, b
VopyvpT), 141, b
ropiriaios, 182, a
rpd/jL/xa, 561, a
rpOjUyuoTO, 838, b
„ Sriix6aia, 4, a
„ 'Ecpdffta, 86, a; 273, b
rpo;U/AaTe7ov, 41, a ; 606, a ; 608, b
„ KoLvov, 281, b
,, AeAeu/cco/ueVot', 694,b
„ Xri^iapxi-K6v, 169, b ;
230, a ; 264, a ;
273, a
„ (pparepiKSv, 169, b
Fpafj-ixarevs, 388, a
„ rwv 0ovX€VTa>v,llS,h
„ Tj}s fiovXris Ka'i rov Stj-
^0L>. 118, b
„ T^y iroXfois, 118, b
„ 6 KaTanpvTai/eLaVjllSfh
rpaufiarlSioi', 152, a
rpa/xfiaTtKi), 338, b
rpa/xfxaTiaT-i}s, 388, b ; 397, a ;
556, a
rpaiuLiJ.aTO(pvXa^, 444, b
Fpannii, 388, a; 479, a ; 587, b
VpacpeTov, 479, a ; 596, b
rpa(p-r), 479, a ; 682, a
dypa(piov, 677, a
aypdtpov /xeTdXXov, 677, a
aj'ai'/uaX''''i', 678, b
a/'SpaTroSio'iUoG, 678, b
dirpocrTaffiov, 680, a
dpyias, 680, a
d(re/3e('as, 680, a
d<rTpaT€tos, 680, b
auTo/xoAias, 681, b
0ovXfVffews, 682, a
SeiAias, 68'i, b
SeKa(rij.ov, 682, b
ScopoSoKias, 682, b
Sa)po|6^ias, 684, a
Swpwv, 682, b
6^o7&i7^s, 689, a
(Taiprjcrfcos, 691, a
(epo(n;Atas, 691, b
KaTaXvffeus rov Sv'jjuou,
692, a
/coTafrKOTTTjs, 692, a
kXottTis, 693, b
AiTrofTTpaTiou, 680, b
XitroTa^iov, 680, b
/uo»x«'«s, 695, b
vofj.ifffj.aTos Sicupopas,
695, b
^evias, 684, a ; 695, b
irapav6fj.o)v. 71, a ; 265, a ;
444, b ; 697, a
7ropa7rp6cr/3:iay, 350, b;
697, b
780
Tpaipi] iTfpl Tuv evOvvwv, 2H'2, b
„ irpoaywyeias, 098, a
„ TrpoSoffias, 092, a
„ ffvKocpavTLas, 003, b
„ rpavfj.aTos e/c Trpovoias,
701, a
„ TVfj.ficopvxio'S, 701, b
,, vfipews, 077, a; 701, b
„ (pap/j-dKcof, 701, b
,, \\/euSfyypa(pris, 703, b
„ ^evSoKKriTfias, 703, b
rpa(piKri, 479, a
rpa-cpis, 479, a ; 596, b ; 008, b
Tp7(pos, 8, b ; 338, b ; 534, a
rpoff(p6fjLaxos, 290, a
Tp6(T(pos, 83, b
rvaKa, 70, b
ri/aAoftipal, 76 b
Tirns, 48, b ; 412, b
rvioTdpot, 120, b
rujui'oenapx*'*' A.o^7ra5j, 369, a
ruyufao-iipxis, -oy, 339, a
rj/iii'io'io;', 339, a
Tu^j'acrTrjr, 94, a; 340, b
rv/xvaffTiKT}, 339, b
ri/jUfvjTot, rv/uf^Tes, 82,
Fuyui'OTraiSta, -ot, 341, a
rvfivos, M2, a ; 254, b
Furoi/coi'djiios, 341, a
rvvaiKdiv KaKOjCTts, 692, b
rui'ai/cco;'?Tis, 241, a ; 243, a
ri*ptT7js, 485, b
rocvia, 533, a
FtopuTo's, 67, b
^dyvvov, Aa^iis, 324, b
AaSfs vv/xcpiKai, 407, a
AaSioj/, 009, b
AaSoKOTr*?^ irewTjv, 010, a
Aa5oup7ds, 610, a
AaSoCxos, 2{)9, b
Aaeiprrjs, 270, a
Aai'SaA', Aoi5aA€io, 226, b
Aais, 151, b ; 009, b
Aaiffios, 132, a
AaiTpos, 151, a
AaKTuKtotii^KTi, 220, b
AaKTiiAtos, 39, b
AdxTU/Vos, 226, b ; 413, b ; 538, b
AaixapfTiiov vofjuafxa, 181, a
Aafioffia, 227, a
Aava«7j, 181, a; 318, b
Aaveia/jLa aij.<porep6ir\ovv,S05, b
„ eyyfiof, 305, a
„ erfp6ir\ovv, 305, b
„ vavrLK6v, 305, a
Aare^a-zuo's, 703, a
Aavfiariis, 71, b; 305, a
Aairts, 611, b
Aapetfcds, 17H, a; 181, a
Aas, 304, a ; 609, b
AaTTjTOi, 082, b
Aa(pini)(popia, Ao(f)«^(^dpos,227,a
Aery/ua, 13, a ; 230, a
AeiSiV/cecrfloi, 151, b
AeiKrjKiKTrjs, 200, b
AetATj, 235, a
AeiAias ypa<pr), 682, b
AeTr, 141, b
Afiros, 509, a
AerTTi/o;/, 151, a ; 605, a
(pv\eTtK6v, 345, b
AshaSapx'tt. 227, a
AeKctpx'a, 227, a
GREEK INDEX
Aeicacrjuds, 682, b j
A€/co<rfioi} ypacp-i], 0b2, b
AfKarevT-ftpiov, 228, b
^e*caT6i/T7)s, 228, b
Aeicdryj, 228, a ; 443, b ; 017, a
AeKarri\6yos, Ae/cartivjjs, 228,b
Ae\r6s, 238, a ; 263, b ; 008, b
AeKrcoTOi/, 91, a
A€K(j)iu, 91, a
A6A.01S, 91, a; 230, a ; 440, a
Affj-vtov, 372, b
AevSpo(popia, 231, b
Ae|o;U€Vrj, 485, a
A64"'<'''''a''~»jyi 1*50) b
AelioVroixos, 100, b
AeTras, 508, b
Aepaiov, 187, a ; 603, b
Ae'pts, 162, b
Aepfj.aTiK6v, 232, a; 616, b
Atppis, 162, b
AeVis, 641, a
AeafiT), 3M5, a
AecTjuds, 141, b
„ iroi/ciAos, 350, b
Afa'fji(i}rt)piov, 141, a
AeenrofTio^oCTOj, 343, b
Aecrrpov, 219, b
Aer>), 304, a
AeuTepoywj'ftrTns, 34.S, a; 639, b
AfKTepios, 672, a
Ar/Aio, 230, a ; 628, a
AtjAiizs, 628, a
ATjAiaCToi, 30, a
Aiinapxot, 230, a
Ar)/j.(v6fjifi'a, 489, b
AT)fuoepyoi, 86, a ; 230, b
Arj^tdirpara, 90, b ; 4H9, b ; 683, a
Arifjuos, 231, a; 634, b
Ar/^toi;p7oi,169,a; 230, b; 646, b
A7]fi6Koivos, 034, b
ATjjUO/cpoTi'a, 230, b
Atj/xottoitjtoj, 169, b ; 231, b
Atj/uos, 109, a; 230, b; 046, b
Arj/ioVio ypaixfxara, 4, a
I „ (T(ppayis, 55h, a
I „ inrofivfifxaTO, 4, a
Aij/xoffiei/fu', 410, b
A7}jU(i(noi, 231, a
I „ if To7s vfwpiois, 276, a
ArifiOffiov, 9, a ; 65, a
AT)ix6rai, 230, a
Ar)fj.0TiKa, If pa, 231, b
Aia^arvpia, 232, b ; 284, b
Aia/STjTTjr, 103, b ; 888, b ; 582, a
Aidypa/j-na, 207, a
Aiaypa^i-jxianus, 329, a
Aiaypa<pev<s, 207, a ; 604, b
Aiaypa<pr\, 479, a
AiaS€?(rt^ai. 233, a
AiaSTjjua, 232, b
AtaStKacria, 079, a; 688, a
AiaUffiis, 233, b
AtoCeo-eai, 613, b
A<a(,'a»;ua, 94, b ; 252, a; 600, a;
623, a
AiadriKi\, 604, a
Aialpecris, 540, a
Aiaira iirl ^7]to7s, 684, a
AjatTTjToi, 6H3, a
AtaiTTjTi/fVj, 233, a
AiaKpiot, 040, b
AmAaju/Sai'fti'. 392, a
AiaWaKTai (vS3, b
Ata/xapTvpia, 078, a
A(a,uo(TTi7a)(rts, 233, a
Aiacoia, 641, a
Atovojual, 233, b
Aia^iiffnara, 51, b ; 53, a
AtttTraffyuaTa, 060, b
AiaTTTjSar, 278, a
AiarrvKiov, 616, b
Aidffia, 233, b
AioffTaATi/cdj/, 429, a
Aidarvt^a, 296, a ; 426, b
Aiard^eis vfapai, 738, b
Aiarovos. 423, b
Aiarpifiai, 143, b
A(aTpoxaC*"'j 278, a
Aiav\oSp6/jios, 224, a
AiauAos, 224, a ; 347, a ; 464, a
„ SpOfjLOS, 587, b
AiaxfipoTOfia, 157, b
Aia\i/ri(f)t(7is, 684, a
AiSac/caAela, -o»', 396, b
AiSacTKaAiai. 641, b
AiSacr/foAos, 159, a
AlSaKTpa, 397, a
AiSpaxiJ-Ov, 178, b
AiSvfxoi, 91, a
AjeTYuatrCoj, 687, a
ALfKirKovs, 438, b
AteA/cuo'TjVSa, 326, a
A(€|o5os, 336, b
Ai€<ris, 427, a; 428, a
Ai^vyes imroi, 220, b
Atvpes, 243, b
AnjpTjs, ]71, a; 433, b
Aidvpanffos, 638, a
AuTToAia, 235, b
AiKa^fffOai irpbs EvfioKviSas,
270, b
AiKuffTTipiov, 084, a
„ (^ociKdi/, 702, b
AiKaarifs, 684, b
„ /coTO Si)fjiovs, 621, a
Ajkoctti/coV, to, 685, a
AiKeAAo, 387, b ; 531, b
A(KTj, 685, a
„ atKias, 677, a
„ dAo7ioi;, 077, b
„ avaywyfis, 077, b
„ avdSiKos, 091, b ; 695, a
,, fivtv iJSaTOJ, 351, a
„ airo\ei\pt<i)S.i 0H6, a
„ a.TroppT)criws, 679, b
,, airoaraaiov, 080, a
„ dirt) avfjifioXwv, (599, a
„ oTTpdo-KATjTor, 685, a
„ avTOTe\r}s, 685, b ; 691, b
„ cKpaipfaews, 089, a
d(^op/ii7Jy, OHl, b
,, a.-i\ivx<^v, 081, b; 702, b
„ fiefiaidcrfuis, 681, b
„ ^laioiv, 681, b
„ $\d0ns, 082, a
„ «77u>js, 687, a
„ eipyfiov, 687, a
„ ««s ^/jKpavwy KaroffTaaiv,
688, b
,, (Kk\7)tos, 691, b ; 699, b
„ efitirivos, 189, a ; 688, a
„ (fjiiropiK-l), 688, b ; 699. b
„ dvoiKiov, 689, a
,, e^aipeaews, 689, a
„ e^ouATjs, 689, b
„ iiriTpoirrjs. 691, a; 695, b
ipaviK-r). 280, b
dprjUT], 703, b
KOKrjyopias or KaKTjyopiov,
691. b
KaKoAoyias, 691, b
KaKo^evias, 352, b
KaKOTtX^^'^'"} *''31- l>
Koptrov, 089, a ; 692, a
AiKTi KXmrrjs, 693, b |
„ \nro/j.apTvpiou, 078, a
„ \oiSopLas, (>i'l, b
„ /xeraAAiKT), (>88, b
,, ovcrias, G8',», a
„ irapaKaTadrtKris, 696, b
,, irapavoias, 697, a
„ ■jrpneL(T(popa.s, 519, a
„ irpoiKos, 086, a; 699, a
„ TTphs vScop, 351, a
„ criTou, 680, a ; 698, b
„ (r\JKO(pavrias, 703, b
„ (TVfxfioXaioiv, 699, b
„ TifjLr}Tr\, 085, b
,, (poviidi, 70, a ; 702, a
„ xP^ovs, 703, a
„ xPnM-o.TiKri, 691, a
„ \l/ev5oij.apTvpia>v, 691, b ;
095, a ; 096, a
AiKr]Aoi>, 143, a
AiKpavov, 322, b
A'lKpovv i^xi\ov, 322, b
AlKpOTOS, i'ii, a
At/CTi'o>', 533, b
„ aKievTiKov, 534, a
Ai/jLiTOS, 614, b
ATi/os, 509, a; 525, a; 637, a
AioiKrjo-ts, 28,a; 235, b; 522, b;
611, a
AK^/cAeia, 235, b
AiJjueia, 235, b
Atoj'uo'ia, 235, b
„ fxiKpd, or kut' aypovs,
202, a ; 230, a ; (;38, b
„ /xfyaAa, or (v affni,
202, a ; 236, b ; 639, a
Ai6pBui<ns, 445, b
AiopdwTVS, 584, b
AiopoSy 325, b
Aios, 132, a
Aioa-n/j.ia, 239, a ; 265, a ; 283, a
ALoCKOvpeia, AiocrKovpia, 237, a
Ai6aKovpot, 237, a
Ai'ttAciI, 252, a ; 250, a
AiTrAf; txa.xa.ipo-, 314, a; 633, b
AtTrAol'Sioj/, 202, a ; 257, b
AnrXo'is, 257, b
AtTTc^Aia, AiTToAeja, 235, b
AiiTTepos, 59, b
AiVri/xa, 238, a ; 609, a
AiffKo^oKia, 238, a
AiV/cos, 238, a; 473, b
AiffKovpa, 238, b
Aiareyia, 624, a
AiTovov, 426, b
AKpdepa, 237, a; 384, b, 460, a;
472, b ; 008, b
Ai<p9epoTroi6s, 209, b
Ai^pos, 219, a; 221, a; 563, b
„ KardcTeyos, 564, b
„ o/cAa5ias, 564, a
„ x^M^'C^J^os, 503, b
Aixa-^Kov, 181, b
Aixas, 413, b
AiX0|U7ji'ia, 131, b
Atxo'pia, 100, b
A«a)/3€Aia,235,b; 625, a; 628, a
Aiw^oKov, 182, a; 235, b
Aiooixoaia, 71, a ; 678, a
AiMpv^ KpinrrT), 216, b
Aiiiffrpa, 635, b
Ayuo)'^, 170, a
AoTSul, 420, b ; 602, a
A6Kava, 239, b
AoKi/xacrla, 118,h; 169, b; 686, a
AoKLfxaarris, 276, a
A<^Atxos, 224, a
GREEK INDEX
A6hwv, 436, b
Aofioi, 635, a
Aoua^, 120, b ; 354, a
AopidAcoTOS, 575, a
Ao'pTreia, Aopiria, 40, b
AopTTOj/, -0$, 151, a
Aopu, 78, b ; 81, a ; 663, b
AopvSpfTravov, 439, b
Aopucpopos, 284, a
a6(tis yeveSXios, 324, a
AovKos, 575, a
Aovpa, 532, a
AovpoSoKT], 78, b
Aox/U7J, 413, b
a6xij-ios, 539, b
ApoLKcuv, 90, b
Apajxa <TarvpiK6v, 639, a
Apax/xri, 181, b
„ ToO KlTTO^iapTVpioV,
683, a
ApafTcreif, -etr^ai, 392, a
ApeTTdj/o;', 15, b ; 300, b
Apo/xoKrjpv^, 344, a
Ap6ixos, 473, b ; 571, b
„ aKafXTTTos., 224, a
„ SiauAoj, 587, b
„ SJAixoj, 587, b
„ evdvs, 224, a
„ KOLfj-TTeios, 224, a
„ OTrAiVrjy, 224, b
„ ffvvwpiSos, 528, b
„ Tfdpnnros, 528, b
Apuoxo'i 432, b
ApixpaKTos, 136, b; 684, b
Apco/xeva, 271, a
„ /cai Aeyo'/ifi/a, 122, a
ApoJTral, 524, b
Au^ai/arat, Au;uai'6s, 170, a;
647, a
AvvaiTTeia, 449, a
Avvaroi, 443, a
Alberts, 92, a
AvffTpos, 132, a
Av(T(p7]ijda, 289, a
Aco/xa, 241, a
A<t>fj.a.Tiov, 243, b
Acopa, 686, b
AcopoSoKias ypa<pri, 682, b
Aoipor, 251, a ; 412, b ; 463, a
Awpo^evias ypa.(pri, 696, a
Acopcoj/ ypa<py\, 682, b
Aoot'lvt}, 686, b
'Eap, 92, b
'E/35o/uas, 31, a; 134, b
'Ej35J/ioi, 31, a
'EyyeypaiJ.iJ.fvos ev 'AKpoir6\ei,
512, a ; 677, a
'EyYeiai, 600, a
'E77[>7j, 687, a
'E'y7U7js 5ifC77, 687, a
'E77ur;crij, 400, b
'Eyyvrjrai, 688, b
'Eyyvdofxfvos, 141, a
'E7/cat6t;/, 479, b
'EyKavcris, 480, a
'EyKav(rTiKr}, 479, b
''E7/cau(rToj', 95, b
'EyKfUTpls, 127, b
'E7»coi/xa(r&a(, 452, a
'EyKo\a.TVTfiv, 124, b
'E7K0;u3'»'M'*' '^•''■1) *
"EyKo/Jija, 295, b
'E7/coTiiA7j, 325, b
781
*E7/cT77/UOTa, 687, a
"EyKTTjais, 687, a
„ 7';$ Ka( oiKt'as, 416, a
'EyKTr]TiK6v, 687, a
'E7Ki//cAios-, 370, a
„ AfiTovfjyia, 159, a
„ 7ra(5e('o, 396,b;397,b
"EyKvKAov, 255, a
''E7/ca)7roj', 434, a
'E7Xf'pi5ioj', 81, b
"£7x0$, 78, b ; 81, a
""Eyxovffa, 310, a
'E7Xi'''"pi'C«»') 162, b
'E7Xi''''picrTpta, 102, b ; 300, a
'E34(Tfj.aTa, 152, a
"ESva/EeSm, 686, b
"ESpai, 241, a
"ESpTj, 563, b
E!;577, 427, b ; 538, a
Elnds, 131, b
ElKovoypa(pia, 479, a
EiVoo-TTJ, 228, a ; 266, b
Et/(oo-ToA(57os, 26(), b ; 616, b
ElKO(TTCt!vr]i, 616, b
ElXaTrivrj, 151, b
EiAciToi, E'/Aoires, 343, a
E'lfxara, 251, b
E'lpyijov SIkt], 687, a
Eipio-iwvT}, 527, b ; 621, b
EtpT^v, 200, b
Elfpioj' a7rc> liiAoii, 121, b
Et(ra77eAia, 119, a; 687, a
,, KaKctxrecos, 691, a
EtVa7a)7€rs, 687, b
Elffriyrjffis, 169, b
Eicrirripia, 266, b
El(nroir](Tis, 688, a
ElcTcpopd, 206, b ; 604, a
'EKaro/j^aia, 344, b
'EKarofx^aicov, 132, a
'E«:aT<^/i/37j, 546, b
'E/caTOi/Topxai, 294, a
'Ek^oAtj, 305, b
'E/cSiSc^i/ai, 576, a
"EkSj/cos, 260, a
"EkSoo-js, 305, a
'EKexeipia,'.y6,a,; 268, b; 442, a;
449, a
"EKdea-is, 299, b
'E/c/cArjirio, 12, a ; 263, b
„ KaTUKAriTOS, 264, a
,, Kvpia, 264, a ; 265, a
„ Aox'Tis, 197, b
„ fxiKpa, 260, a
„ (TvyK\r]Tos, 264, a
„ (ppaTpiKT], or (^pa-
rpianT), 197, a
'Ek/cAtjtoi, 265, b
SiVai, 691 b ; 699, b
'E/f«:uKrArj;iia, 299, b ; 624, a
'E(cAo76uy, 200, a
'E/C;ua7ero»', 404, b
'EK/xapTvpia, 688, a
'EKTrepi(rira(Tfj.6s, 287, a
'E/c7rrjj/(^'6(r0a(, 615, a
'E/C7rp(i06(r^os, 098, b
'EKTei^s, 342, b ; 413, b
"E/ctt;, 181, b ; 342, b
'EKrrifj.6ptot, 342, b
"E/ctuttoi', (il8, a
"'E/CTUTTos, 26(), a
'EKTinrcoixa, 618, a
'EK<popd, 319, a
'EK(pvK\o<pope7v, 524, b
'EK(pv\\o(popia, 118, a
'EAaa, 'EAaio, 447, a
„ KaWiaTe(pavos, 450, a
782
'EXaiov, 447, a ; G60, b
„ awb yaXuKTOS, 121, b
'V,\atwv, 447, a
'E\aT'fip, 3'24, b
'EKavvfiv, 124, h
'E\a<pr]Pu\ia, 2(17, b
'E\a<p7]l3o\Lcl>v, 132, a
''E\a<pos, 207, b
'E\e6s, -Of, 1, a; 41], b; 622, b
'EXfiToKis, 288, a; 343, a
'EXfvdepia, 272, a ; 584, a
'EKfvaivia, 207, b
'EA6>as, 203, b
'EKiKV, !»0, b
"E\(|, 53, a ; 75, a ; 343, a
'EA«:i/(rTiV5o, 326, a
'EWavoSiKat, 843, a ; 449, b
'EWavoSiKatwv, 450, a
'EAATjroTa/uiai, 343, a
'EAAijueVioi/, 272, a
'EKAlttus, 74, b
'E\\6fiioi', 361, a
"EAu/ua, 48, b
"EKvfj.os, 622, b
'EAt/8aAA€ii/, 392, a
'Efx^aixfxara, 204, b
'Efx^ds, 12H, 1)
"E/x/Sao-is, 8H, b: ()88, a
'Efj.fixreLa, 'Fj/xfiaTevetv, 688, a
'E/u/3aTTjs, 51, b ; 129, a; 417, b;
0)0, a
'E!x&i<piov, 3, a
"Efx^K-nixa, 123, b ; 480, a
'E^^oAoSe'TTjs, 219, b
"Eix&oXov, 296, b; 347, a
"Ejx^oKos, 39, a; 219, b; 435, b
'EjjLfjLfKfia, 160, b ; 640, b
''Efxfj.r]voi. S'lKai^ 189, a ; 688, a
'E^TraiiTTiKr;, 124, a
'EfxTvaais, 125, a ; 423, b
'EtiwopiKoi Siicai, 688, b ; 699, b
'EfxirSpiov. 273, a
'EwTTopos, 2H4, b; 583, a
"Efxirovcra, 32(>, a
'EyuTrupi^TJTTjs, 652, a
'EiJ.<pauoiiu KardcTTaaiv, SIkt] 6ts,
OHM, b
""E/iicppoupos, 2h:!, b
'E/u(J)VTev(r(s, 720, a
'Ei/ayicr^uoTa, 319, b
'Erara, 319, b
'Eyyouaaiv, 91, a
"Ei/SaSos, 'Ez'SaSoui', 610, a
"EvSei^is, 512,'a; 679, a; 688, b
"EvSfKa, oi, 344, a
'Ei'SoVijUoi/, 100, b
'Ei/Sof'fai. 243, a
'EfSpajxiSfS. 12.S, b
''EvSpvov, 219, b
''Ei'5i'|Ua, 255, b
'Ev:-TriaKr)iJ.iua. 700, a
'Ei'€7ri(rKi7(|/a(76a(, 676, b ; 700, a
'Ei/exfpor, 2H2, b; 305, a; 689, a
"E^Tj /cal j/^a, 131, b
'Evtavata, 319, b
'Ei'i'aeTTjpis, 131, b
'EvyeaKpovvos, 43, a ; 624, b
'EuoSiov, 533, b
(rvij.0o\ov, 239, a
'Efot/(ioi/ 5((C77, 689, a
''Evoirrpov, 585, b
''EvcTiTos, 523, b
"Errairis, 51, b; 57, a
'ErToViov, 635, b
'Ei/Tf)i'3ec0ai, 316, a
'EvTpijjL^ara, 316, a
'Ej^Tpixoj', 194, b
GREEK INDEX
'EvTpvKiC^iv, 332, a
'Evaj^oTapx^'i ""'> ^83, b
'EvoiyctoTia, 283, b
'Evwriov, 361, a
'E^ayuiyris ypa<p7), 689, a
'E|ai0pa7rrjs, 555. b
'ElaipeVecor S/^tj, 689, a
'ElaiTett', 576, a
'E|aA€i<|)f (I/, 684, a
"EipLpxos, 160, a
'E\as, 494, a
'Elao-TuAoj, 59, b
'ElaTpaTTTjs, 555, b
'E|677i'r«r0a(, 687, a
'Ele'Spa, 243, a; 282, b ; 426, a
'E\si-n, 220, b
■E|eAt7/i(is, 286, b
'E|eTa(TTai, 689, a
'E|rj77jTr)s, 270, a; 283, a
'ElifTTocrOai twv ovtwv, 689, b
*E|iT^pia, 299, b
'eISSiov, 299, b
'eIoSos, 160, a ; 041, a
'E|ouA7js 5i/fi7, 689, b
'E^w/xis, 253, b
"ElwAtoo-ia, 689, b ; 695, a
'E^iiffrpa, 299, b ; 624, a
'Eoprr] KauirdSos, 3<)8, b
'E7ro77*Ai'a, 477, b; (i89, b
„ SoKifiaffias, 689, b
'EiraiK\ov, 607, b
'Eiratvos, 2, b
'EiraiTia, 094, a
'EiraKTripfT, 003, b
"EiraKTpa, 'ETra/frpi's, 440, a
'ETraA^eis, 143, b
'ETToi'aToATJ, 92, b
'Eirav(\d(7i', 688, a
*ETrai'op6aiTiis, 584, b
'EndptTot, 286, a
'EwauAia, 407, b
'Eirftff6Sioi', 'EwfiffoSoi. 641, a
'Eire^JSia, 299, b
'ETTfui'aKTai, -01, 373, a
'ETr7J7/(6i/iS6S, 532, a
'Eirt&drai, 275, b ; 354, b 435, b ;
437, a
'Etti'^Atjmo, 254, b
'EirijBArjs, 356, b
'Etti/Sotj^o, 2, b
"Etti/SoAtJ, 13, b ; 51, b; 690, a
'Etti'^oAos, 219, b
'Eiri&wntos, 269, b
'E7ri70/U(a, 416, a
'ETriyvci/jLoves, 276, a
*E7r47oi'<roj', 400, b
'Eniypan/j.a, 056, b
'Eirtypa<t>f's, 207, a
'E7ri5oi'«i(,'f o/, 805, a
'E7ri'5€i|is', 465, b
'EiriSfitrvis, 154, a
'EmSrilJ.iovpy6s, 188, a ; 230, b
'EniSiKaaia, 40(!, b
„ ToC kKtjpov, 693, a
'E7r(Si(/)piar, 219, a
"ETTiSdo-fis, 275, b
'Ewidpofjios, 533, b
'EiridfTu 'epd, 71, a
'E7r(077Ma, 411, b
'EtriKaTdSvffts, 92, b
'EiriKaTacTTaa-is. 287, a
'Eiri/(€<^aAaioj', 662, b
'Etti/cAt/pos, 690, a
'E7ri/fA7)p&)i' KaKwcTts, 692, a
'E7rt/cAi7pQ)(r4s, 084, b
'EiriK\ii'Tpov, 372, b
'E7rtKO(i'os, 830, a
'ETTi/coupoy, 283, a
'ETTiKpavov, 51, b
'EwLKptov, 433, a; 436, a
'ETTiAe/CTos, 146, a ; 291, b
'ETri\ovTpov, 104, a
'Eiri/ueAeia, 354, b
'EiTifxe\7iTT)s, 189, a; 276, a
„ ayopcis. 276, b
„ TWV ^LKaffrripiuv,
276, 1j
„ Tov (fiTTopiov, 276, a
„ Trjs Koiyrjs TlpO(T6Sov,
276, a ; 611, a
„ Auweioi;, 276, b
„ TWV fjLopiwv (Kawv,
276, a
„ Tciij' fiVCTTIpiwV,
270, b
„ TWJ' vewpiwv, 371, b ;
270, a
„ ^Sajj/, 349, a
„ Trjs ir6\fws, 276, a
„ T^y TTo/xirTis T(f Ato-
vvffifi, 276, a
„ irpvTavdov, 276, b
„ Tciv Uvdiwv, 528, b
„ Tajc avfjLixopiwv,
276, a ; 604, b
„ TWV ISdTwv, 276, a
„ Tojj' (^iiAwi', 276, a ;
376, a; 478, b
'EirifiopTos yrj, 342, b
'ETTji'tKio, 276, b
'ETTico/Ltia, 'ETTij/dftiov, 690, b
'EirnrapoSos, 160, a
'EiriVeSos, 74, b
'EwnrKoKri, 538, b
'ETTiTTOpTrrj/ia, 254, a; 399, b
'ETTiiropTris, 308, a
'ETriirpoiKot, 692, b
'ETrippa^So(pop(7v, 278, a
'ETTi'ppTj/ua, 161, a
'E7r((T6t'a!f, 436, a
'ETrio-Tjjua, 302, a; 389, b
'EiriffTquov, 362, a
'EttiVkthI/u, 095, a
'Eiria-KOirot, 1H9, a ; 276, b
'EiriaKvpos, 380, a
'EtriffTrdaaffdat, 248, a
'ETrtcnracTTTjp, 856, b
'EiriacTWTpov, 219, a
'ETrKTTOTrjr, 86, b ; 276, b
„ SrtfiocTiwv fpycDV,
276, b ; (il3, a
„ TOV vavTtKov,ni,h;
651, b
„ TWV irpoeSpwv,llf^,h
„ TWV wpvTavfwv,
118. a
„ Til/ i5aTei;»', 43, b;
276, b
'ETTicTToXevs, 276, b
'Eirto-ToAi^, 277, a
'ETTlCTTOfHOV, 276, b
'EirtffTpdTTTyos, 598, a
'Eirt(TTpo<pai, 287, a
'EiriffTuAioi', 51, b ; 277, a
'E7ri(r</)i;pia, 76, b ; 80, b
'EiriTacpia, 629, a
'EniT-nSeia, 288, b
'ETTiTi/uia, 169, b; 681, a
'ETrtTi;ur;Tr)s, 231, b
'Eir'tT i/xos, 688, b
'EiriToAi^, 92. a
'EitItovos, 872, b ; 433, a; 440, b
'EiriTpi7]pdpxviJ-<^' 651, a
'ETTtTpoTTTjs 5t/C7j, 691, a ; 695, b
I
'Enirpoiros, 8(!, b ; 575, b ; C70, b
690, b
'EirixeipoToye7u, 157, b ; 2(55, b
'Ewix^ tpOTOvia, ir>7,h; 445, b
'Eirtxvcns, 509, a
'Eiri\l/r)(piC€tv, '265, a ; 524, b
'Eirt\l/r](piCf(rdai, 524, b
"Ettoikos, 188, a
'Ettottttjs, 269 a ; 270, b
'ETro(TTpaKi(TiJ.6s, o26, a
'E-n-ox^evs, 600, b
"Eiroxoc, 274, a
'Eiro^ia, 271, b
'ETTcySeAia, 001, a
'Ett^SJs, 106, b; 541, a; 601, b
'Ett' ii>/j.ov TO. 56paTa, 287, a
'Eirwuia, 616, b
'E-Trajru^uos, 277, b
'ETTcoTiSes, 94, b ; 435, b
'EpavdpxVSi '280, b
'EpaviCeii', 280, b
'Epai/iJcT? 5u<;?j, 280, b
'Epaviari)S, 280, b
"Epavos, 151, b ; 280, b
"Epya KoX riixepai, 457, a
„ d\ocr(pvpyiTa, 403, b
„ ff(pvpr\\aTa, 40o, b
'EpYaXela larpwy, 556, b
'EpyavTj, 157, b
'EpyaffT-qptov, 86, b ; 410, b
'EpyacTTlvai, 85, a
'EpyaToKv\iu5pos, 401, b
'Ep7oAa/3os, 281, b
'EpYci;!/?]?, 281, b
'Epe/3ii/0os, 18, b
'Ep€Tjua, 433, a
'EpexOe'iou, 280, b
'Eprj^TJ 5i»crj, 703, b
'Eprifiijv avTiXdxet", (591> b
„ lAeTv, 685, b
„ 6<p\e7v, 683, b ; 685, b
"Epia airh ^uAou. 141, a
'Epifla/fTj, 22, a
"Epidoi, 616, a
''Epi<|)oi, 91, a
"EpKos, 47, a
"Epfj.a7, 'Ep/j-oia, 344, b
"Epfiaia, 345, a
"Ep/j.aKfS, 344, b
"Ep^ara, 344, b ; 3(")1, b
'Epne7a, 344, b
'Ep;u./}S TTpoTTvKaios, 345, a
„ (Trpo(paios or (rTpo<pevs,
345, a
'EpjUt'SiO, 344, b
'Ep;U07Ai^<fios, 345, a
'Ep/xo/co7n'5ai, 345, a
'Epp-rjcpopia, 'Epp7i(p6pos, 85, a
'Ep(T7)(f)opia, 85, a
'EpvKT?]piS, 343, b
'Eo-e^y, 251, b
„ a-KVTivri, 472, b
'Eir/ca/xyueVa, ra, 559, b
"EcroTTTpoc, 585, b
'EfTTrepns, 134, b
"Eo-irepos, 486, b
'Eo-rfa, 243, a ; 312, a
„ 0ov\aia, 119, a
'EcTiatris, 345, a; 464, b
'EffTiaTwp, 345, a
"EcTTCiJp, 219, b
'Effxdpa, 38, a ; 47, a ; 240, b ;
312, a ; 358, a
'Effxapiov. 38, a ; 48, a ; 243, b ;
312, a
'Eaxapis, 38, a ; 243, b ; 312, a
'Eo'X'''''*"'''^^""'' 338> '•'
GREEK INDEX
'ETatpai, 345, b
'Eraipeia, 34(i, a ; 607, a
'ETaiprjcreojs ypacpii, 691, a
'ETaipia, 346, a
'ETaTpoi, 287, b
'Erepo/xaWos, 611, b
""Etos Up6v, (>65, a
EvavSpia, 464, a
Eu6P76'tt)s, 853, a
Eu0ii5i/cio, 678, a
Evdvvai, -01, 118, a; 275, a;
282, b
EU0W77, 282, b
EvduTOKia, 36, b ; 305, a
EvOvTovov, (>35, a ; 636, a
Eu^opfs, 129, a
EuyUoATTi'Sai, 282, a
Evur., 372, b ; 433, a ; 436, b
Ei'7raTpi5ai,65,a; 169, a; 282, a;
646, b
EvTr\6KaiJ.os, 193, a
EvpiTTOs, 422, b
Evcp-n/uLia, 2, b ; 239, a
'E(pe5pi(TiJ.6s, 325, b
'E(pe\KV(Ta(x6ai, 243, a
'E0eVia 7pa(U/utaTa, 36, a ; 273, b
''E<|)6<ris, 683, b ; 691, b
'Ecperai, 278, b
'EcjxTLvSa, 327, a
'E<pTi^eia, 273, b
'E4)7?/3iK-r), 330, a
'E()i7j/3iH:oV, T($, 025, b
"Ef/JTj/Bos, 169, b ; 273, a
'E0T)77j(T<s, 679, a ; 688, b
'E^rj^epiSes, 457, a
'E<piiviviov, 'E(piirK(Lov, 274, a
'E(i()iV7r(os, 224, a
'E<p6Sia, -Of, 597, b ; 669, b
'E(p6\Kaiou, 433, a
'E<pope7oi', 274, b
"Ecpopos, 270, b ; 274, b
„ iiTcovvfios, 277, b
'E(pvcpr], 613, a
'Ey«tAt), 15, a; 48, b
'Ex7vos, 51, b; 220, b; 266, a;
445, b ; 678, b
"E4/r]fxa, 671, b
"Ev|/rj(r(j Twv oairpioov, 629, a
'Ewpa, 8, b
'Eoii<T(p6pos, 486, b
Za/fopoi, 7, a
Zea, Zeia, 18, b; 485, b
Zetpa, (576, b
ZearoAovala, 94, a
Zeu7?TOJ, 156, b; 285, a ; 646, b
Zevyos, 365, b; 632, a
Z7}fj.ia, 630, a
ZrjT-qTai, ()76, b
Zu7a, 160, a ; 432, b
„ y) a(.u70, 326, b
Zu7iot, 434, a
Zvy7Tai, 434, a; 437, a
Ztr/6Se(r/xov, 219, b
Zvyiiu, 138, b; 365, b
Zu7Js, 49, a ; 128, 1)
Zv9os, 157, a
Zvfxri, Zv/xco/jLU, 486, a
Zoiypa^ia, Zwypa(piKri, 479, a
Zw.uo, 76, b ; 1C.2, b ; 252, a
Zui/xbs ^f Aas, <i07, b
Zwvrj, 1()3, a
„ irapdeviKT]. 117, a
Z<fo<p6pos, 51, b : CI, b ; 676. b
783
ZwffT-'np, 7(), b ; 251, b ; 435, a
Z(f}Cp6pos, 51, b ; 53, b; 61, b;
676, b
H.
'Uyf/jiovia, 342, b
„ SiKacTTTtpiov, 66, a ;
598, a ; 6K7, b
'H76/11&S1', 512, b; 514, a
„ SiKatrrripiov, 702, a
„ irpi(r0VTr)s, 475, b
„ ffv/x/xopias, 604, b
„ TOW xopo^'i 1''0, b
'HSutr/xara, 204, b
'Heaj/ioj/, 192, a
"Hflij, 641, a
■Hejuds, 192, a
■^H0os, 429, a
'HAa/carrj, 323, a; 436, a
"HAeKTpos, -ov, 267, b
'HAiat'o, 684, b
'HKiaffrai, 684, b
'HA(o5p<{/uoi, (ill, b
'HXiOTpoTTiou, 350, b
'HAi'ou KAi'i'ai'Tos, 134, b
''HAos, 77, b; 121, a; 124, a;
130, b; 172, b
^Hfiap Sei€\ov, 235, a
,, fxeffov, 235, a
'Hfxepa, 234, b
„ KovpewTis, 194, a
,, /ucVtj, 235, a
'Hjuepai airo(/)pa5es, 452, b ; 680, a
,, a(pfToi, 119, a
,, /j.vaT7]picdTiSfs, 269, a
'H/xepoSa^/eitTTT/s, 305, a
'HfxfpoSpufxot, 224, b ; 344, a
'H/U6po(r/f(J7ros, 344, a
'H^iieKTf'oc, 342, b
'HyuieKTOj', 181, b; 342, b
'HfitKorvKiou, 508, a
'HfMLKiiKAiov, 344, a; 490, a
'HfjiiXtySos, 619, a
'H/iiAiTpoi', 494, a
'H/Ui^t'a, 'HjuiVa, 'HjU?j'a, 215, b;
344, a ; 413, b
'H^ioAiai, 440, a
'Ufj-nrAiudia, 101, b
'H/xiTv^iof, (')00, a
'H/x(X''P'tti 1''"- b
'\ifxiwfio\ov, 182, a
'Hi/i'a, -ai, 220, b; 341, b
'Hvioxos, 91, a; 221, a; 286, a
'HpaZa, 344, a
'Hpa/cAeta, 344, a
'npiov, 318, b
'Hpi^oj', 73, a; 345, a; 571, b
"Hpojy, 345, a
'Ho'uxoo'Ti/fJi', 429, a
'HTiyuoj/ueVoi, 694, b
'Hxe'Oi/, 266, a ; 623, b
'Hws, 235, a
0.
©oipoj, 142, a
0oAa^taK6s, 434, a
©oAajuioi, 434, a
<=)aAa,u?Tai, 434, a ; 437, a
0dAa^os, 240, b ; 243, a; 621, a
„ ((TXO-TOi, 241, b
„ '6ir\<tiv, 241, b
QaKxiffia, 27, a ; 621, b
@a.ij.va, 672, a
Qdimiv, 319, a
784
QapyriAia, (')21, b
&apyr]\iwv, V.Vl, a
Qea, 023, a
Qearpuf, 022, b
&eaTpoTrcl)\rjs, 024, b
QeaTpcovris, 02-t, b
Qefxa, 90, a
&ffj.i(TTes, 444, b ; 534, b ; 629, b
0eo5ai(T(o, 028, b
&eol yafj.ri\ioi, 243, b; 407, a
StoAoyeTov, 024, a
0fo|eVia, (;2H, b
&€0<j)dvia, <')27, b
©epairt I'a fiaffiKiK-i), 288, b
idfpairevTLKoi, 407, a
©epaTroi/, 284, a ; 343, b
&€pi(TTpioy, @4pi(TTpov, 255, a
Qep/xacrrpis, 313, b
Qfpixr] Se^afM€vr), 107, b
©ep/uoAouTeif, 103, b
@epfj.6v, 131, a
Qipjxos, 18, b
©epos, 92, b
©eVOai TO oTrAa, 82, a ; 287, a
©eVis, 537, b; 688, a
@i(TfjioQ(cnov, 523, b
@iffixoQiTai, 05, b
0€<ryuo(, 445, a; 629, b
&€cri.w<p6pia, 629, b
Qeff/iiocpdpos, 629, b
@i(T fioipiiKail, 444, b
©ecrcraAoi /Tnrers, 288, b
0€TTaA.oi»c«'Tai, 473, a
©ecopi'a, 230, a; 628, b
&io>piKvv, TO, 625, a ; 627, b
eiewpis, 230, a ; 442, a ; 628, a
@iwpoi, 230, a ; 449, b ; 628, b
9riKai, 572, b
&i)pa, 003, b
©Tjpio/xaxos, 115, li
&riplov, 91, b
0ripwTpo(p(7oif, 22, a
©TjiToupo's, 60, b ; 251, a ; 629, a
0t;(T6?o, 629, a
&TJ(T(ra, 090, b ; 693, b
erJTes, 86, b; 156, b; 630, b;
040, b
eiacToi, 280, b
0A5i/, t;42, b
&6ivr] ya/xiKii, 407, a
©dAos, 61, b; 119, b; 240, a;
523, b ; 630, b
„ |7;p({$, 104, a ; 107, b
0opi;j86?j/, 625, b ; 701, a
&0WKOS, 12, a
©pa/fes, 285, b; 28M, a
©pariTttt, 434, a ; 437, a
®pnvvs, 433, a ; 563, b ; 630, b
&piyK6s, 53, b
0pt5o|, 152, a
&p6uicr/j.os, 457, a
@p6vos. Ill, b ; 563, b ; 623, b ;
030, b
Qveia, 420, a
&veiv, 151, a
@v\aKoi, 119, b; 404, b
©u/x«Atj, 022, b
&vjj.iaTripiov, 057, b
&vpa, 355, a
aCA6(os, 243, a; 355, a
av\ia, 243, a
/Sao-t'Aeios, 024, b
/crjTraia, 243, b ; 855, a
juetrai^Atos, fieffavAos,
243, a
,, /u^TauAos, 243, a
0vpa( SifcAtScs, 241, a
GREEK INDEX
&vpe6s, 83, a ; 501, b
QvpiTpov, 356, a
Qvpr], 350, b
©upi'Ses, 243, b
&vp(Tos, 031, b
Qvpcov, 243, a
©upaipeioi', 245, a
&vpwp6s, 350, b
©iJo-oi/oj, 8, a ; 78, a ; 808, b
„ lixavrivoi, 78, a
@v<Tav(i>T6s, 78, a
&v(TLa, 546, b
QvT-hptof, 47, a ; 91, b
©oipa/fioi', 436, a
Qcipa^, 79, b ; 142, b ; 219,
„ aKvffiSfTos, 82, b
0c6p7j|, 76, b
'laKxay(>>y6s, 270, a
'la/cxos, 268, a
""la/u^oj, 538, a
'laTpaAeiTTTTjs, 27, a
'laTperov, 410, b ; 061, a
'laTpi/fTj, 410, a
'loTpo's, 410, b
'larpwv (pya\€7a, 556, b
'lepa, 209, a ; 542, b
/SoTctj'Tj, 551, b
yipovffia, 270, 1)
ypap.fj.ri, 32is, )>
57J^loTJ/cd, 231, I-)
^irjflfTa, 71, a
varpia, 71, a
XpT^paTa, (ill, a
'IepauAi7S, 270, a
'lepem, 269, b; 542, b
'lepfjo, 26H, b
'lepeveiv, 151, a
'lepfvs, 542, b
'lepTjia, 151, a
'Iepci7pajU(uaT6i/s, 30, b
'l€po5i5d(rKaAos, 49(!, a
'lepoSouAos, 345, b; 846, a
'UpoKTipv^, 2t)9, b
'Upoyuai'Teio, 239, a
'lepofiTjvla, 93, a; 346, b
'lepouj'TJ/ioi'es, 30, b; 346, b
'Ifpof, 5H, b
'lepoviKTjs, 94, b
'l6po»'({jUos, 496, a
'lepoiroios, 346, b
'Itphs \6yos, 268, a
„ \6xos, 286, a
'I6po(r/oo7ri'a, 239, a
'lepOCi/Aias ypacpr}, 691, b
'lepot^ai'TTjs, 122, a; 269, b;
496, a
'lepotpavria, 268, a
'l€p6<pavTts, 269, b
'l6po<jt)i^Aa»cf s, 496, a
'l€pa)(rur7;, 416, a
'iTJTTJpeS, 'iTjTpoi, 410, b
'WixpaKKos, 200, b
'iKerripia, 663, b ; 675, b
'1k4tvs, 93, a ; 298, a
"I/fpm, 433, a ; 532, a
„ irpdpTjs, 433, a
'iKTripia, 603, b
'iKTTjptoi /cAaSoi, 668, b
"lAa, 206, b
'lAai, 286, a
'lAapxos, 278, b ; 286, a
'l/xduTts, 51, b; 436, a; 668, b
,, TTVKTlKol, 126, a
'IfidvTtov, 209, a
'IfxavTwffis, 219, b
'yds, 209, a; 310, b; 356, b
'llxaTioKKeirTtis, 104, a
'Ifidriov, 161, a; 253, a; 255, b;
640, a
'Iv^lKT} KVWV, 663, b
'Iviiia, 302, a
*I|€i;t^s, Q**
•l(5s, 550, b
'\iru6s, 869, a ; 486, a
^Ittos, 514, a
'l-niraypfTai, 278, b ; 284, a
'iTTTrdSa TeAe?!/, 278, b
'iTnraKOfTtffTTis, 288, b
'lTnrapfj.offrTjs, 284, a
"iTTirapxos, 278, b
'iTTTrds, 325, b
'liriTfia, 278, a
'Ivnels, 278, a ; 646, b
„ eeo-croAoi, 288, b
„ yLi(T0o<p6poi, 288, b
„ (TVfj.fjiaxot, 288, b
'iTTTT^es, 283, a
'lTnr7jAo(rio, 278, a
'iTTTT^s, 156, b ; 278, a
'linrtKdv, 346, b ; 588, a
"liriTLos, 224, a
'ImrofidTai, 74, a
'l7r7r(55po^os, 346, b
'iTnroKofxos, 285, a
"Ittttos, 91, a
'iTTirdTai, 74, a
'l7nroTo|<iTai, 278. b ; 288, b
'liriroTpocpia, 285, b
"lirirov wporoixT), 91, a
"Ipavfs, 200, b
'lariyopia, 576, a
"lo-e^uia, 304, b
"IcrdiMot', 419, b
'IcrOfxioviKT}!, 365, a
'l(T6/jioipot, 092, b
"lo'oi' TfTi^, 005, a
'Iffovon'iT], 280, b
'IffOTeAelj, 410, a
'lo-Tja, -Of, 433, a ; 486, b
'Icrrofioevs, 48, b
'1(Tto56k71, 433, a; 440, a
'ItTTOire'STj, 433, a
'lo-TOTrdSej, 613, b
'larhu iiroixfcrdai, 618, b
'IffTo'y, 430, a ; 613, a
„ updios, 615, b
IffTWf , 243, b ; 616, a
'\rvs, 219, a
"lu-yl, (557, b
'I(^i(cpaTt5f s, 129, a
'\X^vfs, 91, b
'IX^i-ofctiAAa, 838, a
'IX^Cj, oi', 13, a ; 401, a
'IxOi'y fjifyas or j/rfrtoj, 91. b
"Ii/zoi', 141, b
^laiviKdv, 538, b
K.
KajSeipia, 121, b
KaSiV/fos, 122, b ; 265, a ; 524, a
KaSoTTotds, 499, a
KdSos, 122, b ; 416, b ; 510, b ;
524, a
KadapiffTiKT], 682, a
KdOapua, 2(!4, b ; 898, b
KaOapnol xo'Pokt6voi, 548, a
Kaddpffia, 895, b ; 398, b
Kddapais, 298, a ; 398, a ; 641 b
I
II
KaOfSpa, 149, b ; 319, b ; 564, a ;
623, b
Kddfadf ra ottAo, 287, a
Kaderos, 533, a
KaBoSos, 630, a
KaiaSas, 111, a
Kaifiv, 158, a
Kaipos, Kaipoiyua, 613, b
Kaifrapsro, 42, a
KaK7J7o^ias (or -ou) 5i/ct;, 691, b
KaKKOL^ri, KaKKa^os, 122, a
Ka/coA.07ios Sj'ktj, 691, b
KaKo^evias 5i/C7], 352, b
KaKOT6X>'icoi' S'lKT], 691, b
Ka/foOpYos, 344, a
KaKcixTfus eicTayyiKia, 691, a
KaKuffis, 691, b
„ yovewv, 692, a
„ yvvaiKwv, 692, a
„ eiriK\7)pwv, 692, a
„ optpavoiv K.T.K., 692, a
Ka\a0tcrKo$, 127, a
KctAoflos, 54, b ; 127, a ; 525, a
KoA.O/uapioi', 96, a
Ko\a^is, 127, a
Ka\a.jxoykv<pilVi 127, a
KaAa/U.07Ai'(j>os, 556, b
KaAa^ttos, 124, a ; 126, b
Ka\T)T<t)p, 127, b
KaKKiyivna, 630, a
Ka\Kiypa(pia. 396, b
KaAAiepeli', 239, a
KaWiTrAoKOjUos, 193, a
Ka\6fiaepa, 338, a
KaAoj KayaOoi, 170, a
KaAdTTous, 128, b ; 314, b
Ka\o(f>6pos, 607, b
KaKnis, 91, b; 509, a
KaAuyU/ua, 534, a
KaAuTTT^p, 60, b ; 612, b
KaKcoSiov, 347, b ; 440, a
KaKws, 436, a ; 440, a
Kttyuopa, 68, a ; 135, b ; 222, a
Kafjiiuiov, Kifiivos, 314, b
Kdfxov, 157, a
Ka/iTTTrjp, 347, a; 587, b
KafiirvKr}. 102, b
Kajxypov, 587, b
Kdvafios, 499, b ; 619, a
Kai'adpa, 354, a
Kdvacrrpov, 138, a
KafSys, 138, a
Kcti'eio;', 138, a
Kai'rj(^(5pos, 138, a
Kai'flapos, 507, b
KavdriKia, 175, a
Kdvvafiis, 19, a
Kavz/o/Sos, 19, a ; 499, b
KavoviKov, 139, a
Kav6vtou, 39, a
Kavovis, 684, b
Kacoui/, 138, a
KaccojSos, 91, b
Kovcij', 39, a ; 138, b ; 171, a ;
532, b ; 613, b
„ irpSxfipos, 139, a
Kaireros, 318, b
KairrjA€?oi', 150, a
KaiTTjAos, 13, a; 150, a; 284, b
Kdirvrf, 243, b
Kairvias, 674, a
KaiTuoSdHT), 243, b
Ka-irvoiJ.avTeia, 239, a
Kairiro, 130, b
Kdpaffos, 141, a
Kop/Sariioj, 128, a; 141, a; 584, b
KapSoTTuov, 418, b
GREEK INDEX
KapSoTTos, 486, a
Kap7]KOiJ.6wvTes, 193, a
Kap/capo^, 141, b
KapKLvos, 91, a ; 163, b ; 313, b
401, b
Kapve7a, 142, b
Kapiraia, 553, b
Kap-KOLffos, 141, a ; 255, a
Kdpwov SiKTj, 689, n ; 692, a
Kdpva, 19, b
KapvariSfs, 95, a
Kapx'JJC'ov, 436, a; 440, a
Ko(T(n6Tr€to. 91, a
KaacriTfpos, 9, b ; 415, a
KatrTa^/ta, 19, b
KaTa/3au/caA7)(nj, 324, a
KaTa/8A77;ua, 440, a
KoTajSoAr), 616, b
KaTa7W7toj', 150, a
Karaywyis, ()35, b
KaTaKflffdai, 152, a
KaToKAfiSes, 637, a
KaTaK\iveLV, 152, a
KaraArjKTi/ct^j/, 540, a
KaTaAAa77J, 71, b
Kara^oyri, 160, b ,
KaTaAo7ei;s, 285, a '
KaTaAo70S, 148,b; 295, a; 612, a j
KaToACtrai, 287, a
KaraAvcrecos tov Srifiov ypaipi),
692, a
KaraAiKTis, 150,a; 364, b; 668, a
KaTaviirrris, 489, a
KaTaTva\Ta(pfffia, 637, a
KaraTTfipTjTrjpiTj, 148, b
KaraTreATTjs, 635, a
Korappa/CTTjs, 148, b; 357, b
KaraaKewf), 94, a
KaTafT/coTTTJs ypa<p7i, 692, a
KaTao-TCKTis, 119, a; 285, b
KuTdaTpai/jLa, 435, b
KaTdcppaKTOs, 81, a ; 434, a
KoTaxeipoToi/err, 157, b ; 698, a
KaTaxv(Tfj.aTa, 407, a
KoTe77uai', -acrOai, 687, a
KaT^7opos, 700, a
K.droTTTpov, 585, b
KaTopuTT€iv, 319, a
KaTOX«i^S) 356, b
Karpivos, 48, b
KaTTu/^a, 128, a
KavK6s, 51, b; 138, a
Koucr/a, 485, a
KavTrfptov, 158, b
Kai|'t5pciTio»', 600, a
KedSas, 111, a
Ketu^Ato, 662, a
Ketpeiv, 633, b
Keipi'a, 372, b
KeKffir), 508, b
KfKpiKpaKos, 534, a
KeAeo^/Tej, 613, b
KeAeiKTTTjs, 437, a
Ke'Arjr, 278, a ; 348, a ; 439, b
KeATjTioi/, 439, b
Kev-n, 330, a
Kevoi (xP<ii^oi), 538, a
KevoTaf^ior, 154, a
Kfvravpos, 91, b
Kf vrpoy, 311, a; 597, a
KeVrpcor, 156, b
Kepaiai, 436, a ; 440, a
KepaiJ.fiK6s, 499, b; 572, a
Kepafxevs, 499, a
Kepa/uiK^ r4x>'V: 618i a
Kepa/xis, 612, a
Ktpa/ios, 141, b; 499, a; G12, a
785
Kepas, 510, a
Kf pacros, 19, b
Kfp/ci's, 613, b ; 628, a
KepKovpos, 440, a
Kipfxara, 181, b
Kfp/xaTi(TTTis, 71, b
Ke'pj/os, 508, b
Keo-TtJs, 157, b
Keo-rpoi/, 403, b ; 479, b
Kfcrrpos, 318, a
Ke<rTpD(T(J)6;'5o»'7j, 318, a
Ke(^aAaiov, 304, b
KeipaK^ irepidiTos, 194, b
Kriix6s, 139, a; 430, b; 534, a
KTjTraia Ovpa, 243, b ; 355, a
Kriiros, 194, a; 351, b
„ 'ASuviSos, 5, b
Kripiou, 22, a
KTjpo's, 22, a ; 609, a
KripvKftoy, 122, a ; 640, a
K7jpu|, 269, b
Kr)pwfj.a, 157, a
KriTos, 91, b
K7j(^6ux, 91, a
KifiwTiou, 684, b
Kij3a;T0S, 50, a
Ki7KAi5es, 136, b
KiSapis, 632, a
KiOdpa, Kidapis, 399, b
Kieap-n(p6pos, 181, b
Ki0api(rTr]S, 400, b
Ki0ap(f)5i'a, 528, b
KidapcfiSos, 159, a ; 399, b ; 464, a
K«AAi;8os, 162, b ; 411, b ; 479, a ;
662, a
Kivvdfiapi, 191, b
Kioues, 240, b
,, Kv$oetSe7s, 587, b
KioviaKos, 572, a
Kia-a-vfiiov, 167, b
KiVttj, KicTTi's, 167, b
Ki(rTO(p6pos, 169, a; 181, b
Kirapis, 632, a
KAdSoi i/CTrjptoi, 663, b
KAapi'o, 305, a ; 606, b
KAapos, 343, b
KAenria?, 356, a
KKfipvSpa, 350, b
KKTiUues, 239, a
KAT/SoiJxos, 358, a
KKijepou, 356, b
KAMI'S, 356, b ; 432, b
K\r]povofj.ia,, KKrjpovofxos, 692, a
KArjpouxio, KArjpoDxos, 189, a
KATjpwTpi'y, ()84, b
K\riTfveiv, 678, a
KATjTTJpts, KArjTopfS, 693, b;
695, a
KAi^acos, 314, b ; 486, a
KAi'jua, 174, b
KAi/xaKti^ftv, 392, b
KAr^ual, 241,b; 433, a ; 556, b
KKivv, 152, a ; 872, b
KKivrfip, 563, b
KAiff/a, -Tj, 143, b ; 563, b ; 608, b
KAiffis, 287, a
K\i(rfji6?, 563, b ; 630, b
K\oi6s, 117, a; 187, a; 442, b
KAoTTTjs ypa<pri, 693, b
5iKT), (;93, b
KAciCei". '''•^•'>- Ij
Kroc^eus, 31(), b
Kvd<pos, 317, a
Ki'f<pa\\ov, 372, b
Kx/fj/uat, 219, a
KiojMrSes, 76, b ; 80, b ; 252, a
8E
786
K/tffjuos, 630, a
Ki/uiSmv, 420, a
K6yxv, -OS, 203, b
KoTjs, 1'22, a
K6dopvos, 120, a ; 640, a
,, TaTrfiv6s, 128, b
Koi'tjs, 122, a
Ko7\ov v-ir6S7)fj.a, 128, a
Koifj.T]Tr)ptov, 607, a
Koivd, 545, a
,, inro/xvrifjuiTa, 4, a
Kon'oV, TO, 288, b
„ 'Acrias, 80, b
,, BoiwTWV, 116, b
„ ypa/xfJ-aTelov, 231, 1j
KoiJ'Wj'iKO, 652, a
KoiTwvfS, 243, a
KoK/fos, 175, b; 611, b
KoAaKfs, 467, a
KoKaiTT-fip, 556, b
KoAeoi', 78, b
KoAeo's, 81, b
KoAAa, 338, a
Ko\\a$t<Tfj.6s, 326, a
KoWav, 124, a
KoAAu/Sio-rris, 71, b; 181, b
KoAAu/3os, 181, b
Ko\o(r(T6s, 102, a
KdAiros, 252, b
KoAuju/Srjepa, 103, b ; 193, a ;
485, a
depfjLov vSarus,
107, b
KdAu/ijBos, 193, a
Kt^/ir?. 193, a
Kdfiris anapxai -51, a
Koniifffdat, 697, a
Ko/u/xdnoi/, 161, a
KdyUM', **38, a
Ko/ijuol Kul dprivoi, 630, a
Ko/u/uo's, 160, b ; 640, b
KoV5i/Ao$, 413, b
Koula, 316, b ; 339, a
KoviafM, 479, b
KoviiroSis, 128, b
KuuTo^ovofiov, 326, a
Koz/Tos, 20H, a ; 433, sa
Koirayov. 209, a
KoTTf us, 125, a
KoTTi's, 209, a; 300, b
KuTr()o\6yos, 93, u
KoTTptiffs, 243, b
Kdirreij', 356, b
Kdpal, 91, b ; 356, b
Kopa/fes, 611, b
KdpSo^, 640, b
Kopv, 324, b
K(ip;ua, 157, a
KopoirKtidos, KopoTrAairTTjs,
618, a
Kdpu;u/8os, 193, b ; 214, b
KopwT), 172, a; 472, a
KopvvTi(p6pos, 172, b
K6pvs, 78, b
Kopu(|)aia, 220, b
Kopv(}>a7os. 160, a ; 638, b ; 640, a
Kopwvri, 67, a ; 356, b
Kopwvis, 214, a
KdffKii/of, 215, b
Ko(T/xT)TTJs, 215, a; 340, b
Ko'fTuoi, 215, a
Kdcr^os Ki;;/&)j', 663, b
Kd<r(ra)3os, 331, a
KoTicos, 365, a
KotuAt), 215,b; 226, b; 413, b;
508, a
KoTvK'tffKT), -iov, -OS, 215, b
GREEK INDEX
KStvAos, 215, b; 508, a
KoTTaBf'iov, Kotto/Sjoj', 331, a
KoTTaj3t(r/^ds, 331, a
Kdrrafios, 331, a
Kov\f6y, 78, b
Kovpe7ov, 40, b ; 169, b ; 633, b
Kovpevs, 633, b
KovpewTts, 40, b ; 169, b
Kovpis, 633, b
Kovpfii, 157, a
Koi'poTpd<J>os, 270, a
KouTaArj, 562, a
K6<pii'os, 208, b
Kox^'apio''. 176, a
Kox^i'os, 175, b ; 176, a ; 198, a
KoyAi's, 193, a
Kpafi^Tos. 338, a; 373, a
Kpave7ov. 364, b
Kpdvos, 78, b
Kpaa-ts, 94, a
KpaTfvrris, 215, b
Kparrip, 91, b ; 508, a
Kpedypa, Kpeaypis, 342, a
Kpffxddpa, 624, a
Kp6>3aAo;/, 215, b ; 324, a
Kp607ra)A6?or, 400, b
Kpr)Sffj.vov, 253, a
Kp-fivapxos, 43, b
Kp^vT/, 43, a; 313, a
Kpr)vo<pv\a^, 43, b ; 276, b
Kprjiris, 12H, b ; 215, b ; 640, b
Kpriaepa, 215, b
Kp7j(repiT7/s, 485, b
K/MjTj/cos, 538, b
Kpifiavos, 4N6, a
KpiOofxavTiia, 239, a
Kpi«os, 220, a ; 324, b ; 356, b ;
361, b; 440, a; 656, a
KpioSoxv, 75}, a
Kpids, 73, a ; 91, a
KpiT7}s, 215, b
KpoKTi, 613, a
KpoKwrds, 202, a
Kp6<T<rai, 143, b
Kpoffffoi, 30M, b
Kp^TaAoi/, 215, b ; 324, a
KpoTO<J)4's, 403, b
KpoTeZf, 124, b
Kpoviiv, 356, b
Kpouvot, 43, a
KpouiroAa, 561, b
Kpouire<;o<, 128,a; 226, b; 561, b
KpouTTflia, 226, b; 561, b
Kpovffis, 429, a
Kpu)357ji/ \\/r)(pi^e(rdat, 265, a
KpinrTfio, Kpi/TTTia, 217, a
Kpi/TTTT/, 216, b ; 217, a
Kpv(pioi, 611, b
Kpeo/3uAos, 193, b; 443, a
KTfis, 471, b ; 613, b ; 630, a
KTeviffrris, 471, b
Krepea, 318, a
Kuoflos, 226, a ; 413, b ; 508, b
Kvafios, 18, b; 117, b; 152, a
Kvavos, 191, b ; f!74, b
Kvfieia, 326, a ; 684, b
KvBfpin)(ria, 629, a
KvfifpvT)TT]s, 437, a
Ki;/3i(rTf)p«s, 553, b
Ku/Sos, 329, a ; 619, b
KvKedv, 226, a ; 269, a
KuK7/9po;', 542, a
KvKAa, 219, a
KvK\ios xopos, 638, a
Ku/cAoj, 13, a; 401, a; 575, b
Kwvos, 91, a
KuAiKcta, 1, a
' KuAij/5pos,226,a; 385,a; 476,b
Ki;A(|, 505, a ; 507, b ; 605, a
KuAicris, 391, b; 465, a
I Kvfia, KvfMTioy, 52, b; 53, b;
I 226, a
Kvfji&a\oi/, 226, a
: Kvfi^rj, '^18, a
Kvfj.Bioy, 508, b
Ki;;/5aAi(r/Lais, 327, b
Kwf-n, 78, b ; 252, a ; 484, a
Kwri, 484, a
' Kvvriyfcria, 588, a ; 663, b
I Kii;/7)7e'T7js, 663, b
' Kui/TjTij/Sa, 325, a
■ Kvv6iTapyes, 339, b
I KvvocTovpa, -IS, 90, b
Kwcov K6<Tfj.os, 663, b
I Kup/Sotrt'o, 632, a
! Kvpfiets, 102, b
i Kvpta Tov v6pL0v, 678, b
Kvpiai iKKKTjaiai, 264, a
Kvpios, 407, a ; 686. a ; 694, a
I „ Ka5i<TK0S, 524, a
1 KvpTT], -OS, Kvpris, 430, b ; 534, a
Kv(pa>v, 442, b
Kuij/eATj, 22, a ; 50, a ; 534, a
Kvwv, 91, b
„ 'lySiK-fi, 663, b
KwSoiy, 633, a
Kwfa, 372, b ; 472, b
Kuidaiv, 508, a
Ku)Ao7p€'Tai, 187, a
KeoAcucpfTat, 41, a; 187, a
Ku)\ov, 539, a ; 540, a
KwfmffTai., 200, b
Kicfjuri, 332, b
Kai/ios, 200, b ; 237, ;l
KufiifiSia, KiO, a ; 200, b
KuveToy^ 216, a
Kuyos, 79, a ; 208, b ; 657, b
KwycitirfToy, 205, a
K(^ov, 328, a
Kwirn, 78, a; 140, b; 418 a;
433, a
Kwww, 227, a
KwpvKofioKia, 94, a ; 215, a
KcaipvKOfjJix^O; 215, a
Kcopi/Kos, 214, b
Kus, 141, b
Aa)8^, 140, b
Aafiis, 314, a
Aafivpivdos, 325, b ; 367, b; 534, a
I AoT'X'^''*"' SiKV, 685, b
AayaifioKoy, 202, b ; 663, b
Aa7aids, Aa^tos, 91, b
! Aadupos, 18, b
j Aaiai, 613, b; 615, b
AaiVos ouSds, 51, a ; 59, a ; 241, a
I Aaia-ifioy, 78, a
j AaKeSaiij.6yioi, 170, a ; 284, b
Aa/CKOi, 47, a
Acuca,;/»{,"ovT€s, 254, a
AaKoivi/ca, -at, 129, a
Aa/uTro57;5po/uio, 368. b ; 464, b
AafiiraSripopia, 368, b
Aa;U7ro5i yiKciy. 369, a
Aa/i7ra5j(rToi, 369, a
AafxirdSos foprr), 368, b
AafnraSovxos ayoiv, 368, b
Aa^iros, 304, a ; 368, b
AafjLTrrrjpfS, 304, a
Aapj'o^, 50, a ; 319, b
Aarayeioy, 331, a
AtiTol, 331, a
AaTiov, 370, b
Xariov S'lKaiov, 370, b
Aaroixuov, 404, b
Aaro/xiai, 141, b
Aarinrri, 125, a; 330, a
Aavpr], -240, b; 241, b
AavpoffTaTai, 160, b
Aa(^Lipo7raJAat, 284, b
Aeaivecrdai, 524, b
AeySTjs, 371, a ; 509, a
„ rpiirovs, 652, b
A67d;ue»'o, 271, a
Af7ai, 613, b ; 615, b
Afifji.fj.aTa, 538, a
AeiTovpyia, 376, a
„ iyKvKKios, 15!t, a
AejToiip7oi, 376, a
AfKOLur), 331, a ; 370, a ; 509, a
AeKaviSiov, AeKaviov, 469, b
AiKavis, AeKaviffKTi, 469, b
A(fi0os, 440, a
Ae'lis, 429, a ; 641, a
„ eipofiewri, 890, b
Aeoj/TTj, 8, a ; 78, a
AeVaSj/a, 220, b
A67ra(rTT;, 509, a
AeTTjScDTJs, 82, b
AeiTTo, 390, a
AfTTToV, 181, b
AeiTToaTrdOriTos, 615, a
A€7rT($4'rj(^os, 405, a
Aea-xv, '^^3, a ; 376, a
AevKacririSes, 288, b
AfvK6\ivov, 494, a
Aeu/ccis xp"""*^*, 267, b
AevKWfxa, 450, a; 609, a
A6xfP''''> 344, b
Aexos, 372, b
A(<»v, 91, a
AecDctSfta, 876, b
Ari^apiov, 202, a ; 255, a
Aj/Si'oj', 255, a
ATji'tTTTjpes, 431, b
Ar)KvQo'Koi6s, 499, a
AvKvOos, 318, b ; 509, a
AriKvdo(p6pos, 104, a
ArfviffKos, 376, b
Arji/oja, 236, a ; 638, b
AVtt'O'') 638, b
Arji/Js, 319, b ; 436, a ; 634, a
ATj^iapx"^^'' ypafj.fj.aTsloy,
169, b; 230, a; 264, a; 273, a
Arj^iapxot, 264, a
A^|is, 690, b ; 693, a
Ar]Tovpyia, 376, a
A(/3a;'o/iaj'Teia, 239, a
Aifiai'coT6s, 658, a
AifliKa, 457, a
Aidofi6\oi, 635, a
Aiflos, 6, 264, a
„ ajua|ia?os, 423, a
„ avaiSeias, 71, a
„ apySs, 71, a
„ Kv^iKrjvds, 404, b
„ \evK6s, 404, b
„ npar^ip, 575, b
„ v0pfcjjs, 71, a
Aid6(TrpwTov, 480, a
Ai6oTd|Uos, 158, b
AtK^/iT'jjs, 661, b
AiKvov, 15, b; 218, a; 268, b;
661, b
„ fMOTlKUV, 661, b
AiVa, 533, b
Aivov, 19, a ; 121, b
AiirofxapTvpiov S'lKt], 678, a
GREEK INDEX
AiiroffTpaTiov ypa<pT}, 680, b
AiiroTa^LOv ypa(t>ri, 680, b
Aicrrpeveiv, 15, b
AiffTpov, 531, b
A'lTpa, 181, b; 188, a; 388, a:
494, a
Airpov, 316, a
Aixai'ds, 427, b
AoyoSes, 286, a
Aoyero;', 622, b
AoyiffTripiov, 282, b
AoyiffT-ns, 181, a ; 282, b ; 584, b
Aoyi(TTiKri, 74, a ; 389, a
Aoyoypa.(pot, 890, b
Ad-yoi (wiSeiKTiKoi, 465, b
„ /epoi, 2(>8, a
„ iravriyvpLKoi, 465, b
,, awriyopiKoi, 700, a
Ao-yoTTOioi, 890, b
A6yxv, 78, b; 81, a
Aoyxo<p6poi, 288, b
AofTpuf, 103, a
AoiSopi'as 5//fTj, 691, b
Aoirddiou, 469, b
AovT-fip, AovTTtpiov, 104, a
AonTpiSes, 489, a
AovTp6v, 103, a; 106, a
,, yafj.LK6v, 407, a
AovTpo<p6pos, 407, a ; 572, b
A6(pos, 79, a
Aoxa7o's« 283, b ; 612, a
Aoxio, 85, a
Adxos, 283, b ; 285, a; 612, a
„ lepos, 286, a
„ opdios, 287, a
Avy i(i IV, 892, a
Ai;/caio, 399, a
AvKos, 342, a
A^pa, 91, a ; 399, b ; 400, a
Avffis, 641, a
Ai'X''*''"') Avxvia, Avxviov,
137, b
Avxvos, 304, a ; 890, b
At;x»'0"Xo^. 137. l> ; 369, a ; 899, a
Aiios, 132, a
AojiroSi/crio, 694, a
AwTTo^vTai, 104, a ; 680, a
M.
MayaU^fiv, 429, a
mdyaSiS, 400, b
Mayas, 400, b
Ma76£pe?a, 176, b
Mayetpos, 152, a ; 176, a
Mayi's, 176, a ; 486, a
Ma^a, 152, a ; 527, a ; 583, a
Vla^ovdfjios, 410, a
Mo07jTai, 8(>, b
MaifiaKT-qpLwu, 132, a
MaKeWa, 887, b
Mo/cpdj/, 161, a
Ma/fTpa, 88, b ; 104, a; 48(i, a
Ma\dxv, 152, a
Md\e-n, 609, a
MoAAds, 194, a ; 611, b
MacSoAoy, 356, b
MdvSpa, 89, b; 149, b; ioi, a
542, b
Mdvns, 331, a
Mar/ds, 587, a
Moi/dfTTTJyUOS, 613, b
Moi'TeTor, 451, b
MdvTets, 23,S, b
MauTiKT), 410, b
Mdpfiapos, 404, b
787
Mapffi/TTjov, 405, a
MapTvpia, 678, a ; 694, b
Maprus, 695, a
MacTT^pes, 676, b
Ma(rriyoi'6fj.ot, 406, b
MacTTtyocpopot, 406, b ; 528, b
MdffTtl 310, b
Mao-xoAftrTTJp, 110, b ; 163, a
MttTTO), 486, a
Maxaipa, 81, b ; 217, b
SittA?"), 814, a: 633, b
Maxaip't^iov Outikov, 217, b
Maxaipiov, 81, b
Maxatpis, 633, b
Me7aAo7pa(|>ia, 479, a
Miyap'i^iiv, 630, a
M€'7opo»', 58, b ; 240, b ; 630, a
MeSifivos, 411, a; 529, a
„ (TiTrjpds, 411, a
Mf'Sos, 157, a
Me0o5oi XaKSaiccv, 89, b
Mfiayiiiy6s, 40, b
MeiAixai, 126, a; 465, a
Melov, 40, b ; 169, b
MeAoj/, 95, b; 191, b
„ ypa<ptK6v, 95, b
M€\dySoKov, MiKavSox^^ov,
96, a
MeActj/tov, 95, b
MeAaj/TTipio, 128, a
MeATj 6|d5ia, 160, b
Me'Ai, 22, a
MfKiKpaTov, 673, a
M(\ipos ov56s, 241, a
MeAfToDTTO, 319, a; 486, b
Me\tTTOTpo(peiov, 22, a
MeAfTTtor'T), 22, a
MeAiTOJcris, 22, a
MeAAipaves, 266, b
Me\oypacpia, 396, b
MeAoTToua, 428, b ; 641, a
MeAos (ndffifxov, 641, a
Meo-ci/Sa, 219, b
MecrouAios, MicrauXos 6vpa,
243, a
MeV?; (xopSr?), 427, b
Meo-TjyUjSpia, 184, b ; 235, a
Metro/Sao-iAei^s, 864, a
Meaoyaia, 647, a
MeudS/u?;, 483, a
Mecro/cpji/eis, 415, a
Meffoffrdrai, 635, a
MeffdTTjres, 74, b
MeaSroixo'^i -o^> 467, a
Meo-TTiAo;/, 19, b
MeraySaTTjs, 232, a
M6TO;3oA^, 287, a; 428, b
MeTayyi(fiv, 671, b
M 6x076! Tricot', 182, a
M6TaAAi«al SiKat, 688, b
MfTaWov, 404, b; 414. b
MeTaptiTTpls, -Of, 152, b
MeVa^a, 574, b
Meralv, 6, 330, a
MerdcTTaffis, 160, a
MeVoiiAos <?iJpa, 243, a
M6T6a;poAo7ia, 89, b
M6ToiKia, 606, b
MfToiKwi>, 3H6, a ; 416, a; 616, b
MeVoiKos-, 415, b ; 606, h
MeTowrj, 52, b ; 61, a ; 416, b
MeroTTwpov, 93, a
M6ToxAi(,"a), 356, b
M6TpTjT7Jr, 122, b ; 416, b; 529, a
MfTpov, 412, a ; 540, a
MfTpovSfxoi, 416, b
Mrj5t/CT7, 19, a
Se 2
788
M7JA77, 158, b
Mr/Aia, 191, b
M^Aoj/, 19, b ; -iCS, b
Mt/j/ airiaiv, 132, a
„ (laioiiv, 131, b
„ efjLfi6\iiJ.os, 131, b
„ IffTafxevos, 131, b
„ KolKos, 131, b
„ ATJ7a)r, 132, a
„ fjLfffwv, 131, b
„ Traud/uei/os, 132, a
„ ir\r]p7)S, 131, b
„ (peivwu, 131, b
Mrjpot, 52, b ; 052, a
MriTpayvpTat, 25, a ; 450. b
MTjTpaAoi'as, 679, b
M7JTpo|€C01, 109, b
Mr]Tp<f!Oi/, 05, a ; 009, b
Mnxavri, 288, b; 401, a
MTjxai/oTTotoi, 288, a
Mi'Aiov, 413, h
MiKtuou, 533, a
M/Atos, 191, b ; 316, a
Mr^uos, 410, b
MiffOos, 285, b
„ $ov\(vtik6s, 118, a
„ SiKuffTiKos, 085, a
,, fKKAr^criaffTiKos, 264, b
MifftJoi^/^ei/oi, 141, a
Mia6ovv, -ovffdai, 095, a
Mi(Teo(p6pos, 280, b ; 414, a
„ Ininvs, 288, b
„ leVoy, 288, a
„ ux^os ^(vik6s, 284, a
M'KrdwfjLa, 663, a
MifrOtiirecoJ cpdffts, 695, b
MiVeoio-JS, (JOO, a
MtcrewTiis, 2W1, b
MiO-ecoTos, HC), b ; 414, a
MiToi, 013, b
Mirpa, 157, b ; 417, a
MiVpTj, 76, b; 417, a
Mm ifiTropLKr), 493, b
M(^5ios, 342, b ; 413, b
„ crn6piti.os, 417, b
M6eaK(s,Uoewvfs,nO,ix; 343,b;
380, a
MoTpo, 532, b
Moixei'a, 095, b
Motxei'os ypa<p7), 695, b
MoAu^Saira, 14H, b
MoAu)35is, 317, b ; 533, a; 534, a
MoKv^SoiJ.avT(ia, 239, a
MoAu05os, 415. a
Nouapxia, 41H, b
M6t><xpXos, 419, a
Moi/as, 413, b
MovTJptjs, 434, a
MovoK-poTOS, 434, a
Moj'o/xaxo'i ''•'>*') t)
Mou6^v\ov, 29, b
Movc^Sia, 641, a
Mo'pa, 278, b ; 283, b ; 537. b
Mopi'ai, 298, a; 447, a; 663, a
MopTT), 342, b
Movfvxia, 421, a
Moui'iix"^''. 132, a
MoiKTfta, 426, a
Mouo-6?or, 420, a
MovffiKv, 339, b ; 426, a
MoxArfj, 356, b ; 357, b
MD0OS, 041, a
MuSaii' (priuat, 271, a
Mi;ra xaAKf), 320, a
MuiVSa, 320, a
MutoirdiST;, 310, a
MvKTTjp, 891, a
GREEK INDEX
Mi^Ar;, -os, 417, b
Mu|a, 391, a
MuoTrapojj'ev, 440, a
Mvpf\\/oi, 061, a
MvpfjLtjKfS, 120, b
Mupoi/, 660, b
MvpoTTuKai, 661, a
Mvppivai, al, 211, a
MfCTTaYaiYcis, 208, b
Mvffrai, 122, a ; 270, b
„ (vae^ecs, 122, a
MvffTa^, 111, a
Mv(TTr}pta, 429, b
] MucttiAtj, 152, a
' MvcTTpov, 152, a ; 430, a
; Miito)!', 127, b
N.
No)8Ao, 400, b
Uaiapxos, -152, a
Nadj, 58, b
NapflTjl, 310, b
i NotTTOi, 85, a
I Nouapx'tt. i^duapxos, 430, b
, NawArjpos, 606, b
I NauKpopi'o, 332, b ; 440, b
j Nowpapos, 440, b
' Navs, 431, a
: „ Mafpa, 432, a; 433, b; 438, b
I „ (TTpoyyvKr}, 433, b* 438, b
! NaCroi, 437, a
NouTj/cal avyypa<pa'i., 305, b ;
606, a
; NauTi/ftii' 5o;'6io'juo, 305, a
I NofToSiKoi, 441, b
I Neapol Siard^fis, 738, b
j Ne/3piy, f^, ii; 441, b
NeoTTj (xopSr)), 400, a; 427, b
'ii(Kp6iinrvov, 319, b
'H(Kpo<p6poi, 319, a
I NfKuia, 452, a
NeKyo/xai/Teroi/, 455, a
I NeKucrta, 319, b
'Nf/j.ta, Ne^eia, 442, a
I HeoSaixdSfis, 170, a; 284, a ;
I 343, b ; 3.S0, a
'NeoTevKTiKa, 457, a
I UevpocriraffTa, 324, b
! Nf uK6poi, 7, a ; 442, a
1 NeuJpja, 430, b
' Nfiiis, 58, b ; 469, a
I N€£iS(roi(cot, 430, b
NTjes dpyvpo^oyoi, 598, b
N^^a- 323, a
N^/iia (TripiK6v, 574, b
'NriffffoTpo^ela, 21, b
'NTjffTfia, 030, a
'NiKTjrfipiov, 442, b ; 464, b
N/rpoj', 310, a
N({eoj, 109, b
No/i€ry, 440. a
NeJyuKr^ua, 177, b; 187, a
„ AanapfTfiov, 181, a
No/uiCjuaTos Siacpopas ypa<t>Ti,
695, b
NoyiioSer/CTai, 444, b
tio/xodeTai, 445, b
t^ono<pv\aKfs, 444, b
Nd/xos, 177, b; 444, b
aypa(pos, 444, b
apyt'as, 680, a
IfSioy, 444, b
/caTOTTTiKos, 58, a
/u€TaAAtK(iy, 415, b
irpoOefffiias. 698, b
N<5mos nuejK(is, 528, b
„ ^oviK6s, 702, b
'Nofioivris, 090, b
'No(roKoiJ.€7ov, 661, a
Nou/i7ji/ia, 131, b
NoCju/ios, 177, b ; 492, b
, Nv;u<^7j, 49, a; 324, b
I Ni;| rifxepa, 325, b
! Niiaaa, 347, a ; 587, b
EavdiKos, 132, a
Eevayoi, 676, a
serTjAacria, 670, b
Eevia, 352, b
SeVia, 028, a
Eei'ias 7PO077, 095. b
Hei/iKol TpoTre^'ai, 007, a
BeviKhv TfKos, IS, b
5ei'oAd7oi, 286, b
EeVos, 352, b ; 414, a
„ fxiado<p6pos, 288, a
Sej/cDj/es, 243, a; 353, a
He'cTTTjy, 413, b; 529, a; 578, b
s.i<f>os, 78, a ; 81, a
=6avov, 226, b ; 589, b
iVjjATj, 284, b
SfAoKOTTia, 323, a
=v\ov, 141, b; 442, b
„ S'tKpovv, 322, b
Su^/3oAai, 699, a
zvpeiv, 'Eup6v, 633, b
SiKTTopxTjy, 340, b
SuerTis, 255, a
S.vffr6v, 78, b; 81, a; 287, b;
580, b
zvffT6s, 340, a
EvffTpa, 27, a
suCTpi's, 599, a
ii/o-TpoATj/cu^os, 104, a
'OfieAio-Kos, 177, b; 446, b
'03«Ao'r, 440, b
I '0/3oAos, IMI, b
' "OiSoAoo-TaToi, 305, a
■'O7IC0S, 475, b
j „ Kol $dpos, 94, a
'OSoi'Ta^po, 314, a
'05JvT€S, 574, b
'05o»'To|f(rT7js, 232, a
'05o>'T(^(r;ur;7/Mi, 232, a
'OSovrdrpinfia, 232, a
'OSoTToio^ 270, b ; 349, a; 668. a
'05os, 355, a
'Od6iri,, 121, b; 141, a: 255, a
'Odoviov, 121, b ; 141, a
Ofa(C6s, 436, a
Olniov, 433, a
orjj/ces, 220, b
OlKfTr]s {SovKos), 575. b
Or»ojMa, 141, b ; 243, a ; 347, a
OtKTjaris, 239, b
OlKr)Tr]ptov, 239, b
O/Ki'a, 239, b
„ d/jidroixos, 242, a
Ojkjo-ttjs, 188, a
O/koj, 248, a
OiKOTpiip (SovKos), 575, b
OjVtjpoJ OepdirovTfs, 605, a
OlvKTrrtpia, 194, a
OlvodTtK-q, 671, b
OiVJjucAi, 678, a
Otuos, 671, a
„ &KpaTos, 605, a
„ vyifti'6s. 67.2, b
., xpidios, 674, a
Olvoxdv, 504, b ; 509, a ; 605, ;
OjVox<^os, 485, a; 605, a
Of^/oi//, 191, b
'Oia-Tos, 91, a ; 550, b
OtVuTTTj, 20, a
OlWfKTTtKT], 239, a
Owj/oTToAos, 97, b
OicavocTKoiros, 97, b
"OKKaa/j-a, 630, a
'OKpi'ySas, 139, a ; 479, a
'OKTacTTjpis, 132, a
'OAt^apx'tt; '^^5 ''•) 448, b
'OA/cas, 438, b
„ (Ttrayccyos, 582, b
"OAjuioj', 632, a
"OA/ios, 214, b; 420, a; 652, b
'0\oKavTf7v, 548, a
'OAoAu7|UaTO, 464, b
'0\oar(pvpT]Ta ipya, 403, b
"OAiTTj, 509, a
'0\v/j.iria, 449, a
'OXv/xTTids, 450, b
0\v/j.TrLov7Kai, 94, b
''0\vpa, 1>^, b
''O/x^pos oTTwpivos, 92, b
'OjUO'yctAaKTes, 333,'a; 646, b
"O^otoi, 170, a; 227, a; 349, a
'Ofj-owT-qs Twv \6y(j}v, 74, b
'OfiOTacpoi, 280, b
'O/j.0(pa)i'ia, 426, b
'Ofj.(pai, 239, a ; 452, a
'O/xcpaKwoy, 448, b
'Oix<t>a\6s, 77, b ; 220, a ; 385, a
453, a
'OfetpoiroXia, 239, a
OvojuLa, 443, a
'OvoixaffTiKo,, 457, a
'Oi/os, 149, b; 325, b; 417, b
„ ^opeios, 91, a
,, vorios, 91, a
'Ovvxi-CTy^piov, 634, a
*0|is, 3, a
'pkos, 499, a ; 672, b
'OlujSat^ioi', 3, a
'Olv&a(pov, 3, a ; 226, b ; 331, a ;
508, b
'0|i/)3eA6rs, 635, a
'O^vfxeKi. 673, a
'Oiraiov, t)l, b
'0-7ri(Td68o/j.os, 60, a ; 496, b
'OTricr^o/fojuai, 194, a
'OtnffQoKp-qnis, 128, b
"OttAo, 82, a ; 433, a
07rA7)T6s, 646, b
'OirAZTai, 82, a ; 283, b
'Oir\o6r]Kr], 74, b
'OirAo>axoi, 286, b
"OttAoj/, 035, b
'OTTfJs, 21, a
'OnTavioy, 243, b
'Oirrripia, 407, b
'OTTcopa, 93, b
OirtLpr), 92, b
'OpYa^-ec, 370, a
"Opyai/ou, 401, a
'Op76wi'€S, 332, a
"Opyia, 429, b
"Opyvia, 413, a ; 456, a ; 660, a
'Opei/Sarat, 317, b
'Opeixa\Kos, 415, a ; 456, a
'OpdoardSioy, 254, a
'Op0o(7TaTr;s, 635, b
"OpBpos, 134, b
GREEK INDEX
'Opia-ral, 231, b ; 350, a
"OpKos, 305, b ; 457, a
„ fiovKevTiKds, 118, a
„ ySfiifios, 695, a
"Opfios, 419, b ; 553, b
'Opvidodripas, 96, a
"Opj'ts, 91, a
"'Opo/Sos, 19, a
"Opoi, 74, b ; 350, a
'OpTuyoKoiria, 331, b
"Opvy/xa, 111, a
"Opu^a, -Of, 18, b
^Op(p6.V(llV K.T.K. KUKCCfflS, 092,
'OpcpeoTeAearai, 456, b
'Op(p6s, 91, b
"Opx^'J^M'^s^i 553, a
''OpxTJcis, 553, a
,, TpayiK-t), 640, b
'OpXV^TiKi), 639, b
'OpXTicTpa, 622, a
"Otrjoj, 453, a
'OcriwcTis, 544, a
'OCTOyuaX'a, 324, b
'OcTpo/ciVSo, 325, b
'0(TTpaKL(Tp.6s, 298, b
"OarpaKov, 298, b ; 499, a
'Offxofpopia, '0(Txo(j)6pos, 457,
Oi/oTa, 652, b
OiiyKia, 494, a
OuSo'x, 241, a; 355, a
„ AaiVos, 51, a; 59, a ; 241,
„ ix4\i.vos, 241, a
OvXafxos, 278, b
o5pa, 412, b
Ohpayos, 284, a
Ovpav'ia, 330, a
Ovpiaxos, 78, b ; 580, b
Ovcria a.<pavi)s, 681, b
„ iyyeios, 686, b
„ (pavepd, 681, b
Oucrtas 5tK7), 689, a
'0<peaAiJ.6s, 435, b
„ KUKOS, 302, b
'0(J)wSxos, 91, a
"Ocpis, 75, a ; 90, b
'OcpiTTjs, 405, a
"Oxai'oi', 77, b
'OxfToi, 15, b
'Ox^vs, 76, b; 356, b
'OxAoKparia, 231, a ; 449, a
"OxAos ayopalos, 286, b
'0\pdpwv, 451, b
"O^ie ri]s T}fx4pas, 134, b
'Oifm SetATj, 235. a
■'Oi|/is, 641, a
"Oiiov, 152, a ; 401, a ; 451, b
'Ot|/07ro«(^s, 176, a
^Oi\ioTT(ti\uov, 'OxponwAia, 400,
'O'^uyi.ifffMos, 597, b
n.
na7»cpaTiacrTat, 465, a
TlayKpdTiov, 465, a
nddos, 641, a
ITojai', 458, a
„ ififiariipios, 284, 1j
nai7J/ia, 324, a
TlaLSayaiyelov, 396, b
naiSaywy6s, 396, a ; 458, b
naiSapiaii'fs, 13, a
nalSes, 266, b ; 464, a
„ ^affiKiKoi, 287, b
riaiSoi/o'^cos, 458, b" 607, b
not5oTpi|87jj, 94, a j 340, b
IlaiSit)i/es, 13, a
789
naiJj/€S, 288, b
nctAajcTyuo, UaKaiff/jLOcrvvTi, 391, a
UaKaicTTri, 413, b ; 463, a
riaKaicrrpa, 340, a
IlaAai, 415, b
naATj, 391, a ; 473, b
„ opdri, or opdia, 391, b
naAi776i'€(ria, 395, a
na\tfx0dKxeios, 538, Ij
naAiyui|/7}(rT0f, 401, b
noAi;'Si«(a, 691, b
Tla\lvrovov. 635, a
TlaWaKij, riaAAo/cts, 690, a
IlajU/SatriAeia, 418, b
Tlafi^oLwria, 463, b
ndf^/xaxot, 465, a
UdjxcpvXoi, 170, a ; 047, a
noj/07e?s, 270, a
Ilaj'aOiiram, 463, b
IIoi'STjyUf/, 285, a
naj/5ia, riai/Sra, 465, b
TlavooK^lov, 150, a
i noyrJ7iipis, 344, b; 465, b
'n.dv7)fi.os, 132, a
Ilatiivia, 465, b
I Tlavvvxi-^, 269, a; 464, b
b I novoTrAio, 285, a
Tlavo-^ia, 527, b
XlavT6jj.t.fjLos, 466, a
n<z7r7ros, 111, a
Tldirvpos, 384, a
ITapa/SaiTis, 161, a
nopa/Sarai, 286, a
riopa^ias, 157, a
TIapafi\r]ixaTa, 440, b
riapa^oAio;/, Tlapd^oKov, 691, b
696, a
ncepo77e'A^aTa, 271, a ; 287, a
Uapayvadis, 79, a ; 121, a ; 476, b
Tlapaypatpri, 678, a ; 696, a
Hapaycoyr], 286, b
napdSeiaos, 352, a ; 466, b
napa5o|o riKTjy, 94, b ; 465, b
ITopaSoo-is Tw;/ Upwv, 269, a
TlapadriKT], 696, b
nopaSi^piov, riapaSupos, 355, a
napai/3aT7)s, 221, a
IlapaiToVioi', 191, b
TlapaKa\v/j.fj.aTa, 243, b
nopa;caTa)3aAAf If, 677, b
napaKarafio\-f], 678, a ; 693, a ;
696, b
HapaKaradriKr}, 696, b
napaKaradrjKris Si/ctj, (196, b
napaKaraKelaOai, 697, a
napaKpoveif, 392, a
nopaAeajVeif, 634, a
TlapaAeyeiv, 634, a
IlapaA^o, 647, a
TlapaXTrat, 628, a
ndpaKos, 611, a; 628, a
riapaAoi, 646, b
Tlapa/xea-ri, 400, a; 427, b
TlapafxripiSia, 80, a
IIopafTjTTj, 427, b
ITapafoiay Si'/ct;, 697. a
nopai'(i/ua»f7po4)7),265,a; 444, b;
; 697, a
I riapafu^^oy, 407, a
] nopo|oV(Of, 219, b
j HapaTTfratTfia, 243, b
napa7r7j7jua, 92, a
napa7r7;xi', 258, b
T[aparr\evpiSia, 80, b
Uapawpea^eta, 679, a ; 697, a
riapaTrpecr/Seias 7po'J)v), 350, b ;
I 697, b
790
XIapapvij.aTa, 410, b
Uapaa-dyyiris, 413, a, 4(50, b
Tlapaa-ri/jLoi', 3(!2, a ; 4H5, b
UapdcTtToi, Hi), b; 4G(i, b
TlapaaKevr), 051, a
Uapacrrds, 37, a ; 243, a
Uapdo-Tacris, 683, a ; 697, b
UapacTTdrai, 160, b ; 436, a ;
63:',, a ; 040, a
UapaTa^is, 43H, a
TlapariWiiv, 034, a
napaTiAAeo-eoi, 524, b
TlaparlKTpiai, 27, a
Ylaparpvirri/xara, 032, a
napaxopi977j,uo;, 159, b
UapaxvTTjs, 104, a
riapSaA.^, B, a
nape77pa7rTo<, 231, b ; 097, b
Tlapeyypacpoi, 169, b ; 697, b
TlapfSpfvety, 69b, a
riopeSpia, 698, a
ndpeSpot, 282, b ; 098, a
TlapeKfiaais, 73, b
Uapefx^dWdv, 392, a
nap6^6ip6(n'o, 434, a
nap67ri5T);Uos, 416, a
napTJia, 220, b ; 476, b
riapT/opioi, UapT)opos, 221, a
riapdei'iat, 273, a
Tlapdevos, 91, a
nop06;'(ii', 468, b
ndpoSo?, 100, a; 435, b ; 040, b
TldpoiKos, 415, b
ndpoxos, 407, a
riapuTroTrj, 427, b
napi;(^r}, 255, a ; 387, b
riapcDTiSes, 193, a
nafrras, 243, a
nzfTTu's, 243, b
Ua(TTO(l>6pioi', naffTO<pvpot, 409,b
TlarpaKoias, 679, b
narpoSef ovowa^fcQai, 443, b
TlaTpov6uoi, 471, b
Tlarpovxoi, 690, b
Haver tKairr], 418, b
UeSr), 203, a
risSiaroi, 046, b
neSiKa, 77, a ; 128, a
„ TTTepoeyTa, 010, h
TleSoffTpd^ai, 003, b
ne'Ca, 220, a
Tle^^aKouTtcTTai, 355, a
UelfTatpoi, 287, b; 288, a
IleC^'ol (Tvufxaxoi, 288, a
netpij/s, 223, b
rieiff^oTo, 433, a
UeKavoi, 203, b; 547, a
neAarai, 342, b ; 472, b
neAeSpoi/, 412, b
neAcKus, 88, b ; 562, a
ne'A^o, 128, a
IleATao-Tat, 82, a ; 285, b
neATT), MO, b
UfKvuTpa, 129, b; 361, a
ntij.fj.aTa, 407, a ; 547, a
ne/iyuaToupYcJj, 485, b
rie/iTrdSes, 284, a
ne;U7ra(TT7Js, 389, a
Tlfvearai, 473, a
TlivraSpaxu-iou, 182, a
riei/TaflAor, 473, b
TlivTaKOffiofj.4SiiJ.voi, 150, b;
040, b
TlevTdTTTvxa, 609, a
rieVre ypafifiai, 328, a
^e^'T€Al0l(■€l^', 327, b
IlevTiXidos, 340, b
GEEEK INDEX
nevT€T7]pii, 449. b ; 531, a 1
TlevTTiKovTapxos, 437, a
rievTr)K6uTopos, 433, b
nevTTiKoffTiveffdai, 474, a ;
nsj/TrjKocTTi^, 474, a
UevTriKoffT-op, 283, b
nej/TTj/cotTToAdyor, 474,a; 016, b
nej/Trj/coffTuy, 283, b ; 040, a
nfvTT!]KoffTil>vris, 610, b
TlevTripris, 171, b ; 434, a
TlevTuiyKiov, 494, a
rieTrfpi, 485, a
ne'n-Aos, 252, a; 464, b
VlepiaKTos, 024, a
n(piafj.fj.a, 35, b
IlepiairTov, 35, b
UeptfidBvv, 278, a
n6pi3api5«s, 128, b
nfpi$\rifj.a, 254, a
TlepifioKos, 542, b
„ j'ep^j, 58, b
Uepifipa.xt6viov, 75, a; 120, a
Tleptypapr), 479, a
riepitfnn'ov, 319, b
riepjSpo/iiiSer, 340, a
riepiSpo^oy, 533, b
nepi'CwMa, i'^' ^' ; 1*''2, b ; 391, b
neptTJ77jT^s, 283, a
TleptKapinov, 75, a
TleptK6x^ioy, 176, a
nepi/(a)«'6r«', 128, a
Tlfptfj.dKTpiai, 450, b
n€pijuT;pi5ia, 80, a
riepiVei^, 434, b ; 437, a
rJcptoSofiKai, 94, b
TlfpioSos, 540, a
rifptoi/cis, 474, b
UfpioiKos, 170, a ; 474, a
HfpiopOpof, 134, b
nepiTTaTos, 426, a
nepiTrereio, 041, a
nepi'irAovs, 438, b
nepiirdStoc, 303, a
n€p£7rdAopxoJ. 273, b
t ntpiTToAos, 273, b
nepdrrepos, 59, b
' TlfpiirrvacTeiy, 287, a
Tl€ptppavTT}pta, 398, b
nepiff/cfAioj', 475, b
rispttr/ceAis, 474, b
n(pia-n-a(Tfx6s, 287, a
nepifftroi, 74, b
nepKTTepewc, 21,b; 192, a; 551, b
nepiffTtpoTpocpuof, 192, a
neptVTia, 26 1, b
j nepMTTiopxos, 264, b ; 398, b
I nepiffTvKiov, 243, a
1 nepttTTi/Aos, 475, a
nepio'xoiJ'/^'eii', 236, a; 489, a
nepiTejx'C'M'^s, 601, b
nep^TJos, 132, a
riepjTO/ueus, 556, b
n6pjTp({x""', '101, b
ITeptxi'TT), 326, a
TlepoyaTpis, 258, a
IleptJi'Tjfta, 308, a
Tlepffevs, 91, a
riepfriKa, -ai, 129, a
nepcri/cT? ^aKTTjpia, 102, b
nepcJi/Tj, -ts, 308, a ; 035, b
neo-o-of, 328, a
neToAitr/u({s, 299, a
niraKoy, 120, a ; 299, a
TleTaKovpyiis, 120, a
ne'raffoy, 484, a
neToypoj', nereypof, 470, b
TlfTpa aye\affTos, 271, a
n«Tpoj3o'Ao(, 635, a
nexTe/a, 328, a; 428, b
Ufi/KT], 304, a
nevKr}v SaSoKoirely, 010, a
nfiyfxa, 472, a
riTjSaAioi', riT/Sof, 433, a
Ilrj/criy, 400, b
nVjArjl, 78, b
rirjAoTraTis, 131, a
IlTJrrj, 013, b
nTji/i'^'ecrOai, 615, a
riTJflKTJ, 194, b
nT)yiov, 014, b
n^jpa, 121, a; 404, b; 474, a
Dtjxi^s, 07, a; 217, a; 399, b;
413, a
YlieffTTjp, UifCTT-fipioy, 634, a
nie^wy, 671, b
ni9oiyta, 236, a ; 671, a
Uieos, 499, b ; 509, b ; 671, b
niA7j/uo, 175, b
n«A7?Ti/ci7, 175, b; 484, a
TltKiStoy, 484, a
nrAos, 79, a; 129, a; 175, b;
284, b ; 483, b
„ fcpiiriTfios, 274, a
TliyaKiKTi, 89, b
nivaKioy, 479, b ; 008, b
„ TLfj.T)TtK6y, 524, a
UivaKis, 008, b
UiyaKod-iiKr}, 485, a ; 519, b
niVal, 152, a; 479, b; 509, b;
008, b
„ eKK\r](na(TTtK6s, 169, b/
231, b; 264, a
TVtyoy, 157, a
riiVoy, -oy, 19, a
riiTupios, 480, a
nirvs, 365, a
TlKayyuiy, 324, b
nKaiffioy, 287, a
nAd»c6y, 572, a
n\aKOvyToirot6s, 485, b
n\aKovs, 486, b
riAaj'^Tai, 480, b
nAdo-Ti7|, 331, a; 386, a
nAaTa77^, 324, a
nAoTo7Q;»'io»', 324, a
UAaTva-qfjos, 173, b
UXfOpoy, 412, b
riAeidSes, 91, a
n\etffTO&o\ivSa, 328, a
n\€vpai, 74, b
n\r}dwpri dyopas, 13, a
} VlKfiKrpoy, 400, a
OATj/xfTj, 219, a
n\rifj.y6SfToy, 219, b
riATjyuoxoai, 269, a
nAT>pa>;ua, 372, b ; 437, a
nKiydioy, 287, a ; 328, b ; 370, a ;
635, a
UKiydis, 870, a
nxiydos, 53, a ; 370, a ; 489, a
UKdKafios EfpoytK-qs, 91, b
HAo/ct}, 428, b
UKovffiot, 443, a
nAoi/TO/cpoTio, 449, a
riAwei;', 316, b
riKvvT-i^pia, 489, a
UKvyTpiSes, 489, a
ni'77os, 161, a
TloSaynrTT^p, 473, a
noSera, 129, b
UoSfs, 433, a; 430, b
floSo/cd/c/cjj, 141, b
Tlo'iT)(Tis, 088, a
IIoit/tJj, 109, b
TlotKLKov, 039, b
Tloivij, 298, a; 743, b
noKos, 268, b
TloKe/xiKov, 287, a
TlnKefxapxos, 0">. a; 48i), h
noAiy, noA.6ts, 328, b
noAire/a, 150, b: 169, a; 092, a
no\iTT]s, 169, a; 410, a
nJAoy, 235, a ; 350, b; 490, a
rioKvywvoi, 74, b
noKvuadla. 396, b
noA.u(r7ra0T;s, 615, a
rioKiKTTrjuos. 013, b
UouTreia, 200, b
no^TTT;, 237, a
no/UTT/js, 4()4, b
n^Trava, 547, a
XloTracoTroiOs, 485, b
Tlopve7ov, 345. b
n<5pv77, 345, b
TlopviKuv t4Kos, 345, b ; 010, b
nopj'o;3o(r/foy, 345, b
nopvoreAwfris, 345, b
nJp7ra;ua, 308, a
Xl6pira^, 77, b
ndpirrj, 250, a ; 308, a
Ilopeviffdai ^d^r)v, 278, a
rioo'etSecii', 132, a
noarivSa, 320, b
TloTa/xds, 91, b
nori eairepa, 235, a
noTi'/cpafoi/, 157, a
IIcJtos, 005, a
Ilour, 413, a
Ilpai'^s, 328, a
npa/cTop6s,511, b; 677, a; 703, b
Tipa^tepyiSai, 489, a
Tlpaa-is, 90, a
ITpaTTjp \iBos, 575, b
ripaTT^pm, 204, a
npso-^eia, 333, a ; 092, b
TlpT]yr]s, 328, a
ripTjiTT^pey, 313, a
npiaij/, 124, a; 574, b
npoaycoyeias ypa(pr}, 698, a
ripoayuiv. 230, b ; 024, b ; 027, a
Tlpoaipecrts, 641, a
npoaj/aToA.17, 92, b
npo/3oA7J. 243, b ; 698, a
Upo^ovKevfxa, 118, b; 264, b
Up6&ov\os, 516, b
npo-ya/xeia, 407, a
TlpoyaffrpiSLOV, 640, a
TlpoyviJivd(rjj.aTa, 450, a
npJSo^oT, 60. a; 240, b
npoSoo-f'a, 687, b ; 698, a
ripoSofrias ypacpii, 692, a
npt^Sucrts, 92, b
npoeSpia, 519. a ; 623, b
ITpt^eSpoj, 118, a
Upoeia-cpopd, 267, a ; 376, a ; 004, b
npoeicr^opas Si'ktj, 519, a
npofiU^oAior, npoe/i/3o^^S) 435, b
npddeais. 318, b
npofleo-^uia, 689, a; 098, b
JlpoOfcr/xias vofjLOS, 698, b
TlpoQvpov, 243, a ; 350, a
Ilpoi/cbs aTTorifxrifxa, 350, a
„ SiKTj, 080, a ; 099, a
npot^, 406, b ; 686, b ; 699, a
npi^KA.rj(ris,683,b; 688, b; 694, b
„ els ^dffavov, 576, a ;
034, b
TlpoKoiTwv, 240, a
npo/cd/x(Of. 194, b
npOKvwi/, 91, b
Tlp6\oyos, 641, a
GREEK INDEX
npofxavTfia, 452, I)
Upoixaxoi, 81, a ; 283, a
Ylpo/xfTWKiSia, 47(>, b
UpofxriKfis, 74, b
T\poiuvi)(TTpiai, 400, a
npo^ox^oi, 53, b
np^voos, 00, a
npcij'oia, 701, a
npovoias, rpavfxa f'/c, 06, a
,, ypa(pri Tpav/Mxros eV,
701, a
ITpofOjuai, 2H4, b
npo|€i/(a, 352, a ; 676, b
Tlpo^evoi, 353, a
npoTriviLV (pL\urr](Tias, 605, b
Ylp6iTKa<Tiia, 519, a
Xlp^TToSes, 436, b
np(i7roA.is, 22, a
npoTi'iAaia, 519, b
npoppr)<7(s, 268, b
Tlph% vSwp S'lKTi, 351, a
Xlpotr/SoATJ, 438, a
npofTTjAoo), 216, a
npoo-06rr(s, 538, 11
rtpotrfleTOf, 194, b
npofTKee^aAaioi', 157, a; 872, a;
527, a
Y[po(TKi\viov, 622, a
npotr/cATjcris, 688, b ; 694, b
IlpoaKvvy\ais, 6, a
npoffoSoi Tijj.eviKai, 603, a
npd(ro5or 7pai|/acr0ai, 118 li
np(J(ro5os, Oil, a
rtpocTTas, 243, a
npo(rTaT7)S, 520, b ; 080, a
„ Tou StJjUou, 520, b
ITpoo'Tep^'iSioi', 110, b; 470, b;
640, a
Tlpo(Tr7)6ilwv, 110, b : 476, b
npo(rTifj.ri/j.a, 683, a ; 689, b ;
701, a
Tlp6(rrv\os, 50, b
npoffrcfiov, 243, a
npocrooTTflov, 475, a
npdtrcoiroi', 475, a ; 640, a
TlpoTcAeia yd/x'jiy, 407, a
ripoTO^T) 'imrov, 91, a
ripoTofos, 433, a
UpoTpvyT^T-qp, 91, a
ripoweucoi, 13, a
npo(f>7)T7{s, 453, a
Tlpocpopela'dai, 613, b
npo^vAal, 287, a
ripoxaiprjTTjpio, 209, a
ripoxf ipoToi'ia, 118, b; 157, b;
204, b
ripdxooJi 371, b ; 509, a
n()6xvfxa, 671, b
npowfioaia, 678, a
IlpuAees, 283, a
npVjUi'Tjj' di/aKpovacKrOai, 436, b
npu^n^cria, 433, a
ripuToi/eia, 118, a
npurave^a, 698, b
npi/Tai/elor, 119, b ; 523, a
XlpvTavis, 118, a; 534, b
npojl, i:!4, b ; 235, a
npoj/a Sfi'ATj, 235, a
npcfpfvs, 437, a
UpwrayuiviffTi^s, 348, a ; 639, b
npaiTipai/ey, 266, b
npoJTdycoAAoi', 338, a
npaiToKocTjuor, 215, a
npoiToAfioi', 251, a
npcoTotTTaTTjs, 160, a; 284, a
Tlrepd, 49, a
Tlrtpva, 436, a
791
nrepyi^ftu, 392, a
nrepdcvTa TreSiAa, 610, b
nrfpvyia, 79, b
Utvov, 15, b ; tiOl, b
Tlvavexl/ia, 527, b ; 629, a
ITi'ax'eij/icor, 132, a
Tlva.v6rpta, 527, b
ni>7;uaxi'at 526, a
Tlvy/jLt^, Uvynoirvm], 526, a
riiryaJj', 413, a
nu«Aos, 88, b ; 104, a ; 107, b ;
319, b
UveKis, 39, b
Uvdia, 528, a
Tlvdtoi, 529, a
Uvdniiv, 356, b
nvKv6(Tri]fi.os, 618, b
UvKvaiffts, 287, a; 288, a
TlvKTai, 526, a
nuAo7dpa(, 30, b
HuAtj, 497, b
„ KarappaKTi^, 357, b
nwAi's, 498, b
nuAcoj', 243, a; 498, ]>
nty|, 526, a
nu|i5toj', 121, b
nv}iop, 96, a ; 121, b ; 608, b
Uv\is, 39, a ; 510, a ; 529, a
l\vp afffieffTov, 523, b
Tlvpd, 319, a
Uvpdypa, 124, a ; 313, b
Uvpyus, 283, b ; 315, a ; 326, b ;
657, b
„ €Trrvy/j.fPos, 658, a
„ TTTVKTOS, 658, a
„ vTr6Tpoxos, 658, a
ni;p67a, 358, a
nup77, 318, b
Tlvpia, 104, a
riupiaTT^pior, 104, a ; 107, b
nup/caia, 00, a ; 702, b
nvpKaiij, 318, b
Hvpvov, 485, b
Uvp6s, 18, a
ntyppi'xr), 527, h
TlvpptxKTrijs, 464, b
ni/p<rJs, 288, b
riuDc^dpoy, 270, a
riwyciiv. 111, a
naJYoii/OTpd^oj, 111, a
nojATjTT^ptoi', 489, b
na>/j.a, 08, a ; 354, a
ricDpos, 52, a ; 60, b
'Pd^Bos, 77, b ; 102, b ; 331, a
'PafiSovYos, 12, a ; 386, b
'Pa^Soipdpos, 38(i, b
'Pd0S(i>cris, 51, b
'Pa^Swrds, 615, b
'PaKTTT/p, 403, b
'Pairiafiara, 417, a
'Pd^ayos, 152, a
'Pafjbtj, 4, b
'PeiToi, 268, b
'P7J76a, 372, b
'Pvyia, 532, b
'Prjcreis, 271, a
'Prfropes, 686, a
'Pt^too, 265, b ; 537, a
'Pi^a7pa, 314, a
'Pivri, 124, a ; :!.s7, b
'Piv'ntJ.a, 5(;o, b : 574, b
'PLVOirv\r), 498, b
'PnriSiov, 310, a
792
'PiTTi's, 310, a
'PnrwTTTJp, 310, a
'Pi'cr/coy, 541, a
'Pi\l/aaTris, 680, a
'PoSdvTi, 613, a
'PoSojueKi, 673, a
'PoScoi/ia, 352, a
'Pou/3os, 268, b ; 657, b
'Po/jLCpaia, 81, b; 537, b
'P6Tra\ov, 172, a ; 560, a ; 663, b
PdiTTpov, 356, b
'PvdfXiKT^, 426, a
PvOfMoypacpia, 396, b
PvKavri, 542, a
'Pu^a, 533, a
'Puu^ia, 104, b; 316, b
'Pu/j.6s, 49, a ; 219, b
PuTTTraTrai, 434, b
'Puffm atTUffOat, 603, b
'PuTo7ci)7eus, 220, b
'Pvrou, 510, a; 541, a
'Pwiroypa<pia, 479, a
2a/3vK7j, 554, a
2,a.yapis, 550, b
2a7Tj, 2o7Tj, 141, a ; 551, b
2a7rjrT), 534, a
207101', 389, a
2a7/xa, 551, b
2aKK OS, 162, b ; 417, a ; 672, a
2aKoj, 77, a
S.aKafj.ivia, 611, a ; 628, b
2ixA7ri7|, 210, b
2aA7ri/cT7Js, 264, a
■^.a/jL^vKT], 400, b
2afj.$vKicTTpta, 554, a
2ai'5aAior', 12H, a
2a»'5aAi(r/cos, 161, a
2ai'5aAo>', 128, a
2aj'5apa(ci7, 191, b
2a>'5uKTj, 554, a
201/15, 356, a; 479, b; 690, b
2opa/3apa, 554, b
2apoKo;', 19, a
2apa7ris, 554, b
2ap5£ii', 533, b
2apio-a, 81, a; 287, b
2api(To4><{pos, 288, a
2aTpainjs, 555, b
2aTupi(ct)«' Spafia, 639, a
2aTiipoi, 638, a
2aiyi'io</, 2ai>;'io»', 83, b
2oi'pa)T7^p, 78, b
2e)3a(r^ta, ^.e^ourrd, 100, b
263o(rT6ra, 42, a
2e3a<rTos, 101, a
2eipajos, ^ftpa(t>6pOs, 221, a
2€ipios, 91, b
2ei(raxfl«'a. 563, a
2e?(rTpo«', 582, a
26Ais, 384, b
2€AA.o2 dviTTTOTToScS, 452, a
27jKds, 58, b
„ /uuo-Ti/co'j, 58, b ; 271, a
27)/ia, 318, b; 657, a
2r)Maia, 288, b ; 580, a
27j(Uafria, 429, a
27}^aTa ffj.irvpa, 239, a
„ (pKoyuyna, 239, a
277Aiero;', 173, b; 264, a ; 362, a :
436, b ; 446, a
"S.rifxiKivQtov, 565, a
SrjpiKcic, 574, b
GREEK INDEX
Si/Swrj, 2i/3i;«'ioi'. H3, b
2i'7Aos, 178, a; 181, a; 182, a;
579, b
'S,iyiivi)Si 83, b
2i5T7po,uoj'Teia, 239, a
^iSripos, 414, b
2t5rjpo(pop€7v, 701, b
^'iKivva, 579, b
•2.iKivvis, 160, b ; 579, b ; 640, b
2i/(ii'vi<rTTjs, 579, b
"StiKivviov, 579, b
SlKtWOTVp^T), 160, b
2t»cAos, 182, a ; 579, b
2i/cuiA'ia, 129, a
2iAAi;3of, 411, a
'S.ifj.iKivQiov, 565, a
2ii'5o«', 121, b ; 141, a
'S.ivonris., 191, b
liaiipa, 202, a ; 472, b
2iTei/ni7S, 301, a
2iTi77e(;', 582, b
l,iTr\p4aiou, 285, b ; 597, b
2i'T7j<ri$, 523, b
2jTo56ia, 5is3, a
2iToir(iATjs, 5H2, b
STtos, 18, a; 285, b; 582, b
2iT0i> 5i'/CTj, 686, a ; 698, b
2iTO(^uAaK6?of, 351, b
2iTo<i>i;Ao|, 582, b
2iTTy/3T7, 3^5, a
2iTTi;/8oy, 362, a ; 385, a; 411, a
2iTWK»js, 583, a
2t0apos, 440, b
2i(^w, 39, a
2»caAey<ii/, 15, a
SkoAi's, 2KaAi(rTVipioi', 555, a
'S.KoXfxos, 433, a ; 435, a
2((0^jua, 559, b
2(coirdi'T;, 94, a ; 459, b
lKa<pf~iov, 459, b ; 559, b
:S.Ka<pT\, 88, b ; 218, a ; 331, a
lKaip-t)(popia, 354, b
%Ka<pri<p6pos, 464, b
, 2Ka^iov, 194, a ; 559, b
I 'S.Kftrapvov, 88, b ; 562, b
2»c€i'o6'^(fJ7, 74, b
2Kciioiroids, 475, a
'S,Kivo<p6pos, 288, b
SktjHj, 13, a; 223, a; 608, b;
622, a
'S.Krivoypwpia, 479, a ; 623, b ;
638, b
"SiKTiTrrpov, 102, b ; 534, b ; 560, a
2Kia, 479, a
:S.Kia.hiiov, 560, b ; 627, a ; 660, a
2KLa5Ti(popia, 354, b
2<cia5i(r/o7, 660, a
2»fia6iipas, 350, b
l,Kiaixaxio; 336, b
2(f las, 523, b ; 627, a
2/fi/uir(i5ioj', 371, b
2/ciMToys, 373, a ; 563, b
2Ki7rcoi', 102, b
2/cipa, 630, a
2Kipa<peia, 2Kipa(J)0J, 326, b
2/ciprTai, 284, a
'S,Kipo<popia., 560, b
'S.Kipocpopiwv, 132, a
2»coAto, (U)5, b
2KoAia dvo^os, 60, b
2»c<5AAus, 194, a
2/coAo7ri^'&;, 2KoAo<f, 216, a
2k6ix0Pos, 451, b
2/(oirds, 287, a
2KOpirioj, 91, b ; 194, a ; 636, b
2*cueai, 231, a
l,Kvpos, 125, a
•ZKvraXi), 102, b ; 275, b; 561, b ;
635, a
'S.KvrivT] iadrfs, 472, b
„ fxacTTi^, 310, b
2/cuTo5ev|/7js, 209, a
2/ci'Tos, 310, b
2,KV(pos, 508, a
2/i7J7jua, 2/UT/jua, 660, b
2fjii\v, 158, b ; 556, b
2,iJ.i\iov, 556, b
2/uiV9ia, 583, b
2/u.ifUTj, 531, b
2o)3r7, 426, a
2oAos avTox^(^''os, 238, a
2op(^s, 319, b
2oi)Sapio«', 600, a
27raSio;', 413, a ; 587, a
27ra0Tj, 49, a; 78, b ; 613, b;
615, a
2TraCTjTos, 615, a
2irap7a;'a, 300, a ; 302, a ; 362, a
^TrapTf7ov, 533, a
27rapTiaToi, 170, a
'S.iroLpTov, 433, a ; 533, a
'S.TTupa, 53, a ; 66, b ; 193, b ;
288, b
/SJfios, 126, b
,, (TTpoT7j7(y, 292, b
27r6ipo(C6<(>oAoi', 53, a
2ir€i556, 587, b
2Tri0ajui7, 413, b; 463, a; 586, b
27rd77os, 587, a
2iroAos, 80, a ; 202, a
2^01*801, 2()9, b
,, 'IcrSyuiKai, 365, a
2Troc5o<J)cipoj, 269, b
2Trupiy, 151, b ; 587, a
2Ta5io5pd;uoj, 224, a ; 587, b
2Ta5ioj', 224. a ; 412, b ; 5h7, a
2Ta5ios, 5M7, a
2Toe/ii7, 388, a ; 533, a
2Ta0M<is, 241, a; 2H7,a; 355, a;
386, a ; 490, b
I.TaBfxovxos, 606, b
2TaAiK€s, 533, b
2TciAi|, 2toAij, 661, b
'S.Tafj.'ivis, 532, a
2Ta^u'oj, 510, a
'S.TOLpTos, 215, a
2Ta(ri^a, 160, b
'S.raxiifjiov fif\os, 641, a
2Tari)p, 177, b; 178, b; 182, a
2TaT7jp AapfiK6s, 181, a
2Tai'po's, 216, a
IracpvK-n, 383, b
2Taxi'S5 91, a
2T€rpa, 432, b ; 435, a
2Te'AA€i»', 436, b
2T6A/iO)'«ai, 663, b
2T€/i/ut, 596, b
2Tei'd(TTj^oy, 173, b
2T€p€o3iTrjj, 51, b
2Tepeby dptduos, 74, b
2T6<^aj'7jTrAd/ct)S, 211. a
I '2,T«pavr](p6pos., 454, a
I 2T€<;()a»'07roj<)s, 211. a
'S.Tfipavos, 91, a ; 211, a
„ dvptariKos, 341, a
„ VUTLOS. 91, b
„ ^eviKOS, 212, a
2T6(^ai'cojua, 211, a
2T77eo5eo-;uds, 157, b ; 254, b
2t^Aoi TrpofiKr\TiS, 143, b
2Tr]\v^ 318, b; 572, a; 595, b
2T7JjuaTo, 635, b
2T7/yud«'ioi/, 613, b
^Tiifuiiy, 124, a ; 613, a
STiiji/fa, 268, b ; 629, b
2Tfjpi7|, 219, b ; 322, b
2iTiyfjLa, ^Tiynarias, 596, b
StiUjUi, Sri/Li^uis, 316, a
5Ttx«s, 283, b
2TAe77is, 27, a ; 599, a
2Toa, 242, a ; 243, a ; 498, b
„ (SatTfAiKTj, 112, a
„ ttoikIAti, 13, a
2to(5ioj/, 671, a
'SiToix^^ov, 350, b
Srorxoy, 160, a ; 434, a
2toA.7; SdiriHTLS, 153, a
Sto'jU'o*') 220, b
^Ton'is, 139, b ; 632, a
2To/i&j/xa, 368, a
^TpaTevffifxos, 169, b
2TpaTT)7ia, 598, a
'S.TpaTriyiov, 598, b
2TpaTr)7os, 598, a
,, «|a7reA€/cvs, 513, b
„ 6 enl ras crvfiixopias,
604, b
2,TpaT6TreSov, 289, a
„ Ktvuv, 287. a
^rpards, 283, a
iTpf^Kovv, 634, b
2Tpe7rTtVSa, 327, a
27rp€TrTos, 637, b
2Tpe'0eij', 392, a
2Tpo'^iAos, 268, b ; 325, a
2tpoVj8os, 325, a
2Tpo0€vs', 142, a
y.TpocpT}, 160, b ; 278, a
^Tp6(pty^, 142, a
'S.rpoipiov, 157, b ; 254, b
2Tpa)^a, 274, a ; 372, b ; 404, b ;
611, b
^rpccfiaToSffffj.oi', 404, b
2Tpa;;Ui'7j, 372, a ; 611, b; 628, b
2TpwTfip6s, 435, b
2Ti'Ao/3aT'>js, 51, b
2tuAos, 51, b ; 596, b
2Ti/7rT77pi£oS77S yri, 415, b
'S.Tvpa.Kwv, 357, a
2Ti/(/)oKo'Tros, 332, a
2i))3aKXO'i 621, b
^v^riuT], 633, a
2,vyyeue7s, 333, a
'S.vyy pa-ixfjuxTa, 385, a
„ Koi v6ij.i/j.a, 176, b
^vyypa<pri, 305, a ; 606, a
„ vavTtKT], 305, b
2u7/faTa5u(r(s, 92, a
2i'7/co;UKrTripio, 27, a
'S.vyKOfiKTTos, 485, b
2ii7xop7)7«'»', 159, b
2uKayU(j'o;', 316, a
'^vKov, 19, b
2u/co</)aj'T77s, 603, a
'S.vKOtpa.vTias ypacpij, 603, b
,, 5i»c7j, 703, b
2i;Aai, 003, b
2iiAAa/37; aSicifpopos, 540, a
2,v\\aPiietv, 338, b
2i'AAo7ei's, 286, b ; 603, b
^v/j.$6\awv, 305, a ; 604, a
2uju/3oAoia)(/ SiHTTj, 699, b
2u/u/8oATf, 151, b
2i5M3oAoy, 619, b ; 684, b ; 699, a
,, iv6Siov, 239, a
%vfj.fid\wv, S'lKr) ttTrd, 699, a
'Zv/jL^ovKot, 698, a
^vfj.ij.axoi, 284, b
„ iTTTrers, 288, b
„ Tre^oi, 288, b
GREEK INDEX
' 'Svfj./ii.opia, 604, a ; 651. b
'S.vju.TToaiapxos, 605, a
2Li/U7rd(Tioi', 604, b
' 'S.vfKpopus, 489, b
'2.vix(po}via, 604, b
2i/»'a7a)77J, 208, b
2i'raAAa7;ua, 604, a
2i'i'oi'aToArj, 92, a
'S.vvaxpeia, 540, a
2uj'5t/coy, 699, b
2i'i'5pojU7f, 90, a
i 2i;i/€p70s, 86, b ; 282, a
'ZvvqyopiKov, t6, 700, a
'S.wi^yopoSi 282, b ; 700, a
'S.vvderos a.pi6/x6s, 74, b
' y,vveiJKTi, 305, a ; 604, a
; 'S.vue-nixa, 287, a ; 620, a
I 2y»'o5o$, 95, a ; 208, b ; 346, a
^vvotKfcria, ^vvo'iKia, 606, b
I 'SvvoiKia, 244, a ; 606, b
2,vi'oiKi(TfiL6s, 231, a ; 647, a
I ^wovaia, 208, b
2wTa|is, 478, b ; 606, b
2ui'T€A6ia, 171, b ; 604, b ; 651, b
2wTeA6:s, 604, b ; 651, b
'SvvTpiripapxi'^, 171, b
^vvrpf^papxos, 651, b
^vvci)vi7aOat, 583, a
^vvup'is, 220, b
2Cpi7|, 78, b; 127, a; 136, b;
606, b ; 635, a
„ /j-ovoKaKafiOS, 607, a ;
632, a
'ZvpiTTfiv, 625, b
2i''PM<^i 639, b
2upTt)s iropcpvpovs, 639, b
2u(T/f6i)aCeiv, 287, a
2u(r»cr;i/os, 208, a ; 227, a
^va-ffiTia, 170, a ; 607, a
2t;(T(nTos, 466, b ; 523, b
^uaraAriKOi', 429, a
2i'(TTaT(/c(ic, 397, a
'S.varacns, 268, b
'S.ucrreWetv, 436, b
2ij(rT7j^a, 426, b
2v(rT7jyuaTiKa, 541, a
2(pa?pa, 126, b ; 268, b ; 329, b
l,(patpus, 26(>, b
^(paipiais, 340, b
'2<paipi(TTTjpiov, 329, b
'^.(paLpofjia.xi-O; 126, b ; 330, a
2^6V5a/Lioj, 411, b
•2.(pevUvr), 39, b ; 317, b ; 417, a ;
587, b
2</)6i'5o»'r)T7jj, 288, a ; 317, b
'2,(p7]ViSs 436, a
'S,<privoTrwyoiv-, 344, b
2<J)i7KTT7p, 75, b ; 586, b
2(J)oVSuAos, 323, a ; 524, a ; 657, a ;
665, b
'2,<ppayi^u>v yKinrrtKij, 556, b
2<^pa7i's, 39, b
„ Srj/iocia, 558, a
^(ppriyts xp'"''o56Tos, 558, a
l,(pvpa, 124, a ; 403, b
2(f>up7JAaTa, 124, b ; 589, a
ep7a, 403, b
2<|)i^p7?AaTer^, 10, a; 101, b
2xaAir, 661, b
2xct(TT7)pta, 635, b
2xe5ai, 460, a
2x65i'o, 494, a ; 531, b
'S,X'ni^°- TeTpdyaivoy., 160, a
^.xoiviov, 440, b ; 533, a
„ fj.ffj.i\Tciifj.evoy, 264, a
2xoi«'oj3aT7js, 317, a
2xo«»'oj) il3, a ; 533, a
793
2ccA7jj', 55, a ; 60, b ; 136, a ;
309, b
„ updios, 39, a
2wjua, 51, b
'Sw/xdrioi', 161, a ; 640, a
2a'/LioTo<|>vAa|, 287, b
2ct>ffTpa, 575, b
2a;T7jp{a, 457, a
2oi><ppovi<TTiis, 273, b ; 340, b
Ta/SAo, 320, a
Ta7Tjj'o»', 555, b
Tdy/xa, 289, a ; 455, b
Ta7(5s, 610, a
Tat^/ia, 52, a ; 157, b ; 302, b ;
610, a ; 675, b
„ Aeu/crj, 232, b
TaAoi'TOj', 380, a ; 610, b
TaAapoy, 127, a
TaAocrm, TaXaaiovpyta, 616, a
Ta/xias, 231, b ; 529, b ; 610, b
Tafj.if'ioi', 243, b
Ta^iapxoi, 294, a ; 598, b ; 612, a
Td^is, 224, b; 284, a; 404, a;
612, a
„ eVj8oAo6i5rf J, 288, a
TdTrns, 372, b ; 611, b
TaTTis, 611, b
Tdpjxoy, 451, b
Toppt^s, 440, b
Tappwfxa, 434, a ; 440, b
Taperos, 215, b ; 434, a
Tdpcruiixa^ 434, a
Tapxviiv, 318, a
Tao-fS, 426, b
TavpoKoWa, 338, a
ToCpos, 91, a
Ta<|)os Kevo's, 154, a
Ta<ppoirci6s, 276, b
Te'eptTTTTos, 221, a; 528, b
Teixo)3aTrjs, 317, b
TetxoTowi, 276, b ; 613, a
Te7xos, 421, a
TeKvuv, 300, a
Tf\aij.u>v, 77, b ; 95, a
TeAeios dpid/xos, 74, b
TeAetoTaTTj, 74, b
TeAeTTJs, 429, b
TeAos, 587, b ; 616, b
„ ^eviKOv, 13, b
TfAos iropviKOV, 345, b ; 616, b
j TeAcoi/Tjs, 616, b
j Te/xeV??, 228, a
T^ixevos, 58, b ; 534, b ; 662, b
Te/jLVftv, 158, a
I Tfperpov, 124, a ; 532, a ; 017, b
I Tepfxa, 587, b
I TiffaapaKouT'Oprjs, 434, a
TiffcrapaKoarij, 182, b
; TeTapTTifj-Opioy, 182, a
TerapTov, 530, b
T6Tpa7coi'os, 74, b ; 160, a
, TerpaSpaxMOf, 178, b ; 181, b
T6TpaAo7ia, 639, a
TiTpaopia, 221, a
TerpctpxTJs, 621, a
Terpapxia, -459, b
Terpos, 494, a
TerpaffTi/Aoy, 59, b
T6Tpa(/)aAoy, TeTpa(J)aA77pos,79,a
TerprjpTjs, 171, b; 134, a
TfTpwfioAov, 182, a
TeTTapjKovra, oi, 621, a
Te'TTif, 193, b
701
TiX^'V ^p/jLoy\v(ptK7i, 345, a
„ Kepa/j-tKY), 018, a
Tr\yavov, 555, b
Tr)KiK\eiT6s, "283, a
Tr;\ia, 215, b; 331, b
Tiapa, Tidpas, 031, b
„ opQi), 41, a
Tijuat, 416, a
Ti'/iTjAta, 156, b ; 2G7, a; 690, a;
700, b
TiVtjo-is, 700, b
TijUr/re/a, 154, a
TifiriTri S'tKY], (H5 , b
TifjLr]T7is, 154, a
TifxrjTia, 154, a
Ti^jLOKpaTia, 156, b
Ti>7j, 18, b
Totxor, 432, b ; 467, a
Toix<^pvxos, 687, a
Tofco^Aui^os, 305, a
To/cos, 304, b
ToXvirrj, 323, a
To^iivs, 55(), \)
TofjLTi, 540, a
Tojuos, 385, a
TovT), 428, b
T6i'os, 211), b ; 372, b ; 428, a ;
47'.), a ; 635, a
„ Sia^euKTiKos, 426, b
Tdiapxos, 231, a
T6^fu/j.a, 550, b
To|euT7Js, !)1, b
Tolt/fJf, 551, a
To^iTis, 635, a
TofoflTjKT), 67, b
TJIji/, 67, a; 91, a; 91, b
To^orrjs, 178, a ; 181, a; 231, a;
2HS, a ; 551, b
Toxreio, 440, b
Topeus, 125, a
TopeuTTjj, 124, b
TopevTiKTi, 122, b ; 125, a
T6pyeuna, 637, a
Tc^pcos, l(i3, b; 499, b; 636, a
Topvi/r], 65(), b ; 657, a
TpayTj^ara, 152,a; 407,a;625,b
Tpa70j, liiO, a; 587, a
Tpa7a)5ia, 160, a ; 638, a
Tpajr6(,a, 152, a; 411, a
TpctTTsCfat SeuTepai, 152, a
,, ^fviKai, 607, a
„ irpcoTai, 152, a
„ xf/vxpO'i-i 153, b
Tpan-efirrjy, 71, b
TpaTrej^'uKO^os, 152, a
Tpaire^Woidy, 152, a
Tpa7re(,'b(;>opo>', 643, a
Tpa5;ua eK Trpoj/oi'as, 66, a
Tpavfiaros «/c irpovjias ypa(t>'l),
701, a
Tpax'jAiCeu', 392, b
TpeVos, 681, b
Tp€x*'5e"''i'a, 643, a
Tpexf SeiTTi/os, 643, a
Tpi'aica, 322, b
TpiaKas, 131, b ; 319, b ; 646, a
TpiaKui/Topos, 434, a
TpiaKo(rtoij.4Sifj.vos, 156, b
TpiaKTrjp, 391, b
Tpias, 494, a
Tpi/3oA.os, 643, b
Tpil3paxus, 538, b
Tpi0aiv, 254, a ; 643, b
Tpiy\vci>os, -ov, 52, a ; 652, a
'Ypiywvov, 91, a ; 400, b
Tpiyoivos, 74, b
GREEK INDEX
TpieTTtpis, 131, b ; 270, b
TpirifiLrdviov, 426, b
Tptr)papxia; 604, a ; 651, a
Tpi7)papxos, 437, a; 651, a
TpiripavKris, 437, a
TpiTJpTjs, 434, a
Tpiripoirowi, 276, b ; 652, a
Tp'iKpoTos, 434, a
Tpt\oyia, 639, a
Tpi/i/ua, 605, a
TpiTTTjxi'S) ''*^'5, a
TpiVous, 159, b ; 371, a ; 652, a
TpiiTTvxa, 609, a
Tpi(nri6afj.os, 636, a
Tpicmyov, 243, b
TpiTO, 319, b
TpiTaYcoj/io-Trfs, 348, a ; 639, b
TpiTTj, 400, a; 427, b
TpiTOTTCtTopes, 456, b
TpiTOCTTaTTJS, 160, b
Tpmvs, 332, b ; 440, b ; 646, a
TpixoAa;3jo»', 634, a ; 676, a
TpixoKa^is, 676, a
TpiuifioKov, 182, a ; 616, b ; 685, a
Tpoiav, iirirevcrai ttJi', 656, a
Tp6ira, 327, a
TpoTrat, 90, a
Tp^Traioi", 656, a
Tpdiris, 432, b ; 435, a
TpoTrds, 440, b
„ 5fpfj.aTivos, 433, a
TpdTTOs, 428, b
TpoiroiTTJp, 435, a ; 440, b
Tp6<piiJ.os, 170, a
Tpox^Tos, 538, a
TpoxTJAoTos, 390, b
Tpox'C*"'! 634, b
Tpox(A.ta, 401, b ; 440, a
TpoxiAos, 53, a
TpoxiCKos, 469, b
Tpoxoire'5??, 600, b
Tpox^y, 219, a ; 224, a; 324, b;
()34, b : 656, a
„ airoffaTiK s, 464, a
,, Kfpa/xiKOS, 499, b
Tpv&Kiov, 413, b; 470, b
TpiryrjTTJs, 91, a
TpiryifiSia, 201, a
Tpi/iraj/ior, 617, b
Tpinravoi', 358, a ; 617, b
TpviTTJ/uoTO, 632, a
TpvTdvr}, 386, b
Tpu<^oA.eio, 79, a
TpwyaKia, 152, a
TuKT), 88, b
TvKKTfjLa, TvKos, SS, h
TvKf7ov, 372, b
TuAtj, 66, b ; 372, b
Tv\oi, 634, a
Tvfjifios, 318, b
Tu/u/3aipuX'ttS 7pa<J"i> '^Olj '"•
Tii/x7rafi(,'ei>', 658, b
TviJ.Travoi', 55, a ; 658, b
TuTTos, 314, b; 618, a
TuiTTOi, 269, a
Tvpavvis, 584, b ; 659, a
,, aip6Tr{, 535, a
Tupavj'os, 659, a
Tvppr)viKd, 128, a ; 129, a
I Tvxos, 88, b
T.
'rdSes, 91, a
'TaKtyBia, 354, a
"TaAos, 674, b
"r$pfuis ypa(pv, 677, a ; 701, b
"r&pis, 159, a ; 701, b
'TSpaya>yia, 43, a
'TSpaAfTTjs, 418, b
'TSpofo's, 270, a
'TSpdpyvpos, 415, a
"TSpavKos, 354, a
"T5p7j, 90, b ; 91, b
'T5pm, 104, a ; 369, a ; 509, a ;
583, a
'TSpiai Kipa/xedi, 525, a
'ySpiarpopla, 354, b
'TSpd/ifAi, 673, a
't5p6fj.r\Kov, 673, a
'TSpd^uAos, 418, b
'TSpoj, 'T5pox<^os, 91, b
"TSop, 350, b
i 'TAAers, 170, a ; 647, a
I "ty.vT\Tpis, 270, a
' "T^voj, 457, a
'T;u;/y5ds, 270, a
''tvis,'''CvtrD,''tvin)S, 49, c
"Yj/yiy, 48, b
'TirayKdiivia, 152, a
"Tirojepo;/, 243, a
'TTrofTAeior, 122, b
'TTrafTTTio-Ti^s, 284, a; 288, a;
343, b
'TiroTTj, 400, a ; 427, b
'TiroTt/cds, 650, b
"TiroTos, 205, b
' 'T-jrei/cu/Tia, 74, b
"Tirepos, 420, b
'Tire'pai, 433, a ; 436, b
'Tir€p/3aAAe(i/, 96, b
'Xirep&aTTipia, 284, b
, 'TirtpfifpfTOios, 132, a
'rwep^ifiepos, 489, b ; 689, a ;
698, b
'TirepOvpov, 356, a
'Tirep/caTctATjKTo;', 540, a
'TTrepTrpdS€(r/uos, 698, b
t 'TirepT(\eios, 74, b
'TirepTf pi'o, 223, b
'Tirepciioi/, 240, b
'rirfpifov, 60, b ; 243, b
; 'rirevdvvos, 282, b ; 661, b
! 'Tttii/coos, 102, a
'T-rrijvri, 111, a
'rn-npfffia, 354, b ; 437, a
'Tir-qpfffioy, 435, a ; 440, b
'TTTTjpeVrjs, 325, b ; 354, b
'TnofidKXftos, 538, b
'TnofiapfiaplCfiv, 458, b
'T7rd/3A7j/ua, 440, a
'TiroypannaTfi/s, 118, b; 338, b
'tiroypa<pj], 479, a
'TiroS^/uara, 118, b ; 128, a
'TirofiVyia, 286, b
'Tfl-d^ojyua, 435, a
'Tiroer/KTj, 305, a
'TwofluM'Ses, 214, a
; 'TTTOKptTTf J, 348, a ; 638, b
'XiToKoxo-yis, 284 b
'XtroKviiv, 152, a
'ttrofxiiovis, 349,
'TirofunifuiTa, 4, a 200, a
'TTTo/udxAioc, 401, a ; 435, a
'TttJj/o/uos, 43, a ; 175, a ; 218, a ;
272, a
'TiroTrdStov, 563, b
"firopvy/xa, 218, a
"Tirdpxvf^t l^*^! t>; 855, a
640, b
'TTTOtr/ceAjCeii', 392, a
'TttJo-totoi', 104, a
'TTTOTpaxjiAjoi', 51, b
I
'rwoxa^-iviSia, 220, b
'rnria, 328, a
'rirwfxoaia, 678, a ; 683, b
'rweinna, 526, b
"To-7rAr)|, 347, b ; 587, b
'r<Tff6s, 83, b ; 288, b
'Tarpix'ts, 310, b
'Y<^a«'TT;j, 616, a
'1C<l>6\fj.iov, 632, a
*.
^atSpvvTTjs, 270, a
^aivivSa, 330, a
4>aKar, 152, a
^aK6s, 18, b
*aAa7|, 283, b ; 286, b ; 476, b
<l>o\opa, 79, a ; 476, b
^d\os, 7'J, a
^a\\o(p6pos, 200, b
<Pavepa oiiaia, 681, b
^ay6s, 304, a
^aperpa, 67, b
^apfiaKevTpiai, 702, a
^ap/xaKiSfS, 702, a
^dpfxaKov, 479, a
^apuaKo-nwKrts, 477, b
*apyua>cds, 398, b ; 547, b ; 621, b
^opixaKctiv 'Ypa<pij, 701, b
^dpos, 477, b
^apos, 251, b ; 256, a
*(£(r7a»'oi', 78, a ; 81, a
*a(rT/Aos, 18, b
*a<r<s, 702, a
„ fjLi(Tdci(reios, 695, b
^a/rv7], 91, a ; 513, a
^eWoi, 436, b ; 534, a
ievoKTi, 194, b
^evivZa, 330, a
^epsKoaTtKSs, 539, b
*epj'j), 406, b ; 686, b
^evyivSa, 326, a
*^/ttai, 239, a ; 452, a
^QivdiTupov, 93, a
4>6o77os, 426, a
*0OJS, *0ois, 627, b
Mopd, 707, b
*4(iA77, 469, b; 509, b; 511, b;
605, a
*(5tT77y, 607, b
*i5iTm, 170, a ; 607, b
*iAtos, 74, b
*j\oTr;m'o, 605, b
"tiAiTTTreioi, 179, a
*iix6s, 139, a ; 315, a ; 320, b
^oiviKT), 90, b
^oiviKis, 288, b
*0i»'(|, 19, b
*oAi5coT<is, 81, a
ioviKoi S'lKai, 70, a ; 702, a
^ovt/col vofioi, 702, b
^dros, 702, a
^opfieia, 139, a
^opta<p6pos, 371, b
*op6roj', 371, b ; 564, b
*6pfuyi,, 399, b
^opos, 73, a ; 478, a
^opTr}y6s, 103, a
*o/>Tts, 431, b; 438, b
4>paT€p€s, 169, b
^parepiKhv ypafx/xanlov, 169, b
^parpia, 832, b ; 646, b
^parpiapxas, 833, a
^paropfs, 338, a
^povpai, 598, b
*ooi'papxoj, 598, b
GEEEK INDEX
^Pvkt6s, 304, a; 524, a
*u7rf, 298, a
<f>u7ij'5a, 326, a
^VKOS, 816, a
4>uAoJ yfftKai, 647, a
., TowiKai, 647, a
*iiAa^, 2!S7, a
^vKaKri'ipwv, 35, b
*uAopxos, 278, b ; 478, b
*uAt/, 170, a; 332, b; 612, a;
647, a
*iiAAa, 829, b
^vXo^aaiKels, 282, a ; 478, b ;
681, b
^v\ov, 647, a
^vpaw, 486, a
^vcrai., 313, a
<i>u(r7jT7")p«y, 813, a
4>wK7j, 179, a
4>eocai, 239, a
4>a)pio;U(Js, 50, a
i>a>(T(p6pos, 186, b
*(iTJ7i, 632, b
X.
Xa\av, 356, b
XaXaa-TTJpia, 148, b
XoASaicoj' fifBoBoi, 89, b
„ 4/Tj(f)756s, 89, b
XoAeffTpaTov, 316, b
Xa\iv6s, 220, b ; 440, b
Xd\Kav6ov, 95, b
XaAKao-iTiSej, 288, b
Xa\Ke7ov, 157, b ; 331, a
Xa\Kevs, 300, a ; 868, a
XaA/c^ fivTa, 326, a
XaAK(i/5o, 326, a
XoA/c4oiKia, XaAKioiKos, 157, b
XaAMiov, 182, b
XaA/c({s, 9, b
XaAKovs, 182, b
XaKKoi/jLara, 609, b
XoAinl', 868, a
Xa/iaifrjAoy {Si(ppos), 563, b
XafxewT], Xajxivfiov, 873, a
Xdpa|, 331, b ; 661, a
Xapuivioi KKifxaKis, 624, b
XatTyuara, (>30, a
XeSpoTra, 18, b
XdKwTTip, 189, b; 632, a
Xel/ia, 92, b
Xetuwi', 92, b
Xc/p, 635, b
XeipiScoTOS, 81, a
Xfipts, 252, a; 404, a
Xetpo0aWiffTpa, 66, b
X€ip6ypa<poi', 158, a ; 606, a
XeipoKdPri, 49, a
Xiip6ixaKTpov, 152, a ; 158, a ;
404, b
Xiip6vLTTTpOV, 158, a
XeipoTf'xJ'O', 86, a ; 288, b
Xiiporovfiv, XeipoTovia, 157, b
X6ipoup7ia, 158, a
Xeipciiv, 91, b
XeipivuaKTes, 86, a
XfipcDud^Lov, 86, b
XfAiSrfj'ia, XeAiSoi'to'Tr/s, 158, a
X«'Auy, 91, a
XeAwrr/ia, 435, a
XeAoji'eio, 401, b
XeAwvT), 325, b ; 620, a
„ SiopuKTpis, (J20, b
„ KptO(p6pos, 620, b
„ x^'^'^P''^^ fJ'-^O, b
795
Xe'prjes, 86, a
XepvTjTes, 8(), a
Xepvi/Seioi', Xfpvifiov, 158, a
Xe'p''"l'i 151> '^ > l"'''^! "•
XepdviTTTpov, 403, b
XecJi'ios, 41, b
X7)Ai 91, b; 157, b
XTjAdy, 50, a
X^/U7j, 158, a
XrjviffKos, 481, b ; 435, a
Xr)i'o0offK€7oy, 21, b
Xi\iapyos, 293, b
XiAo's, 288, b
X7ou, 828, a
XiTwr, 76, a; 161, a; 251, b;
256, a
,, afi.<piij.d(Tx<'-f«>s, 254, a
„ 5oiiAiK<$s, 176, b
„ kTipofiacrxo-^o^, 254, a
„ fwr]T7^p. 373, a
„ KpOKWTOS, 253, b
,, opOoardSios, 260, a
„ o'xio'tJs, 258, b
„ xeipiScords, 254, b
XiTiiviov, Xltwv'ktkos, 255, a
XAaTra, 251, b ; 258, a ; 255, b ;
372, b
XAa^us, 256, a ; 640, a
XKavis, 255, a ; 285, a
XKldwp, 75, a
X\6fta, XAoio, 159, a
Xvor'i, -at, 219, a
Xooi, 546, b
XSavos, 315, a
Xo€i;s, 161, b
XoTril, 159, a ; 442, b
XoipiSia, 264, b
Xoip7vai, 524, a
Xope7os, 538, a
Xoprjyia, Xopriyos, 159, a
Xopiafi^os, 538, b
XopoKeKT-qs, 159, a ; 160, b
Xopoiroi6s, 160, b
Xop(is, 159, b
„ KuKAtos, 638, a
„ Tpa7i/c(5s, 638, a
XopocTTaTTjx, 160, b
XoCs, 161, b; 236, a; 413, b ;
529, a
Xpaivetv, 479, a
Xpeovs S'lKT], 703, a
XpeaJKoiri'a, 568, a
XpeiiXpeiKiTTis, 305, a
Xpi^fiara, 177, b
„ QeoipiKa, 627, b
„ 'fpa, 611, a
„ ocria, 611, a
XprifuiTiKal S'lKat, 691, a
XprifxaTifTTtjs, 86, a
Xpfjtns, 703, a
Xp7]<Tfjio\6yoi, 238, b
XpT)(ryu({y, 238, b
XprjaTT^piov, 451, b
XpTJio-TTjs, 805, a
Xp(^ai, 427, a
Xpoi'oAo7ia, 161, b
Xp6i'os &\oyos. 538, a
„ K(v6s, 538, a
„ irpwros, 587, b
Xpiy(r€Ae<j)ai/Tii'a, 162, a ; 598, b
XpvfToKoWa, 101, b; 124, a;
162, a
Xpxjffhs &ire<peos, 101, b
„ &wvpos, 101, b
„ A6u/c({s, 267, b
Xpwidv, Xpai/xa, 479, a
1 XuTpo, 162, b ; 508, a
t96
"S-vrpevs, 499, a
XuTpiSioy, 1G2, b
X.vTpiv5a, 325, b
XvTpis, 162, b
XuTpdiroi/s, 162, b
Xvrpos, 162, b ; 236, a
Xwfia, 11, a ; 15, b ; 347, a
Xwvfveiv, 589, a
Xwpai, 328, b
Xwpia, 230, a
Xupofidrrfs, 159, b
VaXiSiov, 314, a
H'oAioi/, 220, b
VaAi's, 124, a; 314, a; 633, b
'¥f\iov, 75, a
'Vfv5ey'ypa<pfis ypa<pjj, 703, b
^'euSoSiTTTfpos, 59, b
GREEK INDEX
"VevSSBvpov, 355, a I
"VfvSoKArfreia, 681, a !
■yeuSoKATjTeios 'ypa(pri, 703, b
^^evSofj-apTvpia, 681, a
^^evSofiaprvpiwy S'ikti, 691, b ;
695, a ; 696, a
WevSoiTfp'nrrepos, 59, b
M'7?<J)?5€s XaXSaiuv, 89, b
>l'T/<^iC6O-0ai, 157, b ; 524, b
„ KpvfiSriv, 265, a
Vii(picriJ.a, 118, b ; 265, a ; 445, b
'Vi)ipoirepifio^^rirpia, 324, a
^7jd)oy, 39, b ; 328, a ; 524, a
W(?ja, 684, b
^i\6s, 82, a ; 283, b
^lAoTo-TTiSey, 611, b
ViKoidpou, 524, b ; 634, a
VifJ-vdioy, 316, a
'Vvyevs, 525, a
"VvKTTJp 510, a ; 524, b
H^vxpoKouTflv, 103, b
'napl(i>v,9l, h
'n^ai, 170, a
'Q.S(7oi', 627, a
■^57/, 161, a
'hXevr), 660, a
'riAia, 500. a
''nfiiWa. 327, a
'n/iOTp(j8e's, 448, b
'n,fMO(()ayia, 457, a
'ilo^uTj/cd, 457, a
'XibTT oTT, 434, b
'noffKoTTiKa, 457, a
"Hpo, 93, a ; 235, a ; 349, b
'npe7ov, 351, b
'npiu'v, 91, b
'npoKoytov, 235, a ; 350, b
'npoo'/coTTos, 90, a
'n(TXo<popta, 457, b
'nxpo, 191, b
Yixpos, 19. a
I
I
797
LATIN INDEX
Abactores, 704, a
Abaculus, 1, a ; 675, a
Abacus, 1, a; 51, b; 643, a
Abigeatores, Abigeatus, 704, a
Abigei, 704, a
Ablaqueatio, 447, b ; 674, b
Abnormis, 533, a
Abolla, 2, a; 259, a
Abortio, Abortus, 704, a
Abrogatio magistratus, 2, a
Absentia, 746, a
Absinthites, 672, b
Absis, 2, b
Absolutio, 706, a
Acanthus, 2, b
Accensi, 2, b ; 375, b
„ velati, 2, b; 289, b
Accepti et expensi codex, 4, a
6, a; 177, a; 609, b; 739, b
Acceptilatio, 177, a ; 704, a
739, b
Acceptiun, 177, a
Accessio, 704, a
Acclamatio, 2, b ; 568, a
Accubatio, 650, b
Accubitalia, 3, a
Accubitum, 3, a
Accunibere, 153, a
Accusatio suspecti, 750, a
Accusator, 706, b
Acerra, 3, a ; 320, a
Acetabulum, 3, a ; 510, b
Acetum, 672, b
Acies, 291, a ; 296, a
Acilia lex, 377, b ; 522, a
Acinaces, 3, a
Acisculus, 88, b
Aclys, 83, b
Acquisitio naturalis, 740, a
Acratophorum, 510, b
Acroama, 3, b
Acrolithi, 588, b
Acroterium, 303
Acta, 3, b
„ diurna, 4, a
„ forensia, 4, a
„ iudiciorum, 4, b
„ iurare in, 3, b
„ militaria, 4, b
,, patrum, 4, a
„ populi, 4, a
„ publica, 4, a
„ senatus, 4, a ; 568, b
„ urbana, 4, a
Actarii, 4, b
Actia, 4, b I
Actio, 704, a
„ aestimatoria, 726, b 1
,, aquae pluviae arcendae,
709, b
,, bonaefidei,710,b; 722,b
,, bonorum vi raptorum,
722, b !
„ per condictionem, 705, a ; I
743, a
,, deiecti effusive, 716, b
„ depositi, 717, a
„ deeffusiseteiectis,752, a
„ ad exhibendum, 720, b
„ familiae erciscundae,
721, a
,, fiduciae, 722, a
„ furti, 722, b
,, iniuriarum, 726, b ; 751, b
„ per iudicis postula-
tionem, 705, a
„ legis, 704, b
„ per manus iniectionem,
705, a
,, dc membris ruptis, 748, a
,, negatoria, 718, a
„ noxalis, 738, b
„ de pauperie, 742, b
„ in personam, 704, b
„ per pignoris capionem,
705, b; 742, b
,, quadrupli, 722, b
,, quanti minoris, 720, b
„ recepta, 745, a
,, de recepto, 745, a
„ redhibitoria, 720, b
„ rei vindicatio, 718, a
„ in rem, 704, b
„ per sacramentum, 704, b
,, sepulcri violati, 752, a
„ tutelae, 750, a
„ utilis, 720, a
,, vindictam spirans, 751, b
Actor, 348, b ; 577, b ; 706, b
„ publicus, 707, a
Actuariae naves, 439, b
Actuarii, 4, b ; 446, a
„ legionis, 4, b
Actus, 4, b ; 16, a ; 23, a ; 413, b ;
667, a
Actus minimus, 4, b
„ quadratus, 4, b; 16, a
„ simplex, 4, b
Acus, 4, b ; 18, b
„ crinalis, 5, a ; 196, a
„ comatoria, 196, a
„ discriminalis, 5, a
Adamas, 5, a
Addicere, 96, b
Addictio, 305, b; 707, a; 738, b
Addictus, 705, b ; 738, b
Ademptio ordiuis, 297, b
Adesse ad tabulam, 96, b
Adfines, 23, b ; 708, a
Adfinitas, 708, a
Adiudicatio, 705, b ; 718, a
Adiutor a rationibus, 309, b
Adlecti, 5, b
Adlectio, 565, b
Adlocutio, 5, b
Adminicula, 674, b
„ hominum, 17, a
Admissarius, 20, b
Admissio, 5, b ; 554, a
Adolescentes, 724, a
Adoptio, 707, a
„ apud populum, 707, a
„ apud praetorem, 707, a
Ador, 18, a
Adoratio, 6, a
! Adrogatio, 707, a
' Adscript! novi, 189, b
Adscripticii, 289, b
Adsertor, 707, b
Adsessor, 707, b
Adsidui, 388, b; 648, a
Adulterae, Adulterinae (claves)
358, a
Adulterium, 707, b
Adulti, 724, a
Adumbrare, 479, a
Adversaria, 6, a; 177, a
Adversarius, 706, b
Advocatus, 708, a
„ fisci, 309, b
Aedes, 58, b ; 617, a
„ privatae, 244, a
„ thensarum, 627, b
Aedicula, 6, a; 165, b; 572, a
Aediles, 6, b
„ curules, 6, b
„ pagi, 459, a
„ plebis, 6, b ; 645, a
Aedilium ius, 719, a
Aeditimi, Aeditui, Aedituini,
7, a
Aedium cavum, 245, a
Aegis, 7, b
Aelia lex, 377, b
„ Sentia lex, 378, a
Aelianum ius, 733, a
Aemilia lex, 378, a
Aeneatores, 210, a
Aenigma, 8, b
798
Aenum, 8, b ; 317, a
Aequinoctium, 93, a
Aequipondium, 588, b
Aequitas naturalis, 719, b
Aera, 10, a
Aerarii, 9, a ; 648, a
„ et tignarii, 289, b
Aerarium, 9, a
railitare,9, b;296, b;
670, a
„ populi Romani, 309,a
„ publicum, 9, a
„ sanctum or sanc-
tius, 9, a
„ Satumi, 309, a
Aere dirutus, 297, b
Aerugo, 191, b
Aerumna, 296, a ; 420, b
Aes, 9, b; 177, b
„ alienum, 10, a
„ confessum, 705, a
„ equestre, 10, a ; 278, b
„ et libra, 720, a ; 735, b
„ grave, 10, b
„ hordearium, 10, a ; 279, a
„ militare, 10, a
„ multaticium, 7, a ; 10, b
„ recurrens, 2, a
„ rude, 10, b ; 182, b
„ thermarum, 105, a
„ uxorium, 10, b
Aes (bell), 105, a ; 633, a
Aestatis initium, 93, a
Aestimatio litis, 729, b
Aestimatoria actio, 726, b
Affectio maritalis, 714, a; 717,
b ; 738, a
Afianes, Affinitas, 708, a
Agaso, 10, b
Agens, 706, b
Ager arcifinius, 22, b
„ compascuus, 14, a ; 23, b
„ datus assigiiatus, 13, b ;
228, b
„ divisusetassignatU8,22,b
„ effatus, 490, a
„ publicus, 10, b ; 14, b ;
228, b ; 525, b ; 561, a ;
648, b
„ quaestorius, 13, b ; 228, b
„ redditus, 14, a ; 228, b
„ restibilis, 17, b ; 19, b
„ rudis, 16, a; 19, b
„ sanctus, 663, a
„ scamnatus or strigatus,
24, a
„ scripturarius, 561, a
„ vectigalis, 14, a; 228, b;
720, a
Agere sacramento, 705, b
Agger, 11, a; 16, a
„ viae, 11, b
Agina, 386, a
Agitatores, 166, b
Agmen, 295, b
„ quadratuni, 296, a
Agnae, 20, a
Agnati, 333, b
Agnatic, 333, b ; 713, a
Agni, 20, a
Agon Capitolinus, 95, a ; 393, a
„ Neroneus, 393, a; 531, a
Agonales, 552, a
„ dies, 11, b
Agonalia, 11, b
Agonenses, 552, a
Agonia, 11, b
LATIN INDEX
Agora, 12, a
Agrariae leges, 13, b
Agricultura, 15, b
Agrimensores, 22, b
Agrinietatio, 22, b
Ahenum, 8, b ; 105, b ; 108, b
Ala, 25, b; 245, b; 291, b;
375, b; 584, a
„ miliaria or quingenaria,
26, a
Alabarches, 26, a
Alabaster, 26, a
Alabastrites, 405, a
Alabastrum, 26, a ; 506, b
Alapae, 417, a
Alares, Alarii, 25, b
Alauda, 26, a
Alba linea, 165, a
Albarii, 250, a
Albarium opus, 467, b
Albogalerus, 26, a
Album, 26, b
„ decurionum, 26, b
„ iudicum, 26, b ; 730, a
„ senatorium, 26, b ; 566, a
Alea, 26, b ; 326, a
AJes, 91, a
Alica, 18, b
Alicala, 26, b
Alimentarii pueri et puellae,
j 26, b
I Alipilus, 27, a
j Aliptae, 27, a
J Alites, 98, a
1 Allecti, 5, b
Alligati, 27, a
AUocutio, 5, b
Alluvio, 22, b ; 708, a
Alphabetum, 27, a
Altare, 47, a
Altiles, 301, a
Aluta, 129, b ; 209, b
Alvearium, 22, a
Alveolus, 329, a ; 390, a
Alveus, 22, a; 29, b; 107, b;
329, a
„ lusorius, 29, b
Alvorum castratio, 22, a
Amanuensis, 29, b
Ambarvalia, 29, b
Ambitio, 349, a
Ambitus (bribery), 708, b
Ambitus (domus), 244, a
Ambubaiae, 30, a
Ambulacra, 164, b
Ambulatio, 297, a ; 352, a
Amburbiale, 30, a
Amburbium, 30, a ; 398, b
Amentum, 81, a ; 642, b
-Vmici, 516, a
„ admissionis primae,&'c.,
5,b
Amites, 16, a ; 96, a ; 533, b
Amnestia, 30, a
Amnis, 91, b
Amphiktyones, 30, a
Amphimacrus, 538, b
i^jnphitheatrum, 31, a
,, Flavium,31, a
Amphora, 122, b ; 413, b ; 506,
b; 510, b; 671, b.
,, capitolina, 529, a
„ cubus, 529, a
„ quadrantal, 529, a
Ampliatio, 729, a
Amptruare, 552, b
AmpuUa, 509, a ; 510, b
Amuletum, 35, b
Amurca, 17, b ; 448, b
Amussis, 36, b
Amylum, 18, b
Amystis, 36, b
Anagnostae, 36, b
Analecta, 153, b
Anapaestus, 538, b
Anates, 21, b
Anatocismus, 36, b
Ancilia, 552, b
Ancilla, 577, a ; 714, a
Ancon, 37, a ; 533, b
Ancora, 436, b
Andabatae, 336, b
Andromeda, 91, a
Angaria, 11, a ; 225, b
Angiportus, -um, 37, a ; 670, a
Anguifer, 91, a
Anguillae, 310, b
Anguis, 90, b ; 91, b
Anguitenens, 91, a
Angusticlavii, 566, b
Angustus clavus, 173, b ; 280, a
Animadversio, 725, b
„ censoria, 155, b
Animus donandi, 718, b
„ furandi, 722, b
Anio novus, 44, a
1 „ vetus, 44, a
I Annales leges, 378, a
„ Masimi, 303, a ; 49'"., b
Anniversarium Cereris, 157, a
I Annulus, see Anulus
j Annus magnus, 131, b ; 395, a
„ bisextilis,bisextns,134,a
Annona, 37, a
civica, 316, a ; 662, b
„ militaris, 662, b
,, vetus, 315, b
Annonae cura, 7, a
Anquina, 440, a
Anquisitio, 729, b
Ansa, 250, a; 588, b
Anseres, 21, b
Antae, 37, a ; 129, B ; 245, a
Antares, 91, b
Anteambulo, 37, a ; 372, a
Antecanis, 91, b
Antecenia, 152, b
Antecessor, 37, b ; 731, b
Antecursor, 37, b
Antefixa, 37, b ; 60, b ; 250, a
Antennae, 440, a
Antepagmentum, 355, a ; 142 b
Antepilani, 375, b
Antesignani, 296, a; 375, b;
580, a
Antestari, Antestatio, 704, b
Antiae, 195, a
Antibacchius, 538, b
Antichresis, 743, b
Anticum, 355, a
Antidactylus, 538, b
Antilena, 499, a
Antinous, 91, a
Antisigma, 29, a
Antispastieus, 538, b
Antistes, 667, a
Antistrophe, 540, b
Antlia, 38, a
Antonia lex, 359, b ; 378, a
Antouinianus, 185, b
Anulariuni, 298, a
Anuli aurei ius, 40, b
Anulus, 39, b ; 51, b ; 19t>, a
„ aureus, 40, b
Anulus equester, 280, a
„ pronubus, 39, b
Apes, 22, a
Apex, 41, a
Aphrodisiii, 41, a
Apiarium, 22, a
Apicem imponere, 41, a
Apicula, 41, a
Aplustre, 303, a ; 435, a
Apocha, 704, a
Apodyteriniu, 105, a ; 109, a
Apophoreta, 41, b
Apophygis, 51, b
Apotheca, 10, b ; 41, b ; (iT^, a
,, fumaria, 073, a
Apotheosis, 41, b ; 51, b
Apparitores, 43, a; 154, b
Appellatio, 303, b ; 709, a
Applicatio, 174, a
Apri, 22, a
Apsis, 2, b
Apuleia lex, 15, a
Aqua Alexandrina, 44, b
„ AlsietinaorAugusta, 44,a
„ Appia, 44, a
,, Claudia, 44, a
,, Crabra, 44, b
,, Damnata, 44, b
„ lulia, 44, a
„ Marcia, 44, a
„ Tepula, 44, a
,, Traiana, 44, b
„ Virgo, 44, a
Aquae et ignis interdictio, 229,
a ; ()05, a
Aquae pluviae arcendae actio,
709, b
Aquaeductus, 43, a
Aquarii, 47, a ; 352, b
Aquarius, 91, b
Aquila, 91, a
Aquilae, 580, b ; 581, b
Aquilia lex, 716, a
Aquiliferi, 294, b
Aquitenens, 91, b
Ara, 47, a ; 91, b
Arae turicremae, 48, a
Arabarches, 48, a
Aratio, 17, a
Aratrum, 48, b
„ auritura, 17, a ; 49, b
„ simplex, 49, b
Arbiter, 606, a ; 721, a ; 728, a
Arbitria, 728, a
Arbor felix, 000, a
„ infelix, 49, b
Arbuscula, 223, b
Arbustum, 10, a ; 074, b
Area, 50, a ; 223, a ; (i03, a
„ pontificuin, 0(J3, b
„ publica, 50, b
„ vestiaria, 50, a
Arcarius, 50, a
„ pontificalis, 003, b
Arcera, 222, a
Arghiater, 50, b
Archigallus, 324, a; 394, b
ArcliLmimus, 321, a ; 410, b
Architectura, 50, a
Architectus, 294, b
Archium, 65, a
Archon, 65, a
Arcitenens, 91, b
Avctophylrtx, 91, a
Arcturus, 91, a
Arctus maior, 90, b
„ minor, 90, b
LATIN INDEX
Arcuballista, 60, b; 637, a
Arcuballistarius, 66, b
Arculum, 66, b
Arculus, 66, b
Arcus, 07, a ; Oh, a
„ triuniplialis, 69, a
Area, 17, b ; IH, a ; 70, a ; 315, a
Areiopagus, 70, a
Arena, 31, b; 34, b; 165, a;
100, a
Arenariae, M>'1, a
Aretalogi, 71, a ; 154, a
Argei, 71, a
Argentariae (taberiiae), 71, b
Argcnturius, 72, a ; 9(i, b
Argentum, 72, b
„ vetus, 125, a
„ vivum, 415, a
Argo, 91, b
Argyraspides, 73, a
Ariadnes coma, 91, a
Aries, 73, a ; 91, a
Arinca, 18, b
Arista, 18, b
Aristocratia, 73, b
Aritlimetica, 74, a
Armamentarium, 74, b ; 336, a
Armamentum, 74, b
Armarium, 74, b ; 358, b
Armatura equestris, 107, a
„ pedestris, 107, a
Armenta, Armentarii, 20, b
Armilla, 75, a ; 043, a
Armilustrium, 75, b
Arquites, 289, b ; 551, I)
Arra, 84, b ; 407, b
Arrabo, 84, b
Ars coactilaria, 484, a
„ haruspicina, 239, a
„ ratiocinandi, 389, a
„ statuaria, 588, b
Artaba, 85, a
Artes liberales, 86, b
„ operosae, 80, b
„ sordidae, 86, b
„ volgares, 86, b
Articulus, 18, b
Artifices, 80, a
„ Dionysiaci, 237, a
Artopta, 480, a
Arundines, 90, a
Aruspices, 342, a
Arvales Fratres, 87, a
Arx, 88, b
As, 88, b ; 182, b ; 183, a
,, denarius, 183, b ; 184, a ;
180, a
„ libralis or librarius, 10, b ;
183, a
Ascaules, 88, b
Ascia, Asciola, 88, b
Asellus, 21, a ; 91, a
Asiarcha, 89, a
Asilla, 89, b
Asina, Asinus, 21, a
Aspergillum, Aspersorium,
549, b
Asseres, 30, a
Assertor, 707, b
Assessor, 707, b
Assis, 38, b
AssUl-rectio, 212, a
Astragalus, 53, a ; 89, b
Astrologi, Astrnlogia, 89. b
Astronomi, HI), b
Astronomia, 90, a
Asylum, 93, a
799
Atellanae fabulae, 203, a ; 299, b
Athenaeum, 93, b
Athletae, 93, b
Atinia lex, 378, a
Atlantes, 95, a
Atlantides, 91, a
Atramentale, 96, a
Atramentarium, 90, a
Atramentum, 95, b ; 191, b
„ Iiidicum, 191, b
„ librarium, 95. b
„ pictorium, 95, b
„ sutorium, 95, b ;
128, a ; 191, b
„ tectorium, 95, b
Atriarii, 96, a
Atriensis, 50, a ; 96, a
Atrium, 96, a ; 245, a ; 249, a
Atticmn, 192, a
Atticurges, 96, a
Auceps, 96, a
Auctio, 96, a
Auctor, 96, b ; 709, b
„ iuris, 730, b
Auctorati, 330, a
Auctores fieri, 90, b
Auctoritas legati, 374, a
„ patrum, 96, b
„ senatus, 97, a
Auctoritatem imponere, 750, a
Aucupium, 90, a
Auditor, 730, b
Auditorium, 97, a ; 622, b
Augmenta, 549 a
Augur, 97, a
Auguraculum, 88, b ; 98, b
Augurale, 98, b; 147, a
Auguratorium, 147, a
Augurium, 97, a ; 239, a
,, canarium, 100, b
Augusta, 101, a
Augustales, Augustalia, 100, b
Augustalitas, 101, a
Augustus, 101, a
Aula, 511, a
Aulaeum, 101, a
„ mittitur, 020, b
„ premitur, 101, b ;
620, b
„ subducitur, 026, b
„ tollitur,101,b; 626,b
Anrarius, 411, a
Aurelia lex, 044, b ; 728, b
Aures, 49, a
Aureus, 185, a
Aurifices, 80, b
Auriga, 91, a ; 160, b
Aurum, 101, b
„ coronarium, 102, a
„ vicesimarium, 9, a
Auspex, 97, a
Auspiciorum ritus, 544, b
Auspicium, 97, a
„ bellicum fir militure,
99, b; 490, a
„ cadufum, 98, b
„ ex acuminibus, 98, ii
„ ex avibus, 98, a
„ ex caflo, 97, b
„ ex diris, 98, b
„ ex quadrupedibus,
98, b
„ ox tripudiis, 98, a
„ impetrativum, 045 a
„ maius, 99, b
„ niaximuni, 97, b
„ minus, 99, b
sao
Auspicium oblativum, 645, a
„ pedestre, 98, b
„ perenne, 99, b
„ privatum, 99, a
„ publicum, 99, a
„ ratum, 98, a
„ urbanum, 99, b ;
490, a
Authepsa, 102, a
Autunini aequinoctium, 93, a
„ initium, 93, a
Auxilia, 146, b ; 148, a ; 291, b ;
375, b ; 584, a
Auxilium tribunicium, 709, a
Avena, 18, b
Averrunci, 36, a
Averta, Avertarius, 225, b
Avia, 708, a
Aviaria, 21, a
Avis, 91, a; 98, a
Avus, 708, a
Axamenta, 552, b
B.
Bestia, 91, b
Bestiarii, 115, b
Bibliopola, 385, b
Bibliotheca, 116, a
Bibliothecarius, IIG, a
Bidental, 11-6, a
Bidens, 116, a; 531, b
Bigae, 160, a ; 221, a
Bigati, 186, a
Biiuges, 220, b
Bilix, 614, a
Binae centesimae, 806, a
Bipalium, 450, b
Bipennis, 562, b
Biremis, 433, b
Birrus, 259, b
Bisellium, 6, b ; 564, b
Bisextum, 133, b; 134, a
Boeotarchcs, 116, b
Boiae, 117, a ; 442, b
Bombycina, 258, b
Bona, 710, a
„ caduca, 710, a
„ fides, 710, b ; 732, a
„ vi rapta, 715, a
Bonae fidei actio, 710, b ; 722, a
Bonorum cessio, 710, b
„ collatio, 710, b
„ emptio, 96, b ; 711, a
„ emptor, 711, a
„ possessio, 706, a
711, a
„ proscriptio, 520, a
„ universitates, 751, a
„ venditio, 711, a
„ vi raptorura actio,
722, b
Bootes, 91, a
Bos, 91, a
„ novellus, 20, b
„ vetulus, 20, b
Botontini, 24, b
Botulus, 633, b
Boves domiti, 16, b ; 20, b
Brabeum, Brabeuta, 167, a
Bracae, 83, a ; 119, b
Bracati, 119, b
Bracchiale, 75, b ; 120, a
Bracchium, 120, a
Bractea, 36, a
Brattea, 120, a
LATIN INDEX
Bratteator, 120, a
Bravium, 167, a
Bruma, 93, a
Bruttii, 665, b
Bubulcus, 17, a; 91, a
Buccale, 139, b
Buecellatum, 297, b
Buccula, 121, a
Bucina, 210, b
Bucranium, 545, a
Bucula, 20, b
Bulga, 121, a
Bulla, 121, a
„ scortea, 443, a
Bura, Buris, 48, b
Burranica potio, 671, b
Bustuarius, 335, b
Bustum, 321, b
Butyrum, 21, a ; 121, b
Buxum, 121, b
Byssina, 258, b
Byssus, 121, b
Cacabus, Caccabus, 122, a
Caduceator, 122, b
Caduceus, 122, a
Caducum, 710, a
Cadurcum, 122, b
Cadus, 122, b ; 510, b ; 671, b
Caecilia lex, 378, a
„ Didia lex, 378, a
Caelatura, 12*^, b
Caelia, 157, a
Caelia lex, 608, a
Caelibaris hasta, 195, b
Caelibatus, 380, b ; Caelibes,
380, a
Caelum (chisel), 124, a ; 125, a
Caementa, -um, 125, a
Caementum marmoreum, 467, b
Caeritum tabulae, 9, a
Caeruleum, 191, b
Caesar, 126, a
Caesticillus, 67, a
Caestus, 126, a
Caesura, 540, a
Caetra, see Cetra
Calamistrum, 126, b
Calamus, 126, b; 551, b; 607, b
„ chartarius, 127, a
„ scriptorius, 127, a
Calantica, 196, b
Calathiscus, 127, a
Calathus, 21, a ; 127, a ; 525, a
Calator, 100, a ; 127, b
Calautica, 196, b
Calbeus, 75, b
Calcar, 127, b
Calceamenta altiuscula, 129, b
Calcearium, 173, a
Calceati, 584, b
Calceus, 83, a ; 128, a ; 129, b
Calculator, 131, a ; 397, b
Calculi, 1, b ; 328, a
Calda, 131, a
Caldarium, 105,b; 109, a; 131, a
Caleudarium, 131, a ; 305, b
Calida, 131, a ; 525, a
Calidarium, 105, a
Caliendrum, 135, a
Caliga, 129, b ; 180, a
Caligati, 130, a
Calix, 46, b
Calles, 135, a
Calles publici, 20, a
Calo, 135, a; 561, b
Calpar, 671, a
Calpumia lex, 522, a ; 708, b ;
715, a : 745, b
Calumnia, Calumniator, 711, b
Calvatica, 19 i, b
Calx, 165, a
Caniara, 135, b ; 222, a ; 250, b
Camera, 135, b
Camilli, Camillae, 135, b
Caminus, 136, a ; 250, b
Camisia, 136, a ; 259, a
Campagus, 130, b
Carapana, 633, a
Campestre, 136, a ; 600, a
Campicursio, 229, b
Campus frumentarius, 16, a
„ sceleratus, 666, b
„ uliginosus, 17, a
Camus, 139, b
Canaba, 136, a ; 143, b ; 388, b
Cauabenses, 136, a
Canalicula, 52, a ; 136, a
Canaliculus, 136, a ; 635, b ;
652, a
Caualis, 45, b ; 53, a ; 136, a ;
612, b
„ et solea, 448, b
Cancellarius, 137, b
Cancelli, 136, b ; 165, a
Cancer, 91, a
Candela, 137, b ; 304, a
Candelabrarii, 138, a
Candelabrum, 137, b
Camlidarii, 485, b
Candidatus, 708, b
Canes, 21, a
„ pastorales, 21, a
„ pecuarii, 21, a
,, villatici, 21, a
Canicula, 91, b
Canis, 91. b
Canistra, 138, a
Canna, 12(5, b
Cannabis, 19, a
Cannarum theca, 127, a
Canon, 138, b
Canopus, 91, b
Cauterius, 21, a; 139, a
Cantharus, 507, b
Cantherinum, 18, b
Cantherius, 139, a
Cantica, 139, a ; 466, a
Canuleia lex, 378, a ; 442, b ;
737, b
Capedo, 549, b
Capella, 20, a ; 91, a
Caper, 20, a ; 91, b
Capillamenta, 195, b
Capillati, 195, b
Capio pignoris, 705, b ; 742, b
Capis, 100, a ; 549, b
Capisterium, 18, a
Cajiistruni, 139, a
Capita aut navia, 140, a ; l83 a ;
326, b
Capitellum, 51, b
Capitis deminutio, 711. b
„ minutio, 711, b
„ tributum, 662, b
Capitium, 258, b
Capitolium, 88, b
Capitulum, 51, b ; 140, a ; 635, a
Capitum exactio, 662, b
Capra, 20, a : 91, a
Caprarius, 20, a
Capreae, 22, a
Capreolus, 140, a
Capricornus, 91, b
Caprilia, 20, a
C.'apronae, 195, a
Capsa, 140, a ; 388, b
Capsarius, 106, a ; 140, b ; 397, a
Capsella, Capsula, 140, a
Captio, 496, a ; 666, a ; 705, b
Capula, 549, b
Capulator, 448, b
Capulus, 49, b; 78, a; 140, b;
321, b
Caput, 140, b ; 711, b
„ extorum, 140, b
„ porcinuiii, 296, b
,, radiatum, 42, b
Carabus, 141, a
Caracalla, 259, b
Carbasiiia, 626, b
Carbasus, Garbatina, 141, a
Career, 141, a ; 163, b ; 165, a ;
348, a
„ rusticus, 281, b
Carchesium, 440, a ; 510, b
Cardines orbis terrarum, 142, b
Cardo, 23, a; 142, a; 146, a;
617, a
Carina, 434, a
Caristia, 142, b
Carmen Saeculare, 896, a
„ Saliare, 552, b
Carmentalia, 142, b
Carminator, 471, b
Carnifex, 143, a ; 369, b
Caro, 448, a
Caroenum, 671, b
Carpentarius, 225, a
Carpentum, 222, a
Carptor, 153, b
Carrago, 143, a
Carruca, 222, b
Carrura, Carrus, 222, b
Cartibulum, 143, a
Caryatides, 95, a
Caryota, 19, b
Cassia lex, 378, a ; 608, a
Cassiani, 731, a
Cassis, 81, a ; 143, a ; 290, a ;
534, a
Cassiepeia, Cassiopea, 91, a
Castellarius, 47, a
Castellum, 46, b ; 143, a ; 313, b ;
327, b
Castigatio, 297, b
Castra, 143, a
„ aestiva,aestivalia,143,b
„ hiberna, 143, b
„ praetoria, 148, b ; 514, a
„ stativa, 143, b
Castratio alvorum, 22, a
Castreuse peculium, 741, b
Cataphracta, -es, -us, 81, a
Catapirates, 148, b
Catapulta, 635, a
Catai'acta, 148, b ; 553, a
Catasta, 577, a
Cateia, 83, b
Catella, Catena, 149, a
Caterva, 161, b
Catervarius, 336, b
Catbedra, 149, b ; 564, a
Catillum, -us, 149, b ; 417, b
Catinuni, -us, 88, b ; 149, b
Caulae, 149, b ; 542, b
Caupo, 150, a ; 745, a
Caupona, 150, a
LATIN INDEX
Causae ceiitumvirales, 712, b
„ liberales, 716, b
Causam coicere, 704, b
Causia, 150, b
Cautio, 712, a
Cavaedium, 245, a ; 670, b
Cavea, 21, a; 34, a; 150, b;
164, a ; 620, b
Cavere, 30l), a
Celeres, 150, b ; 278, b ; 289, a
Cella, 150, b
„ fauiiharis, or familiarica,
247, a
„ ianitoris, 245, a
„ olearia, or olearis, 151, a ;
448, b
„ ostiarii, 151, a
„ penaria, or penuaria,
150, b
„ proinptuaria, 151, a
,, servoruni, 247, a
,, torcularia, 16, b
„ vinaria, 16, b ; 151, a ;
671, b
Cellarius, 151, a ; 577, b
Cena, 151, a
„ libera, 336, a
„ novendialis, 322, a
„ nuptialis, 408, a
„ recta, 587, a
Cenacula, 245, b ; 250, b
„ meritoria, or con-
ducta, 244, a
Cenationes, 16, b
Cenatoria vestis, 158, a ; 259, a
Cenatorium, 259, a
Cenotapliium, 154, a
Censere, Censeri, 154, b
Censitores, 156, a
Censor, 154, a
Censoria lex, 156, a; 525, a;
526 a
„ locatio, 228, b
„ subscriptoria, 155, b
Censorii, 566, a
Censura, 154, a
Census, 154, b
,, equester, 156, a ; 279, b
„ senatorius, 156, a
Centaurus, 91, b
Centenarius, 167, a
Centesima, -ae, 156, b
„ rerum venalium,
9, b ; 662, a
Centesimatio, 227, b
Cento, 17, a ; 156, b ; 620, b
Centrum, 588, b
Centumviri, 712, a
Centunculus, 156, b
CenturLa, 13, b ; 16, a ; 23, a ;
197, b; 199, a; 875, b
„ iuniorum, 278, b
„ plena, 148, b
„ praerogativa, 199, a
Centuriatio, 24, a
Centurio, 294, a ; 875, b
Copheis, Ceplieus, 91, a
Cera, 22, a ; 608, b ; 749, a
Cerae, 608, b
Cerasus, 19, b
Cercurus, 440, a
Cerea, 157, a
Ceteris anniversarium, 157, a
„ ieiuiiiuni, 630, a
Cereus, 157, a ; 304, a ; 317, a ;
556, b
„ funalis, 157, a
801
Cerevisia, 157, a
Ceriales ludi, Cerialia, 157, a
Ceroma, 157, a
Certamina Graeca, 95, a
Cerularium, 157, a
Cerussa, 191, b ; 316, a
Cervesia, 157, a
Cervi, 22, a ; 157, a ; 661, a
Cervical, 157, a ; 373, a
Cervisia, 157, a
Cervoli, 148, b ; 157, a ; 661, b
Cessio bonorum, 710, b
„ in iure, 712, b
Cesticillus, 67, a
Cestrum, 479, b
Cestus, 157, b
Cetra, 83, a ; 126, b
Cetus, 91, b
Chalcautluim, 191, b
Clialcidicum, 157, b
Chaldaei, 89, b
Chalybs, 368, a
Character, 167, a
Charistia, 142, b
Charta, 384. a
„ I'ergameua, 460, a
Chelae, 158, a
Chelouia, 401, b
Chirograplium, 4, a ; 158, a ;
712, a
Chiron, 91, b
Chirurgia, 158, a
Chirurgus, 577, b
Chlamys, 261, a ; 552, a
Choragium, 336, a
Choragus, 159, b
Choraules, 161, b
Choreus, 538, a
Choregia, Choregus, 159, a
Clioriambus, 538, b
Cliorobates, 159, b
Chorus, 161, b
Chronologia, 161, b
Chryselephantina, 588, b
Chrysendeta, 1(52, a
ChrysocoUa, 162, a
Cibarium, 16, b
„ coctum, 297, b
„ secundarium, 18, a
Cicer, 18, b
Cicera, 19, a
Cicercula, 18, b
Ciconia, 162, b
Cicuta, 607, a
Cilicium, 20, b ; 162, b
Cilliba, 162, b
; Cincia lex, 378, b
, Cincinnatulus, 195, b
I Cinctus, 102, b
I „ Gabinus, 262, a
Cinerarius, 126, b
Cingula, -uni, 84, a ; 168, a ;
, 258, b
Ciniflo, 126, b
Cinnabaris, 96, a ; 191, b
Cippus, 163, a
Circcnses ludi, 166, b
Circinus, 163, b; 617, b
Circuitor, 47, a
Circulator, 163, b
Circunilitio, 480, a
Circuniscriljore, 479, a
Circunivallatum, 6(>1, b
Circus, 1(53, b
„ Flaminius, 166, a
„ Maximus, 163, b
Cirrus, 94, b ; 195, b
3F
802
Cisiarius, 222, b ; 669, b
Cisium, 167, b ; 222, b
Cista, 140, b ; 167, b
„ mystica, 168, a
Cistella, 167, b
Cisterna, 168, a
„ sub tcctis, 16, b
Cistophorus, 169, a; 181, b
Cithara, 399, b
Citharistae, 654, b
Civile ius, 732, b
Civis, 170, b; 711, b
Civitas, 170, b
„ focclerata, 312, b ; 523, a ;
584, b
„ libera, 523, a ; 584, b
„ stipendiaria, 523, a
Clabulae, 225, b
Clamor, 171, a
Clarigatio, 308, a
Clarissimus, 358, b ; 570, b
Classiarii, 172, a ; 439, b
„ milites, 275, b
Classicum, 210, a
Classis, 172, a
Clatlira, -i, 171, a; 250, b;
664, a
Claustra, 356, b
Clausula, 599, b
Clava, 121, b; 172, a
Clavarium, 172, b
Claveni subiccro, 357, b
Claves adulterae, adulterinae,
358, a
Clavi caligarii, or caligares,
82, b ; 130, b ; 171, b
„ tabulares, 171, b
„ trabales, 171, b
Claviculi, 890, a
Claviger, 172, a ; 358, a
Clavis, 324, b
Clavolae, 447, b
Clavum figere, 173, a
Clavus, 172, b ; 173, b ; 338, a
„ iingustus, 173, a ; 280, a
„ anualis, 173, a
„ latus, 173, a; 280, a
Clementia, 732, a
Clepsydra, 350, b
Clibanarius, 485, b
Clibanus, 173, b
Clieus, 173, b ; 487, a
Clientela, 174, a ; 334, a
Clima, 174, b
Clipeus, 82, a ; 108, a ; 174, b
Clitellae, 21, a ; 175, a
Cloaca, 175, a
„ Maxim I, 175, a
Cloaearium, 175, b
Clodia lex, 378, b
Clunaculum, 81, b
Clusurae, 420, a
Coa vestis, 175, b ; 574, b
Coacta, Coactilia, 175, b
Coactiliarius, 258, a
Coactor, 72, a ; 175, b
Coagulum, 21, a
Coarmarius, 336, a
Coccum, 175, b
Coccus, 611, a
„ ilicis, 191, b
Cochlea, 175, b
Coclea, 22, a ; 38, a ; 175, b
Coclear, 176, a ; 387, b
Cocleare, 176, a
Coclearium, 22, a ; 176, a
Coctiles, 370, b
LATIN INDEX
Cocus, 176, a
Codex, 176, b; 384, b; 460, a;
609, a
„ accepti et expeusi, 4, a;
6, a; 177, a; 609, b;
739, b
,, Alexaudrinus, 461, b
„ lustinianeus, 712, b
,, Sinaiticus, 461, b
„ Theodosianus, 713, a
„ Vaticanus, 461, b
Codicem edere, proferre, 72, a
Codices ansati, 609, a
Codicilli, 176, b ; 609, a ; 721, b ;
I 749, b
j Coemptio, 408, a ; 737, b
! „ fiduciae causa, 748, b
Coena, see Cena
Coercitio, 402, b ; 645, b
Cognati, 708, a ; 713, a
Cognatio, 7l3, a
Cognitio, 713, a
„ extraordiuaria,706, b ;
713, b
„ fundi, 15, b
„ praetoria, 706, b
Cognitor, 518, a ; 706, b
Cognomen, 444, a
Coheredes, 722, b
Cohors, 291, a ; 375, b
„ amicorum, 516, a
„ in piano, 21, a
Cohortes alares, alariae, 25, b
„ auxiliariae sociae,
292, a
cetratae et scutatae,
291, b
civium Romanorum,
292, b
„ miliai'iae equitatae,
293, a
„ praetoriae, 292, b ;
293, a ; 521, b
„ urbanae, 293, a
vigilum, 293, b ; 532, b
Coliphium, 94, a
Coliseum, 31, a
Collare, Collarium, 187, a
CoUatio bouorum, 710, b
„ lustralis, 87, a
Collega imperii, 517, b
Collegae, 713, b
Collegium, 87, a; 713, b
Collegia, 86, b
„ fabrum, 300, a
„ pistorum, 485, b
„ sodalicia, 713, b ; 750, b
„ Tenuiorum, 750, b
Collcgiati, 87, a
Colliiii, 647, b
Colliquiae, 16, a
Collybus, 72, a
Colobium, 261, b ;
Coloni indigenae, 17, a
Colon ia, 189, b
Colouiae civium Romanorum,
190, a
„ deductor, 189, b
„ Italici iuris, 190, a
„ Latinae, 190, a;
370, b
„ militares, 189, b;
190, b
Colonica lex, 190, b
Colonus, 734, b
Color, 479, a
Colores, 191, a
Colosseum, 31, a
Colossus, 192, a
Colum, 192, a
„ nivarium, 192, a ; 672, a
Colmnba, 21, b
Columbarium, 21, b ; 192, a ;
573, b
Columbarius, Columbus, 21, b
Columella, 143, a; 635, b;
642, b
Colunma, 51, b ; 192, a
Columnae Herculis, 193, a
„ medianae, 498, b
„ rostratae, 192, b
Columnarium, 193, a
Colus, 323, a ; 525, a
Coma, 193, a
„ Berenices, 91, b
Comati, 19"), b
Comissatio, 196, b; 604, b;
605, b
Comes, 196, b ; 809, b ; 516, a
„ consistorianus, 205, b
Comitia, 196, b
calata, 196, b ; 197, a
„ centuriata, 196, b;
197, b
„ curiata, 196, b ; 197, a
tributa, 196 b ; 199, a ;
204, a
Commeatus, 200, a
Comniendatio, 515, b
Commentariensis, 295, a
Commentarius, 200, a ; 410, b ;
731, a
„ diurnus, 200, b
„ domesticus,200,b
„ pi'incipis, 200, b
„ sacrorum, 496, a
„ senatus, 4, a
Commercii ius, 170, b; 714, a
Commercium, 170, b; 370, b;
714, a
Commetacula, 811, a
Commissoria lex, 714, a ; 743, a
Commixtio, 714, b
Commodatarius, 714, a
Conimodatum, 714, a
Communia, 545, a
Commutatio status, 712, a
Comoedia, 202, b
„ palliata, 203, a
Compagum, -us, 130, b
Compt'iidia, 446, a
Compeiisatio, 739 a
Comperendinatio, 729, a
Compes, 203, a
Competentia, 710, b
Competitor, 708, b
Compita, 203, b ; 656, a
Compitalia, Compitalicii ludi,
203, b ; 307, a
Compotatio, 605, b
Computatio, 389, a
Compluvium, 245, a
Concaedes, 203, b
Concamerata sudatio, 104, a
Concameratio ferrea, 542, b
Concha, 203, b ; 511, a
Conchyliata, 611, b
Concilium, 204, a
„ plebis, 199, b ; 204, a ;
488, b; 645. a
„ provinciae, 204, a
Conclaraatio, 320, a
Concubina, 714, a
Concubinatus, 714, a
Concursus delictorum, 714, b
Condaliuni, 204, b
Condemn atio, 705, b
Condere, 18, a
„ fulgur, lie, b
„ lustrum, 309, a
Condictio, 704, b
„ furtiva, 7*22, b
Condictionem, actio per, 705, a ;
748, a
< oudimenta, 204, b
( ouditio, 448, a
Conditura, 672, b
„ olivarum, 448, a
Conducta, 244, a
Conducticiae liberorum operae,
1(5, b
Conductor, 156, a ; 525, a ;
734, b
„ metalli, 662, a
Confarreatio, 408, a ; 737, b
Confessio, 714, b
Confessus, 738, b
Confluvivim, 246, a
Confusio, 714, b
Congiarium, 26, b ; 204, b
Congius, 205, a; 413, b; 529, a
Conglutinatae, 384, b
Coniuratio, 2!)5, b
Conopeum, Conopium, 205, a
Conquisitor, 205, a ; 295, a
Consaepta, 20, b
Consalutare, 3(>0, b
Consanguinei, 713, a
Consecratio, 41, b ; 361, a
Consiliarius, 205, a
Consilium, 205, a
,, principis, 205, b
Consistorium, 205, b
Consobriui, 741, a
Consortium omnis vitae, 738, a
ConsteUatio, 90, a
Constitutiones, 225, b ; 714, b
Consualia, 163, b ; 205, b
Consul, 205, b
Consulare imperium, 514, b
Consularis, 207, b
„ lex de jjrovocatione,
709, a
Consulatus, 207, a
Consulta, 571, a
Consulti, 730, b
Contestatio litis, 734, b
Contignationes, 244, b
Continuare agi'os, 14, b
Contio, 207, b ; 377, a
Contorniati, 208, a
Contractus, 739, b
Contrectatio rei, 722, b
Contribules, 649, b
Contubernales, 279, b
Contubernium, 148, b ; 714, b ;
747, a
Contumacia, 715, a
Contumelia, 726, a
Contus, 208, a
Conubii ius, 737, a
Conubium, 170, b; 370, b;
737, b
Conus, 208, b
Conveutio iu manum, 737, a
Conventus, 2( 8, b ; 521, b
Convicium, 726, a
Convictor, 33G, a
Convivium, 604, b
„ publicum, 556, a
Cophinus, 208, b
LATIN INDEX
Copa, 150, a
Copiarius, 224, b ; 468, b
Copo, 150, a
Copula, 75, b ; 209, a
Coquus, 176, a
Corbicula, 209, a
Corbis, 17, b ; 209, a
Corbita, 440, a
Corbula, 209, a
Coriarius, 86, b ; 209, a
Corium, 209, a
Cornelia lex de edictis, 379, a
„ ,, de falsis, 721, a
,, „ iudiciaria, 379, a;
728, b
„ „ de lusu, 379, a
„ „ deniaiestate,735,a
„ „ ne quis legibus
solveretur, 379, a
„ „ de proscriptione,
378, b
„ „ de provinciis ordi-
nandis, 517, b
„ ,, de repetundis,
378, b ; 745, a
,, „ de rest ituen do
Cicerone, 379, a
,, „ de sicariiset vene-
licis, 378, b;
665, a ; 704, a ;
724, b ; 733, b
„ „ de sponsoribus,
379, a
„ „ tribunicia, 379, a
„ Baebia lex, 379, a
,, Caecilia lex, 379, a
Corneliae leges, 715, a
„ agrariae leges, 378, b
„ sumptuariae leges,
600, b
Comicines, 210, a ; 289, b
Cornicularius, 209, b ; 295, a
Corniculum, 210, a
Cornu, 210, a ; 385, a
Cornucopia, 211, a
Corolla, CoroUaria, 211, b
Corona, 51, b ; 52, b ; 91, a ;
211, a
„ aurea, 580, b
„ castrensis, 212, b
„ civica, 212, a
„ classica, 212, b
„ convivialis, 213, b
,, Etrusca, 211, b
,, gi-aminea, 212, a
„ hiberna, 211, b
„ longa, 211, b
„ muralis, 212, b
„ natalicia, 214, a
„ navulis, 212, b
„ nexa, 211, a
„ nuptialis, 214, a
„ obsidionalis, 212, a
„ oleagina, 213, a
„ oralis, 213, a ; 458, a
„ i"adiuta, 213, a
„ rostrata, 212, b
„ serta, 211, a
„ spicea, 213, a
„ sutilis, 211, a
„ tonsa, 211, b
„ triuni])lialis, 212, b
„ vallaris, 212, b
Coronamenta, 211, a
Coronarius, 211, a
Coronis, Coroiiix, 214, a
Corpus iuris civilis, 214, a
803
Corpus pistonim, 485, b
Corrector, 584, b
Corrigiae, 129, b ; 130, a
Cortes, 16, b
Cortex, 18, b ; 672, a
„ suberinus, 534, a
Cortina, 214, a
„ Delpliica, 214, b
„ plumbea, 448, b
Corvus, 91, b ; 214, b ; 439, a
Corj'ceum, 110, b
Corycus, 214, b
Corymbia, 19(), a
Coryphaeus, 160, a
Corytus, 67, b
Cos, 215, a
Cosmetae, 215, a
Cothurnus, 129, a; 130, b;
640, a
Coticula, 215, b
Cotoriae, 215, b ; 662, a
Coturnices, 21, b
Cotyla, 215, b ; 508, a
Covinnus, Covinus, 222, b
Crate, necari sub, 215, b
Crater, Cratera, 91, b ; 508, a
Crates, 215, b
„ dentatae, 17, b ; 215, b
„ vimineae, 17, b ; 215, b
Craticula, -um, 215, b
Creditum, 72, a
Crepida, 129, b
Crepidata fabula, 129, b
,, tragoedia, 161, b
Crepido, 215, b; 565, a; 660, b;
669, a
Crepitacillum, 324, a
Crepitaculum, 324, a ; 582, b
Crepundia, 215, b ; 324, a
Creta, 18, b ; 165, a
„ Asiatica, 609, a
,, fullonia, 316, b
Creterra, 508, a
Creticus, 538, b
Cretifodinae, 662, a
Cretio liereditatis, 723, b
Cretula, 609, a
Cribrum, 215, b
Crimen, 715, a
„ maiestatis, 735, a
Crimina capitalia, 715, b
„ publica, 715, a
Crinale, 5, a
Criobolium, 611, b
Crista, 84, a
Crocus, 191, b
Crotalistria, 216, a
Crotalum, 215, b
Cruda, 500, a
Crumena, 216, a
Crupellarius, 21(>, a
Crustae, 56, a ; 62, a ; 123, b ;
467, b
Crustularius, 485, b
Crux, 216. a
„ comiiiissa, 216, b
„ decussata, 216, b
„ immissa, 216, b
Crypta, 216, b
Cryploporticus, 217, a ; 670, b
Ctesibica machina, 38, b
Cul)are, 650, b
Cubiculare, 205, a
Cubicularius, 217, a ; 246, a
Cubiculum, 34, a ; 217, a ; 246, ;
600, b
Cubilia, 21, b
3> 2
804
Cubitus, 217, a ; 413, a
Cuculio, 17, a ; 259, b
Cucullus, 217, a; 259, b
Cudo, Cudon, 217, b
Culcita, 373, a ; 527, a
Culeus, 217, b
Culina, 245, b ; 246, a
Culleus, 217, b ; 741, a
Culmus, 18, b
Culpa, 715, b
„ lata, 717, a
„ levis, 717, a
Cultellus, 217, b
Culter, 49, b ; 217, b ; 549, b
„ crepidarius, 556, b
Cultor hortoruin, 352, b
Cultrarius, 217, b ; 549, a
Cumatiuiii, 226, a
Cumba, 218, a
Cumerus, 408, a
Cunabula, 218, a ; 362, a
„ legiim, 726, b
Cunae, 218, a
Cunaria, 218, a
Cuneus, 34, b; 165, a ; 296, b ;
623, a
Cuniculus, 22, a ; 218, a ; 272, b
Cupa, 218, a; 511, a; 531, b;
643, a
Cuprum, 10, a
Cura, 749, b
„ annonae, 7, a
„ ludorum, 7, a
„ morum, 155, a
„ urbis, 6, b
Curator, 218, b ; 715, b
„ alvei et riparura,218, b
„ annonae, 218, b
„ aquaruni, 46, b ; 47, a
„ centuriarum, 644, b
„ cloacaruin, 175, b ;
218, b
„ coloniae deducendae,
189, b
„ fisci, 295, a
„ gallinarius, 21, b
„ ludorum, 393, b
„ numerum, 393, b
,, operum publlcorum,
156, a
„ regionum, 218, b
„ reipublicae, 191, a
„ tabularum publica-
rum, 218, b; 609, b
„ tribuum, 644, b
„ viarum, 225, a ; 668, a
Curia, 218, b
Curiales, 191, a ; 218, b ; 229, a
Curio, 218, b
Curriculum, 160, a
Currus, 90, b ; 218, b
„ arcuatus, 222, a
Cursores, 1()7, a ; 223, b
Cursus, 224, a
„ clabularis, or tardus,
225, b
„ honorum, 378, a
„ publieus, 224, b
„ velox, or celer, 225, b
Cuspes, 580, b
Custodia, 147, b ; 715, b
„ militaris, 716, a
„ urbis, 513, a
Gustos, 147, b ; 350, b ; 397, a
„ aviarius, 21, b
„ tabolliirum, 238, a
„ urbis, 227, a
LATIN INDEX
Cyathus, 226, a ; 413, b ; 508, b
Cyclas, 259, a
Cvcnus, 91, a
Cylindrus, 18, a ; 226, a
Cyma, 226, a
„ reversa, 53, b
Cymatium, 226, a
Cymbalistria, 226, b
Cymbium, 508, b
CjTiosura, 90, b
D.
Dactyliotheca, 40, a ; 226, b
Dactylus, 19, b ; 538, b
Dalmatica, 259, a
Damnatio memoriae, 735, a
Damnosa hereditas, 723, a
Damnum, 716, a
„ fatale, 745, a
„ infectum, 716, a
„ iniuria datum, 716, a
Dapes, 277, b
Dardanarii, 7, a
Datatim ludere, 830, a
Dea domiduca, 408, b
„ iterduca, 408, b
„ unxia, 408, b
Dealbati, 250, a
Dealbator. 250, a ; 467, b
Decanus, 458, b
Decempoda, 4, b
Decempedator, 22, b
Deeem Primi, 227, a
Decemvirales leges, 379, a
Decemviri, 227, b
„ consulari imperio
legibus scribendis,
227, b
„ litibus or stlitibus
iudicandis, 716, b
„ sacroruni, or sacris
faciundis, 227, b
Decennia, Deceunalia, 227, b
Decerno, 571, a
Decimatio, 227, b
Declamatio, 227, b
„ controversia, 227, b
„ suasoria, 227, b ;
397, b
Declinatio. 174, b
Decocta, 525, a
Decoctor, 227, b
Decreta, 715, a
,, pontificum, 496, a
Decretum, 710, b
Decumae, 228, a ; 525, b
Decumani, 228, b ; 526, a
Decumanus, 23, a ; 617, a ;
674, b
„ maximus, 23, a ;
146, a
Decuncis, 229, a
Decuria, 229, a
Decuriatio, 708, b
Decurio, 191, a ; 229, a
Decursio, 229, b
Decui'soria, 494, a
Decursus, 229, b
Decussare, 529, b ; 614, a
Decussis, 183, a ; 229, b ; 617, a
Dediticii, 229, b
Deditio, 583, b
„ noxae, 738, b
Deductio, 229, b ; 408, a
Deductor, 229, b ; 708, b
„ coloniae, 189, b
DeScere, 228, a
Definitiones, 731, a
Defrutarium, 16, b
Defrutum, 671, b
Deiecti effusive actio, 710, b
Delatio nominis, 716, b
Delator, 716, b
Delectus, 295, a
Delia, 230, a
Delici, 20, b
Delicta privata, 715, a
Delictorum concursus, 714, b
Delictum, 715, a
Delineare, 479, a
Delphicae, 214, b
Delpbinus, 91, a
Delpbis, 230, a
Delta, 327, b
Deltotum, 91, a
Delubrum, 617, b
Demensum, 577, b
Deminutio capitis, 711, b
Dcmocratia. 230, b
Demonstratio, 706, a
Dentale, 48, b ; 49, b
Dentf's, 574, b
Denticuli, 64, a
Dentifricium, 232, a
Dentiscalpium, 2:;2, a
Denuntiatio, 705, a
Deponens, 717, a
Depontani senes, 232, a
Deportatio in insulam, 299, b ;
665, a
„ exercitus, 654, a
Dopositarius, 717, a
Depositi actio, 717, a
Depositor, 717, a
Depositum, 72, a ; 717, a
Dt'pso, 486, a
Deserter, 232, a
Designator, 321, a
Destrictarium, 107, b
Desultor, 232, a
Detestatio sacrorum, 707, b;
717, a
Deucalion, 91, b
Deus, 42, a ; 323, a
„ ex machuia, 641, a
Devergentia, 174, b
Deversorium, 150, a
Dextrale, 75, b
Dextrarum iunctio, 737, b
Dextrocliiriuni, 75, b
Diadema, 196, a ; 232, b
Diaeta, 246, b ; 352, a
Diaetetica, 233, a
Diarium, 577, b
Diatreta (vasa), 233, b
Dicere, 234, a
Dictator, 233, b
Dictatorius, 566, a
Dictatura, 233, b
Didia lex, 600, b
Diem eximere, 568, a
Dies, 234, b
„ agonales, 11, b
„ atri, 235, a
„ caniculares, 91, b
„ civilis, 234, b
„ comitiales, 235, a
„ dominica, 807, a
„ fasti, 235, a
„ feriati, 235, a
„ festi, 235, b
Dies fissi, 285, b
„ imperii, 360, b
,, intercisi, 235, b
„ lustricus, 398, b ; 443, b
„ naturalis, 234, b
„ nefasti, 235, a
„ parentales, 3'22, b
„ postriduani, 235, b
„ profesti, 235, b
„ religiosi, 235, a
„ seiueutiva, 307, b
„ vitiosi, 235, a
DilTarreatio, 717, b
Diffundere, 671, b
Digiimma inversum, 29, a
Digerere, 177, a
Digesta, 740, a
Digitale, 235, b ; 404, a
Digitus, 226, b ; 413, b
Dii manes, 41, b
Dilectator, 295, b
Dilectus, 295, a
Diligentia, 715, b
Diloris, 388, a
Diluculum, 134, b
Dimensmu, 577, b
Dinumeratio, 389, a
Dioecesis, 235, b ; 522, b
Dionysia, 235, b
Dioptra, 339, a
Diota, 507, a ; 510, b
Diploma, 225, a ; 237, a
Diptycha, 238, a ; 609, a
Dii-ibitor, 153, b ; 198, b ; 238, a
Discerniculum, 5, a
Discumbere, 153, a
Discus, 238, a
Dispensator, 238, b ; 577, b
„ summarum, 518, a
Dissignator, 321, a
Diurna, 4, a
Diverbia, 139, a ; 203, a
Divergia aquarum, 24, a
Divimitio, 238, b ; 717, a
Divisio, 315, b
Divisor, 239, a ; 708, b
Divortium, 717, a
Divus, 42, a
Dochmius, 539, b
Dodrans, 463, a
Dogmatici, 410, a
Dolabella, Dolabra, 239, b
Doliarii, 511, a
Dolium, 511, a ; 671, b
„ olearium, 448, b
Dolo, 289, b
Dolus mains, 710, b ; 715, b
Domicilium, 717, b
Dominium, 228, b ; 717, b
Dominus, 16, b ; 835, b ; 718, b
„ argentariarum, 71, b
„ factionis, 167, a
„ proprietatis, 751, b
Domitia lex, 496, a
Domus, 239, b ; 244, a
„ Augusta, 516, a
„ Augustana, 248, a
J, Aui-ea, 248, a
„ Caesaris, 516, a
„ regia, 496, b
„ triumphalis, 655, b
Dona, 251, a
„ militaria, 477, a
Donaria, 250, b
Donatio, 315, b ; 718, b
„ inter virum et uxorem,
718, b
LATIN INDEX
Donatio mortis causa, 718, b
Donativa, 204, b
Dormitoria, 246, a
Dorsuale, 251, b
Dorsualium, 654, b
Dorsuarius, 251, b
Dorsum, 668, b
Dos, 719, a
Dossuarius, 251, b
Dotis retentio, 717, b
Draco, 90, b ; 580, a
Draconarius, 580, a
Dromo, 440, a
Dropax, 27, a ; 634, a
Ducenarii, 263, a ; 644, b ;
728, b
Duceutesiraa, 156, b ; 306, b
„ rerum venalium,
9, b
Duilia Maenia lex, 379, a
Dulciarius, 485, b
Duodecim leges, 879, a
„ scripta, 329, a
„ Tabularum lex, 379, a
Duoviri, 263, a
„ aedi dedicandae, 263, b
„ censoria potestate, 191,
a
„ iure (-i) dicundo, 191, a;
263, b
„ navales, 289, a ; 263, b
„ perduellonis, 536, b ;
734, b ; 743, a
„ quinquennales, 263, b
„ sacris facimidis, o)-
sacrorum, 227, b ;
268, b ; 372, a ; 578, b
„ viarum, 668, a
Duplarii, 263, b ; 296, b
Duplicarii, 263, b
Duplicatio, 706, a
Dupondium, 263, b
Dupondius, 183, a ; 185, b ;
186, b ; 263, b
E.
Ebur, 263, b
Ecdicus, 266, a
Echinus, 51, b ; 53, a ; 266, a
Eclectici, 410, b
Ectypum, 266, a
Eculeus, 266, a
Ecurria, 278, a
Edicendi ius, 719, a
Edicta, 715, a
Edictum, 363, b ; 521, a ; 719, a
„ perpetuum, 719, a
„ provinciale, 719, b
„ repentiuum, 719, a
„ tralaticium, 306, b ;
719, b
„ urbauum, 719, b
Editor, 335, b
„ spectaculorum, 165, a ;
167, a
Editoris tribunal, 34, a
Effigies, 321, b
Effractio, 720, a
Effractor, 687, a; 720, a
Effusis et eiectis, actio de,
716, b ; 752, a
Elaeothesium, 105, b ; 157, a
Electrum, 267, b
Elementa, 338, b ; 731, a
305
Elonchus, 361, b
Elepluintinum, 191, b
Elepliantus, 263, b
Eleusinia, 207, b
Elices, 16, a
Ellychnium, 391, a
Elogium, 358, b
Emancipatio, 488, a ; 720, a
Emansor, 232, a
Emblemata, 123, b
Embolium, 272, a
Embolus, 272, a
,, masculus, 38, b
Eniendare, 358, b
Emetica, 153, b
Emissarium, 272, a
Emphyteusis, Emphyteuta,
720, a
Emj)irici, 410, a
Emporium, 273, a
Emptio bonorum, 96, b ; 711, a
„ venditio, 720, b
Emptor, 709, b
„ bonorum, 711, a
Encarpus, 273, a
Endi'omis, 273, a
Engouasi, Engonasin, 91, a
Eusis, 84, a
Ephebium, 110, a
Ephebus, 273, a
Ej)hesiae littei-ae, 36, a; 273, b
Ephippiimi, 274, a
Ephorus, 274, b
Epibata, 275, b ; 439, b
Ex^idipnis, 154, a
Epiredimii, 228, b
Epistola, Epistula, 277, a
Epistulis, ab, 277, a
Epistylium, 51, b ; 277, a
Epitoxis, 635, b
Epityrium, 448, a
Epulones, 277, b
Epulum lov is, 277, b
Equa, 20, b
Equirria, 278, a
Equitatio, 278, a
Equitatus iustus, 375, b
Equester anulus, 280, a
„ census, 279, b
„ ordo, 279, b
Equites, 25, b ; 278, a ; 289, b
„ alarii, 291, b
,, dignitate senatoria,
280, a
„ equo private, 279, a
„ „ publico, 278, b
„ extraordinarii, 146, b ;
291, b
„ illustres, 280, a
„ Romani, 279, b
„ Singulares Augusti,
293, b
Equitum recognitio, 154, b ;
566, a
„ transvectio, 279, a ;
280, a
Equo concitato velii, 278, a
Equuleus, 20, b ; 266, a
Equus, 91, a
„ cursualis, 225, b
„ funalis, lunarius, 221, a
„ publicus, 225, b
Erechthcum, 280, b
Ergastularius, Ergastulum,
16, b; 281, b
Ergata, 401, b
Eridanus, 91, b
»06
Erigone, 01, a
Erithace, 22, a
Eruditio liberalis, 397, b
Erus, 721, a
Ervilia, Ervuin, 19, a
Eschatocollion, 385, a
Essedarius, 223, a ; 337, a
Essedum, 223, a
Esus, 721, a
Eumolpidae, 282, a
Eupatridae, 65, a
Euripus, 35, a ; 166, a ; 664
Everriatio, 322, a
Everriculura, 534, a
Evictio, Evincere, 720, b
Evocati, 292, b
Evocatio, 292, b ; 295, b
Exactio capitum, 662, b
Examen, 386, b
Exauguratio, 282, b
Excantare, 602, a
Excellentissimi, 358, b
Exceptio, 706, a
Exceptor, 446, a
Excubare, 147, b
Excubiae, 134, b ; 147, b
Excubitorium, 293, b
Excudere, 124, b
Excusatio, 359, b ; 729, a
Execratio, 367, a
Exedra, 246, a ; 282, b
Exemplum, 744, b
Exercitores, 745, a
„ argenteae mensae,
72, a
Exercitus, 289, a
„ deportatio, 654, a
Exhedra, 282, b
Exhibendnm, actio ad, 720, b
Exhibitio aiigariarum, 11, a
Exordiri, 613, b
Expediti, 296, a
Expensilatio, 177, a ; 739, a ;
740, a
Expensum, 177, a ; 739, b
Expositio, 299, b
Expulsim ludere, 330, a
Exta, 549, a
Exterere, 18, a
Extispices, Extispicium, 342, b
Extra ordinem, 45('), a
Extraordinarii, 146, a ; 291, b ;
584, a
Exuviae, 586, b
„ lovis, 653, b
Exverriatio, 322, a
Faba, 18, b
Faber, 289, b ; 300, a
„ argentarius, 72, b
„ ferrarius, 36H, a
Fabia lex de i>lagiariis, 747, b
Fabrica, 300, a
Fabulae Atellanae, 203, a ;
299, b
„ crepidatae, 129, b
„ praetextatae, 641, b
„ salticae, 466, a
„ togatiie, 203, a
Facitergiuni, 600, a
Factiones, 167, a
Factus, 448, b
Faecatuin, 072, b
Faenilia, 16, b
LATIN INDEX
Faenisicia, 19, a
Faenum, 19, a
„ Graecum, 19, a
„ pratense, 20, b
Fala, 300, b
Falarica, 83, b
Falcibus subsecare, 19, a
Falcidia lex, 733, b
Falcula, 300, b
Falsarii, 721, a
Falsum, 720, b
Falx, 18, a ; 300, b ; 439, b
„ vinitoria, 674, b
Familia, 336, a ; 721, a
„ rustica, 577, b
„ urbana, 577, b
Familiae erciscundae actio,
721, a
„ „ iudicium,
721, a
Familiaris, 141, a ; 721, a
Famuli, 721, a
Fanaticus, 301, a
FanJiia lex, 600, b
Fanum, 301, a ; 617, b
Far, 18, a ; 485, b
Farcimen, 633, b
Farina, 18, a
Farrago, 19, a
Fan-eum, 737, b
„ libum, 408, a
Fartor, 301, a
Fartum, 633, b
Fas, 732, a
Fasces, 301, a
„ laui'eati, 653, b
Fascia, 52, a; 258, b ; 801, b;
373, a
„ cretata, 302, a
„ cruralis, 302, a
pectoralis, 157, b ; 258,b
„ tibialis, 302, a
Fasciculus, 18, b ; 358, a
Fasciola, 301, b
Fasciuum, 302, b ; 654, b
Fascis, 385, a
Faselus, 440, a
Fasti, 302, b
„ annates, 303, a
„ Capitolini, 303, a
„ dies, 302, b
„ liistorici, 303, a
„ kalendares, 302, b
„ sacri, 302, b
„ triumphales, 655, b
Fastigium, 46, a ; 55, a ; 803, a
Fatuae, 430, b
Fauces, 245, b
Fautor, 319, a
Favete linguis, 269, a ; 549, a
Fa\ais, 22, a
Fax, 304, a
Februa, 398, a
Femina, 652, a
Feminalia, 83, a ; 259, a ; 304, b
Femora, 52, b
Femoralia, 82, b
Fenestra, 21, b ; 250, b ; 304, b
Fenisex, 300, b
Fenus, 305, b
„ nauticum, 306, b
„ semiunciarium, 306, b
„ uiiciarium, 305, b
Feralia, 322. b
Ferculum, 153, b ; 306, b ; 533, b
Ferentarii, 289, b
Feretrum, 321, b ; 373, b
Feriae, 306, b
„ aestivae, 306, b
,, coneeptae, or concep-
tivae, 87, b ; 307, a
., denicales, 306, b ; 322, a
,, imperativae, 307, a
,, Latinae, 307, a
„ matronales, 408, b
„ Neptuni, 442, b
„ praecidaneae, 307, b
,, privatae, 306, b
„ publicae, 307, a
„ sementivae, 307, b ;
459, a
„ statae or stativae, 307, a
„ stultorum, 314,b; 531,a
„ vindemiales, 306, b
„ Vulcani, 676, a
Fericulum, 306, b
Fermentum, 486, a
Ferramentum, 338, b
Ferrariae, 662, a
Ferrum, 414, b
„ retusum, 557, a
Fertum, 549, a
Ferula, 310, b
Fescennina, 307, b
Festuca, 307, b ; 704, b
Fetiales, 307, b
Fibula, 256, a ; 308, a ; 401, b
Ficedulae, 21, b
Fietio, 721, b
Fictor, 485, b ; 618, a
Ficus, 19, b
Fidt'icoinmissarius, 722, a
Fideicoiinnissum, 721, b
Fides, 91, a ; 399, a
„ bona, 710, b
„ mala, 710, b
Fiducia, Fiduciarius, 722, a
Fiduciae actio, 722, a
Figulus, 499, a
Filia-, or Filius-familias, 721, a
Filices, 16, a
Filura, 124, a ; 323, a
Fimbriae, 308, b
Fimus, 17, a
Finis, 746, b
Finitor, 22, b
Fiscella, -us, 21, a ; 139, b
Fiscus, 9, b ; 309, a ; 522, b
„ castrensis, 518, a
„ provincialis, 518, a
Fistuea, 300, b
Fistula, 300, b ; 606, b ; 633, a
Flabelliferae, 310, a
Flabellulum, Flabt-llum, 310, a
Flagellum, 310, b
Flagrum, 310, b
Flamen, 311, a; 545, a; 665, b
„ Augustalis, 311, b
„ curialis, 218, b
„ Dialis, 311, a
„ Fratrum Ajrvaliuni,
87, b
„ Martialis, 311, a
„ Quiriualis, 311, a
Flaminia, 311, b
lex, 14, b
Flaminica, 311, b
Flammeum, 311, b
Flavia agraria lex, 379, b
Flavianum ius, 303, a ; 733, a
Flavus, 191, b
Flexuniines, 279, u
Floralia, Florales ludi, 312, a
Flos (siliginis), 18, b
Focale, 259, a ; 312, a ]
Focaria, 297, a i
Foculus, 107, a ; 217, a ; 312, a
Focus, 47, a ; 131, a ; 245, b ;
312, a
Fodinae aurariae, CG2, a
Foederatae civitates, 312, b ;
584, b
Foederati, 312, b
Foedus, 312, b ; 367, a ; 583, b
„ hospitii, 353, b
Foenus, 305, b
Folliculus, 18, b ; 313, a
FoUis, 185, b ; 298, a ; 329, b
„ pugilatorius, 313, a
Fomes, 358, a
Fons, 313, a
Forceps, 313, b
Fordae (hordae) boves, 20, b ;
314, a
Fordicalia, Fordicidia, 314, a
Foifex, 111, b ; 296, b ; 314, a ;
401, b; 633, b
Forficula, 314, a
Fori, 163, b ; 435, b
Foris, 356, a
Forma, 15, b ; 24, a ; 128, b
„ urbis Romanae, 314, b
Formacei, 16, a
Fonnella, 314, b
Formido, 533, b
Foi-mula, 11, a; 314, b ; 584, a
„ colonica, 190, b
„ fictitia, 721, b
Formulas, liti^iare per, 705, b
Fornacalia, 314, b
Fornacator, 108, b
Foniacula, 314, b
Fornax, 314, b
„ calcaria, 315, a
Foriiicatio, 315, a
Fornix, 68, a ; 315, a
Foro abire, cedere, uiergi, 72, b
Forpex, 315, a
Foruli, 116, a
Forum, 315, a
„ coquinum, 176, b
„ iudiciale, 315, a
Fossa, 11, b ; 23, b ; 661, a
„ caeca, 16, a
„ fastigata, 148, b
„ patens, 16, a
„ Punica, 148, b
Framea, 83, h
Frangere, 642, b
Fratres Arvales, 87, a
Fraus, 710, b
Frenum, 220, b
Frigida, 525, a
Frigidarium, 105, b ; 108, b
Fritillus, 315, a ; 326, b
Frons, 296, a ; 385, a
„ scaenae, 626, a
Frontalia, 35, b
Fructuaria, 16, b
Fructuarius, 751, b
Fructus, 11, a; 718, a; 751, b
Fruges minutae, 228, b
Fruraenta, 18, a
Frumentariae leges, 315, a
Frumeiitarius, 412, a
Frumentatio, 315, b ; 649, b
Fruteta, 16, a
Fucus, 316, a
Fuga lata, 299, b
Fugitivarius, 747, b
Fugitivus, 578, a ; 747, b
LATIN INDEX
Fulcrum, 49, a ; 373, a
Fulgur condere, 116, b
Fulgurales libri, 342, b
FuUo, 86, b ; 316, b
FuUonica, 157, b ; 317, a
Fumarium, 16, b ; 673, a
Fumum biberc, 673, a
Funale, 157, a ; 317, a
Fuualis, 317, a
Funambulus, 317, a
Funda, 39, b ; 317, b ; 534, a
Fundi cognitio, 15, b
Funditor, 291, b ; 317, b
Fundus, 14, a; 318, a
„ latus, 14, b
Funes, 373, a
„ antarii, 401, b
„ ductarii, 401, b
Funiculus, 317, a ; 674, b
Funus, 320, a
, „ acerbum, 321, a
„ censorium,154,b; 321,a
„ indictivum, 321, a
„ privatum, 321, a
„ publicum, 321, b
„ translaticium, 321, a
Fur, 722, b
Fui-ca, 219, b ; 322, b ; 420, b
Furcifer, 322, b
Furcilla, 322, b
Furcillis versare, 19, a
Furcula, 322, b
Fures, 578, a
Furfures, 18, a
Furiosi, 715, b
Furnum, 16, b
Funius, 314, b ; 486, a
Furti actio, 722, b
Furtum, 715, a; 722, a
Fuscina, Fuscinula, 322, b
Fusorium culinae, 246, a
Fusti percutere, 323, a
Fustuarium, 323, a
Fusus, 323, a
Futile, 323, b
G.
Gabinia lex, 379, b ; 608, a
Gabinus cinctus, 262, a
Gaesum, 83, b
Galatarches, 323, b
Galbeus, 75, b
Galea, 81, a ; 82, a
Galericulum, 94, b ; 323, b
Galericulus, 195, b
Galerum, 323, b
Galerus, 195, b ; 196, a ; 323, b
GaUi, 323, b ; 394, b
Gallicae, 129, b
Gallinae, Gallinarium, 21, a
Ganeae, 150, b
Gausapa, -e, -uni, 332, a
Geleontcs, 332, a
Gelida, 525, a
Cremini, 91, a
(iemma ectypa, 266, a
trener, 70H, a
(lenesis, 90, a
Genetliliaci, 89, b
Genieula, 18, b
Geiiiculatus, 91, a
Cienitura, 90, a
Gens, 333, b
Gentes maiores, 334, a ; 647, a
„ minores, 334, a ; 647, a
807
Gentilicium ius, 334, b
Gentilis, 333, b ; 725, b
Gentilitas, 333, b
Gentium ius, 732, b
Genucia lex, 379, b
Genus cornutum et sctosum,
20, a
„ mutilum et raripilum,
20, a
Geometrae, 22, b
Geoponica, 15, a
Germani, 293, b ; 713, a
Gestatio, 352, a
Gillo, 525, a
Girgillus, 38, a ; 335, b
Gladiatores, 335, b
Gladiatoriae leges, 336, a
Gladius, 84, a
Glaeba, 322, a
Glandes, 317, b
Glandulae, 152, b
Glarea nuda, 16, a
Glirarium, 22, a
Glircs, 22, a
Globus, 296, b
Glomus, 323, a
Glos, 708, a
Gluma, 18, b
Gluten, 338, a
Glutinatores, 338, a ; 384, b
Glutinum, 338, a
Gnomon, 24, b
Gomphus, 338, a ; 669, a
Gossipion, Gossypium, 121, b
141, a
Grabatus, 338, a
Gradus, 34, a ; 164, a ; 278, a ;
338, a; 413, a
„ deiectio, 232, a
„ sacerdotii, 667, a
Graecostasis, 338, a
Grallae, 338, a
Grallatores, 317, b
Grammatica, -us, 338, b ; 397, a
Grammatista, 397, a
Granaria, 16, b ; 18, a
Granea, Granuni, 18, b
Grapbiarium, 597, a
Graph ica, 479, a
Graphium, 597, a
Grassatores, 733, b
Greges villatici, 20, a
Griphus, 338, b
Groma, 24, b ; 147, b ; 338, b
Gromatici, 22, b
Gruma, 338, b
Grumus, 24, b
Gubernaculuni, 486, a
Gustatio, 153, b ; 673, a
Gustus, 153, b
Guttae, 52, a
Gultus, 511, a; 549, b ; 599, b
Gymnasiarehus, 339, a
Gymnasium, 339, a
Gyrus, 278, a
H.
Habena, -ae, 310, b ; 341, h
Habitatio, 746, b
Haedi, 20, a ; 91, a
Halec, 17, a
Hamus, 643, b ; 600, b
Hara, 20, b ; 21, b
Harenaria, 329, b 330, b
Har|)ago, 342, a
808
Haipastum, 329, b ; 330, a
Hurpe, 342, a
Harundo, 126, b; 551, b; 607, a;
613, b
„ crescens, 127, a
„ texta, 127, a
Haruspices, 342, a
Haruspicina, 342, b
Haruspicium, 239, a
Hasta, 83, a
„ caelibaris, 195, b ; 408, a
„ pura, 84, b ; 342, a
„ vendere sub, 13, b ; 96, b
„ velitaris, 83, b ; 290, b
Hastati, 146, a ; 290, a ; 375, b
Haustrum, 342, b
Helepolis, 343, a
Helice, 90, b
Helix, 343, a
Helotes, 343, a
Hemerodromus, 344, a
Hemina, 215, b; 344, a
Hemicycliuni, 344, a; 490, a
Hemistrigium, 148, b
Henioclius, 91, a
Hercules, 91, a
Hercditas, 722, b
Hereditatis cretio, 723, b
Hereditatum vicesinia, 669, b
Herediuin, 13, b ; 16, a ; 23, a
Heies, 722, b
Hermae, 344, b
Hermanubis, 345, a
Hennathena, 345, a
Hermeracles, 345, a
Hermuli, 344, b
Heros, 345, a
Hexaphori, 476, b
Hexaphoron, 372, a
Hexastichum, 18, b
Hiemis iuitium, 93, a
Hieronica lex, 521, a
Hierodulus, 346, a
Hieratica, 384, b
Hilla, 633, b
Hinni, 21, a
Hippocoinus. 225, a
Hippocratic-us, 410, a
Hippodromus, 346, b ; 352, a
Hircus, 20, a
Hirj)ex, 364, b
Hirpini, 665, b
Histrio, 348, b ; 466, b
„ aulieus, 349, a
Holoserica, 574, b
Honorarium ius, 719, a
Honores, 170, b; 349, b
Hoplomaclii, 337, a
Hora, 349, b
„ genitalis, 90, a
„ legitima, 351, b
Horatia lex, 379, b
Hordae (fordae) boves, 20, b;
314, a
Hordeum, 18, b
Hordicalia, Hordicidia, 314, a
Horologiuiu, 350, b
Horoscopus, 90, a
Horrearii, 351, b
Horreum, 298, a ; 351, b ; 672, a
Hortensia lex, 379, b; 488, a;
645 b
Horti Adonidis, 5, b
Hortus, 852, a
„ irriguus, 16, a
„ pensilis, 352, b
Hospes, 353, b
LATIN INDEX
Hospes publicus, 353, b
Hospitalia. 353, a
Hospitium, 174, a ; 352, b
Hostia, 549, a
„ praecidanea, 547, b
Hostilis, 141, a
Hostus, 448, b
Hyades, 91, a
Hydra, Hydros, 91, b
Hydraules, 334, b
Hydraulus, 354, a
Hydria, 509, a ; 572, a
Hydromelum, 673, a
Hj-paetlirum, 61, b
HyperthjTum. 356, a
H>-pocausis, 108, b
Hypocaustum, 108, a
Hypotheca, 712, a; 743, b
Hypotrachelium, 51, b
lactus Venereus, 328, a
laculatio testarum, 326, a
Irtculator, 355, a
laculuni, 83, b ; 534, a
Iambus, 538, a
lanitor, 356, b
lanua, 355, a
latralipta, 577, b
Icilia lex, 379, b
Ictus, 537, b
Idus, 133, b
leiunium, (>02, b
Cereris, 630, a
lentaculum, 152, b
Igniaria, 358, a
Ignobiles, 442, b
Ignominia, 155, b ; 725, b
lUex, 96, a ; 358, b
Illustres, 358, b ; 570, b
Ilotae, 343, a
Imagines, 321, b ; 858, b ; 580, b
„ clipeatae, 175, a ;
;;59, a
Imaginiferi, 294, b ; 580, b
Imaginura ius, 442, b
Imbratteare, 120, a
Imbrex, 60, b ; 612, b
Immolatio, 549, a
Immunes, 295, a ; 359, a
Iirununitas, 359, a
Impedimenta, 6()2, a
Impendium, 305, b
Imperator, 859, b
Imperfecta lex, 377, b
Imjierio priiu-ipis, lex de, 382, a
Imperium, 359, b ; 535, a
„ coiisulare, 514, b
„ doini et militiae,
859, b
„ infinitum, 360, a ;
375, a
„ mains, 515, a
,, merum, 732, a
„ mixtum, 732, a
„ proconsulare, 374, b
Impetrativa, Imjwtrita, 97, b
Impilia, 129, a ; 861, a
Impluvium, 245, b
Impomenta, 154, a
Impubes, Lmpuberes, 724, a
Inauguratio, 361, u
Inaurator, 120, a
Inauris, 361, a
Inauspicata lex, 645, a
Incendium, 724, b
Incensus, 155, a
Incestum, 724, b
Incilia, 16, a
Inciti, 328, b
Inclinatio, 174, b
Incola, 717. b
Incomma, 295, b
Incubatio, 251, a ; 452, a
Incunabula, 302, a ; 362, a
Incus, 362, a
Indago, 533, b
Index, 362, a ; 385, a ; 745, a
Indictio, 602, b
,, munerum, 297, b
Indicum, 191, b
Indigitamenta, 496, b
Infames, 9, a ; 26, b
Infamia, 725, a
Infans, 724, a
Infantia, 724, a
„ maiores, 724, a
Inferae, 98, a
Inferiae, 322, b
Infula, 362, a; 610, a; 654, a;
663, b .
Infundibulum, 418, b
Ingeniculus, 91, a
Ingenuitas, 565, b ; 726, a
Ingenuus, 471, a ; 725, b
Iniectio manus, 705, a ; 738, b
Iniuria, 726, a
Iniuriarum actio, 726, b ; 751, b
Iniurius, 726, a
Iniustus, 726, a
Inlicium, 198, a
Inlustres, 358, b
Inoculare, 19, b
Inquilinus, 734, b
Inscripta, 499, a
Inscripti, 578, a
Inserere, 19, b
Insignia triumphi, 655, b
Insilia, 614, b
Insitio, 448, a
Instauratio, 393, a
Institiv, 261, a; 863, a ; 373, a
Institor, 72, b ; 363, a
lustitutiones, 726, b
Instrunienta, 16, b
Insula, 105, b ; 244, a ; 606, b
Insularius, 244, a
Intentio, 705, b
Intercalare, 133, b
Intercessio, 863, b ; 727, a
Intercessionis ius. 644, a ; 645, b
Interdictio aquae e t ignis, 299, a ;
665, a
Interdictum, 727, a
„ adipiscendae pos-
sessionis, 727. b
„ exh i bi t ori u II),
727, a
prohibitoriuiii,
727, a
., quorum bonoruni,
745, a
„ recuperandae pos-
sessionis, 727, b
„ restitutorium,
727, a
retinendae {losses-
sionis, 727, b
„ Salviivnum, 727, b
„ uti possidetis,
727, b
„ uti-ubi, 727, b
Internundinum, 446, b
Interpres, 7'2, a ; 3(54, a ; 708, b
Interregnum, 304, a; 535, b
Interrex, 304, a
Interscalmium, 433, b
lutervallum, 146, b ; 296, a
Intestabilis, 7'27, b
Intestatus, 723, a
Introitus sacerdotii, C03, a
Inurere, 479, b
Inveutariuni, 724, a
Invidia, 054, b
loculus, 324, a
lonicus, 538, b
Iota adfectum, 29, a
lovis exuviae, 653, b
Irpex, 17, b ; 364, b
Isthinia, 364, b
Italia tributim descripta, 648, a
Italici, 583, b
Italicum ius, 190, a
Iter, 494, a ; 667, a
Iterare, 17, a
Itinerariuni, 865, a
lubilator, 167, a
ludex, 727, b
„ editicius, 728, b
„ pedaneus, 729, a
„ quaestorius,728,a;730,a
ludicatus, 738, b
ludicia capitalia, 730, b
,, lion capitalia, 730, b
ludiciariae leges, 728, a
ludicis postulatio, 705, a
Indicium, 727, b
„ bonae fidei, 710, b
„ calumniae, 711, b
„ contrarium, 706j b
„ dare, 731, b
„ familiae erciscuudae,
721 a
„ liberale, 707, b
„ ordinarium, 456, a
„ populi, 729, a
„ i^ublicum, 715, b ;
729, b
lugales, 220, b
lugarius, lugatio, 365, b
lugerum, 4, b; 16, a; 23, a;
365, b
lugula, 91, b
lugum, 365, b ; 613, b
„ quadruplex, 674, b
lugumeutum, 355, a
lugus, 365, b
lulia lex de adulteriis, 380, a ;
707, b; 717, b;
719, a
„ „ agraria, 15, a; 379, b
„ „ de amlaitu, 380, a ;
708, b
„ „ de annona, 880, a
„ „ de bonis cedendis,
380, a
J, „ de civitate, 170, b ;
312, b ; 380, a
„ „ de fenore (or de
pecuniis mutuis
or creditis), 380, a
„ „ maiestatis, 717, a;
735, a
„ „ de maritandis ordini-
bus, 380, a
„ „ pecnlatus, 742, b
„ „ de provinciis, 380, a ;
522, a
„ „ de repetundis, 468, b
LATIN INDEX
lulia lex de residuis, 742, b
„ de sacrilt^io, 746, a
„ theatralis, 380, b
„ de vi, 708, b
Miscella lex, 380, a
et Papia Poppaea lex,
380, a; 707, b ; 710, b;
714, a; 737, b; 742, a
„ Papiria lex de multaruni
aestimatione, 381, a
luliae leges, 379, b
„ iudiciariae leges, 880, a
lunci, 16, a
lunctio dextrarum, 736, b
lunia Norbana lex, 371, a;
733, b; 734, a
luniores, 197, b
lura praediorum, 746, b
lurare in acta, 3, b
„ ,, „ Caesaris, 866, b
,, „ leges, 366, b
„ „ litem, 706, a
„ „ verba consulis or
princiiiis, 366, b
lurator, 155, a
lure, cessio in, 712, b
lureeonsulti, 730, b
luridicus, 522, b
luris auctores, 730, b
„ vinculum, 739, b
lurisconsulti, 730, b
lurisdictio, 403, a ; 731, b
lurisperiti, 730, b
lurisprudentes, 730, b
lus, 727, b ; 732, a
Aelianum, 733, a
agendi cum populo, 402, b
anuli aurei, 40, b
asyli, 93, a
censurae, 154, b
civile, 732, b
„ Flavianum, 303, a ;
733, a
„ Papirianmn, 733, a
coercitionis, 645, b
commercii, 170, b ; 714, a
conubii, 170, b ; 737, a
dicere, 731, b
diviiuuu, 544, b
fetiale, 308, a
gentilicium, 334, b
gentium, 732, b
honorarium, 719, a
lionorum, 170, b ; 349, b
iniaginum, 359, a ; 442, b
in re aliena, 746, a
intercessionis, 644, a ;
645, b
Italicum, 190, a
Latii, 170, b ; 370, b
legitimum, 732, a
liberorum, 380, a ; 666, b
naturale, 732, b
non scri]itum, 732, b
nudum Quiritium, 710, a
pontificium, 49(i, b
praetorium, 719, a
prensionis, 715, b
privatum, 732, b
proferendi pomerii, 490, a
publicum, 732, b
Quiritium, 170, b ; 531, a ;
732, a
relationis, 507, b
respondendi, 731, a
scriptum, 732, b
suSragii, 170, b
809
lus trium liberorum, 666, b
„ virgarum in histriones,
349, a
„ vitae necisque, 741, a ;
747, a
„ vocare in, 704, b
lusiurandum, 366, b; 711, b;
733, a
lustinianeus codex, 712, b
lustitium, 367, b
luvenalia, luvenales ludi, 367, b
luvenca, -us, 20, b
luventus, 724, b
K.
Kalendae, 133, b
„ celeres, 305, b
„ tristes, 305, b
Kalendarium, 131, a
Kardo, 23, a
„ maximus, 146, a
Labarum, 581, b
Labrum, 107, b ; 109, a ; 642, b
„ fictile, 448, b
Labyrintlius, 367, b
Lacerna, 259, b
Lacinia, 24, a ; 262, b
Lacouicum, 104, a; 107, b; 110, a
Lacteutes (sues), 20, b
Lacunaria, 60, b ; 248, b ; 250, b
Lacus, 313, b ; 368, a ; 553, a
„ et salieutes, 46, b
Laena, 258, a
Laesa maiestas, 725, a
Laesio, 715, b
Lagena, Lagoena, Lagona,
Laguna, 511, a ; 672, a
Lamina, 120, a ; 574, b
Laua sucida, 20, a
Lanarius, 484. a
Lauificium, 616, a
Lancea, 83, a
Lancula, 588, b
Lanista, 336, a
Lanterna, 369, a
Lanternarius, 369, a
Lanx, 369, a ; 386, a ; 549, b
Lapicida, 405, a
Lapicidinae, 662, a
Lapis, 358, a; 414, a
„ Albauus, 250, a; 423, a
„ Atracius, 405, a
„ Gabinus, 250, a ; 423, a
„ Lacedaemonius, 405, a
„ miliarius, 414, a
„ pyrrhopoecilus, 405, a
„ specularis, 250, b ; 585, b
„ Tiburtiiius, 423, b
Laquearii, 250, b ; 337, a
Laqueus. 96, a ; 369, b
Lar familiaris, 369, b
liararium, 246, b ; 369, b
Ijarentalia, Larentinalia, 870, a
Lares, 869, b
Largitio, 815, b ; 204, b
Larva, 475, a
Lata fuga, 299, b
Tjater, 370, a
Laterculus, 13, 1 ; 370, a
Lateres cocti, or coctiles, 370, b;
423, a ; 612, a
Lateres crudi, 670, h ; ■123, a
Laterna, 30!), a
LathjTTUs siitivus, 18, b
Laticlavii, '294, a ; 560, b
Latii ius, 370, b
Latifundia, 14, b ; 15, a ; 554, a
Latinae, 307, a
Latini, 170, b
„ luniani, 371, a: 733, b
Latinitas, 170, b ; 370, b
Latiura, 370, b
Latrina, 104, b ; 24G, a
Latroneri, 32H, b ; 733, b
Latrocinium, 733, b
Latrunculi, 1, a ; 32'S, a
Latus cliivu;s, 173, a ; 280, a
Laudatio funebris, 321, b
Lautia, 371, a
Lautumiae, 141, b
Lavatriiia, 104, b
Laxitas (togae), 263, a
Lebes, 371, b
Lectica, 371, b
„ aperta, 371, b
Lecticarius, 372, a
Lectio siMiatus, 154, b ; 565, a
Lectisteniium, 372, a; 603, a;
028, b
Ijector, 3t>, b
Lectulus, 373, b
Lectus, 872, b
„ adversus, 245, b ; 373, b
„ cubicularis, 373, a
„ fuuebris, 373, b
genialis, 245, b ; 373, b
„ lucubratorius, 373, b
„ trii-liiiiaris, 373, b
Legatarius, 723, a ; 733, b
Legati, 374. a
Legatio, 374, a
„ libera, 374, b
Legatus, 374. a
„ Caesaris pro pra«Jtore,
519, b
„ legioiiis, 294, a ; 375, a
„ pro pruL'tore, 156, a ;
530, a
., pro tjuaestore, 875, a ;
517, b
Leges Agrariae, 13, b
„ Annales, 37H, a
„ Anton iae, 37H, a
„ Censoriae, 156, a ; 525, a
„ Comeliae, 878, b ; GOO, b ;
715, a
„ „ A g r a r i a e ,
378, b
„ „ Suniptnariae,
600, b
„ Decemvirales. 379, a
„ Duodecim, 379, a
„ Fruinentariae, 315, a
„ gladiatoriat", 336, a
„ iudiiiarirtf, 728, a
„ luliac, 379, b
„ „ iudiciariac, 380, a
„ Liciniiw, 380. b
„ Liviae, 15, a ; 381, a
„ novfllae, 713. a
„ Pnbliliae, 381, b
„ Regiae, 536. a
„ Rupiliae. 382, a
„ Sacr.vtae, 382, a; 488, a
„ Sulpii'iae, 383, a
., Tabillariae,199,a; 608, a
Testamcntariae. 383, a
„ Suinptuariae, 600, b
LATIN INDEX
Leges Valeriae 383, a
„ Valeriae Horatiae, 383, b ;
525, b
Legio, 289, a ; 292, a ; 375, a
„ vemacula, 295, b
Legis actio, 704, b
Leguli, 448, a
Legum cunabulii, 726, b
Legumina, 18, b
Lembus, 440, a
Lemniscus, 211, b; 214, a;
376, b
Lemuria, 376, b
Lena, 734, a
Leno, 345, b ; 734, a
Lenociiiiuni, 734, a
Lens, Lenticula, 18, b
Leo, 91, a
Leporaria, Lepores, 22, a
Lepus, 91, b
Lessus, 321, a
Levir, 708, a
Lex, 377, a
,, Acilia de coloniis dedu-
cendis, 377, b
„ „ repetundaruin,
377, b ; 522, a
„ Aelia, 377, b
,, „ de coloniis deJucen-
di.s 377, b
„ „ Sentia, 378, a
„ Aemilia de censoribus,
378, a
„ Antonia, 359, b
,, Apuleia, 15, a
„ A(|uilia, 716, a
,, Atiiiia, 378, a
„ Aurelia, 644, b; 728, b
„ Caecilia censoria, or de j
censoribus,
378, a
Didia, 378, a
„ Cat'lia, 608. a
„ Calpurnia, 522, a ; 708, b ;
715, a; 745, b
„ Caiiiileia, 878, a; 442, b;
737, b
„ Cas8il^ 878, a ; 608, a
„ Cincil^ 378, b
„ Clodia de civibus Roma-
nis intercmptis.
878, b
„ „ frunientoria, 878, b
., colonica, 190, b
„ comraissoria, 714, a; 748, a
„ consularis de provocati-
one. 709, a
„ Cornelia de edictis, 379, a
„ „ de falsis, 721, a
„ „ iudiciaria, 379, a;
728, b
„ „ de lusu, 379, a
,, de maiestate,
735, a
„ lie quis legibus
solveretur,
379, a
„ ., de proscriptione,
378, b
„ ,, de provinciis or-
dinandis, 517, b
„ „ de ropotundis,
878, b ; 745, b
„ „ de restituendo
Cicerone. 379, a
„ „ de sicariis et
veneScis, 378,b;
66,3, H ; 704, a ;
724, b ; 733, b ;
741, a
Lex Cornelia de sponsoribus,
379. a
„ „ tribiinicia, 379, a
„ „ Baobia de am-
bitn, 379, a
,, „ Caecilia de Cn.
Porapeio, 379, a
„ dicta, 525, b ; 526, a
„ dedictatorecreando, 233, b
„ Didia, 600. b
„ Domilia, 496, a
„ Duilia Maenia de unciario
lenoi'e, 379, a
„ Duodecim Tabularuni,
379, a
„ Fabia de plagiariis, 747, b
„ Falcidia, 733, b
„ Faunia, 600, b
„ Flaminia. 14, b
„ Flaviaagraria, 15,a; 379, b
„ Gabinia de uno impera-
tore, 379, b
„ „ de magistral u,
608, a
„ Genucia de fenore, 379, b
„ Hieronica, 521, a
„ Horatia, 379, b
„ Hortensia de plebisciti^,
379, b ; 488, a ; 645, b
„ Icilia de Aventino publi-
cando, 379, b
„ „ de secesfiione. 879, b
., „ tribunicia, 379, b
imperfecta, 377, b
„ de imperio principis, 882, a
„ inauspicata. 645, a
„ lulia de adulti-riis, 380. a ;
707, b; 717, b;
719, a
„ agraria, 15, a ; 379, b
„ „ de ambitu, 880, a ;
708, b
., „ de annona, 380, a
„ de bonis cedendis,
380. a
de civitate. 170. b ;
312. b; 380. a
lie fenore ((»r de
I>ecuniismutuis or
creditis. 880. u
niaiestatis, 717. a;
735. a
de niaritandis ordi-
nibus. 380. a
„ peculatus, 742. 1)
,, „ de provinciis, 380, a ;
522, a
„ „ de rei>etnndis. 4(>8. b
„ „ de residuis. 742. b
„ „ de sju.Tilej;<>. 746, a
I „ „ theatralis. 708. b
„ Miscella, 38(1. ,i
et Papia Poppaea,
.180, a ; 707. b ;
710. b; 714, a;
737, b ; 742. a
„ „ Papiria de multa-
nini aestimatione,
381. a
„ Ionia Norbana, 371, a ;
7S;l. b ; 734. a
„ Liciuia de njmlo aproruni,
14. b: .S80. b
^ ,, de sodaliciis,708,b
Lex Licinia sumptuaria, 600, b
>i „ Mucia de civibus
regundis, 381, a
,, locationis, 52(5, a
„ Manilla, 381, a
„ „ fiiiium regundorum,
24, b ; 381, a
,, Manila devicesima maiiu-
missorum, 381, a ;
737, a
„ Maria, 381, a
„ Mensia, 381, a
„ Minicia, 381, a
„ Muneralis, 378, b
„ Ogiilnirt, 99, b ; 381, a
„ Oppia, GOO, b
„ Orchia, 600, b
„ Ovinia tribunicia, 565, a
„ Papiria de consecrations
aedium, 381, a
ji „ de multarum aes-
tiniatione,381,a
» „ de Sacramento,
381, a
>. „ tie suffragio, 608, a
„ „ Plautia, 170, b ;
312, b ; 381, a
„ Pedia, 381, a
„ perfecta, 377, b
„ Petronia, 381, b
„ Pinaria tribunicia, 708, b
„ Plaetoria, 715, b
„ Plautia iudiciaria, 881, b ;
728, a ; 752, a
„ Plotia iudiciaria, 381, b ;
752, a
„ Poetelia, 381, b ; 708, b ;
738, b
„ „ Papiria, 738, b
„ Pompeia, 371, a ; 881, b
,, » de anibitu, 708, b ;
730, a
» J, deimperioCaesari
prorogando,
381, b
)) ), de iure magistra-
tuum, 881, b
)) ;, de parricidiis,
741, a
„ ,, tribunicia, 381, b
„ „ devi,381,b;730,a
„ Publilia, 881, b; 488, a;
565, a; 649, a
„ Eegia, or de imperio prin-
cipis, 200, a ; 382, a
„ Eoscia tlieatralis, 382, a ;
626, b
,y satura, 377, b ; 378, a
„ Sempronia agraria, 14, b;
382, b
), „ de capita civi-
um, 382, b
» ), iudiciaria, 883, a;
728, a
,) „ de pro vine iis
consularibus,
382, b ; 521, a
„ „ de suffragiis,
382, b
„ Servilia agraria, 15, a;
383, a
), „ iudiciaria, 383, a
)) ,) Glauciaderepe-
tundis, 383, a ;
522, a ; 745, b
„ Terentilia, 383, a
„ Thoria, 15, a ; 383, a
LATIN INDEX
I Lex Tribunicia, 383, a
„ Tullia de anibitu, 383, a ;
I 708, b
j 7j „ de liberis legationi-
bus,374,a; 883,b
„ Valeria de aere alieno,
383, a
" ), de provocatione,
234, a
I) J, de Sulla dicta-
tore, 234, a
„ Vallia, 738, b
„ Vatinia de imperio C.
Caesaris, 388, b
,, Voconia, 383, b
Libarii, 485, b
Libella, 183, b ; 186, b ; 388, b
Libellus, 167, a ; 383, b
„ accusatorum, 383, b
„ appellatorius, 709, b
„ famosus, 384, a
„ gladiatorius, 884, a
,, muneratorius, 336, a
Liber, 384, a
„ beneficiorura, 710, a
Liberalia, 385, b
Liberalitas, 204, b
Liberorum ius, 880, b ; 666, b
Liberta, 714, a; 741, b
Libertas, 583, b
„ gratuita, 669, b
Libertatis vicesima, 669, b
Libertina, 346, a
Libertini, 648, b; 726, a ; 734, a;
741, b
Libertinitas, 726, a
Libertus, 885, b ; 784, a
„ orcinus, 736, b
Libitinae lucar, 390, b
Libitinarius, 320, b
Libra, 91, b ; 886, a ; 494, a
„ aquaria, 386, b
„ bilanx, 369, b
Libramentum, 46, a ; 386, b
Librarius, 295, a ; 886, b
„ a bibliotheca, 116, a
„ depositorum, 298, a
„ legionis, 4, b
Libratio aquarum, 386, b
Librator, 294, b : 886, b
Libri elephantini, 263, b
„ fatales, 579, b
„ fulgurales, 342, b
„ haruspicini, 342, b
„ lintei, 384, a
,, pontificales, pontificii,
496, a
„ rationum, 177, a
„ reconditi, 97, b
„ Sibyllini, 578, b
„ tonitruales, 342, b
Libripens, 735, b
Libritor, 886, b
Liburna, 386, b ; 439, b
Liburnica, 386, b
Liceri, 96, b
Liciatorium, 613, b ; 614, a
Licinia lex, 14, b ; 880, b ; 600, b ;
70«, b
„ Mucia lex, 381, a
„ rogatio, 380, b
Licitari, 96, b
Licium, 138, b ; 600, a ; 613, b ;
615, b
Lictor, 386, b
Ligatura, 85, b
Ligo, 387, b
811
Ligula, 130, a ; 886, b ; 387, b
Lima, 887, b
Limbolarius, 388, a
Limbus, 387, b
Limen, 355, a
Limites, 13, b ; 23, a ; 297, a
Limus, 388, a
Linea, 388, a; 479, a; 533, a
„ alba, 165, a
Lineamenta, 479, a
Lingula, 128, b; 130, a
Linteones, 616, a
Linter, 388, a
Linteum, 121, b ; 479, b
Linum, 121, b; 388, a ; 74'.), a
Lirae, 17, b
Lirare, 17, a
Litare, 549, a
Litem, jurare in, 706, a
Liticines, 210, a ; 289, b
Litigare per fonnulas, 705, b
Litis aestimatio, 729, a
„ contestatio, 784, b
Litra, 183, a ; 388, a
Litterae laureatae, 653, b
Litterati (servi), 577, b
Litterator, Litteratus, 338, b :
897, a
Litteratura, 338, b
Lituus, 210, b ; 338, b
Liviae leges, 15, a ; 381, a
Lixae, 298, a ; 888, b
Lixivium, 316, b
Locare, 17, a
Locarius, 393, b
Locatio, 96, b ; 156, a
„ censoria, 228, b
„ conductio, 717, a;
784, b
Locationis lex, 526, a
Locator, 784, b
Loculamenta, 116, a
Locupletes, 388, b
Loculus, 888, b
Locus effatus, 822, a ; 617, a
„ inferior, 542, a
„ privatus, 318, a
„ rebgiosus, 822, a
„ sacer, (il7, b
Lodicula, Lodix, 389, a
Logista, 282, b
Logistica, 889, a
Longuria, 16, a
Lorarii, 310, b
Lorica, 82, b
Loruni, 129, b ; 310, b ; 372, a ;
888, a ; 672, a
Lucanica, 633, b
Lucar, 890, b
Luceres, 278, b ; 647, a
Lucerna, 304, a ; 390, b
Lucro apponere, 177, a
Lucta, 391, a
„ volutatoria, 391, b
Luctatio, 391, a
Ludere datatim, 830, a
„ expulsim, 330, a
„ raptim, 330, a
Ludi, 892, b
„ Actiaci, 4, b
„ Apollinares, 894, a
„ Capitolini, 894, a
,, Ceriales, 157, a
„ Circenses, 166, b ; 393, a
„ Compitalicii, 208, b
„ Plorales, 312, a
„ f unebres, 392, b
Ludi instaurativi, 393, a
„ iuvenales, 307, b
„ magni, 392, b ; 395, a
„ Martiales, 394, a
,. matutini, 115, b
„ maximi, 392, b
„ Megalenses, 394, a
„ natalicii, 392, b
„ Neptuni, 442, b
„ novendiales, 392, b
„ Palatini, 394, b
„ piscatorii, 394,b
„ plebeii, 394, b
„ privati, 392, b
„ quinquennales, 4, b
„ Romani, 395, a
„ Raeculares, 395, a
„ scenici, 393, a
„ stati, 395, a
„ Terentini, 395, a
„ Veneris Genetricis, 396, a
„ Victoriae Caesaris, 39(>, a
„ votivi, 392, b; 393, a;
395, a
Ludicra, 324, a
Ludiones, 654, b
Ludorum cura, 7, a
Ludus litterarius, 397, a
„ matutinus, 604, a
„ quintanus, 297, a
„ Troiae, 650, a
Lumen, 479, a
Luna, Lunula, 130, a
Lupanaria, 340, a; 734, a
Lupatum, 220, b
Lupercalia, 397, b
Luperci, 898, a
Lupinus, IH, b
Lupus, 73, a
„ ferrous, 398, a
Lustratio, 398, a ; 459, a
Lustrum, 156, a ; 899, a
Lycaea, 399, a
Lycaon, 91, a
Lyceiun, 839, b
Lycbnites, 589, a
Lyclmucluis, 137, b ; 399, a
LjTa, 91, a ; 399, a
M.
Macellarii, 401, a
Macellum, 400, b
Maceria, 16, a ; 401, a
Machina, 401, a ; 479, a
„ Ctesibica, 38, b
„ deus ex, 641, a
„ tractoria, 401, b
Macliinarii, 405, a
MacrocoUa, 384, b
Maculae, 533, b
Maeander, 402, a
Maeniana, 34, a ; 136, b ; 164, b ;
244, b ; 402, a
Magalia, 402, a ; 657, a
Magister, 402, a ; 606, a
„ admissionum, 5, b
„ auctionis, 96, b
„ cliori, 161, b
„ equitum, 234, b
,, fani, 402, a
„ Fratrum Arvolium,
87, b
„ libellorum, or a
libellis, 384, a
LATIN INDEX
Magister litterarius, 397, a
„ operum, 16, b
„ pa-gi, 459, a ; 669, b
„ pecoris, 21, a
„ populi, 233, b
„ Saliorum, 552, a
„ Societatis, 402, a ;
526, a
„ vicorum, 402, a ;
670, a
Magistra pagi, 459, a
Magistratus, 402, b
„ abrogatio, 2, a
„ cxun imperio, 515, b ;
519, b
„ sanctissimus, 154, b
Magmenta, 549, b
Magnifici, 358, b
Maiales, 20, b
Maiestas, 734, b
Maiestatis quaestio, 646, a
Maiores, 724, a
Mala fides, 710, b
Malleolus, 129, b ; 403, b ; 674 a
Malleus, 403. b ; 549, b
„ stupparius, 121, b
Malluvium, 158, a ; 403, b
Malum, 19, b
Malus, 32, b ; 404, a
Mamertini, 665, b
Mamertinus, 141, b
Mamilia lex, 381, a
Mammillare, 157, b ; 254, b ;
258, b
Mamuralia, 278, a
Manceps, 14, a ; 156, a ; 526, a ;
735, a
Mancipatio, 785, a
„ per aes et libram,
666, a
Mancipii causa, 735, b
Mancipium, 735, b
Mancupium, 735, b
Mandans, Mandatarius, 736, a
Mandator, 736, a
Mandatum, 715, a ; 736, a
Mandra, 328, b ; 404, a
Mane, 134, b ; 235, a
Maugo, 577, a
Maniae, 457, b
Manica, 27, a ; 404, a
Manicula, 49. b
Mauilia lex, 381, a
Manixili, 19, a
Manipulus, 290, a ; 375, b ;
579, b
Manlia lex, 381, a
Manuus, 404. a
Mansiones, 225, a ; 669, a
Mantele, Mantica, 404, b
Manuballista, 66, b
Manubiae, 512, b; 586, b
Manubrium, 657, a
Manucla, 157, b ; 635, b
Manumissio, 307, b ; 736, a
Manum, conventio in, 737, a
Manupiarium, 600, a
Manus, 737, a
ferrea, 342, a ; 489, b
„ iniectio, 705, a ; 738, b
„ iniectionem, actio per,
705, a
Mapalia, 402, a ; 657, a
Mappa, 404, b
Marcus, 403, b
Margo, 24, b ; 565, a ; 669, a
Maria lex, 381, a
Marmor, 404, b
Marmoratum, 405, a
Marra, 405, a
Marrubii vinmn, 672, b
Marsupium, 405, a
Mastigia, 310, b
Matara, Mataris, 83, b
Materfamilias, 721, a ; 737, a
Materis, 83, b
Mathematici, 602, b
Matralia, 406, b
Matrimonii ouera, 719, a
Matrimonium, 407, b ; 737, a
„ iustum, 170, b
„ legitimum.l71,a
Matrona, 408, b ; 737, a
Matronales feriae, Matronalia,
408, b
Mattiocae pilae, 660, b
Mausoleum, 408, b
Mazonomus, 410, a
Meddix Tuticus, 410, a
Medianae, 635, a
Mediastini, 410, a ; 577, b
Medica, 19, a
Medicae, 411, a
Medicamentum. 479, a
Medicamina, 672, b
Medicare, 17, b
Medicina. 410, a
Medicurrons, 330, a
Medicus, 294. b ; 410, b
Medietarius, 17, a ; 842, b
Medimnus. 411, a
Medulla, 18, b
Megalenses ludi, Megalensia,
Megalesia, 394, a
Mel, 22, a
Melagrides, 21, b
Melinum, 191, b
Melitensis vestis, 411, a
Mellarium, Mellarius, 22, a
Mellatio, 22, a
Mellis vindemia, 22, a
Mellum, 21, a
Meinbrana, 384, b
MembranariuB, 209, b
Membranula, 411, a
Membris ruptis, actio de, 748, a
Memoriae damnatio, 785, a
Menologtum, 184, a ; 303, a
Mensa, 411, a; 572, a
„ auclabris, 412, a
„ dolpliica, 280, a
„ frigida, 153, b
„ sacra, 412, a
„ seeunda, 154, a ; 412, a
„ scriptura de, 72, a
„ vasaria, 1, a
Mensam, scriptura per, 72, a
Mensarii, 72, a
Menses cavi, 132, b
„ pleni, 132, b
Mensia lex, 381, a
Mensor, 22, b ; 412, a
Menstruum, 577, b
Mensularii, 72, a
Mensura, 412, a
Mercedinus, Mercedonius, 132,b
Mercenarius, Mercennarius, 16,
b ; 86. b ; 414, a
Merces, 805, b
Merenda, 152, b
Meretrices, 845, b
Mergae, 18, a
Meridiani, 887, a ; 393, a
Meridies, 184, b ; 235, a
Merx peculiaris, 747, b
Mesochorus, 161, b
Mespilus, 19, b
Messio, 17, b
Meta, 19, a; 163, b; 165, a;
166, a ; 193, a ; 417, b ; 058, b
Metallarii, 405, a
Metalli conductor, 662, a
Metallum, 414, b ; 662, a
Metas comprehendere, 25, a
„ dictare, 24, b
„ reprehendere, 25, a
Metator, 22, b ; 145, b ; 294, b ;
412, a
Metbodici, 410, b
Metopa, 61, a; 416, b
Micare digitis, 327, a
Miliare, 669, a
Miliarium, 413, b ; 642, b
„ aureum, 414, a ;
669, a
Milites, 289, a
„ classiarii, 275, b
„ subsignani, 296, a
Militiae miitatio, 297, b
„ vacatio, 359, b
Milium, 18, b
Milvus, 91, b
Mimus, 416, b
Minerval, 397, a
Minervaliciuni, 397, a
Mincia lex, 381, a
Ministeria principatus, 516, a
Minium, 191, b ; 316, a ; 542, a
Minores, 724, a
Minutio capitis, 711, b
Mirmillones, 337, a
Missilia, 205, a ; 305, a ; 393, b
Missio, 336, b
„ causaria, 297, a
„ honesta, 297, a
„ ignominiosa, 232, a ;
297, b
Missus, 153, b; 166, a ; 167, a
Mitella, Mitra, 196, a ; 417, a
Modiolus, 38, b ; 342, b ; 41V, b ;
643, a
Modius, 127, b ; 413, b ; 417, b ;
529, a
Modulus, 51, b ; 417, b
„ acceptorius, 46, b
„ erogatorius, 46, b
Moenia, 421, a
Mola, 417, b
„ aquaria, 418, b
„ asinaria, 418, b
„ casta, 398, a
„ iumentaria, 418, b
„ manuaria, 417, 1)
„ olearia, 448, b ; 642, b
„ salsa, 153, b ; 398, a ;
547, a ; 549, a ; 666, a
„ trusatilis, 417, b
„ versatilis, 417, b
Molere, 642, b
Moles Hadriani, 410, a
Molilia, 418, b
Momenta, 711, b
Monarchia, 418, b
Monaulos, 419, a
Moneta, 419, a
Monile, 419, b
„ baccatum, 420, a
Monita Chaldaeoruni, 89, b
Monitor augurum, 100, a
Monoloris, 388, a
Monopodium, 411, b
LATIN INDEX
Monopteros, 420, a
Monoxj'loii, 388, a
Moiistrum, 518, b
Montani, 459, a ; 647, b
Mora, 42, a ; 580, b
Morbus comitiulis, 198, b
Morio, 154, a ; 430, b
Mortarium, 420, a ; 042, b
Morum cura, 155, a
„ praefectura, 155, a
„ regimen, 154, b
Mos, 732, a
Mucinium, 600, a
Mulio, 225, a
Mullens, 129, b
Mnlomedicus, 225, a
Mulsa (aqua), 673, a
MulKum (vinum), 152, b ; 153, b ;
073, a
Multa, 743, b
Mulus, 21, a
„ Marianus, 296, b ; 420, b
Munera, 322, a ; 349, b
Muneralis lex, 378, b
Munerarius, 384, a; 620, a
Munerator, 335, b
Munerum indictio, 297, b
Municipes, 170, b ; 420, b
„ sine suffragio, 9, a
Municipium, 420, b
Munus, 335, b
„ i^ersonale, 11, a
Muraenae, 22, a
Murex, 191, b; 643, b
Mnria, 448, a ; 553, a
Muries, 666, a
Murrea vasa, 421, a
Murrhina, 421, a ; 657, a
Murus, 421, a
Muscarium, 310, a
Musculus, 426, a
Museum, 426, a
Musica, 426, a
Musivum opus, 480, a
Mustaceum, 408, b
Mustum, 671, b
Mutatio, 225, a ; 669, b
militiae, 297, b
Mutuli, 52, b ; 64, b
Mutuum, 714, a
Myoparones, 440, a
Myrmillones, 337, a
Mysteria, 429, b
Mystica vannus, 661, b
N,
Naenia, 321, a ; 324, a
Nanae, 430, b
Nani, 430, a
Napus, 19, a
Narthecium, 430, b ; 600, b
Nassa, 192, a ; 430, b ; 534, a
Nasturtium, 21, b
Natalicia praedicta Cbaldae-
orum, 89, b
Natalicii ludi, 392, b
Natatio, 106, a ; 109, a
Natatorium, 106, a
Naumachia, 100, a; 441, a
Nautae, 439, b ; 745, a
Nauticum fenus, 306, b
Navalia, 171, b ; 430, b
Navarclius, 430, b
Navicularii, 225, b
613
Navis 91, b ; 431, a
„ actuaria, 439, b
„ caudicaria, or caudicea,
176, b
„ longa, 171, b ; 438, b
„ oneraria, 438, b
„ publica, 225, b
Naxa, 534, a
Nefrendes, 20, b
Negatoria actio, 718, a
Negotia, 441, b
Negotiatio, 441, b
Negotiator, 72, a; 388, b; 441, b;
525, b
Negotium gerere, 750, a
Neocorus, 442, a
Nepa, 91, b
Neptunalia, 442, b
Neronia, 95, a ; 531, a
Nervus, 442, b
Nexum, 738, a
Nexus, 738, b
Nidi, 116, a
Nobiles, Nobilitas, 442, b
Nodus, 262, a ; 443, a
„ Herculeus, 408, a
Nomen, 300, a ; 443, b
„ expedire, etc., 72, a
„ facere, 177, a ; 306. a ;
739, b
Nomenclatnr, 708, b
Nomina, 177, a
„ arcaria, 177, a ; 740, a
„ dare, 189, b
„ transcripticia, 177, a
Nominare, 444, b
Nominatio, 444, b; 515, b;
535, b
Nominis delatio, 716, b
Nonae, 133, b
„ Caprotinae, 497, a
Norma, 533, a
Notae, 446, a
„ censoriae, 155, a
„ Thraciae, 596, b
„ Tironianae, 446, a
Notarii, 4, b ; 446, a
Notati, 578, a
Notatio, 155, b ; 725, b
Noundinae, 446, a
Novacula, 111, b; 633, b
Novae tabulae, 306, b ; 563, a ;
609, b
Novale, -is, 19, b
Novatio, 739, b
Novellae, 738, b
„ constitutiones, 738, b
„ leges, 713, a
Novendiale sacrifieium, 322, a;
602, b
„ sacrum, 518, b
Novendinae, 446, a
Noverca, 708, a
Novi adscr- ti, 189, b
Novitas, 44o, a
Novoli, 448, a
Novus liomo, 443, a
Noxa, 738, b
Noxalis actio, 738, b
Noxia, 716, a; 738, b
Noxii,336, a
Nubere caput, 408, a
Nubilarium, 18, a
Nuces, 19. b ; 327, a
Nucleus, 480, b ; 668, b
Numella, 442, b
Numeri, 74, a
I
814
Numeri Babylonii, 89, b
Nuramus, 177, b
„ centenionalis, 185, b
Numularius, 72, a
Numus, 182, a
„ sestertius, 578, a
Nuncupatio, 749, a
„ votorum, 67C, a
Nundinae, 446, a
Nuntiatio, 99, a
„ operis novi, 740, a
Nuntius, 737, b
Nuptiae, 407, b
„ iustae, 738, a
Nurus, 708, a
Nutricatus, 20, b
O.
Oarion, 91, a
Obba, 440, b ; 511, a
Obeliscus, Obelus, 446, b
Obiees, 356, b
Oblativa, 97, b
Obligatio, 739, a
„ litterarum, 739, b
Obnuntiatio, 99, a; 283, a;
045, b
Obsecratio, 602, b
Obsequiuin, 732, a
Obsoniuin, 451, b
Obstetrices, 411, a
Obstmgula, 129 b
Occabus, 3'J4, b
Occasus, '.t2, a
Occatio, 17, b
Occeiitus, 726. a
Occupatio, 740. a
Ocreae, 76, b ; «0, b ; 82, b
Octava. 662, b
October ecus (equus), 446, b
Octopboron, 372, a
Ooularius, 411, a
Oculos inserere, 19, b
Ofulus (architect.), 53, a
Odeum, ()27, a
Oeeus, 246, a ; 670, b
Oenophorum, 447, a
Offendices, 41, a
Ofliciuin, 554, a
„ admissionis, 5 b
Offringere, 17, a
Oguhiia lex, 99, b; 881, a
Olea, 447, a
Oleitas, 448, a
Olera, 352, b
Oletum, 16, a ; 447, a
Oleum, 447, a
Oligarchia, 448, b
Olitor, 352, b
Oliva, 447, a
Olivetum, 447, a
Olivitas, 448, a
Olivum, 447, a
OUa, 471, a ; 511, a
Olympia, 449, a
Olympias, 450, b
Olyra, 18, b
Onager, 21, a ; 637, a
Onagrus. 21, a
Onera matrimonii, 719, a
Onyx, 405, a
Opera, 86, b
„ publica, 156, a
Operae couducticiae liberorum,
16, b
LATIN INDEX
Operae fabriles, 742, a
„ officiales, 742, a
„ servorumo?'animalium,
746, a
Operarius, 4, a ; 16, b ; 86, a
Opercula, 448, b; 071, b
Operis novi nuntiatio, 740, a
Opertorium, 373, b
Ophites, 405, a
Ophiuchus, 91, a
Opifices, 86, b
Opilio, 20, a
Opisthograpbus, 884, b
I Oppia lex, 881, a ; 600, b
Oppidum, 451, a
Opponere pignori, 806, a
Opti mates, 443, a
Optic, 2, b; 294, b; 375, b
„ ab actis, 4, b
„ tutoris, 750, a
„ valetudinarii, 295, b
Opus albarium, 467, b
„ Alexandrinum, 480, b
„ caementitium, 424, a
„ doliare, 499, a ; 511, a
„ figulinum, 499, a
„ incertum, 125, b ; 425, a
„ marmoreum, 424, a
„ mixtum, 125, b ; 425, b
„ musivum, 480, a
„ novum, 740, a
„ perpetuum, 720, a
„ plumarium, or pluma-
tum, 489, a
„ quadratum, 02, b; 423, a
„ reticulatum, 125, b ; 425, a
„ ruderatum. 250, a
„ sectile, 480, b
„ signinum, 45, b; 46, b;
467, a
„ tectorium, 467, a
„ e testis tunsis, 425, b
„ venniculatum, 480, b
Oraculum, 451, b
Orariuni, 600, a
Orationes, 714, b
„ principum, 740, a
Orator, 455, b
Orbes, 411, b
Orbiculus, 401, b
Orbis, 196, a ; 296, b ; 499, b
Orbitas, Orbitus, 380, b
Orca, 327, a ; 583, a
Orchia lex, 600, b
Orcinus libertus, 736, b
Ordinarii, 328, b; 577, b
Ordinem ducere, 455, b
Ordinibus confertis, 290, b
„ laxatis, 290, b
Ordinis ademptio, 297, b
Ordiri, 613, b
Ordo, 455, b
„ Augustalium, 455, b
„ decurionum, 455, b
„ equester, 279, b ; 455, b
„ sacerdotum, 537, a
„ senatorius, 455, b
„ tribuum, 649, b
Organum, 401, a
Orichalcum, 10, a; 415, a ; 456, a
Orion, 91, b
Ornamenta consularia, 207, b
„ triuraphalia, 655, b
Omatio, 569, a
Omatrix, 126, b
Omithones, 21, b
Orphica, 456, a
Orthographia, 560, a
Ortus, i)2, a
Oryza, 18, b
Os resectum, 322, a
Oscillum, 325, a ; 457, b
Oscines, 98, a
Ostentum, 518, b
Ostiarium, 193, a
Ostium, 245, a ; 355, a
Ostrearum vivaria, 22, b
Ostrum, 191, b
Ova, 166, a
Ovatio, 458, a ; 654, a
Oves, 19, b ; 20, a
Ovilia, 16. b
Ovinia lex, 565, a
Ovis Phiixea, 91, a
Pabula, 19, a
Pacta nuda, 739, a
„ praetoria, 739, b
Paean, 458, a
Paedagoga, Paedagogus, 458 b
Paedagogia, Paedagogium,
458, b
Paenula, 38, b ; 260, a
Paganulia, 459, a
Pagani, 459, a
Pagauica, 329, b
Pagina, 384, b
Pagus, 459, a ; 670, a
Pala, 39, b ; 223, b ; 459, b ;
531, b
Palaria, 463, b
Palea, 18, b
Palearia, 16, b
Palilia, '.»1. a ; 468, a
Palla, Palliolum, 260, a
Pallium, 260, b
Palml^ 19, b ; 463, a
Palmii)es, 413, a ; 468, a
Palmus, 413, b; 463, a
Paludamentum, 261, a ; 468, a
Paludatns, 463, a
Palus, 10, a; 463, b
Pampinatio, 674, b
Panathenaea, 463, b
Pancratium, 465, a
Pandectae, 740, a
Panegyricus, Panegyris, 465, b
Panicum, 18, b
Panis gradilis, 316, a
„ hordeaccus 486, b
„ laureatus, 88, a
,, quadratus, 486, b ; 529, b
„ siligineus, 485, b
Pantomima, -us, 466, b
Pan us, 613, b
Panuvellium, 614, b
Papillones, 148, b
Papiria lex, 881, a ; 608, a
„ Plautia lex, 170, b;
312, b ; 381, a
Papvrus, 460, a
Par"impar, 326, b
Parapherna, 686, b ; 719, a
Paraphernalia, 686, b
Parasanga, 466, b
Parasitus, 416, b ; 4(i6, b
Parentalia, Parentatio, 322, b
Parhippus, 225, b
Paries, 467, a
Pariba, 91, a ; 468, a
Pai-ma, 83, a ; 468, b
Parmula, 408, b
Parmularii, 337, a
Parochi, "224, b ; 468, b
Paropsis, 468, b
Parricida, Pairicidium, 740, b
Pars antiea, 2o, a
„ postica, 23, a
Partes, 748, a
Parthenon, 468, b
Partiarius, 17, a
Pascua publica, 561, a
Pascnarii, 526, a
Passum, ()72, a
Passus, 413, a ; 469, b
Pastillarii, 469, b
Pastillum, -us, 469, b
Pastinatio, 674, b
Pastio, 19, b
„ agrestis, 19, b
„ villatica, 21, a
Pastophori, 469, b
Pastor, 21, a ; 525, b
Patagium, 255, a ; 258, b
Patella, 469, b
Patena, 513, a
Pater patratus, 307, b ; 308, a
Patera, 469, b ; 511, b ; 549, b ;
654, b
Paterfamilias, 721, a
Patibulum, 216, b ; 470, b
Patina, 369, b ; 470, b
Patres, 96, b ; 471, a
„ conscripti, 565, a
Patria potestas, 544, a ; 720, a ;
741, a
Patricii, 364, b ; 471, a ; 487, a
Patrimi et matrimi, or Pat-
rimes et matrimes, 395, b ;
471, b
Patrimonium, 535, b
Patrona, 741, b
Patronus, 174, a ; 455, b; 734, a ;
741, b
„ fisci, 309, b
Patrum auctoritas, 96, b
Pauijerie, actio de, 742, b
Pauperies, 742, a
Pavae, Pavi, 21, b
Paviculae, 18, a
Pavimentnm, 250, a
Pavoiies, 21, b
Pecteu, 18, a; 196, a; 471, b;
613, b
Pectinator, 471, b
Pectoralia, 82, b
Pecuarii, 526, a; 561, a
Pecudes extraordinariae, 177, a
„ maiores, 20, b
„ minores, 19, b
Peculator, Peculatus, 742, b
Peculium, 72, b ; 747, a
,, castrense, 4, b ; 741, b
Pecunia, 472, a
„ maior, 185, b
„ vacua, 72, a
Pecuniae repetundae, 745, a
Pecuniam collocare, etc., 306, a
Pecus bubulum, 20, b
„ caprinuni, 20, a
„ equinum, 20, b
„ Graecum, 19, b
„ hirtum, 19, b
,, ovillum, 19, b
„ suillum, 20, b
Tarentinum, 19, b
PeJanei, 729, a
LATIN INDEX
Pedarii, 566, b ; 729, a
Pedia lex, 381, b
Pedicae, 96, a
Pedisequa, Pedisequus, 660, b
Pedites extraordiuarii, 146, b ;
291, b
Pedule, 129, b
Pedum, 472, a
Pegasus, 91, a
Pegma, 35, a ; 472, a
Pelles, 209, a ; 472, b
„ indutoriae, 473, a
,, mauicatae, 17, a
Pelliarii, Pellionarii, Pelliones,
473, a
Pelta, 80, b
Peltastae, 80, b ; 285, b
Pelvis, 473, a
Pelluvia, Pelluvium, 473, a
Peuicillus, 479, a ; 587, a
Peniculi, 587, a
Pensio, 17, a ; 244, a
Pentathlon, 473, b
Peuus, 666, b
Pera, 474, a
Perduellio, 174, a; 734, b
Perduellionis duoviri, 743, a
Perduellis, 734, b
Peregrini, 170, b ; 647, b
„ dediticii, 229, b
Perfricari, 105, a
Pergamena, 384, b
Pergula, 397, a ; 474,-a
Periscelis, 474, b
Periscelium, 475, a
Peristylium, 245, b ; 247, b ;
475, a
Peristyles, Peristylum, 475, a
Permutatio, 72, a ; 739, b
Pero, 131, a
Perpendiculum, 533, a
Perrogatio sententiarum, 568, a
Perscribere, Perscriptio, 72, a ;
306, a
Persecutio, 706, b
Perseus, 91, a
Persona, 140, b ; 475, a ; 711, b
Personam, actio in, 704, b
Pertica, 21, b ; 24, a ; 674, b
„ decempeda, 23, a
Pes constratus, 413, b
„ Drusianus, 414, a
„ mcnetalis, 414, a
„ quadratus, 413, b
Pessiilus, 356, b
Petasus, 485, a
Petauristae, 154, a ; 317, b ;
476, b
Petaurum, 470, b
Petitio, 706, b
Petitor, 700, b ; 708, b
Petoritum, Petorritum, 223, a
Phala, 300, b
Phalangae, 476, b
Phalangarii, 476, b
Phalanx, 283, b
Phalarica, 83, b
Phalerae, 476, b ; 580, b
Pharetra, 67, b
Pharmacopola, 477, b
Pharos, Pharus, 477, b
Phaselus, 18, b ; 44, a
Phaseolus, 18, b
Phasiani, 21, b
Phiala, 470, b
Philippi, 179, a
Philyra, 384, a
815
Phimns, 315, a ; 326, b
Piacula, 602, b
Picariae, 662, a
Picentini, 665, b
Pictura, 479, a
Pigmentarii, 665, a
Pigmentum, 479, a
Pignoris capio, 705, b ; 742, b
„ capionem, actio per,
705, b ; 742, b
Pignus, 407, b ; 743, a
„ fatale imperii, 666, b
Pila, 329, b ; 420, a ; 457, b ,
604, a
„ fulloniea, 316, b
„ lusoria, 329, b
„ Mattiaca, 660, b
„ trigonal is, 329, b
Pilani, 291, a; 375, b
Pilarius, 330, b
Pilentum, 223, a
Pili, 20, b
Pilicrepus, 330, b
Pilleolum, 484, a
Pilleum, Pilleus, 483, b ; 485, a
Pilmu, 83, b ; 420, b
Pilumnus, 420, b
Pinacotlieca, 485, a
Pinaria lex, 708, b
Pincerna, 485, a
Pinnae, 337, b
Pinsores, 485, b
Piper, 485, a
Piperatorium, 485, a
Pirum, 19, b
Pisces, 91, b
Piscina, 22, a ; 46, a ; 485, a
„ calida, 107, b
,, dulcis, 22, a
„ salsa, 22, a
Piscis Australis, 91, b
„ Notius, 91, b
Pistillum, 420, b
Pistor, 485, b
Pistriuum, 16, b ; 246, a ; 418, b ;
420, b
Pistrix, 91, b
Pisum, 19, a
Pix, 672, b
Placenta, Placentarium, 486, b
Plaetoria lex, 715, b
Plaga, 371, b ; 583, b
Plagiarius, Plagium, 743, b
Plagula, 371, b ; 384, b ; 486, b
Plaguncula, 324, b
Planctae, 486, b
Planetarii, 89, b
Plantae, 19, b
Plastae, 618, a
Plateae, 070, a
Plaustrum, 90, b ; 223, a
Plautia lex, 381, b
Plebeii, 487, a
Plebes, 487, a
Plebiscitum, 488, a
Plebs, 487, a ; 497, a
„ frumentaria, 487, a
„ urbana, (149, b
Plectrum, 400, a
Pleiades, 91, a
Plinthis, 489, a
Plostellum Poenicum, 18, a ;
643, b
Plostrum, 223, a
Plotia lex. 881, b
Pluma, 873, a
Plumarii, 489, a
816
Plumarium, or plumatum opus,
489, a
Plumbum, 415, a
Pluteus, 373, a ; 489, a
Pneumatic!, 410, b
Pnyx, 2G4, a
Podium, 34, a ; 164, a ; 48'J, a
Poena, 743, b
„ metalli, 720, a
Poetelia lex, 381, b ; 708, b
„ Papiria lex, 738, b
Polenta, 18, b ; 527, a
Politor, 86, b
Pollen, 18, a
Pollex, 413, b
Pollinctor, 320, b
Pollubrum, 473, a
Polus, 4<J0, a
Polymita, 258, b
Polymyxos, 3i)l, a
Pomeridianum tempus, 235, a
Pomerium, Pomoerium, 490, a
Pompa, 166, b ; 336, b ; 654, a
Pompeiae leges, 371, a ; 381, b
Pomum, 19, b
Pondera, 490, b
Pons, 494, a
Pons Aelius, 495, a
„ Aemilius, 494, b
„ Aurelius, 495, a
„ Cestius, 494, b
„ Fabricius, 494, b
„ Lapideus, 494, "b
„ Mulvius, 495, a
„ Neronianus, 495, a
„ Sublicius, 494, b
„ suffragiorum, 496, a
„ Vaticanus, 495, a
Pontifex, 496, a
„ Maximus, 666, a
Pontificinm ius, 496, b
Popa, 217, b; 388, a; 549, a;
550, a
Popina, 150, b
Poplifugia, 497, a
Populares, 443, a
Popnlaria, 34, a
Populifugia, 497, a
Popnlus, 497, a
Por, 576, b
Porciliae jjiaculares, 87, b
Porculatio, 20, 1)
Porphyrites, 405, a
Porta, 497, b
„ decumana, 147, a; 148, a
„ Libitineiisis, 166, a
„ pompae, Kit!, a
„ praetoria, 147, a ; 148, a
„ principalis, 147, a ; 148, a
„ quaestoria, 147, a ; 148, a
„ triumphalis, 166, a
Portentum, 518, b
Porticus, 242, a ; 397, a 498, b
Portisculus, 440, b
Portitor, 499, a; 526, a
Portorium, 228, b; 499, a
Portuenses, 412, a
Portula, 498, b
Posca, 297, b ; 499, a
Possessio, 11, a ; 14, a ; 743, b
„ bonae fidei, 710, b
„ bonorum, 706, a ;
711, a
Possessor, 11, a; 14, a ; 525, a;
706, b ; 744, a
Postes, Postica, 355, a
Posticuni, 60, a ; 355, a
LATIN INDEX
Postilena, 499, a
Postilio, 518, b
Postliminium, 744, a
Postsignani, 296, a
Postulatio iudicis, 705, a ; 716, b
Potestas, 747, a
„ dominica, 741, a
„ maior, 363, a
„ pal', 363, a
„ patria, 544, a ; 720, a ;
741, a
„ sacrosancta, 645, b
„ tribunicia, 644, a
Potio burrauica, 671, b
Praeceptio, 733, b
Praeciae, 311, a
Pracciuctio, 32, b; 34, a ; 164, b;
623, a
Praecisura, 24, a
Praeclamitator, 311, a
i Praeco, 96, b ; 512, a
Praeconium, 512, a
Praeda, 512, a ; 586, b
Praedes, 705, a ; 729, a
Praediorum iura, 746, b
Praedium, 15. b ; 744, b
Praefectura, 24, a; 421, a
„ urbis, 515, a
„ vigilum, 515, a
Praefectus, 512, b
„ Aegypti, 512, b
„ aerarii, 9, b
„ alae, 375, b
„ alimentorum, 26, b
„ annonae, 315, b ;
512, b
„ aquarum, 47, a
„ castrorum, 294, a;
512, b
„ classis,172,a;512,b
„ fabrum, 300, b
„ iure dicundo, 191, a
„ libollis, 384, a
„ niarmorum, 405, a
„ navium, 512, b
„ praetorio, 512, b
„ sociorum, 291, b;
876, a
„ urbi, 7, a ; 513, a;
536, b
„ vehiculorum, 225, a
,, vigihun, 7, a ; 293, b
Prac'fericulum, 549, b
Praelicae, 320, a
Praefuniium, 108, b; 314, b;
500, b
Praeiudicium, 744, b
Praelusio, 336, b
Praenomen, 433, b
„ Imperatori.;, 860,b
Praepetes, 98, a
Praepositus tabellariorum,
225, b
Praerogativa, 198, b
Praes, 744, b
Praescriptio, 571, a ; 744, b ;
751, a
Praesepe, 91, a ; 518, a
Praesidia, 147, b
Praestatio, 11, a
Praesul, 552, a
Praetexta, 262, b
Praetextata, 161, b
Praetextatae fabulae, 641, b
Praetor, 513, b
„ aerarii, 9, b
„ peregrinus, 513, b
Praetoriamis, 514, a
Praetorium, 146, a ; 514, a
„ ius, 719, a
Praevaricatio, 745, a
Prandiuni, 152, b ; 393, b
Pratuni, 16, a ; 19, a
Precario, 11, a
Prelum, 514, a ; 634, a
Prende furem, 722, b
Prensatio, 708, b
Prensionis ius, 715, b
Pressorium, 514, a
Primipilares, 294, b
Primipilus, Primopilus, 294, a
Princeps, 514, a
„ iuventutis, 279, a
„ legationis, 374, a
„ nobilitatis, 443, a
„ publicanorum, 526, a>
„ senatus, 227, a ;
506, a
Principalis, 229, b ; 294. b
Principatus, 514, a
„ ministei'ia, 516, a
Principes, 146, a ; 290, a ; 375, b
Principia, 146, b
Principium, 197, a
Principum orationes, 740, a
Pristis, 91, b
Privatus, 653, b
Privigna, Privignus, 708, a
Privilegium, 516, b; 653, b
Probatio, 280, a
Probnim, 725, b
Processus consularis, 207, a
Proconsul, 517, a
Proculiani, 731, a
Procurare, 602, b
Procurator, 16, b ; 518, a; 706, b
„ arationibus, 809, b;
662, b
„ alimentorum, 26, b
„ August! vicesiniae
hereditatum,
670, a
,, aurariorum, 415, b
„ Caesaris, 5 IN, a
„ castrensis, 51is, b
„ fisci, 518, a
„ insularum, 244, a
„ monetae, 51s, b
„ montium, 405, a
„ patrimonii, 518, b
„ pro legato, 518, b
„ rationuni summn-
runi, 518, a
„ servorum, 577, b
„ summi choragii,
159, b
Procyon, 91, b
Prodigium, 518, b
Prodigus, 715, b
Prodomus, 60, a
Proferendi pomerii ius, 490. a
Professores, 731, b
Proflamen, 87, b
Profusio, 546, b
Progener, 708, a
Proletarii, 289, b; 519. a
Promagister, 87, b
Promptuarium, 151, a
Promulsis, 153, b ; 673, a
Promum, Promus, 151, a
Proiiubu, 408, a
Pronuntiatio sententiarum,
568, a
Pronurus, 708, r.
Propago, 19, b ; 674, .-
Propinatio, 006, a
Proplasma, 519, a
Propnigeuni, 108, b
Propolis, 22, a
Propraetor, 519, a
Proprietarius, 751, b
Proprietas, 717, b
Proprietatis doniiiius, 751, b
Propylaeum, 240, b ; 519, b
Prorogatio, 517, a
,, imperii, 569, a
Proscindere, 17, a
Proscripti, Proscriptio, 520, a
Prosocrus, 708, a
Prostibula, 346, a
Protropum, 671, b
Provinriia, 520, b
„ imperatcria, 522, a
„ inermis, 293, b
„ poDuli Romani,
522, a
,, propria Caesaris,
522, a
„ senatoria, 522, a
„ urbana, 520, b
Provindemia, 91, a
Provocatio, 403, a ; 709, a
Prudentes, 730, b
Pruiiuiii, 19, b
Prytaueuin, 523, a
Psarouius lapis, 405, a
Pseudothyruni, 355, a
Psilothrum, 524, b
Ptisana, 18, b
Puberes, 724, a
Publicani, 525, a ; 662, a
„ Bcripturarii, 14, a
Publicum, 9, a ; 525, a
Publicus ager, 10, b ; 14, b ;
228, b ; 525, b ; 561, a ; 648, b
Publiliae leges, 381, b ; 565, a ;
049, a
Pudicitia, 732, a
I'ugilatua, Pugiles, 520, a
I'ugillares, 238, a ; 009, a
Pugio, 81, b ; 82, b ; 84, a
Pullarii, 98, a ; 100, a
Pullati, 34, a
Pulmentarium, 16, b ; 451, b
Pulpitum, 626, b
Puis, 18, b ; 527, a
I'ulverulenta, 330, b
Pulvinar, 163, b ; 165, a ; 372,
a ; 527, a
Pulvinus, 53. a ; 111, a ; 164,
b ; 527, a
Pulvia Puteolanus, 62, b ; 125,
b ; 424, a
Puiiiilio, Pumilus, 430, b
Puiicta, 238, a; 588, b
Punctum ferre, 608, a
Pupa, 324, b
Pupillae, 749, b
Pupilli, 706, b ; 749, b
Purpura, 175, b
„ maior, 173, a
Purpurissum, 191, b ; 316, a
Putatio, 674, b
Puteal, 527, a
„ Libouis, 116, b ; 527, b
Puteus, 106, a ; 109, a ; 245, b ;
272, b
Puticulus, 573, a
Pyanepsia, 527, b
Pyra, 822, a
Pyrgus, 315, a ; 320, b
LATIN INDEX
Pyrites, 358, a
Pyrrhica, 527, b
Pythia, 528, b
Pyxis, 510, a ; 529, a
Q-
Quadra, 529, b
Quadrans, 187, a ; 494, a
Quadraiital, 529, a
Quadriga, 106, b ; 221, a
Quadrireniis, 434, a
Quadrupedes, 98, b
Quadruplator, 710, b ; 745, a
Quadrupli actio, 722, b
Quadrussis, 183, a
Quaesitor, 729, b
Quaestio, 729, b ; 730, a
„ maiestatis, 046, a
Quaestiones perjietuae, 530, a ;
715, a ; 728, a
Quaestor, 529, b ; 530, b
„ aerarii, 9, b ; 530, a
„ alimentoruin, 20, b
„ Augusti, 530, b
,, classicus, 530, b
„ parricidii, 529, b
„ pecuniae alimeu
tariae, 20, b
„ principis, 530, a
„ pro praetore, 519, b
,, urbanus, 529, b
Quaestorii, 566, a ; 646, a
Quaestorium, 146, a ; 530, b
Qualum, Qualus, 127, a
Quanti minoris actio, 720, b
Quartarius, 530, b
Quasillaria, 127, a ; 616, a
Quasillum, -us, 127, a
Quaternae centesiniae, 306, a
Quattuorviri iure dicundo,
191, a
„ censoriapotestate,
191, a
„ viarum, 668, a
Querela inofiiciosi testameuti,
712, b ; 749, b
Quinae centesimae, 306, a
Quiuaria, 309, b
Quinarius, 184, a
Quinctilis, 134, a
Quincunx, 494, a
Quincussis, 188, a
Quindecimviri sacrorum, 227, b
Quinquagesima, 530, b
„ mancipiorum ve-
nalium, 662, a
Quinquatria, Quinquatrus,
530, b
Quinquennales, 191, a
„ ludi, 4, b
Quinquennalia, 531, a
Quinqueremis, 434, a
Quinquertium, 473, b
Quinqueviri, 531, a
„ cistiberes, 531, a
„ mensarii, 531, a
Quirinalia, 531, a
Quiris, 289, b
Quiritare, 531, a
Quirites, 531, a
Quiritium ius, 170, b ; 531, a ;
710, a
Quorum bonorum interdictum,
745, a
817
R.
Radere, 633, b
Radius, 291, a ; 531, b ; 618, b ;
614, b
Ranienta sulfurata, 858, a
Ramneuses, Ramnes, 278, b;
647, a
Rapiua, 19, a ; 722, b
Raptini ludere, 380, a
Rapum, 19, a
Rastella lignea, 19, a
Rastellus, 531, b
Rastri, 531, b
Rastrum, 17, b ; 531, b
Ratio, 177, a
Ratiocinandi ars, 389, a
Rationalis, 309, b ; 518, a
Rationes, 72, a ; 177, a
„ Chaldaicae, 89, b
Rationis subductio, 389, a
Ratis, 531, b
Raudus, Raudusculus, 736, a
Recepta actio, 745, a
I Rechamus, 401, b
I Recognitio, 279, a ; 280, a
„ equitum, 154, b
500, a
! Recuperator, 728, a
Reda, 223, b
Redamptruare, 552, b
Redemptor, 156, a ; 667, b ;
669, b ; 734, b
j Redliibitoria actio, 720, b
! Redigere, 306, a
Redimicula, 417, b
Reges socii, 584, a
Regia, 91, a; 112, a; 532, b
„ lex, 382, a
Regilla, 408, a ; 615, b
Regimen moruin, 154, b
Regina sacrorum, 537, a
Regio, 532, b ; 647, b
Regnum, 535, a
Regula, 38, b; 52, b; 532, b;
731, a
Rei contrectatio', 722, b
,, vindicatio actio, 718, a
Relatio, 567, b
Relationis ius, 567, b
I Relator, 571, a
I Relegatio, 299, b
Rem, actio iu, 704, b
Rem addicere, 731, b
I „ gerere, 750, a
Remancipatio, 717, b
Remiges, 434, b ; 439, b
Remulcum, 533, a
Remus, 459, b ; 533, a
Reno, 533, a
Renuntiatio, 353, b
Repagula, 356, b
Repetundae, 745, a
I Replicatio, 706, a
Repositoriuiu, 153, b; 412, a
533, b
Repotia, 408, b
Repudium, 717, a
Res ceusui censeiido, 155, a
„ communes, 714, a ; 718, a
„ corporales, 718, a
„ derelictae, 740, a
„ divini iuris, 718, a
„ fiduciaria, 722, a
„ furtiva, 722, b
„ immobiles, 718, a
„ incorporales, 718, a
3U
818
Res mancipi, 736, a
„ mobiles, 718, a
„ nullius, 714, a; 722, a
„ privatae, 718, a
„ publicae, 714, a ; 718, a
„ singulorum, 718, a
„ universitatis, 718, a
„ uxoria, 719, a
,, venales, 156, b
Rescribere, 306, a
Rescripta, 715, a
Reserare, 357, b
Resina, 672, b
Respersio, 322, a
Respondendi ius, 731, a
Responsa, 455, b ; 731, a
Restes, 373, a
Restibilis ager, 17, b ; 19, a
Restipulatio, 706, b
Restitutio in integrum, 745, b
„ natalibus, 726, a
Rete, 533, b
Retentio dotis, 717, b
,, soluti, 739, a
Retiarii, 337, a
Reticulum, 196, a; 533, b
Retinacula, 401, b
Reus, 706, b
,, extraordinarius, 456, a
Reverentia, 732, a
Rex, 535, a ; 606, a
„ Nemorensis, 536, b
„ sacrorum, 537, a
Rheno, 533, a
Rhetor, 338, b ; 397, a
Rhetra, 537, a
Rhombus, 657, b
Rhouiphaea, 81, b; 537, b
Rhvtlunica, 537, b
Rica, 311, b
Riciuiuin, 88, a; 260, b ; 416, b
Rigorum dictare, 24, b
Riscus, 541, a
Ritus auspiciorum, 544, b
,, Graecus, 549, a 556, a;
579, a
„ Romanus, 549, a ; 579, a
Robigalia, 541, b
Robur, Robus, 18, a; 141, b
Rogatio, 196, b ; 198, b ; 363, b ;
707, a ; 729, b
„ Licinia, 380, b
Rogator, 198, b ; 238, a ; 608, a
Rogus, 322 a
Rorarii, 289, b ; 375, b
Rosalia, Rosaria, Rosatio,
322, b
Roscia theatralis lex, 382, a ;
626, b
Rostra lulia, 542, a
Rostrum, 171, b; 435, b; 541, b
Rota, 219, a ; 401, b
„ aquaria, 38, b
„ figularis, 499, b
Rubia, 191, b
Rubrica, 191, b ; 542, a
Ruderatio, 250, a
Rudes, 336, a
Rudiarius, 836, b
Rudicula, 542, a
Rudis, 542, a
„ ager, 16, a ; 19, b
Rudus, 480, b ; 668, b
Ruga, 176, a; 542, a
Rumpia, 81, b ; 537, b
Runcatio, 17, b
Ruucina, 542, a
LATIN INDEX
Runeo, 542, b
Rupiliae leges, 382, a
Rupitiae, 716, a
Rutabulum, 542, b
Rutellum, Rutrum, 542, b
S.
Sabaia, 157, a
Sabina, 665, b
Sabiniani, 731, a
Saecus, 542, b
„ nivarius, 525, a ; 542, b ;
672, a
Sacellum, 71, a; 542, b; 617, b
Sacena, 550, a
Sacerdos, 542, b
„ Augustalis, 100, b
„ provinciae, 204, a ;
545, a
Sacerdotes Vestales, 665, b
Sacerdotii introitus, 663, a
„ gradus, 667, a
Sacerdotium, 542, b
Sacra, 545, b
„ familiaria, 717, a; 724, a
„ gentilicia, 335, a; 546, a ;
717, a
„ perpetua, 546, a
„ popularia, 546, a
,, privata, 545, b
„ publica, 496, b ; 546, a
Sacramento agere, 705, b
Sacramentum, 295, a ; 366, b
„ actio per, 704, b
Sacrarium, 546, a
„ Martis, 552, b
Sacratae leges, 382, a
Sacratio capitis, 382, a
Sacres, 20, b
Sacrificium, 546, b
„ novendiale, 322, a ;
(;02, b
,, ])ublicum, 556, a
Sacrilegium, 746, a
Sacrilegus, 746, a
Sacrosanctitas, 403, a
Sacrorum detestatio, 707, b ;
717, a
Sacrum anniversarium Ceveria,
157, a
Saeculum, 395, a
Saepes, Ki, a ; 24, b
Saepimentum, 16, a
Saeptum, 550, b
Saetae, 479, a
Saga, 550, b
„ cucullata, 17, a
Sagatio, 551, b
Sagena, 534, a
Sagina gladiatoria, 336, a
Saginarium, 21, b
Sagitta, 91, a; 550, b
Sagittarius, 91, b; 291, b; 551, b
Sagma, Sagmina, 551, b
Sagulum, 551, b
Sagum, 260, b ; 551, b
Sal nativus, 553, a
Salariarius, 296, b
Salarium, 552, a
„ proconsulare, 517, b
Salgamum, 225, b
Salictum, 16, a
Salientes, 250, b ; 313, b
Salii, 552, a
Salinae, 553, a ; 662, a
Salinator, Salinum, 553, a
Salsilago, Salsugo, 553, a
Saltatio, 553, a
Saltuarius, 554, a
Saltus, 14, a; 16, a; 525, b;
554, a; 561, a
Salubritas, 15, b
Salutatio, 554, a
„ pro imperio, 360, h
Sambuca, 554, a
Sambucistria, 554, a
Sampsa, 448, b ; 634, a
Samnites, 337, b ; 665, a
Sanarium, 336, a
Sanctio, 377, b
Sandapila, 321, b
Sapa, 671, b
Sapo, 196, a; 316, b; 554, h;
660, b
Sappliirus, 191, b
Saraballa, Sarabara, 554, b
Sarcina, -ae, 554, b
Sarcinator, 554, b
Sarcire, 716, a
Sarcophagus, 50, b ; 554, b ;
572, b
Sarculatio, 17, b
Sarculum, 17, b; 555, a
Saritio, 17, b
Sarmenta, 16, a ; 19, b
Sarracura, 223, b
Sartago, 555, b
Sartor, 554, b
Satio, 17, b
Satira, 555, b
Satisdatio, 712, a
Satrapa, Satrapes, Satraps,
555, b
Satura, 202, b ; 555, b
„ lex, 377, b; 378, a
Satui'nalia, 556, a
Saxum quadratum, 668, b
Scabellum, 226, b ; 556, b
Scabillarius, 466, a
Scabillum, 226, b
Scaenae frons, 626, a
Scalae, 556, b ; 658, a
„ Ciemoniae, 142, a
„ Graecae, 556. b
Scalpellum, 158, b ; 550, b
Scalprum, 556, b
„ fabrile, 556, b
„ librarium, 127, a ;
556, b
Scalptura, 556, b
Scamna, 17, a ; 146, a
Scamnarium, 298, a
Scamnatus ager, 24, a
Scamnum, 373, a ; 556, b ;
559, b
Scandula, 250, a ; 559, b ; 612,
Scandularius, 294, b
Scaphium, 559, b
Scapus, 51, b ; 558, b ; 560, a
„ cardinalis, 142, b
Scarabaeus, 557, a
Scena, 550, a
Scenographia, 560, a
Sceptrum, 5t'i0, a
Scheda, 384, a : 500, b
Schedula, 560, b
Schoenobates, 560, b
Schola, 107, b ; 298, a ; 560, b
Scholae, 731, a
Scida, 384, a : 560, b
Scillites, 672, b
Sciiidula, 559, b
Scipio, 560, a
Scirpea, 2'23, b
Scirpus, 137, b ; 534, a
Scissor, 153, b ; 5C0, b
Scobina, 560, b
Scobis, 560, b ; 574, b
Scopae, 560, b
Scorpio, 24, b ; 91, b ; 635, a
Scorpius, 91, b
Scorta, 345, b
Scotia, 53, a
Scriba, 338, a; 560, b
Scribere, 7'2, a
Scriblita, 561, a
Scrinium, 140, a ; 277, a
Scriplum, 561, a
Scripta, 499, a
Scriptura, 14, a ; 72, a ; 525, b ;
561, a
Scripturarius, 526, a ; 561, a
,, ager, 561, a
Scriptus, 561, a
Scripulum, 16, a; 183, b; 561, a
Scrobes, 18, a ; 47, a
Scrobiculi, 47, a
Scrofa, 20, b
Scrupulum, 16, a ; 183, b ; 561, a
Sculponeae, 17, a ; 128, a ; 561, b
Scurra, 71, a ; 561, b
Scutalia, 317, b
Scutarii, 337, a
Scutella, 561, b
Scutica, 310, b
Scutra, Scutula, 561, b
Scutulatus, 258, b ; 561, b ; 616, a
Scutum, 83, a ; 561, b
Scyphus, 167, a ; 508, a
Scytale, 561, b
Sebaceus, 304, a
Secale, 18, b ; 485, b
Secespita, 549, b
Secretariura, Secretum, 97, a
Sectator, 708, b
Sectio, 96, b ; 512, b ; 746, a
Sector, 512, b ; 746, a
„ serrarius, 574. b
„ zonarius, 216, a
Secundarium, 672, b
Securis, 550, a ; 562, a
Secutor, 337, b
Sedile, 564, a
Seges aena, 354, a
Segmentatas, 611, b
Segmentum, 563, a
Sella, 563, a
„ castrensis, 564, b
„ curulis, 564, b
„ fertoria. 564, b
„ gestatoria, 564, b
„ portatoria, 564, b
Sellisternium, 568, b
Sellularii, 86, b
Sembella, 187, a
Sementivae, 307, b
Semicanaliculus, 652, a
Semicinctium, 565, a
Semimares, 324, a
Seminarium, 447, b ; 674, a
Semis, 185, a; 187, a; 494, a
Semita, 565, a ; 669, a
Semiviri, 324, a
Semproniae leges, 14, b ; 382, b ;
383, a ; 521, a
Senatus, 565, a
„ auctoritas, 97, a
„ ccnsultum, 863, b ;
568, b ; 570, b
LATIN INDEX
Senatus lectio, 154, b
Seniores, 197, b ; 565, a
Sententiae, 567, b
Sepes, 16, a ; 24, b
Septem Triones, 90, b
Septimanae, 134, b
Septimontium, 11, b
Sepulcri violati actio, 752, a
Sepulcrum, 571, a
Sequestres, 708, b
Sera, 356, b
Seria, 511, a; 574, b; 671, b
Serica, -um, 258, b; 574, b
Serpens, 90, b
Serpentarius, 91, a
Serperastrum, 574, b
Serra, Serrago, 574, b
Serratus, 187, a
Serrula, 574, b
„ ferrea, 17, b
„ manubriata, 575, a
Serta, 654, a
Serum, 21, a
Servare de caelo, 99, a
Servilia supplicia, 578, a
Serviliae agrariae leges, 15, a ;
383, a ; 522, a
Servitus, 746, a
Servitutem, adserere in, 707, b
Servus, 16, b ; 576, b
„ ab admissione, 5, b
,, praelucens, 369, a
„ tricliniarius, 153, b
„ vinctus, 16 b ; 281, b
Sesquipes, 296, b
Sesquiplicarii, 296, b
Sessorium, 143, a
Sestertiarius, 336, b
Sestertium, 143, a ; 187, a ;
578, a
Sestertius, 184, a ; 187, a ; 578, a
Sestilis, 134, a
Seviri Augustales, 101, a
„ equitum Romanorum
turmae, 280, b
Sex suffragia, 278, b ; 647, b
Sextans, 183, b ; 494, a
Sextarius, 529, a; 578, b
Sextula, 578, b
Sibina, 88. b
Sibylla, 578, b
Sibyllini libri, 578, b
Sica, Sicarii, 579, b
Sicinnis, Sicinnium, 579, b
Siclus, 579, b
Sidus natalicium, 90, a
Sifo, 582, a
Sigilla, Sigillaria, 556, b
Siplluni, 579, b
Si^la, 446, a
Sigma, 3, a
Signa, 296, a ; 580, a
„ comprehendere, 25, a
„ fictiHa, 618, a
„ militaria, 579, b
Signiferi, 580, a
Signum, 581, b
Sil, 191, b
Silaceus, 191, b
Silentium, 98, b
Silex, 358, a ; 582, a ; 668, b
Silicarii, 47, a
Silicemium, 322, a
Siligo, 18, a
Siliqua, 19, a ; .582, a
Siliquarii, 485, b
Silva, 561, a
81 U
Silva caedua, 16, a ; 525, a
„ glandaria, 16, a
„ pascua, 525, b
Simila, Siniilago, 18, a
Simpulum, 511, b; 550, a
Simpuvium, 550, a
Sindon, 121, b ; 141, a
Sinum, 582, a
Sinus, 262, a ; 582, a
Siparium, 626, b
Siparum, 440, b
Siijho, 39, a ; 582, a
Siphonarii, 582, a
Sirius, 91, b
Sistrum, 582, a
Sitella, 588, a
Siticines, 321, a
Situla, 510, b ; 583, a
Soccus, 130, b
Socer, 708, a
Societas, 747, b
„ publicanoruni, 526, a ;
748, a
„ universorum bono-
rum, 748, a
Socii, 25, b; 291, a; 312, b;
583, b
„ Latini nominis, 370, b
„ navales, 172, a ; 439, b
„ publicorum vectigalium,
526, a
„ salarii, 526, a
„ reges, 584, a
Socrus, 708, a
Sodales, 713, b
„ Augustales, 42, a ;
100, b
Titii, 633, a
Sodalitates, Sodalitia, 750, b
Solarium, 235, a ; 246, b ; 351. b ;
662, a
Solea, 129, b; 153, a; 584, 1.
Soleas demere, poscere, 153. v
Soli tributum, 521, b ; 662, b
Solidus, 185, b ; 187, a
Soliferreum, 585, a
Solistimum tripudiuni, 98, a
Solitaurilia, 601, a
Solium, 105, a ; 107, b ; 585, a ;
631, a
Solliferremn, 585, a
Solstitium, 93, a
Solum, 250, a
Soluti retentio, 739, a
Solutio, 739, b
Sors peregrina, 513, b
„ urbana, 513, b
Sortes, 455, a ; 585, a
„ convivales, or conviv-
iales, 585, a
„ sacrae, or sanctorum,
585, a
„ Vergilianae, 585, a
Spadones, 324, a
Sparsio, 35, a ; 585, b
Spartei, 584, b
Sparum, Sparus, 83, b : 585. b
Spatalium, 75, b
Spatha, 585, b ; 613, b
Spatium, 166, a; 587. a
Species nova, 714, b
Specificatio, 714, b
Specillum, 158, b
Spectabilcs, 358, b ; 570, b
Spectaculorum editor. 1()5. a;
167, a
Spectatus, 620, a
3 G 2
820
Spectio, 99, a
Specularia, 250, b; 352, a;
585, b ; 670, b
Specula, 585, b
Speculator, 294, b
Speculum, 585, b
Specus, 45, b
Sphaeristerium, 110, b ; 329, b
Sphaeroraachia, 330, a
Spica, 18, b ; 91, a
„ testacea, 250, a ; 586, b
Spiculum, 83, b
Spina, 163, b ; 165, b
„ fullonia. 317, a
Spinter, 75, b ; 586, b
Spinther, 586, b
Spira, 53, a ; 586, b
Spiramina, 46, a
Splenium, 586, b
Spolia, 586, b
„ opima, 586, b
Spoliarium, 336, b
Sponda, 373, a
Spongia, 587, a
Sponsalia, 407, b; 724, b;
737, b
Sponsio, 167, a ; 367, a ; 705, a;
706, b
Sporta, Sportella, 587, a
Sportula, 87, b ; 397, a ; 587, a
Spuma Batava, or caustica,
196, a ; 660, b
Stabula biibilia, 16, b
Stabularii, 745, a
Stadium, 587, a
Staffae, 274, a
Stalagmina, 361, b
Stamen, 323, a ; 613, a
Stannum, 415, a
Stapides, 274, a
Statera, 588, b
Stationes, 146, b ; 731, b
Statores, 293, a
Statua inter triumphales, 656. a
Statuaria ars, 588, b
Statumen, 480, b ; 668, b
Status, 711, b
„ conimutatio, 712, a
Stellas errantes, 486, b
Stenima, 359, a ; 596, b
Stercoratio, Stercus, 17, a
Sterquilina, 17, a
Stesichorus, 328, a
Stibium, 316, a
Stigma, 578, a ; 596, b
Stigmatias, 596, b
Stilum vertere, 597, a
Stilus, 479, a ; 596, b ; 643, b
Stimulus, 597, a ; 643, b
Stipendiarii, 521, b ; 584, b ;
597, a ; 662, b
Stipendium, 228, b; 597, a;
662, b
„ annuum, 296, b
„ semestre, 296, b
Stipula, 18, b
Stipulatio, 739, a
„ duplae, 720, b
Stipulator, 739, a
Stirpes, 334, a
Stiva, 48, b
Stola, 261, a
Stragulum, 373, b ; 598, a
„ pellicium, 473, a
Stramentum, 17, b
Strata, 274, a
Strena, 397, a ; 599, a
LATIN INDEX
Stria, Striatura, 51, b
Strictura, 599, a
Striga, 19, a ; 146, a ; 148, b
Strigilis, 599, a
Strophe, 540, b
Strophiura, 258, b ; 599, b
Structor, 153, b
Structurae caementiciae, 125, a
Stultorum feriae, 314, b ; 531, a
Stupidus, 416, b
Stuprum, 707, b
Suasor, 96, b
Suber, 672, a
Subigo, 486, a
Subiugia, 219, b
Sublica, 600, a
Subligaculum, 259, a ; 600, a
Subligar, 600, a
Sublimissimi, 358, b
Subpaedagogus, 458, b
Subpromus, 151, a
Subscriptor, 708, a ; 717, a
Subscriptoria censoria, 155, b
Subsecare falcibus, 19, a
Subsecivura, 15, a ; 23, b
Subsellium, 6, b ; 164, a; 564, a;
645, a
Subserica, 574, b
Subsignanns miles, 296. a
Subsignatio tabularum, 737, b
Subsortitio, 728, b
Substitutio, 723, b
Subtemen, 613, a
Subucula, 136, a ; 261, b
Subula, 600, a
Subulcus, 20, b
Sucula, 91, a ; 634, a
Sucus, 20, a
Sudarium, 600, a
Sudatio, 105. b
„ concamerata, 104, a
Sudatorium, 107, b
Sudes, 597, b : 661, a
Sues, 20, b
Suffibulum, 667, a
Suffimenta, 395, b
Suffitio, 322, a
Sufflamen, 600, b
Suffragia sex, 278, b; 647, b
Suffragii ius, 170, b
Suffragium. 170, b; 608, a
Suggestum, -us, 34, a ; 541, b ;
600, b
Suggrundae, 250, a
Suggrundarium, 573, b
Sulci alveati. 16, a
„ aquarii, 16, a
Sulfurata ramenta, 358, a
Sulpiciae leges, 383, a
Sumptuariae leges, 600, b
Suovetaurilia, 601, a
Supercilium, 24, b ; 355, a
Superficiarius, Superficies,
748, a
Snperstitio, 601, b
Supparum, 261, b ; 440, b
Supplantare, 392, a
Supplemeuta, 147, b
Supplicium servile, 578, a
,, triumvirale, 369, b ;
643, a
Supplicatio, 602, b
Suprema (tempestas), 236, a
Susceptor. 156, a
Suspecti accusatio, 750, a
Suspensura. 108, a
Sutor, 86, b
Sycophanta, 608, a
Syenites lapis, 405, a
Syllaba anceps, 540, a
Symphonia, 154, a ; 604, b
Symphoniaci, 604, b
Symposium, 604, b
Syndicus, 707, a
Syngrapha, 4, a ; 158, a
Synthesis, 259, a ; 556, a
Syrinx, 606, b
Syrma, 606, b ; 639, b
Tabella, 608, a
„ absolutoria, 608, a
„ damnatoria, 608, a
Tabellariae leges, 199, a ; 608, a
Tabellarius, 224, b; 526, a;
608, b
„ diplomarius, 225, b
„ publicanorura,
224, b
Tabellio, 608, b
Taberna, 150, a ; 397, a ; 411, a ;
608, b
„ deversoria, 150, a
„ vinaria, 150, b
Tabernacularius, 608, b
Tabernaculum, 608, b
Tablinum, 245, b ; 670. b
Tabulae, 72, a ; 327, b ; 608, b
„ a(>neae, 609, b
„ Caeritum, 9, a
„ censoriae, 155, a;
609, b
„ ceratae, 121, b
„ dotales, 408, a
„ iustae, 6, a
„ lusoriae, 329, a
„ novae, 306, b; 563, a;
609, b
„ nuptiales, 408, a;
717, b
„ publicae, 4, a ; 609, b
„ testamenti, 749, b
„ votivae, 251, a
Tabulam, adesse ad, 96, b
Tabularii, 69, b
„ castrenses, 4, b
„ ab vehioulis, 225, a
Tabularium, 9, a; 609, b
Tabularum subsignatio, 737, b
Tabulata, 244, b ; 672, a
Taeda, 304, a ; 609, b
Taenia 52, a ; 610, a
Tala, 310, b
Talaria, 610, b
Talasio, Talasius, 408, b
Talasse, Talassus, 408, b
Talea, 447, b ; 643, b
j Talentum, 610, b
Talio, 748, a
Talus, 327, b
Tapete, 611, b
Tarentini, 288, b
1 Taura, 20, b
Taurobolium, 611, b
Taurobolus. 545, b
Taurus, 20, b ; 91, a
Tecta, 250, a
„ pectiiiata, 250, a
„ testudinata, 250, a
Tector, 47, a
„ albarius, 250, a
Tectorium, 479, b
I
Tectorium opus, 467, a
Teges, Tegeticula, 612, a
Tegula, 55, a ; 60, b ; 250, a
„ maininata, 612, a
„ marmorea, 613, a
Tela, 613, a
Telainones, 95, a
Temo, 48, b ; 219, b
Tempestus, 98, b
Temploruin vectigalia, 662, b
Templum, 511, b ; 617, a
Tempus antemeridianum,
235, a
„ eximere, 568, a
„ pomeridianuni, 235 a
Tenuioruin collegia, 750, b
Tensae, 166, b ; 627, b
Tentipellium, 314, b
Tentor, 165, a
Tentorium, 608, b
Tepidarium, 105, b ; 108, b
Terebra, 617, b
Terentilia lex, 383, a
Tergoi-a, 209, a
Terminalia, 618, a
Terentini ludi, 395, a
Termessenses, 359, b
Termini, 24, b
Terra cruda, 17, b
Territorium, 532, b ; 647, a
Tertiare, 17 a
Teruncius, 187, a
Tessella, 619, b
Tessera, 35, a ; 147, b ; 328, a ;
393, b ; 619, b
„ frumentaria, 315, b ;
619, b ; 650, a
„ liospitalis, 353, b ;
619, b
„ militaris, 620, a
„ numaria, 315, b ;
619, b
,, theatralis, 620, a
Tesserarius, 294, b
Tesserula, 619, b
Testa, 499, a; 612, a
Testamentariae leges, 383, a
Testamentarii, 749, b
Testamentifactio, 733, b ; 748, a
Testamentum, 748, a
Testudinatum, 115. a
Testudo, 73, a ; 620, a
„ fastigata, 620, b
Tetrans, 339. a
Tetraphori, 476, b
Tetrarcha, Tetrarches, 621, a
Textor, 616, a
Textrina, Textrinuni, 616, a
Textrix, 61(i, a
Thalaniegus, <)21, b
Thalamus, 621, a
Thalassio, Thalassius, 408, b
Thalassites, 673, a
Theatrum, 621, b
Theca, 217, b ; 388, b
„ calamaria, 96, a ; 127, a
„ Ciinnarum, 127, a
„ gniphiaria,127, a; 597, a
Thensae, 627, b
Theodosianus codex, 713, a
Thermae, 104, a ; 109, a
Thermopolia, 131, a ; 150, b
Thesaurus, 60, b ; 629, a
Tholus, 61, b
Thoria lex, 15. a ; 3.H3, a
Thraces, Threces, 337, b
Thronus, 630, b
LATIN INDEX
Thyrsus, 631, b
Tiara, 631, b
Tibia, 632, a
„ Berecyntia, 632, b
Tibicen, 86, b; 033, a
Tibiciiia, 633, a
Tigna, 401, b
Tignarii, 289, b
Tinctor, 86, b
Tintinnabulum, 324, b ; 633, a
Titienses, Titii, 278, b ; 647, a
Titii sodales, 633, a
Titulus, 385, a; 577, a ; 683, b
Toculio, 305, a
Toga, 261, b
„ Candida, 262, b
„ exigua, 262, a
„ laxa, 262, a
„ picta, 263, a
„ praetexta, 262, b
„ pulla, 262, b
„ pura, 262, b
„ virilis, 262, b
Togatae fabulae, 203, a
Tolleno, 39, a
Tolutim i)-e, 278, a
Toniaculum, 633, b
Tomentum, 373, a ; 633, b
Tondere, 634, a
Tonitruales libri, 342, b
Tonsor, 633, b
Tonstrina, 634, a
Tonstrix, 634, a
Tonsura, 20, a
Tophus, 250, a
Topiarius, 352, b
Toral, 373, b ; 611. b
Torcular, 448, b ; (i34, a
Torcularium, 634, a
Torculum, 634, a
Toreuma, 125, a
„ vitri, 559, b
Tormentum, 634, a
Tornus, 637, a
Torques, Torquis, 75, b ; 637, b
Tortores, 635, a
Torulus, 637, b
Torus, 53, a ; 321, b ; 373, a
Toxicuni, 551, a
Trabea, 263, a ; 535, b
Tractoriae (litterae), 225, b
Traditio, 718, b
Traduc equum, 279, a
Tragoedia, 637, b
Tragula, 83, b ; 534, a ; 642, b ;
643, b
Tragum, 534, a
Traha, Trahea, 18, a ; 643, b
Tralaticium, 156, a
Trama, 613, a
Trames, 330, a
Tramosericae, 574, b
Transcriptio, 739, b
Transenna, 9<;, a ; 250, b ; 642, b
Transfuga, 232, a
Traiisitio ad plebem, 488, a
Transvectio equitum, 279, a
Trapetum, 642, b
Trapezophoron, 1, a ; 643, a
Trechedipna, 643, a
Tresviri, 643, a
A.D.A.. 13, b
„ agro dividendo, 189, b I
capitales, 530. a ; I
(•)43. a
„ epulones, 277. b
„ raonetales, 419, b
821
Tresviri reipublicae conslitu-
endae, 643, b
Triarii, 146, a ; 290, a ; 375, b
Tribrachys, 538, b
Tribu muvere, 155, b
Tribula, Tribulum, 18, a ; 043, b
Tribules, 649, b
TribuluR, 643, b
I Tribunal, 147, a ; 541, b ; 626, b ;
{ 644, a
I „ editoris, 34, a
' „ iudicum, 165, a
Tribunicia lex, 3m3, a
,, potestas, 514, b ;
644, a
Tribunicium auxilium, 709, a
Tribunus, 293, b ; 644, a
„ aerarii, 150, a; 289, a;
644, a
„ cohortum, 292, b
,, legionum, 203, b
„ militum, 289, a ; 644, a
„ „ consulari potes-
tate, 644, b
„ plebis, 645, a
Tribus, 647, a
Tributum, 155, b ; 650, a
„ capitis, 521, b ; 662, b
soli, 521, b ; 662, b
Tribuum ordo, 649, b
Trichila, 650, a
Tricliniarcha, 153, b ; 651, a
Triclinium, 650, a
„ funebre, 322, b
Tridens, 322, b
Triens, 185, b ; 494, a
Trierarchus, 481, a
Triga, 221, a
Trigh^ihus, 652. a
Trigon, 329, b ; 330, b
Trilix, 614, b
Trilores, 388, a
Trimestre, 18, a
Triraita, 258, b
Triplicatio, 706, a
Tripos, 652, a
Tripudium, 98, a ; 552, b
„ solistimuni, 98, a
Trircmis, 434, a
Tiiticum, 18, a
Tritor, 120, a
Tritura, 18, a
Triumplius, 653, a
„ castrensis, 655, b
„ in Monte Albano, 655, b
„ navalis, 655, b
„ Persicus, 654, b
Triumvirale suppliciuni, 369, b ;
643, a
Triumviri, 643, a
Trivium, (i56. a
Trochaeus, 538, a
Trocliilus, 53, a
Troclilea, ()56, a
Trochus, 324, b
Trodea, 401, b
Troia, Troiae ludus, 656, a
Tropaeum, (i5(>, a
Trossnii. 279. a
Tnia, 511, 1> ; t\'>i\. h
Trulla, 511, b; 657, a
„ vinaria, 657, a
Trulleum, 473. a
Trullissare, 657, a
Trunci. 447, b
Trutiiia, 386, b
„ Canipana, 588, b
822
Tuba, 210, h ; 821, a
Tubicines, 654, a
Tubilustrium, 531, a
Tubulus, 310, a
Tubus, 612, a
Tudicula, 448, b ; 634, a
Tugurium, 499, b ; 657, a
Tnllialex, 374,b; 383,a;708, b
Tullianum, 141, b
TulUi, 141, b
Tumulus, 657, a
Tunica, 82, a; 263, a
„ angusticlavia, 173, b
,, chiridota, 404, a
„ interior, 261, b
„ laticlavia, 173, b
„ manicata, 263, a ; 404, a
„ muliebris, 263, a
„ palmata, 263, a
„ recta, 408, a ; 615, b
„ talaris, 260, a
Turbo, 323, a ; 325, a ; 657, a
Turdua, 21, b
Turibulum, 657, b
Turma, 290, b
Turricula, 315, a; 326, b
Turris, 326, b ; 657, b
„ ambulatoria, 658, a
,, contabulata, 658, a
„ niobilis, 658, a
„ x:)licatilis, 658, a
„ regia, 658, a
,, subrotata, 658, a
Turunda, 21, b
Tus, 658, a
Tutela, 334, b ; 749, b
Tutelae actio, 750, a
Tutor, 707, a ; 749, b
Tutulus, 196, a ; 658, a
Tj-mpanum, 55, a ; 61, a ; 223,b ;
303, b ; 401, b ; 634, a ; 658, b
Typanum, 658, b
Typus, 24, a
Tyrannus, 659, a
U.
Udo, 131, a
Ulna, 660, a
Umbella, 660, a
Umbilicus, 385, a
Umbo, 262, a ; 660, b ; 669, a
Umbra, 153, a ; 479, a
Urabraculum, (iOO, a
Urabri, 665, b
Umeralia, H2, b
Umeri, 91, b
Uncia, 183, b ; 494, a
Unctor, 27 a
Unctorium, 27, a ; 107, b
Unctuarium, 27, a
Uncus, 250, a ; 634, b ; 660, b
Unguentariae, -i, 661, a
Unguentum, 660, b
Universitas, 750, b
Universitates bonorum, 751, a
Upilio, 20, a
Urbis cura, 6, b
„ custodia. 513, a
Urceus, 91, b
Urna, 583, a
Urpex, 364, b
Ursa maior, 90, b
Ustrinum, 70, a ; 322, a
Usucapio, 751, a
Usufructuarius, 751, b
Usufructus, 751, b
LATIN INDEX
Usura, 305, b ; 306, a
Usurpatio, 751, a
Usus, 11, a; 737, b; 751, b
Uterini, 713, a
Uti possidetis, 727, b
Utilis actio, 720, a
Utres, 672, b
Utricularius, 88, b
Utrubi, 727, b
Uxor, 737, a
V.
Vacatio militiae, 359, b
Vacca, 20, b
„ honoraria, 87, b
Vacerra, 22, a
Vacua pecunia, 72, a
Vades, 704, b ; 705, b ; 729, a
Vadimonium. 705, b
Vagi, 328, b
Vagina, 18, b; 78, b
Valeriae leges, 383, a
„ Horatiae leges, 383, a ;
529, b
Valetudinarium , 295, a ; 661, a
Vallia lex, 738, b
Vail is Murcia, 163, b
Vallum, 11, b; 148, b; 661, a
Vallus, 11, b; 19, b ; 661, a
Valva, 356, a
Vannus, 15, b ; 18, a ; 661, b
Vappa, 672, b
Vara, 533, b ; 661, b
Vas, 662, a
Vasa, 662, a
„ colligere, 147, b ; 662, a
„ defrutaria, 671, b
„ fabrilia, 162, b
„ murrea, 421, a
Vasarium, 552, a ; 704, a
Vatillum, 115, a
Vatinia lex, 3H3, b
Vectigal, 11, a ; 14, a ; 23, b ;
525, b
„ rerum venalium, 156, b
Vectigales, 662, b
Vectigalia, 662, a
„ templorum, 662, b
Vectis ferreus, 401, a
Vectura, 298, a
Velamen, Velamentum, 663, b
Velarium, 82, b ; 35, a; 663, b
Velites, 14, b ; 289, b ; 337, b ;
875, b
Vellera, 20, a
Velum, 371, b; 626, b; 663, b
Velumina, 20, a
Venabulum, 83, b ; 663, b
Venatio, 663, b
Vende equum, 279, a
Vendere sub hasta, 13, b ; 96, b
Venditio, 156, a
„ bonorum, 711, a
Venditor, 709, b
Venefica, -us, 665, a
Veneficium, 664, b
Venereus iactus, 328, a
Venter, 46, a
Venti cardinales, 142, b
Ventilabrum, 18, a ; 665, a
Ventilatio, Ventilator, 18, a
Venus, 328, a
Ver sacrum, 547, b ; 665, a
Verbenae, 551, b
Verbenarius, 307, b ; 551, b
Veredarias, Veredus, 225, b
Vergiliae, 91, a
Veris initium, 93, a
Vemae, 747, b
VeiTiculum, 534, a
Versura, 17, a ; 306, a
Versus, 16, a ; 17, a
Verticillus, 323, a ; 657, a
665, b
Veru, Verutnm, 83, b
Vervacta subigere, 17, a
Vervagere, 17, a
Vesica, 665, b
Vesperi, 134, b
Vespillones, 321, b
Vestales, 665, b
Vestalis Maxima, 667, a
Vestibulum, 356, a
„ balnearum, 106, a
Vestimenta, 17, a
Vestiplicus, 262, a
Vestis Attalica, 373, b
„ bombj'cina, 574, b
„ cenatoria, 153, a ; 259, a
„ Coa, 175, b ; 574, b
„ longa, 261, a
„ Melitensis, 141, a; 411, a
„ serica, 574, b
„ stragula, 373, a
„ triumphalis, 655, b
Veterani, 293, a
Veterinarium, 295, a
Vetustas, 14, a
Vexillarii, 293, a
Vexillatio, 293, a
Vexilliferi, 294, b ; 580, a
Vexillum, 293, a ; 375, b ; 580, a
„ veteranonim, 293, a
Vi raptorum bonorum actio,
722, b
Via, 667, a
„ glareata, 668, b
„ munita, 668, b
„ Principalis, 146, b
„ Quintana, 146, b
„ sagularis, 148, a
„ Stabiana, 669, a
„ strata, 668, b
„ terrena, 668, b
„ vicinalis, 148, a; 667, b
„ vicinaria, 148, a
Viae agger, 11, b
„ privatae etc., 667, b
„ publicae etc. , 667, b
Viaticum, 669, b
Viator, 669, b
„ augvirum, 100, a
Vibia, 662, a
Vicarius, 522, b ; 577, b
Vicesima, 669, b
„ hereditatum, 9, b ;
669, b
„ libertatis, 669, b
Vicesimatio, 227, b
Vicia, 19, a
Victima, Victimarii, 549, a
Vicus, 71, a ; 459, a ; 670, a
Vidulus, 670,a
Vigiliae, 134, b ; 147, b
Vigintiviri, 670, a
Vilica, 16, b
VDicus, 16, b ; 577, b ; 670, b
„ amphitheatri, 34, b
„ ex horreis, 351, b
„ hortorum, 852, b
„ summarum, 518, b
Villa, 514, a; 670, a
Villa fructuaria, 16, b
„ pseudo-urbana, 670, a
„ publica, 154, b
„ rustica, 16, a ; 670, a
„ urbana, 16, a ; 670, a
Vinalia, 671, a
Vinculum iuris, 739, b
Viiidemiam auspicari, 671, a
Vindemiatrix, 91, u
Vindex, 704, b
Vindicatio, 704, b
Vindicias dare, dicere, 705, a
Vindicta, 307, b ; 704, b ; 736, a;
751, b
Vindictam spirans actio, 751, b
Viiiea, 16, a : 426, a ; 671, a
Vinetum, 674, b
Viaitor, 352, b
Viiium, 671, a
Violatio, 322. b
Virgae, 660, b ; 674, a
Virgarum in histriones ius,
349, a
Virgata, 552, a ; 615, b
Virgines Vestales, 665, b
LATIN INDEX
Virgo, 91, a
„ Vestalis Maxima, 667, a
Virgulta implicata, 16, a
Viridarium, 245, b ; 352, b
Viridarius, 352, b
Viritim, 14, b
Virtus, 377, a
Vis, 752, a
Viscera, 549, b
Viscuin, 96, a
Vitae necisque ius, 741, a ; 747,a
Vitis, 323, a ; 674, a
Vitium, 99, a
Vitri toreuma, 559, b
Vitricus, 708, a
Vitrum, 674, b
Vitta, 196, a; 610, a; 654, a;
674, b
„ purpurea, 658, a
Vitula, -us, 20, b
Vivarium, 22, a ; 460, b
Viviradices, 674, a
Vocare in ius, 704, b
Vocatio, 887, a
Voconia lex, 383, b
823
Volsellae, sfe Vulsellae
Volturius, Vulturius, 328, a
V^olucris, 91, a
Volumen, 385, a
Vomer, Vomis, 49, b
Vomitorium, 31, b ; 34, a
Vota j^:ublica, 676, a
Votum suscipere, 676, a
Vulcanalia, 676, a
Vulgares (servi), 577, b
Vulsellae, 27, a ; 111 , b ; 634, a ;
676, a
Xystarches, 840, b
Xysticus, 94, b
Xystns, 217, a ; 340, a ; 352, a ;
670, b
Zea, 18, b
Zophorus, 51, b ; 676, b
Zotheca, Zothecula, 246, a
676, b
824
ENGLISH INDEX
Account-books, 131, a ; 177, a
Actors, 348, a
Adjutant, 209, b
Admiral, 430, b
Adoption (Greek), 688, a
„ (Roman), 707, a
Adultery, 6!)5, b ; 707, b
Advocate, 699, b ; 708, a
Adze, 88, b
Agate, 557, a
Agent, 518, a
Agrarian laws, 13, b
Agriculture, 15, a
Ale, 157, a
Aliens, resident, 415, b
Allegiance, oath of, 3, b ; 295, a ;
366, b
Allies, 583, b
Allotments, 23, b
Alphabet, 27, a
Altar, 47, a ; 91, b
Ambassadors, 374, a
Amber, 267, b
Amnesty, 30, a
Amphitheatre, 31, a
Amulets, 35, b
Anchor, 436, b
Andirons, 216, b
Anklets, 474, b
Annexe, 157, b
Anvil, 362, a
Appeal, 691, b ; 709, a
Apron, 388, a ; 600, a
Aipieduct, 43, a
Arbitrator, 683, a
Arch, 68, a
Archers, 551, b
Architecture, 50 b
Ai-chitectural terms, glossary
of, 63, b
Archives, 609, b
Arena, 32, a
Aristocracy, 73, b
Arithmetic, 74, a
Armchair, 588, a
Armoury, 74, b
Arms and Armour, 75, b
Army (Greek), 283, a
„ (Roman), 289, a
Arrest, 679, a
Arrow, the, 91, a
Arrows, 550, b
Arson, 724, b
Artillery, 635, a
Artisans, 86, a
Assault, 677, a
Assemblies and Councils —
Greek, 12, a; 30, a; 70, a;
117, b; 263, b; 265, b;
335, a ; 465, b
Roman, 196, b ; 204, a ; 207, b ;
208, b; 218, b; 229, a
Association, 87, a; 346, a;
607, a; 713, b; 747, b
Astrology, 89, b
Astronomy, 90, a
Asylum, 93, a
Athletes, 93, b
Attorney, 518, a
Auction, 96, a
Auditors, 689, a
Augur, Augury, 97, a
Autonomy, 102, a
Awning, 626, b ; 668, b
Axe, 562, a
Axle, 219, a
Backgammon, 329, a
Badge, 362, a ; 619, b
Bag, 404, b ; 474, a
Bagpipe, 604, b
Bail (Greek), 6H7, a
„ (Roman), 705, b
Baize, 532, a
Bakers, 485, b
Balance, 386, a
Balcony, 402, a
Baldric, 84, a
Ball, game at, 313, a ; 329, b
Ballot, 608, a
Bangles, 474, b
Bankers, 71, b
Bankrupts, 227, b
Banishment (Greek), 298, a
„ (Roman), 299, a
Banquet, 151, a; 277, b; 604, b
Barber, 633, b ; 634, a
Bargain, 604, a
Barrel, 218, a
Basin, 29, b ; 158, a ; 403, b
Basket, 112, a ; 127, a; 138, a;
167, b; 208, b; 587, a; 670, a
Baths (Greek), 103, a
„ (Roman), 104, b
Battering-ram, 73, a
Beard, 111, a
Beds, 372, b
Bedstead, 338, b ; 372, b
Bees, 22, a
Beer, 157, a
Beggars, 25, a
Bell, 633, a
Bellows, 313, a
Belt, 84, a ; 110, b
Betrothal, 737, b
Bier, 321, b
Birdcatcher, 96, a
Bit (of horses), 220, b
Blacking, 95, b
Bladder, 665, b
Blanket, 389, a
Blindman's buff, 326, a
Boat, 111, a; 135, b; 141, a;
218, a ; 388, a
Bobbin, 613, a
Bodkin, 5, a
Bolt, 338, a
Bond, 738, a
Bondsmen, 343, a
Books, 384, a
Bookseller, 385, b
Booth, 608, b
Bootlace, 129, b
Boots, 128, a ; 610, b
Booty, 512, a ; 586, b
Boss, 121, a
Bottomry, 304, b; 688, b
Bow, 67, a
Bow-drill, 617, b
Bowl, 506, a ; 582, a
Boxing, 526, a
Boxing-gloves, 126, a
Bracelet, 75, a
Brass, 415, a; 456, a
Brazier, 312, a
Bread, 486, a
Breakfast, 151, b
Breastplate, 76, a ; 79, a ; 82, b
Bribery (Greek), 682, b
(Roman), 708, b
Bricks, 125, b ; 370, a ; 489, a
Bridge, 494, a
Bridle, 341, b
Bronze, 9, b ; 589, a
Brooch, 308, a
Broom, 562, b
Bucket, 122, a ; 583, a
Buckler, 468, b
Buffoon, 103, a
Bullet, 337, b
Burglar, 687, a ; 720. a
Burial (Greek), 318, a
„ (Roman), 320, a
Butler, 610, b
Butt, 218, a
Butter, 121, b
c.
Cage, 21, a; 98, a; 150, b
Cake, 410, a
Calculation, 389, ii
Caldron, 214, b
Calendar (Greek), 131, a
(Roman), 132, b
Callipers, 163, b
Caltrop, (543, b
Calumny, 711, b
Cameos, 557, a
Camp, 143, a
„ breaking up of, 147, b
,, choice of ground for,
144, b
„ construction of, 145, a
„ headquarters of, 514, a
„ of Hyginus, 147, b
„ of Polybius, 144, a
„ -oath, 147, a
„ -stool, 564, b
Canal, 43, b ; 13G, a
Candle, 137, b
Candlestick, 137, b
Canoe, 29, b
Canton, 459, a
Canvassing, 708, b
Cap, 41, a ; 484, a
Capital (of columns), 63, b
,, letters, 460, a
„ of money, 304, b
,, punishment, 216, a ;
323, a ; 711, b
Car, 218, b
Carpets, 611 b
Carriages, 222, a
Cart, 222, a
Cask, 218, a
Casket, 388, b ; 529, a
Castanets, 215, b
Casting-net, 318, a
Catalogue, 148, b
Catapult, 635, a
Cattle, 20, b
„ stealing, 704, a
Cavalry, 278, a
Ceilings, 250, b
Cellar, 150, b ; 247, a
Censer, 657, b
Chain, 149, a
Chairs, 149, b ; 563, a
Chandelier, 317, a
Chapel, 6, a ; 369, b
Chariot, 218, b
Checking-clerks, 38, a
Chest, 50, a
Chimneys, 243, b
Chisel, 125, a
Chronology, 161, b
Cider, ()73, a
Cinnabar, 191, b
Cipher, 446, a
Circumvallation, 061, b
Circus, 163, b
Citizenship (Greek), 169, a
„ (Roman), 170, b
Citizens, 497, a
Clarinet, 632, a
Classes (Servian), 196, a
Clerks (Athenian), 38, a ; 118, b ;
338, a
„ (Roman), 137, b ; 560, b
Cloaks, 237, a; 463, a
Clocks, 350, b ; 533, a ; 551, b
Clogs, 561, b
Clubs (social), 280, b ; 346, a
Cobbler's awl, 600, a
ENGLISH INDEX
Cock-fighting, 331, b
Coffer, r.O, a ; 388, b ; 541, a
Coffin, 318, b ; 321, b ; 554, b
Comage, 177, a; 770; 771
Colander, 192, a
Collar, 110, b, 187, a
Collectors, 603, b
College, 713, b
Colonnade, 498, b
Colony (Greek), 187, b
(Roman), 189, b
Colours, 191, a
Column, 192, a
Combs, 471, b
Comedy (Greek), 200, b
„ (Roman), 202, b
Commanders (military), 598, a ;
612, a
Commissioners, 276, b ; 346, b ;
689, a
Compass, 163, b ; 617, b
Concrete, 125, a
Concubines, 696, a ; 714, a
Condiments, 204, b
Confectioners, 485, b
Confederacies, 312, b
Conspiracy, 682, a
Constellations, 90, b
Contraband goods, 679, b
Contract, 604, a ; 717, a ;
736, a
Contractor, 281, b
Conveyance (legal), 735, a
Cooking-stove, 131, a
Cooks, 176, a
Coop, 21, a ; 98, a ; 150, b
Copper, 9, b
Coracle, 141, a
Cordage, 440, b
Corn, 582, b
„ -crops, IS, a
„ -drag, 643, b
„ -laws, 315, a
„ preservation of, 18, a
Corporations, 713, b ; 750, b
Corsairs, 431, b
Corset, 258, b
Cosmetics, 316, a ; 660, b
Cottage, 657, a
Cotton, 121, b ; 141, a
Couch, 373, b
Country-house, 670, a
Couriers, 11, a; 224, a; 344, a
Court-fees, 698, b
Courtesans, 345, b
Cowardice, 680, b
Cowl, 217, a
Cows, 20, b
Cradle, 218, a
Crane, 214, b
Cremation, 319, a
Crew, 354, b
Criers, 512, a
Crime, 715, a
Crook, 472, a
Crops, 18, a
Cross, 21(!, a
„ roads, 203, b ; 656, a
Crossbow, 66, b
Crown, 211, a
Cmcifixion, 216, a
Cruet, 511, a
Crupper, 499, a
Crutches, 102, a
Cube, 619, b
Cubit, 413, a
Cuirass, 76, a; 79, n ; 82, b
825
Cupboard, 541, a
Cup, 216, b ; 507, b
Curling-irons, 126, b
Curtain, 101, a; 486, b; 663, b
Curule seat, 564, b
Cushion, 157, a ; 527, a
Custom-duty, 266, b ; 474, a
Cylinder, 501, b
Cymbal, 226, a
D.
Dagger, 81, b; 217, b
Dairy produce, 21, a
Damages, 716, a
Dance, the Pyrrhic, 527, b
Dancing, 553, a
Day, 234, b
Days, lucky and unlucky, &c.,
235, a
Debts, 703, a
Decrees, 716, b
Democracy, 230, b
Depilatory, 524, b
Deposit, 696, b
Depository, 609, b
Desertion, 680, b
Despotism, 659, b
Detectives, 217, a
Diadem, 232, b
Dial, 350, b ; 351, b
Dice, 328, a
Dice-box, 315, a
Die, 619, b
Dining-room, 243, a
Dinner, 152, a
Discharge, militai-y, 296, b ;
gladiator's, 336, b
Disfranchisement, 681, a
Dish, 149, b; 162, a; 410, a;
469, b ; 470, b ; 533, b
Distaflf, 323, a
Dithyramb, 637, b
Divination, 97, a ; 238, b ;
452, a ; 585, a
Divorce (Greek), 685, b
„ (Roman), 717, a
Doctor, 410, a
Dog, the Great, 91, b
„ the Little, 91, b
Dogs, 21, a
Doles, 204, b ; 233, b ; 587, a
Dolls, 324, b
Domicile, 717, b
Door, 355, a
Dormice, 22, a
Dovecote, 192, a
Dowry (Greek), 686, b
„ (Roman), 719, a
Drag, 342, a ; 600, b
Drains, K!, a; 175, a
Drama, 200, b; 621, b ; 637. b
Draughts, game of, 328, a,
Drawers, 304, b ; 600, a
Dress, 251, b ; 25.s, a
Drill. 468, a; 617, b
Drinking-horn, 502, a ; 541. a
Drinking-party, 604, b
Druggists, 477, b
Drugs, 477, b
Drum, 65H, b
Ducks, 21, b
Dumb-bells, 341, b
Dwarfs, 430, a
Dye, 175, b
Dyke, 11, a
Dynasty, 382, b
626
E.
Eagles, Roman, 581, b
Ear-rings, 361, b
Earthenware, 499, b ; 662, a
Edicts, 719, a
Education (Greek), 396, %
„ (Roman), 397, a
Election, 198, a; 265, b ; 570.
Eleven, the, 344, a
Emblems, 123, b
Encampment, 143, a
Enchantment, 302, b
Engineers, 300, b
Engines, 401, a; 554, a
Engraving, 556, b
Ensign, 362, a
Ensigns (military), 579, b
Envoy, 374, a
Equestrian order, 279, b
Eviction, 720, b
Evil eye, 302, b
Executioner, 143, a
Exile, 298, a ; 744, a
Expiation, 602, b
Falcliion, 301, a
Family, 721, a
Fan, 310, a
Farm, 15, b ; 670, a
Fathom, 456, a
Felt, 175, b
Felting, 483, b
Fences, 10, a
Fetters, 203, a
Figurehead, 362, a
FUe, 387, b
Fillet, 362, a ; 376, b
Fines, 690, a
Fire-place, 312, a
Fire-shovel 115, a
Fire-sticks, 358, a
Fishing-line, SbO, a
„ rod, 127, a
Fishpond, 22, a ; 485, a
Flag, 580, a
Flax, 121, b
Fleets, 171, a
Flesh-hook, 342, a
Floors (of houses), 243, b
247, a
Flounce, 863, a
Flute, 310, a; 607, a; 03-3, a
Footrace, 224, a
Footstool, 559, b
Forfeits, 325, a
Forge, 136, a
Fork, 322, b
Fortification, 661, a
Fountain, 313, b
Fowler, 96, a
Fowls, 21, a
Freedman (Greek), 885, b
„ (Roman), 734, a
Freeholders, 388, b
Fresco, 479, a
Frieze, 532, a
Fringe, 308, b
Frying-pan, 555, b
Fuller, 316, b
Funeral (Greek), 318, a
„ (Roman), 820, a
Furnace, 136, a ; 314, b
ENGLISH INDEX
G.
Gambler, Gaming, 26, b ; 326, h
Games (public), 392, b
„ (amusements), 324, a
Garden, 351, b
Gates (of cities), 497, b
Geese, 21, b
Gem-engraving, 556, b
Gems, 557, a
Gimlet, 617, b
Girdle, 157, b
Gladiators, 335, b
Glass, 674, b
Glove, 404, a
Glue, 338, a
Goad, 597, a
Goats, 20, a
Gold, 101, b
„ -leaf, 120, a
„ -mines, 414, b
„ money, 101, b ; 178, a
Goldsmiths, 122, b
Gouge, 125, a
Gown, 251, b
Granary, 351, b
Grappling-iron, 842, a
Gj-aves, 571, a
Greaves, 76, b ; 80, b ; 82, b
Gridiron, 216, b
Groom, 10, b
Gruel, 527, a
Guardians (Greek), 276, a ;
690, b ; 694, a
(Roman), 218, b;
715, b; 749, b
GuaVds, 147, a
Gum, 338, a
Gymnastics, 339, b
Hair (Greek), 193, a
„ (Roman), 194, b
Hair-cloth, 1<!2, b
Hair-pins, 196, a
Hall, 242, b ; 245, a
„ town, 523, b
Halter, 139, a
Hamlet, 670, a
Hammers, 88, b ; 403, b
Hamper, 208, b
Handbells, 633, a
Handcuffs, 404, a
Handkerchief, 600, a
Handinill, 417, b
Harbour-dues, 272, a
Hares, 22, a
Harp, 554, a
Harrow, 364, b
Harrowing, 17, b
Hat, 150, b ; 484, b
Hatchet, 239, b
Headquarters, 514, a
Heads and tails, 326, b
Hearth, 312, a
„ civic, 523, a ; 665, b
Heating apparatus, 108, b ;
243, b ; 247, a ; 250, b
Heir (Greek), 690, a ; 693, a
„ (Roman), 722, b
Heliacal rising, 92, a
„ setting, 92, a
Helmet, 84, a
Hemlock, 344, a
Heralds, 307, b ; 512, a
Herdsmen, 21, a
Hide and seek, 326, a
Hinge, 142, a ; 335, b
Historians, 390, b
Hoe, 387, b ; 542. b; 555, a
Hoeing, 17, b
Holidays, 306, b
Homesteads, 670, a
j Homicide, 702, a
I Honours, 349, b
I Hood, 217, a
Hook, 842, a ; 660, b
Hoop, 324, b
Horn, 210, a
Horology, 350, b
Horsecollar, 110, b
Horse-furniture, 220, b; 274,
a ; 476, b
Horsemanship, 278, a
Horses, 20, b
Horseshoe, 584, b
Hospitality, 352, b
Hospitals, 661, a
Hour, 349, b
House (Greek), 239, b
„ (Roman), 244, a
Housekeejjer, 96, a ; 610, b
Hunting, 663, b
Hunting-spear, 663, b
Hurdle, 149, b; 215, b
Hut, 608, b ; 657, a
Idlers and vagrants, 680, a
Impiety, 680, a
Imprisonment, 141, a
Incense, 658, a
Incense box, 3, a
„ oflferings, 547, a
Incest, 724, b
Infantry, 283, b ; 292, a
Infirmary, 661, a
Informt-r, 717, a
Inheritance (Greek), 692, a
„ (Roman), 722, b
Ink, 95, b
Inkstand, 96, a
Inn, 150, a
Inspectors, 276, a
Institutes of Justinian, 726. b
Institutions of Gains, 726, 1>
Insult, 701, b
Intaglios, 559, b
Intercalary month, 133, u
Intercession, 727, a
Interdict, 727, a
Interest of money, 804, b
Interpreter, 364, a
Iron, 414, b
Isthmian games, 364, b
Itinerary, 365, a
Ivor)-, 263, b
Jar, 574, b
Jerkin, 472, b
Jester, 103, a
Jewel-box, 529, a
Jeweller}-, 128, a
Judges (Greek), 278, a ; 684, b
„ (Roman), 729, b
Jug, 91, b
Jurisdiction, 727, b ; 731, b
K.
Kerbstone, 338, b ; 527, a
Kettle, 371, a
Kettledrum 658, b
Key, 357, b
Kidnapping, 743, b
Kiln, 814, b
KiJt, 600, a
King (Greek), 534, a
„ (Roman), 535, a
Kinship, 332, a
Kitchen, 246, a
Kneading-trough, 486, a
Knife, 217, b ; 556, b
Knights (Athenian), 156, b
„ (Roman), 278, b
Knockers, 356, b
Knuckle-bones, 324, b
Label, 633, b
Labourers, farm, 16, b
Labyi-inth, 367, b
Ladder, 556, b
Ladle, 656, b
Lambs, 20, a
Lamps, 390, b
Lance, 81, a
Land-surveyors, 22, b; 412, a
Land-tenure, 10, b ; 22 b ■ i87
b ; 228, b ; 744, a
Lanterns, 369, a ; 399, a
Larceny, 722, a
Lattice, 136, b
Law, 377, a
Lawsuits (Greek), 685, a
„ (Roman), 704, a
Lead, 415, a
„ (red), 191, b
„ (white), 191, b
Leather, 209, a
Leaven, 486, a
Legacy, 733, b
Legion, 375, a
Leguminous crops, 18, b
Letter-carrier, 608, b
Letters, 27, a ; 460, a
„ patent, 237, a
Level (carpenter's), 383, b
„ (mason's), 36, b
Levy, 295, a
Libels, 384, a
Library, 116, a
Lighthouse, 477, b
Linen, 121, b ; 122, a
Link, 317, a
Liquidators, 682, b
Litters, 112, a ; 371, b
Liturgy, 376, a
Loaf, 410, a
Loans, 714, a
Lodging-house, 606, b
Loin-cloth, 600, a
Looking-glass, 585, b
Loom, 613, a
Lots, 585, a
Luncheon, 151, b
Lustration, 398, a
Lyre, 399, a
M.
Mace, 122, a jsf
Machines, 401, a Nail, 172, b
Magic, 601, b Names, 443, a
ENGLISH INDEX
Magistrates —
Greek, 65, a; 116, b; 215 a •
274, a; 339, a; 341, a;
343, a; 489, b
Roman, 233, b ; 263, a ; 364, a ;
402, b ; 410, a ; 531, a
Mallet, 403, b
Maniple, 290, a ; 375, b ; 579, b
IMaiishuighter, 702, a
^raiitlfs,"251, b
Mauuniission, 307, b ; 736, a
Manuring, 17, a
Marble, 404, b
Marines, 275, b
Market, 400, b
„ day, 446, a
Marriage (Greek), 405. b
„ (Roman), 407, b; 787, a
Masks, 475, a
Masonry, 125, a; 240, a; 370, a;
422, b ; 467, a
Mast, 436, a
Mat, 612, a
Mattock, 531, b
Mattress, 373, a
Mead, 673, a
Meals (Greek), 151, a
„ (Roman), 152, b
Measure, 412, a
Measures of capacity, 760-763
„ „ land, 22, b
„ „ length, 754-757
„ „ surface, 758, 759
Measures and weights, 7(;4-769
Medicine, 410, a
Mercenary soldiers, 414, a
Merchant- ships, 431, b; 438 b
Metals, 414, b '
Mile, 414, a
Milestones, 414, a
Militia, 293, a
Mills, 417, b
Mime, 416, b
Mines, 414, b ; 662, a
Minors, 724, a
Mint, 73, a ; 419, a
Mirror, 585, b
Mitre, 417, a
Monarchy, 418, b
Money, 490, b
„ computation of, 187, a ;
578, a
Money-lenders, 441, b
Month (Greek), 131, a
„ (Roman), 132, b
Morra, 327, a
Mortars, 420, a
Mosaics, 480, a
Mosquito-curtains, 205, a
Mould, 314, b
Mound, 11, a
Mountebank, 163, b
Mourning, 319, a
Moustaches, 111, a
Mules, 21, a
Murder, 702, a
Municipal authorities, 420, b
Musical education, 396, b
instruments, see Lyre,
Flute, &c.
„ notation, 429, a
Muzzles, 139, b
Mysteries, 267, b ; 429, b ; 456, a
827
Napkin, 404, b
Navy. 171, a; 440, b ; 651, a
Necklace, 419, b
Needle, 4, b
Nemean games, 442, a
Nets, 533, b
New Year's gift, 599, a
Newspaper, 4, a
Nickel, 415, a
Nobles, 442, b
Notary, 608, b ; 009, b
Note-book, 200, a
Notice-board, 26, b
O.
Oars, 433, a
Oath (Greek), 365, b
„ (Roman), 366, b ; 733, a
Obelisks, 446, b
Oboe, 632, a
October horse, 446, b
Odd and even, 336, b
OfiScers, duty of, 147, a
„ parade of, 147, a
Oil- lamp, 390, b
OiJ-press, 642, b
Oligarchy, 448, b
Olive oil, 447, a
Olives, 447, a
Olympiad, 450, b
Olympic games, 449, a
Omens, 97, b; 239, a; 342 a-
546, b ' '
Oracles, 451, b
Orders of Architecture, 51, b
sqq.
Organ, 401, a
Organist, 354, b
Orgiastic cults, 102, b : 121 b •
267, b ; 456, a ' '
Ostracism, 298, b
Ovation, 458, a
Oven, 173, b ; 314, b
Overseers, 276, a
Ownership, 71'7, b
Oxen, 20, b
Padlock, 358, a
Paint, 316, a
Paintmg, 479, a
Palaeography, 460, a
Palanquin, 371, b
Palimpsest, 461, b
Pandects, 740, a
Panniers, 175, a
Pantaloons, 119, b
Pantomime, 466, a
Paper, 384, a
Papyrus, 384, a ; 460, a
Parallel years, 772-775
Parasite, 466, b
Parasol, 660, a
Parchment, 384, b
Parish, 459, a
Parks, 22, a ; 466, b
Partnership, 747, b
Pasture, 19, 20
„ public, 14, a ; 561, a
Pastry, 561, a
Patchwork, 156, b
Patriarchal system, 332. a-
741, a ' . .
Patron, 731, b
Pattern, 314, b
828
Pavement, 250, n
„ of streets, 582, a;
668, a
Pay of soldiers, 597, a
Pedigree, 596, b
Pediment, 303, a
Pen, 127, a
Penknife, 217, b
Pepper, 485, a
Perfumery, 660, b
Physician, 410, a
Pickaxe, 405, a
Picture gallery, 485, a
Pigeons, 21, b
Pillorv', 117, a
Pillow, 157, a
Pin, 4, b
Pincers, 313, b
Pipe, 309, b ; 606, b
Pipkin, 122, a
Piracy, 431, b
Pitch and toss, 320, b
Pitchfork, 322, b
Plaid, 551, b
Plaintiff, 706, b
Plane, 542, a
Planets, 486, b
Plaster, 157, a
Plate, 469, b
Pledge, 743, a
Plough, 48, b
Ploughing, 17, a
Plumb-line, 533, b
Poisoning, 477, b ; 664, b ; 702, a
Poleaxe, 239, b
Police, 217, a ; 405, b
Polling enclosures, 196^ b ;
496, a
Polychromy, 480, a
Pomade, 554, b
Ponies, 404, a
Porridge, 527, a
Portcullis, 148, b
Porters, 103, a ; 137, b
Portico, 25, b ; 498, b
Portland Vase, 559, b
Portrait-masks, 358, b
Postal service, 224, b
Pottery, 499, a
Pound, 493, b ; 700
Priests, 323, b ; 442, a ; 460, b ;
496, a ; 53G, b ; 542, b ; 552, n
Prison, 141, a; 281, b
Prodigies, 518, b
Property, 710, a
Property-tax, 266, b
Proscription, 520, a
Prostitutes, 345, b
Prow, 432, b
Pulpit, 600, b
Pump, 176, a
Punishments, 216, a; 310, b;
323, a ; 369, b
Punt-pole, 208, a
Purification, 398, a
Purses, 121, a ; 318, a
Pyre, 318, b ; 322, a
Pyrrhic dance, 527, b
Pythian games, 528, a
Q.
Quack-doctors, 477, b
Quarries, 414, b
Quicksilver, 415, a
Quiver, 477, b
Quoit, 238, a
ENGLISH INDEX
K.
Race-course, 346, b
Races, 166, b
Raft, 531, b
Railing, 136, b ; 171, a
Rake, 531, b
Ram, 20, a
„ military, 73, a
„ naval, 431, b
Rampart, 11, b
Rasp, 560, b
Rattle, 215, b ; 324, a
Razor, 217, b
Reaping, 17, b
Reeds, 126, b
Referee, 11, b
Reirvs, 341, b
Relationship, 708, a ; 713, a
Reservoir, 166, a ; 485, b
Resident aliens, 415, b
Revenue officers, 525, a
Revenues, 561, a ; 662, b
Rhytlmi, 537, b
Riband, 376, b ; 610, a ; 675, b
Riddle, 8, b ; 338, b
Riding, 278, a
Rings, 39, b
Ritual (Greek), 548, a
„ (Roman), 549, a
Rivet, 338, a
Road, 667, a
Robbers, 733, b
Rod, 307, b
Roller, 226, a
Roofs, 25t>, a
Rope-dancers, 317, a
Rounds, 147, b
Rudder, 436, a
Ruler, 532, b
Runaway slaves, 187, b ; 578, a
Sabots, 561, b
Sackbut, 554, a
Sacrifices, 546, b
Sacrilege, 691, b ; 746, a
Saddle bags, 274, a
„ cloth, 274, a
Saddles, 274, a
Sailors. 172, a ; 439, b
Sails, 433, a
Salarj-, 552, a
Sale contract, 720, b
Sales, 96, a ; 735, b
Salt, 553, a
„ cellar, 203, b ; 553, a
„ works, 553, a
Sanctuixry, 93, a
Sandal, 77, a; 82, b; 1J5, b;
610, b
Satire, 555, b
Saucer, 469, b
Sauce, 204, b
Saw, 574, b
„ dufit, 560, b ; 617, b
„ mills, 418, b
Scales, 386, a
Scavengers, 93, a
Scene-painting, 623, b
Scent-bottles, 26, a
Sceptre, 560, a
School fees, 397, a
Schools, 396, a
Scissors, 314, a
Scourge, 310, b
Screens, 136, b
I Screw, 176, a ; 348, a
Scrutiny, 282, b ; 684, a ; 686, a
Sculpture, 588, b
Scythe, 300, b
Seal, 581, b
Seasons, 92, b
Seats, 149, b ; 563, a
Sedan-chair, 564, b
Senate (Greek), 117, b
„ (Roman), 565, a
Sentinels, 147, a
Sepulchre, 571, a
Serfs, 473, a
Servian constitution, 196, a ;
197, b
Servitude, 746, a
Shackles, 203, a
Shaft, 560, a
Sham fight, 656, a
SlKivings, 617, b
Shawl, see Dress
Shears, 314, a
Sheath, 78, b; 81, b; 84, a;
217, b
Sheep, 19, a
Shelf, 472, a
Shields, 77, a ; 83, a ; 561, b
Shift, 256, a ; 261, b ; 263, a
Ships, 431, a
Shirt, 136, a
Shoe, 128, a ; 361, a
Shops, 608, b
Shorthand, 446, a
Shovel, 115, a ; 542, b
Slirine, 6, a ; 369, b
Shuttle, 614, b
Sibyl, 578, b
Sickle, 800, b
Sideboard, 1, a
j Siege operations, 684, a
Sieve, 216, b
Signs of the Zodiac, 91, a
Silk, 574, b
Silver, 72, b
„ mines, 415, b
„ money, 178, a ; 185, b
Skins, 472, b
Slave-dealer, 577, a
Slaves (Greek), 575, a
„ (Roman), 576, b
Sleeve, 404, a
Slings, 317, b
Slingers, 317, b
Slipper, 584, b
Snails, 22, a
Soap, 554, b
Soothsayers, 342, a
Sounding-lead, 148, b
Sowing, 17, b
Spade, 459, b
Span, 413, b ; 586, b
Spear, 78, b ; 81, a ; 83, a
Spectacles, 302, b
Spindle, 323, a
Spit, 83, b
Splint, 574, b
Sponge, 587, a
Spoon, 176, a
Spruig-board, 476, b
Spur, 127, b
Spy, 692, a
Stable, 513, a
Staff, 122, a
Stage, 541, b
Standards, military, 579, b
Stars, fixed, 92, a
Statuary, 588, b
statuettes, 618, a
Steelyard, 5«8, b
Stenograpliv, 446, a
Step, 338, a"
Stern, 432, b
Steward, 238, b ; 610, b
Stichometry, 461, a
Stilts, 338, a
Stirrups, 2,74, a
Stocks, 442, b
Stools, 563, b
Storehouse, 629, a
Store-room, 150, b
Stoves, 243, b
Straps, 341, b
Street, 667, a
Streets, care of, 668, a
Stucco, 241, a ; 467, a ; 479, b
Summons, 679, a ; 688, b ;
704, b
Sumptuai'y laws, 600, b
Sun-dial, 350, b
Supernumeraries, 2, b
Superstition, 610, b
Surety, 687, a
Surgery, 158, a
Surgical instruments, 158, b
Surveying instruments, 24, b ;
338, b
Surveyors, 412, a
Sutlers, 888, b
Swaddling-bands, 302, a ; 362, a
Swan, the, 91, a
Sweetmeats, 152, a ; 407, a ;
625, b
Swimming batb, 109, b
Swine, 20, b
Swinging, 325, a
Sword, 78, a ; 81, a ; 84, a ;
209, a; 217, b
S'vord-stick, 239, b
■Tablecloth, 404, b
1 Abies, 411, a
Tablets, 609, a
Qalent, 610, b
Tambourine, 658, b
i toner, 209, a
Taper, 317, a
Tapestry, 101, a ; 611, b
' "^rget, 126, b
issel. 308, b
Ittoo-mark, 596, b
jix-collector, 41, a ; 266, a ;
525, a ; 616, b
'axes (Greek), 266, b
„ (Roman), 156, b; 193, a;
616, b ; 669, b
'emple, 68, b ; 617, a
jmple slaves, 346, a
ent, 608, b
'erracotta, 589, b ; 618, a
estament, 748, a
.eatre, 621, b
left, 693, b ; 722, a
■lodolite, 339, a
v'mble, 235, b
I'reshing, 18, a
ireshold, 355, a
:-on«, 630, b
I'rum, 808, b
kcU. 619, a
ies, roofing, 612, a
rme, division of, 131, a;
234, b ; 349, b
ENGLISH INDEX
Tin, 415, a
Tithes, 228, a ; 662, a
Toasts, 605, b ; 606, a
Toilet, 4, b; 75, a; 128, a;
193, a; 251, b; 316, a; 471, b
Tokens, 619, b
Tolls, 499, a
Tombs, 571, a
Tombstones, 596, a
Tongs, 313, b
Tooth powder, 232, a
Top, 324, b
Top boots, 128, b
Torch, 304, a; 609, b
Torch race, 368, b
Torture, 634, a
Touchstone, 215, b
Towel, 404, b
Tower, 657, b
Tow-rope, 533, b
Toys, 324, a
Tragedy (Greek), 637, b
„ (Roman), 641, b
Training schools, 340, a
Transfers, 735, b
Transit dues, 499, a
Travelling, 224, b
Tray, 306, b ; 561, b
Treason, 734, b
Treasurer, 610, b
Treasury, 9, a ; 309, a
Treaty, 312, b
Tribes (Greek), 646, a
„ (Roman), 647, a
Tribunes, 644, a
Tribute, 478, a
Trident, 322, b
Tripod, 652, a
Triumph, 653, a
Trophy, 656, a
Trougli, 388, a
Trousers, 119, b
Truce, 93, a ; 846, b
Trumpet, 210, b
Truncheon, 440, b
Trustee, 721, b
Tub, 122, a
Tumblers, 233, b
Tunnel, 272, a
Turban, 269, b ; 417, b
Tweezers, 676, a
Twelve Tables, 379, a
Tyranny, 659, a
U.
Umbrella, 660, a
Umpire, 683, a
Undertaker, 320, b
Urn, 319, b ; 502, a
Usurers, 305, a; 441, b
Vagi-ants and idlers, 680, a
Vase making, 504, b
„ painting, 480, b
Vases, 504, b
Vault, 216, b ; 315, a
Vegetables, 18, b
Veil, 311, b
Verandah, 25, b ; 474, a
Veto, 363, a
Villa, 670, a
Vinegar, 499, a ; 672, b
Vines, 674, a
Violence, 701, b ; 752, a
829
Voting (Greek), 118, b ; 157, b ;
524, a
„ (Roman), 197, b ; 608, a
„ tablets, 608, a
Vows, 676, a
W.
Waggon, 90, b ; 222, a
Walking-stick, 102, b
Wall, 250, a; 421, a; 467, a
Wallet, 404, b ; 474, a
War-cry, 171, a
„ tax, 604, a
„ ships, 433, b
Watchword, 147, b
Water clock, 350, b
„ level, 159, b
„ mills, 418, b
„ organ, 354, a
„ pipe, 309, b
„ wheel, 38, b
„ works, 43, a; 168, a;
309, b ; 313, a
Weaving, 613, a
Weeding, 17, b
Week, 446, a
Weights, 490, b
Weights and measures, 764-
769
Weft, 614, b
Weir, 149, a
Wheel, 219, a
Whetstone, 215, a
Wliip, 310, b
Wliisk (sacrificial), 549, b
Whistles, 824, a
Wliorl, 657, a
Wig, 323, b
Wills, 692, b ; 748, a
Windlass, 38, a
Window, 250, b ; 304, b
Wine, 671, a
„ cooler, 524, b
„ flask, 510, b ; 511, b ;
671, b
„ press, 684, a
„ skin, 271, b
Winnowing, 18, a
„ fan, 661, b
Witchcraft, 35, b ; 601, b
Witnesses, 694, b
Women's dress, 252, a. See
also Toilet
W^omen's position, rights, &c.,
407, b ; 685, b ; 690, a ; 707,
b ; 717, a ; 737, a ; 741, a
Women's rooms, 241, a; 243, a
Wood-carving, 102, a
Woof, 614, b
Worship, 545, b
Wreaths, 362, a
Wrestling, 391, a
Writing, 27, a
„ tablets, 238, a ; 609, a
Y.
Yards (sail), 443. a
Year (Greek), 131, a
„ (Roman), 132, b
„ division of, 92, b
Years, parallel, 772-775
Yoke, 365, b
Z.
Zinc, 415, a
SPO'l'l'lSWCIOUE AXV CU., NKW-bitUiJ:.! svjtAiUt
LoM)U.\
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University of California Library
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