ab. MJt «^ THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY BY JOHN p. COLDSTREAM WRITER TO HER MAJESTY'S SIGNET AUTHOR OF 'THE INSTITUTIONS OF AUSTRIA ■r X -r- ARCH. CONSTABLE AND CO. Publishers to the India Office 2 WHITEHALL GAEDENS, S.W. MDCCCXCVI LL^t'le Ediuburgh : T. and A. Constable, Printers to Her Majesty IJNI ity) PEEFACE The kind reception given to my book on the Institutions of Austria, published in July last, seems to>justify the presenta- tion of this volume to the public. It is not intended to be an exhaustive treatise on its subject, but is simply an endeav- our to meet the felt want of a concise handbook giving such information on the Institutions of Italy as most travellers desire to have in passing through it, or as students wish to possess. I could not have accomplished my object if I had not obtained the valued vi THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY help of Signer Emilio Piovanelli, Professor of Letters of the University of Rome, and Clerk to the Chamber of Deputies for Telegraphic Reports, who supplied me with the information required, and to whom my best thanks are due. I have also to record my gratitude to Avvocato Adolfo de Bosis, Doctor of Laws of the University of Rome, for his kind help in the revision of the volume. Rome, 1st January 1896. CONTENTS CHAPTER I HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL State of Country before Union — Short Sum- mary of History of Union — Result of Unification — Boundaries of Country — Pro- vinces — Chief Cities — Chief Rivers— Chief Mountains — Chief Lakes — Population — Different Nationalities— Superficial Area — Proportion of Population to Square Mile, CHAPTER II GOVERNMENT The Monarch — His Powers— King Humbert — His Successor — His Personal Allowance— The Parliament — The Senate — Qualifica- tion of Members and their Appointment — The Ministers of State — The Introduction vii PACE Vlll THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY of Measures and Bills — Its Sessions — House of Deputies — Qualification of Mem- bers — Duration of Parliament — The Elec- tors — Electoral Districts — The Elections — Expenses thereof — Bribery — The President of the House — Accommodation for Mem- bers, etc. — Swearing in of Members — Introduction of Bills — The Quorum — Voting — Interrogations — Interpellations — Political Parties in the State — Sessions of House — Admission to House — The Taxes — Amount of Taxation — The Revenue — The Expenditure — The Consiglio Provin- ciale — Number of do. — Its Members — The Electors — Its Revenue — The Prefect — The Consiglio Comunale — Its Powers — Mem- bers — Its Electors — The Syndic — Its Re- venue, ....... CHAPTER III JUSTICE The Courts of the Country— The Giudice Con- ciliatore — Its Jurisdiction — Its Judges — The Pretura — Its Jurisdiction and Judges PAGE CONTENTS IX PAGE — The Tribunal — Its Jurisdiction and Judges— The Court of Appeal — Its Juris- diction and Judges — The Court of Assise — Its Jurisdiction and Judges — The Jurors and their Qualification — The Court of Cassation — Its Jurisdiction and Judges — Procedure, Civil and Criminal — General Remarks upon the Judges — The Avvocato —The Solicitor— The Notaro— The Police, 40 CHAPTER IV BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE Parties who cannot Marry — Dispensations to such — Conditions of Marriage — Proclama- tion or Notice — The Civil Marriage — The Religious Marriage — The Register — The Marriage of Officers — Contract of Marriage — Action for Breach of Promise — Marriage of British Subjects — Nullity of Marriage, Grounds for — Separation, Grounds for, . 62 CHAPTER V SUCCESSION Rights of Spouse and Children on Death of In- testate — Rights of Parties when no Spouse THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY PAGE or Children — Rights of State when no near Relative — Rights of Father as to Bequest of half of his Property, .... 73 CHAPTER VI PARENT AND CHILD Right of Child to Support— Majority of Child- Guardians to Children — Rights of Ille- gitimate Child — Legitimation of such — Parent cannot disinherit a Child — Adop- tion — Formal Adoption of Children — Con- ditions of such, and ensuing Rights, . . 77 CHAPTER VII THE NOBILITY Rights to Precedence — Old Noble Families of Italy — Classes of Nobles — Rights of Chil- dren to Titles of Courtesy — Additions to the Nobility — No House of Hereditary Legislators — Husband ennobled by his Wife takes her Title — Decorations for Merit — The Annunciata— Its Members — St. Maurizio and Lazzaro — The Order of L- CONTENTS XI PACK Savoy — The Crown of Italy — The Grades of the Orders — The Manner of conferring the Order, ....... 81 CHAPTER VIII RELIGION The Roman Catholic the Religion of the State — Number of Protestants and Jews — Religion no bar to Public Ofl&ce — Number of Roman Catholic Churches in Rome — Power of Priests — Influence at Elections — Endow- ments for Roman Catholic Religion — Emoluments of Bishops and Clergy — Abolition of Monasteries and Convents — Religious Freedom, and Freedom of Wor- ship — Protestant Places of Worship in Rome — Various Sects of Protestants — The Waldenses— The Chiesa Evangelica Itali- ana — The Wesleyan Methodists — The Episcopal Methodists — The Baptists — The Chiesa Cattolica Italiana — Colportage Work — The Pope — His Position and Jurisdiction — His Emoluments — Appoints Bishops, ....... 88 Xll THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY CHAPTER IX EDUCATION PAGE Education compulsory — {School required where 500 Inhabitants — Education Free — Govern- ment Inspection — Secondary Schools — Istituto Tecnico — Scuola Professionale — Curriculum at do.— The Gymnasium— The Liceo — Female Students in the Liceo — Teachers, their Appointments and Emolu- ments — Administration of Schools — Coun- cil of Education — Religious Instruction — The Universities— Number thereof, and locations — Free Universities— Female Stu- dents can attend — The Faculties — The Professors and Lecturers— The Principal —Administration of University Affairs— The Consiglio Accademico — Appointment of Professors— Their Salaries— No Degrees honoris cawso— The Session— The Student —The Curriculum— His Payments— Tak- ing his Degree— His Clubs and Pastimes— Bursaries— General Remarks on Educa- tion, 101 CONTENTS Xlll CHAPTER X THE LAND PAGE Proprietors — No Law of Entail — Register of Land Rights — The Letting of Land — The DiflFerent Systems — No Building Leases — Interest on Mortgages — Game Rights — Fishing Rights — Forests — Inspectors of Forests — School of Forestry, . . . 119 CHAPTER XI THE ARMY AND NAVY The War Strength of Army — The Peace Strength — The DiflFerent Regiments — The Annual Levy — The Time of Service — The Pay of Soldiers— The OflQcer— The Mili- tary Schools — The Oflficers' Examination — Their Pay — Their Pension — Widows' and Children's Provision — The Marriage of Officers — Duels — Horses for Army — The Rifles— The Guns — The Navy— Number of Ships — Number of Marines — Annual Levy — Training-School for Naval Officers — XIV THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY PAGE Naval Stations — The Pay of Officers — Admiral of the Fleet— Pay of Sailors, . 126 CHAPTER XII COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. Exports and their Value — Imports and their Value— The Wine Trade— The chief In- dustries — Marble and Granite Quarries — Tobacco and Salt — The Area of the King- dom, and its Divisions as to cultivated and uncultivated Land — The Produce of the Country — The Number of Animals — The Railways — Postal and Telegraph Ser- vices — Water, Gas, and Electric Lighting and Power — The Shipping, . . . 137 CHAPTER XIII THE RELIEF OF THE POOR No Poor Tax — Begging forbidden, with ex- ceptions — Many Beggars — Their Punish- ment — Charitable Foundations — The Hos- pitals—Their Administration — The Statute for the Opere Pie, 148 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY CHAPTER I HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL It is outside the scope of this work to give any detailed or adequate sketch of the history of Italy. Suffice it to say that since the fall of the Roman Empire there has never been a time when Italy could be called a united Kingdom till the present generation; that for many years before X the time when it could be again spoken of as such, the country was divided into several States, chiefly ruled over by foreigners. Nation contended against ^ into seven States, six of which, namely. Piedmont, Parma, Modena, Tuscany, the Papal States and Naples, were separate States with Kings or Dukes of their own as rulers, while the kingdom of Lom- bardy and Venice was subject to Austria, u In 1859 the kingdoms of Piedmont, Tuscany, Lombardy, Parma, and Modena 4 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY were united in government; and in 1860 the northern parts of the Papal States, including Bologna, were added to the kingdom; while in 1861 Naples, in 1866 the Venetian provinces, and in 1870 Rome and the rest of the Papal States, became part of the Kingdom. Turin had been the capital and seat of government of Piedmont, but in 1865 Florence was recognised as the capital and seat of government in the new King- dom, and existed as such till 1870, when the seat of government was transferred to Rome on the evacuation of the French and Papal troops. The unification of Italy has been pro- ductive of the greatest good to its people. Education has made great progress, as will be gathered from the sequel. The HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL 5 material wealth of the country increases rapidly notwithstanding the heavy taxa- tion imposed. This, however, is not in excess, but very much under that of France per head of population. Com- mendatore Cerboni, an authority upon the subject, has stated that whereas Italy was taxed at about 45 francs 24 cents per head of population, in France the amount was 84 francs 44 cents. The sanitary condition and general X health of the community has greatly im- proved under the changed state of affairs and government. The people feel that they are now living under free institutions, and that they themselves are the rulers of their own destinies so far as it can lie with them to be so. 6 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY Italy is a peninsula, and is bounded on the north by France, Switzerland, and Austria, while its eastern border is bounded by the Adriatic Sea, and the south and west by the Mediterranean. It has 69 provinces, and the following are its divi- sions, viz.: — Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia, Liguria, Emilia, Tuscany, Marche, Abruzzi, Lazio, Campania, Puglie, Basilicata, Cala- bria, Sicily, and Sardinia. The capital of the Kingdom is Rome, while Naples is the most populous of its cities; the other chief cities are Milan, Florence, Venice, and Turin. The chief rivers are the Po, the Adige, the Tiber, and the Arno. The chief mountains in the Alpine range are Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, and Grand Paradise. In the Appenines, the HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL 7 chief is the Gran Sasso d'ltalia. In Sicily there is Mount Etna, which, with Vesuvius near Naples, are the only two great volcanoes in Europe. The chief lakes are Maggiore, Como, Lugano, and Garda. The population of the Kingdom is 31,250,000, of whom 135,000 are French, and reside chiefly in Piedmont; 55,000 are Albanians; 20,000 are Greeks, chiefly found in Calabria and Sicily; 20,000 are Germans, chiefly to be found near Verona ; 5500 are English, scattered through the country. A census is usually taken every ten years; but to save the expense, the last, which should have been taken in 1891, was not taken up. The figures given above are for 1895, and are taken from 8 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY the Registrar's returns, which are kept with amazing accuracy. The superficial area of the Kingdom is about jf 7 3,221,413 acres, and the pro- portion of population to the square mile is about 272, while that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is 338 ; Germany, 236 ; France, 184 ; Austria-Hungary, 171 ; Spain, 91 ; and Russia, 47. CHAPTER II GOVERNMENT The Government of Italy is a Monarchy, limited and controlled by Parliament. The Monarch bears the title of ' By the Grace of God and will of the Nation, King of Italy.' He chooses his own Ministers of State, and with their advice he can declare war, and make peace; he can pardon criminals, and reduce sentences; he can put his veto on any measures passed by Parliament, and he can dissolve Parlia- ment. The present King is Humbert i. He was born on 14th March 1844, was married 10 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY to Margherita, Princess of Savoy, daughter of the Duke of Genoa, in April 1868, and he succeeded his father, Victor Emmanuel, on 9th January 1878. The successor to the throne is Victor Emmanuel, Prince of Naples, the only child of King Humbert. He was born on 11th November 1869, and is still un- married. The King has a personal allowance of 14,250,000 lire,^ paid out of the taxes of the country. THE PARLIAMENT. The Parliament is the only Legislative Assembly in the kingdom. It is the same in constitution, and follows the model of Piedmont, founded in 1848. ^ A lira is equal to a franc, or about lOcl. stg. THE SENATE 11 It consists of two Chambers — an Upper and a Lower House. The Upper House is called ' The Senate,' while the Lower is styled ' The House of Deputies.' THE SENATE. There is no limit to the number of the members of the Senate. At present it consists of about 300 Senators. The ordinary members of the Senate are, on the advice of his Ministers, nomi- nated by the King for life. Their appoint- ment must, however, be ratified by the Senate itself; and in two cases at least, during the last few years, such ratification has been refused. There are no hereditary members except Princes of the Royal Family, who become Senators on attaining the age of twenty-one. 12 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY The other members are chosen from out of twenty-one classes of the community ; but practically they may be said to be selected from, the following, viz. : — (1) Men who have distinguished them- selves by service to the State. (2) Men who have been elected members of the House of Deputies for three Parlia- ments. (3) Men who pay over 3000 lire of taxes yearly. (4) Men distinguished in science, art, and literature, professional men, etc., etc. There is no particular time for appoint- ing new members to the Senate. As Senators die their places may, or may not, be at once filled up ; and it often happens that new members are appointed simply for the purpose of preventing a Govern- THE SENATE 13 ment measure from being lost, or as the exigencies of the Government of the day require it. The members of the Senate receive no remuneration for their services, but they have free passes on the railways and on the steamboats whenever they travel. There are a President, and four Vice- Presidents, who must be members of the House. They are nominated by the King. They have no salaries. The Ministers or Secretaries of State are twelve in number, and can be mem- bers of either the Senate or of the House of Deputies. They have salaries of about £1000 each. They are appointed by the King, and they hold Portfolios as follows, viz. : — (1) The President of the Council, who 14 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY may also fill a Secretaryship; (2) Home Affairs, called the Minister of the Interior ; (3) Foreign Affairs; (4) War; (5) Navy; (6) Public Instruction; (7) Trade, Com- merce, and Agriculture ; (8) Public Works ; (9) Post and Telegraphs; (10) Justice and Religion ; (11) Finance; (12) The Treasury. There is an Under-Secretary attached to the office of each Secretary of State, who must be a member of one or other of the Houses, and can represent his chief in it. Their salaries are £400 each. The Ministers can introduce measures in either House, and can speak in both. For the transaction of business the Senate is divided into five Committees. When a bill is introduced by a Minister it is read a first time in the House, and then sent to be considered by all these THE SENATE 15 Committees, each of which discusses it, and appoints one of their number to form another Committee of five (one being taken from each Committee) to report upon it to the Senate. The report of this latter Committee may be that of a majority of its members. When presented to the House it is supported by one or more of its members, and should it not be a unanimous report, the minority is also represented. It is then discussed by the members of the House at large, and if the bill is to proceed, the clauses of it are gone over and adjusted, when it is read over a third time and voted on. The voting takes place by the members de- positing in black and white vases balls of like colours. If they approve of a measure they place a white ball in the white vase. 16 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY and also a black ball in the black vase. If they disapprove, they place a black ball in the white vase, and a white ball in the black one. If the bill introduced is that of a private member, before it is allowed to be read even a first time it must be sent to the five Committees ; and if they approve of its principle, it is again presented to the House, and is then treated in the same manner as if it were a Government Bill. Any measure except a Finance Bill can be considered by the Senate in the first ' instance. A bill dealing with Finance must be brought in in the Lower House. The Senate can meet at any time when summoned by the King. Its usual Sessions are held between 15th November and HOUSE OF DEPUTIES 17 15th July, with two intervals of twenty days each, or more, at Christmas and at Easter. HOUSE OF DEPUTIES. The House of Deputies is the Lower House of Parliament, and its members are elected by the people. It consists of 508 members, whose only qualification, except as regards officers in the army and navy, is that they must be Italian subjects, and not less than thirty years of age. Among the members may be found judges, professors, professional men, clergymen, noblemen, etc., etc. ; but of men holding office under Government, ex- clusive of the Ministers of State, not more than forty can be members of the House, and of these forty, not more than ten 18 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY can be Professors in the Universities. The officers of the army and navy who can be members of the House must in the army hold at least the rank of Major, and in the navy that of Captain. The working classes are not represented to any great extent by men of their own position ; but in the present Parliament the Chief Fac- chino, or Head Porter of Milan, represents one of the districts of that city. The members receive no salary, but have, like members of the Senate, free passes on all the railways, and on the steamboats. In the latter they can travel as far as Constantinople. A member on his election receives a gold medal, about the size of an English sovereign, which he usually attaches to his watch-chain, and this is his pass in HOUSE OF DEPUTIES 19 travelling. Many members have several of these medals attached to their chains, indicating of how many Parliaments they have been members. The Parliament is elected for five years, but it may be dissolved by the King at any time on the advice of his Ministers. The average duration of a Parliament since its creation has been about two and a half years. The shortest was about five months, and the longest four and a half years. The electors are all male subjects of Italy of twenty- one years of age and upwards, who are able to read and write, and who must prove it if called on to do so; besides (1) have the licence of the Elementary Schools; or (2) be in such a position as justifies this presumption; or 20 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY (3) pay 19 lire — 18 centimes of direct taxation annually ; or (4) what is deemed equivalent to the last, as paying 500 lire rental for land ; or for a house, from 150 lire in rural Communes, increasing in ratio to 400 lire in the largest Communes. A register of voters is made up by every municipality, who are supposed to know about every qualified voter within their bounds. No fixed period of residence within the voting district is required, and if a voter changes his residence, on notice given, he can have his name transferred to the register of his new abode ; but if he does not take such steps, his name will remain on the register of his former abode till so transferred; but this can be done only once a year. The Kingdom is divided into equal HOUSE OF DEPUTIES 21 electoral districts, of as nearly 50,000 electors as possible, each of which returns one member. There are 5 members for Rome, 12 for Naples, and 6 for Milan. The voting is by ballot, but the elector must write out on his voting-card the name of the candidate for whom he votes. Should no candidate have an actual majority of votes in a district a second ballot takes place, on the lapse of a week from the first. If one-eighth of the voters has not voted, another election is held within eight days. The elections always take place on a Sunday, so as to give an opportunity to the small shopkeepers and labourers, who otherwise would have difficulty in voting, to exercise their right of franchise. 22 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY The official expenses of the election are borne by the Commune. The personal expenses of the candidate, and of his candidature, are borne by him- self or by any society or organisation which brings him forward. There is no Hmit to the amount of these expenses, which may only be a few pounds, but have been quoted as high as £4000. Bribery at elections is forbidden by law, but it constantly takes place. There is a special Committee of Parliament to in- quire into cases of this kind, which is nominated by the President. On proof of bribery being established the election is declared null, and a new one takes place. The President of the House is elected by its members for one Session only. There are four Vice-Presidents elected in HOUSE OF DEPUTIES 23 like manner. Neither the President nor the Vice-Presidents have any salary. The President sits in the centre of a long platform, having the officials of Parlia- ment sitting at desks on either side of him. Neither he nor they have any robes of office. He calls the House to order by the ringing of a small handbell, which does not appear always to be effective. The Ministers sit before a long table, below the President's platform and facing the members, who are seated opposite on benches rising from the floor of the House in a semicircle. Each member has his own particular seat with a desk on which he can place his papers. This he occupies during the whole of the Parhament for which he is elected. A plan of the House can be obtained on which is indicated the 24 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY seat of each member, so that, as a rule, it can be at once ascertained by reference to it who is addressing the House. On the' left of the President sits a gentleman holding the office styled 'Ei- visore dei resoconti parlamentari,' whose duty is to send, as the proceedings go on, a resume of them to all the Prefects in the various provinces by telegram. There sit in the middle of the floor of the House, at a separate table, three of the fifteen short- hand reporters appointed by the Parlia- ment, who make up the official report of the proceedings of which each member receives a copy. The Ministers, and other members, if they desire it, are, before pub- lication, given an opportunity of revising their speeches for this report. Facing the table of the Ministers sit the HOUSE OF DEPUTIES 25 Committee of nine appointed to bring up the report of the bill under discussion. At the commencement of each new ParHament the members are sworn in a body ; the President saying, ' I swear to be faithful to the King, and to be faithful to all the laws of the State for the good of the King and country ' ; while the members one by one say, ' I swear.' ^ Bills are introduced and dealt with in the same manner as those in the Senate (see page 14), except that the number of Committees which consider them is nine in place of five. Besides which there is a permanent Committee for Finance. The quorum of the House required for the passing of a measure, or of a bill, is * The same oath is taken by the Senators on their nomination only. 26 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY the half of its members, exclusive of those who have obtained leave of absence. Voting takes place on bills in the same way as that already described in the Senate (see page 15); but when a resolu- tion is proposed, the voting may take place by the names of the members being called over, when they indicate their opinion by answering, Yes, or No. In the House of Deputies this operation occupies about an hour. Interrogations are, at the opening of each sederunt, addressed to the Ministers. These are printed in the orders of the day. It is the rule of the House that only forty minutes should be allowed for this purpose; but it often happens that more time is occupied if a discussion arises. In this others than the questioner HOUSE OF DEPUTIES 27 and Minister are allowed to take part. Questions not answered within the time allotted are postponed to, and taken up, the following day. After questions are finished for the day, the House applies itself, chiefly on Mon- days, to the interpellations. These are not properly questions, but refer to matters of public interest or Government policy, and the interpellante can close his speech with a resolution. He is allowed to speak at length, as is also the Minister who replies. Except in speaking to an interroga- tion, when, by the rules of the House, a member is limited to five minutes, no Hmit is put upon the speeches of members. There are three leading political parties in Parliament, named as follows, viz.: — (1) ' The Right,' or the Conservative Party, 28 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY who at present constitute about one- quarter of the House, and sit on the right of the President; (2) 'The Left,' or the Liberal Party, who sit on the left of the President ; and (3) ' The Centre,' or Inde- pendent Party, who sometimes vote with the Right, and sometimes with the Left. The Left and the Centre constitute together, at present, three-quarters of the House. The Liberal Party is divided, at the present moment, into four factions, viz. : — (1) the Socialists, of whom there are 6 ; (2) the Radicals, of whom there are 50 ; (3) the Advanced Liberals, of whom there are about 100 ; and (4) the Liberals pro- per. For practical purposes, however, the House resolves itself into the two HOUSE OF DEPUTIES 29 divisions of the Ministerialists and the Opposition. The House meets at 2 p.m., and rises usually at 6.30 ; but when business requires it sits as late as 10 o'clock. During the Session (see page 16) it sits every day in the week except Sunday, and even on Sundays, if necessary, while morning sittings at 10 o'clock are sometimes held. Admission to the House is obtained by order from the President, or from a member. The general public are ad- mitted to various Tribunes at the back of the members' seats, some of which are reserved for ladies, who are not screened from the public gaze. In the gallery, at the back of the President's chair, are Tribunes specially reserved for the Royal party, Ex-Deputies, and the President's and 30 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY Ministers' friends ; while to the right is a large Tribune for the Ambassadors and their friends. The House of Deputies is the Palazzo di Monte-Citorio, close to the Piazza Colonna, Rome. It was not specially built for its present purpose, but was, before 1870, the place of meeting of the Courts of Justice. The Senate meets in a separate building, the Palazzo Madama, built by Catherine de Medici. When a Minister of State or a Senator requires to be prosecuted for his official acts, he is tried before the Senate, sitting as a Court of Justice. The taxes imposed by Parliament are : — (1) Income Tax, which is assessed, not ac- cording to the amount of a man's income, but according to its nature and source. At HOUSE OF DEPUTIES 31 present it varies from 7 J to 20 per cent.^ (2) Property and Land Tax; (3) Death duties, bo til on heritable and moveable property, which are taxed equally; (4) Customs duties, which are imposed on nearly all imports, but such as are charged on the raw material can be recovered when it is manufactured. The highest taxation imposed is that on land, which is taxed at 30 per cent., and in some cases even 40 and 50 per cent., but this is taken into account in the purchas- ing of land, which is generally bought to 1 The following are the grades of the Income Tax at present, viz. : — A. — On interest of Rentes, ,, Mortgages, . B. — On profits of Industries, C. — On Professional Incomes, D.— On Clerks' Salaries, . 20 per cent. 15 5J 10 »i 9 >» n )) 32 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY yield, after paying all taxes and burdens, about 3 per cent., although it may some- times be acquired to yield even higher rates. Including all taxes and rates, a man with an average income will pay from 10 to 15 per cent, of taxation in all; but even from 40 to 50 per cent, is paid by some persons. The total revenue for the Kingdom for 1894-95 was 1,699,236,025 lire, or about £67,969,441 sterling; while the expendi- ture was 1,695,499,764 lire, or about £67,819,990. The national debt is about 10,000,000,000 lire, or £400,000,000, on which there is an annual charge of 463,351,362 lire, or £14,534,014. THE CONSIGLIO PROVINCIALE 33 THE CONSIGLIO PROVINCIALE. This is the Assembly of the various Provinces of Italy. It has administrative functions only. There are 69 such Councils in the King- dom. Their duties are to attend to the roads, the hospitals and charities, the secondary education of the Province, and to administer its property. The number of the members of a Council depends upon the population of the Province. If there is a population of 600,000, there will be sixty members of the Council. If the population is under 20,000, the Council will consist of twenty members. The President of the Council must be c 34 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY a member of it, and is elected by the votes of bis colleagues for one session j only. The members of the Council must be twenty-one years of age, and pay a certain amount of taxation, and also be able to read and write. They are not paid for their services. They are elected for six years, but one- half of the Council retires every three years, when new elections take place. There is no second ballot in a provincial election. The electors must be twenty-one years of age, be able to read and write, and pay a certain amount of taxation. They vote only for those who are to represent the particular district in which they are quali- fied as voters. THE CONSIGLIO PROVINCIALE 35 The Council bears all the official ex- penses of the election. The sole source of the revenue of the Council is the taxation they impose on land. The representative of the Government in the Province is the Prefect, who resides in its chief city. He is represented by a Vice-Prefect in the smaller cities. He is Chief of the Police, but has no judicial fimctions. He is named by the Government, and holds office during their pleasure. He may be transferred from one Province to another. The Prefects are of three classes : those of the first class receive 12,000 lire of salary ; those of the second class 10,000 ; those of the third class 9000; in addition to which they receive an allowance for 36 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY expenses varying from 3000 to 20,000 lire a year, according to the size and importance of the Provinces to which they are appointed. THE CONSIGLIO COMUNALE. This Assembly is the Council of the Commune, and is only administrative in its character. A Commune is not a mere parish. It may be only one parish, or a combination of parishes, or a town of greater or less extent. It may be added to or taken from, but that only by Act of Parliament. The Consiglio Comunale is somewhat equivalent to the Parish and Town Councils of Great Britain. There are about 8250 such Councils in Italy. The duty of the Council is to THE CONSIGLIO COMUNALE 37 attend to elementary education, the making and repairing of roads and streets, the drainage of the to^vn or district, as also registration of births, marriages, and deaths, and the keeping of the register of electors of Parliament. As a rule, private companies supply the Communes with gas and water in Italy. The number of members of a Consiglio Comunale is eighty where the popula- tion of the Commune is over 250,000, and fifteen where it is under 3000. The quahfication of members and elec- tors is the same as that for the Consiglio Provinciale. The electors vote, however, only for four-fifths of the members to be elected — thus, if eighty members are to be elected, each elector can vote for sixty-four ; and 38 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY in this way, to some extent, minorities can be represented. The members are elected for six years, but one-half of them retire every third year. The elections take place on Sunday. There is no second ballot, as for a Parliamentary Election. The official expenses of the election are borne by the Council. The President of the Consiglio Comu- nale is called the Syndic. He is elected for three years, and that by the Council in all Communes, except for such as have only a population of less than 10,000, not being the capital of a Province, when he is nominated by the King. The Syndic has no salary, but in large cities he has an allowance for expenses, THE CONSIGLIO COMUNALE 39 as for example in Rome, where he has about £500 a year. He is the administrator of the Com- mune, and where there is no Prefect he is also the representative of the Govern- ment. He may be of any occupation, and in rural districts he frequently is a peasant. The Revenue of the Commune is raised from taxes on carriages, horses, servants, a tax known as the 'family tax' — im- posed rather in an arbitrary manner in accordance with the style in which a man lives — and the local Octroi, known as 'Dazio Consume,' or petty customs upon articles coming into the Communes for consumption, which are levied at the gates or entrance to the cities. CHAPTER III JUSTICE The Courts of Justice of Italy are as follows : — 1. The Giudice Conciliatore. 2. The Pretura, or Court of the Pretore. 3. The Tribunal. 4. The Court of Assise. > 5. The Court of Appeal/ 6. The Court of Cassation. THE GIUDICE CONCILIATORE. This Court is one in which petty cases, chiefly those of small debts up to one hundred lire in amount, are brought. 40 JUSTICE 41 There is no appeal from this Court except on the ground of incompetency, and that to the Tribunal. The judges of this Court need not be trained lawyers. They hold their appointment for three years only, and ' have no salary. The parties, or others on their behalf — not necessarily an avvocato — can plead in person in this Court. In large cities there is generally one Court of this kind for about every 50,000 inhabitants, but it varies according to the amount and importance of the business. THE PRETURA. This is a Court of first instance, and is the Court of the Pretore, where causes^^ not exceeding in value 1500 Hre can be brought. Its criminal jurisdiction extends to cases: (1) where the limit of punish- 42 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY ment is three months' imprisonment ; or (2) without actual imprisonment, one year's confinement within the bounds of a Commune; or (3) a fine not exceeding 2000 Hre. There is an appeal to the Court of the Tribunal, both in civil and criminal cases ; but in the latter, not on the facts or guilt, but solely on procedure and points of law. One judge only — the Pre tore — presides in this Court. His salary is 2500 lire per annum. When appointed, he is generally a young man of about twenty-five years, and he may remain in this Court all his life. There are about 1500 Courts of the Pretore in the Kingdom. There is gene- rally one for every 50,000 inhabitants. THE TRIBUNAL 43 THE TRIBUNAL. This Court is also one of first instance as well as of appeal from the Pretore. Its jurisdiction extends to cases of all kinds and amounts, limited as infra. It has power to call in the assistance of two Merchant Assessors, in commercial cases, but in practice it seldom or ever does so. Three judges, including the President, sit in this Court. The President has a salary of from 5000 to 7000 lire, while the other judges receive from 3500 to 4500 lire. Such criminal cases as do not involve more than one year's imprisonment can be tried in this Court, and that without a jury — a jury in this Court not being allowed. A case of murder cannot be tried here. 44 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY There is an appeal from a decision from the Tribunal to the Court of Appeal There is a Tribunal in every large city and town in Italy, and there are 162 Courts .j of this kind in the Kingdom. THE COURT OF APPEAL. This Court is one solely for appeals from j the Tribunal. There are twenty such Courts in Italy. Five judges sit in it. They have salaries of 6000 Hre, except the President, whose salary is 7000 lire. t THE COURT OF ASSISE. This is a Court for criminal cases only. ' Its jurisdiction extends to all cases of crime which are not specially appropriated to the cognisance of the other Courts. THE COURT OF ASSISE 45 Three judges sit in this Court. The President has a salary of 7000 lire, while the others receive 6000 lire each. Criminal cases can be tried by a jury in this Court. Thirty persons qualified to be jurors are summoned for each case, to eight of whom the Prosecutor can object, and the accused person can also object to a like number. Fourteen being thus left, twelve are empanelled to try the case, and two remain in attendance in Court to take the place of any juryman who may be taken ill, or otherwise fails. The verdict may be given by a majority, but if the jury are equally divided in opinion the accused is acquitted. A person qualified to be a juror must be over thirty and under sixty-five years of age. He must be able to read and write, 46 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY and be in that position of life which fits him for the office. Persons who hold high office, or who have the cure of souls, or whose place in office or business cannot be supplied, are exempt from serving as jury- men. Jurors are only paid their expenses. From the Court of Assise there is an appeal upon procedure and questions of law, but not upon the facts of the case or the guilt of the accused, to the Court of Cassation, and that within one month. THE COURT OF CASSATION. t This is the highest Court of Appeal in the Kingdom. It has both a civil and a criminal jurisdiction. There are five such Tribunals or divi- sions of this Court, which sit in various cities of the Kingdom; but at present THE COURT OF CASSATION 47 there is a tendency to concentrate their business in Rome, and, as a matter of fact, so as to secm'e uniformity of judgment, all criminal, and nearly all civil, cases coming before this Court are now tried in Rome. The full sederunt of the Cassation is one of seven judges. The first President of the Court has a salary of 15,000 Hre, or £600 ; while the second President receives 12,000 hre, and the other judges 9000 lire each. In a criminal case the judges do not give judgment, in the proper sense of the term, after hearing it, but they in- dicate their opinion upon it, and remit it to another Court of Assise or Appeal from that from which it came, that it may be tried again if necessary, and judgment be pronounced. 48 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY In a civil case, on tlie other hand, tlie Court of Cassation, after hearing the case, gives judgment in common form. PROCEDURE. (a) Civil, Briefly, the course of procedure in a civil cause is as follows : — In an ordinary case the plaintiff, called ' attore,' obtains a citation from the oflScers of the Court, with which the defendant (convenuto) is served, and thereafter he is again served with a short notice of claim, called 'comparsa,' to which an answer (risposta) is given, which the plaintiff can answer by another document, called 'replica,' and the defendant can then lodge a further plea in answer, called ' contra-replica,' PROCEDURE 49 The parties require to appear before the judge by their avvocato within from ten to twenty-five days, or even longer, after the first citation, according to the distance of their place of jurisdiction from the Court, the cause being then in the rolls of the Court for the first time. At this diet it is usual to ask for a short adjournment. When the case is next called, the awocato for each party appears with his brief or statement, and pleads his case before the judges. At the close of the argument the brief of the avvocato for each party is handed to the judges, who consider them in chambers, and thereafter give judgment. If a proof of the statements of the parties is required, it is taken either by com- mission, or by a member of the Court. D 50 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY There is no trial by jury in civil cases in Italy. There is no record of the case made up in the form of statement and answer, and, except in the case of appeal, the printing of the pleadings is not, as a rule, resorted to. The time for taking an appeal from the Court of the Pretura is thirty days, and from that of the Tribunal sixty days. When a person desires to bring an action of damages for injury against another, he presents a querela (demand for prosecution) to the Questura Office (Police Office), and thereafter his avvocato has, in the first place, to submit the facts of the case to a Committee of the Tribunal specially appointed to deal with the cause at this stage. The judges hear the PROCEDURE 51 awocato upon it, and, if a prima facie case is made out, leave is granted to bring the case into Court. The conduct of the case, up to the lodging of the last written pleading, is undertaken by the procuratore (solicitor). Thereafter the cause is in the hands of the awocatos of the parties without the intervention of a solicitor. At the present time the course of liti- gation is long and tedious, but efforts are being made to shorten and simplify it. (6) CriTninal, In serious criminal cases, the public prosecutor — Procuratore del Be — must bring the action. He goes to the spot and inquires into the circumstances of the crime. Immediately after arrest the 52 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY accused is examined. If the penalty for the crime is under three years' im- prisonment, he can be released on bail, and if it be under three months, he is freed from custody at once to await his trial. Thereafter there is a preliminary inquiry by the Giudici Istruttore, who determines if there is a prima facie case. If there is, the accused is cited for the appropriate Court. There is, however, no fixed time within which an accused person must be cited for trial, and often he re- mains in prison for an unduly long period of time before being tried. At the trial the President states the case to the jury. The examination of the accused then takes place. The witnesses are then examined, and thereafter the accused is asked if he has anything to PROCEDURE 53 add. The accused and the witnesses are examined by the judge himself. The prosecutor and the counsel for the accused can also examine them, but all the ques- tions must be put through the President of the Court. After evidence is led the public pro- secutor and the accused's counsel address the jury, the public prosecutor can reply, and then the counsel for the prisoner is always entitled to the last word. The judge then sums up the evidence, and the jury retire to consider their verdict, which may be given by a majority, but if the jury are equally divided in opinion the accused is acquitted. After the verdict is given the public prosecutor asks that the penalty appro- priate to the particular crime should be 54 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY inflicted. There is a code of punishment prescribing a certain minimum and a certain maximum penalty for crimes, but the proper punishment within these limits is left to the discretion of the judge. The witnesses are sworn, and take the oath in these terms : ' I swear to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.' The jurors are not sworn as a body, but in presenting their verdict their chairman says: 'On my honour and on my con- science, the verdict of the jury is this,' etc. For murder, capital punishment does not exist — the appropriate punishment being imprisonment for life. Imprisonment for debt, once competent, is now abolished. THE JUDGES 55 There is no recognised official report of cases, civil or criminal, but there are private reports of such which are allowed to be referred to in Court. THE JUDGES. The judges of Italy are not, as a rule, appointed from among the members of the practising bar, although occasionally an avvocato (but of not less than six years' standing), who finds he has not the necessary forensic power to succeed as a pleader, appHes for and obtains the appointment of a judge. At the beginning of his career, as a rule, a la^vyer must choose the judicial branch of his profession if he desire office as a judge. To qualify as such he must take the degree of Doctor of Laws at a Uni- \ 56 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY versity, and also pass the special Judge Examination. It is also necessary for him to attend in the offices of the Court for some time. For his first appointment he receives a judgeship in the Court of the Pretura, as a rule. From this Court he may be, and generally is, by merit and seniority, promoted from one Court to another, till he receives the appointment of a judge of the Court of Cassation, which he generally does about the age of fifty-five. There he can remain till unfit for duty. He can then retire on a pension equal to about two-thirds of his salary. The political proclivities of a man are, it is said, m no case taken into account either in his first appointment or his sub- sequent promotion, but there is no doubt THE AVVOCATO 67 it is of advantage to him if he has friends among the ministers. The judges wear black robes with stiff round hats in Court on ordinary occasions, but those of the highest degree on im- portant occasions wear scarlet robes faced with ermine. Of judges of all classes it is computed that there are about 4500 or 5000 in Italy. THE AVVOCATO. The avvocato is not admitted to practice in Italy till he is twenty-five years of age. He must possess the degree of Doctor of Laws from some Universit}^ in Italy; he must also pass the Bar Examination, chiefly dealing with the practice of the Court. He must likewise have been in attendance in the chambers of a practising 58 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY awocato for some years. He is admitted to practice at the bar by an Act of Court. An awocato may make an income from his fees of from £300 to £1600 a year, and in Genoa and Naples, it is said, some awocatos make as much as £4000 per annum. Some awocatos are also qualified as solicitors and when this is the case they can undertake the whole management of a case from its beginning to its close. The fees payable by an awocato on ad- mission to practice are only about 100 lire (£4), and that to the Society of Awocatos to which he may belong. THE SOLICITOR. The solicitor, styled procuratore, must take the degree of Doctor of Laws. There- THE NOTARY 59 after he requires to attend for one year at least in the chambers of a soHcitor, and when about the age of twenty-five he is admitted to practice by an Act of Court. The fees payable to his Corporation are only about £4. The duty of a solicitor chiefly consists in preparing the pleadings in cases, up to the time when the awo- cato takes charge of the case, but he is also permitted to plead in the Court of the Conciliatore, and Pretura. THE NOTARY. The notaro requires only to study law in the University for two years. He need not take a degree in LaAv. He has to attend for two years in the chambers of a notary, and when about twenty-five years of age he is admitted to practice by an ^^ OF THE ' \ UNIVERSITY; 0/ 60 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY Act of the Court. His duty is to attend to the preparation of wills, conveyances of property, contracts, and all documents requiring legal knowledge and accu- racy for their preparation. It is not the custom in Italy for a notary to act as executor or trustee under wills, although he occasionally does so, but he frequently acts as liquidator of companies or estates. THE POLICE. There are in Italy three distinct classes of police, viz. : — (1) The Carabinieri, who are the military or War Office police, but they also act under the orders of the Home Office. They are chiefly to be found in the Campagna or country dis- tricts, and are employed both in civil and criminal matters and investigations. THE POLICE 61 (2) The Guardie di Pubblica Sicurezza, are the police for criminal affairs in towns. They are appointed by the Home Office, but they are under the orders of the pre- fect. (3) The Guardie Municipale are the special officers of the municipality in towns. They attend to the carrying out of the orders of the Syndic and Municipal authorities, as to the public safety and sanitary condition, but they are not criminal officers proper. They are ap- pointed by the Syndic. CHAPTER IV BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE In Italy, except it be among some noble houses where the preservation of family estates enters into consideration, the young people are, as a rule, allowed to exercise their own choice in the selection of their partners in life. Marriage takes place, in many cases, at a very early age, and bridegrooms and brides of seventeen and sixteen years of age, even among the best families, are not unknown. There is no formal betrothal as a cus- tom, nor any intimation of the engagement 62 BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE 63 by cards sent to friends by parents of the engaged couple, as is common in some other European countries.^ The following persons cannot inter- marry. A man cannot marry his de- ceased wife's sister, nor a woman her deceased husband's brother. ^ In Storey's Roha di Roma, p. 496, lie says : 'Among the families of wealth and rank at Rome the capitoli or betrothal ' (but the word capitoli signi- fies the signing of the contract rather than the time of betrothal) * is a much more important and festal ceremony than that of marriage. Marriage must always take place in the morning, but the betrothal is celebrated in the evening. Elaborate cards of invitation are issued, setting forth the parentage and titles of the parties to be betrothed, and all the friends and relations are prayed to be present, and assist at the ceremony. The palace is flung open and splendidly lighted and decorated with flowers, and the guests wear their richest dresses and orna- ments. When all are assembled, the marriage con- tract and papers conferring the dowry and making the marriage settlements are read aloud by the 64 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY An aunt and nephew, or an uncle and niece, cannot intermarry. An adopt- ing parent cannot marry an adopted child. But while the above restrictions on marriage are imposed, the King can, on due application, and as advised by the Court of Appeal, who make very careful inquiry into the circumstances, grant special permission for a marriage to take place between parties who otherwise could not legally intermarry. It is said, how- ever, that such permission is granted to notary, and formally signed by the notary and witnesses. Then comes the glad hours of con- gratulation. The bride and bridegroom are kissed by their friends, and all is gaiety and rejoicing. The marriage after this is more of a religious (and now civil) ceremony, and the bride and bridegroom, after a morning reception of friends, go off in their carriage to journey. ' BETKOTHAL AND MARRIAGE 65 only about one- third of those applying for it. A marriage cannot take place without the consent of the father, or other legal guardian, when the man is below the age of twenty-five or the woman under twenty-one. If such consent, however, is improperly withheld, the Court of Appeal, on applica- tion made, will grant permission for the marriage to proceed. Such appHcations are of very rare occurrence. Before marriage, due intimation thereof must be given by a notice being affixed on the walls of the public office of the Commune or town. The notice is put up on two successive Sundays, and for seventeen days in all, it being stated whether it is the first or second time of E 66 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY ^ being posted. The marriage cannot take J place till four days after the second Sunday of notice, and not after 180 days from said period; but in this last case a new notice can be put up. The only legal form of marriage in j Italy is the civil one. There are generally ' religious ceremonies as well, to satisfy the consciences of the contracting parties ; and too frequently these are resorted to with disastrous consequences, especially to the j ignorant woman, as such can take place either before or after the civil marriage. There exists at present a strong feeling that the religious ceremony should not i be permitted till after the civil one, and legislation in this direction may take place in the near future. The civil marriage proceeds before the BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE 67 Syndic or his deputy, who must be fur- nished with the proofs of age and notice. He reads over to the parties the articles of the code relating to the duties of marriage, and asks them if they take each other for husband and wife respectively, and on an affirmative answer being given, he declares them duly married. There must be present at the marriage two wit- nesses for each of the contracting parties. The Register of Marriages, which every Commune is obliged to keep, must then be signed by the parties before they leave the building. It is the duty of the Muni- cipal or Communal authorities to see as to the registration of the marriage, and not that of the parties. There is no obligation, on the part of either of the parties or their relatives to 68 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY make any special monetary provision for themselves or their children in view of marriage, except in the case of an officer of the Army or Navy, who besides being obliged to obtain the special permission of the King to his marriage, must deposit approved securities with the Minister of War, yielding at least (1) in the case of a lieutenant, 2000 lire per annum ; (2) 1600 lire in that of a captain; (3) 1200 lire in that of a major or colonel, and the same sum for all officers over forty, but officers with rank of general are exempt. This is paid to him during life, and after his death to his widow, and after her death the capital sum is paid to the children of the marriage, failing whom, it is returned to the heirs of the husband or wife who paid ' the money. BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE 69 In view of marriage there may or may not be a contract. Should there be, the public register in which any mort- gages, being the securities conveyed by the wife, are recorded, is specially marked, or if Rentes be the nature of the security, the certificate thereof is so marked; and these can on no ground be interfered with for other uses, except on application to the Court, which is only granted after a very searching examination as to the cause, and the then position of the parties. Except as regards such funds as the wife has so conveyed before marriage and brought under the contract, she is free to do with her property as she will, subject to the consent of her husband. There is no action for breach of pro- mise of marriage in Italy, except it be 70 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY where there is a written promise, and then only for special damages, such as expenses which the injured party (man or woman) may have incurred in making provision by furnishings, etc., in view of marriage. A child born out of wedlock is legiti- mated by the subsequent marriage of its parents. British subjects can be married in Italy either by conforming to the marriage laws of the country, or by the Consul, in terms of the Foreign Marriages Act, 55 and 56 Vict. cap. 23, 1892. NULLITY OF MAKRIAGE. An action for nullity of marriage lies (1) if the parties within the forbidden SEPARATION 7 1 degrees marry ; (2) if either of the parties was under the age at which it is necessary to have the consent of the father or other legal guardian ; and (3) on the ground of incompetency. SEPARATION. There is no action for divorce in Italy. The action of separation, however, can be brought on the following grounds: (1) Incompatibility of temper; (2) adul- tery by either spouse ; but in the case of action against the husband, on this ground it must be proved that his mistress lived under the same roof as his wife, or that she is well kno^vn as his mistress in the neighbourhood; (3) cruelty, threats, and injuries, continuous and frequent. 72 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY In granting separation the Court can give orders as to the custody of the children of the marriage, giving or re- fusing the custody of one or more to either parent, or giving over the same to some neutral person. i CHAPTER V SUCCESSION In Italy there is no law of primogeniture, and an eldest son has no greater rights in his deceased father's property than the other children. A father can on no ground whatever deprive a child of its interest in his estate at death, except it be that during hfe the child has received the equivalent of its legal share of the inheritance of its father. On the death of an intestate male or female, survived by a spouse and children, the property is divided into as many 73 74 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY shares as will represent the number of children and the spouse together. The latter then takes the interest of an equal share with the former, the children taking the other shares equally between them, and on the death of the spouse the share life-rented by him or her is divided equally among the children. Thus, if a spouse and four children survive an intestate, the estate is divided into five parts, of which the surviving spouse takes the hfe-rent of one-fifth, and the children at once take the other four-fifths equally among them, share and share alike ; and on the death of the surviving spouse, the fifth of which he or she had the life-rent is divided equally among the children, share and share alike. Should an intestate die leaving wife SUCCESSION 75 and son, the widow receives the Hfe-rent of a third, and the son takes the other two-thirds at once, and on the widow's death he receives the third life-rented by her. The estate of an intestate survived by father and mother, brothers and sisters, but no widow or children, is divided into three parts, of which the father or mother, or the survivor, take one part, and the brothers and sisters the remainder among them. Should an intestate be survived by no relatives up to and within the sixth degree of relationship, his estate goes to the State. By will a father can leave only half of his property to the prejudice of his wife and children. A surviving illegitimate child, when 76 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY legitimised by an Act of Court (see infra, p. 78), must succeed to the half of the share which he would have taken as a child born in wedlock. CHAPTER VI PARENT AND CHILD In Italy a father is bound for the support of a child, who is also under his control till the age of twenty-one ; and the father is liable for all debts for necessaries for his children up to that age, unless by public advertisement he intimates his declinature of such obligation. After the age of eighteen a child can apply for and obtain from the Court emancipation, so as to enable him to administer his separate estate or business. The father can name guardians to his children after his death, 77 78 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY of whom no one can be a female, not even the mother. Failing appointment of guardians by the father, the mother can appoint such, and failing appointment by her, the Court can appoint guardians. An illegitimate child must be supported by the father and mother equally between them till it is twenty-one years of age. An illegitimate child can be legitimised by an Act of Court confirmed by Koyal decree, but in this case its rights of suc- cession are limited (see supra, p. 76). On no ground whatever can a parent disinherit a child. ADOPTION. In Italy, as in some other European countries, persons are permitted formally to adopt children on certain conditions. ADOPTION 79 The person adopting must have no legal children of his own, and the child must be, at least, eighteen years younger than the adopting parent, who must be fifty years old. No person can have more than one adopted child, except all are adopted by the same deed. No one can be adopted by two persons, except by a husband and wife. An illegitimate child cannot be adopted by either parent. If a child be not major at the time of adoption its father must give his consent, and failing its father, the guardian. The adopted child takes the name of its adopting parent, retaining, however, its OAvn likewise. Up to the age of twenty-one the adopt- ing parent is liable for the child's support. 80 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY On the death of the adopting parent, the adopted child takes the same share of the parent's estate as a legal child does. Before adoption, a proper contract be- tween the adopter and the adopted, and its father or guardians, must be duly signed before the Court. An adopted child can, with the per- mission of the King, succeed to the title of the adopting parent. The adopted child is not barred from succession to its own father or mother, and does not lose its rights as a child of its own proper parents. An adopting parent cannot inherit from his adopted child. CHAPTER VII THE NOBILITY There is a class of Nobles in Italy, but they are not entitled to any special pre- cedence in Court circles or public functions — precedence being given at such by virtue of office held. It is customary, however, to grant precedence to the nobility at minor functions. Many of the nobles of the present day are the descendants of some ancient and distinguished families, such as the Massimo, who are said to be the descendants of Fabius Maximus the Cunctator ; the Strozzi family of Florence, dating from 82 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY the 13th century; and the Sarego Alh- ghieri family of Venice, descendants of Dante, and dating from the 13th century also. The nobles are of five classes or ranks, viz. : — 1. Princes. 2. Dukes. 3. Marquises, 4. Counts. 5. Barons. The head of a noble house has alone the right to be called by the title. There is no second title attached to the family except that of a Prince, whose sons are called Don and his daughters Donna. The sons and daughters of other noble houses are known only by the name of THE NOBILITY 83 Signore or Signorina without any dis- tinguishing mark of nobiHty. The title of Duke or Marquis is often attached to, or connected with, a large estate in land. On the sale of such, it can be arranged, with the consent of the King, that the title connected with it be transferred as well — the former holder losing all his rights to it. Additions are every now and then made to the members of the nobility. If a man has greatly distinguished him- self in military affairs, or has given a handsome donation of say £4000 to an hospital, he will very probably secure for himself a patent of nobility which de- scends on his death to his eldest son. As already indicated, there is no Chamber of hereditary legislators, and 84 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY it may be, and is the case, that a Duke will be found in the House of Deputies, or Lower House of Parliament, while his untitled brother or neighbour is a member of the Senate, or Upper House. The husband of a lady holding a family title takes the equivalent title — as, for example, a man marrying a Duchess takes the courtesy title of Duke. DECORATIONS. In Italy there are several Orders or decorations for merit. The chief are as follows, viz. : — (1) The Order of the Annunciata, which is the highest Order of merit, and stands distinct by itself. To it some Royal persons are presented, but of others only fifteen persons can hold it at one time. V DECORATIONS 85 The members of this Order are considered, rank, and are addressed as cousins of the King. They are called Cavalieri, are addressed as 'His Excellency,' and their wives as ' Donna.' (2) The second order of merit is the very old one of ' St. Maurizio and Lazzaro,' which is given to persons considered suf- ficiently eminent in any way to receive it. (3) The 'Order of Savoy' ranks next in degree, and is only bestowed on men distinguished in military affairs. (4) The fourth Order is that of 'The Crown of Italy.' It was founded in 1861, and is bestowed on persons distinguished in matters military, science, and otherwise. Each of the above Orders except the 'Annunciata' has five grades, and a holder can be promoted from one grade 86 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY to another. The grades, beginning with the lowest, are as follows : — (1) Cavaliere; (2) Ufficiale; (3) Com- mandetore ; (4) Grand Ufficiale ; (5) Grand Cordone. An Order is conferred by the King on advice of one or more Ministers of State, backed by the Secretary of the Order. The presentees do not appear in the presence of the King to receive it except that of the Annunciata, but are simply furnished with the document of presenta- tion. They provide themselves with the insignia of the Order, except when it is conferred eoc 'proprio motu by the King, when he himself sends the insignia to the person so favoured. No one can wear the badge of an Order of a foreign Court at public functions in DECORATIONS 87 Great Britain or its dependencies who has not, before receiving it, obtained the permission of our Court to take it ; and so in these places it is difficult for a subject of Great Britain to wear the badge of an Italian Order, as he, generally speaking, has it conferred upon him before he has an opportunity of obtaining permission of the Queen to take it. CHAPTER VIII RELIGION By the constitution or ' Statuto-fonda- mentale ' given by the King of Piedmont in 1848, which has since beeji extended by the Act of Union of the various pro- vinces, the rehgion of the State is declared to be the Roman CathoHc, but by the same statute it was enacted that all other forms of worship were to be tolerated. At the present time (1896), the popula- tion of Italy is said to be about 31,250,000, of whom about 80,000 are computed to be Protestants, and 40,000 Jews. While the rest are supposed to be of the Roman 88 RELIGION 89 Catholic faith, at all events by profession ; but it is impossible to say how many can really be counted among the 'faithful.' There is very much Atheism and Scepti- cism among the people. All pubhc offices are open to all persons properly qualified, irrespective of religious belief. A traveller cannot fail to be struck, as he goes through the country, with the number of churches he sees, at the tops of mountains, as well as on their sides and in the villages at their base. He meets with churches of all sizes and forms. While attached to them, in some cases, are the old monasteries or convents, which now are often used as barracks, or for other public purposes. In Rome alone there are said to be 90 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY about 400 Roman Catholic churches, of which, however, many are now virtually closed. That the priests exercise much quiet power is undoubted ; but, it is said, not to the same extent that they do in Austria, France, or Ireland. At municipal elections they make their power felt, and often secure the return of their own nominee; but in elections for members of Parlia- ment, as this body is alien to their views, their influence is felt only in the way of preventing persons from taking part in them. The Pope has in fact issued a Bulla or decree, called ' Non Expedit,' indicating this as the course of action. There are Tnany large private endow- ments, of various kinds, for religion, as well as those given by the State in former RELIGION 91 times, all of which are still administered by the State, and from which the bishops and other clergy receive their emoluments, or part thereof. The bishops have an annual stipend of from 6000 lire up to 134,000 lire, but only one, he of Cefalu, has this large in- come, amounting to upwards of £5000. The country priests, in addition to their monetary payments of from 300 lire to 20,000 lire — the average being about 1200 lire per annum — have a parsonage, and generally some land attached. Before 1866 the monasteries and con- vents had large endowments; but the Government of the day abolished them all, and appropriated their revenues for public purposes, — providing suitably for life- interests, — and that for three reasons: (1) 92 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY because of* the opposition of these institu- tions to the unity of Italy ; (2) because of their number being greatly in excess of the needs of the community for them ; and (3) because the country had need of the revenue. Many of the orders of monks and nuns still exist, but it is as private bodies. They have no public or official recognition, and cannot as a body hold property. Such as they possess must be held by a private person, absolutely, in his own name. Since 1871, in Kome, all Protestant communities can have their places of wor- ship within the walls. Previously, they were not allowed to be within the gates — but had to worship outside. At the pre- sent day, any body of Christians or other sect can worship as and where they will. RELIGION 93 with this exception, that they must not, by preaching in the open air, impede the traffic. There is, therefore, in Italy, full religious liberty and freedom of worship, unsur- passed, with few exceptions, by any other country. Of Protestant Italian places of worship in Rome there are about twenty, while in the Kingdom there are about 450 in aU. The Protestants of Italy are to be found among six distinct sects, viz. : — (1) ' The Waldenses,' who number about 60,000, and are chiefly to be found in the Waldensian valleys of Piedmont, where the large majority of whole parishes are among the adherents of this body. They have a training college of their own in 94 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY Florence. Their actual members^ num- ber about 20,000. (2) 'The Chiesa Evangelica Italiana,' whose members are about 1500, and who have also a training college in Florence. (3) 'The Wesleyan Methodists,' num- bering in membership about 1400. (4) 'The Episcopal Methodists,' who have a training college in Rome, and who have a membership of about 1100. (5) ' The Baptists,' who have about 1000 members. (6) 'The Chiesa Cattolica Italiana,' a sect founded in 1875, by Count Campello, formerly a priest in St. Peter's in Rome, but who left the Roman Catholic Church followed by a number of adherents to his views, and has founded this new body, ^ By * members ' is meant persons in full communion. RELIGION 95 which, however, does not make much pro- gress. There are about 500 members connected with it. There are various Evangehcal agencies at work, chiefly supported by the British and Americans. By about fifty Colporteurs there is a large distribution of the Scriptures and portions thereof in various parts of the Kingdom. In many places these are bought, read, and studied. In other places, when the priests discover that the people have been buying them, they insist upon the destruction of the copies, and sometimes there is a burning in public of those bought. It cannot be said that there is a sensible increase of Protestants in the country during the course of the last 96 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY few years. There has not lately been any great religious movement, and while there may be steady growth, it cannot be said that it is rapid. On the other hand, the Roman Catholic religion, it is said, is losing its hold upon the people, and many do not believe in its doctrines, while they do not adopt the views of othei" religious bodies. It seems proper, in closing this part of the subject, to say something about the Pope. The position of the Pope is clearly defined by the law of the Papal Guarantees passed on 13th May 1871. By the first article thereof he is named ' Sovereign Pontiff.' He has, however, no territorial jurisdiction, but is supreme in the Vatican, although for crime proper RELIGION 97 against the State those dweUing under his roof and authority subject themselves on his call to the ordinary operation of the law of Italy, and practically the Vatican is under police supervision as regards crimes and offences. The Pope never leaves the Vatican but if he did, he is entitled to all the honour due to a temporal sovereign. He sends Nunzi (legates) to many foreign Courts, and they in return send Am- bassadors to represent them at the Vatican. Great Britain neither receives from, nor sends, an Ambassador to the Vatican. Her Majesty's Ambassador at Rome is in no way, as such, recognised by the Pope, and he cannot obtain for British subjects any special privileges from the Vatican. He is frequently 98 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY applied to for such, and it is well it should be known that in this respect he is powerless to help British subjects. Under the law of the Papal Guarantees, before referred to, the Pope is entitled to receive yearly from the State 3,225,000 lire, or about £129,000. He refuses, however, to take his allowance, although it is annually voted for him. And so, in the course of time (five years), it is again considered revenue of the country. The Pope's income is to a large extent derived from Peter's Pence, collected and sent to him from all parts of the world. The amount is said to be from 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 Hre a year, and not a small part comes from Ireland. He also has the interest of a large capital fund, invested chiefly outside the King- RELIGION 99 doui, the amount of which, however, is unknown to the general public. The Pope will not in any way recog- nise King Humbert as King of Italy, but only as King of Piedmont. Except in the Sistine Chapel and in St. Peter's, the Pope takes no part in any religious service. English people resort to services at which he officiates in crowds. Admission is by ticket, obtained from his Major-domo, and some are sold to applicants by the hotel porters, who buy them from persons entitled to them who do not want to use them. The Pope appoints all the Bishops and high Church digni- taries in Italy, without reference to or with the approval or ratification of the King or the Government, except in the 100 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY case of the Patriarch of Venice and the Bishop of Bari, and although the Roman Catholic religion is declared to be that of the State, the Bishops and other clergy do not now require to take any oath of allegiance to the King. For the enjoyment of ecclesiastical revenue by the beneficiaries, there must be the exequator, or authority, of the King; but in matters purely spiritual the State has given up all power and control. CHAPTER IX EDUCATION In Italy, since 1871, elementary educa- tion has been compulsory in theory; but as neglect to send their children to school leads to no penal consequences to the parents, it cannot be said that in the rural districts all children attend school, although in large towns, as a rule, they do. A school is required wherever there are 500 inhabitants. The municipalities are obliged to provide such, as well as the salaries of the masters, from their own revenues. And the Prefects 101 102 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY must ascertain tliat such provision is made. It is a very rare case, and only in the southern Provinces, that children have no opportunity of going to school on account of distance. Elementary education is free, and is given in large towns in two distinct classes of schools, viz.: (1) where books and material also are given, which are at- tended by the poorest children; and (2) where a small fee is charged, so as to keep the school more select. In all elementary schools there are five classes or standards. Any person having the appropriate diploma for the class of school he desires to establish, can set up a private school without permission of the Government. EDUCATION 103 All schools, public and private, are subject to Government inspection. Besides the elementary schools, which are supported by the Communal fund, there are secondary and upper schools. The secondary schools are supported by the funds of the Province, assisted by Government, and are divided into two classes, viz.: the technical and the classical. The technical schools, again, have three sub-divisions, viz. : the Scuola, the Istituto, and the Scuola Professionale. In the Scuola the curriculum is one of three years, and quahfies for shop and mercantile life. In the Istituto the curriculum is one of three years, and qualifies as the Scuola does, but in a higher degree. 104 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY The classical side of the secondary school is divided into (1) the Gymnasium, and (2) the Liceo, and is attended both by male and female students, of whom the latter form about seven per cent. The curriculum of the Gymnasium is one of five years, and qualifies for lower Government employment, and like occu- pations. The curriculum of the Liceo is three years. It qualifies for higher Govern- ment employment, for teachers; and the leaving - certificate is necessary for entrance to the University and military academies. When pupils leave the Liceo, they are generally from eighteen to twenty years of age. The admission of female students to EDUCATION 105 the Liceo is a matter of recent years. The result has been most satisfactory ; it acts as a stimulus to the male students, and stirs them up to greater exertions, so as not to be beaten by their fair com- petitors. Females attend the same classes at the same time as the males. There are special upper schools for females, called Scuola Normale and Magis- trale. These qualify for the teaching profession and for entrance to still higher female schools, besides which there are Scuole superiori femminili, of which there are only two — one in Rome and one in Florence. There are also Scuole Professionali for young men and young women separate, quahfying for professional life. The teachers of the elementary schools 106 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY are appointed by tlie Communes, and have j salaries, in the rural districts, of from 800 I i lire, or £32, to 2000 Hre, or £80, in the towns. Teachers of the secondary and upper schools are appointed by the Government, those of the secondary schools having salaries of from 1200 to 4000 lire, and the others from 3000 to 5000 lire. There are inspectors of schools, all ^ appointed by the Government. There are no School Boards, but the elementary schools are managed by the Consiglio Comunale, and the secondary schools by the Consiglio Provinciale, by means of a specially appointed officer, while the upper schools are managed by the Minister of Education. There is a Council of Education, called THE UNIVERSITIES 107 the Consiglio Superiore de la Pubblica Istruzione, the members of which are appointed by the Minister of Educa- tion. Religion is taught in the schools only when it is asked by the parents (one or more, in theory), and that the Roman Catholic only, by a specially appointed teacher. Lately, the question has been raised in Parhament whether the Pro- testants are not entitled to like privileges. THE UNIVERSITIES. There are in all seventeen State Uni- versities (of which six are incomplete) and four free Universities in Italy, besides what is called the Istituto Superiore in Florence for Philosophy and Medicine. 108 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY The following are the Royal Universities in Italy, viz. • • Bologna. Cagliari."* Only three Faculties. No Faculty of Philosophy. Catania. Genoa. Macerata.* Only one Faculty, viz. Law. Messina. MODENA.* No Faculty of Philosophy. Naples. Padua. Palermo. Pavia. Parma* No Faculty of Philosophy. Pisa. ~ Eome. Sassari.-^ Has only Faculties of Law and ^ Medicine. Siena.* Has only Faculties of Law and Medicine. Turin. * Incomplete. THE UNIVERSITIES 109 The following are the free Univer- sities : — Camerino. Has only Faculties of Law and Medicine. Ferrara. Has only Faculties of Law and Medicine. Perugia. Has only Faculties of Law and Medicine. Urbino. Has only Faculties of Law and Mathematics. Those designated incomplete are want- ing in one or more Faculties. The State Universities are dependent upon, and endowed by, the State ; but the free Universities are not so, but depend upon and are supported by the Provinces and Communes, or by private benefactions. There are no Universities proper in Venice, Milan, or Florence, although there are higher educational establishments. 110 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY The University having the largest attendance of students is that of Naples. The oldest and best equipped of the Universities is that of Bologna, founded in the eleventh century. All the Universities in all their Faculties are open both to male and female students, of whom the female students represent from about five to seven per cent. As yet, however, although female students can study and take their degrees at the Universities of Italy, they do not as a rule make a practical use of their studies by practising the professions either of Law or of Medicine, in which they have taken a degree ; but there are in the larger towns now a few ladies practising Medicine. Many years ago the Professor of Mathematics in the University of Bologna was a lady. THE PROFESSORS 111 A University with a complete staff has four Faculties, viz.: (1) Philosophy; (2) Law ; (3) Medicine ] (4) Mathematics. THE PROFESSORS. The teaching staff includes Professors Titolari (professors proper), Professors Incaricato (men who lecture during a vacancy), and Liberi Docenti, or lecturers. The Liberi Docenti lecture within the walls of the University on the same subjects as, or on cognate subjects to, those of the Professors. The fees of the students are their only remuneration, but in the event of a vacancy in a Chair they have a very good chance of obtaining the appointment. The Principal, or Kector, of the Univer- sity is called Rettore Magnifico. He is 112 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY appointed from among the Professors, who meet in council for this purpose once a year. The appointment is for one year, although generally the same man is re- appointed for two years more. This is the only occasion on which all the Professors meet together for business. The affairs of the University are ad- ministered by the different Faculties, and by the Minister of Education. There does exist, however, in the Uni- versity a body known as the Consiglio Accademico, whose principal, if not sole, duty is to deal with the discipline of the University, , before which unruly students are summoned, and if necessary receive punishment of rustication for a few months, or for a session, and in very bad cases the penalty is expulsion from all THE PROFESSORS 113 the Universities. This last is not of common occurrence, but occasionally the penalty is imposed. The Faculty in which a new appoint- ment to a Chair is to be made can, and often does, recommend a person to it, but the appointment is made by the Minister of Education, ratified by the King. The poHtics of a candidate for the office of a Professor do not in any way enter into the question of his appointment, although he may be himself at the time of the vacancy a Member of the Senate or of the House of Deputies. The appointment is ad vitam aid culpam. The salaries of the Professors vary from 5000 to 8000 lire, besides which they are entitled to the fees of the students, which on an average are 12 lire a course, H 114 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY and are paid to the Professors them- selves. The Professors of Law have the largest salaries and, at all events in Naples, the largest classes, where one Professor is said to have a class of 400 students. The Universities of Italy do not confer degrees honoris causa. The Professors on no occasion wear robes of office, and appear at public and State functions in evening dress. There is only one session of the Uni- versity, beginning in November and ending in July, with a vacation of three weeks at Christmas, and three weeks at Easter. THE STUDENT. The student enters the University upon the certificate of the Liceo, as the guai'- THE STUDENT 115 antee of his fitness, about the age of nineteen, and at once enrols in the Faculty in which he intends to graduate. The curriculum for graduation in all the Faculties is four years, except that of Medicine, in which it is six. In addition to his class fees already noted (p. Ill), the student has to pay to general funds of the University, on ma- triculation for the first time, the sum of 60 Hre, and, in addition, 160 lire annually. For his diploma on taking his degree he pays 50 Hre. There are, in each year in all the classes, two examinations in which the intending graduate must obtain 70 per cent, of the marks. At the close of his curriculum he pre- sents a Thesis to the Faculty on a subject 116 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY chosen by himself. If accepted as of sufficient merit for graduation, the author is summoned before the Faculty, and after being examined 'pro forma he is addressed by the Dean, and admitted to his degree. There is no formal function for the conferring of degrees. When a graduate obtains his degree he is generally twenty-three or twenty- four years of age. The students and graduates do not wear caps or gowns. There are in the Italian Universities no students' clubs, as in Germany, where beer is drunk ad lihitur)i as a custom, but students' debating societies, chiefly political, exist. Duels among the students as a recrea- tion, as in Germany and Austria, are GENERAL REMARKS 117 unknown. As a custom, there are no sports among the students. There are borse(or bursaries) for students. These, however, are seldom given to the sons of peasants or the working classes, but to those of the better classes who are too poor to send their sons to the Uni- versity, except with such help. They are, too, only given after examination to test merit and capacity. There are no Colleges in the Italian Universities where the students reside, but they live in apartments, or with their parents or friends at home. GENERAL REMARKS. Generally, it may be said that, in the matter of education, Italy has made great progress during the past thirty years. In 118 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY 1863 about 77 per cent, of the population could neither read nor write, and in some places the percentage rose to 85 and 90.^ At the present time about 50 per cent, probably represents the number of those unable to read or write. There are about 2,500,000 children now under instruction in the public schools, and 500,000 in the private schools, which is more than double the number there was in 1862. Upwards of £2,500,000 sterling is annually spent by the State on education. In some places still, however, great ignorance prevails, and the most primitive methods of com- municating ideas, and conducting business, as by notches on sticks, are resorted to, while the employment of the letter- writer is still a lucrative one. 1 Probyn's Italy, p. 289. CHAPTER X THE LAND The land of Italy is held both by very large proprietors and smaller ones. The largest proprietor is the Duke of Ceri, whose rental is between five and six milUons of lire. There is no law of entail in the country, and every owner of land can deal with it as he desires, by testa- ment, donation, or sale. But while this is so, estates often remain for long in the same family, as a father can always leave to any of his children the half of his property in addition to a child's portion of the rest of his estate. (See p. 73.) 119 120 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY There is a very well kept Register of Land Rights, in which the description and extent of every estate in land is recorded, as well as its value. Every deed of transfer, or mortgage, or deed constituting a burden on land, re- quires to be recorded in this register, and a recorded deed is preferred in competi- tion to an unrecorded one. The deeds of transfer, etc., are prepared by the notary, whose business it is to see them properly registered. The deeds re- quire to be duly stamped. The system of letting land varies in different parts of Italy. In a great part of Piedmont, and in nearly all Central Italy as well as in the Venetian provinces, what is known as the Mezzadria System prevails. THE LAND 121 Under this system the proprietor of the soil provides the land and the house, supplies the implements of husbandry as well as pays for half the seed and cattle, while the contadino (or peasant) supplies the labour, pays for half the seed and the cattle, and the profits are equally divided between them. This system is said to work very well, and both parties flourish under it. Although the contract is only for one year, it exists in many cases during a long course of years, and even generations, with profit to all parties concerned. As a rule, the contadino works the land with the help of members of his own family — including, it may be, his brothers and sisters, as well as his wife and children — only employing outside 122 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY labour at seed-time, harvest, and vin- tage. In Lombardy the land is let on lease in large quantities to an affittabile, for a sum fixed, who employs families of labourers to till the soil. The leases are generally for a period of about ten years, and the rents are of an amount which will yield a return of about three per cent, on the value of the land. The wages paid by the affittabile are miserably small — as sixty centimes, or about sixpence a day, is about the average amount, besides a house and garden-ground, the latter, however, being frequently of too limited extent even for the labourer's own use. In parts of the Kingdom, chiefly in Piedmont, the land is oAvned and culti- vated by small peasant proprietors. THE LAND 123 In other parts the large owners till the ground by their own direct employees. In the Campagna about Rome there is a class of men known as Mercante di Campagna who take on lease large tracts of land for the pasture of cattle and horses, and the grooving of corn. These men generally live in Rome, and employ casual labour for their work. The owner of the land, in all cases, builds the houses and offices, and keeps them, as well as the roads and fences, in proper repair when he lets the land. In Italy there are no building leases, and if a person desires to build a house he must buy the ground on which it is to be erected. For first-class mortgages on land the rate of interest is 4 to 4 J per cent. 124 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY The interest given by banks on current accounts is between 3 and 4 per cent. Succession duty is payable by the heirs or others succeeding to landed estates. The game on the land belongs to the proprietor, and cannot without his permission be shot, or taken by any one else, provided he surrounds his property with boundary marks, and with posts at intervals bearing the word ' Bandita.' To shoot game a licence costing ten lire is required. Persons found shooting on land pre- served as before indicated are deemed poachers, and are dealt with as such by law. The fishing in rivers flowing to the sea is free to all in Italy. The fishing in small rivers, and in lakes within the grounds of THE LAND 125 a proprietor, is private, and can be treated ^ as preserved if desired. They may be let to other parties. The forests in Italy are the property of the proprietors on whose ground they are, but their rights in some localities, as to felling trees, are limited by the State. There are inspectors of forests ap- pointed by the Government, to see that the oAvners keep within their rights. There is a School of Forestry at Yallom- brosa, near Florence, for the training of foresters. CHAPTER XI THE ARMY AND NAVY The peace strength of the Army of Italy is 280,000 men, 10,000 horses, and 900 guns. The composition of the Army is as follows, viz. : — 2 Regiments of Grenadiers 96 » Infantry 12 a Bersagliere 7 jj Alpine Troops 10 j» Lancers 14 5) Cavalry 24 >» 126 Artillery r There are 1360 of these Regiments, consisting of four Battalions and four Companies of each. The war strength of each Com- pany is 250, and the peace about 85. There are 400 in each Regiment, which consists of three Squadrons. There are two divisions in each Regiment, of two Batteries each, and four guns in each. THE ARMY AND NAVY 127 2 Regiments of Light Artillery. 6 „ Foot Artillery. 4 „ Engineers. 12 Companies of Sanitary Corps 12 „ Commissariat. 12 „ Carabineers. The war strength of the Army is 2,500,000 men. It is divided as follows, viz. : — Infantry, 2,170,000 Cavalry, 65,000 Artillery, 200,000 Engineers and Commissariat, . 45,000 Sanitary Corps, . . . 20,000 Besides which there are 51,000 horses, and 1700 guns. Besides the above, in case of need, as a dernier ressort, the Communes among them must supply about a million men. The annual levy for the army is about 128 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY 80,000 men. From the age of twenty to forty all the men of a district not already enrolled in the army must present them- selves for inspection and selection to the proper authorities in it, and a ballot for ^ those to serve takes place, who, when found duly qualified, begin their service — all the others receiving in their own locality a drill of three weeks, so as to qualify them for emergencies. For two years, in the infantry, and three in the cavalry, the service of those selected is regular, after which, during the next seven years, they are liable to be called on for duty. - A student at the University can have his regular service limited to one year if he pays a fine of 1000 lire. During his time of regular service, a THE ARMY AND NAVY 129 soldier cannot marry, although he may at the time of entry on service be a married man. The pay of a common soldier is only ten centimes a day (about a penny) be- sides his board and lodging, which in- cludes wine and coffee, and his clothes. In a regiment, serving in the ranks, will be found with the peasant soldier the sons of men of wealth and culture. They share the same barracks, and board, and are clothed in the same manner as their poorer brethren. It is said that the food is of good quality. A man cannot elect to be a soldier for life, but only for a period not exceeding five years at a time. After twelve years' service, if he has obtamed rank as a non- commissioned officer, he is generally pre- I 130 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY ferred at the close of his service for some Government appointment, such as an usher in the Houses of Parhament, or as a caretaker of some of the public offices. , '■1 THE OFFICER. There are three military schools in Italy l where officers are trained for their pro- fession — viz. at Modena for the infantry, where the curriculum is one of three years ; at Pinerolo for the cavalry, where the curriculum is four years ; and at Turin, which is principally for the engineers, but also for the artillery, where the curriculum is^ five years. The Turin in- stitution is named an Academy. Before entering any of these seminaries a severe examination must be passed, that for Turin being the most difficult. THE OFFICER 131 To pass out from these institutions another severe examination must be gone through, and then the cadet gets his commission, and joins his regiment at once. He cannot elect to join any par- ticular regiment. Itahan officers must always appear in uniform, whether on duty or not, unless they are on long leave. The only excep- tion to this rule is that of officers of the rank of general. There is no Commander-in-Chief of the Army except during war. The Secretary of War discharges the duties of this office in times of peace. The pay of officers is as follows : — Sub-Lieutenant, 1,800 lire, Lieutenant, 2,000 „ Captain, . 3,200 „ 132 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY Major, 4,400 lire. Lieut.-Colonel, . 5,200 „ Colonel, . •7,000 „ Major-General, . 9,000 „ Lieut. -General, . 12,000 „ General,^ . . . . 15,000 „ The officers can retire on pension at the age of fifty-two, having served twenty- five years, and sooner if disabled in any way. The pension varies from half the pay to about eight-tenths thereof, accord- ing to the age at which he retires, and the period of ordinary service and amount of active service in war. An officer's widow receives a pension equal to about two-thirds of her husband's pension, which, failing a widow, the chil- dren take among them till of age. If the widow marries again she loses the pen- ^ He has 3000 lire for expenses. THE OFFICER 133 sion, but the children take it till of age. As previously stated, an officer desiring to marry must obtain the permission of the King, and must deposit certain securi- ties with the Minister of War (see p. 68). This permission is not granted as a matter of course, but only after very care- ful inquiry as to the circumstances and character of the bride. Duels, though not of common occur- rence, occasionally take place among the officers. These must be of equal rank. When the occasion arises, their brother officers try to arrange the matter. If they fail, and the challenge is sent, as a matter of honour it must be accepted; but whether accepted or not, the chal- lenged is subjected to discipline by his 134 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY brother officers. The weapons used are generally swords. The result is seldom fatal ; but if it is, the surviving combatant is subjected to punishment for a time. The horses for the Army are generally bought in Tuscany or in Hungary for about 800 lire each. If an officer desires to purchase a horse from the Government depot he can do so at this price, and pay for it by instalments. The rifle used in the Army is simply called fucile (rifle), modello 1891, rapidly loading, calibre m.m. 6*5. There are two kinds of guns — heavy ones, calibre 9, and light ones, calibre 7*5. For the defence of the coast there are big guns as for the Navy, which is provided with the best and most powerful guns of 120 tons, made in England. THE NAVY 135 THE NAVY. The Navy of Italy is a large one, and consists of 298 battle-ships, of which there are — 12 turreted ironclads, 4 ironclad frigates, 2 incrociatori, or large cruisers, 12 smaller ships, partly of iron ; while the rest are small cruisers and tor- pedo-boats. There are 24,000 marines. The annual levy for the Navy is about 3000 men, who are taken chiefly from the sea-coast districts. It is conducted very much as that for the Army, and the rules for service are very much the same. The only training-school for naval officers is that at Leghorn. 136 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY The principal naval station in the King- dom is Spezia, while Venice and Taranto are also regarded as important. The pay of the officers is as follows : — Midshipman, Sub-Lieutenant, . Lieutenant, . Captain of Corvette, „ Frigate, „ Vessel, Commander, Vice-Admiral, Admiral, 1,800 lire. 2,200 3,200 4,400 5,200 7,000 9,000 12,000 15,000 It is, however, only during war that the services of an Admiral of the Fleet are requisitioned, the Minister for the Navy directing the movements of the jBeet during peace. The pay of the ordinary sailor is 180 lire a year. « W £i ^ ' -taX'tOi. X 1 ' V. OF CHAPTER XII COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. The average of the exports of Italy during the last ten years has been about 1,000,000,000 Hre, or about £40,000,000 a year ; and consisted chiefly of raw silk, wine, oil, eggs, hemp, coral, sulphur, butter ; fruit, consisting of lemons, oranges, grapes, apples, peaches, figs and pears, and cattle. The average of imports over the same period was 1,200,000,000 lire, or £48,000,000 ; and consisted of corn, cotton, woven silk, coal, iron, hides, woollen goods, cloth, tea, coffee, sugar, tobacco, and rice. 137 138 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY The wine trade is very large. The pro- duction of wine in the Kingdom is said to be about the largest in the world, and is estimated at, on an average, about 400,000,000 Htres annually. There are comparatively few breweries in the Kingdom. The chief articles manufactured in the country are paper, silk, straw hats, macca- roni, oil, artistic furniture, and iron goods. There are marble quarries in various parts of the country, the chief being at Carrara. There are also granite quarries, the principal of which is at Baveno. There are likewise lead, sulphur, and tin mines in the Kingdom, and at Monte Amiata, near Siena, one of mercury. Aluminium deposit is also found in quan- tities; and salt is found in rock forma- COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 139 tion, and is also recovered from the sea. Borax is also found. Tobacco is a monopoly of the Govern- ment, of growth, manufacture, and sale ; but permission is granted by the State in some districts to private persons to grow it, but only under strict inspection, and on the condition that they sell the whole amount grown to the Government, and that at a price fixed by it. Except in Sicily salt is a Government monopoly, both of manufacture and sale. The Government grant licences for the sale of salt and tobacco, and in this way disabled servants of the Government or their widows, to whom a preference is given in the granting of licences, can make a small living. The area of the Kingdom is about 140 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY 70,816,142 acres, and is divided as follows, viz. : — Mountains, . • . 7,000,000 i icres. i Uncultivated land, • . 6,000,000 5) Marshy land, • . 2,500,000 )) Pasture, • . 3,500,000 55 Woods, • . 11,000,000 ;j Cultivated land under plough, 25,000,000 55 Vines, . • . 10,500,000 55 Olive trees, . • . 3,500,000 J5 Lemon and orange trees. . 1,500,000 55 The produce is as follows : — Fodder, .... x^,v,v/v-, Cocoons, Tobacco, Cheese, Butter, etc., Wool, . 14,000,000 tons. 35,000 „ 4,500 „ 110,000 „ 10,000 „ The number of animals in the country is about — Horses, .... 750,000 Mules, 300,000 COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 141 Asses, . 1,000,000 Oxen, . . . . 5,000,000 Sheep, . 7,000,000 Goats, . 2,000,000 Pigs, . . . . 2,000,000 The chief hues of Railway are now Government property. They were made at first by private enterprise, but in 1875 the Government bought up the lines of the Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and the Sicilian Companies, and then leased them out to new companies, who pay a nominal rent for them, while the Government guar- antee from four to six per cent, to the shareholders. The Postal Service is under Government, and the last return shows that 150,000,000 letters and 60,000,000 post-cards passed through the post in one year. 142 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY The Telegraph Service is a Government one; while that of the Telephone is a private enterprise. Water is sometimes supplied by the Municipalities, and sometimes by private companies. Gas and Electric Lighting and Power supply are the enterprise of private com- panies. The Shipping of the Kingdom is a large undertaking, and includes about 6300 sailing vessels, with a gross tonnage of 580,000 tons ; and 330 steamships, with a tonnage of 210,000. Genoa is the chief seaport of the Kingdom, and is making rapid strides in its trade, showing an annual increase of about nine per cent., while Marseilles shows an increase of only three. CHAPTER XIII THE RELIEF OF THE POOR There is no regular State provision of any kind by direct taxation for the poor of Italy, and begging is forbidden, except to a few persons who, under the rule of the Pope, were allowed to ask for alms at the church doors, and who are still permitted to do so. These beggars may be recog- nised by a brass badge they wear on their arms. But although begging is forbidden by law, there being no penal consequences attached to its prosecution, it is carried on to a very large extent, as every visitor to Rome and other Italian cities knows. 143 144 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY The police occasionally apprehend persons found begging in the streets, and take them to the Police Office, where they are simply admonished by the superintendent, told not to do it again, and are dismissed. Thereafter they immediately return to their favourite occupation. Persons who are not permanently resid- ent in a place, when found begging, are sent on to their own home, or if foreigners, to the frontiers of the country. Many such persons are found in Rome. Begging is found to be a very good trade by some. It is- known of one beggar at least that he died owning two houses, and had 10,000 lire in the bank. There are many foundations for the poor in the Kingdom, such as those for giving portions to girls when they marry. THE RELIEF OF THE POOR 145 for helping young men in their studies, and for sick persons. The hospitals for the sick and wounded are numerous, and are now very well ad- ministered under the direction either of the State, or the Provincial Council. There are asylums for orphans, the deaf and dumb, the blind and the lunatic, as well as reformatories for juvenile criminals, which are supported either by private benevolence or State endowment, but all are subject to inspection by the State. There is no institution for idiots or imbeciles, of whom, however, there are, especially in the north of the Kingdom, a very large number. It is said that in the villages they are well treated and not molested. When it is found that an idiot K 146 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY is unruly, confinement in a lunatic asylum is ordered. In 1890 a statute was passed for the ' Opere Pie,' to regulate the administration of all the public charities of the Kingdom. Such are placed under the control of the Minister of the Interior (Home Secretary), and he can discharge any administrative body acting irregularly. Irrespective of religious belief, the duly qualified sick or poor receive the aid they require from the proper institution. At least this is the law, but it sometimes happens that private benevolence must come to the aid of the suffering and destitute. Should a foundation no longer serve its intended purpose, or be for the public good, the funds can be applied to a kin- THE RELIEF OF THE POOR 147 dred object, or to some really useful public undertaking. When the persons named for the pur- pose in the foundation of these institutions do not administer them, they are placed under the control of the Charity Commis- sioners, elected by the Communal Council, and they are all, as stated, supervised by the Minister of the Interior. INDEX MISSION, MODE OF, TO PaBLIA- lENT, 29. option of child, 78. — conditions for, 79. banians, the, 7. [owance of King, 10. ibassador, H.M., at Rome, 97. nunciata, the Order of, 84. peal, the Court of, 44. — number of, 44. — its judges, 44. their salaries, 44. ipeals, time for taking, 50. ea of Kingdom, S, 140. — division of, 140. my, the, 126. — war strength of, 126. — divisions of, 126. — peace strength, 126. — composition of, 127. — levy for, 128. — service in, 12S. tides of manufacture, 138. isise, the Court of, 44. — its jurisdiction, 44. — its judges, 44. their salaries, 44. — trial by jury in, 45. — appeal from, 46. fvocato, the, 57. — his education, etc., 57. Avvocato, his admission as, 58. his income, 58. Bail in Criminal Cases, 52. Ballot, second, 21. Beggars, 143-144. Begging, 143. Betrothal, 62. Bills of Government, 14. mode of dealing with, 14 private members, 16. Finance, 16. Bishops, income of, 91. appointment of, 99. Boundaries of Kingdom, 6. Breach of Promise, action for, 69. Bribery at elections, 22. British subjects, marriage of, 70 Building leases, 123. Campagna, land in, 123. Capital of Kingdom, 6. at various times, 4. Capital punishment, no, 54. Carabinieri, the, 60. Cassation, Court of, 46. its jurisdiction, 46. number of, 46. sederunt of, 47. 149 150 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY Cassation, Court of, its judges, 47. their salaries, 47. how judgment given in, 47. Cavour, 3. Census, the, 7. ' Centre," the, 28. Charitable Institutions, 145. statute to regulate, 146. Charles Albert, King, 3. Chiesa Evangelica Italiana, 94. Cattolica Italiana, 94. Child, support of, 77. of age at 21, 77. emancipation of, 77. guardians to, 78. cannot be disinherited, 78. illegitimate, 70-71, 78. Churches, number of Roman Catho- lic, 90. Protestant, 93. Civil procedure, 48. Colporteurs, 95. Commerce, 137. Committee for bills in Senate, 13. in House of Deputies, 25. Commune, definition of, 36. revenue of, 39. Conduct of case, 51. Consiglio Accademico, 112. Consiglio Comunale, the, 36. number of, 36. duties of, 36. manages schools, 106. number of members of, 37. qualification of members and electors of, 37. duration of membership of, 38. expenses of election for, 38. President of, 38. Consiglio Provinciale, the, 33. Consiglio Provinciale, the, duties of, 33. manages schools, 106. President of, 33. electors of, 34. expenses of election of, 35. revenue of, 35. Constitution of Parliament, 10. Council of Education, 106. Courts, the, of Italy, 40. Criminal procedure, 51. ' Crown of Italy,' order of, 85. Custody of children, 72. Decorations, 84. order of, 84. grades of, 85. conferring of, 86. on British subject, 86. Degrees, honoris causa, 114. Deputies, the House of, 17. members of, 17. qualification of, 17. — electors, 19. — elections, 21. — arrangement of, 23. — reporters of proceedings, i swearing of members of, 24. introduction of bills in, 25. quorum of, 25, interrogations in, 26. interpellations in, 27. political parties in, 27. session of, 29. hours of meeting of, 29. admission to, 29. place of meeting of, 30. Divorce, no action for, 71. Duels, officers', 133. n INDEX 151 3DUCATI0N, 101. — elementary, 101. — compulsory, 101. — free, 102. — general remarks upon, 117. Electoral districts, equal, 20. Hectors of House of Deputies, 19. Snglish, the, in Italy, 7. Entail, 119. Svangelical agencies, 95. expenditure of Kingdom, 32. expenses of election, 22. Sxports, 137. ?'emale Students in Liceo, 105. in Universities, 110. finance Bills in Parliament, 16. ConuQittee in Parliament, 25. Wishing, 124. Forestry, School of, 125. Forests, 125. Inspectors of, 125. French, the, in Italy, 7. Same, the, 124. Licence, 124. Garibaldi, 3. Gas supply, 142. Germans, the, in Italy, 7. Government, the, 9. Greeks, the, in Italy, 7. Guardie di Pubblica Sicurezza, the, 61. Municipals, 61. Giudice Conciliatore, the, 40. its jurisdiction, 40. its judges, 41. their salaries, 41. Guns for army, 134. for navy, 134. Gymnasium, the, 104. ciirriculum in, 104. History of Kingdom, 1. Horses for army, 134. Hospitals, the, 145. Humbert, King, 9. Illegitimate Child, 70. rights of, 71. support of, 7S. legitimation of, 78. Imports, 137. Imprisonment for debt, no, 54. Injury, action for damages for, 50. Inspectors of schools, 106. Instruction, religious, 107. Interrogations, 26. Interpellation.s, 27. Istituto, the, 103. curriculum in, 103. Jews, the, 88. Judges, the, 55. who may be, 55. their training, 55. appointment, 56. not political, 56. their robes, 57. number of, 57. Jurors, number of, required, 45. mode of selection of, 45. qualification of, 45. only paid expenses, 46. not sworn, 64. Jury, trial by, 45. none in civil causes, 48. Justice, 40. Courts of, 40. 152 THE INSTITUTIONS OF ITALY King, the, 9. Lakes, chief, of Kingdom, 7. Land, the, 119. largest owners of, 119. register of owners of, 120. deed of transfer of, 120. letting of, 120, Mezzadria System of, 120. system in Lombardy, 122. in Piedmont, 122. interest on mortgages on, 123. succession duty on, 124. tax, 31. ' Left," the, 28. Legitimation, 70. Letting of land, 120. Levy for army, 127. Liberal Party, the, 28. Advanced, the, 28. Liceo, the, 104. curriculum in, 104. female students in, 104-105. Lombardy, land in, 122. Lower House of Parliament, 17. Manin, 3. Marble quarries, 138. Marriage, 62. forbidden degrees, 63. restrictions on, 64. dispensations, 64. necessary consents to, 65. how dispensed with, 65. intimation of, 65. civil, 66. religious not necessary, 66. registration of, 67. moneta- • provisions in view of, 68. Marriage, contract of, 69. of British subjects, 70. Mazzini, 3. Members of Senate, 11-12. appointment of, 11. time of, 12. no payment to, 13. of House of Deputies, etc., 17. have no salary, 18. Methodists, Wesleyan, 94. Episcopal, 94. Mezzadria System, 120. Ministerialists, the, 29. Ministers, 13, Court for trial of, 30. Monarch, the, 9, powers of, 9. Monasteries, 91. abolition of, 91. Monks, orders of, 92. Mountains, chief, 6. National Debt, 32. Navy, the, 135. ships of, 135. Marines, 135. levy for, 135. training-school for, 135. —, — stations for, 136. pay of officer in, 136. of sailor, 136. Minister of, 136. Nobility, the, 81. precedence of, 81. old families of, 81. classes of, 82. titles of, 82. right of children to, 82. additions to, 83. no legislative chamber of, 83 INDEX 153 Notary, the, 59. his training, 59. his duties, 60. Nullity of marriage, 70. grounds for action of, 70-71. Oath taken by Deputies and Sknators, 25. Officer, the, 130. marriage of, 68, 133. schools for, 130. examination of, 131. must appear in uniform, 131. pay of, 131. pension of, 132. widow of, 132. duels among, 133. naval, 136. pay of, 136. 'Opere Pie,' statute for the, 146. Opposition, the, 29. Parent and Child, 77. Parliament, the, 10. duration of, 19. •Peter's Pence,' 98. Piedmont, land in, 122. Place of meeting of Parliament, 30. Police, the, 66. Political parties in State, 27. Poor, the relief of, 143. foundations for, 144. Pope, the, 96. his position, 96. his powers, 96-97. his allowance, 98. his income, 98. appoints bishops, 99. Population of Kingdom, 7, 88. Postal Service, the, 141. Prefect, 35. salary of, 35. President of House of Deputies, 22. Vice-, 22. President of Senate, 13. Vice-. 13. Pretura, Court of the, 41. its jurisdiction 41. appeal from, 42. its judges, 42. their salaries, 42 number of, 42. Priests, influence of, 90. incomes of, 91. Principal of University, 1. Prisoner, examination of, 52. Procedure, 48. civil, 48. criminal, 51. Professors of Universities, 111 appointment of, 113. salaries of, 113. do not wear robes, 114. Prosecutor, public, 51. Protestants, 88. increase of, 95. places of worship, 93. sects of, 93. Public offices, 89. Qualification of Electors of House of Deputies, 19 Quoruui of House of Deputies, 25 Radicals, the, 28. Railways, lines of, 141. Government property, 141. Register of land rights, 120. of voters, 20. ^'' Religion, 88. 154 THE INSTITUTIONS *0F ITALY Religion, Roman Catholic, that of State, 88. statistics of, 88. freedom, 93. teaching of, in schools, 107. Report of proceedings in Parlia- ment, 24. Reports of law-cases, 55. Representation of Government in provinces, 35. Rm(,m6 of proceedings in Parlia- ment, 24. Rettore Magnifico, 111. Revenue of Kingdom, 32. Rifles for army, 184. 'Right,' the, 27. Rivers, chief, 6. Sailor, 135. pay of, 136. Salaries of Secretary of State, 13. of judges, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47. Prefects, 35. Sanitary condition of Kingdom, 5. ' Savoy,' order of, 85. School Boards, no, 106. Schools required, 101. management of, 106. municipalities provide, 101. subject to inspection, 103. secondary and upper, 103. technical, 103. Scriptures, distribution of the, 95. Scuola, 103. Professionale, 103. Normale, 105. Magistrale, 105. Superiore Femminile, 105. Second ballot, 21. Secretaries of State, 13. Secretaries, salaries of, 13. Under, 14. Senate, the, 11. Senate, members of, 11. appointment of, 11. members of, have no remunera- tion, 13. President of, 13. Vice-Presidents of, 13. mode of introducing bills in, 14. voting in, 15. sessions of, 16. Separation, action of, 71. grounds for, 71. Session, University, 114. Shipping, 142. Socialists, the, 28. Soldier, service of, 128, 129. pay of, 129. Solicitor, the, 58. his training, 58. admission, 59. fees of, 59. his duties, 59. States of Kingdom before 1859, 3. St. Peter's, services in, 99. admission to, 99. Studentj the, in University, 114. age at entrance, 114. curriculum of, 115. his fees, 115. graduation, 115. do not wear caps or gowns, 116. no clubs for, 116. no duels among, 116. no sports for, 117. bursaries for, 117. Succession, 73, Successor to throne, 10. Sundays, elections on, 21. INDEX 155 Syndic, the, 38. election of, 38. Taxation, 5. amount of, 31. Taxes, 30. Teachers, appointment of, 105. salaries of, 106. Telegraph Service, 142. Time of meeting of Parliament, 29. Tobacco, 139. Government monopoly, 139. licences for sale of, 139. Towns, chief, 6. Transfer of land, 120. Tribunal, the Court of the, 43. its jurisdiction, 43. its judges, 43. their salaries, 43. appeal from, 44. number of, 44. Unification of Kingdom, 3. results of, 4. Universities, the, 107. number of, 107. list of, 108. Universities, free, 109. how supported, 109. Faculties of. 111. administration of, 112. do not confer degrees honoris causa, 114. the, one session in, 114. Vatican, the, Pope never leaves, 97. is under police supervision, 97. legates to, 97. Britain sends no Ambas.«;ador, 97. Verdict of jury, 45, 53. Victor Emmanuel, King, 3. Prince, 10. Voting, mode of, in Senate, 16. in House of Deputies, 26. Waldenses, the, 93. Water supply, the, 142. Wine trade, the, 137. Witnesses, examination of, 62. oath taken by, 54. fvEESE libh^ Vi^riv CFTHE '^-^ Printed by T. and A. Constable, Printers to Her Majesty at the Edinburgh University Press 5 P )4 ;9 i 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 3Aug'59F«i ^lEC'O l-O JUL 2 b &^ 28Sep'5£JL W STACKS ^^P 1 4 1 959 REC'D LD ^> QAN DEftT LD 21A-50m-4,'59 (A1724sl0)476B General Library University of California Berkeley J J. ^A 0/029 •i^ -V ^ UNIVERSITY OF CAIvlFORNIA LIBRARY ii