GIFT OF 
 
A STUDY OF TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 BY 
 
 HERSCHEL THURMAN MANUEL 
 
 A. B. DePauw University, 1909 
 A. M. University of Chicago, 1914 
 
 THESIS 
 
 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the 
 Degree of 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 IN EDUCATION 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 OF THE 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 1917 
 
?. 
 fo 
 
 
 Copyright 1919 
 By Public School Publishing Co. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In the summer of 1916, the General Education Board 
 made an appropriation for a study of gifted children. 
 The investigation has been carried forward under the 
 direction of Professor G. M. Whipple of the University 
 of Illinois. During the present school year (1916-17), 
 three persons have worked on the problem under 
 Professor Whipple 's supervision: Miss Genevieve L. 
 Coy, Dr. T. S. Henry, and the author. Miss Coy has 
 spent a large part of the school year in a study of gifted 
 children, and other children with whom the gifted chil- 
 dren might be compared, in the fifth and sixth grades of 
 the Leal School, Urbana, Illinois. Dr. Henry has inves- 
 tigated the class-room instruction of gifted children. 
 The author undertook an investigation of specialized 
 ability, and further limited his research to a study of 
 talent in one direction, viz., drawing. It is the purpose 
 of this volume to present an account of the research 
 undertaken by the author. 
 
 For assistance in this research I am indebted to 
 Professor G. M. Whipple, Professor W. C. Bagley, and 
 Professor C. H. Johnston of the Department of Educa- 
 tion of the University of Illinois ; to Professor E. J. Lake 
 of the Department of Art and Design of the University 
 of Illinois ; to my colleagues Miss Genevieve L. Coy and 
 Dr. T. S. Henry; to Superintendent W. W. Earnest of 
 the Champaign Public Schools; to Miss Lottie Switzer, 
 Principal, Miss Mary Hill, Supervisor of Art, and vari- 
 ous teachers of the Champaign High School ; to Super- 
 intendent A. P. Johnson of the Urbana Public Schools ; 
 to Mr. M. L. Flaningam, Principal of the Urbana High 
 
 in 
 
 415593 
 
IV 
 
 School ; to Mr. L. C. Griggs, Principal of the Leal School, 
 Urbana; to Miss Alice Frazey, Supervisor of Art, Miss 
 Burdelle Ealey, Teacher of Art, and to various teachers 
 of the Urbana Public Schools; to Mr. David Seabury, 
 Consulting Psychologist of the Culver Military Acad- 
 emy; to the persons who have acted as subjects in the 
 tests; and to many others who are not specifically men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Within the text several cases of particular indebted- 
 ness have been noted. The work of Miss Coy has been 
 especially helpful in that it has enabled me to extend 
 the study to limits which otherwise would have been 
 impossible. 
 
 To the General Education Board I am indebted for 
 the subsidy under which I have worked. 
 
 Most of all I am indebted to Professor Whipple, to 
 whom I owe the opportunity to share in the general 
 study, who suggested to me the problem of specialized 
 ability, whose suggestions and criticisms have been most 
 valuable throughout the investigation, and whose kind- 
 nesses have been many quite apart from our academic 
 relations. 
 
 To all who have in any way assisted in carrying 
 forward the study I wish to express my most hearty 
 thanks. 
 
 HERSCHEL T. MANUEL. 
 
 The University of Illinois, May 14, 1917. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 I. Introduction: General Statement of Problem, Method 
 
 and Results 1 
 
 II. Historical Statement 6 
 
 III. Test Groups and Sources of Data 11 
 
 IV. Description of Tests 17 
 
 V. Results of Tests 49 
 
 VI. Profiles and Personal Data 77 
 
 VII. Tlie Psychophysical Characteristics of Persons Talented 
 
 in Drawing 110 
 
 VIII. The Test Method and the Diagnosis of Talent in 
 
 Drawing 134 
 
 IX. Summary of Conclusions 141 
 
 X. Bibliography 146 
 
A STUDY OF TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTION: GENERAL STATEMENT OF 
 PROBLEM, METHOD, AND RESULTS 
 
 The Problem 
 
 It is the purpose of this volume to report the results 
 of a study of talent in drawing. If it may not seem too 
 abrupt, it will give point to the presentation to state in 
 the very beginning the problem around which the re- 
 search has centered. This problem is twofold: 
 
 (1) What are the essential psychophysical 
 characteristics of persons talented in drawing ? 
 
 (2) How may the test method be used in the 
 diagnosis of talent in drawing ? 
 
 The Method 
 
 The method employed is suggested by the statement 
 of the problem. A number of individuals were selected 
 for their recognized talent in drawing. To these persons 
 mental and physical tests were applied, and other in- 
 formation of a non-experimental character (particularly 
 biographical) was gathered from different sources. In 
 the following pages this material has been brought to- 
 gether and its bearing upon the problem stated has been 
 pointed out. 
 
 General and Special Ability 
 
 As stated in the Preface, this investigation forms a 
 part of an extensive study of the gifted child. In a 
 
2 T^/SNT IN DRAWING 
 
 consideration of superior endowment one may dis- 
 tinguish a priori two general types. The first is that of 
 high general ability. The child stands above the aver- 
 age of the group in all of his school work. In tests of 
 general intelligence he ranks above age. On the other 
 hand, there are those who appear to have abilities more 
 or less specialized. By endowment or by training they 
 are so equipped as to take special interest in, and to 
 succeed extraordinarily well with, some one activity. 
 Perhaps in comparison with their fellows they are partic- 
 ularly good in language, in music, in constructive work, 
 or in drawing. They may or may not belong to the 
 class described as having high general ability, but for 
 doing the particular thing under discussion they do show 
 special aptitude. 
 
 This specialized ability we shall call "talent." And 
 it is to this part of the general problem of the gifted 
 child that the attention of the author has been directed. 
 After some preliminary survey it was decided that it 
 would be best, in consideration of the time which could 
 be devoted to the unit of research then projected, to 
 limit the study to investigation of one particular form of 
 talent. Drawing was chosen as the activity of greatest 
 promise for the immediate purpose. 
 
 The Test Method 
 
 The experimental part of the study of talent in draw- 
 ing has been carried forward by the test method. It 
 will be serviceable then to recall the characteristics of 
 this method. Any test in which the results are influ- 
 enced by the mental activity of the subject may properly 
 be called a mental test. Both mental and physical ac- 
 tivities are, of course, involved, but they are so inter- 
 
GENERAL STATEMENT 3 
 
 related as to make it unprofitable for our purpose to 
 try to disentangle them. Most of the tests which we 
 have used may be called " mental' ' tests in this sense. 
 It will be sufficient then to discuss the characteristics of 
 the mental test or, as it might also be called, the psycho- 
 logical test. 
 
 The test (Prufungsexperiment), as defined by Stern, 1 
 is an experiment designed in a given case to reveal "the 
 individual psychical constitution of a personality or a 
 single psychical attribute of it." The same author 
 points out two logical presuppositions of the test: (1) 
 it must really furnish an indication of the quality to be 
 demonstrated; (2) it must assign the one tested in rela- 
 tion to this quality to a definite place in the series of 
 possible results. A very good discussion in English of 
 the nature and purpose of mental tests is given by 
 Whipple. 2 Within itself the test is diagnostic rather 
 than theoretical. Its purpose is "to analyze, measure 
 and rank the status or the efficiency of traits and capac- 
 ities in the individual under examination. " Its value 
 as an instrument of research lies in the use which may 
 be made of these measures, analyses, and ranks. It is a 
 kind of standardized experiment, in which the meaning 
 of the performance is determined by previous research 
 or else by comparison with other results. 
 
 A Study of Individuals 
 
 The research here reported has been essentially a 
 study of individuals by the test method. Tests and 
 standard performances for the individuals studied are 
 
 1 Stern, W., Die differentielle Psychologic* Leipzig, 1911, p. 87. 
 2 Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. Baltimore, 
 1914, p. 1-4. 
 
4 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 logically presupposed. It has not been the primary 
 purpose either to develop new tests or to standardize 
 old ones. Such a purpose would have carried the study 
 to impossible limits. As a matter of fact, however, the 
 tests at hand seemed insufficient for our purpose, and, 
 for some that were available, comparable results were 
 lacking. Practically, therefore, we have been compelled 
 to do a little work in both developing and standardizing. 
 Yet it must be borne in mind that we have entered these 
 fields only under necessity in an attempt partially to 
 overcome the handicap of a rapidly developing but still 
 incomplete science. 
 * 
 
 Justification of the Study 
 
 No excuse is needed for any type of scientific research. 
 If, however, the reader desires some reference to the 
 literature for a justification of the thing which we have 
 attempted, we may say that we have undertaken the first 
 named of the tasks mentioned by Stern in the quotation 
 below : 3 
 
 "It will be necessary both to 'psychograph' exceptionally gifted indi- 
 viduals as completely as possible and to follow their subsequent mental 
 development, and also to work out types and correlations by the com- 
 parison of numerous individuals." 
 
 Or, we may add the statement of Dr. Kerschensteiner 
 a statement which concerns drawing talent more spe- 
 cifically : 4 
 
 "The productions of both the Munich boys stand on the same level 
 with the productions of the two boys [afterwards the German painters, 
 Albrecht Diirer and Hans Thomas] who once made the title-pages [refer- 
 ring to reproductions of early drawings of these painters which Dr. 
 Kerschensteiner has made on the title-pages of his book]. Will they 
 develop also as these? Who can say? We have so far no objective, 
 
 3 Stern, W., The Supernormal Child. Journal of Educational Psy- 
 chology, 2: 1911, 187-188. 
 
 4 Kerschensteiner, Georg. Die Entwicklung der zeichnerischen 
 Begabung. Munich, 1905. Preface, xi f. 
 
GENERAL STATEMENT 5 
 
 certain measure for true talent, whether graphic, musical, or linguistic; 
 we have also no sure measure for great ability in abstraction, in scientific 
 or aesthetic imagination, in organization, in observation, or in the technical 
 arts. Usually we recognize these qualities first, when they are in full 
 bloom, but not in the bud. It will be an uncommonly great, but also a 
 very difficult task of experimental pedagogy, to find the key for the judg- 
 ment of these different talents." 
 
 Or, perhaps the reader will find concrete justification 
 for such a study in the following paraphrase of the ex- 
 perience of one of our own subjects : 
 
 "I have always liked to draw, but in my childhood 1 received very 
 little encouragement. No one thought that I could do anything. Even 
 my mother, though she had herself received training in art, did not encour- 
 age me. She did not think that I could ever do much with drawing, and 
 she gave very little attention to the drawings which I used to take to her. 
 Both the common school and the high school offered very little opportunity 
 for development in this line, in which I dreamed that some day I might 
 accomplish something. Before entering the university I had no real lessons 
 in drawing except perhaps a few that might be so designated in the com- 
 mon schools. Yet through these years I have continued to cherish my 
 dream. I remember that I was fascinated by the drawings of birds and 
 the like which one of my teachers in the country school used to make 
 after the fashion of the old penmen. I wish that T could go out to teach 
 art to children so that any one who has the desire may have the oppor- 
 tunity also." 
 
 Results 
 
 The investigation has revealed great individual dif- 
 ferences in the mental and physical characteristics of 
 persons who are talented in drawing. These differences 
 are discussed in some detail in Chapter VII. We have 
 been able to make recommendations concerning the types 
 of tests which should be used in a diagnosis of drawing 
 talent, and to point out certain specific problems for 
 further investigation. The discussion of tests in their 
 relation to talent in drawing is presented in Chapter 
 VIII. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 HISTOKICAL STATEMENT 
 
 Development of the Test Method 
 
 Various types of scientific research are interdepend- 
 ent. One type of study goes forward a little while, and 
 then another undertakes to utilize the results of the 
 former while they are yet in the making. The two 
 studies advance together and each supports the other. 
 No field is completely developed before workers in an- 
 other take advantage of the contribution already made. 
 
 Such a situation is reflected in the method of this 
 study. Less than a half century ago the first psycho- 
 logical laboratory was established. Since that time, to 
 be sure, rapid strides have been taken, but experimental 
 psychology is still very new. Its problems and methods, 
 not to mention theories and results, are yet matters of 
 discussion and dispute. Psychology, however, had 
 scarcely assumed the experimental attitude, when the 
 psychological experiment began to be standardized into 
 so-called tests. According to Stern, 1 the expression 
 "mental tests" was first used by Cattell in 1890. The 
 phrase was used in an article which appears in Mind on 
 "Mental Tests and Measurements." The first draft of 
 the best-known and the most highly developed series of 
 tests, the Binet-Simon tests for general intelligence, was 
 published as recently as 1905. The development in the 
 field of tests was so rapid as to justify the publication 
 in 1910 of Whipple's Manual of Mental and Physical 
 
 1 Stern, W., Die differentielle Psychologic, 1911. p. 89. 
 6 
 
HISTORICAL STATEMENT 7 
 
 Tests. 2 This important work was expanded into two 
 volumes in 1914 and 1915, and the literature is growing 
 apace. 
 
 Naturally, in so new and so difficult a field there is 
 a great deal of confusion and uncertainty. Many of the 
 conclusions are confessedly tentative. The situation is 
 well put by Whipple : 3 
 
 "There is, at the present time, scarcely a single mental test that can 
 be applied unequivocally as a psychical measuring-rod. The fact is we 
 have not agreed upon methods of procedure ; we too often do not know 
 what we are measuring ; and we too seldom realize ithe astounding com- 
 plexity, variety and delicacy of form of our psychical nature." 
 
 It is to this newest phase of the development of ex- 
 perimental methods in psychological study that this in- 
 vestigation belongs. Despite the uncertainties involved, 
 science must use even the imperfectly developed instru- 
 ments which it has. In so doing, not only will it advance 
 in the immediate direction of the given research, but it 
 will at the same time be perfecting its instruments. 
 
 Relation to Education 
 
 The preceding paragraphs have set forth the relation 
 of this study to psychology. Just as properly or per- 
 haps even more so, the study may be said to belong to the 
 field of experimental education. We are investigating 
 talent in a school activity. We are using a method 
 which does not presuppose highly trained observers, 
 such as are employed on problems of a more purely 
 psychological nature. We desire the results for immed- 
 iate application to educational problems. 
 
 For our present purpose there is no need, of course, 
 to draw a line between what is psychological and what 
 
 *Whipple, G-. M., Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, 1910; Revised 
 Edition, 1914-15. 
 
 3 Whipple, G. M., Manual, Second Edition, 1914, pp. 3f. 
 
8 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 is educational. And we may even recall the large in- 
 debtedness which experimental education has to the psy- 
 chological laboratory. Cubberly has recently stated 4 
 that the "experimental investigation of educational 
 problems had its origin, in large measure, among workers 
 in psychological laboratories.' 7 
 
 Related Investigations 
 
 There have been many studies of drawing, but none 
 of these, so far as the author is aware, corresponds 
 closely in method and scope to the one which is here 
 reported. Ayer has given us recently 5 a comprehensive 
 summary of earlier investigations of drawing and has 
 himself contributed to the general store. Since this 
 summary is readily accessible, a repetition of it here 
 would be quite superfluous. We shall, therefore, men- 
 tion in this connection only three of the studies which 
 seem to be most closely related to the present one. Other 
 studies will be mentioned only as occasion arises for 
 such reference in the later chapters. Sufficient informa- 
 tion for the interpretation of references has been given, 
 it is hoped, in the bibliography at the end of this volume. 
 The detailed results of different studies need be given 
 only so far as they relate to the questions raised in this 
 investigation, and they may best be presented in con- 
 nection with the discussion of these topics. 
 
 The investigation, perhaps, most closely resembling 
 this one was made by Binet. 6 Tade Styka was a young 
 painter who came under Binet 's observation. Binet was 
 
 4 Cubberley, Ellwood P., In the Editor's Introduction to Freeman, F. 
 N. f Experimental Education, 1916. 
 
 5 Ayer, F. C., The Psychology of Drawing. Baltimore, 1916. 
 
 6 Binet, A., La psychologic artistique de Tade Styka. L'Annee psy- 
 chologique, 15: 1908 (1909) 315-356. 
 
HISTORICAL STATEMENT 9 
 
 "curious to know whether an intelligence so young, 
 which practiced already a technique so learned, pro- 
 ceeded by reason or by instinct. " Accordingly, with 
 the cooperation of Styka himself and of Styka's father, 
 who also was a painter, he made a rather extensive in- 
 vestigation of the talent and mental characteristics of 
 the young man. He observed the painter at work, gave 
 him various mental tests, questioned him concerning his 
 technique and interest, and brought together facts of a 
 biographical character. Binet was able then to describe 
 fairly well the mental characteristics of the painter and 
 the nature of his talent. 
 
 Kik 7 made a study of individuals who were specially 
 talented in drawing. It appears, however, that his data 
 were largely non-experimental. He studied the draw- 
 ings made by children of special talent, and in some 
 cases observed the children in their drawing. In addi- 
 tion, he obtained supplemental information which may 
 be classed as personal and biographical. Thirteen cases 
 of special talent are included in his study. He discusses 
 the nature of special talent, various types of drawing 
 ability, the influence of heredity and of surroundings, 
 and the relation of drawing and intelligence. 
 
 Kerschensteiner 's 8 study was a most elaborate one, 
 but also non-experimental except that the drawings were 
 collected under controlled conditions, and in some cases 
 the investigator himself witnessed the drawing. Thous- 
 ands of drawings were collected under his direction from 
 the school children of Munich, and many children who 
 exhibited special talent demonstrated the fact by draw- 
 
 7 Kik, C., Die ubernormale Zeichnenbegabung bei Kindern. Zeitschrift 
 fiir angewandte Psychologic, 2: 1908, 92-149. 
 
 8 Kerschensteiner, G., Die Entwicklung der zeichnerischen Begabung, 
 1905. 
 
10 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 ing in his presence. An exhaustive study of the draw- 
 ings themselves was supplemented by consideration of 
 the drawers in relation to their age, school grade, sex, 
 general school success, the professions of their parents, 
 whether they drew at home, and whether they possessed 
 a picture book. He was able to draw conclusions as to 
 the typical stages in the development of children's 
 drawings, the relation of drawing to general intelligence, 
 and various other important questions in the psychology 
 and pedagogy of drawing. The investigation was of 
 great practical benefit to the drawing instruction of the 
 City of Munich. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 TEST GROUPS AND SOURCES OF DATA 
 
 General Survey 
 
 Tests and supplemental information on 19 subjects 
 chosen for their recognized talent in drawing are re- 
 ported in this study. In point of school advancement, 
 the subjects fall naturally into three groups : college or 
 university students (5), secondary-school (high-school 
 or academy) students (8), and elementary pupils (6). 
 Accordingly, each subject will be designated by a num- 
 ber to which is prefixed the letter C, S, or E. The letter 
 will serve to indicate the one of the above groups, in 
 the order named, to which the subject belongs. 
 
 Eight of the subjects are boys or men and eleven are 
 girls or women. In order to indicate differences in sex, 
 the numbers which indicate the male subjects will be 
 italicized. 
 
 The above classification is obviously in terms of 
 school status, but on account of differences in the actual 
 experimentation, it will be found desirable, while re- 
 taining the designations C, S, and E, to group the sub- 
 jects into four experimental groups as follows : 
 
 (1) the academy group, consisting of subjects $7 and S8 ; 
 
 (2) the laboratory group, consisting of subjects SI, S2, S3, S4, S5, 
 S6, 04, and C5 ; 
 
 (3) the miscellaneous group, consisting of subjects 01. C2, and (73; 
 
 (4) the elementary group, consisting of subjects El, E2, E3, E4, E5, 
 and E6. 
 
 The Academy Group 
 
 In the fall of 1916 an invitation was extended to 
 Professor G. M. Whipple to make a series of psycholog- 
 
 11 
 
12 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 ical tests upon a number of cadets in the Culver Military 
 Academy at Culver, Indiana. The Academy is a high- 
 grade institution of high-school rank. The invitation 
 was accepted and the tests were given on November 16, 
 17, and 18. Professor Whipple was assisted in the test- 
 ing by Miss Genevieve L. Coy, Dr. T. S. Henry, and the 
 author. Twenty-two tests of varied character, from 
 which the ones to be reported here are selected, were 
 given. Thirty-two cadets formed the test group, and 
 each cadet (with negligible exceptions) submitted to 
 every test. The group had been selected by the Acad- 
 emy officers to include young men of different abilities, 
 high, low, and average. Classmen from each year of 
 work given in the Academy were included. The ages of 
 the cadets ranged from 14 years, nine months, to 21 
 years. 
 
 It was a part of the task of the author to hold a per- 
 sonal interview with each cadet tested. From these in- 
 terviews it appeared that two of the cadets (our 87 and 
 S8) were probably talented in drawing. Additional 
 evidence has since been added by statements from Mr. 
 David Seabury, Consulting Psychologist of the Academy, 
 and from the fathers of the two cadets. Unfortunately, 
 it has not been possible to follow up the study by a 
 second interview with the cadets themselves and by se- 
 curing from them concrete evidences of their ability. 
 The information which we have, however, seems suffi- 
 cient to merit presentation in the chapters that follow. 
 
 The Laboratory Group 
 
 The eight members of the laboratory group were 
 chosen for a detailed study. An extended list of tests 
 was applied to these persons by the author himself. 
 
TEST GROUPS AND SOURCES OF DATA 13 
 
 These data were supplemented by means of interviews 
 with the subjects and with others who knew of their 
 work. 
 
 At the time of selection SI, S2, S3, 84, S5, and S6 
 were students in the Champaign or Urbana High School. 
 They were selected on the recommendations of the super- 
 visors of art instruction, and after consultation with the 
 principals of the two high schools. Each was recom- 
 mended by the supervisor in charge as among the most 
 gifted in drawing of the then high-school students, who 
 were or had been, under her instruction. 
 
 C4 and C5 were at the time of selection students in 
 the Department of Art and Design of the University of 
 Illinois. They were recommended by the Acting Head 
 of the Department as "advanced students who have 
 reached a degree of ability in technique and show orig- 
 inality." C5 was recommended also by the supervisor 
 of art instruction in the high school from which she 
 came to the University. 
 
 With the exception of a few tests given to S2 one 
 evening at his home, all of the tests were applied in the 
 educational laboratory of the University. The subjects 
 apparently took a real interest in the work and applied 
 themselves faithfully. As an added incentive, and 
 since it was realized that the test series would be a long 
 one, each of the subjects was paid for his time. It was 
 possible to apply a few of the tests as group tests, but 
 the greater part of the testing was done individually, 
 and at no time was a test applied to the entire group at 
 once. The testing began on December 7th, 1916, and 
 ended on March 27th, 1917. The time required for each 
 subject ranged from 12 to 16 hours. It was necessary 
 to make individual appointments which were adjusted 
 
14 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 to the programs both of the subjects and of the experi- 
 menter; consequently, the time could not be controlled 
 as completely as strict laboratory procedure would en- 
 join. The after-school period of the afternoon was a 
 favorite time for the high-school students, though in 
 some instances evening appointments were made, and a 
 few morning periods were utilized. In the case of the 
 university students both morning and afternoon appoint- 
 ments were made. The order of the tests was likewise 
 varied somewhat with the different subjects; early ex- 
 perience indicated that it would be practically impossible 
 to keep the order constant, and varying conditions at 
 times would have made it unwise to attempt it. 
 
 The Miscellaneous Group 
 
 During the conduct of the investigation three uni- 
 versity students (our Cl, C2, and C3) came to the at- 
 tention of the author as persons who probably had some 
 talent for drawing. A limited amount of work has been 
 done by the author with these people, and results of 
 certain other tests applied in the educational laboratory 
 by others have been available. The estimate of their 
 drawing talent must rest upon facts gained from per- 
 sonal interviews and from the tests given, except that in 
 the case of C3 9 who has been a student in the Department 
 of Art and Design, we have been able to get additional 
 information from the acting head of this department. 
 
 The Elementary Group 
 
 In advance of experiment we dare not assume that 
 children will respond to given tests in the same manner 
 as do adults. It is desirable, therefore, in trying out a 
 
TEST GROUPS AND SOURCES OF DATA 15 
 
 method or in studying a group selected for a particular 
 ability, to extend the study to persons of various typical 
 ages. In accordance with this policy six pupils were 
 chosen for our study from the fifth and sixth grades of 
 the Leal School, Urbana. They were selected on the 
 recommendation of their teacher of drawing, Miss Bur- 
 delle Ealey, who estimated their drawing talent as 
 among the highest exhibited in these grades of this 
 school. 
 
 As stated in the Preface, Miss Coy has spent a large 
 part of the school year in research in these grades. 
 This fact has made possible a very much more compre- 
 hensive study of these pupils than would have otherwise 
 been possible, for the results of her work have been 
 freely available and freely used. From this material 
 we have received a wealth of data on the pupils in these 
 grades. 
 
 Additional data have been secured from the test 
 group in a series of tests in the educational laboratory 
 of the University. 1 For the purpose of taking these 
 tests, each of the six pupils came to the laboratory on 
 three or four of the Saturday mornings from March 3 
 to March 24, 1917. In addition, the author did some 
 testing at the Leal School. 
 
 Supplemental Information 
 
 In addition to the results of the tests, it has been 
 possible to collect a mass of supplementary information 
 which may be roughly characterized as biographical. 
 This information, secured in personal interviews with 
 
 a ln securing these results the author has been ably assisted by Miss 
 Frances Mapel, Miss Dora Keen, Miss Margaret Doherty, Miss Helen 
 Davis, and Miss Florence Boehmer, all of whom are students in Education. 
 
16 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 the subjects and from various persons who knew of their 
 work, has been of great value in the interpretation of 
 the experimental results. The contributions of the su- 
 pervisors of drawing in the high schools, the teacher of 
 drawing in the grade school, and the Head of the De- 
 partment of Art and Design in the University have been, 
 particularly valuable. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 
 
 Introductory 
 
 In a study of this kind, it would be desirable, if it 
 were at all possible to extend the tests until we could 
 make a complete determination of the personality. 1 
 This would require, however, an infinite number and 
 variety of tests and sufficient data for the interpretation 
 of the results of each test. Both the tests and the data 
 are lacking. Moreover, it would require a vast amount 
 of time to apply even the tests which are available. A 
 choice of tests must, therefore, be made. In the acad- 
 emy group, the choice of tests was made for purposes 
 other than those of this investigation, but we have chosen 
 from those given a number that pertain to our problem. 
 The tests given to the laboratory group were chosen for 
 this investigation. In the other groups we have both 
 given tests for the purpose in hand and selected from 
 those given by others. Many mental and physical ca- 
 pacities condition the performances in these tests. 
 
 One of the difficulties of individual psychology is 
 the variability of performance in a given test as affected 
 by factors like fatigue, state of attention, effort, and 
 general physical condition. We can not be sure that 
 the results of a single test are a typical representative 
 of the ability which we have tried to measure. Conse- 
 quently, it is desirable to make more than one measure- 
 ment. In some cases, the same test may be repeated. 
 
 *Cf. Claparede, Ed. Profils psychologiques. Archives de Psychologic, 
 16: 1916, 70. 
 
 17 
 
18 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 In this study, for example, two tests of motor capacity 
 (tapping and steadiness) were given twice to most of the 
 subjects to whom they were given at all. But a repe- 
 tition of some tests makes them primarily tests of re- 
 tention. Hence there arises the need of different tests 
 for measuring the same ability. It would be a further 
 advantage, if the different tests were equivalent, in the 
 sense that a given score in one test would represent the 
 same performance as that score in the other test. 
 Equivalent tests, however, are not generally available. 
 We must rather rely upon similar tests, that is, tests in 
 which the performance is dependent primarily upon the 
 same abilities, but in which the units are not inter- 
 changeable. 
 
 Before the presentation of the results, a brief dis- 
 cussion of the several tests used will be in order. A 
 statement of the particular tests taken by each subject 
 may be deferred. It will be convenient to describe the 
 tests under certain headings. There will probably be a 
 difference of opinion as to whether they should be 
 grouped in the way which we have chosen. We have no 
 disposition to urge that our own grouping is the best 
 one. As a matter of fact a single test brings into opera- 
 tion a number of mental processes and depends upon 
 various capacities ; so that with perfect propriety the 
 test may be placed under different headings, if it be 
 borne in mind that the characterization implied is but 
 a partial one. 
 
 7. Tests of General Intelligence 
 
 1. Tlie Binet-Simon Tests. The Stanford Revision 
 of the Binet-Simon tests for general intelligence was 
 used. The method of giving and scoring these tests is 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 19 
 
 fully described by Terman. 2 In representing the total 
 result of the tests we have used the "intelligence quo- 
 tient " (I. Q.) as explained by this author. The intelli- 
 gence quotient may be described as 100 times the ratio 
 obtained by dividing the mental age by the chronological 
 age. Eeference will be made to the following separate 
 tests of the series : 
 
 (a) Memory for Digits. This is a test of immediate 
 memory for digits dictated by the experimenter at the 
 rate of about one a second. After the series has been 
 dictated, the subject attempts to repeat the numbers 
 either (1) in the same or (2) in the reverse order, as 
 may be directed. - 
 
 (b) Designs. In the designs test two simple draw- 
 ings are exposed simultaneously for a period of ten 
 seconds, after which the subject attempts to reproduce 
 them. The test occurs in the tenth-year group. One 
 design correct and one "half 7 correct are required for 
 passing. 
 
 (c) Sixty Words. In this test the task is the nam- 
 ing of as many words as possible within a period of three 
 minutes. At least sixty words must be named in order 
 to pass. It is listed in the tenth-year group. 
 
 (d) The Clock Test. The clock test is placed in 
 Year 14. The subject is expected to imagine the posi- 
 tions of the hands of a clock at a particular time, and 
 to state what time it would be if the hands were to ex- 
 change positions. Three such problems are given, but 
 only two correct answers are required for passing. 
 
 (e) Vocabulary. The vocabulary test comes in year 
 8 and from 10 up. It is designed to measure the extent 
 of one's vocabulary. A list of 100 words of progress- 
 
 n, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, 1916. 
 
20 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 ively increasing difficulty is offered for definition. In 
 the Stanford procedure the responses are given orally, 
 but, in our own work with some adults, we asked the 
 subjects first to write the definitions. Doubtful places 
 were afterward checked over in conference with the 
 subject. 
 
 (f) Interpretation of Fables. The test requiring 
 interpretation of fables is listed in both the 12th and 
 the 16th years. The subject must interpret the situation 
 presented in a fable and generalize this situation in an 
 expression of the " lesson " which it is intended to teach. 
 Five fables are read by the experimenter. A score of 2 
 is allowed for every correct response and 1 for every 
 response partially correct. Scores of 4 and 8, respec- 
 tively, are required for passing. No time record is 
 taken. Tests of this type are further discussed by 
 Whipple. 3 
 
 (g) Code. The code test, occurring in age 16, is 
 essentially a form of substitution test. The symbols for 
 the letters are shown to the subject and explained to 
 him in some detail. He is informed that he will be 
 asked to write something in the code. After the code 
 has been removed from sight, the words Come quickly 
 are given, and the time required for writing them is re- 
 corded. The test is passed if the time has not exceeded 
 six minutes and if not more than two errors have been 
 made. In our own work it seemed desirable to have a 
 finer method of scoring than that used by Terman. In 
 fact we have used two methods, which are indicated 
 below. We should have used the second of these in all 
 of the test groups, except for the fact that the time re- 
 quired for S8 was not recorded accurately. 
 
 8 Whipple's Manual, pp. 666ff. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 21 
 
 Method (1). In the first method of scoring, 100 
 points were allowed for an errorless performance. Then 
 10 points were deducted for each error and for each 100 
 seconds (or part thereof) in excess of 200 seconds re- 
 quired for completion of the test. This method is used 
 in the scores of the academy group. 
 
 Method (2). The score used in the other groups 
 consisted of the number of seconds required for com- 
 pleting the test, divided by the number of correctly 
 coded letters. In other words, the score is the number 
 of seconds per correct letter. 
 
 The code test requires reproduction of visual forms 
 and would seem to be of special interest with reference 
 to ability in drawing. One would think that a good 
 memory for visual forms would be an asset both in this 
 test and in drawing. Of course, we can not assume that 
 visual imagery is required for a good record in the test. 4 . 
 Healy and Fernald, 5 who have described the test, char- 
 acterize it as one requiring "close attention and stead- 
 iness of purpose. ' ' 
 
 (h) Problem of tlie Inclosed Boxes. The subject 
 is asked to state the number of boxes in each of the fol- 
 lowing combinations: (1) one large box containing 2 
 smaller boxes, each of which contains 1 tiny box; (2) 
 one large box, 2 smaller, 2 tiny; (3) one large box, 3 
 smaller, 3 tiny; (4) one large box, 4 smaller, 4 tiny. 
 The test belongs to the 16-year (average-adult) series. 
 Three correct answers are required for passing. The 
 test has a special interest in this study because the task 
 is to deal with a situation which lends itself to visual 
 representation. 
 
 4 Cf. Terman, op. tit., p. 331. 
 
 B Healy and Fernald. Tests for Practical Mental Classification. Psy- 
 chological Review Monographs, 13: 1911, No. 2. 
 
22 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 (i) Paper Cutting. The paper-cutting test is given 
 in the superior-adult series. The task requires imag- 
 ination of a visual situation. A blank paper is folded 
 in the middle parallel to an edge and then again at 
 right angles to this fold. The experimenter then cuts 
 a small notch in the middle of the folded edge, and asks 
 the subject to draw the results of the folding and cut- 
 ting as they would be seen if the paper were unfolded. 
 
 (j) Logical Memory. In the superior-adult series 
 is a test which requires the repetition of the thought of 
 a paragraph read by the experimenter. Two paragraphs 
 are provided, and success with one of them is sufficient 
 to pass the test. 
 
 II. Tests of the Higher Thought Processes 
 
 A. Linguistic Invention and Language Ability. 
 
 2. Word Building (Whipple). In the word-build- 
 ing test the subject is given six letters with instructions 
 to form as many different words as possible from these 
 letters in five minutes. A word may contain any num- 
 ber of letters from one to six, but must not contain the 
 same letter twice or any other letter not in the list. For 
 our purpose two tests were used having the letters 
 AEOBMT and EAIELP, respectively. The score is the 
 number of words formed in the time allowed. This test 
 requires a certain fertility of vocabulary and construc- 
 tive imagination. For further discussion see Whipple 's 
 Manual, pp. 640ff. 
 
 3. Language Tests (Trabue). The Trabue lan- 
 uage tests are fully described by the author. 6 A more 
 general treatment of the type of test to which they be- 
 
 *Trabue, M. R., Completion Test Language Scales, 1916. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 23 
 
 long may be found in Whipple's Manual, pp. 649ff. The 
 tests consist of a series of sentences in which certain 
 words are omitted and the omissions indicated by blank 
 spaces. The task of the subject is to fill as many of the 
 blanks as possible so that the sentences will make good 
 sense. Five minutes are allowed for each of the series 
 J and K, and seven minutes for B and C. The scoring 
 is done by allowing two points for each sentence correctly 
 completed and one for each sentence completed with only 
 a minor error. Trabue's monograph must be consulted 
 for details of the scoring. He refers to the method as 
 one that ' ' psychologists have come to regard as an unus- 
 ually good test of ability to think about words and lan- 
 guage forms." 7 It is significant that the tests are called 
 "language" tests, and that they appear to have a high 
 correlation with general intelligence. 
 
 4. Invention of Story (Winch). This is a form of 
 composition test in which the subjects are asked to write 
 a story containing a given list of ten words (thief, land- 
 lord, crab, etc.) The test is discussed by Whipple in 
 the Manual, pp. 634ff. As used in this experiment, the 
 performances were scored independently by 20 judges, 
 most of whom were members of an advanced class in edu- 
 cation. The papers were read to the judges by the in- 
 structor and each paper was marked on a scale of 100 
 points as soon as it was read. It was assumed that 100 
 represented a performance that would not be surpassed 
 once in a hundred papers, that 50 represented average 
 performance, etc. The final score is the average of the 
 scores of the different judges. 
 
 7 Trabue, M. R., Completion Tests for Public School Use. Fifteenth 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 1916, pp. 
 52-59. 
 
24 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 B. Apprehension of Verbal Relations, or Controlled' 
 Association. 
 
 5. Hard Opposites (Henry). The opposites test is 
 a very familiar form of controlled association test. (See 
 Whipple 's Manual, pp. 79ff.) A list of 20 stimulus, 
 words specially selected by Dr. T. S. Henry was used in 
 this experiment. Each word was exposed on a separate- 
 card and the time of the response was taken by means 
 of a stop-watch. If the response was incorrect, the 
 subject was so informed, and he was allowed to suggest 
 the correct response, or at least tfp try again. If no cor- 
 rect response was made in 30 seconds, the experimenter- 
 passed on to the next word and counted 30 seconds as the 
 time of response. The' score is the total number of sec- 
 onds for 20 responses. ' 
 
 6. Analogies (Whipple). The analogies test is an- 
 other form of controlled association test. It is described 
 in Whipple 's Manual, pp. 89ff. On each of twenty 
 cards there are three words arranged in the form of a 
 proportion with the fourth term missing. The task is: 
 to supply a fourth word which shall have the same re- 
 lation to the third as the second has to the first. The^ 
 relation between the words changes from card to card. 
 Time is recorded and the same provision is made for- 
 errors as in the hard opposites test. Whipple 's lists A,. 
 
 B, and C have been used. The score is the total number- 
 of seconds for the 20 responses (academy group), or the 
 average number of seconds for one response (other- 
 groups) . 
 
 C. Invention from ^Graphic Forms. 
 
 7. Ink-Blots (Whipple). The ink-blots test is de- 
 scribed in Whipple 's Manual, pp. 620ff. The subject is> 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 25 
 
 shown a series of 20 ink-blots and is asked to respond 
 with the first object which he thinks of that the blot 
 resembles. We used essentially "method (b) " as de- 
 scribed in the reference cited, except that, instead of 
 requiring a response by tapping or by the word "now," 
 we asked the subject to respond by making the object 
 thought of. It seemed that this procedure might sim- 
 plify the task of the subject, in that it would give him 
 fewer things to hold in mind; and also that it might 
 serve as a check against a premature response, which the 
 subject might make before the object thought of had 
 really come to the focus of attention. If the subject 
 was unable to respond within a minute, the experimenter 
 proceeded to the next card. In the computation of re- 
 sults, however, all times of response which exceeded 15 
 seconds and all failures to respond were counted as 15 
 seconds. The use of 15 seconds for this purpose appears 
 to penalize the slow response sufficiently and yet not too 
 severely. The score is the average number of seconds 
 required for one response. 
 
 8. Pictorial Imagination (after Eossolimo). The 
 pictorial imagination test was modelled after Eossolimo 's 
 test for Einbildungskraft. 8 It consisted of twenty in- 
 complete drawings of familiar objects in the order given : 
 automobile, dog, watch, cow, tree, boat, chicken, loco- 
 motive, piano, person telephoning, bicycle, chair, shoe, 
 church, pig, bed, bottle, table, face, and fiat. Each of 
 these incomplete pictures was traced on a separate card. 
 Directions were given to the subject substantially as fol- 
 lows : " I am going to show you a number of incomplete 
 pictures. Tell me in each case what the picture is in- 
 
 8 Rossolimo, G. Die Psychologischen Profile. Klinik filr psychische 
 i'nd nervose Krankheiten, 1911, Bd. VI, Heft 3. 
 
26 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 tended to represent. If you make a mistake, I shall 
 say, ' No, ' and you must go on until you have guessed it 
 correctly. Do not be afraid to guess, for the chances are 
 that your guess will be correct. ' ' Time was taken with 
 the stop-watch for each response, but no more than 60 
 seconds was allowed for one response. The score was 
 calculated precisely as in the ink-blots test. 
 
 D. Understanding and Reasoning. 
 
 9. Directions (Woodworth and Wells). The direc- 
 tions tests are described by Woodworth and Wells. 9 
 The second and third of the tests described, easy (a) and 
 hard (b) were used. In these tests a printed blank is 
 placed before the subject with instructions to do as rap- 
 idly as possible without making mistakes just what the 
 blank says to do. Time is recorded for the completion 
 of all the tasks assigned. The score is computed by 
 allowing 100 points for an errorless performance, sub- 
 tracting 5 for each error, and dividing the remainder by 
 the number of seconds required for completing the test. 
 A number of activities are obviously brought into opera- 
 tion in this test. It is a kind of complex reaction exper- 
 iment in which constantly changing tasks are assigned, 
 and in which the time for apprehending the detailed in- 
 struction is counted as well as the time for responses. 
 
 10. Equivalent Proverbs. This test requires the 
 recognition of similarities in thoughts differently ex- 
 pressed. Two lists of proverbs are presented to the 
 subject. One proverb in each list means substantially 
 the same thing as one in the other list. For example, 
 "A friend is better than fortune" expresses substantially 
 the same sentiment as the Arabian proverb, ' i Good friend 
 
 'Woodworth, R. S. and Wells, F. L. Association Tests. Psycholog- 
 ical Review Monographs, 13: 1911, No. 5, pp. 68ff. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 27 
 
 is better than money in pocket. " The task of the sub- 
 ject is to indicate which one of the proverbs in the one 
 list corresponds to each one in the second list. For con- 
 venience the proverbs are printed in parallel columns 
 on the same sheet, and those in one list are numbered. 
 Time is taken for the completion of each sheet. Labor- 
 atory sheets I, II, and VI (from the Carnegie Institute 
 of Technology), requiring 29 judgments, were used. 
 TKe score is obtained by dividing the total number of 
 seconds required for the three tests by the number of 
 correct answers given. 
 
 11. Arithmetical Reasoning (Bonser). These tests 
 are Tests I and II, as described in Bonser 's monograph. 10 
 They consist of simple arithmetical problems, and were 
 used by Bonser "for testing the mathematical judg- 
 ment." Two points are allowed for each correct solu- 
 tion, and one point for each two-step problem in which 
 only one step is correctly solved. The final score is the 
 sum of these points. 
 
 12. Reasoning (Thurstone). 11 This test consists of 
 20 samples of reasoning containing two premises and a 
 conclusion, of which the following is a sample : ' ' Silver 
 is heavier than iron ; copper is lighter than silver ; there- 
 fore copper is heavier than iron. ' ' The task is to mark 
 each sample plus or minus according as the conclusion 
 is true or false. The test has been used by us as a work- 
 limit test. When so used, the score is the number of 
 seconds required for the completion of the test, divided 
 by the number of correct judgments made. In Miss 
 Coy 's tests of the children, the test was given with a time- 
 limit of five minutes. The score in this case (results of 
 
 10 Bonser, F. G. The Reasoning Ability of Children of the Fourth, 
 Fifth, and Sixth School Grades. New York, 1910. Pp. Iff. 
 
28 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 the elementary group) is the number of correct minus 
 twice the number of incorrect judgments. 
 
 E. Mental Manipulation of Spatial Forms. 
 
 13. Hand Test (Thurstone). 11 The test sheet con- 
 tains 49 pictures of right and left human hands in vary- 
 ing positions. The subject is asked to check the right 
 or left of two small squares according as a right or left 
 hand is represented. In tests of the high-school students 
 and adults the time for completing the test was recorded. 
 The score was computed by dividing the number of sec- 
 onds required for the completion of the test by the num- 
 ber of hands correctly checked. In the tests of the ele- 
 mentary group the test was given with a time limit of 
 three minutes. In this case the score is the number of 
 hands correctly checked, minus twice the number of 
 hands incorrectly checked. 
 
 14. Spatial Relations Test (Thurstone). 11 In this 
 test a lozenge-shaped figure is imagined to be a card. 
 The drawing indicates a hole in one corner. It is re- 
 quired that the subject in imagination lift this card, turn 
 it over, fit it upon the only one of two similar drawings 
 which it will match, and indicate the location of the hole 
 upon the matched figure. The test.was given as a work- 
 limit test. The score is the number of seconds required 
 for completing the test, divided by the number of figures 
 correctly matched. In practice we found a great deal 
 of difficulty in getting students to understand and to 
 hold to the task assigned. It is, therefore, doubtful 
 whether the test should be used to measure the power 
 of an individual mentally to manipulate visually pre- 
 sented forms. 
 
 u We are indebted to Dr. L. L. Thurstone of the Carnegie Institute of 
 Technology for the Thurstone reasoning test and the other tests in ithe 
 title of which Thurstone occurs. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 29 
 
 15. Punched Holes Test (Thurstone). 11 A series 
 of diagrams representing a sheet of paper folded in dif- 
 ferent ways and punctured at different places is placed 
 before the subject. The task is to determine the location 
 of the holes as they would be seen if the paper were un- 
 folded. One point is allowed for each hole correctly 
 placed, and the sum of these points constitutes the score. 
 
 16. Painted Cube (Rugg). The painted cube test 
 is the same as that used and described by Rugg in his 
 study of mental discipline and descriptive geometry. 12 
 The student is given a paper containing the statement, 
 "A three-inch cube, painted on all sides, is cut into one- 
 inch cubes. ' ' He is required to state in blanks properly 
 provided how many one-inch cubes have paint on three 
 sides, two sides, one side, and no side, respectively. 
 Rugg gave the test on a time-limit basis (80 seconds.) 
 Since there was no assurance that the different elements 
 of the test were of equal or evenly graded difficulty, this 
 method of giving the test seemed to us unwise, and ac- 
 cordingly we have used the work-limit basis. The pre- 
 liminary instructions also were modified for our pur- 
 pose. We expected to use the test with children and 
 with other subjects who might be unaccustomed to think 
 in terms of the language of the test. Hence it seemed to 
 us advisable to explain briefly what a cube is and what 
 it means to divide it into smaller cubes. The score is 
 the number of seconds required for completing the test, 
 divided by the number of correct answers given. 
 
 We attempted to simplify the language of the "geo- 
 metrical objects 7 ' test described by the same author, and 
 to use it for our study, but it proved to be rather un- 
 
 32 Rugg, H. O. The Experimental Determination of Mental Discipline 
 <'// School Studies, 1916, pp. 41f. 
 
30 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 suited for our purpose. The difficulties were those of 
 language and unfamiliarity with one or more objects 
 named. In this test the subject is asked to imagine 
 various objects and to state the number of lines which 
 would be required to construct them in space. 
 
 Eugg regards the Painted Cube test as a measure 
 "of ability in mental manipulation of strictly geomet- 
 rical elements. . . . The diversity of the tests [painted 
 cube and geometrical elements] and the short time given 
 for the solution of each one are believed to prevent 
 effectually the building up of a definite method of so- 
 lution through reasoning processes (organization, etc.). 
 In other words, it is believed that a solution of each of 
 these tests is confined to (1) a mental picturing of the 
 object, (2) the counting of the various lines and sur- 
 faces, (3) the writing of the various answers. 13 . " 
 
 F. Aesthetic Judgment. 
 
 17. Tests of Aesthetic Appreciation (Thorndike). 
 Professor Thorndike has recently described certain tests 
 for aesthetic appreciation, among which are a few tests 
 for appreciation of graphic forms. 14 Professor Thorn- 
 dike graciously allowed us to secure from his printer 
 copies of the original series from which these tests were 
 chosen. The forms reproduced in the article cited are 
 arranged in seven series: two series of five rectangles 
 each, two series of four crosses each, one series of five 
 ladder-like designs, and two series of four rectangles 
 each in which are located two vertical lines in different 
 positions. The subject is asked to arrange the figures 
 in each series in a rank order on the basis of which is 
 
 Op. cit., p. 42. 
 
 "Thorndike, E. L., Tests of Esthetic Appreciation. Journal of Edu- 
 cational Psychology, 7: 1916, 509-522. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 31 
 
 the "best looking, " "next best looking, " and so on. 
 The original drawings, from which those printed in the 
 article were selected, proved rather impracticable for our 
 purpose. The problem of arranging the full series in 
 a rank order was too complex. The results given for 
 the laboratory group are based upon tracings made from 
 the original sheets of the forms represented in the article. 
 In other groups we used mimeographed forms drawn on 
 a smaller scale, the same scale as used in the article. 
 The scores are based upon the first five only of the seven 
 series presented by Professor Thorndike. Early expe- 
 rience with the other two series (the rectangles contain- 
 ing two vertical lines) led us to omit them from the later 
 tests. On the one hand, they seemed to overemphasize 
 considerations of symmetry ; on the other, there ap- 
 peared a tendency to imagine that they represented ob- 
 jects. In measuring the performance of a given individ- 
 ual in the test, the amount of each deviation of his judg- 
 ment from the order established by the consensus of 
 opinion as given in the article was noted. For example, 
 if a figure is placed first by the subject, when the con- 
 sensus of opinion has placed it third, the deviation is 
 counted as two. The score is the sum of the several de- 
 viations in the five series. 
 
 18. Test of Aesthetic Judgment (University of Illi- 
 nois). This test was made up during the course of our 
 study. 15 It is built upon the same principle which the 
 Binet-Simon series has long utilized in its test of 
 aesthetic comparison. Our series consists essentially of 
 a number of paired pictures or drawings, the one of 
 which is more beautiful, prettier, or more pleasing in 
 
 15 The possibility of such a test was suggested by a series of comparisons 
 which Miss Coy had prepared. Professor E. J. Lake of the Department of 
 Art and Design contributed valuable suggestions, and Miss Hilda Chris- 
 tensen, a student in that department, prepared some of the drawings. 
 
32 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 appearance than the other. Some of the drawings or 
 pictures were clipped or copied from art or architectural 
 publications, and others were drawn or designed for our 
 purpose. Seventy comparisons constituted the series. 
 From this number we selected, on the basis of our re- 
 sults, 40 for the final score. In each of the 40 compari- 
 sons which we retained, the consensus of opinion of 
 about 20 adults and high-school students who submitted 
 to the test, confirmed our personal judgment as to which 
 was the better except in the case of one pair of archi- 
 tectural pictures, where the judgments were equally di- 
 vided. In this case we continued to count that one the 
 better which the author, from whose work the pictures 
 were chosen, had pointed out as the more beautiful. 16 
 
 Directions to the subjects were substantially as fol- 
 lows : "In this experiment you will be shown a series 
 of drawings or pictures of various objects. Two draw- 
 ings or pictures representing the same kind of thing 
 will be presented at the same time. In each case you 
 will be expected to name which of the two objects repre- 
 sented has the more pleasing appearance. If you like 
 the appearance of the one to your right the better, you 
 will say * Right, ' if you like the appearance of the one 
 to your left the better, you will say 'Left.' Your choice 
 should be made on the basis of the beauty or the pretti- 
 ness of the objects represented as these appeal to you. 
 Do not try to select according to any rules, but entirely" 
 according to the way they look to you. The letters 
 which sometimes occur on the drawings or pictures indi- 
 cate nothing in this connection, and you will pay no at- 
 tention whatever to the way the figures are mounted on 
 
 16 Robinson, John B. Architectural Composition, Second Edition, Lon- 
 don and New York, 1908. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 33 
 
 the cards. Eemember to name the one you like better. ' ' 
 In almost all cases the subjects were asked also to state, 
 if possible, the reason for each choice. 
 
 The score is computed by allowing 2^2 points for 
 each correct choice made. 
 
 ///. Tests of Memory and Learning 
 A. Logical Memory. 
 
 19. Marble Statue (Whipple). The MarUe Statue 
 test is used for a measure of logical memory. The ma- 
 terial of the test is a passage of simple prose. The selec- 
 tion is read to the subject, who immediately thereafter 
 attempts to reproduce in writing what has been read. 
 He is instructed to use, if possible, the original words, 
 otherwise his own words. The time taken for the repro- 
 duction is not recorded. The test is fully described by 
 Whipple in the Manual, pp. 571ff. The method given 
 by Whipple was used except that the underlining was 
 omitted. The score is the number of ideas correctly 
 reproduced. 
 
 20. Dutch Homestead (Whipple). This test is 
 similar to the Marble Statue test, except that the sub- 
 ject reads the passage himself. See Whipple 's Manual, 
 p. 574, "Variation of Method, (1)." The score is the 
 number of ideas correctly reproduced. 
 
 21. Cicero (Whipple). This test is similar to the 
 Marble Statue test and it is scored in the same way. 
 See Whipple 's Manual, p. 575. 
 
 22. Lincoln and the Pig (Whipple). This test also 
 is similar to the Marble Statue test and it is scored in the 
 same way. The selection used is entitled, "How Mr. 
 Lincoln Helped the Pig." This test was given to the 
 
34 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 elementary group. Both immediate reproduction ancl 
 reproduction after two weeks were required. See Whip- 
 pie 's Manual, p. 573. 
 
 B. Memory for Visual Forms. 
 
 23. Memory for Lineal Figures, with Recognition 
 (Rossolimo). This test is taken from the Rossolimo 
 series. 17 The drawings (simple nonsense figures) given 
 in the Rossolimo pamphlets were used. The directions 
 for the test were in substance: "I am going to show 
 you ten figures or drawings. You will look at each for 
 a period of two or three seconds, and, after you have 
 seen them all, I shall give you 25 figures, some of which 
 are just like those which you will have seen. You will 
 be expected to pick from these 25 the 10 which you have 
 seen." The original 10 drawings were exposed by turn- 
 ing the pages of the small pamphlet in which they were 
 printed. The 25 drawings were mounted on cards. No 
 time was recorded. The score is the number of figures 
 recognized. 
 
 24. Memory for Colored Figures, with Recognition 
 (Rossolimo). This test is similar to the one just de- 
 scribed and is scored in the same way. It is taken from 
 the same source. The figures in this test are colored 
 areas. 
 
 25. Memory for Pictures, with Recognition (Rosso- 
 limo). This test is another from Rossolimo, and is sim- 
 ilar in method and scoring to the two already described. 
 Pictures of landscapes are used in the test, instead of 
 meaningless figures as in the two preceding tests. 
 
 "Rossolimo, G. Die psychologischen Profile. EliniJc fiir psychische 
 und nervose Krankheiten, 6: 1911, No. 3. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 35 
 
 C. Learning. 
 
 26. Substitution (Thurstone). 11 The Thurstone 
 substitution test is a new form of a well-known test. 
 Twenty words, (umbrella, equinox, etc.,) are printed at 
 the top of a large sheet of paper. Below these are 
 printed in vertical columns and in varying order the 
 initials of these twenty words. Each initial is followed 
 by a blank space. There are thirty columns of these 
 initials each containing twenty letters. The columns 
 are arranged in sets of three and these sets are num- 
 bered from one to ten. The subject is instructed to fill 
 in the blanks opposite each letter with the last letter of 
 the word at the top of the paper, of which the letter 
 given is the initial. At the end of each minute the 
 subject must stop work in the section in which he then 
 is and shift to the succeeding section. Ten minutes 
 are, therefore, required for the completion of the test. 
 The result is a record of the number of substitutions 
 made during each of ten successive minutes in which the 
 task remains the same and the material becomes pro- 
 gressively more familiar. The score is the total number 
 of correct substitutions made in the 10 minutes. The 
 activity required is, of course, complicated. Persistence 
 of effort and concentration of attention are put at a 
 premium. Ease of memorizing and rapidity of reaction 
 also tend to increase the score. 
 
 27. Perceptual Learning. The perceptual learning 
 test may be described as a test of the memory for simple 
 nonsense figures or drawings in which repeated trials 
 are made and in which the memory is tested by attempted 
 reproduction. The figures are generally similar to those 
 used by Judd and Cowling in their study of the percep- 
 
36 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 tual process. 18 The figures consisted of simple end-to- 
 end combinations of four, six, eight, and ten, straight 
 and curved lines. One figure was exposed for a period 
 of five or six seconds, and after the copy was removed 
 the subject tried to reproduce what he saw, making it 
 as nearly like the original as possible. Five trials were 
 thus given with each figure in the order as given above. 
 After each attempted reproduction the figure drawn 
 was laid aside or turned over in order that the subject 
 might not be influenced in the observation or subsequent 
 drawing by the sight of what he had just drawn. The 
 score in the test was calculated from the performance in 
 the fifth trial at reproducing each figure. 
 
 In order to assure accuracy in the scoring, a rather 
 elaborate method was employed. The score is expressed 
 in terms of deductions as follows: (A single segment 
 of the line is called a "curve.") 
 
 (1) 1 point for each error in the type of curve, 
 
 for example, the use of a straight line 
 where the line should be curved, or of a 
 convex curve where it should be concave ; 
 
 (2) 1 to 3 points for gross malformation of the 
 
 separate curves in the figure as a whole ; 
 
 (3) 4 points for each extra line; 
 
 (4) 4 points for each omitted line; or 2 points, 
 
 if the general form of the whole was pre- 
 served ; 
 
 (5) 1 point for each ten-degree deviation from. 
 
 the true direction of each curve, provided 
 that such deductions did not exceed 4 for 
 each curve. 
 
 18 Judd, C. H., and Cowling, D. J. Studies in Perceptual Develop- 
 ment, Psychological Review Monographs, 8: 1907, 349-369. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 37 
 
 In measuring the deviations from the true direction, 
 a special type of transparent protractor, which had been 
 planned and used by the author for the measurement of 
 slant in handwriting, was used. 
 
 28. Mirror Drawing (Star Test). In the mirror- 
 drawing test, the subject is required to trace the outline 
 of a five-pointed star seen in a mirror. Time is recorded 
 for the completion of each tracing. When two hands" 
 are used, the right-hand record is taken first except in 
 the case of one left-handed subject, who traced the draw- 
 ing first with his left hand. The test is discussed by 
 Whipple in the Manual, pp. 485ff. The score is the 
 number of seconds required for each tracing. 
 
 D. Imagery. 
 
 29. Questionary (Betts). An attempt was made to 
 discover the imagery used by the subject by means of 
 the Betts questionary 19 for images voluntarily evoked. 
 Only the questions for visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic 
 images were used. The rather long list of questions for 
 visual imagery was reduced in length by the omission 
 of Part IV containing questions 25-32. Our subjects 
 were untrained in psychological introspection. We 
 adopted rather lengthy preliminary instructions in an 
 attempt to overcome partially this lack of training. In 
 these instructions we attempted to explain the nature 
 of the image in the fields of sight, audition, and kin- 
 aesthesis, and gave the subjects a little practice in re- 
 porting upon their images. The results of the tests can 
 be termed "introspections" only in a very loose sense, 
 but it seemed worth while to give the method a trial in 
 this connection. It is the task of the subject to classify 
 
 "Betts, G. H. The Distribution and Functions of Mental Imagery. 
 (Doctor's Dissertation, Columbia University, 1909) pp. 20ff. 
 
38 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 the images which are evoked in response to the directions. 
 These are classified according to seven ' ' degrees of clear- 
 ness and vividness/ 7 which are specified in the "key" 
 given. The degrees named range from (1) "perfectly 
 clear and as vivid as the actual experience," to (7) "no 
 image present at all, you only knowing that you are 
 thinking of the object." The results are expressed 
 numerically in two ways: (1) The percentage of images 
 in each modality reported as having each degree of clear- 
 ness is computed. (2) Each number (1 to 7) of a de- 
 gree of clearness is regarded as a score, and all of these 
 partial scores in a given modality are added to produce 
 a number which represents the vividness of the imagery 
 reported. If, for example, the sum of the partial scores 
 is large, it indicates that many reports were made of 
 images belonging to the lesser degrees of clearness. By 
 comparison of these scores with those given by Betts, one 
 may presumably find out how the vividness of the 
 imagery of a given individual compares with that of the 
 average person. 
 
 We supplemented Bett's questionary with questions 
 of our own also, in order to find out as much as possible 
 of the clearness particularly of the visual imagery of the 
 subjects to whom the questionary was given. 
 
 IV. Tests of Reading 
 
 30. Reading Forward (Whipple). 20 This test is 
 used to measure the speed with which one can read 
 aloud a given passage of simple prose. The selection 
 used was a simple description of Indian life. The score 
 is the number of seconds consumed in the reading of the 
 passage. 
 

 DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 39 
 
 31. Reading Backward (Whipple). 20 In this test 
 the subject matter is of the same kind as that used in 
 the preceding test. The first word, however, appears at 
 the right end of the bottom line, and the subject must 
 read backward toward the usual place of beginning. 
 Furthermore, there is no punctuation, capitalization, or 
 spacing between words. Within the word, the letters 
 are in their usual left-to-right order. The test demands 
 a certain familiarity with verbal combinations and an 
 apprehension of contextual relations. The experimenter 
 corrects each error in the reading, but does not help the 
 subject otherwise except in cases where the reader pauses 
 for as long as 30 seconds. The score is the number of 
 words read in five minutes, or, if the passage was com- 
 pleted in less time, the number of words which presum- 
 ably would have been read in the period. 
 
 V. Tests of Observation 
 
 32. Cancellation (Whipple). Four cancellation 
 tests were used : the cancelling of a 's on the Jipl blank 
 by the work-limit method ; the cancelling of a 7 s on the zcy 
 blank with a time-limit of two minutes; the cancelling 
 of triangles on the geometrical forms blank by .the work- 
 limit method (or a time-limit, if the work was incomplete 
 at the end of two minutes) ; and the cancelling of 7's on 
 the numeral blank with a time-limit of two minutes. 
 The four printed forms are identical with those described 
 by Whipple (Manual, p. 309). The cancellation test is 
 so familiar as to require no further explanation. Three 
 methods of scoring are used in these results: (1) When 
 the test is regarded as a time-limit test (except as noted 
 below), the score is the number of symbols correctly can- 
 celled minus twice the number of symbols omitted in the 
 
 ^For a further discussion of the reading test, see Whipple's Manual, 
 pp. 332ff. 
 
40 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 portion of the blank covered. (2) When the test is re- 
 garded as a work-limit test and the time is recorded for 
 completing the blank, the score is the number of seconds 
 consumed, divided by the number of symbols correctly 
 cancelled minus twice the number omitted. (3) In 
 Tables 3 and 4, a third method of scoring the 7's test is 
 used in order to make our scores comparable to those 
 submitted as a background. In these tables the score is 
 the number of symbols cancelled divided by the number 
 of seconds required. 
 
 33. Observation (Rossolimo). This is Rossolimo's 
 test of "Beobachtungsfahigkeit." 21 The material em- 
 ployed consists of ten pictures and drawings. Our 
 method of giving the test is as follows: A question is 
 asked the subject before the exposure of each drawing. 
 He is expected to respond as soon as possible with the 
 right answer. If his answer is incorrect, he is so in- 
 formed and opportunity to give the correct response is 
 given. Not more than a minute is allowed for each 
 question. Time is taken with the stop-watch from the 
 beginning of the exposure until the correct response is 
 indicated. The problems given are substantially as fol- 
 lows and will explain the nature of the test : 
 
 1. You will be shown a picture of a face. Tell me 
 as soon as you can what is lacking in the picture. (An 
 ear is lacking.) 
 
 2. The next is a picture of a balcony on the front of 
 a house. Tell me where the master of the house is. 
 (The profile of a face is made a part of the bracket sup- 
 porting the balcony.) 
 
 ^Rossolimo, G. Die psychologischen Profile. Klinik filr psychische 
 und nervose Erankheiten, 6: 1911, No. 3. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP TESTS 41 
 
 3. Next is the picture of two trees. Find the man's 
 face. (The face is between the branches and trunks of 
 the trees.) 
 
 4. Next is a steamboat on the lake. Tell me whether 
 it is moving or standing still. After the subject has 
 replied he is asked "why," and the time is recorded to 
 the point where it is evident that he has the correct ex- 
 planation. (The steamboat is drawn with the absence 
 of steam or smoke and the subject can judge that it is 
 moving only by the wake behind and the foam in front.) 
 
 5. Next is a picture of two tables. Tell me how they 
 are different. (One has two drawers and the other but 
 one. The problem is complicated by the representation 
 of the same objects but of different sizes on each table.) 
 
 6. Next are the pictures of two soldiers. Tell me 
 how their uniforms are different. (The outstanding 
 difference is in the reversal of two colors in the two uni- 
 forms. As soon as the subject has indicated that he 
 knows this difference, he is asked to indicate what other 
 difference there is. The other difference is in the num- 
 ber of buttons on the coats.) 
 
 7. Next is the picture of a hunter with his dog. 
 'Tell me what is the trouble with the dog's going. Why 
 doesn't the dog go along. (The dog has only two legs, 
 but the picture is so drawn as to allow the interpretation 
 that the other two legs are hidden behind those which 
 are shown.) 
 
 8. Next is the picture of a summer house. Where 
 is the bird? (The bird is formed by the outline of the 
 top of the roof.) 
 
 9. Next is the picture of a river. Tell me whether 
 it is shallow or deep. (It is shallow, because some one 
 
42 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 has just walked across it. The subject is required to 
 give the correct reason.) 
 
 10. On the next page are several colored dots. Can 
 you find any regularity in the arrangement of the dots ? 
 (The black dots are arranged in a circle, while the others 
 are scattered about.) 
 
 In this test, as in the test for Einbildungskraft, Ros- 
 solimo appears to have omitted the time of response in 
 reckoning the score. As we have used the test the time 
 has seemed significant. We have accordingly scored the 
 test by finding the average time of response, counting 15 
 seconds for all responses or failures requiring more than 
 15 seconds. (The reason for using the 15-second limit 
 has been explained in the case of the ink-blots test and 
 is the same for this test.) 
 
 34. Stamp Test (Whipple). The stamp test is de- 
 scribed in Whipple 's Manual, pp. 376ff. A cancelled 
 two-cent postage stamp mounted on a white background 
 is given to the subject with instructions to write a com- 
 plete description of it. The numerical score, which we 
 have used, is based upon an allowance of one point for 
 each feature of the stamp which was mentioned. 
 
 35. Spot-Pattern (McDougall). The spot-pattern 
 test is described by Whipple (Manual, page 290ff.) We 
 used the disc tachistoscope and five seven-spot patterns. 
 The time of exposure was approximately 1.6 seconds. 
 In this test seven spots variously arranged are exposed 
 for the short period indicated and the subject attempts 
 to reproduce the pattern on cross-section paper. The 
 exposures are repeated until the reproduction is cor- 
 rect. In the case of all of our subjects whose results 
 are reported, each attempted reproduction was left in 
 view while the next was being made. It is doubtful 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 43 
 
 whether the results of 82 are comparable with those of 
 the others, since the cards were given in a reverse order, 
 owing to a difficulty arising in the first part of the test. 
 The score is the average number of exposures required 
 per card. 
 
 VI. Tests of Sensory Discrimination 
 
 36. Test for Color Vision (Nagel). The Nagel test 
 for color vision is described in Whipple 's Manual, page, 
 190ff. The test consists in the identification of red, 
 green, and gray spots on white cards. The purpose of 
 the test is to test the normality of color vision. 
 
 37. Discrimination of Differences. It was thought 
 desirable to test the ability of our subjects to distinguish 
 small differences in form and size. We desired a test 
 that would not require the elaborate precautions of an 
 ordinary experiment in psychophysics, which would re- 
 quire little or no apparatus, and which would allow 
 prolonged viewing of the forms with as much eye move- 
 ment as might be desired. We found no such test de- 
 scribed in the literature. Hence we set about to make 
 one. The first series consists of seven pairs of straight 
 lines, seven pairs of angles, and six arcs of circles. Each 
 pair is arranged on a 4 x 6-inch card. The position of 
 the lines vary somewhat among different cards, that is, 
 on some they are arranged in a horizontal line, on others 
 they are inclined toward each other, etc. On the same 
 card, however, each line occupies a corresponding or ap- 
 proximately symmetrical position with reference to the 
 vertical axis of the card. The straight lines, angles, and 
 arcs alternate in order of presentation. The straight 
 lines differ by a small amount in length. The size of the 
 angles differs sjightly, while the length of the sides re- 
 
44 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 mains constant. The curvature of the arcs differs 
 slightly. It was intended that the arcs should have 
 cords of the same length, but it was found that in one 
 instance at least this aim was not realized. The inten- 
 tion was to eliminate the operation of illusions as far as 
 possible and to require a judgment on the basis of two 
 similar visual presentations. The subject is asked which 
 of the two lines is the longer, of the two angles the 
 larger, and of the two curves the flatter, that is, more 
 nearly a straight line. Each card is judged twice. The 
 first judgment is made in ignorance of the fact that none 
 of the cards has on it two equal magnitudes, and the sub- 
 ject is allowed to judge the two magnitudes equal in 
 cases where he could discriminate no difference. After 
 the test in discrimination of proportions has been given 
 (where it is given at all), the subject is informed that 
 there is in fact a difference in each pair judged, and a 
 second judgment is made without reference to the first. 
 In this second judgment, the subject is required to dis- 
 criminate between the two whether he can distinguish a 
 real difference or not. The score is the sum of the 
 correct judgments made in the two trials. Judg- 
 ments of ' ' equal ' ' in the first trial are given half credit. 
 38. Discrimination of Proportions. The test in dis- 
 crimination of proportions is similar to the one just 
 described, except that in this case proportions are 
 judged. There are twelve cards, six containing four 
 straight lines each and six containing four angles each. 
 The lines and angles are so arranged that one could say, 
 for example, if the proportions were true, ' ' The length 
 of the first line is to the length of the second as the length 
 of the third line is to the length of the fourth. " As a 
 matter of fact none of the proportions is a true one. As 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 45 
 
 in the test of discrimination of difference, the test is 
 given twice. In the first case the subject does not know 
 that all of the proportions are not true, and he is allowed 
 to answer that a proportion is a true one. If he judges 
 the proportion not to be true, then it is required that he 
 state whether the fourth line is too long or too short 
 (or whether the fourth angle is too large or too small). 
 Preliminary to the second judgment the subject is in- 
 formed that the proportions are all untrue and he is 
 asked to state, independently of his first judgment, 
 whether the fourth line is too long or too short (or 
 whether the fourth angle is too large or too small) . The 
 score is the sum of the correct judgments made in the 
 two trials. In the first trial, judgments that the pro- 
 portions are true are given half credit. 
 
 VII. General Physical and Motor Tests 
 
 39. Tapping. In the tapping test the rate of tap- 
 ping with each hand is ascertained. For this purpose 
 we used a tapping-board stylus, seconds pendulum 22 
 kymograph and smoked paper, and double time-marker 
 as recommended by Whipple (Manual, pp. 130ff.) The 
 apparatus and method were explained and illustrated to 
 the subject before taking the record. A record of 30 
 seconds, presumably at the subject's maximum rate, was 
 secured for each hand. Usually the experimenter al- 
 lowed the subject to run over the period two or three 
 seconds in order to be sure to get a record for the full 
 30 seconds. The usual order was to take the right-hand 
 record first. Occasionally, however, apparatus or other 
 difficulty seemed to make it advisable to take a second 
 
 ^In certain tests a Jacquet chronometer was substituted for the 
 seconds pendulum. 
 
46 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 record with one of the hands or both. The score is the 
 number of taps recorded in 30 seconds. The results in 
 the tables are averages of records taken on two different 
 days, except in the cases of C2, C3, and C4. For the 
 first two of these, only one record is given ; for C4 the 
 results are the averages of three records. 
 
 40. Steadiness of Motor Control: Involuntary Move- 
 ment. The steadiness test utilized the brass plate rec- 
 ommended by Whipple (Manual, pp. 155ff.) The rec- 
 ord was made by means of a seconds pendulum (or 
 Jacquet chronometer), double time-marker, kymograph 
 and smoked paper, and electrical accessories. The ap- 
 paratus and method were explained and illustrated to 
 the subject, and he was allowed to try the needle before 
 making the record. The subject was seated before the 
 instrument. Difficulty was experienced in getting some 
 subjects to assume a position with the angle between the 
 forearm and upper arm the same as that recommended 
 by Whipple, and it was thought best not to insist on this 
 point. The subject was instructed to insert the needle 
 into the hole and as far as possible to hold it so that it 
 would not touch the sides of the hole. Each time the needle 
 touched the side of the hole, the contact completed a cir- 
 cuit which actuated one arm of the marker. In the case 
 of adults and high-school students, records were obtained 
 for Holes 8 and 9, the last two in the series. In the case 
 of the children, records were made in the first sitting 
 for Holes, 6, 7, and 8, and in the second for Holes 7 and 
 8. Usually the subject was allowed to hold the position 
 a little longer than 15 seconds in order to assure a good 
 record of at least that length. Eight and left hands were 
 tested alternately. The steadiness tests, except in the 
 case of C2 and C3, were repeated on a different day. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF TESTS 47 
 
 For C2 we have but one record ; for C3 a partial second 
 record was made in the same sitting. The tests were 
 given in the same periods as the tapping tests. In the 
 first series, the steadiness tests were preceded by tapping 
 tests and in the second series the steadiness tests were 
 given first. The score is the number of contacts in 15 
 seconds. In case of long continued contacts the number 
 of contacts which would have occurred in the same period 
 was estimated from other parts of the record. 
 
 41. Aiming. The aiming test was given substan- 
 tially as described by Whipple (Manual, pp. 147ff.) In 
 this test the subject attempts to hit with a pencil by full- 
 arm strokes the intersections of a series of crosses on a 
 target paper. The target is mounted on a suitable base- 
 board at about the height of the shoulder and at a dis- 
 tance of nearly a full-arm length. Three attempts are 
 made to strike each of ten points. The score is the aver- 
 age distance (in millimeters) between the 30 marks 
 where the pencil strikes and the points at which the sub- 
 ject aims. In our work, except for a left-handed sub- 
 ject, the right hand was tested first. 
 
 42. Strength of Grip. The strength of grip was 
 measured for each hand. The improved form of Smed- 
 ley's dynamometer sold by the C. H. Stoelting Company 
 was used. Three trials were made with each hand alter- 
 nately. The score (in kilograms) is the best record 
 made in the three trials. 
 
 43. Weight. The children were weighed in their 
 ordinary clothing. The weight is expressed in pounds. 
 
 VIII. Tests of Handwriting and Draiving 
 
 44. Handwriting. A sample of handwriting was 
 taken by having the subject write from memory (or 
 
48 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 from copy in case he needed to refer to it) the first 
 stanza of "My Country 'tis of Thee." The subject 
 wrote for two minutes, and repeated the stanza if nec- 
 essary to fill out the time. It was explained to him 
 that the test was one both of speed and quality. The 
 samples thus secured were marked by means of the 
 Ay res scale by four judges. 23 The final score is the 
 average of the four marks. 
 
 45. Drawing. Our knowledge of the drawing 
 ability of the subjects (except those of the academy 
 group) is based in part upon statements of teachers and 
 supervisors who have had intimate acquaintance with 
 their work, and in part upon certain work which they 
 have done for us particularly the results of two draw- 
 ing tests. One of the tests was the drawing of a horse 
 from memory, and the other was the drawing of a little 
 wooden cart from the object. Five minutes were allowed 
 for each drawing, and the subject was informed when 
 three minutes had gone. The drawings produced were 
 marked independently by four judges. 24 The marks 
 were assigned on the basis of the Thorndike scale. The 
 final score is the average of the four marks. 
 
 ^The judges were Miss Frances Mapel, Miss Margaret Doherty, Miss 
 Genevieve Coy, and the author. 
 
 24 The judges were Miss Harriett Berninger, Miss Dora Keen, Miss 
 Frances Mapel, and Miss Margaret Doherty, advanced students in Educa- 
 tion at the University of Illinois. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 RESULTS OF TESTS 
 General Considerations 
 
 In presenting the numerical results of the tests it is 
 desirable to indicate not only the score of an individual 
 as expressed in the units peculiar to the test, but also 
 his standing with reference to a large number of indi- 
 viduals with whom the person tested is fairly comparable. 
 In this particular study it is further desirable that the 
 persons who are talented in drawing be compared with 
 others who have not such talent or at least with persons 
 who have no more talent for drawing than would be ex- 
 pected in an unselected group. In the interpretation of 
 individual scores a comparative representation of the 
 scores is more important than the scores themselves. It 
 is more important, for example, to know that a given 
 individual is exceeded in general intelligence by only 
 ten persons in a hundred of the general population than 
 merely to know that his intelligence quotient is 115, 
 Such is the ideal method of representation, and it is to 
 be regretted that the comparative data available for this 
 study are not sufficient for executing the plan in all the 
 results. We have tried, however, to utilize the data that 
 were at hand, and we have even gone aside from the in- 
 dividual study with which we started in order to supply 
 certain others. It must be understood that the compar- 
 ative data which we present are not submitted for 
 "standards" in the various tests. Furthermore, our 
 use of "approximate percentiles" of distribution, will 
 not be thought unwarranted when it is considered that 
 
 49 
 
50 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 the limitations of the data are understood and that we 
 are interested in setting forth a method as well as in 
 giving actual results. 
 
 In this chapter will be included both the results of 
 the tests upon the subjects and the general scores with 
 which they are compared. It has been possible in some 
 cases to indicate roughly the percentile which the indi- 
 vidual score represents in a comparative distribution. 
 In other instances the background available has been less 
 extensive, and the standing of the individual with refer- 
 ence to the median or average is represented. Finally, 
 there are some tests in which the members of the test 
 group are compared only with each other. 
 
 The results will be presented in three sections: (1) 
 the academy group, (2) the laboratory and miscellaneous 
 group, and (3) the elementary group. Explanations 
 of the scores, the methods of representation, and other 
 details of the presentation will be cumulative, and many 
 of them may be omitted or abbreviated in the later 
 sections. 
 
 The numbers of the tests in the several tables are the 
 same as those given in Chapter IV. 
 
 I. The Academy Group 
 
 As explained in Chapter III, S7 and 88 are members 
 of a group of 32 cadets to whom a number of different 
 tests were given. It is possible, therefore, to compare 
 the performances of S7 and 88 with those of the other 
 members of the group. For this comparison we have 
 chosen the 30 highest scores in each test, the results of 
 which we are reproducing. (In a few cases one or two 
 of the 32 scores were rejected or were missing on account 
 of the tests being incomplete, or for other reason.) A 
 
EESULTS OF TESTS 51 
 
 tabulation of scores was then made by taking the score 
 third from the poorest (Rank 28) and every third score 
 following, up to that of the person ranking fourth in 
 the given test. These scores we have called "approxi- 
 mate percentiles. ' ' They are exhibited in Table 1. They 
 furnish a convenient background for a rough representa- 
 tion of the standing of our two subjects in the various 
 tests. Later also some of these distributions will be used 
 for a comparison with scores of members of other groups. 
 To find the comparative standing of a given individual 
 score it is necessary only to find where it belongs in the 
 distribution. Thus, if the individual score is 35 and 
 we find that the approximate 40th percentile and 50th 
 percentile are 34 and 36, respectively, the individual 
 score may be represented for our purpose as lying at 
 the 45th percentile. This means roughly that the indi- 
 vidual score is as high as any score obtained by the 45 
 per cent of the subjects who stood lowest in the test. 
 
 Scores of the four tests in Table 1 which are marked 
 with an asterisk have been "corrected to a senior basis." 
 As mentioned previously, the cadets tested were mem- 
 bers of different classes and differed in age. The num- 
 ber in the whole group, however, seemed too small to 
 attempt a classification by classes or by ages. At the 
 same time it seemed highly desirable to make some 
 allowance for differences in age and advancement. For 
 most of the tests, data for this correction were lacking, 
 but in four of them a correction was possible on the 
 basis of data which had come into the possession of the 
 laboratory from a series of tests given by Dr. W. S. 
 Miller in the Urbana High School. By means of these 
 data, the scores of cadets in classes lower than the senior 
 
TABLE 1 
 
 APPROXIMATE PEECENTILES OF SCOEES OF 
 30 CADETS 
 
 OO> rH rH (N O iH W5 IO CO CO 
 
 \n co oq co p 10 
 
 rHCirHWCMTflOOrHOrHCM'lO^aoCMt-^O 
 U5 rH CO CO T}( CO rH rH N CM Oi iH T* ift t- 00 
 CMCMrH rH 
 
 CO 00 OJ pOO N 
 
 10 H U5 CO CM O <N CM <N OS rH T 
 
 ^t>Tl<CMrJ<COOrHOiCOOSOOOlCOSOSO 
 ^1 rH U5 t> O iH Tj( CNlNOOrH-^TfllOTfl 
 
 CM O rjj 00 00 
 
 CM I- 00* t- M Tj( CO i-i 00 OS r-1 O CO (M l> IR CO 
 
 CO O5 CO O 
 
 CO5 O5 Tj|CO OS 
 
 CO rH CO 00 O O5 TH IO CO CO * CO ^ CO rH 
 
 rHCOCM rHCM 
 
 W 00 Or-} 00 
 
 t> TH irj co coioco 'co^'oo'ooiflioioco 
 
 CO rH CO OS CM rH CO lO CO CO O CO CO CO ^ 
 
 ^ 4 M "5 x 
 
 Si fl fl 'S ^ ^ fl 
 
 &< . . bo . . . . 
 
 CMCOTJ<OrH U5CO^-'^OC\I^' OSOCOOO 
 COCO OSrHTHTHrH rH CM (M CM 
 
 s^ 
 
 - 
 
 s 
 
 S x 
 
 3.5 o 
 
 ^05 
 
 s 
 
 The numbers 
 Scores corre< 
 
RESULTS OF TESTS 53 
 
 class were increased to what they presumably would be, 
 if the cadets at the time had been seniors. 
 
 The records of our subjects 87 and 88 in the several 
 tests are exhibited in Table 2. Both the scores in units 
 peculiar to each test and the approximate percentiles 
 which these represent in the general distribution (Table 
 1) are presented. 
 
 TABLE 2 
 
 THE SCORES OF 7 AND S8 IN VARIOUS TESTS AND COMPAR- 
 ISONS OF THEIR SCORES WITH THE SCORES OF 30 CADETS 
 
 S7 S8 
 
 Tests Score Approximate Score Approximate 
 
 Percentile Percentile 
 
 No.* 
 
 Name 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Word Building** 
 
 42 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 62 
 
 3. 
 
 Trabue J and K 
 
 17 
 
 55 
 
 17 
 
 55 
 
 4. 
 
 Winch's Story 
 
 . 74.5 
 
 95 
 
 55.6 
 
 63 
 
 30. 
 
 Reading Forward 
 
 60 
 
 93 
 
 80 
 
 40 
 
 31. 
 
 Reading Backward 
 
 260 
 
 84 
 
 116 
 
 14 
 
 5. 
 
 Opposites 
 
 324 
 
 56 
 
 373 
 
 40 
 
 6. 
 
 Analogies C ** 
 
 211 
 
 30 
 
 118 
 
 80 
 
 9(b) 
 
 Easy Directions 
 
 .95 
 
 40 
 
 .93 
 
 35 
 
 Kf) 
 
 Fables 
 
 9 
 
 65 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 10. 
 
 (Proverbs 
 
 54 
 
 20 
 
 51 
 
 28 
 
 12. 
 
 Reasoning 
 
 37 
 
 25 
 
 49 
 
 5 
 
 Kg) 
 
 Code 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 19. 
 
 Marble Statue** 
 
 46 
 
 65 
 
 48.5 
 
 80 
 
 20. 
 
 Dutch Homestead** 
 
 42 
 
 33 
 
 52 
 
 80 
 
 26. 
 
 Substitution 
 
 136 
 
 23 
 
 123 
 
 7 
 
 28. 
 
 Mirror Drawing (R.H.) 
 
 204 
 
 33 
 
 210 
 
 30 
 
 
 Average 16 tests 
 
 
 49 
 
 
 47 
 
 *The numbers of the -tests are the same as those used in Chapter IV. 
 
 **Scores in these tests "corrected to senior basis." 
 
 The table should be read in this way: In the Marble Statue test, 7 
 made a score of 46 (ideas reproduced). This is a score beyond which 
 65% of the group (30 cadets) did not go; or, inversely, this is a score 
 exceeded by only 35% (100-65) of the group. 
 
 The data for the percentile column were obtained by a comparison of 
 the scores with those recorded in Table 1. 
 
 //. Laboratory and Miscellaneous Groups 
 
 The first part of the numerical results of the tests 
 which were applied to the individuals in the laboratory 
 group and in the miscellaneous group will be presented 
 in tabular form similar to that which has been used for 
 
54 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 the academy group. It is desirable to compare each 
 individual with others of similar age and advancement. 
 In some case it has been possible to submit different 
 backgrounds in partial satisfaction of this principle; in 
 other cases only one background has been available for 
 all. The array of approximate percentiles with which 
 the individual scores are to be compared is given in 
 Table 3. The numbers of the tests which are given below 
 are the same as those used in the description of the tests 
 in Chapter IV. The sources of the scores are indicated 
 below. 
 
 (1) Binet. The distribution of percentiles is pre- 
 pared from data given by Terman. 1 
 
 (2) Word Building, (6) Analogies, (19) Marble 
 Statue, and (32) Cancellation of 7's. The per- 
 centile distributions in these tests were obtained 
 by Dr. W.. S. Miller from tests given in the 
 Urbana High School. 
 
 (3) Trabue J and K, (9) Easy Directions, (12) 
 Tliurstone Reasoning, (1-g) Code (for compar- 
 ison with records of high school students), 
 (26) TJiur stone Substitution, and (28) Mirror 
 Drawing (right hand). Data are the same as 
 exhibited in Table 1. 
 
 (7) Ink-Blots. Percentiles are prepared from 
 scores of 15 persons : our six high-school sub- 
 jects and nine university students, including 
 Cl. 
 
 (8) Pictorial Imagination. Percentiles are based 
 upon 16 scores. These scores were obtained 
 from tests given to seven adults, our six high- 
 school subjects, and Cl, C4, and C5. 
 
 1 Terman, L. M. The Measurement of Intelligence, 1916, p. 78. 
 
RESULTS OF TESTS 55 
 
 (13) TJiur stone Hand. Scores from 14 university 
 students, including Cl and C2, were used for 
 the percentiles. 
 
 (14) Thurstone Spatial Relations. The percentiles 
 are based upon results from 15 university 
 students, including Cl, C2, and C3. 
 
 (16) Painted Cube. The scores used for the per- 
 centiles are those of 13 university students, in- 
 cluding Cl, C2, and C3. 
 
 (1-g) Code (for college students). Eesults from 12 
 university students, including Cl, form the 
 basis for the percentile distribution. The test 
 was given as a group test to 10 of the persons. 
 In the group test the code was displayed on the 
 blackboard. 
 
 (17) Thorndike Test of Aesthetic Appreciation. 
 The percentiles are based upon results from 14 
 university students, including Cl and C2. 
 Mimeographed reproductions of the first five 
 of Professor Thorndike's seven series were 
 used. 
 
 (18) Illinois Test of Aesthetic Judgment. The per- 
 centiles are based upon the scores of 19 per- 
 sons, including our six high-school subjects, and 
 Cl, C3, C4, and C5. One additional person of 
 the 19 is a high-school student, and the remain- 
 ing nine are adults. 
 
 (27) Perceptual Learning. The percentiles are 
 based upon results from 19 members of the 
 fortnightly conference of the Department of 
 Education, to whom the test was given as a 
 
56 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 group test. 2 For this purpose the smaller 
 figures which were used in the individual test- 
 ing were carefully enlarged. Care was taken 
 in the enlargement to have the angles between 
 lines and the relative length of lines approxi- 
 mately the same as in the smaller figures. The 
 curvature of the curved lines was increased a 
 little in order to facilitate recognition of the 
 curvature at a distance. The time of exposure 
 was the same as for the individual tests. We 
 have no means of estimating the difference in 
 performance which may be due to the giving 
 of the test in one case by the group method and 
 in the other by the individual method. 
 
 (33) Rossolimo Observation. The percentiles are 
 based upon scores from 12 persons, including 
 our six high-school subjects, Cl, C4, C5, and 
 three other adults. 
 
 (45) Drawing. The percentiles in the drawing 
 tests are based upon results from 16 students 
 in a class in education, to whom the tests were 
 given as a group exercise. C2 was a member 
 of this class. The drawings were marked by 
 the same four judges who marked the drawings 
 of the members of the test groups. 3 
 
 2 Through an error the simplest figure (four lines) was exposed upside 
 down (this position was preserved in later group tests also), but, on ac- 
 count of the simplicity of the figure and the small change introduced, the 
 results may still be regarded as comparable to those of the individual testing. 
 
 3 The tests just mentioned, beginning with the ink-bolts and continuing 
 through the list, were all given by, or under the immediate supervision 
 of, the author with the exception of the Illinois test of aesthetic judgment, 
 in which case the technique is simple. This test was given to one person, 
 whose performance is included in the values used, by Miss Florence Boeh- 
 mer, and to two others by Miss Margaret Doherty. 
 
EESULTS OF TESTS 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 
 COO5 
 
 .S- 
 
 H 
 
 
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 OS 
 
 lO t~ rH OS OQCOTjKNrHOlOOSCO <N t~ O O OSrHrHrHt- O TO M 
 rHTjtlOrH CJ THrHrHOSTj<lOCOT*CO rH rH 
 
 CO g 
 
 fe 
 
 
 
 rH <M 
 
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 W 
 
 
 
 
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 fi 
 
 
 
 
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 P 
 
 
 
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 & o 
 
 w 
 
 
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 >-rH 
 
 
 
 
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 IH 
 
 
 
 rH rH 
 
 w^ 
 
 M 
 
 03 
 
 
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 u^ococ* S 010 
 
 1* 
 
 H 
 M 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 rH rH rH 
 
 ll 
 
 
 
 
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 3 p. 
 
 
 
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 CO 
 
 CO O <M t> O OS O (N rH O CO CO 00 OS tO t lO N T}( OS O O CO COOS 
 O TjTlirH rH CO rHlO rHrHrHCO T^rHlOiOT^ 
 
 1? 
 
 
 
 
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 8 
 
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 10 
 
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 H 
 
 
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 K 
 
 
 
 
 rHCOcOCOOS COCOOOCOCO 
 
 
 
 PH 
 
 
 
 t- COOOtO CJOCOCO COOSCOCO Tj<rH(MrH OSOCOTJICO t^ b-00 
 
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 ftn 
 
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 OS COCOrH H rH CO <N OS CO (M (M CO CO ^ T}( 10 OS 
 
 * S "S 
 
 
 
 PH 
 
 
 rH iH 
 
 > 60 - 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
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 H W 
 
 
 
 
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 J J 
 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 P 
 
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 Tjt lO <M rH OS CO CO CO (N rH 
 
 
 H g 
 
 
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 S <u 
 
 
 
 
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 OS COCOrH rHrH T* rH <N CO CO <M iM t> CO CO CO CO T* 
 
 O ^j 
 
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 V 
 
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 PH 
 
 
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 rH 
 
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 CO (M (M rHrH O rH CO CO t- (M (N t> CO CO <M t> 00 
 
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 A 
 
 
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 -^ 3 o"oj 
 
 
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 3 "S"i ** 
 
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 02 
 
 O2 
 
 
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 ">'z os~ 
 
 w 
 
 H 
 O2 
 
 
 
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 a 2 a 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 r ; H'S'o ^'S'w M a><^O "MS "^ ^ " 'w CD "es r 1 -2 " 4^ o 
 5 O2O2^ <D2#2 93-*.^ fl fl^ :o'55 Cl 2O2a2G:3H-S QCQQ efcc 
 
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 rHci co'co* L^ooos"<r?coTjJco'" fi t^oo'os co't "oo'w co'to 
 
 61 
 
58 
 
 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 
 x d 
 
 
 
 
 k_l 
 
 
 
 ails 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 
 PQ 
 
 ua 
 
 ^" 
 
 0>000>C-<MW050>C5l>l>0:t-Mt-050>0><OOOaOO 
 
 
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 P3 
 
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 0) 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 PH 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 rjj D rH CO 00 O CO >O l> rH Oi ^ 
 
 
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 PH 
 
 GJ 
 
 
 8 
 
 OS 00 C3 oo' t> TjJ rH 00* 00^ O rH -* 00 IO (M 00 b- 'lOOJO 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 02 
 
 rH (M 
 
 
 ft 
 
 H 
 
 02 
 
 
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 ft 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 8 5 
 
 ft J-i s 
 
 COMWT*OinOOO>iOt-OTl<iOlOO>OOOCOO>00^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 Q 
 
 B 
 p 
 
 
 
 t-l>O5O5COO5O50000 lOCO^O IOOOO500005OO5O5 
 
 
 
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 2 
 
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 c 
 
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 OC<IVOt>OirHO COIOCO(M 
 
 
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 02 
 
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 rH rH 
 
 
 
 
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 j^ 
 
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 rH 
 
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 rHrJICl rH CJrHC'lOi'O^OCO^' rH 
 
 
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 fe 
 
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 fc 
 
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 "S 
 
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 00 
 
RESULTS OF TESTS 
 
 59 
 
 s 
 
 2 
 8 
 
 02 
 
 * 
 
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 CQ 
 
 PQ 
 
 g 
 
 x a 
 Pg^ 
 
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 OrHrHCO'^'-J ^ O . 
 
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 rH rH CO rH W <M 00 T* CO T}< f r' 
 
 rH X CO O ^ <M rH rH 
 
 rHOJ 
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 CO 05 00 
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 51 g 
 
 83 vi 
 
 
 IH CO to l> 00 0> M CO -^ <O ^t-' 00 oi i t-' 00 W CO u 
 
 --- 
 
60 
 
 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 ' 
 
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 t *-"dJgo>1a M 3 
 
 frills* 8 813 
 
 P2^2_M fe * ^ 
 
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EESULTS OF TESTS 61 
 
 Table 4 presents the scores of the members of the 
 laboratory group and of the miscellaneous group, in the 
 tests for which comparative results were given in Table 
 3. The representation is similar to that used in Table 2. 
 
 Total performance in the Binet tests is indicated in 
 terms of the intelligence quotient in Table 4. In Table 
 5 are given the results of certain selected tests of the 
 series. The numbering of these tests is made to conform 
 with that used in their description in Chapter IV. 
 
 The results of the analogies test, List C, were given 
 in Table 4. The results for Lists A, B, and C, are ex- 
 hibited in Table 6. 
 
 TABLE 6 
 RESULTS ANALOGIES TESTS 
 
 Subjects List A List B List C Devia- 
 
 < Total tion 
 
 Time Failures Time Failures Time Failures Time from 
 
 Mean 
 
 SI 
 
 3.1 
 
 
 
 4.5 
 
 
 
 10.0 
 
 3 
 
 17.6 
 
 -1.2 
 
 S2 
 
 3.4 
 
 
 
 6.1 
 
 2 
 
 11.5 
 
 5 
 
 21.0 
 
 -4.6 
 
 S3 
 
 2.4 
 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 
 
 5.5 
 
 1 
 
 10.4 
 
 6.4 
 
 S4 
 
 3.7 
 
 
 
 2.9 
 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 
 
 11.6 
 
 4.8 
 
 S5 
 
 2.8 
 
 
 
 3.9 
 
 
 
 8.4 
 
 3 
 
 15.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 S6 
 
 1.9 
 
 
 
 5.6 
 
 
 
 14.3 
 
 4 
 
 21.8 
 
 -5.4 
 
 Cl 
 
 
 
 
 
 8.1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 C4 
 
 4.5 
 
 1 
 
 5.2 
 
 1 
 
 14.4 
 
 5 
 
 24.1 
 
 -7.7 
 
 C5 
 
 2.8 
 
 
 
 2.9 
 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 
 
 9.7 
 
 6.7 
 
 Mean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 The timens in seconds and indicates the average time 
 for each of 20 responses. " Failures " indicate the num- 
 ber of stimulus cards to which no correct response was 
 given in 30 seconds. 
 
 Deviations are computed from the mean total time 
 (16.4 sec.) for this group. A minus deviation indicates 
 a performance poorer than the mean. 
 
 In Table 7 are exhibited scores in a number of tests 
 in which we have lacked an adequate background of 
 
TALENT ix DRAWING 
 
 CO rH 00 W CO t> b- CO CO ^ W CO W t> CO OS rH %J ^f O t- 
 
 COCO ' 'co' ' OS ' OS CO 'rHcirH (M CO CO CO Tji r-i CO* <N GO* rH CO OS 
 
 I CO | <OrHrH| | m rHi 
 
 a 
 
 CO CO T-J CO 
 
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 3 Cl O CO CO t 
 
 r co r o * o r c 
 
 ^J rH CO CO CO CO 
 1 ' rH ' CO |' O ' OS f 
 
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 T* CO | (N CO rH ^ I 
 
 H rH(M ^ CO CO 
 
 .2 * 
 
 
 
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 5 g 
 
 M a 
 
 U 
 
 5 . 
 
 5 
 * 
 
 K 2^ 
 
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 ^ c> os os ^ 
 
 ?! Hi 
 
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 -t->w w c3 c3 ^J 
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 iiff^i 
 
KESULTS OF TESTS 
 
 63 
 
 TABLE 8 
 
 SCORES IN MOTOR TESTS AND COMPARISONS OF THESE SCORES 
 WITH AVERAGES OR MEDIANS 
 
 Age 1 ^Strength of Grip 
 (kg.) 
 
 39 Tapping 
 (No. Taps in 30 Seconds) 
 
 Score 3 Standard 
 Avg. 
 Pyle 2 
 
 Devia- 
 tions 
 from 
 
 Score 
 
 Standard 
 Avg. 
 Pyle 2 
 
 Devia- 
 tions, 
 from 
 
 Avg. 
 
 Avg. 
 
 
 
 R L R 
 
 L 
 
 R 
 
 L 
 
 R 
 
 L 
 
 R 
 
 L 
 
 R 
 
 L 
 
 SI 
 
 19 
 
 34.4 29.9 28.9 
 
 26.9 4 
 
 5.5 
 
 3.0 
 
 203 
 
 163 
 
 190 
 
 180 
 
 13 
 
 -17 
 
 S2 
 
 17 
 
 50.4 44.0 44.0 
 
 42.3 
 
 6.4 
 
 1.7 
 
 211 
 
 186 
 
 198 
 
 176 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 S3 
 
 16 
 
 35.7 31.0 27.4 
 
 26.1 
 
 8.3 
 
 4.9 
 
 182 
 
 174 
 
 187 
 
 163 
 
 -5 
 
 13 
 
 84 
 
 18 
 
 52.1 50.1 44.2 
 
 42.7 
 
 7.9 
 
 7.4 
 
 179 
 
 192 
 
 208 
 
 179 
 
 -29 
 
 13 
 
 85 
 
 17 
 
 33.2 25.1 27.2 
 
 25.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 -.4 
 
 227 
 
 176 
 
 193 
 
 172 
 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 S6 
 
 18 
 
 32.0 25.0 28.0 
 
 26.3 
 
 4.0 
 
 -1.3 
 
 192 
 
 173 
 
 193 
 
 172 
 
 -1 
 
 1 
 
 Cl 
 
 A 4 
 
 37.0 28.0 28.9 
 
 26.9 
 
 8.1 
 
 1.9 
 
 184 
 
 168 
 
 190 
 
 180 
 
 -6 
 
 -12 
 
 C2 
 
 A 
 
 55.5 48.5 48.3 
 
 46.1 
 
 7.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 212 
 
 185 
 
 206 
 
 200 
 
 6 
 
 -15 
 
 JGS 
 
 A 
 
 48.3 
 
 46.1 
 
 
 
 180 
 
 189 
 
 206 
 
 200 
 
 -26 
 
 -11 
 
 C4 
 
 A 
 
 28.5 28.0 28.9 
 
 26.9 
 
 -.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 190 
 
 164 
 
 190 
 
 180 
 
 
 
 -16 
 
 C5 
 
 A 
 
 31.0 29.1 28.9 
 
 26.9 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.2 
 
 218 
 
 192 
 
 190 
 
 180 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 TABLE 8 (Continued) 
 
 Age 1 
 
 ^Steadiness 
 (No. Contacts 15 i 
 
 sec.) 
 
 "Aiming 
 (Deviation in !/io mm.) 
 
 Score 
 
 Deviations 
 
 Score 
 
 Deviations 
 
 from Median 
 
 from Median 
 
 
 R 
 
 L 
 
 R 
 
 L 
 
 R 
 
 L 
 
 R 
 
 L 
 
 SI 19 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 -8 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 76 
 
 -12 
 
 -12 
 
 S2 17 
 
 66 
 
 76 
 
 -34 
 
 -16 
 
 46 
 
 66 
 
 10 
 
 -2 
 
 S3 16 
 
 32 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 65 
 
 73 
 
 -9 
 
 -9 
 
 X4 18 
 
 57 
 
 54 
 
 -25 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 49 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 S5 17 
 
 76 
 
 74 
 
 -44 
 
 -14 
 
 49 
 
 70 
 
 7 
 
 -6 
 
 S6 18 
 
 43 
 
 68 
 
 -11 
 
 -8 
 
 64 
 
 90 
 
 -8 
 
 -26 
 
 Cl A 
 
 34 
 
 70 
 
 2 
 
 -10 
 
 46 
 
 78 
 
 10 
 
 -14 
 
 C2 A 
 
 25 
 
 48 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 61 
 
 75 
 
 -5 
 
 -11 
 
 C3 A 
 
 27 
 
 38 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 -5 
 
 5 
 
 C4 A 
 
 90 
 
 76 
 
 -58 
 
 -16 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 C5 A 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 47 
 
 41 
 
 51 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 Third Quartile 
 
 25 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 Median (Steadiness 9 
 
 adults, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aiming 11 adults) 
 
 
 32 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 First Quartile 
 
 53 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 J Ages last birthday preceding December 31, 1916. 
 
 -Pyle, W. H. A Manual for the Mental and Physical Examination of 
 School Children. University of Missouri, Bulletin, 17: 1916, No. 24, 
 pp. 24f. 
 
 8 R, right hand; L, left hand. 
 
 4 Adult. 
 
 Read the table as follows: Si, 19 years of age, made scores of 34.4 
 kilograms and 29.9 kilograms with the right and left hands, respectively, 
 in the test for strength of grip (test number 42 in Chapter IV). The 
 standard scores as given by Pyle for female adults are 28.9 and 26.9 
 respectively. Si's scores are 5.5 and 3.0, respectively, better than the 
 standard scores. In the steadiness tests, Si's scores are 40 and 60 
 respectively. The median scores for 9 adults are 32 and 60, respectively 
 (below body of table). The right-hand score of Si is 8 poorer than the 
 median, and the left-hand score is just equal to the median. 
 
TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 TABLE 9 
 
 SCORES IN MIRROR DRAWING AND DEVIATIONS OF 
 SCORES FROM THE MEANS OF THE GROUP 
 
 THESE 
 
 Subjects 
 
 Right Hand 
 Score Dev. from 
 Mean 
 
 Left Hand 
 Score Dev. from 
 Mean 
 
 Sum (R and L) 
 Score Dev. from 
 Mean 
 
 SI 
 
 53 
 
 30 
 
 37 
 
 13 
 
 90 
 
 43 
 
 S2 
 
 147 
 
 -64 
 
 92 
 
 -42 
 
 239 
 
 -106 
 
 S3 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 37 
 
 13 
 
 77 
 
 56 
 
 84 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 110 
 
 23 
 
 85 
 
 67 
 
 16 
 
 42 
 
 8 
 
 109 
 
 24 
 
 S6 
 
 91 
 
 -8 
 
 65 
 
 -15 
 
 156 
 
 -23 
 
 Cl 
 
 75 
 
 8 
 
 51 
 
 -1 
 
 126 
 
 7 
 
 C4 
 
 126 
 
 -43 
 
 43 
 
 7 
 
 169 
 
 -36 
 
 C5 
 
 78 
 
 5 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 123 
 
 10 
 
 Mean 
 
 83 
 
 26 
 
 50 
 
 13 
 
 133 
 
 36 
 
 The table should be read as follows: In the mirror drawing test, 
 SI made scores of 53 and 37 with the right and left hands, respectively. 
 The sum of these scores is 90. The means for the group are 83, 50, and 
 133, respectively. The scores of Si are 30, 13, and 43, respectively, better 
 than the mean scores. 
 
 TABLE 10 
 RESULTS, BETTS QUESTIONARY 
 
 Score represents per cent of images in each modality reported as 
 belonging to the various degrees of vividness. 
 
 Imagery 
 Degrees SI 
 
 S2 
 
 S3 
 
 84 
 
 S5 
 
 S6 
 
 C2 
 
 C4 
 
 C5 
 
 Betts 1 
 
 Visual 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 59 
 
 53 
 
 59 
 
 78 
 
 9 
 
 75 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 19 
 
 28 
 
 41 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 72 
 
 19 
 
 38 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 41 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Auditory 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 55 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 55 
 
 10 
 
 35 
 
 3 
 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Kinaesthetic 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 55 
 
 35 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 45 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 J 34 College Seniors. 
 Mental Imagery, 1909. 
 
 Betts, G. H. The Distribution and Function of 
 
RESULTS OF TESTS 65 
 
 comparative results. The scores of the subjects have 
 been for the most part compared only with each other. 
 The means of the scores and deviations from the 
 means are indicated. 
 
 The scores in four motor tests are given in Table 8. 
 In the case of steadiness and aiming we are able to give 
 for comparison the first quartile, median, and third 
 quartile of the scores made by members of a class in 
 Mental Tests. Deviations from the median have been 
 calculated for each individual. The standards for the 
 tapping and strength-of-grip tests are taken from Pyle. 4 
 
 The results of the mirror drawing test are shown in 
 Table 9. The members of the group are compared with 
 each other. A comparison of right-hand mirror draw- 
 ing with the Culver results is made in Table 4. 
 
 The numerical results secured from the application 
 of the Betts questionary for imagery are given in Tables 
 10 and 11. They are compared with the results obtained 
 by Betts from 34 college seniors. 
 
 In addition to the results presented in the tables, the 
 following individual scores may be presented. 
 
 The score of Cl in the " Cicero" test for logical 
 memory is 49. This is better than any score reported for 
 36 college students by Whipple. (See Manual, page 
 577.) 
 
 The score of C3 in the "Dutch Homestead " test for 
 logical memory is 23. This places him very low in the 
 lowest ten per cent of the Culver group. (See Table 1.) 
 
 4 Pyle, W. H. A Manual for the Mental and Physical Examination of 
 School Children. University of Missouri Bulletin, Vol. 17, 1916, No. 24, 
 pp. 24f. 
 
66 
 
 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 3 o 
 
 % H 
 
 Q 8 
 
 HH g 
 
 A9CE 
 
 a.ioog 
 
 A8Q 
 
 OJOOg 
 
 snag 
 
 snag 
 
 A8Q 
 
 eaoog 
 
 'A8Q 
 
 ajcoog 
 
 snag 
 
 ajoog 
 snag 
 
 ajoog 
 
 snag 
 
 ajoog 
 
 snag 
 
 ajoog 
 
 snag 
 
 A8CI 
 
 ajoog 
 
 rjl (N CO 
 
 t^ 
 
 O5l>O 
 
 SI 
 
 83-2 < 
 
 > o d 
 
 is- 
 
 W > 03 O 
 
 !* .*JS 
 
 ^ M 31 
 
 CJ f>. 
 
 ffl j llfl* 
 
 S r^ OQ Vi 0) ** p 
 
EESULTS OF TESTS 67 
 
 777. The Elementary Group 
 
 The numerical results of the tests given to the ele- 
 mentary group are exhibited in a manner similar to that 
 which has been used in the preceding sections of this 
 chapter. 
 
 Table 12 and 13 exhibit the results of a number of 
 tests in which it has been possible to arrange for com- 
 parison a distribution of "approximate percentiles. ' ' 
 Results from fifth-grade children are given in Table 12, 
 and results from sixth-grade children in Table 13. The 
 scores for the tests where the number of cases reported 
 exceeds 16 are those of pupils in all of the fifth and sixth 
 grades of the Leal school. The scores for the Thorndike 
 aesthetic appreciation test and the perceptual learning 
 test were made by pupils in a single room, a room in 
 which all of the pupils, with one exception, have intelli- 
 gence quotients greater than 100. The scores for the 
 code test were taken from the results of the regular Binet 
 tests on the same group with the addition of a few chil- 
 dren from other rooms. Percentiles for the cancellation 
 tests are calculated from results of tests given to unse- 
 lected fifth- and sixth-grade children. The perceptual 
 learning test was given as a group test both to the exper- 
 imental group and to the comparative group. Enlarge- 
 ments of the figures were used in the way that has been 
 described for the laboratory group. 
 
 Table 14 presents the scores, in the tests named in 
 Tables 12 and 13, of the elementary-school pupils who 
 are subjects of this study. The scores are given in the 
 units peculiar to each test and in percentiles which these 
 scores represent in the distributions of Tables 12 and 13. 
 In addition, the standing (in general work, in handwrit- 
 ing, and in drawing) of each of the subjects, in relation 
 
68 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 TABLE 12 
 
 COMPARATIVE SCORES IN APPROXIMATE PERCENTILES FOR 
 FIFTH GRADE 
 
 Tests Cases 
 
 iPercentiles 
 
 No. 
 
 Name 
 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 1. 
 
 Binet I. Q. 
 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 94 
 
 97 
 
 100 
 
 103 
 
 106 
 
 110 
 
 115 
 
 2. 
 
 Word Building 
 
 61 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 3. 
 
 Trabue, B and C 
 
 61 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 10. 
 
 Proverbs 
 
 59 
 
 296 
 
 222 
 
 192 
 
 158 
 
 144 
 
 131 
 
 118 
 
 78 
 
 67 
 
 11. 
 
 Bonser Reasoning, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I, II 
 
 62 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 12. 
 
 Thurstone Reasoning 
 
 69 
 
 -9 
 
 -6 
 
 -5 
 
 -3 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 13. 
 
 Thurstone Hand 
 
 64 
 
 -24 
 
 -19 
 
 -16 
 
 Q 
 
 -5 
 
 -1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 14. Spatial Relations 67 905 215 154 119 111 75 53 36 28 
 
 15. Punched Holes 67 23344568 12 
 1-g Code 13 85 53 45 42 41 31 25 23 22 
 17. Th. Aesthetic Appre- 
 ciation 15 37 34 30 28 26 26 22 20 16 
 
 19. Marble Statue 64 22 25 27 29 30 33 35 37 40 
 
 22. Lincoln, Immediate 67 18 19 20 22 23 25 26 27 29 
 
 22. Lincoln, Deferred 62 13 15 16 16 17 19 20 22 25 
 
 27. Perceptual Learning 16 68 61 59 57 54 51 50 49 42 
 32. Cancellation, 
 
 Triangles 14 23 28 32 33 34 36 37 41 47 
 
 32. Cancellation, 7's 15 30 35 37 45 51 59 64 70 79 
 45. Drawing, Horse 63 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.4 5.6 6.0 6.4 6.9 7.6 
 
 45. Drawing, Cart 62 3.2 4.2 5.7 6.1 6.4 6.7 7.0 7.6 8.3 
 
 Read this table in the way that Table 3 is read. 
 
 TABLE 13 
 
 COMPARATIVE SCORES IN APPROXIMATE PERCENTILES FOR 
 SIXTH GRADE 
 
 
 Tests 
 
 No. 
 
 Cases 
 
 iPercentiles 
 
 No. 
 
 Name 
 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 1. 
 
 Binet I. Q. 
 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 94 
 
 97 
 
 100 103 106 110 
 
 115 
 
 2. 
 
 Word Building 
 
 71 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 3. 
 
 Trabue, B and C 
 
 73 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 10. 
 
 Proverbs 
 
 67 
 
 244 
 
 176 146 124 
 
 112 101 
 
 84 
 
 68 
 
 55 
 
 11. 
 
 Bonser Reasoning, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I, II 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 12. 
 
 Thurstone Reasoning 
 
 74 
 
 -9 
 
 -4 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 13. 
 
 Thurstone Hand 
 
 76 
 
 -21 
 
 -12 
 
 -5 
 
 -2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 14. 
 
 Spatial Relations 
 
 71 
 
 903 
 
 187 115 
 
 95 
 
 77 
 
 54 
 
 46 
 
 38 
 
 27 
 
 15. 
 
 Punched Holes 
 
 76 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 1-g 
 
 Code 
 
 14 
 
 100 
 
 54 
 
 48 
 
 44 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 17. 
 
 Th. Aesthetic Appre- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ciation 
 
 16 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 19. 
 
 Marble Statue 
 
 75 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 22. 
 
 Lincoln, Immediate 
 
 76 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 22. 
 
 Lincoln, Deferred 
 
 69 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 27. 
 
 Perceptual Learning 
 
 16 
 
 67 
 
 64 
 
 61 
 
 52 
 
 48 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 32. 
 
 Cancellation, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Triangles 
 
 15 
 
 32 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 44 
 
 47 
 
 32. 
 
 Cancellation, 7's 
 
 15 
 
 36 
 
 47 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 59 
 
 63 
 
 45. 
 
 Drawing, Horse 
 
 73 
 
 3.0 3.4 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.5 5.3 
 
 6.3 
 
 6.9 
 
 8.0 8.6 
 
 45. 
 
 Drawing, Cart 
 
 73 
 
 4.3 5.3 
 
 5.7 
 
 6. 
 
 1 6.7 
 
 7.0 
 
 7.8 
 
 8. 
 
 3 9.2 
 
 
 Read the table in the 
 
 way 
 
 that 
 
 Table 
 
 3 is 
 
 read. 
 
RESULTS OF TESTS 69 
 
 to other pupils of his grade and teacher, has been re- 
 duced to a percentile basis and included in the table. 
 The general school standing for pupils of the fifth grade 
 is based upon the marks assigned to the pupils in spell- 
 ing, reading, arithmetic, grammar or language, geog- 
 raphy, and physiology. The basis of the school standing 
 in the sixth grade is the same with the omission of geog- 
 raphy and the addition of history. The marks used 
 were the monthly marks which were available in each 
 branch at the close of the sixth school month. Approx- 
 imate medians were taken for each pupil in each subject 
 
 TABLE 14 
 
 SCORES OF THE ELEMENTARY GROUP, AND THE APPROXI- 
 MATE PERCENTILES TO WHICH THESE SCORES CORRE- 
 SPOND IN THE GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF 
 TABLES 12 AND 13 
 
 El 
 
 E2 
 
 E3 
 
 Tests 
 
 Score Approx. Score Approx. Score Approx. 
 Percen- Percen- Percen- 
 
 tile tile tile 
 
 1. 
 
 Binet, I. Q. 72.5 
 
 3 
 
 101.4 
 
 55 
 
 91.6 
 
 23 
 
 2. 
 
 Word Building 16 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 95 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 3. 
 
 Trabue, B and C 22 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 10. 
 
 Proverbs, I, II, VI 123 
 
 41 
 
 99 
 
 61 
 
 166 
 
 23 
 
 11. 
 
 Bonser Reasoning, I & II 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 12. 
 
 Thur&tone Reasoning 1 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 70 
 
 -1 
 
 30 
 
 13. 
 
 Thurstone Hand 
 
 45 
 
 -6 
 
 29 
 
 14 
 
 80 
 
 14. 
 
 Thurstone Spatial 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Relations 900 
 
 10 
 
 133 
 
 28 
 
 33 
 
 32 
 
 15. 
 
 Punched Holes 2 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 1-g 
 
 Code 77 
 
 15 
 
 85 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 92 
 
 17. 
 
 Th. Aesthetic Appreci- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ation 35 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 60 
 
 28 
 
 50 
 
 19. 
 
 Marble Statue 24 
 
 10 
 
 36 
 
 70 
 
 36 
 
 70 
 
 22. 
 
 Lincoln & Pig, Immediate 22 
 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 26 
 
 70 
 
 22. 
 
 Lincoln & Pig, Deferred 23 
 
 80 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 70 
 
 27. 
 
 Perceptual Learning 56 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 57 
 
 40 
 
 63 
 
 32. 
 
 Cancellation Triangles 41 
 
 70 
 
 44 
 
 80 
 
 44 
 
 80 
 
 32. 
 
 Cancellation 7's 66 
 
 95 
 
 49 
 
 30 
 
 67 
 
 96 
 
 45. 
 
 Drawing, Horse 8.1 
 
 82 
 
 8.9 
 
 95 
 
 10.8 
 
 99 
 
 45. 
 
 Drawing, Cart 8.1 
 
 76 
 
 9.5 
 
 93 
 
 8.6 
 
 83 
 
 
 Drawing (School Marks) 
 
 97 
 
 
 94 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 Handwriting 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (School Marks) 
 
 89 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 School Standing (Marks) 
 
 5 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 5 
 
 Read the table as Table 4 is read. 
 
70 
 
 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 TABLE 14 (Continued) 
 
 E4 
 
 E5 
 
 E6 
 
 Tests 
 
 Score Approx. Score Approx Score Approx. 
 Percen- Percen- Percen- 
 
 tile tile tile 
 
 1. 
 
 Binet, I. Q. 113.5 
 
 87 
 
 93.9 
 
 30 
 
 121.0 
 
 94 
 
 2. 
 
 Word Building 12 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Trabue, B and C 22 
 
 30 
 
 23 
 
 45 
 
 32 
 
 98 
 
 10. 
 
 Proverbs, I, II, VI 222 
 
 20 
 
 281 
 
 12 
 
 68 
 
 89 
 
 11. 
 
 Bonser Reasoning T&II 14 
 
 77 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 12. 
 
 Thurstone Reasoning 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 -8 
 
 13 
 
 13. 
 
 Thurstone Hand -3 
 
 55 
 
 -24 
 
 10 
 
 -1 
 
 60 
 
 14. 
 
 Thurstone Spatial 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Relations 54 
 
 70 
 
 110 
 
 50 
 
 273 
 
 19 
 
 15. 
 
 Punched Holes 4 
 
 45 
 
 4 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 60 
 
 1-g 
 
 Code 29 
 
 63 
 
 (1) 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 30 
 
 17. 
 
 Th. Aesthetic Appreci- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ation 26 
 
 55 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 40 
 
 19. 
 
 Marble Statue 29 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 70 
 
 42 
 
 95 
 
 22. 
 
 Lincoln & Pig, Immediate 18 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 40 
 
 22. 
 
 Lincoln & Pig, Deferred 15 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 60 
 
 27. 
 
 Perceptual Learning 45 
 
 86 
 
 95 
 
 3 
 
 63 
 
 17 
 
 32. 
 
 Cancellation Triangles 50 
 
 93 
 
 39 
 
 75 
 
 36 
 
 60 
 
 32. 
 
 Cancellation 7's 70 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 46 
 
 42 
 
 45. 
 
 Drawing, Horse 6.3 
 
 68 
 
 4.8 
 
 34 
 
 3.3 
 
 12 
 
 45. 
 
 Drawing, Cart 6.2 
 
 43 
 
 5.7 
 
 30 
 
 4.6 
 
 23 
 
 
 Drawing (School Marks) 
 
 70 
 
 
 92 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 Handwriting (School 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marks) 
 
 21 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 School Standing (Marks) 
 
 67 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 83 
 
 (1) None correct. 
 
 Read the table as Table 4 is read. 
 
 and the sum of these was used to find the relative stand- 
 ing of the pupil. The standing in drawing was found 
 by comparison of the approximate medians of the marks 
 of various pupils. In handwriting a similar method was 
 used. 
 
 The performances of our subjects in certain selected 
 tests of the Binet series are represented in Table 15. 
 Along with the scores we have given the highest year 
 in which the test is given and in which the particular 
 score would be counted as passing. If the score given 
 would not be counted as passing for any age in which 
 it is given, the fact is indicated in a note. 
 
RESULTS OF TESTS 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 
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72 
 
 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
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 w 
 
 81 
 
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 OQQ 
 
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RESULTS OF TESTS 73 
 
 In Table 16 are given the scores in several tests, to- 
 gether with the mean for the six scores and the devia- 
 tion of each from the mean. 
 
 The scores in six motor tests are exhibited in Tables 
 17 and 18. In the first of these the scores in strength of 
 grip, speed of tapping, and weight are compared with 
 standard averages as given by Pyle. 5 The second table 
 contains scores of steadiness, aiming, and mirror draw- 
 ing. The scores from the first tests of steadiness are 
 compared with other scores taken under similar circum- 
 stances. These scores were taken at the Leal school fol- 
 lowing a test for rate of tapping. The scores in the 
 second test for steadiness were taken in the laboratory 
 of the University and were not preceded by a test for 
 rate of tapping. Since they are markedly less than the 
 scores in the first test, it was thought best to exhibit 
 the two separately. (The difference in the two scores 
 may be attributed in part to a better adjustment in the 
 second case to the conditions of the test. It is known, 
 for example, that E2, whose performance in the first 
 test was poorest of all and in the second test consider- 
 ably better than the average, was greatly scared at the 
 time of the first test. His fright was so noticeable that 
 he was allowed to rest a while before the record was 
 taken. A second cause for the difference may be the 
 fact that a test for rate of tapping had just preceded 
 the test for steadiness by a small interval in the first 
 case and had not in the second.) The performances in 
 the second test for steadiness, and the aiming and mirror 
 drawing tests are compared with the mean for the test 
 group. 
 
 *Op. tit. p. 23. 
 
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CHAPTER VI. 
 PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 
 
 General Discussion 
 
 Up to this point in the discussion, we have been con- 
 cerned (1) with giving a general introduction to the prob- 
 lem of the research, (2) with explaining the nature and 
 sources of our data, (3) with describing the experimen- 
 tal work which we have done, and (4) with presenting 
 in condensed tabular form the numerical results of the 
 experimental study. In this chapter we shall present 
 ' profiles ?1 showing the performance of each subject in 
 the several tests, the results of which lend themselves 
 most readily to this type of treatment, and additional 
 data gathered from supervisors and teachers of drawing, 
 from parents, and from other persons. Then, at the 
 close of the chapter, we shall bring together in a single 
 table the most important facts (experimental and non- 
 experimental) that we have gathered concerning all of 
 our subjects. 
 
 Figures 1 to 13, inclusive, exhibit graphically the re- 
 sults recorded in Tables 2, 4, 8, and 14, and parts of 
 Tables 17 and 18. Additional data concerning each sub- 
 ject are presented under a separate heading for each 
 individual. The order in which the individuals are dis- 
 cussed is the same as that used in the presentation of 
 the numerical results. 
 
 1 For the use of the term profile, see the following: Rossolimo, G. Die 
 psychologischen Profile. Klinik fur psychische und nervose Erankheiten, 
 6: 1911, Heft 3; Claparede, Ed. Profils psychologiques. Archives de 
 psychologie, 16, 1916, 70ff. 
 
 77 
 
78 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 87 
 
 S7 is 19 years of age. 2 His father is a physician. 
 His mother is "an artist, her father an architect, and 
 her mother a natural designer/' His paternal grand- 
 father is "quite mechanically inclined." The young 
 man's interest in drawing dates from his very early 
 childhood, the age of three or four years. His only 
 training in drawing, aside from the regular school work, 
 has been a correspondence course which was only par- 
 tially completed. This course was given up when he 
 entered the Academy. At the age of 17 he did some 
 drawing for a high-school journal. He is most inter- 
 ested in cartooning or illustrating and states that he 
 intends to become a cartoonist. Trouble with his eyes 
 has delayed his school progress. The study of mathe- 
 matics has given him some difficulty. He is interested 
 in music and plays a saxophone. The consulting psy- 
 chologist of the Academy characterizes him as "distinctly 
 of the artistic type." 
 
 88 
 
 88 is 15 years, three months of age. His father is an 
 artist (mural decorator) of some distinction. His 
 mother, also, is an artist of ability. Some years ago she 
 was awarded a prize by the National Academy of Design 
 for the most important work in American art for that 
 year. 88 likes to draw and "draws with ability along 
 lines of his interest, i.e., birds, flowers, etc. ' ' He thinks 
 that he does not want to become an artist, however, not 
 because of any dislike for the work, but because "artists 
 are not much in demand/' as he put it! In line with 
 
 2 The ages given in this chapter are calculated to December 31, 1916. 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 
 
 79 
 
 3TTT 
 
 what seems to be his innate tendency toward art, he has 
 had some intention to become an architect, but finds 
 himself poor in mathematics. He is near the foot of the 
 class in algebra, but stands at the head in French and 
 near the head in Latin. He is not interested in athletic 
 games but likes hunting, tramping, and swimming. The 
 Consulting Psychologist of the Academy characterizes 
 him as "distinctly of the artistic type," and says that 
 87 has ' t probably more actual ability in draftsmanship ' ' 
 but that 88 has "more artistic appreciation." 
 
 FIGURE 1. Profiles of S7 and S8. 
 (Based upon approximate percentiles of Table 2) 
 
 Percentiles 
 
 Mirror Drawing E. H. 28 
 Substitution 26 
 Marble Statue 19 
 Dutch Homestead 20 
 Code 1-g 
 Reasoning 12 
 Fables 1-f 
 Proverbs 10 
 Easy Directions 9 
 Reading Backward 31 
 Heading Forward 30 
 Analogies C 6 
 Opposites 5 
 Winch's Story 4 
 T'rabue J and K 3 
 Word Building 2 
 Average 16 Tests 
 Percentiles 
 
80 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 SI 
 
 SI completed her high-school course within the school 
 year 1916-17. Her age calculated to December 31, 1916, 
 is 19 years, 8 months. She is classed by the supervisor 
 of drawing as one of the best of about 75 students who 
 have been in her classes during the present school year. 
 Only two have been given higher marks by the super- 
 visor in all her experience. She is characterized by the 
 supervisor as very neat and careful, very good in color 
 combinations, good in object drawing, particularly good 
 in aesthetic judgment, and original. The technique has 
 offered no particular difficulties. She is persistent in 
 her work and would undoubtedly have a promising fu- 
 ture if she would continue her art study. 
 
 Nearly all of the immediate relatives of SI are 
 farmers. Except for one sister who showed some special 
 aptitude for drawing in high school, she knows of none 
 of her immediate relatives who have been especially good 
 in drawing. 
 
 The first special interest in drawing which SI can re- 
 member goes back about to the time when she was in the 
 sixth grade of the common schools. As far back, how- 
 ever, as she can remember she has always drawn pictures. 
 Upon entering the high school she wished to take up 
 drawing at once, but it would not fit into her program. 
 From the second year in the high school she pursued a 
 business course and did not take the art courses until the 
 beginning of the third year. The only training, then, 
 which she has had is what was obtained in the regular 
 work of the grade schools and in two semesters of regular 
 high-school courses. She seems not to have had enough 
 training to develop very special interests. 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 81 
 
 The average of 39 semester grades of SI including 
 all subjects taken is 83 (75 is passing). In five semes- 
 ters of Latin she received very low grades, but a very 
 high grade in one semester of German. Other grades 
 need no particular comment. 
 
 She has taken a few lessons on the piano. She is 
 interested in out-of-door sports and appears to be normal 
 in emotional characteristics. 
 
 82 
 
 82 is a high-school junior of the age of 17 years, two 
 months. He stands about second in drawing ability in 
 the Urbana High School according to the estimate of the 
 supervisor of drawing. 
 
 His father is a mathematician, but has drawn illus- 
 trations for books. Practically all of his mother's peo- 
 ple are architects; indeed, her father is a professor of 
 architecture. His only brother is a student in civil 
 engineering. 
 
 82 was born in this country, of Swiss parentage. 
 The first language he learned to speak was English. 
 Before school age, however, he began to speak a Swiss- 
 German dialect, and upon entering school in Switzerland 
 took up the study of German in the first grade. Upon 
 returning to the United States about five years ago, he 
 began again to speak English. 
 
 His first memory of interest in drawing goes back to 
 map drawing in the Swiss schools. After a while it 
 seemed to him that particularly in water-color drawing, 
 he did not succeed as well as others in the schools, and 
 he rather lost interest in drawing on that account. Even 
 to this time he does not like water-color drawing. He 
 
82 
 
 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 was yet in the grade schools when he returned to this 
 country. His interest in drawing was revived when he 
 found that he could draw better than the pupils in 
 American schools. His training in drawing consists of 
 what he received in the grade schools and a year of high- 
 
 FIGURE 2. Profiles of SI, S3, and So. 
 (Based upon approximate percentiles of Table 4) 
 
 Percentiles 
 Drawing Cart 45 
 Drawing Horse 45 
 Eossolimo Observation 33 
 Cancellation 7's 32 
 Mirror Drawing E. H. 28 
 Perceptual Learning 27 
 Thurstone Substitution 26 
 Marble Statue 19 
 111. Aesthetic Judgment 18 
 Th. Aesthetic Appreciate 17 
 Code 1-g 
 Painted Cube 16 
 Spatial Eelations 34 
 Thurstone Hand 13 
 Thurstone Seasoning 12 
 Easy Directions 9 
 Pictorial Imagination 8 
 Ink Blots 7 
 Analogies C 6 
 Trabue J and K 3 
 Word Building 2 
 Binet I. Q. 1 
 Percentiles 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 
 
 83 
 
 school drawing, which embraced both free-hand and me- 
 chanical work. He has done practical work in illus- 
 trating, some of which has appeared in the Denver Post, 
 and some of which will appear in the high-school annual. 
 He likes decorative drawing, but dislikes mechanical 
 
 FIGURE 3. Profiles of 88, 84, and 86. 
 (Based upon approximate percentiles of Table 4) 
 
 Percentiles 
 Drawing Cart 45 
 Drawing Horse 45 
 Rossolimo Observation 33 
 Cancellation 7's 32 
 Mirror Drawing E. H. 28 
 Perceptual Learning 27 
 Thurstone Substitution 26 
 Marble Statue 19 
 111. Aesthetic Judgment 18 
 Th. Aesthetic Appreciat ; n 17 
 Code 1-g 
 Painted Cube 16 
 Spatial Eelations 14 
 Thurstone Hand 13 
 Thurstone Reasoning 12 
 Easy Directions 9 
 Pictorial Imagination 8 
 Ink Blots 7 
 Analogies C 6 
 Trabue J and K 3 
 Word Building 2 
 Binet I. Q. 1 
 Percentiles 
 
84 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 drawing. His training has been too limited as yet for 
 the development of very special interests. He wants to 
 become an artist and would like to go into pure art. On 
 the other hand, for financial reasons he may go into illus- 
 trating and commercial work. 
 
 Of other school subjects he likes history, literature 
 (but not the kind which is taught in school, as he said) 
 botany and zoology. Mathematics, foreign language, 
 physics, and chemistry, he dislikes. The average of 20 
 semester grades, not including drawing, is 82. 
 
 He plays the piano and guitar, but does not sing. 
 He is interested in out-of-door life and athletics, but 
 he does not take part in school athletics. 
 
 S3 
 
 S3 is a junior in the high school. Her age is 16 
 years, 9 months. She is ranked by the supervisor of 
 drawing as the best in the Urbana High School. Her 
 work shows originality as well as ability in technique. 
 
 There are no artists among her immediate relatives. 
 Her father is a distinguished physicist and illustrates his 
 own articles (mechanical drawing). A three-year-old 
 sister has begun to draw and a brother and sister in the 
 grade schools draw well. 
 
 As far as her memory goes, she has always liked 
 drawing. In the first grade she was very fond of draw- 
 ing faces on the blackboard. She has had drawing in- 
 struction all through the grades of the elementary school 
 and two years in the high school. None of this has been 
 mechanical drawing. The development of technique has 
 been comparatively easy. Two or three years ago her 
 interest was greatly stimulated by a visit to an artist's 
 studio. From that time the possibility of becoming an 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 
 
 85 
 
 artist seemed to her more attainable. She has done a 
 little practical work such as illustrating for a high- 
 school annual and drawing posters. 
 
 Her rank in other subjects is very high. The average 
 of 20 semester grades, not including drawing, is 94. She 
 has a great fondness for reading and will of her own 
 
 FIGURE 4. Deviations from Averages in Motor Tests, Subjects 
 SI, 88, S3, and 84. 
 
 (See Table 8 for numerical data) 
 
 Steadiness 
 
 A >m ing 
 
 R L 
 
 R L 
 
 S3 
 
 *V -, 
 
 Si. \ \ 
 
 *0 \\ 
 
 \ 
 
 Ni 
 
 +- 
 
 A 
 
 Y_ 
 
86 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 initiative pursue some subject, perhaps in an encyclo- 
 pedia, for a whole evening. Music also interests her. 
 She is able to play difficult music on the piano. Her 
 outside interests and emotional characteristics appear to 
 bo normal. 
 
 84 
 
 S4 is a high-school senior of exceptional drawing abil- 
 ity. His age is 18 years, eight months. With S5 he 
 stands about third in drawing in the Urbana High 
 School. 
 
 S4's father is a physician of high standing. His 
 mother has drawn some, but neither his father nor his 
 mother has developed any special interest in art. Among 
 his immediate relatives there are no artists. Two aunts 
 and an uncle on his mother's side have drawn to some 
 extent, as a side interest. A brother in the first year of 
 the high school shows rather exceptional talent in draw- 
 ing. 
 
 His first interest in drawing began before he had en- 
 tered school. At times he would tease his smaller 
 brother by drawing trains and explaining that his folks 
 were going away on them. He has had drawing instruc- 
 tion through the grades and for two years in the high 
 school. None of this has been mechanical drawing, ex- 
 cept that incidentally given in the free-hand course. 
 When he was in about the fourth grade, however, an en- 
 gineering student gave him some assistance in mechan- 
 ical drawing and stimulated his endeavor by grading 
 his attempts. The development of technique in drawing 
 has been easy. Most of his work has been with pencil. 
 He has had a special interest in drawing things of a 
 military and naval character and enjoys drawing from 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 87 
 
 imagination more than from model. In such spontane- 
 ous drawings he usually draws as if from a distance in 
 order that details may not show. He has thought of 
 going into architecture, but is deterred somewhat by the 
 thought that he is not good in mathematics. 
 
 Of his other subjects he likes history, literature, Ger- 
 man, and science, but does not like mathematics partic- 
 ularly well. He plays the violin and sings. The aver- 
 age of 29 semester grades, not including drawing, is 87. 
 In other directions his interests appear to be normal. 
 
 He has a kind- of ambidexterity which should be de- 
 scribed. He uses the left hand for coarse work such as 
 throwing, striking, using a hammer, and the like. At 
 the same time he does fine work with his right hand, such, 
 for example, as carving with a penknife, or writing, or 
 drawing. Each of his hands seems to be naturally fitted 
 for the type of work to which he devotes them. He can 
 not remember of ever having changed from the left hand 
 to the right in writing. 
 
 S5 
 
 S5 is a high-school senior of the age of 17 years, 6 
 months. With S4 she ranks about third in drawing 
 ability of the students of the Urbana High School. 
 
 There are no artists among her near relatives. In 
 his lifetime her father, however, was a maker of tin- 
 smith's patterns, and his twin brother "can draw any- 
 thing," notwithstanding the fact that he has had no 
 lessons in drawing. Her only brother, an adult, does 
 not draw. 
 
 Although S5 remembers that she could write before 
 entering school, she remembers no drawing previous to 
 that time. On the first day of school her interest was 
 
88 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 awakened by the drawing of an apple on a slate. Since 
 that time her interest in drawing has been steadily main- 
 tained. She has had the training in drawing which is 
 given in the grade schools and two years of high-school 
 drawing besides. In addition, she has done recently 
 outside of school a little work in oil painting. The 
 acquisition of technique has been fairly easy. She pre- 
 fers to draw from model rather than from memory. Her 
 interests have not yet developed far enough to become 
 highly specialized. During the present year she has 
 been doing some illustrating for the high-school annual. 
 
 Arranged in order of preference, her other high- 
 school subjects would be distributed somewhat as follows : 
 best of all, mathematics, then science, then literature, 
 then German, and last history. The average of 28 se- 
 mester grades, not including drawing, is 87. She plays 
 on the piano almost any selection that she wants to play 
 and memorizes music easily. 
 
 She is interested in active sports and seems generally 
 normal in her development. 
 
 S6 
 
 S6 is a high-school junior. Her age on December 31, 
 1916, was 18 years, 10 months. She is considered as one 
 of the best in about 75 students who are in the classes 
 of the supervisor of drawing during the current year. 
 Compared with SI, she ranks probably a little lower. 
 Technique offers no special difficulty, and she has a good 
 aesthetic judgment, as estimated by the supervisor. Her 
 work shows originality. 
 
 Among the immediate relatives of S6 there are no 
 persons who would be classed as artists. Three cousins 
 are interested in drawing but do nothing out of the ordi- 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 
 
 FIGURE 5. Deviations from Averages in Motor Tests, Subjects 
 85, 86, C4, and C5. 
 
 (See Table 8 for numerical data) 
 
 Crip 
 
 Tapping 
 
 Steed <n 
 
 ft 4. 
 
 H L 
 
 R L 
 
 R L 
 
 !\ 
 
 -Ur 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 3* 
 
 
 SI* 
 
90 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 nary in it. Her mother does not draw. Her father has 
 had no training in drawing, but he is able to make pencil 
 sketches of persons who can be recognized from the draw T - 
 ings. The occupation of her father is that of an esti- 
 mator for contracting. She has no brothers or sisters. 
 
 SB's interest in drawing, as far as she can remember 
 it, dates from about the time of her seventh year. Some 
 one gave her a ledger in which she would make various 
 drawings. At about the age of 11 she was one of a group 
 of girls who became interested in drawing the "Gibson 
 pictures." After this interest had become less intense, 
 she seemed to lose much of her interest in drawing until 
 she entered the high school. She has had the usual 
 training in drawing through the grades of the common 
 schools, except that no drawing was given in the fifth 
 and sixth graeds of the school which she was then at- 
 tending. While in the seventh grade she did a little 
 work in oil painting outside of school. In the high 
 school she is completing her second year of drawing. 
 In addition to this work she has taken lessons outside of 
 school in China painting for about a year and a half. 
 
 Her experience has not been wide enough and long 
 enough to enable her to state her dominant interest in 
 drawing. Just now, because of her school work in that 
 direction, she has a strong interest in design. She pre- 
 fers to draw from model rather than from memory. 
 
 In her general school work she has received an aver- 
 age semester grade of 85. She dislikes Latin and math- 
 ematics and has not succeeded very well with them. Her 
 grades in German are much better. 
 
 She is interested in music and plays the piano, but 
 her piano training has not gone very far. She likes out- 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 
 
 91 
 
 of-door sports and appears to lead a normal emotional 
 life. 
 
 Cl 
 
 Cl is a senior in the College of Liberal Arts and Sci- 
 ences. We are unable to report with certainty upon the 
 extent of her talent for drawing. It will be observed 
 that both of her drawings made in the course of these 
 tests rank considerably above the average. This may 
 be significant in view of the small training which she has 
 had. She likes to draw, but she has had no special train- 
 ing in drawing since the fourth or fifth grades of the 
 common schools. 
 
 FIGURE 6. Profile of Cl. 
 (Based upon approximate percentiles of Table 4) 
 
 Percentiles 
 Drawing Cart 45 
 Drawing Horse 45 
 Eossolimo Observation 33 
 Mirror Drawing E. H. 28 
 111. Aesthetic Judgment 18 
 Th. Aesthetic Appreciat 'n 17 
 Code 1-g 
 Painted Cube 16 
 Spatial Eelations 14 
 Thurstone Hand 13 
 Pictorial Imagination 8 
 Ink Blots 7 
 Analogies C 6 
 Binet I. Q. 1 
 Percentiles 
 
92 
 
 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 There are no artists among her immediate relatives. 
 Her father, a lawyer, draws to some extent, but has not 
 developed his interest very far. She has no brothers or 
 sisters, except a half-brother of seven years who seems 
 to draw with some promise. 
 
 Her first interest in drawing, as far as she can re- 
 member, goes back to her childhood, when her father 
 
 FIGURE 7. Profiles of C2 and C3. 
 (Based upon approximate percentiles of Table 4) 
 
 Percentiles 
 
 Drawing Cart 45 
 Drawing Horse 45 
 Perceptual Learning 27 
 Thurstone Substitution 26 
 Marble Statue 19 
 111. Aesthetic Judgment 18 
 Spatial Relations 14 
 Thurstone Hand 13 
 Analogies C 6 
 Trabue J and K 3 
 Word Building 2 
 Percentiles 
 Drawing Cart 45 
 Drawing Horse 45 
 Perceptual Learning 27 
 Th. Aesthetic Appreciate 17 
 Painted Cube 16 
 Spatial Relations 14 
 Thurstone Hand 13 
 Percentiles 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 
 
 93 
 
 was accustomed to make drawings to amuse her. She 
 likes to draw now and enjoys landscape drawing better 
 than any other. 
 
 She is interested in music and has developed her 
 talent in this more than in drawing. She plays the 
 piano with some skill and sings also. 
 
 FIGURE 8. Deviations from Averages in Motor Tests, Subjects 
 01, C&, and C3. 
 
 (See Table 8 for numerical data) 
 
 Grip 
 
 Tapping 
 
 Stea 
 
 R 
 
 A 
 
 'x 
 
94 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 C2 
 
 C2 is a graduate student in education. The develop- 
 ment of his interest and ability appears to indicate a 
 native talent for drawing. He has drawn ever since he 
 can remember, and has always enjoyed it. His earliest 
 memory of drawing is that of drawing animals. In these 
 childish drawings he was encouraged by his father. In 
 the elementary and secondary schools he had no instruc- 
 tion in drawing outside of the regular subjects, the 
 drawing, for example, which is incidental to botany. At 
 the age of about 12 or 13, he had a strong desire to be- 
 come a cartoonist and took a course in cartooning for 
 about three months. During the high period of this in- 
 terest, he took much delight in drawing pictures of the 
 political characters of the day. He has practiced pick- 
 ing out characteristic physical features of the persons 
 with whom he comes into contact. In college, along with 
 his other work, he studied drawing for two years. As 
 far as he knows, there are no artists among his relatives. 
 
 Questions supplementary to the Betts questionary 
 (Test 29) revealed some interesting facts which may be 
 noted here. C2 reports that the act of drawing an ob- 
 ject is for him a matter of 'tracing lines which stand out 
 in the object as these appear on the page. People are 
 remembered by their faces and features more than by 
 their names. When a word like law is mentioned to him, 
 the visual representation of a court scene appears to 
 him. 
 
 C3 
 
 Apparently, C3 represents a type of person who has 
 native ability in drawing, the development of which is 
 limited by rather low intellectual power. He is a soph- 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 95 
 
 omore in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. His 
 college record has been generally very poor. Even in 
 art courses in which he is registered, he stands compar- 
 atively very low, despite the fact that apparently he is 
 making an earnest effort. He appears to be unable to 
 profit rapidly by the suggestions which are given him 
 for the improvement of his technique. On the other 
 hand, his parentage, his interest, the results of the tests 
 in drawing which we gave, and certain supplementary 
 drawings which we have seen him do, argue that he has 
 probably some native talent for drawing. 
 
 He can not remember his first interest in drawing. 
 In school he decorated his text-books with drawings, car- 
 toons and pictures. In the grade schools he had the or- 
 dinary instruction and in the high school had one year of 
 drawing, a combination of both free-hand and mechanical 
 drawing. Since that time he has had no regular instruc- 
 tion, except that which he has received in the college 
 courses in which he has recently registered. He has 
 worked for a very short time in china decorating, but 
 has not had a great deal of practical experience in ar- 
 tistic expression. 
 
 His father and mother are both artists and have 
 taken prizes in their work. His father is a china dec- 
 orator. 
 
 C3 plays the piano a little and sings much more. He 
 has had vocal lessons for three years and has done quite 
 a little public singing. 
 
 His generally low intellectual power may probably 
 be accounted for by a severe attack of typhoid fever and 
 spinal meningitis combined when he was about nine 
 years of age, and by a hard blow which he received on 
 the back of the head at about 12 years of age. It seems 
 
96 
 
 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 probable, then, that we have here original talent ob- 
 scured by later adverse general developments. 
 
 C4 
 
 C4 is a college senior in household science. She is 
 one of two students recommended from the Department 
 
 FIGURE 9. Profiles of C4 and Co 
 (Based upon approximate percentiles of 
 
 Percentiles 
 Drawing Cart 45 
 Drawing Horse 45 
 Eossolimo Observation 33 
 Cancellation 7's 32 
 Mirror Drawing E. H. 28 
 Perceptual Learning 27 
 Thurstone Substitution 26 
 Marble Statue 19 
 111. Aesthetic Judgment 18 
 Th. Aesthetic Appreciates 17 
 Code 1-g 
 Painted Cube 16 
 Spatial Eelations 14 
 Thurstone Hand 13 
 Thurstone Eeasoning 12 
 Easy Directions 9 
 Pictorial Imagination 8 
 Analogies C 6 
 Trabue J and K 3 
 Binet I. Q. 1 
 Word Building 2 
 Percentiles 
 
 Table 4) 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 97 
 
 of Art and Design as "advanced students who have 
 reached a degree of ability in technique and show orig- 
 inality. " 
 
 There is some evidence of drawing ability among the 
 near relatives of C4. Her mother showed ability in 
 drawing and took some training in it in college, but she 
 never carried the work very far. None of her brothers 
 and sisters has had much training in drawing. One of 
 her sisters, despite lack of training, can draw pencil 
 portraits of her instructors, for example, which are strik- 
 ingly like the model. Her father is a farmer. 
 
 C4 has "always" liked to draw. In her childhood, 
 however, she attended a country school where the oppor- 
 tunities were greatly limited, and for this reason little 
 stimulus was given to develop her ability. Even at home 
 she received little encouragement. Her mother, even 
 though she had herself received training in art, rather 
 discouraged than encouraged her. The daughter's at- 
 tempts at drawing received scant notice. One of the 
 teachers in the country school would draw birds and 
 other things such as the ornate penman of a generation 
 ago so much enjoyed, and these drawings fascinated the 
 child. In the high school she received no training in- 
 deed none until she reached college, except the little in- 
 cidental training which she received in the public schools. 
 Yet through all these years she cherished the dream that 
 some day she might have the opportunity and might ac- 
 complish something in art. In the university she has 
 taken courses in art and design, charcoal drawing, mod- 
 elling, sketching, and oil painting. 
 
 Her interests in drawing are not yet narrowly spe- 
 cialized. Her interests include such widely different 
 subjects as portraits, landscapes, and mechanical draw- 
 
98 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 ing. She likes to work with various mediums, but is 
 particularly fond of working with clay. If she were 
 entirely free to choose her career, it would be that of a 
 sculptor. She finds it easier to draw from the model 
 than from memory. In creative drawing she has not 
 done enough work to know how she would like it. 
 
 Of her other studies she likes language, literature, 
 mathematics, and science, but strongly dislikes history. 
 She is interested in music and has taken vocal and piano 
 lessons, the latter for a period of five or six years. She 
 also plays the mandolin and violin. 
 
 C5 
 
 C5 was a senior in the College of Liberal Arts and 
 Sciences. Like C4 she was recommended from the De- 
 partment of Art and Design as one of the "advanced 
 students who have reached a degree of ability in tech- 
 nique and show originality. " The supervisor of art in 
 the high school from which she was graduated states that 
 C5 was about as good in drawing then as any pupil she 
 has ever had. 
 
 Although the record of C5 's interest and achievement 
 in drawing apparently shows a native talent, there is 
 little evidence of this ability in the circle of her immedi- 
 ate relatives. Within this circle there are no artists. It 
 may be said, however, that her mother has ' ' always liked 
 art work." Her father is particularly capable in me- 
 chanical work and is a good penman. When about five 
 years of age he made a sketch which attracted enough 
 attention to be preserved for years. He is an electrical 
 engineer. 
 
 As long as C5 can remember she has been interested 
 in art. At about the age of three she would cut oui 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 99 
 
 original patterns with the scissors. In the common 
 branches she had only the regular work ; she remembers 
 no special school instruction in drawing until about the 
 eighth grade. When about 11, she began to take lessons 
 in oil painting. This work consisted chiefly in tracing 
 and then working in details. " All through the grades of 
 the common school, she was in demand to go from room to 
 room to put drawings on the board for various teachers. 
 In the high school she had six semesters of drawing in- 
 struction, and has continued her work in college for 
 three years. She is more highly trained than any mem- 
 ber of our test groups. 
 
 Of the different lines of work represented in her 
 training, she is probably most interested in representa- 
 tion of the human figure. She likes to work from mem- 
 ory rather than from model and to create various com- 
 positions. She enjoys working with various mediums. 
 Already she has done quite a little practical work, such 
 as commercial illustrating, portrait work, motto print- 
 ing, etc. It is her plan to continue with commercial 
 art. 
 
 In her high-school work the average of her 38 semes- 
 ter grades is 87. Although she got along very well with 
 arithmetic in the grades, she found high-school mathe- 
 matics more difficult, and especially was this true with 
 geometry. Foreign languages required work, but she 
 succeeded fairly well with them. She likes history, and 
 finds English easy. 
 
 El 
 
 El is a pupil in the sixth grade. Her age is 13 years, 
 10.5 months. She is, therefore, older than the average 
 pupil of this grade. Even allowing for this fact, her 
 
100 
 
 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 drawing teacher places her near the top of her grade 
 in native drawing ability. Her originality is not com- 
 mensurate with her ability in graphic representation; 
 she can follow better than she can originate. She works 
 better with water colors than with pencil, and in working 
 with water colors she likes to work directly, rather than 
 
 FIGURE 10. Profiles of El, E2, and E3. 
 (Based upon approximate percentiles of Table 14) 
 
 Percentiles ^ | ^ g[ g j[ ^ ^" 
 
 Handwriting, School Marks 
 
 Drawing, School Marks 
 
 Drawing Cart 45 
 
 Drawing Horse 45 
 
 Cancellation 7's 32 
 
 Cancellation Triangles 32 
 
 Perceptual Learning 27 
 
 Lincoln & Pig, Deferred 22 
 
 Lincoln & Pig, Immediate 22 
 
 Marble Statue 19 
 
 Th. Aesthetic Appreciat'n 17 
 
 Code 1-g 
 
 Punched Holes 15 
 
 Spatial Relations 14 
 
 Thurstone Hand 13 
 
 Thurstone Reasoning 12 
 
 Bonser Reasoning 11 
 
 Proverbs I, II, VI 10 
 
 Trabue J and K 3 
 
 Word Building 2 
 
 School Standing 
 
 Binet I. Q. 1 
 
 Tercentiles 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 101 
 
 FIGURE 11. Deviations from Averages in Slotor T:.'3ts, Suhjectk 
 El, Eg, and E3. 
 
 (See Tables 17 and 18 for numerical data) 
 
 R 
 
 R t 
 
 M 
 ^ 
 
 fl 
 
 -*V\ 
 
 \ 
 
 -- 
 
 3 
 
 ^L_ 
 
 -W- 
 
 -21 
 
 
 ir 
 
 / 
 
 E2 is left-handed. The scores for the left hand are given in the 
 right-hand column. 
 
.1?D2 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 to lay out the work first with pencil and then to fill in 
 with the color. 
 
 Apparently her talent for drawing is inherited. Her 
 father is a tailor. He enjoys drawing and lettering. 
 Her mother takes great interest in the children's draw- 
 ings, and an aunt has made paintings of some interest. 
 An older brother of El is reported as very good ("orig- 
 inal and true") in drawing. She has also two younger 
 sisters and a younger brother who are good in drawing. 
 
 E2 
 
 E2, age 11 years, 6 months, is a pupil of the sixtn 
 grade. He is rated by his teacher of drawing as stand- 
 ing near the top of his grade and school in native draw- 
 ing ability. Compared with El and E3, other subjects 
 in the sixth grade, he stands third. He is capable of 
 working independently and likes imaginative drawing. 
 He does as well with pencil work as with water-color 
 painting. Interest and persistence characterize his 
 work. He is left-handed. 
 
 His father is an insurance agent. His mother has 
 painted in oil and has done some china painting. She 
 is artistic in her home decorations and in her children's 
 dress. A brother in the eighth grade is very good in 
 drawing, one of the best in his grade. Two uncles are 
 architects. 
 
 E3 
 
 E3, a pupil of the sixth grade, is 13 years, 1 month, 
 of age. Even considering the fact that her age is greater 
 than the average child of her grade, the teacher of draw- 
 ing places her first in native drawing ability. She is orig- 
 inal in her work and responds rapidly to suggestions for 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 103 
 
 the impovement of her drawings. She draws as well 
 with pencil as with water color. 
 
 Her father is a policeman. Aside from the fact that 
 the father is said to have been the best drawer in his 
 family in his youth, the author has no information of any 
 special ability in drawing among the relatives of E3. 
 Her mother has been deceased for some years. 
 
 E4 
 
 E4 is a pupil of the fifth grade. His age is 10 years, 
 10 months. He is one of the four best in drawing in 
 his grade and room. He works as well with pencil as 
 with water color. He is interested in drawing and can 
 do his work with less help than the average child of his 
 grade. He draws little at home. 
 
 His father is a professor in horticulture, and has 
 shown no special interest in art. His mother has worked 
 in water color and oil painting, but exhibited no special 
 aptitude. Her grandfather received no special training 
 in art, but habitually decorated the flyleaves of his 
 books with drawings. A maternal aunt of E4's mother 
 was gifted in art, as shown by her work in oil painting. 
 A brother and sister showed more than average ability 
 in drawing in the grades. 
 
 E5 
 
 E5 is 10 years, 9 months, of age and is a pupil of the 
 fifth grade. She is ranked by the teacher of drawing as 
 one of the four best of her grade and room. The qual- 
 ity of her work is about the same as that of E6. She 
 does better with water color than with pencil. 
 
 There is a little evidence of special ability in draw- 
 ing among her relatives. Her father is a blacksmith and 
 
104 
 
 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 FIGURE 12. Profiles of E4, E5, and E6. 
 (Based upon approximate percentiles of Table 14) 
 
 Percentiles 
 
 Handwriting, School Marks 
 . Drawing, School Marks 
 Drawing Cart 45 
 Drawing Horse 45 
 Cancellation 7's 32 
 Cancellation Triangles ?,'2 
 Perceptual Learning 27 
 Lincoln & Pig, Deferred 22 
 Lincoln & Pig, Immediate 22 
 Marble Statue 19 
 Th. Aesthetic Appreciat 'n 17 
 Code 1-g 
 
 Punched Holes 15 
 Spatial Eelations 14 
 Thurstone Hand 13 
 Thurstone Seasoning 12 
 Bonser Seasoning 11 
 Proverbs I, II, VI 10 
 Trabue J and K 3 
 Word Building 2 
 School Standing 
 Binet I. Q. 1 
 Percentiles 
 
 carriage maker. A cousin is a draughtsman. Her 
 mother has not developed any special aptitude for draw- 
 ing. 
 
 E6 
 
 E6 is a pupil of the fifth grade. Her age is 11 years, 
 3 months. Her ability ranks along with that of E5. 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 
 
 105 
 
 FKIURE 13. Deviations from Averages in Motor Tests, Subjects 
 
 E4, E5, and E6. 
 (See Tables 17 and 18 for numerical data) 
 
106 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 Both E5 and E6 are said by the drawing teacher to show 
 less originality than E4. She does better work with 
 water color than with pencil. She began to draw very 
 early. 
 
 Her father is a concrete contractor. Her mother 
 specialized in art and design in the university and was 
 a successful supervisor of art instruction for some years 
 in the public schools. She has no brothers or sisters. 
 
 Summary of Experimental and Personal Data 
 
 In Table 19 a summary is presented of many of the 
 most important experimental and personal data. Nec- 
 essarily, there has been a sacrifice of accuracy and de- 
 tail, but the table has a certain value in exhibiting to- 
 gether a large number of facts concerning all of the sub- 
 jects. Most of the headings for the experimental data 
 have been chosen to include more than one test. When 
 the results of the tests which are included under one 
 heading have been contradictory, we have been able in 
 some cases to represent the tendency of the scores in a 
 single measure, but in others it has seemed best to in- 
 dicate the difference by giving two or more measures. 
 The designations used are superior, average, and poor 
 (also normal for the test of color vision only). The 
 average range, where the scores have been reduced to 
 percentile standings, is that between the 30th and 70th 
 percentiles, inclusive. The personal data given in the 
 table are self-explanatory. 
 
PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 107 
 
 TABLE 19 
 SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL AND PERSONAL DATA 
 
 
 Intelligence 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 IS 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 W 
 
 a 
 
 fH 
 
 .s 
 
 ^ o 
 
 d ft 
 
 .2 
 
 for Visual Forms 
 
 (Visual, Auditory, 
 aesthetic) 
 
 Manipulation of 
 rorms 
 
 i from 
 Forms 8 
 
 Judgment 
 lion 
 
 1 
 
 
 (Estimate of Su- 
 and Teachers) 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 .9 d 
 
 .9 * 
 
 f 
 
 > .9 ^^ .2.2 
 
 J3 > 
 
 bfl 
 
 a 
 
 60 QQ 
 
 2 o 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 02 
 
 g 
 
 0) 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 O 
 
 P 
 
 w> 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 V 
 
 O 
 
 T3 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 
 w 
 
 'S3 
 * 
 
 'E aj 
 <y a> 
 
 OS O 
 
 5g 
 
 3 
 
 02 
 rQ 
 O 
 
 o O> W *e3 c3 "rt X 
 fl SP -S'-3 S ft 
 S 2 ^ S eS > CS 
 g S S |2 ft S A 
 
 ^ M c3 ^OJ MO 
 
 1 
 
 3 6 
 
 Drawi 
 
 !! 
 
 fi& 
 
 El 
 
 'P 
 
 PA 
 
 AP 
 
 S 
 
 >P 
 
 A 
 
 SA 
 
 PA AP A 
 
 PA N 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 E2 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 SP 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 SA 
 
 PA PA AS 
 
 A N 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 E3 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 SA 
 
 A 
 
 P 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 SA SA S 
 
 A N 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 #4 
 
 S 
 
 PA 
 
 SAP 
 
 P 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 SA 
 
 AS A SA 
 
 AP N 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 E5 
 
 A 
 
 PA 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 A 
 
 SP 
 
 PA PA P 
 
 A N 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 E6 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 SP 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 P 
 
 A 
 
 AP AP A 
 
 A N 
 
 P 
 
 S 
 
 SI 
 
 S 
 
 SA 
 
 SAP 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 PA 
 
 A 
 
 S PSA 
 
 PS N 
 
 SA 
 
 S 
 
 S2 
 
 A 
 
 P 
 
 SP 
 
 P 
 
 A 
 
 SP 
 
 SP 
 
 PS PAA SP A 
 
 SP N 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 S3 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 SAP 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 A 
 
 S SSA 
 
 AS N 
 
 SA 
 
 S 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 SP 
 
 P 
 
 IS 
 
 A 
 
 SA 
 
 AS SAA SA AS 
 
 AP N 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 S5 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 SP 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 A 
 
 AS 
 
 S SSA S PA 
 
 SA N 
 
 SA 
 
 8 
 
 S6 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 AP 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 P 
 
 AS 
 
 S SSP SP AS 
 
 A N 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 7 
 
 A 
 
 AS 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 (P 1 
 
 
 
 
 S8 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 S 1 
 
 
 
 
 Cl 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 SA 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 A 
 
 S 4 
 
 ^" AS S 
 
 AS 
 
 S 
 
 
 02 
 
 S? 
 
 
 SA 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 5 SSP PA 
 
 S 3 
 
 S 
 
 
 C3 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 A 3 A 
 
 P 
 
 S 
 
 
 C4 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 SA 
 
 SA 
 
 AS ASP 2 
 
 A N 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 C5 
 
 S 
 
 A 
 
 S 
 
 A 
 
 9 
 
 AP 
 
 PS 
 
 LS SSA SA A 2 
 
 A N 
 
 SA 
 
 S 
 
 *Code test only. 
 
 2 Pictorial imagination test only. 
 
 3 Thorndike test only. 
 
 4 Rossolimo test only. 
 
 5 Perceptual learning test only. 
 
 6 Code and Rossolimo tests. 
 
 'Handwriting rank of elementary pupils based on school grades; high 
 school students and adults are compared within group only. 
 
 8 Elementary pupils are compared within group only. 
 
 9 Elementary pupils: discrimination of differences only, and compared 
 within group only. 
 
 Key to symbols: S, superior; 
 A, average ; 
 P, poor ; 
 N, normal. 
 
 Read the table as follows: El is poor in general intelligence. In 
 linguistic ability the results of the tests are contradictory: in one or more 
 tests her record is poor, and in one or more tests it is average. (Personal 
 data are self-explanatory.) 
 
108 
 
 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 TABLE 19 (Continued) 
 
 
 1 
 
 ll 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 jl 
 
 r as There Period of 
 elative Loss of Interest ? I 
 
 <02 
 
 
 GO 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 Pfl 
 
 El 
 
 13-10 
 
 6 
 
 Tailor 
 
 Less 
 
 
 
 E2 
 
 11- 6 
 
 6 
 
 Insurance 
 
 Yes 
 
 
 
 E3 
 
 13- 1 
 
 6 
 
 Policeman 
 
 Yes 
 
 
 
 E4 
 
 10-10 
 
 5 
 
 Horticulturist 
 
 Yes 
 
 
 
 E5 
 
 10- 9 
 
 5 
 
 Blacksmith 
 
 Less 
 
 
 
 E6 
 
 11- 3 
 
 5 
 
 Contractor 
 
 Less 
 
 
 
 SI 
 
 19- 8 
 
 IV 
 
 Farmer 
 
 Yes 
 
 Always drawn. Spe- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cial interest sixth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 grade 
 
 
 82 
 
 17- 2 
 
 III 
 
 Mathematician 
 
 Yes 
 
 Early in school 
 
 Yes 
 
 S3 
 
 16- 9 
 
 III 
 
 Physicist 
 
 Yes 
 
 Very early 
 
 No 
 
 S4 
 
 18- 8 
 
 IV 
 
 Physician 
 
 Yes 
 
 Very early 
 
 
 S5 
 
 17- 6 
 
 IV 
 
 Patternmaker 
 
 Yes 
 
 First day of school 
 
 No 
 
 S6 
 
 18-10 
 
 III 
 
 Estimator 
 
 Yes 
 
 Age seven 
 
 Yes 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 IV? 
 
 Physician 
 
 
 Age three or four 
 
 
 SS 
 
 15- 3 
 
 I & II 
 
 Artist 
 
 
 
 
 Cl 
 
 Adult 
 
 Coll. 4 
 
 Lawyer 
 
 
 Early childhood 
 
 
 02 
 
 Adult 
 
 Col. Grad. 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 Adult 
 
 Coll. 2 
 
 Decorator 
 
 No 
 
 
 
 C4 
 
 Adult 
 
 Coll. 4 
 
 Farmer 
 
 Yes 
 
 Early childhood 
 
 No 
 
 
 
 
 Electrical 
 
 
 
 
 C5 
 
 Adult 
 
 Coll. 4 
 
 Engineer 
 
 Yes 
 
 Early childhood 
 
 No 
 
I 
 
 PROFILES AND PERSONAL DATA 109 
 
 TABLE 19 (Continued) 
 
 El Father draws and letters. Brothers and sister good is school 
 
 drawing. 
 E2 Mother artistic. Brother good in school drawing. Two uncles 
 
 architects. 
 
 E3 Father was best drawer in family, but is untrained. 
 E4 Maternal aunt of mother very good in oil painting. 
 E5 Cousin is draftsman. 
 E6 Mother a former supervisor of art. 
 
 51 Sister showed special aptitude in high school. 
 
 52 Mother's people architects. Father illustrates Yes 
 
 53 Younger brother and sisters draw with promise. Yes 
 84 Brother, special aptitude in school. Maternal uncle and aunt 
 
 draw as "side interest." Yes 
 
 55 Uncle draws talent not developed Yes 
 
 56 Father without training but makes sketches. Yes 
 
 87 Mother artist. Ye 
 
 88 Father and mother artists. 
 
 Cl Father draws but lacks training. Younger half-brother draws 
 
 with promise. Yes 
 
 C2 No artists among relatives. 
 
 C3 Father and mother artists. Yes 
 
 C4 Mother has shown some ability. Sister draws but lacks train- 
 ing. Yes 
 
 C5 No artists among relatives. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF 
 PERSONS TALENTED IN DRAWING 
 
 Introduction 
 
 In Chapter I we submitted, as one phase of our prob- 
 lem in this research, the question : What are the essen- 
 tial psycho physical characteristics of persons talented in 
 drawing f We are now ready to bring together the re- 
 sults of our study and of the experimental literature in 
 an attempt to render at least a partial answer to the 
 question propounded. 
 
 General Discussion of Drawing 
 
 Before going to the experimental results we shall do 
 well to get clearly in mind some of the facts concerning 
 drawing which may be known in advance of experimental 
 inquiry. Let us first recall what drawing is. The term 
 drawing designates a process of causing, by means of 
 pencil, pen, brush, or other instrument, certain lines or 
 areas, or both, to appear on a given surface. If the lines 
 and areas are intended by their similarity to some object 
 in form, proportion, colors, or relations, to suggest tl/at 
 object to the observer, the drawing is representative. 
 Pictures are drawings of this type. If the object repre- 
 sented or if the lines and areas themselves directly are 
 used as the sign of some other object or idea, the drawing 
 is symbolic. Drawings of the cross as a symbol of Chris- 
 tianity, the plus sign in mathematics, and even the let- 
 ters of our alphabet are symbolic drawings. A third 
 type of drawing is that which, without the suggestion of 
 
 110 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING HI 
 
 any object or idea, but on the basis of the character of 
 line, color, etc., makes immediate appeal to the aesthetic 
 sense of the observer. Pure designs belong in this cate- 
 gory. These three types may, indeed, appear in the 
 same drawing. In fact, every drawing exists as an ob- 
 ject with an aesthetic value in itself, quite apart from 
 any representative or symbolic value which it may have. 
 It is just as impossible to rob a drawing of all ideational 
 value. The situation is made more complex by the fact 
 that the objects or ideas suggested by the drawing may 
 be very rich in associated ideas and feelings. A por- 
 trait of a great character, for example, has quite a differ- 
 ent value from a portrait of an unknown person, even 
 though the presentation may be equally forceful in each. 
 There is, therefore, infinite possibility of variation in 
 the intention of the drawer as to the effect which he 
 wishes to produce, and in .the character of the drawing 
 which results from his efforts. 
 
 Our first conclusion, then, is that (1) Tlie production 
 of an effective drawing includes many theoretically dis- 
 tinguishable a c tivities. 
 
 Analyses of the Ability to Draw 
 
 The following analyses of the ability to draw, taken 
 from the literature, will serve to emphasize the com- ] 
 plexity of the act of drawing, and will present in their * 
 context certain details of drawing talent to which refer- 
 ence will be made in the later discussion. The first is 
 taken from Albien. 1 Albien found that two contrasting 
 types were represented among his subjects. The first 
 
 'Albien, G. Der Anteil der nachkonstruierenden Tatigkeit des Auges 
 und der Apperception an dem Behalten und der Wiedergabe einfacher 
 Formen. Zeitschrift fiir experimentelle Padagogik, 5: 1907, 133ff; 6: 
 1908, Iff. 
 
112 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 of these is the visual type. Persons belonging to this 
 type have clear visual images of the objects to be drawn. 
 but they vary greatly in their assimilation of the im- 
 pression. With some the image is fleeting; others prac- 
 tice analysis and synthesis of the impression these are 
 the good drawers. The second type is tti 
 
 The visual image is less well impressed and they must 
 rely on reflection and construction in their drawing. 
 From the general analysis of the drawer he thinks that 
 the cause for the lack^of drawing ability may be quite 
 different in different individuals. The following possi- 
 bilities are named: (1) deficient seeing (lack of analyz- 
 ing in the purely optical part and in the ideal part of the 
 seeing) ; (2) indefiniteness of the visual memory image 
 and the weakness of the visual memory in general; (3) 
 defective guidance of the hand by the visual Image; (4) 
 too great relative strength of construction and reflec- 
 tion, which take the place of the visual image ; (5) lack of 
 pure motor skill, which may in turn be due in part to a 
 defective inner control of the movements through the 
 kinaesthetic and visual sensations. 
 
 The following analysis from Meumann 2 is stated in 
 terms of the causes of inability to draw. These causes 
 are as follows : 
 
 (1) The will to analyze and to note the forms and 
 colors of things has not been aroused. 
 
 (2) The will to analyze may be present, and yet for 
 a given individual the analysis may be difficult. 
 
 (3) The memory image may be deficient. It may 
 have gaps or it may be dim either in form or 
 color. The memory for spatial relations may 
 be defective. 
 
 ^Meumann, E. Vorlesungen zur Einfiihrung in die experimentelle 
 Pddagogik, 2d Ed., Bd. 3: 1914, p, 726. 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING 113 
 
 (4) One may lack the ability to hold the memory 
 image in attention during the act of drawing. 
 
 (5) There may be a lack of co-ordination of the 
 visual memory image and the perceptual image 
 with the drawing movements. 
 
 (6) The sight of the drawing and its incongruence 
 with the memory image may disturb the latter. 
 
 (7) The drawer has not at his command various 
 schemata such as the trained drawer has de- 
 veloped with which to support his drawing. 
 
 (8) One may not understand how to project three- 
 dimensional space upon a plane. 
 
 (9) Skill of hand may be lacking. 
 
 (10) One may lack the artistic sense. 
 
 (11) The inability to draw may be due to a com- 
 bination of different ones of the deficiencies 
 above named. 
 
 Of these causes, those numbered 2, 3, 4, and 5, Meumann 
 believes are matters of talent; the others of practice, 
 except that number 8 is a matter both of talent and of 
 practice. 
 
 Ayer's analysis of drawing is one of the most recent. 3 
 "The process of graphical expression is subject to the 
 influence of three interrelated factors, (1) a precon- 
 ceived purpose, (2) ability to see, and (3) ability to 
 represent. " The preconceived purpose varies with the 
 individual and the occasion. Examples of purpose are 
 the making of a visual representation and the interpre- 
 tation of a scientific concept. The ability to see or "to 
 discriminate the particular characteristics of an object 
 which should be shown in a drawing depends upon both 
 
 8 Ayer, F. C. The Psychology of Drawing, 1916, pp. 157ff. 
 
114 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 native talent and training. A certain inherent per- 
 spicacity for, and a predisposed tendency toward, ana- 
 lytical observation are fundamental and peculiar to each 
 type of drawing/' Ability to represent involves vari- 
 ous factors, (a) "The clearness of visual imagery, par- 
 ticularly in memory drawing, is of great importance to 
 accurate representation and is subject to great individ- 
 ual variation. " (b) Keflection may serve to strengthen 
 the visual image or to substitute for it. (c) Drawing 
 schemata of various common objects serve to fortify the 
 memory, (d) Control of hand movements is funda- 
 mental to accurate drawing, (e) For the purposes of 
 visual representation an acquired knowledge of drawing 
 is necessary. (/) A final synthesis of the elements iso- 
 lated during the analysis must be made in all drawing. 
 
 Variability of Psycho physical Characteristics 
 
 In the light of the foregoing discussion, it is not 
 strange that we have found in our experimental inves- 
 tigation no simple formula for the constitution of draw- 
 ing ability. The outstanding characteristic of the per- 
 sons whom we have studied is the variability among them 
 in their mental and physical equipment. The differences, 
 which in studies of masses are obscured by measures of 
 central tendencies, have been in this study of individuals 
 brought out in bold relief. 
 
 Leaving the details of these differences for later 
 elaboration, we may state our second conclusion in the 
 following terms: (2) Persons talented in drawing ex- 
 liibit great individual differences in tlieir psychophysical 
 characteristics. 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING 115 
 
 General Intelligence and Ability in Drawing 
 
 The relation of ability in drawing to general intelli- 
 gence has attracted the attention of various investiga- 
 tors. Kerschensteiner 4 concludes -from his monumental 
 study that : ' l Very great talent for graphical expression 
 is in the case of children^ regularly connected with good 
 intellectual endowment. But the statement can not be 
 reversed/' Exceptions to this rule, such as children 
 who produce very good drawings and yet are of low 
 general ability, seem to him only apparent. He draws 
 a distinction between the memorial talent (Ged'dchtnis- 
 begabung) of these children and the ideational talent 
 (Vorstellungsbegabung) of really gifted children. He 
 cites the case of a 13-year-old boy whom he had recom- 
 mended for attendance at an art school as the result of 
 what appeared to be superior performance in drawing 
 human figures. The boy did not develop as -he had 
 thought he would in view of his previous performance. 
 The boy, he states, seemed to have difficulty in laying 
 hold of this whole form of an object. This apprehension 
 of the total form (Auffasung einer Gesamtvorstellung) is 
 deemed fundamental to real artistic talent, and it is said 
 to be possible only in the case of good intelligence. 
 
 Kik 5 quotes with approval the statement of Kerschen- 
 steiner that great talent for graphic expression is always 
 connected with good intellectual endowment. Before he 
 assents to the statement, however, he defines the idea of 
 drawing talent so as to except two types of ability. 
 These exceptions are: (1) mechanical copying as pure 
 manual dexterity, and (2) a one-sided talent for obser- 
 
 4 Kerschensteiner, G. Die Entwicklung der zeichnerischen Begabung, 
 1905, 487. 
 
 5 Kik, C. Die iibernormale zeichnenbegabung bei Kindern. Zeitschrift 
 fur angewandte Psychologic, 2: 1908, 148. 
 
116 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 vation developed at the expense of other mental capac- 
 ities, not a capacity resting upon memory and imagina- 
 tion. These special abilities are not incompatible, he 
 thinks, with low general intellectual ability. 
 
 Albien 6 found in his research no confirmation for 
 the thesis of Kerschensteiner. Some of his subjects 
 well-endowed in drawing ability were not of high intelli- 
 gence. The boy most gifted in drawing stood 29th in 
 average intelligence in a class of 49. 
 
 Ayer 7 found achievement in drawing "highly cor- 
 related with achievement in other school subjects, aver- 
 aging nearly 70 per cent, positive. This is, no doubt, 
 due to the fact that the standard of drawing instruction 
 calls for a variety of mental and motor processes which 
 are the same as, or similar to, those found in other school 
 subjects. Ability in representative drawing [drawing 
 reproducing the actual appearance of an object as accu- 
 rately as possible] is not correlated with achievement in 
 school subjects when it is isolated from the other factors 
 of school drawing." The separate factors included in 
 the drawing grades upon which this correlation is based 
 are " (a) ability in representative drawing, (6) ability 
 in designing, (c) ability in artistic discrimination, (d) 
 ability with color, washes, shading, etc., (e) attendance, 
 (/) discipline, and (g) vocational interest." The grades 
 are those of 141 normal-school students. 
 
 In our own study the results which have been pre- 
 sented make possible some positive statement concerning 
 the general intelligence of fifteen subjects, to each of 
 whom, in addition to other tests, the Binet-Simon (Stan- 
 ford Revision) tests were given. Some of the other Ih- 
 
 8 Op. cit., Bd. 6, p. 34. 
 7 0p. cit., p. 140. 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING 117 
 
 vestigations have suffered from the lack of an adequate 
 measure of intelligence. Of the fifteen subjects, three 
 (S3, S5, and E6) may be characterized as having very 
 superior general intelligence; five (Cl, C5, SI, 84, and 
 JE4) as having superior general intelligence; four (C4, 
 82, S6 and E2) as having average general intelligence; 
 two (E3 and E5) as having slightly inferior general in- 
 telligence; and one (El) as having markedly inferior 
 general intelligence. In addition to these to whom Binet 
 tests have been given, three others may be classified with 
 some assurance. The average results of 16 tests given 
 to the Culver group seem sufficient to be taken as an in- 
 dication of the mental ability of the cadets. If so, we 
 may class 87 apd 88 as having average general intelli- 
 gence; perhaps with reference to an unselected group 
 they would rank even higher. The general intelligence 
 of C3 appears to be inferior when estimated from the 
 tests and his college performance. The tests of C2 have 
 not been extensive enough to make possible a sure esti- 
 mate of his general intelligence. His school perform- 
 ance, however, would place him in the superior group. 
 
 We conclude, therefore, that (3) A certain elemen- 
 tary ability in graphic representation, such as is required 
 for success with elementary-school drawing, is indepen- 
 dent, or partially independent, of general intelligence. 
 
 How often we may expect the combination of good 
 drawing ability of this elementary sort and poor men- 
 tality, our data do not give us the means of judging. 
 Perhaps, owing to the selection of pupils in the upper 
 grades on the basis of their success in studies requiring 
 a fair degree of general intelligence, the number of these 
 cases is larger than appears. 
 
118 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 A complete diagnosis of talent in drawing, however, 
 requires a measure of the general intelligence of the 
 drawer. Although experimental studies of tlie abilities 
 required in various pursuits which depend upon draw- 
 ing ability are lacking, we may be fairly sure from other 
 well-known facts that varying degrees of general intelli- 
 gence are required for success in the different art call- 
 ings. We should not expect successful copying of a de- 
 sign, for example, to require as great general intelligence 
 as successful creation of a picture representing, let us 
 say, the simple dignity of toil. Before one gets very 
 far in art expression, a great number of supplementary 
 factors must be brought to the support of the ability to 
 represent graphically simple objects. Even the tech- 
 nique itself becomes progressively more difficult. More 
 and more, conceptual factors color harmony and color 
 contrast, the values of light and shade, the devices for 
 representation of linear perspective, the meaning of the 
 lines of the face, the historical account of the effective- 
 ness of various methods, the representation of ideas 
 rather than simple objects, etc. enter into the process, 
 and ability to master these conceptual factors is a pre- 
 requisite of successful performance. 
 
 The study of our subjects has also given us some 
 basis for inference concerning the relation of general 
 intelligence to future development in drawing. We have 
 already remarked (Chapter VI) that C3, who is inferior 
 in general intelligence, seems unable to profit rapidly 
 by the advanced instruction in technique offered in the 
 art courses of the University. Likewise, we have the 
 testimony of the art teacher that El, whose general in- 
 telligence is markedly inferior, shows less originality 
 than ability in graphic representation. 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING 119 
 
 It is our conclusion, then, that (4) General intelli- 
 gence conditions the ability of drawers (a) to acquire 
 tlie advanced technique into which conceptual factors 
 enter, and (b) to create original drawings of merit. 
 
 On the other hand, we can not deny the possession 
 of an elementary ability in graphic expression by persons 
 of low intelligence. The practical problem becomes one, 
 then, of diagnosing a pupil 's ability, prescribing for Mm 
 the training which shall develop his talent in the most 
 useful way, and directing him into the type of work with 
 which he can have the greatest success. We have nor 
 fulfilled our duty to the drawer of low intelligence, when 
 we have told him that he can never become a great 
 painter, architect, or cartoonist. We must be prepared 
 to develop hi^talent-an4--to tell him ofsome place where 
 he can use it to advantage. Perhaps, for example, he 
 can become a sign painter or a copier of decorative pat- 
 terns. 
 
 At the other extreme is the pupil of high general 
 intelligence and talent for graphic representation. When 
 we have diagnosed his ability, we shall have reason to 
 expect that he will respond favorably to our treatment 
 of him as a prospective creative artist. We shall not be 
 content to place him in some position where he will be 
 a mere copyist. 
 
 Linguistic Ability and Drawing 
 
 Binet mentions in his account of the psychology of 
 Tade Styka 8 two types of intelligence ; the sensory and 
 the verbal. Persons belonging to the first type, he says, 
 live in the exterior world and like to use their senses 
 
 8 Binet, A. La psychologie artistique de Tade Styka. L'Annee 
 Psychologique, 15: 1908 (1909), 334f. 
 
120 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 and their hands. They are painters, sculptors, and mu- 
 sicians. Persons belonging to the verbal type are dis- 
 tinguished by their talent for words and for abstract 
 ideas of which the word is the key. Orators, journalists, 
 mathematicians, and many scientists belong to this type. 
 He states, however, that the types are not contradictory ; 
 a person may belong to both types. 
 
 Ivanof 9 found the correlation between drawing and 
 language (reading, declamation, orthography, and gram- 
 mar) contradictory and hence uncertain. 
 
 Ayer 10 found a strong positive correlation (r=.68) 
 between achievement in drawing and English as shown 
 by school grades in the case of 144 normal-school stu- 
 dents. When, however, the drawings secured in a test 
 of 51 high-school students were compared with the aver- 
 age of the class-standings of the same students in science, 
 English, Latin, and mathematics, no correlation was 
 shown. He concludes that "ability in representative 
 drawing is not correlated with achievement in school 
 subjects when it is isolated from the other factors of 
 school drawing." 
 
 In our study we have found linguistic ability a better 
 indicator of general intelligence than of either general 
 motor ability or specific drawing ability. There may be 
 some practical value in referring to motor (or sensory) 
 and verbal types, but the classification of an individual 
 in one of these types is not sufficient to indicate whether 
 or not he can draw. As far as we may judge from our 
 limited number of cases, we may conclude that (5) 
 Linguistic ability and talent in drawing are related only 
 from fhe point of view that general intelligence and 
 
 8 Ivanof, E. Le dessin des gcoliers de la suisse romande. Archives 
 de psychologie, 8: 1908, 119. 
 10 0p. cit., pp. 139ff. 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING 121 
 
 talent in drawing are related; linguistic ability is no 
 index of ability or lack of ability in graphic representa- 
 tion. 
 
 General Motor Ability and Drawing 
 
 The reference to Binet in the preceding section defi- 
 nitely connects a sensory type of intelligence with ability 
 in drawing. Kik, 11 in a discussion of the relation of 
 drawing ability to general intelligence, mentions a "me- 
 chanical copying as pure skill of hand" (mechanische 
 Kopieren als blosse Handfertigkeit) . The question still 
 remains, of course, whether this skill of hand is uni- 
 formly connected with a general motor superiority. 
 
 The results of our tests reveal, in the first place, 
 that general motor ability is a complex of varying 
 factors. One who stands high in a given motor test 
 may stand low in another. Moreover, we found our 
 subjects making uniformly high (average or low) rec- 
 ords neither in a single motor test nor in the average of 
 the tests. One of our apparently most gifted subjects, 
 S3, made low or average right-hand records in three of 
 the motor tests. It is true that the i ' standard ' ' records, 
 with which the individual performances are compared, 
 are based on a limited number of cases, but the varia- 
 bility in the records of our own subjects is sufficient to 
 establish the general statement made above. The near- 
 est approach to uniformity is in the strength of grip, 
 but the uniformity is far from complete even in this test. 
 
 Our conclusion may be stated in the following term*; 
 (6) The motor ability which underlies talent for draw- 
 ing is specific rather titan general; talent for drawing y 
 does not presuppose a general jnotor superiority. 
 
 11 Op. eft., p. 148. 
 
122 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 Handwriting and Drawing 
 
 In the general discussion of drawing at the beginning 
 of this chapter, it was pointed out that the letters of the 
 alphabet are drawings of a certain type. One would 
 think, therefore, that ability in handwriting might be an 
 index of a corresponding ability in drawing. The re- 
 sults of our tests, however, do not show that persons wno 
 draw well also write well. It may be, of course, that 
 persons who are talented in drawing have a relatively 
 greater capacity for development also in handwriting, 
 but, if this is true, it is not evident from the achieve- 
 ment in handwriting which results from ordinary school 
 training. There are, as a matter of fact, important dif- 
 ferences between handwriting and drawing, regarded as 
 processes. In handwriting, a limited number of sym- 
 bols recur in substantially the same form time and again ; 
 in drawing, the objects to be represented or figures to be 
 copied are much more numerous and varied. Further- 
 more, the differences in the writing and drawing move- 
 ments bring them into sharp contrast. Freeman 12 em- 
 phasizes the difference between handwriting and draw- 
 ing by giving one as an example of sensori-motor learn- 
 ing and the other as an example of perceptual learning : 
 
 "In learning to write, the child develops habits of movement and 
 acquires the recognition of form, but since the motor coordination is the 
 more prominent element, writing is taken as an illustration of sensori- 
 motor learning. Drawing also includes both the recognition of form and 
 its representation, but in this case the element of recognition is more 
 prominent, and therefore drawing is taken as an illustration of perceptual 
 learning." 
 
 We conclude, therefore, that (7) Achievement in 
 handwriting and ability in drawing are relatively inde- 
 pendent of each other. 
 
 ^Freeman, F. N. The Psychology of the Common Branches, 1916, 
 p. 34. 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING 123 
 
 Flexibility of Motor Habit and Drawing 
 
 It was thought that the ability to form the associa- 
 tions required in drawing might be inferred from a gen- 
 eral flexibility of sensori-motor habit. This supposition 
 was not confirmed, however, by the results of the mirror- 
 drawing test. It is true that 11 of our 17 subjects who 
 took this test are ranked as superior in relation to others 
 of the groups with whom they are compared. A con- 
 sideration of sex differences, however, will modify our 
 judgment of this apparent superiority. Eight of the 11 
 who made superior records are girls and women, and the 
 comparison in which the superiority appears is made 
 with members of the opposite sex. But girls and women 
 have generally been found superior to boys and men in 
 the mirror-drawing test. 13 Miss Calfee found in a test 
 of college freshmen that only 6 per cent of the men 
 reached the women's median, while 90.4 per cent of the 
 women reached the men's median. 14 If we compare the 
 time taken by our high-school and adult subjects in the 
 mirror-drawing test with the median time (66 seconds) 
 reported by Miss Weidensall 15 for 36 college girls, we 
 find that only two surpassed the median record. It is 
 possible, therefore, that the superior records of some of 
 our subjects are to be explained on the basis of sex differ- 
 ences rather than on the basis of differences which are 
 directly related to ability in drawing. Moreover, a few 
 of our records, as they stand, are average or poor. 
 
 It is not easy to interpret the results; perhaps we 
 would best leave the discussion with the statement that 
 
 13 Whipple's Manual, pp. 490ff. 
 
 14 Calfee, Marguerite. College Freshmen and Four General Intelligence 
 Tests. Journal of Educational Psychology, 4: 1913, 223-231. 
 
 ^Weidensall, Jean. The Mentality of the Criminal Woman. Educa- 
 tional Psychology Monographs, No. 14, 1916, p. 223. 
 
124 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 our results are insufficient for a conclusion. It is safe 
 to say, however, that (8) There is an elementary drawing 
 ability which exists apart from a general flexibility of 
 mtftor habit as far as this is revealed by the mirror- 
 drawing test; whether high standing in the mirror-draw- 
 ing test indicates a constitution favorable to development 
 in drawing, we do not know. 
 
 Sensory Discrimination and Drawing 
 
 Free-hand drawing requires frequent judgment of 
 distances, lengths, curves, and magnitudes. The ques- 
 tion arises, then, whether persons who are talented in 
 drawing have also a superior power of sensory discrim- 
 ination. We applied our tests of discrimination of dif- 
 ferences and proportions (Number 37 and 38) to 9 of 
 the subjects of this study, and the first of these tests to 
 6 others. While our background of comparative results 
 is quite meager, we have no reason to suppose that our 
 subjects have the ability to make finer discriminations 
 of magnitudes than have persons of similar training but 
 less talent in drawing. Notwithstanding this statement, 
 however, tests of sensory discrimination would seem to 
 have a diagnostic value. It is important for pedagogical 
 purposes to know whether a pupil judges lengths, angles, 
 and curves well or poorly, as it is important for voca- 
 tional purposes to know whether a given drawer may be 
 expected to be 'true' to the proportions of his copy. 
 
 We may conclude, then, that (9) The ability to dis- 
 criminate fine differences in visual magnitudes varies 
 in persons talented in drawing; the measurement of this 
 ability is of value in a determination of the factors of 
 drawing ability regarded as a complex. 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING 125 
 
 Observation and Drawing 
 
 Obviously, one must see before one can draw. In- 
 deed, what one sees is, or at least includes, what one 
 draws. The references to Meumann and Ayer in the 
 earlier part of this chapter emphasized the part played 
 by analytical observation in the ability to draw. Judd 
 and Cowling 10 made a study of the perceptual process 
 in drawing and found characteristic differences in the 
 way in which the perception of a simple form is built 
 up. At the extremes are those individuals who proceed 
 from details to the whole form, and those who get the 
 general outline in mind first. Kerschensteiner 17 states 
 that the development of graphical expression is most in- 
 timately connected with the apprehension of the total * 
 form of objects. The effect of practice upon visual ap- 
 prehension was studied by Whipple, 18 Foster, 19 and 
 Dallenbach. 20 The first two, working with adult sub- 
 jects, found some improvement with practice, but Ex- 
 plained it on the basis of adaptation and the develop- 
 ment of assimilative devices, rather than on the basis of 
 an improvement in the power of visual apprehension 
 per se. Dallenbach working with school children, found / 
 an initial rapid improvement and a later slower improve- v 
 ment with practice. He found also a direct but small 
 
 16 Judd, C. H., and Cowling, D. J. Studies in Perceptual Develop- 
 ment. Psychological Review Monographs, 8, 1907, 349-369. 
 
 17 Kerschensteiner, G. Die Entwiclclung tier zeichnerischen Begdbung, 
 1905, p. 486. 
 
 18 Whipple, G. M. The Effect of Practice upon the Range of Visual 
 Attention and of Visual Apprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 
 1: 1910, 250-262. 
 
 19 Foster, W. S. The Effect of Practice upon Visualizing and upon 
 the Reproduction of Visual Impressions. Journal of Educational Psy- 
 chology, 2: 1911, 11-22. 
 
 ^Dallenbach, K. M. The Effect of Practise upon Visual Apprehension 
 in School Children. Journal of Educational Psycholof/ij, 5: 1914, 321-334, 
 387-404. 
 
126 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 correlation of visual apprehension with age. Each of the 
 three studies revealed marked individual differences. 
 
 In our study we used four tests (Numbers 32, 33, 34, 
 and 35) which seem to have some direct relation to ob- 
 servation. The cancellation test, the Rossolimo test, and 
 the stamp test demand analytical observation. The spot- 
 pattern test demands a knowledge of details, but also 
 gives ample play to the power of seeing a form as a whole. 
 The stamp test proved to be of doubtful value, because 
 of the introduction of the linguistic factor into the test 
 in the writing of the description. The cancellation test 
 involves other factors 21 which may quite obscure the 
 ability to observe analytically. The Eossolimo test is 
 rather too brief for reliable results. And for the spot- 
 pattern test we have lacked comparable data. Our re- 
 sults for the spot-pattern test, however, are sufficient to 
 indicate wide individual differences even among persons 
 talented in drawing. In the cancellation test, nearly 
 all of our subjects made superior or average records. In 
 the Eossolimo test, only one of our subjects in the higft- 
 school and adult group, for comparison with the mem- 
 bers of which we have a few comparable records, made 
 a poor score. 
 
 Our conclusion must, therefore, be tentative: (10) 
 While persons who are talented in drawing exhibit con- 
 siderable individual differences in tests of observa- 
 tion, these tests appear to have some diagnostic value for 
 talent in drawing; their relation, however, to ability 
 in drawing is not clearly made out in our study. 
 
 21 Cf. Whipple's Manual, p. 305: "The test is rather remarkable for 
 the variety of forms it has assumed, the variety of names ,that have been 
 given it, and the divergence of statement as to what it really measures." 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING 127 
 
 Imagery and Drawing 
 
 The part played by the image in the drawing act has 
 been discussed by different investigators. The references 
 to Albien, Meumann, and Ayer in the beginning of this 
 chapter may be taken as examples of this discussion. 
 The importance of clear visual imagery is especially em- 
 phasized. Ayer writes, for example: 22 
 
 "The clearness of visual imagery, particularly in memory drawing, is 
 of great importance to accurate representation and is subject to great 
 individual variation. With different individuals the drawing image may 
 be (1) clear and distinct, (2) vague and incomplete, (3) distinct, but in- 
 accurate, or (4) changeable and evanescent when the act of drawing 
 begins." 
 
 On the other hand, Foster found in the study men- 
 tioned in the preceding section that : 23 
 
 "In no case did practice increase the ability or even the tendency to y 
 visualize. The best reproducer of visual impressions was the poorest 
 visualizer, and relied almost wholly upon verbal cues for recall." 
 
 Binet's tests of Tade Styka, the young painter, did 
 not reveal an exceptional visual memory. Binet writes : 
 
 "I shall add also the conclusion that one may be an admirable draughts- 
 man with a very ordinary visual memory." 24 
 
 In our investigation with the use of the Betts ques- 
 tionary, six of nine subjects reported visual imagery of 
 superior clearness in comparison with the Betts results ; 
 one reported visual imagery of average clearness; and 
 two reported visual imagery markedly below the aver- 
 age in clearness. Auditory imagery, with two minor 
 exceptions, \vas reported as of about the same clearness 
 as the visual. Only one subject reported superior kin- 
 aesthetic imagery. 
 
 In reporting these results, attention should be invited 
 to the fact that our subjects were untrained in intro- 
 spection. We are frankly skeptical of the ability of un- 
 
 ^Op. cit., p. 159. 
 M Loc. cit., p. 11. 
 ^Op. cit., p. 330. 
 
128 . TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 trained observers to give reliable accounts of their imag- 
 inal processes. 25 We may at least offer the conclusion 
 that (11) Our 'introspective' records do not support the 
 view that superior clearness of visual (or kinaesthetic) 
 imagery is essential to talent in drawing. Logically, 
 perhaps, clear visual imagery is a great asset to 
 the drawer; but the matter is one for decision by 
 scientific inquiry rather than by logic. The relation of 
 imaginal processes to drawing is still a subject for inves- 
 tigation by the introspective psychologist. 
 
 Drawing and Memory for Visual Forms 
 
 In a test of memory for visual forms we may bq 
 somewhat more certain of our results with untrained 
 observers and we are interested in tests for children 
 than we can be in an introspective inquiry concerning 
 imaginal processes. Our results with tests of the mem- 
 ory for visual forms show wide individual differences. 
 We conclude, however, that (12) Tests of the memory for 
 visual forms have value in determining the characteris- 
 tics of one's drawing ability; but one may have a certain 
 ability in graphic representation without a good memory 
 for visual forms, other than the immediate memory re- 
 quired in looking from the object to tlie drawing surface. 
 The type of test which appears to be of particular value 
 is that requiring a test of the memory by graphic repro- 
 duction represented by our Test Number 27. 
 
 Drawing and Mental Manipulation of Spatial Forms 
 
 In our tests of the power mentally to manipulate 
 spatial forms, (Numbers 13, 14, 15, and 16) we found 
 
 25 Compare the writings of introspective psychologists.. For example, 
 see Titchener, E. B. A. Beginner's Psychology, 1915, p. 20ff. 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING 129 
 
 great individual differences among our subjects and also 
 in some cases marked differences in performances of the 
 same person. The significance of these differences 
 is not clearly made out. Probably performance in the 
 more difficult of the tests is rather directly related to 
 general intelligence, in that they require the holding of 
 an object in attention and uninterrupted application 
 for a considerable time. The factor of familiarity with 
 the material, as, for example, the familiarity with geo- 
 metrical names and objects, appears also to be important. 
 At all events, it is important for instructional purposes 
 to determine whether a pupil has the power of concen- 
 trated attention to a difficult task in the type of material 
 with which he must deal. 
 
 Our conclusion is that (13) Persons talented in draw- 
 ing show wide individual differences in their power men- 
 tally to manipulate spatial forms; tests of this ability 
 are of value to determine in detail the nature of the 
 draining talent. 
 
 Drawing and Invention from Graphic Forms 
 
 Inventiveness is obviously a great element of achieve- 
 ment in art. It would be desirable, if it were possible, 
 to measure the inventiveness of pupils by means of tests. 
 We used two tests of invention from graphic forms, the 
 ink-blots tests and the pictorial imagination test. Our 
 experience with them, however, indicates that as con- 
 ducted in this experiment they are of doubtful value. 
 We are compelled to state merely a negative conclusion : 
 (14) No clear relation is apparent between ability in 
 drawing and the invention from graphic forms which 
 was required in our tests. 
 
130 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 Drawing and Aesthetic Judgment 
 
 Great achievement in art demands a good judgment 
 of aesthetic values. Meumann, in the reference cited 
 early in this chapter, has called attention to the need ol 
 an artistic sense for ability in drawing. He thinks, how- 
 ever, that this artistic sense is a product of training 
 rather than a matter of endowment. Prosser, 26 a prac- 
 tical worker in the field of art education, recognizes tne 
 problem of training in art appreciation as a vital one. 
 He believes that, if we would have persons to appreciate 
 aesthetic excellence in any particular line pictures, 
 statuary, clothing, house furnishings, and so on we 
 must train them specifically for this appreciation. 
 
 In our tests (Numbers 17 and 18) we found a wide 
 variability between the results of the two tests and 
 among the performances of different individuals with 
 the same test. The Thorndike test apparently is de- 
 signed to measure the aesthetic appreciation of abstract 
 graphic forms. We are not convinced, however, that It 
 is a reliable measure of this appreciation. The Illinois 
 test requires judgments between drawings, pictures, ana 
 designs. Many of the principles upon which the excel- 
 lence of these figures is to be judged may be conceptu- 
 alized and stated. Consider, for example, the principles 
 of proportion, similarity of treatment, and color com- 
 bination. We are, therefore, at a loss to know how much 
 the performances in this test were based upon a native 
 aesthetic ability and how much they were the result of 
 training. It is quite clear, however, that (15) Quality 
 of performance in graphic representation and quality of 
 
 26 Prosser, C. A., Director of Dunwoody Institute, Minneapolis, Minne- 
 sota. Art Training for Industry. Bulletin of the Western Drawing and 
 Manual Training Association, Vol. 1: No. 2 (Annual Report for 1916), 
 pp. 30f. 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING 131 
 
 performance in aesthetic judgment are independent, or 
 at least partially independent variables. Training in' 
 graphical representation is not sufficient to assure good 
 aesthetic taste. 
 
 Interest and Talent in Drawing 
 
 Sargent and Miller have called attention to the fact 
 that apparent talent may consist in a special interest 
 rather than in an endowment of skill : 27 
 
 .... "As a matter of fact, the representation of isolated things does 
 not furnish an adequate motive for children except for the few to whom 
 form and color of ithemselves make an unusually strong appeal and awaken 
 a vivid inner experience. For these few, desirous to express what so 
 strongly impresses them, ordinary nature and object drawing is sufficient, 
 and they make excellent progress in it. These are the children with so- 
 called 'special talent.' In most cases this type of talent in elementary 
 schools appears to consist primarily in a special interest and not in a 
 special endowment of skill. This interest is related to skill as cause to 
 effect. In other words, if we can induce an equal interest on the part 
 of other children, they will develop equal skill. One of the significant 
 facts brought out in the course of the work previously described is that 
 not infrequently children who show under ordinary circumstances no in- 
 dications of talent will, when the appeal to their particular interests is 
 found, equal or surpass in skill those who appeared at first to be gifted 
 artistically." 
 
 We have no reason to doubt that this quotation ex- 
 presses a very important truth. On the other hand, it is 
 just as true that we tend to be interested in the things 
 which we are able to do well. One of our subjects ($}, 
 it will be recalled, reports that he lost interest in drawing 
 when it appeared that he did not succeed in water-color 
 drawing as well as others in the schools, and that even 
 today he dislikes that type of drawing. The same sub- 
 ject reports a revival of interest in drawing when he dis- 
 covered that he could draw better than the pupils in the 
 schools which he then attended. That interest and 
 achievement in drawing are positively correlated is clear 
 enough. The number of our subjects who report an in- 
 
 C7 Sargent, Walter, and Miller, Elizabeth. How Children Learn to 
 Draw, 1916, p. 235. 
 
132 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 terest in drawing very early in life emphasizes the close- 
 ness of this correlation. We conclude, therefore, that 
 
 (16) Interest may indicate either a superior innate abil- 
 ity or merely a high development of a rather ordinary 
 endowment, but it is of immense practical importance 
 as an index of the energy ivhich one is willing to expend 
 in the development of one's ability and in practical 
 achievement. 
 
 Summary 
 
 We have seen that there is great variability in the 
 mental and physical characteristics of persons who are 
 talented in drawing. The nature of some of these differ- 
 ences has been reviewed, and a number of conclusions 
 have been expressed concerning particular characteris- 
 tics in their relation to drawing. It is now clear that 
 
 (17) There is no one psychophysical constitution for tal- 
 ent in drawing; the essential characteristics vary with the 
 type of talent possessed. Every normal individual 
 should be thought of as possessing in some degree all of 
 the elemental abilities which make drawing possible. 
 When the strength of an element or combination of ele- 
 ments varies above the "average" or when the elements 
 enter into a particularly favorable combination or ap- 
 propriate pattern, we have a talent as defined in this 
 study, an ability which tends toward superior achieve- 
 ment. 
 
 The fact that the essential characteristics vary does 
 not prevent our listing some of the factors which 
 seem closely related to ability in drawing. No 
 attempt is made to make the list complete; indeed 
 the list of all the abilities which have any bearing 
 upon achievement in drawing would be extremely long. 
 
PSYCHOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAWING 133 
 
 It will be observed, also, that the items in the list are 
 neither mutually exclusive nor elemental in the sense 
 that they cannot be further analyzed. It is believed 
 necessary only that the separate items have a rather 
 close relation to ability in drawing, that they be capable 
 of description and recognition apart from the complex 
 in which they are observed, and that so far as possible 
 they be measurable. (18) The following characteristics, 
 each an independent or partially independent variable, 
 seem closely related to ability in drawing: 
 
 (1) The ability mentally to note a visual form, and, 
 by certain lines and areas, to reproduce it or sig- 
 nificant features of it. 
 
 (2) Ability to observe. 
 
 (3) Ability to select from a complex visual situation 
 the most representative and the most beautiful 
 aspects. 
 
 (4) Memory for visual forms. 
 
 (5) Ability mentally to manipulate visual forms. 
 
 (6) Ability to control hand movements in accord- 
 ance with visual percept or image. 
 
 (7) Ability to invent, to bring together into new 
 artistic combinations the elements of different 
 visual experiences. 
 
 (8) Ability to judge the beautiful in line, form, 
 color, and composition. 
 
 (9) Ability to discriminate differences in color. 
 
 (10) Ability to discriminate differences in visual 
 magnitude. 
 
 (11) Acuity of vision. 
 
 (12) Interest in the act and products of drawing. 
 
 (13) General intelligence. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE TEST METHOD AND THE DIAGNOSIS OF 
 TALENT IN DEAWING 
 
 Introduction 
 
 The second question which was raised in the state- 
 ment of the problem of this research was this : How may 
 the test method be used in the diagnosis of talent in 
 drawing? The discussion of the preceding chapter bears 
 incidentally upon this topic, and at different places 
 earlier in the text pertinent suggestions have appeared. 
 It is the purpose of the present chapter, however, to con- 
 sider the question more specifically. 
 
 The test method needs no defense ; its scientific valid- 
 ity is well established. 1 And we have seen in Chapter I 
 that the primary purpose of the test is diagnosis. We 
 may proceed immediately, therefore, to a consideration 
 of tests in their relation to the particular problem of 
 talent in drawing. 
 
 Types of Tests for Diagnosis of Drawing Talent 
 
 The discussion of the preceding chapter has prepared 
 the way for certain conclusions concerning the types ol 
 tests which will be valuable in the diagnosis of talent in 
 drawing. 
 
 At first thought the problem seems simple enough: 
 if one would test the ability of persons in drawing, 
 merely have them draw something and then estimate the 
 value of the product. But the solution is not so easy. 
 
 1 See the discussions of Stern and Whippier Stern, W. Die differ- 
 entielle Psychologic, pp. 87ff; Whipple's Manual, pp. Iff. 
 
 134 
 
TEST METHOD AND DIAGNOSIS IN DRAWING 135 
 
 This study has emphasized the fact that drawing is a 
 complex activity, that ability in drawing is analyzable 
 into many factors each of which is a variable, and that 
 there is no one psychophysical constitution for talent in y , 
 drawing. One mayTiave talent in a particular type or- 
 phase of drawing and have little ability in another. 
 Moreover, apparently the same objective result may be 
 produced by abilities which differ widely in the strength 
 of their constituent factors. Both efficient instruction 
 and helpful vocational guidance demand a knowledge of 
 these factors severally. We conclude, then, that (1) A 
 diagnosis of talent in drawing must be based upon an 
 analysis of the talent and a measurement of tlie con- 
 stituent^ psychophysical factors. 
 
 ( 2 ) The folio wing program of tests is recom- 
 mended for the diagnosis of talent in draiving: 2 (See 
 close of Chapter VIII). 
 
 ( 1 ) Tests of the elementary ability to represent, by 
 
 lines and areas, figures and objects observed. 
 ( 2 ) Tests of the ability to observe. 
 ( 3 ) Tests of the ability to select from a complex 
 visual situation the most representative and the 
 most beautiful aspects. 
 ( 4 ) Tests of the memory for visual forms. 
 ( 5 ) Tests of the ability mentally to manipulate vis- 
 ual forms. 
 ( 6 ) Tests of the ability to control hand movements 
 
 in accordance ivith visual percept and image. 
 ( 7 ) Tests of the ability to invent, to bring together 
 into new artistic combinations the elements of 
 different visual experiences. 
 
 2 The order of tests in this list is not significant. 
 
136 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 ( 8 ) Tests of the ability to judge the beautiful in 
 line, form, color, and composition. 
 
 ( 9 ) Tests of the ability to discriminate differences 
 in color. 3 
 
 (10) Tests of the ability to discriminate differences 
 in visual magnitude. 
 
 (11) Tests of acuity of vision. 
 
 (12) Tests of general intelligence. 
 
 Other Considerations 
 
 (3) Interpretation of the results of the tests necessi- 
 tates standards of achievement with which the perform- 
 ance of a given individual may fairly be compared. A 
 particular score in a test means little until it is compared 
 with the scores made by others. 
 
 When studying special ability, investigators must be 
 particularly careful in the conclusions which are drawn 
 from the gross results of the tests employed. Accidents 
 of opportunity and of interest may occasion a very un- 
 even development of different abilities in the same indi- 
 ~ vidual and of the same abilities in different individuals. 
 It seems probable, therefore, that it will be much more 
 difficult to estimate real native endowment in a study 
 of special ability than in a study of general intelligence, 
 for in the latter we expect lack of development of one 
 factor to be compensated in a measure by greater de- 
 velopment of another. It must not be forgotten, of 
 course, that what we are really testing at a given time 
 is the native endowment as this has been modified by all 
 the individual's previous experience. In this connec- 
 
 *It is interesting ito note in this connection that the painter Tade 
 
 Styka was, if we may accept his father's testimony, "color-blind" until 
 
 eight years of age! (See Binet, A. La psychologie artistique de Tade 
 Styke. L'Annee psych ologique, 15: 1908 (1909), 320. 
 
TEST METHOD AND DIAGNOSIS IN DRAWING 137 
 
 tion the facts set forth in the following three paragraphs 
 should be emphasized. 
 
 (4) Every child sliould be given a many-sided op- 
 portunity in drawing and an attempt should be made to 
 develop corresponding interest. Our immediate concern 
 in this proposition is based upon the relation of op- 
 portunity to the development of native ability and Its 
 diagnosis by appropriate tests. Equal opportunities lor 
 development will tend to accentuate the original indi- 
 vidual differences, so that the gifted child will tend even 
 more to exhibit that talent when the tests for diagnosis 
 are given. If the opportunities are very uneven, the 
 child of mediocre ability but of exceptional opportunity 
 may appear to be the really gifted one. In addition to the 
 foregoing we may mention, as reasons for giving every 
 child an opportunity in drawing, the value of an early 
 beginning in any complicated learning, the significance 
 of having every member of the community trained to 
 some extent in the appreciation of art, and the social 
 importance of developing a talent which might without 
 early direction lie dormant because overshadowed by 
 some other but less well endowed interest, 
 
 (5) Biographical and personal data of a non-ex- 
 perimental character should be used tb assist in the diag- 
 nosis of talent in drawing. Due consideration should be 
 given, for example, to the opportunity for drawing which 
 the child has had, to the presence or absence of other in- 
 terests which might influence the development of draw- 
 ing ability, to his heredity, and to the home influences 
 under which he has been reared. 
 
 (6) It is recommended that tests which are used for 
 the purpose of estimating the possibilities of improve- 
 ment in any given factor be conducted as 'instructed- 
 
138 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 learning 9 tests, as explained herewith. It is one thing 
 to test an ability for the purpose of finding its present 
 strength, and quite another to test it for the purpose of 
 estimating how much it is capable of improvement. 
 
 The 'instructed-learning' test consists of different 
 sections of test material interspersed with definite in- 
 structions concerning method. If the test were one of 
 drawing, for example, the subject might be asked to 
 make a series of drawings on successive days, and before 
 each drawing (except perhaps the first) be given very 
 definite instructions designed to teach him the best 
 method to employ in the drawing. Each successive time 
 the instructions could be made to include additional 
 points of technique. It is hardly to be expected that 
 children will of themselves adopt the best method or 
 even the same method for doing the task assigned. It 
 will reduce the number of variables in the test, if the 
 experimenter can himself determine the method to Ibe 
 employed by the subject. In a test of this type, we 
 shall have a device for the detection of undeveloped 
 talent, and, in the learning curve, a basis for the esti- 
 mation of the possibilities of development. 
 
 It will be observed that the tests which we have rec- 
 ommended do not include any which require the subject 
 to ' introspect' in the technical sense of the term. It is 
 believed that, when subjects who are untrained in intro- 
 spection, as will be the case with most of those who are 
 tested for ability in drawing, are asked to observe and 
 report their mental processes, only unreliable results may 
 be expected. Moreover, we are not at all convinced that 
 the relation of particular imaginal processes to success in 
 drawing has been satisfactorily established by investi- 
 gators whose writings we have reviewed. 
 
TEST METHOD AND DIAGNOSIS IN DRAWING 139 
 
 Undoubtedly, a program for the diagnosis of talent in 
 drawing has important implications for the diagnosis of 
 other kinds of talent. These cannot be discussed here 
 except to point out that (7) The measurement of many 
 different abilities not primarily related to drawing is 
 necessary to the most effective educational and voca- 
 tional use of measurements of ability in drawing. Con- 
 sider, for example, the different treatment demanded by 
 the following types of cases: (a) a person who has 
 considerable talent in drawing but greater talent in 
 music, and (b) one who has relatively little talent in 
 drawing but more in drawing than can be discovered in 
 any other activity of equal social value. 
 
 TJie Needs 
 
 Some of the specific needs which have been suggested 
 in the course of this research are the following: 
 
 1. The development of equivalent tests. (See the 
 first part of Chapter IV.) 
 
 2. Statistical studies of the frequency of specialized 
 ability. For purposes of school administration, it 
 would be of service to know what percent of the pu- 
 pils enrolled have specialized abilities of great voca- 
 tional or social importance. 
 
 3. The development of better tests and standards of 
 achievement for measuring the gross products of 
 drawing. 
 
 4. The development of tests and standards for 
 measuring : 
 
 (1) The elementary ability to represent, by lines 
 and areas, figures and objects observed. 
 
 (2) The ability to observe, with special reference 
 to drawing. 
 
140 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 (3) The ability to select from a complex visual 
 situation the most representative and the most 
 beautiful aspects. 
 
 (4) The ability to remember visual forms. 
 
 (5) The ability mentally to manipulate visual 
 forms, with special reference to the manipulation 
 required in drawing. 
 
 (6) The ability to control hand movements in ac- 
 cordance with visual percept and image. 
 
 (7) The inventive ability in drawing. 
 
 (8) The aesthetic judgment. It would be an 
 uncommonly great service to devise some test 
 which would measure, not one 's knowledge of aes- 
 thetic principles or one's ability to make correct 
 aesthetic judgments, but the extent to which one 
 is really moved by a beautiful object. 
 
 5. Studies of successful persons in various art vo- 
 cations in order to determine the type of ability which 
 the several vocations require. 
 
 6. Introspective studies of the relation of the imag- 
 inal processes to ability in drawing. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS 
 
 Purpose of Chapter 
 
 It is the purpose of the present chapter to bring 
 together the main conclusions which we have been able 
 to draw in this study. These conclusions have been 
 stated in Italics in Chapters VII and VIII, and the 
 same numbering which was used in those chapters has 
 been retained in the following list. 
 
 Tlie Psychopkysical Characteristics of Persons Talented 
 in Drawing 
 
 (Chapter VII) 
 
 1. The production of an effective drawing includes 
 many theoretically distinguishable activities. 
 
 2. Persons talented in drawing exhibit great indi- 
 vidual differences in their psychophysical characteristics. 
 
 3. A certain elementary ability in graphic represen- 
 tation, such as is required for success with elementary- 
 school drawing, is independent, or partially independent, 
 of general intelligence. 
 
 4. General intelligence conditions the ability of 
 drawers (a) to acquire the advanced technique into which 
 conceptual factors enter, and (6) to create original draw- 
 ings of merit. 
 
 5. Linguistic ability and talent in drawing are re- 
 lated only from the point of view that general intelli- 
 gence and talent in drawing are related ; linguistic ability 
 
 141 
 
142 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 is no index of ability or lack of ability in graphic repre- 
 sentation. 
 
 6. The motor ability which underlies talent for 
 drawing is specific rather than general ; talent for draw- 
 ing does not presuppose a general motor superiority. 
 
 7. Achievement in handwriting and ability in draw- 
 ing are relatively independent of each other. 
 
 8. There is an elementary drawing ability which 
 exists apart from a general flexibility of motor habit as 
 far as this is revealed by the mirror-drawing test. 
 
 9. The ability to discriminate fine differences in 
 visual magnitudes varies in persons talented in drawing ; 
 the measurement of this ability is of value in a determin- 
 ation of the factors of drawing ability regarded as a com- 
 plex. 
 
 10. While persons who are talented in drawing ex- 
 hibit considerable individual differences in tests of ob- 
 servation, these tests appear to have some diagnostic 
 value for talent in drawing. 
 
 11. Our 'introspective' records do not support the 
 view that superior clearness of visual (or kinaesthetic) 
 imagery is essential to talent in drawing. 
 
 12. Tests of the memory for visual forms have value 
 in determining the characteristics of one 's drawing abil- 
 ity ; but one may have a certain ability in graphic repre- 
 sentation without a good memory for visual forms, other 
 than the immediate memory required in looking from the 
 object to the drawing surface. 
 
 13. Persons talented in drawing show wide individ- 
 ual differences in their power mentally to manipulate 
 spatial forms; tests of this ability are of value to de- 
 termine in detail the nature of the talent. 
 
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS 143 
 
 14. No clear relation is apparent between ability in 
 drawing and the invention from graphic forms which was 
 required in our tests. 
 
 15. Quality of performance in graphic representa- 
 tion and quality of performance in aesthetic judgment 
 are independent, or at least partially independent vari- 
 ables. 
 
 16. Interest may indicate either a superior innate 
 ability or merely a high development of a rather ordinary 
 endowment, but it is of immense practical importance 
 as an index of the energy which one is willing to expend 
 in the development of one's ability and in practical 
 achievement. 
 
 17. There is no one psychophysical constitution for 
 talent in drawing; the essential characteristics vary 
 with the type of talent possessed. 
 
 18. The following characteristics, each an indepen- 
 dent or partially independent variable, seem closely re- 
 lated to ability in drawing : 
 
 (1) The ability mentally to note a visual form, 
 and, by certain lines and areas, to reproduce it 
 or significant features of it. 
 
 (2) Ability to observe. 
 
 (3) Ability to select from a complex visual sit- 
 uation the most representative and the most beau- 
 tiful aspects. 
 
 (4) Memory of visual forms. 
 
 (5) Ability mentally to manipulate visual 
 forms. 
 
 (6) Ability to control hand movements in ac- 
 cordance with visual percept or image. 
 
144 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 (7) Ability to invent, to bring together into 
 new artistic combinations the elements of different 
 visual experiences. 
 
 (8) Ability to judge the beautiful in line, form, 
 color, and composition. 
 
 (9) Ability to discriminate differences in color. 
 
 (10) Ability to discriminate differences in visual 
 magnitude. 
 
 (11) Acuity of vision. 
 
 (12) Interest in the act and products of drawing. 
 
 (13) General intelligence. 
 
 The Test Method and Diagnosis of Drawing Talent 
 (Chapter VIII) 
 
 1. A diagnosis of talent in drawing must be based 
 upon an analysis of the talent and a measurement of 
 the constituent psychophysical factors. 
 
 2. The following program of tests is recommended 
 for the diagnosis of talent in drawing : 
 
 (1) Tests of the elementary ability to represent, 
 by lines and areas, figures and objects observed. 
 
 (2) Tests of the ability to observe. 
 
 (3) Tests of the ability to select from a com- 
 plex visual situation the most representative 
 and the most beautiful aspects. 
 
 (4) Tests of the memory for visual forms. 
 
 (5) Tests of the ability mentally to manipulate 
 visual forms. 
 
 (6) Tests of the ability to control hand move- 
 ments in accordance with visual percept and 
 image. 
 
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS 145 
 
 (7) Tests of the ability to invent, to bring to- 
 gether into new artistic combinations the elements 
 of different visual experiences. 
 
 (8) Tests of the ability to judge the beautiful in 
 line, form, color, and composition. 
 
 (9) Tests of the ability to discriminate differ- 
 ences in color. 
 
 (10) Tests of the ability to discriminate differ- 
 ences in visual magnitude. 
 
 (11) Tests of acuity of vision. 
 
 (12) Tests of general intelligence. 
 
 3. Interpretation of the results of the tests necessi- 
 tates standards of achievement with which the perform- 
 ance of a given individual may fairly be compared. 
 
 4. Every child should be given a many-sided op- 
 portunity in drawing and an attempt should be made to 
 develop corresponding interest. 
 
 5. Biographical and personal data of a non-ex- 
 perimental character should be used to assist in the 
 diagnosis of talent in drawing. 
 
 6. It is recommended that tests which are used for 
 the purpose of estimating the possibilities of improve- 
 ment in any given factor be conducted as 'instructed- 
 learning' tests. 
 
 7. The measurement of many different abilities 
 not primarily related to drawing is necessary to the 
 most effective educational and vocational use of meas- 
 urements of ability in drawing. 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 This study has resulted in a somewhat detailed state- 
 ment of the nature of talent in drawing and has yielded 
 
146 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 a tentative program of tests for the measurement of this 
 talent. In addition specific needs for further study have 
 been indicated. It is a bit disconcerting, however, to 
 leave the investigation where this unit of work must 
 leave it. Now that we know something of the charac- 
 teristics of those who draw and have devised a program 
 for measuring these characteristics, it seems unfortunate 
 that we are unable at the same time to publish the ma- 
 terial and standards for the tests recommended. But 
 of this list of tests, only two (tests of acuity of vision 
 and tests of general intelligence) may be regarded as 
 fairly satisfactory in their present form for the purpose 
 in hand, and these are easily available elsewhere. It is 
 clear, however, that appreciable progress is being made 
 in this new field, the use of tests in the diagnosis of special 
 ability, and we may look to the future with confidence. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The following is a list of the authors and titles to 
 which reference has been made in this study : 
 
 Albien, G. Der Anteil der nachkonstruierenden 
 Tatigkeit des Auges und der Apperception an dem 
 Behalten und der Wiedergabe einfacher Formen. 
 Zeitsckrift fur Experiment elle Padagogik, Bd. 5 : 
 1907, 133ff; Bd. 6: 1908, Iff. 
 
 Albien's experiment represents an elaborate attempt to isolate 
 experimentally the various parts of the drawing process. Simple 
 figures of varying difficulty were used for copy. Three methods of 
 exposure were used. The first was an exposure for ten seconds by 
 means of the tachistoscope, during which period the eyes remained 
 fixed upon the same point. In the second method, the subject was 
 permitted to view the copy until he thought that he could reproduce 
 it; then he attempted to draw it from memory. In the third metnod, 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 147 
 
 the figure was drawn with the copy in view. The subjects in the 
 experiments were forty-five pupils, ages 9 to 18, from the Realschule. 
 These included children of good, average, and poor ability in drawing 
 and of good and poor intelligence. All except nine pupils had received 
 instruction in free-hand drawing. 
 
 Ayer, F. C. The Psychology of Drawing with Special 
 Reference to Laboratory Teaching. Baltimore, War- 
 wick and York, 1916. Pp. 186. 
 
 Contains comprehensive summary of the literature of drawing. 
 Reports also an experimental study of drawing with special reference 
 to laboratory procedure. (1) Four groups of subjects were tested 
 with unfamiliar objects as to their abilities in drawing, description, 
 and diagramming. Correlations were made between the orders of 
 merit of these productions. The groups were (a) 51 high school 
 students, (b) 48 graduate students, (c) 50 college students, and (d) 
 61 college students. Three of the groups were examined as to their 
 memory of details after they had drawn and described various objects. 
 The second group made introspective analysis of the processes involved, 
 after drawing and describing an object. (2) Grades of 51 high 
 school students were compared with their ranking in drawing as 
 discovered in the special tests. (3) Grades in drawing received by 
 141 normal school students were compared with the grades received 
 in all other subjects. (4) 16 students were given an experimental 
 test in the effect of analytical seeing upon drawing. 
 
 Betts, George H. The Distribution and Functions of 
 Mental Imagery. (Doctor's dissertation, Columbia 
 University, 1909.) 
 
 Contains the questionary which was used for the study of imagery 
 in this study. 
 
 Binet, A. La psychologic artistique de Tade Styka. 
 L' Annee psychologique, 15: 1908 (1909), 315-356. 
 
 Report of a study of a young painter, Tade Styka. See Chapter 
 II of this volume. 
 
 Bonser, F. G. The Eeasoning Ability of Children of 
 the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Grades. New York, 
 Teachers College, 1910. Pp. 133. 
 
 Reports an attempt to measure by means of tests the reasoning 
 abilities of children. Factors measured were mathematical judgment, 
 controlled association, selective judgment, and literary interpretation. 
 
 Calfee, Marguerite. College Freshmen and Four Gen- 
 eral Intelligence Tests. Journal of Educational Psy- 
 chology, 4: 1913, 223-231. 
 
148 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 Four general intelligence tests (card sorting, card dealing, alpha- 
 bet sorting, and mirror drawing) were applied to 103 college fresh- 
 men. Correlations were made between the results of the different 
 tests and between the results of each test and the scholastic standing 
 of the students. 
 
 Claparede, Ed. Profils psychologiques gradues d'apres 
 Pordination des sujets avec quelques mots sur 
 Putilite des profils en psychologie legale. Archives 
 de psychologie, 16 : 1916, No. 61, 70-81. 
 
 Contains illustrations of methods of graphing the performances 
 of an individual in different tests so that both the score and the 
 relative standing are indicated. 
 
 Cubberley, E. P. Editor's Introduction to Freeman's 
 Experimental Education. 
 
 Introductory discussion of experimental education. 
 
 Dallenbach, K. M. The Effect of Practise upon Visual 
 Apprehension in School Children. Journal of Edu- 
 cational Psychology, 5 : 1914, 321-334, 387-404. 
 
 Supplements the work of Whipple and Foster (see respective 
 titles). The subjects were school children. 
 
 Foster, W. S. The Effect of Practice upon Visualizing 
 and upon the Reproduction of Visual Impressions. 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, 2 : 1911, 11-22. 
 
 The material of the experiment consisted of real objects, pictures, 
 and nonsense drawings. The time of exposure was from 10 to 60 
 seconds. The drawing was sometimes accompanied by written descrip- 
 tion. The subjects were three adults. 
 
 Freeman, F. N. Experimental Education. Boston, 
 Houghton Mifflin, 1916. Pp. 220. 
 
 A laboratory manual of experiments and typical results in ex- 
 perimental education. Contains introduction by E. P. Cubberley, to 
 which reference is made in this study. 
 
 Freeman, F. N. The Psychology of the Common 
 Branches. Houghton Mifflin, 1916. Pp. 275. 
 
 A text-book in educational psychology as applied to the common 
 branches. Contains a chapter on drawing. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 149 
 
 Healey, W. H., and Fernald, Grace M. Tests for Prac- 
 tical Mental Classification. Psychological Review 
 Monographs, 13 : 1911, No. 2. 
 
 Describes a number of tests used by the authors in the Chicago 
 Juvenile Psychopathic Institute. 
 
 Ivanof, E. Le dessin des ecoliers de la suisse romande. 
 Archives de psychologic, 1908, VIII : 97ff. 
 
 The author examined critically 9764 drawings collected from 2441 
 pupils in the Swiss schools in an investigation planned by Claparede 
 and Guex. Each child drew (1) from a copy a chair or stool, (2) 
 from memory a cat, (3) to illustrate the fable of Le Corbeau et du 
 Renard, and (4) from free choice any object. The drawings were 
 accompanied by information as to the age, sex, nationality, rank in 
 general work, subjects for which the most and least aptitudes were 
 shown, etc. The drawings were evaluated according to three stand- 
 ards: correctness of proportions of the drawings, imaginative con- 
 ception of the drawer, and the technical and artistic value of the 
 drawing. Various correlations between aptitude in drawing and 
 other aptitudes were made. The correlations were made according 
 to age rather than school grade. 
 
 Judd, C. H., and Cowling, D. J. Studies in Perceptual 
 Development. Psychological Review Monographs, 8 : 
 
 1907, 349-369. 
 
 An experimental study of the way in which the perception of 
 simple visual forms is developed. A simple figure composed of straight 
 and curved lines was exposed for ten seconds and the subjects im- 
 mediately afterward attempted to reproduce it. The figure was ex- 
 posed repeatedly until the subject was able to reproduce its essential 
 form. 
 
 Kerschensteiner, Georg. Die Entwicklung der zeichner- 
 ischen Begalung. Munich, Gruber, 1905. S. 508. 
 
 A comprehensive study of children's drawings. Many facsimile 
 reproductions are given of drawings illustrating stages of development. 
 See Chapter II of this study. 
 
 Kik, C. Die iibernormale Zeichnenbegabung bei Kin- 
 dern. Zeitschrift fur angeivandte Psychologic, 2: 
 
 1908, 92-149. 
 
 A study of 13 children talented in drawing. See Chapter II of 
 this volume. 
 
150 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 Meumann, E. Voiiesungen zur Einfiihrung in die ex- 
 perimentelle Padagogik, 2d ed, Bd. 3. Englemann, 
 Leipsig, 1914. 
 
 Brings together a vast amount of material in the field of experi- 
 mental education. Contains an elaborate analysis of drawing. 
 
 Prosser, C. A. Art Training for Industry. Bulletin of 
 tlie Western Drawing and Manual Training Associa- 
 tion, Annual Eeport for 1916, 1 : No. 2, 22-31. 
 
 An interesting discussion of problems in art training from the 
 point of view of a practical worker in art education. 
 
 Pyle, W. H. A Manual for the Mental and Physical 
 Examination of School Children. The University of 
 Missouri Bulletin, Vol. 17 : 1916, No. 24. 
 
 Describes a number of tests and gives norms of comparative 
 results. 
 
 Robinson, J. B. Architectural Composition, New York, 
 Van Nostrand, 1908; Second Edition (?). Pp. 234. 
 
 A formulation of principles of architecture. Illustrated. 
 
 Rossolimo, G. Die psychologische Profile. Zur Metho- 
 dik der quantitativen Untersuchung der psychischen 
 Vorgange in normalen und pathologischeii Fallen. 
 Klinik fur psychische und nervose Krankheiten, Bd. 
 6: 1911, Heft 3. See also the same title in Heft 4 
 and the following article : 
 
 Eossolimo, Gr. Berichtigungen under Erganzungen zur 
 Methodik der Untersuchung der Psychologischen 
 Profile. Klinik fur psycMsche und nervose Krank- 
 Jieiten, Bd. 8 : 1914~ Heft. 2. 
 
 In these references the author describes a method of testing a 
 number of mental processes. Ten tasks are given in each test. The 
 psychological profile is a graph which represents the number of tasks 
 correctly done in each test, or the mean number done in each group 
 of related tests. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 151 
 
 Rugg, H. 0. The Experimental Determination of Men- 
 tal Discipline in School Studies (Descriptive Geom- 
 etry and Mental Discipline). Thesis, University of 
 Illinois. Baltimore, Warwick and York, 1916. Pp. 
 132. 
 
 Summarizes the experimental literature of mental discipline, and 
 reports an experimental study conducted by the author. Of interest 
 in the study of drawing because of the use made of tests requiring 
 mental manipulation of visual forms. 
 
 Sargent, W., and Miller, Elizabeth. How Children 
 Learn to Draw. Boston, Ginn, 1916. Pp. 264. 
 
 An account in detail of methods of teaching children to draw. 
 
 Stern, W. Die differentielle Psychologic in ihren meth- 
 odischen Grundlagen. Leipzig, Barth, 1911. Pp. 
 503. 
 
 A valuable discussion of differential psychology as a new scien- 
 tific discipline. Methods of acquiring materials, investigating individ- 
 ual differences, and studying individualities are discussed at length. 
 The bibliography contains upwards of 1500 titles. 
 
 Stern, W. The Supernormal Child. Journal of Educa- 
 tional Psychology, 2 : 1911, 143-148, 181-190. 
 
 Discusses the child of superior ability. Author urges that some- 
 thing be done for the gifted child, and discusses the practical and 
 theoretical problems of the treatment of superior endowment. 
 
 Terman, L. M. The Measurement of Intelligence. Bos- 
 ton, Houghton Mifflin, 1916. Pp. 362. 
 
 "An explanation of and a complete guide for the use of the 
 Stanford revision and extension of the Binet-Simon intelligence 
 scale." Contains bibliography. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. Tests of Esthetic Appreciation. 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, 1 : 1916, 509-522. 
 
 Describes tests for appreciation of graphic forms and of poetry. 
 
 Titchener, E. B. A Beginner's Psychology. Macmil- 
 lan, New York, 1915. Pp. 362. 
 
 A text-book in elementary psychology. 
 
152 TALENT IN DRAWING 
 
 Trabue, M. E. Completion Tests for Public School Use. 
 Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the 
 Study of Education, 1916, pp. 52-59. 
 
 Discusses the Trabue language tests particularly from the point 
 of view of their use in public schools. 
 
 Trabue, M. E. Completion Test Language Scales. 
 Doctor's Dissertation, Columbia University, 1916. 
 
 Describes the derivation, methods of scoring, etc., of the Trabue 
 language scales. Contains copies of the scales. 
 
 Weidensall, Jean. The Mentality of the Criminal 
 Woman. Educational Psychology Monographs. No. 
 14, 1916. 
 
 A study of criminal women in the Bedford Hills, New York, 
 Reformatory. Contains comparative data from tests of college girls 
 
 Whipple, G. M. The Effect of Practice upon the Eange 
 of Visual Attention and of Visual Apprehension. 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, 1 : 1910, 250-262. 
 
 In experimenting upon the range of attention, tachistoscopic 
 exposure was made of 5, 6, and 7-place series of isolated letters. In 
 experiments with the range of apprehension, dots, pictures, drawings, 
 nonsense syllables, poetry, and objects were used. The subjects were 
 adults. 
 
 Whipple, G. M. Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. 
 Baltimore, Warwick and York, 1910 ; Second Edition, 
 Vol. 1, 1914, Vol. 2, 1915. Pp. 365 and 336. 
 
 An encyclopedia of information on mental and physical tests. 
 Contains descriptions of many tests and extensive bibliographies. 
 Volume 1 includes a discussion of the statistical treatment of numerical 
 results. 
 
 Woodworth, E. S., and Wells, F. L. Association Tests. 
 Psychological Review Monographs, 13 : 1911, No. 5. 
 
 Report of a study in the standardization of a number of associa- 
 tion tests. Tests are described and critically discussed. 
 
VITA 
 
 Herschel Thurman Manuel, son of Asbury H. and 
 Sarah J. Manuel, was born near Freetown, Indiana, 
 December 24, 1887. He attended the Freetown village 
 schools until the completion of the seventh grade. The 
 last year of the grade work was done in the Browns- 
 town, Indiana, public schools. His secondary training 
 was received in the Brownstown High School, from which 
 institution he received his diploma in 1905. The next 
 two academic years were spent in collegiate study in 
 Taylor University at Upland, Indiana. In 1907 he 
 entered DePauw University at Greencastle, Indiana, and 
 was graduated with the degree, Bachelor of Arts, in 
 1909. For the next four years he was a teacher in the 
 public schools and held the following positions : 1909-10 
 Principal of the Chalmers (Indiana) High School, 
 1910-11 Superintendent of the Whiteland (Indiana) 
 Public Schools, and 1911-13 Superintendent of the 
 Chalmers Public Schools. He was a Fellow in Education 
 in the University of Chicago for the years 1913-15, and 
 received the degree, Master of Arts, there in 1914. Dur- 
 ing the year 1915-16 he was a Fellow in Psychology in 
 Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, and an In- 
 structor in Psychology and Pedagogy in Clark College, 
 the collegiate department of Clark University. He con- 
 tinued his graduate work in the University of Illinois 
 during the year 1916-17 working under the direction 
 of Professor Guy M. Whipple in special research on 
 
the general problem of gifted children, an investigation 
 which was subsidized by the General Education Board. 
 
 He has written the following: 
 
 "The Variability in the Use of the Ayres Scale 
 for Grading Handwriting. ' ' Unpublished 
 Master's Essay on file in the library of the 
 University of Chicago. 
 
 "The Use of an Objective Scale of Grading Hand- 
 writing. " Elementary School Journal, XV: 
 1915, 269-278. 
 
 "The New England Penmanship Association: 
 Certain Observations. ' ' School and Society, 
 III : 1916, 502-504. 
 
 "Is the College * Smoker' a Worthy Social Insti- 
 tution?" School and Society, IV: 1916, 699- 
 705. 
 
 "Problems in Handwriting: I. Problems Sug- 
 gested by a Certain Deterioration in Letter 
 Form. ' ' School and Society, V : 1917, 327-330. 
 
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