UCSB LIBRARY C/l'fct t cr/^ '"^ Y /^/ CRABB'S Handy Cyclopaedia OR, AN EXPLANATION OF WORDS AND THINGS CONSECTED WITH ALL THE ARTS AND SCIENCES llluttrattd taith over 500 Engravings. By GEORGE CRABB. A.M.. AUTHOR OF " BNGUSH SYNONYMS," " TECHNOLOGICAL OtCTIONAKV," AHS "HISlORICAt DICnOVARY " Mercury giuded by Minerva, bearing Science round the World. NEW EDITION, WITH THE LATEST IMPROVEMENT» NEW YORK; HURST & CO., PUBLISHBRB, 122 Nassau Street. Digitized by tine Internet Arcliive in 2007 witli funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation littp://www.arcliive.org/details/crabbsliandyoycloOOcrabiala' h R E F A C E . This volume contains definitions of all terms of art and science, with such additional explanations in some cases as serve to illustrate something more than the bare meaning of the word. A work of this kind ca» not fail to be acceptable, particularly as it has been so liberally supplied with illustrations by means of en- gravings. Although small in bulk, it will be found to contain a vast number of words which are not to be met with in any other works whatever, the ex- planation of which is nevertheless highly necessary for those who are not in the constant habit of hear- ing them used in ordinary discourse. Of this descrip- tion are the Latin phrases now adopted into our lau- guage, as Sine qua non, Ne plus ultra, and the like. The historical essays on each science, which have been expnessly composed for the work, serve to show IT PEKFACE. the progress of the arts and sciences from tlie earliest periods to the present time. The present edition has undergone a careful revision, and such alterations and additions have been made as seemed necessary to render it complete. In the depart- ment of Natural History, many errors have been cor- rected, and many articles, particularly relating to the Zoology of the Western Hemisphere, have been added. The Zoological arrangement of Cuvier, which has nearly superseded that of Linnaeus, is here introduced. It having been omitted in the oriijiQal edition. CRABB'S Handy Cyclopaedia ABA A, the first letter of the alphabet of all the kuowu lauguages, except the Ethio- pic, in which it is the thirteenth aud the Kunic iu which itis the tenth. It stands for the indefinite article as, a man ; for the sixth note iu the gamut, for the first of the dominical letters in the calender, as a numeral for one among the Greeks aud 500 among the liomaus, or with a stroke over it A, 5,000, for an abreviation, as A. M Artiuui, Magister, Master of Arts, A. D. Ante Meriduui.etc. A. A. A. In Cliemistry etaads for Al- magam or Amalgamation. A. 1. A mark to denote a ship of the first-class, as to newness aud being sear worthy. AiVM. A Dutch measure of liquids, varying from 35 to 41 English gallons. AARD-VARK. An edentate animal, a native of Southern Africa. AARD-WOLF. A carniferous animal intermediate between the Civit and the Hyena. AAVORA. The fruit of a species of West Indian palm tree. AB. The Hebrew name of father. In the Jewish calendar, the 11th month of the civil year, aud the filth of the ec- clesiastical yefir, answering to a part of July and of August. In the Syriac cal- endar, Ab is the last summer month. ABABILO. A fabulous animal which has the feet of a dog and the beak of a bird, mentioned in the Koran. ^^ABACA. A kind ot flax, which grows in the Philippine Islands. ABAOAY. The calangay, a species of parrot. ABACISCTTS. In archseology, any flat member, the square compartment of a Mosaic pavement. ABAC0S. An instrument for calcula- tion, consisting of a board of an oblong figure, divided by several lines or wires, and mounted with an equal number of balls arranged so as to express units, tens, hundreds, thousands, &c. The ball on the lowest line expresses 1; each of those on the second line, 10, &c. ; « » • • #-• • • • • • • those in the middle spaces, halfaa mucli as those on the lines above theiu. 10000 1000 100 10 1 ABADA. A species of large African Deer, which has two horns on its fore- head aud a third on the nape of its neck. ABBEVILLE FLINTS. Kude flint im- plements iu the form of spear-heads, &c., found in great abundance in the post-tertiary sands and gravels of the river Somnie near Abbeville, iu France. ABDALAVI. The Egyptian melon. ABDALS. Certain religious fanatics in Persia and other Mohammedan coun- tries, who occasionally rush into the streets, and attempt to kill all they meet who are of a different religion to themselves. ABDERITE. An inhabitant of Abaera, in Thrace. Democritus is called from being a native of this town, and as he was much prone to laughter, foolish or incessant laughter has been termed abderian. ABELLANS, ABELONIANS, or ABEl^ ITES. In church history, a sect which arose in Africa during the reign of Ar- cadius ; they married, but lived in con- tinence, after the manner, as they pre- tended, of Abel, and attempted to main- tain the sect by adopting the children of others. ABERRATION. A small apparent mo- tion in the fixed stars, discovered by Mr. Molynenx and Dr. Bradley in the year na,"); also a deviation of therays of light, when inflected by » speeiUam by 2 ABS which they are preventi-d meeting in the lanie [hiimi. A B E'lTOR. One who instigates another to commit a crime. ABEYANCE. The expertancy of an estate, honour, or title. ABJURATION. A declaration on oath, cilJit the son of Jaiiieii II. aail his issue have no riglit to the .hron« of Great Brit- ain ; also a voluntary banishment, or leav- ing the realm on oalli never to return. ABLACTATION. A sort of engrafting trees, hy leaving the gnift ertluoi:8 salts out of any body in rhrmiatry. AUOLLA. A kind of military garnvent «vnrn by the Greek and Roman scildiers. ABOAJASUS (in Comparative Ana- tomy). The fourtli stomach uf ruminating animals. ABOBIGI.NES. The ancient and origi- nal inhabitants of Italy, supiiosed to h.-.ie b«en conducted into I^atiuin by Saturn ; also the original inhabitants of any country. In America we call tlie native Indiar.j, Aborigines. ABOUT. A sea term, signifying the sit- uation of a ship Immediately after she hii." tacked. ABRAUM. A kind of red clay used by cabinet' makers to deepen the colour of new niohugany. ABREAST. Side by side; a sea term, ap- plied to two or more ships ranged together. ABRinGI.NG (in Algebra). The re- ducing a compound equation to a more •iinple form. ABRIDGMENT. The bringing the con- tents of a book within a short compass ; in l i- the centre of the earth by the force of gravity. ACCENT. The raising or lowering of the voice in pronounrliig certain woras of syllables; also the marks on tae woram at syllables, oa tlie acute accent marked tniM ACE ('), the grave accent thus ('}, the clreum- llex thus ('). ACCEPTANCE. The signing or sub- •crihing a hill uf exchange with the word 'acce|>te(i,' and one's name, by which the acceptor obliges liimself to pay the con- tents of the bill. ACCESSARY, or ACCESSORY (in I.aw). One guilty of an otTence, not prin- cipally, kilt by participation. ACCIDE.'.'i'E. The niles of the inflex- ions of nouns and conjugations of verbs arranged in grammatical order. AC<:inE.\T. That which belongsacci- dentally. not essentially, to a thing, as jweetncss, softness. &c.; 'n Grammar, the .ermination of wonls. ACC I PITR ES. 'J'he first order of birds, tiaving an angular •oothlike process on the apper mandilile. as the vulture, falcor; 3wl, tec. ACCr,AMATrO\. A shouting in con- cert, which was practi-^ed among the Ro- mans as a token of applause, particularly in the theatres. ACEPHALOCT3T. A genus of Euto- soa or intestinal animal which has the appearance of a simple bladder, ■without any visable organs. .\CELDAMA. In Hebrew, the field of blood ; a field said to have lain south of Jerusalem, and thus called, because i>ur- chased with tho bribe which Judas took for betraying his Miister. ACEPH.\l.A.X, or.\OEPHAlA. A class of mollnsoa having no head, as the oyster, scallop, mussel, kc. .\lso, an order of insects. ACEPHALI, or ACEPH.U.ITES. In ecclesiastical history, a name given to several sects who rcjfused to follow some noted leader : al«o, to churchmen who were under no bishop. In Eng- lish history, certain levellers in the reign of Henry I. who acknowledged no head or superior. In old law, men who held lands of no particular lords, that is, not i n fee. ACETATES. A kind of salts fonn«d ACT S hy the cnmbinalinn of acetic acid with a salitiable base, as the M'-etate of piitasb. **^CETIC ACID. KadicAl vinegar, oi the strongeit acid of vinegar. ACHRO.MATIC. Colnuriess, a ti-rm applied to telescopes which w«-re first con- trived by Dr. Bevis, to remedy the aberra- tions of colour. ACIDIKIAKLE. An epithet signifyms capable of being con\'erted into an acid by an acidifying principle ; an acidifiablebase or radical is any siihstnnce lliat is capable of uniting with smli a iinantity of oxygen as to iKjcoine possrsseil of acid properties. ACIDS. Substances which are in tastfc sour, chaiigi- blue vegetable colours to red, and combine with all (lie alkalis, and most of the metallic oxiiies and earths, so as to form the compounds called suits. .Acids are dislingiiislied accord ins to the proportion of oxygen which they contain, "iv the termina- tions I'e and cnu, as nitric acid, and nitrons acid, sulphuric acid, and sulphurous .ncid, the former of which denotes the larger dose or (tortion of oxygen, and the latter the smaller ; when the syllable hypo is added to either of these, it denotes a degree below it in |Hiin> y iimkiriK piinrtiires or pricks with a pold or silver needlf in any part of Uif iKidy. It is chiefly einployeii in head- aches, convulsions, lelhar|!ii-s, &.c. A. D. Anno Domini, In the Year of our Lf an army ranged or marchin| in order of battle. ADVENT. The coming of our Sjiviour; also the festival cnmmeinorative of the Advent, which falls aba|ieiM. ADULT (in Civil |j»w). Any person be- tween the ages of fourteen and twenty- live. ADULTERATION. The debasing of the coin by the mixture of impure metals ; also the dehiising and curriipling any arti- cle of trade by puttin<; imprnjwr ingredients in it, as is done verj' frequently . .\DYTUM. The inner and most sacred part of the auoieut heathen temples. None but the priests were permitted to enter it, and irom thenoe the oracles were delivered. The Jewish Holy of Holies was a similar part of the Temple of Jerusalem. ADVOWSON (in Law). A right of pre- sentation to a vacant church or beiielice. He who possesses this right is called the patron of the living. i£DILE. A Roman magistrate who had the charge of all public buildings, partic- ularly temples and theatres, also of all (t'eets, bigtiways, ice. /EGIS. A shield, particularly Jupiter's •bield. jEN'EID. The title of Virgil's poem, in which be celebrates the adventures of JEneas. .«:OLlAN HARP. A number of strings so disposed as to produce a set of musical times by the action of the wind ii|)on them. iEOLIC DIALECT. One of the five dialects of the Greek tongue. jEOLIPILE. a hollow metal ball with a slender pipe, used to show the converti- bility of water into steam iERA, or ERA. Any date, period, or e» *nt from which a calculation of years is made to roniinence. The principal a-ras are the vulgar, or Christian am, dated from the birth of our Saviour; the «era of the rreation, dated by Usher and most cbronologists 4(104 years before the vulgar Km ; the lera of the Olympiads, d.ited altout 776 years before the vulgar lera ; the lera of the building of Rome, according to Var- n, is 7M yeari before Christ ; tlie ffra of Nabonassar, so dated from Nalionassiir Ihe first king of Babylon, 747 years before Christ ; the tera of the Hegira, or the .Ma- hometan Kra, dated from the hegira or tifjai of Alaboniel from Mecca, dated I* AER ft about 623 years alter Christ, or the vulgar lura. AEROLITES. Air stones, or meteoric stones I'Uliiig from the atiiinsphere. These areseniiinetallic siilisiaiii'«s, tlin descent of which, though nieiitionrd sevenil times in history, has not been authenticated until these few years. The fail is, however, by recent and frequent observations now put beyiuid all doubt. Two showers of stone, are recorded by Li\'y and Julius Oltsequtina to have hapiiened at Rs. another of tiultts. that fell at Padua in Italy, in I.'ilOi Gassendi, of a stone of 59 lbs. on .Mount Vaiser in Provence ; Muschenbrock of two large stones in Ireland ; St. Ainand de Baiidin and others of a great shower of stones in the environs of Agen, in 1790 ; the earl of Bristol of twelve stones at Sienna in Tus- cany, in 1794 ; captain Tophaiii of a stone of .Vi lbs. at Wold Cottage in Vorkshu-e, in 179.5; Dr. Southey of a slmie of 10 lbs. in Portugal, in I79(>; Pliilosopliical Maga- zine, of a mass of iron 70 culnc feel, in America, in lt<00 ; and M. Fourcroy of several stones from 10 lbs to 17 lbs. that fell near L'Aigle in .\ormaiidy, besides other instances equally well attested. The largei sort of these stones have l,eeii seen as lumi- nous bodies to move with gre.it vehicily, descending in an oblique direction, aod fretpieiitly with a loud hissing noise, re- semhliiig that of a nionar shell when (.."►- jected from a piece or ordnance. AIhki! the year 1807, a liiinliioiis iHidy of this kind passed over Coiiiirrticut, and explo- ded with a loud noise like thunder, and large masses of stones fell in Weston in that state, specimens of which are in thf Cabinet of Vale Collet:e. Though ditTer- ent fnun every other known terrestrial sub- stance, yet these stones perfertly resemble each other, having the same apftearance of semimetallic matter, coated on the out- side with a thin black iiirriistatiun, and being in their chymical composition very similar. The stone which fell at L'.Aigle ill France, in 180U, was found to ctmtain of silica 54 parts, oxyde of iron 36, mag- nesia 9, oxyde of nickel 3. sulphur 2, lim« I i their specific gravity is also nearly th« same, being alniut 3 and a half that of coin- mon water. AERONAUT. One who sails or floala in the air in a balloon. AEROSTATION. The nK>dem ut •< AEROSTATION laiclns i>nil'>*-f into and nr.vipating the air, kj tiiearia «rture at the bottom, the air thus became rarefied, and the bag as- cended to the height of 70 feet. This ex- periment was made at Avignon, about the middle of the year 1782, and was followed by other experiments, all tending to prove the practicability (X th« scheme. An im- mense bag of linen, lined with paper, and containing upwards nf23,()00 cubic ft., was faund to have a power of lifting about ."iOO pounds, Including its own weight. Burning chopped straw and wool under the aperture ofthe machinecaused it to swell and a.ra the king at Versailles, with a balloon near 00 feet high and 43 iti diameter, a sheep, a cock, and a duck, the first animals that ever ascended in a balloon, were carried up aliout 1440 feet, and after remaining in the air about eight minutes, came to the ground in perfect safety, atthedistiinceof 10,200 feel from the place of ascent. Em- boldened by this experiment, M. Pilatre de Rozier offered himself to be the first aerial adventurer. A new machine was accordingly prepared, with a gallery and grate, &.c. to enable the person ascending to supply the fire with fuel, anil thus keep up the machine as long as he pleased. On the l.'ilh of October, I7S3, M. Pilatre took his seat in the gallery, and, the machine being inilated, he rose to the height of 84 feet, and, after keeping it afloat about four minutes and a half, he gently descended : he tl'H rose again to the height of 210 feet, anr .ne third time 2u2. In llie descent, a gust of wind having blown the machine over some large trees, M. Pilatre extricated himself by throwing straw and wool on the fire, which raised him at once to a sufli- cient height, and in this manner he found himself able to ascend or descend to a cer- tain height at pleasure. Some time alter, he ascended with M. Girond de Vilf Ite to the height of 330 feet, hovering over Paris at least nine minutes, in sight of a I the inhabitants, and the machine keeping all the while a steady |K>sltiou. In 1783, he undertook a third aerial voyage with the Marquis d'Arlandes, and in the space of twenty-five minutes went about five miles In this voyage tliey met with several diflTer- ent currents of air, the effect of which wan to give a very sensible shock to the machine They were also in danger of having the machine burnt altogether, if the fire liad not been quickly extinguished by means of a spimge. After this period aerostatic ma- chines were elevated by inflammable air en- closed, instead of lire, with which Messrs Roberts and Charles made the first exjieri- ment. In this case the bag was com|iosed of lutestring, varnished over with a solu- tion of elastic gum, called caoutchouc, nnj was about 13 English feet in diameter After being filled with considerable difli- culty, it .vai found to be 35 pounds ligbfei AEROSTATION. Jiaii an equal bulk ofnonimoii air. \\'itli this tliey asceiiilcil, and in three i|itnrters ol'aii lioiir tnivrrsfil lifteeii miles. Tlieir midiien descent was occa^jiuned l)y a rup- ture which hiipiteneil tu tiie macliine when it was at its greatest liei;;lil. On a subse- quent day tlie same genllenien made an accent In a bailnDU tilled with iutlummable air. This machine was formed of gores of silk, covered with a varnish of caoutchouc, ot a spherical figure, and measuring 27 feet b iiichet in diaineier. A net was spread ftver the upper hemisphere, and fajttened to a hoop wliich passed round the middle of the balloon. To this a sort of car was suspended, a few feet below the lower part of the balloon : and in order to prevent the burstingof the 'lachine, a valve was placed in It, by opening of which some of the in- tiaininable air might be allowed to escape. In the car, which was of basket-work, and covered witli linen, the two adventurers took their seats in the aflernixin of the 1st of December, 1763. At the time the bal- liKin rose the barometer was at 3U''. 18'. and it continued rising until the barometer fell to 27°, from which they calculated that tJiey had ascended GOO yards. By throw- ing out ballast occasionally they found it practicable to keep nearly the same dis- tance from the earth during the rest of their voyage, the mercury fluctuating between 27" and 27* 65', and the thermometer be- tween 53° and 57° the whole time. They continued in the air an hour and three quarters, and alighted at the distance of 27 miles from Paris, having sutfered no inconvenience, nor experienced any of the contrary currents described by the marquis d'Arlandes. M. Roberts having alighted, and much of the inflammable gas still re- maining, M. Charles determined on taking another voyage. No sooner therefore was thtt balloon thus lightened of 130 pounds of its weight, than it arose with immense ve- locity, and in 20 minutes was 9000 feet above the earth, and out of sight of all ter- restrial objects. The globe, which had be- come flaccid, now began to swell, and when M. Charles drew the valve, to prevent the balloon from bursting, the inflammable eas, whicli was much warmer than the external air, for a time diffused a warmth around, but afterwards, a considerable change was observable in the temperature. His fingers were benumbed with cold, which also occasioned a pain in his right ear and jaw, but the beauty of the prospect compensated for these nconveniences. The sun, which had been set on his ascent, became again visible for a short time, in eoniequence of the height which he had reached. He saw fora few fecon'Js vapot;n rising from the valleys and rivers. The clouds scerned to rise ft oin the earth, and collect one upon the otiier ; only their col- our was gray and obscure from the dimness of the light. By the light of the uuwn ho perceived tliat the machine was turning round with him, and that there were con- trar]' currents which brought him back again : he also observed with sur|)rise, that the wind caused his banners to point up- wards, although he was neither rising nor descending, but moving horizontally. On alightingin afield about three miles distant from the place where i)e set out, he calcu- lated that he had ascended, at this time not less than 10,500 feet. Hitherto all ex- (lerimeiits of this kind had been unattended with any evil consequences, but an attempt which was made to put a small aerostatic machine with nirefied air under an inflam- mable air balloon, proved fatal to the ad ven- turers, M. Pilatre de llozier and M. R<>- inaiiie. Their inflammable air balloon was about 37 feet in diameter, and the power of the rarefied air one was equivalent to about 60 pounds They were not long in the aii when the inflammable air balloon was seen to swell considerably, and the aeronaut* were observed, by means of telescopes, tu be very anxious to descend, and busied iu pulling the valve and giving every possible facility of escape to the inflammable air, but, in spite of all their endeavours, th<> balloon took fire without any explosion and the unfortunate gentlemen were pre- cipitated to the earth at the height of almiit three quarters of a mile. M. Pilatre seem- ed to have been dead before he came to the ground ; but M. Komaine was found to be alive, allhougli he expired iminediately after. The ill success of this experiment, which had been made for the i>iirfM>se ol diminishing the expense of inflating tbs machine with gas, did not interrupt the progress of aerostation. Aerial voyages continued to be made on the old scheme The first trial in England was made by Vincent Lunardi, an Italian, on the 15tli of September, 1784. His balloon, the di- ameter of which was 33 feet, was made of oiled silk, painted in alternate stripes of blue and red. From a net, which Avent over about two thirds of the balloon, de- scended 45 cords to a hoop hanging below it, and to which the gallery was attached. Instead cf a valve, the aperture at the neck of the balloon, which was in the shape of a pear, served for admitting or lettmg out the inflammable air. The air for filling the balloon was produced from zinc, by means of diluted vitriollcar.W M ».—,«-• • AFF ■Mtetided rnini the Artillery Ground, at two o'< liick, liitvjiig witji him a dot;, a cat, and • pigfdii. Me was obli;:ed to throw out •oiiie of hifi ballast, in order to clear the houNes, when he rnsm to a coiisiderahle beielit, proceeding firisl N. \V. by VV. and then nearly N. Ahonl lialf after three he descended very near the earlh, and landed Uie cat, which was l-all'deud with the cold; he then reascended by throwing out some more of his ballast, and ten minutes past four he alighted in a meadow near Ware, in Hertfordshire. His thermometer stood :n the course of his voyage as low as 21)". and he observed that the drops of water collected round the balloon were frozen. The second aerial voyage in England was performed by Mr. Blanchard, on the IGtIi of October in the same year, in which he was Rccom|ianied by Mr. Shelden, profess- or t>f anatomy at the Royal Academy, the first Kngli-shman that adventured in such an excursion. They ascended a few minutes past 12 o'clock, and after proceeding about 14 miles beyond Chels^ea, Mr. Ulanchard landed Mr. Sheldon, reascended alone, and finally landed near Rum.sey, in Hampshire, about 75 miles from London, which was at the rate of about 2i> miles an hour. Mr. Blanchard ascended so high, that he felt a difficulty inbreathing; and a pigeon, which flew from the boat, laboured for some time to sustain itself, but was at length compel- led to return and rest on the btKit. Aerial voyages now became frequent in England and elsewhere, and afforded no- thing worthy of notice before the ascent of M. (inrnerin, in 1802, who undertook the singular and desperate ex|)eriment of de- scending by means of a panicliute. (See Parachute.) In this descent it was ob- aerved that the parachute, with the appen- dage of cords and the basket in which M. Garnerin had seated himself, vibrated like tbe pendulum of a clock, and at times the vibrations were so violent, that more than once the imracliute and the basket seemed to be on the same level, or quite horizon- tal, which presented a teirtftc spectacle of danger to the spectator. They diminish- ed, however, as M. Garnerin approached tlie earth, and he was landed in safety, though strongly affected with the violent •hocks that his frame had experienced. Various excursions have since been made by Mr. SaiJIer, Mr Green, and others. AETITES, or RAOi.E-tToNE. A stone ao called, becaure it was originally found in eagles' nntu. It is a sort of ore of a kid- ■ey ihaiie, imbedded in iron-«hot clay. AFFEUTUOSU. In an aflecting style : AGE a term In music books at the he,(inninE <<( a movemeiii. AGALLOCH, or AGALLOCHUM. Aloes- wood, ttie product of a tree growing in China, and some of the Indian Isles. There are three varieties, the calambac, the commou lignum aloes, and the cal- ambour. The first of these is light and porous, and so flllod with a fragrant resin, that it may be moulded by the fingers ; the second is denser and less resinous ; and the third is the aloes- wood used by cabinet-makers, &c. AGALMATOLITK. A solt stone, a Bub- Bpecies of mica of various colors, which different mineralogists severally term Boap-stone, lard-stone, steatite, talc graphique, &c. It contains no magnesia, but otherwi.se has all the characters of talc. The best specimens are brought from China. It is used in that country in the manufacture of images. AGAMI. A remarkable bird, inhabit- ing the woods of Central America. It ia of the size of a large fowl, has a short tail, and long legs, and runs with great speed. It is sometimes otherwise cal- led the gold-breasted trumpeter. AGA'l K. A precious stone, nrsl found in Sicily ; it is a mineral composed of various f.ibstances, as cluilcedoiiy, cornelian, jas- per, &.C.; also a stone of the agate kind engraven by art, which constitutes among antiquarians a S|>ecies of gems. AGE. A certain (leriod or limit of time, marked for the convenience of chronology and histtiry by some remarkable evetits Clironologers comiiierfrclly retaiTked anionf the differenl nations that were scattered abroad after the confusion of tongues Agricullurewasoneof Ihea ts which Noah and his |Misterity retained; for we tind that he cultivated the vine. Those of the line of Shem appear to have followed the breed- ing and feeding of cattle : but those of the line of Ham, who look iH>sse8sion of Egj |)t, applied themselves to the tilling of the ground, and with so much ingenuity, in- dustry, and success, that, owing to the in- undations of the Nile, and the consequent fertility of the soil, Egypt was enabled in the tiuMt of Abraham, and still uMire so in the time of Joseph, to supply its neighbours with corn during a period of famine. Nor were the inhabitants backward in assisting the liberality of nature: they busied them- selves in embanking, irrigation, and drain- ing, in order to derive all the benefits which the t>enigiianl river was cajKible of afford- ing them. These works are saiil to have l>een carried on with |)articular spirit under the auspices of Sesostris, 1800 years before the Christiar »ra. So sensible were the Egyptians nf the blessings wliich agricul- ture atforrted, that, in the bliudness of their 7.eal, tliey ascritwd the invention of the .irt to their god Osiris, and the culture of bar- ley and wheat to their goddess Isis. The Pehvsgi, or atioriginal inhabitants of Greece, were among the number of tho.«e who lost all the primeval arts, and fed upon acorns and wild fruits, until they were led by the Egyptians, with whom they had an early communication, to the cultivation of the ground. Like them, l(«>, tliey placed their lienefactress Ceres, to whom they ascribed the introduction of corn, among the nuiiil>eroftheirdeities;a goddess whom authors agree was no othrt' than the Egyp- tian Isis. In the time of Homer, agricul- ture was in such esteem that King Laertes laid aside his royal dignity, that he miglit cultivate a few fields. Hesiod. the contem- porary of this author, has devoted a whole poem to the labours of the field in the dif- ferent seasons of the year. Of otlier writ- ings, among the Greeks, on agrit-ulture lit- tle remains except a Iretrtise hy .Xenophon on rural afhiirs, and scattered notices on the subject in the works of Aristotle and Theophrastiis ; but we learn from Varro, that there were In his time not less than fifty Greek authors to be consulted od agricultural maf">r. The Jews, a» i«cripttire informs us, ap- plied themselvM when they came into the land of Canaan, to the cultivation of ifce soil, havitii; each their territory allrtted I* «0 AGKICULTURE. •ticm. We may also Infer, from the fre- quent allusion« to lliis subject in different parts iiftlir Old Testament, that liuHbHoilry formed tlieir prmci)ial occupation. The law* of iMosea have, many uf them, fur Uieir object the regulation ol their tiocki), their herds, and their lields. David culti- vated his own land, having officers to take charge of his Hocks, his herds, his camels, his asses, and his warehouses of wine and oil, Si.c. Elislia was in the field with twelve yoke of oxen when Elijah found bini. Besides the freiiuent mention of husbandry business in different jmrls of the sacred writings, as tl>« digging of wells, the planting of vineyards, tiie leas- ing, gathering in, threshing, siding, and winnowing of corn, with a number of other things of the like kind. That the Carthaginians did not neulect agriculture is evident from this, that they had writers on the subject, of whom a fa- mous general, Mugo, was one, who isi|Uo- ted by Varro. He wrote no less than twen- ty-eight books. It is probable that, under the auspices of these [leople, agriculture flourished in Sicily, wnich wasaUerwards the granary of Koine. . No subject engaged the uttenlion of the Romans more than agriculture, theoretical- ly as well as practically. They divided their time between war and husbandry; their greatest men in the early ages of tlie re- public, lieing einployeil alleriiutely in the one and the other. Cinciniiatus was taken from the pliMigh to fill the orhce of dictator; and Kegnlus besought the senate that he might return to his little farm for a short lime, to prevent it from being ruined. I'liiiy abserves, that the Romans ploughed their lields with the same diligence that they pitched their tents, and sowed their corn with a« much i^re as they raised their •nnies. When riches had introduced lux- ury, and artificial manners and habits, the labours of the field were performed by their •laves; but there remained many among Ihein of the higher orders who directed their personal atteiitinn to the subject. The writings of Cato the Censor, "irro, Pliny, Columella, and Palladins, aa well as those of the poet Virgil, abound with practical and useful observations on the whole round of farming business. Al the same time they ill agree in ln;iienting that agriculture was not p'.irKiied wUh the same zeal as formerly. I'lie great among the Romans had town housefi as well as villas, and living more in the for iier than in the laiter, the maiiase- Jwit of tneir farms was left to (heir haillffs m wrvanta. The oi, which was the prin- iJpai bcoit uf burden ^ntoiig the Egyptians, the Jews, and Grecians, was aljo hi{^} esteemed among the Koniani. Many diretr tions for the breeding, breaking, feeding, and working this animal are to be found in the writers al)ovemenlioned ; as also in regard to the iiiaiiageiiient of bees, which were highly prized. As to the implements of husbandry used among the Romans, the description of them not being illustrated by any representation, it is not ea-iy to speak precisely of them; but it is clear that they used the plough with and without wheels, with and wittiout boards, with and without coulters, also with shares of different coD- strurtions. A reaping machine is likewise spoken of both by Pliny and Palladius. which was driven by an ox ; but for the most part they cut their corn with the hand, either with the hook close to the ground, or only the ears with a curved stick and a saw attached to it, or otherwise they cut the stalks in the middle, leaving the stubble to be afterwards mowed. They threshed either with a machine composed ufrollerSi, or with rods or flails, or they trod it out with their feet. Haymaking was performed among the Romans much in the same man- ner as at present. Harrowing the corn woa particularly recommended by the Roman writers; who also sfieak of 'loeing, weed- ing, watering, draining, and following the ground, which was universal aniiuig them Agriculture shared the fate ot'all the other arts on the decline of the empire: from the time of Pliny to the tifleentli century, there is no work extant on the subject, except the UeoiMMiics, which was published by Constantine Pogoiiatus, and probably col- lected by the emperor himself. Crescenzio, a writer of Kologna, was the first who called the attention of his countrymen to this sub ject after this long iittervjil. His little work, which was collected from the Roman wri- ters, was followed by siuiie other Italian productiims: but probably nothing contri- buted more to give an im|iortance to agri- cultural pursuits than the introduction of the feudal system, which gave to every man a rank and distinction accordiiigtothe quantity of land he either (Missessed or oc- cupied; for not only the great lord, who waa the owner ,.. 1, or reaped the fruita of it, but also his tenants, who cultivated it, were invested with political privileges that were enjoyed by no other memliers of the community ; and alUiough the feudal burdens and restraints have ceased, yet tba privileges and advantiigen attached to the possemion of landed pro[>erty still give It a (Kiraniount advaiitaite. Hence it Is, thai allies tne revival of the arts, the science of agrtcultura haa been sealoualj culUvatad AIR •» III* liigher orders. The writers likewise -.•n lliio siihjecl have within the last centu- ry been more numerous than at any former perittd ; ai>d every etfort has Iteen made oy evperiments, inventions, and improve- ment to rentier tlie land productive. Nor have tliese efforts been without elFect, for, notwithstanding the immense increase in the |x>piilatioii, tliere has l>een no such ■carcity as we read of in former times. AGUE. An intermitting fever, witli hot and cold fits alternately. A(;<)L'TI. A South American animal, resenilihng a gtiineapig, havina the charac- ters of the rat kind, and the hair and voice ofthehi'!:. When provoked, it raises all the hair of its l>ack upright, and strikes the cartii Willi Its hinder feeu AGUAPECACA. The Jacana. a Brazil- ian bird about the size of a pigeon. AGRYPN0C05L\. The three-toed sloth ; BO named from its peculiar cry. AI.\. Brazilian bird of the Spoon- bUl kind. AlCUKUS. A large and beautiful species of parrot, found in Brazil. AILURUS. The panda, a carnivorous quadruped inhabiting the north of In- dia ; it is atUed to the racoon, about the size of a largo cat. and has a soft, thick fur, of a briUiant lulvoua red, on the upper parts. .\IR. An invisible, transparent fluid, which we constantly breathe, and which is essential to the support of animal and vegetable existence. It envelops the entire globe, and constitutes the atmosptiere tnat FniTouuds it. Air is 81(3 times lighter than its bulk of water; 1,003 cubic inches at the ordinary tem- perature and pressure weighing 305 grains. It consists of about &0 parts, in bulk, of nitrogen, and 20 parts of oxy- gen, and about i»ne-thousandth part of carbonic acid. Air, when inhaled into the lungs, unites with the carbon of the blood, and forms carbonic acid, a process which produces the heat neces- sary to sustain the proper temperature of the animal system. — In zoology. Air- cells are membraneous receptacles com- municating with the lungs, and in birds extending through the different parts of the body, by which their spe- cific gravity is dimiaished. and they are ALA IJ rendered fitter for sustenation in the air. — In botany, air-cells are cavities ia the leaves and stems of certain alg», which render thom buoyant in water. — Air-plauts are orchideous plants which live for many months suspended in the air. — Air-vessels are spiral vessels or ducts in plants containing air, and sup- posed to answer the same purpose in the vegetable system as lungs do in th« animal. AlK-I'LT.MP. A iiiachine for exhausting the air cmt cf vessels, in the s.tme manner as water is drawn up by a pump. This celeUnited machine was invented by Otto de <;iirrJrke, consul of .Mapdeliurgh, who exhibited his lirsl piilitic experiiiients with tills instriiiMent before the Emperor and i^tates of (ieriiiany, at the breaking up of the Imperial Diet at KatislK>n, in the year Hi.'>4 : but his 4lescrlplion of the machliM was first published m lli72, at Amsterdaiu umler the title of Kxperinkenta nova Mag debiirjica de Vacuo Spatio. Before this imblicatinn, it ap|iearslhnt iMr. Boyle, who had piirticul.arly directed his attention to the study of pneumatics, a'so conceived a similar idea, which led .^l■. Hu«ike to as- crilie the invention to hiiii ; but .Mr. Boyle himself, ill a letter to his nephew. Lord Uiiiigarvon, expresses his acknowledgment for the discover; of this useful machine from what he had heard re|Hirted of it, al- though, as he adds, he had not, at that time, |)erused the account of it. - wards Mr. Huuke and many ulbeni. AIR SHAFTS (in Mining). T?o»«» c* shads let down froiii the o|ien air to dis- charge the fiiul va|M>urs. AIK-VICSSKI.S. .^laral ducts or CAnal* in the leaves and other parts of plants, which are siip|M>sci| to supply them with air, after tlie niaiiiierof lungs in aniuials. AI.AI»A.f a eranular texture, and of a white riibHir, ami hus a certain degree of traai<|>ureiicy. It is limuJ in Gemiaay It ALG Prance, and Italy, and la ua«d by sculptor* for ttatiir*. ALBATUOSri, or Man or W»h Rird. A lar|;e WHter fowl, vvhicli iiiliahita uiorft ■ea^ hflwff .. ttit' tri<|iic8. ALIilN'iS Tin- Willie Mimre, so called by the I'orliiuiie!* , llit-y have ii;»xeii hair, blue r(>lliii|2 eyes, and a |Mle livid while- netis ALBUMEN. The whitenf an eeg, and any viscous tliiid withimt taste or smell that b like It, as llie serous |iarl ot' llie tilixid. ALKI'KM'M. 'I'hestirt while sulwlance n trees next t » (ht liber, or wilier hark. AM'IIF:M\ r^at obsolete branch of chyinistry which yi' for its object the :ransinutation of nietais into gold ; the findine the panacea, or universal remedy ; an,d some other Ihines e(|iially ridiculous. AIA'i >I|i )L. C'(uiiiiH>nly called spirit of wine, but oblniiied by distillation in a state more anient and |>uritied than that li(|uor. It is cliierty einjiloyed in (ireparing var- nishes, and dtssiilviii|> cuins, resins, &c. It« antiseptic power makes it useful in pre- serving anatomical prrpanttions. AIjCOK. a small siar, ailjoining the bright one in the middle of the tail of l/rsa Major. AU:ORA.\. SeeKoBAN. AI-DEBAKAN, or Thb Bull's Ete. A star of the first magnitude in the con- ctellatioM Taurus. ALDEK. A tree which thrives partic- Dlarly in moist places. The principal sorts of alder are the round leaved, or common alder, the liuiiileaved, and the dwarf alder. Al.ltKRiMA.V. A 8ii|><>rior jinlae, who In England sat with the liisliop in the coun- ty courts In (he time of the Saxons. The alderinaii is now a niajistrale next to tlie mayor in a city or iHirougli. A-LEE. A sea term, siunifying to the leeside, or side which the wind blows upon. Al.EMBK;. A vessel formerly used for distilling ; in the place ot which retorts are now mostly in use. ALEX A.N DRIVE. A verse in modem poetry consisting of ten, twelve, or thirteen syllables. ALGjK. a natural oriler of plants in the Llnnean system, coniaiinne flags, sea- weeds, and other marine plants, whose root, leaf, and stem are one. ALGEBRA. The science of computing abstract quantities by means of symlHils or signs. Il Is called S|iecious Arithmetic by Viela, and l/niversal Arithinelir by New- tor.. Tlie first letters of the alpJialwt, a, b, •, i. Sic. are mad»- to represent known juaninitw ; and tlie lant luOers x, j, i, to I ALG represent those that are unknown. The o|>erationi with these letters are |>erfi.rmed by means ol the chamciers (-+-) lor addi- tiiui, ( — ) for siihtraciion, (X) •"■■ "'"'t'l'" cation, (_!-) for division, (=j for eipialily ALGEBKA, I1i«torv ir. The terra alcebra is of Arabic original, and is deri- ved by some rriiiii algeatiar almocabaleh, sigirn'ying reslitiition and comikirison, ol resolution, which pro|ierly expresses llie nature of the thing: others have derived il fromCieber, a celebrated malliemaliciaii. This science is not of very ancient dale, although it is not (Hissible to tix the exact period oritscommencenient. The earliest treatise on tliis subject now extant is tiiat of Uiophantiis, a Greek author of Alexan dria. who flourished about the year 3.50, and wrote thirteen books of ArithmeticO' ruin, of which six mily are preserved. These b(M)ks do not contain the elementary parts of algebra, only some diflicult pro- Itlenis respect! n !: sipiare and cube numbers, and the properties of numliers in general, to which the writings of the more ancient authors, as Euclid, Archimedes, and A|hiI- loiiius might naturally besupiHised to have given birth. Whether the Arabians tisik their hints from tins and similar works among the (Jreeks, and drew out the sci- ence of algebra for themselves, or whether they more imniediately derived it, as'they dill their notation, from tho llondiHis, is a matter of doubt. It is certain, however, that the science was first transmitted by the yirabiaiis or Saracens to Eiiro|ie. about t*ie year 1 100; and that alter its introduc- tion the Italians took the lead in its culti- vation. Lucas Paclolus, or Lucas de Kiirgo, was one of the first who wruleiui llie sub- ject, and has left several treal ises, published between the years 1470 and l:'>09. In his principal work, entitled Suiiima Ariilinie- ticiB et GeruiietriiP l'ro|Mirlii>nuinipie Pro- portion.'ilitatiim, piiblished'tirsi in I4!M, lie mentions several writers, and particularly LeiMianlus l'is.tnus, otherwise called Bo- ■lac.ri, an Italian merchant, who, i.i ih(> thirteenth century, used to Iniile to the sea- ports, and thence introiliired llie science of algebra into Italy. Aller Lucas de Riirgo, many other Italian writers took up th« subject, and treated it nM>re al large, nt Scipio Perreus, who found out a rule foi resolving one case of a coni|Hiiind ciiluc equation ; but more es|)ecially llieronyniiis Cardan, who, in ten bisiks pubiisheJ in 1.5:J9-4.'>, has given the whole doctrine of cubic eiitem|Mtrarr of Cardan's wh«i piiblishe 1 b b«ik uncuAV ALGEBRA. It •qiiat!on Invenzioni di- verse, which apiieiired in 15U6. Cardan often uwd the literal notation ofa,b, e, U, tc, but Tartalea niaile no alteration in the fomis of expression used by Lucas de Bur- fo, calling the first |K>werof the unknown qitiiutity in his lanpuage cosa, llie second censii, the third cuho, &.C. writing the n-unes of all the o|)eration8 In words lit )en- nent. He likewise uses tlie literal no- tation, A, B, C, D, &c for the unknown or general quantities. John Scheubelius, who wrote aluuit the same lime as Car- dan and Stifelius, treats largely on surds, and gives a general rule for extracting the root of any binomial or resid-ial, a-hb, where one or both parts are surds. These writers were succeeded by Robert Recorde, a malhen»itician and physician of Wales, who in his works, in 1552 and 1557, on Arithmetic, showed that the sci- ence of aljiebra had not been overiooked in England. He first gave niles for the extracting of the root-* of compound alge- braic quantities, and made use of the terms binomial and residual, and introduced the 8ignofequ.\lity,or:r:. Peletarius, a French alsebniist, in his work, which appeared at Paris in 1558, made many improvemenu on tho«« parts of alitebra wliich had already been treated of. He was followed by Peter Ramus, who published his Arithmetic and Aluelirain 1560; Raphael Bombelli, whose Algebra ap[ieared at Bologna in 1.579 ; and Simon Steven, of Bruges, who published ttis .\rilhnietic in 15S5, and his Algebra a little after. This latter invented a new cha- racter fortlie unknown quantity, namely, a •ni.ill circle ( o )i within which he placed numeral exponent of the power; and ^.*o denoted roots, as well as powers, by numeral exponents. The algebraical works of Vieta, the next mnrt distinguished alge- braist, appeared alwiut the year 1600, and e<>ntain many unprovements In the methods of \» orking algebraical questions. He uses the vowels A, E, [, O, Y, for the un- known qu.'tntitles, and the roTn-miants, B, ■ 0, Itc for "he unowa « uaoiiues ; and 3 introduced nii«ny terms which are In pr»- senl use, as ctwtficienl, affirmative and negjitive, pure and adfecled, ice: also the line, or vinculum, over ctmipound quanti- ties (AOJ). All)ert Uirard, an ii.genusi* Flemish mathematician, wan the first |ier- »t being separated by a point, thus .S.bbc For a root he sets the index of the root after the mark /^ , as ^3 for the cube root, and introduces the characters'^ and <^, for greater and less ; and in the reiluction of equations he arranged the ofierations in separate steps or lines, setting the eipht- nations in the hiargin, on the left hand, for each line. In this manner he brought algebra nearly to the fonn which it now bears, and added also much information on the subject of equations. Ouahtred, in his Clavis, which was first published m 1631, set down the decimals without their denominator, separating them thus aUiit) In algebraic multiplications he either joins the letters which represent the factors, or connects them with the sign of multiplica- tion -\-, which is the first iiitrw- lon, in ki« Ariihmelica Universalis, made many improvriiienla in aiialylicii, which ■uhject, as wril aslhe theory (if infinile iSe- ries, was further ilevelo[)«!(l hy llalley, Ber- nert, Waringi Euler, &c. AUGt)L. A fixed star of the seaiiid ma^nittule in the coiisiellatioii of Perseus, or Medusa's Mead. ALGORITHM. An Arabic word, fre- quenily used to denote the practical rules of al|;ehra. AM AS (in Law). A word algnifylnp, Hieraily, otherwise ; and employed in de- ■crihing the defendant, who has a^uined other names besides his real one. AI^IBI (in I«iw). A term signifying, literally, elsewhere; and used by the de- fendant in a criminal prosecution, when he wishes to prove Ins iiiiiitcenre, by show- ing that he was in another place, or else- where, when the act was comiiiilted. ALICONDA. Ar. Kthiopiaii tree, from the bark of which flax is spun. ALIKN (in Ijaw). One born in a foreign country. An alien is incajiable of inheriting lands until lie is naturali/.ed hy an act of the legislature. He has likewise no right to vote at elections, or to enjoy any office, nor to be returned on any jury, unless where an alien is to be tried. ALIMONY (in the Civil Law). The allowance made to a married woman upon her sepanition fnun her husband. ALiaUANT PARTS. Such numbers In arithmetic as will not divide or measure a whole number exactly, as 7, which is the aliquant part of 16. ALIULTOT PARTS. Such part of a number as will divide or measure a whole number exactly, as 2 the aliquot part of 4, 3of9, aiid4of 16. ALKALI or AliCALF. A perfectly pure •alt, which combines with acids so as to neutralize or impair their activity, and produces salts. Besides, alkalies change the purple colour of many vegetables to a green, the reds to a purple, and the yellows toabrown. Some alkalies are called fixed, because they remain fixed in the fJre, as potash and soda; others are volatile, as ammonia. ALLAH. The Arabian name of God. ALLEGIANCE (in Ijiw). Tlmfaithful obedience which every subject owes to his prince ; the oath of allegiance Is that which every penon is required to take before he wtors on imy office. ALL ATJ-EGORY. A series or chain cf me taphors rontinned through a whole die course ; thus the prophets represent the Jews under the allegory of a vine, planted, cul(ivaled,Hiid wateredby the handof God. ALLEGRO. An Italiafi word used in music, to denote that the part is to t»e play* ed in a brisk and sprightly manner. ALLIGATION. A rule in arithmetic, teaching how to compound several ingre- dients for any design pro|>osed. It is either medial or alternate. Alligation medial is the method of finding the rate or quality of the composition from having the rates or qualities of the several ingredients, as to find the value of bnindy per gallon, which is composed of 10 giillons at 24s. per gal- lon, 12 at 30». per galhm, &.C. Alligation alternate is the method of finding the quan- tities of ingredients necessary to form a compound of a given nite, as to find how gold of various degrees of fineness, that is of 19, 21, and 23 carats fine, &.c. may be mixed together so that the mixture may be 20 carats fine. Uiiestions of this kind are better solved by algebra. ALLIGATOR. An amphibious animal, abounding in both Nc 'h and South Amer- ica in the torrid zone, and sometimes grows to the length of 18 or 20 feet. The Alligator is found in the lower parts of the Mississippi, but it is more coi m in the large rivers of South America. It is called Caym.\n by the Indians. It resembles the Crocodile of Africa and Asia, but it never grows as large, and is beside, different in formation, and in Its habits. ALLITRRATION. A repeating or play ing up«ui the same letter in a succession of words. ALLODIAL. An epithet for lands held without any acknowledgment to a lord or superior, in opposition to feudal lands. Allodial lands are exempt from rent tm services. ALLOY, or ALLAY. A proport^n of any baser metal mixed with one that is finer, thus the gold coin has an alloy of silver and copper, as silver bos of eapiMt ALM tfnn#? th«i proitortlon in the ft>Tmer case fiir Mandard pold 18 2 carats of alloy in apiiiinil wfli^lit, or 23 carau (ine; in the latter <■».•»*, for tlie silver, lliere aielSdwla. of alloy in II oz. 2 dwts. fine. ALL SAINTS. A festival observed by soHie Christians on the first day of Novein- h«-r, in cotnniemoration of all the saints. ALI.SPICE, or the Pihe^vio Tree. A beautiful irre of Mexico and the West In- dies, the fruit of which Is hfshly aromatic. The trttf is glH>ul 30 feet in height, and 3 la ctrcuniftreHC« ALT 18 ALLUVION. A gradual increase ofland washed to the shore by iiiuiidations. .Al- luvial fonnations are also to be found in valleys and plains, by the deposit of gravel, loam, clay, or other earths washed down from the mountains. Al,.M.\GEt?T. The name of a celebrated book on astronomy, composed by Ptolemy. AL.M.\ M.\TER. The name given to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, En- gland, by tlieir several members who have pa.4.<:ed their degrees in each of these uni- versities. The same is done by the Am- erican Colleges. AL.MAN.\C. A calendar or table con- taining a list of the months and days, with an account of the rising and setting of the Bun and motm, and other Incidental mat- ters. The English Nautical Almanac, or ABtrononiical Ephemeris, is a kind of na- tional almanac, begun in 1767, under the direction and by the advice of the astron<>seof coinpnting the longitude at sea. This almanac i« generally computed a few yean forward, for the conveiiLeiice of ships going out U|>on hmg voyages. A similar work Is published in the United Stales. The American Al- manac, first published at Rriston in 1830, embraces a great mass of statistical know- ledge, lieside that usually given in an alma- nac. ALMOND. The fruit of the almond tree, which is a nut, and is either sw4^t or bit- ter. ALMOND TREEL A tall tree, resem- bling the peach tree, whicn flourishes in Asia and the southern parts of Eu- ^pe. It is one of the first trees that blcwtm in :?pring. ALMONER. Ir. Englanc an ecclesiasti- cal officer ot ti.« king, appointed to '(■strih. utp the King's alms to rhe p<«>r every day ALOE. A tree v/lilch originally came from India, is remarkable for a bitter juice, called aloe?, which is extracted from Its leaves, and is very useful in medicine. I'lie e- ta, foiiMS >.ne word alpharn. ALPHABET. A se.i ^ of the several letters in a language, '^-h ct. vary in num ber in different Ianj".rnl)ine(1. ALTIMETRY. Tlie art of measuring altitudes or lieights, ALTITUDE. The heipht of an object, or its elevation alHive tlial plane to which the b:u^ is referred ; tliiis In iiiathenialics llie altitude of a figure i« the perpendicular or nearest diMtance of iti vertex rn)in the base. The altitude of an object is the ele- vation of an object almve the plane of tlie hon/on, or a t>er|iendicnlar let fall to that plane, aa a per|iendicular let fall from a tower. Altitude* are either acressibin or Inaccea- rihle. An accessible altitude of an object Is that whose base we can have access to, •o a.« to measure the distance between it and tlie station from which the measure ia to be taken. Inaccaisibte altitude Is when the base of the object cannot be approached , I naccMi- M)tt altitude* may be nieaaured eitliei- by peometry, trigonometry, optical refleevloa or by the barometer. The altitudes of nioiiiiinins may" be determined best by tha b.'ironieter, for as the weight of the almos- pherr diiniriislies as we rise, the fall of the biiroiiieler determines the elevation of any phice. The altitude of the pyramids in E(;> pt was mea.-iured in the time of Tlialea, by means of their shadow and a pole set iipri):lit beside them, making the altilini''* of the pole and pyramid to be proportional to the length ot tneir snadows. The in- striimenls now commonly used in measur- ing altitudes are the geumetricai square, the quadrant, and theodolite. ALTITUDE (in Optics). Theheightof an object alK>ve a line drawn parallel to the hiirivu>n from the eye of the observer. ALTITUDE OF THE EYE (in Per. spective). The perpendicular height of tli« eye above the geometrical plane. ALTITUDE OF A ST.\R, &c. ( In As- troiiiiiiiy). The height of any star, &c above the horizon, or an arc of a verticia circle, intercepted between the star and the horizon. This altitude is either true or ap. parent, according as it is reckoned from the nitional or sensible horizon, and the differ- ence between these two is termed by as- tronomers the parallax of altitude. ALTO( in Music books). Italian for the upi>er or counter tenor, and is common in music of several parts. ALUM. A mineral salt, composed of sulphuric acid, potash, aliimina.and water. It Is of a white colour, and of an astrinueiit add taste ; natural alum, which was well known to the ancients, is a kind of whitish Oiable .atone, formerly found in the islauii of .Melos, Macedonia, Egypt, itc. Facti- tious alum is comimmly made of a stoim, of seaweed, and of urine. It is known by the names of rock or English alum, which is colourless ; and Roman alum, which ii of a reddish colour. ALUM EARTH. The earth from which alum is extracted. 'ALUMINA, or ALUMFNE. The earth of alum, an argillaceous, soft, and insipid sort of earth, which is the base of alum, being the princijial part of clay. ALUM WATER. A preparation used by painters in water colour, prepared by dissolving alum in water. A. .M. An abbreviation for Anno Miindi, the yearofthe world, and Magister Artium, master of arts. AMALr.AM, or AMALOAMA. Th« mixture of mercury with some other metal AmalzTimsare used either to render a metlll fit lobe spread Mil •onie works, aa in gilding. AME »T else to reduce the metnl to » oiihtle •owder. An aiiialiiain of tin aiul mercury .S lined for liHikiiic slaxsea. AMAh«AiMATION. 'J'he operation of mixiiig (|uicfciiilver with Home otlier metal, by fusiiif! llie metal, and in tliat state add- ing a iKirtioii uf mercury to it. Uold of all ineU'iU uiiiiea heiit wicli nierciiry, next to tlial Milver, then lead, tin, and every other iiietai, except iron and co|i|ier, (lie last of which admits scarcely any uf Kucii kiii'ilgaiiiuiioii. AMANL'B.NiSlS. A slave among the Romans, who used to be eiii|il(iyed in writiiii; for his muster ; also any one among (he moderns who is employed to iraiiscrilie for another. AMARANTH. A plant which flourishes in the Indies and South America, rf.uinrk- tble for the lasting beauty of its flowers AMATEUR. One who follows a (larti- ciilar art or profession not for gain but for pleasure. AMBASSADOR. One appointed by a •uvereign power to represent him, and su- perintend his affairs at a foreign court. .\MBKR. A liard, brittle, tasteless sub- stance, mostly semitransparent, or o|KU|iie, and of a glossy surface. It is highly ele<;- tric, and if a piece be kindled it burns to the end with pungent white vapours, with- out melting. AMBERGRIS. A solid sebaceous or fat substance, found floating in the sea, near the coasts of vari^ius tropical countries. It is supposed to he the excrement of the ■permatic whale, having freiiueiilly been met witli in the intestines of that lish. AMBER TREE. A shrub, tt • beauty uf which lies in its small evergreen leaves; these grow as close as heath, and when rubbed emit a fragrant odour. AMBIDEXTER. A person who can use both hands with ei|iial facility. AMBUSCADE. A place wliere soldiers lieconceaJed, in order to suriirise an enemy. AMENDE. A peciuiiary punishment im- posed, according to the customs of France, by a judge, for any false prosecution or groundless appe.iL AMENDE HONORABLE. An infa- mous liind of punishment formerly inflicted in France on traitors, parricides, or sacri- legious persons, who were to go naked to the shirt, with 4 torch in their hand, and a rope about their neck, into a church or a couit, to beg pardon of God , the court, and the injured party. AMENTACE^. A natural order of Itlants, iKtariiig catkins, as Uie po{i!ar, ha- sel, beech, &c. AMERCEMENT. A pecuniary punish- AMP 17 ment imposed on olTenders at the mercy of the court ; il is contracted from the Lntiu words a misericordia, winch signify lile- niily/ront or at tke m»rcy. Aiiierceinenta difler from flnes, in as much as the latter are defined, and the fora><:rare pro|)ortici>> ed to the fault, or more piuperly at the di«- cretion of the court. AMERICAN ELK. A noble af.lniaJ o( the deer kinu. AMETHYST. A gem of great hardness and britliHiicy, and of various colours, his: mostly purple or violet. It comes froDi India, and is use-l in medicine as an as- tringent. AMIANTHUS. An incombustible mine- ral flax, which may be drawn into threads and wove into cloth. It is iiiiisily found among red in Libya, where a temple was erected to him, from which oracles were delivered for many ages. A.\l.MOMA. A voliitile allfili, which, when in its purest stale, exists only in (h« form of a gas. It forms a liquid when ciMiled, and is known by the name of harlM- horii, because It is obtained from distilling the liorn of the hart. It may also be ob- tained from urine and camel's dung by distillation. AMMONIAC, or GUM AMMONIAC. A resinous substance hroiiglit from th» East Indies in drops or granules. Thci best kind is of a yellowish colour withi'Ul and white within AMM<»NIT^ SNAKE STONE. A sort of fiissil shells, made up of sinaii cir- cles, like those of a snake rolled up. AMMITNTTION, A general term for all warlike stores, but more espeeia'lv powder. Iiiills, guns, &c. A3IOBPH0ZOA. The lowest clas.s of the animal kingtlom, as sijonges that have no regular symmetrical structure. AMPETrrE. Alum elate, earth used fcy the Auciente to kill in?eets on vines. AMI'llllilA. A class of animals which live eipially well in air or water, such as the phtH^ae, or seal tribe, frogs, lizards, crocodiles, eels, water "eriients, snakes They are remarkable Ibi U ait tenacity ol M ANA fife; •nroe will continue to move even when Uie head is ciil off. AMPUISCII. A name applied by geogra- phers uuhe inhabitants of Uie torrid zone. A.MHIIITIIEATKE. A circular building among the ancienW, having seat.'i entirely anwrnrt, and an area in liie middle, where BIH-ciacle* were exhibited. Some of these, a* ilie ColisflBum in Rome, could contain from 5(),IK)0 to 80,000 persons. A.MPLIFICAT10N( with Rhetoricians). An aiiiplifyingor enlarging upon an argu- ment. eitl)er by aggravating or extenuating a crime, heightening an eulogium, or en- liirginj a narration, by an enumeration of circumstances, so as to excite proper emo- tions in the audience. AMJ'MTUDE. An arch of the horizon, intercepted between the east or west points and the centre of the sun or stars at their riJiing and setting. It is called ortive, or eairizon, contained Urtweeu the 8iin or a star at its rising and setting, and the magnetlcal east or west point of the hori- lon, indicated by the magnetical compass, or the amplitude or azimuth. AMrLTTATION (in Surgery). The cut- ting off a limb or other part of the body with an instrument. AMULET. A supposed charm or pre- servative against witchcraft, mischief, or diseases. Amulets consist of stone, metal, sirnples, or whatever else the fancy sug- gfsied ; aonielimes words or sentences might be employed in this manner. A.M7.EL. A bird of the blackbird kind, belonging to tlie same genus, inerula, in the l.iniia^an system. The ring-amzel is reiimrkal>le for having a fine broad white ring at the lower part of its throat. ANA. A name given to amusing mis- celhinies, consisting of anecdotes, traits of clianicter, and incidents relating to any person or subject. A.VABASIS. The title of Xenophon's dexcription of the younger Cyrus's ex|)edi- lion against his brother, in which the wri- ter bore a principal part. ANACHRONISM. An error in chrono- logy, as when an event is relatetl to have bapfiened in the reign of a certain prince, which hnpiiened either before or after. ANACI^As^TIC*. Another name for iJopirics, or that branch of optic« which relales to refmrled light. A.\A«;RR<>.\TIC verse, a eoit of feme so called from the Creek poet Anac- ■soit by w'jom it was tirsi used. It con- ANA sists of three feet, generally apaidee* Bn4 iambic. It is adapted to soft and tender subjects. ANAGRAM. The transposition of tha letters of one word so as to form another, as amor changed into Rrnia. AN Al^EM.M A. A projection ofthe sphera on the plane of the meridian. orthe same instrument. ANALOGY. The relation which thing* bear, or are supposed to Imar, to eacli otiier, from their resemblance or pri>|>ortion to one another ; as tlie analog)- between animals and plants, from which asimilarXreatiDeni of them in many cases may l>e inferred. Analogy is one of tike principal grounds of reasoning in matters of experience. ANALYSIS (in l>ogic). Ttie reeolutiim or unfolding of any thing, so as to discover its component parts as opposed to sy ntiiesis Analysis is the method of finding out truth, and synthesis is the method of explaining that truth to others. Among mathematicians it is tlie art of discovering the truth or falst- hood of a proposition, by supposing the question to be solved, and then examining the consequences, till some truth is disci>- vered, or the absurdity and impossibility of the pro|>osition is discovered. The analysis of finite quantities is properly called sjie- cious arithmetic, or algebra ; the analysis of infinite quantities is the method of tiuxions or differential calculus. ANALYSIS (in Chemistry). Is the d». com{>osition of bodies, as vegetables an^ minerals, to discover tlieircoiii(H>i)eiit|Kiris ANALY'J'ICS. A name given to algebra being nothing else but a general analysis of ptire mathematics ; or else because 'i teaches how to so>ve questions, and demon- strate theorems, by searching into the fun- damental nature an, which is, as it were, restilved into |>aria. or taken to pieces, and then put together again. ANAMORMIGSIS (In PerKpectlve nni Painting). A monstrous projection, or r»'- presentation of an image on a (Jane r» curve surface, which beheld at a certain ANA AManM ■bail appear regular and in pro- yortioB. ANA It i i m 1 t \ii// 1 i .1 ANAPiBST. A mrtrlca! foot, having the two first short and the last long ( ), as pietas. ANARCHY. A society without a Rovem- ment, or where tliere ia no supreme gov- ernor. AiNATrrEMA. In the ceneral sense, a relitfious curse; in the |>:irticular sense, ecclesi:iiarts treated of, is divided into '|;eny,or the doctrine of tha gr..w(h uf the bonee ; nstetilogy, the doctrine of iIm b«ne.s in the adult siibjert ; ch(Uidri>lo<;y, the doctrine of the cartihuies; syndeiim»- logy, tlie doctrine of tlie ligaments ; my- ology, the iloctrine of the muscles ; bursa- touy, the doctrine of the iMirsir niucona; ; splunchnolo|:y, the doctrine of (he viscera ; aii);elology, the doctrine of the vessels; adeiiiilomr, the doctrine of tlie glaints; neurtdogj-, the doctrine of the nerves, &,c. Anatomy, Uiken absolutely, applies only to the dIssectliMi of human subjects ; the di»- srciion and exaininalioiiuf brutes Mcatted Coniik'iralive ,\nHtoiiiy. ANA'I'O.MY, lluTOHT or. The science of aiialimiy was dniibtless coe\°ul with that of nieilicine, for the connexion between the two studies wm|>oneiit |>arts. In Bg>'pt, the practice of embalming rendering it neces- sary to oprii the bfsly, led theiii first to make observations on the structure uf the liunian frame, which was at\erwards en- C4iuraged by their kings, who ordered dead bodies to be regularly dissected for like (lerfection of the art ; but, judging fmni somes|)ectnien8 which have been preserved of their anatomical observatiiuis, the sci- ence dnt not iiiakeanycimsiderable progress uinong tlieui. I'here is, however, no donlit, but they laid the foundation.and llie Greeks, who derl veil tlieir earliest information fnun them, enlarged the IsMindaries of the sci- ence by their researches. llip|>ocrates, who liveil alxuit -IIMI years t>efore Christ, is the tirsl who expressly wrote on this subject; and the first anatomical dissection recorded was made by his friend Deniocritiis, of Abdera. In Aristotle's works Uiere are many minute particulars on this subject, which show that he had made the animal iMidy Ills (larticiilar study. From the (jrffks this science, after an interval of several centuries, pasaeil ag;iin into Kgypt, where, by the fostering care of the noleinies, it was revived and made gre.it advances. EnistniUis, the pupil and f-i«-iid of Theo- phrastiis and llerojdilliis, laid the foiinda- tlse, this latter part of the etor>- is only an exaaseration. The Romans learned from t'j* Greeks the science ul auauMuy , aa tbey ANATOMY. did moBt other «rU and •ctences ; for the init nidiiiieiiU weri: Uiimlit lo tliriii by ArtJiaiP»lliii.'>. n Greek iiliymiian, who tirttt wlaWlinlicdhiuwell at Koiiie,aiiil anerwarils by AiJcleiiiadea. who tloiirinhed in the lime of roiii(»ey, mid (Piiiied nuch repme llial oe »a« Uioked U|miii as a second Hij>tH)- cnite*. He was Biicceeded by Ciuwini, who wiui nii|>|MK«*d lo he tlie disciple of Aacle- piadeii, Celmis, llufus, I'liiiy, Ctelius Aiire- liami«, and Araueus, who.xe works ab«iund Willi auatoiiilcal observalioiis, and prove llial, allhouijh their researclies were not deep, their attention was dniwn towards tlie subject. This is also still inure evident froiii the works of Galen, who, in [wiiit of accuracy and niiiiuleness ii (iaien. To effect this object, we find that Abdollatiph, a teacher of analomy in llie Ihirleenth century, ex- amiiird and deiiionslnited the structure of Uie iHiiies by punt; to the burying grounds ; and by that nieiins he detected some errors III Galen. Although the Eurojieans were not nnder the same restrictions, yet during the midille ages it is certain that the science of Biiaioiiiy made no advances. The best trea- tise then extant, whicli gained the author preni repute, and was the standard book inllieschools, was that of. Muiidliius, which ap|ieared in i:il.5, yet this was nothing but ■ n abstract of Galen, On the expiilsiiui of tlie MiNirs. the prejudice against dissec- tion Hhsiied.and copies oftheGreekaiilhors havini: found their way into Eurn|)e after the siickiiig of Coustanlinople, the study of anatomy reviveit considerably in the tif- trenth century. Among the Italians. Achil- linus Belied ictus, BerengarlUs, and Massa added to Ihe stock of analnmicat knowledge by ''iscoveriesof theirown from dissections. Bui the most distinguished names among the analoiniiits of that period are those who flourished in tlie followingcentury, namely, Vesaluis, a native of Briissets, Sylvius in France, Ctdunibus, Fallop'.iis, and Eusta- chius in Italy, who, contrary u> the prac- tice of Galen, drew their observatinns from the human hs:>liiis gave 'he names to the muiclea, most of which .ire reuined to this ia^. Gabriel Falioptua, lu hia irvatise en- titled Observationea Anatomicie, published ill I5«il, mil>r«>ved U(«ui the descriptions ^ Ve.-ialms 'I'he t ipuscula Analoiuica of bar- tholoiiiiPus Eustachius, published in IMS, have ever been admired for the correctnesJ and exactness of their descriptions. Ilia plates, which were intended for a targe and complete work on the subject, were not published until l.W years atler, wheii^ being found in an old cabinet, they were eilited by Lancisi, the iKiiie'.-" physician. whc added a short explanattiry text, tM-caus« lh.1t of Eiistachius could not be found. The ne.\t in the list of distinguished aiiato- iiiists must be reckoned Harvey, who, after having studied in Italy under Kabricius ub Aqua|>endeiite, wiis led by the writings <.f his master toctuisider the manner in which the bliHid was circulated over the whole iMidy, and the ottices of the several vessels. Fabricius published an account of theval vea whicli he disc«ivered in the veins. 'J'hia discovery ali'ected the esUkblished doctrine of all ages, that the veiiis carried the bUKid from the liver to all parts of the iMMly fur nourishment ; and Harvey was led by this to consider more narrowly the fuiictid- ed in discass ttie wind blows. ANDESITE. A mineral found in tha Andes containing tlie fel-spar called Andesine. AXEMOirETEU. An instrument for determiuing the course, the force and velocity ot winds. ANGELINA. A planet first observel bv Tempel, in 1861. ANGLES. A German tribe on the Elbe, of the raoe of the Suevi, who after- wards passed over with tha Saxons into Britain, and gave their name to that country. ANGIOSPERMIA. A term In the Lin- mean system for such plants of the class nidynainia as hnve their seeds enclosed in a capsule or seed-vessel. ANGLE. The inclination of two lines meeting one anollier in a iMiint, which lines are called the legs : when the lines meet iieriiendlciilarly it is a right an^le, as A, B, j when they meet so as lu mak* the angle less than a right angle, it is called .tciite, .ts A, R, I) ; and when they make the angle gnMter, it is called an obtus* an- gle, as A, n, E. ANCI^ER. A singular fish, also knnwa at present l>y the name of the fishing fru|, from the resemblance which it bears to that animal in the st.ile of a tadpole. ANGLICAN CIIL'KCII. That form oT dorjrineand discipline which isesUihlislie^ in England, aud serves fur tlis novui uieot a ANN of the vhole Cliristian church in that coun- try. 1> sdoctrJtiesarecoiiiprelieiiiled wiiliin tliirtyniiie articles, and its fdvernnienl, whict. is e|ii.sc(i|iHl, consists of two arch- bishop!* and twenty-four liishops, ti>cether witli llie diirerenl orders of inferior clerK>'. Tlie same Churcli is estalilisiied in Ameri- ca, but is independent u( that uf England. The meinhers of Uiis church are called Episcopalians. A.\(;MCISM. An idiom or manner of ipeech |ier.uliar to Uie English, and tlieir 4escendants. ASCUISG. The art of fishing with a rod, to which are attached a line, hnok, and bait. Anglers liHik for breams in the deepest water, for eels under banks, for chuh in deep shaded holes, for perch and roach in ponds, and for trout in quick streams. The best months for angling are from April to October ; the time of the day early in the morning, or in tlie evening of hot days, h'lsli bile freely in cloudy warm weather, but not nt all when it is cold and stormy. Kisli ought to be fed on corn boil- ed soft, garliage, worms chopped to pieces, or grains stee|ied in blood. If you fish in a stream, it is best to cast in the grains above the hook. AM.MAJj. A living body endued witii sensation and spontaneous motion ; in its limited sense, any irrational creature, as distinguished from man. A.MMAIX'l,'L/E. Animals so minute as not to be tlie iminedhite object of our senses. They are seen only by the help of the microscope. ANIMAL KINGDOM. One of the three principal divisions into which all organized bodies are divided by I^iunuius. It com- prehends six classes of animals; namely, Mammalia, or such as suckle their young, mostly ipiadrupeds ; Aves, birds, which are oviparous ; Amphibia, amphibious ani- mals ; Pisces, lishes, sucli as live only in water, and are covered with scales ; Insec- ta, insects, which have few or no organs of sense, and a lumy coat of mail ; Vermes, worms, which have mostly no feet. ANLME, orGUM AM.ME. A resinous suhstanrx- imported from New Spain and the nra/.ils. A.NN A LS. A species of history, in which events are related in tlie exact order I again gradually ANNOTI'O. A kind of red dye broiiBht from the West Indies. It is procured from Ihe pulp of the seed capsules ANNUAL. An epithet for whatever ANT happens every year, or lasts a year. Aa aiiiiiial, in Botany, is a plant which dies within the year. ANNUITY. The periodical payment of money, either yearly, half yearly, or quar- terly ; for a determinate peruid, as ten, filly, or a hunilred years ; or for an inde- terminate period, de)>endant (Ui a certain contingency, as the death of a [lerson ; or for an imlefinite term, in which latter case they are called |ierpetiial annuities ANNL'LET A small square member in the Doric capital. ANNUNCIATION. The delivery of a message, particularly the angel's message to the Virgin Mary, concerning the birth of our Savi|>e has hut two six-cies, and America hut one ; U is called the I'rong-hurued /Vntclopa. AN'TENN.'E. The horns or feelers of Injects which project from their heads, and serve them in the sense of feeling and see in 2. .A.VTHE.M A sacred composition used as a part of Christian worship. A.N'TIIER A part of the stamen of a flower which is at the top of the filament. It contains the pollen or farina, which it emits or explodes when ripe. .OCTHOLOGY. A collection of choice poems, particularly a collection of Greek epigrams so called. ANTHROPOPHAGI. Another name for cannibals, or men eaters. .\NTIDOTE. Acounterpoison, orany medicine generally that counteracts the eflects of what has been swallowed. ANTIMONY. .\TOotallic. solid, heavy, brittle substance, which is very seldom lonnd pure, but mostly mixed with other ruetals. In its pure slate it is called tlie re^iiliis of antimony. Crude antimony, in eommerce, is a metallic ore, consisting uf AOR a the metal called antimony "ombineh tb sulphur. ANTI.\().MI.\.VS. An ancient sect, wh« maintained >liai faith, witliout sihmI works, Wiis siiihcieiit for s,ilvalion. Tliissect haa been revived since the KeforiiKUinn. A.VTIPUDES. Persons 8«i named in geography, who live diametrically opposito to one another, as it were feet to feet. They have equal l.ititudes, the one north and the other south ; hut opposite longi- tudes, coiiseipiently when it is day to ih* one it is ni^'ht to the other, and when summer to the one winter lo the other. ANTIUUAKY. One who .searches aftei the remains of antiquity. 1'he miuiks who were entployeit in ni.'iking new copies ot old IxKiks were formerly called antiquarii. ANTIS(;il (inGeo°mphy). People who 'ive on ilitiereiil sides of the e<)iialor, and have their sli:tdows at aoy falling ro;*e. ANToECI (in Geography). People who live under the same menilian, ea.sliir west, but under opiHjsite panillels of latitude ; they have their niM>n or midnight .at the same lii>ur, hut their sen.soiis cuiilrary. .\NTONO^L\SIA. A form of speech, in which the name of some dignity, office, profession, science, or trade, is used in- stead of the true name of a person ; or, in wliich a proper name is put in place of an appellative : thus, we say the President, the Englishman, the Printer, a Cafo, a Solomon. ANTOSL\NDKI.\N. One of a sect of rigid Lutherans, so denominated Irom their opinsing the doctrines of Osian- der, the German reformer. ANTRUSTION. In history, the An- fnistious were a class of people among ihe Franks, who were the personal vas- sals of the kings and counts. ANCBIS. An Egyptian deity, repre- sented by a human figure, with the head of a dog or a lox. He was the son ot Osiris, and was regarded as the con- ductor and guardian of departed souls. AONIAN. Pertaining to the Muses, or to Aonia, their residence, in Bceotia. AORIST. The name of certain tenses in the Greek language, which express time indeterminate, that is, either past, present, or future. AOUTA. A tre-! of Otaheite. from the bark of wliich the natives make cloth. AORTA. In anatomy, the great artery, or main trunk of the arte- rial "system, proceeding immediately from the left ventricle of the heart. It i« distingu^siied into 24 ATI Ibe descending or ascending, according lo Uie manner in wliicli it runiJ. APATITE. PlKisjiliale of lime ; a mine- ral which occiini in tin vein«, and ia found in Curnwall and Germany. Al'E. The name of a trilie of animals ol tlie monkey kind whicli are willioul UilR, Imiutive, chatterinn, full cif geslicu- Uiioiia, tUievisli, and mwcliievuu*. APERIENTS. Opening niedlcine«. AI'ETAU >US ( In Bt.umy ). A rerni for planu \vlii«»e Ho went have nci llower leaves t>r corolla ; an the Uippuns, or fox tail graiw. APEX. A little woollen tntt on the cap pf the flamen, or high priest, among the anciriits. APEX (In Maiheuiatic*). The angular point of a crehendiM2 some experliiien tal truth, an the Apliorldius of Hippocrates, Slc. APIARY. A place where bees are kept, M'hich shonhl be selected with great care, •bserving thai it face the south, be defen- ded from high winds, and not within the •tdiere of otfensive smells, or liable to the attack* of taornetM or any other hostile trerrnln. APIS. The bee ; a genus of insects of Ibe order hymen* ptera. APIS. An Ri;>'|>iian deity, worshiped ■nder the f#rm of an ox. APO APOCOPE ( in Grammar). The cutting off the last letter or syllable of a word. AI'ODAL. The first order of fishes in the Linniean system, having no ventral fins, as the eel, the wolf lish, tlie awont fish, the lance, &.C. APOGEE That point of the orbit al which the sun, iikmiu, or any planet la iimst disiaiil from the earth. This term, as well as the (lerigee, was most in use among the ancients ; modern astmnomers making (he sun the centre of the universe iiiiisLly use the terms aphelion and (lerihe lion. APOLLO. The god of medicine, music poetry, and the fine arts. He was the son •■■"Jupiter and Latoiia, b«"r'y niessenEem or •nibassad'irs, t. tpriii npiilipil iiinv paitini- iHrly to the twelve disiiples cmiiniiit- ■loiieil hy iiiir Savimir to preach tlie gus^iel to nil iiHtinns, APlfSTlKJPHK. A fiLHire of pp«fech. by which the nrntor tiinis ("r 'iii liis .iiilijcct to ;iii(lreKi< a person either absent or dead, as if lie were present. ArosTROIMIE (in Oninimar). A mark of contraclicn in a word ; thus, lov'd for loved. APOTHECARY. Properly the keeper of a inedicinr shop; bnl more generally one who practises the art of pharmacy, or of coinpoiimlJng medicines- in London, ajMiiliecaries are efiire the court to plead in any prosecutiim ; th» re are four ways for defendants toap|iear to actions ; in (tersoii, or by attorney, for persj.ns of full ase ; by guardians, or next friends, for infants. APPEAR.A.Nl'E (in PersiM-ctiveV The irojectiun oT a figure or body on the per- APP ■ spective plane ; in Astronomy, the same aa pha-niiiiiennn, or phasis. APPELLANT, or APPELLOR. On« who makes or brings an apjienl ; it wn« formerly nnich used for one wno brought an ap|ieal in a criminal proseci:! on. APPELLATIVE (in Grammar). A noun or name nppliciilile to a wliole spe- cies or kiiiil, as, a man, a horse. APPE.NDA.NT (in Law). Any thing inheritable that belongs to a more worthy inheritance, aa an advowson, or common, which may be appenilant lo a manors or land to an office: but land cannot be ap- pendant Ui land, lK>th being cor|Hireal, and one thing corporeal may not be apjiendanl to another. APPLE. A well known fruit, from which Ciller is made. APPLICATION. The bringing one thing nearer to another for the purpose of measuring it ; thus a longer space is meas- ured hy the application of a less, as a yard by a foot or an inch. APPOSITION (in Grammar). The placing two or more substantives together, without any cjipulalive between them, as Cicero the orator. APPR.AISI.NG. The valuing or setting a price on cikmIs An pppraiser is one sworn to value goods fairly. APPREHENSION. The first power of the mind, by which it simply ctuitemplates thintis, without pronouncing any thing up on them. APPRE.NTICE. A youne person bound by indentures or articles of aareenient to a tridesman, or artificer, to learn his trade or mystery. By the stat. 5 Eliz. no per- S(m can exercise any trade in any part of England, without havinu served a regular apprenticeship of at leiust seven year^. No trades, however, are held to be within the statute hut such as were in being at the making of the same in the reiun of Eliza- beth. No such law exists in the United SUates. APPROACHES (In Fortification). TE'e works thrown up by the Itesiesjers, in order to get nearer a fortress without being ex- posed to the enemy's cannon. APPB0PRI.\T10N. The annexing a benefice to the proper and perpetual use of a religious house, bishopric, college, &e so that the hinly or house are both (lalroa and (lersun, and some one of the number was apixiinted looffinate. At the disM>lu- tiim of the monasteries, theappropnationa, heinc more than one third of all the giarisUM in England, were eiTen to l.aynien. wheni* sprii.il! most of tne lay inipruprmimn* •«- isiinj; at present ; tor wnai Is caUeu aa a|>> » AQU protirlMloii In the hands of religious per- wniD, m usiiiilly called an impropriation in the hand!) of laity. It is coinpiiled that mere are in Bngland three thou!real and incorporeal that appertain to another thing as priinipal , as tiaiiilets to a chief manor, (.tiitlioiises, yards, orcb- arils, gardens, &.C. are appurtenant to a Diestfuage. - — AFKICOT. A fine sort of wall fruit, which rrtjuires much sun to ripen it. APRIL. The second inimth of Romulus' jreai', and the fourth of Niiina'syeai, which began as it does now, in January. A PRIORI. A nioale of reasoning by proving the effect from the cause. APROPOS. Ju!ei(.r .\erv» there were nine, which emptied tlieni«elv« through i:),5!M pipes of an inch diamelei That constructed by Lr carry- ing the Bucq to Versailles, is 7(100 fatlioiiia long, with '3500 fathoms of elevation, and contains '242 arcades. AaUEOUS HUMOUR. The watery humour of the eye, the first and outennost, which IS less dense than the crystalline. ARABIC, or OUM ARABIC. A trans- parent kind of gum broni:ht from Arabia, which distils from a plant of the acacia species. It is used for painting in water cohuirs, and also by calico printers and other manufacturers, but it is ditlirult to procure it genuine. That which Is in small pieces, and of a perfectly white c' residences, which were only suited to such as lead a wandering life, were not invented before the time of Jubal, the son of Tubal Cain ; since that time the 1'arturs have followed the practice, and theoriiiinal inhabitants of Aniericadid the same. Every nation, in pro|Kirtion to the degree of civili- K:ition which it has attained, has shown a dis|Kisilion to exercise tlieir ingenuity in the construction oftheir residences. Among the Egyptians this art w.is carried to an extraordinarj- degree of perfection. Their pyramids, labyrinths, and .some ruins of their palaces and other edifices are still to be seen and admired as stii|iendous monu- ments oftheir industry, perseverance, and skill. Near Amlera, in L'pjier Eg>pt, are the ruins of a palace of gray granite, the ceilincs of which are supported by columni of sucii thickness, that four men can scarce- ly span Iheni. The gniiid hall is 112 feet long, f)0 high, and 56 broad. The roof of the whole edifice is a terrace, on which once sti^d an Arabian village. The Babylonians and Persians vied with the Es>'ptians, both in the grandeur and splendour of tlieir biiildinzs, as may t>e Judged from the ruiim still remaining. A st.'urcase was to be seen some lime ago, having 95 steps ot white marble still standing, so broad and flat, ihnl 12 horses might conveniently go abreast. As these vast structures were not fitted for the general convenience of mankind we must Uxik to the Greeks for the art of architecture as it has since been exercised. From the simple constniction of wcxMlen huts, V'itniviiis supposes the orders of archi- tecture took their rise. When biiildinin^nf wood were sii|ierseded by solid and stately edifices of stone, they imitated the |iart4 which necessity had intrwiiiced into the primitive huts; so that the upright trees, with the stones at each extremity of them, were the origin of columns, bases, and capitals ; and the beams. Joists, rafters, and the materials which formed the covering, gave birth to architraves, frizes, triglyphs, cornices, with the corona, miitiiles, mo- dilions, and dentiles. To bring all these several parts to the slate of perfection at which they arrived was the work of long experience and much rea-jonine, aided by the invention of many tools. The Greeks improved upon the works of the Eg>'ptiaiis, so as to render them, if not so durable, a.' least mure ornamental, and (lerhaps mora really serviceable. The construction of arches was unknown to the anciet.t Asiiy* rians and P^^vluniniia. The ruuCi of tftai ARCHITECTURE. luUln wi»f» flxt^nd rovpreil wltti itroiligloiic- ly lariir i- iUiN wfri* bailly exrculed. Tlie artof |iro- pfirtKiniiij! llif various parts of a tiuililing bfUiiiEs,!!! « iH'Ciiliar iiiaiiiier, totlietlrt'f k», from whniii we ilt-riv«t the three principal onler!" : atthi-same time it iinis't nut he (l«nieit, that llie Jewinh natiiiii had earlier exniiiples ii|'5ii('li pr<>|Hirtiiiri ; and that, in all pri)liahilily, the (;reek.-' took their idea •fa repilar order in artliiiecture from tlie <«niple of Solomon. Ill the Doric tirder, which is so called froiii nonix, (he son ofMelenils, and graiid- ■OM of Deucalion, llie column approache.s Very nearly to the proixirtioiis of those to be Uiund in Solomon's Icinple. This order \v«i< firs*, employed hy Dorns in the biiild- ini! of a temple at Ar^os, in honour of Juno, and wan formed acrordiii!; to tlie propor- tloiiH between the fool of n man and the rt!Mt of his iKidy, reckoning the foot to be tbe sixth (Kirtof a man's height: they gave Ui a Doric column, taking in its cliapiter, ■ix of its diameters ; that is to say, they made it six tunes as high as it was tliick, but they aflerwRrds added a seventh di- ameter. Tbe Ionic Order, which takes its name Irom the lonians, in (Jpper Asia, was fonned according to the proportions of a woman ; making lite height of the column U> lie eight limes greater than the diameter, riiey almi ni.ide cliaiineling in (lie trunk, •o imitate the folds in the dress of a wnman, and by the volutes in the chapiter they re- preseiiied that part of the hair which hung III curls on each side of the face ; besides the lonians adiled a base to their column, Which the Dorians originally had not. The Cnrinlbian t>rder, which was |)oste- rlor to llir other iwu, icsik its rise from an arridenl related by Vitruviiis. A basket, with u tile over it, had been placed on the toDib of a young Corinthian maid, near which grew the herb acanthus, or bear's breech. The leaves of ihis plant rising up U) the lile.tben curled themselves down into a sort of volute, which Iteiiig observed by CHlliniarhiis, the sculptor, hetisik the Idea of represenling such a circle of leaves in the capital of uc«>lninn, that hus since been characteristic oftlie Corinthian Order. Sca- mozzi calls this the virginal order, because It bears all the delicacy in iu dress peculiar to young virgins. 'I'he Tuscan, or F.tniscan Order, derives t» name frectively used by the Saxons before the Conquest, and by tlie Normans aOer, in the building of church- es. The Saxon style was distingiiislied by the semicircular arch, which they (eein to have taken partly from the Romans, and partly from their ancestors on Uie conti- nent. The Nonnan style was distinguished by the following particulars : the walls were very thick, generally witbout hultrriwea; the arches, both within and witJi 't leiiii ARO eircniar, and »uppnrte<1 by veiy plain and •olid ciiIiiiiiiia; of wliich examples are to be »een in the cliancel at Ortord. in Suf- folk, and at Christ Church, Canterlmry. Poinetinies, however, tlie columns were decorited with curN-ings of foliaee or ani- mal!!, and sometimes with spirals, loxenge, or network. These two »:yles continued to be the pre- TBilini; modes of huilHliia in Knsland until the n it;n of Henry II., when a new mode Wits introduced, which was called modern Gothic. Whether this was purely a devia- tion from the oilier two modes, or whether It was derived from any foreign source, is not known. It is, however, siip|K>sed to be of Saracenic extraction, and to have been intniduced by the crusaders. This 8iip|tosition is strengthened by the fact, that the nXKupies and (Kilaces of Fez, and also some of the cathedrals in Spain built by the Moors, are in this style ; which ouuht therefore to be called Anihic, Saricenic, or Moresque. This stylo is distinguished by its numerous buttresses, lofty spires, and pinnacles, large and ramified windows, with n profusion of ornaments throughout. It came into general use in the reign of Ueno' III.; when the circular gave way to the (Hiiiited arch, and the ma:isive column to the slender pillar, of which the. present cathedral church of Salisbury, liegun .it that I>eri>Hl, affords the best S|iecimen. From tJiat time to the reign of Henry VIII. the pillars in churches were of I'urbeck marble, very slender and round, encompa-ssed with marble shaflsa little detached, having each k capital adorned with foliage, which join- in g formed one elegant capiuil for the whole pillar. The windows were long and nar- row, with (lointed arches and (Kiiiiled gliiss; and the lofty steeples were lurnished with spires and pinnacles. In the reign of Hen- ry VI 1 1, a new kind of low |M>intedarch was introduced, which wasdescriliedironi four centres, was very rmiin) at the haunches, and the angle at the top was very obtuse, as may be seen in Cardinal Wolsey's build- ings. In the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- turies the taste fur tUeek and Koniitii archi- tecture revived, and brought the live orders •"nin into use, although for sacred edifices i^axon and (juthic styles still maintain liie preeminence. The Italians were fora hing time reckoned the greatest architects, but England may also boast of an Inigo Jones anil a Sir Christopher Wren, who hold a very high rank in the art. Inigo Jones has left the banqueting house at Whitehall, Queen Catherine's Cha|>el at fl. James's, the Piazr.a at Covent Garden, I* 1 oUier buildinip, as proofs of his skill ARI 2S and taste. The works of Sir Christopher Wren even siirpiuss those of hi ■< predece8S4«r, both in number and magnitude. Ainon| these stand foremost the Catheilral of SU Paul's, Greenwich Hospital, the Mimu- nient, Chelsea Hospital, the Theatre at Oxford, Trinity College Library, and Em- manuel College, Cambridge ; besides uj>- vvarils of tirty-two churrhes and innunter able other public buildings. ARCIIITECTUKE (in rersjiective). A Wirt of building, the members of whicli are of different measures and imwlules, auear longer and larger to tlie view than it really is. ARCHITRAVE. 'l"h;a part ofactjuinn or series of columns that is aUive or lies immediately np«u the capital. U is the lowest member of the frieze, and is sufi- piwed to represent the principal beam in timber buildings. It id souu-tinies calleii the reason piece, as in |M>rticoes, chusters to. ; and the masterpiece in chimneys. ARCHI VAl?bT. The inner amtour of an arch, or a frame set ntf with mouUtiiigs, running over the faces of the arch stone* and bearing u|H)n the imposts. ARCHIVES. The place wliero there- cords, &.C. belonging to the crown umI kingdom are kept. A RCTIC. An epithet for what lies to therficial contents of any figure, as a triangle, qua- drangle, &c. ARE.VA. That part of an aniphitiieatr* where the gladiators cwor b Tevted hi the notiihty. ARITHMETIC. The art of niimbertng •V C4iinputlat! bjr ctfitaln rules, of » liicli Ihtt four &n)t and gtni|)le8t are aililitlnii, «iili- trarliiiii, uiiilti|>liaili(in, and division. Viilptr AnUiiiielic is the C(iiii|iiil;itiuii of nuiii!>rre ill the ordinary concerns of life. Iiilejonl ArillinK'tic treats of whole niiiii- brrs ; i-'raclional Arilhiiietic, of fmilioiial R':aihers j Decimal Arithmetic, of deciinal niimliers. UniveiHal Arithmetic is the name given to Algehra by ssir Isaac Mew- k>a. ARITHMETIC, Hi.tort or. Of Arith- luetic as a science, we know hut very lit- tle as to its slate and prop'ess anion;; the ancients. It is evident, fruiii the bare coii- ■iderati<>n of our whiiIs, and earliest Im- pressions, that some knowledge of iiiinibers or some mode of computation, however im- perfect, was coeval with society ; and as the transactions of men tiecaiiie more coinpli- oued, tt la rea.4otiuhle to infer that they would hit on devices for facilitating and suiiplifyini; their calculations. Josephus ■tfserts that Ahmliam, having; retired from Chnldea into ICi:y|>l, diirlns the time of a famine, was the first who l:Might the inha- bitants of that OMiiitry a knowledge both of arithmetic and astronomy, of which they Were iMiih before lenonint ; a circumstance tJie more prfihahle.as it is well known that tiie Kieiice of astronomy was first cultiva- ted among the Chaldeans, and such ad van- cm made in that science as could not have been effected withotit the aid of aiilhmetl- cal ciilciilations. 'I'lie (ireeks imagined that the science of arithmetic, as well as that of geometry, ohKliialed with the Egyptians; but this notion, as far a* res|iei-|s priority of dis- e«>very, was eviilently ernuieoiis, and no diiohl arose from the circumstance of their ►av^Bj .rinved all their first ideas of the k'V« » ./ "6.eiice*, as well as iiKiny of their ^4hm !» ,in the Egyptians. Thus, as the ^jyA-^aa believed that they were taught • t-»«ni by their god Tlieul or Tliol, wlio V^J*^<' over ciHiimerce, the Ureeks as- a^iCned a similar office to their god Mer- cury. As the Hhipiiicinna were the first trading pniple, they iiatiinilly addicted themselves to the science and (iractice of •nthmetic, which led Stralio to observe th.it the invention of the art belonged to Ibeni ; but, as the Chaldeans were a more ■neient |)etation, by dividing num- bers into tens, hundreds, and thousands; a practice doubtless derived from the cus- tom, so universally adopted in childhtMxi, of counting by the fingers ; which, being first reckoned singly from one to ten, and then successively over again, would natu- rally lead to the decimal scale or the de- cuple division of nuiiitiers. But they rep- rexented their nuinlwrs by means of the letters of the alphabet in the place of the miHlern iiuiiierals. Thus the Jews divided their alphal>et into nine units, nine tens, and nine hundreds, including the final let- ters, as H .\leph, I, 3 ISelh.Q, &.c. to « Vod, 10 ; then 9 Caph, 'JO, *) Lamed, 30, &.C. to p Koph, lUO, T Resh, ioO, &.c. to f Tsmii final, 900. Thousands were sometimes expressed by the units annexed to hund- red, as 1>TU, 14:14 ; sometimes by the \v«>rd n'yit, loon, o'C^St, 2000, and with the oilier numerals prefixed, to signify the niim- lier of Ihousniids To avoid using the di- vine name of rP. Jehovah, in notation, they substituted p for filYeen. Totlieal- phaliet.of the Greeks were assigned two niiinerical powers, namely, a power to each letter in order, as u. Alpha, 1, ice. to ui < imeisi, 24, and a power siiiitlar to lh.it adopted by the Jews, as u Alpha, 1, &c. to X Kappa, 10, &.c. ; to cm Omega, COO , then 900 was ex pressed by ihe character 77) and the thousands were denoted by a (Munt under the letters after tliis manner, u, lOOU, ,4 <2000, &.C. ; the number of 10,000 was sometimes expressed by a small d.ish over the lotii I bus 1, but malheinafiriansemploy- eil Ihe letter .M, which, by placingiinder the siiiall letters, indicated the number of tlicu- sands, as a fur 10,000, ^ for 20,000, &.c If M Diophantiis and Pappus made Mv to re- present 10,000, and then by the addition of the letters, as (»iHv, for 20,(X)0, &c. A|Hillsition. Althoush this nota- tion consists of only nine digits, with the cipher 0, yet, by giving a local power to these fi{;iires, namely, that of units, tens, hundre!vances towards it by giving a local value to certain periods of four numbers each, but it dues not appear that they proceeded any further. Tlie Arabs introduced it into Europe aUmt eight hundred years back, whence it soon circulated among the dif- ferent Euro|iean nations ; but although the first use of this scale is commonly ascribed to them, yet they acknowledge themselves indebted t4i the Indians for it ; and as this latter people w ire in many respects very Ingenious, it is not at all improbable that tliey were the authors of the invention. TIh9 cultivation of arithmetic ia Europe ARM 9\ may be dated from the thirteenth century when Jordanus of \aniur, the first wrila» on the subject that we know of, flourished His arithmetic was published with illustra- tions, by Joannes Fal>er Stapiilensis, in the fifteenth century, but was less perfect than the treatises of Lucas de Burgo and Nicholas de Tartagl ia in that and the subseike a tortoise. ARMILLARY SPHERE (in Astro noniy). An artificial sphere, comimsed of a number of circles, of metal, wed and disciplined for sen-ice. An army is generally divided into a certain number of coriM,eaeh consisting ofliripades, regiments, batliil ions, and squadrims; when Ml the field, it is formed into lines ; the first line is called the vaniniard, the second the main body, the third the rear<;uard,orbody of reserve. 'I'he middle of e.acli line is oc- cupied hy the fool, the cavalry forms the right and left wins: of each line, and some- times squadrons of horse are placed in the Intervals l>etween the battalions. AttOMA. A general name for all sweet Rpices, but (larticularly myrrh ; also the odoriferous principle which produces the fragrance peculiar to some plants. ARRAC. A spirituous liquor distilled In India from the cocoa tree, rice, or sugar it is very strong, and intoxicates more than mm or brandy. ARRAIGNMEXT (in l^w). The brlng- tng a prisoner forth, reading the indictment to him, and putting tlie question of guiUy or not guilty. ARRAY. The drawing up of soldiera in •rder of battle. ARRRARS. Money unpaid at the du« Ume, as rent, moneys in hand. Ice. ARRKKT {in Law). The apprehending •nd restraining a man's person in order to ART cniT pel him to be obedient to the law Thij, in all c.Tses except treason, felony or breach of the peace, must be dtme by the lawful warrant of some court of record or officer of justice. Arrest of judgment is the staying of judgment, or not proceeding to judgment. ARRCJW. A missile weapon, which is commonly discharged from a Ih vr When this weapon is borne in coiits of arms, it is said to he bartted and feathered. ARROW-ROOT. An Indian root, n^ which starch is made It is also used medicinally. ARSENAL. A public storehouse for anns and all sorts of anmiunition. ARSENIATE. A sort of salts formed by the combination of arsenic acid with different bases, as the arseniate of ammo- nia, &c ARSENIC. A ponderous mineral body It is yellow, white, and red. Yellow arsenic is the native arsenic dug out of the mines, otherwise called Arsenic Ore. White arsenic is drawn from the yellow by sub- limating ; and is reduced to powder by the mixture of oxygen, or exposure to the air This is sometimes used in medicine in small quantities, but is otherwise a deadly (Hiison. Red arsenic is the yellow arsenic rubified by fire, when it is called realgal. ARSENITE. A sort of salts formed by the combination of arscnious acid with different bases. ARSIS (in Grammar). The elevation of the voice, in distinction from thesis or the depression of the voice. Arsis and thesis in Ancient Music, is applied to the raising and falling of the hand in beating of time. ARTERY. A hollow, fistulous, conica canal, which serves to receive the blood from the ventricles of the heart, and t« distribute it to all parts of tha body. ART. The cnntnvance and dm oTthtnp by the help of thuugiit and ezpenencs. ART a»i uiot>nrd\nfi to prescrttied niles, so as to make them serve the |i(ir(Mise8 t'ur which they were designed. Liberal or fine arts \re those which are nohle and worthy to be cultivated without regard to lucre, as pnintiii<;, poetry, music, &.C. Mechanic arts are those wherein the hand and btnly are more concerned tlian the mind. Terms of art are sucli words as are used in re- gard to any particular art, profession, or science. AKTICHOKE A plant very like the thistle, with scaly heads similar to tiiecune of llie pine tree. At the bottom of each scale, as also at the bottom of each floret, is the well known tieshy edible suhsutno«. The Jenisalem Artich.Ke is a plant, the ttKit of which resembles a potatoe, having the taste of the artichoke ARTICLE (in Law). The clause or con- dition in a covenant. AKTICLE (in Grammar) A particle, which in most langiia<:es serves to denote the gender and case of nouns ; and in lan- guages which have not diiTcrent termina- ticms it serves to particularize the object referred to. ARTICULATION (In Anatomy). The junction of two bones intended for motion. There are two kinds ; the diarthrosis, which has a manifest motion, and synar- tlirosis, which lias only an obscure motion. ARTICULATION. The articulate or intestiniim rectum, and cause a violent itching ; also a kind ot worms which inlVsi the intestines of all animals. ASCENSION (in Astronomy). That de- gree of the equator reckoned from the first of Aries eastward, which rises with the sun or a star. This is either right or oblique, according as it rises in a right or an iil»- liqiie sphere. ASCENSIONAL DIFFERENCE The difierence between the right and the ob- lique ascension lu any point ot the heav- ens. ASCENT. The rising of fluids in a glass tube or any vessel above the surface of llielr own level. ASH. A well known tree, the timber of which is next to the oak in value, being used in every sort of handicraft. ASHES. The earthy subst-iiices remaii»- ing after combustion, which contain an alkaline salt ; also the skimmings of uitlaj among the letter-founders. ASH-VVEDNESUAY. The first day m Lent, so called from the custom of fasting in sackcloth and aslies ASP. A very small kind of serj'ent, pe- culiarto Eg} pt and Libya, the bite uf which is deadly. Us poison is so quick in its op emtions, that it kills without a possibility of applying any remedy. Those that ar« bitten by it are said to die within thre« hours, by means of sleep and letha gy M ASS without aaj pain; wherefore Cleopatra eboHe it as the easiest way of dispatching herself. ASPARAGUS. A valuable esculent plant, which requires three years at least lo bring it to maturity from tlie time of sow- ing llie seed, and will not yield vigorously witliout a continual supply of manure. ASI'EN-TREE. A kind of while poplar, Die leaves uf which are small, and always tremliliug. ASPHALTUM, or Jews' Pitch A solid, brittle, ponderous substance, which breaks with a polish, aud melts easily, ft is found in a soft or liquid state on the surface of Ilia Dead ?ea, a lake in Judea, and by time grows dry and hard. The Egyptians used asphaltum in embalming, wliich Ihey called numia mineralis ASS. A well known useful qnadniped, remarkable for its patience, hardiness, and long life. The milk of the female is highly esteemed for its light and nutritious quality, and for that reason recomnMnded for coo- SNinptive persons. ASPERGIIX.US. Tho brush Bsed In the Roman Catholic chnrch to sprinSle holy water on the people. In Botaity a genus of fungi. ASPHODEL. A name of the day-lily, kind's spear, and other elegant plants of the (?enus asphodelus. ASPHURELATA, or ASPHURELATE3. A series of eemi-metalUc fossils, includ- ing bismnth, antimony, cobalt, zinc. and quicksilver ; thus called because in their purest state they are not malle- able. ASS. A well-known quadruped of the equine genus ; figuratively, a dull, btupid fellow ; a dolt. Assagay. A tall tree of South Africa, of wliich tho natives make javelins or spears ; a spear made of this wood. ASSASSINS. A tribe or clan caUed Is- raaelians, who settled on the moun- tains of Lebanon, about 1090, and be- came remarkable for their assassina- tions. ASSETS. The stock in trade and en- tire property of a merchant or of a trad- ing association ; goods or estate of a deceased person subject to the pay- ment of his debts ; the property of an insolvent debtor. ASSIDEANS. A name given in the first book of Maccabees, ii. 42, to a sect of Jews, who armed themselves under Mattathias to resist the introduction of the Grecian manners and idolatries in- to Judea. ASSIENTO. A contract formerly en- tered into between the kings of Spain and foreign merchants, relative to tho Importation of negro slaves into the Spanish dominions in South America. ASSAM TEA. In botany, a valuabla kind of tea, raised and manufarctured in Ihe upper district of India. ' .ftSS I ASPHYXIA, or ASPHYXY. In pst)ioI»> Igy, the state of the body in which tho pulse is so low as not to be felt: but Inow applied by the faculty to th» symptoms of suffocation produced by an aocumnlation of carbonic acid in tho blood; the vital phenomena being sus- pended, but life not extinct. ASSAYINO. The p.irticular mo- ticular indications Avliieh attend disease. ASSIGNATS. Paper money issued by the Frenfh Govermaent during tba first BeyoIutiOQ. ASSIGN (in Law). One to whom any thing is assigned or made over, as an exe- cutor, &c. ; also an assignee or assign to a bankrupt's estate. ASSIGNMENT. A transfer or making over lo another the right one has in any estate, usually a|>plied to an estate for lite or years. It ditlers from a lease in this, that by an assignment one parts with tli* whole interest one has in the thing, bnt by a lease he reserves himself a reversion. ASSIMILATID.N (in Physics). The pro- cess in the animal economy by which the food is converted into nourishment for the boreasl,that suiiietniies approacties '.u sulf'ociition. ASTKAGAL (in Anatomy). The ankle bone; In Architecture, a small round monld- iMi: serviiij; as an ornaiueul to the tups and bullunis of columns. AST 85, (L ASTRAGAL (in Gunnerj). A small nonlitinc encoinp.i8s!ng a cannon. ASTROLABE. An instrument fortaking the allitnde of the sun or stars at sea. A!*'I'1U)L()GY. An art formerly much cnltiv.-ited, but now exploded, of judging or predicting human event* from the sitii- ttion and ditfereiil as|iecl8 of the heavenly bodies. \STRONOMV. The science which treats e the sun, moon, earth, planets, and other heavenly bodies ^howin;: their niagnitiides, onter. and distances from each other, mea- BurinE and marking tlieir risings, settings, motions, appearances, the timesand (|uan- tities of (heir eclipses, &c. It comprehends what was anciently called the doctrine of the sphere, and is a mixed mathematical Bcienc«. ASTRONOMY, Hutort of. Of all the sciences which have encaged the attention (tf mankind, nime apiiears to have been cultivated so early as that of a.stn>noiiiy, which treats of tite noblest and most inter- estini; objects of contemplation. Josephus tnfonns iis that Se:h, the son of Adam, is said In have laid the l<>unitatlons of this science, and th-it his posterity, understand- ing fiom a prediction of Adam that there WorUd he a general destruction cfallthlncs, once liy the r.ige of fire and once by the ▼iolence » -'d multitude of waters, made two pillars, on^ of brick and the other of stone, aiitt eiisravrd their inventions on each, that If the pillar of brick bat|i|iened te seen in his day. lleiilM>iii>crit)ea to the antediluvians a knowledge of ths astronomical cycle of 600 years, but upon what authority we are not informed. The account is, however, not improbable; for historians generally agree in assi<:iiing the origin of astronomy to the (.'haUleans siHinalYer the deluge, when, for the puriHise of making their astrological predictions, to tvhich they were mnch addicted, as also for that of Rdvanciii!! the science of astnw iioniy , they devoted themselves to the study of the heavenly iKidies. The Chaldeans were in fact a trilie of Babylonians, who constituted the jinests, philosophers, a.stro- nomers, astrologers, and soothsayers of this people, whence a Chaldean and a stHtth- sayer became synonymous terms. Tlies« Chaldeans discovered the motions of the heavenly bodies ; and, from their supposed intliiences on human affairs, pretended to predict what was to come. The planets they called their interpreters, ascribing to Salurn the highest rank ; the next in emi- nence was Sol, the sun; then Mars, Venus, Mercury, and Jupiter. By the motions and as|>ects of all these they foretold storms of wind and of rain, or excessive droughts, as also the appearance of comets, eclipses of the sun and moon, and other phenomena. They also marked out thirty-six constella- tions, twelve of which they placed in the zodiac, assigning to each a month in the year, and thus dividing the zodiac into twelve signs, through which they taught that the several planets performed their revolutions. They ap|iear not to have had much idea of the immense distance of some of the planets from the sun, but accounled for the time they took in performing their re volutions by the slow nessof tlieir motions. They, however, held that the mcK)n com- pleted her course the soonest of any, not because of her extraordinary velocity, hut because her orbit, as it would now be called, was '.ess than that nf any of the heavenly bodies. They taught that she shone with » light not her own, and that when eclipsed she was immersed in the shadow of the earth. Of the eclipses of the sun they ap- pear to have had no just idea, nor could tliey fix the time when they should ha(ipen. Their ideas of the earth as a celestial body were also crude and im|ierfect. Astroiu.niy was cultivated in Egj'pt nearly about the same time as among the Chal- deans ; and, accordine to the opinions of some, the honour of the invention is due to them : but the most probable coinliisioB is, that as these two nations were coeval, anu *"<) aftrnnnmv at the same time. The Kg> piiiin* Uail sii a very early |>erii>il their colleue <>1 (iriesw, \vlu> were all nccu- rate observt-rx ol' Hie siara, ami kept, as DiixtxriiM obverves, res;)»lers ul'llieir i>l>ser- valioiitf for an iiicreitilile niiiiil>er uf years. It l» ».-il(l, tliiit ill Hie iiKiiiiiiiieiit of Usy- maiiiiyiM tliere wii!# a ^itlijen circle uf 3ti5 ciiltllii III circuiiilereiii'e and one ciihit thick, divided into 3lo parts, aiiNWeriii)! to Die dayx of the year, &.c. TJie Ksypliaiis dis- covered that the stars liail an annual nuitiiin of .*)<•" ,y"' ,45"" ill tlie ) ear; and Macrohitis OKxerts tliat they made llie planet.-) revolve al>out the Klin in tlie same eoplelothepiir|Misesof navij^ation. Tlie Arabians als4i, one of tlie most ancient nations in the world, ciiltivaied astronomy as far as was needful to answer Ibe ends of their (Kisloral life, by ol»servins! the stars, their iNisition.aiiitiiiHuence on the weather. In tnivetiing tliroii;:li ihe desert, we are informed that, at a very early period, they used to direct tlieir course by the Great and Little Hear, as is done at sea to this day. They also pive names to the stiurs, mostly in allusmn to their Docks and herds ; and they were so nice in tills matter that no lanpiase aliounds with so many names of stars and nstensms as the Arabic. As to the Indians and Cliine.se there is no doubt but that they cultivated astronomy at a very early [leriod, and that the Brah- mins of the fo-mer I'eople, being altogetlier devoted to S[)eciila»ive sciences, made ad- vances in th.it of .tsirimomy enual to any of the nations of antiipiity. Al. Bailly in- forms us, in his history, that he examined and coni|)ared four different sets of astro- nomical tables of the Indian philosophers, namely, that of the Siamese explained by M. Cassnii in l(Wy ; that broiiglii from India by .M.IeUentil.ofthe Academy of Sciences, and two other mami.script tables, found Hiiioni! the paiiers of the late M. de Lisle ; all of which he found to accord with one another, referring to the meridian of Be- Oares. Itap|)earsthatlhe Indians date tlieir astronomy from a remarkable cunjunctlon of the sun and moon which taok place at Ihe distance of :W)a yeare before Christ ; and M. Itouilly concludes that, from our nMwt accurate a.stroiiomical tables, such a ctians and riiu-iiiciunsby means of several ofiliei* Countrymen, particularly Tliales the Mile sian, wliu, about 64(1 years before Christ travelled into Cg>'pt, and brought from thence the chief principles of the science lie was the tirst among the Greeks who I tbserved the stars, the sidstices, the eel : paes of the sun and motm, and proceeded tuifai as to piedict an eclipse of the sun. It apiiears, however, that, before his time, many of the constellations were known, for we tliid mention of them in llesiodand Homer, two of their earliest writers. Allei 1'hales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Amu agoras, but above all, I'ythagor.-is, disiii> guished themselves among the number oi* those wiiocultivated astronomy. 'I'he latter, after having resided a hmg time in Egypt and other foreign (Kirts, established a sect of philosophers in his own country, known by the name of I'ythagoreans. lie taught, among other things, that the sun was ia the centre of the universe and immovable; that the earth was round, and the inhabit- ants were anti|Mides to each other; that the moon rellected the rays of the sun, and waa inhabited like the earth ; that comets were wandering stars ; that the milky way was an assemblage of stars, which derived its white colour from the brightness of Mieir light; besides a number of other inrticiilars, some of which are admitted in the present day. Phibilaus, a Tythagorean, maintain- ed the doctrine of the earth's motion roumi the sun, 4.'>ll years before Christ, and llice- tiis, a Syracusan, taught, a hundred year* after, the diurnal motion of the earth on its own axis ; also Melon, the inventor of the Melonic cycle, and Ciictemon, oliserved the summer solstice -t^lS years before Christ, lie- sides tne risings and settings of the slaro, and what seasons they answered to The same subject was treated of at large by Aratiis in his poem entitled rtiienoniena. Eratosthenes, a Cyrenian, who was Wvm in 271 B. c. measured the circumference of the earth ;and, being invited to the court of IMolemy Evergeles at Alexandria, he waa made keeper of the royal library, and set up there the armillary spheres which iliiv parchus and Ptuleuiy aAerwurda uaei n ASTRONOMY •7 •flee aally. ITe also determined tlie dis- Udc« between the tropics to l>e 11-83 of llie whole meridian circle, which makes the obliquity ofUie ecliptic in his time to be 33 degrees, 51 miniite:) and one-third. Ar- ehiuiedes is said to have constructed a planetarium to represent the phenomena and motions of tiie lieavenly bodies ; and many others added to the stock of astro- nomical knowle(l(;e, hut none so much as Hipparchus, who flourished about 140 years B. c. and surpassed all that had gone be- fore him in the i!Xtent of his researches- He showed that the orbits of the planets were eccentric, and that the iiimm moved •lower in her apofiee than in her perigee. He constructed tables of the motions of the sun and moun ; collected accounts of eclipses that had been computed by the Chaldeans and Ecyptians ; and calculated such as would hap|ien for six hundred years to come; liesides correcting the er- rors of Eratosthenes in his nie;isurement of the earth's circumference, and compu- ting the sun's distance more acrunilely. lie is, however, most distinguished by his catalogue of the ti.xed stars to the number of a thousand and twenty-two, with their latitudes and longitudes, and ap|>arent niagiiiludes. These and most other of liis o)iser>'ations are preserved by his illustri- ous successor I'tolemy. From the lime of Hipparchus to that of Ptol«-my, an interval of upwards of two centuries, few or no advances were made in a.''pt, observed some eclipses, by means of which the quantity of the moon's acceleration since that time has been determined ; also Arzechel, a MiHir of Spain, oliserved theobliipilty ofthe ecliptic ; and Alhazen his contemporary, wrote on the twilight, the height of the clouds, and the phenomena of the horizon- tal moon. He likewise lirst employed the optical science in astronomical observb- tions, and showed the importance of the theory of refraction in astronomy. In the thirteenth century, astrogomy, as well as other arts and sciences, began to revive in Eurojie, particularly under the auspices of the emperor Frederick II.; who, besides restoring some decayed uni- versities, founded a new one, and in 12^(0 caused the works of Aristotle, and the Al- magest of Ptolemy to be translated into Latin. Two years after this, John de Sacro Bosco, or John of Halifax, published his work Ue Sphtera, a compendium of astro- nomy drawn from the works of Ptolemy, Alfrdgan, Albetegnius, and others. This was held in high estimalioii for some cen- turies, and was honoured with acommen- tarj' from the pen of Clavius and other learned men. In I24U, Alplionsus kingof Castile, a gre.it astroiuuiier himself, and an encoiirager of astronomers, corrected with their assistance the tables of Ptolemy, which, from him, were called the Alplum- sine tables. About the same time Roger Bacon published his tracts on aatrimomy and shortly after Vitellio, a Polander, in his treatise on optics, showed, in accora- anee with Alliazen, the use of refrar'ion in astronomy. Nearly two centuries elap- sed from this period before any farther progress was maile in the science, when Purbach com|K>8ed new tables of sines for ever>' ten minutes, coiisinicled spheres and globes, wrote commentaries on Ptole- my's .'Mmagest, corrected the tables of tne planets and the Alphonsine tables, deter- mined the obliquity of the ecliptic al 23 degrees, 33 minuies and a half, ami liegiin, al his death, a new series of tables for com- puting ecli|>se3. He was siirreeiled by John Muller, commonly called Regio- montanus, Bernard Waliher, John Werner, and others John Weruershowvd that tiM ASTRONOMY" mntlonofthr flTed Jtam, «1nre calli-u llie prrCMMiixi of 111* eiiiiiiioxes, was n)«>ut 1 d«(;re«, 10 minutes, iii a liiiiulreil yeiirs. The celfliraCtfd Uoiii-riiicus came next in orilT, Willi ilistinunished liiniseil' by calling tn qiiestiiin tlie I'tdleniaic system of Hie nnlverse, siiid reviving that «f Pytliagoras. Alter making a series ofcvservalKms, and roniiing new tallies, lie coiii|ileled in 15;i0 lii» wiirk, rirst piiblislied niider tlie title ut' De lleviilutiunilius Cieicstiuiii Orliiuin, and afterwards under tliat of Astnimimia In- Btaiirata, in which he set forth the system •iiice known by the name of the solar sys- tem, in which all the planets are c the eni|ieior, finished his tables after hi i death, and published them under the tit) < of Rhodolpliine tables. This latter astror - onier discovered that all the planets revolv i round the sun, not in circular but in ellip- tical orbits ; that their motions are not eqii: - ble, but tpiicker and slower as they ai* nearer to the sun or farther from hini ; b» •Ides a niiiiiher of other observations on the motions and distances of the planets. He also concluded, from his observations on the comets, that they are freely carried about among the orbits of the pl&nets in paths that are nearly rectilinear. To the ajtronomers of this age may tt ddued Hay- er, who. III his l-'ran-imetria, has given a representation of all the u)ru^»'ialii,ni, with the stars marked on ih«r», and acci m- pnnied with the (Jreisk leUtn for ihe ccn. »enicnce of reference The M!veiient IB one that ranked high in the science, It found a defender in (Galileo, an Italian no- bleman, who III his IJialogi, iu Ili^U, drew a comparison between the I'toleniaic and Copernican system, much to the advan- tage of the latter, for which he incurred the censures of the church, as the doctrine of the sun's iniiiiobility was Uutked U|Hm as directly opjKised to the express language ol Scripture. Although Galileo professed to recant In order to obtain his libei\.i(« maile of the appro-'ichtii" transit of V'enii!) Ill ITiil, in determining tlir distance of the gun I'runi the earth, and recommended tlie Dietiutd of determining the longitude by the "lodii's distance from the s.in and certain fixed stars, which wan aflei wards success- fully adopted by Dr. Maskel"'ie, Astrono- mer Royal. It was about this period that the qupstior. respecting the figure of the earth appears to have been satisfactorily decided, and in favour of .Newton's theor>'. M. Cassini concluded, from the measurement of M. Picard, tliat it was an oblong spheroid, but Sir Isaac Newton, from a considera- tion of tlie laws of gravity, and the diurnal motion of the earth, had determined its fipiire to be that of an oblate spheroid flat- tened at the |>oles, and protuberant at the e<)uator. To determine this point Louis XV. ordered two degrees ofthe meridian to be niea.sured, one under or near the equator, the other as near as possible to the poles ; the eX|>edition to the north being intrusted t4> .Messni. .Maii|H-rtuis and Clairaiit, thai to tlie south to .Messrs. Condamine, Bouguer, and Don L'IUki. .\nioiig the many obser- vations made by those who went on this exjiedition, it was found by those who Went to Itie south that the attraction ofthe niouiiiain of IVru had a sensible effect on the plumb lines of their large instruments, which issu|i|Mised to afford an experimental priMif uf the Newtonian doctrine of gravita- tion. A similar observation has since been niawen" of the telescope b«vc:.^ .<'iy ihinji Hxistlng bofore or ewa thought r, succeeded in discoverir.g a new plaiiel,whicli lieimnied thetieorgiuiicsidug; he also discovered two additional satellites to Saturn, besides those of his uwn planet Among those who cultivated the lii^lier branches ofthe science, ami distiugiiisliej themselves by their researches, Di. .Mask«- lyne,tlie predecessor of Dr. Herschel, nuiks the foremost, having been the originator of the .Nautical Almanac, and brought into iis* the lunar method of determining the longi- ' de, &,c. besides making the requisite ta- iles. The theoreticiU part of the science was indebted to I'lairaiit, Euler, Simpson, de la Caille, Kiel, Gregory, Leadbetler, for many oirrect observ.ttions and elucida- tions. 'J'he practical part actpiired a system- atic form and many iniprovenients from the pens of Liilande, Ferguson. Emerson, Bon- nycaslle, V'ince, &.c. The historians ofthe science are Weilder, in his History of Astronomy ; Uaillie, in his History of An- cient and .Modern Astronomy ; .Monluccla, in his Hisloire des .Mathematiques ; and Lalaiide, in the tirst volume of his Astri>- nomy. The Ninteenth Century has been char, acterised by great advances in the science. Early in the Century, Cerea, Pallas, Juno and Vesta were discovered, revolving in the space between Mars and Jupiter, and numbers of others have been added since. During tha year 1878, eleven were discovered, ma- king altogether 191 Asteroids or minor planets. The discovery or practical ap- phcation of spectrum aualy.sig by Bunsen and Kirchhoffin Issy.'has pro- duced marvelous results. The inner- most secrets of the solar composition have been laid bare, whilst the great scientists Lockyer, Crova, Crooke*. Huggins, Draper and Young are etUl busily at work in investigating and ex- pounding solar phenomenon. ASTROSCOPE. An a.strouomic»l in- strumeut for making observationa of the stars, and ascertaining their po- sition in the heavens. — Astroscopy is the art of examining the stars by the agency of telescopes. ASXROTHEMATIC. The places of the stars in an astrological scheme of the heavens. ASTIiOTHEOLOGY. Theology found- ed on observation of the heavenly bodies, presenting proofs of the exist- ence and omniscience of a Deitv. ASYMPTOTE. In mathematics, a right line which continually approaches nearer and nearer to a curve, without cor meeting it. ATAC.VIMITE. A native ore of copper, called also co^iiicr-.sand, found in the desert of Atacama between Chiii and Peru. 10 ATO ATOMIC THEORY. In chemistry, the doctriuo which teaches that the atoms of olomeutary substauces become com- bined iu certain definite propurtiuun ; and that all budieti ai-e composed of ultimate atomti, their weight differing In different bodies. The relation iu weight among the molecules of bodies constitutes the basin of the atomic theory, which establishes the important fact tliat bodies do not combine at ran- dom, but in detiuite proportions by weight. Thus, admitting the principle that all atomic weights are multiples by whole numbers of the atomic weight of hydrogen, it follows that all atomic weights whatever will be expressed in whole numbers ; the number for hydrogeu biiing 1. Professor Graham, iu his " Elements of Chemistry," pre- sents a tabular view of the different elementary bodies, with the symbols by which they are indicated. In this table the Ouemical Symbols and Equiva- lents are modes of expressing by letters ftud figures the definite jiroportions in which the substances chemically com- bine with one another, as elucidati^diu the annexed table. Thus hydrogen is represented by H 1 ; Oxygen by O 8 ; and water by U O. Iodine being denoted by I, and Fluorine by F, the symbob- H I and U F denote hydriodic and hydro- fluoric acid respectively. It happens, however, that many of the elementary bodies have names beginning with the same letter. In such cases the single letter is usually appropriated to one of them, and the others are denoted by that letter joined with some other letter of their names. Thus c:irbon is denoted by C. calcium by Ca, cobalt by Co, and chlorine by CI. The names of the ele- ments in the different languages of Europe not always beginning with the same letter, it hiis been agreed to form them from the Lutiu names of the ele- ments ; thus copper (cuprum) is repre- sented by Cu, iron (ferrum) by Fe, tin (stannum) by 8n, &c. The great advan- tage of these symbols is, that they en- able us to represent chemical decompo- sitions in the form of equations. Thus, for the action of zinc on hydrochloric acid, we have — H CI + Zn = Zn CI + H, ■which means that hydrochloric acid and zinc, when placed in contact, pro- duce chloride of ziucandfree hydrogen. The left-hand side ot the equation re- presents the state of things before the action, and the right-hand side shows the change produced. The annexed table contains an alphabetical list of the elementary bodies at present known, together with their symbols and their equivalents: hydrogen being taken as unity. The words in parentheses are the Latin names of certain elements, as previously explained : — ELEMENTS. 6TMBOL8. EQCIV. Aluminium Al 13 70 ATfl Antimony (Stibium) Sb 64-60 Arsenic As 37.70 Barium Ba 6870 Bismuth Bi 7100 Buron B 10-90 Bromine Br 78-40 Cadmium Cd 55-80 Calci u m Ca 20-50 Carbon C 6-12 Cerium Ce 40-00 Chlorine CI 3642 Chromium Cr 28-00 Cobal t Co 29 50 Columbium [Tantalum). .Ta 185-00 Copper (Cuprum) Cu 31-60 Fl uorine F 18-68 Glucinium Q 26-50 Gold (Aurum) Au 19920 Hydrogen H 100 Iodine 1 126-30 Iridium Ir 98-80 Iron (Ferrum) I-'e 28-00 Lead (Plumbum) Pb 103-60 Lithi um L 600 Magnesium Mg 12-70 Manganese Mn 27-70 Mercury (Hydrargyrum). Hg 202-00 Molybdenum Mo 47-70 Nickel Ni 29-60 Ni trogen N 14-15 Osmium Os 9970 Oxygen O 800 Palladium Pd 53-30 Phosphorus P 15-70 Platinum PI 98-80 Potassium (Kalium) K 39-15 Khodinm U 62-20 Selenium 8e 39-60 Silici u m Si 22- 60 Silver (Argentuni) Ag 10800 Sodium (Natrium) Na 23-30 Strontium Sr 43-80 Sulphur 8 16- 10 Tellnrium Te 64-20 1 h ori u m Th 59-60 Tin (Staunum) Sn 57-00 Titanium Tl 24-31/ Tungsten (Wolfram) W 99-70 Vanadium V 08-50 Uranium tJ 21700 Yttrium -Y ..32-20 Zinc Zn 32-30 Zirconium Zr 33-70 Any of the symbols iu the table exprcKS one atom ; when two or more are ex- pressed, it is 2B or B2, that is, two atoms of boron. Fe + O, or FeO, is one equivalent of iron united to one of oxygen ; and 2Fe + 30, or Fe203, the combinations of two atoms of iron and three of oxygen. ATONIC. In pathology, wanting en- ergy. ATRABILARLVN. In pathology, a term applied to hypochondriasis, or melancholy, aiising Itom superabund- ance of bile. ATROPHY. A wasting away. ATROPI.\. A poisonous vegetable alkali obtained from the Atropa bella- donna, or deadly nightshade. ,.- AT T A*rT 41 ATHENiEtnVI or ATHENEUM. In an- tiquity, a public building erected lor rehearsals and lectures, the chief of •which was at Athens ; a gymnasium. In iiroseut use, a public establishment for the encouragement of literature and the sciences ; in London, a famous-club house, the members of which arc all more or less literary or scientific men. ATHLKTiE. The wrestlers, boxers, &e., who contended for the prizes at 1 he Olympic, Pythian, and other games of ancient Greece andKome. ATLAS. A collection of maps in a vol- ume ; a kind of large-sized paper ; a rich kind of silk, satin, or stuff, manu- factured in the East. In anatomy, the first vertebra of the neck. In mythol- ogy, one of the Titans, king of Maurit- ania, and father of the Hesperides or Atlantides. Having assisted the giants in their war against tho gods, ho was condemned by Jupiter to bear the vault of heaven. In geography, a high moun- tain of Africa. In archreology, a column, or halt figure of a man, supporting an entablature. ATMOLOGY. The doctrine of tho relations of heat and moisture. ATMOMETER. An instrument to measure the quantity of exhalation from a humid surface in a given time. ATMOSPllERE. Tho sphere or mass of air surrounding tho earth, from 40 to 50 miles high. ATMOSPHEKIO PRESSITRE. The weight of tho atmosphere on a surface ; the mean being U'7 lbs. to the square inch. ATMOSPHERIC TIDES. Certain changes which take place in the atmos- phere, caused by the attraction of the sua or moon, when in opposition or conjunction. ATOM. In natural philosophy, a par- ticle of matter which can no longer. ba diminished in aize ; the smallest par- ticle of which W9 can conceive any nat- ural substance composed. AUGEAN STABLE. In Grecian myth- ology, a stable belonging to Augeus, king of Ellis, in which he kept a great number of oxen; having never been cleaned, it was regarded as almost an impossibility to clean it, till it was as- signed to Hercules as one of his labors: hence what is impracticable or what would be very difficult to clean. AUGITE. A niiueral of a brown or dark-green color, a constituent of volcanic rocks. It consists of silica, protoxide of iron and manganese, lime, magnesia, and alumina. ATTBACTIO.N. In a peneral sense, the power or principle hy which Ixxlies mutu- ally tend liiwarecies of attraction agrees with that of gravitation in the proi>erty of acting upon iMHlies at a distance ; but it differs from it inasmuch as these bodies require to be in a particular state in order U> be acted upon. Chemical Attraction isthat disposition which some bodies in solution indicate to nnite with some diibstances in preferenc* to others. This is otherwise called affinity, and is considered as a sort of aitraction of cohesion, acting in an unresisting medium, as it applies peculiariy to such bodies as. In solution, indicateadisposition tounite with some substances in preference to others ATTRIBUTE.'S. Those propertiesor per It AVE Vtfon* which are attributed to the Divine Being only, a8 bin is«lf-«sisleiice, iiniiiula- bUity, eternity, &c. AnKlBU'l»(ln Logic). The predi- eatei of any subject, or that which may be affirmed or denied of a thing, as ' man is ao animal.' ■ man is nut a brute.' ATTKIBl.'TIiS (in I'auiting and Sculp- ttre) Symbols added to certain figures, to denote their othce or cliaracier, as tlie ea^Ie added to the figure of Jupiter, to denote bis power; a club to Hercules, to deiiute his prowess, ice. A VA UANL'lins. A name given in Savoy and Switzerland to the manges of snow, which break off from the mountains with a noise like thunder, and sometimes over- whelm whole villages. AVAST. A term vf command at sea, ■ignifying, bold, stop, stay. AUCTION. A public sale of goods by persons called auctione«r8,wlio are licensed to dispotw of fuMtda to the highest bidder on certain conditions, called the conditions of sale. A mock auction is that which is conducted by unlicensed persons for fraud- ulent purposes. AUDIKNCE. The ceremony of admit- ting ambassadors and public ministers to a hearing at court. AUDIENCE CDURT (in Iaw) An ec- clesiastical court appertaining to tlie arch- bishop of Canterbury. AUDIT. A regular examination of ac- counts by persons duly apfiointed. AURA. A vapor of exhalation, defined by the early cUeiiiists as a pure esseuca exuJing from animals and plants, aud perceptible ouly by its odor, — Aura electrica is a term used In electricity, and applied to the sensation experieuced, us if a cold wind vere blowing on the part exposed to electricity when received from a sharp point. In pathology, aura epileptica is the peculiar sensation felt immediate- ly before an attack ofepilepov. AVERAGB(in Commerce). 'J'hedamage which a vessel, with the goods or loading, sustains from the time of its departure to its return ; also the charges or contribution towards defraying such diuiiages, and the quota or proportion which each merchant or proprietor is adjudged, upon a re;ison- ahle estimate, to contribute to a common average. AVES. Birds ; the second class of ani- mals in the Linniean system. This class of animals is distinguished from all otiiers by several peculiarities in their form, having fealh. ITS for their covering, two feet, and two wings formed for flight. They have, for the most part, the mandible protracted and nakvd, but are without eiiemal ears. AUR ' lips, teeth, strotum, womb, urinary vessel or hl.-idder, epighitis. corpus callnsiim, OI its fornix and diaphragm. They are djviiied in the Linnxan system into six orders: namely, Accipitres, or the falcon and eagle kind ; Pic:e, the pies ; Aiiseres, the got so and duck kind ; Grallx, tlie criiie kind ; Gallinie, the poultry' or dmiit-stic fow , ard Pusseres, the sparrow a.nd Ihich kind, .vi'Jl all the smaller birds. AUG Ell. A wimble, or tool for boring. AUGaiENT(in Grammar). A letler or syllable added or changed in Greek verbs. AUGME.NTATION (in Heraldry). A particular mark of honour borne in a I escutcheon, as the hand in the arms ot baronets. AtJGURY. The practice of divining by the flight of birds or from iiis[iecting their entrails. The augurs were a principal order of priests among the Komans. AUGUST. The eighth month oftlie ye.-ir, called alter the emperor Aiicustus Cn'sjir, who entered his second consulship in that month, after the Actian victory. AUGUSTAN CONFESSION. A con fession or declaration of Christian faith made by the Protestants at Augusta tr Augsburg in Germany, a. d. l.'ioO. AUGUSTINES, or Ar»Tir« Friars. A religious order, so called from St. Aiigustin their founder. They were very numerous in England before the Reformation. AVIARY. A place set apart for feeding and propagating birds. AUK. A bird, otherwise called Penguin or Razorbill, an inhabitant of the arctic oi northern seas. AT7RELIA. In entomology, the first nietamorpho.«!is of the maggot of an in- sect, or that state in which it is trans- formed from the caterpillar to the per- fect winged fly; a chrysalis. AURICLE. That part of the ear whicli Is prominent from the head. The auricles of the heart are appendages at the base of tlie heart, which are distinguished into nght and left, the funuer of which ia pla AUT eed li thp antprior, lli*- latter In the hinder part. Tlir!«e are mnsrular hags, which move repilarly with Uie heart, but in an Inverted nrrter. Al.'Rirt'LAR CONFESSION. A mode of coiifpssiiiii aiming Roman Catholics, by whispering in the ears of their fathers, confessors, or priests. AURORA ItOREALIS, 1. e. the North- t»n Twilight. An extraordinar>' meteor or luminous ap|>earance visible in the night time in the northern parts of the heavens. The aurora boreaiis apjiears frequently in the form of an arch, chiefly in the spring and autumn, after a dr>' year. Tliis kind of meteor is more rarely to be seen, the nearer we approacli the equator, hut in the polar regions it is very constant and brilliant. In the Shetland Isles these lights are called 'the merrj- dancers.' AURUM MUSICU.M,or Mosaicum. A combination of tin and sulphur, used by statuaries and painters, for giving a gold colour to their figures. AUSI'tCES. A kind of soothsaying among the Romans, by the flight or sing- ing of birds. AUTO D.\ FE, or Aw Act or Faith. The solemn act of punishing heretics, for- merly in use among the Spaniards. Upon a Sunday or festival, the offender hemj brought from prison to church, dressed in afl-ightful manner,attended divine service, •fler which he was delivered over to the civil [Niwer to be burnt. AUTOGRAPH. An epithet applied to whatever is written in a |>erson'sown hand writing, as an.autograph letter, a letter of one's own writing. AUTO.MATON. A self-moving engine, more particularly the figure of any animal havingthe principle of motion witnin itself by means of wheels, springs, and wei-ilits; those in the figure of a man are called androides, as the mechanical chess-player, ic. (See A>uiiected being repeated, he at whose name the axe fell was pronounced guilty, AXLE, or AXLE-TKEE. A piece of timber, or bar of iron, which passes through the centre of a wheel, and on which it revolves. AZY AXOLOTL. A water lizard found in Mexico. AXOTOMOTJS. In mineralogy, having a cleavage with a single face, perpen- dicular to the axis. AXMrXSTKK CARPET. In the arts, a term applied to carpets manul'actured in imitation of Turkey carpets, and noted for their thick and solt pile ; they are woven in one piece. AYAH. The name given in India to a native nurse or waiting maid. AYE-AYE, A nocturnal quadruped of Ma lagascar, about the size of a hare, and thus named from its peculiar cry. It is the Cheiromys of naturalists. ATMESTRT LIMESTONE. In geol- ogy, one of the calcareous beds ol the Upper Silurian series, which has been produced by coral and shell a<-cumula- tions amidst the masses of argillaceous sediments. It occurs near Ludlow, Malvern, and some localities in Wales. AZALEA. A genus of beautiful shrub- by plants, having richly-colored trum- pet or bell-shaped flowers, and, in some species, highly fragrant. AZETEO. One of the Azetecs, an early race of Mexico, inhabiting its great plateaux at the time of the Spanish in- vasion, and far advanced in arts and civilization. AZIMUTH. In astronomy, an arch of the horizon intercepted between the meridian of the place and the azimuth, AZOIC. In natural philosophy, a term applied to objects entirely destitute of organic life. AZOTE. In chemistry, a kind of gaa which is fatal to animal li!o ; a name for nitrogen gas. Though destructive to animal life it is one of the constitu- ents of the atmosphere, of blooereon are twenty-four black and white .»ces called points. ' BACKPAINTING. The method of painting mezzotinto prints pasted on glass, with oil colours. BACKSTAFF. An instrument formerly ised in taking the sun's altitude. It was I •o called because the back of the observer Is turned towards the sun when he makes | the observation. This quadrant is now su[>errieded liy more accurate instruments. BADGE. An exterior oriiaii- vince or district, as bailifTs of hundreds, liberties, courts baron, &.C. Sheriffs' bailiffn are officers appointed by the sheriff to ex- ecute writs. These, being hound in boad to tlie sheriff for the due execution of tiieic 46 RAl. o«ce, are called buuiid bailiffs, vulgarly bum ImililTM. B A I M \V ICK. The hundred or any other dwlrict wli«rein a bailiff has a jurisdiction. OAILMENT. The delivery of goods in (nml upon a contract expressed or implied BAI.AINA. The whale ; a geinis of the cliiss iMaiiiinalia, and of the order Ceti. BALANCE. One of the sini|>le powers hi mechanics wliich serves to find out the e<|uality or difference of \\-eight in heavy Ixidies. it is a peculiar application of the lever to this particular purpose. Tlie com- mon baliince consists of a lever with equal arms, at tlie extremity of each of which is attacliud a scale. Before loading it with any weights, the whole ought to preserve a perfect equilibrium ; and tliis eqailibrhim must arise from an exact distribution of the weight of each arm and scale of llie balance, as well as from the equal length of the former ; for on this depends the correctness of its action. The Assay-Ualarice is a very delicate kind of iialance, used fur determine ing the exact tsv^ight of minute bodies. It is so called because it Is particularly used in the different pntcesses of assaying ; it is also frequently used in chymical analysis. Balances also vary in their furm,as the Re iit- Ixiver Balance, the Compound Balance, consisting of a combination of balances used in weighing very heavy bodies ; also the Danish Balance, a kind of steel-yard. BALANCE OF TKADE. A term in commerce, denoting the eois. BALLOT. A little ball ; alnothe mannei of giving votes at an election by putting little balls, black or white, into a box. BALLUSTRADE. A series or row of ballusters or small pillars, serving as ■ gimrd or fence to balconies or staircases. BALM, or BALSA.M. A liquid resin of a whitish or yellow colour, a fragrant smeu and a |ienetrating aromatic taste. It flowi from the balsam tree, and is much utett k» the femalai io Turkey ai a cosmeiie. BAN BAt.M, or HALM MINT. A perennial, •o allied from the fragrunce of iu smell, ivhicli reseiiililes that of ItuUam. BALSAM TREE. A tree growing in AntbiaaiiJ Egypt, the bark of which yields til** balm or baUaiii altiiveiiieiilioiied. BAl>tiAMiCS. SdfUtning, healing, and c(ea using, medicines. llA.\lBUO, or BAMBU. An Indian reed with larger knots than the common reed. The poorer inhabitants of India make their dwellings of this reed : paper is aSsu made ot tlie same ntaterial, by bruising it and tteeping it in water until it be reduced to a paste. BA.\A.\A. See Plantain Tree. BAND (in Architecture). -Any flat, low member or moulding, which is broad but not deep. BA.VDAXA HA.NDKERCHIEFS. A kind of silk handkerchiefs niaiiufnclured, in India, of silk and cotton BA.\UEROLL A sea term for a little flag in form of a gridiron, that used to be hung on the masts of vessels. BAND OF PENSIONERS. A parti- cular company of gentlemen bearing hal- berds, and nttendiiig upon the person of the king upon S4.>lentii occasions. . BANDITTI. A band of outlawed rob- bers, most frequent in Italy BANDOLEER, or BANDOLIER. A large leathern belt, formerly worn over the nght shoulder, and hanging under the le(X ana, to carry some warlike weapon. BANDROL. A little flag or streamer. BANDS. Two pieces of iron nailed upon liie bows of the saddle, to hold them tight. BANERET. A knight made in the held, whose standard was converted into a ban- Ber which he could display in the king's army as the barons did. BANIAN TREE See Isdian Fig BANISII.MENT. A quitting the realm, either voluntarily, as by abjuration ; or compulsorily, as by transportation. BANK (in Commerce). An establishment for the receiving of moneys and letting them out on interest. Banks are general- ly fomied by a number of moneyed per- sons, who, for carrying on the business of negotiating bills of exchange, and dealing in bullion, &.C. advance a considerable sum as ajoint capital. The first bank was es- tablished iM Venice about 1157, and the name of Banco was given tn it in Italian, from the bench which the money-changers or bankers used toiiit upon in their courses or exchanges. The bank of Genoa was Mtablished in 13-45; that of Amsterdam, in t09 ; that of Hambrug, in 1619 ; that of Rotterdam, in 16X The Bank uf £n(- BAN 47 land, one of the hist, but at present tha greatest of its kind, was eslablished by charter in the reign of William and .Mary^ into a corporate biect to iheir duration. BAR (in Heraldry). Oneof the honour- able ordinaries, consisting of two horizon- ai lines drawn across the escutclieon. RARALtPTOX. An arbitrary name among logicians for an indirect mode of the first Agure of syllogisms. BARATRY (in Commerce). A term med when the master of a vessel or the Hianners cheat the owners by embezzling (keit goods, or runnins away with theship. BARB. The ptnnta that sUnd back in BAR the head of an arrow or fishing-hook, to prevent them from being drawn outeasilfj also the name of a horse of the Barbary breed, remarkable for its swiftness. BARBARA. An arbitrary name among logicians for the first mode of the first fig- ure of syllogisms, consisting of three uni- versal propositions: as, 'all animals are endued with sense ; all men are aniniaU ; ergo, all men are endued with sense.' BARBARISM. A rude kind of language used only by the savage or unleiteibd per- son. BARBEL A fish of the carp kind, which lies in holes near the banks, and feeds on testaceous animals, worms, &c. It has its name from the beards or wattles under iU nose. BARBER One who follows the traue of shaving and dressing hair, and anciently also that of bleeding, whence barbers were called Barber-Chiiuigeons, and used a pole as a sign to represent the staff which per- sons used to hold when they were bled. The barbers were separated from the sur- geons by a statute in the reign of George the Second. BARBERRY. A tart berry, the fruit of the barberry tree ; a prickly shrub. BARBICAN. An outer defence or forti- fication to a city or castle, used as a fence, and also as a watchtower, to descry the approach of an enemy BARD. A sort of poets among the Cauls, who used to set forth the deeds of heroea and great men. BARGAIN AND SALE (in Law). An instniment whereby the property of lands and tenements is, for valuable considera- tion, transferred from one person to anoth- er. It is called a real contract upon a val- uable consideration for (htssing of lands, tenements, and hereditaments, by deed indented and enrolled. BARGE. A very large boat used on riven either for pleasure and st.ite, as the royal barge ; or for trade, as the coal barge, &.e. BARILLA. A kind of Spanish alkalina salt used in the glass trade. BAR «ARITO» 0. A low pilch of ue voice IM;lwe<>ii bass and lennr. BARII'M. A rii«-i;il gn c.ill<^ by Sir H. Davy tiled i!«ov«;rer, which Is (>(>lained by llie chymical drcnm|insiti(>ii of baryles. BARK. 'I'lie. likiM or covering of a ligne- ous pUnl. Uark-biiiiling is a disease in trees cured by slitciiii; the bark. BARK (in Coimiierce). A sltifT inanu- factiired iii India of the bark of trees ; al^o the Perttvian or Jesuit's bark, which is procured fnittt tlie Ciiicbolia tree growing ill Quirii. BARK. A sea term for a sniall vessel, oarticultirly one currjing three iuate done in tlie moiiiii af May. B.VRLBY. Asortof corn or grain which is sown in March, .April, or May, and suc- ceeds best in light dry 8ason, but by the preK- siire of the external air on tlie surface of the fluid in the bason, and no air lieing io the tulte at the top, the quicksilver will rise from 26 to 31 inches in mercury, and from 3n to 33 inches in water. In dry weather, the air, being free from vapours, is consequently heavy, and presses up the quicksilver-, but in moist rtiiiy weallier, tlie atmosphere being charged with clouds and fogs, the air is lighter, and presses with less force on the quicksilver. In high winds the alniospliere is licht, and tiie quicksilver low ; it also rises binltei in cold weather than in warm. BAROX. In England, a degree of nouiti- ty next to a viscount. All barons are lords of parliament and peers of the realm. Barims were originally so by tenure, that is, by virtue of the baruuy annexed Ic their lands or office. BARO.N AND FEME. A term in Law for husband and wife, who ar« de<'med tnil one person. BARON'S CORONET On a gold circle six pearls, which were assi^ed to baroaf by Kins I'liarles II. alter the Restoration BARONET. The Iom est degree of here 60 V^ BAS lltary hnniiKr erentert l»y letters patent. Ft was fiiuiided by .lames I. in l(>U>. HAK(i.\«? UF Tilt; KXftlE(lI)f;R. In Kngl.iiiil the four judges whu officiiilc in the Court vt exchequer at VAeslnnn.ster. R\lti).VY. In England, the hmioiir and Urritury which gave title tn a Utrun, in dinting the fees and lands uf Inrds, both triiipiiral and spiritual. I! VURACK."^. I'liices erected for the arcoinmodation of both men and horses in the army. n ARP AS. A substance consisting of re- f>r> ar.'l oil, which exudes from the wounds III Hr trees in winter. UARRATOR (in Law). A common mover of suits and quarrels,either in courts or elsewhere. HARREL. A cask or veesel for holding liquor, that is, thiriy-op.e and a h;itf gallons «f»viie,&c. and thirty -two gallons of beer. IIAHREL. The cylinder of a watch, •bou' which the spiring is wrupped. BARRIER. A kin« of fpnce, composed of great stakes, and serving to defsnd the eiilrtiice cf i passitge. RARRISTER. In Eng,«nd a counsellor ailniiiii-d to plead at ib« ^ar. An inner l!;irris!er is one who ii^merJMtnt, or king's ciiiiMsel, and is admitted to plead within (lie liiir ; but an outer hamster is one who pteuils without the bar. HARROW ^ln Ilusbjindry). An iinple- liieiit of conveyance with a single wheel, anil driven with the two hands. It is made of different forms, according to the purpose for which it i;: intended ; the com- mon liarrow, called the wheelbarrow, is rrpre.-*eiited uiiderne:Ah. BARROW. A large hillock or mound, •f which many are to be met with In rtif frrenf parts of England, and are supfxised •nf>e the tumuli or toinhs of the Romans. BARTER. The exchiincins oiifcommo- dily tor another ; also the rule in Arithnie- •jc by which the proportionate value of coiiimodilies is found. ^B«AR YTES. A sort of ponderous earth, very biitlle, ami jierfeclty «oliilile in boil- ing siilpliiiric and. It is cnm|Miunded of nxygen and barium. BASAI/r A >"ri of arnilla-eous earth. CiMiaisting cf sihi'u, with n rcrtain portion •( alumina and oxyd<; of iron, lime, anil BAS nmcnesla. It is always found neat ?« canoes. BASE (In Architecture) The fool cf • pillar, b> which it is sustained ; in Geome- try, the base of a ligiire is the lowest plaia side, or that on which it stands. U.VSE (ill L'hyniistry). The ineit sub- stance which coinliines with, and is acted upon, by the more volatile and active men- strua, a.s the alkalies, earths, and metallic OTydes, which are the principal ingredi- ents in the formation of salts. BASE LINE (in I'ersjtective). The Ciiminon section of a picture, and the geo- metrical plane. BASEME.NT. A coiitiniini base ex- tended atinig any building, as the base- ment or lower story of a house. B.ASE TE.M'RE, or B.*»e Estatb (IB Law). A holding by villaiiage, or other customary service. BASHAW, or Pacha. The title given to the grand officers of the court at Con- stantinople -, as the capudan bashaw, the adiniral or commander at .«ea ; bostangi bashaw, the chief oBicer of the garden,&c Their decrees of dignity were marked by their bearing one, two, or three horses tails. The ruler ofTri|M)li is called Bashaw. BASIL. The sloping edge of a chisel or of the iron of a plane. B.ASI L. A plant which has an aromatic smell. BASILICON. An ointment, consistins of resin, pilch, oil, wax, &c. BASILISK. A serpent of the lizard tribe, with remarkably piercing eyes, and a white spot on its head, resembling a diamond. It was formerly called acock^ trice, and fabled to be produced from the eggs of a cock. B.ASIN. Any hollow place capable of holding liipiids. Basin of a dock, a place where the water is confined by double tlooduates. 'I'tie basin of a haven is thai part which oi>ens from a narrow passage into a sp.irions rece|Uatle. The basin of a river, inrlndes the whole valley whicil empties its waters into the river or ita brtinches. BASKET. A vessel made either of ruslK es, splinters, willows, osiers, or any othei flexible material th.-»t can be inlerwov»H. To render osiers fit for use, they must be stKikeil for some time. I'hcse Ihnt are in- tended forthe finer kindof work, as wasb- iiig bsiskets or niurkel baskets, and the like, must be pet-led while they are green, and then siee|u-d. Ilnmjiers, and the courser kind of work, iti> not require that preparaliim : basket makine was one of the arts that was earned to a c«iii8iderabU BAT degree of perfection aznong the ancient Britons. BASKING SHARK. A species of the ■hark, winch lies much on ihe .■lrings of instru- ments of the common size, as the organ, ;me, ice, or on the largest kind of instru- ments. The hxss is tile principal part of a musical composition, and the foniidatiim of harmony, whence it is called the fun- damental lnLss. Thorongli liass is that which includes the funilaniental rules of composition. Ground hxss is that which c»nt blown with a reed, and has eleven hoies. It serves to play tiie bass part in concerts. BASS VIOL. A stringed musical in- itrninent of the same shape as a violin, but much larger. BASS VOICE. The gravest and deepest of the male voices. BASTARD (in I,aw). One bom out of wedlock, who cannot inherit. BASTILE. A fortress in Paris, which was used as a prison, and destroyed during the French revolution. BASTINADO. A mode of punishment usual among the Turks, of beating the offender on the soles of the feet. BASTION. A large nnuss of earth, stand- ing out frem a riinpart, of which it forms tile prin:ipal part. BAT. An animal resemhling both abird B.\T 81 and a mouse. It has wing4 ^ -t of feather*, bnt of a skin distended, and flies only at niglil. It lays no eggs, liut brings forth its y lung alive, and suckles them. RATABLE GROUND. Land formerly so called, vvhi-h lay between England and Scotland, and was the subject of debate to whom it belonged. BA TE.MENT (inP-r^ntry). The wast- ing of stutf, in cutting it for the purpose designed. BAT-FOWLING. A mode of catching birds at night, when they are at roost. BATH. Any receptacle for water whiih is convenient for bathing ; also any artifi- cial contrivance which is to supply the place of a bath, as a shower bath, or iin apparatus for applying water to the body In the form of a shower ; a vapour bath, or a mode of conveying moisture to the body by means of steam ; a medicinal bath is that in which certain chemical preparations are mingled. BATH (in Chemistry). A contrivance bj which heat Is conveyed to any substance ; also in the refining of metals, the fusion of the metallic matter is called a hath. BATH, KNIGHTS OF TIIE. In Eng- land, a military order of knighthood, re- -itored, if not instiliiled, by Henry IV These knights wear a red ribbon, and their motto is, Triajuncta in uno,alludiiigtolhe three cardinal virtues, faith, ho[»e, and charity, which every knight ought to possess. B.ATON. The stafl^or truncheon, given as a symbol of authority, to generals in the French anny. BATTA. Allowances made to tro. ps in India. Dry batta is money given in lieu of rations ; wet batta, what is given in kind BATTALION. A body of foot soldiers of from fiOn to 800 men. BATRACHIA. An order of animal.", including frogs, toads, salamauder«, ami other reptiles having a naked body wi h two or four feet. UATTE-N'. A scantling or piece of wood- en stuff, from two to four inches broad, and one inch thick. BATTERING. A cannonade of heavy ordriiuice against any fortress or winks. HATTr.RING-RA.M A military n^ chine, with whicb the ancient* efTecte^ 52 BAT breaches in fortifications. These engines were variously c«.nstriicte(l,and (if different ■izes. Plutarch iitfnrins us that Marc An- tony, in tlie i'arthiaii war, used a ram of B(> feet long ; and, according to Vitruvius, they were sometimes lOti, and even 120 feet long, and weighed 100,00(J His. Tills engine was frequently used in tlie four- teenth century, and occasionally for other purposes besides that of war in later \ten- mis. Sir Christopher Wren is said to have employed ii in demolishing the walls of Ute old church of St. i'aul, previously to tiia rebuilding it. BATTERY (in L.aw).The8triking,beat- Ing, or offering any violence to the person of another, as hy spitting in his face, or any way touching him in anger, or vio- lently jostling against him. It is distin- guislied from an assault, inasmuch as the latter does not necessarily imply a hitting, or blow. There may be an assault with- out battery, but there cannot be a battery without an assault. BATTERY (in Military Affairs). Any raised place on which cannon are placed. Batteries are of different kinds, as open batlerios, which are exposed to view •, masked batteries, which are hidden by a breastwork ; cross batteries, two batteriM firing alhwart each other on the same ob- ject, &.C. A floating battery is a battery erected on simple rafts, or the hulls ofships BA'I'TERY (in Electricity). A comblna. tien of coated surfaces of glass jars, so cobnerted, that they may be charged at once, and discharged by a common con- ductor. A battery or pile, is also an ap|ia- ratUK employed for accumulating the elec- tricity ok liiruugh. BE A BATl'LE AXE. An «inclent sort of weapon, having an axe and a pol4t at lh» end, for cutting or thiusting BATTON. A staff or truncheon, us«eariiig,or to prevent its l>earing Willi the whole weight at the ends only. BEARING (in Architecture). The dis- tance between the bearer, or support, aiid each end of tlie timber. BEARING. A sea term, to denote the situation of any distant object with regard to the ship's position, whether alie.-id, astern, or abreast, &c. BEARING (in Heraldry). Whatever is borne in, or fills the escutcheon. BEAT. The walk or round, which a watchman has to take at stated intervals, BEATING TI.ME (in Music). That mo- tion of t)ie hand or foot, by which some |>erson marks and regulates the movements of the performers. BEATS (in a Clock or Watch). The strokes made by the pallets or fangs of the spindle. BEAVER. An amphibious four footed animal, that lives on the hanks of rivers and unfrequeuted lakes, and is remarkable for its insennity in building its habitation. It walks slowly, swims dexterously, eats sitting on its hniinches, and conveys ita food to its mouth with its fore paws. This animal is valued Inith for its fur and for the oil which it yields, called castor oil. 54 BEE BEAVER. That part ofllielielmct which ietetuU Ihe siiiht, and (ipetis in front. BEAU AlUAUE. 'Ihe g.iy fashionable world. BKUdnOunnery). Alhick plank which Uea under a piece uf urdiiance, on the car- riage. BED (in Maaonry). A range or course of at(>ne8. BED (in Mineralogy). A stratum or layer of any earth or stone BEUOKA RIVEU. 'Ihe bottom of a channel, in which the slreiini or current uaually Aows. BEE. An insect which carries on the operation of ni:ilper, and the ear, or cannon. 'I'lie use of bells in churr'ies was introduced into England, in«l'« "^'•^th century. They were cimimonly tt^t**!"**! before they were hung BEl,LE55 LETTRES. A French tern for polite literature. BELI.ICEIiKNT. An epithet appliei to states that are at war. BELL METAL. A metal employed ii the manut'acture of bells, which usnall) consists of tliree parts of copper and one ol tin. BELLO.NA. The goddess of war, an« sister of Mars. BELLOWtS. A machine fur blowing th« fire. This machine is so contrived as u, expire and respire the air alternately, by enlarging and contracting its capacity The air which enters the bellows is com pressed when they are closed, and flowa out of the pipe with a velocity proportion ed to the force by which it is compressed. Tlie bellows of smith i aud founders are worked by a rocker. BEN BELLOWS OF AN OR(J.\.\. The pneumatic pari nf the iniichiiie, by which It is supplied wuh wiinl. The belldwsuf I lari;e urg.tii are worked by a man called the blower ; those ul' smaller or^aiid by the ftw' -.if the player. HKLI..Uili. The sixth order nf aiiiinaU in the Lliwiifaii system, liav !;■>; tlieu I'eet hoofed, as the eipius, or horse i sus, the swine ; the hi|>pr to anything •Ise BENDING (in Physiology,. The reduc- ing a body to a curved or crooked form The bendin>; of boards, planks, &c. is effected by means of heal, whellier by boil- ing or otherwise, by which the fibres be- come relaxed and flexible. BENUS IN A ^JI1I^. The outermost timbers of the side, to set the foot on iu climbing up the side. They are reckoned from the water, tirst, second, and third bend, and are of great service in strength- ening the ship, as into them the beams, knees, and foothooks are bolted. BE.NEFICE. In England, any ecclesias- tical living, but piirticularly rectories and vicarages. BEN EFIT OF CLERGY. In England, a privilege in law, at first peculiar to the clergy, but in after times made common to the laity. When any one was convicted ofcert<-tiii crimes, he had a book given him to read, and if the ordinary or his deputy pronounced these words, ' l^egit ut cleri- cus, he reads like a clergyman, or scho- lar,' he was oiilv burnt in the hand, and set free for the tirst offence, otherwise he wa.<< to suffer death. BEN/ol.\ A dry solid resin, of a fragrant sme'.l, produced by incision from the styrax, an Indian tree. It is brought to us from the East Indies, particularly Siamand the islands of Java anil .'Sumatra, in masses of various si/.es, composed of small granules of a whitish or yellowish colour, with a purple cast on the surface. It Is very intlammahle, and ditrnses a Ira- grant smell while biiriiiii!!, and so in like manner when rubbed in llieli:ilid. \\ hen the lieiizoiii tree is six years old, the na- tives cut it in several places, in an ob- lique direction, and the lirii/.oin tlowa from the woumls. Ben/.oin is used by perrniners in inakiiig sweet Unas, 6lc. and was formerly very much esteemed «s ar expectorant. 1'he tree was introduced from Virginia into England. BEHI'EST. A legacy ; whtit is be- qiie.-ithed or left by will. BEKENICE't; ilAlR. A constellation in the northern hemisphere. BERGAMOT. A line sort of pear which is of two sorts, namely, the sum- mer berganiot and the Hutnmii liergamot. BERGAMOT (in Chemistry). A fragrant essence, extracted from a I'niit which is produced by ingraftinca linini li ofalrmon tree, upon the stork of a tieruann.t pear. This essence is got by cutting the external rind of the fruit Into small pieces, and sipiee/.ing ilieiii into a elass vessel, in tn« same ook8 of the Old and New Testament. The Old Testament was first translated by the 72 Interpreters, and thence called theSeptiia- flnt: of the Latin versions, that of .''t. Je- rome ws« confirmed by the nmnril of I'MBt (ay- ineiit of .-I sum iif iiiiiiiey, li> :i persiin cull- ed tlie ilrawer, win. wlit-ii he luus signed it with his name, itiiil writleii the word ac- cepted, he IS culled the acceptor. Tlje persiiii In whuse lavnitr it is drawn, or to wlidiu it is ordered to be paiil, is called the drawee, or payej;, who, when he has in- dorsed it, is allied the Indorser. lie, who is ill iKissession of the hill, is the holder. HILL OF KARK. An account of such provisions aj are in season, or are to be supplied for the table. lUl.L OF LAIH.NfJ, or Ihtoice. A deed signed by the master of a ship, by which he acknowledges the receipt of the nicrrhaiit's giHids, and obliges himself to Jeliver them at the place to which they are consigned. HILL OF PARCF.I.S. A tradenman's account of goods sold and delivered. BILLET. A ticket for i|uarteniig 80«- diers : also a small paper, or note, folded up as a billet doux, or love-letter. KILLET. A small log of wood ; also in Heraldry, a bearing in the forniof as»piare, supposed to represent cloth of gold and •ilver. BILLETI^*} (in Miliury Affairs). Ordering . -ts to be quartered in par- ticular hoi ^ by a billet or small ticket. BILLIARDS. A game played on an "liliiiig table, exactly level, and covered with cloth, by the means of ivory bails, which are struck or driven with sticks, made bending, so as to drive the aiit.ago- nitit's ball into holes, called hazards or puckets, at the corners or by the sides of the table. 'I'he art of the game lies in (Xicketing your antagonist's ball without putting in your own. BILLION The sum of a million mil- lions. BILLS OF MORTALITY, Annual re- isters of the deaths and burials, which ake place in the different parishes in and uear London. The term is also applied to a register of deaths, in any town. BINDING OF BOOKS. The art of doing up hooks in leather or vellum, as distinguished from those done up in boards or only sewed. BINNACLE. A wooden case, contain- ing the compasses, log glasses, watch glas- ses, &c. BINOiMI,\L. A term in algebra for any quantity consisting nftwo names, or terms, connected together by the sign -J-, or — , as a -(- 6 BIPED. An animal with only two legs, M men and birds BIS 57 Biai'ADRATlC. The square squared, or the fourth power of any quantity. BIKL'H IREE. A tree with leaves like the poplar, the fruit of which isasquamos* Cone. The timber is used for hop-|>oles. BIRD-BOLT. A small arrow with thiea heads, which was discharged at birds from a cross-bow. The bird-txilt is still used in England as a bearing in coat armour. BIKDC.-VLL. A whistle or pipe to decoy birds. BIRDCATCHING. The art of taking birds or (vild fowl, by birdlime, nets, and decoys, which, as resjiects the more artful modes of catching birds, is called fowling. In the western islands of Scotland, where the birds live in rocks, a dangerous mode of bird catching is in use. BIRDLIME. A glutinous siilistance, madeof tn« bark of holly, which is spread »H the twi^s of trees in catch birds. BIRD OF PARADISE. See Pabadise, Bird of. BIRTH. A sea term for the station in which a ship rides at anchoring ground, as a good hirth, for a good anchoring ground. BIRTHRIGHT (in Law). Honour or estate belonging to a person by right of his birth. BIRTIIWORT. A herb having a peien nial root. BISCUIT (from hiscoctus, twice baked). A sort of bread much dried in baking; sea biscuit is dried harder than any other, that it may be better preserved. BISECTION. The cutting any quantity, as a line or angle, into two equal parts. BISO.N'. A variety of the ox, which has its horns bent forwards, back gibbous, and mane long. It is very co:iimon in the western prairies. Herds of ten thousand are sometimes seen together. It is im- pro|>erly called Buffalo, in the United Sute«. BISHOP. A dignitary in tbe Creek Romish and English churches. Inthelal- ter he presides over the clergy within A certain district, called his diocesa Bl S8 BIT ■ho|M In Er.glaiid are suffragans, or assist- BMls, 1(1 llie arclibiahop, wlio is the chief of tlie clergy iii his prtiviiice. The bishop issaiil to he iiisUlletl, the urchhishop to he riilhroiied. In America tliere is no arch- bishop. BIs^llOPRlC The dincess, or dislricl, over which h bishop presides. BISMUTH. A iiieliil of a yellowish or rwddish white colour. It is rather harder than lead, and scarcely if at all malleable, being very brittle ; il melts eiusily, and is ■oluble in acids. BISSliXTI LK, or Leap Vb»r. A year consisting of 306 days, liy the addition of a day in the month of February, when that year consists of 21) instead u{-2S days. This happens every fourtli year. The day thus added is also called Bissextile, and 3di this account, that Cxsar appointed it to be introduced by reckoiniisj; llie twenty- fourth of February twice, and iis tliat day was the same as the sixth of the calends of .March, a day celebrated among the Romans on account of the expulsion of the Tarquiiis, it was called bis sextuscalenda- rum Martii, and afterwards Bissextile. By the Stat. 21 Hen. 111. I)e Anno Bissextile, to prevent misiiiiderstaiidin:;s, the inter- calary day and that next before it, are to be accounted as one day. BISTER. A Colour made of chimney soot lioiled and diluted. BISTOURV. A small surgical knife of various forms, according to the purpose for wnich it is inieiided. BIT (in Carpentry). A btiring instrument so constructed as to be taken out of the handle. BIT, orBiTT or a bridle. The Iron attached to the bridle, which is put into the horse's mouth. BITT. A sea term for the two pieces of timber to which the anchor cables are attached. Bl TTER. A sea term for the turn of the cable round the bitts. BITTER AL.MOM). A sort of almond tree, the fruit of which is bitter. It;l TER-APPLK. See CoLoquiNTiDA. BITTER PRI.NCIPLE. The bitter parts of vegetable siilistances, which maybe ex- tracted by a chemical process. Artificial bitter is any bitter formed by the actum of nitric acid on vegetable and other sub- stances. BITTER-SWEET. A so.-i of sotanum, a perennial. BnTCRN,or BITTOl'R. A bird of the heron kind, of retired habits, that conceals Itself in the reedH and marshes. It sends totXA a croaking note when it is disturbed. BLA The .American Bittern differs from that el Europe which is here figured BITUMEN. A sort of mineral substance easily combustible with flame, greasy to the touch, and when ignited emits a strong odour. Naphtha is a fluid bitumen, asphal a hard species, and petrolium a viscia species of the bitumen. BIV.-MA'ES. One of tlie three gent-ra. classes of shellfish, the shells of wliicli ure composed of two pieces, joined togetlier by a hinge. BLACK. A colour which is supposed tc be produced by the peculiar texture ol bodies, which deaden as it were the liplu falling upon them, and reflect n(me,or very little of it, outwards towards the eye. BLACK. A Colour or dye, as lamp black, the smoke of resin, prepared by nieltine :t in iron vessels ; ivory black, made of burnt ivory, and used in miniatures ; f^paiiisb black, made of burnt cork, and first used by the Spaniards. BLACKBIRD. A well known bird of a beautiful black colour and an exipiisite note. It sings in the spring, and makes its nest of moss and grass. We have no bird in .Vnierica precisely similar to the European bird which ia here described. Our crow blackbird resemble* it, bit it larger. BLA BLACKnERRV. The fiait of the bram- ble, or lilacklierry bush. BLACK ll(K)K {in England). A book kept in the Exchequer, which contains tlie orders of that court. BLACKCAP. A little bird with a fine black crown on it^ head. BLACK IIUI.E. .\ place of confinement for soldiers. BLACK LRAn. A mineral, the plum- bago or graohilea oT Liiinsiis. It is found in lead mines, and is fusilile only by a violent heal. Lead pencils and crucibles are made of it. BLACK LETTER. A sort of old English elphalHit. BLADDER. A thin membranous sub- ■tance, which serves as the receptacle of some fiuid, as the urinary bladder, and the gall bladder. BLADDER-\UT. A tree, the fruit of which is contained in a membrane inflat- ed like a bladder. BLADDER SE.NNA. A shnib which yields a papilionaceous flower, that is suc- ceeded by pods resembling the inflated bladder of fishes. BL.\DE. The flat part of a sword or knife, resembling the blade or leaf of grass in shape. BI^ADEi;O.VE. The shoulder bone. BLAIN (in Farriery). A distemper in- cident to animals, being a bladder at the root of the tongue, which stops the breath. BLA.VCH FAR.M (in English Law). A term for a farm where the rent is paid in ■ilver, not in black cattle. BLANCHl.NG. The art of making any thing white, as (in horticultu.'e; the me- thod of whitening sal.uls. Islanching mo- ney is the annealing, boiling, and cleans- ing it when it is coined. Blanching cop- per is done in various ways, so as to make it resemble silver. Blanching is also the operation of covering iron plates with a thin coat or crust of tin. Blanching al- monds is the skinning them by means of 'Slot water. BLA.N'K. A void space in any writing or printing BLA.NK VERSE. That which has no rhymes. BLANKETS (in Printing). Woollen cloths to lay between the tympans of a printing press, in order to produce a fair Impression. BLA.NK ETS. A sea term, for combus- tibles made of coarse limwii paper steeped in nitre, dried, and then steeped again in tallow, resin, and sulphur j tbey are used tB futsaaipt BLO M BT^AST. A disease in grain and trees Killed also a bliglit. BL.\STI.N'G (among Miners). The teariiit; up rocks by the force of gun powder. BLASTLNG- BELLOWS. Bellows which are used to proiliice a more than or dinary degree of heat in furnaces. IlLAZUNRY, or ilLA/oXING. That branch of the art of lieraldry which con- sists in expressing in proper terms all that behuigs to coats of arms. The word comes from the German blasen, to blow ; be- cause a trumpet used to be blown at justs, &-C. previously to the her;iM's recording the achievements of (he kniglits. BLE.ACHING. 'l"he process of white- ning linen by exposure to the sun and airj or, as is now more commonly in u.^e, by the application of chemical prepara tions. BLEMISH (in Farriery). Any imper- fection in a horse which impedes a sound warrant, as broken knees, cracked heels, &.e. BLENDE. The ore of zinc. BLIGHT. A disease incident to plants, which consists in a sort of fungus, that converts the affected part into a sooty mass. BLINDS. A contrivance to prevent any one seeing through a window ; in Military Affairs, bundles of osiers used at the heads of trenches, to protect the men. BLINDWOR.M, or Slowworm. A worm so called from the sinallness of its eyes and the slowness of its motitm. BLISTER. A pustule in the skin, filled with serum ; in general, any swelling caused by the separation of the outer in- tegument of any sul)stance from that which is underneath. BLISTER (in Medicine). The plas- ter or application that raises a blister, mostly made of the canlharides, or Span- ish flies. BLOCK. A sea term for a pulley, or series of jiulleys, mounted in a frame, ci shell, which serves to facilitate the pai- sage of the ropes. Blocks are single, dou ble, treble, &.c. according to the nunibe of shivers in them through which the run ning ropes run. SINGLE BLOCK. BLO DOUBLE BLOCK. TMERLS aiiOCC. BLOCKADE. The blocking up J*e roaendicularly into tlie sea. BLUNDERBUSS. A short brass gun with a large bore. BOA CONSTRICTOR. A serpent of immense sixe and strength, a native of Al'rica and India, measuring sometimes ten yards in length. Il will twist itself round the bodies of oxen ami other ani- mals, and, breaking their bones, swallow them whole. BOAR. The male of the swine. Tim boar's liend is often borne in coats ofariika- BOARD. A sea term, fur tlie space ■ BuD htp nins ovrr bt-lweeii tach anl tack, as to m;ike stmrl lioarns, tiat la, to tack fre- qiieiilly ; also the ship itself, as to go abo-'int, tliat is, into ttie stiip ; so board and board i.s said of two siiip^ coming so near to eacJi other ;i> to touch by the board over tile Suifj's side. BDAKU (in Tarpeiitry). Any piece of timber sawed to a less thickness than about an inch ; all above this thickness are planks. nuARI), or Pastbboabd Layers of pa|>er so pasted together as to make a sub- ■tance as hard as a board. BOARDI.N'G. The fixing of boards for any purpose, as a floor ; liii Navjil Tactics) the entering a ship in a forcible manner. KO.-\RliS, or by way of contraction. Boa. The manner of doing hooks up in pasteboard covers, without leather. BOARD WAGKS. Money given to ser- vants in lieu of diet. BOAT. A small open vpjwel worked on rivers or email waters by rowing or sailing. BOATBILL. A bird of South America, having a bill that resembles a boat in iha|ie. It lives upon fish, and darts down up(m them as they are swimming. BOATFLY. An insect with an inflected snout, tliat lis'es in stagnant waters. BOATt^U'AI.V. A sea term, for the offi- e«r who has the boats, anchors, ic. in his (harge. BOB. The metallic weigh*, attached to a pendulum. BOBBIN. A sort of tape. B0BH:NS. Little pins of wood with a notch, on K^iiich thread, &c. is wound. BODKIN. A long sort of pin, on which women used to roll their hair. BOnV (inGeoiiu'lry;. Any solid bavins three dimensions, length, breailth, and thickness. Regular bodies, which have L. their angles and sides similar and i^ial, are of five kinds, namely, tetrae- iron, a body con>r.ined under four equi- latenit triangles ; iiejcaedruii, a body con- taining six s(|aare«;octaedron.a body hav- ing eight triniiules ; dodecaedron, a body •oiitaining twelve penuigons ; icosaedron, a body ojnt.-i:ning twenty triangles. Ir- regular jiidies are soliil:< wlm h are not t>nuiiJed by e iual, and like surtacei. BOM 6- BODY (in Physics) An extended solid substance, consisting of hard, iiii|>enetra- ble. moveable particles. It is a hard body when its parts do luH easily yield to any stroke or percussion ; a soft body when it yields to every stroke, and thereby under- goes a change -, an elastic body, thai changes its form with every stroke, hut re- covers it again wlien the imj>el.^{ fotise is removed. BODY. In the phrase ' to bear a body,' a term applied by painters to any colour which is of a nature to be ground so free- ly, and to mix with oil so entirely, as to seem one thick oil of the same colour. BODY. (Jf a chpiiiical vessel, thai which holds the matter in distillation. Body of a pump, the thickest part of tiie barrel or pi|ie. Body, in an army, any number of forces dnited under one com maiider. BOIIEA TEA One of the superior kinds of tea that comes from (v'hina. BOILING POINT. The fixed point or degree of heat required to produce the ebullition or boiling of a fluid. Every li- quid h:is a fixed point at which lMle, orliole armeniac, is a bright red coloured earth, so called from Armenia, the country from which it is procured. BOLL. A measure of two bushels. BOLOGNA STONE. A phosphoric stone, first found at Bologna in Italy. It is a gray so(\ sulphureous stone, about tlw; si/.e of a large walnut, which shines in the dark after calcination. This stone is the native sulphate of carytes. BOLSTER. A soft pillow for a brokei. limb ; in Farriery, it is the name of those parts of a saddle which .-ire rai.sed iijinn the bows to receive the rider's thighs. BOLSTER. A sea term, for a piece of timber rut and placed for the easement of the cable. BOLT. An iron pin used for strength ening timber. BOLUS An internal medicine, of >! consistency thicker than honey. BO.MB A hollow ball of cast iron filled with combiistililes, and dischargm from a mortar into towns, when, by aurtt- ing, it cau.ses much mtscbinf 92 BON BOMBAROMENT. The discharging of bomb!) into <( Itesieged place. BOMUIC A<:i(). An acid liquor con- tained in a reservoir near the anus of the •illtworni. BO.MIiKr.TCH. A small vessel built and Ktr«nj!lliened witli large beams, for b« uae of mortars at sea. BOMPERNICKEL. A name given in Jerision to the German rye-bread, signify- ing, good for nothing. BO.N'A FIUE. With good faith ; with- out fraud or subterfuge. BOND (iu Law). An obligation or covenant in writing to pay any sum, or perform any contract. BOND (in Carpentry). The binding of any two pieces together by tenanting,' mor- ticing, &.C. In Masonry, it is the disposi- tion of stones or bricl(s in a building, so that they most aptly fit together ; stones naviiig their lengtli placed in the tllick- ness of the wall are called headers, and those whose length extends along the face or exterior of the wall are called stretchers. BONO-TIMBEKS. The horizontal tim- bers bedded in stone or brick walls, for itrengthening the masonry. BONDSMAN. One bound or giving se- curity for another. BONE. A hard, dry, insensible part of the body, composed of a spongy reticular substance, and an oily matter called mar- niw. There is also a considerable portion of phosphate of lime that enters into their oonipositiun. The bones of the human 9ody are in numlier about 250. BONE. A sea term, in the phrase « To tarry a bone in her mouth,' applied to a chip whea she makes the water foam be- fore her in sailing. BONE-1.ACE. Lace made of bobbins that are farmed from bones. BONES. A sort of bobbins made of lrotler4iones, for weaving bone lace. BONES. A name in Mathemntics given to Lord Napier's rods for facilitating arith- ■Mtical calculations. BONING A term among surveyors, to BOO denote the laying poles up n the grouna in such a manner thai all may lie in a straight line. BONNET (in Heraldry,. A cap of vel vet Worn without a coronet. BONNET. A sea term, for the additioq of a small sail made to fasten wila latch- ings to the foot of the other sails. BONNET (in Fortification). A small Work composed of two faces, usually raised before the saliant angle of the counter- scarp. BONZE. A priest in China, Japan, and Farther India who wears a chaplet of beads about his neck, and carries a staff, having a wooden bird at one end. BoOBy. A South American bird of the pelican tribe. BOOK. Any folded leaves which are or may be written upk is covered and bound tietween two hands and set to dry. It is afterwards wa.'^hed with paste and water, and then sprinkled with a brush, unless it is to he marbled, which is done by making spots with vitriol. The b<>ok >8 then glazed with the white of an egg, end, lastly, polished with a hort iron. The letters and orniineuts are made with gilding tools, or brass cylinders, rolled tlong by a handle : to apply the gold, the BOO 6S leather is gla/.ed with a li<|iior mads of the white ul' eggs, diluted wilt water, and when nearly dry ihe gold is laid on Such is the process when a book is fully bound \ but bmiks may soiiietiines be only sewed and tiave a paper cover, when they are said to be sewed : sumetimes the boards aj-e covered with paper only, when tliey are said to be in boards ; and soiuti- tiines they have a leather covering on the back, extending a siiiali way over each side, when they are said to be hall bound. B0C)K-KI:EI'I.N'G. The arl of keeping arcniiiit«,or recording the inercantiie wum aclioiisof aman,so that he may thoriMtt;lily know the whole state of his alli»frs, or any part of them, with ease and despatch Accounts may oe kept either by single or double entry ; the former of which may answer the purpose where the dealings are on a small scale, but merchants, whose con- cerns are extensive, keep their books accor- ding tothe double entry, or Italian method In single entry two books only are wanted, namely, a Journal, or day book, in which the transactions of the day, am they occur in the course of business, are entered ;and the ledger, or post book, in which all the accounts drawn out of the journal are placed under the proper name, either on the debtor or creditor side. Those who keep their accounts by double entr>> have occasion for several books, the three prin- cipal of which are, the waste book, the journal, and the ledger. Tlie waste booK is a book containing an inventory of a merchant's effects and debts, with a dis- tinct record of all his dealings. The act of placing any transaction under a given ac- count is called the entry ; if placed on the [)r. or debtor's side, it is debiting the account : if placed on the Cr. or creditor's side, it is crediting. The waste book opens witli the inventory, which consists of two parts ; namely, in the first place, of a man's effects, and what is due to him ; and in the next place, what is due by him. .After the inventory follow the daily transactions as they occur in business. The accounts of persons are debited under their respective names when they become indebted to the merchant, and credited when the merchant becomes indebted to them. Accounts of property are debited when they come into his possession, and credited when they go out of it. In the same manner the accounts of profit and loss are kept, which are de- bited on account of a loss, and credited on account of a gain. Those marked Dr. are placed on the left side, and those marked (^r. on the ii|iposite side, marked OmtraCr 7*his hook should conuun tlie names of per 54 BOO •one irith whom the merchant deals, the euudiliuns of bargains, the terms of pay- Dieiit, the quantity, quality, and prices of g(H>dj, with every other particuhir neeiiriil t<) be recorded. 'J"he journal, or day IxMik, ia intermediate between the wiinte hook and the ledger, wherein the tran^^.ictionit recorded in the waste book are prepared to be carried to the ledger, by having the prsper debtors and creditors ascertained aiid placed in order. In tlie journal, per- son.s end thingsare debtors to other persons and things as creditors, and in this it agrees with the ledger, hut in other re9|»ects it agrees witli the wiiste book. Every case or transaction entered into the journal is called a journal post, or entrance. The ledger is the principal book, in which all the several articles of each particular ac- count that lie scattered in other books, according to their several dates, are col- lected and placed together in such manner that the opposite parts of every account are directly set fronting one dnother, on opposite sides of the same folio ; that is to say, the debtor, or d-btor part, is entered on the left or debtor side of its own account, where it is charged debtor to the creditor part ; and the creditor, o» creditor part, is posted to the right or creditor side of its account, and made creditor hy the debtor part. Hence it is that the Italian method of book-keeping is said to he by doulile entry, because every single case of the >v:i.ste hook requires to l)e entered twice in the ledzer, that is, once for llie debtor and mice for the creditor. In addition to the above three books, most merchants have several other books, as the cash book, which Contains in debtor and creditor all the ca.sh that comes in and goes out ; the debt book, in which are entered all sums tha« become due, either to lie received or paid, by bills of exchaiiL'e, notes of hand, tc. ; besides this, some merchants require • book of invoices, a book of coiiiniissions, a bi«)k of orders or advices, &c. according to the nature of their tran.s:ictions. BOOKSELI.F.R. One who deals or trades in bonks, particularly one who sells the bonks printed liy olliers. as ili.stin- Buished from the publisher, who sells the bo ks, that are printed on his tiwii account. 7'iie bookselling business ha^ iitw-iysheld a liieherrank than any other rominon trade ; sndon the continent, as at '•'uhineen,!*alls- bnrs;, and Paris, booksellers class with the members of the learned professions, and have the privileges of ititdenis .it the iinl- versily. f)i (he Inrr.Kluclioii of prinrins, the hook«ell.-r. pniiier. and scholar were oiif iiid tlic >aiiir iifiMiji. BOR HOOKWORM A little ifiject whiell breeds and eats holes in books, esiieciall) when damp. KOOiM. A sea term, for a long (lole to extend the bottoms of particular sails as tlie jih Immuii, studding sail boom. 'J'he hooin of a harlxmi a strong iron chain thrown across a haroour, to prevent tli« entrance of an enemy. BOOH. Properly, a peasant , particu larly applied to the rude peasantry of Russia. BOOT OF A COACH The space un derneath between the coachman and the body of the coach. BOOTES. A northern constellation, con- sisting of fifty -four stars, according to Mr F'lamstead. BORACIC ACID. An acid drawn from lionix by combustion. BOR.AX. A substance dug out of wells in Thibet, and imported from India. It is sometimes in the form of solid grains, sometimes in large crystals, enclosed in a fatty matter. BORDER, or BORDURE. An ordinary in Heraldry, so called because it borders round, and as it were hems in the held Borders are charged with things natural and artificial, in the same manner as the field BORDERERS. Those who lived on the borders of England and Scotland, and were formerly engaged in perpetual host ilhie^. . BORE. The hollow of a piece of ord nance. BORE-COLE, or CunLED Colewort A hardy sort of kale, which Is improved by the frost. BORER. A piercer, or instrument to born holes with. BORI.NG. The method of piercing the earth in search of minerals. BOROUr.H. From the Oerman burg, it formerly signified a fenced town, hut in England is now taken for any corporate town that is not a city, and that sends memliers to parliament: in Scotland there are still royal burghs, or boroughs, that are held of the king. Rotten Boroughs, are ancient towns, with the privilege of send- ina members to I'nrliainent, whnh are nt.w r>-.'ii.ed, and have but a few prr»,.M liviii>: III thuin BOT BOKOU the younger boms. HUS. Tlie generic nunie in tlie Linn.-ean ■VMtem for iill ;inini:ils or llie ox tribe, as ttie bisun, butUiloe, coniinun ox, musk ox, ii.C. liOTANY. The science which teaches the knii\vleili;e nf plants, as to their dis- ci'iniinating i liara tt-rs, structure, growth, cuT.ure, diseii>«;s,aii(ural orders, an trees, file stems of which send I'ortll brunciies I'nim the iniddl'' and top : shrubs, the stems of whicli send fortli branches from tlie bottom : iiiidershrubs, when the stems of tiie shrubs perlsli: herbs, which bear dowers and seeds, and tlieii die ; if tliey die at the end of one year they are called annuals, if at the end of two years biennials, if they last three or more years they are perennials: fungi are lleshy, coriiiceous, or woody: alg.c, or seaweeds, have neither stems nor leaves: mosses, which have only leaves and fruit: ferns, that never send forth more tliaii one leaf on a footstalk : grasses, which are distinguished by their stem, which is a ciilni or straw : lilies, whicJi have a tuberous or bulbous root : palius, which have an arboreous stem, from which the leaves grow, anil not the branches. The parts of plants are distinsuished generally into the root, the stem, the bud, the leaf, the inflorescence, and the frucliti- cation. The root is the part throU{;h which the plant derives nourisliiuent from the earth ; a plant is either annual, biennial, or Iterennial, according to tiie time that the root hists. Roots are sometimes c:Uled jtesky, when they consist of a tleshy pro- longation ; fihroiui, when they consist of tn my fibrtms prolongations ; tuherou.^, when they consist of a thick tteshy sub- stance, as the potatoe ; bulboii.-i, when they consist of a bulb or fleshy body, provided with several coats, as the imum or the lily ; grnnitioferf, when they have a cluster of little bitths, as in the saxifrage ; creeping, when they have a horizontal prolongation of the root growing under the earth, and MMiding forth new plants of its kind, as cone ligrass. The stem is the pridongatum of the plant aiiiive the soil, proceeding from the root. The woody stem of trees is the trunk ; that which is herbaceous is the slalk, and be- hitigs only to herbai'eiiiis iilants ; but the ■t:Uk of cnisses, rushes, and similar plants, ia called the culm ; and when the slalk l»ears flowers and friits immediately from Jhe riiil, and not leaves, it is a sra|ie. as In ti.9 primrose nneuole, or focitsiiilk. The bud is that part of the plant which C(Uitains the embryo of the leaves, flowers, .^c, and serves .us their liyt>ernaculum, or winter receptacle. The bud is guarded by scales, and furiiislied with ^nm, or wo. I, as an additi(mal defence. The moss bud Is a rouinlish longish body , proceeding from the m.itlier plant, and becoming itself a new one ; the gongyliis is a knob t»elong ing to the seaweed, which falls oti on the death of the inotlier plant, and becomes a new one. I'he leaf is the herbaceous production from the ii^cendjiig stenij when the stalk and leaf are so intimately connected I hat they cannot be distinguished, tins is culled a frond, as in the p:ilins and the alga;. To the leaf belong several ap))endages, which serve either for ornament or some specific use, as the bractea, or floral leaf, that stands near or between the flowers, form- ing a tuft, as in the pineapple; the stipiila, a small leaf that appears on the stem, in the place of a fooLstalk; the sheath, a pro- longation of the leaf that rolls itself round the stem, its in gr^tsses; the ascidinm, or bottle, a fuliaceoHscylindrical h(dlovv body, which is generally furnished witliacnver, andcontains water; the ampulla, or blaeard in grasses; the piti, hairs, finesleniler bodies, which include all kinds of pubescence, as bristles, wool, io. some of which discharge a poison, as in the nettle. The inflorescence is the mode of flower- ing, which differs very much in diflTerenl plants, and is distinguished intoverticilliis, the whorl, whichconsists of several flowers, slandiiuiat intervals, surrnundingthpstein, as in the mint; the racemns, the raceme, a (tedniicle with short lateral branches, as inthecurranland the vine,&c.; tliecorym- hus, or corymb, an erect raceme, the lower peduncles of which are so lengthened as to be of eiiual height with the upper; when the peduncles take llieir rise from the same centre, but the subdivisions are irregular, it is a cyme; when the (tediiiicles ris« from the same centre, but llie whole it 66 BOTANY. dlsfHiseii In regular order, It is an umbel-, the capilulum has many flowers, standing 'hick, so as to form a head, as in the globe- amaranth; the fasciculus, fascicle or bundle, a number of simide peduncles rising at the frot of the stem from several points, as in tJie sweelwilliam; the spica, or ear, as in wheat and barley; the panicula, or pani- cle, in which the flowers or fruits are scattered on branches unequally divided, as in the oat grass; the spadix, so called from the apadix vagina, or sheath, which contains the flower siftlks; the unienlum, or catkin, a long stem thickly covered with scales, under which are the flowers or essential parts, as in the willow and hazel; the sorus, or me of green leaves, which, when it immediately encloses the flower, is a peri- anth; when it contains many flowers in one is an anthodium; when it consists of many leaves surrounding the flower, as in iimltelliferous plants, is an involucre. The calyx of grasses is called the glume; when it rolls itself round the stem, as in some grasses, it is called the vagina, or sheath; and in some aquatic plants the spatlia, or spathe. 2. The coiolla, or blossom, the envelope of small leaves of various colours which constitute the flower properly so called; the divisions of the corolla are called the [>etals; the parts of the corolla are the tubus, the tube, the hollow under- part of a corolla that has but one petal; liinbus, the border or opening of the co- rolla; labia, the lips; barba, the beard; rictus, tl|e gape between the extremities of the lipe;,,faux, the throat or the opening of the tube; nectarium, the nectary, which commonly serves to secrete a sweet juice; this is sometimes in the sha|>e of a hood, and is called the cucullus, or hood, as in the aconite or monkshood; sometimes in the shape of a spur, called calcar, as in the violet; also in that of an arch, a crown, fcc. 3. The stamen is an essential part of the flower, which consists of the flinment itrthiead that supports theaullier; anthen, the anther, a hollow cetlular body; and pollen. Die tM>wder or fine dust contained in I be anilirr. 4. The pistil, the second e»,*pnii:il |>aU of a flowrr, stands in the centre of the circle formed by the stamen, and niMsists ifihe geriiien, the rtidiiueiits of the future fniil orsfed; the •'tylus, -ityle «rsliitfl, asni.ill s(.-\lkse:itednii Ihecerineii; •nd Itae stlguia, the top i>l' ihr slytK. The fruit proceeds fVom the cermen. and consists of, 1, the pericarpium. }>ericarp or seed ve».sel, a hard hollow body, that it of Uiflerent kinds, as cajKOila, a cajwule, or thin coat, divided into cells; a sillqua, ot pnd, a dry elongated i)ericarp, consirting of halves or valves, as in the mustard; tke legumen, the legume, as in the pea kind; nux, the nut, a pericarp covered with t hard shell; drupa, or drupe, a nut covereJ with a fleshy coat, as in the plum; bacca, the berry , a succulent fi uit (Hjiilain ing miiiiy seeds, as the goosel>erry, the curntnt, &-C 2. 'J'he semen, or seed, that fKiilof the plant destined for propagati(m, cmisists of dif- ferent parts, as tlie cotyledones, colyledons orseed leaves; corciiluni, thecirdeorlittle heart, the germ of the new plant; hylum, the eye, the deep scar in the seed which has been occupied by the circle; plumula, the plumule, or that part of the circle which ascends to form the leaves; rostel- lum, the o'.'ier part of the circle, which descends to form the root. Besides the seed is furnished with Uilfereniapi>endage*, as ar'llus, the aril, a soft membrane ex- tended over the seed; pw]tpus, the down; Cauda, the tail; rostrum, the beak; and various spines, or hooks, &,c. which serve to attach the seeds to diflerent bodies, and pron)ote their dispersicm. 3. The basis, oj b:ise. is the receptacle or body on which the flower stands, the princii>al part of which is the thalamus, or fruit bed; when this is round or oblong it is called peltii, a target; when plateshaped, stutelta, a shield'; when convex, tiiberculum, &.C. Besides the science of botany conipre- hendsalsoa knowledge of plants as to their vegetation, anatomy, cheoiical composi- tion, and diseases, which uje all iiiclude< under the physiology of plants. 'I'he veg etation of plants may be distinguished into germination, when the seed begins to burst, vernation, when the buds begin to burst; virginity, when the flowers or buds are not yet unfolded; defoliation, when the leaves in autumn begin to fall ofl'; sleec, when during the night the leaves hang down; Eestivation, when the flower is in iierfi-e- tion; fructilication, when the anthers communicate the fructifying dust in the neighbouring parts. 'I he anatomical structure of plants com prehends the cuticle, the cortex or outer hark; the liber, or inner bark; the libur- iiuin, or .soft wood; lignum, the wood; medulla, the pith; the air vessels, which arelhe cimdiirtcirs of the air; the nddiicent or spiral vessels, which pn ceed with of are entwined rmind the air vessels; tlie rediicent veoMsls, which are suppised to BOTANY 61 «rve the purpose of trnnspiratic n , tlie vnipliutiCK, wliicli are ri'tinilarly united; tie cellular texture, :i ilclicMle nieiuhnuie irriiiniding i>.\\ the v«-ssel*, uinl ■'(int:i>iiliig resiniius juice, iu> tu ilic tir iribe, and a guiiiuiy juice in rniii iree!<; the (jl^iiUd, which serve hs sum rfti^ry vessels. The principal diyiinciil w-.ii«titiients of ol.ants are carhnn. hyilrnneii, iind oxygen, but chiefly the former, lie.-.iile.-i which azote, (ulpliur, anI<' >ubstance.s, may be found in small qu.iiiiilie3. The princi- pal compound sul)!«taiices which form the seusibleingiedientsof plant.sare,theacid:<, Xiucilnge, sugar, starch, albunieu, gluten, fixed and volatile oil, wax, resin, ca>nphur, The priuci|>al diseases to which plants are incident are, fissures, or a separation of the solids into long clefts, arising from an extreme fulness of juice; premature defoliation, when the leaves fall olT before tlie usual period; alblgo mildew, a whitish mucilaginous coating of the leaves of plants, which causes (heir decay, rubigo, rust which appears on tlie leaves and stems of many plants; lepni, leprosy, which af- fects the trunk ; galbe, galls, occasioned by tlying insects; verruc;e, warts; besides heinorrage, canker, e.vulceration, &.C. IKiTANV, IIistoky of. As the practice of cultivating plants both for pleasure and utility was coeval with the rtrsl fonaation of m?ii, it is iiatunil to suppose that the science of botany wiut (nie of the earliest studies which engaged the attention of in- quirers. Aristotle, in his history of ani- mals, has many remarks on plants, draw- .ng a coinp,irison between their mode of growth and that nf animals, and pointing out in what animal and vegetable life agree and in what they differ. His disciple, Theophrastus, has devoted a whole work b his favourite subject, and has not only narked the distinctions between trees, «hrubs, herbs, and flowers, but treated of .he diflerent parts of plants, as the root, stem, leaf, and fruit; showing their diver- sity in form, habit, colour, mode of growth, and other interesting particulars, which he has illustrated by giving the names of not less than live hundred different planto, by way of example. Kxcejit the descrip- tions or allusions of the poets lo t':ivoiirite plants, tl:ere is nothing further to be fiuind on the subject of botany until the time of the Romans. Virsil,iii liisfJeornics.speaks of the uses and culture of several pants connected withlmsbandry. Pliny, In his Natural llisfory,descritie.s nottessilianone thousand s|>'cies of plants, Dul without any other order than in connexion with the I places where they were iiMigeiiuus. \a I tonius Musa desciibes the virtues of Ui* I plant betoiiy. Columella treats of plantwis an agricultural pointofview. Dioscorides, (jaleii, Dinbivsiris, I'aulus ^geneta, and Arliiis iiave described the lucdiciiial vir- tues of plants niurli at large. After tlies* writers the snlijeit of botany appeaiii to have been almost, torgotten, otherwise than it Wits pursued by the .Arabians in conjunction with the scieme of medicine In Kiirope, at least, we fiud that it w.as altogether neglected until the sixteeii'ti ceiitiiiy,wheii a number ofbolanislssjiriKig up ill Germany, Kngland, Holland, Italy, and Krance, who, as their works testily prosecuted the subject with great zeiil I'rosper Alpiims wrote several b(K>ks on the plants of t^gypt and other exotica. Clusius, a French botanist, wrote on the rarer kind of plants. Many other botanlits in this and the following centuries wr(>te general histories of the plants whirli ciinie within their observation, particular.y Ctt- saipinusin his work L)e Plantis, libri xvi.; Delechamp, in his Historia Generalis I'laii- tarum; J. Bauhin, in his Historia I'lan- tarum; C. Bauhin, in his I'hytopiiiax; Gerarde, in his Herbal; Parkinson, in his 1'heatrum llotanicum; Ray, in his Historiii Plantarum; Comnielinus, in his Hortus Malabariciis; 1'ournefort, in liis Inctitu ticmes Kei Herbaria; Boerliaave, in his Index alter Plaptariim Horti Academiei Lugduni; Vaillant, in his Botanicon Par- isiense; besides Fiichsius, IMatthiolus, l)od-> ona.Mis, Cainerarius, Bregnius, lUieedius, Briinfels, Plukenet, Plumier, ice. Caisalpinus, in the sixteenth centiirv, was the first who prn|>erly systeniati/.ed botany He formed fifteen cliusses from the fruit and the situation of the corciiliim Since his time many systems have been formed from different parts of I lie plai•" the cajisiile calling his classet uericarpia fora, uiii- fora, bifora, &.c. Riviniis selected flia corolla, dividins the plants into Mores regu- lares, compositiB, and irregular>*s, and these again into monopetali, dipetali. &c llaller formed a natural system from the cotyledons, the calyx, the corolla, the stamina, ami the sexes of the plants ; but Ihe system most generally adopted before the time of Linii.i;U8 was that of Tourne- fort. He divided plants into lierba' et sufrrntices, arbores et frulices, and tlie»» again into herbs floribns uionopetalu, canipaniformibus,infundebili>iirniilius Alt 18 BOT BOTANY. In the classification of the botanical nomenclature there are two princiijal systems — the sexual or artifli- cial one ot Linuajus, aud that of Jussieu, which is according to the natural order of plants. The lannsean system is founded on the number, situation, and proportion of the essential organs of fru-^tiflcation, denominated stamens aud pistils. The names of the classes and orders are of Ureek derivation, aud al- lude to the functions of the respective orders. Thus the vegetable kiugdom is divided by that great naturalist into 24 classes, of which 2:i belong to flowering, and 1 to flowerless plants. The first eleven classes are distinguished entirely by the number of stamens, which are OAlled Mouandria, Diandria, Triandria, &c., as far as Dodecandria, from the Greek words one, two, three, &c. com- bined with male (andria), because the stamens of flowers are compared to males, and the pistils to females. Hence the orders, as far as Polygynia, are de- nominated Mouogynia, Digyuia, Trigy- nia, &c., according as the flower has one or more pistiLs; so called from the Greek wane (one), and gune (a female). Thus the jasmine, having two stamens, and one pistil, is placed in the second class of the first order of that class, or Diandria Mouogynia. The following is a summary of the 24 classes, which owe their distinctions chiefly to the stamens and pistels: 1. Monandria, one stamen. — 2. Diandria, 2 stamens. — 3. Triandria, three. — 1. Totraiidia, four. — 5. Pentan- dria, five. — 6. Hexandria, six. — 7. Hep- tandria, seven. — 8. Octandria, eight. — 9. Euueandria, nine. — 10. Decandria, ten. — 11. Dodecandria. twelve. — 12. Icosan- dria, twenty or more stamens, inserted into the calyx. — 13. Poly andria, all above twenty inserted into the receptacle. — 14. Didynamia, four stamens, two long and two short, — 15. Tetradynamia, six stam- ens, four li ng and two short. — 16. Mon- adelphia, the stamens united into the bodies by the filaments. — 17. Diadelphia, the stamens united into the bodies by the filaments.— 18. Polyadelphia, the stamens united into three or more bodies by the filaments. — 19. Syugenesia, an thers united into a tube". — 20. Gj'uan- dria, stamens inserted either upon the style or germen. 21. Moncecia, stamens and pistils in separate flowers, but on the same plant.— 22. Dioecia, stamens and pistils, like the former, in separate flowers, but on two separate plants. — 23. Polygamia, stamens aud pistils sep- arate in some flowers, united in other.*", either on one, two, or three distinct plants.— 24. Oyptogamia, stamens and piBtils either not well ascertained, or not to be numbered with certainty. The Natural System of Plants, as de- vised by Jussieu and De Candolle dif- fers most materially from the Linuasan System ; it takes into consideration the •aUre ori;aiuzation of the plant, witli BOW its prox)ertie8 and peculiar habits. The most striking genus of a tribe of i)lanta gives name to the order; as, lor in- stance, the Rose ( Latin rosa), forms the type of the natural order llo.sacese; and the Violet, that of the order Violacese. In this manner Jussieu divided the whole vegetable kingdom into 1.5 cla.sses, and the genera into 100 orders, but which number has been gradually in- creasing with the progress of discovery. In the Natural System the vegetable world has been classified under two grand divisions — theVasculares and the t'lllulares; and these again divided into classes and sub-clasFCS, Vasculares. Class 1. Dycotyledons or Exogens. The plants of this class have siems consisting of concentric layers, formed by external annual additions, and are composed of vascular and cellu- lar tissue; the flowers are furnished with male and female organs of repro- duction, called stamens and pistils. Class II. Monocotyledons or Endogens. The stems of this class are formed by the addition of new fibres to the in tenor of the stem already formed; flowers sexual, the seed consisting of one coty- ledon. Cellulares. Class 1. Semi-vasculares. Plants having vessels as well as cellular tissue; the stems are increased by simple elongation; the leaves veined and forked; the sexual organs distinct and visible nnder the microscope only. Class II. The Agamas are plants which increase by elongation or irregular ex- pansion of their parts, and are wholly composed of cellular tissue, showing, under the microscope, no sexual organs whatever. These consist of the Fungi, Mosses, Lichens, Hepaticas or Liver- worts, and Algae. The Dicotyledons are divided into four sub classes — the Thal- amiflorie, Calyciflorse, CorolUfloroe, and Mouochlamydeje. BOULDERS. In geology, fragments of rock embedded in diluvial deposits; sometimes found lying on the surfice of the ground, and bearing marks of abrasion and transport. Boulder for- mations are deposits of clay, gravel,A;c., containing fragments of triturated rock. BOW. A sea term, for an instrument fixed on a staflT, with vanes, for taking the sun's altitude at sea ; also llie rounding parts of the ship's side, distuiguished l»y the stiinii stick t'nrnishfcd with hair, with wImcIi tli»- (lerfurnier plays. BOW An instrument for bJtootiQ| BRA ArioXTS. The long bow, the favourite of the Kiigli.sh army in former times, is simply a bow with a string fixed at each end, to wliicU the arrow w.is apfilied. It i&used with great dexterity by tlie Tartars «f Aaia, and the savages of America BRE 69 BOWSPRIT. A mast projecting over the stem or head to carry the sail forward. BOW'YEIt. A bowmaker ; the bowyers are one of the city companies in Ix>ndon. BOX. Any ca^Je of wood, iion, or leather, which serves for conveying or keeping things. BO.X. A plant, which is of two kinds ; namely, the dwarf box that is used fur iMiiderx in gardens, and the box tree, which is a shrub or tree. The wood of this is velliiw and hard. B. II. In England, an abbreviation for Bancus Itegis, the Court of King's Bench. BRACK. Wliat holds a thing tight, iis the braces of a drum ; in Carpentry, n pier*" of timber which serves to keep the frame work tight ; in Printing, a cr(H>ked line marked thus ! which serves to enclose words that are to be together. BRACELET. An ornament for the arm ar wrist ; also a piece of defensive armour for the arm. BRACIIMAXP, or BRAMINS. The prieny rays, as the pipe fish, sucker, frog fish, &.c. BRANDV. A spirituous and inflamma- ble liquor, made from the lees of wiiu^ by disfill!iti(m. Its constituent parts are wa- ter, alcohol, and a little nil or resin. Bran- dy is said to have been first ntanufactured in l.ananedoc BRANT-FOX, A sort of black and red fox. BRASIL WOOn. A .sort of wood so (lenominated becatise, as js supposed, it was first lirought from Brasil. It is red and heavy, so as to sink in water, takes a gooound inetal, of a vHlow colour, consisting of copfter and about one third of iis weight of y.Inc BRAWN. The muscular or fleshy part of the body, particularly th.it of the boar. BREACH. A gap made in the works of a town by the besiegers. BREACH (in Law). The violation of a contract ; breach of pound, is the break- ing any place where cattle are distrained , breach of prison, an escajw by breaking out of prison. BREAD. A light, porous, spongy sub- stance, prepared by fermentation and baking, from the flour of wheat, rye, or barley. Wheaten bread is distinguished into while bread, which is made of the 70 BRG finest flour, and lirowii bread, of flour liiiv- ing some of the bran m il. BllKAJ) FRIHT-I KliE Tlie autocar- pus of LiniiiEUs, a tree gr .wing in some of the Oceanic islands, so ciilled because the fruit, which is milky and pulpy, sup- plies the place of bread to the inliubilants. Tbu tree grows lo tlie tieiglit of forty feet. BREAK. A sea tenn, for that part of a deck where tne desctnt to the next deck below it, commeuceii-, in Printing, the short line which ends a paiagraph. nilEAKERS. BilU.ws that break vio- ently over rocks tlisi lie under the surface of the sea. BREAKING GROUND. A military term, for o|)ening the trenches and be- ginning th. a harhnur to break the force of the wa.te', such as the I reak wa- ter lately erecti d in Plyinouth r^ound, England, and ih .t in Delaware Bay. ilREA.M. A ( «h of the carp kind, that grows f;ist f.m' lias a broad body, 'riic Bea Bream, ot'^/ rwise called tbe lied iJili Head, is a Silt, of a red colour, with tlie iris s\*very BRSaBT. The anterior part of the ::oTax. BRLXSTFAPT. A sea term, for the 4rge rope employed to confine a ship jideways to a wharf or rpiay. URi:\STI'l,\ I'E. A piece i.f defensive artnniir worn on Hie bre:isl ; in Ihirseiiian- ■hip, a tcitherii xlmp niiiiiini! frxiii one BRl side of the saddle, across the horse's breast to the other, to keep il in lis place. BREAST I'LOUUIl. A sort of plough which is driven forward by the bre.ist, and is used in England in pjuingolf turf from the land. BREA.STU'ORK. A military term, foi works thrown uji as high as the breast of the beslegeil ; a sea term, for the balus trade of the quarter deck. BRECCIA, or l'uooi»o-«Toi«i:. A sort of aggregate earth, consisting of frapmenls of stones conglutiiialed. The beautiful pillars in the Representatives Hall in the Capitid at Washington are of this st'.iie. BKEECil. The hinder part tif t gun, from the cascabel to the b<"-e ; also a sea term, for the angle ol Knee timber iii a ship. BREEDING. That part of husbandry which consist!^ in the rearing of cattle of live stock of ditferent kinds, particularly by crossing or mingling one species oi variety with another, so as lo improve the breed. BRES.SUMMER A binding interstice or girder lo different parts of a house. BREVET. A military term, for pro- motion in the army without addliiiuial pay. BREVIARY. A bot)k containing »!■<, daily service of the Romish cliiirch. BREWING. The art of making ma liquor, such as ale, beer, porter, &.r,. which much resembles the process nf making tea The proper ingredients used in brewing are malt, hops, and water, in cerlain prcpnr- tions, according to the required strenclh nf the liquor. Eicliteeii gallons f the cociilus liidiciis, hartshorn sImv lugs, iiin ger, .'-'p:inish juice, orange |«iW(lcr liquit rice, caraway seeds, and siilphiirir iiiid. ItRlliKRV. The receiving of any re- ward or gill for corrupt purposes. BRICK, .'^n artificial kind of stniic, eomposed of clay,' coal ashes, and sand, lily mincled together, dried by the sun and hardened by llie lire. Bricks are distinguished, arcording to their quality, into marls and stocks, which latter are either gray or red, according to the co oui of the earth. BRICKLAYER. One whose trade is to build with brinks. BRIDGE. AiUriicture raised overrivt-rs, &.C. and consisi iiig of one or more ari'l>/-« DRI **he prlnripal |vl tlie arches; llie |Kir.i|)el, or breaslutill, iii;iile III protect the piissienaers, the li:iiii|iiet, piiveiiietit, or niised fmUpath, and the ulxit- meiiM or extremities of the hrld^e, which rest on the banks. The |irinci|ial arches employed in bndgt building are Ihose of tlieseniicircularorellipiira. form, the cate- na -ian arch, and the arch of ei|ndibnuin, wj ich last is ei^I.-eined to be tlie best, be- cause it IS e<|ually strong in every part. Z-^'. BRIDGE. A military term, for any contrivance by which soldiers can cross a river, as a bridge of boats, formed by boats joined sidewav s, and covered with planks; or a bridge of rushes, formed of bundles of rushes bound fast togellier and covered with planks, r'uch temporary bridges are called tlyiiig bridges. I!K11m;e:. The name of several thiiii's similar in figure to a bridge, as the bridge of the nose, the gristle which part.s the nostrils; the bridge in a violin, &c. the perpendicular arch which siippiirts the strings; the bridge, ninong Cuiiiieis, is the name for the two pieces of limber whii:h go between the transiims of a gun carriage on wliicli the bed rests. HRIDLK. A pan of the furniture of a horse's head, which serves to guide Ihe aiiim.-tl. The principal parts are the bitt, or sii:«lfle, wliich goes into the hoixe's mouth; the curb, or chain of iron, that runs over the beard of Ihe horse; the head- stall, or leather that goes rminil Ihe lieail; the fillet, that lies over the forehead; the throatband, that goes iindei thelliront; and the reins, which serve foi the rider. HRIF.P (in Law) An abridgment of a client's case, made out for the insiriiction of cnunifc'i on a trial at law; also a license in England to make collections for repair- ing cilurches, losses by (ire, &c. 'I'his last sort of brief is now abolished by statute. BRIEF (in .Music). .A measure of ipian- tily, which contains two slnikes down in beating time, and as many up. HISK; a siiiuII merchant's vessel with two masts. HRKJADE. A militnry lerm, for a oartv or div isiuh ^fai'liliers, whether horse BRO 71 or fool, uiidet the command iif a briga- dier. BRIGA.NTIXK. A small light vessel, which can both row and sail well, being ad:iptcu either for hghting or for chaM BRLMSTONE. The vulgar name for sulphur. BRINE. Water impregnated with salt BRISKET. That jKirt of the breast of an animal that lies nearest the ribs. BRISTLE. The hair of swine, which ia much used by briishmakers, particularly that imported from Russia BRISTOL HOT WATER. Mineral waters of the lowest temperature of any in England, the constituent parts of which are carbonic acid, gas, lime, and ina^iiiesia, besides the muriatic and vitriolic acids BRITA.N.MA. The name given by the Romans to the island of Hrilain, which is represented on their medals under the tiaiire of a female resting her let\ arm tm a shield. Also a species of ware made of block tin. liROADSinE. A sea term, for a dis- charge of all the cunson one side of a ship BROADSWORD. A sword with a broad blade, chiefly designed for cutting. BROCADE. A kind of stuff or cloth of gold. BROCOLI. An Italian plant of the cauliflower kind. BRage, and minding them injiellier. BR< IK ER. ' >iie who cniicliides bargain* or roniracis for MUTrliaiils, as excliunge brokers, shiji brokers, ,tc. RRi iK El! ACE. V\'hat is paid to a brok.«r for his iruiible. 72 BUD BROMB GRASS. A sort of grass much resembling ttie oHt; whence it has also teen called oat grass. BRO.NZE. A mixed metal, composed principally of copper, with a small portion Bftin and other metals. BRONZING 'I'lie art of varnishing Wood, plaster, and ivory, so as to give them the colour of bronze. BROOCH. A collar of gold formerly worn abciut the necks of ladies. BROO.M. A rli.weri;'i; sliruh, having a papilionaceous Hower, (Vhich becomes a short roundisli swelling pod, containing a kidney shaped seed in each. BROO.M. A besonmvhich in England is frequently made of the hrooni shrub and •erves for sweeping a house BR LIT A. The second order of animals oflhe class mammalia in the L.nniean system, comprehending those animals which have tio fore teeth in either jaw, as bradypus, the sloth; mynycopliaga, the ant-eater; rhinoceros, the rhiuocerus; eie- yhas, the elephant, &c. BRUTE-WKIOHT. A term employed when merchandises are weighed with the cases, &.C. in distinction from the net weight. BUBBLE. A bladder in water, ora vesi- cle filled with air; also a cheating pmject, iuch as the South Sea bubble in 1720, and nnmerouB projects of a similar character which have been set afloat within the last few years, to the ruin of many. BUCCANEERS. A general name for the pirates, who used to make war on the Spaniards in their West India posses- f'ons. BUCK. A male deer of the fallow kind; also a male rabbit. BUCKET. A kind of pail made of leather. BUCKLE. A fastening for « shoe, or the harness of ahorse, by means of an iron tongue within a hoop. BUCKLER. An ancient piece of defen- sive armour, made of wicker work, and worn on the arm. BUCKRA.M. A sort of stiffened cloth. BUCKWHEAT, otherwise called Bi s of the sun in the iiKHitli of March, he set mi fire Ixiards of beech wood at one hundred and fifty feet dis- tance. BURNrXn OF WOMEN. A supersti- tions pniclice in lliiidediaiis : also a sort of leather (tockiii!! serving the purpose nf a boot. BI'STAKIi. A species of Kuro|>eaii bird 9f which there are several varieties. The SrealKustaril isilir laraest laud lurd known in Lnuland. It seems to bear a remole llinity to the '>strtc!i. Bl •icHEIl lilUD. A sort of shrike tcmarkable for its ferocity tow&;,js tne Ittleblrdi, which It kills, and tearingthcm Ic pieces, sticks iliem i-i thorns. BUZ BUST. The figure or portiait of a per Bon in relievo, showing only I he upper paru of the body. BIJT'I'. A measure o( wine, containinf 126 callous. Bd'ITUXD. The nrcesi eii.l of a piece of timber nearest to iiie root. BUTTEIl. A fat unctuous substanre, procured from the cream oi im.K by cliiirn- ing ; a term in Cheui/stry for substances of similar consistency, as nutter of anti- iiKuiy, butter of bismuth, butter of wax, &.C. BUTTERBUR. A plant with a floscular flower, consisting of many florets. BUTTERFLOV\'EK. A yellow flower, which abounds in the meadows in May. BUTTERFLY. A oeautiful insect, so called because it first appears atllie be- ginning of the season for butter. I'hat which seems to be powder upon the wings of this insect is an innumerable quantity, of feathers, which are only to be discerned through a microscope. The butterfly first appears in the slate of the caterpillar, which is called the larva, and afterwards in that of the pupa, or chrysalis, from which it comes forth in its perfect state. The larva. The chrvsali* BUTTOCK. The breech ornaunch of an animal, next to the tail : also a sea term, for that part of a ship which forms her breadth, right astern from the tuck up- wards. BUTTON. Any thing in a round form which serves to fasten, particiiiirly what is used ill. garments ; also a part of the cas- caliel in a gun or howitzer, which is in the form of u button. BUTTRESS. A kind of butinent, built archwise, serving to support a building oj wall. BUZZARD. A very sluggish bird of the hawk kind. The Turkey Bu/zard known in tlie southern parts of the United States is a species of Vulture BY-LAW. A jirivate law made withi* ■oine particular place or jurisUictioa. CAD CAL n c. C, the fliirli:il>et ; as a niiiiieral, C stniuls for 1(K), and CC fi>r Shi, &;r. ; in ]Mii;»ic, it is tlie hiu'liect (Kirt In Ilie tliorousli bass ; a.s an Ablireviation it stands lor Christ, as A (-". AiinoClinsii.or aiileChristnui ; also ftif ('uMi(iaiiion, a:i C K. Coiii|KiiiKin uflhe Bath. CAAKA. An Arahir term fur the house of (tod, a (Kirtiil'the tciii|ilc v( Mahuiiiet in Mecca. C.MIALA. A traditional or mysterious doctrine ainnn!* the ancient Jews, winch they say was delivered hy word of mouth to .Moseji, and by him to the fathers. Ainon;! Christians, the cahala is an abu.se of certain passages of Scripture formaj;ical piir|Hises. CAHHAC.K TRFE. A tree of the Cape of (iiMid llo|>e, so called tVoiii the resem- blance which its leaves bear, to those of the cabbat:e plant. CABIN. The apartment In a vessel for the otficers anil superior p;isseiigers. CAUI.NET In England, the closet or private riKiiii in the kiiis's palace, where councils are held : also the ministers of the Kini!, who are siiinnidned to attend such coiiiiiMls. In the I'liiled States, the term is applieil lo the four set' reuiries and the at- torney cenenil at Washington, considered as counsellors of the President. CAItl.K. A sea term lor a strong rojie, which serves to keep a ship at anrlior. CAIil. !•:'.•< l,r..\(;TII. The men-sure of lyi fathiuns. CACf»KTIIK.<. An ill habit or pro()en- tlty; as (he r.icnethes scribendi, au itch for antlmrsliip. ('A<"< H'lloNY A bail toneof the voice, proceedin<: from the ill disposition of the orpins. , CADK.VCR (in Grammar). The fall of the voice : also the rtow of verses or i>erl- ods ; in Music, it is a pause or suspension at the enil of an air, resembling pne who i« trained up for the army by a course of milit;try discipline ; ■uch as the cadeti at the military ccUege at West Point. CAPETSIUP The eooimission given to a cadet, to enter the iUtal India Coinpa ny's si-rvite in Riiiil.'ind. CADI. ,\ magislr.ile. or sort ofjuslic« of the |ieace, anion)! Hie Arihs .and Turk* C.\I).M1,\. A sort ol'iiiiiieralainong tiie ancients, now called roliall. CALtl'CEL'H. A name for .Merciir>''l rod oi sceptre, which on medals is an em blem of pe.tce. It was carried hy the Ro- inaii herulda when tliey went lo proclaiiit peace. CiES.^R. A title or name given to the twelve emperors of Koine, who succeeded Julius Cip.sar. CAti.M.-V(!. Old geese are so called, which are sent up to the Lomlon market for sale. CAIKNS. Heaps of stones in a conical form, which are freipieiilly to be met with in .'Scotland and Wales. C-\lSS(.i.\'. A wtMiden rhest filled with IhuiiIis or powder, and buried under some Work to blow it up ; also the frame used in layiii!: the foundations ofa bridge. C A I, A .M A.\CO. A kind of wwdlen stuff manufactured in England and Brabant. It has a fine gloss, and is chetjiiered in the warp. CALAMARIiC. The third natural order of plants in the Liniiipaii system, contain- ing the reeds resembling cra.«ses. CAI.A.MI.NARIS, or !,api» Calamika- RU. The calamine stone, *. jxydeof zinc among the chyniisis ; p kind oriiituiiiinoui lossile earth, which, when ini.Ked with copper, produces brass. CA I.CA R EOr:S. The third orderofthe class earths in tlie systenr. of Gmelin, ccn- sistingof chalk, limestone, spar, gypsum, marble, marl. CAL(M.\ATIO\ The solution of a mixed body by the means of heat or any corroding substance, as mercury, aquafor- tis, &.C., whereby it is reduced to powder The body so reduced was named a calx, ia common language a cinder, and :iichymi» try an oxide. CALCULATION. The act ot coioDUtiat 76 CAL ■evemi sums by means of addition, sub traction, multiplication, divisioti, &.c. CAh(.'L/'LUS,or Stoke. A name gene- ral(y given to all hard concretions, not bony, wliicll are formed in the biKlies of annuals. CALENDAR. A distribution of time Into months, week*, and days tliroiiKlioiil the year, together with an account of the festivals, and other -iuch matters as serve for the daily |>ur[K)ses of life. Calendars vary according to tne diflerent forms of the year, and the divisions of time Indifter- ent countries, as the Roman and Julian Calendars used by the Romans, the (ire- gorian ana Reformed Calendars among the moderns. CALENDAR MONTH. The name given to the months as they stand in the Blnianac. CALIBER. The thickness or diameter of any thing, particularly of the bore of a cannon. CALIRER COMPASSES. A particular instruuietit used by pjnnersfor mea.-'uring the diameters of shot, shells, (fee. They resemble o'.her conipiisses, except in their legs, wliich are arched, in order that the points may touch the extremities of tlie krch. CALICO. A kind of cloth made of cot- ton, nrixinally made in the East Indies. It is so called from Callicut, atown on the coast of Malabar, where it was tirst manu- factured. The manufacture of calicoes has lieen successfully introduced into the United States. CALICO PRINTING. The art of dy ins cotton, linen, and other cloths topu'Hlly ; that is by printing fi2uiie!» liert- and tlu-ri- in dltferent coloiirs, and leaviii:; .-uiiiie parts of the rliith without any ti'jnre*. CALIPH, in the Anibir Khalika, whiili ■lenities successor. A title assumed by the successors of Mahomet, who reigned in Bagdad. CAI.KERS. Pemon^ employed in calk- Ins vessels; that is, ilrivin:; o.ikimi and other thin!n< tnio the seams of vessels, to keep out the water. CALL. Ap nr»ifirial pipe made to raich fiMils; also « sea tenn for a whistle or CAM pipe, used in calling the sailors to thell duty. CALL OF THE HOUSE. In England, a parliamentary term for an im|>erative tall or summons sent to every member to attend on a particular occasion. CALOMEL. Mercury well pounded witn sulphur ; it is also culled a muriate of mer- cury. CALORIC. A modern term for fire, or that principle which produces the sen.sation of heat, which is siip|K)sed to be somethinj indejiendent uf the body in which it is found. C.\LVARY. The name of a cross ic Heraldry, as it is borne in coats of arms It is so called because it resembles the truss on which our Saviour siitTered. CALVliMSM. 'Jhe doctrines of Cal- vin, the Geneva reformer, and his adhe- rents, on predestination, reprobati(m, &.c. CALUMET. An Indian pi|)e, which was otherwise called the Pipe of Peace, because it served the bearer as a pass oi safe conduct among the neighbouring tribes of Indian.". It was very similar to the ca- diiceus, or Mercury's wand, of Uie an- cients, t;ALX. A fine powder remaining a/*«l the calcination of niet-ils and other 111101- rul substances ; also another name for li'.ne. CALYCIFLORili. The sixteenth nat- ural order of plants in the Linnu-an system, comprehending those plants which live only a calyx, in which the stamiiu ar / in- serted. C.\LV'PTRA. Thetenderskin in rouses that loosely covers the lop of lh'< t'.ieca, like a cup. CAL\X. A general name fo* "Jie cup of a flower, or that part of a pbr.'. which surrounds and supports tlie ulhe.' parts ul a flower. CAMBERED. A sea term, applied to a deck, the flooring of which is highest in the middle. CAMBRIC. A sort of very fine white linen, made of flax. Fabrics of cotton made in imitation of tliis are also called cambric. C.A.MEL. A well known quadru|)ed, remarkable for its swiltness aiK* itf power of siibsistinc for many days wit lout water It is mild and gentle, unless pa/ticularly provoked, patient of hunger, and .capable of carrying great burdens. The f ,sh and milk of this animal cimstitute tj ' ( Wiripal food of the Inhabitniitsof Aia" a and the countries ofwhich it is a nali'i;. The Ara- bian camel, which is other ivise called a dromedary, h.os but one hu' ch, the B»r.»ri- an camel has two. This U'.ler «;<•».<« « CAM iani in the more nortliern parts of central A-sia. The Ariiliian speciea is generally •ised in the warmer parts of Asia and Af- rica. This animal is burne in coats of mrmi. C'AMELOPARD or Giraffe. A re- innrkahle animal found only in the middle and southern regions of Africa. It is the tallest of a!! animals, being about 17 feet lii a sort ot |)ellucid gem. CA.MERA LUCIDA. An optical instru- ment invented by Dr. Hook, jor the pur- pose uf making the image of any object 7* CAN T> appear on the wall in a light room, eithei by day or night. This name has since b«en applied to an instrument invented by Dr Woll.nston, for drawing objects intrun per spective. CAMERA OBSCURA. An optica! ma- chine or apparatus, representing an artificial eye, by whicli the images of external ob- jects, received through a double convex glass, are shown distinctly, and in tliei/ native colours CAMLET A sort of stnrTorieinally made of camel's hair and silk mixed, but now of wool and silk. CAMP. The spot of ground where an army rests and intrenches itself. CAMPAIGN. The space of time during which an army is kept in the field. CAMPA.NACEiE. One of Linna-us's natural order of flowers, including tliose that are bell-shaped , as tlie campaii ula, con- volvulus, &c. CAMPANULA, or Bell Flower A sort of plants, mostly perennials, and hear- ing a bell-8lKii)ed flower. CAMPHOR. A vvhite concrete crystal- line substance, of an acrid bitter taste, and a penetrating smell. It was formerly sup- posed to be a resin which was procured from a tree, much like a walnut tree growing in Borneo, and thence called the camphor tree ; but modern chyinists con. sider it to be a peculiar substance not to be classed either with the oils or the resins. It is procured from the volatile oil of seve- ral plants, as rosemary, sage, lavender. Sec. CAN. A drinking vessel ; particularly that used by saflors. CANAL. An artificial river, provided with locks and sluices, and sustained by banks and mounds. CANARY BIRD. A singing bird of a greenish colour, formerly bred in the Cana- ries, and nowhere else. These birds ar now bred in all parts of Europe and Anie^ 78 CAN ea. and their toluurs are various ahade* of yeUuw aud green. CANCELLATION (In Law). Expung- ing the contents of a deed or instrument, by gtrikini! twii line;) througli it. CANCER, the Crab (in Astronomy). A constellation, and the fourth sign in the zodiac, murhcd thus qz, wliich the sun en- ters on the twenty-first of June, tlience called the siiiiiiner solstice. CANCER, Tropic of. A small circle of the sphere, [wrallel to the equator, and passins throuose of burning. Good tallow is made of the fat of sheep and bullocks in eipiiil portions. The wirk, wliich is made of ■everal threads of cotton twisted together, must t>e fine, sulficiently dry, and pro|>erly twisted, or otherwise the canitle will yield an unsteady light. The tallow is prepared by chopping the fat and boiling it in a copper, the scum which is taken from it in the boiling is called greaves, whicli is made into cakes that are sold fur fatting poultry. Candies are made either by dipping or in moulds, the fonner of which are the com- mon candles. When candles are to l>e dipped, the workman holds three of the hr<>!ir>ies, with the cottons pro|>erly spread, between bis I)i>gers, and dips them into the lallow vat, tlien hangs them to cool, and when cooled dips them aeain and again until they are of the reijuired size. The mould in which mould-candles are made 18 mostly of pewter, made to the diameter and length of tlie candle wanted ; at the extremity of it is the neck, which is pierced to receive the cotton, one end of which tomes out at the neck, and the remainder • olace^ in (be mould in such manner in CAN a perpendicular direction, as that it thonU be in tlie middle of the candle ; after this the mould is tilled with boilingtallow,and left to cool. Wax candles are made by pouring with a ladle melted wax on the tops of a number of wicks, tied by the neck at eipial distances round an iron circle suspended directly over a large basin of copper tinned. CANDLI;MAS DAY. The festivTiI ob- served on the second of February, by Cath- olics and Episcopalians, in commemoration of the punticatioii of the Virgin Mary. C.WDY. A (ireparation of sugar made by melting and crystalli/.ing it several times. CANDYTUFT. An annual that is culti- vated in gardens, bearing a wliite or purple flower. CANE. A kind of strong Indian reed, used for walking sticks j also the plant wliich yields the sugar, and grows free.y in the East and West Indies and parts of North and South America The skin of the sugar cane is soft, and tiie spongy mat- ter or pith it contains, very juicy. It is now extensively cultivated in Louisiana, and Alabama. CANE (In Commerce). A lonf meamii* of different dimensions in different coun- tries, from two to five yards. C.\NIS (in Astronomy). The nam» of two constellations in the southern nemi- sphere; namely, Canis Major and Canii Minor CANKER A cancerous affection wh!ch occurs frequently in fruit trees ; also a fun- gous excrescence in the feet of horse* CANNIBAL. A man eater. CANNON. A piece of ordnance, or ■ great gun for a battery, which is moa'it»« CAN m a carriage : the principal |nrts se of priming the piece with powder, or to introduce the tube in order, when lighted, to set lire to the charge jtheciiu'n- ber, that part of the bore or hollow of the piece where the powder is lodged which forms the churge ; the breech, tiie solid piece behind, the hinderniost part of which is called the cascabel. That part next to the breech is called the reinforce, whicii IS made stronger to resist the force of the powder. The ornaments of a cannon are the muzzle, astragal, and lillets, the chase astragal and fillets, the reinforce ring, and the breech mouldings The first cannon was used in 1304, on tli« coaot of Den- mark JANOE. A little vessel or boat used kiy the Indians, which is made all of one piece, of the trunk of a tree iiollowed. CANON. A law, or ordnance of the church. The Canon Law consists of rules trawn from ^!cripture, from the writings tf the ancient farhers, from the ordinances tf councils, and the decrees of the p.ipe. CA.XON. A dignity in a catliedml Ihurcli. CANON OF SCRIPTURE. That body •T hooks of tile Holy Scripture which serves for a rule of faith and practice. CANONIZATION. The act of enrolling any one among the number of the saints, «»'liich is the practice of the Romish church, and perfoniieil by the pope. CANOrUS (in Astronomy). A bright (tar of the first magnitude, in the rudder .if the ship Argo. CANTATA. A pieceof music for one, •wo, or more voices, chiefly intended for a •iag'e voire with a thorough bao*. CA.VTEEN. .\».iltling house for both vScera ^nv d:2si ■ iJfo ft rniAi: rtttnl of tJs CAP If plate or wood, in which soldiers on tli«i- march carry their liquor. CANTEKBUltY-liELL. A fine flower much cultivated in gardens. The plant i« biennial, and the flower l3 white or blue, and of an oblong figure. CANTHARIDES, or Sj>amsh Fliei A 8f)ecies of shining beetle, powdered and used for raising blisters. CANTON. A division or small par<«l of a country, such as the coiitoiui of iSwii zerland. C.\NTON (in Heraldry). An ordinary, so called because it occupies out a cailtel or corner of the escutcheon. CAiNVAS, or CANVASS. The cloth on whicli painters usually draw their pic- tures; and also that of which the sails of vessels are made. CAP. In general, any covering for the head ; sometimes of a particular make, as a cardinal's cap. CAP. The name of several things simi- lar in figure or use, as the cap of a grtal gun, a piece of lead laid over the touchliole ; the cap in a ship, the square piece of tim- ber placed over the head of a mast. CAP (in Architecture). The up|«rmnst part of any member, as the capital of a column, the cornice of a door, slc CAP OF .MAINTENANCE lin Her.al- dry). One of the regalia or ornaments of state, carried before the king of (ireal Britain at the corouatiuii and other great solemnities. CAPE (in Geography). A promontory or headland projecting into the st;i I'arlliei than the rest of the coast, as the Ca|>e of Good Ho|ie, Cajte St. Vincent, &,r.. CAI'ELLA. A star of the first magni- tude in Auriga. CAPER BUSH. A shrub or tree, the bud or flower of which is converted into a pickle called caper. CAPILLARY. An epithet for what i» as fine as a hair. Capillary tubes iire pi|i«9 of the Aneness of a hair, by wnlch various phenomena in physics and hydrostatics are displayed. Capillary vessels, in Anatomy, the smallest and extreme parts of (he mi- nutest ramifications of the veins and ari«»- ries. CAPIT.\L. The chief or head of a thing. CAPITAL (in Geography). The chief town. CAPITAL (in Architecture). The ui>. permost part of a column, serving as ma head. CAPITAL (In Printing). The laree let- ters, which serve as initials, or in titles CAPITAL (ii) Coi"merce). The sto'li or furd of a traaittg cOb<>j»&i ^ «0 CAP CAPITOL. The building Jit Wiisliingfon m which Confiress meets It is heautit'iilly jiliiated on a hill ami is by tar llie most uplendid editice in America. CAPITULATION. A treaty between Uie besieged and the besiegers of any place, whereby tlie former surrender it, and themselves, on cert;iin conditions. CAI'IVI. A tree of Brazil, the tlower of whicli resembles a rose. It grows to the >ieight of sixty feet. (^APRICOUN. A southern constellation, and one of the twelve signs (d" the zodiac, which the sun eiilers on the 21st of De- eeinher. It is inaiked thus, Vp. (Ml'RICORN, Tuopic OF. A small cir- cle of the sphere, parallel to the eipiitmctial, pAssinmliroiiL'h the beginning of Capricorn or the winter solstice, which is the sun's greatest southern (Uelinaiion, namely, 23 decrees and a half. CAPRIOLE. A caper or leap in danc- ine, like a goat's leap. CAPSICUM. A plant, native of South America, the fruit of which is a pod, and the strongest kind of pepper, known by the name of Cayenne I'epiier. CAPSTAN. A large piece of timber resembling a windlass, placed behind the mainm.'tst. It is a cylinder with levers, used lo weiuh anchors, to hoist up or strike <•'■*« topmasts, &c. CAPTATN. A commander of a company of foot or a troop of horse ; and in the nr ral or merchant service, the commander of a vessel: also in grammar schools in EliEland the head boy of his class. CAPTIO.N (in Law). The act of taking any i>er»on by any judicial process. CAPUCHIN. An order of Franciscan moiiks in the Romish church, so called from Ulfir capuch or h<«id sewed to their habits. CAPUT MORTUU.M. The inert resi- tfutim of liny body, remaining after all the CAR volatile and humid parts have been ei tracted CAR. A small carriage of burden, drawn by one or two horses. CARAHINE, or CARBINE. A Bort of short gun, between a musket and a pistol, having its barrel two feet and a half long. CARACAL. An animal resembling the Lynx, found in the hot climates of Asia. CAR.^CT, or CAR.Vr. The weit'hl of 24 grains; or one scruple 24 carats make one ounce. This is the standard weight by whiili the fineness of gold is distinguished. If the gold be so line that, in purifying, it loses nothing, or but very little, it is said to be gold of 24 carats ; if it lose one carat, it is s.aid to be gold of -JIJ carats. C.AR.Vr (in weigiiingof L)ianionds,&c.) A weight of four grains. CARAVAN. A company of merchants or pilgrims in Asia or Africa, who go in an organized body through the deserts. CARAVANSERA. A large building in the East, or an inn for the reception of travellers and the caravans. The building commonly forms a sipiare, in the middle of which is a spacious court, and under the arches or piazzas that surround it, there runs a bank, raised some feet above the ground, where the merchants and tra- vellers take up their lodgings, tlie beasts of burden being tied to the foot of the bank. ■••^ARBON. The pure inflammable part of ciiarcoal, free from all the hydroaen and earthy or metallic particles which charcoal usually contains. By Us union with oxygen. It produces two g.as»-ous sub- stances, the first of which was formerly called fixed air, now carbonic acid ; and the second, containing less oxygen, the oxide of carbon. CARBONATES. Salts formed by the combination of carbonic acid with difi'ereiit bases, as carbonate of copper, tec. CARBUNCLE. A precious st(me, of the colour of a burning coal. CARBURET. A substance formeil by thf combination of carl»on with uieials. CARCASS (in Building). The slnll oi timber work of a house before it is lathed and plastered, nr the floors laid ; in iliin- nery, an iron case, filled with combustible materials, and discharged from a uiortar after the manner of a bomb CARD. An instrument like a comb, which is used in combing or disentanglini wool CARD OF A COMPASH. The cireuiw paper on which the points of a compoai are marked. CARD. See CiRoi. CAR CARDIACS Medicines that tend to ctreii;!tlieii llie heart. CAKDl.N'AL. A ilipnilary in the Romish Church, .-ind uiie of its chief goveruurs, of winch there are seventy in number. They constitute a college, by a^urpobe of clearing or calking the other side. CAKUU (in Commerce). The merchandise and effects that arc laden on boaril a ship CARICATURE (From the Italian Cari- catura). A distoiteii way of representing objects, so as to inuke litem appear ridicu- lous. CARIES. A disease of tlie bones ; a kind of rottenness. CARl.NA. A keel ; the name given by Linna;us to the lower concave jieial of a papilionaceous or butterfly-shaped flower, as the pea, which resembles the keel of a ship in its shape. CARLINE THISTLE. A plant of tlie thistle kind, which is sometimes used me diciiially. CURLINGS. Short pieces of timlier which serve to support and sttengthen the larger beams in a ship. CARMAN. One who is employed in carrying gtKids from the wharfs to llic merchant's warehouses. CAR.MELITES. An order of monks who were first founded on Mount Car- mel. CARMINATIVES. Medicines which expel wind. CARMI.NE. A dross or powdir of a deep red colour, procured from cochinea., and used lor painting in ininiHture. CARN ATION. A beautiful sort t.fi love pink, having its bright mlours e(,ually marked all os-er the flowers. CARNAT10x\ (in Painting) The flesh colour. CARNIVAL, or CARNAVAL. A sea- son of mirth and festivity, particularly olt- served by the Italians and generally by Catholics from Twelfth Day until leis are must in esteem. C.'XkKIAGE. In general, a vehicle for carrying gotids and persons ; in Gunnery, tl.e iiiuchine upon which (lie gun is mount- ed ; in Carpentry, the frame of limber-work wliich sup|M>rts the steps of wooden stairs. CARRIERS. All jwrsons carry ing goods for hire ; also a sort of pigeons thai are used in conveying letters to a distance. CARROT. A fleshy root, cultivated as a garden vegetable. CART. A small carriage with two wlieeU, used in husbandry. CART-HORSE. An inferior kind of horse, used in husbandry. CARTE BLAiNCIlE. A blank paper, delivered to a (>erson to be filled up as he p eases ; applied generally in the sense of unlimited terms gr.iiited to a person. CARTEL. An agreement between two states at war for liie exchange of prison- ers. CARTILAGE. A part of the animal body, harder and drier than a ligament, and softer than a bone ; its use is to render the articulation of the bones more easy. CARTILAGLNOUS FISHES. Those having cartilaginous instead of tmny skele- tohX. CARTOON. A design made on strong pnjier, to be afterwards calked through, ami transferred to the fresh plaster of a Willi to !>» [Kiinted in fresco, such as the famous cartoons of Raphael now in the palace of Hampton Court, England. CARTOI'CH. A case of wood holding about four hundred musket balls, besides iron balls, from six to ten, to be fired outof a howitzer. CARTOUCHES. BU>cks or niodillions used in the cornices of wainscoted apart- ments ; alMoornnuients representing a scroll of pa|ier. CARTRIDGE. A case ofpaperor parch- ment filled with gun|>owder, and used in lli<^ charging of guns CARVEL. A smal ship or fly-b«^nt. CARVLN'G The art of cutting wood iiiio various foinis and figures. CABYATIUES (in Architecture). A s'lrt of columns or pill.irs sha|>ed like the beople. They were intended to riw*a«nt the Cariaii women who were ta- ll^'' captr.ey ny '.hr Athenians <'*<>VOyaTU-r.«: a nr.tural order CAS of plants, consisting of such as hare plak like flowers. CASE. Any outside covering whicta serves to enclose a thing entirely, as pack- ing cases or knife cases ; in Carpentry, the case of a dmir is tlie wiHiden frame, in which it is hung ; in Printing, it is a frame of wood, with numerous small partitions for the letters. CASE (in Grammar). An accident of nouns which have different inflexions or terminations. CASE-HARDENING. A method of preparing iron, so as to render its outer surface hard, and cajiable of resisting any edged tcMil. CASE-K.MFE. A large kitchen-knite. CASEMENT. A window that opens on hinges. CASE-SHOT. Musket balls, stones, old iron, &.C put into cases and shot out ot great guns. CASH. Ready money, dietinguisticd front bills. CAS H EVV r Ur: ASSO VV. A bird abo it the size of a her. turkey found in Jamaica and the northern parts of South America. (See CvKA»»ovt.) CASHEW-NUT. The fruit of the ca». hew, that ab<4unds in Jamaica and Uarba- does. Prom this nut is expressed a juic« that is made into a pleasant wine CASTri'5R. The keeper of the cssh o« money, which it is his business to receive and pay. CASHIERS OF THE RANK Offieere of the Rank who sign the notes that ar« issued out. CASHIERLNG. *A rtishnnourable it* missal of an officer or midier from tb* service CASHMERE. A cotimrjr in ha« CAS n'hirh pives nnme to a valvinble kind of cliitli, and costly shawls niunnrai-lured there from the wool of a species of ijout peculiar to Thibet. CASSA VI. Ati AinericKM tree, hearing A bell-sli:iped (lower Its nn?!, wlien dried and proiind to tlou/. was icm veiled into oread hy the original inli.-thiiitnis. CASSIA FISTL'LA, ..r I'l i.uixo Pipe Tree. A very large tree, u native of Al- exandria ajid the West Indiex, wlin!? hears a long cylindrical taper or flat pod, divided mio many cells, in each of which Is a hard ■eeil i(>d;:eil in a claniniy Mack substance, which is purgative, and i^ known in medi- cine by the name of the Purging Oissia, <*t, simply, Cassta. CASSIOPEI.A. A northern constella- tion. CASSIQUE, or CACUafR. A sove- reign lord among the ancient Americans. <'A!*f^)C'K. A vestment worn by cler- gymen lunler their gowns. CASSOWARY. A large bird oftlie os- trich kind, found only in Java, and the Asiatic Islands. It is second in size oity to the Ostrich CAST. The name of figures or small siJitnes in bnmze. CASTK. The name of different tribes ill Hiiidostaii, of which the Brahmins is the most iinliie. The second is that oftlie soldiers, tlie third, that of merchants and husbandmen, the fmirlh that of laborers in various employments. CASTI.NG (among .'Sculptors). The taking of casts or impressions of figures, busts, &c. ; in a foundery, the running of metals into any mould prepared for this purpose. CASTLE. A fortress or place rendered defensible by nature and art. Castles, be- ing an emblem of graiuleur, are frequently kome in coals of arms. CAST IRO.V. The iron as it is extract- ed from the ores by means of casting. • CASTOR. A soa, grayish yellow sub- itance found in '.lie bags of 'he beaver. CAT a near its groin. In a warm air, tfie cisto grows by degrees bard, brittle, and of dark colour. CAT. A well known animal nearly ai lied tu the tiger, is either domestic nr wild. The wild or mountain cat, is borne in coat* of arms as an emblem of liberty, vigilance, and forecast. The animals of the cat family known in North America, are the Congar, vulgarlj called Panther ; the wild cat, or catamount an animal three times the size of the do mestic cat, and having a short tail ; and the Lytix. The domestic cat isa tame variety oftlie European cat. It is not a native of this country. CAT. A sea term for a ship usually employed in the coal trade ; also a sort of strong tackle for drawing up the an- chor ; also a military term for a kind of shed under which soldiers conceal tlieio selves while tilling up a ditch or mining a wall. CATACOMBS. Grottoes or subterrane- ous places for the burial of the dead, fre- quently found in Egj'pt and In Italy. CATALOGUE. A list of books or any other matters, arranged in order, for pur- poses of sale or reference. CATAMAUA.N. A sort of floating raft originally used in China as a fishing boat. CATARACT. A high, steep place or precipice in the channel of a river, caused by rocks or other obstacles stopping the course oftlie stream. Niagara is the most stupendous cataract in the world. Also a disease in the eye, arising from a little film or speck, which swimming in the aqueous humour, and getting before tiie pupil, caus- es a dimness of sight or blindness. CATARRH. A defluxion from the head occasioned by cold. CAT BIRD. A bird common in the Vn ted States of a bluish gray colour whic* makes a noise very similar to the mewing of a cat. It is a pretty good singer; iu song consists of imitations of the notes cf other birds. CAT CALL. A harsh sort of pipe, Imi tating the noise of a cat 84 CAT I'ATOH (in Music). A uhort and humo- AMis song ; alBo a sea term for a awifl- ■ailiiig vessel. CATCH-FLY. A plant much cultivated in gardens, having grass-like leaves, .uid a long stiilk terminated by a cluster of crimgr priest orilaiiied to say mass and administer the sacraments, &c, according to the rite* of the Romish Church. CATKf.V, or Ament (in Uotiin^). A lonfc stem thickly covered witli scales, under which are the flowers and the essential parts of the fruit, which is so called from its resemblance to a cat's tail. Catkins are to be found on the hazel, willow, &c. CAT'S EYE (in Mineralogy). A stone of a glistening gray, with a tinge of green, yellow, or white. CAT'S HEAD. A very large kind of apple. CAT'S-TAIL r.RASS. A kind of reed, bearing a spike, like the tail of a cat. CATTLE. Horned beasts, th.it feed in I>asture, or generally all four-footed beasts that serve for domestic purposes, including horses, horned cattle and sheep. In Eng- land horses and cows are called black cattle. CAVALCADE. A pompous procession of horses and carriages, &c. CAVALIER. A horseman ; a person mounted on a horse, or expert in horse- manship ; in Fortification, a work raised within the body of a place, above th» other works. CAVEAR, or CAVIAR. The spawn or hard roes of sturgeon, made into cakes, salted and dried in the sun, much used ix Russia and other parts of the continent. CAVERN. A natural cave or hollow place, in a rock or mountain. CAVETTO (in Architecture^ A con- cave moulding, the curvature of whuss J CATHOLIC. An ipithet properly signi- I circle section does not exceed the quadrant of a / CEN CEB 85 CAUL. ^ meiubratie in the abdomen which ^i«rves to cover the interlines. CAI;LI{"1.UVVEU 'Jhe finest 3ort of cabhage, with a seeded liead. CAUSEVrAV, or CAL'SEV. A path raised above the level of the ground, and paved with atones or gravel. \;AUST10 curve, a curve Conned by the concourse or coincidence of the ray« of light, rert&;ted or refracted from acy oliier curve. CAUS'l'lCS. Medicines which, when applied to any part of the body, burn it to a bard crust. CAUTERY. Any burning application. CAYENNE PEPPER. A powder pre- pared from the pods of several species of the capsicum, whicli originally came from Cayenne, but is now brought from botii the Indies. CAY.M.\N. The American alligator. C.B. In England, Companion of theBath. C. C. Caius College : C. C. C. Corpus Christi College. CEDAR. A well known evergreen, very like the juniiHjr in api>earaiice, which de- lights in cold mountainous places. The leaves are much narrower than those of the pine tree, and the seeds are produced in l.irge cones. The most celebrated spe- cies is that of Lebanon, which is also found in Russia and which is introduced by trans- planting into various parts of Europe and America. CEILING. The inside of the roof or top of an apartment, in distinction from tlie iiirface of a floor. CELERY. A sort of parsley much used in winter salads. CELESTI.\L GLOBE. An artificial representation of the heavens. CELL. The apartment or chamber of a monk or nun ; also a small close apartment in a prison. CELLAR. A place, commonly under ground, w!alance each other. CENTRIFUGAL. An epithet for that force whicli causes a body revolving about a centre, or about another body, to recede from it. CENTRIPETAL. An epithet for that force which causes all bodies to tend Ut- wards some |Hiint as a centre. CE.\TURK).N'. A military officer among the Rtnnaiis, who had the command of a hundred men. CERES (ill the Heathen -Mythclogr) The daughter of Saturn and Vesta, and goddess of corn and fniita She first tau^ men me tux uf cultivating tlMt gr>»tiid 88 OHA CEREOLITE. A mineral substance, ■which in appearance and softness re- sembles wax. CERES. In astronomy, the name of one of the a.steroid planets, discovered in ISOl by Piazzi; its mean distance from the suu being 263,740,000 mUe.s, and its periodical revolution 4 years, 220 days. CERINE. In chemistry, a substance which forms from 70 to 80 per cent, of becs'wax, it is Sdluble in boiling alcohol. CERIXE. A siliceous oxide of cerium; ep. gr.4-7. CERITHIN.^. A sub-family of Mollus- ca, the Club-.ihelLs, of which the Ceri- thium, a geuxis of pectinibrauchiate Gasteropods, is the type. CERIUM. (Latiu), a greyish mineral found ia cerite. Cerography. Painting or writing in wax. CETE. All order uf animals in theLin- nieen sy.steni, iiiclu(tin<; siicli as have hreatliing apertures uii tlie head, tail liori- Ztintal, and pectoral tins instead uf feet; RB the dolphin, (wriKiisc, and grampus, &.c. C>^taceous tish suckle their yuung like land animals. 'CHAFF. The husks of corn when threshed and separated from the train. CHAPFI.VCII. A bird so calleil liecniise U deli.'his in eating chatf. Il sings very prettily. CHAFI.N'GDlSH A utensil for wami- Ina meat. CHA(;REE.\. A roueh kind of leather. CHAIN (in ^'urveyin<^). A measure nf leni^h, made of a certain nunil>er of links afiriiii wire, serving to measure a certain' quantity of sroiind. (Jiiiiler's Chain con- sists of a hundred such links, each measu- ring 7.9^ inches, and conseiiuently r-cpial to 66 feet or 4 poles. I sqiiarp clialn= 10,000 liiiks=Ui poles. 10 sipiarc chains = IOO,0(X) links=l(;o poles=l acre. ("HAIN. A series of rings or links lu- ted into one another. Chains are made of virions inetala, sizes, and forms, suiteil in diflerent purpoHes. The gold chain is mm of llu; tKtdj^* of dignity worn liy the Lord Mayor of London CHAIN-ROAT. A fea. term for a large boat fitted for ([elting up mooring chains, »nrliors. &,c. CllAIX-SIIOT. Two ballets with a CH A chain hetweeii tliein. 'I'liey are uati Is sea warfare tiir cutting the shruuda kOil rigging utii slup. CH.\LCEU()NY. A eoit of agate or onyx stone. CHALUK' measure, consist- ing of 3ti hnshels. CHALICE. I'he communion cup used at the sacrament of the eucharist. CHALK. A kind of white fossil, of which lime is made. It contains a little siliceous earth, and sometimes a small |)or- tion of iron. Black chalk, or drawing slate, is a gray or bluish-hlack mineral, that is massive j the fracture glinuneriiigand slaty. CHALLENGE. In general, a summons to light, whether in a duel, or in a pugilistic contest ; in Law, an exception against ju- rors made hy the party put on his trial. CH ALVBE-ATi:. An cpitliet lorwaters in which iron forms the principal ingredi- ent, as the waters of Tuiiliridge Wells, England. Ballsloii in the United States. CH.A.M. The title of the emperor or .oovereian of Tarlary. CH.'V.M.ELFO.N, or CMAMFLEOV. A quadru{>ed of the lizard tribe, that wad originally supposed to live on air, bu! it now known to live on llies, which it catches with its tiiiigiie. Its most reiiiarkalile cha- racteristic IS. that it Hssiimes the colour (tf the thiii!i to u Inch it is applied, lint its nat- ural coliinr in 'lie shade, aiidat rest, is said to be a liliiisli gray. CHAMBKK (in Guniieryl. That part of a mortar or great gtin, as far as the jmjw- der and shot reacJi when it is loaded. CHA.MBER (in England). A court, a« the Star Chamber ; in Commerce, a room set apart for mercantile business- also for keepui2 treasures and stores, as ine Ctaan tjer of Irfindi.n, &c CM A CHAMBER OF A MINE. The pince where the pnwder is cdiitiiied, thai islo be nseil fur hloiving up tlie works. CIIAMItKRLAI.N (in Eiml.Mirt). An officer who lias the care of any particular rhanilker orpines, aa the Lnnl (ireal Cliani- herlain ot' EntiJaml, a great -itricer (if state, to whom belongs the covernnien! of the [lalaL-e at Westminster ; tlie Chaniherlain of Loniloii, who receives the rents of the city, and ileposit.s tliem in the chamber or trPiwury of Liuidon. CHAMBERt!(iu England). Rooms or apartments hehnipn'i to the inns of court ; in .■\natomy, two s^kux-s between the crys- talline lens am) the cornea of the eye, di- vided ofT by the ins. CHAMELEON. See Cham-ixeow. CIIAMDIJ?, or, The Wild Goat, which Inhalnts the .\l|iine mountains, having Horns erect, round, and smooth. CUA 87 CHAMOMILE. An odoriferous plant, which has a very bitter taste, but many medicinal virtuen. CHAMPAGNE. A fine French wine, so called from Chainpacne, a former pro- vince of France. CHAMPION (in Law). The combatant who undertook to ti'jht in the trial by iKit- tet, formerly in use in Enulaiid. CIIANCEMEDLEY (in I«\w). The arcideiiuil killin- erly called the Channel, l>etwee« England and Krince. CIIA.NTRY. A chapel anciently joined to some cathedral or parish, where mass used to be said daily for the souls uf tne founders, CHAOS. A dark and rude mass of matter, out of which the heathen philoso- phers sup|Hised the world was formed CHAPEL. In England, a smaller kind of church, i\ hich, being built for the ixin- veiiienre ofihe parish church, is denomi- nated a chapel of ease. CIIAI*ERt)N. A hood or cap, particii- larly that worn by the knights of the garter. CHAPLAIN. In England, originally signilieit one who performed divine service in a clia|>el, but now more commonly one whoallejids U|K>n the king, or other person (d'qiiallty, for the |)erlbrniance of his cleri- cal iluties ill the family The term is also applied to the clergj'man attached to the navy or army. CHAPLET. A wreath or garland worn alioiit the head. Chaplets are borne in mats of arms, as tropnies or ensigns of military prowess. CHAPTER. A body of the clergy he- lunging to a cathedral, collegiate, or con- ventual rhuri'ti : also the place uf their meetiii!:, in England. CHARA(;TER. Any mark whirhseives as a sign to denote some parlici:lar object, as the astroniunical chanicters, mailiemati- cal characters, &.c. CHARADE. A sort of riddle, the mil- jert of which is a word of one or two syllables. CHARCOAL. ThesnlHi .HI.- iVun w.«.d half burnt, which is iiim ii .i-M-d in He inaniifactiire of ciiniM'wdi-r CHARDS OF AKT:» MIXES. The leaves of artichoke plauis iMiuiid in stiaw till they lose |>art of their jitleriiess, ai.d become white S8 CHE CHAREWOMAN, or CHARWOMAN. Ill England, a wuuian wbo goes out by tiie day to job CHARGE (in Law). The instructions given by the juilge to the j\liy ; In Ecclesj- aHtical Law, tlie instructiuns (jiven by a bisliop to the clergy of his diocess. CHARGE (in Gunnery). Tlie qua-ility of powder and ball, or shot, with which a gun 18 loaded ; in Electricity, the accuniii- lation of electric matter on one surface of an electric machine; in Heraldry, whatever is liorne on coats of arms, CHARGE D'AFFAIRES. A person in- trusted with the public interest in a foreign nation. 'J"he Charges cl'Aflfaires constitute the third or lowest class of foreign ministers. CHARIOT. An ancient car, in wliich armed men used to ride to battle. They were furnished with scy'bes, hooka, and otJier offensive weapons. CHARMS. Incantations or verses used by magicians and sorcerers. CM.AKK. A small fish of the salmon kind. CHARTER. In England, a writing or letter pateitt, whereby the king grants pri- vileges to towns, corporations, &c. whence tlie name of Magna Cliarta, or the Great Charter of Li.Serties granted to the people o*"tlie whole realm. In the United PtAles, Cnnrters are granted by the State legisla- tures, or by Congress. CHARTS. Draughts or descriptions of coasts ; or, in general, projectiims of some parts of the sea in plans for the use of sailors. CHARYRniS A vortex or gulf at the entrance of the Sicilian straits, which is much celebrated by the ancient writers ; but its exaci situation is not known in the present day. CHASSECRS. A select body of light infantry in the French army CHASTE-TREE. A tree growing to the height of eight or ten feet, having the leaves fingered like th;?-*i of hemp. CH ATE A n.Formrrlynca^l!i* or baronial •eat fn France, now simply a couniry seat. CHATTEL.-^ 'in I„iw). Persoiml eoods. CHECKV 'In Heraldry). A term fori CUE the shit^ld, or aity part of \t, when it uelliferoiis plant whose leaves are dividcil into many seg- Bients. CHESS. A very difficult frame, pertbnn- ed with little nmiid pieces nf wcmuI, on a board divided Into sixty-four squares. Each side has eight men, consisting of a kinp, queen, two knights, two bishops, and two riMiks or castles, l>esides eight pawns or foot soldiers; which are all moved ac- cording to certain rides. CHESS- BOARD, 'i'lie board on .vnich ♦Jje game of chess is played. CHEf S-ROOK. Another name for th» castles which stand at the outer corners »t the chess hoard. CHEST (in Anatomy). The breast, tMi»- nx, or tha! part of the human IxKly whici contains tlie lieart and lungs. CHKST.N'UT. A tree bearing a ver>- ronuhcoated fruit of the same name. Th wkkI was formerly nnich valued as timhel in England, and is now used in the line ' kinds cf joinery work In Uie United 90 CHI Msttes it is leldom employed )xce\ as tim- ber ikes or tcuriieiiiiots, consisting of spars of wmid set into a piece of timber, and armed with a short spike, •o »s to point all ways They serve to •top up breaches CHEVRON (in Heraldry). One of the nonourable ordmaries. representing two rafters of a honse joined tugether in chief, such as carpenters iB4CfllO. CIIICKWEED. An annual. CHIEF (in Heraldry). One ..f the hon curable ordinaries, which occupies the neaa or upper p.irt of the escutcheon. As the head is the chief part of a man, so is the chief the principal part of the escutcheon, and contains a third part of the tield. CHIEF The head man of a tribe of Indians. CHILTERN HITNDREDS. A hilly dis- trict of Bucking laiushire, England, which lias b^lon^ed to the crown from tin e im- 8* CHI menuirial, having the office of Steward of tlie Cliilterii [lundr'-ils .ittached to it. By tbe accepljince of lliis ortire, any iiiemher of parliament Is riial)led In varair Ins seat; for as no menilicr can retain his seal after accrpting an oltiif , su likewise every member wishing to varaie Ins seal is obli ged to do it in this manner ; llial is, in the usual phnise, 'accept the Chiliern Hun dreds.' CHI.Mi*:RA (in the Heathen Mytholc gy). A moiisier feigned to he like a lion in the forepart, a dragon behind, and s goat in the iiiiddle. CHIMES OF A CLOCK. A particular apparatus, by which the clock at certain times is enabled to play certain tunes. CHl.M.NEV. That part of a house which, Int'clie means of a funnel, serves to carr off the smoke. Various devices have bee. > trieil to prevent the smoking of chinineya, as the carrying them upzig/.ag, or narrower at the top than at the bottom, and tlie like, which have all been found Inetfectiial. It is now supposed tliat chimneys should \>e built a.s nearly |)eri)endicular as |M)ss!lile, should be free fnvn all rongliiiess in the inside, and be a little wider at the topthar at the base. CHINTZ. A fine Imlian painted caller Also cotton giK)ds made elsewhere in imi- tation of it. CHIP saUIRREL. A beautiful little striped animal common In the wiods of North America. CHINCHILLA. A beautiful littleanlma of Peru, probably of the rat kind, wljicb produces a fur much in use. CHFROMANCY. The pretended art of foretelling a person's fortune by the lines in his hands. CHIVALRY. The name anciently given to kni<.'litlid, a military digiiily ; also the martial e.xplolts and qnallfiiations of i knight. Chlvr.lr>', as a military dignity, is »up|Hised by some tti have l.-iken its rise from the crusades, because these expedi- tions gave rise to many chivalrous exploita CHR and Tenia nf arms ; but it Is evident that its oricin may lie (raced iniich liigher, to tbe nttrtlifrii iiatiiiris who settled in biirnpe on the decline of the Roman en\|iire, whose martial halilt:* and temper led them to make valour and prowess, the only sources of honour and distinction. cm Vies. A sort of small onions. CHLORINE. A gaseous body of a green yellow CO our. CHI.ORri'Kf. A kind of gr^en jasper, ali>ii>st as pellucid as the coarse eme- rald. CHOCOLATE (in Commercel. A kind •f paste, prepared cliietiy from the cocoa nut, with a mixture of other in!?»)dieiits CHOCOLATi: TRt;i;. A species of the cocoa tree, from the friHt of which the chocolate is prepared. CHOIR. That part of a cathedral where the service is performed. CHOKEDAMI' (in Mining). The noxi- ous air occasionally found at the bottom of mines. CHOKEPEAR. A very rough tasted pear. CHOLERA MORBUS. A disease con- sisting of a violent perturbation in the helly, arcompanied with a discharge of bile upwards and downwards. CHORD (ill Geometry). A right line, drawn from one part of an arc of a circle to another. CHORDS fin Music) Strings, by the vibration of which the sensation of sound is excited. CH(JROGRAPHY. A part of geogra- phy, which treats of the description of particular countries. CHORUS. A company of persons all singing in concert. CHRISM. An unclioii or anointing of children, which wa.s formerly practised as soon as they were born. CHRIST. Which properly signifies anointed, is the name of the ever blessed Redeemer of the world. CHISTENDOM. The whole Christian world. CHRfSTEJINO. Tlie ceremony of admitting a person into the communion of the Christian church, by means of bap- tism, or sprinkling with water. It is a term particularly applied to infant bap- tism. CIIR[STl,\N. One who professes the Christian religion. CHRIST.MAS. A festival observed in Die ('hri.'iti ui church, on the tvveiity-liflh •f neceml)er, in commemoration of our Saviour's nativity. CHROMA. A soft kind of music. CHR 91 CHROMATrCS. That part of optics, which explains the several properties of light and colour. CHRONICAL. An epithet for diseases of loll* duration. CHRONOLOGY. The science which teaches the measures and divisions of lime The divisions of time are either natural or nrtiticial ; the natural divisions of time ar» the year, month, week, day, and hour, deduced from the motions of the heavenly bodies, and suited to the purposes of civil life ; the artiticial divisions of time are the cycle or jieriod, the epoch, and the a;ra or ejKH'lia, which have lieen framed for the piirfMises of history. CHRONOLOGY, History of. Chro- nology, as regards the nntiirni divisions of time, wasdoubtl ess coeval with thecreation, for we learn from the sacred historian that the work of creation was performed within the period of a week,or8even days, whence this division was observed by the Hebrews, and from them transmitted to the Egyp- tians and other nations. But the Persians are said to have been ignorant of such a division. The Greeks had weeks of ten days, and tlie Romans weeks of eight days. It is evident from the names of the days of the week among most European nations, that we derive this division from the an- cient Celts or Scythians, who, in all pro- bability, at the dispersion of mankind after the deluge, borrowed this patriarchal mode of measuring time. The year is that divi- sion of time which was regulated by the motions of the sun, being that period of time in which the sun passes through the signs of the zodiac. This division was doubtless formed at the time that astro- nomical observations were fi/st made ; but the Eg)'ptians are the first people on record who formed this division, winch they mads to consist of D'iO days, and subdivided into 12 months of 30 days each ; to these Tris- megistus is said to have added five mov days. The ancient Jewish year was th » same as the Egyptian ; but on their de - partiire from Egypt they adopted the luna year, consisting of 30 days and 29 dayi alternately, and in order to make it agree with the solar year, they sometimes added 11 or 12 days at the end of the year, and sometimes a whole month after a certain number of years. The Greeks also reck- oned by the same kind of year. The ancient Roman year was also lunar, and at first consisted of 10 months of 30 and 31 days ; two months were afterwardt added by Nunia Pompilius, which con- sisted of 29 and 31 days, making in tlM whole '.V>b days. Julius Cesar first r« 92 CHRONOLOGY. /orineJ Uie calendar, Hiifl addpled llie solar yeiir of atij days in the cuiiirium year, Willi lli«* addiliiin cil' u day in every fourth jreiir, called lilsseMile, or Leap Year ; in order ii' adjust the toin|iulation to tlie true solar year, ll was then retkoned ytiS days B hours, hut as the true solar year was found to he yii5 days, '> hours, 4H iniiiutes, 4« seconds, a fartlier relbriuatioii of lliis calendar lias heeii made on the assumption that the solar year consisla of 3t>.") days, 5 hours, and 4!1 minutes. Accordiiigto this coniputatiiui, which was made liy i'ope Gregory Xlll. in 158-2, and thence called :lie (Jregorian style, an intercalation id"oiie day in Fehriiary should lie made every fourth year, and that the sixteen hundredth year of t]ie Oirislian u;ra, and every Iburth century hereat^er, should be a hissextile or leap ) ear. One day consequently is to he intercalated in the years aiKli). -2400, 'XIO, tLC; hut in the iiitervenin<; centuries 17U0, 16«i), IIWO, -2100, &c. it is to he suppressed, tind they are to he reckmied comnion. fttoreover ai!< the e(|uino\es had fallen back teu days and ttie full moons four days, aiiice the Nicene council, a. d. 3125, he ardained that ten days should he cut otf ktXer the fourth of October, so that the tifth ilniii Id be the fifteenth. Thisinodeofreckoti- iiig, which is now introduced in most coun- tries of Kurofie, is called the New Style, to distinguish it from tho Old Style, or the former reckoning. This is liowever still not (lerfectly correct, fur as the excess of the Julian year, within the space four centuries, is three days, one hour, and twenty minutes, tliat of the Grejiorian is one liimr and twenty minutes within the »anie period, or aliout a day in 7200 years. Resides these alterations in the form and length of the year, attempts had been made by the Greeks at an early period to adjust ill their reckonings the lunar year to the «>lar year, for vvliich purpose they hit on the device of framing cycles or series of year*, which being iiumlwred in an orderly luanner from tirst to last, should return to ,lie same point of reckoning from which they commenced. The first of these cycles was framed by Cleostraliis, alniul 5.'J2 years l>efore Christ. It cmisisted of eight years, or 2'>22 days, during the course of which 16 lunations would elapse of 29 and 30 ttys alternately, together with three inter- calary inontli*. By this cycle he proposed to adjust the lunar to the solar year, so that at the conclusiiui of each cycle the innon should be renewed, but lie failed in hi* nbject, for at the end of I(i years Cherw was found to he nil error of three i*"*, winch III the space of l(M years would amount to more than ti whole month The iMetoiiic Cycle, lurined by Melon at th« commencenient of the I'elopiuinesian war, for the purpose of correcting the former, consisted of 19 years, at the end of wliicti the sun and moon would be in the same quarter. This cycle, winch was so much esteemed by the Greeks as to be called the Golden Miimber, nevertheless failed to the amount of eight or ten hours at the end of one period, and of three days in 133 years 'i'lie cycle of Eliidoxiis w^ au im- lirovement on that of Cleostraliis, by siih- tracting a month of 30 days from a )ierio« equal to the ditierence that would subsist at the expiration of that |)erioean n.iiioiis until a more exact c«iin|iutation uf v.'iie be^an to be observed. CHRO.NOMKTKIl. An instrument for the exact measiireiiieiil nt time. CHRVS.AMS. Tlie second state of an insect, which it passes into from the cater- pillar or reptile form, previous to its be- coming a butterliy or a moth, Slc. CH V 93 CffUn. A river fish of the carp kind, •«> railed on account of its creat head. CHRONOGRAM. An inscription in whicn numeral letters occurring in tile words are made to express the date or epoch of the action mentioned, as in tae motto of a medal struck by Gusta VU3 AJolphus in 1632. ChrlstVs DVX: etgo'trlVMph vs. CHRYSANTHEMDM. a genus of com- posite plants, of which the Ox-eye Daisy and Corn Mangold are familiar exam- ples. CHRTSOBALAN. A gonus of tropical trees. CHRYSOBERYL. A precious stone, of a yellowish-green color. CHRYSOCHLOKE. A genus of small insectivorous mauimals, representing in .Africa the mole of Europe. Its fur reflects most brilliant metallic hues of green and gold, a circumstance which though common to the outer covering of birds, fishes, and insects, has not yet been observed in any other quadruped than this. CHRYSOGRAPHY, The art of writing in letters of gold. CHRYSOLITE. A precious stone, a va- riety of apatite, ot a yellowisli or green- ish color. CHRYSOLOGY. That branch of politi- eal economy which relates to the pro- duction of wealth. CHRYSOMELA. A genus of beantifol beetles. CHRYSOPR.ASE. A precious stone, a pale green variety of quartz. CHRYSOITPE. A photographic pro- cess, in which a solution of gold is us«d. CHURCH. A pl:vce or building conse- crated to tho pubUc worship of God. In a restricted sense, a building conse- crated to Christian worship and ordin- ances; the collective body of Christians. Bometiir.ss called the Catholic or uni- versal chun-h; a particular body of Christians, united under one form of eccle-siastical government, in one creed, and usiug the .same ritual and ceremon- ies, the followers of Christ in a particu- lar city or province: the body of clergy, or ecclesiastics, in distinction from the laity; divine service: ecclesiastical au- thority. Invisible Church, the collec- tive body of saints in heaven and on earth. CHYLE. In animal physiology, a milky fluid ^.euerated in the stomach during the process ot digestion, by the action of the pancreatic juice and the bile ou the chyme, and which being absorbeICHONINE. A -vegetable alkali fonnd in cinchona. CINCHONATE. A salt formed of oinchnnic acid and a base. C INERITIOUS. Resembling ash«8 ; grey. CINGULUM. In zoology, a term applied to the neck of a tooth, or that coustriction which separates the crown from the fang. CINNAB.^R. In mineralogy, a beau- tiful red pigment, the sulphnret of mer- cury. Vermilion is pure cinnabar, being a compound of mercury and sulphur in ne.ii'ly the same proportion, viz. : mer- cury, 84'50; sulphur, 14'75: sp. gr. 6-7— 8-2. CINN AMIC ACID. An acid formed in translucent prisms from oil of cin- Uj^mon. CINNAMON STONE. A mineral of a red color found in Ceylon and 3raEil. It is composed of silica, alu- mina, lime, and oxide of iron. CINNYIUD.£. In omilbology, a family of birds, the Snn-birds, which are distinguished by their brilliant plumage: Ciunyria is the type and genus. CINQUEEOIL. In botany, a five- leaved clover; the common name of plants of the genua Potentilla. — In architecture, a five-leaved ornament, in circular and other divi.sions of the windows of ancient churches. CINQCE-PORTS. Originally, five English i)Ortson the eastern coast, viz., Dover, Sandwich, Hasting.s, Romney, and Hythe, but to these AYinchelsea, Rye, and Seaford, were afterwards added. CINQUE-SPOTTED. Having five spots. CINTER. In architecture, the fram- ing erected between piers to support the materials of an arch during erec- tion, till it ia keyed. CIPHER. The arithmetical char- acter 0, or zero, which signifies nothing by itself, but when placed at the right hand of any common number, increases it tenfold, or on the left of a decimal, decrea.ses it in like proportion; any arithmetical figure; a number; a char- acter in general; an intertextnre of letters, as the initials of a name; a de- vice ; an enigmatical cliaractf r, a secret or disguised manner of writing ; cer- tain characters agreed on by two or more persons to stand for letters or words, and understood only by them. In figurative language, a thing of no consequence or importance; a nonen- tity. CIPHER-KET. A key for decipher- ing writings. CIPHERING. The act or art of computing by numbers; arithmetic. CIPOLIN. In mineralogy, a green Italian marble, with white zones. That from Rome contains cai'bonate of lime, quartz, schist, anil a little iron. CIPPUS. In antiqnity, a small monu- mental column, bearing an inscription or epitaph ; a sign-post. CIRCAR. In Hindostan, a district or province. CIRCASSIAN. Pertaining to Cir- cassia; a native of Circassia- a kind of woollen cloth. CIRCEAN. Pertaining to Circe, a fabled goddess of antiquity, celebrated for her knowledge of magic and venom- ous herbs, by which she was able to fascinate and work her incantations; hence, magical, venomous. CIRCINAL, OR CIRCINATE. In botany, applied to a leaf when spirally rolled up from the apex towards the base, as in ferns. CIRCINITS. The Compasses,— a con- stellation of four stars near the South Pole. CIRCITJM. In botany, a name of the fenus Carduos. CIR CIRCLE. A plain fipire bounded by coe line onl •, called the circiiinference, a^'B C II, tu which all the lines drawn to it from a point in the niiddie, called the centre, aa A B, A C, and A D are eqnal to each other. Th« line which divides it into two equal parts is called the diameter, as B D. Kvery circle is supposed to be divided into 3S0 parts or degrees, where- fore ancles are mea-sured by the arc of a circle, thus R A C, which is a right angle, ic txjual tu the arc B C, or 90 degrees. CIV •6 CIRCUITS, fn England, certain divi- •ions ot the kingdiiin, lliroii^h which the jutlges iBiss mice a y«-ar, or ofXeiier, to hold courts and aduiinii^ter justice. A similar division exists in the United States in re- spect to the natiiinal court. CIRCULATION (in Anatomy). The natural motion of the blood in a living an- imal, whereby it proceeds from the heart to all parts of the body by the arteries, and returns to the heart by the veins. CIRCUMFERE.N'CE. The curve line which bourn's a circle. CIRCUMKERENTOR. An instrument ■aed by lurveyom for talcing angles. CIRCUMFT.EX. An accent in Gram- mar, marked in Greek thus ( •), in I^tin thus ("), to regulate the pronunciation. CIRCUMLOCUTIO.V. Theiiescribing a thing by many words, which might be explained by a few. CIRCUM!»TA.\TIAL. An ephhet in taw, for evidence drawn indirectly from Circumstaices, as distinguislied from posi- tive proofs. CIRCUMVALLATION, or A LINE OP CIRCUMVALLATION. A trench Buown up qui.« round a besieger's camp. CIRCUS. A circular building at Rome where games were exhibited ; It is now used to designate a place where featx of horsemanship are exhibited. In Archi- tecture, an assemblage of bouses liuill m as to fonn a circle. CITRIC ACID. The acid of limes. CITRON. A species of the lemon, whieli is much cultivated in Persim and the warm climates of Europe. CITY In England, « corporate town having a bishop's see, and a cathedril town. Tliis distinction is not always olt- served in common discourse, for they saV the town of Ely, which is a bishop's se*, and the city of Westminster, which at present has no see. In the United .«ia!e« the lemi is applied to any inc|>e. Tlii" law i« iisetl nr.Art Cfriaiii restrictions in the ecclesias- tical co'irts, Kiiplnnil, as also in the univer- sity courts and conn of the admiralty. CIVIC CROWN. A garland composed of oak leaves, which was si ven to a Koman ■oilier who had saved the life of a citizen. CIVIL YKAR. That form of the year ^^■hiclI each nation has adopted for com- puting their time hy. The civil year in Europe, and America, consists ot SfW days tor the common year, and lUitidays for leap ye.v, which happens every fourth year. CLARIFICATION. The making any ii<]iii'l, hy a chymical process, clear from im{>iirities. , Cl.ARINKT A wind instniment of 'be reed kind. CLARO, or Chiaro Omci'Ro (In Paint- ing). The irrt of di.strihiiting to advantage the tights and shadows of a piece. CLASS. A term applied to the general divisions of any subject, as \n the Linnn^an .system, animaU, plants, and minerals are divided into classes. CLASSICAL. A term applied toauthors of standard authority, particularly the w-riters among the (Jreeks and the Romans, whoxe works are comprehended under the name of the Classics. CLAVICLES. Tlie two channel hones wliich fasten the shoulder btmes and the t-reast hitne. CLAY. A sort offat clammy earth, stiff", viscid, and ductile to a grestallized bo- dies, andof dull fnicture. They form with water a plastic paste, possessing consider- nb e tenacity, which may be hardened with heal. BO as to strike fire with steel. The (-.-iiwipal clays are |M)rcelain clay, consist- ing ^if si ica and alumina; marl clay, cnn- taintnz some carbonate of lime ; pipe clay, reqmrinj a high lemperalnre for fusion ; and poller's clay, which is used for coarse jKillecy. CLE.MATIS. A climbing shmb, other- Wise called the Virgin's Bower, or Wild CLO Climbers. The common sort, bearing a bluisli Mower, is a native of the south of Eiir(>i>e CL1>R(;V. A general name for all p«r- sons in holy orders. CI.KRK (in l^aw). A clergyman; In Commerce, one who keeps a merchant's accounts. CLI ENT. One who retains a lawyer to manage or pleail iiis cause. CLlFforlM.EK (in Music). A mark set at the l>egiiining of a soim, to show the key in which the 4iiece i» to be (lerfornied. CLIMATES. Spaces upon the surface of the terrestrial globe, contained between two parallels of latitudes, so far distant from each other, tlial the longest day on one parallel, differs half an hour, rroiii the longest day on the other. It is also used to denote the general character of the wea- ther and temperature, in any given place. CLOAK. An upper loose garment, worn over the clothes in cold or rainy weather. CLOCK. A machine for ineasuriugtinie, which tells the hour by a stroke upon a bell. In order that the clock may be an equable measure of the solar day, which is unequal, it is usual for clocks and watches to go a few minutes faster or slower than the sun. CLOISTERS. Covered passages, such as were formerly attached to cloisters or other religious houses. CLOTH. Any kind of stuff that is w(>- ven or manufactured in the loom, whether it be made of wool, hemp, or Hax. CLOTHIKR, or CLOTHWDRKER A manufacturer of cloth. In the I'niteu States, It is applied exclusively to those who dress and colour cloths. CLOVE. An Indian spice, the fniit c the clove tree, which grovrs in *e spiee islands in tlie Pacific Ocean. COA CI!irre. VV'hfu coudeiiMsd Into water, they fall in rain. CLOVE aiLLIFLOWER, or CLOVE PINK. A riaer kind ofpiuk cultivated in gardens. CLOVER. A kind of threeleaved grass •r trefoil ; it is much used as a food for cat- tle. CLyPTF.tl. An instrument for the in- jection of any fluid into the hody. CO. An alilireviatioR of coniiiany. COAX. In mineralogy, an inflammable fosail Kuusiauce, oi vegetable origin, found emueJuea iu strata of different tiiicUaess. It appears to have been pro- duceJ, iu primeval ages, by tbe long- continued decomposition of wood, by wuicu 9 atoms of carbonic ai\id, 3 of carburetted hydrogen, and 3 of water have been separaMjd. The coal ol the ternary strata of the earth's crnst is generally lignite-wood or brown coal, ill geology, the coal formationi coal- helos, or coal measures are a series of deposits c^n-iisting ot coal, limestone, ironstone, tjaudstone, and shales of va- rious kinds and thicknesses. In America, it was first discovered by Father Hennepin, in llWS, on the Illinois Uiver where Ottawa now stands. It was first used from Virginia, near liich- mond, which for many years supplied the whole Atlantic market. The first Antharcite wassentto Philadelphia, in ls03, but was considered of so little value that it was used for making side- walks. In 1877, we produced over 21,OUO,000, tons of this now esteemed coaL In 182Q, there was produced in the United States, of Bituminous and Antharcite about 81,600 tons, but iu 1877, there was produced 50,000,000 tons. This tonnage places our Country as the second coal producer iu the world, GreaL Britain being first, with an out- put of 130,000,000 tons in 1877. With regard to extent and accessability the United States stand foremost among nations, and is destined to become at no distant day the great fuel producer of the world. We give below the Area of the coal fields in various countries. COUMSIES. ^ SQtJABB MILES. UnitedStatea lifi.OOO Nova Scotia 18,000 Great Britain 11,000 Spain 3,000 France 1,800 Prussia 1,800 Aus t ria 1 ,800 Belgium 900 CUih, Australia^ India, China, &c.. 28.880 CO.\S'i'EK. A ves.sel employed in jioing Irom one port to another along the coast. COAT. A jiarment worn commonly •pp«rin4Vt ; a thin coverini^ laid or done •Tor any iiing, u • coat of paint, Itc. ; in 9 coc r. Analoiny, the ciembraneoua cover of titif pan of ilie bod\', as Uie Cuat^ of ibe eya, the stoRKicli. &.C. COAT AU.MOUR, or Coat» or Aunt. Armorial ensigns or hearings, which «vera origiiKtIly |>aii;ted on ilie cuata of arms. COATIMOUDI. An animal shafted Bomewliat like a race on with a Urns suuul flexible like tlie irtiiik of an Eleph:uit When asleep it rolls itself iiitiit whict( is put into beer or water barrels, &.c. COCKCHAFFER, orTRKE Ueetue. A mischievous insect, which devours the leaves of trees, &c. The grub, which m soft and gray, wttii rMtaceous hea4 99 coc lefi, remains in the earth thre« or more years before it is transtbrmeU into the per- fect hii^ct. CO(JKATOO. A species of parrot, hav- ing a svirt tail and a tuft of long feathers AH the ■itad. it is a native of the Moluc- cas. COCKBOAT. A '■mall boat belonging i«a shi.i, that is used in rivers. . COCKET (in England). The office at the Customhouse where the good« to be ex]>orted are entered ; also the Custom- bouse seal, or the parchment sealed and delivered by officers of the customs to mer- chants, as a warrant that their goods are customed. COCK FIGHTING. A cruel sport common in England, which consists in pitting two cocks against each other, of the game breed, and armed with spurs tliat inflict deadly wounds. COCKING (in Carpentry). A method ef securing beams to wallplates. COCKLE. A sort of shell fish. COCKNEY. A nick name given toone who is born and bred in the city of London, within the sound of Bow bells. COCKPIT. A place where cocks fight ; also an apartment in the treasury in Lon- don, where the king's speech is read before the meeting of parliament. COCKPIT. The place in a ship of war where the wounded are dressed by the surgeon. COCK'S COMB. A fine plant cultivated in gardens and hot houses. Some sorts are annuals and some perennials, COCOA NUT TREE. A tree common In Asia and South America, which yields the fruit called the cocoa nut. The atiell C O F called by the natives, toddy. The hush A Uiesliell is used for making chocolate, aafl from the kernel is extriicted an oil. COCKSWAIN, vulgarly called Coc«- soN. An officer wliu has charge of the cockboat. COCTION. The reducing the aliment* to chyle ; in Surgery, the reducing morbific matter to a healtiiy state. COD. A large fish which inhabits the northern seas, and is much est-->-iued fur its flesh. The cod fisheries ou the banks of Newfoundland employ three hundred vessels and several thousand men. COD FISHER. A vessel employeO in the cod fisliery ; also the person em- ployed. CODEX. A name particularly applied to the volume, containing the ancient Ro- man or lm|>erial law. CODICIL. A supplen>ei)t to a will. CODLIN. An apple, so called, because it is fittest to be cuddled or boiled in milk. COFFEE. The fruit of the coffee tree, and the drink which is made trom it. COFFEE ROASTER. An iron utensil, in which the cotfee is roasted gradually over a fire, until it is iu a fit state for grinding. COFFEE TREE. A treeofthejasamine kind, which bears a berry Known by the same name. The berries grow in clusters like cherries. The tree w'cch i« a native of Arabia bears me best .^offise, and passe* under the name of Mccha CoflTee '"t nriv duced in the West Indies, tsoutli America and the Asiatic Islands. of the frtilt leof a bony snbotance, eontaln- hig a kernel and a sweet refreshing litjuor. COFFER. A ehesl or trunk j in Mintw- alogy, a trou;h in whir.li tin ore is >-r(ikPM to pieces ; in Fortificiiiiini, a trench cut la the bottom of a dry ditch col rUFfEHDAM. A ease of piling fixeil IB the bed of a river, tur llie piir|Huie uf kuilding a pier dry. COFFIN. A case or box for the recep- tion of a deed body, that in to he huned ; in the veterinary art, the whole liouf uf a liorse'f foot above the cnnmel. COG. The tmith of a wheel. COGNIZANCE (in Law). The heiiring of a thing Judicially ; also the bckiiovv- ledgnient of a fine. COGNIZANCE OF PLIiA^. InEngland I privilege granted by the king to a city >r town to hold pleaa of all contracts, &.C. (vitliin the liberty of the fraiiciiise ; in Her- aldry, the same as the crest. COHESION, or Attkaction ok Cohe- •io:«. That power by which the jiarticles of bodies are held together: the absolute cohesion of bodies, is measured by tlie force necessary to pull thetn Hsiiiuler. COHORT. A military iHidy among the Honians, consisting of the tenth of a legion, or about t>(IU men. COIF. A sort of hood or eap for the liead, formerly worn in England, by Ser- jeants at law. (;olL. The ring or circle formed by a cable in coiling or winding it. COGNOMEN. The last ot tne three names (the other two being the prae- noinen aud the uomen) by which it was conimou lor the Komaiis of good family to be designated; a 8uruanie; the family name. COGNOVIT. In law, an acknowledg- ment by a defendant that the plaintifl's claim is just, and consent thatjudgment be entered accordingly. COIK. A material for cordage, consist- ing of the fibres of the cocoa-nut; cord- age made of this material. COIX. A gentis of tropical East Indian grasses, popularly called Job's tears. COIN. A corner or cvternal angle; a wedge; a quoin; money stamped; a piece of metal converted into money, by impressing on it marks, figures, or char- acters; that which serves for payment. In archffiology, a kind of die cut diagon- ally, after the manner of a flight of a staircase. Current coin is money legal- ly stamped, and circulating in tr^e. Ancient coins are chiefly those of the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, which are kept in cabinets as curiosities. COKE. Fossil coal deprived of its bit- umen, sulphur, or other extraneous or volatile matter, by fire. COLCOTHAR. The brown-red oxide of iron which remains after the distillation of the acid from sulphate of iron; it is sometimes called crocus martis, and ia used in polishing. COLIN. A bird of the partridge kind, found in America, especially in Vir- COL 99 COLLlQUAMENTtTM. In pliy.Hi- ology. the first riidimeiit.s (f aiiiniiit generation ; au extremely traiisjiareut fluid in an e^g, observable after two or three dava' iiicubatioii, contiiiuing tlio fiist rudiments of the iinimnl. COLLODION. A solution of gun- cottou in a mixture of alcohol and ether, used for taking portraits by the photographic process. COLLUM. In Ixdany, that part.of a plant from whicli the Htein and root proceed. — Among jewellers, the liori- zontal face or plane at the bottom of a brilliant. COLD.- Not only the sensation of cold but the slate of the body which causes the sen.-alroii. COl.LAT»)K One who compares eopies or niaiiuscripts. COLLKAli LIE. An associate in the same itffice or magistracy. CHtLl.KOT. A short prayer, particularly iuth pia>ers as are appointed witli tlie epistles and gospels, in the public service of thi' Kiii.s«-<)pal Clmrcli. COI.LKCTION. The act of collecting -»r bringing Ihings together from ditt'erent quarters, as a collection of money for charit- able purposes, either at the church door or from house to house ; also that which is fjillerted or brought together into an assem- blage, as a collection of coins, paintings, &c. eople re- moved fnun one country to another, where they form a settlement under the sanction nf the government ; also the place where Bill h a setllemeiil is fxrnied, as the colonies belonging ><• Great Rrimin in llie East and West Indies aird in North America, &c. COLOat'lNTIDA. The fruit of the wild gunrd.liroiighl from the lx;vant. The pulp, Which is light, spongy, and white, is re- markable fur its iiiiense bitterness, whence it has the name of the bitter. COLOSSUS. A statue of a prixligions •I7«, HucU u tluu ul Uie luii anciently in COM the harbour nf the island of Rhodes I was placed at the entrance of the harbour with the right foot sumding on one sid the land, and the lert on the other. COLOURS. Were anciently supposed to be an inherent property of the coloured substance, but they are now considered to be the property of iglit, the elemeiit.-»ry rays of which, being propagJiled to the sensoriuin, atlect the mind with the difler- ent sensalioiis of colour, accordiii<( to their degrees of refrangiliility. COLOLRS (in Painting). The various tints wh'Cli are produced by the dilferenf mixture and application of certain drugs COLOURS (in Heraldry). The tinctuns with which the tield or any part of the escutcheon is distinguished, namely, or, yellow ; argent, white ; gules, red ; azure, blue ; sable, black ; and vert, green. COLOURS. A military term, for the banners, t1ags,and ensigns used in the army COLU.MN. A cylindrical pillar, which serves either for the support or ornament of a building, tt consists of a capl.al, which is the top or heartl ; the shaft, which is the cylindrical part ; and the base, or that on which it rests. Columns are dis- tinguished as to their form into the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Composite, and Tuscan COLUMN (in the .Military Art). A long deep file of trtxips or baggage. COLUMNIFER^ (in Botany). One of Liiiinens's natural orders, including the luallow-like plants COLURES (III Astronomy). Two grejii imaginary circles, whicli intersect one ano ther al right angles. COMB (In Coiumerce) An instrument to clean, untangle, and dress tlax, wool, hair, &. •..; also a sea term, for a little piece of timber set under the lower part of the lieakhead. COMBINATION (in Chemistry). The intimate union of tin particles of diTerent substances, so as to form a new compound; in Mathematics, the alterations or varia- tions in nil possible ways of quantities, letters, sounds, and the like Tjiiis, two square pieces, each divided diagonally into two colours, may be arranged and com- bined sixty-four ways. COMBUSTIBLES (in Chemistry). All substances which have the proiierty of uniting with the supporters of coinbiisticm 8u:h as sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, fee COMBUSTIBLES (in the Military Art. Combustible materials used in ofTensive e. defensive operalitins. COMBfSTIoN. The dfr«,Ti|>o»ition ot iMidiew arronipanieit with light and heat COMEUV A dramatic represe. In the time of David ai d Solomon we find the Jewish •ationavai.ed themselves of the assistance of this people in equipping their fleets. 4/Ut the ieolruction of old Tyre, a new »• COM 101 city arose out of the ruins, which rivalled the other in weallli, industry, and com- merce ; anil while in h<>r glory she planted the colony of I'arthare, on the coast of .Africa, which from the convenience of her situation and the industry of her inhabit- ants, rose to an extraordinary pitch of pri>s|ierity. The Carthaginians made them- selves ina.sters of ^^paiii, and of the islaiidf of spicily and Sardinia, discovered the greatest part of the coast of Africa and th« Canary Islands, traded with Britain by the route of the Scilly Islands, and are 9 ip|iosed to have made their way even to America. In the mean lime E^pl, iiiidef the Pt(.4eniies, also attained a high degree ofgraudeuraiid attluence. Ptolemy Phila- deiplius in particular, by encouraging trade, made his people rich and himself power- ful. Such was the greatness of Alexandria alone, that the produce of the customs fell little short of two millions annually. Under the Romans commerce e, and the constant irruption of the barbarous tribes, almost at a stand. About this period it happened that some ilraggling people, either forced f-y necessity or led by inclination, tixik their aUVde in a few scattered islands that lay near the coast of Italy, and as these islands were separated from each other by narrow channcJs, full of shallows, that pre%'eiited strangers from navigating, the inhabitants found them- selves protected from all hostile inroadk, and in the midst of this seciirily they fol- lowed their pursuits with so much industry and success, that these once insignificant islands rose in the space of two centuries, (hat is from the sixth to the eighth century, into a great city and a powerful republic Such was the humble origin of the once (Hitent state of Venice, which by degrees acquired an extent of commerce aiMl a naval power that had not for a lengi-li of time any rival. She drew to herself the profits of the Indian trade, and by availing herself of every favourable conjiincUirs, she not only monopoliz.ed the trade of all Italy, but of all the coiintri s in subjection to the Maho- metans ; but aa other coiiiilrries in Europe began to enlarge their commerce, Venice lost the nuino|Nily, and this combining with her own immoderate ambition, caused the decay of her trade aud the decline of bat IM COMMCRCE. ^wer. From tho leajjiie ofCainlirny. '.vliii:h was fonueil a-jaiiist lier by tile (iiiwers of Europe, Vtsiiice may lie said lo have ceasffll to hold Die tiriil rank an n cniiiiiiercial state. The origin of llie iiroiid ciiy of (JeinKi, U It was called, was very similar lo llmt of Venice Uike Venice, she rose from an asaeniblagr of fiii^tivea and adventurers on the rocky, barren, and inlnwiiilable shores of Liguria; and like her slie gained, by the industry and (lerseveraiice of her inliablt- antt, a prodigious extent of commerce. Her merchants traded with all countries, and throve hy becoming tlie carriers from one country to another. Her fleets were formidable and her conquests nuiiierous, but alter perpetual wars with her rival, Venice, she was at leiislh C(ini|>elled to yield the dominion of the sea, and tinally lost all her consei|iience. In the meantime, the trade of Germany was rising in conse(|Mence. Some commer- cial cities, confederating toge. In this manner the Manse Towns aci)uired a considerable share of inrtuence, and were respected by all the sovereigns 'n Eiiro|)e. The kings of Fmiice and England granted tliein considerable privileges, exempting their vessels in case of shipwreck from all demands whatsoever, either on the part of the admirilty or of private persons, and respecting their flag in tunes of war. This good understanding between them and tlie stales of Europe was considerably in- creased by the freedom with which they lent their money lo different princes in time of need, particularly during the cru- sades, when they g:ive (Hiwerful succours both In ships as well as in money. This confederacy did not, however, always re- tain Its moderation ; for, as they increased In wealth and power, so they grew ambi- tious and domineering, and more than once they ventured to set themselves up against the states of Germany ; in consequence of this, the German princes gradually with- drew the oities that were 8iili>ect to them- selves from the confederacy, and thus effected lis dissolution. T-ie only cities whirli now retain the name of llaiu^ t'owtis, and some other vestiges of the llanseatic league, are Hamburg. Bremca and Lubeck. The next important change in the state of European commerce was brought about ill Portugal and Spain, hy means of the discoveries which took place in the tifleenth and subsequent centuries. 'J'o the spirit and enterprise of Emanuel, King of Ptr- tugal, we are indebted for the discovery ct the Ca|ie of Good Hope, which waselt'ected by Vasco de Gania, in 1498, and by o|)en- ing a new way to the Indies alforded to the Portuguese an opportunity' of making conquests and settlements which secured to them the commerce of India, which the Venetians had hithertoenjoyed through the medium of the Arabians. The discovery of America by Columbus, which followed quickly after, paved the way for a shil greater extension of mercantile enterprise, which, though at first enjoyed only by the Portuguese and Spaniards, was at length shared by other states. The Dutch, an enterprisir.g people, were the first who wrested from the Spaniards a portion of their conquered possessions, ^iid made so good a use of the advantages they gained as to become one of the greatest trading people in Europe. By the lit-lp of increas ing wealth, they converted their little fishing villages into large and |Nipiiliuis cities and towns. Although their country was far from being fertile, and .heir ativ:- commodities few or none, yet by commerce they succeeded in filling their storehouses with all the productions and manufactures of the world. Having given this general sketch of com- merce from its earliest beginnings, we must not close this account without making men- tion of the commerce of England, which, though among the last to avail itself of this source of wealth and aggrandi/.emeiit, lia< by slow and gradual steps raised its coiu- nierce to a pitch which has never hei-ii surpassed by any nation. It apfiears that a commercial intercourse with Britain was begun at a very early perioil, and thai the I'hfKniciansand C'arthasinians tntded with this island for the tin of C sent people ai fiir M tile Eciiit for cciiiiiiirrcial |iiir|Muiea, an also for the sake nt' pri>curiiig iiifoniiation. Alter the Conquest, ilie b:n;:li!'ii princes were for a long time ttm iiiiicli eiisafieil in political and iiiilitnry concerns to liirii their atieiitiiin to ttiis»ilijt-ct,an(l liille wasiloiie beyond that of e^iving enconragKinent to foreiiiners to seitle in tlnglaml, or to have dealings with the [leople. One provision of Magna Charta held forth indemnity and protection to foreign inercliants in the pas- sage to and fru, as also during their stay hi the country. Safe coniliicts were afterwards given to the English going abroad, which atforded them ihp opponimlty of carrying on a traf- fic for their commodities with foreign na- tions. In conseipience we lind that staples or markets we:e established IhiiIi in Kiig- land and on the contiiienl, where English wool, lead, and other prodiictiiins were bought and sold; and as encourageiiieiil was given to the Hanseatic League, a tra- ding com|iany was in consequence formed in the reign of Edward I. hrst called the Company of Merchants tniding to Calais, ice, afterwards the Merchant Adventurers of England, or the Company of .Merchant Adventurers trading to Haiiibiirg, 'I'liis company, which is the lirst of the kinil in England, was incor|Hirated by Edward I. in I29t). In the reign of Edward III. com- merce and iiianufactiires both met wi'h considerable encouragement, but the inter- course of foreiu'iiers with England was now more encoiimged than that of Englishmen with foreign nations. In consequence the Maple or mart was conriiied to certain towns, where, by the slalule of the staple as it was called, it was ordained tliat for- eigners inigM resort for the purchase of English commodities, but Englishmen were prohibited under great (lenalties from ex- porting any themselves. A number of other laws were made for the establishment and governmentof the stapU', which form- ed that branch of the English law since known by the name of the Law-Merchant. For the encourageineiit of manufactures, protection was given to clothmakers to come from foreign parts and reside here, in the reign of Edward V'l. the principle cf ronrining commerce within the limit of the country was, in consequence of the recent discoveries, somewhat altered. An Intercourse with Russia was commenced by means of some English adventurers, who, poing on a voyage of discovery in or- ier to rind out a north east passaee to Chi- na, came to the |Kirt «f Archangel, where \Miy were well receivud by the Muscovites, COM Itk whence they sfterwarda formed a compiuiy and received a charier to secure to them- selves the trade to liiissia. This company was incor|Mirated in the rcign of Philip and Mary, under the name of llie Russia Coin piiny The reign of Elizalielh was ttil' more favourable to commercial adveoturea of every kind. Urake. Sir Walter lialeigh and tlenry deClitfonl, Earl of Cumberland, distinguished themselves by their voyagsa and discoveries ; besides which several fresh companies were formed under tha auspices of this queen. The Eastland Company was incorporated under the title of the Company of Merchants to the East the Turkey or Levant CoiuiKxiiy was alsi incorporated in 1581 ; but the most impor tant of all the companies which had hith erto lieen formed was the E.ist India Com- pany, which was hrst established by cliar- ter in 1600. In the reign of William III a new East India Company was formed, which was for a time a rival to the old one, but in I70S the two companies were con- solidated into one i since which they have ex|>erienced considerable vicissitudes, and in consequence of the numerous wars in which Ihey have l>een engaged their affairs were atone time so reduced that they were obliged to apply to the governiiieiit for as- sistance, in consequence of which they have lost niiicli of their independence, and are iiecess;irily subject to more control than they were formerly. Engliah com- merce Continued to increase from the reign of Elizabeth till the present, absorbing nearly tue whole of tlie carrying irauo of the world. The United States, com- peted successlully with tbeui lor a con- siderable period, but the closa of the war in lo(i4, lound nearly the whole transatlantic trade in the hands of British shipowners. But the immense resources of the country and its ready Recuperative power must ultimately assert itseli, and eventually command the markets of the world. COM.MFSSION (in Law). The warnnw, or letters patent by which one is authorized to exercise jurisdiction ; in Military Affairs, the warrant or authority by which one holds any post in the army ; in Commerce, the order by which any one trafficks or ne- gotiates for another ; also the per centag* given to factors and agents for transacting the business of others. COMMITTEE (in a I legislature). A certain number of memliers ap)ioiiited by the house, for tl *; examination of any mat- ter; in general, he or Ihey to whom any matter is referred by lome body for lUthm examination. IM COM COMMODITY. Any merchandise or ware wliicli a persou ileals or trades in. COMMOUOKIi. An oliicer m ihe British or American nary, invested uitli Uie coniniaiid of a detachment of ships of war destined for a particular purpose, riie Commodore of a convoy is the lead- ing ship in a fleet of merchantmen. CO.MMON (in Law). A right or privi- lege claimed by more persons in another man's lands, waters, woods, &.c. COMMONALTY. The common people, all classes and couditions of people who are below the rank of nobility; tbe bulk of mankind. COMMON-CARRIER. One who un- dertakes for hire to transport goods from place to i)lace. COMMON-COUNCIL. Tlie council of a city or corporate town, empowered to make by-laws for tUet'ovemmeni of the citizens. COMMON LAW, The law of the realm (grounded on general customs or immemo- rial usage. In general the common law of England is common in this country. COMMON PLACE BOOK. A sort of register, or orderly collection of things worthy to he noted in a bonk COM.MON PLEAS. One of the King's courts at Westminster Hall, where pleas orcaiiees are heard between subject and (iihject Similar courts exist in most of the United Stales COMiMON PHAVER. The litiirijy, or public form of prayer prescribed by the church of England to be used in all church- es and chapels at stated periods. The book of common prayer used by episcopa- lians in the United States is so altered from the English ropy as to .idapt it to the local circumstances of the church. COMMONS (in England). In a gene-, ral sense, the whole peop'-i, as distinguish- ed Irom the nobility ; in a particular sense, the knights and burgesses who represent the Commons in parliament, whence the house in which they sit is called the House of Commons COM.MONS (in Law). See Doctom Commons. COM.MONW EALTIL That form oi government in "vhich the administration of public affairs is common or open to all with few or no exceptions. It is distin- guished from monarchy or aristocracy COMMU.MO.N. A name given to the Hcntnwnt of thr-^Ixird's supper, COMMlMO.\ SERVICE. The office lor the administration of the holy sacra- tienl in llif rbiirrli nf England. COllMUMo.V TAIU.R The table COM erected at the ea«t end of the church, rouit4 which the communicants kneei to partake of tlie Lord's supfier. COiMMUTATlON (in Law). The sub- stitution of one punishment for another. COMP.\.\Y (in Law). A society of persons forming a corporate body; in Com- merce, a trading association, in which several merchants furni a joint stock, with which they trade for the common interest of the sluckholders, such as the East India and other companies. 'See Commerce.) CO.MP.WV (ill Sea Affairs). The whole crew of a ship, including the otticers. COMi ARATIVE ANATOMY. Th» sciencn wi'.ch te.ithes the structure of ll»# tmdy In aniiiials. COMPARATIVE DECREE (in Gram- mar). The second degree, as, better. COMPASS, or the M.vrimer's Cdmpass An inslrninent used by mariners to iKiint out the course at sea. It consists of a card or fly, on wliich are drawn the several points of the compass ; the needle, or m.ig- netic needle, a small bar of steel, which has the property of turning one of its ends to the north pole ; and the box, which co.n- taius tiie card and needle C0MP.\SSES, or Pair or Compasse.. A mathematical instrument, consisting of two sharp pointed branches or legs of iron, brass, or steel. COMPLEMENT (in Astronomy). Tlw di.stance of a star from the zenith. COMPLE.MENT (in Military Alfaire) The full establishment of a regiment. COM COMPKEMKNTOK A.N ARC (in r.e onietry). What an arc waiitx of Wh' or the qiiadranl of a circle ; thus the comple- ment of 50^ a 40°, and tlie conipleiiieiit of Vf is 50". COMPOStNG. That branch of the art of printiiis! which consists inarruncini: the types or letters in such an order, as to fit tliem for the press. Tliis the compositor performs, by gathering a letter at a time into his composing stick, which when full he empties into a frame called a galley. Of the several lines arranged in order in the galley he makes a page, and of several pages he makes a form CON Ml6 COMPOSING-STICK. A compositor's tool made of iron plate, and consisting of the head, the bottom, the back, the two slides, and the two screws. While the compositor is in the act of composing he holds the composing-stick in his let^ hand, placing the second joint of his thumb over the slides of the stick, so as to keep the letter tight and square together, as he pla- ces them in the stick. When tlie compo- sing stick is full, he proceeds to empty it tato the galley. COMPOSTTjE. OneofLinnieiis'natu- lal orders, comprehending the plants with compound flowers, as the dandelion, sun- flower, &.C. COMPOSITION (in Music). A piece of music composed according to the rules of art. COMPOSITION (\n Painting). The putting together the several parts of a picture, so as to set ofTihe whole to the best advantage. COMPOSITION (in Commercel. An •graeuient entered into between an insol- vent tiflitor and \t\n crcililor, by which lli» latter acceplx a |>arl of the debt, in com- |)ensatinn for the whole. COMI't)SI'i"t; NUMRKRS. Such num- bers as some other numbers besides unita will measure, as 13, which is measured by 2, 3, 4, and 6. Ct)MPOSITE OKDER (in Architec- ture) One of the five orders of architect tiire, so called because it is compo«>'d of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. • COMPOSITOR (among Printers). H* who composes the matter for th»" press. COMPOST, pronounced COMl'O (in Husbandry). Several sorts of soils or earths and other matters mixed together, in order to make a particularly tine kind of mould. COMPOUND. A term in botany appli- ed to a flower consisting of several distinct lesser flowers. COMPOUND INTEREST. Is that in- terest which arises from principal and in- terest put together. COMPOUNDING FELONY, or Theft Bote (in Law). Where the party robl>ed takes his gmids again of the thief, upon an agreement not to prosecute. COMI'()l'.M»IN{; WITH ONE'S CREDITORS. Where the debtor, notbe- i'lig able to pily all his debts, agrees with his creditors to pay a part. CONCAVE LE.N'S. An epithet for glasses ground hollow ot. the inside, so W to reflect on the hr low sidb IM CON CONCENTRATION (in Chemistry). The act uf iiicreasini; the streiiptli ul'tiuids by vol.itili/.inK part ut' their water. Cerforniaiice in which any number of practic.il iiiiisiciaiii) unite in llie exercise nftlieir talent. CONCERTO. A piece of iimsic consist- ing of several parts that are all to be per- formed together. CONCHOLOGY. That branch of na.u- ral history which treats of testaceous ani- mals, or such animals as have a pern:a- nrntly testaceous covering, which are com- prehended under the testacea in the Lin- niean system. CONCLAVE. Theroom in the Vatican at Rome where the cardinals assemble to clioose a pope ; also the assembly itself. CONCORD (in Graiuiiiar). That fv:'. of syntax which treatBof the agreement of words according to their several iiitlec- tions. CONCORD (in Law). An agreement between parties who intend to levy a fine. CONCORD (in Music). The union of wo or more sounds in such manner as to lender them agreeable. CONCORDANCE. A sort of dictionary of the Bible, in which every word is given with references to the book, chapter, and verse in which it is to be found. CONCORDAT. A treaty or public act of agreement, between the pope and any prince. CONCRETION. The growing together of several substances or parts of substances Into one body. CONCRETION (in Surgery). Morbid concretions are substances formed in the animal body, as tlie calculus or stone, &.c. CONDENSER. A pneumatic engine or syringe, whereby an uncommon quantity | of air may be crowded into a given space. CONDITION (in Common Law). A restraint annexed to a thing, ao that by tlie nonperformance, the party to it shall sus- tain loss, aid by the performance receive advantaee. CONDITION (In Civil Law). A clause of obligation stipulated, as an article of a Ueaty or contract. CONDUCTOR. A name given to those ■ubstances which are capable of receiving and transmitting electricity. CONDUCTOR OF LIGHTNING. A pointed meliillic i.rti, contrived by Dr. Vranklin, to be fiied to buildings, to secure them from the effects of lightning. CONDUIT. A pipe for the conveyance •f water to any particular part. CON CONDOR. A large kind of South Amet- ican vulture, measuring with the wingiiex> tended, from tip to tip, twelve or sixt««a feet. It preys on birds, lanibii, and kids. It ia the largest bud of (light. CONE (in Geometry). A solid figiwe, having a circle for its ba.se, and its top terminating in a point or vertex. It is produced by the revolution of a riglit angled triangle about its [terpendicularleg, called ibe axis of tlie cone. CONE (in Botany). The fruit ot several evergreen trees, as of the fir, cedar, cypress, so called from its conical shape. Jt iscnni- posed of woody scales, that are usiinll) open, each of which has a seed at the end CONE (in Conchology). A beautiful sort of shell, inhabited by the Umax. Shells of this sort mostly bear the highest price of CON My, one specie* being valued aa high aa ftve hiiiiilred dollars. CON 197 CnXFRSSION (in TheolopyJ. A public 4eclamliiin urnne'8 failli, nr tlie faith of a piihlic h prieiit or father confessor. It is so called because it is made by whispering in his ear CONFERVACE.E. A natural order of Algffi, or water plants, of which the con • ferva is the ^enus. Conlervites are fossil aijise, belonf,'in{; to the order. Confervoid is a botanical term applied to those plants which have the appear- auce cfC'>n:erv?e. COXFLUENT. In pathology, a term applied to those pustules on the skin which are so numerous as to form patches, the matter of which runs to- gether. CONPLIIF.NCE. The meeting of two rivers, or the place where they meet. ro.VCEI-ATION. A coMden»ation of any fluid by means of rolil. CO.Vr.ER. or (:().\(;ER EKU An eel of an exiraiirdiuary si/.e, and extremely voracious, which preys on carcasses, and other tish. Cti.NyREGATION (in Ecclesiastical Affairs^ An assembly of persons who meet losetbf: for purposes of divine worship; (in Physics) a term for the least degree of mixture, in which the parts of the mixed body do not touch each other in more than one p accnrdini; to ildaeveral m >nds. tenses, ■nd |irr*iin«. 0«».\JIJ(;aTION (ill Gnmiitsr). The ■hkmm. tenrie«, and persons of m \cr^ eou|tird l-te'Ptht'r in re^ilar order. CUXJL'NCTIU.N. A term in Astronony Tk the niretine of two (Waiiels in tht; same degree of the zodiac, which id marked U»ti*(6). CUXJUXCTION (in Orammar). A part pftpeech which jams wi«tls and seo- lences. CONNOISSEUR. A persna well versed ia anjr art or science. CO.Voro (in Geometry). A figure re- •embting a cone. CONUL't^RUR. In a eeneral sense, one who ha:9 gained a battle or any thing by means of ligliting ; particularly applied to William I. who siiccreded to the thrune of Hn eland aAer having gained tlic liattle of Haglingi). CONSAXGUIMTY. Kindred by blood aad birth between pemons de:«ceBded from the same common nlock. CONSCRIPT FATHERS. An appel- latiua for the Roman senators, so called because they were enrolled from the eques- trian order into the list of senalots. CONSCRIPTS. Kecrmica in the French vmy. CONSEaUENCE. That which follows from any principle by way of inference ; auKing logicians, the last part or propo- sition of an argument, in distinction from the antecedents, being something gatlieied from a preceding argument. CO.VSEUUEXT (in Geometry). The •alter of two trrms of pmportiim, in dis- tinction (rnm tlie former, or antecedent. CO.VSIGNME.NT. The sending or de- livering over of eoods to another person. CONSISTORY, or CONSISTORY COURT. In England, the session or as- sembly of ecclesiastical persona held by the bishop or his chancellor. CONSONANCE (in Music). An agree- aentof two sounds. CONSONANT (in Grammar). A letter which cannot be sounded by itself without the help of a vowel ; in Music, an epithet for that interval whirii produces consonant concords. CONSTABLE. A civil officer, anciently •r great dignity, as tlie lord liieb constable of Ea gland, and al*les, jtc; now an Inferior officer •f jiwtice. CONSTF.I.I.ATKiN. An aswmblageof bfed ■tarn, imagined to rrprewnt the fonn if suoie creature or utber object, as a bear. CON a ship, and the like ; whence rhey ha«« derived thuste ap|iellatii>ns which are cnn venient in dei^:ribing llir stars. The divi sioii of the heavens iiilo coiislrllations ia ver)' ancient, pn>liably coeval with astn>- noiny itself. Fre<)uent iiieiiiinn is made of tiiem by name in the siicred wriiinga as in the book of Job, and in thf pm|itiecy of .Amos. Some of the consiellttioiis are also mentioned by Homer and He?f l*toleiny. These were forty eight in number, called the Old ('onstetla- tions, to which have since been added others, called .New Constellations. CO.VSTITUENT (in Law). In England, one who by his vote, constitutes or elect* a member of (tarliament. 1'he term is also applied to voters in the United States. CONSTITUE.\TS (in Physics). The elementary parts of any substance. CONSTITUTION (in Law). Property, any fonn of government regularly consti- tuted; in a particular sense, the mixed ana popiilnr form of goveminent in England, consisting of king, lords, and commons, o^ the free cimstitution of the United States. CONSTITUTION (in Civil Law). A law made by some king or emperor ; suti in the canon law, the same as an ecelesi astical law or canon. CONSTITUTION (In Medicine). Th» temperament of the whole body, arising from the quality and pniplanu with a singie twisted petal. CONTOUR. The outline of a figure. CO.VTRABAND GOODS. (;oc^s pro- hibited by law to be exported or im|K>rteC CONTRACT A covenant or aereeiiieat between two or more persons, with a law- ful coasideratioQ or cause. CON CONTRACTION. In jtfierU, the di- ■inutuog Uie extea; oc liiJieiuuwiM of a koiy. CONTRACTION (la Surety). The ■faritiking up of the musclea or arteriea. CONTRACTION U" liraaunar) The le-^ucsu; iv/n sylUble* into one. CONTRACTION (in Antiunetk}. The •.'i.-rteaing u( openuioiu. CONTR.\aT iu» Fainting). The due placing the ditlereut paiU and objects of a 6^ire, that they may be luitably opiKwed li< e&ch other. CO.N'TR A VALUATION, Lisb or. A line or trench, cut round a place by the be- lie^en, to defend tbeniselvea a^iust the tallies of the •arn:ion. CONTRAVENTION (in Law). The in- fragement of a contract. C« >.VTROLLER (in Law). An overseer r>> c^cer apyttiiiled to control or oversee the accoun;* of other othcer*. CON rL'M.\CV (in Law). A refusal to App^Jii in court when legally fommoaed. CONV.^LESCENCE. That period be- tw'xt ctie departure of a disease, and the tecuvrry of one':i health. CONVENTICLE. A term applied first Is the Mtlle private meetings of the follow- as of John Wicklitfe, and alterwards to tiMc leiigioys meeting!) of the Nonconfonn- COWBirriON'rinLaw). Aavaaaem- Dly of the states of the realm or their depu- ties ; in military atlairs, «■ a gi e ciiiet entered into between two botfMS«f tioops, opposed to each other. CCNVERGLNG LINTS. Line* which continually approximate. CONVER<;iNNVOLVULUS or Bi!p8 employed loguard any sup- ply of money, ammunition. ±.e. COOK. One who practises the art at cookery. The company of cooks in Eng- land waa incorporated io the fifleeath cen- tury. COOLER. A Teasel used by brewen, for cooling the beer alter il a drawn otf". COOMB. A measure of cum, coBtainiaf hat bushels. COOP. A place where fowls are keyt confined ; aUo a vessel made of (wigs, in which fish are caugbt, and a barrel or ves- sel for keeping liquids. COOPER. A maker of tubs, coops, o* barrels. The company of coopers in Eng- land was incorporated in the reign of Hen- ry VII. COOPERY. The art of making tnbs Of barrels with boards boumi by htiops. COOT. A waterfowl, mostly of a black colo' literary performance, which is now con firmed by statute, to authors or their publishers, for a certain number of years. Hint is to say, in England for twenty «ight jrars in all cases, whether the author sur- vive that period or not ; and to the end of the Hiillior's life if he live beyond that pe- riiMl ; besides, aa an action lies to recover d.imaTs for piruting the new corrections hui a Iditioiis to an oit work, pnblisberB COR may acquire almost a perpetual Interest i» a work by republiihing it with aitditinna and annotations. In the United Stales, the copyrigiit law gives to the author, the eiclusive right to his productions for four years, with the privilege of renewing it for the same period, if he is living within the last six months of the term. CORAL. A hard, brittle, calcareona substance, which was formerly supposed to be of a vegetable nature, but is now found to be composed of a congeries of animals, endued with the faculty of moving sponlaiieuusly. They are distin- guished by the form of their branches, and are found in the ocean, adhering to stones, bones, shells, &.c. The islands in the South Sea are mostly coral rocks covered with earth. The coral fishery is particularly followed in the Mediterranean, on the coast of France and Algiers, where the red coral most abounds. CORBEL. A shoulder piece jutting out in walls to bear up a (Kist. CORCLE, or CORCULUM (in Botany). The essence of the seed, or the rudiment of the future plant. CORD OF WOOD. A parcel of fire wooti, four feet broad, four feet high, »ni eight feet long. CORINTHIAN ORDER (in Archite--- ture). The noblest and richest of the fiv* orders, ao calleil because columns wet* first made of that proportion at Corinth. Its capital ia adorned with two rows ol COR .enves, hetn-««n winch arise liul« stalks or cauliciiles, ronning sixleea volutes. CUROGI.IEKS. in Cathdiic countries, tn iirrier of luuuks, so railed t>ecaU8e tliey wear a cord full of knots about their mid- dle. CORDOVAN. A sort of leather made of^oal skill at Cordova in Spaiii. CORK TKGE. A glandiferous tree of the itak kina, having a thick, spong>', and soft bark, known by tlie name of cork. It grows abundantly in Italy, Spain and other parts in the South of Europe. CORMORANT, or Ct)RVORANT. An exceedingly voracious bird of tlie pelican tribe. It build.-i on the liigliest cliffs bang- ing over the sea. COR in CORN. A g«ner«i term in England for wheat. Sonietimea, for all grain of which hread is made. In the United States, it is a common term for Indian corn. See Maike. CORNEA. One of the coals of the eye, which IS traiisp:ireiit in the fore part, to admit the rays of light. CORNELIAN. A precious rtone, of a flesh colour, of which rings are made. CORNET (in Military Affairs). An in- rtrument very similar to a trumpet, which is used in the army ; also a coiiimii libaceous tribe, which are most fitted for making garlands. CORONAtlON. The act or solemnity of crowning a king ; also tlie ceremony of investing the pope with his sacerdotal en- signs and dignity. CORO.NER. An officer whose particulai duty it is to make inquisition into the im- timely death of any |>erson. CORONET (in Heraldry). A small crown worn by the nobility. CORONET, or CORNET (in Farriery? The upper part of a horse's hoof. CORPORAL (in Law). An epithet fci any thing that belongs to the body, as cor- poral pnnishinent, in distinction from n Hue ; a corporal oath, so called because the party taking it, is obliged to lay bte hand on the Bible. CORPOR.\L (in Military Affairs). A ra^k and file man, with superior pay to a common soldier, and with nominal rank under a serjeant. CORPORATION. A body politic or incorporate, so called iiecause the persons composing it, are made into one body. CORPOSANTO, or COKPf)S.\NT. Small luminous balls supposed to be elec- trical which play about the rigging of ships in stormy weather and are regarded with superstitious awe, by sailors. CORPS. A French term for any body of forces forming the division of a grand army. CORRECTION (in Printing). The cor- recting of proof sheets as tliey come fn.ni the compositor's hands, in order to free them from all faults. CORRECTIVES. Medicines which serve to correct the qualities of other medi- cines. CORRECTOR. The person appointed in a printing offir« to correct the pr(«ft as I hey come rough ttom the compositor's hands 112 COS CORRfrion (in Fortification). A covert way roiinil a fnriress ; In Architecture, a k)M|? tallpry leading; to several chiiiiibers. COKROSIVES. Saline menstriimns, which liBve the property of dissolving bo- ru(luced by the electrical fluid. CORVUS (in Astronomy)- A constella- tion In the southern hemispheie. CORYDALF:s. one of Linnmns' natu- ral orders of plants, coniaining those which li:ive helmet-shaped flowers. CORYMB (in Botany). A mode of dowering, in whicli the lesjer flower stalks are proiluced along the common stalk on SkiIIi sides, rising to the same height. CO SECANT (In Geometry). The secant of an arc, which is the complement of knottier arc to ninety degrees. COS.\lETiCS. Preparations which wtiiten and sulten the skm. COSMOr.RAPHV. The science of de- ■cribiiig the several parts of the visible World. ("OSMOPOFJTE. A citizen of the Mirlri. (.'•♦SSACKS. Irregular troops attached tu the Russian army ; a predatory tribe which inhabit the banks of the Nieperand Don. COSTS OF SUIT. The expenses attend- in* a law suit, which are In part recover- •kia troin the party wliu loses the cauw cov COTTON. A sort of wool or flaj , which encompasses the seed of a tree th;it is much cultivated in Central Africa, in the Indie* and particularly in America. It only flour- ishes in warui climates. The cloth which is man II factored from this wool when spun, is also called cotton. COTTONGRASS. A perennial of the grass tribe, so called, because itsseed-s have a downy substance attached to them whicli resembles cotton, and has been used in ita stead. COTTONTHtSTLE. An herbaceous plant, with a biennial root, which is sc called because it has downy leaves. COTYLEDONS (in Botany). 'I'lie lobes of the seed, of wliich there are mostly two. 1'liey are destined to nourish the heart ut the .seed. COL'ANDO. .A species of small South American porcupine. COUCH. A seat, or small moveable bed to lie on. COUCH (In Husbandry). A layer oi heap of malt or barley. COUCH (in Painting). The ground or bcLsis on which the coKuir lies. COUCHGRASS. A noxious weed, which spreads ver)' fnsi in arable land, and chokes every thing else that is sown. COUCHING (in Surgery). The remov- ing the opaque lens out of the axis of vis- ion, so as to restore the sight. COVENANT (in Ljiw). An agreement or consent of two or more, by deed »ti writing. COVERT. A thicket or shady place for deer or other animals. COVERT-WAY (In Fortification). A space of ground level with the field on the edge of the ditch, ranging quite round the works. COVERTURE (in Law). The stat*^ of a married woman who is under the pvwei and protection of her husband, whenM she Is called a feme coverte. cou COL'GAR. Theliirscitanimnlof Amer- ica of the cat kinii, anil gniiielinies called Jm American Lion. In ^^oiilh America it in called Puma, in .NUrih America, I'an- Uier. It is of an a.-li onlour, and so (Kiw>r- fill, that it will bear the body of a iiian up a tree. COVING (in Architecture). The pro- jection in house.'i (tc^ynad the ground plot. COUNCIL, (in Law). An assemhly of the different members of any government who meet to consult about alfairs. In England that is called the I'rivy Council wherein the king himself and his privy counsellors meet, in the king'ti court or palace, to deliberate on affairs of state. When the council is composed only of cabinet ministers, or tlie king's most con- idential servants, it is called a Cabinet Council. COUNCIL (in Ecclesiastical Affairs). The same as the synod. COUNCIL OF WAR ^in Military Affairs). An assembly of the chief otftcers in the army or navy, called by the general or admiral in particular emergencies, to concert measures (or their conduct. COUNTERFEIT. A fraudulent imita- tion of any thing, made so as to pasa for genuine, as counterfeit coin. COUNTERMINE. A mine made by the besieged, in order to blow up the mine of the besiegers. COUNTERSCARP (in Fortification). That side of the ditch which is next the camp, and faces the body of the place. COUNTER-TENOR (in Miurder ■nddeiily produced by the violent scorch- uig of the sun. COUPLE. A band with which dogs are tfed topether. COUPLE-CLOSE (in Heraldry). An •■iioaiy, s« termed from it« cucloiiiug ilie 10 • CRA 113 chevron by conples, being always borne ia pairs, one on each side a chevron. COUPLES (in Building,. RaOers fra- med together in pairs with a tie. COUPLET. The division of a hymn, ode, or song, vhcein an equul number, o. an equal mey | re of verses is found in eMk part. COURANT. An epithet for any hensl, reprettented in an escutcheon in a running attitude. COURSE. A sea term.forthat i>oiutof the horizon or compass for which a ship steers, COURSE (in Masonry). A continued range of bricks or stones of the saina height. COURSE OF EXCHANGE (in Com merce). The current pn'ceorrate at which the coin of one country is exchanged foi that of another ; which, as it depends upon the balance of trade and the political relic- tions which subsist between thetwoc.X. A substitute for the small- pox. It IS taken from the udder of (he cow, and used In that sort of iitociilaiion now known by the name of vacrinalioii. COWRY. A testaceous animal, which is said to have the power of leaving its shell and forming a new one. These ani- mals live in sand at the bottom of the sea. The shell is used as a coin in India. COWSLIP. A plJinl which grows wii4 in the meadows, and bears a pretty yelln-v flower. C. P. S. (in England). Custos privsm sigiili ; i. e. kee|ier of the privy seal. CR. .\n abbreviation for creditor. CRAB (in Astronomy). Cancer, on««< the signs of the r.o«liac. CRAB (in Br>tany'. A wild apple trra, and also the fruit of hat tree. t:RAB (among Shipwrights). An enfin* with three claws for launching of ships. rK/.irs EYE. A stone found in Um craw fish, rusemblinc au eye. 114 CRA CRAB A Bort of shell fish, which every ye^r cast off their olJ shells, with much (KIWI and diliiculty. CRADLE. A moveable bed for a child. CRADLE (with Surgeons). A wnoden machine to lay a broken leg in after it has heen set. CrtADLR (with Shipwrights). A frame of timber m.^ed on each side of a ship, for the irore conv.inient launching of her. CRAMP. As^asinodic affection, which rjufcs a violent dis.ortion of the muscles, ner/es, &.c. ; also a dis«/ase to which hawks »re subject in their winga. CRA.MP IRONS. Ironj which fasten •U'mfs in buildings. CR.'V.N'BKRRY. In Englijl,:\ paJe red h( rry of a tart taste, the fruit of I'lo cran- hBrry tree. The cranberry of Cbt Unitel k^tiites grows on low bushes, in »a.•!Jl^y plHces. It is of a bright red coK- IJlied to a large triba of the native in- habitants of the Uuitel Suites of Amer- ica, who formerly ociupiuvl alltliocoun- tries lying north of lat. 31 (leg. CItSlIATION. The burning of tha dead, according to the custom of many au iiont nations. CIIKOLE. A native of Spanish Ameri- ca or the West Indies, descended from European ancestors. CIiil\aQTK Aa oily liquid obtained - from wood-tar^ t-onsistiiig of earbou, o.xygen, and hy(in_>gen, and so namei from it* property of preserving auiuial substanoeft. CREATIX. Acrj'stallizablQ substance obtainel trom lausciilar tibro. CEEilAILLERE. la fortification, an IndeatuJ zigzag llaa. CRO CREPITATION. The cnrkllng nolfie made by snine salts during the pmcpK) of ealciriHtion. CRKSf?. A earden ii,tlad. CREW. The company of sailors b«- lonciiie tn a vessel. CUICKE'J'. A little in:8ed to have been worn by that mo- narch. That, now in use, was made at Jie Restoration, for the coronation uf Cbarie* the Second CROWN (among Jewellers). The upper work of the rose diamond CROWN-GLASS. The finest sort of window ghiss. CROWN-IMPERIAL. A well known beautiful flower, the root of which is perennial. CROWN-OFFICE. In England, an of- fice twhmging to the Court of King's Bench, of which the king's coroner or attorney there is commonly master. CROZIEIt. A shepherd's crook; also a bishop's staff, which is of a similar form, and an emblem of his pastoral odice. CRUCIFIX. A figure either in statuary or painting, representing our Saviour on tlie cross. CRUCIFIXION. The act of nailing or ttiing to a eroM; the suifering of bein^ crucified. CRUCIBLE. A melting pot used by CUB ehenilxts for the melting of mctala iniuerats. CRUISE. A voyage or expedltkm i» quest of an enemy's vessels CRUISER A vessel appointed fo cruising. CRUOR. Coagulated blood. CRUSADES. The expeditions under- taken by the princes of Christendom foi the conquest of the Holy Land, in the twelfth and three following centuries. On these occasions, every soldier bore a cruci- fix on his breast, as an emblem of spiritual warfare. CRUSTACEOUS SHELL FISHES. Fishes covered with shells which are made up of several pieces and joints ; such as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, &;c. in distinc- tion from the testaceous fish, as oysters. CRYPTOGAMI.\. One of the classes of plants in the Linnsan system, coinprehen ding those whose fructification or lloweris too concealed or minute to be observed by the naked eye, as tlie mosses, the alga or seaweeds, the ferns, and the fungi or funguses. CRV^PTS. Subterraneous places where the martyrs were buried, and the primitive Christians performed their devotions; also underground chapels, such as the crypt under St. Paul's and other churches which took their rise from this practice. CRYSTAL, or Rock Crystal (in Mine- ralogy). A transparent stone as clear as glass. It is found in Iceland, Germany, and France, and belongs to the quartz or siliceous genus; also a factitious body cast in the glass-houses, called crystal elas« which is very brittle, and burns with little or no tiame. CRYSTAL (in Chemistry). That pan of a salt which assumes a regular ami «ilid form, on the gradual coo'ing of its iN)lutii>ii. CRYSTALLINE HUMOUR. A pel lucid humour of the eye, so called from fits transparency like crystal. CRYSTALLIZATION. The reducing of any salt into a regular form, by dissolv ing it in a menstruum, and allowing it to cool until it shoots into the bodies called crystals. CUB. The young of some partlcu^al beasts, as of a fox and a bear CUL CUmE (in Geometry). A repular solid •ody, supposed to l>e generated by the motion of a sr]ii:ire plane along a line equal and perpendicular to one of il8 sides. It is enclosed by six e 'l>e cube. CUBE ROOT, 'i'he side of a cube num- ber; tints 3 is tlie cube root of 27. CUBIT. A measure equal to about 1 foot 9 inches. CUCKOO. A bird which is lieard about the middle of April, and ceases to sing at the end of July. It de|K>>its im eggs in the nests of otiier liirils, generally in tliat of the hedgesparrow. 'J'lie American Cuc- koo differs in it^ note from the Eiirofiean bird of that name It is also smaller in ■tM CUCKOO-SPITTLE A whi» froth or spume, very common on the lavemlerand other plants in the spring, which forms the nidus of a sort of ric-ida. CUCURIUTACEiC. tine of Linna-iis's natural orders of plants, comprehend iiig those which resemble the gourd, as tlie cucumber, the melon, &.c. CULM (in Botany). 'Ihe stalli or stem of corn or grasses. CULM (among .Miners). A sort of coal in Wales. CULMLN'EyK. One of the Linnsan na- tural orders of planu, consisting of Uie grasavs. CULPRIT (in Law). A word of form, applied in court to one who is indicted for a criininal offence. It is as much as to say, in FVench, 'culpable prit, found or considered guilty.' CUiMMIN SEED. A long, slender seed of a rough texture, unctuous when bruised, of a strong smell and an acrid taste. CUPBEARER Jn Englaiidi. An oflicer of the king's household, who was for- merly an attendant at a feast. CUPEL. A chemical vessel made of earth, ashes, or burnt tHjne, in wbicitassny- masters try metaU CUPOLA. A roof or vault rising in a circular form, otherwise cilled the 'J'holus or Dome, as the cupola of St. Paul's Cii- thedral, here represeuted. CUPPING (in Purpery). The operation of applying the cuppiiig-glaas to the lieehy parts of the body, for the purpose of draw- ing away blood, or humours. CURASSOW. A species of bird of which there are several varieties in South Amer- ica, and the West Indies, of which the Cashew Curassow is the largest. This bird was formerly domesticated in some parts of Europe. CURATE. Properly, one who has fW» cure of souls ; now applied in England to one who officiates for hire in the place of the incuml>ent. CURB OF A BRIDLE A chain of iron that runs over the horse's beard Cl^RFEW. Literally, cover fen or fire ; a law introduced fnuii Normandy into England by William the ('onqueror, that all people should put out their lire and lichts, at the ringing of the eight o'clock bell. CURLEW. An European water fowl of a gray colour, with a l.irge beak. Cl.'KKANT. The fruit of ashriib having no prickles; the leaves of this plant are large, and the fruit, which is either bl.-wk, red, or white, fc kifhiy esteemed; also a dried fruit that coiues from the Levant. lis CUT CURRENCY (in LkIW). Paper money issued iiy autlioniy, aiiil [ia.ssiiis currt- nl Instead of com; also, in general, any sort of money thai passes cnrreni by aiilliorily, as the metallic currency, signifying the coin of the realm. CURRK.N'l'S. Inipetiiniiis streams. CURRIHR. A dresser of tanned leather to make it pliable and fit for use. 1'he Company of Curriers in lingland was in- corporated in the reign of Henry VI. CURRV-COMH. An iron sort of comb Ibr the dressing of horses. CURSITOR. In England, an officer in chancery, who makes out original writs for any particular county. CURTAIN (in Kortification). The front of a wall or fortified place, lying between two ba.«tioii8. CURVE. A line whose parts incline different ways. CUSP. Properly, the point of a spear CUSP (in Astronomy). A term for the boms of the moon. CUSTO.M (in \m\v). A duty on the lin|Mirtation or expiirlatjon of g(Hids CUSTOS ROTULOKUM, or Keepek or THE Rolls. In England, he that lias the keeping of the records of the sessions of the peace. CUT. An ens.'aving on wood. CUTLER. A maker antlsellerof knives, and all cutting iiislrunieiils. CU'IPURSE. A sort of thieves who rub by cutting purses. CUTTER. A kind of bcKit attached to a vessel of war, which is rowed with six oars, and is employed in carrying light stores, passengers, &.c. In the United States, the term revenue cutter, is applied to small fast sailing vessels, used In walcli k^rboius for the prevention of smuggling. CVANf)OEN (in Chemistry). Carbon combined with azote CUTTLE-Fl.sn. A sea ftsh furnished With many sickors and holders (or se- CYM curing its prey. It emits a black used lu making Indian iuk CYBELE (in Heathen Rlythnlogy). Th« daughter of Ctplus and Terra, wife of Saturn, and mother of the gods; she is always represented with a tiirreted head and accompanied with a lion CYCLE. A continual revolution of num- bers, as applied to a series of years which go on from first to Iilsi, and then return to the same order auaiii. CVt-'LOII). A curve generated by tn« rotation of a curie alons: a Inn*. C\C1,<)IM:1>I A. S.-H K-ii vrLor.vniA. CVl.lMlElt. A tianre ronrened ii. Its geiieraifd. liy tlie rotation nt' a rectangle about llie side. CYLINDER (in Gunnery). The whole hollow length of a great gun; the bore. CYME. Properly, a sprout or shootj also a sort of flower'.ng, where the floret! in not all rise from the same point. CYUOSi£ Une of Linneus's natum. DAV CTJTIC8 In anrient history, snarling philosophers, who valued themselves on their contempt of richea, of arts sciences, and amusements. Diogenes was one of this sect. CYNOSURE. The constellation of the Little Bear, to which, as containing the nortb star the eyes of mariners and travelers were in former times, contin- ually turned. Hence the poets have used the term to denote anything to whicb attention is strongly directed. CYPHONISM. A species of punish- ment frequently used by the ancients, which consisted in besmearing the criminal with honey, and exposing him to insects. CYPR.^rD.1:. A family of Marine gas- tarpods (the Cowries), with involute and DAT 119 higMy-enamelled shells, of which tha Cypresea is the type. CYPRESS. A genus of plants or trees valued lor the durability of their wood; the emblem of mourning for the dead, cypress branches having been anciently used at funerals. CYTOBLAST. In botany, the nucleus cellule, or assimilative force from which the organic cell is developed. These nuclei appear like dark spots, which may be seen in thefluids of the growing l)arta of all plants. CYTOBLASTEMA. In physiology, the viscid fluid in which animal and vege- table cells are produced, and by which they are held together. CYTOGENESIS. In physiology, the development of cells in animal and veg- etable structures. D As a numeral, D represents 600; and when a dash or stroke is placed over it. It denotes !)000 DACTYLIOGRAPHY. The art of en- graving on gems DACTYLOLOGY The art of commu- nicating ideas by spelling words with the fingers. DACTYLOXO:mY. The art of number- ing with the fingers. DACTYLOI^'EEUS. In ichthyology, a genus of fishes covered with large scales and the head long and flattened; fam. Loricata. DADO. In architecture, the part in the middle of the pedestal between the base and cornice. DAGUERREOTYPE. A process inven- ted by Dagucrre, by which images from the lens of a camera obscura are fixed on metal plates. DAGOBA. In India and the East, a homi.spherical dome of earth or stone with a small square erection on its top called a tee. DALIAN PROBLEM. In mathematics, the duplication of the cube, or the pro- cess of finding the side of a cube double that of another one. DAMASK STEEL. In the arts, a fine kind of steel from the Levant, of a «treaky mottled appearance, used in the manufacture of the best sword and scimitar blades. Damaskeening is the art of adorning steel or iron with inlaid gold or silver, chiefly used for sword- blades or locks of pistols. DANAE. A planet first observed by Gcldsmidtinl8G0. DATHOLITE. A vitreous mineral composed of silica, lime and boracic acid, not transparent, whence its name. DATUM. A thing given in logical and mathematical premises: a proposition 01 truth granted or admitted. Datum- line, in civil engineering, is the ba.se or horizontal line o( a section, from which heights and depths are calculated. DAVYNE. A yellowish transparent mineral ejected from Vesuvius; its con- stituents being silica, alumina, lime, iron, and water; sp. gr. 2-4. DAY. An astronomical peried, which depends tipon the interval between two transits over the meridian of any point in the heavens, real or imaginary. But the only days distinguished by that name in astronomy are the sidereal day, I the real solar day, and the mean solar day. The sidereal day is the interval between two transits of the same fixed star, which is divided info twenty-four sidereal hours. The real solar day is the interval between two moons or transits of the sun over the meridian. The mean solar day is the average of all the real solar days. The Babylonians commenced the day at sun-rising, the Jews at sun-setting, and the Egyptians at midnight, as do many modern na- tions; the British, French, Spanish, Americans, &c. In the computation of time, the civil or mean solar day is the time employed by thecarth in revolving on its axis, ^')5'24'25 of such ravolutions constituting a mean Gregorifin year :with most of the modern nations it com- mences at midnight, and consists of 24h. 3m. 56s., 55 of sidereal time. Solar days are not always of equal length: Ist, from the unequal velocity of the earth inits orbit, that velocity being greater in winter than in summer; and 2d, from the obliquity of the ecliptic. A side- real day, the day universally adopted by astronomers in their observations, is the time that elapses between two success- ive culminations of tU» sMne star. DAY FLY. A kind ol insect, so called because It lives only a day. 130 DEC UEAU £VE. A sea term for • iort of Oal block. UEAU LANGUAGES. Those languages which have ceased tu be i>|Hikeii by any nation, as Ibe Greek and Liilin. UEAU NETTLE. A sort of nettle witliuut stings. UEAU RECKONING. The account kept of a ship's course by the lug, without any observation uf the sun, luooii, or stars. UEAF AND DUMB. Those who have the misfortune to be born, witlmul llie fa- culties of hearing or speaking. Means Iiave lieen successfully employed to supply these defects in charitable iiistilutioiis, for the beiiefil of these unhappy objucts, where the young are taught to coiiiiiiuiiicate their thoughU by ttie help of signs, particularly by the laugiiHge of the lingers, which, Plough before but a cliiMish aniuseuient, b) now turned to a useful purpose, 'i'he first establishment of tills kind in America was that at Hartford, winch was found-'l chiefly through the instrumentality of Mr. Gallaudet. UE.'\ L. The wood of the fir tree cut up for building. DEAN. In England, a dianified clergy- man who is at I be head of a chapter. UEATIIVVA'J'CH. A little insect inha- biting old woodeu furniture, which makes a licking noise in such a maiiiier, by a certain number of distinct strokes, as for- merly to be considered ominous to ihe family where it was heard. This circuin- luaiice gave rise to its vulgar name. DEBENTURE (Ir Law). A sort of bill ilrawn upon the Government. Custom House debentures entitle the bearer to re- ceive a drawback on the exportation of goods, which were before imporled. DEBIT. A term used in book-keeping to express the left hand page of the ledger, to which all articles are carried tiiat are charged to an account. DEBT 'in Commerce). A sum of money due from one person to another. DEDI' (in Law). An action which lieth where a man oweth another a certain sum of money. DEC. An abbreviation for December. DEC.'VUE 'J'he number or space often DEC days, which formed the third part of tb* Attic month; alsotheiiumberof ten books, which was formerly tlie division of some volumes, as the Uecades of Livy. DECAGON. A plane gecmietrical flgur* Consisting often sides and ten angles. UECAL(XJUE. 'J'he Ten Command- ments delivered by God from Mount Sinai to Moses. DECAMERON. A volume often books, such as the Decameron or novels of Boc- cacio. DECANDRIA. One of the artificial classes of Liiiiixus, comprehending those plants which have ten stameus in the flower. DEfJANTER. A glnss bottle made so Its to hold the wine for immediate use. DECEMBER. The last moiitb in the year, when the sun enters the tropic of Capricorn, making the winter solstice. DECEMVIRS. Extraordinary niiicis- trates among the Romans, chosen for the particular purpose of collectiiig tlie laws of the twelve tables, which they gathered from the writings of Solon. DECIDUOUS PLA.NTS. Plants which cast their leaves in winter. DECIMAL. An epithet for what con- sists of the number of ten; as, Decniiai Arithmetic, a mode of coinpui;itii>ii ili.ii proceeds on the scale of ten figures; De- cimal Fracti(ms,suchas have in, IlKl, lO'lO, &c. for their denominator, and marked with a point thus .5 for five-tenths. DECIMATION. A military punishment among the Romans, inflicted on every tenth man of the company who had be- haved themselves ill. DECK. The floor of a ship. The derks may be either first, second, or third; where there are more than one, beginning from the lowest upwards. DECLARATION (in Law). A state- ment of the cause of action by a plaint iff against a defendant. DECLENSION. The different inflexions of nouns throughout their cases. DECLINATION. The distance of any star or point of the heavens from the equator, either north or south. The greul- DEF Mt declination is -^:< dc<:reei: and a halT. UKXOl'TIo.N. A medicinal luiunr. DECOMmsiTION (in Chemistry^. The rediiclion (>r a body to the parts of which It is ciiniiHMed. DECORATIuNS. Any nniamenta or embellishments, such ;ls pritiLs u> a book. or the mouldings, and other Ciirved works in buildings. DV'COV. A sea term for a stratafiem employed by ships of war, to draw any vessel of inferior force into an incautious pursuit, until she comes within gun-shot. DECOV (among !5portiiiiid in this country. It is a characteris- tic of all these aniinals,that they shed their .lorns once a year. n. F. Detbnsor Fidei, Defender of the Faith. l>£ FACTO. In deed or fact. Itv.F.ALCATIOX. A falling off or a failure in any public accounts. DEFAMATION (in Law). Slanderous Words spoken or written against any one. DEFAULT (in Law). A nonappearance in court without sufficient cause. DEFACLTER. One who is deficient in his accounts. DEFECTION. The falling oflT from a gi: /eminent or state. .")EFEXCH (in Law). The reply which the defendant makes after the declaration is produced; in .Military .Affairs, any work that covers or defends the opposite |H>sts, as flanks, paripets. DEFENDANT (in Law). One who ii ■atd in an action. DEFENDER OF THE FAITH. A title 11 DF.L 121 given by Pope Leo X. to Henry VIll. for writing against Luther. DEFILE. A n.irrow lane or passaea through which a company of mddiers cait puss only in tile. DEFlNnU)N. The determining tht nature of things by words, or explaining the siiinitication of a word. DEFLAORA'llON. The burning in a criu'ible of any mineral body. UEFLEMO.N'. The turning of any thing out of its true course. DEFLL'XION (in Surgery). The falling of a humour in the Inidy, from a superior upon an inferior part. DEGRADATION (in Ecclesiastical Af- fairs in England). The depriving a person of his dignity and degree, as the degrada- tion of a clergyman, |>y depriving hiiii of holy orders. DEGRADATION (in Military Afftirs). The depriviiis an otricer of his ciunmis.olcm. DEGREE (in .Mathematics;. 'I'lie aiioth part of the circumference of a circle, marked thiis( °). DEGREE (in Law). An interval of relationship between persons, mure or less nearly allied. DEGREES (in a University). Titles of honour, conferred on pei-sons for their merit in the arts and sciences. DEINORNIS, also DINORNIS. A gi- gantic bird fimud in a sub-fossil state in New Zealand, having been a wingless bird of great size and strength — called the Moa by the natives. DEINOSAUIUANS. An order of fossil reptiles found in the Upper Secondary Formations, of great size, and fitted for terrestrial Ufa. DEINOTHERITJM. A gigantic fofwil maiuiual lunusued with a short prob- oscis, and armed with two euornions txisks.turnedtlownwards, and slightly curved inwards. DEIP>}t)SOPHIST. One of an ancient sect of philosophers, who were i'amouii for their learned conversation at meals. DELFT WARE. A kind of potter'i ware, originally made.nt Dell\ in Holland^ it is covered with an enamel, or white gta/.ing, in iniitalion of |Kircelain. DELkll.lI'M.or nELiaUh>*rENCE. A spontaneous solution of some salts by exposure to the air. DELIVERY, or GAOL DELIVERY ! (in I^aw). A term applied to the sessions ' at the Did Baily, &r. in London, by which ' the gaol is delivered or cleared of prisoners I DELIVERY (in the .Mint). The qiian tity of moneys coined within a given I period. I DELIVERY (in Oratory). The manner 122 DEP of pronoiinctng an address, as regards the «oic« mid iilteraiice ofllie speaker. DG.MKSM; LAM)S. in Kiigliuid, lands, whirli tlie lord of a manor has in his own hands. nt;*!!. A half-fellow at Magdalen Col- lege at Oxford Kn^ilaiid-, also a term In com|K>sition siiJiiiifMn): half, as, demigod, a hero who was enrolird among the gods. Ut;.MOCRACV. A form of government where the sngireme power is lodged in the people at large, ur in persons cliosea by ihein. DEMONSTRATION. A proof or chain of arguments, serving to prove the truth. DK.MUKRKR (in Law). A pause or stop in a suit u|Hin some difliculty. DE.M V. A sort of pa|ier much U8«d in printing. DE.MER. One of the earliest French coins, answering nearly to the English penny. DE.MZEN. An alien who is naturalized. DENO.MINA'roR. 'I'hat part of a frac- tion which stands below the line, as l{) in the fraction ^ DE.NtJlJEM ENT. The developeinent of the plot in a play. 1)E NOVO. Afresh, or from the be- ginning. OE.NsjiTV. The property of bodies, of containing a ceruiin quantity uf matter under a certain bulk. DEN'I'lr!'!'. One who draws teeth, and prescribes for their diseases. DKODANI). A thing as it were forfeited to 0%J|ON OP TOR VISIBLE HORI/ON, or, Dir of the nuRizun. Ita dipping or sinking below the true lio- rixontMl plane, by the oli^erver's eye being abuvc Ule surfucr uf the sea. DKT DRPRIVATION. In England, a taklnff away, as when a parson or vicar is de- prived of Ins preftriiient. DEI'L'TY. a prrsoii appointed by com- niisiijoii to act for .iiMillier. DERELICT. Forsaken, left; as derelict lands, lands.wliK'b tlie sea has left; dere- lict ships, vessels left at sea, &,c. DEKIVATIVE (in Graiiiii.ar). Any Word which is derived from another. DKR.MIISTES. An insect, called ia vulgar liinjiiiage the Leather eater. UEllMER. LiL-si, as a tribunal of der- nier resort, the last or highest court of appeal. DERVISE. An order of religious per- sons in .Vlalioinetan countries, who prac- tise great aii^terities on themselves. DESCENSKJ.N. An arc of Ilie equator which descends or sets with any sign or point III the zodiac. Descension is either right or obli<|iie, according as it takes place in a riglu or obli(|ue sphere. DESCENSION AL DIFFERENCE. The difference between the right and oblique descension of a star, &.c. DESt'ENT. In general, the tendency of heavy bodies towards the earlh. DESt;E.\T (in Law). Hereditary suc- cession to an estate. DESCENT (in Military Affairs). I^nd ing in a country fur tlie pur^mse of in vasion. DESCRIPTION. An imperfect kind of definition, that includes many accidents and circijinsiaiices peculiar to an object, wilhont detining its nature precisely. DESERTER. A soldier wln> runs away from his colours, or goes over to the enemy. DESII)ERATir.M (in Literature). What is wanted or iiKpiired after. A work is a desideratum, which, though wanted, is not executed. DESIGN. The first draught, or sketch of any picltire. DESPt/riS.M. A form of governnieiit where the monarch rules by Ins sole and sovereign aulborily. DESIJNT Ci*:TERA. The rest waniing; words put at the end e soundeit distinctly. DIAMEPEK. A right line passing through tile centre of a circle, or aiiv cnrveil hsiiire. DIALLAGE. A mineral of a brilliant greeu eolor, with a silky or pearly lustre. It consists of Hilica, alumina, lime, mag- nesia, oxide ofcUrouie, and oxide ofiroii. Ei.v:»I.\GNETIU. A term applieil by Farrartay to a class of substances which, under the infiueiice of magnetism, take a position, when freely suspended, at right angles to the lua^iuetic meridian. 124 DIA DIAMOND. The most valuable and the hardest of all precious stones or j^ems. Itispurt carbon: and its prim- itive crystals are the regular octahed- ron, wtich reflects all the light falling on its posterior Burt'ace at an angle of inciJence greater than 24" 13, whence its great brillicncy is derived. The diamond has various tints of color; sometimes of a yellowish, bluish, or rose-red tinge, though sometimes per- fectly colarle.ss. The largest diamond known is siid to have belonged to the Kmperor of Brazil; but the celebrated Kohi-noor diamond, which passed from the hands of the Mogul princes to tho possession of Queen Victoria, is among the most valuable in Europe. In geom- etry, diamond is tlio name of a quad- rangular or rhomboidal figure. DI APHONIES. The doctrine of refract- ed sound. DIANA. The goddess of hunting, the daughter of Jupiter and (..itona, and twin lister nf Apollo; she is coiiitnonly repre- leiited with a bow and arrow. DIANDRIA (in Botany). One of the clitsses in the Linnsan system, consisting of such plants as have hermaphrodite flow- ers with two stamens, as the olive, the privet, the nightshade, &.c DIAPASON (in Ancient Music). The biteival of an octave; among Musical In- ■trument Makers, the diapason is a scale ar measure. DIAPER. A kind of linen for the table, wrought with fluwen DIF DIAPHANOUS. Transparent like gla-og DiAl'HONIA. 'i'he precepts forinerij taught fur the use of the organ. UIAI'IIOKb:'l'ICS. Medicines which promote |)erspiration DIAPHRAGM. A muscular membrane which divides the thorax from tlie abdo- men UlARKHCEA A disorder which con- sists in llie frequent discharge, by stool, of a bilious humour from the intestines. DlAllV. An account of what passes in the course of a day DIATESSICKON (in Music). An inter val composed of a greater and less tone. DIATi:SSERUN (in Tlieology). The four Uospels. DIA'i'lllliE. A disputation or contro- versial discourse DIltBLli:. A pointed tool for making holes to plant in. DICE. Pieces of bone or ivory, of a cubical form, and marked with dots on each of their faces from one to six. DICTATOR. An extraordinary magis- trate among the Romans, cliosen u[Hin par- ticular occasions; aiul invested with abso- lute power. He laid down his office, as soon as the occasion ceased, for which he had been appointed. DICTIONARY. A collection of the words of a language, explained in alpha- betical order. DIC'I'I'M. The positive opinion pro- nounced by an individual. DIDACTIVE. An epithet for what serves to teach or explain the nature of tilings, as didactic pieces. DIUYNAMIA (in Bot.iny). One of tlio Linn:ean cbisses, includiii!! such plants as have rtowers with four stamens in two pairs of ditl'erent lengths. I) K. The stamp usetl in coining. DIE (in Architecture). I'he middle of the pedestal. DIER One who follows the trade of dyeing. DIER'S BROOM. A shrub so called from its flowers, which yield a colour used hy diers in dyeing wool green. DIES NON; that is. Dies non juridici. Hays on which no pleas are held, ni any court of justice. DIET. Food regulated by the rules of medicine. DIETETICS. That branch of the medi- cal science, which treats of the diet oi food suited to particular cases. DIEU ET MON DROIT; that is, God and my right. The motto on the arms of the Kini! of England. DIFFERENCE 'in A'ithmetic). Th« DIM eniairier, wliec one number has been ■ubtracted from another. DIKKKUENCE (in Heraldry). What U added in Uduts of anus, as a mark to dis- tinguish younger families from tlie elder. UiFFEKKNCK OF LONOl'J'UUE (in Astlronomy). An arc of the equator, com- prehended between the meridianii of two places on the earth. IJlI-'FEKE.NTlAh CALCULUS A nietliod of finding a diflerential, or that Rihniiely small quantity, which taken an intinite number of tunes, ise(iualtoagiveii quantity. DIGESTER. An apparatus for reducing Bub.er uses. DIGESTION (in Chemistry). The C(m- tinual soaking of a solid substance in a liquid, so that by the application of heat, it may be reduced to a soli substance. DIGESTIO.N' (in Surgery). The dis- posing a wound to suppurate or discharge good pus. DIGESTIVF.S. Medicines which help digestion. DiGESTS. The first volume of the civil law. DIGIT. A niea!*ure equal to three quar- ters of an inch; also a character denoting a figure, as I, for one; 2, for two, JStc. DIGIT (in Astronomy). The twelfth part of a diameter of the sun or moon. DIGITALIS, or Foxolote. A kind of plant which is for the most part herba- ceous, with a root that is either biennial or perennial. The stalk of this plant rises two or three feet high, and bears spikes of iron coloured, or purple Uowers. 'J'he pur- jile fo.xglove is a native of England, and is much used in medicine. DiGNITY (in Law). Honour anil au- thority. DIG YNIA (in Botany). An order in the Linnxan system, consisting of plants that have two pistils. DILAPIDATION (in Law). The ruin cr damage which accrues to a hou.sc, in ec^sequence of neglect. DILEM.MA. An argument which cannot be denied in any way, without involving the (>arty denyini in contradictions. DILETTANTE. A lover of the fine arts. DIMENSIO.N'. The measure or compass of a thing; a line has one dimension, namely, length; a surface two, namely, length and kreadth; a solid three, namely, length, breadth, and thickne.ss. DIMLNUTIVK (in (Jrammar). A word II • DIP 12S or ending, which lessens the meaning of the original word; as, rivulet, a small fiver. DIOCESAN. A bishop who has charge of a particular diocese. D.OCKSE. 'I'lie district or circuit of • bishop's jurisdiction. DiOECl.^ (.in Botany). A class in the Liiina?an system, comprehending such plants as have iii> licrmaphrndite tlowers, but the males and females on distinct in- dividuals, as the poplar, aspen, amber tree, willow, ozier, itc. DIOPTRICS. That branch of optica, which considers the dillereiit refractions of light in its passing through ditTerenl mediums, as air, water, glass, &.c. DIP OF THE MAGNETIC NEED1>:. The property of the needle, when rubbed with the loadstone, of inclining tlie north end below tlie level of the horizon. DIP OF THE HURI/ON See De- rRESSION. DIPHTHONG. Two vowels sounded an one; as, s. DIPLO.M.V. A liw^nse or certificate given by colleges, &c. to a clergyman, to exercise the ministerial functions, or to a lihysician, to practice physic. DIPLOMACY. The functions of an ambassador residing at a foreign court. DIPPING NEEDLE. The magnetical needle so duly poised about an liorizontal axis, that, besides its direction towards the pole, it will always point to a determined degree below the horizon. The dipping needle was invented by Robert Norman, a compiiss maker at Kalrliffe, about the year I.t80, and arose, according to his owe account of the matter, from the following circumstance. It was his ciistoni to finish anil hang the needles of his compasses before he touched them, and he always found, after the touch, the north point would dip or decline downward, pointing in a direction under the horizon; so that to balance the needle again, he was always forced to put a piece of wax on the south end, as a counterpoise After having ob- served this effect frequently, he was al length led to mark the quantity of the dip, or to measure the greatest angle which the dip Would mal' '. with the horizon; he found at London it was 71" 50', ►vt by 12i! DIS •iibMeHjiieiit eiperiineiits the dip is found U- (lt-crtra.se aliiiul 1' 4" every >eur. IMPTKRA (ill Entomology;. An order III liie LiiiiiKaii system, cumprelieiiding in- <*iis that liave two wings, with a poiser, «« llie lly, the glial, &E.C. UIREC'I'IUN (in Astronomy). The motion and other phenomena of a phinet when it is direct, or going forward in llie '/.udiac according to the iiutunU order of the signs. UlRCCTION, LINE OF (in Gunnery). Tlie direct line in wliich a piece is pointed. DIRECTION OF A LET'lER. llie •uperscription or address. DIRECTION POS'l'. A post set up in roads, to direct the traveller to particular places. DIRECTION WORD (in Printing). The Word which begins the next page, which used to be set at the bottom of the page preceding. DIRECTOKV (in England). A form of prayer set fortti by the assembly of divines, and used by order of the Long Parliaiiient, instead of the Coininon Prayer, 'i he word is applied in tlie United States to thinks in the large cities which point out liie names and residences of the inhabi- tants. DIRGE. A song of lamentation at fune- rals. DIRK. A kind of dagger. DISBANUKU. An epithet used for a regiment discharged from service. DISC. The body or face of the sun or uu>on as it ap|>ear8 to us DISC (in Optics). The magnitude of a tflescope glass, or the width of its aper- ture. DISCHARGE (In Law). A release from roiifinement. DISCHARGE (in Military Affairs). A reniissiu?! of service for the time that a tMildier has been engaged. DISCHARGER, or DISCHARGING ROD. An instrument made of glass or baked wool, by the help of which an electrie jar is discharged DISCLAIMER (In Law). A plea con- ttiinlng an express denial. DISCIPLINE. In general, a rule or method of government. DISCIPLINE (in Military Affairs). The training up soldiers for service. DISCORD. An inharmonious combina- ion of soanda. DIS DISCOVERY (in Law). The disclosinf or revealing any thing by a defendant, in his answer to a bill, tiled against hitu in a couit of equity. DIKJOL/'iNT (in Commerce;. An allow- ance made on a bill, or any other debt not yet become due, in consideration of i(Kme- diule payment. DlSb;ASi:. Tha. state of a living body which interrupts any of its ( inclions. Dl.-^E.MliOGUINO. A term applied to rivers, whicii discharge tliemselves inla the sea. DISJUNCTIVE. An epithet for con- junctions, which separate the sense, as but, nor, &c. DISLOCATION. The putting a bone out of its place. DISPATCHES. Letters sent to, or from goveriinient, on public business. DISPENSARY. A charitable institu tion, where medicine and advice are giver gratis to the poor. DISPENSATK)N (in Law). In Eng- land, an exclusive privilege, to do any thing that is otherwise prohibited by law, granted by the King in council. DISPENSATION (in Ecclesiastical Affairs). An iiuliilgeiice granted by the Pope, to do what is otherwise forbidden by the church, us the marriage of first cousins, &.C. DISPENSATORY, or pHARMACOHoriA. A book which directs apothecaries, in the cumpouiiding or making U|> medicines. DISPERSION (in Optics). The diverg- ency of the rays of light. DISPOSITION (in Military Affairs). 'I'he placing an army ready for attack ot defence. DISPOSITION (in Architecture). The jii.st placing all the several patu of a building. DISSECTION. The cutting asunder animal bodies, in order to come at the knowledge of tlieir parts. DISSEISIN (in Law). The wrongful putting out of one, that is seised of his freehold. DISSt;NTER. One who dissents or departs from the forms of the Church, as established in England. DISSIPATION (in Medicine). An in- sensible loss or consumption of the minute parts of a body. DISSIPA'llON (in Optics). The Circle of Dissipation is that circular space upon the retina, which is taken up by the rays of each pencil in indistinct vision. DISSOLVENT. A liquor proper to-x reducing a solid body to the etazo of a fluid DIV DI?<=ni,i;TIO.\. The reducing of a siilid Ikxly into a fluid stale, by ihe acciuii ufauiur iiK^iistruum or dis^solvenl. DlSS(».\'Ai\CE (in Music). A disagree- able interval between two souiida, which bc-iiig cuntinued together, otfends the ear. DISTAFF. .\n instrument anciently w-fd in spinning. DISTEMi'lOR (in Painting]. Colours ii.it mixed with oil or water, but with size, M'hites of eggs, &.C. DISTE.MPER (in Farriery). A disease incident to dugs, horses, and other domes- tic anim.Us. DISTICH. \ couplet or couple of verses in poetry, making complete sense. DISTILL.ATION. A chemical process of drawing out the humid, spirituous, oleaginous, or saline parts of mixed bodies, by means of heat, these part.s being lirst resolved into a gas or vupnur, and then recondensed into a lluid, by means of cold. IIISTILLER. One who follows the trade of distilling. The distillers art- one of the city CAinpanieK in London, incorporated in the reisn of Uueen Klizalietb. DIS'I'RESS (ill Law). The distraining or sei/.iMg upon a person's goods, for the puyiiieiit of rent or taxes, &.c. ijliJTKlBL'TlON (in Printing^. The c.ikins a form asunder, so as to separate the Itttert:. DISTRIBITTIO.V (in Medicine). The circalalion of the chyle with the blood. DlSTRIBUTIO.\iin Logic). The dis- tinzuishing a whole, into its several cun- ■tituent parts. UlSTRIIlt'TIVE JUSTICE. Justice administered by a Judge, so as to give every man his due. DI!«TR1BUTIVE NOUNS. Words which serve to distribute things into their several orders, as each, either, every, &c. DSI'RICT (in Law). That circuit or territory, within which a man may be forced to make his apitearance. UITCII. A trench cut in the ground about a field. KITCUER. A labourer who makes ditches. DIIHVRAMBIC. A sort of hymn an- ciently sung in honour of Bacchus-, any poem written with wildness. DITTO, abbreviated I>o. The same as the aforesaid; a term used in accounts. DIVA.N. A council of state«among tlie rurks; also a court of justice. DIVER. A waterfowl that frequents lakes, and goes with difliciiltv on land. DIVERGENT, or DIVERGING An DIV 127 epithet (nr several things which have the property of divergency. DIVERGl.NG RAVS (in Optics). Those which, issuing from a radiant point, cob- tinually recede from each other. DIVERGLVG SERIES (in Mathema- tics). A series, the terms of which always become larger, the farther they are con- tinued. DIVIDEND (in Arithmetic). The num- ber to be divided. DIVIDEND (in Commerce). The share of profit in a joint stock, which is to be divided among the shareholders; also that part of a debtor's effects, which is to be divided among the creditors. DIVINATION. A practice among the heathens of foretelling future events, by the flight of birds or other signs. DIVINE. A minister of the gospel; a clergyman. DIVI.N'ER. One who professes the art of divination; a conjuror. DIVING. The art of descending under water to a considerable depth, and remain- ing there for a length of time, as occasion may require. The practice of diving is resorted to, for the recovery of things Uiaf are sunk, &c. DIVING-BELL. A contrivance, bj which persons may descend below the water, and remain for some time without inconvenience. It is used for the recovery of property, chat is sunk in wiecka. DIVISION. One of the four flret nites or operations in arithmetic, by which we find how often one quantity is contained in another. There are three numbers con- tained in this o|ieration, namely, the divi- dend, or number to be divided; the divisor, or that by which one divides; and the quotient, or that number w hich shows, bow ofteu the secuiid ia euatauied in the fint .28 DOG DIVISION (in Military Affairs) A ecxly of men conimauded by a particular «lticer. DIVISION (in Music). That part into which an octave is diviet ft rwh.it lielonp or rrlntes to the back, as ft < dorsul hits of the t) sites DOR.MOUSE. An animal of the mouse kind, wlucb remaiaa torpid diiruig winter DOSE. The quantity of any medicir* prescribed by the pliysician to be taken bj, the patient at one time DOUAV BIBLE. An English transla- tion of the Scriptures sauciioned by the EomanCatholio Church, and bo oallod from Douay, a town iu France. DOUBLOON. A Spanish and South Aiuerican gold coin, which weighsliV-'iO grains troy, of which 3Gj-i9 aro pure; value, $16.00. There are also halt ajid quarter doubloons, of proportionate value. DOCCHE. The name given to a jet or fiiidieu rush of water directed on name diseased part of the body, with a view to Ktreiigthea it. DOUCINE. In architecture, an orua- ineutal niouldiii<;, concave above and convex below, being the French term for the ' for miles around their breeding places. The turtle dove of America differs in son*e measure, fruni the turtle dove of Europe. DOVE-TAILIN'G. A method ofjnining one iHuird iiiio another, by pins in ttie uu« fitted to boles in the otlier. DO\VArn neniis|ihere. DRACO VOLANS. A meteor in the form ofa Hying dragon, sometimes visible in marshy countries. DRAFT (in Commerce). A bill drawn by one person upon another for a sum of ninucy. DRAG. A sort of hook to catch hold of things under water. DRAGOMAN. .An interpreter in the Ea.stern countries, whose office it is to in- terpret for the European ambassadors at the Otloinan court. DRAGON. See Pi,yifioDRAG0!». DRAGON FLY. A particularly raven- ous Insect, which hovers over stagnant waters. DRAGON'S BLOOD. A gum or resin of a tree in the Canaries and New Spain, formerly called Draco Arbor, now Astra- galus ; it is hard, compact, moderately I'leavy, and of a dusky red colour, but ofa br^i- a load down !'. river. DRAIN. A watercourse sunk in the ground for the purpose of carrjing off the WHier. DRAINING, or LAND DRAINhXG. The process of carrying water off fmin the l.iiid, sometimes by means of open drains, l