PROGEEOIKGS OF THE 
 NTRAL ASIAN SOGIEH 
 
 TRIBES ON THE 
 FRONTIER OF BURMA 
 
 r.Y 
 
 SIR FREDERIC FRYER, K.C.S.I. 
 
 February 13, 1907 
 
 rj? 
 
 LONDON 
 CENTRAL ASIAN SOCIETY, 22, ALBEMARLE STREET, W, 
 
 190 7
 
 SRLF 
 URL 
 
 ^AC- ^\i 1,^:^0 
 
 TRIBES ON THE FRONTIER OF 
 BURMA 
 
 The Chairman, Lieut. -General Sir Edwin Collen, after making 
 announcements as to the future programme of the Society, said : 
 Very few words indeed will be necessary by way of introduction 
 of the lecturer, for Sir Frederic Fryer is known to us all as a 
 distinguished administrator, whose early years of service were 
 passed in the Punjab, and who has been connected with the 
 great province of Burma for more than twenty-one years. His 
 first service there dates, I believe, from 1886, and although he 
 returned for a short time to the Punjab, where he filled high 
 offices with great distinction, the services of his later years were 
 chiefly in Burma, where he presided over the administration for 
 an unusually long period. 
 
 The popular conception of Burma is, no doubt, that of 
 a flat, level country cultivated with rice, with here and 
 there groves, mostly of teak or palm trees, villages with 
 houses built of bamboo, pagodas and monasteries and 
 wonderful rivers, from which the fertility of the country 
 is derived. This country is supposed to be inhabited by 
 a gay and interesting race called the Burmans, who form 
 the mass of the population. This conception is, no doubt, 
 in a measure correct as regards Lower Burma, except 
 that even in Lower Burma many of the inhabitants are 
 not Burmans, and even in Lower Burma there are two 
 districts, the Salween Hill tracts and the Arakan Hill 
 tracts, which are inhabited, the former by Karens and
 
 ( ^ ) 
 
 Shans and the latter by Chins. On tlie boundaries of 
 Lower Burma, lx)th east and west, there are chains 
 of niountains, inhabited by liill tribes — Karens, Chins, 
 and others. When you come to Upper Burma, the 
 mountains wliicli form tlie boundaries of Upper Burma 
 ]»roper on tlie nortli, east, and west become plainly 
 visil)le, and the tribes who inhabit those mountains, 
 though they generally owed allegiance to the King of 
 Burma, are not Burmans at all. 
 
 The province of Burma includes, besides Burma 
 proper, the northern and southern Shan States, the small 
 States of Miing Mit, with its dependency Mong Lang, 
 tlic States of Hkamti Long, Hsaung Hsup, Sinkaling 
 Hkamti, and the Chin and Kachin Hill tracts, all of 
 wliicli are under the administration of the Government 
 of Burma. Some of these States are small, but tbe area of 
 the Shan States is 59,915 square miles, and the area of 
 the Chin Hills is 10,250 square miles. The area of the 
 Kachin Hill tracts is computed at 20,000 square miles. 
 
 I propose to tell you something of the tribes that 
 inhabit these mountainous regions on the frontier of 
 Burma. The subject is a long one, and I have found 
 some dilHculty in compressing my remarks into a paper 
 of moderate dimensions. 
 
 Li Burma proper tliere are several non-Burman 
 tribes. The principal of these is the Talaing tribe. 
 They are supposed to have come from South- Western 
 China, and are the earliest representatives of the 
 first of the three known Indo - Chinese immicrration 
 waves — the Mon-Annam. Until recently it was sup- 
 posed that the Talaings were the only representatives 
 of tlie Mon-Annam people within the limits of Burma. 
 Ivecent researches have, however, shown that the 
 Palaungs, the Was, and the Kiangs or Yins, wild com-
 
 ( 3 ) 
 
 munitles inhabiting the north and east of the province, 
 are almost certainly Mon-Annara tribes, who have been 
 forced into the hills by the progress of more recent tides 
 of immigration. The Talaings, who have a language of 
 their own, though it is dying out, were at one time 
 masters of the south of the province, but have had to 
 give way to the more strenuous onrush of younger races, 
 and, being without the refuge of the hills, have been 
 largely absorbed by their Burmese conquerors. 
 
 The second of the principal Indo-Chinese waves was 
 the Tibeto-Burman. To it belong the Tibetans, the 
 Burmans (with their comparatively recent offshoot, the 
 Arakanese), the Kachins in the north and north-east, 
 and the Chins on the western hills, and probably also a 
 host of hill tribes, such as the Szis, the Lash is, the 
 Marus, the Lisaws, the Akhas, and the Lahus, who are 
 found scattered over the uplands on the extreme north- 
 east of Upper Burma, and in the north and east of the 
 Shan States. In the case of the Burmans and the 
 Chins, the migratory instinct which brought them from 
 the North has long; since died out, but the Kuachins are 
 still a useful object-lesson to the student who wishes to 
 realize with what resistless force the prehistoric migra- 
 tion streams must have swept over the face of the land. 
 The southern movement of the Kachin tribes must be 
 a phenomenon of comparatively recent development. 
 Where the wanderingrs of the race are to terminate 
 remains yet to be seen. The most modern of the three 
 Indo-Chinese immigration waves is that of the Tai, which 
 swept down the valley of the Salween and the Mekong 
 to the east of Burma, to find its ultimate goal on the 
 southern seaboard of Indo-China. To it belong- the 
 Siamese, the Laos, several of the hill tribes of French 
 Indo-China, and in Burma the Shans, who, starting
 
 ( 4 ) 
 
 from the valley of the Shweli, have spread out during 
 tlie past fourteen liundred years over the Shan States 
 and across the northern area of Upper Burma westwards 
 to beyond the border of Assam. In Burma proper the 
 Shans have during the last century become to a great 
 extent Burmanized, but in the Shan States they have 
 succeeded in nuiintaiiiing their identity unimpaired. 
 
 Of the origin of the Karens, who now occupy the 
 whole of the eastern frontier of Lower Burma, and are 
 found in large quantities in the region of the deltas, 
 nothing definite is known. Their prehistoric home seems 
 to have been, like that of the other Indo-Chinese races, 
 in or in the neicrhbourhood of South-Western China. It 
 is beyond doubt that their presence in the country 
 dated ])ack from a very early period, though whether 
 their arrival was before or after the arrival of the Mon- 
 Annams is by no means certain. These are the sole 
 known relic of one of the less defined Indo-Chinese 
 immigration waves, and ethnically occupy a position of 
 singular isolation. It seems probable that they must at 
 some comparatively remote period have undergone an 
 intimate fusion with some of the Mon-Annam tribes. 
 On no other hypothesis is it possible to account for the 
 genesis of the Taungthus, who, though speaking a 
 language which has many afifinities with, and has been 
 looked upon as a dialect of, Karen, claim a connection 
 with the ruling class of Tbaton, who from time imme- 
 morial have been Talaincfs. 
 
 This account of the waves of immigration into Burma 
 I have extracted from the Burma Administration Eeport 
 of 1901-1902, where it is abstracted from the report of 
 the census taken in 1901. It seems to me to give a very 
 excellent account of the successive waves of immigfration 
 which have swept over Burma, and left the races that
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 inhabit it in the position in which we now find 
 them. 
 
 Karens. — The first of the hill tribes with which we 
 came into contact w^as the Karens. This tribe, as I have 
 said, occupy the whole eastern frontier of Lower Burma, 
 and are found also on the western frontier and in the 
 deltas. According to the last census, the Karens number 
 727,325 persons, exclusive of the lied Karens, Bres, 
 Padoungs, and Zayeins, who are estimated to number 
 46,937 persons. 
 
 The Karen race is divided into three branches — 
 Sgaw, Pw^o, and Bghai or Bwe. The language of each of 
 these three branches is different. 
 
 The Karens are spirit-worshippers, though they have 
 traditions of a lost religion. They have readily been 
 converted to Christianity, and when they have adopted 
 the Christian religion they show great self-devotion in 
 subscribing for schools and colleges and for the main- 
 tenance of their pastors and teachers. The American 
 Baptist Mission have made, I think, the largest number 
 of converts, but there are many Karens who belong to 
 the Church of Eng-land and to the Roman Catholic 
 religion. They are bitterly hostile to the Burmans, who 
 in the days of their ascendancy treated them with 
 harshness and contempt. In the troublous times which 
 followed the annexation of Upper Burma the Karens 
 took the side of the British Government and did very 
 good service. 
 
 A battalion of Karens was raised for the military 
 police. They were stationed at Toungoo, but it was 
 found that their pay nearly all went in entertaining 
 friends and relations, who visited them from the hills, so, 
 with their own consent, the battalion was transferred to 
 the Chindwin, where they became restless, and ultimately
 
 ( t; ) 
 
 the battalion ^vas dispersed tis a unit, though there are 
 still companies of Karens serving in different battalions 
 of military police. 
 
 The non-Christian Karens believe in good and bad 
 s})irit.s, auspices, and omens. To propitiate and inliuence 
 the spirits they sacrifice l)igs, dogs, and fowls to them. 
 From the bones of the sacrificial fowls they derive omens. 
 Like all hill tribes, they lead unsettled lives. They 
 annually clear patches of jungle, which the}'^ cultivate 
 after burninir the trees and underwood, and when the 
 land becomes exhausted they move to fresh patches of 
 jungle. This method of cultivation is, of course, very 
 wasteful and destructive to the forests. 
 
 The Pwo and Sgaw Karens are gradually becoming 
 more settled under the guidance of their pastors, but the 
 Bghai or Bwe Karens, who are commonly known as the 
 Ked Karens, are very wild and lawless. Every male 
 belonging to this tribe has the rising sun tattooed in 
 bright vermilion on his back, stretching from side to side 
 across the shoulders. Hence the name of Red Karen. 
 
 The Ked Karens are diminishing in number owing to 
 the ravages of small-pox. They are ruled by hereditary 
 chiefs. Tliey have given no trouble to the Government 
 since 1888-1889, when an expedition was sent against 
 them, and their then chief, Sawlapaw, was replaced by 
 his next heir, Sawlawi, who has kept very fairly to his 
 engagement with the Government. 
 
 The Karenni women wear strings of beads round 
 their neck, waist, and calves, and these strings of beads 
 are so large and stiff that the women can only walk with 
 their legs wide apart and cannot bend their knees to sit 
 down. 
 
 The Padaung women wear bands of brass in place of 
 strings of beads, and add to these bands year by year, till
 
 ( 7 ) 
 
 their necks become unnaturally elontjfated. By the time 
 the women are fully grown they carry from 50 to (50, 
 and sometimes over 80, pounds of brass. They wear 
 similar coils of brass on their legs and arms. Hound the 
 neck the usual limit of coils is twenty-one. Thus 
 weighted they do all the household work. 
 
 It is doubtful whether the Padaungs are really 
 Karens. They are probably hybrids. 
 
 Shans. — North of the Karen country come the Shan 
 States. The Shans, or Tai, are divided into numerous 
 tribes, and they speak different dialects. They have six 
 separate written languages. In none of them are there 
 any Chinese roots. 
 
 Their original location was in South -Western China, 
 and they at one time were independent and had a king 
 of their own. Their kingdom, which was called Mong 
 Maolong, was a powerful one. They were conquered by 
 the Burmans as far back as the year 1604. They are 
 now split up into distinct groups, which may be styled 
 the Northern, Southern, and Middle. There are five 
 Northern Shan States, administered by the Superinten- 
 dent of the Northern Shan States, who is stationed at 
 Lashio. 
 
 There are twenty-five Southern Shan States, admin- 
 istered by the Superintendent of the Southern Shan 
 States, whose headquarters are at Taungyi. There are 
 besides fifteen States in what is known as the Myelat, 
 administered by an Assistant-Superintendent, who lives 
 at Thamakan, and who is under the orders of the 
 Superintendent of the Southern Shan States. 
 
 The size of the Shan States varies verj^ considerably. 
 The area of Kengtung is 12,000 square miles, whilst the 
 area of Kyong is only four square miles. There are ten 
 States which have an area of less than fifty square miles.
 
 ( « ) 
 
 Kengtung is the largest State, Init North and South 
 Hsenwi and Hsipaw have also large areas. The rulers of 
 these States are styled Sawbwas, Myozas, and Ngwekun- 
 hmus. The title of Sawbwa denotes the highest rank, 
 that of Myoza the second, and that of Ngwekunhnui the 
 lowest rank. The Northern States chiefs are all Sawb- 
 was. In tlie Southern States there are eleven Sawbwas 
 and fourteen Myozas. In the Myelat there is one 
 Sawbwa and fourteen Ngwekunhmus. 
 
 Besides these States there is a Shan State, Miing 
 Mit, under the Commissioner of the Northern Division, 
 and two small States, Hsawng Hsup and Singkalin 
 Hkampti, under the Commissioner of the Central Division. 
 The Shans are all Buddhists, though their Hpongyis, or 
 monks, are singularly lax according to orthodox Burman 
 ideas. 
 
 After the death of King Mindon the Shans broke into 
 open rebellion against the rule of King Thibaw. The 
 Kengtung Sawbwa expelled the Burmese garrison from 
 his State, and the Miing Nai Sawbwa overpowered the 
 garrison of Miing Nai. The Shans then plunged into 
 internecine war, and the whole country was a prey to 
 rapine and disorder. After the annexation of Upper 
 Burma, the British Government turned their attention 
 to the Shan States, and by June, 1887, the Southern 
 Shan States had been reduced to order. The Northern 
 Shan States took a little longer to bring into order, but 
 the Hsipaw Sawbwa, the most powerful of the chiefs, 
 was the first of all chiefs to submit. He came down to 
 Mandalay early in 1887, and as an acknowledgment of 
 the example set by him, all tribute from his State was 
 remitted for ten years. 
 
 The civil, criminal, and revenue administration of the 
 Shan States is vested in the chiefs of the States, sub-
 
 ( 9 ) 
 
 ject to the restrictions specified in the orders of appoint- 
 ment which each chief receives on his recognition or 
 succession. The law to be administered in each State is 
 the customary law of the State, so far as it is in accord- 
 ance with justice, equity and good conscience, and is not 
 opposed to the law in force in the rest of British India. 
 Power to appoint officers to take part in the administra- 
 tion of any State, and to regulate the powers and 
 proceedings of the chiefs, is vested in the Government. 
 
 The Shans are great traders, and bring the produce of 
 their hills down to the plains on pack bullocks. Of late 
 their cattle have suffered from a severe epidemic, and 
 they have been partly deprived of one of their main 
 sources of revenue. A railway to the Southern Shan 
 States, which is much needed to open out the country, 
 has, I hear, been sanctioned. Wheat and potatoes have 
 been introduced successfully into the Shan States, and 
 if a railway is made, supplies sufficient for the whole of 
 Burma can be grown in these States. 
 
 The Shans are not the only people who inhabit the 
 Shan States. There are numerous other tribes inter- 
 spersed in the States, and I will proceed to give a neces- 
 sarily brief account of some of them. 
 
 I must first observe that the inhabitants of the 
 Myelat are not Shans. They are the descendants of 
 Burmese colonists, voluntary or forced. The inhabitants 
 of the Yawng Hwe Lake, who are an amphibious race of 
 men who live on the shores of the lake and on the 
 floating islands formed of reeds in the bosom of the lake, 
 are descendants of a colony of prisoners brought from 
 Tavoy by a King of Pagan many centuries ago. They 
 row their boats in a standing position, holding the paddle 
 with the right leg, which is encircled round the handle. 
 
 The Loi Louo- State is inhabited by Palaungs. Their
 
 ( lU ) 
 
 villages are always situated high up in the hills and are 
 very secluded. They are supposed to be connected with 
 the Was. The men dress as Shans, but the women wear 
 dark blue cutaway jackets, skirts, and leggings, large 
 hoods with a border of blue, scarlet, and black velvet. 
 
 Was. — The Was, who are of the same stock as the 
 Palaungs, inhabit the country on the north-east of the 
 Shan States. Their location runs for 100 miles along 
 the Salween River, and extends for fifty miles inland from 
 that river up to the watershed between the Salween 
 and Mekhong Rivers. Beyond this watershed, too, they 
 occur in scattered villages. The Was are nominally our 
 subjects, as tlieir country fell to us as a result of the 
 boundary demarcation between Burma and China, which 
 was carried out in 1897-1900. The actual demarcation 
 of the border in the Wa country was not carried out on 
 the ground because of the hostility of the Was. 
 
 The Chinese had endeavoured for some years to 
 establish their authority over the Was, who several times 
 appealed to the British authorities to assume control 
 over their country and protect them from Chinese 
 aggression. These appeals were not entertained at the 
 time, owing to the magnitude of the task and the ex- 
 pense which would have been entailed upon the Govern- 
 ment should it have placed a permanent garrison in the 
 Wa country. I do not know what the present temper 
 of the Was may be. If, however, it be decided to pro- 
 long the Mandalay-Kunlong Railway to its proposed 
 terminus to the Kunlong Ferry, it would be necessary to 
 reduce the Wa country to order ; otherwise there would 
 be danger that the Was would attack the railway. 
 
 British columns have several times traversed the Wa 
 country. The first visit paid to it by a column was in 
 1HII7. The Was were always believed by the Burmans
 
 ( H ) 
 
 to be cannibals, and, though this belief is now held to be 
 unfounded, there is no doubt that they are keen hunters 
 of human heads. 
 
 Their villages are all perched on the slopes of hills or 
 in ravines. Round each village is an earthen rampart 
 from 6 to 8 feet high, overgrown with cactus and other 
 thorny bushes. Behind this rampart is a ditch. The 
 only entrances to the villages are through long tunnt^ls, 
 and there are not more than one or two to each village, 
 and they are secured by doors at either end. Leading 
 to each village, after emerging from the tunnels, are 
 avenues of stakes, to each of which a human skull is 
 affixed. There are often as many as 100 to 200 
 skulls. 
 
 The Was believe that their well-being is entirely 
 dependent upon the possession of skulls, without which 
 they would not be able to grow any crops and would be 
 liable to every sort of misfortune. The head-hunting 
 season is in March and April. Head-hunting must be 
 pursued out of their own country, and the greater the 
 prowess of the tribe from which a skull is procured the 
 greater is its value. It may be easily understood that 
 the Was are not pleasant neighbours. The Was grow 
 buckwheat, maize and beans. Rice they grow only to 
 manufacture it into liquor, of which they are inordinately 
 fond. They wear the scantiest of clothing. The States 
 of East and West Mainglong, which are administered 
 by the Superintendent of the Northern Shan States, 
 are principally inhabited by Was, who are considered to 
 be tame in comparison with their more independent 
 brethren. Nevertheless, they have given considerable 
 trouble from time to time, and their Sawbwas have any- 
 thing but an easy time. Other tribes who inhabit the 
 Shan States are :
 
 ( !■-; ) 
 
 RiANGS, OR YiNS, as the Burmans call them. They 
 are supposed to be Karens. 
 
 Hka Muks, Hka Me is, and Hka Kwems. — These 
 also are supposed to be Karens. Tliey all speak different 
 dialects. The men now dress like Shans. The women 
 wear petticoats with horizontal strips of colour. 
 
 These tribes are usually found in forests. 
 
 Taungthus. — The Taungthus form about one half of 
 the population of the Myelat. The State of Hsahtung 
 (Tbaton) is almost entirely inhabited by them. The 
 Sawbwa is a Taungthu. 
 
 The women wear a peculiar dress, with their hair 
 dressed very high on the head. 
 
 TaUiNGYOS. — The Taungyos live in the south of the 
 Myelat. They are allied by descent to the Taungthus, 
 only the Taungyo women wear red camisoles, whereas 
 the Taungthu popular colour is black. 
 
 Danus. — The Danus live on the borderland between 
 Burma and the Shan States, and are more or less Bur- 
 manized. 
 
 Inthas. — The Inthas, who, as I have mentioned, 
 originally came from Tavoy, live on the Yaung Hwe Lake 
 and its borders. 
 
 Hpo.vs. — The Hpons live between Bhamo and Sinbo, 
 and in the Namkam Valley, south-east of Sinbo. 
 
 Kadus. — The Kadus are half-breeds between 
 Burmans and Shans. 
 
 Lahus. — The Lahus live in Kengtung and Kengcheng. 
 Their peculiarity is that they use the crossbow as a 
 weapon and shoot poisoned pellets. 
 
 Then, there is a tribe called the Lishaw, who live in 
 the North Hsenwi, and another tribe of Akiias, who live 
 in the Kentung State. 
 
 Panthays. — The Panthays come from China, and their
 
 ( 13 ) 
 
 principal town is Pan Long, in the Sonmu State. They 
 are Muhammedans, and their chief industry is carrying. 
 They own large numbers of mules, and are very sturdy 
 and independent. The Panthays rebelled against China, 
 and were not subdued till after a war which lasted from 
 A.D. 1855 to 1873. At one time they had a Sultan of 
 their own, and the last Panthay Sultan's heir is an exile 
 in Rangoon. 
 
 I have mentioned all these tribes, of some of whom but 
 little is known, to give you an idea of the great diversity 
 of tribes inhabiting the Shan States, and it is a curious 
 sight to see the representatives of so many different 
 tribes assembled together on a market day in any of the 
 Shan towns. As the women of the different tribes all 
 wear a distinctive costume, the sight is an interesting 
 one. 
 
 Kachiisis. — The next tribe I will mention are the 
 Kachins, otherwise called Chingpaw or Singhpo. They 
 are so numerous as to form a small nation. 
 
 The area of the Kachin Hills under our administration 
 is 19,177 square miles. Further north, latitude 28°, the 
 country is unexplored. The Kachin Hills range from 
 1,000 to 12,000 feet in height above sea-level. The 
 Kachins live mostly in the hills to the north, east, and 
 west of Bhamo and Myitkyina districts, and in the Ruby- 
 mine district. They also occupy the Hukong Valley, 
 which is fifty-four miles long and thirty- five miles broad. 
 The main road between Burma and Assam lies through 
 this valley, in which there are many rubber forests. The 
 rubber is extracted by the Kachins for sale to Chinese 
 merchants, and the method of extraction is so wasteful 
 that the trees are fast being destroyed. The Hukong 
 Valley is as yet unadministered. 
 
 The Kachin administered country is under an Assis-
 
 ( 14 ) 
 
 taiit-Supermtendent, whose headquarters are at Sinlum- 
 gaba, in the Kachin Hills above Bhamo, and who is under 
 the orders of the Deputy-Commissioner of Bhamo. For 
 administrative purposes the Kachin Hills are divided into 
 forty tracts. The law in force is the Kachin Regulation. 
 The Kachins were a very wild and savage people when 
 we first came into contact with them, occupying the hills 
 between Burma and China ; they raided both countries 
 impartially. They levied blackmail on all traders passing- 
 through their country, and thus greatly impeded trade. 
 They were also continually at variance with each other, 
 and there was no law or order in their country. The 
 Kachins are of Tartar origin. They are short and sturdy. 
 The Kachin tribes are numerous, and the principal 
 are : 
 
 Marip Lahtaung Lepai Maru 
 Nhkum Marans Sassans 
 
 There are two divisions of Kachins — Kamsa Kachins, who 
 are ruled by chiefs called Duwas, and Kamlao Kachins, 
 who are republicans and recognise no chiefs. 
 
 At the death of a chief he is succeeded by his youngest 
 son. The elder sons generall}?^ move away and found 
 villages of their own. Their houses are substantially 
 built with teak posts, bamboo mat walls, and thatch 
 roofs. The houses are very large, extending from 100 to 
 150 feet in length, and often contain three generations 
 of the same family. The roof at the general entrance 
 extends over an open enclosure, in which pigs are penned 
 at night. The Kachins wear dark blue or blue and green 
 check, and every man carries a small bag slung over the 
 left shoulder. The bags are of dark blue, or red cloth 
 embroidered with red, green, and yellow. The women 
 wear a skirt formed of broad alternate bands of dark
 
 ( 15 ) 
 
 blue, red, and white stripes, with prettily embroidered 
 borders. They wear their hair in knots, covered by a 
 coloured cloth, and in their ears they wear cylinders of 
 silver or amber, from 4 to 5 inches long. The men are 
 armed with guns, crossbows, and sjjears 6 to 7 feet long. 
 Each man carries a formidable da, or sword [linliin) 
 squared off at the end and narrowing to the top. It is 
 carried across the right shoulder and hangs on the left 
 side. There is a flat sheath, on which the weapon is kept 
 in its place by bands of cane. The Kachins are very 
 superstitious, and their only religion is spirit-worship. 
 Their 23riests are called Dumsas, and are supposed to be 
 inspired by spirits. 
 
 Blood feuds are kept up for many years, and unless 
 settled by payment or compensation, are never forgotten. 
 
 The pacification of the Kachin country was not 
 achieved without much fighting, and required consider- 
 able perseverance. 
 
 In 1888 the Kachins attacked Mogaung, but were 
 repulsed with loss. In 1888-1889 the Kachin country 
 was visited by several columns, and military posts were 
 established at important points to dominate the country. 
 In 1889 General Sir George Wolseley commanded an 
 expedition against the Ponkan Kachins. There were 
 various encounters with the Kachins up to 1893, when 
 the construction of a post at Sima met with much 
 opposition, and it required a concentration of three 
 columns of military police to subdue the Kachins and 
 complete the building of the post. Since 1893 the 
 Kachins have behaved well, and are now fairly quiet, but 
 are often difficult to restrain from attacking the Kachin 
 tribes subject to China. These Kachins raid the Kachins 
 who are subject to Burma, and our Kachins can never 
 understand why they are prevented from retaliating.
 
 ( 16 ) 
 
 A conference with the Chinese authorities was held 
 in 1890-1891, and an agreement arrived at by which the 
 officers on both sides meet every year and a general 
 settlement of disputes between the Kachins on opposite 
 sides of the border is arrived at. 
 
 The Chinese Kachins are under little restraint, and 
 are almost invariably the aggressors. Our officers were 
 instructed to assist the Chinese in preserving the peace 
 whenever help is asked for and can be usefully given. 
 
 The Chins. — The Chins occupy the mountainous 
 region on the west of Burma. Their country lies to the 
 west of the Chindwin River, and is about 250 miles long 
 and from 150 to 100 miles broad. Its approximate area 
 is 10.250 square miles. The Chins were estimated in 
 1898 to number about 89,620 souls, and the numbers of 
 the different tribes are as follows : 
 
 Tashons 
 
 
 .. 39,215 
 
 Hakas 
 
 
 .. 14,250 
 
 Soktes 
 
 
 9,005 
 
 Tlangtlangs 
 
 
 4,925 
 
 Yokwas 
 
 
 2,675 
 
 Siyins 
 
 
 1,770 
 
 Independent 
 
 Southern Tribes 
 
 .. 17,780 
 
 89,620 
 
 According to the census of 1901, the number of the 
 Chins was taken at 95,497. The Chins are of Tibetan 
 origin, and are allied to the Nagas and Kukis of Assam. 
 
 The different tribes of Chins have each a separate 
 dialect. The Chin Hills range from 4,000 to 8,000 feet 
 in height. The villages are usually built on terraces, and 
 surrounded with bamboo or thorn hedges. The ap- 
 proaches to the village are spiked with sharp bamboos.
 
 ( 17 ) 
 
 Water is brought to the villages by aqueducts made of 
 bamboo. The houses are built of pine planks and roofed 
 with thatch. They generally consist of three rooms. 
 The principal room is a half-closed porch, adorned with 
 skulls of animals killed in the chase, or of domestic 
 animals which have been slaughtered in sacrifice 
 
 o 
 
 The Chins are well-built, muscular men, and average 
 5 feet 6 inches in height. They are very much given to 
 drink. They distil beer and spirits from millet, which 
 they place in an earthen vessel and drink through long 
 straws. The Chins are not given to much washing, and 
 wear the merest apology for clothing. When at work in 
 the fields they divest themselves of even that apology. 
 
 Amongst the Southern Chins the women's faces used 
 to be tattooed black. This was to prevent their being 
 carried off in raids by marring their beauty. This beauty 
 I did not observe myself amongst the Chin women, even 
 when not disfigured by tattooing. The habit is now 
 dying out, as liability to be carried off in raids is much 
 reduced under the British Government, except amongst 
 the independent tribes 
 
 The Chins were the terror of the Burmans who 
 inhabited the country at the foot of the hills, which was 
 almost depopulated. I remember when I was at Kindat, 
 on the east bank of the Chindwin, in 188fi, the Chins 
 attacked a village on the west bank at dawn. By the 
 time the troops could cross the river the Chins had 
 killed all the men and carried off the women and children, 
 and the troops were unable to overtake them. Such 
 raids as this were of constant occurrence. The Chins 
 are spirit- worshippers, and all their ceremonies conclude 
 with a feast, at which there is much drinking, and the 
 drinking often terminates in a fight, which is frequently 
 deadly, as all the Chins are armed.
 
 ( 1^^ ) 
 
 AN'lieii we took the country every man had a gun 
 — usually a Tower-stamped flintlock. They also carry 
 swords, spears, and bows and arrows. They have a nasty 
 habit of taking nicotine, obtained from the bowls of pipes, 
 into their mouths, and any tribal arrangement come to is 
 concluded by taking of nicotine into the mouth. This 
 custom has had very alarming effects on British officers, 
 who have been offered nicotine to seal a treaty, and 
 have taken it in ignorance of what it really was. 
 
 It took the British Government from 1887 to 1894 to 
 pacify the Chin country, and this result was only achieved 
 by withdrawing the guns from the Chins. The Chin 
 Hills were not considered part of British India until they 
 were so declared for the first time in 1895. 
 
 The Chin Hills are administered by a superintendent 
 with five assistant-superintendents. The law in force is 
 declared by the Chin Hill Regulation of 1896. The law 
 in force is the same as the law in Burma, so far as persons 
 other than Chins are concerned. As regards Chins, the 
 criminal law is the same as the law in Burma, with 
 necessary modifications. The civil and revenue law of 
 Burma does not apply to the Chin Hills, as the Chins are 
 at too low a stage of civilization to require it. A few 
 simple provisions of the Chin Hills Regulation and the 
 rules thereunder suffice for the Chins. 
 
 The Pakokko Chin Hills are not under the Super- 
 intendent of the Chin Hills, but are administered by an 
 Assistant-Superintendent under the orders of the Com- 
 missioner of Minbu. 
 
 The Chin Hills are a most trying country to travel in. 
 The hills are very steep, and are separated by deep valleys. 
 You see a village on an opposite hill, which seems to be 
 a few hundred yards off, and have to travel up and down 
 steep hills sometimes eight or ten miles to get to it. In
 
 ( IS ) 
 
 many instances it is impossible to ride, as the roads are 
 so steep. The country is, however, often well wooded, 
 and in the spring, when the rhododendrons are in flower, 
 it is well worth a visit. 
 
 Of late years much has been done to improve the 
 road, and road-making has been a great factor in the 
 pacification of the country. The Chins, who were con- 
 sidered so terrible by the Burmese, are now ordinarily 
 law-abiding and well-behaved. Schools have been started 
 to educate them, and they are being encouraged to take 
 to trade and cultivation. A few guns have been left them 
 for the purpose of sport and keeping down wild beasts, but 
 all such guns are registered and stamped. The Chins sub- 
 mitted very badly to being deprived of their guns, and 
 even after they were first taken from them they replaced 
 them by purchases from Assam and Manipur Chins. 
 The freshly-acquired guns were again taken, and they 
 have now realized that they will not be allowed to retain 
 firearms. 
 
 The Chins' method of warfare against our troops was 
 to fire from an ambush, and then disappear down a steep 
 hill, where our troops found it difficult to follow them, 
 and this mode of warfare was exceedingly harassing to 
 the troops, as may be imagined. The revenue paid by the 
 Chins consists of a small sum per house, and is very in- 
 considerable. There are no troops on the Chin Hills 
 now, which are held by the Chin battalion of military 
 police. 
 
 I have now told you as much as time will allow 
 about the tribes on the frontiers of Burma. I am afraid 
 you may have found the subject wearisome, but I trust I 
 have given you an idea of how very varied the tribes of 
 Burma are. 
 
 Tn course of time the peculiar customs and dress, and,
 
 ( '-^0 ) 
 
 I suppose, many of the languages and dialects now in 
 use, will disappear, and I think much useful work has 
 been done by our oflBcers in preserving records of the dis- 
 tinctive characteristics of the tribes. Much information 
 has been collected by Sir George Scott, Mr. Carey, CLE., 
 and others. 
 
 There is, of course, a great deal more that I could 
 have told you about these tribes, but my time is limited, 
 and I have made my remarks as short as possible. If 
 anybody should wish to learn more about these tribes, the 
 * Gazetteer of Upper Burma,' by Sir George Scott, and the 
 ' Gazetteer of the Chin Hills,' by Mr. Carey, might be 
 studied, as they contain m^ost of what is known as yet of 
 the tribes who have been so briefly mentioned to-day. 
 
 Sir George Scott has recently published a handbook of 
 Burma, in which he gives a great deal of information 
 about the tribes, accompanied by photographs of many 
 of the most Interesting types. Any of my hearers who 
 wish to pursue the subject further might study this book 
 with advantage. It is published by Alexander Moring 
 and Co., of 32, George Street, Hanover Square.
 
 ( 21 ) 
 
 DISCUSSION. 
 
 The Chairman said : We have listened to a very admirable paper, 
 put before us by one whose long experience of Burma, both as 
 Chief Commissioner and more recently as Lieutenant-Governor, 
 entitles him to our absolute trust in the facts which he has 
 enumerated to us. I can only hope that the paper, especially 
 when it is published in our * Proceedings,' will correct wrong 
 impressions of Burma which are current in this country. As 
 Sir Frederic Fryer pointed out in commencing his paper, the 
 usual idea in England is that Burma is a land of rice and rivers, 
 and that the inhabitants are a peoj^le who are remarkable chiefly 
 for their gaiety and their picturesque attire. It is quite true 
 that a bountiful Providence does supply Burma, particularly 
 Lower Burma, with food obtainable with a minimum amount of 
 labour, thus enabling its men to lead a happy life, to wear very 
 gay clothes, to smoke long cheroots, and to leave most of the 
 work to their womenkind. No doubt this is esteemed an earthly 
 paradise — I mean for the men. (Laughter.) But Sir Frederic 
 Fryer, by telling us so much of the frontier tribes of Burma, has 
 enabled us to form a truer and more complete picture of the 
 province. He has given us some conception of the difficulties 
 we have had since the annexation of Upper Burma in settling 
 the wild tribes, and he has shown the great measure of success 
 achieved in these efforts. Sir Frederic alluded to some aspects 
 of the subject more than once, but I could have wished that 
 there had been time for him to have entered into more detail as 
 to the simple protective administration we maintain over those 
 interesting tribes, the Shans, the Chins, and the Kachins, in 
 whose country our officers, civil and military, work together at 
 what we may call the outposts of Empire. You will agree with 
 me that there is no finer example of the work performed for 
 civilization than that which is afforded by the sight of our 
 civilians and soldiers working together for the benefit of these 
 wild tribes and the inhabitants of Burma generally, and for the 
 maintenance of the pax Britannica. (Cheers.) 
 
 Major-General M. W. E. Gosset said : Having held a com- 
 mand in Burma some years ago, I may, perhaps, give jou a few 
 traits of native character which came under my experience.
 
 ( -^-^ ) 
 
 The Karens and other border tribes are not bad material for 
 soldiers, and are amenable to discipline, whereas the Burman 
 proper is not so constituted. When I was at Mandalay there 
 were some companies of Burman sappers and miners, among 
 which there were many men who would absent themselves for 
 days together, and be recorded accordingly as deserters ; they 
 would then, as a rule, turn up, and when brought before their 
 commanding officer and asked the reason for their absence, would 
 often say, ' I went to a picc ' (a theatrical performance), which 
 they seemed to think was quite an adequate and reasonable 
 explanation for unauthorized absence. They were surprised 
 under the circumstances that they were not let off, and could not 
 understand that discipline must be observed. 
 
 With regard to the fighting capacity of the Kachins, we had 
 good opportunities of testing it when, during my first year in 
 Mandalay, I had four columns out doing very difficult work in 
 mountainous country thickly wooded, where there were no roads, 
 only narrow, rocky paths, often on the edge of steep cliffs. It is 
 not easy for armed men to make their way along these mountain 
 paths, particularly when the natives have built stockades to 
 obstruct the passage. If it was not that they never very bravely 
 defended these stockades we should have had much more 
 difficult work than we had. One of the most remarkable in- 
 stances of their giving way was when Lieutenant MacMunn, E.A., 
 had to march with a convoy to a fort at Saddn. On arriving at 
 a river some seventeen miles from his objective, he found that 
 the Kachins had put up stockades on the opposite bank, from 
 which they opened fire on his small escort, comprising only 
 thirteen Goorkhas and a native Punjabi officer. They had with 
 them some twenty mules, carrying ammunition and supplies. 
 Lieutenant MacMunn gained a small island on the river, and 
 opened fire on the Kachins, who promptly bolted up their 
 mountain path. The convoy pursued them for the whole seven- 
 teen miles, taking one stockade after another. At the village of 
 Sadun, half a mile from the fort, the young officer was shot 
 through the wrist, and the Punjabi officer through the chest ; 
 but he carried his mules and supplies along, with the loss of a 
 few mules. I think it was one of the finest achievements of a 
 small party I ever heard of. The incident shows that even in 
 their own country, where they have great natural topographical 
 advantages, the Kachins did not make a very determined stand.
 
 ( 23 ) 
 
 Sir Frederic Fryer alluded to spirit-worship among the Shans. 
 On one occasion on tour I stayed at a rest-house in the vicinity 
 of works in progress for the construction of a road. The natives 
 of the village had built a dam across the river for the irrigation 
 of their fields, and at each end of the dam was a little bamboo 
 erection for the abode of Nats, for the Burmans, though nomi- 
 nally Buddhists, are really worshippers of Xats, or spirits. The 
 Hindustani coolies, road-making under the Public Works Depart- 
 ment, used the dam as a short cut. The headman of the village 
 came to me and said if people were allowed to walk across the 
 dam the Nats would be angry, the dam would break, and they 
 would lose their crops. I interviewed the superintendent of the 
 work, and told him the dam must not be used as a pathway, 
 much to the relief and gratification of the villagers, who were 
 very pleased that the anger of the Nats had been averted. 
 
 Dr. Cotterbll Tupp, I.C.S., said : I only wish to say a few 
 words about the Singpho Shan and Kachin tribes on the extreme 
 north-east frontier of Burma, opposite to China. There is 
 between the British frontier at Bhamo and the Chinese frontier 
 near Manwein a strip of rugged mountainous country, inhabited 
 almost entirely by Kachins, and to the north by Singphos. 
 These people are, or were till quite recently, tribes of the most 
 savage and barbaric kind. All our explorers who have penetrated 
 to Burma from the north-east, either from China or from French 
 Indo-China, say that by far the most difficult part of their 
 journey was the strip varying from 40 to 150 miles between the 
 Chinese and British frontiers. Nearly all these explorers were 
 reduced to the last stage of misery and destitution, and were 
 constantly in imminent danger of being murdered as long as 
 they were in the Kachin territory. Margary and Colquhoun from 
 China and Prince Henri D'Orleans from Tong-king all travelled 
 in comparative peace and comfort in China and in Indo-China 
 till they came to the Kachin frontier. From that time all their 
 accounts are full of the miseries they suffered, the starvation 
 they endured, and the constant threats of violence and murder 
 which they encountered. Margary, the first European (at any 
 rate, in modern times) to cross from China to Burma by this, the 
 old trade route, which had been used from time immemorial for 
 trade between China and Burma, travelled in 1874 under the 
 protection of Chinese passports from Pekin, and was not only 
 safe, but was well-treated till he came to Manwein. Thence to
 
 ( -'-I 
 
 Bhamo lie was plundered, ill treated, and constantly threatened^ 
 and escaped with difficulty across the frontier to Bhamo. He 
 returned a month later as an araiit-coiireer to Colonel Horace 
 Browne's exploring expedition to China, and was brutally 
 murdered near Manwein. This murder was inquired into by 
 Colonel Browne, and afterwards by the Grosvenor Mission, and 
 all agree that it was committed by the Kachins, and not by the 
 Chinese. In 1882 Mr. A. Iv. Colquhoun travelled safely with 
 his friend Wahab all through Yunnan from Canton to Manwein, 
 but when they got into the Kachin country between Manwein 
 and the Irawadi they were plundered, delayed, badly treated, and 
 expected to be murdered eviry minute till they crossed the 
 British frontier. Prince Henri D'Orleans coming from Tonking 
 in 1895 was very nearly starved to death and murdered in these 
 same savage territories. Indeed, every traveller has the same 
 story to tell of barbarit}', truculence, dishonesty, and savagery. 
 Prince Henri came out at Sadiya in Assam, much further north 
 than Bhamo. The reason why I have drawn your attention to 
 this savage strip of territory and its inhabitants is that it is the 
 only obstacle to opening up the old trade route from Burma to 
 China, via Bhamo and Manwein. I am glad to learn from 
 Sir F. Fryer that military posts have now been established in 
 these regions, and they should do much to remove the hindrance 
 to the re-establishment of the trade route. No doubt, however, 
 much remains to be done, and I can scarcely credit the state- 
 ment made by the Globe newspaper in May last that a light 
 railway had been sanctioned from Bhamo to Momein. The 
 construction of such a line would not be possible until the 
 savage tribes on the Yunnan frontier had been subdued. Apart 
 from the question of the trade route, it is to be hoped we shall 
 take all the Singphos, Kachins, and Shans definitely under our 
 control, not only for the purpose of civilization and good govern, 
 ment, but in order that we may join our territory to the Chinese 
 frontier without any gap between, and that, in case the French 
 extend north and north-west through the Siamese Shan 
 States, we may have a strong and defensible frontier there, 
 including all the tribes which used to be called the Independent 
 Shan States. Now that the borders of Burma, Siam, and French 
 Indo-China are rapidly coming to a meeting-point far west of the 
 great liiver Mekong, it is our evident destiny to govern among us 
 — divide them how we may — the savage and unruly tribes on 
 these important frontiers. (Cheers.)
 
 ( 25 ) 
 
 Colonel Bingham said : I lived amongst the Karens for many 
 years, and I am inclined to think that their good qualities have 
 been generally overlooked. They may not be good fighting 
 material, such as is obtainable in India, but I consider that they 
 have a place to fill in the defence of the north-east frontier. 
 They are excellent scouts, and with discipline and training we 
 could make very reliable bodies of Karen scouts. The Karens 
 are the only wild race of people in that part of the world that I 
 lived amongst for any length of time, and therefore know really 
 well, though, of course, my work brought me into contact with 
 most of the other tribes. 
 
 Sir Thomas Holdich : I have never had the pleasure of 
 serving in Burma, and therefore cannot give any personal 
 reminiscences. The lecturer has well illustrated to us the extra- 
 ordinary complexity existing in the ethnographic conditions 
 obtaining on the Burmese frontier, but I think you will find 
 corresponding complexity along the whole frontier of India. He 
 has shown us that the original stock from which these different 
 tribes are derived apparently came from the East — i.e., from 
 China — or from the North, and I take it that so far as the tribes 
 of the northern and eastern frontier of Burma are concerned that 
 must be so. But (a little apart from the subject of this paper, 
 perhaps) I should like to ask if there is no evidence in Burma, 
 and particularly Lower Burma, of immigration by sea, of either 
 Malay influence or Tamil influence. And there is one other 
 point about which I should like to have the latest information. 
 You will see by the map that the head of the Brahmaputra in the 
 Assam Valley is parted by only a very small distance indeed 
 from the Upper Irawadi. Some time ago an expedition was formed 
 to explore the intervening country, to discover whether there was 
 any possible crossing of it, with a view to the construction of a rail- 
 way between Assam and Upper Burma. The country was precisely 
 what Sir Frederic has described — chains of high mountains, 
 with deep and narrow valleys in between, presenting altogether 
 insuperable obstacles to the advance of an army, and almost 
 barring anything in the shape of railway construction. But 
 since then great progress has been made in the surveys of Upper 
 Burma, and I should like to know whether, within the last ten 
 years or so, any better way of communication between Upper 
 Assam and Upper Burma has been discovered. That, to my 
 mind, is one of the most interesting problems of the future in 
 connection with Burma. (Hear, hear.)
 
 ( 2(; ) 
 
 In replying to the discussion, Sm Frederic Fryer said : I 
 should first like to reply to the interesting remarks of 
 Dr. Cotterell Tupp. The Kachins have now been brought into 
 such a state of tranquillity that they have abandoned attacking 
 travellers and traders. From Bhamo to Tengueh there has been 
 made a mule-road, along which mules or pack-bullocks can pass. 
 This road is patrolled, and traders can now pass along with 
 perfect safety. We made the road a few years ago as far as the 
 limits of British territory, and the Chinese applied to us to carry 
 on the work across the border. When I left Burma we were 
 awaiting the Chinese contribution to carry out the work. They 
 said they were perfectly wilhng to provide all the labour required, 
 and would allow our engineers to make the road for them, I 
 think the road is probably completed now. Since I left it has 
 been decided to make a light railway along the road. The line 
 can easily be constructed — there are no very diftieult gradients — 
 and I should think that in the course of a few years we shall see 
 a railway from Bhamo to Tengueh. I forgot to say in my paper 
 that the Kachins, of whose unruliness we have heard this after- 
 noon, make excellent soldiers under proper training. We raised 
 two companies of them for the Bhamo battalion of the military 
 police, and one of these companies was sent as escort to the 
 British representatives on the Burmo-Chinese Boundary Demar- 
 cation Commission. During this demarcation three of our 
 officers went without a proper guard into a Wa village on 
 market-day, and the Was turned upon them, killing two, while 
 the third only narrowly escaped death. With the Chinese troops 
 and the military jjolice there was a detachment of the Durham 
 Light Infantry. There was a sharp battle with the offending 
 Was, in which the Kachins very much distinguished themselves. 
 Meanwhile the soldiers of the Durham Light Infantry and the 
 Kachins had become bosom friends, and nothing delighted the 
 Kachins more than to get some of the Durhams to drill them. 
 The men are very good fighters, and they readily submit to 
 discipline, and I think we shall find that the Kachins will con- 
 tribute a very considerable contingent to the military police 
 before long. (Hear, hear,) As to a railway between Assam and 
 Upper Burma, a survey was made— or, rather, a reconnaissance 
 — through the Hukong Valley, and it was found that a railway 
 could be made through that fertile valley without any great 
 difficulty. But, of course, it would involve a very wide circuit to
 
 ( 27 ) 
 
 come from India right up the North of Assam, and then down the 
 Hukong Valley, and then down from Mogaung, w here there would 
 be connection with the existing railway givingaccess to Rangoon. 
 Lately there was a survey for a line from Burma to India coming 
 east of Nimbu, but that was found to be very difficult and expen- 
 sive. The last idea when I left was to make a railway from 
 somewhere about Prome, past Akyab, to join up with the Chitta- 
 gong Railway. A survey was started to ascertain whether a line 
 was possible. It was feasible, but, owing to the number of rivers 
 which come down along the coast, the line would have been a 
 very expensive one indeed. In answer to Sir Thomas Holdich, 
 I may say that there has been very little migration into Burma 
 from India or the Malay States. Large numbers of Madrasis do 
 come to Burma, but they generally come only for a season's work 
 of gathering in the rice or working in rice-mills, and when they 
 have made a sufficient sum of money, they generally go back to 
 India. The Malays do not seem to have any great tendency to 
 come to Burma. On the other hand, a good many Burmans are 
 settled in the Malay States. There has been a large migration 
 from China into Burma, and there are many Chinese in Burma, 
 Chinamen having come from the province of Yunnan and settled 
 in Upper Burma. I had several applications from Chinamen for 
 grants of land. We were rather reluctant to meet these wishes, 
 owing to the character of the Kachins ; but now the tribes have 
 been got into something like order the Chinese might, I think, be 
 encouraged to come. They are very good and industrious 
 cultivators, and orderly as a rule. 
 
 The Chairman, in concluding the proceedings, said : Some- 
 times we have discussions which are somewhat controversial in 
 character, but there has been nothing of the kind to-day. The 
 remarks made have been in expansion of the facts brought out in 
 the paper, and we are unanimous in our appreciation of the 
 lecture. Burma must always be a land of the deepest interest to 
 us. As you know, the annexation of Upper Burma was forced 
 upon us by circumstances on which I need not dwell. A point to 
 remember, however, is that in these regions British and French 
 interests meet, and our territories touch. Those who wish to add 
 to their information on the subject of French interests in that 
 part of the world may be referred to Dr. Cotterell Tupp's lecture 
 in this room only last May. In a very interesting paper he 
 dwelt upon the French in Indo-China. The annexation of 188(j
 
 { 28 ) 
 
 took place in the vice-ro5'alty of that wise, brilliant, and splendid 
 statesman Lord Dufferin. The forebodings heard at that time, 
 and which were uttered by many who perhaps did not know 
 much of the subject, have been proved to be ill-founded. In 
 Upper Burma both revenue and population have increased under 
 the Governments of Sir Charles Bernard, Sir Frederic Fryer, Sir 
 Hugh Barnes, and the present Lieutenant-Governor, Sir Herbert 
 White. At the Mandalay Durbar in 1901 Lord Curzon, speaking 
 of the stages of development from conquest to order and peace in 
 Upper Burma, and of the way the more recent stages had been 
 supervised by Sir Frederic Fryer, said : ' I cannot conceive a 
 prouder reflection with which an Indian administrator can leave 
 these shores than that he has nursed so sturdy a child of Empire 
 from childhood to adolescence.' I think our society is to be 
 congratulated upon having had from the administrator of whom 
 this was said a paper so full of detail on an aspect of Burmese 
 affairs but little known. In preparing such a paper there is a 
 vast amount of labour in the way both of collection of material 
 and of compression. I propose, therefore, that we should accord 
 Sir Frederic Fryer a cordial vote of thanks for his excellent and 
 informing paper. (Cheers.) 
 
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