^dS/^ HARVEY'S LANGUAGE COURSE ELEMENTS OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC WITH COPIOUS EXERCISES IN BOTH CRITICISM AND CONSTRUCTION . BY VIRGINIA WADDY Teacher of Rhetoric in the Richmond High School, Richmond, Va. NEW-YORK •:• C! AMERICAN Copyright, 1889, by VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG, AND COMPANY Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by VIRGINIA WADDY, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress. WAOOYS RHET. I^rinteb at Cbe Eclectic prcM Cincinnati, XO. S. B. \Al\\ PREFACE. The object aimed at in the preparation of this work has been to furnish a practical treatise on Composition and Rhetoric, — one sufficiently elementary for the lower grades of the high school, and at the same time comprehensive enough to give a fair knowledge of the principles and graces of Rhetoric. While the discussion of simple, complex, and compound sentences is the province of Grammar, — a subject usually com- pleted before that of Rhetoric is begun, — it has been deemed advisable to include these topics, for the pupil seldom possesses the maturity of mind to comprehend thoroughly the laws of Grammar, even when he undertakes to master the elements of Rhetoric; moreover, his attention has been directed almost ex- clusively to analytical processes, to the neglect of synthetical; hence, he may be skillful in discovering the relations of words in sentences formed by others, and be but a bungler in giving expression to his own ideas. For a like reason, also, the sub- ject of Concord, which perhaps belongs still more strictly to Grammar, is included; not all of the syntactical arrangements are noticed, only those wherein the grammatical principle re- ceives a special signification from the rhetorical point of view. The Reproductions furnish material for practice upon the principles under discussion. As a means of securing ease of ex- pression, they are of great value ; the material for the discourse being furnished, the pupil is thus enabled to concentrate his at- tention upon the form. A more advanced step towards original writing is found in the Developments. These give play to the imagination, and supply the details of a connected story; they «also furnish an excellent test of style, because they give no (iii) iv PREP'ACE. assistance. In the first Developments, hints are given to guide the pupil. This aid should be given with succeeding Develop- ments only where the pupil may not fully understand the poem, or where he might be discouraged without such assistance. Although it may be said that the finer principles of literary taste, fancy, and allusion, and the subtle music of rhythm, are obtained only through a special sense developed by long and minute discipline, and belong to the delicate and difficult sci- ence of criticism, there are included in this treatise extracts from masters of style, to which attention is directed ; for it must be conceded that, since a true appreciation of what is best in our literature requires years of careful criticism, the student's attention should be given to such criticism as soon as his mind has attained sufficient maturity for the consideration of the subject. The "Exercises" with which the book abounds are given, that the pupil may learn discourse by applying it. Some learn- ers may, perhaps, need less of such practice than others; the teacher can, therefore, omit what is deemed superfluous. This work is in every respect the outgrowth of the class- room; much of the subject-matter and many of the exercises have been given as oral instruction in the author's classes, and it is hoped that in other hands it will stand the only true test of a school-book, — the test of trial. Most grateful acknowledgment is due to Prof. W. F. Fox, Principal of the Richmond High School, for assistance and en- couragement during the progress of the work. Thanks are also due to several publishers for kindness in allowinii selections to be made from their publications, — to Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co., to the Century Company, lo Messrs. J. B. Lippincott Co., to Messrs. Chas. Scribner's 5ons, to Messrs. Roberts Bros., to Mr. Parke Godwin, and o others whose names are mentioned in connection with the selections copied. Richmond, Va., January, 1890. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. — The Simple Sentence Elements of the Simple Sentence Position of Phrases Synthesis of the Simple Sentence II. — The Complex Sentence . Clauses of the Complex Sentence Synthesis of the Complex Sentence III.— The Compound Sentence Connectives ..... Contracted Compound Sentences . Synthesis of the Compound Sentence Exercises in Composition IV. — Transformation ok Elements Contraction of Sentences Expansion of Sentences . Exercises in Composition V. — Concord Rules of Syntax .... Exercises in Composition VI. — Synthesis of Sentences into a Paragraph Exercises in Composition VII. — Variety of Expression .... Change of Structure .... Change of Phraseology .... Exercises in Composition (V) PAGE 9 XI 14 16 21 21 29 35 35 39 41 45 52 54 64 66 76 76 88 93 98 106 1 06 120 125 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. — Style Diction Purity of Diction . Propriety of Diction Precision of Diction Synonyms Simplicity of Diction Construction of Sentences Clearness of Construction Unity of Construction . Energy of Construction . Harmony of Construction IX. — Figures of Speech Simile Metaphor Personification Allegory . Metonymy Synecdoche Apostrophe Vision Antithesis Epigram . Irony Hyperbole Litotes . Exercise in Figures Exercises in Composition X. — The Paragraph Construction of the Paragraph Exercises in the Paragraph XI.— The Special Properties of Style Wit Humor ..... Pathos Beauty and Sul)liniity Extracts for the Critical Study of Style CONTENTS. Vll CHAPTER XII. — The Paraphrase Selections for Paraphrase XIII. — Prose Composition Discourses Letters Essays Treatises Travels History Fiction News Exercise in Paraphrase and Composition PAGE 297 299 309 309 312 318 318 319 319 322 323 325 XIV. — Prosody and Versification Meter Rhyme . Stanza ; Poetical Pauses XV. Poetry - Lyric . Elegiac Pastoral Didactic Satirical Epic Dramatic 336 336 347 350 367 368 369 370 370 371 372 372 374 XVI. — Capitals and Punctuation 375 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. CHAPTER I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. . Composition is the art of combining ideas, or thoughts, and arranging them in order. As an art, it is regulated by the principles of Rhetoric. Rhetoric, derived from a Greek verb meaning to speak, is the science that discusses the means whereby thoughts may be forcibly presented. Aristotle, the oldest writer on the subject, defines rhetoric as "the faculty of perceiving all the possible means of persuasion on every subject." As its etymology suggests, it was originally limited to spoken discourse; but since the principles which apply to spoken discourse apply with equal force to written discourse, the meaning of the term has been so extended as to include both written and spoken composition. Composition and Style. — The two important divisions of Rhetoric are Composition and Style. A Simple Sentence consists of one independent prop- osition. It contains only one subject and one predicate ; but an indefinite number of words and phrases may be brought into the sentence, and grouped about the subject and the predicate as modifiers of these elements. (9) lO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. The subject and the predicate can be enlarged only by the addition of zvords and phrases; for, if another proposi- tion, either subordinate or independent, be introduced, the sentence is no longer simple, but complex or compound, according to the nature of the proposition introduced. The following examples will severally illustrate the simple, the complex, and the compound sentence: After reading the papers, I returned them. Since this sentence contains but one subject and one predicate, it is restricted to a single proposition, and is, therefore, simple. When I had read the papers, I returned them. What was expressed in the first sentence by means of the phrase "after reading the papers," is in the second sentence expressed by means of the clause ' ' when I had read the papers." This clause contains a subject and a i)redicate, but, for completeness of meaning, depends on some word in the succeeding clause. Such clauses are subordinate, or dependent, and sentences containing such clauses are co})i- plex. I read the papers, and I returned them. In the third sentence we use neither the phrase nor the dependent clause, but express the ideas by means of in- dependent propositions. Such a sentence is covipound. In its simplest form, the simple sentence consists of sub- ject and predicate, without adjuncts. The first of the fol- lowing sentences is in its simplest form. Observe how the subject and the predicate are enlarged, in the three sen- tences following, !)>• the gradual addition of certain particu- lars. Thus: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. II John Merry John Merry John, the blacksmith's son, Merry John, son of the black- smith of White Plains, ran. ran quickly. ran quickly down the hill, ran quickly down the hill to bring a bucket of water. We see, therefore, that, by a skillful introduction of words and phrases, even the simple sentence may be long and difficult, and may express much. Words introduced as modifiers are : (i) Adjectives; as, ''Honest men can speak for them- selves." (2) Adverbs; as, " The house fell .y?/^(^^;z/j/. " (3) Nouns used as complements; as, "He is considered a good man.'' (4) Nouns used as adjective modifiers — either possessive or explanatory; as, ''T\\y fatJier' s virtue is not thine"; "Mr. Barret, a surgeon, was writing a history of Bristol." (5) Words used independently; as, "6>, sir, hear me!" Direction. — Write sentences illustrating all the points made above. Phrases introduced as modifiers may be preposi- tional, infinitive, participial, or adjectival. Prepositional Phrase. — A preposition and its object, forming a prepositional phrase, may be brought into the sentence and perform the office of: (i) An adjective modifier; as, "The clouds of smoke will disappear." (2) An adverb modifier; as, "They walked beyond ns." Without its preposition the noun may be used adverbi- ally and become: (i) An indirect object; as, ''G'wq John the book"; or (2) A noun of measure, direction, or time; as, "He sat an /loiir." 12 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. An infinitive phrase, "to" with its verb, may be brought into the sentence, and become: (i) A subject; as, ''To forget an injury is noble." (2) A complement; as, "The duty is to act''; "He told me to go Jwine'' ; "The doctor bade the man {to) walk.'' (3) An adjective modifier; as, "Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast." (4) An adverb modifier; as, "Aim to speak well." (5) An explanatory modifier ; as, " This law, to love, is recognized by Christians." (6) An independent phrase ; as, " To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies." (7) It may be the principal term of another phrase; as, "They are about to fall." A participle or a participial phrase may be brought into the sentence and become : (1) A subject; as, ''Dying for a principle is a high de- gree of virtue." (2) An adjective modifier; as, "Flowers, zvithering, soon perish"; "The Knight, having called the squire aloud, dis- mounted." (3) A complement; as, "Hope appeared smiling"; "I saw a man laugJiing." (4) The principal word of a prepositional phrase; as, "By taking pains, you will succeed." (5) The principal word in a phrase used as a comple- ment; as, "Excuse vi\y ansivering yojtr question." (6) It may be independent; as, "Confessing the truth, there were many bad traits in the character of Queen Eliz- abeth." The adjective phrase is one introduced by a word used regularly as an adjective. Thus: "He was a man THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. I 3 generous in all tilings "; "His garden, gay luith floivcrs, was open to us." The absolute phrase is without grammatical depend- ence on any other word. It may consist of the name of a person or thing spoken of in exclamatory phrases; as, "(9 their dreadful end V or of a noun with a limiting adjective or participle; as, "The storm having ceased, we departed"; or of the name of the person or thing addressed, modified by words or phrases; as, "O, pardon me, thon bleeding piece of earth.'' Direction. — Write sentences illustrating all the points made above. EXERCISE I. Direction. — Supply appropriate subjects, so as to make complete simple sen- tences. Thus : tends his flock. The shefherd tends liis flock. commends the scholar. overcomes difficukies. promotes health. make long voyages. buries its eggs in the sand. lies between the tropics. will prove a source of happiness. yields a costly fur. sounds the charge. walks rapidly over the hot desert. Direction. — Supply appropriate predicates, so as to make complete simple sentences. Thus : King John of France King John of France was led in triumph through the streets of London. A child eighteen months old The President of the United States Two honest tradesmen In the flower of youth and beauty, she , 14 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Montcalm, fighting gallantly at the head of the French, .... Patrick Henry, styled by his contemporaries the "Orator of Nat- ure," Tea and coffee, for a long time used only as luxuries The gleaming rushes After walking at a brisk pace for half an hour, he General Arnold, commander of West Point, * Position of Phrases. As a simple sentence may consist of an indefinite number of words and phrases, a variety of changes in the arrange- ment of its parts may be made. Thus the sentence, ' ' On a pleasant spring morning, with my little curious friend beside me, I stood on the beach opposite the promontory," may be arranged in several ways; as, With my little curious friend beside me, I stood, on a pleasant spring morning, on the beach opposite the promontory. I stood on the beach opposite the promontory, with my little curi- ous friend beside me, on a pleasant spring morning. On a pleasant spring morning, I stood on the beach opposite the promontory, with my little curious friend beside me. The particular position that a phrase should occupy will generally depend on the sense intended; therefore, phrases should usually be placed beside the parts of the sentence they are designed to modify. This is especially true of all phrases used as adjective elements, but phrases used adverbially may be placed in almost any part of the sentence. The taste of the writer must determine which is the best place. Should the sentence contain a number of phrases, they should not be grouped together at the be- ®To THE Teacher. — The pupil should hore he taught the i)unctu;ilion of simple sentences. The rules for such punctuation, together witli examples illus- trating the rules, will be found in Chapter X\'I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 15 ginning, at the end, or in the middle, but they should be distributed in such a way that the sentence shall be agree- able to the ear. For example, in the sentence, "They were imprisoned for three months in the town of Clinch in an old stone house, dark and damp, and altogether bar- ren of human comforts," the phrases are all placed together after the verb, and the effect is unpleasant. By distribut- ing the phrases, the statement may be more neatly ex- pressed ; thus. For three months, they were imprisoned in tl^ town of CHnch in an old stone house, etc.; or. They were, for three months, imprisoned in the town of Chnch in an old stone house, etc. Clearness of meaning is of the utmost importance, and often depends upon the arrangement of phrases. Hence it is well in constructing sentences to try several arrange- ments and carefully avoid those that admit the least doubt as to the meaning. It sometimes happens that several arrangements of a simple sentence present the meaning with equal clearness ; yet there may be still a choice of structure. It is not enough that we express ourselves so as to be clearly un- derstood ; we should endeavor to arrange our sentences neatly, elegantly, and harmoniously. Hence, when the several varieties of structure have been made, ask yourself the following questions: Which construction is clearest? Which is neatest? Which is inost harmonious? EXERCISE 11. Direction. — Change the position of the words and phrases in the following sentences in four ways, without altering the meaning: 1. Dogs, in their love for man, play a part in nearly every tragedy. 2. The sea for many hundred miles rolls and flashes over a shallow bottom. l6 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 3. In the far East, tiny humming-birds are eagerly sought by the ladies of high rank. 4. You have but to peep, in any lane, or brake, in spring, into a bird's nest to see a number of mysterious spheres lying cozily in their mossy couch. 5. Directly in front of the tent, and at no great distance from it, a thick net-work of vines stretched between two trees. 6. The sun has thrown its shadow upon the pewter dial two hours Ijeyond the meridian time. 7. Nations, therefore, have fittingly rejoiced in every century since the creation, in the joyfulness of harvest. 8. Then, standing in the center of his court, in the great hall of Hatfield House, the Lord of Misrule bade his herald declare him Lord Supreme from Christmas Eve to Twelfth Night. 9. Alone, in unuttered sympathy, the two ascended the steps of the sacred temple to approach the shrine. 10. With a merry heart and a glad countenance, he eagerly en- tered his mother's room early in the morning before breakfast. Synthesis of Simple Sentences. Synthesis is the process of combining separate state- ments into a single sentence. The following is the method : 1. An Italian mariner made his appearance at various courts. 2. He made his appearance successively. Separate J 3- These courts were in the south and west of Europe. Statements. 4. He was a citizen of Genoa. 5. Genoa was a little republic. 6. He made his appearance in the fifteenth century. 7. It was in the last quarter of the century. Combined. — In the last quarter of the fifteenth century, an Italian mariner, a citizen of the little republic of Genoa, made his appearance successively at various courts in the south and west of Europe.* *NOTK. — It will 1)1- observed that in tlic combined sentence all the elements contained in each of tlie .separate statements are woven together. Statement i is the |)rinei|ial proposition, or skeleton sentence. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. iy Rhetorical analysis, the opposite of synthesis, is the separation of a single sentence into the different statements impHed in it. The following illustrates the method: The Natural Bridge, over Cedar Creek, is a rocky mass spanning the bed of the stream at a height of 215 feet. The Natural Bridge is a rocky mass. It is over Cedar Creek. It spans the bed of the stream. It spans it at a height of 215 feet. Analysis. EXERCISE III. Direction. — Combine each of the following groups of statements into a sim- ple sentence. Try the sentence in various orders, and tell which construction you prefer, and why. Attend carefully to the punctuation : 1. A favorite diversion was hunting. A favorite diversion was hawking. These were diversions of the Middle ^es. They occurred at intervals. They occurred during the intervals of war. 2. Former kings possessed large forests. These forests were in all parts of England. The Conqueror was not content with these forests. He resolved to make a new forest. He decided to make it near Win- chester. Winchester was the usual place of his residence. 3. Alice Cary and her sister Phoebe planted the tree. They planted it in their youth. It is the large, beautiful sycamore. It is seen in passing along the Hamilton turnpike. It is seen in passing from Col- lege Hill to Mt. Pleasant. These places are in Ohio. 4. It was an idle question. It was put to a railway acquaintance. A name was spoken. It was spoken in a moment. The landlady's Statement 2 contributes the single word "successively." Statement 3 furnishes the adjective phrase " in the south and west of Europe." Statement 4 adds the phrase " a citizen of Genoa"; this phrase is put in appo- sition with the subject. Statement 5 adds the words "little republic." Statements 6 and 7, combined, appear in the form of an adverbial phrase, " in the last quarter of the fifteenth century," which serves as a modifier of the predi- cate. Rhet.--2. I 8 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. name was spoken. She was the best landlady in all Germany. She was the dearest in all Germany. She was the jolliest in all Germany. 5. The youth was Narcissus. He was hunting one day. He was hunting in the forest. He chanced to see the fountain. The fountain was flashing. It was flashing beneath a stray sunbeam. 6. The daylight faded away. The moonbeams crept down. They crept into the little glade. They came to bear him company. They came to be with him in his faithful watch. They came to stay till morning. 7. The prince was a dissolute young man. He was a debauched young man. He was eighteen years of age. He bore no love to the English. He declared his intention. He intended to yoke the En- glish to the plow. He would yoke them like oxen. He would do this on coming to the throne. 8. It was a monster of a bee. It had been wandering overhead. It was now among the leaves. It was now flashing through the strips of sunshine. It was now lost in the dark shade. It finally appeared to be settling. It appeared to be settling on the eyelid of David Swan. 9. Their two faces were grim. Their two faces were wrinkled. They were ghastly with guilt and fear. Their faces bent over their victim. They looked horrible. Their looks might have caused them to be mistaken for fiends. 10. We should suit our behavior to men. We should suit it to the several degrees of men. Of these degrees, there are three. We should suit our behavior to our superiors. We should suit it to our equals. We should suit it to those below us. This is the principal point of good breeding. 11. Ren was still stunned by the change. The change was sudden. It was terrible. The change was in his aftairs. Ben sat gazing out of the window. It was the window of the coach. He hoped to see some phenomenon. He wished the phenomenon to be monstrous. He hoped to see it in the street. He wished it to prove the awful state to be only a dream. The awful state of his affairs inspired this hope. 12. The glow showed him a figure. The figure was shown by the fire's glow. It was a wood fire. The glow was a dull red. The fig- ure was seated. It had its back to him. The figure sat on the hearth. It bent over the light. The light was fitful. 13. To come alone was to remind him. To come thus with the chaise was lu rcmiiul Sampson Brass. It was for Kit to come in this THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 19 way. Brass was reminded of some mission. The mission called Mr. Swiveller to some place. It might be to Peckham Rye again. It would surely be to some distant place. From this distant place he could not be expected to return for two or three hours. It might be for a much longer period. This longer stay was altogether prob- able. 14. The water sports with its freight. The water is resistless. The freight is ghastly. The water bruises its freight against the slimy piles. It hides it in mud. It hides it in long grass. The grass is rank. The water drags its freight heavily. It drags it over rough stones. It drags it over gravel. It feigns to yield it to its own element. It lures it away. It flings it at last on a swamp. The swamp is a dismal place. The water flings its freight to remain there forever. 15. Miriam bade farewell to this nest. It was a dove's nest. She bade farewell from the threshold. She did this with a long regard. She turned from this one little nook. It was a nook of pure thoughts. It was a nook of innocent enthusiasms. She had now stained it with her dark trouble. 16. The Niobe of Nations is made to bewail. She is made to be- wail anew. She bewails with sincerity. This is doubtless. She is made to bewail the loss of part of her population. It is a large part. She derives this part from other lands. This part affords her prosper- ity. It is a remnant of prosperity. She still enjoys this remnant. She is made to bewail this loss on the approach of summer. 17. The Indian wife sailed with her husband for England. She sailed in 1616. She had been instructed in the English language. She bore an Enghsh name. She was "the first Christian of her na- tion." 18. The first band of emigrants sailed from England, November, 1633. This band consisted of about two hundred gentlemen. They possessed considerable rank and fortune. They professed the Roman Catholic faith. They had with them a number of inferior adherents. They sailed in a vessel called The Ark and the Dove. The band was under the command of Leonard Calvert. 19. Patrick Henry electrified the minds of his colleagues. He did this by his brilliant displays of argument and eloquence. This was in March, 1775. He had electrified them before. His colleagues were hesitating and reluctant. They hesitated to enter upon a contest with the mother-country. This occurred in the Virginia Convention. Pat- rick Henry was styled by his contemporaries the "Orator of Nature." 20 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 20. Edward Plantagenet was the eldest son of Kinc^ Edward III. He was born at Woodstock, in 1330. He was commonly called the Black Prince. He was called the Black Prince from the color of his armor. The color of the armor was specially chosen. It set off the fairness of his skin and hair. EXERCISE IV. Direction. — Analyze the following simple sentences: 1. Indian Territory is a large tract originally set apart for Indian tribes removed from their homes east of the Mississippi. 2. The South Atlantic States were the scene of stirring events in the Revolutionary War, being at one time the chief battle-ground. 3. Its mountain-ranges, clad in forests, contain great mineral wealth, to some extent developed. 4. Indigo is a blue dye obtained from the leaves of several species of plants largely cultivated throughout the warm regions of Asia. 5. In 1520, Magellan entered the Pacific by passing through the strait since called by his name. 6. At the dawn of day, on the 12th of October, 1492, Columbus saw before him a level island, several leagues in extent, and covered with trees like a continuous orchard. 7. The Spaniards found the native tribes, everywhere on the route, in a state of cultivation beyond that of nomadic hordes, with fixed places of abode and a liberal subsistence from the tillage of their lands. 8. The national vanity of the English, highly stimulated by the victory of Agincourt, and the short-lived conquest of French territory, was now exasperated by the re\ erses of the war in France. 9. According to a tradition in our family, Henry Hudson, the great navigator, on being blessed with a view of the enchanting island of Manhattan, exhibited, for the first and only time in his life, strong symptoms of astonishment and admiration. 10. At daybreak the next morning, the red ensign, the well-known signal for battle, was seen flying over Varro's headquarters, just in front of the main army then forming in order of battle on the right bank of the river. CHAPTER II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. A Complex Sentence consists of one independent, or principal, proposition, and one or more subordinate propo- sitions, or clauses. Every clause contains a subject and a predicate, and every proposition contains a subject and a predicate, hence, inde- pendent propositions are likewise clauses; but, as subordi- nate propositions perform merely the functions of adjectives, or adverbs, or nouns, we shall use the word "clause" with special reference to those dependent, or subordinate, prop- ositions, introduced by connectives. Clauses. There are three kinds of clauses : (i) The adjective clause ; (2) The adverbial clause ; (3) The substantive, or noun, clause. I. An adjective clause performs the office of an ad- jective. It may modify any noun or pronoun in the princi- pal proposition. It is generally joined to the principal statement by a relative pronoun or by a conjunctive adverb, as "where," "when," "why"; thus. He prayed for those whose love had been his shield. "Whose love had been his shield" is an adjective clause, connected with the principal statement, "he prayed for those," by means of the relative "whose." The clause modifies the pronoun "those." (21) 22 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. He came to a garden wlicrc rich roses bloomed. "Where rich roses bloomed" is an adjective clause, in- troduced by the conjunctive adverb "where," and modify- ing the noun "garden." This was a time zuhen brave hearts Ireuibled. "When brave hearts trembled" is an adjective clause, introduced by the conjunctive adverb "when," and modi- fying the noun "time." The hate which we all bear with the most Christian pa- tience, is the hate of those who envy 7