as? 
 DAVID P. PAGE. 
 
 TEACHERS IMPROVEMENT < U.
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE 
 
 OF 
 
 TEACHING; 
 
 OR, 
 
 THE MOTIVES AND METHODS OF GOOD 
 SCHOOL-KEEPING. 
 
 DAVID P. PAGE, A M., 
 
 I./ATE PRINCIPAL OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 
 ALBANY, NEW YORK, 
 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED A 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 DANSVILLE, N. Y.: 
 
 TEACHERS IMPROVEMENT Co. 
 
 1895- 
 
 6AKTA BARBARA. CAL1P.
 
 Copyright, 1895, 
 
 By Teachers Improvement Co., 
 
 Dansville, N. Y.
 
 PUBLISHER'S PREFACE. 
 
 IN presenting this edition of Page's Theory and Practice 
 of Teaching to the public, the publishers offer no excuse 
 or explanation other than a desire to more widely circu- 
 late the one book on this important subject, which has 
 stood as a standard for nearly fifty years. Perhaps no 
 higher evidence of its value has ever been given than its 
 recent recommendation by the Department of Public 
 Instruction of New York State as one of the books which 
 teachers must study in order to prepare for the Uniform 
 Examinations and properly fit themselves for their work. 
 
 To the original work, here reproduced, is added a 
 valuable department of Questions and Answers on Theory 
 and Practice of Teaching. If, by the publication of this 
 edition of this world-renowned book, any considerable 
 number of teachers are enabled to better equip them- 
 selves for their work, our object will have been accom- 
 plished. 
 
 TEACHERS IMPROVEMENT CO. 
 
 DANSVILLE, N. Y., November, 1895.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 MANY a meritorious book has failed to find readers by 
 reason of a toilsome preface. If the following volume 
 meets a similar fate, whatever its merits, it shall lack a 
 like excuse. 
 
 This work has had its origin in a desire to contribute 
 something toward elevating an important and rising 
 profession. Its matter comprises the substance of a part 
 of the course of lectures addressed to the classes of the 
 Institution under my charge, during the past two years. 
 Those lectures unwritten at first, were delivered in a 
 familiar, colloquial style their main object being the 
 inculcation of such practical views as would best pro- 
 mote the improvement of the teacher. In writing the 
 matter out for the press, the same style, to considerable 
 extent, has been retained, as I have written with an aim 
 at usefulness rather than rhetorical effect. 
 
 If the term theory in the title suggests to any mind 
 the bad sense sometimes conveyed by that word, I would 
 simply say that I have not been dealing in the specula- 
 tive dreams of the closet, but in convictions derived 
 from the realities cxf the school-room during some twenty 
 years of actual service as a teacher. Theory may justly 
 mean the science distinguished from the art of Teaching ; 
 but as in practice these should never be divorced, so in
 
 PREFACE. 5 
 
 the following chapters I have endeavored constantly to 
 illustrate the one by the other. 
 
 If life should be spared and other circumstances should 
 warrant the undertaking, perhaps a further course com- 
 prising the " Details of Teaching " may, at some future 
 time, assume a similar form to complete my original 
 design. 
 
 DAVID P. PAGE. 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, ) 
 Albany^ N. Y., Jan, i, 184.7. )
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE SriRiT OK THE TEACHER 9 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER 13 
 
 SECTION I. The Neglected Tree 13 
 
 SECTION II. Extent of Responsibility 17 
 
 SECTION III. The Auburn Prison 31 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 HABITS OF THE TEACHER 36 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER 45 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION 59 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING 68 
 
 SECTION I. Pouring-in Process 70 
 
 SECTION II. Drawing-out Process 72 
 
 SECTION III. The More Excellent Way 76 
 
 SECTION IV. Waking up Mind 78 
 
 SECTION V. Remarks 89 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS 94
 
 CONTENTS. 7 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 108 
 
 SIM n ON I. Incentives Emulation log 
 
 SECTION II. Prizes and Rewards 115 
 
 SECTION III. Proper Incentives ... 126 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 134 
 
 SECTION I. Requisites in the Teacher for Government 134 
 
 SECTION II. Means of Securing Good Order 143 
 
 SECTION III. Punishments Improper Proper 1 59 
 
 SECTION IV. Corporal Punishment 175 
 
 SECTION V. Limitations and Suggestions 187 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 195 
 
 SECTION I. Plan of Day's Work 200 
 
 SECTION II. Interruptions 208 
 
 SECTION III. Recesses 212 
 
 SECTION IV. Assignment of Lessons 214 
 
 SECTION V. Reviews 216 
 
 SECTION VI. Examinations Exhibitions Celebrations 218 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 THE TEACHER'S RELATION TO THE PARENTS OF His PUPILS 222 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 THE TEACHER'S CARE OF His HEALTH 229 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 THE TEACHER'S RELATION TO His PROFESSION 241 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 260 
 
 SECTION I. Things to be Avoided 260 
 
 SECTION II. Things to be Performed 274 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 296
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 SPIRIT OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 The True Spirit. Perhaps the very first question 
 that the honest individual will ask himself, as he proposes 
 to assume the teacher's office, or to enter,, upon a 
 preparation for it, will be " What manner of spirit am I 
 of? " No question can be more important. I would by 
 no means undervalue that degree of natural talent of 
 mental power, which all justly consider so desirable in 
 the candidate for the teacher's office. But the true 
 spirit of the teacher a spirit that seeks not alone pecuni- 
 ary emolument, but desires to be in the highest degree 
 useful to those who are to be taught ; a spirit that elevates 
 above everything else the nature and capabilities of the 
 human soul, and that trembles under the responsibility 
 of attempting to be its educator ; a spirit that looks upon 
 gold as the contemptible dross of earth, when compared 
 with that imperishable gem which is to be polished and 
 brought out into heaven's light to shine forever ; a spirit 
 that scorns all the rewards of earth, and seeks that 
 highest of all rewards, an approving conscience and an 
 approving God ; a spirit that earnestly inquires what is 
 right, and that dreads to do what is wrong ; a spirit that 
 can recognize and reverence the handiwork of God in 
 every child, and that burns with the desire to be instru- 
 mental in training it to the highest attainment of which
 
 10 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 it is capable, such a spirit is the first thing to be sought 
 by the teacher, and without it the highest talent cannot 
 make him truly excellent in his profession. 
 
 The candidate for the office of teacher should look 
 well to his motives. It is easy to enter upon the duties 
 of the teacher without preparation ; it is easy to do it 
 without that lofty purpose which an enlightened con- 
 science would ever demand ; but it is not so easy to 
 undo the mischief which a single mistake may produce 
 in the mind of the child at that tender period when 
 mistakes are most likely to be made. 
 
 Motives Often Wrong. Too many teachers are found 
 in our schools without the spirit for their work which is 
 here insisted on. They not only have not given attention 
 to any preparation for their work, but resort to it from 
 motives of personal convenience, and in many instances 
 from a consciousness of being unfit for everything else. 
 In other professions this is not so. The lawyer is not 
 admitted to the bar till he has pursued a course of 
 thorough preparation, and even then but warily employed. 
 The physician goes through his course of reading and 
 his course of lectures, and often almost through a course 
 of starvation in the country village where he first puts up 
 his sign, before he is called in to heal the maladies of the 
 body. It is long before he can inspire confidence enough 
 in the people to be intrusted with their most difficult 
 cases of ailing, and very likely the noon of life is passed 
 before he can consider himself established. But it is not 
 so with the teacher. He gains access to the sanctuary of 
 the mind without any difficulty, and the most tender 
 interests for both worlds are intrusted to his guidance, 
 even when he makes pretension to no higher motive than 
 that of filling up a few months of time not otherwise
 
 SPIRIT OF THE TEACHER. 11 
 
 appropriated, and to no qualifications but those attained 
 by accident. A late writer in the " Journal of Educa- 
 tion " hardly overstates this matter : " Every stripling 
 who has passed four years within the walls of a college ; 
 every dissatisfied clerk -who has not ability enough to 
 manage the trifling concerns of a common retail-shop ; 
 every young farmer who obtains in the winter a short 
 vacation from the toils of summer in short, every young 
 person who is conscious of his imbecility in other business, 
 esteems himself fully competent to train the ignorance 
 and weakness of infancy into all the virtue and power 
 and wisdom of maturer years to form a creature, the 
 frailest and feeblest that heaven has made, into the 
 intelligent and fearless sovereign of the whole animated 
 creation, the interpreter and adorer and almost the 
 representative of Divinity ! " 
 
 Many Make Teaching a Secondary Object. Many 
 there are who enter upon the high employment of teach- 
 ing a common school as a secondary object. Perhaps 
 they are students themselves in some higher institution, 
 and resort to this as a temporary expedient for paying 
 their board, while their chief object is to pursue their 
 own studies, and thus keep pace with their classes. Some 
 make it a stepping-stone to something beyond, and, in 
 their estimation, higher in the scale of respectability 
 treating the employment, while in it, as irksome in the 
 extreme, and never manifesting so much delight as when 
 the hour arrives for the dismissal of their schools. Such 
 have not the true spirit of the teacher ; and if their 
 labors are not entirely unprofitable, it only proves that 
 children are sometimes submitted to imminent danger, 
 but are still unaccountably preserved by the hand of 
 Providence.
 
 12 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Ignorance Does Not Excuse Mistakes. The 
 teacher should go to his duty full of his work. He should 
 be impressed with its overwhelming importance. He 
 should feel that his mistakes, though they may not 
 speedily ruin him, may permanently injure his pupils. 
 Nor is it enough that he shall say, " I did it ignorantly." 
 He has assumed to fill a place where ignorance itself is 
 sin ; and where indifference to the well-being of others 
 is equivalent to willful homicide. He might as innocently 
 assume to be the physician, and, without knowing its 
 effects, prescribe arsenic for the colic. Ignorance is not 
 in such cases a valid excuse, because the assumption of the 
 place implies a pretension to the requisite skill. Let the 
 teacher then well consider what manner of spirit he is of. 
 Let him come to this work only when he has carefully 
 pondered its nature and its responsibilities, and after he 
 has devoted his best powers to a thorough preparation of 
 himself for its high duties. Above all, let him be sure 
 that his motives on entering the schoolroom are such as 
 will be acceptable in the sight of God, when viewed by 
 the light beaming out from His throne. 
 
 " Oh ! let not then unskillful hands attempt 
 To play the harp whose tones, whose living tones, 
 Are left forever in the strings. Better far 
 That heaven's lightnings blast his very soul, 
 And ink it back to Chaos' lowest depths, 
 Than knowingly, by word or deed, he send 
 A blight upon the trusting mind of youth."
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 18 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 SECTION I. A NEGLECTED PEAR TREE. 
 
 His Garden. Some years ago, while residing in the 
 northeastern part of Massachusetts, I was the owner of a 
 small garden. I had taken much pains to improve the 
 condition and appearance of the place. A woodbine had 
 been carefully trained upon the front of the little home- 
 stead ; a fragrant honeysuckle, supported by a trellis, 
 adorned the doorway ; a moss-rose, a flowering almond, 
 and the lily of the valley, mingled their fragrance in the 
 breath of morn and never, in my estimation at least, 
 did the sun shine upon a lovelier, happier spot. The 
 morning hour was spent in " dressing and keeping " 
 the garden. Its vines were daily watched and care- 
 fully trained ; its borders were free from weeds, and the 
 plants expanded their leaves and opened their buds as if 
 smiling at the approach of the morning sun. There were 
 fruit trees, too, which had been brought from far, and so 
 carefully nurtured that they were covered with blossoms, 
 filling the air with their fragrance and awakening the 
 fondest hopes of an abundant harvest. 
 
 Neglected Pear Tree. In one corner of this minia 
 ture paradise there was a hop-trellis, and in the midst of 
 a bed of tansy hard by stood a small, knotty, crooked 
 pear tree. It had stood there I know not how long. It 
 was very diminutive in size ; but, like those cedars which 
 one notices high up the mountain, just on the boundary
 
 14 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 between vegetation and eternal frost, it had every mark 
 of the decrepitude of age. 
 
 Why should this tree stand here so unsightly and 
 unfruitful? Why had it escaped notice so long? Its 
 bark had become bound and cracked ; its leaves were 
 smalled and curled ; and those, small as they were, were 
 ready to be devoured by a host of caterpillars, whose 
 pampered bodies were already grown to the length of an 
 inch. The tendrils of the hop vine had crept about its 
 thorny limbs and were weighing down its growth, while 
 the tansy at its roots drank up the refreshing dew and 
 shut out the genial ray. // was a neglected tree ! 
 
 Pruning Commenced. " Why may not this tree be 
 pruned ? " No sooner said than the small saw was taken 
 from its place and the work was commenced. Com- 
 menced? It was hard to determine where to commence. 
 Its knotty branches had grown thick and crooked, and 
 there was scarcely space to get the saw between them. 
 They all seemed to deserve amputation, but then the 
 tree would have no top. This and that limb were lopped 
 off as the case seemed to demand. The task was neither 
 easy nor pleasant. Sometimes a violent stroke would 
 bring down upon my own head a shower of the filthy 
 caterpillars; again, the long-cherished garden-c,oat 
 threadbare and faded as it was got caught, and before 
 it could be disengaged, what an unsightly rent had been 
 made ! With pain I toiled on, for one of the unlucky 
 thorns had pierced my thumb ; and I might have been 
 said to be working on the spur of the occasion ! 
 
 The hop vine, however, was removed from its boughs, 
 the tansy and weeds from its roots, the scales and mosls 
 from its bark. The thorns were carefully pared from its 
 limbs, and the caterpillars were all shaken from its
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 15 
 
 leaves. The mould was loosened and enriched and the 
 sun shone that day upon a long neglected, but now a promis- 
 ing tree. 
 
 Grafting of a Bartlett Pear. The time for grafting 
 was not yet passed. One reputedly skilled in that art was 
 called to put the new scion upon the old stock. The 
 work was readily undertaken and speedily accomplished, 
 and the assurance was given that the BARTLETT PEAR 
 that prince among the fruits of New England would one 
 day be gathered from my neglected tree. 
 
 Heart Gladdened. With what interest I watched the 
 buds of the scion, morning after morning, as the month 
 grew warmer, and vegetation all around was " bursting 
 into birth ! " With what delight did I greet the first 
 opening of those buds, and how did I rejoice as the young 
 shoots put forth and grew into a fresh, green top ! With 
 tender solicitude I cherished this tree for two long sum- 
 mers ; and, on the opening of the third, my heart was 
 gladdened with the sight of its first fruit blossoms. With 
 care were the weeds excluded, the caterpillars extermi- 
 nated, the hop-vine clipped, the bark rubbed and washed, 
 the earth manured and watered. 
 
 Chagrin and Mortification. The time of fruit ar- 
 rived. The Bartlett pear was offered in our market but 
 my pears were not yet ripe ! With anxious care they 
 were watched till the frost bade the green leaves wither, 
 and then they were carefully gathered and placed in the 
 sunbeams within doors. They at length turned yellow, 
 'and looked fair to the sight and tempting to the taste ; and 
 a few friends, who had known their history, were invited 
 to partake of them. They were brought forward, care- 
 fully arranged in the best dish the humble domicile 
 afforded, and formally introduced as the first fruits of the
 
 16 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 " neglected tree" What was my chargin and mortifica- 
 tion, after all my pains and solicitude, after all my hopes 
 and fond anticipations, to find they were miserable, taste- 
 less choke-pears. 
 
 May be Neglected Trees in the Moral Garden. 
 This pear-tree has put me upon thinking. It has sug- 
 gested that there is such a thing as a moral garden, in 
 which there may be fair flowers indeed, but also some 
 neglected trees. The plants in this garden may suffer very 
 much from neglect from neglect of the gardner. It is 
 deplorable to see how many crooked, unseemly branches 
 shoot forth from some of these young trees, which early 
 might have been trained to grow .straight and smooth by 
 the hand of cultivation. Many a youth, running on in 
 his own way, indulging in deception and profanity, yield- 
 ing to temptation and overborne by evil influences, pollut- 
 ing by his example and wounding the hearts of his best 
 friends as they yearn over him for good, has reminded 
 me of my neglected tree, its caterpillars, its roughened bark, 
 its hop-vine, its tansy bed, its cruel piercing thorns. And 
 when I have seen such a youth brought under the influ- 
 ence of the educator, and have witnessed the progress 
 he has made and the intellectual promise he has 
 given, I have also thought of my neglected tree. 
 When, too, I have followed him to the years of 
 maturity, and have found, as I have too often found, 
 that he brings not forth " the peaceable fruits of 
 righteousness," but that he disappoints all the fondly 
 cherished hopes of his friends perhaps of his own teach- 
 ers, because the best principles were not engrafted upon 
 him, I again think of my neglected tree, and of the un- 
 skillful, perhaps dishonest gardener, who acted as its re- 
 sponsible educator.
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 17 
 
 Inferences to be Drawn. From the above as a text, 
 several inferences might be drawn. I. Education is 
 necessary to develop the human soul. 2. Education 
 should begin early. We have too many neglected trees. 
 3. It should be right education. And 4. The educator 
 should be a safe and an honest man ; else the education 
 may be all wrong may be worse even than the neglect. 
 
 But especially we may infer that 
 
 SECTION II. THE TEACHER IS RESPONSIBLE. 
 
 Teacher Responsible. It is the object of the follow- 
 ing remarks feebly to illustrate the extent of the teacher's 
 responsibility. It must all along be borne in mind that 
 he is not alone responsible for the results of education. 
 The parent has an overwhelming responsibility, which he 
 can never part with or transfer to another while he holds 
 the relation of parent. 
 
 Extent of Teacher's Responsibility. But the teacher 
 is responsible in a very high degree. An important 
 interest is committed to his charge whenever a human 
 being is placed under his guidance. By taking the posi- 
 tion of the teacher, all the responsibility of the relation 
 is voluntarily assumed ; and he is fearfully responsible 
 not only for what he does, but also for what he neglects 
 to do. And it is a responsibility from which he cannot 
 escape. Even though he may have thoughtlessly entered 
 upon the relation of teacher, without a single glance at 
 its obligations ; or though, when reminded of them, he 
 may laugh at the thought, and disclaim all idea of being 
 thus seriously held to a fearful account, yet still the 
 responsibility is on him. Just as true as it is a great thing 
 to guide the mind aright, just as true as it is a deplora- 
 ble, nay, fatal thing to lead it astray, so true is it that he
 
 18 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 who attempts the work, whether ignorant or skillful, 
 whether thoughtless or serious, incurs all the responsi- 
 bility of success or failure, a responsibility he can never 
 shake off as long as the human soul is immortal, and men 
 are accountable for such consequences of their acts as are 
 capable of being foreseen. 
 
 The teacher is in a degree responsible for the BODILY 
 HEALTH of the child. 
 
 Laws of Physical Health. It is well established that 
 the foundation of many serious diseases is laid in the 
 schoolroom. These diseases come sometimes from a 
 neglect of exercise ; sometimes from too long confine- 
 ment in one position, or upon one study ; sometimes 
 from over-excitement and over-study ; sometimes from 
 breathing bad air ; sometimes from being kept too warm 
 or too cold. Now the teacher should be an intelligent 
 physiologist ; and from a knowledge of what the human 
 system can bear, and what it cannot, he is bound to be 
 ever watchful to guard against all those abuses from 
 which our children so often suffer. Especially should he 
 be tremblingly alive to avert that excitability of the 
 nervous system, the over-action of which is so fatal to 
 the future happiness of the individual. And should he, 
 by appealing to the most exciting motives, encourage 
 the delicate child to press on to grasp those subjects 
 which are too great for its comprehension, and allow it 
 to neglect exercise in the open air in order to task its 
 feverish brain in the crowded and badly-ventilated 
 schoolroom ; and then, in a few days, be called to look 
 upon the languishing sufferer upon a bed of exhaustion 
 and pain perhaps a bed of premature death, could he 
 say, "I am not responsible"? Parents and teachers 
 often err in this. They are so eager to develop a preco-
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 19 
 
 cious intellect that they crush the casket in order to 
 gratify a prurient desire to astonish the world with the 
 brilliancy of the gem. Each is responsible for his share 
 of this sin ; and the teacher especially, because, by his 
 education, he should know better. 
 
 The teacher is mainly responsible for the INTELLECTUAL 
 GROWTH of the child. This may be referred chiefly to 
 the following heads : 
 
 i. The Order of Study. There is a natural order in 
 the education of the child. The teacher should know 
 this. If he presents the subjects out of this order, he is 
 responsible for the injury. In general, the elements 
 should be taught first. Those simple branches which the 
 child first comprehends should first be presented. 
 
 Reading, of course, must be one of the first ; though I 
 think the day is not distant when an enlightened com- 
 munity will not condemn the teacher, if, while teaching 
 reading, he should call the child's attention by oral 
 instructions to such objects about him as he can compre- 
 hend, even though in doing this he should somewhat 
 prolong the time of learning to read. It is indeed of 
 little consequence that the child should read words simply ; 
 and that teacher may be viewed as pursuing the order of 
 nature who so endeavors to develop the powers of 
 observation and comparison that words when learned 
 shall be the vehicles of ideas. 
 
 Next to reading and its inseparable companions, 
 Spelling and Defining, I am inclined to recommend the 
 study of Mental Arithmetic. The idea of Number is one 
 of the earliest in the mind of the child. He can be 
 early taught to count, and quite early to perform those 
 operations which we call adding, subtracting, multiplying, 
 and dividing. This study at first needs no book. The
 
 80 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 teacher should be thoroughly versed in " Colburn's 
 Intellectual Arithmetic," or its equivalent, and he can 
 find enough to interest the child. When the scholar has 
 learned to read, and has attained the age of six or seven, 
 he may be allowed a book in preparing his lesson, but 
 never during the recitation. Those who have not tried 
 this kind of mental discipline will be astonished at the 
 facility which the child acquires for performing operations 
 that often puzzle the adult. Nor is it an unimportant 
 acquisition. None can tell its value but those who have 
 experienced the advantage it gives them, in future school 
 exercises and in business, over those who have never had 
 such training. 
 
 Geography may come next to Mental Arithmetic. The 
 child should have an idea of the relations of size, form 
 and space, as well as number, before commencing 
 Geography. These, however, he acquires naturally at an 
 early age ; and very thoroughly, if the teacher has taken 
 a little pains to aid him on these points in the earliest 
 stages of his progress. A map is a picture, and hence a 
 child welcomes it. If it can be a map of some familiar 
 object, as of his school-room, of the school district, of 
 his father's orchard or farm, it becomes an object of great 
 interest. A map of his town is very desirable, also of 
 his county and his own State. Further detail will be 
 deferred here, as it is only intended in this place to hint 
 at the order of taking up the subjects. 
 
 History should go hand in hand with Geography. 
 Perhaps no greater mistake is made than that of deferring 
 History till one of the last things in the child's course. 
 
 Writing may be early commenced with the pencil upon 
 the slate, because it is a very useful exercise to the child 
 in prosecuting many of his other studies. But writing
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 21 
 
 with a pen may well be deferred till the child is ten years 
 of age, when the muscles shall have acquired sufficient 
 strength to grasp and guide it. 
 
 Written Arithmetic may succeed the mental ; indeed, it 
 may be practiced along with it. 
 
 Composition perhaps by another name, as Description 
 should be early commenced and very frequently prac- 
 ticed. The child can be early interested in this, and he 
 probably in this way acquires a better knowledge of 
 practical grammar than in any other. 
 
 Grammar, in my opinion, as a study, should be one of 
 the last of the common-school branches to be taken up. 
 It requires more maturity of mind to understand its 
 relations and dependencies than any other ; and that 
 which is taught of grammar without such an understand- 
 ing is a mere smattering of technical terms, by which the 
 pupil is injured rather than improved. It may be said 
 that, unless scholars commence this branch early, they 
 never will have the opportunity to learn it. Then let it 
 go unlearned ; for, as far as I have seen the world, I am 
 satisfied that this early and superficial teaching of a 
 difficult subject is not only useless, but positively injur- 
 ious. How many, there are who study grammar for 
 years, and then are obliged to confess in after-life, because 
 " their speech bewrayeth " them, that they never under- 
 stood it ! How many, by the too early study of an 
 intricate branch, make themselves think they understand 
 it, and thus prevent the hope of any further advancement 
 at the proper age ! Grammar, then, should not be studied 
 too early. 
 
 Of the manner of teaching all these branches, I shall 
 have more to say in due time. At present I have only 
 noticed the order in which they should be taken up.
 
 22 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 This is a question of much consequence to the child, and 
 the teacher is generally responsible for it. He should 
 therefore carefully consider this matter, that he may be 
 able to decide aright. 
 
 2. The Manner of Study. It is of quite as much im- 
 portance Jioiv we study as zu/iat we study. Indeed, I 
 have thought that much of the difference among men 
 could be traced to their different habits of study, formed 
 in youth. A large portion of our scholars study for the 
 sake of preparing to recite the lesson. They seem to 
 have no idea of any object beyond recitation. The con- 
 sequence is they study mechanically. They endeavor to 
 remember phraseology rather than principles ; they study 
 the book, not the subject. Let any one enter our schools 
 and see the scholars engaged in preparing their lessons. 
 Scarcely one will be seen who is not repeating over and 
 over again the words of the text, as if there was a saving 
 charm in repetition. Observe the same scholars at recita- 
 tion, and it is a struggle of the memory to recall the forms 
 of words. The vacant countenance too often indicates that 
 they are words without meaning. This difficulty is very 
 much increased, if the teacher is confined to the text- 
 book during recitation ; and particularly, if he relies 
 mainly upon the printed questions so often found at the 
 bottom of the page. 
 
 The scholar should be encouraged to study the subject ; 
 and his book should be held merely as the instrument. 
 " Books are but helps," is a good motto for every student. 
 The teacher should often tell how the lesson should be 
 learned. His precept in this matter will often be of use. 
 Some scholars will learn a lesson in one-tenth of the time 
 required by others. Human life is too short to have any 
 of it employed to disadvantage. The teacher, then,
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 23 
 
 should inculcate such habits of study as are valuable; 
 and he should be particularly careful to break up, in the 
 recitations, those habits which are so grossly mechanical. 
 A child may almost be said to be educated, who has 
 learned to study aright ; while one may have acquired in 
 the mechanical way a great amount of knowledge, and 
 yet have no profitable mental discipline. 
 
 For this difference in children, as well as in men, the 
 teacher is more responsible than any other person. Let 
 him carefully consider this matter. 
 
 3. Collateral Study. Books, to be sure, are to be 
 studied, and studied chiefly, in most of our schools. But 
 there is much for the teacher to do toward the growth of 
 the mind, which is' not to be found in the school books; 
 and it is the practical recognition of this fact which con- 
 stitutes the great difference in teachers. Truth, in what- 
 ever department, is open to the faithful teacher. And 
 there is such a thing, even in the present generation, as 
 " opening the eyes of the blind,'' to discover things new 
 and old, in nature, in the arts, in history, in the relation 
 of things. Without diminishing, in the least, the 
 progress of the young in study, their powers of observa- 
 tion maybe cultivated, their perceptions quickened, their 
 relish for the acquisition of knowledge indefinitely 
 increased, by the instrumentality of the teacher. This 
 must of course be done adroitly. There is such a thing 
 as excessively cramming the mind of a child, till he 
 loathes everything in the way of acquisition. There is 
 such a thing, too, as exciting an all-pervading interest in 
 a group of children, so that the scholar shall welcome the 
 return of school hours, and, by his cheerful step and ani- 
 mated eye, as he seeks the schoolhouse, disclaim, as false,
 
 24 THEORY AM) PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 when applied to him, the language of the poet, who 
 described the schoolboy of his darker day, 
 
 ' ' with his satchel, 
 
 And shining morning face, creeping, like snail, 
 Unwillingly to school." 
 
 The teacher who is responsible for such a result 
 should take care to store his own mind with the material, 
 and exercise the ingenuity, to do that which is of so 
 much consequence to the scholar. 
 
 77/i? teacher is in a degree responsible for the MORAL 
 TRAINING of the child. 
 
 I say in a degree, because it is confessed that in this 
 matter very mu< :h likewise depends upon parental in- 
 fluence. 
 
 Moral Training Neglected. This education of the 
 heart is confessedly too much neglected in all our schools. 
 It has often been remarked that " knowledge is power," 
 and as truly that " knowledge without principle to regu- 
 late it may make a man a powerful villain." It is all- 
 important that our youth should early receive such moral 
 training as shall make it safe to give them knowledge. 
 Very much of this work must devolve upon the teacher; 
 or rather, when he undertakes to teach, he assumes the 
 responsibility of doing or neglecting this work. 
 
 Precept. The precept of the teacher may do much 
 toward teaching a child his duty to God, to himself, and 
 to his fellow-beings. But it is not mainly by precept 
 that this is to be done. Sermons and homilies are but 
 little heeded in the school-room ; and unless the teacher 
 has some other mode of reaching the feelings and the 
 conscience, he may despair of being successful in moral 
 training.
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 25 
 
 Example. The teacher should be well versed in 
 human nature. He should know the power of con- 
 science and the means of reaching it. He should him- 
 self have deep principle. His example in everything 
 before his school should be pure, flowing out from the 
 purity of the soul. He should ever manifest the tender- 
 est regard to the law of right and of love. He should 
 never violate his own sense of justice, nor outrage that 
 of his pupils. Such a man teaches by his example. He 
 is a " living epistle, known and read of all.*' He teaches, 
 as he goes in and out before the school, as words can 
 never teach. 
 
 How Conscience Can be Cultivated. The moral 
 feelings of children are capable of systematic and suc- 
 cessful cultivation. Our muscles acquire strength by 
 use ; it is so with our intellectual and moral faculties. 
 We educate the power of calculation by continued prac- 
 tice, so that the proficient adds the long column of figures 
 almost with the rapidity of sight, and with infallible 
 accuracy. So with the moral feelings. " The more fre- 
 quently we use our conscience," says Dr. Wayland, 
 " in judging between actions, as right and wrong, the 
 more easily shall we learn to judge correctly concerning 
 them. He who, before every action, will deliberately ask 
 himself, ' Is this right or wrong ? ' will seldom mistake 
 what is his duty. And children may do this as well as 
 grown persons." Let the teacher appeal as often as may 
 be to the pupil's conscience. In a thousand ways can 
 this be done, and it is a duty the faithful teacher owes to 
 his scholars. 
 
 By such methods of cultivating the conscience as the 
 judicious teacher may devise, and by his own pure 
 example, what may he not accomplish? If he loves the
 
 26 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 truth, and ever speaks the truth ; if he is ever frank and 
 sincere ; if, in a word, he shows that he has a tender 
 conscience in all things, and that he always refers to it 
 for its approval in all his acts what an influence does he 
 exert upon the impressible minds under his guidance ! 
 How those children will observe his consistent course ; 
 and, though they may not speak of it, how great will be 
 its silent power upon the formation of their characters. 
 And in future years, when they ripen into maturity, how 
 will they remember and bless the example they shall 
 have found so safe and salutary ! 
 
 Consequences of Evil Examples to be Dreaded. 
 Responsibility in this matter cannot be avoided. The 
 teacher by his example does teach, for good or for evil, 
 whether he will or not. Indifference will not excuse 
 him ; for when most indiffent he is not less accountable. 
 And if this example be pernicious, as too often even yet 
 the example of the teacher is; if he indulges in outbreaks 
 of passion, or wanders in the mazes of deceitfulness ; if 
 the blasphemous oath pollutes his tongue, or the 
 obscene jest poisons his breath ; if he trifles with the 
 feelings or the rights of others, and habitually violates 
 his own conscience, what a blighting influence is his for 
 all coming time ! 
 
 The School is No Place for a Man Without Princi- 
 ple. With all the attachment which young pupils will 
 cherish even toward a bad teacher, and with all the 
 confidence they will repose in him, who can describe the 
 mischief which he can accomplish in one short term ? 
 The school is no place for a man without principle ; I 
 repeat, THE SCHOOL IS NO PLACE FOR A MAN WITHOUT 
 
 PRINCIPLE! Let such a man seek a livelihood any- 
 where else ; or, failing to gain it by other means, let
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 27 
 
 starvation seize the body, and send the soul back to its 
 Maker as it is, rather than he should incur the fearful 
 guilt of poisoning youthful minds and dragging them 
 down to his own pitiable level. If there can be one sin 
 greater than another, on which heaven frowns with more 
 awful displeasure it is that of leading the young into 
 principles of error and the debasing practices of vice. 
 
 "Oh, woe to those who trample on the mind, 
 That deathless thing ! They know not what they do, 
 Nor what they deal with. Man, perchance, may bind 
 The flower his step hath bruised ; or light anew 
 The torch he quenches ; or to music wind 
 Again the lyre-string from his touch that flew ; 
 But for the soul, oh, tremble and beware 
 To lay rude hands upon God's mysteries there ! " 
 
 Let then the teacher study well his motives when he 
 enters this profession, and so let him meet his responsi- 
 bility in this matter as to secure the approval of his own 
 conscience and his God. 
 
 Tfif teacher is to some extent responsible for the RELI- 
 GIOUS TRAINING of the young. 
 
 Religion Our Glory, Our Hope. We live in a Chris- 
 tian land. It is our glory, if not our boast, that we have 
 descended from an ancestry that feared God and rever- 
 enced his word. Very justly we attribute our superiority 
 as a people over those who dwell in the darker portions 
 of the world, to our purer faith derived from that preci- 
 ous fountain of truth the Bible. Very justly, too, does 
 the true patriot and philanthropist -rely upon our faith 
 and practice as a Christian people for the permanence of 
 our free institutions and our unequalled social privileges. 
 
 If we are so much indebted, then, to the Christian re- 
 ligion for what we are, and so much dependent upon its 
 life-giving truths for what we may hope to be, how im-
 
 28 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 portant is it that all our youth should be nurtured under 
 its influences ! 
 
 Avoid Sectarianism. When I say religious training, 
 I do not mean sectarianism. In our public schools, sup- 
 ported, at the public expense, and in which the children 
 of all denominations meet for instruction, I do not think 
 that any man has a right to crowd his own peculiar no- 
 tions of theology upon all, whether they are acceptable 
 or not. 
 
 Common Ground. Yet there is common ground 
 which the teacher can occupy, and to which no reason- 
 able man can object. He can teach a reverence for the 
 Supreme Being, a reverence for His Holy Word, for the 
 influences of His Spirit, for the character and teachings 
 of the Saviour, and for the momentous concerns of eter- 
 nity. He can teach the evil of sin in the sight of God, 
 and the awful consequences of it upon the individual. 
 He can teach the duty of repentance, and the privilege of 
 forgiveness. He can teach our duty to worship God, to 
 obey His laws, to seek the guidance of His Spirit, and 
 the salvation by His Son. He can illustrate the blessed- 
 ness of the divine life, the beauty of holiness, and the 
 joyful hope of heaven and to all this no reasonable 
 man will be found to object, so long as it is done in a 
 truly Christian spirit. 
 
 If not in express words, most certainly his life and ex- 
 ample should teach this. Man is a religious being. The 
 religious principle should be early cultivated. It should 
 be safely and carefully cultivated ; and, as this cultivation 
 is too often entirely neglected by parents, unless it is at- 
 tempted by the teacher, in many cases it will never be 
 effected at all,
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 29 
 
 Of course all those points which separate the commu- 
 nity into sects must be left to the family, the sabbath- 
 school, and the pulpit. The teacher is responsible for 
 his honesty in this matter. While he has no right to 
 lord it over the private conscience of any one, he is in- 
 excusable, if, believing the great truths of the Bible, he 
 puts them away as if they concerned him not. They 
 should command his faith, and govern his conduct; and 
 their claims upon the young should not be sowned. 
 
 Danger of Skepticism. At any rate, the teacher 
 should be careful that his teaching and his example do 
 not prejudice the youthful mind against these truths. 
 It is a hazardous thing for a man to be skeptical by him- 
 self, even when he locks his opinions up in the secrecy of 
 his own bosom. How great, then, is the responsibility of 
 teaching the young to look lightly upon the only Book 
 that holds out to us the faith of immortality, and opens 
 to us the hope of heaven ! Let the teacher well con- 
 sider this matter, and take heed that his teaching shall 
 never lead one child of earth away from his heavenly 
 Father, or from the rest of the righteous in the home of 
 the blest. 
 
 Inexcusable Indifference. In view of what has been 
 said, the young candidate for the teacher's office, almost 
 in despair of success, may exclaim, " Who is sufficient 
 for these things?" "Who can meet and sustain such 
 responsibility?" My answer is, the true inquirer after 
 duty will not go astray. He is insufficient for these 
 things who is self-confident, who has not yet learned his 
 own weakness, who has never found out his own faults, 
 and who rushes to this great work, as the unheeding 
 " horse rushes into the battle," not knowing whither he 
 goeth. Alas ! how many there are who enter this pro-
 
 30 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 fession without the exercise of a single thought of the 
 responsibleness of the position, or of any of the great 
 questions which must in their schools for the first time 
 be presented for their decision ! How many there are 
 who never reflect upon the influence of their example 
 before the young, and are scarcely conscious that their 
 example is of any consequence ! Such, in the highest 
 sense, will fail of success. How can they be expected to 
 go right, where there is only one right way, but a 
 thousand wrong ? Let such persons pause and consider, 
 before they assume responsibilities which they can 
 neither discharge nor evade. Let such ask with deep 
 solicitude, " Who is sufficient for these things ? " 
 
 The Honest Inquirer May Hope. But to the young 
 person really desirous of i -improvement ; to him who has 
 taken the first and important step toward knowledge, by 
 making the discovery that everything is not already 
 known ; to him who sees beforehand that there are real 
 difficulties in this profession, and who is not too proud 
 or self-conceited to feel the need of special preparation 
 to meet them ; to him who has some idea of the power 
 of example in the educator, and who desires most of all 
 things that his character shall be so pure as to render 
 his example safe ; to him who has discovered that there 
 are some deep mysteries in human nature, and that they 
 are only to be fathomed by careful study ; to him who 
 really feels that a great thing is to be done, and who has 
 the sincere desire to prepare himself to do it aright ; to 
 him, in short, who has the true spirit of the teacher, I 
 may say, there is nothing to fear. An honest mind, with 
 the requisite industry, is sufficient for these things.
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 81 
 
 SECTION III. THE AUBURN STATE PRISON. 
 
 Visit to the Prison. During my visit at Auburn in 
 the autumn of 1845, I was invited by a friend to visit 
 the prison, in which at that time were confined between 
 six and seven hundred convicts. I was first taken 
 through the various workshops, where the utmost neat- 
 ness and order prevailed. As I passed along, my eye 
 rested upon one after another of the convicts, I confess, 
 with a feeling of surprise. There were many good- 
 looking men. If, instead of their parti-colored dress, 
 they would have been clothed in the citizen's garb, I 
 should have thought them as good in appearance as 
 laboring men in general. And when, to their good 
 appearance, was added their attention to their work, their 
 ingenuity, and the neatness of their work-rooms, my own 
 mind began to press the inquiry, Why are these men here? 
 
 The Library. It was the afternoon of Saturday. 
 Many of them had completed their allotted work for the 
 week, and with happy faces were performing the 
 customary ablutions preparatory to the Sabbath. Pass- 
 ing on, we came to the library, a collection of suitable 
 books for the convicts, which are given out as a reward 
 for diligence to those who have seasonably and faithfully 
 performed their labor. Here were many who had come 
 to take their books. Their faces beamed with delight 
 as they each bore away the desired volume, just as I had 
 seen the faces of the happy and the free do before. 
 Why are these men here ? was again pressed upon me 
 why are these men here ? 
 
 Wyatt, the Murderer. At this time the famous 
 WYATT, since executed upon the gallows for his crime, 
 was in solitary confinement, awaiting his trial for the 
 murder of Gordon, a fellow-prisoner. I was permitted to
 
 32 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 enter his room. Chained to the floor, he was reclining 
 upon his mattress in the middle of his apartment. As I 
 approached him his large, black eye met mine. He was 
 a handsome man. His head was well developed, his 
 long, black hair hung upon his neck, and his eye was one 
 of the most intelligent I ever beheld. Had I seen him 
 in the senate among great men had I seen him in a 
 school of philosophers, or a brotherhood of poets, I 
 should probably have selected him as the most remark- 
 able man among them all, without suspecting his distinc- 
 tion to be a distinction of villainy. Why is that man 
 here? thought I, as I turned away to leave him to his 
 dreadful solitude. 
 
 Sabbath Morn. The morrow was the Sabbath. I 
 could not repress my desire to see the convicts brought 
 together for worship. At the hour of nine I entered 
 their chapel, and found them all seated in silence. I 
 was able to see most of the faces of this interesting con- 
 gregation. It was by no means the worst looking congre- 
 gation I had ever seen. There were evidently bad men 
 there ; but what congregation oifree men does not present 
 some such ? 
 
 Worship. They awaited in silence the commence- 
 ment of the service. When the morning hymn was read, 
 they joined in the song, the chorister being a colored 
 man of their own number. They sang as other congre- 
 gations sing, and my voice joined with theirs. The 
 Scripture was read. They gave a respectful attention. 
 The prayer was begun. Some bowed in apparent rever- 
 ence at the commencement. Others sat erect, and two 
 or three of these appeared to be the hardened sons of 
 crime. The chaplain's voice was of a deep, perhaps I 
 should say, a fatherly tone, and he seemed to have the
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 33 
 
 father's spirit. He prayed for these " wayward ones," 
 who were deprived of their liberty for their offences, but 
 whom God would welcome to His throne of mercy. He 
 prayed for their homes, and for their friends, who this 
 Jay would send their thoughts hither in remembrance of 
 those in bonds. He alluded to the scenes of their child- 
 hood, the solicitude of their early friends, and the 
 affection of their parents. When the words home, friend, 
 childhood were heard, several of those sturdy sons of 
 crime and wretchedness instinctively bowed their heads 
 and concealed their faces in their hands ; and as a 
 father s blessing and a mother's love were alluded to, more 
 than one of these outcasts from society were observed 
 to dash the scalding tear from the eye. These men 
 feel like other men why are hey here ? was again the 
 thought which forced itself upon my mind. 
 
 The Teachers of the Convicts. While the chaplin 
 proceeded to his sermon, in the midst of the silence 
 that pervaded the room, my mind ran back to their 
 educators. Once these men were children like others. 
 They had feelings like other children, affection, rever- 
 ence, teachableness, conscience why are they here? 
 Some, very likely, on account of their extraordinary 
 perversity ; but most because they had a wrong educa- 
 tion. More than half, undoubtedly, have violated the 
 laws of their country not from extraordinary vicious- 
 ness, but from the weakness of their moral principle. 
 Tempted just like other and better men, they fell, be- 
 cause in early childhood no one had cultivated and 
 strengthened the conscience God had given them. I 
 am not disposed to excuse the vices of men, nor to 
 screen them from merited punishment ; neither do I 
 worship a " painted morality," based solely upon educa-
 
 34 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 tion, thus leaving nothing for the religion of the Bible 
 to accomplish by purifying the heart, that fountain of 
 wickedness; yet how many of these men might have 
 been saved to society ; how many of them have powers 
 which, under different training, might have adorned and 
 blessed their race ; how many of them may date their 
 fall to the evil influence and poisonous example of some 
 guide of their childhood, some recreant teacher of their 
 early days God only knows ! But what a responsi- 
 bility still rests upon the head of any such teacher, if 
 he did not know, or did not try to know, the avenue to 
 their hearts ; if he did not feel or try to feel the worth 
 of moral principle to these very fallen ones ! And what 
 would be his feelings if he could look back through the 
 distant days of the past, and count up exactly the 
 measure of his own faithfulness and of his own neglect ? 
 This the All-seeing Eye alone can do this He who 
 looketh upon the heart ever does ! 
 
 View to the Final Judgment. Teachers, go forth, 
 then, conscious of your responsibility to your pupils, 
 conscious of your accountability to God, go forth, and 
 teach this people ; and endeavor so to teach, that when 
 you meet your pupils, not in the walks of life merely, 
 not perhaps in the Auburn Prison, not indeed upon the 
 shores of time, but at the final Judgment, where you 
 must meet them all, you may be able to give a good ac- 
 count of the influence which you have exerted over mind. 
 As it may then be forever too late to correct your errors 
 and efface any injury done, study now to act the part of 
 wisdom and the part of love. 
 
 Study to Know, and to Do. Study the human heart 
 by studying the workings of your own ; seek carefully 
 the avenues to the affections ; study those higher mo-
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 85 
 
 tives which elevate and ennoble the soul ; cultivate that 
 purity which shall allure the wayward, by bright example, 
 from the paths of error, imbue your own souls with the 
 love of teaching and the greatness of your work ; rely 
 not alone upon yourselves, as if by your own wisdom 
 and might you could do this great thing ; but seek that 
 direction which our heavenly Father never withholds from 
 the honest inquirer after His guidance and though the 
 teacher's work is, and ever must be, attended with over- 
 whelming responsibility, YOU WILL BE SUFFICIENT FOR 
 THESE THINGS.
 
 86 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 PERSONAL HABITS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Importance of Good Habits. The importance of 
 correct habits to any individual cannot be overrated. 
 The influence of the teacher is so great upon the 
 children under his care, either for good or evil, that it 
 is of the utmost importance to them as well as to him- 
 self that his habits should be unexceptionable. It is 
 the teacher's sphere to improve the community in 
 which he moves, not only in learning, but in morals 
 and manners ; in everything that is " lovely and of 
 good report." This he may do partly by precept but 
 very much by example. He teaches, wherever he is. 
 His manners, his appearance, his character, are all the 
 subject of observation, and to a great extent of imita- 
 tion, by the young in his district. He is observed not 
 only in the school, but in the family, in the social 
 gathering, and in the religious meeting. How desira- 
 ble, then, that he should be a modelin all things ! 
 
 The Teacher a Model. Man has been said to be a 
 " bundle of habits :" and it has been as pithily remarked, 
 " Happy is the man whose habits are his friends." It 
 were well if all persons, before they become teachers, 
 would attend carefully to the formation of their per- 
 sonal habits. This, unhappily, is not always done 
 and, therefore, I shall make no apology for introducing 
 in this place some very plain remarks on what I deem 
 the essentials among the habits of the teacher.
 
 PERSONAL HABITS OF THE TEACHER. 37 
 
 I. Neatness. 
 
 Cleanliness. This implies cleanliness of the person. 
 If some who assume to teach were not proverbial for 
 their slovenliness, I would not dwell on this point. On 
 this point, however, I must be allowed great plainness of 
 speech, even at the expense of incurring the charge of 
 excessive nicety ; for it is by attending to a few little 
 things that one becomes a strictly neat person. The 
 morning ablution, then, should never be omitted, and 
 the comb for the hair, and brush for the clothes should 
 always be called into requisition before the teacher pre. 
 sents himself to the family, or to his school. Every 
 teacher would very much promote his own health by 
 washing the whole surface of the body every morning in 
 cold water. This is now done by very many of the most 
 enlightened teachers, as well as others. When physi- 
 ology is better understood, this practice will be far more 
 general. To no class of persons is it more essential than 
 to the teacher; for on account of his confinement, often 
 in an unventilated room, with half a hundred children 
 during the day, very much more is demanded of the 
 exhalents in him than in others. His only safety is in a 
 healthy action of the skin. 
 
 Care for the Teeth and Nails. The teeth should be 
 attended to. A brush and clean water have saved many 
 a set of teeth. It is bad enough to witness the deplor- 
 able neglect of these important organs so prevalent in 
 the community ; but it is extremely mortifying to see a 
 filthy set of teeth in the mouth of the teacher of our 
 youth. The nails, too, I am sorry to say, are often 
 neglected by some of our teachers, till their ebony tips 
 are anything but ornamental f This matter is made 
 worse, when, in the presence of the family or of the
 
 38 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 school, the penknife is brought into requisition to remove 
 that which should have received attention at the time 
 of washing in the morning. The teacher should remem- 
 ber that it is a vulgar habit to pare or clean the nails 
 while in the presence of others, and especially during 
 conversation with them. 
 
 Neat Dress. The teacher should be neat in his dress. 
 I do not urge that his dress should be expensive. His 
 income ordinarily will not admit of this. He may wear 
 a very plain dress ; nor should it be any way singular in 
 its fashion. All I ask is, that his clothing should be in 
 good taste, and always clean. A slovenly dress, covered 
 with dust, or spotted with grease, is never so much out 
 of its proper place as when it clothes the teacher. 
 
 Habit of Using Tobacco. While upon this subject I 
 may be indulged in a word or two upon the use of tobacco 
 by the teacher. It is quite a puzzle to me to tell why 
 any man but a Turk, who may lawfully dream away half 
 his existence over the fumes of this filthy narcotic, should 
 ever use it. Even if there were nothing wrong in the 
 use of unnatural stimulants themselves, the filthiness of 
 tobacco is enough to condemn it among teachers, espec- 
 ially in the form of chewing. It is certainly worth while 
 to ask whether there is not some moral delinquency in 
 teaching this practice to the young, while it is admitted, 
 by nearly all who have fallen into the habit, to be an 
 evil, and one from which they would desire to be de- 
 livered. At any rate, I hope the time is coming when 
 the good taste of teachers, and a regard for personal 
 neatness and the comfort of others, shall present motives 
 sufficiently strong to induce them to break away from a 
 practice at once so unreasonable and so disgusting.
 
 PERSONAL HABITS OF THE TEACHER. 39 
 
 II. Order. 
 
 Order, System. In this place I refer to that system 
 and regularity so desirable in every teacher. He should 
 practice it in his room at his boarding-house. Every- 
 thing should have its place. His books, his clothing, 
 should all be arranged with regard to this principle. The 
 same habit should go with him to the school-room. His 
 desk there should be a pattern of orderly arrangement. 
 Practicing this himself, he may with propriety insist upon 
 it in his pupils. It is of great moment to the teacher, 
 that, when he demands order and arrangement among 
 his pupils, they cannot appeal to any breach of it in his 
 own practice. 
 
 III. Courtesy. 
 
 Courtesy of Language. The teacher should ever be 
 courteous, both in his language and in his manners. 
 Courtesy of language may imply a freedom from all 
 coarseness. There is a kind of communication, used 
 among boatmen and hangers-on at bar-rooms, which 
 should find no place in the teacher's vocabulary. All 
 vulgar jesting, all double-entendres, all low allusions, 
 should be forever excluded from his mouth. And pro. 
 fanity ! can it be necessary that I should speak of this 
 as among the habits of the teacher ? Yes, it is even so. 
 Such is the want of moral cense in the community, that 
 men are still employed in some districts whose ordinary 
 conversation is poisoned with the breath of blasphemy ; 
 ay, and even the walls of the school-room resound to un- 
 disguised oaths ! I cannot find words to express my 
 astonishment at the indifference of parents, or at the 
 recklessness of teachers, wherever I know such cases to 
 exist.
 
 40 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Purity and Accuracy. Speaking of the language of 
 the teacher, I might urge also that it should be both/wr* 
 and accuratt. Pure as distinguished from all those cant 
 phrases and provincialisms which amuse the vulgar in 
 certain localities ; and accurate as to the terms used to 
 express his meaning. As the teacher teaches in this, as in 
 everything, by example as well as by precept, he should 
 be very careful to acquire an unexceptionable use of our 
 language, and never deviate from it in the hearing of his 
 pupils or elsewhere. 
 
 Courtesy of Manner. There is a courtesy of manner 
 also, which should characterize the teacher. This is not 
 that ridiculons obsequiousness which some persons 
 assume, when they would gain the good opinion of 
 others. It is true politeness. By politeness I do not 
 mean any particular form of words, nor any prescribed 
 or prescribable mode of action. It does not consist in 
 bowing according to any approved plan, nor in a com- 
 pliance simply with the formulas of etiquette in the 
 fashionable world. True politeness is founded in benev- 
 olence. Its law is embodied in the golden rule of the 
 Saviour : " Whatsoever ye would that men should do to 
 you, do ye even so unto them." It is the exercise of real 
 kindness. It entertains a just regard for the feelings of 
 others, and seeks to do for them what would make them 
 really happy. 
 
 Politeness in the Teacher. The teacher should 
 possess this quality. Whenever he meets a child, it 
 should be with the looks and words of kindness. When- 
 ever he receives any token of regard from a pupil, he 
 should acknowledge it in the true spirit of politeness. 
 Whenever he meets a pupil in the street, or in a public 
 place, he should cordially recognize him. In this way
 
 PERSONAL HABITS OF THE TEACHER. 41 
 
 and a thousand others, which, if he have the right spirit, 
 will cost him nothing, he will cultivate true courtesy in 
 his pupils. He can do it in this way more effectually 
 than he can by formally lecturing upon the subject. 
 
 True politeness will always win its true reciprocation. 
 Two teachers were once walking together in the streets 
 of a large town in New England. Several lads whom 
 they met on the sidewalk raised their caps as they 
 exchanged the common salutations with one of the 
 teachers. " What boys are these that pay you such 
 attention as they pass ? n inquired the other. " They are 
 my scholars," answered his friend. " Your scholars ! 
 Why, how do you teach them to be so very polite ? Mine 
 are pretty sure never to look at me, and generally they 
 take care to be on the other side of the street." " I am 
 unable to tell," said his friend ; " I never say anything 
 about it. I usually bow to them, and they are as ready 
 to bow to me." The whole secret consisted in this 
 teacher's meeting his pupils in the spirit of kindness. 
 
 Manners Neglected. I would not, however, discour- 
 age a teacher from actually inculcating good manners by 
 precept. It should indeed be done. The manners of 
 pupils are too much neglected in most of our schools, 
 and, I am sorry to say, in most of our families. Our 
 youth are growing up with all the independence of sturdy 
 young republicans ; and, in their pride of freedom from 
 governmental restraint, they sometimes show a want of 
 respect for their seniors and superiors, which is quite 
 mortifying to all lovers of propriety. It is the teacher's 
 province to counteract this; and in order to do it well he 
 should possess the virtue of true courtesy, both in theory 
 and practice.
 
 42 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 IV. Punctuality. 
 
 The Teacher Should be Punctual. This, as a habit, 
 is essential to the teacher. He should be punctual in 
 everything. He should always be present at or before 
 the time for opening the school. A teacher who goes 
 late to school once a week, or even once a month, cannot 
 very well enforce the punctual attendance of his pupils. 
 I once knew a man who for seven long years was never 
 late at school a single minute, and seldom did he fail to 
 reach his place more than five minutes before the time. 
 I never knew but one such. I have known scores who 
 were frequently tardy, and sometimes by the space of a 
 whole hour! 
 
 Dismiss Punctually. A teacher should be as punctual 
 in dismissing as in opening his school. I know that some 
 make a virtue of keeping their schools beyond the 
 regular hours. I have always considered this a very 
 questionable virtue. If a teacher wishes to stay beyond 
 his time, it should be either with delinquents, who have 
 some lessons to make up, or with those who voluntarily 
 remain. But, after all, if he has been strictly punctual to 
 the hours assigned for his various duties in school, there 
 will scarcely be the necessity for him, or any of his pupils 
 to remain beyond the time for dismission ; and as a 
 general rule, a regard both for his own health and theirs 
 should forbid this. It is better to work diligently, while 
 one does work, and not to protract the time of labor, so 
 as to destroy one's energy for to-morrow. 
 
 This habit of punctuality should run through every- 
 thing. He should be punctual at all engagements ; he 
 should be studiously so in all the detail of school exer- 
 cises ; he should be so at his meals, at his private studies, 
 at his hour of retiring at night, and of rising in the
 
 PERSONAL HABITS OF THE TEACHER. 43 
 
 morning, and also at his exercise and recreation. This 
 is necessary to a truly exemplary character, and it is 
 equally as necessary to good health. 
 
 V. Habits of Study. 
 
 Time for Regular Study. Unless the teacher takes 
 care to furnish his own mind, he will soon find his present 
 stock of knowledge, however liberal that may be, fading 
 from his memory and becoming unavailable. To prevent 
 this, and to keep along with every improvement, he 
 should regularly pursue a course of study. I say regu- 
 larly ; for, in order to accomplish anything really desira- 
 ble, he must do something every day. By strict system 
 in all his arrangements, he may find time to do it ; and 
 whenever I am told by a teacher that he cannot find time 
 to study, I always infer that there is a want of order 
 in his arrangements, or a want of punctuality in the 
 observance of that order. Human life, indeed, is short ; 
 but most men still further abridge the period allotted to 
 them by a disregard of system. 
 
 A High Standard. What has now been said, upon 
 the teacher s spirit, the teacher's responsibility, and the 
 teacher's personal habits, will embody perhaps my views 
 upon the character of the individual, who may be encour- 
 aged to engage in the work of teaching. Nor do I think 
 the requirements in this department have been overstated. 
 I know, indeed, that too many exercise the teacher's 
 functions without the teacher's spirit, as here described, 
 and without the sense of responsibility here insisted on, 
 and with habits entirely inconsistent with those here 
 required. But this does not prove that such teachers 
 have chosen the right calling, or that the children under
 
 44 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 their care are under safe and proper guidance. It proves 
 rather that parents and school officers have too often 
 neglected to be vigilant, or that suitable teachers could 
 not be had. 
 
 Excelsior ! Let none think of lowering the standard 
 to what has been, or what may even now be, that of a 
 majority of those who are engaged in this profession. 
 Every young teacher's eye should be directed to the very 
 best model in this work ; and he should never be satisfied 
 with bare mediocrity. EXCELSIOR, the motto of the 
 Empire State, may well be the motto of the young 
 teacher.
 
 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 45 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS OF THE 
 . TEACHER. 
 
 Profession Advancing, so is the Pay. I am now 
 about to enter an extensive field. Since the teacher is 
 to be the life of the school, it is of great consequence 
 that he have within him the means of sustaining life. 
 
 As the statute in many of the states prescribe the 
 minimum of attainment for the teacher, I might per- 
 haps spare myself the labor of writing on this point. 
 Yet in a thorough work on the Theory and Practice of 
 Teaching, this very properly comes under consideration. 
 
 The profession of teaching is advancing. The pres- 
 ent standard of acquirement demanded of the teacher 
 excludes many who were considered quite respectable in 
 their vocation ten years ago. This may well be so ; for, 
 within that time, quite an advance has been made in 
 the compensation offered to teachers. It is but reasona- 
 ble that acquirement should keep pace with the reward 
 of it. Indeed the talent and attainment brought into 
 the field must always be in advance of the rate of com- 
 pensation. The people must be first convinced that 
 teachers are better than they were years ago, and then 
 they will be ready to reward them. In Massachusetts, 
 according to statistics in the possession of the Hon. 
 Horace Mann, Secretary of the Board of Education, the 
 compensation of teachers within ten years has advanced 
 thirty-three per cent. ; nor is it reasonable to suppose
 
 46 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 that this advance has been made, fndependent of any 
 improvement among the teachers. Their system of 
 supervision has increased in strictness, during this time, 
 in an equal ratio ; and many teachers, who were entirely 
 incompetent for their places, have thus been driven to 
 other employments. The cause is still onward ; and 
 the time is not far distant when the people will demand 
 still more thorough teachers for the common schools, 
 and they will find it for their interest to pay for them. 
 
 What a Teacher Ought to Know. Under these 
 circumstances it will not be my design to give the very 
 lowest qualifications for a teacher at present. I shall aim 
 to describe those which a teacher ought to possess, in order 
 to command, for some time to come, the respect of the 
 enlightened part of the community. I will not say that 
 a man, with less attainment than I shall describe, may 
 not keep a good school ; I have no doubt that many do. 
 Yet if our profession is to be really respectable, and 
 truly deserving of the regard of an enlightened people, 
 we must have a still higher standard of qualification than 
 I shall now insist on. The following is a list of the 
 studies of which every teacher should have a competent 
 knowledge. I add, also, to each, such word of comment 
 as appears to be necessary : 
 
 I. Orthography. This implies something more than 
 mere spelling. Spelling is certainly indispensable. No 
 person should ever think of teaching who is not an 
 accurate speller. But the nature and powers of letters 
 should also be mastered. We have in our language about 
 forty elementary sounds ; yet we have but twenty-six 
 characters to represent them. Our alphabet is therefore 
 imperfect. This imperfection is augmented by the fact 
 that several of the letters are employed each to represent
 
 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 47 
 
 several different sounds. In other cases, two letters 
 combined represent the element. There are also letters, 
 as c, q, and x, which have no sound that is not fully 
 represented by other letters. Then a very large number 
 of our letters are silent in certain positions, while they 
 are fully sounded in others. It were much to be desired 
 that we might have a per fee* alphabet ; that is, as many 
 characters as we have elementary sounds, and that each 
 letter should have but one^sound. For the present this 
 cannot be ; and the present generation of teachers, at 
 least, will have to teach our present orthography. Those 
 systems of orthography are much to be preferred which 
 begin with the elementary sounds, and then present the 
 letters as their representatives, together with the practice 
 of analyzing words into their elements, thus showing at 
 once the silent letters and the equivalents. These systems 
 may be taught in half the time that the old systems can 
 be, and when acquired they are of much greater practical 
 utility to the learner. 
 
 2. Reading. Every teacher should be a good reader. 
 Not more than one in every hundred among teachers 
 can now be called a good reader. To be able to read 
 well implies a quick perception of the meaning as well 
 as a proper enunciation of the words It is a branch but 
 poorly taught in most of our schools. Many of the 
 older pupils get above reading before they have learned 
 to read well ; and, unfortunately, many of our teachers 
 cannot awaken an interest in the subject, because very 
 likely they cannot read any better than their scholars. 
 
 It would be interesting to ascertain how large a pro- 
 portion of our youth leave the schools without acquiring 
 the power readily to take the sense of any common 
 paragraph which they may attempt to read. I am
 
 48 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 inclined to think the number is not small. 1 In this way 
 I account for the fact that so many cease to read as soon 
 as they leave school. It costs them so much effort to 
 decipher the meaning of a book, that it counteracts the 
 desire for the gratification and improvement it might 
 otherwise afford. It should not be so. The teacher 
 should be a model of good reading : he should be 
 enthusiastic in this branch, and never rest till he has 
 excited the proper interest in it among the pupils, from 
 the oldest to the youngest, in the school. 
 
 It would be well if our teachers could be somewhat 
 acquainted with the Latin and Greek languages, as this 
 would afford them great facilities in comprehending and 
 defining many of our own words. As this cannot be ex- 
 pected for the present, a substitute may be sought in 
 some analysis of our derivative words. Several works 
 have somewhat recently been prepared to supply, as far 
 as may be the wants of those who have not studied the 
 classics. I should advise every teacher, for his own bene- 
 fit, to master some one of these. 
 
 i Since writing the above, my eye nas taflen upon the following:, from the 
 Second Annual Report of the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Educa- 
 tion : "I have devoted," says Mr. Mann, "especial pains to learn, with some 
 degree of numerical accuracy, how far the reading in our schools is an exercise 
 of the mind in thinking and feeling, and how far it is a barren action of the 
 organs of speech upon the atmosphere. My information is derived principally 
 from the written statements of the school committees of the different towns- 
 gentlemen who are certainly exempt from all temptation to disparage the 
 schools they superintend. The result is that more than eleven-twelfths of all 
 the children in the reading classes in our schools do not understand the mean- 
 ing of the words they read ; that they do not master the sense of their reading 
 lessons ; and that the ideas and feelings intended by the author to be conveyed 
 to and excited in the reader's mind, still rest in the author's intention, never 
 having yet reached the place of their destination. It would hardly seem that 
 the combined efforts of all persons engaged could have accomplisned more in 
 defeating the true objects of reading. How the cause of this deficiency is to 
 bo apportioned among the legal supervisors of the schools, parents, teachers, 
 and authors of text-books, it Is impossible to say but surely it is an evil 
 gratuitous, widely prevalent, and threatening the most alarming consequences."
 
 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACIIKR. 49 
 
 3. Writing. It is not respectable for the teacher of 
 the young to be a bad writer ; nor can it ever become so 
 even should the majority of bad writers continue to in- 
 crease. The teacher should take great pains to write a 
 plain, legible hand. This is an essential qualification. 
 
 4. Geography. A knowledge of the principles of 
 Geography is essential. This implies an acquaintance 
 with the use of globes, and the art of map-drawing. 
 The teacher should be so well versed in geography that, 
 with an outline map of any country before him, he could 
 give an intelligent account of its surface, people, re- 
 sources, history, etc.; and if the outline map were not at 
 hand, he ought to be able to draw one from memory 
 at least, of each of the grand divisions of the earth, and 
 of the United States. 
 
 5. History. The teacher should be acquainted with 
 history at least, the history of the United States. He 
 can hardly teach geography successfully without a com- 
 petent knowledge of both ancient and modern history. 
 It should, in the main, be taught in our common schools 
 in connection with geography. 
 
 6. Mental Arithmetic. Let every teacher be thor- 
 oughly versed in some good work on this subject. Col- 
 burn's was the first, and it is probably the best, that has 
 been prepared. That little book has done more than any 
 other for the improvement of teaching in this country. It 
 is not enough that the teacher is able in some way to ob- 
 tain the answers to the questions proposed. He should 
 be able to give, in a clear and concise manner, the reason 
 for every step in the process he takes to obtain them. It 
 is this which constitutes the value of this branch as a 
 discipline for the mind.
 
 50 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 I may never forget my first introduction to this work. 
 On entering an academy as a student in 1827, after I had 
 " ciphered through " some four or five arithmetics on the 
 old plan, my teacher asked me if I had ever studied 
 Mental Arithmetic, extending to me the little book above 
 named. " No, sir." " Perhaps you would like to do 
 so." I opened to the first page, and saw this question : 
 " How many thumbs have you on your right hand ?" 
 This was enough ; the color came into my face, and I 
 pettishly replied : " I think I can find out the number of 
 my thumbs without studying a book for it." " But," said 
 the teacher, " many of our young men have studied it, 
 and they think they have been profited. If you will 
 take it and turn over till you find a little exercise for your 
 mind, I think you will like it." His manner was open 
 and sincere, and I took the little book. In three weeks 
 I had mastered it; and I had gained in that time more 
 knowledge of the principles of arithmetic than I had 
 ever acquired in all my life before. I no longer " saw 
 through a glass darkly." 
 
 7. Written Arithmetic. This everybody demands of 
 the teacher; and he is scarcely in danger of being with- 
 out fair pretensions in this branch. He should, however, 
 know it by its principles, rather than by its rules and 
 facts. He should so understand it that, if every arith- 
 metic in the world should be burned, he could still make 
 another, constructing its rules and explaining their prin- 
 ciples. He should understand arithmetic so well that he 
 could teach it thoroughly though all text-books should 
 be excluded from his schoolroom. This is not demand- 
 ing too much. Arithmetic is a certain science, and used 
 every day of one's life the teacher should be an e-ntire 
 master of it.
 
 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 51 
 
 8. English Grammar. It is rare that a teacher is 
 found without some pretensions to English Grammar ; 
 yet it is deplorable to observe how very few have any 
 liberal or philosophical acquaintance with it. In many 
 cases it is little else than a system of barren technicali- 
 ties. The teacher studies one book and too often takes 
 that as his creed. In no science is it more necessary to 
 be acquainted with several authors. The person who 
 has studied but one text-book on grammar, even if that 
 be the best one extant, is but poorly qualified to teach 
 this branch. There is a philosophy of language which 
 the teacher should carefully study ; and if within his 
 power, he should have some acquaintance with the 
 peculiar structure of other languages besides his 1 own. It 
 can hardly be expected that the common teacher should 
 acquire an accurate knowledge of other languages by 
 actually studying them. In this science the mind 
 naturally runs to bigotry ; and there is no science where 
 the learner is apt to be so conceited upon small acquire- 
 ments as in grammar, Let the teacher spare no pains to 
 master this subject. 
 
 9. Algebra. This, branch is not yet required to be 
 taught in all our schools yet the teacher should have a 
 thorough acquaintance with it. Even if he is never 
 called upon to teach it (and it never should be intro- 
 duced into our common schools till very thorough attain- 
 ments are more common in other branches), still it so 
 much improves the mind of the teacher that he should 
 not be without a knowledge of it. He will teach simple 
 arithmetic much better for knowing algebra. I consider 
 an acquaintance with it indispensable to the thorough 
 teacher, even of the common school
 
 52 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 10. Geometry. The same may be said of this branch 
 that has been said of algebra. Probably nothing disci- 
 plines the mind more effectually than the study of 
 geometry. The teacher should pursue it for this reason. 
 He will teach other things the better for having had 
 this discipline, to say nothing of the advantage which a 
 knowledge of the principles of geometry will give him. 
 in understanding and explaining the branches of mathe- 
 matics. 
 
 11. Plane Trigonometry and Surveying. In many 
 of our schools these branches are required to be taught 
 They are important branches in themselves, and they 
 also afford good exercise for the mind in their acquisi- 
 tion. The young teacher, especially the male teacher^ 
 should make the acquirement. 
 
 12. Natural Philosophy This branch is not taught 
 in most of our district schools. The teache^ however, 
 should understand it better than it is presented in 
 many of the simple text-books on this subject. He 
 should have studied the philosophy of its principles, and 
 be fully acquainted with their demonstration. If pos- 
 sible, he should have had an opportunity also of seeing 
 the principles illustrated by experiment. This is a 
 great field ; let not the teacher be satisfied with crop- 
 ping a little of the herbage about its borders 
 
 13. Chemistry. As a matter of intelligence, the 
 teacher should have acquaintance with this branch It 
 is comparatively a new science, but it is almost a science 
 of miracles. It is beginning to be taught in our com- 
 mon schools ; and that department of it which relates to 
 agriculture is destined to be of vast importance to the 
 agricultural interests of our country " Instead of con- 
 jecture, and hazard, and doubt, and experiment, as here-
 
 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 58 
 
 tofore, a knowledge of the composition of soils, the food 
 of plants, and the processes of nature in the culture 
 and growth of crops would elevate agriculture to a con- 
 spicuous rank among the exact sciences." * The teacher 
 should not be behind the age in this department. 
 
 14. Human Physiology. The teacher should well 
 understand this subject. There is an unpardonable 
 ignorance in the community as to the structure of the 
 human body, and the laws of health, the observance of 
 which is, in general, a condition of longevity, not to say 
 of exemption from disease. By reference to statistics, it 
 has been ascertained that almost a fourth part of all the 
 children that are born die before they are one year old. 
 More than one-third die before they are five years of age ; 
 and, before the age of eight, more than one-half "of all that 
 are born return again to the earth ! Of those who 
 survive, how many suffer the miseries of lingering disease, 
 almost sighing for death to deliver them from the pangs 
 of life ! There is something deplorably wrong in our 
 philosophy of living, else the condition of man would 
 not so commonly appear an exception to the truth that 
 God does all things well.* Dr. Woodward, late of the 
 Massachusetts State Lunatic Hospital, says : " From the 
 cradle to the grave, we suffer punishment for the viola- 
 tion of the laws of health and life. I have no doubt that 
 
 i Colonel Young. 
 
 a " It is the vast field of ignorance pertaining to these subjects in which 
 Quackery thrives and fattens. No one who knows anything of the organs and 
 functions of the human system, and of the properties of those objects in nature 
 to which that system is related, can hear a quack descant upon the miraculous 
 virtues of his nostrums, or can read his advertisements in the newspapers, 
 wherein fraudulently towards man and impiously towards God, he promises to 
 sell an ' Elixir of Life,' or ' The Balm of Immortality,' or ' Resurrection Pills,' 
 without contempt for his ignorance or detestation of his guilt. Could the quack 
 administer his nostrums to the great enemy, Daath, then indeed we might expect 
 to live forever !" HORACE MANN.
 
 54 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 half the evils of life, and Jialf the deaths that occur 
 among mankind, arise from ignorance of these natural 
 laws ; and that a thorough knowledge of them would 
 diminish the sufferings incident to our present state of 
 being in very nearly the same proportion." I know not 
 how an acquaintance with these laws can be in any way 
 so readily extended as through the agency of our teachers 
 of the young. At any rate, the teacher himself should 
 understand them, both for his own profit and the means 
 thus afforded him of being directly useful in the discharge 
 of his duties to others. I. have already shown that he is 
 responsible to a great extent for the bodily health of his 
 pupils. A thorough knowledge of physiology will enable 
 him to meet this responsibility. 
 
 15. Intellectual Philosophy. This is necessary for 
 the teacher. His business is with the mind. He, of all 
 men, should know something of its laws and its nature. 
 He can know something, indeed, by observation and 
 introspection ; but he should also learn by careful study. 
 His own improvement demands it, and his usefulness 
 depends upon it. 
 
 16. Moral Philosophy. A knowledge of this may be 
 insisted on for the same reasons which apply to intel- 
 lectual philosophy. It is so important that the moral 
 nature of the child be rightly dealt with, that he is a pre- 
 sumptuous man who attempts the work without the 
 most careful attention to this subject. 
 
 17. Rhetoric and Logic. These are of great service 
 to the teacher personally, as means of mental discipline 
 and the cultivation of his own taste. Even if he is never 
 to teach them, they will afford him much assistance in 
 other departments of instruction. He certainly should 
 have the advantage of them.
 
 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 55 
 
 1 8. Book-keeping. Every teacher should know some- 
 thing of book-keeping, at least by single entry ; and also 
 be conversant with the ordinary forms of business. The 
 profound ignorance on this subject among teachers 
 is truly astonishing. 1 Book-keeping should be a com- 
 mon school study. In looking over the able report of 
 the Superintendent of Common Schools in New York, I 
 notice in fifty-three counties, during the winter of 1845- 
 46, that among 225,540 pupils in the common schools 
 only 922 studied book-keeping ! This is a study which 
 in practical life comes home to the interest not only of 
 every merchant, but of every farmer, every mechanic, 
 in short every business man, is almost entirely neg- 
 lected in the schools ; while it is yet true that our courts 
 of justice display evidences of the most deplorable ig- 
 norance in this important art. Some still keep their 
 accounts on bits of paper; others use books, but without 
 any system, order, or intelligibility ; and others still 
 mark their scores in chalk, or charcoal, upon the panel of 
 the cellar door ! 
 
 The teacher should qualify himself not only to under- 
 stand this subject, but to teach it in such a way that it 
 can be easily comprehended by the classes in our com- 
 mon schools. 
 
 19, Science of Government. The teacher should at 
 least be well acquainted with the history and genius 
 of our own government, the constitution of the United 
 
 ' A teacher, who had kept a private school, was met in a country store one 
 day by one of his patrons, who paid him for the tuition of his child, asking at 
 the same time for a receipt. The teacher stared vacantly at his patron. 
 "Just give me a bit of paper, 1 ' said the patron, "to show you've got the 
 money." "Oh, yes, sir," said the teacher ; and, taking a pen and paper, wrot 
 
 the following : 
 
 "fS^ I have got the money.
 
 56 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 States, and of his own state. In a republican govern- 
 ment it is of great importance that the young, who are 
 to take an active part in public measures as soon as they 
 arrive at the age of twenty-one, should before that time 
 be made acquainted with some of their duties and rela- 
 tions as citizens. This subject has been introduced suc- 
 cessfully into many of our common schools ; but whether 
 it is to be matter of formal teaching or not, it is a dis- 
 grace 1 to a teacher and to his profession to be ignorant 
 of the provisions of the constitution for the mode of 
 choosing our rulers. 
 
 20. Drawing. The good teacher should understand 
 the principles of drawing. He should also be able to 
 practice this art. It is of great consequence to him. 
 Without neglect of other things, children can be very 
 profitably taught this art in the common schools. In 
 the absence of apparatus, it is the teacher's only way of 
 addressing the eye of his pupils in illustrating his teach- 
 ing. Every teacher should take pains, not only to draw, 
 but to draw well. 
 
 21. Vocal Music. It is not absolutely essential, though 
 very desirable, to the good teacher, that he should un- 
 derstand music, theoretically and practically. Music is 
 becoming an exercise in our best schools, and wherever 
 introduced and judiciously conducted it has been at- 
 tended with pleasing results. It promotes good reading 
 and speaking, by disciplining the ear to distinguish 
 sounds; and it also facilitates the cultivation of the 
 
 i Not long since a teacher of a public school afforded lasting amusement for 
 the hangers-on at a country grocery. He was jeered for belonging to the 
 Whig party, by which Mr. Tyler was brought into power. "No, no," said he, 
 " I voted for Gen. Harrison, but / never voted for John Tyler" ' How did you 
 do that ?" inquired a bystander. " Why, I cut Tyler's name off of the ticket, to 
 be sure !"
 
 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 57 
 
 finer feelings of our nature. It aids very much in the 
 government of the school, as its exercise gives vent to 
 that restlessness which otherwise would find an escape- 
 ment in boisterous noise and whispering and thus it 
 often proves a safety-valve, through which a love of voci- 
 feration and activity may pass off in a more harmless 
 and a more pleasing way. " The schoolmaster that can- 
 not sing,' says Martin Luther, " I would not look upon." 
 Perhaps this language is too strong; but it is usually 
 more pleasant to look upon a school where the school- 
 master can sing. 
 
 ' General Knowledge Desirable. I have thus gone 
 through with a list of studies which, it seems to me, 
 every one who means to be a good teacher, even of a 
 common school, should make himself acquainted with. 
 I would not condemn a teacher who, having other good 
 qualities, and a thorough scholarship as far as he has 
 gone, might lack several of the branches above named. 
 There have been many good teachers without all this 
 attainment ; but how much better they might have been 
 with it ! 
 
 I have made this course of study as limited as I pos- 
 sibly could, taking into view the present condition and 
 wants of our schools. No doubt, even more will be de- 
 manded in a few years. I would have the present race 
 ot teachers so good that they shall be looked upon by 
 those who succeed them as their " worthy and efficient 
 predecessors." 
 
 Self-improvement. I ought, in this place, to add 
 that the teacher increases his influence, and conse- 
 quently his usefulness, in proportion as he makes him- 
 self conversant with general knowledge. This is too 
 much neglected. The teacher, by the fatigue of his
 
 58 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 employment, and the circumstances of his life, is 
 strongly tempted to content himself with what he al- 
 ready knows, or at best confine himself to the study 
 of those branches which he is called upon to teach. He 
 should stoutly resist this temptation. He should always 
 have some course of study marked out which he will 
 systematically pursue. He should, as soon as possible, 
 make himself acquainted generally with the subject of 
 astronomy, the principles of geology in short, the vari- 
 ous branches of natural history. He will find one field 
 after another open before him, and if he will but have 
 the perseverance to press forward, even in the laborious 
 occupation of teaching, he may make himself a well- 
 informed man. 
 
 A Suggestion. I will venture one other suggestion, 
 I have found it a most profitable thing in the promotion 
 of my own improvement, to take up annually, oroftener, 
 some particular subject to be pursued with reference to 
 writing an extended lecture upon it. This gives point 
 to the course of reading, and keeps the interest fixed 
 When the thorough investigation has been made, let 
 the lecture be written from memory, embodying all the 
 prominent points, and presenting them in the most 
 striking and systematic manner. It should be done 
 too, with reference to accuracy and even elegance of 
 style, so that the composition may be yearly improved. 
 In this way certain subjects are forever fixed in the 
 mind. One who carefully reads for a definite object 
 and afterwards writes the results from memory, never 
 loses his hold upon the facts thus appropriated.
 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 59 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The True Ideal. Every teacher, before he be- 
 gins the work of instruction, should have some defi- 
 nite idea of what constitutes an education ; otherwise 
 he may work to very little purpose. The painter, who 
 would execute a beautiful picture, must have beforehand 
 a true and clear conception of beauty in his own mind. 
 The same may be said of the sculptor. That rude block 
 of marble, unsightly to the eyes of other men, contains 
 the Godlike form, the symmetrical proportion, the life- 
 like attitude of the finished and polished statue ; and 
 the whole is as clear to his mental eye before the chisel 
 is applied as it is to his bodily vision when the work is 
 completed. With this perfect ideal in the mind at the 
 outset, every stroke of the chisel has its object. Not a 
 blow is struck, but it is guided by consummate skill; 
 not a chip is removed, but to develop the ideal of the 
 artist. And when the late unsightly marble, as if by 
 miraculous power, stands out before the astonished spec- 
 tator in all the perfection of beauty when it almost 
 breathes and speaks it is to the artist but the realiza- 
 tion of his own conception. 
 
 A Spectator's Efforts. Now let the same astonished 
 and delighted spectator, with the same instruments, 
 attempt to produce another statue from a similar block. 
 On this side he scores too deep ; on the other he leaves 
 a protuberance ; here, by carelessness, he encroaches 
 upon the rounded limb ; there, by accident, he hews a
 
 60 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 chip from off the nose ; by want of skill one eye ill-mates 
 the other ; one hand is distorted as if racked by pangs 
 of the gout ; the other is paralyzed and deathlike. Such 
 would be his signal failure. Thus he might fail a thous- 
 and times. Indeed, it would be a matter of strange .sur- 
 prise if in a thousand efforts he should once succeed. 
 
 The Difference. Now the difference between the 
 artist and the - spectator lies chiefly in this the one 
 knows beforehand what he means to do ; the other 
 works without any plan. The one has studied beauty 
 till he can see it in the rugged block ; the other only 
 knows it when it is presented to him. The former, hav 
 ing an ideal, produces it with unerring skill ; the latter, 
 having no conception to guide him, brings out deformity. 
 
 " What sculpture is to the block of marble," says 
 Addison, "education is to the human soul ; " and may I 
 not add, that the sculptor is a type of the true educator 
 while the spectator, of whom I have been speaking, 
 may aptly represent too many false teachers who, with- 
 out study or forethought, enter upon the delicate busi- 
 ness of fashioning the human soul, blindly experimenting 
 amidst the wreck of their heaven-descended material, 
 maiming and marring, with scarcely the possibility of 
 final success, almost with the certainty of a melancholy 
 failure ! 
 
 Blindness of Employers. In other things besides 
 education men are wiser. They follow more the teach- 
 ings of nature and of common sense. But in education, 
 where a child has but one opportunity for mental train- 
 ing, as he can be a child but once where success, un- 
 erring success, is everything to him for time and eter- 
 nity, and where a mistake may be most ruinous to him 
 in education, men often forget their ordinary wisdom
 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 6i 
 
 and providence, and commit the most important con- 
 cerns to the most incompetent hands. " The prevailing 
 opinions," says Geo. B. Emerson, " in regard to this art 
 are such as the common sense of mankind and the 
 experience of centuries have shown to be absurd as to 
 every other art and pursuit of civilized life. To be 
 qualified to discourse upon our moral and religious 
 duties, a man must be educated by years of study ; to 
 be able to administer to the body in disease, he must be 
 educated by a careful examination of the body in health 
 and in disease, and of the effects produced on it by 
 external agents ; to be able to make out a conveyance 
 of property, or to draw a writ, he must be educated ; to 
 navigate a ship, he must be educated by years of service 
 before the mast or on the quarter-deck ; to transfer the 
 products of the earth or of art from the producer to the 
 consumer, he must be educated ; to make a hat or a 
 coat, he must be educated by years of apprenticeship ; 
 to make a plow he must be educated ; to make a nail, 
 or a shoe for a horse or an ox, he must be educated ; 
 but to prepare a man to do all these things to train 
 the body in its most tender years, according to the laws 
 of health, so that it should be strong to resist disease ; 
 to fill the mind with useful knowledge, to educate it to 
 comprehend all the relations of society, to bring out all 
 its powers intc full and harmonious action ; to educate 
 the moral nature, in which the very sentiment of duty 
 resides, that it may be fitted for an honorable and 
 worthy fulfillment of the public and private offices of 
 life- -to do all this is supposed to require no study, no 
 apprenticeship, no preparation ! " 
 
 Defects in Teaching. Many teachers, therefore, en- 
 couraged by this unaccountable indifference in the com-
 
 62 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 munity, have entered the teacher's profession without 
 any idea of the responsibilities assumed or of the end to 
 be secured by their labors, aside from receiving, at the 
 close of their term, the compensation for their service 
 in dollars and cents. And even many who have entered 
 this profession with good intentions have made the 
 most deplorable mistakes from a want of an adequate 
 idea of what constitutes an education. Too often has 
 educating a child been considered simply the act of 
 imparting to it a certain amount of knowledge, or 
 of " carrying it through " a certain number of studies 
 more or less. Education has too frequently been held 
 to be a cultivation of the intellectual to the neglect of 
 the moral powers ; .and the poor body, too, except among 
 savages, has had but little share in its privileges or 
 benefits. In a very large number of our schools, the 
 physical and moral have both been sacrificed to the 
 intellectual. Even some of our public speakers have 
 dwelt upon the necessity of intelligence to the perpe- 
 tuity of our free institutions, scarcely seeming to be 
 aware that intelligence, without moral principle to di- 
 rect and regulate it might become the very engine 
 through which evil men might effect our overthrow. 
 Who has not seen that an educated man without virtue, 
 is but the more capable of doing evil ? Who does not 
 know that knowledge misdirected becomes, instead of a 
 boon to be desired, a bane to be deprecated ? 
 
 A Great Question. From what has been said, I place 
 it among the highest qualifications of the teacher that 
 he should have just views of education. I consider it all- 
 important that he should have a well-defined object at 
 which to aim, whenever he meets a young mind in the 
 transition state. He should have an ideal of a well-edu-
 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 63 
 
 cated human soul, tenanting a healthy, well-developed 
 human body; an ideal which he at once and system- 
 atically labors to reach, as does the sculptor when he 
 commences his work upon the quarried marble. " What 
 is it to educate a human being aright ?" should be one 
 of the first questions the candidate for the teacher's 
 office should ask himself with the deepest seriousness. 
 I say the candidate ; for this question should be settled 
 if possible before he begins his work. It is a great ques- 
 tion, and he may not be able to answer it in a day. Let 
 him consult the dictates of his own mind, let him con- 
 sult the teachings of experience and wisdom, as they 
 are to be found in the writings of Milton, Locke, Wyse, 
 Cousin, Brougham, and others of the Eastern Continent, 
 and of Wayland, Potter, Mann, G. B. Emerson, Dwight, 
 and many others of our own countrymen. Let him, en- 
 lightened by all this, carefully observe human nature 
 around him ; consider its tendencies, its wants, and its 
 capabilities ; and after a patient survey of all the truth 
 he can discover on the subject, let him come to an honest 
 conclusion as to what is a correct answer to the query 
 with which he started " What is it to educate a human 
 being aright ?" 
 
 Results of Inquiry. The conclusions of the honest 
 and intelligent inquirer after the truth in this matter 
 will be something like the following . That education 
 ( from e and duco, to lead forth) is development ; that it 
 is not instruction merely knowledge, facts, rules 
 communicated by the teacher, but it is discipline ; it is a 
 waking up of the mind, a growth of the mind, growth 
 by a healthy assimilation of wholesome aliment. It is 
 an inspiring of the mind with a thirst for knowledge, 
 growth, enlargement, and then a disciplining of its powers
 
 64 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 so far that it can go on to educate itself. It is the 
 arousing of the child's mind to think, without thinking 
 for it ; it is the awakening of its powers to observe, to 
 remember, to reflect, to combine. It is not a cultivation 
 of the memory to the neglect of everything else ; but it 
 is a calling forth of all the faculties into harmonious ac- 
 tion. If to possess facts simply is education, then an 
 encyclopaedia is better educated than a man. 
 
 Knowledge not Undervalued. It should be remarked 
 that though knowledge is not education, yet there will 
 be no education without knowledge. Knowledge is ever 
 an incident of true education. No man can be properly 
 educated without the acquisition of knowledge ; the 
 mistake is in considering knowledge the end when it is 
 either the incident or the means of education. The 
 discipline of the mind, then, is the great thing in intel- 
 lectual training ; and the question is not, how much 
 have I acquired ? but how have my powers been 
 strengthened in the act of acquisition ? 
 
 The Body, the Intellect, the Heart. Nor should the 
 intellectual be earlier cultivated than the moral powers 
 of the mind. The love of moral truth should be as 
 early addressed as the love of knowledge. The con- 
 science should be early exercised in judging of the char- 
 acter of the pupils own acts, and every opportunity 
 afforded to strengthen it by legitimate use. Nor should 
 the powers of the mind be earlier cultivated than those of 
 the body. It is the theory of some, indeed, that the body 
 should engross most of the attention for several of the 
 first years of childhood. This, I think, is not Nature's 
 plan. She cultivates all the powers at once the body, 
 mind, and heart. So should the teacher do. " Educa-
 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 66 
 
 tion," in the pertinent language of Mr. Fox, 1 " has refer- 
 ence to the whole man the body, the mind, and the 
 heart ; its object, and, when rightly conducted, its effect, 
 is to make him a complete creature after his kind. To 
 his frame it will give vigor, activity, and beauty ; to his 
 senses, correctness and acuteness : to his intellect, power 
 and truthfulness ; to his heart, virtue. The educated 
 man is not the gladiator, nor the scholar, nor the upright 
 man, alone ; but a just and well-balanced combination of 
 all three. Just as the educated tree is neither the large 
 root, nor the giant branches, nor the rich foliage, but all 
 of them together. If you would mark the perfect man, 
 you must not look for him in the circus, the university, 
 or the church, exclusively ; but you must look for one 
 who has 'nuns sana in corpore sano a healthful mind in a 
 healthful body. The being in whom you find this union 
 is the only one worthy to be called educated. To make 
 all men such is the object of education. 
 
 Egregious Mistakes. I have dwelt thus fully on 
 this subject because it is so obvious that egregious mis- 
 takes are made in education. How many there are who 
 are called "good scholars" in our schools of whom we 
 hear nothing after they go forth into the world. Their 
 good scholarship consists in that which gives them no 
 impulse to go on to greater attainments by themselves. 
 Their learning is either that of reception as the sponge 
 takes in water or that of mere memory. Their educa- 
 tion is not discipline ; it kindles none of those desires 
 which nothing but further progress can satisfy ; it im- 
 parts none of that self-reliance which nothing but im- 
 possibilities can ev,er subdue. While these are pointed out 
 by their teachers as the ornaments of their schools, there 
 
 i Lecture before the Am. Institute, 1835.
 
 66 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 are others, known as the heavy, dull, " poor scholars," 
 in no way distinguished but by their stupidity, of 
 whom no hopes are entertained because of them nothing 
 is expected, who in after-life fairly outstrip their fellows 
 and strangely astonish their teachers. Almost every 
 teacher of fifteen years' experience has noticed this. 
 Now, why is it so ? 
 
 Misjudgment of Character. There must have been 
 somehow in such cases a gross misjudgment of character. 
 Either those pupils who promised so much by their 
 quickness, were educated wrong, and perhaps educated 
 too much, while their teachers unwittingly and uninten- 
 tionally educated their less distinguished companions far 
 more judiciously; or else nature in such cases must be 
 said to have been playing such odd pranks that legit- 
 imate causes could not produce their legitimate effects. 
 We must charge Nature as being extremely capricious, or 
 we must allege that the teachers entirely misunderstood 
 their work, failing where they expected most, and suc- 
 ceeding, as if by chance almost against their will, 
 where they expected least. I incline to the latter alter- 
 native ; and hence I infer that there is such a thing as 
 teaching a mind naturally active, too much, exciting it 
 too much, so that it will prematurely exhaust its ener- 
 gies and gladly settle back into almost imbecility ; and 
 that there is such a thing as leaving the mind so much 
 to its own resources that, without dazzling the beholder 
 like the flash of the meteor when it glares upon the 
 \startled vision, it may be silently gathering materials to 
 support the more enduring light of the morning-star 
 which anon will arise in majesty and glory 
 
 Certain Results. It will be well for our youth when 
 our teachers shall so understand human nature, and so
 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 67 
 
 comprehend the science and the art of education, that 
 these mistakes shall seldom occur ; and when he who 
 tills the nobler soil of the mind shall, with as much 
 faith and as much certainty as he who tills the literal 
 field, rely upon the fulfilment of Heaven's unchangeable 
 law : " Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also 
 reap."
 
 68 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Aptness to Teach. From what has been said of 
 Education, it is very obvious that it is no small thing to 
 be a successful teacher. It is admitted by all that the 
 teacher should be APT TO TEACH. He cannot be useful 
 without this. He may have an unimpeachable char 
 acter ; he may have the most liberal and thorough 
 literary requirements ; he may deeply feel his responsi 
 bility, and yet after all he may fail to teach success- 
 fully. 
 
 Aptness Not an Instinct. Can be Acquired Apt- 
 ness to teach has been said to be a native endowment, a 
 sort of instinct, and therefore incapable of being im- 
 proved by experience or instruction an instinct such as 
 that which guides the robin, though hatched in an oven, 
 to build a perfect nest like that of its parent, without 
 ever having seen one. I am of opinion that such in- 
 stincts in men are rare ; but that aptness to teach, like 
 aptness to do any thing else, is usually an acquired 
 power, based upon a correct knowledge of what is to be 
 done, and some accurate estimate of the fitness of the 
 means used for the end. If there are exceptions to this 
 they are very uncommon ; and the safer way, therefore, 
 for the majority of teachers is to study carefully the 
 rationale of their processes, and to rely rather upon sound 
 and philosophical principles in their teaching than upon 
 a very doubtful intuition.
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 69 
 
 The Way Literary Nurselings Are Made. One of 
 the most common errors into which young teachers fall 
 (and some old ones, too) is that of misjudging of the 
 degree of assistance which the young scholar needs in 
 the pursuit of learning. There are a few who forget 
 the difficulties which impeded their own preception of 
 new truths when learners, and, therefore, have no sym- 
 pathy with the perplexities which surround the children 
 under their charge when they encounter like difficulties. 
 They refuse to lend a helping hand, even when it is 
 needed, and by making light of the child's doubts, per- 
 haps sneering at his unsuccessful struggles, they dis- 
 hearten him so far that imaginary obstacles become in- 
 surmountable, and he gives up in despair. But a far 
 more numerous class tend toward the other extreme. 
 From a mistaken kindness, or a mistaken estimate of 
 the child's ability, or both, they are disposed to do quite 
 too much for him, and thus they diminish his power to 
 help himself. The child that is constantly dandled 
 upon the lap of its nurse, and borne in her arms to 
 whatever point it may desire to go, does not soon learn 
 to walk ; and when it at length makes the attempt, it 
 moves not with the firm tread of him who was early 
 taught to use his own limbs. There is a great deal of 
 literary dandling practiced in our schools ; and as a 
 consequence, a great many of our children are mere 
 sickly nurselings, relying upon leading-strings while in 
 the school, and falling, for very weakness, just as soon 
 as the supporting hand is withdrawn. This evil is so 
 common, and in some instances so monstrous, 1 that 1 
 shall be pardoned if I dwell upon it a little more fully. ' 
 
 i Not long sine* I visited a school, where the teacher, with much self-com- 
 placency, requested me to examine the writing of the children. It was indeed
 
 70 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 In illustrating this subject, I must mention two pro- 
 cesses of teaching not, indeed, exactly opposite to each 
 other, though widely different into one or both of 
 which many of our teachers are very liable to fall. I shall, 
 for the sake of a name, designate the former as the 
 SECTION I. POU RING-IN PROCESS. 
 
 Pouring In. This consists in lecturing to a class of 
 children upon every subject which occurs to the teacher, 
 it being his chief aim to bring before them as many facts 
 in a limited time as possible. It is as if he should 
 provide himself with a basket of sweetmeats, and every 
 time he should come within reach of a child, should 
 seize him and compel him to swallow regardless of the 
 condition of his stomach whatever trash he should 
 happen first to force into his mouth. Children are 
 indeed fond of sweetmeats, but they do not like to have 
 them administered ; and every physiologist knows there 
 is such a thing as eating enough even of an agreeable 
 thing to make one sick, and thus produce loathing 
 forever after. 
 
 Victims of Kindness. Now many teachers are just 
 such misguided caterers for the mind. They are ready 
 to seize upon the victims of their kindness, force open 
 their mental gullets, and pour in, without mercy and 
 without discretion, whatever sweet thing they may have 
 at hand, even though they surfeit and nauseate the poor 
 sufferer. The mind, by this process, becomes a mere 
 passive recipient, taking in without much resistance 
 whatever is presented till it is full. 
 
 very fair. But when I drew from him the fact that h* first wrote each page 
 himself with a lead pencil, and only required his scholars to black his marks 
 over with ink .- and that with unremitting labor he did this week after week for 
 all the writers in his school, I knew not which most to wonder at, the docility 
 of the children or the weakness of the teacher. The writing ceased to be won- 
 drful.
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 71 
 
 Passive Recipient. " A passive recipient ! " said one 
 to his friend ; " what is a passive recipient ? " " A pas- 
 sive recipient," replied his friend, " is a two-gallon jug. 
 It holds just two gallons, and, as it is made of potters' 
 ware, it can never hold but just two gallons." This is 
 not an unfit illustration of what I mean by making the 
 mind a passive recipient. Whenever the teacher does 
 not first excite inquiry, first prepare the mind by wak- 
 ing it up to a desire to know, and if possible to find out 
 by itself, but proceeds to think for the child, and to 
 give him the results, before they are desired, or before 
 they have been sought for he makes the mind of the 
 child a two-gallon jug> into which he may pour just two 
 gallons, but no more. And if day after day he should 
 continue to pour in, day after day he may expect that 
 what he pours in will all run over. The mind so far as 
 retention is concerned, will act like a jug; that is a 
 par^ of what is poured in to-day will be diluted by a 
 part of that which is forced in to-morrow, and that 
 again will be partially displaced and partially mingled 
 with the next day's pouring, till at length there will be 
 nothing characteristic left. But aside from retention, 
 there is a great difference between the jug and the mind. 
 The former is inert material, and may be as good a jug 
 after such use as before. But the mind suffers by every 
 unsuccessful effort to retain. 
 
 Mind Weakened. This process of lecturing children 
 into imbecility is altogether too frequently practiced ; 
 and it is to be hoped that intelligent teachers will pause 
 and inquire before they pursue it further. 
 
 Drawing Out. The other process to which I wish to 
 call attention is that which, for the sake of distinguish- 
 ing it from the first, I shall denominate the
 
 72 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 SECTION II. DRAWING-OUT PROCESS. 
 
 "Leading Questions." This consists in asking what 
 the lawyers call leading questions. It is practiced, 
 usually, whenever the teacher desires to help along the 
 pupil. " John," says the teacher when conducting a 
 recitation in Long Division, " John, what is the number 
 to be divided called ?" John hesitates. " Is it the 
 dividend ?'' says the teacher. " Yes, sir the dividend." 
 " Well, JoTin, what is that which is left after dividing 
 called ? the remainder is it ?" " Yes, sir." A vis- 
 itor now enters the room, and the teacher desires to 
 show off John's talents. " Well, John, of what denomi- 
 nation is the remainder?" 
 
 John looks upon the floor. 
 
 " Isn't it always the same as the dividend, John ?" 
 
 " Yes, sir." 
 
 " Very well, John," says the teacher, soothingly, 
 " what denomination is this dividend?" pointing to the 
 work upon the board. " Dollars, is it not ?" 
 
 "Yes sir; dollars." 
 
 " Very well ; now what is this remainder ?" 
 
 John hesitates. 
 
 " Why, dollars too, isn't it ?" says the teacher. 
 
 "Oh yes, sir dollars /" says John, energetically, while 
 the teacher complacently looks at the visitor to see if he 
 has noticed how correctly John has answered. 
 
 An Example " Teaching History !" A class is 
 called to be examined in History. They have committed 
 the text-book to memory ; that is, they have learned the 
 words. They go on finely for a time. At length one 
 hesitates. The teacher adroitly asks a question in the 
 language of the text. Thus : " Early in the morning, on 
 the \\th of September, what did the whole British army
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 73 
 
 do?" The pupil, thus timely reassured, proceeds: 
 "Early in the morning, on the nth of September, the 
 whole British army, drawn up in two divisions com- 
 menced the expected assault." Here again she pauses. 
 The teacher proceeds to inquire : " Well, ' Agreeably 
 to the plan of Howe, the right wing ' did what?" 
 
 Pupil. "Agreeably to the plan of Howe, the right 
 wing " 
 
 Teacher. " The right wing, commanded by whom ?'* 
 
 Pupil, " Oh ! ' Agreeably to the plan of Howe, the right 
 wing, commanded by Knyphausen, made a feint of crossing 
 the Brandywine at Chad's Ford,' " etc. 
 
 Spectators Astonished. This is a very common way 
 of helping a dull pupil out of a difficulty ; and I have 
 seen it done so adroitly that a company of visitors would 
 agree that it was wonderful to see how thoroughly the 
 children had been instructed. 
 
 " Yes, Sir." I may further illustrate the drawing-out 
 process by describing an occurrence which, in company 
 with a friend and fellow-laborer, I once witnessed. A 
 teacher whose school we visited called upon the class in 
 Colburn's First Lessons. They rose, and in single file 
 marched to the usual place, with their books in hand, and 
 stood erect. It was a very good-looking class. 
 
 " Where do you begin ?" said the teacher, taking the 
 book. 
 
 Pupils. On the 8oth page, 3d question. 
 
 Teacher. Read it, Charles. 
 
 Charles. (Reads.} " A man being asked how many 
 sheep he had, said, that he had them in two pastures ; in 
 one pasture he had eight ; that three-fourths of these 
 were just one-third of what he had in the other. How 
 many were there in the other ?"
 
 74 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 TeacJier. Well, Charles, you must first get one-fourth 
 of eight, must you not. 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. Well, one-fourth of eight is two, isn't it ? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir ; one-fourth of eight is two. 
 
 Teacher. Well, then, three- fourths will be three times 
 two, won't it? 
 
 Charles Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher, Well, three times two are six, eh ? 
 
 Charles. Yes, Sir. 
 
 Teacher. Very well. (A pause ) Now the book says 
 that this six is just one-third of what he had in the other 
 pasture, don't it. 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. Then if six is one third, three-thirds will 
 be three times six, won't it ? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. And three times six are eighteen ain't it ? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. Then he had eighteen sheep in the other 
 pasture, had he? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. Next, take the next one. 
 
 At this point I interposed, and asked the teacher if he 
 would request Charles to go through it alone. " Oh, 
 yes," said the teacher, "Charles, you may do it again." 
 Charles again read the question, and looked up. 
 " Well," said the teacher, " you must first get one-fourth 
 of eight, mustn't you? " " Yes, sir.'" " And one-fourth 
 of eight is two, isn't it ? '' " Yes, sir." And so the pro- 
 cess went on as before till the final eighteen sheep were 
 drawn out as before. The teacher now looked round with
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 75 
 
 an air which seemed to say, " Now I suppose you are 
 satisfied ?" 
 
 " Shall / ask Charles to do it again?" said I. The 
 teacher assented. Charles again read the question, and 
 again looked up. I waited, and he waited ; but 
 the teacher could not wait. '' Why, Charles," said he 
 impatiently ; " you want one-fourth of eight, don't you ? " 
 " Yes, sir," said Charles, promptly ; and I thought best 
 not to insist further at this time upon a repetition of " yes, 
 sir" and the class were allowed to proceed in their own 
 way. 
 
 Study Discouraged. This is, indeed, an extreme 
 case, and yet it is but a fair sample of that teacher's 
 method of stupefying mind. This habit of assisting 
 the pupil to some extent is, however, a very common 
 one, and as deleterious to mind as it is common. The 
 teacher should at once abandon this practice, and re- 
 quire the scholar to do the talking at recitation. I need 
 hardly suggest that such a course of extraction at reci- 
 tation, aside from the waste of time by both parties, 
 and the waste of strength by the teacher, has direct 
 tendency to make the scholar miserably superficial. 
 For why should he study, if he knows from constant 
 experience that the teacher, by a leading question, will 
 relieve him from all embarrassment ? It has often been 
 remarked, that "the teacher makes the school." Per- 
 haps in no way can he more effectually make an ineffi- 
 cient school than by this drawing-out process. 
 
 I look upon the two processes just described as very 
 prominent and prevalent faults in our modern teaching ; 
 and if by describing them thus fully I shall induce any 
 to set a guard upon their practice in this particular, J 
 shall feel amply rewarded.
 
 76 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 SECTION III. THE MORE EXCELLENT WAY. 
 
 Helping the- Pupil is Dangerous when Excessive. 
 
 It is always a very difficult question for the teacher to 
 settle, " How far shall I help the pupil, and how far shall 
 the pupil be required to help himself ?" The teaching 
 of Nature would seem to indicate that the pupil 
 should be taught mainly to depend on his own resources. 
 This, too, I think is the teaching of common sense. 
 Whatever is learned should be so thoroughly learned 
 that the next and higher step may be comparatively 
 easy. And the teacher should always inquire, when he 
 is about to dismiss one subject, whether the class under- 
 stand it so well that they can go on to the next. He 
 may, indeed, sometimes give a word of suggestion during 
 the preparation of a lesson, and by a seasonable hint save 
 the scholar the needless loss of much time. But it is a 
 very great evil if the pupils acquire the habit of running 
 to the teacher, as soon as a slight difficulty presents it- 
 self, to request him to remove it. Some teachers, when 
 this happens, will send the scholar to his seat with a 
 reproof, perhaps ; while others, with a mistaken kindness, 
 will answer the question or solve the problem themselves 
 as the shortest way to get rid of it. Both these courses 
 are, in general, wrong. 
 
 The inquirer should never be frowned upon ; this may 
 discourage him. He should not be relieved from labor, 
 as this will diminish his self-reliance without enlighten- 
 ing him ; for whatever is done for a scholar without his 
 having studied closely upon it himself, makes but a 
 feeble impression upon him, and is soon forgotten. 
 
 The True Medium. The true way is neither to 
 discourage inquiry nor answer the question. Converse 
 with the scholar a littk as to the principles involved in
 
 RKIIIT MODES OF TEACHING. 77 
 
 the question ; refer him to principles which he has be- 
 fore learned, or has now lost sight of ; perhaps call his 
 attention to some rule or explanation before given to the 
 class ; go just so far as to enlighten him a little, and 
 put him on the scent ; then leave him to achieve the vic- 
 tory himself. There is a great satisfaction in discover- 
 ing a difficult thing for one's self; and the teacher does 
 the scholar a lasting injury who takes this pleasure 
 from him. The teacher should be simply suggestive, 
 but should never take the glory of a victory from the 
 scholar by doing his work for him at least, not until 
 he has given it a thorough trial himself. 
 
 Not To-day, Sir. The skill of the teacher, then, will 
 be best manifested if he can contrive to awaken such a 
 spirit in the pupil that he shall be very unwilling to be 
 assisted ; if he can kindle up such a zeal that the pupil 
 will prefer to try again and again before he will consent 
 that the teacher shall interpose. I shall never forget a 
 class of boys, some fourteen or fifteen years of age, who 
 in the study of algebra had imbibed this spirit. A diffi- 
 cult question had been before the class a day or two, 
 when I suggested giving them some assistance. " Not 
 to-day, sir," was the spontaneous exclamation of nearly 
 every one. Nor shall I forget the expression that 
 beamed from the countenance of one of them, when, 
 elated with his success, he forgot the proprieties of the 
 school and audibly exclaimed, " I've got it! "I've got it!" 
 It was a great day for him ; he felt, as he never 
 before had felt, his own might. Nor was it less gratify- 
 ing to me to find that his fellows were still unwilling to 
 know his method of solution. The next day a large 
 number brought a solution of their own, each showing 
 evidence of originality. A class that has once attained
 
 flS THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 to a feeling like this will go on to educate themselves 
 when they shall have left the school and the living 
 teacher. 
 
 As to the communication of knowledge, aside from 
 that immediately connected with school studies, there is 
 a more excellent way than that of pouring it in ' by the 
 process already described. It is but just that I should 
 give a specimen of the method of doing this. I 
 shall now proceed to do so, under the head of 
 
 SECTION IV. WAKING UP MIND. 
 
 Other than book-studies. The teacher of any expe- 
 rience knows that, if he will excite a deep and profitable 
 interest in his school, he must teach many things be- 
 sides book-studies. In our common schools there will 
 always be a company of small children, who, not yet 
 having learned to read understandingly, will have no 
 means of interesting themselves, and must depend 
 mainly upon the teacher for the interest they take in 
 the school. This to them is perhaps the most critical 
 period ot their lives. Whatever impression is now 
 made upon them will be enduring. If there they be- 
 come disgusted with the dullness and confinement of 
 school, and associate the idea of pain and repulsiveness 
 with that of learning, who can describe the injury done 
 to their minds ? If, on the other hand, the teacher is 
 really skillful, and excites in them a spirit of inquiry, 
 and leads them in suitable ways to observe, to think, 
 and to feel that the school is a happy place even for 
 children, it is one great point gained. 
 
 General Exercise. I may suggest here, then, that it 
 would be well to set apart a few minutes once a day for 
 a general exercise in the school, when it should be re- 
 quired of all to lay by their studies, assume an erect atti-
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 79 
 
 tude, and give their undivided attention to whatever 
 the teacher may bring before them. Such a course 
 would have its physiological advantages. It would re- 
 lieve the minds of all for a few minutes. The erect 
 attitude is a healthful one. It would also serve as a 
 short respite from duty, and thus refresh the older 
 scholars for study. I may further add that, for the 
 benefit of these small children, every general exercise 
 should be conducted with reference to them, and such 
 topics should be introduced as they can understand. 
 
 It is the purpose of the following remarks to give a 
 specimen of the manner of conducting such exercises, for 
 a few days, with reference to waking up mind in the 
 school and also in the district. 
 
 Announcement. Let us suppose that the teacher has 
 promised that on the next day, at ten minutes past ten 
 o'clock, he shall request the whole school to give their 
 attention five minutes, while he shall bring something 
 there to which he shall call the attention, especially of 
 the little boys and girls under seven years of age. This 
 very announcement will excite an interest both in school 
 and at home ; and when the children come in the morn- 
 ing, they will be more wakeful than usual till the fixed 
 time arrives. It is very important that this time should 
 be fixed, and that the utmost punctuality should be ob- 
 served, both as to the beginning and ending of the exer- 
 cise at the precise time. 
 
 Preparation. The teacher, it should be supposed, has 
 not made such an announcement without considering 
 what he can do when the time arrives. He should have 
 a well-digested plan of operation, and one which he 
 knows beforehand that he can successfully execute.
 
 80 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Ear of Corn. Let us suppose that in preparing for 
 this exercise he looks about him to find some object 
 which he can make his text ; and that he finds upon his 
 study-table an ear of corn. He thinks carefully what he 
 he can do with it, and then, with a smile of satisfaction, 
 he puts it in his pocket for the " general exercise." 
 
 In the morning he goes through the accustomed 
 duties of the first hour, perhaps more cheerfully than 
 usual, because he finds there is more of animation and 
 wakefulness in the school. At the precise time he gives 
 the signal agreed upon, and all the pupils drop their 
 studies and sit erect. When there is perfect silence and 
 strict attention by all, he takes from his pocket the ear of 
 corn, and in silence holds it up before the school. The 
 children smile, for it is a familiar object ; and they 
 probably did not suspect they were to be fed with corn. 
 
 Teacher's Address to the Children. Teacher, " Now, 
 children," addressing himself to the youngest, " I am 
 going to ask you only one question to-day about this ear 
 of corn. If you can answer it I shall be very glad ; if 
 the little boys and girls upon the front seat cannot give 
 the answer, I will let those in the next seat try ; and so 
 on till all have tried, unless our time should expire be- 
 fore the right answer is given. I shall not be surprised 
 if none of you give the answer I am thinking of. As 
 soon as I ask the question, those who are under seven 
 years old, that think they can give an answer, may raise 
 their hand. WHAT is THIS EAR OF CORN FOR ?" 
 
 Their Answers. Several of the children raise their 
 hands, and the teacher points to one after another in 
 order, and they rise and give their answers. 
 
 Mary. It is to feed the geese with. 
 
 John. Yes, and the hens too, and the pigs.
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 81 
 
 Sarah. My father gives corn to the cows. 
 
 By this time the hands of the youngest scholars are all 
 down ; for, having been taken a little by surprise, their 
 knowledge is exhausted. So the teacher says that those 
 between seven and ten years of age may raise their hands. 
 Several instantly appear. The teacher again indicates, 
 by pointing, those who may give the answer. 
 
 Charles. My father gives corn to the horses when the 
 oats are all gone. 
 
 Daniel. We give it to the oxen and cows and we fat 
 the hogs upon corn. 
 
 Laura. It is good to eat. They shell it from the cobs 
 and send it to mill and it is ground into meal. They 
 make bread of the meal, and we eat it. 
 
 Closing at the Right Time. This last pupil has 
 looked a little further into domestic economy than those 
 who answered before her. By this time, perhaps be- 
 fore, the five minutes have been nearly expended, and yet 
 several hands are up, and the faces of several are beaming 
 with eagerness to tell their thoughts. Let the 
 teacher then say, " We will have no more answers to- 
 day. You may think of this matter till to-morrow, and 
 then I will let you try again. I am sorry to tell you 
 that none of you have mentioned the use I was thinking 
 of, though I confess I expected it every minute. I shall 
 not be surprised if no one of you give this answer to- 
 morrow. I shall now put the ear of corn in my desk, 
 and no one of you must speak to me about it till to- 
 morrow. You may now take your studies." 
 
 The children now breathe more freely, while the older 
 ones take their studies, and the next class rs called. In 
 order to succeed, it is absolutely necessary that the 
 teacher should positively refuse to hold any conversation
 
 82 Til HORN ANH PR ACTICK OK TEACHING. 
 
 with the children on the subject till the next time for 
 "general exercise." 
 
 Wait Till To-morrow. During the remainder of 
 the forenoon the teacher will very likely observe some 
 signs of thoughtfulness on the part of those little chil- 
 dren who have been habitually dull before. And per- 
 haps some child, eager to impart a new discovery, will 
 seek an opportunity to make it known during the fore- 
 noon. "Wait till to-morrow," should be the teacher's 
 only reply. 
 
 The Children Go Home. Now let us follow these 
 children, as they are dismissed, while they bend their 
 steps toward home. They cluster together in groups as 
 they go down the hill, and they seem to be earnestly 
 engaged in conversation. 
 
 " I don't believe it has any other use," says John. 
 
 " Oi., yes, it has," says Susan ; " our teacher would 
 not say so if it had not. Besides, did you not see what 
 a knowing look he had when he drew up his brow and 
 said he guessed we couldn't find it out ? " 
 
 " Well, I mean to ask my mother," says little Mary ; 
 ' I guess she can tell." 
 
 They Observe. By and by, as they pass a field of corn 
 Samuel sees a squirrel running across the street, with 
 both his cheeks distended with "plunder" 
 
 They Inquire. At home, too, the ear of corn is made 
 the subject of conversation. " What is an ear of corn 
 for, mother?" says little Mary, as soon as they have 
 taken a seat at the dinner-table. 
 
 Mother. An ear of corn, child? Why, don't you 
 know ? It is to feed the fowls, and the pigs, and the 
 cattle ; and we make bread of it, too,
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 83 
 
 Mary. Yes, we told all that, but the teacher says that 
 is not all. 
 
 Mother. The teacher ? 
 
 Mary. Yes, ma'am ; the teacher had an ear of corn at 
 school, and he asked us what it was for ; and after we had 
 told him everything we could think of, he said there was 
 another thing still. Now, I want to find out, so that / 
 can tell him. 
 
 The Family Become Interested. The consequence 
 of this would be that the family, father, mother, and 
 older brothers and sisters would resolve themselves into 
 a committee of the whole on the ear of corn. The same, 
 or something like this, would be true in other families in 
 the district ; and, by the next morning, several children 
 would have something further to communicate on the 
 subject. The hour would this day be awaited with great 
 interest, and the first signal would produce perfect silence. 
 
 Second Day. The teacher now takes the ear of corn 
 from the desk, and displays it before the school ; and 
 quite a number of hands are instantly raised, as if eager 
 to be the first to tell what other use they have discovered 
 for it. 
 
 The teacher now says pleasantly, " The use I am think- 
 ing of you have all observed, I have no doubt; it is a 
 very important use indeed ; but as it is a little out of the 
 common course, I shall not be surprised if you cannot 
 give it. However, you may try." 
 
 " It is good to boil I" 1 says little Susan, almost spring- 
 ing from the floor as she speaks. 
 
 i The children themselves will be sure to find some new answers to such 
 
 questions as the above. In giving in substance this lecture to a gathering of 
 
 teachers in the autumn of 1845, in one of the busy villages of New York, where 
 
 ie pupils of one of the district schools were present by invitation, I had 
 
 described a process similar to that which has been dwelt upon above. I
 
 84 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 " And it is for squirrels to eat," says little Samuel. " I 
 saw one carry away a whole mouthful yesterday from the 
 cornfield." 
 
 Other Pupils Interested. Others still mention other 
 uses which they have observed. They mention other 
 animals which feed upon it, or other modes of cooking 
 it. The older pupils begin to be interested, and they 
 add to the list of uses named. Perhaps, however, none 
 will name the one the teacher has in his own mind ; he 
 should cordially welcome the answer if perchance it is 
 given ; if none should give it, he may do as he thinks 
 best about giving it himself on this occasion. Perhaps, 
 if there is time he may do so after the following man- 
 ner : 
 
 The Secret Revealed. " I have told you that the 
 answer I was seeking was a very simple one ; it is some- 
 thing you have all observed, and you may be a little dis- 
 appointed when I tell you, The use I have been think- 
 ing of for the ear of corn is this: // is to plant. It is 
 for seed, to propagate that species of plant called corn." 
 Here the children may look disappointed, as much as to 
 say, " We knew that before." 
 
 A New Question. The teacher continues : " And this 
 is a very important use for the corn ; for if for one year 
 none should be planted, and all the ears that grew the 
 
 given the supposed answers for the first day, and had described the children as 
 pressing the question at home. When I had proceeded as far as to take up the 
 ear of corn the second day, and had spoken of the possibility that the true 
 answer to the question might not be given, I turned almost instinctively to the 
 class of children at my right, saying, " Now, -what is the ear of corn for "' A 
 little boy some six years of age, who had swallowed every word, and whose 
 face glowed as if there was not room enough for his soul within him, bounded 
 upon his feet, and forgetting the publicity-of the place, and the gravity of the 
 chairman of the meeting, clapping his hands forcibly together, " It's to pop /" 
 he exclaimed emphatically, very much to the amusement of the audience. His 
 mind had been waked up.
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 85 
 
 year before should be consumed, we should have no more 
 corn. This, then, was the great primary design of the 
 corn ; the other uses you have named were merely sec- 
 ondary. But I mean to make something more of my 
 ear of corn. My next question is: Do OTHER PLANTS 
 HAVE SEEDS?" 1 
 
 Here is a new field of inquiry. Many hands are in- 
 stantly raised ; but as the five minutes by this time have 
 passed, leave them to answer at the next time. 
 
 " Have other plants seeds ?" the children begin to in- 
 quire in their own minds, and each begins to think over 
 a list of such plants as he is familiar with. When they 
 are dismissed, they look on the way home at the plants 
 by the roadside, and when they reach home they run to 
 the garden. At the table they inquire of their parents, 
 or their brothers and sisters. 
 
 Impart Instruction. At the next exercise, they will 
 have more than they can tell in five minutes as the re- 
 sults of their own observation and research. When 
 enough has been said by the children as to the plants 
 which have seeds, the next question may be : Do ALL 
 PLANTS HAVE SEEDS? This question will lead to much 
 inquiry at home wherever botany is not well understood. 
 There are many who are not aware that all plants have 
 seeds. Very likely the ferns (common brakes) will be 
 noticed by the children themselves. They may also 
 name several other plants which do not exhibit their 
 apparatus for seed-bearing very conspicuously. This 
 will prepare the way for the teacher to impart a little 
 information. Nor is there any harm in his doing so, 
 whenever he is satisfied that the mind has been suitably 
 exercised. The mind is no longer a " passive recipient ;" 
 
 i Plant is here used in the popular sense.
 
 86 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 and he may be sure that by inquiry it has increased its 
 capacity to contain, and any fact which now answers in- 
 quiry, will be most carefully stored up. 
 
 Do Trees Have Seeds ? The next question may be : 
 Do TREES HAVE SEEDS? As the children next go out, 
 their eyes are directed to the trees above them. The 
 fruit-trees, the walnut, the oak, and perhaps the pine will 
 be selected as those which have seeds. They will, how- 
 ever, mention quite a number which do not, or which, 
 they think, do not have seeds. Among these may be 
 the elm, the birch, and the Lombardy poplar. After 
 hearing their opinions, and the results of their observa- 
 tions, take one of their exceptions as the subject of the 
 next question : Does the elm have seeds f ' This will narrow 
 their inquiries down to a specific case, and every elm in 
 the district will be inquired of as to its testimony on this 
 point. 
 
 A promise. If the children can any of them collect 
 and give the truth in the matter, so much the better; but 
 if they, after inquiring of their parents and their 
 grandparents, as I have known a whole school to do, 
 come back insisting that the elm has no seeds, after 
 hearing their reasons for their belief, and perhaps the 
 opinions of their parents, you may promise to tell them 
 something about it at the next exercise. This will again 
 awaken expectation, not only among the children, but 
 among the parents. All will wish to know what you have 
 to bring out. 
 
 A Caution. Great care should be taken not to throw 
 any disparagement upor the opinions of parents. Per- 
 
 i It is a very common opinion in the country that the elm has no seeds. I once 
 knew a man who grew gray under the shade of a large elin, and who insisted 
 that it never bore any seeds.
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 87 
 
 haps, after giving the signal for attention, you may pro- 
 ceed as follows : 
 
 Example of Teaching. "Has the elm tree any Seeds ? 
 Perhaps, children, you may recollect after the cold win- 
 ter has passed away, that along in the latter part of 
 March or the first of April, we sometimes have a warm, 
 sunny day. The birds perhaps appear and begin to sing 
 a little, and as you look up to the elm, you notice that 
 its buds seem to swell, and you think it is going to put 
 out its leaves. Everybody says we are going to have an 
 early spring. But after this the cold, frosty nights and 
 windy days come on again, and then you think the 
 leaves cannot come out so early. Now, if you observe 
 carefully, the leaves do not come out till about the 2Oth 
 of May, or perhaps the first of June. Did you ever see 
 anything like what I have described?" 
 
 " Yes, sir, we remember that." 
 
 " Well, the next time you see the buds begin to open, 
 just break off a twig of a good, large tree, and you will 
 find they are not the leaf-buds. But if you will watch 
 them carefully for two or three weeks, you will find that 
 each bud will put out some beautiful little flowers, 
 brightly colored and slightly fragrant. If you will still 
 continue to watch them, you will find, as the flowers fall 
 off, that seed-vessels are formed, shaped very much like 
 the parsnip-seed. These will grow larger and larger every 
 day, and by and by they will turn brown and look as if 
 they were ripe. Just about this time the leaves will 
 come out ; and soon after, these seeds, during some windy 
 day or night, will all fall off. The ground will be cov- 
 ered with thousands of them. Perhaps you have seen 
 this." 
 
 " Yes, sir," says John ; " grandpa calls that elm-dust"
 
 88 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 " Perhaps next year you can watch this, and ask your 
 parents to examine it with you. But the five minutes are 
 ended." 
 
 Now information thus communicated will never be for- 
 gotten. The mind, having been put upon the stretch, is 
 no longer a passive recipient. 
 
 A New Question. The next question : How ARE 
 SEEDS DISSEMINATED ? (of course explaining the term 
 " disseminated."} 
 
 Results. This will bring in a fund of information 
 from the pupils. They will mention that the thistle-seed 
 flies, and so does the seed of the milkweed ; that the 
 burs of the burdock, and some other seeds, are provided 
 with hooks by which they attach themselves to the hair 
 of animals or the clothing of men, and ride away to their 
 resting-place, which may be a hundred miles off. Some 
 fall into the water and sail away to another shore. Some, 
 like the seed of the Touch-me-not, are thrown at a dis- 
 tance by the bursting of the elastic pericarp ; others, as 
 nuts and acorns, are carried by squirrels and buried be- 
 neath the leaves. These facts would mostly be noticed 
 by children when once put upon observation. 
 
 Two Other Questions. Next question : Are plants 
 propagated in any other way than by seeds ? 
 
 This question would call their attention to the various 
 means of natural and artificial propagation, by layers? by 
 offsets, by suckers, by grafting, by inoculation or bud- 
 ding, etc. 
 
 Again : Have any plants more ways than one of natural 
 propagation ? Some have one way only, by seeds, as the 
 annual plants ; some have two, by seeds, and by roots, 
 as the potato ; some have three, as the tiger-lily, by
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 89 
 
 side-bulbs from the roots, by stalk-bulbs, and by the seeds. 
 This can be extended indefinitely. 
 
 SECTION V. REMARKS. 
 
 Simply a Specimen. Let it be remembered that the 
 above has been given simply as a specimen of what 
 could easily be done by an ingenious teacher with as 
 common a thing as an ear of corn for the text. Any 
 other thing would answer as well. A chip, a tooth, or a 
 bone of an animal, a piece of iron, a feather, or any 
 other object, could be made the text for adroitly bring- 
 ing in the uses of wood, the food and habits of animals. 
 the use and comparative value of metals, the covering 
 of birds, their migration, the covering of animals, etc. 
 Let the teacher but think what department he will 
 dwell upon, and then he can easily select his text ; and, 
 if he has any tact, he can keep the children constantly 
 upon inquiry and observation. 
 
 The advantages of the above course over simply lec- 
 turing to them on certain subjects that is, over the 
 pouring-in process are many and great. Some of the 
 most obvious I will briefly state : 
 
 i . // immediately puts the minds oftJie children into a state 
 of vigorous activity. They feel that they are no longer/<7.r- 
 sivc recipients. They are incited to discover and ascertain 
 for themselves. They are, therefore, profitably employed 
 both in and out of school, and as a consequence are more 
 easily governed. A habit of observation is cultivated in 
 them ; and what an advantage is this for a child ! It is 
 almost unnecessary to remark that many people go 
 through the world without seeing half the objects which 
 are brought within their reach. It would be the same to 
 them if their eyes were half the time closed. If they
 
 90 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 travel through a country presenting the most beautiful 
 scenery, or the most interesting geological features, they 
 see nothing. They grow up among all the wonders of 
 God's works, amid all the displays of His wisdom, of His 
 design, to no purpose. They study none of the plans of 
 Nature ; and by all the millions of arrangements which 
 God has made to delight the eye, to gratify the taste, to 
 excite the emotions of pleasure instead of pain, they are 
 neither the happier nor the wiser. 
 
 What a blessing, then, it is to a child to put his mind 
 upon inquiry ; to open his eyes to observe what 'his 
 Creator intended His intelligent creatures should behpld, 
 of His goodness, His wisdom, His power. And how far 
 superior is he who teaches a child to see for himself, and 
 to think for himself, to him who sees and thinks for the 
 child, and thus practically invites the pupil to close his 
 own eyes and grope in darkness through the instructive 
 journey of life. 
 
 Parents Benefited and Interested in the School. 
 2, // is of great service to the parents in the district to have 
 this waking-up process in operation. Our childen are some- 
 times our best teachers. Parents are apt to grow rusty 
 in their acquirements, and it is no doubt one of the de- 
 signs of Providence that the inquisitiveness of childhood 
 should preserve them from sinking into mental inactivity. 
 Who can hear the inquiries of his own child after know- 
 ledge without a desire to supply his wants ? Now it is 
 right for the teacher to use this instrumentality to wake 
 up mind in his district. Parents, by the course I have 
 recommended, very soon become interested in these 
 daily questions of the teacher ; and they are often as 
 eager to know what is the next question as the children 
 are to report it. This course, then, will supply profitable
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 91 
 
 topics of conversation at the fireside, and very likely will 
 encourage also the pursuit of useful reading. It will, 
 moreover, soon awaken a deeper interest in the school 
 on the part of the parents. They will begin to inquire 
 of one another as to this new measure ; and when they 
 find by conference that the feeling in this matter is be- 
 coming general they will desire to visit the school to wit- 
 ness this as well as the other operations of the teacher. 
 This will secure parental co-operation, and thus in every 
 way the influence of the school will be heightened. It 
 is no small thing for a teacher to enlist the interest of 
 his patrons in the success of his school ; and this is the 
 most happily done when it is achieved through the medi- 
 um of the pupils themselves. 
 
 Teacher is Improved. 3. // wakes up the teacher s 
 oivu mind. This is by no means the least important 
 point to be gained. The teacher, by the very nature of 
 his employment, by daily confinement in an unhealthy 
 atmosphere, by teaching over and over again that with 
 which he is quite familiar, by boarding with people who 
 are inclined to be social, and by the fatigue and languor 
 with which he finds himself oppressed every night, is 
 strongly tempted to neglect his own improvement. 
 There are but few who rise above this accumulation of 
 impediments, and go on in spite of them to eminence in 
 the profession. A large proportion of all who teach 
 rely upon the attainments with which they commence , 
 and in the course of two or three years, finding them- 
 selves behind the age, they abandon the employment. 
 This is very natural. Any man who treads in a beaten 
 track, like a horse in a mill, must become weary, how- 
 ever valuable the product may be which he grinds out. It 
 is essential that he should keep his own interest awake by
 
 92 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 some exercise of his ingenuity, and that he should com- 
 pel himself to be industrious by undertaking that which 
 will absolutely demand study. The above process will 
 do this ; and while he may have the exquisite pleasure 
 of seeing the growth of his pupils' minds, he may also 
 have the higher satisfaction of feeling the growth of his 
 own. 
 
 Books Not to be Neglected. I must here add that 
 it has not been my intention, in what I have said, to 
 inculcate the idea that the study of books should in 
 the least degree be abated to make room for this pro- 
 cess of waking up mind. The various branches are to 
 be pursued and as diligently pursued as ever before. 
 The time to be set apart for this exercise should be 
 short never, probably, to exceed five minutes. It is to 
 come in when the scholars need rest for a moment, and 
 when, if not employed about this, they would probably 
 be doing nothing, or perhaps worse than nothing. It 
 should be managed with care, and should never be made 
 a hobby by teachers, as if it were of more importance 
 than anything else. One secret of success in this as 
 indeed in everything is that it should not be continued 
 too long at once. The pupils should be left " longing 
 not loathing." 
 
 Given Only as a Specimen. Let me again remind 
 the reader that I have given the above as a specimen. 
 The choice of the ear of corn was merely accidental ; it 
 happened to lie on my table when I wanted a text. The 
 teacher should look upon this simply as a specimen, and 
 then choose his own subjects. The main point aimed at 
 is this : Never ask leading questions, which your scholars 
 can hardly fail to answer ; and never lecture to your 
 pupils till you have somehow first kindled in them a liv-
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. !C! 
 
 ing desire to know ; that is, avoid alike the " drawing- 
 out " and the " pouring-in " process. Rather let it be 
 your object to excite inquiry by a question they cannot 
 answer without thought and observation, and such a 
 question as they would deem it disgraceful not to be 
 able to answer. This adroitly done is " waking up
 
 '.'4 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 
 
 Difference in Teachers. In considering a teacher's 
 qualifications, the power of exciting an interest in the 
 recitations of his school may not be overlooked. No man 
 can be successful for any length of time without this. 
 This comprises what is usually implied by APTNESS TO 
 TEACH. All men have not this faculty by nature in an 
 equal degree. Some may taJk for an hour upon an inter- 
 esting topic in the presence of children without com- 
 manding their attention ; while there are others who can 
 take even a common-place subject and secure for any 
 length of time an all-absorbing interest in every word. 
 This difference is seen in every grade of public speakers, 
 and in all descriptions of writers ; but perhaps more 
 strikingly than anywhere else it is observable among 
 teachers. Enter one school and you may notice that the 
 scholars are dull and listless ; indifference sits undisturbed 
 upon their brows; or perhaps they are driven by the 
 activity of their own natures to some expedient to interest 
 themselves, while the teacher is, with very commendable 
 spirit laboriously perhaps learnedly explaining some 
 principle or fact designed for their edification. The secret 
 is, he has not yet learned to awaken their attention . he 
 fails to excite their interest. 
 
 Pass to another school. A breathless silence pervades 
 the room ; the countenances of the children, upturned 
 towards the teacher, beam with delight. As he kindles
 
 CONDUCTING K KC I TAT I ON S. 
 
 into earnestness and eloquence, they kindle into respon- 
 sive enthusiasm. Whenever his eye meets theirs, he sees 
 hefee/s the glow radiated by the fire he is lighting in their 
 souls, and his own gathers new warmth and enthusiasm 
 in return. Such a man is apt to teach ; and you could 
 scarcely break the spell by which he holds his class, 
 " though you should give them, for playthings, shining 
 fragments broken from off the sun." 
 
 He who possesses this gift naturally has very great ad- 
 vantage as a teacher to begin with. - The ability to tell 
 well what he knows is of more consequence to the teacher 
 than the greatest attainments without the power to com- 
 municate them. Combine high attainments with the 
 ability to tell, and you have the accomplished teacher. 
 
 Aptness Not Always a Natural Gift. But this power 
 to communicate is not necessarily a natural gift ; it 
 comes not always by intuition. It can be acquired. It 
 is founded in philosophy ; and he who can understand 
 anything of the workings of his own mind, who can 
 revert to the mental processes he went through in order 
 to comprehend a principle, who can go back to that state 
 of mind he was in before he comprehended it, and then 
 by one step more can put himself in the place of the 
 child he is teaching, realizing exactly his perplexities and 
 feeling his precise wants, can become the apt teacher. 
 Those who fail in this are usually those who have for- 
 gotten the steps they took to acquire their own knowl- 
 edge, or perhaps who never noticed what steps they did 
 take. 
 
 How Acquired. To acquire this rare qualification 
 should be the constant study of the teacher. To this 
 end he should recall, as far as possible, the operations of 
 his own mind in childhood. By studying his own mind,
 
 96 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 he learns, often most effectually, what he needs to know 
 of others. Whenever he is preparing to teach any 
 principle or fact to others, let him ask himself questions 
 like the following : What was the dark point in this 
 when I studied it ? Where did my mind labor most ? 
 What point did my teacher fail to explain ? Such ques- 
 tions will frequently suggest the very difficulty which 
 perplexes every mind in the same process. Again, the 
 following inquiries may be very useful : In studying 
 this, what was the first point which appeared clear to 
 me ? After this, what was the second step, and how did 
 that follow the first ? The next in order ? And the 
 next? Was this the natural order ? If not, what is the 
 natural order ? The right answers to these questions 
 will suggest the course to be pursued in the instruction 
 of a class. 
 
 Science of Teaching. The teacher can scarcely ask 
 a more important question than this : What is the 
 natural order of presenting a given subject? The abil- 
 ity to determine this is what constitutes in a great 
 degree the science of teaching. This inquiry should 
 occupy much thought, because a mistake here is disas- 
 trous, and ever will be, as long as Divine wisdom is 
 superior to human. He who can ascertain the order of 
 Nature will be most sure of exciting an interest in the 
 subject he is endeavoring to teach. 
 
 Some further suggestions as to conducting school reci- 
 tations are contained in the following paragraphs: 
 
 Advantages of Thorough Knowledge to the Teach- 
 er I The teacher should thoroughly understand what he 
 attempts to teach. It is destructive of all life in the 
 exercise, if the teacher is constantly chained down to the 
 text-book. I have no objection, indeed, that he should
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 97 
 
 take his text-book with him to the class, and that he 
 should occasionally refer to it to refresh his own mem- 
 ory, or to settle a doubt. But who does not know that 
 a teacher who is perfectly familiar with what is to be 
 taught has ten times the vivacity of one who is obliged 
 to follow the very letter of the book? His own enthusi- 
 asm glows in his countenance, sparkles in his eye, and 
 leaps from his tongue. He watches the halting of the 
 pupil, perceives his difficulty, devises his expedient for 
 illustrating the dark point in some new way, and at the 
 proper moment renders just the amount of assistance 
 which the pupil needs. Not confined to the text, he has 
 the use of his eyes; and, when he speaks or explains, he 
 can accompany his remark with a quickening look of in- 
 telligence. In this way his class is enlivened. They 
 respect him for his ready attainment, and they are fired 
 with a desire to be his equal. 
 
 Printed Questions. How different is it with a 
 teacher who knows nothing of the subject but what is 
 contained in the text before him, and who knows that 
 only as he reads it during the intervals occasioned by 
 the hesitations of the class ! Every question he pro- 
 poses is printed at the bottom of the page : and as soon 
 as he reads the question, without a glance at the pupil, 
 his eye sets out on a chase after the answer in the text. 
 If the scholar has not already been stupefied by such teach- 
 ing, and happens to give an intelligent answer, yet not 
 in the precise language of the book, he is set right by 
 the teacher's reading the very words just so much de- 
 tached from the sentence as he fancies was intended to 
 answer that one question ! In this way he discourages 
 thought in his pupils, and sets a bounty on mechanical 
 study. In this way, too, he congeals whatever of inter-
 
 98 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 est they bring with them to the recitation, and they sink 
 into indifference ; or, following the instincts of their 
 nature, they seek occupation in play or mischief, even 
 under the sound of his voice ! 
 
 Special Preparation. 2. The teacher should specially 
 prepare himself for each lesson he assigns. This is nat- 
 urally suggested by what has just been said. The 
 teacher's memory needs to be refreshed. We all know 
 how difficult it would be to recite a lesson, in geometry, 
 for instance, weeks after studying it. It is so in other 
 things. Now the teacher should be so familiar with the 
 lesson which he proposes to hear recited, that he could 
 recite it himself as perfectly as he would desire his 
 scholars to do it. This is seldom the case. I have 
 heard a teacher, with the text-book in his hands, com- 
 plain of the dulness or inaccuracy of his classes, when, 
 if the tables had been turned and the pupils allowed to 
 ask the questions, the teacher would scarcely have re- 
 cited as well. And I may add, this is no very uncom- 
 mon thing! If anyone is startled at this assertion, let 
 him request a friend, in whom he can confide, to ask 
 him the questions of a particular lesson in geography, or 
 history, or grammar. The teacher should daily study his 
 class lessons. This will enable him the better to assign 
 his lessons judiciously. In this daily study he should 
 master the text-book upon the subject ; and, more than 
 this, he should consider what collateral matter he can 
 bring in to illustrate the lesson. He should draw upon 
 the resources of his own mind, upon the treasures of 
 his common-place book, 1 upon the contents of some ency- 
 
 i It is an excellent plan for every teacher to keep a common-place book of con- 
 siderable size, different portions of it being set apart for the different subjects 
 upon which he is to give instruction. On the first twenty pages, " Geography "
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 96 
 
 clopedia, upon any source from whence he can obtain 
 a supply of knowledge for his purpose. This will im- 
 prove his own mind, and he will be encouraged, as from 
 time to time he teaches the same branch, to find that he 
 is able to do better than ever before, and that, instead of 
 becoming weary with repetition, he is more and more 
 enthusiastic in the subject. 
 
 Use of the Eye. Going thus to his class so full of 
 the subject that, were the text-book annihilated, he 
 could make another and better one he will have no 
 difficulty to secure attention. As he speaks his eye ac- 
 companies his word, and as his pupils answer he sees 
 the expression of their countenances ; and what a world 
 of meaning there is in this expression ! It betrays, bet- 
 ter than words can do, the clearness or obscurity of the 
 mind's perception when a truth is presented. How 
 different the beaming of the eye when the soul appre- 
 hends, from that almost idiotic stare at vacuity when 
 words are used without import ! And how necessary it 
 is that the teacher should be free to observe the inward 
 workings of the soul as indicated upon the countenance ! 
 
 Correct Language. 3. The teacher should be able to 
 use our language fluently and correctly. In this many 
 
 may be the head, the next twenty pages may be set apart for " History," 
 twenty more may be assigned to " Reading," and a like number to ''Arith- 
 metic." "Grammar," "Spelling," " Writing," etc., reserving quite a space for 
 " Miscellaneous Matter." This would make a large book, but when it is re- 
 membered that it is to be used for several years, it is well to have it large 
 enough to contain a large amount of matter. Now, whenever the teacher hears 
 a lecture, on a peculiar method of teaching either of these branches, let him 
 note the prominent parts of it under the proper head, and especially the illustra- 
 tions. When he reads or hears an anecdote illustrating Geography, History, or 
 Grammar, let it be copied under the proper head. If it illustrates Geography, 
 let the name of the place stand at its head. When he visits a school, and listens 
 to a new explanation or a new process, let him note it under its head. In this 
 way he may collect a thousand valuable things to be used with judgment in 
 his school.
 
 100 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 are deficient. They hesitate and stammer, and after 
 all express their ideas in vague terms, and perhaps by 
 the use of inaccurate or inelegant language. A teacher 
 in no way gives so effectual instruction in grammar as by 
 his own use of our language ; and there can be no sight 
 more mortifying than that of a teacher laboring to fix in 
 the minds of his class some rule of syntax, when his own 
 language at the very moment shows an entire disregard 
 of the rule. It is very common to hear teachers talk of 
 " sums " to their classes in arithmetic, and even to ask 
 them to do " sums " in subtraction or division ! The 
 term " question " is often as improperly applied when 
 no question is asked. The teacher should be accurate 
 in the use of terms. " Question " is sometimes the 
 proper word ; sometimes " problem," and sometimes 
 "exercise," or " example," may with more propriety be 
 used ; but "sum " means the amount of several numbers 
 when added, and it should not be applied as the name 
 of an exercise. Some teachers use the terms ratio and 
 proportion 1 interchangeably as if they were synonyms. 
 Such inaccuracies in the teacher will be sure to be re- 
 produced in the school, and it is a great evil for the 
 scholar to acquire a careless habit in the use of terms. 
 
 Animation. 4. He should have proper animation him- 
 self. Horace Mann describes some of the Scotch teachers 
 as working themselves up into a feverish excitement in the 
 presence of their classes, and the classes in turn as liter- 
 ally bounding from the floor when they answer their 
 
 We are reminded by this of the college student who was examined 
 rather closely by his tutor. "What is ratio?" inquired the tutor. "Ratio," 
 said the yonnf? man, "ratio is proportion." "Well, what is proportion?" 
 "Proportion? proportion is ratio." "Well, then," said the tutor, looking 
 perplexed, "what are both together ?"" Excuse me," said the pupil, "/ can 
 define but one at a time .' "
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 101 
 
 hasty questions. Now, while I think these Scotch teach- 
 ers go quite too far, I do think that many of our own 
 teachers come short of a proper standard of animation. 
 A teacher should be ready, without being rapid; ani- 
 mated, without being boisterous. Children are imitative 
 beings ; and it is astonishing to observe how very soon 
 they catch the manners of the teacher. If he is heavy 
 and plodding in his movements, they will very soon be 
 dull and drowsy in theirs ; then, if he speaks in a sprightly 
 tone and moves about with an elastic step, they almost 
 realize a resurrection from the dead. If he appears ab- 
 sent-minded, taking but little interest in the lesson which 
 is recited, they will be as inattentive, at least, as he ; 
 while, if all his looks and actions indicate that the sub- 
 ject is of some importance, he will gain their attention. 
 Nor can I refrain in this place from suggesting to the 
 teacher the importance of regarding his manners while 
 engaged in conducting a recitation. His attitude should 
 not be one of indolence or coarseness ; and when he 
 moves from his seat, and appears at the blackboard to 
 illustrate any point, it should be done gracefully, and 
 with a constant regard to the fact that every look and 
 every motion teaches. 
 
 The Attention of the Class. 5. He should never pro- 
 ceed without the attention of the class. A loss of interest 
 is sure to follow a want of attention. Besides, a habit of 
 inattention, while it is very common, is also a great 
 calamity to the person who falls into it during life. 
 Many a sermon is lost upon a portion of the audience in 
 our churches every Sabbath from this cause. When the 
 attention is aroused, the impression made is enduring: 
 and one idea then communicated is worth a hundred at 
 any other time.
 
 102 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Books but Helps. 6. Avoid a formal routine in teach- 
 ing. Children are very apt to imbibe the notion that 
 they study in order to recite. They have but little idea of 
 any purpose of acquirement beyond recitation ; hence 
 they study their text-book as mere words. The teacher 
 should, as soon as possible, lead them to study the sub- 
 ject, using the book simply as an instrument. " Books 
 are but helps " should become their motto. In order 
 to bring this about, the instructor would do well occa- 
 sionally to leave entirely the order of the book, and ques- 
 tion them on the topic they have studied. If they are 
 pursuing arithmetic, for instance, and they have carefully 
 prepared a definite number of problems, it might be well 
 to test their ability by giving them at the recitation others 
 of the teacher's own preparing, involving an application 
 of what they have learned to the business of life. This 
 will lead them to study intelligently. Besides, as soon 
 as they begin to see how their knowledge is to be riseful 
 to them, they have a new motive to exertion. They 
 should be so taught as to discover that grammar will 
 improve their understanding and use of language ; that 
 writing will prepare them for business, and, by enabling 
 them to communicate with their friends, will add to their 
 enjoyment ; and so of reading and the other branches. 
 
 Intelligible Language 7. Be careful to use language 
 which is intelligible to children whenever an explanation is 
 given. The object of an explanation is to elucidate, to 
 make clearer. How is this object accomplished when the 
 explanation is less intelligible than the thing explained ? 
 Suppose a child should ask her teacher to explain the 
 cause of cold in winter and heat in summer; in other 
 words, the cause of the change of seasons. " Oh, yes," 
 says he, pleasantly. '' The annual revolution of the earth
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 103 
 
 round the sun, in connection with the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic, occasions the succession of the four seasons." l 
 The child listens to these " words of learned length," and 
 is astonished at the learning of her teacher, but she had 
 no clearer idea than before of the point she inquired 
 about. 
 
 An Example Quoted. Mr. S. R. Hall, in his lectures, 
 gives the following forcible illustration of the same 
 point : " Will you please to tell me why I carry one for 
 every ten?" said little Laura to her instructor. "Yes, 
 my dear," said he, kindly. x " It is because numbers in- 
 crease from right to left in a decimal ratio." Laura 
 sat and repeated it to herself two or three times, and 
 then looked very sad. The master, as soon as he had 
 answered, pursued his other business and did not notice 
 her. But she was disappointed. She understood him 
 no better than if he had used words of another language. 
 " Decimal '' and " ratio " were words that might have 
 fallen on her ear before, but if so, she understood them 
 none the better for it. She looked in the dictionary and 
 was disappointed again, and after some time put away 
 her arithmetic. When asked by her teacher why she 
 did so, she replied ; ' I don't like to study it ; I can't 
 understand it.' ' 
 
 " Now the injury to little Laura was very great. She 
 had commenced the study with interest ; she had learned 
 to answer a great many questions in arithmetic, and had 
 been pleased. She was now using a slate and writing 
 her figures on it, and had found the direction to carry 
 one for every ten. This she might have been made to 
 understand The master loved his scholars and wished 
 to benefit them, but forgot that terms perfectly plain to 
 
 j Worcester's Geography.
 
 104 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 him ivonld be unintelligible to the child. From that mo- 
 ment Laura disliked arithmetic, and every effort that 
 could be used with her could not efface the impres- 
 sion that it was a hard study, and she could not under- 
 stand it." 
 
 Honest Confession, Not Mystification. While upon 
 this subject I might urge that teachers should not 
 resort to evasion when they are not able to explain. It 
 is a much more honorable and far more satisfactory 
 course for the teacher frankly to confess his inability to 
 explain, than to indulge in some ridiculous mysticism 
 to keep up the show of knowledge. I may never forget 
 the passage I first made through the Rule of Three, and 
 the manner in which my manifold perplexities respecting 
 " direct " and " inverse " proportion were solved. " Sir," 
 said I, after puzzling a long time over ' more requiring 
 more and less requiring less' "will you tell me why I 
 sometimes multiply the second and third terms together 
 and divide by the first, and at other times multiply the 
 first and second and divide by the third? '' " Why, be- 
 cause more requires more sometimes, and sometimes it 
 requires less to be sure. Haven'-t you read the rule, 
 my boy? " " Yes, sir, I can repeat the rule, but I don't 
 understand it." " Why, it is because 'more requires 
 more and less requires less ! ' " " But why, sir, do I 
 multiply as the rule says ? " " Why, because ' more re- 
 quires more and less requires less' see, the rule says 
 so" " I know the rule says so, but I wished to under- 
 stand why" 4< Why ? why ? " looking at me as if idiocy 
 itself trembled before him "why? why because the 
 rule says so; don't you see it f ^^"More requires 
 more and less requires less!" and in the midst of this 
 inexplicable combination of more and less, I shrank
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 105 
 
 away to my seat blindly to follow the rule because it 
 said so. Such teaching as this is enough to stultify the 
 most inquiring mind ; and it is to secure the blessing 
 of relief from such influence to the children of any par- 
 ticular district that we come to consider an occasional 
 change of teachers a mitigated evil. 
 
 Accurate and Prompt Recitation. 8. Require prompt 
 and accurate recitation. I know of nothing that will 
 abate the interest of a class sooner than dull and drag- 
 ging recitations. The temptation in such cases is very 
 strong for the teacher to help the class by the " draw- 
 ing-out process," before described. This, however, only 
 makes the matter worse. The dull recitation calls for 
 the teacher's aid ; and his aid reproduces the dull reci- 
 tation. The only way is to stop at once, and refuse to 
 proceed till the recitation can go alone. It is just as 
 easy to have good lessons as poor ; and the teacher 
 should have the energy to insist upon them. Mark the 
 countenances of a class as they go to their seats after a 
 good recitation. They feel that they have done some- 
 thing, and they look as if they valued the teacher's ap- 
 probation and their own so highly that they will learn the 
 next lesson still better. 
 
 It Saves Time. It is, moreover, a great saving of 
 time to have the lessons promptly recited. This saving 
 will afford the opportunity to introduce those additional 
 illustrations I have before suggested, in order to excite a 
 still deeper interest. It may sometimes, though not al- 
 ways, be well to make a prompt and perfect recitation the 
 condition of introducing the additional matter. 
 
 Simultaneous Recitation. 9. Rely not too mueh upon 
 simultaneous recitation. This has become quite too fash- 
 ionable of late. It had its origin in the large schools
 
 106 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 established some years since, known as Lancasterian 
 schools, and perhaps was well enough adapted to schools 
 kept upon that plan in large cities. But when this mode 
 of reciting is adopted in our district and country schools, 
 where the circumstances of large numbers and extreme 
 backwardness are wanting, it is entirely uncalled for, and, 
 like other city fashions transferred to the country, is 
 really out of place, 
 
 Its Evils. Seriously, I look upon this as one of the 
 prominent faults in many of our schools. It destroys all 
 independence in the pupil by taking away his individu- 
 ality. He moves with the phalanx. Learning to rely on 
 others, he becomes superficial in his lessons. He is 
 tempted to indolence by a knowledge that his deficien- 
 cies will not stand out by themselves ; and he comforts 
 himself after a miserable recitation with the consoling re- 
 flection that he has been able to conceal his want of 
 thoroughness from his teacher. 
 
 Sometimes Allowable. It may sometimes be useful. 
 A few questions thus answered may serve to give animation 
 to a class when their interest begins to flag ; but that which 
 may serve as a stimulant must not be relied on for nutri- 
 tion. As an example of its usefulness, I have known a 
 rapid reader tamed into due moderation by being put in 
 companionship with others of slower speech, just as we 
 tame a friskful colt by harnessing him into a team of 
 grave old horses. But aside from some such definite 
 purpose, I have seen no good come of this innovation. I 
 am satisfied its prevalence is an evil, and worthy of the 
 careful consideration of teachers. 
 
 The Purpose. By the foregoing means and others 
 which will suggest fhems"elves tc the thoughtful teacher's 
 mind, he can arouse the interest of his classes so
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 107 
 
 that study will be more attractive than play. For this 
 object every teacher should labor. It is, of course, im- 
 possible to give specific rules to meet every case ; it is 
 not desirable to do it. The teacher, put upon the track, 
 will easily devise his own expedients ; and his own, be it 
 remembered, will usually be found the best for him. 
 
 The Teacher Makes His Mark at Recitation. As 
 a motive for every teacher to study carefully the art of 
 teaching well at the recitation, it should be borne in 
 mind that then and there he comes before his pupils in a 
 peculiar and prominent manner; it is there his mind 
 comes specially in contact with theirs, and there that he 
 lays in them, for good or for evil, the foundations of their 
 mental habits. It is at the recitation, in a peculiar man- 
 ner, that he makes his mark upon their minds ; and as 
 the seal upon the wax, so his ment'al character upon 
 theirs leaves its impress behind !
 
 108 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 
 A Great Question. It is ever an interesting question 
 to the teacher, and one which he should consider with 
 great care " How can I excite an interest among my 
 pupils in their studies ?" The intelligent teacher feels 
 that this is the great question ; for he foresees that, if 
 he fails here, his difficulty in governing his school will 
 be very much increased. He therefore turns his at- 
 tention with deep solicitude to the motives he may pre- 
 sent, and the methods he may employ to awaken and 
 keep alive the interest of the school. 
 
 The Interest in Study an Abiding One. If he has 
 reflected at all upon the subject, he has already arrived 
 at the conviction that it is necessary, for the good of all 
 concerned, that the interest awakened should be an 
 abiding one ; that it should not only not abate during 
 the term of school, but continue, nay, grow stronger 
 and stronger even after school days have passed away. 
 
 A Common Mistake. There is probably no greater 
 mistake in education, than that of raising in school an 
 artificial excitement, which may aid, perhaps, in secur- 
 ing better recitations, but which will do nothing toward 
 putting the mind into such a state that it will press on 
 in the pursuit of knowledge ever after the living teacher 
 has closed his labors. 
 
 The higher principles of our nature being aroused 
 with difficulty, are too apt to be neglected by the
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 109 
 
 teacher, and thus they remain in their original feeble- 
 ness ; while he contents himself with appealing to our 
 lower characteristics, thus doing a lasting injury by 
 unduly cultivating and strengthening them at the 
 same time that he awakens after all but a temporary 
 interest. 
 
 Emulation. In view of the importance of the sub- 
 ject, and the difficulty of judging aright upon it, I shall 
 make no apology for devoting a few pages to the con- 
 sideration of 
 
 SECTION I. INCENTIVES TO STUDY EMULATION. 
 
 The teacher will find in a greater or less degree, in the 
 mind of every child, the principle of EMULATION. It is 
 a question very much debated of late, What shall he do 
 with it ? Much has been said and written on this ques- 
 tion, and the ablest minds, both of past ages and the 
 present, have given us their conclusions respecting it ; 
 and it often increases the perplexity of the young teacher 
 to find the widest difference of opinion on this subject 
 among men upon whom in other things he would confid- 
 ingly rely for guidance. Why, asks he, why is this ? Is 
 there no such thing as truth in this matter? or have these 
 men misunderstood each other? When they have writ- 
 ten with so much ability and so much earnestness, some 
 zealously recommending emulation as a safe and desira- 
 ble principle to be encouraged in the young, and others 
 as warmly denouncing it as altogether unworthy and im- 
 proper, have they been thinking of the same tiling? 
 Thus perplexed with conflicting opinions, he is thrown 
 back upon his own reflection for a decision ; or, what is 
 more common, he endeavors to find the truth by experi- 
 menting upon his pupils. He tries one course for one 
 term, and a different one the next ; repeats both during
 
 110 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 the third, and still finds himself unsettled as he com- 
 mences the fourth. Meantime some of his experiments 
 have wrought out a lasting injury upon the minds of his 
 pupils. 
 
 Evil Consequences of Experimenting. If every 
 teacher must settle every doubt by new experiments 
 upon his classes, the progress that is made in the science 
 and art of teaching must be at the untold expense of 
 each new set of children just as if the young doctor 
 could take nothing as settled by the experience of his 
 predecessors, but must try over again for himself the 
 effect of all the various medical agents, in order to decide 
 whether arsenic does corrode the stomach and produce 
 death, whether cantharides can be best applied inwardly 
 or outwardly, whether mercury is most salutary when 
 administered in ounces or grains, or whether repletion or 
 abstinence is preferable in a fever ! When such is the 
 course of a young practitioner in a community, who does 
 not confidently expect the churchyard soon to become 
 the most populous district, and the sexton to be the 
 most thrifty personage in the village, unless indeed he 
 too should become the subject of experiment. 
 
 Two Senses. But is there not a good sense and a bad 
 sense associated with the term Emulation ; and have 
 not these eager disputants fallen into the same error in 
 this matter that the two knights committed, when they 
 immolated each other in a contest about the question 
 whether a shield was gold or silver, when each had 
 seen but one side of it ? I incline to the opinion that 
 this is the case, and that those who wax so warm in 
 this contest would do well to give us at the outset a 
 careful definition of the term EMULATION as they in- 
 tend to use it. This would perhaps save themselves
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. Ill 
 
 a great deal of toil, and their readers a great deal of 
 perplexity. 
 
 The Good Sense. Now it seems to me the truth on 
 this question lies within a nutshell. 
 
 i. If emulation means a desire for improvement, prog- 
 ress, growth, an ardent wish to rise above one's present 
 condition or attainments, or even an aspiration to at- 
 tain to eminence in the school or in the world, it is a 
 laudable motive. This is self -emulation. It presses the 
 individual on to surpass himself. It compares his 
 present condition with what he would be with what 
 he ought to be ; and " forgetting those things which are 
 behind, and reaching forth unto those which are before, 
 he presses toward the mark for the prize." An ardor 
 kindled by the praiseworthy examples of others, inciting 
 to imitate them, or to equal, or even excel them, with- 
 out the desire of depressing them," ' is the sense in 
 which the Apostle uses the term (Romans xi. 14) when 
 he says: " If by any means I may provoke to emulation 
 them which are my flesh, and might save some of them." 
 If this be the meaning of emulation, it is every way 
 a worthy principle to be appealed to in school. This 
 principle exists to a greater or less extent in the mind 
 of every child, and may very safely be strengthened by 
 being called by the teacher into lively exercise ; pro- 
 vided, always, that the eminence is sought from a desire 
 to be useful, and not from a desire of self-glorification. 
 
 The Bad Sense. 2. But if emulation, on the other 
 hand, means a desire of surpassing otJiers for the sake 
 of surpassing them; if it be a disposition that will 
 cause an individual to be as well satisfied with the 
 highest place, whether he has risen above his fellows by 
 
 i Dr. Webster.
 
 112 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 his intrinsic well-doing, or they have fallen below him 
 by their neglect; if it puts him in such a relation to 
 others that their failures will be as gratifying to him as 
 his own success ; if it be a principle that prompts the 
 secret wish in the child that others may miss their 
 lessons, in order to give him an opportunity to gain ap- 
 plause by a contrast with their abasement, then, with- 
 out doubt, it is an unworthy and unholy principle, and 
 should never be encouraged or appealed to by the 
 teacher. It has no similitude to that spirit which 
 prompts a man to " love his neighbor as himself." It 
 has none of that generosity which rejoices in the success 
 of others. Carried out in after life, it becomes ambition, 
 such as fired the breast of a Napoleon, who sought a 
 throne for himself, though he waded through the blood 
 of millions to obtain it. 
 
 It is to this principle that the Apostle, before quoted, 
 alludes, when he classes emulation with the " works of the 
 flesh," which are these : " Adultery, fornication, unclean- 
 ness, lasciviousness, idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, variance, 
 EMULATION, wrath, strife, seditions, etc. of the which 
 things, I tell you before, as I have told you in times past, 
 that they which do such things shall not inherit the king- 
 dom of God." It is of this principle that the commen- 
 tator, Scott, remarks : " This thirst for human applause 
 has caused more horrible violations of the law of love, 
 and done more to desolate the earth, than even the gross- 
 est sensuality ever did." 
 
 The Two Views of Emulation Compared. Thus 
 emulation is a term which indicates a very good or a very 
 bad thing, according to the definition we give it. In one 
 view of it, the warmest aspirings to rise are consistent 
 with a generous wish that others may rise also. It is even
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 118 
 
 compatible with a heartfelt satisfaction in its possessor, 
 at the progress of others, though they should outstrip 
 him in his upward course. It is the spirit which actuates 
 all true Christians as they wend their way heavenward, 
 rejoicing the more as they find the way is thronged with 
 those who hope to gain an immortal crown. 
 
 In the other view of it, we see men actuated by selfish- 
 ness mingled with pride, inquiring, in the spirit of those 
 mentioned in Scripture : " Who among us shall be the 
 greatest?" We everywhere see men violating these 
 sacred injunctions of Divine wisdom : " Let no man seek 
 his own, but every man another's wealth." ' Let nothing 
 be done through strife or vain-glory ; but in lowliness of 
 mind, let each esteem other better than themselves." 
 " In honor preferring one another " 
 
 The Teacher's Duty. If such be the true picture of 
 emulation, in both the good and the bad sense, certainly 
 teachers cannot hesitate a moment as to their duty. They 
 may appeal to the principle first described cultivate and 
 strengthen it ; and in so doing, they may be sure they 
 are doing a good work. But unless they intend to vio- 
 late the teachings of common sense, and the higher 
 teachings of Christianity, I know not how they can appeal 
 to tJie principle of emulation as defined in the second case. 
 
 Objections. But it may be urged that the teacher 
 will find emulation, even in this latter sense, existing in 
 human nature ; that he cannot- get rid of it if he will; 
 that it will be one of the most active principles to which 
 he can resort in arousing the mind to exertion ; and, 
 furthermore, that it has been appealed to by many of 
 the most eminent teachers time out of mind. 
 
 Answers. To this it is replied that it is not disputed 
 that children are selfish ; and that this selfishness may
 
 114 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 indeed be made a powerful instrumentality in urging 
 them forward to the attainment of a temporary end. 
 But does the existence of selfishness prove that it needs 
 cultivation in the human character ? And will the end, 
 when attained, justify the means? Is the end, what- 
 ever it may be, if attained at such a cost, a blessing to 
 be desired ? Will not the heart suffer more than the 
 head will gain ? 
 
 Further Objections. ft may be further urged that 
 the child will find the world full of this principle when 
 he leaves the school ; and why, it is asked, should he at 
 school be thrown into an unnatural position ? I answer 
 that evil is not to be overcome by making evil more 
 prevalent ; and though there may be too much of self- 
 seeking in the world, that is the very reason why the 
 teacher should not encourage its growth. The more 
 true Christianity prevails in the world, the less there 
 will be of that spirit which rejoices at another's halting ; 
 hence I am convinced the teacher should do nothing to 
 make that spirit more prevalent. 
 
 Emulation Not Essential to Success. Nor is it es- 
 sential to the progress of the pupil even temporarily, 
 since there are other and worthier principles which can 
 be as successfully called into action. If we look care- 
 fully at the expediency of thus stimulating the mind > 
 we find that after the first trial of strength, many be- 
 come disheartened and fall behind in despair. It will 
 soon be obvious, in a class of twenty who are \.\\z few 
 that will be likely to surpass all others ; and therefore 
 all the others, as a matter of course, fall back into envy, 
 perhaps into hopeless indifference. Who has not seen 
 this in a class in spelling, for instance, where the strife 
 was for the "head" of the class, but where all but two
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 115 
 
 or three were quite as well satisfied with being at the 
 "foot"? It does not then accomplish the purpose for 
 which it is employed ; and since those who are aroused 
 by it are even more injured than those who are indif- 
 ferent, their undesirable qualities being thus strength- 
 ened, the opinion is entertained that those teachers are 
 the most wise who bend their ingenuity to find some 
 other means to awaken the minds of the children under 
 their charge. 
 
 The Conclusion. From what has been said, then, 
 Emulation is to be recognized or repudiated among the 
 incentives of the school-room, according to the signifi- 
 cation we assign to the term. 
 
 SECTION II. PRIZES. 
 
 
 
 Honest Investigation. It has for a long time been 
 the custom of teachers to offer some prize as an incen- 
 tive to exertion in school ; a prize of some pecuniary 
 value a hook, or a medal. In some places beneficent 
 individuals have bestowed by legacy the means to pur- 
 chase annually the prizes thus to be used. Every young 
 teacher is called upon, therefore, to inquire whether such 
 an incentive is a proper one to be employed in the 
 school-room. If there is any good to be expected from 
 such an incentive, will it counterbalance theevilsth.it 
 spring from the practice? Will the good of the whole 
 school be promoted by such a measure, and will this be 
 a permanent or a temporary good ? These are questions 
 which press for an honest answer ; and the faithful teacher 
 should not shrink from a careful investigation of the 
 whi le matter; and if he finds good reason to differ from 
 time-honored authority, he should abide by the truth 
 rather than by prescriptive usage.
 
 116 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Experience Its Result. In my own case, I may be 
 allowed to say, my mind was early turned to this point I 
 though, I confess, with a strong bias in favor of the use 
 of prizes. Pretty thoroughly for a series of years did I 
 test their efficacy, but with a growing conviction that the 
 prize was not the proper instrumentality to create a 
 healthy interest in the school. This conviction acquired 
 additional strength by three or four years' trial of other 
 incentives; and it was fully confirmed afterwards by a 
 trial made for the purpose of testing again the efficacy of 
 a prize, at an age when I could more carefully watch the 
 workings of the human mind, and better appreciate the 
 benefits or evils resulting from such a measure. I am 
 now free to say that I am satisfied \hz\. prizes offered to a 
 school in such a ivay that all may compete for t/icm, and 
 only two or three obtain tticm, will always be productive of 
 evil consequences, far overbalancing any temporary or partial 
 good that may arise from them, and therefore they ougiit not 
 to be used as incitements in our schools. 1 
 
 Reasons Assigned. Having expressed an opinion so 
 decidedly upon a measure which claims among its friends 
 and advocates some of the best minds in the country, I 
 shall be expected to assign some reasons for the faith I 
 entertain. From this I shall not shrink. I proceed, 
 therefore, to express such objections to the use of prizes 
 as have been suggested to my mind by my own experi- 
 ence, and confirmed by the experience and observation of 
 others in whom I have great confidence. 
 
 i It may be well to remind the reader that I have used the term Prizes here 
 in contradistinction from a system of Rewards, by which the teacher proposes 
 to give some token of his regard to every one who does well, and the more 
 brilliant success of a few does not necessarily preclude others from participat- 
 ing in the favor according to their merit. Of such a system of Rewards I shall 
 have something to say presently.
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 117 
 
 Prize Becomes the Leading Motive. I. The offer of 
 a prize gives undue prominence to a comparatively unworthy 
 object. It practically teaches the child to undervalue the 
 higher reward of a good conscience, and a love of learn- 
 ing for its own sake. The dazzling medal is placed in 
 the foreground of his field of vision ; and it is very likely 
 to eclipse those less showy but more abiding rewards 
 found in a sense of duty and a desire to be qualified for 
 usefulness. In studying his lesson he thinks of the prize. 
 He studies that he may merely recite well ; for it is a 
 good recitation that wins the prize. He thinks not of 
 duty, or of future usefulness ; the prize outshines all 
 other objects. 
 
 Engenders Rivalry. II. The pursuit of a prize en- 
 genders a spirit of rivalry among the pupils. Rivalry in 
 pursuit of an object which only one can attain, and which 
 all others must lose, must end in exaltation on the part 
 of the winner, and disappointment and envy on the 
 part of the losers. It may be said, this ought not to be 
 so ; but seldom can it be said, that it is not so. Such is 
 human nature, and such it ever will be. Unpleasant 
 feelings sometimes concealed, to be sure but gener- 
 ally expressed in unequivocal terms grow out of the 
 award of almost every school-prize, and sometimes con- 
 tinue to exert their baleful influence through life. Now 
 as long as human nature brings forth unlovely traits al- 
 most spontaneously, such direct efforts to cultivate them 
 surely are not called for. It is the part of wisdom, then, 
 to omit such culture and avoid such results, especially 
 when safer means are so accessible. 
 
 The Few Only are Stimulated. III. The Jicpc of 
 gaining the prize stimulates only tlic fe\<.\ while the many 
 become indifferent. This is admitted to be true even by
 
 118 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 the advocates of the prize system. Let a prize be offered 
 in any class as a reward for the best scholarship, and in 
 a very few days it becomes perfectly obvious to all who 
 the two or three are that will be likely to outstrip all the 
 others. These two or three will be stimulated to exer- 
 tion ; but the strife is left entirely to them. All others, 
 despairing of success, resolve at once to " let their mod- 
 eration be known to all men ;" and since the prize has 
 been made so prominent an object, they cannot be ex- 
 pected now to look at anything above and beyond it. 
 Feeling that they are not likely to participate in the 
 honors of the class, they have but little disposition to 
 share in its to.ils. 
 
 Exceptions in Spite of the System. This, to be 
 sure, is not always so. There are some who, ceasing to 
 strive for the prize, toil for the more substantial blessing, 
 a good education, and in the end come out the best 
 scholars. This is the way, indeed, most of our strong 
 men are made ; for it has long been remarked that the 
 prize scholars MI our schools, and even in our colleges, 
 do not usually become the most distinguished men. 
 On the other hand, many of them are never heard of 
 after receiving their honors. But, though some of the 
 slower scholars do thus hit upon the true path to emi- 
 nence, it is not to be set to the credit of the system ; 
 they rise in spite of the system rather than by virtue of 
 it ; while the ultimate failure of the prize scholars is 
 usually directly attributable to the defect of the system ; 
 for having been unduly stimulated to study solely with 
 reference to recitation, and not with regard to future 
 usefulness their memories have been developed out of 
 all proportion to the other faculties of their minds ; and 
 though they may have been very good reciters, they
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 119 
 
 have no power to become independent thinkers. Under 
 different training they might have become strongmen. 
 
 Why Prize Scholars Fail. But to look no further 
 than the school, the remark holds true in general that 
 prizes stimulate the few, and the many become indif- 
 ferent not only to prizes, but to other and better 
 motives. That system of incentives only can be ap- 
 proved which reaches and influences successfully all the 
 mind subjected to its operation. 
 
 The Teacher Should Reach All. Nor is this an un- 
 important consideration. It is not sufficient praise for 
 a teacher that he has a. few good scholars in his school. 
 Almost any teacher can call out the talent of the active 
 scholars and make them brilliant reciters. The highest 
 merit, however, lies in reaching all the pupils, the dull 
 as well as the active, and in making the most of them, 
 or rather in leading them to make the most of them- 
 selves It should be remembered of every child that 
 the present is his only opportunity of being a child, and 
 ot receiving the training appropriate to childhood ; and 
 that teacher who rests satisfied with a system that does 
 not reach the many while he amuses himself and his 
 visitors with the precocity of a few of his most active 
 scholars, is recreant to his responsible trust. 
 
 Difficulty in Awarding the Prize. IV. There is much 
 difficulty in awarding the prize so as to do strict justice to 
 all So many things are lo be taken into the account in 
 order to determine the excellence of a performance com- 
 pared with others, that some particulars are very likely to 
 be overlooked. Those who are called to judge of the re- 
 sults often disagree among themselves. The following 
 anecdote will illustrate this : Three literary gentlemen 
 were appointed tc select the best from several composi-
 
 120 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 tions, presented by a class, who had written them in 
 competition for a gold medal. Each of the gentlemen 
 carefully read the whole number in private, and con- 
 scientiously selected the best according to his judgment. 
 When they came together to compare results, it was found 
 that each man had selected the best, but that no two had 
 selected the same ! They carefully read and compared 
 the three, and still each insisted that his original choice 
 was the best. After much debate and considerable delay, 
 one of the parties being obliged to go to his business, 
 relieved himself from a painful detention, and his friends 
 from a perplexing doubt, by saying he believed the com- 
 position he had selected was the best, but as he could not 
 stop to claim its rights, he would yield them in favor of 
 the second best in the hands of one of his associates. This 
 ended the dispute, and the action in favor of the success- 
 ful one was declared to be unanimous ! 
 
 This only proves how difficult it is to decide ; and 
 in the case just cited, it might well be asked, 
 why should one of these competitors be held up 
 to the multitude to be applauded and admired, and the 
 others sent back to their classes covered with the shame 
 of a failure ? What principle of justice sanctioned this 
 decision ? 
 
 The Parties Dissatisfied. Nor is this a solitary in- 
 stance. It rarely happens that the case is perfectly clear. 
 There is usually much perplexity about it ; and hence one 
 reason why the decision seldom satisfies the friends of the 
 parties either in the school or at home. But other con- 
 siderations besides the intrinsic merits of the performance 
 are to be taken into account in awarding a prize ; as, 
 
 Various External Aids: Exemplified. i. A differ 
 ence in tlic external facilities which the competitors enjoy
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IX STUDY. 121 
 
 for getting the lessons. One pupil may be the son of pov- 
 erty, and be compelled to labor during all the hours out 
 of school ; another may be in easy circumstances, and 
 have nothing to prevent giving undivided attention to 
 study during the whole day One may be the child of 
 parents who have no power to render assistance by way 
 of explaining a difficult point ; while the other may have 
 all his doubts removed at once by parental aid. One 
 may never even be encouraged by a kind word at home; 
 another is constantly urged to effort, and perhaps not 
 allowed to be idle One may have access to no books 
 but his school manuals ; the other may have at his com- 
 mand a large library. This difference in circumstances, 
 should be taken into the account ; but it never can be 
 fully understood by those who are called to decide. 
 
 Improper Means Used. 2. The improper means 
 wJiicli may have been employed to secure the prize. 
 Ambition, when aroused, is not always scrupulous of its 
 means One competitor may be high-minded ; may 
 enter the arena determined to succeed by an honorable 
 strife : may resolve to succeed by his own exertions, or 
 to fail rather than bring in anything which is not the 
 fruit ot his own study. Another, regardless of honor or 
 principle, resolves only to succeed, whatever it may cost ; 
 hesitates not to copy from others if possible, or to apply 
 to a brother in college or some friend in the high 
 school to furnish the difficult solution, prepared to 
 order. 
 
 An "Authoress." One young lady spends days and 
 nights in arranging the glowing thoughts for her com- 
 position, determined if industry, study, good taste, and 
 a careful application of the rules of rhetoric can effect 
 anything that her production shall be worthy of a
 
 1','J THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 prize. Another, in no way distinguished for scholar- 
 ship, industry or honor, writes a careless letter to 
 a married sister in a distant city invoking her aid. In 
 due time the mail brings an elegant essay It is copied 
 with sufficient accuracy to be read, and at the examina- 
 tion takes the prize ! The fair ' authoress " stands forth 
 and is flattered before the multitude is perhaps made 
 to believe that she is worthy of praise ; she grasps the 
 golden bauble, and, covered with the blushes of mod- 
 esty, receives the congratulations and caresses of friends, 
 and is afterwards reputed a good scholar. Her competi 
 tor? meantime become convinced that effort cannot rival 
 genius ; they are mortified to think they have presumed 
 to enter the arena with native talent, and become dis- 
 heartened as to any future attempt. 
 
 Abuses. Now, where is the justice in all this proceed- 
 ing ? Yet this is not fiction; it is history! If such 
 abuses abuses that might well make an angel weep, 
 revealing, as they do, that woman's heart can be thus 
 sold to deception are the accompaniments of a prize 
 system, may we not well doubt the utility of that sys- 
 tem? 
 
 System Unsafe. Yet who can know either the dif- 
 ferent facilities enjoyed by the competitors, or the want 
 of principle in some of them ? Who can enter tht 
 secret chambers of the mind or the heart, and estimate 
 with any accuracy the just amount of merit in any 
 action ? This is God's prerogative ; while " man looketh 
 only on the outward appearance." My inference then 
 is : A system fan hardly be safe which is so uncertain. 
 
 Success Overrated. V. The prize rewards SUCCESS, 
 not KFFORT; TALENT, not WORTH. Everyone knows 
 that, in estimating the value and virtue of an action, the
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 1 .':) 
 
 motive which prompted it and the effort it necessarily 
 cost should be taken into the account. Every one 
 knows too that success in study is by no means a cri- 
 terion by which to judge of the merits of the scholar. 
 Some learn their lessons with great facility and with but 
 little effort ; others study long and patiently without 
 any brilliant results. One competitor for a pri/e may 
 bring results which have cost him midnight toil and the 
 most unremitting perseverance; another with brighter 
 parts, and with but little labor, is able to surpass him, 
 and takes the medal. Now the former deserves in a far 
 higher degree the encouragement of the reward ; yet it 
 is given to him who has the talent, but who lacks the 
 industry. The rule of Scripture which announces that 
 'to whom much is given, of him sliall much be required," 
 is violated, and he is rewarded for producing but little 
 more than the one to whom little is given. 
 
 But God Rewards How. It is often urged, by those 
 who advocate a system of prizes and rewards, that God 
 rewards ; and, therefore, it is at least justifiable that we 
 should imitate His example. I admit that God, in His 
 government, does reward; bat He rewards effort rather 
 than success ; He " looketh upon the heart " as man can- 
 not do, and rewards worth, not talent. We might, indeed, 
 imitate His example, if we had less frailty, and were not 
 so liable to be imposed upon by the outward appearance. 
 God, indeed, rewards men ; but He estimates the secret 
 intention, seeing the inward springs of thought before 
 they find expression in words or actions. He regards the 
 motive, and holds out for the encouragement of the 
 humblest child of earth, who does the best he can, as 
 rich a crown of glory as He does for those whose out- 
 ward circumstances, in the eyes of mortals, art more aus-
 
 124 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 picious. When man can as wisely and as righteously be- 
 stow his prizes and rewards, there will be far less objection 
 to their use. 
 
 Studying for a Prize Only VI. The pupil who studies 
 for a prize as his chief motive will seldom continue to study 
 -ic/ifti tJie prize is withdrawn. This is so obvious as 
 scarcely to need illustration. If it be necessary to add 
 anything to the mere statement of the fact, an appeal 
 to almost universal experience would confirm it. A 
 teacher who has depended upon prizes in a school, finds 
 it very difficult to awaken an interest there when he 
 withdraws the prize. Hence many have, on trying 
 the experiment of abandoning the prize system, become 
 discouraged, and have returned again to the use of 
 prizes, believing them essential to their success. Thus 
 the very argument which shows most clearly their per- 
 nicious tendency is made a reason for continuing chem 
 As before hinted, the prize scholars in our academies 
 and even our colleges, are seldom distinguished men in 
 after-life a fact that speaks conclusively on this point; 
 but it can scarcely be necessary to spend words to prove 
 a truth almost self-evident. 
 
 "He is Studying for the Prize." VII. By the prize 
 system, tJic influence of the good example of some of the best 
 pupils is lost upon the school. All who have taught know 
 how important this influence is to the success of the 
 school. It tells with resistless power upon the other 
 scholars, wherever it exists, unless some unworthy motive 
 can be assigned for it, But, under the prize system, let 
 a teacher appeal to the example of his best scholars, and 
 the reply is, "Oh, yes, he behaves well; or he studies 
 diligently, but he is trying to get the prize" With this 
 understanding, his example becomes powerless, unless,
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 125 
 
 indeed, there may be a disposition to be unlike him in 
 everything. It is believed this is a consideration of con- 
 siderable importance. 
 
 System of Rewards not Necessary. I have thus as- 
 signed, at some length, the reasons why I should dis- 
 countenance, among the incentives of the school, the 
 use of Prizes. As to the use of "Rfwtrds," when they 
 are made so numerous that every one who is really de- 
 serving may receive one, and when the basis of their 
 distribution is not talent, not success merely, but good 
 intention and praiseworthy effort, I have much less to 
 say. As expressions of the teacher's interest in the 
 children, and of his approval "of their well-doing they 
 may serve a good end. Perhaps there is no very strong 
 objection to them in principle; though if the teacher 
 subjects himself to the necessary outlay in the purchase 
 of them, it may become burdensome to him. I may 
 add, however, that I do not think rewards are necessary 
 to the teacher s success. I should prefer to do without 
 them. It is possible to produce such a feeling in the 
 schoolroom that the approving conscience of the child, 
 and the commendatory smile of the teacher, shall be the 
 richest of all rewards. These come without money and 
 without price, and may always be freely and safely 
 bestowed, wherever there is a good intention exhibited 
 by the child. That is the most healthy state of things 
 where these are most prized. As children whose parents 
 begin early to hire them to do their duty are seldom 
 ready afterwards to render their cheerful service as an act 
 of filial obligation whenever the pay is withheld, so 
 children at school, who have been accustomed to expect 
 a reward, seldom pursue their studies as cheerfully when 
 that expectation is cut off.
 
 U'6 THEORY AND PRAC'TICK OF TEACHING. 
 
 SECTION III. PROPER INCENTIVES. 
 
 Safe Incentives. In what has already been said, it 
 has been more than hinted that there are higher attributes 
 than emulation, which the teacher should address, and 
 which, if he is successful in calling them into exercise, 
 will be quite sufficient to en ure the proper application 
 of his pupils to their studies. They have the merit, 
 moreover, of being safe. They do not unduly stimulate 
 the intellectual at the expense of the moral faculties. 
 Their very exercise constitutes a healthy growth of the 
 moral nature. Some of these I may briefly allude to : 
 
 Approbation of Friends. I. A DESIRE TO GAIN 
 
 THE APPROBATION OF THEIR PARENTS AND TEACHER. 
 The love of approbation is as universal in the human mind 
 as emulation. Not one in a thousand can be found 
 who does not possess it. Within proper limits, it is a 
 desirable trait ia human character. It is, to be sure, 
 one of the selfish propensities ; but, among them all, it 
 is the most innocent. Carried to an extreme it would 
 lead its possessor to crave the good opinion of the bad 
 as well as of the good, and to become an obsequious 
 seeker after popularity. This, of course, is to be depre- 
 cated. But there can be no danger of this extreme as 
 long as the approbation of parents and teachers is the 
 object aimed at. It implies in the child a respect for 
 the opinions, and a confidence in the justice, of his 
 parents and teachers : and hence it implies in him a 
 eenerous desire to please as a condition of being com- 
 mended by them. 
 
 ' Twice Blest." In this- sense, the love of approba- 
 tion may be appealed to by the teacher. He perhaps 
 need not frequently use the language of praise. It will 
 generally be sufficient if the smile of approval beams
 
 KXriTIXC, INTEREST IN STUDY. l',>7 
 
 forth in his countenance. If he is judicious as well as 
 just, this boon soon becomes a precious one to the child. 
 It is a reward, moreover, which 
 
 " is twice blest : 
 It blesscth him who gives and him who takes." 
 
 II. A Desire of Advancement. This is emulation 
 in its good sense It leads the child as before remarked, 
 to compare his present standing and attainments with 
 what they should be, and to desire to surpass himself. 
 This is ever commendable. Man was made for progress, 
 and it is no unworthy aspiration when this desire fires the 
 youthful breast. The teacher, then, may appeal to this 
 desire, may kindle it into a flame even, with safety 
 because it is a flame that warms without consuming that 
 on which it feeds. 
 
 Ill A Desire to be Useful. The good teacher 
 should never fail to impress upon the child that the 
 object of his being placed on earth was that he might 
 be of some use to the world by which he is surrounded. 
 ' No man liveth to himself, and no man dieth to him- 
 self." He can be thus useful by storing the mind with 
 knowledge and the heart with right affections. He 
 may be reminded of the connection between his present 
 studies and the pursuits of life to which they may be 
 applied. Some judicious hint at the future application 
 of any branch is always a good preparation of the mind 
 to pursue it. If there is a definite object in view, there 
 will always be more alacrity in the labor of study; and 
 this may be made to influence the young pupil as well 
 as the more advanced. It is no small thing for the 
 child if he can be early made to feel that he is living to 
 some purpose.
 
 128 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACH 1 Mi. 
 
 IV. A Desire to Do Right. This, in other words, 
 is a disposition to obey conscience by conforming to the 
 will of God. This, indeed, is the highest and holiest of 
 ail the motives to human action. In its fullest sense 
 it constitutes the fundamental principle of a religious 
 character. The teacher should most assiduously cul- 
 tivate in the child a regard for this principle. God has 
 implanted the conscience in every child of earth, that it 
 should early be made use of to regulate the conduct. 
 That teacher is either grossly ignorant or madly per- 
 verse who disregards the conscience, while he appeals 
 alone to the selfishness of the young, and thus practi- 
 cally teaches that moral obligation is a nullity ; that the 
 law of God so beautifully expounded by the Saviour 
 " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart 
 and with all thy soul and with all thy mind," and 
 ''Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself" is of little 
 consequence ; and that the injunction of the Apostle 
 " Whether ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to 
 the glory of God," is as good as obsolete, 
 
 Conscience Active in Childhood. In early childhood 
 the conscience is most active. It needs, to be sure, at 
 that period to be enlightened ; but if the teachings of 
 Revelation are made plain to the child, he seldom disre- 
 gards them. The teacher has at this period very much 
 to do, as I have before said in the chapter on '' Responsi- 
 bility of Teachers " ; and he cannot neglect his duty with 
 out the most aggravated culpability. The point I urge 
 here is that he should use these motives as incentives to 
 study. 
 
 Sense of Obligation. The child can be made to feel 
 that he owes the most diligent efforts for improvement 
 to his teacher, who daily labors for his improvement ; to
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 129 
 
 his parents, who have kindly supplied his wants, and 
 have provided the means for his cultivation ; to society, 
 whose privileges he may enjoy, and to which he is 
 bound to make a return by becoming an intelligent and 
 useful member of it; to himself, as a rational and im- 
 mortal being, capable of unbounded enjoyment or un- 
 told misery, just in proportion as he prepares himself 
 for either; and above all to his CREATOR, by whose 
 bounty he lives, surrounded with friends and blessed 
 with opportunities, which are denied to millions of his 
 fellow-beings by whose gracious providence he has 
 been endowed with faculties and capabilities making him 
 but little lower than the angels, and which he is bound 
 to cultivate for usefulness and for heaven by whose 
 mercy he has been supplied, as millions have not, with 
 the Word of God, to guide his mind to things above, 
 and with the influences of Christian society, to cheer him 
 in his path to heaven above all, I repeat, should the 
 child be taught to feel that he owes to God his best efforts 
 to make the most of all his powers for time and eternity. 
 If this can be done (and I believe to a great extent it can 
 be done), there will be no need of a resort to those ques- 
 tionable incentives found in exciting children to outstrip 
 their fellows by prizes and rewards; while in this very 
 process the foundation of a good moral training will be 
 laid, without which the perfect structure of a noble char- 
 acter can never be reared in later life. 
 
 To the motives already alluded to, if it be necessary to 
 add another, I would urge 
 
 V. The Pleasure of Acquisition. This is often 
 underrated by teachers. Our Creator has not more uni- 
 versally bestowed a natural appetite for the food which is 
 necessary for the growth of the body than He has a
 
 180 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 mental longing for the food ot the mind ; and as he has 
 superadded a sensation of pleasure to the necessary act 
 of eating, so He has made it a law of the mind to expe- 
 rience its highest delight while in the act of receiving the 
 mental aliment. Whoever has observed childhood with 
 an attentive eye must have been impressed with the wis- 
 dom of God in this arrangement. How much the child 
 acquires within the first three years after its birth ! He 
 learns a difficult language with more precision than a well- 
 educated adult foreigner could learn it in the same time; 
 yet language is not his only or his chief study. 
 During these same three years he makes sur- 
 prising advances in general knowledge. He seeks an 
 intimate acquaintance with all the physical objects by 
 which he is surrounded. The size, form, color weight, 
 temperature, and use of each aie investigated by the 
 test of his own senses, or ascertained by innumerable in- 
 quiries. His ideas of height and distance, of light and 
 heat, of motion and velocity, of cause and effect, are all 
 well defined. He has made no mean attainments in 
 morals. He comprehends the law of right and wrong, 
 so that his decisions may well put to the blush his supe- 
 riors in age ; and unless grossly neglected he has learned 
 the duty of obedience to parents and reverence towards 
 God. Now all this amazing progress has been made 
 because of the irrepressible curiosity with which God 
 has endowed him, and the unspeakable delight he expe- 
 riences in acquiring the knowledge which gratifies it. 
 
 Mr. Mann Quoted. All must have noticed the delight 
 with which the child grasps a new idea ; but few have 
 been able so eloquently to describe it as it is done by 
 Mr. Mann. - Mark a child," says he, " when a clear, 
 well-defined, vivid conception seizes it. The whole ner-
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 131 
 
 vous tissue vibrates. Every muscle leaps. Every joint 
 plays. The face becomes auroral. The spirit flashes 
 through the body like lightning through a cloud." 
 
 The Blind and the Dumb. " Observe, too, the blind, 
 the deaf, and the dumb. So strong is their inborn 
 desire for knowledge, such are the amazing attractive 
 forces of their minds for it, that although the natural 
 inlets, the eye and the ear, are closed, yet they will draw 
 it inward through the solid walls and encasements of the 
 body. If the eye be curtained with darkness, it will 
 enter through the ear. If the ear be closed in silence, 
 it will ascend along the nerves of touch. Every new 
 idea that enters into the presence of the Sovereign 
 Mind carries offerings of delight with it, to make its 
 coming welcome. Indeed, our Maker created us in 
 blank ignorance, for the very purpose of giving us the 
 boundless, endless pleasure of learning new things." 
 
 This Pleasure Abates in After-life. It is, of course, 
 not to be expected that the same degree of pleasure will 
 attend the learner in every acquisition as the novelty 
 diminishes, and as he advances in age. The bodily ap- 
 petite is less keen in after-life than in childhood, so that 
 the adult may never realize again to the full extent the 
 delicious flavors which regaled him in his earliest years. 
 Still there will ever be a delight in acquisition ; and to 
 carry our illustration a little further, as the child is 
 soonest cloyed whose stomach is surfeited with dainties, 
 and stimulated with condiments, and pampered with 
 sweetmeats, till his taste has lost its acumen and diges- 
 tion becomes a burden, so the mental appetite is soonest 
 destroyed when, under the unskillful teacher, it is over- 
 loaded with what it can neither digest nor disgorge. 
 The mind may be surfeited ; and then no wonder if it
 
 132 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 loathes even the wholesome aliment. Artificial stimu- 
 lants, in the shape of prizes, and honors, and flattery, 
 and fear and shame, may have impaired its functions, 
 so that it ceases to act except under their excitement. 
 But all must see that these are unnatural conditions, 
 superinduced by erroneous treatment. There is still a 
 delight in acquisition, just as soon as the faculties are 
 aroused to the effort ; and the skillful teacher will strive 
 to wake up tJie mind to find this delight, and if he 
 understands his work he will scarcely need a stronger 
 incentive. If he understands the secret of giving just 
 so much instruction as to excite the learner's curiosity, 
 and then to leave him to discover and acquire for him- 
 self, he will have no necessity to use any other means 
 as stimulants to exertion. 
 
 Instance of God's Wisdom and Goodness. To this 
 might be added that irrepressible curiosity, that all per- 
 vading desire to know, which is found in the mind of every 
 child. The mind, as if conscious of its high destiny, in- 
 stinctively spreads its unfledged wings in pursuit of 
 knowledge. This, with some children, is an all-sufficient 
 stimulant to the most vigorous exertion. To this the 
 teacher may safely appeal. Indeed, it is a convincing 
 proof of the wisdom as well as the goodness of God, that 
 this desire to know, as well as the delight of acquisition, are 
 the most active at that early period of childhood, when a 
 just appreciation of the utility of knowledge, and the 
 higher motives already detailed, could scarcely find a 
 lodgment in the tender mind. It seems to be, there- 
 fore, an indisputable dictate of our very nature that both 
 these principles should be early employed as incentives. 
 
 A Scholium. If, then, the desire of the approval of 
 parents and teachers, the desire oj advancement, the de-
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 133 
 
 sire to be useful, and the desire to do right, can be super- 
 added to the natural love in the child for acquisition, and 
 a natural desire to know, there will, as I believe, be but 
 little occasion to look further for incentives to exertion 
 in the pupil ; and I may venture to add, as a scholium to 
 what has already been said, that the teacher who has not 
 yet learned to call into exercise these higher motives, and 
 to rely for success mainly upon them, and who dares not 
 abandon the system of exciting stimulants for fear of a 
 failure, has yet much to learn as a true educator of the 
 young.
 
 134 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Order Necessary in School. It is not necessary that 
 any space in this work should be occupied in speaking of 
 the importance of order in our schools. Everybody who 
 has written or spoken on this subject has conceded the 
 necessity of obedience on the part of the pupil. " ORDER 
 IS HEAVEN'S FIRST LAW ;" and it is scarcely more essen- 
 tial to the Harmony of Heaven than it is to the happiness 
 and success of the school. 
 
 If such be the necessity of order in the school, then 
 the ability to secure and maintain it is no mean part of 
 the qualification of the good teacher. It is lamentable 
 that so many fail in this particular ; and yet this frequent 
 failure can in most cases be traced to some defect in the 
 constitutional temperament, or some deficiency in the 
 mental or moral culture of the teacher himself. It shall 
 be my first object, then, to point out some of the 
 SECTION I. REQUISITES IN THE TEACHER FOR GOOD 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 I. Self-government. It has freqnently been said that 
 no man can govern others till he has learned to govern 
 himself. I have no doubt of the truth of this. If an 
 individual is not perfectly self-possessed, his decisions 
 must fail to command respect. The self-gover,iment 
 of the teacher should be complete in the following par- 
 ticulars : 
 
 i. As to the Passion of Anger. The exhibition 
 of anger always detracts from the weight of authority.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 135 
 
 A man under its influence is not capable of doing strict 
 justice to his pupils. Before entering upon teaching, 
 therefore, a man should somehow obtain the mastery 
 over his temper, so that under any provocation he can 
 control it. He should consider that in school his pa- 
 tience will often be severely tried. He should not ex- 
 pect, indeed, that the current of affairs in school will 
 for a single day run perfectly smooth. He should, 
 therefore, prepare for the worst, and firmly resolve that, 
 whatever unpleasant thing shall occur, it shall not take 
 him entirely by surprise. Such forethought will give 
 him self command. If, however, from his past experi- 
 ence, and from the nature of his temperament, he is 
 satisfied he cannot exercise this self-control, he may be 
 assured he is the wrong man to engage in teaching. A 
 man who has not acquired thorough ascendency over his 
 own passions is an unsafe man to be intrusted with the 
 government of children. 
 
 2. As to Levity and Moroseness of Manner. Either 
 extreme is to be avoided. There are some teachers 
 who exhibit such a frivolity in all their intercourse with 
 their pupils that they can never command them with 
 authority, or gain their cordial respect. This is a 
 grievous fault ; and the teacher should at once find an 
 antidote for it by serious reflection upon the responsi- 
 bility of his position. If this will not cure it, nothing 
 else can. 
 
 Perpetual Peevishness. There are others who are 
 characterized by a perpetual peevishness so that a pleas- 
 ant word from them is, indeed, a strange thing. They 
 can never expect to gain the affections of their pupils ; 
 and without securing the love of children, the govern-
 
 136 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 merit of them will never be of the right kind. This 
 habit of sna/>pishness should be broken up at once. 
 
 Ridiculous Assumption of Smartness. There are 
 some very young teachers who sometimes assume one or 
 the other of these peculiar modes of address, or perhaps 
 both, to be used alternately fancying that they will gain 
 popularity by the one or give themselves greater author- 
 ity by the other. This is a very mistaken notion ; for 
 children have more discernment than most men give 
 them credit for, and they usually see directly through 
 such a flimsy disguise; and the teacher becomes ridicu- 
 lous, rather than great, in their estimation whenever he 
 takes any such false position. 
 
 Mr. Abbot's Case. Mr. Abbot, in his " Teacher," 
 states a fact which well illustrates this point. " Many 
 years ago," says he, " when I was a child, the teacher of 
 the school where my early studies were performed closed 
 his connection with the establishnent, and, after a short 
 vacation, another was expected. On the appointed day 
 the boys began to collect, some from curiosity, at an 
 early hour, and many speculations were started as to 
 the character of the new instructor. We were stand- 
 ing near a table with our hats on, and our position, 
 and the exact appearance of the group is indelibly 
 fixed on my memory, when a small and youthful 
 looking man entered the room and walked up towards 
 us. Supposing him to be some stranger, or, rather,, 
 not making any supposition at all, we stood looking 
 at him as he approached, and were thunderstruck 
 at hearing him accost us in a stern voice and 
 sterner brow : ' Take off your hats ! Take off your 
 hats, and go to your seats!' The conviction immedi- 
 ately rushed upon our minds that this must be the new
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 137 
 
 teacher. The first emotion was that of surprise, and 
 the second was that of the ludicrous ; though I believe we 
 contrived to smother the laugh until we got out into the 
 open air." 
 
 The true rule is to act the part which is agreeable to 
 Nature. The teacher having sained the self-command 
 just insisted upon, and having in him the spirit of kind- 
 ness and a desire to be useful, should assume nothing 
 unnatural for effect. His manner should be truly dig- 
 nified, but courteous. 
 
 3. As to His Treatment of those Pupils that are 
 Marked by Some Peculiarity. There will usually be 
 some pupils who are very backward and perhaps very 
 dull or who may have some physical defect, or some 
 mental eccentricity. The teacher should be able to 
 govern himself in all his remarks concerning such pupils. 
 He should avoid all allusion to such singularities before 
 the school; and it is the height of injustice I was 
 about to say malevolence for him ever to use those low 
 and degrading epithets so often found upon the teacher's 
 tongue such as dunce, thickskull, and the like. Is it not 
 misfortune enough for a child to be backward or dull, 
 without having the pain and mortification increased by 
 the cruelty of an unfeeling teacher? The teacher should 
 take a special interest in such children ; he should en- 
 deavor to enter into the feelings of their parents, 
 and to treat them in such a way as to encourage rather 
 than crush them. 
 
 II. A Confidence in His Ability to Govern. We can 
 generally do what we firmly believe we can do. At 
 any rate, a man is more likely to succeed in any enter- 
 prise when he has the feeling of self-reliance. The 
 teacher, by reflection upon the importance of good gov-
 
 138 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 ernment to his success, and by a careful study of the 
 means to be employed and the motives to be presented, 
 should be able to bring himself to the determination to 
 have good order in his school, and so fully to believe he 
 can have it, that his pupils shall detect no misgivings in 
 him on this point. Whenever they discover that he has 
 doubts of his success in governing, they will be far more 
 ready to put his skill to the test. It would be better 
 that a young teacher should decline to take a difficult 
 school rather than enter it without the full belief of his 
 ability to succeed. I would not wish to be understood 
 by these remarks to be encouraging an unreasonable and 
 blind presumption. A confidence in one's ability should 
 be founded upon a reasonable estimate of his powers, 
 compared with the difficulties to be overcome. What I 
 recommend is that the teacher should carefully weigh the 
 difficulties and candidly judge of his own resources, and 
 then undertake nothing which he thinks is beyond his 
 ability. If, after this, he believes he can succeed, other 
 things being equal, success is almost certain. 
 
 III. Just Views of Government. I. It is not tyr- 
 anny, exercised to please the one who governs, or to pro- 
 mote his own convenience. The despot commands 
 for the sake of being obeyed. But government, in its 
 proper sense, is an arrangement for \htgeneralgood 
 for the benefit of the governed as well as of the ruler. 
 That is not good government which seeks any other 
 object. The teacher should so view the matter ; and 
 in establishing any regulations in school, he should 
 always inquire whether they are suggested by a selfish 
 regard to his own ease, or whether they spring from a 
 sincere and disinterested wish to promote the improve- 
 ment of the school.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 139 
 
 2. Uniform Government. He should see the neces- 
 sity of making the government uniform ; that is, the 
 same from day to day. If he punishes to-day what he 
 tolerates to-morrow, he cannot expect the cordial respect 
 of his pupils. Some teachers, not having learned the 
 art of self-government, take counsel too much of their 
 own feelings. To-day they are in good health and spirits, 
 and their faces are clothed in sunshine ; they can smile 
 at anything. To-morrow, suffering under bad digestion, 
 or the want of exercise, or the want of sleep, the- 
 thunder-storm hovers about their brow, ready to burst 
 upon the first offender. Woe to the luckless wight who 
 does not seasonably discover this change in the con- 
 dition of the weather ! A teacher cannot long respect 
 himself who is thus capricious ; he may be sure his 
 school will not long respect him. 
 
 3. No Aristocracy in School. He should so view 
 government as to make it equal ; that is, eqnal in its 
 application to the whole school the large as well as 
 small scholars, the males as well as females. This is 
 often a great fault with teachers. They raise up a sort 
 of aristocracy in their schools a privileged class, a 
 miniature nobility. They will insist that the "little boys 
 and girls shall abstain from certain practices, whisper- 
 ing, for instance, and most promptly punish the of- 
 fenders, while they tolerate the same thing among the 
 larger pupils. This is cowardly in itself, and as im- 
 politic as it is cowardly. The teacher makes a great 
 mistake who begins his government with the small chil- 
 dren, in the hope of frightening the larger ones into 
 obedience. He should have the manliness and the 
 justice to begin with the larger pupils ; the smaller ones 
 never resist when authority is established with those
 
 140 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 above them. Besides this, the very class who are thus 
 indulged are the very ones who soonest despise, and 
 justly, too, the authority of the teacher. 
 
 No Partiality. He should make his government im- 
 partial \n eveiy respect. He should have no favorites 
 no preferences, based upon the outward circumstances of 
 the child, his family, or his personal attractions, and the 
 like. The rich and the poor should be alike to the 
 teacher. He should remember that each child has a 
 soul ; and it is with the soul, and not with the wealth of 
 this world, that he has to do. He should remember that 
 a gem as bright as a sunbeam is often concealed under a 
 rough exterior. It should be his work nay, his delight 
 to bring out this gem from its hiding-place, and apply 
 to it the polish of a " workman that needeth not to be 
 ashamed." 
 
 IV. Just Views of the Governed. Notwithstanding 
 the imperfection of human nature as developed in the 
 young, they have some redeeming qualities. They are 
 intelligent and reasonable beings. They have more or 
 less love of approbation ; they have affection, and, above 
 all, they have a moral sense. All these qualities are 
 considerably developed before they enter the school. 
 The teacher should remember this, and prepare himself 
 to address, as far as may be, all these. Lcve of appro- 
 bation, as we have before seen, is not an unworthy 
 motive to be addressed ; and it is well known that many 
 children are very easily controlled by it. It is not the 
 highest motive, to be sure ; nor is it the lowest. The 
 affection for a teacher, which many children will exercise 
 is one of the most powerful instrumentalities in govern- 
 ing them with ease. The conscience, early trained, is all- 
 powerful. I allude to these principles of action once
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 141 
 
 more, in order to say that the peculiar character of each 
 should be well studied by the teacher. He should un- 
 derstand the human mind so well as to be able to find 
 the avenues to these better parts of the child's nature, 
 remembering that, whenever several ways are presented 
 of doing the same thing, it is always wise to choose the 
 best. 
 
 V. Decision and Firmness. By decision I mean a 
 readiness to determine and to act, in any event, just as 
 duty seems to dictate ; a willingness to take the responsi- 
 bility just as soon as the way is plain. By firmness is 
 meant that fixedness of purpose which resolutely carries 
 out a righteous decision. Both of these qualities are 
 essential to good government in the teacher. Much time 
 is often lost by a teacher's vacillating when action is more 
 important. Besides, if the pupils discover that the 
 teacher hesitates, and dreads to take any responsibility, 
 they very soon lose their respect for him. I would not 
 urge that a teacher should act hastily. He never should 
 decide till he is confident he decides right ; any delay is 
 better than hasty error. But his delay, in all matters of 
 government, should have reference to a true knowledge 
 of his duty ; when that is clearly known, he should be 
 decided. 
 
 The Unjust Judge. Many teachers suffer in their 
 government for want of firmness. They act upon the 
 principle of personal convenience, as did the unjust 
 judge mentioned in the parable : "And he would not 
 for a while ; but afterwards he said within himself, 
 though I fear not God nor regard man, yet because this 
 widow troubleth me, I will arise and avenge her, lest by her 
 continued coming she weary me."
 
 142 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 A Practical Example. How often we hear something 
 like this in the school-room : " May I go and drink ? '* 
 says James, in a peculiarly imploring tone. " No," says 
 the teacher promptly, and evidently without any reflec- 
 tion as to the decision he has made. James very com- 
 posedly sits down, eyeing the countenance of the teacher 
 expressively, as much as to say ; " I'll try you again 
 soon." Before long he observes the teacher quite busy 
 with a class, and he again pops the question : " May I 
 go and drink?" Stung at the moment with impatience 
 at the interruption, the teacher answers, instantly and 
 emphatically: " No, no, James, sit down!" James still 
 watches his teacher's expression, and cannot discover 
 there any signs of a mind seeking the path of duty, and 
 he silently thinks to himself, "the third time never fails." 
 So, after a minute or two, when the teacher is somewhat 
 puzzled with a knotty question, and is on the point of 
 nibbing a pen besides, " May I go and drink, sir f again 
 rings up^n the teacher's ear. " Yes, yes, yes ! Do go 
 along ; I suppose you II keep asking till you get it /" 
 
 Philosophizing Conclusion. Now James goes to 
 drink, and then returns to philosophize upon this matter, 
 perhaps as follows: "I don't believe he stopped to 
 think whether I needed drink or not ; therefore, here- 
 after I shall never believe he really means no when he 
 says it. He acts without thought. I have also found 
 that, if I will but ask several times, I shall get it. So I 
 shall know how to proceed next time." I do not know 
 that any child would express this thought in so many 
 words ; but the impression upon his mind is none the 
 less distinct. 
 
 A Better Way. Now the teacher should carefully 
 consider the question addressed to him. How long
 
 SCHOOL (;<)\ KKNMICNT. 14:1 
 
 since this child had water? Can it be necessary for 
 him to drink so often? Then let the answer be given, 
 mildly but decidedly: "No, James." The very man- 
 ner, quite likely, will settle the question, so that James 
 will not ask again. The answer once given should be 
 firmly adhered to. It would even be better that James 
 should suffer for the want of water than for the want 
 of confidence in his teacher's firmness. In this way the 
 teacher would establish his word with the school in a 
 very few days ; and his pupils would soon learn that 
 with him "no means no," and "yes means yes" a 
 matter of no small importance to the teacher of a 
 school ! 
 
 VI. Deep Moral Principle. The teacher should ever 
 be a conscientious man, and in nothing is this more 
 necessary than in the exercise of good government. In 
 this matter the teacher can never respect himself when 
 he acts from caprice or selfishness. His inquiry should 
 be, What is right? What is justice justice to my 
 pupils to myself? And if he could add to moral obli- 
 gation the high sanction of religious principle, and 
 could habitually and sincerely turn his thoughts to his 
 Maker, with the heartfelt inquiry What wilt THOU 
 have me to do? then he would seldom err in the dis- 
 charge of this trust. His pupils, seeing that he acted 
 from fixed and deep principle, would respect his hon- 
 esty, even if he should cross their desires. 
 
 Having now dwelt at some length upon the requisites 
 in the teacher for good government, I shall next proceed to 
 present some of the 
 
 SECTION II. MEANS OF SECURING GOOD ORDER. 
 
 I. Be Careful as to the First Impression You 
 
 Make. It is an old proverb, that " what is well begun is
 
 144 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 half done." This holds true in school-keeping, and par- 
 ticularly in school-government. The young study char- 
 acter very speedily and very accurately. Perhaps no one 
 pupil could express in words an exact estimate of a 
 teacher's character after a week's acquaintance ; but yet 
 the whole school has received an impression which is not 
 far from the truth. A teacher, then, is very unwise who 
 attempts to assume to be any thing which he is not. He 
 should ever be frank, and in commencing a school he 
 should begin as he can hold out. Any assumption of an 
 authoritative tone is especially ill-judged. The pupils at 
 once put themselves in an attitude of resistance when 
 this is perceived by them. 
 
 Respect Precedes Attachment. A teacher should 
 jver remember that among children however it may be 
 imong adults respect always precedes attachment. If 
 he would gain the love of the children, he must first be 
 worthy of their respect. He should therefore act delib- 
 erately, and always conscientiously. He should be firm 
 but never petulant. It is very important at the outset 
 that he should be truly courteous and affable. It is much 
 wiser to request than to command, at least until the re- 
 quest has been disregarded. 
 
 The Rough and the Gentle Way. There are usually 
 two ways of doing a thing a gentle and a rough way. 
 "John, go and shut that door," in a gruff tone, is one 
 way to have a door closed. John will undoubtedly go 
 and shut the door, perhaps with a slam, but he will 
 not thank the teacher for the rough tones used in com- 
 manding it. Now it costs no more time or breath to 
 say, "John, I'll thank you if you will shut that door." 
 Most cheerfully will John comply with the request, and 
 he is grateful that he has heard these tones of kindness.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 145 
 
 If he could but know the teacher's wishes afterward, he 
 would gladly perform, them unasked. I would by no 
 means recommend the adoption of the fawning tone of 
 the sycophant by the teacher. He should be manly and 
 dignified ; but the language of that courtesy which 
 springs from real kindness, and which ever becomes the 
 gentleman, is always the most suitable as well as most 
 expedient for him. 
 
 II. Avoid Exhibiting or Entertaining a Suspicious 
 Spirit. It is a maxim of law, that one charged with 
 crime is always to be presumed innocent until proved 
 guilty. This should be a maxim with the teacher who 
 would govern well. There is no more direct way of 
 making a school vicious than by showing them that you 
 suspect they are so. A good reputation is dear to all ; 
 and even a bad boy will be restrained from wicked acts 
 as long as he thinks you give him credit for good inten- 
 tions. But if he finds that he has lost your good opinion, 
 he feels that he has nothing further to lose by being as 
 bad as you suspect him to be. A teacher is wise, there- 
 fore, if he tries to see something good even in a vicious 
 pupil. It may be, as it often has been, the means of 
 saving such a pupil. 
 
 A Bad Boy Saved. I have known a very depraved 
 boy entirely reformed in school, by his teacher's letting 
 him know that he had noticed some good traits in his 
 character. He afterwards told his teacher that " he had 
 been so often suspected to be a villain that he had 
 almost come to the conclusion that he would be one ; 
 but that, when he found one man who could do him the 
 justice to give him credit for a few good feelings (for he 
 knew he had them) he at once determined to show 
 that man that his confidence had not been misplaced,
 
 146 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 and that he would sooner die than knowingly offend the 
 only person who ever had understood him." - 
 
 A Token of Confidence. It is wise sometimes not 
 only to withhold the expression of suspicion, but-to give 
 some token of your confidence to the pupil who is 
 troublesome. Intrust him with some errand involving 
 responsibility, or assign to him some duty by way of 
 assistance to yourself, and very likely you will gain his 
 good-will ever after. This is founded upon the well- 
 known principle in human nature, acted upon by Dr. 
 Franklin, who, when he would gain his enemy, asked him 
 to do him a favor. 
 
 III. As Soon as Possible Give Regular and Full 
 Employment. It is an old proverb that " idleness is the 
 mother of mischief." The nursery hymn also contains a 
 living truth 
 
 " And Satan finds some mischief still 
 For idle hands to do." 
 
 It is the law of a child's nature to be active ; and as the 
 teacher is placed in the school to give direction to such 
 minds, he can hardly complain of their going upon for- 
 bidden objects unless he seasonably provides something 
 better for them to do. 
 
 The Teacher May Enforce Employment. Very 
 early, then, the teacher should endeavor to classify his 
 school and furnish constant and full employment either 
 of study, recitation, or relaxation for every hour in the 
 day. The teacher should have a plan when he opens the 
 , school, and the sooner it is carried into full operation the 
 better. 1 Besides, when a teacher has given employment, 
 he has the right to insist upon the pupil's being engaged 
 in study. Nobody will question this right ; and it is far 
 
 i See Chap. X. of thi* work.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 147 
 
 more profitable to require a positive duty than to enjoin 
 a negative, such as abstinence from whispering or from 
 mischief in general. 
 
 IV. Make but Few Rules. It is a very common thing 
 for teachers to embarrass themselves by a long code of 
 requirements and prohibitions. Some go so far as to 
 write out a system of laws, and, annexing to each the 
 penalty for its infringement, post them up in a conspicu- 
 ous place in the schoolroom. Others content themselves 
 with a verbal announcement of them, and rely upon the 
 memories of the pupils to retain the details of them and 
 to govern themselves accordingly. This, it seems to me, 
 is a great mistake. The multiplicity of specific rules for 
 the government of a school will naturally lead to a multi- 
 plicity of offences. Children will be confused by the 
 varying and sometimes conflicting demands of a formid- 
 able code of regulations, and in endeavoring to avoid 
 Scylla will be likely to fall into Charybdis. 
 
 The World has been Governed too Much. It is be- 
 lieved by some honest statesmen that "the world has 
 been governed too much ; " and it is often alleged in 
 support of this belief that successful compliance with 
 the laws requires far more wisdom than was displayed 
 in making them; that is, the science of obedience is far 
 more abstruse than the science of legislation ! Whether 
 this be true in the civil world or not, I shall not attempt 
 to decide ; I will only say that such has too often been 
 the fact in the schoolroom. 
 
 Do Right. It is in my opinion the part of wisdom, 
 and I think also the teaching of experience, that it is best 
 to make but few rules. The great rule of duty, quoted 
 once before, " Do unto others as you would that they 
 should do to you," comprises quite enough to begin with.
 
 UN THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 The direction Do RIGHT, is a very comprehensive one. 
 There is in children an ability to distinguish between 
 right and wrong, upon which the teacher may ever rely: 
 and by insisting upon this as the standard, he daily brings 
 into exercise the conscience of the child, who is called 
 upon to decide, is this right ? Besides, if a school is to 
 be governed by a code of laws, the pupils will act upon 
 the principle that whatever is not prescribed is admissible. 
 Consequently, without inquiring whether an act is right, 
 their only inquiry will be, is it forbidden f Now no 
 teacher was ever yet so wise as to make laws for every 
 case; the consequence is, he is daily perplexed with un- 
 foreseen troubles, or with some ingenious evasions of his 
 inflexible code. In all this matter the worst feature is 
 the fact that the child judges of his acts by the laiv of 
 the teacher rather than by the law of his conscience , and Is 
 thus in danger of perverting and blunting the moral sense. 
 Embarrassment in Executing Laws. To this it may 
 be added that the teacher will often find himself very 
 much perplexed in attempting to judge the acts of his 
 pupils by fixed laws, and in awarding to all violations of 
 them a prescribed penalty. Cases will frequently occur 
 in which two scholars will offend against a given pro- 
 hibition, with altogether different intentions the one 
 having a good motive and forgetting the law ; the other, 
 with the law in his mind and having a wicked design to 
 violate it. Now the written code, with its prescribed 
 penalty allows the teacher no discretion. He must main- 
 tain his law and punish both offenders, and ihus violate 
 his own sense of justice; or he must pass both by, and 
 thus violate his word. He cannot excuse the one and 
 punish the other, as justice would evidently demand, 
 without setting at naught his own laws.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 149 
 
 A Dilemma. An example will illustrate this point. 
 A teacher has made a rule that " any child who whispers 
 without leave shall be feruled" Now two little boys sit 
 side by side. William is an amiable, obedient, and dili 
 gent 'little boy, who has never violated intentionally any 
 wish of his teacher ; while Charles is a sour-tempered, 
 vicious, unprincipled fellow, who a dozen times within 
 a week has sought to make his teacher trouble. Little 
 John, who sits near to William, drops his pencil, and it 
 falls under William's desk. John looks for his pencil 
 on the right and left of his seat, grows anxious and per- 
 plexed. William has noticed him, and he carefully 
 picks up the pencil, while he perhaps is looking for it in 
 another direction, and, with the kind intention of re- 
 lieving his neighbor's anxiety and restoring his property, 
 he touches his elbow and softly whispers, " Here is your 
 pencil, John," then immediately resumes his own 
 studies, and is probably entirely unconscious that he has 
 violated any law. At the same instant the artful Charles, 
 half concealing his face with his hand, with his wary 
 eye turned to the teacher, wilfully addresses another 
 pupil on some point in no way connected with study or 
 duty. The teacher sees both these cases, and calls the 
 offenders to his desk. The one trembles, and wonders 
 what he has done amiss, while the other, perhaps, pre- 
 pares himself to deny his offence, and thus to add false- 
 hood to his other sins. The rule awards to both the 
 fertile. It is applied to Charles with energy, and with 
 the conviction that he deserves it ; but, I ask, can a man 
 with any sense of justice raise his hand to punish Wil- 
 liam ? If so, I see not how he can ever again hold con- 
 verse with his own conscience. Yet the rule allows him 
 no discretion. He must violate either the rule or his
 
 150 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 conscience ; and too often, in such cases, he chooses the 
 latter alternative. 
 
 Hint for Young Teachers. Now. my advice is, make 
 but few rtiles, and never multiply them till circumstances 
 demand it. The rule of right will usually be sufficient 
 without any special legislation ; and it has this advan- 
 tage, that it leaves the teacher the largest discretion. 
 
 I have been thus full on this point because so many fail 
 here, and especially young teachers. It has cost many a 
 young teacher much bitter experience to make this dis- 
 covery for himself, and I have desired to save others who 
 may hereafter engage in teaching the pain and perplexity 
 which they may so easily and so safely avoid. 
 
 Threatening. For similar reasons, I should also urge 
 that the teacher should avoid the too common practice 
 of threatening in his school. Threatening is usually re- 
 sorted to as a means of frightening children into their 
 duty, and, too often, threats are made without any 
 expectation of a speedy necessity either to execute or 
 disregard them. The consequence is, they are usually 
 more extravagant than the reality, and the teacher's word 
 soon passes at a discount ; his threats are viewed as very 
 much like the barking of a dog who has no intention to 
 bite. As threatening is moreover the language of impa- 
 tience, it almost always leads to a loss of respect. 
 
 V. Wake Up Mind in the School, and in the Dis- 
 trict. There is usually but very little trouble in govern- 
 ment where the scholars are deeply engaged in their 
 studies or school exercises, and especially if at the same 
 time the feelings of the* parents are enlisted. To this 
 end I would recommend that early attention should be 
 given to some efforts to wake up mind, such as have been 
 described in a former section of this work. It will be
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 151 
 
 found, when skillfully conducted, one of the most suc- 
 cessful instrumentalities in aid of good order and good 
 feeling in the school. 
 
 Varieties in School. An ingenious teacher, too, may 
 introduce other varieties into the school exercises, and 
 thus sometimes turn the attention of discontented pupils 
 from some evil design to give him trouble. So long as 
 the teacher keeps steadily the main object of his school 
 in view, namely, progress in the studies, he is excusable 
 if occasionally, to break up monotony and excite a 
 deeper interest, he introduces a well-considered new plan 
 of study or of recitation. Indeed, much of his success 
 will depend upon his power to do this, and in nothing 
 will its advantages appear more obviously than in the 
 government of the school. A great portion of the dis- 
 order and insubordination in our schools has its origin in 
 a want of interest in the school exercises. He is the suc- 
 cessful teacher, and the successful disciplinarian, who can 
 excite and maintain the necessary interest. 
 
 Vocal Music. As one of these varieties, I may men- 
 tion the exercise of vocal music in school. I have already 
 alluded to it. As a means of keeping alive the interest 
 in a school, it is very important. Music is the language 
 of the heart, and though capable of being grossly per- 
 verted (and what gift of God is not?) its natural ten- 
 dency is to elevate the affections, to soothe the passions, 
 and to refine the taste. 
 
 German Proverb Music in Heaven. " The Germans 
 have a proverb," says Bishop Potter, " which has come 
 down from the days of Luther, that where music is not, 
 the devil enters. As David took his harp when he would 
 cause the evil spirit to depart from Saul, so the Germans 
 employ it to expel the obduracy from the hearts of the
 
 152 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 depraved, In their schools for the reformation of juve- 
 nile offenders (and the same remark might be applied to 
 those of our own country), music has been found one of 
 the most effectual means of inducing docility among the 
 stubborn and vicious. It would seem that so long as any 
 remains of humanity linger in the heart, it retains its sus- 
 ceptibility to music. And as proo> that music is more 
 powerful for good than for evil, is it not worthy of pro- 
 found consideration that, in all the intimations which the 
 Bible gives us of a future world, music is associated only 
 with the employments and happiness of Heaven?" 
 
 Music May be Easily Introduced in Schools. 
 Almost any teacher can introduce music into his school; 
 because if he cannot sing, he will always find that it will 
 only require a little encouragement to induce the scholars 
 to undertake to conduct it themselves, It will consume 
 but very little time, and it is al.ways that time which, if 
 not employed in singing, would otherwise be unemployed 
 or misemployed. It is the united testimony of all who 
 have judiciously introduced singing into their schools, 
 that it is among the best instrumentalities for the promo- 
 tion of good feeling and good order. 
 
 VI. Visit the Parents of Your Scholars. I shall 
 more particularly enjoin this when I speak of the 
 teacher 's relation to his patrons [chap, xi.] : but I can- 
 not forbear in this place to urge k upon the teacher 
 as one of the means of securing good order in school, 
 A great deal of the insubordination in our schools 
 arises from some misunderstanding, or some dislike 
 entertained by the parent towards the teacher, and 
 spoken of in the presence of the children. Whatever the 
 pupils hear at home, they will be likely to exemplify 
 in school. It should be the teacher's first object to
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 153 
 
 become acquainted with the parent, and to let him un- 
 derstand, by a personal interview, all his plans and 
 aims* for the improvement of the school. This can be 
 done best at the parent's own fireside. It has often 
 happened that, by a friendly visit of an hour by the 
 teacher, the parent's heart has been softened, his 
 prejudices removed, his co-operation gained, and the 
 cheerful and cordial obedience of his children in school 
 secured. 
 
 Reasons Why. These visits should, of course, be 
 made in the true spirit of the teacher. They should be 
 made in the honest desire of his heart to render his labors 
 more successful. A visit made in such a spirit seldom 
 fails to make the parents personal friends ever after ; and 
 of course, in case of a collision afterwards between him 
 and their children, this is a very important point. 
 
 VII. Registers of Credits. Registers of the stand- 
 ing of pupils in their schools and their classes are 
 very highly recommended by some whose experience 
 is entitled to confidence. I am inclined to place this 
 among the means of securing good order. I would 
 recommend, however, that they should be registers of 
 credits on\y. Some recommend the use of " black-marks ," 
 that is, the record of prominent faults and perhaps of 
 punishments. My own experience teaches me that this is 
 unwise. The teacher should not show a willingness to 
 record and publish the faults of a pupil. He should, on 
 the contrary, show a tender regard for his reputation. 
 Besides, the child is less likely to be mindful of his duty 
 when his reputation is already blackened by his teacher. 
 If registers are to be kept at all, they should record the 
 successes and virtues of the child rather than his failures 
 and faults. And if, at the end of a week or a month, he
 
 154 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 is furnished with an abstract for the inspection of his 
 parents, let it be so much of good character as he has 
 earned for himself during the specified time. 
 
 I confess I am less sanguine than many others as to 
 the utility of the register, either as an incentive to 
 obedience or diligence; but if used at all, I think the 
 above restriction is highly important. 
 
 VIII. Avoid Governing too Much. By this I would 
 be understood to urge upon the teacher the fact that his 
 main business in school is instruction and not government. 
 Government is a means, and not the end, of school-keep- 
 ing. A very judicious and practical teacher Mr. R. S. 
 Howard has well remarked: "The real object to 
 be accomplished, the real end to be obtained in 
 school, is to assist the pupil in acquiring knowledge 
 to educate the mind and heart. To effect this, good 
 order is very necessary. But when order is made to 
 take the place of industry, and discipline the place of 
 instruction, where the time of both teacher and pupils is 
 mostly spent in watching each other, very little good will 
 be accomplished." 
 
 Government not the Chief Business of the Teacher. 
 It is a mistake that many teachers fall into, that they 
 seem to regard government as their chief occupation ; and, 
 as we should naturally expect in such cases, it is often 
 very poorly exercised. That is not the best government 
 which is maintained as a matter of formal business. The 
 noiseless under-current is far more efficient. I have 
 always noticed that men govern best when they do not 
 seem to govern; and those who make most effort and 
 bustle about it themselves are pretty sure to have the 
 most boisterous schools.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 155 
 
 "Order, There !" I once in company with a friend 
 officially visited a school where the teacher, a man of 
 strong frame six feet high, and with lungs in proportion, 
 was laboring to keep order. Every word he uttered was 
 in a stentorian voice, which would have been painful to 
 the pupils in a quiet room ; hence, they took care to keep 
 up a constant clattering of books, slates, and rulers, 
 mingled with the constant hum of their own voices, as if 
 for self-defence. It seemed to be a mighty effort of each 
 party to rise if possible above the noise of the other. 
 " Silence ! Order ! I say," was constantly ejaculated in a 
 voice that was almost sufficient, as Shakspeare's Hamlet 
 would say, to " split the ears of the groundlings." 
 
 Parsing A Scene. One of the most ludicrous scenes 
 I ever witnessed occurred in this school during an exer- 
 cise in English grammar. The class occupied the back 
 seats, while the teacher stood by the desk in front of 
 the school. The children between the teacher and his 
 class were variously employed, some manufacturing 
 paper fly-boxes, some whittling the benches (it was in 
 New England); some were trying their skill at a spit-ball 
 warfare ; others were making voyages of exploration be- 
 neath the seats. The school, consisting of some seventy 
 pupils, were as busy as the occupants of an ant-hill. The 
 sentence to be parsed was, "A good boy loves study." 
 No written description can present the scene as it was 
 acted in real life. 
 
 A Dialogue "The Rule, Sir!" It should be borne 
 in mind that every word spoken by the teacher, whether 
 to the class or to the school, was in a tone of voice which 
 might have been heard at least an eighth of a mile, and 
 that every exclamation was accompanied by several ener- 
 getic thumps Q{ a large oaken " rule " upon the lid of his
 
 156 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 desk. The language of the teacher is in italics : " Mary, 
 parse A." " A is an indefinite" "Silence! Order, 
 t/u-re /""article, and is prefixed to"" John /" " No, 
 sir, it is prefixed to" " Martha, Martha! sit up M " it is 
 prefixed to boy." Right." " Good, next" " Good is 
 an adjective," " Order, Order, Order/" thump, thump, 
 thump ! " " Go on, go on, I hear you!" thump thump ! 
 " and belongs to" " Speak louder! Sit up there ! What 
 are you doing f And belongs to?" "boy." " The Rule. 
 The RULE! I say" Here several children looked earn- 
 estly at the piece of cimber he held in his hand. " The 
 rule, sir, the rule !" thump, thump ! " You've got it in 
 your hand," vociferated a little harmless-looking fellow on 
 the front seat, while the scholar proceeded to recite the 
 rule. " Adjectives belong to'' ' Lazy, lazy fellow! sit 
 up, there" Here the class smiled, and the scholar com- 
 pleted his rule, asserting, however, that " adjectives be- 
 long to nouns," and not to " lazy fellows" as the class 
 seemed to understand the master to teach. Word after 
 word was parsed in this way (a way of teaching our lan- 
 guage which, if we could know it had been practiced at 
 the erection ot Babel, would sufficiently account for that 
 memorable confusion of tongues without the interven- 
 tion of a miracle), till the teacher, nearly exhausted by 
 this strange combination of mental, oral, and manual 
 labor, very much to the relief of all, vociferated " That'll 
 do!' and the scene was changed. At the close of the 
 afternoon, we were told that " it was a very hard school, 
 that it was impossible to keep order, and that he should 
 be discouraged were it not that he saw a manifest im- 
 provement within a few days past !'' 
 
 Who Made It ? Now this teacher made the school 
 what it was by his own manner. He would have done
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT, 157 
 
 the same in any school. He taught in the most effectual 
 way the science and art of confusion ; and notwithstand- 
 ing the hard name he gave his school, he was emphatic- 
 ally the most disorderly and noisy member of it. 
 
 Another Visit A New Teacher. There was a 
 change. On another day, accompanied by the same friend, 
 we presented ourselves at the door of this same room for 
 admittance. We heard no sound as we approached the 
 entrance, and almost began to suspect we should find there 
 was no school within. We knocked ; and presently, with- 
 out our hearing the footstep of the person who approached, 
 the door opened and we passed in. The children 
 looked up a moment as we entered, and then bent their 
 eyes upon their lessons. The teacher softly handed us 
 seats, and then proceeded with the recitation. His 
 manner was quiet and deliberate, and the school was 
 orderly and busy. He had no rule in his hand, no 
 heavy boots on his feet (he had exchanged them for 
 slippers on entering the school), and no other means of 
 giving emphasis to his words. He kindly requested 
 never commanded and everything seemed to present 
 the strongest contrast with the former scene. The hour 
 of dismission arrived, and the scholars quietly laid by 
 their books, and as quietly walked out of the house, and 
 all was still. 
 
 Good Order. " How have you secured this good 
 order?" said we to the teacher. " I really do not know," 
 said he, with a smile ; " I have said nothing about 
 order." " But have you had no difficulty from noisy 
 scholars?" " A little at first ; but in a day or two they 
 seemed to become quiet, and we have- not been troubled 
 since."
 
 TI1KOKY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 The Secret. Now the secret was that this latter 
 teacher had learned to govern himself. His own man- 
 ner gave character to the school. So it will ever be. A 
 man will govern more by his manner than in any other 
 way 
 
 Excessive Silence. There is, too, such a thing as 
 keeping a school too still by over-government. A man 
 of firm nerve can, by keeping up a con tant constraint 
 both in himself and pupils, force a deathlike silence 
 upon his school. You may hear a pin drop at any 
 time, and the figure of every child is as if moulded in 
 cast iron. But, be it remembered, this is the stillness 
 of constraint, not the stillness of activity. It is an un- 
 healthy state both of body and mind, and when attained 
 by the most vigilant care of the teacher is a condition 
 scarcely to be desired. There should .be silence in 
 school, a serene and soothing quiet; but it should, if 
 possible, be the quiet of cheerfulness and agreeable devo- 
 tion to study rather than the " palsy of fear." 
 
 Recapitulation. Thus far I have confined myself to 
 those qualifications in the teacher, and to those means 
 which, under ordinary circumstances and in most dis- 
 tricts, would, in my opinion, secure good order in our 
 schools. With the qualifications I have described in the 
 mental and moral condition of the teacher, and the 
 means and suggestions above detailed combined, I be- 
 lieve a very large majority of our schools could be most 
 successfully governed without any appeal to fear or 
 force. 
 
 Force Sometimes Needful. But as some schools are 
 yet in a very bad state, requiring more than ordinary 
 talents and skill to control them, and as very many of 
 those who must teach for a long time to come have not,
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 159 
 
 and cannot be expected to have, all the qualifications 
 described, and much less the moral power insisted on, it 
 is unreasonable to expect, taking human nature as it is, 
 and our teachers as they are, that all can govern their 
 schools without some appeals to the lower motives of 
 children, and some resort to coercion as an instrumen- 
 tality. I should leave this discussion very incomplete, 
 therefore, were I not to present my views upon the sub- 
 ject of 
 
 SECTION III. PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 Punishment Defined. As a great deal has been writ- 
 ten and spoken on the subject of school punishments, I 
 deem it important that the term, as I intend to use it, 
 should be defined at the outset. I submit the following 
 definition : 
 
 PUNISHMENT is PAIN INFLICTED UPON THE MIND 
 
 OR BODY OF AN INDIVIDUAL BY THE AUTHORITY TO 
 WHICH HE IS SUBJECT ; WITH A VIEW EITHER TO RE- 
 FORM HIM, OR TO DETER OTHERS FROM THE COMMIS- 
 SION OF OFFENCES, OR BOTH. 
 
 Comments on Definition. It is deemed essential to 
 the idea of punishment that the inflictor have legitimate 
 authority over the subject of it otherwise the act is an 
 act of usurpation. It is also essential that the inflictor 
 should have a legitimate object in view, such as the ref- 
 ormation of the individual or of the community in which 
 his example has exerted an influence otherwise the act 
 becomes an abuse of power. Infliction for the purpose 
 of retaliation, for an insult or injury, is not punishment ; 
 it is revenge. Whenever, therefore, a teacher resorts to 
 such infliction to gratify his temper, or to pay off, as it is 
 expressed in common language, the bad conduct of a 
 pupil without any regard to his reformation or the pre-
 
 160 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 vention of similar offences in the school, the pain he in- 
 flicts is not punishment; it is cruelty. Very great 
 importance is to be attached to the motive in this 
 matter ; because the same infliction upon the same indi- 
 vidual, and for the same offence, may either be just and 
 proper punishment, or it may be the most unjustifiable 
 and revengeful abuse, according to the motive of the 
 inflictor. 
 
 Whence Authority is Derived. The authority to 
 inflict punishment in general is either by the constitution 
 of God or of civil society. " The punishment of the 
 faults and offences of children by the parent, says Dr. 
 Webster, " is by virtue of the right of government with 
 which the parent is invested by God himself." The 
 right to punish the offences of children while at school 
 is, by the common law, vested in the teacher as the rep- 
 resentative of tfie parent for the time being. It is the 
 declaration of this law, as interpreted from time imme- 
 morial, that the teacher is in loco parcntis in place of 
 the parent. 
 
 A Common Error. Some have alleged that fear and 
 shame, the two principles addressed by punishment, are 
 among the lowest in our nature ; and have hence endeav- 
 ored to show that punishment is always inexpedient, if 
 not, indeed, always wrong. To this I answer, that both 
 fear and shame are incorporated in our nature by God 
 Himsdf ; and hence I infer they are there for a wise pur- 
 pose. I fin \, moreover, that God Himself, in His Word 
 and in His Providence, does appeal to both of these prin- 
 ciples ; and hence I infer that punishment in the abstract 
 is not wrong, and, after the higher motives have been ad- 
 dressed, not altogether inexpedient.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 161 
 
 The Right Assumed. Living in a community, as we 
 do, where the right of punishment in general is assumed 
 by our government, and the right of teachers to punish 
 is conceded by our laws, I do not feel called upon to 
 establish the right by argument ; I shall assume that the 
 teacher has the right to punish in the sense in which I 
 have defined punishment, and shall, therefore, proceed to 
 consider the various kinds of punishments used in our 
 schools, and to distinguish those which are justifiable 
 from those which are not ; and also to consider some of 
 the conditions and limitations of their use. 
 
 Plan of Discussion. It preparing the way to do this 
 I may remark that punishments consist of two classes : 
 I. Those which address themselves directly to the mind; 
 as, privation from privileges, loss of liberty, degradation, 
 some act of humiliation, reproof, and the like. 2. Those 
 which address the mind through the body ; as, the im- 
 position of a task labor for instance requiring the 
 pupil to take some painful attitude, inflicting bodily 
 chastisement, etc. 
 
 Two Classes. I have mentioned these two classes 
 for the purpose of calling attention to the fact that there 
 are those who approve of the first class, and at the same 
 time denounce the second, scouting the idea of reaching 
 the mind through the senses of the body. This seems 
 to me, however, to indicate a want of attention to the 
 laws of our being ; for in the economy of nature, we are 
 made at every point sensitive to pain as a means of 
 guarding against injury. Why has the Creator studded 
 the entire surface of our bodies with the extremities of 
 nerves, whose function is to carry to the brain with 
 lightning speed the intelligence of the approach of 
 danger ? And why should this intelligence be trans-
 
 162 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 mitted, if its object is not to influence the will, either 
 to withdraw the suffering part from immediate danger, 
 or to avoid those objects which cause the pain ? 
 
 Mind May be Reached through the Body. The 
 mind, then, by the economy ot nature, or rather by the 
 arrangement of God, is capable of being influenced 
 through the bodily sensations; and those who deny this, 
 either do not observe attentively, or, observing, do not 
 reason fairly as to the laws of our being. With these 
 preliminary observations, I now proceed to consider 
 
 I. Improper Punishments. 
 
 Some punishments are always wrong, or at 
 least always inexpedient. The infliction of them 
 either implies a wrong feeling on the part 
 of the teacher, or it promises no wholesome 
 result on the part of the pupil. I shall mention in detail: 
 
 i. Those that from their Nature Excite the Feel- 
 ing in the Pupil that an Indignity has been Com- 
 mitted against His Person. No man is ready to 
 forgive another for wringing his nose. There is almost 
 a universal sentiment that this organ is specially exempted 
 from such insult. Nearly the same feeling exists as 
 to pinching or pulling the ear, or twisting the hair, or 
 snapping the forehead. Each child feels that these parts 
 of his person are not to be trifled with, and the feeling 
 is natural and proper. Now, though it is not common 
 tor teachers to wring the noses ot their pupils, it is very 
 common for them to do each of the other things enum- 
 erated. I have often seen such punishments, but I 
 think I never saw any good come of them. The pupil 
 always looked as it the teacher had done despite tow- 
 ard his person. Whenever I have seen the teacher twist
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 163 
 
 the locks of a child's hair about his finger till the 
 teais would start in the eye, I have supposed the feelings 
 called forth were anything but desirable, anything 
 but favorable to reformation. A pupil must love his 
 teacher very strongly to be able to keep his temper 
 from rising under such circumstances; and there is great 
 doubt whether either of these punishments does any- 
 thing to secure cheerful obedience in the child one 
 time in a hundred ; probably in ninety-nine cases in the 
 hundred the evil passions are very much strengthened 
 by them. Besides, these are undignified modes of pun- 
 ishment. They savor so much of a weak and childish 
 impatience that the pupils find it hard to respect a man, 
 much more to love him, who will stoop to so small a 
 way of giving vent to his angry feelings. Snapping the. 
 forehead is subject to strong physiological objections ; 
 and, as a general rule, the head and its appurtenances 
 should be exempted from penal violence. 
 
 Scolding. In this place I may very properly allude to 
 another mode of assailing the ears of children, quite as 
 undignified in itself and quite as unprofitable in its re- 
 sults as pulling them, and until they are hardened to 
 it by familiarity, probably more painful. I refer, I need 
 not say, to scolding. This is a punishment altogether too 
 common. There is a physiological law that the exercise 
 of any organ will give it greater strength and generally 
 greater celerity. From this fact, and the additional one 
 that the more a child is scolded the harder his heart be- 
 comes, so that here, as in the Rule of Three, " more re- 
 quires more," it follows that those who once begin to 
 scold are fortunate if they stop short of high attainments 
 in the art.
 
 164 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Poor Investment There is no enterprise in which 
 the investment yields so small a profit as in the business 
 of scolding. It is really pitiable to witness the teacher 
 given to this practice, making himself and all around 
 him unhappy, without the hope of alleviation. The 
 command of the tongue is a great virtue in a teacher; 
 and it is to be feared that very many children still suffer 
 in their moral feelings l as well as their ears, because so 
 many teachers do not seasonably learn the right control 
 of the " unruly member." 
 
 Cockney Blackguardism. While upon this subject, I 
 may allude to another very objectionable mode of address 
 practised by some teachers toward their schools. I refer 
 to a mixture of scolding with a species of low wit or 
 cockney blackguardism, that should ever be banished 
 from the schoolroom. Such expressions as, " Sit down, 
 John, or I'll shiver your top-timbers" " Attend to your 
 studies, or some of you will be a head shorter" " Keep 
 quiet, or you'll hear thunder," and the like. To these I 
 might add those empty and debasing threats which are 
 too often and too thoughtlessly uttered ; as, " I'll skin 
 you alive," or " I'll shake you to pieces, 1 ' or " I'll use you 
 up," with others of the same character. I perhaps 
 ought to beg pardon for placing these vulgarisms before 
 the general reader ; but they are so frequently employed 
 in our schools in some of our schools of good repute, 
 too that I thought it to be my duty to quote them (for 
 they are all literal quotations), in order, if possible, to aid 
 those who have fallen into such a low habit to see them- 
 selves as others see them. 
 
 i A blacksmith, it is said, who had been accustomed to scold his family quite 
 
 too freely, was one day attempting to harden a piece of steel ; but failing after 
 
 two or three attempts, his little son, who had been an observer of this as well 
 
 rations of his father, is said to have exclaimed, "Scold it, father, 
 
 tcold it ; it that won't harden it, nothing else will."
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 165 
 
 Mistake About It. It is so very easy for a teacher to 
 raise a laugh among his pupils that he is in danger of be- 
 ing 1 seduced into the use of coarse and quaint expressions 
 by the supposition that they are witty. But the mirth of 
 school boys is not a more reliable criterion of wit in the 
 modern teacher than it was in the case of the schoolmaster 
 described by Goldsmith ; and possibly the exercise of a 
 little discernment on his part would convince him that 
 children sometimes laugh, as they did of old, because 
 they think it prudent to do so. 
 
 " A man severe ke was and stern to view ; 
 I knew him well, and every truant knew ; 
 Well had the boding tremblers learned to trace 
 The day's disasters in his morning fac : 
 Full well they laughed, with counterfeited glee ^ 
 At all his jokes, for many a joke had he !" 
 
 It is unquestionably true that there are schools and 
 many such, now of high standing, the language of whose 
 teachers, could it be noted down and printed for the 
 parents, would perfectly astonish them ; and such is the 
 force of habit, it would very likely astonish the teachers 
 themselves. Let all who mean to respect themselves, or 
 who desire to be long respected by others, most carefully 
 avoid the first approach to the use of such kind of lan- 
 guage. Its influence in school is " only evil, and that 
 continually." 
 
 2. Those Punishments that from Their Nature 
 Imply in the Inflictor a Love of Prolonged Torture. 
 These are quite numerous, and are resorted to often for 
 the purpose of avoiding what is usually deemed severer 
 punishment. Some of them also have very serious phys- 
 iological objections. As an instance, I may mention the 
 holding of a weight at arm's length until the muscles of 
 the arm become painful from over-exertion and fatigue.
 
 166 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Sometimes the Bible, being the largest book at hand, is 
 chosen as the weight ; and thus that Book, which should 
 have no associations connected with it in the minds of 
 the young but those of reverence and love, is made the 
 instrument of torture the minister of cruelty ! 
 
 The Bible at Arm's Length. Imagine that you see 
 what I have seen an offending boy called to the 
 teacher's desk, and, after words of reproach, sentenced 
 to hold the large Bible at arm's length for a specified 
 time, or until the teacher is willing to release him. At 
 first it is raised with a smile of triumph, almost a smile 
 of contempt. Soon the muscles thus exerted at disad- 
 vantage, begin to be weary and to relax. " Hold it up !" 
 exclaims the vigilant teacher, and it is again brought to 
 its position. Sooner than before the muscles are fa- 
 tigued, and they almost refuse to obey the mandate of 
 the will, which itself is half willing to rebel against 
 authority so unreasonable. " Up with it ! " again 
 brings it to its place, or perhaps a stroke of the ratan 
 repeats the command with more urgency. At this 
 moment every nerve sympathizes, and the muscles are 
 urged on to their greatest effort. The limb is in agony 
 and what agony can surpass that of an overstrained 
 muscle? and the whole system reels and writhes with 
 suffering. Now lopk into that child's face, and tell me 
 what is the moral effect of this sort of punishment? 
 Unless he is one of the most amiable of the sons of 
 Adam, he inwardly curses the cruelty that he thinks is 
 delighted with pangs like these, protracted yet intoler- 
 able. He almost curses the Blessed Book which was 
 given to warm his soul into life and immortality. He 
 cries with pain, but not with penitence. He may sub- 
 mit, indeed, and he may abstain from similar offences
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 167 
 
 in time to come; but it is the submission of self-preserva- 
 tion, and the abstinence of an eye-servant, while the 
 stain that has thus been inwrought in his moral sensi- 
 bilities may long remain unexpunged. Such a punish- 
 ment I unhesitatingly pronounce to be improper, what- 
 ever may be the circumstances. 
 
 Hold a Nail. Akin to this are those other contriv- 
 ances to give prolonged pain, which in different parts of 
 the country have taken a variety of forms and as great 
 a variety of names. One of these has been termed 
 "holding a nail into the floor," It consists in requiring 
 the pupil to bend forward, and placing the end of 
 a single finger upon the head of a nail, to remain in that 
 position till the whole system is agonized. 
 
 Sitting on Nothing Worse than Nothing: Another 
 has by some of its inflictors been termed " sitting on 
 nothing." The pupil is required to place his back 
 against a wall of the room, and his feet perhaps a foot 
 from its base, and then to slide his body down till the 
 knees are bent at right angles, and his person is in a 
 sitting posture without a seat ! The muscles, acting 
 over the knee at the greatest disadvantage, are now 
 made to support the body in that position during the 
 pleasure of the teacher. I have seen another mode of 
 punishment practised, and as I have heard no name 
 for it, I shall give it the cognomen of " sitting on worse 
 than nothing." The boy in this case was required to 
 sit upon the floor, and then, placing the feet upon a 
 bench or chair, to support the body in an erect position 
 by reversed action of the muscles ! 
 
 But I gladly turn away from a description of the pun- 
 ishments I have witnessed in the common schools of New 
 England within a quarter of a century, exhibiting as they
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 do so many of the characteristics of the dark ages. Some 
 of these I have witnessed quite recently ; and to what 
 extent any or all of them are now in use, I am unable to 
 say. I only desire to say that they are all improper de- 
 basing to the morals of the pupils and degrading to the 
 profession of the teacher ; and the sooner such punish- 
 ments are entirely banished from our school-rooms, the 
 sooner will the profession of the teacher rise to its proper 
 level. 
 
 3. Ridicule. This is a weapon that should not be 
 wielded as a school-punishment. It often cuts deeper 
 than he who uses it imagines, and it usually gives most 
 pain where it is least merited. Some physical defect, or 
 some mental incapacity, or eccentricity, is most fre- 
 quently made the subject of it ; and yet nothing can be 
 more unfeeling or more unjust than its use in such cases. 
 If the designed failings of the indolent, or the premedi- 
 tated mischief of the vicious, could be subjected to its 
 influence, its use would be more allowable ; but even 
 then it would be questionable. But the indolent and the 
 vicious are usually unaffected by ridicule. They sin 
 upon calculation, and not without counting the cost ; 
 and they are therefore very willing to risk their reputa- 
 tion where they have so little to lose. It is the modest, 
 the conscientious, the well-meaning child that is most 
 affected by ridicule ; yet it is such a one that, for 
 various reasons, is oftenest made the subject of it, 
 though of all others his feelings should be most tender- 
 ly spared. 
 
 Loss of Love and Confidence. A strong objection 
 to the use of ridicule is the feeling which it induces 
 between the teacher and pupil. The teacher, conscious 
 that he has Injured the feelings of the child, will find it
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 169 
 
 hard to love him afterwards ; for we seldom love those 
 whom we have injured. The child, on the other hand, 
 loses confidence in his teacher; he feels that his sensi- 
 bilities have been outraged before his companions, and 
 that the teacher, who should be his best friend in the 
 school, has invited the heartless laagh of his fellow- 
 pupils against him. With a want of love on the one 
 hand, and of confidence on the other, what further use- 
 fulness can reasonably be expected ? 
 
 Schoolmates Injured. But the strongest objection 
 of all to the use of ridicule is the fact that it calls forth 
 the worst of feelings in the school. Those who partici- 
 pate in the laugh thus excited are under the influence of 
 no very amiable motives. And when this is carried so 
 far as to invite, by direct words, some expression from 
 the school-mates, by pointing the finger of shame, and 
 perhaps accompanying the act by a hiss of scorn, the 
 most deplorable spirit of self-righteousness is cultivated. 
 
 A Scene. Little Mary, one day, was detected in a 
 wrong act by her teacher. " Mary, come here," said the 
 teacher, sternly. Little thinking she had been seen, she 
 obeyed promptly, and stood by the chair of her teacher, 
 who, without giving Mary time to reflect, and thus allow 
 the conscience opportunity to gain the mastery, immedi- 
 ately asked, "What naughty thing did I see you do just 
 now ? " " Nothing," said Mary, partly disposed to justify 
 herself, and partly doubting whether indeed the teacher 
 had seen her do anything wrong. " Oh, Mary, Mary, who 
 would think you would tell me a lie ! Did you ever hear 
 of Ananias and Sapphira ? " Here a lecture followed on 
 the sin and danger of lying, and particularly the dan- 
 ger of sudden death by the vengeance of God. Mary be- 
 gan to tremble, and then to "weep, probably from terror.
 
 170 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Now came the second part. " I should think you would 
 be ashamed to be known to lie. All the children now 
 know that you have lied. I should think they would 
 feel ashamed of such a naughty little girl in the school. 
 I should not wonder," she continued, " if all the little 
 girls and boys should point their fingers at you and 
 hiss." In an instant all the children who were not too 
 old to be disgusted with the management and tone of 
 the teacher, pointed their fingers, and uttered a long 
 succession of hisses, while their faces beamed with all 
 the complacency of self-righteousness, triumphing over 
 the fall of a companion, who, perhaps, was after all as 
 good and as truthful a child as any of them. The poor 
 child at first turned her back upon them ; but soon, feel- 
 ing that her reputation was gone, she turned, as woman 
 ever will when her self-respect is blighted, with a look of 
 indifference, almost a look of defiance. Fear was first 
 swallowed up in shame, and shame gave place to reckless 
 audacity. The whole scene was rendered still more ruin- 
 ous to the child, from the fact that it took place in the 
 presence of visitors ! 
 
 Freezing the Affections. When will our teachers learn 
 the human heart well enough to be able to distinguish 
 between a work of devastation and of true culture ; be- 
 tween a process of blighting the sensibilities, searing the 
 conscience, freezing up the fountains of sympathy, and 
 of mutual love and confidence, and a course of training 
 which warms the conscience into activity, inculcates the 
 reverence and love of God, instead of a slavish fear of 
 His power, and instils into the soul a desire to do right 
 rather than to do that which will avoid the reproach of an 
 unfeeling multitude,more wicked than those they censure ? 
 Goldsmith has shown that woman may " stoop to con-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 171 
 
 quer; but the above narrative shows how she may stoop, 
 not to conquer, but to lay waste the youthful heart 
 
 Let Teachers Think. These punishments, and such 
 as these, which I have classed under the list of improper 
 punishments, should all be carefully considered by the 
 teacher. They should be considered before he enters his 
 school. It would be well always for him to determine 
 beforehand what punishments he will not use. It may 
 save him many a serious mistake. I have written what 
 I have under this head, in order to put teachers upon 
 thought ; believing that men seldom earnestly and hon- 
 estly inquire, without arriving at the truth in the end. 
 
 II. Proper Punishments, 
 
 Every teacher's mind should, if possible, be settled as 
 to what punishments are proper, so that, when they are 
 inflicted, it can be done in good faith, and with an honest 
 conviction of the performance of duty. Among the 
 proper punishments, I may mention 
 
 i. Kind Reproof. This will probably be conceded by 
 all. I say kind reproof, because no other reproof can be 
 useful. I would distinguish it from reproach. Reproof, 
 judiciously administered, is one of the most effectual 
 punishments that can be used. As a general rule, this 
 is best administered privately. The child's spirit of 
 obstinacy is very likely to exhibit itself in the presence 
 of his fellows ; but in private, the conscience is free to 
 act, and the child very readily submits. It is always 
 perfectly safe to reprove privately ; that is, not in the 
 presence of the school. The child has no motive to 
 misrepresent the teacher ; and if the teacher so far spares 
 the reputation of the pupil as to take him by himself,
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 this very circumstance will often give the teacher access 
 to his better feelings. 
 
 2. Loss of Privileges. By abuse of privileges we 
 forfeit them. This is a law of Providence. It is un- 
 questionably proper that this should be a law of our 
 schools. All those offences, therefore, against pro- 
 priety in the exercise of any privilege may be attended 
 with a temporary or permanent deprivation of such 
 privilege, A pupil who is boisterous at the recess, dis- 
 turbing the quiet of the school or impeding the enjoy- 
 ment of his playfellows, may be deprived of the recess. 
 A child who disfigures his seat with his knife may be de- 
 prived of his knife ; and so for any other similar offence. 
 Some consider it proper to extend this punishment to 
 other classes of offences as, for example, whispering or 
 idleness. While I would not deny the right or the pro- 
 priety of doing so, I should think it more expedient not 
 thus to extend it. It is well, as far as it can be done, so 
 to punish the child that he shall see that his conduct nat- 
 urally leads to its punishment as a consequence. And it 
 is moreover very probable that in most schools there will 
 be demand enough for this punishment, in its natural ap- 
 plication, without extending it to other cases. 
 
 3. Restraint, or Confinement When liberty is 
 abused, a scholar may be put under restraint. When 
 duty is violated, and the rights of others are wantonly 
 disregarded, confinement will afford time for reflection, 
 and at the same time relieve others from the annoyance 
 and detriment of evil example. Such restraint is often 
 a wholesome discipline ; and confinement, if it be not 
 too far protracted, is always safe. It should be re- 
 marked, however, that confinement in a dark apartment 
 should never be resorted to by any teacher. There are
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 173 
 
 insuperable objections to it, growing out of the fears 
 which many children early entertain of being alone in Hie 
 dark, as also the fact that light as well as air is necessary 
 to the vigorous action of the nervous system during the 
 waking hours, especially in the daytime. It is well 
 known that a child shut up in a dark room, even in the 
 warmth of summer, speedily undergoes a depression of 
 temperature; and if the confinement is unduly pro- 
 tracted, cold chills come over the system. For these 
 reasons and others, if confinement is ever used as a pun- 
 ishment, it should be in a room properly lighted and 
 heated. Our prisoners enjoy, as far as may be, both of 
 these favors. 
 
 4. Humiliation. This should be resorted to with 
 great caution. When a fault has been openly commit- 
 ted, and attended with circumstances of peculiar obsti- 
 nacy, it may sometimes very properly be required of the 
 offender that he should confess the fault in a manner as 
 public as its commission. This may be due to the 
 school. Sometimes when an offensive act is very 
 strongly marked, a confession and a request for the 
 forgiveness of the teacher or the individual injured may 
 be made a condition of restoration to favor. This is 
 usually considered a very proper punishment. I would, 
 however, suggest that it be used with great care, and 
 never unless the circumstances imperatively demand 
 it. It may be the means of cultivating the grossest 
 hypocrisy, or of inducing open rebellion ; and it some, 
 times gives the other pupils an advantage over the cul- 
 prit which may do him personally much harm. The 
 teacher should be convinced that this is the best thing 
 he can do before he resorts to it.
 
 174 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 5. The Imposition of a Task. In every school there 
 is more or less work to be done ; such as sweeping the 
 floors, washing the benches, preparing the fuel, and 
 making the fires. Unless objection should be made by 
 parents, this is one of the most effectual punishments, 
 especially in cities and large villages, where work is a 
 burden, and the attractions of play are most powerful. 
 Some difficult schools have been governed for months 
 with no other punishment than labor thus imposed. 
 The plan is, that if two boys neglect their studies so as 
 to attract the attention of the teacher, they shall be nom- 
 inated as members on the committee on sweeping a 
 duty to be performed after school-hours. If one or two 
 more are decidedly disorderly, they shall be required to 
 make fires, bring up wood, or perhaps wash a certain por- 
 tion of the room. This is always assigned pleasantly by 
 the teacher, with the understanding, however, that any 
 failure to do the allotted work thoroughly and faithfully 
 will be attended with a reappointment till the object is 
 secured. 
 
 If parents should object to this, it is not absolutely 
 essential to the teacher's success ; but where no objection 
 is made, if judiciously managed, it may do very much in 
 many of our schools towards producing that quiet order 
 which otherwise it might require more cogent and less 
 agreeable means to secure. 
 
 An Objection Answered. It has sometimes been 
 urged, as an objection to this mode of punishment, that 
 it would tend to attach the idea of disgrace to useful 
 labor. It is conceived that this is by no means the nec- 
 essary consequence, On the other hand, it would serve 
 to teach the difference there always is between a duty 
 imposed and one voluntarily undertaken. The same ob-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 175 
 
 jection would apply to our prison discipline, where a 
 man, by a wilful disregard of law and the rights of 
 others, very justly forfeits his services for a time to the 
 state. 
 
 Not Strongly Urged. I would not lay very much 
 stress upon this mode of punishment, though I have 
 known it resorted to under favorable circumstances with 
 very good effect. It would, of course, be more' effectual 
 in a large town or city than in the country, where boys 
 are in the habit of laboring at home, and would be quite 
 as willing to labor after regular hours at school. 
 
 6. Actual Chastisement with the Rod of Correction. 
 I have no hesitation (though others have) in placing 
 this among the class of proper punishments. As this 
 involves a great question on the subject of school- 
 government, and one that is debated with great zeal 
 and warmth in almost every educational meeting that is 
 held, I shall feel justified in giving a little more space to 
 the consideration of it. 
 
 SECTION IV. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 
 
 Views of Others. I am aware that when I enter 
 this field I am treading on ground every inch of which 
 has been disputed. I come to the task of writing on 
 this subject, however, I think, without prejudice or 
 asperity. Having nothing to conceal, I shall express 
 my own views honestly and frankly views which I en- 
 tertain after diligently seeking the truth for some 
 twenty years, during which time I have listened to a 
 great deal of discussion, and have read carefully and can- 
 didly whatever has been written by others. Nor do 
 I expect to give universal satisfaction. There are 
 strong men, and I believe honest men who run to the
 
 17C THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 opposite extremes in their doctrine and practice, and 
 who defend the one course or the other as if the ex- 
 istence of the world depended upon the issue. There 
 are those who not only claim the right to chastise, but 
 who insist that whipping should be the first resort of 
 the teacher in establishing his authority ; and, co show 
 that this is not a dormant article of their faith, they 
 daily and almost hourly demonstrate their efficiency in 
 the use of the rod, so that their pupils may be living 
 witnesses that they act in accordance with their creed. 
 Again, there are others who as earnestly deny the right 
 of the teacher to resort to the rod at all, and who urge 
 with all their power the efficacy of moral suasion to sub- 
 due and control the vicious and the stubborn in our 
 schools, and who are ready to assert unequivocally that 
 no man is fit to be employed to teach the young who 
 has not the ability to govern all the various dispositions 
 he may meet in any school, without the use of corporal 
 punishment. 
 
 Men See Differently. I have no disposition to ques- 
 tion the sincerity and honesty of each of these classes, 
 knowing, as I do, that different men see with different 
 eyes, even when the circumstances are the same much 
 more when their circumstances are widely diverse. 1 
 have no bitterness of language to apply to those who go 
 to the extreme of severity ; nor any sneer to bestow 
 upon the name of " moral-suasionist."' But while I ac- 
 cord to other men the right of expressing their own 
 opinions, I claim the same privilege for myself, yet 
 without wishing to obtrude my opinions upon other men 
 any further than they will bear the test of reason and 
 experience.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 177 
 
 Authority at Any Rate. It is agreed on all hands 
 that the teacher must establish authority in some way, 
 before he can pursue successfully the objects of his school. 
 I have described the qualifications which the teacher 
 should possess in order to govern well, and I have also 
 given some of the means of securing good order without 
 a resort to severity. Probably, in a large majority of our 
 schools, the teacher with these qualifications and the 
 employment of these means could succeed in establish- 
 ing and maintaining good order without any such resort. 
 This should in my opinion always be done, if possible ; 
 and no one will rejoice more than myself to see the 
 day, should that day ever come, when teachers shall be 
 so much improved as to be able to do this universally. 
 But in writing on this subject it is the dictate of com- 
 mon sense to take human nature as it is, and human 
 teachers as they are, and as many of them must be, for 
 some time to come, and adapt our directions to the 
 circumstances. Human nature, as it is exhibited in our 
 children, is far from being perfect ; and I am sorry to 
 say that the parents of our children often exhibit it in a 
 still less flattering light. 
 
 Mr. Mann Quoted. Perhaps no language of mine can 
 so well represent the concurrence of circumstances 
 making corporal punishment necessary in our schools as 
 it has been done by the Hon. Horace Mann in his lecture 
 on " School Punishments." " The first point," says he, 
 " which I shall consider is, whether corporal punish- 
 ment is ever necessary in our schools. As preliminary 
 to a decision of this question let us take a brief survey 
 of facts. We have in this Commonwealth [Massa. 
 chusetts] above one hundred and ninety-two thousand 
 children between the ages of four and sixteen years.
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 All these children are not only legally entitled to attend 
 our public schools, but it is our great desire to increase 
 that attendance, and he who increases it is regarded a 
 reformer. All that portion of these children who attend 
 school enter it from the vast variety of homes which 
 exist in the state. From different households, where the 
 widest diversity of parental and domestic influences 
 prevails, the children enter the schoolroom, where there 
 must be comparative uniformity. At home some of 
 these children have been indulged in every wish, flat- 
 tered and smiled upon for the energies of their low 
 propensities, and even their freaks and whims enacted 
 into household laws. Some have been so rigorously de- 
 barred from every innocent amusement and indulgence, 
 that they have opened for themselves a way to gratifi- 
 cation through artifice, and treachery and falsehood. 
 Others, from vicious parental example, and the corrupt- 
 ing influences of vile associates, have been trained to 
 bad habits and contaminated with vicious principles ever 
 since they were born some being taught that honor 
 consists in whipping a boy larger than themselves ; others, 
 that the chief end of man is to own a box that 
 cannot be opened, and to get money enough to fill it J 
 and others, again, have been taught upon their father's 
 knees to shape their young lips to the utterance of 
 oaths and blasphemy. Now all these dispositions, which" 
 do not conflict with right more than they do with each 
 other, as soon as they cross the threshold of the school- 
 room, from the different worlds, as it were, of homes, 
 must be made to obey the same general regulations, to 
 pursue the same studies, and to-aim at the same results. 
 In addition to these artificial varieties, the-re are natural 
 differences of temperament and disposition.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 179 
 
 " Again, there are about three thousand public schools 
 in the state, in which are employed in the course of the 
 year, about five thousand different persons as teachers, 
 including both males and females. Excepting a very 
 few cases, these five thousand persons have had no 
 special preparation or training for their employment, 
 and many of them are young and without experience. 
 These five thousand teachers, then, so many of whom 
 are unprepared, are to be placed in authority over the 
 one hundred and ninety-two thousand children, so many 
 of whom have been perverted. Without passing through 
 any transition state for improvement, these parties meet 
 each other in the schoolroom, where mutiny and insubor- 
 dination -and disobedience are to be repressed, order 
 maintained, knowledge acquired. He, therefore, who de- 
 nies the necessity of resorting to punishment in our 
 schools and to corporal punishment, too, virtually af- 
 firms two things : First, that this great number of chil- 
 dren, scooped up from all places, taken at all ages and in 
 all conditions, can be deterred from the wrong and at- 
 tracted to the right without punishment : and, secondly, 
 he asserts that the five thousand persons whom the towns 
 and districts employ to keep their respective schools are 
 now, in the present conditions of things, able to accom- 
 plish so glorious a work. Neither of these propositions 
 am I at present prepared to admit. If there are extraor- 
 dinary individuals and we know there are such so sin- 
 gularly gifted with talent and resources, and with the 
 divine quality of Love, that they can win the affection, 
 and, by controlling the heart, can control the conduct of 
 children who, for years, have been addicted to lie, to 
 cheat, to swear, to steal, to fight, still I do not believe 
 there are now five thousand such individuals in the state
 
 180 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 whose heavenly services can be obtained for this trans- 
 forming work. And it is useless, or worse than useless, 
 to say that such or such a thing can be done, and done 
 immediately, without pointing out the agents by whom 
 it can be done. One who affirms that a thing can be 
 done, without any reference to the persons who can do 
 it, must be thinking of miracles. If the position were 
 that children may be so educated from their birth, and 
 teachers may be so trained for their calling, as to super- 
 sede the necessity of corporal punishment, except 
 in cases decidedly monstrous, then I should have no 
 doubt of its truth ; but such a position must have refer- 
 ence to some future period, which we should strive to 
 hasten, but ought not to anticipate." 
 
 Disobedience Encouraged. Aside from the causes 
 demanding punishment, so ably portrayed in the passage 
 just quoted, there is still another, growing out of divi- 
 sions and quarrels in the district. It is by no means un- 
 common, in our districts, owing to some local matter, or 
 to some disunion in politics or religion, for the people to 
 be arrayed, the one part against the other. The inhabi- 
 tants of the upper road are jealous of the dwellers on the 
 lower road ; the hill portion of the district is aggrieved 
 by the influence of the valley portion; the "east end" 
 complains of the selfishness of the "west end, "and so of 
 the north and south. Whenever a school house is to be 
 built, these different interests are aroused, and a pro- 
 tracted and baleful quarrel is the result. One party 
 " carries the day by the force of numbers, but the pros- 
 perity of the school is impaired for years. At every dis- 
 trict meeting there will be the same strife for the mastery. 
 If one division gains the power, the other bends its en- 
 ergies to cripple the school, and to annoy the teacher
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 181 
 
 who may be employed by the dominant party, however 
 excellent or deserving he may be. ' We will see," say 
 those who find themselves in the minority, " we will see 
 whether this man can keep our school as well as it was 
 done last year by our master." This is uttered in presence 
 of their children perhaps their half-grown sons, who 
 will be very ready to meet their new teacher with 
 prejudice and to act out the misgivings of their 
 parents as to his success. When the teacher first en- 
 ters the school, he is met by opposition, even be- 
 fore he has time to make an impression for good ; op- 
 position, which he can scarcely hope to surmount as long 
 as it is thus encouraged at home. Now what shall he 
 do ? Shall he yield the point, abandon the idea of 
 authority, and endeavor to live along from day to day, 
 in the hope of a more comfortable state of things by 
 and by ? He may be sure that matters will daily grow 
 worse. Shall he give up in despair, and leave the school 
 to some successor? This will only strengthen the op- 
 position and make it more violent when the successor 
 shall be appointed. It is but putting the difficulty one 
 step further off. Besides, if the teacher does thus give 
 up and leave the school, he loses his own reputation as 
 a man of energy, and in the eyes of the world, wao 
 perhaps may not know or. care to know all the cir- 
 cumstances, he is held ever after as incompetent for the 
 office. 
 
 Shall the Teacher Yield ? No, no ! Now it would 
 be very gratifying if the teacher, under any or all of these 
 difficulties, could possess the moral power to quell them 
 all by a look or by the exercise of his ingenuity in inter- 
 esting his pupils in their studies. Undoubtedly there 
 are some men who could do it, and do it most triumph-
 
 182 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 antly, so as to make their most zealous enemies in a few 
 days their warmest friends. But there are not many 
 who can work thus at disadvantage. What then shall 
 be done? Shall the school be injured by being dis- 
 banded, and the teacher be stigmatized for a failure, 
 when he has been employed in good faith ? I say NO 
 He has the right to establish authority by corporal inflic- 
 tion ; and thus to save the school and also save him- 
 self. And more than this ; if there is reasonable 
 ground to believe that by such infliction he can establish 
 order, and thus make himself useful, and save the time 
 and the character of the school, he not only has the right, 
 but lie is bound by duty to use it. The lovers of order in 
 the district have a right to expect him to use it, unless by 
 express stipulation beforehand they have exempted him 
 from it. I repeat, then, that it is the teacher's duty to 
 establish authority ; "peacefully, indeed, if he may for- 
 cibly if he must." 
 
 Transfer. I ought in fairness here to add, as I have 
 before hinted, that not unfrequently the necessity for 
 corporal infliction exists in the teacher himself. This is 
 often proved by a transfer of teachers. One man takes 
 a school, and can only survive his term by the exercise of 
 whipping. He is followed by another who secures good 
 order and the love of the school without any resort to 
 the rod. The first declared that whipping was necessary 
 in his case to secure good order, and truly ; but the ne- 
 cessity resided in him and not in the school. So it often 
 does ; and, while teachers are zealously defending the 
 rod, they should also feel the necessity of improving 
 themselves as the most effectual way to obviate its fre- 
 quent use.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 183 
 
 Daily Flogging Condemned. When authority is once 
 established in a school, it is comparatively easy to main- 
 tain it. There will, of course, be less necessity for re- 
 sorting to the rod after the teacher has obtained the 
 ascendency, unless it be in the event of taking some new 
 pupil into the school who is disposed to be refractory. I 
 have but little respect for the teacher who is daily 
 obliged to fortify his authority by corporal infliction. 
 Something must be fundamentally wrong in the teacher 
 whose machinery of government, when once well in mo- 
 tion, needs to be so often forcibly wound up. 
 
 Say Nothing about Whipping. From what has 
 already been said, it will be seen that I do not belong to 
 the number who affirm that the rod of correction should 
 never be used in schools, Nor am I prepared to advise 
 any teacher to publish beforehand that he will not punish 
 with the rod. It would always be wiser for the teacher 
 to say nothing about it. Very little good ever comes of 
 threatening the use of it. Threatening of any sort avails 
 but little. A teacher may enter a school with the deter- 
 mination to govern it if possible without force. In- 
 deed, I should advise one always to make this determin- 
 ation in his own mind. But whenever such a determin- 
 ation is published, the probability of success is very much 
 diminished. 
 
 There is an Arm of Power. The true way and the 
 safe way, in my opinion, is to rely mainly on moral 
 means for the government of the school to use the rod 
 without much threatening, if driven to it by the force 
 of circumstances, and, as soon as authority is estab- 
 lished, to allow it again to slumber, with the tacit un- 
 derstanding that it can be again awakened from its re- 
 pose if found necessary. The knowledge in the school
 
 184 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 that there is an arm of power may prevent any necessity 
 of an appeal to it ; and such a knowledge can do no 
 possible harm in itself. But if the teacher has once 
 pledged himself to the school that he will never use the 
 rod, the necessity may soon come for him to abandon 
 his position or lose his influence over the pupils. 
 
 Proposed Substitutes. As much has been said 
 against the use of the rod in any case in school gov- 
 ernment, it may be proper to consider briefly some of 
 the substitutes for it which have been suggested by its 
 opposers. 
 
 Solitary Confinement. Some have urged solitary con- 
 finement. This might do in some cases. Undoubtedly 
 an opportunity for reflection is of great use to a vicious 
 boy. But then how inadequate are the means for this 
 kind of discipline in our schools ! Most of our school- 
 houses have but one room. In such cases solitary con- 
 finement is out of the question. In other instances there 
 may be (as there always should be) a room, not con- 
 stantly devoted to the purposes of the school. Here a 
 pupil could be confined , and I have no objection what- 
 ever to this course, provided the room is not a dark one, 
 and its temperature can be comfortable. But even with 
 this facility, confinement cannot be relied on as the only 
 punishment, because if offences should multiply, and the 
 offenders should all be sent to the same place, then con- 
 finement would soon cease to be solitary ! And suppose 
 some philanthropist should devise a plan of a school-house 
 with several cells for the accommodation of offenders, 
 still this punishment would fail of its purpose. The 
 teacher has no power to confine a pupil much beyond 
 the limit of school-hours. This the obstinate child would 
 understand, and he would therefore resolve to hold out
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 185 
 
 till he must be dismissed, and then he would be the tri- 
 umphant party. He could boast to his fellows that he 
 had borne the punishment, and that without submission 
 or promise for the future he had been excused because 
 his time had expired. 
 
 Parental Folly. This substitute is often urged by 
 parents, who have tried it successfully in case of their 
 own children in their own houses, where it was known 
 that it could of course be protracted to any necessary 
 length. Besides, if the confinement alone was not suffi- 
 cient, the daily allowance of food could be withheld. 
 Under such circumstances it may be very effectual, as 
 undoubtedly it often has been ; but he is a very shallow 
 parent who, having tried this experiment upon a single 
 child, with all the facilities of a parent, prescribes it 
 with the expectation of equal success in the government 
 of a large school. 
 
 Expulsion not Expedient. Others have urged the 
 expulsion of such scholars as are disobedient. To this it 
 may be replied that it is not quite certain, under ex- 
 isting laws, whether the teacher has the right to expel 
 the scholar from the common schools ; and some deny 
 even the right of the school-officers to do it. Whether 
 the right exists or not, it is very questionable whether 
 it is ever expedient to expel a scholar for vicious con- 
 duct ; and especially in cases where there is physical 
 power to control him. The vicious and ignorant scholar 
 is the very one who most needs the reforming influence 
 of a good education. Sent away from the fountain of 
 knowledge and virtue at this the very time of need 
 and what may we expect for him but utter ruin ? Such 
 a pupil most of all needs the restraint and the instruction
 
 186 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 of a teacher who is capable of exercising the one and 
 affording the other. 
 
 The Culprit not Improved. But suppose he is 
 dismissed, is there any reason to hope that this step will 
 improve the culprit himself, or better the condition of 
 the school ? Will he not go on to establish himself 
 in vice, unrestrained by any good influence, and at 
 last become a suitable subject for the severity of the 
 laws, an inmate of our prisons, and perhaps a miserable 
 expiator of his own crimes upon the gallows? How 
 many youth and youth worth saving, too have been 
 thus cast out perversely to procure their own ruin, at 
 the very time when they might have been saved by suffi- 
 cient energy and benevolence, no mortal tongue can 
 tell ! Nor is the school itself usually benefited by 
 this measure. " For all purposes of evil," Mr. Mann 
 justly remarks, " he continues in the midst of the very 
 children from among whom he was cast out ; and when 
 he associates with them out of school, there is no one 
 present to abate or neutralize his vicious influences. If 
 the expelled pupil be driven from the district where he 
 belongs into another, in order to prevent his contamina- 
 tion at home, what better can be expected of the place 
 to which he is sent than a reciprocation of the deed, by 
 their sending one of their outcasts to supply his place ; 
 and thus opening a commerce of evil upon free-trade 
 principles. Nothing is gained while the evil purpose 
 remains in the heart. Reformation is the great desid- 
 eratum ; and can any lover of his country hesitate be- 
 tween the alternative o r forcible subjugation and victori- 
 ous contumacy." 
 
 A Creed and its Basis. From all that has been said, 
 it will be seen that I do not hesitate to teach that
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 187 
 
 corporal infliction is one of t tie justifiable means of estab- 
 lishing authority in the school-room To this conclusion 
 I have come, after a careful consideration of the sub- 
 ject, modified by the varied experience of nearly 
 twenty years, and by a somewhat attentive observation 
 of the workings of all the plans which have been de- 
 vised to avoid its use or to supply its place, And al- 
 though I do not understand the Scriptures, and particu- 
 larly the writings of Solomon, to recommend a too 
 frequent and ill-considered use of it, I do not find any 
 thing in the letter or spirit of Christianity inconsistent 
 with its proper application. It is the abuse, and not the 
 use, of the rod, against which our better feeling, as well 
 as the spirit of Christianity, revolts. It is the abuse of 
 the rod, or rather the abuse of children under the inflic- 
 tion of the rod, that first called forth the discussion re- 
 ferred to, and awakened the general opposition to its use. 
 I am free to admit there has been an egregious abuse in 
 this matter, and that to this day it is unabated in many of 
 our schools. 1 admit, too, that abuse very naturally ac- 
 companies the use of the rod, and that very great cau- 
 tion is necessary in those who resort to it, lest they per- 
 vert it. I feel called upon, therefore, before leaving this 
 subject, to throw out for the consideration of the young 
 teacher, particularly, a few hints to regulate the infliction 
 of chastisement, under the head of 
 
 SECTION V. LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 I. The Best Thing. The teacher should be thor- 
 oughly convinced that the rod is the best thing for the 
 specific case before he determines to use it. Nor should 
 he hastily or capriciously come to this conviction. He 
 should carefully and patiently try other means first. He
 
 188 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 should study the disposition of the offender, and learn 
 the tendencies of his mind ; and only after careful delib- 
 eration should he suffer himself to decide to use this 
 mode of punishment. In order that the punishment 
 should be salutary, the scholar should plainly see that 
 the teacher resorts to it from deep principle, from the full 
 belief that under all the circumstances it is the best thing 
 that can be done. 
 
 2. Never in Anger Punish. The teacher should never 
 be under the excitement of angry passion when inflicting 
 the punishment. This is of the utmost importance. 
 Most of the abuses before spoken of grow out of a vio- 
 lation of this fundamental rule. A teacher should 
 never strike for punishment till he is perfectly self-pos- 
 sessed, and entirely free from the bitterness which per- 
 haps tinctured his mind when he discovered the offence. 
 It was a wise remark of a young Shaker teacher, that 
 " no teacher should strike a child till he could hold his 
 arm ' So long as the child discovers that the teacher 
 is under the influence of passion, and that his lip trem- 
 bles with pent-up rage, and his blood flows into his face 
 as if driven by inward fires of wrath, he looks upon him, 
 not as his friend seeking his welfare, but as his enemy 
 indulging in persecution. This will call forth the evil 
 passions of the child, and while he bears the pain, he 
 feels no real penitence; and very likely in the midst of 
 his suffering he resolves to go and do the same again, 
 out of mere spite 
 
 Public Opinion. It is moreover of great consequence, 
 in the infliction of a punishment, that the teacher should 
 be fully sustained by the public opinion of the school. 
 He can never expect this when he loses his self-control. 
 If the pupils see that he is angry, they almost instinct-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 189 
 
 ively sympathize with the weaker party, and they as- 
 sociate the idea of injustice with the action of the 
 stronger. A punishment can scarcely be of any good 
 tendency inflicted under such circumstances. 
 
 3. In Presence of the School. Corporal punishment, 
 as a rule, should be inflicted in presence of tlie school. I 
 have before advised that reproof should be given in pri- 
 vate, and assigned reasons for it, which were perhaps 
 satisfactory to the reader But in case of corporal pun- 
 ishment, the offence is of a more public and probably 
 of a more serious nature. If inflicted in private, it will 
 still be known to the school, and therefore the reputa- 
 tion of the scholar is not saved. If inflicted in the 
 proper spirit by the teacher and for proper cause, it 
 always produces a salutary effect upon the school. But 
 a still stronger reason for making the infliction public 
 is that it puts it beyond the power of the pupil to mis- 
 represent the teacher, as he is strongly tempted to do if 
 he is alone. He may misstate the degree of severity, 
 and misrepresent the manner of the teacher : and, with- 
 out witnesses, the teacher is at the mercy of his reports. 
 Sometimes he may ridicule the punishment to his com- 
 rades, and lead them to believe that a private infliction 
 is but a small matter; again, he may exaggerate it to 
 his parents, and charge the teacher most unjustly with 
 unprincipled cruelty. Under these circumstances, I am 
 of the opinion that the safest and most effectual way is 
 to do this work in presence of the school. An honest 
 teacher needs not fear the light of day ; and if he has 
 the right spirit, he needs not fear the effect upon his 
 other pupils. It is only the violent, angry punishment 
 that needs to be concealed from the general eye, and that 
 we have condemned as improper at any rate.
 
 190 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Punishments Delayed Reasons for it. Punishment 
 may sometimes be delayed ; and always delayed until 
 all ajigtr has subsided in the teacher. It is often best 
 for all concerned to defer an infliction for a day or more. 
 This gives the teacher an opportunity in his cooler mo- 
 ments to determine more justly the degree of severity 
 to be used. It will also give the culprit time to reflect 
 upon the nature of his offence and the degree of punish- 
 ment he deserves. I may say that it is generally wise 
 for the teacher after promising a punishment to take 
 some time to consider what it shall be, whether a cor- 
 poral infliction or some milder treatment. If after due 
 and careful reflection he comes conscientiously to the 
 conclusion that bodily pain is the best thing, while he 
 will be better prepared to inflict, the pupil by similar 
 reflection will be better prepared to receive it and profit 
 by it. 
 
 5. The Instrument. A proper instrument should be 
 used and a proper mode of infliction adopted. No 
 heavy and hurtful weapon should be employed. A light 
 rule tor the hand, or a rod for the back or lower extremi- 
 ties, may be preferred. Great care should be exercised 
 to avoid injuring any of the joints in the infliction ; and 
 on no account should a blow be given upon the head. 
 
 6. Effectual Punishment. If possible, the punishment 
 should be made effectual. A punishment that does not pro- 
 duce thorough submission and penitence in the subject 
 of it can hardly be said to answer its main design. To be 
 sure, in cases of general insubordination in the school, I 
 have said that punishment may be applied to one, hav- 
 ing in view the deterring of others from similar offences. 
 But such exemplary punishment belongs to extreme cases, 
 while disciplinary punishment, which has mainly for its
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 191 
 
 object the reformation of the individual upon whom 
 it is inflicted, should be most relied on. Taking either 
 view of the case, it should if possible answer its design, 
 or it would be better not to attempt it. The teacher's 
 judgment, therefore, should be very carefully exercised in 
 the matter, and all his knowledge of human nature should 
 be called into requisition. If after careful and conscien- 
 tious deliberation he comes to the conclusion that the in- 
 fliction of pain is the best thing, and to the belief that he 
 can so inflict it as to show himself to the school and to the 
 child in this act as in all others, a true and kind friend 
 to the child, then he is justified in making the at- 
 tempt ; and having considerately undertaken the case, 
 it should be so thorough as not soon to need repetition. 
 
 "Little Whippings." I would here take the oppor- 
 tunity to censure the practi<fe of those teachers who 
 punish every little departure from duty with some tri- 
 fling appliance of the rod, which the scholar forgets 
 almost as soon as the smarting ceases. Some instruc- 
 tors carry about with them a rattan or stick, in order to 
 have it ready for appliance as soon as they see any 
 departure from their commands. The consequence is 
 they soon come to a frequent and inconsiderate use of 
 it, and the pupils by habit become familiar with it, and 
 of course cease to respect their teacher or to dread his 
 punishments. I have seen so much of this that, when- 
 ever I see a teacher thus " armed and equipped" I infer 
 at once that his school is a disorderly one an inference 
 almost invariably confirmed by a few minutes' observa- 
 tion. My earnest advice to all young teachers would 
 be, next to the habit of scolding incessantly, avoid the 
 habit of resorting to the rod on every slight occasion. 
 When that instrument is not demanded for some special
 
 1U2 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 exigency, some great occasion and some high purpose, 
 allow it to slumber in a private corner of your desk, 
 not again to be called into activity till some moral con- 
 vulsion shall disturb its quiet repose. 
 
 How to Discuss this Subject. I have a single cau- 
 tion to give in regard to the discussion of this subject, 
 which in all our educational gatherings occupies so 
 much time and talent. It is this : Do not adopt a 
 general principle from too few inductions. There is an 
 old proverb that Declares, " one swallow does not make 
 a summer." Young teachers are very prone to rely on 
 the experience of a single term. If they have kept one 
 term without corporal punishment, they are very likely 
 to instruct their seniors with their experience ; and if 
 they have happened to be so situated as to be compelled 
 to save themselves by th% rod, why then too their ex- 
 perience forever settles the question. It requires the 
 experience of more than one, or two, or three schools to 
 enable a man to speak dogmatically on this subject ; and 
 I always smile when I hear men, and sometimes very 
 young men, who have never kept school in their lives, 
 perhaps, or at most but a single term, speaking as with 
 the voice of authority. Experience is indeed one of our 
 safest guides in this as in every other matter ; but they 
 who tell their experience should at least wait till they 
 have that which is ivorthy to be told. 
 
 A False Position. There is another point. It is 
 quite fashionable at the present day, whenever this sub- 
 ject is to be discussed, to propose the matter in the form 
 of a resolution; as, " Resolved, that no person is fit to 
 be employed as a teacher who cannot govern his 
 scholars by holier means than bodily chastisement ;" or, 
 " Resolved, that no limit should be set to the teacher's
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 193 
 
 right to use the ' rod of correction,' and that they who 
 denounce the teachers for resorting to it are unworthy 
 of our confidence in matters of education." Now who- 
 ever presents the question in this form assumes that he 
 has drawn a line through the very core of the truth ; 
 and he undertakes to censure all those who are unwilling 
 to square their opinions by the line thus drawn. In the 
 discussion a man must take one side or the other of the 
 question as it is proposed, and consequently he may take 
 a false position. The better way would be to present 
 the whole subject as matter of free remark, and thus leave 
 every one to present his own views honestly as they lie in 
 his own mind. In this \vay no one is pledged to this or 
 that party, but is left unprejudiced to discover and em- 
 brace the truth wherever it is found. 
 
 French Resolution, It should moreover be remem- 
 bered that resolving\>y the vote of a meeting, in order to 
 force public opinion, can never affect the truth. A few 
 impious, heaven-daring men in France, at one of their 
 revels, once resolved, " THERE IS NO GOD ! " but did 
 this blasphemous breath efface the impress of Deity 
 on all this fair creation of His power? And when they 
 rose from their vile debauch and sought with tottering 
 step to leave the scene of madness and to court the dim 
 forgetfulness of sleep rolled not the shining orbs in 
 heaven's high arch above them as much in duty to His 
 will, as when they sang together to usher in creation's 
 morning? So it will ever be I Men may declare and 
 resolve as they please \ but truth is eternal and unchange- 
 able ; and they are the wisest men who modestly seek to 
 find her as she is, and not as their perverted imaginations 
 would presume to paint her.
 
 I 
 
 194 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 A More Excellent Way. Yet after all, in the govern- 
 ment of schools, there is a more excellent way. There 
 are usually easier avenues to the heart than that which 
 is found through the integuments of the body. Happy 
 is that teacher who is so skillful as to find them ; and 
 gladly would I welcome the day when the number of 
 such skillful and devoted teachers should render any 
 further defence of the rod superfluous. Although I be- 
 lieve that day has not yet arrived, still, in the mean- 
 time, I most earnestly urge all teachers to strive to 
 reach the higher motives and the finer feelings of the 
 young, and to rely mainly for success, not upon appeals 
 to fear and force, but upon the power of conscience and 
 the law of reciprocal affection. 
 
 Higher Motives First. As I have placed the higher 
 motives and the more desirable means first in order in 
 these remarks on government, so I would always have 
 them first, and perseveringly employed by the teacher ; 
 and if by earnestness in his work, by unfeigned love for 
 the young, by diligence in the study of their natures, 
 and the adaptation of means to ends which true benevo- 
 lence is sure to suggest, he can govern successfully with- 
 out corporal punishment, as in a large proportion of 
 cases I believe it can be done, none will rejoice more 
 than I at such a desirable result ; and I most cordially 
 subscribe to the principle so' happily stated by another, 
 that in the government of schools, if thorough obedience 
 be but secured and order maintained, other things being 
 equal, "THE MINIMUM OF PUNISHMENT IS THE MAXI- 
 MUM OF EXCELLENCE."
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 195 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 Forethought. Every teacher, before opening a school, 
 should have some general plan in his mind of what he 
 intends to accomplish. In every enterprise there is 
 great advantage to be derived from forethought ; and 
 perhaps nowhere is the advantage greater than in the 
 business of teaching. The day of opening a school is an 
 eventful day to the young teacher. A thousand things 
 crowd upon him at the same time, and each demands a 
 prompt and judicious action on his part. The children 
 to the number of half a hundred all turn their inquiring 
 eyes to him for occupation and direction. They have 
 come full of interest in the prospects of the new school, 
 ready to engage cheerfully in whatever plans the teacher 
 may have to propose ; and, I was about to say, just as 
 ready to arrange and carry into effect their own plans of 
 disorder and misrule, if they, unhappily for him and for 
 themselves, find he has no system to introduce. 
 
 An Eventful Moment. What a critical what an 
 eventful moment is this first day of the term to all con- 
 cerned ! The teacher's success and usefulness nay, his 
 reputation as an efficient instructor now " hang upon 
 the decision of an hour." An hour, too, may almost 
 foretell whether the precious season of childhood and 
 youth now before these immortals is to be a season of 
 profit and healthful culture under a judicious hand, or a 
 season of wasted perhaps worse than wasted existence,
 
 196 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 under the imbecility or misguidance of one who "knows 
 not what he does or what he deals with.'' 
 
 Angelic Solicitude. If angels ever visit our earth and 
 hover unseen around the gatherings of mortals to survey 
 their actions and contemplate their destiny as affected 
 by human instrumentality, it seems to me there can be 
 no spectacle so calculated to awaken their interest and 
 enkindle their sympathy as when they see the young 
 gathering together from their scattered homes in some 
 rural district, to receive an impress, for weal or woe, from 
 the hand of him who has undertaken to guide them. 
 And, supposing them to have the power to appreciate to 
 the full extent the consequences of human agency, how 
 must they be touched with emotions of joy and gratitude, 
 or shudder with those of horror and dread, as they wit- 
 ness the alternations of wisdom and folly, seriousness and 
 indifference, sincerity and duplicity, purity and defile- 
 ment, exhibited by him who has assumed to be at once 
 the director and exemplar in the formation of human 
 character at such an important period ! 
 
 Low Qualifications. How deplorable is the thought 
 that all the fond hopes of the parents, all the worthy 
 aspirings of the children, and all the thrilling interests of 
 higher beings, are so often to be answered by qualifica- 
 tions so scanty, and by a spirit so indifferent in the 
 teacher of the young ! How sad the thought that up to 
 this very moment so pregnant with consequences to all 
 concerned, there has been too often so little of prepara- 
 ration for the responsibility! 
 
 A Plan for the First Day. I fain would impress 
 the young teacher with the importance of having a 
 plan for even the first day of the school. It will raise 
 him surprisingly in the estimation of the pupils and
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 197 
 
 also of the parents, if he can make an expeditious and 
 efficient beginning of the school. While the dull teacher 
 is slowly devising the plans he will by and by present 
 for the employment and improvement of his school, the 
 children taking advantage of their own exemption from 
 labor, very promptly introduce their own plans for 
 amusing themselves or for annoying him ; whereas if 
 he could but have his own plans already made, and 
 could promptly and efficiently carry them into execution, 
 he would forestall their mischievous designs, and make 
 co-operators out of his opposers. 
 
 Important Inquiries. In order to be sure of a suc- 
 cessful commencement, I would recommend that the 
 teacher should go into the district a few days before 
 the school is to begin. By careful inquiry of the trustees 
 or the school committee, he can ascertain what is the 
 character of the district and the wants of the school. 
 This will afford him considerable aid. But he should do 
 more than this. He would do well to call on several of 
 the families of the district whose children are to become 
 members of his school. This he can do without any 
 ceremony, simply saying to them that, as he has been 
 appointed their teacher, he is desirous as far as he may 
 to ascertain their wants, in order to be as prompt as 
 possible in the organization of his school. He will of 
 course see the children themselves. From them he can 
 learn what was the organization of the school under his 
 predecessor ; how many studied geography, how many 
 arithmetic, grammar, etc.; and he can also learn 
 whether the former organization was satisfactoiy to the 
 district or not. The modes of government, and the 
 methods of interesting the pupils practised by the 
 former teacher, would be likely to be detailed to him
 
 198 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 and, from the manner of both parents and children, he 
 could judge whether similar methods would still be de- 
 sirable in the district. By calling on several of the 
 largest families in this way, he would learn beforehand 
 very accurately the state of the school and the state of 
 the district. 
 
 Caution Against Meanness. I will take this occasion 
 to insist that the teacher, in these visits, should heartily 
 discourage any forwardness, so common among children, 
 to disparage a former teacher. It should be his sole ob- 
 ject to gain useful information. He should give no signs 
 of pleasure in listening to any unfavorable statements as 
 to his predecessor ; and I may add that, during the pro- 
 gress of the school, he should ever frown upon any 
 attempt on the part of the pupils to make comparisons 
 derogatory to a former teacher. This is a practice alto- 
 gether too prevalent in our schools ; and, I am sorry to 
 say, there are still too many teachers who are mean 
 enough to countenance it. Such a course is unfair, be- 
 cause the absent party may be grossly misrepresented ; 
 it is dangerous because it tends to cultivate a spirit of 
 detraction in the young ; and it is mean because the party 
 is absent, and has no opportunity of defending himself. 
 
 Making Personal Friends. Another important ad- 
 vantage of the visits proposed would be, that he would 
 make the acquaintance of many of the children before- 
 hand ; and very likely, too, if he should go in the right 
 spirit and with agreeable manners, he would make a 
 favorable impression upon them, and thus he would have 
 personal friends on his side to begin with. The parents, 
 too, would see that he took an interest in his employment; 
 that he had come among them in the spirit of his voca- 
 tion, in the spirit of earnestness, and they would be-
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 199 
 
 come interested in his success a point of no small im- 
 portance. 
 
 A Common Error. I might here caution the teacher 
 against a very common error. He should not confine his 
 visits to the more wealthy and influential families. The 
 poor and the humble should receive his attentions as soon 
 as the rich. From the latter class very likely a large por- 
 tion of his school will come ; and it is wrong in principle 
 as well as policy to neglect those who have not been as 
 successful as others in the one item of accumulating prop- 
 erty. 
 
 Early at the School. On the day of opening the 
 school he should be early at the school-house. Mr. 
 Abbot, in his " Teacher," has some valuable suggestions 
 on this point. " It is desirable," he says, *' that the young 
 teacher should meet his scholars at first in an unofficial 
 capacity. For this purpose he should repair to the 
 schoolroom, on the first day, at an early hour, so as to 
 see and become acquainted with the scholars as they 
 come in, one by one. He may take an interest with 
 them in all the little arrangements connected with the 
 opening of the school. The building of the fire, the 
 paths through the snow, the arrangements of seats, call- 
 ing upon them for information or aid, asking their 
 names, and, in a word, entering fully and freely into 
 conversation with them, just as a parent, under similar 
 cir-cumstances, would do with his children. All the 
 children thus addressed will be pleased with the gentle- 
 ness and affability of the teacher, Even a rough and 
 ill-natured boy, who has perhaps come to the school 
 with the express determination of attempting to make 
 mischief, will be completely disarmed by being asked 
 pleasantly to help the teacher fix the fire, or alter the
 
 200 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 position of a desk. Thus by means of the half hour 
 during which the scholars are coming together, the 
 teacher will find, when he calls upon the children to take 
 their seats, that he has made a large number of them his 
 personal friends. Many of these will have communi- 
 cated their first impressions to others, so that he will 
 find himself possessed, at the outset, of that which is of 
 vital consequence in opening any administration a 
 strong party in his favor." 
 
 Roguery Promoted. It will be well for the teacher, 
 for several days, both in the morning and afternoon, to 
 be early at the schoolroom. He can thus continue his 
 friendly intercourse with the pupils, and effectually pre- 
 vent any concerted action among them at that hour to 
 embarrass his government. Many a school has been 
 seriously injured, if not broken up by the scholars 
 being allowed to assemble early at the school with noth- 
 ing to occupy them and no one to restrain them. Having 
 so convenient an opportunity for mischief, their youth- 
 ful activity will be very likely to find egress in an evil 
 direction. Many a tale of roguery could be told founded 
 upon the incidents of the schoolroom before school 
 hours, if those who have good memories would but 
 reveal their own experience roguery that never would 
 have occurred had the teacher adopted the course here 
 suggested. 
 
 SECTION I. PLAN OF THE DAY'S WORK. 
 
 "What Shall I Do?" It will be remembered by 
 many of the readers of this volume that in former times 
 numerous teachers were accustomed to work without a 
 plan, attempting to do their work just as it happened to
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 201 
 
 demand attention, but never taking the precaution to 
 have this demand under their own control. If one 
 scholar or class were not ready to recite, another would 
 be called ; and there being no particular time for the va- 
 rious exercises, the school would become a scene of mere 
 listlessness ; and the teacher would hardly know how to 
 find employment for himself in the school. 
 
 A Day's Work. An Example. I shall make this 
 point clearer by an example. Having occasion, in an 
 official capacity, to visit a school which had been kept by 
 a young teacher some two weeks, she very naturally 
 asked, " What shall I do first this afternoon ?" 
 
 " Do precisely as you would if I had not come in," was 
 the reply. 
 
 She looked a little perplexed. At length she doubt- 
 ingly asked, " Is the Geography lesson ready?" 
 
 " Yes, m'm " " No, m'm " " Yes, m'm " was the 
 ambiguous reply from the class. There was so much of 
 veto in the looks of the young geographers that it 
 amounted to prohibition. 
 
 " Well, are the scholars in Colburn's Arithmetic 
 ready ?" 
 
 This was said with more of hope ; but the same equiv- 
 ocal answer was vociferated from all parts of the room. 
 
 The teacher, placing her finger upon her lip, looked 
 despairingly ; but recollecting one more resort, she said, 
 ' Is the Grammar class ready ?'' 
 
 Again came the changes on " Yes, m'm," and " No, 
 m'm." 
 
 The teacher gave up, and asked what she should do. 
 She was again told to go on as usual for that afternoon. 
 It was a tedious^afternoon to her, as it was to her visitor. 
 She at length called one of the classes, unprepared as
 
 :M-.' THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 many of them said they were, and the exercise showed 
 that none but those who said "Yes, m'm" were mis- 
 taken. The whole afternoon seemed to be one of pain 
 and mortification to all concerned ; and I fancied I 
 could almost read in the knitted brow of the teacher a 
 declaration that that should be her last school. 
 
 A Hint Given. At the close of the afternoon, a single 
 hint was suggested to her, viz., that she should make 
 out a list of her scholars' duties, and the times when 
 they should be expected to recite their several lessons. 
 She was told that it would be well to explain this plan 
 of her day's work to her school in the morning, and 
 then never again ask whether a class was ready. The 
 hint was taken: and on subsequent visitations the several 
 classes were ever ready to respond to the call of their 
 instructor. 
 
 Now this matter is no unimportant one to the teacher. 
 Indeed, I judge of a teacher's ability very much by the 
 wisdom and tact with which he apportions his time for 
 his own duties, and divides the time of his scholars be- 
 tween their studies and recitations. 
 
 A Case Supposed. In order to aid the young teacher 
 in forming a plan for himself, I subjoin a scheme of a 
 days duties, adapted to a school of the simplest grade. 
 Suppose a school to consist of thirty scholars, and that 
 the teacher finds by inquiry and by examination that 
 there may be four grand divisions : the first, which he 
 designates [A], may unite in pursuing Reading, Gram- 
 mar, Mental Arithmetic, Written Arithmetic, and Writ- 
 ing ; the second [B] . can pursue Reading, Spelling, 
 Writing, Geography, Mental and Written Arithmetic ; 
 the third [C] attend to Reading, Spelling, Mental 
 Arithmetic, Writing, and Geography ; the fourth [D] x
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 203 
 
 consisting of the small pupils, attend to Reading, Spell- 
 ing, Tables, and sundry slate exercises. 
 
 Classification A Scheme. Now it is very desirable 
 that as much time should be devoted to recitation as can 
 be afforded to each class. It may be seen at once that 
 in certain studies, as geography, mental arithmetic, and 
 spelling, the teacher can as well attend to fifteen at once 
 as to seven. In these studies, unless the disparity in age 
 and attainment is very great, two divisions can very 
 properly be united. All can be taught writing at once, 
 thus receiving the teacher's undivided attention for the 
 time. Besides, it is necessary to reserve some little time 
 for change of exercises, and also for the interruptions 
 which must necessarily occur. The recesses are to be 
 provided for, and some time may be needed for investi- 
 gation of violations of duty, and for the punishment of 
 offenders. All this variety of work will occur in every 
 school, even the smallest. Now, if the teacher does not 
 arrange this in accordance with some plan, he will be 
 very much perplexed, even in a small school ; and how 
 much more in a large one ! He will do well very care- 
 fully to consider the relative importance of each exercise 
 to be attended to, and then to write out his scheme some- 
 what after the following model. It must not be forgotten 
 that studying is also to be provided for, and that it is just 
 as important that the pupil should be regular in this as 
 in recitation. Indeed, without such regularity he cannot 
 expect acceptable recitations.
 
 204 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 PROGRAM 
 
 FOR THE ABOVE SUPPOSED CIRCUMSTANCES. 
 
 Time. 
 
 M. 
 
 Recitations, etc. 
 
 Studies. 
 
 9 to 9.15 
 
 15 
 
 READING SCRIPT., & PRAYER. 
 
 
 9.15 to 9.40 
 
 as 
 
 I D. Reading, Spelling, or ) 
 } Tables. j 
 
 A. Reading; B. Arith.; 
 C. Geography. 
 
 9.40 to 9.43 
 
 9 
 
 REST, CHANGE OF CLASSES,ETC. 
 
 
 0.42 tO 10 
 
 18 
 
 A. Reading. 
 
 (B. Arith.; C. Geog.; 
 \ D. Slates. 
 
 10 to 10.5 
 
 5 
 
 /REST, SINGING, OR ANSWER- 
 ( ING QUESTIONS. 
 
 
 10.5 to 10.25 
 
 30 
 
 B. Arithmetic. 
 
 (A. Gram.; C. Geog.; 
 1 D. Books or Cards. 
 
 10.25 ^ 10.28 
 
 3 
 
 REST, ETC. 
 
 
 10.28 to 10.48 
 
 30 
 
 B. and C. Geography. 
 
 A. Gram.; D. Recess. 
 
 10.48 tOII 
 
 13 
 
 RECESS. 
 
 
 II tO II.IS 
 
 11.15 to 11.35 
 11.35 to 11.50 
 
 '5 
 
 30 
 '5 
 
 D. Reading etc. 
 A. Grammar. 
 B. and C. Spelling. 
 
 (A. Gram. ;B.M. Arith.; 
 ) C. Spelling. 
 JB. Spelling; C. Spell- 
 I ing; D. Slates. 
 j A. M. Arith.; D. Books 
 I or Cards. 
 
 11.50 tO 12 
 
 IO 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISE. 
 
 
 
 
 Intermission . 
 
 
 3 tO 3.15 
 
 3.15 to 3.45 
 2.45 to 3.10 
 
 }.io to 3.30 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 D. Reading, Spelling, Tables. 
 
 A. B. and C. Writing. 
 A. and B. Mental Arithmetic. 
 
 C. Reading. 
 
 /A. Arith.; B. Reading; 
 \ C. Reading. 
 D. Slates. 
 C. M. Arith.; D. Recess. 
 I A. Arith.; B. Arith.; 
 \ D. Books, etc. 
 
 3.3010 3.40 
 
 10 
 
 RECESS. 
 
 
 3.40 tO 4 
 
 30 
 
 B. Reading. 
 
 (A. Arith. ;C.M. Arith.; 
 ( D. Drawing. 
 
 4 to 4.5 
 
 5 
 
 REST, OR SINGING. 
 
 
 4-5 to 4.35 
 
 4-SS tO 4.35 
 
 30 
 3<> 
 
 C. Mental Arithmetic. 
 A. Arithmetic. 
 
 j A. Read.; B. Arith. or 
 ( Draw.; D. Slates. 
 j B. Arith. or Draw.; C. 
 1 Draw.; D. Dismissed. 
 
 V35 to 5 
 
 5 
 
 GEN. EXER. AND DISMISSION. 

 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 205 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Benefits of a Clock. In the foregoing program, the 
 first column shows the division of time, and the portion 
 allowed to each exercise. I need not say the teacher 
 should be strictly punctual. To this end a clock is a 
 very desirable article in the school. Both teacher and 
 pupils would be benefited by it. The second column 
 shows the recitations, admitting perhaps some variety, 
 especially in case of the younger children ; while the third 
 shows the occupation of those classes which are not en- 
 gaged in recitation. 
 
 Study Provided for. It will be seen that the classes 
 are studying those lessons which they are soon to recite; 
 and, as in this case it is supposed that all the lessons will 
 be learned in school, each one has been provided for. 
 It would be well, however, in practice to require one of 
 the studies to be learned out of school, in Which case 
 no time should be allowed to the study of that branch in 
 the program. 
 
 Drawing. It will be perceived that drawing is placed 
 as the occupation of the younger classes near the close 
 of the afternoon. This is based upon the supposition 
 thar the teacher during recess has placed an example on 
 the blackboard, to be copied by the children upon their 
 slates This is perhaps the most effectual way to teach 
 drawing to children. Those more advanced, however, 
 may use paper and pencil, and draw from an engraved 
 copy, or from a more finished specimen furnished from 
 the teacher's portfolio. It is essential that the teacher 
 should, if possible, give some specimens of his own in 
 this branch. I have seldom known a teacher to excite 
 an interest in drawing who relied altogether upon engrav- 
 ings as models for imitation.
 
 MM THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 An Assistant. It should be remarked further, con- 
 cerning such a program, that in case of an assistant in the 
 school, two columns under the head of Recitations should 
 be formed one for the principal's classes, and one for the 
 assistant's. If there are a few talented scholars, who are 
 able to do more than their class, they can be allowed to 
 join some of the classes out of their division, or they may 
 be provided with an extra study which will not need 
 daily recitation. 
 
 Alternation. In case the school is much larger than 
 the one supposed above, and the classes necessarily so 
 numerous as to make the time allowed to each study very 
 short, then the principle of alternation may be intro- 
 duced ; that is, some studies may be recited Mondays, 
 Wednesdays, and Fridays, and some other studies, with 
 other classes, take their places on the alternate days. It 
 is decidedly better for the teacher to meet a class, in 
 arithmetic for instance, especially of older pupils, but 
 twice or three times a week, having time enough at each 
 meeting to make thorough work, than to meet them 
 daily, but fora time so short as to accomplish but little. 
 The same remark may be applied to reading, and indeed 
 almost any other branch. 
 
 Thorough Work ; Nibbling. The idea is a mischiev- 
 ous one, that every class in reading, or in any other 
 branch, must be called out four times a day, or even 
 twice a day except in the case of very young children. 
 It may be compared to nibbling at a cracker as many 
 times in a day, without once taking a hearty meal a 
 process which would emaciate any child in the course of 
 three months. These scanty nibblings at the table of 
 knowledge, so often and so tenaciously practiced, may
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 207 
 
 perhaps account for the mental emaciation so often dis- 
 coverable in many of our schools. 
 
 Difficulty of Classifying. The difficulty of classify- 
 ing and arranging the exercises of a school becomes 
 greater as the number of teachers employed increases ; 
 and there is much greater inconvenience in allowing any 
 pupils to study out of their own division when the num- 
 ber of teachers is more than one or two. Few are aware 
 of the difficulty of arranging the exercises of a large 
 school but those who have experienced it. It can be done, 
 however ; and it should always be done as soon as possi- 
 ble after commencing the school. 
 
 Way to Correct a Scheme. If at any time the ar- 
 rangement when made is not found to be perfect, it is 
 not wise to change it at once. Let it go on a few days, 
 and watch its defects with great care ; and in the mean- 
 time study, out of school, to devise a better. When this 
 has been accomplished and committed to paper, and 
 perfectly comprehended by the teacher, it may be posted 
 up in the schoolroom, and the day announced when it 
 will go into operation. It will soon be understood by 
 the pupils, and the change can thus be made without the 
 loss of time. 
 
 Time for Reviews. Time for reviews of the various 
 lessons could be found by setting aside the regular lessons 
 for some particular day, once a week, or once in two 
 weeks ; and for composition, declamation, etc., a half day 
 should be occasionally or periodically assigned. 
 
 Models Not to be Copied; Teacher Must Think. 
 If I have devoted considerable space to this subject, it 
 is because I deem it of very great importance to the 
 teacher's success. With one other remark I dismiss it. 
 These models are not given to be servilely copied. They
 
 Ji.K THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 are given to illustrate the great principle. The circum- 
 stances of schools will be found to vary so widely that 
 no model, however perfect in itself, would answer for all. 
 The teacher must exercise his own ingenuity and judg- 
 ment to meet his own wants ; and in general it may be 
 remarked that, where a teacher has not the skill to adapt 
 his own plans to his own circumstances, he can hardly be 
 expected to succeed in carrying out the plans of another. 
 
 SECTION II. INTERRUPTIONS. 
 
 Unavoidable Interruptions. In every school consist- 
 ing of pupils of different ages and circumstances, there 
 will be more or less of interruption to the general order 
 and employment of the school. Some of the pupils 
 have never been trained to system at home ; perhaps 
 most of them may have been positively taught to dis- 
 regard it at school. At any rate, " it must needs be," in 
 this particular, " that offences come." Nor should the 
 teacher lose his patience, though he should be often 
 disturbed by the thoughtlessness of his pupils. He 
 should expect it as a matter of course, and exercise his 
 ingenuity as far as possible to prevent it. It may well 
 be one of his sources of enjoyment to witness an 
 improvement in the habits of his pupils in regard to 
 system. 
 
 Causes of Interruptions. These interruptions pro- 
 ceed from various causes such as soliciting leave to 
 speak, or to go out ; asking for some assistance in learn- 
 ing lessons, or for leave to drink, or to stand by the fire ; 
 requesting the teacher to mend pens, or to set copies ; 
 disorderly conduct in pupils, making it necessary, in his 
 judgment, to administer reproof or punishment in the 
 midst of other duties, and sometimes the vociferous and
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 209 
 
 impatient making of complaints by one scholar against 
 another. 
 
 A Scene from Nature. How many times I have seen 
 a teacher involved in indescribable perplexity while try- 
 ing to perform the duty of instruction, and to " get 
 through" in time. While hearing a grammar lesson, a 
 scholar brings up his atlas to have some place pointed 
 out which he had upon one trial failed to find. The 
 teacher, turning to look for the place, is addressed with, 
 " Please mend my pen," from another quarter. Having 
 the knife in hand, as if such things were to be expected, 
 the obliging teacher takes the pen, and holding it be- 
 tween his eyes and the atlas, endeavors to shape its nib 
 and to discover the city at the same glance. "Jane 
 keeps a-pinching me ! " vociferates a little girl who is 
 seated behind the class. " Jane, Jane ! " says the teacher, 
 turning away from both the nib and the city, "Jane, 
 come to me instantly ! " Jane with the guilty fingers 
 thrust far into her mouth makes her way sidling 
 towards the teacher. "May I go out?" says John, 
 who is thinking only of his own convenience. " No, 
 no ! " answers the teacher, a little pettishly, as if con- 
 scious that, in a crisis like this, a request simply to 
 breathe more freely is scarcely justifiable. " Please, 
 sir, let me and Charles go out and get a pail of water." 
 This is said by a little shrewd-looking, round-faced, 
 light-haired boy, who has learned how to select his 
 time, and to place the emphasis on the "please, sir," 
 The teacher by this time, being considerably fretted by 
 such an accumulation of business on his hands, very 
 naturally thinks of the refreshment contained in a pail 
 of cool water, and very good-naturedly answers the little 
 urchin in the affirmative, who most likely is by this time
 
 TI1KORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 more than half-way out of the door, so confident is he of 
 success. Just at this juncture a considerate-looking miss 
 in the class earnestly appeals to* the teacher to know if 
 the word next but three to the last was not a common 
 noun, though called a conjunction \ This reminds the 
 teacher that several words have been parsed without his 
 notice, and he asks the class to "stop there." Glancing 
 at his watch, he discovers that he has gone three minutes 
 beyond the time for recess, and he relieves himself by 
 saying, " Boys may go out." This grants a truce to all 
 parties. The pen goes back unmended ; the atlas with its 
 sought city undiscovered ; John " goes out '' now by 
 common law, taking to himself the credit of this happy 
 release, as he asked only to remind the master that it was 
 time for recess ; Jane takes both thumb and finger from 
 her precious little mouth, and smiling seats herself by the 
 side of her late challenger, who is by this time more than 
 half repentant of her own impatience; the shrewd-looking 
 urchin and his companion return with the refreshing pail 
 of water; the boys and girls gather round to obtain the 
 first draught, while the little chubby-faced lad comes for- 
 ward clothed in smiles, with a cup filled with the cooling 
 liquid on purpose for the master ; the boon is accepted, 
 the perplexed brow becomes placid, and all is sun- 
 shine again This is not a very extravagant picture 
 of the interruptions in a district school. Those who 
 have been brought up in such a school will recognize 
 \.\i^ fidelity of the likeness, as it has been drawn from 
 Nature. 
 
 Lancaster's Motto. Now whoever has any knowledge 
 of human nature and of school-teaching will at once 
 see that this is all wrong. It is a law of our being that 
 we can do well but one thing at a time. He who
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 211 
 
 attempts more must do what he attempts but very im- 
 perfectly. There was a great deal of wisdom embodied 
 in that motto which used to be placed in the old Lan- 
 casterian schools: "A TIME FOR EVERYTHING, AND 
 EVERYTHING IN ITS TIME." It should be one of the 
 mottoes of every teacher. In the construction of the 
 plan or program for the day's duties, great care should 
 be taken to provide for all these little things. If whis- 
 pering is to be allowed at all in school, let it come into 
 one of the intervals between recitations. If assistance 
 in getting lessons is to be asked and rendered, let it be 
 done at a time assigned for the special purpose. As far 
 as possible, except in extreme cases, let the discipline be 
 attended to at the time of general exercise, or some 
 other period assigned to it, so that there shall not be a 
 ludicrous mixture of punishments and instruction during 
 the progress of a class exercise. 
 
 Teaching Delightful. It is pleasant to visit a school, 
 where everything is done, and well done, at its proper 
 time. Teaching, under such circumstances, becomes a 
 delightful employment. But where all is confusion, and 
 the teacher allows himself by the accumulation of irregu- 
 larities to be oppressed and perplexed, it is one of the 
 most wearing and undesirable vocations on earth. The 
 teacher goes to his lodgings harassed with care, oppressed 
 with a consciousness of the imperfection of his labors, 
 and exhausted by the unnatural and unwarrantable tax 
 imposed upon his mental faculties. He groans under 
 the burden incident to his calling, and longs to escape 
 from it ; never once dreaming, perhaps, that he has the 
 power of relieving himself by the introduction of system, 
 and thus changing his former Babel into a scene of quiet- 
 ness and order.
 
 THKOKV AM) PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 SECTION in. RECESSES. 
 
 How Often ? In speaking of the arrangements of a 
 school, the subject of recesses demands attention. It is 
 the belief of many enlightened instructors that the con- 
 finement in most of our schools is still too protracted, 
 and that more time devoted to relaxation would be prof- 
 itable both to the physical and mental constitution of 
 our youth. Some have urged a recess of a few minutes 
 eve*y hour, in order to afford opportunity for a change 
 of position and a change of air. This could better be 
 done in schools composed only of one sex, or where the 
 accommodation of separate yards, and play grounds per- 
 mits both sexes to take a recess at the same time. Where 
 these accommodations are wanting and one sex must wait 
 while the other is out, the time required for two recesses 
 in half a day, for the whole school, could scarcely be af- 
 forded. I am of the opinion, as our schools are at pres- 
 ent composed, that one recess in the half day for each 
 sex is all that can be allowed. The question then is, 
 how can that one recess be made most conducive to the 
 purposes for which it is designed ? 
 
 As to the Duration of Recess. Ten minutes is the 
 least time that should be thought of, if the children are 
 to be kept closely confined to study during the remainder 
 of the three hours' session ; that is, ten minutes for each 
 sex. It would be a very desirable thing if our- school- 
 houses could be so furnished with separate play grounds 
 and separate out-door accommodations that both sexes 
 could take recess at the same time. This would save 
 much time to the district in the course of a term, and 
 it would also give opportunity for thoroughly ventilating 
 the room during recess, while it would afford the teacher
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 213 
 
 opportunity to take the air and overlook the sports of 
 the children to some extent a matter of no small im- 
 portance. 
 
 Teacher's Work at Recess. Where these facilities 
 are wanting, and the teacher must remain within to preside 
 over the one half of the school while the others are out, 
 he may still give ten minutes at least to each sex, con- 
 triving to employ profitably the time within doors. He 
 may reserve this time for settling such difficulties as may 
 have arisen in the school ; he may administer reproofs, 
 inflict his punishments if any are necessary, or he may 
 spend the time in giving assistance to the pupils, or in 
 drawing upon the blackboard for the advantage of the 
 younger pupils as they come in. In a large school, 
 where a longer recess is the more necessary on account 
 of the bad air of the schoolroom, he will find the more 
 duty to be done at this time ; so that in any event the 
 time need not be lost, even if fifteen minutes be allowed 
 to each sex. 
 
 As to the Proper Hour for Recess. It was an old 
 rule to have recess when " school was half done " Indeed, 
 this expression was often used as synonymous with recess 
 in many districts twenty-five years ago. It is now gen- 
 erally thought better to have the recess occur later, 
 perhaps when the school session is two-thirds past. It 
 is found that children, accustomed to exercise all the 
 morning can better bear the confinement of the first 
 two hours than they can that of the third, even though 
 the recess immediately precedes the third. In a school 
 the half-daily sessions of which are three hours, I should 
 recommend that the recess be introduced so as to termi- 
 nate at the close of the second hour. As far as possible, 
 it would be well to have all the pupils leave the room at
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 the time recess is given them ; and, as a general thing, 
 they should not ask leave to go out at any other time. 
 A little system in this matter is as desirable as in any 
 other, and it is quite as feasible. 
 
 Young Children. In a school composed partly of 
 very young children, there is no difficulty in giving such 
 children two recesses each half day. Nor is there any 
 objection to such a course. It is more irksome to young 
 children to bear confinement than to the adult, especially 
 as they cannot be expected to be constantly occupied. 
 It will relieve the teacher very much to have the children 
 go out of the room as soon as they become fatigued, and, 
 as it will promote their own health and happiness to go, 
 it is very justifiable to grant them the privilege. This 
 may properly and easily be provided for upon the pro- 
 gram, 
 
 SECTION IV. ASSIGNING LESSONS. 
 
 Teachers Fail by Assigning Too Long Lessons. 
 
 Many teachers fail in this department. Judging of the 
 difficulty of the lesson by the ease with which they can 
 acquire it, even in a text-book new to themselves, they 
 not unfrequently assign more than can possibly be 
 learned by the children. They forget that by long dis- 
 cipline of mind, and by the aid of much previously 
 acquired knowledge, the lesson becomes comparatively 
 easy to them ; they forget, too, the toil a similar lesson 
 cost them when they were children. Now the effect of 
 poorly learning a lesson is most ruinous to the mind of 
 a child. He, by the habit of missing, comes to think it 
 a small thing to fail at recitation. He loses his self- 
 respect. He loses all regard for his reputation as a 
 scholar. It is truly deplorable to see a child fail in a
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 215 
 
 lesson with indifference. Besides, the attempt to acquire 
 an unreasonable lesson induces a superficial habit of 
 study a skimming over the surface of things. The child 
 studies, that he may live through the recitation ; not that 
 he may learn and remember. He passes thus through a 
 book, and thinks himself wise while he is yet a fool a 
 mistake that is no less common than fatal. 
 
 Not How Much, but How Well. The motto of the 
 wise teacher should be, " NOT HOW MUCH, BUT HOW 
 WELL." He should always ask, is it possible that the 
 child can master this lesson, &&& probable that he will? 
 It is better that a class should make but very slow prog- 
 ress for several weeks, if they but acquire the habit of 
 careful study and a pride of good scholarship, a dread 
 of failure, than that they should ramble over a whole 
 field, firing at random, missing oftener than they hit the 
 mark, and acquiring a stupid indifference to their repu- 
 tatiqn as marksmen, and a prodigal disregard to their 
 waste of ammunition and their loss of the game. 
 
 Good Habits of Study. In assigning lessons, the im- 
 portance of good habits of study should be con- 
 sidered, and the lessons given accordingly. At the com- 
 mencement of a term the lessons should always be short 
 till the ability of the pupils is well understood and 
 their habits as good students established. As the term 
 progresses they can be gradually lengthened as the 
 capacity of the class will warrant, or their own desire 
 will demand. It is frequently judicious to consult the 
 class about the length of the lessons, though to be sure 
 their judgment cannot always he relied on, for they 
 are almost always ready to undertake more than they 
 can well perform. Assigning, however, somewhat less 
 than they propose will take from them all excuse for
 
 216 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 failure. When the lesson is given, a failure should be 
 looked upon as culpable dereliction of duty, as incom- 
 patible with a good conscience as it is with good 
 scholarship. This high ground cannot be taken, how- 
 ever, unless the teacher has been very judicious in the 
 assignment of the lesson. 
 
 SECTION V. REVIEWS. 
 
 Why Necessary. In the prosecution of study by 
 any class of students, frequent reviews are necessary. 
 This is so, because the memory is very much aided by 
 repetition and by association. But further, the under- 
 standing is often very much improved by a review. 
 Many of the sciences cannot be presented in independent 
 parts, nor can all the terms employed be fully appreci- 
 ated till these parts are again viewed as a whole. Many 
 things which were but dimly seen the first time they 
 were passed over become perfectly clear to the mind 
 when viewed afterwards in connection with what follows 
 them. 
 
 Why Frequent ; Application of Principles to Prac- 
 tical Life. In conducting reviews, regard must be had 
 to the age and character of the pupils and to the branch 
 pursued. In arithmetic, and indeed in mathematics 
 generally, where so much depends upon every link in the 
 great chain, very frequent reviews are necessary. Indeed, 
 almost daily it is profitable to call up some principle 
 before gone over In several branches, where the 
 parts have a less intimate connection, as in geography, 
 natural philosophy, and some others, the reviews 
 may be at greater intervals. It would be well, I think, 
 in every common school, to have a review-day once a 
 week. This, besides the advantages already indicated,
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 217 
 
 will lead the children to study for something beyond 
 recitation. Nor is it enough, at the review that the 
 questions of the text-book be again proposed to the 
 children. If this be all, they will only exercise their 
 memories. As far as possible the subject should be called 
 up, and the application of Principles to practical life should 
 be dwelt upon. If this course is expected by the 
 learners, they will think during the week, in order to 
 anticipate the examination of the teacher ; and this 
 thinking is more profitable to them than the knowledge 
 itself. 
 
 A General Review. It is always well, besides the 
 periodical reviews, to have a general review at the close 
 of any particular study. This enables the teacher to 
 detect any false conceptions which the pupil has enter- 
 tained during the first course. He can now present the 
 subject as a whole, and view one part by the light of 
 another. In natural philosophy, how much better the 
 law of reflected motion can be appreciated after the sub- 
 ject of optics has bee.n studied, in which the doctrine 
 of reflection in general has been fully discussed and 
 illustrated ! hi physiology, what light is thrown upon 
 the process of growth in the system by the subsequent 
 chapters on absorption and secretion ! How much 
 clearer is the economy of respiration understood when 
 viewed in connection with the circulation of the blood ! 
 A general review, then, is an enlightening process ; and 
 it is always profitable, with, perhaps, one exception. 
 When it is instituted with reference to a public exami- 
 nation, it is very doubtful whether the evil is not 
 greater than the good. It then degenerates into an effort 
 to appear well at a particular time ; it is again studying 
 in order to recite ; and I look upon it" as no small evil,
 
 218 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 that the mind should have any object in view which 
 comes in between it and the grand desire to know to 
 master the subject for its own sake, and not simply for 
 the purpose of being able to talk about it on one great 
 occasion. 
 
 SECTION VI. PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Examinations not without Objections. It is now 
 the usage in all our schools to have public examinations, 
 generally at the close of a term, or a portion of a term, 
 in order to test, in some measure, the industry and skill 
 of the teacher and the proficiency of the pupils. I am 
 hardly prepared to oppose this usage, because I am in- 
 clined to believe examinations are of some utility as a 
 means of awakening an interest in the parents of the 
 children ; perhaps they do something to stimulate school- 
 officers, and also to excite to greater effort during the 
 term both the teacher and the pupils. Still, public ex- 
 aminations, as frequently conducted, are not without 
 serious objections. I. They certainly cannot be looked 
 upon as criterions of the faithfulness or success of 
 teachers. A man with tact, and without honesty, may 
 make his school appear to far greater advantage than a 
 better man can make a better school appear. This has 
 often happened. It is not the most faithful and thorough 
 teaching that makes the show and attracts the applause 
 at a public exhibition. It is the superficial, mechanical 
 memoriter exercise that is most imposing. Who has not 
 seen a class, that recited by rote and in concert at a cele- 
 bration, win the largest approbation, when many of the 
 individuals know not the import of the words they 
 uttered. Names in geography have been thus " said or 
 sung," when the things signified were to the children as
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 219 
 
 really tervvz incognita as the fairy lands of Sinbad the 
 Sailor. 
 
 Not to be Taken as Indices of Proficiency. Nor can 
 such exhibitions be- claimed justly to indicate the pro- 
 ficiency of the pupils Every experienced teacher knows 
 that the best scholars often fail at a public examination, 
 and the most indolent and superficial often distinguish 
 themselves. The spectators not unfrequently, in point- 
 ing out the talent of the school, make the teacher sniile 
 at their blunders. 
 
 Encourage Deception. They present a strong tempt- 
 ation to dishonesty on the part*of the teacher. Since so 
 much stress is laid upon the examination, and particu- 
 larly, in some regions, upon the Celebration, where sev- 
 eral schools are brought together to make a show for a 
 few hours, it must be rather an uncommon man who 
 will have sufficient principle to exhibit his school as it is, 
 and refuse to make those efforts so very common to have 
 it appear what it is not. " The wish, expressed or implied t 
 of the parents, and the ambition of the children, ail 
 conspire to make the teacher yield to a usage so com- 
 mon Consequently several weeks will be spent to pre 
 pare the children to appear in public.. During this time 
 they study not for improvement, not for future useful- 
 ness, but simply to make a show at the public celebration. 
 An unworthy and unwarrantable motive actuates them 
 during all this process, and at last, unless strangely 
 benighted, they are conscious of holding up a false 
 appearance to the world. Now, under such circum- 
 stances, whatever of good is effected, by way of enkin- 
 dling a zeal in the parents, is dearly purchased. The 
 sacrifice of principle in a teacher much more in the 
 children is a large price to pay for the applause of a
 
 220 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 
 
 few visitors, or even for an increase of interest among 
 them in the cause of popular education. 
 
 Sometimes Useful. When ? Examinations, how- 
 ever, which are less* showy^ and which are of such a 
 character as thoroughly to sift the teaohings that have 
 been given, and to thwart any ingenious efforts specially 
 to prepare for them examinations that look back to the 
 general teaching of the term, or the year* and test the 
 accuracy and thoroughness* of the? instructions are 
 unquestionably very desirable and useful. To make 
 them so in the highest sense, and to exempt them from 
 an evil tendency upon the minds of the young them- 
 selves, the teacher should be strictly honest. Not a lesson 
 should be given with sole reference to the exhibition at, 
 the close ; not an exercise should be omitted because the 
 examination approaches. The good teacher should keep 
 those great motives before the mind, which look to 
 future usefulness, and to the discharge of duty. The 
 child should be taught that he is accountable for what he 
 acquires, and what he may acquire, and not for what he 
 may appear to have acquired ; and that this accounta- 
 bility is not confined to a single day, soon to pass and be 
 forgotten , but it runs through all time and all eternity. 
 
 Further Caution. I know not but the expectation of 
 an examination may stimulate some to greater exertion 
 and make them better scholars. If this be so, it may be 
 well enough ; and yet I should be slow to present such a 
 motive to the mind of a child, because a special or sec- 
 ondary accountability always detracts from the general 
 a-nd chief. 
 
 A strong reason, in addition to those already assigned, 
 why special preparation should not be made for the ex-
 
 bC 1 1 OO L A k R A X ( j K M E NTS. 821 
 
 amination, is that where such preparation is expected 
 the pupils become careless in their ordinary exercises. 
 
 Teacher should be Honest. While, then, I think too 
 much stress is at present placed upon showy exhibitions 
 and celebrations, and the objections and dangers attend 
 examinations, as frequently conducted, I would not rec- 
 ommend altogether their discontinuance. I would rather 
 urge that the teacher, by his inflexible honesty, should 
 make them fair representations of the actual condition of 
 his school, without relying very much upon them as a 
 means of stimulating the pupils to exertion ; that the 
 pupils should be made to feel that the results of their 
 exertion through the term, rather than a few special ef- 
 forts near its close, would be brought into review ; that 
 no hypocrisy or management should ever be tolerated, in 
 Order to win the applause of the multitude ; that no par- 
 ticular lessons should ever be assigned for the occasion ; 
 that it should be remembered that the moral effect of an 
 occasional failure at examination will be more salutary 
 upon the school than unbroken success ; and that the 
 children are irreparably injured when they are made in 
 any way the willing instruments of false pretension. 
 
 Profitable Examinations. Under such circumstances, 
 examinations may be profitable to all concerned. If 
 teacher and pupils have done well, they have the oppor- 
 tunity of showing it without violence to their own con- 
 sciences. The employers, and patrons, too, have some 
 means of forming a correct estimate of the value of their 
 school ; and all parties may be encouraged and stimu- 
 lated. But above, all things, LET THE TEACHER BE 
 HONEST.
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE TEACHER'S RELATION TO THE PAR- 
 ENTS OF HIS PUPILS 
 
 Talents in a Clergyman Private Character. In 
 the choice of a clergyman, after estimating his moral and 
 religious character, and ascertaining the order of his pulpit 
 talents, a third question remains to be answered, viz. r 
 What are his qualifications as a pastor? How is he 
 adapted to fulfil the various relations of private friend 
 and counsellor; and in the family circle, m his inter, 
 course with the aged and the young, how is he fitted to 
 
 " Allure to brighter worlds and lead the way" ? 
 
 In that sacred profession every one knows that nearly as 
 much good is to be done by private intercourse as in the 
 public ministration. Many a heart can be reached by a 
 friendly and informal conversation, that would remain 
 unmoved by the most powerful eloquence from the 
 pulpit. Besides, many are prepared to be profited in 
 the public exercises by that intercourse in private which 
 has opened their hearts, removed prejudice, and engen- 
 dered a feeling of friendly interest in the preacher. The 
 admonitions of the Gospel thus have the double power 
 of being truth, and truth uttered by the lips of a valued 
 friend. 
 
 Social Qualities in a Teacher. It is to some extent 
 thus with the school teacher. He may be very learned
 
 THE TEACHER'S RELATION TO THE PARENTS. 
 
 and very apt to teach, and yet fail of success in his dis- 
 trict. Hence it is highly important that he should pos- 
 sess and carefully cultivate those social qualities which 
 will greatly increase his usefulness. The teacher should 
 consider it a part of his duty, whenever he enters a dis- 
 trict, to excite a deeper interest there among the patrons 
 of the school than they have ever before felt. He should 
 not be satisfied till he has reached every mind connected 
 with his charge in such a way that they will cheerfully 
 co-operate with him and sustain his judicious efforts for 
 good. Being imbued with a deep feeling of the import- 
 ance of \iis work, he should let them see that he is alive 
 to the interests of their children. To this end, 
 
 i. He should Seek Frequent Opportunities of In- 
 tercourse with the Parents. Though the advances to- 
 ward this point, by the strict rules of etiquette, should 
 be made by the parents themselves (as by some it is 
 actually and seasonably done) yet, as a general thing, 
 taking the world as we find it, the teacher must lead 
 the way. He must often introduce himself uninvited 
 to the people among whom he dwells, calling at their 
 homes in the spirit of his vocation, and conversing with 
 them freely about his duty to their children and to 
 themselves. Every parent, of course, will feel bound to 
 be courteous and civil in his own house ; and, by such 
 an interview, perhaps a difference of opinion, a preju- 
 dice, or a suspicion may be removed, and the founda- 
 tion of a mutual good understanding be laid, which 
 many little troubles can never shake. It may be very 
 useful to have an interview with such parents as have 
 been disturbed by some administration of discipline 
 upon members of thefr families. Let me not be under- 
 stood, however, to recommend that the teacher should
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 ever go to the parent in a cringing, unmanly spirit. It 
 would probably be far better that the parties should 
 ever remain entire strangers, than that their meeting 
 should necessarily be an occasion of humiliating retrac- 
 tion on the part of teacher. Neither should the parents 
 ever be allowed to expect that the teacher always will as 
 a matter of duty come to their confessional. But it is 
 believed, if there could be a meeting of the parties as 
 men, as gentlemen, as Christians, as coadjutors for the 
 child's welfare, it would always be attended with good 
 results. 
 
 2. He should be Willing to Explain all His Plans 
 to the Parents of His Pupils. If they had implicit 
 confidence in him, and would readily and fully give him 
 every facility for carrying forward all his designs without 
 explanation, then, perhaps, this direction might not be 
 necessary. But as the world is, he cannot expect spon- 
 taneous confidence. They wish to know his designs, and 
 it is best they should be informed of them by himself. 
 The best way for the teacher to interest them in the 
 business of education will be freely to converse with 
 them concerning the measures he intends to adopt. If 
 his plans are judicious, he of course can show good rea- 
 sons why they should be carried into effect ; and parents 
 are generally willing to listen to reason, especially when 
 it is directed to the benefit of their own children. Many 
 a parent, upon the first announcement of a measure in 
 school, has stoutly opposed it, who. upon a little explan- 
 atory conversation with the teacher, would entertain a 
 very different opinion, and ever after would be most 
 ready to countenance and support it. 
 
 Encourage Inquiry. It seems to me a teacher may 
 safely encourage inquiry into all his movements in
 
 THE TEACHER'S RELATION TO THE PARENTS. 225 
 
 school. There is an old saying in my opinion a mis- 
 chievous one which enjoins it as a duty upon all, to 
 "tell no tales out of school." I see no objection to the 
 largest liberty in this matter. Why may not every- 
 thing be told, if told correctly.'' Parents frequently 
 entertain a suspicious spirit as to the movements of 
 the teacher. Would not very much of this be done 
 away, if it was understood there was no mystery about 
 the school ! The teacher who would thus invite in- 
 quiry would be very careful never to do anything which 
 he would not be willing to have related to the parents 
 or even to be witnessed by them. I would have no ob- 
 jection, if it were possible, that the walls of our school- 
 rooms, as you look inward, should be transparent, so 
 that any individual unperceived might view with his 
 own eyes the movements within. The consciousness of 
 such an oversight would work a healthy influence upon 
 those who have too long delighted in mystery. 
 
 3. The Teacher should Encourage Parents Fre- 
 quently to Visit His School. There is almost every- 
 where too great backwardness on the part of parents to 
 do this duty. The teacher should early invite them to 
 come in. It is not enough that he do this in general 
 terms. He may fix the time and arrange the party so that 
 those who would assimilate should be brought together. 
 It will frequently be wise to begin with the mothers, 
 where visitation has been unusual. They will soon bring 
 in the fathers. As often as they come they will be bene- 
 fited. When such visits are made the teacher should 
 not depart from his usual course of instruction on their 
 account. Let all the recitations and explanations be at- 
 tended to, all praises and reproofs, all rewards and pun- 
 ishments be as faithfully and punctually dispensed as i
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 no person were present. In other words, let the teacher 
 faithfully exhibit the school just as it is, its lights and 
 its shadows, so that they may see all its workings, and 
 understand all its trials as well as its encouragements. 
 
 Such visitations under such circumstances, it is be- 
 lieved, would ever be highly beneficial. The teacher's 
 difficulties and cares would be better understood, and his 
 efforts to be useful appreciated. The hindrances thus 
 seen to impede his progress would be promptly removed, 
 and the teacher would receive more cordial sympathy 
 and support. 
 
 Be Honest ; No False Pretences. But if the teacher 
 makes such visits the occasion for putting a false appear- 
 ance upon the school ; if he takes to himself unusual airs, 
 such as make him ridiculous in the eyes of his pupils, and 
 even in his own estimation; if he attempts to bring 
 before the visitors his best classes, and to impress them 
 with his own skill by showing off his best scholars, they 
 will, sooner or later, discover his hypocrisy, and very 
 likely despise 'tiim for an attempt to deceive them. 
 
 4. The Teacher should be Frank in all His Repre- 
 sentations to Parents Concerning Their Children. 
 This is a point upon which many teachers most lamentably 
 err. In this, as in every other case, " honesty is the best 
 policy." If an instructor informs a parent during the 
 term that his son is making rapid progress, or as the 
 phrase is " doing very well," he excites in him high 
 expectations ; and if at the end of the term it turns out 
 otherwise, the parent with much justice may feel that 
 he has been injured, and may be expected to load him 
 with censure instead of praise. Let a particular answer, 
 and a true one, always be given to the inquiry " How 
 does my child get along ? " The parent has a right to
 
 THE TEACHER'S RELATION TO THE PARENTS. 227 
 
 know, and the teacher has no right to conceal the truth. 
 Sometimes teachers, fearing the loss of a pupil, have 
 used some indefinite expression, which however, the 
 doting parent is usually ready to interpret to his child's 
 advantage. But sooner or later the truth will appear ; 
 and when the teacher is once convicted of any misrepre- 
 sentation in this particular, there is rarely any forgive- 
 ness for him. For this reason and for his own love of 
 truth, for his own reputation and for the child's welfare, 
 he should keep nothing back. He should tell the whole 
 story plainly and frankly, and the parent, if he is a 
 gentleman, will thank him for his faithfulness to him ; 
 and if he has any sense of justice, he will be ready to 
 co-operate with him for his child's improvement. At 
 any rate such a course will ensure the reward of a good 
 conscience. 
 
 Be Modest. The teacher, as I have before urged, 
 should have the habits and manners of a gentleman. 
 He should strive also to acquire the ability to converse 
 in an easy and agreeable way, so that his society shall 
 never be irksome. He, in other words, should be a man 
 who does not require much entertaining. Modesty, 
 withal, is a great virtue in the teacher ; especially in his 
 intercourse with the people of his district. Teachers, 
 from their almost constant intercourse with their pupils 
 are apt to think their own opinions infallible ; and they 
 sometimes commit the ridiculous error, of treating 
 others wiser than themselves as children in knowledge. 
 This infirmity, incident to the profession, should be care- 
 fully avoided ; and while the teacher should ever en- 
 deavor to make his conversation instructive, he should 
 assume no airs of superior learning or infallible author- 
 ity. He should remember the truth in human nature,
 
 J5-S THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 that men are best pleased to learn without being re- 
 minded that they are learners. 
 
 " Out-door Work." I have known some teachers 
 who have sneered at what they have termed the " out- 
 door work " here recommended. They have thrown 
 themselves upon their dignity, and have declared that 
 when they had done their duty within the schoolroom, 
 they had done all that could be expected, and that par- 
 ents were bound to co-operate with them, and sustain 
 them. But, after all, we must take the world as we find 
 it ; and since parents do not always feel interested as 
 they should, I hold it to be a part of the teacher's duty 
 to excite their interest, and to win them to his aid by all 
 the proper means in his power. In doing this, he will. 
 in the most effectual way, secure the progress of his 
 school, and at the same time advance his own personal 
 improvement.
 
 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 229 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 
 
 Many Invalid Teachers. No employment is more 
 wearing to the constitution than the business of teaching. 
 So many men falter in this employment from ill health, 
 and so many are deterred from entering it, because they 
 have witnessed the early decay and premature old age of 
 those who have before pursued it ; so many are still 
 engaged in it who almost literally "drag their slow length 
 along," groaning under complicated forms of disease and 
 loss of spirits, which they know not how to tolerate or 
 cure, that it has become a serious inquiry among the 
 more intelligent of the profession, "Cannot something be 
 known and practiced on this subject, which shall remove 
 the evils complained of ?" Is it absolutely necessary 
 that teachers shall be dyspeptics and invalids ? Must 
 devotion to a calling so useful, be attended with a penalty 
 so dreadful ? 
 
 Reasons. A careful survey of the facts, by more than 
 one philanthropist, has led to the conclusion, that the 
 loss of health is not a necessary attendant upon the 
 teacher of the young. It is believed, indeed, that the 
 confinement from the air and sunlight, and the engross- 
 ing nature of his pursuits, have a strong tendency to bring 
 in an irritability of the nervous system, a depression of 
 spirits, and a prostration of the digestive functions ; but it 
 is also believed, that, by following strictly and systemat- 
 ically the known laws of health, this tendency may be
 
 280 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 successfully resisted, and the teacher's life and usefulness 
 very much prolonged. The importance of the subject, 
 and a desire to render this volume as useful as possible, 
 has induced me to ask leave to transfer to its pages, with 
 slight abbreviation, the very judicious and carefully 
 written chapter on " Health Exercise Diet," contained 
 in the " School and the Schoolmaster," from the gifted 
 pen of George B. Emerson, Esq., of Boston one of the 
 most enlightened educators of the present age. 
 
 HEALTH, EXERCISE, DIET. 
 
 Laws of Health Should be Studied. The teacher 
 should have perfect health. It may seem almost super- 
 fluous to dwell here upon what is admitted to be so 
 essential to all persons ; but it becomes necessary from 
 the fact that nearly all those who engage in teaching 
 leave other and more active employments to enter upon 
 their new calling. By this change, and by the substitu- 
 tion of a more sedentary life within doors for a life of 
 activity abroad, the whole habit of the body is changed, 
 and the health will inevitably suffer, unless precautions 
 be taken which have never before been necessary. To all 
 such persons, to all, especially, who are entering upon 
 the work of teaching with a view of making it their oc- 
 cupation through life, a knowledge of the laws of health 
 is of the utmost importance, and to such this chapter is 
 addressed. I shall speak of these laws biiefly, under the 
 heads of Exercise, Air, Sleep, Food and Dress. 
 
 Exercise. So intimate is the connection between the 
 various parts of our compound nature, that the faculties 
 of the mind cannot be naturally, fully and effectually 
 exercised without the health of the body. And the first
 
 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 231 
 
 law of health is that which imposes the necessity of 
 exercise. 
 
 Teachers Specially Need it. The teacher cannot be 
 well without exercise, and usually a great deal of it. No 
 other pursuit requires so much ; no other is so exhausting 
 to the nerves ; and exercise, air, cheerfulness and sun- 
 shine are necessary to keep them in health. Most other 
 pursuits give exercise of body, sunshine and air, in the 
 very performance of the duties that belong to them. 
 This shuts us up from all. 
 
 Walking. One of the best, as well as one of the most 
 natural modes of exercise, is walking. To give all the 
 good effects of which it is susceptible, a walk must be 
 taken either in pleasant company, or, if alone, with pleas- 
 ant thoughts ; or, still better, with some agreeable end in 
 view, such as gathering plants, or minerals, or observing 
 other natural objects. Many a broken constitution has 
 been built up, and many a valuable life saved and pro- 
 longed, by such a love of some branch of natural history 
 as has led to snatch every opportunity for a walk, with 
 the interest of a delightful study. 
 
 " Where living things, and things inanimate 
 Do speak, at Heaven's command, to eye and ear." 
 
 President Hitchcock. The distinguished geologist of 
 Massachusetts, President Hitchcock, was once, when 
 teacher of a school, reduced to so low a state by disease 
 of the nerves, which took the ugly shape of dyspepsia, 
 that he seemed to be hurrying rapidly towards the grave. 
 Fortunately, he became interested in mineralogy, and 
 this gave him a strong motive to spend all his leisure 
 time in the open air, and to take long circuits in every 
 direction. He forgot that he was pursuing health, in the 
 deeper interest of science ; and thus, aided by some other
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 changes in his habits, but not in his pursuits, he gradu- 
 ally recovered the perfect health which has enabled him 
 to do so much for science, and for the honor of his native 
 State. 
 
 Riding on Horseback. Riding on horseback is one of 
 the best modes of exercise possible for a sedentary per- 
 son. It leads to an erect posture, throws open the chest, 
 gives a fuller breathing, and exercises the muscles of the 
 arms and upper part of the frame. In weakness of the 
 digestive organs its efficacy is remarkable. * * * 
 
 A Garden Farm Labor. A garden furnishes many 
 excellent forms of exercise, and the numerous labors of a 
 farm would give every variety, if the teacher could be in 
 a situation to avail himself of them. This is not often 
 the case. When accessible, the rake, the pitchfork, mod- 
 erately used, cannot be too highly recommended. A 
 garden is within the reach of most teachers in the coun- 
 try. It has the advantage of supplying exercise suited 
 to every degree of strength, and of being filled with ob- 
 jects gratifying to the eye, and the taste. * * * * 
 The flower-garden and shrubbery commend themselves 
 to the female teacher. To derive every advantage from 
 them, she must be willing to follow the example often set 
 by the ladies of England, and use the hoe, and rake, the 
 pruning-hook, and the grafting-knife, with her own hands. 
 
 Rowing. Rowing, when practicable, is a most health- 
 ful exercise. It gives play to every muscle and bone in 
 the frame. * * * * When the river is frozen, skating 
 mav take the place of rowing ; and it is an excellent sub- 
 stitute. * * * * Driving a chaise, or a sleigh, is a 
 healthful exercise, if sufficient precaution be used to 
 guard against the current which is always felt, as it is 
 produced by the motion of the vehicle even in still air.
 
 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 238 
 
 Sawing and splitting wood form a valuable exercise, 
 particularly important for those who have left an active 
 life for the occupation of teaching. 
 
 Exercise should be taken in the early part of the day 
 Warren Colburn, the author of the arithmetic, whose 
 sagacity in common things was as remarkable as his 
 genius for numbers, used to say that half an hour's walk 
 before breakfast did him as much good as an hour's after. 
 Be an early riser. The air of morning is more bracing 
 and invigorating ; the sights, and sounds, and odors of 
 morning are more refreshing A life's experience in 
 teaching declares the morning best. * * * 
 
 In Open Air. Exercise must always be taken, if 
 possible, in the open air. Air is as essential as exercise, 
 and often, in warm weather particularly, more so. They 
 belong together. The blood flows not as it should, it 
 fails to give fresh life to the brain, if we breathe not 
 fresh air enough. The spirits cannot enjoy the serene 
 cheerfulness which the teacher needs, if he breathe not 
 fresh air enough. The brain cannot perform its func- 
 tions ; thought cannot be quick, vigorous, and healthy 
 without ample supplies of air. Much of the right moral 
 tone of habitual kindliness and thankful reverence, 
 depends on the air of heaven. 
 
 In the Light. Exercise must be taken in the light, 
 and if it may be, in the sunshine. Who has not felt the 
 benignant influence of sunshine ? The sun's light seems 
 almost as essential to our well-being as his heat, or the 
 air we breathe. It has a great effect on the nerves. A 
 distinguished physician of great experience, Dr. J. C- 
 Warren, of Boston, tells me that he almost uniformly 
 finds diseases that affect the nerves exasperated by the 
 darkness of night, and mitigated by the coming on of
 
 23-1 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 day. All plants growing in the air lose their strength 
 and color when excluded from light. So in a great 
 degree does man. They lose their fine and delicate 
 qualities, and the preciousness of their juices. Man 
 loses the glow of his spirits, and the warmth and natural 
 play of his finer feelings. * * * * 
 
 Water. Next to air and light, water is the most 
 abundant element in nature. It can hardly be requisite 
 to enjoin upon the teacher the freest use of it. The 
 most scrupulous cleanliness, is necessary, not only on his 
 own account, but that he may be able always to insist 
 upon it, with authority, in his pupils. The healthy state 
 of the nerves, and of the functions of digestion, depends 
 in so great a degree on the cleanliness of the skin, that 
 its importance can hardly be overstated. * * * 
 
 Sleep. No more fatal mistake in regard to his consti- 
 tution can be made by a young person given to study 
 than that of supposing that Nature can be cheated of 
 the sleep necessary to restore its exhausted, or strengthen 
 its weakened powers. From six to eight hours of sleep 
 are indispensable ; and with young persons oftener eight 
 or more than six. It is essential to the health of the 
 body, and still more to that of the mind. It acts directly 
 on the nervous system ; and irritability, or what is called 
 nervousness, is the consequence of its loss. This, bad in 
 any person, is worse in the teacher than in any one else. 
 It is an unfailing source of unhappiness to himself and to 
 all his school. He would be unwise to subject himself to 
 the consequences of t'he loss of sleep; he has no right 
 to subject others. * * * * 
 
 Diet. To no person is an attention to diet more im- 
 portant than to the teacher. For his own guidance and 
 that he may be able to give proper instructions in regard
 
 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 235 
 
 to this subject to his pupils, the conclusions of experience, 
 or what we may consider the laws of diet, should be 
 familiar to him. Some of these are the following: 
 
 Simple Food. i. Food should be simple; not of too 
 little, not too great variety. The structure of the teeth, 
 resembling at once those of animals that naturally subsist 
 on flesh, and of animals that take only vegetable food, 
 and the character and length of the digestive organs, 
 holding a medium between the average of these two 
 classes, indicate that a variety of food, animal and veg- 
 table, is natural to man, and in most cases probably 
 necessary, The tendency in most parts of this country, 
 from the great abundance of the necessaries of life is to 
 go to excess in the consumption of food, particularly of 
 animal food. The striking evils of this course have 
 led many to the opposite extreme to renounce 
 meats entirely. Experience of the evils of this course 
 also has in most places brought men back to the safe 
 medium. No person needs to be more careful in regard 
 to the quality and nature of his food than the teacher, as 
 his exclusions from air for a great part of the day leaves 
 him in an unfit condition to digest unwholesome food, 
 while the constant use of his lungs render Jiis appetite 
 unnaturally great, or destroys it altogether. Animal food 
 seems to be necessary, but not in great quantities, nor 
 oftener, usually, than once a day. * * * * In win- 
 ter, the food should be nourishing, and may be more 
 abundant ; in summer, less nutritous, less of animal or- 
 igin, and in more moderate quantities. 
 
 2. Taken at Intervals. Food should be taken at 
 sufficiently distant intervals. * * * * The opera- 
 tion of digestion is not completed, ordinarily, in less than 
 four hours. Food should not be taken at shorter inter-
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 vals than this, and intervals of five or six hours are better, 
 as they leave the stomach some time to rest. 
 
 3. Moderate Quantity. It should be taken in mod- 
 erate quantity. In the activity of common life, excess is 
 less to be dreaded than with the sedentary habits and 
 wearying pursuits of the teacher. * * * * The ex- 
 haustion of teaching is that of the nervous power, and 
 would seem to call for hours of quiet, and freedom from 
 care, with cheerful conversation and the refreshment of 
 air and gentle exercise. Probably all the kinds of food 
 in general use are wholesome when partaken of moder- 
 ately. Those who, from choice or compulsion, pass from 
 an active to a sedentary life, should at the same time 
 restrict themselves to one half their accustomed quantity 
 of food. 
 
 4. Avoid Fat. As a general rule fat should be 
 avoided. * * * * None but a person who uses a 
 great deal of most active exercise, or is much exposed to 
 cold, can long bear its use with impunity. If taken, fat 
 in solid form Is less injurious than liquid fat. 
 
 5. Fruit. Fruit may be eaten with the recollection 
 of the proverb of fruit-producing countries : " It is gold 
 in the morning, silver at noon, and lead at night." Ripe 
 fruit in its season is wholesome, and preferable, for a per- 
 son of sedentary habits, to more nourishing and exciting 
 food. But it should be a substitute for other food, not 
 an addition. A bad practice, common in some places, of 
 eating fruit, especially the indigestible dried fruits, raisins, 
 and nuts, in the evening, should be avoided by the 
 teacher. He must have quiet and uninterrupted sleep, 
 and early hours, to be patient, gentle, and cheerful in 
 school.
 
 TEACH Kirs CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 2:37 
 
 5. Drink Water at Meals. The drink of a sedentary 
 person should be chiefly water, and that in small quanti- 
 ties, and only at meals. The intelligent Arab of the 
 desert drinks not during the heat of the day. He sees 
 that watering a plant in the sunshine makes it wither; 
 and he feels in himself an analogous effect from the use 
 of water. There are few lessons in regard to diet so im- 
 portant to be inculcated as this : " Drink not between 
 meals." 
 
 7. The last rule to be observed is, that no unnecessary 
 exertion of mind or body should be used immediately 
 after a meal. If a walk must be taken, it should rather 
 be a leisurely stroll than a hurried walk. 
 
 Dress. The teacher should be no sloven. He should 
 dress well, not over nicely, not extravagantly ; neatly, 
 for neatness he must teach by example as well as by 
 precept ; and warmly, for so many hours pf a day shut in 
 a warm room will make him unusually sensitive to cold. 
 The golden rule of health should never be forgotten : 
 " Keep the head cool, the feet warm, and the body free." 
 The dress of the feet is particularly important. Coldness 
 or dampness of the feet causes headache, weakness and 
 inflammation of the eyes, coughs, consumption, and 
 sometimes fevers. A headache is often cured by sitting 
 with the feet long near a fire. Keeping the feet warm 
 and dry alleviates the common affections of the eyes, 
 repels a coming fever, prevents or quiets coughs, and 
 serves as one of the surest safeguards against consump- 
 tion. Many of our most sensible physicians trace the 
 prevalence of consumption in Northern States, not to 
 our climate, but to the almost universal custom of wear- 
 ing insufficient clothing, especially on the feet.
 
 388 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Cheerfulness. There is another subject intimately 
 connected with health, which has been alluded to, but 
 which ought, from its importance, to receive more than 
 a passing remark. It is cheerfulness. This should be 
 one of the ends and measures of health. It ought to be 
 considered the natural condition of a healthy mind ; he 
 who is not cheerful is not in health. If he has not some 
 manifest moral cause of melancholy, there must be some- 
 thing wrong in the body, or in the action of the powers 
 of the mind. 
 
 Cause of Low Spirits. A common cause of low 
 spirits in a teacher, is anxiety in regard to the well-doing 
 of his pupils. This he must feel ; but he must endeavor, 
 as far as possible, to banish it from his hours of relaxa- 
 tion. He must leave it behind him when he turns from 
 the school house door. To prevent its haunting him, he 
 must seek pleasant society. He must forget it among 
 the endearments of home, the cheerful faces and kind 
 voices of friends. This is the best of all resources, and 
 happy is the man who has a pleasant home, in the bosom 
 of which he may rest from labor and from care. If he 
 be among strangers, he must endeavor to find or make 
 friends to supply the place of home. He must seek the 
 company of the parents and friends of his pupils, not 
 only that he may not be oppressed by the loneliness of 
 his situation, but that he may better understand the 
 character of his pupils, and the influences to which they 
 are subjected. 
 
 Sociality. The exercise of the social affections is 
 essential to the healthy condition of a well constituted 
 mind. Often he may find good friends and pleasant 
 companions among his pupils. Difference of years dis- 
 appears before kindliness of feeling, and sympathy may
 
 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 23d 
 
 exist between those most remote in age, and pursuit and 
 cultivation. 
 
 Music. A delightful, but somewhat dangerous recrea- 
 tion is offered by music ; delightful, as always soothing 
 to the wearied mind ; but dangerous, because liable to 
 take to itself too much time. It would be desirable if 
 every instructor could himself sing or play. If he can- 
 not, let him listen to songs of cheerful music from voice 
 or instrument, or to the notes of birds. 
 
 " I'm sick of noise and care, and now mine ear 
 Longs for some air of peace." 
 
 A Pernicious Habit. To the foregoing excellent re- 
 marks I could scarcely wish to add anything, save to call 
 attention to that pernicious habit among both clergymen 
 and teachers, of dressing the neck too warmly whenever 
 they go into the open air. There seems to have obtained 
 an impression that those who have occasion to speak 
 often, should be peculiarly careful to guard their throats 
 from the cold. Hence many are seen in a winter's day 
 with a collar of fur, or a woolen " comforter," or at least 
 a silk handkerchief of extraordinary dimensions, around 
 their necks, and often extending above their mouths and 
 nostrils. If they have occasion to step out but for a 
 moment, they are still subject to the slavery of putting 
 on this unnatural encumbrance. 
 
 Bronchitis. Now I believe that this extra covering 
 for the neck, instead of preventing disease of the throat 
 and lungs, is one of the most fruitful sources of such dis- 
 ease. These parts being thus thickly covered during 
 exercise, become very warm, and an excessive local per- 
 spiration is excited ; and the dampness of the throat is
 
 J40 THKORV AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 much increased if the covering extends above the mouth 
 and nose, thus precluding the escape of the exhalations 
 from the lungs. When, therefore, this covering is re- 
 moved, even within-doors, a very rapid evaporation takes 
 place, and a severe cold is the consequence. In this way 
 a cold is renewed every day, and hoarseness of the 
 throat and irritation of the lungs is the necessary result. 
 Very soon the clergyman or teacher breaks down with 
 the bronchitis, or the " lung complaint," and is obliged 
 for a season at least to suspend his labors. This difficulty 
 is very much enhanced, if the ordinary neck-dress is a stiff 
 stock, which, standing off from the neck, allows the in- 
 gress of the cold arr as soon as the outer covering is re- 
 moved. 
 
 Experience. Having suffered myself very severely 
 from this cause and having seen hundreds of cases in 
 others, I was desirous to bear the testimony of my exper- 
 ience against the practice, and to suggest to all who 
 have occasion to speak long and often that the simplest 
 covering for the neck is the best. A very light cravat 
 is all that is necessary. 
 
 Swaddling of the Neck. If the ordinary cravat be too 
 thick and too warm, as the large-sized white cravats, so 
 fashionable with the clergy, usually are, during the exer- 
 cise of speaking, an unnatural flow of blood to the parts 
 will be induced, which, after the exercise ceases, will be 
 followed by debility and prostration. A cold is then very 
 readily taken and disease follows. I am confident, from 
 my own experience and immediate observation, that this 
 unnatural swaddling of the neck is one of the most fruit- 
 ful causes of disease of the lungs and throat that can be 
 mentioned.
 
 TEACHER'S RELATION TO II IS PROFESSION. 241 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 
 
 Teaching a Profession. It has long been the opinion 
 of the best minds in our country, as well as in the most 
 enlightened countries of Europe, that teaching should 
 be a profession. It has been alleged, and with much 
 justice, that this calling, which demands for its successful 
 exercise the best of talents, the most persevering energy, 
 and the largest share of self-denial, has never attained an 
 appreciation in the public mind at all commensurate with 
 its importance. It has by no means received the emolu- 
 ment, either of money or honor, which strict justice would 
 award in any other department to the talents and exer- 
 tions required for this. This having been so long the con- 
 dition of things, much of the best talent has been attracted 
 at once to the other professions- or if exercised awhile in 
 this, the temptation of more lucrative reward, or of more 
 speedy if not more lasting honor, has soon diverted it 
 from teaching, where so little of either can be realized, 
 to engage in some other department of higher promise. 
 So true is this that scarcely a man can be found, having 
 attained to any considerable eminence as a teacher, who 
 has not been several times solicited and perhaps strongly 
 tempted to engage in some more lucrative employ- 
 ment ; and while there have always been some strong 
 men, who have preferred teaching to any other calling 
 men who would do honor to any profession, and who, 
 while exercising this, have found that highest of all re-
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 wards, the consciousness of being useful to others, 
 still it must be confessed that teachers have too often 
 been of just that class which a knowledge of the cir- 
 cumstances might lead us to predict would engage in 
 teaching ; men of capacity too limited for the other 
 professions, of a temperament too sluggish to engage in 
 the labors- of active employment, of manners too rude to 
 be tolerated except in the society of children (?), and 
 sometimes of a morality so pernicious as to make them 
 the unfailing contaminators of the young whenever per 
 mitted not to teach but to "keep school." Thus two 
 great evils have been mutually strengthening each other. 
 The indifference of the employers to the importance of 
 good teachers, and their parsimony in meting out the 
 rewards of teaching, have called into the field large 
 numbers, in the strictest sense, unworthy of all reward ; 
 while this very unworthiness of the teachers has been 
 made the excuse for further indifference, and if possible 
 for greater meanness on the part of employers. Such 
 has been the state of the case for many years past ; and 
 such is to a great extent the fact at present. 
 
 Educational Millennium. It has been the ardent 
 wish of many philanthropists that this deplorable state 
 of affairs should be exchanged for a better. Hence 
 they have urged that teaching should be constituted a 
 profession ; that none should enter this profession but 
 those who are thoroughly qualified to discharge the 
 high trust ; and, as a consequence, that the people 
 should more liberally reward and honor those who are 
 thus qualified and employed. This would indeed be a 
 very desirable change , it would be the educational mil- 
 lennium of the world. For such a period we all may well 
 devoutly pray.
 
 TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 243 
 
 How Ushered in, Different Views. But how shall this 
 glorious age not yet arrived be ushered in ? By whose 
 agency, and by what happy instrumentality, must its ap- 
 proach be hastened? Here, as in all great enterprises, 
 there is some difference of opinion. Some have urged 
 that the establishment of normal schools and other semi- 
 naries for the better education of teachers, and the in- 
 stitution of a more vigilant system of supervision, by 
 which our schools should be effectually guarded against 
 the intrusion of the ignorant and inefficient teacher, is 
 all that is necessary to bring in this brighter day. Others 
 have zealously urged that such preparation and such super- 
 vision are entirely superfluous and premature in the pres- 
 ent state of the public mind. They say that the public 
 must first become more liberal in its appropriations for 
 schools ; it must at once double the amount it has been 
 accustomed to pay to teachers, and thus secure, without 
 further trouble, the best talent to this vocation. To this 
 the former class reply, that the public has seldom been 
 known to raise its price, so long as its wants could be 
 supplied at the present rates. They say that the last 
 century has afforded ample opportunity for the exhibi- 
 tion of this voluntary generosity of the public, and yet 
 we still wait to see this anomaly in human prudence, of 
 offering in advance to pay double the price for the same 
 thing; for until better teachers are raised up, it must 
 be an advance upon the present stock. So there is a 
 division among them, " for some cry one thing and some 
 another." 
 
 A Mutual Evil, and a Mutual Remedy. Now, I be- 
 lieve, in this case as in most others, the truth lies between 
 the extremes. As the evil complained of is a mutua/one, 
 as has already been shown, that is, an illiberal public has
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 tolerated incompetent teachers, and the incompetence of 
 teachers has enhanced in turn the parsimony of the pub- 
 lic, so the remedy must be a mutual one ; the public 
 must be enlightened and teachers must be improved ; the 
 pay of teachers must be raised, but there must be also 
 something to warrant the higher rate. Nor is it easy to 
 determine which shall begin first. We can hardly expect 
 the people to pay more till they find an article worth 
 more ; nor, on the other hand, can we expect the teach- 
 ers to incur any considerable outlay to improve them- 
 selves, until better encouragement shall be held out to 
 them by their employers. The two must generally pro- 
 ceed together. Just as, in the descending scale, there was 
 a mutual downward tendency, so here better service will 
 command better pay, and in turn the liberality of em- 
 ployers will stimulate the employed to still higher at- 
 tainments in knowledge and greater exertions in their 
 labors. 
 
 Teacher's Duty. In this condition of things, the ques- 
 tion recurs, What is the duty of teachers in relation to 
 their calling? I answer, they are bound to do what 
 they can to elevate it. Lord Bacon said, " Every man 
 owes a debt to his profession." Teachers being sup- 
 posed to be more intelligent than the mass of the com- 
 munity, may justly take the lead in the work of progress. 
 They should, as a matter of duty, take hold of this 
 work, a work of sacrifice and self-denial as it will 
 be, at least for some time, and heartily do what they 
 can to magnify their office and make it honorable. 
 In the meantime they may do what they can to arouse 
 the people to a sense of their duty. The 'tnore en- 
 lightened are to some extent with them already. The 
 press, the pulpit, the legislative .assemblies, all proclaim
 
 TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 245 
 
 that something must be done. All admit the faithful 
 teacher has not been duly rewarded, and some are found 
 who are willing to do something for the improvement 
 both of the mind and condition of the teacher. This is 
 encouraging ; and while we rejoice at the few gleams of 
 light that betoken our dawning, let us inquire, for a little 
 space, how we can hasten the " coming in of the perfect 
 day." 
 
 SECTION I. SELF-CULTURE. 
 
 Self-improvement Why Important. The teacher 
 should labor diligently to improve himself. This is a duty 
 incumbent on all persons, but particularly upon the teacher. 
 The very nature of his employment demands that his mind 
 should be frequently replenished from the storehouses 
 of knowledge. To interest children in their studies, 
 how necessary is it that the teacher's mind should be 
 thoroughly furnished with the richest thoughts of the 
 wise ; to inspire them with a desire to learn, how im- 
 portant that he should be a living example of the ad- 
 vantage and enjoyment which learning alone can be- 
 stow ; to strew the path of knowledge with flowers, and 
 thus make it the path of pleasantness, how desirable 
 that he should abound with the aptest illustrations 
 drawn from all that is wonderful and curious in nature 
 and art ; to awaken the young mind to a consciousness 
 of its capacities, its wants, its responsibilities, how 
 thoroughly should he know all the workings of the 
 human soul how wisely and carefully should he touch 
 the springs of action, how judiciously should he call to 
 his aid the conscience and the religious feelings! 
 
 Example. Besides, let it be remembered that in this 
 as in other things, the teacher's example is of great im-
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 portance. The young will be very likely to judge of the 
 importance of their own improvement by the estimate 
 the teacher practically places upon his ; nor can he with 
 any good grace press his pupils to exertion, while they 
 see that he makes none whatever himself. 
 
 Temptations to Self-neglect. There is great danger, 
 in the midst of the confinement and fatigue of the school- 
 room, and the pressure of anxiety and care out of school, 
 that the teacher will yield to the temptations of his posi- 
 tion, and fall into habits of indolence as to his own im- 
 provement. Compelled, as he often is, to labor at great 
 disadvantage, by reason of a small and poorly furnished 
 schoolroom ; confined through the day from the sunshine 
 and the fresh breeze ; subjected to a constant pressure of 
 duty amid untold trials of his patience, arising from the 
 law that impels children to be active as well as inconsid- 
 erate ; required to concentrate his powers upon the double 
 duty of governing and teaching at the same instant, and 
 all through the session, it is not strange, when the hour 
 of release comes, that he should seek rest or recreation at 
 the nearest point, even to the neglect of his own mental 
 or moral culture. I am of the opinion that this accounts 
 for the fact that so many persons enter the work of instruc- 
 tion, and continue in it for a longer or shorter period, 
 without making the slightest progress either in the art 
 of teaching or in their own intellectual growth. Their 
 first school, indeed, is often their best. This tendency 
 or temptation, incident to the calling, it is the teacher's 
 duty constantly and manfully to resist. He can do it. 
 
 i. The Teacher Has Time. He has the time to do it. 
 He is usually required to spend but six hours in the day 
 in the schoolroom. Suppose he add two hours more for 
 the purpose of looking over his lessons and devising
 
 TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 247 
 
 plans for improving his school, he will still have six- 
 teen hours for sleep, exercise, recreation and improve- 
 ment. Eight hours are sufficient for sleep, especially for 
 a sedentary man (some say less), and four will provide 
 for meals, exercise and recreation. Four still remain for 
 improvement. Any teacher who is systematic and eco- 
 nomical in the use of his time can reserve for the purpose 
 of his own improvement four hours in every twenty-four, 
 and this without the slightest detriment to his school 
 duties or to his health, To be sure he must lead a regular 
 life. He must have a plan and systematically follow it. 
 
 Punctuality in All Things. He must be punctual at 
 his school, at his meals, at his exercise or recreation, at 
 his hour of retiring and rising, and at his studies. Nor 
 should he ordinarily devote more time than I have men- 
 tioned directly to his school. He should labor with his 
 whole soul while he does work, and he will the more 
 heartily do this, if he has had time to think of some- 
 thing else during the season of respite from labor. It is 
 a great mistake that teachers make when they think they 
 shall be more successful by devoting all their thoughts to 
 their schools. Very soon the school comes to occupy 
 their sleeping as well as waking hours, and troublesome 
 dreams disturb the repose of night. Such men must soon 
 wear out. 
 
 But according to the laws of our nature, by a change 
 of occupation, the jaded faculties find rest. By taking 
 up some new subject of inquiry, the intellect is relieved 
 from the sense of fatigue which before oppressed it ; the 
 thoughts play freely again, the animation returns, the 
 eye kindles, and the mind expands. 
 
 2. Immediate Reward. Such labor finds immediate 
 reward. The consciousness of growth is no small thing
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 towards encouraging the teacher. He feels that he is no 
 longer violating his nature by allowing himself to stag- 
 nate. Then he will find every day that he can apply the 
 newly-acquired truth to the illustration of some principle 
 he is attempting to teach. He has encouraging and 
 immediate roof that he is a better teacher, and that he 
 has made himself so by timely exertion. He is thus 
 again stimulated to rise above those temptations before 
 described this immediate availability of his acquire* 
 ments being vouchsafed to the teacher, as it is not to 
 most men, in order to prompt him to stem the current 
 which resists his progress. 
 
 How to Improve. And now, if I have shown that a 
 teacher is bound to improve himself, both from a regard 
 to his own well-being and the influence of his example 
 upon others and if I have also shown that he can im- 
 prove himself, I may be indulged in making a few sug- 
 gestions as to the manner of his doing it. 
 
 i. He should have a Course of Professional Read- 
 ing. It will do much for his improvement to read the 
 works of those who have written on the subject of edu- 
 cation and the art of teaching. If possible he should 
 collect and possess a small educational library. It will 
 be of great service to him to be able to read more than 
 once such suggestions as are abundantly contained in 
 the " Teacher's Manual," by Palmer ; the " School and 
 Schoolmaster," by Potter and Emerson ; the " Teacher," 
 by Abbott ; the " Teacher Taught," by Davis ; M Lectures 
 on Schoolkeeping," by Hall " The Common School 
 Journal,' 1 " Secretary's Reports," and " Lectures," by 
 Horace Mann ; the "Connecticut Common School Jour- 
 nal," and " Journal of the Rhode Island Institute," by 
 H. Barnard ; the " District School Journal " of New York,
 
 TEACHER'S RELATION TO II IS PROFESSI* 249 
 
 by Francis Dwight and others ; the ' Lectures of the 
 American Institute of Instruction ;" the ' Schoolmaster's 
 Friend," by T. Dwight; the "District School," by J. 
 Orville Taylor ; the " Teacher's Advocate," by Cooper ; 
 the writings, if they can be obtained, of Wyse, of Cousin, 
 of Lalor, of Lord Brougham on Education, together 
 with such other works as are known to contain sound and 
 practical views. It is not to be expected that every 
 teacher will possess all these, or that he will read them 
 all in a single term. But it is well to hold converse with 
 other minds, and to have it in our power to review their 
 best thoughts whenever our own need refreshing. I have 
 given a somewhat extended list of books, because the in- 
 quiry is now so often made by teachers what they shall 
 read. 
 
 2. By Pursuing Systematically a Course of General 
 Study. Many teachers who have a desire to improve 
 themselves, still fritter away their time upon little mis- 
 cellaneous matters, without making real progress. It is 
 well in this to have a plan. Let some one study, it 
 may be geology, or astronomy, or chemistry, or botany, 
 or the pure mathematics, let some one study receive 
 constant attention till no mean attainments have been 
 made in it. By taking one thing at a time and diligently 
 pursuing it, at the end of a term the teacher feels that 
 he has something to show for his labor, and he is, by 
 the advance already made, prepared to take the next 
 and more difficult step. In a course of years, while a 
 neighbor who began teaching at the same time, has been 
 stagnating or even retrograding for the want of a plan 
 and a purpose, a diligent man, by system and presever- 
 ance, may make himself at least equal to many who have 
 enjoyed better advantages in early life, and at the same
 
 250 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 time have the superadded enjoyment of feeling that he 
 has been his own teacher. 
 
 3. Keep a Journal or Common-place Book. The 
 habit of composing daily is very valuable to the teacher. 
 In this book he may record whatever plans he has devised 
 with their results in practice. He may enter remarkable 
 cases of discipline in short, anything which in the 
 course of his practice he finds interesting. Those valu- 
 able suggestions which he receives from others, or hints 
 that he may derive from books, may be epitomized here, 
 and thus be treasured up for future reference. Some- 
 times one's best thoughts fade from his own mind, and 
 he has no power to recall them. Such a book would 
 preserve them, and would moreover show the character 
 of one's thoughts at any particular period, and the pro- 
 gress of thought, from one period to another, better than 
 any other means. 1 
 
 To these means of self-culture I would add the practice 
 of carefully reading and writing on chosen subjects, more 
 fully described in the chapter on " Habits of the Teacher." 
 
 Encouragement to Others. By all these means and 
 such others as may come within his reach, if a teacher 
 succeeds in his attempts at progress, he does much for 
 his profession. The very fact that he has given practical 
 demonstration that a man may teach and still improve ; 
 that the temptations of his profession maybe resisted and 
 overcome ; that the life of the pedagogue which has re- 
 quired him to keep the company of small minds, and to 
 be occupied with minute objects, has never prevented his 
 holding communion with the greatest men our earth has 
 known nor circumscribed in the least the sphere of his 
 grasping research, I say the very fact that he has thus 
 
 iFor further remarks on the Common-place Book, see chap. vii. p. 108, note.
 
 TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 251 
 
 shown what a man may do under such circumstances, 
 may do much to encourage others to like effort. 
 
 But there are other and direct duties which he owes to 
 his profession, which I proceed to consider under the 
 head of 
 
 SECTION II. MUTUAL AID. 
 
 Selfishness. Every teacher should be willing to im- 
 part as well as to receive good. No one, whatever may 
 be his personal exertions, can monopolize all the wisdom 
 of the world. The French have a proverb that " Every- 
 body is wiser than anybody." Acting on this principle, 
 the teacher should be willing to bring his attainments 
 into the common stock, and to diffuse around him, as 
 far as he is able, the light he possesses. I have no lan- 
 guage with which to express my abhorrence of that 
 selfishness which prompts a man, after attaining to 
 some eminence as a teacher by the free use of all the 
 means within his reach, self-complacently to stand aloof 
 from his fellow-teachers, as if he would say : " Brethren, 
 help yourselves I have no need of you, and you have 
 no claim upon me. I have toiled hard for my emi- 
 nence, and the secret is with me. I will enjoy it alone. 
 When you have toiled as long, you may be as wise. 
 Brethren, help yourselves." Such a spirit would perhaps 
 be tolerated by the world in an avaricious man, who had 
 labored to treasure up the shining dust of earth. But no 
 man may innocently monopolize knowledge. The light 
 of the sun is shed in golden refulgence upon every man, 
 and no one, if he would, may separate a portion for his 
 own exclusive use by closing his shutters about him for 
 that moment his light becomes darkness. It is thus with 
 the light of knowledge. Like the air we breathe, or like
 
 262 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 the rain from heaven, it should be free to all. The man 
 who would lock up the treasures of learning from the 
 gaze of the whole world, whether in the tomes of some 
 dusty library, as of old it was done, or in the recesses of 
 his narrower soul, is unworthy of the name of man ; he 
 certainly has not the spirit of the teacher. 
 
 An Exclusive Spirit without Excuse. An exclusive 
 spirit may be borne where meaner things, as houses, and 
 lands, and gold, are at stake ; but in education and re- 
 ligion, light and love, where giving doth not impover- 
 ish nor withholding make rich, there is not even the 
 shadow of an excuse for it. The man who is exclusive 
 in these things would be so, I fear, in heaven. 
 
 Hoiv can Teachers Encourage Each Other f 
 
 i. By Mutual Visitation. Very much maybe done 
 by social intercourse. Two teachers can scarcely converse 
 together an hour without benefiting each other. The 
 advantages of intercourse with friends, as delineated by 
 Dr. Young, may not be denied to teachers: 
 
 " Hast thou no friend to set thy mind abroach ? 
 Good sense will stagnate. Thoughts shut up want air. 
 And spoil like bales unopened to the sun. 
 Had thought been all, sweet speech had been denied. 
 
 ******* 
 Thought, too. delivered, is the mor possessed : 
 Teaching, we learn ; and giving, we retain 
 The births of intellect ; when dumb, forgot. 
 Speech ventilates our intellectual fire ; 
 Speech burnishes our mental magazine, 
 Brightens for ornament, and whets for use." 
 
 Even One's Fauits may Instruct Us. But not only 
 should teachers visit one another it is profitable also 
 for them to visit each other's schools. I have never 
 spent an hour in the school of another without gaining 
 some instruction. Sometimes a new way of illustrating
 
 TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 
 
 a difficult point, sometimes an exhibition of tact in 
 managing a difficult case in discipline, sometimes an 
 improved method of keeping up the interest in a class, 
 would suggest the means of making my own labors the 
 more successful. And even should one's neighbor be a 
 bad teacher, one may sometimes learn as much from 
 witnessing glaring defects as great excellences. Some 
 of the most profitable lessons I have ever received have 
 been drawn from the deficiencies of a fellow-teacher. 
 We seldom "see ourselves as others see us ; " and we are 
 often insensible of our own faults till we have seen 
 them strikingly exhibited by another, and then by a 
 comparison we correct our own. 
 
 Receiving and Imparting Good. Besides, by a 
 visitation of a friend's school we may not only receive 
 good, but we may impart it. If there is mutual confi- 
 dence, a few words may aid him to correct his faults, if he 
 has any faults which but for such suggestion might 
 grow into confirmed habit, to his permanent injury. 
 
 Stated Teachers' Meetings. So important is this 
 mutual visitation among teachers as a means of improve- 
 ment, that I doubt not employers would find it for their 
 interest to encourage it by allowing the teachers to set 
 apart an occasional half day for this purpose. 
 
 Their Use. It would, moreover, be very useful for 
 the teachers of a town to hold stated meetings, as often 
 as once a month, for the purpose of mutual improvement. 
 It would cultivate a fellow-feeling among them, and it 
 would afford them an opportunity to exchange thoughts 
 on most of the difficulties which they meet in their 
 schools, and the best methods of surmounting them. At 
 these meetings a mutual exchange of books on the sub- 
 ject of teaching would extend the facilities of each for
 
 J11 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 improving his own mind and his own methods of instruc- 
 tion and government. 
 
 2. By the Use of the Pen. Every teacher should 
 be a ready writer. Nearly every teacher could gain ac- 
 cess to the columns of some paper, through which he 
 could impart the results of his experience, or of his re- 
 flection. Such a course would benefit him specially, 
 and at the same time it would awaken other minds to 
 thought and action. In this way the attention, not 
 only of teachers but parents, would be called to the 
 great work of education. One mind in this way might 
 move a thousand. If a teacher does not feel qualified to 
 instruct, let him inquire, and thus call out the wisdom 
 of others. This could be done in nearly every village. 
 The press is almost always ready to promote the cause 
 of education. By the use of it, teachers may profitably 
 discuss all the great questions pertaining to their duty, 
 and at the same time enlighten the community in which 
 they live. This is an instrumentality as yet too little 
 employed. 
 
 By Teachers' Associations, or Institutes. These are 
 peculiarly adapted to the diffusion of the best plans of 
 instruction. Rightly conducted, they can never fail of 
 being useful. Every man who lectures or teaches is 
 profited by the preparation. If he is a man of wisdom 
 and experience, he will benefit his hearers. If other- 
 wise, the discussion, which should ever follow a lecture, 
 will expose its fallacies. It has often happened in such 
 associations that an honest and experienced man has in 
 a half hour, given to the younger portion of the mem- 
 bers lessons of wisdom which it would take them years 
 to learn by their own observation. Errors in principle 
 and practice have been exposed, into which many a
 
 TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS 1'KOFKSSIuV 
 
 young teacher was unconsciously falling, and hints have 
 been given to the quicker minds by which their own 
 modes of teaching and governing have been speedily 
 improved. 
 
 Should be Practical. As far as possible, such meetings 
 should be made strictly practical. The older teachers, 
 who usually have the most to do with the management 
 of them, should bear in mind that they are mainly de- 
 signed to diffuse practical ideas of teaching, particularly 
 among the younger members. Too often these meet- 
 ings are made the arena of debate upon questions of 
 very little practical importance to the teacher. I have 
 seen a body of men spend an entire session of a half day 
 in discussing a series of overwrought resolutions, upon 
 some topic scarcely at all connected with any duty of the 
 teacher, frequently leaving the main question to wrangle 
 about some point of order, or of " parliamentary usage; " 
 and after the resolutions were passed or rejected, as the 
 case might be (and it was of very little consequence 
 whether " carried " or " lost ") the ladies and younger 
 teachers who had borne no part in the talk would find 
 it difficult to tell " wherefore they had come together." 
 Nothing had been said or done by which they could be 
 aided in their schools. Lecturers, too, have frequently mis- 
 taken their aim. Ambitious to shine out as literary men, 
 they have given orations instead of practical lessons. In 
 these meetings, it seems to me, nothing ostentatious, 
 nothing far-fetched, is what we need; but rather the 
 modes and experience of practical men. We need to 
 come down to the schoolroom, to the every-day business 
 of the teacher, and thus prepare him to do his work more 
 successfully on his return to his duties.
 
 T1IKORY AXP I'KACTICK OF TKA 
 
 Encouragement by Meeting Friends. Another, and 
 no inconsiderable advantage of such associations, is that 
 the teacher gains encouragement and strength by being 
 thus brought in contact with others engaged in the 
 same pursuit. Toiling on alone in his isolated district, 
 surrounded by obstacles and discouragements, weighed 
 down by care, and finding none to sympathize with him, 
 he is almost ready to faint in his course, and "perhaps to 
 abandon his calling. At this crisis he reads the notice 
 for the teachers' meeting, and he resolves to go up once 
 more to the gathering of his friends. From the various 
 parts of the country, from the populous and crowded 
 city, and from the byways of the country-towns, a 
 goodly number collect together and greet each other. 
 Smile answers to smile, the blood courses more freely 
 through the veins, the spirits long depressed perhaps, 
 partake of the general glow, and each feels that he is 
 not toiling alone. He feels that a noble brotherhood of 
 kindred spirits are laboring in the same field, under 
 trials and discouragements similar to those which have 
 oppressed him. He derives new strength from the sym- 
 pathy of friends. 
 
 Light Breaks in. A professional feeling is engen- 
 dered, which will accompany him to his schoolroom ; and 
 when he goes home, it is with renewed vigor and fresh 
 aspirings to be a better man and a better teacher. He 
 labors with more confidence in himself; and, enlightened 
 by what he has seen and heard, he is far more successful 
 than before. His pupils, too, respond to the new life 
 they see enkindling in him, and go to their work more 
 cheerfully. One difficulty after another vanishes, and he 
 begins to think teaching, after all, is not the worst em- 
 ployment in the world, but that it has some flowers as
 
 TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 257 
 
 well as thorns, and he concludes to remain in the pro- 
 fession. This has been the history of at least one man. 
 Long may many others have occasion to exercise grati- 
 tude like his for the enjoyment of similar privileges. 1 
 
 Cautions. I ought not to leave this subject without a 
 word or two of caution. 
 
 i. Be Honest. In all your intercourse with your fel- 
 low-teachers, be careful to use the words of " truth and 
 soberness." In stating your experience, never allow your 
 fancy to embellish your facts. Of this there Is great 
 danger. The young are sometimes tempted to tell a 
 good story ; but a deviation from the truth always 
 perilous, and always wrong may be peculiarly disastrous 
 here. Experience overstated may egregiously mislead 
 the unwary inquirer after truth. Never over-color the 
 picture ; it is better to err on the other side. 
 
 Every-day Practice. So, likewise, in exhibiting your 
 school to fellow-teachers, be strictly honest. They come 
 to learn from your every-day practice, and not from a 
 counterfeit ; and whenever you dress your school in a 
 showy garb to win the applause of a fellow-teacher, you 
 do him a great injustice. You may not please your 
 friend so much by your ordinary mode as by something 
 assumed for the occasion ; but you may profit him far 
 more, and in the end you lose nothing by pursuing the 
 line of duty. 
 
 iThe Essex County Teachers' Association, in Massachusetts, was first organ- 
 ized in 1839, and for seventeen years its meetings of two days each have been 
 held semi-annually, and usually very fully attended. This association has 
 wrought an untold amount of usefulness by its improvement and encourage- 
 ment of the teachers of that county, and at this time it continues to diffuse its 
 wonted blessings. A more intelligent and devoted body of teachers cannot be 
 found in the United States than those who now compose that association. 
 Long may it continue to irradiate its glorious light, and long: may its devoted 
 members enjoy the well-merited confidence of the community in which they 
 labor !
 
 358 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 " Nothing Extraordinary." I well remember that a 
 somewhat distinguished teacher once visited my own 
 school, who on going away expressed himself somewhat 
 disappointed, because he did not see anything " extraor- 
 dinaary" as he said, in my mode of procedure. The 
 truth was, nothing extraordinary was attempted. He 
 saw what I wished to show him an ordinary day's work ; 
 for I had before that time imbibed the opinion that a 
 man's reputation will be more firmly established by sus- 
 taining every day a fair mediocrity than it ever can be 
 by an attempt to outdo himself on a few special occas- 
 sions. As the value of biographical writing is often 
 very much diminished because the writer has en- 
 deavored to paint his character too perfect to be human, so 
 these visitations will lose their utility whenever, by sub- 
 stituting hollow pretension for sober reality, the teacher 
 endeavors to exhibit such a school as he does not daily 
 keep. 
 
 2. Avoid Servile Imitation of Any Model. It is 
 often remarked that every man's plan is the best for him, 
 and that many besides David can never fight in Saul's 
 armor. This is generally true. All experience, then, 
 should be considered in connection with the circumstances 
 under which it was tried, never forgetting the 'character 
 and genius of the person who relates it. What might 
 succeed in his hand may fail in yours particularly as you 
 will lack the interest of an original inventor. 
 
 Adapt Rather than Adopt Another's Plans. The 
 true secret lies in listening to the views of all, and then in 
 making a judicious combination to meet your own char- 
 acter and your own circumstances. It is often better to 
 adjust and adapt the plan of another than to adopt it. 
 Servile imitation precludes thought in the teacher, and
 
 TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS l'KOFK>M< >N. 
 
 reduces him to a mere machine. The most successful 
 teachers I have ever known were those who would listen 
 attentively to the plans and experience of others, and 
 then strike out a course for themselves attempting that, 
 and that only, which they were confident they could suc- 
 cessfully execute. 
 
 3. Avoid Undue Self- sufficiency. Men usually cease 
 to learn when they think they are wise enough. The 
 teacher is in danger of falling into this error. Moving 
 for the most part among children, where his decisions 
 are seldom questioned, he is very apt to attach undue 
 importance to his own opinions. Such a man meets his 
 fellows with much self-complacency, and is but poorly 
 prepared to be profited by the views of others. But the 
 teacher should never cease to be teachable. There are 
 very few men too old or too wise to learn something ; 
 and they are the wisest, if not the oldest, who are willing 
 to welcome real improvement, even though it should 
 come fr^m comparative " babes and sucklings," out of 
 whose months God has sometimes perfected praise."
 
 2lK THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Miscellaneous Hints. On looking over the notes 
 which I have at various times made of my own experi- 
 ence and observation, during twenty years of practical 
 teaching, I find there are several thoughts which may be 
 of some service to the young teacher, and which have not 
 been introduced under any of the general topics of this 
 volume. I have, therefore, thought best to introduce a 
 special chapter, with the above title, where I might law- 
 fully bring together, without much regard to method, 
 such varied hints as may convey to some reader a useful 
 lesson. Some of these hints will refer to faults which 
 should be carefully avoided, while others will point out 
 some duties to be performed. 
 
 SECTION I. THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. 
 
 I. Prejudice. Guard against prejudice on entering a 
 school. It is not always safe to rely upon first impres- 
 sions as to character. At the opening of a school, per- 
 haps fifty individuals for the first time are brought 
 before the teacher. Some of them are from humble 
 life, and, perhaps, bear upon them the marks of parental 
 neglect. Their persons and their clothing may present 
 nothing to attract and gratify the eye of a stranger. 
 Little accustomed to society, they exhibit an awkward 
 bashfulness or an impertinent forwardness in their 
 manner. Contrasted with these, others appear who have
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 361 
 
 been the children of indulgence, and who have seen much 
 more of the world. A more expensive garb attracts the 
 eye ; a more easy and familiar address, conforming to the 
 artificial modes of society, is very likely to win the heart. 
 The teacher is very prone to find his feelings committed 
 in favor of the latter class and against the former. But 
 this is all wrong. A judgment thus hastily formed is 
 extremely hazardous, as a few days' acquaintance will 
 usually show. The child of blunt or shy demeanor often 
 has the truest heart, a heart whose sentiments go out by 
 the shortest course, a heart that has never learned the 
 artificial forms of the world, because it has never felt the 
 need of them. And how unjust to the child is a pre- 
 judice founded on the circumstance of dress! Must the 
 inability or neglect of his parent be doubly visited on 
 him ? Is it not enough that he daily feels the inward 
 mortification of a contrast with his more favored school- 
 fellows? Must he be painfully reminded of it by dis- 
 covering that his teacher repels him on that account, and 
 bestows his kindliest smiles upon those who are "the 
 brightest and best clad ? " 
 
 Unjust Prejudice. And yet such unjust prejudice is 
 common. Wrong and unfeeling as it is, it is too com- 
 mon. A fine dress, and a clean face, and a graceful 
 manner, I know are attractive ; but the teacher has to do 
 with the mind and the heart ; and he should never be 
 deterred by anything exterior from making a diligent 
 and patient search for good qualities which have their 
 home behind the surface ; and he should ever possess a 
 smile as cordial and a tone as parental for the neglected 
 child of poverty and ignorance as for the more favored 
 son of wealth and ease.
 
 262 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Pupils not to Direct their Studies. Do not allow 
 your pupils to direct their own studies. Whatever their age 
 may be, they are seldom capable of doing this. It is the 
 aim of the young to get over a long course of study. They 
 are usually pleased to belong to higher classes before they 
 have mastered the branches taught in the lower. If 
 children are suffered to direct their own studies, they 
 usually make themselves very poor scholars. This is 
 the bane of many of our select schools and academies, 
 where the teacher yields this right in order to secure 
 pupils and a salary. But no one, not even the parent, 
 is as competent as the teacher ought to be to direct in 
 this matter. He has the best opportunity daily to 
 fathom the pupil's attainments and to understand his 
 deficiencies. He may claim the right to direct. In 
 case the pupil withstands his decision, the teacher 
 should appeal to the parent, and endeavor there to 
 sustain his point a thing generally within his power, if 
 indeed he is right. If the parent too is obstinate, and 
 firmly insists upon the wrong course, the teacher may 
 perhapr submit, though he cannot submit without the 
 consciousness that his province has beer invaded. 
 
 A Mistake. It is too frequently the case that the 
 teachei at the first yields all this ground voluntarily, by 
 asking the children what they wish to study. When he 
 has once made then? a party in this question, he need 
 not wonder if they claim to be heard. This he should 
 net do. He should first be sure that he is qualified to 
 direct aright, and then, as a matter of course, proceed 
 to do it, just as the physician would prescribe for the 
 physical malady of such a child. The latter is not more 
 the rightful duty of the physician than the former is of 
 the school-teacher. Neither has the powei to enforce
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 263 
 
 his prescription against the parents' consent ; but that 
 consent may be taken for granted by both till informed 
 that it is withheld. 
 
 An Egregious Evil in All Schools. I may here re 
 mark that all my intercourse with the young, whether in 
 the common or the higher school, I have found no 
 greater evil than that of proceeding to the more difficult 
 branches before the elementary studies have been mas- 
 tered. It is no uncommon thing to find those who have 
 " attended " to the higher mathematics algebra, geome- 
 try, and the like whose reading and writing are wretched 
 in the extreme, and whose spelling is absolutely intoler 
 able ! They have been pursuing quadratics, but are 
 unable to explain why they " carry one for every ten ;' 
 they have wandered among the stars in search of other 
 worlds, by the science of astronomy, without knowing 
 the most simple points in the geography of our own ; 
 they have studied logarithms and infinite series, but can- 
 not be safely trusted to add a column of figures, or to 
 compute the simple interest upon a common note ! In 
 short, they have studied everything, except what is most 
 useful to be known in practical life, and have really 
 learned nothing ! 
 
 The Remedy. Now if this evil grievous and exten- 
 sive as it i? at present is destined ever to be abated, it 
 is to be accomplished by the instrumentality of the 
 teachei, acting, in his appropriate sphere, in the capacity 
 of a director as to the course of study for the young. 
 He must not be a man who can merely teach, but one 
 who understands the high import of a true education, 
 and knows how to prescribe the order of its progress ; 
 one, in short, who wili never attempt to erect a showy 
 superstructure upon an insufficient foundation.
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 3. The Remedy. Do not attempt to teach too many 
 things. There is a tendency at present to introduce too 
 many things into all our schools. Nothing is more com- 
 mon than to hear our public lecturers declare, as they be- 
 come a little enthusiastic in any given deparfment, that 
 " this branch should at once be made a study in our com- 
 mon schools." This is heard of almost the whole round 
 of the natural sciences. But it seems to me to be dic- 
 tated by overwrought enthusiasm. Everything cannot be 
 ivell taught in our schools ; nor should too much be at- 
 tempted. It is the province of our schools particularly 
 our common schools to afford thorough instruction in a 
 few things, and to awaken a desire for more extended at- 
 tainment. The instruction given should, as far as possi- 
 ble, be complete in itself, while it should afford the means 
 of making further advancement ; but that instruction 
 which, being merely superficial, neither itself informs the 
 mind nor imparts the desire and the means of future self- 
 improvement, is worse than useless ; it is positively in- 
 jurious. A few branches thoroughly possessed are worth 
 more than a thousand merely glanced at ; and the idea of 
 changing our common schools to universities where our 
 children, before they pass from the years of their baby- 
 hood, are to grasp the whole range of the sciences, is one 
 of the most preposterous that has grown up even in this 
 age of follies. The teacher, then, should not undertake 
 too much ; he should be sure that he can accomplish what 
 he undertakes. The mark he makes upon the young should 
 be no uncertain sign. 
 
 4. "Mind Your Business." Never attend to extrane- 
 ous business in school-hours. This is a common fault. 
 Many teachers neglect their duties in school to write 
 letters, or transact such other bu-siness as should be done
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 265 
 
 at home. This is always wrong. There is no time for it 
 in any school ; for a diligent teacher can always find full 
 employment even with a small number. Besides, he has 
 engaged to devote himself to the school ; and any depart- 
 ure from this is a violation of his contract. The children 
 will so view it, and thus lose much of their respect for 
 the teacher. Moreover, if they see him neglect his busi- 
 ness for some other, they will be very likely to neglect 
 theirs, and thus disorder will be introduced. I hold that 
 the teacher is bound to devote every moment of school- 
 hours to active labor for the school. 
 
 5. Excuses. Avoid making excuses to visitors for the 
 defects of your school. Franklin, I think, said that "a 
 man who is good for making excuses is good for nothing 
 else." I have often thought of this as I have visited the 
 schools of persons given to this failing. It is sometimes 
 quite amusing to hear such a teacher keep up a sort of 
 running apology for the various pupils. A class is called 
 to read. The teacher remarks, " This class has but just 
 commenced reading in this book." Stephen finishes the 
 first paragraph, and the teacher adds, " Stephen has not 
 attended school very regularly lately.'' William reads the 
 second. " This boy," says the teacher, " was very back- 
 ward when I came here he has but just joined this class." 
 Charles executes the third. " That boy has an impediment 
 in his speech." Reuben follows. " It is almost impossible 
 to made a good reader of Reuben ; he never seems to pay 
 the least attention. I have bestowed unwearied pains upon * 
 him." Mary takes her turn. " This girl has lost her book, 
 and her father refuses to buy her another." Mary here 
 blushes to the eyes, for though she could bear his re- 
 proof, she still has some sense of family pride ; she bursts 
 into tears, while Martha reads the next paragraph. " I
 
 266 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 have tried all along," says the teacher, " to make this girl 
 raise her voice, but still she will almost stifle her words." 
 Martha looks dejected, and the next in order makes an 
 attempt. 
 
 Pity Excited. Now the teacher in all this has no 
 malicious design to wound the feelings of every child in 
 the class, and yet he as effectually accomplishes that re- 
 sult as if he had premeditated it. Every scholar is inter- 
 ested to read as well as possible in the presence of 
 strangers ; every one makes the effort to do so ; yet every 
 one is practically pronounced to have failed. The visit- 
 ors pity the poor pupils for the pain they are made thus 
 needlessly to suffer, and theyfitjr also the -weakness of the 
 poor teacher, whose love of approbation has so blinded his 
 own perception that he is regardless of the feelings of 
 others, and thinks of nothing but his own. 
 
 "When I Came Here." This over-anxiety for the 
 good opinion of others shows itself in a still less amiable 
 light, when the teacher frequently makes unfavorable 
 allusions to his predecessor. '' When / came here" says 
 the teacher significantly, " I found them all poor read- 
 ers," Or, if a little disorder occurs in school, he takes 
 care to add, " I found the school in perfect confusion," 
 or, " the former teacher, as near as I can learn, used 
 to allow the children to talk and play as much as they 
 pleased." Now, whatever view we take of such a course, 
 it is impossible to pronounce it anything better than 
 despicable meanness. For if the charge is true, it is by 
 no means magnanimous to publish the faults of another ; 
 and if it is untrue in whole or in part, as most likely it 
 is, none but a contemptible person would magnify an- 
 other's failings to mitigate his own.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 267 
 
 " How Old are You ?" There is still another way in 
 which this love of personal applause exhibits itself. I 
 have seen teachers call upon their brightest scholars co 
 recite, and then ask them to tell their age, in order to 
 remind the visitor that they were very young to do so 
 well ; and then insinuate that their older pupils could of 
 course do much better. 
 
 Such Arts Recoil. All these arts, however, recoil 
 upon the teacher who uses them. A visitor of any dis- 
 cernment sees through them at once, and immediately 
 suspects the teacher of conscious incompetency or willful 
 deception. The pupils lose their respect for a man whom 
 they all perceive to be acting a dishonorable part. I 
 repeat, then, never attempt to cover the defects of your 
 schools by making ridiciilous excuses. 
 
 6. Comparisons are Odious. Never compare one child 
 with another It is a poor way of stimulating a dull 
 pupil to compare him with a better scholar. It is the 
 direct way to engender hatred in the mind of the one, 
 and the most consummate self-complacency in the other. 
 Not one child in a thousand can be publicly held up to 
 the school as a pattern of excellence, without becoming 
 excessively vain ; at the same time, all the other scholars 
 will be more or less excited to envy. Such a course is 
 always unsafe ; almost always injurious. 
 
 7. Tenderness to a Dull Child. Avoid wounding the 
 sensibilities of a dull child. There will always be those in 
 every school who are slow to comprehend. After their 
 classmates have grasped an idea during the teacher's 
 explanation, they still have the vacant stare, the unin- 
 telligent expression. This may be so after a second or 
 a third explanation. The teacher is now strongly 
 tempted to indulge in expressions of impatience, if not
 
 268 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 of opprobrium. This temptation he should resist. Such 
 children are to be pitied for their dullness, but never to 
 be censured for it. It is an unfeeling thing to sting the 
 soul that is already benighted. He should cheer and 
 encourage such a slow mind to greater effort, by the sun- 
 shine of kind looks, and the warm breath of sympathy, 
 rather than freeze up the feeble current of vivacity which 
 yet remains there by a forbidding frown or a blast of 
 reproach. A dull child is almost always affectionate ; 
 and it is through the medium of kindness and patience 
 that such a one is most effectually stimulated. 
 
 8. Never Get Out of Temper With Parents. Never 
 lose your patience when parents unreasonably interfere with 
 your plans. It must be expected that some of the par- 
 ents will wish to dictate to the teacher what course he 
 shall pursue, at least in relation to their own children. 
 This will sometimes bring them to the schoolroom, per- 
 haps in a tone of complaint, to set the teacher right. 
 Whenever a parent thus steps beyond the bounds of 
 propriety, the teacher should never lose his self-posses- 
 sion. He should always speak the language of courtesy, 
 in frankness, but in firmness. He should reason with 
 the parent, and if possible convince him, but he should 
 never insult or abuse him. It may be well to propose to 
 see him at his own house, in order to talk over the 
 matter rftore at his leisure. I recollect once a parent 
 sent a hasty refusal to purchase a necessary book for his 
 son, a refusal clothed in no very respectful language. 
 I gave the lad a courteous note directed to his father, in 
 which I intimated my desire to have an interview with 
 him at his house at such time as he might appoint. In 
 half an hour the boy came bounding back with the de- 
 sired book, informing me that his father said, " he
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 guessed he might as well get the book, and done with 
 it." My intercourse with that parent was ever after- 
 wards of the most pleasant kind. A supercilious parent 
 can never gain an advantage over a teacher, unless he 
 can first provoke him to impatience or anger. As long 
 as the teacher is perfectly self-possessed he is impreg- 
 nable. 
 
 9. The Study of the Bible. Never make the study of 
 tlic Bible a punishment. I have known a teacher to 
 assign sundry passages of the Bible, condemnatory of a 
 particular sin, to be committed to memory as a punish- 
 ment. I have also known the idle scholar to be detained 
 after school to study passages of Scripture, because he 
 had failed to learn his other lessons in due time. I 
 believe this to be bad policy, as well as doubtful religion. 
 The lesson that a child thus learns are always connected 
 in his mind with unpleasant associations. His heart is 
 not made better by truths thus learned. The Bible 
 indeed should be studied by the young, but they should 
 be attracted to it by the spirit of love rather than driven 
 to it by the spirit of vindictiveness. They who suppose 
 that children can be made to love the Bible by be'ng 
 thus driven to the study of it, have sadly mistaken the 
 human heart. 
 
 10. Hobbies. Ride no "hobbies" in teaching. Al- 
 most every man, in whatever vocation, has some 
 hobby, some " one idea" which he pushes forward on all 
 occasions, no matter what may be the consequences. It 
 is not strange that it is often thus with the teacher. 
 If the teacher has any independence of mind, any 
 originality, he will at some period in his life naturally 
 incline to try some experiments in teaching Partly on 
 account of the novelty of the plan, and partly on account
 
 $70 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 of the teacher's interest in the success of his own meas- 
 ure, he finds it works well in the class where it was first 
 tried ; and he rejoices that he has made a discovery. 
 Teaching now possesses a new interest for him, and he 
 very likely becomes enthusiastic. He applies his new 
 measure to other classes, and loudly recommends it to 
 other teachers. For a time it succeeds, and it becomes 
 his hobby. Whenever a stranger visits his school, he 
 shows off his new measure. Whenever he attends a 
 teachers' meeting, he describes it, and perhaps presents a 
 class of his pupils to verify its excellency. He abandons 
 his old and long-tried plans, and persists in the new one. 
 By and by the novelty has worn away and his pupils be- 
 come dull under its operation, and reason suggests that a 
 return to the former methods would be advisable. Still, 
 because it is his invention, he persists. Others try the ex- 
 periment. Some succeed ; some fail. Some of them by 
 a public speech commit themselves to it, and then persist 
 in it to preserve their consistency. In this way a great 
 many objectionable modes of teaching have gained cur- 
 rency, and still hold their sway in many of our schools. 
 
 Oral Instruction. Among these I might mention con- 
 cert recitation and oral instruction when made a substitute 
 for study. Of the origin and tendency of the former I 
 have spoken more at length in the chapter on " Conduct- 
 ing Recitations." Of the latter, a word or two may be 
 said in this place. 
 
 Baby-talk ! It was found years ago, in the earlier at- 
 tempts to teach the blind, that they made very rapid 
 strides in acquiring knowledge through the sole medium of 
 oral instruction. As might have been foreseen, they be- 
 came intensely interested in hearing about things which 
 had surrounded them all their days, but which they had
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 271 
 
 never seen. Shut in as they were from the privilege of 
 sight, there was nothing to distract their attention from 
 whatever was communicated to them through the sense 
 of hearing ; and, as they had been blind from their birth, 
 this discipline of attention had been going on from in- 
 fancy. Under these circumstances their progress in knowl- 
 edge by mere oral teaching was astonishing. This was 
 all well. But soon some one conceived the idea of sub- 
 stituting oral instruction for study among seeing children. 
 Immediately there was an oral mania. Infant schools 
 grew up in every village ; infant-school manuals were 
 prepared, filled with scientific baby-talk, for the use of the 
 worthy dames who were to drive the hobby, and the nine- 
 teenth century bade fair to do more towards lighting up 
 the fires of science than all time before had accomplished. 
 It was truly wonderful for a time to listen to the learned 
 volubility of these same infant schools. The wonders of 
 astronomy, chemistry, botany and zoology, with the terms 
 of Cuvier's classification.and a thousand other things, were 
 all detailed with astonishing familiarity by pupils under 
 five years of age ! Some eminent teachers sagely took 
 the hint, and adopted the oral system with their older 
 classes. The sciences were taught by lectures. The 
 pupils of this happy day had nothing to do but to sit and 
 receive. To be sure, sometimes they would become inat- 
 tentive, and it would be discovered by their teachers that 
 they did not retain quite all that was told to them. This, 
 however, was no fault of the system, it was urged ; the 
 system was well enough, but, unfortunately, the pupils 
 had eyes, and their attention was frequently diverted by 
 the unlucky use of these worthless organs. 
 
 A Royal Road ! A royal road, sure enough, was fouud 
 to the temple of science, too long beyond mortal reach
 
 27-, THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 by reason of the rugged footpath over which the student 
 was compelled to climb. Happy, glorious day ! No 
 more must toil and thought be the price of success ! 
 No more must midnight oil be consumed, and the brain 
 be puzzled, in search of the wisdom of ages ! No more 
 must the eyes be pained (they are hereafter to be con- 
 sidered incumbrances) in searching the classic page ; 
 the ear is to be the easy inlet to the soul ! 
 
 Eyes are Useless Orbs! Such was the hobby of 1829 
 to. 1831 in our own country. Those babes of the infant 
 school grew into "young men and maidens," in no way 
 distinguished after all, unless they afterwards achieved 
 distinction by actual study. The pupils of those higher 
 schools obtained whatever they later valued in their 
 education, mainly by the use of their eyes, notwithstand- 
 ing at one time their worthy guides would have almost 
 deemed it a blessing to have had their eyes put out ! It 
 has been found that God was indeed wise in the bestow- 
 ment of sight ; and some at least have acknowledged 
 that a method that is well suited to the instruction of 
 those who are blind, because it is the only possible one 
 for them, may not be the best for those who can see. 
 At the present time the sentiment begins to prevail that 
 oral instruction can never supply the place of study ; 
 that the lecturing or " pouring-in process" cannot long 
 secure the attention ; that the mind by merely receiving 
 gains no vigor of its own ; and that scholars must be 
 made, if made at all, mainly by their own exertions in the 
 use of books. 
 
 Patent Methods. It would be easy to mention other 
 examples of hobbies which have been ridden by teachers
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS, 
 
 very much to the injury of their schools. Those already 
 given may, however, suffice for the purpose of illustra- 
 tion. Let it be remembered, then, that no one method 
 of instruction comprises all the excellences and avoids 
 all the defects of good teaching ; and that he is the wisest 
 teacher who introduces a judicious variety into his modes 
 of instruction, profiting by the suggestions of others, but 
 relying mainly upon his own careful observation, eschew- 
 ing all " patent methods," and never losing his COMMON 
 SENSE. 
 
 Favorite Branch of Study. Under the head of hob- 
 bies, I may add one other remark. Many teachers have 
 some favorite branch of study, in which, because they 
 excel, they take special delight. One man is a good 
 mathematician, another an expert accountant, a third a 
 skillful grammarian. Now the danger is that the favorite 
 branch of study may become the Jiobby, and that the 
 other branches will be neglected. This is indeed not 
 unfrequently the case. 
 
 Higher Branches. Again, some teachers are more 
 interested in the higher branches generally, because they 
 were the last pursued m their college course, or for some 
 other reason. They therefore neglect the lower studies, 
 to the great detriment of the youth under their charge. 
 Against all such partial views the teacher should take 
 great pains to guard himself. He may fall uncon- 
 sciously and almost imperceptibly into some of these 
 errors. Let me add the caution, then, never allow 
 your partiality for one study, or a class of studies, to 
 divert your attention from all those other branches which 
 are necessary to constitute a good education.
 
 274 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 SECTION II. THINGS TO BE PERFORMED. 
 
 I. The Scholars' Friend. Convince your scholars by 
 your conduct tJiat you are their friend. It is all-important 
 that you should gain complete ascendancy over the minds 
 of your pupils. In no way is this point so successfully 
 gained as by leading them to feel that you are their true 
 friend. When they feel this, all their sentiments cf gen- 
 erosity, gratitude, and love, conspire to lead them to ren- 
 der cheerful obedience to your wishes. Government then 
 becomes easy ; instruction is no longer irksome; and you 
 cm most cordially respond to the poet, in that beautiful 
 sentiment too seldom fully realized : 
 
 " Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, 
 And teach the young idea how to shoot, 
 To pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind, 
 To breathe the enlivening spirit, and to fix 
 The generous purpose in the glowing breast." 
 
 Love for Scholars and for Teaching to be Felt. 
 But effectually to convince them that you are thus 
 their friend is not the work of a moment. Words alone 
 can never do it. You may make professions of interest 
 in them, but it is all to no purpose. Your actions, 
 your looks, your whole spirit must show it. In order 
 thus to exhibit it, you must feel a. deep, an all-pervading 
 interest in the welfare of every child. You must love 
 your profession, and you must love sincerely love 
 those whom you are called to teach. If you do not love 
 the work of teaching, and cannot bring yourself to love 
 the children of your charge, you may not expect success. 
 It was long ago declared that 
 
 " Love only is the loan for love," 
 
 and this is specially true with the love of children. Their 
 souls spontaneously go out after those who love them.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Strive, then, to gain this point with them, not by empty 
 pretensions, always quickly read and as quickly despised 
 by the young ; but by that full, frank, cordial expression 
 of kindness in your manner towards them, which, being 
 based upon deep principle in yourself, is sure at once to 
 win their affection, and their ready compliance with all 
 your reasonable requisitions. 
 
 II. Care of Schoolhouse. Take special care that the 
 schoolhouse and its appendages are kept in good order. 
 This is a part of every teacher's duty. He should have 
 an eye that is constantly on the alert to perceive the 
 smallest beginnings of injury to any part of the premises. 
 It is often painful to see a new schoolhouse, that has 
 with much care and expense been put in perfect order, 
 very soon cut and otherwise disfigured by the pupils 
 the glass broken, the ceiling soiled, the desks and floors 
 stained with ink, and everything bearing the marks of 
 youthful destructiveness. The teacher should be held 
 accountable for such results, for he can by proper vigil- 
 ance prevent them. 
 
 Resist the Beginnings. Some of his first lessons to 
 his pupils should be upon the subject of practical neat- 
 ness in regard to everything that pertains to the school. 
 They should be impressed with the belief that he holds 
 neatness as a cardinal virtue. Daily should he watch 
 to discover the first violation of propriety upon the 
 premises. This first violation should be promptly met. 
 There is great wisdom in the adage which enjoins us to 
 " resist the beginnings" 
 
 Care of Books, Desks, etc. So, too, he should exer- 
 cise an oversight of the books belonging to the pupils. 
 Many books are speedily destroyed by children for the 
 want of a little care of the teacher probably more than
 
 276 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 are worn out by use. He should also occasionally inspect 
 the desks, with a view to promote a commendable neat- 
 ness there. The teacher has an undoubted right to inspect 
 any part of the premises ; but, by a little adroitness, he 
 can interest the children in a reform of this kind, and 
 then they will desire that he should witness their care- 
 fulness. 
 
 Rights of Property. I may add further that the chil- 
 dren should not only be taught to respect the school- 
 house and its appendages, but they should be taught to 
 regard the sacredness of all property, either public or 
 private. The neighboring garden or orchard should be 
 held to be inviolable. The teacher may not have the 
 authority to compel compliance with his direction or ad- 
 vice beyond school hours, but he should endeavor to exer- 
 cise a moral influence in the school which will be more 
 powerful even than compulsion. So, in regard to public 
 buildings, such as churches and courthouses ; and all 
 public grounds, as parks, commons, and cemeteries the 
 teacher should inculcate not only the duty to abstain 
 from injuring them, but a commendable desire to see 
 them improved and beautified. 
 
 American Destructiveness Whittling. In Amer- 
 ica, it is remarked by foreigners, there is a strange ten- 
 dency to destructiveness. In our public buildings, the walls 
 are usually disfigured by names and drawings, and even 
 our cemeteries do not escape the violence of the knives 
 of visitors, the trees being cut and marked with names, 
 and the flowers plucked off and carried away. It is to be 
 hoped that our teachers will so exercise a reforming in- 
 fluence that the next generation shall exercise a higher 
 principle as well as a better taste in all these matters,
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 277 
 
 which, small as they are, make up no mean part of the 
 manners and morals of a people. 
 
 III. General Reformation. When scholars do wrong, 
 it is sometimes best to witJiliold immediate reproof, but to 
 describe a similar case in general instruction. This is one 
 of the most effectual modes of curing the evil in the 
 wrong-doer himself. It, moreover, gives the teacher a 
 valuable text for a lesson on morals before the whole 
 school. Care should generally be taken not to lead the 
 school to suspect the individual in your mind, while at 
 the same time the parable should so fit the case as to pre- 
 clude the necessity of saying to the offender, as Nathan 
 did to David : "Thou art the man." 
 
 A Confession. A case will illustrate this. I recollect 
 once to have found, among a large number of composi- 
 tions presented by a class, one that I knew to have been 
 copied. No notice was taken of it at the time ; but 
 some days afterwards a case was described to the class, 
 resembling the one that had actually occurred. After 
 exciting considerable interest in the case, they were told 
 that such a thing had happened among their own num- 
 ber; that I did not choose to expose the individual ; 
 but, if any of them thought it would be honorable for 
 them to confess such an offence to me in case they had 
 committed it, they might seek a private opportunity to 
 do so. In less than twenty-four hours no less than four 
 made such, a confession, detailing freely the extent and 
 the circumstances of their offending. In this way four 
 were reformed, where by direct reproof only one could 
 have been reached. It was a frank, not a forced confes- 
 sion ; and I was thus easily made to know the extent of 
 this sin in the school. By this simple expedient, I have 
 reason to believe, plagiarism was effectually eradicated
 
 278 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 for that term at least, in the whole class, and that, too, 
 without the loss of any pupil's good-will. 
 
 It is generally wiser to endeavor to reach the evil in 
 its whole extent than to expend one's strength upon a 
 single instance of wrong-doing. The conscience of the 
 whole school may sometimes be profitably aroused, while 
 the particular individual is quite as effectively corrected 
 as he would be by a direct reproof. 
 
 IV. Accuracy. Be accurate. This is necessary in 
 order to secure the respect of your pupils. What the 
 teacher professes to know he should be sure of. Ap- 
 proximations to the truth are not enough to satisfy the 
 young mind. Whenever a teacher makes a blunder by 
 stating what is not true in regard to any fact or principle 
 in science, any event in history, or any item of statistics, 
 he lowers himself very much in the estimation of all 
 those who are capable of detecting his error. If he does 
 not know, he may frankly say so, and incur no just 
 censure, provided the point be one about which he has 
 not had the opportunity to gain the requisite informa- 
 tion. But when he attempts to speak with the author- 
 ity of a teacher, he " should know that whereof he 
 affirms." " The character of the teacher," says Pro- 
 fessor Olmsted, "is sullied by frequent mistakes, like that 
 of a bookkeeper or banker. It is surprising to see how 
 soon even the youngest learner will lose his confidence 
 and respect for his teacher, when he has detected in him 
 occasional mistakes. At every such discovery he rises 
 in his own estimation, and the teacher proportionally 
 sinks. The very character of the pupil is injured by such 
 an incident. He rapidly loses the docility and modesty 
 so essential to the scholar, and becomes uplifted with 
 pride and selfc-importance." The superciliousness thus
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 279 
 
 induced becomes a sore vexation to the teacher. He 
 finds that his pupils are watching for his halting ; and he 
 frequently fails, from this very circumstance, to do as 
 well as he might. I know of no more pitiable condition 
 on earth than that of a teacher, who is attempting to 
 teach what he does not fully understand, while he is 
 conscious that his pupils doubt his ability from a fre- 
 quent detection of his mistakes. 
 
 V. A Pleasant Face. Cultivate a pleasant counte- 
 nance. Frowns and scowls always sit with ill grace upon 
 the teacher's brow. I know that the trials and perplexi- 
 ties incident to his daily life are eminently fitted " to 
 chafe his mood " and to provoke his impatience. I know, 
 too, that protracted confinement from the pure air and 
 the bright sunlight will almost necessarily render the 
 nervous system morbidly sensitive, and the temper of 
 course extremely irritable. The outward exponent of all 
 this is a dejected and perhaps an angry countenance. 
 The eyebrows are drawn up so that the forehead is 
 deeply and permaturely furrowed, while the angles of 
 the mouth are suffered to drop downward as if in token 
 of utter despair. By and by the roguishness of some 
 unlucky urchin disturbs the current of his thoughts, 
 and suddenly the brow is firmly knitted with transverse 
 channels, the nostrils are distended, the jaws are firmly 
 closed, the lips are compressed, the cheeks are flushed, 
 and the eyes almost emit sparks from the pent-up fire 
 within him. For the next half-hour he frowns on all 
 about him. The children at first are awed by such a 
 threatening aspect ; but soon they become accustomed 
 to it, and the terrible very naturally gives place to the 
 ridiculous.
 
 2SD THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Wrong to Frown. No man has a moral right to 
 render those uncomfortable who surround him by habitu- 
 ally covering his face with the looks of discontent and 
 moroseness. It is peculiarly wrong for the teacher to do 
 it. It is for him to present an example of self-govern- 
 ment under all circumstances, so that he can consistently 
 enforce the duty of self-control upon the young. It is 
 for him to show himself a man of principle, of benevo- 
 lence, of cheerful devotion to his duty, however full of 
 trials that duty may be ; and in no way can he do this 
 more effectually than by an amiable and engaging coun- 
 tenance. A peevish, frowning teacher is very likely to 
 produce petulance and sullenness in his pupils ; while a 
 cordial smile, like the genial beam of the spring-day sun, 
 not only sheds a welcome light on all-around, but im- 
 parts a blessed heat, which penetrates the frigidity of the 
 heart, dissipates the cheerless mists that hover there, and 
 warms the generous affections into life and beauty. 
 
 Sympathy Between the Heart and the Countenance. 
 We are so constituted that the inward and the outward 
 sympathize -w'.th each other. Solomon says " a merry 
 heart maketh a cheerful countenance ;" and, I may 
 venture to add, and with almost as much truth, a cheer- 
 ful countenance maketh a merry Jieart. An honest 
 attempt to bless others with the sight of a countenance 
 that is expressive of content and patience, is an ace so 
 praiseworthy in itself that it will never go unrewarded. 
 The gratifying response which such a countenance is sure 
 to call forth from others brings w'th it a rich revenue of 
 inward enjoymenc. He, theretore, who habitually bears 
 about with hm a sad or an angry countenance, while he 
 constantly impairs the happiness of others, lacks at the
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 281 
 
 same time an important instrumentality for securing his 
 own. 
 
 Means Recommended. But the question will arise, 
 Can a man gain such ascendancy over himself as to con- 
 trol the expression of his countenance? I answer, with- 
 out hesitation, YES. " Whatever ought to be done, can 
 be done." It is not perfectly easy to do it, especially for 
 the teacher. Still, self-control full, complete self-con- 
 trol is his appropriate duty as well as privilege. He 
 must, as Carlyle quaintly enjoins, " learn to devour the 
 chagrins of his lot." He must calculate beforehand that 
 every day will bring its cares and its trials; but he 
 should daily resolve that they should never take him by 
 surprise, nor betray him into sudden impatience. Each 
 morning, as he walks co the scene of his labors, he should 
 fortify himself against sudden anger or habitual morose- 
 ness on this wise : " No doubt this day some untoward 
 occurrence will transpire, calculated to try my patience 
 and to provoke me to fretful words and angry looks. 
 All my past experience leads me to expect this. But 
 this day I will cry to resist the temptation to this weak- 
 ness. I will try to be self-possessed. If any child is 
 vicious, or fretful, or dull, or even impudent, I will en- 
 deavor to show that I can command myself. If I feel 
 some angry passion enkindling within me, I will stop 
 and tnink, and I will endeavor 10 smile before I speak. 
 If I can to-day gam the victory over impatience, and 
 can maintain an even and cneerlul temper, and express 
 it constantly in my countenance, it will be easier to do 
 it to-morrow. At ail events, fit iry." 
 
 A Victory. Taking hold thus in earnest, any man 
 may soon be his own master. He can gain the victory. 
 If he can do it, he ought tc do it. Hence I urge it as a
 
 282 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 duty. Nor is it merely a duty. It is a high privilege. 
 A complete victory for a single day will bring its own 
 reward. A man who feels that he has risen above his 
 temptation can return to his rest with a light and 
 happy heart. Sleep to him will be sweet, and he will 
 arise on the morrow with renewed strength for the 
 fresh conflict ; and in the moral as well as in the literal 
 warfare, every contest which ends in victory gives addi- 
 tional strength to the victor, while it weakens and dis- 
 heartens his enemy. 
 
 VI. Art of Illustrating. Study to acquire the art of 
 aptly illustrating a difficult subject. Some teachers 
 content themselves with answering In the precise lan- 
 guage of the book whenever a question for information 
 is propounded. This, however, is by no means sufficient, 
 even when the language of the book is strictly accurate ; 
 much less, when the language is so vague as to convey 
 no definite idea to the mind, either of the learner or the 
 teacher. On the other hand, a man who is apt to teach 
 will devise some ingenious method of enlightening the 
 mind of his pupil, so that he shall lay hold of the idea 
 as with a manly grasp and make it his own forever. 
 
 A Lesson in Philosophy. This point will, perhaps, be 
 best illustrated by an example. A young man was em- 
 ployed to take charge of a school for a few days during 
 a temporary illness of the regular instructor. He was 
 a good scholar, as the world would say, and was really 
 desirous to answer the expectation of his employers. 
 After the regular teacher had so far recovered his health 
 as to be able to leave his room he walked one pleasant 
 day to the school, to see what success attended the 
 labors of the new incumbent. A class was reciting in 
 natural philosophy. The subject under consideration
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 283 
 
 was the obstacles which impede the motion of machin- 
 ery. The attraction of gravity, as one of these, was 
 pretty easily disposed of ; for the class had before been 
 instructed on that point. Friction came next. Here, 
 too, the pupils, having had some practical experience of 
 their own, in dragging their sleds, in skating, or perhaps 
 in turning a grindstone, found no great difficulty. The 
 book spoke a language sufficiently clear to be under- 
 stood. Next came the " resistance of the various media," 
 to use the language of the text-book. " Yes," said the 
 teacher, as one of the pupils gravely quoted this lan- 
 guage, " that has no inconsiderable effect." 
 
 Media. "The resistance of the various media?" re- 
 peated one of the boys inquiringly ; " I do not know as I 
 understand what media means." 
 
 " A medium is that in which a body moves," was the 
 ready reply which the teacher read from the book. 
 
 Pupil. "A medium?" 
 
 Teacher. " Yes ; we say medium when we mean but 
 one, and media when we mean more than one." 
 
 Pupil. " When we mean but one ?" 
 
 Teacher. "Yes; medium is singular media is plural." 
 
 After this discussion, which began in philosophy but 
 ended in grammar, the teacher was about to proceed with 
 the next question of the book. But the scholar was not 
 yet satisfied, and he ventured to press his inquiries a 
 little further. 
 
 Pupil. "Is this room a medium ? " 
 
 Teacher. " This room ? " 
 
 Pupil. " Yes, sir ; you said that a medium was ' that in 
 which anybody moves,' and we all move in this room." 
 
 Teacher. "Yes, but medium does not mean a room ; it 
 is the substance in which a body moves."
 
 284 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Here the lad looked perplexed and unsatisfied. He 
 had no clear idea of the meaning of this new term. The 
 teacher looked at his watch, and then glanced at the re- 
 maining pages of the lesson, and seemed impatient to 
 proceed so the pupil forbore to inquire further. 
 
 The regular teacher, who had listened to the discussion 
 with no ordinary interest, both because he admired the 
 inquisitiveness of the boy, and because he was curious to 
 discover how far the new incumbent possessed the power 
 of illustration, here interposed. 
 
 "John," taking his watch in his hand "would this 
 watch continue to go if I should drop it into a pail of 
 water?" 
 
 " I should think it would not long," said John, after a 
 little reflection. 
 
 " Why not? " said his teacher, as he opened his watch. 
 
 k Because the water would get round the wheels and 
 stop it, I should think," said John. 
 
 " How would it be if I should drop it into a quart of 
 molasses?" 
 
 The boys laughed. 
 
 " Or into a barrel of tar ? " 
 
 The boys still smiled. 
 
 " Suppose I should force it, while open, into a quantity 
 of lard ? " 
 
 Here the boys laughed heartily, while John said "the 
 watch would not go in any of these articles."' 
 
 ' Articles ? " said his teacher ; " why not say media T " 
 
 John's eye glistened as he caught the idea. " Oh, I 
 understand it now ! " 
 
 His teacher then said that many machines worked in 
 air, then the air was the medium. A fish swims in
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 285 
 
 water, water is his medium. A fish could hardly swim 
 in molasses or tar. '* Now," inquired he, " why not ? " 
 
 ' Because of the resistance of the medium," said John, 
 with a look of satisfaction. 
 
 ' Now why will the watch go in air and not in 
 water?" 
 
 " Because the water is more dense," said John 
 promptly. 
 
 "Then upon what does the resistance of a medium 
 depend ? " 
 
 Here the new teacher interposed, and said that was 
 the next question in the book, and he was just going to 
 ask it himself. The regular teacher put his watch into 
 his pocket and became a spectator again, and the lesson 
 proceeded with unwonted vivacity. 
 
 The Difference. The difference between these two 
 teachers mainly consisted in the fact that one had the 
 ingenuity to devise an expedient to meet a difficulty 
 whenever occasion required, the other had not. 
 
 Study Expedients. Now in order to teach well, a 
 man should diligently seek for expedients. He should 
 endeavor to foresee the very points where the learner 
 will stumble, and provide himself with the means of ren- 
 dering timely aid. If an object cannot be described in 
 words, let it be compared with what it resembles, or 
 with what it contrasts. If it be an object of sense and 
 words and comparisons fail to describe it, in the ab- 
 sence of apparatus to represent it, let the teacher spring 
 to the black-board and execute a hasty drawing of it. In 
 this way the construction or the working of a machine, 
 the form of a bone or the action of a joint, the shape of 
 a town or the plan of a building, in short, almost every 
 subject that involves the relation of form, size, proper-
 
 286 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 tion, quantity, or number, will admit of visible illustra- 
 tion. He is the successful teacher who is able at the 
 moment to seize upon the best expedient and render it 
 subservient to his purpose. 
 
 VII. A Moral Impression. Take advantage of un- 
 usual occurrences to make a moral or religious impression. 
 In a former chapter I have urged it, as a part of the 
 teacher's work, to cultivate and strengthen both the moral 
 sentiments and the religious feelings of the members of 
 his school. This is not most effectually done by a formal 
 mode of speaking to them on these subjects. If a par- 
 ticular hour is set apart for formal lectures on their duty 
 to their fellow-men and their obligations to God, they are 
 very apt to fortify their sensibilities against the most 
 faithful appeals, and thus render them powerless. The 
 wise teacher will watch for the fit opportunity, and, just 
 at the moment when the heart is prepared by some suit- 
 able occurrence, when by some exhibition of the Crea- 
 tor's power it is awed into reverence, or softened into 
 submission ; or by some display of His goodness it is 
 warmed into gratitude, or animated with delight, with 
 a few words, seasonably and " fitly spoken," he fixes the 
 impression forever. Speaking at the right time, every 
 ear listens and every heart feels. 
 
 The Fit Occasion. Perhaps many of my readers can 
 revert to some season in their childhood, endeared to 
 them by a precious recollection of golden words thus 
 opportunely uttered words fraught with truth which in 
 after-life has had an unspeakable influence in the forma- 
 tion of their character. One or two examples connected 
 with my own experience may be presented, more fully 
 to illustrate my meaning; while at the same time they 
 may afford, it is hoped, some valuable hints for the en-
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 287 
 
 couragement and guidance of such young teachers as 
 desire in this way to make themselves the instruments 
 of lasting benefits to the young. 
 
 EXAMPLE I. 
 
 A Thunder Storm. I can never forget nor would I 
 if I could a lesson impressed upon my own youthful 
 mind, conveying the truth that we are constantly de- 
 pendent upon our Heavenly Father for protection. In 
 a plain country school-house, some twenty-five children, 
 including myself, were assembled with our teacher on 
 the afternoon of a summer's day. We had been as 
 happy and as thoughtless as the sportive lambs that 
 cropped the clover of the neighboring hillside. En- 
 grossed with study or play for at this distance of time 
 it is impossible to tell which, we had not noticed the 
 low rumbling of the distant thunder, till a sudden flash 
 of lightning arrested our attention. Immediately the 
 sun was veiled by the cloud, and a corresponding gloom 
 settled upon every face within. The elder girls, with 
 the characteristic thoughtfulness of woman, hastily in- 
 quired whether they should not make the attempt to 
 lead their younger brothers and sisters to the paternal 
 roof before the bursting of the storm. For a moment 
 our little community was thrown into utter confusion. 
 The teacher stepped hastily to the door to survey more 
 perfectly the aspect of the western heavens. Immedi- 
 ately returning, he signified to the children that there 
 would not be time for them to reach their homes before 
 the tempest would be upon them. Oppressed with 
 dread, for it is no uncommon thing for children in the 
 country to be terrified by lightning, some of the 
 youngest of us clung to our older brothers or sisters,
 
 288 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 while others, being the sole representatives of their 
 family in the school, for the first time felt their utter 
 loneliness in the midst of strangers, and gave utterance 
 to their feelings in audible sighs or unequivocal sobs. 
 
 Teacher's Self-possession. The teacher, meanwhile, 
 with an exemplary calmness and self-possession, closed 
 the windows and the doors, and then seated himself 
 quite near the younger pupils to await the result. The 
 thick darkness gathered about us, as if to make the 
 glare of the lightning, by contrast, more startling to our 
 vision ; while the loud thunder almost instantly followed, 
 as it were the voice of God. The wind howled through 
 the branches of a venerable tree near by, bending its 
 sturdy trunk, and threatening to break asunder the 
 cords which bound it to its mother earth. An angry 
 gust assailed the humble building where we were shel- 
 tered ; it roared down the capacious chimney, violently 
 closed a shutter that lacked a fastening breaking the 
 glass by its concussion, and almost forced in the frail 
 window-sashes on the westerly side of the room. Quicker 
 and more wild the lightnings glared flash after flash 
 as if the heavens were on fire ; louder and nearer the 
 thunder broke above our heads, while the inmates of the 
 room, save the teacher, were pale with terror. 
 
 Awful Pause. At this moment there was a sudden 
 cessation of the war of elements-- a hush almost a pro- 
 phetic pause ! It was that brief interval which precedes 
 the falling torrent. A dread stillness reigned within 
 the room. Every heart beat hurriedly, and every coun- 
 tenance told the consternation that v/as reigning within. 
 It war an awful moment ! 
 
 Teacher's Words. With a calm voice, breathing a 
 subdued and confiding spirit, the teacher improved this
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 289 
 
 opportunity to impress upon our young minds a great 
 truth. " Fear not, children," said he ; "it is your Heavenly 
 Father that sends the storm as well as the sunshine and 
 the gentle breeze. You have been just as much in His 
 power all day as you are at this moment. He has been 
 as near you, supporting you, supplying you with breath, 
 with life, all through the pleasant morning ; but then you 
 did not see Him. He is just as able to protect you now, 
 for ' not a sparrow falls to the ground without His 
 notice,' and He ruleth the storm an4 ' rideth upon the 
 wings of the wind. We should ever feel willing to trust 
 Him ; for He is ever able to grant us deliverance from all 
 our dangers. God is here now to protect us." 
 
 After Rain, Sunshine. Just as he had finished these 
 words, the rain began to fall. First the drops were few 
 and scattered ; but soon the windows of heaven were 
 opened, and the thirsty ground was abundantly satisfied. 
 The sound of the thunder became fainter and fainter as 
 the cloud passed away ; the sun burst out again in re- 
 newed splendor ; the full drops glittered in his beams 
 upon the grass ; the birds began their songs ; the rainbow 
 spanned the eastern hills ; and our hearts, taught by the 
 timely instructions of a good man, began to expand with 
 eager gratitude for our preservation by the hand of our 
 Heavenly Father. 
 
 The Bible Speaks. The remainder of the afternoon 
 passed happily away, and when our books were laid 
 aside, and we were ready to burst out of the room to 
 enjoy the refreshing air and participate in the general 
 joy, the teacher, taking the Bible from the desk, asked 
 us to remain quiet a moment, while he would read a few 
 words that he hoped we should never forget.
 
 290 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 The passage was the following, from the 65th Psalm : 
 
 By terrible things in righteousness wilt thou answer us, O God of our salva- 
 tion ; who art the confidence of all the ends of the earth, and of them that are 
 afar off upon the sea. Which by his strength setteth fast the mountains ; being 
 girded with power : which stilleth the noise of the seas, the noise of their 
 waves, and the tumult of the people. 
 
 They also that dwell in the uttermost parts are afraid at thy tokens : thou 
 makest tht outgoings of the morning and evening to rejoice. 
 
 Thou visitest the earth and waterestit: thou greatly enrichest it with the 
 rirer of God, which is full of water : thou prepares! them corn, when thou hast 
 o provided for it. 
 
 Thou waterest the ridges thereof abundantly : thou settlest the furrows 
 thereof : thou makest it soft with showers : thou blesseth the springing 
 thereof. 
 
 Thou crownest the year with thy goodness; and thy paths drop fatness. 
 They drop upon the pastures of the wilderness: and the little hills rejoice on 
 every side. 
 
 The pastures are clothed with flocks: the valley* also ar covered over with 
 corn : they shout for joy, they also sing. 
 
 Words Fitly Spoken. After closing the book the 
 teacher said : " Go out now, children, and witness how 
 perfectly these words have been fulfilled toward us this 
 afternoon ; and from this day's mercies, learn hereafter 
 to trust God as confidently in the storm, when He dis- 
 plays His power by His outward ' tokens,' as when He 
 kindly smiles upon you in the beams of the glorious sun, 
 or gently breathes upon you in the morning breeze." 
 
 The Effect. We went forth bounding in gladness and 
 gratitude, and saw the " outgoings of the evening to re- 
 joice," " the pastures clothed with flocks," " the val- 
 leys covered over with corn," " the little hills rejoicing 
 on every side." We heard also the general shout for 
 joy ; and we felt, as we never before had felt, a deep, 
 thorough, abiding conviction of the truth that God is 
 our Father and our Friend the GOD OF OUR SALVA- 
 TION. 
 
 Blessed Memories. I know not how soon these im- 
 pressions faded from tht minds of the other children,
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTlO 291 
 
 but for myself I can say that, from that time to the 
 present, whenever I have been exposed to apparent 
 danger from the impending tempest, the warring ele- 
 ments, or the ravages of disease, the teachings of that 
 hour have always revived in my mind to soothe my 
 troubled spirit, and to reassure my faith and confidence 
 in the presence of an all-sufficient and merciful Preserver. 
 A thousand times have I devoutly blessed the memory 
 of that faithful teacher for having so early and so hap- 
 pily turned my thoughts upward to HIM in whom " we 
 live, and move and have our being." 
 
 EXAMPLE II. 
 
 A Dark Day. It was in the afternoon of a gloomy 
 day in the latter part of November, when the pupils, 
 consisting of some fifty boys, belonging to a school in 
 a pleasant seaport town in New England, were told by 
 their teacher, a few minutes before the usual hour, that 
 they might lay aside their studies and prepare for dis- 
 mission. During the early part of the day there had 
 been one of those violent southeast rain-storms, so com- 
 mon upon the seacoast at that season of the year. It is 
 well known to the observing mariner that a storm from 
 the southeast never continues beyond twelve or fifteen 
 hours ; and when the violence of the storm abates, it is a 
 common remark of the sailor, that " the northwester is 
 not long in debt to the southeaster." Previous to this 
 change of wind, however, there is what is expressively 
 termed the " lull of the storm " a period when the rain 
 ceases to fall, the wind dies away to a perfect calm, the 
 barometer is suddenly depressed, the clouds hover almost 
 upon the face of the earth, shutting out the light of the 
 sun, and causing a cheerless damp to settle upon every
 
 292 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 thing terrestrial, and a dreary gloom to enshroud the 
 mind itself. When the wind changes, these clouds are 
 not gradually dissolved and broken up, so that the eye 
 can catch transient glimpses of the blue sky beyond, as 
 after a snow-storm in winter ; but the dark drapery is 
 suddenly lifted up, as if by an unseen hand, and the 
 western sky, from the horizon upwards, is left more bright 
 and more charming than ever, to refresh the eye and 
 reanimate the soul. 
 
 Early Dismission. It was such a day, as before re- 
 marked, when the pupils of this school partly because of 
 the darkness in the schoolroom, and partly because of 
 their protracted confinement within a close apartment 
 during a gloomy afternoon were, a little earlier than 
 usual, about to be dismissed. The pupils all seemed to 
 welcome the happy release that awaited them ; and, in 
 their eagerness to escape from confinement, they very 
 naturally neglected to observe their accustomed regard 
 for quiet and order in laying aside their books. It was, 
 however, a fixed habit with the teacher never to give 
 the signal for leaving the room till all the pupils 
 had taken the proper attitude for passing out with 
 regularity, and then had composed themselves to 
 perfect silence. On this occasion perhaps two minutes 
 passed away while the boys were gradually, almost im- 
 patiently, bringing themselves to a compliance with this 
 rule of the teacher. 
 
 Light Breaks In. During this interval of waiting, 
 the cloud, unperceived by the teacher, had been slowly 
 raised up from the western horizon, just in time to allow 
 the setting sun to bestow a farewell glance upon the sor- 
 rowing world at his leave-taking. Through the Venetian 
 blinds that guarded the windows towards the west, the
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 2!:; 
 
 celestial light gleamed athwart the apartment, and painted 
 the opposite wall, in front of the pupils, with streaks of 
 burnished gold ! In an instant every countenance was 
 changed. A smile now joyously played where before 
 sadness and discontent had held their afcoody reign. 
 The teacher was reminded, by all these circumstances, of 
 the beautiful language of the prophet, which promised 
 the gift of " i\\Q garment of praise for the spirit of heavi- 
 ness" What could be more appropriate on this occasion 
 than a song of praise ? Without speaking a single word, 
 the teacher commenced one of the little songs already 
 familiar to the whole school : 
 
 Lo the heavens are breaking, 
 
 Pure and bright above ; 
 Life and light awaking, 
 
 Murmur God is love. 
 
 GOD is LOVE. 
 
 Round yon pine-clad mountain. 
 
 Flows a golden flood ; 
 Hear the sparkling fountain, 
 
 Whisper God is good. 
 GOD is GOOD. 
 
 Wake, my keart, and springing. 
 
 Spread thy wings above, 
 Soaring still and singing, 
 
 God is ever food. 
 
 GOD is GOOD. 
 
 An Impression. Instantly every voice that had ever 
 sung now uttered heartfelt praise. The attendant cir- 
 cumstances, taken at the happy moment, furnished such 
 an impressive commentary upon the import of the words, 
 that they were felt, as they never before had been felt, to 
 be the words of precious truth. Every heart throbbed in 
 unison with the sentiment. At the close of the song 
 there was profound silence in the room. After a mo- 
 ment's pause, during which the truth that God is good
 
 294 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 seemed to pervade each mind and hold it in silent rever- 
 ence ; the signal for departure was given. One after an- 
 other the boys passed fronts their seats with a light and 
 careful step, as if noise and haste would be a desecration 
 both of the time and place ; and when they reached the 
 open air, refreshing and exhilarating as it was, there was 
 no boisterous shout, no rude mirth ; each took his home- 
 ward course, apparently with a new and lively conviction 
 that GOD is GOOD. 
 
 Teacher's Satisfaction. It has always been a source 
 of pleasure to that teacher to recall from the " buried 
 past" the associations connected with that delightful 
 hour and that charming song ; and it has been among the 
 most gratifying incidents of his experience as a teacher 
 to hear more than one of those pupils in later life recur 
 to the memory of that day, and acknowledge with thank- 
 fulness the lasting impressions which then and there were 
 made upon their minds. 
 
 Other Occasions. It would be easy to furnish exam- 
 ples, to almost any extent, of the manner in which this 
 principle has been, or may be, carried out in practice. 
 The degradation of an intoxicated person who may pass 
 the school, the pitiable condition of the man who may 
 wander through the streets bereft of his reason, any in- 
 stance of sudden death in the neighborhood, particularly 
 of a young person, the passing of a funeral procession, 
 in short, any occurrence that arrests the attention of the 
 young and enlists their feeling, may be seized upon as 
 the means of making upon their minds an impression for 
 good. The facts developed in many of their lessons, too, 
 afford opportunities for incidental moral instruction. 
 The adaptation of means to ends, the evidence of de- 
 sign and intelligence displayed in the works of creation,
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 the existence of constant and uniform laws as developed 
 in the sciences, all furnish the means of leading the young 
 mind to God. 
 
 Pleasant Retrospection. That teacher will enjoy the 
 richest satisfaction in the evening of life who, in looking 
 back upon his past experience, shall be conscious that he 
 has improved every opportunity which God has given 
 him to turn the youthful affections away from the things 
 of earth, to seek a worthier object in things above.
 
 296 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Low Pecuniary Reward. It is proverbial that the 
 pecuniary compensation of the teacher is, in most places, 
 far below the proper standard. It is very much to be 
 regretted that an employment so important in all its 
 bearings should be so poorly rewarded. In New Eng- 
 land there are many young women who, having spent 
 some time in teaching, have left that occupation to go 
 into the large manufacturing establishments as laborers, 
 simply because they could receive a higher compensation. 
 I have known several instances in which young ladies in 
 humble circumstances have left teaching to become 
 domestics, thus performing the most ordinary manual 
 labor because they could receive better pay ; that is, the 
 farmers and mechanics of the district could afford to 
 pay more liberally for washing and ironing, for making 
 butter and cheese, for sweeping floors and cleaning 
 paint, than they could for educating the immortal minds 
 of their children ! 
 
 Driving Pegs. Nor is this confined to the female sex. 
 Young mechanics and farmers, as well as those employed 
 in manufacturing, frequently receive higher wages than 
 the common-school teacher in the same district. Many 
 a young man who has only genius enough to drive the 
 pegs of a shoe in a regular row, and skill enough to 
 black the surface of the article when it is completed, 
 having spent but a few weeks in learning his trade, re-
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 297 
 
 ceives more money for his work than he who, after hav- 
 ing spent months, or even years, in gaining the requisite 
 qualifications, labors to polish that nobler material, the 
 human soul. 
 
 Injustice. The injustice of this becomes more appar- 
 ent when we bear in mind that public opinion demands, 
 and justly, too, that the teacher should be not only 
 gentlemanly in his manners, but better clad than the mere 
 laborer thus throwing upon him a greater burden with- 
 out affording him the means of sustaining it. The female 
 teacher of a district school, in order to be respectable, 
 must be much more expensively dressed than the domes- 
 tic in the family where she boards, and is thus compelled 
 to consume most of her receipts upon her wardrobe, 
 while the domestic is able to place surplus money at 
 interest in the savings-bank. This injustice has so often 
 been laid before the people, and yet has been so long 
 continued, that many have given up in despair, and 
 abandoned an employment that has yielded so little, 
 choosing rather to engage in that lower service which is 
 so much better paid. 
 
 Living by Wits. This sufficiently explains why so 
 many unqualified teachers have been found in our com- 
 mon schools. Men of talents and ability, being tempted 
 to other employments, have left the field unoccupied ; 
 and those men who have failed to gain a comfortable liv- 
 ing by their hands have been allowed to try the experi- 
 ment of supporting life by their wits, that is, by becom- 
 ing teachers ! 
 
 Improvement. Such has been the case for a long 
 time past ; and, though in many quarters the people are 
 beginning to open their eyes to their true interest, and 
 are gradually and commendably coming up to their duty,
 
 298 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 yet, for some time to come, the pecuniary compensation 
 will not constitute the chief reward of the teacher. If 
 he will go cheerfully to his work, and find his daily en- 
 joyment in his daily toil, he must have a higher object 
 some more elevating, inspiring motive than mere 
 money-getting The chief encouragements of the faith- 
 ful teacher lie in another direction. 
 
 It is the object of the following paragraphs to point 
 out some of these encouragements ; for, having in the 
 preceding pages required very much at his hands, I feel 
 that it is but just that he should be invited to look at the 
 brighter side of the picture, so that when he is ready to 
 sink under the responsibilities of his position, or to yield 
 to the obstacles that oppose his progress, he may have 
 something to animate his soul, and to nerve him anew 
 for the noble conflict. 
 
 I. Means of Mental Growth. The teacher's employ- 
 ment affords the means of intellectual growth. If a man 
 teaches as he should teach, he must of necessity improve 
 himself. Teaching understandingly pursued gives ac- 
 curacy. I know it is possible for a man to be a mere 
 schoolmaster a pedagogue, without any self-improve, 
 ment. But I am speaking of the faithful, devoted 
 teacher the man who studies, reflects, invents. Such 
 a man learns more than his pupils. Every time he 
 takes a class through any branch of study, he does it 
 more skillfully, more thoroughly than before. He 
 brings some fresh illustration of it, presents some new 
 view of it, and hence takes a lively interest in it himself, 
 and awakens a new zeal among his pupils. Measuring 
 himself by his new success, he feels a consciousness of 
 growth, of progress. This consciousness is a precious 
 reward
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 299 
 
 II. Means of Moral Growth. The teacher's employ- 
 ment affords the means of moral growth. Brought con- 
 stantly in contact with those who need a careful guid- 
 ance, he feels impelled to earnest effort in order to obtain 
 the mastery over himself, as the best means of gaining 
 complete influence over others. Studying the weak 
 points in their character, he is constantly reminded of 
 those in his own ; and self-knowledge is the first step 
 toward self-improvement. Beginning in the feebleness 
 of inexperience, he bolsters up his authority at first by 
 a frequent resort to force ; but, as he goes on, he finds 
 himself gradually gaining such ascendency over the vici- 
 ous as to control them quite as effectually by milder 
 means. At first, easily excited to anger or impatience, 
 he frequently indulged in severe language when it was 
 unnecessary ; but by careful discipline he has learned to 
 "set a watch before his mouth and to keep the door of 
 his lips.'' Encouraged by one victory over himself, he 
 is prepared for another. Having learned by self-discip- 
 line to control his outward acts, he next attempts the 
 mastery of his thoughts. He soon finds that his moral 
 power over others is very much increased. Somehow 
 though perhaps he cannot yet tell the reason why he 
 finds he can secure obedience with half the effort for- 
 merly required ; he gains the love of his pupils more 
 readily, and with the exception now and then of an 
 extreme case, he finds that he excites a deeper interest 
 than ever before in the whole round of duty among the 
 scholars. Why is this? he asks, and the consciousness 
 of increased moral power rising up within him is a source 
 of the highest satisfaction. _ Pecuniary emolument sinks 
 into nothing considered as a reward, when compared 
 with a conscious victory over himself.
 
 300 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 III. Progress in the Art of Teaching. A conscious- 
 ness of improvement in the art of teaching is another reward. 
 Such improvement will follow as a matter of course from 
 his self-improvement in the particulars just named. As 
 his own mind expands, he feels a new impulse to exert 
 himself to interest others in the subjects he teaches. He 
 soon comes to look upon the work of instruction, not as 
 a mere mechanical business, to be done in a formal way, 
 but as a noble art, based upon certain great principles 
 that are capable of being understood and applied. He 
 employs all his ingenuity to discover the natural order of 
 presenting truth to the mind, to ascertain the precise 
 degree of aid the learner needs, and the point where the 
 teacher should stop. He studies carefully the proper 
 motives to be presented as incentives to exertion. Inter- 
 ested in his labor as a great work, looking upon his influ- 
 ence as telling upon all future time, he devotes himself 
 daily with new zeal, and is rewarded with the conscious- 
 ness of nezv success. 
 
 IV. Pupils' Growth of Mind. The teacher is per. 
 mitted also to witness the constant growth of mind 
 among his pupils. I say constant, because the teacher 
 is not obliged to labor without seeing immediate results. 
 The minister of religion may sometimes sow the seed 
 of the Good Word, while the fruit does not appear for a 
 long season. Sometimes a spiritual apathy prevails, so 
 that the most faithful warnings and the most earnest 
 appeals seem to fall powerless upon the conscience ; and 
 he is led almost to despair of ever being able to break 
 the deathlike slumber. It is not thus with the teacher. 
 His labor tells immediately upon the young mind. 
 Even while he is yet speaking, he is gratified with ob- 
 serving the soul's expansion as it grasps and assimilates
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 301 
 
 some new idea which he presents. From day to day, as 
 he meets his classes, he sees how they go on from strength 
 to strength at first, indeed, with the halting, tottering 
 step of the feeble babe, but soon with the firm and confi- 
 dent tread of the vigorous youth. 
 
 " They Were My Pupils." A teacher who is for sev- 
 eral years employed in his vocation is often astonished at 
 the rapidity with which the young, who come to him as 
 mere children, grow into men and women, and take their 
 places on the stage of life as prominent actors. Some of 
 them distinguish themselves in the arts; some become 
 noted for their attainments in science ; some receive the 
 honors of office and become leaders in civil affairs ; some 
 gain eminence as professional men ; and very likely a 
 large portion of them are engaged in the various depart- 
 ments of honorable industry. Wherever they are, and 
 whatever they are, they are now exerting a powerful in- 
 fluence in the community. They have grown up under 
 his eye, and have been essentially shaped by his plastic 
 hand. He looks upon them almost with the interest and 
 pride of a father. He counts them as his jewels ; and 
 when he hears of their success, their usefulness, and their 
 honors, his heart leaps within him, as he thinks, "they 
 were my pupils" Even though he may have wasted the 
 strength of his best days in the service, what a reward is 
 t/iis for the teacher ! 
 
 V. Useful Calling. The teacher has the consciousness 
 of being engaged in a useful and honorable calling. 
 What though he may not become rich in this world's 
 goods? Who would not prefer above houses and lands, 
 infinitely above all the wealth of earth, the consciousness 
 of being engaged in a work of usefulness ? Man was
 
 802 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 made for usefulness and who would not desire to answer 
 the design of his creation. 
 
 Educates Immortal Minds. My pen is too feeble to 
 attempt to portray the usefulness of the faithful teacher. 
 Pic educates the immortal mind wakes it to thought 
 trains it to discipline self-discipline moves it to 
 truth and virtue fills it with longings for a more per- 
 fect state, and sends it forth to exert its power for good 
 through all coming time ! " To this end," in the glow- 
 ing language of Professor Agnew, " he communicates 
 a knowledge of letters, opens out gradually before the 
 child the book of Nature and the literature of the world ; 
 he disciplines his mind and teaches him how to gather 
 knowledge from every source ; he endeavors to impart 
 quickness and retentiveness of memory, to cultivate a 
 refined and well-regulated imagination ; to task, and thus 
 to give vigor to his reasoning powers. He points out 
 the appropriate objects of the several affections, and the 
 proper exercise of the passions ; he gives lessons to con- 
 science, derived from the pure fountain of God's own 
 Revelation, and teaches him to subject his own will to 
 the Highest Will. He instructs him in the various 
 sciences, and thus displays before him worlds of wondrous 
 interest, and invests him with the sources and means of 
 pure enjoyment. He trains him for the sweet sympa- 
 thies of social life, and unfolds before him the high 
 behests of duty duty to himself, his fellow-creatures, 
 his family, his God. 
 
 The Infant Becomes a Man." Under such a tui- 
 tion, behold the helpless infant grown to manhood's 
 prime a body well developed, strong and active ; a 
 mind symmetrically unfolded, and powers of intellection 
 closely allied to those of the spirits in celestial spheres !
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 303 
 
 He becomes a husband and a father ; in these, and in all 
 the relations of life, he performs well his part. Above 
 all, he is a Christian, with well-trained affections and a 
 tender conscience, supremely loving God, maintaining a 
 constant warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil 
 growing up into the stature of a perfect man in Christ, 
 and anticipating the fulness of joy and pleasure for ever- 
 more which are at God's right hand. The time of his 
 departure at length arrives; he has fought the good 
 fight, he has finished his course, and he goes to obtain 
 his crown and to attune his harp, and forever to dwell on 
 the hills of light and love, where angels gather immor- 
 tality. Oh, what a transit from the dependent helpless- 
 ness of infancy to the glory of a seraph ; from mind 
 scarcely manifested to mind ranging over the immensity 
 of Jehovah's empire, and rising in the loftiest exercises of 
 reason and affection ! And how much has the faithful 
 teacher had to do in fitting him for tJie blissful mansions of 
 the skies /" 
 
 No Limits to Usefulness. If such be the teacher's 
 work, where is the limit to his usefulness ? Yet he may 
 do this not for one merely, but for scores, or even hun- 
 dreds. Eternity alone can display the immeasurable, 
 inconceivable usefulness of one devoted teacher. 
 
 Honorable Why ? And is not the teacher's calling 
 honorable ? It is for its usefulness makes it honor- 
 able. To scatter the light of truth is always honorable. 
 So some of the greatest and best men the world ever 
 saw have believed, and have illustrated their faith by 
 their practice. Confucius, Socrates, Seneca, Aristotle, 
 and Plato, were specimens of the teachers of ancient 
 date. Roger, Ascham, John Milton, Francke, Pesta- 
 lozzi, Arnold, and a host of others have adorned the
 
 304 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 profession in later times. Yet these are men who have 
 taught the world to think. Their works live after them, 
 and will continue to live, when the proud fame of the 
 mighty^ warriors who have marked their course in blood 
 shall have perished from the earth. 
 
 Our Great Men Began as Teachers. If it were 
 necessary and not invidious, how many distinguished 
 men in our own country could be mentioned who have 
 been teachers of the young, or who are still engaged as 
 such ! Besides those who have made teaching the busi- 
 ness of their lives, how many have been temporarily 
 employed in this calling ! Some of our presidents, many 
 of our governors, most of our jurists and divines in- 
 deed, some of every profession, " and of the chief women 
 not a few" have first distinguished themselves as school- 
 teachers. Well may teachers, then, regard their profes- 
 sion as an honorable one ; always remembering, however, 
 that " it is not the position which makes the man honor- 
 able, but the man the position." 
 
 VI. Gratitude of Pupils. The teacher enjoys the 
 grateful remembrance of his pupils and of their friends. 
 When a distinguished writer said, " God be thanked for 
 the gift of mothers and schoolmasters !" he expressed 
 but the common sentiment of the human heart. The 
 name of parent justly enkindles the warmest emotions 
 in the heart of him who has gone out from his native 
 home to engage in the busy scenes of the work-day 
 world ; and when sometimes he retires from the com- 
 panionship of new-made friends to recall the picture of 
 the past and the loved of other days, to think 
 
 14 Of chfldish Joys when bounding boyhood knew 
 No grief, but chased the-gorgeous butterfly, 
 And gatnbol'd with the breeze, that tossed about 
 His silken curls"
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 805 
 
 how'sweetly do the gentle influences of home and child- 
 hood, with all their tender and hallowed associations, 
 come stealing over the soul ! The world is forgotten ; 
 care may not intrude upon this sacred hour; objects of 
 sense are unheeded ; the call to pleasure is disregarded ; 
 while the rapt soul introverted transported dwells 
 with unspeakable delight upon its consecrated recollec- 
 tion of all that is venerable, all that is sacred, in the 
 name of PARENT. At this favored hour, how the heart 
 swells at the thought of a mother's love ! The smiles, 
 the kind words, the sympathy, the counsels, the prayers, 
 the tears how fondly the memory treasures them all up, 
 and claims them for its own ! And though Death may 
 have long since intruded, and consigned that gentle form 
 to the cold earth, rudely sundering the cherished bonds 
 of affection, and '.caving the hearthstone desolate 
 though Change may have brought strangers to fell the 
 favorite tree, to remove the ancient landmarks, to lay 
 waste the pleasant places, and even to tread thoughtlessly 
 by the humble mound that marks the revered spot where 
 " departed worth is laid " though Time, " with his effac- 
 ing fingers," may "have been busy in obliterating the im- 
 pressions of childhood from the mind, or in burying 
 them deepfy beneath the rubbish of perplexing cares 
 still the true heart never tires with the thought of a fond 
 parent, nor ever ceases to " thank God upon every 
 remembrance " of a. pious, devoted mother! 
 
 Teacher next to Parents. Thus it should ever be. 
 Nothing on earth should be allowed to claim the grati- 
 tude which is justly due to judicious parents. But 
 the faithful, devoted teacher, the former of youthful 
 character and the guide of youthful study, will be sure 
 to have the next place in the grateful heart. Whether
 
 306 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 the young man treads the deck of the noble ship, in his 
 lonely watch, as she proudly walks the water by night 
 or journeys among strangers in foreign lands, wherever 
 he goes, or however employed as often as his thoughts 
 revisit the scenes of his childhood, and dwell with inter- 
 est upon the events that marked his youthful progress, 
 he will recur to the old familiar schoolhouse, call up its 
 well-remembered incidents its joys and its sorrows its 
 trials and its triumphs its all-pervading and ever-abiding 
 influences, and devoutly thank God for the gift of a 
 faithful, self-denying, patient teacher. 
 
 Gratitude of Parents. But the teacher is rewarded, 
 also by the gratitude of parents and friends. Some of 
 the sweetest moments a teacher ever experiences are 
 those when a parent takes him by the hand, and, with 
 cordial sincerity and deep emotion, thanks him for what 
 he has done for his child. It may have been a wayward, 
 thoughtless, perhaps a vicious boy, whom kind words and 
 a warm heart on the part of the teacher have won back 
 to the path of rectitude and virtue. 
 
 Widow's Gratitude. I have seen an old lady and I 
 shall never forget the sight bending under the infirmi- 
 ties of age, blind, and yet dependent mainly upon her 
 labor for support, invoking the richest of Heaven's bless- 
 ings upon the head of a teacher, who, by kindness and 
 perseverance, had won back her wayward grandson to 
 obedience and duty. How her full soul labored as she 
 described the change that had taken place ! Her emo- 
 tion too deep for utterance in words found expres- 
 sion only in tears that streamed from her sightless eyes ! 
 She felt that her boy was again a child of hope and 
 promise, and that he might yet be a virtuous and a use- 
 ful man. The world may raise its empty acclamation to
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 307 
 
 honor the man of power and of fame ; it may applaud 
 the statesman and weave the chaplet for the conqueror's 
 brow, but the teacher, humble and obscure though he 
 may be, who is the object of the widow's gratitude for 
 being the orphan's friend, with the consciousness of de- 
 serving it, is a happier, I had almost said a greater, man. 
 Surely, he receives a greater reward! 
 
 VII. Approval of Heaven. The faithful teacher en- 
 joys the approval of Heaven. He is employed, if he has 
 a right spirit, in a heavenly mission. He is doing his 
 Heavenly Father's business. That man should be made 
 wiser and happier is the will of Heaven. To this end 
 the Son of God the Great Teacher came to bless our 
 race. So far as the schoolmaster has the spirit of Jesus, 
 he is engaged in the same great work. Heaven regards 
 with complacency the humble efforts of the faithful 
 teacher to raise his fellow-beings from the darkness of 
 ignorance and the slavery of superstition ; and if a more 
 glorious crown is held in reserve for one rather than 
 another, it is for him who, uncheered by worldly applause 
 and without the prospect of adequate reward from his fel- 
 low-men, cheerfully practices the self-denial of his Master, 
 spending his strength, and doing with diligence and 
 patience " whatsoever his hand findeth to do " towards 
 raising his fellow-beings to happiness and heaven. 
 
 The Teacher's Epitaph. It is such a teacher that 
 the eloquent and gifted Lord Brougham describes in the 
 following beautiful language : 
 
 " He meditates and prepares, in secret, the plans 
 which are to bless mankind ; he slowly gathers around 
 him those who are to further their execution ; he 
 quietly though firmly advances in his humble path, 
 laboring steadily, but calmly, till he has opened to the
 
 308 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 light all the recesses of ignorance, and torn up by the 
 roots the weeds of vice. His progress is not to be com- 
 pared with anything like the march of the conqueror ; 
 but it leads to a far more brilliant triumph, and to 
 laurels more imperishable than the destroyer of his 
 species, the scourge of the world, ever won. Each one 
 of these great teachers of the world, possessing his soul 
 in peace, performs his appointed course, waits in pa- 
 tience the fulfillment of the promises, and resting from 
 his labors, bequeaths his memory to the generation 
 whom his works have blessed, and sleeps under the 
 humble but not inglorious epitaph commemorating 
 ' one in whom mankind lost a friend, and no wan got 
 rid of an enemy' ' 
 
 Cease Repining. In view of what has been said, let 
 the teacher cease to repine at his hard lot. Let him 
 cast an occasional glance at the bright prospect before 
 him. He deserves, to be sure, a higher pecuniary re- 
 ward than he receives ; and he should never cease to 
 press this truth upon the community till talent in 
 teaching is as well compensated as talent in any other 
 calling. But whether he gains this, or not, let him 
 dwell upon the privileges and rewards to be found in 
 the calling itself, and take fresh encouragement. 
 
 Magnify His Office How. The apostle Paul 
 exhibited great wisdom when he said, " / magnify mine 
 office" If the foregoing views respecting the importance 
 of the teacher's calling are correct, he may safely follow 
 the Apostle's example. This is not, however, to be done 
 merely by boastful words. No man can elevate himself 
 or magnify his office in public estimation by indulging 
 in empty declamation, or by passing inflated resolutions. 
 He must feel the dignity of his profession, and show that
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 309 
 
 he feels it by unremitted exertions to attain to the high- 
 est excellence of which he is capable animated, in the 
 midst of his toil, chiefly by the great moral recompense 
 which every faithful teacher may hope to receive. 
 
 Moral Recompense. Final Reward. Let every 
 teacher, then, study to improve himself intellectually and 
 morally ; let him strive to advance in the art of teaching ; 
 let him watch the growth of mind under his culture and 
 take the encouragement which that affords ; let him con- 
 sider the usefulness he may effect and the circumstances 
 which make his calling honorable ; let him prize the 
 gratitude of his pupils and of their parents and friends, 
 and, above all,, let him value the approval of Heaven, and 
 set a proper estimate upon the rewards which another 
 world will unfold to him ; and thus be encouraged to toil 
 on in faithfulness and in hope, till, having finished his 
 course, and being gathered to the home of the righteous, 
 he shall meet multitudes, instructed by his wise precept, 
 and profited by his pure example, who " shall rise up and 
 call him blessed."
 
 310 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 Theory and Practice of Teaching. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. What is Teaching ? 
 
 2. In the expression " Theory and Practice of Teach- 
 ing," what is meant by " Theory ?" 
 
 3. What is meant by " Practice," in the same expres- 
 sion ? 
 
 4. Should objects be frequently used in teaching 
 numbers to young pupils ? Give reason. 
 
 5. Which would you teach first, long division or short 
 division ? 
 
 6. Of what use is the study of English Grammar? 
 
 7. How young should the study of grammar be 
 commenced ? 
 
 8. What are the principal methods of teaching 
 children to read ? 
 
 9. Of what do these methods consist ? 
 
 10. What should be the first step in teaching color ? 
 
 11. Give reasons for the teacher thoroughly reviewing 
 each lesson before presenting it. 
 
 12. What kind of literature should the teacher read ? 
 
 13. It is frequently said that " the teacher learns more 
 than his pupils." Is this true ? 
 
 14. Give some proper incentives to study. 
 
 15. What are the benefits of reviews?
 
 QUESTIONS. 811 
 
 16 When should reviews be given? 
 
 17. What should reviews cover? 
 
 18. To what extent should a teacher answer questions? 
 
 19. To what extent should the pupil recite in the 
 language of the book ? 
 
 20. What is the value of illustrations in class work ? 
 
 21. How is good language principally learned ? 
 
 22. Given the subject, " George Washington," show 
 what should be required of a class preparatory to a writ, 
 ten composition. 
 
 23. Why should pupils be required to solve many 
 promiscuous problems ? 
 
 24. Why is it objectionable to formulate a code of 
 rules for the management of schools? 
 
 25. How may a good newspaper be made serviceable 
 in teaching geography ? 
 
 26. (a) How would you show objectively to a class of 
 pupils the muscles that bend the lower arm ; (b) the 
 muscles that bend the fingers ? 
 
 27. Name three causes of disorder in school. 
 
 28 Why should pupils be required to play out of doors 
 in favorable weather ? 
 
 29. What control over the pupils should the teacher 
 exercise with reference to their conduct towards the 
 public? 
 
 30. To what does an excess of oral instruction tend ? 
 
 31. In drawing, which type form should be studied 
 first? Why? 
 
 32. In what does good order in the schoolroom consist? 
 
 33. (a) Name the perceptive faculties, (b) To the 
 cultivation of which two of these does the teacher give 
 most attention ?
 
 r.li THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 34. Name a purpose of an examination (a) valuable to 
 the pupil ; (b) valuable to the teacher. 
 
 35. Why should persons intending to teach study 
 ' Methods of Teaching ?" 
 
 36. Give two characteristics of a proper question for 
 developing work. 
 
 37. Why is a brief review of former work essential 
 before beginning developing work ? 
 
 38. Give two means of securing attention. 
 
 39. Give three means of holding attention. 
 
 40. Illustrate a method ot teaching reduction of a 
 fraction from one fractional unit to another. 
 
 41. Why should not a teacher habitually read the 
 questions from a text-book for the pupils to answer ? 
 
 42. What is the meaning of drill as applied to school- 
 room work, and how long should it be continued on any 
 given topic? 
 
 43. Give three cautions to be observed by teachers to 
 prevent little children from taking cold. 
 
 44. How may drawing or sketching be utilized in 
 teaching reading, geography, or arithmetic? 
 
 45. What faculty of the mind is exercised most in 
 solving problems? 
 
 46. State some of the inferences Mr. Page drew from a 
 neglected pear tree. 
 
 47. Name three things in a child's education for which 
 the teacher is in a measure responsible. 
 
 48. Explain the statement, " Knowledge alone is not 
 education." 
 
 49. A pupil asking assistance should not always be 
 immediately aided. Why ? 
 
 50. Give at least two objections to making many rules 
 for school observance.
 
 QUESTIONS. 813 
 
 51. Name at least four requirements that should be 
 made of pupils in oral spelling. 
 
 52. Name devices for noting mistakes in written 
 spelling. 
 
 53. Name the ends sought in a good course in drawing. 
 
 54. What should be the desired purpose in intellectual 
 training ? 
 
 55. In education what powers are to be cultivated, and 
 in what order as regards time ? 
 
 56. (a) In what does the pouring-in-process of educa- 
 tion consist ? (&) What are some of its faults ? 
 
 57. The pupil asking assistance should not be frowned 
 upon. Why? 
 
 58. Name requisites in the teacher for good govern- 
 ment. 
 
 59. Name two of the advantages claimed for the 
 sentence method of teaching reading. 
 
 60. What is the teacher's only effective remedy for 
 useless worry ? 
 
 61. Mention some of the injurious effects of home 
 criticism of the teacher. 
 
 62. What study should be taught in connection with 
 geography ? Why ? 
 
 63. Name four personal habits that should characterize 
 the teacher. 
 
 64. Give reasonable means of securing good order. 
 
 65. From a series of concrete illustrations we demon- 
 strate the fact that |- is larger than f , and that f is larger 
 than -j^j-. What general truth in regard to fractions is to 
 be deduced ? What power of the mind is mainly culti- 
 vated in such an exercise ? 
 
 66. Why should teachers adopt plans specially adapted 
 to their conditions and ability ?
 
 314 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 67. Should a teacher limit himself to teaching what is 
 in a text book ? Why ? 
 
 68. How can teachers interest primary pupils in their 
 work ? 
 
 69. How can the table of linear measure be taught 
 objectively ? 
 
 70. Mention two ways of teaching morals to children. 
 
 71. Mention two great objects to be accomplished in 
 education. 
 
 72. In primary work, to what mental faculties of the 
 children should the teacher most largely appeal? 
 
 73. What points should receive most consideration in 
 the study of history, in advanced classes ? 
 
 74. State two advantages of physical culture. 
 
 75. How should swearing on the play-ground be 
 treated ? 
 
 76. Name two objects which should be sought in 
 teaching reading in advanced classes. 
 
 77. In connection with what study should phonics be 
 taught ? Why ? 
 
 78. What is the object of using a scale in map drawing ? 
 
 79. How can pupils determine the direction of the 
 slope of the land from a map ? 
 
 80. Name three things that should receive special 
 attention in oral language work, that cannot be taught in 
 written work. 
 
 81. How may the table of liquid measure be taught 
 objectively ? 
 
 82. Name the powers of the mind which are developed 
 and strengthened by the study of drawing. 
 
 83. Why is it important for the teacher to study 
 children ?
 
 QUESTIONS. 315 
 
 84. How may the observing powers of the child be 
 cultivated ? 
 
 85. Mention three ways of promoting regularity in 
 attendance. 
 
 86. Upon what does a good method depend ? 
 
 87. In what ways may knowledge of form be expressed ? 
 
 88. What is meant by abstract instruction ? 
 
 89. Name three causes that make some children dislike 
 school. 
 
 90. Define perception. 
 
 91. How could the difference between i" and I sec. be 
 explained to a pupil? 
 
 92. Should pupils of third and fourth reader grades 
 memorize a portion of the reading lesson, daily ? Why ? 
 
 93. What is the basis of the science of education ? 
 
 94. Mention two good results to be obtained by the 
 use of supplementary reading. 
 
 95. Why should the pupil not be taught to write large 
 numbers during his first year in school ? 
 
 96. State two objections to the self-reporting system in 
 scholarship and deportment. 
 
 97. (a) In teaching a child that has not been out of the 
 United States the geography of London, what faculty of 
 the mind is principally exercised ? (b) In comparing 
 London with a city that he has seen, what faculty is 
 principally exercised? 
 
 98. Name causes of tardiness for which the teacher is 
 responsible. 
 
 99. Mention some of the causes of listlessness in school. 
 
 100. What is a good school ? 
 
 101. On what does maintenance of order during class 
 room instruction depend?
 
 816 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 102. Mention valuable educational results of properly 
 conducted reviews. 
 
 103. How can ability in drawing best be acquired ? 
 104: (a) Name causes of tardiness in school for which 
 
 parents are responsible. (^) Give some devices to secure 
 their co-operation in diminishing tardiness. 
 
 105. Why should the teacher generally avoid sarcasm 
 and ridicule when reproving or criticising pupils ? 
 
 106 Name four purposes of the recitation. 
 
 107. What results should we seek to obtain in teaching 
 penmanship? 
 
 108. Name three conditions of the school-room favor- 
 able to study. 
 
 109. How can a sense of right among pupils be 
 promoted ? 
 
 no Give three arguments in favor of oral spelling. 
 
 ANSWERS. 
 
 1. Teaching is guiding a pupil in those exercises 
 which, performed by himself, will best develop his powers. 
 
 2. The word " theory " means the body of principles 
 embracing the science and art of teaching. 
 
 3. Practice means the skillful application of rules and 
 methods deducted from the theory of teaching, and from 
 cbstrvation and experience. 
 
 4. Yes ; children gain ideas most rapidly and clearly 
 by perception 
 
 5. Long division; because in this every step can be 
 indicated by figuies. 
 
 6. (i) It disciplines the mind the fundamental object 
 of all study. (2) It gives one an idea of the correct use 
 of language.
 
 ANSWERS. 317 
 
 7. No definite age can be given ; but not until the 
 pupil can read readily and understandingly. 
 
 8. The alphabet method, the phonic method, the word 
 method, the sentence method. 
 
 9. The alphabet method teaches the letters first. The 
 phonic method teaches the sound of the letters before 
 learning the names. The word method consists of learn- 
 ing to pronounce the word before learning the names of 
 the letters. The sentence method consists of learning 
 the sentence before learning the words or letters. 
 
 10. To ascertain what the child already knows concern- 
 ing color. 
 
 ir. (i) He must thoroughly understand a subject to 
 teach it successfully. (2) No teacher can do his best 
 work if obliged to confine himself closely to the text- 
 book during recitation. 
 
 12. (i) A good daily or weekly paper. (2) A good 
 school journal and other professional literature. (3) Good 
 general literature and history. 
 
 13. It is true of any successful teacher; for to be a 
 successful teacher one must be a constant student. And 
 besides the technical knowledge gained he gets the best 
 possible knowledge of human nature. 
 
 14. A desire for knowledge. The pleasure of learning. 
 A desire to be useful and intelligent citizens. A desire 
 for the commendation of teacher, parents and friends. 
 
 15. To more thoroughly fix in the mind the lessons 
 already learned. 
 
 16. Every day. 
 
 17. The lesson of the previous day in particular, 
 together with some portion of the book previously passed 
 over.
 
 818 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 18. The teacher should never answer a question until 
 convinced that the pupil cannot work it out for himself. 
 Frequently by a word, hint or question, the pupil may be 
 put on the right train of thought and then be enabled to 
 work out satisfactory answers to difficult questions. 
 
 19. With the exception of fixed tables, dates, declen- 
 sions, conjugations, etc , it is better for the pupil to 
 express the ideas learned from the book in his own 
 language. 
 
 20. To arouse an interest, to break the monotony and 
 better hold the attention of pupils. An idea brought 
 out by an illustration becomes more firmly fixed. 
 
 21. By hearing gcod language, by reading good 
 language, and by using good language. 
 
 22. To make an outline. To arrange the heads in a 
 logical order. To amplify the heads. To join the parts 
 into a whole. 
 
 23. To ascertain that they have not merely memorized 
 the rules, and are not dependent on set forms of solution. 
 
 24. Because offences that involve moral guilt do not 
 need to be formally forbidden, and offences that interfere 
 with the success of a school or with the interests of other 
 pupils may be made obvious in the administration of the 
 school. 
 
 25. By calling the attention of the class to all items of 
 interest referring to topics in geography under considera- 
 tion. 
 
 26. (a) By having them place the fingers around the 
 fleshy part of the upper arm and close and straighten the 
 elbow joint, (b} By having them clap the fingers around 
 the fleshy part of the lower arm, and close and open the 
 hand.
 
 ANSWERS. 319 
 
 27 Inefficient teachers, unsuitable accommodations, 
 unpleasant surroundings, insufficient work. 
 
 28. Because after sitting in the schoolroom the system 
 needs pure air, and the body active exercise. 
 
 29. He should never allow them to annoy the public 
 by boisterous or uncivil conduct. He should induce 
 respect for the rights and property of others. 
 
 30. It tends to cause the instruction to degenerate into 
 mere talking, to looseness of statement and to inaccuracy 
 of conception. 
 
 31. A rectangular prism. Because this is the basis of 
 all objects having straight lines and square corners. 
 
 32. Intelligent attention, willing obedience, quiet 
 movements. 
 
 33 (a) Seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, feeling. 
 (b) Seeing and hearing. 
 
 34. (a) It enables the pupil to form a true estimate 
 of his knowledge, (b) To furnish data for recoids, 
 reports and promotions ; to enable the teacher to measure 
 the efficiency of his own work. 
 
 35. That they may become familiar with the approved 
 ideas of teaching, and derive advantage from the success- 
 ful experience of others. 
 
 36. Should be expressed in language the class can 
 understand. Should generally be based upon previous 
 answer. 
 
 37. To ascertain whether the subject upon which the 
 development work is to be based has been properly undei- 
 stood and learned. To have subject upon which develop- 
 ment work is to be based fresh in their minds. 
 
 38. Be interested in your subject and in your pupils. 
 Awaken curiosity.
 
 320 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 39 Keep pupils interested. Be well prepared. Be 
 animated. 
 
 40. Divide circular pieces of pasteboard of the same 
 size in different numbers, of equal parts. Have children 
 take one-half of one unit and see how many fourths or 
 sixths of another unit it will cover. Children should be 
 led to draw conclusi9ns, as : =f : i f : f=f , etc. 
 
 41. Destroys pupils' confidence in a teacher. 
 
 42. (a} Repetition of matter previously developed, or 
 repetition of matter which the child understands. () It 
 should be continued until the essential facts and princi- 
 ples are firmly fixed in the mind. 
 
 43. (a) Avoid draughts. (ft) See that children are 
 properly clothed when they go out of doors, (c) Do not 
 allow children to remain long in school-room wearing 
 damp clothing. 
 
 44. A sketch of the object named by a word may be 
 placed upon the board illustrating the subject under con- 
 sideration. 
 
 45. The reason. 
 
 46. Education is necessary to develop the human soul. 
 Education should begin early. It should be right educa- 
 tion. The educator should be a safe and honest man. 
 
 47. The bodily health, the intellectual growth, and 
 moral training. 
 
 48. Knowledge may be a possession of facts, rules, etc. 
 Education is a waking up of the mind, arousing the mind 
 totfhink, awakening its powers to observe, to remember, 
 to reflect, and to combine. 
 
 49. It diminishes self-reliance. 
 
 50. The multiplicity of specific rules will naturally 
 lead to offences. It is difficult to judge acts of pupils 
 by fixed laws. The rules leave the teacher no discretion.
 
 ANSWERS. 321 
 
 51. To pronounce accurately the words before they are 
 spelled ; letters, syllables and words after they are spelled. 
 
 52. Sometimes have monitors examine the exercises 
 and mark the mistakes. Have the teacher or a pupil 
 spell the words correctly, and the pupils check mis-spelled 
 words. Have the pupils compare the written exercise 
 with the words as printed in the book. 
 
 53. The recognition of the child's individuality the 
 recognition of nature as a part of the child's environ- 
 ment, the recognition of industry and art as parts of the 
 child's social environment. 
 
 54. To discipline the mind. 
 
 55. The powers of the mind, body, and heart simul- 
 taneously. 
 
 56. (a} It consists in lecturing children upon every 
 subject which occurs to the teacher, (b) The mind 
 becomes a passive recipient, taking in without resistance. 
 
 57. It disheartens him so far that imaginary difficulties 
 become insurmountable and he gives up in despair. 
 
 58. Self-government ; a confidence in his ability to 
 govern ; decision and firmness. 
 
 59. It is a natural way. The attention of the child is 
 directed to the expression of the thought. It makes the 
 child thoughtful. 
 
 60. Earnest preparation for class instruction. 
 
 61. The pupils enter the school with their faith in the 
 teacher unsettled. This lack of faith lessens their 
 interest in their work and not infrequently leads to 
 misconduct. 
 
 62. History. Each depends upon the other and lends 
 interest to it. 
 
 63. Habits of neatness, order, courtesy, punctuality, 
 and correct study.
 
 322 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 64. Be careful as to the first impression made. Avoid 
 exhibiting or entertaining a suspicious spirit. Give 
 regular and full employment. Make but few rules. 
 
 65. That of two fractions having the same numerator, 
 the one having the smaller denominator is the larger. 
 The reasoning power. 
 
 66. Plans and methods must embody the teacher's 
 ideals and be adapted to his individual characteristics and 
 power. 
 
 67. No ; because such instruction does not give suffi- 
 ciently broad culture and knowledge. 
 
 68. By giving instruction suited to their age and 
 advancement. 
 
 69. By giving the standard unit of linear measure to 
 develop the divisions and multiples of this unit, as 
 expressed in the table of linear measure. 
 
 70. By example, and by precept. 
 
 71. The development and symmetrical training of the 
 physical, intellectual, and moral powers of our being. 
 
 72. The perceptive faculties, memory and imagination. 
 
 73. Causes and results. 
 
 74. It affords healthy recreation, and develops strength 
 of body, correct position, and facility of movement. 
 
 75. The pupil should not be permitted to associate 
 with others. 
 
 76. A taste for reading good literature ; graceful and 
 forcible expression of thought ; mental discipline. 
 
 77. Reading. Because the pupils are dealing more 
 with sounds in that subject than in any other. 
 
 78- To enable the pupil to become accurate in map 
 drawing. 
 
 79. The direction in which the rivers flow determines 
 the slope.
 
 ANSWERS. 323 
 
 80. Articulation; accent ; fluency in speaking. 
 
 8 1. Use the measure gill, pt., qt., gal., etc. 
 
 82. Observation, comparison, imagination, memory, 
 reason. 
 
 83. To learn their history, their development, and from 
 these to ascertain the best way of arousing their better 
 powers to action. 
 
 84. By having him closely and systematically study 
 familiar objects and describe them. 
 
 85. By interesting the pupils, by interesting the parents, 
 by commending regularity, by punishing irregularity. 
 
 86. A knowledge of the pupil and a knowledge of the 
 subject to be presented. 
 
 87. By language, by construction and by representation. 
 
 88. Instruction without the use of illustrations or 
 objects. 
 
 89. Unkind teachers, poor teaching, unpleasant school 
 buildings. 
 
 90. It is the act of the mind in gaining knowledge 
 through the senses. 
 
 91. By showing objectively that one inch is a measure 
 of distance, and one second is a measure of time. 
 
 92. No. Because usually the material furnished in the 
 reading books is not of sufficient importance. 
 
 93. Knowledge of the being to be educated. 
 
 94. It awakens interest, arouses enthusiasm, and affords 
 valuable practice in the use of words of the same grade. 
 
 95. The pupil has no occasion to use large numbers, 
 and fails to comprehend them when written. 
 
 96. It tempts children to become deceitful and untruth- 
 ful ; the guilty escape punishment ; the innocent pupils 
 are punished ; both are wrongfully judged by the 
 teacher.
 
 334 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 97. (a) Imaginatibn. (b) Judgment. 
 
 98. Lack of promptness on the part of the teacher 
 in all school work. Lack of enthusiasm. Want of 
 preparation. 
 
 99. Improper ventilation. Inadequate attention to 
 preparatory work on the part of the teacher. Irregularity 
 in habits. 
 
 100. One in which there is suitable instruction imparted 
 by the teacher, and earnest study and good order main- 
 tained by the best motives. 
 
 101. The efficiency of the teacher. 
 
 102. Familiarity with principles, favorable opportuni- 
 ties for the backward students to master the subject, the 
 deepening of impressions upon the memory. 
 
 103. By studying the principles of drawing ; by copying 
 drawings ; by drawing from objects. 
 
 104. (a) Failure of the parent to appreciate the 
 importance of prompt attendance ; lack of regularity in 
 home life, (b} Sending reports of attendance to parents ; 
 visiting parents and explaining the importance of punc- 
 tuality and regularity in school work. 
 
 105. Because their use is unjust, and tends to engender 
 fear and hatred. 
 
 106. To induce study, to test preparation, to cultivate 
 expression, to ascertain and correct errors, to become 
 familiar with the capabilities of the pupil. 
 
 107. Legibility, rapidity, neatness. 
 
 108. Pure air, proper temperature, suitable seats, good 
 light. 
 
 109. By treating them as equals, respecting their rights, 
 and commending worthy actions. 
 
 no. It teaches correct pronunciation, syllabication, 
 distinct enunciation and trains the senses of hearing and 
 attention. 
 
 '
 
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