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 The Commonwealth of Australia 
 
 FEDERAL 
 HANDBOOK 
 
 PREPARED IN CONNECTION WITH THE 
 EIGHTY-FOURTH MEETING 
 
 OF 
 
 THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE 
 
 HELD IN AUSTRALIA, 
 
 AUGUST, 1914. 
 
 COMPILED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE 
 FEDERAL COUNCIL OF THE ASSOCIATION 
 
 EDITED BY 
 G. H. KNIBBS, C.M.G., F.R.A.S., F.S.S. 
 
 :: :: AND PUBLISHED BY THE :: 
 
 COMMONWEALTH GOVERNMENT 
 
 By Aulhority ; Albert J. MuIIelt. Government Printer, Mtlbourne. 
 
 wt^-=
 
 -^■11 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 This Handbook, specially prepared for the use of member's of the British 
 Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Australian Meeting of 
 1914, contains a series of articles written by persons selected for that 
 purpose by the Federal Council in Australia. These articles set forth 
 matters which, it is believed, will be found of interest, and the data of 
 which are in most cases not readily accessible to general readers abroad, 
 nor even to those in Australia. Much of the material also has not hitherto 
 been published. 
 
 The issue of the Handbook has been made possible by the generosity of 
 the Federal Government of Australia in undertaking to defray the expense 
 of publication. That Government also has very kindly placed all desired 
 official sources of information in its possession at the disposal of the 
 Editor. 
 
 The articles were decided upon by the Federal Council in Australia of 
 the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in whose name the 
 invitation was made to each of the writers to contribute. Each author is 
 alone responsible for all statements made or opinions expressed in his 
 article. 
 
 The closing chapter refers to miscellaneous matters worthy of mention 
 which were not coveied by the pi'eceding chapters. 
 
 Editor. 
 
 Melbourne, March, 1914. 
 
 ;:(Jivr57
 
 coisrTEisrTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter I. — History of Australia . . . . . . . . i 
 
 By Ernest Scott, Professor of History ia the University of Melbourne. 
 Chapter II. — The Aboriginals of Australia . . . . . . . . 33 
 
 By W. Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Biology in 
 the University of Melbourne. 
 
 Chapter III. — -The Physical and General Geography of Australia . . 86 
 
 By Griffith Taylor, B.Sc, B.E., B.A., F.G.S., Physiographer in the Com- 
 monwealth Bureau of Meteorology. 
 
 Chapter IV. — Climate of Australia .. .. .. .. ..122 
 
 By H. A. Hunt, F.R.Met.S., Commonwealth Meteorologist. 
 
 Chapter V.^Australian Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . 163 
 
 By J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., Government Botanist, New South Wales. 
 
 Chapter VI. — The Animal Life of Australia . . . . . . . . 210 
 
 By W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Biology in the 
 University of Sydney. 
 
 Chapter VII. — -The Geology of the Commonwealth . . . . . , 241 
 
 By T. W. Edgeworth DA^^D, C.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Geology 
 in the University of Sydney ; E. W. Skeats, D.Sc, A.R.C.S., F.G.S., 
 Professor of Geology in the University of Melbourne ; T. S. Hall, M.A., 
 D.Sc, Lecturer in Biology in the Univei-sity of Melbourne ; W. S. Dun, 
 Lecturer in Palaeontology in the Universitj- of Sydney ; and F. Chap- 
 man, A.L.S., Palaeontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne . 
 
 Chapter VIII. — -Astronomy and Geodesy In Australia . . . . . . 326 
 
 By PiETRO Baracchi, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer of Victoria. 
 
 Chapter IX. — -The Pastoral and Agricultural Development of Australia 391 
 By G. A. Sinclair, Agricultural Editor of the Australasian. 
 
 Chapter X. — Mining Fields of AustraliI . . . . . . . . 410 
 
 By E. F. PiTTMAN, A.R.S.M., Government Geologist of New South Wales, 
 and A. Gibb ALiiTLAND, F.G.S., Government Geologist of Western 
 Australia. 
 
 Chapter XL — Manufactures, Industrial and Commercial Development of 
 
 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 
 
 By Gerald Lightfoot, M.A., Barrister-at-law, 
 
 Chapter XII. — Educational Policy and Development . . . . . . 509 
 
 By Francis Anderson, M.A., Professor of Logic and Mental Philosophy in 
 the University of Sydney. 
 
 Chapter XIII. — Political Systems of Australia .. .. .. 546 
 
 By W. Harrison Mooee, B.A., LL.D., Professor of Law in the University 
 of Melbourne. 
 
 Chapter XIV. — Miscellaneous Notes on Australia, its People, and their 
 
 AcTivrrrES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 
 
 By G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., F.S.S., F.R.A.S., etc.. Commonwealth Statistician. 
 
 0.12154.
 
 INDEX TO MAPS, ILLUSTRATIONS, ETC 
 
 Map of Australasia 
 
 Map of New South Wales 
 
 Map of Victoria 
 
 Map of Queensland 
 
 Map of South Australia . . 
 
 Map of Western Australia 
 
 Map of Tasmania 
 
 Map of Northern Teri-itory 
 
 Aboriginal Types, Customs, etc. 
 
 Tribal Map of Australia . . 
 
 Physiographic Features in the Vicinity of Sydney 
 
 'J'he Federal Capital Territory 
 
 The Topography of Melbourne and its Environs 
 
 Map of Australia, showing Wet Bulb Isotherms 
 
 Graph of Temperatures of Australian Cities 
 
 Map of Australia, showing Yearly Temperature 
 
 Frost Map of Australia . . 
 
 Rainfall Map of Australia 
 
 Graph of Rainfall of Australian Cities 
 
 Map showing Average Rainfall for Wheat-growing Period 
 
 Graph of Monthly Evaporation at Selected Stations 
 
 Map of Australia showing Isobars 
 
 Graph of Monthly Atmospheric Pressure at Principal Cities 
 
 Relief Map of Australia . . 
 
 Relief Model of Australia 
 
 Tectonic Features of Australia 
 
 Orographical Map of Australia 
 
 Geological Map of Australia 
 
 Geological Section of Australia, West to East 
 
 Geological Section of Australia, North to South 
 
 Map of New Guinea 
 
 Geological Section of Papua 
 
 Railway Systems of Australia 
 
 Graphs of Total Trade, Exports and Imports of the Common w 
 
 ealth 
 
 Chart showing Scheme of PubHc Education in New South Wales 
 
 text. 
 
 * Besides the above, there are several small maps, diagrams, etc., inserted in the
 
 BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF 
 
 SCIENCE. 
 
 VISIT TO AUSTRALIA, 1914. 
 
 Patron. 
 HIS MAJESTY THE KING. 
 
 OFFICERS: 
 
 President. 
 Professor William Bateson, M.A., F.R.S. 
 
 Immediate Past President. 
 Sir Oliver Lodge, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 Vice-Presidents. 
 
 His Excellency the Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. 
 Their Excellencies the Governors of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, 
 
 South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania. 
 The Honorable the Prime Minister of the Commonwealth. 
 The Honorable the Premiers of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, 
 
 South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania. 
 The Right Honorable the Lord Mayors of Sydney and Melbourne. 
 The Right Worshipful the Mayors of Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, Hobart. 
 The Chancellors of the Universities of Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Tasmania, 
 
 Queensland, Western Australia. 
 
 General Treasurer. 
 Professor John Perry, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 General Secretaries. 
 
 Professor W. A. Herdman, D.Sc, F.R.S. 
 Professor H. H. Turner, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
 
 Assistant Secretary. 
 0. J. R. Howarth, M.A., Burlington House, London, W. 
 
 Chief Clerk and Assistant Treasurer. 
 H. C. StewardsoD, Burlington House, London, W.
 
 Federal Council tor the Australian Meeting. 
 
 President. — The Honorable the Prime Minister of the Commonwealth. 
 Chairman. — Professor Orme Masson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 
 Secretary. — M. L. Shepherd, Prime Minister's Department, Melbourne. 
 
 General Organizing Secretary for the Australian Meeting. 
 A. C. D. Rivett, M.A., D.Sc, University of Melbourne, Victoria. 
 
 Local Ofificers for the Australian Meeting 
 New South Wales. 
 CAaw man.— Professor T. W. Edgeworth David, C.M.G., B.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. 
 Secretary. — J. H. Maiden, F.L.S. 
 Treasurer. — H. G. Chapman, M.D., B.S. 
 
 Victoria. 
 Chairman. — Professor Orme Masson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 
 Secretary. — Professor Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. 
 Treasurer. — Charles Bage, M.A., M.D. 
 
 Queensland. 
 Chairman. — Professor B. D. Steele, D.Sc. 
 Secretary. — T. E. Jones, B.A. 
 
 South Australia. 
 C/iaimaw.— Professor E. C. Stirling. C.M.G., M.A., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. 
 F.R.C.S. 
 
 Secretary. — Professor Kerr Grant, M.Sc 
 Treasurer. — Thomas Gill, I.S.O. 
 
 Western Australia. 
 Chairman. — Hon. Walter Kingsmill, B.A., M.L.C. 
 Secretary. — James S. Battye, B.A., LL.B. (on leave). 
 Acting Secretaries. — Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc; W. Catton Grasby, F.L.S. 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 Chairman. — Hon. G. H. Butler. 
 
 Secretary. — Professor T. Thomson Flymi, B.Sc. 
 
 Sectional Officers. 
 Section A.— Mathematics and Physics. 
 President— VxoiQS.&ov F. T. Trouton, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (London). 
 Vice-Presidents.— -:i . H. Jeans, M.A., F.R.S. (Cambridge) ; Professor A. W. 
 
 Porter, B.Sc, F.R.S. (London). 
 Recorder. — Professor A. S. Eddington, M.A., M.Sc, (Cambridge). 
 Secretaries. — A. 0. Rankine, D.Sc. (London) ; E. Gold, M.A. (London) ; 
 
 Professor S. B. Maclaren. M.A. (Reading). 
 Local Secretary for Sydney. — Professor J. A. Pollock, D.Sc. 
 Local Secretary for Melbourne.— ^Toiessov T. R. Lyle, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.
 
 Section B— Chemistry. 
 Prest(ie«/.— Professor W. J. Pope, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Cambridge). 
 Vice-Presidents.— Pvoiessor H. B. Dixon, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Manchester) ; 
 
 F. Clowes, D.Sc, F.I.C. (London). 
 Recorder.— A. Holt, M.A., D.Sc. (Liverpool). 
 Secretary.— 'N. V. Sidgwick, M.A., D.Sc. (Oxford). 
 Local Secretary Jor Sydney. — Professor C. Fawsitt, D.Sc, Ph.D. 
 Local Secretary Jor Melbourne. — D. Avery, M.Sc. 
 
 Section C- - Geology. 
 President.— 8iv T. H. Holland, K.C.I.E., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Manchester). 
 Vice-Presidents. — Professor W. S. Boulton, D.Sc. (Birmingham) ; Professor 
 
 J. W. SoUas, ScD., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Oxford). 
 Recorder. — -A. R. Dwerryhouse, D.Sc. (Belfast). 
 Secretary. — Professor S. H. Reynolds, M.A. (Bristol). 
 Local Secretary jor Sydney. — -E. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M. 
 Local Secretary jor Melbourne. — -Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc, A.R.C.S,, F.G.S. 
 
 Section D.— Zoology. 
 
 President. — Professor Arthur Dendy, D.Sc, F.R.S. (London). 
 Vice-Presidents. -^B.. F. Gadow, Ph.D., F.R.S. (Cambridge) ; Professor 
 
 E. A. Minchin, Ph.D., F.R.S. (London). 
 Recorder.— Karett Tims, M.A., M.D. (Cambridge). 
 Secretaries. — -R. D. Laurie, M.A. (Liverpool) ; J. H. Ashworth, D.Sc. 
 
 (Edinburgh). 
 Local Secretary jor Sydney. — -Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. 
 Local Secretary jor Melbourne.— T. S. Hall, M.A., D.Sc. 
 
 Section E — Geography. 
 
 PrmfZeni.— Sir C. P. Lucas, K.C.B., K.C.M.G. (London). 
 
 Vice-Presidents.— W. S. Bruce, LL.D., F.R.S.E. (Edinburgh) ; Sir Daniel 
 
 Morris, K.C.M.G., D.Sc. 
 Recorder.— R. Yule Oldham, M.A. (Cambridge). 
 Secretary. — J. McFarlane, M.A. (Manchester). 
 Local Secretary jor Sydney. — -F. Poate. 
 Local Secretary jor Melbourne. — J. A. Leach, D.Sc. 
 
 Section F.— Economic Science and Statistics. 
 
 President. — Professor E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. (Liverpool). 
 Vice-President. — Sir Henry Cunynghame, K.C.B. (Folkestone). 
 Recorder. — Professor Kirkaldy, M.A., M.Comm., B.Litt. (Birmingham). 
 Ijocal Secretary jor Sydney. — ^Professor R. F. L'vine. M.A. 
 Local Secretary jor Melbourne.— G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., F.R.A.S., F.S.S. 
 
 Section G.— Engineering. 
 President.— Professor E. G. Coker, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E. (London). 
 Vice-Presidents. — Professor Petavel D.Sc, F.R.S. (Manchester) ; Professor 
 
 George Forbes, M.A., F.R.S., M.List. C.E. (London). 
 Recorder. — Professor G. W. 0. Howe, M.Sc. (London). 
 Secretary. — Professor W. M. Thornton, D.Sc. (Newcastle). 
 Local Secretary jor Sydney. — Professor W. H. Warren, M.Iiist. C.E. 
 Local Secretary jor Melbourne. — Professor H. Payne, M.Inst. C.E., M.LMech.E.
 
 Section H.— Anthropology. 
 President. — Sir Everavd im Tliurn, C.B., K.C.M.G. (London). 
 Vice-Presidents. — Sir Richard Temple, Bart., C.I.E.; Henry Balfour, M.A. 
 
 (Oxford). 
 Recorder. — E. W. Martindell, M.A. (London). 
 Secretary.— B,. R. Marett, M.A., D.Sc. (Oxford). 
 
 Local Secretary Jar Sydney. —l^roiessov J. T. Wilson, M.B., Ch,M., F.R.S. 
 Local Secretary Jor Melbourne. — -Professor R. J. A. Berry, M.B., F.R.C.S., 
 
 F.R.S.E. 
 
 Section I —Physiology. 
 
 President.^BT. C. J. Martin, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (London). 
 Vice-Presidents.— ¥roiessov\Y. D. Halliburton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (London) ; 
 
 Professor C. S. Sherrington, M.A., M.D., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. (Oxford). 
 Recorder. — Professor P. T. Herring, M.D. (St. Andrews). 
 Secretary.— 'Pvoiessov T. H. Milroy, M.D., B.Sc, F.R.S.E. (Belfast). 
 Local Secretary Jor Sydney. — -Professor T. P. Anderson Stuart, M.D., Ch.M., 
 
 LL.D., D.Sc. 
 Local Secretary for Melbourne. — ^Professor W. A. Osborne, M.B., B.Ch., D.Sc. 
 
 Section K.— Botany. 
 
 President. — Professor F. 0. Bower, D.Sc, F.R.S. (Glasgow). 
 Vice-Presidents.— Pvoiessor A. C. Seward, M.A., F.R.S. (Cambridge) ; Mis.s 
 
 E. R. Saunders (Cambridge). 
 Recorder.— C. E. Moss, D.Sc (Cambridge). 
 Secretary. — Miss E. N. Thomas, B.Sc. (London). 
 Local Secretary for Sydney. — Professor A. A. Lawson, D.Sc, F.R.S.E. 
 Local Secretary for Melbourne. — Professor A. J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S. 
 
 Section L. Educational Science. 
 
 President. — Professor John Perry, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. (London). 
 Vice-Presidents. — Professor Henry E. Armstrong, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 (London) ; G. T. Moody, D.Sc. (London). 
 Recorder. — -Professor J. A. Green, M.A. (Sheffield). 
 Secretary. — C. A. Buckmaster, M.A. (London). 
 Local Secretary for Sydney. — P. Board, M.A. 
 Local Secretary for Melbourne. — -J. Smyth, M.A., Ph.D. 
 
 Section M.— Agriculture. 
 
 President.— A. D. Hall, M.A., F.R.S. (London). 
 
 Vice-Presidents. — Profes.sor Wood, M.A. (Cambridge), E. S. Beaven (Cam- 
 bridge). 
 Recorder. — J. Golding, F.LC. (Reading). 
 Secretary. — Alex. Lauder, D.Sc. (Edinburgh). 
 Local Secretary for Sydney. — Professor R. D. Watt, M.A., B.Sc. 
 Local Secretary for Melbourne. — Professor T. Cherry, M.D., M.S.
 
 FEDERAL COUNCIL, MARCH 1914. 
 
 Commonwealth— 
 
 The Honorable Joseph Cook, M.P., Prime Minister of the Common- 
 wealth of Australia. 
 The Eight Honorable Andrew Fisher, M.P., P.C. 
 The Honorable A. Deakin. 
 J. A. Gilruth, D.V.Sc, M.E.C.V.S., F.E.S.E. 
 Atlee Hunt, C.M.G. 
 H. A. Hunt, F.E. Met. Soc. 
 G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., F.E.A.S., F.S.S. 
 The Honorable Chas. McDonald, M.P. 
 A. C. D. Eivett, M.A., D.Sc. 
 
 Professor Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc, F.E.S. 
 Senator the Honorable H. Turley. 
 
 Members Ex Officio. 
 President Associated Chambers of Manufactures. 
 President Associated Chambers of Commerce. 
 Chairman Associated Banks. 
 
 President Commercial Travellers' Association of Australasia. 
 Chief President Australian Natives' Association. 
 Chairman Australian Steam-ship Owners' Federation. 
 
 New South Wales— 
 
 The Honorable Thomas Brown, M.P. 
 
 E. H. Cambage, President Eoyal Society of New South Wales. 
 
 H. G. Chapman, M.D., B.S. 
 
 Professor T. W. Edgeworth David, C.M.G., B.A., D.Sc, F.E.S. 
 
 J. H. Maiden, F.L.S. 
 
 E. Teece, F.I.A., F.F.A., F.S.S. 
 
 Victoria— 
 
 J. W. Barrett, C.M.G., M.D., M.S., F.E.C.S. 
 
 Professor T. E. Lyle, M.A., D.Sc, F.E.S. 
 
 J. H. MacFarland, M.A., LL.D. (Vice Chancellor of the University). 
 
 W. Maloney, L.S.A., M.P. 
 
 Professor Orme Masson, M.A., D.Sc, F.E.S., F.E.S.E. 
 
 Professor H. Payne, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. 
 
 C. C. Salmon, L.E.C.P., L.E.C.S., M.P. 
 
 Queensland— 
 
 A. H. H. Feez, K.C 
 
 W. F. Finlayson, M.P. 
 
 Professor A. J. Gibson, A.M.I.C.E. 
 
 The Honorable L. E. Groom, M.A., LL.M., M.P. 
 
 Professor H. J. Priestly, M.A. 
 
 Professor Bertram D. Steele, D.Sc 
 
 The Honorable A. H. Whittingham, M.L.C
 
 South Australia— 
 
 W. 0. Ai-chibald, M.P. 
 
 The Honorable P. McM. Glynn, M.P., K.C. 
 
 Professor Kerr Grant, M.Sc. 
 
 H. Angas Parsons, M.H.A. 
 
 Professor E. C. Stirling, C.M.G., M.A., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.C.S 
 
 The Right Honorable Sir S. J. Way, Bart., P.C, LL.D. 
 
 Western Australia— 
 
 W. Catton Grasby, F.L.S. 
 
 The Honorable J. M. Powler, M.P. 
 
 Senator the Honorable Hugh de Largie. 
 
 Tasmania— 
 
 L. Atkinson, M.P. 
 Professor T. Thomson Flynn, B.Sc. 
 Senator the Honorable J. J. Long. 
 Fritz Noetling, M.A., Ph.D. 
 
 New Zealand- 
 Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A. 
 Professor T. H. Laby, B.A.
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA 
 
 Statute Miles
 
 TASMANIA 
 
 statute M/Ves
 
 NORTHERN TERRITORY 
 
 100 zoo 
 
 St^Zut^ Mi/es
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 By Ernest Scott, Professor of History in the University of Melbourne. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. The Name of Australia. 
 
 2. Coastal Explokatiox. 
 
 3. The Fousdation of Settlement. 
 
 4. The Convict System. 
 
 5. Inland Exploration. 
 
 6. Extension of Colonization. 
 
 7. Progress of Settlement. 
 
 8. The Gold Discoveries. 
 
 9. Constitutional Government. 
 
 10. The Achievement of Federation. 
 
 11. Bibliography. 
 
 1. The Name of Australia. 
 
 The name Australia was given to the great southern continent by 
 Matthew Flinders, the navigator. Before his time, it was generally called 
 New Holland ; but, as he pointed out, the Dutch had known nothing of the 
 southern and eastern coasts, whilst the name New South Wales, which 
 Cook gave to the eastern portion, could not be applied to the whole country, 
 since Cook had known nothing of the west, north-west, and south. Flinders 
 wanted a convenient name that would describe the entire area which his 
 own researches had demonstrated to be one large island. He was writing 
 his Voyage to Terra Australis while held a prisoner by the French in Ile-de- 
 France (Mauritius), from 1803-1810, and it occurred to him that " Aus- 
 tralia " would be a good, serviceable name. He did not invent the word. 
 De Brosses, in his Histoire des Navigations aux Terres Australes (Paris, 1756), 
 had coined the word " Australasia " as a name for a division of the globe, 
 and Dalrymple, in the preface to his Historical Collection of Voyages and 
 Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean (London, 1770), suggested "Australia" 
 as a name for the region east of South America. Shaw and Smith, in 
 their Zoology and Botany of New Holland (1793), spoko of " the ontincnt 
 of Australia, Australasia or New Holland," but it is not probable that 
 Flinders had over seen their book. He sought to secure official sanction for 
 the adoption of the name for this continent. He used it repeatedly 
 in his correspondence after 1804, and first employed it publicly in a geo- 
 graphical paper, written in French, and published by Malte-Brun, in the 
 Annales des Voyages (Paris, 1810). But lie was by no means sure that the 
 innovation would be approved. " II reste a savoir," he wrote, " si ce nom 
 sera adopte par des geographes europeens." When he was liberated and 
 returned to England, he endeavoured to bring the name into official 
 use, but Sir Joseph Banks was not favorable, and Arrowsmith, the pub- 
 lisher of Admiralty charts, " did not like the change " because his firm had 
 always employed " New Holland " in their publications. The history of 
 Flinders' explorations, which was semi-official, was therefore issued under 
 the title A Voyage to Terra Australis, and the name Australia was merely 
 suggested in a footnote " as being more agreeable to the ear and an assimi- 
 lation to the names of the other great portions of the earth."* He was 
 to some extent " tongue-tied by authoritv," and the name " New Holland " 
 
 * .1 Vomine to TfTrit Aunlralix (London, 1«14), Vol. I.; the history of the name is discussed in the 
 writer's lAfe of MaUheio Flinders (Sydney, 1913), chapter 30. 
 
 0.12154
 
 2 Federal Handbook. 
 
 was used in official despatches for 40 years after he had recommended the more 
 convenient designation, though Governor Macquarie, in a despatch of April, 
 1817, expressed the hope that " Australia " would in future be employed, 
 and Peter Cunningham, the botanist, in his Two Years in New South 
 Wales (1827), referred to " Australia, as we colonials sav."* But 
 Flinders' choice has been abundantly justified, and there is some satis- 
 faction in remembering that the name borne by Australia was given to her 
 by one of the most intrepid and skilful of her maritime explorers, and one 
 who was in the full sense a man of science. 
 
 2. Coastal Exploration. 
 
 There is no sound historical evidence to support the belief that any part 
 of Australia was known to Europeans before the end of the sixteenth century. 
 The Portuguese rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, and their ships 
 began to employ the Cape route to Calicut and the East Indies after 1498. 
 The Spaniards rounded Cape Horn, crossed the Pacific, and reached the 
 Philippines in 1521. But if either Portuguese or Spanish ships sighted 
 Australia, west or east, before 1606, record of the fact has not yet come 
 to light. Speculation points to the persistence of rumours about a southern 
 Terra Incognita, or Terra Australis, and it may be considered probable that 
 at a period when it was not unusual for a ship to be blown hundreds of miles 
 out of her course, some part of the coast may have been seen. But proffered 
 "proofs" of very early discoveries prove nothing except the existence of a 
 vague sense of what proof is. That the Dutch knew of Australia before the 
 dawn of the seventeenth century is clear. In 1598, Cornelius AVytfliet wrote 
 of Terra Australis as the most southern of all lands, and as separated from 
 New Guinea by a narrow strait. That is definite and true ; but the Dutch 
 writer mentioned no particular ship that had sailed through the strait. We 
 come in contact with an actual navigator who had some part in the stoiv in 
 connexion with the voyage of Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, in 1606. 
 
 Quiros, in command of two Spanish ships, discovered the New Hebrides, 
 and thought he had found the great continent which he believed to exist 
 at the southern end of the globe. He called it Austrialia del Espiritu Santo. 
 The first word in the name is supposed to contain a compliment to Philip 
 III. of Spain, who also ruled Austria,t and is not the source whence '' Aus- 
 tralia " is derived. Quiros sailed east for Peru, but his second in command, 
 Luis de Torres, took a western course, and found the strait lying between 
 Papua and the northern extremity of Australia. In the same year the 
 Dutch ship Duyfhen entered the Gulf of Carpentaria, and her captain reported 
 on reaching Java that there was no passage through to the Pacific in that 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 The Dutch became acquainted with the west coast partly through a 
 series of accidents, partly in consequence of a change of route to the East 
 Indies. Prior to 1611, their customary course after rounding the Cape of 
 Good Hope was north to Madagascar, and then in a direct line east to Java 
 or north-east to India. But it was discovered that by sailing about 3,000 miles 
 due east from the Cape, ships met with favorable winds, and could then run 
 
 • M. Phillips, A Colonial Autocracy, p. 2. 
 
 t See Markham, Vryages of Quiros (Hakluyt Society), Vol. I., p. xxx.
 
 History op Australia. 
 
 north to Java, and complete the voyage from Holland in several months less 
 than by taking the route to Madagascar in the first instance. The consequence 
 of this change of route, which was ordered by the directors of the East India 
 Company, was that ships voyaging from the Cape to the East Indies frequently 
 found themselves off a strange, desolate coast, which one captain after another 
 marked down upon his charts, until the whole outline from the Gulf of Car- 
 pentaria to the south-west corner, at Cape Leeuwin, was mapped. The best 
 known of the Dutchmen who stumbled upon the western coast in this manner 
 was Francis Pelsart, whose ship in 1628 ran aground on the Abrollos Reef. 
 In 1642 the Governor of Java, Antony van Diemen, wishing to know more 
 of these southern lands, despatched an experienced navigator, Abel Tasman, 
 with two ships, the Heemskerk and the Zeehan, on a voyage of exploration. 
 Tasman discovered the island which now bears his name, though he did not 
 know that it was an island ; and he called it Van Diemen's Land, " in honour 
 of the Governor-General, our master, who sent us out to make discoveries." 
 
 The first Englishman to visit Australia was William Dampier, who, first in 
 1686, on board a buccaneering ship, the Swan, and secondly, in 1699, in com- 
 mand of the Roebuck, sailed along the western and north-western coasts. 
 He was not impressed by what he saw of the country. '' If it were not for 
 that sort of pleasure which results from the discovery even of the barrenest 
 spot upon the globe," he wrote, " this coast of New Holland would not have 
 charmed me much." It was owing to the fact that the Dutch and Dampier 
 always saw Australia from that aspect where it looks most forbidding, that 
 attempts to ascertain the nature of the country, its possibilities of develop 
 ment, and its capabilities for settlement, did not ensue for 190 years after 
 its whereabouts were definitely known. 
 
 The voyage of James Cook in 1768-70 brought the east coast of Australia 
 for the first time to the knowledge of the English Government. The main 
 object of Cook's Endeavour voyage was not to explore, but to observe a 
 transit of Venus at Tahiti. The observation was made on 3rd June, 1769. 
 After fulfilling the appointed duty, Cook ran down to New Zealand, and 
 sailed round it, thus disposing of a theory entertained before his time that 
 the country formed part of a great antarctic continent. He resolved to 
 return to England by way of the East Indies, and to follow the east coast 
 of New Holland wherever it might lead. The Endeavour sighted the xVus- 
 tralian coast opposite Cape Everard at six in the morning on 20th April, 
 1770. Cook named the point Cape Hicks, after Lieutenant Hicks, the 
 officer on watch, who was " the first to discover this land." He followed 
 the coast northward, discovered Botany Bay (at first called Stingray Bay) 
 on 29th April, and anchored there. On 6th May, the Endeavour, pursuing 
 her voyage, came abreast of Port Jackson, which was named after Sir George 
 Jackson, one of the Secretaries to the Admiralty. Cook did not enter the 
 harbor, which is now the glory of the largest city in Australia. He completed 
 his northward voyage, cleared the reefs of Torres Strait, and " took 
 possession of the whole eastern coast by the name of New South Wales."* 
 
 * It has been said that Cook did not originate the name Now South Wabs, and it is true tliat 
 thr: name doRS not a iii)far in his journals. Bladen, the editor of th • Hiatoric.d Rirord of Xeiv South 
 Walcx (f., 170), Ktti'n so far as to say that "the name ai)ii •ar'* to lnv,; ori«iiuvted witli Hawkesworth." ' 
 who edited Cook's voyaKC. But Kitson {Life of Cook. p. ]40| ciU's a letter writti'ii by Cook. 1771 
 whi^rein he uses the words : "the east coast of New Holland, or what I c.ill New South Wab-i;." 
 Hawkejworth, It would therefore appear, obtained the name from ('ook hinwtlf 
 
 A 2
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The exploration of tlie Australian coastline was not completed until 
 after tte Jt5ritish had commenced to colonize the country. In 1797 Surgeon 
 George Bass, of H.M.S. Reliance, obtained from Governor Hunter the use 
 of a whaleboat, a crew of six bluejackets, and provisions for six weeks. With 
 this equipment, he left Port Jackson, voyaged southward, and discovered 
 Westernport (January, 1798). He did not actually demonstrate the existence 
 of a strait separating Australia from Tasmania, but the heavy sea rolling in 
 from the westward gave him " much reason to conclude " that there was a 
 passage through. In October, 1798, Bass, in company with his friend, 
 Lieutenant Matthew Flinders, sailed through the strait in the Norfolk, 2.5 tons, 
 and circumnavigated Tasmania. 
 
 In 1802 Lieutenant John Murray discovered Port Phillip ; Grant, in the 
 Lady Nelson, sailing from the Cape of Good Hope to Australia, came upon 
 the coast near Cape Banks, and discovered the stretch eastward, round 
 Cape Otway, to the Port Phillip opening ; and Flinders, in the Investigator, 
 thoroughly explored the whole of the south coast from the head of the Great 
 Australian Bight. He discovered Kangaroo Island and St. Vincent's and 
 Spencer's Gulfs. In Encounter Bay he met Le Geogra'phe, Captain Nicholas 
 Baudin, a French exploring ship sent out by the Consular Government, 
 Napoleon having acceded to a request submitted by the Institute of France 
 that a scientific expedition should be despatched to examine the unknown 
 coasts of New Holland, and to collect specimens for the Museum at Paris. 
 Baudin died before his ships returned to France, and the maps published 
 with the history of his voyage affixed the name Terre Napoleon to the whole 
 southern coast from Wilson's Promontory to the head of the Bight. Some 
 writers have attached a political significance to the Terre Napoleon maps, 
 but in the present writer's opinion the name was a mere piece of courtiership, 
 and there is no evidence to show that Napoleon ever designed to acquire 
 territory in Australia, though at a later date (1810) he directed his fleet 
 based upon Mauritius to " take Port Jackson," where much-needed pro- 
 visions could be found.* 
 
 Flinders circumnavigated the continent in 1803, and after his very re- 
 markable voyages there was no more coastal exploratory work to do in 
 Australia, except to fill in details. 
 
 3. The Foundation of Settlement. 
 
 In 1783, James Matra, who had been a midshipman with Cook, submitted 
 to Lord Sydney a scheme for establishing in New South Wales a colony 
 wherein Great Britain might afiord an asylum to the American loyalists, 
 who had been rendered homeless by the result of the War of Independence. 
 The country, Matra urged, was bound by every tie of honour and gratitude 
 to protect and support those who had risked everything in support of British 
 rule in North America, and should provide a place where they might " repair 
 their broken fortunes and again enjoy their former domestic felicity." The 
 loyalists found homes in Canada, but Lord Sydney recognised that Matra's 
 plan afforded a means of overcoming another difficulty with which the Govern- 
 ment was faced. It had been customary to ship convicts to America, where, 
 
 * See the writer's Terre SapoUon (London, 1910)
 
 History of Australia. 
 
 especially in the southern States, there was a demand for labour. Contractoi's 
 were willing to undertake to convey convicted persons across the Atlantic. 
 and were able to dispose of them by " assignment " to purchasers, who 
 would often give £8 or £10 for a strong male convict, especially if he were a 
 mechanic. The prisoners were, in fact, sold into servitude. The establish- 
 ment of the United States as an independent country put an end to this 
 trafl&c. At the same time, the English prison system was discreditably bad. 
 Gaols were too few, and too small ; were overcrowded, dirty, and centres of 
 disease. Lord Sydney, discussing Matra's scheme with its author, pointed 
 out that New South Wales appeared to be " a very proper region for the 
 reception of criminals condemned to transportation." Matra accordingly 
 amended his project, drawing up an addendum wherein he argued for the 
 reformatory efficacy of a colony far removed from Great Britain, with a 
 healthy climate, and an abundance of fertile soil, where persons who had been 
 guilty of crimes might work out their own redemption. Sir Joseph Banks, 
 who had been botanist with Cook, and was now (since 1778) President of the 
 Royal Society, gave the scheme his hearty support ; and in 1786 the Govern- 
 ment directed the equipment of a fleet to convey 750 convicts to Botany 
 Bay. 
 
 Arthur Phillip, a captain in the Navy, was chosen to command the expe- 
 dition, which consisted of the Sirius, a sixth rater, the Supply, tender, six 
 transports, and three store ships. There were about 1,100 people aboard, 
 of whom 208 were marines to guard the convicts. 
 
 The whole fleet had arrived at Botany Bay by 20th January, 1788, but 
 Phillip was soon convinced that the situation was quite unfit for the purpose. 
 He therefore judged it advisable to examine Port Jackson, which was marked 
 on Cook's chart a few miles to the northward. There he " had the satisfac- 
 tion of finding the finest harbor in the world, in which a thousand sail of the 
 line may ride in the most perfect security." Returning to Botany Bay, 
 he ordered the fleet to sail round to Port Jackson, and on the 26th January 
 the flag was unfurled at Sydney Cove, where Phillip had decided to plant his 
 new settlement. 
 
 While the British vessels were lying at anchor in Botany Bay, two French 
 ships under the command of Laperouse appeared. It has been by some 
 writers surmised that the French navigator was endeavouring to forestall 
 the English in the occupation of Australian soil. One historian puts it 
 that " it is seizure, not discovery, which gives a title by the law of nations, 
 and there is therefore some justification for saying that England won Aus- 
 tralia by six days."* But it is quite certain that Laperouse had no such 
 acquisitive design in view. His longboat had been destroyed, and some 
 of his company were massacred by natives in Samoa. Consequently his 
 strength was so seriously depleted that if he had lost any more men he would 
 have been compelled to beach and destroy one of his ships. Wishing, there- 
 fore, to put together a new longboat, the frame of which he had in the hold, 
 he decided to sail to Botany Bay — knowing its whereabouts from Cook's 
 Chart — where he thought his men would be able to work without interference. 
 The French remained there from 27th January to 15th March, on excellent 
 
 • Jenks, History of the Auntrulasian Colonies (ISO.'i), p. 30. Sco the present writer's Laperouse 
 (Sydney, 1912).
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 terms with tlie British officers who visited them. Phillip was too busy laying 
 the foundation of Sydney to visit Laperouse personally, and the French navi- 
 gator did not enter Port Jackson. 
 
 The difficulties that Phillip had to encounter during the four years of his 
 governorship were of the most serious kind. The officers quarrelled, the 
 convicts were poor material for pioneering, skilled workmen were few, sup- 
 plies were wholly insufficient, and provision ships were wrecked. Over a 
 thousand more convicts were sent out, and an additional thousand were 
 announced, before there was accommodation for them or food to feed them. 
 The natives gave trouble, and the Home Government failed to appreciate 
 the need for a steady supply of free agricultural and artisan settlers. But 
 Phillip did at length get the colony on its feet, and for the wisely planned 
 and energetically pursued administrative work that he did he is indeed 
 memorable as one of the veritable builders of the British Empire. 
 
 4. The Convict System. 
 
 After the departure of Phillip, the colony was for three years adminis- 
 tered by officers of the New South Wales corps : by Major Grose during 
 1793 and 1794, and by Captain Paterson during 1795, when Governor Hunter 
 succeeded. PhiJIip had id e a s— Qf__£xten ding development _iij ' means ol free 
 sptj^lpyp pirlerl by the ugp r'f c ^ivict lab our ; but for over twenty years Sydney 
 was little better than a prison compound, walled by mountains and fronted 
 by the sea, wherein felons, political offenders, and many an unfortunate 
 whose punishment was cruelly out of proportion to his offence, were 
 " yarded " together under a discipline enforced by the lavish application of 
 the lash. During the first seventeen years ofset tlement 12,2 2£L persons 
 were jransported, a nd_asJate; g;s'i:8± Qlitli calculated that there were not more 
 than 700 settl ers who had not been se nt, out '' lQFlheix__cou5tryj~^good.'' 
 The prisoners included a considerable number of political prisoners who 
 had been convicted for connexion with the Irish rebellion of 1798, and the 
 Scottish revolution societies of 1793 ; just as at a later date working men 
 concerned with the beginnings of English trade unionism were transported. 
 Du ring the goy ernships ofHunter, King, aii dBligh, from 1796 to 1809, no 
 sprinn.s- affovts were niadp_ jT)_Jridiice free settlem ent, which w as, indeed, at 
 time s rather disco uraged. 
 
 The study of the historical material relating to these years of dark dawning 
 is often painful and depressing. An atmosphere of hatred, violence, and sus- 
 picion pervaded the colony. • Every Governor was perplexed and hampered, 
 not only by the refractory human material with which he had to work, 
 but by the jealousy of .his officers. King was a high-minded man, but he 
 found no loyal spirit of co-operation among his subordinates. The officers 
 of the New South Wales corps made large profits by trafficking in rum, and the 
 endeavour to suppress the iniquities of the trade provoked resentment, 
 followed, in Governor Bligh's case, by open mutiny. 
 
 The quarrel between Bligh and John Macarthur, a bold, spirited, and hot- 
 tempered officer, who founded sheep-farming in Australia, was pricked to 
 a crisis in 1807, when the Governor confiscated a still which Macarthur had 
 imported. Bligh, incensed by Macarthur's " inimicability of mind to Govern- 
 ment," had him arrested and put on trial. But Macarthur had a large
 
 History of Australia. 
 
 personal following, and Bligh's arbitrary methods had made him unpopular. 
 Major Johnson, who commanded the military forces, refused to obey his 
 orders, and followed up his act of insubordination by marching his troops 
 to Government Housfe and arresting the Governor. He took this revolu- 
 tionary step (January, 1808) on a requisition signed by Macarthur and about 
 100 of the inhabitants of Sydney, some of whom, Bligh declared, " are the 
 worst class of life,'-' but who at all events pledged themselves to support 
 Johnson with thei^' fortunes and their lives. Bligh was kept in confinement 
 for a year, the alfai;:s of the colony being administered by Lieutenant-Colonel 
 Paterson, of the Van Diemen's Land settlement, who held a Lieutenant- 
 Governor's commission. The end of this startling incident was that Johnson 
 was tried by court-martial in England, and cashiered ; Macarthur, who 
 went to England, ^was prohibited from returning to New South Wales for 
 eight years ; and Bligh was superseded in the Governorship by Colonel 
 Lachlan Macquarie. 
 
 Macquarie was hardly less dictatorial than his predecessor had been ; 
 and the long period of his rule is fairly described in the title of the book 
 wherein it is most thoroughly explained, A Colonial Autocracij.^ He was 
 vain, and could be quarrelsome and harsh. But he had a way of getting things 
 done. He was a builder, a colonizer, a statesman, and as his obstinacy 
 was exerted in a progressive direction, he managed to fight through prejudices 
 and hindrances to merited popularity. One principle for w^hich he fought 
 hard was that when a convict had served his period of sentence, and was 
 again a free man, he was entitled " to be considered on a footing with every 
 other man in the colony according to his rank in life and character." He 
 appointed to the commission of the peace a clergyman who had been trans- 
 ported for suspected complicity in the Irish rebellion, and invited to his own 
 table four or five " emancipists " who happened to be men of education and 
 manners. But^this polic e; gave deep^ ffence to many settlers who_.had no 
 black marks against their names, and wTio cq ngid£red_ih.emselves as per- 
 tainin g to a kind of moral ariatocracy^ — Xh c r c scn t^ ment was e specially bitter 
 among the old adherents of Bligh, who from the first had looked askance 
 on his successor, and were not averse from fomenting a quarrel with him. 
 In some instances the Governor's zeal for the liberal treatment of emancipists 
 led him too far, and incurred the disfavour of the Secretary of State ; and he 
 became involved in quarrels with the judicial officers, who would not permit 
 emancipist attorneys to practise before them. But there was so little that 
 was liberal in spirit in these early days of New South Wales that, even when 
 Macquarie's acts were marked by errors of discretion, it is good to recognise 
 the sense of justice that prompted them. 
 
 The convict system was in full force for just over fifty years. From firsbx 
 to . lasi,— aWu L 1 20rWU£)ni e n and women wei'e transpo rted to Australi a and ] 
 
 Va n Diemen's Land, of"wlT(5 nT7T"n [KHi, nearly '50,0()() wer e living in the / / 
 country. Half of these were~"~us^i^iH'd "" people ; TTiat is, they were living / \/ 
 upoiTthe properties of free settiei's, to perfoim compulsory labour for them. C 
 The remainder were working for the Government in penal establishments or \ 
 in " road gangs." The inhumane features of the system are exposed in J 
 the report of an English Parliamentary Committee of 1837-8 ; and the}:>/ 
 
 ■^ Colonial Autocracy, by .Marion I'liillip's. {U>mh>u, lltd'.i.)
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 L 
 
 are described with gaunt realism in a piece of fiction which has a backing of 
 sober fidelity — Marcus Clarke's For the Term of his Natural Life. 
 
 The Parliamentary Committee recommended that no more convicts 
 should be sent to Australia, and an Order in Council issued in 1840 directed 
 that transportation should cease. But Van Diemen's Land continued to be 
 used for the purpose, with consequences that soon became alarming. The 
 dumping of 3,000 convicts per annum in an island, where the means of coping 
 with the influx were inadequate, brought about a crisis, which British Ministers 
 sought to mitigate by re-instituting transportation to the mainland under 
 another name. The "' conditional pardon system " was devised. Under it, 
 a convicted person who had served a preliminary term in an English prison 
 might be shipped to Australia, where he would be free, subject to the " con- 
 dition " that he did not return to England during the remainder of the term 
 of his sentence. Som_e convicts were sent to Victoria, asjwell,^^ to New South 
 Wa les, under thi s system7'~~-Bttt--a-^vigorous---ainJ''vociferous public opinion 
 had by this time grown up in these colonies. The period had passed when 
 they were content to have the contents of English gaols emptied at their 
 doors. The people of Melbourne, in 1849, organized to resist the incursion; 
 and threatened to prevent by force the landing of the " exiles." An equally 
 strong feeling of resistance manifested itself in Sydney ; and British Ministers 
 were astonished to realize that, in a country originally colonized to carry 
 out a transportation system, the first large question of public policy about 
 which public opinion pronounced itself in emphatic terms was that trans- 
 portation should cease. Governor Fitzroy yielded to the agitation, and the 
 exiles — styled " Pentonvillains," after Pentonville prison wherein they served 
 their probationary period — were sent on to Moreton Bay. Earl Grey, the 
 responsible British Minister, very reluctantly gave way, and shortly afterwards 
 the shipping of convicts to any part of the country except Van Diemen's 
 Land and Western Australia ceased. The former colony was still used as a 
 penal settlement until 1852, and signalized her deliverance (1856) by changing 
 her name to Tasmania. We gtern Australia, b eingurgently inne gd of labou r, 
 gladly r eceived convicts frorn ^lH^*^, '^"d even proteate H against the d iscon- 
 tinuance_ of the supp ly. She continued her policy long after the other Aus- 
 tralian Colonies had freed themselves from what they termed " the convict 
 taint." Her persistence, indeed, provoked much bitter feeling, and threats 
 to boycott Western Australia were made by responsible statesmen in the 
 eastern colonies. There is no doubt that the system did much to establish 
 Western Australia, and her prosperity was well assured when, in 1868, trans- 
 portation was finally discontinued. 
 
 5. Inland Exploration. 
 
 From the earliest period of settlement, the problem of the inland explora- 
 tion of Australia obtruded itself as difficult and dangerous. For a quarter 
 of a century after Sydney was founded, no practicable path was discovered 
 across the mountain barrier that lay in the background. The Blue Moun- 
 tains are not a very lofty range ; they do not rise beyond 4,500 feet ; but 
 their tumbled formation made them a really formidable barricade, and they 
 shut the little community at Port Jackson within an enclosure extending 
 only about 40 miles from the sea. An escaped convict made his way inland
 
 History of Australia. 
 
 during Hunter's governorship, and several explorers endeavoured to find 
 a pass. But-it-was^n ot ti ll^J813_ that Gregory B la,ylaTid^_axir'.n7ppqnipr| by 
 Lawsoii_ajid^— WiiatJUiilJi,--dia£overed a pra cticable track, and opened to 
 occu pation the richly-gra ssed Bathurst Plains. 
 
 Hardly any portion oTTEe^' g l obe h ft«— presented so sullenly obstinate a 
 face against the explorer as Australia has done ; and there are few countries 
 wherein gloomy predictions concerning the prospects of settlement have been 
 so completely falsified. Immense stretches of territory which to-day are 
 yielding an abundance of wealth to industry were originally condemned as 
 wholly unfit for human habitation. The price of investigation has often 
 been paid in suffering and death ; and Australia is fully conscious of her 
 obligation to a succession of hardy and courageous men who are as truly her 
 heroes as are warriors to other peoples. 
 
 The first achievement of note in the story, after Blaxland's, is that of 
 John Oxley, who in 1817-8 led two expeditions west and north, and came in 
 touch with the complicated river system that feeds the Murray. Five 
 years later he penetrated Queensland territory as far as Port Curtis, and 
 prp.parpH thp way for the setjjement which has grown i nto the city of 
 &riabane. 
 
 A very important inland journey was that of Hamilton Hume and William 
 Hovell in 1824. They discovered and crossed the River Murray, the prin- 
 cipal water-course in Australia, continued south, found the Ovens and the 
 Goulburn, traversed a portion of the fertile western h alf of Victoria, and 
 we ^ the fi rst Europea ns to come upo'n Port Phillip fmm tViP la nH war d. 
 Allan Cunningham, the botanist, a protege of Sir Joseph Banks, between 
 1817 and 1830 made a series of excursions into untra versed areas, discovering 
 a practical pa^s to the Liverpool Plains (1818) and an easy route to the 
 Darling Downs (1828). His botanical work was of the utmost importance, 
 and his explorations won him a place among the most enterprising of 
 Australian pioneers. 
 
 One of the greatest names in the story is that of Charles Sturt, a captain 
 of the 39th regiment quartered in Sydney during the regime of Governor 
 Darling. On his first journey, in28282:9;_jg_disgQ3^£red the Darfaig River ; 
 and on a seconTl joiiriiey, comnienced in 1829, he took with him the timbers 
 of an old whaleboat, nailed them together on the banks of the Murrum- 
 bidgee, descended the stream to its junction with the Murray, and floated 
 down that great river until, after a voyage of 33 days, he heard " the distant 
 thunder of the great Southern Ocean." He had floated into Lake Alexan- 
 drina, wherein the waters of the Murray disembogue. Severe hardships 
 were endured on the return journey. Sturt's party had consumed their 
 last morsel of food when relief came, and some of his men showed signs of 
 insanity, from incessant toil and privations. Sturt himself was blinded 
 for a time. This journey had more immediate consequences aflecting the 
 colony of South Australia than that of Hume and Hovell had upon the 
 fortunes of Port Phillij:) ; for his reports led to the founding of Adolaj 
 
 Sturt's genius for exploration led him in 1844 to start fronl^delaiTic to 
 penetrate the interior of the continent. This he did in a summer of excep- 
 tional heat, maintaining a stubborn fight against thirst, hunger, scurvy, 
 a pitiless sun, a blistered dpsort, jind a pelting from blasts of hot fine sand.
 
 10 Federal Handbook. 
 
 He crossed Cooper's Creek, which he discovered and named, but broke down 
 a few miles beyond it, and was carried back to Adelaide a stricken man. 
 His work cost him his eye-sight, though he lived a quarter of a century 
 after his last expedition. Sturt was described as being " brave as a paladin, 
 gentle as a girl," and his achievements are, most worthily, ever " freshly 
 remembered."* 
 
 Gippsla nd, the eastern wing of Victoria, was entered from New S outh 
 "W ales in 1839 by Angus McvAliUa n, when searchmg tor cattle pastures ; and 
 in 18:^11— a^-Eolish-_Laa4J—ef--S £ience, iS tr zelecki. accompaniprl hy~± wn stock- 
 raiser s, Macarth ur and Riley, also explored the sa me re gion. It was Strze- 
 leckTwho suggested the use ot the name Gippsland, in compliment to the 
 Governor of New South Wales, and, Australia's loftiest mountain, Kosciusko, 
 bears the name of a Polish hero as a consequence of the travels of this 
 investigator. 
 
 At about the same period, 1838, Edward John Eyre — a young cattle 
 farmer of 2.5, who was afterwards (186-5) to become Governor of Jamaica, 
 and was unenviably famous in connexion with an insurrection there — indulged 
 a taste for exploring b}^ 'penetrating the unknown country beyond the limits 
 nf_Sfriith AuPitrnlinn p^^ttWnent He found Lake Hindmarsh on one of these 
 excursions. Ambitious to accomplish something memorable. Eyre led an 
 expedition along the shores leading to the Great Australian Bight in 1839, 
 and in 1840 decided to explore the interior of the continent to the north of 
 Adelaide. He followed the line of the Flinders Range to Lake Torrens, and 
 found a stretch of country so impregnated with salt that even rain water 
 became brackish after lying a short while on the ground. After discovering 
 Lake Eyre, the explorer, dissatisfied with his results, travelled down to the 
 coast at Fowlers' Bay, where he established a camp. From this point, he 
 resolved to pursue the coastline as far as King George's Sound, and, as the 
 enterprise was full of peril, ordered his men to return to Adelaide, while he 
 went on alone. But his overseer, Baxter, refused to leave him, and with 
 this companion, and three young blacks, Eyre set out in 1841. He had some 
 sheep and flour for subsistence. The food did not last long, and before it 
 was entirely exhausted, two of the blacks proved treacherous, shot Baxter, 
 and plundered the flour bags. Eyre and his one faithful black servant 
 continued the journey, living on horse-flesh and quenching their thirst with 
 dew collected on a sponge and squeezed into a pot. When at the extremity 
 of endurance they sighted a French whaling ship, the Mississippi ; but 
 after receiving assistance the iron-willed explorer set out again, and reached 
 his goal, King George's Sound, on 7th July, 1841. 
 
 The explorations of Sturt and Eyre had started from Adelaide. AVe 
 return to the Sydney side to mention those of Thomas Mitchell and Ludwig 
 Leichhardt. Mitchell was the Surveyor-General of New South Wales, and 
 from 1831 had explored the interior from Sydney in search of good country 
 for settlement. Some of his journeys were full of adventure, notably that 
 of 1835, when Richard Cunningham, the brother of Allan Cunningham, 
 was murdered by blacks. Mitchell's most memorable piece of work was his 
 expedition to " Australia Felix," or Victoria, in 1836. He crossed the 
 Murray and traversed the country westward of Hume and Hovell's track 
 
 * The Life of Charles Start ,by Mrs. Xapier Sturt (1899), is an excellent biography.
 
 History of Australia. 11 
 
 of twelve years before. To his surprise, on reaching Portland Bay, he found 
 the huts of white men on its shores, for the Hentys of Tasmania had already 
 established a whaling station there, and had become the pioneer settlers of 
 Victoria. Mitchell's last of many journeys was undertaken in 1845, when he 
 set out to explore a route to the Gulf of Carpentaria. He did not succeed in 
 his main object ; but his glowing reports showed the value of the tableland 
 of western Queensland, and had important consequences in stimulatina 
 settlement. 
 
 Leichhardt was a German man of science who was attracted to the problems 
 pertaining to Australian inland exploration. His first important journey 
 was in 1844, when he travelled from Sydney to Port Essington, on the north 
 coast, arriving there nearly naked, and with rations reduced almost to the 
 last crumb. He and his companions had lived partly on the flesh of flying 
 foxes, and had found water by observing the flight of bronze-wing pigeons 
 towards it. A second expedition was to the far western interior, 1846, and 
 from his third, 1848, he never returned. He aimed at crossing the continent 
 from east to west, from Moreton Bay to the Swan River. He certainly 
 reached the Barcoo, where the letter " L " was found ciit on a tree twenty 
 years later ; but exactly where he perished has never been ascertained. 
 The fate of Ludwig Leichhardt is one of the unsolved mysteries of the history 
 of Australian land exploration, as the fate of George Bass is an unsolved 
 mystery pertaining to one of the country's maritime explorers. A. C. 
 Gregory, who went out in search of Leichhardt, led expeditions in Northern 
 Australia, and crossed the continent south-west to Adelaide in 1858. 
 
 John Macdouall Stuart, who had been with Sturt in 1844, made impor- 
 tant journeys to the interior in 1858 and 1859, discovering a fertile and well- 
 watered area west of Lake Eyre. His work was so useful that the South 
 Australian Government, to stimulate him or others to further efforts, offered 
 a reward of £2,000 to the first man who should cross the continent from south 
 to north. Stuart started in 1860, and on 22nd April of that year penetrated 
 to the very centre of Australia. He was not now in desert country, but 
 found the area surrounding his Central Mount Stuart to be well-grassed, 
 plentifully watered, and pleasant. But further on he was beaten by thirst, 
 thick scrub, and troublesome aboriginals, and was compelled to return to 
 Adelaide. In 1861 Stuart started again, and turned back ; but in 1862 
 he made his way right across, and on 24th July " was delighted and gratified 
 to behold the waters of the Indian Ocean in Van Diemen's Gulf." Stuart's 
 journeys were of the greatest value in demonstrating that the interior of 
 Australia was conquerable, and in revealing the excellent pasturage to be 
 found in portions of the country. 
 
 Contemporary with Stuart's final journey, the sensational and dramatic 
 expedition of Burke and Wills took place. It is perhaps the best remem- 
 bered of all Australian inland explorations, because of the mystery and 
 fatality attaching to it ; though in truth the explorers whose achievements 
 liave already been mentioned, Hume, Mitchell, Sturt, Eyre, and Stuart, 
 did greater things, and faced equally severe hardships, but " won through " 
 by a more perfect bushcraft and finer qualities of leadership. The Burke 
 and Wills expedition was organized in 1858, when a sum of about £10,000 
 was provided, partly by subscription, partly by the Victorian Parliament,
 
 12 Federal Handbook. 
 
 for the purpose of promoting an endeavour to cross Australia through the 
 centre, from south to north. The command was entrusted to Richard 
 O'Hara Burke, a police inspector well known to be a brave and intelligent 
 man. The expedition was well equipped, and should have succeeded and 
 returned in safety if Burke had exercised sound judgment. A depot was 
 established at Cooper's Creek, and from that point, in December, 1861, 
 Burke, with Wills and two other men, determined to make a dash for the 
 Gulf of Carpentaria. The party did reach the Flinders River, which flows 
 into the Gulf, and were within two days' journey of the sea, but they were 
 insufficiently provisioned, and had to return to Cooper's Creek. When they 
 reached the depot, after four and a half months' absence, they found that 
 Brahe, the man whom Burke had left in charge, had left just seven hours 
 before. The time he had been instructed to wait had passed, and he had 
 resolved to go to Menindie, on the Darling, where the reserves of the expe- 
 dition were based. He left some provisions in a hole in the ground, and cut 
 the word " Dig " on the bark of a neighbouring tree. When Burke, Wills, 
 and King — the fourth man had died on the journey — staggered into the 
 Cooper's Creek depot, their condition was desperate. They ate the pro- 
 visions they found, and rested a couple of days, debating what course they 
 should pursue. Burke, instead of following in Brahe's tracks, as Wills 
 wanted to do, insisted on making for a cattle station at Mount Hopeless, 
 150 miles away. It was a fatal resolve. They killed their camels for their 
 flesh, and crept forward on foot. When within 50 miles of Mount Hopeless 
 Burke, not knowing how near he was, gave the order to turn back to Cooper's 
 Creek. The pitiful story of the last days of weary, famished life suflered 
 by the three is as intensely pathetic as anything in the history of exploration. 
 Wills died first, in the hut at Cooper's Creek. Burke and King tried to find 
 the encampment of some blacks who had helped their dead companion 
 some time before. Burke broke down and died by the way ; King lived 
 with the blacks until he was rescued by A. W. Howitt, who had been sent 
 out from Melbourne in charge of a relief expedition. He survived until 
 1872. 
 
 The tragedy of Burke and Wills does not end the story of Australian 
 inland exploration, but may be taken to be the last sensational event in it. 
 In Western Australia, the brothers John and Alexander Forrest did brave 
 work. The former, after having in 1869 led an expedition in search of 
 remains of Leichhardt, set off (1870) to examine the country which had been 
 explored by Eyre, along the shores of the Bight. He directed attention to 
 the well-grassed areas lying a few miles from the coast. In 1874 John Forrest 
 traversed the country intervening between Western Australia and the settled 
 portions of South Australia. Alexander Forrest in 1879 explored from the 
 De Guy River, on the north-west shoulder of the continent, across to the 
 Fitzroy, which flows from the Leopold Range to King Sound ; followed the 
 Fitzroy to its source, and then struck north-east to Port Darwin. His 
 enterprise opened up 20,000,000 acres of good country, besides showing 
 the way to the rich Kmiberley Gold-fields. 
 
 The journeys of Ernest Giles and of Warburton, 1875-6, must be men- 
 tioned ; and it should also be said that the several scientific expeditions of 
 Baldwin Spencer to the interior, though undertaken primarily for purposes
 
 History of Australia. 13 
 
 of biological research, have been of the utmost value in a wider sense. They 
 have enabled a trained observer to direct attention in a very striking way 
 to aspects of the country not commonly indicated by explorers of the usual 
 type. 
 
 6. Extension of Colonization. 
 
 Where the explorer pointed the way the pioneer colonist followed ; but 
 there was also, for an interesting period, another motive for extending occu- 
 pation beyond the original confines. T ^at -g as-the-^fai'eaL of Frencb-^tyalry. 
 The fierce animosity, generated between England and France as a consequence 
 of the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, was not without advantageous 
 results in Australia. It made the governing authorities anxious to establish 
 settlements in unoccupied territory, for fear that the French should plant 
 colonies there. There are no facts to show that the French Government 
 proposed annexing a portion of Australia.* But it was firmly believed that 
 they contemplated such a policy ; and the belief was just as effectual in 
 stimulating expansion as if positive evidence of aggression had been 
 produced. 
 
 Irnmediate ly afte r_t he depar ture of Eaudin's expedition from Port Ja ck- 
 son, Governor King caused two settl ements to be planted in Tasma nia : 
 at _Kisdon7qn the Derwent, in 1803, and at Port Dalrymple, on the Ta mar, 
 in 1801. The same fear of French occupation led the British Government to 
 send out Lieutej jjit^Calflngl -Collin-^ to cstabliah a colony at Port Phill ip in 
 1^0 3. ColUns ^unfOrtunately. landed his 300 convicts on the sandv penin- 
 sma which divides the port from the ocean, and, quite naturally , formed 
 an unfavorab le opinlon~or~its suitab ilitv. Consequently, the fir st Port 
 Phillip settlemen t failed, and Collins ' people were removed to t he_perwent. 
 Lieutenant Tuckey, who wrote an account of the experiment, observed, on 
 leaving the port which is now the seat of the great city of Melbourne, " the 
 kangaroo seems to reign undisturbed lord of the soil, a dominion which, 
 by the evacuation of Port Phillip, he is likely to retain for ages." That was 
 109 years ago. 
 
 There were other French scares long after Napoleon had ceased from 
 troubling. In 1825, it was rumoured that a French settlement was to be 
 attempted at Westernport. Governor Darling despatched H.M.S. Fly and 
 two brigs conveying troops with instructions to establish themselves. It 
 was found that French ships had called at Westernport, then quite unoccu- 
 pied, but no attempt whatever had been made to found a colony there, 
 and, the fear of rivalry subsiding, the British packed up their apparatus 
 and returned to Sydney. 
 
 A similar desire to frustrate foreign occupation in W ^tern Austra lia had 
 more enduring consequences. The French were agaiTi sup^'6.^ed to be 
 moving ; and in 1826 Major Lockyer, of the 39th regiment, was sent from 
 Sydney in command of a detac fmient of troops and a party of conv icts to .1 
 occupy King G eorge's Sound. ~This was the beginning of coloniziition iu 
 the w e.s tern .'>fate ; and evenjwhen a m()n3_d^tminined,_att emp t was made to 
 foliua a sfitlemen t upon the beautiful Swan Riv er, the British Government, 
 
 •LorflJolin Ilus-i<;ll rucordi^l ( lifc/illnrlioni ami Su'ineKtiom. 1875, p. 20:5) that while lie was Colonial 
 Secretary in the; Milbournr; GoviTnmcnt, 1m:{!)-4I, " A Vntleman attached to the French Govcriimoiit " 
 called upon him and asked how much of Australia was claimed by Great Britain. He replied "the 
 whole," and with that answer his visitor went away 

 
 14 Federal Handbook. 
 
 " being anxious to anticipate any such measure by France," offered land at 
 the rate of one acre for every eighteen pence taken out in cash or goods bv 
 
 ^J- — immigrants. The fi xst Go\'^en iar-Q£-the- T v esile r n colony was Capt aiir SlirH ng. 
 
 ^ R J?^. T li u Knnrlinli prmTi £i tpr s of the <^r.] r.,-| Y - "' i mi'il | ] |i i i n ir r n ti n n nf j jTin 
 
 personsin_tli£--fi-t^ t four years (1829~- 314r' ^^i*^h wiium a fair start wa& m ade, 
 
 PprTK^hping phnspn as fhp ppntrp 
 
 The instructions to Governor Phillip, when the first colony was estab- 
 lished at Port Jackson, directed him to occupy Norfolk Island, which lies in 
 the latitude of the Queensland border, about 900 miles from the east coast, 
 to " prevent it being occupied by the subjects of any other European power." 
 Within a month, therefore, of the founding of Sydney, Phillip despatched 
 Lieutenant King with a small party of officers and convicts to form a settle- 
 ment. Two years later, Phillip, confronted by famine conditions, sent 
 nearly 300 convicts to Norfolk Island, and by 1793 there were over a thousand 
 people there. Bi;.i-tli£_establish ment was costly, and when it was determined 
 to colonize Tasmania, the Norfolk Islanders were transferred to the Tamar 
 
 and__th£_Dej:went. It was again used as a convict establishment at later 
 dates, and has had an exciting and romantic history, compounded of insur- 
 rection, piracy, and shipwreck, as well as of curious phases of more peaceful 
 colonizing. Many of the present inhabitants are descendants of Pitcairn 
 Islanders, whose forefathers were associated with the famous Bounty 
 mutiny. 
 
 So uth Australia is theon]y_ime_af_Jdie_sixStates of Austral ia tha t had 
 no direct conn"exioii _^IlEl£onvictism. Transportation, indeed, was expressly 
 debarred in the constituting statute. The colony was originally established 
 to carry out a theory. Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who spent three years in 
 Newgate for abducting a ward in Chancery, had leisure there to meditate on 
 problems of colonization. Though he had never been in Australia, he 
 published in 1829 a little book directing attention to what he believed to 
 be the defects of the system followed in New South Wales. His Letter from 
 Sydney was so bright and clever that it was generally believed to be the 
 result of observations made and impressions formed on the spot. It attracted 
 all the more attention from the efforts then being exerted to settle Western 
 Australia on a plan promulgated by Thomas Peel. AVakefield's main point 
 was that it was a mistake in policy to grant land in a new colony in large areas 
 on cheap terms, but that it should be sold at " a sufficient price," and the 
 proceeds devoted to bringing out families of settlers. In 1830 the National 
 Colonization Society was founded in London to carry out Wakefield's ideas, 
 andJii_L ^4 Parliament, passp^ l an Act estab lishing t he colony of S outh Aus- 
 tralia. A board of eight commissioners was appointed to manage affairs, 
 ^aKesident Commissioner being on the spot, and his colleagues remaining in 
 London ; but the Crown also ap pointed a Governor, Sir John Hindmarsh. 
 Eight vessels laden with immi grants arrived during 1836 at Kangaroo Island, 
 wSere it" wasathrs ^proposed to locate "the colony. The place was deemed 
 urisutEable, and Colonel Light7~the Surveyor-General, chose a site on the 
 east side of St. Vincent's Gulf where the city of Adelaide has been built. 
 
 The Wakefield theory did not work ; nor did the system of control. 
 Hindmarsh quarrelled with the Resident Commissioner, and both were 
 recalled. Colonel Gawler, who succeeded, plunged the settlement into
 
 History of Australia. 15 
 
 financial embarrassments ; and it remained for the third Governor, George 
 Grev (1841-5), to apply good sense and strong statesmanship to the situation, 
 and to place South Australia upon a sound, stable, and progressive footing. 
 
 Queensland was originally occupied as an ofishoot from Port Jackson. 
 Governor Brisbane desired to relieve the pressure upon Sydney by extending 
 settlement-. Lord Hobrfrt had said twenty years before, " if you continually 
 send thieves to one place it must in time be supersaturated. Sydney now, 
 I think, is completely saturated. We must let it rest and purify for a few 
 years, till it begins to be in a condition again to receive." It had not been 
 allowed to sweeten by rest, and Brisbane had instructed Oxley, the explorer, 
 in 1822 to look for a good place for an overflow-settlement. Oxley cmisidered 
 the shores of Moreton Bay offered an excellent situation ; andJii-l§24r-^e 
 foun dations of the c ity of Brisba ne were laid. Th e Govej - iior inte nded that 
 the new station shoiTld be reserved for offenders who committed crimes after 
 tKanspOrtatioiTT '" Ac?cording "to the nature of the offence are they punished , ' ' 
 he explained. " Those guilty of the leastar e sent to Port Macqua rig (on the 
 west coast of Tasmania )Tthose ^of a "grave xjiatiite t o Moreton Bay^ _aiid-t]iose 
 of the deepest dye t<) Norfolk Island.',' In 1819, when both Victoria and 
 New~Sout"h Wales refused to receive any more "' exiles," they were sent on 
 to Brisbane ; but transportation to this settlement ceased when the rest of 
 eastern Australia was freed from it. 
 
 The colonization of Victoria arose from totally different causes than those 
 which operated in any other State. It has been shown that Tasmania and 
 Queensland were chosen as fields for the extension of tne convict system, 
 tha t sites in Western and South Australia were sel pptprl tn try the effi cacy 
 of theories, and that a jealous fea r of French occu pation prompted early 
 settlements m Tasmania, Western Australia, and Victoria! The two attempts 
 
 made toTound colonies in the latter Stat^, in 1805~HTrd 1825, were total failures. 
 When effective occupation did ensue, it occurred in quite a natural way. 
 The explorations of Hume and Hovell, and of Mitchell, demonstrated that 
 immense areas of valuable pasture land lay south of the Murray ; the Henty 
 Brothers from Tasmania in 1836 settled at Portland, brought sheep and cattle 
 with them, and commenced cultivation for the provisioning of their whaling 
 boats ; and the news of the kind of country they had found induced other 
 Tasmanians to follow. The Government did not promote occupation ; 
 enterprising men sought out lands for their own advantage. There was no 
 theoretical schenfie to test ; knowledge of good land and the pursuit of profit 
 furnished the main motives. In May, 1835, John Batman, who had formed 
 an association in Tasmania for the utilization of Port Phillip lands, sailed 
 over and examined the country in the Geelong district. He was well satis- 
 fied with what he saw. He took his boat up the bay, anchored at the mouth 
 of the River Yarra, and set off on foot to explore. On this journey he fell 
 in with aboriginals, and made with their chiefs the famous bargain by which 
 he supposed himself to have purchased about 600,000 acres of land, including 
 the whole of the present site of Melbourne, for a trifling yearly tribute and a 
 present of IWankets, looking-glasses, knives, sci.ssors, and handkerchiefs. 
 The Government naturally declined to ratify a " treaty " so made with 
 savages who had not the faintest notion of what they were doing ; but there 
 is every reason to believe that Batman acted in good faith. Tlio original 
 
 1
 
 16 Federal Handbook. 
 
 document, which is drawn up in what a high authority allows to be " English 
 legal form," and purports to bear the " marks " of the chiefs, is still pre- 
 served, and is one of the curiosities of the history of colonization. 
 
 Batman had a rival in John Pascoe Fawkner, who came over from Tas- 
 mania in August, 183-5, and whose activity did much to advance the progress 
 of the little colony in its infant years. Earl^n 1836 many more pastoralists 
 came over from Tasmania. In May of thai^^^yeag—there^eTfr~4:??— people 
 livmg dn~t5e" s ite oOTelbourne, 31 of w ho m pet itioned Governor Sir Richard 
 BbuJ^e-tn-senH nv^r^^una gistrate to reg ulatfi_a5airs^ In September, Bourke 
 despatched Captain William Lonsdale to take charge. Batman had chosen 
 the site for a " village " on the banks of the Yarra. Lonsdale confirmed the 
 choice, and in March, 1837, that village received from Bourke, who paid a 
 visit of inspection to it, the name of Melbourne. 
 
 7. Progress of Settlement. 
 
 A thorough study of the history of land settlement in Australia has not 
 yet been made. The student who will some day undertake the task will 
 have to master a bewildering complication of experiments, administrative and 
 legislative, and will have to elucidate a baffling variety of devices, theories, 
 ingenious means of defeating virtuous intentions, and frequent changes of 
 policy to adapt the law to rapid changes in social structure. He will 
 have to begin with a study of the very first principles affecting the rights 
 of the Crown to control the disposition of unoccupied land. The theory that 
 the Crown is the absolute owner of all land is described by an indubitable 
 authority as " the driest of legal fictions, a fiction, moreover, which, unlike 
 most legal fictions, never corresponded with fact."* Yet except for the 
 practical application of this theory as a fundamental principle, the settlement 
 of the colonies could not have been controlled. AVithout it, the first comers 
 would have seized all the good land, and nothing short of revolution could 
 have dispossessed them. " It may seem almost incredible," says the autho- 
 rity cited, " that a question of such magnitude should be settled by the 
 revival of a purely technical and antiquarian fiction." But if such a prin- 
 ciple had not existed, in however shadowy a form, it would have been 
 necessary to create one of the kind. Even as things occurred, many first- 
 comers acquired enormous areas on such easy terms that the expansion of 
 settlement has been hindered. 
 
 T he earliest settlements ou t of Sydney were established on the Parra- 
 maitta2_Jlaw^esburyj_an^^^t^^ RiVBTs: — Tfeese^wereTounded within 
 
 the first ten years, when endeavours were being made j;o render Port Jackson 
 self-supporting. The land grants made were comparatively small, and 
 terms were easy both to free men and emancipists. AVhen the Blue Moun- 
 tains were crossed in 1813, and the rich pastures beyond came within the 
 scope of the settlers' enterprise, new problems arose. The prospect seemed 
 boundless. There were millions and millions of acres stretching away to 
 regions as yet unexplored. Governor Macquarie wished to restrain the 
 limits of occupation, and would not make large grants. The British Govern- 
 ment also considered that the dispersal of settlers over enormous stretches of 
 
 * Jenks, HiHorii of Ihe Australasian Colonies, page 59.
 
 History of Australia. 17 
 
 country unwise. But the rapid development of the wool industry after 
 Macarthur introduced the Merino sheep and demonstrated the peculiar 
 adaptability of Australia for the production of fine fleeces, impelled men to 
 go far afield, where their flocks could multiply. Hence arose the squatting 
 system. An owner of sheep would set out with his sheep and his drovers, 
 and would " squat " upon an area of unoccupied land, which, being an 
 experienced man, he would choose with skilful discernment. Then he 
 would erect huts, would live there with his assistants, and would endeavour 
 to make a fortune out of wool as rapidly as possible. The early squatters 
 had no title to the land they occupied. They took it because it was available, 
 and it was for the Government to deal with them as it pleased. Legally, 
 by the application of the " legal fiction " above mentioned, they were tres- 
 passers. Actually they were men of courage and enterprise, who made the 
 best use then possible of laud which was lying idle. It remained for Governor 
 Bourke, in 1836, to deal in a practical way with the problem created by 
 extensive squatting. He divided the country which the squatters had occu- 
 pied into pastoral districts, and issued grazing licences to occupiers for low 
 fees. The licences created no ownership, but they gave the squatters security 
 of tenure for defined areas, and for specified periods. 
 
 It wasGn yprnnr Bnnrkp. , too, who first ( 1832) .adoptedr-the-faeasure o f 
 appropriating pa rt of th e_pro'-'e pdg frnm fho mlo of 1nnd to bring immigrants 
 to Australia fand this policy was in 1810 laid dow n t^ s a snnnrl onr^ hy a 
 Jjtoard- of Co lonia l-^:aiid~ancl Jiimigration Commissioners^ appointed in Lond on 
 to advise the Secretary of State. By this time, the advantages that Aus- 
 tralia ofiere3rTo~agHciiTTurists~were becoming well recognised in Great Britain. 
 The opening up of Port Phillip and the establishment of colonies in Sou th 
 Australia and Western Australia likewise attracted~settlem ent. One pound 
 per acre was stipulated as a common price for the sale of land to settlers. 
 A good number of young men possessed of capital sought avenues for fortune 
 in the new country, and many founded families which to-day are, as Hamlet 
 said of Osric, " spacious in the possession of dirt." Dn^ng thp thirtips and 
 th e early forties, the flow of immigration — amo unting to 10,000 persons per 
 annum to New South Wales alone, in s ome years — effected a great chan ge 
 in the general character of t he cou ntry. A p olicy of assisted immig ration 
 hastened expansion. It was during this perio d that the re__g'TW up thst 
 marked^aversion to the continuation ot convictism which h as alrea dy__b££n 
 pointed out. The grovvtli ot the towns facilitated the consolidation and 
 "wrrpliatic expression of opinion. The new-comers had changed their clime 
 with a view to make homes for themselves and their posterity, and the 
 spirit of nation-makers was within them. 
 
 The process of parcelling out the land in large areas, principally for sheep- 
 raising, continued till after the decline of the first prodigal gold yield, and the 
 consequent diversion of the energies of some thousands of men from digging. 
 Statesmen were now compelled to find means of settling farmers on smaller 
 blocks. Cultivation on an extended scale became requisite. Hence arose 
 a struggle with the powerful squatting interest which the conditions of pre- 
 vious decades had created. The squatters did not want settlement. Tliey 
 were satisfied with convictism. Indeed, the repre.sentations of the squatters, 
 who needed labour for tlmir runs, were partly responsible for the creation 
 C.i2ir)t IS 
 
 \mx
 
 18 Federal Handbook. 
 
 of the " conditional pardon system," for Gladstone, who was Secretary of 
 State for the Colonies when the system was inaugurated, was a partner in 
 a Victorian station property, and was well aware of the opinion of the large 
 land-owners. Some— of— tbaig ^ spoke contemp tu^iisly--QL-ifee--iHrrnigration. 
 " We urgently need labour, and would rather have the pick of the gaols than 
 the refuse of workhouses,'^ said the squatters of Moreton Bay in a document 
 in 1850. The free immigrants were not " the refuse of the workhouses," 
 but they were largely farmers, and the squatters did not approve of the culti- 
 vation of small areas. Eidicule was poured on the very idea of profitable 
 cultivation in parts of the country — the Darling Downs for example — where 
 to-day there are thousands of prosperous settlers. 
 
 The methods employed to secure room for settlers have been various, 
 and the enactments embodying them are much too complicated for exposi- 
 tion within the limits of an historical summary. They began with the device 
 of " selection before survey," under which a person desiring to settle and 
 cultivate could enter upOn a "run" leased from the Crown by a squatter, 
 mark off an area for himself, erect a dwelling upon it, and make it his own 
 by paying £1 per acre for it by easy instalments. The system produced a 
 crop of evils, and was not very effectual in attaining the object in view. 
 It led, on the one hand^ to the " peacocking " of properties, often not for 
 purposes of genuine occupation, but to induce the squatter to buy out the 
 intruder — that is to say, it conduced to a species of blackmailing ; and, on 
 the other hand, it led to " dummying," squatters arranging with persons 
 acting in collusion with them to select the best parts of a leased run, and so 
 keep out strangers. The Duffy Land Act, passed in Victoria in 1862, though 
 designed to promote settlement, also led to the augmentation rather than the 
 dividing of big estates. In the nineties the land settlement problem 
 became more urgent. Improved methods of dairying, the development 
 of a large butter export trade, the profitable extension of orchard 
 culture, the application of machinery to wheat production — these factors, 
 together with the desire of thousands of native-born farmers' sons to make 
 homes for themselves, and the augmentation of the pressure of demand for 
 land by immigrants, compelled new policies to be inaugurated. Governments, 
 in order to settle a rural population, began to repurchase from owners at 
 high prices large estates which had been acquired from the Crown at low 
 prices. These areas were subdivided and re-sold to farmers on easy terms. 
 A more radical method of attaining the same end was a tax on the unimproved 
 value of land, passed by the Federal Parliament, 1910. The tax, though 
 an important revenue-producing agency, was primarily designed to compel 
 large land-owners either to sell or to put their holdings to the most productive 
 use. 
 
 One of the beneficent results of Australian settlement, not only to this 
 country, but to the colonization generally, was the devising of a cheap and 
 simple system of land transfer. The Torrens Act was passed by the South 
 Australian Parliament in 1858. Its author, Eobert Torrens, was not a lawyer, 
 and his efforts were discouraged by the profession, whose members clung 
 fondly to the old complicated system which required each transfer of real 
 property to be accompanied by title deeds recapitulating the previous owners. 
 Torrens devised the method of registration of lands in a public office, where
 
 History of Australia. 19 
 
 the ownership of any piece of property could be determined at a glance. 
 His scheme met with ridicule and strenuous opposition. Experienced 
 lawyers declared it to be unworkable.' But the Real Property Act of Torrens 
 was carried, and he was appointed to superintend its working. It proved to 
 be so safe and successful in South Australia that the other colonies soon 
 adopted it ; and the distinguished French historian of modern colonization, 
 Leroy-Beaulieu, declares that a system of the kind is essential to the 
 well-being of any colony.* 
 
 Two facts stand out, in connexion with the extension of settlement in 
 recent years. One is the appreciation of the importance of irrigation in 
 Australian development. The second is the discovery of means of profitably 
 utilizing lands which were long considered to be of little or no cultivable 
 value. Vast areas in South Australia and Victoria, once believed to be 
 beyond subjugation by the plough, are now yielding millions of bushels of 
 wheat per annum. American " dry farming " methods have been adapted 
 to Australian conditions with eminently successful results. Only lately have 
 the possibilities of irrigation been appreciated, and the country is hardly 
 more than at the beginning of a new era in this regard. Mr. Deakin, in the 
 late eighties, inaugurated an irrigation policy in Victoria, and it stands to the 
 credit of his statesmanship that he saw, and strove to make his countrymen 
 lealize, the importance of the scientific application of water to the soil. 
 When Mr. Deakin travelled in the irrigated areas of America and India, 
 wrote his Irrigated India, and inaugurated his policy, farmers were not quick 
 to remodel their methods. But a new generation, taught by zealous experts, 
 shows a livelier sense of what is to be gained by the co-operation of the 
 irrigation engineer. 
 
 8. The Gold Discoveries. 
 
 The great era of gold discovery in Australia dates from 1851, but nearly 
 twenty years before that time particles had been found in the neighbourhood 
 of Bathurst. In 1839, Count Strzelecki detected traces of gold amongst 
 decomposed iron ore. and informed Governor Gipps, who was not gratified 
 by the news, thinking that if it became generally known the difficulty of 
 restraining the convict population would be great. But when Strzelecki 
 reached England, his geological specimens and maps were examined by Sir 
 Roderick Murchison, who, in a paper read before the Royal Geological 
 Society, pointed out the resemblance between the mountain region where the 
 Polish count had travelled, and the gold-bearing Ural mountains. Murchison 
 even wrote to the Secretary of State, Earl Grey, predicting that valuable finds 
 of gold would be made in Australia ; but no notice was taken of his letter. In 
 1848, a man named Smith found a nugget embedded in quartz near Berrima, 
 in the Blue Mountains, but the Government would not follow up the dis- 
 covery, for fear " of agitating the public mind by ordering geological 
 investigations." 
 
 Just as an analogy with the Urals impelled Sir Roderick Murchison to 
 prophesy, so a resemblance between Australian conditions and those of the 
 Californian gold-fields convinced Edward Hargreaves that gold would be 
 
 * Leroy-Beaulk'U, /Je/a 6'c;to»'i«rj«ion cluz leu PeujiUii Modenics, II , 5 «), wlicrn particular iittont inn is 
 (l>v.)ted to tho subject.
 
 20 Federal Handbook. 
 
 found in the Bathurst district of New South Wales. He had been a squatter 
 there, and had gone to California to seek fortune when the news of the gold 
 discoveries came in 1849. He soon convinced himself that the country with 
 which he had been familiar in Australia was so like that which he saw in 
 America that it ought to be similarly auriferous ; and he returned in 1850 
 to investigate. His reasoning was justified. He washed gravel in the bed 
 of the Summerhill Creek, and found a small nugget at the first trial. Each 
 succeeding dish of earth dug out produced gold. When Hargreaves returned 
 to Sydney and disclosed his news to the Government, the exciting gold-rushes 
 of the fifties commenced, and Australia entered upon a new phase of her 
 history. 
 
 There was at the same time a belief that gold would be found in rich 
 quantities in Victoria. As early as 18-19., a shepherd youth named Chapman 
 sold 22 ounces in Melbourne. He had found it in a gully in the hills of the 
 western half of the colony, while looking after his sheep. Other bushmen 
 occasionally brought small quantities of gold into the city, and there was a 
 general expectation that important discoveries would be made. When the 
 success of Hargreaves north of the Murray became known in Melbourne, 
 interest in the subject quickened, and a reward was offered to any person 
 who should be the means of making known a gold mine within 200 miles of 
 the city. Valuable finds were made in several parts of the country at about 
 the same time ; but the sensational development — that which was noised 
 all over the world, and attracted thousands of the young and enterprising 
 of all nations — ^was Hiscocks' discovery of gold at Buninyong, Ballarat, in 
 August, 1851. Immediately after, in the same gully, a party of men washed 
 out 4| ounces from the surface earth in two hours, and on the following day 
 obtained 30 ounces. Startling successes of this kind soon became common, 
 and fabulous fortunes seemed to be within the grasp of those who could 
 strike a good patch. The fame of Ballarat became world-wide. Ibsen, 
 writing his poetical play Love's Comedy, in Norway, used the name in an 
 image for vaulting ambition : an end " worth the leaping for " was " a 
 Ballarat bavoad the desert sands." 
 
 Many fortunes were made ; many startling finds occurred. Dr. Kerr, 
 guided by an aboriginal employe, found a huge block of gold weighing a 
 hundredweight, embedded in a mass of quartz, on the Meroo Creek, in the 
 Bathurst district. It was worth about £4,000. A Melbourne publican 
 found a nugget weighing 7 lbs. while amusing himself by poking about with 
 a pick at Black Hill. A ship's captain and seven sailors who tramped to 
 Ballarat from Melbourne obtained nearly £3,500 worth of gold in three weeks , 
 after which they went back to their ship and sailed in her home to England. 
 In Canadian Gully, Ballarat, sLx nuggets were found in two months weighing 
 in the aggregate about 390 lbs. Of Bendigo, a digger wrote, " You could 
 see the gold shining in the heaps of dirt, and every man sat on his heap all 
 night with a pistol or some weapon in his hand." It was a glittering period ; 
 yet a thoughtful Australian statesman, the late Sir Henry Wrixon, on one 
 occasion ventured the opinion that on the whole the Australian gold-fields 
 had doubtfully been of economic advantage to the country. He argued 
 that the capital and energy put into gold mining had probably exceeded the 
 value of the product, and that the same capital and energy applied to other
 
 History op Australia. 21 
 
 industries would have yielded a larger return. An historian whose opinions 
 are always well weighed expresses the same view : " It is doubtful whether, 
 on the whole, the gold mining industry was in itself profitable, whether as 
 much money has not been spent, in the aggregate, on winning the gold, as 
 has been made out of the yield."* There is probably much truth in the 
 point ; but, on the other hand, the gold-fields served Australia well in attract- 
 ing to the country many thousands of men in the prime of life, a large pro- 
 portion of whom remained. The political consequences were also, as pointed 
 out below, of very great importance. 
 
 Much has been written of the wUd life of the diggings, and some of the 
 fiction intended to illustrate it is probably no more highly coloured than is 
 justified by the facts. Stories like Rolf Boldrewood's Miner's Right and 
 Nevermore, by an author who lived through the events whereof he writes, 
 are full of the real atmosphere of a turbulent time. The administrative 
 difficulties were so novel, the influx of population was so large, that authority 
 was not a little bewildered. One serious struggle between law and disorder 
 occurred. There was a threat of riot on the Turon, and an outbreak of bush- 
 ranging originated from the presence of so many ex-convicts amongst so many 
 opportunities for plunder. But the mass of the diggers were orderly, 
 industrious men, whose inclination was to co-operate in maintaining good 
 government. The tactless handling of questions at issue, rather than a 
 lawless disposition on the part of the miners, produced the Eureka Stockade 
 incident. 
 
 There was nothing unreasonable in the imposition by the Government 
 of Victoria of a tax on the gold produced. The expenses of administration 
 had to be defrayed from some source, and the many thousands of pounds 
 worth of gold being obtained constituted a fund upon which Latrobe, the 
 Lieutenant-Governor, deemed it equitable to levy. But the method chosen 
 was unfortunate, and the means of collection proved to be irritating as a 
 rule, and grossly unjust in many instances. Latrobe would have preferred 
 a tax on gold exported. That would have ensured that only the successful 
 diggers would pay, and that they would be taxed according to their good 
 fortune. But his Legislative Council was not favorable to this mode, and the 
 example of New South Wales was followed, in the imposition (1851) of a 
 licence-fee of 30s. per month on every miner. It was inequitable, because 
 it hit the miner with a poor claim as hard as the man who was obtaining 
 plenty of gold. But it was made an instrument of gross tyranny in operation. 
 A person could be arrested at the instance of an informer, if found upon 
 the diggings without a licence actually in his possession, and the fact that 
 the informer was entitled to one-half the penalty recovered, which might 
 be £.5 for a first offence., conduced to the arrest of wholly innocent persons, 
 who had no direct connexion with mining, and to the constant irritation, 
 and even persecution, of properly licensed men. Moreover, the miners 
 protested that they had no representation in the Legislative Council, and 
 that taxation without representation was un -British. 
 
 Latrobe, severely harassed by inadequate revenues, proposed to increase 
 the licence-fee to £3 per month, but the outcry was so strong that he desisted. 
 
 * .Jose, History of Auslralaaia, page 2.'J2.
 
 22 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In 1853 it was reduced to £1 per month, but the evils of the system of 
 collection were not amended. In 1854 Sir Charles Hotham succeeded to the 
 charge of the Government of Victoria, and the mining population hoped for 
 reform. But they were severely disappointed. Hotham, faced by increasing 
 gold-fields expenditure, and a depleted treasury, assumed a stiff attitude, 
 and ordered the police to prosecute the collection of licence-fees with greater 
 diligence. The extremely harsh conduct of the police, and the gravely 
 •defective administration of justice, aggravated the prevalent discontent. 
 At Ballarat, the intense feeling was brushed up to a crisis by a riot which 
 occurred in October, 1854, about the murder of a miner named Scobie, at 
 an hotel of ill-repute, kept by one Bentley, an ex-convict. The latter 
 was accused of the crime, but was acquitted at the instance of the magistrate, 
 Dewes. There was good reason for suspecting the good faith of Dewes, 
 and public indignation was strong. A public meeting was held, and while 
 it was in progress a detachment of police was sent to protect Bentley's hotel. 
 It was believed that the police intended to disperse the meeting. At once 
 the anger of the crowd, about 8,000 strong, was directed against the very 
 unpopular constabulary. Some stones were thrown, the windows of the 
 hotel were smashed, and finally a fire was set to the building, and it was burnt 
 to the ground. Three men were arrested, and the diggers subscribed bail 
 money for them. Meanwhile a strong agitation against the licence-fees and 
 the police policy was maintained. The movement was connected with that for 
 the release of the alleged rioters and with the insistent demand of " no taxation 
 without representation." The Eeform League which was formed promoted 
 a meeting at which licences were publicly burnt. On 28th November, a 
 military detachment sent up from Melbourne was attacked on the road, 
 when several troopers were wounded and a drummer boy killed. Some of the 
 leaders of the league were foreigners ; many were fire-brands, who talked 
 wildly of upsetting the Government and establishing a republic. They even 
 produced a flag, bearing the device of the Southern Cross on a blue ground, 
 which was to float over the seat of the new order they intended to establish. 
 They constructed a stockade flanking the road to Melbourne, about a mile 
 from Ballarat, intending by its means to block the advance of more troops 
 who were understood to be on their way up. 
 
 These preparations were rudely shattered by the prompt action of Captain 
 Thomas, of the 40th regiment, who was in command of the military already 
 on the field. On the morning of 3rd December he led an assault upon the 
 stockade, attacking it from the rear with a force of not quite 300 troops and 
 police. In about twenty minutes after his bugle rang out for the assault the 
 " rebellion " was suppressed. An officer was killed, together with four 
 privates, and about a dozen of the storming party were wounded. On the 
 other side, fully 30 were killed, many were wounded, and about 130 prisoners 
 were taken. Only one " rebel " was convicted, and he was the editor of the 
 Ballarat Times, but he was liberated on his own recognisances. A negro 
 was tried for treason and acquitted ; and the Crown did not succeed in securing 
 a conviction in any case. Peter Lalor, one of the ringleaders, afterwards 
 (1880) became Speaker of the Victorian Legislative Assembly, and was a 
 conspicuously able and conscientious man. The stockade incident effectually 
 cleared the air, and brought about reforms which enabled gold mining to be
 
 History of Australia. 23 
 
 conducted henceforth as an ordinary peaceful industry. It forms a dramatic 
 climax to the roaring digging days.* 
 
 Every State has had its gold rushes, but the opportunities for the making 
 of many fortunes by men with little capital have never been so plentiful as 
 in New South Wales and Victoria in the fifties. In Queensland, the most 
 important discovery was the Mount Morgan mine, which made its purchasers 
 millionaires. It was bought for £640 in 1886, and yielded £4,500,000 in ten 
 years. In Western Australia the Kimberley Gold-field was opened up in 
 1887, and in the early nineties came the amazing discoveries of the Coolgardie 
 and Kalgoorlie district. Large cities sprang up where once had been desert, 
 and an enormous influx of male population completely changed the political 
 complexion of the country. The great silver mines of Broken Hill also made 
 huge fortunes for their proprietors. An example is that of Mr. George 
 McCuUoch, who was a sheep-farmer in the neighbourhood of the hill, which 
 was found to be a mass of ore. He was one of the original owners, and with 
 the great fortune amassed from the mines became a prominent collector of 
 works of art in England. He died in 1908. Scarcely less important than the 
 mines of precious metals have been the copper mines of the Burra (South 
 Australia) and Mount Lyell (Tasmania), and the tin mines of Mount BischofJ. 
 Coal mining, dating from the last years of the eighteenth century in New 
 South Wales, is now extended to Victoria, Queensland, and Western 
 Australia. 
 
 9. Constitutional Government. 
 
 It was inevitable that political tendencies in Australia should develop 
 in a democratic direction ; but the particular impetus given to the movement 
 was afTected in an important degree by the character of the population that 
 flocked to the gold-fields in the fifties. Just before the great discoveries 
 were made at Ballarat, Bendigo, on the Turon, and elsewhere, Europe had been 
 saething with political discontent. The Chartist movement in England 
 apparently collapsed in 1848, but the reforms demanded by the Chartists 
 were still advocated by radical thinkers. The Irish evictions of 1847 and 
 Smith O'Brien's " rebellion " of 1848 caused thousands of Irishmen to emi- 
 grate. The French Revolution of 1848, which overturned the Orleans 
 monarchy, was flushed with the socialistic ideas of Louis Blanc. There 
 were rervolutionary outbreaks in Germany, a conference of Liberal leaders at 
 Heidelberg demanded popular reforms, riots in Berlin frightened Frederich 
 William IV., and a Radical party was clamorous in the Vorparlament of 
 Frankfort. There was insurrection and a demand for manhood suffrage in 
 Austria, the ideas of Mazzini evoked a national and democratic movement in 
 Italy, and the same spirit was strongly manifested in Switzerland and Poland. 
 The gold-fields populations of Australia were extraordinarily cosmopolitan ; 
 and, from whatever country the immigrants came, their political opinions 
 were bound to be coloured by the movements of 1848. Many were political 
 refugees ; thousands shared the convictions of the English Chartists. 
 
 • 'I'he Eureka Stockailc; incident is still rotjardej, especially by those connected witli mining, as a 
 phase in a stnmyle for liberty, and the association of a relative with it is considered a matter of pride. 
 Thus, on 2nd Oitober, ] 91 ;i, we find Si^nator Bakhaj) (Tasmania), In a speech in the Senate (Commonwealth 
 ParlinniPnUiry JJebates, I'Ji:}, p. ITM) making it a proud boast that " I have a claim, by virtue of blood 
 and lineal descent, to speak feelintily in recard to fl'.'htinc for the <lefence of the liberties of Australia. 
 A very close maternal relative of mine was the very first man to be killed at the fluht at Kureka 
 Stockade."
 
 24 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Now, the demand for constitutional government in Australia was not 
 in itself necessarily of an ultra-democratic character. The most prominent 
 name in the history of the movement is that of W. C. Wentworth, and he 
 expressly disclaimed any leanings in the direction of democracy. The 
 report of the Legislative Council of New South Wales drafted by him in 1854 
 declared that the advocates of constitutional government had " no wish to 
 sow the seeds of a future democracy." What they desired was the establish- 
 ment in Australia of such free institutions as are most characteristic of British 
 principles of government^ — trial by jury, no taxation without representation, 
 freedom of the press, and so forth. There was even a proposition to form an 
 hereditary order of Australian baronets who should be in the Legislative 
 Councils very much what peers are in the House of Lords in England : a 
 disaster from which the country was happily saved by sanity and a sense 
 of humour. 
 
 Li the beginning the government of Australia was autocratic. The rule 
 of the early administrators was subject only to the rather slack supervision 
 of the Secretary of State. A Governor might consult his principal officials 
 on matters of polic}^ affecting their departments, but he need not. After 
 about 1820, personal rule was modified. Governors were expected to take 
 counsel with their officers. In 1825, a Legislative Council was established 
 to assist in the making of ordinances. Its members were appointed by the 
 Colonial Office ; but it was not permitted to enforce any ordinance unless 
 the Chief Justice certified that it was consistent with the laws of England 
 " so far as the circumstances of the Colony will admit." The powers and 
 size of the Council were extended in 1828, when the veto of the Governor 
 and the Chief Justice were removed, and financial control was intrusted to 
 it. In 1842, a decisive step forward was taken, when a Legislative Council 
 was established consisting of 36 members, only twelve of whom were nomi- 
 nated by the Crown, the remainder being elected by those of the people who 
 held fi'eehold estate to the value of £200 or occupied premises with a rental 
 of over £20 per annum. The Port Phillip District — for the separate Colony 
 of Victoria had not yet been formed — was represented by six members upon 
 this Council. Wentworth was also an elected member of it, and Robert 
 Lowe was a nominated member — the Robert Lowe who was afterwards 
 (1868) to become Chancellor of the Exchequer in the first Gladstone Cabinet 
 and the Lord Sherbrooke of later days. 
 
 The Constitution of 1842 provided a satisfactory system of government 
 for the time, and enabled public opinion to be fairly well represented. Tas- 
 mania (still known as Van Diemen's Land) had since 1823 been governed by 
 a Lieutenant-Governor with a nominated Legislative Council of its own, 
 and a similar system was in operation in South Australia and Western 
 Australia. 
 
 Evidence that this method of government was being outgrown became 
 apparent when a demand for separation grew in Port PhiUip. Dissatisfaction 
 arose from the spending of the proceeds of Port Phillip lands outside the dis- 
 trict. The rapid growth of Melbourne, and the inconvenience of having 
 affairs regulated from a centre 600 miles away, at a time when there was, of 
 course, no railway connexion, gave impetus to the movement.
 
 History of Australia. 25 
 
 In order to call attention to the situation in a striking way, the Melbourne 
 people in 1848 elected Earl Grey, the Secretary of State, as one of their 
 representatives on the Council. The move was more than a jest. It was 
 intended to stir the British Government to grant separation ; and it succeeded. 
 In 1850 a new Australian Government Act was passed ; and on 1st July, 
 1851, Victoria was proclaimed a separate Colony. The name was recom- 
 mended by the Committee appointed by the Secretary of State for the con- 
 sideration of matters " relating to trade and foreign plantations," in 1849, 
 and who advised the Queen to " be graciously pleased to confer the name of 
 Victoria " on the new province. Both its northern boundary, the line of 
 the Murray, and its western boundary, dividing it from South Australia, 
 have since been the subject of dispute, and, in the latter instance, of a law- 
 suit. Under the new Act, the system of government which had for eight 
 years prevailed in New South Wales was extended to Victoria, South Aus- 
 tralia, and Tasmania. It is interesting to notice that, just as Robert Lowe 
 was a member of the first Council in New South Wales, so H. C. E. Childers 
 became a member of the first Victorian Council ; both, at later dates, having 
 been Chancellors of the Exchequer in England. Queensland did not become 
 a separate Colony till 1859, when the form of government had been altered. 
 Western Australia remained under the rule of a Governor and a Council of 
 ten, none of them elected, till 1870, when the Council was enlarged. In 
 1890 responsible government was instituted. 
 
 A section of the Act of 1850 enabled the Legislative Councils of the Colonies 
 to frame new Constitutions, which were not to be put in operation till the 
 assent of the Imperial Government had been obtained. Public opinion 
 on political concerns ripened very rapidly as the gold-lure attracted popula- 
 tion, the towns grew, and newspapers were established. Political issues 
 were keenly debated. Constitutional questions were discussed. People 
 thought that the time had come to discard the old Legislative Council method, 
 and to set up Parliaments modelled on the British pattern. Thus by 1854 
 the four Colonies had devised new Constitutions for themselves. Each Colony 
 chose to have a Legislature consisting of two Houses. With respect to the 
 Lower House, the Legislative Assembly, South Australia gave the franchise 
 to every male over the age of 21 whose name had been six months on an 
 electoral roll. New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania stipulated a small 
 property qualification. The constitution of the Upper Houses, or Legislative 
 Councils, differed very much. New South Wales preferred a nominee Coun- 
 cil. Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania chose to have elected Councils, 
 insisting, however, on a relatively high property or educational or professional 
 qualification. The Councils to-day remain substantially as they were con- 
 stituted over half-a-century ago, except in the case of Victoria, where there 
 has been a reduction of the property qualification of members. Queensland 
 has followed the lead of New South Wales in having a nominee Council, but 
 Western Australia decided for an elected body. To-day, payment of members 
 of Legislative Assemblies prevails in all States ; women are enfranchised in 
 all States ; the normal duration of a Legislative Assembly is three years in 
 all States. The Executive in all States is framed on the British model. It is 
 responsible to the Lower House of the Legislature, wliich, also, has paramount 
 authority in matters of finance.
 
 •26 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The working of representative government in Australia has conduced 
 to some peculiarly interesting crises. . There was a dead-lock between the two 
 Houses of the Legislature in New South Wales in 1861. The Government 
 of the day succeeded in passing through the Legislative Assembly a Land 
 Bill intended to promote the acquisition of farms by men of small means. 
 The squatters, who were powerful in the Legislative Council, did not favour 
 the proposal. They rejected the BUI. The Premier, Mr. Charles Cowper, 
 thereupon advised the Governor, Sir John Yoimg, to appoint 21 new members 
 to the Council. It was the device threatened in England in 1911 to overcome 
 the reluctance of the House of Lords to pass the Parliament Bill. The 
 Governor accepted the advice, and 21 supporters of the Land Bill were 
 appointed. But when they attended to be sworn in, the President 
 of the Council and a majority of the members rose from their seats 
 and walked out, so that the sitting lapsed. A little later Wentworth 
 — who had been in England — accepted the Presidency, a new Council 
 was appointed, and the Bill was passed. It was the measure which 
 introduced the " selection before survey " system. Sir John Young was 
 blamed by the Colonial Office for appointing the " swamping " 21 
 councillors. 
 
 A crisis of extraordinary bitterness occurred in Victoria in 186-5. A 
 strong protectionist party had grown up, largely in consequence of the 
 advocacy of David Syme and the Age newspaper. A Government headed by 
 James McCulloch introduced a protective Tariff, which was passed by the 
 Legislative Assembly. The Council, as was well-known, intended to reject 
 the measure. Being an elected body, it was impossible to secure a majority 
 by nominating fresh members. But the Council could not, under the Con- 
 stitution, amend an Appropriation Bill. McCulloch therefore resorted to the 
 expedient of " tacking " the Tariff on to the Bill providing for the ordinary 
 annual services of government. The Council had either to accept the whole 
 Bill, including the nauseous Tariff, or reject it, and thereby deprive the 
 Government of the means of paying the salaries of the public service, 
 the accounts of contractors, and other obligations awaiting discharge. 
 The Council accepted the challenge and rejected the Bill. McCulloch, fertile 
 in devices, went on collecting revenue under a Tariff which Parliament had 
 not passed, borrowed money from the London Bank of Australia for meeting 
 the immediate needs of the Government, and arranged with the bank to sue 
 for the amount. Judgment was allowed to go without dispute, whereupon 
 the Governor, Sir Charles Darling, issued a warrant for the payment of the 
 money out of the revenue. This devious method was followed for four 
 months, when McCulloch, to relieve the situation, persuaded the Assembly 
 to send up a Tariff Bill to the Council free from " tacking" to an Appropria- 
 tion Bill. But the Council rejected the measure even in this form. After a 
 general election, which returned a powerful protectionist majority to the 
 Lower House, they rejected it again. The Assembly pledged itself to support 
 no Ministry that did not put forward a protectionist Tariff, and again 
 there was a dead-lock. This time the Council gave way. The Tariff was 
 sent up for the fourth time, there was a conference between the two Houses, 
 a few concessions were made, and the protective policy became statutory 
 in April, 1866.
 
 History of Australia. 27 
 
 Immediately afterwards another crisis arose. Sir Charles Darling was recalled 
 by the Colonial Office on account of the part he had played in the events 
 just chronicled. The Legislative Assembly, holding that he had acted con- 
 stitutionally in follow^ing the advice of his Ministers, voted a grant of £20,000 
 to Lady Darling, and an address to Sir Charles thanking him for his services. 
 The Council rejected the grant proposed. A dissolution ensued, and McCul- 
 loch's party was returned by an overwhelming majority. But the new 
 Governor, Manners-Sutton, acting on instructions from the Colonial Office, 
 sought to impede the carrying out of the will of the popular party, and a 
 period of excitement and complication followed, the like of which has no 
 parallel in Australian history. The Governor kept in office a Ministry which 
 had no majority in Parliament, and which could not even obtain supply. 
 The extraordinary situation was ended by the Colonial Office deciding to 
 grant Darling a pension of £1,000 a year, and by the intimation that in these 
 circumstances Lady Darling could not accept the £20,000 which the 
 Legislative Assembly desired to vote for her. 
 
 Yet another constitutional crisis occurred in Victoria in 1877, over the 
 question of the payment of members of Parliament. The Government of 
 Graham Berry secured the passage of a Bill by the Assembly, but the Council 
 rejected it. Thereupon the measure w^as " tacked " to the Appropriation 
 Bill, which was laid aside by the Council. Berry dealt with the situation 
 resolutely. Deprived of legal means of financing the operations of govern- 
 ment, he dismissed hundreds of public servants. The Governor, Sir George 
 Bowen, acting on the advice of Ministers, signed warrants enabling revenue 
 to be expended without parliamentary sanction. Finally the Council yielded 
 to the force of public opinion, and passed the Payment of Members Bill, 
 which was sent up apart from the Appropriation Bill. Berry also induced 
 the Council to pass a measure reforming itself, reducing the property quali- 
 fication of its members from £-5,000 to one of a clear annual value of £100, 
 and the term of service from ten years to six. 
 
 The memory of these prolonged and bitter struggles between branches 
 of the Legislature was carefully regarded when the Commonwealth Constitu- 
 tion was being drafted ; and provisions were expressly inserted therein for 
 the prevention of " tacking," and prescribing a course of procedure to remedy 
 dead-locks. There have been difficulties in other States than Victoria ; 
 in South Australia disputes have frequently occurred ; but the instances 
 described above are the " sad exemplars " of a Constitution strained to 
 breaking point by a clashing of powers. 
 
 10, The Achievement of Federation. 
 
 Even at the time when separatist tendencies were most marked in Aus- 
 tralian affairs, thoughtful men foresaw that a time would come when cohesive 
 forces would assert themselves. The Committee on Trade and Foreign Plan- 
 tations, which reported to the Queen in 1849 — Sir J. Stephen drafted the 
 report — although recommending that the wishes of the Colonies respecting 
 separate Governments should be carried out, nevertheless recommended that 
 there should be a coiiinion Tariif. " So great indeed would be the evil, 
 and such the obstruction of the inter-colonial trade, and so great the check
 
 28 Federal Handbook. 
 
 to the development of the resources of each of these Colonies," from the 
 operation of separate Tarifis, " that it seems to us necessary that there should 
 be one Tariff common to them all, so that goods might be carried from the one 
 into the other with the same absolute freedom as between any two adjacent 
 counties in England." The Committee recommended further that there 
 should be established a House of Delegates elected by the legislatures of the 
 different Colonies, with power to make laws of general application on ten 
 subjects, namely : duties on imports and exports ; postal affairs ; roads, 
 canals, and railways ; beacons and lighthouses ; shipping dues ; weights 
 and measures ; the establishment of a general Supreme Court of original 
 jurisdiction and appeal ; the determining of the jurisdiction, forms, and 
 manner of proceeding of such Court ; the enactment of laws affecting all 
 the Colonies on any subject not specified in the preceding list but on which 
 the House of Delegates should be desired by the separate Legislatures to 
 legislate ; and the appropriation of revenue for the objects enumerated. 
 
 It will be seen that this was a scheme of federation, formulated half-a- 
 century before the Colonies themselves agreed upon a basis of union. The 
 most important omission from it is a provision for common defence, but it 
 must be remembered that at the time when the Committee deliberated British 
 troops were stationed in Australia, and the power of the Colonies to make 
 adequate provision for their own defence was hardly contemplated* But 
 the Act of Parliament passed in 1850 did not embody the Committee's scheme, 
 though the title of Governor-General was conferred upon the Governor of 
 New South Wales, and was borne by him until 1861. 
 
 The six Colonies of Australia, then, went on their own way. They had 
 their separate Governors, Governments, and Parliaments. They legislated 
 for their own internal requirements, without regard to the neighbours 
 across their borders. They imposed Tariffs which operated against the 
 goods of fellow Australians precisely as they operated against foreigners. 
 A pair of boots imported to South Australia from Victoria paid just as much 
 duty as a pair of boots imported from France or America. Not only were 
 manufactured goods taxed. Victoria imposed a stock tax in the interests 
 of graziers, so that even in a time of scarcity cattle brought over the border 
 from New South Wales was taxed at so much per head. A Victorian states- 
 men. Sir James Patterson, coined the phrase " the barbarism of borderism," 
 but the system was maintained. 
 
 Meanwhile, the ripening of political thought in the direction of federation 
 was accelerated by extra-political forces. Railways and telegraphs ab- 
 breviated space and time, linked together previously isolated communities, 
 made commercial intercourse facile, and emphasized the inconvenience of 
 hindrances to its fluidity. It was not till 1883 that railway communication 
 between Melbourne and Sydney was established ; not till 1887 that Adelaide 
 was connected by rail with Melbourne ; not till 1889 that Sydney and Bris- 
 bane were joined. A line giving southern and eastern Australia access to 
 Perth in the extreme west is only now in process of construction. The 
 telegraph assisted materially in the unifying process. In 1872 a work of 
 magnitude was achieved when the overland line from Adelaide to Port 
 Darwin was completed. By 1877 there was telegraphic connexion 
 between all the State capitals.
 
 History op Australia. 29 
 
 The ineffectiveness of the separate Colonies for dealing with questions 
 affecting Australia as a whole likewise impelled thoughtful men to consider 
 the necessity for union. Australians are of European, chiefly British, origin, 
 and have kinship with the people of North America ; but their continent 
 is neighboured by thickly-populated Asiatic countries, whose customs and 
 standards of living are alien from those prevailing here. Soon after the 
 establishment of representative government, New South AVales, Victoria, 
 and South Australia found it desirable to legislate to exclude Chinese immi- 
 gration. More stringent laws were passed in the eighties. But still it was 
 felt that Australia required to act on this question through a strong central 
 authority. The employment of South Sea islanders (Kanakas) on the sugar 
 plantations of Queensland introduced another alien element deemed socially 
 undesirable, and if the traffic was to cease, Queensland must have a free 
 extended market for her sugar, and the industry must be an Australian 
 concern. 
 
 Again, the defensive organization of the country was weak and inefficient 
 as long as each of six States had its own little force, and acted without co- 
 operation with its neighbours. There were also questions vitally affecting 
 the future well-being of the country upon which it was desirable that Aus- 
 tralia should speak authoritatively. One such occurred when Bismarck 
 inaugurated a German colonial policy. There were grounds for believing 
 that Germany intended to appropriate New Guinea. That territory lay so 
 near to the northern shores of Australia that the prospect caused some 
 excitement. The Queensland Premier, Mcllwraith (1883), telegraphed to 
 London urging the Imperial Government to annex New Guinea, and offering 
 to bear the cost of administration if that were done. New South Wales, 
 Victoria, and South Australia agreed to co-operate. While Lord Derby, 
 the Colonial Secretary, delayed, Mcllwraith acted. News of a German 
 move came to hand, whereupon the Queensland Government sent up a 
 force to take possession of the southern part of New Guinea and to hoist 
 the British flag at Port Moresby (April, 1883). It was an audacious 
 stroke, but it succeeded. The Imperial Government could not, in the face 
 of strongly expressed Australian opinion, do more than disavow respon- 
 sibility. In the following year Germany did annex northern New Guinea, 
 which was named Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, and also marked out for herself a 
 sphere of possession and influence in the Pacific. The raising of this 
 question was of great value in enlarging the Australian political horizon, in 
 making people realize that the well-being — the security even — of their own 
 separate Colonies, in whose domestic affairs they had been so engrossed, 
 was affected by considerations of which they had been too negligent. 
 Questions relating to the French in the Pacific began to engage serious 
 attention. But how could six Colonies acting separately speak decisively 
 on such matters of world politics as these ? 
 
 A move in the direction of union was made in 1885, when a Federal Council 
 was established. It had no legislative authority and no source of revenue. 
 It could draw up statutes on a few specified subjects, but had no power to 
 enforce them. It was still more ineffective because New South Wales 
 did not participate in its deliberations. Still, the Council did afford a means 
 of ventilating periodically questions affecting Australia as a whole, and its
 
 30 Federal Handbook. 
 
 proceedings were always watched w^ith interest. Abortive attempts to frame 
 an acceptable Federal Constitution were made at Conferences held in 1890 
 and 1891. The provisions of the draft instrument of union prepared at the 
 latter Convention were discussed far and wide, and were of the utmost value 
 in crystalizing opinion, not only on points on which federation was desirable, 
 but also on the hindrances to the achievement of it. There was an interval 
 of a few years, during which the question matured in the public mind. 
 Societies discussed it ; leagues were formed to advocate the cause ; public 
 men pronounced on important phases of it ; the e was a considerable pamphlet 
 literature. An extra-official Conference at Corowa gathered up the threads 
 and formulated a practical plan of procedure. At length, in 1895-6, the 
 movement brought federation within the range of practical politics. The 
 Parliaments of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania 
 passed Acts enabling a Convention to be elected by the people to prepare a 
 Federal Constitution. The Western Australian Parliament did not trust 
 the people of the State, but elected delegates itself. Queensland, for the time 
 being, did not participate. The Convention held three sessions in 1897-8, 
 and finally brought forth a Bill. The measure was almost at once accepted 
 by the people of three States by referendum; but certain of its provisions 
 created dissatisfaction in New South Wales, and had to be amended at a 
 Conference of Premiers before it was made acceptable to that State. One 
 of the amendments made insured the establishment of the federal capital 
 in New South Wales, but with the condition that it should not be within 
 100 miles of Sydney. In its amended form the Bill was accepted by the 
 people of five States, and the sixth (Queensland), which had not been repre- 
 sented at the Convention, determined to enter the Union. The Imperial 
 Parliament made an amendment of some consequence, ensuring the right of 
 Australian litigants to appeal from the High Court to the Privy Council, 
 except in cas s affecting the constitutior.al powers of the Commonwealth or 
 of States. But at length, in July, 1900, Queen Victoria gave her assent 
 to the Act establishing a Government and Parliament for the Common- 
 wealth of Australia, and in 1901 the present King — then Duke of York — 
 formally opened the first Parliament, and set the machinery of the new 
 Government in motion. 
 
 It is not possible within the space prescribed to relate the history of 
 Australia under Federation. The thirteen years have been crowded with 
 incident, and have witnessed remarkable changes in political complexion. 
 They have witnessed the achievement of power by a new party with a stock 
 of ideas partly evolved from British Eadicalism, and partly from European 
 Socialism, but adapted to Australian conditions and requirements. In 1895, 
 so keen a political observer as Jenks could write a History of the Australasian 
 Colonies, without mentioning the existence of a Labour Party as a factor of 
 serious consequence. In 1904, only nine years later, there was a Labour 
 Government — the Watson Administration — in charge of the affairs of the 
 Commonwealth. That political developments occurred on other lines than 
 those foreseen by the framers of the Constitution should not have been 
 surprising to any student of comparative and historical politics ; but few 
 could have expected so rapid a demand for radical alterations in the Consti- 
 tution itself as the leaders of the Labour Party are convinced is necessary
 
 History of Australia. 31 
 
 to the carrying out oE their policy. These change? have been twice sub- 
 mitted to the electors, but have not been approved, though it is a fact of 
 significance that the vote in favour of them at the last referendum (1913) 
 showed a distinct advance upon the af&rmative vote at the previous sub- 
 mission in 1911. 
 
 The creation of the Labour Party as a political power of first-class import- 
 ance has, of course, caused prominence to be given to industrial legislation. 
 Apart from this, the main matters of policy laid down, on the principles of 
 which there is scarcely a difference between parties, relate to the exclusion 
 of undesirable immigrants, including all coloured peoples ; the protection 
 of Australian industries, by a tariff, against foreign competition ; the develop- 
 ment of the defensive power of the country by a system of compulsory 
 military training, and the establishment of an up-to-date fleet, to act in 
 co-operation with British fleets. The Northern Territory, that is, the- 
 immense area extending from the northern border of South Australia to the 
 Arafura Sea, was from 1863 administered by South Australia, and entailed 
 heavy financial responsibilities. In 1907 the Federal Government assumed 
 responsibility for it, and is now vigorously prosecuting a policy of develop- 
 ment. The Commonwealth in 1906 took over the government of British 
 New Guinea, which was re-named Papua, and here also there has been an 
 application of capital and science. The choice of a site for a federal capital 
 was the subject of prolonged investigations, negotiations, and parliamentary 
 contention ; but at length, in 1908, a situation in the district of Yass-Canberra. 
 was selected. Designs have been approved, and the work of construction 
 is in progress. It was determined in 1913 that the name of the capital should 
 be Canberra. The city when built will be connected by rail with a port at 
 Jervis Bay. 
 
 11. Bibliography. 
 
 The hmitations of this brief history of Australia have permitted the many 
 phases to be indicated only in a summary manner ; and it is desirable to 
 append a short list of books whence fuller information may be obtained. 
 The best compendious history is that of A. W. Jose, History of Australasia^ 
 The latest edition (Sydney, 1913) is an admirable book. It is well illustrated. 
 Jenks' History of the Australasian Colonies (Cambridge, 1895, and later 
 editions) is especially valuable for its chapters (VII. and XI.) on constitu- 
 tional matters. Rusden's History of Australia (2nd edition, 1897) is in three 
 volumes. G. B. Barton's History of New South Wales (1889) is limited in 
 scope, but very good. The eight volumes of the Historical Records of New- 
 South Wales, edited byF. M. Bladen (Sydney, 1893-8), contain valuable docu- 
 mentary material up to the year 1813. Most of the early literature concerning 
 New South Wales is rare, and some of it is very costly. One useful early 
 book, Collins' History of New South Wales (1798), has been reprinted (1810). 
 Collingridge, First Discovery of Australia (1906) and Favenc, History of Aus- 
 tralian Exploration (1888) are useful books. Becke and Jeft'ery, Naval 
 Pioneers of Australia (1899) is good. Scott's Terre Napoleon (1910) deals, 
 with the French explorations. Marion Phillips, A Colonial Autocracy (1909) 
 is an excellent monograph on the regime of Governor Macquarie. The best 
 history of a State since the spread of settlement from Sydney is the History
 
 32 Federal Handbook. 
 
 o/ the Colony of Victoria of Henry Gyles Turner (1904). The same author 
 has written a volume on The First Decade of the Australian Commonwealth 
 (1911), and (1913) a good little book on the Eureka Stockade incident. 
 Hodder's History oj South Australia (1893) is also a work of repute. The 
 historical introduction to Quick and Garran's Annotated Constitution of the 
 Australian Commonwealth (1901) relates the story of the federal movement 
 authoritatively. On the Federal Constitution the principal work is that of 
 Harrison Moore, The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (latest 
 edition, 1910). B. R. Wise's Commonwealth of Australia (1909) is written 
 with a full knowledge of the currents of thought that shaped public opinion. 
 The same author's Making of the Australian Commonwealth (1913) is an 
 admirable " record by an eye-witness " of the critical period from 1889 to 
 1900. Of biographical works, three of particular value may be mentioned : 
 Henderson's Sir George Grey (1902), Lyne's lAfe of Sir Henry Parkes 
 (1897), and Morris' Memoir of G. Higinbotham. Parkes' Fifty Years of the 
 making of Australian History (1892) is autobiographical and of considerable 
 value. There is a useful chronological table of the chief events since the 
 establishment of settlement in Australia in the Commonwealth Official Year- 
 Book, 1913.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 33 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 THE ABORIGINALS OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 By W. Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Biology in the 
 
 University of Melbourne, Special Commissioner for Aboriginals, 
 
 Northern Territory. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. ixtroductiox. 
 
 2. Organization. 
 
 3. ToTEMic Systems and Totemism. 
 
 4. Initiation. 
 
 5. Beliefs in Reincarnation and 
 
 Spirit Children. 
 
 6. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 Beliefs in Superior Beings. 
 Magic and Medicine Men. 
 Ceremonies associated with Death 
 
 AND Burial. 
 Weapons and Implements. 
 Decorative Art. 
 
 L Introduction. 
 
 In the short space available it is impossible to do more than touch upon 
 certain of the more important features in regard to the aboriginals. It 
 is probable that, with the exception of one or two isolated groups, they 
 represent the most backward race extant and, in many respects, reveal 
 to us the conditions under which the early ancestors of the present human 
 races existed. It must, however, always be remembered, from the point 
 of view of savage life, that conditions in Australia, during the time that it 
 has been inhabited by human beings, have differed much from those in 
 Europe, Asia, Afi-ica, and America, in that first, Australia has never been 
 stocked with wild animals dangerous to human beings or with any apparently 
 suitable for domestication. Even supposing there had been animals suitable 
 for domestication, it is quite possible that the aboriginal would have done 
 nothing with them. There are plenty of grass seeds that he uses daily 
 to grind up and make into crude cakes, but it never strikes him that it would 
 be advantageous to sow the seed, and so insure a certain amount of safe 
 food supply. In many tribes at least this is to be associated with the fact 
 that he knows nothing of the relation between the seed and the adult plant 
 and thinks that the latter grows because he makes it do so by means of 
 magic. Secondly, and perhaps more important, the Australian aboriginal, 
 since the present race has inhabited the continent, has never had to contend 
 with any higher race. He has developed along his own lines without the 
 impetus given by competition with other peoples. In Europe, early man 
 had to contend with bisons, rhinoceros, tigers, lions, bears, and hyaenas, 
 a condition of affairs which must have sharpened his wits ; in Australia 
 he has had nothing more fearsome to meet than huge diprotodons and giant 
 kangaroos, who were quite as anxious to get away from him as he was to 
 capture and eat them. All that he has "had to contend with have been men 
 (jf his own, or a lower level, and, at times and in certain parts, climatic condi- 
 tions that trained him to habits of keen observation. 
 
 In writing tliis account I have relied princiiially on the followinn works for infonmtion witli lepard 
 to the tribes inhabiting the different parts of the continent with which they respectively deal : — 
 
 (1) A. W. Howitt. " Native Tribes of Soiith-east Australia." 
 
 (2) W. E. Roth. " Ethnolopical Studies amoncHt the North-west Queensland Aborigines " : 
 
 also Bulletins published by the (Jueensland Government. 
 
 (3) B. Spencer and V. J. GlUen. (1) "Native Tribes of Central Australia." (2) "Northern 
 
 Tribes oi Centralia." 
 
 (4) John iMathew. " Two Representative Tribes of (Jucensland." 
 
 (5) Mrs. 1). M. Bates. " Social Organization of some Western Australian Tribes." Report 
 
 A.A.A.S. Melbourne. Vol. XIV., 1913. 
 
 C.12ir)4. C
 
 31 Federal Handbook. 
 
 There has been much speculation in regard to the origin of the present 
 Australian race.* There can be no doubt but that in past times the whole 
 of the continent, including Tasmania, was occupied by one race. This 
 original, and probably Negritto population, at an early period was widely 
 spread over Malayasia and Australia, including Tasmania, which at that 
 time was not shut off by Bass Strait. The Tasmanians had no boats capable 
 of crossing the latter and must have gone over on land. Subsequently, there 
 came a time when the land sank, leaving the higher parts above water in 
 the form of King Island on the west, and the Kent, Furneaux, and Flinders 
 Islands on the east. A remnant of the old Negritto population was thus 
 left stranded in Tasmania, where Homo tasmanianus survived until he came 
 in contact with Europeans and was exterminated. There seems to be no 
 doubt about this; what happened next is not so clear. Homo tasmanianus 
 had frizzly hair, characteristic of negroid races. His weapons and imple- 
 ments were of the most primitive kind ; long, pointed, unbarbed spears, 
 no spear thrower, no boomerang, simple throwing sticks and only the crudest 
 form of chipped stone axes, knives and scrapers that were never hafted.f 
 Unfortunately, of his orginiz ition, cu^^toms, and beliefs we know but little 
 in detail. It is often, indeed usually, assumed that (1) at a later period 
 an immigration of a higher race took place, and that (2) this race blended 
 with the older inhabitants of the continent to produce the present Australian 
 race. In regard to the first of these two assumptions every one is agreed, 
 but in regard to the second there is room for grave doubt. 
 
 Mr. J. Mathew suggests that " a superior race, akin perhaps to the 
 Dravidian of India, the Veddahs of Ceylon, and the Toalas of Celebes, though 
 not necessarily derived from one of these lands, migrated into Australia 
 
 from the north-east They pressed forward gradually, 
 
 absorbing or exterminating the lowlier earlier inhabitants 
 
 The vestiges of the Tasmanian are more pronounced in Victoria, which is 
 shown by the fact that the Victorian dialects contain a number of pure 
 Tasmanian words. The Australians of historic times are, therefore, a 
 hybrid race, constituted mainly of the Tasmanian and Asiatic elements." 
 Mr. Mathew suggests that "the two races are represented by the two primary 
 classes or phratries of Australian society, which were generally designated 
 by names indicating a contrast of colour such as eaglehawk and crow. The 
 crow, black cockatoo, etc., would represent the Tasmanian element ; the 
 eaglehawk, white cockatoo, etc., the so-called Dravidian." I do not, 
 however, think it can be said that the moiety names, except m a few cases, 
 and these representing only a small part of the continent, lend any serious 
 support to the theory of the mixture of two races differing in colour. 
 
 Mr. Mathew also postulates a comparatively recent slight infusion of Malay 
 blood in the northern half of Australia. There is, however, pra,ctically 
 no evidence of Malay infusion. One of the most striking features of the 
 Malay is his long, lank hair, and yet it is just in these north parts that the 
 most frizzly hair is met with. Judging indeed by all accounts, the Malay 
 had very little chance of intercourse with the aborigin-^l, who killed 
 
 • For recent di.'sfussions on this subject reference may be made to Hewitt. " Native Tribes of 
 South-East Australia," and J. Mathew, " Two Representative Tribes of Queensland." 
 
 t Such information as we have is collected in " The Aborigines of Tasmania " H. Ling Roth, 
 2nd. Edit. 1899.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 35 
 
 the intruder when he could. Mr. Sydney H. Ray,* the most com- 
 petent authority, says : — ■" There is no evidence of an African, Andaman, 
 Papuan, or Malay connexion with the Australian languages. There are 
 reasons for regarding the Australian as in a similar morphological stage to 
 the Dravidiaii, but there is no genealogical relationship proved." 
 
 Of one thing I think we may feel quite sure, and that is that if we have 
 two savage races, whom we will call A and B, and if one is on a higher level 
 of culture than the other, has better weapons and is generally more capable, 
 there is not the slightest chance of any men of the lower level, say B, mating 
 with women of the higher level A. Nor is there much likelihood of a man 
 of the higher race mating with a woman of the lower. As a matter of fact 
 it is most probable that the lower race would be exterminated, just as the 
 Moriori was in New Zealand by the incoming Maori. Mr. Mathew's theory, 
 on the other hand, requires the two races — a lower and a higher one — to 
 combine on equal terms. In the case of an invading race occupying the 
 country of another that is living in more or less settled communities, some 
 such union might take place, but we must remember that, in the case of 
 Australia, we are dealing with wild, savage nomads, and, judging by what 
 we know of the feelings of the present day natives in regard to strangers, 
 
 KISHFlM 
 
 CRCWAGNON 
 TASfAANlANS 
 BRUNN 
 
 AUSTRftimNS 
 
 SPY-NEftNDERTKn. 
 
 it is almost inconceivable that any such combination 
 would take place. The same objection, to a large 
 extent, applies to the theory put forward first by 
 Messrs. Flower and Lydekker and adopted by Dr. 
 Howitt, of the mixture of the original Negritto with a 
 dark-coloured Caucasian. It is, at least, very doubtful 
 if the present Australian race shows any trace of inter- 
 mixture with the primitive Negritto that formerly 
 inhabited the continent, and it is at all events very 
 suggestive that we never meet amongst recent Aus- 
 tralians with any indication of real frizzly hair, one 
 of the chief characteristics of the Negritto. If there 
 had been any such blending we might expect to find 
 some such trace of it in the south of the continent 
 where there is none. Some authors regard the 
 Australian as a pure race, but it is much more probable 
 that it is a blend, but between what races it is thus 
 a blend is a matter of conjecture only. Careful 
 anthropometric investigations carried on in Professor 
 Berry's laboratory in the Melbourne University seem 
 to have established the fact that, of the three races, 
 Tasmanian, Papuan, and Australian, the first is the 
 most pure, the second the least, and the third mid- 
 way between them. The general position occupied 
 by the Australian and Tasmanian aboriginals in 
 regard to various prehistoric races is indicated 
 on the accompanying chart (Fig. 1), drawn up ch-^;""^-/;^^^^^^ 
 
 a series of """i'"''! Aboriginals in rela 
 tion to cxtin 't races. Drawn 
 
 '■ number of i>y \v. .M. itoimcs, m.a.. u.sc 
 
 PITHECANTHROPI!* 
 
 ANTHROPOID 
 
 Fid. 1. 
 
 by Mr. Holmes, as the result of 
 skull measurements made on a larj; 
 
 Reports Camb. Expd. to Torres Straits, 1907, p. 258. 
 C 2
 
 36 Federal Handbook. 
 
 aboriginals.* A certain value is allowed to selected important characters, 
 and the whole results are then worked out mathematically, giving the 
 relative positions of each of the specimens and groups indicated. The 
 diagram is very interesting and yet, despite the results that it shows, 
 there is no doubt at all that the present Australian aboriginal is considerably 
 in advance of the Tasmanian. His weapons are notably superior to those 
 of the latter, and it is quite certain that, if the two races came into contact, 
 the Tasmanian would be exterminated, although as is shown in the chart, 
 the Tasmanian, in skull measurements, is placed above the Australian. 
 Very evidently skull measurements are liable, if taken alone, to give rise 
 to misleading conclusions. 
 
 The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 2-10) will serve to give a general 
 idea of the physical features of the Australian native at different periods 
 of his life. At birth he is copper coloured, but within a few days he assumes 
 the usual dark chocolate tint characteristic of the adult. 
 
 In the matter of personal appearance, while conforming generally to 
 what is known as the Australian type, there is considerable variation. The 
 man varies from, approximately, a maximum of 6 ft. 3 in. to a minimum 
 of 5 ft. 2 in. There are, however, very few aboriginals indeed who reach 
 the maximum height indicated. As a general rule, few of them are taller 
 than 5 ft. 8 in. the women vary between 5 ft. 9 in. and 4 ft. 9 in. Their 
 average height is not more than .5 ft. 2 in. The brow ridges are strongly 
 marked, especially in men, and the forehead slopes back. The nose is broad, 
 with the root deep set. In colour, the native is dark chocolate.^brown, not 
 black. The hair in the men varies to a very great extent. It miiy be almost 
 straight, decidedly wavy — its usual feature — or almost, but never really, 
 frizzly. The figures A^dll show this well. The beard also may be well 
 developed or almost absent. In some parts, the elder men pull the hair 
 out on the upper and lower lips, an extreme example of which is met with 
 on Melville Island where, during initiation ceremonies, some of them pull 
 out the whole of their beards. The women very seldom have hair of any 
 length, which is due to the fact that it is periodically cut ; at all events, 
 it is a common feature of drawings and photographs of women from all 
 parts that the hair is never more than a few inches long and, in all the 
 central and northern tribes, it is the duty of a woman to cut her hair and 
 make it into string. 
 
 In skull measurements the native is dolichocephalic or long b cade a. 
 His hands are decidedly small, the average span being little more than 
 6 inches. The hole cut for the hand in many of his shields is too small 
 for an ordinary white man to use. Every native is marked by scars, the 
 numl>er and arrangement of which vary much (Fig. 5). It has been stated 
 that these scars indicate either the tribe or the class of the individual. This 
 may be so in some cases, but only very rarely. In all the central and northern 
 tribes, amongst whom they are especially well developed, they have no 
 relation whatever to any tribal, class, or totemic group, with the solitary 
 exception of the Melville Islanders, who may always be recognised by their 
 remarkable series of cicatrices, forming a " herring-bone " pattern. The 
 cuts are made with 'a sharp stone, ashes, or birds' down being rubbed into 
 
 • I am indebted to Professor Berry for permission to use this chart
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. ,37 
 
 the wound, which gives rise to a thick, rib-like mass of keloid tissue. They 
 are present on women as well as men and are regarded as ornamental. 
 In some cases, instead of lines there are dots made by searing the skin with 
 the red hot end of a firestick. Various authors have referred to the scars 
 on the women as evidence of harsh treatment. This is not so ; they are 
 self-inflicted. 
 
 In regard to their manner of life it must be remembered that they are 
 pure nomads, the members of a tribe hunting over the land that has belonged 
 to their ancestors and not encroaching on that of other tribes. There 
 are favorite hunting and camping grounds and here they will stay as long 
 as food and water supplies are abundant, moving on to other places when these 
 become scarce. During the day they are out in the scrub, the men hunting 
 larger game, the women and children in search of smaller animals, grass 
 seed and yams. Attention has often been drawn to their great power of 
 tracking, a faculty which they must cultivate if they are to live. Their 
 evenings are spent in the performance of the ordinary dances called corro- 
 borees, in which, as a general rule, only men perform, while the rest of the camp 
 makes the audience (Figs. 11 and 12). Each corroboree has its own decora- 
 tions and songs and may occupy the evenings of two or three weeks. Apart 
 from this ordinary camp life, there is, however, so far as the men are con- 
 cerned, quite another side which may be spoken of as the ceremonial. It is 
 difficult to say exactly how much time is occupied by this, but in many 
 tribes at least half the life of a man is spent in attendance upon, or taking 
 part in, ceremonies of a sacred nature that only initiated men may 
 witness, and the older a man becomes the more time he spends in this 
 way. 
 
 Finally it must be remembered that owing to the vast area over which 
 the tribes are scattered and the very different conditions under which they 
 live, some exposed to the often fierce heat and, it may be, droughts of the 
 interior, others living amongst the shady forests of the south-eastern ranges, 
 and others again camped by the side of the rivers and waterpools in the far 
 north, with a constant and plentiful food supply, there are, of necessity, 
 great variations in customs, organization and beliefs. It may be said 
 that, so far as we are now acquainted with them, the different tribes may 
 be regarded as descended from ancestors who all observed certain customs 
 and were regulated by a common social organization. In course of time, 
 as they wandered over the continent and became divided into groups, locally 
 isolated from one another, they developed along different lines ; and yet, 
 amongst much that is divergent, it is, on the whole, surprising how much 
 there is that is similar in their customs, beliefs, and organization. 
 
 2. Organization. 
 
 The first serious attempt to study Australian tribal organization in 
 detail was made by Messrs. Howitt and Fison, who published their results 
 from 1800 onward ; Kamilroi an I, Kurnai may be regarded as having 
 laid the foundation of our knowledge of Australian Anthropology. In this 
 work they demonstrated the existence of (1) two primary exogamous moieties 
 and (2) totemic groups. In the case of the Kamilroi tribe, the organization 
 of a typical Australian tribe was set forth for the first time and it was shown 
 
 fVOl 5 »>/
 
 38 Federal Handbook. 
 
 that the so-called " terms of relationship " were fundamentally group and 
 not individual terms. At a later period Dr. Eoth dealt in detail with the 
 organization of Queensland tribes, Dr. Howitt published his final results 
 in regard to the tribes of south-eastern Australia, the central and northern 
 tribes were dealt with by the late Mr. Gillen and myself, Eev. John Mathew 
 published his results of investigations into two Queensland tribes, and Mrs. 
 D. M. Bates is now publishing the results of her work on Western Australian 
 tribes. 
 
 As might be expected, there is great variation in regard to the organization 
 of tribes inhabiting different parts of the continent. Speaking generally, 
 we may say that every tribe is divided into two moieties ; this is the fun- 
 damental feature.* Each of these is divided into two classes, and each 
 of these into sub-classes, so that, in what may be regarded as the most 
 highly developed normal tribes, we have two moieties with four sub-classes 
 in each, and further the names applied to corresponding male and female 
 sub-classes differ. This organization governs kinship and as, with its 
 associated terras of relationship, it refers to the whole tribe and to everv 
 member of the tribe, so each individual has a kinship or relationship term 
 that he applies to every member of his own tribe, and not only this, but to 
 members of other tribes if they happen to visit his camp or if he goes to 
 theirs, as may often happen during the performance of important ceremonies. 
 These terms of relationship are quite different from those amongst ourselves 
 and they might better be called group terms. In some, but very few cases, 
 there are terms that are applied to individuals, but these are rarely met with, 
 and it is only by realizing the fact that the group, and not the individual, 
 lies at the basis of the organization of Australian tribes that, not only theii 
 organization, but their habits, customs, and beliefs can be understood. 
 They have no terms corresponding precisely in meaning to our words mother, 
 father, sister, brother, mother-in-law, father-in-law. In the Pitta Pitta 
 tribe, for example, described by Eoth in Queensland, a woman calls her 
 actual mother " umma," but she applies the same name to each membei' 
 of the group of women, any one of whom her father might have married. 
 A man calls his actual wife or wives " nopa," but he applies the same term to 
 each member of the group of women, any one of whom he might lawfully 
 have married, and so on right through the whole series of terms. Not only is 
 this so, but the group relationship shows out strongly during the performance 
 of all their ceremonies and even in camp life. There are, for example, men 
 of a certain group who may lawfully marry women of another group. If 
 the father of one of his eligible wives dies, though the man may never have 
 seen the father or his daughter, it is still his duty to cut himself in the same 
 way as if his actual wife's father had died. So again, if he catches a wallaby, 
 if there be any man in camp whose daughter he might lawfully marry, even 
 if the man has no daughter, he must still present him with food. The affairs 
 of any individual are, at bottom, mainly concerned with the group of which 
 he is a member, the family enters to a slight, but only a very slight, extent. 
 During the very large and by far the most important part of his life when 
 he is associated with his fellow tribesmen, and often tribeswomen also, in 
 
 • For suggestions with regard to this, cf. John Mathew, " Eaglehawk and Crow," also " Two Repre- 
 sentative (Jueensland Tribes."
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 39 
 
 the performance of the multifarious ceremonies that occupy so much of his 
 time and thoughts, it is the group that is all predominant, the family is 
 unrecognised. 
 
 In order to give some idea of the main features in regard to the organization 
 of the tribes, we will take certain examples which may be regarded as repre- 
 sentative of them, though, of course, only salient points can be noted in 
 such a sketch as this. Taking Australian tribes as a whole, we may divide 
 them into five groups : — 
 
 (1) Those with two moieties and no class names. In all of these 
 
 descent is counted in the maternal line. 
 
 (2) Those in which the moieties are divided into two or four classes or 
 
 sub-classes and in which descent is counted in the maternal 
 line. 
 
 (3) Those in which the moieties are each divided into two or four 
 
 classes or sub-classes and in which descent is counted in the 
 indirect paternal line. 
 
 (4) Those in which the moieties are each divided into two classes 
 
 and in which descent is counted in the direct paternal line. 
 
 (5) Tribes that may probably be regarded as abnormal, inhabiting 
 
 coastal areas in certain parts, such as Victoria and the 
 Northern Territory, in which, if any class organization were 
 ever present, it has been superseded by some form of local 
 organization. 
 
 (1) Tribes loith two moieties, but no classes. 
 
 These are only met with in the interior of the continent, and probably 
 represent the most primitive form of organization, but it must be remembered 
 that, though there are no class names, yet there are groups of individuals, 
 standing in definite relationships to one another, who correspond to the groups 
 of individuals to whom class and sub-class names are given in other tribes. 
 In some cases, the moiety names are Kararu and Matteri, or variants of 
 these ; in others they are Mukwara and Kilpara. Of these tribes we may 
 take the Dieri as an example. A Kararu man marries a Matteri woman 
 and their children are Matteri ; a Matteri man marries a Kararu woman and 
 their children are Kararu. 
 
 (2) Tribes in which the moieties are divided hito two classes, and descent is 
 counted in the maternal line. 
 
 We may take two examples of these — (a) the Pitta Pitta, described by 
 Roth, the organization of which is similar to that of many of the Central 
 Queensland tribes. It may be represented thus : — 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Utaru. 
 
 Pakuta. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Kupuru 
 Wungko 
 
 KurkiUa 
 Bunburi 
 
 Bunburi 
 Kurkilla 
 
 Wungko 
 Kupuru
 
 40 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The two moieties are Utaru and Pakuta, each of which has two classes. 
 The system is, that men of cohimn 1 marry women of column 2, and their 
 children are shown in column 3. Men of column 2 marry women of column 
 1, and their children are as shown in column 4. It will be seen that a woman's 
 children belong to her moiety but to the class to which she does not ; in other 
 words, we have direct maternal descent of the moiety and indirect of the 
 class. 
 
 The second example is the Kamilroi, described by Howitt and 
 Pison, the organization of which is similar to that of many tribes in the 
 interior of New South Wales and Queensland. It agrees fundamentally 
 with the Pitta Pitta, but has distinct names for males and females, 
 thus : — 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Kupathin. 
 
 Dilbi. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Ipai (Ipatha) 
 Kumbo (Butha) 
 
 Kubi (Kubitha) 
 Murri (Matha) 
 
 Murri (Matha) Kumbo (Butha) 
 Kubi (Kubitha) Ipai (Ipatha) 
 
 Descent is counted in the indirect female line, so far as the class is con- 
 cerned, but, in addition to the ordinary marriage, it is permissible for a man 
 to marry a woman belonging to the same moiety as himself, but to another 
 totemic group. So far as the class name is concerned, the children take the 
 one they would have taken had their mother married the correct man. 
 It may be noted that in all tribes, when an irregular marriage is 
 permitted, the children always take the class appropriate to the normal 
 marriage of the woman. 
 
 (3) Tribes in which the moieties are divided into two or four classes, and in which 
 descent is counted in the indirect paternal line. 
 
 These tribes occupy a very large area in the centre and northern parts 
 of the continent, and probably extend right across into Western Australia ; 
 at all events, we know they stretch beyond the far western end of the 
 Macdonnell Eanges, and are met with again in the West. The Arunta, 
 Karriara, and Warramunga may be taken as types. The Arunta organization 
 in the southern part of the tribe is thus : — 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Moiety 1. 
 
 Moiety 2. 
 
 Children. 
 
 1 
 
 Children. 
 
 Panunga 
 Bulthara 
 
 Purula 
 Kumara 
 
 Bulthara 
 Panunga 
 
 Kumara 
 1 Bulthara
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 41 
 
 In the southern part of the tribe there are only four class names, but, as a 
 matter of fact, each of these is divided into two groups. If we take for 
 example the Panunga and Purula, two intermarrjing groups, we find that 
 we can arrange them as follows, using the letters « and P' to indicate the two 
 groups : — 
 
 Panunga « marries Purula <>■, children are Bulthara /?. 
 
 Panunga ,5 marries Purula ^J', children are Bulthara «. 
 
 A Panunga « man calls Purula 'i- women Unawa, Panunga /5 men Ifmunna, 
 and Pm"ula i^ women Unkulla. The Unawa women are eligible as wives, 
 the Unkulla are not, under normal conditions. In the northern part of the 
 tribe distinct names are given to the groups which now form what are called 
 eight sub-classes, but, as said before, these are always functionally present. 
 
 The names and marriage arrangements are as follows, the equivalent 
 groups in the southern part of the tribe being placed in brackets : — 
 
 Moiety 1. 
 
 Panunga 
 (Panunga a) 
 Uknaria 
 (Panunga j8) 
 Bulthara 
 (Bulthara a) 
 Appungerta 
 (Bulthara /3) 
 
 Moiety 2. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Purula 
 (Purula a) 
 Ungalla 
 
 Appungerta 
 (Bulthara /3) 
 Bulthara 
 
 (Purula j3) 
 Kumara 
 
 (Bulthara /3) 
 Uknaria 
 
 (Kumara a) 
 Umbitchana 
 
 (Panunga /3) 
 Panunga 
 
 (Kumara /3) 
 
 (Panunga a) 
 
 Children. 
 
 Kumara 
 
 (Kumara a) 
 Ubitchana 
 (Kumara /3) 
 Purula 
 (Purula a) 
 Ungalla 
 (Purula j6) 
 
 The organization of the Kaitish, Warramunga, and other tribes in the 
 northern central area, as far as the Katharine River in the north, and east- 
 wards towards the Gulf of Carpentaria, is fundamentally the same with, of 
 course, different names for sub-classes and, in many, distinct names for the 
 corresponding women's classes, giving thus sixteen class names in all, a featiu'e* 
 described also by Mrs. Bates in East Kimberley tribes in Western Australia. 
 Thus, for example, in the Warramunga, the equivalent of the Uknaria, men 
 are called TJunguri, and the women of the same group Namigilli. In some 
 tribes also the moiety names are retained. In the Warramunga, the equiva- 
 lent of moiety 1 in the Arunta is called Uluuru, and that of moiety 2 Kingilli. 
 In the Karriara tribe in Western Australia, as described by Mrs. Bates, the 
 moiety names are lost, four classes are present, and the marriage arrangements 
 are as follows : — 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Moiety 1. 
 
 Moiety 2. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Banaka 
 Paljari 
 
 Boorong 
 Kaimera 
 
 Paljari 
 Banaka 
 
 Kaimera 
 Boorong 
 
 It will bo seen that, except for the class names, the ari'angemcut is 
 identical with what is met with in the southern Arunta, and a similar 
 organization is evidently widely spread in We.stern Australia. 
 
 • Mrs. D. M. Bates. 
 Vol. XIV., 1913. 
 
 "Social Organization of some Western Australian Trihcs." Report, A.A.A.S.
 
 42 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 (4) Tribes in ivhich the moieties are divided into four classes, and in which 
 descent is counted in the direct paternal line, so far as the class name is 
 concerned. 
 The Mara tribe inliabiting country between the Eoper and Macarthur 
 
 Kivers may be taken as a type. The arrangement is as follows : — - 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 MUuri. 
 
 TJmbaua. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Children. 
 
 Murungun a 
 Muningun /3 
 Mumbali a 
 Mumbali /3 
 
 Purdal a 
 Kuial 13 
 Kuial a 
 Purdal 13 
 
 Murungun /3 
 Murungun a 
 Mumbali /3 
 Mumbali a 
 
 Purdal /3 
 Kuial a 
 Kuial 13 
 Purdal a 
 
 There are four classes, but each of these is again divided into two, dis- 
 tinguished by the letters a and ,i. The arrangement has the appearance 
 of being very definitely thought out, and there is further a very definite 
 scheme, by means of which the divisions (Murungun a, ,?, etc.) are made to 
 fit in with the corresponding sub-classes in other tribes with whom the Mara 
 constantly come into contact. 
 
 (.5) Abnortnal tribes in ivhich class organization has apparently been superseded 
 by some form of local organization. 
 
 As an example of these, we may take the Kurnai tribe which, many years 
 ago, occupied the mountains in eastern Victoria. It was divided into five 
 groups named after the localities in which they lived. There was no class 
 organization and a man could not marry a woman of his own local group. 
 There were intermarrying local groups, marriage being by elopement. 
 
 As a second example, we may mention the Kakadu and allied tribes 
 living at the other extremity of the continent on the Coburg Peninsula and 
 Alligator Rivers. They have apparently no class organization and the 
 totem does not regulate marriage. The tribe is divided into local groups 
 and a man of one local group takes a wife from another particular group. 
 There are explicit traditions which purport to explain the origin of this 
 local system. 
 
 3. Totem ic Systems and Totem ism. 
 
 In dealing with Australian tribes the word " totem " has been applied in 
 at least three different senses. 
 
 (1) The Group totem, that is the material object giving its name to a 
 group of individuals who commonly believe themselves to be descended 
 from it. The name of the totem usually passes by inheritance from 
 generation to generation, sometimes in the maternal, sometimes in the 
 paternal line. 
 
 (2) The Sex totem, discovered by Dr. Howitt in the Kurnai and Wot- 
 joballuk trbes in Victoria, where it exists side by side with the group totem. 
 The women have one animal, such as the owlet night- jar, associated with 
 them and the man another, such as the bat. This is of rare occurrence.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 4-3 
 
 (3) The Individual totem, usually acquired by dreaming of some animal- 
 This also is of rare occurrence and w^s first described by Dr. Howitt, but has 
 been recently described by Mrs. Bates as occurring also in some Western 
 Australian tribes. 
 
 So far as Australia is concerned, it is advisable to restrict the term totem 
 to the first of these and to define it as a material object that (1) gives its 
 name to a group of individuals and (2) the name of which is usually 
 hereditary either in the maternal or paternal line and the term totemism 
 to a system based on the recognition of these two factors. It must be 
 remembered that there are very considerable variations in regard to 
 totemic customs and beliefs in different tribes. We will deal with totemism 
 under three aspects. 
 
 (1) The Social Aspect, 
 
 By this is meant the division of the tribe into totem groups, their influence. 
 if any, on marriage and the mode in which each individual becomes associated 
 with any one of them. 
 
 We have already seen that most tribes are divided into moieties and 
 these into classes. As a general rule, the totemic groups are distributed 
 between the two moieties in such a way that each group is confined to one or 
 other of them. We will take a series of tribes from different parts of the 
 continent as typical of the more important variations in regard to the social 
 aspect. 
 
 (1) The Dierl. — ^This is representative of tribes in which the moieties are 
 not divided into classes. These moieties are called Kararu and Matteri 
 and the totem groups are divided between them. Kararu has rain, carpet 
 snake, crow, frog, etc. ; Matteri has a cormorant, emu, eagle, hawk, native 
 cat, etc. A Kararu man must marry a Matteri woman and is not restricted 
 in his choice to any one totem group. The children follow the mother's 
 totem. 
 
 (2) The Kamilroi. — This is representative of a large number of tribes, 
 such as the Whakelbura, occupying a vast area of country sweeping round 
 inland of the coastal ranges, from the Gulf of Carpentaria in the north to the 
 River Murrav in the south. The totems are divided between the moieties. 
 There are four classes and of these Ipai-Kumbo and Murri-Kubbo have totems 
 in common. The children take the mother's totem. 
 
 (3) The Arunta. — This is representative of an important group, including 
 the Arunta, Ilpirra, Unmatjera, and Kaitish tribes. There are four classes 
 or eight sub-classes and the totem groups are not restricted to the moieties. 
 Each group is, however, always more largely represented in one moiety than 
 the other. Marriage between individuals of the same totemic name is not 
 forbidden, but rarely takes place. The country occupied by the Arunta is 
 dotted over with special spots inhabited by the spirits of old totemic ancestors, 
 who enter women and undergo reincarnation. The traditions are very 
 precise in regard to these totemic centres, so that the natives knowing, or 
 thinking they do, where any particular spirit child entered a woman, are 
 able to assign its totem to it. In the Kaitish, the most northern of these 
 tribes, the totemic groups are more nearly divided between the moieties 
 than in the Arunta A man very rarely marries a woman of his own totem
 
 44 Federal Handbook. 
 
 and there is a strong tendency for the descent of the totem to be in the male 
 line, as is always the case in the class names. Each individual is normally 
 associated with one totem group. 
 
 (4) The Warramunga. — This is representative of the Warramunga, 
 Tjingilli, and other tribes occupying a large area in the centre and extending 
 across to the Queensland border. The totem groups are strictly divided 
 between the moieties. A man may marry a woman of any totem in the 
 moiety to which he does not belong, provided she belongs to the right class. 
 Strict paternal descent of the totem is nearly, but not quite, the rule, but every 
 child belongs to a totem group in its father's moiety. For example, a black 
 snake man's children are almost always black snake, though rarely one may 
 belong to another totem group such as rain. As the moieties are exogamous, 
 it follows that the totems are the same. 
 
 (5) The Binbinga. — This is representative of a group of tribes that 
 occupy the country drained by the Macarthur Eiver flowing into the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria. The organization is closely similar to that of the Warramunga, 
 but in these tribes not only are the totem groups divided between the moieties, 
 but the descent of the totem name is strictly in the father's line. 
 
 (6) There remain certain tribes in which the descent is anomalous, such, 
 for example, as the Kurnai, in the southern coastal district of Victoria, and the 
 Kakadu nation in the far north, occupying the Coburg Peninsula and the 
 the country drained by the Alligator Eivers. These tribes are evidently 
 much modified. They have no class system and marriage is regulated by 
 the existence of local intermarrying groups. In the Kakadu each spirit 
 individual has a double nature, one part enters the woman, one part remains 
 outside. It chooses its own totem and the spirit part that remains outside 
 tells the father the totem name of the child. 
 
 (2) The Ceremonial Aspect. 
 This side of totemism has probably been very strongly developed through- 
 out the whole of Australia, though it has only been much studied during 
 recent years, when, unfortunately, in the whole of Victoria and New South 
 Wales and in most parts of Queensland, the tribes have become decadent. 
 It is interesting to note that one of the earliest accounts that we have of the 
 natives — that given by Collins in 1804 — evidently describes one of these 
 performances. Speaking generally, it may be said that every totemic group 
 has certain ceremonies associated with it and that these refer to old totemic 
 ancestors. In all tribes they form part of a secret ritual in which only 
 initiated men take part. In most tribes a certain number are shown to the 
 youths during the early stages of initiation, but at a later period he sees many 
 more. In the Arunta, for example, the final stage is concerned with the 
 Engwura and during the performance of this a long series is performed 
 (Figs. 13 and 14). It may extend over a period of three months, during 
 which totemic ceremonies are enacted daily. To start an Engwura, the leader 
 of some totemic group, after consultation with those of others, sends out a 
 messenger called Ilchinkinja, which means " the beckoning hand." He 
 carries a Churinga and passes over the country delivering his message at 
 different camps. Slowly the natives gather together at the chosen place, 
 where a special ceremonial ground has been prepared. The Panunga- 
 Bulthara camp together, and the Purula-Kumara, the division of the tribe
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 45 
 
 into two moieties being very marked during the Engwnra. Large numbers 
 of Churinga are brought in and stored on two platforms far from one another. 
 These are associated with the old ancestors and their living representatives 
 and at times the old men call some of the younger ones together, rub the sticks 
 with red ochre and tell the former all about the ancestors. Each ceremony 
 is concerned with an ancestor and is the property of some old man who either 
 performs it himself or invites a younger man to do so. At the close of the 
 Engwura the men have to pass through three fire ordeals. During the first 
 the women throw burning bushes over them ; during the second they have 
 to lie down on bushes placed above red hot faggots and, during the third, 
 they have to kneel for a few moments on a smouldering fire made by the 
 women. Apart from this, the women take no part whatever in the 
 ceremonies, after which are over the men are regarded as " ertwa mura 
 oknira " — very good men. A characteristic feature of these ceremonies, the 
 exact nature of which varies much in different parts of the continent, is that 
 one or more men have their bodies decorated with a design which is especially 
 associated with that ceremony and is usually drawn in coloured bird's down, 
 always fixed on with human blood. Even more elaborate designs may 
 sometimes be drawn on the ground (Figs. 29 end 30). 
 
 (3) The Magical Aspect. 
 
 In early days. Grey, who used the Western Australian word Kobong for 
 totem, stated that " A certain mysterious connexion exists between a family 
 and its kobong, so that a member of the family will never kill an animal of 
 the species to which his kobong belongs, should, he find it asleep ; indeed, he 
 always kills it reluctantly, and never without afiording it a chance to escape. 
 This arises from the family belief that some one individual of the species is 
 their nearest friend, to kill whom would be a great crime and carefully to be 
 avoided." This idea of a close association between an individual and his 
 totem is widely spread, but the exact beliefs and customs in regard to them 
 difier very much in different parts. The general idea may be summed up 
 in a remark made to us by a kangaroo man when we had taken his photogi-aph. 
 We were asking him about the matter and he said, pointing to the photograph, 
 " That is Just the same as me, so is a kangaroo." In some tribes there is a 
 feeling of mutual protection between an individual and his totem, but this is 
 not often met with. They are of the same flesh and the belief in the descent 
 from the totemic animal is widespread. In some tribes the individual will not 
 kill his totem ; ])ut in most there is no objection to his doing so and handing it 
 to others to eat. In some he will both kill and e9.t it. The exact nature of 
 the relationship and the way in which the native is influenced by it varies 
 much and, speaking generally, the magical aspect of totemism appears to be 
 largely associated with climatic conditions, so far as they affect the supply of 
 food and water. Three typical examples of ceremonies will serve to show 
 the nature of the magical aspect. In the Urabunna tribe, which counts 
 descent in the female line, the ceremony is called Pitjinta. In a snake group 
 the decorated performer kneels down and extends his arms. The skin on 
 each fore-arm is then pinched up and he pierces it with a pointed bone 
 (Fig. 15). When snakes become plentiful, men who do not belong to the 
 totem group go and bring some in to the old man and say, " Look, here are
 
 46 Federal Handbook. 
 
 snakes." He smears a little fat over his arms and the bone and then tells 
 the men to eat the rest. The bones are wrapped in the hair of a snake man 
 and put away. In the Arunta, the ceremonies are called Intichiuma and are 
 very suggestive. In that of a grub group the men of the totem, no one else 
 being present, start from camp in the morning in silence, fasting and devoid 
 of arms and ornaments. Each man has a mark characteristic of the totem 
 on his face. They go to a rocky gorge where there is a cave and in this a 
 large stone that represents the adult insect and smaller ones that are its 
 eggs. The former is reverently stroked by all while they chant refrains, the 
 burden of which is an invitation to the insect to come and lay eggs. This 
 over, they return to the camp, near to which a long bough hut has been 
 built, supposed to represent the chrysalis case. Into this they all go and 
 once or twice the leader comes out and shambles round in imitation of the 
 adult insect emerging from its chrysalis. All men and women who do not belong 
 to the group have to lie down with their faces on the ground while the women 
 of the group stand up peering round in all directions and keeping watch 
 over them. Some time later, when the grub is plentiful, every one goes out ; 
 they collect large numbers, return to camp and cook them. The head man 
 sits by himself. First the men who do not belong to the gi'oup and then 
 those who do bring their supplies to him. He eats a little, gives some to a 
 few of the older men and then hands all the rest to those who do not belong 
 to the group, telling them to eat it. The grub men are not absolutely 
 forbidden to eat it but they only do so sparingly. The leader must at this 
 time eat a little, so as to identify himself with it, or else he would not be able 
 to perform the ceremony successfully. In the Kakadu tribe, far in the north, 
 there is a ceremony called Muraian that is evidently of the same nature, 
 though it is not so detailed, owing, doubtless, to the normal abundance of 
 food in this part. The natives have a large number of sacred sticks and 
 stones, each supposed to represent a totemic animal or plant (Fig. 16). They 
 may only be seen by the elder men and, during the ceremony, are grasped 
 in the hands of men who dance round and round a central figure, stretching 
 out the symbolic objects and yelling " Brau, Brau," which means " Give, 
 give." It sounds almost like a command to the totemic object. 
 
 In Western Australia Mrs. Bates has recorded that, in the East Pilbaru 
 tribe, there are certain special spots, or local totem centres, called Thalu, 
 where ceremonies for the increase of the totemic object are held, in which, 
 unlike most tribes, women and children take some share. The same author 
 describes how in the West Kimberley tribes the totems are " dreamed " by the 
 totemites. When a young man has passed through some stages of his initia- 
 tion, he begins to " dream " the increase of his totem. He dreams he is on 
 his ngargarula booro (that is, the ground on which his father first saw him 
 in a dream when he was a spirit baby). If he be an edible bean man, for 
 example, he dreams he picks up a branch of the bean, chews it and spits it 
 all about. When the time of beans comes round, a plentiful supply will result 
 from the dream. 
 
 There is no doubt but that in many tribes, and the belief was probably 
 at one time widely spread over Australia, the natives firmly believe that by 
 means of magical ceremonies such as these they can control their food 
 supplies.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 47 
 
 4. Initiation. 
 
 In all Australian, tribes special cerenaouies of an important nature, which 
 vary much in their details, attend both the initiation of youths to the status 
 of men and that of girls to the status of women. In the case of the youth, 
 initiation is almost universally associated with showing him the " bull- 
 roarer " for the first time. It has different names in different parts — Chm'inga, 
 Tundun, Kunapippi, etc. — but always consists of a thin slab of wood, or, 
 more rarely, stone. It is pierced at one end by a hole, through which the 
 string is passed, and by this means it is whirled round and round, making the 
 noise that is usually supposed by women and children to be the voice of a 
 great spirit that takes the youth away and initiates him. It is very difficult 
 to understand the wide divergence in regard to the actual ceremonies 
 characteristic of different groups of tribes. We have, generally speaking, 
 three main types — (1) the knocking out of an incisor tooth, as amongst the 
 Kurnai in the south-east ; (2) circumcision, followed in many, but by no 
 means all, cases by sub-incision, amongst tribes occupying a vast area in 
 the interior of New South Wales and Queeiisland, the whole of the central 
 area and probably a large part of Western Australia ; (3) special ceremonies 
 amongst groups of tribes such as those on Melville and Bathurst Islands and 
 the Kakadu nation on the Alligator Rivers, amongst whom no mutilation 
 of the bodv other than perhaps the pulling out of hairs takes place. We will 
 briefly describe examples of each of these types. 
 
 Of the first we will take the Kurnai as being of historic interest, because 
 it was in connexion with it that the first adequate account of initiation was 
 given by the late Dr. Howitt, who then also drew attention, for the first time, 
 to the importance of the bull-roarer. To begin with, a man is sent out with 
 a Tundun to summon distant groups. This may take months. When they 
 come in, ordinary corroborees are held which serve to fill in the time until 
 all have arrived. A ceremonial ground, called Bunan, is prepared by clearing 
 an open space 30 to 50 yards long, and piling earth round it to form a low 
 mound. A path leads away for about 400 yards into the scrub, where a busli 
 house is bu'lt. The serious part of the ceremonies begins by a recently initiated 
 youth walking by a log placed near the Bunan, and saying "A snake, a snake." 
 Other men come up, pretend to be frightened, and then they all run away in 
 single file. At first the women and children gather together in the middle of 
 the Bunan, the men on the outside. The latter then jump over the mound 
 and run round the women shouting out the names of the various contingents 
 that have come in. The women come out and the men go in. The novices 
 are amongst the women and, like them, sit with their backs to the men. 
 On the Bunan the tooth song is sung, after which most of the men go to the 
 bush house where the medicine men show their " joias," or magic stones, to 
 the possession of which they owe their powers. Here, also, there are figures 
 of animals, such as the spiny ant-eater, crow, snakes and especially one of 
 Daramulun, who is regarded as the great father of the tribe. This over, they 
 return to the Bunan, the youths are painted and fillets of grass bound round 
 their foreheads by their mothers' brothers, who take charge of them and 
 instruct them in tribal legends, laws and the power of medicine men, etc. 
 A hot fire is made on the Bunan and tiie novices sit round on the mound 
 each with a woman's digging stick between liis feet, containing the waist
 
 48 Federal Handbook. 
 
 belt, forehead band and nose bone tbat he will wear when initiated. Behind 
 each boy, covered with boughs, crouches his mother or her sister. Then the 
 bull-roarer sounds, the women run away and the youths are taken to the 
 bush house and covered with boughs. Once more they return to the Bunan 
 and are told of Daramulun. Finally, a man, representing the latter, takes 
 hold of each boy, applies his lower incisor to the left upper of the boy and 
 presses it up. Then the loosened tooth is knocked out with a club and chisel. 
 After this, the boys are shown a special image of Daramulun, instructed in 
 their duties as men and told that the women must know nothing of what 
 they have seen. Finally, they are taken and shown to the women, 
 from whose charge they have now been removed, and then run off into 
 the bush. 
 
 In the second type, including those of Central Australia and the Queens- 
 land tribes described by Roth, there are a succession of initiation ceremonies 
 taking place at various ages. The Arunta may be taken as a type. We 
 have — (1) the painting of the young boys and throwing them in the air, 
 (2) the ceremony of circumcision, (3) that of sub-incision, and (4) the Engwura. 
 In connexion with the second, the youths are shown the bull-roarer for the 
 first time, the noise made by which the women and children believe to be the 
 voice of Twanyirika, a spirit that takes the boys away, provides them with a 
 new set of insides and makes them into men. In connexion with both 
 (2) and (3), they are shown sacred totemic ceremonies and instructed in the 
 laws, totemic history of the tribe, food restrictions and their duties as men ; 
 they are told tbat they must implicitly obey the old men, must not eat the 
 forbidden foods, but supply other men with them, and on no account must 
 they talk to lubras about what they have seen. Everything is made as 
 impressive as possible and the fact that the main ceremonies take place 
 during the night, or just at daybreak, adds to the feeling of mystery. They 
 have special designs painted on them, may not speak to any one save the old 
 men in charge of them, are given very I'ttle food to eat, and pass through 
 sundry very unpleasant experiences. For example, at various stages during the 
 performance of kangaroo ceremonies, from four to ten men be down on the 
 novice, who is expected to bear everything with stoicism. Finally, the 
 men take about a dozen poles, each 8 feet high. Dry boughs are piled 
 up to make a fire and, amidst the yells of the men, the women rush to their 
 camp while bull-roarers sound all round. The novice is laid on his back 
 and the poles placed above him and lifted up and down on him while the 
 men sing. This over, he is carried, feet foremost, to where a man, kneeling 
 in front of the operator, holds a shield on which he is placed and then, to the 
 weird accompaniment of the bull-roarers, the Lartua song is thundered 
 out and, in a moment or two, the operation is over. The initiated youth, 
 completely dazed, after being embraced in turn by each of the older men 
 who has taken an official part in the ceremony, is handed a bundle of churinga, 
 and told, " Here is Twanyirika, of whom you have heard so much, take them, 
 they are churinga and will help to heal you quickly, guard them well, do not 
 lose them, do not let your mother and sisters see you, obey yom' elder brother, 
 who goes with you, do not eat forbidden food." 
 
 The final ceremony of Engwura, to which we have referred under the 
 heading of totemism, is not passed through until a man is perhaps 25 or 30 years
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 49 
 
 old. It is most impressive and, after a man has passed through it, he is 
 spoken of as " ertwa mura oknira," which means " very good man." As a 
 matter of fact, every man must pass through all the initiation ceremonies, 
 so that, amongst the elder men, there is no one who is not " ertwa mura 
 oknira," but, on the other hand, there are grades of " goodness." Some men 
 take less interest than others in the sacred ceremonies, they are given to 
 chattering, like women and children and are " irkun oknira," that is, light 
 and frivolous. Others take matters seriously and will, as they grow older, 
 become leaders or oknirabata— great teachers. 
 
 Special status names are applied as follows to the boy, youth and man at 
 the times stated : — (1) Ambaquerka at the time of growing up, (2) Ulpmerka 
 after this and until circumcision, (3) Wurtja during the ceremony, 
 (4) Arakurta after the ceremony and until that of sub-incision, (5) Ertwakurka 
 after this and until the Engwura, (6) Uliara after the latter. As in the 
 Kurnai, so in all tribes, the women take an active part in the opening 
 ceremonies but are rigidly excluded from the essential parts when a bull-roarer 
 is used. There is usually some special ceremony symbolic of the fact that the 
 boy is being withdrawn from the ranks of the women. It is not necessary 
 here to refer to the initiation ceremonies of the women, but such exist in all 
 central tribes and in those described by Roth, and probably, at one time, 
 existed universally. 
 
 The third type includes various coastal tribes that are evidently much 
 modified. A characteristic group of these inhabits the Coburg Peninsula, the 
 .VUigator River district and the coast as far as Darwin. A still more modified 
 group inhabits Melville and Bathurst Islands. The former have a remarkable 
 series of ceremonies associated with initiation, all of them totemic in 
 character. There is no tooth knocking out nor any mutilation of the body. 
 In the Kakadu, a special ground called " ober " is made, and on this totemic 
 ceremonies are shown to the novices, who are given the usual instructions. 
 Like the Arunta, there are various grades, the last of which is not passed 
 through until a man is old, when he is allowed to take part in the Muraian 
 ceremony, during which various objects symbolic of the totems are used. 
 In the Kakadu there are apparently no bull-roarers shown ; but in the 
 Larakia, at Darwin, they are shown to the young men at one stage, when 
 three or four old men suddenly emerge from the bush and whirl them in front 
 oi the novices. The latter stand in a row, and the old men, coming right up 
 to them, point the bull-roarers at thena, then pull them through their own 
 armpits, and insert them in those of the novices. At other stages the novices 
 are subjected to rough treatment, such even as being kicked and hit hard, 
 and during those unpleasant performances they must not grumble or find 
 fault. On Melville Island, the novices are shown a special yam ceremony, 
 during which all the men, women and children are gathered together in a 
 camp, where ceremonies are performed and the yams cooked and eaten in a 
 special way. The novices are also taken to a water-hole, where those wlio 
 are passing through for the first time have their heads placed in bark baskets 
 and dipped under water, while those who have reached the second stage 
 are cauglit hold of by the arms and legs and pulled violently backwards and 
 forwards through the water. Amongst these tribes girls of corresponding 
 status to the youths aie specially decorated and take ]r.ivt in the coroinonies, 
 
 C,121i-)4. i>
 
 50 Federal Handbook. 
 
 and tliere is, at all events, one special ceremony, not as yet understood, 
 tkrough which the older novices must pass. This is possibly the equivalent 
 of the Muraian amongst the Kakadu. 
 
 All the various types of initiation ceremonies for men agree in certain 
 fundamental points : — 
 
 (1) They begin at the age of puberty. 
 
 (2) During the initial ceremonies the women play an important 
 part. 
 
 (3) During the essential parts the women are typically absent and the 
 youths are shown the bull-roarer, have the secret beliefs explained to them 
 and are instructed in the moral precepts and customs, including food 
 restrictions, that they must henceforth observe under severe penalties. 
 
 (4) At the close of the first part of the ceremonies, such as that of tooth 
 knocking out or circumcision, a definite performance is enacted, emblematic 
 of the fact that the youths have passed out of the control of the 
 women. 
 
 (5) The last grade is not passed through until a man is quite 
 mature. 
 
 5. Beliefs in Reincarnation and Spirit Children. 
 
 The belief in reincarnation is very firmly held by all the central tribes 
 from the Urabunna in the south right across the continent to those inhabiting 
 the Coburg Peninsula on the northern coast line. In the Arunta tribe, the 
 natives believe that in the far past times their ancestors, who were endowed 
 with powers much superior to those of their living representatives, wandered 
 across the country. They were divided into groups, kangaroo men and 
 women in one, witchetty grub people in another, emu people in another, 
 and so on. The track followed by each group is well known and, when 
 they halted at various places, some of them went into the gi'ound, their 
 spirit parts remaining above, each of them in company with a churinga. 
 The whole Arunta country is thus dotted over with local centres — one 
 haunted by kangaroo, another by grub spirits, and so on. At the present 
 day it is these spirit children who are continually undergoing reincarnation. 
 Each spirit has associated with it another, called Arumbui'inga, which is 
 its double and always remains outside, living at the old camping ground 
 of the spirit when the latter is reincarnated. Many of the more important 
 of these old ancestors are known by name, and the old men decide the 
 particular one of whom any child is the reincarnation. If the latter be 
 known, the child bears the name of the ancestor. This name, however, 
 is not used in public, it is secret, and known only to the old men of the 
 totemic gi'oup. The individual himself only hears it when he is fully grown, 
 and it is never mentioned except in whispers. When a child is born one or 
 two of the old men actually go out in search of the churinga. Sometimes 
 they find it, sometimes they do not, in which event they make a new one, 
 so that each individual is represented by his churinga in the local storehouse 
 called ertnatulunga. A woman going into the vicinity of one of these 
 places is always liable to be entered by one of the spirit children. Whenever 
 also a native dies, his spirit goes back to its old camping ground and remains 
 there until it chooses to be reincarnated.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 51 
 
 In Queensland, Roth states that the TuUy River blacks believed that 
 children result from one or other of four causes — (1) a woman sits over a 
 fire on which she has roasted a piece of a fish (black bream) that has been 
 given to her by her husband ; (2) she goes out hunting and catches a special 
 bull frog ; (3) some man tells her to have a child ; or (4) she dreams that a 
 child has gone inside her. The Cape Bedford blacks believe that spirit 
 children enter the mother in the form of a curlew, if they be girls, and in 
 that of a snake, if boys. If they hear the curlew whistling at night they say 
 " Hallo, there is a child about." According to the Pennefather natives, 
 a mythic being called Anjea makes children out of swamp mud and puts 
 them in the mothers. He is never seen, but can be heard laughing in the 
 scrub. 
 
 In the Warramiinga tribe, each totemic group is supposed to have had 
 one great ancestor who wandered over the country, performing ceremonies 
 at different spots, where he left spirit children behind, and it is these who are 
 now born again. So again in the Gnanji tribe there is just the same belief, 
 but, in addition, if a man travels, spirit children from his own place may 
 follow him up and go inside his wife. 
 
 In the Kadaku tribe on the northern coast, the beliefs are very precise 
 and detailed. There are supposed to have been a limited number of ancestors 
 who deposited spirit children at different places. These have been continually 
 undergoing reincarnation. In these tribes the names of all these people 
 are known, and every individual now bears the name of one of them. When 
 a man dies, his spirit part stays with his bones, after the mourning ceremonies 
 are over, forming what is called a Yalrauru. This gives off a double of 
 itself somewhat like the Arumburinga in the Arunta, but here called Iwaiyu. 
 It is the latter that enters a woman and undergoes reincarnation. Later 
 on again, the original Yalmuru, who watches over the man or woman during 
 his or her lifetime, is supposed to become worn out, so that when the man 
 dies the old Iwaiyii becomes the new Yalmuru, which in course of time 
 produces a new Iwaiyu, and so on, generation after generation. 
 
 In the Broome district in Western Australia, according to Mrs. Bates, 
 the natives believe that every child must be " dreamed " by its father, and 
 the " dream-baby " is called Ngargarula. If the latter does not appear to 
 the father, and his wife gives birth to a child, the father does not believe that 
 the child belongs to him. If, on the other hand, a man is separated from 
 his wife for a long time, and, while he is away, a Ngargarula comes to him 
 and his wife has a child, he believes this belongs to him, no matter how 
 long a time he may have been separated from his wife. These ideas in regard 
 to reincarnation and the origin of children have now been shown to be very 
 widely spread over Australia and were, doubtless, once held l)y tribes who 
 are now much too decadent to retain beliefs of this nature, which are naturally 
 amongst the first to be discarded when the aboriginal comes into contact 
 with civilization. 
 
 6. Beliefs in Superior Beings. 
 
 All over Australia the natives appear to have beliefs in B(ung.s who are 
 endowed with powers superior to their own. The following is a very brief 
 outline of the summary given by T)r. Howitt in regard to the tril)es of th*? 
 
 I» 2
 
 52 Federal Handbook. 
 
 south-eastern part of the continent. In the Narrinyeri Tribe there was 
 A Being called Nurrundere, who was supposed to have made everything 
 ivnd to have instituted their rites and ceremonies. The Wotjoballuk spoke 
 of Bunjil as " our father " and the Kulin people believed that he was an old 
 man with two wives, taught them the arts of life and divided the tribe into 
 intermarrying groups. In the Kurnai, Bunjil was a great Being, all knowledge 
 of whom was confined to the men. The Kamilroi looked on Baiame as the 
 Being who created all things. Amongst the Yuin people Daramulun is sup- 
 posed to have instituted the ceremonies and made the bull-roarer. He 
 lived in the sky, watching the men. His name is only used by the initiated. 
 In parts of Queensland they believe in Kohin who lives in the Milky Way, 
 roams about at night as a warrior, killing all natives he meets, and who is also 
 offended if they do not keep the customs. According to Mr. Mathew, the 
 Kabi and Wakka tribes believed in Beings such as Bind, Jonjari and Dhakkan, 
 who was identified with the rainbow and lived in deep water holes. He 
 could shatter mountains, slaughter natives and was at times malignant. 
 He substituted half-caste for pure-bred children, so he was called warang, 
 that is, wicked. 
 
 Dr. Howitt sums up the legends and teachings, so far as the south-eastern 
 tribes are concerned, as follows : — " I see, as the embodied idea, a venerable, 
 kindly, headman of a tribe, full of knowledge and tribal wisdom and all 
 powerful in magic, of which he is the source, with virtues, failings and 
 passions, such as the aborigines regard them." 
 
 In the Central tribes there is everywhere a belief in the former existence 
 of ancestors endowed with powers superior to those of living natives. In 
 addition there are other Beings. The Arunta believe that long ago there 
 were two, called Ungambikula, which means " made out of nothing." They 
 lived in the sky and came down and made men and women and then they 
 turned into lizards. The Arunta also believed in the existence of mischievous 
 spirits, called Oruncha, who are always ready to injure natives, but they 
 have no great spirit such as Baiame. They have a mythical Being called 
 Twanyirika, the equivalent of whom is found in other tribes, who is supposed 
 by the women and children to take the boys away at initiation and provide 
 them with new " insides " and whose voice is heard when the bull-roarer 
 sounds. The men, however, tell the youths that the sound is made by the 
 roarers. There is a belief amongst the Kaitish tribe in a Being called Atnatu. 
 He made himself, the stars are his wives and he has plenty of sons and 
 daughters. Long ago he was angry with his children, so he dropped them 
 down on earth and, with them, everything the natives now have. If he 
 hears the bull-roarers sound he is pleased, but if not he is angry. The 
 Binbinga on the Gulf of Carpentaria believe that there are two malignant 
 spirits c died Mundagadji, anxious to hurt them, and a friendly one, named 
 Ulurkura, who lives in the woods and stops the Mundagadji. 
 
 Speaking generally it may be said that every tribe has a belief of some 
 kind in Superior Beings ; that, with rare exceptions, the latter are not sup- 
 posed to take any personal interest in the natives or to be pleased or dis- 
 pleased with what they do ; that no appeal for help is ever made to them, 
 and that they have nothing whatever to do with the inculcation of moral 
 precepts.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 5,^ 
 
 7. Magic and Medicine Men. 
 
 It is difficult to overstate the extraordinary part that, in one way or 
 another, magic plays in a native's life. From the moment that he is born 
 until he dies he lives in an atmosphere of magic. There are two sides to 
 magic, the evil and the good and, of the two, the former bulks more largely 
 in the native mind. Of good magic we have, on the one hand, ceremonies 
 such as those in which, for example, a man of the Yam totem will take one 
 of his yam chm-inga, "sing" it and then deposit it on ground where yams are 
 usually found, with the idea that he can thereby make them grow. On 
 the other, we have magic called into existence to counteract evil magic. 
 In some tribes any man, or even women, may perform evil magic, in others 
 the power is confined to the medicine men, as is also, in all tribes, the exercise 
 of curative magic. First of all, we will deal with the medicine men. There 
 are various ways in which they are made. Sometimes an old medicine 
 man will initiate a young man, but, more often, they are supposed to be 
 made by supernatural beings of some kind and in most, if not all, cases 
 the medicine man has in his body something in the form of small crystals 
 which are the seat of his '" virtues" and can be projected into the body of 
 the patient in whom, as the case may be, they may either cause trouble or 
 counteract evil magic implanted by some other individual. The medicine 
 men also communicate with the spirits and it is they only who can withdraw 
 "' poison bones and sticks." They often fly into the sky during the night, 
 visiting hostile camps, inserting bones and sticks into enemies and sometimes, 
 by means of invisible ropes, can climb up and down between earth and sky. 
 Some even are strong enough to ward ofE evil magic from a whole tribe. 
 At the time of the 1901 comet, a powerful Kaitish medicine man saved the 
 whole tribe from destruction by night after night " singing " the comet's 
 tail, and preventing the spears, of which it was made, from being hurled 
 on to the Kaitish country. 
 
 The commonest form of evil magic is associated with pointing bones 
 and sticks (Fig. 17). A typical form is described by Roth under the name 
 of Munguni and may be taken as representative of this form of magic in 
 Australia. The instrument used consists of a short pointed bone attached 
 to a string that passes into and through a little hollow receptacle, made of 
 bone or wood, and out at the opposite end which is closed. When in use 
 the receptacle is held in one hand and the bone pointed towards the victim, 
 who may be miles away. A double action takes place, some of the victim's 
 blood is drawn into the receptacle, where it is sealed up and, at the same 
 time, evil magic passes out to the victim. To kill the latter, the receptacle 
 with its contents may be burned, but, just to keep the victim ill, it may be 
 warmed every now and then. He will never recover until it has l)een 
 thoroughly well rinsed out. 
 
 Another characteristic form is associated with an (jbject called Tchintu. 
 It is only a small lump of resin with two teetli in it, and a long string attached, 
 but by being " sung " the heat of the sun can be drawn into it and then, 
 if it be placed in the tracks of any one, the heat follows the victim up, enters 
 his body and kills him. 
 
 Some of the most potent forms of magic are associated with hair cut 
 from the l)ndies of the dead. They are used on avenging [jarties (Fig. 17).,
 
 54 Federal Handbook. 
 
 and both endow the wearer with strength and accuracy of aim and, at the 
 same time, render the victim powerless. Another favomite and wide-spread 
 practice is that of " taking the kidney fat." This is usually done by hostile 
 medicine men. In the Wotjoballuk tribe in Victoria, the latter sneaks on 
 the sleeping victim. He carries a magic bone with a noose attached to it. 
 He may either project the bone into his victim, which action compels him 
 to come out to the medicine man, who then throws him over his shoulder 
 and carries him off, or, if the medicine man happens to be in camp with his 
 victim, he passes the bone under the knees of the latter when he is asleep, 
 round his neck and through the noose, rendering him helpless. In any 
 case, the victim is oblivious of what takes place. The medicine man opens 
 the right side of his victim just below the ribs and abstracts the fat, which 
 may be eaten or rubbed on weapons. The wound is " sung" and the sides . 
 bitten together in such a way that no scar is left. The victim wanders back 
 to camp but soon dies. No medicine man can cure one whose kidney fat 
 has been extracted but he can determine, or even the patient himself may, 
 who is the guilty one. Any medicine man can withdraw bones and objects 
 of magic generally, and is always called in when a patient is ill. It must 
 be remembered that no native believes in illness except as the result of evil 
 magic, and magic from a distance is always potent. A pain is caused by 
 some concrete thing that must be removed from the body and the method 
 of procedure is very much the same in all tribes. The patient lies down, 
 the medicine man comes up and gazes fixedly upon him, as often as not 
 projecting some of his magic crystals into him to act as an antidote. Then, 
 after prolonged sucking and massage, he will, perhaps, but only if he be a 
 very gifted practitioner, withdraw the poison bone or stick whole ; in most 
 cases it is removed bit by bit (Fig. 18). Then, unseen by any one, his magic 
 crystals retm-n to his body. 
 
 It is difficult to estimate how far the medicine men believe in themselves. 
 They must know that, to a certain extent, they are frauds, though it is 
 wonderful what they can persuade themselves to believe, and the truth 
 probably is that, while each individual knows that he himself cannot do 
 everything that he pretends to, yet he firmly believes that other men can. 
 
 8. Ceremonies Associated with Death and Burial. 
 
 Death is always supposed to be due to evil magic and may be brought 
 about in various ways. Very often a bone, or stick, is sung and pointed 
 in the direction of the victim whom its evil magic then enters. In some 
 tribes a ceremony is performed with the object of catching the double of 
 the man's spirit, without whose friendly guidance he meets with an accident 
 (Fig. 19). Death is always a source of fear to natives, because in many 
 cases it means not only that there is some evil spir't or magic influence 
 at work, but also the spirit of the dead person is hovering about. It is 
 customary to shift camp the moment a death occurs and in all tribes there 
 are special ceremonies that must be carried out. They vary much, and 
 are regarded as of great importance. I will describe the main points of 
 those in the Arunta tribe, and afterwards note important features in those 
 of other tribes. First of all, the deceased's hair is cut off and made into 
 a special girdle, to be subsequently worn by a man who avenges the death
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 a < 
 
 O 1:^ 
 
 t3 S 
 
 o 
 
 
 C. 12154.
 
 56 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 5 = 
 
 5 3 
 
 «
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 57 
 
 o
 
 58 
 
 Federal Handbook.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 5*>
 
 60 
 
 Federal Handbook.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 61 
 
 S - 
 
 - t3 
 
 < O 
 
 S <J 
 
 i^ 
 
 20
 
 62 
 
 Federal Handbook.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 63
 
 64 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Fig. Iti. — 1. Stoxe Churixga. 2. Wooden Churinga. 3. Opossum Lower Jaw 
 WITH Incisor Teeth, used for Graving. 4. Opossum Jaw hafted to form 
 A Graving Tool. 
 
 Fig. 17, — Objects of Magic — ^1, 2, 3, 4. .'>. Various Forms of Pointing Bones and 
 Sticks. 6, 7, 8. Necklets containing Hair cut from a dead Man. 9. Bret. 
 A Dead Hand, which vibrates to indicate approaching danger — Kurnai Tribe, 
 10. Dead Man's Arm Bone, used on Avenging Expedition. 11. Tikovina, worn 
 DURING Fight by the Natives of the Herbert River, Queensland.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 65 
 
 ^r
 
 66 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 ^"^'^.XS 
 
 ■^
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 67
 
 68 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Fig. 21. — Tree Bukiai, : Raking the Boxes erom the Pi.ateor.m- 
 Tribe, Central Australia. 
 
 -Wakramu.vga
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 69 
 
 Fig. 22. — Flaked Knife with Resin and Wood Hafting, and Case Tipped with 
 
 Inverted Emx: Feathers. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 Fig. 23. — Flaked and ('iiii'imh I'icks, Central Australia.
 
 70 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Fig. 24. — Implements with Cutting Flakes — 1, 2, 3, 4. Gouges ob Adzes. 
 5, 6. Spear Throwers — Central Australia. 
 
 Fig. 25. — Ground and Hafted Stone Axes — 1, 2. Warramuxga Trire, Northern 
 Territory. 3, 4. Kakadu Tribe, Northern Territory. . New South Wales. 
 6. Queensland.
 
 Aboriginals of Ai'stralia. 
 
 71 
 
 Fig. 26. — Grixdi.xg Stone- — Xew South Wales. 
 (This stone has been used for grinding on both sides.) 
 
 Fio. 27. — SifiELos — 1. West Au.stualia. 2. Cardwell, Queensland. 3. Central 
 Australia. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Interior ok New South Wales. 
 
 0121.54.
 
 72 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Fit:. 28. — Western Australian Shields and Spear Throwers.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 
 
 73
 
 74 
 
 Federal Handbook.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 75 
 
 (Fig. 17). It is filled with magic. The body is buried in the ground in 
 a sitting position with the knees doubled up against the chin, the earth being 
 piled up to make a low mound with a depression on one side to allow of ingress 
 and egress of the spirit. The camp is burnt down and in the case of a woman 
 everything is destroyed. No person may mention the deceased's name during 
 the period of mom-ning ; if any one does, the spirit hears, thinks they are 
 not mourning properly and is angry. No elder brother, father, mother, 
 elder sister, father's sister, wife's mother, wife's mother's brother, father's 
 brother, mother's sister, husband's mother, or husband's mother's brother 
 may ever mention the name. In the case of a man, those who might legally 
 be his sons-in-law neither mention the name, attend the funeral, nor take 
 pxrt in the ceremonies, but they must cut their shoulders. The actual 
 widow or widows paint themselves with pipe-clay, and are called Inpirta, 
 which means " the whitened one." To remove the silence ban a widow 
 gathers seed, places it in a vessel, summons the other women and with them 
 goes to the centre of the encampment, where they all sit down and wail. 
 The sons and younger brothers approach, take the vessel in the'r hands, 
 and shout " wah, wah," the widow joining in. The vessel, after being 
 held close to the widow's face, is taken away by the men, who strike their 
 shields on the ground in front of the widow, who may now speak. The 
 ceremony shows that she is about to resume her ordinary life. Later on 
 she will become the wife of one of the younger brothers. At least a year 
 after death the ceremony of Urpmilchima — " trampling the twigs on the 
 grave " — is performed. The widow smears herself over with pipe-clay and, 
 wearing a chaplet made of clusters of small bones that hang down over her 
 face, accompanies the other men and women first to her late husband's 
 camp and then to the grave, which they approach yelling, so as to drive the 
 spirit ahead and into the ground. After much cutting and w.iiling, the 
 chaplet is broken and bur'ed in the grave, by the side of which the widow 
 rubs the pipe-clay off and her mourning is over. The spirit sees that it 
 has been properly mourned for and returns to its ancestral home, where 
 it lives until it undergoes reincarnation. 
 
 In the Warramunga, the body is placed on a platform of boughs in a 
 tree (Fig. 21). When the bones are clean they are all raked out, the skull 
 is smashed and, with the exception of one arm bone, they are buried in an 
 ant hill. The arm bone is brought into camp and handed over to a 
 mother of the dead person. Finally it is broken in two at the close of 
 a ceremony connected with the totem of the deceased atid buried in the 
 ground. 
 
 In the Boulia district in Queensland, tlie body is buried in the ground, 
 placed lengthwise on its back. Logs are laid on it, the earth filled in, and a 
 small circular mound, 3 or 4 feet liigh, of logs, earth, stones and leafy branches 
 is built ; the ground around being cleared. The men and women cut them- 
 selves and, on return to camp, plaster their heads over with pipe-clay and 
 paint the upper part of their bodies. 
 
 In the Mara, Binbinga, and other tribes on the west side of the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria, the body is first of all placed in a tree. When clean, the bones 
 are brouglit into camp and placed in a coffin made of a hollow log, ornamented 
 with a design emblematic of the totem of the deceased. This is then
 
 76 Federal Handbook. 
 
 deposited by the side of a lily pool and is supposed to make the lilies grow. 
 In these, and many other tribes, the flesh of a dead person is eaten ; in 
 most cases, probably by certain relatives. 
 
 On Melville and Bathurst Islands the body is buried in the ground. 
 At a later period, grave posts, to the number of twelve or more, are 
 erected at intervals of time. The natives gather together and, after dancing 
 round a fire at which they must singe themselves, they rush to the grave, 
 throwing their spears ahead to drive the spirit on and down into the ground. 
 Then they perform dances around the grave posts, in which men, women and 
 children take part, after which the spirit is supposed to remain quiet. 
 
 In every case there are certain individuals who must paint themselves 
 so as to be prominent, the idea evidently being that the spirit will see them 
 and recognise that it has been properly mourned for. In most cases also 
 the women, such as widows and sisters of the dead man, are not allowed 
 to speak for a certain period after the death. 
 
 9. Weapons and Implements. 
 (a) Stone Implements. 
 
 In 1891, Mr. R. Etheridge published the outline of a classification of 
 stone implements,* and during recent years Mr. A. S. Kenyon has very 
 largely extended the scope of the work.f It is not too much to say that 
 at the present time we can parallel amongst Australian stone weapons all 
 the types known in Europe under the names Chellean, Moustierian, Aurig- 
 nacian, etc. We also have the great advantage that we can still, in some 
 of the far back parts, though very rarely now, see the natives making and 
 using their stone implements. The terms Eolithic, Paleolithic, and Neolithic. 
 do not apply in Australia as indicating either time periods or levels of culture. 
 Natives, not only in different parts of Australia, but in the same part, wil 
 use contemporaneously implements that, if they were found in prehistoric 
 deposits, would be regarded as belonging to different stages of culture. 
 Everything is, in the main, a matter of the material available. If the 
 native lives in quartzite country, he makes chipped or flaked implements, 
 some coarsely manufactured for temporary use, others carefully and often 
 beautifully shaped. If he lives where he can get diorite, then he grinds 
 his tools ; and, if he lives where he can get material suitable both for grindinr; 
 and flaking, then he makes tools which if found " fossil " would be called 
 either Paleolithic or Neolithic ; the rougher ones, indeed, would be called 
 Eolithic or rejected as non-human by those who have never seen a native 
 using a pebble that he has very roughly flaked to serve some temporar^' 
 purpose. When they are in camp, for example, performing their ceremonies, 
 some of which requn-e the cutting of a vein, a man will simply take from 
 the ground any pebble that lies handy, and with another will strike off I'ttle 
 flakes until he secures one with a sharp edge and with this will cut his vein 
 open. If at the present day a European archaeologist were to search amongst 
 the belongings of, say, a Warramunga man in Central Australia, he would, 
 unless prepared for it, be astonished to find that the native possessed, and 
 continually used, a ground stone axe, a flaked or perhaps chipped and flaked 
 
 * Kenyon and Stirling. Proc. R.S. Vict., 1901, Pt. 2, p. 191. 
 
 t R. Etheridge, Jr. Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S.W. Vol. VI., Pt. 3. 1891. p. 157.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 77 
 
 axe or pick, a flaked knife, hafted with resin or with resin and wood, and, at 
 the same time, chipped stones quite as rude as, and indeed indistinguishable 
 from, those of the old Tasmanians. It is this constant mixture of imple- 
 ments, usually regarded as belonging to different levels of culture, that 
 forms the most striking feature of the present stone age in Australia. The 
 nature and form of the implements is not a question of the stage of culture, 
 but depends primarily upon the material available. 
 
 Without going into detail it may be said that the stone implements of 
 the natives may be divided into three groups. 
 
 (1) Cutting Implements. 
 
 (a) Cutting edge produced by flaking or chipping, or both. 
 (6) Cutting edge produced by grinding. 
 
 These include axes, knives, adzes, and spear heads. On the one hand, 
 they vary in form from the crudest chip or pebble, roughly flaked on one side 
 so as to form an axe, to the delicate, leaf-like, jasper spear heads, indistin- 
 guishable from those made by the most highly cultured Neolithic people 
 in Europe. On the other, they may be roughly chipped pebbles or blocks 
 of stone, just showing the faintest trace of grinding, or they may be beautifully 
 ground and polished with a keen sharp-cutting edge. It is, however, only 
 in very exceptional cases that the whole surface is ground. In some cases 
 they may be held in the hand and show a well marked " finger grip," but 
 in others they may be hafted with the aid of resin and wood in various ways 
 too detailed to describe here (Figs. 22, 23, 21, 25). 
 
 (2) Grinding Implements. 
 
 These may take the form of large kerns or mills, the nether stone being 
 formed of a slab of sandstone hollowed out, often on both sides, with con- 
 tinuous grinding until the central crust becomes so thin that it breaks through ; 
 in some cases, as for the purpose of grinding ochre, any flat stone may be 
 used (Fig. 26). 
 
 (3) Pounding Implements. 
 
 These take the form of lower stones or pestles, always with a pounding 
 or husking hole, and of upper stones used as hammers. 
 In addition to these main groups we may add another — 
 
 (4) Miscellaneous. 
 These includes such t)bjects as playing stones, sinkers attached to 
 nets, etc. 
 
 (b) Weapons and Implements other than Stone Ones. 
 
 It would be futile to attempt more than the merest sketch of a description 
 of these. They can be seen in the museum collections and attention is 
 drawn here only to certain characteristic implements and features concerned 
 with them. The most characteristic weapon is the boomerang, which does 
 not appear to have been known to the Tasmanians. There are various 
 forms of the implement, some, large and heavy, being used for fighting at close 
 quarters, others for fighting and throwing at game, and others, often called
 
 78 Federal Handbook. 
 
 play boomerangs, that possess the characteristic feature of returning to a 
 skilled thrower. There is a remarkable resemblance in the general form 
 between a boomerang and the long, thin, curved leaf of many Eucalyptus. 
 The missile always consists of a flattened curved blade, usually flat on one 
 side and slightly convex on the other. The property of returning appears 
 to be associated with a very slight twist, the weapon rotating during its 
 passage through the air. A skilful thrower can make one describe flrst a 
 large circle and then one or two smaller ones before it falls at his feet. It 
 must be remembered, however, that the return boomerang is only met with 
 in very restricted areas in Australia. In many, the curve is a wide open one, 
 but there are all grades between a very slight curve and one in which the 
 blade is divided into two parts almost at right angles to one another. In 
 some cases, one end of a boomerang is fashioned to serve as a handle. 
 Starting with an ordinary round, straight, throwing stick, a series can be 
 traced leading up through a curved throwing stick, circular in section, to one 
 elliptical in section, then on to a throwing stick slightly flattened and so 
 to the ordinary curved boomerang with one side flat, the other slightly 
 convex. From this typical weapon we can branch ofi along three lines, 
 one leading to the highly specialized " return " boomerang, a second 
 to a boomerang with one end slightly enlarged, and so on to the curved 
 club-like missile called " lil-lil" and to the "beaked boomerang," while 
 a third line leads through one of ordinary size, with one end fashioned to 
 form a handle, on to the unwieldy so-called " sword " met with in Queens- 
 land. 
 
 There are endless varieties of clubs and spears, all made of wood, with, in 
 the case of the latter, barbs or blades of wood, bone, or stone. Most of them 
 have a concavity at the handle end, into wliich fits the knob of a spear- 
 thrower, but both the very light cane ones, with simple sharp wooden points, 
 and the great javelins of the Melville Islanders, are thrown by the hand. 
 The spear-thrower is a very characteristic Australian weapon. It may be only 
 a rounded stick with a knob of resin at one end, 2 or 3 feet long, or it may be 
 leaf-shaped and either flat or decidedly concave, and used for other 
 purposes as well as throwing. The Arunta thrower has a small wooden 
 knob at one end, tied on with sinew, and at the handle end a lump of resin, 
 into which is fixed a sharp, cutting flint. Dm'ing ceremonies, it serves to 
 hold a supply of blood, down and ochre ; at other times it serves as an 
 adze, gouge or chisel. Altogether it forms one of the most useful 
 implements that the native has. 
 
 Some of the most ingenious and useful implements are wooden troughs 
 or pitchis and baskets that are used for carrying food and water. The 
 former are fashioned out of solid logs cut from gum trees, or, when such is 
 available, from soft wood, such as that of the bean tree. The perfect 
 symmetry and shape of the hardwood troughs and the regularity with which 
 the concave lines, made by the cutting flint, run parallel to one another 
 along the length of the trough is wonderful. The simpler baskets may be 
 made out of palm or pandanus leaves, or sheathing stalks ingeniously folded 
 over. Others are made from sheets of stringybark, stripped from a gum tree 
 during the wet season. Others, again, are made of plaited grass or of string, 
 so closely netted that the bags will hold fluid. The most remarkable baskets
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 71^ 
 
 are undoubtedly those made from split cane, with the two lower ends pointed 
 and upturned. The symmetry of these, which are only made in Queensland, 
 is extraordinary. 
 
 Shields vary much (Fig. 27). They may be made of soft or hard wood 
 and the handle carved out of the solid or inserted separately. For the most 
 part they are broad, but, in the south-east of the continent, a narrow one was 
 used to ward off the blows of clubs. The surface of the shield lends itself to 
 decoration. Sometimes this takes the form of incised patterns, but, more 
 often, apart from the concave lines made by the flint, the design is due to 
 pigment. Attention may be drawn to the massive shields with bold design, 
 found only in parts of Queensland. 
 
 The native is very clever in making string, for which purpose he uses 
 human hair, fur of different animals, shredded leaves, such as those of the 
 pandanus, or bark of different trees. He may simply use one hand to " serve " 
 the material and the other to rub it on his thigh, or he may employ a very 
 simple spindle. So admirably is the string made, that, at a casual glance, 
 it appears just the same as a white man's, but it can be distinguished by the 
 fact that native twine is seldom more than two-ply, while the white man's 
 is seldom less than three. It is used for various purposes, the most important 
 being, perhaps, the making of nets and bags. Some of the larger fishing nets 
 measure 70 feet in length by 7 in width. 
 
 Clothing and ornament vary very much in different tribes. In the south- 
 east and west of the continent kangaroo skins are used, sewn together and 
 often decorated with coloui'ed patterns on the inside (the fur being on the 
 outside) to form very efficient rugs. In the central and northern parts, the 
 only clothing consists of a more or less efficient apron, usually like a great 
 tassel suspended from a waist girdle. In the very centre it degenerates in 
 size and may, on the men, be more an ornament than a covering. It is 
 remarkable that the central natives have not invented clothing:, because 
 kangaroos are often abundant and the nights in winter are bitterly cold. 
 On Melville and Bathurst Islands the women wear an efficient apron made 
 of paper bark, the men are stark naked. Ornaments in the form of head 
 bands of flattened-out or netted strands of string, tufts of white cockatoo 
 feathers, emu feathers, or waist girdles of gaily coloured parakeet feathers 
 are often worn, and, speaking generally, it may be said that it is the men and 
 not the women who usually decorate themselves. 
 
 10. Decorative Art. 
 
 The decorative art of Australian natives, so far as their weapons and 
 implements are concerned, is gener.illy remarkable for the almost entire absence 
 of design suggested by natural objects. In south-eastern Australia we meet 
 with shields, etc., ornamented with conventionalized animal drawings, but 
 they are so uncommon as to attract attention at once. In his rock and 
 bark drawings the native will depict animals and plants, but, for the most 
 part, the ornamentation of implements and sacred objects alike consists of 
 conventional designs. The Australian aljoriginal appears to have been but 
 little influenced, artistically, by his natural surroundings. Owing to lack 
 of material, he is restricted to a few colours. Red ochre that can be mixed 
 with pipe-clay to produce varying shades, yellow ochre and charcoal are his
 
 80 Federal Handbook. 
 
 three mainstays. Here and there he may have something like " wad," an 
 oxide of manganese, that gives a pearl-grey colour when powdered. It is 
 very doubtful if blue is ever used by the Australian in his native state, though 
 he soon adopts it in contact with white men. 
 
 A very striking feature of his decorative art is the use that he makes of 
 down derived either from birds or from the involucral hairs of different plants. 
 He mixes it with red ochre or pipe-clay, never, cm-iously, with yellow. With 
 the aid of such materials he produces simple, bold designs of circles, spirals, 
 and symmetrically curved lines, showing an appreciation of strong contrasts, 
 such as are offered by black or red circles, spiral and curved bands outlined 
 by white dots. So far as the nature of the designs is concerned, we can 
 divide them into tliree series — zoomorphs, phytomorphs, and geometrical. 
 From another point of view, they may be divided into two series — first, what 
 we may call ordinary, and, secondly, sacred designs. We will deal with them 
 under these two aspects. 
 
 (a) Ordinary Designs. 
 
 In regard to the method of production of these, there are three well- 
 marked types. 
 
 (1) Incision hy means of a Sharp Stone, Tooth, Bone, or Shell. 
 
 The simplest ornamentations have the form of finer or coarser grooviugs 
 that run parallel to the length of implements, such as pitchis, shields, and 
 boomerangs. These do not necessarily give rise to a pattern. In olden days 
 the tribes on the Murray River and in various parts of the coastal districts 
 of New South Wales and Victoria made very elaborate shields with incised 
 designs representing animals. Their spear-throwers were ornamented in the 
 same way. Very characteristic, indeed, is the zig-zag incised pattern on 
 Western Australian shields and spear throwers (Fig. 28). In some cases 
 concentric squares are cut on weapons and corroboree tablets. In some 
 parts of Australia, more especially in New South Wales, trees near to a 
 grave were ornamented on one side or all round, for many feet from the 
 ground, with deeply cut designs, some of which may, perhaps, be totemic in 
 significance. Occasionally incised drawings are made on rocks, as in the case 
 nf the large drawings of animals described by Mr. Etheridge on the coast 
 near Sydney. 
 
 (2) Burning the Surface with a Fire-stick. 
 
 This is not a frequent form of ornamentation, and is only used in the 
 case of " pointing sticks." In the central area it is very characteristic of 
 these. It takes the form of a series of spiral lines, circles, notches, or dots. 
 
 (3) Painting a Surface with Pigment. 
 
 This is by far the most common method of ornamentation, and may 
 be treated under three heads — (a) drawings on weapons and implements, 
 (b) drawings on human bodies, and (c) drawings on the ground, rocks, and 
 bark. 
 
 {a) In many cases it is customary to coat almost every weapon with ochre. 
 In some cases, weapons, such as boomerangs, shields, spears, dilly-bags, 
 knives, and fighting clubs have special designs. It would be tedious to go
 
 Aboriginals op Australia. 
 
 81 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Map of Australia showing approximately the Distribution of 
 THE various Groups of Tribes. 
 
 Tribes with Maternal Descent and the moiety names Kirara and Matteri or their 
 
 equivalents. JU^XjI^-^^^^ 
 Tribes with Maternal Descent and the moiety names Mukwarra and Kulpara or their 
 
 equivalents. 
 
 Tribes with Maternal Descent and the moiety names Utaru and Pakuta or their 
 
 equivalents. 
 Tribes with Maternal Descent and the moiety names Utaru and Maieru or their 
 
 equivalents. 
 Tribes with Maternal Descent and the Kamil£ai organization. 
 Tribes with Maternal Descent and the moiety names Gamutch and Krokiteh. 
 Small group of Tribes with Maternal Descent and moiety names wliich were said 
 
 to stand for Eaglehawk and Crow. Very little was known of them before they 
 
 became extinct. 
 Tribes with Paternal Descent and the Southern Arun ta organization. They probably 
 
 extend right across the centre and over a much larger area of West Australia 
 
 than indicated. 
 
 Tribes with Paternal Descent and the Warramunga organization. (It'^cc^^'^^ 
 
 Tribes with direct Paternal Descent and the Mara organization. 
 
 The Kulin group of Tribes with Paternal Descent and the two divisions Bunjil and 
 Wang. 
 
 The Kurnai Tribe with Paternal Descent. 
 
 The Kakadu group of Tribes with no class orgo,nization.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 83 
 
 into detail and the reader is referred to the works of Etheridge, Roth, 
 Stirling, Spencer and Gillen, Brough Smyth, and others. Attention may. 
 however, be drawn to the zig-zag designs of Western Australia, to the bold 
 decorative schemes on the large Queensland shields, to the carefully drawn 
 designs on Queensland dilly-bags, where conventional designs are sometimes 
 associated with zoomorphs, and also to the very characteristic and effective 
 designs on the spears, throwing sticks, grave posts and, more especially, the 
 large bark baskets of the Melville and Bathurst Islanders. The latter are 
 different from any on the mainland. The various designs indicate considerable 
 variations in artistic skill, but they all show that the native has a very distinct 
 feeling for decorative effect. 
 
 (b) The drawings on human bodies are done in red and yellow ochre, 
 pipe-clay, charcoal. In some cases the designs are merely what the natives 
 call " play-about," but the more important are associated with the perform- 
 ance of corroborees. In almost all cases these are purely conventional 
 designs of circles and lines that often follow the contoiu- of the body. Each 
 corroboree has its own design (Figs. 11 and 12). 
 
 (c) The drawings on rocks and bark are some of the most interesting 
 and vary much. They may be zoomorphic, phytomorphic, or purely con- 
 ventional designs, such, for example, as those from Central Australia described 
 by Dr. Stirling, though the first two are more common than the third. 
 In one of the zoomorphic ones, the spectator is supposed to be looking 
 upwards from beneath an emu that is sitting on its eggs ; in others we have 
 drawings of wild dogs, kangaroos, and various animals ; in others, of cycad 
 fronds, while others are purely conventional, consisting of concentric circles 
 of lines and dots. The " red hand," about which so much has been written, 
 has no special significance. It is met with everywhere and is made by 
 placing the hand on a rock or bark surface, and then silhouetting it by means 
 of blowing red ochre on to the rock around it. Sometimes pipe-clay or 
 charcoal is used, in which case we get, respectively, a white or black hand, 
 but in no case, red, white, or black, has it any more significance than the 
 outline of a fern made by a child squirting ink over the leaves. In some* 
 cases, and more especially on the northern coastline, fairly elaborate drawings 
 of animals and mythical objects are made on rocks or sheets of bark. The 
 walls of rock shelters are covered over with often very suggestive, though 
 crude, representations of the animals the natives feed upon — crocodiles, 
 lizards, snakes, fishes, etc. — and sometimes also with quaint drawings of 
 gnomes that inhabit the mangrove swamps and rocky ranges. By far the 
 most elaborate rock paintings, however, are those first described by Grey, 
 and later by Brockman, in the Kimberley district. They are, apparently, 
 made by natives, but, in regaid to the presence of clothes, etc., clearl}^ show 
 outside influence. 
 
 (b) Sacred Designs. 
 
 In many cases, at fii'st sight, these are not distinguishable from 
 some of those already described, in fact, so far as conventional 
 drawings such as concentric circles are concerned, as much depends 
 on the location of the drawing as on its nature. In one spot a drawing 
 will be sacred, in another if will not, but, whilst this is so, yet, on the
 
 84 Federal Handbook. 
 
 whole, the sacred designs are well defined. They are best known in 
 the central and northern tribes, amongst whom they are very well developed. 
 In the Arunta, for example, every totem group has its Ilkinia, or totem 
 design, which the men of the totem group may paint on themselves. In 
 addition to this, right through the tribes, every separate totemic ceremony 
 has a special design painted on the bodies of the performers, consisting of 
 lines of red and white down that often closely cover the whole of the upper 
 half of the body and face and extend upwards on to an elaborate headdress 
 (Fig. 29). In every instance, the down is fixed on the body by blood drawn 
 from the performers. The illustrations will give an idea of what these 
 designs are like. In addition to them, some totemic groups have special 
 designs drawn on rocks at places where churinga are stored and ceremonies 
 performed. No women go there. Others have ground drawings of a very 
 elaborate kind that can be best exemplified by the Wollunqua snake totem 
 in the Warramunga tribe. Two of these will suffice. In one the sandy 
 soil was smoothed down with water to make a firm flat surface, over which 
 a coating of yellow ochre was spread. On this, five series of concentric 
 circles were drawn, representing trees and water holes at the home of the 
 Wollunqua. An 18-ft. long, sinuous band represented the snake itself, 
 and footmarks by the side indicated those of an old man, its mate. The 
 rest of the design consisted of white spots of pipe-clay that entirely 
 surrounded the black bands. The main features were laid down by one 
 old man, who drew the circles and sinuous line, using two of his fingers as 
 a brush, without any mechanical aid. This done, he retired, and the 
 dr^iwing was completed by younger men (Fig. 30). In the other, a 
 mound, 15 feet long and 18 inches high, was made. It was covered with 
 dots of pipe-clay that surrounded and outlined a sinuous band of red ochre 
 along each side, representing the snake. Ground designs similar in signi- 
 ficance, associated with sacred ceremonies, now exist, or once did, amongst 
 many tribes on the eastern coast. 
 
 Some of the more elaborate designs are those on objects worn or carried 
 by men performing sacred ceremonies.* One such special object may be 
 described, partly because it represents one of the most elaborate, and partly 
 because the significance of its different constituents gives a good idea of one 
 side of the native mind. It is called a Waninga, and is, or was, used in 
 tribes round Lake Eyi'e, such as the Urabunna, and also in the southern 
 Arunta. First of all, it is important to note that a Waninga used in a kangaroo 
 ceremony, for example, represents a kangaroo, while a similar one used in a 
 rain ceremony represents rain and things associated with it. To take a 
 rain one : A strong spear, 10 feet long, forms a central shaft ; at right angles 
 to its length and at a distance of 2 feet from either end, are two sticks, each 
 3 feet long. Between the two, running parallel to the length of the spear, 
 lines of human hair string are tightly strung. Each line takes a turn round 
 the transverse bar at either end, then slants away to the spear, turns round 
 this and then runs back to the bar, until the whole space between the bars 
 is filled with close set bands of string with a triangular-shaped patch at each 
 end, A band, 1^ inches wide, running round about the same distance within 
 
 • As colour forms a very important element in these it is impossible to describe them adequately In 
 words. A coloured plate of some of them, now in the National Museum, Melbourne, is given in 
 " Northern Tribes of Central Australia," p. 722.
 
 Aboriginals of Australia. 85 
 
 the margin, is made of opossum fur string, whitened with pipe-clay, the 
 same width of string on the inside of it being red-ochered. Tufts of the 
 red-barred tail feathers of the black cockatoo are tied to the tip of the spear 
 and the ends of the bars. A number of bands of white down run in parallel 
 lines across the strings. The man carrying the Waninga wears wood- 
 parings on his head, smeared in blood. The red string represents thunder ; 
 the white band, lightning ; the ordinary black string, rain falling ; the 
 white down, clouds. Black cockatoo feathers are used because the call of 
 these birds is always taken as an indication that there is a waterhole near. 
 The red of the feathers and the blood-smeared wood parings represent the 
 masses of dirty brown froth that float on flood waters. This Waninga is 
 used during rain-making ceremonies, and serves not only as a good example 
 of decorative art, but of the exercise of sympathetic magic.
 
 86 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE PHYSICAL AND GENERAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 By Griffith Taylor, B.Sc, B.E., B.A., F.G.S., Physiographer 
 Commomvealth Bureau of Meteorology* 
 
 the 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. General Structure. 
 
 (a) Regional Geography. 
 
 2. The Eastern Cordillera. 
 
 {a) The Queensland Highlands. 
 
 (b) The South-eastern Highlands 
 
 IN New South Wales. 
 
 (c) The Victorian Cordillera and 
 
 ITS Coast Plains. 
 {d) Tasmania. 
 
 t?. The Lowland Belt of Australia. 
 
 4. The Murray-Darling Lowlands. 
 
 (a) Cobar-Wagga Peneplain. 
 
 (b) The Western Plains and the 
 
 RiVERINA. 
 
 (c) The Ancient Murray Estuary. 
 
 5. The Great Artesian Basin. 
 
 (a) The Eastern or Pastoral 
 
 Artesian Basin. 
 
 (b) The Lake Eyre or Desert 
 
 Artesian Basin. 
 
 6. The South Australian Highlands 
 
 AND the Associated Trough 
 Faults. 
 
 7. The Great Plateau Region. 
 
 (a) The Tropical Region. 
 
 i. The Northern Territory 
 
 Lowlands. 
 ii. The Northern Territory 
 
 Uplands. 
 iii. The North-west Region. 
 
 (6) The Central or Desert Table- 
 land. 
 i. The Desert Proper. 
 ii. The MacDonnell Ranges. 
 iii. The Gold-fields Region. 
 
 (c) The South-west Temperate 
 Region. 
 i. The Eastern Pastoral 
 
 Belt. 
 ii. The Central Wheat Belt. 
 iii. The South-west Timber 
 Region. 
 
 8. Bibliography. 
 
 1. — General Structure. 
 
 Austr.ilia, the smallest continent, lies to the south-east of the chief land- 
 mass of the globe, conveniently known as the Old World. Connected 
 thereto by the partly submerged but high mountain ranges constituting 
 the East Indian Archipelago it offers the strongest contrast to the latter in 
 outline. In place of sporades of long narrow islands Australia presents 
 perhaps the most unbroken outline of all the continents, and is certainly 
 one of the lowest in elevation. 
 
 Both these features are probably due to one factor — -the presence of a 
 huge dense unmoving block in the earth's crust in the form of the West 
 Australian horst. Against this comparatively low, resistant area the folding 
 forces affecting the earth's crust have again and again advanced the crustal 
 ripples to which most elevated land is due. Nor is it improbable that the 
 massif itself in reaching equilibrium has exerted an outward puckering 
 
 * By kind permission of the Delegates of the Clarendon Press. University of Oxford, the writer 
 has abridged this account from his article in the forthcoming " O.xford Survey of the British Empire " to 
 be published by that body. Mr. Taylor held the position of Senior Geologist in Captain Scott's 
 Expedition. 
 
 In the absence of Mr. Griffith Taylor in Englvnd, this chapter has been revised by Mr. D. J. Jlahony 
 M-Sc. F.G.S., Geological Survey of Victoria.
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 87 
 
 force on the less solid sediments to the east. To this may be attributed the 
 dominating direction of the north and north-west folds which occur in 
 Australia, and which tend to lie in concentric lines about a centre near Cape 
 Leeuwin* (see Plate V. in Chap. VII., The Geology of the Commonwealth). 
 But, on the whole, Australia has been remarkably free from great 
 folding forces in later geological times. Ordinary normal erosion by 
 rivers and wind has been at work and has succeeded in wearing the greater 
 portion of Australia to a uniform height of some 1,000-1,500 feet above 
 sea level. 
 
 Broadly speaking, there are no large areas of Tertiary deposits in 
 Australia except the ancient Murray estuary. Since Cretaceous times there 
 can have been no very important alterations in the surface of Australia as 
 we know it, though undoubtedly as regards outline it then extended very 
 much further to the south-east and east than at present. 
 
 In position it is more isolated than any other large land mass excepting 
 Antarctica. Taking as a standard of length the distance from London 
 to Algiers (about 1,000 miles), the journey from Perth to Colombo is more 
 than three times this unit ; and the same huge distance lies between Hong 
 Kong and Thursday Island in the north of Queensland. Indeed, Java is 
 the only large civilized area which is within a thousand miles of any portion 
 of Australia. 
 
 But Australia itself is a country of vast distances. It is 1,600 miles 
 from Perth to Adelaide, the capital of the next State ; while in New South 
 Wales to reach its third town (Broken Hill) from the capital (Sydney) a 
 railway journey of some 1,400 miles {via Melbourne and Adelaide) is 
 necessary. 
 
 Australia, including Tasmania, has an area of 2,974,600 square miles 
 approximately; and with the region of Papua (British New Guinea) which is 
 administered by Australia, the total rises to about 3,065,100. 
 
 The arrangement of the elevated areas in Australia is in close concordance 
 with the structural principles indicated previously. 
 
 Broadly speaking, Australia consists of three well-defined aiid contrasted 
 areas — an ancient western plateau of 1,000-1,500 feet in height, and two 
 eastern belts. The more central of these is a meridional belt of low-lying, 
 level-bedded deposits (of Mesozoic age chiefly), while the eastern portion 
 is a Cordillera forming a fairly complete bulwark barring out the Pacific 
 Ocean from the central plains. 
 
 (a) Regional Geography. 
 
 In Australia the political boundaries are pre-eminently artificial. With 
 the exception of one or two natural lines of demarcation — such as the River 
 Murray — no natural inland features have been utilized. In these cir- 
 cumstances it is felt to be preferable to consider the geography of Aus- 
 tralia in terms of its chief natural regions, not in terms of the various 
 States and Territories. Since the Commonwealth (with its unity of policy) 
 was constituted, the various State railway systems arc gradually being 
 linked across the boundaries. For instance, note the delay in linking the 
 
 • This aspect of AuMtralian physiography is treated in a masterly fashion by Professor David in liis 
 presidential address to the Royal Society of New South Wales, liUl. This should certainly be 
 consulted. 
 
 C. 12154. G
 
 88 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Riverina to Melbourae. These have been hitherto perhaps the chief 
 economic factors in maintaining State differences within the artificial 
 boundaries determined by the Constitution. 
 
 Although Australia is a continent characterized by the slow change in 
 the nature of its surface, by monotony in the flora and by vast uniform 
 expanses of rolling grass land or more arid steppe, yet the larger States are 
 so extensive that several types of environment occur therein and react 
 each in its own way on the life and industries of the inhabitants. 
 
 The regions adopted in this account are the following : — 
 
 A. Eastern Cordillera fringing the Pacific and extending from Cape 
 
 York to the Victorian Grampians and Tasmania. 
 
 B. The Murray-Darling Basin, a region chiefly below 1,000 feet, and 
 
 extending from Bourke to the mouth of the Murray. 
 
 Murray Dsr/mg Basin 
 
 South Aust Hiqhlands\, 
 <3ni/ Fautt y^neys f | 
 
 Great /Irtesian Basin I 
 
 Great P/aleau fleqion. 
 
 .TASMANIA 
 
 Fio. 1. — The Relation between the poUtical and natural divisions in Australia. 
 
 C. The South Australian Highlands with their associated fault 
 
 valleys, extending from Broken Hill to Port Lincoln. 
 
 D. The Great Artesian Basin reaching from the Gulf of Carpentaria 
 
 to Lake Eyre. 
 
 E. The Great Plateau Region embracing the western half of the 
 
 continent.
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 
 
 89 
 
 The political areas are built up as follows : — 
 
 Queensland. . 
 
 (670,500 sq. miles) 
 
 New South Wales, in- 
 cluding Federal Capi- 
 tal Territory 
 (310,372 sq. miles) 
 
 Victoria 
 (87,884 sq. miles) 
 
 Tasmania . . 
 
 (26,215 sq. miles) 
 
 South Australia 
 (380,070 sq. miles) 
 
 Western Australia 
 (975,920 sq. miles) 
 
 Xorthern Territory . 
 (523,620 sq. miles) 
 
 Papua 
 (90.540 sq. miles) 
 
 Natural Elements. 
 
 Lo^vlands. 
 
 Eastern section of Artesian 
 Basin (D) 
 
 South-east portion of Artesian 
 Basin (D) ; merging into 
 the Murrav-Darling Basin 
 (B) 
 
 Southern portion of Murray- 
 Darling Basin (B) 
 
 Trough-faults to west of high- 
 lands (C). Western portion 
 of Artesian Basin (D) 
 
 The Gulf country (E) 
 
 Highlands. 
 
 Northern section of Cordillera 
 
 (A) 
 Central section of Cordillera 
 
 (A) 
 
 Southern section of Cordillera 
 (A) 
 
 Isolated portion of Cordillera 
 (A) 
 
 Highlands of Flinders Range, 
 etc. (C). South-eastern por- 
 tion of Great Plateau 
 Region (E) 
 
 Wholly comprised in the Great 
 Plateau Region (E) 
 
 Also provisionally classed with 
 the Great Plateau Region 
 (E) 
 
 An isolated northern portion of 
 the Cordillera (A) 
 
 2. — The Eastern Cordillera. 
 
 Perhaps the dominant feature on most maps of Australia is the so-called 
 Great Dividing Range. This belt of higliland undoubtedly constitutes 
 the divide between the coastal drainage and that flowing westward to Lake 
 Eyre or the Murray Mouth. But if we examine it all closely it is seen to be 
 in no sense a range, but is for the most part a series of disconnected elements 
 of very diverse origin. 
 
 In Queensland it is only an important feature where formed of basalt- 
 flows of comparatively late date. Between these it is often a mere warp- 
 ridge but a few hundred feet above the general level. 
 
 In New South Wales in the north the Great Divide gets on solid gi'ound 
 for 100 miles, for here it runs along the great New England granite massif. 
 But the Liverpool Ranges — quite a late geological formation — deviate it 
 to the west. Here the Divide deteriorates to a mere water parting (at 
 Cassilis) between the Goulburn and Talbragar Rivers, where the cutting 
 action of the Goulburn has driven the Divide far to the west. The " range " 
 is not 2,000 feet high hereabouts. 
 
 The Divide returns along the southern rim of the Goulburn Valley towards 
 the coast, and then is carried southwards by a series of indefinite ranges, 
 consisting here of basalt flows — there of recent folds ; and again, as at Cooma, 
 with no apparent elevation at all. Hereabouts we notice that Lake George 
 is perched right on the Divide ; while Merigan Creek flows right through 
 the so-called Divide ! Near Cooma it enters on an extraordinary zig-zag 
 path, which points to recent interruptions in the drainage. These zig-zags 
 around the heads of the Snowy and Tambo Rivers are the results of important 
 river captures. Finally, in Victoria, the great area of Pliocene basalt in
 
 90 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 the west of the State has certainly flooded pre-existing lowlands and valleys 
 and converted portions of them into the modern Divide. 
 
 Lying parallel to the modern Divide, and in the north considerably to 
 the east of it, is another belt of highlands almost coincident with the coastline. 
 These coast ranges are formed of an almost continuous series of granite masses 
 
 Fig. 2. — The Granite Areas of Eastern 
 Australia, showing the agreement with 
 the ancient pre-uplift divide. The 
 probable arrangement of early Tertiary 
 drainage is indicated. 
 
 Fig. 3. — The later Volcanics of Aus- 
 tralia, chiefly late Tertiary basalts, 
 showing their association with the 
 present divide. 
 
 which reach from Tasmania to Cape York. South of Queensland the modern 
 basalt-capped Divide and the granitic masses are mingled to a greater degree. 
 This broad " complex " of highlands of varying origin forms a fairly well- 
 marked belt to which the name Eastern Cordillera is here applied. 
 
 The following subdivisions of the Eastern Cordillera are convenient :— 
 
 A. The Queensland Highlands. 
 
 B. The South-eastern Highlands, in New South AVales. 
 
 C. The Victorian Cordillera and its Coast Plains. 
 
 D. Tasmania. 
 
 (a) The Queensland Highlands. 
 General Physiography. — ^This is a belt of country about 150 miles \vide, 
 extending from Cape York to the New South Wales border. It possesses 
 a fairly homogeneous structure. In the east, along the coast, extends a
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 
 
 91 
 
 belt of ancient granite ranges often pierced by deep gorges whence the 
 coastal streams now reach the sea. Within this bulwark is a belt of later 
 Palaeozoic rocks (Devonian to Permian) which have been cut into by coastal 
 rivers. Overlying these deposits on the west are later sediments of Meso- 
 zoic age. They have been subjected to gentle warping accompanied by 
 volcanic outbursts in Tertiary times. 
 
 For some 1,200 miles the coast is flanked by the coral reefs of the Great 
 Barrier. Its steep outer margin is some 30 to 75 miles from the coast. 
 Within this wall (where each small living reef represents a battlement) is 
 
 
 A- 
 
 
 Bascilt 
 
 ' ," 6r^nite ' 
 
 '<^,|j; Sunken Coast ^ 
 
 2/00 
 fisthomi 
 
 [t- SOO Af/Ves - 
 
 Fig. 4. — ^Section across North Queensland (after Prof. David). 
 
 an inland sea averaging about 20 fathoms in depth. In these clear tropical 
 waters are found the pearl-shell, turtle, and beche-de-mer, whose collection 
 constitutes industries which centre at Cooktown and Thursday Island. 
 
 Settlement has not radiated from the capital of the State to such an 
 extent in Queensland as elsewhere in Australia. Mining led to the growth 
 of coast towns such as Cooktown, C;iirns, Townsville, and others in the far 
 north. Short railways were pushed inland to reach the mines. The isolated 
 sheep and cattle stations also made use of the railways, and the pastoral 
 holdings soon increased in number and value. 
 
 Towns and Industries. — -There are four important railways crossing the 
 Cordillera in Queensland. The most northern line from Cooktown leads 
 inland to the mining fields near Laura. At Cairns the Barron River is cutting 
 back a 600-feet gorge (into the edge of the fault scarp) which heads in 
 the famous Barron Falls. Up this gorge winds the railway to the Chillagoe 
 mines. The country has been found suitable for dairying, and now the 
 railway is prolonged a hundred miles south-west to Charleston, so that it 
 reaches the lower country west of the highlands. 
 
 Inland from Townsville runs one of the chief Queensland railways. This 
 makes no use of the main river valley, that of the Burdokin, for the latter 
 traverses the coast range through an impassable gorge. The railway originally 
 extended only to Charters Towers near the Upper Burdekin, but now 
 reaches far inland almost to South Australia, and will perhaps link uj) witli 
 the projected transnontinent il line to Port Darwin. Near Booronaan it 
 crosses the Main Divide, which is here barely noticeable thougii to 1 lie north 
 basalt ranges form a striking feature.
 
 92 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Further south along the coast is the port of Mackay, one of the most 
 important sugar centres in Australia. It is connected by excellent steamer 
 service to the other ports, but no railway yet links it to the capital. Wedged 
 in by the granite range to the west, it has a network of local railways bringing 
 cane to the central mills. 
 
 Of far greater importance, however, is the area included in the basin of 
 the Fitzrov Eiver, which exhibits the same features of ancient stream 
 capture from the western system as does the Burdekin. 
 
 Far inland along the Tropic of Capricorn runs the railway from Rock- 
 hampton. It crosses the low divide at Jericho, and at present ends at 
 Longreach. A rich pastoral and mining region is served by this line. To 
 the south-west of Rockhampton lies Mount Morgan (25 miles), one of the 
 best-known gold and copper mines ; and Dawson, destined perhaps to be one 
 of the chief coal-fields of the southern hemisphere, is also in the Fitzroy 
 valley. 
 
 The same general features as those described for the northern part of 
 Queensland characterise its southern portion. Sugar ports, such as Bunda- 
 berg and Maryborough, also serve as outlets to mining districts such as 
 Gympie and Kilkivan. A very flourishing area of basalt country known as 
 the Darling Downs is devoted chiefly to agriculture. The railway from its 
 chief town (Toowoomba) descends the scarp of the Downs and reaches the 
 coal basin of Ipswich ; thence proceeding down the valley of the Brisbane 
 River it reaches the capital of the State. 
 
 Although a coast railway is projected from Brisbane for 960 miles north 
 to Cairns, yet at present only the section from Brisbane to Rockhampton 
 is completed. This delay in linking to the capital is directly due to the 
 presence of the granite ranges. Though now forming the coastline and 
 preventing easy communication, these were in Tertiary times flanked on the 
 east by a broad area of piedmont, which has now sunk beneath the Pacific. 
 With this subsidence is correlated the growth of the coral reefs of the Great 
 Barrier. 
 
 (b) The South=eastern Highlands in New South Wales. 
 
 General Physiography. — The structure of the highland region of the 
 Mother State diSers somewhat from that of Queensland, and considerably 
 more is known of its physiography, which may be summarized as 
 follows : — ■ 
 
 There are tliree massifs of Palaeozoic rocks buttressed by granite bosses. 
 In the north is the New England tableland (3,000 feet to 5,000 feet), extending 
 from Queensland to the Liverpool Ranges. Then there is a well-marked 
 broad gap where the divide sinks to 2,000 feet from heights of 4,000 feet 
 north and south. To this gap — due to the erosion of the tributaries of the 
 Hunter in the soft coal measures — the name of the Himter (or Cassilis) geocol 
 has been given.* 
 
 In the centre of the highland belt is another plateau of about 3,000-4,000 
 feet elevation extending from the volcanics of the Canobolas (near Orange) 
 to the great Blue Mountain scarp behind Sydney. It is bounded on the south 
 by another broad gap — the Lake George geocol. 
 
 • Geocol is a word coined to express a col or gap on so large a scale that it influences rainfall, 
 vegetation, and communications.
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 
 
 93 
 
 In the south is a pair of massifs exceeding 7,000 feet in the south-west 
 separated from each other by the long narrow valley of the middle 
 Murrumbidgee. 
 
 But the most striking feature is the presence of the great coal-measure 
 basin or geosyncline which centres at Sydney and extends north for 200 miles 
 to the Liverpool Eanges, and south for 100 miles to Moruya. Two great 
 beds of payable coal (the Newcastle and Greta seams) extend under a large 
 portion of this area, like two black saucers whose eastern rim has been 
 truncated by the faulted sea coast. 
 
 /./tCora./ unefer IOOOF!-. . . 
 
 /ooof^f to zooon 
 
 ZOOOF!^ to 3000F! 
 
 oyer 3000 Ft ._ 
 
 Fig. 5. — Map of the main orographical features in South- Eastern Australia, showing tno 
 five gcocols or breaks in the Cordillera at (1) Cassilia, (2) Lake George, (3) Cooma, 
 (4) Omeo, and (5) Kilmore. The white western area is less than 1,000 ft. in elevation. 
 
 The effect of this geosyncline on the topography is not, however, so 
 marked as . might have been expected. Not only the coal-measures (of
 
 94 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Permo-Carboniferous age), but also earlier and later deposits have participated 
 in the far-reacliing coastal movements of Tertiary times. On the 
 whole, we may describe the Cordillera region here as having a gentle slope 
 
 Sooo'^e/oir Sai Lefe/ 
 
 Fig. 6. — Section across the south of New South Wales (after David) showing 
 the horst of Kosciusko and the block-faulted peneplain. 
 
 to the west and an abrupt edge on the east, some 2,000 feet high, which'''has 
 been truncated by coastal subsidences. These, however, occurred so long 
 ago that coastal erosion has gnawed away the sharp faulted edges. 
 
 
 .0^ 
 
 >^ 
 
 /■' .# 
 
 ^^ 
 
 / 
 
 >tr 
 
 ji^- rriassic RocMs. 
 Coal Messures 
 
 Fig. 7.- — Section from the Barrier Range to Sydney (after David) showing the 
 Mt. Brown and Cobar peneplains separated by the alluvials of the Darhng River, and 
 the warped peneplain of the Main Divide with the coal basin lying to the east of it. 
 
 Moreover, where the rocks are softer— as in the basins of the Clarence and 
 Hunter Rivers, and in the soft marine shales of Illawarra — a comparatively 
 wide coastal plain has resulted from the ordinary processes of erosion. 
 
 Towns and Industries. — In the north-east the coastal plain, watered by 
 the Clarence, Richmond, and Tweed, differs somewhat from the remainder 
 of New South Wales. It is characterized by a " soft-wood brush," a relic 
 of a Malay flora preserved here by suitable temperature and rainfall. Here 
 also is grown all the sugar of the Mother State, for it has been found too cold 
 for the canes south of the Clarence Basin. Grafton, Lismore, and Mur- 
 willurabah are devoted to sugar growing and dairying, and are linked together 
 by an isolated railway system of their own. 
 
 The New England plateau is a resistant mass of Palaeozoic rocks (uplifted 
 in late Tertiary times) whose eastern boundary appears to be determined 
 largely by a series of grand fault-planes. The streams flowing to the sea 
 cascade several thousand feet into deep narrow gorges, of which those at 
 the head of the Macleay will undoubtedly be renowned beauty-spots 
 in the near future. Pastoral industries and mining form the chief occupa- 
 tions of the people in New England, and here English fruits thrive well. 
 Armidale is the chief town, while Tenterfield and Glen Innes lie further to 
 the north on the railway which runs along the plateau-like divide.
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 
 
 95 
 
 The Hunter geocol, drained by the Goulbiu'n and Hunter Eivers, is marked 
 by a lower rainfall than any other portion of the State east of the Divide. 
 Accompanying this lack of moisture is a prevalence of some of the western 
 flora {gidya trees, etc.), which is unknown elsewhere in the littoral province. 
 The valley is very fertile in its lower portions, and grows great crops of lucerne 
 and maize ; dairying is carried on also, but coal mining is the chief industry 
 of the towns around Newcastle, while the upper portion (the Goulburn 
 Valley) is occupied by sheep stations. 
 
 The Blue Mountain area is typical of the topography of much of southern 
 New South Wales. In place of steep ranges with broad valleys between, 
 there are here rather broad undulating plateaux dissected by narrow deep 
 gorges and bounded by fault scarps or huge monoclinal folds. The block 
 diagram explains the origin of the wonderful Blue Mountain valleys. The 
 rivers cut down their beds as the monocline rose in their path ; in the upper 
 
 <%o<r/- Sr,^ o/' Ki//c/ 
 
 Fii;. 8. — -Block diagram showing tho relation between the resistant Triassic sandstone 
 (black) and the "bottle-neck" valleys of the Blue Mountains. The effect of the 
 monocline on the Nepean Valley is also indicated. 
 
 portions the structure of the rocks was weak and as soon as the hard surface- 
 layer (black) was cut away, the soft shales below weie readily removed, 
 and so a broad valley resulted. At the monocline slope, however, the river 
 is still sawing its way through the hard sandstone ; and so these great valleys 
 contract to very narrow " bottle-necks," where the rivers emerge on the 
 coastal plain. The Nepean Gorge is due to the river keeping its old path 
 in spite of the fold which slowly rose across part of its bed. The Blue 
 Mountain plateau is some 80 miles in diameter, with an elevation of 2,000- 
 4,000 feet. To the north is a barren expanse of Trias sandstone intersected 
 by the Capertee River and its tributaries. To the west it is capped by the 
 ancient volcanic cones of the Canobolas Mountains. On the south-east it 
 is drained by the tributaries of the Hawkesbury River. 
 
 The Physiography of the Sydney District. — Sailing along tlu; coast northward 
 to Sydney one sees a long and almost precipitous scarp behind the narrow 
 coastal plain of Illawarra. This scarp, which is about 1,000 feet high, is the 
 truncated edge of a sandstone plateau and is not a ridge in any sense of the
 
 96 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 word. North of Bulli the scarp is coincident with the coast, and the in- 
 hospitable cliffs immediately south of Sydney are built of this Trias sand- 
 stone. Northward the same features are found, until the lower coastline 
 
 ^]:^^^^^^hoalhaven River ^^^ fri^s Sandstone [" 
 
 Softer Strata chieFI 
 Cos/ Measures 
 
 0/c/ /o/can/c Plugs 
 
 Fig. 9. — The main physiographic features in the vicinity of Sydney. 
 
 beyond Broken Bay is reached. This also is due to a change in the geological 
 formation, softer shales or coal-measures outcropping all along the coast 
 north of this point.
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 97 
 
 The most striking features, however, are the beautiful drowned river 
 valleys. Sydney Harbor is the type example, and is renowned all over the 
 world. It is especially valuable as a harbor, because no large river drains 
 into it; hence there is no silting. Quite probably the Cox River once 
 drained into the harbor, but owing to the drastic changes in the drainage 
 in late Tertiary times, a river (the Nepean) running at the foot of the mono- 
 cline (Fig. 9) has captured all the streams. Before dealing further 
 with the monocline let us glance at the rivers near Sydney. 
 
 Notice the manner in which the four rivers south of Sydney flow directly 
 away from the coast. These are the Cataract, Cordeaux, Wingeecarribee, 
 and Kangaroo Rivers. They rise on the coast and flow due west in ancient 
 broad valleys for many miles. This implies a long-continued period of 
 normal erosion, and obviously when these valleys were formed there could 
 not have been coastal cliffs a thousand feet high immediately at their origin 
 as at present. We are led to believe therefore that not far back in geological 
 time there was an extensive area to the east of this divide — perhaps 100 or 
 200 miles wide— which has lately subsided beneath the waves. 
 
 There is not a single main river in the Sydney region which behaves 
 normally, i.e., flows down the chief line of slope directly to the sea. The 
 Upper Colo (or Capertee) is built up largely of streams which are directed 
 upstream to the west. Some tributaries of the Cox River show the same 
 feature. 
 
 In addition to this huge subsidence there is an even more striking feature 
 in the shape of the Blue Mountain monocline (Fig. 8) up which the western 
 railway climbs between Penrith and Katoomba. This is a simple fold in 
 the crust whereby the western region has been raised 2,000 or 3,000 feet 
 above the area lying to the east of the fold. It can be traced 60 or 70 
 miles in a north and south direction. It has dammed rivers at Picton and 
 Mountain Lagoon. At Mulgoa, Mittagong and other places it has given rise 
 to rivers which flow from flat plains into mountain regions in a most 
 amazing fashion. We have in fact a system of western drainage upset by 
 a buckling of the crust, so that most of it is captured by the subsequent 
 north-south Xepean River ; but other portions placidly pursue their old 
 courses — cutting into the land as it rose athwart their beds, and still 
 heading west in a vain endeavour to reach the vanished central 
 Australian sea. 
 
 Towns and Industries.— Avonnd Sydney the coastal plain is about 40 miles 
 broad, reaching to the River Nepean below the Blue Mountain monocline 
 (Fig. 8). This plain is the centre of an old Triassic lake ; for a great 
 portion of it consists of bluish shales (Fig. 9), raised but a hundred feet 
 above sea-level. These shales furnish a clay soil much more suitable for 
 agriculture than are the barren Trias sandstones underlying and surrounding 
 them. The orange and apricot orchards to the west of Sydney occur on this 
 type of soil. Northwards the railway to Newcastle passes over barren 
 sandstone, of little use for aught but as residential sites, until the more fertile 
 coal-measures are reached near Gosford. To the west runs the western 
 railway, passing through orchard country until the Nepean River is reached. 
 Here the flood-silts grow great crops of maize, lucerne, and pumpkins, etc. 
 Then the railway climbs 3,000 feet up the monoclinal fold to the tourist centres
 
 98 Federal Handbook. 
 
 of Katoomba and Mount Victoria. These are built on the same barren 
 sandstone on the fiat uplands between the deep valleys of the dissected 
 plateau. Later it crosses the divide beyond the manufacturing town of 
 Lithgow, and reaches the pastoral and mining region between Bathurst. 
 and Orange. These are situated on much older Silurian slates, which though 
 not very fertile, are superior to the Trias soils. Only occasionally on this 
 sandstone plateau where Tertiary volcanoes have enriched the soil (as at 
 Mount Irvine and Mount Wilson, near Mount Victoria) are there areas 
 suitable for close farming. 
 
 The third railway radiating from Sydney runs to the south-west. It 
 passes through the manufacturing centres of Clyde and Granville, and 
 gradually climbs up the valley of the Nepean until Mittagong is reached. 
 From this point it runs at a fairly constant level through poor agi-icultural 
 country (except where enriched by basalt flows, as near Moss Vale) until the 
 gap south of the Blue Mountain massif is reached near the town of Goulbm-n. 
 To the west of the line lies a maze of rugged gorges carved out of the sand- 
 stone plateau and containing few settlements except those at Yerranderie. 
 where silver is mined, and Wombeyan, where the limestone caves attract 
 many visitors. 
 
 Finally, the South Coast railway runs due south over the deep valley 
 of Georges River, and having passed the steep coast characteristic of the 
 Trias sandstone, it descends to the lUawarra coastal plain which is cut in the 
 softer coal measures. Here is a well-watered and fertile dairy country, rich 
 also in easily-worked coal mines. Wollongong and Kiama are two important 
 towns on small harbors formed by more resistant strata. Some 5 or 10 
 miles back from the coast is the 1,000-ft. scarp of the Triassic sandstone 
 plateau. 
 
 The western (plateau) portion of the area we are now considering con- 
 sists of a land sm-face exhibiting mature to senile features for the most part. 
 It is a mining and sheep-raising country, the chief towns being Bathurst, 
 Orange, Mudgee, Blayney, Molong, and Crookwell. 
 
 South of this area is the Lake George geocol, where the southern railway 
 crosses the divide and commences its descent of the western slopes to the 
 Murray River. The Main Divide hereabouts is somewhat indefinite. Some 
 cartographers put it west of Lake George, others east of the same (through 
 Tarago), while strictly a neighbouring region known as Duck Flat 
 constitutes the Great Dividing Range ! A late Tertiary fault with a drop 
 of 400 feet on the east has here blocked the head-waters of the Yass River, 
 and has given rise to Lake George, the largest freshwater lake in Australia. 
 
 The Yass River joins the main Murrumbidgee River a little above 
 Bm-rinjuck. Here the latter river— as a consequence of the Tertiary up- 
 lift — is flowing down a 1,500-ft. gorge cut in Palaeozoic slates and granites. 
 Advantage of this has been taken to build a gigantic concrete dam 200 feet 
 high which will hold the waters back for 40 miles. The water is to be taken 
 some 200 miles west down the river bed and used to irrigate the western 
 plains near Narrandera. 
 
 The land rises to the south of Lake George into two great massifs 
 culminating in Tindery (5,000 feet) and Kosciusko (7,300 feet), and between 
 them is the long rift valley of the Murrumbidgee.
 
 Physical and G-exeral Geography of Australia. 
 
 99 
 
 The northern portion of this valley with the adjacent highlands consti- 
 tutes the Federal Capital Territory. This is an area of 900 square miles 
 relinquished by New South Wales to the Commonwealth for the purpose 
 of building a southern " Washington." The site of the city itself (9 square 
 miles) is at Canberra on the Molonglo River, about 36 miles south from 
 Yass (on the main southern railway) and 8 miles west from Queanbeyan 
 (on the Cooma railway). It is situated on a broad plain, which is overlooked 
 by three isolated hills or monadnocks 800 feet high, and is traversed by 
 the meandering shallow waters of the Molonglo River. The latter is to be 
 dammed to form a lake 4 miles long. 
 
 Soe/n(/dry 
 Fig. 10. — The Federal Capital Territory and its relation to the coast. 
 
 To the south-west of the Territory is a great granite liorst,* rising 
 at Bimberi Mountain to 6,000 feet, and connected directly with Mount 
 Kosciusko. This is traversed by deep north-south valleys, one of which, 
 the Cotter Valley, is to contain the water supply of the city. The Territory 
 is occupied by about twenty sheep stations together with one or two cattle 
 
 • A horst Is a residual block of the earth's crust which has not participated in the widespread 
 depression of the neictiliouring country.
 
 100 Federal Handbook. 
 
 stations in the rugged southern region. The city site is at an elevation of 
 1,900 feet above sea-level, and has an average rainfall of about 20 inches. 
 Some 30 miles to the south the rainfall has, however, increased to 50 inches, 
 so that a good water supply is assured from the upper Cotter. 
 
 The two mountain masses we have now to consider are undoubtedly 
 relics of a uniform topography which has been cut in two by a system 
 of rifts and senkungsf elder* (Fig. 5). The main depression thus formed 
 is now occupied by the upper Murrumbidgee River and the middle Snowy 
 River. There is a low gap near Cooma connecting the two valleys which 
 his every appearance of having originally been the outlet of the upper 
 Murrumbidgee. The eastern Tindery horst has its flanks washed by the 
 Pacific Ocean. There is practically no coastal plain hereabouts, but 
 tlourishiug dairying and mining settlements have been established at the 
 numerous river mouths. Milton, Ulladulla, Moruya, Eden, and Bega are 
 towns of this character. No railways have yet been built, and the coach 
 road climbs some 2,000 feet to reach the horst and senkungsfeld country to 
 the west. The latter in its southern half is called the Monaro, and is chiefly 
 used for cattle-rearing. There are many sheep-stations, however, in the 
 fault depressions between the horsts. Some mining is carried on, chiefly 
 at Kiandra and Araluen. The Monaro culminates in the summit of Aus- 
 tralia — 'Mount Kosciusko (7,340 feet) — ^in the south-west. This is easily 
 reached by a good motor road from Cooma, but on the west its slopes descend 
 almost precipitously to the waters of the Upper Murray. 
 
 (c) The Victorian Cordillera and its Coast Plains. 
 
 Nowhere is the artificial nature of our State boundaries better shown 
 than in the south-eastern corner of the continent. The massif of Kosciusko 
 continues uninterruptedly across the border into Victoria, forming a large 
 high-level plateau whose summit is second only to Kosciusko (Fig. 5). 
 A favourite tourist resort is Mount Bufialo, another flat-topped granite 
 horst between tributaries of the Ovens. Westward of the Omeo gap the 
 plateaux are more dissected, and indeed become real ridges which dwindle 
 to a level of about 1,200 feet at Kilmore Junction. Beyond this, to the 
 west, there are more or less isolated mountain elements, such as the Pyrenees. 
 a series of granite bosses, and the north-south sandstone ridges of the 
 G-rampians. 
 
 A mountain " range " of greater uniformity than the great Divide 
 would seem to have once run along the present Victorian coast in the form 
 of the uplifted Jurassic sediments of the Wannon Hills, Cape Otway 
 Ranges, and South Gippsland Hills. Between these and the main Divide 
 lies the G-reat Valley of Victoria. 
 
 Towns and Industries. — The rugged east-central portion of Victoria is 
 practically uninhabited. There are a few small mining townships (Omeo, 
 Bright, etc.), and one or two tourist resorts such as Buffalo ; but, for the rest, 
 it is more profitable to settle in the coastal plains to the south, or in the 
 lower valleys of the Murray tributaries to the north. 
 
 The Gippsland Lakes — really lagoons formed by dunes drifting across 
 the mouths of the rivers — are favourite resorts of tourists and fishermen. 
 
 * A senkungsfeld is an area depressed below the general level by trough-faulting.
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 
 
 101 
 
 Bairnsdale, on the Mitchell River, is an important town and railway terminus ; 
 Sale, nearer Melbourne, at the western end of the Lake District, is the chief 
 town in Gippsland. Farming, dairying, and pastoral occupations support 
 the people, while the foothills (as at Walhalla) have yielded a considerable 
 quantity of gold. 
 
 Fig. 11. — The topograiihv nl .\l( lliounie and its environs. 
 
 The high rainfall (4-5 inches) of south-west Gippsland is accountable for 
 the growth of the giant eucalypts. These are the largest hardwood trees 
 in the world ; some over 320 feet in height have been measured. 
 
 North of the mountains are small townships which in the east are chiefly 
 devoted to mining (Bcechworth and Yackandandah). Wangaratta, Benalla,
 
 102 Federal Handbook. 
 
 and Seymour, on the Inter-State railway, are flourishing towns devoted to 
 farming and pastoral industries generally. The rough country to the south 
 of Benalla was once the haunt of numerous bushrangers, of whom Kelly 
 was perhaps the most notorious. 
 
 When the Kilmore geocol is passed in our traverse to the west, the 
 character of the country changes considerably. A network of railways 
 crosses without difficulty the so-called Dividing Range, and to the north- 
 west sends out the six tentacles which have helped so greatly in developing 
 the Wimmera and Mallee plains. Ballarat, Bendigo, Castlemaine, Ararat, 
 Stawell all owe their origin to gold mining, and their present prosperity in no 
 small degree to the less fluctuating profits of agriculture and sheep-farming. 
 
 Melbourne has grown up around the mouth of the Yarra, and has spread 
 southward along the flat tea-tree covered shores of Port Phillip for 1.5 miles 
 or so. Williamstown and the large town of Geelong have been settled in 
 suitable sheltered spots on the western shores of the Bay. The climate and 
 soils of the surrounding districts are eminently suited to farming and fruit 
 growing. 
 
 Melbourne is situated in the centre of a saucer-like plain of about 35 miles 
 radius (Fig. 11). The rim is fairly complete to the north, but is interrupted by 
 broad gaps to the south. The southern part of this plain has been drowned 
 by the sea, and constitutes Port Phillip. The most prominent elevations near 
 Melbourne are of volcanic origin. Thus Mount Macedon (.3,324 feet) consists 
 of dacites and trachytes, and is a conspicuous peak on the Divide; but just 
 behind this the Divide separating the Campaspe (which joins the Murray 
 River) and Saltwater Rivers is 1,200 feet lower and almost indistinguishable. 
 
 On the north the " notch in the rim " at the Kilmore Gap is only 1,145 
 feet high, so that Melbourne is peculiarly well suited to collect the products 
 of the Upper Murray basin. The long narrow Hume Range culminating 
 in Mount Disappointment bounds it on the north-east. South of this is the 
 very interesting valley of the Yarra. Extensive trough-faulting has 
 produced the Croydon senkungsfeld ; however, the Yarra has not taken 
 advantage of this outlet, but has continued on its old course, cutting a deep 
 gorge through the Mitcham-Eltham plateau as the latter rose in its path. 
 
 Another gap, occupied by the Koo-wee-rup Swamp and the tea-tree 
 flats behind Crrum, occurs between the Dandenong volcanics (2,060 feet) 
 and Arthur's Seat. A similar pair of elevations — Mount Bellarine and the 
 You Yangs — -define the circular plain on the south-west. 
 
 Finally, in the west, is the low scarp of the Ballarat Plateau. This 
 is very prominent near Bacchus Marsh, where a striking loop on the railway 
 is due to this feature. Cutting through this scarp in a picturesque gorge is 
 the Werribee River, famous for its sections of Permian glacial beds. 
 
 West of Port Phillip is a basaltic lowland area known as the Western 
 District. It is studded with ancient craters, of which that at Tower Hill 
 may well have been the last active volcano in Australia. The basaltic 
 plains extend from Melbourne to the Glenelg River, a distance of about 150 
 miles, and are about 50 miles broad. With its ample rainfall and fertile 
 volcanic soil, the Western District is one of the richest pastoral and 
 agricultural areas in Australia. Its chief towns are Hamilton, Terang. 
 Camperdown, and Colac.
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 103 
 
 In this region are several centres of closer settlement, served b}'- the 
 ports of Warrnambool and Portland. Railways connect these ports to 
 Melbourne, but it is hoped that the capital city (which is twelve times 
 larger than any other Victorian town) will be saved from further congestion 
 by their greater independence. 
 
 (d) Tasmania. 
 
 Separated from the miinland by the late subsidence of Bass Straits, 
 Tasmania forms a unit which has not foundered like much of Tertiary 
 Australia. Two important trend lines associated with granite bosses running 
 down each side of the island would seem to have buttressed and preserved 
 the central sediments. The central plateau consists of coal-measures capped 
 largely by basic lavas. These huge mesa-like massifs are known as " Tiers." 
 Though they may have been isolated by block faults yet the protection from 
 erosion by the hard cap of lava may account for their characteristic structure. 
 Cradle Mount (5,069 feet), at the north-west of the plateau, presents 
 to the sea a huge scarp, which is probably due to an extensive N.W.-S.E. 
 fault plane. Large lakes, drained by rivers which have cut deep gorges in 
 the edges of the Tiers, occur on the plateau. 
 
 The south-west is uninhabited. It consists of series of strike ranges 
 running north-west and south-east, which have been dissected into deep 
 valleys by the Gordon and other rivers. A rainfall of 50-100 inches occurs 
 in the west, and a dense scrub of interlocking trees and creepers almost 
 wholly prohibits communication at present. However, in the north-west 
 the extremely rich mining fields have led to the country being opened up by 
 a narrow-gauge railway in spite of great natural obstacles. 
 
 Towns and Industries. — With the exception of the mining region mentioned 
 above, almost all settlement is confined to the eastern lowlands between the 
 central plateau and the sea. Along the north coast, east of Table Cape, 
 is a flourishing agricultural and pastoral region, the chief towns, Burnie, 
 Devonport, and Latrobe, lying on the estuaries of the chief rivers. Wheat, 
 dairying, and cattle are more important in the north than wool-growing, 
 which centres rather in the Derwent and Macquarie Valleys. 
 
 The chief railway connects Hobart (the capital) with Launceston (the 
 second town) on the Tamar estuary. It passes through a country whose 
 climate has often been compared to that of England, though its latitude is 
 rather that of the Riviera. 
 
 The eastern tributaries of the Tam'ir rise in the Ben Lomond massif — 
 which reaches 5,000 feet. To the south-east of this highland are the coal 
 mines of Fingal, situated on the South Esk River in one of the eastern valleys 
 which are noted for their sudden floods. 
 
 The environs of Hobart are devoted to the growth of English fruits, 
 especially apples, but wheat and dairying are also important industries. 
 New Norfolk, Hamilton, Bothwell, Sorrel, and Oatlands are the chief towns 
 in the Derwent basin ; while Launceston, Deloraine, Longford, Westbury, 
 and Campbelltown are the chief centres of settlement on the tributaries of 
 the Tamar. 
 
 3. — The Lowland Belt of Australia. 
 
 Between the Eastern Cordillera and the Western Tahldand lie the Central 
 Lowlands. This area is conveniently divided into the Murray-Darling 
 Lowland in the south, and the Artesian Lowlands in the centre and north. 
 
 C.12).i4. n
 
 104 
 
 P'ederal Handbook. 
 
 In Permian times there was a long and rather narrow depression extending 
 from Cooktown (Queensland) to Cape Howe (New South Wales), while the 
 central portion of Tasmania was also occupied by the Permian Sea. In these 
 seas were deposited sediments conformable with our chief coal-measures. 
 Since the coal seams in the latter are of freshwater origin, the sea 
 was occasionally shut off from the ocean and presumably restricted in 
 area. 
 
 In Triassic times the region further to the west sank, and the main 
 axis of submergence seems to have moved west also. Somewhat later, in 
 Cretaceous times, a further depression took place, still to the west. The 
 deposits now laid down constitute the greater part of the lowlands under 
 consideration. There we see the present river systems initiated — for most 
 
 Fig. 12.- 
 
 rriassic. 
 
 Cretaceous 
 
 P/e/ocene. 
 
 vMain drainage basins in post -Palaeozoic periods, showing the gradual 
 movement of the trough axes to the west. 
 
 of the inland rivers, e.g., Upper Lachlan, Castlereagh, Macquarie, Condamine, 
 and Barcoo, are heading for this ancient sea. An elevation en masse has 
 turned the Cretaceous sea into dry land, and also raised the Cordillera higher. 
 In later Tertiary times the gulfs which were relics of the Cretaceous sea 
 (at Murray mouth and south of Carpentaria) were also elevated, and Australia 
 arrived at its present shape. 
 
 In the southern portion the Mesozoic marine sediments (here largelv 
 Triassic) have been covered by an extensive deposit of river silts and 
 estuarine gravels. In the far south occur the upraised Tertiary marine 
 beds which were deposited in the Murray gulf at a time when the tributaries 
 of the Murray River entered the sea by separate mouths. 
 
 4, — The Murray=Darling Lowlands. 
 
 The southern portion constitutes the Murray-Darhng Lowlands. 
 
 This is an approximately square area of some 400 miles wide, which lies 
 chiefly in New South AVales. The boundaries are fairly well defined on the 
 south by the portion of the cordillera forming the Victorian highlands. 
 On the west it is flanked by the inliers of very ancient slates and 
 quartzites (of Cambrian age or earlier) which constitute the Flinders 
 and Barrier Ranges. On the east it rises gradually to the three tablelands 
 already considered. The foothills (below 2,000 feet) may be classed as 
 lowlands.
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 
 
 105 
 
 On the north the boundary between this division and the Great Artesian 
 Basin is not apparent from surface features. It has been mapped from 
 borings, and runs along the rivers Bogan and Darling to Bourke, and thence 
 in a general westerly direction until the Cambrian highlands are met with 
 beyond White Cliffs. 
 
 (a) Cobar=Wagga Peneplain. 
 
 It is impossible to define sharply the boundary to the east. If we accept 
 the 2,000-ft. contour as a natural limit of the dry lowlands (which view is 
 supported to some extent by the isohyetals and by the distribution of the 
 plains vegetation), then considerable areas of folded Palaeozoic rocks are 
 included in these lowlands. They may be grouped in one division, which has 
 
 Artesian Basin 
 
 .,---. Bourke^ 
 
 Fig. 13. — The Murray-Darling Lowlands and their subdivisions : — 1. Cobar-Wagga 
 Peneplain ; 2. Western Plains and the Riverina ; 3. Ancient Murray Estuary. 
 
 been named the Cobar-Wagga Peneplain.* Unlike the Eastern Cordillera 
 it has not participated to any great extent in the Tertiary uplift, and so it 
 really very closely represents early Tertiary Australia. It is rich in minerals, 
 especially gold and copper, and elsewhere has been named the " Gold-Copper 
 Slope " for this reason. 
 
 Towns and Industries. — The area is of an hour-glass pattern, the valley 
 of the Lachlan almost separating the two inliers of ancient mineralized rock 
 
 * a peneplain is an old land surface planed down by rivers and other erosive action nearly to sea 
 level. It may afterwaids be elevated, but retains the same features, of course. 
 
 H 2
 
 106 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In the Cobar moiety mining and sheep-grazing are universal, the chief towns 
 on this " Palaeozoic island " being Cobar, Nymagee, Nyngan, and Narromine. 
 In the southern and eastern portion of this peneplain the rainfall is greater 
 (15-25 inches), and an important portion of the wheat belt is included within 
 its area. Wagga, Young, and Albury, and, in the north, Parkes and Forbes, 
 are wheat centres, and with dry farming and suitable wheat the belt is spread- 
 ing to the west. Wyalong, Forbes, Parkes, Adelong, and Young are centres 
 of gold and copper fields, and since sheep also graze here in large numbers 
 it is seen that these southern foothills in New South Wales are usually rich 
 in pastoral, mining, and agricultural resources. 
 
 (b) The Western Plains and the Riverina. 
 
 These plains lie along the course of the Darling (south of Bourke), and 
 penetrate considerable distances into the Cobar-Wagga Peneplain. Their 
 greatest breadth (200 miles) is in the Riverina — a name given to the Mesopo- 
 tamia of the Lower Lachlan, Mun-umbidgee, and Murray rivers. For several 
 hundred miles no hill is met with ; indeed, no rock outcrop breaks the monotony 
 of tbe plains. 
 
 The great rivers for the most part flow in rather deep gullies through these 
 plains. Ill times of drought, the Darling and Lachlan degenerate to a string 
 of waterholes, but the Murrumbidgee rarely ceases to flow and the Murray 
 never. During the floods which occasionally occur, the rivers spread for 
 miles over the plains and re-occupy ancient channels. Later these are 
 left as serpentine " billabongs," and large lakes may originate thus. There 
 are said to be 70 of these lakes along the Lower Darling. 
 
 More or less permanent distributaries are also common on the Lower 
 Darling and Murrumbidgee, and are locally known as anabranches. 
 
 Towns and Industries. — The plains country is devoted to the merino 
 sheep. The rainfall is too low for wheat, except in the eastern Riverina, 
 where the precipitation rises to 20 inches. Large holdings of land are 
 necessary in the western plains, and single stations may have as many as 
 100,000 sheep. In the west there are only one or two towns of any import- 
 ance, which distribute stores to the sheep stations and r -ceive wool for 
 transport via rail or steamer to Melbourne or Sydney. Among those further 
 east may be mentioned Deniliquin, Hay, Moulamein, Condobolin, Jerilderie, 
 and Narrandera. 
 
 An area of great economic interest is located on the Lower Murrumbidgee 
 near Narrandera. Two hundred miles up the river is the Burrinjuck Dam, 
 below the junction of the main stream with the Yass and Goodradigbee 
 rivers. The retaining wall is to be 240 feet high, and will dam back the 
 water for 40 miles up the main stream, with important additions in the Yass 
 and Goodradigbee valleys. From the dam the conserved water flows at first 
 via the river channel, and later by an artificial cut to the Yanco irrigation 
 area. It is expected that about 200,000 acres of first class land and 360,000 
 acres of second class land near Yanco can be subdivided for intense culture. 
 
 The special feature of this region is, however, the important river system 
 consisting of the River Murray and its tributaries. With its main tributary, 
 the Darling, no less than 2,000 miles are navigable in favorable seasons, but 
 internal navigation is decreasing in importance as the railways are extended
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 107 
 
 With a high river the Murray is navigable practically to Albury, but there is. 
 very little traffic beyond Echuca (which is 666 miles from the South Australian 
 Border). On the Darling steamers trade as far as Walgett, a distance of 
 1,180 miles from Wentworth. The Murray is navigable for about seven 
 months (July to January inclusive) in the year ; the Darling may be blocked, 
 for several years in a dry series of seasons. 
 
 (c) The Ancient Murray Estuary. 
 
 An approximately circular area in the south of the Australian Lowlands 
 occupies an old bay or estuary into which the Darling, Murrumbidgee, and 
 Murray probably entered by separate mouths. It extends from Menindie, 
 on the Darling, to Glenelg River (western Victoria), and is about 300 miles 
 broad, its limits being Swan Hill (on the Murray) to the east, and the Mount 
 Lofty Ranges (South Australia) to the west. In this region the rocks consist 
 of marine sediments of late Tertiary age, which not long ago formed the floor 
 of portion of the Southern Ocean. The rainfall is rather low (10-20 inches), 
 the country being sheltered by hills from rain-bearing winds ; but large areas 
 which were formerly deemed worthless are progressing rapidly since it has 
 been discovered that wheat can be profitably grown here. The natural 
 vegetation, especially in the southern portion, consists of a low shrub-like 
 eucalypt called the " mallee," which forms very thick copse-like masses. 
 This is being cleared to make way for the wheat. The Lower Murray passes 
 through the middle of this tract, in which it receives no tributaries except in 
 time of flood. 
 
 In the south-east the rainfall increases, and the Wimmera District 
 is supplied by the head waters of several streams which rarely reach the 
 Murray. Here there are extensive irrigation and water supply works as at 
 Glenorchy, Dooen, and Boort. Some of these enable large crops to be grown, 
 others supply water for stock in the drier periods of tlie year. 
 
 The irrigation centres of Renmark and Mildura on the Murray (near the 
 Darling confluence) are of great interest. Here large fruit crops are obtained 
 in a region with only a 10-in. rainfall, by water pumped from the Murray. 
 The drainage of the whole Murray basin enters the sea by an insignificant 
 outlet so shallow that none but the smallest steamers can cross its bar. 
 
 The portion of this elevated Tertiary estuary which has been settled most 
 successfully lies in the south-eastern corner of South Australia. With a 
 good rainfall of 30 inches this corner of the State is noted for its crops and 
 fruit, and it enjoys the most favorable climate of any part of the State of 
 South Australia. This is largely due to the fact that it extends sufficiently 
 far south to be influenced by the dominant rain-bearing westerly winds for 
 a large part of the year. 
 
 There is here, however, a sub-artesian water supply which is really dele- 
 terious. A large area between the Mount Gambler Railway and the coast 
 was originally a sour swamp land, being flooded by the outflow from the 
 more elevated porous beds to the north and east. The crater lakes of Mount 
 Gambler owe their water supply to this artesian flow. A very large drainage 
 scheme now in progress his already cost £311,000 and will co.st as much 
 again. This will improve 2,000,000 acres of agricultural land.
 
 108 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 5. — The Great Artesian Basin. 
 
 This region constitutes the northern portion of the Central Lowland belt 
 of Australia. It includes about 576,000 square miles, comprising more than 
 half of Queensland and important slices of territory in New South Wales 
 and South Australia. 
 
 During Mesozoic times a large gulf extended from the Gulf of Carpentaria 
 to Lake Eyre. This covered much the same ground as the Artesian Basin, 
 to which, indeed, it gave rise. In this basin were deposited thick beds of 
 
 
 Cu/f or C^rpentSLr/^ 
 
 
 D/a^ramma.C/c Section a./on^ line A. £. 
 Fig. 14. — The Great Artesian Basin. 
 
 sand, which ultimately became a permeable sandstone, and over these were 
 laid down strata of an impermeable nature (blue clays, shales, etc.). Later, 
 earth movements elevated this area, and the underlying peripheral porous 
 sandstones were exposed by erosion. 
 
 Rain falling on the upturned porous beds (which are perhaps Triassic 
 in New South Wales, and Cretaceous in Queensland) is rapidly absorbed, 
 and flows underground towards the lower portion of the basin, which probably 
 occurs in the north. There is probably an outlet for this underground flow
 
 Physical asd General Geography of Australia. 109 
 
 into the Gulf of Carpentaria. Many mound springs to the west of Lake 
 Eyre — along the railway line — also represent a natural outlet to this basin. 
 In New South Wales there are nearly a hundred Government bores and 
 about 250 private bores. At Dolgelly (near Moree) a bore was sunk 4,806 
 feet and gave 682,000 gallons per day. In Queensland there are about 
 600 flowing bores and 168 sub-artesian where the water does not reach the 
 surface without pumping. 
 
 The Artesian Region may be divided into two parts, which may be 
 termed the Lake E}Te Division (in the west) and the Eastern Division 
 (which comprises western Queensland). The dividing line is somewhat 
 arbitrary, but is not far from the 10-iu. isohyet. Thus the western is 
 practically desert country, and the eastern is a very important mining and 
 pastoral region. 
 
 (a) The Eastern or Pastoral Artesian Region. 
 
 This belt lies to the west of the cordillera and gradually changes from the 
 uplands of the Great Divide, through rolling downs to the monotonous levels 
 of the region around Lake Eyre. It extends about 1,200 miles from the Gulf 
 of Carpentaria to Dubbo, on the Macquarie River (New South Wales), and 
 is about 300 miles wide. 
 
 The northern portion around the gulf consists of a low-lying country — 
 probably the elevated bed of the gulf adjacent — with a rainfall of 20 to 30 
 inches. It is watered by numerous rivers. Normanton, the chief town, 
 is partly supplied with water by an artesian bore. Behind the mangrove 
 swamps of the northern margin is an important cattle-grazing district. The 
 chief industries are, however, connected with mining, much gold beinw 
 obtained at Croydon and copper at Cloncurry. These ore-deposits occur 
 in " islands " of older rock, projecting through the artesian water-bearing 
 strata. 
 
 To the south of the gulf country the land rises considerably, and a strip 
 about a thousand feet above the sea extends south to the headwaters of 
 the Paroo and other northern tributaries of the Murray, whence it gradually 
 slopes down to 500 feet along the southern boundary of the Artesian 
 Basin. 
 
 It is important to note that this portion of the Artesian Basin lies almost 
 wholly in the 10 to 20 in. rainfall area, so that except in the extreme south, 
 where some wheat is grown, there is nothing to compete with the pastoral 
 industry. Hughenden, Winton, Barcaldine, Charleville, and Cunnamulla 
 are all centres of sheep and cattle districts, connected by railways to one of 
 the ports, Townsville, Rockhampton, or Brisbane. 
 
 (b) The Lake Eyre Basin or Desert Artesian Region. 
 
 The remaining division of the Artesian Basin comprises the lowlands 
 drained by the rivers Diamintina, Barcoo, etc. The lowest portion of 
 the area constitutes Lake Eyre. The southern arm of this lake usually 
 contains salt water, while the remainder is a vast salty plain formed from 
 alluvium carried down by the large rivers which now enter it onlv in 
 flood time. It is situated within the 10-in. isohyet, yet many pastoral 
 areas have been occupied, especially along the beds of the Diamantina and 
 Barcoo.
 
 ilO Federal Handbook. 
 
 6. — ^The South Australian Highlands and the Associated Trough 
 
 Faults. 
 
 This isolated region of elevation extends from Cape Jervis in a north-south 
 line to Hergott Springs, near Lake Eyre. It consists of " numerous local 
 ranges which in places reach an elevation of over 3,000 feet. The ranges 
 are usually separated from each other by undulating or nearly level plains ; 
 and as a result of these longitudinal valleys the northern railway has been 
 carried through the hill country, reaching an elevation near Petersburg of 
 over 2,000 feet, without the necessity of cutting a single tunnel."* 
 
 The present topography of the highlands is determined chiefly by a series 
 of faults on the western side of the Cambrian highlands. These faults 
 run meridionally and appear to have taken place in almost every geological 
 epoch. Running parallel to the highlands is a subsidence area which Pro- 
 fessor Gregory has termed the " Rift Valley of Australia," which constitutes 
 St. Vincent's Gulf and Spencer's Gulf — York Peninsula being a horst between 
 two subsidences. The Rift Valley extends north through Lake Torrens, 
 and has probably contributed to the origin of Lake Eyre. The scarp faces 
 an the west of the Mount Lofty Ranges are not yet in equilibrium, and slips 
 on a large scale along the old fault lines make this corner of Australia perhaps 
 the most active seismological region in the continent. (See Chapter VIL, 
 " Geology of the Commonwealth," Fig. 1.) 
 
 To the east the ancient Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian rocks diminish in 
 height and gradually merge in a low level peneplain of old rock which is 
 bounded, and in part covered, by the Tertiary sediments of the Murray- 
 Darling lowlands. In these ancient altered and folded rocks occur the chief 
 mineral deposits of South Australia. Among these are the famous Wallaroo 
 and Moonta copper mines, at the head of St. Vincent's Gulf; Burra and 
 Kapunda, once equally important, have not been worked for many years, 
 but just over the border in New South Wales is situated Broken Hill, the 
 largest known ore deposits in Australia. The traffic of Broken Hill passes 
 almost wholly through South Australia, either to Port Pirie, on Spencer's 
 Gulf, or to tiie capital, Adelaide. The population is over 30,000, and since 
 1882, when the lode was discovered, silver-lead-zinc ore to the value of 
 £60,000,000 has been won. 
 
 The main divide of these highlands lies somewhat to the west, culminating 
 in Mount Lofty (near Adelaide, 2,334 feet). Mount Razorback (near Burra, 
 2,834 feet), and Mount Brown (near Quorn, 3,100 feet). None of the 
 rivers are of importance, and in the north the water supply is obtained 
 chiefly from wells smik in the beds of the intermittent rivers. The lakes 
 are all shallow sheets of salt water, and are worthless from an industrial 
 point of view. 
 
 The Cambrian Highlands (including the Mount Lofty and Flinders Ranges) 
 lie in the course of strong westerly winds in winter. They have at that season 
 a rainfall which is found to be eminently suited to the needs of the 
 wheat plant ; in fact, many districts with only 10 inches per year can grow 
 an excellent hard wheat, because practically the whole of the precipitation 
 takes place from April to October (inclusive). 
 
 • The Geography of South Australia, hicluding the Northern Territory, by Walter Howchin and J. W. 
 
 Gregory (1909), p 82.
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. Ill 
 
 The main settlement in South Australia is therefore confined to a 
 triangle included between Streaky Bay (west), Beltana (north), and Morgan 
 (south-west). Mount Gambler and the Pinnaroo wheat area have already 
 been described as likely to become areas of close settlement. 
 
 The heaviest rainfall occurs near Adelaide, on the slopes of the Mount 
 Lofty Ranges. On the lower slopes, where there is less moisture, are 
 planted the vineyards whose wines are becoming favorably known all over 
 the world. Clare and Tanunda are two of the most famous cellars, both 
 being to the north-east of Adelaide. 
 
 It is to wheat, however, that South Australia chiefly owes her prosperity. 
 The wheat line coincides, for reasons stated, with the 10-in. (winter) isohyet. 
 The three peninsulas, E\Te's, Yorke's, and Mounty Lofty, are included in 
 this area which is one of the most important wheat producing districts in the 
 Commonwealth. 
 
 Wool is grown throughout the State wherever the annual rainfall 
 exceeds 9 or 10 inches, including all the Cambrian highlands. But a large 
 area in the north-west, beyond a line joining Eucla to Oodnadatta, is still 
 No Man's Land. However, just as pastoral industries have paid their way 
 m the dry regions of Hergott and Oodnadatta, where railway transport is 
 available in time of need, so we may hope that the new transcontinental 
 railway from Port Augusta to Kalgoorlie will lead to the settlement of the 
 region in question. 
 
 7. — The Great Plateau Region. 
 
 To the west of the Australian Lowlands, i.e., beyond a line joining the 
 two gulf regions (Spencer and Carpentaria), lies a vast extent of country 
 forming the chief geographic unit in Australia and embracing two-thirds of 
 the continent; it consists of an ancient peneplain composed chiefly of 
 Palaeozoic or older rocks which have been planed down to a more or less 
 uniform level. This now stands 1,000 to 1,500 feet above the sea, and for 
 the most part does not seem to have been submerged since middle Palaeozoic 
 times. However, fringing this massif all round the west coast, are lowlands 
 of Tertiary age ; while there is a fairly continuous hinterland of Mesozoic 
 and late Palaeozoic rocks which resemble the larger belt on the east of the 
 continent. This obviously indicates that the margins of the West Australian 
 massif have oscillated above and below sea-level many times in post- 
 Cambrian times. 
 
 Only in the south, at the head of the Bight, is there any large area of 
 late rocks ; but here there appears to be a Cretaceous basin extending for a 
 radius of 300 miles all round Eucla. 
 
 In this region is comprised the whole of Western Australia and most of 
 the Northern Territory and South Australia, except those portions of the 
 latter which have already been described under the heads of the Lake Eyre 
 Basin and the South Australian highlands. It is by no means so important 
 economically as the Central Lowlands, and supports only about 6 per 
 cent, of the Australian population (250,000 out of 4,000,000). 
 
 It will be recognised that there are no dominating physical features to 
 assist subdivision of this large area, except it l)e the Central Highlands in the 
 east — which form one subdivision.
 
 112 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Since this tableland extends through almost 25 degrees of latitude, it is 
 obvious that it is subjected to very different meteorological conditions. 
 Accordingly the most satisfactory primary divisions are — ^the Southern 
 Temperate Region, the Northern Tropical Region, and the Central Desert 
 with its enclave, the Central Highlands. 
 
 (a) The Northern Tropical Region. 
 
 The Tropical Region consists of a broad coastal strip from Sharks 
 Bay to the Gulf of Carpentaria. In this region the rainfall occurs in summer, 
 and increases in amount as the equator is approached. It is bounded on the 
 
 Fig. 15. — Map showing the three divisions of the Westralian Plateau, 
 and the 10-inch isohyet. 
 
 south and east by the Desert Region. Unfortunately there are no rain 
 stations between Nullagine and Barrow Creek, so that the division line 
 (approximately the 10-in. isohyet) is only tentative. 
 It may be described under the heads : — 
 
 (1) Northern Territory Lowlands ; 
 
 (2) Northern Territory Highlands ; 
 
 (3) The North-west Coast, comprising the regions around Kimberley, 
 
 Pilbarra, Sharks Bay, and the Murchison.
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 113 
 
 (i.) The Northern Territory Lowlands. 
 
 The Northern Territory consists of two rather different provinces. The 
 coastal portion is low-lying, rising only to 300 feet at 100 miles from the 
 coast along the railway. This low country is still practically unknown except 
 along the railway. It does not appear to be very good cattle country, and 
 though the rainfall is very heavy in summer the soil is poor in plant food 
 and the vegetation, on the whole, is scanty, except along the rivers. The 
 hinterland, including Arnhem Land to the east, appears to be a dissected 
 peneplain about 1,000 feet above sea-level. 
 
 The rivers and creeks of the Northern Territory are in many cases dry 
 gullies during the dry season ; but they become considerable streams in the 
 wet season, from December to March. There are notable exceptions to this. 
 For instance, the Edith, Catherine, and Roper are large rivers, all of which 
 flow at a constant rate all through the dry weather. The most important is 
 the Roper, which rises near Bitter Springs — to which place it is proposed to 
 transfer the capital — and flows perennially thence. It is a noble stream 100 
 yards wide and occasionally 25 feet deep, though crossed by quartzite bars. 
 Some of the reaches on the river are said to be 40 miles long. 
 
 The capital is at Darwin, a small township consisting chiefly of 
 Government buildings. From the capital a narrow-gauge railway runs to 
 Pine Creek, 145 miles inland, and will shortly be extended to the Katherine. 
 A British line of steamers maintains a monthly service, and there is a small 
 local trade, a steam-ship running between Port Darwin, Port McArthur, 
 Daly River, Victoria River, and Wyndham (Western Australia). 
 
 The population of the Territory in 1911 comprised about 1,700 whites, 
 1,300 Chinamen, and some 20,000 aboriginals. The following were the chief 
 products in 1910 :— pearl-shell, £10,000 ; tin, £34,308 ; and gold, £21,632. 
 
 (ii.) Northern Territory Uplands. 
 
 These extend southward from the Roper River, and include the most 
 promising portion of the Territory. Though the rainfall is less, gradually 
 decreasing from 40 inches to 6 inches, yet the climate is more healthy, and the 
 strip of country southward to Tennant's Creek is well adapted to carry cattle. 
 The railway traverses fair pastoral country as far as Pine Creek, though 
 practically unstocked. There are however, many cattle stations on 
 the low eastern plateau known as the Barkly Tableland. These are linked 
 to the more populous regions by a mail route via Camooweal just witliin the 
 Queensland borders. 
 
 (iii.) TifE North-west Region. 
 
 This is wholly included in Western Australia, and consists of a strip of 
 country between the desert and the sea about 400 miles wide, extending 
 from the Ord River in the north to the Murchison River in the west. The 
 rainfall decreases from 30 inches in the north to about 6 inches per year on the 
 Murchison. 
 
 The towns in this vast territory of 500,000 square miles number about a 
 dozen, being, with very few exceptions, either settlements around stamp 
 batteries on a gold-field, or ports leading to them. The country, however, 
 •contains numerous sheep and cattle stations.
 
 114 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The Kimberley region contains a one-time important gold-field, with its 
 centre at Hall's Creek on the divide between the Ord and Fitzroy Rivers. 
 Numerous cattle stations have been occupied along both these rivers ; but 
 the rugged region between them is almost entirely uninhabited by white 
 settlers. Wyndham, at the mouth of the Ord River, Derby, on the estuary 
 of the Fitzroy, and Broome are the only towns. From the latter, which 
 is an important pearling centre and cattle port, starts the cable to Java. 
 
 Pearling extends northwards from Sharks Bay, where the pearl-shell is 
 of a smaller and less valuable kind, to Broome — the commercial base of the 
 industry. 
 
 The next centre of settlement is the Pilbarra region ; it is noted for 
 its pearls, mining, heat, and cyclones. Hereabouts the average rainfall is 
 15 inches per annum ; yet there are many records of 20 inches falling in a 
 few hours. Cossack and Condon are situated where the tropical tornadoes 
 recurve and strike the coast. The hinterland also holds an unenviable record 
 for heat. 
 
 The Pilbarra gold-fields, with centres at Marble Bar and Nullagine, and 
 the Whim Ci-eek Copper Mines have led to the development of the country. 
 A railwav is being built from Port Headland to Nullagine. Large areas can 
 be supplied with water for stock by putting down shallow bores. Sheep 
 are the principal stock depastured in this region. Many of the stations are 
 worked almost entirely by aboriginal labour, so that the wages' bill is 
 small. 
 
 The southern portion of this belt, comprising the basins of the Ash- 
 burton, Gascoyne, and Mm-chison, should logically be considered with the 
 Desert Region, for the greater part of it has a rainfall of less than 10 inches 
 per year. However, numerous sheep and cattle stations have been taken 
 up, the stock being shipped from Onslow and Carnarvon. 
 
 Far inland from G-eraldton are the gold-fields of Yalgoo, Murchison, and 
 
 Peak Hill. A railway runs through Yalgoo, Mount Magnet, Cue, and Nannine, 
 
 to Meekatharra. 
 
 (b) The Central or Desert Tableland. 
 
 The Desert Region includes most of the areas with a rainfall under 
 10 inches. It may be described under the heads : — 
 
 (1) The Desert Proper ; 
 
 (2) The MacDonnell Ranges ; 
 
 (3) The Gold-fields Region. 
 
 (i.) The Desert Proper. 
 
 This division of the Western Tableland is rectangular in shape, about 
 1,200 miles from west to east, and 650 from north to south. The Lake 
 E%Te Basin (included in the Ai-tesian Lowlands, p. 109) is of the same arid 
 character ; and, with this addition, the desert may be described as occupying 
 the rectangle between Cossack and Boulia, on the north, and Southern Cross 
 and Broken Hill, on the south. In fact, the proposed transcontinental rail- 
 ways from Southern Cross to Port Augusta and from Camooweal to Bourke, 
 form two of its boundaries. 
 
 This region, with an area of 800,000 square miles, comprises more than 
 one-quarter of the whole continent. It therefore merits study, in spite of
 
 Physical and General Geography op Australia. 115 
 
 the fact that there are probably not a thousand white folk in it, excluding 
 the miners in the south-western corner between Kalgoorlie and Laverton. 
 Our knowledge is derived from explorers' records, such as those of Giles 
 and Carnegie, and from later Government expeditions, such as that of 
 Canning in 1906. 
 
 In the north-eastern portion the MacDonnell Ranges have been well 
 described by the Horn scientific expedition, and these highlands are now 
 sparsely settled ; but the region extending from Oodnadatta to the Westralian 
 gold-fields is still desolate. 
 
 Great additions to our knowledge of the w^estern portion of the desert 
 have resulted from the recent work of Canning and Talbot. The former 
 opened a stock route from Wiluna to the pastoral holdings near Hall's Creek. 
 This distance of 700 miles is now supplied with permanent water by 50 
 shallow wells. Mr. Talbot has lately made a geological traverse along the 
 stock route. He describes the country generally as flat, but diversified by 
 low ranges ; the prevailing south-west winds have banked sand ridges 
 against the southern slopes of these ranges, but on the lee sides they are often 
 flanked by a strip of flat country which in some places grows good feed for 
 stock. 
 
 Although at some future time the lower portions of Sturt Creek may 
 become settled, Mr. Talbot thinks that the country along the stock route 
 ^south of that point is never likely to beco;ne occupied by pastoralists. 
 
 The heart of the arid region has been described by Carnegie. In 1896 
 he left the Coolgardie gold-field to strike across the continent in a N.N.E. 
 direction in the hopes of finding gold-bearing or pastoral country in the 
 great desert. Travelling over a long stretch of dry country in which 
 the camels were without water for thirteen and a half days, they 
 reached a soakage near Alexander Springs. Beyond this a few low sandstone 
 ranges and hills were found, and occasionally in the valleys belts of bloodwood 
 and a few shrubs edible by camels, but most of the country was a continuous 
 waste of sand ridges. They reached Hall's Creek and returned south along 
 the South Australian border. He thinks that a stock route from the 
 MacDonnell Ranges to the Coolgardie railway is possible in winter. The 
 route from the ranges to the south-west is excellent as far as the border; 
 from there it would be necessary to hit off the small oases which are met 
 with near Mount Squires, Warburton Ranges, Blyth Creek, and Alexander 
 Springs. In conclusion, he says of the area traversed on his journey 
 (Fig. 15) — " We have demonstrated the uselessness of any persons (either 
 pastoralists or miners) wasting their time and money in further investigation 
 of that desolate region."* 
 
 (ii.) The MacDonnell Ranges. 
 This area of elevated land lies in the middle of the continent, and owing 
 to the Horn exploring expeditioii of 1891 we know more about it than about 
 many more accessible regions. The Cretaceous area between Lake Eyre and 
 the southern ranges of the group consists of stony (" gibber ") plains and of 
 arid loamy tracts which support a sparse saltbush flora. Professor Spencer 
 calls these the Lower Steppes. 
 
 * D. W. Carnegie, Spinifex and Sand, 1898.
 
 116 J^'ederal Handbook. 
 
 As soon as the northern boundary of the Cretaceous area is passed (near 
 Chamber's Pillar) a striking difierence appears in the configuration of the 
 country. 
 
 The rocks consist of sandstones and limestones, which have been folded 
 at some ancient period into series of ridges and valleys running east and west. 
 These, after being worn down to a level surface, were elevated in quite 
 recent geological times, and the rivers have cut out the extraordinary series 
 of gorges and lateral valleys which form so striking a feature of the region. 
 
 The northern portion of the MacDonnell area consists of much older rocks, 
 such as gneisses and schists, probably allied to those covering a large part of 
 Western Australia. Associated with them are certain dykes of granite, 
 with white mica (muscovite) , the chief mines being near Mount Brassey, 
 in the north-east of the ranges, where plates of mica 6 feet across have been 
 obtained. They are sent by camel to Oodnadatta, and are exported for use 
 in electrical works. In the same region is Arltunga, a gold-field which 
 promised well some years ago, but it is heavily handicapped by its situation 
 and surroundings. 
 
 To the west, as soon as the ranges are left behind, the monotonous sand- 
 hill, mulga, and spinifex country commences and extends through Western 
 Australia to Coolgardie. 
 
 It is to be feared that neither the cattle, mica, nor gold will lead to the 
 prosperous settlement of Central Australia. The low rainfall (averaging only 
 6 inches per year over a considerable portion of the area) makes extensive 
 pastoral occupation impossible, while 200 miles of transport to the railway 
 at Oodnadatta — and thence 600 miles to Adelaide — will prevent the working 
 of any but very rich mineral fields. 
 
 (iii.) The Gold-fields Region. 
 
 In Western Australia, nearly 400 miles inland from the coast, in a region 
 which 2-5 years ago had been crossed only by a few explorers and 
 prospectors, and where the rainfall is only 8 inches, is clustered an important 
 community of mining men. The chief town, Kalgoorlie, has a population 
 of 30,000, and the other large centres (Coolgardie, Kanowna, etc.) have 
 a total of about 35,000. Until 1887 it was an uninhabited desert, like 
 that already described, but in that year was discovered the Southern Cross 
 field and in 1892 the Coolgardie fields. 
 
 At first the only water supply was obtained from small " soaks." Later 
 portable condensers were used to separate the salt from water derived from 
 holes dug in the salt lakes. Before the railway was opened the Government 
 constructed along the route tanks which served as collecting grounds after 
 occasional rains. Each of these held about a million gallons, and cost some 
 £3,000. This uncertain supply is now superseded by wonderful waterworks 
 which bring water from the wetter regions near the coast. Early in 1903 
 the present supply-line was completed, connecting a reservoir near 
 Perth with Kanowna, 387 miles east of that town. On the Darling Ranges, 
 near Perth, there is a rainfall of over 20 inches, and a weir across the Helena 
 Rive^r (at Mundaring) impounds 400,000,000 gallons. Nine pumping stations 
 elevate the water 1,313 feet to the Coolgardie distributing reservoir. The 
 pipe line (33 inches diameter) is laid on the sm'face close to the railway, and
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia, 117 
 
 at each of the pumping stations, roughly 40 miles apart, the water is elevated 
 about 140 feet, whence it flows by gravity to the next station. 
 
 In 1894 the railway line to Southern Cross was completed and gradually 
 extended, as the value of the gold-fields became assured, to Kalgoorlie in 
 1897, Menzies, 1899, and since then to Laverton (586 miles), in the north, 
 and to Norseman, in the south. 
 
 The transcontinental railway from Kalgoorlie to Port Augusta (1,100 
 miles) is now (1913) under construction. The gauge is the standard 
 4 ft. 8| in. ; and the other links, Fremantle to Kalgoorlie and Port Augusta 
 to Albury, will be altered to suit this gauge. The estimated cost of con- 
 struction is £3,988,000. 
 
 This railway will serve an area comprising about 90,000 square miles, 
 which can be considered favorable for pastoral development ; but the main 
 advantages accruing are due to the increased speed in mails between Europe, 
 Western Australia, and Eastern Australia. The military aspect is also one of 
 importance. 
 
 In Western Australia this new railway traverses auriferous country for 
 65 miles to Cardinia. Thence it passes over granite for 100 miles, and 
 further eastward it reaches the " saltbush " country, which is characteristic 
 of the Tertiary limestones. 
 
 This region has less than 10 inches rainfall, but in the limestones water 
 can be reached by bores several hundred feet deep. Unfortunately, this 
 water is usually brackish. 
 
 Within the South Australian border (461 miles) similar limestone country 
 is traversed until the ancient rocks around Tarcoola are met with. Here are 
 valuable gold deposits, and outlying sheep stations are situated near the 
 proposed line at Wilgena and Coondambo. Lake Hart promises to become 
 an important source of salt. Near Oakden Hills station it descends from the 
 tableland into the Torrens rift, and crosses the head of Spencer's Gulf at 
 Yorkey's Crossing, which is only 5 miles from Port Augusta. 
 
 (c) The South=west Temperate Region. 
 
 The South-west Temperate Region is a belt extending from Geraldton 
 to Eucla. It lies between the 10-in. isohyet and the sea, and is characterized 
 by a winter rainfall increasing to the south-west. This portion of Western 
 Australia contains the whole of the agricultural land in the State. It is 
 estimated that there are 60,000,000 acres which are suitable for agi-icultural 
 purposes. It carries, and will always carry, the bulk of the population of 
 Western Australia. 
 
 For descriptive purposes, the South-west Province may be subdivided 
 into three belts, which are absolutely controlled by the rainfall. These are — 
 
 (1) The Eastern Pastoral Belt; 
 
 (2) The Central Wheat Belt ; 
 
 (3) The Western Timber Belt. 
 
 (i.) The Eastern Pastoral Belt. 
 
 This belt, extending from Sharks Bay through Southern Cross and Norse- 
 man to the Bight, lies approximately between the 8 in. and 13 in. isohyets. 
 It is eminently suited for sheep and cattle. Two great rabbit-proof fences-
 
 118 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 cross this area. One starting from the coast about 50 miles north of 
 Geraldton runs east through Yalgoo and then due south to the coast about 
 TOO miles east of Albany. The other is further east and extends from 
 near Hopetoun north towards Sandstone, and thence to the coast north of 
 Pilbarra. These fences are kept efficient by Government maintenance men, 
 and they enable the squatter to cope successfully with the rabbit invasion 
 from the east. 
 
 (ii.) The Central Wheat Belt. 
 
 This belt lies between the 13 in. and 20 in. isohyets. It extends from 
 Ajana to Hopetoun. A strip of country to the east of Hopetoun will be 
 found as suitable for wheat as Eyre's Peninsula in South Australia, but is not 
 yet developed. 
 
 Fig. 18. — The South- West Province of the Westrahan Plateau. 
 
 In the north are some rich river flats along the Greenough River. Here 
 also are the Northampton copper mines. The belt of York gum {Eucalyptus 
 roxophleba) and of white gum {E. redunca) is coincident with the wheat 
 belt along its whole extent, though the timber is lighter in the north. 
 
 Geraldton and Dongara are the chief settlements in the north. Thence 
 the Midland Railway through Mingenew and Giugin traverses the belt to 
 Perth ; while further east a new line through Wongan is under construction. 
 
 South of Northam a really tremendous development has gone on of 
 late years. The Great Southern Railway to Albany runs along the west of
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 119 
 
 the wheat belt through York, Brooktown, Narrogin, Wagin, Katanning, and 
 Tambellup. From each of these centres branch lines running east are com- 
 pleted or in progi'ess ; so that this portion of the wheat belt is served by one 
 of the best railway systems in Australia. 
 
 (iii.) The South-west Timber Region. 
 
 To the ^vestward of the trunk line the rainfall increases as the south-west 
 coast is approached ; the timber becomes heavier, until dense forests of 
 commercial hardwoods are entered. Because of this, the wheat area does 
 not extend very far westward, but the soil and rainfall are particularly well 
 suited for oats ; in parts for potato growing and root crops ; and practically 
 everywhere for fruit. This country is still to a great degi'ee unoccupied, 
 for farming in the wheat belt has yielded quicker returns than in these 
 heavily-timbered districts. It is stated, however, that a farm of 160 acres 
 in the west if wisely chosen and improved will provide as good a living as 
 a 1,000-acre farm in the wheat belt. 
 
 All this country is or can be brought within convenient reach of the ports 
 of Albany, Bunbury, or Busselton. Railways already cross it from Bunbury 
 to Narrogin, through the coal-field of Collie. Another links Busselton to 
 Katanning. A third passes through the tin-field of Greenbushes and opens 
 up the forests of Bridgetown. 
 
 The whole of this western corner is clothed either in jarrah or karri, the 
 latter occurring chiefly in a coastal belt 30 miles wide from Bridgetown to 
 Albany. During 1910, timber to the value of £972,000 was exported. 
 
 Perth, the capital of Western Australia, lies in the north of this belt. 
 It is situated on the estuary of the Swan River, and the hilly slopes on 
 its western bank haVe been reserved as the King's Park. The Darling 
 scarp— produced by the faulting of the coastal strip — -is about 20 miles 
 away to the east. 
 
 Fremantle lies at the mouth of the Swan, and in the vicinity of these 
 two towns it is estimated that there are 108,000 people. 
 
 8. Bibliography. 
 
 LIST OF SOME PAi'ERS. ETC., DEALING WITH THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Compiled by W. S. Dun, Palceontologist in the Geological Survey Branch, Mines Department, 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 Andrews (E. C). Preliminary Note on the Geology of the Queensland Coast, with 
 
 References to the Geograyihy of the (Queensland and New South Wales Plateau. 
 
 Procs. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1902, XXV^l., pp. 14(5-185, figs. 
 Notes on the Gcograjjhy of the Blue Mountains and Sydney District. Procs. 
 
 Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, UHK], XXVIII.. pp. 780-825, pis. "39-44. 
 • The Geology of the Now England Plateau, with special reference to the Granites 
 
 of Northern New England. Pt. i. — Physiography. Records Geol. Survey 
 
 N. S. Wales, VII., 1904, pp. 281-300. 
 — An Introduction to the Physical Geography of New South Wales. (8vo. Sydney, 
 
 1905.) 
 The Ice-flood Hypothesis of the New Zealand Sound P>asins. .lourn. Geol., 1906, 
 
 XIV., pp. 28-54. 
 
 ( '.121:14. I
 
 120 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Andrews (E. C). The New Zealand Sound and Lake Basin, and the Canons of Eastern 
 Australia, in the Bearing on the Theory of the Peneplain. Procs. Linn. Soc. 
 N. S. Wales, 1906, XXXL, pp. 499-516, pis. 39-41. 
 
 Corrosion by Gravity Streams with applications of the Ice-flood Hypothesis. 
 
 Jouni. B. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1909, XLIIL, pp. 204-330. 
 
 . Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in Late and Post Tertiary Time, with 
 
 applications to Biological Problems. .Joiirn. B. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1910, 
 XLIV., pp. 420-479. 
 
 Erosion and its Significance. .Journ. B. Soc. X. S. Wale-i, 1911, XLV., pp. 116- 
 
 1.36. 
 
 Notes on a Model of New England and the associated Topographical Forms. 
 
 .Journ. B. Soc. X. S. Wales, 1912, XLV'I., pp. 143-15.5, pi. 3. 
 
 Beach Formatiorts at Botany Bay. Journ. B. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1912, XLVL, 
 
 pp. 158-185, pi. 7. 
 
 Report on the Cobar Copper and Gold-field Part I. — Min. Res., Geol. Survey, 
 
 N. S. Wales, No. 7. (Svo. Sydney, 1913.) 
 Benson (W. N.). Notes descriptive of a Stereogram of the Mount Lofty Ranges, South 
 
 Australia. Trans. B. Soc. S. Austr., pp. 108-111, pis. 20, 21. 
 Danes (J. V.). Physiography of some Limestone Areas in Queensland. Procs. B. Soc. 
 
 QUand, 1911, XXIIL, pp. 75-83, pis. 1, 2. 
 . On the Physiography of North-Eastern Australia. Procs. B. Bohemian Soc. Sci., 
 
 1911, XXIV. 
 David (T. W. E.). An Important Geological Fault at Kurrajong Heights, New South 
 
 Wales. Journ. B. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1902, XXXVI., pp. 359-370, pis. 16, 17. 
 . . Geoloc^ical Notes on Kosciusko, with special reference to evidences of Glacial 
 
 Action. Procs. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1908, XXXIII. , pp. 657-668, pi. 23. 
 Presidential Address. Notes on some of the Chief Tectonic Lines of Australia. 
 
 Journ. B. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1911, XLV., pp. 4-60. 
 David (T W. E.) and Halligan (G. H.). Evidence of Recent Submergence of Coast at 
 
 Nanabeen. Journ. B. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1908, XLIL. pp. 229-237, pLs. 38-39. 
 David (T. W. E.), Pittman (E. F.), and Helms (R.). Geological Notes on Kosciusko, 
 
 with special reference to evidences of Glacial Action. Procs. Linn. Soc. N. S. 
 
 Wales, XXVI., 1901, pp. 26-74. 
 Etheridge (R.), David (T. W. E.), and Grimshaw (.J. W.). On the occurrence of a 
 
 submerged forest with the remains of a Dugong at Shea's Creek, Sydney. 
 
 Journ. B. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1896, XXX., pp. 158-185, pLs. 8-11. 
 Gregory (.J. W.). Australasia — Staivford's Geography. (8vo. London.) 
 — ■ Some Features in the Geography of North- Western Tasmania. Procs. B. Soc. 
 
 Vict., 1903, XVI. (U.S.), pp. 176-183, pLs. 
 
 . ■ The Geography of Victoria. (8vo< Melbourne, 1903.) 
 
 Hall (T. S.). Victorian HUl and Dale. (8vo. Melbourne, 1909.) 
 
 Halligan (G. H.). Sand [Movement on the New South Wales Coast. Procs. Linn. Soc. 
 
 N. S. Wale^, 1906, XXXL, pp. 619-640. pLs. 52-53. 
 Harper (L. F.). Notes on the Physiography and Geology of the North-Eastem Water- 
 shed of the Macquarie River. Becords Geol. Survey N. S. Wales, 1909, VIII., 
 
 pp. 321-334, pis. 52, 53. 
 Hart (T. S.). The Highlands and Main Divide of Western Victoria. Procs. B. Soc. 
 
 Vict., 1907, X:X. (n.s.), pp. 250-273, pLs. 22-26. 
 
 ■ ■ On the Country between Melbourne and the Dandenong Creek. Procs. B. Soc. 
 
 Vict., 1913, XXV., pp. 268-285. 
 Hedley (C.) and Tay (T. G.). Coral Reef of the Great Barrier, Queensland : A Study 
 
 of their Structure, Life Distribution, and Relation to [Mainland Physiography. 
 
 Bept. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1907, XL, pp. 397-413. 
 Howchin (W.). Description of an Old Lake Area in Pekina Creek and its Relation to 
 
 Recent Geological Changes. Trans. B. Soc. S. Austr., 1909, XXXIIL, pp. 
 
 253-261, pis. 17, 18. 
 
 . The Geography of South Australia. (Svo. Melbourne, 1909.) 
 
 ■ Notes on Recurrent Transgression of the Sea at Dry Creek. Trans. B. Soc. S. 
 
 Austr., 1912, XXX\^., pp. 34-39. 
 Jensen (H. L). The Geology of the Glass House Mountains and District. Procs. Linn. 
 
 Soc. N. S. Wales, 1903, XXVIII.. pp. 842-875, pis. 
 ■ Geology of the Volcanic Area of the East Moreton and Wide Bay Districts, Queeas- 
 
 land. Procs. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1906, XXXL pp. 73-173. 
 — • Preliminary Note on the Geological Historv of the Warrumbungle Mountains. 
 
 Procs. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, pp. 228-235, pi. 19. 
 Jose (A. W.), Taylor (T. G.), and Woolnough (W. G.). New South Wales : Historical, 
 
 Physiographical and Economic. (Svo. Christchurch, 1911.)
 
 Physical and General Geography of Australia. 121 
 
 JuTSON (J. T.). A contribution to the Physical History of the Plenty River and of 
 Anderson's Creek, Warrandyte, Victoria. Procs. R. Soc. Vict., 1910, XXII., 
 pp. 153-171, pk. 31, 32. 
 
 On the Age and Physiographic Relations of the Older Basalts of Greensborough 
 
 and Kangaroo Ground, and of Certain Basalts at Bundoora and Ivanhoe. 
 
 Procs. R. Soc. Vict., 1913, XXVI. (n.s.), pp. 45-56. 
 Marks (E. O.). Notes on Portion of the Burdekin VaUey, with some Queries as to the 
 
 Universal Applicability of certain Physiographicai Theories. Procs. R. Soc. 
 
 Q'land., 1913, XXIV., pp. 93-102, pis. 6-8, 
 Murray (R. A. F.). The Geology and Physical Geography of Victoria. (8vo. Mel- 
 bourne, 1887.) 
 Poole (W.). Physiography of North Queensland. Repf. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1909 
 
 [1910], XIL, pp. 316-317. 
 Selwyx (A. C). The Basin of the River Yarra and part of the Northern, North- Eastern. 
 
 and Eastern Drainage of Westernport Bay. Notes and Procs. Leg. Council 
 
 Vict., 1855-6, Vol. II. 
 SussMiLCH (C. A.). Notes on the Physiography of the Southern Tableland of New South 
 
 Wales. Jo2irn. R. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1909, XLIII., pp. 331-354, pis. 9-14. 
 — — - — An Introduction to the Geology of New South Wales. (8vo. Sydney, 1911.) 
 SxTSSMiLCH (C. A.), and Jensen (H. T.). The Geology of the Canobolas Mountains. 
 
 Procs. Linn. Soc. N. S. TFaZes, 1909, XXXIV., pp. 157-194, pis. 7-9. 
 Taylor (T. G.). A Cori'elation of Contour, Climate, and Coal. A contribution to the 
 
 Physiography of New South Wales. Procs. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1906, 
 
 XXXI., pp. 517-529, pLs. 45-48. 
 
 The Physiography of Eastern Australia. BuUetiti Commonwealth Meteorological 
 
 Bureau, No. 8, 1911. 
 
 The Physiography of the i)roposed Federal Territory at Canberra. Comm. 
 
 Bureau Meteorology, Bull. 6, 1910. (4to. Melbourne, 1910.) 
 
 Australia : Physiographic and Economic. (8vo. Oxford, 1911.) 
 
 Taylor (T. G.) and Woolnough (W. G.). A Striking Example of River Capture in the 
 Coastal Districts of New South Wales. Procs. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1906, 
 XXXI., pp. 517-553, pLs. 45-48. 
 
 Wearne (R. a.) and Woolnough (W. G.). Notes on the Geology of West Moreton, 
 Queensland. Jmrn. R. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1911, XLV., pp. 137-159.
 
 122 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CLIMATE OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Bij H. A. Hunt, F.R.Met.S., Co»i)iionwealth Meteorologist. 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. Introduction. 
 
 2. The Seasons. 
 
 3. Temperature. 
 
 4. Frosts. 
 
 5. Rainfall. 
 
 6. Normal Monthly Distribution of 
 
 Rain. 
 
 7. Wettest Months. 
 
 8. Rainfall during the 
 
 GRowiNO Period. 
 
 9. Snow. 
 
 10. Evaporation. 
 
 11. Barometric Pressure. 
 
 12. Winds. 
 
 13. Southerly Bursters. 
 
 14. Hurricanes. 
 
 Wheat- 
 
 1. Introduction. 
 
 Until recent years Australia was regarded by most people as a land 
 especially subject to severe droughts, and by more generous critics as a 
 land of a feast or a famine. 
 
 Similar misconceptions of the true character of the country have to a 
 greater or less extent been held in the developmental stages in the early 
 histories of most lands, and in the colonization of newly discovered 
 territories. 
 
 In Australia past failures and losses have been due to a variety of causes ; 
 amongst them may be enumerated a non-appreciation of the absence of 
 natural water-storage, an ignorance of the adaptability of local soils and 
 climate, unsuitable methods of working, a want of knowledge of the existence 
 of an unlimited supply of artesian and sub-artesian waters, inadequate means 
 of transit — -both internal and external— and an uncertain market for products. 
 
 The staple product upon which Australia has developed is undoubtedly 
 wool, and this item of commerce is still its chief export. We have not to go 
 back many years to the time when the grower of wool was much in the dark 
 as to the value of his crop. 
 
 The mutton was of very little value to the producer, the demand for such 
 being entirely confined to our own small population. The wool was sent to 
 the home markets entirely at the grower's risk, and the price he obtained for 
 it there was quite problematical. The conditions being such, there was little 
 incentive to make extensive toonetary outlays for the conservation of water 
 and fodder for the preservation of an asset of varying and uncertain value. 
 Consequently when our seasonal dry periods came round (which are un- 
 doubtedly periods of soil rest), disaster was inevitable to a more or less extent. 
 
 Australia's commercial enterprise is on a very different basis now. With 
 the perfection of refrigerating appliances, the meat markets of the world 
 are open to it. The wool buyers of the world in competition give the highest 
 current prices and relieve the grower of all responsibilities of transport to 
 foreign markets. The squatter knows within narrow limits the value of his 
 crop before it leaves the sheep's back. He therefore makes provision for 
 preserving his stock, and conducts his enterprise on a business footing, in 
 contrast with what was regarded in times gone by as a more or less speculative 
 venture.
 
 Climate of Australia. 123 
 
 The extension of railways enables the squatter to move his stock from 
 seasonal dry areas to synchronous wet ones. The sinking of artesian and sub- 
 artesian bores and the storage reservoirs, both national and private, have 
 rendered vast areas immune from the more serious effects of droughts in 
 what, formerly, was precarious territory. 
 
 Finally it may be said that the demand for Australia's w'ool has become 
 such a factor in the world's supply that if the clip is short the growers as a 
 body reap compensation in the enhanced monetary value obtained. 
 
 This fact was exemplified during the 1911-1912 clip, when a great falling 
 off in quantity took place, as a result of the severest drought known in our 
 climatological history over the greater part of Australian wool-producing 
 areas, yet the value of the wool nearly aggregated that of the previous season, 
 which had been a fairly good one. 
 
 The vicissitudes of wheat growing tell much the same tale. The sowing 
 of drought-resisting grain, dry farming methods, and scientific manuring 
 have, however, brought the proposition of profitable w^heat growing from the 
 problematical to the actual stage. 
 
 The output has been steadily growing from year to year, and considering that 
 nearly 500,000 square miles of the continent receive a sufficient average rainfall, 
 i.e., 10 inches and over during the wheat-growing period (April to October), 
 the possibilities of future development in this direction are unlimited. 
 
 The climatic history and prosperity of the last ten years or so contradict 
 emphatically the preconceived notion that Australia was the particular 
 drought-stricken and precarious area of the earth's surface. The truth of 
 the matter about Australia's rainfall is that — (1) it is generally ample for 
 pastoral and agricultural industries over tw^o-thirds of its area ; (2) 
 different regions have distinct seasonal dry and wet periods , which must 
 be more fully recognised and industrial operations adapted accordingly ; 
 (3) it is subject in part, but never in the whole, to prolonged periods when 
 the rainfall is short of the seasonal average. Australia is not peculiar in 
 this respect. It follows, therefore, that as the so far undeveloped country 
 becomes populated and put to profitable use, the general wealth of the 
 community as a whole will steadily increase. 
 
 Striking illustrations supporting the above statement have been 
 furnished by both Victoria and New; , South Wales since the beginning of this 
 century. The losses due to shortage of rain in Gippsland during that period 
 were largely mitigated by the returns from the newly-developed Mallee 
 territory, and this wealth, be it said, was derived from a part of the State 
 which was previously regarded as worthless. 
 
 South-eastern New South Wales, which in earlier times largely comprised 
 the developed portion of the State, sufi'ered its greatest falling off in aggregate 
 rainfall during the same period, and, had it not been for agricultural and 
 pastoral enterpri.se in the west and dairying developments on the north coast, 
 would have experienced the effects of its record drought, instead of attain- 
 ing as it did the zenith of its prosperity. 
 
 2. The Seasons. 
 
 The months of December, .January, and February, constitute stiinnici' ; 
 March, April, and May, autumn ; June, .July, and August, winter ; and 
 September, October, and November, spring.
 
 124 Federal Handbook. 
 
 January is generally the hottest month and July the coldest, but February 
 is the hottest month in the coastal areas of Victoria and throughout Tasmania ; 
 December the warmest month in Northern Queensland ; November at Port 
 Darwin ; and January and December at Broome. 
 
 These anomalies in the northern parts of Australia are probably due to 
 the cooling ejSects of the monsoon rains, which seasonally occur there during 
 the late summer months. 
 
 3. Temperature. 
 
 Australia possesses the most pacific and equable climate of all the conti- 
 nents. This is due to its geographical position, the absence of physiographi- 
 cal extremes, and its insularity. Its most northern limit is 11 degrees from 
 the equator, and its southern about 50 from the South Pole, distances suffi- 
 ciently remote from both to temper the severity of heat and cold, to which 
 is added the modifying effects of the intervening oceans. 
 
 Jf its total area, 1,149,320 square miles are situated north of the tropic, 
 and 1,825,261 square miles to the south of it. Thus it has a wide range of 
 climate. In Queensland, the Northern Territory, and the northern portions 
 of Western Australia, there is an unlimited opening for the growth of tropical 
 products, such as rubber, cotton, sugar, etc. Suitable areas south of the 
 tropic may be found for all temperate classes of vegetation, including fruit. 
 
 January and February are the two hottest months, the mean temperatures 
 ranging from 80 to 85 degrees over all the northern and central regions, 
 and to 65 degrees and 70 degrees over the southern areas. Owing, however, 
 to the declining angle of the sun's rays and the advent of the seasonal mon- 
 soonal rains, these temperatures rapidly fall, until in July, the coldest month, 
 a mean as high as 75 degrees is experienced only over a very narrow strip of 
 the northern sea coast, that over the southern half being 55 degrees and under. 
 
 During the hot months of the year the climate on the coast, except in the 
 south, is invariably enervating. Inland, however, life is generally enjoyable, 
 although the thermometer may, in extreme cases, reach as high as 120 degrees 
 in the shade, the dryness of the air and consequent rapid cooling of the skin 
 by evaporation preventing serious discomfort when protected from the 
 direct rays of the sun. Nocturnal radiation, too, as contrasted with that of 
 coastal districts, is very active, so that the nights are invariably cool, and an 
 absence of monotony of temperature tends to a bracing of the system and to 
 good sleep at night. 
 
 During some seasons parts of the continent are subject to prolonged heat 
 spells, as for example, at Marble Bar, a mining township in the north-west of 
 Western Australia, where the maximum thermometer reached 100 degrees Fah. 
 and over for 64 consecutive days in the year 1902. NuUagine, in the same 
 region, recorded 100 degrees Fah. for 57 days in the year 1900 ; Boulia, in 
 Western Queensland, 53 in 1902 ; Charlotte Waters, in the neighbourhood 
 of Lake Eyre, 25 days in 1893 ; and Charleville, in Central Queensland, 20 
 days in 1893. Heat of this description is, however, confined to the interior. 
 The figures of the State capitals will serve for confirmation of this point. 
 Perth has only experienced a maximum temperature of 90 degrees and over 
 on 20 consecutive days ; Adelaide, 14 ; Melbourne and Brisbane, 8 ; Sydney, 
 4 ; and Hobart, 3 ; and it may fairly be assumed that extremes of climate 
 in this respect have practically been reached, as records have been kept
 
 Climate op Australia. 
 
 125
 
 126 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Graph showing Mean Konthly Temperatures of Principal 
 Cities in Australia. 
 
 Note. -Each vertical space represents 2' Fahrenheit or 11° Centigrade. 
 
 Fig. 2.
 
 Climate op Australia. 127 
 
 at all the Observatories at these places, with the exception of Perth, for over 
 half-a -century, a period suflS.ciently long for the establishment of temperature 
 normals. 
 
 The foregoing remarks indicate that shade temperatures alone give only 
 actual temperature as experienced by dry inorganic substances and not the 
 sensible temperature as felt by organic bodies. This difference is due, as 
 already stated, to cooling by the evaporation of moisture from the skin by 
 wind and heat, but more especially by the aetion of wind. In order, there- 
 fore, to gauge the appreciable temperature of a country, it is necessary to use 
 other instruments than the ordinary maximum and minimum thermometers. 
 The principal additional instrument requisitioned for the desired end is the 
 wet bulb thermometer. 
 
 A number of these have been distributed throughout Australia for the 
 purpose of showing the disposition and trend of the wet bulb isotherms. 
 Although the period over which observations have extended is not long 
 enough to determine definite normals, yet sufficient records have been 
 obtained to fairly establish the influence of this climatic element. At the 
 outset it may be said that in no part of Australia is the wet bulb temperature 
 maintained at a reading sufficiently high to be detrimental to the health and 
 physique of those engaged in outdoor labour. 
 
 Investigations so far carried out confine the 80-degree Fah. wet bulb 
 isotherm to a very narrow track of country on the north-west coast of Western 
 Australia during the months of December, January, and February. 
 
 The 70-degree Fah. isotherm only extends to sub-tropical latitudes over 
 comparative small areas in Queensland and Western Australia during the 
 same months and March, while in southern Australia the readings are 
 from 50 degrees to 70 degrees. 
 
 The accompanying table and graph show the average monthly and annual 
 temperatures at a number of representative centres of the Commonwealth. 
 
 Broome, Port Darwin, and Thursday Island are the hottest of these, 
 and have an annual average range of 16*6 degrees, 8'3 degrees, and .5*5 
 degrees respectively. The last-named is undoubtedly the most monotonously 
 warm place of the continent. 
 
 Of the capital cities Brisbane is the hottest and Hobart the coldest, the 
 others taking order between them as follows : — Perth, Sydney, Adelaide, 
 and Melbourne. The annual average range between the hottest and coldest 
 months is about 20 degrees in all these places. 
 
 Taking Kalgoorlie and Broken Hill to represent conditions in the interior, 
 we naturally find the extremes are nmch greater — Broken Hill's maximum 
 of 78-4 degrees in January falls to a minimum of 49-2 degrees in July, a 
 range of 29*2 degrees; and Kalgoorlie's 77*5 degrees in January to 50-8 
 degrees in July, a range of 26 '7 degrees. 
 
 In sub-tropical areas insolation is more active over the eastern half than 
 over the western during the early summer months, and more active over 
 parts of the western coastal districts during the late summer months. 
 
 In eastern Australia, too, the temperatures in the sub-tropics are about 
 1 degree higher than in corresponding latitudes in the west. North of the 
 tropic these conditions are reversed, and between latitudes 17 degrees to 20 
 degrees the difference in excess is as much as 10 degrees in favour of tlio west 
 coast.
 
 128 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
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 Climate of Australia. 
 
 129
 
 130 
 
 Federal Handbook.
 
 Climate of Australia. 131 
 
 4. Frosts. 
 
 Although observations have been taken continuously for a great number 
 
 ■f years, no notes of appreciable frosts have been recorded over all the northern 
 
 oastal regions extending from Geraldton on the west coast right round 
 
 :he north and east coasts to Brisbane. The same remark applies to Northern 
 
 Territory. 
 
 In all other parts of Australia, however, night frosts are severe and 
 frequent, although of considerably varying periods. 
 
 On the highlands in New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, frosts of 
 J more or less damaging nature have occurred in every month of the year. 
 Over a stretch of country largely comprising the wheat areas of South Aus- 
 tralia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland, they have been recorded 
 between April and October. 
 
 Over north-central and north-east Victoria, the south and central 
 western slopes of New South Wales, from April to November ; over the 
 Gascoyne and north-eastern parts of Western Australia and Central Australia 
 from June to August.* 
 
 In central and western Queensland from June to July, June to August, 
 or May to August. 
 
 Over the southern portion of Western Australia from April to Octobei', 
 or May to September. 
 
 For details of frost periods and distribution, see Fig. 4. 
 
 5. Rainfall. 
 Sources of Rainfall. 
 
 The two main sources of Australian rainfall are the southern depressions 
 which skirt the southern shores of the continent mainly during the winter 
 months, and the tropical low pressure which operates chiefly in the 
 summer months. 
 
 A secondary but important source of supply is the anticyclone, which 
 by inducing a flow of moist air from the adjacent ocean waters at any time 
 during the year may bring about copious rains over the eastern littoral. 
 
 The minor sources of rain are those of cyclones and tornadoes, but although 
 these storms are characteristic of the country and result in heavy downpours, 
 they cannot be regarded as staple or widespread givers of lain. 
 
 Physical Causes of Rain. 
 
 The condensation of watei' vaj)()ur into visible cloud form in tlie 
 atmosphere is brought about generally by cooling. There are several 
 known processes by which condensation results, and there may be 
 other physical causes which give rise to the same effect, notably atmospheric 
 electricity, but which are not at present properly understood. 
 
 These may be enumerated as follows :■ — 
 
 (1) The meeting of cold and wai'in cunciits of air foiiniug conden- 
 
 sation known as fog. 
 
 (2) Condensation by ascending currents due to convection. 
 
 (3) Condensation by forced ascending current, i.e., air forced from 
 
 the sea to the rising sea shore and up tlie sides of liills and 
 mountains. 
 
 • Th<'8c data won; largely gathorcd Iroin explorers' diarios.
 
 132 Federal Handbook. 
 
 (4) Condensation by falling barometric pressure. 
 
 (5) Condensation by atmospheric wave 
 
 (6) Condensation by radiation. 
 
 (7) Condensation due to conduction. 
 
 (8) Condensation by diffusion of water vapour. 
 
 These processes have only to be continued sufl&ciently long for precipi- 
 tation to take place either in the form of rain, snow, or hail. 
 
 The above definitions may be found in most meteorological text-books, 
 and are only repeated here to emphasize the fact that one of the most 
 important processes, at all events as far as it applies to Australian 
 Meteorology, has hitherto been generally overlooked, and that is the move- 
 ment of air from warm to cool latitudes and zones causing condensation and 
 finally bounteous precipitation over vast areas, with more or less disregard to 
 the influence of land elevation or of barometric fluctuations. 
 
 During the present year, 1913, many examples of this phenomenon 
 have occurred, and the break up of the dry spell over eastern Australia in 
 June, 1912, was a conspicuous one. 
 
 The characteristic isobaric conditions which precede or accompany this 
 form of rain production are anticyclones of great dimensions and of consider- 
 able intensity, covering the eastern half of Australia, and perhaps an equal 
 area of the ocean to the east. Their western isobars are comparatively 
 straight, extending from the Indian Ocean east from the meridian of Port 
 Darwin to the Southern Ocean east of Spencer's Gulf. The following and 
 attending areas of the low pressure generally take the form of a shallow 
 trough or valley in the atmosphere extending through the centre of Australia 
 from the northern to the southern seaboards. It wiU thus be seen that a 
 direct and rapid wind circulation control extends from the equatorial zone to 
 temperate latitudes resulting in conditions particularly favorable for wide- 
 spread and heavy downpours. 
 
 The rainy season in Western Australia may be said to result almost 
 solely from this physical action. 
 
 The rain-bearing winds are northerly, precipitation becoming heavier as 
 higher latitudes are reached. 
 
 Over Papua the reverse action takes place ; during the dry season the 
 winds are strong and persistent from the south-east quarter, blowing from 
 cool to warmer latitudes. The water vapour carried by these winds is there- 
 fore expanded instead of precipitated. 
 
 On the occasion of the rain storm of June, 1912, it is estimated from this 
 cause of precipitation that an inch of rain on the average fell over an area 
 approximating 1,000,000 square miles of eastern Australia, or a weight 
 of water roughly equivalent to 1.000,000 x 640 x 100 = 64,000,000,000 
 tons. 
 
 The knowledge that rain visitations of this character are not infrequent 
 completely dispels the preconceived notion of Australia being a particularly 
 dry area of the earth's surface, and shews that although our rain seasons 
 may be irregular, yet relief from dry spells may occur, as in the case quoted,
 
 Climate of Australia. 
 
 133 
 
 at times long after the normal period for rain has passed. This peculiarity is 
 a great advantage and a happy feature of Australian climate ; and very 
 
 different from conditions, say, for 
 example, that obtain in India — where, if 
 the monsoon season fails to bring rain, 
 very little hope of relief can be looked for. 
 
 Before finally leaving this point, it 
 may definitely be accepted that any 
 isobaric distribution that controls a 
 strong wind circulation from warm to 
 cool areas, more especially from warm 
 to cool latitudes, will bring about good 
 rains, and, moreover, that the recur- 
 rence of such isobaric distributions are 
 t}'pical events of good seasons. (See 
 Fig. 5.) 
 
 On the other hand, extensive 
 isobaric distributions that control a 
 wind circulation from cool to warm 
 zones or latitudes, or that control a 
 wind circulation along parallels of 
 latitude, will bring little or no rain 
 except in opposing coastal areas. 
 These distributions predominate during 
 and are tvpical of a dry season. (See 
 Fig. 6.) 
 
 I3*0ctl89i 
 
 2T*Uulijmo 
 
 Isobaric Di.stribution 
 (wet type). 
 
 Fig. 6.- 
 
 -IsoBAEic Distribution 
 (dry type). 
 
 6. The Normal Monthly Distribution of Rain. 
 
 A set of charts illustrating the monthly progress of rainfall in Australia has 
 recently been published. Those of January and July, together with one for 
 the whole year, are here reproduced. They were compiled from data extending 
 over a considerable period, generally from 20 to 40 years (there being 
 only a few stations with a minimum of fifteen years' record), so that the 
 isohyets are likely to suffer little modification in the future. 
 
 A casual glance at the series reveals three marked facts — (1) that during 
 the hotter months, viz., November to April inclusive, the northern parts of 
 Australia are wet and the southern dry ; (2) that during the colder months 
 viz.. May to October inclusive, the southern parts are wet, and the northern 
 dry ; (3) that the rainfall is distributed fairly generally throughout the 
 year over the eastern areas of Australia. 
 
 During January and February fully three-fourths of the continent, com- 
 prising the whole of the northern and eastern areas, are wet, while the central, 
 southern, and south-western portions are distinctly dry. In March, there 
 is a general retreat northward of the rainfall area to the extent of 200 miles 
 in Western Australia, a slight extension westward in the south-east quarter 
 of the continent, and in Western Australia the 1-in. isohyetal appears on the 
 extreme south-west coast.
 
 13i Federal Handbook. 
 
 In April the northern rain area retreats in central Australia from the tropic 
 to within 300 miles of the north coast, although still lagging over the north- 
 west coast of Western Australia and the Murchison gold-fields. 
 
 In the south a decided westerly extension takes place from the south- 
 eastern States to South Australia and Western Australia, the 1-in. isohyetal 
 sweeping continuously around the southern shores with the exception of a 
 short break at the head of the Great Bight. 
 
 The northern rain entirely disappears in May, and the southern extends 
 up the west coast of Western Australia to within a few miles of Cossack, 
 and the quantities increase as compared with those of the previous month by 
 4 inches in the extreme south-west corner. 
 
 June, the wettest month of the year for southern Australia, shows a com- 
 plete reversal of January rain conditions. In Western Australia precipita- 
 tion is general during this month west of a line joining Derby and Ep'e. 
 and in South Australia the 1-in. isohyet reaches its furthest northern limit 
 in close proximity to Farina. 
 
 From July to December it may be remarked that the rain area as a whole 
 swings back in the opposite direction to its march during the first six months. 
 
 On the west coast the 1-in. line steps back to Onslow in July ; to Hamelin 
 Pool in August ; to Geraldton in September ; still farther south in October ; 
 and all but disappears in the extreme south-west in November ; so that 
 little or nothing is left in December. While this retreating process is taking 
 place in the west, a corresponding advance movement is going on in the 
 east. Between the end of June and the end of August there is little change, 
 but from September to the end of the year the expansion of area and quantity 
 of rain increases rapidly. October shows the return of the monsoon rain in 
 Northern Territory. In November it has penetrated 450 miles further into 
 the interior and connected up with the permanent rain area over eastern 
 Australia. 
 
 In December, the monsoon rain covers practically the whole of the conti- 
 nent north of the Tropic, and east of the 144th meridian. 
 
 We find, therefore, that there exists apparently an oscillatory movement 
 of the seasonal rains of Australia about a centre in the vicinity of Forbes, 
 in New South Wales. It is perhaps a natural coincidence that this apparent 
 centre of oscillation is approximately the centre of gravity of Australia's 
 population, and is not far from the Federal capital site ; another interesting 
 point is that the amplitude of oscillation exactly equals 72 degrees of arc or 
 one-fifth of a circle. 
 
 7. Wettest Months. 
 
 Roughlv speaking, June is the wettest month over that portion of Aus- 
 tralia lying to the south of a line joining Onslow on the north-west coast 
 of Western Australia and Sydney on the east coast. 
 
 To the north of that line, January commands the greatest claim as the 
 wettest month, although February runs it very closely over a wide belt of 
 country extending from the lower Northern Territory through south-west 
 Queensland to northern parts of New South Wales. March also is the
 
 Climate op Australia. 
 
 135 
 
 111 
 
 i j I !'l J
 
 136 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Graph showing Mean Monthly Rainfall of Principal Cities 
 
 in Australia. 
 
 Note. — Each vertical space represents "5 of an inch or 12" 7 millimetres. 
 
 Fig. 8.
 
 Climate op Australia. 
 
 137 
 
 wettest month in parts of central Queensland, parts of central New South 
 Wales, and over a comparatively small area on the north-west coast of Western 
 Australia. 
 
 As would naturally be expected, at the junction of the summer and winter 
 rains, which is represented by the line above mentioned crossing the conti- 
 nent from north-west to south-east, the wettest month is somewhat inde- 
 terminate. This point is particularly noticeable in the State of New South 
 Wales, through which the line centrally passes, for within its boundaries 
 every month with the exception of September is represented as the wettest 
 month in some part or other, with a preponderance, as before stated, for 
 June in the southern half, and January, February, and March in the northern 
 half, as the months of heaviest total falls. 
 
 
 Heavy Rainfalls, 
 
 Western Australia. 
 
 
 Name of Town or 
 
 Date. 
 
 5 Xanic of Town or 
 
 
 a 
 
 Locality. 
 
 S 1 Locality. 
 
 Date. 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 Ascott . . 
 
 8 Feb., 1912.. 
 
 8 "So La Grange 
 
 21 Dec, 1905 
 
 7-61 
 
 „ . . 
 
 9 Feb., 1912.. 
 
 .5-85 
 
 Millstream 
 
 5 Mar., 1900 
 
 10-00 
 
 Balla BaUa 
 
 20 Mar., 1899 
 
 6-00 
 
 Obagama 
 
 16 Feb., 1896 
 
 3-95 
 
 ,, 
 
 21 Mar., 1899 
 
 14-40 
 
 .. 
 
 17 Feb., 1896 
 
 6-30 
 
 Bamboo Creek 
 
 22 Mar., 1899 
 
 10-10 
 
 .. 
 
 18 Feb., 1896 
 
 7-22 
 
 Boodarie 
 
 .3 Jan., 1894.. 
 
 10-03 
 
 » 
 
 28 Feb., 1910 
 
 12-00 
 
 ,, 
 
 4 .Jan., 1894.. 
 
 .3 -22 
 
 Point Cloates 
 
 20 Jan., 1909 
 
 10-87 
 
 
 21 Mar., 1899 
 
 14-53 
 
 Point Torment 
 
 17 Dec, 1906 
 
 11-86 
 
 
 Feb., 1901.. 
 
 1-91 
 
 Port Hedland 
 
 7 Feb., 1901.. 
 
 3-56 
 
 ,, 
 
 7 Feb., 1901.. 
 
 9-16 
 
 ., 
 
 8 Feb., 1901 . . 
 
 9-55 
 
 Carlton . . 
 
 11 .Ian., 190.-3 
 
 10-64 
 
 Quanbun 
 
 29 Apr., 1910 
 
 6-55 
 
 ,, . . 
 
 8 Feb., 1912.. 
 
 9-05 
 
 >s . ■ 
 
 30 Apr., 1910 
 
 3-40 
 
 ,, . . 
 
 9 Feb., 1912.. 
 
 3-15 
 
 Roebourne 
 
 3 Apr., 1898.. 
 
 11-44 
 
 Cherrabun 
 
 28 Apr., 1910 
 
 2-90 
 
 „ 
 
 6 Mar., 1900 
 
 10-32 
 
 „ 
 
 29 Apr., 1910 
 
 7-78 
 
 Tambrev 
 
 
 11-00 
 
 Cocos Island 
 
 29 Nov., 1903 
 
 14-38 
 
 » ' 
 
 3 Siar., 1903 
 
 10-47 
 
 
 2t) Dee., 1907 
 
 8-00 
 
 Thangoo 
 
 17-19 Feb., 
 
 24-18 
 
 
 27 Dee., 1907 
 
 2 -65 I 
 
 
 1896 
 
 
 
 8 ,Julv, 1908.. 
 
 10-21 
 
 >) 
 
 28 Dec, 1898 
 
 11-15 
 
 
 9 .luly, 1908.. 
 
 2-75' 
 
 >> • • 
 
 20 Nov., 1910 
 
 7-40 
 
 
 23 July, 1908 
 
 2-40 
 
 >> • • 
 
 21 Nov., 1910 
 
 4-56 
 
 
 24 July, 1908 
 
 7-oo: 
 
 Whim Creek 
 
 2 Apr., 1898.. 
 
 7-08 
 
 ,. 
 
 2.i .lulV, 1908 
 
 3-85 
 
 ,, 
 
 3 Apr., 1898.. 
 
 29 -41 
 
 >. 
 
 6 Oct.,^ 1910 . . 
 
 12-70 
 
 ,, 
 
 20 Mar., 1899 
 
 8-89 
 
 Cossack 
 
 3 Apr., 1898.. 
 
 12-82 
 
 
 21 Mar., 1899 
 
 18-17 
 
 • > 
 
 ].') Apr., 1!)(J(» 
 
 6-89 
 
 ., 
 
 () Mar., 1900 
 
 10-32 
 
 ., 
 
 10 Apr., 1900 
 
 13-23 
 
 ;> ■ • 
 
 3 Mar., 1903 
 
 10-44 
 
 Croydon 
 
 3 Mar., 1903 
 
 12-00 
 
 Woocistock 
 
 21 Mar., 1913 
 
 13-00 
 
 De Grey 
 
 3 Jan., 1894.. 
 
 9-75 
 
 Wyndhani 
 
 27 Jan., 1890 
 
 1 1 -60 
 
 Derby . . 
 
 29 Dec., 1898 
 
 13-09: 
 
 )> • • 
 
 11 Jan., 1903 
 
 9-98 
 
 ,, 
 
 30 Dec, 1898 
 
 7-14 
 
 ,. 
 
 12 Jan., 1903 
 
 6-64 
 
 Fortescuc 
 
 3 May, 1890 
 
 23 -36 ' 
 
 >> 
 
 13 Jan., 1903 
 
 4-20 
 
 Indee . . 
 
 22 Mar., 1890 
 
 5 -08 , 
 
 Yeeda . . 
 
 28 Dec, 1898 
 
 8-42 
 
 ,. 
 
 23 .Mar., 1890 
 
 5 -40 
 
 ,, 
 
 29 Dec, 1898 
 
 6-88 
 
 Kfrdifuian- 
 
 7 Feb., 1901 . . 
 
 12-00 
 
 ,, 
 
 30 Dec, 1898 
 
 6-12 
 
 La Grange 
 
 20 Dec., 190r> 
 
 3-70 
 
 

 
 138 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Heavy Eainfalls, South Australia. 
 
 Name of Town or 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 Name ot Town or 
 
 
 1 
 
 Locality. 
 
 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Date. 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 Arltuaga 
 
 1 Mar., 1910 
 
 1-02 
 
 Port Darwin 
 
 7 .Jan., 1897.. 
 
 11-67 
 
 „ 
 
 2 Mar., 1910 
 
 1-42 
 
 1 „ 
 
 26 Dec., 1911 
 
 1-42 
 
 » • • 
 
 3 Mar., 1910 
 
 7-77 
 
 I 
 
 27 Dec., 1911 
 
 7-87 
 
 •> • • 
 
 4 Mar., 1910 
 
 1-85 
 
 ,» • • 
 
 28 Dec, 1911 
 
 2-06 
 
 5> • ■ 
 
 .3 Mar., 1910 
 
 1-24 
 
 Powell's Creek 
 
 25 Feb., 1910 
 
 2-31 
 
 Borroloola 
 
 U Mar., 1899 
 
 14-00 
 
 
 26 Feb., 1910 
 
 1-21 
 
 Lake Nash 
 
 21 Mar., 1901 
 
 10-25 
 
 
 27 Feb., 1910 
 
 8-19 
 
 Pine Creek 
 
 8 .Jan.. 1897.. 
 
 10-35 
 
 Tennant's Creek . . 
 
 26 Feb., 1910 
 
 1-18 
 
 Point Charles 
 
 .30 Jan., 191,3 
 
 4-46 
 
 
 27 Feb., 1910 
 
 1-02 
 
 » • ■ 
 
 31 Jan., 1913 
 
 5-60 
 
 
 28 Feb., 1910 
 
 9-22 
 
 Heavy Rainfalls, Queensland. 
 
 Name of Town or 
 Locality. 
 
 Anglesey 
 
 Ascot 
 
 Ayr 
 
 Babinda 
 Beenleigh 
 
 Bloomsbury 
 
 Boggo-road June 
 
 tion 
 Botanic Gardens 
 
 Brisbane 
 Bowen . . 
 
 Bowen Park 
 
 Brisbane 
 
 Bromby Park 
 (Bowen) 
 
 Brookfield 
 Buderim Mountain 
 
 Bulimba (Brisbane) 
 
 Bundaberg 
 
 Burketown 
 
 Bustard Head 
 
 Caboolture 
 
 Cairns . . 
 
 Date. 
 
 26 Dec 
 14 Mar. 
 
 20 Sept 
 
 25 Mar. 
 
 26 .Jan. 
 17 Mar. 
 
 21 .Jan. 
 14 Mar. 
 14 Feb. 
 
 27 Jan. 
 10 Jan.. 
 4 Mar., 
 9 Jan., 
 14 Mar 
 
 13 Feb. 
 
 20 -Jan. 
 16 Feb. 
 
 14 Mar. 
 
 21 Jan. 
 14 Mar. 
 14 Feb. 
 
 20 Jan. 
 
 14 Mar. 
 
 11 Jan. 
 
 9 Mar., 
 16 Feb. 
 31 Jan. 
 
 15 Jan. 
 
 12 Mar. 
 18 Feb. 
 30 Jan. 
 
 21 Jan. 
 
 10 .Jan. 
 
 11 Feb. 
 21 Apr. 
 
 1909 
 , 1908 
 1890 
 1891 
 1896 
 1912 
 1887 
 1908 
 , 1893 
 , 1896 
 , 1901 
 1906 
 1908.. 
 , 1908 
 
 1893 
 1894 
 1893 
 1908 
 1887 
 1908 
 1893 
 
 1894 
 1908 
 1898 
 1898 
 1893 
 1893 
 1891 
 1903 
 1888 
 1893 
 1887 
 1898 
 1889 
 1889 
 
 inches. 
 18-20 
 11-34 
 14-58 
 10-19 
 10-50 
 10-15 
 11-30 
 10-40 
 17-40 
 10-52 
 16-62 
 11-36 
 11-30 
 10-42 
 
 10-80 
 
 14-65 
 11-11 
 10 -.38 
 11 -.50 
 18-31 
 11-18 
 13-28 
 
 11-20 
 14-95 
 26-20 
 11-10 
 10-40 
 10-15 
 13-58 
 14 -.52 
 10-14 
 11-85 
 in -00 
 10-28 
 14-74 
 12-40 
 
 Name of Town or 
 Locality. 
 
 Cairns 
 
 Caloundra 
 Cape Capricorn 
 Cape Grafton 
 Cardwell 
 
 Cedar Pocket 
 Central Kin Kin 
 Chiefswood 
 Childers . . 
 Clare 
 Cleveland 
 
 Coen 
 
 Collaroy 
 
 Cooktown 
 
 Cooran 
 
 Cooroy 
 
 Cressbro ik 
 
 Date. 
 
 5 Apr., 
 9 Jan., 
 
 4 Jan., 
 3 Jan., 
 11 Feb. 
 17 Mar. 
 
 1 Apr., 
 
 2 Apr., 
 
 21 Jan. 
 
 17 Jan, 
 
 5 Mar., 
 
 18 Mar. 
 30 Dec. 
 
 2 Jan., 
 23 Mar 
 
 18 Mar. 
 
 3 Apr., 
 7 Apr., 
 26 Dec. 
 
 14 Mar. 
 
 6 Mar., 
 26 Jan. 
 13 Jan. 
 2 June, 
 20 Apr. 
 1 Apr., 
 30 Jan. 
 30 Jan 
 
 22 Jan 
 
 19 Jan. 
 1 Apr., 
 1 Feb., 
 9 June, 
 26 Dec. 
 
 9 June, 
 
 10 Jan. 
 6 Mar., 
 16 Feb. 
 
 1891.. 
 
 1892.. 
 
 1909.. 
 
 1911.. 
 , 1911 
 , 1911 
 
 1911.. 
 
 1911.. 
 , 1887 
 , 1905 
 
 1896 
 , 1887 
 , 1889 
 
 1890.. 
 , 1890 
 , 1904 
 
 1911.. 
 
 1912.. 
 , 1909 
 
 , 1898 
 
 1898 
 , 1896 
 , 1910 
 , 1910 
 , 1903 
 
 1910.. 
 , 1896 
 , 1910 
 , 1903 
 , 1907 
 
 1911.. 
 
 1893.. 
 
 1893 
 , 1908 
 
 1893 
 , 1898 
 
 1898 
 , 1893
 
 Climate op Australia. 
 
 139 
 
 Heavy Rainfalls, Queensland — continued. 
 
 Name of Town or 
 
 Dato 
 
 1 
 
 Name of Town or 
 
 Datp 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 Locality. 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 Locality. 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 Crohamhurst 
 
 31 Jan., 
 
 1893 
 
 10-78 
 
 Goondi Mill (near 
 
 25 Jan. 
 
 1892 
 
 11-10 
 
 (Blackall Range) 
 
 
 
 
 Innisfail) 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 Feb., 
 
 1893.. 
 
 35-71 
 
 » >> 
 
 6 Apr., 
 
 1894.. 
 
 15-69 
 
 
 9 June, 
 
 1893 
 
 13-31 
 
 ., 
 
 7 Mar., 
 
 1899 
 
 10-08 
 
 
 9 Jan., 
 
 1898.. 
 
 19-55 
 
 » 
 
 18 Apr. 
 
 1899 
 
 14-78 
 
 
 6 Mar., 
 
 1898 
 
 16-01 
 
 „ 
 
 24 Jan. 
 
 1900 
 
 13-30 
 
 
 2G Dec. 
 
 1909 
 
 13-85 
 
 .. 
 
 6 Jan., 
 
 1901.. 
 
 10-70 
 
 Crow's Nest 
 
 2 Aug., 
 
 1908 
 
 11-171 
 
 >» ,, 
 
 2 Mar., 
 
 1901 
 
 10-67 
 
 Croydon 
 
 29 Jan. 
 
 1908 
 
 15-00i 
 
 ,, ,, 
 
 29 Dec. 
 
 1903 
 
 17-83 
 
 Cryna (Beaudesert) 
 
 21 Jan. 
 
 1887 
 
 14-00 
 
 ,, ,, 
 
 17 Mar. 
 
 , 1904 
 
 10-00 
 
 Dungeness 
 
 16 Mar. 
 
 1893 
 
 22-17 
 
 ,, ,, 
 
 21 Mar. 
 
 , 1910 
 
 10-38 
 
 
 19 Jan. 
 
 1894 
 
 11-84 
 
 ». 
 
 10 Feb. 
 
 1911 
 
 17-68 
 
 
 17 Apr. 
 
 1894 
 
 14-00 
 
 „ 
 
 31 Mar. 
 
 , 1911 
 
 12-38 
 
 Dunira . . 
 
 9 Jan., 
 
 1898.. 
 
 18-45 
 
 ,, ,, 
 
 1 Apr., 
 
 1911.. 
 
 13-60 
 
 
 6 Mar., 
 
 1898 
 
 15-95 
 
 ,, 
 
 6 Apr., 
 
 1912.. 
 
 15-55 
 
 Eddington (Clon- 
 
 23 Jan. 
 
 , 1891 
 
 10-33 
 
 Granada (late 
 
 27 Jan. 
 
 . 1891 
 
 11-29 
 
 curry) 
 
 
 
 
 Donaldson) 
 
 
 
 Emu Park 
 
 31 Jan. 
 
 , 1893 
 
 10-00 
 
 ; 8 Jan., 
 
 1911.. 
 
 13-50 
 
 Enoggera Railway 
 
 U Mar. 
 
 , 1908 
 
 12-14 
 
 „ 
 
 9 Jan., 
 
 1911.. 
 
 14-30 
 
 Enoggera Reservoir 
 
 ,, 
 
 jj 
 
 10-98 
 
 Gympie 
 
 9 Mar., 
 
 1901 
 
 11-64 
 
 Ernest Junction . . 
 
 „ 
 
 j^ 
 
 13-00 
 
 Halifax 
 
 
 5 Feb., 
 
 1899.. 
 
 15-37 
 
 Esk 
 
 21 Jan. 
 
 , 1887 
 
 10-70 
 
 
 
 8 Mar., 
 
 1899 
 
 11-00 
 
 
 14 Mar. 
 
 , 1908 
 
 11-12 
 
 
 
 6 Jan., 
 
 1901.. 
 
 15-68 
 
 Fassifern 
 
 21 Jan. 
 
 , 1887 
 
 lfl-20 
 
 
 
 8 Feb., 
 
 1901.. 
 
 10-50 
 
 Flat Top Island . . 
 
 22 Dec. 
 
 , 1909 
 
 12-96 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 26 Mar. 
 
 , 1903 
 
 10-07 
 
 Flora ville 
 
 6 Jan., 
 
 1897.. 
 
 10-79 
 
 
 
 30 Jan. 
 
 , 1906 
 
 10-41 
 
 » 
 
 11 Mar. 
 
 , 1903 
 
 12-86 
 
 'I 
 
 
 8 Apr., 
 
 1912.. 
 
 12-75 
 
 Flying Fish Point 
 
 7 Apr., 
 
 1912.. 
 
 16-06 
 
 Hambledon Mill 
 
 
 7 Jan., 
 
 1908.. 
 
 11-00 
 
 Geraldton (now In- 
 
 11 Feb. 
 
 , 1889 
 
 17-13 
 
 ' ■'•■i, ' M 
 
 
 13 Jan. 
 
 , 1909 
 
 13-80 
 
 nisfail) 
 
 
 
 
 1 •■ ■ -.I, ■ 
 
 
 
 16 Feb. 
 
 , 1910 
 
 11-45 
 
 ,, 
 
 31 Dec. 
 
 , 1889 
 
 12-45 
 
 ' I j', 
 
 
 
 2 Jan., 
 
 1911.. 
 
 18-61 
 
 
 
 25 Jan. 
 
 , 1892 
 
 11-10 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 10 Feb. 
 
 , 1911 
 
 13-97 
 
 '„ 
 
 
 6 Apr., 
 
 1894.. 
 
 16-02 
 
 
 
 
 30 Mar 
 
 , 1911 
 
 13-04 
 
 
 
 3 Mar., 
 
 1896 
 
 11-42 
 
 '' 
 
 
 
 31 Mar 
 
 , 1911 
 
 14-95 
 
 [[ 
 
 
 7 Mar., 
 
 1899 
 
 10-25 
 
 
 
 
 1 Apr., 
 
 1911.. 
 
 19-62 
 
 „ 
 
 
 18 Apr. 
 
 , 1899 
 
 13-20 
 
 Harvey Creek 
 
 
 8 Mar., 
 
 1899 
 
 17-72 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 24 Jan. 
 
 , 1900 
 
 15-22 
 
 
 
 25 Jan. 
 
 , 1900 
 
 12-53 
 
 
 
 6 Jan., 
 
 1901.. 
 
 11-35 
 
 !! " 
 
 
 25 Mav 
 
 , 1901 
 
 14-00 
 
 
 
 29 Dec. 
 
 , 1903 
 
 21-22 
 
 ,. 
 
 
 14 Mar 
 
 , 1903 
 
 12-10 
 
 „ 
 
 
 17 Mar. 
 
 , 1904 
 
 10 -.35 
 
 
 
 21 Apr. 
 
 , 1903 
 
 10-10 
 
 „ 
 
 
 30 Jan. 
 
 , 1908 
 
 11-76 
 
 
 
 11 Jan. 
 
 , 1905 
 
 16-96 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 14 Jan. 
 
 , 1909 
 
 11-65 
 
 
 
 28 Jan. 
 
 , 1906 
 
 12-29 
 
 „ 
 
 
 11 Feb. 
 
 , 1911 
 
 14-48 
 
 ,! 
 
 
 20 Jan. 
 
 , 1907 
 
 10-13 
 
 „ 
 
 
 1 Apr., 
 
 1911.. 
 
 12 '35 
 
 
 
 8 Jan., 
 
 1908.. 
 
 10-31 
 
 ,. 
 
 
 2 Apr., 
 
 1911.. 
 
 15-00 
 
 
 
 30 Jan. 
 
 , 1908 
 
 11-31 
 
 „ 
 
 
 3 Apr., 
 
 1911.. 
 
 11-25 
 
 
 
 25 Mar 
 
 , 1908 
 
 11-84 
 
 „ 
 
 
 7 Apr., 
 
 1912.. 
 
 20-50 
 
 
 
 14 Jan. 
 
 , 1909 
 
 14-40 
 
 „ 
 
 
 8 Apr., 
 
 1912.. 
 
 12-15 
 
 
 
 16 Feb. 
 
 , 1910 
 
 10-90 
 
 Gin Gin . . 
 
 KJ Jan. 
 
 , imry 
 
 13-61 
 
 
 
 3 Jan., 
 
 1911.. 
 
 27-75 
 
 Gladstone 
 
 18 Feb. 
 
 , 1888 
 
 12-37 
 
 
 
 11 Feb. 
 
 , 1911 
 
 12-88 
 
 >> • • 
 
 31 Jan. 
 
 , 1893 
 
 14-62 
 
 
 
 31 Mar 
 
 , 1911 
 
 10-93 
 
 jj 
 
 4 Feb., 
 
 191].. 
 
 18-83 
 
 
 
 1 Apr., 
 
 1911.. 
 
 13-61 
 
 Glass Mountains . . 
 
 26 Dec. 
 
 , 1909 
 
 10-48 
 
 
 
 2 Apr., 
 
 1911.. 
 
 16-46 
 
 Glen Broughton . . 
 
 5 Apr., 
 
 1894. . 
 
 18-50 
 
 
 
 17 Mar 
 
 , 1912 
 
 10-15 
 
 Glen Prairie 
 
 18 Apr. 
 
 , 1904 
 
 12-18 
 
 Haii^'litnii Valley 
 
 2() Jan 
 
 , 1896 
 
 18-10 
 
 Gold Creek Reser- 
 
 16 Feb. 
 
 , 1893 
 
 11-16 
 
 Miilcrcsl (.Moofoo- 
 
 2(5 Dec 
 
 , 1909 
 
 13-35 
 
 voir 
 
 
 
 
 lah) 
 
 
 
 
 ,, ,, 
 
 14 Mar. 
 
 , 1908 
 
 12 -.50 
 
 llolinwood (Wood- 
 
 •1 Feb., 
 
 1893.. 
 
 16-19 
 
 Goodna 
 
 21 Jan. 
 
 , 1887 
 
 1 1 -00 
 
 ford) 
 
 
 
 
 „ 
 
 
 14 Mar 
 
 . 1908 
 
 11-03 
 
 ., 
 
 
 
 10 .Ian 
 
 , 1898 
 
 12-40
 
 140 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Heavy Eainfalls, Queensland — continued. 
 
 Name of Town or 
 Locality. 
 
 Homebush 
 
 Howar.l 
 
 Indooroopilly 
 
 Ingham 
 
 Inkerman 
 Inneslioweu (.John 
 
 tone River) 
 Innisfail 
 
 Inskip Point 
 Isis Junction 
 Kamerunga 
 
 (Cairns) 
 
 Kilkivan Junction 
 Kululu, Mackay 
 
 Kuranda 
 
 Lake Nash 
 Landsborough 
 
 Low Island 
 
 Lucinda 
 Lytton . . 
 
 Date. 
 
 3 Feb., 
 21 Mar. 
 11 Jan., 
 15 Jan. 
 14 Mar. 
 18 Jan., 
 7 Apr., 
 6 .Jan., 
 25 Dec, 
 21 Sept. 
 30 Dec, 
 
 1898.. 
 , 1898 
 
 1901 
 . 1905 
 , 1908 
 
 1894 
 1894.. 
 1901.. 
 
 1903 
 , 1890 
 
 1889 
 
 7 Apr. 1912 . 
 
 8 Ap . 1912 . 
 13 Mar., 1892 
 6 Mar., 1898 
 20 Jan., 1892 
 
 23 Feb. 
 (5 Apr., 
 5 Apr., 
 5 Mar., 
 
 8 Mar., 
 21 Apr. 
 
 2 -Jan., 
 
 3 .Jan., 
 11 Feb. 
 17 Mar. 
 
 1 Apr., 
 
 2 Apr., 
 
 10 Jan. 
 
 11 Jan. 
 
 12 Jan. 
 (5 Mar., 
 20 Apr. 
 14 Jan. 
 
 27 Jan. 
 
 28 Jan 
 
 3 Jan., 
 11 Feb 
 17 Mar. 
 31 Mar. 
 
 1 Apr., 
 
 2 Apr., 
 10 Jan. 
 
 20 Mar. 
 2 Feb., 
 
 9 June, 
 
 9 Jan., 
 7 Mar., 
 26 Dec. 
 
 10 Mar. 
 
 16 Mar. 
 31 Mar. 
 1 Apr., 
 
 4 Feb., 
 
 17 Feb. 
 10 Mar. 
 
 21 .Jan. 
 
 13 Mar. 
 
 , 1894 
 
 1894.. 
 
 1895.. 
 
 1896 
 
 1899 
 , 1903 
 
 1911.. 
 
 1911.. 
 , 1911 
 , 1911 
 
 1911.. 
 
 1911.. 
 , 1898 
 , 1901 
 , 1905 
 
 1899 
 , 1903 
 , 1909 
 , 1910 
 , 1910 
 
 1911.. 
 , 1911 
 , 1911 
 , 1911 
 
 1911.. 
 
 1911.. 
 , 1895 
 . 1901 
 
 1893.. 
 
 1893 
 
 1898.. 
 
 1898 
 , 1909 
 , 1904 
 , 1911 
 , 1911 
 
 1911.. 
 
 1899.. 
 , 1906 
 , 1906 
 , 1887 
 1892 
 
 inches. 
 12-04 
 10-26 
 11-40 
 19 -55 
 10-28 
 12-60 
 10-10 
 13-59 
 12-30 
 12-93 
 14-01 
 
 20-50 
 12-15 
 10-65 
 13-60 
 13-61 
 
 10-10 
 14-04 
 12-31 
 11-81 
 10-50 
 11-75 
 10-95 
 10-25 
 13-07 
 10-30 
 14-20 
 21-00 
 11-08 
 11-70 
 10-94 
 14-12 
 14-16 
 12-37 
 9-40 
 9-28 
 10-72 
 16-30 
 15-10 
 18-60 
 24-30 
 28-80 
 10-25 
 10-02 
 15-15 
 12-80 
 9-54 
 10-35 
 14-00 
 15-07 
 10-15 
 14-70 
 15-30 
 11-10 
 13-35 
 14-60 
 12-85 
 10-60 
 
 Name of Town or 
 Locality. 
 
 Lytton 
 Mackay 
 
 Sugar Experimen- 
 tal Farm, Mac- 
 kay 
 
 Macnade Mill 
 
 (Townsville) 
 
 Maleny . . 
 
 Manly 
 Mapleton 
 
 Mareeba 
 Marlborough 
 
 Mayne Junction 
 
 Mein 
 
 Milton 
 
 Mirani 
 
 Mollov 
 
 Monkira 
 Mooloolah 
 
 Morningside 
 Mount Crosby 
 Mount Cuthbert 
 Mount Gravatt 
 Mount Perry 
 Mourilyan 
 
 Mundoolun 
 Mungar Junction 
 Murrarie 
 Musgrave 
 Nambour 
 
 Date. 
 
 16 Feb. 
 20 Mar. 
 
 17 Feb. 
 15 Feb., 
 3 F b., 
 5 Jan., 
 23 Dec, 
 12 Mar. 
 23 Dec, 
 
 , 1893 
 , 1898 
 , 1888 
 
 1893 
 1898.. 
 1904.. 
 
 1909 
 , 1910 
 
 1909 
 
 28 Mar., 1891 
 
 15 Mar. 
 18 Jan. 
 17 Apr. 
 
 5 Feb., 
 
 6 Jan., 
 14 Mar. 
 26 Dec. 
 14 Mar. 
 14 Mar, 
 
 26 Dec. 
 4 Feb., 
 31 Mar. 
 
 17 Feb. 
 
 29 Jan. 
 14 Mar. 
 4 Apr., 
 14 Mar. 
 
 12 Jan. 
 28 Mar. 
 
 16 Mar. 
 
 30 Mar. 
 
 31 Mar. 
 
 1 Apr., 
 
 2 Apr., 
 
 1 Feb., 
 
 13 Mar. 
 
 2 Feb., 
 
 9 June, 
 
 6 Mar., 
 
 14 Mar. 
 14 Mar 
 
 18 Jan. 
 14 Mar. 
 24 Feb. 
 14 Jan. 
 
 3 Jan., 
 11 Feb. 
 
 1 Apr., 
 
 2 Mar., 
 
 7 Apr., 
 21 Jan. 
 
 10 Mar. 
 14 Mar. 
 
 6 Apr., 
 9 Jan., 
 
 7 Mar., 
 
 27 Dec. 
 
 , 1893 
 , 1894 
 , 1894 
 1899.. 
 1901.. 
 , 1908 
 , 1909 
 , 1908 
 ,, 1908 
 , 1909 
 1911.. 
 , 1911 
 , 1888 
 , 1896 
 , 1908 
 1895.. 
 , 1908 
 , 1901 
 , 1903 
 , 1911 
 , 1911 
 , 1911 
 1911.. 
 1911.. 
 1906.. 
 , 1892 
 1893.. 
 1893 
 1898 
 , 1908 
 . 1908 
 , 1911 
 , 1908 
 , 1887 
 , 1909 
 1911.. 
 , 1911 
 1911 
 1911.. 
 1912.. 
 , 1887 
 , 1901 
 , 1908 
 1894.. 
 1898.. 
 1898 
 , 1909
 
 Climate op Australia. 
 
 141 
 
 Heavy Eainfalls, Queensland — continued. 
 
 Name of Town or 
 Locality. 
 
 Date. 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 £ 
 < 
 
 Name of Town or 
 Locality. 
 
 Date. 
 
 a 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 < 
 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 Nanango 
 
 9 June, 1893 
 
 10-00 
 
 Tabragalba 
 
 21 Jan., 1887 
 
 10-00 
 
 Nerango 
 
 15 June, 1892 
 
 12-35 
 
 Tallebudgera 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 10-80 
 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 10-95 
 
 Tambourine Moun- 
 
 17 July, 1889 
 
 10-91 
 
 Netley (Rockhamp- 
 
 29 Jan., 1896 
 
 11-77 
 
 tain 
 
 
 
 ton) 
 
 
 
 Taringa 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 11-40 
 
 Normantoii 
 
 14 Jan., 1905 
 
 10-72 
 
 Tewantin 
 
 10 Jan., 1898 
 
 10-51 
 
 North Pine 
 
 11 Jan., 1887 
 
 11-60 
 
 „ 
 
 30 Mar., 1904 
 
 12-30 
 
 ,, 
 
 16 Feb., 1893 
 
 14-97 
 
 ., . • 
 
 14 Apr., 1904 
 
 11-36 
 
 Nundah.. 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 12-00 
 
 The Hollow (Mac- 
 
 23 Feb., 1888 
 
 15-12 
 
 One Mile, Gympie 
 
 10 Mar., 1901 
 
 11-40 
 
 kay) 
 
 
 
 Oxenford 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 15-65 
 
 >» 
 
 — Mar., 1891 
 
 10-39 
 
 Palmwoods 
 
 4 Feb., 1893.. 
 
 12-30 
 
 Thornborough 
 
 20 Apr., 1903 
 
 18-07 
 
 
 10 Jan , 1898 
 
 15-85 
 
 Tierawoomba 
 
 2 Feb., 1898.. 
 
 10-36 
 
 M 
 
 7 Mar., 1898 
 
 13-02 
 
 Tooloombah 
 
 29 Jan., 1896 
 
 11-70 
 
 
 25 Dec, 1909 
 
 17-75 
 
 Toowong 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 11-60 
 
 ., 
 
 3 Mar,. 1912 
 
 10-00 
 
 Townsville 
 
 24 Jan., 1892 
 
 19-20 
 
 Peachester 
 
 26 Dec, 1909 
 
 14-91 
 
 
 28 Dec, 1903 
 
 15-00 
 
 Pinkenba 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 11-63 
 
 Victoiia Mill 
 
 6 .Jan., 1901.. 
 
 16-67 
 
 Pittsworth 
 
 11 Mar., 1890 
 
 14-68 
 
 Walkerston 
 
 12 Jan., 1905 
 
 10-60 
 
 Port Douglas 
 
 15 Mar., 1887 
 
 13-00 
 
 Walsh River 
 
 12 Jan., 1903 
 
 10-22 
 
 »> ■ • 
 
 12 Feb., 1888 
 
 10-00 
 
 ,, 
 
 1 Apr., 1911.. 
 
 13-70 
 
 » 
 
 20 Jan., 1892 
 
 11-50 
 
 Woodford 
 
 2 Feb., 1893.. 
 
 14-93 
 
 
 23 F b., 1894 
 
 10-25 ! 
 
 
 10 Jan., 1898 
 
 11-40 
 
 
 7 Apr., 1894 
 
 10-00 
 
 Woodlands (Yep- 
 
 10 Jan., 1889 
 
 K^ -00 
 
 >> 
 
 10 Mar., 1904 
 
 16-34 
 
 poon) 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 29 Dec, 1904 
 
 10-67 
 
 >> 
 
 26 Jan, 1890 
 
 10-22 
 
 
 11 Jan., 1905 
 
 14-68 
 
 
 25 Mar., 1890 
 
 14-25 
 
 „ 
 
 2 Jan., 1911.. 
 
 11-64 
 
 ", ',', 
 
 31 Jan., 1893 
 
 23-07 
 
 ,. 
 
 11 Feb., 1911 
 
 11-88 
 
 
 30 Jan., 1896 
 
 11-91 
 
 
 7 Mar., 1911 
 
 16-10 
 
 
 9 Feb., 1896.. 
 
 13-97 
 
 ',', 
 
 1 AprU, 1911 
 
 31 -53 
 
 ',', '„ 
 
 7 .Jan., 1898.. 
 
 14-50 
 
 Ravenswood 
 
 24 Mar., 1890 
 
 17-00 
 
 Woodstock 
 
 4 Nov.. 1903 
 
 10-44 
 
 •> 
 
 27 .Jan., 1896 
 
 10-52 
 
 Woogaroo 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 11-20 
 
 Redcliffe 
 
 21 Jan., 1887 
 
 14-00 
 
 Woombye 
 
 26 Dec, 1909 
 
 13-42 
 
 !> ■ • 
 
 16 Feb., 1893 
 
 17 -.35 
 
 Wynnum 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 11-95 
 
 »J • • 
 
 10 Jan., 1898 
 
 10-25 
 
 Yandina 
 
 1 Feb., 1893.. 
 
 20-08 
 
 Riverview 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 10-12 
 
 „ 
 
 9 June, 1893 
 
 12-70 
 
 Rockhamptou 
 
 17 Feb., 1888 
 
 10-82 
 
 »? • • 
 
 9 Jan., 1898.. 
 
 19-25 
 
 )> . . 
 
 29 Jan., 1896 
 
 10 -.33 
 
 » 
 
 7 Mar., 1898 
 
 13-52 
 
 Rosedale 
 
 6 Mar., 1898 
 
 12-60 
 
 
 28 Doc, 1909 
 
 15-80 
 
 Sand gate 
 
 21 .Jan.. 1887 
 
 10-50 
 
 Yarrabah 
 
 14 Jan., 1909 
 
 11-20 
 
 „ 
 
 16 Feb., 1893 
 
 14-03 
 
 ,, 
 
 3 Jan., 1911.. 
 
 11-50 
 
 Sherwood 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 1 1 -08 
 
 ,, 
 
 11 Feb., 1911 
 
 12-00 
 
 Somerset 
 
 28 Jan., 1903 
 
 12-02 
 
 ,, 
 
 2 Apr., 1911 
 
 30-65 
 
 Southport 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 1 i -05 
 
 Ye|tpoon 
 
 31 Jan., 1893 
 
 20-05 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 16 Feb., 1893 
 
 1! -20 
 
 >, 
 
 30 Jan., 1896 
 
 11-02 
 
 St. Helen.s(Mackay) 
 
 24 Feb., 1888 
 
 !2-(tli 
 
 >) • • 
 
 8 Jan., 1898.. 
 
 18-05 
 
 )» ,, 
 
 22 Mar., 1898 
 
 10-00 
 
 .» 
 
 8 Apr., 1904.. 
 
 10-70 
 
 St. Lawrence 
 
 17 Feb., 1888 
 
 12-10 
 
 » 
 
 3 l^eb., 1900.. 
 
 14-90 
 
 »> • * 
 
 .30 Jan., 1896 
 
 15-00 
 
 .1 
 
 3 Feb., 1911.. 
 
 14-92 
 
 Sunnybank 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 11-40 
 
 Zillmere 
 
 14 Mar., 1908 
 
 11-00 
 
 C. 12154.
 
 142 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Heavy Rainfalls, New South Wales. 
 
 Name of Town or 
 Locality. 
 
 Date. 
 
 B' 1 
 
 §• Amount. 
 
 Name of Town or 
 Locality. 
 
 Dat«. 
 
 a 
 o 
 c 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 Albion Park 
 
 8 Feb., 1895.. 
 
 10-00 Leconfield 
 
 9 Mar., 1893 
 
 14-53 
 
 Albury . . 
 
 U Feb., 1898 
 
 10-70 Liverpool 
 
 23 Feb., 1874 
 
 10-39 
 
 Alme Dorrigo 
 
 22 Jan., 1893 
 
 10-27 jMacksviUe* 
 
 23 Feb., 1908 
 
 10-00 
 
 Anthony 
 
 28 Mar., 1887 
 
 17-14 Madden's Creek . 
 
 2 F'b., 1908.. 
 
 10-36 
 
 >> . . 
 
 15 Jan., 1890 
 
 13-13 
 
 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 18-(8 
 
 Arnold Grove 
 
 28 May, 1889 
 
 11-13 Maitland West . 
 
 9 Mar., 1893 
 
 14-79 
 
 >> • ■ 
 
 20 Mar., 1892 
 
 10-08 
 
 Major's Creek 
 
 14 Feb., 1898 
 
 12-32 
 
 Araluen 
 
 14 Feb., 1898 
 
 10-51 
 
 Marrickville 
 
 9 Mar., 1913 
 
 10-40 
 
 )> • • 
 
 15 Feb., 1898 
 
 13-36 
 
 Milton . . 
 
 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 10-41 
 
 Bellawongarah 
 
 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 10-92 
 
 Mittagong 
 
 6 Mar., 1893 
 
 11-71 
 
 Berry 
 
 ,, ,, 
 
 12-05 
 
 Morpeth 
 
 9 Mar., 1893 
 
 21-52 
 
 Billa nbil 
 
 14 Mar., 1894 
 
 12-94 
 
 Mount Kembla . 
 
 14 Feb., 1898 
 
 10-25 
 
 Bo'naderry 
 
 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 13-03 
 
 1 ,, 
 
 2 Feb., 1908.. 
 
 10-27 
 
 Bowral . . 
 
 6 Mar., 1893 
 
 11-94 
 
 • 
 
 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 18-25 
 
 Bowraville 
 
 22 June, 1898 
 
 11-50 Mount Pleasant . 
 
 14 Jan., 1911 
 
 K -40 
 
 Broger'.s Creek 
 
 14 Feb., 1898 
 
 20-05 Myra. Vale 
 
 14 Feb., 1898 
 
 10-00 
 
 „ 
 
 19 July, 1910 
 
 12-22 
 
 Nambucca Heads 
 
 3 Apr., 1905.. 
 
 10-62 
 
 Broger's Creek 
 
 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 20-83 
 
 Nepean Tunnel . 
 
 14 Feb., 1898 
 
 12-30 
 
 Upper 
 
 
 
 Nethercote 
 
 14 Jan., 1911 
 
 11-32 
 
 Bulli Mountain . . 
 
 19 Mar., 1894 
 
 10-45 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 19 Mar., 1871 
 
 11-17 
 
 » . . 
 
 13 Feb., 1898 
 
 17-14 
 
 >» 
 
 9 Mar., 1893 
 
 11-14 
 
 Burwood 
 
 28 May, 1889 
 
 11-75 
 
 >; 
 
 24 Feb., 1908 
 
 10-02 
 
 Camden . . 
 
 11 July, 1904 
 
 10-90 
 
 NowTa 
 
 11 July, 1904 
 
 11-50 
 
 Camden Haven . . 
 
 22 Jan,. 1895 
 
 12-23 
 
 Nowra T.O. 
 
 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 13-00 
 
 Canley Vale 
 
 28 May, 1889 
 
 10 -OG 
 
 Padstow Park 
 
 9 Mar., 1913 
 
 10-64 
 
 ,, 
 
 20 Mar., 1892 
 
 10-85 
 
 Parramatta 
 
 28 May, 1889 
 
 11-94 
 
 Castle Hill 
 
 28 May, 1889 
 
 13-49 
 
 ,. 
 
 20 Mar., 1892 
 
 11-01 
 
 Cockl" Creek 
 
 23 Feb., 1908 
 
 10-45 
 
 Port Macqiiarie . 
 
 9 Nov., 1887 
 
 10-76 
 
 Colombo Lyttleton 
 
 5 Mar., 1893 
 
 12-17 
 
 Port Stephens 
 
 9 Feb., 1889.. 
 
 10-15 
 
 Condong 
 
 27 Mar., 1887 
 
 18-66 Prospect" 
 
 28 May, 1889 
 
 12-37 
 
 ,, 
 
 15 Jan., 1890 
 
 11-50 
 
 Raymond Terrace 
 
 28 Sept., 1903 
 
 10-32 
 
 CookviUe 
 
 1 Apr., 1892.. 
 
 11-31 
 
 Richmond 
 
 28 May, 1889 
 
 12-18 
 
 Coramba 
 
 11 June, 1893 
 
 10-83 
 
 Roberts >n 
 
 14 Feb., 1898 
 
 10-00 
 
 Cordeaux River . . 
 
 26 Feb., 1873 
 
 10-98 
 
 „ 
 
 10 July, 1904 
 
 10-50 
 
 „ „ 
 
 3 Feb., 1890.. 
 
 11-51 
 
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 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 10-28 
 
 )! 9> 
 
 14 Feb , 1898 
 
 22-58 
 
 Rooty Hill 
 
 27 May, 1889 
 
 11-85 
 
 „ „ 
 
 31 Aug., 1906 
 
 10-31 
 
 Rylstone 
 
 28 May, 1889 
 
 10-26 
 
 „ „ 
 
 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 14-52 
 
 Seven Oaks 
 
 22 June, 1898 
 
 11-06 
 
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 15 Mar., 1894 
 
 10-23 
 
 South Head (near 
 
 29 Apr., 1841 
 
 20-12 
 
 Dapto West 
 
 14 Fe:.., 1898 
 
 12-05 
 
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 » • • 
 
 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 10-37 
 
 j> „ 
 
 16 Oct., 1844 
 
 20-41 
 
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 8 Feb., 1895.. 
 
 11-10 
 
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 7 Mar., 1894 
 
 10-55 
 
 Dunheved 
 
 28 May, 1889 
 
 12-40 
 
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 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 11-54 
 
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 4 May, 1875 
 
 10-52 
 
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 28 Feb., 1892 
 
 12-24 
 
 Fernmouut 
 
 2 Feb., 1890.. 
 
 10-36 
 
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 26 Feb., 1873 
 
 12-57 
 
 ,, 
 
 2 June, 1903 
 
 11-29 
 
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 13-76 
 
 Goorangoola 
 
 9 Mar., 1893 
 
 10-34 
 
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 11-30 
 
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 15-12 
 
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 12-20 
 
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 20-00 
 
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 28 Mav, 1889 
 
 11-85 
 
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 10-53 
 
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 12-00 
 
 » 
 
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 12-24 
 
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 11-13 
 
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 10-92 
 
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 10-24 
 
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 13 Feb., 1911 
 
 10-89 
 
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 11-00 
 
 Kareela 
 
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 11-73 
 
 » 
 
 5 Apr., 1882.. 
 
 10-00 
 
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 10-50 
 
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 10-83 
 
 Kembla Heights . . 
 
 13 Jan., 1911 
 
 17-46 
 
 Yellow Rock 
 
 14 Feb., 1898 
 
 11-69 
 
 Kempsey \_ ^.^ . . 
 
 10 Mar., 1893 
 
 in -34 ! 
 
 
 
 
 6" 50 inches fell in 2 hours.
 
 Climate of Australia. 
 
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 144 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 agricultural areas, falling during the growing period, April to October. From 
 the coast for about 80 to 100 inland miles the rainfall decreases rather 
 rapidly, but the area in the south-west over which 15 or more inches fall 
 amounts to 74,206 square miles. 
 
 The rapid decrease from the west coast inland is partly accounted for 
 by the range of hills which runs parallel to the coast from the extreme south 
 to beyond the Murchison River, although they are not of sufficient elevation 
 to serve as a natural store for precipitation in the form of snow. At some 
 places on the southern portions of these hills, the annual rainfall exceeds 42 
 inches, about 10 more than on the coast. Inland, owing to the vast extent 
 of land between the gold-fields and the South Australian boundary, over 
 which the easterly winds pass, the evaporation is very great, amounting 
 to about 87 inches annually at Coolgardie, while on the coast, at Perth, it is 
 66 inches. 
 
 The full effects of the westerly winds of southern latitudes are apparently 
 not felt beyond lat. 27 degrees, just reached by the 15-in. isohyet, and from 
 there to the tropic the rainfall is scanty and occasionally amounts to only 
 3 or 4 inches in the year. 
 
 From that isohyetal inland, towards the Murchison and North Coolgardie 
 gold-fields, the records only extend back some ten or fifteen years, but it 
 is not likely that longer records will show a much larger annual rainfall. 
 The 10-in. isohyet which skirts Peak Hill and Wiluna is probably doubtful, 
 and may ultimately have to be modified, as the record used in obtaining the 
 average rainfall at these two stations was very largely inflated by the abnormal 
 falls in March and April, 1900, and January and February, 1902, when Peak 
 Hill registered 18*13 and 14*56 respectively, and Wiluna 22*82 and 9*69 
 inches. 
 
 North of the Tropic, the Kimberley district receives good tropical rains 
 during the summer months, from November to March or April, but the 
 De Grey and Fortescue districts are dependent for their rainfall partly on 
 the tropical storms, commencing about December, and partly on the winter 
 rains from the Indian Ocean, but the total amounts are smaller than those 
 in the Kimberley district, and very variable, as sometimes both the tropical 
 and southern winter rains fail, and at other times phenomenal falls occur 
 during the " willy willy " season, e.g., Whim Creek registered 36*53 inches 
 on three days in April in 1898. 
 
 The areas in Western Australia receiving varying quantities of rainfall, 
 as shown on the map, are as follows :— 
 
 Over 40 inches . . 
 From 30 to 40 inches 
 
 „ 25 „ 30 .. 
 
 „ 20 „ 2.5 .. 
 
 „ 15 „ 20 „ 
 
 „ 10 „ 15 „ 
 Under 10 inches 
 
 Total 
 
 Area ia Square 5Iiles. 
 
 Rest of 
 Tropical, North| Western The Whole 
 
 of Tropic. Australia, Soutli State. 
 
 I of Tropic. 
 
 28,940 
 36,973 
 36,693 
 52,640 
 153,870 
 
 309,116 
 
 3,376 
 11,810 
 
 7,127 
 14,611 
 37,282 
 78,945 
 
 153,151 
 
 513,653 
 513,653
 
 Climate op Australia. 
 
 145 
 
 South Australia. 
 
 The main factors which determine the rainfall distribution of South 
 Australia are the proximity of the Southern Ocean and the long extent of 
 coast line exposed to the free and unrestricted sweep of the westerly winds 
 nautically known as the roaring forties ; the rainfall over all the coastal 
 areas is essentially a winter one, and practically all available for agricultural 
 purposes, as from 70 to 90 per cent, of the annual totals in the more settled 
 areas, falls during the growing period, April to October. 
 
 Though physiographic influence is less apparent than in south-eastern 
 Australia, the effect of elevation is marked by the heavier rainfalls on the 
 eastern sides of Spencer's Gulf and Gulf St. Vincent, and by the northerly 
 extension of the 10-in. isohyetal from Port Augusta to beyond Blinman. 
 The abundant rain on the Mount Lofty ranges to the east of Adelaide are a 
 conspicuous example of this, the annual total on the crest of the range reaching 
 to nearly 47 inches. 
 
 A rapid decrease of the rainfall takes place from the agricultural areas 
 northwards to the interior, where, in the Lake Eyre basin, which is below sea- 
 level, the average annual fall — largely made up of capricious summer storms — 
 is under 5 inches, this district being probably the driest part of the 
 continent. 
 
 In the Northern Territory the chief factor in the distribution of the rain- 
 fall, which is almost entirely confined to the six summer months, is latitude 
 or distance from the north coast — the rains being abundant on the coast, 
 but rapidly decreasing towards the interior. 
 
 The areas in South Australia and the Territory enjoying varying quantities 
 of rainfall, as shown on the map, are as follow : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Area in Square Miles. 
 
 Rainfall. 
 
 1 
 South Australia. Nortliein Territory. 
 
 Over 40 inches . . 
 
 From 30 to 40 inches 
 „ 25 „ 30 „ 
 „ 20 „ 25 „ 
 „ 15 „ 20 „ 
 .. 10 „ 15 „ 
 
 Under 10 inches 
 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 984 
 
 3,197 
 
 10,630 
 
 14,190 
 
 33,405 
 
 317,600 
 
 46,780 
 40,690 
 47,580 
 45,890 
 62,920 
 141,570 
 138,190 
 
 7 
 
 otal 
 
 
 
 380,070 
 
 523,620 
 
 Queensland. 
 
 The eastern littoral of Queensland from Cape York to the Tweed receives 
 an annual average rainfall of about 60 inches. On parts of the north coast, 
 between Cooktown and Townsville, this increases to L50 and 16.5 inches per 
 annum. The main source of supply is the south-cast trade wind, and local 
 variations in totals are solely due to differences in elevations of the shore 
 line. 
 
 On the Peninsula the rainfall ranges from 69 inches at Cape York to 32 
 inches at Georgetown ; in lower Carpentaria, it averages about 25 inchest
 
 146 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In the central districts the average varies from 30 inches on the eastern 
 boundary to 20 inches on the western. 
 
 In the Maranoa it averages about 23 inches, and over the Darling Downs 
 from 25 to 30 inches. In the Warrego, it varies from 1.5 to 20 inches, and in 
 the far western districts from 15 inches down to 6 inches at Birdsville, in the 
 extreme south-west corner. 
 
 During the wettest months of the year, viz., January, February, and 
 March, very heavy daily falls over the eastern areas are not by any means 
 infrequent. A fall of 10 inches and over in the 24 hours has been recorded 
 on many occasions. On 2nd February, 1893, 35 '71 inches were measured 
 at Crohamhurst ; this constitutes one of the world's records for heavy 
 rainfall. On that occasion the total measurement for the four days ending 3rd 
 February was 77*305 inches, or nearly 6 J feet. 
 
 The following table shows the areas in square miles of varying quantities 
 of rainfall : — 
 
 RainfaU 
 
 Area Id 
 Square Allies. 
 
 Over 80 inches 
 
 
 2,826 
 
 From 70 to 80 inches 
 
 
 
 2,379 
 
 „ 60 „ 70 
 
 
 
 
 10,261 
 
 „ 50 „ 60 
 
 
 
 
 18,167 
 
 „ 40 „ 50 
 
 
 
 
 60,466 
 
 „ 30 „ 40 
 
 
 
 
 80,556 
 
 „ 25 „ 30 
 
 
 
 
 100,137 
 
 „ 20 „ 25 
 
 
 
 
 118,391 
 
 „ 15 „ 20 
 
 
 
 
 116,790 
 
 „ 10 „ 15 
 
 
 
 
 97,722 
 
 Under 10 inches 
 
 
 
 
 62,805 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 670,500 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 Proximity to the ocean, with prevailing winds of favorable direction, 
 is, in all countries, the chief factor accounting for the greatest totals being 
 generally recorded along the coast line. New South Wales shows no excep- 
 tion to this law, but it is noticeable that nearly all the districts near the 
 coastal rivers show a depressed rainfall in comparison with surrounding and 
 naturally higher country. 
 
 Starting from the northern border, the 50-in. isohyetal line at Casino, 
 on the Richmond River, deviates slightly towards the sea line ; and the same 
 feature may be noted, in a more or less marked degree, on the Clarence, 
 Macleay, Manning, Hunter, and Shoalhaven Rivers ; while the Nepean 
 Valley can be traced right through from Picton to the Hawkesbury by its 
 relatively light rainfall. 
 
 On the northern tablelands the higher levels enjoy falls well over 30 inches. 
 The extension of that isohyet encloses a narrow tongue-shaped area, reaching 
 in a south-westerly direction from Inverell to Lindsay, owing to the 
 elevation of this area being higher than that of the country on its west and 
 south boundaries. 
 
 The series of short ranges, reaching from Murrurundi to the Warrum- 
 bungle, can be readily followed by the relatively higher rainfall figures.
 
 Climate op Australia. 
 
 U7 
 
 Further south, the Blue Mountains are particularly conspicuous, 
 also the Canobolas. The extension of the Australian Alps, which almost 
 entirely feed the Murrumbidgee, and contribute largely to the constant flow 
 of the Murray, stands out in clear relief. Although a considerable distance 
 from the coast, the elevation is such as to modify the disadvantage resulting 
 therefrom ; and not only is abundant moisture extracted from the winds 
 from oS the east coast, but considerable condensation takes place on the 
 western aspect from the south-west winter winds after they have swept 
 across nearly the whole length and breadth of Victoria. 
 
 The comparatively light rainfall in the district extending from Delegate 
 to Yass, and conspicuously so between Bobundra and Michelago, is one 
 of the most remarkable features of the rainfall map of Australia. 
 Although the greater part of this district is considerably over 2,000 feet high, 
 it is enclosed by ranges of mountains rising to 3,000 and 5,000 feet, which 
 condense from all directions moisture that would otherwise benefit it. 
 
 It may be added that, although the falls over this area do not exceed 25 
 inches, yet it is remarkably productive, for the reason that evaporation is 
 relatively small, and that a vast quantity of soakage must find its way there 
 from the encompassing ranges. 
 
 The Sydney and Burrinjuck water supply catchment areas receive 
 annual totals ranging from 30 to 60, and from 20 to 60 inches respectively. 
 
 The areas in New South Wales, enjoying varying quantities of rainfall, 
 are shown in the following table : — 
 
 Rainfall. 
 
 Over 70 inches 
 From 60 to 70 inches 
 
 „ 50 
 
 „ 60 
 
 „ 40 
 
 „ 50 
 
 „ 30 
 
 „ 40 
 
 „ 20 
 
 „ 30 
 
 „ 15 
 
 „ 20 
 
 „ 10 
 
 „ 15 
 
 Under 10 
 
 inches 
 
 Area in 
 Square MUee. 
 
 668 
 1,765 
 4,329 
 15,804 
 30,700 
 77,202 
 57,639 
 77,268 
 44,997 
 
 Total 
 
 310,372 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 A casual glance at the rainfall map of V' ictoria will again indicate the great 
 control exercised in rainfall distribution over the earth's surface by the 
 mountains and proximity to the seashore. In regard to the latter factor, 
 it will be noticed that the isohyets generally follow the contour of the coast 
 line, and in the former the heaviest records are coincident with the highest 
 mountains of the State. 
 
 The abundant rains on the Australian Alps, the Cape Otway ranges, 
 and the Gippsland ranges are particularly conspicuous. In a less striking 
 manner is sliown the precipitating effect of the Central Dividing Range and the 
 Grampians. The relatively depressed areas to the north and west of Mel- 
 bourne suffer in regaid to the comparative smallness of their rainfall through 
 the effect of the higher surrounding country on rain-bearing winds. A 
 similar effect is noticeable in the Latrobe, Thomson, Tambo, and Mitta 
 Mitta Valleys.
 
 148 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 While contending that the rainfall over the eastern portion of Australia 
 is in no wise short of that experienced in other contnients, we must not lose 
 sight of the fact that our mountain chains are not sufficiently high, nor have 
 they the extent of area, to compensate for Australia's deficiency of rainfall 
 in the areas far removed from the coast, i.e., they are not of sufficient eleva- 
 tion to serve as a natural store for precipitation in the form of snow, and also 
 that the loss of moisture by evaporation is abnormal. It is, therefore, 
 imperative, if equalizing results are to be obtained from the capriciousness of 
 our rainfall seasons, that artificial storage in reservoirs at the catchments 
 be resorted to, and all rivers, particularly those inland, dammed and 
 locked as a national policy of paramount importance, and, further, that the 
 waters in rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, be protected from desiccating winds by 
 the liberal planting of trees. 
 
 In studying the distribution of rainfall, as depicted on the map, we find 
 that the areas in Victoria enjo\dng varying quantities of rainfall per annum 
 are as follow : — 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Over 60 inches 
 From 50 to 60 inches 
 „ 40 „ 50 „ 
 
 30 
 25 
 20 
 15 
 
 40 
 30 
 25 
 20 
 
 Under 15 inches 
 
 Total 
 
 1,597 
 3,348 
 7,055 
 14,029 
 15,247 
 14,070 
 12,626 
 19,912 
 
 87,884 
 
 Tasmania. 
 
 In the West Coastal district and the north-east, the rainfall varies so 
 very much that until records are available for a long series of years, the 
 isohyets are bound to be considerably altered at the end of each year. 
 
 The extremes and means are shown in the following table, viz. : — 
 
 North-east district, Sprmgfield 
 Western district — 
 
 Waratah 
 
 Mount Read 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Inches. 
 86-84 
 
 117-24 
 145-04 
 
 Inches. 
 36-81 
 
 .59-97 
 70-38 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Inches. 
 57-68 
 
 85-52 
 110-45 
 
 The most striking feature in these parts of the island is the great variation 
 shown for such a comparatively small area between the greatest and least 
 average falls, viz., from 17 '93 inches at Beaufront (Ross), to 115*82 at Mount 
 Lyell on the AVest Coast, showing a range of 97*89 inches. This accentuates 
 the great control exercised upon the rainfall by the physiographic conditions 
 and proximity to the seashore. 
 
 The West Coast, being exposed to the full sweep of the moisture-laden 
 westerly winds, and condensation being assisted by altitudes of between
 
 Climate of Australia. 
 
 149 
 
 3,000 and 5,000 feet, experiences frequent rains, and, as may be seen by a 
 glance at the map, high annual averages, over lOU inches in phices, are the 
 result. 
 
 The effect of altitude is again noticeable in the south-east, where Hobart, 
 at an elevation of 160 feet, has an annual rainfall of 23*57 inches, while 
 Mount Wellington, at the 2,.500-ft. level, totals 60-34: inches. 
 
 The heavy rains experienced in the north-east are similar in character to 
 those on the coast of New South Wales and eastern Victoria, and the south- 
 east winds exercise a certain amount of control over the rainfall of this portion 
 of the island. 
 
 The areas in Tasmania enjoying varying quantities of rainfall, as shown 
 on the map, are as follow : — 
 
 Rainfall. 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Over 100 inches . . 
 
 From -80 to 100 inches 
 „ 60 „ 80 „ 
 „ 50 „ 60 „ 
 ., 40 „ 50 „ 
 „ 30 „ 40 „ 
 
 „ 20 „ 30 „ 
 
 Under 20 inches . . 
 
 ' Mainland . 
 King, Flin 
 [ other Isla 
 
 ders, 
 nds 
 
 and 
 
 553 
 1,235 
 2,097 
 2,767 
 3,449 
 4,588 
 6,035 
 
 1,524 
 937 
 
 Total .. 
 
 ainland 
 h-west Group 
 
 23,185 
 
 No records available — 
 In i-outh-west of i: 
 On Islands of Nori 
 
 2,927 
 103 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 Area 
 
 
 26,215 
 
 Bruni Island has been included with the Mainland. 
 
 8. Rainfall During the Wheat=growing Period. 
 
 In Australia wheat-growing under ordinary conditions is generally con- 
 sidered a safe and payable proposition when 10 inches of rain and over falls 
 from the month of April to that of October inclusive. 
 
 The accompanying map (Fig. 9) has been compiled for the purpose of showing 
 what portions of the continent are favoured with the above requirements. 
 
 There are in all 484,330 square miles of country with 10 inches of rainfall 
 and over during the wheat-growing period, distributed as follows : — 93,500 
 square miles in Western Australia, 46,980 square miles in South Australia, 
 79,247 square miles in Queensland, 163,772 square miles in New 
 South Wales, 74,616 square miles in Victoria, and 26,215 square miles in 
 Tasmania. 
 
 Much of these areas, however, is unsuitable, probably half the total, 
 by reason of excessive rains, early summer rain, topography and soil, but 
 as compensation there are vast tracts of interior land possible for f (sreal 
 growth by the adoption of drought resisting seed and dry farming methods, 
 which, in all probability, may still give the estimated 500,000 s(jUiiro miles 
 or even more for wheat cultivation.
 
 150 Federal Handbook. 
 
 During the year 1912-13 there were only 11,247 square miles, less than 
 half the area of Tasmania, under wheat, yielding 88,554,738 bushels. This 
 is approximately only one-third of the area at present used for this purpose, 
 allowing for land under fallow and rotation of crops. Estimating, therefore, 
 that only a third of the 500,000 would be available each year for wheat 
 cultivation, the possible output from Australia could reach 900 to 1,000 
 million bushels. 
 
 From the trend of developments during the last few years it would appear 
 that the greatest scope for expansion in wheat production is in New South 
 Wales and Western Australia. 
 
 The boundary of the 10-in. wheat period isohyet starts on the west coast 
 of Western Australia, a few miles to the south of Hamelin Pool, thence passes 
 inland in a south-easterly direction towards Southern Cross, from there 
 almost due east, entering the Great Bight to the north of Israelite Bay. It 
 again enters the mainland between Fowler's Bay and Streaky Bay, in South 
 Australia, curving south-eastwards from Yardea to Spencer's Gulf to the 
 north of Cowell, and crossing the Gulf it strikes the Peninsula near Port 
 Pirie, forming a loop over the country well to the north of Port Augusta, 
 whence it takes a sinuous course southwards through the lower Mallee to the 
 north-east Wimmera, crossing the Murray in a north-easterly direction to the 
 west of Deniliquin in Eiverina, then over the Murrumbidgee at Darlington 
 Point, from there bending northwards and passing successively near Mount 
 Hope, Nymagee, Coonamble, Walgett, to Munigindi, whence it extends 
 almost in a direct line northwards, finally leaving the Queensland coast at 
 Bowen. 
 
 It will be noticed how remarkably closely the 10-in. and Goyder's line 
 follow one another in South Australia. 
 
 In New South Wales, however, there are considerable deviations 
 between Coghlan's and the 10-in. wheat lines. 
 
 Goyder's line was determined in 1865 by Mr. G. W. Goyder, the Surveyor- 
 General of the then colony, based upon the estimated average rainfall and 
 native flora. 
 
 Coghlan's line was determined by Mr. T. Coghlan, State Statistician, in 
 1903, based upon rainfall data and the actual experience of growers. 
 
 The percentage lines of the wheat-growing period in relation to the annual 
 average rainfall are of considerable interest, and emphasize the alternating 
 distinct wet and dry season in Australia already referred to. 
 
 Roughly speaking, from 60 to 70 per cent, of the annual total precipitation 
 falls over southern Australia during the seven coldest months, and from 30 
 to 40 per cent, during the hottest months. North of the tropic the quan- 
 titative distribution is reversed, only 10 to 40 per cent, falling during the 
 cold months and from 60 to 90 per cent, during the hot months. 
 
 In the south-western portion of Western Australia, it will be observed 
 that 90 per cent, of the annual average rainfall is precipitated in the winter 
 and 10 per cent, only during the summer months. 
 
 On the south-eastern shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria we have the other 
 extreme — only 5 per cent, of the year's rainfall total falls within the seven 
 cold months mentioned, and 95 per cent, during the remaining five.
 
 Climate of Australia. 
 
 151 
 
 i^^ 
 
 -n 
 
 !j A'- V 
 
 IHL 
 
 J si 
 
 -4« 
 
 
 in = 
 
 ,- 4> - S ^ ■ 
 
 ^
 
 152 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Graph showing Kean Konthly Evaporation at Selected 
 
 Stations. 
 
 Note. — Each vertical space represents 1 itjch or 25 '4 millimetres. 
 Fig. 12.
 
 Climate of Australia. 153 
 
 9. Snow. 
 
 Perennial snow occurs only over the sheltered crevices in the liighest 
 portions of the Australian Alps, where, however, during the winter months 
 it accumulates to a depth of many feet, and by gradual thawing maintains 
 a constant flow of water to the Murray and Snowy Rivers throughout the 
 year. 
 
 During the winter period snow can always be expected along the mountain 
 ranges in New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, and occasionally on 
 the Mount Lofty ranges, in South Australia. On rare occasions also it has 
 reached as far north as Toowoomba, in Queensland, latitude 27° 28' S. 
 
 Over the plain country it has been known to fall as far west as Louth, 
 on the Darling River, over the whole of eastern and southern Victoria, except 
 the immediate coast line. In South Australia it has been recorded over a 
 belt of country lying to the east of Spencer's Gulf, about 200 miles long, 
 running from north to south and 75 miles wide. It has only been noted at 
 one place to the west of the Gulf, viz., at Yardea, near Lake Gardner. 
 
 In Western Australia it has been 
 recorded on the hills in the extreme 
 south-west, and at a few places on the 
 southern gold-fields. 
 
 The heaviest snowstorm on record 
 in New South Wales occurred between 
 3rd and 7th July, 1900, extending from 
 Congewar in the Hunter district to 
 Condobolin and Warrumbungle, in the 
 
 Australia 
 
 west. Railway traffic became para- nakhtd portion iho» 
 
 - , 1 • 1 J • 'fiherr ^novi fios fallen. 
 
 lyzed, passengers bemg shut up m 
 
 carriages and unable to reach hotels. In ^* 
 
 places the snow was 8 feet deep on the rails. At Bathurst, many roofs, 
 
 verandahs, etc., collapsed under its weight, while telegraph lines were levelled 
 
 everywhere. 
 
 In 1901, on 28th July, the most widespread snowstorm occurred over 
 south-eastern Australia, being practically general east of the 145th meridian. 
 Another remarkable storm on the 29th and 30th August, 1905, extended 
 from South Australia through southern Victoria along the highlands of 
 New South Wales to within 30 miles of the Queensland border. 
 
 On the mainland Sydney and Melbourne are the only two capital cities 
 that possess authenticated records of appreciable snow falls. In Sydney on 
 June .30th. 1836, snow fell for half-an-hour, sufficient being on the ground 
 to enable boys to make snowballs. 
 
 Melbourne was covered with snow 7 to 12 inches deep on the morning of 
 the 3l3t August, 1849. Another remarkable fall took place on the 7th 
 August, 1899, between 1 and 2 p ra , when snow fell heavily in the Fitzroy 
 Gardens, and snowballing was indulged in at the Scotch College. A light to 
 heavy fall also occurred over the north-eastern suburbs of Melbourne between 
 7 and 8 a.m. on the 25th September, 1905. Flakes of snow were observed 
 in, or close to, Melbourne on 14th July, 1810, 27th Juno. 1845, 26th July. 
 1882, 28th June, 1900, 18th April, 1910, and 21st June, 1911.
 
 154 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 10. Evaporation. 
 
 The problems which inevitably face the engineering work of water conser- 
 vation for the development and expansion of Australia's as yet unused 
 territory demand that the fullest knowledge possible respecting the rate 
 and distribution of evaporation (a climatic element second in importance 
 to rainfall only) should be available. 
 
 For the purpose of obtaining data on this subject a number of iron jacketed 
 tanks 3 feet in diameter have been distributed to several selected centres. 
 
 The tops of the tanks are sunk to within an inch of the surface level of 
 the ground. They contain about 130 gallons of water, which is replenished 
 when or before a fall of 6 inches from the top of the tank takes place, in 
 order that the exposed level may be fairly constant and also that the added 
 water may not materially affect the temperature of the main body. 
 
 Information collected up to the present is not very extensive, nor do the 
 observations in some cases extend over many years, but sufficient has been 
 obtained to approximate roughly the times of equal evaporation and the 
 aggregate annual amounts in different parts of the continent. 
 
 The results deduced from observations carried out at the capital cities 
 over a great number of years establish the rate and total evaporation taking 
 place over coastal regions south of the tropic. At coastal stations north of 
 the tropic, viz., Rockhampton, Cooktown, Thursday Island, Port Darwin, 
 the annual totals have been computed with Fitgzerald's formula : — 
 
 E 
 
 [•014 (V - v) + -0012 (V - v)2] [1 + -GTw^]. 
 
 Australia 
 
 Marble Bar, Alice Springs, Boulia, and Broken Hill furnish results for 
 the interior. Those at Broken Hill were undertaken at the Stephen's Creek 
 Reservoir by Mr. Whitehead, the engineer of the silver city, and give the 
 actual loss of water from the extensive artificial lake. It is satisfactory to 
 note that the record from the standard taiik at the Umberumberka site 
 but a few miles away gives only a difference of 3 • 399 inches for the twelve 
 months. 
 
 It will be seen by reference to the 
 accompanying table and chart that 
 about a third of the continent, almost 
 coincident with that portion having 
 but an average annual rainfall of 10 
 inches and under, loses from exposed 
 water 100 inches and over per annum. 
 
 The daily rate of evaporation during 
 the summer months is considerable, 
 more especially inland, where from \ to 
 f of an inch daily is a common occur- 
 rence, and at times up to an inch and 
 over, hence, if it is desired to receive any benefit from showers, any possible 
 means that can be adopted to break the surface soil, and so let the rain 
 through, must be resorted to, even on grazing land. 
 
 Evaporation Map 
 showiiy amount of emporoHon 
 and Isahnics. 
 
 Fig. 11.
 
 Climate of Australia. 
 
 155 
 
 
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 Federal Handbook. 
 
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 Climate op Australia. 159 
 
 12. Winds. 
 
 The most conspicuous winds of Australia are the south-east trades which 
 blow almost continuously over the northern half of the continent, and the 
 westerly winds, or " roaring forties," which, during the winter months, extend 
 northwards over the whole of the southern areas. Both these winds, however, 
 are strongly deflected by continental or monsoonal influences, so much so 
 that in summing up the average prevailing direction of wind in different 
 parts of Australia, particularly over the southern portions, these two great 
 systems of wind circulation are almost obscured. 
 
 On the south coastal areas, for example, we find that the average prevail- 
 ing direction has a strong southerly component during the summer months 
 and northerly component during the winter months ; to the north of the 
 continent a strong northerly component during the summer months and 
 southerly during winter months. On the New South Wales coast the mean 
 direction in summer is from the north-east, and in winter from the west. 
 
 On the Western Australian coast the mean direction during the summer 
 months is from south-west to south-east, and during the winter from north- 
 north-west to north-north-east. 
 
 Inland the mean direction of wind is largely dominated by the seasonal 
 distribution of pressure, thus, during the winter months, when anticyclones 
 are constantly building up pressure in the interior, there is a decided spiral 
 contra clockwise circulation from the centre toward? the coast line of the 
 continent. 
 
 During the summer time, owing to the strong convectional action in the 
 interior and consequently lowered pressure, the circulation is reversed and a 
 clockwise spiral circulation obtains from the ocean to the centre of the con- 
 tinent. Minor factors of wind control are occasional cyclones chiefly on the 
 east and north-west coast lines, and tornadoes which may occur in any part 
 of Australia during the summer months, but most frequently over inland 
 areas. These tornadoes generally develop in extensive barometric col areas 
 or over zones where the pressure is uniform and without isobaric control, 
 or in the north-eastern or northern gradients of cyclonic depressions moving 
 across the southern interior of the continent, the gradients again being very 
 slight. They generally travel on a north-north-west to south-south-east 
 course, and at times are so strong as to level strips of country forest and 
 destroy townships. 
 
 A north-east sea-breeze (black north-easter) is a notable feature of Sydney 
 Harbor weather. It starts to blow about 10 a.m. on bright summer mornings, 
 gradually increasing in force until 3 p.m., when it often reaches a velocity 
 of 30 or 40 miles per hour ; from that hour it gradually moderates, and gener- 
 ally ceases with sundown. The depth of this wind is comparatively slight, 
 and, moreover, it does not ordinarily penetrate inland beyond a distance of 
 10 to 20 miles. 
 
 13. Southerly Bursters. 
 
 Southerly bursters are a distinctive feature of summer weather on the 
 coast of New South Wales, occurring most frequently between the months of 
 September and Februaiy inclusive, and between the hours of 7 p.m. and mid- 
 night.
 
 160 Federal Handbook. 
 
 As the name implies, the wind comes suddenly from the southerly quarter, 
 causing a fall in temperature of from 20 to 40 degrees in the 24 hours, the most 
 rapid decline taking place during the first hour of the blow. The mean 
 velocity is about 32 miles per hour, and many of the gusts may reach a rate 
 of 80 miles and over per hour. The blows may last for a few hours only or 
 for several days, the duration being dependent upon the extent of the anti- 
 cyclone to the west. 
 
 Thunderstorms frequently accompany the bursts, but useful rains only 
 occur when the centres of the high pressure are travelling in high latitudes. 
 
 The rate of translation of a burster along the coast is about 20 miles per 
 hour, but has no relation to the velocity of the prevailing wind. A mild 
 burster may be translated at a rate of 60 miles per hour from point to point 
 on the coast or may occur simultaneously. On the other hand, a violent 
 burster may be translated from place to place under a rate of 20 miles per 
 hour. 
 
 The explanation is as follows : — 
 
 Bursters, while being undoubtedly deflected sea-breezes, occur generally 
 with the passage of the axis of V-shaped depressions backed up by anti- 
 cyclones to the west of them. The change of wind takes place from a northerlv 
 to a southerly component at the moment when the axis happens to coincide 
 with or cross any point, but as the axes of these depressions are constantly 
 varying in their angular relation to the coastline, it follows that the rate of 
 translation must vary accordingly. If the axis takes the same angle as the 
 coastline the burster occurs almost coincidently on all parts of the coast. 
 If the axis is vertical or runs from north-west to south-east, translation is from 
 south to north ; this is the general experience, but it has happened that 
 the bursters have worked down the coast, owing to the axes of the depres- 
 sion on such rare occasions running from a south-west to a north-east 
 direction. 
 
 Southerly bursters are most frequent during seasons of sporadic rains 
 in the interior, and least frequent during exceptionally rainy seasons in the 
 interior, which is strong evidence that they are a response to intense heat 
 convectional action inland. 
 
 The average number of visitations in a season is 32, the greatest number, 
 •58, was recorded in the year 1896, and the least, 16, in the year 1890, when 
 vast areas of western New South Wales were under the flood waters of the 
 Darling River. 
 
 They can always be looked for on hot days, but the most reliable attending 
 indications are, first, the proximity of a V depression or relatively low baro- 
 meters in comparison with those over Victoria. A foggy morning following 
 a hot day is also a sure sign, and the local barometer invariably starts to rise 
 slowly several hours before their advent. With these known facts they now 
 rarely arrive without ample warning being given. 
 
 They are analogous to the Pamperos of Argentina. 
 
 The term " Brickfielder " now applied to hot dusty northerly winds on 
 
 he gold-fields of Victoria was the first name given to southerly bursters in 
 
 Sydney. They were then called brickfielders because brickfields in the 
 
 early days were worked to the south of the infant city, and with the arrival 
 
 of southerlies clouds of dust from these fields were brought to the northern
 
 Climate of Australia. 161 
 
 end of the town. With the migration of citizens of Sydney to the gold- 
 fields of Victoria half-a-century ago these miners transferred the name to 
 the hot dusty northerlies prevailing there. 
 
 The Fremantle doctor is the name given to the local sea-breeze at the 
 chief Western Australian port. It is a cool wind from the south-west, 
 generally starting soon after midday during the summer months, and, of 
 course, moderating with the declining sun. 
 
 The name of " Cock Eye Bob " is the name given to thunder squalls which 
 occur frequently on the north-west coast of Western Australia during the 
 summer months. 
 
 14. Hurricanes. 
 
 The two zones of Australia subject to visitations of hurricanes are the 
 north-west coast of Western Australia and the north coast of Queensland. 
 The hurricanes on the former are known as " willy willies," and are, perhaps, 
 the more violent of the two. The storms occur between the months of 
 November and April inclusive, but more frequently during January and 
 March. 
 
 They appear to originate in the vicinity of Cambridge Gulf, or even as 
 far east as Darwin. They then start on a parabolic course along the north- 
 west coast line, gradually intensifying until they reach the latitudes of Condon 
 and Cossack, where they generally reach their greatest energy and cause 
 considerable damage to the pearling fleets as well as to property on shore. 
 From this position on the north-west coast they then usually recurve inland, 
 gradually expanding in dimensions, and, travelling through the Murchison 
 and Coolgardie gold-fields, where they precipitate at times torrential rains, 
 finally pass into the Great Bight, thence following the course of the 
 southern depressions. 
 
 Whim Creek on the north-west coast has frequently received 10 inches 
 of rain from the passage inland of these hurricanes. On 3rd April, 1898, 
 29 • 41 inches were registered for the 24 hours, together with a fall of 7 ■ 08 
 on the previous day, a total of 36-49 inches within 48 hours. 
 
 The isobaric indications are a high-pressure system over sub-tropical 
 areas, and an incipient low on the north-west coast. When local barometers 
 show signs of falling with an easterly wind, conditions are conducive to the 
 development or approach of " willy willies," and precautions should be 
 taken accordingly. 
 
 A rapid fall with increasing force of wind from the east may be regarded 
 as a definite indication of a heavy blow. 
 
 The pearl divers affirm that 24 hours' notice is always given of the approach 
 of these storms by a sub-ocean swell, and mariners further say that the sky 
 assumes a pale-green aspect for a day or so before the hurricane arrives. 
 
 The hurricanes on the north-east coast occur most frequently between 
 January and April, but occasionally they may appear as late as June. I'he 
 embryo stage begins generally in the South Seas in latitude 8° or 10° S.; 
 they follow the same parabolic course as the western hurricanes, and 
 almost invariably strike the coast between 15° and 20° S. latitude, in 
 which zone they exhibit their most violent phases, but they not infrequently 
 first present themselves as far south as Brisbane, travelling thence down the 
 C.1215i L
 
 162 Federal Handbook. 
 
 east coast as far as Sydney, and finally passing off into the Tasman Sea. 
 The rain from these hurricanes is in all cases very heavy over coastal and 
 highland areas, over which their influence extends. 
 
 One of these hurricanes struck Port Douglas on 16th March, 1911. 
 Besides the loss of two lives it practically destroyed the township, together 
 with all the meteorological equipment, so that no local rain was recorded, 
 but at South Mosman, 8 miles distant, the total rain registered in 24 hours 
 was 16*10 inches, while during a similar visitation towards the end of the 
 month, over 63 inches fell at the same place in five days, distributed as 
 follows :— 3-44 on 30th ; 9 00 on 31st ; 31 53 on 1st April ; 13 74 on 7th ; 
 and 5-64 on the 3rd. During the fall of the 31-53 inches the following 
 measurements were recorded : — 8 • 28 inches in 7| hours, 9-70 in 3 hours, 
 3-93 in 2 hours, and 9 62 in 11^ hours. 
 
 The Admiralty Hydrographic Office, in 1897, published the following 
 remarks and advice concerning tropical hurricanes on the Queensland 
 coast : — 
 
 Tropical hurricanes on the coast of Queensland may be expected during 
 the summer months, namely, December, January, February, March, and the 
 early part of April. These storms appear to originate between latitudes 
 8° to 12° S., and between the meridians of 155° E. and 170° W. On reaching 
 the Queensland coast they may strike the land at any point between lati- 
 tudes 12° and 26° — that is, between Cape Grenville and Wide Bay. To the 
 southward of latitude 26° S. these storms break up into heavy gales. If, 
 during the summer months, and the early part of April, a heavy swell sets 
 in from north-east, and there is little or no wind at the time, bad weather 
 is certain, for the sea always is in advance of a cyclone. With the glass 
 steadily falling, heavy rains, and murky sky, winds between south-south- 
 east and east a cyclone may be expected. These storms may extend some 
 distance inland, but their centres do not often pass the coastal ranges, which 
 appear to repel them, and they usually emerge from the coast between 
 Broadsound and Cape Moreton. If the barometer is high over a considerable 
 portion of the coast, the storm will recurve some distance ofi" the land, and 
 the wind will be from south-east to south. If, on the contrary, the barometer 
 is low in front of the storm, it will blow home on the land as far as the coast 
 range, and cause floods. When this happens the first of the gale wiU be 
 southerly, the latter part northerly. The bearing of the storm centre will 
 be at right angles with the waves line. Thus, on a fine day if there is a 
 heavier sea than usual breaking on the beach, and it is coming from the 
 north-east, if the direction remains the same or nearly so, and the barometer 
 is not above 30 inches, the gale will blow home on the land, and the first 
 signs of bad weather will not precede the gale by more than 12 hours, but 
 if the direction of the swell changes to the eastward the storm is recurving, 
 and the body of it will not reach the land. When the swell is from the east 
 the storm centre is past ; when there is anything southing in the line of the 
 swell the storm has passed. No matter how threatening the weather signs 
 may be, if the line of swell comes first from the southward, there will be only 
 an ordinary south polar storm, with a low temperature.
 
 Australian Vegetation. 
 
 103 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN VEGETATION. 
 
 By J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., Government Botanist of New South Wales, and 
 Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. 
 
 Intbodttctoby ; Area ; the Geocol. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Botanical Statistics. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Vernacular Navies for Attstbalian 
 Plants. 
 
 
 4. 
 
 Some Problems of the Pastoral 
 Industry. 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 Weed Legislation. 
 
 13 
 
 6. 
 
 Ring BARKING. 
 
 14 
 
 7, 
 
 Destruction of Forests. 
 
 
 8. 
 
 Scrub and Brush. 
 
 
 9 
 
 Natural Hybrids. 
 
 
 10. 
 
 Use of the Term " Desert " in 
 Australia. Adaptation to En- 
 vironment. 
 
 
 11. 
 
 Origin of the Australian Flora. 
 (a) The Original Australian Ele- 
 ment. 
 
 
 (6) The Austro-Malayan (includ- 
 ing Papuan) Element. 
 (c) The Antarctic Element (so 
 
 called). 
 Affinities with the South African 
 
 Flora. 
 The Australian Flora as a Whole. 
 The Flora of the Indrtdual 
 States — 
 
 (a) Western Australia. 
 
 (b) South Australia (including 
 
 Part of the Northern 
 Territory). 
 
 (c) Victoria. 
 {d} Tasmania. 
 
 (e) New South Wales. 
 (/) Queensland. 
 
 1. Introductory; Area; the Qeocol. 
 
 The first impression of Australia is the vastness of its area — it covers about 
 3 millions (2,974,600) of square miles, the area of the United States being 
 2,973,890, while that of Europe is 3,860,368 square miles. 
 
 The population of Europe is approximately 452 millions ; that of Aus- 
 tralia being 4| millions ; while our island continent is infinitely less inter- 
 sected by gulfs, rivers, roads, and other means of communication. It is, 
 therefore, not to be surprised at that much country is imperfectly explored 
 botanically, and generalizations have often to take the place of the statements 
 of fact which are available in older and comparatively densely populated 
 territories. 
 
 A glance at a map of Australia will show that, with the exception of Tas- 
 mania, the boundaries of the States are almost entirely artificial and not 
 physical ones. If we contemplate the central State, South Australia, its 
 boundaries between Western Australia on the one hand, and Queensland, 
 New South Wales, and Victoria on the other, consist entirely of straight 
 lines, while most of the dividing line between New South Wales and Queens- 
 land is similarly artificial. 
 
 Nevertheless, it is found convenient in practice to register the records of 
 species according to the political divisions, and later on, vague as these records 
 are, and must be, as the interior boundaries are approached, it will be found 
 that they will facilitate the definition of truly scientific botanical areas, on 
 ecological and other lines. Much more attention requires to be paid to the 
 work of defining the range of individual plants, and it would be desirable 
 to see established throughout the continent agencies or outposts in touch 
 with organizations for the record of official or unofficial botanical surveys.
 
 164 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Australia has been divided by Gregory* into three main divisions. 
 
 1. The Western Plateau. — A vast plateau which comprises more than the 
 western half of the continent, formed of very ancient rocks, and which does 
 not appear to have been below sea-level during recent geological times, 
 except in the north-western part. On the north-west and south of the 
 Australia coast, plains skirt the foot of the plateau, containing marine rocks of 
 several distinct periods. Owing to the arid nature of the climate in the 
 interior, the surface of the remains of the plateau is generally level. 
 
 2. The Great Plains, extending from the Gulf of Carpentaria across the 
 continent to the Southern Ocean, between the mouth of the Murray and the 
 coast of Western Victoria. 
 
 3. The Eastern Highlands which occur between the Great Plains and the 
 eastern coast ; they extend from Cape York Peninsula on the north, to Bass' 
 Straits on the south, and are continued still farther by the island of Tasmania. 
 A smaller highland area joins the western plateau in the vicinity of Spencer's 
 and St. Vincent's Gulfs as far as Lake Torrens, the Flinders' Eange being the 
 highest land. 
 
 Griffith Taylor has put the classification into a somewhat different form — 
 (a) The Eastern Highlands. 
 (6) Murray-Darling Lowlands. 
 
 (c) South Australian Highlands and Rifts or the Cambrian Divide. 
 {d) The Great Artesian Basin, 
 (e) The Great Tableland or Plateau Region. 
 The Geocol. — Taylorf has applied the term Geocol to gaps in the Main 
 Divide of Eastern Australia. Thus there are northern, central, and southern 
 highlands or plateaus in New South Wales, which form " land massifs " and 
 which are separated from each other by broad relatively depressed areas 
 (geocols). He has given further particulars in regard to five geocols of south 
 east Australia and their influences on intercommunication. J 
 
 E. C. Andrews has also worked at the eastern Geocols, which are as 
 follows : — 
 
 1. The Ealmore, Victoria, Gap or Geocol is about 1,200 feet above 
 
 sea-level and a few miles wide. The Melbourne express passes 
 it about 60 miles from Melbourne. 
 
 2. The Cooma or Monaro Geocol, New South Wales, (or Australian 
 
 Rift, as Taylor has it), is about 2,000-2,600-3,000 feet above 
 sea-level, is of fair width, and stretches from Omeo through 
 Bombala to Cooma. 
 
 3. The Lake George Geocol, New South Wales, is about 2,000 feet 
 
 above sea-level. 
 
 4. The Cassilis or Hunter Geocol, New South Wales, is about 20-30 
 
 miles broad and 1,700 feet above sea-level, and is responsible for 
 the long dry loop extending from Gilgandra almost to Newcastle. 
 New England fi'om the head of the Allyn, the Chichester, and the 
 Paterson, to Cunningham's Gap (2,000 feet), in South Queens- 
 land, presents an excessively rough and high plateau front to 
 the coast. 
 
 • ' Geography, structural, physical, and comparative," p. 258 and plate XXIX. 
 
 t Proc. Unn. Soc, N.S.W., XXXI., 517 ; " Australia, physiographic and economic," p. 225. 
 
 i " Physiog. of Eastern Australia," Bulletin No. 8, Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology.
 
 Australian Vegetation. 
 
 165 
 
 5. Another broad gap occurs near Toowoomba, Queensland, and is 
 
 traversed by the Brisbane train from Toowoomba to Warwick. 
 Greatest height, 2,000 feet. 
 
 6. The Kockhampton-Longreach Railway, Queensland, also traverses 
 
 a gap about 1,500 feet in height. Its width is not known to the 
 writer. 
 
 7. The Cairns-Chillagoe Line, Queensland, rises on to the Kuranda 
 
 Gap (1,100 feet), which is in the form of a broad valley lying 
 between plateaus on each side. Heights from 4,000-5,000 
 feet. 
 
 8. The Townsville-Charters Towers Railway, Queensland, also passes 
 
 in a deep wide valley of low height between high ranges. 
 The number of gaps or geocols existent has not yet been determined, but 
 it is desirable to draw attention to their importance in regard to the distribu- 
 tion of plants. The writer has specially worked at the Cassilis geocol in 
 this connexion, and has a considerable list of western New South Wales 
 plants which have used this gap for the purpose of migrating towards the 
 coast. 
 
 2. Botanical Statistics. 
 
 Seven thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven species were described in 
 Bentham's Flora Australiensis. In 1889, at page 8 of his fourth supplement 
 to his Systematic Census of Australian Plants, Mueller gave the number of 
 vascular plants as 8,909 ; genera, 1,394 ; families, 149. 
 
 Divided into States, he gave — 
 
 3,559 
 
 South Australia 
 
 1,904 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 1,030 
 
 Victoria 
 
 1,904 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 3,260 
 
 Queensland . . 
 
 3,711 
 
 North Australia 
 
 1,977 
 
 Based on the work of the Government Botanists of the various States, 
 the following estimates of described species may be submitted as approxi- 
 mately true to-day ; if the present activity continues during the next few 
 years the numbers will be much increased. 
 
 Western Australia 
 
 South Australia 
 
 1,985 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 1,210 
 
 Victoria 
 
 2,000 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 3,600 
 
 Queensland . . 
 
 4,480 
 
 North Australia 
 
 2,050 
 
 Mueller includes the floras of Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, which 
 should be deducted from the total of 8,909 to the extent of about 92 species 
 peculiar to those islands ; we thus have 8,817 as Mueller's real total of Aus- 
 tralian plants irrespective of the numbers of plants found in individual 
 States.
 
 166 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 To this total may be added 1,856, the number of additional species of which 
 the present writer has record since the date of Mueller's Second Census. The 
 number is undoubtedly understated, since this record must be imperfect, 
 in spite of the fact that it is carefully kept. This makes the number of 
 phanerogams and vascular cryptogams recorded for Australia as 10,673. 
 
 Time has not been available to separate the additions into their various 
 States, nor to add to Mueller's totals of species for the various States, the 
 additions recorded by the writer to the States' localities of those species 
 as given in the Second Census. 
 
 Of this number (8,909) Mueller stated that 7,501 are endemic, and, of 
 the remaining 1,338, or 15 "1 per cent., there are found in Europe 160; Asia, 
 1,032; Africa, 515; America, 315; Polynesia, 558; New Zealand, 291. These 
 figures have not been brought up to date. 
 
 Mueller gave the following families with species as under (all after the 
 plus marks are the writer's) 
 
 1. Leguminosae 
 
 2. MyrtacesE 
 
 3. Proteaceae 
 
 4. Compositae 
 
 5. Cyperaceae 
 
 6. Gramineae 
 
 7. Orchideae 
 
 8. Epacridaceae 
 
 9. Euphorbiaceae 
 
 10. Goodeniaceae 
 
 11. Filices . . 
 
 12. Rutaceae 
 
 13. Liliaceae 
 
 14. Rubiaceae 
 
 15. Sterculiaceae 
 
 16. Labiatae 
 
 17. Chenopodiaceae (Salsolaceae) 
 
 18. Malvaceae 
 
 19. Umbelliferae 
 
 20. Sapindaceae 
 
 21. Amarantaceae 
 
 Below this there is no great break, the list ending with fourteen families, 
 with, so far, only one species each. 
 
 It will be observed that these additional numbers of species since 
 described alter the sequence somewhat. Thus the activity of botanists 
 dealing with the Orchideae raises that family above both the Gramineae and 
 the Cyperaceae, its position and that of the Cyperaceae being transposed. 
 Thus Orchidacese now should have fifth place, Cyperaceae seventh. Goodeni- 
 aceae now comes ninth, Filices tenth, Euphorbiaceae eleventh. Sterculiaceae 
 now occupies the fourteenth place, Labiatae fifteenth, Rubiaceae sixteenth, 
 Chenopodiaceae seventeenth, Umbelliferae eighteenth, Sapindaceae nineteenth, 
 Malvaceae twentieth, Amarantaceae twenty-first. 
 
 1,084 + 
 
 192 = 
 
 1,276 (1) 
 
 666 + 
 
 150 = 
 
 816 (2) 
 
 599 -f- 
 
 68 = 
 
 667 (3) 
 
 541 + 
 
 94 - 
 
 635 (4) 
 
 379 + 
 
 42 = 
 
 421 (7) 
 
 352 + 
 
 81 = 
 
 433 (6) 
 
 287 + 
 
 152 = 
 
 439 (5) 
 
 275 + 
 
 26 = 
 
 301 (8) 
 
 226 -f- 
 
 25 - 
 
 251 (11) 
 
 219 + 
 
 75 = 
 
 294 (9) 
 
 212 -t- 
 
 43 = 
 
 255 (10) 
 
 190 + 
 
 42 = 
 
 232 (12) 
 
 163 -f- 
 
 26 = 
 
 189 (13) 
 
 127 -1- 
 
 20 = 
 
 147 (16) 
 
 125 + 
 
 30 = 
 
 155 (14) 
 
 125 + 
 
 23 = 
 
 148 (15) 
 
 113 + 
 
 33 = 
 
 146 (17) 
 
 110 -f- 
 
 13 = 
 
 123 (20) 
 
 107 + 
 
 38 - 
 
 145 (18) 
 
 101 -t- 
 
 25 = 
 
 126 (19) 
 
 100 + 
 
 19 = 
 
 119 (21)
 
 Australian Vegetation. 167 
 
 Some of the largest genera comprise the following species (in some cases 
 the numbers are approximations, the writer having been unable to critically 
 examine them) : — 
 
 Acacia, 412 ; Eucalyptus, 230 ; Grevillea, 193 ; Styphelia (in the 
 Muellerian sense), 193 ; Melaleitca, 112 ; Candollea [Stylidium), 
 112 ; Goodenia, 112 ; Hakea, 107 ; Hibbertia, 104 ; Pultencea, 
 93 ; EremophUa, 91 ; Schoenus, 77 ; Pimelea, 76 ; Ptilotus, 76 ; 
 Panicum, 75 ; Boronia, 72 ; Eriostemon (in the Muellerian sense), 
 72 ; Cyperus, 72 ; Aster, 71 ; Helichrysum, 70 ; Sccevola, 68 ; 
 BcBchea, 66 ; Daviesia, 64 ; Cryptandra, 63 ; Drosera, 62 ; Per- 
 soonia, 62 ; Ficus, 62 ; Fimbristylis, 58 ; Haloragis, 56 ; Solanum, 
 55 ; Helipterum, 53 ; Dodoncea, 51 ; Prostanthera, 50 ; PA?/^ 
 lanthiis, 50 ; Dryandra, 49 ; Banksia, 48 ; Dendrobium, 45 ; 
 Jacksonia, 44 ; Brachycome, 41 ; Bossicea, 41 ; Hibiscus, 39 ; 
 Gastrolobium, 37 ; Lasiopetalum, 35. 
 
 Approximately 700 species have been recorded in lists of species recorded 
 under States, as common to western and eastern Australia, but because of 
 the vagueness of the State boundaries already referred to, and because of 
 the imperfection of the record, especially as the interior is reached, such 
 statistics are very imperfect, and certainly of limited value unless recorded 
 for definite plant-zones. 
 
 The genera (taking cognisance only of those represented in the 700 by 4 
 or more species) include Sida, Abutilon, Dodoncea, Claytonia, Ptilotus, Atriplex, 
 Rhagodia, Kochia, Bassia, Salicornia, Pimelea, Swainsona, Cassia, Acacia, 
 Haloragis, Melaleuca, Eucalyptus, Hydrocotyle, Loranthus, Brachycome, Aster, 
 Helipterum, Helichrysum, Angianthus, Senecio, Goodenia, Eremophila, Myo- 
 porum, Styphelia, Pterostylis, Xerotes, Triglochin, J uncus, Centrolepis, Cyperus, 
 Scirpus, Gahnia, Carex, Panicum, Andropogon, Stipa, Poa, Eragrostis. 
 
 Few of the genera are confined to country of low rainfall, but the species 
 contained in the 700 and comprised in the above genera are preponderatingly 
 those of country of low rainfall, and it would be interesting to endeavour to 
 ascertain how far west from the South Australian border the species extend 
 into Western Australia, and how far east from the South Australian border 
 the same species extend into Queensland and New South Wales. 
 
 3. Vernacular Names for Australian Plants. 
 
 The person who complains (without qualification) of the confusion of 
 common names applied to Australian plants, sometimes loses sight of the 
 fact that Australia is as large as Em'ope, and that even in Em'ope the appli- 
 cation of vernacular names to plants is often profuse and bewildering. The 
 Briton, Greek, and Scandinavian have different languages of course, but their 
 plant names are (like those of Australians) often uncertain and difficult of 
 mterchange. Our difficulties have arisen partly because the continent only 
 began to be settled about a century and a third ago, and then by a handful 
 of people, very few of whom were educated ; they came to a continent whose 
 flora was unknown, even to botanists, and, as they spread into new areas 
 they gave similar names to trees which appeared to them to be similar, and 
 which, in most cases, have only recently been shown to be different.
 
 168 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The predominant vegetation (Eucalyptus) has a very similar facies, and 
 it is not to be wondered at that the ordinary citizen has shown no greater 
 knowledge of it than the botanist. 
 
 Then again the early colonists had a limited vernacvdar, because they could 
 only use comparative terms, and the trouble was that the plants of their 
 native countries were about as unlike those of their new homes as it was 
 possible for them to be. 
 
 Even the aboriginal owners of the soil were split up into tribes with 
 different languages, and in the comparatively few cases in which they had 
 names for plants at all, these names did not pass current over large areas. 
 
 In some cases the aboriginal names have been adopted by the white 
 population. Some attempt has been made to standardize the vernaculars 
 for Australian plants, but the chief diificulty arises from the fact that all over 
 the world experience shows that most plant names are restricted to small 
 areas. However, with the spread of education, it is confidently expected 
 that the use of botanical names, at least as to genus, will present fewer 
 difficulties. Of course, it must be borne in mind that the study of natural 
 history has an attraction for only a limited portion of the population, while 
 of the naturalists but few take special interest in plants, and fewer still 
 in their vernacular nomenclature. 
 
 4. Some Problems of the Pastoral Industry. 
 
 Australia is a great pastoral country, and, as in other countries, a small 
 percentage of sheep and cattle is lost every year through their feeding on 
 certain plants. Further investigations are being carried out on this subject, 
 but the following facts may be stated : — 
 
 1. Certain forage plants (grasses and others) contain cyanogenetic 
 
 glucosides. Poisonous results take place at certain seasons of 
 the year (though perhaps not every year), as regards the same 
 plant in a given area. 
 
 2. A few plants contain saponins and even more virulent poisons, 
 
 e.g., certain Leguminosse {Gastrolobium, Isotropis, Oxylohium), 
 particularly in Western Australia. 
 
 3. Some succulent plants, e.g., Euphorbia Drummondii.. Boiss, are 
 
 apparently responsible for many deaths among stock, but it 
 has been shown that the cause of death is hoven, and that 
 only tired and hungry animals, which eat immoderately, are 
 affected by them. 
 
 4. Certain Leguminosse (Swainsona) derange the nervous systems of 
 
 stock eating them ; the animals develop an inordinate 
 appetite for the plants, eventually becoming so-called Pea-eaters, 
 or Indigo-eaters, and absolutely useless to the owner, death 
 finally supervening. The symptoms are analogous to those 
 known as Lathyrism, Nenta, Loco disease, in other parts of the 
 world. 
 The United States, South America, and South Africa have problems of 
 a like nature before them, and the difficulty is not solved when the plant- 
 culprit, be it poisonous or not, is detected. The problem to be solved is how
 
 Australian Vegetation. 169 
 
 to prevent the deaths of stock by applying either a preventative or an antidote. 
 With large flocks and herds spread over large areas, individual treatment 
 has special practical difficulties of its own. 
 
 It is a very common and empirical practice to attribute the deaths of stock 
 to poison plants. As a matter of fact, Australia appears to possess singularly 
 few poison plants which are injurious to stock, or which contain active 
 principles which may be utilized as drugs. 
 
 5. Weed Legislation. 
 
 As Australia becomes developed, there is an increasing tendency in all 
 the States to increase local self-government, and coping with weeds becomes 
 usually one of the functions of local bodies. The underlying idea is that 
 local people know what plants are most noxious to them, and the function 
 of the State Governments is indorsement of their recommendations for 
 proscription of specific weeds, subject to power of veto. This affords the 
 necessary Government control, preventing local bodies, which may not have 
 special knowledge, taking action prejudicial to their own interests. 
 
 The Prickly Pear (Opuntia) is dealt with by special legislation, both in 
 New South Wales and Queensland. What has been stated so far refers to 
 weeds after they have got a footing in Australia. 
 
 To prevent the entry of undesirable plants into the Commonwealth, the 
 Federal Government in 1908 passed " An Act relating to Quarantine." An 
 Appendix to this Act forbids the entry of plants affected by certain diseases 
 (chiefly caused by fungi), and mostly affecting economic plants. Another 
 Appendix prohibits certain weeds. These weeds have, however, already 
 got a firm hold in the Commonwealth, and some are very widely diffused ; 
 the object is to put difficulties in the way of the importation of known pests 
 into clean areas, leaving the circulation of weed-pests already in the Common- 
 wealth the business of the State Governments. 
 
 Many of the Australian weeds were introduced into the country in the very 
 first years of settlement. They came from Britain in the packing of goods 
 sent in the first fleet, from Rio de Janeiro, the Cape, and Calcutta, the two 
 former being ports of call on the outward voyage, and the two latter being 
 visited from Sydney for food supplies. Later on a trade in horses with Chilian 
 ports was responsible for the introduction of such pi mts as Xanthium 
 spinosum. 
 
 As time went by, no restriction of any kind was placed on the introduction 
 of plants, and gradually the varieties of weeds increased to the present for- 
 midable total, and, being let loose on a virgin continent, brought about 
 unexpected results. 
 
 The importation of enormous fodder supplies during periods of drought 
 has been a prolific source of introduction of weed seeds, not only from various 
 parts of the continent enjoying a good season, but also from beyond seas. 
 All the States contain large areas of unalienated lands, and these are sometimes 
 an Alsatia for weeds, to the prejudice of the adjoining private owner. With 
 the increase of population, this difficulty will largely disappear. 
 
 Prickly Pear. — Members who visit the valley of the Hunter and north- 
 western New South Wales and Queensland can scarcely avoid seeing the pes^ 
 known as Prickly Pear, for its spread is one of the most remarkable instances
 
 170 Federal Handbook. 
 
 of plant-aggressiveness known in any part of the world. A form of Opuntia 
 inermis, P. DC, has already devastated these two States to such an extent 
 as to cause both Governments real anxiety, for the efforts of man have not 
 stemmed the rapidity of spread to any considerable extent. In New South 
 Wales there are about 2, -500, 000 acres of pear-infested country, and two years 
 ago a IMinister of the Crown estimated the cost of eradicating the pear in 
 that State to be ten or twelve millions sterling. In Queensland, it is stated 
 that 30,000,000 acres are affected, and further, that the spread is one million 
 acres per year. This never-ending advance of the pest is its most serious 
 feature. 
 
 What has given pear its chance is the fact that in Australia it has practi- 
 cally a virgin continent in which to spread. It does not attain its best 
 development in the coastal districts, which have a comparatively high rain- 
 fall, and a fairly dense population. In the regions climatically suited to it, 
 there are but few people, and in broken country it gets a practically impreg- 
 nable hold. So tenacious of life is it, and so adapted to its environment, 
 that so far no economical method of destruction has been discovered, and the 
 difficulty of the problem is enormously increased by the fact that the sides 
 and tops of hills, gullies, country fissured and difficult of access, have to 
 be left as breeding-places for the pest. 
 
 Less than a dozen species of Opuntia have escaped from cultivation and 
 spread to any extent, but all the others put together have not spread a 
 millionth as much as the species designated by the writer as Pest-pear. 
 
 Prickly Pear was introduced to Australia (the number of species is 
 unknown) from Rio de Janeiro, when Governor Philip touched at that port 
 of his outward voyage in 1789, being brought as food for the cochineal insect 
 he desired to introduce with the object of founding an industry. 
 
 0. aurantiaca, GUlies, is a small spiny species with brittle joints, wliich 
 is spreading both in New South Wales and Queensland, and is a pest also. 
 Its brittleness and spininess combine to make it a plant to be dreaded. Under 
 the name of " Jointed Cactus " it is a pest in South Africa. 
 
 0. imbricata, P. DC, a cylindrical species with pink flowers, is confined 
 to moderately cool districts in New South Wales ; while 0. Dillenii, P. DC, 
 a formidable species, and Opuntia {Nopalea) dejecta, Salm-Dyck, are confined 
 to Queensland so ter. 
 
 0. nigricans, Haw., and 0. monacantha. Haw., coarse spiny species, occur 
 both in New South Wales and Queensland. 
 
 0. tomentosa, Salm-Dyck, a tall, dark-looking species covered with a 
 velvety tomentum, is wild in Queensland and northern South Australia, 
 but is not looked upon as a pest. 0. jicus-indica. Mill., the " Barbary Fig," 
 is well acclimatised and yields an edible fruit. There are a few other species 
 of less importance. 
 
 It is not easy to understand why one species or other of Opuntia has not 
 spread in one of the other States, but such is the fact, 0. monacantha being 
 the only formidable species which is acclimatised in Victoria, South and 
 Western Australia, and only to a very limited extent. 
 
 The Pest-pear has a partiality for good soil, and is far less formidable 
 in appearance than some of the species just enumerated. It is not tall, 
 for the tall species have distinct and separate stems, while this species has
 
 Australian Vegetation. 171 
 
 ramifying stems hard to disentangle and get at ; it has comparatively few 
 spines, but what are really feared are its barbed spinules, which are produced 
 abundantly, and cause severe irritation in man and beast. Added to these 
 it has a fatal facility for reproduction, being propagated by birds and stock 
 which eat the seeds, while every joint or portion of one forms a new plant. 
 
 Eichhornia speciosa, Kunth., the so-called " AVater Hyacinth," originally 
 imported fi'om Europe as an ornamental plant, has shown itself very adapted 
 to Australian conditions, and from northern New South Wales to central 
 Queensland is filling lagoons and clogging water-courses, inflicting very 
 severe damage where fresh water for drinking purposes in lagoons and creeks 
 is especially valuable, to say nothing of the interference it is causing to navi- 
 gation in even moderately large rivers. 
 
 Some of our worst weeds include Bathurst Burr {XantJdum spinosum, L.), 
 Noogoora Burr {X. strumarium), Sweet Briar [Rosa ruhiginosa, L.), Black- 
 berry {Ruhus jruticosus, L.), Lantana [Lantana Caniara, L.), Prickly Pear 
 (Opimtia spp.), Star Thistle {Centaurea calcitrapa, L.), and other species of 
 Centaurea, Black Thistle {Carduus lanceolatus, L.), Cape Weed [Crypto- 
 stemma calendulaceum, R. Br.), Stinkwort [Inula graveolens, Desf.), Sorrel 
 {Rumex acetosella, L.), Dock (Rumex crispus, L.), and other species. Purple- 
 top (Verbena honariensis, L.), and others, Corn Gromwell [Lithospermum 
 arvense, L.), Yellow Poppy (Argemone mexicana,Jj.), Tree Tobacco (Nicotiana 
 glauca, Grah.), Mallow Weed {Modiola caroliniana, L.), Thorn Apple (Datura 
 stramonium, L.), Nut G-rass (Cyperus roticndus, L.), Wild Oats (Avena fatua, 
 L.). 
 
 6. Ringbarking. 
 
 Visitors to Australia will be interested to see the enormous areas of forest 
 land which have been subjected to the process of ringbarking or girdling. 
 In the utilization of land for arable purposes the trees are usually removed 
 altogether, but over large pastoral areas the lives of the trees have been 
 sacrificed simply in order that the grass may grow ; in many cases not because 
 of the injury caused to the gi'ass by the shade of the canopy, wliich is often 
 small, but because the trees compete with the herbage for the plant food 
 and moisture. 
 
 Most of the trees being durable hardwoods, they die as they stand, and 
 may expose their gaunt arms and grey trunks for up to half-a-century and 
 even more, littering the pasture until such time as fungi, beetles, and tlie 
 elements combine to reduce them again to mother earth. 
 
 7. Destruction of Forests. 
 
 The deliberate destruction has arisen from two causes — (1) the destruction 
 of trees to convert them into timber ; and (2) the destruction of trees and 
 shrubs in the formation or improvenrent of pastoral and arable land. 
 
 In (1) the requirements of engineering and mining works, building, fencing, 
 furniture, etc., have to be provided for. Under (2) the burning off has been 
 incessant, but a fair percentage of dead timber has been converted into 
 household fuel in the vicinity of towns. In Western Australia the cutting 
 of green timber for fuel purposes in the vicinity of the gold-fields is, because 
 of the local scarcity of coal, carried out to an extent unknown in eastern
 
 172 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Australia. Since the removal of all large timber in the vicinity oi the gold- 
 fields areas is complete, data should be obtainable in regard to the rate of 
 growth of many species in definite areas, natural re-afforestation being usually 
 allowed to proceed. In South Australia alone there are large forest planta- 
 tions, this being largely a treeless State. Victoria and New South Wales 
 are doing some planting. 
 
 The compensating extent of natural re-afforestation is considerable, 
 although sometimes lost sight of. Some species, e.g., Eucalyptus pilularis, 
 Sm., re-afforest rapidly in forest land, and it is believed that the seeds of 
 forest trees, which pass through sheep and cattle, and which are trampled 
 into the soil, are responsible for the conversion of large areas of grass land 
 into forest in the eastern States. 
 
 The removal of the trees of a forest destroys the plant equilibrium, and 
 interesting changes, which, however, cannot be discussed at this point, take 
 place, particularly in the brush. 
 
 8. Scrub and Brush. 
 
 The term scrub has something of inferiority in its meaning, referring 
 primarily to small or stunted vegetation, whether of trees or shrubs ; in 
 Queensland, it has become applied to the luxuriant vegetation of the jungle. In 
 New South Wales it is applied more generally to the comparatively sparse 
 vegetation of the more sterile areas, such as those of the sandstone and 
 granite. It is also applied to the open forest, in which the species are more 
 gregarious as a rule than those of the brush. 
 
 The Brush. — The brush corresponds to what in India is called jungle, 
 and consist?! -^f well-watered rich-soil areas, chiefly in the coast belt and coast 
 table- lands of eastern Australia, which support not only rich arboreal vege- 
 tation, but also creepers and climbers of various kinds, and shrubby under- 
 growth. The tree vegetation is of the most varied character {e.g., Meliaceae, 
 Sapindacese, Saxifragacese, Cunoniacese, Lauraceae, Monimiaceae, Coniferse 
 (Podocarpus), Taxacese {Araucaria and Callitris), but rarely includes Euca- 
 lypts. The term brush is almost entirely confined to New South Wales 
 and Queensland ; in New South Wales it is used largely ; in Queensland 
 the term scrub is often substituted. 
 
 In the brush forests of the northern coastal districts of New South Wales 
 and coastal Queensland generally, the buttress-stem is often seen. Frequently 
 these buttresses are of considerable size ; nearly vertical and quite thin, almost 
 like stalls in a stable. They are commonly seen in Figs (Ficus), and also 
 Yellow Carabeen {Sloanea Woollsii, F. v. M.), Booyong {Tarrietia argyro- 
 dendron, Benth.), Red Cedar {Cedrela Toona), She Beech {Cryptocarya spp.), 
 Marara ( Weinmannia Benthami. F. v. M.), and many others. Sometimes these 
 buttresses extend in fantastic shapes along the ground and, in the case of the 
 Yellow Carabeen, they may be so delicate as to be not more than an inch 
 thick where they enter the ground. 
 
 They form natural struts to the trees in areas of well-watered good soil 
 and warm temperature, where the competition amongst tree individuals is 
 very keen. Very long trunks run up towards the light and, even with their 
 diminished crowns, the leverage of such long stems renders the buttress 
 essential to the stability of the tree.
 
 AUSTRALTAN VEGETATION. 173 
 
 Lianes are not unusual in the brushes, being generally the stems of a species 
 of Vitis ; these contain water, and the bushman cuts them into lengths and 
 more siio obtains drinking-water from them. They grow in the warmer 
 coastal brushes, where the rainfall is good ; at the same time, running water 
 may be as much as a few miles away. 
 
 In moderately dry and very dry country the aborigines, and the white 
 men on occasion, dig up the roots of certain trees, and obtain sufficient 
 drinking water therefrom. The trees usually employed are certain Mallees 
 or dwarf Eucalypts, particularly E. incrassata, Labill., var. dumosa, and 
 E. oleosa, F. v. M., also Hakea leiccoptera, F. v. M. (one of the needle-bushes), 
 Casuarina Decaisneana, F. v. M. (a Desert Oak). 
 
 9. Natural Hybrids. 
 
 Bentham (B. Fl.) wrote that little as we know of the influence of natural 
 hybridism in Europe, it has been still less, if ever, observed in Australia. 
 
 This statement is not as true to-day, as regards either Europe or Australia, 
 as when it was written, and some observations are now available, particularly 
 in connexion with Eucalyptus. Care must of course be taken that the 
 attribution of natural hybridization is not a too hurried jumping to con- 
 clusions without adequate evidence. 
 
 The subject demands careful field knowledge, and it would appear that 
 the phenomenon has already been proved, without reasonable doubt, in a 
 number of cases, chiefly Eucalyptus, and attention is briefly drawn to the 
 matter because of its very great importance. 
 
 10. Use of the Term "Desert" in Australia. 
 
 The underlying meaning of this word is absence of vegetation, and 
 classical examples are those of the Sahara of North Africa, and the Gobi 
 desert of Central Asia. 
 
 In Central Australia there are extensive regions of low or intermittent 
 rainfall, some of moving sandliills and, especially towards the centre and west, 
 of saline depressions, but very much of the country referred to as desert 
 in the old maps is not desert in the strict sense, since it sustains a more or 
 less sparse vegetation, with trees here and there, while immediately after rain 
 innumerable plants spring up, carpeting the country side with individuals 
 of Gramineae, Compositge, {e.g., Helipterum, Helichrysum, etc., wliite, pink, 
 yellow, and even other colours), Salsolaceae, Goodeniacese {e.g., Velleia rosea, 
 S. le M. Moore, and Goodenia spp.), Amarantaceye (purple and pink Ptilotus), 
 Cruciferse, etc. 
 
 The truly riverless area is chiefly comprised in eastern Western Australia 
 and the southern portion of the Northern Territory, while the Salt-lake 
 system, in which a large number of rivers do not find their way to the coast, 
 but terminate in Lake Eyre, is a considerable area a little east of the centre 
 of the continent. 
 
 These areas .support a most interesting xerophytic vegetation, and strips 
 throughout the so-called desert are pastoral country, supporting both grass 
 and edible shrubs. It is interesting to note how year by year the " wheat 
 line " in all the mainland States has been pushed into the " desert," and 
 man is getting remunerative crops from regions of low rainfall and light sandy 
 soil which would have been looked upon as chimerical a decade ago. In
 
 174 Federal Handbook. 
 
 other words, the " desert " land is shrinking year by year, and a factor to aid 
 this shrinkage will be the Port Augusta-Kalgoorlie railway line, which will 
 link Western Australia mth the eastern States. It is not possible, however, 
 that any considerable number of visiting botanists can find time to study 
 our " desert " on the spot, and the subject cannot be dealt with at all 
 fully in this general article. 
 
 The permanent plants of the arid country are dependent on subterranean 
 water, the catchment and storage of some of these supplies being both very 
 small and purely local. In addition to these local supplies, dependent on 
 the very intermittent rainfall, there are the vast artesian accumulations, 
 the relation of which to the vegetation they support will furnish the student 
 with an interesting subject for investigation. In Western Australia local 
 natural water supplies, very circumscribed in area, are known as " soaks," 
 and frequently form oases around which there is a specially interesting 
 vegetation. 
 
 Vast areas of Australia have only, as regards the vegetation, two kinds 
 of season, the dry and the rainy. The rainy season may be only a few days 
 in the whole year, or, it may be, as it usually is, intercalated with dry 
 periods. When these showers come, the surface of the ground is changed 
 as if by magic, bright carpets of the small plants already referred to covering 
 the ground with uniformity over large areas ; these quickly mature, develop 
 seeds, and perish, being represented by the seeds alone, until the next period 
 of their life-cycle arrives with a further supply of rain. In many of these 
 regions of small and intermittent rainfall it is obvious that no recorders of 
 rainfall are present, and the only practicable method a student has, is to 
 arrange with some one living in the vicinity to notify him by telegraph of a 
 local rainfall, in order that he may hasten to the spot without delay. 
 
 Adaptation to Environment. — The adaptation to environment of desert 
 plants in Australia, and particularly those of Western Australia, has been 
 ably dealt with by Mr. S. le M. Moore, and doubtless our visitors will specially 
 examine the characters of xerophilous plants in all parts of the continent 
 conveniently accessible to them. Space only allows the briefest reference 
 to the subject here. Henslow quotes Volkens as stating that certain xerophil- 
 ous plants covered with a resinous substance, which prevents a too energetic 
 transpiration, are peculiar to the Southern Hemisphere. Examples out of 
 very many are Beyeria viscosa, Eucryphia Billardieri (Pinkwood of Tasmania), 
 Dodonaea and Acacia of various species ; the roots of various Gramineae. 
 
 The young shoots of Angophoras and of the Corymbosse section of Euca- 
 lypts are protected by a covering which contains caoutchouc. 
 
 The Blanket plants (Lachnostachys) of Western Australia are especially 
 woolly, and so are the allied genera Newcastlia and Dicrastylis. Many 
 Composites and Malvaceous plants are, with many others, very hirsute. 
 These non-conducting coverings hinder the transpiration of moisture. 
 
 Instances of aphylly are very numerous, and are afforded by such plants 
 as — 
 
 Native Cherry (Exocarpus), Cypress Pine {CalUtris), She Oaks 
 (Casuarina), Apophyllum anomalum, Tetratheca juncea, Comes- 
 perma of various species, Daviesia alata, Sphcerolobium vimineum, 
 Viminaria denudata, Amperoea spartioides, and many others.
 
 Australian Vegetation. 175 
 
 There are also many succulent plants belonging to the families Zygo- 
 phylleae, Portulacacese, Ficoidese, Crassulaceae, Salsolacese, Euphorbiaceae 
 {Euphorbia, &c.), Asclepiadacese {D(Bmia, Sarcostemma). 
 
 Some plants have water-storing cells in stems or in roots, or in both. 
 Notable examples are the Kurrajong {BmcJiy chiton populneus, R. Br.), widely 
 distributed, and the Bottle Tree {B. Delabechii, F. v. M., or Sterculia rupestris, 
 Benth.), found in Queensland, and so called from its ludicrous resemblance 
 to a gigantic lemonade bottle. These are not only water bearing as regards 
 their stems, but also have succulent roots, which are sometimes eaten by 
 the aborigines. In North-western Australia the Gouty Stem [Adansonia 
 Gregorii, F. v. M.) is to be found, a characteristic feature of the landscape, 
 while a second species {A. Hanhuryana, Hochr.) has recently been described. 
 Reference has already been made to the so-called water-bearing trees. 
 
 II. Origin of the Australian Flora. 
 (a) The Original Australian Element. 
 
 Wallace observes that South-western Australia is the remnant of the 
 more extensive and more isolated portion of the continent in which the 
 peculiar Australian flora was principally developed. He suggests that the 
 existence there of a very large area of granite (800 miles in length by nearly 
 500 in maximum width, with detached masses 200 miles to the north and 500 
 miles to the east), indicates such an extension ; for these granitic masses 
 were certainly once bm*ied under piles of stratified rock, since denuded, 
 and then formed the nucleus of the old Western Australian continent.* 
 
 He further states that while this rich and peculiar flora was in process of 
 formation, the eastern portion of the continent must either have been widely 
 separated from the western, or had perhaps not yet risen from the ocean. 
 
 In Cretaceous times and far into the Tertiary, there was no Australian 
 continent in existence, but instead, a crescentic wide belt of sea forming 
 an archipelago, consisting of two main islands to the north, one large island, 
 and some smaller ones to the south, and another to the north-east.f 
 
 The distribution of land and sea in the Cretaceous period is shown by 
 Jensen, J based on David's maps, and during that period the Rolling Downs 
 formations were laid down. The sea extended from Cape York from south 
 to north of Queensland, extending over most of its area, except in the east, and 
 covering a considerable portion of northern South Australia and north- 
 western New South Wales. 
 
 This later map differs fi'om Wallace's chiefly as regards his continuous 
 eastern land area (almost the Torresian and Bassian sub-regions of Spencer, 
 see below), and the deflection of Wallace's sea to the north-west. Jensen 
 remarks that the Cretaceous sea was probably connected with the ocean, 
 both to the south and to the north ; thus an aqueous barrier between west and 
 east is understood, which is what Wallace postulated. 
 
 Speaking of the disappearance of the Cretaceous basin, which caused a 
 migration of the hardy plants {Eucalyptus, Proteacese, etc.), which had 
 developed on the barren soils of Western Australia into eastern parts, where 
 
 • " Island Life," 2n(l EU., 494. 
 
 t See Wallace's map at p. 497, op. cil. 
 
 t I'roc. U.S., Q., xxiii., Fiix. 9.
 
 176 Federal Handbook. 
 
 they expelled and subdued the Indo-Malaysian type of flora, Jensen* points 
 out that there is evidence that the plants they drove back were largely 
 Lauracefc in the fossil leaves of the older deep leads and the trachytic tuffs 
 of the Warrumbungles of New South Wales. 
 
 Tate, in 1888,t divided the Australian endemic flora into three types — 
 
 1. Euronotian, occupying the coastal area of the north-east and south- 
 
 east, its internal boundary coinciding with the rainfall limit 
 of 25-50 inches per annum. 
 
 The type flora of this is dominant in the south and east 
 part of the continent. 
 
 2. Autochihonian, a small region restricted to the south-west corner 
 
 of the continent, its internal boundary also coinciding with the 
 same rainfall limit in this part. 
 
 3. Eremian, occupying a large stretch of country, centering in Lake 
 
 Eyre, but extending right across the continent to the shores 
 of Western Australia and over which the average rainfall is over 
 10 inches per annum. 
 Besides this endemic flora, what he styles an " immigrant " flora has 
 two constituents — 
 
 (a) Oriental, dominant in the littoral tracts, but mixed there with 
 
 typical Australian genera. 
 
 (b) Andean, restricted for the most part to the highlands of New South 
 
 Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, and with this he includes north 
 temperate forms, i.e., species characteristic of north temperate 
 regions. 
 Mr. C. HedleyJ pointed out that the regions suggested by Tate as suitable 
 in the case of plants were not equally suitable in the case of animals. Accept- 
 ing (1) and (2), he suggested that (3) should be di^dded into two, and suggests 
 that for Tasmania, Victoria, and southern New South Wales the name 
 Euronotian should be retained, whilst for the second portion of the division, 
 including Queensland and northern New South Wales, he suggested the name 
 Papuan. 
 
 Baldwin Spencer (also on zoological grounds) modifies Tate's proposals, 
 suggesting § a high Eyresian sub-region, including the greater part of the 
 continent, with a Torresian (Papuan) sub-region, including Papua, North 
 Australia, and eastern Queensland as far south as the Clarence River (near 
 the Queensland New South Wales boundary), while his Bassian sub-region 
 includes Tasmania, Victoria, and eastern New South Wales. 
 
 To whatever extent some of Wallace's conclusions in regard to the relations 
 of the Australian flora in the present and past epochs may have been 
 defective, owing to the imperfection of our geological knowledge at the time, 
 (and both Messrs. C. Hedley|| and S. le M. Moore^ have ably criticised them), 
 the point of most importance is, as Professor Baldwin Spencer has pointed 
 out, demonstration of the fact that for a long period of time the east and 
 west parts of the continent were separated from each other by an 
 
 • Op. cU., p. 189. 
 
 t Proc. AuDt. Ausn. Adv. Sci., i. 312, &c. 
 j Proc. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., V. 444. 
 § Horn Exped. Rep. Pt. i., 197. 
 II " Loc. cit.'' 
 t " Natural Science," XV., 198 (1899).
 
 Australian Vegetation. 177 
 
 impenetrable barrier of some description. The original division of the 
 continent into a western and eastern half, the former containing the 
 Autochthonian constituent, is generally admitted, and most authors agree 
 that the separation took place in Cretaceous times. 
 
 Tate says the Eremian flora was developed in Central Australia in Pliocene 
 times from Autochthonian and Euronotian elements, and was largely modified 
 by Oriental immigrants. 
 
 Tertiary Flora. — von Ettingshausen recorded Eucalyptus and Metro- 
 sideros in the Eocene beds of Sheppey, England, and Pimelea, Leptomeria, 
 and four genera of Proteacese were recorded by Heer in the IMiocene of 
 vSwitzerland. Fm-ther, Ettingshausen believed he found 55 Australian forms 
 in the Eocene beds of Haring (? Belgium). Hooker wrote to Wallace that 
 he considered these determinations worthless, and Bentham disapproves of 
 similar identifications by Heer and Unger. Indeed it was for some time 
 held that the European Tertiary flora contained Alnus, Betula, Quercus, 
 Sequoia, Acer, Pinus, and other genera peculiar to the Northern Hemisphere, 
 together with Casuarina, Grevillea, Banksia, Dryandra, Leptomeria, Eucalyp- 
 tus, and other genera peculiar to the Southern Hemisphere. 
 
 Turning to the Antipodes, Ettingshausen* records many European forms 
 in the Tertiary of Australia, but Deane| firmly disputes the accuracy of 
 certain of the determinations, wliile, referring to the European ones, Hemsleyf 
 says that until more conclusive testimony is forthcoming of the former 
 existence of Proteaceee, Eucaljrpti, etc., in Em'ope, we cannot avoid the 
 conviction that they originated in the south. 
 
 In the opinion of the most experienced botanists in Australia the botanical 
 determinations and deductions built by some palaeo-botanists upon mere 
 leaf impressions are to be regretted. Except in the case of very characteris- 
 tic material, botanists who deal with the existing flora usually ask to be 
 excused from determining a plant on a leaf only. 
 
 (b) The Austro=Malayan (including Papuan) Element. 
 Bentham§ observes that the predominant portion of om- vegetation 
 appears to be strictly indigenous, and that the great mass of purely Australian 
 species and endemic genera must have originated or been differentiated in 
 Australia, and adds that it never spread far out of it. 
 
 He also states that the only exceptions observed by him are a few Aus- 
 tralian types {e.g.. Eucalypti, Epacrideae, phyllodineous Acacias, etc.) appear- 
 ing in the Malayan Archipelago, especially Timor, New Guinea, and Borneo, 
 where they have established distinct, though in most cases, nearly repre- 
 sentative species, sometimes, however, preserving absolute identity, and a 
 very few, chiefly annual or herbaceous plants of various Australian genera, 
 found as far as South China, mostly in identical or very closely representative 
 species. But little was known comparatively of the Chinese flora in Ben- 
 tham's time, but thi'ough the publication of Forbes' and Hemsley's Enumera- 
 tion and other works, we are now in a far better position to indicate the pre- 
 cise relationships of the Australian and Chinese floras. The flora of the Malay 
 Archipelago is also now much more readily available to students. And 
 
 • " Contrib. Tertiary Flora of Aiistraliii," Mem. (Jeul. Snrv., N.S.W., I'al. No. 2. 
 
 t Pror. Linn. Snc, N.S.W. XX,, (548 H xeq. 
 
 X <:iiallonj?cr Reports, Botany Vol. I. (Hemsley's Introd., p. 51). 
 
 § Pref. to B. Fl., VII., p. vi. 
 
 C. 121 54. M
 
 178 Federal Handbook. 
 
 here it may be mentioned that there are two aspects of every mutual relation ; 
 we require to accumulate additional data not only in regard to the incursions 
 of the purely Australian element into regions beyond, but also in regard to 
 the " foreign " element into Australia. A bridge carries passengers both 
 ways. 
 
 In another place Bentham* observes that the principal flora showing 
 an ancient connexion between Australia and other countries is the Indo- 
 Australian. A number of genera whose main station is in tropical Asia 
 extend more or less into tropical or eastern sub-tropical Asia, sometimes in 
 identical, sometimes in more or less difEerentiated species. Those of coastal 
 Queensland have generally an east Asiatic character. A few Ceylonese and 
 Indian types are more specially represented in Arnhem's Land, but scarcely 
 any Indian forms are found westward of that peninsula. 
 
 The whole of the islands east of Wallace's line, called the Austro-Malayan 
 Region, essentially form part of a former Australian or Pacific continent, 
 although some of them may never have been actually joined to it. These 
 islands of com'se include Celebes, G-ilolo, Ceram, and Papua. A shallow sea 
 (under 100 fathoms) at the present time connects Papua and northern Aus- 
 tralia as far as the " north-west " on the one side, and Queensland on the 
 other. 
 
 Wallace remarks-j- that when we consider the wonderful dissimilarity of 
 the two (Papuan and Australian) regions in all those physical conditions 
 which were once supposed to determine the forms of life — Australia, with 
 its open plains, stony deserts, dried-up rivers, and changeable temperate 
 climate ; Papua, with its luxuriant forests, uniformly hot, moist, and ever- 
 green — this great similarity in their productions is almost astounding, and 
 unmistakably points to a common origin. In this passage he, however, 
 omits to note the fact that northern Queensland, east of the Divide, may be 
 described in terms precisely similar to those employed by him in regard to 
 Papua. 
 
 It is not difficult to understand how a migration of plants from Papua to 
 northern Queensland (omitting for the moment reference to other parts of 
 northern Australia further west) can have taken place via the land connexion 
 or the stepping stones of Torres Straits, while the climatic conditions, although 
 a little cooler in northern Queensland, at all events as compared with coastal 
 Papua, are nearly similar in the two land areas. Then acclimatisation comes 
 into play, and plants, having once bridged the gap, progress on their south- 
 ward journey. 
 
 The Austro-Malayan element is common in the coastal " scrubs " (brushes) 
 of Queensland, and is marked even in the same formations in New South Wales, 
 but the writer is not able to submit a useful statistical account of this 
 element in Australia at the present moment. 
 
 In 1892 above 2,000 species of Phanerogams were known from Papua. 
 i.e., from the Dutch, English, and German possessions; in 1911, the number 
 of species described must be nearly 3,000, chiefly through botanical activity 
 in the German possessions. Dr. R. Schlechter alone has contributed nearly 
 
 * Pref. to B. Fl., VII. 
 
 t " Malay Archipelago," p. 580 (1886).
 
 Australian Vegjitation. 179 
 
 100 terrestrial orchids, a coasiderable number of wliich are new, the others 
 l)eing Malayan. 
 
 The whole of Papua is a region of tropical forests only occasionally in- 
 terrupted by savannas, i.e., grassland interspersed by trees. What Wallace 
 says as regards Borneo, that an Orang-utang could cross the island from tree 
 to tree, without putting foot to the ground, pretty well applies to Papua. 
 
 The chief savannas are at the mouth of the Fly River, and the grasses 
 are chiefly composed of Imperata arundinacea (our Blady Grass), and the 
 genera Anihistiria {Themeda, our Kangaroo Grass), Rotthoellia, Andropogon, 
 Apluda, Pennisetum, etc., all tall grasses ; while the interspersed groups of 
 trees contain to a great extent the genera Eucalyptus {E. tereticornis, Sm., 
 alba, Reinw., clavigera, A. Cunn., terminalis. F. v. M., and perhaps others) 
 and other Myi'tacese, Acacia {A. Simsii, A. Cunn., A. holosericea, A. Cunn, 
 and another), and Proteaceae. The character of the savannas on the Fly 
 River is almost, or quite, identical with the character of York Peninsula, 
 the northernmost point of which is only about 100 miles distant from the 
 mouth of the Fly River, but this is the only part of Papua in which strong 
 affinities to the flora of Australia are shown. It seems strange that the Aus- 
 tralian flora has not taken greater possession of New Guinea, but it would 
 appear that collections show that Australian plants are strangers in Papua, 
 the types of the flora being South Asiatic, Australian plants being very 
 scantily sprinkled in Papua with the single exception of the Fly River 
 savannas. This statement is made with some reservation, on account of the 
 incompleteness of the data. 
 
 Prof. Warburg remarks that if Papua were connected with Australia 
 through the York Peninsula at one time, which is very probable, it must 
 have been before the time that Eucalyptus became such a prominent feature 
 in the flora of Australia. At the same time. Eucalyptus is common in the 
 savannas of the Fly River. 
 
 By far the majority of the genera of Papuan plants are those of the 
 Malayan Archipelago, those genera which have the most species in the eastern 
 part of Malaya having the most species in Papua ; but it would be wrong to 
 consider the flora of Papua identical with the flora of Malaya, the number of 
 endemic genera and species being too great. 
 
 Epiphytic Rhododendrons are common in high elevations in German 
 Papua, connecting the flora with the Himalaya ; a Rhododendron is also 
 found on the highest mountain in Queensland, the Bellenden-Ker Range. 
 Prof. Warburg states that Rhododendrons, mostly beautifully large- 
 flowered species, are common on the Papuan mountain ranges at high 
 elevations, and that there are two Coniferae {Phyllocladus hypophylla and 
 Libocedrus papuana) both closely allied with species he met in mountain 
 regions of Borneo. These genera are also found in New Zealand, the former 
 genus being found in Tasmania also. Several species of Quercus (Oak) are 
 found in high mountain regions in Papua, connecting the flora with the 
 Himalaya ; no Quercus has yet been found in Australia. 
 
 As far as is known of the floras of Papua, New Zealand, and the Melanesian 
 Islands, endomisni is greatest in Papua, though New Caledonia may be found 
 to equal it when the flora is better known. 
 
 M 2
 
 180 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The following genera are recorded from the summit of the Bellenden-Ker 
 (Queensland) Range : — 
 
 Hibbertia (Dilleniacese) ; Melicope (Rutaceae) ; Leptospermum, Myrtus, 
 Rhodamnia (Myrtacese) ; Pentapanax (Araliaceae) ; Scnevola 
 (Groodeniacese) ; Agapetes (Vacciniacese) ; Trochocarpa, Dracro- 
 phyllum (Epacridese) ; Rhododendron (Ericaceae) ; Orites (Pro- 
 teacese). 
 
 The only genera of special interest to the student of the Papuan flora are 
 Agapetes and Rhododendron. Agapetes is closely allied to Vaccinium ; it 
 contains about 30 species, chiefly from the southern Himalaya, and a small 
 number from Fiji, Borneo, and Papua ; the two species from Papua 
 have been found at high elevations on the Mount Owen Stanley Range. 
 Rhododendron has been already alluded to. Dracophyllum is so far interesting 
 in that it connects the Bellenden-Ker flora with the Antarctic ; the genus 
 is common in the Antarctic Islands and Tasmania, while one species is found 
 in New South Wales, in Lord Howe Island, in New Zealand, and New Cale- 
 donia, being found chiefly in mountainous regions. It is not found in Papua, 
 as far as the author knows, nor in Malaya and Asia. 
 
 Bentham* remarks that an exchange has evidently taken place in plants 
 not strictly maritime between north-eastern Australia and New Caledonia 
 and other islands of the South Pacific, but not to any great extent. More 
 Australian types appear to be represented in New Caledonia than New 
 Caledonian ones in Australia. 
 
 (c) The Antarctic Element (so called). 
 
 Hooker,| following Forster, used the expression " Antarctic plants of 
 Australia," which are not so called because they really inhabit the country 
 of that name beyond the polar circle, but because, in a botanical point of 
 view, no less in a position relative to the south temperate flora, they repre- 
 sent the Arctic flora. He adds that they might indeed almost be called alpine 
 plants, for many, which are found at the level of the sea in the so-called 
 Antarctic islands, also ascend the mountains of more genial latitudes. 
 BenthamJ then speaks of the connexion of the alpine flora of Tasmania, 
 Victoria, and New South Wales with the general southern extra-tropical 
 and mountain region, extending through New Zealand to the southern end 
 of the American continent and thence up the Andes. Many of the Australian 
 species of this type are identical with or closely representative of New Zealand 
 ones, and some have a much wider range. He adds that it is probably 
 through this conDexion that a few species belonging to the temperate or 
 cooler floras of the northern hemisphere have evidently, in very remote 
 times, become represented in Australia. 
 
 Hooker noted the following genera as most characteristic of the Antarc- 
 tic regions : — Colobanthus, Accena, Donatia, Nertera, Forstera, Leptinella 
 (Cotula), Ourisia, Drapetes, Fagus, Oreobolus, Lomatia, Carpha. 
 
 Hemsley§ discusses the Antarctic flora, and using the plants enumerated 
 by Engler,|| adds very extensively to the list given by Hooker, and makes 
 interesting deductions. 
 
 * Pref. to B. Fl. VII. 
 
 t " Introd. Essay to Flora of Tasmania," p. LXXXIX. 
 
 t Pref. to B. Fl. VII. 
 
 § " Introd. to Rep. ou lusiUar Floras " (Challnqer Rep. Bot., I. 50). 
 
 II Versuch einer Entwicklungs geschichte der Pflanzenwelt.
 
 Australian Vegetation. 181 
 
 The tabular view of the distribution of the Phanerogams of the islands 
 south of New Zealand by T. F. Cheeseman,* together with the notes on the 
 affinities of the flora, are most suggestive. See also valuable botanical con- 
 tributions by Dr. L. Cockayne, E. M. Laing, and D. Petrie in the same work, 
 to which I can only invite the attention of workers in this condensed sketch. 
 
 These Antarctic representatives are chiefly to be found in Tasmania ; 
 the Tasmanian flora has a surprising number of plants in common with the 
 flora of the Australian Alps of Victoria and New South Wales, but the genera 
 represented in northern New South Wales {e.g., Fagus) and Queensland 
 {e.g., a Dracophyllum on Mt. Bellender-Ker) are much fewer, as are also 
 those of Kangaroo Island and South Australia. 
 
 12. Affinities with the South African Flora. 
 
 The flora of South Africa and Australia have a great many species in 
 common, but hardly any that are confined to the two regions ; all, or nearly 
 all, the species found in South Africa and in Australia are cosmopolitan 
 plants, or plants of a wide geographical distribution, therefore without any 
 value in regard to the development of the flora. Even the genera the two 
 countries have in common are not numerous. Still there are many affinities 
 between them, but the connexion that once probably existed, via the Ant- 
 arctic, must have been separated so long ago that their common ancestors 
 had time to develop into distinct species and genera. For instance : Aus- 
 tralia has 34 genera of Proteacese, mostly endemic, but some are also found 
 in New Zealand, New Caledonia, and Malaya. South Africa has eleven 
 genera, mostly endemic. Not a single genus of Proteacese is common to Aus- 
 tralia and South Africa. 
 
 Hooker points out that by far the greater number of the known species 
 of Proteaceae and Eestiaceae are confined to these two countries. Of our 
 Australian Restiacese, the genera Restio, Leptocarpus, and Hypolcena are 
 common to both. 
 
 The enormous time that must have passed since the separation of the 
 two floras by some geological changes is still better expressed by the Epacridese 
 and Ericaceae. The common ancestors of the two families probably lived in 
 both continents, and, as in Proteaceae, the descendants developed along 
 different lines ; for some reason genera with anthers opening in terminal 
 pores (Ericaceae) prevailed in South Africa, and genera with anthers opening 
 in parallel slits prevailed in Australia (Epacrideae). The same characteristic 
 goes through most families, though it is most pronounced in Proteaceae, 
 Epacrideae, and Ericaceae. 
 
 Benthamf discusses the connexions of the Australian and South African 
 floras from the point of view of Compositae. 
 
 Setting aside the cosmopolitan genera Senecio and Gnaphaliuin, the 
 following genera are common to the two regions : — 
 
 Brachycome. . . . 41 Australian, 1 South African sp. 
 
 Helipterum 
 
 . 53 
 
 
 12 
 
 Helichrysuni 
 
 . 70 
 
 
 137 
 
 Gassinia 
 
 . 13 
 
 
 1 
 
 Athrixia 
 
 7 
 
 
 6 
 
 Cotula 
 
 . 8 
 
 
 22 
 
 • " Siib-antarctlc IsIandR of New Zealand." oil. Dr. C. Chilton, Vol. 11., Systematic Botany, p. 389. 
 t Journ. Linn. Soc. XIII., .5.'j2.
 
 182 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Bolus and Woolley-Dod* remark that the following families, characteristic 
 of Australian vegetation, abound most, after Australia, in South Africa, 
 viz., Thymelacete, Hsemodoracese, Droseracese ; and another point of 
 approach is found in the remarkable deficiency in both countries of the widely 
 diffused families Rubiaceae, Lauracese, Aracese. 
 
 Hooker, who first discussed the subject,")" ofiered the hypothesis of a common 
 origin of the Australian and South West African flora, derived from ancestors 
 inhabiting a vast Antarctic continent of which the greater part has been 
 submerged. He thought Western Australia was connected with the Cape 
 district by land at a time when it was severed fi'om eastern Australia. In 
 this connexion, MoseleyJ asks how it is that marsupials are not found at the 
 Cape, being nevertheless found in the Great Oolite in England ? It would 
 seem necessary almost that they must have been present at the Cape and have 
 died out, unless it is possible that Proteacese and Restiacese are very much 
 older than marsupials, in which case they would have been very old indeed. 
 
 13. The Australian Flora as a Whole. 
 
 Australia has three grand types of flora — the brilliant inflorescences of 
 the dry sandy plains of Western Australia ; the luxurious vegetation of 
 eastern Queensland and New South Wales and the alpine plants of Tas- 
 mania. South Australia, the north-west of Victoria, and the vast western 
 plains of New South Wales and Queensland approximate to the botanical 
 conditions of the western State. Many Tasmanian or allied plants extend 
 to south-eastern Australia generally, viz., most of Victoria and the south- 
 eastern portion of New South Wales, the flora of Victoria being intermediate 
 in character. The rain forests of western Tasmania are unique, and on the 
 mainland are most closely approached by those of the Cape Otway district 
 of Victoria. 
 
 Bentham remarks that maritime plants, ranging at least from the Mas- 
 carene Islands to those of the Pacific, are also to be found on the Australian 
 coasts, mostly in identical species, with the addition of a few representative 
 ones. 
 
 The following families are entirely confined to Australia or almost so, 
 e.g., Tremandrese, Stackhousiaceae, CandoUeacese, Goodeniacese, Casuarinacese, 
 Phillhydreae, together with the phyllodineous Acacias, which form an enormous 
 majority of the genus, and Eucalyptus. 
 
 It is sometimes stated that the Australian flora is of a primitive character, 
 but Moore strongly asserts that this is the result of bias imparted by the 
 zoological data. " In what respect, it may be asked, is the flora of Australia 
 less highly specialized ? Are not most of the great natural orders 
 strong constituents of it — trees, some of them of gigantic size, shrubs, 
 undershrubs, and herbs, parasites and saprophj^tes, climbing and carnivorous 
 species, flowers adapted to profit by the visits of insects, and sometimes 
 provided with a complex mechanism to insure such profit — all these are met 
 with in Australia. In addition, the adaptability to the dry climate is 
 wonderful, and in this respect, taking into account the variety of ways in 
 which the destructive effects of a scorching sun and parched soil are guarded 
 
 • Trans. South Africa Philos. Soc, XIV., 229. 
 
 t Op. cU., p. XCII. 
 
 i " Notes by a Naturalist" (Challenger), Chap. VI
 
 Australian Vegetation. 183 
 
 ao-ainst, the Australian flora is without a parallel the world over. And if 
 these be not evidences of high specialization, it is difficult to know where 
 one must look for such."* 
 
 Eeference will first be made to some families of wide Australian distri- 
 bution, each State then being discussed in turn, and its physical features 
 briefly described, ^vith especial reference to the flora, and, finally, such families 
 as are mainly represented in any particular State, will be enumerated under 
 that State. 
 
 The RuTACE.^ are widely diffused in Australia, extending from the coast 
 to the interior. The family mostly consists of floriferous shrubs, very deco- 
 rative for gardens, and also including a number of trees, belonging to Evodia, 
 Acronychia, and allied genera, chiefly found in the brushes of New South 
 Wales and Queensland. The genus Boronia now consists of 72 species, 
 and 44 of them are Western Australian, most of them being peculiar to that 
 State, New South Wales coming next with 25. Eriostemo)i, as defined by 
 Mueller, includes such genera as Croivea, Phebaliwn, Asterolasia, and Micro- 
 cybe, and most botanists do not follow him in this. In this larger grouping 
 we have a second genus of 72 sjiecies, and no genus of Rutacese is more evenly 
 diffused throughout the continent. The genera Nonatolepis, Chorilcena, 
 Diflolcena are confined to Western Australia, while Brombya, Pagetia, 
 Glycosmis, Murraya, Clausena, have not been found out of Queensland. 
 Acradenia is purely Tasmanian. 
 
 The STACKHOUSIACE.E form an almost entirely Australian family of herbs 
 usually quite small, and with Stackhousia by far the most important genus. 
 Twenty-two species have been described so far, well distributed throughout 
 the States. 
 
 Of the Rhamnace^, Alphitonia excelsa, Reiss., is a moderately abundant 
 tree of the brushes of New South Wales and Queensland, with conspicu- 
 ously pale undersides to the leaves and bluish black fruits with reddish-brown 
 seeds embedded in a brown powdery substance, and a remarkable timber 
 of a pale colour which, on exposure to the light, very gradually assumes a 
 rich red tint. The really important genera are two, Pomaderris and Cryp- 
 tandra, the latter including (according to Mueller) the genera Trymalium, 
 Spyridium, and StenantJiemum. Bentham, however, disagrees with such 
 inclusion. Pomaderris is more eastern than western, and the reverse is the 
 case as regards Cryptandra ; the former is especially well developed in 
 Victoria and New South Wales. 
 
 Sapindace^ are fairly well developed in Australia, and almost every 
 species is endemic. The genus Dodoiian (Hopbushes) occurs in every State, 
 and extends from the coast to the interior. Most of the species are shrubs, 
 and the Pinnatae section comprises many beautiful ones. The genera 
 Atalaya, Aleclryon, Cupaniopsis, &c. {Cupania, Nepheliu7n), are chiefly 
 trees of the coastal brushes of Queensland and New South Wales ; Alalaya 
 hemiglauca, F. v. M., the Whitewood, is an important inland tree. 
 
 The Legumixos^e stands at the head o£ Australian families, with 1,276 
 species, and the number is steadily being added to. Tlie family iuchides a 
 very large number of species with ornamental flowers, \vlii(-li make gay the 
 Australian bush. 
 
 • Spencer Moore, " Suggestions upon the origin of tiie Australian Flora." Nat. Sci. XV., 1899, p. 207.
 
 184 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In tlie section Papilionace^ the genera Brachysema, Chorizema, Gastro- 
 lohum, Isotropis, Burtonia, Jacksonia, Sphcerolobium, Latrohea, Eutaxia are 
 practically Western Australian, as are mainly so many other genera. The 
 genera Lamprolobiiiin, Tephrosia, Desmocliuni, Cajanus, Rhynchosia, Flemingia, 
 belong to the other side of the continent. Not many trees are included in 
 this section ; one of them is the gorgeous Erythrina vespertilio, Benth., the 
 Batswing Coral, with beautiful crimson flowers and cuneate leaves, and which 
 is found in the warmer parts of the continent. 
 
 Of the section Csesalpinese the most important genus is Cassia (30 species), 
 for the greater part yellow flowering, and mostly shrubs, an exception being 
 the moderate-sized tree {C. Brewsteri, F. v. M.), which bears trusses of most 
 beautiful colour varying from yellow to orange and red. Most of the species 
 prefer the dry country, only a few being found on the coast. 
 
 The section Mimoseae is almost entirely taken up with the genus Acacia, 
 by far the largest genus in Australia, 412 species having been described to 
 date. It is divided into two grand sections, the Phyllodiuese, the leaves mostly 
 phyllodinous without leaflets, and the Bipinnatse, with bipinnate leaves. 
 The latter section has under 30 species, about 380 thus falling into the 
 Phyllodineae, which is almost entirely Australian, a few other species belonging 
 to this section occurring in India, Malaysia, and the Pacific Islands. 
 
 Acacias are universally known in Australia as Wattle, or prefaced by 
 adjectives, such as Silver, Golden, Black, Green ; they also bear such names 
 as Myall, Boree, Mulga, Brigalow, Cooba, Dead Finish, Gidgee, Hickory, 
 Umbrella Bush, Wait-a-while and Yarran, some of which are distinctive 
 for species. The wattle has been adopted as the unofficial floral emblem 
 of Australia ; it is represented on the national coat of arms and on postal 
 notes ; will be on postage stamps, and is used for decorative purposes in 
 a variety of ways. The genus is found in every State, from the coast to 
 the arid interior, in swamps i:,nd on the dry sides of mountains, by the 
 banks of rivers, and on the dry plains. They vary in size from 3 or 4 
 inches in height; most are shrubs of a few feet, while many are small trees, 
 and some may be trees of great size, i.e., 100 or 1.50 feet. Some are of 
 economic importance for tan-bark or timber. 
 
 The family Halorrhagide^ is mainly represented by the genus Haloragis, 
 which is chiefly Australian, but a few species are also found in New Zealand, 
 in eastern Asia, in South Africa, and extra-tropical South America. There 
 are 36 Australian species, and Bentham states that one species extends to 
 New Zealand and the island of Juan Fernandez, 2 to New Zealand and eastern 
 Asia, 1 to New Zealand only, the remaining 32 being endemic. They are 
 mostly herbs and small shrubs with not showy flowers. 
 
 The Myrtace^ come second in point of number of species, 816 having 
 been described so far ; the family includes two very large genera. Eucalyptus, 
 with 230 species, and Melaleuca, with 112. These belong to the tribe Lep- 
 tospermae (capsular, and entirely or chiefly Australian). The tribe Chamse- 
 lauciae has a dry, indehiscent one-seeded fruit, while the third tribe, the 
 Myiteae, has an indehiscent berry or drupe. The vast majority of plants 
 belonging to the family are worthy of cultivation on account of the beauty 
 of their flowers, or of the neatness of the foliage or the shapeliness of the tree 
 or shrub, or for their timber or essential oil.
 
 Australian Vegetation. 185 
 
 Tribe ChamoBlaucieoB. — It is of course quite impossible to be more than 
 exceedingly brief with such an all-pervading family. Darmnia, Calycothrix 
 (Fringed M}Ttle), Verticordia, and Lhotzhja are almost exclusively Western 
 Australian, though the first two are represented by very numerous individuals 
 which extend to the eastern States. Thryptomene, though predominantly 
 western, is more widely diffused in the other States than the remaining 
 genera. All are shrubs. Chamcelaiccimn uncinatum, Schau., the " Gerald- 
 ton Wax-flower," of Western Australia, is a shrub with large per.sistent pink 
 flowers, and is one of the best shrubs ever introduced into cultivation. 
 
 Tribe LeptospermoB. — The genus Bceckia is mostly Western Australian, 
 the sections Oxymyrrhine and Babingtonia exclusively so. In New South 
 Wales this genus is much less frequently met with, and particularly so as the 
 Queensland and Victorian borders are approached. Hypocalymrna, Calo- 
 thamnus, and Eremcea are exclusively western, and Beaufortia just extends 
 to the Northern Territory. Agonis is western, with two eastern species. 
 The important genera Leptospermum, Kunzea, and Melaleuca (all called Tea- 
 trees, though often shrubs) are well diffused throughout the Itates, and 
 Callistemon (one of the groups of plants called Bottle-brushes) is mainlv 
 eastern. The genus Eucalyptus will be referred to separately. The important 
 genera Tristania (Brush Box), Syncarpia (Turpentine), Bachhousia are 
 notable if only from the fact that they are exclusively eastern, and mostly 
 denizens of the brushes. 
 
 The genus Eucalyptus, which comprises about 230 species, comes 
 second only to Acacia in point of number amongst Australian genera, but it 
 is so widespread and so abundant, that it is doubtless the most numerous 
 in individuals of any. It is easily recognised by the operculum of the 
 flower-bud. 
 
 The vast majority of flowers of Eucalyptus have white or cream-coloured 
 flJaments ; those with very showy crimson or scarlet or yellow filaments 
 are mostly entirely confined to western and tropical Australia. In eastern 
 Australia E. sideroxylon, A. Cunn., an Ironbark, very commonly has indi- 
 vidual trees with pink or crimson filaments, while in a number of species 
 such variation in coloration has also been observed but only rarely. In 
 Western Australia there are E. erytkrocorys, F. v. M., and E. Preissiana, 
 Schauer, with bright yellow filaments, and E. ficifolia, F. v. M., E. macro- 
 carpa, Hook., E. pyriformis, Turcz., E. phoenicea, F. v. M., and a few others 
 have beautiful red filaments, while those of E. miniata, A. Cunn., are orange- 
 coloured. 
 
 The formation of adventitious shoots or '" suckers," as they are invariably 
 called in Australia, is well known to most people in Europe because of the 
 difference in their appearance and that of the normal foliage. In Australian 
 forests the phenomenon is forced upon the average man to an extent quite 
 unknown in Europe, partly because there is so much primaeval forest, partly 
 because the extensive destruction of forest for arable or pastoral land is a 
 matter of every-day occurrence, and partly because the contrast between 
 sucker-leaves and normal-leaves is, as a very general rule, greater than it is 
 in Europe. 
 
 These suckers are the curse of the pastoralist, who destroys the trees by 
 ringbarking, to be followed by clearing or not, and who, as a rule, treats every
 
 186 Federal Handbook. 
 
 species of Eucalyptus (the predominant arboreal vegetation) indiscriminately, 
 and without regard for the season of the year. This empiricism often results 
 in vigorous second growths. Of late years, some attention has been given, 
 by the most intelligent land-owners, to physiological principles, the ringing 
 being done when the tree is in full flush of leaves or in flower. The poisoning 
 of trees by treating the rung surface by arsenic is being experimented upon 
 in different parts of Australia. 
 
 The barks of Eucalyptus trees vary greatly, but, being so easily seen from 
 a distance, afford a ready diagnostic aid to classification of groups and even 
 determination of species. The variation being so very great, these field 
 observations require care in application. The usual or most elementary 
 kind of bark is the smooth one, called the " Gum," and more or less glaucous, 
 and more or less thick ; we find this bark from the sandy coastal flats to the 
 bleak swamps and mountain areas and away to the arid interior, e.g., White 
 Gum (E. hcBmastoma, Sm.), Eed gum [E. rostrata, Schlecht.). In the interior 
 this is the prevalent kind of bark, with more or less (generally not very much) 
 blackish or hard scaly or flaky-fibrous bark at the butt. Often the roughness 
 is mere bulls' wool. Barks with smooth surfaces {e.g., Grey Gum, E. punctata, 
 DC, E. tereticornis, Sm.), however, exfoliate, usually in patches, and the newly 
 exposed surface later on becomes harder, and exfoliates in its turn. Thus 
 there is constant renewal of the bark of a smooth tree always in progress. 
 In this way the bark grows and provides for the gradually increasing diameter 
 of the stem. In some cases the patches are long and the older bark contains 
 more fibre, with sufiicient tenacity to form long ribbons {e.g., Eibbony Gums, 
 E. viminalis, Labill). These are commonly found in the cooler tablelands 
 of the southern and eastern States, and, when rendered supple by the rain 
 and blown about by a strong wind, they stand out like the arms of a sema- 
 phore. 
 
 There is also that form of bark which is scaly all over the trunk, a form 
 usually associated with the so-called Bloodwoods, e.g., E. corymbosa, Sm. 
 (heavy red-kino producers), which are usually found in sterile sandstone 
 areas from the coast to the interior. 
 
 The bark may develop along two directions, one, such as is found in the 
 Stringybark, which has a thick fibrous covering, with the fibres set longi- 
 tudinally ; the other, as in the case of the Box or Apple-bark, in which the 
 fibre may be more compact or felted {e.g., E. hemiphloia, F. v. M., E. 
 Stuartiana, F. v. M.). If the fibrous bark be thinner and looser, it is often 
 termed Peppermint {e.g., E. piperita, Sm., E. amygdalina, Labill.), and here 
 there are transitions on the other hand, to the Ribbony Gums. 
 
 Then there is a very hard furrowed bark, often black from age, known 
 as Ironbark, the evolution of which Augustus Oldfield many years ago 
 attributed to the longitudinal cracking of the bark accompanied by the 
 matting caused by the discharge of a large amount of astringent exuda- 
 tion. 
 
 Amongst the types briefly defined there are all sorts of intermediate 
 forms. Nor is the nomenclature of the different kinds of trees uniform ; 
 for example, the term Box, arising primarily from a tough interlocked timber, 
 is often applied to a timber of such a class, irrespective as to whether it has 
 the E. hemiphloia, F. v. M. (the original Australian Box), type of bark. It
 
 Australian Vegetation. 187 
 
 may have an almost ribbony bark. Very few barks are entirely smooth, 
 and these are inclined to be thick and juicy ; the character of the bark is 
 probably a protective adaption against bush-fires. As the tropics are 
 approached, the tendency of all Eucalypts is to have a smooth bark, or with 
 a little scaly bark at the butt. 
 
 The timbers as regards colour may be roughly divided into red, brown, 
 and pale. Red timbers may be found both in the interior {e.g., E. rostrata, 
 Schlecht., E. microtheca, F. v. M., E. salmonopMoia, F. v. M.), or in the com- 
 paratively well-watered coastal districts {E. marginata, Sm., E. resinifera, 
 Sm., E. saligna, Sm.) ; but in the dry districts of eastern Western Australia 
 the timber is nearly always cigar-brown in colour. The pale timber {e.g., 
 E. pilularis, Sm., E. niicrocorys, F. v. M., E. gomphocephala, DC.) is mainly 
 found in well-watered districts. 
 
 Most timbers are more or less interlocked, the Ironbarks affording an 
 extreme case, but a few are fissile, of which the G-ippsland Mountain Ash 
 {E. regnans, F. v. M.) is a type. 
 
 Mallee is the term formerly employed to denote shrubby Eucalypts 
 with a thickened root-stock from which many stems spring ; the term now 
 often includes species without the thickened root-stock. Marlock is the 
 Western Australian equivalent to Mallee, and includes all gum scrub 
 on a sand-plain. Gum scrub species never (or very exceptionally) attain 
 the dignity of a tree from which timber may be cut. 
 
 E. rostrata, Schlecht., is probably the most widely diffused of all species. 
 It is moisture-loving, and follows the course of streams, or may be 
 found in depressions in which, on the rare occasions on which rain does 
 fall, it may find its way to the subjacent strata. 
 
 Tribe MyrtecB. — This group is entirely eastern, and with one solitary 
 exception {Eicgenia Smithii, Poir.. the " Lilly Pilly "), which extends to 
 Victoria, belongs to New South Wales and Queensland, and chiefly to the 
 latter. With hardly an exception, the whole tribe is found in brushes, 
 and the members of it usually go by the name of Myrtles, very much oftener 
 than the remainder of the Myrtaceae. Eugenia is by far the most important 
 genus, and it includes a number of medium-sized or large trees, often planted 
 for ornament, on account of their symmetry, the dainty colouring of their 
 young foliage, the beauty of their abundant fruit, and the neatness of their 
 (usually) white flowers. Myrtus is a beautiful and important genus of 
 shrubs and trees, belonging even more to Queensland than to New South 
 Wales. Rhodomyrtus is of less importance, while the handsome Barring- 
 tonias are mainly tropical. 
 
 Umbellifer.5; form a valuable constituent of the vegetation of Aus- 
 tralia. Hydrocotyle is tlie largest genus (32 species), and all are endemic 
 but two ; it is widely diffused, but mainly Western Australian. Didiscus 
 (26 species) is exclusively Australian and well diffused throughout the States. 
 Trachymene {Siebera) is practically endemic, and has 30 Australian species, 
 mainly western, but with a noticeable eastern (New South Wales and Queens- 
 land) representation. Xantho.sia is an endemic genus of not specially orna- 
 mental herbs, mainly, but by no means exclusively, occuriing in Western 
 Australia. Arfinotus is also endemic ; New South Wales has 5, Western 
 Australia 4, and Tasmania 3 species. A. Heliantln, Labill.. is the well-known
 
 188 Federal Handbook. 
 
 " Flannel Flower " of New South Wales, and A. rotundifolia, DC, the 
 " Southern Cross " of Western Australia. 
 
 The CoMPosiT.^ take the fourth place in the flora of Australia, with 
 635 species. In the Flora Australiensis, Bentham gave the number at nearly 
 500, arranged under 88 genera, 39 (of which 18 were then monotypic) being 
 endemic to Australia. I compute that there are at present 101 indigenous 
 genera, 56 of which are endemic, and of these 25 monotypic. 
 
 The principal genera are Aster, 71 species ; Helichrysum, 70 ; Helipterum, 
 54: ; Brachycome, 41 ; Calotis, 18 ; Podolepis, 17 ; Angianthus, 25; Gnephosis, 
 18 ; Senecio, 30. 
 
 It is not surprising, considering the facility {e.g., by means of pappuses), 
 with which so many species are distributed, that there is less local distribu- 
 tion of Composites than in any other large family. 
 
 Some species, e.g., Helichrysum, Helipterum, Waitzia, Cephalipterum 
 are cultivated as " Everlastings " ; others, e.g., Aster, Humea, Ammobium, 
 Senecio, Brachycome, are herbs and shrubs capable of adorning the garden ; 
 while some are mere weeds. 
 
 The GooDENiACE^ are almost entirely Australian. The family contains 
 here 294 species, divided into Goodenia, 112 ; Sccevola, 68 ; Dampiera, 54 ; 
 LeschenauUia, 22 ; Velleia, 19 ; and representatives are to be found nearly 
 all over the continent, Goodenia being most widely diffused. Sccevola is found 
 to a comparatively small extent near the coasts of other continents. The 
 family is remarkable for a cup-shaped or two lipped dilatation at the top, 
 called the indusium, and which encloses the stigma. The colour of the 
 flowers of Goodenia and Velleia are yellow, Sccevola generally purple, Dam- 
 piera blue, and LeschenauUia, the most brilliant blue it is possible to imagine, 
 and because of the profusion of the flowers, a sight of LeschenauUia country 
 in the spring is a memorable recollection. 
 
 Goodenia is, by majority, Western Australian (48), but there is a strong 
 South Australian element (25), while Victoria has 10 species. Queensland 
 (18) and Northern Australia (21) are even better represented. The genus 
 has 16 species in New South Wales, nor is it absent from Tasmania (6). 
 Sccevola is mainly Western Australian, with a good sprinkling in the other 
 States, and the same may be said of Dampiera. Leschoiaultia is the heritage 
 of the western State, no Western Australian representatives being found in 
 the other States ; two species are found in South Australia, one is found 
 in Northern Australia, Queensland, and New South Wales, and two others in 
 Northern Australia, of which one belongs also to Queensland. 
 
 The Ericace^ are but poorly represented, three species of Gaidtheria 
 being found in Tasmania, one of which extends to Victoria and New South 
 Wales, while a Pernettya and a Wittsteinia occur in Tasmania and Victoria 
 respectively. A Rhododendron and an Agapetes occur on the summit of 
 Mount Bellenden-Ker, in Queensland. 
 
 But we have our compensation in the profusion of Epacridace.e, both 
 as regards species (301) and individuals. The two grand divisions into 
 Styphelieae, with indehiscent, usually drupaceous fruit, and the Epacrese, 
 with loculicidally dehiscent capsule, are sharply defined. Taking the genus- 
 Styphelia, it is a question of one large genus (193 species at present) or a 
 number of genera as defined by Robert Brown and others, and approved
 
 Australian Vegetation. 189 
 
 by Bentham. It is admitted at once that these are species with intermediate 
 characters, but the genera or sub-genera, to which I have referred, have 
 mostly such characteristic facies that it seems regrettable to abandon them. 
 The position is admirably summed up by Bentham in the Flora Australiensis, 
 v., 145, and most field botanists will agree with him. 
 
 The genus Leucopogon, readily known by its small white flowers with 
 bearded corolla lobes, has 133 species, and it is almost exclusively Australian. 
 Most of the species are Western Australian, New South Wales coming next 
 in order of number, but the genus is represented in all the States. The mono- 
 typic genera Needhamia and Oligarrhena are Western Australian, as are also 
 the small genera Coleanthera and Conostephium, while Melichrus is east 
 Australian. 
 
 The original genus Styphelia (" Five Corners ") has eleven species, chiefly 
 New South Wales and then Western Australian, while Astroloma is mainly 
 Western Australian, with three species that extend to New South Wales. 
 Space does not permit detailed reference to the remaining genera, except to 
 say that when in fruit many of the shrubs look very beautiful, and that 
 Tasmania is the State in which to see them at their best. Some of the 
 Stypheliese in flower are very pretty. 
 
 The beauty of the section Epacreae rests mainly in its flowers, and the 
 genus Epacris (30 species) stands out pre-eminent in that respect. The genus 
 is mostly east Australian, New South Wales having 19 species, although 
 those of Tasmania and Victoria are glorious. Then there are the orna- 
 mental genera Andersonia (20 species) and Sphenotoma (6), both peculiar to 
 Western Australia and allied to Sprengelia. The genera Richea (8) and 
 Dracophyllum (4) are herbs or small shrubs with a monocotyledonous aspect, 
 as pointed out by Bentham. They are mostly Tasmanian, and the genus 
 Richea is there known as " Grass-tree." R. Gunnii, Hook., extends to the 
 Australian Alps of Victoria and New South Wales. DracophyUum is smaller 
 (the giant D. Fitzgeraldi, F. v. M., occurs in Lord Howe Island) ; two species 
 are Tasmanian, and New South Wales and Queensland have one each. 
 
 The SoLANACE^ are chiefly represented in Australia by the genera 
 Solanum (.56 species), Anthocercis, 18 ; while the principal masticatory of the 
 aborigines is Duboisia Hopwoodii, F. v. M., a shrub found only in the interior ; 
 there are three other species, two belonging to the brushes of the east coast. 
 The genus Solanum is best developed in New South Wales and Queensland, 
 but South Australia is well represented, and Western Australia only a little 
 less. Anthocercis is endemic and differs only from Duboisia in having a 
 capsular fruit. The genus is mainly Western Australian, but has many 
 representatives in New South Wales and Victoria. 
 
 The Myoporace^ form an almost entirely Australian family, the geims 
 Myoporum being represented only to a small extent in the Indian Archi- 
 pelago and the Pacific Islands, and by one species in tropical Africa. One 
 Australian species {M. lenuifolium, G. Forst.) extends to New Caledonia. 
 There are in all fifteen species, and they are well distributed throughout 
 the States, M. platycarpum, R. Br., the " Sugar Tree," which often 
 exudes a saccharine substance, being a well-known tree of the interior. 
 
 But the glory of the family is the genus Eremophila (including Pholidia), 
 of which there are no less than 91 species. They are mainly Western and
 
 190 Federal Handbook. 
 
 South Australian, with a very strong New South Wales contingent. From 
 the other States (except Tasmania) they are by no means absent. They are 
 essentially dry country species, and are mostly of an ornamental character, 
 bearing a profusion of flowers, varied and dainty in tint, but the colour is 
 unfortunately lost in drying. They are shrubs varying in size. 
 
 The Verbenace^ will be found very interesting. The whole of the 
 genera of the Chloanthefe are endemic. Of the other sections the Lantana 
 {L. Camara, L.) is an introduced species, and its aggressiveness has caused 
 great devastation in eastern New South Wales and Queensland. Gmelina 
 has three species, and includes G. Leichhardtii, F. v. M., a beautiful tree of 
 the brushes of New South Wales and Queensland, which yields the especially 
 valuf.ble timber known as " Native Beech." Avicennia officinalis, L., widely 
 distributed in other parts of the world, is known here as "White Mangrove," 
 and encircles the Australian coast ; it is absent from Tasmania. 
 
 Of the endemic genera, Lachnostachys is confined to Western Australia, 
 and its nine species are more or less densely hairy, which has obtained for 
 them the name of " Blanket Plants." Neivcastlia is also a woolly genus 
 with six Western and five South Australian species. Physopsis and Mallo- 
 phora are closely allied genera, alike woolly and western. Dicrastylis is an 
 allied genus of six Western and five South Australian species, and two have 
 recently been described from Queensland. 
 
 The most important genus is Chloanthes (including Pityrodia, the amal- 
 gamation of which is not concurred in by all botanists), which now comprise 
 26 species almost exclusively Western Australian, only one extending to 
 Victoria, 2 to New South Wales, 2 to Queensland, and 4 to northern Aus- 
 tralia. Hemifhora and Denisonia are monotypic, the former from Western 
 and the latter from Northern Australia. Cyanostegia has two species from 
 Western and one from Northern Australia. 
 
 Of the Labiate, the genera of the well-marked tribe Prostantherete are 
 alone endemic of the five genera which compose it. Prostanthera is by far 
 the most important (.50 species), followed by Hemigenia (including Hemi- 
 andra), 37 ; Microcorys, 16 ; and Westringia, 10. As regards Prostanthera, 
 the preponderance of species (33) is in New South Wales, but there is a strong 
 Victorian and South Australian element, only seven species occurring in 
 Western Australia. With the prevailing colour of the flowers purple or 
 purplish, some of the species are singularly floriferous and beautiful, and would 
 adorn any garden. The lovely P. Sieberi, Benth., of eastern New South 
 Wales, and P. lasianthos, Labill., " Mint Bush," a tall shrub which lines 
 water-courses in most of the States, may be cited. 
 
 Hemigenia is mainly Western Australian, though New South Wales 
 and Queensland each have two species. Microcorys is Western Australian 
 except as regards one species, which spreads into South Australia. West- 
 ringia is more evenly distributed. Western and South Australia each having 3 
 species ; Tasmania, 4 ; Queensland, 5 ; Victoria and New South Wales, 6. 
 
 The family Chenopodiace^ is so widely diffused, and of such high 
 economic importance to pastoralists, that we are apt to look upon it as more 
 Australian than it really is. Some of the principal genera are not endemic 
 in Australia, e.g., Chenopodium, Atriplex, Kochia, but they are richly repre- 
 sented by endemic species, while the number of individuals is legion, "' Salt
 
 Australian Vegetation. 191 
 
 bush " being tbe cbaracteristic vegetation of enormous areas. While the 
 genera are well distributed throughout the States, thej are indicative of 
 salinity, and are most commonly found in regions of low rainfall or in proximity 
 to the sea. Atriplex is represented by 32 species ; Rhagodia, 13 ; Chenopo- 
 dium, 11 ; Kochia (Cotton-bush), 30 ; Bassia, 37. 
 
 The genus Philotus {Trichinium) is an extensive and purely Australian 
 genus (76 species) of Amarantace^, usually, but not exclusively, occurring 
 in regions of low rainfall. The flowers are in dense cylindroid spikes, usually 
 pink, purple, or yellowish, and often known as " Silky-heads." The indi- 
 viduals are often gregarious, covering large areas with a bright colouring. 
 
 The Proteace^ form the third in order of abundance of species in Aus- 
 tralia, having 667 distributed over 34 genera, some of the principal being 
 Grevillea (193), HaJcea (107), Persoonia (62), Dryandra (49), Banhsia (48). 
 Australia is the cliief seat of the family, although it is well represented in 
 South Africa. Every tribe is represented in Australia. 
 
 The distribution of the species within the States is as follows : — Western 
 Australia is far ahead of any other State with 431 ; then follow in order 
 New South Wales, 137 ; Queensland, 96 ; Victoria, 58 ; South Australia, 
 41 ; North Australia, 36 ; Tasmania, 23. 
 
 Very few genera do not occur in Western Australia, while Adenanthos, 
 Simsia, Synaphia, and Dryandra are found there alone ; the monotypic 
 genera Bellendena, Agastachys, and Cenarrhenes are confined to Tasmania ; 
 Symplionema occurs only in New South Wales ; the inonot}^ic genera 
 Roupala, Musgravia, Carnarvonia, Buchinghamia, DarUngia, Cardwellia in 
 Queensland, together with Hollandicea (two species). Hicksbeachia, Helicia, 
 Macadamia, Strangea, Stenocarpus, Emhothrium are confined to the brushes 
 of New South Wales and Queensland. 
 
 The genera Isopogon. Persoonia, Grevillea, Hakea, Banhsia occur in every 
 State, while Grevillea and Persoonia are the only genera in which any State 
 has more species than Western Australia ; the numbers being Grevillea— 
 New South Wales, 77 ; Western Australia, 70 ; and Persoonia — New South 
 Wales, 32 ; and Western Australia, 25. Lamhertia shows the peculiar 
 distribution of Western Australia, 7 ; and New South Wales, 1. 
 
 The copious woodiness of the follicle is observed in many genera of Pro- 
 teacese, e.g., Hakea and Xylomelum ; in the latter genus it is so pronounced 
 as to earn for it the name of " Wooden Pear " ; this protection to the seeds 
 is doubtless a protective adaption in view of the frequent burning off which 
 falls to the lot of Proteaceous shrubs. 
 
 It is only in the brushes of New South Wales and Queensland that the 
 Proteacese attain their largest development, Macadamia ternijolia, F. v. M. 
 (yielding an excellent edible nut) ; Oriies excelsa, R. Br., and Grevillea robusta, 
 A. Cunn. (both '' Silky Oaks ") ; Stenocarpus sinuatus, Endl. (the " Fire- 
 tree ") and *S'. salignus, R. Br. (Red Silky Oak) ; Embothriuni Wickhami, 
 Hill and F. v. M. ; Buckinghamia celsissima, F. v. M., Cardwellia subliniis, 
 F. V. M., and a few others attaining the magnitude of first-class trees. 
 
 Hundreds of species of Proteace;o are well worthy of cultivation. Amongst 
 the very great number of beautiful shrubs, the gorgeous Telopea speciosissima, 
 R. Br"., or " Waratah," stands pro-eminent. Of the trees, Grevillea robusta, 
 A. Cunn., and Stenocarpus sinuatus, Endl., are, perhaps, oftenest seen in
 
 192 Federal Handbook. 
 
 gardens, but there is a wonderful and beautiful collection to choose from. 
 Many of the slirubs have charming " cut leaved " foliage, and are worthy 
 of attention for that characteristic alone. Many of the Banksias (" Bottle- 
 brushes ") and Dryandras are delightful plants, often bizarre. In Western 
 Australia some species of Conospermum, e.g., C. sicechadis, Endl., and C. 
 flonhundum, Benth. (Dwarf Smoke Bush), have such a copious tomentose 
 white or greyish inflorescence as to give the appearance of smoking bushes, 
 and in some districts they are in such abundance, to the local exclusion of 
 almost every herbage, as to remind one of a heavy snow-fall, just thawing 
 so as to show a little of the other herbage. 
 
 The Thymelace^ are almost exclusively represented by the Australian 
 genus Pimelea, of which we have 76 species, fairly well distributed throughout 
 the States, with the exception of the sections Heterolcena and Calyptrostegia 
 (sub section Ccilyptridiuni), which are all confined to Western Australia. 
 They are usually small plants and not particularly ornamental, but some may 
 be classed as such, expecially the showy Queensland P. hcematostachya, 
 F. v. M. The bark of all is fibrous and very tough, and that obtained from 
 the larger species was formerly used by the aborigines for making their 
 little bags. 
 
 Turning to the Santalace^, Exocarpus includes the "Native Cherry," 
 which has won so much renown through having " the stone outside the 
 fruit," E. cupressiformis, Labill., being the best known. The genus is widely 
 distributed throughout Australia. It is root-parasitic like so many of its 
 congeners, the family in this respect, as well as in floral characters, showing 
 close affinity to the Loranthaceae. Leptomeria (" Native Currant ") and 
 Choretrum are genera of erect leafless shrubs, the former more western and 
 the latter more eastern in its distribution. The genus of most economic 
 importance is Santalum, and includes species which furnish the Sandalwood 
 of India and Polynesia. S. cygnorum, Mq., is the small tree which yields 
 the Sandalwood of Western Australia, which has hitherto defied all attempts 
 at reproduction on a commercial scale. It is in such demand that it is 
 pulled up by the roots wherever seen, and visitors will observe pale- 
 coloured, irregularly-shaped stems of it a few inches in diameter on trucks on 
 the railways and on the wharf at Fremantle, for export to Singapore. The 
 well-known Quandong is Fusanus acuminatus, R. Br. Both genera extend 
 to eastern Australia, but they are essentially plants of low rainfall. 
 
 The Casuarinace^, universally known as Oaks or She-oaks in Australia, 
 consists of 29 species. Thirteen of them are confined to Western Australia, 
 some are widely diffused, while a few are mostly eastern. Some are shrubs ; 
 in the dry country there are trees of medium size ; in eastern Australia some 
 species become very large. They occur in the desert, in dry rocky country, 
 in saline soils both near the coast and inland, and the largest trees. River 
 Oak (C. Cunninghamiana, Miq.), mark the courses of our eastern rivers. 
 
 The family Taxace^ has five genera, Podocarpus (Nageia), Pherosphcera, 
 Microcachrys, Dacrydium, and Phyllocladus. This family chiefly occurs in 
 Tasmania, the Australian representatives of the genera Microcachrys, 
 Dacrydium, and Phyllocladus being confined to that State. M. tetragona, 
 Hook, f., is a small creeping wiry shrub, confined to mountain-tops ; D. 
 FranUinii, Hook, f., a tall tree known as the " Huon Pine," found in the
 
 Australian Vegetation. 193 
 
 south-west, and P. rhomhoidalis, Rich., the " Celery Top Pine," is common 
 on mountains chiefly to the south and west (of Tasmania). 
 
 The genus PhcBrophcera has two species, both shrubs, P. Hookerianu, 
 Archer, found in Tasmania on the tops of mountains, and P. Fitzgeraldi, 
 F. V. M., in a few localities in the higher parts of the Blue Mountains, New 
 South Wales. 
 
 The genus Podocarpus, called " Damsons " by the boys because of the 
 enlarged succulent peduncle, comprises six species found in Australia, although 
 the genus also occurs in South America and Eastern Asia. Five of our 
 species are endemic, while one extends to Malaya. P. elata, R. Br., is the 
 " She or Brown Pine," a large tree of New South Wales and Queensland, 
 and P. Ladei, Bail., the so-called "Mt. Sturgeon Black Pine," is also a large 
 tree, and occurs in northern Queensland. P. spitmlosa, R. Br., is a bulky 
 shrub of eastern New South Wales, and P. alpina, R. Br., is a straggling 
 appressed shrub found on mountain tops in Tasmania and the Australian 
 Alps. P. Droicyniana, F. v. M., is the only species found in Western Aus- 
 tralia ; it grows in the south-west, and is looked upon as an indication of poor 
 sandy land. It grows in dense clumps 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and bears the 
 local name of " Emu-berry." 
 
 Of the family Pinace^ there are two handsome Kauri Pines, Agathis 
 (Dammara) robusta, C. Moore, and A. Palmerstoni, F. v. M., both peculiar 
 to coastal Queensland. The genus Araucaria has also two fine commercial 
 trees, viz., A. Cunninghamii, Ait., the " Hoop or White Pine," of the brush 
 forests of northern New South Wales and Queensland, and A. Bidwilli, Hook, f ., 
 the " Bunya Bunya," peculiar to southern Queensland, and bearing cones 
 as large as a child's head, which furnish the large seeds used as food by the 
 aborigines. A. excelsa, R. Br., so often seen planted in Australia, is the " Nor- 
 folk Island Pine," and is not indigenous to Australia. Adventitious leaf 
 or branch buds in the form of woody nodules, and which are really abortive 
 branches, are found in the bark of some trees, particularly those of certain 
 Araiicarias. 
 
 Arthrolaxis is confined to Tasmania, where there are three species found 
 in the western mountains. All are small or medium-sized trees, valued, 
 like all the Pinacese, for their timber. A. cupressoides, D. Don, is the 
 original " King William Pine," a designation now also often given to A. 
 selaginoides, D. Don ; the third species is A. laxifolia, Hook. f.. and all three 
 are sometimes called " Red Pine," because of the colour of the timber. 
 
 The genus Callitris is the most abundant pine in Australia. It contains 
 fifteen species, and is found from Tasmania to the tropics, and from the sea 
 coast to the arid interior. Sometimes these trees, called " Cypress Pine," 
 are so abundant as to be looked upon as a pest. They are usually beautiful 
 trees, sometimes bright-green, and sometimes glaucous, and the species are 
 largely determined on the shape of the cone. They chiefly occur in New 
 South Wales and Queensland, but are common in Western Australia. 
 
 Filzroya has two species, one confined to Tasmania, the other to temperate 
 South America. The Tasmaniau species, F. Archeri, Benth. and Hook, f., 
 is a small shrub, and is found on mountain tops in the southern part of the 
 island. 
 
 C. 121.^4. N
 
 19i Federal Handbook. 
 
 The Cycadace^ are represented in Australia by three genera, Macro- 
 zamia, Cycas, and Bowenia. The first is by far the most abundant, and is 
 chiefly developed in eastern New South Wales and Queensland, and, to a 
 less extent, in south-western Australia. There are sixteen species, M. spiralis, 
 Miq,, occurring extensively both in southern and northern New South Wales ; 
 a number of forms, M. Fawcetti, heteromera, cylindrica, secunda, flexuosa, 
 all named by C. Moore, were first brought under notice as horticultural 
 varieties, but I look upon them as good species. All are less robust than 
 M. spiralis. M. Perowskiana, I\Iiq., is a taller species, and occurs in northern 
 New South Wales and southern Queensland, while M. Moorei, F. v. ^I., 
 of Springsure, Queensland, is a larger species. M. Hopei, W. Hill, of north 
 Queensland, is the largest of all, and is stated to attain a height of 60 feet. 
 M. Miquelli, F. v. M., extends from near Brisbane to Rockhampton, Queens- 
 land, but 31. platyrachis, Bail., M. Paulo-Gulielmi, F. v. M. (an especially 
 graceful species), M. Mountperriensis, Bail., M. Douglasi, Hill and F. v. M., 
 are more restricted in their habitats. M. Macdoniielli, F. v. M., is found in 
 the Macdonnell Ranges of northern South Australia, technically in the 
 Northern Territory, while M. Fraseri, ]\Iiq., and ill. Dyeri, F. v. M., are 
 peculiar to Western Australia. Macrozamias in New South Wales go under 
 the name of " Burrawang." 
 
 The four species of Cycas are confined to northern Queensland, and our 
 two species of Bowenia, B. spectabilis, Hook., and B. serrulata (Andre), Chamb., 
 have a somewhat similar range. All our Cycads, apart from their very great 
 botanical interest, are of special horticultural value. 
 
 The interest of the small family Amaryllide^ (26 Australian species) 
 will be in four out of its seven genera, Doryanthes, Crinum, Calostemma, and 
 Eurydes. 
 
 Of Doryanthes we have two species, D. excelsa, Correa, and D. Palmeri, 
 W. Hill ; both are very large plants, with large sword-shaped leaves and 
 with very tall flowering stems and massive inflorescence. The former is 
 from coastal New South Wales and Queensland ; the latter, which is some- 
 what variable, is confined to southern Queensland. The flowers are crimson 
 in colour. Our Crinums are eleven in number, all found in Queensland, 
 and several extending to northern Australia. One also occurs in New South 
 Wales, as does also a small and beautiful species (C. flaccidum, Herb.), which 
 is found in the interior of all the States except Tasmania. The two 
 species of Calostemma, C. purpureum, R. Br., and C. luteum, Sims, are also 
 from the drier country. Eurydes Cunninghamii, Ait., is found in north 
 coastal New South Wales and coastal Queensland ; E. amhoinensis. Loud., 
 occurs in Queensland and northern Australia, and extends to the Indian 
 Archipelago. 
 
 The Australian Liliace^ amount to 189 species in 4-5 genera. Only 
 some of the more prominent genera can be taken notice of. Blandfordia 
 known as " Christmas Bells," comprises four species, three of which are 
 found in coastal New South Wales, one extending to Queensland, while one 
 is confined to Tasmania. The flowers are reddish or reddish-brown or 
 yellow, and very ornamental. 
 
 Thysanotus is the " Fringed Violet," because the flowers are of a violet 
 colour, and fringed at the edges. They are small plants, with grass-like
 
 Australian Vegetation. 195 
 
 leaves. There are 21 species, of which fourteen are found in Western Aus- 
 tralia. South Australia has six, and Victoria and New South Wales four each. 
 
 The genu== Xerotes consists of 37 species, rush-like plants, with small 
 flowers usually dull-yellow, dioecious. Xanthorrhoeas are the " grass trees " 
 of eastern Australia, the " Black-boys " of Western Australia, and the 
 " Yuccas " of Kangaroo Island and part of South Australia. They have 
 usually a caudex, showing the charred bases of the grass-like leaves, which 
 form a tuft at the top. Each caudex is surmounted by a spear-like flowering 
 spike. They exude a yellowish or reddish resin which was formerly known 
 as " Gum accroides," and now as " Grass-tree Gum " or " Black-boy Gum." 
 There are 13 species, only 2 being found in Western Australia, while 5 are 
 found in South Australia, including 1, X. Thornioni, Tate, in the Macdonnell 
 Ranges. Two species are found in Tasmania, 3 in Victoria, 4 in Queensland 
 (including the tiny X. pumilio, R. Br., from Port Curtis), and .5 in Xew South 
 Wales. 
 
 The monotypic genus Kingia {australis, R. Br.) reminds one a good deal 
 of a Xanthorrhcea with a long caudex, but it has several scapes, and the 
 flowers are arranged in a globular terminal head so that it becomes a many- 
 headed grass tree. It is accordingly known as " Drum-head Grass-tree," 
 and because of the silvery appearance of its foliage " Silver-leaf Grass-tree." 
 It is often a conspicuous feature of the landscape from Albany to Perth, 
 Western Australia. 
 
 Cyperace^ are well developed in Australia, numbering 421 species so 
 far. The cosmopolitan genus Cyperus is strongly developed (72 species) 
 and well diffused in Australia, with predominance in Queensland and New 
 South Wales, but most species are non-endemic. Schwnus is even more 
 largely represented (77 species), and is widely diffused, with, however, a 
 strong Western Australian preponderance. All Australian genera of 
 Cyperacese are more or less common, with the exception of a few of the small 
 ones. Fimbristylis, with its 58 species, is chiefly North Australian and then 
 Queensland. Of the remaining genera the principal, Heleocharis (13), Scirpus 
 (26), Carex (43), are alike well diffused in Australia and in other parts of the 
 world. Scleria (13) is chiefly Queensland and northern Australia, and 
 Lepidosperma (36) and Gahnia (29) are characteristic constituents of the 
 vegetation; the former genus is almost endemic, while species of the latter 
 freely occur in New Zealand. 
 
 Of Gramine^, 433 species have been described to date, and, as with so 
 many of our families, many additional ones will doubtless be brought under 
 notice. From the economic point of view they are very important, for they 
 are the stand-by of the countless flocks and herds of this continent. It is 
 not possible to do justice to them in a brief sketch, nor is it possible to refer 
 to the rich crop of aliens, purposely or accidentally introduced. There are 
 78 indigenous genera ; but only fourteen, comparatively small, are endemic. 
 Many of the species are endemic, and, taking them as a whole, the specie's 
 are well diffused throughout the States. 
 
 Of Pavicum there are 75 species ; they are useful almost without excep- 
 tion. The long trailing Sjntiifex is not to be confused with the " Spinifex " 
 of bushmen, which is the name given to Triodia, mostly dense, hummocky, 
 prickly species of the dry country. Neurnchne is " Miilga Grass," because 
 
 N 2
 
 196 Federal Handbook. 
 
 it is often found under Mulga {Acacia aneura, F. v. M.). Of Andropogon 
 we have 27 species, including some of the best fodder plants, such as " Blue 
 Grass," e.g., A. sericeus, R. Br., and its allies. Anthistiria ciliata, L. f., is 
 the well-known " Kangaroo Grass," A. membranacea, Lindl., " Flinders 
 Grass," while A. imberbis, Retz., is called " Bundle Bundle " in Western 
 Australia. Aristida with its characteristic trifid awn, has ten species, and 
 is often called " Wire Grass." The inflorescence of Stipa is sometimes 
 elegantly plumose (particularly S. elegantissima, LabilL), while the hardened 
 tip of the flowering glume enclosing the grain, bores, aided by the twisted 
 awn, into the flesh of animals, and hence they are called " Spear Grasses." 
 Certain species become obnoxious to the pastoralist, but all yield useful 
 feed when young. 
 
 Only eight species of Danthonia are found, but D. penicillata, F. v. M., 
 the widely diffused " Silver Grass," or " Wallaby Grass," is one of the best 
 of fodder grasses, and D. robusta, F. v. M., a coarse species, is the best fatten- 
 ing grass on the Mount Kosciusko Plateau. Astrebla is a small genus, but 
 its triticoid species are valuable dry-country grasses and are called " Mitchell 
 Grasses." Cynodon dactylon, L. C. Rich., is the " Couch Grass " of coastal 
 New South Wales and Queensland, one of our most valuable grasses for pas- 
 tures and for lawns ; it is identical with the " Doub " of India and the 
 " Bermuda Grass " of the United States. 
 
 There are thirteen species of Poa, some harsh and some succulent fodder 
 grasses. The introduced P. annua, L., is complementary to Cynodon dactylon, 
 since it takes its place every winter. Eragrostis claims 28 species, some 
 with an ornamental inflorescence, some capable of great drought resistance, 
 even bulbous, and all more or less valuable for sheep. 
 
 Two species of Bambusa (Bamboo) are found, one in Queensland, and the 
 other in north Australia. 
 
 Stenotaphrum americanum, Sch., is an American grass acclimatised in 
 the coastal districts, and invariably known as " Buffalo Grass," from the 
 circumstance that, in the very early days, it was fijst observed near Sydney 
 after the visit of an American ship The Buffalo. It is, however, not to be 
 confused with the grass known in America as Bufialo {Bouteloua). 
 
 The Brazilian Paspalum dilatatum, Poir., and the South African Chloris 
 Gayana, Kunth, have proved themselves valuable fodder grasses for dairy 
 cattle. Ammophila arundinacea. Host., " Marram Grass," has, particularly 
 in southern Victoria, proved an admirable sand stay. 
 
 14. The Flora of the Individual States. 
 (a) Western Australia. 
 
 Western Australia is the largest State of the Commonwealth, practically 
 comprising the western third of it. It contains many varieties of soils, light 
 and sandy prevailing. The south-western portion is the best watered, and 
 here the chief timber-wealth is to be found. 
 
 The northern portion of the State approaches the tropics, and has many 
 plants in common with the Northern Territory, which adjoins it. It is not 
 remarkable for the height of its mountains, but all of its mountain country is 
 full of interest to the botanist. For example, the Kimberley country is much 
 indented by fiords ; it is also mountainous, consisting of alternating high
 
 Australian Vegetation. 197 
 
 and lower lying plateaux, the highest country being principally sandstone. 
 In this district we have the Princess May Range, south-east from York Sound, 
 and probably reaching an altitude of over 3,000 feet, while the King Leopold 
 Range, south-east from Collier Bay, although attaining a little less elevation, 
 also promises rich rewards to the botanical investigator. 
 
 In the Hammersley Range in the north-western district (much of which 
 is mountainous), and between the Fortescue and the Ashburton Rivers, is 
 Mt. Bruce (3,800 feet), reputed to be the highest point in the State. 
 
 In the south-west district, the important range is the Darling, running 
 nearly due north and south from Yatheroo, in the north, to Point D'Entre- 
 casteaux, on the south coast. This range lies parallel to and from 18-20 
 miles distant from the western sea-board, and is the most important range 
 in the State by reason of its efiect on the climatic conditions of the most 
 closely settled areas. The highest point, Mt. William, in the Mm-ray district, 
 is 1,700 feet. 
 
 Stirling Range, 40 miles north-east of Albany, the loftiest range in the 
 southern portion of the State, is perfectly isolated and, rising abruptly from 
 a low-lying coastal plain, is visible for a great distance. Mt. Tulbrunup, 
 over 3,000 feet, is the highest peak, and the whole range is of fascinating 
 interest to the botanist. 
 
 A large proportion of the south-west and south sea-boards, is of a flat 
 and sandy character, with indications of a recent geological formation, and 
 may be described as a vast forest, principally timbered with Jarrah {Eucalyp- 
 tus marginata, Sm.), Red Gums {E. calophylla, R. Br.), Karri {E. diversicolor, 
 F. V. M.). The Tuart {E. gomphocephala, DC.) is confined to the coastal 
 limestone strip south of Perth, while further north is the beautiful yellow 
 flowered E. erythrocorys, F. v. M. 
 
 In the south-west, not only is there a very good rainfall, but subterranean 
 water is not far from the surface. The Esperance district on the south coast 
 has an especially rich flora. In the drier parts. Western Australia is remark- 
 able for the number and extent of its salt lakes, which support a true saline 
 flora. They often give the impression of a mirage. 
 
 Between the 30th parallel of latitude and of the Great Australian Bight, 
 much of the country is of limestone formation, and here there are immense 
 areas of grassland which only wait the discovery of sul:)terranean water to 
 make them amongst the most productive areas of the State. The author is 
 indebted for most of his notes on the physical features to the report of Mr. 
 F. S. Brockman in Eraser's Year-hook of Western Australia. 
 
 No considerable portion of the interior lying between the 19th and 31st 
 parallels of latitude, and between 121st and 129th ineridians of longitude, 
 is suitable for any class of settlement except in connexion with mineral 
 resources (chiefly gold). This area may be described as a great tableland 
 with an altitude of 1,000-2,000 feet above sea-level, the surface of which con- 
 sists largely of sand-dunes, though in many parts of it there are large areas. 
 of clayey soils. It would be a contradiction of terms to call it desert, for it 
 supports a copious and beautiful flora. 
 
 Mr. Henry Deane says that the soil of the country from Kalgoorlie, in 
 Western Australia, to Spencer's Gulf, in South Australia, is for the most part
 
 198 Federal Handbook. 
 
 good, and covered with vegetation consisting of various saltbushes {Atri- 
 plex), blue bush {Kochia, etc.), grass, and other shrubs, mostly edible, and 
 trees of various kinds, such as Mulga {Acacia aneura, F. v. M.), Myall {A. 
 pendula, A. Cunn.), Mallee {Eucalyptus oleosa, uncinata, etc.), and Myoporum, 
 with fi'equent bushes of Sandalwood {Santalum cygnorum, Miq.), and Quan- 
 dong {Fusanus acuminatus, R. Br.). 
 
 In the western State, one will hear much of the term " sand-plain," and 
 it is wonderful how these light sandy areas, usually devoid of trees, maintain 
 very gardens of flowers. 
 
 The physical features (mountains chiefly) have been referred to in a little 
 detail, as they are of especial interest to the visiting botanist, who will 
 probably endeavour to explore the Darling Eange, and perhaps the Stirling 
 Range, if he makes an extended stay. Here it may be at once said that 
 Western Australia is the State which will probably have most fascination for 
 him, for its pre-eminence as a botanist's paradise is without question. The 
 work of most of the visitors will, however, on this occasion, be entirely 
 devoted to that truncated portion between the mouth of the Murchison on 
 the west and Esperance on the south coast, while the true south-west, a more 
 truncated area still, covers more ground than most can even skim over. 
 In giving the palm to this area, it may be mentioned that a journey in the 
 express to Kalgoorlie will rapidly give some impression of the beauty and 
 variety of the desert flora, while the alpine floras of Tasmania, Victoria, and 
 New South Wales, and the rich brush vegetation of eastern New South 
 Wales and Queensland, come only second in botanical interest to the more 
 obvious botanical glories of the western State. 
 
 The yellow-flowered genus Hibhertia (Dilleniace^) is widely difiused, 
 and contains about 105 species, more than half of which are peculiar to 
 Western Australia. 
 
 The floriferous and beautiful pink-flowering genus Tetratheca, of the 
 purely Australian family Tremandrace^, is almost entirely confined to 
 Western Australia, the exceptions being the protean and widely difiused 
 T. ericifolia, Sm. (forms of wliich have been described under no less than 
 seven names), and two others. 
 
 The beautiful genus of shrubs Thomasia (Sterculiace^), with 23 species, 
 is confined to Western Australia, with the exception of T. petalocalyx, which 
 extends as far east as Victoria. 
 
 The Western Australian Pitcher-plant, Cephalotus follicularis, Labill. 
 (Cephalotace^), in which the radical leaves are converted into pitchers, 
 is peculiar to that State, and is found around Albany, in rich peaty bogs 
 of considerable depth, with the pitchers close to the ground, sheltering under 
 the shadow of long tussocks, say, 3 ft. 6 in. high, of rushes, sedges, Legu- 
 minosse, yellow Sundews, &c. It can hardly be seen except by pulling the 
 tussocks aside. 
 
 The Droseras (Droserace^), which are covered with glandular hairs 
 which entangle insects, are found in all the States, but Western Australia 
 is especially rich in them, where they form an important and interesting, if 
 frequently a humble, constituent of the vegetation, for in that State are to 
 be found about 45 out of about 62 Australian species, most of which are 
 very rich in individuals.
 
 Australian Vegetation. 199 
 
 The Caxdolleace.e are practically taken up with the genus Candollea 
 {Stylidium), which, with some difference of opinion as to the limits of a 
 species, has 107 species almost exclusively Australian. It has mostly rosettes 
 of radical leaves, and is remarkable for the elasticity of the column which 
 is formed by the filaments, which are connate with the style. This column 
 is bent back normally, but when touched it suddenly straightens, and hence 
 these plants are known as Trigger Plants. No less than 84 are Western 
 Australian, and the genus is sparingly distributed over the rest of the conti- 
 nent, Queensland and northern Australia being best represented after the 
 western State. 
 
 Coming to the Loranthace^e, Nuytsia floribunda, R. Br., the gorgeous 
 Tree Mistletoe or Cabbage Tree, is a distinctly wonderful plant. It is a 
 medium-sized tree, which grows on sandy land from King George's Sound 
 to the Murchison, in Western Australia, and the whole of the tree, when in 
 bloom, is one mass of beautiful orange-coloured flowers. It is one of the 
 most gorgeous trees in the world. It is root-parasitic, and hence the very 
 great difficulty of successfully transplanting it. Seedlings are raised without 
 difficulty, but they usually do not attain maturity. The same remarks 
 apply to that allied shrub with sweet-scented flowers, Atkinsonia ligustrina, 
 F. V. M., which is sparingly found in the Blue Mountains of New South Wales. 
 The other Mistletoes are chiefly represented by the genus Loranthus, wliich, 
 though not endemic, is so abundant and so conspicuous that visitors cannot 
 fail to observe it. Huge pendant masses will be observed attached to 
 the Eucalypts, whose leaves it somewhat resembles ; other species likewise 
 simulate the leaves of various other trees and shrubs to which they are 
 attached. Nothothixos is parasitic on Loranthus, which contains 26 Aus- 
 tralian species. 
 
 The H^MODORACE^ are almost exclusively Western Australian, the genus 
 Hwmodorum alone being found out of that State. Of 17 species, 7 belong to 
 Western Australia, 1 is peculiar to Tasmania, 4 to Northern Australia, 
 2 to New South Wales, and 1 to Queensland, while 2 are found in both New 
 South Wales and Queensland. The genus Conostylis has 38 species ; the 
 flowers are dull yellow, and the individuals very numerous. The greatest 
 interest, however, will be given to the so-called " Kangaroo Paws " {Anigo- 
 zanthus), some of which have very brilliant and bizarre colouring. Ekwen 
 species have been described. 
 
 The Iridace^ are in Australia practically synonymous with Patersonia 
 (17 species), largely developed in the western State (12 species), while 4 
 are in Victoria, 3 in New South Wales, and South Australia, Tasmania, and 
 Queensland having 2 each. The conspicuous but delicate perianth is usually 
 bluish or purplish in colour. 
 
 The Restionace^ are closely allied in habit and inflorescence to the 
 Cyperaceae, and are noteworthy from the great dissimilarity in habit and in- 
 florescence between the males and females of some species. The faniily is 
 almost limited to Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand, but our species 
 (rather more than 100) are all endemic. The genera Reslio, Leplocarpus, 
 and HypolcBna are also South African, and Australia has 25, 12, and 7 species 
 respectively. These genera, together with Lepyrodia (15 species) are dif- 
 fused throughout Australia, though they have a strong Western Australian
 
 200 Federal Handbook. 
 
 element. Loxocarya (9), Lepidobolus (4), and some smaller genera are 
 Western Australian. 
 
 To here give more than a sketchy account of the flora of Western Aus- 
 tralia is out of the question. It is remarkable for its showy and abundant 
 Leguminosse, for its abundance of endemic beautiful and remarkable Pro- 
 teacese, including the genus Dryandra (allied to Banksia), for the profusion 
 of its Groodeniacese, including the blue Leschenaultias, and so on. Its 
 Eucalyptus flora is most interesting. It is, however, not a land of ferns, 
 the number of species found there being under twenty. 
 
 (b) South Australia (including part of the Northern Territory). 
 
 South Australia and the Northern Territory form a slice taken through 
 the middle of Australia from the Indian Ocean to the Southern Ocean, the 
 western boundary being 129° E. longitude. They are separated from each 
 other by the 26° of S. latitude, while on the east the South Australian boundary 
 is 141° E. longitude, and that of the Northern Territory is 138°. 
 
 South Australia is for the greater part of its area, with the important 
 exception of the south-east, comparatively treeless. The sub-tropical por- 
 tion is for the most part of low elevation, and much of it is sparse open forest 
 and steppes. It is a country of comparatively low rainfall, and the indigenous 
 species are admirably dealt with in Tate's Flora, and the introduced plants 
 in J. M. Black's Naturalized Flora. 
 
 Australian Steppes {Lake Eyre Basin). — Baldwin Spencer writes,* " There 
 is a vast tract of country comprising the great Lake Eyre Basin, stretching 
 from this eastwards and northwards, into the interior of New South Wales 
 and Queensland, and up to and beyond the Macdonnell Ranges, across which 
 run such intermittent streams as the Cooper, the Warburton, the Macumba, 
 the Finke, and the Todd, dry for the greater part of the year, but every now 
 and then at varying intervals of time swollen with heavy floods, which 
 spread out over wide tracts, and for. a time transform the whole country 
 into a land covered with a luxuriant growth of vegetation. To this part 
 of the continent the name of the ' Australian Steppes ' may be suitably 
 applied." 
 
 Favenc speaks of the mystery of the Lake Eyre system of drainage, which 
 lies in the final exit of its waters. The lake is a sink for the rivers flowing 
 into it, and is mostly a dry bed, the southern portion alone holding water. 
 In spite of its army of affluents, it is never full nor visibly affected as a whole, 
 and it has no outlet to the ocean. It is estimated that its watershed is over 
 400,000 square miles. 
 
 Spencer divides the Steppes into Lower Steppes, Higher Steppes, and 
 Desert Country. 
 
 Lower Steppes. — From Oodnadatta to Charlotte Waters (here the 
 Northern Territory begins) and the Finke River to the James Range. 
 
 These include the Cretaceous table-topped hills and tablelands ; these 
 elevated plains slope gradually towards Lake Eyre from an altitude of 1,000 
 feet above sea-level to 39 feet below sea-level at Lake Eyre. The great 
 Cretaceous formation with its alternating stony or gibber plains, loamy flats, 
 and low-lying terraced hills, is capped with desert sandstone. 
 
 • Horn Exped. Hep. i.
 
 Australian Vegetation. 201 
 
 On the loamy flats, and even gibber plains, the most noticeable planf; is 
 Salsola Kali, L., commonly known as the Roly Poly, detaching itself froui the 
 ground, and forming spherical masses perhaps a yard or more in diameter. 
 It is a constant feature of the Cretaceous area. The lines of the water-courses 
 are marked with bolts of gum trees and Acacias, chiefly Eucalyptus rostrata, 
 Schlect., the River Gum ; E. microtheca, F. v. M., the Swamp Gum or Box ; 
 Acacia aneura, F. v. M., the Mulga ; A. cyperophylla, the Red Mulga ; and 
 A. Camhagei, R. T. Baker, the Gidgee. 
 
 The Higher Steppes comprise the southern part of the James Range and 
 the George Gill and Levi Ranges. 
 
 These include — 
 
 (a) The great central group of the Macdonnell Ranges, trending in a 
 nearly east and west direction for a distance of about 400 miles, 
 and with a width varying from 20 to 50 miles, thus covering an 
 area of more than 10,000 square miles. Several peaks are over 
 4,000 feet high, while the surrounding country is over 2,000 feet. 
 
 (6) The James, Waterhouse, George Gill, and Levi Ranges. These 
 have a mean combined width, if we include the intervening 
 plains and valleys, of from 60 to 70 miles. The area occiipied 
 by them, therefore, must be more than 1-5,000 square miles. 
 The highest points are situated in the most northern ridge, as 
 in the case of Mt. Gillen, whicli is nearly 3,000 feet above sea- 
 level. There is a gradual decrease in elevation in the ranges 
 from north to south, each range to the south constituting as it 
 were a step in the descent from the Macdonnell Ranges to the 
 plains. 
 
 On the Higher Steppes are an interesting Cycad and only one {Macro- 
 zamia (Encephalartos) MacDonnelU, F. v. M.), one Palm (Livistona Marice, 
 F. v. M., known in one colony of a hundred individuals only), a Grass Tree 
 {Xanthorrhoe a Thorntoni, Tate), one Epacrid {Leucopogon Mitehelli, Benth.), 
 while there are representatives of the genera Capparis, Hibbertia, Melaleuca, 
 Grevillea, Loranthus, Cassia, Eremophila, and trees up to 40 or .50 feet in 
 height of Acacia salicina, Lindl. ; Eucalyptus oleosa, F. v. M., in the form 
 of a Mallee, and a Bloodwood {E. terminalis, F. v. M.) are also found. 
 
 Speaking of the saxatile vegetation. Professor Tate, in his report on the 
 botany of the Horn Expedition, says that the number of actual species on 
 the tablelands and high level tracts is absolutely few, but that it was in the 
 gorges of the tablelands and on the basal part of the craggy escarpments and 
 their taluses that a varied flora occurs. 
 
 What he terms the Larapintine Flora, the flora of the Finke Rivei- and the 
 other districts the Horn Expedition traversed, he classifies as follows : — 
 
 (1) Exotic species, chiefly oriental. 
 
 (2) Endemic species of exotic genera. 
 
 (3) Endemic species of Australian genera. 
 
 Under (1) he uses the term " exotic " in its derivative sense, for most of 
 the species are ordinarily classed as Australian natives.
 
 202 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Of the " Australasian " genera, he records the foUowinj?, with five or 
 more species : — 
 
 Ptilotns (11), Swainsona (7), Cassia (10), phyllodineous Acacias (24), 
 Eucalyptus (10), Loranthus (5), Grevillea (9), Calotis (10), Helipterum 
 (10), Gootlenia (15), Dicrastylis (5), EremopMla (17). 
 
 The Desert Country. — From the G-eorge Gill Range to Ayers' Rock and 
 Mt. Olga. This is one of the areas which may be fitly termed desert. 
 
 Ayers' Rock and Mt. Olga. — In addition, to the mountain ranges referred 
 to under " Higher Steppes," there are some isolated mountains. Rising 
 like an enormous waterworn boulder is that remarkable isolated monolith 
 known as Ayers' Rock. It is situated 32 miles S.S.W. of Lake Amadeus. 
 The rock is quite bare, with the exception that a few fig-trees {Ficus platy- 
 poda, A. Cunn.) maintain a precarious footing in the few crevices on its bare 
 sides. Mount Olga, which from a distance presents a most remarkable 
 outline, is 15 miles west of Ayers' Rock. 
 
 Professor Tate divided intra-tropical South Australia into the Eremian 
 or Desert Flora which occupies the arid region of central Australia, and 
 corresponds with the " salt-bush country " of the pastoralist. This is con- 
 tinuous with much country in eastern Western Australia, and western 
 Queensland and New South Wales. The region is approximately limited 
 by the rainfall line of 10 inches. 
 
 His second division was the Euronotian Flora, which is dominant in the 
 more humid parts of temperate Australia, excepting the extreme south- 
 west. 
 
 To speak of the whole interior of Australia as a Desert or Eremian Country 
 is very misleading. Over wide areas, especially across the western half oi 
 the interior, extend sand-hills and flats covered with Mulga scrub {Acacia 
 aneura, F. v. M.) and Porcupine Grass (Triodia), which may be justly described 
 as desert, e.g., some country stretching from the G-eorge Gill Range to Ayers' 
 Rock and Mt. Olga, where no creeks run and uncertain water supplies may 
 be found in rock-holes, but the Australian Steppes country of the interior 
 is by no means desert. 
 
 Kangaroo Island is the second Australian island in point of size ; it is 
 of an oblong shape about 90 miles by 25, and is situated just off the coast 
 of South Australia. The country is hilly and undulating, the highest eleva- 
 tion being under 1,000 feet. There is but little permanent water on the island, 
 and its vegetation is grouped by Tate as heathy, sylvan, and savannah. 
 The flora is not rich, consisting of less than 400 species of phanerogams 
 and vascular cryptogams. Very few species are endemic. Its flora bears 
 strong affinity to that of the mainland, and is remarkable for the strong 
 Tasmanian element it contains. 
 
 South Australia, taken as a whole, is not remarkable for the number of 
 its endemic plants ; most of them are in common with the indefinitely-zoned 
 dry areas of the contiguous States. 
 
 (c) Victoria. 
 
 Victoria is a State which in its eastern portion (Gippsland) has conditions 
 which strongly resemble those of the southern coastal belt of New South 
 Wales. It is the home of the tallest trees of the Australian continent,
 
 Australian Vegetation. 203 
 
 probably second only in this respect to those of California. In the south- 
 west we have a basaltic plain which is remarkably fertile. This has scattered 
 forests, and is pastoral and agricultural country. North of these areas are 
 the western and eastern highlands, the latter higher and moister, and both 
 containing rich open forests consisting almost entirely of Eucah-ptus. In 
 the Wimmera, in the north-western portion, we have a region of comparatively 
 low rainfall, similar to much of the South Australian territory adjacent 
 and to the western plains of New South Wales. 
 
 No State of the Commonwealth has had its flora more fully examined 
 than Victoria, since the late Baron von Mueller was for so many years Govern- 
 ment Botanist of that State ; indeed he took unofficial botanical charge of 
 the whole of Australia. For purposes of botanical-geography he divided 
 the State into five parts, chiefly based on the river systems : — 
 
 (a) The north-western region, from the sources of the water-courses 
 in the north-west to the Murray River. This is the driest area. 
 
 (h) The south-west region, from the sources of the water-courses in 
 the south-west, to the coast west of Cape Otway and to the vicinity 
 of the Glenelg River. This includes much rich plains country. 
 
 (c) The southern region, fi'om the sources of the water-courses in the 
 
 south to the vicinity of Cape Otway to Port Pliillip (Melbourne 
 district), and to the western boundary of Gippsland. 
 
 (d) The north-eastern region, from the sources of the water-courses 
 
 in the north-east to the Hume River, including the Victorian 
 Alps. Here we have the alpine vegetation contiguous to that of 
 New South Wales, and with a strong Tasmanian and Antarctic 
 element. 
 
 (e) The eastern region, comprising Gippsland, exclusive of the Alps- 
 
 Tins is an especially well-watered area, and a celebrated forest 
 region, including the habitat of the tallest trees of Australia. 
 
 The Otway district is a well-known forest region, e.g., for its magnificent 
 Blue Gum {Eucalyptus globulus, Labill.) areas, and for the Beech forests 
 (Fagus CunningJiamii, Hook. f.). 
 
 Admirable general accounts of the flora of Victoria have been given by 
 C. A. Topp,* G. Weindorfer,-}- and Professor A. J. 'Ewart.f 
 
 Topp characterizes the prevailing botanical featm'es, first of the shores of 
 Port Pliillip and of the district in its immediate vicinity, then the flora of 
 the fern-tree gullies (in which Victoria is rich), such as may be found in the 
 Dandenong Range and on the Main Divide, running into the Watts' River and 
 other mountain streams, and, thirdly, he gives a brief account of the interesting 
 alpine flora of the north-eastern mountain system, between Omeo and Har- 
 rietville, on the peaks and spurs of Mts. Feathertop, Bogong, and Hotham. 
 
 Weindorfer divides the State into three, the first and largest of which 
 forms part of the south-eastern Australian forest flora, and is looked upon 
 as an intermediate link between the Antarctic flora and that of the tropical 
 east and north of the continent. The second division is formed by a part of 
 the central Australian desert flora, which penetrates to the north-west corner 
 
 • Hawlhooh AiMl. Assoc, .iilo. Sci., Melbourne, I'JOO, p. 170. 
 t Victor inn Year-Book, l'.)04, Part i., p. 19. 
 X Vict. ^al. XXV., 7« (1908).
 
 204 Federal Handbook. 
 
 of the State, constituting tlie " Mallee " (Mueller's north-west region). The 
 third and smallest division is the alpine flora, which is restricted to the highest 
 points of the alpine mountains in the north-eastern corner of the State 
 (Mueller's north-eastern region). Weindorfer's first large division therefore 
 includes the divisions (b), (c), (e) of Mueller. 
 
 He points out that Victoria's endemic flora is 7*6 per cent. (46 species 
 in all) less than that of the floras of any of the other States, and is to be 
 accounted for by the comparatively regular and heavy rainfall over a large 
 area, and which caused Sir Thomas Mitchell, Surveyor-General of New South 
 Wales, to designate the central portion of it " Australia Felix." 
 
 The Grampians form what have been termed the natural garden of 
 Victoria, for the flora of this range is alike varied and beautifiil. 
 
 Ewart's paper is more ecological in character, being written less from the 
 taxonomic side. He deals with the factors which influence a flora, and briefly 
 applies them to Victoria in the form of notes. Thus be touches upon geo- 
 log'cal history, present climate, the effect of settlement on the native flora, 
 and cognate subjects in pregnant paragraphs. 
 
 Under Eucalyptus regnans, F. v. M., which the author has recommended 
 to be known as " Giant Gum," there is given* a full account of the Giant Trees 
 of Australia, together with a record of the controversies which took place 
 nearly 30 years ago. The tallest trees in Australia, so far proved, are those 
 of Gippsland, Victoria, and are E. regnans, F. v. M. Claimants for this 
 distinction are the giant Karris (E. diversicolor, F. v. M.), of south-western 
 Australia, but the heights assigned to this species require confirmation by 
 surveyors. The " King-trees" of eastern New South Wales, viz., the Black- 
 butts {E. pilularis, Sm.), of the Illawarra, and the Tallow-woods {E. micro- 
 corys, F. v. M.) of the Lansdowne Eiver, may be as bulky (though not so 
 high) as the Gippsland trees, but this requires to be proved. 
 
 The official size of the tallest Gippsland tree is given as — height, 
 326 ft. 1 in. ; girth, 25 ft. 7 in., measured 6 feet from ground ; locality, 
 spur of Mt. Baw Baw, 91 miles from Melbomrne. This is enormous, but 
 different fi-om the alleged heights of from 400 to 525 feet foisted on Mueller, 
 and which will probably not be eradicated from the newspapers for another 
 generation. 
 
 As regards the Calif ornian trees brought into comparison. Prof. Sargent, 
 an eminent authority, may be quoted, and in view of the actual measure- 
 ments that he presents, viz., 340 feet in height for a Redwood and a girth 
 round the trunk of 107 feet for its congener the " Big Tree," an opinion 
 may be expressed that, so far as is known at present, California is the home 
 both of the tallest and of the broadest trees in the world. The difference 
 (under 14 feet) against the Gippsland tree is not large, and it would not be 
 sm-prising if additional investigations should cause this friendly competition 
 between Australia and the United States to end differently. 
 
 (d) Tasmania. 
 
 This is by far the smallest of the Australian States, but by reason of its 
 generous rainfall, comparatively high latitude, and great range of elevation, 
 it is a paradise of " antarctic " plants for the botanist. 
 
 • " Forest Flora of New South Wales," Part XVllI., p. 161.
 
 Australian Veoetation. 205 
 
 It lias a climate which greatly resembles that of Britain. It is well 
 wooded, not only with Eucalypts, but with Beeches {Fagus Cunninf/hninii, 
 Hook, f.), and with valuable Conifers, Huon Pine {Dacrydiuin Franklinii, 
 Hook, f.), King William Pine {Arthrotaxis selaginoides, Don, and cup lessoides, 
 Don), Celery Top Pine {PhyUocladus rhomboidalis, Rich.), Oys'pi Bay Pine 
 (Callitris rhomboidea, R. Br.), now seriously diminishing. The western 
 portion is a region of high rainfall, and the Beech forests are almost 
 impenetrable. 
 
 A singular plant is the endemic Anodopetalum biglandulosum, A. Cunn. 
 (Saxifi'agacefe), a tree common in the forests of the south and west, and which 
 grows in a remarkable horizontal position, hence the name " Horizontal 
 Scrub." 
 
 The flora of Tasmania and its relations are very well known, originally 
 through the classical work of Hooker,* and, later, through an admirable 
 " Flora, "f the work of the present Government Botanist. 
 
 Hooker refers to the strong east Australian character of the flora, the 
 island having been formerly joined to the mainland, and of the non -Australian 
 element he points out the greater proportion of New Zealand, South American, 
 Antarctic, and even European plants not found on the Australian continent. 
 
 The strong affinity of the Tasmanian and Australian alpine flora is obvious 
 to any student who examines the two lists, and in most cases the isolation 
 of the two areas has not been continued for a sufficiently long period to 
 bring about any obvious difference in the facies of the plants. The Tasmanian 
 affinities in the Australian floras can be traced, in diminisliing abundance, 
 over distant regions of the mainland. 
 
 In view of the distribution of the true Beeches {Fagus), it may be noted 
 that there are three species, F. Gnnnii, Hook. f. (Fagacese), a small shrub 
 confined to a few mountain summits in Tasmania, F. Cunninghamii, Hook, f., 
 the so-called Myrtle, a large and beautiful tree found in Tasmania and Vic- 
 toria, and F. Moorei, F. v. M., " Negro-head Beech," also a beautiful tree, 
 occurring on some of the coastal tablelands of central New South Wales, 
 far removed geographically from its congeners. 
 
 Reference may be made to a suggestive paper by RodwayJ in which he 
 discusses the origin of the flora of his State, e.g., the Tasmanian and Fuegian 
 Fagi, and notes the presence of almost identical parasitic Cyttarias in both 
 countries. 
 
 (e) New South Wales. 
 
 New South Wales is a State whose botanical conditions are largely com- 
 parable to those of Queensland. The climatic factors vary from temperate 
 to sub-tropical. 
 
 She has the rich coastal belt, then the elevated tablelands which fall 
 away to the western plains, which are only barren when no rain falls. Her 
 coastal belt, and gullies running into the ranges and tablelands, produce 
 many " brush " timbers, at the same time supporting various types of open 
 forest, while the western slopes and plains produce valuable small trees 
 acclimatised to regions of low rainfall. 
 
 * Flora T'tsmnniefe. 
 
 t The Tasmanian Flora, by Leonard Kodway (I'JO.'i). 
 
 I Proe. A.A.A.S., xili. 2.50.
 
 206 Federal Handbook. 
 
 New South Wales joins with Queensland in her brush vegetation ; with 
 Victoria and Tasmania as regards alpine plants ; in her western slopes and 
 wide western plains with Western Australia, and the rest of the continent in a 
 share of the true Australian indigenous flora. 
 
 Many distinctive New South Wales plants will, theretore, be found referred 
 to under Queensland ; a very brief statement may be made in regard to the 
 endemic flora of the parent State. Endenaism must be usually spoken of with 
 a qualification, for every year are found important additions to the reputed 
 restricted habitats of plants. 
 
 They include two species of Streptothamus (Flacourtiacese), both climbing 
 plants from the northern rivers, a few bipinnate Acacias, and a few 
 Eucalypts. 
 
 In the Saxifgrageee is the important genus Ceratopetalum, comprising 
 two handsome coastal trees, the flowers of " Christmas-tree or Bush " {C. 
 gummiferum, Sm.) being especially beautiful ; also Acrophyllum venosum, 
 Benth., a charming shrub of the Blue Mountains. 
 
 Amongst the Proteaccse are the small genus Symphyonema, the only 
 Lamhertia out of Western Australia, and a number of Grevilleas, the hand- 
 somest of the Telopeas {T. speciosissima, R. Br., the Waratah) ; a few 
 Goodeniacese and Compositae, some Prostantheras, a few Styphelias, Leuco- 
 pogons, and Epacris ; some of the smaller species of Macrozamia, amongst 
 orchids, one or two each of Dendrohium, Sarcochilus, Diuris, Prasophyllum. 
 and Pterostylis. 
 
 Further, a Hmmodorum (Haemadoracese). In the Liliacese, a couple 
 of Blandfordias, an Allania, a Xerotis, and a Xanthorrhcea. Amongst the 
 Restionacese, a Lepyrodia and a Restio ; and in the Cyperaceee, a very 
 few species of Cyperus, Scirpus, Schoenus, and Gahnia ; also a very few 
 grasses. 
 
 There are two regions of abundant and large arboreal vegetation, 
 namely, south-western and eastern Australia. Allusion has already been 
 made to Gippsland, and there is also the coastal strip running along New 
 South Wales and Queensland to Cape York. In both the latter States the 
 Great Divide plays an important part in consideration of the distribution 
 of the vegetation, but it is a common error to confuse it with the coastal 
 ranges, or, indeed, to call it a range at all. It is, as Favenc has pointed out, 
 the true edge of the interior plateau. 
 
 In the south coast district are arborescent Rubiaceae {Coprosma and 
 Canthium), arborescent Compositae {Aster argophyllus, Labill., Bedfordia 
 salicina, DC, etc.). 
 
 In the north coast, also a branch of the coastal strip, are found arborescent 
 baccate Myrtaceae {Eugenia, &c.), arborescent Proteaceae, Brachychitons, 
 Laporteas, &c., with Diploglottis Cunningliami, Hook, f., Panax elegans, 
 F. V. M., and Archontophoenix Cunningkami (Bangalow), lifting their graceful 
 heads amongst the surrounding vegetation. 
 
 The coastal strip has or had trees wliich, although not the highest, may be 
 the bulkiest of all Australian trees. Eucalyptus pilularis, Sm., and E. micro- 
 c(trys, F. v. M., already referred to. 
 
 The Cypress Pine forests of the western plains, and the Ironbark forests 
 from Dubbo and north-eastward, are examples of pure gregarious forest.
 
 Australian Vegetation. 207 
 
 (f) Queensland. 
 
 Queensland is a region of rich coastal vine brushes (scrubs), tropical 
 and sub-tropical, with rich basaltic or at least alluvial soils, and ample rain- 
 fall. It contains a marvellous variety of trees, some of them very large, 
 and some of ascertained economic value. Westerly there are broken elevated 
 tablelands with rolling country beyond, much of it covered with open forest, 
 of which Eucahjptus is an important constituent, and then, sloping away to 
 the centre of Australia, are found conditions rarely favorable to tree life. 
 
 The best general account of the vegetation of Queensland is by Domin.* 
 
 It is in this State that the Austro-]\Ialayan element is most developed, 
 and it is very important, particularly in the Cape York Peninsula. The 
 Antarctic element is of very much less importance, and chiefly in evidence 
 on the tops of the Bellenden-Ker Range, the highest land in the State. The 
 true endemic flora is seen chiefly in the rolling downs and western plains, 
 also in southern Queensland. 
 
 The botano-geographical conditions are much the same as those already 
 indicated for New South Wales, an outstanding feature being the greater 
 extent of the rich soil of the coastal districts, together with a higher rainfall 
 and of course a warmer climate, for the territory extends into the tropics. 
 The result is a rich " brush " vegetation, far exceeding that to be found in 
 any other part of Australia, and systematists will not exhaust the treasures 
 for very many years. 
 
 Mr. F. M. Bailey has already described very many species, and the diffi- 
 culty of botanizing in the brushes is only known to those who have had 
 experience of it. The tall trees grow lofty and near together like cathedral 
 columns, exhibiting their commingled canopies to the sky, and much of the 
 botanical material available is owing to windfalls and the breaking down by 
 animals. Owing to the loftiness and the darkness, one often cannot see 
 either flower or fruit, and if one shoots ofi a twig, it is often not recovered, 
 and, even if obtained, it frequently cannot be matched with the tree which 
 produced it. The tall creepers which run to the tops of the loftiest trees are 
 even more difficult to examine. 
 
 The numerous ranges and isolated mountains of Queensland afford rich 
 collecting grounds to the botanists, who can be certain of harvests of such 
 plants as orchids, palms, and ferns. To some extent Queensland is the 
 antithesis of Western Australia, but her total of recorded plants already 
 exceeds that of Western Australia. These two States, partly because of 
 their size, have been least botanically explored. Queensland's boundless 
 prairies are rich in natural grasses and forage plants, which render her one of 
 the greatest cattle and sheep-raising countries in the world. 
 
 Most of the Anoiucese are confined to Queensland (brushes), though 
 five species come as far south as New South Wales and one {Eupomatialaurina, 
 R. Br.) to Victoria. 
 
 The Meliaceac are another family of trees almost entirely restricted to 
 the brushes of coastal New South Wales and Queensland, the exceptions 
 being confined — (a) to the genus Owenia, the inland " Colane," 0. acidula, 
 F. V. M., extending to South Australia, while 0. reticulata, F. v. M., is the 
 only representative of the family in Western Australia, in which State it is 
 
 *" Queensland's Plant Associations," /Vw. Hon. -Voc, (^ xxlii.. 57.
 
 208 Federal Handbook. 
 
 endemic ; (b) to Flindersia maculosa, the " Leopard Wood " of the drier 
 portions of both States. The genus Flindersia, or " Rasp-pod/' is so called 
 because of its usually large, muricate, septicidally-opening capsules, and 
 fifteen species have now been described. Engler proposes to place it with 
 the Rutacese. There is abundance of Dysoxylon, and Cedrela australis, 
 F. V. M., is the well-known " Red Cedar." 
 
 There are about twenty species of Vitis (Viticeae), all confined to the 
 brushes of Queensland and New South Wales, with the exception that two 
 extend to Victoria, on the south, and one species (F. augustissima, F. v. M.) 
 is peculiar to Western Australia. Some form lianes of great size, and are 
 water yielders ; some have been tried as Phylloxera-resistant stocks, but 
 with no commercial success so far. 
 
 Very extraordinary are the bladder-like organs of Utricularia (Lenti- 
 bularinese), dainty little plants found in damp sandy land, which are modified 
 leaflets. They have a valve-like arrangement, which enables them to catch 
 minute water animals. There are 24 species, seven of them extending to 
 Asia. Most have been described from Queensland, but they are not rare 
 in New South Wales and Western Australia. 
 
 Pitcher-plants, Nepenthes (Nepenthacese), in which the blade expands 
 into a pitcher or ascidium, and the prolongation of the midrib into a lid-like 
 process, are practically confined (in Australia) to the Cape York Peninsula. 
 Mr. F. M. Bailey has described no less than ten new species from this district, 
 all believed to be endemic. Only one non-endemic species {N. phyllamphora, 
 Willd.) is recorded from Australia and the Pacific Islands. 
 
 Amongst parasitic plants the leafless Cassytha of the Lauraceae, which 
 covers shrubs with a tangled mass of twine, will be certainly seen by the 
 visitor. There are also some native Dodders (Cuscuta), but an imported 
 species {C. Epithymum, MmT.) is a serious pest, particularly to lucerne, 
 and is, as a general rule, treated with severity. With the exception of 
 Cassyiha, which occurs more or less all over the States, the Lauracese are tall 
 trees of the coastal brushes, confined to New South Wales and Queensland, 
 particularly the latter, four species extending to Asia. Sixteen species of 
 Cryptocarya and fifteen of Endiandra have been described. 
 
 Many of the species of Euphorbiaceae are widely difiused, but some 
 genera, particularly those of Tribe Crotoneae, are predominantly eastern, 
 being found in Queensland or extending to New South Wales. The family 
 includes some doubtful poison plants. 
 
 The genus Ficus (Moraceae) is almost entirely confined to the brushes 
 of eastern Australia, largely preponderating in Queensland, with many 
 species extending northerly into the Northern Territory, two {F. platypoda, 
 A. Cunn., and orbicularis, A. Cunn.) finding their way into the centre of the 
 continent. Southward a number of species are found in New South 
 Wales. Some of the species are hemi-epiph}i;es, completely obliterating 
 even large trees and fences unless controlled. The whole family has 
 the same general distribution in Australia, being fond of moisture, deep 
 soil, and warmth. There are three species of Laportea (Nettle Tree). 
 
 Turning to the Orchidaceae, of which Australia has 439 species, there are not 
 many Australian orchids which especially attract the orchid grower. Den- 
 drobium bigibbum, Lindl., B. superbiens, Reichb., D. phalcenopsis, Fitzg.
 
 Australian Vegetation. 209 
 
 (resembling superbiens), and D. undulatum var. Broomfieldi (a handsome 
 north Australian variety with yellow flowers), D. speciosum, Sm., the "Rock 
 Lily," with lemon yellow flowers, and D. falcorostrum, Fitzg., are certainly 
 meritorious. Sarcochilus Fitzgeraldi, F. v. M., is the most beautiful of the 
 genus, and worthy of cultivation. 
 
 Caladenia Patersoni, R. Br., is reckoned by some to be the most charming 
 of Australian terrestrial orchids. The Epiphytes are most developed in 
 the brush forests of New South Wales and Queensland ; the terrestrial ones 
 are diffused throughout the States. 
 
 CalantJie veratrifolia, R. Br., with white flowers, Phaius grandifolius, 
 Lour., var. Bernaysi, with yellow flowers, and Spathoglottis Paulinece, with 
 reddish-brown ones, are handsome large terrestrials. Interesting leafless 
 orchids are Galeola cassythioides, A. Cunn., not rare about Sydney ; G. Ledgeri, 
 F. V. M., a very handsome denizen of the brush forests ; and Gastrodia sesa- 
 moides, Lindl. 
 
 The approximate number of the Australian species is given as follows : — 
 Caladenia, 56 ; Pmsophyllum, 47 ; Deiidrobium, 45 ; Pterostylis (Green- 
 hoods), 40 ; Thelymitra, 30 {T. gmndiflom, Fitzg., with blue flowers is very 
 handsome) ; Diicris, 25 ; Sarcochilus, 24. Orchids are pre-eminently a 
 family to be studied in the fresh state, with a flora available for reference, 
 and justice cannot be done to these beautiful and interesting plants in the 
 brief space available on the present occasion. 
 
 Palm^. — The Palms of Australia are confined to the brush forests of 
 Eastern Australia, and are mainly found in Queensland. New South Wales 
 has Calamus Muelleri, Wendl. (a " Lawyer Palm "), Ldnospadix monostachyus, 
 Wendl. and Drude (Walking Stick Palm), Archonotophcenix Cunninghamiana, 
 Wendl. and Drude (Bangalow), and Livistona australis, Mart. (Cabbage 
 Palm), the last extending into eastern Victoria, while L. Marice, F. v. M., 
 the only palm of the interior, is found in the Macdonnell Ranges of South 
 Australia. 
 
 Queensland has six species of Calamus, six of Livistona, two of Bacularia, 
 two of Guluhia, one each of Cdlyptrocalyx, Drymophlaeus, Areca, Cocos (the 
 Coco-nut), Caryota, Licuala, Gorypha, and Borassus. The student of palms 
 will be charmed with Queensland, and he will also find several Pandani and 
 Freycinetias in the same State, only one Pandanus {pedunculatus, R. Br.) 
 extending south down the New South Wales coast. 
 
 C. 12154.
 
 210 Federal Handbook. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE ANIMAL LIFE OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 By W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Biology in the University 
 
 of Sydney. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. Introduction. 4. Reptiles. 
 
 2. The Mammals. , 5. Amphibia. 
 
 (a) The Monotremes. 6. Fresh- Water Fishes. 
 (h) The Marsupials^ 7. Mollusca of the Land and the 
 
 The Question of Degenera- Fresh-Water. 
 
 TiON; The Families of Aus- 8. Crustaceans. 
 
 tralian Marsupials ; Rela- 9. Insects. 
 
 TiONSHiPS. 10. Scorpions and Spiders. 
 
 (c) Non-Marsupial Mammals. 11. Centipedes and Millepedes. 
 
 3. Birds— 12. Worms, Leeches, etc. 
 Peculiar and Characteristic 
 
 Fashlies. 
 
 1. Introduction. 
 
 In view of the narrow limits necessarily imposed, I have considered it best 
 not only to restrict the following statements to the animals of the land and 
 fresh water, leaving the marine fauna untouched, but also to leave out of 
 account a number of terrestrial and aquatic groups, which, however important 
 and interesting, are not known to contribute any characteristic features to 
 the Australian fauna. Thus the Protozoa, the Parasitic Worms, the Rotifers, 
 certain orders of Insects and Arachnida, and certain orders of Bu'ds, though 
 quite as extensively developed in this region as in others, are not referred to 
 in the following survey. 
 
 The features distinguishing the fauna of Australia from that of the other 
 main divisions of the earth's surface are by no means confined to the larger 
 and more conspicuous animals. Many of the lower groups, in spite of the 
 presence throughout most of them of cosmopolitan or widely-distributed 
 forms, have their characteristic Australian facies. 
 
 2. The Mammals. 
 
 It is the Mammals, however, that constitute, on the whole, the most in- 
 teresting part of the Australian fauna — Lateresting not only on account of 
 their peculiarities of structure and mode of life, but also on account of the 
 fact that in their case more than in that of any of the other groups, it is 
 possible through fossil remains to trace their history in past geological 
 periods, and from this, together with their present distribution, to draw 
 deductions of importance regarding changes in the arrangement of the land- 
 surfaces of the globe in the less remote geological periods. 
 
 The entire Australian mammalian fauna, with the exception of the Dingo 
 or Native Dog, a few Rodents, a number of Bats, including Fruit-eating 
 Bats or Flying Foxes, and in the sea the Seals and Whales and Dugongs, is 
 composed of Marsupials and Monotremes.
 
 Animal Life op Australia. 2U 
 
 (a) The Monotremes. 
 
 The most primitive of all the orders of Mammals — the Monotremes — are 
 entirely confined to Australia, including Tasmania, and New Guinea. Not 
 only is this the case, but there is no evidence of any members of this primitive 
 group having existed in other parts of the world later than, at the latest, the 
 oldest division (Lower Eocene) of the Tertiary period. It is possible, as held 
 by some, that all the Mammals, remains of which, chiefly in the shape of lower 
 jaws with teeth, have been found in Mesozoic strata in Europe, were near allies 
 of the existing Australian Monotremes. But, be this as it may, there is good 
 evidence from the resemblance in their tooth-structure to the living Ornitho- 
 rhynchus that the small European ilesozoic Mammals known as the Multi- 
 tuherculata were the ancestors of the Australian Monotremes. It is somewhat 
 remarkable that no remains capable of being referred to the Monotremes 
 or their supposed ancestors have up to the present been found in any 
 part of the world but Europe and North America on the one hand, and 
 Australia on the other. 
 
 Little is known with regard to the structure of the long-extinct Multi- 
 tuberculates, but what is known does not point to any high degree of 
 speciahzation, except in so far as the teeth are concerned. The living Mono- 
 tremes — the Platypus or Duck-bill [Ornithorhynchus) and the Spiny Ant- 
 eater {Echidna) — on the other hand, are extremely specialized, and must 
 differ very widely from their supposed ancestors. Both are very remarkable 
 creatures, and remarkable in very different ways, for, though their relationship 
 in essentials — in the structure of their shoulder-girdle, for example, and in 
 their oviparity with all that goes with it — is indisputable, their divergence 
 in more superficial points is extreme. The resemblances are confined super- 
 ficially to the general shape of the trunk, to the presence of short thick limbs, 
 all provided (except in the Papuan Pro-Echichm) with the full complement 
 of five digits, which are sub-equal and have strong claws, with a horny spur 
 on the inner side of the hind foot, in addition to the elongation of the snout 
 region into a kind of beak. In other respects the differences are very marked. 
 
 The Platypus is covered with a fine close fur. The upper jaw is not unlike 
 the beak of a Duck in general appearance, and is covered with a hairless, 
 leathery-looking integument, which is developed into a free flap at the base 
 \n front of the eyes. Both fore and hind limbs are short, and each comprises 
 Hve digits connected by a web of skin, but provided with strong claws, 
 so that they are adapted both for swimming and for burrowing. In the 
 male there is a sharp horny spur, provided with a gland, on the inner side 
 of the foot. The tail is long and furry. 
 
 The Spiny Ant-eater {Echidna), on the other hand, has the upper surface 
 of the body covered with strong pointed spines like those of a Hedgehog, 
 hut larger, with coarse hairs in between. The snout is very narrow and the 
 tail is rudimentary. The digits, which are specially powerful in the fore feet, 
 are not connected by webs. 
 
 Echidna and Ornithorhynchus are both animals the study of which in 
 their native haunts is difficult. Their habits are nocturnal, and they remain 
 for the most part securely concealed during the day. The food of Echidna 
 under natural conditions consists of ants, for the capture of which its long 
 and narrow tongue is spfcijilly adapted. It possesses no truce of teeth at any
 
 212 Federal Handbook. 
 
 stage. During the day it is rarely seen in the open, hiding away in holes 
 among rocks or about the roots of trees. If alarmed during its rare 
 wanderings abroad in the day-time it rapidly buries itself by burrowing 
 downwards. 
 
 The Platypus spends most of its active life in fresh-wate pools and 
 streams, swimming and diving with dexterity, and seeking its food, in the 
 shape of molluscs, insect-larvse, and the like, among the water-weeds, using 
 its beak as a Duck uses its bill for seeking out such objects, which are then 
 stored in cheek-pouches, to be afterwards crushed between the broad horny 
 plates that do duty for teeth in the adult. The Platypus, like Echidna, 
 is hard to find even in districts where it is abundant, since it retires during 
 the day to a burrow excavated in the banks of the stream, and, when in the 
 water, shows very little above the surface. 
 
 Though the adult Platypus has no teeth, well-developed teeth are formed 
 in the young, and persist for a considerable time. The peculiar structure of 
 these teeth has led to the conclusion, already referred to, that the nearest 
 known relatives of the Monotremes are the extinct Mesozoic and Lower 
 Eocene Multituherculata. 
 
 OrniiJwrhynchus and Echidna are oviparous. Echidna produces usually 
 only one egg in a season ; this it carries about and iucubates in a temporarily- 
 formed pouch into which the ducts of the mammary glands open, and, after 
 the young Echidna is hatched, it is carried about in the pouch for a considerable 
 time. 
 
 The Platypus has no pouch, and the two eggs usually produced are 
 deposited in the interior of the burrow, where the young are hatched. 
 
 Both Platypus and Echidna are still fairly abundant in some parts of the 
 Commonwealth, though the numbers of the former have been reduced owing 
 to the demand for their pelts, which are highly valued. Both are, nominally 
 at least, protected by legislative enactment. Neither can be said to be in 
 any immediate danger of extinction ; and, owing to the disappearance of 
 the aboriginals, formerly their chief enemies, in most districts, the Echidnas 
 are probably rather increasing than diminishing in numbers in some parts. 
 Echidna ranges over all parts of the Continent, Tasmania, and parts of New 
 Guinea. 
 
 (b) The Marsupials. 
 
 The Australian region is peculiarly the home of the Marsupials at the 
 present day, and in it, as has been frequently pointed out, owing to their 
 having remained for a long period practically undisturbed by aggression 
 or competition at the hands of the higher orders, they have been able to adapt 
 themselves to a great variety of widely differing modes of life. These adapta- 
 tions have resulted in the evolution of a number of families which show a 
 distinct parallelism to certain of the groups of the Eutheria or higher Mammals. 
 Thus the Kangaroos and Wallabies, herbivorous Mammals with the limbs 
 adapted for swift locomotion on the ground, are the Marsupial parallels 
 of the Deer and other Euminants. The arboreal Phalangers and Koalas 
 may be compared to the arboreal Lemurs and Monkeys. The Flying Pha- 
 langers are comparable to the Flying Squirrels. The Bandicoots, on the one 
 hand, and the Wombats on the other, mimic some of the famiUes of Eodents. 
 The carnivorous Native Cats, Tasmanian Devil, and Thylacine parallel some
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 213 
 
 of the groups of the true Cartiivora, wliile the Moles among the Insectivora 
 find an analogue among the Marsupials in the Notoryctes or Marsupial Mole 
 of the Australian desert. 
 
 When we take this high degree of specialization into account, it is difficult 
 to believe that the Marsupials are a degenerate race. Yet some of the 
 zoologists who have given most attention to the subject are of the opinion 
 that the existing members of the order have been derived from ancestors more 
 highly organized than themselves in certain important respects. One part of 
 the evidence on which this view is founded is concerned with the dentition. 
 Germs of three sets of teeth are developed in young Marsupials ; but of these 
 three sets of germs only one gives rise to a set of fully-formed teeth — the teeth 
 of the adult. If the latter are the persistent milk-teeth, as some com- 
 parative anatomists suppose, then one of the sets that remain undeveloped 
 may be regarded as corresponding to the permanent teeth of higher Mammals ; 
 and, should this be correct, then degeneration, as regards the teeth, has 
 certainly taken place in the Marsupials. But the presence of the two 
 abortive sets of tooth-germs does not necessarily point to such a conclusion ; 
 it may very well be interpreted as pointing not to degeneration from higher 
 Mammals, but to progressive development from lower forms in which three, 
 or more, sets of teeth succeeded one another during the life of the animal. 
 
 Another fact that has been looked upon as favouring the theory of de- 
 generation is the singular one that only one Marsupial, so far as known, 
 — the Bandicoot, Perameles, as discovered by J. P. Hill — has a true or allantoic 
 placenta, such as is universally present, as the organ for the absorption of 
 nutriment by the unborn young, in all higher Mammals without exception. 
 The explanation of this anomaly afforded by a theory of degeneration — 
 viz., that Marsupials in general once possessed a placenta, and that it has 
 become degenerated and lost in all except Perameles is, however, not the 
 only one that might be given. Almost as well might one argue that since 
 among the Lizards one form, viz., Seps, has an allantoic placenta, all the 
 others have previously possessed this structure, but have lost it as a result 
 of degeneration. It is perhaps quite as probable that the placenta has been 
 independently evolved in the Marsupials and in the ancestors of the higher 
 Mammals. 
 
 A third fact that has been supposed to point to degeneration is that the oldest 
 known extinct Australian Marsupial, Wynyardia, described by Baldwin Spencer 
 from deposits of Eocene age in Tasmania, has a cranial cavity, and presumably 
 possessed a brain, larger in proportion than those of the living forms. 
 
 The Marsupials are divisible into two main sections or sub-orders — the 
 Diprotodontia and the Polyprotodontia. The Diprotodontia have two large 
 incisor teeth in the lower jaw, and usually six (three on each side) in the 
 upper ; and they all have the second and third toes (usually much smaller 
 than the others) united by a web of skin (syndactylous) ; while the Polypro- 
 todontia, which are carnivorous or insectivorous for the most part, have 
 numerous incisors (four or five pairs) in the upper jaw, and rather fewer in 
 the lower, and, with the exception of the Bandicoots, are not syndactylous. 
 
 If we leave out of account the doubtful case of the South American 
 Ccenolestes and allied extinct forms from the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia, 
 the Diprotodonts are exclusively Australian at the present time, and there
 
 214 Fedetial "Randbook. 
 
 is no evidence tliat they ever existed in any other region. There are three 
 families of Diprotodonts — the Kangaroo family {MacropodidcE), the Wombat 
 family {PhascolomyidcB) and the Phalanger family (PhalangeridcE). The 
 first includes, in addition to the Kangaroos, the Tree Kangaroos, the Wallabies, 
 the Rock Wallabies, Hare-Wallabies, and Rat-Kangaroos, ranging in length 
 of head and body from 5 ft. 5 in. in the case of the large Kangaroos, down to 
 10 inches in the case of the Musk Rat {Hijjjsiprymnodon moschatus). There 
 are at least foyr species of Kangaroos {i.e., of the large species of Macropus) 
 inhabiting chiefly the more central parts of the various States, and two of 
 them also occurring in small numbers in the arid Central Australia. The 
 commonest is the Giant Kangaroo [Macropus gigas) which does not extend 
 to Central Australia, but is found all over the rest of the Continent, except 
 the far north, a variety of the species, now very rare, occurring also in 
 Tasmania. 
 
 The Wombats {PhascolomyidcB), thick-set in body, short in legs, practi- 
 cally tailless, and clumsy in movement, contrast strongly with the agile and 
 graceful Kangaroos and Wallabies. Their front teeth are very rodent-like, 
 and they have been not inaptly described as resembling Beavers in general 
 appearance without the well-developed tails of the latter animals. The 
 short and very stout limbs are provided with powerful claws, which enable 
 the animal to excavate large burrows in which it usually lies hidden during 
 the day-time. It employs its burrowing powers also in procuring the roots 
 of ferns and other plants which form the staple of its food. The most widelv 
 distributed species is Phascolomys mitchelli, which is found in New Soutli 
 Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. A second species {P. ursinus) is 
 confined to Tasmania and the islands of Bass Strait, while a third (P. latijrons) 
 occurs in South Australia. 
 
 The family Phalangeridw includes, in addition to the Phalangers, almost 
 universally known as " Opossums " in Australia, the Koala or Native Bear. 
 Of the latter there is only a single species {Phascolarctus cinereus) which is 
 common all over Eastern Australia. It is almost as completely arboreal 
 in its habits as the Sloth, which it resembles also in its slow and deliberate 
 movements. Both hand and foot are prehensile, and the digits are provided 
 with strong curved claws ; the tail is vestigial. The food of the Koala is 
 composed almost exclusively of leaves of Eucalypti. During the day it 
 usually rests asleep in a forked branch. 
 
 The Phalangers are slighter in the body than the Koala, and have similar 
 prehensile limbs, but are provided with a long tail which is usually prehensile. 
 The commonest species is Trichosurus vidpecula, which is found over all 
 Australia with the exception of the Cape York District. The common Tas- 
 manian Opossum is a somewhat larger variety of the same species with darker 
 and thicker fur. A second species — the Short-eared Opossum — T. caninus 
 — is not so widely distributed, being found in Southern Queensland, New 
 South Wales, parts of Victoria, Tasmania, and the islands of Bass Straits. 
 
 The Ring-tailed Opossums {Pseudochirus) are similar to the Opossums, 
 but smaller. The Flying Opossums (" Fl}ang Squirrels ") differ from the 
 Opossums in the possession, like the true Flpng Squirrels, of a fold of skin 
 extending on each side of the body from fore limb to hind limb, and forming 
 a parachute enabling the animal to glide through the air fi'om one branch
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 215 
 
 of a tree to another. Of these the largest is the Greater Flying Opossum 
 (Petauroides volans), which occurs throughout Eastern Australia. The 
 smallest is the Pigmy Flying Opossum {Acrobates pi/gmains), of about the 
 size of a mouse. 
 
 Also mouse-like in size and general appearance is the Long-snouted 
 Pouched Mouse {Tarsipes rostratus) which is peculiar among the Marsupials 
 in feeding with the aid of its long tongue on the honey of flowers as well as 
 on insects. Tarsipes has only been found in Western Australia. 
 
 One of the rarest and most interesting of the Australian Pohjprotodonts 
 is the little Banded Ant-eater {Myrmecobius fasciatus) of South and Western 
 Australia. Of the size of a large Rat, the Banded Ant-eater has a slender 
 squirrel-like body, a pointed snout with a long narrow tongue, well-developed 
 claws on the five digits of the fore foot and the four of the hind foot, and a 
 long bushy tail. The coarse, reddish fur of the upper surface is crossed by 
 eight or nine light transverse bands. The teeth are remarkable on account 
 both of their great number — 62 altogether, a larger number than in any 
 other living land Mammal — -and of the close resemblance between them and the 
 teeth of certain of the oldest known fossil Mammals, the remains of which have 
 been found in European Jurassic beds. Though a Marsupial in all other 
 essential respects, Myrmecobius is devoid of the characteristic pouch or 
 marsupium which occurs in all the rest of the Australian members of the 
 order. 
 
 Of the family Dasyuridce the Native Cats (genus Dasyarus) comprise 
 five species of carnivorous, marten-like, partly terrestrial, partly arboreal 
 Marsupials, the largest of which, the Tiger-cat {Dasyuriis maculatus) is 
 about 3J feet in total length. They have all brownish or yellowish-grey fur 
 with white spots. The most widely-distributed of the Native Cats is 
 Dasyurus viverrinus, which occurs in New South Wales, Victoria, South 
 Australia, and Tasmania. A number of smaller, rat-like or mouse-like 
 forms are also comprised in the family. 
 
 To the same family are also referred the Tasmanian Devil and the Thyla- 
 cine. The Tasmania Devil {Sarcophilus ursinus), now confined to Tasmania, 
 but formerly — ^probably at a period when Tasmania was a peninsula — living 
 also i;i continental Australia, is a fierce little animal which in general appear- 
 ance, with its thick snout and thick-set body, has been compared to a small 
 Bear. The limbs are like those of the Native Cats, but stronger, with five 
 clawed digits in the fore and four in the hind foot. The fur is black, with 
 sundry patches of white. 
 
 The Thylacine or Tasmanian Wolf {Thylacinus cynocephalus), like Sarco- 
 philus, is now confined to Tasmania, though formerly occurring on the 
 mainland. Thylacinus is a large dog-like carnivorous Marsupial of a grey 
 colour, with a number of transverse blackish stripes on the hinder part of 
 the body. It is said to find its nearest relatives in certain fossil forms {Fro- 
 thylacinus and others), in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia. Both the Devil 
 and the Wolf have been driven back to the very wildest and roughest parts 
 of Tasmania, and are becoming very scarce. 
 
 The Bandicoot family {Peramelido}) are Polyprotodonts which resemble 
 the Diprotodonts in having the second and third toes of the hind foot syn- 
 dactylous, i.e., united together by a web of skin. They are rabbit-like.
 
 216 Federal Handbook, 
 
 burrowing, omnivorous, with two or three of the middle digits of the fore 
 foot long and clawed, the others rudimentaiy ; with the first toe (hallux) 
 of the hind foot absent or rudimentary, the second and third slender and 
 united, the fourth the largest, with a large claw, and the fifth smaller ; the 
 tail narrow and sometimes bare like that of a Rat, sometimes scantily haired, 
 sometimes provided with a brush of long hairs. 
 
 The common Bandicoots belong to the genus Perameles, of which there 
 are six species, the most widely distributed being P. obesula, occurring all over 
 Australia south of the Tropics and in Tasmania. Bandicoots are extremely 
 common in some parts of the country, even in the neighbourhood of large 
 towns. They are not frequently seen, as they hide away dm-ing the day ; 
 but traces of their presence in localities where they abound are usually to be 
 observed in the shape of the numerous shallow burrows which they excavate 
 in search of the roots and the earthworms and grubs which constitute their 
 chief food. 
 
 The Rabbit Bandicoot {Peragale lagotis) occurs in South and Western 
 Australia and in the Centre. The name is derived from the long ears, which 
 are not unlike those of a rabbit or a hare. Still rarer is the Pig-footed Bandi- 
 coot {ChcBropus castanotis), also with prominent ears and with very slender 
 feet ; it is confined to the far-inland parts of the continent. 
 
 Of all the Polyprotodonts the most remarkably modified is the little 
 Marsupial Mole [Notoryctes typJilops) of Central Australia. The head and 
 trunk together are about 6 inches long, the head passing into the trunk 
 without definite neck : the trunk is flattened, the surface covered with a soft 
 silky fur. The snout is protected above by a hard horny shield, and the 
 tail, which is short, is enclosed in a hardened integument marked with a 
 number of rings. The eyes are quite vestigial and functionless ; the ear has 
 no pinna. The limbs are short and powerful, with five digits in each, all 
 provided with claws, those of the third and fourth digits of the fore foot 
 being enormously developed. Notoryctes does not seem to form per- 
 manent burrows, but moves along under the surface through loose sand 
 with marvellous speed. Its food consists mainly of ants captured under- 
 ground. 
 
 The only Marsupials now living outside the Australian region are the 
 Marsupials of America ; and these belong, with only one exception, to a 
 family of Polyprotodonts, the DidelphyidcB, or Opossums, which are not 
 represented in Australia either in the living or the fossil condition. The one 
 exception is a small rat-like animal — Ccenolestes — found in Bolivia and 
 Ecuador. This has some claims to be regarded as a Diprotodont of the same 
 type as the Diprotodonts of Australia : but the resemblances may perhaps 
 be ascribable rather to convergent evolution than to near relationship. The 
 upper teeth of Ccenolestes are Polyprotodont, while the lower are Diprotodont, 
 and the skull does not show special Diprotodont features. There is no 
 syndactylism. 
 
 The Cretaceous mammalian remains known as Triconodonts and Tri- 
 tuberculates may have been Marsupials ; but the evidence for such a con- 
 clusion is not complete, and, in any case, it is impossible to connect them 
 definitely with any of the living Marsupial families. The only family of recent 
 Marsupials which has a history traceable with any degree of certainty back
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 217 
 
 to the Mesozoic period is the DidelphyidcB of America. Remains of Marsupials 
 belonging to this family, or of forms regarded on good evidence as having 
 been its precursors, occur in Cretaceous beds in North America. In the Ter- 
 tiary of Europe and of North Amierica the DidelphyidcB were represented 
 by many species scarcely, if at all, to be distinguished from the living genus 
 Didelphys. The European DidelphyidcB ranged from the Eocene through 
 the Oligocene to the beginning of the Miocene, where they completely dis- 
 appeared. In North America they became extinct in the Oligocene — those 
 livmg in that country at the present day bemg evidently comparatively 
 recent immigrr.nts from the south. 
 
 In South America the Didelphyid stock appears to have been abundantly 
 represented by small forms {Microhiotheridce) in the Miocene of the Santa 
 Cruz beds of Patagonia ; but is probably to be traced much further back, 
 to the Upper Cretaceous or lowest Eocene, on the evidence of a single fossil 
 (Proteodidelphys) . 
 
 In the Santa Cruz beds, in addition to a number of forms of small Mar- 
 supials {Epanorthidce , Abderitidcp, Cccnolestidce), more or less nearly allied 
 to the living Ccenolestes, is a family of Polyprotodonts {Sparassodontidce, 
 including Prothylacinus), which seem to find their nearest allies in the living 
 Tasmanian Thylacine. 
 
 In Pleistocene times Australia was populated with Marsupials, many of 
 which belonged to genera that still survive, others to extinct genera referable 
 to existing families. Many of both types were of gigantic size, the largest of 
 the extinct genera being Diprotodon, Nototherium, and Thylacoleo. Dipro- 
 todon, the largest Marsupial known, was intermediate in its structure between 
 the Phalangers and Kangaroos. AH these Pleistocene forms were definitely 
 Diprotodont or definitely Polyjjrotodont. Wynyardia, from an older horizon, 
 seems to have resembled the South American Csenolestoids in combining 
 Diprotodont and Polyprotodont features. 
 
 South America and Australia have thus been, so far as known, the sole 
 centres of Marsupial evolution since the primitive Didelphyid stock became 
 extinct in Europe and North America. And it seems to be clearly established, 
 in view of the relationships between the Marsupial fauna, living and extinct, 
 of South America and that of Australia, that at some period antecedent 
 to the Pliocene, Australia and South America were in much closer connection 
 than they are at the present day. If we leave the case of Thylacinus and the 
 Sparassodonts out of account as at present undetermined, the main body 
 of the evidence seems to point not to any direct derivation of the one fauna 
 trom the other, but rather to their origination in a common centre, the 
 spreading out from this, east and west, of the two sets of primitive forms 
 destined to give rise respectively to the American and to Austialian Marsupial 
 fauna, the eventual complete geographical separation of the two with the 
 disappearance of the centre of origin, their arrival in South America and 
 Australia respectively, and their further evolution there since Miocene times. 
 Whether the primitive forms reached the original, now long submerged, 
 centre of dispersal through South America or through Austialia remains an 
 open question. The absence of Marsupials and Marsupial remains in Asia, 
 and the absence of any trace of Didelphyoid forms in Australian deposits 
 would seem to point rather to the former conclusion.
 
 218 Federal Handbook. 
 
 (c) Non=MarsupiaI Mammals. 
 
 The Dingo or Native Dog {Canis dingo) is one of the few indigenous 
 Mammals of Australia that are not Marsupials. The Dingo is a wild dog of 
 about the size of a collie, which ranges all over continental Australia in the 
 less frequented districts, and, hunting singly, or in twos and threes, or small 
 bands of five or six, works much devastation among the flocks and herds 
 and in the poultry runs. The Dingo is frequently reared from puppyhood 
 by the aborigines, but never becomes really tamed or fully domesticated, 
 and, though clever in finding and tracking game of all kinds, is not of much 
 direct vise to its masters. 
 
 Remains of the Dingo have been found mixed with the bones of extinct 
 Marsupials — Diprotodon, Nototherium, and Tliylacoleo — so that it is an ancient 
 inhabitant of the country — much more ancient than Man, so far as existing 
 evidence shows. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that the Dingo does not occur in Tasmania, and 
 never seems to have reached that country, since no remains of it have been 
 found there, though it flourished on the mainland perhaps even at the time 
 when Tasmania was not an island, but a peninsula. The survival of the 
 Thylacine and Sarcophilus in Tasmania is doubtless due to this circumstance, 
 since on the mainland these carnivorous Marsupials became extinct in 
 Pleistocene times. 
 
 Other non-marsupial Mammals are a number of species of Rats and Mice 
 (genus Mus of the order Rodentia) and other rat-like Rodents. The largest 
 of these is a Water-rat {Hydramys clirysog aster), which reaches a length of 
 some 20 inches. Very curious in their adoption of an attitude and mode 
 of progression similar to those of the Kangaroos and Wallabies are the so- 
 called " Jerboa " Rats. The genus to which these belong (Conilurus) is 
 peculiar to Australia, though other Rodent genera — the original Jer- 
 boas — presenting a parallel modification, are distributed in Asia and 
 Africa. 
 
 Australia also contains a considerable number of Bats of various kinds 
 (order Chiroptem). The largest of these are the widely-distributed Fruit- 
 eating Bats or Flying Foxes [Pteropodidce), a family which also occurs in 
 Africa and Southern Asia, as well as in Fiji and Samoa. These large Bats, 
 (popularly known as " Flying Foxes " on account of their Fox -like heads and 
 reddish fur), with a spread of wings of about 3 to 5 feet, are capable of swift 
 and prolonged flight, and travel long distances from their diurnal haunts 
 in remote gorges in the mountains to their feeding grounds in districts where 
 fruit is to be obtained. During the day they rest suspended by their claws 
 from branches of trees with the head downwards, congregating together 
 in " camps " or " rookeries " sometimes containing thousands of individuals. 
 At dusk they fly abroad in search of food, and often work great havoc in 
 orchards. 
 
 Of the Insectivorous Bats some twenty-five species are represented in 
 Australia, a few being forms of wide distribution, while the rest are confined to 
 Australia, and in many cases to particular parts of the Commonwealth. 
 One genus, Rhinonycteris, represented by a single species, seems to be 
 confined to North and North-west Australia.
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 219 
 
 3. Birds. 
 
 The Bird fauna of Australia is exceedingly rich both in regard to the 
 total number of species (about 800), the high proportion of endemic forms, 
 and the number of interesting and peculiar groups. Here Alfred Eussell 
 Wallace may be quoted. He writes {Geographical Distribution of Animals, 
 vol. I., p. 391), " The t}^ical Australian region is almost as well defined by 
 its birds as by its mammalia ; but in this case the deficiencies are less con- 
 spicuous, while the peculiar and characteristic families are numerous and 
 important. The most marked deficiency as regards widespread families, 
 is the total absence of Fringillidse (True Finches), Picidse (Woodpeckers), 
 Vulturidfe (Vultures), and Phasianidse* (Pheasants), and among prevalent 
 Oriental groups, Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls), Phyllornithidae (Green Bulbuls), 
 and Megalaemidse (Barbets), are families whose absence is significant." 
 
 No fewer than five families of birds are to all intents and purposes con- 
 fined to the Australian region ; and a number of others, though not so 
 restricted, are so specially developed in it as to constitute striking features 
 of the fauna. Of the families practically restricted to the region two of the 
 most interesting are those of the Cassowaries {Casuariidce) and Emus 
 {DromceidcB). The Australian Cassowary {Casicarius australis) is confined 
 to Northern Queensland, while the Emu [Drommus novce hollandice) is of 
 wide distribution in continental Australia, but the Tasmanian form {D. 
 diemenensis) became extinct about half-a-century ago. Another species 
 of Emu {D. parvulus) lived on Kangaroo Island, ofi St. Vincent's Gulf, and 
 the bones of yet another {D. minor) have been found on King Island in 
 Bass Strait. Emus have been di'iven back by settlement and cultivation, 
 and have become extirpated in many districts in which they were once 
 abundant. But they are still numerous enough in the plains and open 
 forest country in many parts of the continent, though in order to see them 
 in any abundance it is necessary to travel far back from the more populous 
 centres. 
 
 This characteristic bird is almost too well known to require description. 
 Though larger than the Cassowary, it is much smaller than the African 
 Ostrich, the full-grown bird reaching a height of about 5 feet. The Emu and 
 the Cassowary both differ from the Ostrich in the possession of three toes 
 instead of only two, and in the absence of the characteristic large plumes 
 on the wings and tail, all the contour-feathers being long, narrow, and forked. 
 The Emus do not possess the prominent helmet-like excrescence present on 
 the head of the Cassowary, and also are devoid of the wattles and brightlv- 
 coloured naked spaces on the neck. Emus go in pairs except after the breediutr 
 season, when a number may congregate together. They feed largely on 
 grasses and herbage, and on roots and fruits. In spring the eggs are laid 
 to the number of as many as forty in a hollow made in the ground or in u 
 loosely-constructed nest. The dark-green eggs are familiar objects in the 
 shops of dealers in curiosities. 
 
 Another peculiar family of birds almost confined to the Australian ie<Tion 
 is that of the Mound Birds or Megapodes {Megapodiidm). These are birds 
 not unlike the domestic turkey in size and general appearance, with verv 
 
 • The Phasianiice, as the family is now defined, are, however, represented by certain Quails {Coturnix 
 and others).
 
 220 Federal Handbook. 
 
 strong aud large feet. Unlike other birds, the Megapodes do not sit on their 
 eggs in order to maintain the temperature necessary for incubation ; but 
 scrape together masses of earth or sand mingled with decaying vegetable 
 matter, deposit the eggs as they are laid in depressions excavated in this 
 mass, cover them over and leave them to be hatched by the agency of the 
 heat generated by the decomposition of the organic matter. The young 
 birds, as soon as they are hatched, are able to scramble out of the mound and 
 shift for themselves. The Brush-Turkey {Catheturus lathami) and the Mallee 
 Hen {Lipoa ocellata) represent this family, the former in the east and north- 
 east, the latter in the south and west of the continent. Another species, 
 the Scrub Fowl {Megapodius tumulus), occurs in Northern Queensland, 
 but is found also distributed through New Guinea and a part of the Malay 
 Archipelago. Another {Catheturus purpureicollis) occurs in the Cape York 
 Peninsula. The family is not represented in Tasmania. Though characteris- 
 tic of Australia, the Mound-Birds are not confined to it, extending to the east 
 as far as Samoa, to the west as far as the Nicobar Islands, and to the north 
 as far as the Philippines and Ladrones. The nearest known relatives of the 
 Megapodes — structurally closely allied to them — are the Curassows {Cracidce) 
 of Central and South America. 
 
 The Pigeon family (ColumbidcB), though not numerous when compared 
 with their representatives in certain other regions, yet form an important 
 element of the bird-fauna. Conspicuous among them for brightness and 
 beauty of colouration, in which they almost rival the Parrot tribe, are the 
 Fruit Pigeons (Ptilopus), mostly denizens of the tropical districts of the 
 north. Other typical forms are the Top-knot Pigeon (Lopholcemus ant- 
 arcticus), the little Doves of the genus Geopelia, the Bronze-wings {Phaps 
 chalcoptera and P. elegans) and the Wonga {Leucosarcia picata). 
 
 The great development of the Parrot group constitutes one of the most 
 striking and characteristic features of the Australian avi-fauna. Three 
 families (or sub-families) are peculiar to the Australian region, and are for 
 the most part confined to Australia itself. Conspicuous among these is the 
 family of the Cockatoos {Cacatuidce), which occurs outside Australia only 
 in the Philippine and Sulu Islands. Of these, the White Cockatoo [Cacatua 
 galerita), with yellow crest and ear-coverts, is found practically all over 
 Australia and Tasmania, but does not penetrate to the far interior of the 
 continent. Leadbeater's, or the Pink Cockatoo (C leadbeateri), which has a 
 red crest banded with yellow and with a white tip, and has a flush of rose 
 colour over the head and breast, is confined to far inland districts of the 
 continent. The widely distributed Galah or Eose-breasted Cockatoo (C. 
 roseicapilla) is rose-coloured below and grey above. 
 
 Several species of the genus Calyptorhynchus, of varying distribution, are 
 popularly known as Black Cockatoos on account of the prevailing blackness^ 
 of their plumage. Of these, the commonest are C. hanksii, with a red band 
 across the tail, and C. funereus, with a yellow band in the same place and a 
 yellow tuft on the ears. 
 
 The largest of the Cockatoo tribe is the Great Black Cockatoo {Microglossus 
 aterrimus), which extends from Northern Queensland to New Guinea and the 
 Aru Islands, the uniform greyish-black of whose colouring is only relieved 
 by the red and yellow of naked patches on the cheeks. The smallest, the
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 22] 
 
 Cockatoo Parakeet {Calopsittacus novce hollandice), which is of a dark-grey 
 with a grey and yellow crest, occurs over Australia generally, but is rare in 
 the coastal districts. A little larger is the Gang-gang {CaUocephalon galeatum), 
 a grey bird with a thick crest, which is scarlet in the male, grey in the female. 
 
 The Brush-tongued Lories {TrichoglossidcB) are a second peculiar family 
 of Australian Parrots extending to New Guinea, Celebes, Timor, and the 
 New Hebrides. Of these, the best known is the gorgeously-coloured Blue- 
 bellied Lorikeet {Trichoglossus novce hollandice), which is of common occur- 
 rence in Eastern Australia and Tasmania, where it is often to be seen flying 
 about in flocks and feeding on the honey of the flowers of the Eucal}'3)ts 
 and of other trees and shrubs, and on various seeds. The prevailing colours 
 of this brilliantly-coloured bird are blue and red, with the head and the centre 
 of the under surface green and with a yellow band round the neck. 
 
 Belonging to a more widely distributed family is the " Budgeraga " 
 {Melopsittacus undulatus), very familiar as a cage bird, little larger than a 
 Sparrow, with green and yellow feathers bearing black markings, a yellow 
 head, with three black spots and a band of blue on the cheek and a streak 
 of blue in the middle of the tail. The King Parrot {Aprosniictus cyanopygius), 
 which ranges over Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria, is a large 
 handsome Parrot with the head, neck, and under-surface brilliant scarlet, 
 and the back and wings green. 
 
 Probably the commonest of the Australian Parrots, as well as among 
 the most beautiful in colouration, are certain species of the genus Platy- 
 cercus and its allies, commonly known as Parrakeets. Conspicuous among 
 these are the Rosella (Platycercus eximius) and Pennant's Parakeet {P. 
 elegans) . 
 
 The Lyre-birds {Menuridce) are restricted to the Australian continent. 
 The Superb Lyre-bird {Menura superba), of New South Wales and Southern 
 Queensland, and M. Victorice of Eastern Victoria and South-eastern New 
 South Wales have in the adult male the ornamental lyre-like tail to which these 
 birds owe their popular name. They are large birds of about the size of a 
 pheasant, which, though well able to fly, live largely on the ground. They are 
 exceedingly shy and difficult to approach, running away rapidly when ap- 
 proached, but if greatly startled, as by the bark of a dog, they will spring 
 up into a low branch of a tree. The Lyre-birds are wonderful mimics, 
 imitating very cleverly the cries of other birds, as well as any other sounds 
 that come within their hearing. 
 
 The Honey-eaters {Meliphagidce) are, perhaps, on the whole, the most 
 interesting of all the peculiar families of Australian birds on account of their 
 great abundance, their grace of form and movement, and the variety of their 
 notes and cries. The Meliphagidce are represented as far north as Bali, 
 and as far south as New Zealand, but they have their head-quarters in Aus- 
 tralia, where they find abundance of food in the honey-producing blossoms 
 of the Myrtaceous trees (such as Eucalypts and Ti-trees), the prevalence of 
 which is so characteristic of the vegetation. The food of the Honey-eaters 
 does not, however, consist exclusively of honey ; the small insects that 
 frequently abound about the flowers are also devoured, and are often found 
 to constitute a large proportion of the bulk of the contents of the crop, and 
 in many cases various fruits also contribute to the bird's diet. The largest
 
 222 Federal Handbook. 
 
 members of the family, such as the Friar-bird {Philemon corniculatus), with 
 its bare leathery -skinned head, and the Gill-bird (Acanthochcera caruncuiata), 
 with its pair of appendages (" wattles " or " gills ") at the sides of the head, 
 are of about the size of a thrush ; the smallest, such as the scarlet and black 
 Blood-stained Honey-eater {Myzomela saiiguinolenta) and the Spine-bill 
 [Acanthorliynclius temiirostris) are no larger than the largest humming-birds, 
 which they resemble in their habit of inserting the long slender bill into the 
 tube of a flower while hovering in the air. 
 
 The Scrub-birds {AtrichornithidcB) are also a family of birds peculiar to 
 Australia, remarkable, like the Lyi'e-birds, for their power of mimicking the 
 notes of other birds. 
 
 The Birds of Paradise (Paradiseidce) are represented by their most 
 characteristic and beautiful forms in New Guinea and the Aru Islands. In 
 Australia they have for their representatives the Rifle-birds, for the most 
 part restricted to Northern Queensland, and the Bower-birds, Regent-birds, 
 Satin-birds, and Cat-birds. All of these except the Rifle-birds have the 
 curious habit of constructing '' bowers " or play-grounds, which they orna- 
 ment in various ways with feathers, bones, shells, berries, lichens, and mosses. 
 Structurally the Bower-birds are most nearly related to the sombre-plumaged 
 Crows ; but the male attire of all of them, though much less gorgeous than 
 that of the true Birds of Paradise, shows some tendency to brilliancy. This 
 in the Bower-bird {Chlamydodera nuchalis) is limited to a band of lilac 
 on the neck relieving the quiet brown and grey of the rest of the surface. 
 The male Satin-bird {Ptilorhynchus violaceus) has a uniform coat of glistening 
 purplish-black. The Regent-bird {Sericulus melinus) has its black plumage 
 ornamented with bright orange on the head, neck, and wings. The Cat- 
 bird {Aeluredus viridis) is bright green diversified by white markings, with 
 a dash of blue on the back. 
 
 Of families (or sub-families) of birds not strictly confined to Australia, 
 though forming important characteristic constituents of its fauna, mention 
 should be made of the Thick-heads {Pachycephalidce), the Caterpillar-shrikes 
 (CampepJiagidce), the Wood-swallows {Artamidce), and the Weaver-finches 
 (Ploceidce). The Thick-heads, which are Polynesian as well as Australian 
 (also Tenasserim and the Sunda Islands), are active Shrike-like birds which 
 feed chiefly on insects. Various species of Pachycephala are very common 
 birds over nearly all Australia, and are distinguished by the black band 
 round the neck and the yellow or red breast. Falcunculus frontatus, the 
 Crested Shrike, of the same family, which has also a black neck-band with a 
 yellow breast, has a crest or tuft of feathers on the black head. 
 
 In connexion with the Shrikes mention must be made of two members 
 of that group which are among the commonest and most conspicuous birds 
 in all parts of Australia. These are the so-called " Magpies " {Gymnorhina) 
 and " Magpie Larks " {Grallina). Of the Magpies there are five species, of 
 which the most widely distributed is the Black-backed Magpie {G. tibicen). 
 Protected by law on account of the good work they do in the destruction 
 of grubs and caterpillars, which, with small lizards, form their principal food — 
 though by no means immaculate as regards fruit and cereal crops — these 
 handsome birds, with their striking black-and-white plumage, are very 
 abundant even in the most closely-settled parts. Their natural song is very
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 223 
 
 musical, clear, and flute-like ; they are excellent mimics, and when tamed 
 they can easily be taught to whistle a bar or two of a simple air. 
 
 The Magpie Lark [Grallina picata), distributed all over Australia, except 
 in the most arid parts, is a much smaller bird than the Magpie, which it 
 resembles in its black-and-white plumage. It utters a monotonous sharp 
 cry in two longish notes, from the sound of which it is in many districts 
 known as the " Pee- wee." 
 
 Another family of Shrike-like birds specially developed in Australia is 
 that of the Campephagidce (Cuckoo Shrikes or Caterpillar Shrikes). The 
 various species of the genus Graucalus belonging to this family are very 
 common biids in the bush in most parts of Australia. They are recognisable 
 as large birds with broad bUls, with the plumage of french grey, marked 
 about the head and throat with black, and with variously distributed white 
 patches. 
 
 The family of the Wood-swallows {Artamidce) are not by any means 
 confined to Australia, having representatives both in India and in West 
 Africa. The genus Artamus comprises half-a-dozen species, of which the 
 most widely distributed is the common Wood-swallow {A. tenebrosus or 
 sordidus), birds of sombre colouration, not unlike true Swallows — from 
 which they differ widely in essentials — in general appearance and mode of 
 flight, but with the bill long and curved instead of short and wide, and with 
 the wings less elongated. 
 
 Mention may here be made of the Shrike-Robins or Yellow-breasted 
 Robins of the genus EopsaUria, which is peculiar to Australia, New Guinea, 
 the Aru Islands, and New Caledonia. E. australis, a very tame bird, frequently 
 seen in town gardens, is very common in New South Wales and Victoria, 
 and allied species take its place in other parts. The Yellow-breasted Robins 
 are usually classed with the Fly-catchers {MuscimpidoE). 
 
 Also familiarly known as " Robins " are a number of other small birds, 
 notably the various species of Petroeca, a genus which is mainly Australian 
 in its distribution, though occurring also in New Zealand, the New Hebrides, 
 Fiji, and Samoa. Most of the common species of Petroeca have bright 
 scarlet breasts. P. goodenovii has also a patch of scarlet on the top of the 
 head. 
 
 The " Wrens " or " Warblers " of the genus Maluncs (classed, like the 
 Yellow-breasted Robins, with the Flycatchers, and confined to Australia 
 and New Guinea) are very attractive, tame little birds, common in gardens — 
 the adult males with brilliant plumage of blue and black, or rod and 
 black. 
 
 Though true Finches {Fringiltidce) are entirely wanting in Australia, 
 there are great numbers of the nearly related family of the Weaver Finches 
 (Ploceidce), which are numerous also in Africa, Southern Asia, the Malay 
 Archipelago, and tiio islands of the West Pacific. Many of these little birds 
 are strikingly and brilliantly coloured, and, being easily captured, they are 
 extensively kept as cage-birds. Of the eleven genera represented seven are 
 confined to Australia. 
 
 The Kingfisher family (Alcedinidce) , though abundant all over tli(> world, 
 have their head-quarters in Australia. Those gigantic members of the group, 
 the " Kookaburras " or " Laughing Jackasses " {Dacelo gigas and other
 
 224 Federal Handbook. 
 
 species), range all over Australia, except over the more arid parts of the 
 interior, where there is little bird-life of any kind. Outside Australia they 
 occur only in Southern New Guinea. The common Kookaburra {Dxcelo 
 gigas) extends over Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South 
 Australia. It is one of the largest of the Kingfisher tribe, with a total length 
 of about 17 inches. A second species, Dcicelo leachii, occurs in Queensland 
 and in the Northern Territory ; while a third, D. cervina, inhabits Western 
 Australia, the Northern Territory, and the northern parts of Queensland. 
 Kookaburras are not frequenters of streams like typical Kingfishers, and do 
 not feed on fish. They are to be found in all parts of the bush — ^more especi- 
 ally in the prevailing open forest country — and their food consists of lizards 
 and snakes, small mammals and birds, and large insects, such as cicadas 
 and locusts. Their most remarkable peculiarity is their extraordinary 
 laughing cry, usually uttered in a duet or chorus, especially frequent 
 and noisy at sunrise and sunset. Half-a-dozen Kingfishers of smaller size 
 also occur. The commonest of these, the Sacred Kingfisher {Halcyon sanctus) 
 is to be found all over Australia, and extends to New Guinea, Sumatra, and 
 the New Hebrides. Like the Kookaburras, it is by no means confined 
 to the neighbourhood of water, and it does not dive into water after fish, 
 but feeds on insects and crustaceans, small lizards, and snakes. Some of the 
 other species are typical Kingfishers in appearance and habits, and are 
 seldom to be seen except along the course of streams. 
 
 The Australian Birds of Prey, though numerous, present few characteristic 
 features. The Australian Harriers, Goshawks, Sparrow Hawks, Eagles, 
 Sea Eagles, Kites, Falcons, Kestrels, Ospreys, and Owls are not, save in small 
 particulars, different from the corresponding birds of other regions, and 
 belong to the same or to nearly related genera. Vultures are not represented. 
 The largest Australian Bird of Prey is the Wedge-tailed Eagle, or " Eagle- 
 hawk " {Aquila or UrocBtus audax), which is rather larger than the European 
 Golden Eagle. This is by no means a rare bird ; in fact, its numbers some- 
 times render it so formidable to the young lambs in pastoral districts that 
 poisoning is resorted to, and large numbers are destroyed. On the other hand, 
 the Wedge-tailed Eagle does a good work in destroying many rabbits. 
 Unlike the Golden Eagle the Wedge-tailed Eagle is by no means averse to 
 feeding on dead animals which are in a well-advanced stage of putridity. 
 
 4. Reptiles. 
 
 Of the Reptiles Australia possesses but a poor fauna so far as the Tor- 
 toises {Chelonia) and Crocodiles {Crocodilia) are concerned, while the Lizards 
 [Lacertilia) and Snakes {Ophidia) are much more numerous. The Tortoises 
 all belong to a family, the Chelydidce, occurring elsewhere only in South 
 America. The genus Chelodina comprises three species in Australia and one 
 in New Guinea. Of the Australian species G. longicollis, the Long-necked 
 Tortoise, inhabits the fresh waters of all the southern part of continental 
 Australia. 
 
 There are two species of Crocodile, both confined to the Tropics (Northern 
 Queensland). One of these {Crocodilus porosics) which lives in estuaries and 
 readily ventures out to sea, is a widely distributed Indian and Malayan
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 225 
 
 species, which reaches an immense size in some of the rivers of North Queens- 
 land. The other (C johnstoni), which does not reach a greater length than 
 6 or 7 feet, is also confined to rivers of the tropical north, but does not go 
 down into salt water. 
 
 The Lizards of Australia are very numerous, but present few marked 
 characters. Geckos and Skinks, generally distributed in other regions, are 
 represented by a number of genera and species. Of the Skinks one charac- 
 teristic form, which is distributed over the Australian continent, is the Shingle- 
 back or Stump-tailed Lizard {Trachjsaurus riigosus), the only species of a 
 genus which does not occur outside Australia. This was one of the few 
 Australian animals noticed by Dampier in his famous visit to Western Aus- 
 tralia in 1699. Another much commoner member of the Skink family is 
 the large sluggish smooth-scaled Blue-tongue [Tiliqua scincoides). The 
 commonest, small, long-tailed Lizards, with habits like those of the European 
 species of Lacerta, are also members of the Skink family (various species of 
 Lygosoma or Hinulia). 
 
 Allied to the Skink tribe is a family of snake-like Lizards, the Pygopidce, 
 entirely confined to Australia and Tasmania with, perhaps. New Guinea. 
 They are limbless, or practically limbless, Lizards often mistaken for Snakes, 
 and found in all parts, living in holes in the ground or under stones, and coming 
 out to feed usually in the evenings. The largest of these snake-like forms are 
 about 2 feet long. 
 
 One of the families of Lizards best represented in the Australian fauna 
 is that of the Agamidce, which contains a number of characteristic forms. 
 One of its most remarkable members is the Frill Lizard {Chlamydosaurus 
 Kingi), of Queensland and northern and north-western Australia. The most 
 striking feature of this Lizard, which grows to 3 feet in length, is the wide 
 frill-like flap of skin on either side of the neck, which the animal erects when 
 alarmed, by means of long rib-like extensions of the hyoid apparatus. The 
 Frill-lizard when pursued runs in a semi-erect position on the hind limbs 
 with the fore limbs clear of the ground ; but soon turns at bay, spreading 
 out the frill to its full extent, and opening its mouth widely, at the same time 
 emitting a peculiar hissing sound which adds to the alarming effect of its 
 attitude. 
 
 Belonging to the same family are the various species of Amphibolurus or 
 " Dragons," a genus confined to Australia. These are small-scaled Lizards 
 with extremely long narrow tail, and frequently with crests or rows of spines 
 along the back. One of the largest is the widely-distributed Jew Lizard 
 (A. harhatus), which reaches 21 inches in length, and owes its specific name to 
 the possession of a fringe of spines (" beard ") behind the ears and on the 
 lower jaw. A striking ally of these is the Water Dragon {Physignathus 
 lesueuri), which may be 3 feet in length, and has an elongated compressed tail, 
 and a prominent crest along the neck and back. The Water Dragon is very 
 common along the banks of creeks in the whole of Eastern Australia. The 
 genus occurs also in New Guinea and neiglibouiiiig islands, in Siam, and in 
 Cochin China. 
 
 The most grotesque of all the Agamida) is Moloch horridus of Western 
 Australia, which, with its spiny head and body, has a curious superficial 
 C. 12154. P
 
 226 Federal Handbook. 
 
 resemblance to the misleadingly-named " Horned Toads " of North America, 
 members of a family of Lizards, the Iguanidae, not represented at all in Aus- 
 tralia. 
 
 The largest of all the Australian Lizards, and one of the best known and 
 most widely distributed, is Varanus gouldi, the Lace Lizard, often termed 
 " Iguana " or " Goana," which sometimes reaches a length of 5 feet. This 
 Lizard has nothing to do with the true Iguanas, which are an essentially 
 American group ; but belongs to the family of the Monitors (Varanidce), 
 which are of very wide occurrence. It is a long-tailed, long-necked Lizard, 
 blackish brown above, with yellow spots on the body and yellow rings round 
 the tail, yellow below. The Lace Lizard lives much in trees, which it climbs 
 in search of the eggs and nestlings of birds. It frequently raids fowl-runs 
 for the eggs and young chicks. But it will devour any animal, living or dead, 
 that comes in its way. 
 
 Australia possesses numerous Snakes, some venomous, some non-venomous. 
 Among the venomous kinds none belong to the Viper family, all being members 
 of the Elapine section of the family Colubridce, a group of snakes of wide 
 distribution, occurring not only in Australia, but over Africa, Southern 
 Asia and the islands of the Malay Archipelago, and Central and South 
 America. One of the commonest of these is the Black Snake {Pseudechis 
 porphyriacus), which occurs all over Australia, except in the north and in 
 Tasmania. The Black Snake, which may reach a length of upwards of 6 feet, 
 is commonly found in swampy districts or along the banks of creeks and 
 rivers. It is readily recognised by the red under surface. The Copper- 
 headed Snake {Denisonia superha) (the popular name of which is derived 
 from the colour of the head in the young animal) chiefly frequents swamps 
 in Tasmania, Gippsland, and the Alps of Southern New South Wales. The 
 Tiger Snake {Notechis scutatus), of about the same size as the Black Snake 
 or rather smaller on the average, is also widely distributed on the mainland 
 in comparatively dry country, and occurs also in Tasmania. This, the 
 deadliest of the Australian venomous snakes, derives its popular name from 
 the numerous dark bands crossing the back. The Brown Snake {Diemenia 
 textilis), also very venomous, is also of widespread occurrence. It is uni- 
 formly brown above in the adult condition, whitish below. The so-called 
 Death Adder {Acanthophis antarcticus) is found in sandy localities nearly 
 all over Australia, and occurs also in New Guinea. It is a small thick snake, 
 rarely as much as 3 feet long, with fine mottling of brown, reddish, and 
 yellow on the upper surface, with darker cross bands. The horny spine 
 at the end of the tail, which gives its name to the genus and is often supposed 
 to be of the nature of a sting, is perhaps used as a fulcrum in locomotion. 
 
 Of the non-venomous snakes the largest by far are the Variegated 
 Pythons {Python variegatus), commonly known as Carpet Snake and Diamond 
 Snake. Of the two varieties of this species the Carpet Snake is the larger, 
 not infrequently reaching a length of 12 feet, while even larger specimens 
 are occasionally met with. Its popular name is derived from the irregular 
 pattern of dark markings on the pale-brownish ground colour of the upper 
 surface. The Diamond variety is darker, almost black, with a yellow spot 
 on each scale and diamond-shaped groups of yellow spots at irregular intervals. 
 The Carpet Snake occurs over Australia generally, but is absent in the south
 
 Animal Life op Australia. 227 
 
 of Victoria and in Tasmania. The Diamond Snake occurs only in parts of 
 New South Wales and Queensland. The food in both cases consists of the 
 smaller mammals and of birds. 
 
 Among the other non-venomous snakes are the Fresh-water Snakes 
 {Tropidonotus picturatus) of Eastern Australia, and the Green Tree Snakes, of 
 which there are two species — Dendrophis calligaster, of Northern Queens- 
 land, and the widely distributed D. punctulatus. The harmless little 
 burrowing Blind Snakes of the family TyphlopidcB are numerous. The 
 family is of wide distribution in tropical and semi-tropical countries. 
 
 5. Amphibia. 
 
 The Amphibian fauna of Australia is characterized by an abundance of 
 Frogs and Toads, and by a somewhat singular absence of the tailed Newts 
 and Salamanders, represented abundantly in other regions, and of the snake- 
 like CseciUans {Gymnophiona, Apoda), which occur in other warm countries. 
 None of the many species of Frogs belong to the genus Rana, to which the 
 common English frog belongs, with the exception of a single species found in 
 the Cape York Peninsula in the extreme north of Queensland — a district 
 which shows many other anomalies in its fauna due to migration from the 
 north. The majority of the Australian Frogs are either Tree-frogs {Hylidce), 
 or belong to a family, the Cystignathidte, which has no European represen- 
 tatives, but contains many South American forms. Thirteen out of the 
 sixteen genera that occur in Australia are peculiar to it. The family Engy- 
 stomatidcB, well represented in America, Africa, Madagascar, India, the Malay 
 Archipelago, and New Guinea, has been recently recorded from the Cape 
 York District. Not only are Frogs very abundant in all the habitable parts 
 of Australia, but they extend also into Central Australia, a region which for 
 long periods is quite rainless. Here Spencer found several species, all similar 
 to those occurring in regions of higher rainfall, but showing in their habits 
 and mode of life a special adaptation to the dry conditions under which they 
 live for the greater part of the year. 
 
 The frog most commonly seen in most parts of Australia is the web-footed, 
 brilliantly-coloured, green and golden Bell Frog {Hyla aurea), which, though 
 a tree-frog in structure, is rarely found in trees or even bushes, but lives in 
 or about swamps, water-holes, and streams. Equally common in many 
 parts, though not so frequently seen except at the breeding season owing to 
 its nocturnal and burrowing habits, is a cystignathid frog Limnodynastes 
 peronii. Another species of Hyla, the large bright-green Hyla caerulca, is 
 not uncommon in many parts. The largest Australian frog of all is the 
 Barred River Frog {Mixophyes fasciatus), which occurs along rivers and 
 creeks in Eastern Australia. 
 
 Perhaps the most interesting of the Amphibia are the small cystignathid 
 frogs and toadlets, such as Crinia signijera, Hyperolia marmorata, and 
 others, which are to be found lurking under stones in moist places or in holes 
 and crannies in soil or rock. The most brilliantly-coloured of these, as of 
 all the Australian Amphibia, is the little Notaden hennetti, with its rich 
 pattern of bright yellow, red, green, black, and white. 
 
 The spawn of Australian frogs is, in most cases, very similar to that of the 
 English frog (Rana temporaria), except that in some forms it is not deposited
 
 228 Federal Handbook. 
 
 in large masses in water, but is laid in small clumps under stones or tufts 
 of herbage in the neighbourhood of water. The stages of the development 
 are also closely similar to the corresponding stages in Rana temporaria, except 
 that, at least in the common species of Hyla and Limnodynastes , there is a 
 great reduction in the system of external gills. 
 
 6. Fresh=Water Fishes. 
 
 The " Burnett Salmon " {Neoceratodus forsteri) is, from an evolutionary 
 point of view, the most interesting and important of the fresh-water Fishes 
 of Australia. Extremely restricted in its range, it occurs only in the Burnett 
 and Mary Rivers of Queensland. But, though found living in no other part 
 of the world, Neoceratodus is represented by teeth closely similar to those of 
 the living form in Triassic and Jurassic beds of Europe, in the Trias of India, 
 in the " Karoo " (Upper Trias) of South Africa, in the " Cretaceous " of 
 Patagonia, in the Permian of Texas and in the Upper Jurassic of Colorado. 
 The fossil teeth in question were known and had been given the name of 
 Ceratodus long before the living fish was discovered. Ceratodus (or Neocera- 
 todus) is thus an animal of great geological antiquity, and has had in past 
 times a very wide, well-nigh cosmopolitan, geographical range. 
 
 Though not unlike an ordinary typical fish, such as a salmon, in general 
 shape, Ceratodus is at once seen to present some marked peculiarities. The 
 paired fins are of a peculiar leaf-like shape, and are supported by a limb- 
 skeleton which is unlike that of any other living animal, and has been sup- 
 posed by some comparative anatomists to be the most primitive known form 
 of limb-support. The general surface is covered with large scales, and there 
 is an operculum or gill-cover like that of an ordinary bony fish. But, though 
 Neoceratodus has gills like those of fishes in general, it also has a lung and 
 breathes air ; and its heart and system of blood-vessels are very specially 
 modified in comparison with those of other fishes in connexion with this 
 double mode of respiration. 
 
 Often popularly confused with the Burnett Salmon (on account perhaps 
 of the same native name being sometimes applied to both) is a very different, 
 but also interesting, Queensland fish, the " Barramunda " {Scleropages 
 leichardti). The chief interest of the Barramunda is connected with the 
 peculiar distribution of the family (the Osteoglossidce) to which it belongs. 
 Of the four living genera of this family Scleropages extends from the rivers 
 of Northern Queensland to Sumatra, Banka, and Borneo : Arapaima (one 
 of the largest of fresh-water fishes) inhabits South America (Brazil, the 
 Guianas) : Osteoglossum has a similar range : while Heterotis is African, 
 inhabiting the Niger, the Nile, the Senegal, and the Gambia. Since, how- 
 ever, fossil representatives have been found from the Eocene both of the 
 United States and of England, the OsteoglossidcB are not exclusively southern 
 forms, but are to be regarded as forming one of the manj' groups which, 
 formerly more widespread, have in recent times become more or less com- 
 pletely restricted to the great southern land-masses. 
 
 The little fishes commonly called " Minnows," and, when larger, " Native 
 Trout " (species of Galaxias), common in nearly all fresh-water streams 
 in extra-tropical Australia, also belong to a family (the Galaxiidce) with a 
 remarkable distribution. There are only two genera — Galaxias and
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 229 
 
 Neochanna. Neochanna is a marine fish confined to New Zealand. Of Galaxias, 
 some 22 species occur in Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and tlie Auck- 
 land and Chatham Islands : seven species occur in southern South America, 
 Tierra del Fuego and the Falklands : one inhabits the streams of Cape 
 Colony : one {G. attenuatus) is found not only in the southern extremity 
 of South America, with Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands, but also 
 in Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Chatham Islands. These facts relating 
 to the distribution of the genus Galaxias in general, and in particular the last- 
 mentioned fact of the occurrence of the same species on opposite sides of the 
 Pacific, have often been adduced as strong evidence in favour of the view that 
 a land connexion existed between South America, Australia, and New Zealand 
 at a not very remote period. But this view has had to be modified since it 
 has been pointed out that, as was stated as long ago as 1872 by Captain 
 F. W. Hutton, G. attenuatus goes down to the sea to spawn, and since it has 
 been found to occur in large numbers in the sea at the Falkland Islands. 
 Moreover, another species, which would seem to be a marine one, has been 
 found at the Chatham Islands in the stomach of a Merganser. 
 
 A fresh-water fish very common in the rivers of Tasmania, where it is 
 commonly known as the " Cucumber-mullet," and an allied species, the 
 " Grayling," occurring sparingly in Victoria, New South Wales, and 
 Queensland, belong to another family, the Haplochitonidce, forming a link 
 between Australia, New Zealand, and South America. Of the Haplochitoni- 
 dcB, which is an exclusively fresh-water family, there are only two genera — 
 Haplochiton and Prototroctes. The former contains two species occurring 
 in Chili, the southernmost extremity of South America, Tierra del Fuego, and 
 the Falkland Islands, and a third in Tasmania. Prototroctes, including the 
 Cucumber-mullet and Grayling above mentioned, has three species altogether, 
 one in New Zealand, one in Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria. 
 
 English Brown Trout and American Rainbow Trout have been introduced 
 into a number of the rivers, and have done very well ; but the only indigenous 
 member of the Trout family (Salmonidce) is a little fish called Smelt {Retro- 
 pinna retropinna), which is widely distributed in Australia, and occurs also 
 in New Zealand. 
 
 Among other less remarkable Australian fresh-water fishes a number of 
 families are represented. Several members of the Herring family live habitu- 
 ually in the rivers, or ascend them occasionally. Such is the Fresh-water 
 Herring (Potamalosa novcB-hollandice), which occurs plentifully in the 
 Hawkesbury, the Clarence, the Richmond, and other rivers of the east coast. 
 Several fresh-water members of the Catfish family (Siluridce) also occurs 
 and are remarkable, like many allied forms, for the care taken of the eggs. 
 The common fresh-water Catfish {Copidoglanis tandanus), which occurs 
 throughout the far-spreading Murray River system, and is valued for food, 
 belongs to a genus which extends into Asia. Eels {Anguilla reinhardtii) 
 are common in all the eastern waters. Of the members of the Perch-like 
 family Serranidce, the best known is the so-called Murray Cod {Oligorus 
 macquarien-sis), a valuable food-fish which grows to a large size, and is common 
 in the Murray River system, as well as in the Clarence and Richmond. 
 
 The only Lamprey occurring in Australian rivers is a species of Geotria — 
 a genus that is found also in New Zealand and in ChUi.
 
 230 Federal Handbook. 
 
 7. Mollusca of the Land and the Fresh Water. 
 
 The terrestrial and fresh-water Mollusca* of Australia are numerous 
 and varied. In the dense and moist forests of tropical Queensland the 
 greatest development is obtained. Here the typical Australian genus Ther- 
 sites presents about 50 species, most being large and showy shells, usually 
 banded and globose. In the family Acavidce are included the giants of the 
 fauna. Panda falconeri is an ovate shell about 3^ inches long, while the 
 coils of the flatter Pedinogyra cunninghami are almost 3 inches in diameter. 
 The carnivorous snails are represented by a handsome brown Rhytida, with 
 fine thread-like ribs above and smooth beneath. 
 
 Approaching Torres Strait the influence of New Guinea appears in Papuina, 
 a genus of arboreal habits. Here, too, the operculate division assume im- 
 portance. To this belong Pupina, a glossy shell with transverse slits to the 
 aperture, living among drifts of dead leaves, and Helicina, a genus of almost 
 world-wide distribution. Among the hills of Central Australia occurs a 
 desert fauna of modified Xanthomelon and Tkersites. Like environment has 
 moulded these to a superficial resemblance to the snail shells in arid regions 
 of Africa or America. 
 
 Slugs are not abundant, but in Tasmania and Victoria is the small hump- 
 backed Cystopelta petterdi, on the east codbSt Aneitea graeffei, a large cream- 
 coloured slug, with a pink diamond on its back ; and in the Queensland 
 tropics, the prismatic Atopos. 
 
 Widespread over all the continent are several genera of Endodontidce, 
 small discoidal shells with delicate radiating riblets. 
 
 The fresh- water mollusca are less peculiar than the terrestrial. Familiar 
 forms which reappear are Sphoerium, Pisidiuyn, Corbicula, Limncea, Planorbis, 
 Ancylus, Bythinia, Vivipara, and Melania. Widespread through every pool 
 and creek is the genus Isidora. At first this was mistaken for Physa, buv 
 is now found to be really related to Planorbis despite its unlike shell. More 
 than 60 species of this very variable genus have been named, but this probably 
 exaggerates the number of forms. 
 
 About a score of river mussels are referred to Diplodon, a southern genus 
 extending to New Zealand and South America. D. novce-hoUandice, from 
 the coastal streams between Brisbane and Newcastle, has a peculiar ornament 
 of radiating nodules. 
 
 Tasmania has an interesting series of fluviatile shells. In the lakes 
 occur Ancylastrum, the largest known fresh- water limpet. Another limpet, 
 Gundlachia, whose shell develops a second chamber, is of sporadic occurrence. 
 Some small gasteropods, Petterdiana and Littoriduia, which live in running 
 streams, appear to be of southern origin and akin to South American types. 
 
 In Solenaia rugatus and Physopsis jukesi, the Northern Territory possesses 
 two exceptionally isolated forms, the fijst of an Asiatic, the second of an 
 African genus. 
 
 8. Crustaceans. 
 
 The largest and most conspicuous of the fresh-water Crustacea of Aus- 
 tralia are the Crayfishes. There are few streams or stationary bodies of 
 fresh water, however small, in extra-tropical regions, that do not contain 
 
 * Por the following brief account of the Mollusca I am indebted to Mr. Chas. Hedley.
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 231 
 
 Crayfishes ; and they are found to occur even in arid Central Australia 
 wherever there is a creek bed that occasionally contains running water. 
 By far the most widely-distributed Crayfish in continental Australia is one, 
 the Two-keeled Crayfish {Ghemps hicarinatus), which in general appearance 
 is not very unlike the common European Crayfish {Astacus or Potamohius 
 fiuviatilis or astacus), differing chiefly in the character of the rostrum and the 
 chelae. The Australian form, however, reaches larger dimensions, though 
 in this respect there is a wide difference between specimens from different 
 localities. Cheraps hicarinatus is more especially an inhabitant of dams and 
 waterholes or of pools in the more sluggish streams, and excavates innumerable 
 burrows in the banks, often doing serious damage in this way to mud or clay 
 embankments of storage dams and reservoirs. 
 
 In clear-running streams the prevailing Crayfish is the common Serrated 
 or Spiny Crayfish {Astacopsis serratus) , with numerous varieties, some of which 
 may prove to be of specific rank. In the larger rivers, such as the Murrum- 
 bidgee and the Murray, these Crayfishes reach a large size, assuming dimen- 
 sions as great as those of the largest of the European Sea-lobsters ; and even 
 in very small creeks specimens of great size are occasionally met with. The 
 Spiny Crayfish, like the two-keeled form, is an active burrower, and is able 
 by taking refuge in deep burrows with a little water at the bottom to survive 
 periods of prolonged drought. 
 
 In Tasmania the Crayfishes are represented by two species, which are 
 nearly allied to Astacopsis serratus of the mainland. One of these {A.franJc- 
 linii), which occurs in the northern rivers of the island State, is the largest 
 Crayfish known, even exceeding in size the largest of the Spiny Crayfishes 
 of continental Australia. 
 
 Quite peculiar to Australia is a group of Crayfishes belonging to the 
 genus EngcBus, which do not ordinarily live in streams or pools, but inhabit 
 during the day-time the interior of burrows excavated sometimes along the 
 banks of streams, sometimes merely in swampy ground which may be at 
 some distance from any running stream. These small Crustaceans, with 
 their feeble powers of locomotion and their reduced abdomen, seem to have 
 taken a short step in the direction of the modification undergone by the 
 Hermit-crabs. 
 
 In Western Australia three species of Crayfishes are known — Chceraps 
 quinque-carinatus, C. tenuimanus, and C. preissii, all very distinct from those 
 of Eastern Australia. 
 
 The Australian Crayfishes all belong to a family, the Parastacidce, which 
 is exclusively southern in its distribution, taking the place in the south 
 occupied by the family AstacidcB (or Pota)nobiidce) in the north. Their 
 nearest allies are thus not the English Crayfishes, but other members of the 
 ParastacidcB — the Crayfishes of South America (Parastacus), New Zealand 
 (Paranephrops), and Madagascar {Astacoides). 
 
 Extremely common in creeks, at least in Eastern Australia, are minute 
 transparent shrimp-like Crustaceans, which, so far as they have been 
 examined, have been found to belong to a species, Xiphocaris compressa, 
 originally described from Japan, and since found in Norfolk Island. 
 
 If we leave Engceus, the Land-crabs, and Phreatoicopsis out of account, 
 the only terrestrial Crustaceans are the Wood-lice and Pill-bugs (Isopoda),
 
 232 Federal Handbook. 
 
 and the Hoppers (Amphipoda) . The latter {Talitrus sylvaticus) occur from 
 near the sea-level to a high elevation on the Southern Alps. 
 
 Land-crabs, in the strict sense of the term, are confined in Australia to 
 the far north and the islands of Torres Straits. But River-crabs of the genus 
 Geothelphusa occur far up the Darling River and its tributaries, and were 
 found by the Horn Expedition in waterholes along the creeks in Central 
 Australia. When the creeks and rivers dry up, the River-crabs, like the 
 Crayfishes, burrow into the banks, and by burying themselves in moist clay 
 may escape desiccation. 
 
 A little fresh-water Lake-crab {Hymenosoma lacustris) occurs in Lake 
 Colac, in Victoria. The same species is found in the North Island of New 
 Zealand, and also in Norfolk Lsland. 
 
 An order of the higher Crustacea — the Anaspidacea — fossil (marine) 
 representatives of which are known from Permian and Carboniferous strata 
 in Europe and North America, is confined at the present day to Tasmania 
 {Anaspides and Paranaspides) and Victoria {Koonunga). The Anaspids are 
 little Crustaceans of a Shrimp-like appearance, which inhabit fresh-water, 
 the Tasmanian forms occurring only at high elevations (2,000 feet and 
 upwards). Though in many respects resembling the Shrimps and Cra}^shes, 
 the Anaspidacea differ from them in the complete absence of the cephalo- 
 thoracic sliield or carapace, and in the series of plate-like gills attached to 
 the legs. 
 
 A family of fresh-water Isopoda — the Phreatoicidce — was, until recently, 
 regarded as peculiar to Australia, including Tasmania, and New Zealand. 
 Very recently a species of the type-genus, Phreatiocus, has been found in South 
 Africa. Most of the Australian and Tasmanian forms occur at high eleva- 
 tions. One genus, Pkreatoicopsis, is terrestrial and not aquatic. 
 
 Of fresh-water Amphipods there are several species of Gammarus occurring 
 both in Victoria and New South Wales ; two species of Chiltonia have been 
 described from Lake Hindmarsh, Victoria, and species of Hyalella and 
 Neoniphargus also occur. 
 
 While the higher Crustacea (Malacostraca) of Australian fresh-waters 
 contain such a number of interesting characteristic forms — the Crayfishes and 
 Antispidacea in particular — the lower Crustacea (sub-class Entomostraca of 
 the older classification) are not, so far as known, in any way specially remark- 
 able. The giants of the group, the Phyllopods, Apus, Lepidurus, and 
 Triops, occur, under favorable conditions, in enormous numbers in the 
 inland districts. The Brine-shrimp {Artemia) has been found both in New 
 South Wales (neighbourhood of Sydney) and in A^ictoria, and a peculiar 
 Australian genus, BranchineUa, of the same family, is represented by three 
 species occurring in fresh or brackish water in most parts of Australia. The 
 Bivalved Phyllopoda {Limnadidce) occur very abundantly in Australia, 
 and are represented by several genera, including Eulimnadia, Lifnnadopsis, 
 Paralimnadia, and Cyzicus (Estheria). 
 
 The much smaller Cladocera or " Water Fleas " are represented by species 
 of the cosmopolitan genus Daphnia, also by species of Moina, Macrothrix, 
 Lynceus, and others. 
 
 The Australian fresh-water Copepoda and Ostracoda have not received 
 so much attention as the Phyllopoda. But, of the former order, species
 
 Animal Life op Australia. 233 
 
 of the genera Cyclops and Diaptomus have been described, and of the 
 latter a number of species of Cypris, and also species of Candona and 
 Notodromus. 
 
 9. Insects. 
 
 The Insecta of Australia are too vast an assemblage to be dealt with in 
 a brief summary ; but the following are a few leading points : — 
 
 Among the Orthoptera the Cockroaches {BlattidcB) are represented by 
 both native and introduced forms. Of those which occur habitually in houses, 
 the indigenous Periplaneta australasicB has become largely replaced by the 
 American Periplaneta americana. There are a number of " wild " species, 
 wingless for the most part, and usually of large size, to be found most 
 frequently lurking in crevices in rotten timber and under fallen logs and 
 stones. Most of these when molested discharge a foul-smelling secretion 
 from glands at the end of the abdomen. One of the commonest is Poly- 
 zosteria limbata, a wingless dark-brown Cockroach with yellow lines round 
 the terga. 
 
 The Mantidce, or " Praying Insects," with their innocent appearance 
 and predaceous habits, form an important element of the Australian 
 insect fauna. The most conspicuous of these are species of the genera 
 Archimantis, Orthodera, and Tenodera, some over 4 inches in length. 
 
 The PhasmidcB or Leaf- and Stick- Insects are probably more numerous 
 in Australia than in any other region of the earth's surface. The protective 
 mimetic features, which in many cases cause these curiously modified insects 
 to resemble their usual surroundings so closely as to render difficult detection 
 by insect-eating birds or lizards, consist mainly in the form of the body 
 itself being in many cases narrow and elongated so as to resemble the appear- 
 ance of a twig of the plant on which they feed, and in the presence of 
 foliaceous green appendages on the limbs and body, bearing a close 
 resemblance to the leaves. Some of the Australian Phasmidce are the largest 
 of existing insects, with a length of as much as 12 inches. 
 
 Of the Grasshoppers and Locusts there are many genera and species, 
 some winged, some wingless, some with long feelers, some with short. The 
 term " Locust " is applied to any member of the Grasshopper family that has 
 the peculiarity of occasionally increasing enormously in numbers, so as to 
 give rise to great swarms which move about the country destroying the 
 vegetation as they go. Several of the Australian species swarm in this way 
 and assume for the time the character of " Plague Locusts." One of these 
 is the Lesser Plain Locust (Chortoicetes pusilla), a comparatively small insect 
 about an inch in length. Another is the Larger Plain Locust (C terminifera). 
 A third is the Yellow-winged Grasshopper {Locusta danica), very common 
 everjTvhere, which sometimes causes devastation in Queensland. 
 
 The most remarkable-looking member of the family is the so-called 
 Mountain Grasshopper {Acridopeza reticulata), which is very unlike a normal 
 Grasshopper in appearance, with its short, rounded, blue, white, and red 
 body, and its peculiar oval concavo-convex elytra. 
 
 Of the Crickets (Gryllidce) there are a number of species of Field Crickets 
 — sometimes occurring in swarms — and a Mole Cricket {Gryllotaljia coarctata), 
 found practically all over Australia.
 
 234 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Among the Neuroptera special mention may be made of the Ant-lions 
 {Myrmeleonidoe) and the Dragon-flies {Odonata). The Ant-lions are numerous, 
 most of the described species being referred to the genus Glenurus. G. pul-. 
 chellus is the commonest species along the coast. The largest is G. fundatus, 
 which is found along the coast of Queensland. 
 
 The Australian Odonata* are as remarkable in their way as most of the 
 animal groups of the same continent. There is a rich autochthonous fauna, 
 chiefly located in the south-western corner, along the eastern coast and ranges, 
 and in Tasmania. A tropical invasion, mainly of LihellulincB, descends 
 along the Queensland coast into New South Wales. The remarkable sub- 
 family Corduliince is represented in Australia by about forty species, roughly 
 one-fifth of the world's total ! Of these, Hemicordulia tau and H. australice, 
 are common nearly everywhere, and the former may possibly be taken in 
 August. The peculiar species of Synthenies must be sought for later in the 
 season, mostly at high elevations. On the Blue Mountains two very archaic 
 species are to be obtained, viz., Petalura gigantea and Austropetalia patricia. 
 The larva of the former tunnels in mud. The latter is very closely allied to 
 a group of Chilian species, and has no other close relatives at all. In 
 August a few common Dragon-flies begin to appear, and the following may 
 be met with : — At Perth, Austrolestes annulosus, A. analis, Xanthagrion 
 erythroneurum, Anax papuensis, and Mschna brevistyla ; the same species at 
 Adelaide ; at Melbourne, the same except A. annulosus, which is replaced by 
 A.cingulatus and A. leda ; at Sydney, the same together with Argiolestes ictero- 
 melas, Austroagrion cyane, Ischnura heterosticta, Ischnura aurora, Austrolestes 
 psyche, Orthetrum caledonicum, Diplacodes hipunctata, and D. kcematodes. 
 Full-fed larvse of most of these species can be easily obtained during August. 
 
 Termites, or White Ants, as they are popularly called, abound in all parts 
 of Australia, and some of them, such as the little Termes (Coptotermes) lacteus, 
 do much damage to wooden structures. Many of the species build mounds 
 or termitaria of comminuted wood with, in some cases, an investment of clay, 
 constructed usually over an original tree-stump. These, in the case of some 
 of the tropical species, are of great size — as much as 18 feet in height in the 
 case of Eutermes pyrijormis of tropical Queensland. 
 
 Of the Hymenoptera, one of the families specially developed in Australia 
 is that of the Saw-flies {TenthredinidoB), of which there are a large number, 
 all belonging to genera — Perga, Pterygophorus, and others — peculiar to Aus- 
 tralia. The blackish larvae of Perga are frequently to be seen clinging in 
 great masses to branches of Eucalypti, on the leaves of which they feed. 
 
 Another largely-represented family is that of the Chalcididce, or Parasitic 
 Wasps, minute forms, most of which deposit their eggs in the eggs, larvae or 
 pupae of other insects, or in the galls produced by Coccids. 
 
 Of similar habits are the still smaller Proctotrypidce, some of which appear 
 to be of economic value owing to the fact that they are destructive to various 
 scale and other insects injurious to fruit-trees. 
 
 Also destructive, and on a larger scale, to other forms of insect life, such 
 as caterpillars of moths and butterflies, in which they deposit their eggs, are 
 the Ichneumons (IchneumonidcB), of which there are many in Australia, 
 though comparatively few have been described. 
 
 * For the information on the Odonata I am indebted to Mr. R. J. Tillyard. '
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 235 
 
 The Flower Wasps {Thynnidce), whicli are only represented outside Aus- 
 tralia on the west coast of South America, and, by a few species, in Asia and 
 the Pacific Islands, are very numerous on such flowering shrubs as the Ti- 
 trees {Melaleuca, Leptospermum). About three-fourths of the described 
 species of Thynnidce are Australian. 
 
 The well-known Mason Wasps {Eumenidce), which are solitary forms 
 with the habit of constructing nests of clay, often on a verandah, or even 
 in the interior of a house, and storing them with caterpillars, are common 
 in all parts of Australia. 
 
 The true (social) Wasps (Vespidce), which construct nests of a parchment- 
 like material, are represented in Australia by two genera, Ocaria and Polistes, 
 the genus Vespa, though of wide distribution and occurring as near as Java, 
 being absent. 
 
 Of the true Bees (Apidce) there are a large number, but the genera Apis 
 and Bomhus do not occur. The Carpenter Bees of the genus Lestis, some 
 of which make their nests in the interior of dead flower-stems of grass trees 
 (Xanthorrhoea), are peculiar to Australia. The stingless native Honey- 
 bees of the genus Trigona, which are widely distributed over Australia, con- 
 struct irregular wax combs in cavities in Eucalypts and other trees, and store 
 them with a dark-coloured honey. The Leaf-cutting Bees, which construct 
 the cells of their nests out of pieces cut from the leaves of plants, are repre- 
 sented by a number of species of Megachile — a genus found in most parts 
 of the world. 
 
 The Ant Family (Formicidce) is represented by an immense number of 
 genera and species. Of these the most characteristic are the large Ants of 
 the genus Myrmecia, commonly known as Bull-dog Ants, which are sometimes 
 as much as an inch or more in length and have a very poisonous sting ; these 
 are confined to Australia. Honey-pot Ants in which, as in a North American 
 and an African species, certain of the workers of the community serve as 
 store-houses for honey, occur in Central Australia. 
 
 The House-flies which swarm about dwellings in the cities of Australia 
 in summer are identical with the common House-fly of England (Musca 
 domestica), a species almost universal in its distribution. A somewhat 
 smaller fly {Musca vetustissiyna) is the pest fly of the bush. A fly {Stomoxis 
 calcitrans) very like the House-fly, common out of doors and sometimes 
 coming into houses, inflicts a sharp bite when it settles on the skin, and is 
 extremely troublesome to horses and cattle. This, like the House-fly, is of 
 almost world-wide distribution. Of the Blow-flies, the commonest species 
 are Anastellorhina augur, with a brown abdomen having a blue stripe down 
 the centre, and Calliphora villosa, which has the abdomen covered with 
 yellowish or brownish hairs, and a somewhat smaller species of the same 
 genus, C. oceanicB, with a steely-blue abdomen, is also very common. Several 
 of the species of Blow-flies have become very formidable pests, which have 
 assumed the character of a yearly-increasing menace to the pastoral industry, 
 their maggots, bred in the wool of the sheep, producing sores which often 
 eventually cause death. 
 
 Australia is particularly rich in Gall-gnats {Cecidornyidce), the larvre of 
 most of which burrow in leaves and other parts of plants, producing frequently 
 definite galls or other malformations.
 
 236 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Over 50 species of Mosquitoes have been recorded from Australia, most of 
 them species of Culex. Several of them are of cosmopolitan range, or have 
 been introduced from other countries. The Mosquitoes commonest in houses 
 are Culex albo-annulatus, C. fatigans, and C. marinus, the last able to breed 
 in salt water. The genus Anopheles, to which belong the Mosquitoes that 
 transmit malarial fever, is represented by several species ; and at least 
 one species occurs of the genus Stegornya — the yellow-fever transmitting 
 genus. 
 
 Though not so rich in Butterflies as South America, Australia yet holds 
 a high place in that respect among the zoological regions. Thus, while only 
 68 species occur in Great Britain, a recent catalogue of the Australian species 
 gave a total of 330. The largest and most brilliantly-coloured forms are 
 tropical. Fritillaries, Emperors, Admirals, Blues, Whites, Yellows, Skippers, 
 and Swallow-tails are all well represented. Belenois Java, one of the whites, 
 in some seasons comes down from the interior to the coast in such enormous 
 swarms as to constitute a veritable plague. 
 
 Of the many families of Moths perhaps two of the most characteristic 
 are the Case-moths and the Cup-moths, the former on account of the peculiar 
 sheath of tough silky material which the larva weaves about itself, with 
 fragments of leaves or sticks woven in, and the latter because of the vase- 
 shaped cocoons of a parchment-like substance in which the eggs are enclosed. 
 Included among the other families are Butterfly Moths [Uraniidoi), Day 
 Moths (Agaristidce), Ringed Moths {Syntomidce), Burnet Moths (ZygcenidcB), 
 Hawk Moths {Sphingidce), Wood Moths [Hepialidce), Tiger Moths (Arctiidce), 
 Brown Tails {Liparidce), Silkworm Moths [Bomhycidce), Loopers (GeometridcB), 
 Cutworm Moths (Noctuidce), Leaf Rollers {Pyralidce), and Bell Moths 
 {ToTtricidce). 
 
 The Cutworm Moths are of economic importance, owing to the damage 
 frequently done by their larvae (" Plague Caterpillars," " Army Worms ") 
 to crops of all kinds. The Bugong Moth {Agrotis infusa) occasionally appears 
 in enormous swarms in the coastal districts. 
 
 Of the Coleoptera, or Beetles, some 10,000 Australian species have been 
 described, and, as there are a number of families which have not been fully 
 investigated, there can be no doubt that this seemingly immense multitude 
 falls far short of the total. One of the best developed and most characteristic 
 of the families is that of the Buprestidce, or Jewel Beetles, of which only ten 
 species occur in Great Britain. These large and often brilliantly-coloured 
 metallic Beetles are most abundant on flowering shrubs in the coastal districts 
 of extra-tropical Australia. Stigmodera is the most characteristic genus. 
 It is peculiar to Australia, and some 240 species have been described. 
 The Stigmoderce are large Beetles, some as much as 2| inches in length, 
 of rich and varied metallic colouration. 
 
 Of the Hemiptera perhaps the most characteristically developed, and 
 certainly the most conspicuous, family is that of the Cicadas (Cicadidce), the 
 chorus of whose shrill cries rings out during summer from ever}^ shrub and 
 tree. Of the many Australian species of Cicadas some — more particularly 
 those inhabiting the coastal districts — are large and handsome insects. 
 Thopha saccata has a reddish-brown body about 2 inches long with a stretch 
 of wings of 5 inches ; it is common in all the southern coastal districts and
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 237 
 
 along the east coast as far north as Brisbane. The bright green Cyclochila 
 australasice is even commoner in New South Wales ; and a third common 
 form is the Black Cicada, Psaltoda moerens, belonging to a genus peculiar to 
 Australia. Another large Cicada very common in Eastern Australia is 
 Ahricta cxirvicosta, a reddish-brown form, with a silvery down over the 
 surface. 
 
 Another characteristic family of Hemiptera is the Psyllidce, or " Lerp " 
 insects, the larvae of many of which secrete a shell-like protective covering 
 of lerp scales, or of soft woolly matter, while others produce galls on 
 leaves. 
 
 Of the Australian Coccids the most remarkable group is the Bmcliyscelince, 
 or Gall-making Coccids, the larvae of which form galls on the twigs and leaves 
 of many native plants. These are practically confined to Australia, the only 
 instance of a Gall-making Coccid occurring elsewhere being a single species 
 found in Mexico. 
 
 10. Scorpions and Spiders. 
 
 Of the Arachnida the Scorpionida, or Scorpions, are not uncommon in 
 Australia ; but none of them are large, and the number of species is small, 
 and all of them belong to three of the six recognised families — the ButhidcB, 
 the Scorpionidce, and the BothriuridcB. Of the last-named family, Cerco- 
 phonius is a genus confined to Australia. 
 
 The Spiders* of Australia are very numerous, and belong to a great 
 number of families. Reference can be made here to only a few of the most 
 interesting forms. One of the best-represented groups is that of the Trap- 
 door Spiders, of the family Avicularidce, of which upwards of sixty Australian 
 species have already been described. Of the family Hypochilidce, which 
 comprises only three species, one species [Ectatosticta troglodytes) occurs in 
 caves in Tasmania, a second in North America, and a third in China. Of the 
 ArgiopidcB, one of the most interesting and beautiful is Argiope cetherea 
 {A. regalis), which occurs not only all over Australia, but in New Guinea 
 and many of the islands of Torres Straits. This brightly-coloured Spider 
 is popularly known as the " St. Andrew's cross Spider " on account of the 
 cross-shaped stabilimentum which it weaves into the middle of its orbicular 
 web. 
 
 Also included in the Argiopidce are two widely distributed species, Poeci- 
 lopachys bispinosa and Celcenia excavata, both of which closely resemble 
 the droppings of birds. Another striking member of the same group is 
 Dicrostichus magnijicus, which is a large and brilliantly-coloured Spider 
 with a peculiar branched crest or protuberance on which the eyes are 
 situated. 
 
 The family ThomisidcB, or " Crab Spiders," comprises a number of in- 
 teresting species, one of which — Saccodomus formivorus — lives in trees and 
 preys on tree-haunting ants. The Salticidce, or " Jumping Spiders," are 
 very numerous, and comprise some remarkable forms, among which may be 
 mentioned the brilliantly coloured Saitis volans and S. splendidus, both of 
 which have an extended lateral flattened abdominal integument which is 
 folded round the spider when at rest and tliiown open when it leaps. 
 
 * For information on the Spiders I am indebted to Mr. W. J. Rainbow.
 
 238 Federal Handbook. 
 
 11. Centipedes and Millepedes. 
 
 The Australian Myriopoda are extremely numerous, and all, or nearly 
 all, of the known families are represented, though some of the smaller and 
 more obscure groups have not been fully investigated. Of the Diploj)oda 
 the largest and most conspicuous are the Millepedes of the family lulidce — 
 cylindrical, vegetable-feeding Myriopods with numerous segments, each seg- 
 ment bearing two pairs of legs. These are very common about rotten timber, 
 under fallen logs, and under stones, the elongated body coiled up into a spiral 
 when at rest. 
 
 The family Cambalidce, which in regions outside Australia are chiefly 
 distributed in Polynesia, in India, and Madagascar, is represented in Western 
 Australia by four peculiar genera — Dinocambala, Podykipus, Atelomastix, 
 and Samichus. 
 
 The PolydesmidoB, also with a cylindrical body, but with comparatively 
 few segments, each with a lobe or keel on its upper surface, is represented 
 by several peculiar genera {Antichiropus and others), and a number of species. 
 
 The Polyzoniidoe, small worm-like forms with reduced appendages and 
 sucking mouth, has several representatives of the genera Orsilochus and 
 Siphonotus. 
 
 Of the Chilopoda the Centipedes of the family Scolopendridce comprise 
 the largest of the Myriopods, with flattened bodies and 21 or 23 pairs of 
 legs. Of these, a considerable number of species have been described from 
 all parts of Australia. Among the commoner and more widely-distributed 
 forms are the very variable ScoJopendra morsicans, which is common all over 
 Australia, and is almost cosmopolitan in its range, S. (Rhombocephalus) Iceta, 
 and Ethmostigmus rubripes, the largest of the Australian Centipedes, which 
 occurs also in the South Sea Islands. 
 
 The Lithobiidce, which are comparatively short, with only fifteen segments, 
 are represented by several genera ; and the greatly elongated many-seg- 
 mented Notophilidce are also represented, though perhaps only by introduced 
 forms. 
 
 The long-limbed, short-bodied Scutigeridce, which differ from the rest of 
 the Myriopoda in the possession of compound eyes and the presence of air- 
 sacs, are represented by at least one species, AlJotkereua maculata, which 
 not infrequently comes into town houses. 
 
 The order Symphyla is represented by at least one species of Scutigerella, 
 a small insect-like Myriopod with twelve segments, with a pair of parapodia 
 on each in addition to the legs, and with only one pair of breathing pores, 
 which are situated on the head. 
 
 Of the aberrant order Pauropoda there is no record. 
 
 The Onychophora are well represented in Australia by about five species 
 distributed over all the States, with the apparent exception of South Aus- 
 tralia and the Northern Territory ; but they do not seem to be in abundance 
 anywhere. The five described species are referred to the two genera, Ooperi- 
 patus and Peripatoides. 
 
 12. Earthworms, Leeches, etc. 
 
 Of the Earthwonns the family CryptodrilidcB is so specially well repre- 
 sented in Australia that it might be said to have its head-quarters there.
 
 Animal Life of Australia. 239 
 
 five genera of the family out of a total of about sixteen being peculiar to 
 Australia, or only slightly represented elsewhere. Some of the Crypto- 
 drilids, such as Megascolides, are of gigantic size — up to 5 feet in length. 
 
 The fresh-water allies of the Earthworms are very numerous, and almost 
 all the families are represented, though only a few have been studied. Enchy- 
 trceids are common both in water and damp earth. Chcetonotus, Dero, Nais, 
 Aeolosoma, and Tuhifex also occur — the last-named present sometimes in 
 enormous numbers in muddy creeks. The Phreodrilidce is the most charac- 
 teristic Australian family. It is represented elsewhere in South America. 
 in Kerguelen, and in New Zealand and South Africa. In Australia there 
 are at least two peculiar genera, Phreodriloides, found in the Blue Lake on 
 Mount Kosciusko, and Astacopsidrilus, two species of which constantly 
 live on the surface of fresh-water Crayfishes. 
 
 Australia possesses two peculiar genera of Land Leeches — Philcemon, 
 confined to Australia and Tasmania, and Geobdella, to Australia and New 
 Guinea. Of fresh-water Leeches the commonest and the largest is Limnob- 
 della australis, the common Australian Medicinal Leech. Other fresh-water 
 Leeches are species of the widely distributed genera Glossiphonia (or Clepsine) 
 and Herpobdella (or Nephelis), and one each of the genera Dineta and Semi- 
 lageneta, which are peculiar to Australia. 
 
 Of fresh-water Polyzoa the commonest — abundant in Queensland, 
 New South Wales, and South Australia — is the familiar European species 
 Plumatella repens. Plumatella princeps, which has also been found in these 
 three States, is a cosmopolitan form. Another species of the same genus — 
 P. aplinii — which occurs in New South Wales and Victoria, appears to be 
 peculiar to Australia ; and the same holds good of a species of Lophopus — 
 L. lendenfeldi — which has only been found at Parramatta, and of Fredericella 
 australiensis, which occurs abundantly at the Pott's Hill Reservoir, of the 
 Sydney Water Supply. A species of Alctjonella and one of Fredericella 
 have also been found in the neighbourhood of Sydney. 
 
 Land Planarians are particularly abundant in Australia, though, since 
 the genera represented are all pretty widely distributed in the other zoological 
 regions, they do not present any peculiarly Australian features. The com- 
 monest of them about the towns is an introduced species, Placocephalus 
 kewensis, which also occurs in England, in Germany, and Cape Colony, 
 as well as in Samoa. Of the others, about 50 species have been described, 
 including 35 of Geoplana, 4 of Rhynchodemus, 5 of Artioposthia, and 4 
 of Platydemus. Very little is known of the allied Fresh-water Triclads, 
 though they are abundant enough — the only described forms being a few 
 Western Australian species of Planaria. And the same has to be said of the 
 fresh-water Rhahdocceles, though superficial descriptions have been published 
 of a few of them, and a still more limited number have been more thoroughly 
 studied. 
 
 Mention may here be made of an order of Planarian-like Flat-worms, the 
 Temnocephaloidea (usually placed with the Trematodes), since they are 
 specially numerous and varied in Australia. These live on the outer surfaces 
 and sometimes in the branchial cavities of Crayfishes and other fresh- water 
 Crustaceans. Though Temnocephoids occur in other regions (New Zealand, 
 the Malay Archipelago, South America, India, Madagascar), they apparently
 
 240 Federal Handbook. 
 
 reach their maximum development in Australia as regards numbers and 
 variety. 
 
 Only one species of Land Nemertine {Geonemertes australis) has so far 
 been found in Australia ; it occurs in Victoria, New South Wales, and 
 Tasmania. 
 
 No fresh-water Medusae are known to occur. There seems to be only 
 one species of fresh-water Polype described {Hydra hexactinella or H.oligactis), 
 and only one fresh-water Zoophyte of the colonial type {Cordylophora white- 
 leggei). About ten species of fresh -water Sponges, belonging to seveial 
 genera, have been described. They have been found in all parts, with the 
 exception of the Northern Territory and the northern parts of Queensland 
 and of Western AustraUa.
 
 CORRIGENDA. 
 
 Page 256, line 52, for " Aechm " read " Aeschna " 
 
 ,, 257, ,, 21, for " Tremanotus " read " Trematonotus " 
 
 „ 257, ,, 41, for " FenestallidcB " read " Fenestellidce " 
 
 „ 258, ,, 10, for " RJmchopteris " read " Rhacopteris " 
 
 „ 262, „ 29, for " trilolites " read " trilobites " 
 
 „ 266, ,, 32, for " Rhachopteris " read " Rhacopteris " 
 
 ,, 266, „ 43, for " Streptorhymuhs " read " Streptorhynchus " 
 
 ,, 270, ,, 45, for " Glossoptris " read " Glossopteris " 
 
 ,, 275, ,, 41, for " Macrotcenipteris " read " Macrotceniopteris " 
 
 ,, 275, ,, 43, for " Cladophebis " read " Cladophlebis " 
 
 ,, 276, „ 26, for " Tremanotus " read " Trematonotus " 
 
 ,, 277, ,, 9, for " Beyrichia endothyra " read " Beyrichia. Eiulothyra ' 
 
 „ 277, „ 32, for " Tremanotus " read " Trenuitonotus " 
 
 „ 277, „ 42, for " Cladophebis " read " Cladophlebis " 
 
 ,, 282, ,, 10, for '' gregarious " read '" gregarius " 
 
 ,. 282, ,, 11, for " Archoeomene " read " Archceomoene " 
 
 „ 282, „ 27, for " Killak " read " Kirrak " 
 
 ,, 282, „ 37, for " Macrotoeinopteris " read " Macrotoeniopteris " 
 
 ,, 286, ,, 47, for " Pentrune " read " Penteune " 
 
 .. 287, ,, 41, for " Meiolonia " read " Meiolania " 
 
 ,. 291, ,, 31 and 35, for " Oleiwllus " read " Olenellus " 
 
 ,, 291, „ 34, for " Huenolla " read " Huenella " 
 
 „ 294, ,, 34, for " Spiriferina dielasnia" read '' Spiriferina, Dielasnui " 
 
 ,, 294, „ 36, for " senilia " read " senilis " 
 
 „ 294, ,, 40, for " CyHitui syringothyris " read " Cyrtina, Stjringothyris " 
 
 „ 295, „ 12, for " Ptycomphaliiia " read " Ptijchomphalina " 
 
 ,, 295, ,, 39, for " spirifeidae " read " spiriferidse " 
 
 ,, 296, ,, 9, for " Plagiophyllum " read " Pagiophyllum " 
 
 ,, 296, ,, 39, for " Cladophebis " read " Cladophlebis " 
 
 ,, 297, ,, 3, for " Cladophebis " read " Cladophlebis " 
 
 ,, 297, ,, 21, for " Alithopteris " read " Alethopteris " 
 
 „ 298, „ 4, for the table as given, read : — 
 
 McCoy and Chapman. 
 
 Hall and Pritchard. 
 
 Tate and Deanant. 
 
 5. 
 
 Pleistocene 
 
 
 
 
 4. 
 
 3. 
 
 Upper Pliocene 
 
 (Chapman) 
 Lower Pleistocene . . 
 
 4. 
 3. 
 
 Werrikooien (Pleio- 
 
 cene) 
 Kalimnan (Miocene) 
 
 Janjukian (Eocene).. 
 
 Pleistocene (Tate) 
 Pliocene (Dennant) 
 Miocenp 
 
 r? Oligocene (Tate) 
 -1 Eocene (Tate and Den- 
 
 2. 
 1. 
 
 Miocene . . 
 Oligocene . . 
 
 1. 
 
 2 
 
 Aldingan (Eocene in 
 
 part) 
 Balcombian (Eocene) 
 
 l nant) 
 Eocene in part 
 
 Eocene 
 
 Page 298, line 30, for " Carcharodon, Megalodon" read " Carcharodon megalo- 
 don" 
 ,, 301, ,, 24, for " antiauslralia " read " antiaustralis " 
 „ 306, last sentence should come after first sentence on page 30.") 
 ,, 307, line 26, for " osmiridian " read " osmiridium " 
 ., 309, ,, 43, for " molanite-hauy-syenite " read " melanite-hauyn- 
 syenite." 
 C. 121 54.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 241 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE GEOLOGY OF THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 By T. W. Edgeworth David, O.M.G., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Geology 
 in the University of Sydney. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. Introduction. 8. The Australian Cainozoic System, 
 
 2. Coastal Physiography. by F. Chapman, A.L.S. 
 
 3. PALiEOGEOGRAPHY AND PRESENT Re- 9. Igneous Rocks, by T. W. E. David, 
 
 LIEF. and E. W. Skeats, D.Sc, A.R.C.S. 
 
 4. Stratigraphical Features. 10. Metamorphic Rocks, by T. W. E. 
 
 5. Pre-Historic Man. David, and E. W. Skeats, D.Sc, 
 
 6. Australian Gr.\ptolites, by T. S. A.R.C.S. 
 
 HaU, M.A., D.Sc. 11. Papua. 
 
 7. Notes on the Paleontology of 
 
 Australia, by W. S. Dun. 
 
 1. Introduction, 
 
 An observer taking a bird's-eye view of Australia and Tasmania would 
 see the great island continent carpeted nearest the coast with strips of 
 dark-green gum forest on the east, south-east, and north, and again in the 
 south-west of "Western Australia, with an outlying strip upon the Flinders 
 Range, of South Australia. The remainder would present a curious patch- 
 work, partly of the dull green sage bush, salt bush, and other salsolacious 
 herbs of the steppes, the grasses of the savannahs, and the dark-green mulga 
 scrubs, partly of patches of red and brown sands of desert areas dotted with 
 oases which fringe the worn-down stumps of ancient inland mountains. 
 
 White specks in numbers would be conspicuous in this patchwork of 
 green and red and brown wherever the saline surfaces of dead lakes, or 
 " playas," reflect the sunlight, or where the highlands of New South Wales 
 and Victoria are white with snow, except in late summer. To the south-east 
 the emerald isle of Tasmania, the south coast of South Australia, the south- 
 east coast of Victoria, and in places, the inland uplands of tropical Queensland 
 would appear jewelled with live lakes. To the north the great island of 
 New Guinea would loom large with its alpine ranges whitened with snow ; 
 its mountain uplands, where visible through breaks in the mist, showing 
 verdant grassy slopes encircled by sombre pines and cypress. Lower still 
 would be seen the dense dark-gi'een jungle of the coastal plains. 
 
 Australia is well known as the home of the eucalypt, and this most charac- 
 teristic tree is in itself an epitome of the climatic conditions of Australia in 
 late geological time. 
 
 The most primitive types of our eucalypts develop their leaves with the 
 broad surfaces horizontal, pointing to a time when there was no need to take 
 special precautions to conserve moisture. On the othei- liand, in the vast 
 majority of eucalypts, the leaves hang with their broad surface vertical, so 
 as to offer as little evaporating surface as possible to the sun's rays. These 
 eucalypts in their early stages of growth show the atavistic tendency to 
 develop their leaves with the broad surfaces horizontal. 
 
 C. 1-21.54. Q
 
 242 Federal Handbook. 
 
 This adaptation of plant to climate in such a way as to enable the plant 
 to resist drought connotes a former better rainfall, and this in turn suggests 
 a former higher relief for the Australian land surface inducing a more abun- 
 dant convectional rain, and thus the eucalypts record the most recent climatic 
 changes of Australia, and prepare us for those evidences of peneplained and 
 downward warped mountain chains with recently uplifted coast lines, which 
 harmonize with its large disintegrated drainage system. This disintegration 
 of the drainage is again in harmony with the shallow wide-bottomed valleys 
 choked with the rock debris, with the vast red soil plains, and with the kunkars, 
 laterites, " pindan, ironstones," and porcellanites, so characteristic of the 
 interior of Australia, as of all countries where the rainfall is scant and the 
 evaporation great. But that these inland areas of low rainfall are not without 
 those blessings of aridity, the rich, plant foods which have accumulated during 
 the sabbatical periods of drought, is proved by the extension inland, through 
 methods of dry farming, of the wheat belt, and the consequent contraction 
 of the central waste areas. 
 
 Australia, including Tasmania, has an area of 2,974,600 square miles ; 
 it is just a trifle larger than the United States of America, and twenty-five 
 times as large as the United Kingdom. As it extends over 33° of latitude, 
 its climate varies from tropical to cool temperate. 
 
 2. Coastal Physiography. 
 
 A glance at the map (PI. III.) explains some of the chief reasons for the 
 shape of the Australian coast. 
 
 The chief coastal indent — the Gulf of Carpentaria — is to be correlated 
 with strong tectonic lines, approximating to a meridional direction which 
 determined the position of the northern end of the Cretaceous Basin. The 
 dominant folds in Arnhem Land, on the west side of the Gulf, are parallel 
 to its shore line, the folds in the Palaeozoic rocks of the Cape York Peninsula 
 are approximately meridional, with a very heavy downthrow at the trough 
 of the Little River coal-field. The southern shore of the Gulf seems related 
 to the W.N.W., E.S.E. fold axes which run through the Etheridge and Gilbert 
 gold-fields. 
 
 The Great Australian Bight again appears to be of tectonic origin, lying 
 between the old fold mountains (recently block-faulted) of the Mount Lofty 
 and Flinders Eanges, near Adelaide, and the vast peneplain of Western Aus- 
 tralia, with its worn-down folds, shaped in plan like an inverted S. (See 
 PL IIL). 
 
 The two deep indents — Spencer Gulf and St. Vincent Gulf — are clearly 
 " Senkungsf elder," the southern end of the Great Rift Valley which ex- 
 tends by way of Lake Torrens (92 feet above sea level) to Lake Eyre (about 
 60 feet below sea level). (See Fig. 1.) 
 
 ^'G 1- Sketch Section, (suggested by works of Walter Howchin) 
 
 Across the Rift Valley of South Australia ^^^^^ 
 
 Vertical Scale 10,000 feer to an inch „/^^j^ 
 
 « ,• ■ Yorke Fteninsula S'vincent 
 PorlLincoln SPENCERS GULF TorKe reninsuM 
 
 ^^ TEIRTIARY, PEIRMO-CARBONIFEROUS 
 ^^ AND CAMBRIAN ROCKS IN TROUGH FAULT
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 
 
 243 
 
 Relief Map ol 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 Shewing Trend Lines. 
 
 Constructed by 
 
 W.K..M-I>ityre. 
 
 Based on Maps and Contours 
 
 by H.e. CRobinson. 
 
 i'LAlIi i 
 
 C.l'ilr.-i.
 
 Federal Haxdbook. 
 
 Plate II. 
 
 Relief Model of Australia and Tasmania, In W. K. .Mclntyro. 
 
 showing the horst of Tasmania, with its high peaks of diabase sills, to left of the fault 
 trough of Bass Strait, Mt. Kosciusko, 7,300 feet. Is just to the right of the light hand 
 of the two small black shadows on the north side of Bass Strait, at the knotting point 
 between the east and west trend lines of the southern coast of Victoria, and the more 
 of less meridional trend lines of the east coast of Australia. To right of Kosciusko 
 the Hunter Geocol is seen in front of and midway between the sharp peaks of the Warruni- 
 bungle Mountains on the left, and the Nandewar Ranges on the right. Further to the 
 light the dark patch crossing the range represents a narrow tongue of Jurassic sediments 
 joining the large dark area of the main artesian basin to the plain of .Jurassic and Cre- 
 taceous rock, also showing dark, lying along the middle area of the east Australian 
 coast line. Further to the north-east is the steep-to riickland coast of north-eastern 
 Queensland, rising in the Bellenden-ker Range to 5.428 feet. To the left of the main 
 dark patch, showing the Central Artesian Basin, and between it and Tasmania the smaller 
 dark patch indicates the Cainozoic plains of the Darling-Murray Rivers. Beyond the 
 mouth of the Murray River is the long horst of the Mt. Lofty and Flinders Ranges, with 
 Kangaroo Island at the extreme left, and the rift valley of Spencer's Gulf just above it. 
 Above Sjiencer's Gulf is shown a narrow ridge, assumed to be formed of Palaozoie, or 
 older rock, separating the Central Artesian Basin from the crescent-shaped dark area to 
 the left, the Bight coastal plain, occupied by Older Tertiary marine Umestones overlying 
 Cretaceous glauconite sandstones. It is possible that there is a narrow gap in this ridge 
 making the main Cretaceous basin continuous with this coastal siib-artesian basin. To 
 the right of and above the ridge is the sharp peak of Pre-Cambrian rock of Mt. Woodroffe, 
 in the Musgrave Ranges. 
 
 The rest of the continent, chiefly Pre-Cambrian, is a vast peneplain, from 1,000 
 to 3,000 feet above sea-level. In the extreme south-west are block-faulted mountains, 
 the Stirling Range, &c. Along the extreme western coast is a narrow coastal plain, 
 scarcely visible on the model, from its present point of view, with the two dark promon- 
 tories of Sharks Bay, near its northern end. Further to the right is the deeply dissected 
 region of Pilbara, much block-faulted. Still further to the right, and immediately above 
 the eastern half of the Tertiary basin of the Great Bight, near the north-west coast, is 
 the depressed area of the Great Desert Ai'tesiau Basin, of Permo- Carboniferous age.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 245 
 
 Bass Strait, as shown by the geological evidence, is another rift valley 
 crossing the older " grain " of the country, and so is Torres Strait. 
 
 A positive movement of the strand line by about 200 feet would re-unite 
 Tasmania and Australia, and a positive movement of only about 100 feet 
 would re-unite Australia and Papua. The latter might easily result from a 
 negative movement of the ocean of about the above amount, such as probably 
 occurred towards the culmination of the latest Ice Age, when the sea level 
 in temperate and sub-tropical latitudes was probably 100 feet lower than 
 at present, owing to the locking up of water to form the great ice sheets. 
 
 The features of. Cape Leeuwin and Cape Naturaliste are certainly due to 
 
 a heavy coastal trough fault just to their east, which in that south-west part 
 
 of Western Australia has determined for a great distance the trend of the 
 
 western coast line. (See Fig. 2.) 
 
 Fig. 2.-- Section across the Great Trough Fault of Western Australia (vertical scale 
 
 8,000 feet to an mch) from data suggested by A. Gibb-Maitland, F.G.S. 
 
 . „ ^ Darlinq Range 
 
 Fremantle Perth ]^ 
 
 ^ Indian Ocean ! ^ __ L . ■/^\'"\ 
 
 Hobson's Bay, or Port Phillip, south of Melbourne, is probably on a 
 meridional rift valley. 
 
 The Hunter Valley and port of Newcastle are situated on a N-W. to 
 S.E. rift valley. 
 
 The whole of the Queensland coast coincident with the Great Barrier 
 Reef for 1,200 miles N.N.W. from Rockhampton, owes its trend to powerful 
 downthrows to the east, perhaps compensating for the epeirogenic move- 
 ment of land to the west. 
 
 The trend of the east and west shores of Tasmania is parallel to axes 
 of folding. 
 
 It is obvious that the south coast of Australia, as well as the whole of 
 its north and north-west coast, is of an Atlantic type. On the contrary, the 
 south-west coast of Western Australia, the east and west coast of Tasmania, 
 and the north-east coast of Queensland are as regards their trends of a Pacific 
 type. The south-east coast of Australia does not appear to be either wholly 
 Atlantic or wholly Pacific. The term sub-Pacific has been suggested for it. 
 As regards its geological structure, the Australian coast at Fremantle, near 
 Perth, consists of a recent dune rock cemented by lime derived chiefly from 
 remains of mollusca and Lithothamnion. Numbers of artesian wells sunk 
 in this rock near Perth yield copious supplies of artesian water. Cretaceous 
 rocks have been penetrated there at about 1,000 feet below sea-level. Similar 
 calcareous dune rock forms the coast at Cape Northumberland, in South 
 Australia, at Warrnambool, in Western Victoria, and at Sorrento, on 
 the east side of the entrance to Port Phillip, but so far has not been proved 
 to carry artesian water. 
 
 Q2
 
 246 Federal Handbook. 
 
 From Cape Naturaliste to Cape Leeuwin the coast is fcrmed of recent 
 dunes resting on granite, while towards Albany a deeply indented coast of 
 granite makes its appearance with dunes lodging in the hollows. Further 
 eastwards, near Cape Riche, is a small basin of marine Jurassic rocks, while 
 near Cape Arid, the coast is marked by the Recherche Archipelago mostly 
 formed of ancient crystalline rocks. East of Cape Aiid to Fowler's Bay, 
 in the direction of Eyre's Peninsula, the coast line is formed of nearly per- 
 pendicular cliffs, up to 250 feet in height, with a further gentle rise inland 
 towards the Nullarbor Plains, of about 290 feet. At the base they are formed 
 of white chalky rock with Gryphcea and layers of flints, the whole capped 
 by polyzoal and molluscan limestones. At present the whole of this series 
 is attributed to some time between Eocene and Lower Miocene. At about 
 900 feet below sea level, at the Madura bore, to the west of Eucla, the Tertiarv 
 limestone rests on a thick series of Cretaceous greensands with a well preserved 
 marine fauna. No rivers exist anywhere along this 500 miles of unbroken 
 coast line, nor indeed along the further eastward extension of the coast for 
 another 500 miles from Fowler's Bay to the head of Spencer's Gulf. As the 
 rocks inland are mostly almost horizontal porous Tertiary limestones, there is 
 no surface run-off of the rain water, but it sinks in swallow-holes to tortuous 
 subterranean tunnels, by which it is discharged at the foot of the sea cliffs, 
 or between tide marks or out at sea, as in the case of the catavothra of Greece. 
 From Fowler's Bay around the headlands of Eyre's Peninsula and lower end 
 of Spencer's Gulf, the coast line is formed partly of Tertiary sediments, partly 
 of pre-Cambrian schists, gneiss and granite. The last-mentioned is well 
 seen in the north and south Nep tunes at the entrance to St. Vincent's Gulf. 
 A plain of erosion along the coast, part of a block faulted peneplain, crosses 
 Yorke's Peninsula to the east side of St. Vincent's Gulf, and extends to the 
 western side of the Mount Lofty Ranges. This coast is formed partly of 
 Post Pliocene flood loams, containing remains of Pallimnarchus pollens, partly 
 of richly fossiliferous Tertiary marine limestones, partly of Permo-Carbo- 
 niferous glacial beds, and partly of the highly folded Cambrian series with 
 their glacial beds. For general interest and variety this part of the coast 
 line is probably unequalled elsewhere in Australia. The strand line has 
 here recently undergone an emergence of 12 feet, and Port Adelaide and 
 Port Wakefield are built on the land thus naturally reclaimed. This evidence 
 of recent 12 feet emergence can be traced around the greater part of Aus- 
 tralia, and is probably due to a eustatic negative movement of the ocean. 
 Kangaroo Island is formed of Cambrian rocks, capped by Tertiaries and 
 basalt at its east end. The Cambrian rocks continue along the coast east of 
 Backstairs Passage to the mouth of the Murray River at Port Elliott. In 
 the reclaiming, as the result of positive movement of the strand line, of the 
 Tertiary basin which extends far inland from this part of the coast, the rivers 
 Murray and Darling have become engrafted. 
 
 From the mouth of the Murray to Cape Northumberland, the coast line 
 is mostly formed of loose dune sand or consolidated dune sand like that of 
 Cape Northumberland. The dune rock rests either on marine Tertiaries, 
 or on recent allu vials of the Murray basin, or on small inliers of granite. 
 
 Inland from Cape Northumberland are the recently extinct volcanoes of 
 Mount Schanck, Mount Gambler, etc. From Cape Northumberland to east
 
 Geology op the Commonwealth. 
 
 247 
 
 1 / Xy - 

 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 249 
 
 of Warrnambool the coast is similar with occasional outcrops of Tertiary- 
 sediments capped by basaltic lava, until the Otway coast is reached. This 
 is formed of freshwater Jurassic strata, in places containing small seams of 
 coal. 
 
 East of the dune rock of Sorrento, the Victorian coast is formed of Ter- 
 tiary rocks and older basalt ; then of the G-ippsland coal measures in which 
 the claw of a dinosaur and teeth and scales of ceratodus have lately been 
 discovered ; then at Cape Liptrap the cliffs are partly Silurian and partly 
 Ordovician slaty rocks, while at Wilson's Promontory they are of granite. 
 Beyond Corner Inlet there follows to the north-east the long stretch of sands 
 deposited in the slack water between the southerly flowing East Australian 
 current, and the current flowing easterly out of Bass Strait. This sand 
 has engrafted many of the rivers, and formed the Grippsland Lakes. Probably 
 the reclamation has been helped by a positive movement of the strand line. 
 At Gabo Island and Cape Howe granites form a riick-land coast, which 
 continues with the addition of Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian sediments to 
 Moruya and Milton. 
 
 To the north of Milton, the coast partakes more of the nature of a forland 
 coast and a distinct coastal plain is developed, formed of the sediments of 
 the Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic basins. This continues north for 
 over 200 miles to Port Stephens. In its deeply indented estuaries, harbors, 
 and drowned valleys, such as those of Jervis Bay, Port Hacking, Botany 
 Bay, Port Jackson, Broken Bay, Port Stephens, etc., and in the entire absence 
 of marine Tertiary deposits, this part of the strand line shows evidence of 
 recent negative movement. From Jervis Bay to Wollongong, the strata 
 in the sea-cliffs are rich in Permo-Carboniferous marine fossils, while those 
 of BuUi and the cliffs 100 miles north, extending to Newcastle, show frequent 
 coal seams, and abound especially near Newcastle in Permo-Carboniferous 
 fossil plants. 
 
 From Port Stephens to near Grafton, the coast is mostly of an indented 
 type, with drowned valleys between hills coming close to the coast, with 
 numerous bar harbors, and with a narrow coastal plain fringing Carboni- 
 ferous, Devonian, and probably Ordovician strata. An outlying part of an 
 immense belt of serpentine, intrusive into Middle Devonian radiolarian 
 rocks, touches the coast at Port Macquarie. From the Clarence River to 
 the Richmond there is a forland coast of Jurassic coal measures, the Clarence 
 basin. A low indented riickland coast, again of Ordovician strata, cherts, 
 tuffa, and quartzites, and capped by alkaline basalts and acid pitchstones 
 stretches from Ballina to near the mouth of the Brisbane River. A for- 
 land coast in part Jurassic, stretches from the Brisbane River to Gladstone. 
 The interesting volcanic rocks, comendites, riebeckite trachytes together 
 with alkaline andesites and basalts form conspicuous domes and sugarloaves 
 a short distance inland from the coast, which is there fringed with dunes, the 
 largest in Australia, up to 800 feet high. At Maryborough and Great Sandy 
 Island marine Cretaceous rocks outcrop with a basin of productive coal (tlie 
 Burrum Basin, the only basin of Cretaceous coal worked within the Com- 
 monwealth) immediately overlying them. Fiom Gladstone to Cape York 
 there is a remarkable coast, chiefly of the riick-land type, with mountain 
 ranges from 2,000 feet up to over 5,000 feet high (Bellcndenker, 5,128 feet)
 
 250 Federal Handbook. 
 
 coming mostly close to the coast line, and having high islands like Hinchin- 
 brook, which rises to an altitude of 3,560 feet, close inshore. This part of 
 the coast and coastal shelf is so heavily faulted and studded with small 
 islands, which have survived the block faulting, as to deserve Suess' title 
 of " panzer-horst." In places there is a coastal plain, as at the Jurassic (or 
 Cretaceous (?) coal-basin of Broadsound, at Port Mackay, and to north- 
 west and south-east of Townsville North), in others the old rocks, chiefly 
 Carboniferous strata, with Lepidodendron and Phillipsia, or Devonian rocks 
 with massive coral and stromatoporoid limestones, both systems intruded 
 by granites, form bold clifis and headlands. This remarkable part of the 
 coast line is opposite to the Grand Canal of Australia which runs between 
 the Great Barrier Reef and the main land. These high coastal hills are 
 obviously part of the Old Main Divide, its eastern slope with nearly all the 
 easterly flowing rivers being faulted eastwards under the Barrier. This 
 coast terminates in granite capped with the horizontal Upper Cretaceous 
 desert sandstone, which forms Cape York. Throughout this great stretch 
 of coast from Cape Howe to Cape York, a distance of 2,150 miles, marine 
 Tertiary deposits are wholly unknown. From Cape York around the rocks 
 of the Gulf of Carpentaria, the coast is of a low forland type, formed of Desert 
 Sandstone at first then of late Tertiary and Post Tertiary freshwater deposits, 
 with an inner zone of marine Cretaceous rocks. 
 
 It is thought by some that the main submarine outlet of the Great Arte- 
 sian Basin lies somewhere towards the southern shore of the Gulf of Car- 
 pentaria. 
 
 On the west side of the Gulf are numerous islands, formed of Permo- 
 Carboniferous rock. A short distance inland from the mouth of the Roper 
 River, the late Cainozoic sediments give place to Cambrian sandstones and 
 limestones, the latter on the Daly River being largely formed of Salterella 
 hardmani. These limestones are many thousands of feet thick, and rest 
 on an older volcanic series. From here around to Darwin, the coast is formed 
 chiefly of Cretaceo-Tertiaryand Permo-Carboniferous rocks, with an occasional 
 low-lying outcrop of older Palaeozoic or Pre-Cambrian rocks. Proofs of 
 recent positive movement of the strand line are everywhere evident except 
 between Arnhem Bay, the English Company's Islands, and Cape Arnhem, 
 where there appears to have been recent negative movement. Elsewhere 
 upraised Post Tertiary muds with echinoderms and craj^h and banks of 
 dead coral are clear proofs of recent positive movement of the strand. One 
 of the most beautiful parts of the whole Australian coast is that at 
 the north-east extremity of Arnhem Land. Tectonic disturbances are 
 present as major faults running N.E. and S.W. These are crossed by 
 minor faults throwing to north-east. At Point Charles lighthouse, near 
 Darwin, rolled specimens of Ammonites and Scaphites occur in great 
 numbers. 
 
 At Port Darwin the coast is composed of whitish shales and sandstones 
 containing numerous casts of Belem.nites, and in places consisting almost 
 entirely of radiolaria. These were originally deposited at a considerable 
 depth, which suggests a positive movement of this part of the coast of 
 that amount since Upper Cretaceous time, the epoch to which these rocks 
 belong.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 251 
 
 The remainder of the coast line is described in less detail in 
 Chapter III., by T. Griffith Taylor. Readers are referred to that 
 chapter for an account of the other physiographic features of the Common- 
 wealth. 
 
 3. Palaeogeography and Present Relief. 
 
 Reference to the photograph of the relief model of Australia and Tas- 
 mania (Pis. I. and II.) shows the broad physical features of the Common- 
 wealth, while the orographic map (PI. IV.) gives the actual contour lines, 
 and the tectonic map (PI. III.) the chief trend lines. These maps, together 
 with the sections (Plates VI. and VII.), show that Australia is essentially 
 a vast peneplain. This has been in part abandoned by the ocean, in part 
 warped upward or downward in arches and compensating troughs, and this 
 warping has been accompanied by heavy fractures. The latest of the true 
 fold mountains of Australia dates back to Carboniferous time, for although 
 in the Gympie region of Queensland the Permo-Carboniferous rocks are 
 steeply tilted, they are never closely folded as the Carboniferous rocks often 
 are. Great peneplanation took place in Permo-Carboniferous (Permian) 
 time, followed by a considerable transgression of the sea in a wide belt sweeping 
 inland on either side of Sydney, then swinging northwards through Queens- 
 land at least as far as Townsville. In Triassic and Jurassic time Tasmania 
 with Bass Strait and Southern Victoria were covered by great lakes and 
 swamps, in which the coal measures of that age were formed. Contem 
 poraneously a vast lake stretched from at least as far east as Brisbane mor 
 or less continuously to Lake Eyre, a distance of nearly 1,000 miles. It is 
 not known yet how far this great lake stretched in a meridional direction, 
 but it must have been of the order of at least 500 miles. Gondwana Land 
 was probably still in existence as far as can be judged from the Australian, 
 Indian, New Zealand, South American, and Antarctic evidence. Now in 
 late Jurassic or Post Jurassic time supervened those gigantic intrusions of 
 diabase (dolerite) on a scale perhaps unprecedented in geological history. 
 These intrusions took the form of sills which dominate the whole physical 
 features of Tasmania, the Karroo, Antarctica, and British Guiana. That 
 these intrusions were connected \vith the sinking in of the Gondwana Land 
 and consequent compensating warping up of the sea floor, and probably 
 a further shallowing of the sea floor through submarine extrusions 
 of the dolerite seems highly probable, and it may account for 
 those world-wide transgressions of the oceans in Cretaceous time which 
 Suess considers one of the most conclusive pieces of evidence in 
 favour of the ocean surface at times undergoing an eustatic positive 
 movement. 
 
 Australia was no exception to the general rule of trausgi'essing epicon 
 tinental seas of vast size in Cretaceous time. During the older Cretaceous 
 (" Rolling Downs ") series, Austi-alia was perhaps severed, so far as the 
 portion of the continent which is still preserved is concerned, by a sea stretch- 
 ing from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Great Australian Bight. The marine 
 fauna of this sea is essentially that of a local Mediterranean. On the other 
 hand, the Cretaceous rocks of the west coast of Western Australia have a 
 cosmopolitan Cretaceous marine fauna closely resembling that of India.
 
 252 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Thus the old land barrier which united East Australia and India in Permo- 
 Carboniferous (Permian) time does not seem to have been wholly broken 
 down in early Cretaceous time. 
 
 In Upper Cretaceous time, marine conditions were largely replaced by 
 lacustrine, the lake surfaces with small marine basins here and there covering 
 about one-half of the whole area of Australia. During this period was deposited 
 the so-called Desert Sandstone which at one time probably covered about 
 three-quarters of the whole area of Queensland, one-third that of South 
 Australia, and at least one-fifth of the total area of New South Wales. 
 
 In early Miocene time a considerable portion of southern and north- 
 western Victoria, part of north-western Tasmania, the extreme south-west 
 corner of New South "Wales, a large area around St. Vincent and Spencer's 
 Gulfs, and a still larger area at the head of the G-reat Australian Bight were 
 submerged. It is important to note that the submergence crept inland as 
 far as the surface of the peneplain at Lake Cowan, near Norseman, in Western 
 Australia. Deposits of marine sponge spicules occur there superimposed 
 on the peneplain. Some marine moUuscan remains have also been found 
 resting on the old peneplain on the shores of Lake Cowan, but unfortunately 
 the geological age of these shells has not yet been determined. The date 
 of the vast peneplain of Western Australia, Northern Territory, and probably 
 that of East Australia as well, depends largely on the determination of the 
 age of these fossils. 
 
 It has been argued that the Australian and Tasmanian peneplain survived 
 without serious warping into Pliocene time. This provisional conclusion 
 is based on the uniform character of the Pliocene flora as far as the few frag- 
 ments of it preserved allow us to judge. This is thought to be due to the 
 Australian land at this time over large areas being nearly reduced to sea 
 level. That some warping of the peneplain had comnaenced probably as 
 far back as the Oligocene, is proved by the fact that in Victoria the so-called 
 " older basalts," of perhaps Eocene or Oligocene Age, are capped by the 
 Lower Miocene marine beds, and there is evidence to show that Tasmania 
 after being joined to Australia in early Tertiary times, was divided from 
 the mainland by a strait in Middle Tertiary or early Pliocene time, then 
 reunited or nearly reunited in late Pliocene or Pleistocene time, allowing 
 the Tasmanian aborigines, ignorant of the building of sea-going canoes to 
 migrate into Tasmania from the mainland. That the warping of the Aus- 
 tralian and Tasmania peneplain was chiefly Post Miocene is proved by the 
 locally folded and uplifted Lower Miocene beds in the Mount Lofty Ranges, 
 near Adelaide. Also the latest great outburst of volcanic energy in all the 
 States of the Commonwealth (except Northern Territory) took place in Post 
 Miocene time. Moreover the glaciation of the Tasmanian highlands and 
 those of south-east Australia, took place in late Pliocene or Pleistocene 
 time, and these glaciations were almost certainly contemporaneous with 
 accentuated crust warping, though it is not intended to suggest that there 
 was necessarily a causal connexion between the two phenomena, though 
 there possibly may have been. Next the existence of abundant remains 
 of large herds of Pliocene or Pleistocene marsupials, some of elephantine 
 proportions, in what are now low-lying arid regions, with the discovery of 
 remains of the late Pliocene or Pleistocene crocodile Pallimnarchus pollens,
 
 353
 
 354
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 
 
 255 
 
 as far south as the valley of the Torrens, near Adelaide, demands a higher 
 rainfall, warmer climate, and probably higher relief for the interior of Aus- 
 tralia than it at present possesses. Then too, the canyons of the Upper 
 Flinders, of the eastward-flowing New England rivers, like the Macleay, the 
 Hastings, etc., and the canyons of the Blue Mountain rivers, the Shoalhaven 
 River, etc., imply that no very great time has elapsed since the warping, 
 otherwise the valley walls would be flared down and reduced to gentle slopes. 
 
 All over the highlands of Tasmania, as well as over the Kosciusko plateau, 
 there is evidence of a succession of G-lacial Epochs. These were probably 
 synchronous with the recent maximum glaciation in Antarctica and in South 
 America, possibly with the phases of the Great Ice Age in the Northern 
 Hemisphere. 
 
 Amongst the newest of the tectonic movements has been the development 
 of the great tensional faults, which have so strongly block faulted the Flinders 
 Range (see fig. 1) and the main Eastern Divide, especially along the Barrier 
 Reef area, where as in the neighbourhood of Cairns, the upper end of the 
 Barron River is left hanging on the upthrow side of the fault block (fig. 3). 
 The fault which bounds the Darling Ranges of "Western Australia (fig. 2) 
 on the west, probably is a development of very late Pleistocene or early 
 Recent time. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Sections across Queensland. 
 
 Main Divide 
 M'BaOleFrere 
 
 5l58r Cairns 
 Basalt 
 
 Foundered and rractured East slope 
 of Uie Old Divide E. 
 
 Holmes Reef 
 Creaf Barrier 
 Reef 
 
 4. Stratigraphical Features, 
 (a) The Geological Succession in the Commonwealth of Australia. 
 
 Group. 
 
 System. 
 
 Thickness 
 in Feet. 
 
 Representative Formations. 
 
 POST- 
 
 Tertiary 
 
 Recent 
 
 1,000 
 
 1. River alluvium and sand dunes, with iiard 
 
 calcareous dune rock. Aboriginal kitchen 
 middens. Laterites ("pindan" gravels and 
 nodular ironstone). Nodular tufaceous 
 limestone (" kunkar "). Salt deposits and 
 muds of the " playas." Active crater of 
 Mount Victory in Papua ; recent craters 
 of Mount Garabier (South Australia), Tower 
 Hill, near Warrnambool (Victoria). The 
 Great Barrier Reef of Queensland. 
 ^ maximum thickness of dune rock. 
 
 2. Raised beaches, mostly 15 feet above sea 
 
 around Australian coast. In Papua recent 
 coral rock extciuls up to 2,000 feet above sea- 
 Icvcl. Submerged peat beds about 100 to 200 
 feet below sea to north of Sydney. 
 
 3. Ilelicidce sandstone of Bass Strait Islands, and 
 
 Ilelicidce limestone to west of Cloncurry, 
 Queensland.
 
 256 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Stbatigraphical Features — Geological 8xjccessio^— continued . 
 
 Group. 
 
 Thirkness 
 
 in Feet. 
 
 Representative Formation? 
 
 POST- 
 
 Tebtiaby — 
 continued. 
 
 Pleistocene 
 
 Tertiary 
 
 Pliocene 
 
 300 
 
 Lower Plio- 
 cene or 
 Upper 
 Miocene 
 
 Miocene 
 
 1,000 (?) 
 1,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 100 (?) 
 
 SO to 
 1,000 
 
 Several 
 thou- 
 sands 
 of feet 
 200 to 
 1,500(?) 
 
 Mesozoic 
 
 Cretaceous — 
 Upper . . 
 
 Lower 
 
 100 to 
 300 
 
 2,000 
 
 4. Mammaliferous drift and old lake muds, with 
 
 remains of Diprotodon, Nototherium thylacoleo, 
 Thylacinus, Sarcophilus, Sus papuensis (in 
 Queensland), together with Pallimnarchus 
 pollens, Megalania prisca, Genyornis, Canis 
 dingo, etc. In pla,ces these deposits may 
 date back to late Pliocene. 
 
 5. Glacial deposits of western Tasmania and of 
 
 the Kosciusko plateau. 
 
 6. Basalt sheets of the fissure eruptions in east 
 
 and sonth-east Australia and Tasmania, 
 Kangaroo Island (South Australia), and Bun- 
 bury (Western Australia). These range from 
 Pliocene through Pleistocene to Recent. 
 Newer " deep leads " of alluvial gold and 
 tin in eastern Australia and Tasmania. 
 
 7. Older Marine Pliocene beds of Adelaide. 
 
 Possibly Launceston Lake beds belong here. 
 Port Moresby radiolarian cherts, etc. 
 
 8. Belt of alkaline lavas and tuffs from Coleraine 
 
 to Springsure, about 1,500 miles. Melilite 
 and nepheline basalts of Tasmania. 
 
 9. Ostrea slurti beds of the Lower Murray River. 
 
 Lithothamnion limestone of HaUett's Cove, 
 Adelaide. 
 10. Cellepora gambierensi-" limestones passing into 
 chalk with Hints, around the Bight. At 
 Table Cape, Tasmania, the oldest Australian 
 marsupial, Wynyardia bassiana, occurs in this 
 formation. Lepidocyclina occurs in places. 
 Purari lignitic and oil-bearing series, Papua, 
 with abundant Lepidocyclina. 
 
 11. Older basalts and tuffs, and the older, "deep 
 
 leads " of Gippsland (Victoria), New South 
 Wales, and southern Queensland. Much 
 laterite and bauxite is associated with this 
 series. 
 
 12. Important brown coal serie.s of Victoria, with 
 
 fossil plants and hgnites. At Morwell, in 
 Gippsland, these lignites are 888 feet thick. 
 
 13. Desert sandstone, mostly of freshwater origin, 
 
 with thin seams of coal in places, passes 
 downwards into radiolarian shales with 
 belemnites. Ichthyosaurus occurs in the 
 remarkable opal beds in this series. The 
 sandstone is occasionally marine, with 
 Rhynchonella croydonensis. 
 
 14. Rolling downs formation, chiefly glauconitic 
 
 sands and clays, with abundant foraminifera, 
 Maccoyella, Cytherea, Crioceras, Lamna, 
 Belonostomus, Notochelone, Ichthyosaurus, 
 Plesiosaurus, ^chna flindersensis, Ammon- 
 ite beds (Scapliites) of Darwin. The 
 Alveolina limestones of New Guinea perhaps 
 may be referred to this horizon. At Mary- 
 borough, Queensland, the Burrum coal seams 
 are interstratified in the marine series.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 
 
 257 
 
 Stratigraphigal Features — Geological Succession — continued. 
 
 Group. 
 
 System. 
 
 Thickness 
 in Feet. 
 
 Representative Formations. 
 
 Mesozoic — 
 continued. 
 
 Jurassic — 
 Upper . . 
 
 500 to 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 to 
 3,000 
 
 Triassic 
 
 3,000 
 
 PAL.a;ozoic . , 
 
 Permo-Car- 
 
 bonijerous 
 {Permian) 
 
 1,500 
 
 2,200 
 
 500 to 
 
 1,800 
 
 6,400 
 
 100 to 
 300 
 
 4,800 
 
 15. Diabase sills of Tasmania. 
 
 16. Sandstones of the great artesian basin, with 
 
 lignitic coal in places. At Leigh's Creek, 
 south of Lake Eyre, a 47-ft. seam of brown 
 coal in this series. Coal measures of Won- 
 thaggi and Cape Otway Clarence Series, 
 Clifton, Ipswich, Callide, and Broadsound. 
 Quartz-trachyte tuffs of Brisbane. Tceniop- 
 teris daintreei is specially characteristic, 
 and cj^cadaceous forms like Otozamites, 
 Pterophyllum, and Alethopterid sdso abundant. 
 Unio eyrensis numerous. Claw of dinosaur 
 in Victoria, also fossil ceratodus. In 
 Western Australia and Papua marine 
 Jurassic rocks occur with abundant ammon- 
 ites. 
 
 17. Productive coal measures of Tasmania. 
 
 Phyllotheca present, with Thinnfeldia, Ale- 
 thopteris, etc. Hawkesbury series of New 
 South Wales, with abundant fossil fish, and 
 large undescribed labyiinthodonts. Con- 
 tains Beyrichia, abundant Estheria, Tre- 
 manotus (? in situ). Much red and green 
 tuff at base of series. 
 
 18. Acid granites of New England. Alkaline series 
 
 of Port Cygnet, Tasmania, and of Kiama, 
 New South Wales. 
 
 19. Upper or Newcastle coal measures, with 35 to 
 
 40 feet workable coal. Glossopteris pre- 
 dominates over Gangamopteris. Dadoxylon 
 abundant. The Upper Bowen coal 
 measures of Queensland, and Collie coal- 
 field. Western Australia, probably are on 
 this horizon. 
 
 Derapsey Series. Barren freshwater strata. 
 
 Middle coal measures (Tomago or East Mait- 
 land), about 1,800 feet workable coal. 
 
 Upper Marine Series, mudstones and sand- 
 stones, with abundant Prodtictus brachy- 
 thcerus, Crinoids, " glendonite " pseudo- 
 morphs, occasional glacial erratics in shales, 
 with abundant Fenestallidce. 
 
 Lower or Greta coal measures, with about 
 20 feet of workable coal. Gangamopteris 
 predominates over Glossopteris. The Daw- 
 son coal measures probably belong here, 
 in Queensland, and the Mersey coal measures 
 of Tasmania. 
 
 Lower Marine Series, with Eurydesma cor- 
 datum specially characteristic. Sodic basalts 
 and andosite tuffs are interstratified. The 
 series ends in glacial beds ."JOO foot thick. 
 In Victoria tluire are the Bacciuis Marsh 
 beds, over 2,000 feet thick, with at least 
 four beds of true tillite. At Wynyard, in 
 Tasmania, and Hallott's Cove, near 
 Adelaide, these tiliitos are very well 
 developed. In Victoria and South Australia 
 the tillites rest on beautifully striated 
 pavements.
 
 258 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Stratigraphical Features — Geological Succession — continued. 
 
 Group. 
 
 Thickness 
 in Feet. 
 
 Representative Formations. 
 
 Pal^ozoic- 
 
 continued. 
 
 (Unconfor- 
 mity.) 
 
 Carhoni- 
 ferous. 
 
 20,000 
 
 Devonian — 
 Upper . . 
 
 Middle. 
 
 Lower. 
 
 10,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 Silurian . . 
 
 (Unconfor- 
 mity.) 
 Ordovician 
 
 3,000 to 
 5,000 
 
 9,000(?) 
 
 The Gympie beds of Queensland are Lower 
 Marine. 
 
 20. Sphene-granites of New England. 
 
 21. Blue-granites of New England. 
 
 22. Star Series of Queensland, with Lepidodendron 
 
 australe, Aneimites, and Phillipsia. 
 The marine and freshwater beds in New South 
 Wales, with Phillipsia, Productus semi- 
 reticulatus, Lepidodendron australe, L. volk- 
 mannianum, L. veltheimianum, Rhacho- 
 pteris, etc. A thick series of acid, to inter- 
 mediate lavas and tuffs, occur in this system. 
 In Victoria the Mansfield beds and the 
 Grampians sandstones may be included 
 here, together with the felsites and basalts 
 of Mount Wellington, Victoria. 
 
 23. Serpentine belt of New England, New South 
 
 Wales. 
 
 24. Spirifera disjuncta quartzites of Mount 
 
 Lambie, New South Wales, with Lepido- 
 dendron australe. The Archaeopteris sand- 
 stones of Victoria may belong here. 
 
 Radiolarian cherts, reef limestones, and spUites 
 of Tamworth, New South Wales. Burdekin 
 series of Queensland, with reef limestone up 
 to 7,000 feet thick, an ancestor of the Barrier 
 Reef. Buchan and Bindi limestones of 
 Victoria, with andesites. Devonian rocks 
 of Kimberley, Western Australia. 
 
 Murrumbidgee series. New South Wales, with 
 Receptaculites and bony-plated fish like 
 Asterolepis, also a thick series of acid to 
 intermediate lavas. In Victoria are the 
 series of acid lavas and tuffs, the Snowy 
 River porphyries. Dacites, quartz- porphy- 
 ries, and granodiorites of this age occur in 
 Victoria. Most of the granites of Tasmania 
 are thought to be Devonian. Devonian 
 rocks occur in Papua. 
 
 25. Shales, sandstones, limestones, contemporan- 
 
 eous tuffs. The type area is Yass, New 
 South Wales. Hausmannia and Encri- 
 nurus, with the corals Rhizophyllum and 
 Mucophyllum and Pentaynerus knightii 
 are characteristic. At the base of series is 
 Halysites in great abundance. At Lilydale 
 in Victoria, Chudleigh in Tasmania, Chil- 
 lagoe in Queensland, limestones of this age 
 are well developed. They are frequently 
 associated with radiolarian cherts. 
 
 26. These rocks are either littoral, like the Tempe 
 Downs beds, south of the Macdonnell Range, 
 with Asaphus and Endoceras abundant, or 
 are of the Victorian type, black shales, sand- 
 stones, graptolitic shales, wath some sponge 
 spicules, phosphatic slates, and cherts. They 
 are also developed in New South Wales 
 at TaUong, Mandurama, etc. The rich grapto- 
 lite fauna is described later in this article.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 
 
 259 
 
 Stratigraphical Features — Geological Succession — continued. 
 
 Group. 
 
 System. 
 
 Thickness 
 in Feet. 
 
 Representative Formations. 
 
 Pal.s:ozoic — 
 continued, 
 
 Cambro- 
 Ordovi- 
 cian {?) 
 
 Cambrian 
 
 10,000(?) 
 
 Pbe- 
 
 Cambrian 
 
 (Great Un- 
 conformity.) 
 Algonkian 
 
 Archaean 
 
 27. These rocks consist of the diabases and tuffs, 
 
 probably spilitic, of Heathcote and other 
 areas in Victoria. Probably the porphy- 
 roid series with breccias, tuffs, etc., of 
 western Tasmania also belong here. 
 
 28. This system is chiefly developed in South 
 
 Australia and Northern Territory. In Nor- 
 thern Territory thick sandstones overlie 
 massive Archceocyathince limestones, perhaps 
 7,000 feet in thickness, another forerunner 
 of the Barrier Reef. Beneath the richly 
 fossiliferous limestones (Salterella limestones 
 of Northern Territory) is a vast thickness of 
 basalts and basic tuffs. About half-way up 
 in the series in South Australia are tillites 
 up to about 1,000 feet in thickness. 
 
 29. The Mosquito Series of the Pilbara gold- 
 
 field, Western Australia, is a schistose group 
 unconformably underlying the Cambrian(?) 
 NuUagine Series. This in turn rests on an 
 older series, the Warrawoona. Both may 
 be considered Algonkian, as the rocks can 
 be recognised as Sediments. 
 
 At Kalgoorlie the conglomerates are Algon- 
 kian, as are those of Goat Island, Tasmania, 
 with mica schists and garnet-zoizite- 
 amphibolites ; in the Mount Lofty and 
 Flinders Ranges the rocks of the Houghton 
 magma, so rich in titaniferous iron and 
 diopside, and connected with radium 
 deposits are also probably Algonkian. 
 
 The Glenelg River schists and ]\Iitta Mitta 
 schists of Victoria may also be Algonkian, 
 as well as most of the mica and quartz 
 schists of Northern Territory. 
 
 30. Archaean rocks are widely spread in Western 
 
 Australia in the Musgrave and Macdonnell 
 Ranges, and at Port Lincoln, in South Aus- 
 tralia, and between Camooweal and Borra- 
 loola, in Northern Territory. The Aguilar 
 Range in Queensland, north of Brisbane, con- 
 taining glaucophane schists may also be 
 Archaean, as well as the main axis of British 
 and German New Guinea. 
 
 (b) Pre=Cambrian System. 
 
 The rocks of this age, comprising both Algonkian and Archaean formations, 
 are developed on a particularly grand scale in Western Australia and Central 
 Australia, in fact, about one-third of the whole area of Australia, namely 
 approximately 800,000 square miles, is occupied by this vast crystalline com- 
 plex. Pre-Cambrian rocks are also developed in the Kimberley gold-field 
 of Western Australia, as well as at Darwin, extending from the latter at 
 intervals to Camooweal in Queensland. In New South Wales, they are 
 represented by a belt of Garnetiferous mica-schist with amphibolites and
 
 260 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 gneiss in the Barrier Ranges of the Broken Hill silver-field. They are repre- 
 sented by schists near the Cobar Copper Mines of New South Wales, and 
 
 Fig 4. Diagrammatic Sections ACROSS CoLUE- Stirling Trough 
 
 Vertical Scale 8000 Feet to an inch 
 
 M'Toolbrunup. 3341*^ 
 
 Collie Coal Reld 
 
 J. .^Looking WN.W ^ 
 Fault ^ Fa 
 
 tttV 
 
 STIRLING 
 
 RANGE 
 
 CNElSSlC 
 CRAMITE 
 
 \ \ 
 
 by a thick series of crystalline schists in a broad belt of country stretching 
 S.S.E. from Wodonga and Tallangatta, through Omeo and Tongio West in 
 North-east Victoria. Other areas occur in Victoria south of Mount Stavely 
 and in the basin of the G-lenelg River. In Tasmania, a well-marked belt 
 of mica-schist and white saccharoidal quartzite, and a very interesting belt 
 of zoisite-amphibolite, are ascribed to this group. With the exception of 
 the last-mentioned rock, all the Pre-Cambrian rocks of Tasmania appear 
 to have been of sedimentary origin, and should therefore be referred to the 
 Algonkian system. In Western Australia, the group is divisible into two 
 portions, or we may say that two groups are present : Firstly, an older 
 form of gneisses and acidic schists with intrusive granite and pegmatite 
 veins with numerous dykes of diorite, norite, dolerite, etc. Secondly, Algon- 
 kian rocks formed of coarse conglomerates together with, in places, altered 
 volcanic tuffs and amygdaloidal dolerites, the latter evidently being of 
 contemporaneous origin. The principal gold-fields of Western Australia, 
 one of which alone (Kalgoorlie) has produced to date over £100,000,000 
 worth of gold, are situated in rocks, probably of this group, occupying deeply 
 infolded basins, partly of Pre-Cambrian basic lavas and tuffs, in the older 
 crystalline complex. As shown on the Section, Fig. 4, these Pre-Cambrian 
 rocks have been intensely folded, the trend of the folds being nearly meri- 
 dional, but on the whole ha\'ing the form as shown on the PI. III. of a 
 very open inverted letter " S." One can distinguish at least four of these 
 great gold-bearing basins from east to west in the following order : — Kanowna, 
 Boulder and Kalgoorlie, Coolgardie, and Southern Cross. In the Pilbara 
 district of Western Australia, there is a considerable development of minerals 
 of the rare earths associated with veins of pegmatite traversing Pre-Cam- 
 
 FiG 5. Sketch roughly diagrammatic from Perth to Kalgoorlie. 
 
 , ^ Suggested b^obsfcvationsorA Gibb-Maitland.FGS 
 
 
 "th DARLING RANGE ^ 1 ■ PENEPLAIN r ^^S^ f/ ,'//' 
 
 390miles- 
 
 brian rocks. For example, associated with tin-stone are found in this region 
 tantalite in sufficient quantity to control the whole of the tantalum market
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 261 
 
 of the world. The mineral gadolinite, associated with well-crystallized 
 monazite, and occasionally the rare radio-active mineral pilbarite, a lead- 
 bearing uranium ore, are also met with within this area. At Mount Painter 
 between the head of Spencer's Gulf and Lake Eyi'e, the Pre-Cambrian rocks 
 comprise remarkably massive deposits with coarse mica-schists, containing 
 an abundance of sapphire. These rocks are traversed by a huge lode con- 
 taining radio-active minerals, such as monazite, torbenite, autunite, etc., 
 together with a considerable amount of fluorspar. This lode has been traced 
 along a continuous outcrop of over a mile, and in places is said to be over 
 20 yards in width — in places as much as 50 yards. At present the lode is 
 only being prospected. At the Radium Hill, at Olary, on the railway line 
 from Adelaide to Broken Hill, there is a considerable deposit of uranium- 
 bearing titaniferous iron ore. At the surface outcrop this is stained lemon- 
 yellow to orange by carnotite. The ore from this mine is at present being 
 successfully treated at Woolwich, Sydney, and it is expected that it will soon 
 be possible to produce not less than a gramme of radium bromide annually 
 from this mine alone. In the MacDonnell Ranges, associated with the 
 pegmatite dykes are large crystals of muscovite mica, from 1 foot up to 18 
 inches or more in diameter. Beryls in large crystals, but not of commercial 
 value, occur in the same region. A remarkable rock in the Pre-Cambrian 
 group is that known as the ribbon jasper. This rock, often many hundreds 
 of yards in width, is typically a beautifully banded haematitic quartz rock. 
 It can be traced for hundreds of miles along the gold-bearing belts of Western 
 Australia. From its southern gold-fields, as far north as Kimberley gold-field, 
 wherever reefs of quartz intersect it they are usually gold-bearing. Recent 
 petrological research proves that this ribbon jasper is actually a mylonized 
 quartz-dolerite, subsequently altered by silicification. It is singular that 
 in other places as at Boulder, near Kalgoorlie, a similar mylonized quartz- 
 dolerite has been converted into a graphite schist, probably as the result 
 of long-continued emanations of methane. This gas is still being evolved 
 from the gold telluride-bearing graphite-schists at the Great Boulder Pro- 
 prietary Mine. At Bimbowrie, in South Australia, magnificent crystals of 
 chiastolite, used for jewellery are abundantly developed in the Pre-Cambrian 
 rocks. To the east of the Mount Lofty Ranges, in South Australia, there 
 is a considerable development of andalusite-bearing schists, with which 
 are associated schistose diopside-diorite. The latter rock is very rich in 
 ilmenite, and black sands derived from this ilmenite are plentifully dis- 
 tributed throughout the basalt rocks of the succeeding Cambrian formation. 
 Reference has already been made to the considerable development of Pre- 
 Cambrian rocks in the neighbourhood of the Broken Hill silver mines. No 
 attempt has a.s yet been made to form even a rough approximation of the 
 thickness of the Pre-Cambrians, but it certainly must be very vast. 
 
 (c) Cambrian System. 
 
 Rocks of this age are developed on a grand scale in the northern part 
 of Northern Territory, as well as between Lake Eyre and Kangaroo Island, 
 to the south of Adelaide. They are also probably represented by the Nulla- 
 gine series in the Pilbara region. At that gold-field, conglomerates perhaps 
 of Cambrian age overlie quite uncomformably the older schists. These
 
 262 Federal Handbook. 
 
 conglomerates contain gold and small diamonds, and are the oldest diamond- 
 bearing horizon as yet proved within the Commonwealth. In the Northern 
 Territory, in Arnhem Land, and in the Barclay Tableland, the Cambrian 
 rocks there, largely formed of limestones, have proved invaluable as a source 
 of supply of sub-artesian water. These limestones in the Northern Territory, 
 at the Daly River, as well as at Mount Panton, in the Kimberley gold-field, 
 are rich in the fossil pteropod — Salterella hardmani. Their thickness is cer- 
 tainly several thousands of feet, possibly 7,000 feet. In Arnhem Land and 
 at Eamberley, these limestones overlie thick sheets of basic lavas, apparently 
 contemporaneous in these Cambrian deposits. The two salient points of 
 scientific interest about the system as developed in the Commonwealth are : — 
 First, the development on a grand scale of glacial tillite. It has now been 
 demonstrated that these glacial beds are in places fully 1,000 feet in thickness 
 and extend from the Sturt Gorge, east of Adelaide, at least as far north as 
 Pekina, to the north of Port Augusta, and may extend almost to the tropic 
 of Capricorn, near Lake Eyre. The glacial beds of South Australia cross 
 into New South Wales in the Barrier Ranges, about 20 miles north of Broken 
 Hill. These glacial beds are met with about half-way up in the great thick- 
 ness of Cambrian strata, and are many thousands of feet below the second 
 feature about to be described, namely, the Archaeocyathinae limestones. 
 These rocks are developed on a large scale at Yorke's Peninsula, to the west 
 of Adelaide, as well as near Normanville and the Onkaparinga Valley, whence 
 they extend at least as far north as the Blinninan and Ajax Mines, near Lake 
 Eyre. They contain a rich and exquisitely preserved fossil marine fauna. 
 It may be mentioned that small pieces of similar limestone were discovered 
 by Sir Ernest Shackleton near Mount Darwin, about 360 miles from the 
 South Pole. 
 
 The Heathcotian Series. 
 Shales and mudstones containing the trilolites Dinesus and Notasaphus, 
 Protospongia and other sponge spicules, brachiopods and railiolaria occur 
 about 3 miles north of Heathcote. These were originally referred to the 
 Cambrian and later to the Ordovician. Recent evidence tends to reinforce 
 their Cambrian age. Immediately underlying these beds to the east, come 
 a mixed series of black cherts, cherty shales, and igneous rocks, principally 
 basic lavas, described as diabases, tufis, and agglomerates, with a few minor 
 dioritic intrusions and a larger intrusive mass of micro-granite. To these 
 rocks the term Heathcotian has been applied, and they have been described 
 as underlying the Dinesus beds with a marked unconformity, and have been 
 referred to the Pre-Ordovician and even to the Pre-Cambrian series. Others 
 have pointed out that there is no evidence of unconformity between them 
 and the overlying Ordovicians, but a gradual passage, and that therefore 
 they cannot be older than Cambrian and may be Cambro-Ordovician 
 in age. Similar rocks, with similar stratigraphical relations, and 
 containing black cherts with Protospongia and radiolaria interbedded 
 with diabases occur to the north-east of Lancefield. Probably the 
 diabases and cherts of Mount Major, near Dookie ; of Mount Stavely, and 
 of the Hummocks, in the west of Victoria, are also referable to the 
 Heathcotian series.
 
 Geology op the Commonwealth. 
 
 263 
 
 In Tasmania, Cambrian rocks of the nature of yellow rusty friable sand- 
 stones and quartzites occur at Caroline Creek, between Railton and Latrobe, 
 as well as on the Humboldt Divide, and in the Florentine Valley. These 
 rocks, which contain well preserved casts of Dikellocephalus, are considered 
 to be of Upper Cambrian age. 
 
 w. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Diasrammatic Sections across Victoria. 
 
 
 .r 
 
 /'4 
 
 I I I \ I ] ' ' ' i ' ■-, I \' I [Snowy Xirtrt \ 
 
 Ve3thcoti'3n/C3mbri3n) ^Serpentine 
 ■^50 Milts 
 
 
 
 
 In Tasmania the Porphyroid Series of schistose quartz-porphyries, 
 felsite tufis and breccias, and spilitic basic rocks, of the Leven Gorge, 
 Dundas, is presumably of Heathcotian, and therefore perhaps of Cambrian 
 
 (d) Ordovician System. 
 
 Two well-marked t}'pes, the one littoral, the other probably pelagic, 
 are referred to this system. Shallow water strata of the former type have 
 been described from the Tempe Downs Station and the Levi Range, to the 
 south of the MacDonnell Ranges. These rocks show ripple marks and sun 
 cracks, as well as cubical pseudomorplis in quartzite after rock-salt. Abun- 
 dant well-preserved fossils, of which the commonest forms are Orihis leviensis, 
 Endoceras warburtoni, Asaphus illarensis, are to be found in this neighbour- 
 hood in sandy calcareous shales. The other type of Ordovician rock, the 
 dominant type in fact, consists of black carbonaceous shales and slates, 
 with bands of fine-grained sandstones and quartzites and occasional con- 
 glomerates. They are best developed in Victoria where they are closely 
 folded and strike generally in a N.N.W. direction. They are divided into 
 a lower series, in which the black shales and slates on the whole predominate, 
 and an upper aeries in which sandstones are more prominent, and containing 
 C.12154. 8
 
 264 Federal Handbook. 
 
 basal conglomerates as at Kerrie, east of Mount Macedou. The lower member 
 has been divided by its graptolite zones into the following divisions from 
 above downward : — 
 
 Darriwil series, 
 
 Castlemaine series, 
 
 Bendigo series, 
 
 Lancefield series. 
 The most productive gold-fields of Victoria, such as those of Bendigo, Bal- 
 larat, Daylesford, iMaldon, Dunolly, Poseidon, and Steiglitz occur in Lower 
 Ordovician rocks, near intrusions of granodiorite. It has been suggested 
 that the quartz reefs are generally most productive where traversing black 
 shales of the Bendigo series. The Lower Ordovician rocks have so far only 
 been found in Victoria, and with the exception of the Mornington Peninsula, 
 only to the west of a line running north from MelboiU'ne and stretching to 
 the western boundary of the State. The Upper Ordovician rocks are, on 
 the whole, less closely folded than the lower series, are less auriferous, but 
 have a generally similar N.N.W. strike, and occur only to the east of a line 
 running north from Melbourne. Near Melbourne they occur at Diggers Rest, 
 and further north at Kerrie, east of Mount Macedon. Inliers of Upper 
 Ordovician rocks occur near the Woods Point gold-field, and also further 
 east, surrounded by the broad belt of Silurian rocks, while very extensive 
 areas in Eastern Victoria have yielded only Upper Ordovician graptolites. 
 
 Northwards from Victoria the Upper Ordovician rocks extend into New 
 South Wales, sweeping in a broad belt to the east of Mount Kosciusko, between 
 the Snowy River and Cooma. A belt of the same rock has been identi- 
 fied at Tallong, near Marulan, where it has been shown there is a great uncon- 
 formity between this system and the overlying Silurian system. At Cadia. 
 near Orange, there is a great belt of these rocks containing contemporaneous 
 andesite lava, with large deposits of iron ore. Though extensive, these 
 are not as large by any means as the great ironstone mountain deposits — 
 the ton Knob and the Iron Monarch — to the west of Port Augusta, from 
 which the ore is to be obtained in the near future to supply the large steel 
 works about to be erected at Newcastle. In Tasmania, strata of Ordovician 
 age are represented at the Beaconsfield gold-field, near Launceston. 
 
 (e) Silurian System. 
 
 Strata of this age appear to be wholly restricted in the Commonwealth 
 to the eastern portion of Australia and to Tasmania. In Tasmania they 
 are well developed in the neighbourhood of the Mount Lyell Mine, where 
 they contain the trilobite Homalonotus. The strata in Victoria are divided into 
 the Upper orYeringian and the Lower or Melboui'nian series. At Lilydale,in 
 Victoria, there is a well preserved marine fauna in the limestones of that 
 locality. These strata are not so strongly folded as those of the Ordovician 
 System. Perhaps the richest fossil-bearing locality for the Silurians is to be 
 found in the Yass district of New South Wales. The rocks there consist of 
 contemporaneous dacite tufis with sandy shales, olive coloured to yellowish 
 brown shales and numerous beds of limestone. The limestones are built up of a 
 rich coral fauna. In fact, they are obviously old fringing coral reefs. One 
 of the most common and characteristic corals is the mushroom shaped form.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 265 
 
 Mwophyllum. Penta)nerus is veiy plentiful near the limestones in the middle 
 system. Halysites is very common and characteristic in the lower lime- 
 stones of the system, being so abundant at Spring Creek, near Orange, and 
 at Molong, as to constitute by itself coral reefs. In the upper strata the 
 trilobites Hausrnannia and Encrinurus occur plentifully. The famous 
 Jenolan caves of New South Wales have been hollowed out of limestones 
 rich in Petitamerus. These are capped by massive black cherts, chiefly 
 composed of radiolaria. At the limestone reefs at Wellington, New South 
 Wales, beautifully preserved siliceous sponges allied to Astylospongia may 
 be collected, weathered out of the surface of the limestone. Silurian rocks 
 so far have been identified in Queensland only in the neighbourhood of Chillagoe, 
 where limestones containing Halysites are developed. At the same time 
 it is considered probable that a belt of Silurian extends through Queensland, 
 from the south of Boulia to the extreme north-west, and from 20 miles east 
 of Cloncurry to the western boundary of the State. The Stirling Range, 
 in the south-western portion of Western Australia, has been doubtfully re- 
 ferred to this period. 
 
 (f) Devonian System. 
 
 This is the oldest system in the Commonwealth in which definite fossil 
 plants have been discovered, and such give evidence of a great extension 
 of the land surface of Australia in an easterly direction since the close of 
 Pre-Cambrian time. They occur at intervals all the way round from Kim- 
 berley to Cloncurry, the Burdekin basin, the Tamworth area, the region 
 west of the Blue Mountains between Mudgee and Bowenfels, as well as in a 
 parallel strip near Wellington, Spring Creek, near Orange, and Canowindra. 
 They are also represented at the Yalwal gold-field, to the south of the Illa- 
 warra District, as well as on a large scale at Burrinjuck, and also in the 
 Pambula regions. In addition, outlying patches of Devonian rock occur 
 at Cobar, Oxley's Tableland, Gundabooka Mountain, and White Cliffs, 
 beyond Wellington. Southwards they can be traced into Victoria, as the 
 Snowy River porphyries and the Buchan and Bindi limestones and the 
 Tabberabbera shales. No undoubted Devonian rocks have as yet been 
 proved in Tasmania, in South Australia, or in Western Australia south of 
 Kimberley. The system is divisible into three series. The lower is often 
 chiefly volcanic, consisting of banded rhyolites and tuffs. These are asso- 
 ciated with reddish-purple to chocolate coloured shales. In places the 
 volcanic rocks become basic. In the neighbourhood of Burrinjuck and 
 higher up the Murrumbidgee River, near Taemas, there is a splendid develop- 
 ment of folded Lower Devonian limestones. A conspicuous and charac- 
 teristic large fossil in these rocks is the form Receptaculites. Remains of 
 large bony-plated fish, such as Coccosteus and Asterolepis, have been found 
 in these limestones. In Victoria, the Buchan and Bituli limestones occupy 
 eroded hollows in the surface of the Snowy River porphyries. The Gram- 
 pian Range of white, grey, red, and purple sandstones and conglomerates 
 perhaps belongs to the Upper Devonian beds. The conglomerates, sand- 
 stones, and shales of Mansfield, Victoria, are perhaps of Upper Devonian 
 age. In New South Wales, Middle Devonian rocks are well represented 
 in the Tamworth region by massive coralline limestone, in which the curious 
 
 s 2
 
 266 Federal Handbook. 
 
 type Sanidophyllum is a dominant form. Associated with the limestones 
 is a vast thickness, about 9,000 feet, of tufaceous cherty shales, with con- 
 cretions of radiolarian limestones. In some of these the radiolaria are 
 exquisitely preserved. Interbedded in the shales are numerous casts of 
 Lepidodendron australe. In Queensland the chief development of Devonian 
 rocks is in the Burdekin basin. There they consist of very massive con- 
 glomerates at the base, passing upwards into coral reef limestones of vast 
 thickness. On the Manning River they are no less than 7,000 feet thick. 
 The most characteristic fossils are Pachypora meridionalis and Stromatoporella. 
 With these are associated fossil plants such as Dicranophyllum, as well as a 
 remarkable undescribed form. Upper Devonian rocks are mostly represented 
 by reddish to grey quartzites, sandstones, and red shales. They are typically 
 developed at Mount Lambie, Mount Walker, and Spring Creek, near Orange, 
 New South Wales. These strata are very rich in Spirifera disjuncta and 
 Rhynchonella pleurodon. Lastly, at Kimberley, in Western Australia, there 
 is a belt of marine Devonian rocks containing a fauna which suggests that 
 it may be of Middle Devonian age. 
 
 (g) Carboniferous System. 
 
 With perhaps the exception of a small belt of rocks at Kimberley, which 
 is rumoured to contain Lepidodendron, and the G-rampians sandstones in 
 Western Victoria, which have recently yielded forms of Lingula and fish 
 remains similar to those of the Mansfield rocks, no rocks of this age are known 
 to be developed in Australia, to the west of a line joining Cape York with 
 Melbourne. No trace of Lepidodendron has as yet been found in Tasmania. 
 The genus is widely represented in Queensland, where much of the folded 
 highlands of the north-eastern coast ranges are built up of these rocks. 
 
 The latest folding to which the earth's crust in Australia has been sub- 
 jected belongs to late Carboniferous time. So far no marked unconformity 
 has been traced between the Devonian and Carboniferous rocks. Rocks of 
 true Carboniferous age in the Commonwealth are characterized by the pre- 
 sence in their lower strata of Lepidodendron volhnannianum, L. veUheimianum 
 and L. dichotomum, and in their upper portion by several species of Rhachop- 
 teris and Aneimites. So far no single example of a Lepidodendron has been 
 found anywhere in the Commonwealth in rocks of so-called Permo-Car- 
 boniferous age. A marine fauna is associated with this system particularly 
 in its lower and middle portions. An important form to distinguish the 
 Carboniferous rocks from the Devonian on the one hand, and the Permo- 
 Carboniferous on the other, is Phillipsia. So far no trace of trilobites has 
 ever been observed in any of the true Permo-Carboniferous rocks. Michelinia 
 and Lithostrotion found in New England are essentially Carboniferous forms 
 which never ascend into the Permo-Carboniferous systems. Less reliance 
 can be placed on the brachiopods, many of which, such as Prodiictus semireticu- 
 latus, Orthis, and Streptorhyncuhs, &c., ascend into the Permo-Carboniferous 
 system. 
 
 The upper series of the Carboniferous system is characterized by a vast 
 thickness of lavas and tufis, mostly acidic, such as rhyolites and ceratophyi'es 
 associated with hypersthene andesites and hornblende andesites and magne- 
 tite-sandstones. Intrusions of granites and quartz-porphyiies occur on a
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 267 
 
 grand scale in this system, and it may be assumed that the rhyolites and 
 other acid lavas are the volcanic representatives of the granite batholiths. 
 As regards local development, Carboniferous strata formed of reddish shales 
 and sandstones are most typically developed in Victoria, near Mansfield. 
 They there contain Lepidodendron australe with an abundance of fossil 
 fi^h such as Gyracanthides murrayi, Acanthodes australis, Eupleiirogmus 
 cresswelli, Strepsodus decipiens, Ctenodus breviceps, Elonichthys sweeti, 
 E. gibbus. It may be mentioned that it has been proposed to place these 
 beds in the Upper Devonian, the occurrence of Lepidodendron australe, the 
 the most characteristic of our Devonian plants, suggesting this possibility ; 
 but at present the Victorian geologists prefer to class these strata as Lower 
 Carboniferous. The occurrence of Lepidodendron australe in beds of un- 
 doubted Carboniferous age in the Star series of Queensland seems to justify 
 this classification. 
 
 In New South Wales the Carboniferous system is about 20,000 feet 
 in thickness, and extends in a wide folded belt from Port Stephens 
 northwards into New England, reaching the Queensland border near the 
 Horton River. 
 
 (h) Permo=Carboniferous (Permian) System. 
 
 Of all the sedimentary formations developed in the Commonwealth this 
 system is perhaps the most interesting by reason, in the first place, of the 
 wonderful evidence of past ice action ; in the second place, on account of 
 the remarkable development of the Glossopteris and Gangamopteris flora 
 which replaced everywhere within the Commonwealth the Lepidodendron 
 flora of the preceding system ; and, in the third place, this system is specially 
 interesting on account of its marine fauna, which belongs to two sharply 
 differentiated types — the western, allied to the Permo-Carboniferous fauna 
 of India ; and the eastern, a distinct faima unlike, in many respects, any 
 developed in other parts of the world. It is also interesting on account of 
 the fact that probably nowhere else in the world are the strata of the Permo- 
 Carboniferous system of such thickness, or so rich in diversified forms of 
 animal life. It is not proposed to discuss the Palaeontology of this system 
 here, as Mr. W. S. Dun has given a summary of it at the end of this article, 
 and details are given in the handbooks for the various States. 
 
 In regard to the upward passage from the Carboniferous strata into the 
 Permo-Carboniferous, it may be said that, while there is little evidence of 
 unconformity in some places, in others the unconformity is fairly strongly 
 marked ; as, for example, near Lochinvar in the Hunter Valley of New 
 South Wales. At the same time, the unconformity is not nearly as strong 
 as that developed in the British Isles, between the dolomitic breccias of the 
 Permian system, and the Carboniferous rocks. 
 
 It has already been stated that the Carboniferous strata in the Common- 
 wealth are mostly disposed in fairly close folds. On the other hand, the 
 strata in the Permo-Carboniferous system are either perfectly horizontal 
 or disposed in broad open troughs and arches. Only in the case of the strata 
 at Drake and Undorcliff in Now England and of the Ashford areas in New 
 South Wales, and the Gympie area in Queensland, are the strata of this 
 system highly disturbed near granitic intrusions.
 
 268 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In regard to tlie term " Permo-Carboniferous," in view of the present 
 state of our knowledge it is somewliat of a misnomer. The term was applied, 
 in the first case, by Messrs. R. L. Jack and R. Etheridge, jun., to certain 
 strata in Queensland, which undoubtedly did unite between themselves forms 
 of life, chiefly marine, partly characteristic of the Carboniferous, partly of 
 the Permian. It is now known that in Queensland these rocks can be sharply 
 divided into two groups, viz. : an older group, in which Lepidodendron and 
 Phillipsia are present ; and a younger group, in which neither of the above 
 fossils ever occur, but which contains a marine fauna distinctly comparable 
 with that of the Hunter River region of New South Wales. In spite of the 
 fact that some of the brachiopods of this Permo-Carboniferous system show 
 aflSnities with those of the Carboniferous, it appears to the writer that there 
 is no longer need for the retention of the term Permo-Carboniferous, but 
 that the strata of this system should be considered to be Permian for the 
 following reasons : — 
 
 (1) At the very base of the system is a thick and widely developed 
 series of beds of glacial origin, which can be certainly cor- 
 related with the Dwyka beds of South Africa in the Karroo 
 system, also with the Talchir beds in India, as well as with the 
 glacial strata known as the Orleans Conglomerate of the Santa 
 Catharina system of South Brazil and of the Argentine. 
 Now, in South Africa the marine reptile Mesosaurus is found in strata 
 conformably overlying the gracial beds of the Dwyka series, so that, pre- 
 sumably, this reptile was more or less contemporaneous with the Dwyka 
 ice age. Similarly, in Southern Brazil, we meet with remains of Mesosaurus in 
 strata conformably overlying the Orleans conglomerate. Still further north 
 we encounter the well-marked Permian fossil Schizodus, and other marine 
 forms, in shaly strata apparently on the same geological horizon as that 
 containing the above reptile. 
 
 If, therefore, Mesosaurus, a powerful marine swimmer and therefore a 
 rapid migrator, is really Permian, then the Orleans conglomerate and the 
 Dwyka conglomerate are also of approximately this age. 
 
 (2) We find that in Russia, in the neighbourhood of Moscow, a flora 
 rich in Glossopteris and Gangamopteris, as shown by Amalitzky, 
 overlies sandstones, marls, &c., which at Brasnoborsk contain 
 Bakewellia ceratopJiaga, Schl., and Schizodus rossicus, Vern. 
 All the above strata in Northern Dwina are considered by 
 Kohen to be referable to the Zechstein. 
 But while the term Permian might probably be substituted with advan- 
 tage for the term Permo-Carboniferous in Eastern Australia, it is doubtful 
 whether it is equally applicable to the so-called Carboniferous rocks of Western 
 Australia, in the Kimberley District In other parts of Western Australia, 
 where so-called Permo-Carboniferous rocks are developed, as at the Gascoyne, 
 Wooramel, and Minilya Rivers, a well-marked glacial horizon the " Lyons 
 conglomerate," underlies the bulk of the so-called Carboniferous strata. 
 There is now little doubt that this glacial horizon is identical with that of 
 Bacchus Marsh, in Victoria, Hallett's Cove, in South Austi'alia, Wynyard, 
 in Tasmania, and Lochinvar, and Kempsey in New South Wales. All the 
 strata above this g]acial horizon might fairly be termed Permo-Carboniferous
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 269 
 
 at any rate, if not Permian. In the Kimberley District of Western Aus- 
 tralia, the glacial horizon has not been identified definitely, and perhaps 
 does not exist there, but the fossils are essentially similar to those above the 
 glacial horizon of the Lyons conglomerate, and may therefore provisionally 
 be classed as Permo-Carboniferous and even Permian. 
 
 While therefore considering that there is much to justify the term 
 " Permian " being substituted for that of " Permo-Carboniferous," the writer 
 proposes to retain temporarily for the purposes of this article the old term 
 " Permo-Carboniferous," chiefly because it has been so widely used, and 
 generally accepted. 
 
 As regards geographical distribution, rocks of this system are very widely 
 spread throughout the Commonwealth. In Tasmania about one-half of 
 the island, which is rather bigger than Ceylon but smaller than Ireland, is 
 covered with rocks of this age. They commence with an important series of 
 glacial beds, having a total thickness of about 800 feet. Splendid sections 
 of this can be seen between tide marks on the beach to the east of Wynyard. 
 Several striated pavements occur in the tillite, which show that the ice moved 
 from about S.S.W. to N.N.E. An interesting fact which has lately come to 
 light is that there are at least three, perhaps four distinct tillite horizons, 
 and these are separated from one another by strata perhaps representing 
 inter-glacial epochs. Each tillite horizon can be correlated certainly with 
 those of Victoria, and almost certainly with those of South Africa, and these 
 are succeeded by marine strata belonging to the Lower Marine series, over 
 600 feet thick at this locality. This series is followed by one of the most 
 important coal-bearing horizons in Australia, viz., the Greta series. In 
 Tasmania, however, the series is represented by only a few seams of coal, 
 from 20 inches up to 3| feet in thickness. In places this coal passes into 
 kerosene shale, formed largely of the problematical plant considered to be 
 an alga, Reinschia australis. Above the Greta series is a considerable de- 
 velopment in Tasmania of rocks of the Upper Marine series. In Tasmania 
 the great series of freshwater coal measures developed in New South Wales 
 and Queensland above the Upper Marine series are wanting, and in Tasmaina 
 rocks of Trias-Jura or Jurassic age rest conformably on the topmost Marine 
 beds of the Permo-Carboniferous system. 
 
 In Victoria there is a wonderful development of glacial beds of the nature 
 of tillites associated with contemporaneous conglomerates and ripple-marked 
 sandstones, together with fine clay shales. The whole series passes upwards 
 into sandstones containing Gaiigamopteris, and is over 2,000 feet in thickness. 
 Hitherto no marine strata nor coal seams have been discovered in Victoria 
 in this system. These glacial beds lie on a surface of low relief, though in 
 places, as at the Werribee Gorge, the tillite fills an old U-shaped valley, 
 perhaps an overdeepened valley. The rocks on which the tillite 
 rests, mostly of Ordovician age, with Post Ordovician granites are very 
 strongly striated and grooved by ice coming from a southerly direction. 
 The sandstone beds between the tillites show strong evidence in places of 
 contemporaneous contortion. As the matrix of the tillite varies with that 
 of the subjacent rock, there can be no doubt that the tillite was formed by 
 an immen.se sheet of land ice, the main mass of which lay to the south. These 
 glacial deposits can be traced at intervals across Victoria, northwards by
 
 270 Federal Handbook. 
 
 way of Heathcote to Beechworth, close to the southern border of New South 
 Wales, aud fiue striated pavements can be seen at Derrinal, near Heathcote, 
 together with erratics up to 30 tons in weight. Westwards they extend 
 under the level plains of Tertiary rock, having been proved to underlie Nhill. 
 To the south of Adelaide, between that city and the mouth of the Murray 
 River, there are magnificent clifi sections showing the junction of these old 
 glacial beds with the Lower Cambrian strata. Beautiful striated pavements 
 are to be seen in the Inman Valley, Hallett's Cove, etc., which prove that 
 the ice came from a south by east direction. The glacial beds are there, 
 with their associated conglomerates, sandstones, and shales, fully 900 feet 
 in thickness, but so far in South Australia, as in Victoria, no productive coal 
 of this age nor marine fossils have as yet been found. In fact there are 
 considerable patches there of Permo-Carboniferous glacial landscape re- 
 discovered by modern denudation. Still further west, in the south-west 
 corner of Western Australia, there is a small basin, preserved in a deep trough 
 fault, known as the Collie coal-field. This coal-field contains the fossil plant 
 Ga7igamopteris, associated with numerous seams of coal up to over 10 feet in 
 thickness, but the strata are so very porous, that when shafts, bores or tunnels 
 are made in these measures they become veritable artesian wells. The 
 coal itself, contrary to usual experience in strata of this age, is distinctly 
 hydrous. Northwards from Perth the Irwin River region has preserved 
 a small patch of glacial beds immediately underlying richly fossiliferous 
 marine strata including limestones, and conformably overlying brown clay 
 shales. Two seams of coal conformably overlie the marine strata, the main 
 seam 5 feet thick and though not so proved by fossils, presumably of Permo- 
 Carboniferous age. Still further north in Western Australia, the glacial 
 conglomerate has been ti-aced from near the Carnarvon bore at the mouth of 
 the Gascoyne River to the Wooramel River, and almost up to the latitude 
 of North-west Cape. Thus in Western Australia these Permo-Carboniferous 
 glacial beds actually touch the region of the tropics. As evidenced by the 
 nature of the contained boulders, when compared with their nearest parent 
 rocks, it is clear that the ice sheets, which produced this glaciation, moved, 
 on the whole, from the inland plateau westwards or northwards, probably in 
 a north-westerly direction, inasmuch as the glacial boulders become pro- 
 gressively larger the fm'ther south they are traced. These glacial beds are 
 known as the " Lyons conglomerate." So far no striated floor has been dis- 
 covered beneath them. In the Kimberley district of Western Australia 
 there is a considerable development of marine Permo-Carboniferous calcareous 
 sandstones and limestones, and it has been proved that these Carboniferous 
 strata from the Gascoyne River to the Kamberley District contain invaluable 
 supplies of artesian water, though strange to say they are quite wanting in 
 productive coal seams as far as they have yet been tested. Strata of 
 this age extend further east around the Australian coast to the Victoria 
 River. The marine strata at the Victoria River are associated with fresh- 
 water shales containing Glossopteris. This Glossoptris underlies strata which 
 contains Orthotetes and Aulosteges. This formation has been traced across 
 into Arnhem Land (to the north-east of Darwin), and to the islands of the 
 north-east extremity of Arnhem Land. Groote Island is thought to belong 
 to this system. A remarkable feature is that from the Gulf of Carpentaria
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 271 
 
 around to the Irwin Eiver region the whole assemblage of marine Permo- 
 
 Carboniferous fossils is distinctly of Indian type. S.S.E. of Cape York is 
 a deep indent in the coast line, marking a prolongation of the trough valley 
 in which lies the Permo-Carbonifeious coal-field of the Little Kiver. As 
 the result of heavy downthrows, the strata have been forced into rather sharp 
 zigzag folds, a rare structure in rocks of this age in Australia. Near Towns- 
 ville is a small development of Permo-Carboniferous strata, which there 
 underlie the coastal plain, and extend out to sea beneath the coral reefs of 
 the Great Barrier. Next we reach the classical coal-field of the Bowen River. 
 There evidence of glacial action, in the foim probably of floating ice, is to be 
 found in the shape of numerous small boulders of granite and other rocks 
 foreign to the district embedded in the clay shales of the Permo-Carboniferous 
 system, but nothing approaching a true tillite has ever been observed in 
 this area. Next, on the south, come the extensive and thick coal seams of 
 the Dawson River basin. The thickest seam known in Australia in rocks 
 of this system occurs near Comet, where it is 80 feet thick. Anthracite of 
 excellent quality occurs in a seam 11 feet thick oa the Dawson River, about 
 30 miles south of Duaringa, but unfortimately the coal-field in that area 
 is much broken up by faults. The Permo-Carboniferous system in this im- 
 portant coal-field can be divided up into the following groups arranged in 
 ascending order : — 
 
 ('At the base, marine beds such as those of Gympie, 
 
 with boulders presumably transported by ice. 
 Next, Lower Marine strata followed by a volcanic 
 
 series. 
 Lower Bowen<| Above this follow sedimentary rocks, with the 11-ft. 
 
 seam of anthracite already described. 
 This is followed by the marine shell beds of Oakey 
 
 Creek and St. Marys, in turn capped by the Glossop- 
 
 teris beds of Oakey Creek and St. Marys. 
 All these strata are grouped together as Lower Bowen. There follows a 
 slight unconformity and above it are developed the marine shell beds of 
 Claremont and Capella. Above these again, and slightly imconformable 
 to them, are the Tolmie's coal measures. The latter are capped by the old 
 auriferous conglomerates of Claremont. The whole of this last series is grouped 
 together as Upper Bowen. No estimate has, as yet, been formed of the 
 available quantity of Permo-Carboniferous coal in Queensland, but it must 
 be very vast, perhaps, approximating to the 100,000,000,000 of tons roughly 
 estimated to be present in the form of exploitable coal in New South Wales. 
 South-east of the Dawson field the Permo-Carboniferous strata are repre- 
 sented by the basal marine beds of the Gympie gold-field. It has been the 
 experience there that wherever the quartz reefs, which traverse these strata, 
 come in contact with the occasionally intercalated beds of black carbonaceous 
 shale, they are payably gold-bearing. The Dawson coal-field, traced in a 
 southerly direction, reaches the borders of New South Wales, near Bonshaw 
 and Ashford. At the latter locality a fine seam of anthracite coal, 27 feet in 
 thickness, is to be seen in tlie left bank of the Severn River. As Gangamop- 
 teris is the only fossil known to occur in association with this seam, it may 
 provisionally be considered to be of Greta age. This field occupies a narrow
 
 272 Federal Handbook. 
 
 fault trougli. About 100 miles east of this spot at Undercliff, there are beds 
 of graphite associated with intrusive acid granites. These graphite beds 
 are considered to represent intensely metamorphosed coal seams of Permo- 
 Carboniferous age. These graphitic strata are to be connected with marine 
 beds of undoubted Permo-Carboniferous origin as at the gold-field of Drake, 
 where contemporaneous acid and basic lavas are inter-stratified with the 
 lower beds. 
 
 South from Ashford, the region of Gunnedah is reached, from which the 
 principal coal-field of New South Wales extends without a break for fully 
 300 miles, as far south as the head of the Clyde River, near Ulladulla. The 
 type district in this field is that of Maitland, in the Hunter Valley. The 
 system is there ushered in, at Lochinvar, by reddish-brown clays with numerous 
 glacial boulders, but hardly deserving of the name of a true tillite. These 
 beds are about 300 feet in thickness. They are followed by nearly 4,800 
 feet of strata, mostly of marine origin, with an exceptionally rich Permo- 
 Carboniferous fauna. The fossil Eurydesma cordata is especially charac- 
 teristic of these Lower Marine rocks. Its frequent association with coarse 
 conglomerates shows that it was littoral in habit. The fine state of preserva- 
 tion of the marine shells at the classic spot — Harper's Hill — is due to the fact 
 that they were suddenly overwiielmed in showers of contemporaneous vol- 
 canic ash, which has eSectually preserved them to the present day. Large 
 Aviculopectens and vast numbers of polyzoa, belonging to the family of the 
 Fenestellidae also abound, and may possibly have some relation to cold water 
 conditions, just as at the present time one sees the icy seas of the Antarctic 
 swarming in polyzoa and pectens. The Greta coal measures, from 100 to 
 300 feet thick, which conformably overlie the Lower Marine series, are not 
 relatively rich in fossil plants. It is significant that in these measures Gan- 
 (/amopteris predominates over Glossopteris, whereas in the higher coal mea- 
 sures of this system the reverse is the case. It should here be mentioned 
 that the Gangamopteris has been found as low down as 2,000 feet below the 
 Greta coal measures in the middle of the Lower Marine series. The Greta 
 coal measures usually contain about 20 feet of workable coal, and, excep- 
 tionally as much as 40 feet. The Upper Marine strata, which follow the 
 Greta, attain their maximum thickness yet proved in the Hunter River 
 region, viz., 5,000 to 6,400 feet. About half-way up in the series erratics, 
 certainly of glacial origin, are very numerous in places, occurring usually 
 in groups. Many of these blocks of rock are one to two tons in weight, and 
 appear to have been derived from the region of Mount Lambie, near Rydal 
 or Bathurst, about 200 miles to the south-west. It is significant, probably, 
 of glacial conditions, that we find an almost total absence of reef-forming 
 corals m the Permo-Carboniferous strata. Such corals as do occur are slender 
 types like Zaphrentis and Trachypora. Near the top of the Upper Marine 
 series, as well as on certain horizons lower down, are remarkably large pseudo- 
 morphs known as glendonite. These crystals attain a length of from 2 ins. 
 to 1 foot. They are best seen on the beach between tide marks at Huskisson, 
 Jervis Bay, about 100 miles southerly from Sydney. The shore here presents 
 the appearance of a medieval battlefield, strewn with spear heads and caltrops. 
 They are pseudomorphs after the double sulphate of sodium and calcium, 
 glauberite. As deposits of sodium sulphate are very common and
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 273 
 
 characteristic in Antarctica, these glendonites may have some climatological 
 significance. They have also been found in Tasmania, close to the horizon of 
 the oil shale known as Tasmanite, in part of the Mersey coal-basin. Above 
 the Upper Marine follow the strata of the Middle Coal measures, known as 
 the East Maitland or Tomago measures. These are from 500 to 1,800 feet 
 thick and contain in the aggregate about 40 feet of coal, which, being more 
 friable than that of the Greta, is not so suitable for export, though 
 useful for household, gas, and blacksmith purposes. A total thickness of 
 about 18 feet of coal is worked. In parts of the Hunter River coal-field, 
 there follows a considerable thickness, in places about 2,000 feet thick, of 
 fresh water strata, with abundant plant remains, but devoid of any coal 
 seams of workable thickness. These beds belong to the Dempsey series. 
 Next, above the Dempsey, comes the Newcastle series, 12,000 to 14,000 feet 
 in thickness, with about 120 feet of coal. The thickness of the seams varies 
 from 1 foot up to about 27 feet. The aggregate thickness of workable coal 
 in this series is from 35 to 40 feet. On the shores of Lake Macquarie, at 
 Awaba, as well as at the southern entrance to Lake Macquarie, known as 
 Reid's Mistake, are fossil forests of coniferous trees. At the latter locality 
 it can be seen that the trees sprang directly from the upper portion of a 
 coal seam being actually in position of growth. The lower parts of the stem 
 are of carbon, but upwards they pass into chalcedony, where they have 
 been buried under showers of very fine volcanic tuff. The tuff has evidently 
 broken down branches of the trees, and resin has exuded from the fractures, 
 and is preserved now in the form of black drops in the tuff, the latter being 
 converted into chert. Some of these coniferous trees can be seen to 
 be over 100 feet in length. 
 
 It may be said that, on the whole, the evidence points to the coal seams 
 in the whole of the Permo-Carboiiiferous system, having formed, for the most 
 part, at the spot where seams are now found. For example, in the under clay, 
 only thin rootlets have been observed. In the clay bands higher up, in the 
 seam numerous specimens of Vertebraria can be frequently seen in position 
 of growth. It is only in the actual roofs of the seams that forest trees like 
 the conifer Dadoxylon have been proved to exist. In places, but rarely, 
 remains of fossil fish, and of labyrinthodonts have been discovered in the 
 coal measures, from those of Greta age up to those of Newcastle age. For 
 example, a small labryrinthodont has been recorded from the Mersey coal 
 measures (Greta horizon) near Railton, and another was found in the kero- 
 sene shale at Airlie, in the western coal-field of New South Wales. Palaeoniscus 
 has been obtained from the marine (probably lower marine) Permo-car- 
 boniferous rocks of Tasmania, and Urosthenes from the Newcastle coal 
 measures of New South Wales. The total amount of exploitable coal in 
 seams not less than 3 feet thick and not more than 4,000 feet in depth in tliese 
 measures in New South Wales, is estimated to be roiiglily about 100,000,000,000 
 tons. 
 
 Summary — (1) Ju regard to Palfeogeography the ice which glaciated 
 Tasmania, Victoria and South Austi'alia, came from the south fronx a land 
 probably a local extension southwards into the Southern Ocean, of the Aus- 
 tralian continent. The glaciation of Cambrian time, in Australia, came 
 from the same quarter. In Western Australia, the glaciation is thought to
 
 274 Federal Handbook. 
 
 have come from tte south-east, from local highlands, near the southern end 
 of Western Australia. In Eastern Australia, the region afiected by the 
 glaciation was a landscape apparently of low relief, but we know nothing 
 of the height of the gathering ground of the ice sheets on the now sunken 
 part of the continent, where the eastern end of Jefirey's Deep shows a depth 
 of 3,000 fathoms. Possibly the great bank recently discovered which lies 
 about 200 miles south of Tasmania, and which rises from great ocean depths 
 to within 500 to 600 fathoms of the surface formed part of a high south- 
 eastern margin to Australia, extending from this bank to Kangaroo Island 
 in Permo-Carboniferous time. This was no doubt in part a gathering ground 
 for the inland ice. In New South Wales, there seem to have been local 
 alpine glaciers. In south-western Western Australia, there seems to have 
 been a local ice sheet. 
 
 (2) There were at least three interglacial phases in Australia, probably 
 to be correlated with those of Africa. (3) The fauna especially in disappear- 
 ance of Carboniferous reef-forming corals suggests general refrigeration of 
 the seas, while the flora of the coal seams is not inconsistent with that of a 
 climate like that of Macquarie Island. (4) Snow line touched sea level 
 probably near 40 degrees S. latitude in Permo-Carboniferous time, and glaciers 
 came down to sea level at about 34 degrees S. latitude. (5) This may demand 
 a fall of temperature as compared ■^'ith the present of about 10 degrees C. 
 
 (i) Trias System. 
 
 Rocks of this age are at present known to be developed chiefly in the 
 Sydney and Blue Mountain areas of New South Wales. In Tasmania, 
 however, the Knocklofty Series, variegated sandstones, 1,000 feet tliiok, 
 which, in the neighbourhood of Hobart, overlie the Penno-Carboniferous 
 strata, have been doubtfully referred to some part of Triassic time. They 
 contain remains of Acrolepis hamiltoni and A. tasmanicus, and bones of, 
 probably, a labyrinthodont. The occurrence in the sandstones of Vertebraria 
 indica, Royle, siiggests affinities with the Permo-Carboniferous system. 
 The Ida Bay Series containing Zeugophyllites and Pecopteris lunensis are 
 perhaps Triassic. In regard to the Fingal Series in the Tasmanian coal- 
 measures, as some doubt exists as to whether they belong to the top of the 
 Trias, or to the base of the Jurassic, they wiU be described later. 
 
 The Triassic strata of New South Wales extend along the coast from 
 the Cambewarra Ranges in the south to Lake Macquarie, near Newcastle, 
 in the north, thence they stretch inland to beyond Gunnedah, on the north- 
 west, and westwards to a little beyond Lithgow. 
 
 The rocks in this area have been divided, chiefly lithologically, into three 
 stages which, in descending order, are as follows : — 
 
 Wiannamatta shales. — Thickness about 600 feet. 
 Hawkesbury sandstone. — Thickness about 300 to 1,000 feet. 
 Narrabeen beds.— Thickness about 200 to 2,000 feet. 
 
 The strata of the Narrabeen Stage are largely tufaceous, but the true 
 tuffs do not constitute more than about one-tenth part of the whole thickness of 
 the Stage. In their lower portion they are mostly grey to greenish-grey sand* 
 stones, with greenish conglomerates and grey-green and reddish to chocolate- 
 coloured shales. Five hundred feet above the Bulli coal seam (the top of
 
 GrEOLOGY OP THE COMMONWEALTH. 275 
 
 the Permo-Carboniferous System), tufaceous red shales and green tufis 
 contain innumerable small scales of metallic copper, together with 
 microscopic veins of the same metal. These strata are known as the 
 Cupriferous Tuffs. Over 1,000 feet above these tuffs is a second series of 
 green tu£Es and chocolate-red shales. In the latter, at Long Reef, 12 miles 
 north-east of Sydney, beautiful examples occixr of plants resembling 
 Phyllotheca, with their stems of brittle bituminous coal, held together in 
 a delicate filigree-like network of metallic copper. Where the strata 
 have been much weathered, the metallic copper passes into green and 
 blue carbonates. The copper has obviously been derived from the decom- 
 position of the basic tufis. The tuffs are traversed in places by small 
 veins of barytas. 
 
 The Hawkesbury sandstone, which is typically developed at Sydney and 
 in the Blue Mountains, is chiefly formed of white to yellowish-grey sandstones, 
 very regularly and evenly bedded, diagonal bedding being very conspicious. 
 South of the Hawkesbury River, in the area where this diagonal bedding 
 dips to the north-east, primary graphite is scattered in scales or small pellets 
 through the sandstone. To the north of the Hawkesbury River, the diagonal 
 bedding dips in almost the opposite direction, that is from off the New 
 England tableland, and this part of the formation does not contain graphite. 
 Small garnets are not infrequent in the southern type of the Hawkesbury 
 sandstone. Certain beds in this Stage form a valuable building stone, largely 
 worked in Sydney and suburbs. It weathers, as the result of chemical changes 
 in the iron carbonates, to a pleasing tint of warm sepia. A few bands of 
 dark clay shale are interstiatified with the sandstone. These often show 
 evidence of having been disrupted contemporaneously, the fragments being 
 up-ended so that their lamination planes are now vertical. Meanwhile, neither 
 the sandstones above nor those below show any sign of disturbance. This 
 phenomenon, together with that of contemporaneously contorted current- 
 bedding, has been ascribed to the action of ice ; but other explanations, 
 such as that of undercutting of the clay shales by stream action are possible. 
 These sandstones weather into picturesque shelter caves, as the result of 
 the removal by capillarity of soluble mineral cement from the inner portion 
 of the sandstone and its transference to the exterior. The Wiannamatta 
 Stage is mostly formed of black carbonaceous shales, with at least one seam 
 of coal, which, with clay bands, is about 4 feet thick. At the top of this 
 stage the beds become sandy and calcareous, ending in a calcareous tufaceous 
 rock, 100 feet thick, containing a very interesting foraraini feral and 
 ostracodan fauna. 
 
 As regards fossil plants, Thinnfeldia odontopteroides is specially charac- 
 teristic and abundant throughout the whole series. Macrotreni'pleris and 
 Phyllotheca are also typical. Sphenopteris is also common, and in places is 
 associated with Alethopleris (Cladophehis), but this last genus is much more 
 characteristic, in Australia, of the Jurassic rocks than of the Triassic. Near 
 the base of the Narrabeen Stage beautifully preserved specimens of Schizo- 
 neura are fairly common, and the genus not only extends downwards into 
 the strata which form the roof over the Bulli coal seam, at the top of the 
 ' Permo-Carboniferous System, but, at the Sydney Harbor collieries shaft 
 at Balmain, Sydney, it has been found associated, in the same bed of clay
 
 276 Federal Handbook. 
 
 shalfe, with Glossopteris. Schizoneura has never been found in either the 
 Hawkesbury or in the Wiannamatta Stages, but it occurs in Victoria in 
 strata conformably overhang the Gangamopteris sandstones and glacial 
 beds at Bacchus Marsh, to the west of Melbourne. 
 
 Stems of trees are numerous in the tuS beds near the top of the Stage, as 
 well as forms allied to Baiera. Fossil fruit are plentiful in these beds at Long 
 Reef and Narrabeen, to the north of Sydney. Reference has already been 
 made to the abundance of Phyllotheca, some stems of which are partly encrusted 
 with metallic copper. The lower part of the Narrabeen Stage, for about 
 500 feet above the top of the Permo-Carboniferous System, is swarming in 
 small black valves of several species of Estheria. Just at the top of the 
 Xarrabeen Stage, or possibly a few feet up into the Hawkesbury Sandstone 
 Stage, is a bed of shale at Gosford, which has proved exceptionally rich 
 in remains of fossil fish, together with remains of small labyi'inthodonts. The 
 principal forms found are PalcBoniscus, Myriolepis, Cleithrolepis, Apateolepis, 
 Dictyopyge, Belonorhynchus, Semionotus, Pristisomus, Pholidophorus, etc. 
 
 In the Hawkesbury Sandstone Stage a problematical fossil plant, Ottdia 
 prcBterita, occurs sparingly. In the occasional intercalated shale beds 
 Oleandridium has been recorded, while Thinnfeldia odontopteroides is very 
 abundant. The leaves are so well preserved that they are sufficiently coherent 
 and flexible to be lifted off the surface of the shale, and when subsequently 
 examined under the microscope, are seen to have preserved much original 
 structure. 
 
 At Biloela (Cockatoo Island), near Sydney, a thoracic plate of Masto- 
 donsaurus was found, and also, strange to say, at the same spot, a specimen 
 of Tremanotus. This Silurian genus on a Triassic horizon may represent 
 either a remarkable survival, or it is possible that the fossil may be an erratic 
 in this formation. It is preserved in ironstone, which may have replaced 
 a small fragment of limestone. In the shales of the Wiannamatta series, most 
 of the fossils are either at the base or near the top of the Stage. Just as the 
 Hawkesbmy sandstone usually rests on an eroded surface of Narrabeen 
 beds, so in the case of the junction line of the Wiannamatta shales, with the 
 Hawkesbury sandstone there is in many cases evidence of contemporaneous 
 erosion. A good deal of concretionary clay ironstone has formed in the 
 basal beds of the Wiannamatta shales, and these are mostly fossiliferous. 
 In addition to Thinnfeldia and Phyllotheca, the Cycadopteris scolopendrica has 
 been recorded from these beds. True cycads appear on the whole to be 
 wanting throughout the whole of the Australian Triassic rocks. 
 
 In the ironstone concretions referred to above, shells of Mollusca are often 
 very abundant, belonging to the genera Unio and Unioiiella. The dwarf 
 character of these shells suggests that the strata containing them were 
 deposited in brackish water. In the brick-pits of Newtown and Enmore, 
 in Sydney, numerous well-preserved specimens of fossil fish have been 
 obtained. These range in size from a few inches up to specimens 6 feet in 
 length. 
 
 Labyrinthodont remains have been found on this horizon, both at Enmore 
 and at the Gib Rock Tunnel, near Bowi-al. 
 
 The specimen discovered at the former locality measures about 10 feet 
 in length. Its immense jaws ai*e furnished with three rows of powerful
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 277 
 
 conical teeth. The original specimen, preserved in clay ironstone, has 
 never yet been described. It is now at Brisbane, in the possession of the 
 Government Geologist of Queensland, who also has several as yet undescribed 
 fossil insects, discovered by him in these shales. The Wiannamatta Stage 
 closes with a bed of greenish tufaceous and calcareous sandstone, passing 
 into sandy limestone. This is largely formed of foramipiferal and ostracodan 
 shells. Comment has been made on the fact that, in this horizon of the 
 Wiannamatta Stage, we have a remarkable example of the survival of a 
 Silurian type of ostracod in the genus Beyrichia endothyra ; also on this 
 horizon is an interesting survivor from the carboniferous fauna. On the 
 other hand, the genus Haplophragmium, which also occurs on this horizon, 
 is not known elsewhere to descend so low stratigraphically. 
 
 The geographical conditions under which the strata of the Hawkesbury 
 series were accumulated appear to be those of a large shallow lake close to 
 the sea, with which possibly there was intermittent communication. The 
 Gangamopteris-Glossopteris Flora of the Permo-Carboniferous Ice Age had, 
 with the exception of Phyllotheca, Sphenopteris, and perhaps Alethopteris, 
 completely disappeared before the earliest strata were deposited in this 
 great lake basin. The eruptions, perhaps of the Kiama-Cambewarra region, 
 or at all events of that zone, were prolonged into Triassic time, as proved 
 by the frequent beds of basic tuff in the Nairabeen Stage. The evidence 
 of ripple-marks and suncracks on many horizons all through the series points 
 obviously to shallow water conditions. The foraminiferal ostracodan sandy 
 limestone and calcareous sandstone at the top of the whole series prove 
 that after a subsidence near the centre of the basin of about 3,500 feet, marine, 
 or at least estuarine, conditions supervened. The flora of these Triassic 
 rocks differs from the Jurassic in the presence in the former of Phyllotheca in 
 vast numbers and of Oleandridium, while the Toeniopteris daintreei and varieties 
 of cycads so common in the Australian Jurassic rocks are wanting in the 
 Trias. Triassic types of Estheria do not ascend into the Jurassic, neither 
 do the labyrinthodonts. 
 
 Endothyra, Beyrichia, Trenianotus {^), and Palceoniscus all represent 
 Palaeozoic forms of life surviving into Mesozoic time in the Trias of Australia. 
 
 In reference to the Fingal Series, and other representatives of the upper 
 coal measures of Tasmania, some doubt exists as to whether they are to be 
 classed as Upper Trias, perhaps Rhaetic, or Lower Jurassic. As Tcenio- 
 pteris daintreei {T. spathulata) regarded as a critical form in Australia for 
 differentiating the Jurassic from the Trias has never yet been found in 
 Tasmania, and the genus Phyllotheca is of common occurrence in these 
 Tasmanian coal measures, it is proposed to class them provisionally as 
 Upper Trias, or Passage Beds into the Jurassic propei'. Thinnfeldia odon- 
 topteroides, Alethopteris {Cladophehis denticulata) australis, Tceniopteris 
 tasnianica, T. tnorrisiana, Phyllotheca, and Zeugoj)hyllites {Phoenicopsis, or 
 Podozamites) elongatus are most charactei-istic. Other forms present are 
 Ptilophyllum oligoneurum, Sphenopteris lobi folia, Pterophyllum, Baiera 
 tenuifolia, Ginkgophyllum australe, etc. It may be stated generally that these 
 Fingal coal measures are not as rich in fossil cycadaceous forms as are the 
 true Jurassic rocks of the mainland. These measures, about 1,200 feet in 
 thickness, are formed chiefly of yellow, brown, greenish, and bluish- grey
 
 278 Federal Handbook. 
 
 sandstones, with coal seams from 4 feet up to 20 feet in thickness. The coal 
 is of fair quality, containing from 1 per cent, up to 4 per cent, of moisture, 
 and from 9 per cent, up to 15 per cent, of ash. 
 
 (j) Jurassic System. 
 
 Rocks referable to this period belong to what was probably the greatest 
 lake epoch through which the Australasian continent has passed. The 
 principal lake extended from some point south of Dubbo to at least as far 
 north as the far extremity of the Bunya Bunya Ranges of Queensland to the 
 north-west of Dalby. It is probable that the lake extended still further up 
 to the Cloncurry area. Westwards they stretch more or less continuously to 
 Lake Eyre, and still further westwards to Lake Phillipson. The lake would 
 thus have had a total length of 1,200 miles from east to west, with a width 
 from north to south of 700 to 800 miles. 
 
 The strata deposited in this lake, or chain of lakes, are the main source 
 of supply of the artesian water in the great artesian basin. 
 
 They vary in thickness from 300 to 400 feet up to, at Lake Phillipson, 
 about 3,000 feet. Eastwards the basin extends through a narrow neck near 
 Brisbane {vide Plate IIL) to the coast at the mouth of the Brisbane River, 
 and also by a wider passage to the east coast, along the basin of the Clarence 
 River, between Ballina and Woolgoolga. That there is no outlet of conse- 
 quence, if any, for the artesian basin in this direction is proved by the fact 
 that a bore has been put down to a depth of over 3,000 feet at Grafton, and 
 only a feeble trickle of artesian water has been tapped. The same remark 
 applies to the bore at the race-course at Brisbane. As details of this artesian 
 basin are given by Mr. E. F. Pittman in his chapter in this volume, only 
 very brief references will be made to the subject here. The section (Plate 
 VI.) shows somewhat arbitrarily the line of junction between the Jurassic 
 and the Cretaceous rocks, and is to be regarded as provisional only, as, on 
 account of most of the bores being carried out by percussion, the fossils in the 
 strata passed through are usually in such a fragmental state that identifica- 
 tion is often very difficult. 
 
 The section (Plate VII.) shows the hydraulic grade descending from 
 Charleville as a centre northwards to the Gulf of Carpentaria, and 
 south-westwards to Lake Eyre. This fall in the hydraulic grade is 
 difficult of explanation. The difficulties are obvious from the section, 
 which shows that at its south-western end the basin is apparently 
 blocked by impervious Pre-Cambrian or older Palaeozoic rocks, so that 
 apparently it has no outlet in that direction. Then, too, towards the 
 north, a sill of older rock rises so high above the general floor of the basin 
 that it woiild seem to go far towards checking any important underflow 
 and outflow to the sea in this direction also. The explanation of the fall 
 of the hydraulic grade seawards from Charleville, in Queensland, would 
 seem to be eithor (a) that there are narrow subterranean outlets (which have 
 not yet been tapped in the bores), both in the direction of the Bight and in 
 that of the Gulf of Carpentaria ; or {b) that before the bores were sunk the chief 
 outlet for the artesian water was through those natural artesian wells — the 
 Mound Springs. These are very numerous on the Lower Flinders River in 
 the north, and near Lake Eyre towards the south-west end of the basin.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 
 
 279
 
 280 
 
 Federal Handbook.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 281 
 
 That springs connected with faults supply part of the artesian water is 
 obvious ; but it is probable that by far the larger proportion has a 
 meteoric origin, being derived from rain falling direct on to the outcrop 
 of the porous beds, or leaking into them from the channels of rivers. 
 
 This supposition receives some confirmation from the Cainozoic analogue 
 of the artesian basin at Perth, in Western Australia, where the inter- 
 dependence between rainfall and the outflow of artesian water has been 
 distinctly proved ; but the conditions in the Perth artesian basin are not 
 in every respect analogous to those in the central Jurassic basin. For example, 
 in the latter the factor of gas pressure is very important in helping to force 
 the artesian supply to the surface. Over 90 per cent, of the gas concerned 
 in producing this pressure is nitrogen ; gases like CH4, CO2, HgS, etc., are 
 present in far smaller proportion. This nitrogen is almost certainly not of 
 plutonic origin, but is probably derived from the alteration of organic 
 material, such as lignite or coal, by the action of anaerobic bacteria. As, 
 however, the temperature of the artesian water is in some cases up to 204 
 degrees Fahr., even when the water arrives at the surface, it is difficult to 
 understand how bacteria can live under such conditions. But, so far, the 
 waters from the chief bores which evolve nitrogen have much lower tem- 
 peratures than the above. This interesting problem, as indeed that of 
 the whole physics, chemistry, and geology of the great artesian basin, still 
 awaits solution. The total depth of all the artesian bores of Australia, 
 according to the latest figures available to the writer, is almost exactly 
 500 miles, and the potential daily yield about 680 millions of gallons. 
 
 Strata of Jurassic age are also found on the eastern periphery of Australia 
 and in Tasmania, as well as in the coastal regions of Western Australia. 
 
 In Queensland the principal localties are Ipswich, Clifton, Callide Creek 
 west of Gladstone, Stanwell, and Rosewood west of Rockhampton, and 
 Broadsound to its north. The strata are there from 2,000 to at least 3,000 
 feet in thickness, and consist of sandstones, conglomerates, and shales, 
 with massive beds of quartz-trachHe tuff at the base of the Series at Brisbane. 
 Basic lavas are present on a higher horizon and contemporaneous trachyte 
 lavas. These are found between Brisbane and the Macpherson Ranges, 
 on the borders of New South Wales and Queensland. The seams of coal 
 in the Queensland Jurassic rocks range from a few feet up to a maximum 
 of 30 feet in thickness. In the Ipswich basin the seams vary from about 
 6 feet up to 8 or 10 feet in thickness. The principal fossils are Twniopteris 
 daintreei, Thinnfeldia odontopteroides, Alethopteris australis, Sagenopteris, 
 Ptilophyllum, Podozamites Jddstoni, Otozamites, Brachyphyllum, etc. The 
 fossil fauna comprises Estheria mangaliensis, Unio ipsviciensis, Unio eyrensis, 
 while insects are represented by Mesostigmodera typica and several as yet 
 undescribed forms. 
 
 In the Clarence Basin of northern New South Wales, strata of this age 
 are probably at least 4,000 feet in thickness. They are divided into Upper 
 Middle, and Lower Clarence Stages respectively. The Lower Clarence Stage 
 contains several seams of coal, up to a maximum thickness of al)out 37 feet, 
 but the seams are so full of clay bands that they are not at present worked 
 commercially. The Middle Clarence Stage is a strongly marked horizon of 
 massive diagonal-bedded sandstone. The Upper Clarence consists of clay, 
 C.12154. T
 
 282 Federal Handbook. 
 
 shales, and clayey sandstones. A rich flora is contained in the Lower Clarence 
 Stage, but it has not yet been described. Tceniopteris daintreei and 
 Thinnfeldia odontopteroides are the most characteristic fossils. 
 
 A small isolated patch of Jurassic rock also occurs at Talbragan, between 
 Mudgee and Dubbo, in New South Wales. These strata, which rest on an 
 eroded surface of Hawkesbury sandstone, contain the following fossils : — 
 Tceniopteris daintreei, Alethopteris australis, Thinnfeldia falcata, Podoza- 
 mites lanceolatus, and Baiera hidens. Insects were represented by an ancestor 
 of the true locust, the fossil form being described as Cicada lowei. 
 
 Amongst the fish, which are very numerous, are Leptolepis gregarious, 
 Archceomene rohustus, Coccolepis, etc. 
 
 In Victoria there are three considerable areas of Jurassic rocks — those of 
 South C4ippsland, the Cape Otway District, and the neighbourhood of Merino, 
 in the west. 
 
 The strata consist of felspathic sandstones, with abundant fresh frag- 
 mental felspar, perhaps of tufaceous origin, besides shales, mudstones, and 
 seams of coal. The seams are worked commercially in the Cape Paterson 
 District, as at the State-owned colliery at Wonthaggi. The coal is of fairly 
 good quality, and the thickness of the seams varies from 2 to 9 feet. The 
 following are among the most characteristic fossils : — Coniopteris hyineno- 
 phylloides var. australica, Cladophlehis denticulata var. australis, Sphenopteris 
 ampla, Thitinfeldia odontopteroides, T. maccoyi, Tceniopteris spatidata and 
 vars. daintreei and carruthersi, Podozamites harklyi, Ginkgo robusta, Baiera 
 subgracilis, Palissya australis, Brachyphyllwn gippslandicum, TJnio stirlingi. 
 The interesting discovery has been made of a tooth of Ceratodus from Cape 
 Paterson, C. avus. Scales of Ceratodus have also been described from the 
 parLsh of Killak, South Gippsland. Ceratodus has of course been recorded 
 from the Stormberg series of South Africa, as well as from the Trias of Eui-ope. 
 Another recent very interesting discovery has been that of a claw of a dinosaur 
 also in the Cape Paterson beds. 
 
 In South Australia, to the south of Lake E}Te, there is a small Jurassic 
 coal basin, an outlier of the main Jurassic artesian basin, and preserved in 
 a deep trough fault. This is the Leigh's Creek coal basin. Its strata of sand- 
 stone and carbonaceous shales are over 2,000 feet in thickness, and comprise 
 several seams of coal, one of which is 47 feet in thickness. This coal is a 
 hydrous brown coal. The chief fossils are Thinnfeldia odontopteroides, 
 T. media, Macrotceinopteris wianamaUce, Podozamites lanceolatus, and an 
 immense number of the fossil pelecypod Unio eyrensis. This occiu-red in 
 almost every foot of the core from the bore for coal, from <-he surface to a 
 depth of over 1,500 feet. The only marine equivalents of strata of Jurassic 
 age mthin the Commonwealth are found on the wes^ and south-west coasts 
 of Western Australia. They are chiefly developed in the Northampton 
 District, extending thence by way of the Greenough Eiver to Gingm, about 
 40 miles north of Perth, in Western Australia. The strata consist of white 
 sandstones, ferruginous sandstones, light-coloured claystones, grits, lime- 
 stones, and shales, with lignites. Their maximum thickness is quite 3,000 
 feet. In places phosphatic green-coloured patches in the ferruginous sand- 
 stone contain the phosphatic mineral dufrenite. .irtesian water has been 
 struck in this formation at Dongara and at Yardarino ; but after flowing for
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 283 
 
 a few years, the flow has ceased at the former looa,lity through the bore 
 becoming choked, and at the latter through failure of the supply. The 
 following are the most typical fossils in this area : — Otozamites feistmanteli, 
 Zigno, Pagiophyllum {?), Pentacrinus australis, Trigonia nioorei, Teredo 
 found in its own bores in fossil wood, several varieties of Jurassic ammonites, 
 and remains of large enaliosaurians. The second area commences at Cape 
 Riche, and extends to beyond the Phillips River. The strata, in almost 
 horizontal beds, rise to about 700 feet above sea-level. Perfect specimens 
 of fossil sponges are weathered out from some of the caves in this formation. 
 
 A very important unit in the geology of Tasmania is the huge sills of 
 diabase (granophyric dolerite and enstatite-augite dolerite), often over 500 
 feet thick, which have been intruded into these coal measures. They are 
 almost certainly Pre-Cainozoic. If they are of the same age as the great 
 dolerite sills of the Karroo System of South Africa, and the Antarctic dolerites, 
 which intrude the Beacon sandstone formation of the Ross Sea Region, they 
 should probably be placed at the top of the Jurassic, and perhaps be 
 connected with the breaking up of Gondwana Land, at the close of Jurassic 
 time. 
 
 (k) Cretaceous System. 
 
 This system is divided at present into the Rolling Downs formation 
 below, and the Desert Sandstone above. The lower formation is almost 
 wholly marine, except in the case of the Burrum coal-field of Queensland 
 with the adjacent Frazer Island, or Great Sandy Island, and intermediate 
 islands, which consist partly of fresh-water beds. The Desert Sandstone 
 is mostly of fresh-water origin ; but in places, as at Croydon, in Queensland, 
 it contains in abundance Rhynchonella croydonensis, and at Fanny Bay 
 and adjacent areas at Darwin is represented by a radiolarian shale, and by 
 cherts containing casts of small Belemnites. As regards thickness, the 
 Desert Sandstones vary from about 150 feet up to a maximum of 500 feet, 
 while the Rolling Downs beds are known to be in places about 2,000 feet in 
 thickness, perhaps more. The exact thickness is not always easy to deter- 
 mine, on account of a nearly conformable downward passage from the 
 Rolling Downs beds into the Jurassic strata. The vast extent, about one- 
 third, of the whole area of Australia, formerly covered by the rocks of the 
 Cretaceous system, shows that an enormous transgression of the ocean took 
 place at this time, so as to develop a distinct epicontinental sea over the whole 
 of the east central portion of Australia. Cretaceous rocks are also known 
 to be developed on the north-west side of the Victoria Desert in Western 
 Australia, as well as under the Tertiary limestones of the Nullarbor Plains 
 fronting the Great Australian Bight, as lately proved in the Madura artesian 
 bore. They are also represented by a narrow strip, some thousand feet below 
 sea level, at Perth, as shown by the Clermont Bore as well as by a similar 
 strip extending along the coast from north of Geraldton towards North-west 
 Cape. 
 
 Mr. W. S. Dun, in his palseontological notes in this article, comments on 
 the fact that the marine fauna from this west coast belt of Western Australia 
 is closely allied to the Pondicherry Cretaceous fauna of India, whereas that of 
 the great artesian basin represents a peculiar type locally developed within 
 this Australian Mediterranean. Lithologically the JDesert Sandstone rocks
 
 284 Federal Handbook. 
 
 consist mostly of coarse sandstone, passing in the arid regions into 
 quartzite, as well as of very siliceous white shales graduating superficially 
 into porcellanite, and in places containing valuable deposits of precious 
 opal. The latter are associated with remarkable large forms, known to the 
 miners as " pineapples," formed of common opal pseudomorphous after 
 glauberite, together with concretions locally known as buns of barytes. 
 Near Port Mackay, in Queensland, trachytic tufis are said to be associated 
 with the lower beds of the Desert Sandstone. This is the only record of 
 contemporaneous volcanic activity in the whole Cretaceous System in Aus- 
 tralia. Small seams of coal, too thin to be workable, and numerous silicified 
 trees occur in places in this formation. The Rolling Downs strata are mostly 
 friable sandstones rich in foraminifera, and rendered green by glauconite. 
 In addition, at the Burrum coal-field and at Maryborough and Frazer Island, 
 sandstones and shales, with fossil plants and seams of productive coal, are 
 now considered to be of Cretaceous age. The whole series is approximately 
 3,000 feet thick. The Burrum coal seams, of which about four are of workable 
 thickness — that is,from 3 feet to 4 feet thick — contain coal of a brittle, bright, 
 black, bituminous character, and remarkably free from ash, but too friable 
 for export. The fossil plants recently recorded from this Cretaceous coal-field 
 show that forms like Trichomanites laxum, Thinnfeldia media, and Tcenio- 
 pteris daintreei survived over from Jurassic time. Corbula burrumensis and 
 Rocellaria terrce regince are associated with the Burrum coal measures. This 
 recent discovery of the survival of part of the Australian Jurassic fauna and 
 flora into Cretaceous time is obviously of considerable importance. As regards 
 the fossil fauna in the Rolling Downs beds, well preserved remains of 
 infusoria belonging to the Tintinnoidm associated mth diatoms and radio- 
 laria have been found in fine-grained limestones at Mitchell, on the Maranoa 
 River. The following is a list of specially characteristic fossils : — Fora- 
 minifera, in which the Lituolidae are strongly represented, Purisiphotiia 
 clarkei, Psevdavicula australis, Maccoyella barklyi, Nucula qiiadrata, Cytherea 
 clarkei, Belemnites australis, Crioceras australe, Lamna daviesii, Aspido- 
 rhynchus sp., BelonostomMs sweeti, Notochelone costata. Ichthyosaurus australis, 
 Plesiosaurus macrospondylus, Mschna flindersensis, etc.* 
 
 The general evidence points to a progressive submergence of the Australian 
 Continent in Cretaceous time leading to an encroachment of the sea south- 
 wards through the direction of the Gulf of Carpentaria across to the Australian 
 Bight. It is just possible that there may have been a narrow neck of land 
 joining east Australia to Western Australia to the south of Lake Eyre. At 
 all events the isolation, when the submergence was at its maximum, of east 
 Australia from "Western Australia, must have been nearly complete. The 
 wide spread of the comparatively thin beds of the Desert Sandstone, mostly 
 of fresh-water origin, indicate that, in Upper Cretaceous time, the Cretaceous 
 seas were retiring from the Continental area, and lacustrine conditions were 
 taking their place everywhere, except locally, as at Croydon and Darwin. 
 It may be added that Melville Island and Bathurst Island, to the north of 
 Darwin, are formed of Cretaceous rocks, apparently of Rolling Downs type, 
 
 * This insect is probably an .Eschnidium. Mention may here be made of an extraordinary fosai] 
 perhaps allied to .Eschnidium now to be ?een at the Geological and Mining Museum Sydney. It is a 
 well preserved wing in the heart of an immense selenite crystal found at over 600 feet underground m 
 the Mt. Elliott copper mine, near Cloucurry, Queensland.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 285 
 
 but little is as yet known of their fossil contents. The fact that Lower 
 Cretaceous fossils, especially small specimens of Scaphites, are being con- 
 stantly washed up on the beach at the Point Charles lighthouse, Darwin, shows 
 that Lower Cretaceous rocks underlie the strait which separates Melville 
 Island from the mainland. It may be suggested here, very tentatively, 
 that the vast transgression of the Cretaceous sea was perhaps causally con- 
 nected with two other impoitant geological events, viz.: — Firstly with the 
 sinking in of Gondwana land leading to compensating uplifts of the sea 
 floor, and secondly with the wholesale injection of the vast dolerite sills, 
 which probably further contributed towards shoaling the ocean basins. 
 
 (I) Cainozoic Era. 
 
 The classification and correlation of the rocks of the Commonwealth 
 belonging to this era present many difficulties. 
 
 It is harder in Australia than in Northern Europe to separate the Post 
 Tertiary from the Tertiary rocks, as whereas in Northern Europe glacial 
 deposits, chiefly of Pleistocene time, are widespread, in Australia such glacial 
 evidences are wholly restricted to an area of less than 500 square miles, 
 which has its centre at Mount Kosciusko. Only in Tasmania can evidences of 
 Pleistocene ice action be traced over a large area. Then in regard to the 
 correlation of the Australian Tertiaries with those of Europe, the statement 
 of an Australian palaeontologist still applies ; — " Many attempts have been 
 made to fit the Tertiaries of Southern Australia into the British Procrustean 
 subdivisions, and I do not know that the results are any more satisfactory 
 to the strata than they were to the guests of Procrustes himself." 
 
 Direct comparison of Australian Tertiary forms with those of Europe 
 may prove faUaceous, unless supplemented by other evideoce, for there is 
 no direct proof of the existence of any highway for migration of marine 
 organisms from the seas of the Southern Hemisphere into the Tethys 
 area in early Tertiary time. 
 
 Tested by the Lyellian method — the determination of the percentage of 
 recent Mollusca in the series — the Tertiary marine faunas of Australia can be 
 compared with the recent fauna of Australian seas, but it is now clear that 
 some Australian palaeontologists who worked on these lines did not recognise 
 the fact that in many of the older Tertiary deposits of Australia the marine 
 moUuscan fauna is not, as was originally supposed, littoral in habit, but belongs 
 to a moderate depth ; and recent dredging operations have demonstrated 
 the fact that many forms in the older Australian Tertiaries, formerly thought 
 to belong to extinct species, are now living at some depths off the Australian 
 coasts. If one relies for correlation on the evidence of wide-ranging and 
 rapid-moving types, like sharks and whales, it may be noted that GarcJuirodon 
 angustidens and C. megalodon, of the older Australian Tertiaries, are charac- 
 teristically Miocene in the Northern Hemisphere. Then, too, the toothless 
 whales of the Victorian older Tertiaries belong to a group which in the northern 
 hemisphere appears to be chiefly Pliocene. 
 
 On the whole the tendency of late has been to refer tlie so-called Eocene 
 strata of Southern Australia to some part of Miocene time. Recently it has 
 been proposed to divide the Tertiary rocks of Victoria into three systems, 
 details of which are given in this article. It will be seen that reliance is
 
 286 Fedeeal Handbook. 
 
 largely placed for purposes of correlation, on various species of Lepidocyclina. 
 Meanwhile the sequence of events in Cainozoic time in Southern Australia 
 and Tasmania, from the ciose of Cretaceous time, may be briefly stated 
 as follows : — 
 
 1. Accumulation of plant-bearing strata, developing in places into thick 
 beds of lignite. These plants have been considered to be Eocene, but may 
 be Oligocene or Lower Miocene. A primitive marsupial fauna was probably 
 already in occupation of Tasmania, as a nearly complete skeleton of 
 Wynyardia has been found in the marine strata of No. 3, which conformably 
 tollows No. 2, No. 2 being conformable to No. 1, and all being separated from 
 one another by no gi'eat time interval. Wynyardia bassiana was a generalized 
 form neither distinctly polyprotodont nor distinctly diprotodont. (The 
 original is now in the Hobart Museum.) The older " deep leads " of Eastern 
 Australia belong here. 
 
 2. Extensive flows of the so-called " older basalts," and development 
 of basic tuffs passing into laterite and covering the elder deep leads. 
 
 3. The Pre-Miocene Bassian landbridge between Tasmania and the main- 
 land became broken down, the old bridge becoming involved m a general 
 submergence, which afiected the whole of the southern shores of Australia. 
 In the Nullarbor Plains area of the Great Australian Bight, strata of white 
 chalky limestones, with flints, and often rich in Gryphaea, were developed 
 over a large area. Similar strata occur at intervals all along the southern 
 shores of Australia. In the Lower Murray area, as well as in Victoria and 
 Tasmania, the polyzoon Cellepora gambierensis is extremely characteristic, 
 and in the ciifis of the Lower Murray forms sub-spherical masses, each of the 
 size of a man's head. These strata attain a thickness of about 80 feet at Table 
 Cape, Tasmania, and on the coastal plains of Southern Australia are usually 
 200 to 400 feet thick, with a maximum thickness of about 1,000 feet under 
 the Nullarbor Plains. The Purari series and the oil-bearing strata of British 
 New Guinea probably are of this age. 
 
 4. The Ostrea sturti beds, which overlie the Cellepora limestones of the 
 Lower Murray, perhaps Upper Miocene. 
 
 5. The immense belt of alkaline lavas and tuSs, which extend from 
 Casterton, in Victoria, through Mount Macedon to Clermont and Springsure, 
 in Queensland, perhaps belongs to this horizon. 
 
 Possibly the nepheline-basanite of Table Cape, the melilite basalt 
 at Sandy Bay, near Hobart, and the nepheline melilite basalt and 
 nepheline eudialyte basalt of Shannon Tier, in Tasmania, were erupted about 
 this time. 
 
 6. In British Papua the Port Moresby series probably belongs to the 
 older Pliocene. In Australia Marine Pliocene strata, to a thickness of about 
 1,000 feet, were deposited in the neighbourhood of Adelaide, as proved by 
 the Croydon bore (2,296 feet deep). In all other areas in Australia and 
 Tasmania, strata of this age are of freshwater or of volcanic origin. Possibly 
 the lake beds of the Launceston Tertiary Basin, 1,000 feet thick, are of 
 Pliocene age, as they contain fossil fruits, such as Spondylostrobus 
 smythii, Plesiocapparis leptocelyphis, Pentrune allporti, etc., fossils more 
 characteristic of the Kalimnan than of either the Janjukian or of the 
 Balcombian age.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 287 
 
 7. Vast sheets of basalts, proceeding from dyke eruptions, flooded the 
 nearly even surfaces of the east and south-east Australian and Tasmanian 
 peneplains. In South Australia they are represented at Kangaroo Island, 
 and in Western Australia at Bunbury, the Lower Blackwood River, and at 
 Black Point upon the coast. The fact that the flora of this period shows 
 scarcely any trace of differentiation suggests that the land had a low relief. 
 These extensive basaltic outflows appear to date near to the close of Pliocene 
 time. 
 
 8. (a) In either very late Pliocene, or early Pleistocene time, the earth's 
 crust, in the Australian and New Guinea region, was subjected to considerable 
 diastrophism. The eastern periphery of Australia, including Tasmania, was 
 warped up to altitudes of over 3,000 feet above the sea. The movement 
 being differential carried an area, sucL as Kosciusko, to a height of 7,000 feet 
 above sea level. In New Guinea the Cretaceous to Pliocene strata underwent 
 intense orogenic movements, mountains being produced up to and over 
 15,000 feet in height. 
 
 (6) A glacial age supervened, which had many phases Kosciusko was 
 capped by an ice calotte from its summit to about 5,000 feet above 
 sea level. In Tasmania the glaciation was naturally very heavy on the 
 west coast and western highlands, the modern heavy rainfall, coming 
 from the west, being at that time largely replaced by snowfall. Not 
 only were the Western Tiers of Tasmania and the highlands of the 
 west coast covered with firn-fields and glacier ice, but at the town- 
 ship of Gormanston glacial boulder clays were formed only a few 
 hundred feet above sea level, and on the west side of the Craycroft 
 Range the moraine material descends to within 250 feet of sea level. This 
 glaciation affected, probably synchronously, New Guinea, and it was 
 probably during a phase of this glacial age that the rhododendron migrated 
 from Papua to the Bellenden-Ker Range, of Queensland (over 5,000 feet 
 high), where it has since become isolated through the amelioration of the 
 climate. The phenomena of the maximum glaciation seem to call for a. 
 lowering of temperature of approximately 9 degrees Fahr., as compared 
 with that of the present day. 
 
 (c) Partly synchronous, if not wholly synchronous, with this Ice Age, or 
 possibly its interglacial phases (if there were any such), was an epoch when 
 the central plains of Australia had a good rainfall, and the present area of 
 internal drainage was only beginning to come into existence. Great herds of 
 herbivores, of much larger size than their nearest modern allies, roamed over 
 what are now the arid legions of the lower steppes of Australia, near Lakes 
 Eyre, Frome, and Callabonna. This fauna comprised Ceratodus, Megalania 
 prisca, Meiolonia, Pallimnarchus pollens, Diprotodon, Nototherium, Macropus, 
 and Sceparnodon, with the probably carnivorous form Thylacoleo, and the 
 carnivorous Thylacinus, Sarcophilus, and Canis dingo, while Sus papuensis 
 found its way southwards from Papua, as far as the Darling Downs, of 
 Queensland. Thus during this Kosciusko epoch Papua was still united to 
 Austi-alia, and the recent discovery of a Nototherium {N. tasmanicum, Scott) 
 at Mowbray Swamp, in the north-western part of Tasmania, taken in con- 
 junction with other evidence, suggests that Tasmania was once more united 
 to Australia by way of the Bassian Bridge. At least one gigantic ancestor
 
 288 Federal Handbook. 
 
 of the emu Genyornis was associated with this fauna. This bird was pro- 
 bably about 13 feet in height. A fine collection of this fauna is in the Adelaide 
 Museum. 
 
 {d) Subsidences complementary to the uplift no doubt commenced with 
 the uplift, but became much more pronounced after the uplift ceased. The 
 rift valleys, Torres Strait, Port Curtis, of Cairns, of Cooma, of Bass Strait, 
 Hobart, Port Phillip, St. Vincent and Spencer's Gulfs, and Lake Torrens, 
 and of the west coast of Western Australia gradually developed, together 
 with those many faults traversing the highlands of the warped peneplains 
 of Australia and Tasmania, whose unreduced scarps attest their comparatively 
 recent origin. The recent volcanic craters of Mount Gambler, Tower Hill, 
 etc., may be referred to this epoch. Possibly negritoid man entered Tasmania 
 by way of the Pleistocene Bassian Bridge before its final collapse. Ever since 
 the Kosciusko epoch canyon cutting has been proceeding down to the present 
 day in the elevated peripheral portions of Australia and Tasmania, this process 
 tending to push the divides further inland. 
 
 Amongst recent formations may be mentioned the dune rock, partly 
 cemented by lime, of Fremantle^, and the south-western coast of Western Aus- 
 tralia, of Cape Northumberland, near the border of South A\xstralia and Vic- 
 toria, and the dune rock of Warrnambool, Sorrento, etc. At Sorrento this dune 
 rock is about 1,000 feet in thickness, and near Perth, in Western Australia, is at 
 least as thick. The heavy silting along the Victorian coast, which has pro- 
 duced the Gippsland Lakes, as well as silting ofi the Maryborough coast, 
 where the dunes are 800 feet high, and the silting between Sharks Bay and 
 North-west Cape, in Western Australia, are all connected with the cusps of 
 slack water formed next the shore, where great ocean currents meet. Mention 
 may also be made here of the sand dunes of the lower steppes of Australia, 
 and of the Victoria Desert. The latter are only superficially formed of 
 loose sand, to a depth of a foot or so, and then the formation passes into a 
 tough calcareous rock. The Transcontinental railway from Perth, by way 
 of Kalgoorlie to Adelaide, will have to be cut through a vast number of 
 these dune ridges, which are from 30 feet up to 80 feet high in places. 
 In the Lake Eyre region the sand dunes again are only superficially 
 loose sand. Inside they are formed of a certain amount of loamy 
 material, especially near the old deltas of Cooper's Creek, and of the 
 Diamantina River. In most parts of Central Australia these dunes derive 
 their sand from the breaking up of the Upper Cretaceous desert 
 sandstone. 
 
 In addition to the alluvial plains and rivers, mention may be made of the 
 laterites (pindan gravels) of Western Australia, the nodular tufaceous lime- 
 stone (" kunkar ") of South Australia, the saline deposits of the inland plains, 
 and the coastal salinas. Subsidence has evidently been recently in progress 
 at the southern end of Tasmania, and the laige " bank " recently 
 discovered 200 mijes further south, is obviously an immense sunken 
 segment of a once greater Australia. Submergence has also taken 
 place for a great distance along the east coast of Australia. As already 
 stated, this is partly due to the recent melting of ice and snow in Antarctica, 
 bringing about a eustatic positive movement of sea level ; but it cannot 
 be entirely due to this, as the recent submergence is in places of the order
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 289 
 
 of fully 200 feet, and it is doubtful whether the ice of Antarctica, from the great 
 ice age down to the present time, can have affected sea-level to the extent 
 of more than about 100 feet. 
 
 The so-called raised beach of about 15 feet is so general around Australia, 
 that it is probably due to a recent eustatic negative movement of the sea 
 surface. The 50 feet raised beach near Darwin is probably connected with 
 recent orogenic movements in Papua. These recent movements have caused 
 a local emergence of the coral reefs in south-eastern Papua of 1,000 up to 
 2,000 feet. The Great Barrier Eeef of Queensland, some 1,200 miles in length, 
 represents, in its uppermost portion, a marvellous area of growing reef The 
 bulk of tbe reef appears to be formed of coral. 
 
 Earthquake shocks, most frequent in tht. area between the gu fs of South 
 Australia, Bass Strait, and Kosciusko, show that coastal readjustment is still 
 in slow progress in those regions. In New Guinea sharp shocks proceed from 
 near the active volcanic zone, near Mount Victory. Most of the earthquake 
 .shocks which reach the eastern side of Australia emanate from the deep trench 
 to the east of the Tongan and Kermadec Islands. Western Australia is 
 practically free from earthquakes. 
 
 5. — Pre=Historic Man. 
 
 As is well known, the aboriginal inhabitants, now unfortunately extinct, of 
 Tasmania belonged to the negrito and were in a palaeolithic state of civiliza- 
 tion. They had no knowledge of producing a cutting edge on stone by 
 grinding it down on a hone stone, all their instriments being of the rudest 
 possible type, and roughly chipped. Neither had they any knowledge of 
 building canoes of the sea-going t}^e, being satisfied to construct them from 
 the bark of trees stripped off in long sheets, then sewn up at the ends and 
 plugged with clay. In this frail craft they navigated their own rivers and 
 lakes. No trace has been found in Tasmania of aboriginal man considerably 
 antedating the coming of the white man. On the mainland of Australia the 
 aboriginal attained to neolithic stage of civilization as far back as we have 
 any traces of him. Up to the present the following appear to be the only 
 evidences of man in Australia attaining to anything approaching high 
 geological antiquity : — 
 
 1. The Tasmanian aborigines probably crossed Bass Strait (as they were 
 ignorant of the art of making sea-going canoes) by an almost continuous, if 
 not continuous, land bridge. 
 
 2. On the mainland of Australia there is possible evidence near Warrnam- 
 bool of impressions attributable to human bodies and feet in some of the old 
 cemented sand dunes. Many have doubted the genuineness of these 
 imprints. In New South Wales several stone tomahawks were dug up a 
 few years ago in cutting a canal at Shea's Creek, between Botany Bay and 
 Redfem. These tomahawks were embedded in peat many feet in thickness 
 underlying marine e.stuarine beds at a total deptli of 15 feet below the high 
 water. It may be concluded that the whole of our coast-line has subsided 
 by 15 feet, or else, as the result of the melting of ice and snow in the 
 Antarctic regions, sea level has risen by that amount since the time when the 
 aborigines lost their tomahawks in this swamp. In either case a
 
 290 Federal Handbook. 
 
 considerable lapse of time, perhaps of tlie order of several tliousands of 
 years, would be needed to account for this change in the relative level of 
 land and sea. 
 
 3. Statements have frequently been made that stone tomahawks have 
 been discovered in the deep leads of Victoria. The following, as far as is 
 known, is the only case where the stone tomahawk may possibly be considered 
 as the same age as a deep lead : — Xear Maryborough, Victoria, in 1855, a 
 basalt axe head was found at a depth of 4 feet from the surface in one of the 
 tributaries of the main Bet Bet lead. The main lead is covered by basalt 
 believed to be of Pleistocene age, but, as the tributary lead in which 
 the axe head was found is not covered by basalt, the finding of an axe 
 head at a depth of only 4 feet does not necessarily imply any great 
 antiquity for it. 
 
 6. Australian Qraptolites. 
 
 By T. S. Hall, M.A., D.Sc, Lecturer in Biology in the University 
 of Melbourne. 
 
 Graptolites are found at innumerable localities in Victoria where Silurian 
 or Ordovician rocks occur, but so far none have been found west of the 
 meridian of Ballarat. The belt of old rocks is continued from eastern Vic- 
 toria along tne inland slopes of the Divide far into New South Wales, and 
 during the last few years have yielded graptolites from a few places. Tas- 
 manian records are vague, but some identifiable forms have been obtained 
 from boulders in the Permo-Carboniferous glacial beds at Wynyard. There 
 are no records from the other States, but Lower Ordovician species have 
 been found in New Zealand. 
 
 Apparently the whole range of the fauna can be illustrated from Victoria, 
 with perhaps the exception of Devonian and Cambrian forms. We can 
 recognise the following subdivision of the rocks ; — 
 I Upper 
 
 ! ;Darriwillian 
 
 L < Lower 
 
 1 Bendigonian 
 f'Lancefieldian. 
 
 Silurian. — Retiolites australis McCoy and two or three species of Diylo- 
 graptidcB and Monograptus, including M. turriculatus, have been found in 
 Victoria, and Monograptus occurs in New South Wales. 
 
 Ordovician. — It has not been found convenient as yet to recognise 
 the three usual subdivisions accepted in Europe, and we need only consider 
 an upper and lower division. 
 
 The Upper division is characterised by Dicranograptus, Dicellograptus, 
 Leptograptus, Nemagraptus, Didymograptus, Diplograptus, Climacograptus, 
 Cryptograptus, Glossograptus, Lasiograptus, Retiograptus, and Retiolites. The 
 series is well represented in the eastern part of the State, and passes north 
 into New Soutt Wales, where Lower Ordovician is not as yet known to be 
 represented. A large numbei- of the species are new, but many northern 
 hemisphere forms have been recognised. No detailed stratigraphical work 
 has been done in these rocks. 
 
 Ordovician J Lower i Castlemanian
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 291 
 
 The Lower division has had more attention given to it, as it is displayed 
 on many of our goldfields. 
 
 Darriwillian. — No good exposures are known and specific records are 
 few. Dicranograptidae are absent. Tlie following genera are represented : — 
 Didymograptus, Tetragraptus, Loganograptus, Diplograptus, Climacograptus, 
 Trigonograptus, Glossograptus, Lasiograptus, and others not detei-mined. 
 
 CASTLEMA.NLAN. — The fauna is rich. Didymograptidae are well repre- 
 sented. D. caduceus Salter (= D. gibherulus) is abundant throughout, and 
 passes up. I), hifidus and its allies are found only in the lowest beds, and 
 pass down into the top of the next division. The relative position of these 
 two species is peculiar and well proved in various localities. 
 
 Bendigonla-N. — The most abundant fossil is Tetragraptus fruticosus. 
 Bryograptus occurs in tlie lowest beds, though it is generally regarded as 
 Cambrian in Europe. Tetragraptus approximatus Nicholson is also found 
 at the base, and is in one locality associated with Lancefieldian forms. It 
 is thus of stratigraphical importance. The Bendigonian faima is rich in 
 species. 
 
 Lancefieldian. — Bryograptus, several species of Clonograptus and 
 Dictyonema occur. Lithologically similar rocks with the same fauna have 
 been recognised by me from the south-west corner of New Zealand, more 
 than 1,000 miles away. 
 
 There are several apparent inversions of the European sequence of species, 
 and Euedmann has shown that the Australian sequence is practically that 
 of New York, and both agree in differing slightly from the European. 
 
 7. Notes on the Palaeontology of Australia. 
 
 By W. S. Dun, Lecturer in PalcBontology in the University of Sydney. 
 
 The general character of the fauna of the Palseozoic of Australia as a 
 whole, is its cosmopolitan nature, no definite Australian fauna being pre- 
 sented until the Per mo-Carboniferous. 
 
 Cambrian. — Fossiliferous limestones and shales of Cambrian age occur 
 in Western Australia, South Australia, Northern Territory, Victoria, and 
 Tasmania. Olenollus beds w'th Salterella occur in the Kimberley District 
 (W.A.). In Yorke's Peninsula (S.A.), Archseocyathinae limestones are well 
 developed, also beds containing Micromitra, Kutorgina, Obolella, Nisusia, 
 Eoorthis, Huenolla, Stenotheca, Ophileta, Salterella, Hyolithes, Dolichometopus, 
 Conocephalites, Olenollus, Microdiscus, Ptychoparia. At Beltana occurs 
 the most important horizon of ArchseocyathiniB so far discovered ; eight 
 genera and thirty-two species have already been descrilied. 
 
 In the Northern Territory, from Ekeldra, Agnostus, Paradoxides, Micro- 
 discus, and Ptychoparia have been recorded. 
 
 In Victoria, in north-eastern Gippsland, near Mount Wellington, occur 
 limestones with Plectorthis, Lingalella, Scenella, Agnostus, Ptychoparia, and 
 Grepicephalus. 
 
 The Heathcotian beds containing Dinesus and Notasaphns may prove to 
 be either Cambrian or Carabro-Ordovician. In Tasmania ArchsoocyathinjB 
 occur and quartzites yielding Dikelocephalus and Concephalites.
 
 292 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Ordovician. 
 
 In Central Australia Ordovician limestones contain Endoceras, Orthoceras, 
 Asaphus spp., Ctenodonta, Raphistoma, and Ophileta. 
 
 In Tasmania the Gordon River limestones with Cyrtodonta, Ctenodonta, 
 Tellinomya, Bellerophon, Helicotoma, Hormotoma, Raphistoma may prove to 
 be of Silurian age. Ordovician brachiopods and trilobites are also found in 
 the Florentine Valley. 
 
 Silurian. 
 
 The Silurian of Australia occurs entirely in the eastern States, and is of a 
 true cosmopolitan t}'pe, and the fossiliferous limestones and shales of New 
 South Wales and Victoria may be correlated with the Wenlock and Ludlow 
 in part. There is an abundant molluscan, brachiopod, trilobite, and coelen- 
 terate fauna, the main characteristics being the great variety of Ealysites in 
 New South Wales ; of Tryplasma, Spongophyllum, and Rhizophyllum, and 
 the presence of endemic rugosa such as Mucophyllum, Mictocystis, Arachno- 
 phyUmn, Vepresiphyllum, etc.; Conchidium and Barratidella horizons are 
 well developed in New South Wales. 
 
 Devonian. 
 
 Devonian strata occur in Western Australia and the eastern States. 
 In Western Australifi, the Kimberley, Napier Range, and Gascoyne river 
 beds contained a Lower or Middle Devonian fauna — Stromatoporoids, Cyatho- 
 phyllum, Phillipsastrea, tabulate corals, Atrypa reticularis. Certain of the 
 fossils recorded from these beds, however, belong to adjacent Permo-Car- 
 bonifeious areas. 
 
 In Victoria, in Gippsland, Middle Devonian limestone with Spirifera 
 yassensis and Receptaculites are well developed. Freshwater Upper 
 Devonian or Lower Carboniferous beds contain ArchcBopteris, Sphenopteris, 
 and Cordaites — these beds also occur in southern New South Wales. 
 
 In New South Wales the Lower Devonians are well developed in the 
 Murrumbidgee District and are characterized by a great development of 
 Receptaculites, one species attaining a diameter of at least a foot. Tabulate 
 corals are abundant. The typical fossils are species of Actinocystis, Diphy- 
 pkyllum, and Spirifera yassensis. 
 
 The Middle Devonian are developed in the Western Districts, and contain 
 varieties of Spirifera cristata and pterinoid bivalves, etc. 
 
 The Upper Devonian sediments of New South Wales are of two types, 
 the arenaceous of the Western Districts containing Rhynchonella pleurodon, 
 Spirifera disjuncta, and Lepidodendron, Lepidodondron australe, and that of 
 the New England District composed of coralline limestones, claystones, and 
 cherts. 
 
 The limestones contain such corals as Favosites, Heliolites, Sanidophyllum, 
 Spongophyllum, Diphyphyllum, and Syringopora — all species distinct from 
 the Silurian and little in common with the Lower Devonian series. The 
 limestones and cherts comprise a great development of interbedded 
 Radiolarian rocks. The upper mudstones contain Lepidodondron australe 
 in abundance.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 293 
 
 In Queensland the Fanning River and Burdeldn limestones are corralliae 
 and contain abundance of Alveolites, ArcBOpora, Campophylhun. Stringo- 
 cephalus, Atrypa, etc. 
 
 Carboniferous. 
 
 Beds of this age occur in New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland. 
 
 The Mansfield beds of Victoria, regarded as Lower Carboniferous, contain 
 Lepidodendron australe and fish — Gyracanihides, Acanthodes, Strepsodus, 
 Elonichthys, etc. — it is possible these beds may prove to be in part Upper 
 Devonian. 
 
 In New South Wales, marine and freshwater Carboniferous beds occur. 
 The marine fauna is of the mountain limestone type, and consists mostly of 
 cosmopolitan types of brachiopoda, Productus semireticulatus, Orthis resupi- 
 nata, Spirifera striata, Phillipsia, Gri-ffithides, and B r achy meto pus. 
 
 The coral fauna is typical — Zaphrentis, Cyathophyllum, Lithostrotion, 
 Michelinia, etc. 
 
 Mesoblastus and Tricoelocriuus occur in Queensland. 
 
 The freshwater beds have a jMiddle Carboniferous facies with Aneimites 
 ovata, Cardiopteris, and Lepidodendron veltheimianum. 
 
 In Queensland the Star beds, well developed around Rock- 
 hampton, have a fauna very similar tc» that of the New South Wales 
 series. 
 
 Doubtfid Carboniferous beds containing Lepidodendron occur in Western 
 Australia. 
 
 A fact of importance in Eastern Australia is that no Carboniferous species 
 extend into the overlying Permo-Carboniferous, and that there is a well- 
 marked unconformity between the two systems. 
 
 Permo-Carboniferous . 
 
 Of the Australian Palaeozoic faunas that which attracts most attention 
 is the Marine Permo-Carbonifeious, and the interest is twofold, due in the 
 first place to the change which without doubt in great part effected the 
 glacial phase which occurred at the initiation of sedimentation, and the 
 efiect of land barriers hindering migration between the eastern and western 
 Permo-Carboniferous shores. 
 
 The Eastern Australian Permo-Carboniferous fauna may be regarded 
 as exhibiting the typical Australian facies, containing as it does the develop- 
 ment of many purely Australian types. The two main divisions of the 
 marine sediments — the Lower and Upper Marine series (separated in typical 
 localities by a freshwater phase — the Greta coal measures) vary little in 
 character in New South Wales, Queensland, and Tasmania. 
 The principal elements of the fauna are— 
 
 Foraminifera. — Nubecularia, Pelosina, Uyperammina, Haplophrag- 
 rnium, Lituola, Endothyra, Lagena, Nodosaria, Genilzina, etc., etc. 
 Nubecularia is in great abundance and the arenaceous and sub- 
 arenaceous types preponderate. Horizons occur in both Lower 
 and Upper Marines and in association with the Pokolbin (Lower 
 Marines) horizon, and also in the Wollong (Upper Marine) are 
 glacial beds, indicating the cooling of the water.
 
 294 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Spongida. — Sponges are rare, tke anchoring spicules of 
 Hyalostelia, Lasiodadia, and certain burrowing sponges {Clio- 
 nolithus) are found in the Lower and Upper Marines of New 
 South Wales. 
 
 C(elentekata. — One of the noticeable features of the Permo- 
 Carboniferous of eastern Australia is the impoverished 
 Coelenterata fauna, due without doubt to the glacial conditions 
 at the initiation of sedimentation. A few species of Zaphrentoid 
 corals, close to Hinde's genus Plerophjllum, occur showing 
 an extravagant development of stereoplasma. The tabulate 
 Trachypora forms a well-marked zone fossil in the Upper 
 Marines. 
 
 EcHiNODERMATA. — This phyllum is of particular interest. Blastoids 
 and cystoids are absent ; the Crinoidea are represented by the 
 giant Phialocrinus princeps of the Upper Marines, 4| inches in 
 diameter. Trihrachiocrinus, a dicyclic form with large radianal 
 and " X " plate, three double bianchia and two single — this genus 
 is peculiar to Eastern Australia. A large ArchcBOcidaris and several 
 species of Palasterids {Etheridgeaster, Mo^mster, and Palaeaester) 
 occur in the Lower Marines, one, Etheridgeaster giganteus, having 
 a span of 7 inches. 
 
 Bryozoa. — The great development of the trepostomatous Stenopora 
 is a characteristic of this period in Eastern Australia. The massive 
 S. crinita forms irregular polyzoaria of from 1 to 2 feet in size. 
 Dendroid and flabellate types are also common and present many 
 species as yet undescribed. 
 
 The Fenestellidse are also well developed. Fenestella is rare, 
 but such types as Phyllopora, Polypora, and Protoretepora being 
 extremely abundant, and in some cases form distinct limestones 
 in the Lower Marines. Feiiestellid?e are equally developed in the 
 Lower and Upper Marines and in all provinces. 
 
 Brachiopoda. — This may be regarded as a Martiniopsis fauna. This 
 protean genus is extremely abundant in all suitable sediments. 
 Associated with it are winged SpirifercB, all strongly ridged, Spiri- 
 ferina dielasma, Chonetes, Productus, Strophalosia, Aulosteges, 
 Lingula, and Orbicula. In Queensland, in the Bowen beds, we 
 get as well Derbyia senilia. It must be noted in contradistinction 
 to the Permo-Carboniferous Brachiopod fauna of Western 
 Australia and the Northern Territory that Carboniferous 
 species are entirely absent and that there is an absence of the 
 Orthidse and Leptcena group, Athyris, Cyrtina syringothyris, and 
 Reticularia. 
 
 Pelecypoda. — It is in this group of the MoUusca that what may bt 
 termed the Pacific facies of the Australian Permo-Carboniferous 
 asserts itself with purely endemic genera as Cleobis, Mceonia, 
 Astartila, Pachydomus, Notomya, Aphanaia, Merismopteria, Clarkia, 
 Beltopecten — a giant form, a transition between Aviculopecten and 
 Pecten-Stutchhuria, an edentulous variant of Pleurophorus. Chceno- 
 nomya (Meek) of the Nebraska-Permian is very characteristic
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 295 
 
 of certain estuarine deposits. The most interesting type is Eury- 
 desma, mainly characteristic of the Lower Marines, noteworthy 
 for its absence from Western AustraUa and its presence in the olive 
 shales of the Himalayas, and the Marine Karoo of German West 
 Africa. The fauna is noteworthy for the preponderance of eden- 
 tulous gaping types. Cosmopolitan genera, such as Nuculana, 
 Scaldia, Cardiomorpha (?), Solecurtus, Aviculopecten, Solenopsis, 
 Modiolopsis also occur. The fauna is evenly distributed along the 
 east coast. 
 
 Gasteropoda. — There is nothing distinctive in the eastern Gasteropod 
 fauna which includes Platyschisma, Straparollus, and various Pleuro- 
 tomarioids — Keeneia, Ptycomphalina, Mourlonia, and a Naticoid 
 type, together with a patelloid genus and Orthonychia. 
 
 Pteropoda and CoNULARiDiE. — HyoUthes is common, and a giant 
 Conidaria reaching a length of 20 inches, occurs in the eastern 
 provinces. 
 
 Cephalopoda are uncommon, Orthoceras and Agathiceras {Gonia- 
 tites) being abundant in the Ravensfield sandstone of New South 
 Wales. 
 
 The Western Australia Fauna. 
 
 In Western Australia it has been customary to class certain formations 
 as Carboniferous and certain as Permo-Carboniferous, but there is good 
 reason to believe that the entire series, developed in the Irwin, Gascoyne, 
 Mingenew, Minilya, Lyons River Districts, and Kimberley is more properly 
 Permo-Carboniferous as regards the mingling of the faunas. 
 
 One of the prominent features of the Eastern AustraUan Permo-Car- 
 boniferous fauna is the absolute absence of any Carboniferous species, whereas 
 in the west, together with Indian species and local varieties, there are Car- 
 boniferous types such as Orthis resupinata, Rhipidomella, Productus semire- 
 ticulatus, Leptcena analoga, Phillipsia, etc. — forms which in Eastern Aus- 
 tralia are confined to the Star beds of Queensland and New South Wales, 
 beds separated from the Permo-Carboniferous of that region by a well-marked 
 unconformity. Taking into consideration the fact that the so-called Permo- 
 Carboniferous sedimentation of both eastern and western Australia was 
 initiated by glacial stages which must be regarded as synchronous, this 
 mingling of faunas in Western Australia points to a direct communication 
 with the Permo-Carboniferous coast line of the Himalayan and Salt Range 
 Region. The fact that certain Producti, Pectinida^, Terebratulidaj, and 
 Spirifeidae of the West have a close resemblance to Eastern Australian types 
 may, perhaps, be regarded as instances of parallel development, rather than 
 of specific identity. 
 
 The Permo-Carboniferous ol the Nonhern Territory has western 
 affinities. 
 
 As regards the flora of the Permo-Carboniferoua, nothing need be 
 said other than that a Lower Gondwana flora is preserved in both 
 Western and Eastern Australia. The earlier beds are characterized by 
 Gangamopteroid types, the upper by Glossopteris and PhyUotheca, more 
 especially.
 
 296 Federal Handbook, 
 
 Mesozoic. 
 
 The Mesozoic rocks of Australia, fresh water and marine, range from 
 Trias to Cretaceous. 
 
 The freshwater beds present in all the States are of Trias and Jurassic 
 age, and in Eastern Australia there is good reason to regard the so-called 
 Jurassic (Ipswich) system as being the freshwater series directly succeeded 
 by the Marine Cretaceous. 
 
 In Western Australia fresh water beds of Jurassic age occur at Mingenew 
 with Otozamites and Plagiophyllum. At Champion Bay Belemnites, Dor- 
 setensia, Stephanoceras, Trigonia, etc., occur. At the Greenough River are 
 Oolites yielding Alectryonia MarsJiii, Ctenostreon pectiniformis, Radula dupli- 
 cata, Trigonia, etc. It is possible that the Gingin chalk is of Cretaceous age. 
 The fauna of the Marine Mesozoic of Western Australia exhibit marked 
 affinities (and identity) with European and Asiatic species. 
 
 In the Northern Territory, at Point Charles, there is evidence of an abun- 
 dant Cretaceous fauna Aucella, Scaphites, Histrichoceras, etc., dwarfed forms 
 in almost every case, and having Gault affinities. 
 
 Almost as marked as the difference between the eastern and western 
 Permo-Carboniferous fauna is the lack of community between the Marine 
 Mesozoic fauna of the east and west. Stratigraphical evidence points to 
 the fact that there is a continuity of sedimentation from at latest Jurassic 
 to the end of Cretaceous time, and this has led to an apparent minghng of 
 faunas. The Cretaceous Mediterranean occupied portions of the States of 
 Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia, and is characterized by 
 numerous species peculiar to the region and many endemic genera among 
 the MoUusca. The most typical forms are Maccoyella, Pseudavicula, and Fis- 
 silunula, all endemic types occurring in both Lower and Upper Cretaceous. 
 The cephalopodan fauna is not larger, but is noteworthy for the great size 
 of the Crioceras and Ancyloceras group. Icthyosaurus, PUsiosaurus, and 
 Gimoliosaurus are represented by several species. The nature of the fauna 
 points to the fact that the barrier wliich prevented the mingling of the Eastern 
 and Western Permo-Carboniferoua faunas persisted into late Mesozoic time. 
 
 The Mesozoic flora of Eastern Australia may be divided into three groups 
 — (1) the Ipswich flora of Queensland, the Clarence basin of New South Wales, 
 the South Gippsland basin of Victoria, and the Lake Eyre basin of South 
 Australia ; (2) the Tasmanian Upper coal measures ; and (3) the Hawkes- 
 bury series of the Sydney-Blue Mountain District. 
 
 (1) The Ipswich, etc., series. — These beds possess the cosmopolitan Jurassic 
 vegetation with Cladophebis denticulata, various species of Thinnfeldia, 
 Tceniopteris daintreei, Podozamites, Baiera, etc., etc. They occupy the 
 lower portion of the great artesian basin and are succeeded conformably 
 by the Marine Cretaceous shales and sandstones. The rather scanty evidence 
 at present available points to the fact that the sagging of the Mediterranean 
 region was associated in its early stages with lacustrine conditions leading 
 up to an invasion of the sea and marine sedimentation. These conditions 
 on the coastal district ceased at the close of fresh water sedimentation, except 
 in the Maryborough district, Queensland, where both fresh water and marine 
 sedimentation took place
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 297 
 
 (2) The Upper coal measures of Tasmania maybe correlated with the Gipps- 
 land measures of Jurassic age. Tceniopteris daintreei is wanting, but Clado- 
 phebis denticulata is abundant with Thinnfeldia, Phyllotheca, etc. 
 
 (3) In the Sydney area occurs the Hawkesbury series, made up of the 
 Narrabeen, Hawkesbury, and Wiannamatta Stages. The Narrabeen shales 
 succeed directly after the Upper coal measures (Permo-Carboniferous) with 
 no break in sedimentation, and a mingling of the Glossopteris and Lower 
 Mesozoic flora — Glossopteris and Schizoneura. 
 
 The Narrabeen, Hawkesbury, and Wiannamatta Stages have a well 
 developed flora with Thinnfeldia odontopteroides, in several varieties, Macro- 
 tcenopteris, Alethopteris, conifers, and Phyllotheca ; there are distinct 
 differences from the flora of the Ipswich Series, which are possibly due to 
 more arid conditions. The Hawkesbury sandstones and Wiannamatta shalea 
 have a well-developed fish fauna — Cleithrolepis, Gosfordia, Semionotus, Dic- 
 tyopyge, Belonorhynchus, etc., together with Labyrinthodonta, Platyceps, 
 Bothriceps, Mastodonsaurus in part of Palseozoic and of Rhsotic affinities. 
 A depauj)erate foraminiferal horizon occurs in the Wiannamatta shales. 
 It is usual to regard these beds of Triassic age in part, possibly slightly older 
 than the Ipswich. 
 
 At Talbragar, New South Wales, beds with Tceniopteris daintreei, Podoza- 
 mites, Palissya, Alithopteris, contain a distinctive fish fauna — Leptolepis, 
 Coccolepis, Aphnelepis, etc., etc. 
 
 Tertiary.- — Terrestrial beds containing plant remains occur in the 
 various StateS' — ^the oldest series occur in tlie deep leads which may date 
 back to late Eocene or early Miocene time. The vegetation of these deposits 
 in Eastern Australia bears considerable resemblance to that of the modern 
 " brushes " and afford evidence of more humid conditions. 
 
 In the late Tertiary and Pleistocene time, the inland plains supported a 
 giant marsupial fauna, together with Eatite h'nds—Diprotodon, Nototherium, 
 members of the Pliascolomidse, Thylacoleo, Macropodidae, Monotremes, 
 such as Proechidna and Ornithorhynchus ; Birds — Dromornis, Genyornis, etc. ; 
 Reptilia — Megalania, Crocodilus, Meiolania, etc. 
 
 The giant members of this fauna have been found in all the states, but 
 are most abundant in the great central plains of Queensland, New South 
 Wales, and South Australia, where their remains are found in old lake basins, 
 mud springs, and river beds. Their destruction was due to great diminution 
 of rainfall which took place in late Pleistocene time. 
 
 8. Australian Cainozoic System. 
 
 By F. Chapman, A.L.S., Palceontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne. 
 
 The Australian Cainozoic system is remarkable for its great development 
 of Miocene sediments. These are interposed between an important but 
 locally developed Oligocene series below, and a more widely extended Pliocene 
 series above. 
 
 In Victoria and South Australia, where the Cainozoic system is 
 best developed, the beds can be subdivided into four principal series, 
 for they are really more than stages, as time and further research 
 may show. Local terms to denote these series have been suggested, as 
 
 C.121.'')4. u
 
 298 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 sliown in the following table, which also gives the probable equivalent to 
 the corresponding European formations, according to the several authors 
 quoted. 
 
 McCoy and Chapman. 
 
 Hall and Pritchard. 
 
 Tate and Dennant. 
 
 Pleistocene 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Upper Pliocene 
 
 man) 
 Lower Pliocene 
 Oligocene 
 
 (Chap- 
 
 Werrikooian (PUocene) 
 
 Kaiimnan (Miocene) 
 Balcombian (Eocene) . . 
 Janjukian (Eocene) 
 
 Pleistocene (Tate) 
 
 PUocene (Dennant) 
 
 Miocene 
 
 Eocene 
 
 ? OUgocene (Tate) 
 
 Eocene (Tate and 
 
 Den- 
 
 Miocene 
 
 
 Aldingan (Eocene 
 part) 
 
 ill 
 
 nant) 
 Eocene in part 
 
 
 Balcombian Series. 
 
 General Characters. — Commencing with the Balcombian, these beds for 
 the most part consist of sands and shelly marls, largely foraminiferal in places, 
 and containing in the shallower deposits a very rich molluscan fauna, together 
 with the remains of fishes, Crustacea, especially ostracoda, polyzoa, echino- 
 derms, gorgonids, corals, sponges, and the foraminifera aforesaid. Inter- 
 calated with the sandy clays and marls are beds of brown coal, which at 
 Altona Bay and Newport, in Victoria, have been proved of considerable 
 thickness. At one bore near Laverton (parish of Truganina, Section VII.), 
 a bed of brown coal was struck at 3-47 feet, having a thickness of 74 feet. 
 A bore at Morwell, in Gippsland, 1,000 feet deep, passed through 888 feet of 
 brown coal. Although the actual age of the latter occurrence has 
 not been proved, it is probably similar to the brown coal of the Port Phillip 
 area. 
 
 Chief Fossils. — (B. = Balcombian ; J. = Janjukian ; K. — Kaiimnan). 
 Lanina apiculata, Carcharodon, Megalodon, Aturia australis (B. — K.), 
 Ancilla psevdaustralis (B. — K.), Valuta hamiltonensis, Fasciolaria lameUifera, 
 Eburnopsis aukicoessa, Cyprcea ampulkicea, C. eximia (B. and J.), Turbo 
 hamiltonensis, Pecten murrayanus (B. — K.), Barbatia celleporacea (B. — K.), 
 Crassatellites dennanti (B. and J.), Chama lameUifera (B. and J.), 
 Magellania coricensis (B. and J.), Clypeaster gippslandicus (B. — K.), 
 Echinolampas gambierensis (B. and J.), Placotrochus deltoideus (B. — K.), 
 Platytrochus vacuus, Bactronella parvula, Amphistegina lessoni (B.— K, most 
 abundant in J.). 
 
 Localities. — The number of outcrops and exposures of the Balcombian 
 series is seen to be very limited when the faunas have been carefully examined. 
 The best-known and most accessible localities are Balcombe's Bay, near 
 Mornington and Grice's Creek, near Frankston, both in Port PhiUip. The 
 gash made through superficial beds by the Muddy Creek, near Hamilton, 
 reveals the lowest beds of the district at Clifton Bank, where they are brought
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 299 
 
 up by a slight monoclinal fold in the otherwise nearly horizontal strata. 
 The beds here have their basement in blue clay containing a rich gasteropod 
 fauna, the clay sometimes containing much glauconite and rolled fragments 
 of polyzoa and cetacean remains. The presence of glauconite points to a 
 fairly deep water origin for this bed. This dark clay bed passes rather 
 rapidly into a brownish sandy marl with a rich moUuscan fauna, gradually 
 becoming more polyzoal in character towards the top, where, as recently 
 found at 20 chains up stream in the Muddy Creek, it passes into the pink 
 and yellow polvzoal limestone of true Janjukiau character, and with foramini- 
 fera of a Burdigalian type. 
 
 The important bore at Sorrento, near the eastern head of Port Phillip, 
 did not at its greatest depth, of 1,693 feet, reach the bottom of the Balcombian 
 Series, which is here between 300 and 400 feet thick, so far as proved. On 
 the other hand, bores at Altona Bay and Williamstown have proved the 
 basement bed as a gritty quartz sand passing up into typical shell marls 
 and blue clays with brown coal. The intercalated terrigenous and estuarine 
 beds of the Balcombian, entitle it to be classed as a fluviomarine series in 
 the areas just named, as much as those beds of similar age in Europe as in 
 the Isle of Wight and Belgian Oligocene ; whilst the North German Oligocene, 
 being largely marine, may be classed with that of the lower beds at Muddy 
 Creek and Sorrento. The Balcombian Series appears to be confined to the 
 State of Victoria. 
 
 Janjukian Series. 
 
 General Characters. — This is by far the most important group in the 
 Australian Cainozoic system, and presents some remarkable and variable 
 phases. On the terrestrial side, the leaf-beds with Cinnamomuin, Laurus, 
 and Sterculia probably come within this series, since stratigraphically the 
 Maddingley leaf-beds seem to graduate into the limestones and marls of the 
 Moorabool River area, finding their place in the Janjukian Series. So that 
 in one area alone, the Geelong — Ballarat gulf and valley, we have fairly 
 deep and clear water deposits, terrigenous shell-bearing beds formed closer 
 inshore, and lacustrine accumulations. 
 
 The Corio Bay, Bairnsdale, and Fyansford fossiliferou.s deposits probably 
 represent the basal part of the Miocene, to the middle of which period I 
 have referred the Janjukian of Torquay and Batesford where, at the former 
 place Spirulirostra occurs, and at the latter, Burdigalian foramiuifera as 
 Lepidocyclina tournoueri and L. tnarginata. In all probaljility. the general 
 polyzoal facies properly belongs to the Middle Miocene. 
 
 At Bird Rock, Torquay, a magnificent cliff section is exposed, showing a 
 vertical succession of 273 feet. The beds form a dome-shaped anticline, 
 the centre of which is at Bird Rock. Forming the lowest of the .series in 
 this area, they can be traced either way along the shore where they pass up 
 into a polyzoal and echinoid limestone with Heteropora, Selenaria, Cellepora 
 (with large ramose and rod-like zoaria), and with Echinocyamus {ScutelUna) 
 patella. 
 
 In other localities enormous deposits of both hard and friable limestone 
 are developed, which point to deposition in a rapidly subsiding marine basin 
 at moderate depths, as witnessed by the presence of the larger shelled
 
 300 Federal Handbook. 
 
 foraminifera. These local foraminiferal deposits, as compared with those in 
 coral reef areas at the present day, seem to indicate any depth between 20 
 and 60 fathoms, whilst the polyzoal rock must have accumulated at a depth 
 averaging 100 fathoms, as borne out by recent dredgings in the Southern 
 Ocean by the Federal Trawler Endeavour. 
 
 As was seen from the previous list of Balcombian fossils, many species 
 range throughout the Cainozoic. Other species are pecuUar to that series, 
 but they are very rare. In the Jaujukian Series, however, a great accession 
 to the number of new forms takes place ; although where the argillaceous 
 conditions of the underlying Balcombian have continued, those older species 
 persist into the newer strata. The limestone facies brings in quite a new 
 population, for that condition of deposition was markedly absent from the 
 Balcombian. The rule which governed the maximum development, gene- 
 rally in the Miocene, of certain fossil types in Em'ope, as Clypeaster for example, 
 obtains here, since in one species, C. gippslandicus, the test is of medium- 
 size in the Balcombian, gigantic in the Janjukian at Bairnsdale, and small 
 again in the Kalimnan. Many other examples could be added, as those of 
 Ldnthia and Spondylus. 
 
 Chief Fossils. — Cetacea — Ziphius geelongensis, Parasqiuilodon wilkinsoni. 
 Fishes — Carcharodon auriculatus, Carcharoides totuserratus. MoUusca — Spiruli- 
 rostra curta (only two other species known, and both from the Miocene, viz., 
 S. bellardii and S. hcernesi), Voluta macroptem, Volutilitkes anticingulatus, 
 Eburnopsis tesselatus, Morio wilsoni, Cyprcea consobrina., C. platyrhyncha, 
 Cerithium pritchardi, Turritella septifraga, Turbo etheridgei, Pleurotomaria 
 tertiaria, Spondylus gcederopoides, Pecten eyrei, Limopsis insolita, Crassatellites 
 oblonga. Brachiopods — Terebratula aldingce, Acantliothyris squamosa. 
 Crustacea — Lepas pritchardi. Vermes — Ditrupa cornea var. wormbetiensis, 
 Serpula ouyenensis. Echinoids — Cidaris australice, Cassidulus australicB, 
 Brissofsis archeri, Eupatagus rotundus. Coral? — Flabellum distitictum, 
 Deltocyathus subviola, Stephanotrochus tatei, Graphularia senescens (J. and K.). 
 Sponges — Ecionema newberyi, Plectroninia halli, Tretocalia pezica. Fora- 
 minifera — Gypsina hoivchini, Rotalia calcar, Amphistegina lessonii, Cyclo- 
 clypeus pustulosus, Lepidocyclina tournoueri, L. tnargitiata. 
 
 Localities. — In Victoria — Spring Creek Series, Torquay (glauconitic and 
 yellow marls, and polyzoal limestone) ; Waurn Ponds (polyzoal limestone and 
 marls) ; Moorabool River and Batesford [Lepidocyclina and polyzoal lime- 
 stone) ; Curlewis (polyzoal limestone and marls with calcareous sponges) ; 
 Grange Burn, Hamilton (polyzoal Limestone with Lepidocyclina andA7nphis- 
 tegina) ; Fhnders (polyzoal limestone with calcareous sponges) ; Flemington, 
 lower beds (fossihferous ironstone) ; Keilor (foraminiferal Limestone) ; Aire 
 coastal series (marls and lignitic clays) ; Birregurra (grey and yellow marls) ; 
 Bairnsdale {Amphistegina limestone and yellow fossiliferous marls) ; Corio 
 Bay and Fyansford (yellow marls) ; bores in Mallee (white, polyzoal hme- 
 stone and glauconitic marls). 
 
 In South Austraha — Mount Gambler (white polyzoal limestone) ; Aldinga, 
 lower beds (clays, glauconite marls, and limestones) ; banks of Murray River 
 (polyzoal Umestone) ; Murray desert. 
 
 Tasmania — Table Cape, near Wynyard, includes Crassatellites bed and 
 overlying Turritella bed.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 301. 
 
 Probably the New Soutb Wales leaf-beds (Dalton and Gunning) belong 
 here. Their flora is largely that of Bacchus Marsh, Narracan, Berwick, 
 Pitfield, Cobungra, Dargo, and Bogong. 
 
 Kalimnan Series. 
 
 General Characters. — In the Sorrento bore the Janjukian marls pass in- 
 sensibly upwards into the Kalimnan, without much lithological change ; 
 and by their containing a considerable amount of glauconite, denote that they 
 were formed in moderately deep water. At Beaumaris, however, where these 
 beds are well exposed in the chfi face, the rock is a yellow sandy marl, with 
 numerous shells and sharks' teeth and occasional bands of fossils. The beds 
 at Beaumaris are shallower in character, and evidence of current action is 
 afforded by a nodule bed with numerous fish-teeth and rolled fossils at the 
 base of the series. This nodule bed exactly corresponds in stratigraphical 
 position with that at Muddy Creek and Grange Burn. The Kalimnan series 
 at the latter localities consist of quite shallow water deposits, with Mytiliis, 
 Natica, Nassa, and Barnea ; whilst the thick-shelled Trigonia howitli is 
 further evidence in support of its shallow water origin. By the presence of 
 Scaldicetus and other cetacean remains, the Lower Phocene age of this series 
 as stated originally by McCoy, is substantiated. 
 
 Chief Fossils. — Cetacea — Scaldicetus tnacgeei, Physetodon haileyi. Fishes 
 — Oxyrhina hastalis, Galeocerdo aduncus, Cestracion cainozoicus, Diodon for- 
 mosus. MoUusca — Ancilla papillata, Valuta fulgetroides, V. masoni, Fustis 
 gippslandicus, Natica cunninghamensis, Eglisia triplicata, Dentalium largi- 
 crescens, Pecten antiaustralia, Perna percrassa, Glycimeris halli, Trigonia 
 margaritacea var. acuticostata, Sunetta gibberula, Macira hamiltonensis. 
 Corals — Tretnatotrochus clarhei, Notophyllia gracilis. 
 
 Localities. — Upper beds. Muddy Creek ; upper series at Shelf ord ; lower 
 Glenelg Eiver ; Beaumaris ; Gippsland lakes ; bores in Mallee, at 100 to 
 250 feet ; Sorrento bore, at 585 to 741 feet (circ.) ; upper Murray cliffs ; 
 Adelaide ; Haddon, Vict, (deep leads with plant remains). 
 
 Werrikooian Series. 
 
 In Upper Pliocene times the southern part of the continent had risen 
 considerably, and corresponding denudation took place. The country must 
 have supported a rich fauna, largely marsupial, of which we have evidence in 
 Phascolomys pliocenus, of the Dunolly Gold Drift. The type locahty of the 
 Werrikooian is Limestone Creek, Glenelg River, where a rich marine molluscan 
 fauna, with a large percentage of living species is found. The Upper beds of 
 Moorabool Viaduct appear to belong here. 
 
 Pleistocene. 
 
 The inland and coastal deposits such as cave floors, volcanic tuffs, and 
 consolidated dunes afford evidence of many extinct and living marsupial 
 genera, among the former being Nototherium, Diprolodon, Procoptodon, and 
 Palorchestes ; while the giant emu — Genyornis — occurs in the Diprotodon 
 swamps of Lake Callabonna, South Australia, and also at Mount Gambler, 
 and in Queensland. Remains of Dromornis, a struthious bird as large as 
 the moa, occurs in the PUocene of Queensland, New South Wales, and South
 
 302 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Australia. The volcauic tuffs of Tower Hill, Victoria, must be very late 
 Pleistocene, for they overlie beds of marine shells identical in species with 
 those now found living a short distance away on the sea-coast. 
 
 The physiographicai results of a study of the Cainozoics show that 
 in Oligocene times the land suffered much oscillation, subsidence being 
 sometimes in evidence, at others elevation. The climate was then 
 warm-temperate to sub-tropical. With the Miocene was ushered in a great 
 steady movement of subsidence, as shown by the great limestone series, 
 with only occasional elevation, when the dynamical movements expressed 
 themselves in volcanic outbursts, the older basalt filling up the valleys both 
 inland and coastal, as at Dargo and Flinders respectively. The climate 
 was probably warm-temperate. In the Lower Pliocene or Kalimnan times, 
 elevation re-commenced, and gave rise to the shell-banks and shallow-water 
 marls. The molluscan genera at this time indicate a climate similar to that 
 now enjoyed. In Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene times, there is evidence 
 for the belief that the climate became even colder than now, due probably 
 to uplift, for estuarine sands found in the Mallee borings, perhaps 300 feet 
 above sea level indicate a sub-temperate faimal character. 
 
 9. Igneous Rocks. 
 
 By T. W. Edgeworth David, C.M.G., D.Sc, F.R.S., and Eniest W. Skeats, 
 D.Sc, A.R.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Melbourne. 
 
 Pre-Cambrian. 
 
 The oldest known volcanic rocks in the Commonwealth are those of the 
 Norseman and other regions of the great gold-bearing belts in the southern 
 part of Western Australia. These are of the nature of amygdaloidal dole- 
 rites associated with contemporaneous tufi. Further north, as at Kalgoorlie 
 and Coolgardie, these volcanic rocks have been altered into hornblende and 
 chlorite schists, commonly spoken of as the " greenstone " schists, and it is 
 in them that most of the payable gold-bearing belts occur. In the Pilbara 
 district, rocks of this type belong to a lower division of the Algonkian group, 
 known as the Warrawoona series. This is followed by a later Algonkian 
 series — the Mosquito series — in which the Pre-Cambrian group terminates in 
 that district. Plutonic rocks are also widely represented in the Pre-Cam- 
 brian group. For example, in Western Australia there are huge belts of 
 granite passing into gneiss and traversed by veins of pegmatite. In places 
 the granite intersects older diorite rocks. In other places, as at Kalgoorlie, 
 serpentine occurs in the same group. The interesting observation has been 
 made, at the Phillips Eiver gold-field, on the south coast of Western Aus- 
 tralia, that the local granite is of a very marked albite type, in fact it is almost 
 devoid of any potash, but relatively high in soda. In the same region a 
 quartz-ceratophyre has been identified, and the interesting question here 
 suggests itself as to whether we may not have representatives of the third 
 great division of igneous rocks — third in relation to the well recognised alkali 
 and calcic types, namely the spilitic suite. From the Blyth Range, a myrme- 
 kite granite has been described, showing gridiron structure of quartz-felspar 
 intergrowth, not original, and like that of similar granites, probably Archaean, 
 in Sweden and Finland. It may be added that in the Phillips River
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 303 
 
 gold-field albite-pegmatite is of common occurrence, in which, coarsely 
 crystalline spodumene is associated with the albite. All these rocks are of 
 Pre-Cambrian age. 
 
 In reference to its Pre-Cambrian igneous rocks, the State of South Aus- 
 traUa is considered to be a petrographical province, the characteristic feature 
 of which is the high percentage of titanium oxide, and, to a less degree, the 
 abundance of soda. The rock which has given rise to these Pre-Cambrian 
 igneous rocks may be termed the Houghton magma. From it have been 
 produced ilmenite-diopside-diorite, ilmenite-diopside-syenite, ilmenite-sphene- 
 actinolite-pegmatites, and ilmenite-felspar-quartz pegmatites with ilmenite 
 quartz-veins. 
 
 The rocks of this Houghton magma are traversed by veins of " yatalite," 
 a pegmatite formed of uralitic actinolite (after diopside) albite containing 
 microcUne, titaniferous magnetite, sphene and quartz. The actinolite is in 
 large subidimorphic paramorphs after diopside. Gneissic normal granite 
 pegmatite is associated with the " yatalite." 
 
 At Olary, a highly- titaniferous uranium-bearing mineral, davidite, occurs 
 in a pegmatite vein, intruding Pre-Cambrian quartzite. 
 
 In addition there are present in this area epi-granites, diopside-diorites, 
 granodiorites, hornblende-diorites approaching monzonite, mica-diorite, bio- 
 tite-syenite, epi-syenite, and diopside-quartz-syenite with epidote. 
 
 The most typical rock of this series — the diopside-diorite — is interesting 
 in view of its high content of soda (5 "34 per cent.), and titanium oxide (3 "ll 
 per cent.) 
 
 The magmatic name is tonalose. 
 
 In the Pre-Cambrian rocks of Tasmania, it is a singular fact that as far as 
 is at present known, there is an entire absence of any kind of igneous rock 
 whatsoever, with the single exception, perhaps, of the garnet-zoisite-amphi- 
 bolite, which occurs just above Hamilton, on the left bank of the River Forth 
 in the north-west of Tasmania. In Victoria, gneisses intruded by granitic 
 rocks occur near the western border of the State, in the county Dundas, as 
 well as in Gippsland, in north-eastern Victoria. At Broken Hill, on the 
 south-western border of New South Wales, the augen-gneisses are Pre- 
 Cambrian. In the Macdonnell Ranges, augen-gneisses traversed by very 
 coarse pegmatites, with mica crystals in places up to 2 feet or more in 
 diameter, are widely distributed. Large crystals of beryl, and occasionally 
 tinstone, are associated with the pegmatite. These rocks are traversed by 
 micropegmatites, granulitic pyroxene diorites, diorites, gabbros, dolerites, 
 and amphibolites — all are probably Pre-Cambrian. 
 
 Cambrian. 
 
 Perhaps the most extensive lava flows as yet recorded from the Common- 
 wealth belong to this system. They are represented at Nullagine, in the 
 Pilbara gold-field, where they occur a short distance above the basal gold- 
 bearing and diamond-bearing conglomerates. They are partly acid rocks, 
 and partly dolerites. In the Kimberley district, there are very large areas 
 covered by what is called the great Antrim plateau basalt. At Mount 
 Panton, this series of basic lavas and tuffs is capped by beds of somewhat 
 phosphatic Salterella limestone. In Northern Territory there is a great series
 
 304: Federal Handbook. 
 
 of basalts and dacites associated with beds of volcanic tuff and agglomerate, 
 the blocks of which are up to 4 feet in diameter. The thickness and fuU 
 extent of this vast series and its petrological character is as yet almost wholly- 
 unknown, but there is little doubt that it is part of the great Antrim plateau 
 group. 
 
 In the account of Cambrian rocks, reference has been made to the Heath- 
 cotian series of igneous rocks in Victoria. In the type locality altered basic 
 submarine lavas or diabases predominate and are associated with altered 
 submarine diabase tuffs, schalsteins, agglomerates, and minor diorite intru- 
 sions. 
 
 Interbedded with the diabases are black cherts, some containing radiolaria 
 and at any rate in part derived by metasomatic alteration of diabase ash, 
 while the diabase is in places silicified to jasper. At Heathcote, these rocks 
 are invaded by micro granite, which may be genetically related to the diabase 
 series. Near Heathcote, the diabase at its margin passes into " selwynite," 
 a green alteration product containing a green chrome-bearing micaceous 
 mineral, chromite, pyroxene, together with corundum. Corundum also 
 occurs with chromite in the serpentine area, near Mount WelUngton in North 
 Gippsland, which is pre-Upper Ordovician, and may be Heathcotian in age. 
 The quarries on Mount William, north of Lancefield, from which the aborigines 
 manufactured tomahawks, occur in a similar diabase with interbedded black 
 cherts and cherty shales, containing protospongia and radiolaria. Similar 
 associations of diabase and cherts occur at Mount Major, near Dookie, and 
 at Mount Stavely, while serpentinous diabase occurs at the Hum- 
 mocks, north of Casterton, in Western Victoria. The whole assemblage of 
 these Heathcotian series is strongly suggestive of a spiUte suite, but chemical 
 analyses of the rocks are not yet available. In Tasmania, probable equiva- 
 lents of the Heathcotian volcanic series of Victoria are developed at North 
 Dundas, Zeehan, the Leven gorge, etc., in the north-west and west of the 
 island. These are known as the porphyroid series, and consist of dynamically 
 altered quartz and felspar porphyries, amygdaloidal diabase (spilite ?), breccias 
 tuffs, and tufaceous slates, together with intrusive syenites and granites. 
 
 Ordovician. 
 
 Igneous rocks possibly of this age have been described in South Australia 
 from the Blinman mining field as melaph}Tes, oUvine-diabase, granuhtic- 
 diabase, gabbro-diabase. These are perhaps related to the dykes of amphi- 
 boiite with scapolitised felspar from the New Era mine, near Woodside. In 
 Victoria, if the Heathcotian series is of Cambrian age, there are no 
 known igneous rocks of Ordovician age. Basic agglomerates from Mount 
 Arrowsmith, in New South Wales may also be Ordovician. At the Lynd- 
 huxst gold-field, near Mandurama, in New South Wales, there is an immense 
 development of contemporaneous basic tuff in the Upper Ordovician black 
 cherty graptolitic and radiolarian rocks. In the same state, at Cadia, near 
 Orange, two sheets of andesite lava, 30 feet thick, interbedded in the upper 
 Ordovician graptolite slates give evidence of contemporaneous volcanic 
 activity. They are associated with a deposit of iron ore, estimated to contain 
 about 40,000,000 tons of ore. At Forest Reefs, near Orange, this group of lavas 
 and tuffs attains a great thickness.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 305 
 
 Silurian. 
 In Victoria no definite evidence of contemporaneous igneous rocks of 
 Silurian age has yet been forthcoming. It is possible that the alkali granites 
 of Victoria, which as far as is known intrude the Ordovician and older rocks 
 but not the Silurian series, may be of Silurian age. 
 
 Devonian. 
 Lower Devonian. 
 In Victoria there occurs a wonderful development of igneous rocks, which 
 have been referred to this period. It was a time of great earth movement in 
 Victoria, when the older Palaeozoic rocks were much folded, and it is probable 
 that the intrusion and extrusion of igneous magma accompanied the move- 
 ment of folding while the gold deposits appear also to be genetically related 
 to the igneous intrusions and the gold quartz veins filled fissures which 
 resulted from the folding movements or igneous invasions. Volcanic, dyke, 
 and plutonic rocks are abundantly represented. 
 
 The Volcanic i^oc^-s.— These include the following series : — 
 
 The Snowy River Porphyries. — These are acid lavas, mostly rhyoUtes 
 and tufis, in places over 2,000 feet in thickness. They were erupted 
 from a chain of volcanoes, perhaps comparable to the Andes, and 
 situated on a probable hue of fissure trending nearly north and south 
 through Eastern Victoria, near and along the Snowy River. Their 
 worn-down stumps are now preserved in mountains like the Cobberas, 
 Wombargo, Mount Hotham, etc., while the granite porphyries of 
 Mount Taylor, Mount Alfred, etc., near Bairnsdale may represent 
 the plugs of some of the volcanoes of this series. Probably of 
 similar age are the rocks of Noyang, on the Tambo River, in Eastern 
 Gippsland. These include intrusive as well as volcanic types, and 
 consist of quartz porphyrites and quartz granophyrites. These 
 rocks show a great preponderance of soda over potash and may 
 be described as ceratophyres and quartz-ceratophyres 
 The Dacite, Quartz-porphyrite Series. — This series is developed in Central 
 Victoria from sporadic centres. Fragmental rocks are scarce, except 
 in the Lilydale district, and no volcanic necks have been located. 
 The rocks consist of thousands of feet of rocks, mainly volcanic, 
 but probably in part intrusive. The chief areas are Mount 
 Macedon, the Dandenong Hills, Healesville, and Warburton. 
 the Cerberean Range, the northern part of the Strathbogies, and 
 near Whitfield, in Delatite. At Mount Macedon, the Dandenongs, 
 Healesville, and Warburton, the rocks consist of hypersthene-biotite 
 dacites, biotite dacites, and quartz-porphyrites. In the Strath- 
 bogies and in Delatite, garnet accompanies the quartz porphyrites, 
 and here they are overlain by Lower Carboniferous sandstones. 
 Probably the most complete sequence occurs near Lilydale, where 
 fragmental rocks are abundant, and the earlier eruptions consisted 
 of alkali dacites or toscanites, with about 7 per cent, of alkalies 
 equally divided between potash and soda, quartz porphyrites 
 followed, and the volcanic activity concluded with the eruption of 
 normal hypersthene biotite dacites.
 
 306 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Hypabyssal Rocks. — Many of the granites and grano-diorites have 
 marginal apophyses of quartz porphyry, pegmatites, etc., penetrating 
 the invaded sediments. Of more economic importance are the altered 
 tvpes of dykes, some of which carry gold-quartz veins which have 
 proved highlv auriferous. Among these are the propyitised horn- 
 blende porphyrite of Woods Point and Gaffney's Creek, and the 
 sericitic quartz-porphpy of the Diamond Creek mine, near Mel- 
 bourne. The periodotites of Aberfeldy, the cupriferous 
 hornblende amphibolites of the Thomson River, and the horn- 
 blende picrite of Sheep Station creek, near Omeo, may belong to 
 this period. 
 Plutonic Rocks. — ^As stated in the stratigraphical part, the alkali granites, 
 so far as is known, do not penetrate Silurian rocks, and may be of 
 Silurian age, but there are petrographic grounds for associating 
 them with the grano-diorites and adamellites, many of which are 
 Post Silurian, and some of which, possibly all, are Pre-Lower Car- 
 boniferous. 
 The alkali granites, in which orthoclase predominates over plagioclase 
 and potash generally over soda, include the masses of Mount 
 Buffalo, Cape Woolamai, Gabo Island, and certain masses near 
 Geelong, such as the You Yangs, the Dog Rocks, and an area near 
 Ceres. 
 Certain diabases or epidiorites occur at Ceres and the Dog Rocks, which 
 were formerly referred to theHeathcotian, but since they are probably 
 genetically related to the alkali granites of these areas are now 
 included with them in this place. Adamellites are known to occur 
 near Violet Town and Nillahcootie, in north-eastern Victoria ; at 
 Trawool, Ingliston, north of Bacchus Marsh, and at Broadmeadows, 
 near Melbourne. 
 The grano-diorite masses, with which many of the gold-fields appear 
 to be genetically related are represented among other areas by the 
 big mass south of Bendigo, including Harcourt, from which the rock 
 is quarried for building stone, by an area near Pyalong, Bulla, 
 Macedon, south of Mount Dandenong, and south of Warburton. 
 In the three latter areas the grano-diorite is genetically related to 
 the dacites, but is intrusive into them. 
 In New South Wales in the type district for Silurian rocks, that of Yass, 
 dacitic tuffs containing contemporaneous corals and siliceous sponges are 
 developed on a large scale. Individual beds aggregate several hundreds 
 of feet in thickness. They are intruded by sills of porphyrite and granodiorite. 
 Again, at Jenolan Caves, there is a considerable development of basic and 
 intermediate tuffs with lavas, immediately underlying the Pentamenis lime- 
 stone in which the caves are situated. Corals and crinoids are scattered 
 through these tufEs. Most of these Hmestones of Jenolan, Yass, etc., repre- 
 sent old fringing coral reefs, and it is clear that these grew partly over banks 
 of volcanic tuff and lava, The granites of the southern tableland of New 
 South Wales, like that of Cooma, which are Post Ordovician and Pre-Devonian, 
 probably belong here, as do the miarolitic granites of Parkes, which are 
 Post Ordovician, and capped by Devonian rocks.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 307 
 
 Middle Devonian. 
 
 In the Buchaii series of Victoria there is a considerable development of 
 felsite lavas called felsitic tufis and breccias, which pass upwards into the 
 Buchan limestone series. These vary from 750 up to 1,000 feet in thickness. 
 Diabases and andesites also occur. In New South Wales, in radiolarian rocks 
 of this age, there is a great thickness of tuff now proved to be of spilitic origin, 
 like the piUow-lava of the British Isles. These Tamworth rocks also contain 
 basic spilites. The whole series, including some marine beds of coral reef 
 hmestone, is estimated to be about 9,000 feet in thickness. 
 
 Upper Devonian. 
 
 In Victoria, at Mount Wellington, a great thickness, up to 2,000 feet, of 
 acid lavas, rhyolites, and quartz-porphyrites, extend north-westward towards 
 Mansfield. These lavas are proved to be probably Upper Devonian by the 
 presence of the fossil Lepidodendron australe. Melaphyres, quite subordinate 
 in importance to the rhyolites, are also met with in this series. 
 
 In New South Wales, rhyolites and basalts of this age occur at Yalwal. 
 
 Devonian Plutonic. 
 
 In Tasmania large masses of serpentine and granite were intruded, perhaps 
 in Devonian time. 
 
 The serpentine is generally a peripheral mantle of serpentinised gabbroid 
 and ultrabasic rocks surrounding the granite masses on the west coast. 
 Occasionally between the granite and serpentine is an aureole of actinolitic 
 rock. There is the clearest evidence that the ultra-basic rock consolidated 
 before the granite. 
 
 This granite, unlike that of the porphyroid series, is uncrushed. 
 
 This granite is mostly tin-bearing. A remarkable feature about the 
 serpentine is that it not only contains nickel and osmiridian, but, at Dundas, 
 has tin ores associated with it. 
 
 Carboniferous. 
 
 In Victoria, the granodiorites and granodiorite-porphyrites of Mount 
 WiUiam, in the Grampians, have recently been shown to be intrusions into 
 the Grampians sandstones. In addition, sills, dykes, and possibly lava flows 
 of quartz porphyry occur in the sandstone. These igneous rocks there are 
 post Lower Carboniferous in age, and include the youngest series of plutonic 
 rocks known in Victoria. Possibly the quartz-porphyries of Grangeburn, 
 near Hamilton, and other localities in Western Victoria, may belong to the 
 same period of intrusion. 
 
 In New South Wales there is a wonderful development of lavas and tufl's, 
 all through this massive system which aggregates at least 20,000 feet in thick- 
 ness. Its upper portion is formed very largely of rhyolite lavas and coarse 
 acid tuffs, passing in places into hypersthene andesite. Immense sills of 
 quartz-porphyry intersect this bedded series. Beds of arkose-like tuffs of 
 great thickness, which at first sight appear to be granite but which are really 
 acid tuffs, contribute considerably to the thickness of the system. It would 
 appear that acid eruptions were in ])r()gress on a very grand scale in New 
 South Wales during this period. Mount Spiriby, the highest point of Mount
 
 308 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Capoompeta in New England, is formed of rhyolite of this age. The andesites 
 and rhyolites of the Drake gold-field are possibly Carboniferous, but may 
 belong to the base of the Permo-Carboniferous system. In Queensland, 
 lavas of the nature of amygdaloidal dolerites and agglomerates, in places 
 containing metallic copper and carbonate of copper in the steam holes, are 
 interstratified with sedimentary rocks at Mount Toussaint, in the Bowen 
 coal-field. 
 
 Plutonic. 
 
 In New England, the immense belt of serpentine which stretches in a 
 nearly continuous belt for fully 150 miles from Bingara to Nundle, is either 
 of very late Devonian, or of Carboniferous age, and forms a mantle curving 
 sympathetically with the huge intrusive batholiths and sills of granite of 
 the New England tableland. On the eastern margins of the New England 
 granites are large outlying masses of serpentine, on the Manning, Hastings, 
 and Clarence Rivers. There is clear evidence here, as in Tasmania, that the 
 granite has consolidated within a discontinuous ring of serpentine. In New 
 England, there are three varieties of granite belonging perhaps to this period, 
 the oldest being a bluish-grey biotite-hornblende-pyroxene granite-porphyry. 
 This occurs perhaps as a huge sill : it was followed by widespread intrusions 
 of sphene granite, full of dark, basic segregations. This in turn was intruded, 
 probably in Permo-Carboniferous time, by an acid granite, containing up 
 to 80 per cent, of SiOg. The silica percentage in this group ranges from 
 about 65 to 80. Most of the granites of Queensland may belong to this 
 period. 
 
 Permo-Carboniferous (Permian). 
 
 Plutonic and Hypabyssal. 
 
 The intrusion of the acid granites, as already stated, had taken place 
 in Permo-Carboniferous time. Possibly some of the Queensland tin-bearing 
 granites belong to this age, as well as the diorite dykes which have intruded 
 the Lower Permo-Carboniferous rocks of the Gympie gold-field, also in Queens- 
 land. 
 
 Volcanic. 
 
 In New South Wales, the great coal basin which separates the New England 
 massif from the Bathurst-Monaro massif was the scene of eruptions of lavas 
 and tufis in Permo-Carboniferous time. At Harper's Hill, 7 miles west of 
 West Maitland, coarse andesite tufis and agglomerates are interstratified in 
 the Lower Marine Series, and hyperstheneandesite, as well as natrolite basalt 
 with datolite are intercalated in the upper part of this series below the horizon 
 of the Greta coal measures. 
 
 An important group of alkaline eruptives occurs in the Cambewarra- 
 Kiama districts, to the south of Sydney. This is partly contemporaneous 
 with the top of the Upper Marine Series (shells of Cleobis grandis and Chenomya 
 occurring abundantly in the basal tuffs, and partly with the Bulli coal 
 measures. The series of lavas and tuffs, about 1,000 feet thick, shows the 
 following sequence, the oldest being mentioned first : — orthoclase-basalts, 
 or latites, the total alkalies ranging up to over 9 per cent., of which from 2 per 
 cent, to nearly 5 per cent, are potash. These lavas range in composition
 
 Geolo&y of the Commonwealth. 309 
 
 from shoshonose to mouzonose, having points of resemblance to the rocks 
 of the Yellowstone region, United States of America, the trachydolerites in 
 part, and also being comparable with the "Ciminites" and " Vulsinites " of 
 Italy. These earlier eruptions of alkaline, not very basic rocks, were asso- 
 ciated with sills of monzonite, and possibly as the result of progressive dif- 
 ferentiation) produced later, perhaps in Triassic time, peralkaline rocks like 
 nepheline-syenite and tinguaite, as sills (the alkalies being 10 per cent, to 
 15 per cent.) on the one hand, and monchiquite dykes (alkalies under 4 per 
 cent.) on the other. Both these types intrude the Permo-Carboniferous and 
 Triassic rocks, and may be related to the Mittagong Post-Triassic Series, to 
 be described later. 
 
 Still later basalts were erupted of a much less alkaline type. At Mur- 
 rurundi, in New South Wales, there were extensive eruptions of basic tuff and 
 lavas near the horizon probably of the Newcastle coal measures, the latter 
 containing much chert formed by the alteration of powdered felspar and 
 volcanic glass. 
 
 Triassic. 
 
 Volcanic. — In New South Wales there is a considerable development of 
 more or less fine volcanic tuff in the lower division of the Trias, known as the 
 Narrabeen stage. These tufis are distinctly basic in character, and like the 
 lavas of the Permo-Carboniferous, contain metallic copper. Through re- 
 distribution in water the tuffs have passed into the characteristic chocolate 
 shale, so well seen at Long Reef and Narrabeen, etc., to the north of Manly. 
 
 Jurassic. 
 
 At Brisbane there is a considerable development of coarse rhyolite tufi, 
 in the heart of the city itself, as at the Leichhardt quarries. Fossil trees 
 completely carbonized are found embedded in the tufi. The tufis are followed 
 by basic lavas. It is as yet uncertain whether the Brisbane tufis belong to 
 the Trias or to the Jura system. To the south of Brisbane, in the direction of 
 Mount Flinders and the Macpherson Ranges, trachytes are interbedded in 
 the Jurassic rocks and are associated with TcBniopteris daintreei. 
 
 In Victoria, the Jurassic rocks were penetrated in a bore to a depth of 
 over 3,000 feet, 60 miles easterly from Melbourne. The Jurassic strata, 
 chiefly felspathic sandstones, are uniform in character over the state and 
 have been shown to contain abundant fragments of undecomposed felspar, 
 presumably of tufaceous origin. The source of all this tuff has not yet been 
 discovered. 
 
 Jurassic (?) (possibly Triassic). 
 
 Tasmania. — Rocks of foyaitic magma are represented by the Port Cygnet 
 series. These rocks are considered to be perhaps of Lower Mesozoic age. 
 
 At Regatta Point, Port Cygnet, the following occur : — Augite syenite, poor 
 in quartz ; nepheline syenite, essexite, jacupirangite facies of nepheliiie 
 syenite, melanite-hauy-syenite porphyry, garnet-bearing mica solvsbergitc, 
 tinguaite, garnet tinguaite porphyry, ncphelinite, etc. These rocks are all 
 strongly intrusive into the Permo-Carboniferous series, but their relations 
 to the Jurassic sedimentary rocks and to the diabase have not yet been clearly 
 demonstrated.
 
 310 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Hypahyssal. — The close of Jurassic time was marked by one of the most 
 wonderful manifestations of eruptive force of which we have evidence any- 
 where in the Commonwealth. The vast sills of dolerite, partly hiinne- 
 diabase, that is an enstatite-augite diabase, partly konga-diabase, the latter 
 containing normal pyroxene and granophyric intergrowths, probably may 
 be referred here. These rocks have disrupted the Jurassic strata of Tasmania 
 on a grand scale, and as individual sills are in some cases fully 500 
 feet in thickness and of immense lateral extent, portions of the Jurassic 
 sandstones overlying them must have floated on this heavy magma like 
 icebergs in a polar sea. As already suggested, these intrusions may 
 have accompanied the breaking in of the big land bridges of Gondwana Land, 
 which formerly joined Australia to India, South Africa, South America, and 
 Antarctica. 
 
 Cretaceous. — No volcanic rocks of this age are known anvwhere in the 
 Commonwealth, with perhaps the single exception of the so-called Desert 
 sandstones, like those of Port Mackay, in Queensland. It has been stated 
 that part of these sandstones is built up of trachytic tuff. 
 
 Caixozoic. 
 
 A great variety of volcanic rocks belong to this era, especially in Eastern 
 Australia and Tasmania. In lower Cainozoic time there were extensive out- 
 flows of basalts and eruptions of basic tuff. These are spoken of by the Vic- 
 torian geologists as the older basalts. Probably the older basalts of New 
 South Wales, and perhaps Queensland belong to this series. It is doubtful 
 whether the series is represented either in South Australia, Tasmania, or 
 Western Australia. In Victoria, where they have been most fully described 
 they are developed at Melbourne itself at Royal Park, Essendon, Broad- 
 meadows, and Keilor, where they occur underneath the lower Cainozoic fos- 
 siliferous sediments. They occur also near Geelong, as at Curlewis, at French 
 Island and Phillip Island. At Cape Schanck, a bore penetrated them for 
 over 800 feet, while at Flinders another bore was discontinued after passing 
 through no less than 1,300 ft. of older basalt. They are widespread in south- 
 east Gippsland, as at Buln Buln, Leongatha, Neerim, Mirboo, etc., while in 
 north Gippsland they cap the plateau sometimes at elevations of 5,000 feet 
 as at Mount Feathertop and Dargo high plains. Their chemical composi- 
 tion, so far as is known is normal, but occasionally crystals of anorthoclase 
 are present. In texture, they range from tachylyte to coarse dolerites and 
 their decomposition provides rich soils. In the fresh state they are quarried 
 in places for road metal. Although in part apparently sub-marine, they do 
 not, as far as is yet observed show affinities with the spilites. In New South 
 Wales, there is a considerable development of older basalts overlying leaf 
 beds first considered to be of Eocene age, though later there have been adduced 
 strong reasons for considering that these leaf beds may be of somewhat newer 
 age. They are typically developed in the New England district of New 
 South Wales, where for the most part they consist of reddish decomposed 
 amygdaloidal basic lavas, passing in places into dense columnar basalts. 
 Frequently these New England lavas are capped by beds of laterite passing 
 into bauxite and in places into pisolitic iron ore. These laterites mostly 
 represent basalt tuffs.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 311 
 
 Middle Cainozoic. 
 
 This is a most remarkable group of volcanic rocks which, in eastern Aus- 
 tralia and Tasmania, is distinctly of alkali characters. Rocks of this age 
 and character extend at intervals from Casterton and Coleraine in western 
 Victoria, through Mount Macedon and Omeo. In New South Wales they are 
 met at Bowral, the Canobolas, Warrumbungle Mountains, Nandewar Ranges, 
 the MacPherson Ranges. In Queensland they trend through Mount Flinders, 
 the Fassifern districts. East Moreton, Wide Bay, the Glass House mountains. 
 Mount Larcombe, Yeppoon to Clermont and Springsure, in North Queens- 
 land. The total distance over which they have been traced is over 1,200 
 miles. 
 
 Victoria. — In the Western District anorthoclase-aegirine-trachytes occur 
 in a number of areas, including the neighbourhood of Carapook, Coleraine, 
 Mount Koroite, Koolomert, and " the Giant Rock," at Wotong Vale. The 
 hills of Adam and Eve, near Coleraine consist of anorthoclase olivine basalt 
 traversed by a trachyte dyke, but at Mount Koroite and at Koolomert, the 
 basic lavas appear to rest upon the trachytes. 
 
 The Mount Macedon alkali province in Central Victoria has been more 
 closely studied than any similar area in Australia. Fragmental rocks are 
 practically absent and the lava flows and intrusives were poured out over or 
 intruded into a Palaeozoic complex of Ordovician sediments, and Devonian 
 dacites and grano-diorites. The sequence from below upwards appears to 
 be as follows :■ — ^Anorthoclase aegirine trachyte, volcanic plugs or mamelons 
 of solvsbergite, anorthoclase basalt and two new rock types, macedonite and 
 woodendite, followed by anorthoclase-olivine trachyte, olivine anorthoclase 
 trachyte and limburgite, the volcanic history of the area terminating with 
 the pouring out of calcic newer basalts of probably Pleistocene age. The 
 new types, macedonite and woodendite, present similarities to the orthoclase 
 basalts, and closer resemblance to the mugearites. They contain alkali 
 felspars associated with biotite and olivine, and have a high content of phos- 
 phorus and titanium. 
 
 Possibly the monchiquite dykes which come up the axes of the anticlines 
 in the mining fields of Bendigo and Castlemaine, etc., may be genetically 
 related to these alkali rocks. 
 
 In north-eastern Victoria alkali rocks probably of similar age to those of 
 Mount Macedon, occur near Mansfield, Omeo, and Mount Leinster, in Beiiambra. 
 
 About 15 miles north-east from Mansfield, in the Tolmie highlands, 
 Gallows Hill has recently been shown to consist of a volcanic hill with lava 
 flows of nepheline phonolite. At Barwite, east of Mansfield, a similar nepheline 
 phonolite appears to occur as a dyke, but its field relations have not yet been 
 studied. 
 
 At Frenchman's Hill, just north of Omeo, a volcanic hill with central 
 core of solvsbergite has on its flanks flows of anorthoclase trachyte, and a 
 more or less radial sy.stem of dykes, including pi^gmatites, quartz veins, 
 bostonites, diabase, trachytes, and nepheline phonolite. They have been 
 described as of Paltoozoic age, but are almost certainly Cainozoic. The phono- 
 lites of Omeo, Gallows Hill, and Barwite are the only ones as yet known in 
 Victoria.
 
 312 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In Benambra at Mount Leinster, another volcanic hill includes solvsbergites 
 anorthoclase trachytes, and interesting dyke rocks, some allied to variolite,' 
 and as in the case of Frenchman's Hill, this series has been regarded as of 
 Palaeozoic age, but is probably Oainozoic. 
 
 In the Mittagong-Bowral district of New South Wales, there is an impor- 
 tant suite of eruptive alkaline rocks, all of which are intrusive into the Triassic 
 sediments. They are chiefly developed at Glib Rock, and Mount Jellore 
 respectively, 2,830 feet, and 2,734 feet high, both of which represent pro- 
 bably the denuded plugs of old volcanoes or dome eruptions, probably the 
 latter. The sequence has been as follows : the oldest rocks being mentioned 
 first : — ■ 
 
 1. Alkaline rocks of intermediate composition — -{a) Syenite, allied to 
 
 bostonite, magmatic name boxanolose, containing iduorspar and 
 occasional hydro-carbons, in addition to orthoclase, arfvedsonite 
 aegirine, magnetite and ilmenite ; (6) iEgirine-arfvedsonite-quartz 
 trachytes. The total alkalies in the above two rocks range from 
 10 per cent, to 12 per cent. 
 
 2. Basic sub-alkaline rocks, with 46 per cent. SiOz, total alkalies 
 
 about 5 per cent. These rocks are essexites, with primary analcite . 
 
 3. Basic rocks — ■ 
 
 (a) Basalts and dolerites, SiOg, 43 per cent., alkalies 3 per cent. 
 
 (b) Picrites SiOo, 40 per cent, alkalies 2 per cent. 
 
 Next on the western side of the Blue Mountains there lies a series of very 
 perfect laccolites in the form of dome -shaped hills, like Mount Stormy and 
 others, which are formed largely of nepheline, aegirine, a little anorthoclase, 
 and a considerable amount of analcite. These have been described as syenitic 
 tinguaites. Still further west, in the locality of the Canobolas, near Orange, 
 there is a great development of alkaline lavas and tufis, extending in a general 
 northerly direction to the Warrumbungle Mountains, between Dubbo and 
 Coonabarabran, and thence trending in a north by east direction into the 
 Nandewar Ranges. From thence at intervals, the alkaline volcanic belt 
 can be traced further into the McPherson Ranges dividing Queensland from 
 New South Wales, through the Mount Flinders and Fassifern districts to 
 East Moreton and Wide Bay ; thence the belt trends northerly through the 
 Glass House Mountains, near Maryborough. Still further north it has been 
 identified at Mount Larcombe to the south of Rockhampton, as well as in the 
 hills at Yeppoon, to the north-east of Rockhampton. Though this immense 
 belt has been proved to extend in a north and south direction for a distance 
 of about 800 miles, the belt is characterized physiographically by a number 
 of dome-shaped or cylindrical hills, in many cases over 4,000 feet high, and 
 very abrupt, marking the sites of old volcanic necks. In the Warrumbungle 
 Mountains, at Wantialable Creek, the alkaline trachytic tufis are inter- 
 stratified with diatomaceous earths, the latter containing fossil leaves. 
 These tufis are formed of snow white, often perfect, crystals, of anorthoclase- 
 f elspar. The frequent association of diatom aceous earth with these volcanic 
 rocks suggests a causal connexion. Meteoric waters, \vith their temperature 
 raised through contact with heated volcanic rocks, and therefore capable of 
 dissolving a relatively large amount of silica, together with the water of hot 
 springs, probably favour the development locally of the diatoms. The
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 313 
 
 usual sequence seems to have been first, leucocratic trachytes (sometimes 
 preceded by rhyolites) commencing with riebeckite arfvedsonite comendites 
 passing upwards into pantellarites, followed by solvsbergites, phonolitic 
 trachytes, and melanocratic trachytes. These are followed by alkaline 
 andesites, and these in turn by basalts, either olivine basalts or olivine 
 fayalite-melilite basalts. The sequence in most cases has been from acid to 
 basic. 
 
 These volcanic rocks are associated ^^■ith intrusive hvpabyssal rocks of 
 the nature of porphyrite, tonalite monzonite, soda andesite, etc. The whole 
 group shows Eastern Australia to be an alkaline and titanium-rich petro- 
 graphical province. 
 
 The raelilite fayalite basalts and tufis (aluoites), which break through the 
 konga-diabase at One-Tree Point, Hobart, and the melilite-eudialite basalts 
 of Shannon Tier, and the nepheline basanites of Table Cape, Tasmania, 
 are perhaps to be grouped here. Their occurrence recalls that of the 
 alnoites which have intruded the diabase of South Africa. Perhaps to 
 the closing phases of these alkaline eruptions belong the leucite lavas of 
 Byrock, Capitan, Harden, and Lake Cudjellico, the essexites of Prospect, 
 near Parramatta, the nepheline basalts of Capertee, Mount Royal, etc., in 
 New South Wales, the nepheline basalts of Mount Beardmore, and the 
 leucite-basalts of the Normanby Reefs in the Cooktown district in 
 Queensland. 
 
 It is possible, however, that the above lavas are Newer Cainozoic. 
 
 Newer Catnozoic to Recent Newer Basalts. 
 
 These rocks form physiographically very extensive plains, stretching 
 from Mount G-ambier in South Australia, through the western district of 
 Victoria to Melbourne, in several places, as in the Loddon Valley, running 
 long distances to the north of the main divide. These basalt plains are 
 diversified by hundreds of small volcanic cones or " puys," in various stages 
 of preservation or dissection, and probably the most recent cone is the com- 
 pound one of Tower Hill, west of Warrnambool. Much of the lava forming 
 the plains probably proceeded from fissures now concealed beneath the 
 lava flows. In places shallow broad depressions of the lava surface have led 
 to the formation of extensive lakes over these plains, while in places the present 
 streams have trenched deep and son\etimos wide valleys through them. 
 The rocks are mainly normal calcic olivine basalts, but in places, as at Ballarat 
 and Melbourne, occasionally contain a few crystals of anorthoclase, while 
 analcite has been recorded from a coarse type of olivine-augite dolerite or 
 essexite, occurring as boulders in the tuffs at the base of the volcanic series 
 at Lake Bullenmerri, near Camperdown. The eruptions appear to be con- 
 nected with extensive movements of subsidence and of faulting which affected 
 Victoria at intervals from post Pliocene to recent times, and in some places 
 the sequence of rocks was first tuffs, then lava flows, while the later volcanic 
 cones, many with perfectly pr(!served craters, consist mainly of scoria and 
 tuffs. The texture of the basalts varies from coarse dolerites, through finer 
 varieties to the glassy form — tachylyte, such as is found at the Lai Lai Falls 
 and the Merri Creek, near Melbourne. The; rock is extensively quarried 
 as a building stone, and constitutes tlie road metal of M(>lbourne 
 
 C.12154. X
 
 314 Federal Handbook. 
 
 and many other localities. These newer basalts in Victoria frequently 
 sealed up old river valleys, the deep leads which contained rich deposits 
 of gold-bearing sands and gravels, as at Ballarat, Ararat, and the Loddon 
 Valley. 
 
 In South Australia, Mount Gambler, Mount Reid, Mount Leah, etc., 
 represent recent olivine basalt cones and craters. The basalt flows of Kan- 
 garoo Island probably belong here, as may those of Buubury, in the south- 
 eastern part of Western Australia. Probably most of the basalts of Northern 
 Tasmania, including at Sheffield the tachylytic variety, belong here. In 
 New South Wales, the newer basalts are widely distributed and in places 
 form the cappings of deep leads. Basalts are abundant in the New England 
 district, and on the border of Queensland occur at Tweed Heads. In Queens- 
 land, there are some nearly perfect craters, enclosing crater lakes, pr,eserved 
 on the flanks of the Bellenden-Ker Ranges. From their perfect state of 
 preservation, it is probable that they too belong to a late stage of newer 
 basalt series. , 
 
 In Papua, basalts and agglomerates, some 3,000 feet in thickness, overlie 
 a peneplain cut out of the highly-folded Pliocene Port Moresby beds. Mount 
 Victory, in British Papua, over 6,000 feet high, is the only lava producing 
 volcano at present known within the territory of the Commonwealth. This 
 has not yet been explored. 
 
 10. Metamorphic Rocks. 
 
 By Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, C.M.G., D.Sc, F.R.S., and Prof. Ernest 
 W. Skeats, D.Sc, A.R.C.S., F.G.S. 
 
 Contact Metamorphism. — Apart from the normal developments of hornfels, 
 andalusite mica schist, cordierite mica rocks, etc., where granitic rocks have 
 invaded shales, rocks such as garnet-rock, wollastonite rock, epidote rock 
 occur at the contact, chiefly between acid eruptives and limestones, and 
 ophicalcites where the latter have been intruded by ultrabasic pyroxene rocks 
 belonging to the peridototes or picrites. Contact metamorphic rocks of 
 special interest occur at the Mount Bischofi tin mine in the north-west part 
 of Tasmania. There a quartz-porphyry, which has broken through slaty 
 rocks, probably of Ordovician age, has had the whole of its felspar converted 
 by pneumatolysis into fibrous radial topaz (pycnite). The rock at the same 
 time has been tourmalinised, ^vith a development in places in a massive form 
 of tourmaline veins and irregular lumps, of the dark-green ferriferous variety 
 zeuxite. An interesting type of contact alteration is produced by the in- 
 trusion of granodiorite into dacite, near Selby, in the Dandenong hills, at 
 Warburton, and Mount Macedon, in Victoria. The dacite becomes slightly 
 schistose. Hj^ersthene is converted into secondary biotite, ilmenite reacting 
 with felspar forms fringes of secondary biotite, the ground mass is re -crystal- 
 lized on a larger scale and some secondary blue tourmaline is developed. 
 Near Selby, local development of crystalline biotite gneisses from the hypers- 
 thene dacite occur near the granodiorite contact. In this case it is possible 
 that dynamic metamorphism reinforced the contact effects. Adinoles have 
 been recorded amongst the cherts in the Ileathcotian series of Victoria, but 
 the analysis suggests that they do not vary much from the normal cherts in
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. " 316 
 
 spite of the fact that their association with albite-diabase flows, schalsteins, 
 tufis, and radiolarian rocks suggests a local development of the spilite suite, 
 with which adinolcs are often associated. 
 
 Bynamic Metmnorfhism- — -Under this heading may be included the 
 phyllites and the crystalline schists. 
 
 Phyllites. — -Argillaceous sediments altered to phyllites occur in the districts 
 of Kosciusko J Cooma, and Cobar, in New South Wales, and in Victoria are 
 represented near Yackandandah, and in several other localities in the meta- 
 morphic belt of north-eastern Victoria, and in Dundas in western Victoria. 
 The precise age of many of these rocks is undetermined, but some have 
 been referred to the Pre -Cambrian Series. 
 
 Crystalline Schists. — -Very little work has as yet been done in the way of 
 classifying these rocks on the principles of Grubenmann. There is here an 
 enormous field for research, more than a third of Australia, including large parts 
 of Western and South Australia, western New South Wales, and areas in 
 western and eastern Victoria, and a large portion of Tasmania being formed 
 of these rocks. Rocks of Grubenmann's upper, middle, and lower (deep) zone 
 are well represented. Typical of the upper zones are chloritoid schist, talc 
 schist, chlorite schist, talc schist, the schistose amphibolites and serpentinized 
 areas of the Broken Hall area in New South Wales, the epidiorite, the glauco- 
 phane rock and glaucophane-epidote rock, albite-chlorite-sillimanite schist 
 of Leahy's Creek, in the D'Aguilar Range area, north of Brisbane, in Queens- 
 land ; the sericitic quartzites, magnetitic quartzite, conglomerates, talcose 
 slates, and epi-magnetite slates of Northern Territory, the Algonkian (?) 
 quartz-schists of Tasmania, and crushed quartzite conglomerates of Goat 
 Island, near Ulverstone, in Tasmania, muscovite scliists, quartz schists, 
 chlorite schists of the Mount Lofty to Murray Bridge region to the east of 
 Adelaide, chlorite, ampliibolite graphite schists, siliceous mylonites (ribbon 
 jasper), and crush conglomerates of felspar porphyry of Kalgoorlie, in Western 
 Australia. 
 
 Amongst rocks which characterize the middle zone are the staurolite 
 gneisses, staurolite mica schists, zoisite schists, and tremolite schists of the 
 Broken Hill area, the tremolite schists, actinolite schists, muscovite -biotite 
 schists, andalusite schists, and " paringite "* schists of the Mount Lofty to 
 Murray Bridge area, the muscovite and biotite schists of western and north- 
 eastern Victoria ; the muscovite -biotite schists, garnet-zoisite amphibolite 
 rock of Forth River, Tasmania ; cyanite-rutile granulite, epidote-actinolite 
 topaz schist, anthophyllite schist from D'Aguilar Range area, Queensland. 
 
 Possibly to this middle group may be referred the remarkable sapphire 
 schists of Mount Painter. At Mount Painter, 300 miles north-west of Broken 
 Hill, there occurs a rock formed of corundum, often as sapphire, cordierite 
 sillim^uiite, pleonaste, magnetite, and abundant apatite, monazite and 
 tourmaline. 
 
 These schists are traversed by a)i immense lode containing radio-active 
 minerals such as autunite, torbernite, monazite radio-active fluorspar, etc. 
 To the lowest or middle zone may belong the epidote-cordierite-chlorite 
 
 * A moderately coarse friable silvery muscovite-biotitc schist with very wavy lamination, and with 
 very prominent "knots" or "eyes" of impure andalusite, which may be upwards of an inch in 
 diameter. 
 
 X 2
 
 316 ' Federal Handbook. 
 
 schist, the oyanite-rutile granulite, the granulitic mica schist, and the musco- 
 vite granulite of the D'Aguilar Range area, and the muscovite-sillimanite 
 chiastolite schist, with andalusite schist, of the Mount Lofty to Murray 
 Bridge area. 
 
 The following types, perhaps belonging to the deepest zone, have been 
 identified in Australia : — Kata-biotite orthoclase gneisses, sillimanite gneiss, 
 garnet-sillimauite schist, cordierite-granulite, scapolite-gneiss and plagioclase 
 pyroxene rocks, from the Broken Hill area, and scapolite-amphibolite rocks 
 and amphibolites, with sphene and vesuvianites from the Mount Lofty 
 Ranges, to east of Mount Lofty. The sillimanite schists and gneisses near 
 Tallangatta, and elsewhere in north-eastern Victoria, may belong here. 
 
 The following metamorphic rocks seem of special interest : — 
 
 (1) The mylonized granophyric quartz- dole rites of Western Australia, 
 passing at one end of the series by introduction of silica and for- 
 mation of haematite into red ribbon jaspers and haematite schists, 
 and at the other end, as the result of the introduction of plutonic 
 carbon, as methane, etc., passing into graphite schists, as at the 
 Great Boulder mine at Boulder, adjacent to Kalgoorlie, where 
 methane is still being given off in the deep levels of the mine, at 
 2,000 feet below the surface. The ribbon jaspers and haematite 
 schists can be traced for fully a thousand miles, at intervals from 
 the extreme south to the extreme north of AVestern Australia. 
 Where quartz reefs traverse these metamorphosed mylonized rocks 
 they are generally gold-bearing. 
 
 (2) The remarkable belt of sapphire schists adjacent to the great 
 ra,dium-bearing lode of Mount Painter. 
 
 (3) The glaucophane schists of Mount Mee in the D'Aguilar Range area 
 of Queensland, to the north of Brisbane. 
 
 (4) The important belt of the Broken Hill area, with its sillimanite 
 gneiss, scapolite gneiss, pyroxene -am phibole rocks, etc., charac- 
 teristic of Grubenmann's deepest zone. 
 
 (5) The wonderful chiastolite belt of Bimbowrie to the west of Broken 
 Hill. These chiastolites, often 5 to 6 inches in length, and over 
 an inch in diameter, have in some cases suffered paramorphism, 
 and pass into aggregates of pinite, with occasional grains of corundum. 
 The important " paringite " belt of Mount Lofty may also belong 
 to this horizon. 
 
 1 1. Papua. 
 
 New Guinea, 1,500 miles long, with an extreme width of 380 miles, and 
 an area of 306,000 square miles, is one of the biggest islands in the world. 
 
 Apart from Polar regions, perhaps, no portion of the world has been so 
 little explored, and yet it probably yields to no other part in scientific interest. 
 If it were possible to travel from the coast inland in a bee line for from 30 to 
 100 miles,* one could pass from the dense, steaming, tropical atmosphere of 
 the lowlands, with its rattan-tangled jungles and bright scarlet creepers to the 
 bracing air of the open forest glades, where the pink rhododendron forms a 
 
 * So dense is the growth of the jungle that it took the Goodenough-Rawling expedition no less 
 than five weelis to travel inland five miles.
 
 Geology op the Commonwealth. 
 
 317
 
 318 
 
 Federal Handbook. 

 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 
 
 319 
 
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 320 Federal Handbook. 
 
 glowing fringe to the sombre mantle of pine and cypress which clothes the 
 higher slopes. In British New G-uinea, one may climb above the tree line 
 to the Alpine grasses and flowers, and extinct glacial lakes of the great horst, 
 where, even in midsummer, in early morning the grass and wild strawberries 
 are white with frost, and all the shallow pools are crusted with ice. Higher 
 still, bare peaks and pinnacles of dark schists pierce the clouds. Among their 
 sharp serrated ridges and spurs the mountain torrents gather for their leap 
 down steep ravines into the valleys far below. In Dutch New Guinea there 
 are even perennial snows and glaciers in the Nassau and Orange Ranges, the 
 latter reached in 1905 by Dr. Lorentz and his comrades. 
 
 The association in New G-uinea of Dendrolagus and Prcechidna with the 
 cloven-footed Sus papuensis, of eucalyptus and casuurina with the oak and 
 rhododendron, are typical of that commingling of Indo-Malayan with Aus- 
 tralian forms which makes New Guinea so happy a hunting ground for the 
 botanist and zoologist. The aborigines, including the pygmies, with their 
 primitive pile dwellings recall the lake dwellers of Europe, and present a most 
 fascinating study for the anthropologist. Geologically as well as biologically 
 New Guinea shows a commingling of Oriental with Australian elements. 
 
 Papua tectonically and palfeontologically is an oriental element in the 
 Australian region. It is part of the Himalayan- Burmese arc, prolonged 
 through the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Timor.* It is specially 
 linked up with the Burmese arc by the great oil belt lately found in Dutch 
 New Guinea and British New Guinea. The limestones, so rich in Orhitoides 
 (Lepidocyclina), recently discovered at Bootless Inlet, to the east of Port 
 Moresby, are probably of Lower Miocene age, and appear to be close to the 
 horizon of the Papuan oil belt. Its trend lines are contiauous with those of 
 the Malay Peninsula ; and the direction and age of the folding, extending 
 as it does into late Pliocene time, agree with those of the Burmese arc. In 
 Australia, on the other hand, the latest strong orogenic movements, though 
 prolonged in places into the Lower Permo-Carboniferous age, ceased for the 
 most part in Carboniferous time. The trend of the main folds in New Guinea 
 is in a west to east direction from the Charles Louis Range and Mount Leonard 
 Darwin to the north-west end of the Finisterre Mountains. Thence the trend 
 is nearly south-east, to near Mount Suckling, and thence to the Louisiade 
 Archipelago east-south-east. A probable virgation of the main trend line 
 is indicated by the great promontory of New Guinea, opposite New Pomerania, 
 and by the long axis of that island. 
 
 This strongly marked Burmese trend line is crossed by minor trend lines, 
 subordinate folds and faults, more or less meridional, coming from Australia. 
 These manifest themselves where the strong faults at the north-east end of 
 Axnhem Land, running north by east, pass over into Frederick Henry Island, 
 and also in the faults and small cross folds inland from the Gulf of Papua, 
 in the neighbourhood of Port Moresby, and at Ware (Teste) Island, etc. On 
 the Purari River there is evidence of minor overthrust faults with the over- 
 thrusting coming from west-south-west, as well as of the dominant north-west 
 to south-east trend lines. On the whole, evidence up to the present suggests 
 that the overfolding of New Guinea has been directed in the western half of 
 
 • The Timor trend line marljs a N.E. trend of the arc of new folded rocks bending away from its 
 E.W. direction owing to the resistance set up by the great crystalline massif of Darwin and Arnhem 
 Landj whose trend lines are directed to the N.W. or N.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 321 
 
 the island from north to south, and in the eastern half, from north-east to 
 south-west. In other words. New G-uinea has been overfolded towards 
 Australia. 
 
 The physiographic geology of New Guinea is unique. The backbone of 
 New Guinea appears to be a horst mostly part of an old peneplain. This, 
 from the south-east extremity of the island as far as to, and including, the 
 Finisterre mountains is formed of crystalline scliists and gneisses, probably 
 Pre-Cambrian. At some spot, not yet explored, to west of the Finisterre 
 mountains, and between them and Mount Wilhelmina Peak (15,420 feet), 
 the divide is formed of Cretaceous Alveolina limestone. Further west, and 
 south of Carstensz Top and Mount Leonard Darwin, Rawlings has described 
 perhaps the most stupendous precipice known anywhere in the world, recalling 
 the fractures of the lunar Apennines. He estimates its height at 10,500 feet, 
 and considers that it is of tectonic origin. The precipice faces the south, 
 and is no doubt evidence of a powerful inthrow in that direction. Possibly 
 folding has contributed to this gigantic displacement, but to what extent, if at 
 all, is not at present known, but from the evidence further east, on the Purari 
 Eiver, it may be inferred that the disturbance is in part, at any rate, due to 
 folding. 
 
 On the northern slopes of Moimt Suckling, at an altitude of 8,000 feet, 
 an immense sheer clifE of quartz schist faces the north-east, and perhaps 
 indicates a downthrow in that direction. 
 
 The nearly uniform height of the main Divide in the eastern part of the 
 island, rising to from 11,000 to 13,000 feet above sea level, as well as the 
 profile of the ranges, strongly suggests an old peneplain, which has been 
 block-faulted and subsequently deeply dissected- 
 
 Tliis peneplain has been carved partly out of Pre-Cambrian schists, partly 
 out of Devonian, Upper Oolitic and Cretaceous rocks. As the Cretaceous 
 transgression probably covered nearly the whole of the island, the peneplain 
 composed partly of steeply dipping Cretaceous rocks must obviously be 
 Post Cretaceous, though it is possible that the schist portion of the peneplain 
 belongs to a Pre-Cretaceous peneplain re-discovered in Post Cretaceous 
 time. 
 
 The coastal region and foot hills inland from the Gulf of Papua for a 
 distance of 50 or 60 miles belongs to a second peneplain, carved out of Miocene 
 to Pliocene estuarine and marine strata. The Miocene transgression was 
 far less extensive than the Cretaceous, and the Pliocene less extensive than 
 the Miocene. Even the Pliocene beds (Port Moresby beds) have been intensely 
 folded, and these folded rocks have, subsequently been reduced to the level 
 of this second peneplain. This lower peneplain has been covered in Post 
 Pliocene time partly Avith basalitc and andesitic tuffs and lavas to a depth of 
 from 1,000 to 2,000 feet. A recent transgression has carried horizontally 
 bedded coral reefs over the top of some of the Post Tertiary volcanic rocks, 
 while in other places the coral rock rests directly on the Pliocene beds. These 
 recent coral-reef limestones are now found up to altitud(!S of 1,000 feet, and 
 exceptionally up to 2,000 feet, above sea level, on the south-castsido of Papua. 
 This proves that a negative movement of the strand line of the ordiu' of 1,000 
 to 2,000 feet took place in south-eastern New Guinea in recent geological 
 time.
 
 322 Federal Handbook. 
 
 This recent emergence of the land has been the cause of modern 
 canyon cutting like that of the canyon of the Laloki Eiver, near Port 
 Moresby. 
 
 Another alternative explanation of the physiographic geology is that the 
 whole country fi-om sea to sea, up to the top of the divide, belongs to one and 
 the same peneplain, which has been heavily block-faulted in late Pliocene 
 or even Pleistocene time. 
 
 Against this interpretation may be adduced the facts — (1) that so far 
 no rocks newer than Cretaceous have been encountered in the region of the 
 divide or anywhere above a level of about 4,000 feet. (2) The main divide 
 portion of the peneplain is so deeply dissected that Post Pliocene time alone 
 may not have sufficed for the work. 
 
 Probably connected with the lines of block faulting was the manifestation 
 of volcanic energy, which produced basaltic lavas and tufis like those of 
 Mount Favenc, and built the volcanic cones and craters respectively of Mount 
 Dayman, 9,305 feet, and of the active volcano, Mount Victory, about 6,000 
 feet high — the only lava producing volcano within the Commonwealth — 
 as well as the cones of the solfataric volcanoes of the D'Entrecasteaux Group 
 such as that of Dobu, etc. The sharp shocks of earthquake occasionally 
 experienced in British Papua obviously have relation to crustal readjustments 
 connected with the volcanic zones, or movements along fault planes. That 
 New Guinea was not exempt from the great Ice Age of Pleistocene and in 
 part Recent time, which affected south-eastern Australia at Mount Kosciusko, 
 the highlands of Tasmania, and the cordilleras of New Zealand, 
 Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego, is proved by the evidences of past glacial 
 action observed by Dr. Lorentz, below Wilhelmina Peak, extending 
 downwards to at least 13,200 feet, where glacial lakes with striated 
 rock surfaces were observed. The numerous small lakes and tarns on 
 Mount Albert Edward and Mount Victoria, both of which are over 13,000 
 feet high, make it nearly certain that these peaks were also at one time 
 glaciated. 
 
 One of the latest phases in the evolution of the Papuan landscape has 
 been the reclamation of shallow portions of the continental shelf by river 
 deltas. This is specially to be noticed in the Gulf of Papua, where vast 
 amounts of silt are washed into the sea annually by the Fly, Kikori, and other 
 rivers. 
 
 The sequence and character of the formations represented are shown on 
 the diagrammatic section. This section shows that there is a large area in 
 Central Papua as yet mostly unexplored.* 
 
 Little is as yet known of the crystalline schists and gneisses, which form 
 the backbone of most of the island, beyond the fact that quartz mica-schists, 
 talc schists, and chlorite schists are represented. These are intruded in 
 places by granites, diorites, and gabbros. Gold-bearing quartz-reefs are 
 associated with these intrusive rocks, and copper deposits are developed 
 
 • Not only is the geological structure unknown, but even the zoology has been only very partially 
 studied, as is evident from the following facts : — It has been recorded by Mr. C. G. W. Monckton that 
 near the lakes of Mount Albert Edward he observed, at over 12,000 feet above sea level, footprints of an 
 unknown animal with cloven hoof, the footprints measuring about four inches by four and a half inches 
 — the imprints were quite unlike those of the Sus papuetisis. He adds that the description given by the 
 natives of the creature that leaves these footprints suggests an animal like the hog-deer {Sus babirussa) 
 of the Indian islands.
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 323 
 
 in connexion witli the gabbros. So far tbe existence of Devonian rock has 
 been proved only on the Tauri river, to the east of Piirari river, and 29 
 miles from the coast. The Upper Oolites are represented by calcareous shales, 
 75 miles up the Strickland river, above its confluence with the Fly river. 
 These contain Stephanoceras blagdeni, S. lamellosum, and an ammonite, of 
 A. lingulalus, from the White Jura, together with an Aucella or 
 Inoceramus. 
 
 The Cretaceous strata, mostly dark-green calcareous and glauconitic (?) 
 sandstones and limestones, contain Alveolina, Orbitolites {Flosculinella Schu.) 
 Inoceramus, Gryphcea, Modiola, Aviculopecten, Profocardium, Cidaris, Belem- 
 nites, etc. 
 
 The oil belt, without doubt a continuation of the Burmese oil belt, is part 
 of a vast delta or estuarine deposit, consisting of freshwater beds alternating 
 with marine limestones. The limestone of Bootless Inlet to the east of Port 
 Moresby, formed chiefly of beautiful shells of Orhitoides {Lepidocyclina), 
 probably belongs to the oil belt. 
 
 In places the Miocene limestones are formed chiefly of Globigerina, 
 like the well-known Globigerina limestone of Noumea. Some of 
 the friable sandstones are extremely rich in mollusca, of which 32 
 genera have been identified by Mr. W. S. Dun and Mr. C. Hedley, 
 the latter being of the opinion that the greater proportion are species new 
 to science. 
 
 Seams of brown coal occur at intervals, the thickest seam so far proved 
 being 2 feet 9 inches. The brown coals from British Papua have approximately 
 the following composition : — 
 
 Hygroscopic moisture . . . . 13 per cent, to 21 per cent. 
 
 37 „ „ 42 
 
 34 „ „ 41 
 
 3 „ „ 9 
 
 3 „ „ 2 
 
 Volatile hydrocarbon . . 
 Fixed carbon . . 
 Ash 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 The whole series has been strongly folded along E.S.E. to W.N.W. lines 
 or north-west to south-east lines, crossed by north and south lines. 
 
 The oil is associated with anticlinal arches in a bluish-grey mudstone 
 and clayey sandstone, in which it occurs as yellowish-brown globules. This 
 is found in the neighbourhood of the Vailala and Purari Rivers, a short dis- 
 tance above their mouths, to the west of Port Moresby. 
 
 Crude petroleum oil collected by Mr. J. E. Carne, F.G.S., was 
 analysed by Mr. J. C. H. Mingaye, F.C.S., with the f()lk)wing 
 results : — 
 
 p. in 100 parts. Sp Gr. 
 
 Petroleum spirit below 150° C . . Nil 
 
 Burning oils distilled below 300° C. . . . . 20-8 0*9283 
 
 Intermediate and lubricating oils willi solid 74 '2 0*9733 
 
 hydrocarbons 
 
 Coke .. .. .. .. .. 5*0 
 
 100
 
 324 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Grains 
 per gallon. 
 
 p. in 
 
 100 parts. 
 
 842-60 
 
 12-038 
 
 424-62 
 
 6-066 
 
 Nil 
 
 Nil 
 
 That the petroleum spirit had evaporated from these superficial strata 
 as the result of weathering is proved by the fact that light volatile oils have 
 lately been obtained in a bore 300 feet deep on the west side of the Vailala 
 River near its mouth. 
 
 The water associated with the rock oil was found to have the following 
 composition : — 
 
 Total solid matter (dried at 220° F.) 
 Chlorine as chlorides 
 Sulphur trioxide as sulphates 
 
 The solid matter was chiefly sodium chloride with some sodium carbonate, 
 magnesium carbonates, silica, etc. Calcium carbonate, 9-64 grains per 
 gallon; magnesium carbonate, 1*60 grains per gallon; silica, 1-80 grains 
 per gallon. A strong reaction was obtained for the presence of iodine and 
 boric acid in the water. It is thought possible that this iodine water may 
 later prove of value for the extraction of iodine from it, like that of Golnosk 
 Soerabaia Island, Java. 
 
 Port Moresby Beds. — These strata, radiolarian in places, and marked by 
 large onion-like concretions of chalcedony up to several feet in diameter, are 
 as strongly folded, mostly overfolded, as are the lower Cambrian rocks of 
 the Mount Lofty Range, near Adelaide, and yet these Port Moresby beds 
 are probably not older than Pliocene. Thus the orogenic movements which 
 have produced the cordillera of Papua must have been acute down to as late 
 in geological time as the Pliocene period. 
 
 Post Pliocene. — These are largely composed of volcanic rocks. The 
 volcanic rocks of this age in British Papua have as yet been very little studied. 
 They are known to consist of hornblende andesites and basalts. In the 
 island of Misima (St. Aigan) are thin flows of trachyte. The Papuan lavas 
 appear to belong to two volcanic zones as shown on the section, in which 
 the Aird Hills (about 200 miles north-west from Port Moresby) belong to 
 the southern zone facing Torres Strait and the Arafura Sea, and the other 
 parallel and adjacent to the northern coast of British Papua. The great 
 extinct crater of the unexplored volcano. Dayman, 9,305 feet high, belongs 
 to the northern belt, as does Mount Victory, 6,000 feet high, which still 
 produces lava. 
 
 That incandescent lava is present in the crater of Mount Victory is proved 
 by the fact that Mr. A. Gibb Maitland observed on two occasions that the 
 steam clouds hovering over that mountain were seen, after nightfall, to be 
 brilliantly illuminated. 
 
 Mount Victory, as far as is known, is the only lava-producing volcano 
 in the territory of the Commonwealth. It has never been geologically examined. 
 The small island of Dobu (Goulvain) in the D'Enti-ecasteaux Group is a 
 volcanic cone, from which steam is still emitted. This is also situated on 
 the northern volcanic belt. In regard to the broad tectonic features of Papua 
 it may be suggested, very tentatively, that the mainland of Australia has 
 functioned as a " forland massif," Torres Strait, the G-ulf of Carpentaria, 
 the Arafura Sea, and the deep Mesozoic and Tertiary basins, with their thick 
 strata as a senkungsfeld. Possibly the crystalline schists forming a great part
 
 Geology of the Commonwealth. 325 
 
 of the backbone of the island have played the part of an inner, or " riick-land 
 massif," which has helped to roll up the Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments. 
 The chief fracture zones, on which the present active volcanoes of Mount 
 Victory and Dobu are situated, appear to lie on the inner limb of the fold 
 region, just the portions which have been put in tension as the result of 
 the southerly creep of the Papuan area towards Australia.* 
 
 The latest crust movements have caused an emergence of the land to 
 the amount of 1,000 feet on the northern coast, and over 2,000 feet on the 
 southern coast in Post Pliocene time. 
 
 * If this interpretation is correct their situation would be analogous to that of the Vesuvian volcanic 
 zone in regard to the folds of the Apennines, the lavas of Hungary in reference to the folds of the 
 Carpathians, the lavas of the Great Basin region of the United States of America in regard to the folds 
 of the Roclcies and Sierra Nevada, etc.
 
 326 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ASTRONOMY AND GEODESY IN AUSTRALIA. 
 
 By Pietro Baracchi, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer of Victoria. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. Astronomy. 
 
 astronomicaii woek 
 
 Attstralia — • 
 
 DONE IN 
 
 {a) By Navigators, Surveyors 
 AND Explorers, for Geo- 
 graphical PUEPOSES. 
 
 (b) By the Permanent Govern 
 
 MENT Observatories. 
 
 (c) By Amateur Astronomers. 
 
 (d) By Australian Expeditions 
 
 ON Special Astronomical 
 Occasions. 
 
 (e) For the Determination of 
 
 Australian Longitudes. 
 Geodesy. 
 
 (a) Trigonometrical Surveys 
 
 of High Precision. 
 
 (6) Pendulum Observations. 
 
 Appendix A. — List of References. 
 
 Appendix B. — Some Astronomical 
 
 Papers by Australians. 
 
 1. ASTRONOMY. 
 
 (a) Astronomical work done by Navigators, Surveyors, etc., for 
 Geographical Purposes. 
 
 Sir Thomas Brisbane laid the foundation of Australian astronomy in 
 1821, but the record of astronomical observations made on Australian 
 soil commences half a century earlier ; as is well known, Captain Cook 
 was selected by the British Admiralty, chiefly for his astronomical 
 qualifications, " to conduct his famous expedition to the islands of the 
 Pacific for the purpose of observing the transit of Venus of 1769, 
 which he successfully accomplished at Otaheite, after which he discovered 
 and visited several islands in the Pacific, and eventually re -discovered 
 New Zealand on the 6th October, 1769, and observed the transit of 
 Mercury on 9th November, at a place on the north-east coast, now called 
 Mercury Bay, and sailing north, on 31st March, 1770, he discovered New 
 Holland, landed at Botany Bay, and (on 22nd August, 1770) took possession 
 of the eastern coast of Australia in the name of Great Britain" (1). * 
 
 In regard to longitudes obtained by lunar distances. Cook wrote " This 
 method of finding the longitude at sea can be depended upon to within half 
 a degree, ^\^lich is a degree of accuracy more than sufficient for all nautical 
 purposes." 
 
 From Captain Cook's astronomical observations made on Australian 
 soil in 1770 was derived the first value on record of the longitude of Fort 
 Macquarie, Sydney, viz., 151° 11' 32" east of Greenwich, which is almost 
 identical with that determined by Flinders 33 years after (151° 11' 49"), 
 
 Captain John Hunter and Lieutenant Bradley determined the longitude 
 of Port Jackson by a series of lunar distances, observed between 14th jMarch 
 and 28th April, 1788 (Hunter's Historical Journal, pp. 87-88). On 17th 
 August, 1788 " we began at this time to take equal altitudes for ascertaining 
 the exact rate of the time keeper." 
 
 A list of the authorities referred to in these pages is givea in Appendix A.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 327 
 
 In June, 1792, Captain Hunter, in a letter to the Admiralty said " The 
 advantage of being able to ascertain the ship's place in longitude by obser- 
 vations of the moon will be ever satisfactory, but more particularly through 
 so vast a tract of sea, in which the error of the log may considerably 
 accumulate." 
 
 (2) The " first fleet," commanded by Captain Phillip, which brought 
 out from Great Britain the colonists who formed the first permanent settle- 
 ment upon the Australian continent, arrived at Port Jackson in 1788. 
 Colonel Collins tells us, " Among the buildings that were undertaken shortly 
 after our arrival must be mentioned an observatory, which was marked 
 out on the western point of the cove, to receive the astronomical instruments 
 which had been sent out by the Board of Longitude, for the purpose of 
 observing the comet which was expected to be seen about the end of this 
 year (1788). The construction of this building was placed under the direc- 
 tion of Lieutenant Dawes, of the Marines who, having made this branch of 
 science his peculiar study, was appointed by the Board of Longitude to 
 make astronomical observations in this country." 
 
 The locality where this observatory is built is known as Dawes Point, 
 and the structure is still there, though not used for astronomical purposes. 
 This may be regarded as the first substantial observatory erected in Australia 
 purely in the interests of astronomy. 
 
 The expected comet, however, was not seen, and nothing is known about 
 Dawes' astronomical work at this Observatory, except the determination 
 of its geographic il co-ordinates, which are latitude 33° 52' 30" S., longitude 
 151° 19' 30". A transit instrument was sent to him by Maskelyne, the 
 Astronomer Royal, in 1791. 
 
 In regard to this comet, Russell wrote (G) " The comet, for which all 
 these preparations were made, was that which had been observed in 1532 
 and 1661, and which was generally expected to return about the end of 
 1788 or the beginning of 1789. It was one of the twenty-four which Dr. 
 Halley had used in his celebrated investigations, in which he proved that 
 comets were subject to the then law of gravitation, and like all other astro- 
 nomical bodies, revolved about some centre. In 1776, Maskelyne pointed 
 out that this comet would be affected by the major planets, and that for 
 the investigation of this important matter, it was very desirable that it 
 should be observed in the southern hemisphere where it would first be visible ; 
 hence the establishment of the Dawes Point Observatory." 
 
 In one of the papers by Captain P. P. King (2) is given, amongst the 
 longitude results of several navigators, the value of the longitude found 
 by Admiral Don Jose D'Espinosa while at Sydney on the Corbetas Descubierta 
 y Atrevida. This value reduced to Fort Macquarie, is shown as lOh. 4m. 51.91s., 
 which is within a fraction of a second of time of the latest accepted value, 
 and is very probably nearer to tlie true value than that found by any other 
 navigator. 
 
 For more than 30 years after Dawes' watches for the comet, the astro- 
 nomical record rests entirely on navigators and explorers. 
 
 It was during this period that French expeditions were moving about 
 in Australian watiu's, while surveys of tlie coast and explorations iidand 
 were being conducted by such nautical men as Bass, Flinders, Murray, and
 
 328 Federal Handbook. 
 
 King, and tlie first explorers inland — Gregory, Blaxland, Evans, Oxley, 
 Cunningham, Frazer, Hum.e, and others. Skilled astronomical observers, 
 and even accomplislied astronomers were to be found among these explorers, 
 and the sun, the moon, the planets, and the stars were, no doubt, closely 
 watched and employed by them for the determination of their geographical 
 positions. 
 
 Flinders, who first circumnavigated Australia in 1801 on the Investigator, 
 was indeed an enthusiastic and most accurate observer of the heavenly 
 bodies. It was he who trained Sir John Franklin, then a midshipman on 
 the Investigator, in astronomical work. John Crossley, of Greenwich Obser- 
 vatory, was appointed by the Admiralty as the astronomer of the expedition, 
 but left the ship at the Cape of Good Hope, to return home invalided, and 
 Flinders wrote to the authorities offering to undertake the astronomical 
 work himself, with the help of his brother Lieutenant Sam W. Flinders, 
 but the Admiralty sent out to him another astronomer — Inman — who 
 accompanied Flinders during the latter part of the voyage (3). Inman, 
 on his return to England, became Professor of Astronomy, at the Royal 
 Naval College of Portsmouth. 
 
 The amount of Flinders' limar observations is remarkable, both for its 
 fine quality and its large quantity. His value of the longitude of Fort 
 Macquarie (Sydney), "151° IT 49"" east of Greenwich, is probably within 
 one mile of the true value which, considering the instruniental limitations 
 and the inaccuracy of the limar tables in his day, may well be accepted 
 as a result of the highest accuracy attainable at the time. In his Voyage 
 to Terra Australia, are given the geographical co-ordinates of many places 
 on the south coast of Australia (Vol. I., 1814), App., page 259. 
 
 (2) Lieutenant (afterwards Admiral) P. P. King, son of Governor King, 
 arrived at Port Jackson in September, 1817. He had been sent by the 
 British Government to complete the surveys of the coast of New South 
 "Wales, which, then, extended from South Cape in Tasmania, latitude 43° 39' 
 S. to Cape York, 10° 37' S. 
 
 He made four voyages, extending over four years, from 1817 to 1822, 
 during which he determined the longitude and latitude of a large number 
 of points on the coast. 
 
 The results of the survey were published in his work A Narrative of a 
 Survey of the Inter-tropical and Western Coasts of Australia (2 Vols., 8vo., 
 London, 1847). 
 
 From 1826 to 1830 he was in command of two ships — Adventure and 
 Beagle — conducting surveys on the southern coasts of South America. Shortly 
 after, he retired from active service and settled in New South Wales, where for 
 the rest of his life he continued to devote himself to scientific work, " during 
 his residence at Dunhered, from 1832 to 1839, and at Tahlee, Port Stephens, 
 to 1848, kept his observatory in full work with the transit and other instru- 
 ments" (2). 
 
 The results of his astronomical work are contained in two papers which 
 were printed " at his own private printing press, apparently for private 
 distribution, a copy of each of which is in the possession of his family." and 
 in another paper, containing the first five years observations at Tahlee, 
 which was published in the Tasmanian Journal, No. 6, a copy of which is
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 329 
 
 in the Sydney Observatory, with the remainder of the observations in MSS. 
 In one of the two papers first mentioned are recorded " the observed transits 
 of the moon and m.oon culminating stars over the meridian of Tahlee, Port 
 Stephens, New South Wales, from 184:3 to 1849, and the resulting longitudes 
 from them. Also observations of eclipses of the sun and occultations of 
 the fixed stars by the moon at the same place." The derived longitude of 
 the station is lOh. 8m. lis. 
 
 " The second paper gives a description of the instruments in the obser- 
 vatory and the observations for determining the latitude of Tahlee, 1841 to 
 1848. These observations were made with an altazimuth. Nearly 300 
 separate star observations for latitude are recorded, from which the latitude 
 32° 40' 17" 74" is derived. Also a list of about one thousand places for which 
 the geographical co-ordinates are given." 
 
 Admiral King published in addition eight papers in the Monthly Notices 
 of the Royal Astronomical Society, " Four refer to comets, amongst others 
 the great comet of 1843 ; one to an occultation of Jupiter and his Satellites ; 
 another to a lunar eclipse ; another to a transit of Mercury ; and the last 
 to a solar eclipse" (2). 
 
 Sir James Ross' antarctic expedition arrived at Hobart (Tasmania), 
 in August, 1840, in the ships Erebus and Terror. Sir John Franklin was 
 then Grovernor of that Colony. 
 
 A vigorous campaign for the acquisition of data in regard to the magnetic 
 conditions of the globe was in course at the time, under the influence of 
 Gauss and Sabine, and Sir James Ross established a magnetic station at 
 Hobart, and also an astronomical observatory, where a transit instrument, 
 an altazimuth, and astronomical clocks were permanently mounted. This 
 station was placed in charge of Lieutenant Kay. Although terrestrial 
 magnetism was the principal object, astronomical observations were syste- 
 matically made and continued till 1854. 
 
 An elaborate investigation of the difierence of longitude between Hobart 
 and Port Macquarie (Sydney), Parramatta, and Cape of Good Hope, is in- 
 cluded in the work of this observatory. 
 
 (b) Astronomical Work done in Australia by the Permanent 
 Government Observatories. 
 
 The Parramatta Observatory, though originally a private establishment, 
 became the property of the New South Wales Government, and is for this 
 reason placed under this heading. 
 
 The Parramatta Observatory. 
 
 In 1821, Major-General Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane was 
 appointed Governor of the colony of New South Wales. Throughout 
 his career as a soldier he had always been devoted to astronomy, 
 and as the southern heavens offered him almost a virgin field for 
 exploration, he urged the British Government to supply him with means 
 for establishing an observatory in the country he was being sent to govern, 
 but having failed, he undertook to oarry out the idea at his own cost. 
 Accordingly he purchased instruments, books, and appliances, cngiiged 
 two assistants, and immediately after their arrival in the colony, in November,
 
 330 Federal Handbook. 
 
 1821, a site was selected in close vicinity to his official residence at Parramatta, 
 upon which a suitable building was quickly erected for the installation of 
 the instruments, and by the following April the Parramatta Observatory 
 was already in full working order. 
 
 The assistants were Carl Rumker, an accomplished astronomer who later 
 became Director of the Hamburg Observatory, and James Dunlop, whose 
 great natural abilities, especially mechanical, rendered his services particu- 
 larly valuable in a place where no skilled instrument makers were available. 
 
 The instruments (4) " were a transit instrument by Troughton, of 
 3f-inch aperture and 64-inch focal length ; a 2-foot mural circle, with tele- 
 scope of the same length, by the same maker; a 16-inch repeating circle, 
 by Reichenbach ; a 46-inch achromatic telescope, with equatorial motion 
 and wire micrometer, by Banks ; a clock, by Hardy, set to sidereal time ; and 
 another, by Breguet, showing mean time." Also two other clocks, by Grimaldi 
 and Barraud ; a box chronometer, by Dent ; and a pocket chronometer. 
 
 The programme of the Parramatta Observatory was principally the 
 determination " of the position of stars down to the eighth magnitude, 
 between the zenith of the observatory and the South Pole "(4). 
 
 The regular series of observations was commenced on 2nd May, 1822. 
 At first. Sir Thomas Brisbane and his two assistants worked together har- 
 moniously and mth great assiduity, but on 16th June, 1823, Rumker left 
 the observatory, and from that date till December, 182-5, the greater part 
 of the observations were made by Dunlop. 
 
 In December, 1825, Sir Thomas Brisbane returned to England, and 
 Dunlop followed him towards the end of the following year, after having 
 continued the work at Parramatta Observatory till 2nd March, 1826, and 
 completed a series of observations of 621 nebulae and clusters, at his private 
 house, with a reflecting telescope, 9 inches aperture and 9-feet focal length 
 (2) made by himself (5), and a catalogue of 253 double and triple stars which 
 he observed during the same period (5). 
 
 The records of the observations made at Parramatta with the transit 
 instrument and the mural circle, from 2nd May, 1822, to 2nd March, 1826, 
 were placed in the hands of Mr. Richardson, of the G-reenwich Observatory, 
 in 1830 " by order of the Honorable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, 
 who directed him to reduce the observations and construct a catalogue of 
 the positions of the stars " the result being the well-known Parramatta 
 Catalogue of 7,385 Stars for the Epoch 1825, published in 1835. 
 
 The re-discovery of Encke's comet at its first predicted return may be 
 justly regarded as one of the brilliant records in the history of the Parramatta 
 Observatory. The comet was re-discovered by Rumker on 2nd June, 1822. 
 
 After the departure of Sir Thomas Brisbane, the observatory was taken 
 over by the Colonial Government, on payment of the full cost of its equip- 
 ment, to the owner, and placed in charge of Rumker, who became the official 
 astronomer, and resumed work in May, 1826, after having, on 15th July, 
 1824, discovered a new comet — I 1824 — wliich bears his name (10). 
 He made many observations for latitude and longitude, and observations 
 of the moon, the planets, and comets. The results are published in the 
 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1829, Part III., and in the 
 Memoirs of the R.A.S., Vol. III. ; also in Vol. I. of the Monthly Notices.
 
 Astronomy axd Geodesy. 331 
 
 At the end of the year 1828, he went to Europe, and some time after 
 became Director of the Hambxirg Observatory. 
 
 The Parramatta Observatory remained inoperative for nearly three years. 
 In 1831, Dunlop returned to Australia, and was appointed Superintendent 
 of the Parramatta Observatory, which position he held till 1847. 
 
 Most of the work done by Dunlop during this period still remains un- 
 published. It is contained in eight books MSS., which were transferred to 
 the present Sydney Observatory (2). 
 
 (7) On 30th September, 1833, Dunlop discovered a comet, and on the 
 19th of March, 1831, he independently discovered another, which had been 
 first seen by Gambart, at Marseilles, twelve days before (8). 
 
 The observations of these comets are published in Memoirs of the Royal 
 Astronomical Society, Vol. 8, page 251 et seq. 
 
 The Catalogue of 629 Southern Nebulae and Clusters, observed by Dunlop, 
 in 1828, with a 9-inch reflecting telescope of his own make, as previously 
 mentioned, was presented to the Royal Society, and printed in the 
 Transactions of 1828, pp. 113 and 152, and the Catalogue of 253 Double 
 Stars, observed in the same vear, was published in the Memoirs of the 
 R.A.S., Vol. III. 
 
 After Dunlop's resignation, the observatory was dismantled, the instru- 
 ments packed and stored, and Australia remained without an astronomical 
 observatory for several years. 
 
 In 1880, when the building which had once been the Parramatta 
 Observatory was reduced to ruin, fast disappearing, the Government 
 was induced to erect a permanent monument to indicate the site of the 
 observatory. 
 
 Exactly in the position occupied by the transit instrument, a marble 
 obelisk now stands, with the following inscription : — " An Astronomical 
 Observatory was founded here ^lay 2nd, 1822, by Sir Thomas Macdougall 
 Brisbane, K.C.B., F.R.S., Governor of New South Wales" (6). 
 
 The geographical co-ordinates of this historical point, assigned to it by 
 Rumker, are Latitude 33° 48' 50-68", Longitude 101° 4' 6-25" 
 
 Although the admitted imperfections of Sir Thomas Brisbane's astrono- 
 mical equipment, and his desire to accumulate data from direct observation 
 at very high speed must be recognised as the concurring causes which pre- 
 vented a degree of accuracy equal to modern needs to be attained in the 
 Parramatta Catalogue — which represents the main results of Sir Thomas 
 Brisbane's enterprise — thus reducing to some extent the value of the work 
 done by him and his assistants, we must nevertheless regard that enterprise 
 with profound admiration and look upon the obelisk now standing on 
 the spot where Sir Thomas Brisbane, Rumker, and Dunlop observed 
 the stars crossing the meridian of Parramatta, as the monument raised by 
 an appreciative generation to commemorate the foundation of Australian 
 astronomy. 
 
 The founder of the Parramatta Observatory and its successive directors 
 were indeed held in liigh estimation in England. 
 
 The Royal Astronomical Society presented its gold medal to Sir Thomas 
 Brisbane and James Dunlop on 8th February, 1828, and to Carl Rumker on 
 10th February, 1854. 
 
 C.121.')4. V
 
 332 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The Sydney Observatory. 
 
 Tliis observatory is situated on one of the headlands projecting into 
 the Harbor, on the western side of Sydney Cove, less than half a mile from 
 Dawes Point, where Lieutenant Dawes erected the first Australian observa- 
 tory, in the year 1788. The locality is now called Flagstafi Hill. 
 
 Through the persistent recommendations of Sir William Denison, Governor 
 of New South Wales, soon after his arrival in Australia, on 20th January, 
 1855 (6), the Colonial Grovernment voted a sum of £7,000 for the erection 
 of an observatory in Sydney, and made provisions for the salary of an 
 astronomer and a computer. 
 
 The Reverend W. Scott, M.A., was selected by the Astronomer Royal, 
 Sir George Airy, to fill the position of first director of the proposed 
 Sydney Observatory. 
 
 The first duty of Mr. Scott after his arrival was, as he relates himself, 
 " to fix on a site for the proposed observatory. For purely astronomical 
 purposes I should have preferred a position further inland, but as it 
 appeared desirable for various reasons that the observatory should be 
 in the immediate neighbourhood of Sydney, I could find no spot more 
 suitable than that recommended by the Governor on which the observatory 
 now stands." 
 
 The building was commenced in May, 1857 and was so far advanced as 
 to admit of meridian observations being made in June, 1858." 
 
 The first astronomical equipment of the Sydney Observatory consisted 
 of the instruments purchased by the Government from Sir Thomas Brisbane. 
 In addition, a complete time-ball apparatus was installed. By means 
 of this apparatus the ball on the tower was automatically dropped, at fii'st 
 at the instant of local noon, and later at the instant of 1 p.m. It was 
 chiefly the practical value of this service which gave the Government 
 sufiicient inducement to establish the observatory and, at the same time, 
 imposed the essential conditions in the selection of the site. 
 
 The work of the observatory was confined in the first instance to the 
 approximate determination of the sidereal and thence the mean time by a 
 number of nightly observations of clock stars (9). 
 
 The transit circle by Jones, with which Dunlop had in his later years 
 made a few observations at Parramatta, had been sent to England to be 
 remodelled and improved by Troughton, and did not arrive back till 
 December, 1858. This instrument has an object glass of 3| inches aperture 
 and 62 inches focal length. Its circle is 42 inches in diameter, divided to 
 every 5 ' and read by four microscopes 90° apart. It was completely set 
 up and ready for use in June, 1859. 
 
 Mr. Scott complains that this instrument was not entirely satis- 
 factory. He says (9), " The instrumental errors are such that although 
 the circle may be regarded for some purposes as an useful instrument yet 
 it cannot be classed amongst instruments of the highest order." 
 
 (6) " It was a fortunate circumstance that just then, in October, 1858, 
 the great comet of Donati, one of the finest in the century appeared in our 
 southern sky," for it served the purpose of drawing the attention of the 
 authorities to the want of a suitable instrument at the Official Observatory 
 for the observations of the comet and of obtaining from Parliament a sum
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 333. 
 
 of £800 witli wliich an achromatic telescope, 7j-incli apertm-e and 124 inches 
 focal length, made by the celebrated firm of Merz and Sod. of Munich, was 
 piirchased, which was mounted and ready for use in June, 1861. 
 
 IVIr. Scott remained in office for four years, and resigned his position on 
 30th September, 1862. 
 
 The astronomical work done at the Sydney Observatory in Mr. Scott's 
 time was fully published by him in the four official volumes issued for the 
 years 1859, 1860, 1861, and 1862. These contain the results of upward of 
 6,600 meridian observations in both co-ordinates, about 100 transits of 
 the moon and moon culminating stars, a large number of observations of 
 zenith stars for latitude, and some observation of comets. 
 
 The 7j-inch Merz equatorial was at his disposal only fifteen months, 
 dm'ing which some attention was given to double stars. 
 
 Mr. Scott published some of his other astronomical work in the Monthly 
 Notices of the R.A.S., Vols. 19, 20, 21, and 22, as follows : — Observations of 
 the Solar Eclipse of the Sun, 11th January, 1861; Comet III., 1860; 
 Comet II., 1861; Encke's II., 1862; Transit of Mercury N 4, 1861. 
 
 The instrumental faults never permitted i\Ii". Scott to assign to his 
 meridian observations a degree of accuracy equal to that of the best 
 observatories. 
 
 "It must therefore be borne in mind" he tells us "that determination 
 of right ascension with the Sydney transit circle are liable to errors varying 
 from 3 '3 to - 4 '2 seconds of arc, or 0*22 to - 0*28 seconds of time for a 
 equatorial star." " An examination of the North Polar distances leads 
 to a very similar result" (9), 
 
 From September, 1862 to January, 1864, the Observatory was in charge 
 of Mr. Hem-y Russell, B.A., who had joined the Observatory as Mr. Scott's 
 assistant in 1859. 
 
 Mr. Russell confined his astronomical duties to the time service and to 
 the observation of transits of the moon and moon culminating stars. He 
 also made a series of micrometric measurements for the comparison of Mars 
 with neighbouring stars, at the opposition of 1862. This series, however, 
 was not published (6). 
 
 Mr. Greorge Robert Smalley, B.A., succeeded Mr. Scott as the second 
 Director of the Sydney Observatory, in 1864, being selected by the Astro- 
 nomer Royal — Sir George Airy — at the request of the colonial authorities. 
 
 It seems that the imperfection of the meridian instruments as reported 
 by Mr. Scott discouraged Mr. Smalley from undertaking any serious and 
 systematic work with them, and he resolved to employ them only for the 
 ordinary requirements of the time service. He devoted the rest of his 
 time to magnetic and meteorological investigations and to the initiation 
 of a trigonometrical survey of the colony, which was then urgently required. 
 Eventually the Government intrusted him with that work, and opera- 
 tions were commenced in due course for the measurement of a base line 
 at the south end of Lake George. 
 
 Difficulties and delays were encountered in these operations and the worry 
 " told seriously on Mr. Smalley's health, and during the latter part of 1869 
 and all 1870 till his death in July of that year, he was not able to do much 
 of the work which he had determined to carry out" (6).
 
 S34 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The only astronomical work done during these years, in addition to the 
 observation of clock stars, were some observations of Comet I., 1864, made 
 by Mr. Smalley with the Merz 7J-inch equatorial, and published in the 
 Monthly Notices of the R.A.S., Vol. 25, p. 171 ; and observations of Comet I., 
 1865, and of Encke's Comet at its return in 1865, which were published in 
 Monthly Notices, Vol. 26, p. 63- 
 
 Mr. Eussell succeeded Smalley as third Director of the Sydney 
 Observatory and Government Astronomer of the colony of New South 
 Wales. 
 
 " Having had a share in all the work done with the meridian circle, and 
 knowing its imperfections, he determined to confine the observations with 
 it to those required for time and longitude, and at once urged the necessity 
 for a new meridian instrument" (6). 
 
 The approaching transit of Venus gave him the opportunity of obtaining 
 the s}rmpathy of the Government for the acquisition of more instruments. 
 
 The astronomical operations which figure more prominently in the 
 history of the Sydney Observatory during the first seven years of Russell's 
 regime are the preparations made for observing the total eclipse of the sun 
 in December, 1871, in the extreme north of Australia, and the transit of 
 Venus in 1874, of which a brief account will be given in another part of this 
 article. 
 
 To the ordinary routine of observations of clock stars were added 
 observations of the transit of the moon and moon culminating stars for 
 longitude, and the observations of Herschel's Cape Catalogue of Double 
 Stars. 
 
 A remarkable feature of this period is the increase of instrumental power 
 which Russell, by continuous effort and determination, succeeded in securing 
 for his observatory. 
 
 In 1872, with the assistance of the Royal Society of New South Wales, he 
 obtained from the Government a sum of £1,000 for instruments, the greater 
 part of which he used in procuring an achromatic object glass, 11.4 inches 
 aperture, and 12| feet focal length, by Schroeder, of Hamburg, for which he 
 designed and had constructed in the colony under his supervision an equa- 
 torial mounting provided with all the requisites of a modern instrument. 
 This instrument was installed in 1874. 
 
 In the same year the necessity having arisen for the determination of star 
 positions with the greatest possible accuracy to serve the purposes of the 
 trigonometrical survey of the colony of New South Wales then in course 
 a sum of £1,000 was granted by the Government for the purchase of a 
 high-class transit circle for the observatory ; Mr. Russell ordered the instru- 
 ment from the firm of Troughton and Simms, and procured also a large 
 eighteen-prism spectroscope, by Hilger, and other apparatus. 
 
 The new transit circle has an object glass of 6 inches clear aperture and 
 85 inches focal length. It has two circles graduated to every 5' read 
 by four microscopes ; regular observations with it were commenced in 
 February, 1877. 
 
 The instrument was employed for observations of stars required in the 
 operations of the trigonometrical survey, and of other stars near the zenith, 
 of which it was intended to make a special catalogue.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 335 
 
 " In fact, since 1870, the observatory has been entirely refurnished with 
 instruments of the most modern and perfect forms, and, although they are 
 not equal in size to some of the giant telescopes which have been recently 
 erected in Europe at enormous cost, they are quite equal in quality to those 
 in the best European observatories, as is proved by the observations now 
 made with them." Thus Russell wrote in 1882 (6). 
 
 An important series of meridian observations of Mars at its opposition 
 in 1877 and comparison stars had been obtained by Russell with the 
 new transit circle " for the purpose of determining the solar parallax. 
 A long series of observations was made which, combined with obser- 
 vations made at Washington, gave 8 "885 inches as the value of the solar 
 parallax " (6). 
 
 The results of the work done with the transit circle up to the end of the 
 year 1881 are published in two volumes, " Sydney Observatory — Astronomical 
 results for the years 1877-78 and 1879-1881." These results were used by 
 A. Stichtenoth to form a catalogue of 1,543 stars for the epoch 1880, published 
 in Veroffentlichungen des Koniglichen Astronomischen Rechen-Instituts 
 zu Berlin, No. 20. 
 
 The results of observations on double stars are published in a separate 
 volume, Sydney Observatory — Double Star Results, 1871-1881. 
 
 In the first volume of astronomical results is shown a summary of the 
 observations of transits of the moon and moon culminating stars made by 
 Russell in the years 1863, 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874, fi>om which is derived 
 the value of the longitude of Sydney (according to Russell), lOh, im. 50 "Sis., 
 which was adopted till 1883. 
 
 During the eight years after 1881, the same routine of meridian observa- 
 tions and observations of double stars were continued. 
 
 The double-star work of the years 1882-1889 was published in Memoirs 
 R.A.S., Vol. 50. 
 
 In 1887 j\Ir. Russell went to Europe to attend the Astrophotographic 
 Congress at Paris, and on behalf of his Grovernment and the Government of 
 the colony of Victoria, pledged the Sydney and Melbourne Observatories to 
 undertake a share in the astrophotographic programme which was decided 
 upon by that Congress. 
 
 The part of the sky allotted to Sydney ranged from 57° to 61:° of south 
 declination, and that of the Melbourne Observatory from declination -65° 
 to the South Pole. 
 
 Russell obtained his photographic object glass from Steinheil, of Munich, 
 and had the mounting, with all requisite accessories, made in the colony 
 on his own design, and under his personal supervision. He had a circular 
 wooden observatory detached from the main building, built for the special 
 purpose of housing this astrophotographic telescope. 
 
 The mounting of the astrograph was ready in 1890, but the object glass 
 did not arrive till later. Russell, in the meantime, mounted a Dallmeyer 
 portrait lens 32 inches focal length and 6 inches aperture, and, fi.-dng this 
 star camera to the tube of the astrograph, employed it in taking a scries of 
 highly successful photographs of the Milky Way. These photographs, 
 seventeen in number, accompanied by a description of each, form an album 
 which was published in 1890.
 
 336 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The installation of the new object-glass was completed in 1891, and the 
 work reached the end of the preliminary experimental stage in 1892, from 
 which time it proceeded regularly in succeeding years till 1898. 
 
 In 1889 powerful street lamps and electric lights were placed in the vicinity 
 of the Observatory, the effect of which was to interfere so seriously with the 
 work of the astrograph that it became necessary to remove the instrument 
 to some better locality. 
 
 Accordingly, the Government, having granted a piece of land for this 
 purpose at Pennant Hill, some 11| miles to the north-west of Sydney, and 
 615 feet above sea-level, a suitable building was erected, and the instrument 
 installed there in 1899, where the astrophotographic work has since been 
 carried out by Mr. Short, as a branch of the Sydney Observatory. 
 
 For the last 22 years the determination of the places of reference stars 
 to be employed for the reduction of the plates of the Photograpliic Catalogue, 
 and actual photographing of the regions comprised in the Sydney zones, 
 constituted the greater part, if not the whole, of the astronomical programme 
 of the Sydney Observatory, the results of which have not yet appeared. 
 
 During this long period observations of double stars were continued, the 
 results of which have been published in various lists in the A.N., Nos. 31.54, 
 3240, 3303, 3369, 3423. 
 
 Many other observations of an occasional character were made, and other 
 astronomical duties performed, which come within the scope of a national 
 observatory, but it would be impracticable to give here a detailed account 
 of them. 
 
 Russell, who died in 1907, may be regarded as one of the principal factors 
 in the advancement of Australian astronomy during the last half century. 
 In estimating the value of his work, it must be remembered that by far the 
 greater part of his energies were expended on the development of Australian 
 meteorology. 
 
 He was the inventor of no less than 23 instruments, and the contributor 
 of some 130 papers to various scientific societies. He was made F.R.A.S. 
 in 1871, F.R.S. in 1886, C.M.Gr. in 1891, also, in the same year, Vice-Chancellor 
 of the Sydney University, where he graduated in 1858, and President of the 
 R. S. of New South Wales for some years. 
 
 After Russell's death, Mr. Alfred Henry Lenehan was appointed Govern- 
 ment Astronomer. Under him the astronomical work of the Observatory was 
 a continuation of the routine programme of previous years, which he was 
 bound to accept and to advance as speedily as he could, under the adminis- 
 trative difficulties of the time, till completion might be reached. 
 
 He died on 2nd May, 1908 ; and till August, 1912, Mr. W. E. Raymond 
 remained in temporary charge of the institution. 
 
 In August, 1912, Mr. W. E. Cooke, M.A., formerly Director of the Perth 
 Observatory, was appointed Government Astronomer of New South Wales, 
 and Professor of Astronomy in the Sydney University. 
 
 In his report to the R.A.S., M.N., February, 1913, No. 4, Vol. LXXIII., 
 we read — 
 
 " Owdng to the rapid growth of Sydney, the present site of the Observatory 
 has become unfit, and the instruments are not suited for the exacting 
 requirements of modern astronomy. It has therefore been determined to
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 337 
 
 move the entire institution to a new site, and to provide some new instruments 
 and remount others. In particular, a new meridian instrument of modern 
 design, suitable for fundamental work of the liighest precision, will be provided 
 in accordance with the recommendation of the Paris Astrographic Congress 
 of April, 1909. 
 
 " Meanwhile the routine work has been almost stopped for the present, 
 and preparations for the reorganization have been commenced." 
 
 The Williamstown Observatory. 
 
 E. L. J. Ellery was appointed, in 1853, by the Government of the Colony 
 of Victoria to establish a small observatory at Williamstown, chiefly for the 
 purpose of determining time and supplying a daily time signal for the service 
 of ship masters. 
 
 On taking up his position, Ellery found the following preliminary arrange- 
 ments already made : — 
 
 A time ball apparatus already installed on a tower at Point Gelli- 
 brand, with the requisite apparatus and machinery for hoisting 
 and dropping the ball. 
 Some astronomical instruments, including a transit instrument on 
 
 order in England. 
 A site for the Observatory selected. 
 
 A sum of £2,800 voted by Parliament for the erection of a suitable 
 building. 
 Under these conditions he set to work in a wooden hut, using a 
 sextant and a chronometer, and the first time signal was issued in 
 August, 1853. 
 
 Such was the beginning of the Williamstown Observatory. 
 The geographical position of the place had been determined some years 
 previously by Captain Stokes, of H.M.S. Beagle, his values being — 
 Latitude 37° 52' 52" S. Longitude 9h. 39m. 42s. E. 
 In 1854, the instruments on order in England arrived. They were a 
 25-inch transit instrument and a high-class astronomical clock, by Frodsham. 
 A more ambitious transit instrument, which had been ordered from the 
 firm of Troughton and Simms, arrived in 1855. This was an excellent 
 instrument, with an object glass of 3J inches clear aperture and 45 inches 
 focal length. 
 
 In 1858, the geodetic survey of the colony was decided upon, and placed 
 in charge of the astronomer. The proposed scheme was to divide the country 
 for purposes of land settlement by meridians and parallels, the primary lines 
 being first located at distances of 1°. 
 
 The Observatory having by this time acquired national importance, 
 on account of its public duties in connexion with the geodetic survey 
 and time service, the Legislature passed a resolution on 8th December, 1859, 
 according to which a Board of Visitors to the Observatory was appointed 
 by the Governor in Council on 30th January, 1860, the Governor (Sir Henry 
 Barkly) becoming himself chairman of the first Board. 
 
 A new circle arrived in August, 1861. It was constructed by Trough- 
 \o\\ and Simms. Its object glass has a clear aperture of 5 inches and a focal 
 length of 72 inches. The circle is of gun metal, 4 feet in diameter, divided
 
 338 Federal Handbook. 
 
 to every 5 minutes, and read by four microscopes attached to one of the 
 two stone piers which support the instrument. Observations with this 
 instrument commenced in October, 1861. 
 
 A new clock, also by Frodsham, had arrived a year before, and still 
 more instruments were acquired in this and in the following year. These 
 were a chronographic apparatus, by Siemens and Halske, of Berlin ; an 
 Airy zenith sector ; and an achromatic telescope, equatorially mounted. 
 This latter instrument, by Troughton and Simms, has an object glass of 
 4^ inches clear apertm'e and a focal length of .5 feet ; with it a valuable 
 series of observations of Mars at its opposition of 1862 was obtained for 
 determining the parallax of the sun in connexion with other observatories. 
 
 In 1853 the site occupied by the Williamstown Observatory seemed 
 quite suitable for an observatory, but the rapid growth of the community, 
 the construction of a railway terminus and large railway workshops near 
 it, had in 1862 rendered its position unfavorable, in consequence of which 
 it was decided to remove it to Melbourne. 
 
 Since 1857, there had been in existence a meteorological and magnetical 
 observatory, which was established and conducted by Professor George 
 Neumayer. This observatory was situated at Flagstafi Hill, at the west 
 end of the city of Melbourne. In 1863, Professor Neumayer, having decided to 
 leave Australia, it was arranged that bis observatory should be amalgamated 
 with the new Astronomical Observatory. 
 
 The building for the new Observatory was commenced in 1861 and com- 
 pleted in 1863. 
 
 In June of that year the Williamstown Observatory was dismantled, 
 and " the whole of the instruments and appliances removed to the new 
 building now known as the Melbourne Observatory " (11). 
 
 The results of the work done at the Williamstown Observatory are pub- 
 lished in the volume entitled — Melbourne Observatory. Astronomical 
 Results. 1861-62-63. 
 
 This volume contains the Williamstown catalogue of 546 Stars for the 
 epoch 1860, which at the time it appeared received warm appreciation from 
 European and American astronomers. Also a series of right ascensions 
 and north polar distances of the moon, extending from January, 1861, to 
 7th October, 1862, upon which rested the longitude of the Williamstown 
 Observatory ; and finally, the series of observations of Mars and comparison 
 stars during the opposition of the planet of 1862. 
 
 The Melbourne Observatory. 
 
 This Observatory is situated at a distance of 4 miles north-east from 
 the site of the old Williamstown Observatory, and about 1 mile south- 
 east fi-om the centre of the city of Melbourne, within an enclosure of 
 4J acres of land permanently reserved for observatory purposes in the 
 Domain Park. 
 
 In addition to the main building, which provided ample accommodation 
 for the astronomical instruments of the Williamstown Observatory, special 
 structures were erected for the magnetic and meteorological instru- 
 ments which were taken over from Professor Neumayer's Flagstaff Hill 
 Observatory.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 339 
 
 The Melbourne Observatory was ready to commence work at the end. 
 of June. 1863, its astronomical equipment consisting of the instmments 
 removed from the former Observator}' at Williamstown. 
 
 for nearly three years the work consisted almost entirely of meridian 
 observations of the fixed stars which were employed in the operations of 
 the geodetic surveys then in course in Australia and South America. A 
 catalogue of these stars was prepared each year and printed in due course. 
 
 In 1862 the Royal Astronomical Society initiated a movement for carry- 
 ing out by British effort a southern durchmusterung on the same basis 
 and the same scale as that which Argelander was conducting for the northern 
 hemisphere. The idea was to obtain the co-operation of the three southern 
 observatories — Madras, Cape of Grood Hope, and Melbourne. 
 
 The Melbourne Observatory offered to join in the work, and was eventually 
 allotted the zone from 60 degrees to 80 degrees of south declination. 
 
 The undertaking involved the determination of the positions of all the 
 stars comprised in this southern belt down to the tenth order of magnitude. 
 
 This work was commenced on 11th April, 1866, and continued for about 
 six years, when it had perforce to be discontinued. Its results comprise the 
 mean places for the epoch 1875 of 48,672 stars down to the 9th, and in many 
 instances the 10th order of magnitude, in the zone from 65 degrees to 69 
 degrees of south declination. These places are rouglily arranged in the MS. 
 in order of right ascension, the right ascensions being given to the nearest 
 tenth of a second of time, and the north polar distances to the nearest 
 second of arc, showing that the work aimed at a somewhat higher 
 accuracy than that of other works of this class, such as Argelander zones or 
 the C.P.D. 
 
 With very little labour the work can be arranged and prepared for printing 
 if means be provided for the purpose. 
 
 In the year 1850 a memorial was presented to Lord Russell, the object 
 of which was a request to Her Majesty's Grovernment to establish " a powerful 
 reflecting telescope (not less than 3-feet apertm'e) in some fitting part of Her 
 Majesty's Dominions, and for the appointment of an observer charged with 
 the duty of emplopng it in a review of the nebulae of the southern 
 hemisphere." 
 
 The opportunity of enhancing the importance of the Observatory by 
 the acquisition of a great reflecting telescope was quickly recognised by 
 the Board of Visitors, and His Excellency the Governor (Sir Henry Barkly) 
 was requested to obtain " an expression of opinion from scientific men in 
 England as to the importance of the results to be expected from it, the 
 most suitable construction of telescope for the purpose, both as to the 
 optical part and the mounting, its probable cost, and the time requisite for 
 its completion." 
 
 " An application was made through the Secretary of State for the Colonies 
 to the Royal Society of London for their opinion, and the President and 
 Council of that body, after a very full consideration and a long correspondence 
 with the most eminent practical astronomers of the day, recommended — 
 (a) That the telescope be a reflector, with an aperture of not less than 4 feet ; 
 (6) That the large mirror be of speculum metal ; (c) That the tube be 
 constructed of open work and of metal " (12).
 
 340 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The instrument was completed in 1868 and was sent to Australia, 
 reaching Melbourne in November of that year ; it was ready for work by 
 the end of June, 1869, and the observations commenced in August of the 
 same year. 
 
 Grubb's 4-feet reflector has, since its installation, been styled " The 
 Great Melbourne Telescope." An admirable description of it by the late Dr. 
 T. Romney Robinson, D.D., F.R.S., appears in the Philosophical Transactions 
 of the Royal Society of London, 1869, page 127 (13). 
 
 The telescope itself is of the Cassegrainian type, and is mounted equa- 
 torially in a somewhat similar form to the Sisson ; " its declination axis 
 being placed between the upper and lower pivots of the polar axis, which 
 run in large bearings, supported by two distinct massive stone pillars rising 
 from a solid bed of masonry. The R.A. circle clamps and slow motion 
 apparatus are between the declination axis and the lower pivot. The decli- 
 nation circle is fixed to the bearings of the declination axis on the side of 
 the polar axis, opposite to that of the telescope " (13). 
 
 The dimensions of the optical parts are as follow : — ^Aperture of primary 
 speculum, 48 inches ; focal length of primary speculum, 360 inches ; 
 aperture of secondary speculum, 8 inches ; focal length of secondary 
 speculum, 74.7 inches; equivalent focal length, 1,994 inches. 
 
 There are two large 4-feet mirrors, each mounted in its cell ready for 
 attachment to the telescope, floating on a complicated support of 48 cups 
 and balls connected to the ends of arms which form a series of triangular 
 levers, and upon hanging rings around its circumference. These mirrors 
 have a central circular opening of 8 inches in diameter to admit the passage 
 of the cone of rays from the convex secondary mirror to the ocular. The 
 mirrors, both primary and secondary, are of speculum metal. 
 
 The tube of the telescope consists of three portions. The lower, or " eye 
 end " poi-tion consists of the cell carrying the large speculum ; the central 
 portion is a cylinder of ijoiler plate, about 93 inches long, to which is at- 
 tached the declination axis by means of a massive cast-iron cradle and strong 
 iron bands embracing the cylinder. The speculum cell fits to the end of 
 this cylinder on turned surfaces, and is held to it by three strong screw-bolts. 
 The upper portion of the telescope tube is made of open steel lattice- work, 
 about 20J feet long, fixed by turned flanges to the boiler plate cylinder by 
 bolts and nuts. 
 
 The secondary mirror, in its cell, is mounted in the centre of the lattice 
 tube, about 300 inches from the surface of the primary speculum and 39 
 inches within the object end of the tube, and means are provided to enable 
 the observer while at the eye end to alter this distance for focussing. 
 
 The polar axis is 123 inches long, and its two pivots are 12 inches in 
 diameter. The declination axis has a diameter of 22 inches at the bearing 
 near to the telescope, and 9| inches at the counterpoise end. The circles 
 are divided on silver bands, and have a diameter of 30 inches. 
 
 The driving clock is governed by a double conical pendulum of the well- 
 known " Grubb " form. The direct driving weight is 260 lbs., and the 
 total weight of the moving parts is approximately 18,000 lbs. 
 
 The instrument is provided with an achromatic telescope finder, 4 inches 
 aperture, seven negative or Huygenian eye pieces ranging in power from
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy 341 
 
 234 to 1,000, a parallel wire micrometer, a spectroscope, and a camera for 
 photographing telescopic images at the focus of the primary mirror, the 
 secondary mirror being removed when the camera is used. 
 
 In 1910, a Voigtlander portrait lens of 6 inches aperture and 40 inches 
 focal length, for which a metallic mounting was made at the Observatory, 
 was attached to this telescope. 
 
 The great Melbourne telescope was for many years after 1869 employed 
 in the revision of the nebulae and clusters which were observed by Sir 
 John Herschel at the Cape of Good Hope in the years 1834-38, and the 
 results obtained are as satisfactory as the committee of the Royal Society of 
 London, on whose recommendation, supervision, and approval the 4-feet 
 Cassegrain was constructed, could have expected. 
 
 Most of Sir John Heischel's southern nebulae have been examined, and 
 many hundreds of drawings of these objects, with notes and micrometric 
 measurements, exist at present in the observer's note books and registers ; 
 but there has been no opportunity since 1891 of arranging this material 
 for publication. 
 
 In 1871, an expedition to the extreme north of Australia was organized 
 for the observation of the total eclipse of the sun in December of that year, 
 in which the Melbourne Observatory took part. This expedition is referred 
 to in another division of this paper. 
 
 In 1874, the occasion of the transit of Veiius, which occurred in that 
 year, gave Ellery the opportunity to add to his observatory equipment a 
 photoheliograph, by Dallmeyer, with object glass 4 inches aperture and 
 60 inches focal length ; an achromatic telescope, 8 inches aperture, 110 
 inches focal length, by Troughton and Simms, mounted equatorially and 
 provided with all requisites for micrometric measurements and work of the 
 highest precision ; also another equatorial telescope, 4J inches aperture 
 and 60 inches focal length, by Cooke and Sons, of York. 
 
 The preparations for observing the transit of Venus included the dis- 
 mantling of the east transit telescope of 6j-inch aperture, with which the 
 Melbourne zones had been observed till 1872. For this telescope an equa- 
 torial mounting was constructed at the Observatory, and the instrument 
 has since been used for expeditions as a portable equatorial. 
 
 Two new barrel chronographs were also constructed at the Observatory. 
 
 After the transit of Venus, it became a part of the daily routine to take 
 a photograph of the sun in the forenoon, which was done on all available 
 opportunities for more than 20 years. 
 
 In the time which elapsed between the two transits of Voiuis of 1871 
 and 1882, the routine astronomic;al work of the Observatory did not suffer 
 any marked changes or interruptions. 
 
 Stellar photography was tried with the great telescope, l)ut unsuccessful 1 v. 
 It was not found practicable to guide the telescope steadily eiu)ugh during 
 exposure. Pliotographs of the moon with the great telescope, which only 
 required an exposure varying from 1 scfoiid to 3 seconds (with wet plates) 
 were, however, successful, and they were even considered at tho time amongst 
 the best that had ever been obtained. 
 
 The photographs of the m()f)n obtained at the focus of the primary mirror 
 were 31- inches in diameter.
 
 342 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The pictures of the sun obtained with the photoheliograph were 4 inches 
 in diameter. One thousand seven hundred and twelve of these pictures 
 on glass were sent to the Greenwich Observatory and the Solar Physics 
 Committee in England, for measurement and tabulation (14). 
 
 The preparations for the transit of Venus of 1882 and the observations 
 of that astronomical event in this State will be dealt with under another 
 heading. 
 
 The determination of the difierence of longitude between Port Darwin 
 and Singapore, and between Port Darwin and the Australian observatories, 
 which were undertaken in 1883, will also be dealt with separately. 
 
 In the year 1883, a " Central Bureau for the Telegraphic Exchange of 
 Astronomical Information " was established at Kiel. It was arranged among 
 the principal Observatories that all urgent astronomical intelligence and 
 discoveries should be communicated to the Central Bureau at Kiel, which 
 would at once transmit the news to various secondary centres to be 
 established for the purpose in every part of the world, and thence to all 
 astronomers concerned. The Melbourne Observatory was requested to act 
 as the secondary centre for Australia, and it has since been its duty to com- 
 municate to the other Observatories of Australasia any astronomical news 
 cabled from Kiel, and to receive announcements of astronomical discoveries 
 or other important astronomical intelligence from any part of Australasia 
 for telegraphic transmission to the Central Bureau at Kiel. 
 
 Until August, 1884, all meridian observations were made with the 5-inch 
 transit circle, and the results were published in seven volumes, the first of 
 which contained the work done at Williamstown as already mentioned. 
 The six subsequent volumes contain all the separate results from each obser- 
 vation and the annual Catalogues of concluded Right Ascensions and North 
 Polar distances for each year. 
 
 The first general Catalogue for the Epoch 1860, containing the positions 
 of 546 stars, is that printed in Volume I. A second general Catalogue for 
 the Epoch 1870 was prepared and printed in 1874. This contains the 
 positions of 1,227 stars. A third general Catalogue for the Epoch 1880, 
 containing 1,211 star places was published in 1889. 
 
 In May, 1884, a larger transit circle arrived from England, constructed 
 by Troughton and Simms, and is of somewhat similar dimensions and 
 design to those constructed by the same firm for the Observatories of 
 Cambridge, England, and Harvard College, United States of America. Its 
 object glass has an aperture of 8 inches and a focal length of 108 inches. 
 Its two circles are 3 feet in diameter, being divided to every 5 feet, 
 and each read by four microscopes. 
 
 The two circles are at opposite ends of the axis, which is 52 inches in 
 length, and has pivots 4J inches in diameter. The pivot bearings rest on 
 two short iron pillars, which stand on massive stone piers. 
 
 The reading microscopes are carried on gun metal circles attached to the 
 short iron pillars. 
 
 From August, 1884, to the present time all meridian observations have 
 been made almost exclasively with this instrument. 
 
 During the period 1884-1891, the astronomical work of the Observatory 
 was similar in character to that of preceding years.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 343 
 
 The meridian observations made with, the new transit circle comprised 
 the usual clock stars, a special list of circumpolar stars, which were assiduously- 
 observed year after year, stars employed for comparison with comets, stars 
 selected by Dr. Auwers for the formation of a " fundamental Catalogue of 
 Southern Stars," and others in connexion with the reduction of the Melbourne 
 zones and transit of Venus observations ; also a list of stars required by the 
 Bureau des Longitudes for insertion in the Connaissance des Temps, and 
 another list of stars used by Dr. Gill in some of his heliometer work. 
 
 The observations of the southern nebulae with the great telescope, and 
 observations made with the smaller equatorials, comprising extended series 
 of observations of all the comets which were visible from Melbourne, and a 
 preliminary spectroscopic survey of the southern stars brighter than the 
 5th magnitude, form the bulk of the extrameridional work of this period. 
 It has been stated in a previous page that the share allotted to the Mel- 
 bourne Observatory in the Astrophotographic Programme, which was agreed 
 upon at the Paris Congress of 1887, covered the south polar area of the heavens 
 limited by the 65th parallel of south declination. 
 
 Some description of the instrument required for this work has been already 
 given. The one for this Observatory arrived in Melbourne at the end of 
 December, 1890. 
 
 It was constructed by Sir Howard Grubb, of Dublin, and is similar in 
 all respects to those constructed by the same makers for the same purpose 
 for the Observatories of Greenwich and Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 It consists of a double telescope, movuited equatorially on a massive 
 cast-iron stand in what is known as the G-erman model. 
 
 The two telescopes are roughly of the same length, but of different aperture. 
 The larger, which is employed for photographing, has an object glass of 
 13 inches aperture and 135 J inches focal length, and is corrected for spherical 
 and chromatic aberration for rays close to Fraunliofer's spectral line G. 
 
 The smaller telescope is used for guiding the instrument by visual obser- 
 vation during exposure. Its object glass is 10.1 inches aperture and 130 
 inches focal length. The driving clock is ^vithin the stand, and is controlled 
 electrically by a seconds pendulum, the driving being corrected automatically 
 by a system of difEerential wheels devised by the maker. 
 
 In September, 1892, a financial depression necessitated a policy of 
 retrenchment, and for some years the work of the Observatory was 
 hampered by the inability of tlie Government to adequately support it. The 
 year before the astronomical work of the Observatory had to be i-educed 
 to a minimuui Ellery wrote in his report of 2nd September, 1891 — 
 
 " The work of the year is clearly before us. The Melbourne 
 portion of the photographic charting of the heavens, with its collateral 
 work, will use up nearly a,Il our a vailabh^ working power. The meridian 
 work will largely monopolize the Meridian Observing and Computing 
 Staff, while obtaining photographs, developing, and otherwise dealing 
 with the plates will take up the whole attention of two or three members 
 of the staff both night and day. I propose, therefore, to confine the 
 astronomical work, for the present at least, to the routine meridian 
 observations, coupled with tlie observations for guide stars, and to 
 the special photographic woi-k with the astrograph, undertaking only 
 such occasional extra luoridiiin work as may from time to time demand 
 attention."
 
 344 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In 1895 the astronomical strength of the Observatory was further very 
 greatly reduced by the retirement of Ellery in June of that year. During 
 his tenure of office he had raised the institution from very humble 
 beginnings to the rank of a " First Order " Observatory. 
 
 We were left, a band of four, to carry out the meridian and the astro- 
 photographic work. This band remained the same till 31st December, 1907, 
 after which date a fundamental change took place and a new epoch commenced 
 for the Melbourne Observatory. 
 
 The Annual Catalogues of Stars, observed with the 8-inch transit circle 
 from August, 1884, to 31st December, 1912, were regularly constructed and 
 completely prepared for publication, but have not yet been printed. Those 
 of the years 1884-1893 were used for the compilation of the Third Melbourne 
 General Catalogue for the epoch 1890 ; the work, which contains 3,100 stars, 
 will very shortly be ready for issue. 
 
 The Annual Catalogues from 1894 to 1912 contain, in addition to the 
 standard clock and azimuth stars and some 134 zodiacal stars which were 
 observed at the request of the Cape Observatory, all the stars which are 
 employed as standard reference stars for the reduction of the Melbourne 
 plates of the photographic catalogue. 
 
 With these annual catalogues, up to the year 1910, a special catalogue 
 of 6,680 standard reference stars for the epoch 1900, all observed at least 
 three times, has been prepared. 
 
 The total number of stars of this class required for the full reduction of 
 the Melbourne plates is about 9,160, and 2,480 stars are therefore still required 
 to complete the Melbourne share of the astrophotographic catalogue. 
 
 Of this number, 636 stars have been observed three times, 379 twice, 
 and 496 once, while 969 stars still remain to be observed three times. It is 
 estimated that these observations will be completed by the end of 1914, 
 after which an additional catalogue for the epoch 1910 will be prepared. 
 
 The series of Melbourne catalogue plates has been completed. A series 
 of chart plates, with single exposures of one hour, covering singly the whole 
 area around the South Pole down to the 65th parallel of south declination, 
 has also been completed. In this series the centres of the plates were set 
 at the even degrees of declination. 
 
 Another series of chart plates, with three exposures of thirty minutes 
 each, the three images forming a small equilateral triangle Avith sides of 
 8 inches has been advanced to the extent of 431 single regions out of 584 
 regions comprised in the full Melbourne area. The centres of these triple 
 exposure plates were set at the odd degrees of declination from the 65th 
 parallel to the Pole. 
 
 For the measurement of the catalogue plates, an arrangement was made 
 in 1898, by which both the Sydney and Melbourne plates were to be measured 
 at the Melbourne Observatory, at the joint expense of the Governments of 
 New South Wales and Victoria ; a Measuring Bureau was created and the 
 necessary stafi trained at the Melbourne Observatory for the purpose. 
 
 The regular measurements commenced in 1900, but a satisfactory rate of 
 progress was not reached till 1901. 
 
 The computation of plate constants for the Melbourne regions and the 
 tabulation of rectilinear co-ordinates for publication are now in course 
 of preparation, and a first volume , containing the zones — 65 and — 66, 
 is ready for press.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 345 
 
 The total number of stars in this catalogue is over 300,000, and will occupy 
 eight quarto volumes of about 300 pages each. 
 
 On the 1st December, 1908, the Government of the Commonwealth of 
 Australia took over, and assumed control of, the meteorological services of 
 the various States uniting them under a single Commonwealth Department 
 of Meteorology, and thus the Australian Observatories were freed from a 
 burden which had for a quarter of a century retarded the advancement 
 of Australian Astronomy. 
 
 Since the middle of the year 1908 to the present date, the principal parts 
 of the working routine programme of the Melbourne Observatory have still 
 remained the same as those of previous years, namely, meridian observations 
 and astrophotographic operations. 
 
 The meridian observations have been made generally upon the reference 
 Stars of the Photographic Catalogue, Southern Stars in Auwers' Fundamental 
 Catalogue, Stars selected for investigation of refraction, personal, and magni- 
 tude equation, Clock and Azimuth Stars. 
 
 The object of the astrophotographic operations has been to advance a 
 second series of catalogue plates and the series of chart plates with triple 
 exposure. 
 
 The progress made in the reduction of these observations and in the 
 preparation of results for publication has already been stated. 
 
 The record of other classes of astronomical observations and investigations 
 undertaken during the period is as follows : — A series of 100 photographs and 
 measurements of position of Comet C (1908) Moorhouse ; thirteen photo- 
 graphs and some 300 comparisons with stars of Halley's Comet ; observations 
 of Comet Borelly {1911e), Gale (1912a), Tuttle (1912&), Faye-Cerully 
 (1910e), Kiess (19116); observations of Variable Stars of long period, south 
 of declination -30; investigation of the Eeseaux Melbourne No. 6 and 
 Melbourne N 23 ; investigation of the division errors of the 8-inch transit 
 circle. 
 
 The Adelaide Observatory. 
 
 In 1855, the late Sir Charles (then Mr.) Todd was appointed in Eiigland 
 Superintendent of Telegraphs and Astronomical Observer for the Colony of 
 South Australia. 
 
 It does not appear that any astronomical work had been done in South 
 Australia, except for geographical purposes, before Todd's arrival nor for 
 twelve years after it. 
 
 In 1867 the transit instrument of 32--inches aperture and 15 inches focal 
 length, which had been originally employed at the Williamstown Observatory, 
 was traiLsferred to Adelaide on loan from the Victorian Government, and 
 for the purpose of making meridian observations in connexion with 
 longitude operations required for establishing the position of the eastern 
 boundary of the Colony. It was not until 1874, however, that a suitable 
 Observatory and some astronomical equipment were provided by the South 
 Australian Government for its astrouoTuer. The prescMit Adi^laide Observa- 
 tory was erected in that year. 
 
 The astronomical instruments cojnprised, at first, an astronomical 
 clock by Frodsham, the 3^-inches transit instrument borrowed from the 
 Victorian Government, and an equatorially-mounted telescope by Cooke and
 
 346 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Son, 8-inclies aperture, and nearly 10 feet focal length, provided with all 
 the requisite accessories of a first-class instrument. The last-named 
 instrument was employed for the observations of the phenomena of 
 Jupiter's satellites, for the study of surface detail of this planet, and for 
 comets. 
 
 Meridian observations were made only for determining local time, a 
 time ball placed on a tower at the Semaphore, 9 miles distant, being 
 dropped automatically from the Observatory at 1 p.m. daily. The first 
 time signal was given on 2nd August, 1875. 
 
 In 1880 a transit circle by Troughton and Simms, with object glass 6-inch 
 clear aperture, and 85 inches focal length, was obtained, being similar in 
 design to the transit circle of the Sydney Observatory, except that the two 
 divided circles at the opposite ends of the axis are larger, their diameter 
 being 30 inches. 
 
 " The first work undertaken was the observation of stars in Weisse's 
 Catalogue, between 0° and 4° south declination, the intention being to include 
 all stars down to the 10th Magnitude, between 0° and 15° south, a work which 
 would have occupied several years. Exclusive of clock and azimuth stars, 
 we had 4,072 observations in R.A., and 4,099 in N.P.D. of stars in the belt 
 (0-4) referred to, by July, 1892" (15). 
 
 This work was then suspended, Todd's attention having been called to 
 the discordance in the observations of N.P.D. in the South and North Hemis- 
 phere. 
 
 Observations were made, for latitude, of 297 stars near the zenith of 
 Adelaide, 118 stars from 1st to 4th magnitude whose zenith distance ranged 
 up to 30 degrees north and south, observed either during day or night ; and 
 127 circumpolar stars so selected that five or six were observed above and 
 as many below the pole, the same stars being observed in the reverse order 
 after an interval of six months. 
 
 Later the zenith distances of 300 stars at all altitudes were observed in 
 the years 1893 and 1894. 
 
 These were selected from the Greenwich ten-year catalogue 1880. 
 
 180 circumpolar stars were observed for latitude in 1894 and 1895, in 
 addition to a small list of 23 stars, of which several bisections were made 
 at the same transit and the Nadir taken before and after every observation, 
 and another list of 53 stars arranged in three groups — one of stars near the 
 zenith, one of stars about 40° south, and one of stars about 40° north of the 
 zenith. This latter list was observed at the same time at the Observatories 
 of Melbourne and Sydney by arrangement. 
 
 For some years after 1897 the astronomical work of the Observatory 
 consisted mainly of meridian observations for time, and occasional observa- 
 tions of comets and of Jupiter's satellites. 
 
 The publications of this Observatory have been mainly meteorological, 
 consisting of annual volumes, dating from 1876 to 1907 inclusive. Various 
 astronomical memoranda, such as observations of Jupiter's surface markings, 
 satellite phenomena, eclipses of the sun and moon, etc., are included as 
 appendices to these volumes, and some miscellaneous papers have been 
 printed in the Monthly Notices of the R.AS. and in Proceedings of the 
 Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science.
 
 ASTBONOMY AND GeODESY. 347 
 
 The unpublished work comprises all the meridian observations made 
 with the transit circle since the beginning in 1889, and the physical observa- 
 tions and drawings of Jupiter, of which a large series was obtained in the 
 years 1884 to 1894, together with a set of over 200 drawings, made during 
 the same period, and arranged for publication on an orthographic projection. 
 
 Sir Charles Todd retired in December, 1906, and was succeeded by 
 R. F. Griffith, who was appointed Acting Government Meteorologist on 
 1st January, 1907. He resigned his position at the end of that year to join 
 the newly-created Department of Meteorology under the Commonwealth 
 Government, and Mr. G. F. Dodwell, B.A., was then placed in charge of the 
 Observatory. On 1st June, 1909, Mr. Dodwell was appointed Government 
 Astronomer of South Australia. 
 
 The present programme of astronomical work at the Adelaide Observatory 
 is as follows : (a) Time determinations ; (6) Observations of reference stars 
 of Sydney Astrographic Zones ; (c) Field latitude and longitude deter- 
 mination ; {d) (Seismology) variables, double stars, and miscellaneous obser- 
 vations with the 8-inch Cooke equatorial. 
 
 The observations of variables and double stars have now been com 
 menced by certain members of the local Astronomical Society, the equatorial 
 telescope of the Observatory being used for this purpose. 
 
 Negotiations are in progress concerning a proposal to undertake latitude 
 variation work in conjunction with the La Plata Observatory. 
 
 The instruments of this Observatory at the present day are those which 
 formed the equipment of the Observatory since 1889, namely, the 6-inch 
 transit circle and the 8-inch equatorial, the additions being only a portable 
 universal instrument, chronometers and other minor apparatus. 
 
 The Adelaide Observatory is supported by the South Australian Govern- 
 ment and administered as a branch of the State Department of Education. 
 
 The Perth Observatory, Western Australia. 
 
 This Observatory started its career in 1896 as an astronomical and 
 meteorological institution administered as a branch of the Colonial 
 Secretary's Department, Mr. W. E. Cooke, M.A., being appointed Director. 
 
 It is situated upon Mt. Eliza — a sand hill some 200 feet above sea 
 level, rising from the western boundary of and overlooking the city of Perth — 
 and commands an almost uninterrupted view of the horizon on all sides (16). 
 
 Its geographical position is — Latitude, 31° .57' 10-27" South ; Longitude, 
 7h. 43m. 21-74 east. 
 
 The climate of the locality is considered very favorable for astronomical 
 work, except in February and Maich, and in the winter montlis, when observ- 
 ing is more frequently interfered with by smoke, cloud or rain. 
 
 In the first few years of its existence the Observatory was gi-adually pro- 
 vided with the following instruments, namely: — An 8-inch reflecting telescope 
 intended for use with a coelostat ; a transit circle, by Troughtou and Simms, 
 with object glass 6-inch aperture and 71 inches focal length, with two 
 divided circles 30 inches in diameter ; a twin astrographic instrument, by 
 Sir Howard Grubb, of the standard pattern and size employed by the 
 observatories co-operating in the international astrophotogrH])hic programme ; 
 two machines for the measurement of astrophotogra]>hic plates, similar to 
 C.121.")4. z
 
 348 Federal Handbook. 
 
 those employed at Greenwich and Oxford; a 12-ineh reflecting telescope; 
 a barrel chronograph, with Grubb's " mouse " control ; an astronomical 
 clock, by Victor KuUberg, regulated to sidereal time ; a mean-time clock ; 
 and two chronometers, a 5-inch theodolite, and minor observatory apparatus, 
 accessories, and appliances. 
 
 For some years the astronomical work of the Perth Observatory was 
 confined mostly to meridian observations for local time, for the investigation 
 of instrumental errors of the transit circle and for the accurate determination 
 of its geographical position. 
 
 In the year 1900 the Government of Western Australia was invited to 
 carry out the astrophotographic programme originally assigned by the Paris 
 Congress of 1887 to the Observatory of Eio Janerio, which, however, had 
 not been able to start the work. The invitation was accepted, and the 
 photographing of the zones comprised between the parallels of .31 degrees and 
 41 degrees of south declination was undertaken by the Perth Observatory. 
 This circumstance established the nature of the work upon which the 
 transit circle and the astrograph were to be utilized from that time to the 
 present. 
 
 The transit circle was to be devoted to the observation of reference stars 
 within the Perth photographic zones, and the astrograph to obtain the 
 requisite photographs of these zones. 
 
 This work commenced in 1901. At first, owing to the meteorological 
 duties of the Observatory, progress was slow, but from the end of 1907, when 
 meteorology became a Federal concern, the work advanced vigorously, as 
 shown by the extensive publication of its results. 
 
 The character of the task undertaken by observatories participating in 
 the international astrophotographic programme has been previously de- 
 scribed here in connexion with the Sydney Observatory, and it will be 
 sufficient to remark that the Perth zones, ranging from -31° to -41°, contain 
 1,376 regions to be photographed, and that about 10,000 reference stars, 
 distributed within these zones at the rate of three stars per square degree, 
 whose positions had to be accurately determined by transit circle observa- 
 tions, were necessary, according to Mr. Cooke, for the preparation of his 
 photographic catalogue. 
 
 To these two classes of work the Perth Observatory has practically 
 devoted the whole of its energies and resources, and is still continuing on the 
 same lines towards the completion of its allotted share. 
 
 The entire area covered by the Perth zones has been photographed, the 
 whole series containing 1,376 plates, but Cooke found it desirable to obtain 
 another series, in the taking of which improved methods were introduced, 
 which gave greater uniformity in the results ; 662 plates of the second series 
 have been obtained and passed as satisfactory. 
 
 Three hundred and three plates of the first series, and 294 plates of the 
 second series, have been measured. 
 
 In 1907, Professor Dyson, then Astronomer Royal for Scotland, 
 offered to assist in the measurement of the Perth plates. His offer was 
 gratefully accepted. The first plates sent to Ediiiburgh were those of zone 
 - 40 degrees. At present some 400 plates have been measured there and are 
 practically completed (16).
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 349 
 
 It is stated by the present Acting Director that the series of plates com- 
 prising the Perth section of the photograpliic catalogue will be completed, in 
 two or three years. Xone of the plates of the chart series have as yet been 
 taken. 
 
 In the transit circle observations of the reference stars, Cooke adopted 
 the zone method first introduced by Professor Kustner, of the Bonn Observa- 
 tory in the observation of his zone stars. 
 
 The observed positions depend on three steps, namely . — 
 
 1. A fundamental catalogue of a small number of stars. For the 
 
 present purpose Auwer's Fundamental Catalog fur Zonenheohach- 
 tungen am Sudhimmel has been used. This contains, on an 
 average, about tkree or four stars per hour between the limits 
 of -31° and -41° declination. 
 
 2. A catalogue of secondary standards, containing three or four stars 
 
 per hour for every zone of two degrees between the above limits. 
 The positions of these stars depend entirely upon those of the 
 fundamental catalogue, and about ten observations of each star 
 were taken. This catalogue has been published as the first 
 volume of Perth observations, under the title of A Catalogue of 
 420 Standard Stars, etc. 
 
 3. The stars of this catalogue form the basis for the determination of 
 
 positions of the reference stars, of which four catalogues were 
 published, in 1908, 1909, 1910, and 1911. 
 
 The places of 7,561 stars for the epoch 1900 are contained in these cata- 
 logues. 
 
 The plan of advancing all the various phases of the photographic catalogue 
 as rapidly as possible, by measuring the plates soon after they have been 
 taken, and regulating the transit circle observations according to the require- 
 ments of the computers for determining plate constants, and thence the final 
 preparation of manuscript for the printer, enabled Cooke to commence the 
 publication of his section of the work in 1911. Vol. I. of the Astrographic 
 Catalogue, 1900, Perth section -31° to -41°, and three other volumes 
 bearing the same title, were issued in 1911 and 1912. In these are 
 registered the rectilinear co-ordinates of 60,481 stars, in the aggregate, 
 resulting from the measurement of 160 plates, which cover a belt round 
 the heavens two degrees wide between 31 degrees and 33 degrees of south 
 declination. 
 
 The present director estimates that the whole share of the Perth Observa- 
 tory in the international astrophotographic work will be fully published by 
 the end of the year 1918, so far as the catalogue series is concerned. 
 
 The Qovernment Observatory of Brisbane, Queensland. 
 
 The Astronomical Observatory at Brisbane may be said to have been 
 established in the year 1879, when, subsequent to the death of Captain 
 O'Reilly, a gentleman who had a private observatory at his home in South 
 Brisbane, the Government of Queensland purchased his entire outfit, and 
 removed the building to its present location on Wickham Terrace. 
 
 The adopted geographical po.sition is — Latitude, 27° 28' "00" south; 
 Longitude, lOh. 12m. 6' 40s. east.
 
 350 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The various surveyors-general have successively controlled the Observa- 
 tory programme of work. This has primarily been governed by the require- 
 ments of the Survey Department, and was an integral part of the operations 
 of the trigonometrical survey during its existence. The taking of 
 observations for time and the supervision of its distribution per medium of 
 private lines, time ball, etc., is the only work now performed, and none other 
 is projected under present conditions. 
 
 The astronomical equipment is as follows : — 
 
 (1) A portable transit instrument, by Troughton and Simms, of 30 
 
 inches focal length, and 2| inches object glass. 
 This instrument has been in use for about 30 years. 
 
 (2) A sidereal clock, by Cochrane, of Brisbane, with Eiefler's pendulum, 
 
 and seconds contact for transmitting clock beats electrically. 
 
 (3) Combination chronograph and Morse telegraph instrument, with 
 
 relay, etc., for recording transits, transmitting and receiving time 
 signals. 
 
 (4) A mean time clock, by Kullberg, of London, with seconds and 
 
 hours contacts, also with electro-magnetic attachment for cor- 
 recting small errors without touching the clock. 
 
 (5) Sidereal and mean time chronometers. 
 
 (6) Time-ball apparatus. 
 
 For a few years after the establishment of this Observatory the observa- 
 tions for time were made by the late Sir Augustus C. Gregory, a versatile 
 and ingenious scientist and famous explorer, who having then retired from his 
 position of Surveyor- General of Queensland, took up the work as a hobby 
 and for this purpose constructed with his own hands a chronograph, relay, 
 and all the apparatus necessary for electrically recording the observations, 
 including the seconds contact in the sidereal clock. 
 
 Tasmania. 
 
 In conjunction with the chief meteorological station of this State, a 
 Government observatory was established at Hobart on a very modest scale 
 (reduced indeed to a minimum as an astronomical institution) for the 
 purpose of determining local time and supplying the public and the shipping 
 at Hobart with a daily time signal. The astronomical equipment consisted 
 of a small transit instrument and a time keeper, neither of these being of high 
 class workmanship. 
 
 Owing to complaints made by the Admiralty, in regard to the occasional 
 uncertainty of the time given by the Hobart Observatory, the Government 
 of Tasmania arranged with the Victorian Government for the daily trans- 
 mission of a time signal at 1 p.m. fi-om the Melbourne Observatory, which 
 has been used since 1911 for dropping the time ball at Hobart, and is repeated 
 to other places in that State. 
 
 Thus the State of Tasmania is at present without official astronomy. 
 
 (c) Amateur Astronomy. 
 
 The astronomical work considered under this heading is that which has 
 been produced by Australians for the love of it and not for pay. nor as a 
 discharge of official functions.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 351 
 
 In the popuJar mind, amateur efforts are frequently associated with the 
 idea of inferiority, but the persons who will be referred to in this division 
 of Australian Astronomy need not fear that the adjective " amateur " is 
 given to them with any intention on my part of underrating their abilities 
 as astronomers or of placing them and their work in a class below that of 
 officialdom. The name of John Tebbutt will be found amongst them. They 
 are, therefore, in good company, and may well be proud of it. 
 
 The astronomical work done by Mr. John Tebbutt at his own observatorv, 
 Windsor, New South Wales, claims for him first place on the list of private 
 citizens in Australia who have cultivated astronomy for its own sake. 
 
 His first contribution to the store of observed astronomical phenomena 
 dates from 1854. His fame amongst astronomers the world over dates 
 from his discovery of the G-reat Comet of 1861. His title to the full recogni- 
 tion of valuable service rendered for the credit of Australia and the advance- 
 ment of astronomical science is based on a lifetime of assiduous and diligent 
 observations of great accuracy and importance, extending over a period 
 of more than half a century. Mr. Tebbutt is now an old man and has prac- 
 tically closed his career as an astronomer, and it seems just to remind Aus- 
 tralians that they should lose no opportunity to honour this veteran observer 
 and to show an adequate appreciation of his merits. 
 
 Mr. Tebbutt, in his History and Description of the Windsor Observatory, 
 written in 1887 (17), and in his later work, Astronomical Memoirs, written in 
 1908 (18), gives a full account of the Windsor Observatory and of the work 
 done by him, from which the information contained in the following notes 
 has been drawn, not infrequently in his own words. 
 
 Mr. John Tebbutt' s ObservatorYj Windsor, New South Wales. 
 
 (18) " At the eastern extremity of the municipal town of Windsor, lies 
 the Peninsular Estate, a tract containing about 250 acres of the richest 
 alluvial land. It is so called because it is nearly surrounded by the courses 
 of the Hawkesbury Kiver and its tributary, the South Creek, at their con- 
 fluence. On a hill situated a little south-west of the middle of the estate, 
 and whose summit is about 50 feet above the mean tide level," stands the 
 residence of Mr. Tebbutt and his observatory, whose geographical position is — 
 Latitude 33° 36' 30" 8 south ; 
 Longitude lOh. 3m. 20s. 51 east. 
 
 Tebbutt's work begins in 1854. He was then 20 years of age. His 
 equipment from 1854 to 1861 consisted of a sextant, artificial horizon, and 
 a " common but excellent eight-day pendulum clock," and a telescope, 
 If inches aperture. He chiefly employed these instruments for self training 
 and " providing gratuitous information of a popular character for the daily 
 newspapers." To these instruments were added a refracting telescope, by 
 Jones, of 3J inches aperture and 48 inches focal length, in Noven\ber, 1861 ; 
 and an excellent eight-day half-second box chronometer by Parkinson and 
 Frodsham, in April, 1864. At the close of 1863, a small observatory was 
 erected on the western side of his residence. It consisted of a small wooden 
 building, comprising a transit room and a prime vertical room. An octagonal 
 tower, rising from the centre of the building, served to accommodate the 
 refracting telescope, which he himself mounted in 1864 " according to the
 
 352 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Sisson or old Englisli method." In the same year he installed also a transit 
 instrument with object glass of 2-1 inches aperture, and 20 inches focal length, 
 made for him by Tornaghi of Sydney. The local mean time was determined 
 with this instrument for many years. 
 
 All extrameridional observations were made with the .3J-inch telescope till 
 1872. This was provided with two ring micrometers made by Tornaghi, and 
 eyepieces ranging in magnifying power from .30 to 120. 
 
 In 1874, he acquired an equatorial by Cooke and Son, of York, -with object 
 glass of 4:J inches aperture and 70 inches focal length, mounted according 
 to Fraunhofer method. 
 
 In the same year a circular wooden building, 12 feet in diameter, was 
 erected close to the observatory for the installation of this equatorial. 
 
 " In 1879 a substantial observatory of brick was erected on the south- 
 west side of the old buildings," and the equatorial, together with a new transit 
 instrument by Cooke and Son, were permanently mounted on solid masonrv 
 piers within the new building. 
 
 The object glass of the transit instrument has a clear aperture of 3 inches 
 and a focal length of 35 inches. 
 
 Another fine chronometer by John Poole was acquired in 1882. 
 
 Finally, in 1887, to the equipment of Mr. Tebbutt's observatory was 
 added a fine equatorial 8 inches aperture and 115 inches focal length, mounted 
 on the Fraunhofer or German plan, and provided with all the usual requisites 
 of a first-class instrument. It was made in 1882 by Grubb, of Dublin. 
 
 In the annual reports of his operations, of which he gives a methodical 
 and faithful account from 1864 to 1907, it is shown that his astronomical 
 activities were chiefly directed towards the comets and lunar occultations 
 of stars, but he contributed also, throughout his career, to the study of the 
 phenomena of Jupiter's satellites, the variability of special stars, such as 
 7] Argus, E, Carinae, and others, and later, with his larger telescope, devoted 
 much energy to micrometric comparisons of the major and minor planets 
 with neighbouring stars and the observation of the more interesting southern 
 binary stars. 
 
 His record of work on comets is remarkable. He began with the discovery 
 of the Great Comet of 1861, which caused a sensation, not only on account 
 of its brilliancy, but also because the earth passed through its tail. He 
 observed the return of the celebrated Encke's comet in the following year, 
 and on six other apparitions in the years 1865, 1875, 1878, 1888, 1894, and 
 1898, and on three or four occasions he was the first to detect it. In 1881 he 
 discovered another comet, which became a fine object as it passed into the 
 Northern Hemisphere, and is specially distinguished by being the first comet 
 of which a satisfactory photograph was obtained and whose spectrum was 
 satisfactorily studied. 
 
 Schaeberle's Comet 1881 V. was independently discovered by Tebbutt. 
 
 More than 40 other comets, mostly strangers to our system, were observed 
 by Mr. Tebbutt, and followed night after night from the earliest opportunity 
 to the last degree of visibility, determining for each a series of accurate posi- 
 tions, which were employed by him or by other astronomers for the compu- 
 tation of the orbits of these bodies. These observations often extended 
 over several weeks — sometimes months. The comet discovered in America
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 353 
 
 by Brooks, in 1892, was kept under observation at Windsor on 62 nights ; 
 the Coddington Pauly Comet of 1898, for 103 nights ; and Halley's Comet, 
 on 21 nights — from December, 1909 to July, 1910. In 1912 he made micro- 
 metric measures of Gale's Comet on nine nights. 
 
 From 1862 to 1906 he published 35 papers on Comets in the Monthly 
 Notices of the R.A.S. ; 73 papery in the A.N. ; 18 in the Observatory ; 5 in 
 the B.A.A.; 2 in Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Neiv South Wales. 
 
 Such is Mr. Tebbutt's share of Australia's contribution to cometary 
 astronomy. 
 
 Next in order on the initial programme of the Windsor Observatory come 
 the Lunar Occultations of Stars. Systematic observations of this class 
 were commenced in 1864 and were continued till 1904, and form part of the 
 regular work of every year of this period, ^vith very few exceptions. Between 
 the years 1896 and 1900, 435 occultations were observed. This will give 
 some idea of Mr. Tebbutt's activity in this branch. 
 
 His results of these observations have been widely utilized by astronomers 
 in investigations of longitudes by absolute methods. 
 
 Tebbutt's results of occultations observed in the years 1864-1870 were 
 in 1896 employed by Dr. Hugo Clemens, in a determination of the longitude 
 of the Windsor Observatory, and formed the material for an inaugural dis- 
 sertation entitled Bestimmung der Ldnge von Windsor, New South Wales, etc. 
 
 Similar results obtained from observations of the years 1873-1876 were 
 iLsed by Dr. Auwers in conjunction with those observed at Melbourne in 1874 
 and 1875, for the purpose of obtaining a fundamental meridian for Australia 
 by absolute methods. 
 
 The longitude of Windsor, derived from Tebbutt's observations has the 
 following values, viz. : — 
 
 Clemens, by observations of occultations, 1864-1870 — lOh. .3m. 21 ■25s. 
 Auwers, by observations of occultations, 1873-1876 — lOh. 3m. 20* 60s. 
 By telegraphic methods — lOh. 3m. 19- 87s. 
 
 The third item which forms a considerable part of the regular work of 
 the Windsor Observatory, is the systematic observation of the phenomena 
 of Jupiter's satellites. 
 
 Records of this work are found in (at least) 25 different years. 
 
 " The Windsor observations of jovian eclipses from 1894 to 1899 were 
 employed by Professor J. A. C. Oudemans, of Utrecht, in 1906, in his investi- 
 gation on the mutual occultations and eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter 
 in 1908." 
 
 The record of Mr. Tebbutt's work on variable stars consists chiefly of 
 systematic observations of the well-known southern variables rj Argus and 
 R. Carinae. 
 
 7] Argus was kept under observation every year from 1864 to 1876, 
 and from 1880 to 1890, in which last year, according to Mr. Tebbutt, no 
 further change was detected in its lustre. 
 
 R. Carinae was also regularly observed in each year from 1880 to 1890, 
 and also in 1895 and succeeding years till 1898. During the period 1880-1890, 
 ten maxima were recorded. 
 
 This series has proved very valuable in the investigation of the secular 
 inequalities of the star.
 
 354 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The Windsor observations of double stars commenced in 1880. After 
 1887, when the larger instrument (the G-rubb 8-inch refractor) was used, 
 special attention was directed to the interesting southern binaries — a Cen- 
 tauri, y Centauri, and y Corona Australis, and to difficult southern pairs. 
 A large amount of other astronomical observations of a miscellaneous 
 character must be credited to Mr. Tebbutt. Among these the more note- 
 worthy are the transit of Venus of 1874, which was successfully observed 
 at Windsor, and several transits of Mercury. 
 
 Many Lunar and Solar eclipses were observed by him, and his comparisons 
 of the major planets and a score of the minor planets with neighbouring 
 stars are very valuable. 
 
 In 1855, Mr. Francis Abbott, another enthusiastic amateur, was entering 
 the field of observational astronomy in Tasmania. He erected a small 
 observatory at Hobart, and provided it with a portable transit instrument 
 of 24 inches focal length by Varley, and an achromatic telescope of 3J inches 
 aperture by Cooke and Son, and commenced observations for local time and 
 observations on comets and variable stars. Later he improved his equipment 
 by procuring a larger transit instrument by Dallmeyer, and an excellent 
 telescope of 4^ inches aperture and 5 feet focal length by Dallmeyer, 
 equatorially mounted. These he imported in 1862. A Dollond, 7-feet 
 equatorial came into use soon after. 
 
 He was provided with a micrometer, a spectroscope, a standard clock, 
 and a chronometer, and batteries of eye pieces ranging in power from 25 to 
 450. 
 
 He appears to have continued time determinations, for the benefit of 
 himself and of the community, for a number of years, and his observations 
 on comets and on the variable star t] Argus are very numerous. 
 
 From 1861 to 1874 he contributed about thirteen papers to Monthly 
 Notices, which included observations of Comets 1861 II., 1862 II., and 
 1865 I., this last comet having been discovered by him one day before Moesta 
 discovered it at Santiago (19) (20). Observations of the transit of Mercury 
 of 12th November, 1861 and 4th November, 1868, and many observations 
 of the variable star 7^ Argus. 
 
 Criticisms on these latter observations by Herschel, Airy, Lassell, Proctor, 
 and others are published in Monthly Notices, Vol. 31 and 32. 
 
 He also contributed some twenty papers to the Proceedings of the R.S. 
 of Tasmania in the years 1863-1874. 
 Mr. Abbott died in February, 1883. 
 
 Tebbutt and Abbott are the earliest systematic observers in the history 
 of amateur astronomy in Australia. 
 
 In this place the name of Ludwig Becker may be recorded as the 
 observer who produced valuable drawings of the Donati Comet, 1858, which 
 he made by means of an equatorial, forming part of the equipment of 
 Neumayer's Magnetic Observatory, at Flagstaff Hill, Melbourne. These 
 fine drawings are published in the Transactions of the Philosophical Institute 
 (afterwards the Royal Society) of Victoria, Vol. 4, 1859. 
 
 The transit of Venus of 1874 gave the opportunity to several amateur 
 observers in various parts of Australia to bring their work into public notice. 
 Among these appear the names of T. D. Smeaton, F. C. Singleton, and
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 355 
 
 A. W. Dobbie. The first two observed the transit at Adeh\ide, with small 
 equatorials of 3| and 3 inches aperture, and the third, with an 8|-inch 
 reflector. Memoirs R.A.S., Vol. 47, 1882-3. 
 
 Mr. Dobbie, although his astronomical work was of an occasional character, 
 for many years maintained a keen interest in astronomy. He was one of 
 the observing members of the Mars section of the British Astronomical 
 Association, and constructed his own reflecting telescopes. He completed 
 one 18 inches aperture in 1905. 
 
 Two well-known observers who commenced astronomical work in the 
 early seventies are the late Mr. W. J. MacDounell and Mr. G. D. Hirst. 
 
 Mr. MacDonnell was residing at Port Macquarie in 1871. He had an 
 observatory there equipped with a 6-inch achromatic equatorial by Grubb, 
 of Dublin, with which he made observations for a few years. Later he moved 
 to Sydney, where, up to the time of his death, on 22nd September, 1910, he 
 assiduously continued his astronomical observations with a 4|-inch achro- 
 matic telescope by Parkes, of Binningham, an excellent instrument, equa- 
 torially mounted and driven by clock work. 
 
 He observed the transit of Venus of 1874, as a member of one of the 
 official parties stationed at Eden, under the Eev. Mr. Scott, once Director 
 of the Sydney Observatory. 
 
 He was one of the observers of the Jupiter section of the British 
 Astronomical Association up to the time of his death, and contributed several 
 papers and notes to the Journal and Memoirs of that association, on Jupiter, 
 on Halley's Comet, occultations and other subjects of a more general astro- 
 nomical interest. 
 
 Mr. G. D. Hirst, of Sydney, is noted for his remarkable skill in astronomical 
 drawings. He has been a member of the observing sections of Jupiter 
 and Mars of the British Astronomical Association, and several of his 
 beautiful draAvings of these planets have been reproduced in the Memoirs 
 of the Association. 
 
 The Director of the Mars observing section — M. Antoniadi, referring 
 in one of his reports to the work of Mr. Hirst, says " The drawings of Mr. 
 Hirst are coloured and represent the general appearance of the Planet (Mars) 
 more faithfully than any others received during the apparition." (1905) 
 Memoirs B.A.A., Vol. XVII., Part II. 
 
 Mr. Hirst used an achromatic telescope by Cooke, equatorially mounted, 
 object glass 4|-inch aperture. 
 
 His work extends over a period of 40 years, and includes, in addition to 
 studies of surface detail of Jupiter and Mars at several oppositions, observa- 
 tions of comets and double stars, the results of which, or of most of them, 
 have been published in the Journal and Memoirs of the B.A.A. and in the 
 Journal and Proceedings of the R-S- of New South Wales, to which societies 
 he has contributed also various papers and notes on other subjects. 
 
 Among the private citiz<!ns interested in Australian astronomy not pre- 
 viously mentioned, whose contributions to it, or valuable services rendered 
 to, in the period 1880-1890, shoidd be placed on record, are the following : — - 
 In Tasmania, A. B. Biggs ; in Victoria, Dr. Bone, David Ross, James 
 Oddie ; In Queensland, J. E. Davidson ; In New South Wales 
 H. F. Madsen, H. Watt, and H. Corbett.
 
 356 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The late Mr. Biggs was a judicious and ingenious observer, and some 
 of his observing instruments and apparatus were made by himself. On the 
 occasion of the transit of Venus of 1874, the assistance of Mr. Biggs was very 
 highly appreciated by the observing party from the United States, at Camp- 
 belltown, in overcoming instrumental difficulties. The principal instrument 
 with which he made his observations, especially in the years of his greater 
 activity — 1883-1887 —was a reflecting telescope with mirror 8h inches 
 diameter. 
 
 He employed also a refractor of 3-inch aperture, and was provided with a 
 sidereal clock, a chronometer, a small direct vision spectroscope by Browning, 
 and other minor apparatus. 
 
 His subjects of observation were chiefly comets. The results of his work 
 were published in the Monthly Notices of the R.A.S., Vol. 45, pp. 348 and 376. 
 
 He also contributed thirteen papers, bearing on astronomy, to the Pro- 
 ceedings of the R.S- of Tasinania, from 1884 to 1891. 
 
 The late Dr. Bone built a private observatory on his grounds at 
 Castlemaine, Victoria, where in 1881 he installed an equatorial telescope 
 with achromatic object glass 8-inch aperture, by Grubb, of Dublin, an excel- 
 lent instrument, provided mth all requisites for fine astronomical work. 
 He had this instrument mounted and in working order just in time for the 
 transit of Venus of 1882, which he observed successfully. He had planned 
 a useful programme of work for himself, which, however, was not to be 
 carried out, for he died very shortly after. 
 
 But his telescope was destined to do good work for many years after him, 
 in the hands of Mr. John Tebbutt, at the Windsor Observatory, by whom 
 the instrument was bought. 
 
 Mr. David Eoss, of Melbourne, in 1883, while watching the heavens for 
 the expected periodical comet of Pons, discovered a small southern comet 
 (1883 II.) His instrument was a small portable 3-inch achromatic telescope 
 mounted on a short tripod. Later he constructed for himself a 6-inch reflect- 
 ing telescope of the Newtonian type, which he mounted equatorially. He 
 has employed it systematically during all these years, chiefly searching for 
 comets ; and in 1906, he made his second discovery of Comet 1906 II. 
 
 In 1887, Mr. James Oddie had erected at his own cost an observatory 
 at Mount Pleasant, Ballarat, Victoria, which he equipped with various appa- 
 ratus, chiefly reflecting telescopes locally constructed. 
 
 He engaged the services of the late Captain Baker, who at the time had 
 become favorably known for his skill in making parabolic reflectors, and 
 placed him in charge of the observatory. 
 
 A mirror 26 inches in diameter was completed by Captain Baker in 1891, 
 which was mounted equatorially as a Newtonian telescope driven by clock- 
 work. Another 12-inch Newtonian telescope was also mounted. 
 
 The observatory was provided with a small transit telescope, astronomical 
 clock, and accessories. 
 
 The instruments were well housed in spacious wooden buildings which 
 contained in addition to other apartments, a large lecture room. 
 
 In 1888, Mr. Oddie imported an excellent equatorial telescope \\'ith object 
 glass 9 inches clear aperture and 135 inches focal length by Grubb, of Dublin, 
 which, however, was never taken out of its packing cases.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 357 
 
 Tliis is the instrument wliich, in 1910, was presented by Mr. Oddie to 
 the Commonwealth Government and subsequently erected .t the Mount 
 Stromlo Observatory in the Federal territory. 
 
 Mr. Oddie's observatory at Mount Pleasant, was chiefly intended for 
 the education and entertainment of the public of Ballarat, and no astronomical 
 work of a systematic character was ever done there. The observatory was 
 dismantled in 1910. 
 
 On 21st July, 1889, Mr. J. Ewen Davidson, of Mackay, Queensland, made 
 the discovery of Comet 1889 IV. by means of one of the telescopes used hv 
 the British Expedition under Captain Morris, E.E., for the observation of 
 the transit of Venus, in December, 1882, at Jimbour, Queensland, and sold 
 afterwards to Mr. Norris, of Towns ville. 
 
 Several amateur makers of reflecting telescopes were very active during 
 this decade, and contributed considerably to foster astronomical interest. 
 These are — 
 
 E. W. Wigmore and R. Shafer, of Melbourne ; Dobbie, of Adelaide ; 
 H. Watt, H. Corbett, Walter Gale, who commenced constructing 
 his own telescopes in 1882 when he was still a school boy, and H. F. 
 Madsen, of New South Wales ; and others less well known. 
 
 Mr. H. F. Madsen's paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Neiv 
 South Wales, upon the construction of a reflecting telescope of 18 inches 
 aperture is a valuable contribution to the subject. 
 
 In later years, and up to the present time, we find the number of amateur 
 observers and persons interested in the advancement of Australian astronomy 
 gradually and widely increasing, and there are among them several names 
 which have gained distinction through the value of their work. 
 
 Messrs. R. T. A. Innes and C. J. Merfield were at one time serving enthusias- 
 tically in the ranks of amateur astronomers in New South Wales — Innes till 
 1896, when he left Australia to take up an official position under Dr. Gill, 
 at the Cape Observatory ; and Merfield, till 1905, when he joined the Sydney 
 Observatory. The work of these men, which was done in their amateur 
 days, should be noted here. 
 
 Innes used a refractor of 6j-inch aperture, and a Newtonian reflector, 
 with a mirror of 16 inches diameter, and carried on observations of variable 
 stars and double stars ; some of his results were published in the Monthly 
 Notices of the R.A.S- and in the Journal of the British Astronomical Associa- 
 tion. List of probable new double stars, and Occulta tion of Antares, 1894, 
 31st October, Monthly Notices, Vol. 55 ; on the proper motion of Lacaille, 
 4336, Monthly Notices, Vol. 56; new double stars, Journal of the British 
 Astronomical Association, Vol. 6; observations made at Sydney in 1895; 
 and observations of variable stars, 1895-96 ; and order of brightness of tlie 
 1st magnitude stars. Journal of the British Astronomical Association, Vol. 6, 
 etc. 
 
 Innes contributed also papers on the secular jXTturbat ions of the 
 Earth's orbit by Mars, Monthly Notices, Vol. 52 ; the secular perturbations 
 of the Earth arising from the action of Venus, Monthly Notices, Vol. 53 ; 
 elements of Comet 1894 (Gale, 1st April), A.N. 3231 ; Table to facilitate the 
 application of Gauss's method of computing secular perturbations, Montfdy 
 Notices of the R.A.S. , Vol. 154, and other writings.
 
 358 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Merfield employed a refractor of Gj-incli aperture by Cooke, equatorially 
 mounted ; a reflector, equatorially mounted, mirror 7 inches diameter ; a 
 small transit circle, with object glass 2 J inches aperture ; chronometers ; 
 and a tape chronograph. 
 
 With this equipment he conducted systematic observations for several 
 years, chiefly on coloured stars and comets. 
 
 Most of the astronomical data for the use of observers in New South 
 Wales on special events, such as predictions of occultations, elements and 
 ephemeris of newly discovered comets, ephemeris of expected periodical 
 comets, times and explanatory notes of eclipses of the sun and of the moon, 
 and other celestial phenomena of public interest were prepared very fre- 
 quently by Innes, and later, from 1894 to 1905, very regularly and almost 
 entirely by Merfield. 
 
 Gravitational astronomy was, however, the work in which Merfield was 
 particularly interested, and to which he devoted most of the time he could 
 spare from his ordinary daily occupation. 
 
 Amongst the most important of his papers on this and allied subjects, 
 the following may be mentioned : — Definitive orbit elements of comet 1898 
 VII. ; Definitive orbit elements of comet 1899 I. ; Definitive orbit elements 
 of comet 1901 I. ; Secular perturbations of Eros arising from the actions 
 of the eight major planets of the solar system ; Determination of the 
 secular perturbations of minor planet Ceres, arising from the actions of 
 the eight major planets of the solar system ; Secular perturbations of (7) 
 Iris, arising from the actions of the eight major planets of the solar system ; 
 Secular perturbations of Ceres, arising from the action of Jupiter (with 
 an important appendix on the co-efficients of the hyper-geometrical series F 
 a ^ y X)- Tables of the two hypergeometrical functions — F (^, f, 2, sin^ 
 
 I), andF(-i^, 2, sinH). 
 
 Walter F. Gale, one of the best known and most skilful observers of New 
 South Wales, had been devoted to astronomical observations and the making 
 of reflecting telescopes since 1882, but it was not till ten years later that he 
 became possessed of a sufficiently suitable equipment for systematic work. 
 In 1892, by means of an exquisitely defining reflecting telescope by With, of 
 8| inches aperture, he made many observations, particularly of the planet 
 Mars, which, with four drawings, were published in the Journal and Memoirs 
 of the British Astronomical Association. This observer was the first, it appears, 
 to note the delicate markings now known as the " oases " of Mars, as recorded 
 by Flammarion and Antoniadi. In 1893 he observed the total eclipse of 
 the sun at Mina Bronces, in Chile, and has since " chased " three other solar 
 eclipses, but each time met with adverse weather conditions. 
 
 He also devoted much attention to Jupiter and his Galilean satellites, 
 several hundreds of observations of which are published in the Memoirs of 
 the B.A.A. 
 
 Mr. Gale has independently discovered six comets, two of which bear his 
 name, namely : — Gale 1894 II., and Gale 1912 a. 
 
 Comet 1888 I., Sawerthal, was found by him independently only one 
 day after Sawerthal had discovered it at the Cape, and the other three comets 
 proved to be returns of periodical comets — Fabry 1886 I., Winnecke 1892 TV., 
 and Tempel^ 1894.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 359 
 
 He also discovered several double stars and a ring nebula. 
 
 Notes upon these discoveries were published in the Astronomische Nach- 
 richten, in the Monthly Notices of the R.A.S., and other journals. 
 
 Perhaps the best service rendered to Australian astronomy by Mr. Gale 
 was the part he took in conjunction with Innes in forming the New South 
 Wales branch of the British Astronomical Association. 
 
 This branch was constituted in September, 1894, when it consisted of thirteen 
 members, namely :— John Tebbutt, R. T. A. Innes, W. F. Gale, G. H. Knibbs, 
 C. J. Merfield, H- Wright. G. Butterfield. C Mathews, F. D. Edmonds. R. D. 
 Lewers, J. W. Askew, T. W. Craven, and C. C Carter. It made rapid progress 
 and its roll of members gradually increased. 
 
 In 1895, a special section for the observation of coloured stars was first 
 formed, with Merfield as director and two observers, namely — H. Wright, who 
 employed a reflecting telescope of 8J inches aperture ; and F. K. McDonall, with 
 a 2^-in. refractor; Merfield himself using a 7-in. reflector. Upwards of 5,000 
 observations were made of 458 stars in accordance with a carefully planned pro- 
 gramme, which was completed in the years 1895-97. The results of this work 
 are published in Vol. VI., No. 9, and Vol. VIII., No. 1 of the Journal B.A.A. 
 
 In 1897 special observing sections were formed as follow : — Comet 
 section^Director, John Tebbutt ; Jupiter section — Director, W. F. Gale ; 
 Sun and Meteors — Director, F. K. McDonall. 
 
 The first president of the branch was Mr. John Tebbutt, in which office he 
 was followed by G. H. Knibbs, the present Commonwealth Statistician, who 
 in the year 1900 prepared a paper on " The Sun's motion in Space," which 
 was published in the Proceedings of the R.S- of New South Wales, Vol. XXXIV. 
 It contains the history and bibliography of the subject from Giordano Bruno 
 (1584) to Kobold (1900), and is qualified by the author as a step preliminary 
 to a further consideration of the whole question, wliich however, his subsequent 
 official duties prevented him from carrying out. 
 
 The paper, which bears clear e\adence of a vast amount of careful research 
 renders a complete account of the state of knowledge on the subject existing 
 up to the year 1900, and forms an astronomical contribution of great value. 
 
 The third president (Session 1899-1900) was the Rev. Dr. Roseby, a 
 fluent writer on astronomical subjects, and more particularly interested in 
 gravitational astronomy. The elliptic elements of Gale Comet 1894 b, were 
 computed by him. 
 
 Subsequent occupants of the chair were W. F. Gale, W. J. MacDonnell, 
 G. D. Hirst, and C J. Merfield, whose Avork has already been separately 
 referred to, and next to these come H. Wright (1907-1909), J. Nangle (1909- 
 1911), and again the Rev. Dr. Roseby (1911-1913). 
 
 Mr. H- Wright has for a long time been devoted to astronomical observa- 
 tions, for which he uses a reflecting telescope of the Newtonian type, by 
 Browning, 8h inches aperture equatorially mounted. Amongst the papers 
 published in the Journal of the Association, containing the results of liis 
 work are the following : — 
 
 Double star observations and observations of meteors. Vol. VI. ; 
 Daylight occultation of Antares, Vol. VII. ; 
 Chamber's catalogue of red stars, Vol. XI. ; 
 
 Some southern nebulae and tlie trapezium of Orion, Vol. XIT. ; (••omet 
 Moorehouse 1908 e, Vol. XIX.
 
 360 Federal Handbook. 
 
 He is a member of the " Jupiter " and " Mars " observing sections, and 
 a number of his drawings and observations of these planets, also of Saturn 
 and Halley's Comet, have been published in the Memoirs of the B.A.A. At 
 one opposition of Mars there were only three southern observers, and his 
 contribution carried considerable value and was highly appreciated. He 
 has observed and sketched sun spots and solar prominences, and published 
 several papers on astronomical subjects of a more general interest. 
 
 James Xangle is another practical observer of considerable merit and 
 the possessor of a first-class achromatic telescope, by Cooke and Sons, of 
 6j-in. aperture, mounted equatorially and driven by clockwork, which 
 had been used by Innes when a resident of Sydney. 
 
 The instrument is housed in a well-built and commodious observatory, 
 where work is being done with efficiency and comfort. 
 
 The nature of his observations and the subjects in w^hich he is more 
 particularly interested are shown by his published results in the Journal of 
 the Association, some of which I note here. 
 
 Double star measures. Vols. XVII. and XXI. 
 
 Measures of a Centauri, Vol. XIX. ; 
 
 Measures of p Eridani, Lacaille 2145, Vols. XIX. and XX. ; 
 
 Provisional orbits of p Eridani and h 5014, Vols. XIX. ; and XXI. ; 
 
 Orbit of B Miiscae, Vol. XX. ; 
 
 Cluster about K Crucis, Vols. XIX. and XVIII. ; 
 
 Saturn's diameter. Vol. XVIII. ; 
 
 Occulta tions of d Librae and Uranus, Vol. XVIII. 
 
 The New South Wales branch of the B.A.A. is still in full working activity. 
 
 Of the total number of 76 Australian members of the parent association, 
 more than one half belong to this branch. 
 
 Mr. E. H. Beattie, the present secretary, is also a contributor to the 
 advancement of Australian amateur astronomy. He has a good observatory, 
 equipped with an excellent equatorial refractor by Grubb, 6J inches 
 aperture, driven by clockwork, and provided with all the accessories re- 
 quired for micrometric measurements. His principal observations are — 
 occultation phenomena of Jupiter's satellites, double stars, comets, eclipses 
 and occultations of stars and planets by the moon. 
 
 The results of his work, as well as his reports of work done by the branch 
 generally, to the parent association have been and are being regularly pub- 
 lished in the Journal of the B.A.A. 
 
 Mr. T. H. Close renders good service by computing comets' orbits and 
 lunar occultations by graphical methods, and furnishing such data to those 
 interested. 
 
 Other members of this branch figure in the Journal and Memoirs of the 
 Association as members of some particular observing section, and as con- 
 trfbutors of astronomical papers, notes, or drawings. These are J. E. Bell 
 (Solar Section), H. Brown (Comet Halley), R. H. Bulkeley (Comet Halley), 
 A. B. Cobham (Jupiter and Mars), the late Dr. R. D. Givin (Jupiter, Mars, 
 and the Sun), Gr. H. Hoskins (Mars), J. C. Jenkinson (Auroral and Zodiacal 
 light), F. K. McDonall (Meteors), D Shearer (Mars), Rev. W. Swindlehurst, 
 P. Chauleur, Captain Edmonds, and Mr. N. J. Basnett, who specializes in 
 meridian observations for the accurate determination of time. 
 
 For the published results of the above observers, see list in Appendix.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 361 
 
 In 1897, a branch of the British Astronomical Association was formed 
 in Victoria, and the attempt was made to encourage the possessors of astro- 
 nomical telescopes to midertake systematic observations with them. The 
 principal names of those who worked energetically in organizing and after- 
 wards struggling to set the branch in working order are those of — 
 
 R. W. Wigmore, the late Professor Kernot, Dr. E. F. J. Love, C 
 Oliver. M.C.E., T. W. Fowler, M.C.E., Professor Barnard, Mrs. 
 Rose Whiting, David Ross, and George Smale. 
 
 The inaugural meeting of the branch took place on the 16th December, 
 1897, under the presidency of the late R. L. J. Ellery, who held office till 
 the year 1900, the chair being successively occupied after him by the Rev. 
 John Meiklejohn, Dr. Love, Professor Kernot, and Professor Barnard. 
 
 R. W. Wigmore was secretary for the period (1897-1900), David Ross 
 (1900-1901), and George Smale (1901-1905). 
 
 The difficulty which prevented the sound development of this branch 
 and eventually caused its extinction at the end of 1905, was the failure to 
 induce a sufficient number of its members to use their telescopes for some 
 definite astronomical purpose, and in accordance with a suitably prep red 
 plan. 
 
 Professor Barnard has been for many years interested in the observation 
 of variable stars. He is at present in charge of a small observatory recently 
 erected at the Royal Military College of the Commonwealth, on the summit 
 of Mount Pleasant, near the Federal capital site. 
 
 The observatory is provided with an equatorial refractor, by Cooke and 
 Sons, of 4J inches aperture, and a portable transit instrument, and it is 
 expected that Professor Barnard will be able to continue there regular 
 observations on variable stars. 
 
 The object of this observatory is principally educational. 
 
 There is only one other State of the Commonweilth at present in which 
 an Astronomical Society exists. This is South Australia. 
 
 The Astronomical Society of South Australia is intimately associated with 
 the Adelaide Observatory. Until the end of 1906, it held its meetings 
 at the Observatory, and although at present the members meet in another 
 building, the Observatory instruments are still at their disposal, and in fact, 
 the present director states " the observations of variable and double stars 
 have now been conmienced by certain members of the local Astronomical 
 Society, the equatorial telescope of the Observatory being used for this 
 purpose." 
 
 This society dates back to the year 1892, when as a section of the Royal 
 Society of South Australia, it held its first meeting at the Adelaide Observatory, 
 on the 5th April of that year, under the presidency of the late Sir Charles 
 Todd. 
 
 The annual reports of the society show a considerable number of persons 
 (40 or more) who have at some period been interested in astronomy, and 
 among them there are several whose writings on astronmnical subjects appeal 
 in the Transactions of the society. (For the principal titles and references to 
 these works, see Appendix B.) It does not appear, however, that astronomical 
 observations of a systematic character have been made by any observer 
 in South Australia for the object of carrying out a continuous and well-
 
 362 Federal Handbook. 
 
 defined astronomical programme, though Mr. Sydney Manning, of McLaren 
 Vale, has contributed observational notes on comets and the Kappa Crucis 
 cluster to the Journal of the B.A.A. 
 
 There are no records of astronomical results obtained by amateur astro- 
 nomers in Queensland and Western Australia,, with the exception of those 
 registered in the papers given in the Appendix. 
 
 (d) Australian Expeditions on Special Astronomical Occasions. 
 
 There were five occasions upon which the official astronomers of Australia 
 recognised it as their duty to organize astronomical expeditions for observing 
 important astronomical phenomena at places remote from their permanent 
 observatories. 
 
 These occasions are — 
 
 1. The total eclipse of the sun of December, 1871 — at Eclipse Island, 
 
 ofi the extreme north of Australia ; 
 
 2. The transit of Venus of December, 1874 ; 
 
 3. The transit of Venus of December, 1882 ; 
 
 4. The total eclipse of the sun of May, 1910 — at Bruni Island, in 
 
 the South Pacific ; 
 
 5. The total eclipse of the sun of April, 1911 — at Vavau (Friendly 
 
 Island) . 
 
 1. This eclipse occurred on the 11th December, 1871. The path of 
 totality crossed the Gulf of Carpentaria, touching Australia near its extreme 
 northern points. 
 
 The proposal to fit out an expedition to observe the eclipse was made by 
 the late Professor Wilson, and, on the recommendation of the Royal Society 
 of Victoria, the Governments of Victoria and New South Wales authorized 
 their respective astronomers — -R. L. J. Ellery and H. C. Russell — to organize 
 a party of observers suitably equipped for the purpose. 
 
 The locality selected for observation was a small island ofE the north coast, 
 called, since. Eclipse Island. The Queensland Government provided the, 
 then new, steamer Governor Blackall to carry the expedition to its destina- 
 tion and back. 
 
 The party consisted of the principal assistants of the Melbourne and 
 Sydney Observatories and a large number of other observers recruited 
 amongst the most eligible in the colonies. 
 
 The expedition was provided with the 7j-in. equatorial, by Merz, of 
 the Sydney Observatory, upon which was mounted a camera with lens of 
 3 inches aperture and 30 inches focal length ; the 4|-in. equatorial of the 
 Melbourne Observatory, and several other smaller equatorial telescopes, 
 all driven by clockwork ; photographic and spectroscopic apparatus fitted 
 for the purpose. Special instruments, adapted for the occasion, had been 
 forwarded by the Eclipse Committee of the British Association for the 
 service of the expedition. 
 
 The expedition started from Sydney on 27th November, 1871, reached 
 Eclipse Island on 7th December, and had the instruments ready by the 10th 
 December, the day before the eclipse. On the 11th, imfavorable weather 
 prevailed, and the sky was overcast during the whole time of totality. 
 
 Thus the expedition failed in its main object.
 
 Astronomy axd Geodesy. 363 
 
 2. For the observation of the transit of Venus, in 1874, the official astro- 
 nomers of the time — Ellery, Russell, and Todd — organized various parties, 
 which were sent to occupy favorable spots in their own respective colonies. 
 
 In the colon V of Victoria, Ellery selected, in addition to the Melbourne 
 Observatory, where he himself and his assistants observed the transit, three 
 subsidiary stations. These were — 
 
 Mornington, on the shores of Port Phillip Bay, and about 30 miles 
 
 south of Melbourne ; 
 View Hill, Sandhurst, 86 miles north-west of Melbourne ; 
 Glenrowan, 150 miles north-east of Melbourne. 
 
 The observations at the Melbourne Observatory were directed by 
 Ellery using the 8-in. equatorial, an 18-in. altazimuth, the Grubb 4-ft. 
 reflector, and Dallmeyer's 4-in. photoheliograph. Good observations of 
 internal contact at " Ingress " and " Egress " were obtained. Many 
 micrometric measurements of diameter of Venus were made by a double 
 image micrometer, and physical phenomena well observed. Several photo- 
 graphs were secured, both with the photo-heliograph and the great telescope. 
 
 The party at Mornington was in charge of Professor Wilson, of the Mel- 
 bourne University; its equipment consisted of a 4|-in. equatorial, by 
 Troughton and Simms, with which micrometric measurements and contact 
 observations were made ; fair results of '^ Ingress " and " Egress " 
 phenomena were obtained. 
 
 At View Hill, Sandhurst, Mr. C Moerlin (assistant of the Melbourne 
 Observatory) directed the operations. The instrument employed was an 
 equatorially-mounted telescope, with objective 6|-in. aperture, by Ertel, of 
 Munich, provided with a double image micrometer. Cloudy weather pre- 
 vented contact observations at " Ingress," but some satisfactory results of 
 " Egress " phenomena were obtained. 
 
 At Glenrowan, the party was in charge of Messrs. A. C Allan and James 
 Gilbert. The instruments employed were a 4i-in. equatorial, by Cooke 
 and Sons, and a reflecting telescope, by Browning, 8J-in. aperture, 
 equatorially mounted. Observations of " Ingress " were made satisfactorily 
 in clear weather, except the first external contact, but no observations of 
 "Egress" could be made, the sky being overcast. 
 
 In New South Wales, Russell, with the aid of the local Royal Society, 
 was able to obtain sufficient encouragement and assistance from his Govern- 
 ment to carry out the extensive preparations which he had planned with the 
 object of securing observations on tlie eventful day of 9th December, 1874, 
 at four different places in his colony. (G) 
 
 These were — 
 
 The Sydney Observatory ; 
 
 Eden, on the north shore of Twofold Bay, 350 miles south-west of 
 
 Sydney ; 
 Goulburn, 134 miles south-west of Sydney, 2,071 feet above sea level ; 
 Woodford, in the mountainous district, 50 miles west of Sydney. 
 
 Parties were despatched to these places equipped with equatorially- 
 mounted telescopes, fitted with apparatus for pliotographing the sun, and 
 provided with nutans for determining time, material for obtaining upward 
 of 200 pictures of tlie suji, observing huts, and all necessary appliances. 
 C.12154. 2 A
 
 364: Federal Handbook. 
 
 (21) At Sydney, the observers were directed by Russell ; the instruments 
 employed were the 11'4-in. equatorial, by Schroeder, fitted with photo- 
 graphic apparatus, which could be quickly removed and mounted again ; 
 a 4:f-in. equatorial, by Troughton and Simms ; and a 10-in. Browning 
 silvered glass reflector. 
 
 At Eden, the Rev. W. Scott conducted the work ; the instruments used 
 were a 7j-in. equatorial, and two other smaller achromatic telescopes, with 
 objectives 4^ inches and 3J inches aperture respectively. 
 
 The station at Goulburn was occupied by Captain Hixson ; this party 
 was provided with an achromatic telescope of 6 inches aperture, equa- 
 torially mounted and fitted with a camera ; also two smaller equatorial 
 refractors of 3f inches and 3 J inches aperture. 
 
 At Woodford, the observing party was in charge of Surveyor-General 
 Adams. The observations were made with 3j-in. equatorial, and a 
 4-in. photoheliograph was employed for obtaining pictures of the sun. 
 This station, in addition to the provisions made as at the other three 
 places for taking 220 pictures, had a supply of 30 Janssen plates, each to 
 hold 60 pictures. 
 
 Mr. Tebbutt observed the transit independently at his observatory, 
 Windsor, with a 4|-in. equatorial. He had fine weather, and obtained 
 accurate times of the beginning and end of the transit. (18) 
 In South Australia the transit was observed — - 
 
 By Mr. Todd, at the Adelaide Observatory, the instruments used 
 being the 8-in. equatorial, by T. Cooke and Sons, and a camera 
 arranged to give an enlarged picture of the sun. 
 By T. D. Smeaton, J.P., at his residence. North Adelaide, using an 
 
 excellent 3i-inch equatorial by Cooke and Son. 
 By F. C. Singleton, on the grounds of the Adelaide Observatory, using 
 
 a 3-in. equatorial. 
 By A. W. Dobbie, at his residence, 2 miles north-east of the Adelaide 
 Observatory, using an 8|^-in. silvered glass reflecting telescope. 
 The weather was unfavorable at Adelaide up to a short time after " In- 
 gress " and was only intermittently clear afterwards. 
 
 Todd obtained a few micrometric measurements, and made some obser- 
 vations of the approach of internal contact at " Egress." 
 
 Messrs. Smeaton, Singleton, and Dobbie were able to observe and record 
 the times of internal and external contact at " Egress." 
 
 On the whole, Australia acquitted itself with credit on the occasion of 
 the transit of Venus of 1874, and the Australian results form an important 
 part in the investigation of the solar parallax, based on the observations 
 of this transit. 
 
 3. The Australians had no opportunity of observing the complete set 
 of phenomena of the transit of Venus of 7th December, 1882, as the beginning 
 of the transit took place before sunrise. The importance of securing obser- 
 vations of the other phases was, however, fully understood, and extensive 
 preparations were made accordingly. 
 
 In Victoria, Ellery sent out two parties from the Melbourne Observatory 
 — one to Hobart, and one to Sale, Gippsland — Ellery himself remaining 
 stationed at the Observatory in Melbourne.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 365 
 
 The instruments employed at these three stations were the same as those 
 with which observations of tlie previous transit had been made. 
 
 Ellery and AVhite had fine weather and obtained good results. 
 
 The weather in Gippsland was unfavorable, and no observations oi any 
 part of the transit were made. 
 
 In New South Wales, Russell organized, equipped, and trained five expe- 
 ditions, which he was able to supply in each case with two equatorially- 
 moimted telescopes of 6-inch and 4|-inch aperture. Fifteen observers took 
 part in the work. The five stations occupied by these parties were Port 
 Macquarie, Clarence River, Dromedary, Katoomba, and Lord Howe Island. 
 Russell and his stafE were stationed at the Sydney Observatory. 
 
 None of these parties were successful, o-ndng to adverse weather conditions. 
 
 Tebbutt, at the Windsor Observatory, met with similar ill fortune. Thus 
 no contribution was made by New South Wales observers upon the transit 
 of Venus of December, 1882. 
 
 The Government Astronomer of South Australia — Mr. Todd — observed 
 the transit at Wentworth with a 4^-inch equatorial. He met with fine 
 weather, and his programme of observations was successfully carried out. (15) 
 
 4. The southern parts of Tasmania and Bruni Island were the only localities 
 from which the total eclipse of the sun of 9th May, 1910, could be seen. The 
 chance of successfully observing this eclipse was very small on account of 
 the low altitude of the smi at the time of totality, and of the unfavorable 
 and severe weather conditions generally prevailing in these particular localities 
 so late in the autumn. It was known that, owing probably to this uncertainty 
 and to the great length of the journey involved, no official expedition was 
 to be despatched to Tasmania on this occasion, and only one private party, 
 conducted by Mr. Frank McClean, was expected to come out in due course 
 to occupy some spot within the belt of totality. 
 
 Under the circumstances it was clearly the duty of Australian astronomers 
 to deal with the Tasmanian eclipse. 
 
 Dr. W. G. Duffield, of South Australia, now Professor of Natural Philo- 
 sophy at the University College of Reading, brought this matter before the 
 Council of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science 
 at its Brisbane meeting, of January, 1909, and that Council appointed a 
 committee, with Dr. Duffield as secretary, for the purpose of taking steps 
 to ensure that efficient preparations were made to observe the eclipse in 
 question. The result was that the Government of Victoria provided its 
 own astronomer with the required means for organizing and fitting out an 
 eclipse expedition to Bruni Island, which was done. 
 
 The Joint Permanent Eclipse Committee of the Roj-al Society and Royal 
 Astronomical Soci(!ty supplied a part of the equipment to this expedition. 
 
 Unfortunately it is needless to detail the elaborate preparations made 
 since the day remained completely overcast, and nothing was seen of the 
 eclipse, except a general darkening of the landscape. 
 
 Mr. Frank McClean and his party, who were stationed at Port Davey, 
 some 60 miles to the west of us, and Mr. Walter Gale, of Sydney, who had 
 purposely gone to Hobart on his own initiative to observe the eclipse from 
 a position in that city, were also unable to see the eclipse owing to cloud 
 and rain.
 
 366 Federal Handbook. 
 
 5. At the Sydney meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science, in January, 1911, the same Eclipse Committee was re- 
 appointed with the object of forming an Australian expedition for the obser- 
 vation of the total eclipse of the sun of 29th April, 1911, at Vavau, one of 
 the islands of the Tonga Group in the Pacific Ocean. Dr. Duffield being in 
 Europe, Professor Moors, of the Sydney University, was appointed secretary 
 to the committee. 
 
 The committee, having succeeded in obtaining a subsidy of £500 from 
 the Commonwealth, was able to organize and equip a party. 
 The equipment of the expedition comprised principally — 
 4-inch photoheliograph (Melbourne Observatory) ; 
 4|-inch equatorial telescope (Melbourne Observatory), with two large 
 
 portrait lens cameras attached ; 
 One coronograph (Perth Observatory) ; 
 One coronograph (Adelaide Observatory) ; 
 One 16-inch coelostat, lent by the British Eclipse Committee ; 
 One 12-inch coelostat, lent by the British Eclipse Committee ; 
 One coronograph (Sydney University) ; 
 Une 6-inch refracting telescope, with camera attached ; 
 One smaller equatorial ; 
 
 A large altazimuth, for time determination (Perth Observatory) ; 
 Also several cameras of various sizes, chronometers, subsidiary 
 apparatus, observing sheds and huts, living tents, and camp 
 material. 
 On the morning of the eclipse all instruments were in good order and 
 adjustment and the observers had been thoroughly drilled. 
 
 The weather was unpromising, and the face of the sun was obscured 
 intermittently by passing clouds up to the beginning, and during a con- 
 siderable part, of the phase of totality. Each observer, however, accom- 
 plished his allotted programme, and some 45 plates were exposed during 
 the three and a half minutes of totality. The plates were developed the 
 dame evening, and the results obtained were found to be much better than 
 was at first expected. 
 
 The form of the corona was found to correspond to the type which had 
 been observed on several previous years of minimmn solar spots. 
 
 Although this single result brings no new knowledge of eclipse 
 phenomena, yet, taken as additional evidence concerning an important 
 characteristic of the solar corona which is obtainable only on relatively 
 rare occasions, it becomes a valuable contribution to the store of eclipse 
 records. 
 
 (e) Determinations of Australian Longitudes. 
 
 Until the year 1883 the adopted fundamental meridians of Australia were 
 those of the Observatories of Sydney and Melbourne, and the longitude 
 assigned to these meridians depended on the observation of " moon culmina- 
 tions " and " moon culminating stars." 
 
 Until these two Observatories came into existence, the fimdamental 
 meridian of Australia was that which passes through Fort Macquarie, on 
 one of the picturesque headlands of Sydney Harbor.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 367 
 
 The longitude of this meridian was derived chiefly from the lunar 
 observations of the early navigators, from Captain Cook in 1770 to Admiral 
 King in 1817, and, later, to Sir Thomas Brisbane, Rumker, and others^ 
 the results of these observers fluctuated over a wide range which, however ^ 
 is quite compatible with the conditions of the time. 
 
 Fort Macquarie was one of the points on the longitude circuit measured 
 all round the globe by transportation of chronometers during Captain Fitzroy's 
 famous voyage in H.M.S. Beagle in 1831-36. The longitude found for Fort 
 Macquarie was lOh. 4m. 32 .14s., and if the correction Os. 115t = + 20 .52s. as 
 proposed by Dr. Auwers (22) be applied to it, it becomes 10.4.52.G6, which 
 is only 0.75s. in excess of what may be considered the most probable value 
 of the longitude of this point at the present day. 
 
 The meridian of Fort Macquarie remained for many years the basis from 
 which explorers and surveyors established geographical positions inland 
 and originally ascerta,ined the meridional subdivisions of the Australian 
 Colonies geodetically or by transportation of chronometers. 
 
 One of the earliest and most interesting undertakings of this kind was 
 the definition of the 141st meridian of east longitude, which was proclaimed 
 as the eastern boundary of the Colony of South Australia by an Act of King 
 William IV. in 1834. 
 
 In 1839, owing to the discrepant positions assigned to tliis meridian on 
 different maps of the time, Mr. Surveyor C. J. Tyers was commissioned by 
 Sir Greorge Gipps, Governor of New South Wales, to ascertain its true 
 place. 
 
 Tyers, adopting as his base the longitude of Fort Macquarie as 151° 15' 14" 
 = lOh. 5m. 0" 93s., determined the longitude of a point on Batman's Hill, 
 near Melbourne, by transportation of chronometers, and thence by triangula- 
 tion Avith a small theodolite fixed the position of the 141st meridian, which 
 he verified by sextant observations of lunar distances. 
 
 Captain Owen Stanley recalculated Tyers' work, and the result he arrived 
 at differed by only 16" 2" from that of Tyers. 
 
 Tyers, having adopted a longitude base, which, according to more modern 
 determinations, was more than 2 miles in error, and having carried out his 
 own work with all the accuracy which was possible under the circumstances, 
 the consequence was that the boundary was fixed, and afterwards (in 1847) 
 actually marked on the ground more than 2 miles to the west of the 141st 
 meridian east of Greenwich. 
 
 The longitude of the Parramatta Observatory was determined by 
 Rumker by transit observations of the moon and moon culminating 
 stars. Its value is given in the Philosophical Transactions for 1829 as 
 lOh. 4m. 6- 25s. 
 
 In M.N. of the R.A.S., Vol. VI., page 213, Rumker, rediscussing 
 his Parramatta observations, gives as a corrected value of this longitude 
 lOh. 4m. 7- 217s. 
 
 The first value of the longitud(! of the Sydney Observatory was obtained 
 by the Rev. W. Scott in 1858, and was derived from the observations of 
 21 transits of the moon. The result was lOh. 4m. 49* Os. 
 
 In 1859 Mr. Scott observed 38 moon culminations which gave as the 
 resulting longitude of the Sydney Observatory lOh. 4m. 59-8(is. (23)
 
 368 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Similar observations, 50 in 1860, and 56 in 1861, furnished the value 
 lOh. 5m. 6-84s. (25) 
 
 Stone, from a rediscussion of Scott's moon culminations, observed at 
 Sydney in the years 1859 and 1860, obtained longitude of Sydney Observatory 
 lOh. 4m. 47-32S. (24) 
 
 In 1861 the first determination was made of the difference of longitude 
 between the Observatories of Sydney and Williamstown by the telegraphic 
 exchange of clock signals, and the value obtained was Sydney-Williamstown 
 Oh. 24m. 55- 38s. (26) 
 
 The longitude of the Williamstown Observatory was determined by the 
 observations of moon culminations in the years 1860, 1861, and 1862, the 
 adopted result being 9h. 39m. 38- 8s. E. (11) 
 
 The difference of longitude between the Williamstown and the Melbourne 
 Observatories was found by accurate triangulation to be 16* 00s., giving 
 for the longitude of the Melbourne Observatory 9h. 39m. 54" 8s. (27) 
 
 This value was adopted and used until the year 1883. 
 
 In 1867 the difference of longitude between the Observatories of Melbourne 
 and Adelaide was measured by telegraphic exchange of clock signals, giving 
 the result Oh. 25m. 33. 76s., which, being applied to the longitude of Melbourne, 
 gave longitude of Adelaide Observatory 9h.l4.21m., which value was adopted, 
 and remained unaltered till 1883. (28) 
 
 Soon after the longitudes of the Sydney and Melbourne Observatories 
 had been determined from lunar observations, it became evident that the 
 longitude of the earlier fundamental meridian of Fort Macquarie, adopted 
 by Tyers, was considerably too great, and that, consequently, the boundary 
 between the Colonies of Victoria and South Australia had, very probably, 
 been marked too far west, and the error was further verified by the results 
 of the trigonometrical survey of Victoria, which connected the Melbourne 
 Observatory with a western station of the survey near the South Australian 
 boundary. 
 
 It thus became an important matter to ascertain the position of the 
 141st meridian by a fresh determination, and the Governments concerned 
 ordered the work to be done by the Government Astronomers of the 
 respective States. 
 
 The plan adopted by Todd, Ellery, and Smalley was to determine the 
 difference of longitude by the exchange of time signals by telegraph between 
 a temporary Observatory, erected for the purpose, near the northern end of 
 the marked boundary, and the Observatories of Sydney and Melbourne. 
 Todd occupied the station at the boundary, using the transit instrimient 
 by Trough ton and Simms, of 3J-in. aperture, which had been used at Adelaide. 
 Smalley operated at the Sydney Observatory, and Chief Assistant White at 
 Melbourne Observatory. 
 
 On 9th May and lOtli May the transits of ten stars, over the meridian of 
 the Observatories at Sydney and at the boundary, were recorded simul- 
 taneously at both stations, and on 13th and 14th May the transits of 21 stars 
 were similarly recorded at the bomidary and at Melbourne Observatory. 
 Exchange of time signals was effected also between the two Observatories 
 of Melbourne and Sydney.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 369 
 
 The results were as follow : — 
 
 Difference of longitude — h. ni. s. 
 
 Boundary-Sydney .. .. .. 40 59-72 
 
 Boundary-Melbourne . . . . .. 16 3- 77 
 
 Melbourne -Sydney .. .. ..0 24 55-81 
 
 The adopted longitude for Melbourne was . . 9 39 54-80 
 
 Tlie adopted longitude for Sydney was . . . . 10 4 48' 97 
 
 The adopted longitude for Sydney was the mean of the value 
 lOh. 4m. 47* 32s. calculated by Stone from Scott's lunar observations of 
 1859 and 1860 (24), and the value found by applying the difference Sydney- 
 Melbourne Oh. 24m. 55- 81s. to the longitude of Melbourne Observatory 
 9h. 39m. 54- 8s. 
 
 From these data, and the measurement, by chaining, of the short distance 
 between Todd's transit instrument and the boundary, it was found that the 
 north end of the marked boundary line was about 2J miles to the west of 
 the 141st meridian. 
 
 In the light of the present experience the longitude operations of 1868 
 can hardly be regarded as fundamental, and, moreover, the adopted longitudes 
 of the Observatories of Melbourne and Sydney being at the time entirely 
 dependent on transit observations of the moon, were not entitled to great 
 confidence. Yet the means and methods employed in this later determination 
 were so far superior to those of 1839 that a considerable error in the position 
 of this boundary line, amounting to probably more than 2 miles, could be 
 accepted as a tolerably well ascertained fact. 
 
 Then commenced the dispute between the adjoining States of South 
 Australia and Victoria, the former claiming the strip of land upon which the 
 latter State was encroaching. And the dispute grew even more vigorously 
 after 1883, when the chain of telegraphically determined longitudes between 
 Greenwich and Australia was completed; and further confirmed within 
 sufficiently narrow limits the results of 1868. Eventually, in February, 
 1911, the case was taken before the High Court of Australia, which decided 
 that the marked boundary having been accepted as such by the two States 
 concerned, the fact that it did not exactly coincide with the 141st meridian 
 of east longitude did not warrant the Court in ordering the re-adjustment 
 claimed by South Australia. 
 
 In 1882 an arrangement was made between the British and Australian 
 authorities that Captain L. Darwin, K.E., should go to Singapore for the 
 purpose of carrying out, in co-operation with an Australian observer, who 
 was to be stationed at Port Darwin, a determimition of the difference of 
 longitude between the two places, by the exchange of clock signals through 
 the cable lines of the Eastern Extension Company, thus completing the 
 longitude chain Greenwich-Australia by the telegraphic method. 
 
 The writer wassent to Port Darwin equipped with a transit instrument, by 
 Troughton and Simms, of 3-in. aperture, clock, chronometers, and all necessary 
 requisites. 
 
 Captain Darwin, similarly provided with the necessary instruments, 
 established his temporary Observatory at Singapore. 
 
 Captain Holb^ of the Netherland India Staff of Batavia, was instructed 
 by his Government to proceed to Banjoewangie, where the two brandies of
 
 370 Federal Handbook. 
 
 8 
 
 43 22 
 
 49 
 
 . 9 
 
 14 20 
 
 30 
 
 . 9 
 
 39 54 
 
 14 
 
 . 10 
 
 4 49 
 
 54 
 
 . 9 
 
 49 19 
 
 80 
 
 the cable between Port Darwin and Singapore join, and to take part in the 
 longitude operations, so as to determine the intervals Banjoewangie-Singapore 
 and Banjoewangie-Port Darwin, as well as the direct interval Singapore -Port 
 Darwin. 
 
 Clock signals were exchanged by Port Darwin with Banjoewangie on 
 4 nights, with Singapore on 8 nights, wdth Adelaide on 6 nights, and with 
 Melbourne on 4 nights, between the dates 28th January and 2nd March, 1883, 
 inclusive. 
 
 By these operations the meridian of Port Darwin became the origin of 
 Australian longitudes, and the following results were obtained and adopted 
 at the time (26): — 
 
 h. m. s. 
 Longitude of Port Darwin . . 
 Longitude of Adelaide Observatory . . 
 Longitude of Melbourne Observatory 
 Longitude of Sydney Observatory 
 Longitude of Hobart (Barrack Square) 
 A comparison of the telegraphic values of 1883 with those derived by 
 absolute methods up to that time showed a more satisfactory agreement than 
 could reasonably be expected. 
 
 Before dealing with the comparison, it will be necessary first to point out 
 some results obtained by the method of occupations and culminations which 
 have not yet been taken into account. 
 
 Russell observed a large number of transits of the moon and moon 
 culminating stars in the years 1863, 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874, from which 
 he derived the value lOh. 4m. 50* 81s. for the longitude of the Sydney 
 Observatory, which he adopted from 1878. (29) 
 
 More transits of the moon and a number of occupations were observed 
 at the Melbourne Observatory in the years 1874-75 for further veri- 
 fication of the adopted longitude, which confirmed the previously adopted 
 value. 
 
 Also, Mr. John Tebbutt had very regularly observed many occultations 
 of stars by the moon, and laid great stress upon the superior value of 
 this method for improving the longitude of the Sydney Observatory 
 and his own. 
 
 From 1863 to 1867 he had observed some 169 occultations, and 
 by the end of the year 1878 had increased the number by 63 more, 
 and having in the meantime determined the difference of longitude 
 between his Observatory and that of Sydney, on several occasions, both 
 by direct exchange of time signals telegraphically and by trans- 
 portation of his chronometer, deduced the value of the longitude 
 of Sydney Observatory based entirely on his own observations as 
 follows : — 
 
 h. m. s. 
 Longitude of Windsor .. .. .. 10 3 21-81 
 
 Difference Windsor-Sydney .. .. 1 28*83 
 
 Longitude of Sydney Observatory .. 10 4 50*64 (30)
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 371 
 
 In 1884 Dr. Auwers deduced a fundamental value of the longitude of the 
 Sydney Observatory based on the Australian observations both of transits 
 of the moon and occultations (31). He found longitude of — 
 
 h. m. s. 
 Sydney Observatory .. .. .. 10 4 49*60 
 
 Melbourne Observatory .. .. .. 9 39 54-17 
 
 Windsor Observatory . . . . .. 10 3 20* 77 
 
 The comparison of results depending on the entire chain of telegraphic 
 longitudes completed in 1883 with those derived by Dr. Auwers from lunar 
 observations shows a discrepancy amounting to less than one-quarter of 
 second of time, which was justly regarded as a nearly perfect agreement. 
 
 Subsequent longitude operations in Australia until the year 1903 were 
 confined to those specified as follow : — 
 
 A re -determination in 1887 of the arcs Windsor-Melbourne and 
 Windsor-Sydney by telegraph exchange of time signals which gave — 
 
 m. s. 
 Windsor-Sydney .. .. .. .. 1 29-39 
 
 Windsor-Melbourne .. .. ..23 25-87 
 
 Melbourne-Sydney computed .. .. 24 55-26 (32) 
 
 A re-determination in 1887 of the interval Windsor-Sydney by transporta- 
 tion of chronometer on seven different dates and by triangulation, giving two 
 new values for this, are as follow : — - 
 
 Windsor-Sydney — m. s. 
 
 By transportation of chronometer .. 1 29-49 (18) 
 
 By triangulation .. .. ..129-77 (32) 
 
 Determinations of the longitude of the Brisbane Observatory, Queensland, 
 by exchange of time signals telegraphically between Sydney and Brisbane in 
 the years 1884, 1891, and 1892. 
 
 Determination of the longitude of Broome, Fremantle, and Albany, 
 Western Australia, in 1890 and 1891, by telegraphic exchange of clock signals 
 between Commander Moore and Lieut. Parry at the above stations and the 
 Adelaide Observatory. 
 
 Determination of the longitude of the Perth Observatory in 1899 and 
 
 1901 by exchange of clock signals telegraphically with Adelaide and Melbourne. 
 
 The resulting longitude of the Perth Observatory being based on the 
 
 value 9h. 14m. 20' 30s. for Adelaide and 91i. 39m. 54' 14s. for Melbourne, 
 
 giving— 
 
 Longitude of Perth Observatory — h. m. s. 
 
 Fm Adelaide (1899) .. .. .. 7 43 21-74E. (33) 
 
 Fm Melbourne (1899) .. .. .. 7 43 21-78E. (33) 
 
 Fia Adelaide (1901) .. .. .. 74321-97E. (34) 
 
 Determination of the longitude of a number of stations of the trigono- 
 metrical surveys of the States of New South Wales, Queensland, and Western 
 Australia by telegraph exchange of time signals with the respective State 
 Observatories. 
 
 The results of all these operations still depended on the value assigned to 
 the longitude of tlie initial Ttieridian of Port Darwin in 1883.
 
 372 Federal Handbook. 
 
 " The laying of the cable across the Pacific Ocean from Vancouver to 
 Australia and New Zealand, some 8,273 nautical miles in length, was completed 
 towards the end of the year 1902. It connects three intermediate stations 
 on its course, namely. Fanning Island, Suva (Fiji), and Norfolk Island, and 
 branches from Norfolk Island to Southport, in Queensland (Australia), and to 
 Doubtless Bay (New Zealand)." (.35) 
 
 " The importance of taking advantage of the first opportunity of deter- 
 mining the difference of longitude between Canada and Australia, along this 
 route, was quickly recognised by the Canadian astronomers who, having 
 previously established a chain of longitudes across the Atlantic between 
 Greenwich and Canada, could now continue the chain to Australia to meet 
 the end of the chain carried eastward from Greenwich to Port Darwin, thus 
 closing a complete longitude circuit round the earth." 
 
 " The work having been authorized by the Canadian Government, 
 Dr. Klotz, of the Ottawa Observatory, was commissioned to take charge 
 of it, and in March, 1903, in conjunction with his assistant, Mr. F. "W. 0. 
 Werry, B.A., Dr. Klotz commenced his great series of Trans-Pacific 
 longitudes, which he concluded in January, 1904." 
 
 The results of Dr. Klotz are as follow: — 
 (.39) h. m. s. 
 
 Adopted longitude of Vancouver .. .. 8 12 28-368 W. 
 
 Interval Vancouver-Fanning Island . . 2 2-5 5* 406 
 
 Interval Fanning Island-Suva (Fiji) .. 128 43-837 
 
 Interval Suva-Norfolk Island .. .. 42 1-243 
 
 Interval Norfolk Island-Southport (Queens- 
 land) .. .. .. .. 58 1-364 
 
 13 46 20-218 W. 
 Longitude of Southport (Queensland) . . 10 13 39- 782 E. 
 
 A second fundamental meridian was thus established in 1903 on the 
 eastern coast of Australia, the longitude of which was based entirely on the 
 telegraphic method, and was quite independent of any other Australian 
 longitude previously determined. 
 
 The arc Southport -Sydney having been measured by exchange of clock 
 signals between Klotz and the officials of the Sydney Observatory, the entire 
 circuit romid the earth was thus closed, and a comparison of the two 
 independent values for Sydney, based on the eastward and westward chains 
 from Greenwich, gave the closing error. 
 
 At the time when the comparison was made (1903) a re-discussion of the 
 Port D a nvin longitude, based on all available records up to 1894, had been 
 made (36), according to which the adopted value 8h. 43m. 22- 49s. required 
 to be reduced to 8h. 43m. 22- 34s. 
 
 Also in the years 1894-96 the interval Greenwich-Madras was re-measured 
 by Colonel Burrard and Colonel Lennox Conyngham, which involved a 
 further reduction of 0-04s., and finally in 1903 a re-determination of the arc 
 Greenwich-Potsdam and the re -adjustment of European longitudes by 
 Dr. Albrecht and Prof. Wanach (37) (38) showed that the reduction had been 
 carried too far by 0- 01s.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 373 
 
 The values adopted by Klotz in his comparison were — 
 
 Longitude of Sydney — h. m. s. 
 
 Fid Eastern chain from Greenwich .. 10 4 49 '355 
 
 Fid Canada and Trans-Pacific longitudes 10 4 49 "287 
 
 Closing error = 1 • 02" = 84 feet = . . "068 (39) 
 
 On the basis of all data available at the present time, the most probable 
 
 longitude values of those Australian stations which form part of the Canadian 
 
 circuit may be assumed to be — , 
 
 •' 11. m. s. 
 
 Longitude of Port Darwin . . .. .. 8 43 22-28 E. 
 
 Longitude of Melbourne Observatory .. 9 39 53*93 E. 
 
 Longitude of Sydney Observatory . . .. 10 4 49-33 E. 
 
 Southport (Queensland) .. ' .. .. 10 13 39-82 E. 
 
 Notwithstanding the remarkable agreement of independent results ob- 
 tained by absolute and telegraphic methods in the determination of Australian 
 longitudes, and the powerful check afforded by the closing error of the Trans- 
 Pacific chain, it has been pointed out (35) that such evidence cannot as yet 
 be accepted as the measure of the accuracy of the last longitude values just 
 given above ; and that a re -measurement of the intervals Southport-Sydney, 
 Sydney-Melbourne, Melbourne-Port Darwin, Port Darwin-Singapore, Singa- 
 pore-Madras is required before these values can be adopted with full confidence. 
 The Commonwealth Government is desirous of establishing a primary 
 meridian to which all the Australian longitudes should be referred for the 
 purpose of connecting the various surveys of the States to a common 
 meridian datum. The present Federal Observatory of Mt. Stromlo is indicated 
 3.S the appropriate point for the primary meridian of Australia. Lideed, 
 this was one of the reasons for which Mt. Stromlo was selected as the site for 
 the Observatory. This point could be very readily connected with one of the 
 ■existing Observatories — Melbourne or Sydney — telegraphically or geodetically, 
 but it has been suggested to the authorities (35) that adequate precision in 
 the determination of the longitude of this meridian could only be obtained 
 by completing a system of longitude measurements connecting Mt. Stromlo 
 directly with the end of the Trans-Pacific chain at Southport on one side, 
 and vnth. the end of the Indian chain at Port Darwin on the other, and by 
 re-measuring the intervals Port Darwin-Singapore and Singapore -IVIadras. 
 
 Great stress has been laid on the importance of carrying out this work 
 soon and with due e fficiency, in order to strengthen Australian longitudes . 
 
 The Mt. Stromlo Observatory. 
 
 In the beginning of the year 1910 the Government of the Commonwealth 
 decided to erect a temporary Observatory at Mt. Stromlo, within the Federal 
 Territory, at a distance of 7 miles to the westward of the centre of the Federal 
 Capital " Canberra." 
 
 The immediate object was to test by astronomical and meteorological 
 observations extending over one year, whether the atmospheric conditions 
 of the site were sufiiciently favorable to justify the authorities to establish on 
 that site a permanent Astronomical Observatory of the highest order. 
 
 In due course an appropriate structure was constructed for the instal- 
 lation of a 9-in. refracting telescope equatorially mounted, and periodica 1 
 ■observations were made for a few days in each month for nearly two years.
 
 374 Federal Handbook. 
 
 at the end of which (July, 1913) the observers reported that the site was 
 favorable for the intended purpose . 
 
 The selected site is the summit of a group of hills rising, by gentle and 
 graceful slopes, to an elevation of some 600 feet above the general surface of 
 the surrounding country, and 2,660 above sea level. It commands an 
 uninterrupted view practically down to the horizon on all sides, it affords 
 ample room for a great institution, and its orientation, in respect of the city 
 and of the prevailing winds, is favorable. 
 
 The temporary building consists of a central dome, 18 feet in diameter, 
 resting on a circular wall of concrete, 8 feet above the floor, and four small 
 square rooms symmetrically placed north, south, east, and west for the 
 accommodation of the observers and caretaker. 
 
 The Oddie telescope, which has already been noted in connexion with the 
 private Observatory of Mt. Pleasant, Ballarat, is the principal instrument. 
 It has an object glass of 9-in. aperture giving excellent definition. The 
 telescope is mounted on a massive cast-iron stand, resting on a pier of 
 concrete built on a granite foundation. A metallic camera is attached in 
 which is fitted one of Dallmeyer's portrait lens of 6-in. diameter and 
 38 inches focal length. The instrument is provided with a fine driving 
 clock, excellent filar micrometer, electric illumination for dark or bright 
 field, an Evershed prominence spectroscope made by Hilger, and every 
 requisite for all classes of observations. The eye pieces range in power from 
 60 to 700. 
 
 This instrument was presented to the Commonwealth Government by the 
 late Mr. James Oddie, of Ballarat, in July, 1910. I was commissioned to 
 take delivery of it at Ballarat, and to erect it at Mt. Stromlo for the object 
 stated above. As the instrument had never been taken out of its packing 
 cases since the maker sent it out to Australia a quarter of a century before, 
 it required a great deal of overhauling, and also several alterations and 
 additions, which were done at the Melbourne Observatory. 
 
 The installation of the instrimient at Mt. Stromlo was completed in 
 September, 1911, after which observations were commenced and continued 
 by myself and my chief assistant. Dr. J. Baldwin, during fifteen visits to the 
 locality between 8th September, 1911, and 2nd June, 1913, each visit 
 occupying about a week. 
 
 The observations were visual, photographic, and spectroscopic. 
 
 The visual observations were by naked eye and telescope. 
 
 The naked-eye observations were made for estimating the amount of 
 scintillation at different altitudes, comparison of star regions, parts of the 
 Milky Way, the Magellanic clouds, clusters, and nebulae. The telescopic 
 observations included close double stars and detail of planetary surfaces. 
 With the 6-in. doublet lens a series of photographs of rich star regions and 
 nebulae was obtained. 
 
 The observation and delineation of solar prominences were also regularly 
 carried out. 
 
 At the conclusion of our programme, I reported the result that in my 
 opinion, taking into account all the circumstances, the site was decidedly 
 suitable for an Astronomical Observatory of the highest order. 
 
 The question of proceeding with the establishment of a permanent Federal 
 Observatory at this site is at present under consideration.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 375 
 
 (2) GEODESY. 
 (a) Trigonometrical Surveys of High Precision. 
 
 Though mauy careful surveys have been effected iu Australia, chiefly 
 with a view to laud settlement, trigonometrical surveys of high precision 
 are, so far, confined to the three Eastern States. Of these only a brief 
 description will now be given. 
 
 Queensland. 
 
 The trigonometrical survey in this State extends approximately from 
 26° 30' to 29° 30' south latitude, and from 151° 15' to 153° 15' east longitude. 
 It comprises 74 triangles and a base line of about 7 miles in length situated 
 at Jondaryan. Its terminals are Mount Irving and Mount Maria, which are 
 respectively 216 and 162 feet above the general level of the intervening ground. 
 
 The measurement of this base was made in 1884 by means of two steel 
 tapes 100 feet long, about half-an-inch broad, and 0*01 inch thick. 
 
 These were compared with a standard bar of steel octagonal in section 
 1| inches in diameter and 10 feet long, which was kept floating when in use 
 in a trough of mercury, with thermometers plunged in it for obtaining the 
 temperature of the bar. This bar was compared in 1883 with the New South 
 Wales Standard Bar 0.1.4, which gave its standardized length at 62° F. as 
 9*9998581 feet, which value was adopted throughout the operations of the 
 trigonometrical survey. 
 
 In the base measurements the two tapes were placed " in wooden troughs 
 and shaded by a board, a tension of 20 lbs. was applied by means of a spring 
 balance, and five thermometers, whose index errors had been determined 
 by comparison with a standard thermometer, were used along each 100 feet 
 of tape. The troughs were supported upon pegs driven in the ground and set on 
 even grade by means of a levelling instrument. Marks were made in copper 
 discs inserted in the pegs at each hundred feet, the distance between the 
 tape ends and the marks being measured by micrometer microscopes. 
 
 Ten sections, the six central ones averaging nearly 1 mile and the other 
 two at each end being nearly half-a-mile mile long. 
 
 The terminal points of these sections were marked by stones sunk into the 
 ground and set in concrete. Each stone had a metal plug, upon which a 
 small mark was made denoting the terminal point of the section." 
 
 Three measurements were made with each tape, giving six independent 
 values. 
 
 The two sets of three values made with each tape gave two mean results, 
 which showed a difference of 0" 117 inches. 
 
 Ten-inch theodolites (Everest pattern), by Troughton and Simms, provided 
 with micrometer microscopes reading to one second of arc, were generally 
 employed on the survey, and a 12-in. altazimuth was used at a few stations. 
 
 The angular measurements were obtained from two to eight readings 
 made on each of eleven positions of the circle. The closing errors were 
 within 1" for 29 triangles, from 1" to 2" for 29 other triangles, from 2" to 3" for 
 11 triangles, and upwards of 3" for the remaining 5 triangles. The greatest 
 closing error was 3 •90", and the average 0'95." 
 
 " The astronomical datum is the position of the station at Jimbour as 
 determined by Captain Morris, R.E., and Lieut. Darwin, R.E., in 1882," 
 while they occupied this station for the observation of the transit of Venus.
 
 376 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The longitude was determined by direct exchange of time signals with the 
 Sydney Observatory by telegraph. In deducing from this datum the latitudes 
 and longitudes of the trigonometrical stations, the elements used by Colonel 
 James in the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, in 1858, were adopted. 
 
 The azimuth datum was determined by astronomical observations 
 made with a 20-in. transit instrument at Bloodwood, this being the apex 
 of one of the triangles standing on the base line . 
 
 Astronomical observations for latitude and longitude were also made 
 at several stations. 
 
 A comparison of the astronomical with the geodetic values for the four 
 stations of Bloodwood, Brisbane, Haystack, and Mount Domville gives the 
 following differences respectively. (40) 
 
 Latitude (geodetic -astronomical) --02"; +M7''; +5-37"; -M7". 
 Longitude (geodetic -astronomical) + 6 "57"; -O^OS". 
 
 A minor triaugulation of the City of Brisbane was carried out in 1890. 
 
 The principal triangulation was discontinued in 1891. 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 The preliminary work of clearing mountain tops for a trigonometrical 
 survey of the State of Victoria was commenced in 1853 imder Captain Andrew 
 Clark, R.E., after his appointment as Surveyor-Greneral of Victoria, as 
 already mentioned ; but the primary triangulation was not actually commenced 
 till seven years after. 
 
 In 1860 a base line was laid down on the Werribee Plains about 4* 942 miles 
 in length, which was subsequently extended by triangulation to a further 
 length of 5*651 miles, making a total distance between the terminal points 
 10-593 miles. 
 
 " Each end of the measured base was defined by a solid mass of masonry 
 built 5 feet into the ground, capped by a heavy stone with gun-metal plug 
 and platinum centre, on which the terminal dot was marked. A heavy 
 protection stone was placed over the cap stone, and this was surmounted 
 by a timber pyramid, with pinnacle accurately centred over the platinum 
 point." (41) 
 
 The measurement of this base was made by three iron bars 10 feet long 
 and 1 inch square, with the ends turned roimd for about 4 inches in length, 
 one end of each bar being finished quite flat and polished, and the other end 
 being a segment of a sphere of 5-ft. radius, also polished. They were encased 
 in wooden troughs 6 inches square, with hinged tops cut in three sections for 
 the convenient examination of the three thermometers resting on each bar, 
 the steel ends only being freely exposed 2| inches out of the case. 
 
 The lengths of these bars were compared with due care " with a 10-ft. 
 ordnance standard lent by the New South Wales Government " (40) and 
 verified later by a similar standard obtained by the Government of Victoria 
 from the Ordnance Survey Department of England. 
 
 In the actual measurement the bars were supported on pine trestles fitted 
 with brass sockets on their top frames to receive a brass tripod. These 
 frames carried a brass " camel," provided with the requisite fittings for 
 bringing the ends of the bars accurately into juxtaposition. The three bars 
 were placed in series with distances of about J inch between the spherical
 
 ASTROXOMY AND GeODESY, 377 
 
 end of one and the flat end of another, and the distance between the two 
 was obtained by passing between them a graduated wedge of hard bell-metal 
 7 inches long and 2 inches broad, with faces inclined at angle of one-half a 
 degree . 
 
 The difference of level between the terminal of the base being only 14 
 feet, and the intervening ground being fairly flat, the bars were adjusted by 
 levelling into a horizontal position throughout the measurement. 
 
 A part of the southern portion of this base was re-measured to the extent 
 of 2- 11 miles, and the difference between the two results was foimd to be 0' 308 
 inches, which was sufficiently small " to justify the assumption that by the 
 original measurement the Werribee base was probably as accurate as any 
 measured up to that time." (40) 
 
 The lengths of this base are as follow : — 
 (41) Measured base .. .. .. 2G091-82feet 
 
 Extension bv triangulation to Green Hill 
 
 terminal 29839-83 „ 
 
 Total length .. .. .. 55931-65 „ 
 
 The instruments used for angular observations were an 18-in. altazimuth, 
 by Troughton and Simms, and a 13-in. theodolite, by Ertel, both being 
 provided with micrometer microscopes by which the circles were read to 
 1" ; two 12-in. theodolites read by micrometer microscopes to 4''' and 10" 
 respectively ; a 10-in. altazimuth and other theodolites of smaller size. 
 
 The triangulation was expanded in a decade throughout the extent of the 
 Colony south of the 36th parallel of south latitude. 
 
 In this survey 209 stations of the first order, 267 of the second order, and 
 a larger number of subsidiary points were connected and marked. 
 
 An average number of 170 observations were made at each of the primary 
 stations to determine their positions. The triangulated area is about 
 70,000 square miles. 
 
 It was intended to measure a very suitable base of verification to the 
 westward of Mount Gambler and Moimt Schanck, in South Australia, these 
 being the extreme western points connected with Victorian triangulation, but 
 the work was not carried out. 
 
 A portion of the boundary line between the States of New South Wales 
 and Victoria is a straight line running from a point near the source of the 
 Murray River to Cape Howe on the east coast. The terminals of this line 
 were agreed upon in 1870, and in order to determine their geographical 
 co-ordinates with all possible accuracy, they were connected with the primary 
 triangulation which was, for this purpose, extended to " The Pilot " and 
 Mount Kosciusko, in New South Wales, these being the extreme eastern 
 points of the survey. 
 
 The true azimuth of the line having been deduced by calculation from the 
 co-ordinates of the terminal points, the line was ranged on the ground to the 
 computed bearing and marked in 1872, starting from one marked terminal, 
 and reaching the coast to within 17 inches of the other marked terminal. 
 
 The line was run by Messrs. A. C. Allen and A. Black, and the result is a 
 fitting tribute to their skill, energy, and endurance in the accomplishment 
 of an exceedingly difficult undertaking with such a remarkable success.
 
 378 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Colonel Clarke's elements of the figure of the earth were used in working 
 out the results of the Victorian survey. 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 The territory of this State extends from the Murray River to the 29th 
 parallel of south latitude, and from the eastern coast westward to the 141st 
 nieridian of east longitude. 
 
 About one-fourth of its whole area has been covered with a trigonometrical 
 survey of high precision, which was initiated in 1867, carried on for a few 
 years, suspended for some time, resumed in 1891, continued since over an 
 extent of 43 million acres, and still progressing. 
 
 The base line of this survey, 5| miles in length, is situated at Lake George, 
 and a verification base of about 7 miles was laid down and measured at 
 Richmond. 
 
 The survey comprises 119 stations of the first order, 583 of the second order, 
 and 1 ,380 of the third order, all of which have been very substantially and 
 permanently marked and comiected, and whose geodetic co-ordinates are 
 accurately known. 
 
 Some 490 additional stations have been piled and prepared for observation, 
 of which 15 are to be ranked as first order, 75 second order, and 400 third 
 order stations. 
 
 The stations of the first order constitute the primary skeleton of the 
 survey, being a net of fundamental triangles whose sides range usually from 
 35 to 40 miles in length. 
 
 Astronomical observations for azimuth, latitude and longitude were made 
 at many of these primary stations. 
 
 The second order stations are distributed at distances varying from 15 to 
 20 miles, this being the average length of the sides of the secondary triangles. 
 These stations were connected by actual observations made upon them with 
 smaller instruments than those used at primary stations, but with sufficient 
 precision to meet all the practical requirements of a triangulation for the 
 purpose of accurate mapping. No astronomical observations were made 
 at these stations. 
 
 The sides of triangles comiecting stations of the third order are 
 from 7 to 10 miles. The positions of these stations were fijxed by inter- 
 sections based on observations made from surrounding stations of higher 
 order, and their accuracy is sufficient for connecting all chain surveys on a 
 uniform system. 
 
 The original base on Lake George was laid down and its measurement 
 ■commenced in 1868, under the superintendence of Mr. G. R. Smalley, but it 
 was abandoned before completion o^ving to an abnormal rise of the water 
 of the lake, which covered parts of the line to a depth of 2 feet. 
 
 A new site for the base was selected in 1870 by Mr. P. F. Adams, the 
 Surveyor-General at the time, under whose direction the measurement of its 
 length was made t^vice by Mr. A. C. Betts. 
 
 The adopted standard of length was that of " Standard Bar 0.1.4." 
 referred to at p. 175 of Colonel Clarke's work on the comparison of standards 
 published in 1866." (41) 
 
 This bar is of cast iron, 10 feet in length, the length being defined by 
 microscopical dots marked near its ends. It is encased, and fitted with
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 379 
 
 adequate support to prevent flexure, and provided with thermometers and 
 micrometer microscopes for the observation of its marks. It was obtained 
 many years before from the Board of Ordnance in England. 
 
 The actual measurement of the base was made with three 10-ft. bars of 
 pine wood, encased and evenly supported, in wooden troughs 6 inches by 
 6 inches, and a little less than 10 feet in length, so as to allow a short portion 
 of the ends of the bars to project outside. The ends were fitted with small 
 brass plugs, upon each of which a terminal microscopic dot was marked, the 
 distance between the terminal dots being the actual length of the bar. These 
 lengths were standardized each morning and evening during the progress 
 of the work by comparison with the Standard Bar 0.1.4. 
 
 Each trough was supported on two " camels " provided with vertical, 
 lateral, and longitudinal motion by means of which the three bars could be 
 accurately placed in series along the line with the terminal dots of adjacent 
 bars arranged in close pairs, always at the same distance, leaving a small 
 constant amount of free space between the bars. This adjustment was made 
 by means of a double microscope attached to the leading end of each trough. 
 The microscope consisted of a single tube with two objectives at one end, 
 rigidly mounted side by side, and two parallel webs, fixed on a diaphragm, 
 at the upper end of the tube in the common focal plane of the objectives. 
 By adequate means of adjustment the pair of dots could be brought in the 
 fields of view and adjusted so as to bring each image into accurate bisection 
 with each respective wire. The adjustment for parallelism of the optical 
 axes and the distance between the webs having been previously ascertained, 
 it was assumed that a constant distance between the adjacent bars was 
 maintained throughout the measurement. 
 
 " The difierence between the length of this base as found from the measure- 
 ment and re -measurement was 0'542 inches in the total length of 5|- miles." 
 
 The verification base at Richmond was measured in 1879-80 by Mr. 
 Conder twice. 
 
 The first measurement was made with the same three pine bars with which 
 the Lake George base was measured, and in the second three 10-ft. rods of 
 steel I of an inch in diameter were used. These rods were wrapped in blankets, 
 and encased in wooden troughs with glass windows for inspection of the 
 attached thermometers. The arrangement of terminal dots, the auxiliary 
 apparatus for support, adjustment, and observations, and the methods 
 employed in carrying out the work were in every respect similar for both 
 sets of bars, and throughout the base operations at Lake George in 1870 and 
 at Richmond in 1879-80. The length of both sets of bars was again 
 standardized by daily comparison morning and evening with the same 
 standard as adopted in 1870, namely, the Ordnance Bar 0.1.4 
 
 The results of the two measurements were as follow : — 
 By pine bars.. .. .. 36989-33651 feet 
 
 By steel rods .. ..36989-39166 „ 
 
 Difference .. .. 0-05515 „ = 0-662 inches 
 
 " The combined error of measurement of the two bases and of the inter- 
 vening triangiilation produced an apparent discrepancy of only If inches in 
 the length of the Lake George base. Tlie bases were assumed to be correct, 
 
 C. 121.54. 2 b
 
 380 Federal Handbook. 
 
 and an adjustment of the triangles was made in order to eliminate this small 
 apparent difference." (40) 
 
 The instruments employed in astronomical observations and angular 
 measurements were as follow : — 
 
 Two altazimuth instrmnents by Troughton and Simms, with object glasses 
 of 3-in. aperture, provided with filar micrometer and delicate levels for latitude 
 determinations by the Talcott method ; circles read by four micrometer 
 microscopes to 1". 
 
 All observations, astronomical and geodetical, were made with these 
 instruments at the primary stations. 
 
 Theodolite by Troughton and Simms, object glass 2|-in. aperture and 
 26 inches focal length, horizontal circle 10 inches in diameter read by two 
 micrometer microscopes to 1", and two parts of a vertical circle 10 inches in 
 diameter reading by vernier to 5". 
 
 Observations at second order stations, and all vertical angles for the 
 determination of relative heights, were made with this instrument. 
 
 Recently a 10-in. Repsold theodolite, of the same pattern as that used in 
 the trigonometrical survey of South Africa, was procured, and is intended to 
 be employed in the future in place of the heavier 18-in. altazimuth. 
 
 The observed directions from a primary station to another station of the 
 first and second order depended on twenty pointings made in reversed 
 positions of the instrument. 
 
 The number of pointings was reduced to ten for second order stations, 
 and to five for stations of the third order. 
 
 The great accuracy of these observations is shown by the following state- 
 ment of the closing error of triangles. 
 
 In 171 triangles in which all angles have been observed with the large 
 altazimuth the closing error is • 70". 
 
 In 235 triangles, with two angles only observed with the larger, and one 
 angle observed with the smaller instrument the average closing error is 1 • 15". 
 
 In 245 triangles, in which only one angle was observed ■^nth the 18" alt- 
 azimuth, and the other two with the 10" theodolite, the closing error is 1-29". 
 
 In 173 triangles, with all the angles observed with the smaller instrument 
 the closing error is 1 • 30". 
 
 The probable value of the average closing error of the triangles, computed 
 according to General Ferrero's formula, for the primary triangulation of New 
 South Wales is " 54", which is less than the error similarly computed for the 
 great trigonometrical surveys of Great Britain, India, and most of the other 
 countries, and the closing error for triangles observed with the smaller 
 instruments is, on the same criterion, reduced to 1 "OO". 
 
 Astronomical observations for latitudes were made at 74 stations with the 
 18" altazimuth by the Talcott method. 
 
 Azimuth was determined at 66 stations by meridian observations of 
 circumpolar stars, made with the same instrument. 
 
 The longitude of 10 primary stations, and of 29 other important places 
 in the State, were determined by the direct exchange of clock signals with the 
 Sydney Observatory. 
 
 For the calculation of geodetic latitudes and longitudes, the co-ordinates 
 of the Sydney Observatory adopted as the datum were : — Latitude 33° 51' 41 • 1" ; 
 longitude 141° 12' 23-1".
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 381 
 
 The elements of the figure of the earth adopted in the calculations of the 
 survey are those of a spheroid with — Major axis a = 20923134 feet ; polar 
 c = 20853429 feet. 
 
 Minor triangulations have been made around such important centres of 
 the State as Sydney, Albury, and Newcastle, which were afterwards 
 connected with the primary system. 
 
 Since the expansion of the geodetic survey of this State from the Lake 
 George base in 1876, the principal observers in charge of the work were 
 Messrs. W. J. Condor and J. Brooks. It was the former who set the high 
 standard of accuracy which was worthily maintained by the latter. 
 
 Mr. T. F. Furber has been Director of the Survey for many years, and to 
 him is due much of the credit of having planned means and methods by 
 which this important undertaking has been brought to its present state of 
 general efficiency and exemplary precision. 
 
 Mr. Furber, in his valuable paper (40) fi'om which the information required 
 for the above account was mainly drawn, mentions the names of P. F. Adams, 
 late Surveyor-General, " to whom the very existence of the survey is in a 
 large measure due," and the late H. C. Eussell, who, during the whole progress 
 of the survey, aided in many ways where his scientific attainments were of 
 the greatest service. 
 
 In May, 1912, a Conference was held in Melbourne at which the Director 
 of Commonwealth Lands and Surveys, the Surveyor-General, and the 
 Government Astronomer of New Zealand, and the Surveyors-General of the 
 Australian States met to discuss, among other things, the question of a 
 Geodetic Survey of Australia. 
 
 The following resolutions bearing on this matter were passed by the 
 Conference : — 
 
 (41) " That, in the opinion of this Conference, it is desirable that a 
 Geodetic Survey of Australia should be undertaken. 
 
 " That, in order to give effect to the foregoing resolution, this Con- 
 ference respectfully recommends that such survey be undertaken by the 
 Commonwealth Government, and submits in support thereof the following 
 reasons : — 
 
 " (a) That the time has arrived when the Commonwealth should take 
 its place in the scientific investigations of the world, not the 
 least important of which are the determination of the figure of 
 the earth, its density, and other cognate matters. 
 " (6) That work of this character, involving the highest form of survey^ 
 should be effected under the supreme authority of Australia, 
 as it is essential that it should be carried out with the greatest 
 degree of accuracy on a uniform basis and a definite plan the 
 individual parts being co-ordinated and eventually forming one 
 homogeneous whole. 
 " (c) That the system which has hitherto prevailed by which the 
 individual States carried out this work with instruments of 
 varying character has resulted in divergent standards of 
 accuracy, rendering the work to a great extent unsatisfactory, 
 and, though much of it is of high grade, portions of it are 
 impossible of reconciliation and co-ordination with a continental 
 scheme. 
 
 2 B 2
 
 382 Federal Handbook. 
 
 " {d) That the desirableness of this work being undertaken by the 
 Commonwealth Government is evidenced by the fact that the 
 Geodetic Survey of the United States is carried out under the 
 direct control of the Federal Government, and that the South 
 African Geodetic Survey is also under one central control. 
 " (e) That such survey is absolutely necessary for the production of 
 accurate maps, will be of high value in connexion with cadastral 
 and geological surveys, and form a basis for topographical 
 work for defence and other purposes. It will, moreover, provide 
 a standard of accuracy for surveys of every description through- 
 out the Commonwealth. 
 " (J) That it will afiord an invaluable base to which settlement surveys 
 already effected can be connected, providing data for re 
 establishing boundaries, which, with increasing density of- 
 settlement, becomes a matter of great importance. Further, 
 as regards the sparsely occupied areas of Australia, such a survey, 
 if carried out in advance of settlement, will be of the greatest 
 utility and assistance in effecting the settlement surveys which 
 can at any future time be reproduced with a minimum error 
 and at a relatively low cost, preventing litigation consequent 
 upon other methods." 
 It is earnestly to be hoped that the Commonwealth Government will 
 sanction the recommendations of this Conference, and that the proposed 
 undertaking may be carried out, so as to enable Australia to furnish in due 
 course a contribution which should prove itself to be one of the greatest 
 value and importance for the advancement of modern geodesy. 
 
 (b) Pendulum Observations. 
 
 Determinations of the gravitational value of " g " have been made in 
 Australia at various times by different observers, since the early years of the 
 nineteenth century, generally, by differential methods based on the swings of 
 pendulums of the " invariable " type, and, in one case, by the actual measure- 
 ment of a " second's pendulum " of the reversible or Bessell's type. 
 
 The earliest gravimetric observations made in Australia seem to be those 
 of the French Expedition under Freycinet, who swung three pendulums at 
 Sydney in 1819, and the latest are those of Dr. Wright, of Canada, which he 
 made at Melbourne in April of this year (1913) on his return from Scott's 
 Antarctic Expedition. 
 
 During this period of 95 years, the value of " g " has been determined at 
 all the capitals of Australasia one or more times independently, forming a 
 series of 24 results, 9 of which are for Sydney, 7 for Melbourne, 1 for Brisbane, 
 1 for Perth, 1 for Hobart, 4 for New Zealand, and 1 for Campbell Island. 
 
 The whole of this work has been discussed by the International Geodetic 
 Association, and a summary of it, with brief descriptions of the observations 
 made, apparatus employed, and estimated probable error of each result, is 
 published in the Reports of the 13th, lith, loth, and lUh Conferenz der 
 internalionalen Erdmessung, from which the appended table is taken.- 
 
 The table shows, by the satisfactory agreement of the values obtained 
 by several observers at different times, that the gravitational constant 
 " g " has been well ascertained for the Australian stations.
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 
 
 383 
 
 H 
 
 03 
 
 >H 
 
 CO 
 
 s 
 
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 fl 
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 1-3 
 
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 l-H 
 
 s 
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 t 
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 t-xc:5C5cooc505C5C5c:5 35o;oi>t>i>i>t^t^t-i>0^ 
 
 
 
 •s 
 
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 cocoioiowicTjHTf-^TtH^-^-^ooioioioioi-oicioiMio 
 
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 oooooooooooooooooooooooo 
 
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 lOT)<C0COCO-*C0C0C0C0C0C0C0C0COeOC0C0COC0C0C0(NCO 
 
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 ::::: :^ :::::::::::::::: : 
 
 
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 384 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The values in the table are from Bericht iiber die relativen Messungen der 
 Schwerkraft mit Pendelapparaten in der Zeit von 1808 bis 1909 E. Borrasa 
 Verhandlungen 16ten allgemeinen Conferenz der internationalen Erdmessung. 
 
 In the table " 5' " is the observed value reduced to the Potsdam system. 
 
 Writing <f) the latitude, H the height in metres, 6 the density of the local 
 earth formation, g' -g the topographical reduction, then 
 
 Oo = 9 + 3086 X 10 H the value reduced to sea-level. 
 
 3 d 
 
 9o ^ 5'o + iO^Qo^ '^ 9 ~9 *^^ value corrected for the 
 
 4 X 5*52 
 
 protuberant earth, 
 y^ = 978-030 [1 + 0*005302 sin^ (/, - 0-000007 sin^ 2 ^] the value 
 
 computed from Helmert's formula. 
 gj - y^ — the gravitational anomaly. 
 
 I am indebted to the Grovernment Astronomers and Surveyors-General 
 of the Australian States for supplying me with accounts of the work of their 
 respective departments ; to Professor Ernest Scott and iVIr. H. Wright for 
 interesting historical notes on the astronomical work of early navigators ; to 
 Messrs. J. Tebbutt, C. J. Merfield, W. Gale, and H. Wright for information 
 in regard to amateur astronomy ; to Dr. J. M. Baldwin for arranging the 
 results of pendulum observations ; to Mr. J. A. Maroney for preparing the 
 list of papers in Appendix B, and for giving valuable assistance in looking up 
 authorities ; and to some others who have helped me in various ways. To 
 all of these I tender my sincere thanks. 
 
 The length of the original article far exceeded the limits of space 
 prescribed by the Editor, and owing to my inability to deal with the 
 difficulty. Dr. E. F. J. Love undertook the heavy and troublesome task of 
 reducing to its present size, for which I am very greatly obliged to him. 
 
 (3) APPENDIX A. 
 
 LIST OF REFERENCES. 
 
 Corresponding to the numbers (1) to (41) as quoted in the Text. 
 
 (1) Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. Vol. 8. Melbourne 
 
 Meeting, 1900 ; Inaugural address by R. L. J. EUery. 
 
 (2) Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. Vol. 1. Sydney 
 
 Meeting, 1888 : Section A. H. C. Russell — " Astronomical and Meteorological 
 Workers in New South Wales, 1778 to 1860." 
 
 (3) Professor Ernest Scott, Life of Flinders. 
 
 (4) Catalogue of 7,385 stars prepared from observations made in the years 1822 to 
 
 1826 at the Observatory at Parramatta, New South Wales, founded by Lieut.- 
 General Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane ; the Computations made, and the 
 Catalogue constructed by Mr. William Richardson. (London. 1835.) 
 
 (5) Memoirs of the Roj'al Astronomical Society. Vol. 3. 
 
 (6) H. C. RusseU. The Sydney Observatory : History and Progress. (Sydney. 1882.)
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 385 
 
 Appendix A. — List op References — continued. 
 
 (7) Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. 8, p. 251. 
 
 (8) J. G. Galle. Verzeichniss der Elemente der bisher berechneten Cometenbahen. 
 
 (Leipzig. 1894.) 
 
 (9) Astronomical Observations made at the Sydney Observatory in the year 1859 by 
 
 W. Scott, M.A. (Sydney. 1860.) 
 
 (10) John Tebbiitt. On the Progress and present State of Astronomical Science in New 
 
 South Wales. (From the Industrial Progress of New South Wales, 1870, p. 617.) 
 
 (11) Melbourne Observatory. Astronomical Results. Vol 1. (Melbourne. 1869.) 
 
 (12) Victoria. Sixth Report of the Board of Visitors to the Observatory. (Melbourne. 
 
 1870.) 
 
 (13) Observations of the Southern Nebulae made with the Great Melbourne Telescope 
 
 from 1869 to 188>. Part I. (Melbourne. 1885.) 
 
 (14) Royal Observatory Greenwich ; Photo- heliograph Results, 1874-1885. (Edinburgh. 
 
 1907.) 
 
 (15) South Australia. Report on the Post Office, Telegraph, and Observatory Depart- 
 
 ments, by Charles Todd, C.M.G., F.R.A.S., Adelaide, 1896, p. 194. 
 
 (16) Private Communication from H. B. Curlewis. Esq., Acting Government Astronomer 
 
 of Western Australia. 
 
 (17) John Tebbutt. History and Description of Mr. Tebbutt's Observatory, Windsor, 
 
 New South Wales. (Sydney. 1887.) 
 
 (18) John Tebbutt. Astronomical Memoirs (Sydney. 1908.) 
 
 (19) Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. 25, p. 197. 
 
 (20) Astronomische Nachrichten. Vol. 64, p. 109. 
 
 (21) Observations of the Transit of Venus, 9th December, 1874, made at Stations in 
 
 New South Wales. (H. C. Russell.) Sydney. 1892.) 
 
 (22) Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. 44, p. 310. 
 
 (23) Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. 20, p. 77. 
 
 (24) Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. 27, p. 299. 
 
 (25) Astronomical and Meteorological Observations made at the Sydney Observatory 
 
 in the year 1860 by W. Scott, M.A. (Sydney. 1861.) 
 
 (26) R. L. J, Ellery, C. Todd, and H. C. Russell. Report on the Telegraphic Determina- 
 
 tion of Australian Longitudes via Singapore, Banjoewangie, and Port Darwin. 
 (Melbourne. 1886.) 
 
 (27) Victoria. Third Report of the Board of Visitors to the Observatory, with the 
 
 Annual Report of the Government Astronomer. (Melbourne. 1863.) 
 
 (28) South Australia. Observatory and Telegraphs. Annual Report by Charles Todd, 
 
 Esq. 1867. (Adelaide. 1868.) 
 
 (29) Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales. Vol. 12, p. 225. 
 
 (30) Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales. Vol. 14, p. 20. 
 
 (31) Astronomische Nachrichten, Nos. 2635-2636 (Dr. Auwers). 
 
 (32) Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. 48. 
 
 (33) W. E. Cooke. Report on the Latitude and Longitude of the Perth Observatory. 
 
 Western Australia. . (Official Report to the Under-Secretary. 21st September, 
 1899.) 
 
 (34) Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. 62, p. 286. 
 
 (35) Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. Vol. 14. Melbourne 
 
 Meeting, 1913. Section A. P. Baracchi, Australian Longitudes. 
 
 (36) Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. Vol. 6. Brisbane 
 
 Meeting, 1895. Section A. P. Baracchi — On the most Probable Value and Error 
 of Austialian Longitudes, including that of the Boundary Lines of South 
 Australia with Victoria and New South Wales. 
 
 (37) Veroffentlichun dos Konigl. Preuszis-hcn Geodatischcn Institutes. Neue Folge, 
 
 No. 15. 
 
 (38) Astronomische Nachrichten. No. 3993-94. Albrecht. 
 
 (39) Dr. Otto Klotz. Transpacific Longitudes b('tween Canada and Australia and Now 
 
 Zealand executed during the years ! 903- 1 904. (Ap]jundix 3. Report of tlio 
 Chief Astronomer of Canada for 1905). (Ottawa. 1907.) 
 
 (40) Australasian Association for the Advancement of Si.ictice. Vol. 7. Sydney 
 
 Meeting, 1898. Section A, p. 176. T. K. Furbor — The Trigonometrical Survey of 
 New South Wales, with mention of Similar Surveys in other Colonies. 
 
 (41) Commonwealth of Australia. Department of Homo Affairs. Conference of the 
 
 Director of Commonwealth Lands and Surveys, the Surveyor-General and 
 the Government Astronomer f)f New Zealand, and the Surveyors-General of 
 the States of the Commonwealth of Australia. Melbourne, 20th to 25th May, 
 1912. (Melbourne. 1912.)
 
 386 Federal Handbook. 
 
 (4) APPENDIX B. 
 
 SOME ASTRONOinCAL PAPERS PUBLISHED BY AUSTRALIANS. 
 
 Notation. 
 for " Astronomical Rejrister." 
 
 Astr. Reg. 
 
 J.R.S. N.S.W. 
 
 M.N. R.A.S. . . 
 
 J.B.A.A. 
 
 Trans. R.S. S.A. 
 
 Ap. J. 
 
 P. & Prcs. R.S. Tas. 
 
 for " Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales." 
 
 for " MontUy Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society." 
 
 for " Journal of the British Astronomical Association." 
 
 for " Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia." 
 
 for " Astrophysical Journal." 
 
 for " Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tas- 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 W. J. MacDonnell, F.R.A.S. (1871). 
 
 Notes from the Southern Hemisphere . . Astr. Reg. . . Vol. 9, p. 145 
 
 B.A.C. 5554: . . . . . . . . ,. . . . . Vol. 10, p. 18 
 
 Transit of Mercury, 1878 . . . . . . „ . . . . Vol. 16, p. 207 
 
 Notes on the Observatories in the United J.R.S. N.S.W. . . Vol. 12, p. 229 
 
 States 
 
 On Star-discs and the Separating Power of ,, . . . . Vol. 12, p. 241 
 
 Telescopes 
 
 Observations of the Transit of Mercury, M.N. R.A.S. . . Vol. 51, p. 560 
 
 10th May, 1891 
 
 Note on a Dark Transit of Jupiter's I Vth J.B.A.A... .. Vol. 7, p. 401 
 
 Satellite 
 
 The Fifth Star in the Trapezium . . . . ,. . . . . Vol. 13, p. 28 
 
 The Recent Sun-spots (October, 1903) .. ,. .. .. Vol. 14, p. 121 
 
 Addi'ess on retiring from the Presidentship of ,, . . . . Vol. 15, p. 80 
 
 the N.S.W. Branch, B.A.A. 
 
 Occultation of Saturn, 27th October, 1906 .. Vol. 17, p. 136 
 
 On the use of Screens for the Reduction of ,. . . . . Vol. 18, p. 44 
 
 Glare and improvement of Definition of 
 
 Telescopes 
 
 Jupiter's third Satellite . . . . . . -. . . . . Vol. 19, p. 356 
 
 Comet 1908 c. .. .. .. .. V^ol. 19, p. 352 
 
 Occultation of Venus by the Moon, 19th ,. .. .. VoL 20, p. 152 
 
 November, 1909 
 
 HaUey's Comet . . . . . . . . „ .. Vol. 20, p. 200 
 
 Galileo GaUlei . . . . . . . . „ . . . . Vol. 20, pp. 258, 
 
 485 
 
 Marius y. Galileo .. .. .. „ .. .. Vol. 21, p. 32 
 
 0. D. Hirst, F.R.A.S. (1876.) 
 
 Some Notes on Jupiter during his opposition. . J.R.S. N.S.W. . . Vol. 10, p. 83 
 
 Remarks accompanying Drawings of Mars M.N. R.A.S. . . Vol. 38, p. 58 
 
 (1877) 
 
 Notes on Jupiter during his opposition . . J.R.S. N.S.W. . . Vol. 12, p. 238 
 
 Remarks on the Colours of Jupiter's Belts ,, . . . . Vol. 14, p. 77 
 
 and some Changes observed thereon during 
 
 the opposition of 1880 
 
 Notes on Mr. Cobham's Paper on " Astro- J.B.A.A. . . Vol. 15, p. 104 
 
 nomical Drawing " 
 
 Presidential Address, N.S.W. Branch, B.A.A., J.B.A.A. . . . . Vol. 16, p. 95 
 
 1905 
 
 Note on a Centauri . . . . . . ,, . . . . Vol. 17, pp. 34, 35 
 
 Some Remarks on " Wiring " Astronomical ,, . . . . Vol. 18, p. 40 
 
 Instruments 
 
 Measures of some Southern Double Stars . . ,, . . . . Vol. 18, p. 174 
 
 Note on p Eridani . . . . . . ,, . . . . Vol. 19, p. 141 
 
 Southern Double Star Measures . . . . M.N. R.A.S. . . Vol. 70, pp. 474, 
 
 644
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 
 
 387 
 
 Appendix B. — Some Astronomical Papers — continued. 
 New South Wales — continued. 
 
 F. K. McDonall. (1895.) 
 An Appliance for the Direct Comparison of J.B.A.A... 
 
 Star Colours 
 Note on apparent Umbral Protusion of Sun- ,, 
 
 spots 
 Note on Aleteors, 10th and 12th August, 1895 ,, 
 
 Note on Solar Phenomenon . . . . ,, 
 
 Meteors, 1896 . . 
 
 Daylight Occultation of Antares, 13th Sep- ,, 
 
 tember, 1896 
 The Zodiacal Light, 1896 . . 
 
 Peculiar Atmospheric Phenomenon . . ,, 
 
 The Umbral Protusion of Sun-spots . . ,, 
 
 Dr. A. M. Alegginson. (1895.) 
 On a Class in Elementary Astronomy . . J.B.A.A. 
 
 Comet, 1901. I. . . . . . . ,, . . 
 
 Rev. Thos. Roseby, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S. 
 
 Elliptical Orbit Elements of Comet 1894 6 M N. R.A.S. 
 
 (Gale) 
 Structure of the Stellar Universe ; an Address J.B.A.A. . . 
 Star- Depths ; a Lecture . . 
 The Mystery of a Cnicis 
 Galileo Galilei 
 
 The Jovian Occultation (13th August, 1911) 
 Astronomy in Australia . . 
 Comet Problems 
 
 The Romance of Modern Astronomy 
 The Nebular Origin of Comets 
 
 On Dark IMeteors 
 
 T. W. Graven, Junr. (1898.) 
 . . J.B.A.A. . . 
 
 F. J. 
 
 BayUon. (1899.) 
 . . J.B.A.A. 
 
 The Zodiacal Light and Gegenschein 
 
 A. B. Cobham. (1902.) 
 Some Southern Stars possibly Variable . . J.B.A.A 
 
 A new Feature on Jupiter 
 Visibility of the Satelhtea of Saturn 
 Astronomical Drawing 
 Dark Transit of Titan 
 
 W. Morton Syhes. (1905.) 
 The Zodiacal Light and the Gegenschein .. J.B.A.A.., 
 
 Dr. R. D. Givin. (1905.) 
 
 Naked-eye Observations of Sun-spots . . J.B.A.A. . 
 
 Jupiter . . . . . . . . ,, 
 
 Sun-spots . . . . . . ,, 
 
 Occultation of Saturn, 27th October, 1906, „ 
 
 observed at Sydney 
 Saturn . . . . . . . . . . ,, 
 
 Note on one of the Perplexities which Confront ,, 
 
 the Amateur Observer 
 Comet 1908 c . . 
 Occultation of Venus, as observed at Sydney, ,, 
 
 N.S.W., 17th November, 1909 
 Notes on Satum, 1909 
 
 Vol. 5, p. 517 
 
 Vol. 6, p. 29 
 
 Vol. 6, p. 29 
 Vol. 6, p. 390 
 Vol. 6, p. 451 
 
 495, 496 
 Vol. 7, p. 15 
 
 Vol. 7, p. 144 
 Vol. 7, p. 145 
 Vol. 7, p. 458 
 
 Vol. 5, p. 405 
 Vol. 11, p. 353 
 
 (1896.) 
 
 Vol. 56, p. 329 
 
 Vol. 9, p. 202 
 Vol. 10, p. 396 
 Vol. 20, p. 34 
 Vol. 20. p. 488 
 Vol. 22, p. 31 
 Vol. 22, p. 321 
 Vol. 23, p. 31 
 Vol. 23, p. 335 
 Vol. 23, p. 391 
 
 Vol. 9, pp. 56, 75 
 Vol. 10, p. 260 
 
 Vol. 12, p. 365 
 Vol. 13, p. 26 
 Vol. 13, p. 195 
 Vol. 15, p. 102 
 Vol. 18, p. 131 
 
 Vol. 15, p. 376 
 
 Vol. 16, pp.62, 159 
 Vol. 16, p. 139 
 Vol. 16, pp. 312, 
 
 .367 
 Vol. 17, p. 135 
 
 Vol. 18, p. 175 
 Vol, 19, p. 34 
 
 Vol. 19, p. 351 
 Vol. 20, p. 160 
 
 Vol. 20, p. 153
 
 388 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Appendix B. — Some Asteonomical Papers — continued. 
 
 New South Wales — continued. 
 
 E. W. Esdaile. (1906.) 
 Occultation of Saturn, 27th October, 1906 . . J.B.A.A.. . . . Vol. 17, p. 136 
 
 Crepescular Rays . . . . . . „ • • ■ • Vol. 21, p. 391 
 
 K. H. Beattie, F.R.A.S. (1906.) 
 
 Occultation of Saturn, 27th October, 1906 . . J.B.A.A. . . . . Vol. 17, p. 133 
 
 Occultation of o Tauri (January, 190*^) . . ,, • • • • Vol. 18, p. 291 
 
 The Mutual Occultation of Jupiter's Satellites ,. . . . . Vol. 19, p. 3-5 
 
 Occultation of Venus by the Moon, 19th „ . . . . Vol. 20, p. 151 
 
 November, 1909 
 
 Daylight Occultation of t Sagittarii . . ,, . . . . Vol. 21, p. 113 
 
 Halley's Comet . . . . . . • • „ • • . - • Vol. 21, p. 269 
 
 Total Eclipse of the Sun, 28th April, 1911 . . ,, . . . . Vol. 21, p. 392 
 
 The Jovian Occultation, 13th August, 1911 . . ., . . . . Vol. 22, p. 30 
 
 The Atmosphere in Observation Work .. ,, .. .. Vol. 22, p. 33 
 
 Saturn's Rincjs .. .. .. .. ,, ■• •• Vol. 22, p. 47 
 
 Visibility of Mercury .. .. .. ■• •• •• Vol. 22, p. 49 
 
 Some Measures of Southern Doubles . . ,. . . . . Vol. 22, p. 149 
 
 Some Thoughts on Stellar Impact . . . . ,. . . - . Vol. 22, p. 378 
 
 Lacaille 7194— A rapid Binary .. .. Vol. 23, p. 34 
 
 The Parabolic Comets — of our System, or from ,, . . . . Vol. 23, p. 343 
 
 Beyond ? 
 
 T. Ranken. (1906.) 
 
 The Structure of Comets . . . . . . J.B.A.A. . . . . Vol. 16, p. 306 
 
 G. II. Uoskins. (1907.) 
 Observations of Mars with a 12-in. Reflector J.B.A.A. . . . , Vol. 18, p. 34 
 
 P. Chauleur. (1907.) 
 
 Dark Transit of Titan . . . . . . J.B.A.A. . . . . Vol. 18, p. 172 
 
 ./. L. Adams. (1908.) 
 
 Daniel's Comet 1907 <Z .. .. .. J.B.A.A... .. Vol. 18, p. 290 
 
 II. Brown. (1909.) 
 
 The Aurora Australis of 26tb September, 1909 J.B..A.A. . . . . Vol. 20, p. 97 
 
 Occultation of Venus by the Moon, 19th ,, . . . . Vol. 20, p. 152 
 
 November, 1909 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 W. H. Wooster. (1891.) 
 All night with a Lunar Eclipse . . . . J.B.A.A. . . . . Vol. 2, p. 44 
 
 Conjunction of Jupiter and Venus . . ,, . . . . Vol. 2, p. 281 
 
 Rev. J. II. Tuchfield. (1892.) 
 The Conjunction of Jupiter and Venus .. J.B.A.A... .. Vol. 2, p. 369 
 
 Some Notes on Mr. G. K. Gilbert's Pamphlet — „ . . . . A'ol. 6, p. 71 
 
 " Origin of Great Walled Plains." 
 
 Rev. J. Allen. (1900.) 
 Apparent Enlargement of Heavenly Bodies J.B.A.A. . . . . Vol. 10, p. 221 
 
 E. F. J. Love, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.A.S. (1900.) 
 Rowland's Photographs of the Normal Solar J.B.A.A... ., Vol. 10, p. 352 
 
 Spectrum 
 Series in the Nebular Spectrum and in the- M.N. R.A.S. . . Vol. 62, p. 524 
 
 Bright line Spectrum of Nova Persei 
 Temporary Stars .. .. .. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic. Vol. 12, p. 236 
 
 Canals of Mars ; an Address .. .. J.B.A.A. .. Vol. 14, p. 162 
 
 Prof. R. J. A. Barnard, 3I.A. (1906.) 
 Note on the Algol System . . . . Ap. J. . . . . VM. 23, p. 406 
 
 J. Beebe. (1913.) 
 Gale's Comet 1912 a .. .. J.B.A.A. . . .. Vol. 23, p. 294
 
 Astronomy and Geodesy. 389 
 
 Appendix B. — Some Astronomical Papers — continued. 
 
 South Australia. 
 D. B. Adamson. (1887.) 
 On Measuring the Power of Telescopic Eye- Trans. R.S. S.A. .. Vol. 11, p. 112 
 
 pieces 
 Remarks on Photographing the Solar Eclipse ,, „ . . Vol. 14, p. 61 
 
 of 12th December, 1890 
 
 A. W. Dohbie. (1892.) 
 (Title only.) ConFtruction of the Pveflecting Trans. R.S. S.A. . . Vol. 17, p. .375 
 
 Telescope 
 The Old Observatory at Benares . . . . J.B.A.A. . . . . Vol. 13, p. 357 
 
 Photographs of the Eclipse of the Sun, March, ,, . . . . Vol. 15, p. 339 
 
 1905 
 
 Capt. Lee. (1892.) 
 (Title only.) Irradiation as it Affects Astro- Trans. R.S. S.A. .. Vol. 17, p. 375 
 
 uomical Observations 
 (Title only.) Planetary Motions .. .. „ „ .. Vol. 21, p. 135 
 
 (Title only.) Is it Probable there can be a ,, ,, .. Vol. 22, p. 265 
 
 Second Moon to the Earth ? 
 
 C. C. Farr, D.Sc. (1893.) 
 (Title only.) Ether: The Reasons for Be- Trans. R.S. S.A. .. Vol. 18, p. 263 
 
 lieving in its Existence and its Properties 
 (Title only.) The Effect of the Tides on the „ „ . . Vol. 20, p. 283 
 
 Rotation of the Earth 
 (Title only.) Hypothesis to Account for ,, „ . . Vol. 20, p. 283 
 
 Gravitation 
 
 W. Holder,. (1893.) 
 (Title only.) The Habitability of the Planets Trans. R.S. S.A. . . Vol. 18, p. 263 
 
 W. Eussell. (1893.) 
 (Title only.) Meteors. .. .. .. Trans. R.S. S.A. .. Vol. 18, p. 263 
 
 ./. W. H. Hallett. (1895). 
 (Title only.) Determination of the Orbits Trans. R.S. S.A. .. Vol. 19, p. 292 
 of Comets and their Elements 
 
 Miss A. M. M. Todd. (1895.) 
 (Title only.) Computations of Time . . Trans. R.S. S.A. . . Vol. 20, p. 283 
 
 (Title only.) The Temples of Egypt from an „ „ . . Vol. 21, p. 135 
 
 Astronomical Point of View 
 
 R. W. Chapman, 31. A., B.C.E., F.R.A.S. (1896.) 
 (Title only.) Nebular Hypothesis and the Trans. R.S. S.A. .. Vol. 21, p. 135 
 Action of the Tides 
 
 Lady Bro>rn. (1897.) 
 (Title only.) The New Astronomy . . Tran.s. R.S. S.A. . . Vol. 22, p. 265 
 
 -S'. B. H. Manning. (1907.) 
 Jupiter without hi?. Moons — Mars .. .. J.B.A.A... .. Vol. 18, p. 131 
 
 The Cluster about Kappa CrucLs .. .. ,. .. .. Vol. 19, pp. 29,179 
 
 Notes on Comet 1908 c .. .. .. ., .. .. Vol. 20, p. 39 
 
 Queensland. 
 J . P. Thompson. 
 TheTransit of Mercury, 11th November, 1894 M.N. R.A.S. .. Vol. 55, p. 316 
 
 — Egress 
 
 Tasmania. 
 F. Abbott, F.R.A.,S. (1861.) 
 The Variability of // Argus and its Surround- M.N. R.A.S. . . Vol. 21, p. 230 
 
 ing Nebula 
 
 . . Vol. 24, p. 2 
 .. Vol. 25, p. 192 
 , „ ,, „ . . Vol. 28, p. 200 
 
 .. Vol. 31, pp. 226, 
 
 230. 231 
 
 .. Vol. 32, p. 61 
 
 P. & Prcs. R.S. Tas. 1863, June 
 
 „ .. .. 1865, p. 21 
 
 „ „ .. 1868, p. 14
 
 390 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Appendix B. — Some Astronomical Papers — continued. 
 Tasmania — continued. 
 F. Abbott, F.R.A.S. (1661.)— continued. 
 The Variability of tj Aigus and its Surround- P & Pros. R.S. Tas. 
 ing Nebula 
 
 „ „ „ ,, Astr. Reg, 
 
 Observations of Comet II.[ 1861, at'Hobart M.n'.'r.A.S. 
 
 Town 
 On the Transit of Mercury, November, 1861 ,, 
 
 observed at Hobart Town" 
 Observations of Comet II., 1862 . . . . „ 
 
 On the Cluster Kappa Gruois (3435 H) Lao P. & Prcs. R.S. Tas. 
 
 1110 (Neb.) 
 
 Means which have been adopted for Ascer- ,, ,, 
 
 taining the Velocity of Light and the Sun's 
 
 Distance, with especial reference to the 
 
 forthcoming Transit of Venus over the Sun's 
 
 Disc in 1874 and 1882 
 Observations of the Occultations of Jupiter and ,, ,, 
 
 his Satellites by the Moon, 24th April, 1864 
 Notes on the Aurora Australis, Sth June, 1864 
 Observations of Comet I., 186.5 
 
 Time Signals 
 
 Notes on Atmospheric Meteors 
 
 The Simultaneous Disappearance of Jupiter's 
 
 Four Moons, with some Notes upon the Laws 
 
 that Govern their Motions 
 Spectrum Analysis and its Application to 
 
 Science 
 Observations on the Transit of Mercury, 
 
 November, 1868 
 
 The Sun and its Office in the Universe 
 
 The Transit of Venus 
 
 Additional Corrected Elements for the Transit 
 of Venus 9th December, 1874 
 
 A. B. Bigrjs. 
 
 Observations of Comets Pons-Brooks and Ross 
 
 Spectroscopic Observations of Comet Pouo,, 
 January-February, 1884 
 
 Spectroscopic Observations of the Twilight 
 Glows, Februaiy-March, 1884 
 
 Lunar Eclipse of 30th and 31st March, 1885. . 
 
 The Occultation of Jupiter 
 
 Is Jupiter Self-luminous ? 
 
 The Comets of Febniary, 1880, and January, 
 1887 
 
 On the Star " Alpha Centauri " 
 
 Observations of Comet a 1888 (Sawerthal) 
 made at Launceston, Tasmania 
 
 A new Dark-field Micrometer for Double Star 
 Measurement (Diagrams) 
 
 Observations of Comet of July and August, 
 1880, taken at Launceston 
 
 Recent Measures of " a Centauri " 
 
 The Possibilities of the Telescope . . 
 
 Total Eclipse of the Moon, 24th May, 1891 . . 
 
 The Transit of Mercury, May, 1891 
 
 Remarks on Sir Robert Ball's Paper (read at 
 the Hobart Meeting of the Australasian 
 Science Association) entitled " The Astro- 
 nomical Explanation of a Glacial Period." 
 
 M.N. R.A.S. 
 
 P. & Prcs. R.S. Tas. 
 
 M.N. R.A.S. 
 
 P. & Prcs. R.S. Tas. 
 
 (1884.) 
 
 M.N. R.A.S. 
 
 P. & Prcs. R.S. Tas. 
 
 M.N. R.A.S. 
 
 P. & Prcs. R.S. Tas. 
 
 1870, p. 21 
 
 1871, pp. 17, 6^ 
 
 1872, p. 27 
 Vol. 7, p. 14 
 Vol. 11, p. 221 
 
 Vol. 21, p. 260 
 
 Vol. 22, p. 235 
 
 Vol. 23, p. 31 
 Vol. 23, p. 32 
 
 1864, p. 3 
 1864, p. 20 
 
 1864, p. 53 
 
 1864, p. 54 
 Vol. 25, p. 197 
 
 1865, p. 21 
 
 1865, p. 109 
 
 1866, p. 105 
 
 1867, p. 24 
 
 1868, p. 41 
 Vol. 29, p. 195 
 
 1869, p. 9 
 
 1870, p. 62 
 187.3, D. 11 
 1874, p. 37 
 
 Vol. 45, p. 116 
 1884, p. 200 
 
 1884, p. 202 
 
 1885, p. 309 
 
 1886, p. 31 
 
 1886. p. 33 
 
 1887, p. 38 
 
 1887, p. 79 
 
 Vol. 48, pp. 348, 
 
 376 
 
 1889, p. 98 
 
 1889, p. 105 
 
 1889, p. 106 
 1891, p. 18 
 1891, p. 44 
 
 1891, p. 46 
 
 1892, p. 21
 
 Pastobal and Agricultural Development of Australia. 
 
 391 
 
 THE PASTORAL AND 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF 
 
 By G. A. Sinclair, Agricultural Editor of the ''Australasian " Melbourne. 
 
 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 SHEEP-FARillNG. 
 
 (a) Mebinos. 
 
 lb) Beitish Bbebds. 
 
 
 
 Agbicxjxttjbe — continued. 
 (e) Root Ceops. 
 (/) Sugab. 
 
 2. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 
 5. 
 
 Viticitlttjee. 
 
 3. 
 
 D.UBYIKG. 
 
 
 6. 
 
 FeTTIT - GEO WIJTG. 
 
 4. 
 
 Agricultfee. 
 
 
 7. 
 
 Irrigation and Aetesian Watee 
 
 
 (a) Gkain Ceops. 
 
 
 8. 
 
 Laboue Conditions. 
 
 
 (6) Ltjceene Hay. 
 
 
 9. 
 
 AGRICtTLTURAL EDUCATION. 
 
 
 (c) Tobacco. 
 
 
 10. 
 
 Land Tenuee. 
 
 
 (d) Ensilage. 
 
 
 11. 
 
 FOBESTRy. 
 
 In the above title the word pastoral naturally comes before agricultural, 
 inasmuch as the first serious efiorts towards developing Australia's natural 
 resources were in the direction of grazing, and, moreover, the island continent 
 is world-famous for its wool, while in butter and frozen meat, important 
 industries have been established and a rapidly increasing export trade has 
 been built up with the older continents. 
 
 1. Sheep=Farming. 
 (a) Merinos. 
 
 The " romance of the wool trade," as far as the establishment of the 
 merino in Australia goes, has often been told, and requires little recapitulation 
 here. It is curious to notice, however, that the first merinos which were 
 landed in Sydney came from South Africa ; while, for some seasons past, 
 buyers have come fi-om that country to Australia to purchase stock of the 
 best strains, which are almost as well-known in South Africa to-day as they 
 are in Australia. It was, no doubt, a fortunate circumstance that the sale of 
 these sheep was coincident with the sailing of a vessel for Australia, but it 
 must be remembered that for some time previous, the early settlers of New 
 South Wales had had the improvement of their flocks in mind, and to the 
 care and skill exercised by them and their successors, aided by excellent 
 pastures, the pre-eminent position at the present time of the Australian 
 merino and its wool is undoubtedly due. 
 
 There is a great difierence between the merino of to-day and the animal 
 which landed here in 1797. At Camden Park, in New South Wales, the 
 descendants of the original flock have been kept pure and free from admix- 
 ture, but they are in every way inferior to the best modern flocks. 
 
 In breeding merinos up to their present state of excellence, a skill and 
 science have been shown which are unrivalled in the history of stock breeding. 
 The expert classer is a scientist to whom the theory of Mendel is as familiar 
 as the drafting yard where his skill is displayed. To see him at work, select- 
 ing the sire to build up or maintain the qualities of the flock, whether in 
 constitution or in wool, is a revelation, not only in sound judgment, but 
 in quick decision. To show the skill of breeders, may be instanced the
 
 392 Federal Handbook. 
 
 craze of a few years back for " wrinkly " sheep, when Tasraanian flocks 
 in compliance with the demand, developed the deep folds. It has been said 
 that " Vermont " blood was used to secure the result, but though in a few 
 isolated instances this may have occurred through " get-rich-quick " desires, 
 it is certain that, in the best flocks, no such importation was used. When the 
 tide set the other way, the wrinkles were ironed out as quickly as they had 
 been introduced, and at the last Campbell Town Show (Tasmania) — one of 
 the foremost in " merino " importance in Australia — the characteristics 
 were plain body, splendidly clothed, with wool of long staple and good 
 quality. 
 
 In a season like the present (1913) it is impossible to write in any way but 
 enthusiastically concerning merinos. Possibly never in the annals of the 
 breed have the sheep in the various States looked better than at present, 
 and the prospects for good wool prices are excellent. This is emphasised 
 by the sale of two rams at prices only once before exceeded, namely, in 1883, 
 when two brothers, bidding against each other without knowing it, sent 
 up the price of a ram from 300 guineas to 3,150 guineas. This year two 
 rams have fetched 1,700 and 1,600 guineas respectively, while prices of 
 500 guineas and over are not uncommon. 
 
 Of those who, by their forethought, energy, and perseverance, laid the 
 foundations of this great industry, the list is long and honorable. Each 
 State had its pioneers who in those early years braved the dangers of 
 marauding natives, disease, and drought, some to win success, and to found 
 those flocks the names of which are to-day household words in the sheep- 
 breeding industry, others, less fortunate, to fall by the way, broken by bad 
 seasons and pests. 
 
 To show the importance of the industry built up by these men and their 
 successors it is only necessary to mention that the total export of wool for 
 1807 was 245 lbs., while for 1911-12 it was 1,967,818 bales ; and for 1912-13, 
 1,696,146 bales. 
 
 The wool sales, too, have undergone a considerable change of venue 
 of late years. Formerly all the clips were sold in London, and the prices 
 realized were quoted in detail in The Australasian, the columns of which 
 were eagerly scanned each week for the results of the home and neighbouring 
 consignments. To-day the buyers fi-om England, France, Germany, United 
 States, and in fact all manufacturing countries, attend the sales in Sydney, 
 Melboiu"ne, and Geelong, and bid against one another for the choicest clips, 
 whose brands they know as well as do the station-owners. Where local 
 agents act for European firms, they find it necessary to visit their principals 
 every few years to keep in touch with the manufacturing changes. The 
 unsatisfactory methods and the discomforts of the old London sales have 
 disappeared. Now, in a well-lighted room, hundreds of buyers for firms 
 of world-wide fame compete by fractional bids for the wool in thousands of 
 bales, samples of which have been opened and subjected to minute inspec- 
 tion previously. 
 
 The honour of gaining top price for wool in any season is highly prized 
 among breeders, and does not always fall to well-known flocks. Thus, last 
 season, for Victorian-sold clips, a comparatively small farmer of the Wimmera 
 country in the north-west gained the coveted position, obtaining 19:Jd. per lb.
 
 Pastoral and Agricultural Development op Australia. 393 
 
 for merino fleece, a figure which will give some idea of prices realized 
 at the present day. This is not peculiar to Victoria, for, in New South 
 Wales, a farmer with an area of under 500 acres secured the top price of 
 ITjd. per lb. 
 
 This shows that small farmers may engage in the calling with profit ; 
 and when, in course of time, the large holdings of Victoria and the Riverina 
 are subdivided, the merino of high quality need not necessarily disappear, 
 provided that the small breeders have procured their sheep, in the first 
 instance, from the fixed strains of well-known flocks. To show how the 
 larger breeders fare, it may be mentioned that out of a clip of 306 bales 
 including locks, etc., 114 bales realized 16|d. per lb. or over. For super, 
 lambs' wool another clip obtained 23M. per lb. Again, for his 1910 clip, 
 a South Australian breeder showed the following figures : — 18,12-5 grown 
 sheep cut an average of 13 lbs. 7f ozs. of wool each ; 6,701 lambs cut an 
 average of 4 lbs. 3| ozs. each ; 24,826 sheep and lambs cut 781 bales of wool, 
 which averaged £12 2s. 5d. per bale ; average price per lb. for all sheep and 
 lambs' wool, 8|d. ; average money yield per head for grown sheep, 9s. 6d. 
 gross. 
 
 The Commonwealth Statistician shows that for the year ending 30th 
 June, 1912, the percentage of wool exported from the various States 
 was — New South Wales, 44-4 per cent. ; Victoria, 27-8 per cent. ; Queens- 
 land, 14-3 per cent.; South Australia, 8-8 per cent.; Western Australia, 
 3-8 percent.; Tasmania, 0-9 per cent. It is possible that the advance 
 of agriculture and of the frozen meat trade may cause a decline in wool 
 production in future ; but, on the other hand, it is more than likely that 
 the centre and north of the Commonwealth will afford a haven for the large 
 flocks, while the southern States will breed the pure sheep necessary to 
 maintain the quality of the wool. 
 
 (b) British Breeds. 
 
 While merinos hold the pride of place, it must not be supposed that 
 our early efforts were confined to that breed. Merinos were found to be 
 unsuited to the coastal districts, and Lincolns and Leicesters were early 
 introductions, to be followed later by Shropshires, Southdowns, Hampshires, 
 Border Leicesters, Romney Marsh, and others. But, while merino men 
 soon dropped importations of Rambouillet, Negretti, and other strains, 
 finding they could breed better, the mother country has been drawn on for 
 *' British " breeds until within recent years. Even now occasional importa- 
 tions are made of Romney Marsh sheep, the most recently fashionable ; but, 
 sooner or later, after starting with the best British blood as a foundation in 
 each breed, it is found that the conditions in AustraUa are so congenial 
 that further importations are unnecessary. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of wool, it may be pointed out that the improve- 
 ments in manufacturing, by which so much more use can be made of the 
 coarser kinds, have given a greater impetus to crossing the merino with 
 Lincoln, Leicester, and other breeds. The crossbreds, too, fit in with farming 
 operations better, as they can be used with greater advantage for keeping the 
 fallow clean ; and, last of all, but not least, the meat export trade has made 
 the rearing of fat lambs so profitable that the high quality merino flocks
 
 394 Federal Handbook. 
 
 of the Riverina and the western district of Victoria are being slowly pushed 
 out north and west, until there is some reason to fear that these districts, 
 probably unequalled for the quality of their wool, will be lost to the industry. 
 
 The term crossbred is applied on the mainland at any rate to the progeny 
 produced by crossing merino ewes with Lincoln rams ; and it is interesting to 
 compare the prices realized for wool of this character in an ordinary year. 
 These are some of the prices for the season of 1911 : — Comeback fleece, 
 Green Hills, 15d. per lb. ; comeback lambs, MooUne, 15d. ; crossbred fleece, 
 North Station, lUd. ; Eanonynie, 14d. ; Green Hills, 14Jd. In the previous 
 season Green Hills for 340 bales comeback wool averaged nearly 13|d., 
 37 bales reaching 15d. 
 
 While considerable skill has been shown in breeding for the frozen meat 
 trade, much still remains to be done, and it would no doubt benefit the 
 industry if lambs were sold according to quality of carcass and not solely 
 by weight. At the present time, breeding for fat lambs is not conducted 
 on very definite lines. The difficulty is that the Australian cannot help 
 regarding the sheep as primarily a wool producer. To him, the very raison 
 d'etre of the sheep is its wool, and he thinks it advisable, in case of the lambs 
 not selling as fats, to have them well-woolled as a compensation. Even 
 after introducing Shropshires, breeders immediately set to work to improve 
 the wool, and succeeded to a remarkable extent, but not, it is feared, without 
 detriment to the frame. 
 
 The consensus of opinion now is that for those districts where early lambs 
 are most easily raised big-framed crossbred or comeback ewes should be 
 used and put with rams of Shropshire, Southdown, or similar breeds. 
 Opinions differ as to whether the Lincoln cross or Leicester or Border Leicester, 
 or even Romney Marsh cross, is best to use. Some pin their faith to 
 these breeds crossed with the merino, without using any Down sheep ; but 
 for early lambs, according to the figures of several years, the crossbred-Shrop- 
 shire lamb invariably tops the market. In support of this statement may be 
 quoted the prices for three years of a northern district crop of lambs. 
 These were lis. 9d., 12s. 3d., and 13s. 6d. per head at the nearest railway 
 station, and were bought for freezing. They were not picked sheep, but 
 represented the whole season's drop from a little under 1,000 ewes. 
 Another breeder, in a later district, obtained 19s, per head for four months* 
 old lambs. In both instances crossbred ewes were put to Shropshire rams. 
 As the ewes in the first case mentioned cost very little more than the price 
 realized by the lambs, it can be seen what profit there is in the industry, 
 particularly when fodder crops are grown as a safeguard against dry 
 autumns. The market is a good one and ever expanding. The opening of 
 the North American and European ports promises a further demand for this 
 product, and, by studying the quality of the meat required, there is every 
 prospect of Australia capturing the bulk of the trade. 
 
 One of the most recent moves in connexion with this industry is the estab- 
 lishment of inland freezing works in the centre of that important lamb- 
 raising district, the Wimmera. The object is to slaughter on the spot, thus 
 reducing freight, and at the same time avoiding the wasting of flesh which 
 occurs during the rail journey to the seaboard (estimated at about 5 lbs. per 
 head for lambs). So far this enterprise, which is co-operative, has been very
 
 Pastoral axd Agricultural Development of Australia. 395 
 
 successful ; but it remains yet to be seen whether labour troubles, which 
 have wrecked several New South Wales inland works, will hamper this. A 
 similar movement is on foot in the Goulburn Valley ; and, no doubt, others 
 will follow if these prove successful. 
 
 A great incentive will be given to the fat-lamb export trade by the opening 
 up of additional routes to the seaboard in the eastern States. Portland, 
 for instance, in south-west Victoria, when connected by rail through the 
 VVimmera to New South Wales, will be the port of shipment for products 
 from a vast territory. Again, the linking up, now being carried out, of 
 the Riverina railways with those of the Goulburn Valley, will tap 
 additional large areas. In New South Wales and Queensland, new territories 
 are being brought rapidly into communication with the ports ; and the 
 trade may safely be said to be as yet in its infancy. The growth of this trade 
 up to the present may be learned from the following export statistics : — 
 Season 1904-5, mutton, 550,112 carcasses; lamb, 702,898; season 1911-12, 
 mutton, 2,076,208 carcasses; lamb, 1,477,131. This latter season was not 
 marked by a particularly large exportation and was exceeded in that 
 respect by the seasons for 1909-10, and 1910-11, 2,296,980 carcasses of 
 mutton and 1,685,985 carcasses of lamb having been exported to various 
 countries in the latter year. 
 
 The adaptability of the crossbred to Australian conditions has led to 
 the founding of strains, which may now be said to be fixed in type, and 
 combine good quality fleeces with good mutton frames. Of these Australian 
 breeds are the Carrsdales and Ideals, which cut a valuable fleece, and are 
 admirable for procuring freezer lambs when crossed with the Down breeds. 
 Of late years a New Zealand breed, the Corriedale, has gained a footing 
 on the mainland, and promises to become popular. 
 
 2. Cattle. 
 
 The rearing of beef cattle in Australia has not kept pace with the sheep 
 industry, and may be said to be now confined, on extensive lines at any rate, 
 to Queensland, Central Australia, Western Australia, and the Northern Ter- 
 ritory. The breeding of Shorthorns and Herefords, for which the western 
 district of Victoria was once famed, has now been, to a large extent, aban- 
 doned for dairying. There are, however, in the southern States a number 
 of pure herds of these breeds, and of a high-class character. The bulls and 
 cows imported in the early days as a nucleus, were of the best Bates and 
 Booth blood obtainable ; and the sums paid for them astonished English 
 breeders of the day. Thus, £2,500 was paid for Oxford Cherry Duke (32016), 
 while his calves of between eight and twelve months averaged £458 17s. A 
 big price paid in Australia was £1,732 10s. for Earl of Geneva, in February, 
 1875, wliile in 1878 2,450 guineas was given for 24th Duke of Derrimut. 
 As much as £27,000 has been paid for a lu-rd of 37 head, but the prices paid 
 at the present time are nruch more modest. Thus at the last Sydney Royal 
 Show sale the highest figures obtained were under 300 guineas. 
 
 At the same time a considerable trade is spi'ingiiig up in frozen beef, 
 
 which, in consideration of the fact that the world's consumption has increased 
 
 in far greater measure than the supply, will probably become greater, and lead 
 
 to better utilization of the Northern Territory lands. In the season 1904-5, 
 
 C. 12154. 2c
 
 396 Federal Handbook. 
 
 101,662 quarters of beef left Australia for other lands, principally for South 
 Africa, while in 1911-12, the quantity exported was 648,313 quarters. Compar- 
 ing it with that obtained by other exporting countries, the price realized is 
 usually a little below that of New Zealand beef, which is fattened on artificial 
 grasses and has but a short way to travel to the port, and a little above that 
 of Argentine beef. Queensland provides the greater part of this trade. 
 The southern States will probably, in the future, raise pure stock to keep up 
 the character of the northern herds. 
 
 3. Dairying. 
 
 Mention has been made of the detrimental influence dairying has had on 
 the raising of fat cattle in the southern States ; but nevertheless the industry 
 has brought great wealth and prosperity to the Commonwealth. In 1911, the 
 total production of butter in the Commonwealth was 211,577,745 lbs. ; of 
 cheese, 15,886,712 lbs. ; of milk, 5,947,269,640 lbs. ; of condensed milk, 
 22,983,707 lbs. ; and of bacon and ham 53,264,652 lbs. The value of 
 exported butter alone was £4,637,-362. As an idea of the relative values 
 of the exported products it is interesting to note that, in the same yeai, 
 wool totalled £26,071,193 ; frozen mutton and lamb, £1,633,622 ; frozen 
 beef, £1,102,132. 
 
 Victoria led the way in developing the dairying industry ; and of the early 
 buttermakers and teachers, the name of David Wilson stands pre-eminent. 
 In the eighties and early nineties, the separator was winning its way into 
 prominence, co-operative butter factories were springing up all over the land, 
 and the quality of the product was improving in a wonderful degree. When 
 the financial depression occurred after the collapse of the land-boom, butter- 
 making was on a firm foundation and the quick recovery from that de- 
 pression was, in a great measure, due to this industry. 
 
 When it was seen what great profit there was in dairying, the large land- 
 owners in the western district of Victoria cut up their properties into small 
 holdings, and let these to small farmers for dairying on shares. The main 
 features of this system are that the landlord provides land, buildings, 
 stock, machinery, etc. ; the tenant furnishes labour, and the landlord takes 
 two-thirds of the butter-fat returns, the receipts from pigs being equally 
 divided between the parties. So successful were most of these small farmers 
 that they now own their own farms, having paid from £40 to £80 or even 
 £100 per acre. The soil is wonderfully rich, and the climate suitable, rye 
 grass and clover growing luxuriantly, while lucerne and maize provide ample 
 fodder for the autumn and winter without any irrigation. Good roads, too, 
 are easily made and kept up. 
 
 Gippsland is another dairying province with all the favorable natural 
 conditions, but bad roads greatly hamper her progress. Steps are however 
 now being taken to improve them. 
 
 For a time the dairying industry made great headway in the northern 
 districts where land was cheaper, and means of communication good ; but, 
 after the great drought of 1902, and with the improved prices for grain, 
 wool, and sheep, many reverted to the old farming methods. At the 
 present time, dairying is flourishing in Northern Victoria only on irrigated 
 lands, or where the rainfall is ample, as in the King River Valley.
 
 Pastoral and Aoricultural Development op Australia. 397 
 
 In New South Wales the dairying districts are the South Coast and the 
 northern rivers ; and great progress has been made, the output of that 
 State being at present not far behind that of Victoria. 
 
 In Queensland the industry is increasing rapidly, the rich Darling Downs 
 being now a huge dairying province. Queensland's output is about one- 
 third that of Victoria. One cannot fail to realize how much the rural pro- 
 ducer owes to scientists whose researches in refrigeration have enabled perish- 
 able products to be manufactured in hot climates and conveyed on long 
 voyages to the marts of the world. 
 
 At the present time the export trade in butter is at a critical stage. The 
 cheapness and excellence of home separators, and the saving of haulage by 
 their use, led to their almost universal adoption about ten years ago. A 
 number of factories stood out against their use, recognising the effect which 
 the irregular ripening of the cream would have on the quality of the butter, 
 but, one by one, they were forced to fall in line. The consequence has been 
 the disappearance of most of that superfine article for which the best 
 factories were famous. There is no doubt about the deterioration. It is 
 proved by comparing the prices at present obtained for Australian butter 
 and that of our two great competitors, Denmark and New Zealand, with the 
 prices realized a few years ago. 
 
 There is no need for this deterioration. The only things necessary are 
 cleanly conditions and the delivery of cream to the factory at frequent 
 intervals. The high prices received in Europe, in the season 1911-12, for 
 butter of any kind, did immense harm to the industry in Australia, as it 
 engendered a carelessness, which the sharp lesson of falling prices is now 
 correcting. The authorities in the various States are now endeavouring to 
 improve the quality of the output by legislation, the direction taken being 
 that of compulsory grading of cream, with the licensing of factory managers. 
 This, it is believed, will prevent cream rejected at one factory being 
 accepted at another. 
 
 The Commonwealth had previously endeavoured to control the industry 
 by compulsory grading of butter at the ports ; but, through a flaw in the 
 Act, this supervision was summarily stopped by action at law, though quite 
 80 per cent, of the butter sent away from Victoria is still voluntarily graded. 
 The competition of margarine is shutting second-class butter out of the Eng- 
 lish market, and strenuous efforts are now necessary to prevent any but 
 first-class butter leaving our shores. 
 
 In another direction, too, there is great room for improvement, and that 
 is in the return per cow per annum. Taking Victoria as the leading dairying 
 State, the average annual return per cow is under £7 ; while, if labour, rental, 
 value of land, etc., be taken into consideration, the cost of keeping a cow 
 amounts to £6 10s. per annum. As many herds are returning £14, £15, and 
 even £20 and upwards per cow per annum, there is evidently great room for 
 improvement in the average herd. Efforts are being made to improve matters 
 in New South "Wales by the encouragement of milk-testing and weighing 
 societies, and in Victoria by the issue of certificates to cows giving standard 
 returns in pure herds, which have submitted to official tests. Indifferent 
 milkers will thus be culled out, and only milking strains on both sides used 
 for breeding. 
 
 2c2
 
 398 ■ Federal Handbook. 
 
 As to the cattle employed in dairying, all the recognised breeds are well 
 represented in Australia. The Jersey may be said to be the favorite 
 with butter makers at preseiit, though the old-time Ayrshire, bred from the 
 best strains imported years ago, is slowly working its way back to favour, 
 as it is found that by culling judiciously, not only quantity but a high butter- 
 fat test is obtained. Importations of high-priced Jerseys of milking strains 
 are still constantly made. Guernseys, too, have admirers, while a number 
 of the Shorthorn breeders have developed milking strains in their herds, 
 which compare favorably with any other breeds. In New South Wales 
 is a breed — the Illawarra — which is the favorite in some wide districts, and 
 is practically a milking type in which Shorthorn predominates. In Tasmania 
 some years ago the Alderney was well represented. Throughout the Common- 
 wealth the present tendency is, whatever breed is used, to look for milking 
 strains on both sides ; and the increase of butter-fat per head, combined with 
 care in manufacture, will put the Australian dairyman in the position to sell 
 a better product more cheaply, and, aided by good pastures and fine 
 climate, to still make a handsome profit. 
 
 The best dairymen make ample provision for feeding their cows during 
 autumn and winter, either with green fodder crops, hay, or ensilage, or with 
 all three ; oats, wheat, or lucerne is used for the hay, and maize or mixed 
 crops for ensilage. The use of the silo is spreading slowly all through the 
 country. Not only does the progressive dairyman now regard it as a 
 necessary equipment, but even sheep breeders are storing away surplus feed 
 for future needs. 
 
 A great feature in connexion with dairying is the development it has 
 caused of co-operative principles amongst farmers generally. Starting with 
 co-operative butter factories, the movement has spread to the handling of 
 farm products of all kinds, and the purchase of machinery, bags, seed, etc. 
 The latest phase in this development is the establishment of bacon-curing 
 factories in New South Wales and Victoria. Pig breeding has always been 
 considered a necessary and usually a profitable adjunct to dairying ; but 
 a couple of seasons ago pigs were unsaleable. To remedy this, co-operative 
 works were started for the curing and exportation of surplus pork, so that 
 no trouble may be anticipated in the future. 
 
 It should be noticed that, besides butter, cheese and condensed milk 
 are manufactured in considerable quantities in the Commonwealth, while 
 powdered milk is also on the market. 
 
 The one great drawback to the dairying industry is the difficulty in 
 procuring labour. This has led to the employment of milking machines, 
 which, where reasonable care and cleanliness are employed, are proving 
 entirely satisfactory. Many of those in use are of Australian manufacture. 
 
 Dairying on shares seems one of the most satisfactory methods of 
 profitably employing suitable laud, especially to families with small capital 
 arriving from overseas. In one instance, two young Englishmen (Londoners) 
 have each been making £180 a year with a Gippsland dairv-farmer. In 
 another case, a Scotch farmer and his family have a steady income of £400 
 per annum. Their small capital remains untouched and is added to from
 
 Pastoral and Agricultural Development of Australia. 399 
 
 year to year, while in the meantime they are gaining experience of Australian 
 conditions. It has been stated that one large landowner in a very fertile 
 district guarantees a man and family £500 per annum. 
 
 4. Agriculture. 
 (a) Grain Crops. 
 
 Possibly to the outside superficial observer Australia appears a land of 
 sheep stations alternating with wheat-fields. It will be found, however, on 
 closer observation, that where cUmatic conditions permit it, mixed farming 
 on lines closely approximating those found profitable in the older countries, 
 has been carried on for many years. The districts where this form of agri- 
 culture is so successful were settled by the yeomen from Great Britain, 
 thoroughly trained farmers, whose descendants to-day are among the most 
 skilful tillers of the soil. 
 
 In common with other lands, Australia has made great strides in agri- 
 culture, particularly in the wheat-growing areas, during the last decade, 
 owing to the better methods of cultivation employed and to the increased use 
 of artificial manures. The present methods of cultivation, the chief feature 
 of which is the almost universal bare fallow before a crop, are the result of 
 experience ; but for their knowledge of the value of manures, farmers are 
 indebted to the instruction given and experiments carried out by officers in 
 the Agricultural Departments of the various States. The early wheat 
 farmers, most of whom were old-time gold diggers who selected land when the 
 alluvial fields became worked out, had a hard fight before their success was 
 assured. 
 
 Land could be selected for £1 per acre, the payments being spread over 
 long terms of years ; but the cost of clearing, fencing, buildings, and 
 implements soon exhausted the selectors' capital and earnings, and advances 
 could not be secured until a Crown lease was issued, which was not done for 
 several years after selection. Their wheat had to be carted long distances — ■ 
 often 50 miles or more — to the nearest railway station, and labour of any 
 kind was dear. It is not to be wondered at then, that, as a rule, they were 
 content to crop the same piece of ground for several years and only turn their 
 attention to another block when the first showed signs of exhaustion. With 
 better facilities for marketing produce, and with more money for purchasing 
 implements, improved methods have been followed, and to-day the wheat- 
 growing areas promise to retain their fertility for many years to come. 
 
 The general cropping practice is as follows : in the springtime — July and 
 August — -the land for the next year's crop is ploughed to a depth which de- 
 pends on the character of the soil, about 7 inches being the rule in the Riverina, 
 the Goulburn Valley, and South Australia, and from 3 to 4 inches in the Wim- 
 mera and other heavy clay loams. It is then harrowed and worked down 
 fine with a cultivator or scarifier, and after every shower the harrows are put 
 over the fallow to form a mulch, and arrest loss of moisture through 
 evaporation. This, briefly, is the Australian " dry farming " system, evolved 
 by her practical farmers. Sheep also are used to keep the fallow clean, 
 their droppings helping to supply organic matter, and since the rise of the 
 frozen meat trade, cropping and sheep-raising go hand-in-hand. On some
 
 400 Federal Handbook. 
 
 light soils, whicli, if worked fine, set like cement with, heavy rain, the land 
 is left in the rough after ploughing, and only sheep are used to keep it 
 clean. After the first autumn rains, which are anxiously looked for by the 
 beginning of April, the weeds which have sprung up are turned under, 
 the land is harrowed and the seed is sown with a drill, from 50 to 60 lbs. 
 of seed and 50 to 80 lbs. of superphosphates being used per acre. After 
 drilling, the seed is covered by harrowing, and occasionally the land is rolled 
 to consolidate the soil. Many farmers make a practice of feeding down their 
 crops to make the plants stool out better, while at the same time 
 providing feed for the ewes and lambs. Rains may usually be expected 
 in June, July, and August, but the critical period for the crops is in October 
 and early November. Rain falling or withheld about that time makes or 
 mars the yield. Hay cutting, which means cutting wheat or oats with reaper 
 and binder, takes place in November, and the earliest varieties of wheat are 
 ready for harvesting in December. 
 
 Not many grain crops are cut and threshed ; but it is sound far min g 
 to use this method with oats, as less grain is lost and the straw is invaluable 
 on the farm. In harvesting her grain, Australia has her own peculiar machine 
 to use — the stripper-^ which, with its improvement the harvester — has 
 enabled her growers to contend with scarcity of labour and comparatively low 
 yields. It is common knowledge that the Australian stripper origi- 
 nated in South Australia in 1845, the invention of J. Ridley, but it is 
 not so well known what struggles and difficulties the early mechamcs had 
 before they brought the harvester to its present state of perfection. In 1879 
 the South Australian G-overnment gave a great incentive to inventors by 
 offering a prize of £4,000 for a satisfactory machine. This attracted, besides 
 local men, competitors from Victoria, and even from far CaUfornia. No 
 machine was awarded the first prize, but £250 was divided among four 
 of the competitors as an encouragement. Then, for some years, interest 
 in this subject languished, and public encouragement ceased. In 1883, 
 however, a description appeared in The Australasian of a machine that 
 was working in California. Both State and public interest were again 
 aroused, prizes were offered to successful inventors by the Victorian 
 Government, and fi-om that time improvements have gradually been made 
 in the construction and efficiency of the macliines. 
 
 The difference between Australian methods and those of other lands may be 
 briefly set out. The reaper and binder cuts and binds the crop into sheaves, 
 to be threshed later by a thresliing machine ; the stripper gathers the stalks 
 into a comb, the heads are stripped off by beaters, and the grain threshed 
 from the heads by winnowers at some later date ; the harvester strips off 
 the heads, as with the stripper, but does the threshing at the same time, 
 and delivers the cleaned grain into a hopper or into bags ; and the header 
 of California cuts, threshes, and cleans the crop at one operation, but to win 
 the short-strawed grain, takes in a lot of lengthy straw, as it cuts everything 
 above the level of the knife, Uke a reaper and binder. This machine takes 
 from 24 to 30 mule? to draw it, and is cumbersome. While the Common- 
 wealth possesses a variety of good strippers and harvesters, it is an axiom 
 of implement manufacturers never to rest content with the present machine, 
 but ever to aim at improvement. The aims which machinery firms
 
 Pastoral and Agricultural Development of Australia. 401 
 
 have had before them are : — Cutting a larger area in a given time ; the lessen- 
 ing of the draught ; prevention of grain shelling ; harvesting " lodged " 
 and dirty crops ; an early, late, and damp weather worker, which will 
 not drag out the plants by the roots ; at the same time a machine which will 
 turn out as good a sample of grain as the best of the present harvesters. 
 The reaper-thresher, the latest improvement, saems to have gone a long way 
 towards reaching this goal. 
 
 A large amount of work has been done in breeding wheats which are 
 resistant of diseases ; strong in the straw and hard, to stand up against the 
 hot winds which break down or thresh out weaker varieties ; prolific and 
 yielding grain of high quality. The first systematic movement towards 
 improvement of wheats was made by Victoria, where, in 1890, a conference 
 of experts from various States was held to devise means for fighting " rust " 
 in wheat, which had caused serious losses in all the States during preceding 
 years. Other conferences followed, until eventually it was recognised that 
 this was only one of many problems confronting the wheat-grower. It was 
 through these conferences that other States learned of the research work which 
 William Farrer had been carrying on since 1882 in New South Wales, and his 
 example stimulated others to carry on cross-breeding and selection on parallel 
 lines. In " Federation " he produced a wheat which is familiar to 
 every farmer in Australia, and which has increased the yields of the mainland 
 States by many thousands of bushels. " Federation " possesses in a strong 
 degree the qualities of prolificacy, shortness and strength of straw, and power 
 of holding its grain. The trend of experiments now is to produce wheat of 
 high milling qualities, which will raise the value of Australian flour in the 
 home market, though at the present time our wheats from their whiteness are 
 used chiefly to blend with the yellower wheats of other lands. 
 
 For many years now, there have been scattered through the States a 
 number of men who have devoted their lives to the breeding of wheat and 
 to the study of plant disease. Their labours, undertaken from a love of 
 science and with no hope of monetary gain, should still further assure the 
 success of this industry, and eventually bring Australia to the front rank 
 as a wheat producing country. 
 
 Farmers show a commendable care in the seed which they sow, generally 
 using cleaned and graded grain, while they watch carefully the work of tJie 
 different experiment stations, and eagerly buy any new varieties of promise. 
 
 In the three eastern wheat-growing States of the mainland, well-equipped 
 experiment stations are carrying on fine work, as axe also a number of private 
 investigators. 
 
 To return to cropping methods, farmers are working steadily towards a 
 rotation of crops which will maintain the land in good heart. It is recog- 
 nised that the system of bare fallowing must eventually exhaust the soil. 
 The old rotation has been bare fallow, wheat, bare fallow ; or bare fallow, 
 wheat, oats ; or bare fallow, wheat, oats, pasture — the long stubble left by the 
 stripper being burnt off when one crop follows another ; or if, after wheat, 
 the land is left in pasture, the straw is worked back into the ground by the 
 stock. While burning off the stubble is wasteful of humus, it serves to clean 
 the ground of insect pests and weeds. Oats should follow wheat as often as 
 possible to prevent the attacks of the disease " take-all," even when a fallow
 
 402 Federal Handbook. 
 
 intervenes. But oats are not as widely grown as wheat, because the local 
 market is soon supplied, and the export trade is not large. The necessity 
 for providing a fodder crop for sheep has led to rape being sown in the autumn 
 on the stubble, the sheep droppings, roots, and stalks, when turned under, 
 helping to replenish the soil. Far-seeing farmers have recognised that a 
 leguminous crop is necessary, and peas are now sown, being generally used 
 as a fodder crop, and the residue being turned under for green manure. 
 
 The rotation most likely to be adopted in the near future, at any rate 
 wherever a 15-in. rainfall can be depended upon, is bare fallow, wheat, oats, 
 rape ; or bare fallow, wheat, oats, peas. The difficulty in adopting a 
 regular rotation is that oats and fodder crops cannot be grown as profitably 
 as wheat. 
 
 One of the most striking features about wheat-growing of late years is the 
 extension of the safe areas westward in New South Wales, by the adoption 
 of fallowing, systematic working of paddocks to check weed growth, and the 
 use of artificial manures. 
 
 It is difficult to state the average yields of cereals to convey definite 
 information, because they differ so much with locality and with seasons. 
 In Tasmania, .50 or 60 bushels to the acre are not uncommon ; while on the 
 mainland, anything over 30 bushels is a good return. 
 
 In the Mallee districts of Victoria and South Australia, with a limited 
 rainfall, lighter yields are usually experienced ; but the cheapness of the 
 land, which is easily cleared for the plough by rolling down and burning 
 off the scrub and then ploughing with stump-jump ploughs, enables wheat- 
 growing to be profitably carried on. These lands and the subdivided sheep 
 country of New South Wales ofi^er perhaps the best prospects for mixed farm- 
 ing in the eastern States. The best Mallee land is obtainable at £1 per acre on 
 extended terms, which in South Australia are extremely liberal, as for four 
 years no instalments are payable, and for the next two years the interest due 
 is at a very low rate. Contrast this with the price of mixed-farming land in 
 the older districts, where from £6 to £8 per acre is common, while in picked 
 districts £12 to £15 per acre was realized a couple of years ago, though those 
 prices have since declined. In all the States, land selection can be made on 
 reasonable terms ; and in Queensland and Western Australia, fi'ee grants are 
 made to overseas sett'ers. 
 
 Some idea of the importance of wheat-growing to the Commonwealth 
 may be grasped by noticing that for the 1911-12 season, nearly 72 mil ion 
 bushels of wheat were produced, the returns for 1910-11 being over 95 
 million bushels, and for 1909-10 nearly 90i million bushels. The average 
 yields for those seasons in the same order were 9-6, 12 -9, and 13-7 bushels ; 
 and for 10 years, which include the great drought of 1902-3, the average 
 is 10-48 bushels per acre. 
 
 A burning question with wheat-growers at the present day is the handling 
 of the harvest from fields to sea-board. A few years ago legislation com- 
 pelled the use of three-bushel bags instead of four-bushel. These bags, are 
 carted to the station as soon as harvest is over, the results being that the 
 goods platforms are loaded in a few weeks to their full carrying capacity, 
 the overflow being stacked in the station yard, there to remain, possibly for 
 months, before the railways can deal with them. This means considerable
 
 Pastoral and Agricultural Development of Australia. 403- 
 
 loss from mice, and, in some years, from rain as platforms and yards are 
 quite unprotected from the weather. The fact that new bags must 
 be purchased every year, is also a considerable tax on the producer. 
 For these reasons handling in bulk has the strong support of all country 
 people, and a definite movement in this direction seems about to be made. 
 A Royal Commission in Victoria has just reported in favour of bulk-handling, 
 and New South Wales has brought an engineer from the United States to 
 devise a workable scheme for that State, and other States are also studying 
 the best means for dealing with the situation. 
 
 The output of oats depends to a considerable extent on the prices ruling 
 for the previous season. Oats were very cheap for years, and many ceased 
 to gi'ow them. The production has varied during the last eight years from 
 9 million bushels to 16 million bushels, and the average over the whole- 
 period is 20J bushels per acre. The Algerian oat is the principal variety 
 grown. Oats are grown largely for hay ; and in some districts wheat and 
 oats mixed are sown for this purpose. Victoria produces nearly three times 
 the quantity of oats grown by any other State, Tasmania coming second, 
 with New South Wales and South Australia about equal. Tasmania 
 has the highest average— 30 bushels per acre. 
 
 With barley, the difference in price between a bright sample and a dis- 
 coloured one is so great that the crop is not grown to any very large extent,, 
 the highest production during ten years having been 2| million bushels in 
 1908-9, and the average for ten years, 18-83 bushels per acre. Victoria, 
 and South Australia are the largest producers, though Tasmania has again 
 the highest average — 24 bushels per acre. 
 
 Maize-growing for grain is very successfully carried on in the northern 
 rivers district of New South Wales, in Gippsland (Victoria) and in Queensland. 
 Victoria can claim some of the highest yields in the world, returns of over 
 100 bushels per acre being by no means uncommon. A great drawback 
 to the industry is the want of communication. The rivers are usually 
 un-navigable on account of sand bars at their mouths, and in many cases- 
 the maize is marketed " on the hoof " by using it as pig feed. As a fodder 
 crop, maize is one of the most common, yielding a great bulk of material in 
 the coastal districts, under the natural rainfall, and inland, under irrigation. 
 Not much attention has been given by the Agricultural Departments of the 
 States to the selection of maize seed, or the breeding of varieties to suit 
 varying local conditions. Most of the leading American varieties are grown, 
 and considerable enterprise has been shown by private individuals in raising 
 pure seed. 
 
 Both in point of acreage under crop and total production, New South 
 Wales usually holds pride of place, though Queensland is very nearly equal, 
 while Victoria comes a long way behind. In yield per acre, on the other 
 hand, Victoria is a long way ahead, having, for ten years, produced an average 
 of 55 bushels per acre, the highest during that period being in 1903-4, when 
 76| bushels per acre was the amount recorded. The average for the whole 
 Commonwealth for the ten years from 1902 to 1912 is 26 "84 bushels per acre. 
 
 The production of hay in the Commonwealth is intimately associated with 
 the cultivation of cereals, as the great bulk of this fodder is composed of wheat 
 or oats. Formerly, Victoria exported a large quantity to New South Wales
 
 404 Federal Handbook. 
 
 and Queensland, but, the former State now grows sufficient for its own 
 requirements, except in times of drought. As a rule, the farmer cuts his 
 crop for hay or keeps it for grain, whichever promises to bring in the larger 
 gain ; but, in the cooler districts, cereals are often sown for hay alone, and 
 a mixture of wheat and oats often being used for the purpose. In these dis- 
 tricts special hay wheats are sown, but Algerian oats are employed every- 
 where. The colour, smell, and amount of grain in the head are factors in 
 determining the value of hay, the yields of which in the hay districts are 
 from 2 to 3 tons per acre in good years. In the wheat districts, 2 tons per 
 acre is a good hay crop, and the average for the Commonwealth for ten years 
 is only 1^ tons per acre. Victoria has a production of a little over one million 
 tons to her credit for 1911-12. In the early days, hay was made from the 
 natural pasture grasses, but these are now seldom used for this purpose. 
 
 (b; Lucerne Hay. 
 
 With the expansion of dairying, and, especially since the irrigation settle- 
 ments in the various States have been founded, lucerne is largely used for 
 maldng into hay. The usual and most sound practice is to grow enough 
 of this fodder to supply the needs of the farm ; but, during a dry 
 period in the autumn of 1912, a demand sprang up for this article, 
 and many sold off their stock in order to grow hay. The next 
 season being a good one, lucerne hay was practically unsaleable. A 
 number of sheep-owners in the Eiverina, taught by the experience of past 
 dry years, make immense stacks of lucerne hay from irrigated paddocks, 
 which are kept in reserve for periods of scarcity. From four to six cuttings 
 of lucerne per season can be counted on from irrigated land, and in districts 
 where a good rainfall is assured, the yield at each cutting varies from 1 to 
 2 tons per acre. The best seed is grown in the Commonwealth and comes 
 from the Hunter River district, in New South Wales, but a fair quantity is 
 imported. Sowing is done in either spring or autumn, but the former is 
 considered a better time, since a clean seed-bed can then be more certainly 
 assured. 
 
 (c) Tobacco. 
 
 Of the States New South Wales now grows the greatest amount of tobacco, 
 the industry in Victoria being confined mainly to Chinese, many of whom are 
 working on shares with white land-owners. The rich alluvial flats are found 
 very suitable for producing the finest leaf. About 1 ,500 acres are under culti- 
 vation in New South Wales, about half this amount in Queensland, and one- 
 third in Victoria. The average yield for the Commonwealth is about 7f 
 cwt. per acre. Though a payable enough crop, the incessant labour requu-ed 
 in a land where labour is dear and scarce, has led to many abandoning it. 
 
 (d) Ensilage. 
 
 One cannot leave the subject of cropping without further reference to ensi- 
 lage, a fodder which should especially appeal to Australian farmers, since the 
 conditions lend themselves so readily to the preservation of fodder in this 
 form, and at the same time deinand conservation of supplies for the safety 
 of the stock. It is essentially a land of bounteous seasons and of dry ones. 
 In the good years thousands of tons of fodder go to waste. In the dry seasons.
 
 Pastoral and Agricultural Development of Australia. 405 
 
 thousands of cattle and sheep die, not so much from want of fodder, for often 
 dry feed is available, but through impaction, which a succulent fodder hke 
 ensilage would prevent. 
 
 Unfortunately, statistics show that the quantity of ensilage made each 
 year is not increasing, thus proving that the farming community still fail 
 as a class to appreciate the true value of this form of stock food. 
 
 Provident farmers adopt the practice of sowing in the early autumn 
 a mixed fodder crop of rye, peas, vetches, and barley. This is cut in the 
 spring, which prevents the weeds going to seed. The silos are constructed 
 above ground and the material is first chaffed, and then elevated or forced 
 up into the silo by means of a blower. To consolidate the green fodder, it 
 is trodden down during the filling process, particularly round the edges ; and, 
 as a rule, unless it is to be used at once, is covered with straw-chafi or bags 
 and weighted. Where a surplus amount of spring grass is available, it is 
 occasionally converted into ensilage, being put straight into the silo, without 
 chaffing. Later in the year, about October, summer fodder crops are 
 sown — maize, sorghum, millet, etc., and these are converted into ensilage in 
 the autumn. 
 
 (e) Root Crops. 
 
 The two main root crops are potatoes and onions, though turnips, 
 mangolds, etc., are grown in the cool districts. Victoria is the largest pro- 
 ducer of potatoes, heading the list both in area under crop and in output. 
 New South Wales comes next in point of area, but is closely pushed by Tas- 
 mania in output with half the area under crop. For many years, Tasmania 
 supplied all the States except Victoria with most of their tubers ; but the 
 ravages of potato-blight reduced the output, and induced farmers to under- 
 take a systematic rotation instead of exhausting their land with the one crop. 
 Victorian crops also suffered severely from this disease, but, by spraying and 
 resting the ground, this trouble has been overcome. When the blight was 
 rampant, a number of growers dropped out, and, in consequence, in 1912, 
 potatoes were at famine prices. Those who had continued growing them, 
 having clean, good crops, the result of assiduous work, received handsome 
 rewards. Rich potato land sells at £100 or more per acre, and the rental often 
 reaches from £4 to £6 per acre. When prices have exceeded £10 per ton, cases 
 have been reported where the purchase money has been recouped in one season. 
 After a scarcity, every farmer with a good piece of land in a suitable locality 
 puts in potatoes, with the consequence that, in the following season, prices 
 are hardly payable. As an instance, the price last year, was for months 
 not lower than £12 per ton, reaching much higher for a short time, whereas 
 this year, the choicest varieties can be purchased for £4. A definite rotation, 
 in these districts, will not only correct this great irregularity of prices, but 
 also eradicate diseases and maintain the fertility of the soil. 
 
 The production for the Commonwealth for 1911-12 was 391,489 tons, a 
 considerable decrease from the yield of 1906-7, when it was 507,153 tons. 
 Tasmania was responsible for a deficit of no less than 120,000 tons. The total 
 yields in 1911-12 were— Victoria, 119,092 tons ; New South Wales, 75,040 
 tons ; Tasmania, 62,164 tons. The averages for the principal States for ten 
 seasons are — Tasmania, 3 '94 tons per acre; Victoria, 2 '8 tons; South
 
 406 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Australia, 2-7 tons; New South Wales, 2-35 tons; Western Australia has 
 an average of 3 tons per acre, but her highest annual production is only 
 a little over 9,000 tons. 
 
 In onions, the production of Victoria only is worth mentioning. Her 
 largest output was in 1910-11, when 37,484 tons were grown, with an average 
 of a little over 6 tons per acre. Like potatoes, onions fluctuate very much in 
 price ; and while, in some years, the cost price of the land can be earned in 
 one season, in others they have been a drug in the market. Last year prices 
 were £17 and over per ton, whereas this year £6 is a usual figure. As the 
 average yield for ten years is over 5 tons per acre, some idea may be gathered 
 of the returns ; but it must be remembered that the work of preparing the 
 ground and keeping the crop clean is very expensive, while the crop is a 
 delicate one to handle. 
 
 (f) Sugar. 
 
 Queensland and New South Wales are the only States which grow sugar- 
 cane, the former producing about 90 per cent, of the total. For 1911-12 
 the output for Queensland was 1,. 534,4.51 tons of cane, with an average of 
 16 tons per acre, wluch is very nearly the average for the last ten years. 
 New South Wales has an average of 22 • 64 tons per acre for the same 
 period. 
 
 It is difficult for any one not a resident of sugar-cane districts to under- 
 stand the situation of the industry. Formerly, the work was carried on 
 by black labour recruited from the islands under strict Government super- 
 vision. The " White Australia " policy disposed of this system, and as a 
 consequence, the proportion of sugar produced by coloured labour declined 
 from 68 per cent, of the total for 1902-3 to 6 per cent, in 1911-12. As a 
 recompense to the growers, the Commonwealth Grovernment passed a Sugar 
 Bounty Act, giving a bounty on all cane of a certain quality produced by 
 wliite labour. In 1912, however, two Acts were passed, one abolishing the 
 bounty and the other repealing the Sugar Excise Act, under which an excise 
 duty of £4 per ton on manufactured sugar had been collected. These Acts 
 did not, however, come into force till the following year (1913). It was 
 stated at the time that the Queensland G-overnment intended to take over 
 the matter, and to deal with the question of wages and conditions of 
 labour. 
 
 In Victoria, the manufacture of beet sugar is carried on ; but the industry 
 is in anything but a flourishing condition, owing to the difficulty in getting 
 a sufficient quantity of land under this crop to justify the working of the 
 machinery. In 1911-12, there were in Victoria 752 acres sown with sugar-beet, 
 which yielded 3,974 tons, or a little over 5 tons per acre. Some years ago, 
 the Government of the day built a sugar-beet factory at Maffra, in Gippsland, 
 equipped it with most expensive machinery, and obtained experts from 
 Germany to superintend the manufacture. Owing to the lack of support 
 on the part of growers, it was closed down for years, and re-opened again 
 in 1910. At this time, land which had been resumed by the State for closer 
 settlement purposes was disposed of with a proviso that a certain number of 
 acres should be devoted to the growth of sugar beets. The constant labour 
 required to keep the crops clean has rendered this branch of farming, to 
 put it mildly, less remunerative than many others ; and growers are
 
 Pastoral and Agricultural Development of Australia. 407 
 
 endeavouring to have the compulsory area reduced. There is also a bounty on 
 beet sugar, the amount being 6s. per ton on beet giving 10 per cent of 
 sugar. During 1911-12, bounty was paid on 7,481 tons. 
 
 5. Viticulture. 
 
 The cultivation of the vine was commenced at an early date of Common- 
 wealth history by foreigners who had emigrated from the wine-making 
 countries of Europe. They found the climate even more suitable than their 
 own for certain classes of wine, and the soil as fertile. From these men, 
 others procured cuttings or rooted vines and embarked in the industry, wine 
 making being carried on principally. With rude appliances and without 
 anv of the necessary scientific knowledge, they produced a lot of rough, coarse 
 wine, so that " Australian wine " was a by-word in the Colonies. 
 
 A few vignerons in Victoria and South Australia, however, having more 
 capital and experience, succeeded in making wine of fair quality. This 
 gradually improved, and a great impetus was given to the industry in Vic- 
 toria in the nineties by the voting of a bonus, in instalments, for every acre 
 planted. This induced a number of farmers and novices who were not at 
 all suited for it to undertake the work. As a consequence, a great quantity 
 of inferior and almost unmarketable wine was produced, so that when the 
 bonuses ceased, the greater number of these inexperienced growers retired, 
 the remainder struggling on, until, a few years later, the appearance of 
 phylloxera compelled them also to abandon the industry. 
 
 During this time those with large capital sunk in the trade and making 
 good wine, were pushing their way into the English market, aiming ever at 
 making a wine for export and not for home consmnption. Aided by the 
 disappearance of the bulk of coarse, inferior wines, an export trade of con- 
 siderable dimensions has eventually sprung up, mainly in full-bodied, dry 
 red wines, which are used for blending. It is contended that these err on the 
 side of strength, and lack the velvety smoothness which should characterize 
 a first-quality product. However that may be, young wine can now be 
 sold at a higher price than could the matured article a few years ago. A 
 promising wine, at twelve months, will bring 2s. per gallon, and small growers 
 are making a good profit at this price, as yields of from 300 to 500 
 gallons per acre can be secured. This, briefly, has been the experience in 
 Victoria. 
 
 In South Australia, the market has been steadier, and the quality more 
 uniformly good, because there has not been, at any time, a great rush into 
 the industry by men unfitted for the work. In New South Wales, the 
 experience has been somewhat similar to that of Victoria, on a smaller scale. 
 
 The output of wine for the Commonwealth is about 5 million gallons, 
 of which South Australia supplies about 3 million, Victoria, 1 million, New 
 South Wales, 800,000, and Western Australia, 150,000 gallons. 
 
 The spread of phylloxera in Victoria and New South Wales, while it 
 accelerated the retirement of incompetent growers, has nevertheless inflicted 
 serious damage on the industry, and vigorous efforts are being made to 
 combat it. A number of stations for growing resistant vines have been 
 established by the State Governments, and cuttings or grafted lootlings 
 are distributed to gi-owers at merely the cost of production.
 
 408 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The raisin and currant industry may be said to have started with the 
 establishment of the irrigation settlements at Mildura (Victoria) and Een- 
 mark (South Australia), on the Murray Eiver. In the early nineties, the 
 product began to make itself felt on the market, which, from its superiority 
 over the imported article in cleanliness and flavour, it soon captured. There 
 was a danger then that prices would fall below a profitable margin ; but 
 co-operation of the growers prevented this by determining to export the 
 surplus after the home market had been supplied. This has been done for 
 some years now, and comfortable incomes are realized from small blocks 
 planted with vines. 
 
 The total production of the Commonwealth in raisins and currants was 
 in 1911-12, 234,898 cwt., of which Victoria manufactured 149,713 cwt. and 
 South Australia 81,346 cwt. 
 
 All five mainland States raise table grapes, principally for Commonwealth 
 consumption. Latterly, Western Australia has been making shipments of 
 fresh grapes to England, and with a satisfactory measure of success. In 
 the eastern States, the varieties most suitable for this purpose, such as 
 Ohanez, Purple Cornichon, Flame Tokay, have been planted and are now 
 coming into bearing, so that an extension of the export trade may be 
 looked for. 
 
 6. Fruit=growing. 
 
 When we remember to what extent this industry depends on the export 
 trade, Tasmania undoubtedly deserves the highest credit for her enterprise 
 in building up a great export trade in apples. Practically unaided by State 
 assistance in any form, the apple-growers of the island State despatched 
 trial shipments, and paid the expenses of growers to watch the cargo during 
 the voyage and to supervise its distribution in London. 
 
 Contrast these tentative shipments in the eighties with the apple season 
 to-day, during which a dozen or more large ocean steamers leave the port 
 of Hobart alone, with fruit (mainly apples) for cargo, two or three boats 
 being occasionally berthed alongside the wharves at the same time. 
 
 The shipment last season from Hobart comprised 465,193 cases for the 
 United Kingdom; 15,625 for Germany; 1,649 for Sweden and Denmark; 
 and 49,720 for South America ; or 522,188 cases in all, as against 807,510 
 for the previous season. Victoria despatches only about half this quantity ; 
 but the industry is a growing one in all the States. 
 
 The excellent machinery now manufactured for refrigerating purposes 
 has rendered the shipment of such soft fruits as pears a success ; and with 
 the extension of markets to other British ports than London, and to Europe, 
 Canada, and other parts of the world, the industry may be regarded as only 
 in its infancy. 
 
 It is claimed that, by pre cooling, any variety of fruit may be carried 
 with safety, and, certainly, the results of the experimental shipments of 
 pre-cooled fruit seem to justify the statement. At the present time efforts 
 are being made to secure better arrangements with the shipping companies ; 
 and it is hoped as the result of the inquiries of a Commonwealth Royal 
 Commission, that the export trade will be placed on a more satisfactory 
 footing in every way.
 
 Pastoral and Agricultural Development op Australia. 409 
 
 The small fruits do remarkably well in the cooler districts of the southern 
 States, and particularly in Tasmania ; but, as these do not lend themselves 
 to exportation, the trade is limited. 
 
 7. Irrigation and Artesian Water. 
 
 The name of Mildura, in North-western Victoria, naturally associates 
 itself in the mind with the earliest efforts of irrigation in settlements. Indi- 
 vidual irrigation had been carried on previously, but little had been heard 
 publicly of the suitability of the Australian soil, climate, and rivers for 
 extensive watering until Messrs. Chafiey Bros, obtained a concession from the 
 Victorian Government and started work on the Murray River in 1884. From 
 1887 to 1895 the management was carried on by Messrs. ChaSey Bros. Co. 
 Ltd., when it was taken over by the First IMildura Irrigation Trust. Though 
 the settlement passed through many hard times in its early years, those 
 who survived are now in a very prosperous position. Various difficulties 
 were at first met with — salt in the soil, inexperience in the suitable varieties 
 of trees and \dnes, insufficient pumping power, etc. ; but, one by one, these 
 difficulties were overcome. 
 
 The main industries now are — currants, raisins, prunes, and other dried 
 fruits. Some idea of the prosperity of this, the largest irrigation settlement 
 in the Commonwealth, may be gathered from the fact that in 1911 
 (Census) there were over 6,000 inhabitants and over 12,000 acres under 
 cultivation. 
 
 Renmark, also on the Murray, but in South Australia, was established 
 a little later than Mildura. Its development was conducted more slowly ; 
 and it, therefore, reaped a certain amount of benefit from the experience of 
 the other settlement. Renmark has a population of 2,000, with 5,20u acres 
 under cultivation, and an average production of about £100,000 per 
 annum- 
 
 As the result of an irrigation campaign, conducted by Mr. Alfred Deakin, 
 who had visited India and America in search of information, various water 
 trusts were established in the northern areas of Victoria in the late eighties 
 and early nineties, many of them, however, only for watering stock. The 
 largest of these, in the Goulburn Valley, also included a fruit-growing settle- 
 ment at Ardmona, while a large extent of country was taken up to irrigate 
 lucerne for fattening stock. Eventually the State wiped off most of the 
 indebtedness of these trusts ; and, as the water was supplied very cheaply, 
 prosperity in these areas became general. 
 
 A new impetus was given to irrigation in Victoria during the early years 
 of this century. In 1906, all State waterworks were vested in the State Rivers 
 and Water Supply Commission of three members, and this Commission 
 eventually took over the duties of the whole Water Supply Department, 
 and, at a later date, the control of irrigation lands, which previously were 
 vested in the Closer Settlement Board. This Board has done good work 
 in concentrating the settlers on all new areas, and so lessening the cost of 
 supplying water. 
 
 Under the Closer Settlement Act a number of irrigable estates were 
 bought up from private owners, subdivided, and settled mainly from over- 
 seas, though Australians have also taken up some of the blocks.
 
 410 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Where sufi&cient capital was available, and the settlers were hard-working, 
 good progress has been made, and there is reasonable prospect of success. 
 On blocks of 50 acres and upwards, dairying is carried on by means of lucerne 
 and fodder crops, while, at the same time, small areas are planted with fruit 
 trees, the dairying operations bringing in ready money during the time that 
 the fruit trees are coming into bearing. 
 
 As with all colonies of this nature, a good deal of tribidation will be ex- 
 perienced before the settlers "make good." One great drawback is the absence 
 ■of markets in which to dispose of small products, such as vegetables, tomatoes, 
 etc. ; but, when once the orchards are in bearing, with the ever-extending 
 overseas markets, and the knowledge gained from the experience of the pio- 
 neers in the fruit industry, a comfortable living should be made off these 
 small areas. 
 
 It is calculated that without taking into consideration waterworks con- 
 structed for the supply of cities and towns, the various works vested in the 
 Commission have a capital debit to the State of over £4,000,000. 
 
 At the present time, a project is on foot for the construction of a 
 storage reservoir near the source of the River Goulburn, which, if undertaken, 
 will be perhaps the largest in the world. It is estimated that it will have a 
 storage capacity of 60,000 million cubic feet, and some conception of its 
 size may be obtained by comparing it with the Assouan Dam in Egypt, which 
 holds 35,840 million feet. 
 
 New" South Wales has constructed a large dam (Burrinjuck), across the 
 ■channel of the Murrumbidgee River, with an estimated capacity of 33,630 
 million cubic feet of water, to be stored from the winter rains. The water will 
 be run down the Murrumbidgee for 200 miles to the Berembed Weir, from 
 which it will be carried by gravitation to the irrigation settlements. It will 
 command 200,000 acres of first class land and 360,000 acres of second class 
 land, which is estimated to support eventually 50,000 people. At present a 
 number of settlers are on blocks, but have only just commenced operations. 
 When the " Murray Waters " question is settled between the States of New 
 South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, far more use will be made of the 
 great waterway for irrigation purposes. 
 
 One cannot leave the subject of water supply in connexion with agricul- 
 ture without some reference to the artesian supplies which have rendered 
 so much of the interior country habitable and possible for stock raising. 
 The artesian area has a width of about 900 miles in the latitude of Brisbane, 
 stretching from Toowoomba to the overland telegraph Une. Bourke marks 
 in a general way its southern limit, and in the north it runs to the Gulf of Car- 
 pentaria, stretching from Cape York to west of the Gregory River. A 
 ■strip of the coast line in Western Australia is also recognised as 
 artesian. 
 
 Large sums of money have been spent by the Governments of most of 
 the States in boring on stock routes, while a considerable amount of bores 
 have been put down by private enterprise. The water obtained is 
 chiefly used for stock, being too highly charged with carbonate of 
 soda for irrigation purposes, though, to a limited extent, it is used for this 
 purpose also. The yearly extension of the boundary of artesian water is 
 adding more and more " safe " territory to the list. There are nearly 3,000
 
 Pastoral and Agricultural Development of Australia. 411 
 
 bores in existence, both private and public. The deepest bore is over 5,000 
 feet ; and the largest supply is from one in Queensland, which gives about 
 4i^ million gallons per day. 
 
 In the north-west of Victoria and in South Australia is a sub-artesian 
 supply, the M^ater from which has only reached the surface in three bores ; 
 but, in others, it comes within 80 feet and is pumped up for use. This sim- 
 plifies the settlement of the Mallee districts, which are rapidly being converted 
 into wheat-growing areas. Water is obtained from wells in most of the dis- 
 tricts bordering on the Murray Kiver, even for 20 to 30 miles back from the 
 frontage. These are from 80 feet to 100 feet deep, and the water which is 
 often slightly brackish is pumped to the surface by windmills. 
 
 8. Labour Conditions. 
 
 Labour conditions cannot be regarded as quite satisfactory ; but there 
 is much to be said on both sides. Skilled labour is practically unpro- 
 curable, because a capable man can soon save enough to begin farming 
 on Ms own account, and invariably does so, every inducement being offered 
 in the shape of cheap land on extended terms, share-farming, etc. The 
 consequence is that at harvest-time, the only labour available is not thoroughly 
 efficient, though the demand is great and the pay high. In the dairying 
 districts, there is constant scarcity of milkers ; and many are reducing their 
 herds to the number which can be handled by their own family with milking 
 machines, or else letting part of their farms to " share " men. In cropping, 
 the niimber of acres put in by each farmer is likely to be reduced, particularly 
 as this will enable more sheep to be carried, and a better system of rotation 
 pursued. Larger implements and teams are also being used to curtail the 
 employment of labour. The policy of irrigation, however, now being carried 
 out by the various G-overnments should have the effect of relieving the 
 situation to a certain extent, provided that the right class of immigrant 
 is secured. Many of the small selectors will gladly put in a few weeks at 
 harvesting or shearing, during the clearing of their own land. 
 
 A few acres of land, with a cottage, a cow, pigs, and fowls, possibly a 
 certain amount of crop on shares, with a security of tenure, should prove a 
 good investment of capital for land-seekers; and should suit those who prefer 
 the advantages of civilization to " roughing it " on a selection of their own. 
 The position at the present time is as follows : — The Labourers Union 
 has drawn up a " log " of prices and hours of labour for every branch of the 
 great producing industry, and demands its acceptance by farmers, who 
 would be agreeable in many instances, to the rates demanded, if they could 
 obtain efficient workmen. The fixed hours they regard as impracticable. Even 
 should these schedules become law, through the Arbitration Court, it will 
 be necessary to compel every farmer to carry on his business in the same 
 manner as at present, before the working class will materially benefit, and 
 the question is raised wliether the industries requiring the most labour will 
 be curtailed in favour of branches like grazing, in which very little labour 
 is required. 
 
 The pastoral industry, about twelve months ago, emerged from a pro- 
 tracted suit before the Arbitration Court, whereby all conditions of labour 
 and living are fixed. 
 
 C.12{.H. '^ i>
 
 412 Federal Handbook. 
 
 It has been said that little has been done by farmers as a body to make the 
 conditions of living such as will induce labourers to remain for any length of 
 time. The food is invariably good and plentiful, and often partaken with 
 the farmer's family; but the "men's hut" with its bunks, for which the 
 occupants must find the bedding, still represents the only shelter for labour. 
 On some farms, in the newer districts, conditions are worse, and men are 
 left to find sleeping accommodation during harvest in chafi house or machinery 
 shed. Farmers themselves, having "roughed it" as selectors in their early 
 years, do not give sufficient attention to this point, and have not realized that 
 conditions are altered. Pastoralists, on the other hand, provide ample and 
 good accommodation for shearers ; and the schedule determined by the 
 Arbitration Court sets forth in precise terms the amount of sleeping and 
 living space necessary for each man. • 
 
 9. Agricultural Education. 
 
 In some respects, the Commonwealth can point the way to the world 
 in her system of agricultural education. For instance, there is an agitation 
 in Great Britain just now to make the work at their institutions more 
 practical, so that students shall take part in every farm operation. 
 This has been a fundamental principle in Australia from the beginning. 
 Colleges have been established in all the States, except Western 
 Australia and Tasmania, and in the latter State one is in process of 
 foundation. 
 
 With the exception of Victoria, where they are under the control of a 
 Council of Agricultural Education, the colleges are directly under the different 
 departments of Agriculture, and are financed by State grants and their 
 sale of produce. The fees are small at all the colleges, varying from £20 
 to £35 per annum, so that the sons of men in every class of society can take 
 advantage of the education offered. 
 
 The object in view is to turn out young men who will go on the land ; 
 and the curriculum is drawn up with this purpose. The methods adopted vary 
 to some extent at the several colleges, but, in general, class-days and work-days 
 alternate, the whole body of students being divided into two classes, one of 
 which is working and the other in class on the same day. The farm work is 
 apportioned according to the standing of the student, senior students being in 
 charge of teams — ploughing, sowing, or harvesting, or at blacksmith's work, 
 carpentry, shearing, separating, etc., according to the season of the year, 
 junior students are occupied with milking, hoeing, carting, stablework, 
 fencing, and the hundred and one odd pieces of work to be found 
 on a farm. The work-list is usually changed each week, so that each 
 student gets a fair share of the work. The class work embraces instruc- 
 tion in agricultural chemistry, soil physics, farm engineering, botany, 
 entomology, geology, and farm accounts, as well as the subjects pertaining 
 to an ordinary commercial education. From the distribution of the farm 
 work, it can be gathered that great advantages are attached to limiting the 
 number of students, so that each may gain that knowledge which only 
 practice can give. 
 
 The course varies from two to three years, and the ages of students range 
 from fifteen years upwards, the average being about eighteen.
 
 Pastoral and AaRicuLTURAL Development of Australia. 413 
 
 In Victoria are a number of agricultural high schools designed to act as 
 stepping-stones between the State school and the agricultural college. The 
 various experimental farms in New South Wales provide accommodation for 
 students, whose time is mainly given to practical work, and in Western 
 Australia similar provision has been made. A Chair of Agriculture has been 
 established in New South Wales and Victoria, and the colleges are affiliated 
 with the University, undergraduates who take the course of agricultural 
 science being required to do a certain amount of field work at the 
 agricultural college. 
 
 Instruction classes for those already on the land are conducted in nearly 
 every State, but in this respect Australia falls short of the standard realized in 
 the IFnited States. This to a great extent is due to her scattered population 
 and to the fact that there is no '' off " season in Australia, when farm 
 work cannot be followed. The earliest students who passed through the 
 colleges are now beginning to occupy prominent positions in the agricul- 
 tural world, and the training is better appreciated by the public ; but farmers 
 are not availing themselves of the agricultural high schools to the extent hoped 
 for nor have they ever taken full advantage of the colleges for their sons. 
 The majority of students, of whom the total according to the latest return 
 is 630, comes from the professional and mercantile classes. Most of the 
 students are too young, after finishing a college course, to undertake farming 
 for themselves, they therefore pursue the wiser plan of gaining further 
 experience on good farms, where the handling of men and the business of 
 buying and selling can be learned. 
 
 10. Land Tenure. 
 
 It is not possible to cover in a few paragraphs the systems of the various 
 States, which differ considerably. They may, however, be considered under 
 the broad headings of leases or licences, conditional purchases, free grants, 
 and cash purchases. 
 
 Leases are generally for pastoral purposes, the lessees being the pioneers 
 who take up new country, which they usually improve considerably before 
 being ousted by the selector. The immense stations containing hundreds of 
 thousands of acres are now confined to the interior and northern parts of the 
 Commonwealth, the rents for which are only a few shillings per acre. There 
 are, however, large leasehold blocks in all the States, usually of rough land 
 not fit for cultivation, and devoted to sheep or cattle. Lessees are usually 
 allowed to select so many acres out of their leased land. 
 
 The conditional purchase is the usual method of acquiring land in all 
 the States. The age limit at which land may be secured varies fi-om sixteen 
 to eighteen years ; the area, from 200 acres to 2,500 acres, according to 
 locality or conditions of the Land Act ; and the price, from a few shillings to 
 £1 per acre. As a rule, the survey fee and some deposit must be paid at 
 the beginning, the full amount being paid off by yearly instalments, in 
 different periods ranging up to 40 years. In some cases no payments are 
 required for several years ; and, in all, the rate of interest is very low, prin- 
 cipal and interest together amounting to not more than 6 or 7 per cent. 
 Improvements must be carried out to a certain amount each year, and 
 residence for so many months in the year is usually insisted upon. 
 
 2 D 2
 
 414 Federal Handbook 
 
 The holder of a block on conditional purchase is termed, in all the States, 
 a selector. As a rule, at first, only a licence to occupy is given ; then, when 
 the terms have all been faithfuly observed for several years, a lease is issued 
 which is negotiable. At any time after the issue of the lease, by paying 
 the remainder of the purchase money in cash, a grant may be obtained. 
 
 These are the terms under which the great bulk of the land in Australia 
 has been alienated. The maximum area in the early days was 320 acres, 
 but it is noticeable that very few farms in the wheat-growing districts are as 
 small as this — 1,000 acres being more nearly the average holding. In the 
 heavily timbered coastal districts, the smaller area has proved quite sufficient, 
 as the land is rich, the rainfall good, and the cost of clearing very heavy. 
 In New South Wales, leased land in the western districts is being resumed 
 and subdivided for selection, while in Victoria and South Australia, 
 settlement is now taking place mainly in the Mallee lands of the north, 
 which can be cheaply cleared for the plough by rolling down the scrub and 
 then burning it off. Queensland and Western Australia have greater areas 
 of Crown lands unalienated, and are attracting settlers from all the States 
 and from overseas by their liberal ofiers. 
 
 Closer Settlement Acts have been passed in every State, by means of which 
 estates have been purchased in settled districts, subdivided, and disposed 
 of on extended terms The earliest subdivisions, which were in Victoria, 
 turned out very successful ; and enabled many men with small capital to 
 obtain farms. Latterly, most of the eSort has been directed to settling those 
 estates which are commanded by irrigation channels. Provision has been 
 made for loans to settlers in proportion to the amount of capital sunk in 
 improvements. 
 
 In every State free grants are made for educational, religious, or recrea- 
 tion purposes, but only in Queensland and Western Australia are they made 
 for settlement. In Queensland the maximum area which may be selected as a 
 free homestead is 160 acres. The selector must reside on the block for five 
 years and must fence it in or make improvements of equal value. 
 
 In cash purchases from the Crown, as a rule, the land must be put up at 
 public auction, an upset price being fixed. In all the States are credit 
 systems under which farmers can obtain advances on easy terms on the 
 value of their land and improvements. 
 
 U. Forestry. 
 
 This subject is closely connected with land settlement, and most de- 
 plorable has been the ruthless destruction of valuable timber in every State, 
 during the process of agricultui'al development. Forests have disappeared 
 before the axe and fixe of the selectors, and now, in the settled districts, 
 a great scarcity of timber for fencing, firewood, and building purposes is 
 noticeable. 
 
 Forest reserves were made early in the history of Australia, but these 
 were mainly to preserve timber for the use of the mining industry. 
 
 South Australia has had for many years a well-organized Forestry Depart- 
 ment, which, in many respects, has been an example to the rest of the 
 Commonwealth. Of late years, greater attention has been paid to the pre- 
 servation of existing timber and the replanting of areas with the best of
 
 Pastoral and Agricultural Development of Australia. 415 
 
 native and foreign timbers. All the States have established State nurseries 
 and plantations, from which are distributed, at the cost of the labour in 
 packing, to public bodies and farmers, trees of native woods, such as the 
 many eucalypts, acacias, and native pines, as well as foreign trees, 
 mainly pines and pepper-trees, while a few oaks, willows, etc., have also 
 been grown. In this way encouragement is given to the growth of shelter 
 belts, the thinning of which affords a useful amount of timber. 
 
 In Victoria has been established a Forestry School, where subjects per- 
 taining to this important industry are taught, as well as the practice in the 
 growth and improvement of plantations and forests, and the employment of 
 timber. There is also a course in forestry at the Adelaide School of Mines. 
 
 Of late an increased interest in forestry has been evinced in all the 
 States, due to conferences held in Sydney and Melbourne ; and it is hoped 
 that further wanton destruction will be prevented, and that replanting will 
 repair the damage which would eventually have so injurious an effect on the 
 climate and soil of the Commonwealth.
 
 416 Federal Handbook. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MINING FIELDS OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 By E. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M., Government Geologist of New South Wales, and 
 A. Gibb Maitland, F.G.S., Government Geologist of Western Australia. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. New South Wales, by E. F. Pittman. I 6. Northern Territory, by A. Gibb 
 
 2. Victoria, by E. F. Pittman. j Maitland. 
 
 3. Queensland, by E. F. Pittman. i 7. South Australia, by A. Gibb Mait- 
 
 4. Tasmania, by E. F. Pittman. land. 
 
 5. Western Australia, by A. Gibb I 
 
 Maitland. ! 
 
 1. New South Wales. 
 
 Since the discovery of payable gold by Hargraves at the junction of 
 Lewis Ponds and Summer Hill Creek, in 1851, mining has been one of the most 
 important factors in the prosperity of New South Wales. It was the easily- 
 won alluvial gold which first attracted population to our shores, but subse- 
 quent prospecting revealed the occurrence of rich deposits of almost all the 
 known useful metals and minerals, and the permanence of the Mining 
 Industry in the mother State of Australia is now assured. 
 
 Goal. — Unquestionably the most important of the New South Wales' 
 mineral assets is her coal, and in regard to both its quality and quantity she 
 has been most liberally endowed by Nature. 
 
 Coal seams of several geological ages have been found in the State, but 
 it is only from rocks of the Permo-Carbonif erous period that coal of commercial 
 value is obtained. 
 
 The Permo-Carboniferous System has been classified as follows, in 
 
 descending order : — Thickness in Feet. 
 
 1. Upper or Newcastle Coal Measujes, containing 
 
 twelve seams. In the aggregate they contain 
 
 35 to 40 feet of workable coal . . . . 1,400 to 1,500 
 
 2. Dempsey series ; freshwater beds containing no 
 
 coaf .. .. .. .. .. 2,200 
 
 3. Middle, or Tomago, or East Maitland Coal Measures, 
 
 containing six seams of coal, varying from 3 to 
 7 feet in thickness. In the aggregate they 
 contain 18 feet of workable coal . . . . 500 to 1,800 
 
 4. Upper Marine Series . . . . . . . . 5,000 to 6,400 
 
 5. Lower, or Greta Coal Measures, containing an 
 
 aggregate of about 20 feet of coal . . . . 100 to 300 
 
 6. Lower Marine Series . . . . . . . . 4,800 
 
 17,000
 
 Mining Fields op Australia. 417 
 
 There are four important coal-fields in New South Wales, viz., the Mait- 
 land, the Newcastle, the lUawarra or Southern, and the Lithgow or Western. 
 In the Maitland field the Greta and also the Tomago coal seams are worked, 
 while in the other three fields the coal is obtained from the Upper or Newcastle 
 
 Measures. 
 
 The Greta Coal Measures never exceed 300 feet in thickness, nevertheless 
 they contain two seams of splendid coal, viz., the Upper Seam fi'om 14 to 
 32 feet in thickness, and the Lower Seam from 3 to 11 feet in thickness. 
 The quality of this coal is superior to that of any other coal in Australia, 
 and it is especially suitable for household and gas-making purposes, and also 
 for steam raising. Eleven collieries are at work on this coal between Mait- 
 land and Cessnock, a distance of 15 miles, and their aggregate output for the 
 year 1912 was 3,074,598 tons. 
 
 The average composition of the coal from the Greta Coal Measures, as 
 calculated from the analyses of 31 representative samples, is as follows : — 
 
 Hygroscopic moisture . . . . 1 '89 
 
 Volatile Hydrocarbons . . . . 41 '35 
 
 Fixed Carbon .. .. .. .. 50*51 
 
 Ash .. .. .. .. .. 6-25 
 
 100-00 
 
 Calorific value .. .. .. 13*2 
 
 The Greta Measures are known to extend at intervals to near the Queens- 
 land border. 
 
 The Newcastle Coal-field has supplied most of the coal raised in New South 
 Wales during the last 50 years ; many of the collieries, however, are now 
 about worked out, and their owners have opened new mines in the neigh- 
 bouring Maitland field. The Newcastle coal, most of which is obtained from 
 the Borehole Seam (occurring near the base of the series) is of good quality 
 for household and gas-making purposes. Its average composition as cal'Mi- 
 lated from the analyses of 78 representative samples is as follows : — 
 
 Hygroscopic moisture .. .. .. 2*01 
 
 Volatile Hydrocarbons .. .. 36*01 
 
 Fixed Carbon .. .. .. 53*27 
 
 Ash .. .. .. .. 8*71 
 
 100*00 
 
 Calorific value .. .. .. 12*7 
 
 The Illawarra or Southern Coal-field is situated around Bulli as a centre, 
 aad is about 150 miles south of Newcastle. The Upper Coal Measures are 
 worked here also, but in the uppermost seam of the series (known as the 
 Bulli seam), and the coal is of a totally different character from that of New- 
 castle, being essentially a steam coal of good quality. It also makes a 
 splendid hard coke suitable for smelting purposes.
 
 418 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The average composition of the coal from the Southern Coal-field, as 
 calculated from 35 analyses of representative samples, is as follows : — 
 Hygroscopic Moisture .. .. .. 0*71 
 
 Volatile Hydrocarbons .. .. 23*65 
 
 Fixed Carbon .. .. .. 63-98 
 
 Ash .. .. .. .. 11-66 
 
 100-00 
 
 Calorific value .. .. .. 12*68 
 
 The Lithgow or Western Coal-field is situated on the Western Railway, 
 95 miles from Sydney, and here again the coal is obtained from the Upper 
 Coal Measures, but in this instance from the lowest seam of the series. It 
 is essentially a steam coal, but of rather inferior quality to that obtained fr'om 
 the Southern Coal-field. 
 
 Its average composition, as calculated from the analyses of 25 carefriUy 
 taken samples, is as follows : — 
 
 Hygroscopic Moisture .. .. .. 2*05 
 
 Volatile Hydrocarbons .. .. 32-31 
 
 Fixed Carbon .. .. .. 53-08 
 
 Ash.. .. .. .. .. 12*56 
 
 100-00 
 
 Calorific value .. .. .. 11*9 
 
 The Upper Coal Measures have been proved to be continuous between 
 Newcastle on the north and lUawarra on the south ; and also between 
 Sydney on the east and Lithgow on the west. The uppermost coal seam 
 of the series occurs at a depth of nearly 3,000 feet under Sydney, where it 
 is being worked by the Sydney Harbor Collieries Limited. 
 
 It is extremely difficult to estimate the total quantity of coal available 
 in New South Wales, owing to the comparatively small amount of prospecting 
 which has been done. Assuming, however, that 10 feet of workable coal 
 underlies the area known to be coal-bearing, and allowing for a loss of one- 
 third of the gross weight in working, it is calculated that there must be 
 115,346,880,000 tons of available coal in the Permo-Carboniferous Measures 
 within a depth of 4,000 feet. 
 
 Kerosene Shale. — A petroliferous mineral which is a variety of Torbanite 
 and is locally known as Kerosene Shale, has been worked with much success 
 in past years at Joadja, near Mittagong, and at Hartley Vale, near Mount 
 Victoria. Both these deposits, however, have been worked out, and the 
 most important deposits now known are those of the Capertee Valley (the 
 property of the Commonwealth Oil Corporation), in the parish of Megalong, 
 near Katoomba, Doughboy Hollow, near Murrurundi, and Marangaroo, near 
 Lithgow. 
 
 This mineral occurs as lenticular patches or seams, rarely more than a mile 
 in length or width, on certain horizons of the Upper Coal Measures of Permo- 
 Carboniferous age. The seams vary in thickness from an inch or two up to 
 4 ft. 6 in., the one in the Capertee Valley being about 4 ft. 3 in. and of fair 
 quality.
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 419 
 
 Gold. — Althougli for many years the value of the gold won in New South 
 Wales exceeded that of any other mineral, after the exhaustion of the easily 
 won alluvial deposits there was a considerable drop in the production of the 
 precious metal. It is true that auriferous reefs have been worked in many 
 widely separated localities, and in a number of cases with very successful 
 results. Speaking generally, however, the reefs have not been found payable 
 at considerable depths, and the returns from gold mining have consequently 
 been irregular. In times of general prosperity there is always a falling off 
 in the gold yield, whereas, when other and more payable employment fails, 
 people turn their attention to prospecting for gold, and the yield improves. 
 Amongst the most important gold-fields which have been worked in the 
 State may be mentioned Forbes, Parkes, Young, Kiandra, Gulgong, Grenfell, 
 Wattle Flat, Sofala. Hargraves, Hill End, Lucknow, Temora, Wyalong, 
 Pambula, Hillgrove, etc. Most of these fields are still producing gold, 
 although the mining industry has not been very prosperous at any of them 
 for some years. 
 
 The mines of the Cobar field are at present the chief gold producers, and 
 of these the Mount Boppy holds the pride of place. In this mine there is an 
 interbedded auriferous quartz deposit of the type known as a saddle lode 
 (inverted), which occupies the spaces formed by the folding of schistose 
 rocks, which are probably of Pre-Silurian age. The deposit has been worked 
 to a depth of about 800 feet, and mining operations are still being successfully 
 carried on. 
 
 A considerable amount of alluvial gold is still being recovered fi'om the 
 beds of rivers by means of dredges, the use of which has been of great assist- 
 ance to the mining industry during the past decade. 
 
 Silver-Lead. — The most important silver-lead field in Australia is situated 
 at Broken Hill, in the north-west of New South Wales. It was discovered 
 in 1883 by Charles Rasp, who marked out a lease under the impression that 
 the ore was tin-stone. 
 
 The Broken Hill lode occurs in highly altered rooks, such as schists, 
 gneisses, garnet sandstones, and banded quartzites, which have been in- 
 truded by dykes of very coarse pegmatite. These rocks are probably of 
 Lower Cambrian age. They have been much folded, and in a space thus 
 caused an enormous interbedded lode of the type of the Bendigo saddle 
 lodes has been formed. The cap of the lode consisted of manganiferous 
 ironstone, and formed the summit of a low range about 21 miles long. Under 
 the cap of the lode extremely rich oxidized ores consisting of carbonate of 
 lead and kaolin with chloride of silver and native silver were found. These 
 ores occurred for a width of several hundred feet in places, and beneath 
 them were mixed sulphides of lead and zinc with a high silver content. As 
 greater depth was attained, the proportions of silver, lead, and zinc in the 
 ore declined, and the gangue consisted of rhodonite, making it very hard to 
 crush. Owing, however, to improved methods of treatment, and more 
 particularly the adaptation of the flotation process, the mines have been 
 enabled to profitably exploit the poorer ore, and the mining industry at 
 Broken Hill is in a most flourishing condition to-day. The greatest depth 
 so far reached by any mine at Broken Hill is 1,815 feet, in Block 10.
 
 420 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In addition to silver, lead, and zinc, the Broken Hill ore contains a small 
 proportion of gold and copper. The aggregate value of the metals produced 
 by the principal mines on the lode up to the end of the year 1912 was 
 £70,182,124, and the sum of £16,177,580 was paid to the shareholders. 
 
 Another silver-lead field, where the mining industry has been in a flourish- 
 ing condition during the past twelve years, though on a much smaller scale 
 than at Broken Hill, is known as Yerranderie, and is situated about 80 miles 
 south-west of Sydney. The country rock consists of quartz-felspar-porphyry 
 overlain in places by the Permo-Carboniferous Coal Measures. Lodes of 
 6 inches to 4 feet in thickness of argentiferous galena occur in the porphyry 
 dipping at an angle of about 28°. Mining operations have been carried on 
 in these lodes under considerable difficulties, there being no railway to the 
 field, and the ore having to be carried over mountainous roads to Camden 
 at a cost of £2 to £2 5s. per ton. Nevertheless the returns have been steadily 
 progressive. 
 
 Copper. — New South Wales possesses many copper mines, but in a majority 
 of them work has been carried on intermittently, owing to the fluctuations 
 in the price of the metal. When the value of copper falls below a certain 
 figure there are mines which cannot make a profit, and it becomes necessary 
 to close therii down ; with a rise in price, and the probability of its being 
 maintained for some time, such mines resume operations, and a period of 
 prosperity is entered upon. 
 
 Amongst the most important copper fields may be mentioned Cobar, 
 Nymagee, Shuttleton, Mount Hope, Girilambone, Burraga, Cangai, Gulf 
 Creek, Blayney, Cow Flat, and Orange Plains. 
 
 The Great Cobar Copper Mine is undoubtedly the most important mine 
 of its class at present worked. It is situated 464 miles west of Sydney, 
 with which it is connected by rail. The lode occurs in slates of probably 
 Pre-SUurian age, and consists of three immense lenses of ore which are the 
 results of replacement of the slates. The ore bodies vary in width from a 
 thread up to 100 feet, and they are at present being worked at a depth of 
 1,500 feet. Ore only showed at one point on the surface, and there was 
 nothing there to indicate the enormous ore bodies which were afterwards 
 found below. Cobar copper ore contains a variable proportion of gold, 
 and near the surface it was extremely rich, as will be realized when it is stated 
 that in the early years of the mine's history, the copper produced was con- 
 veyed by bullock drays for a distance of nearly 300 miles, and paid hand- 
 somely notwithstanding. As the workings progressed in depth the ore 
 became poorer in both copper and gold, and at the present time is worth 
 about 2*5 per cent, of the former and nearly 1 dwt. of the latter per ton. 
 The Great Cobar ore, being of a basic character, is treated by partially 
 ppitic smelting in conjunction with silicious ores (containing a little copper 
 and gold) fi'om the Cobar Gold Mine, the Chesney Mine, and the Great Peak 
 Mine, which are all owned by the same company. There are two other lodes 
 (known respectively as the " Middle " and " Eastern ") parallel to the one 
 which is being worked. Neither of these has been adequately prospected, 
 and it is quite possible that they may yet be found to contain valuable ore 
 bodies of a similar character to those already exploited.
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 421 
 
 The Great Cobar Field has already produced about 100,000 tons of 
 copper, 500,000 ozs. of gold, and 1,250,000 ozs. of silver, the aggregate value 
 of which amounts to about £8,000,000. 
 
 Tin. — Tin ore was first discovered in commercial quantities at Elmore, 
 near Inverell, and shortly afterwards at EmmaviUe in the year 1872. Large 
 quantities of stream tin were subsequently recovered from both districts, 
 at fixst by means of ordinary sluicing appliances, and more recently by pump 
 dredges, which are still employed. Most of the stream tin has been derived 
 from stanniferoiis greisen, in which the cassiterite occurs as scattered grains, 
 which become concentrated by the action of running water as the greisen is 
 decomposed. Stanniferous lodes also occur, but are not often met with. 
 The most important tin-bearing lodes are the Ottery lodes at Tent Hill 
 (not being worked at present), and Butler's Lode, 8 miles north of Emmaville. 
 
 Tin-bearing pipes are also a feature of the Emmaville District. Thev 
 occur in granite and are oval or cylindrical in form, and generally a few feet 
 in diameter. Their downward course is irregular and limited to 30 or 40 feet. 
 The tinstone is disseminated through a gangue of felspar quartz and chlorite, 
 and is frequently present in the proportion of 50 per cent. 
 
 Alluvial tin ore also occurs in granite country at Dora Dora, 40 miles east 
 of Albury, and lodes of tinstone and wolfram traverse granitic rocks at 
 Jingellic, 20 miles further east. At Tabletop, near Wagga, tinstone and wol- 
 fram are found both in lodes and alluvial deposits. 
 
 At Euriowie, north of Broken Hill, tinstone occurs in coarse crystals 
 scattered through pegmatite dykes. Attempts have been made to work these 
 deposits, but the cost of freight from such an outlying district is almost 
 prohibitive. 
 
 The most recent discovery of tin ore in New South Waies was at Ardlethan, 
 a town on the railway, about 40 miles west of Temora. The ore is found in 
 lenticular chutes in granite close to its junction with Silurian slates. In 
 one instance blocks of ore, weighing as much as a ton, and containing 50 per 
 cent, of tin, were found lying on the surface. Considerable activity has been 
 displayed on this field since its discovery, and if the deposits are found to 
 maintain their values to a depth, it should have a prosperous future. 
 
 Iron. — Deposits of iron-ore are found in various localities in New South 
 Wales, the most important being situated at Coombing Park near the town 
 of Carcoar, and at Cadia, about 14 miles west of Orange. The first-named 
 deposit has been estimated to contain 2,571,000 tons. It has been quarried 
 to a considerable extent by the Messrs. Hoskins Brothers, who have estab- 
 lished iron smelting works at Lithgow. The ore consists of an intimate 
 mixture of limonite and hematite in varying proportions, and the analysis 
 of a bulk sample yielded 55*8 per cent, of metallic iron, 7*45 per cent, of 
 silica, and '396 phosphoric anhydride. The Cadia deposit consists of beds 
 of hematite and magnetite which have been estimated to contain about 
 39,000,000 tons, much of which is said to be suitable for the production of 
 steel by the Bessemer process. 
 
 Iron smelting works are also in course of erection at Newcastle. They 
 are the property of the Broken Hill Proprietary Silver Mining Company, 
 and it is proposed to bring the ore from their Iron Knob Mine in South 
 Australia.
 
 422 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Aluminium. — -Bauxite, the mineral from which aluminium is made, 
 and which consists principally of alumina, is found in several districts in the 
 State, as at Parish of Wingello, County of Camden, and also near Emmaville 
 and Inverell, where it occurs both in the pisolitic and massive forms. These 
 deposits are not being utilized at present for the manufacture of aluminium, 
 but there is no doubt that attention will be attracted to them in the future. 
 
 Antimony. — The principal mining field where stibnite, or sulphide of 
 antimonv, is found in quantity, is Hillgrove, 20 miles east of Armidale, where 
 it is associated with gold and scheelite. Antimony mining, however, is a 
 spasmodic industry, owing to the fluctuations in the price of the metal. There 
 is not much demand for antimony at present, and consequently the mines 
 are not being worked. 
 
 Bismuth and Molybdenum. — Ores of bismuth associated with molybdenite 
 are found at Kingsgate, 18 miles east of Glen Innes. The deposits consist 
 of pipes similar in form to those in which tin occurs near Emmaville. The 
 Kingsgate pipes intersect granite rocks near their junction with slate. They 
 are roughly circular or oval in section, and descend irregularly, dipping at 
 an average angle of 30° towards the Junction of the two formations. Indi- 
 vidual pipes have been worked for a distance of 460 feet on the underlie. 
 The gangue is quartz, and this is impregnated with molybdenite, native 
 bismuth, sulphide, carbonate, and oxide of bismuth. 
 
 Similar deposits occur at Pheasant Creek, 30 miles north-east, and also 
 at Whipstick, 14 miles fi-om Pambula on the South Coast. In the last- 
 named occurrence the gangue consists of quartz and felspar with a little mica 
 and garnet. 
 
 Tungsten. — Scheelite and wolfram occur in many localities in the State ; 
 the former is worked pretty extensively at Hillgrove, where it occurs, associ- 
 ated with stibnite, in auriferous quartz reels in intrusive granite near its 
 junction with slate. 
 
 Although wolfram is widely distributed in New South Wales, its occurrence 
 in commercial quantities is rare. The wolfram mining industry is, however, 
 in a prosperous condition at Torrington, to the north of Emmaville, where it 
 occurs in association with bismuth. 
 
 The sedimentary rocks of the neighbourhood are believed to be the lower 
 marine (Gympie) beds of the Permo-Carboniferous system. They have 
 been intruded by granite, and subsequently both granite and slate have been 
 intruded by a rock which now consists largely of secondary silica and con- 
 tains also topaz, wolfram, and bismuth. This rock is believed to be an 
 altered granite, and the name topaz-greisen has been proposed for it. 
 
 The wolfram occurs in crystals scattered through the greisen ; also 
 more plentifully in quartz veins penetrating that rock, and again in pegmatite 
 dykes associated with it. 
 
 Diamonds are won from alluvial drifts at Copeton, 17 miles from Inverell. 
 A Dutch Company has recently been formed to extract diamonds from the 
 dolerite matrix in which they have been proved to occur at Oakey and Staggy 
 Creeks in the same district. 
 
 Opal. — Precious opal occurs in veins or seams in a soft, white siliceous 
 rock in the Desert Sandstone Series, of Upper Cretaceous age. It is ex- 
 tensively worked at two widely separated localities, viz., at White Cliffs,
 
 Mining Fields^of Australia. 
 
 423 
 
 north of Wilcannia, and at Lightning Ridge, north of "Walgett. In the last- 
 •named phice the rare variety known as black opal, of great beauty and value, 
 is obtained. 
 
 Alunite or Alumstone. — This mineral occurs in considerable quantity 
 at Bullah Delah, where a mountain 900 feet high is largely composed of it. 
 The alunite appears to have been formed from the decomposition of rhyo- 
 lites, which form the base of the mountain. The mineral is partially treated 
 on the ground, and then exported to Scotland for the manufacture of alum. 
 
 Table showing the Quantity and Value of the Minerals won during 
 THE Year 1912, and to the End of 1912. 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 
 Production for Y( 
 
 ar Ending 
 
 Total Production to 31st December 
 
 
 31st Decembei 
 
 , 1912. 
 
 
 1912. 
 
 
 MineraL 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quantitj 
 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantitj 
 
 
 Value. 
 
 Coal 
 
 9,885,815 
 
 tons 
 
 £ 
 3,660,015 
 
 181,595,980 tons 
 
 £ 
 69,087,688 
 
 Gold 
 
 165,295 
 
 oz. 
 fine 
 
 702,129 
 
 13,998,775 
 
 oz. 
 fine 
 
 59,462,975 
 
 Silver 
 
 2,389,195 
 
 oz. 
 
 251,652 
 
 26,194,502 
 
 oz. 
 
 3,328,713 
 
 Copper 
 
 11,034 tons 
 
 579,791 
 
 216,073 
 
 tons 
 
 11,784,102 
 
 Tin 
 
 2,075 
 
 ,j 
 
 338,074 
 
 105,144 
 
 „ 
 
 9,327,609 
 
 Lead 
 
 17,251 
 
 ,, 
 
 264,530 
 
 138,191 
 
 ,, 
 
 2,000,911 
 
 Antimony 
 
 62 
 
 ,, 
 
 355 
 
 16,653 
 
 ,, 
 
 305,225 
 
 Opal 
 
 
 
 35,008 
 
 
 
 1,330,207 
 
 Wolfram 
 
 i72 
 
 tons 
 
 16,584 
 
 1,357 
 
 tons 
 
 132,517 
 
 Manganese 
 
 
 
 
 577 
 
 ,, 
 
 1,662 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 6 
 
 tons 
 
 1,210 
 
 541 
 
 ,, 
 
 128,537 
 
 Molybdenite . . 
 
 57 
 
 
 3,706 
 
 304 
 
 „ 
 
 36,036 
 
 Limestone 
 
 33,186 
 
 
 11.066 
 
 1,124,671 
 
 ,, 
 
 702,814 
 
 Lronstone 
 
 1,093 
 
 
 761 
 
 106,917 
 
 ,, 
 
 81,618 
 
 ScheeUte 
 
 56 
 
 
 4,963 
 
 1,130 
 
 ,, 
 
 100,848 
 
 L:on 
 
 32,677 
 
 ,, 
 
 130,708 
 
 337,445 
 
 
 2,113,786 
 
 Lron Oxide 
 
 3,757 
 
 " 
 
 4,763 
 
 23,696 
 
 
 30,748 
 
 Lime . . . . 
 
 35,657 
 
 99 
 
 44,478 
 
 307,553 
 
 
 277,927 
 
 Portland Cement 
 
 
 
 368,280 
 
 
 
 1,839,684 
 
 Shale (oU) 
 
 86,018 
 
 tons 
 
 34,770 
 
 1,651,434 tons 
 
 2,322,831 
 
 Diamonds 
 
 2,239 
 
 cts. 
 
 2,001 
 
 178,970 
 
 cts. 
 
 120,408 
 
 Alunite 
 
 3,425 tons 
 
 13,700 
 
 39,035 
 
 tons 
 
 119,543 
 
 Chrome 
 
 23 
 
 JJ 
 
 60 
 
 30,835 
 
 ,, 
 
 101,468 
 
 Marble 
 
 
 
 1,340 
 
 
 
 23,064 
 
 Platinum 
 
 610 
 
 ozs. 
 
 3,880 
 
 12,990 
 
 ozs. 
 
 29,010 
 
 ♦Stone (building, etc.) . . 
 
 
 
 559 
 
 
 
 24,176 
 
 *Slates 
 
 
 
 
 79,234 
 
 
 890 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 
 
 
 885 
 
 tons 
 
 8.065 
 
 Coke 
 
 241,159 
 
 tons 
 
 162,454 
 
 3,012,083 
 
 ,, 
 
 2,138,667 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 
 
 
 1,010 lbs. 
 
 126 
 
 ♦Grindstones . . 
 
 
 
 '"l76 
 
 
 
 2,842 
 
 Zinc (metal and concen- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 trates) 
 
 520,518 
 
 tons 
 
 1,766,242 
 
 2,819,718 
 
 tons 
 
 7,539,913 
 
 Silver, Lead Ore Concen- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 trates, etc. . . 
 
 345,307 
 
 ,, 
 
 3,229,614 
 
 7,442,007 
 
 ,, 
 
 54,892,276 
 
 Sundry Minerals 
 
 
 
 8,566 
 
 
 
 122,084 
 
 Totals . . 
 
 
 11,641,435 
 
 
 229,618,970 
 
 * Quantity and value exported.
 
 424 Federal Handbook. 
 
 2. Victoria. 
 
 Although gold was first discovered in New South Wales, it was in 
 Victoria (which was proclaimed a separate Colony about this time, viz., 
 1st July, 1851) that the richest and most extensive gold-fields occurred. 
 Most of these fields were found immediately after a reward of 200 giiineas 
 had been offered for the discovery of a gold-field within 200 miles of 
 Melbourne. 
 
 The alluvial gold deposits of Anderson's Creek were discovered on 5th 
 July, 1851, those of Buninyong on 8th August, Ballarat on 8th September, 
 and Bendigo on 10th December. Many other alluvial fields were found within 
 a few months, and the immediate result was a large influx of people all eager 
 to prospect for gold. In the following year 1852, there were 40,000 men 
 at Ballarat, a like number at Bendigo, and 25,000 at Castlemaine, in addition 
 to the many thousands who were scattered over the smaller fields. The 
 output of gold in Victoria for the year 1852 was 2,218,782 ozs., valued at 
 £8,875,128, while in 1856 it rose to its maximum, viz., 2,985,991 ozs., valued 
 at £11,943,964. For many years afterwards the value of the gold yield 
 exceeded five millions sterling, and the foundations of Victoria's present 
 prosperity, as well as the formation of her principal townships, was thus the 
 direct result of the discovery of the gold-fields. 
 
 Auriferous Lodes.-— Th.Q auriferous quartz mining areas of Victoria have 
 been classified as follows : — (1) the Western or Lower Ordovician group, 
 including Ballarat, Bendigo, Castlemaine, Stawell, Ararat, and Maryborough 
 districts; (2) the Central or Silurian group, including the Walhalla, Wood's 
 Point, and Upper Yarra fields ; and (3) the Eastern group, including the 
 Upper Ordovician and the extensive metamorphic series of Bethanga, Mount 
 Wills, and Cassilis districts. 
 
 Ballarat. — The auriferous lodes of Ballarat occur in an area of acutely 
 but irregularly folded slates and sandstones which are believed to be of 
 Ordovician age. The axes of the folds have a meridional strike, and the anti- 
 clines and synclines follow an easterly and westerly dip. 
 
 In Ballarat East a zone of these slates and sandstones about 350 feet in 
 width has been proved favorable to the occurrence of gold, but it is only when 
 these beds have an easterly dip that the intersecting reefs are profitable. 
 These beds are traversed and faulted by north and south felsite dykes. ' The 
 faults are known locally as " leather jackets," because they usually contain 
 a layer of leathery " pug " or " casing," which can be removed in sheets. 
 The " leather jackets " form the foot- walls of extensive quartz formations 
 (often up to 40 feet in width) from which spurs frequently extend westwards, 
 and these deposits have produced great quantities of gold. 
 
 A second series of dykes (limburgites) intruded the Ballarat gold-field 
 in an east and west direction at a date subsequent to the formation of the 
 quartz reefs, and probably had some influence upon their enrichment. 
 
 A very interesting feature of Ballarat East is the occurrence of what are 
 termed " indicators," which have been found to have a distinct relation to 
 certain deposits of gold. The indicators are thin beds of slate (and sometimes 
 sandstone) which usually contain pyrites, and occasionally a little quartz.
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 425 
 
 They occur in the 350 feet of favorable beds previously referred to, and are 
 therefore usually intersected and faulted by the " leather jackets." The 
 most persistent and important of these occurrences is known as " The Indi- 
 cator " ; it consists of a slate bed one-eighth of an inch thick with a pyritous 
 seam running through it. There is no gold in the Indicator itself, but wherever 
 it is intersected by quartz veins the latter are found to contain deposits 
 of gold, frequently in the form of slugs or masses weighing hundreds of ounces. 
 
 Other analogous beds are known as " the Western Indicator," " the 
 4-ft. slate," " the 12-ft. slate," and " the big sandstone." Much more gold, 
 however, has been obtained form the large quartz formations of Ballarat 
 East than from the slugs found at the intc'section of quartz veins with the 
 indicators. 
 
 The greater part of Ballarat West is covered by a thickness of about 
 400 feet of basalt, of which there are four distinct flows, together with alluvial 
 clays and gravels. Beneath this covering are the folded slates and sandstones, 
 and these include a favorable series of beds 80 feet wide, containing four 
 black graphitic slate beds, which appear to have had a marked effect upon 
 the deposition of the gold. Payable lodes have only been found within the 
 80-ft. zone, and again only where these beds have a westerly dip. The three 
 principal lodes are the Consols, or most easterly, the G-uiding Star, and the 
 Albion, or most westerly. Other important lodes are the Phoenix, an inverted 
 saddle, and the Prince of Wales, which is situated on the southern end of the 
 field. The Consols lode has been as much as 70 feet wide on the anticline, 
 and 50 feet in the syncline, and it averaged 4 feet in width down to a depth 
 of 1,000 feet in the celebrated Band and Albion mine. Following a southerly 
 pitch this lode was worked to a depth of nearly 3,000 feet in adjoining mines. 
 The Guiding Star lode was payable for 5,000 feet in length, and the Albion 
 line of lode has been tracea for 4 miles. The black slate horizon on the Albion 
 anticline has been denuded for a distance of several thousand feet, shedding 
 the rich alluvial gold deposits for which this portion of the field was famous. 
 Below the favorable black slate zone there appears to be a thickness of about 
 1,000 feet of barren rocks, while above it tbere are indications of other 
 favorable strata. 
 
 The two most profitable quartz mines at Ballarat West were the Band and 
 Albion Consols, which paid £252,001 in dividends, and the Star of the East, 
 which paid £284,400. 
 
 Bendigo is at present the most prosperous gold-field in Victoria, and is also 
 the one where mining operations have been carried to the greatest depth. The 
 field has a length of about 15 miles by a width of 3, and it may be regarded 
 as the type-district of the lodes known as saddle-reefs. The prevailing rocks 
 are slates and sand.stoncs of Lower Ordovician age, but at Harcourt, about 
 15 miles to the south, an intrusive massif of granite has altered the sediments 
 for a distance of 25 chains from the junction. The sedimentary series has 
 been thrown into a remarkably regular succession of anticlinal and synclinal 
 folds, whose axes have a strike of about N. 16° W. ; moreover, the beds 
 undulate in this direction as well as in that at right angles to it, though not 
 to the same extent. A section across the field from east to west would there- 
 fore show the slates and sandstones bent into a regular series of corrugations,
 
 1:26 Federal Handbook. 
 
 while a noitli and south, section would show a similar formation in a less pro- 
 nounced degree. Owing to the bending or folding of the strata, lune-shaped 
 cavities or spaces have been formed between contiguous beds, the spaces 
 being widest at the tops of the anticlines and at the bases of the synclines, 
 and thinning out gradually between the two. In these spaces auriferous 
 quartz has subsequently been deposited, and the lodes thus formed have 
 received the name of saddle-reefp, owing to their resemblance to a saddle 
 in cross-section. The thickest part of the reef is called the cap of the saddle, 
 while the eastern and western extensions are termed the legs. In the case 
 of a perfectly formed saddle-reef occupying the dome of an anticline it will 
 be understood that the deposit will have a quaquaversaJ dip, and will gradually 
 taper out to nothing in a downward direction. The anticlinal axes are locally 
 known as " centre-country," and fifteen of these nearly parallel axes have been 
 proved to carry saddle-reefs the distance from one to the next ranging from 
 300 to 1,300 feet. The angle of dip of the beds varies considerably, but 
 th.e average is about 65°. The caps of the reefs are often from 20 to 30 feet 
 in width, and even more in thickness or height, but the legs are seldom more 
 than 3 or 4 feet wide, and they rarely extend downwards for a greater depth 
 than 100 feet. Saddle-reefs recur in depth, and as many as 24 of them have 
 been met with in a depth of 2,200 feet in the Lazarus mine. The sedimentary 
 rocks have been intruded by a series of small monchiquite dykes, locally 
 known as " lava streaks," which have also intersected and in many instances 
 faulted the reefs. 
 
 Besides the saddle-reefs, " spurs " are a feature of the Bendigo field, 
 and have yielded large quantities of gold. 
 
 There are no less than 53 shafts over 2,000 feet deep on the field, and 
 several exceed 4,000 feet in depth, the deepest being the Victoria Quartz 
 shaft, which is down 4.614 feet. 
 
 Amongst the most successful mines at Bendigo are the Garden Gully 
 
 United, which has paid £852,169 in dividends, and the South New Moon, 
 
 which has distributed profits amounting to £492,000. The output from 
 Bendigo for the year 1912 was 168,177 ozs. of gold. 
 
 Castlemmne gold-field resembles Bendigo in that the lodes are chiefly 
 saddle lodes, and there are also fault lodes occurrmg m Lower Ordovician 
 rocks, which have been folded into anticlines and synclines. Fault or 
 " blocky " lodes consist of laminated quartz up to several feet in thickness, 
 with large masses of spurs and veins traceable for hundreds of feet, the spurs 
 forming at times payable stockworks. 
 
 Maryhorough gold-field occurs in folded Ordovician slates and sandstones, 
 which have been traversed in every direction by dykes of porphjay, porphy- 
 rite, and lamprophyi-e. The principal ore deposits are quartz lenses occurring 
 on either wall of lamprophjrre dykes, and large lode channels with main 
 veins and stockwork spurs adjacent to such dykes. 
 
 Daylesford is an important gold-field, the conditions under which the gold 
 occurs being very similar to those at Bailarat. The Ordovician slates and 
 sandstones have been folded into anticlines and synclines, which are traversed 
 by dykes and cut by faults. The Ajax group of lodes, which are the most
 
 Mining Fields op Australia. 427 
 
 important, have formed in west-dipping faults, which intersect certain favor- 
 able east-dipping beds, while " flat makes " between the faults have also 
 proved rich gold producers. 
 
 The Cornish group of lodes to the east of the Ajax line are also west- 
 dipping fault lodes in a series of favorable east-dipping strata. 
 
 In the Maldon gold-field there are lodes of the fault type similar to those 
 of Ballarat, saddle-reefs like those of Bendigo, and quartz lodes directly 
 associated with dykes analogous to those of Maryborough. The prevailing 
 rocks are folded slates and sandstones of Ordovician age, which have been 
 altered by contact with intrusive granite. The most important mines are the 
 Beehive, the Union, and the South G-erman ; the latter is still giving good 
 returns. 
 
 Stawell and Lauriston are other examples of gold-fields characterised by 
 the occurrence of saddle-reefs. At Berringa also saddle-reefs have been 
 successfully worked, as well as fault lodes similar to those of Ballarat. 
 
 St. Arnaud is another gold-field where deep quartz mining has been 
 highly profitable. The Lord Nelson group of lodes is the most important ; 
 they have a westerly dip and intersect Lower Ordovician strata having a 
 nearly similar inclination. Up to December, 1912, the Lord Nelson mine 
 paid £265,350 in dividends. 
 
 Walhalla gold-field is situated in an area of highly folded and contorted 
 slates and sandstones of Silurian age. Cohen's reef has been most success- 
 fully worked in two mines known as the Long Tunnel, and Long Tunnel 
 Extended. It is a true fissure lode, and is associated with a dyke of quartz- 
 mica-diorite, which is sometimes on one side of it and sometimes on the 
 other. The strike of the lode is N. 18° W., and it dips W. 18° S. at a high 
 angle. It has been worked down to a depth of 3,375 feet, and has yielded 
 1,475,625 ozs. of gold, and paid £2,378,290 iti dividezids. In width the lode 
 varied from a thread up to 12 feet, and exceptionally up to 50 feet. 
 
 Wood's Point gold-field is also within an area of folded Silurian slates 
 and sandstones. The principal feature of the field is the occurrence of gold- 
 bearing " flat reefs " or " floors " intersecting diorite dykes. These flat 
 reefs vary in thickness up to 10 or 20 feet ; and in one mine, The Morning 
 Star, thirteen distinct flat reefs have been worked to a depth of 400 feet 
 (water level) for a yield of over £1,000,000. Other important mines of a 
 similar character are the New Loch Fyne and the Al. The former has paid 
 nearly £110,000 in dividends. 
 
 At Bethanga, on the Upper Murray, and Cassilis, in East Gippsland, 
 lodes containing auriferous sulphide ores occur. Those of the first-named 
 field are highly arseni(;al and have proved very refractory ; the Cassilis ores 
 are being successfully treated. 
 
 ; Alluvial Leads. — The denudation of the auriferous reefs has produced 
 exten.sive alluvial deposits on all the gold-fields, and it was the shallower 
 of these which \yere worked with such successful results in the early days 
 of gold-mining. Sub.sequently the gold was traced into the deep UvmU, 
 which are liver beds of Tertiary age, now covered by accumulations of clays 
 and sands, and frequently by lava flows. In Victoria these ancient 
 C 121 54 . '2 K
 
 428 Federal Handbook. 
 
 auriferous valleys measure in the aggregate several hundred miles in length, 
 and they trend in a northerl)^ and southerly direction from an old divide 
 closely approximating in position to the existing Main Dividing Range 
 The value of the gold won from the deep alluvial leads and their shallower 
 tributaries is probably not less than £150,000,000. In the earlier and more 
 prosperous years of gold mining the principal alluvial fields were Ballarat, 
 Bendigo, Creswick, Castlemaine, Maryborough, Ararat, Stawell, Chiltern, 
 Rutherglen, and Beech worth. In most of these centres the gold yields- 
 were phenomenal, and many large nuggets were found. At the present time 
 deep leads are being worked at Ararat, Beaufort (Fiery Creek), Poseidon, 
 Chiltern, and Rutherglen, and new leads are still being systematically searched 
 for by means of the drill. 
 
 Of recent years alluvial deposits that would be unpayable by ordinary 
 mining methods have been worked successfully in many localities by means- 
 of dredges, and at the present time there are 26 of these at work in the 
 immediate vicinity of Bright. 
 
 Nuggets. — The occurrence of very large gold nuggets in positions close 
 to the surface in alluvial ground, where, by reason of their great weight,, 
 it seems unlikely that they could have been transported by running water, 
 has given rise to much speculation as to their origin, and some years ago it 
 was suggested that they may have been formed in situ, either wholly or in 
 part, by the deposition of gold from aqueous solutions. The largest nugget 
 ever found (" The Welcome Stranger," from the Black Lead, Moliagul) 
 weighed 2,520 ozs. in its natural state, and contained 68 lbs. of quartz. It 
 was covered by only a few inches of surface soil. 
 
 The discovery of several large nuggets, one of which weighed 953 ozs., 
 a few inches below the surface, at Poseidon, in December, 1906, and the 
 subsequent unearthing of a number of others, at intervals, in the same lead, 
 has enabled more careful observations to be made of the conditions under 
 which they occur, and there now appears to be little doubt as to their source. 
 
 Every nugget of gold found in the Poseidon lead was observed to lie in 
 the immediate vicinity of an " indicator," which could be seen traversing 
 the bed rock forming the floor of the lead. The indicators consist of thin 
 beds of slate, which have been more or less replaced by laminated quartz, 
 and which contain pyrites veins. Occasionally the pyrites has been oxidized, 
 and the indicator then consists of ferruginous laminated quartz of a saccha- 
 roidal structure. Samples of the indicators have been assayed and found to- 
 contain no gold. The occurrence of similar indicators in the Ordovician 
 rocks of Ballarat East, and the fact that where they are intersected by quartz, 
 veins the latter are frequently found to contain massive slugs of gold, 
 strongly suggests a similar origin for the luiggets obtained in the Poseidon 
 alluvial lead. Most of these nuggets have a considerable quantity of vitreous- 
 quartz attached to them, and it is believed that, in the process of denudation, 
 they have been shed from quartz reefs at the intersection of the latter with 
 the indicator. It is probable therefore that if the indicators were followed 
 into the solid rock, other cross veins would be met with, and that undisturbed 
 masses of gold would be found at the intersections, as is the case in Ballarat 
 East.
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 429 
 
 Bituminous Coal. — There are three isolated areas of Jurassic Coal 
 Measures in Victoria, two of which, viz., the Wannon River Watershed, and 
 the Otway-Bellarine district, have not been proved to contain workable seams 
 of coal. In South Gippslaud the measures occupy an area of 2,100 square 
 miles, and a belt about 50 miles long by 10 miles wide, extending from 
 Kilcunda to Morwell, has been proved to contain some payable seams. 
 Mining is now being carried on at Kilcunda, Wonthaggi, Outtrim, Jumbunna, 
 and Korumburra, but the coal seams, with the exception of those at 
 Wonthaggi, rarely exceed 3 feet in thickness. 
 
 At the Wonthaggi State Coal Mines the seam reaches a thickness of 
 7 ft. 8 in., with two shale bands varying from a quarter of an inch to 1 inch 
 in thickness. The seam has been much faulted, and this adds considerably 
 to the cost of winning. The coal is of good quality, but is friable, and there- 
 fore produces a considerable proportion of " smalls." The average com- 
 position of the coal is as follows : — 
 
 Hygroscopic Moisture .. .. .. 4*93 
 
 Volatile Hydrocarbons . . . . 34 '32 
 
 Fixed Carbon .. .. .. 51*43 
 
 Ash .. .. .. .. 9-32 
 
 100-00 
 
 Calorific value .. .. .. 11*97 
 
 The total annual output of coal is at present about 600,000 tons, of which 
 the State Mine produces 456,000 tons. 
 
 Broivri Coal. — There are three main deposits of Brown Coal of Tertiary 
 age in Victoria, viz. : — 
 
 1. Morwell area, of about 800 square miles. 
 
 2. Alberton area, of about 200 square miles. 
 
 3- Altona Bay area, extending from Melbourne to Werribee, containing 
 700 square miles. 
 
 The deposits are the thickest in the world ; one bore at Morwell passed 
 through 780 feet of brown coal in a depth of 1,010 feet ; the three largest 
 beds being 266, 227, and 166 feet thick respectively. The composition of the 
 Morwell coal is as follows : — • 
 
 Water .. .. .. .. 35*08 
 
 Volatile Matter . . . . 29*24 
 
 Fixed Carbon .. . . . . 33*28 
 
 Ash .. .. .. .. 2*40 
 
 100*00 
 
 Calorific value .. .. .. 8*53 
 
 There is every reason to believe that practical use will be made of this 
 fiifl in the future. 
 
 2E2
 
 430 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Tin. — Tertiary leads containing stream tin have been worked at Beech.- 
 ■worth, Eldorado, the Upper Murray, Toora, and the Latrobe Valley, but the 
 workings have not been very extensive. At Toora, in South Gippsland, 
 the deposit of gravels and clays, containing a little tin and gold, is about 
 150 feet in thickness and extends for about a mile and a half in length. It 
 occupies an old river valley in the Jurassic rocks and has evidently been 
 carried a long distance. A very complete hydraulic plant, which cost £20,000, 
 has recently been erected and is now treating the gravels ; the question as 
 to their commeicial value will therefore soon be settled. 
 
 In the North-Eastern district, around Tallandoon and Eskdale, lodes, 
 pegmatite dykes, and greisens carrying tin-ore occur, but there has been very 
 little mining there. 
 
 Copper. — At the Thomson Kiver, near Walhalla, the Silurian rocks 
 have been intruded by a hornblendic dyke 60 feet wide, and through a width 
 of 20 feet of this rock copper sulphides, containing platinum and palladium, 
 are disseminated. The chute of ore has been proved for a length of about 
 70 feet. Although essentially a concentrating ore, it has hitherto been smelted 
 as it came from the mine, and 1,290 tons yielded 3 per cent, of copper and 
 18 grains of platinum per unit of Cu. 
 
 To the west of the ore-body an enriched vein of sulphides is said to have 
 yielded from 10 to 13 per cent, of copper for a length of 120 feet by a depth 
 of 40. 
 
 Antimony. — Sulphide and oxide of antimony occur in quartz veins in 
 dykes in the Silurian rocks and occasionally in the Ordovician. At Coster- 
 field a considerable quantity of antimony has been won, and at present 
 about 55 tons of sulphide concentrates containing 2j ozs. of gold per ton are 
 being exported weekly. 
 
 Bismuth occurs in small quantities at Redbank, Lintons, Wombat Creek, 
 and Maldon. 
 
 Molybdenite is also found in small quantities, the best deposit being at 
 Wangarabell, in East Clippsland. 
 
 Wolfram and Scheelite occur in lodes in Ordovician strata at Linton 
 and Chiltern, and in granite at Mount Murphy. The deposits, however, 
 appear to be of small extent. 
 
 Gypsum has been extensively worked in Tertiary deposits at Boort and 
 Lake Boga. At Kow Plains, in the Mallee District, deposits of earthy gypsum 
 occur over an area of about 100 square miles. The mineral contains about 
 94 per cent, of calcic sulphate, CaS04 -f- 2OH2. It occupies ridges about 
 20 feet high, and also extends to a depth of about 3 feet below the 
 intervening plains. These deposits are probably the most extensive in 
 Australia. 
 
 Diatomaceous Earth is found in deposits of Tertiary age in many localities, 
 the most notable being Lillicur, near Talbot, where extensive deposits are 
 now being worked.
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 
 
 431 
 
 Table showing the Quantity and Value of Minerals won during 
 THE Year 1912 and to the end of 1912. 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 
 Production for Year 
 
 ending 31st December, 
 
 1912. 
 
 Total rroduction to 31st 
 December, 1912. 
 
 Name of Metal or Mineral. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quantity 
 raised. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 fine ozs. 
 
 £ 
 
 fine ozs. 
 
 £ 
 
 Gold 
 
 480,131 
 
 2,039,464 
 
 68,672,868 
 
 291,703,453 
 
 Silver 
 
 1 17,424* 
 
 1 
 
 2,200 
 
 1,360.2.52* 
 30,058 
 
 206,359 
 7,816 
 
 Platinum 
 
 tons. 
 
 
 184 
 tons. 
 
 989 
 
 Coal 
 
 589,143 
 
 258,455 
 
 4,667,054 
 
 2,436,017 
 
 Brown Coal 
 
 4,012 
 
 866 
 
 73,185 
 
 26,374 
 
 Copper and Copper Ore 
 
 
 
 18,694 
 
 215,761 
 
 Tin Ore . . 
 
 48 
 
 5,733 
 
 15,715 
 
 782,680 
 
 Antimony Ore 
 
 2,430 
 
 16,162 
 
 37,896 
 
 240,874 
 
 Silver-lead Ore 
 
 
 
 793 
 
 5,760 
 
 Iron Ore 
 
 
 
 5,434 
 
 12,540 
 
 Wolfram 
 
 "lO 
 
 "574 
 
 65 
 
 5,«59 
 
 Diamonds 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 128 
 
 Sapphires, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 630 
 
 Gypsum . . 
 
 2,078 
 
 3,359 
 
 21,198 
 
 14,473 
 
 Magnesite 
 
 211 
 
 633 
 
 383 
 
 1,143 
 
 Kaolin 
 
 288 
 
 342 
 
 5,535 
 
 11,366 
 
 Diatomaceous Earth 
 
 850 
 
 3,400 
 
 4,743 
 
 19,352 
 
 Manganese Ore 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 45 
 
 212 
 
 Building Stones (Basalt, Sandstone, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Granite, Slate, Flagstone, Lime- 
 
 
 
 
 
 stone (for making Ume), also Crude 
 
 
 
 
 
 Salt) .. 
 
 
 
 
 3,996,423t 
 
 Pigment Clays 
 
 13 
 
 " 26 
 
 " 81 
 
 106 
 
 Totals 
 
 
 2,331,294 
 
 299,688,115 
 
 * Extracted from gold at Melbourne Mint. 
 
 t These returns are from 1866 only, and are collected by the Government Statist. The value of building 
 stones (including crude salt) raised during 1911 was £151,713 — total to end of 1911 only, the figiu-es for 
 1912 not being yet available. 
 
 3. Queensland. 
 
 The potential wealth of Queensland is remarkable, by reason of the 
 extent and diversity of the mineral deposits already discovered ; the mining 
 industry is in a healthy condition to-day, and vast areas of the State still 
 remain practically unprospected. 
 
 The Coal-fields of Queensland are of great extent, and are of three ages, 
 viz., Permo-Carboniferous, Trias-Jura, and Cretaceous. The first-named will 
 probably prove to be the most important in the future, as the coal they con- 
 tain is of the best quality, and the seams are of greater thickness and uni- 
 formity than those of the fields of more recent age ; hitherto, however, 
 they have been the least developed. They extend for a length of about 
 350 miles in a northerly direction from near the Southern railway across the 
 Central line to within 60 miles of Bowen, and other isolated areas occur at 
 Blair Athol, near Clermont, and at Mount Mulligan, about 50 miles west of
 
 432 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Cairns. The Blair Atliol field is a very remarkable one, for though only 
 2^ miles long by 1| wide, as at present known, it contains, at a depth of about 
 120 feet from the surface, a seam of good hard steam coal, 66 feet thick, 
 and without bands. 
 
 It has been estimated by Mr. Dunstan, Government Geologist, that the 
 Permo-Carboniferous seams probably contain 1,000,000,000 tons of coal. 
 
 The Trias-Jura coal-fields are of special interest because the greater 
 proportion of the coal hitherto produced in Queensland has been obtained 
 from them, particularly from the neighbourhood of Ipswich, where coal- 
 mining has been carried on for over 50 years. The area of the productive 
 Trias-Jura Coal Measures is approximately 70 square miles, chiefly in the 
 south-eastern quadrant of Queensland, and it has been estimated that they 
 probably contain 470,000,000 tons of coal. 
 
 The Cretaceous Coal Measures cover a wide area in the centre of Queens- 
 land, where they contain supplies of artesian water, and where their coal 
 seams have not yet been proved productive. An easterly development, 
 however, of these measures occurs at Burrum, near Maryborough, where 
 collieries have been working for 30 years. The productive area of the 
 Burrum coal-field is about 6 square miles, and it has been estimated to contain 
 approximately 104,000,000 tons of coal. 
 
 In the aggregate, the Queensland coal-fields which are known to be pro- 
 ductive probably contain about 1,574,000,000 tons of coal, in seams over 
 1 foot in thickness. 
 
 Gold is very widely distributed throughout Queensland, and many isolated 
 gold-fields have been worked since the precious metal was first discovered 
 in 1852. 
 
 Gympie Gold-field is situated about 100 miles north of Brisbane. Alluvial 
 gold was first discovered here in 1867, and the first auriferous reef was found 
 in the same year. The total yield of gold from this field up to the end of the 
 year 1912 was £11,270,466." 
 
 The rocks in which the auriferous reefs occur have been named by the 
 Queensland Geological Survey the " Middle Gympie Series," and are of 
 Permo-Carboniferous age, as determined by numerous marine fossils found 
 in them. These beds consist of limestones, shales or slates, conglomerates, 
 tufis, and interbedded diabases and greenstones. At least seven distinct 
 beds of black graphitic or anthracitic slate occur in these rocks, and have 
 a very marked influence on the gold contents of the reefs intersecting them. 
 In thickness these graphitic beds vary from a mere thread up to 200 feet. 
 The beds have a general dip to the east at an angle of about 25 degrees, 
 while the inclination of the reefs is generally to the westward at an angle of 
 about 60 degrees. A distinctive feature of the field is that payable gold 
 values are only found when the reefs have a westerly dip, and where they 
 intersect black or graphitic slates, dipping in the opposite direction. Occasion- 
 ally a bed of graphitic slate is found to merge into grey or purple mangani- 
 ferous slate, and where this happens the intersecting reefs are almost invariably 
 found to be barren. Furthermore, where a reef is afiected by a normal fault 
 within the limits of a bed of graphitic slate, an enrichment of the reef is 
 produced, but in the case of a reversed fault the reef is found to be barren.
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 433 
 
 The reefs vaiy in thickness from a thread to 20 feet. Some exceptionally 
 rich yields of gold have been obtained, and in one instance one of the monthly 
 dividends of a mining company amounted to £68,000, a sum equivalent to 
 its nominal capital. At the present time the field is in a somewhat depressed 
 condition, and its future prosperity appears to depend upon the success of 
 attempts now in progress to test the third or lowest graphitic slate bed 
 recently found to extend to the east at considerable depths below the Monk- 
 land slates. 
 
 Charters Towers is a small but very rich gold-field situated on the Northern 
 railway line 82 miles south-west of Townsville. The oldest rocks on the 
 field are schists, slates, and quartzites, which have been intruded and meta- 
 morphosed by granite. Later dykes of felsite and diorite have intersected 
 the granite and sedimentary rocks. The gold, associated with galena, 
 pyrites, and some blende, occurs in quartz reefs, which are found chiefly in 
 the granite, and almost invariably in proximity to igneous dykes. The 
 principal lines of reef are the Day Dawn, Brilliant, St. George, and Queen's, 
 which all have an east and west strike with a northerly dip. They vary 
 considerably in width, occasionally widening to as much as 50 feet. Over 
 £27,000,000 worth of gold has been won at Charters Towers since 1872, and 
 although the field has not been in a very flourishing state for some time, 
 the geological features connected with the occurrence of the gold point to the 
 probability of a renewed prosperity. 
 
 Mount Morgan, 25 miles south-west of Rockhampton, was discovered 
 in 1882. It is unquestionably the most remarkable gold and copper mine 
 in Australia. An area of 1 square mile was purchased from a selector for 
 £640, and a company, with a capital of £1,000,000, was subsequently formed 
 to work it for gold. The upper portion of the deposit, consisting principally 
 of limonite, was enormously rich in fine gold. Though the metal was seldom 
 visible in the ironstone, much of the latter contained from 30 to 40 ozs. of 
 gold per ton, and in one year the Company paid a million sterling in dividends. 
 The total amount hitherto paid to the shareholders is nearly nine millions. 
 
 The geological foundation upon which this extraordinary deposit was 
 formed consisted of a series of limestones, and banded claystones and tuffs, 
 with sills and dykes of quartz porphyry. Subsequently this stratified series, 
 which is probably of Carboniferous age, was intruded by hornblendic granite, 
 and still later by andesitic dolerite dykes of at least two ages. It is probable 
 that the intrusion of the hornblendic granite was the cause of (1) the meta- 
 . morphism of the sedimentary series ; and (2) the impregnation of these 
 rocks with iron pyrites containing small proportions of gold and copper. 
 The later intrusions of the dolerite dykes, of which there is a complete net- 
 work, probably completed the alteration (silification) of the ore bodies, which 
 in the lowest levels, consist of massive quartzite impregnated with low-grade 
 copper and gold bearing pyrites. The invasion of the dolerites was probably 
 also responsible for vigorous solfataric action, which had the effect of concen- 
 trating on the top of the deposit pyrites containing high proportions of gold 
 and copper. Subsequently atmospheric agencies caused the decomposition 
 of the pyrites, the bulk of the gold being left in extremely rich limonite ore, 
 while the copper was leached and redeposited between the 300 and 650 ft. 
 levels. Below the latter depth the ore becomes gradually poorer.
 
 434 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The gold in tlie limonite was extremely pure, being worth £4 4s. 8d. per 
 ounce. 
 
 The Mount Morgan ore body is approximately wedge-shaped, its dimen- 
 sions being about 1,200 feet in length by 500 in width, and it is believed to 
 thin out at a depth of about 1,100 feet. 
 
 An extremely good fire-brick is made from a bed of shale, 30 feet 
 thick, found in the Trias-Jura rocks in the vicinity of Mount Morgan. 
 
 Amongst other gold-fields which have been worked with greater or less 
 success are Clermont, Croydon, Coen, Etheridge, Eidsvold, Calliope, Hamilton, 
 Palmer, Ravenswood, and Starke. 
 
 Copper. — Undoubtedly the most important copper producing territory 
 in Australia is the Cloncurry Field, which consists of an area of primary 
 rocks (probably Silurian) about 200 miles in length by 100 in width. Clon- 
 curry is situated 480 miles west of Townsville, with which it is connected by 
 rail, and about 220 miles south of the G-ulf of Carpentaria. 
 
 The prevailing rocks are schists, quartzites, indurated slates, marmorized 
 limestones and calcareous tufT?, with intrusive granites, porphyries, diorites„ 
 etc. 
 
 A notable feature of the district is the occm^rence, along the tops of ridges, 
 of lenticular masses of hematite. 
 
 Although comparatively little prospecting has yet been done, quite a 
 number of deposits of extremely rich copper ore has been opened, and some 
 of these have been developed into very important mines. Generally speaking, 
 the ore deposits occur as interstratified lenses and bunches, sometimes of very 
 large dimensions, and a small proportion of gold is frequently associated with 
 the copper. The field has unquestionably a great future before it as a copper- 
 producing area. Amongst the most important mines of the Cloncurry 
 Field are Mount Oxide, Mount Cuthbert, Mount Elliott, The Hampden, The 
 Duchess, and the Great Australia. 
 
 The Great Fitzroy is an important copper mine situated 10 miles north 
 of Rockhampton ; other notable deposits occur at Mount Perry, and at 
 Peak Downs, near Clermont. 
 
 Tin mining was commenced at Stanthorpe, near the southern border of 
 Queensland, in 1872, and for a period of about eleven years afterwards 
 large quantities of tin-stone were recovered from the granite of that district. 
 Thereafter the production gradually decreased, though tin mining is still 
 carried on — principally by means of dredges. 
 
 The Herberton District, in Northern Queensland, is the prin-^ipal tin- 
 producing field of the State at the present time, other important tin-bearing 
 localities being Annan, Kangaroo Hills, FossUbrook, and Stanhills, near 
 Croydon. 
 
 The Herberton and Chillagoe Districts constitute an important mineral 
 field, and contain deposits of tin, copper, silver-lead, wolfram, bismuth, 
 molybdenite, antimony, gold, monazite, and coal. The country is very 
 mountainous its altitude varying from 1,000 to 4,000 feet above sea-leveL 
 It is situated to the west of Cairns, with which it is connected by railway
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 435 
 
 The oldest rocks about Herberton are tuffaceous sandstones and shales, 
 probably of Carboniferous age, which have been intruded and highly meta- 
 morphosed by granites and quartz-porphyries, while both the latter and the 
 sedimentary series have been intruded by later dykes of diorite, andesite, and 
 elvan. The alteration of the sandstones and shales near Herberton and 
 Irvinebank has been so complete that little or no trace of their original bedding 
 can be distinguished, though at Stannary Hills fine contorted sections can 
 be seen in the banks of Eureka Creek. 
 
 The ore deposits occur both in the sedimentary and in the intrusive 
 rocks, but generally within a short distance of the boundary between the 
 two. True fissure lodes are of comparatively rare occurrence in this field, 
 the ore bodies consisting for the most part of pipes, bunches (chutes) or 
 impregnation?. 
 
 Near the town of Herberton large quantities of stream tin were obtained 
 over 30 years ago from an alluvial lead which was traced down under basalt 
 and which is still being worked. Subsequently quite a number of ore deposits 
 was found in the quartz-porphyry near the alluvial lead, and these developed 
 into most irregularly shaped chutes or bimches, some of which were extremely 
 rich. They are of all sizes, but rarely exceed 100 feet in length by 15 feet in 
 width, while they have occasionally been worked to a depth of about 700 feet. 
 The most important of these deposits at present being worked is " The Eain- 
 bow," which is of considerable size, and is yielding siliceous ore containing 
 15 per cent, of black tin. 
 
 At Watsonville, 6 miles to the west similar ore bodies occur in sandstones 
 (quartzites) and shales near the junction with granite, where the tin is fre- 
 quently associated with copper ores. 
 
 The Irvinebank Mining Company has a large crushing and tin-smelting 
 plant, 18 miles from Herberton, which is served by a number of mines within 
 an area of sedimentary rocks. The most important mine near Irvinebank 
 is the Vulcan, which has a vertical shaft 1,460 feet deep. A series of discon- 
 nected, but in many cases overlapping, bunches of tin-ore of great size and 
 irregular form, have been worked down to a depth of 1,050 feet, and there 
 are indications that deposits occur below that level. This mine has had a 
 most successful history and its future prospects appear to be excellent. 
 
 To the south of Irvinebank there are numerous deposits of tin around 
 Spring Hills, Smith's Creek, etc., in sedimentary rocks, while at Mount Garnet 
 about £360,000 worth of copper was obtained from ore-bodies in granite ; 
 however, in the lower levels of this mine the ore became zinciferous and iron 
 pyrites replaced the copper ore. 
 
 A few miles to the west of Irvinebank the Victoria silver-lead lode, up to 
 5 feet in thickness, is being worked at a depth of 200 feet, while at Montalbion 
 the same class of ore occurs in irregular bunches in sedimentary rocks. 
 
 At Stannary Hills both tin and silver-lead are found in the sandstones 
 near their junction with intrusive quartz-porphyry. The tin-ore occurs in 
 a chlorite gangue in irregularly-shaped bunches having the same character 
 as those in the Vulcan Mine, and has been worked to a depth of about 700 
 feet.
 
 436 Federal Handbook. 
 
 About 18 miles west of Stannary Hills deposits of wolfram, bismuth, 
 and molybdenite are worked at Bamford Hill, near Petford, and 10 miles 
 south-west of the latter place a considerable area of sedimentary rocks con- 
 taining tin and wolfram occurs near Koorboora. Many of these deposits 
 are being worked in a small way. Seven miles further west, in Torpy's 
 Crooked Creek Mine, an irregularly-shaped pipe of sliver-lead ore is being 
 worked. 
 
 At Chillagoe, which is connected by private railway (92 miles long) with 
 the Government line at Mareeba, extensive copper and lead smelting works 
 were erected to treat the products of the district, but although the copper 
 lodes in the vicinity were exceedingly promising on the surface they failed 
 to carry their values to a depth, and most of the Chillagoe Company's Mines 
 have now been closed down, the works being kept going by other mines in 
 the district. 
 
 At Mungana, 10 miles from Chillagoe, some very interesting silver-lead 
 deposits occur in the Girofla and Lady Jane Mines. The ore occurs in caverns 
 in limestone rock close to its jimction with granite. Some of these ore-bodies 
 are of great magnitude, in one instance as much as 140 feet long by 40 feet 
 wide, and over 30*^ feet in depth. In the Girofla Mine, considerable quantities 
 of oxidized lead and copper ores were found underneath galena and copper 
 pyrites. This unusual occm-rence was probably due to the surface waters 
 having found their way below the sulphides through one of the side channels 
 which are so numerous in limestone caves 
 
 As the contact between the granite and the limestone has been traced 
 for a distance of many miles, it is probable that numerous other deposits of 
 a similar character will be found. 
 
 About 23 miles westerly from Mungana, in the Klondyke District, a smelt • 
 ing plant has been erected by the Mammoth Company to treat the copper 
 ores from their mines. These ores also contain an appreciable proportion 
 of gold. 
 
 Wolfram Camp is situated about 14 miles north-west from Dimbulah, 
 a station on the Chillagoe Railway. Wolfram, molybdenite, and bismuth 
 are extensively mined here in intrusive greisen close to its junction with slates. 
 The ores occur in bunches and strings in very irregularly-shaped chutes or 
 pipes, similar in their mode of occurrence to the tin-bearing deposits of 
 Herberton. The general trend of the wolfram chutes, however, is northerly 
 and they have occasionally been followed on their dip for as much as 600 
 feet in that direction. The ores are invariably found in a quartz gangue. 
 The Irvinebank Mining Co. has erected a compact plant at Wolfram Camp 
 for the treatment of these ores. The molybdenite is separated from the 
 wolfram and bismuth by jigs and concentrators, and is finally recovered 
 from the tailings by the flotation process. 
 
 From Northcote, 14 miles west of Mareeba, for a distance of about 50 miles 
 in a north-westerly direction, occurs a belt of slates and sandstones con- 
 taining antimony and gold deposits. Both metals occur in quartz reefs, 
 some of which are interbedded, while some intersect the strata. Some of 
 these reefs contain gold only, in others nearly pure stibnite is found, whilst 
 in others again gold is associated with the antimony ore. The antimony
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 437 
 
 lodes are worked intermittently, the industry being; influenced by the market 
 price of the metal. The sedimentary rocks of this district are traversed by 
 immense dykes which have been much altered by secondary silica. 
 
 The wolfram deposits of Mount Carbine are situated about 22 miles 
 west of Mount Molloy railway station. They occm- in dykes of coarse pegma- 
 tite which have intruded highly altered blue slates near their junction with 
 a, granite massif. 
 
 The pegmatite dykes vary in width from an inch up to 8 feet and they 
 ■occur in more or less parallel series, though adjoining dykes are frequently 
 connected by smaller ones running in every conceivable direction. The 
 result is a complete network of ore-bodies in which the wolfram is distributed 
 in an average proportion of about 1 '3 per cent. The deposits are being 
 worked by tunnels several hundred feet below the top of the mountain, and 
 it seems probable that they will be found to increase in width as greater depth 
 is attained. A large dyke of felsite crosses the mountain near its summit, 
 -and intersects the pegmatite series which is evidently older than it. 
 
 A very complete crushing and concentrating plant, containing twenty 
 head of stamps, is employed in treating the ore from these mines, which are 
 mainly the property of the Irvinebank Mining Company. 
 
 The granite mountains on both sides of Mount Carbine are stanniferous, 
 and on the northern side considerable deposits of alluvial tin-ore are being 
 worked, at intervals, nearly as far as Cooktown. 
 
 It may be stated that from 1,000 to 1,500 men are making a living by 
 working alluvial tin within the Herberton, Chillagoe, and Cooktown districts. 
 
 The principal difficulty connected with mining in these fields is the scarcity 
 of timber for fuel, which at some of the principal centres costs as much as 
 23s. per cord. The recent discovery of coal seams at Mount Mulligan, which 
 is only 30 miles north of Dimbulah, a station on the Chillagoe railway, is 
 therefore of immense importance to the mining industry. A railway is now 
 being constructed to the coal-field, and it is safe to say that the cost of fuel 
 at the mines will shortly be reduced by 50 per cent. 
 
 Texas. — Near the town of Texas on the southern border of Queensland 
 an important silver-lead mine, called the Silver Spur, has been successfully 
 worked for many years. The ore consists of argentiferous galena with zinc- 
 blende and a little copper pyrites, and it occurs in extensive lenses in Permo- 
 Carboniferous rocks. 
 
 Precious Opal is found in Upper Cretaceous rocks in the western districts 
 of Queensland. The most important opal workings are at Paroo, Kyabra, 
 and Koroit. Other localities where the gem has been found include Duck 
 Creek, Bull Creek, Sheep Station Creek, Yowah, and Kynuna. 
 
 Sapphire Mining is practised to a considerable extent in the Anakie 
 District about 20^ miles west of Kockhampton. The gemstones, which are 
 blue, green, or yellow in colour, occur in a Post-Tertiary alluvial lead, 
 associated wath water-worn boulders of basalt, granite, and sandstone. The 
 lead has been traced for a distance of about 27 miles. The original matrix 
 of the sapphires is doubtless the basalt which occurs near the source of the 
 alluvial deposit, and the gems have been set free by the weathering of the 
 rock.
 
 438 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Table showing the Quantity and Value op Minerals Won during the 
 Year 1912, and to the End of 1912. 
 
 Queensland. 
 
 
 Production for Year Ending 
 
 Total Production to 31st December 
 
 
 31st Decembe 
 
 r, 1912. 
 
 1912. 
 
 
 MineraL 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Coal . . . . 902,166 tons 
 
 £ 
 338,264 
 
 14,1.54,049 tons 
 
 £ 
 
 5,377,240- 
 
 Gold 
 
 347,946 ozs. 
 fine 
 
 1,477,979 
 
 17,707,939 ozs. 
 fine 
 
 75,218,494 
 
 Silver 
 
 569,181 ozs. 
 
 66,188 
 
 13,497,125 ozs. 
 
 1,722.319 
 
 Copper 
 
 23,120 tons 
 
 1,698,280 
 
 196,163 tons 
 
 10,948,399^ 
 
 Tin .. 
 
 3,230 „ 
 
 364,503 
 
 134,593 „ 
 
 8,199,391 
 
 Lead 
 
 3,108 „ 
 
 55,667 
 
 39,093 „ 
 
 534,504 
 
 Antimony 
 
 
 
 4,181 „ 
 
 50.953. 
 
 Opal 
 
 . . i 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 172,195 
 
 Wolfram 
 
 . . 1 626 tons 
 
 57,821 
 
 8,350 „ 
 
 735,665 
 
 Manganese 
 
 .. 1 308 „ 
 
 1,281 
 
 17,004 „ 
 
 64,589 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 197 „ 
 
 19,261 
 
 696 „ 
 
 111,08^ 
 
 Molybdenite . 
 
 102 „ 
 
 17,349 
 
 1,415 „ 
 
 153,70a 
 
 Limestone 
 
 97,175 „ 
 
 24,176 
 
 869,867 „ 
 
 279,427 
 
 Gems 
 
 
 
 40,016 
 
 
 226,302 
 
 Ironstone 
 
 
 15,526 tons 
 
 9,035 
 
 259,801 tons 
 
 202,780 
 
 ScheeHte 
 
 
 
 
 20 „ 
 
 1,772 
 
 Fireclay 
 
 
 6,336 „ 
 
 2,535 
 
 23,491 „ 
 
 9,63a 
 
 Graphite 
 
 
 
 
 148 „ 
 
 732. 
 
 Totals . 
 
 • 
 
 
 4,175,355 
 
 
 104,009,087 
 
 4. Tasmania. 
 
 The West Coast. 
 
 The West Coast of Tasmania consists of very mountainous country 
 composed of Silm'ian and Pre-Silurian sediments, with granites and other 
 intrusive rocks. The granites are probably mainly responsible for the 
 mineralization which has of late years resulted in the development of a number 
 of important mining fields within this area. 
 
 Waratah Mining Field. — The oldest and most important of these fields 
 is that of Waratah, where the Mount Bischoff tin mine has had a 
 most successful history dm-ing the last 40 years. Mount Bischoi! is 
 formed of Silurian slates and sandstones, which have been intruded 
 by a dyke of topaz-porphyry varying in width from 6 to 150 feet. 
 The general course of the dyke is about north-west and south-east, 
 but near the top of the mountain it makes a complete horseshoft 
 bend. The porphyry contains about '3 per cent, of tin-oxide, and the 
 slates and sandstones, which have been altered by contact metamorphism, 
 also contain, within a distance of about 60 feet of the dyke, small veins and 
 impregnations of tin-ore. The denudation of the dyke during past ages 
 resulted in the formation of a vast talus of detrital material, which in the early 
 years of the mine's history yielded almost fabulous retm-ns of tin. At the
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 439 
 
 present time the dyke, the adjacent sediments, and the detrital material are 
 all being removed by open-cast workings in a series of benches, and are 
 sent to the mill in conjunction for an average yield of '5 per cent, of tin- 
 oxide. There is also a lode known as the Queen lode, which is being worked 
 underground. It intersects both the slates and the dyke, has an average 
 width of 3 ft. 6 in., and yields about "75 per cent, of tin-oxide. This lude- 
 stufi is also treated with the material from the open cut. From a commercial 
 point of view the mine has a unique history. The company was floated 
 in 1873, the capital actually paid up amounting to only £7,600. In the 
 40 years which have since elapsed the shareholders have loceived upwards 
 of £2,400,000 in dividends. At present the total cost of mining, conveying, 
 and milling amounts to only 4s. lid. per ton of ore. The plant is driven 
 by hydro-electric power, the water having a hydrostatic head of .560 feet. 
 
 The Mount Bischofi Extended mine adjoins the Mount Bischofi, and 
 contains a lode averaging about 3 feet in width and yielding '94 per cent, 
 of metallic tin. The workings extend for a vertical depth of 750 feet, and 
 nearly 20,000 tons of ore are treated annually in a ten-head mill. 
 
 The Magnet Silver-Lead mine is situated about 5 miles west of Mount 
 BischoS. The lode channel, which occurs in dolomite, varies in width from 
 6 to 100 feet. The lode exhibits a banded structure with veins and lenses of 
 silver-lead-zinc sulphides, with occasionally a little jamesonite and ruby 
 silver ore. The lode channel has been worked for a length of about 400 feet. 
 The mill is worked by water power, a hydrostatic head of 450 feet being 
 available. The concentrates contain 100 ounces of silver, 50 per cent, of 
 lead, and 11 per cent, of zinc. 
 
 The Mount Cleveland Tin mine is situated 10 miles from Mount Bischofi, 
 on the Whyte Eiver. A lode of considerable width and said to yield '9 per 
 cent, of tin oxide has been worked by an open cut, and has been proved at 
 a lower level to consist of pyritic ore. 
 
 Osmiridiiim Mining. — Alluvial deposits of osmiridium are worked in the 
 Mneteen-mile Creek and other tributaries of the Savage River, near Bald 
 Hill, to the north-west of Mount Bischofi. The metal occm-s in grains and 
 small nuggets in the crevices of the rocks farming the creek beds. The 
 largest piece yet discovered weighs about 2 ounces. The source of the metal 
 has been proved to be serpentine rock, in which it appears to be sparsely 
 disseminated in gi-ains. 
 
 The Tullah Field is situated about 15 miles south of Waratah, and the 
 principal mine is the North Mount Farrell Silver-lead Mine. There are three 
 lodes varying from 5 to 20 feet in width in the prop(>rty, and they occur in 
 crushed schist near its junction with intrusive porphyry. The ore consists 
 of argentiferous galena with only a trace of zinc-blende. The output is 
 about 2,700 tons per annum of picked ore and concentrates, the former 
 containing 63 per cent, of lead and 75 ounces of silver per ton, while the 
 latter average 53 per cent, of lead and 55 ounces of silver. 
 
 In the Rosebery Field, near the town of Rosebery, on the Burnie-Zeehan 
 railway, there are three important mines, viz., the Tasmaniaii Copper Com- 
 pany, the Primrose, and the Horculos. The Tasmaniaii Copper Company 
 as a misnomer, as thev work a silv(u-h'a(l-ziiic niim;. Th(( couiitrv rock is a
 
 440 Federal Handbook. 
 
 silicious schist and tlie ore-deposits consist of large interbedded lenses of 
 fine-grained pyritic ore with galena, zinc-blende, and a little fahlerz. The 
 lenses extend for a length of 2,500 feet with a maximum width of 60 feet. 
 Over 30,000 tons of ore have already been extracted, the average contents 
 being 25 per cent, of zinc, 7*96 per cent, of lead, 12*3 ounces of silver, and 
 •145 oimces of gold per ton. The developed and blocked-out ore reserves 
 have been estimated at 227,300 tons, and the probable ore reserves at 
 773,000 tons. 
 
 The Primrose is an adjoining mine containing deposits of similar ore, and 
 the two mines are worked, under the one management, by means of tunnels 
 and open cuts. 
 
 The Hercules Mine is situated at an altitude of 2,800 feet on the slopes 
 of Mount Read, about 4| miles from Rosebery. It contains three large^ 
 lenses of sulphide ore of similar character to that of the Tasmanian Copper 
 Company's Mine, the average composition being 28 per cent, of zinc, 8 per 
 cent, of lead, 8 ounces of silver, and '16 ormces of gold per ton, while the 
 most eastern lens also contains a fair proportion of copper. The probable 
 ore reserves in the Hercules Mine have been estimated at about 500,000 tons. 
 The futm'C success of those niines appears to depend upon the adoption of a 
 method of treatment which will enable the zinc to be recovered in addition 
 to the other metals. 
 
 The Renison Bell Field contains a number of tin mines, of which the most 
 important are the Renison Bell, Boulder, Central, Penzance, Dreadnought, 
 and Federal. They are situated near the Renison Bell Station, on the Emu 
 Bay Railway. The principal rocks in this locality consist of slates, tufEs, 
 and intrusive quartz-porphyry. The ore-bodies are composed chiefly of 
 pyrrohotite and iron pyrites carrying cassiterite, and they have been deposited 
 by ascending solutions and vapours along faults which have fissured the 
 country rock in a very irregular manner, causing the lodes to exhibit many 
 branches and flat floors. The slates in the vicinity of the lodes have also been 
 impregnated by veinlets of tin-bearing pyrites. The gangue of the ore 
 bodies consists chiefly of quartz and dolomite. Rich pockets and bands of 
 tin ore are occasionally found in the lodes. The oxidation of the sulphide 
 ores has resulted in the formation of rich stanniferous gossan at the sm'face, 
 and large quantities of this have been profitably treated. There was also a 
 considerable accumulation of detrital ore on the sides of the hills, and from 
 this the tin was recovered by sluicing. The mill at the Renison Bell Mine 
 contains only ten head of stamps, and the ore at present being treated has an 
 average yield of *9 per cent, of tin oxide. 
 
 The Zeehan Field. — 'The town of Zeehan is the principal settlement on the 
 West Coast, and possesses important smelting works, besides being the centre 
 of a group of mines. The principal properties in this district are the Zeehan- 
 Montana, Cuni, Silver Queen, British Zeehan, Silver King, and Oonah, but 
 at the present time only the two first-named are being worked. At the 
 Zeehan- Montana Mine Sihu'ian slates and tuiis form the country rocks, and 
 with these are associated intrusive dykes of stilite. The ore bodies are in the 
 form of north and south fissure lodes, the filling of which is principally com- 
 posed of siderite with galena, zinc-blende, and pyrites. A series of fault
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 441 
 
 fissures, locally called slides, with a general north-west and south-east strike, 
 have intersected and displaced the lodes. As the siderite lodes approach 
 the south-western or footwall sides of the slides, they are split up into 
 branches which frequently, contain chutes of argentiferous galena. The con- 
 tinuation of the lode beyond the hanging wall of the slide is usually barren 
 until it approaches the footwall of another slide, when similar deposits of 
 galena are met with. The shaft has been sunk to a depth of 800 feet, but so 
 far practically no payable ore has been found below the 500-ft. level. The 
 mine has peid about £180,000 in dividends since 1893. 
 
 The Cuni Mine is situated 5 miles fi-om Zeehan on the railway to Eenison 
 Bell. The country consists of alterations of ferruginous slate and serpentine. 
 Lenses of pyrrhotite occm" in the serpentine, and the ore contains about 5 per 
 cent, of copper and 12 per cent, of nickel. The lenses attain a maximum 
 width of 14 feet, and are sometimes 100 feet long. This mine and a similar 
 one adjoining it are at present in the prospecting stage. The ore has been 
 proved at intervals over a distance of about 1 mile. 
 
 The Mount Lyell Fiehl.—The Mount Lyell Mining and Eailway Company's 
 property is situated near Queenstown, about 15 miles fi'om Strahan. The 
 principal mines owned by the company are the Mount Lyell, North Mount 
 Lyell, Comstock, South Mount Lyell, and Lyell Tharsis. 
 
 The Mount Lyell ore deposits consists of a huge lens of low-grade pyritic 
 ore of the following composition : — 
 
 Sulphur . . . . . . . . 42 per cent. 
 
 L:on 
 
 Silica . . 
 Alumina 
 
 Barium sulphate 
 Copper 
 Silver .. 
 Gold . . 
 
 36 
 
 5 „ 
 
 2-8 „ 
 
 4-1 „ 
 
 0-4 „ 
 
 1 '86 oz. per ton 
 
 •04 
 
 The ore-body occm's in tufiaceous schists close to theii- junction with con- 
 glomerate. It is probable that it has been deposited fi-om ascending solutions- 
 in a cavity or fissure formed by a fault, and there is evidence, especially on 
 the hanging wall, of its having been enlarged by replacement of the schists. 
 The lens has been worked by an open cut to a depth of 470 feet, and by 
 shafts and levels to a further depth of 350 feet, while bores have proved t^at 
 it extends to a total depth of 850 feet. 
 
 The present ore reserves are estimated at two million tons. The ore is 
 smelted in conjimction with the North Mount Lyell ore in the proportion of 
 2 tons of the former to 1 of the latter. 
 
 The South Mount Lyell Mine contains a pyritic ore-body similar to Mount 
 Lyell, and containing '38 per cent, of copper. It is estimated to contain 
 about 300,000 tons, but has only been opened up on one level at present. 
 
 The North Mount Lyell Mine is situated about 1 mile from the Mount 
 Lyell. The ore-body is an irregular lens of large dimensions, bounded by 
 conglomerate, and it has the appearance of having resulted from the meta- 
 somatic replacement of schist. The ore is .silicious, and contains bunches
 
 442 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Its composition is as 
 
 6 per cent. 
 65-70 
 
 7-7 
 
 6 
 10-2 
 
 1 
 
 1'15 oz. per ton. 
 A trace 
 1,100 feet, and has been 
 
 1,000,000 tons. The ore 
 
 and impregnations of bornite and chalcopyrite. 
 follows : — ■ 
 
 Copper 
 
 Silica . . 
 
 Iron 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Alumina 
 
 Barium sulphate 
 
 Silver . . 
 
 Gold . . 
 The lens has already been proved to a depth of 
 stoped for a length of 1,000 feet at the No. 10 level 
 The ore reserves in the mine are estimated at 
 from the Mount Lyell and North Mount Lyell Mines is smelted, in conjunction, 
 in blast furnaces, in the proportion of 2 tons of the former to 1 of the latter. 
 The matte is treated locally in converters, and the resulting blister copper is 
 refined at the Port Kembla Works, New South Wales. 
 
 The North Mount Lyell ore deposit extends into the Comstock section on 
 the north. The Lyell Tharsis is a similar deposit of lower grade occurring 
 in the schist ; it carries about 2 per cent, of copper. 
 
 The North Coast. 
 
 The Blythe River Iron Ore Deposit is situated about 10 miles from Burnie, 
 on the North Coast. The ore body consists of a huge vertical bed or lens of 
 hematite having a north-east and south-west strike for a distance of over a 
 mile, and apparently interbedded with slates and sandstones of pre-Silurian 
 -age. The Blythe Eiver has cut its way through the deposit which extends 
 up both sides of the gorge. It has been estimated that there are at least 
 20,000,000 tons of ore in the deposit above the level of the river. The deposit 
 has been sampled over the whole outcrop, and the analysis gave an average 
 yield of 63*259 per cent, of iron, 7 per cent, of silica, and 0"036 per cent, 
 of phosphorus. Nothing has yet been done towards utilizing this valuable 
 deposit of iron ore. 
 
 Oil Shale Deposits of the North C oast. ~-ln the Mersey district there are 
 deposits of a peculiar resinoid shale known as Tasmanite, which is believed 
 to be of considerable commercial value as a source of fuel oil. The shale 
 occurs as a seam in the Marine Sandstones of the Permo-Carboniferous series, 
 and in the neiglibourhood of Latrobe it has an average thickness of 4 ft. 6 in. 
 It is a brownish laminated rock consisting of sandy mud through which are dis- 
 seminated numerous minute yellow resinous-looldng discs, which are believed 
 -to be sporangia. The peculiarity of the resinoid discs is that they contain 
 ^bout 2 per cent, of sulphur in combination with their carbon and hydrogen. 
 The average composition of the shale is as follows .— 
 
 Moisture . . . . . . . . 1 * 10 
 
 Volatile matter .. . . .. 29*69 
 
 Fixed carbon .. .. .. 3*11 
 
 Ash.. .. .. .. .. 66-10 
 
 100-00 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 2 per cent.
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 443 
 
 The shale yields, by destructive distillation, from 30 to 50 gallons of oil 
 per ton. Mr. Tvvelvetrees, Government Geologist, estimates that there are 
 in the Mersey district 12,000,000 tons of shale containing 2,000,000 tons of 
 crude oil, equal to 1| million tons of fuel oil. 
 
 The Latrobe Shale and Oil Company are erecting retorts for the pro- 
 duction of oil from Tasmanite. 
 
 The Middlesex Field, situated near Railton, contains deposits of silver- 
 lead, and also tin, bismuth, and wolfram. In the Round Hill Mine, 16 miles 
 from Railton Silver-lead lodes occur in slates close to then- junction with 
 conglomerates. About 1,000 tons of concentrates containing 56 per cent, 
 of lead and 33 ounces of silver per ton have been produced. 
 
 The Shepherd and Murphy Mine, 28 miles from Railton, contains narrow 
 lodes in quartzite and garnet rock close to their junction with intrusive 
 granite. The lodes contain cassiterite, bismuth, and wolfram impregnations 
 in a quartz gangue. Nearly 40,000 tons of ore have been crushed and 671 tons 
 of- concentrates produced. 
 
 Beaconsfield Mining District, 
 
 The celebrated Tasmania Gold Mine is situated at Beaconsfield on the 
 west side of tte Tamar. Up to the end of 1912 this mine had treated 982,587 
 tons of stone for a yield of 808,255 ounces, and had paid £772,671 in dividends. 
 The last dividend was paid in 1905. Grubb's shaft is down to a depth of 
 1,500 feet, and work is being carried out at this level. 
 
 The lode occurs in slates, conglomerates, and sandstones, and was 40 feet 
 wide on the surface, but became narrower and poorer in depth. It is an 
 exceptionally wet mine, and is equipped with one of the finest pumping plants 
 in the world. 
 
 At Anderson's Creek, near Beaconsfield, there are deposits of hematite 
 and magnetite containing a considerable proportion of chromium, which 
 has hitherto interfered with their use, for smelting purposes. There are 
 probably several million tons of ore in these deposits. 
 
 The Lefroy Gold Field is situated 7 miles east of George Town, on the 
 Tamar River. Auriferous reefs and alluvial deposits have been worked with 
 considerable ?ucce^s in the past on this field. The total amount of gold won 
 amounts to over 200,000 ounces, and dividends amounting to nearly £300,000 
 have been paid, but tbe gold chutes have failed below a depth of 400 feet. 
 At the present time the prospects of successfully working the deep alluvial 
 (basalt-covered) leads appear to be hopeful. 
 
 The Tin=Fields of the North=East Coast. 
 
 A considerable area of tin-bearing granite occurs near the north-east 
 coast, and tin mining has been carried on here with much success for over 
 30 years. The tin-oxide is found as impregnations and small veins in the 
 granite and greisen, and the decomposition and denudation of tliese rocks has 
 resulted in the concentration of large quantities of stream tin in the Tertiary 
 basalt-covered deep leads along the course of the Ringarooma River, and 
 also in the Pleistocene and recent alluvial deposits. The shallow alluvials 
 were of course worked first, and the tin was subsecpiently traced down into 
 the deep leads. The latter are being successfully worked by hydraulic 
 sluicing in sucli mines as the Arba, Briseis, Pioneer, Garibaldi, and Clifton 
 C.121.54 2 F
 
 444 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Creek. The Briseis has removed 4,746,000 cubic yards of overburden and 
 4,600,000 cubic yards of drift for a yield of 9,589 tons of stream tin, valued 
 at £1,125,700, and has paid dividends amounting to £380,000. The Pioneer, 
 which is worked by hydro-electric power, has treated 5,720,900 cubic yards 
 of gi'avel for a yield of 4,832 tons of stream tin, and has paid £254,095 in 
 dividends. 
 
 A most remarkable example of economical mining is supplied by the 
 Anchor Tin Mine at Lottah, where the tin is being won from the solid granite 
 or greisen. The ore bodies are covered by an overburden of as much as 
 100 feet, in places, of barren granite, which, being moie or less decomposed, 
 is partly removed by hydraulicing. The Anchor Mine has crushed 1,200,000 
 tons of rock for an average yield of less than 3| lbs. of tin oxide per ton. The 
 cost of mining, crushing, and concentrating, during ten years' work, has 
 been from 2s. 6d. to 3s. per ton of stone. The ore is worked by open cut, 
 and hydraulic power is employed for the mill. 
 
 The Sca)7iander Field. — A few miles from Scamander, on the east coast, 
 there are low grade deposits of tin, copper, wolfram, silver, and gold. None 
 of these are at present being economically worked, though prospecting opera- 
 tions are being carried out in tin-bearing quartzites close to theii junction 
 with granite. 
 
 In the Mathinna Field, 17 miles north of Fingal, a number of quartz reefs 
 was successfully worked for some years. The principal mine was the New 
 Golden Gale, which was tested to a depth of 1,800 feet, where the ore ceased 
 to be payable. Between 1888 and 1904 the mine yielded 232,225 ounces of 
 gold, from 277,393 tons of stone, and paid £355,200 in dividends. 
 
 Coal. 
 
 Tasmania is not so fortunately situated as the other eastern States in 
 regard to her coal resources The coal measures of Tasmania are of two 
 ages, viz., (1) Permo-Carboniferous ; and (2) Mesozoic. 
 
 (1) The Permo-Carboniferous measures are characterized by thin coal 
 seams (from 1 to 2 feet in thickness) of fair quality, though high in moisture 
 and sulphur. The average composition of tne coal is as follows . — 
 
 Moisture .. .. .. .. 12-9 
 
 Volatile hydiocarbons .. .. 36*5 
 
 Fixed carbon . . . . . . 46 • 6 
 
 Ash.. .. .. .. .. 40 
 
 100-00 
 
 It is suitable for domestic use and for steam raising, but contains an excess 
 of sulphur. The principal localities where it occui's are the Mersey Coal- 
 field, near Latrobe, and the Preolenna Coal-field, 18 miles from Wynyard, 
 but it is not being worked at present. 
 
 (2) The Mesozoic coal measures cover a large area of the State, but 
 unfortunately they have been much faulted and dislocated by intrusions of 
 diabase. They contain seams up to 12 feet in thickness, but the workable 
 coal seldom exceeds 6 feet. The quality of the coal varies considerably, but 
 it is usually high in ash and moisture ; it is useful for domestic purposes, and
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 
 
 445 
 
 is also employed in tlie locomotives on brancli railways. The two principal 
 collieries working this coal are the Mount Nicholas and the Cornwall, near 
 St Mary's, which have an annual output of about 30,000 tons each. Mr. 
 Twelvetrees estimates the probable coal reserves as follows : — 
 
 Permo-Carboniferous . . . . 13,000,000 tons 
 
 Mesozoic .. .. .. 54,800,000 „ 
 
 Total 
 
 67,800,000 tons 
 
 Table showing the Quantity and Value of Minerals Won during 
 
 THE Year 1912, and to the end of 1912. 
 
 Tasmania. 
 
 
 Production for Year ending 
 
 Total Production from 1880 
 
 
 31st December, 1912. 
 
 to 1912 inclusive 
 
 Mineral, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Gold 
 
 37,973 ozs. 
 
 £ 
 161,300 
 
 1 
 
 £ 
 1,738,661 ozs. 6,914,132 
 
 Sih'er-lead ore 
 
 90,124 tons 
 
 303,098 
 
 950,613 tons 5,488,286 
 
 Blister copper 
 
 5,136 „ 
 
 430,965 
 
 122,912 . 
 
 9,728,833 
 
 Copper matte 
 
 
 
 6,227 . 
 
 133,736 
 
 Copper and copper ore 
 
 1,391 tons 
 
 9,479 
 
 35,135 , 
 
 536,014 
 
 Tin 
 
 
 3,714 „ 
 
 543,103 
 
 109,915 , 
 
 10,884,922 
 
 Iron ore 
 
 
 
 
 42,762 , 
 
 25,701 
 
 Coal 
 
 
 53,560 tons 
 
 24,568 
 
 1,312,460 . 
 
 , 1,057,700 
 
 Wolfram 
 
 
 66 „ 
 
 6,601 
 
 402 , 
 
 36,033 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 
 7 ,. 
 
 2,646 
 
 43 , 
 
 14,961 
 
 Asbestos 
 
 
 
 
 374 . 
 
 : 521 
 
 Shale 
 
 
 
 
 864 , 
 
 464 
 
 Osmiridium 
 
 779 ozs. 
 
 5,742 
 
 1,170 oz 
 
 s. 8,160 
 
 Unenumerated prior to 1 894 . . 
 
 •• 
 
 
 
 31,988 
 
 1 
 
 'otal 
 
 1,493,502 
 
 34,861,451 
 
 5. Western Australia. 
 
 The State of Western Australia occupies the western third of the conti- 
 nent, and is estimated to embrace an area of 975,920 square miles. 
 
 The inception of active mining operations in Australia dates from the 
 year 1842, when lead and copper lodes were first discovered and worked at 
 Waneranooka in the Northampton district of Western Australia. Since 
 then the State has produced mineral products the total value of which, 
 up to the end of 1912, amounts to £113,660,065 ; of this 54-5 per cent, has 
 been obtained from the East Coolgardie Gold-field, which contains the 
 important gold mining centre of Kalgoorlie. The real mining history, however, 
 dates from the year 1893. 
 
 The mineral fields are numerous and scattered over a very wide area. 
 The total area of the proclaimed mineral fields amounts to 329,828 square 
 miles ; the position of these, as legally defined by the authorities, has been 
 shown on the map of AVestern Australia included in the Report of the 
 Department of Mines for the year 1912. The legal boundaries of the 
 mineral fields, however, bear no relation whatever to the geological 
 boundaries. 
 
 2f 2
 
 446 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The principal mineral products of greatest importance in "Western 
 Australia, arranged in order of value, at the end of 1912, are gold, copper, 
 coal, tin, lead, and phosphates. The metals and metalliferous minerals 
 make up by far the greater proportion of the value of the output, being 
 over 98 per cent, of the total. 
 
 The south-western corner of the State from Israelite Bay to Cape Leeuwin, 
 and as far north as latitude 25° south, is a more or less broken tableland 
 from which rise isolated hills and ridges of metamorphic and crystalline 
 rocks to which a pre-Cambrian age has been assigned. This plateau forms 
 the chief mineral region of the State. Isolated patches of variable extent of 
 these older pre-Cambrian rocks rise from beneath the newer strata in the 
 north-west and Kimberley divisions, and are as important from the mineral 
 stand-point as in the south-western plateau. 
 
 The pre-Cambrian rocks are remarkable for the variety of useful and 
 valuable minerals they contain, numbering up to date no less than 196. 
 
 There are sound reasons for knowing that the major portion of this pre- 
 Cambrian plateau has been a land surface since early Palaeozoic times, and 
 having had such a peaceful geological history, there has not been very much 
 opportunity for mineralization, hence the valuable ores have a very wide 
 distribution instead of, with certain notable exceptions, being concentrated 
 into very rich deposits. Whilst this is so, the results obtained by geological 
 exploration, prospecting, and mining operations indicate quite clearly that 
 the mineral industry of the State will not only be progressive but great. 
 The future of gold mining in Western Australia, however, must in a great 
 measure depend upon the exploitation of its low-grade deposits of which 
 there are very many. 
 
 Geologically the pre-Cambrian plateau is characterized by a more or less 
 complicated structure. The plateau forms one general geological province 
 in which the nature and mode of occurrence of the mineral deposits are more 
 or less identical throughout. The interdependence of the mineral belts on 
 the geological structure is exceptionally well marked in all parts of the State. 
 The rocks are of very different types ; many of them are in a crystalline 
 condition and form coarse crystalline schists and gneiss as well as basic rocks, 
 which have been more or less crushed, foliated, and completely converted 
 into greenstone schists. The basic rocks comprise gabbro, dolerite, por- 
 phyrite, epidiorite, pyroxenite ; in some localities these basic rocks can be 
 seen passing by scarcely perceptible gradations into hornblende schists and 
 allied rocks. Some of these older rocks are of sedimentary origin and are 
 practically unaltered ; others are quartz and mica schists, and in certain 
 localities are cleaved conglomerates, some of the pebbles in which consist 
 of a pre-existing conglomerate from a very much older series. The less 
 altered members of these ancient sediments consist of a great variety of types 
 of indurated slates, quartzites and conglomerates, together with igneous 
 rocks, which probably represent lavas and ashes. 
 
 These older rocks are invaded by batholitho and veins of granite and 
 allied rocks, which in many parts of the State occupy very large areas. The 
 old granitic rocks are traversed by many large ice-like quartz reefs, which 
 rise like walls to considerable altitudes above the surface. The mode of 
 occurrence, etc., of these large quartz masses point to their being of igneous
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 447 
 
 origin, representing the final product of the differentiations of a granitic 
 magma, its ultra-acid portion. These older granitic rocks are of considerable 
 importance by reason of the fact that they form the matrices of the tin and 
 allied deposits of the State. 
 
 The mineral deposits of Western Australia occur in areas generally as 
 more or less parallel belts of relatively narrow lateral dimensions, though in 
 certain localities they appear as small isolated areas or patches. These 
 narrow well-defined belts have a general north-west and south-west direction, 
 with occasional divergencies of several degrees on either side. The ore 
 deposits in these belts or zones, owing to dynamo-metamorphic processes, 
 do not crop out in long lines, but are cut up into relatively short lenticles, 
 arranged en echelon. 
 
 There are in all, 24 proclaimed mineral fields in the State, though there 
 are in addition other areas which have been proved to be mineral-bearing, 
 but which have not as yet been brought within the limits of any legally 
 defined mineral field. Most of the mineral fields of Western Australia pro- 
 duce other metals besides gold, though in nearly all cases that is by far the 
 most important product. 
 
 Kimherley Gold-field. — This, the most northerly gold-field in the State, 
 discovered in 1882, is of historical importance, though it has not been a 
 very notable gold producer. 
 
 The gold belt of Kimberley, a succession of crystalline schists of remark- 
 able persistence, has been proved to extend from Denham River to Mount 
 Dockrell, also in the Mueller Range, from whence it strikes north-westward 
 along the foot of the King Leopold Range to King Sound. 
 
 This belt of rocks, micaceous and talcose schists, gneiss, and granite, 
 varies in width from 10 to 30 miles, and has been shown to have a horizontal 
 extent of at least 120 miles. 
 
 Mining and prospecting operations have been confined, however, to only 
 six, more or less, isolated centres. These up to the end of 1912 have only 
 produced 17,012 -75 ozs. of fine gold. 
 
 Pilbara Gold-field. — The Pilbara Gold-field contains several gold and 
 tin-bearing areas, scattered over different portions of the district ; economi- 
 cally, however, the auriferous deposits have proved up to the present to be 
 the most important. 
 
 The geographical position of the various gold-mining centres shows a 
 zonal development of the auriferous deposits which may be divided into six 
 main and distinct groups, viz. : — 
 (a) Lalla Rookh. 
 (6) North Pole, Taiga Taiga, Bamboo. 
 
 (c) Marble Bar, Warrawoona, Yandicoogina, Mount Elsie, Boodal- 
 
 yerri ; 
 
 (d) Nullagine, 20-mile Sandy, Mosquito Creek ; 
 
 (e) Tambourah, Western Shaw ; and 
 (/) North Shaw. 
 
 The length of the Lalla Rookh Belt has not yet been defined, but it 
 does not appear to be less than 30 or 40 miles. The North Pole, Taiga Taiga, 
 and Bamboo Belt is 50 miles in length. The Marble Bar, Warrawoona, 
 Yandicoogina, Mount Elsie and Boodalyerri Belt has a proved extent of
 
 44S Federal Handbook. 
 
 about 80 miles. The Nullagine, Middle, and Sandy Creek zone is known to 
 extend for a distance of at least 40 miles, and there are strong geological 
 reasons for the belief that it continues much farther to the east and may 
 possibly cross the upper reaches of the Oakover Eiver. The Tambourah and 
 Western Shaw Belt has not as yet been accurately defined, but it does not 
 appear to be less than about 30 miles in length, whilst that of the North Shaw 
 has only been proved to extend for a few miles. 
 
 The general direction of these auriferous belts almost everywhere coincides 
 with the strike of the schists which, with one or two exceptions, invariably 
 form the matrices of the gold-bearing reefs. The prevailing dip of the 
 belts coincides with the general trend of the main structural features of the 
 district. Their width naturally varies, and in the three most northerly 
 zones the width cannot be defined owing to the fact that one of the boundaries 
 is invariably marked by a powerful fault, which throws down the newer beds 
 against the schists. 
 
 Quartz reefs occur in great abundance all through the schistose rocks, 
 as well as to a more limited extent in the areas occupied by the granitic rocks. 
 The quartz reefs are of two distinct types, viz., white quartz reefs and lami- 
 nated quartz and jasper veins approaching very closely the hematite-bearing 
 quartzites (?) which invariably form a conspicuous featm^e in most of the 
 gold-fields of the State. Some of the laminated quartz veins range from 
 almost pure quartz, through banded jaspers, with crystals of magnetite, 
 to bands appearing to the eye to be virtually pure hematite. The quartz 
 reefs, of what may be called the massive types, occur plentifully in both the 
 schists and the granites. They invariably occur along the planes of folia- 
 tion (? bedding) of the schists, or, at any rate, cut them at a low angle. 
 
 The auriferous reefs cannot be said to be long, and are, as a rule, small, 
 though they occasionally swell out into large lenticular masses. Some of 
 the reefs have been traced along the outcrop for over 2,000 feet, and have 
 swelled out to masses measuring about 15 feet across. 
 
 In addition to the gold derived from quartz reefs, the conglomerates at 
 the base of the Nullagine Series have been mined in two localities — Nullagine 
 and Just-in-time. It is noteworthy that the base of the series has only 
 proved auriferous in those places where it lies upon that portion of the under- 
 lying formation which carries auriferous quartz reefs. 
 
 At Nullagine the auriferous strata occur through a thickness of about 
 300 feet of grits, sandstones, and conglomerates, which form the lowest 
 portion of the series. The auriferous conglomerate is of sedimentary origin, 
 and is made up of rounded and subangular fragments of the underlying 
 strata. Those portions of the strata which have proved to be gold-bearing 
 are those which are largely impregnated with the oxides and sulphides of 
 iron, and which lie between a well-marked fault and a greenstone dyke. 
 Mining operations have, up to the present time, been confined exclusively 
 to the oxidized zone of the conglomerate and to very limited and shallow 
 depths. The available evidence regarding the origin of the gold seems to 
 indicate that it is a secondary and not an original constituent of the con- 
 glomerate ; and owed its introduction to the percolation of mineral-bearing 
 solutions down the most porous portions of the conglomerate, this condition 
 being facilitated by the downward inclination of the bedrock, and possibly
 
 MiNixG Fields of Australia. 449 
 
 accentuated in part by the folding which the strata have undergone. 
 Numerous dry-blowers have been at work for a number of years over that 
 portion of the conglomerate from which the crusliings have been obtained, 
 and have acquired a considerable quantity of gold, of which the published 
 figures afford no clue. In all probability one-half of the " alluvial " gold 
 from Nullagine may be legitimately claimed to have been derived from the 
 escarpment of the conglomerate. 
 
 At Just-in-time, 8 miles to the south of Marble Bar, another auriferous 
 conglomerate at the base of the series has been worked. In many respects 
 the auriferous conglomerate resembles the ferruginous bands as developed 
 at Nullagine, and varies in thickness from an inch up to 5 feet. Certain 
 portions of it contain a sufficient quantity of iron oxides to give quite a 
 distinctive character to the rock. The auriferous conglomerate of Just-in- 
 time, is, however, not of any very great horizontal extent, nor does it appear 
 to penetrate to any considerable depth. As has been the case at Nulla- 
 gine, the sloping ground at the foot of the escarpment has yielded considerable 
 quantities of gold to the dry-blowers, but; unfortunately, it did not appear 
 to have been possible to keep a separate record thereof. Most of the gold 
 obtained in this way owed its origin to the disintegration of the conglomerate. 
 
 The Pilbara Gold-field has, up to the close of 1912, produced 166,914 '21 
 ozs. of fine gold, of which 3,264 "59 ozs. have been obtained from the 
 conglomerate. 
 
 West Pilbara Gold-field. — The West Pilbara Gold-field is of some his- 
 torical interest in that it contains one of the oldest mining centres in the 
 State. The mining history of the field opened with the discovery of rich 
 copper and lead deposits in the vicinity of Roebourne during the year 1872, 
 though it was not until five years later that auriferous quartz reefs were re- 
 ported and opened out. Since then West Pilbara has turned out 54,172 "84 
 tons of copper ore and 22,601 "98 ozs. of fine gold in addition to small 
 quantities of tin and iron ore. The area of the West Pilbara field, as legally 
 defined by the authorities, embraces 9,480 square miles, of which, however, 
 only about 1,500 are occupied by mineral-bearing formations, for by far the 
 largest portion of the field is covered with the andesites, dolerites, con- 
 glomerates, quartzites, and shales of the Nullagine Series, which effectually 
 conceal the older rocks beneath. The remaining portions of the field con- 
 sist of granite and gneiss, together with a series of metamorphic rocks of both 
 sedimentary and igneous origin, and a series of basic dykes of pre-Nullagine 
 age. The valuable ore deposits of West Pilbara are confined to the northern 
 and eastern portions of the field. 
 
 The most important gold mining centre is Station Peak, situated on the 
 head waters of the Peewah River. In its geological structure, Station Peak 
 is comparatively simple, consisting of a highly inclined series of sedimentary 
 rocks invaded by basic and acidic dykes. The sediments are traversed by 
 a dyke of quartz-dolerite, which varies from 800 to 1,000 feet in width ; this 
 dyke forms the most important economic feature in the geology of the 
 field, owing to its forming the matrix of the reefs which up to the present 
 time have proved to be auriferous. The gold-bearing qiiartz reefs of Station 
 Peak have a more or less parallelism, which is roughly approximate to the 
 general strike of the dolerite. The reefs vary in thickness from J inch up
 
 450 Federal Handbook. 
 
 to as mucL. as 20 feet, whilst the maximum length attained by the most 
 important is 4,000 feet. These reefs have yielded 9,382 ozs. of fine gold, 
 from the milling of 9,993 tons of quartz. This yield forms nearly one-half 
 of the total gold-output of the West Pilbara Field. 
 
 Pre-Cambrian deposits of several types, containing copper, gold, anti- 
 mony, etc., are found in several parts of the district, associated with those 
 bands of laminated quartzite which make such conspicuous features in the 
 structural geology of the field. 
 
 Up to the end of 1912, the West Pilbara Field has produced 22,601 -98 
 ozs. of fine gold. 
 
 Ashburton and Gascoyne Gold-fields. — The Ashburton and Gascoyne 
 Gold-fields are situated on the headwaters of the Ashburton and Gascoyne 
 Rivers respectively. They do not embrace any large area, and haye not so 
 far been very noteworthy gold producers. There is a great diversion of 
 geological formations, though in its broad outlines the geological features 
 of the gold-fields are fairly simple. 
 
 As is the case in West Pilbara by far the larger known area is made up 
 of representatives of the Nullagine Series, which constitute the high plateau 
 breached by the Ashburton River. The two fields contain several minor 
 gold-bearing areas, scattered over widely separated localities. The auriferous 
 deposits are of diverse types, and possibly of different geological ages. 
 
 At Bangemall, on the Lyons River, in the Gascoyne Gold-field, the produc- 
 tive auriferous area lies between two beds of micaceous quartz schist, forming 
 the legs of a denuded anticline, which has a decided pitch to the south-east. 
 These two bands trend across country for considerable distances, and are 
 associated with auriferous quartz veins. The most important feature, 
 however, is the saddle reef nature of the quartz veins, which bears a striking 
 resemblance to those of Bendigo in Victoria. 
 
 There are some sound geological reasons for believing this auriferous 
 belt to extend as far westward as Mount Egerton. 
 
 The gold-bearing zone of the Ashburton Valley is defined to the escarp- 
 ment of the Nullagine Series which flank both walls thereof, and has been 
 estimated at 10,000 square miles. There are five centres at which mining 
 operations have at one time or another been carried on. The primary gold 
 deposits are contained in a highly inclined series of sedimentary rocks, 
 quartzites, grits, and slates, having an average strike of 122 degrees. The 
 beds are in most cases traversed by quartz reefs of varying dimensions and 
 interrupted continuity. The strata are disposed in a series of more or less 
 acute folds, and the reefs, which occur on the flanks of the arches, may pos- 
 sibly represent the legs of saddle reefs now modified by denudation. The 
 coarse gold obtained from many of the gullies doubtless owed its origin to the 
 disintegration of the quartz reefs. 
 
 Up to the close of 1913 these two fields have produced 9,411 -04 ozs. of 
 fine gold. 
 
 Peak Hill, Murchison, Yalgoo, and Yilgarn Gold-fields. — The dependence 
 of the mineral-bearing zones on geological structure is exceptionally well- 
 marked in the three most westerly, of what may be called the Central Gold- 
 fields. The important ore deposits are confined largely to a diagonal belt 
 extending from Mount Beasley, on the north, to Mount Singleton, near the
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 451 
 
 extremity of the westernmost arm of Lake Lefroy, ou the south. The mines 
 of the belt yield almost entirely gold, though there are a few localities from 
 which small quantities of copper and tin have been obtained and are not so 
 far of any great importance. The geological structure of the mineral zone 
 is remarkable for its uniformity ; it may be described as a series of more or 
 less persistent zones of schists and allied metamorphic (in parts sedimentary) 
 rocks forming a distinct lithological province. The schists and their asso- 
 ciated rocks are remarkable for their persistent strike and horizontal extent, 
 one belt alone having been proved to extend for at least 60 miles. These 
 zones of schists are everywhere surrounded by granite, which seems to be of 
 two distinct geological ages, viz., an older, which has undergone the same 
 dynamic alteration to which the schists owe their origin, and a much newer, 
 which penetrates the older granite as well as the schists. The schists are 
 associated with diabase (dolerite), pyroxenite, and allied rocks, and there 
 are sound reasons for believing that some at any rate of the schists merely 
 represent crushed or plated out varieties of the basic rocks. Some of the 
 basic rocks are traversed by belts of laminated quartzes intersected by 
 numerous faults, which are of considerable economic importance by reason 
 of the fact that it is along these fault lines that rich shoots of gold often 
 occur. 
 
 The principal mining centre along this belt is Day Dawn, where one of 
 the largest solid quartz reefs (the Great Fingall) mined anywhere is situated. 
 This reef, which has an outcrop of about 30 chains in length, produced up to 
 the end of 1912, 1,080,415 ozs. of fine gold, and 150,470 ozs. of silver from the 
 milling of 1,642,089 tons of ore. The outcrop, when first discovered, was of 
 considerable size, and rose above the general level of the surface in a series 
 of camel-backed ridges, from 10 to 20 feet in height. 
 
 The average dip of the reef is about 60 degrees to the south westward, 
 and its maximum thickness 40 feet. The lowest vertical depth at which the 
 reef has been mined is 2,342 feet. The great Fingall Lode is more or less 
 transverse to the general trend of the " Auriferous Series," and occupies a 
 relatively narrow belt of schistose amphibolite which is traversed by basaltic 
 dolerite and porphyry dykes. The quartz below water level contains small 
 quantities of pyi'ites, pyrrhotite, mispickel, zincblende, galena, and a little 
 copper pyrites. 
 
 The mineral zone, which traverses the Murchison Gold-field, seems to be 
 continuous southward through the Yilgarn Field, of which the official centre 
 is Southern Cross. The first authentic gold find on the Yilgarn Gold-field 
 was made at Ennuin in 1887 ; this was shortly afterwards followed by the 
 discovery of the pioneer mine, Frasers, at Southern Cross, which has been 
 continuously worked for over 25 years. 
 
 The Frasers Lode occupies a belt of considerable length, and it outcrops 
 at intervals in the form of lenses occurring in a shear zone of amphibolite 
 and its derivatives. This shear zone contains more or less pyrites, and it has 
 been found the gold values bear an intimate relation to the extent of its 
 mineralization. The lode is intersected, in a direction at right angles to the 
 general trend, by dykes of pegmatite granite, and where this occurs there is a 
 slight impoverishment of the lode at the points of contact.
 
 452 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The Yilgarn Gold-field has, since its discovery, produced 407,770 ozs. of 
 fine gold, of which the Erasers Lode alone yielded 172,471 ozs. of fine gold. 
 These banded ferruginous quartz lodes when seen below the oxidized zone 
 pass into schists with pyrites with thin seams of magnetite and pyrrhotite. 
 The Mount Caudan Bore, put down in what is regarded as the southerly 
 extension of the Erasers Lode ore channel, passed through 100 feet of massive 
 pyrrhotite at a depth of 600 feet from the surface. The pjrrrhotite, however, 
 contained only a minute trace of gold. 
 
 The mineral zone, in which this persistent ore channel lies, is of consider- 
 able horizontal extent ; it is really constituted of a series of very long belts 
 arranged more or less en echelon, and encased in basic rocks, some of which 
 may be of sedimentary origin. The larger area of the field is of granite, 
 which is of distinctly later origin than the greenstones, which are invaded by 
 dykes of pegmatite and veins of granite quartz. 
 
 The Yilgarn Gold-field has, since the inception of mining operations, 
 produced 407,770 ozs. of fine gold. 
 
 The Eastern Gold-fields. — There is a remarkable uniformity in the geo- 
 logical structure and mode of occurrence of the mineral deposits of the 
 Eastern Gold-fields. The auriferous districts are of interest on account of 
 their wide distribution and regular mode of occurrence of the gold-bearing 
 deposits. 
 
 Very large areas of the surface are covered with a variable thickness of 
 recent accumulations, which are sometimes solidified into cement. 
 
 The staple formation, however, is granite, gneiss, and a series of schistose 
 rocks, some of which are of sedimentary origin ; associated with these are 
 large areas of basic rocks of difierent types and possibly of difierent origins. 
 As in other portions of the State the general strike of the schists is north- 
 west ; they are very often vertical or at any rate inclined at high angles. Gold 
 occurs generally at no gi'eat distance from granite intrusions and along 
 shear zones or shatter belts containing quartz veins or quartz lenses. These 
 zones or belts are often cut by pegmatites and porphyry dykes, which in places 
 have been fractured and the resulting cracks filled with quartz. The acid 
 dykes are often impregnated with iron pyrites which is occasionally auriferous. 
 The schistose rocks are often associated with hematite-bearing quartzites, 
 some of which might be concentrated into high grade iron ores. The pro- 
 portion of oxide of iron in these rocks varies from practically pure hematite 
 to a pure quartz rock, often permeated by secondary silica which has also 
 penetrated the surrounding rocks. These banded quartzites are occasionally 
 auriferous. 
 
 In the North-east Coolgardie Gold-field, considerable interest attaches to 
 the alluvial leads, the most prominent of which is the North Lead at Kanowna. 
 This lead lies in an old water-course carved out of the older rocks, and has 
 been proved to be not merely a simple isolated run of auriferous gravel, but 
 part of a series of old stream deposits. The width of the North Lead varies 
 from 2 to 80 feet, whilst the thickness of the deposit in the old channel varies 
 from a few inches up to 90 feet. The fall of the lead is about 40 feet to the 
 mile. The deposit consists of surface loam, underlaid by a gravelly ironstone, 
 often partially cemented by kaolin and oxide of iron into solid rock ; beneath 
 this lies a bed or beds of practically pure kaolin (" pug ") and a varying
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 453 
 
 thickness of a pebbly quartz wash. The quartz wash is occasionally cemented 
 by secondary silica into a hard compact quartzite. Most of the gold in the 
 North Lead has been won from the quartz wash, although the overlying 
 kaolin and ironstone gravel have also yielded fair quantities. The ultimate 
 derivation of the gold in the North Lead is from the quartz veins and lodes 
 (upon which the wash directly reposes in places) by which the fundamental 
 rocks are traversed. The gold is not exclusively in the form of grains, scales, 
 etc., but is found occurring in the quartz pebbles themselves. In addition to 
 the undoubtedly detrital fold, there is another massive, arborescent or 
 coarsely crystalline form which occurs, filling certain irregular cracks and 
 covering cleavage planes or shrinkage cracks so as to prevent the appearance 
 of painted surfaces. The mode of occurrence, associations, and character 
 of this gold all point to a secondary origin, and it is of importance to note that 
 this secondary gold has been deposited from solution, not only in the alluvium 
 and other superficial deposits, but also in the zone of decomposition of the 
 bed-rock. These secondary forms of gold, which result in the superficial 
 enrichment of many gold-bearing deposits, are a not uncommon feature in the 
 mineral fields of the State. 
 
 The East Coolgardie Gold-field, the most productive in Australia, which 
 has yielded £13,364,384 of gold, or about 55 per cent, of the total yield of the 
 State, embraces an area of 632 square miles. The principal mining centre 
 on the gold-field is Boulder, the wealth of which coupled with the skill which 
 directs both the mining and metalliu'gical operations, has raised Western 
 Australia to the front rank of gold-mining countries in the British Empii'e. 
 
 The productive area of Boulder comprises a relatively small block of 
 ground, which by reason of the richness of the lodes by which it is riddled, 
 has become known throughout the world as the " Golden Mile." This area 
 includes the Great Boulder, Ivanhoe, Golden Horseshoe, Perseverance, Oroya- 
 Brown Hill, Associated, and Lake View Consols Gold Mines. The deepest 
 shaft is over 2,800 feet vertically below the surface, and the country laid 
 open by mining for investigation amounts to several miles, whilst the rocks 
 have been riddled with bore-holes in all directions, thus affording oppor- 
 tunities for the scientific study of many of the rocks in critical localities and 
 in their relation to the ore deposits, such as are hardly to be found in any other 
 single mining field on the globe. 
 
 The rocks of Kalgoorlie and Boulder consist of : — (a) Ancient sedimentary 
 rocks ; (6) older greenstones (calc-schists and fine-grained amphibolites) ; 
 
 (c) newer greenstones (quartz-diabase and coarse-grained amphibolite) ; 
 
 (d) peridotites ; (e) porphyrites ; and (/) quartz and felspar porphyries. 
 The ancient sedimentary rocks consist of shales, soft sandstones, and 
 
 conglomerates and boulder beds, associated with what appear to be inter- 
 bedded lava flows. These sedimentary rocks have a general north-north- 
 west trend, and an average dip of about 80 degrees to the west. They cover 
 a very wide extent of country and have been found near Coolgardie in the 
 west, and Kurnalpi on the east, whilst a similar series of metamorphic sedi- 
 ments have been found to the southward at Norseman on the Dundas Field, 
 where they are intersected by a large number of quartz dykes which form 
 the apophyses of the large granite mass lying to the east of the Norseman 
 auriferous belt.
 
 454 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The sedimentary series of Kalgoorlie are traversed by banded jasperoid 
 and hematite quartz, of that type which forms such a conspicuous feature 
 in the geology of the sedimentary area of Uaroo, in the Ashburton watershed. 
 There seems to be some reason for believing the Kalgoorlie sedimentary 
 rocks to be divisible into two distinct series of different geological age, and 
 distinctly newer than the complex which forms the axis of the Boulder 
 auriferous belt. 
 
 Of the rocks of the Boulder-Kalgoorlie igneous complex, the quartz 
 diabase is the most important as it is within this and its alteration products 
 that the principal gold-bearing deposits at present known occur. The 
 quartz diabase is as a rule massive, though owing to the dynamical and con- 
 comitant chemical alteration which it has undergone, the rock occasionally 
 assumes a more or less schistose phase. 
 
 The principal effect of the chemical alteration has been the extreme 
 carbonating which has gone on over certain portions of the mass, this being 
 naturally greatest where the shearing of the rocks has been most pronounced. 
 The diabase, owing to this chemical alteration, has been converted into an 
 indefinite mixture of carbonates of lime, iron, and magnesia, with some 
 residual silicates and a good deal of secondary and some original quartz. 
 The carbonating is often of considerable extent and has been proved to be 
 fairly deep seated, having been noticed at depths of over 2,000 feet. 
 
 The ore deposits of the field form relatively narrow bands, trending generally 
 north-west and south-east. Many of the ore lenses are of great length, and 
 in some cases of considerable breadth ; at times, however, the lateral con- 
 tinuity of the lenses is interrupted by overthrust and normal faults of very 
 variable downthrow. The principal lode minerals, in addition to gold and 
 tellurides (calaverite, petzite, sylvanite, hessite, coloradoite, and altaite) 
 are iron-pyrites, marcasite, chalcopyrite, tennantite, asbolite, carbonates 
 (of iron, lime, and magnesia), sulphates (of lime and magnesia), iron ore 
 (haematite, magnetite, ilmenite, etc.), tourmaline, chlorite, albite, rutile, etc. 
 Next to the gold and tellurides, iron pyrites is the most important of the 
 lode minerals ; the grain or texture of the pyrites seems to bear some intimate 
 relationship to the gold contents, and it has been noticed that the finer the 
 gi'ain the higher the gold values. 
 
 Copper Fields. — The known workable deposits of copper occurring in 
 Western Australia are everywhere met with in areas which have been subject 
 to violent earth movement and concomitant volcanic activity. They all 
 show more or less similarity in their associations, mineralogical characters, 
 and structural relations. 
 
 Copper mining, however, is not as yet a very important feature in the 
 mineral production of the State, though the State's total output of copper 
 ore up to the end of 1912 amounts to 185,93.5 '08 tons. Copper ores, however, 
 are widely distributed throughout the length and breadth of the State, but 
 owing to a variety of causes have been worked only in a very few districts. 
 The principal sources of copper are West Pilbara, Mount Morgans, and the 
 Phillips Eiver ; the largest output, 72,190 tons, being from Phillips River, 
 54,172 tons from West Pilbara, and 47,860 tons from Mount Morgans. 
 
 The Phillips River field consists of a series of metamorphic sedimentary 
 rocks, associated with a complex series of crystalline rocks, which latter are
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 455 
 
 of igneous origin, and range from granite to serpentine with, their cleaved 
 and schistose varieties. The lodes of the field, which have a uniform strike 
 of east-north-east, are of two types ; the first being basic cupriferous dykes, 
 and the second siliceous or ferruginous deposits, of what may be called the 
 shear-zone type. 
 
 The Mount Malcolm Copper Mine at Eulaminna (late Anaconda) in the 
 Mount Morgans district, has yielded nearly one-third of the copper production 
 of the State. The whole of the copper-bearing belt is in basic rock, with 
 quartz, jasper, and ironstone veins, which show little or no copper at the 
 surface. The ore has been concentrated into zones of enrichment, in reality 
 bonanzas, three of which have been worked at the surface to comparatively 
 shallow depths. Nothing very definite is known of the precise geological 
 relationships of the Anaconda copper deposit. 
 
 The West Pilbara Gold-field has been a large producer of copper, which, 
 however, has been obtained principally from one property, the Whim Well 
 Copper Mine. This lode has proved to be the largest and richest copper ore 
 body yet discovered in Western Australia in the oxidized zone. The country 
 rock in which the deposit is situated is a weathered talcose schist, associated 
 with beds of a sedimentary origin. The ore deposit is a very flat-lying 
 lode, conforming to the bedding of the enclosing schist country, which has a 
 general strike of north-west and south-east. 
 
 Ti7i Fields.— There are only two districts in Western Australia in which 
 tin mining has been carried on, viz., Greenbushes and Pilbara. From the 
 former locality 8,477 tons of tin ore have been raised, whilst the latter pro- 
 duced 4,886 tons ; a small quantity, however, has been obtained from the 
 Murchison Gold-field. 
 
 Wherever the tin deposits of Western Australia have been examined 
 they are invariably found to fall into two distinct geological categories : — 
 
 1. Superficial deposits, which include (a) alluvial deposits ; and 
 
 (6) residual sands, gravels, etc. ; and 
 
 2. Deposits in country rock, which embrace (c) tin-bearing granite 
 
 and allied rocks ; and {d) tin-bearing dykes. 
 
 The alluvial deposits which are the most important of any yet opened 
 out in the State, vary very largely in nature and range from an extremely 
 hard ferruginous conglomerate to a stiff clay or loose sand or gravel. The 
 tin-stone in the first-named is often extremely coarse, whilst that in the 
 softer material is almost uniformly fine. 
 
 In the Greenbushes field the alluvial deposits may be divided into two 
 main groups, the older being the old river courses or deep leads, and the 
 newer being represented by the existing channels. 
 
 In the latter the tin-bearing gravels often lie at from 10 to 40 feet from 
 the present stream bottoms ; the older deep leads attain considerable depths, 
 the deepest being 96 feet. 
 
 The residual deposits are either lateritic ironstone or sands, clays, etc., 
 derived from the decomposition in situ, of igneous rocks. Deposits of this 
 type are frequently stanniferous, the chief minerals accompanying the tin 
 are limonite, quartz, tourmaline, and mica.
 
 456 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Coal-fields. — The Collie Coal-field is the only one upon which any active 
 operations are being carried on, though there are districts in the State in 
 which lignites and brown coals occur. 
 
 The Collie Coal-field lies to the east of Bunbury and south of Perth, near 
 the north-western edge of the tableland which succeeds the Coastal Plain. 
 The area occupied by the coal measures is approximately 50 square miles. 
 The strata consist of alternations of shales, sandstones, and grits of Permo- 
 Carboniferous age, which rest directly upon granite, schists, and other crys- 
 talline rocks. The boundary of the field is, with one exception, everywhere 
 defined by faults ; on the south-western side of the field the bound iry fault 
 has been estimated to have a downthrow to the north-east of at least 2,000 
 feet. There are several coal seams on the field, which are of variable thickness, 
 the greatest being the Wallsend seam, which varies from 9 to 17 feet. Accord- 
 ing to estimates which have been made, there is, omitting the seam? of trifling 
 thickness, about 137 feet of coal in the 2,072 feet of strata so far explored 
 by mining and boring operations. The coal workings are very shallow, 
 and, owing to the comparative freedom of the field from serious tectonic 
 disturbances, difficulties, which would otherwise be involved in working the 
 seams, are not encountered. 
 
 The coals of the Collie are hydrous, semi-bituminous, non-caking coals, 
 which approach very closely to lignite in some parts ; between the various 
 varieties, however, the differences are only of degree. So far as departmental 
 analyses indicate, it appears that the average calorific value of the Collie 
 coal is about 10,000 British thermal units. The coal is not of such high 
 calorific value as the New South Wales coals, whilst, being noi-caking, it 
 crumbles in the furnaces to some extent, and requires a certain amount of 
 increased attention in firing. That from some of the seams has been found 
 rather prone to spontaneous combustion. The Collie coal, although not of 
 the best steam-producing quality, when burned in ordinary boiler furnaces, 
 has been proved to be particularly suitable for use in suction-gas producers. 
 
 The coal production of the State up to the end of 1912 — which is entirely 
 that of the Collie Coal-field— amounted to 2,323,136 tons, valued at £1,069,435. 
 The principal local consumers are the Government Railways and local manu- 
 factories ; the gold-fields market for coal is limited, owing to good firewood 
 supplies being available. 
 
 6. The Northern Territory. 
 
 The Northern Territory comprises an area of 523,620 square miles ; 
 of this about 7,400 square miles of mineral-bearing country have been proved 
 to exist in the north-western portion of the Territory, from which the prin- 
 cipal products are gold, tin, and copper. These deposits, so far as investi- 
 gations have at present been carried, are virtually confined to the pre-Cam- 
 brian areas lying between the Daly and Mary Rivers. 
 
 Since the first discovery of gold in the Northern Territory in 1869, there 
 have been turned out up to the close of 1912, mineral products to the value 
 of £2,543,000, of which gold alone amounted to £2,066,000. The mineral 
 products arranged in the order of value are gold, tin, copper, and wolfram, 
 together with small quantities of tantalite, amblygonite, and bismuth. The 
 mineral production reached its zenith in 1906, when the output was valued
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 457 
 
 at £146,665 ; since then there has been a gradual decline, the value of the 
 yield in 1912 being only £57,820. 
 
 Enough detailed geological survey work has not yet been carried out to 
 enable many details as to the occurrence and association of the deposits of 
 the mineral fields of the Northern Territory to be definitely set out. 
 
 The fundamental rocks of the Northern Territory are of pre-Cambrian 
 age, they cover a very large area, and are of considerable economic importance 
 as they appear, everywhere, to form the matrices of the principal mineral 
 deposits. The pre-Gambrian rocks consist of gneiss, hornblende, and chlorite 
 schist, slate, phyllite, quartzite, and conglomerate, which seem to have been 
 intensely folded, the axes of the folds trending generally north-west and south- 
 east. These ancient sedimentary and allied rocks are invaded by granite 
 (of pre-Cambrian age), which appears to have some genetic connexion with 
 the known tin and wolfram deposits ; the beds are also penetrated by basic 
 rocks of various types. Around some of the granite batholiths are broad 
 contact zones of quartz and tourmaline. Veins of quartz and tourmaline, 
 in reality a very acid phase of the granitic magma, extend from the granite 
 into the surrounding schists and very often contain ore of some value. 
 Dykes of pegmatite quartz occur in some localities, e.g., Brock's Creek, and 
 contain large bunches of copper ore. The metamorphic rocks, mica, seri- 
 cite, talc, and chlorite schist are occasionally traversed by shear zones, 
 trending generally north and south, which often contain mineral lodes of that 
 irregular nature which are characteristic of belts of this particular type. 
 The metamorphic rocks of the McArthur River have been subject to consider- 
 able chemical and dynamical alteration, and are traversed by veins containing 
 lead and copper ore, along joint cracks by which the beds are traversed. 
 Igneous rocks are believed to exist at a depth of about 1,000 feet in the 
 McArthur District, and to be responsible for the mineralization of the area. 
 
 The tin-fields of the Northern Territory, which, up to the close of 1912, 
 . have yielded tin ore valued at £329,000, are scattered over a fairly wide 
 area, the bulk of which is stream tin. In addition to the stream and 
 residual tin, ore has been found in pegmatite granite dykes traversing the 
 slates, schists, and allied metamorphic rocks. The dykes trend generally 
 in a more or less meridional direction, and the ore is disseminated through 
 portions of the mass more or less thickly. The tin-bearing dykes in the West 
 Arm and Bynoe Harbor fields are very numerous. In the Daly River Dis- 
 trict tin ore has been obtained from a massive tom'maline rock, varying from 
 50 to 100 feet in width, striking north-north-east. The lode occurs at the 
 junction of quartzose, sandstone, and clay slate, the tin ore occurs in the 
 tourmaline rock in small veins associated with quartz. Slugs of tin ore of 
 considerable weight have been found in the debris near the outcrop. At the 
 Horseshoe Creek and Mount Todd Tin-fields there is a considerable area of 
 tin-bearing country. The tin ore in these localities, which occurs as veins 
 and bunches in irregular fissures, traversed the highly inclined sedimentary 
 rocks. The most highly ferruginous rocks are those which have been proved 
 to be the richest in tin. 
 
 Small quantities of tantalite and amblygonitc occur in the pegmatite 
 dykes of the tin-fields of the Northern Territory, though no great quantity 
 of the.se valuable minerals has yet been raised.
 
 458 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Wolfram to the value of £40,607 has been mined in the Northern Terri- 
 tory. At Brock's Wolfram Mine, near Wandi, is a deposit remarkable for 
 the size and richness of the ore, which is probably the largest yet found in 
 Australia. The wolfram deposit is a lenticular-shaped mass, containing 
 massive wolfram, scheelite, quartz, and copper pyrites, occurring in a dyke 
 which has a strike of north 20 degrees east, traversing metamorphic sand- 
 stones and allied rocks. 
 
 A very large proportion of the £2,000,000 worth of gold has been derived 
 from the alluvial and residual deposits which cover a fairly wide extent of 
 country. Gold mining has been carried out in the Darwin Mining District 
 in the north, and in the small fields in the neighbourhood of the MacDonnell 
 Ranges in the southern portion of the Territory. 
 
 The Ai'ltunga Gold-field is situated in the southern portion of the Terri- 
 tory, near the MacDonnell Ranges, where the general trend of the auriferous 
 formations is north-west and south-east. The rocks consist of mica, horn- 
 blende, and quartz schist, clay slate, limestone, and quartzite, associated 
 with dykes of epidosite, pegmatite, and diorite. The quartz reefs have a 
 general parallelism, coinciding with the strike of the enclosing rocks ; the 
 rich shoots of quartz are generally short and the reefs narrow. 
 
 The White Range Gold-field in the MacDonnell Ranges was discovered in 
 1897 in a series of rocks consisting essentially of shattered quartzite, believed 
 to be of pre-Cambrian age. The beds have a low dip of from 10 to 30 degrees. 
 There are, however, no defined lodes, but the auriferous quartz is more or 
 less confined to the fissures and cracks, which traverse the quartzites at all 
 angles and in all directions. When viewed broadly the general trend of the 
 ore bodies is east and west. The White Range field is remarkable for the 
 extraordinary number of its auriferous deposits. 
 
 North of Arltunga is the mica field of the Hart Range. The country 
 rock consists of granite and granitic gneiss with basic dykes ; the whole 
 being traversed by coarse pegmatite veins and huge masses of pure quartz, 
 which together form the mica-bearing lodes. The mica-bearing dykes, 
 which are numerous and extend over a large area, are extremely irregular 
 both in shape and size. From one of these dykes, near Mount Palmer, 
 a large block of mica, measuring 6 by 5 by 4 feet and weighing nearly 7 cwt., 
 was obtained. Some of these mica-bearing pegmatites, which are believed 
 to be of pre-Cambrian age, contain tourmaline, beryl, and garnets. 
 
 7. South Australia. 
 
 ^ The State of South Australia is estimated to cover an area of 380,070 
 square miles. 
 
 Since the year 1842, when the first copper mine was discovered atKapunda, 
 the State has turned out mineral products, the total value of which up to the 
 end of 1912, amounts to £30,427,000. Of this, over £27,000,000 represents 
 the value of the copper as officially recorded. 
 
 The principal mineral products of greatest importance in South Australia, 
 arranged in order of value, at the end of 1912, are copper (£27,747,000), 
 gold (£921,000), salt, (£815,000), and silver and lead (£338,554). 
 
 Copper mining is the most important industry, and the yield of copper 
 far outstrips that of any other single State in the Commonwealth.
 
 Mining Fields of Australia. 459 
 
 The mineral fields of South Australia cover a large a^ea of country, which 
 extends continuously from Kangaroo Island as far north as latitude 30 degrees. 
 Isolated areas are met with in the Musgrave, Mann, and Tomkinson Eanges, 
 in the north-west corner of the State, along the border separating South 
 Australia from the Northern Territory. These areas coincide more or less 
 with those occupied by the metalliferous rocks of Archsexn, pre-Cambrian, 
 and Cambrian age. These rocks consist of granite, gneiss, hornblende, 
 mica, and quartz schists, sandstones, conglomerates, and crystalline lime- 
 stone intersected by granite, diorite, gabbro, porphpy, etc. 
 
 So far there does not appear to have been any specially noteworthy zonal 
 arrangement of the mineral deposits detected, which is only possible after an 
 exhaustive and systematic geological survey (now in progress) has been 
 carried out. 
 
 Deposits of copper ore are found distributed over a very large portion 
 of the State, though active mining operations, on a serious scale, have been 
 confined to one or two localities. 
 
 Yorke's Peninsula, between Spencer's and St. Vincent's Gulf, contain a 
 large area of copper country, which includes the two great mines of Moonta 
 and Wallaroo, which have for over half a century been such a valuable State 
 asset, having produced between them £12,500,000 of copper. 
 
 The Wallaroo system of lodes are nearly vertical, having an average strike 
 from 10 to 20 degrees south of east and vary in width from a few inches up to 
 14 feet. The country rock is micaceous schist, and the ore it contains is 
 chiefly chalcopyrite. 
 
 The Moonta Copper lode traverses a quartz-felspar porphpy, the relation 
 of which to the surrounding schistose rocks is not quite clear. The ore channel 
 contains several ore bodies, which vary in width from a few inches up to 20 
 feet, and have been worked to a depth of over 2,000 feet below the surface. 
 The predominant copper ore is chalcopyrite. 
 
 The Blinman Copper lode is another which has been an important pro- 
 ducer. The lode is nearly 100 feet in thickness and over 350 feet in length. 
 The ore-bearing belt of strata consist of crystalline siliceous limestone, sand- 
 stones, shales, and clay slates, disposed in the form of an anticlinal fold 
 trending north and south intersected by basic and acidic rocks ; and it is 
 in the centre of these disturbed strata that the copper lode occurs. The ore 
 is disseminated through the rock in patches, pockets, stringers, and veins, 
 running east and west across the grain of the country forming an ore-bearing 
 belt of from 20 to 30 feet wide. Some of the cross veins are of considerable 
 size, and they are stated to be richer in copper than the main ore-bearing 
 strata they penetrate. 
 
 The gold-fields or principal auriferous districts of South Australia are 
 fairly numerous, and cover relatively large areas. The production, however, 
 has not been, in the aggregate, very great, amounting in value to only £921,000 
 since the inception of active mining operations. 
 
 The Barossa Gold-field is made up of rocks believed to be of Lower Silurian 
 age, and consisting of micaceous and hornblende schists, associated with 
 sandstones and slates, and intersected by both basic and acidic dykes. The 
 beds have a uniform strike of north 20 degrees east and an inclination of from 
 30 to 70 degrees to the east. There are fairly extensive deep leads, believed 
 C.12I54 2g
 
 460 Federal Handbook. 
 
 to be of Pliocene age ; they consist of sand, clay, and gravel, covered by a 
 very ferruginous cement. The payable gold is confined to a layer of from 
 1 to 2 feet thick lying directly on the bed rock. 
 
 In the gold-fields of Talunga and Parra Wirra are large areas of older 
 gold-drifts of Tertiary age, now represented by outcrops of cement, sand- 
 stone, sand, and gravel, forming nearly all the low hills which flank the 
 range, forming water parting between the Torrens and the Parra River basins. 
 The range is made up of metamorphic rocks, believed to be of Lower Silurian 
 age. These beds are intersected by dykes of granite and pegmatite, which 
 have some genetic relationship with some of the quartz reefs, for some of 
 them (solid white quartz) are seen to pass into granite. The quartz reefs 
 mostly contain large quantities of iron pyrites from which it is probable that 
 the gold is derived. 
 
 The auriferous portion of the Tarcoola Gold-field extends over an area of 
 about 10 miles in an east and west direction. The rocks enclosing the quartz 
 reefs consist of quartzite, clay slate, and sandstone, resting upon a mica- 
 free granite. The auriferous lodes cross the sediments approximately at 
 right angles to the strike, and cut through them more or less vertically ; 
 there are in addition another series of ironstone and quartz lodes, trending 
 approximately at right angles to these, and conformable to the general strike 
 of the sedimentary series and the junction of them and the granite. 
 
 Auriferous lodes also traverse the granite and appear to be of the nature 
 of auriferous igneous dykes. 
 
 The salt industry of South Australia is of considerable importance, and 
 the principal sources of supply are the salt lakes of the southern portion 
 of the Cape Yorke Peninsula. Small quantities of the rare minerals, corundum 
 beryl, and tourmaline have been met with in different portions of South 
 Australia. 
 
 Carnotite, the radio-active mineral, has been mined at Olary, where the 
 ore bodies are pegmatite dykes, believed to be of pre-Cambrian age.
 
 461 
 
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 462 
 
 GRAPHS SHEWING VALUES OP^ TOTAL TRADE. 
 COMMONWEALTH, 1826 to 
 
 EXPORTS 
 
 1912 
 
 AND IMPORTS 
 
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 i8-20 25 30 3o 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 79 .SO 85 90 95 1900 Oi 10 15 20 
 
 Explanation of Geaphs.— The base of each square represents an interval of five years, and 
 the vertical height five million pounds sterling for Imports and Exports, and ten million pounds 
 sterHng for Total Trade. The scales for Total Trade and Exports are on the left and that for 
 Imports on the right hand side of the graphs.
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 463 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 MANUFACTURES, INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL 
 DEVELOPMENT OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 By Gerald Lightfoot, M.A., Barrister-at-Law. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. Historical Survey. ' 4. Manttfacturing Industries. 
 
 2. Commonwealth Commercial and 5. Trade and Commerce. 
 
 Industrial Legislation. 6. Trade between United Kingdom 
 
 3. Legislative Regulation of Wages and Australia. 
 
 AND Conditions of Labour. 7. Shipping. 
 
 (a) Wages Boards and Arbitration 8. Railways. 
 
 Courts. 
 (6) Factory and Shop Acts. 
 
 1. Historical Survey. 
 
 Though Australia cannot yet be considered a manufacturing country, 
 recent years have witnessed a remarkable development in many branches 
 of manufacturing industry, so that the total value of production from that 
 branch of industr}^ is now more than one-quarter of the whole value of the 
 production of the Commonwealth. The estimated value of the total produc- 
 tion from all sources has increased from £46,700,000 (or nearly £28 per 
 inhabitant), in 1871, to £188,745,000 (or over £42 per inhabitant) in 1911. 
 and the value of production per inhabitant now exceeds that of any other 
 country for which records are available. The estimated value of the various 
 elements included in the total production in 1911 is as follows : — 
 
 Estimated Value of Commonwealth Production, 1911. 
 
 £ 
 
 Agriculture . . . . . . 38,774,000 
 
 Pastoral Industry . . . . . . 50,72.5,000 
 
 Dairying, and Poultry Farming . . 19,107,000 
 
 Forest and Fisheries . . . . 5,728,000 
 
 Mining .. .. .. .. 23,480,000 
 
 Manufacturing . . . . . . 50,931,000 
 
 Total .. .. .. £188,745,000 
 
 From this it will be seen that the Commonwealth is rapidly becoming an 
 industrial, as well as a pastoral and agricultural, nation. Moreover, the 
 people of Australia, recognising the altered conditions of industrial life and 
 the world-wide change in economic and social conditions, have gone further 
 than other countries in their attempt to regulate the forces which govern 
 the relations between employer and employe, and both Federal and State 
 Parliaments have devised legislation of a novel and interesting type. In 
 this way have arisen the Wages Board and Conciliation and Arbitration 
 Court systems (which will be referred to later), the minimum wage under the 
 Factory Acts and the legalized eight-hours day, the early closing and holiday 
 regulations, and other measures directed to regulate the development of 
 industrial conditions. 
 
 2 G 2
 
 ^64 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Prior to the discovery of gold in 1851 there appeared to be but little pros- 
 pect of any extensive development of manufactures in Australia, practically 
 the whole of the occupied parts of the continent being given over to pastoral 
 purposes. Agriculture was almost entirely subsidiary to sheep and cattle 
 raising, and was confined to supplying the wants of the small number of persons 
 scattered round the coastal fringe, which then comprised practically the whole 
 of the settled part of the continent. The distance of Australia from the 
 world's markets, the sparseness of its population, and the consequent absence 
 of any considerable local market militated in the early days of settlement 
 against any rapid increase in agriculture, while the progress of the pastoral 
 industry, on the other hand, was facilitated by the ease with which it was 
 carried on, by the suitability of the country, and by the fact that the valuable 
 nature of the products, despite the heavy freightage costs, still left a sufficient 
 margin to compete successfully in the world's markets with other wool-growing 
 countries. 
 
 Under these conditions the development of manufacturing industries 
 naturally made but slow progress. The settlements were dependent on 
 outside sources for the supply of the greater part of their food stuffs and for 
 all manufactured commodities, and consequently the comparative isolation 
 of the country gradually resulted in the establishment of factories for the 
 supply of purely local needs. 
 
 As late as the year 1848 the number of industrial establishments in Aus- 
 tralia did not exceed 479, while the number of persons employed was under 
 2,000. The most numerous establishments of any one class were flour mills, 
 oi which there were in 1848 about 220. The next in number were establish- 
 ments for the treatment of skins and hides, followed in the order named by 
 breweries and distilleries, soap and candle works, iron foundries, brick works 
 and potteries, and boat building. Of the 479 establishments, 313 were in 
 New South Wales, including 41 in the Port Phillip District (now Victoria), 
 99 in Tasmania, and 67 in South Australia.* As the average number of 
 employes in these establishments was less than five, it will be understood 
 that many of them were only on a very small scale and would not come within 
 the present statistical definition of a factory in Australia, viz., " any 
 factory, workshop, or mill where four or more persons are employed or power 
 is used." 
 
 The principal exports from Australia at this period were wool, tallow, 
 oil, skins, and salt beef, trade being confined almost wholly to the United 
 Kingdom. The quantity of wool exported to that country increased from 
 less than 13 million lbs. in 1841 to nearly 4U million lbs. in 1850. Whale 
 fishing, although now almost unknown in Australian waters, at one time 
 held an important place among the industries of the country. Whaling 
 stations were established at different places, but by the middle of the 
 nineteenth century the industry was declining in southern waters generally, 
 and Australian shipping came to be engaged more exclusively in the trans- 
 port trade. In 1850 the value of the exports of sperm oil exceeded £65,000, 
 while the value of tallow exported was £312,000. In the year 1844 copper 
 had been found in South Australia, and in the following year the famous 
 
 • In addition there were a few establishments in the Moreton Bay district (now Queensland) and 
 Western Australia, but no information in regard thereto has been recorded.
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., op Australia. 465 
 
 Burra Burra mine was discovered. By the year 1850 the exports of copper, 
 and ore from Adelaide reached over £275,000. The adoption of improved 
 methods of agricultmre soon brought about a rapid extension in the 
 cultivation of wheat, and flour soon became an important item of export, 
 especially from South Australia and Tasmania, the total value exported 
 in 1850 exceeding £75,000. The total exports of domestic produce in 1850 
 from each division of Australia were approximately as follows : — 
 
 Export of Domestic Produce, 1850. 
 
 £ 
 
 New South Wales (including Moreton Bay District*) 1,159,000 
 
 Port Phillip District (now Victoria) . . 1,022,000 
 
 South Australia . . . . 571,000 
 
 Western Australia .. 20 000 
 
 Tasmania . . . . . . . . 558,000 
 
 Total .. .. .. .. £3,340,000 
 
 The discovery of gold in large quantities in 1851 completely changed the 
 economic aspect in Australia, and effected a revolution in all industrial 
 relations. As soon as the gold rush set in many of the towns were practically 
 depleted of their male adult population ; and thousands of enterprising men 
 capable of adapting themselves to novel conditions of life, as well as many 
 others, were attracted to the country in the hope of acquiring fortunes* 
 From 1850 to 1855 the population increased from 405,000 to 793,000, that 
 is to say, it was nearly doubled. The eight or nine years during which the 
 gold fever raged exercised an enormous effect on the economic conditions 
 of the working classes ; for had the gold rush not occurred, it is not improbable 
 that, with respect to industrial development as well as to the standards and 
 conditions of living and the rates of remuneration of labour, the conditions 
 existing prior to 1850 would have long remained with but little change. 
 Industrial and commercial development would doubtless have followed in 
 the wake of the pastoral and agricultural industries as time went on, but 
 the opening of the gold-fields had marked effects on the evolution of manu- 
 facturing industries in Australia. The first effect of the gold rush was, it 
 is true, disastrous to manufacturing and other industries. The supply 
 of labour in most occupations was exhausted, and many branches of industry 
 came to a standstill. There was, however, a rapid change. Many men, 
 of various trades and occupations, who were drawn to the country by the 
 prospect of rapidly making a fortune, either not meeting with the early 
 success hoped for, or recognising their unfitness for the somewhat strenuous 
 life on the goldie'ds, decided to settle down in the new country and 
 pursue less precarious, but in many cases more remunerative, callings, 
 while at a later stage the depletion of the richer alluvial deposits, and the 
 consequent decline in the activity of the gold-fields, threw many immigrants, 
 whose early lives had been passed in English cities, out of employment. 
 The surplus of labour thus engendered accumulated in a few of the larger 
 towns in Australia, establishing incipient artisan communities, and this no 
 doubt inten.sified the early impulses towards industrial employment. The 
 manufactories, therefore, owed their revival and subsequent development 
 
 • Now CjURLtisland.
 
 466 Federal Handbook. 
 
 to the population attracted to the country by the gold discoveries. The 
 permanent effect of the latter on the commerce of Australia may be seen 
 in the trade returns. In 1850 the total value of the overseas trade was 
 £5,697,000 ; by 1860 it had increased to £36,617,000 ; and thereafter the 
 figures show an almost continuous increase. 
 
 The early sixties may be regarded as a transition period in the industrial 
 development of Australia. The country was recovering from the excitement 
 and restlessness of the gold fever, and was settling down to a more prosaic 
 period of sterner conditions and slower, but more stable, growth. The 
 renewal of the attention to agriculture was general, and the acreage under 
 crop rapidly increased, especially in Victoria, which had benefited most by the 
 gold discoveries, and was now the chief financial centre, and, in all other 
 important respects, the leading colony of Australia. During the following 
 years steady progress was made in general development and in agx-icultural 
 settlement, and the industrial and social conditions now obtaining were 
 gradually evolved. Although there was a considerable fall in the gold 
 returns, there was a steady increase in the quantity of wool and other 
 pastoral produce exported. Victoria held the first place in regard to the value 
 of trade, both of imports and exports, though towards the year 1870 its 
 advantage over the mother State was considerably reduced. 
 
 Up to the middle of the nineteenth century free-trade was the established 
 policy throughout Australia. This suited the economic needs of the 
 country, and, though there was nothing in the mere discovery of gold and the 
 consequent rush of immigrants to change the economic motive for a low 
 tariff, a combination of influences, within a decade, due to the gold discoveries, 
 made Victoria adopt a protective tariff. Licence-fees for mining on Crown 
 land and an export duty on gold had been imposed. The former had caused 
 an armed revolt at Ballarat, while the latter made the representatives of 
 the mining districts in the local Parliament favour higher import duties, 
 in order that the export duty on gold might be removed without diminishing 
 the revenues. Both these matters constituted grievances which made the 
 miners hostile to the pastoralist Government then in power and to all its 
 proposals. At the same time the decline in the activity of the gold-fields 
 resulted in the accumulation in a few of the larger towns of a surplus of 
 workers, who were in favour of a protectionist policy and in general sympathy 
 with the miners against what was considered to be a land-holding plutocracy. 
 This led to a severe struggle in commercial, manufacturing, agricultural, 
 pastoral, and political circles, and eventually caused a political crisis. A 
 general election in 1865 resulted in a victory for the protectionists, and in the 
 following year the first Tariff Act of a protective character was passed. The 
 rates of duty were considerably increased in 1877 and afterwards, reaching 
 their highest in 1892. Four years later a few reductions were made, and 
 soon afterwards the local colonial tariff was superseded by the national 
 Commonwealth Customs Act. 
 
 While Victoria was pursuing a protectionist policy. New South Wales 
 continued to adhere to free-trade. In 1864 the Government in power in the 
 latter colony was defeated in an attempt to increase the Customs duties 
 in order to meet a deficit in the revenue, but on appeal to the country a 
 Parliament was elected which passed a Tariff Act levying 5 per cent, od
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 467 
 
 valorem, on imports. In 1873 this Tariff was repealed, but ten years later 
 a protectionist party had grown up in New South Wales, and an Act imposing 
 higher duties was passed. The latter Act was repealed by the free-traders 
 in 1887, and from that time several Tariffs were framed, some on free-trade 
 lines, and some providing for slight protectionist duties, until the inauguration 
 of the Commonwealth removed the question from the local Parliament. 
 
 It is probable that New South Wales favoured free-trade for the reason 
 that it was thought that Sydney would benefit by being the only large dis- 
 tributing centre in Australia unhampered by Tariff restrictions, and also that, 
 since she possessed the only important coal-fields in the country, protective 
 legislation to encourage the growth of local industries was unnecessary. 
 In these expectations the people of New South Wales were, however, to some 
 extent, disappointed, since Melbourne became for a time the leading financial 
 and industrial centre of Australia. The relatively greater prosperity of 
 Victoria, until the crisis of 1893, was probably the reason for the slow rise 
 of a comparatively mild protectionist party in New South Wales. 
 
 In the other colonies the measures adopted in regard to Customs duties 
 were also dissimilar. While some of the Tariffs were manifestly framed on 
 free-trade lines, others indicate clearly the growth of protection and a desire 
 to encourage local manufacture. The Constitution Acts empowered the 
 colonies to impose any duties they saw fit, provided that they were not 
 preferential, even upon imports from England. At various times conferences 
 were held to further inter-colonial trade agreements, but the diverse fiscal 
 policies formed additional obstacles to the framing of any Customs union. 
 At a conference in 1871 it was vainly attempted to establish a commercial 
 union of all the Australian colonies, with proportionate distribution of the 
 Customs revenue, and the British Government was asked to sanction recipro- 
 cal conventions to help inter-colonial trade. Two years later another con- 
 ference demanded " inter-colonial commercial reciprocity," with the result 
 that in 1873 the Australian Colonial Duties Act was passed permitting 
 differential duties among the colonies, but excluding Great Britain from 
 such arrangements. By reason, however, mainly of commercial rivalry, 
 diversity in policy and railway competition, the colonies did not avail them- 
 selves of the powers thus conferred, and in the eighties further conventions 
 were held in the hope of forming a Customs union ; but it is stated that the 
 opposition of Victoria to entrusting to a commission power to frame a tariff 
 " recognising fairly the interests and special circumstances of each colony " 
 again defeated this project. It was but slowly, therefore, as transport and 
 communication were developed and as intercourse between the colonies 
 became more common, that the people receded from their policy of mutual 
 trade isolation. Finally, with a growth of a spirit of nationality among 
 Australians, the sentiment in favour of Federation made possible a general 
 solution of the inter-colonial Tariff question, together with other problems 
 of union. 
 
 2. Commonwealth Commercial and Industrial Legislation. 
 
 In addition to the Customs Act providing for the organization and adminis- 
 tration of the Federal Customs and the Tariff Acts under which protective 
 rates of duty have been established, a number of other Acts relating to trade 
 and commerce and the regulation of industries have been passed by the
 
 468 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Commonwealth Parliament. Among these may be mentioned the Sea 
 Carriage oj Goods Act 190i, the Secret Commissions Act 1905, the Commerce 
 {Trade Descriptions) Act 1905, the Bounties Act 1907, the Manufactures 
 Encouragement Act 1903, the Australian Industries Preservation Acts 1906 
 to 1910, the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Acts 1904 to 1911, 
 and the Inter-State Commission Act 1912. 
 
 Probably the most interesting of these Acts are those dealing with what 
 is known as the " new protection," a term which, though novel, is firmly 
 established in Australian economic discussions. It expresses the idea that 
 the protection which the manufacturer receives should be made conditional 
 upon his paying what is considered a fair wage to his employes and providing 
 labour conditions otherwise satisfactory. In the view of those who supported 
 this policy it was considered that the protective tariff might become a shield 
 for trusts and combines, which might reap the benefit of monopoly prices, 
 while keeping the " real " wages of workmen at a low level. The next step 
 was, therefore, to make legislative provision for the repression of monopolies, 
 and the prevention of " dumping," and then to ensure that a protected 
 manufacturer should charge a reasonable price for the products of his factory, 
 and also that the benefits of a protective duty should not be monopolized 
 by the employer, but shared with his workmen. The former of these objects, 
 viz., the repression of monopolies and prevention of " dumping," is attempted 
 in the provisions of the Australian Industries Preservation Act 1906 to 1910 ; 
 the latter, viz., the " new protection," it was sought to attain by means of 
 the Excise Tariff Act 1906. 
 
 The Industries Preservation Acts have two main objects, viz., (i.) the 
 repression of trusts and other combinations in restraint of trade ; and (ii.) the 
 prevention of " dumping." In regard to the former matter the clauses 
 for the repression of monopolies may be summarized thus : — (a) Any indi- 
 vidual, either as principal or agent, or any company that enters into a contract 
 in restraint of, or with intent to restrain trade or commerce, or to destroy 
 or injure by means of unfair competition any desirable Australian industry, 
 is liable to a penalty of £500. {h) Any such person who monopolizes or 
 attempts or combines to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce 
 with other countries or among the States is liable to a similar penalty, 
 (c) Any person who, in relation to such trade or commerce, refuses either 
 absolutely or except upon disadvantageous conditions to sell or supply 
 goods or service to any other person for the reason that the latter person 
 deals with others who are not members of a commercial trust is also liable 
 to a penalty of £500. Two attempts to penalize firms, who were supposed 
 to have disregarded the provisions of the original Act had failed, the High 
 Court declaring that certain sections of that Act were ultra vires. The 
 main difficulty was that in the prosecution of any offending trader or cor- 
 poration it was necessary (under the original Act) to prove " intent to restrain 
 trade to the detriment of the public." Such proof was found to be almost 
 unattainable, and the amending Act of 1910 provided in effect that the 
 entering into any combination, for what might appear restraint, should be 
 'prima jade proof of the intent. 
 
 No proceedings have, however, been instituted up to the present time 
 under the Act as amended. In the other part of the Act, which aims at the 
 prevention of " dumping " it is provided that if the Comptroller-General
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 469 
 
 of Customs has reason to believe that " any person is importing into 
 
 Australia goods with intent to destroy or injure any Australian 
 
 industry by their sale within the Commonwealth in unfair competition 
 with Australian goods," he can refer the matter to a Justice of the High 
 Court ; and if that official, guided " by good conscience and the merits of 
 the case without regard to legal forms and technicalities " decides that the 
 goods are being imported with such intent, their importation shall be pro- 
 hibited. No proceedings have been taken under this part of the Act, and 
 in spite of the elaborate definitions of " unfair competition " in six sub- 
 sections of the Act, it would be a difficult task to prove, even in the absence 
 of " legal forms and technicalities," that the intent of the importer was to 
 destroy or injure any Australian industry. 
 
 Although the primary object of the Australian Industries Preservation 
 Acts was the restraint of foreign trusts, they apply equally to local trusts 
 within the Commonwealth. By the Customs To,rifi 1906, increased duties 
 were imposed upon certain classes of agricultural machinery, notally the 
 " stripper-harvester," a machine invented in Australia, which has, to a great 
 extent, replaced the " reaper and binder and thrashing machine " in the 
 harvesting of wheat. By the same Act it was declared that the machines 
 scheduled should not be sold at a higher cash price than was thereby fixed, 
 and that if that price should be exceeded, the Commonwealth Executive 
 should have power, by reducing the Customs duties imposed by the Act, 
 to withdraw the Tariff protection. 
 
 By another Act of the same year (the Excise Tariff Act 1906) an excise 
 of one-half the duty payable upon imported agricultural machinery was 
 imposed upon similar machinery manufactured in Australia. But it was 
 declared that the latter should be exempt from excise if the manufacturer 
 thereof complied with the following provision, namely, that the goods be 
 manufactured under such conditions as might be declared by resolution 
 of both Houses of Parliament to be fair and reasonable, or as might be 
 approved by the President of the Commonwealth Arbitration Court. Another 
 Act carried into effect similar provisions in regard to distilleries, and it was 
 proposed to apply the system of removable excise duties to a large number 
 of other protected industries. 
 
 In Victoria, " this whole controversial problem with its gi-ave social and 
 economic bearings " (to quote the words of the President of the Court) was 
 discussed in a lengthy case upon the application for exemption by Victorian 
 manufacturers, now widely known as the " Harvester Case," and in the 
 report of that case may be found the legal interpretation of the Acts under 
 consideration. The exemptions claimed were refused, and the court after 
 discussing the meaning of the words " fair and reasonable " defined them 
 by laying down what it considered to be a scale of fair and reasonable wages. 
 
 The High Court has pronounced that the legislation under these Excise 
 Acts is unconstitutional as being an extension of Federal action beyond the 
 powers granted, and a usurpation of the powers reserved to the States. It 
 may be noted that the rejected measures were enacted with the consent 
 of all parties in Parliament, having been placed upon the Statute Book 
 whilst the Liberal party was in power, the Labour representatives strongly 
 supporting the proposals. This legislation, although now ineffective, remains 
 on the Statute Book as the pioneer effort of any Parliament to apjiortion
 
 470 Federal Handbook. 
 
 the benefits of a protective system between employers and employed, and 
 to prevent advantage being taken of the Tariff to raise prices unduly. 
 
 The provisions of these and the Arbitration and Wages Board Acts may 
 be regarded as indicating the general trend of a large body of opinion in 
 Australia in regard to the State regulation of private enterprise. While there 
 is a considerable section of socialistic thought which aims at the progressive 
 extension of the sphere of public ownership, the more conservative element 
 advocates the development of legal and administrative control. In view, 
 however, of the limitations of the Federal Constitution Act and of the world- 
 wide concentration of capitalism and development of monopolies and trusts, 
 the socialist reformer is faced with the necessity of dealing with the question 
 of the public regulation of private indastries on lines which are immediately 
 practicable. Hence both parties are interested in the development of legis- 
 lation on the lines indicated. While the field of Commonwealth regulation 
 of trade, commerce, and industrial matters is limited by the Constitution 
 Act, the exercise of the functions of the Commonwealth in this direction 
 has suffered from the absence of any administrative body entrusted with 
 adequate powers of investigation and control. This need, inter alia, the 
 Inter-State Commission is designed to supply. 
 
 This bodv, which was appointed in August, 1913, is constituted as a 
 Court of Record in the exercise of its judicial powers of adjudication, and is 
 empowered to investigate matters affecting production, trade, industries, 
 manufactures, external markets, tariffs, prices, profits, wages, industrial 
 conditions, foreign shipping, or export bounties, river questions and other 
 matters referred by Parliament. The Commission may act either on the 
 complaint of any individual or on its own initiative. It may grant such 
 relief as it deems proper, award damages, issue injunctions, fix penalties, 
 and prescribe future action as by naming a maximum or minimum rate for 
 certain services. It is also vested with extensive powers in regard to the 
 regulation of Inter-State commerce. No appeal lies from the Commission, 
 except to the High Court on questions of law. It may thus be seen 
 that the powers and functions of the Commission are both extensive and 
 important. The Commission is now engaged as a tariff board and is investi- 
 gating the need for, and incidence of, protective duties. It is stated that 
 it was the intention of the Labour party, by whom the Act creating the 
 Commission was passed, that it should be used to make inquiries regarding 
 industries alleged to be the subject of monopolies or combines, with a view 
 either to the nationalization of such industries or to fixing the prices to be 
 charged for the commodities produced. The work and operations of the 
 Commission will be watched with interest, since time alone can prove the 
 value of what must now be regarded as an economic and social experiment. 
 
 By the Commerce {Trade Descriptions) Act 1905, power is given to compel 
 the placing of a proper description on packages of imports or exports of 
 certain prescribed goods. The operation of the Act is restricted to the 
 following classes of goods : — {a) Articles used for food or drink by man, or 
 used in the manufacture or preparation of articles used for food or drink 
 by man ; or [h) medicines or medicinal preparations for internal or external 
 use ; or (c) manures ; or {d) apparel (including boots and shoes), and the 
 materials from which such apparel is manufactured ; or (e) jewellery ; or 
 {j) seeds and plants.
 
 Mandfactubes, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 471 
 
 The Bounties Act 1907, the Manufactures Encouragement Act 1908, and the 
 Shale Oil Bounties Act 1910 make provision for the encouragement of certain 
 Australian industries by the payment to producers of moneys allotted by the 
 Acts upon the production of the commodities specified. The Acts also pro- 
 vide for the refusal or reduction of a bounty, if the production of a commodity 
 is not accompanied by the payment to the workers employed in that pro- 
 duction of a fair and reasonable rate of wage. Reference to the Common- 
 wealth Conciliation and Arbitration Act is made in a later part of this 
 article. 
 
 3. Legislative Regulation of Wages and Conditions of Labour. 
 (a) Wages Boards and Arbitration Courts. 
 
 Two systems, based upon different principles, have been adopted in Aus- 
 tralia for the regulation of wages and general terms of contracts of employ- 
 ment. A " Wages Board " system exists in Victoria and Tasmania, and 
 an Industrial Arbitration Court in Western Australia. In New South Wales, 
 Queensland, and South Australia combinations of the two systems have 
 now been evolved, Industrial or Wages Boards, as well as Industrial Courts, 
 being instituted. There is also the Arbitration Court of the Commonwealth, 
 which has power, however, to deal only with disputes extending beyond 
 the limits of a single State. 
 
 The fundamental difference in principle between the Wages Board and the 
 Arbitration Court systems is that the Wages Board, once established, itself 
 takes the initiative, and immediately sets to work, without waiting for a dis- 
 pute, to frame wages and conditions of employment for the trade under 
 review, whereas under the Arbitration Court system a tribunal cannot 
 itself initiate proceedings, but must wait until a dispute comes within 
 its official cognisance. Under the Wages Board system, moreover, each 
 trade or industry has its own Board, whereas a single Arbitration Court 
 would ordinarily deal with all trades within a district. Another important 
 difference lies in the nature of the tribunals, the Wages Board consisting 
 of persons representing the employers and employes respectively, with a 
 nominated or independent chairman, while the Arbitration Court consists 
 of one member only — a Judge of the Supreme or High Court — -who may, 
 however, be assisted by assessors. Again, it may be observed that under 
 the Arbitration Court system, anything in the nature of a strike or lock-out 
 is expressly forbidden under penalty, provision being made for conciliation 
 in matters under dispute by reference to the Court, by means of compulsory 
 conferences and by the registration of industrial agreements. No provisions 
 for the settlement of disputes exist under the Wages Board system.* It should 
 
 * In the Tasinanian Act, however, clauses have been inserted making it a penal offence to take part, 
 or assist, in a strike or lock-out. 
 
 t Information reeardinc the history and working of various Acts in Australia providinp for the legis- 
 lative retinlation of wages, etc.. may bo found in the following reports : — -Report of Royal Commission 
 on Working of Compulsory Concilijition and Arliitration Laws, 1901 (Sydney. Government Printer) ; 
 Report of Royal Commission on I'actoriis and Shops l.iiw in Victoria, li)()2-:5 (Melbourne, Government 
 Printer); Report to Secretary of State for the Home IJcp.utmont on the Wages Hoards and Industrial 
 Conciliation and -Arbitration Acts of Australia and New Zealand, by Krnest Aves, 19U8 (London, Darling 
 and Son, r<l. 4167) ; Strikes and Lock-outs — Memoranda by Hoard of Trade, 1912 (London, D.irling and 
 Son, f'<l. 01)81) ; IntiTim and I'inal l{ri)Orts of tlu' Royal Commission on Industrial Arbitration in Xcw 
 Soutli Walls. 101:;; 'Die Xcw South Wales Industiial Gazi'tti' (Sydrii>y, (iovrrnment Printer); The Indus- 
 trial .Vrbitratlon Itiports and Records, New South Walis (Syilru y, (lovci iinicnt Printer) ; Victoria, .\nnual 
 Reports of (Jhief Inspi'ctor of Factories, Workrooms, and Sho|is (.Melbourne, Government Printer); 
 Queensland, Annual Reports of the Director of Labour and Chief Inspector of Factories and Shoi)s (Bris- 
 bane, Government Printer) ; South Australia, Annu.'iJ Reports of Chief Inspectors of Factories (.\delai<lc. 
 Government Printer) ; We.^tirn .Australia, Annu.-il Reports of Proeeedhigs under the Industri.il Conciliation 
 and .\rbitr;ition Act. .-ind Rejiorts of Proceedings before thi- P.o.ird-^ of Conciliation and Court of .Arbitration 
 (Perth, Government Printer); Tasmania, Reports of tlie Chief Inspector of Factories (llobart, tioveru- 
 ment Printer) ; Commonwealth Arbitration Reports, Vols. 1. to \'. (Melbourne, Government Printer).
 
 472 Federal Handbook. 
 
 be observed, however, tliat although the Arbitration Court attacks the 
 problem at the other end, aiming primarily at the prevention of strikes, 
 the chief work of the Court is not, perhaps, so much concerned with the 
 maintenance of industrial peace as with the settlement of certain definite 
 minimum conditions of employment. 
 
 The Wages Board system was introduced in Victoria by the Factories 
 and Shops Act of 1896. t The original Bill applied to three industries only 
 (viz., the clothing, furnitui'e, and breadmaking or baking trades), in 
 which conditions of labour were notoriously bad and sweating prevalent. 
 The effect of these Boards in improving conditions of labour soon became 
 apparent, and the scope of the Act was consequently extended in 1900, and 
 again in 1907, 1910, and 1912, and at the present time a Wages Board can 
 be appointed for any process, trade, business, or occupation in the State. 
 A Court of Industrial Appeals, consisting of a Supreme Court Judge, with 
 power to call in two assessors, has been established to act as a Court of Appeal 
 from the determinations of Wages Boards. Twelve appeals have been 
 heard and in ten of these the decisions of the Boards were varied. Up to 
 the end of August, 1913, no fewer than 131 Boards had been authorized, 
 the determinations gazetted affecting upwards of 150,000 persons. 
 
 In Victoria a Wages Board is appointed on resolution by both Houses of 
 Parliament, one-half of the members being representatives of employers and 
 one-half of employes. The names of members are fi.rst submitted by persons 
 interested, and Ihen appointed by the Governor in Council on the nomina- 
 tion of the Minister. The chairman is nominated by the members, but if 
 they do not agree to a chairman, he is appointed by the Governor in Council 
 on the recommendation of the Minister. The times of meeting, the mode of 
 carrying on business, and all procedure are entirely in the hands of the Board, 
 whose powers are defined in the Factories Acts. The result of the labours of a 
 Board is called a " Determination," and each item of such determination 
 must be carried by a majority of the Board. The chairman is a member of 
 the Board. His function is usually confined to conducting the proceedings. 
 He does not exercise his vote except in cases where the Board is equally 
 divided, when his casting vote determines the question at issue. When a 
 determination has been fi.nally made, it must be signed by the chairman, 
 and forwarded to the Minister of Labour. The Board fixes a date on which 
 the determination should come into force, but this date cannot be within 
 30 days of the date upon which a price or rate of pay was last fixed. 
 If the Minister is satisfied that the determination is in form, and can be 
 enforced, it is duly gazetted. In the event of the Minister considering that 
 any determination may cause injury to trade, or injustice in any way what- 
 ever, he may suspend same for any period, not exceeding six months, 
 and the Board is then required to reconsider the determination. If 
 the Board does not make any alteration, and is satisfied that the 
 fears are groundless, the suspension may be removed by notice in the 
 Gazette. Provision is made by which either employers or employes may 
 appeal to the Court of Industrial Appeals against any determination of 
 a Board. An appeal may be lodged {a) by a majority of the representa- 
 tives of the emjiloyers on the Special Board ; (6) a majority of the 
 representatives of employes on the Special Board ; (c) any employer or group 
 of employers, who employ not less than 25 per cent, of the total number of 
 
 t See Note on page 471.
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., op Australia. 473 
 
 workers in the trade to be affected ; or, (d) 25 per cent, of the workers in any 
 trade. The Court has all the powers of a Board, and may alter or amend 
 the determination in any way it thinks fit. The decision of the Court is final 
 and cannot be altered by the Board, except with the permission of the Court, 
 but the Court may, at any time, review its own decision. The Minister has 
 power to refer any determination of a Board to the Court for its consideration, 
 if he thinks fit, without appeal by either employer or employe. The decision 
 of the Court is gazetted in the same way as the determination of the Board, 
 and comes into force at any date the Court may fix. The determinations 
 of the Board and the Court are enforced by the Factories and Shops Depart- 
 ment, and severe penalties are provided for breaches of determinations. 
 No prosecution for any offence against any of the Factories Acts, or for 
 any breach of any determination can be brought except through the 
 Department. 
 
 In Tasmania a Wages Board system was introduced by the Wages Board 
 Act 1910. Amicable settlement of disputes and the adjustment of relations 
 between employers and employes, more especially in regard to wages, was 
 speedily shown to be a forlorn hope owing to the retention of what is known 
 as the " reputable employers " clause. This limited the wages to be deter- 
 mined by a Board to those paid at the time the Board was established. It 
 was pointed out that this provision had been repealed in Victoria in 1907, 
 and in view of the strenuous opposition of the employes to its retention in 
 Tasmania, an amending Act was passed in 1911 repealing the clause. The 
 appointment of twenty Boards has been authorized, and of these fifteen 
 have made determinations. In its general features the system in operation 
 in Tasmania closely resembles that of Victoria, but in the former State it 
 is a penal offence to take part or assist in a strike or lock-out on account of 
 any matter in respect of which a Board has made a determination. 
 
 Since it is not practicable to furnish within the limits of this article any 
 comprehensive description of the systems in force in each State, a tabular 
 statement showing some of the more important features of the Acts is given 
 on pages 471 and 475. 
 
 In New South Wales the Acts in force during the first period during which 
 legislative intervention in industrial disputes was attempted, viz., the Trades 
 Disputes Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1892, and the Conciliation and 
 Arbitration Act 1899, were based on the idea that voluntary conciliation 
 would be the most effective instrument in the adjustment of grievances. 
 As neither of these Acts compelled either party to a dispute to submit its 
 case, they both proved ineffective. In 1901 the Arbitration Court system 
 was adopted in the Industrial Arbitration Act of that year. This Act pro- 
 vided for the registration of industrial unions and for the making and enforcing 
 of industrial agreements. A Court of Arbitration was constituted for the 
 hearing and determination of industrial disputes and matters referred to it, 
 and tlie jurisdiction, powers, and procedure of that Court were defined.
 
 474 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Tribunals for the Regulation of Wages 
 
 Particulars. 
 Name of Arts 
 
 Nature of Tribunals 
 
 How Tribunals are 
 brought into 
 existence 
 
 Scope of Acts 
 
 How a trade is 
 brought under 
 review 
 
 President or Chair- 
 man of Tribunal 
 
 No. of members of 
 Tribunal 
 
 How ordinary 
 
 members are ap- 
 pointed 
 
 Decisions — How 
 enforced 
 
 Duration of de- 
 cision 
 
 Appeal against de- 
 cision 
 
 If suspension of 
 decision po.ssible 
 pending appeal 
 
 Can preference to 
 unionists be de 
 Glared 
 
 Provision against 
 strikes and lock- 
 outs 
 
 Special provisions 
 for Conciliation 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 Industrial Arbitration Act 
 1912 
 
 Court of Industrial Arbitra- 
 tion. Industrial Boards 
 
 Industrial Court (Judge) 
 constituted by Act. 
 Industrial Boards by 
 the Minister on recom- 
 mendation of Industrial 
 Court 
 
 To industrial groups 
 named in Schedule to 
 Act, and those added 
 by Proclamation. In- 
 cludes Government ser- 
 vants 
 
 Reference by Court or 
 Minister, or by applica- 
 tion to the Board by 
 employers or employes 
 
 Appointed by Minister on 
 recommendation of 
 
 Court 
 
 Chairman and two or four 
 other members 
 
 Appointed by Minister on 
 recommendation of In- 
 dustrial Court 
 
 By Registrar, Industrial 
 Magistrate and Inspec- 
 tors 
 
 For period fixed by Tribu- 
 nal, but not more than 
 three years 
 
 To Industrial Court 
 against decision of 
 Boards 
 
 Queensland. 
 
 Yes 
 
 Strikes, penalty £50, and 
 preference to unionists 
 cancelled. Lock-outs, 
 penalty £1,000 
 
 Special commissioner. 
 
 Three ConciUation Com- 
 mittees for colliery 
 districts. Registered 
 agreements 
 
 Factories and Shops Act 
 1912 
 
 Court of Industrial Ap- 
 peals. Wages Boards 
 
 Court constituted by 
 Acts. Wages Boards 
 by Governor in Council 
 on resolution of Par- 
 liament 
 
 To any process, trade, 
 business, or occupa- 
 tion specified in a 
 resolution. Govern- 
 ment servants are not 
 included 
 
 Usually by petition to 
 Minister 
 
 Appointed by Governor 
 in Council on nomina- 
 tion of Board, or failing 
 that on nomination by 
 Minister 
 
 Not exceeding eleven 
 (including chairman) 
 
 Nominated by Minister. 
 But if one-fifth of em- 
 ployers or employes 
 object, representatives 
 are elected by them 
 
 By Factories Depart- 
 ment in Courts of 
 Petty Sessions 
 
 Until altered by Board 
 or Court of Industrial 
 Appeals 
 
 To the Court of Indus- 
 trial Appeals 
 
 Yes ; for not more than 
 twelve months 
 
 Industrial Peace Act 1912 
 
 Industrial Court. Indus- 
 trial Boards 
 
 Industrial Court consti- 
 tuted by the Act. In- 
 dustrial Boards by 
 Governor in Council 
 on recommendation of 
 Court 
 
 To callings specified in 
 Schedule to Act, and 
 to those added by 
 Governor in Council 
 
 By petitions and repre- 
 sentations to Indus- 
 trial Registrar 
 
 Any person elected by 
 Board. If none elec- 
 ted, appointment is by 
 the Governor in Council 
 on recommendation of 
 Court 
 
 Not less than five nor 
 more than thirteen 
 (including chairman) 
 
 By employers and em- 
 ployes respectively 
 
 By Inspectors of Fac- 
 tories and Shops, De- 
 partment of Labour 
 
 Twelve months and there- 
 after, until altered by 
 Board or Court 
 
 To Industrial Court 
 
 Yes ; for not more than 
 three months 
 
 None 
 
 Strikes, association£l ,000 ; 
 individual £50; lock-outs 
 £1,000, unless notice of 
 intention given to Regis- 
 trar and secret ballot 
 taken in favour. In the 
 case of public utilities 
 compulsory Conference 
 also must have proved 
 abortive 
 
 Compulsory Conference 
 Registered agreements 
 
 * The operation of the Commonwealth Act is limited by the Constitution to conciliation and arbitration
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia, 
 
 475 
 
 IN Trades in Australia, 1913. 
 
 South Australia. 
 
 Western Australia. 
 
 Tasmania. 
 
 Commonwealth. * 
 
 The Factories Acts 1907, 
 
 Industrial Arbitration Act 
 
 Wages Boards Acts 
 
 Conciliation and Arbi- 
 
 1908, and 1910. Indtis- 
 
 1912 
 
 1910 and 1911 
 
 tration Act 1904-11 
 
 trial Arbitration Art 1912 
 
 
 
 
 Industrial Court. Wages 
 
 Arbitration Court 
 
 Wages Boards 
 
 Court of Conciliation 
 
 Boards 
 
 
 
 and Arbitration 
 
 Court constituted by Act 
 
 Constituted by the Act . . 
 
 For the clothing 
 
 Court constituted by 
 
 of 1912. Wages Boards 
 
 
 trade, by the Act ; 
 
 the Act 
 
 by the Governor in 
 
 
 for other trades. 
 
 
 Council 
 
 
 by a resolution 
 of Parliament 
 
 
 To processes, trades, etc., 
 
 All industrial occupa- 
 
 All trades, or groups 
 
 Industrial disputes ex- 
 
 specified in Act, and 
 
 tions 
 
 or parts thereof 
 
 tending beyond limits 
 
 such others as may be 
 
 
 
 of anyone State or in 
 
 authorized by Parlia- 
 
 
 
 Federal Capital or 
 
 ment 
 
 
 
 Northern Territories 
 
 Court — matters or dis- 
 
 Industrial disputes re- 
 
 By application of 
 
 Industrial disputes 
 
 putes submitted by 
 
 ferred by President or 
 
 parties 
 
 either certified by 
 
 Minister, Registrar, 
 
 by an Industrial Union 
 
 
 Registrar, submit- 
 
 employers, or employes. 
 
 or Association 
 
 
 ted by organization, 
 
 or by report of Wages 
 
 
 
 referred by a State 
 
 Board. Wages Boards 
 
 
 
 Industiial authority 
 
 by petitions, etc. 
 
 
 
 or by President after 
 holding abortive Com- 
 pulsory Conference 
 
 Court — President. Wages 
 
 A Judge of the Supreme 
 
 Any person elected 
 
 President 
 
 Board, appointed by 
 
 Court 
 
 by the Board. If 
 
 
 Governor on nomina- 
 
 
 none elected, ap- 
 
 
 tion of Board, or failing 
 
 
 pointment by the 
 
 
 nomination a Stipen- 
 
 
 Governor in Coun- 
 
 
 diary Magistrate 
 
 
 cil 
 
 
 Court, President only. 
 
 Three, including presi- 
 
 Chairman, and not 
 
 President only 
 
 Wages Board, not less 
 
 dent 
 
 less than four nor 
 
 
 than five nor more 
 
 
 more than ten 
 
 
 than eleven (inclusive 
 
 
 
 
 of chairman) 
 
 
 
 
 By Governor on nomina- 
 
 Appointed by Governor, 
 
 By Governor in 
 
 President appointed 
 
 tion of employers and 
 
 President directly, and 
 
 Council on nomi- 
 
 by Governor-General 
 
 employes respectively 
 
 one each on recom- 
 
 nation by em- 
 
 from Just ices of High 
 
 
 mendation of unions of 
 
 ployers and em- 
 
 Court 
 
 
 employers and workers 
 
 ployes 
 
 
 
 respectively 
 
 
 
 By Factories Depart- 
 
 By Arbitration Court on 
 
 By Factories Depart- 
 
 By proceedings insti- 
 
 ment 
 
 complaint of any party 
 
 ment 
 
 tuted by Registrar, 
 
 
 to the award or Regis- 
 
 
 or by any organi- 
 
 
 trar or an Industrial 
 
 
 zation affected, or a 
 
 
 Inspector 
 
 
 member thereof 
 
 Until altered by Board 
 
 For period fixed by Court, 
 
 Until altered by 
 
 For period fixed by 
 
 or by order of Indus- 
 
 not exceeding three 
 
 Board 
 
 award not exceeding 
 
 trial Court 
 
 years, or for one year 
 and thenceforward 
 from year to year 
 until 30 days' notice 
 given 
 
 
 five years 
 
 Industrial Court 
 
 No appeal except against 
 
 To Supreme Court . . 
 
 No appeal. Case may 
 
 
 imprisonment or a fine 
 
 
 be stated by Presi- 
 
 
 exceeding £20 
 
 
 dent for opinion of 
 High Court 
 
 Yes . . 
 
 No suspension. Court 
 has power to revise an 
 award after the expira- 
 tion of twelve months 
 from its date 
 
 Yes 
 
 No appeal 
 
 No 
 
 No .. 
 
 No 
 
 Yes ; ordinarily op- 
 tional, but mandatory 
 if in opinion of Court 
 preference is neces- 
 sary for maintenance 
 of industiial peace or 
 welfare of society 
 
 Penalty £500, or im- 
 
 Employer or Industrial 
 
 Organization £500; 
 
 Penalty, £1,000 
 
 prisonment three 
 
 Union, £100 ; other 
 
 individual £20 
 
 
 months 
 
 cases. £10 
 
 
 
 Compulsory Conference. 
 
 Compulsory Conference. 
 
 None 
 
 Compulsory Conference. 
 
 Industiial Court. 
 
 Registered agreements 
 
 
 Court may tempo- 
 
 Registered agreements 
 
 
 
 rarily refer to Con- 
 ciliation Coniniitteo. 
 Registered agreements 
 
 for the prevention and settlement of industrial disputes extending beyond the limits of anyone State.
 
 476 Federal Handbook. 
 
 This Act abandoned the principle of conciliation in favour of arbitration, 
 the jurisdiction of the Court extending to all industries except domestic 
 service, and its awards applying without limitation of area throughout 
 the State. Provision was also made for the registration of industrial agree- 
 ments. This Act, however, proved unsatisfactory, mainly for the reasons 
 that the congestion of business in the Court culminated in industrial unrest 
 and that the High Court decided that the Court had no jurisdiction to declare 
 the terms of an agreement to be a "common rule," in other words an employer 
 on entering into an industrial agreement might bind himself for a specified 
 time to pay higher wages than those paid by other employers in the same 
 industry. 
 
 In the Industrial Disputes Act 1908 an effort was made to combine the 
 relatively simple procedure of Conciliation Boaids with the compulsory powers 
 of the Arbitration Court as to enforcement of findings and awards. The 
 Boards had power to decide all disputes and to rescind or vary any of their 
 awards, and in carrying out these purposes they were empowered to fix 
 minimum wages and other conditions of labour. The Board system estab- 
 lished by this Act was responsible for the effective operation of some 230 
 Boards and the making of 430 awards. The multiplicity of Boards under 
 this Act was, however, the cause of considerable overlapping of awards 
 and consequent confusion. It was mainly the di6S.culties arising irom this 
 confusion which led to a reconsideration of the whole scheme and to the 
 passing of the Industrial Arbitration Act 1912, now in force. Under this 
 Act it was intended there should eventually be about 150 Boards presided 
 over by 28 chairmen, one for each group of industries, and each having 
 jurisdiction in a clearly defined industrial area. In addition a Court of 
 Industrial Arbitration was established and provision was made for the con- 
 stitution in certain raining districts of Conciliation Committees. The organi- 
 zation of the Boards under the new Act is based on the principle of craft 
 unionism, i.e., all craftsmen in each trade, such as carpenters, engine-drivers, 
 painters, and so on, belong to the same union, and are dealt with by the 
 same Board. These Boards are judicial tribunals and not round-table con- 
 ferences, their powers being wider than those of ordinary wages boards, 
 and extending to the determination of any " industrial matter " and to the 
 granting of preference of employment to unionists. 
 
 In Queensland, the Wages Boards Acts were repealed in 1912, and replaced 
 by the Industrial Peace Act, which contains provisions for the establishment 
 of industrial boards and of an Industrial Court, which has both original and 
 appellate jurisdiction. In South Australia a combination of the two systems 
 has also been evolved by the Factories Act 1907-1910 and the Industrial 
 Arbitration Act 1912. In the former State, however, the industrial boards 
 have wide powers to determine any industrial matter or dispute, while in 
 South Australia the powers of the boards are generally similar to those 
 of the wages boards in Victoria and Tasmania, the Industrial Court only 
 having power to adjudicate upon industrial disputes. In both States severe 
 penalties are provided against strikes and lock-outs, while in South Australia 
 " picketing " is also prohibited under penalty. In the latter State refusal 
 to offer or accept employment upon the terms of an industrial agreement or 
 award is deemed to be a lock-out or strike.
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 477 
 
 Western Australia is the only State in which the Arbitration Court system 
 by itself is still in existence. This system, which is also in force under the 
 Commomvealth Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1904-1911, is framed 
 to encourage a system of collective bargaining, to facilitate applications to 
 the Court for the prevention of disputes, and assure to the worker such 
 benefits as may be derived from organization. It virtually creates the 
 industrial union, which is not necessarily identical with the trade union, 
 but rather an organization necessary for the administration of the law. 
 As in New South Wales, Queensland, and South Australia, so under the 
 Commonwealth and Western Australian Acts employers and employes may 
 settle disputes and conditions of labour by industrial agreements, which are 
 registered and have the force of awards. Failing agreement, disputes are 
 settled by reference to the Court. 
 
 As regards the effects of operations under these laws, dispassionate 
 observers are generally inclined to believe that the systems of regulating 
 wages and hours of labour have in the main been successful. Investigations 
 made by the Commonwealth Statistician show that between 1901 and 1912 
 nominal wages increased on the average by no less than 24 per cent., and 
 though it is true that the increase between these two years was more than 
 discounted by the increase in cost of living, this was due largely to the 
 phenomenal rise in prices and rents which occurred in 1912. Thus between 
 1901 and 1911 effective wages increased by nearly 4 per cent., but between 
 1901 and 1912 they decreased by about 1 per cent. While it is true that 
 prices and cost of living have not increased in Australia to a greater extent 
 than in many other countries, one of the factors which tend to increase prices, 
 viz., increase in wages by industrial tribunals, is prevalent to a far greater 
 extent in Australia than elsewhere. And though it is not, of course, suggested 
 that an increase in wages necessarily results in increased prices, in many 
 industries the employers have been able through trade associations and by 
 other means to pass on to consumers a considerable proportion of the in- 
 creased amount of their wages bills. Hence many of the workers, having 
 succeeded in obtaining machinery for the regulation of " nominal " wages, 
 are now desirous of extending legislative effort so as to control " effective " 
 or " real " wages. The proposals for carrying this idea into effect (either 
 by the nationalization of industries subject to operations of monopolies or 
 combines or by fixing prices) do not, however, fall within the scope of this 
 paper. 
 
 While statistics show, therefore, that there has been a large increase in 
 nominal wages, it is equally clear that this increase has been so far effected 
 without, on the aggregate, unduly taxing the resources and industries of 
 the country. This is shown in various ways by the extension of manufacturing 
 industries, by the increasing prosperity of the people, by the large rise in 
 savings bank deposits, by the railway and tramway receipts, and by the 
 increased consumption of commodities of the nature of luxuries.* Further- 
 more, statistics indicate that the relative productive eflB.ciency of labour has 
 increased in recent years, f but whether this be due to the human element 
 
 • See Officiixl Year-liook of the Commonwealth of Australia, No. 6, 1912, by G. H. ICnibbs, C.M.G., Ac. 
 
 t See Report No. 2 — Labour and Industrial IJranch of the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and 
 Statistics, by G. H. Knibb.s, C..M.G., Ac, p. 69. Taking the relative productive activity for all Industrie.-* 
 in 1901 aiba3e(= 1,000), the increase in 1908 was 13-7 percent., and in 1911, 35-5 percent. 
 
 C. 121.54. 2n
 
 478 Federal Handbook. 
 
 or to improved organization and machinery, or to both these factors, is not 
 revealed by the figures available. The fact that the productive activity and 
 efficiency in manufacturing industries has increased is borne out by an analysis 
 of the manufacturing statistics. Thus while the percentage of wages paid 
 on the total value of the output of manufacturing industries increased between 
 1908 and 1912 from 19 '8 to 21 -0 per cent.* the percentage available for 
 interest, depreciation, other charges, and profit also increased uniformly 
 from 16-5 in 1908 to 17-9 in 1911, though it decreased slightly (to 17-2) in 
 the following year, showing that in spite of the increased wages the percentage 
 available for interest, depreciation, profits, etc., had increased. Available 
 evidence indicates, therefore, that the effect of the legislative control of 
 wages and conditions of labour has been of benefit both to wage-earners and 
 employers, and that the evil effects predicted have not come to pass. The 
 complexity of the factors which operate, both those which are purely local 
 and others which are traceable to a wider and even world-wide range of 
 influences, render the appraisement of the effects of the Acts a matter of 
 difficidty. This difficulty would exist even if the Acts had been in force 
 for long periods. In some of the States they have, however, been in opera- 
 tion for only short periods, so that even the purely economic influences have 
 not been fully revealed, while their social and moral aspects remain hidden. 
 Rapid changes have occurred in the class of legislation under consideration, 
 and have been facilitated by the comparative simplicity of industrial organiza- 
 tion as compared with older communities, by the small populations of the 
 States, and by the democratic s}Tnpathies of the people. Although the attitude 
 of public opinion might be one of the best guides in judging the efficiency 
 of the respective Acts and systems in force, beyond the fact that there is a 
 widespread determination to adhere to the principle of the minimum wage, 
 at any rate for the present, there is no united opinion, or even a united class 
 opinion, concerning the relative advantages or efficiency of the various 
 Acts. On the contrary, the ebb and flow of opinion, and even sectional 
 cleavage in attitude, has been marked. Criticism is, however, directed at 
 the details of the systems or at the administration of the Acts, rather than 
 at the class of legislation as a whole. The numerous amending Acts, conse- 
 quent on weaknesses which have been disclosed, indicate the fluidity of 
 opinion which exists, and have strengthened rather than weakened the deter- 
 mination to adhere to the legal minimum wage. A great deal of the success 
 of the systems lies, no doubt, in the prosperity which has been enjoyed in 
 recent years owing largely to the preponderating effect of favorable seasons 
 on the important primary industries. Wages have almost invariably been 
 increased and the Acts have consequently worked smoothly so far as the 
 wage-earners are concerned. It is possible, however, that this tranquillity 
 will not be long maintained. It is thought by some that the time is ap- 
 proaching when the social conscience of the people will be satisfied and that 
 the workers will reach the point of diminishing returns in State regulation. 
 In conclusion it may be said that more accurate knowledge and more pro- 
 found study than have yet been devoted to the subject will be required to 
 furnish definite conclusions as to the economic and social results of these 
 industrial laws, and as to the relative merits and demerits of the various 
 systems. 
 
 • See Labour BuUetin, No. 3, November, 1913, by G. H. KnibbP, C.M.G
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 479 
 
 (b) Factory and Shop Acts. 
 
 The State Factories Acts do not difier in principle from those in force 
 in the United Kingdom, the general object of this class of legislation being 
 to fix minimum standard rates of wages and maximum hours of labour, to 
 provide for sanitary accommodation, the ventilation and cleansing of premises, 
 safeguarding from accident, and the general amelioration of the conditions 
 of labour, particularly those of females and children, in factories. 
 
 The first Australian Factories Act was passed in 1873 in Victoria. It 
 was entitled " The Supervision of Workrooms and Factories Statute," and 
 contained only six sections. Its principal provisions were (a) that any place 
 in which not less than ten persons were engaged for hire in manufacturing 
 goods should be constituted a factory ; (&) that such factories, as to building, 
 sanitation, etc., should be subject to regulations made by the Central Board 
 of Health ; and (c) that no female should be employed for more than eight 
 hours in any one day without the permission of the Chief Secretary. The 
 administration of the Act was entrusted entirely to the local Boards of Health, 
 and the system was found to be less efiective than was hoped. The conditions 
 which have given rise to trouble in the old world tended to reproduce them- 
 selves in the young and growing industries of the States. Factory workers 
 had to contend with the absence of secm-ity for a living wage, unsatisfactory 
 sanitary surroundings, and unchecked and unscrupulous competition of 
 Chinese in certain trades. The advocacy of legislation to control the con- 
 ditions of employment became pronounced in Victoria in 1880, and a strike 
 of tailoresses in Melbourne in 1882 led to a recognition of the real state of 
 afiiirs. As a result of unsatisfactory working under the local governing 
 bodies, and on account of agitation of the operatives, a commission was 
 appointed in 1883, and reported the necessity of legislation for the regulation 
 of factories, and in particular pointed out the fact that men were compelled 
 to toil for as many as eighteen hom's and women sixteen hours a day. It 
 also showed that the condition of out-workers was very undesirable, and that 
 the apprenticeship system was frequently used to obtain labour without 
 remuneration, apprentices being dismissed upon asking for payment at the 
 end of their time. The Factories and Shops Act 1884, while providing for 
 the suppression of many evils in respect of accommodation and lengthy 
 hours, did not touch the two last mentioned. It provided for Government 
 inspection, and also that six persons should constitute a factory if the 
 premises were situated in a city, town, or borough. In 1887 a short amending 
 Act was brought in to remedy some defects that were found to exist. Its 
 principal provision was that any place in which two or more Chinese were 
 engaged should be deemed a factory. In 1893 a further enactment reduced 
 the nunaber of persons constituting a factory to four. Another Royal 
 Commission sat in 1895, resulting in the Act of 1896, which dealt with matters 
 previously untouched, and the system of regulation was carried on by the Act 
 of 1900 and the complete codification of the law in 1905, and again in 1912. 
 
 Similar conditions to tho.se which existed in Victoria were found to prevail 
 in other States. New South Wales and Queensland first adopted regulative 
 measures in 1896, South Australia in 1894, and Western Australia in 1902. 
 Tasmania adopted the Victorian Act of 1873 in 1884. Tlie samo remarks 
 apply in a general way to the condition of employes in shops. 
 
 2 H 2
 
 480 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The adoption of the eight houi's system for adult males has generally- 
 been the outcome of the representations made by the trade unions. There 
 is no legislation to enforce the principle, although there is now a 
 general recognition of it. A week of 48 hours is the usual working week. 
 The larger unions, however, have lately moved for a 7iet day of eight hours, 
 with Saturday half-holiday, no loading of other week days being permitted 
 by way of compensating for the Saturday afternoon. Under this scheme 
 there are, for five days, equal divisions for periods of labour, recreation, 
 and rest, and four hoiu's' work on Saturday, making a working week of 44 
 hours. On the establishment of Wages Boards and Arbitration Courts, 
 in the States where those institutions exist, the authorities thus created 
 generally adopted the principle of 48 hours a week as part of their deter- 
 minations and awards wherever it seemed reasonably practicable. In 
 some of the larger classes of building trades the hours have been reduced 
 to 44 a week, and in some technical and specialist trades a lower maximum 
 haa been fixed, such for example, as the type-setting machine operators in 
 Victoria, for whom the maximum has been fixed by the Wages Board at 
 42 hours weekly. Reasonable provision is made by statute or award for 
 work performed outside the scheduled hours. Organizations of employes, 
 however, oppose overtime in any industry until all the operatives in that 
 industry are working full time. 
 
 In all the States the employment of female labour in factories is now 
 regulated by Act of Parliament. The number of working hours is limited 
 to 48 per week, overtime being allowed only with the permission of the 
 Factory Departments, and even then to a limited extent only. The 
 maximum periods of continuous labom* and the intervals of cessation there- 
 from are all prescribed under the several Acts. 
 
 The employment of young persons in factories is also regulated in each 
 State by Acts of Parliament in a similar manner to the employment of female 
 labour. Excepting under special circumstances, children under a certain 
 age may not be employed in factories. The minimum age in all the States 
 is fourteen, with the exception of South Australia, where it is thirteen 
 years, and Victoria, where the minimum for females is fifteen years. 
 The general object of the restrictions imposed is to assm'e that a 
 proper period shall be devoted to primary education, and that the 
 early years of toil shall not exhaust the worker before the attain- 
 ment of full growth. It is obvious that the age of apprenticeship in each 
 State must be limited by the conditions governing the employment of child 
 labour in factories. The early Apprentices Acts in some of the States are 
 apparently in conflict on this point with the Factories Acts. The statutes 
 limiting the age at which children may begin to work may be regarded as 
 applicable by way of preventing too early apprenticeship, so also may those 
 directing that education be continued up to a certain age or standard. 
 Indentiu-es must be entered into specifying the conditions of the employment. 
 Apprenticeships may not exceed seven years in duration, and become 
 inoperative at 21 years of age, or in the case of women, on marriage. The 
 Arbitration Courts and Wages Boards have power to limit the number of 
 apprentices which may be employed in a factory.
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 481 
 
 All the States have statutes containing provisions respecting the houi's 
 diuing which shops in large centres may be kept open for business. These 
 provisions, in effect, not only limit the horn's dm-ing which shop-hands may 
 be employed, but apply also where the shops are tended by the proprietor 
 alone, or by himself and family, with, however, certain exceptions. In 
 Victoria, for example, shops wherein not more than one assistant, whether 
 paid or not, was employed, were permitted to remain open for two hours 
 a day longer than other shops of the same class. The object of this was to 
 relieve the hardship which existed for such persons as, for example, widows 
 who were wholly dependent for a livelihood upon the casual trade of small 
 shops. It is, however, reported that little or no benefit accrued from the 
 permission. In each of the States the closing time of shops, except those 
 specially exempted, is 6 p.m. on four days of the week, 10 p.m. on one day 
 (except 9 p.m. in Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia), 
 and 1 p.m. on one day — thus establishing a weekly half-holiday. In Western 
 Australia the opening hour is fixed at 8 a.m. In addition to fixing the 
 closing hour, the total daily and weekly working hours are delimited in 
 the case of women and children. In some States, butchers' shops must be 
 closed an hour earlier than other retail establishments, the reason being the 
 early hour at which assistants must start to attend to the markets and early 
 morning trade. 
 
 Establishments, the opening of which in the evening is presumably 
 necessary for public convenience — such as hotels, restaurants, chemists' 
 shops, etc. — are required to remain open for longer hours or are permitted 
 to do business during hom"s prohibited in other establishments. 
 
 The provisions of the early closing laws differ somewhat in each State, 
 but the main objects, namely, the restriction of long hom's of labour, are 
 identical throughout. Formerly, in some of the States, there were, and 
 there are still in others, provisions making the early closing of a business, 
 or the selection of a day for a half-holiday, dependent upon the option of 
 the majority of the business people concerned, or upon the local authority. 
 The anomalous results of the system whereby shops on one side of the street 
 bounding two municipalities were open, when those upon the other side were 
 closed, led to the introduction of the compulsory system, whereby the hours 
 of business are absolutely fixed by statute. In Queensland, the day of the 
 weekly half-holiday is fixed for Saturday. In Victoria also the Satm-day 
 half-holiday became compulsory in 1909, and in New South Wales in the 
 following year, and there is a strong movement throughout the Common- 
 wealth in favour of closing on the afternoon of that day. The hours for 
 shops exempted from the general provisions of the Acts are also prescribed, 
 and special holidays are provided for carriers. 
 
 The provisions of Factories and Shops Acts and of the Early Closing 
 Acts in some of the States are consolidated under a single Act, but in others 
 are separate enactments. The chief provisions of the principal Acts for 
 registration, administration, record-keeping, etc., and of regulations under 
 those Acts, are set out in the following summary : — ■ 
 
 (a) Factories are defined to be places where a certain number of 
 persons are employed in making or preparing goods for trade 
 or sale, or in which steam or other power is employed, or where
 
 4:82 Federal Handbook. 
 
 special classes of industry are carried on. In some States 
 the employment of a Chinese, in some of any Asiatic, con- 
 stitutes the place a factory. 
 
 (b) A Minister of the Crown administers the Act in conjunction with 
 
 a Chief Inspector of Factories. Inspectors visit the factories 
 with full powers of entry, examination, and enquiry ; these 
 are of both sexes, females being employed in that portion 
 of the work where a woman is particularly necessary. Broadly 
 speaking, these powers confer upon the Inspector the right to 
 enter, inspect, and examine, at all reasonable hours by day and 
 night, any factory where he has reason to think anyone is em- 
 ployed ; to take a police constable, if necessary, to assist him in 
 the execution of his duty ; to require the production of all certifi- 
 cates, documents, and records kept by the occupier, in accord- 
 ance with the terms of the enactments ; to examine, either 
 alone or in the presence of any other person, every person 
 whom he finds in a factory ; to make whatever examination 
 he deems necessary to ascertain whether the provisions of 
 the Act are complied with. ♦ 
 
 (c) Kegistration of factories before occupation is compulsory. Descrip- 
 
 tion of premises and statement of the work to be done must be 
 supplied, and a certificate of suitability of premises obtained. 
 
 {d) A record of all employes, giving the names, ages, wages, and work 
 of each under a certain age (18, 20, 21, etc.), must be kept 
 and filed in the Chief Inspector's office. 
 
 {e) Names and addresses of district inspectors and certifying medical 
 practitioners must be posted ; also the working hours, the 
 holidays, and the name, etc., of the employer. 
 
 (/) Records of out-work must be kept, containing the names and 
 remuneration of workers, and stating the places where the 
 work is done. Out-workers are required to register. 
 
 (g) Places in which only the near kin of the occupier are employed 
 are generally exempt from registration. 
 
 {h) Meals may be prohibited in workrooms, etc. In some States 
 occupiers are required to fm^nish suitable mealrooms. 
 
 (i) The employment in factories of young children is forbidden, 
 and medical certificates of fitness are required in the case of 
 young persons under a certain age. Special permits, based 
 on educational or other qualifications, may be issued for young 
 persons of certain ages. 
 
 (j) Guarantees of an employe's good behaviour are void unless made 
 with the consent of the Minister. 
 
 (k) Persons in charge of steam engines or boilers must hold certifi- 
 cates of service of competency. 
 
 (l) Provision (safeguarding against accident) is made for the fencing 
 ofE and proper care of machinery, vats, and other dangerous 
 structures. Women and young persons are forbidden to clean
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 483 
 
 machinery in motion or work between fixed and traversing parts 
 of self-acting machinery while in motion ; and dangerous trades 
 are specified in which a minimum age is fixed. Notice of 
 accidents must be sent to the district inspector. (Dangerous 
 trades are generally under the administration of Boards of 
 Health.) 
 
 (m)|Provision is made for the stamping of furnitm-e, the object being 
 to disclose whether it is made by European or Chinese labour. 
 
 (n) Minimum wage provisions are inserted. Premiums to employers 
 are forbidden. 
 
 (o) Sanitation and ventilation must be attended to, and fresh drinking 
 water supplied. Separate and adequate sanitary conveniences 
 for each sex are required. 
 
 (p) Shopkeepers are required to provide proper seating accommodation 
 for female employes. (In some States this is the subject of 
 special legislation.) 
 
 {q) A dressing-room for females must be provided in factories the 
 manufacturing process of which requires a change of dress. 
 
 (r) Adequate protection must be made against fire, and efficient 
 fire-escapes provided. 
 
 (s) Wide powers of regulation are granted to the Executive 
 and heavy penalties imposed, including a penalty by way of 
 compensation to any person injured or the family of any 
 person killed through failm'e to fence machinery and other 
 dangerous structm^es. 
 
 Other measures for the protection of life, health, and general well-being 
 of the worker exist in most of the States. Though in some instances founded 
 upon English legislation, many of the provisions are peculiar to Australia. 
 Despite experience and continued amendment they have not even yet attained 
 to a settled form. Of the Australian States, Victoria originally had the 
 most complete system of industrial legislation. Other States gradually 
 adopted the Victorian statutes, either en bloc or with amendments suggested 
 by local conditions. The results of the legislation referred to must be sought 
 in the Reports of the Inspectors of Factories of the several States. Gener- 
 ally speaking, the perusal of these reports and of the reports of Eoyal Com- 
 missions which have inquired into the working of the Acts, affords satis- 
 factory evidence that the Acts have, on the whole, effected their objects. 
 
 4. — Manufacturing Industries. 
 
 The statistics of manufactures in the Commonwealth during recent years 
 show that many industries have now been permanently established on a 
 secure basis, and also indicate a consistent progress both in regard to the 
 extension of existing industries and the establishment of new ones. The 
 scale on which many manufactories are established in Australia naturally 
 appears small in comparison with that of similar establishments in older 
 countries of the world ; but it should be remembered that the scope of
 
 484 
 
 Federal Handbook 
 
 Australian manufactories is necessarily limited by the comparative sparseness 
 of the population, and that, prior to 1901, development was retarded by 
 the existence of intercolonial tariffs. 
 
 Soon after the discovery of gold, the construction of the first railways 
 (1854) and the re-establishment of regular steam-ship communication with 
 Europe (1856) helped to encourage the nascent industrial activity. The 
 Colonies of New South Wales and Victoria, which had recently (1855) 
 received the benefits of responsible government, soon turned their attention 
 to the settlement of an agricultural population on the land. The Acts which 
 were passed had a beneficent effect on the working classes, giving them 
 opportunities for employment not previously open to them, and fostering 
 the manufacturing industries by increasing the measure of primary production. 
 During the following years the various manufacturing industries prospered. 
 The statistics of the States are not sufficiently complete or uniform to enable 
 a statement of the progress of these industries to be given. The following 
 table, however, showing, so far as returns are available, the number of fac- 
 tories and the number of employes in each State at decennial periods since 
 1861, will serve to indicate generally the progress which has been made : — 
 
 Number of Factories and Employes in each State, 1861 to 1911. 
 
 Year. 
 
 New South 
 Wales. 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 Queens- 
 land. 
 
 South Western 
 Australia. Australia. 
 
 Tasmania. 
 
 Common- 
 wealth. 
 
 Number of Factories. 
 
 1861 
 
 601 
 
 531 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1871 
 
 1,813 
 
 1,740 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 2,961 
 
 2,488 
 
 571t 
 
 823t 
 
 
 
 
 1891 
 
 3,056 
 
 3,141 
 
 l,328t 
 
 996t 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 1901 
 
 3,367 
 
 3,249 
 
 2,110t 
 
 l,335t 
 
 662 
 
 420* 
 
 ll,i43J 
 
 1911 
 
 5,039 
 
 5,126 
 
 1,657 
 
 1,314 
 
 710 
 
 609 
 
 14,455 
 
 Number of Employes. 
 
 1861 
 
 
 4,395 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1871 
 
 13,583 
 
 19,569 
 
 
 5,629t 
 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 31,191 
 
 43,209 
 
 
 10,995t 
 
 
 
 
 1891 
 
 50,879 
 
 53,525 
 
 
 14,099t 
 
 
 
 
 1901 
 
 66,135 
 
 66,529 
 
 26,i72t 
 
 19,283t 
 
 12,198 
 
 7,466* 
 
 197,783J 
 
 1911 
 
 108,664 
 
 111,948 
 
 37,156 
 
 27,907 
 
 15,799 
 
 10,298 
 
 311,772 
 
 ♦ For 1902. t Not on same basis as other States, t Not on same basis for some of States as in 1911. 
 
 Since the inauguration of the Commonwealth, the throwing open of the 
 whole of the Australian markets to the industrial products of each State has 
 facilitated the internal distribution of the products of Australian industry. 
 
 From the above table it will be seen that the total number of factories 
 in the Commonwealth in 1911 was 14,455, employing 311,772 hands. There 
 are 2,033 factories employing less than four persons each, and 1,533 which
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 
 
 485 
 
 employ only four. At the other end of the scale there are 677 establishments 
 employing 48,038 people (from 51 to 100 per factory), and 526 employing 
 119,626 (over 100 each). 
 
 Under the classification adopted at the Conference of Statisticians held 
 in 1906, factories were placed under nineteen different categories, according 
 to the nature of the industry carried on therein ; many of the categories 
 were also subdivided. Where two or more industries are carried on by one 
 proprietor in one building, each industry is, when possible, treated as a 
 separate establishment. The statement given below shows the number of 
 factories, the number of employes, the amount of wages, value of land, 
 plant, etc., and of output according to the classification which has been 
 adopted ; it must be understood, however, that this classification does not 
 pretend to be exhaustive, but merely serves as a guide for the collection and 
 presentation of statistics in the several States on a definite and uniform 
 basis. 
 
 Commonwealth Manufactories, 1911. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Salaries 
 
 Value of 
 
 Value of 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 and 
 
 Land and 
 
 Plant 
 
 Value of 
 
 
 Class of Industry. 
 
 Estab- 
 
 Hands 
 
 Wages 
 
 Buildings 
 
 and Ma- 
 
 Output 
 
 
 
 lish- 
 
 Em- 
 
 Paid 
 
 Used 
 
 chinery 
 
 (000 
 
 
 
 ments. 
 
 ployed. 
 
 (000 
 omitted). 
 
 (000 
 omitted). 
 
 (000 
 omitted). 
 
 omitted). 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 No 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 I. 
 
 Treating Raw Material, product 
 of Agricultural and Pastoral 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pursuits 
 
 857 
 
 9,805 
 
 808, 
 
 979, 
 
 878, 
 
 9,983, 
 
 II. 
 
 Treating Oils and Fats (Animal, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vegetable, etc.) . . 
 
 105 
 
 2,019 
 
 175, 
 
 445, 
 
 435, 
 
 2,042, 
 
 III. 
 
 Processes in Stone, Clay Glass, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 719 
 
 12,093 
 
 1,225, 
 
 1,229, 
 
 1,300, 
 
 2,964, 
 
 IV. 
 
 Working in Wood . . 
 
 1,625 
 
 27,948 
 
 2,851, 
 
 1,668, 
 
 2,208, 
 
 8,853, 
 
 V. 
 
 Metal Works, Machinery, &c. 
 
 1,697 
 
 60,538 
 
 6,829, 
 
 5,000, 
 
 5,723, 
 
 25,856, 
 
 vl 
 
 Connected with Food and Drink 
 
 2,310 
 
 45,623 
 
 4,154, 
 
 8,167, 
 
 8,571, 
 
 45,122, 
 
 vn. 
 
 Clothing and Textile Fabrics. . 
 
 3,093 
 
 83,845 
 
 4,737, 
 
 4,602, 
 
 1,538, 
 
 16,054, 
 
 VIIL 
 
 Books, Paper, Printing, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Engraving 
 
 1,144 
 
 24,292 
 
 2,379, 
 
 2,964, 
 
 2,482, 
 
 6,307, 
 
 IX. 
 
 Musical Instruments, &c. 
 
 19 
 
 607 
 
 66, 
 
 82, 
 
 18, 
 
 190, 
 
 X. 
 
 Arms and Explosives 
 
 14 
 
 508 
 
 38, 
 
 42, 
 
 56. 
 
 147, 
 
 XI. 
 
 Vehicles and Fittings, Saddlery, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Harness, &c. 
 
 1,208 
 
 13,294 
 
 1,114, 
 
 1,453, 
 
 283, 
 
 3,021, 
 
 XII. 
 
 Ship and Boat Building and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Repairing 
 
 87 
 
 2,920 
 
 362, 
 
 1,163, 
 
 478, 
 
 664, 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Furniture, Bedding, and Up- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 holstery.. 
 
 613 
 
 9,502 
 
 879, 
 
 898, 
 
 178, 
 
 2,614, 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Drugs, Chemicals, and By- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 products 
 
 189 
 
 4,165 
 
 269, 
 
 760, 
 
 602, 
 
 2,536, 
 
 XV. 
 
 Surgical and other Scientific 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Instruments 
 
 41 
 
 233 
 
 20, 
 
 62, 
 
 11. 
 
 61, 
 
 XVI. 
 
 Jewellery, Timepieces, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plated Ware 
 
 169 
 
 2,142 
 
 200, 
 
 301, 
 
 62, 
 
 712, 
 
 XVIL 
 
 Heat, Light, and Power 
 
 351 
 
 7 691 
 
 976, 
 
 2,320, 
 
 6,612, 
 
 4,311, 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 Leatherware, n.e.i. . . 
 
 62 
 
 1,226 
 
 87, 
 
 112, 
 
 25, 
 
 509, 
 
 XIX. 
 
 Minor Wares, n.e.i. . . 
 Total 
 
 152 
 
 3,321 
 
 253, 
 
 251, 
 
 139, 
 
 1,240, 
 
 
 14,455 
 
 311,772 
 
 27,431 
 
 32,498, 
 
 81,599, 
 
 133,186. 
 
 The above figures furnish some guide as to the importance of the manu- 
 facturing industries of the Commonwealth. The total value of the output* 
 for 1911 was £133,187,000, of which amount the sum of £79,042,000 represents 
 the value of the raw materials used. The difference between these two 
 amounts, viz., £54,145,000, represente the amount by which the value of 
 the raw materials was enhanced in the process of manufacture. The total 
 amount of salaries and wages paid in factories during 1911 was £27,532,000.
 
 486 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The largest number employed in any particular class in the Commonwealtli 
 was in Class VII., in which there were 83,845 employes, or 26 "9 per cent, 
 of the whole number. The class affording employment to the smallest 
 number of hands was Class XV., in which there were 233 hands, or '07 
 per cent, of the total number of employes. Classes VI., VII., and VIII. 
 comprise those industries in which female labour is largely employed. 
 
 The maximum amount of salaries and wages paid in any particular class 
 was in Class V. (metal works, machinery, etc.), the amount being £6,829,000, 
 or 24 '8 per cent, on the total amount ; the minimum amount was in Class 
 XV. (surgical and scientific instruments), £20,000, or 0'07 per cent, on the 
 total amount. The State in which the largest amount was paid was New 
 South Wales. 
 
 The average amount of earnings per employe per annum has increased 
 from £77-3 in 1907 to £92-2 in 1911. The figures for these two years for 
 each State are as follow : — 
 
 Manufacturing Industries — ^Average Annual Earnings per Employe. 
 
 state. 
 
 New South Wales 
 Victoria 
 Queensland 
 South Australia 
 Western Australia 
 Tasmania . . 
 
 Commonwealth 
 
 1911. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 96 
 
 3 
 
 83 
 
 5 
 
 87 
 
 1 
 
 99 
 
 6 
 
 129 
 
 8 
 
 84 
 
 5 
 
 92 
 
 2 
 
 In comparing the figures in the above table regard should be paid to the 
 nature of certain industries which are carried on to a greater extent in 
 some States than in others. In Victoria, for instance, where the average 
 is lowest, there is a large number of factories and hands employed in 
 Class VII. (clothing, etc.), and in that class wages are low, a great many 
 women and children being employed. The position occupied by Western 
 Australia is no doubt partly due to the higher cost of living in that State. 
 
 It will be noted that — except in Tasmania — there has been a considerable 
 increase in the average earnings per employe in each of the States during 
 the period under review, despite the tendency of the number of females 
 employed in certain industries to increase at a higher ratio than males. 
 Taking the Commonwealth as a whole, during the period 1907-11 there has 
 been an increase of 50" 25 per cent, on the total amount of wages paid and 
 19- 31 per cent, on the average earnings per employe.
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 
 
 487 
 
 The amount expended in factories on fuel and light is of considerable 
 importance ; in 1911 it amounted to £2,753,000, being an increase on the 
 previous year's figures of £118,000. The classes of industry in which fuel 
 was most extensively used were Class V. (Metal Works, Machinery, etc.), 
 £917,000; Class VI. (Food, Drink, etc.), £546,000; Class XVII. (Heat, 
 Light, Power, etc.), £454,000, of which amount £374,000 was expended on 
 generating electric light and power, and Class III., £355,000, of which 
 £278,000 was represented in brick and pottery works, etc., and glass factories 
 
 The total value of raw materials worked up {i.e., exclusive of fuel, lubri- 
 cants, etc.) in 1911 was £79,042,000, which represents 59*3 per cent, of the 
 total value of the finished products {see below). The class in which the 
 maximum value of raw materials was used was Class VI., " Connected with 
 Food and Drink, etc.," the value being £33,306,000. The next important 
 class in order of value was Class V., "Metal Works, Machinery, etc.," in which 
 raw materials to the value of £13,824,000 were used. The class in which the 
 minimum value appears is Class XV., " Surgical and other Scientific Instru- 
 ments," the value being only £19,000. 
 
 The difference between the total value of the output (£133,187,000) and the 
 value of the raw materials used (£79,042,000) represents the amount added 
 to the value of the raw materials by the process of manufacture. This 
 difference, £54,145,000, is the real measure of the value of production of 
 manufacturing industries. The value of the production in each State and 
 the value per employe and per head of population are as follow : — ■ 
 
 Manufacturing Industries — Value of Production, 1911. 
 
 state- 
 
 Value of 
 
 Production 
 
 (000 omitted). 
 
 No. of 
 Employes. 
 
 Value of 
 
 Production 
 
 per Employe 
 
 Value of 
 
 Production 
 
 per Head of 
 
 Mean Population. 
 
 New South Wales 
 Victoria . . 
 Queensland 
 South Australia 
 Western Australia . . 
 Tasmania 
 
 £ 
 20,644, 
 16,718, 
 6,887, 
 5,071, 
 3,252, 
 1,573, 
 
 108,664 
 111,948 
 37,156 
 27,907 
 15,799 
 10,298 
 
 £ 
 190-0 
 149-3 
 185-4 
 181-7 
 205-8 
 152-7 
 
 £ 
 12-4 
 12-6 
 11-2 
 12-3 
 11-3 
 8-2 
 
 Commonwealth 
 
 54,145, 
 
 311,772 
 
 173-7 
 
 121 
 
 It may be seen that the State of New South Wales far outstrips the other 
 States in the value of the production of her factories, the value being 
 £20,644,000, or 38 •! per cent, on the total for the Commonwealth. The next 
 State in order of value is Victoria, which produced 30 "9 per cent. ; the value 
 of the output of Queensland was 12 "7 per cent. ; of South Australia, 9 '4 per 
 cent. ; of Western Australia, 6 "0 per cent. ; and of Tasmania, 2 '9 per cent. 
 The four most important classes in order of value of output (Classes VI., 
 v., VII., and I.) are the same as in order of value of raw materials used.
 
 488 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 As the total value of the output for the Commonwealth was estimated at 
 £133,187.000, there remained, after payment of £79,042.000, the value of the 
 raw materials used, of £27,532,000 for salaries and wages, and of £2,753,000 
 for fuel, the sum of £23,860,000 to provide for all further expenditure and 
 profits. These results are shown in the following statement : — 
 
 Manufacturing Industries — Cost of Production and Value op 
 
 Output. 1911. 
 
 Particulars. 
 
 Total Amount 
 (000 omitted). 
 
 Per Cent, on Tot4l 
 Value of Output. 
 
 Raw 3laterials used 
 Fuel and Light 
 Salaries and Wages 
 All other Expenditure* 
 
 £ 
 
 79,042, 
 
 2,753, 
 
 27,532, 
 
 23,860, 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 59-3 
 
 2 1 
 
 20 7 
 
 17-9 
 
 Total Value of Output 
 
 133,187, 
 
 1000 
 
 • Including interest and profits. 
 
 In spite of the increased cost of labour and of raw materials, there is no 
 indication that there has been any diminution in the percentage of profits 
 derived from manufacturing industries during the past few years. Thus 
 in 1908 the percentage of the total output available for interest, profits, 
 advertising, and all other standing charges was 16 -6 ; in 1907 it increased 
 to 17--6, and in 190S to 17 '8, compared with a percentage of 17 -9 shown in 
 the above table. 
 
 As an indication of the permanent character and stability of the industries 
 which have been established in the Commonwe^ilth, it may be noted that the 
 values of land and buildings and of plant and machinery used in the factories 
 are rapidly increasing. Thus, for the whole Commonwealth, the total value 
 of land and buildings and plant and machinery has increased from 1906 to 
 1911 by £17,274,000. i.e., from £46,824,000 to £64,098,000, In 1911 the 
 sum of £32,499,000 was invested in land and buildings occupied as manu- 
 factories, the remaining £31,599,000 being the value of the plant and 
 machinery used in connexion therewith. 
 
 Of the total number of 311,772 hands employed in manufactories in 
 1911, 81,644 were females and 230,128 males. In Xew South "Wales 
 the ratio of the number of females employed in factories to the number 
 of males during 1886 was about one to seven ; in 1891 one to six ; 
 in 1903 it became about one to four ; and is now rather lower than 
 one to three. In Victoria the ratio of females to males during the year 1886 
 was about one to five. Five years later (1891) it was somewhat less, but in 
 1896 had increased to about one woman to three men, and at present is 
 sliofhtly over one to two. In the remaining States the ratios during 1911 
 were — Queensland and South Australia, a little imder one female to every 
 four males, Western Australia one to five, and in Tasmania one to six. The
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 489 
 
 proportion for the whole of the Commonwealth was just over one to three 
 The employment of women is, however, largely confined to a few trades. 
 
 The great prosperity in clothing and textile industries is cue of the main 
 causes of increase in female employment. Certain trades are specifically 
 known as women's trades, such as clothing and textile trades, preparation 
 of food, book-binding, and lighter work connected with the drug trade, as 
 for example ^\Tapping. In common with commercial establishments, a 
 considerable number of women is also employed as clerks and t}^ists in 
 factories. 
 
 The proportion of the sexes in Australian factories has not materially 
 changed during the past five years, the ratio of females to every hundred 
 males employed having increased only from 34 '6 in 1907 to 35 "5 in 1911, 
 and this slight increase has been due not so much to the incursion of female 
 labour into what may be termed men's trades, as to the activity in those 
 trades in which women are ordinarily engaged, more especially in dress- 
 making, millinery, etc. 
 
 In the statistical compilations of the various States the term " child " 
 may be taken to denote any person under sixteen years of age, excepting 
 in New South Wales, where it denoted, for years prior to 1907, any person 
 under fifteen. Since 1907 there had been an increase in the average number 
 of children employed in every State, with the exception of Victoria and 
 South Australia, there being a decrease of 1780 in the former and 53 in the 
 latter State. The aggregate result for the Commonwealth is that the total 
 number of children employed in factories has decreased from 14,622 in 1907 
 to 13,921 in 1911. 
 
 In each of the States, however, a comparison between the number of 
 child-workers and the total number of persons employed shows a fairly r«egular 
 decrease in the percentage of cliild labour. The 1908 and subsequent returns 
 for Western Australia show a considerable increase over the 1907 figures ; 
 this increase occurred mainly in clothing and other light industries in 1908, 
 and has since shown a slight diminution. For the whole Commonwealth the 
 percentage of children employed in factories on the total number of hands 
 employed has shown a regular decrease from 5*9 per cent, in 1907 to 4*5 
 in 1911. 
 
 The preceding remarks and tables furnish a general view of the stage 
 of development which manufacturing industries have attained in Australia. 
 In order to make the information more complete, it must necessarily be 
 supplemented by details exhibiting the development of individual industries. 
 This alone will furnish adequate information as to the channels into which 
 the main efforts of Australian manufacture flow. Since it is not possible, 
 within the limits of this article, to give anything like a detailed account of 
 the manufacturing industries of the Commonwealth, the following table 
 has been prepared, so as to show, in summarized and comparative form, certain 
 particulars regarding industries of special importance by reason of the number 
 of persons employed, the number of factories, the amount of capital invested 
 therein, the value of the production, or other features of special interest.
 
 490 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Particulars of More Important Manufacturing Industries in 
 
 Commonwealth, 1911. 
 
 1 
 Class of Manufactory. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 p. 
 S 
 
 of Land 
 uildings, 
 ;, &c. 
 imitted). 
 
 TO " Ql 
 
 of Fuel 
 mitted). 
 
 
 tier Expen- 
 , Interest, 
 roflts 
 mitted). 
 
 » "2 
 1.1 
 
 
 'o 
 
 o 
 
 oj W43 
 
 oj V o 
 
 oyA° 
 
 
 *i ojPLh O 
 
 -g.° 
 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 |-gl§ 
 
 cs cSO 
 
 ^li 
 
 
 = 5l| 
 
 * £'o 
 
 
 K 
 
 S5 
 
 >gS£ 
 
 >ss 
 
 >§£ 
 
 1^° 
 
 <--3§£ 
 
 Hoi. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Tanneries 
 
 176 
 
 3,247 
 
 585 
 
 2,099, 
 
 22, 
 
 332, 
 
 245, 
 
 2,698, 
 
 Soap and Candle 
 
 81 
 
 1,668 
 
 674, 
 
 1,019, 
 
 32, 
 
 149, 
 
 388, 
 
 1,588. 
 
 Saw Mills 
 
 1,494 
 
 26,785 
 
 3,675, 
 
 4,208, 
 
 37, 
 
 2,749, 
 
 1,542, 
 
 8,536, 
 
 Agricultural Implements 
 
 155 
 
 5,156 
 
 529, 
 
 811, 
 
 32, 
 
 551, 
 
 262, 
 
 1,656, 
 
 Entiineering Works, &c. . . 
 
 820 
 
 22,539 
 
 3,286, 
 
 2,832, 
 
 179, 
 
 2,343, 
 
 1,261, 
 
 6,615, 
 
 Railway Workshops, &c. . . 
 
 72 
 
 17,425 
 
 3,469, 
 
 1,939, 
 
 70, 
 
 2,163, 
 
 461, 
 
 4,633, 
 
 Smelting Works, &c. 
 
 143 
 
 7,036 
 
 2,244, 
 
 6,618, 
 
 608, 
 
 1,043, 
 
 1,840, 
 
 10,109, 
 
 Bacon Curing . . 
 
 73 
 
 912 
 
 261, 
 
 1,186, 
 
 12, 
 
 105, 
 
 210, 
 
 1,E13. 
 
 Butter, Cheese, &c. 
 
 540 
 
 3,730 
 
 1,453, 
 
 8,341, 
 
 68, 
 
 375, 
 
 648, 
 
 9,432, 
 
 Ice and Refrigerating, &c. 
 
 197 
 
 6,146 
 
 2,660, 
 
 5,637. 
 
 110 
 
 622, 
 
 677, 
 
 7,046, 
 
 Biscuit 
 
 37 
 
 3,329 
 
 416, 
 
 783, 
 
 20, 
 
 216, 
 
 302, 
 
 1,321, 
 
 Jam and Fruit Preserving, &c. 
 
 120 
 
 4,352 
 
 409, 
 
 1,130, 
 
 17, 
 
 246, 
 
 305, 
 
 1,698, 
 
 Confectionery . . 
 
 95 
 
 3,480 
 
 490, 
 
 844, 
 
 15, 
 
 229, 
 
 263, 
 
 1,351, 
 
 Flour Mills 
 
 233 
 
 2,915 
 
 1,791, 
 
 6,078, 
 
 79, 
 
 342, 
 
 583, 
 
 7,082, 
 
 Sugar Mills 
 
 53 
 
 4,764 
 
 2,691, 
 
 1,215, 
 
 57, 
 
 404, 
 
 531, 
 
 2,207, 
 
 Breweries 
 
 121 
 
 3,450 
 
 2,440, 
 
 1,274, 
 
 69, 
 
 483, 
 
 1,493, 
 
 3,319, 
 
 Distilleries 
 
 32 
 
 220 
 
 283, 
 
 115, 
 
 7, 
 
 25, 
 
 100, 
 
 247, 
 
 Tobacco, Cigar, and Cigarette 
 
 33 
 
 3,730 
 
 588, 
 
 1,468, 
 
 4, 
 
 346, 
 
 701, 
 
 2,519, 
 
 Woollen and Tweed ^Mills 
 
 32 
 
 3,200 
 
 762, 
 
 430, 
 
 20, 
 
 203, 
 
 171, 
 
 824, 
 
 Boots and Shoes 
 
 341 
 
 13,772 
 
 956, 
 
 2,151, 
 
 ■ 17, 
 
 1,097, 
 
 449, 
 
 3,714, 
 
 Hats and Caps . . 
 
 82 
 
 3,856 
 
 347, 
 
 364, 
 
 11, 
 
 257, 
 
 136, 
 
 768, 
 
 Coach and Waggon 
 
 768 
 
 8,030 
 
 958, 
 
 720, 
 
 25, 
 
 659, 
 
 335, 
 
 1.739, 
 
 Furniture and Cabinet Making 
 
 426 
 
 6,918 
 
 763, 
 
 737, 
 
 12, 
 
 674, 
 
 278, 
 
 1.701, 
 
 Electric Light and Power 
 
 164 
 
 2,432 
 
 3,965, 
 
 
 374, 
 
 325, 
 
 964, 
 
 1,663, 
 
 Gas and Coke . . 
 
 136 
 
 4,125 
 
 4,628, 
 
 715, 
 
 73, 
 
 571, 
 
 1 1,003, 
 
 2,362, 
 
 5. Trade and Commerce. 
 
 Under the provisions of the Commonwealth Constitution Act, power to 
 make laws with respect to " trade and commerce with other countries and 
 among the States " was conferred on the Commonwealth Parliament. It 
 was also provided that on the establishment of the Commonwealth, Customs 
 and Excise duties should pass to the Commonwealth, uniform Customs duties 
 should be imposed within two years, and that on the imposition of such 
 uniform duties, trade and commerce between the States should be absolutely 
 free. The first Act passed under the authority of these provisions was the 
 Customs Act 1901. This provided for the establishment of the necessary 
 administrative machinery for all matters pertaining to the Customs, and 
 prescribed, inter alia, the manner in which Customs duties should be computed 
 and paid. It did not, however, determine the rates of duty. During the 
 interval between the inception of the Commonwealth, on the 1st January, 
 1901, and the coming into operation of the Customs Act 1901, the Customs 
 Acts of the several States were administered by the Executive Government 
 of the Commonwealth, under section 86 of the Constitution. The first 
 Commonwealth Customs Tariff imposing uniform rates of Customs duty 
 in all the States was introduced in the House of Representatives 
 on the 8th October, 1901. " An Act relating to Duties of Customs," 
 assented to on the 16th September, 1902, made provision that 
 uniform duties of Customs specified in the Tariff schedule should 
 be imposed from the 8th October, 1901. From this time onwards 
 trade between the States became free, with, however, the exception, under 
 section 95 of the Constitution Act, of the right of Western Australia to levy
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 491 
 
 duty oil the goods from other States. The second Federal Tariff, succeeding 
 the Kingston Act of 1901, came into force in 1907. The Commonwealth 
 follows the British custom of enforcing a Tariff from the time it is presented 
 to Parliament, modifying the rate of duty collected, if necessary, as the latter 
 body passes the several items. The revision was in the direction of increased 
 protection, though the free list was actually extended and a tariff of pre- 
 ferential rates was pro\'ided on goods produced or manufactured in the United 
 Kingdom. The general effect of the tariff is disclosed by comparing the 
 results obtained by appl}'ing to the imports of 1907 the rates of duty, first 
 under the tariff of 1902 and, secondly, under that of 1908. This shows 
 that the percentage of free imports on total imports (exclusive of bullion 
 and specie) increased from 35 "8 per cent, under the 1902 tariff to 40*7 under 
 that of 1908, while at the same time the average rate of duty on all 
 merchandise increased from 17*0 to 19*6 per cwt., and the average rate of 
 duty on dutiable imports increased from 26*6 to 33*1 per cent. 
 
 The total value of the oversea trade of the Commonwealth amounted 
 in the year 1912 to over £157,250,000, that is, to £33 17s. 2d. per head of 
 population. After making due allowance for imports for transhipment 
 or re-export, the value of the trade per inhabitant is greater in Australia 
 (where it is £32 lis. 2d. per head) than in any other country in the world, 
 except Belgium (£40 19s. lOd.), New Zealand (£37 10s. 4d.), and Switzerland 
 (£32 lis. 3d.), and while it is true that external trade is not in itself necessarily 
 an index of the prosperity of a country, a consideration of the general charac- 
 teristics and of the marked development of the trade of the Commonwealth 
 over a number of years suffices to show that Australian affairs are progressing 
 rapidly and favorably, more especially when it is recognised that there are 
 practically no factors operating in the opposite direction. 
 
 A review of the statistics of the total trade of the Commonwealth with 
 oversea countries from the earliest date for which records are available 
 {i.e., the year 1826, when the value was £566,000, or £10 13s. 2d. per inhabi- 
 tant), shows that there was a marked rise, followed by a sudden fall, in the 
 value of imports during the period 1837 to 1844.* This was contemporaneous 
 with heavy land speculation and a subsequent severe financial crisis. In 
 the early 'fifties, consequent on the discovery of gold, there was a gi-eat 
 increase in trade, the total value of imports and exports rising from £5,070,000 
 in 1851 to £15,694,000 in 1852, £29,393,000 in 1853, and £36,406,000 in 1854. 
 This represents an increase per head from £13 9s. 2d. in 1851 to £56 3s. lOd. 
 in 1854. The rapid influx of persons anxious to share the good fortunes 
 of these times soon reduced the value of the trade per head, until, by 1858, 
 it had declined to £31 19s. 6d., while the period 1867 to 1872 again shows 
 a marked reduction in the value per head. For some years prior to this period 
 a succession of indifferent seasons had been experienced in New South Wales, 
 while in Victoria the labour market was congested, owing to the decline 
 in alluvial gold-mining. 
 
 An examination of the movement of the oversea trade of AiLstralia shows 
 that periods of depressed trade have been recurrent at more or less regular 
 intervals of from seven to nine years, and, measured by population, each 
 succeeding depression since 1855 has carried the trade per head lower than 
 
 • See graph on page 462.
 
 492 Federal Handbook. 
 
 the preceding one, until the lowest point was reached in 1894. The year 
 1892 marked the beginning of a period of acute financial stress, culminating 
 in the commercial crisis of 1893. The collapse of these years is plainly 
 reflected in the trade records of that period, the trade of 1894 falling to 
 £5-4,028,000, a decline of no less than 26*7 per cent, in three years. In 
 1895 there was a slight recovery, and a continuous upward movement until 
 1901, when the trade reached £92,130,000, or £24 6s. Id. per head. A decline, 
 due to drought, in the exports of agricultural, pastoral, and dairy produce, 
 reduced the trade of 1902 to £84,591,000, but although in the next year 
 there was a further shrinkage in the exports of agricultural produce, the 
 increase in the value of the exports of metals, specie, butter, and wool was 
 so large as to eSect an increase in the total trade. From 1902 the increase 
 in the value of trade continued, until in 1907 it reached the amount of 
 £124,633,000, equal to £30 4s. 5d. per inhabitant. 
 
 The imports during 1907 were, doubtless, to some extent inflated by the 
 importation of goods in anticipation of the Tarifl revision of that year. The 
 trade of 1908 shows a decline of £10,523,000 as compared with 1907, of 
 which £8,513,000 was in the value of exports, notwithstanding an increase 
 of £3,448,000 in the export of gold and specie. This decline in the value 
 of exports was largely due to reduced prices ruling for wool and metals in 
 consequence of the financial crisis in the United States during the previous 
 year, and in lesser degree to the smaller exports of agricultural and pastoral 
 produce, due to the unfavorable season experienced in some of the States. 
 
 The trade of 1909 per head of population was slightly more than in 1908, 
 notwithstanding that the gold exports were less by £5,194,000. In 1910 
 the trade reached an absolute value never before attained, while, measured 
 by the population, the value of imports per head was higher than in any year 
 since 1885, and the value of exports was — excepting the years 1906 and 1907 
 — -the highest since 1857. The high value of exports is particularly striking 
 when considered in conjunction with the exceptionally small exports of 
 gold. The latter, already much reduced in 1909 as compared with 1908, 
 decreased still further in 1910 to £4,109,000, the smallest recorded since 
 1892. These relatively small exports of gold do not indicate the decline 
 of the gold production, but are merely due to the fact that the recent prolific 
 seasons and high prices made the exports of merchandise sufficient to meet 
 all obligations abroad and so render the export of gold unnecessary. During 
 1911 the exports of gold bullion and specie again increased to £11,541,000. 
 
 With few exceptions, due to temporary dislocations of trade, the balance 
 of trade prior to 1892 was on the side of imports, but from 1891 the reverse 
 has been the case, the value of exports having increased by 120 '5 per cent., 
 and the imports by 77*6 per cent. The excess of imports in the earlier years 
 represents the introduction of capital in the form of Government loans and 
 for investment in private undertakings, and the excess of exports in the later 
 years represents mainly the interest and profit on the earlier investments, 
 repayment of loans to foreign bondholders, and also freight on trade which 
 is carried mainly by ships of the United Kingdom. The continued increase 
 in the value of imports during 1912, while the value of exports remained 
 stationary, is largely due to increased loan flotations in London, and also in 
 some degree to the larger introduction of capital by immigrants.
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 
 
 493 
 
 The total value of the Commonwealth's exports in 1912 was £79,096,000, 
 of which the United Kingdom accounted for £31,459,000, British possessions 
 for £16.888,000, and foreign countries for £30,749,000. As may be seen from 
 the following table, considerable alteration in the direction of exports is 
 evident in the figures for the last twenty years. 
 
 Commonwealth's Exports, 1891 to 1912 — Purchasing Markets. 
 
 
 To- 
 
 
 Period. 
 
 United 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 (000 omitted). 
 
 British 
 
 Possessions 
 
 (000 omitti'd). 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Countries 
 
 (000 omitted.) 
 
 Total 
 (000 omitted). 
 
 1891-5 
 
 1896-1900 . 
 
 1901-5 
 
 1906-10 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 £ 
 23,804, 
 24,624. 
 23,930. 
 32,984, 
 35,310, 
 31,459, 
 
 £ 
 2,812, 
 5,067, 
 13,507, 
 10,754, 
 15,825, 
 16,888, 
 
 £ 
 7,067, 
 11,402, 
 13,800, 
 25,598, 
 28,347, 
 30,749, 
 
 £ 
 33,683, 
 41,093, 
 51.237, 
 69,336, 
 79,482, 
 79,096, 
 
 It may be remarked that the decrease in the value of exports shipped to 
 the United Kingdom in 1912 is largely due to the diminished production 
 in Australia (owing to the drought in that year) of several important com- 
 modities which are exported mainly to the United Kingdom. For example, 
 the value of the exports of wheat decreased by £2.037,000, wool by £741,000, 
 and butter £1,309,000. The exports of bullion and specie also decreased by 
 £662,000. 
 
 These figures show that the value of foreign markets to Australia is 
 increasing at a much greater rate than the value of the export trade to the 
 United Kingdom. The South African Union. India, and Ceylon are largely 
 responsible for the increases in exports to British possessions. During the 
 South African war large shipments of gold were sent from the Commonwealth 
 to that country, and the more recent decline in the value of the exports to 
 South Africa is due to the cessation of these shipments together with a decrease 
 in the export of timber. The exports to India and Ceylon are also mainly 
 of gold, of which exceptionally heavy shipments were made during 1904, 
 1905, and 1911; the large increase in exports to foreign countries occurred 
 mainly with respect to Belgium, G-ermany, and France. 
 
 Notwithstanding an increase of 32*2 per cent, in the actual value of 
 exports to the United Kingdom during the year 1912, as compared with the 
 yearly average of the period 1891-95, the proportion of the total exports 
 despatched to the United Kingdom has fallen from 70*7 per cent, in the 
 earlier period to 39*8 per cent, in the year 1912. This decrease, and the 
 corresponding increase in the export trade to foreign countries, are to some 
 extent, undoubtedly due to the fact that wool and other commodities which 
 were formerly despatched to the United Kingdom, and distributed from 
 that centre, are now to a greater extent shipped direct to continental parts. 
 
 The figures given, however, do not even now denote the total purchases 
 by foreign countries of Australian produce, as large quantities are still 
 distributed from London. 
 
 C.12154. 2 I
 
 494 
 
 Federal Haxdbook. 
 
 The foregoing table shows a great increase in the value of exports to 
 foreign countries, both in actual amounts and in relation to total exports. 
 The value of exports to foreign countries during 1912 shows an increase 
 of 335 per cent, over similar figures for the years 1891-5, thus increasing 
 the proportion per cent, of all exports from 20*9 per cent, in the earlier 
 years to 38*9 per cent, in 1912. 
 
 In order to show the general development and nature of Australia's 
 export trade, the following table is given, in which the exports are arranged 
 according to class, the usual distinction being made between Australian 
 produce and re-exports. 
 
 Commonwealth Exports Arranged in Classes, i901 and 1912. 
 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Australian Produce. 
 
 Other Produce. 
 
 Total Exports. 
 
 
 1901 
 
 1912 
 
 1901 
 
 1912 
 
 1901 
 
 1912 
 
 
 
 (000 
 
 (000 
 
 (000 
 
 (000 
 
 (000 
 
 (000 
 
 
 
 omitted). 
 
 omitted). 
 
 omitted). 
 
 omitted). 
 
 omitted). 
 
 omitted). 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 I. 
 
 Animal Foodstuffs, & 
 
 c. . . 4,104, 
 
 7,991, 
 
 3.5, 
 
 24, 
 
 4,1.39, 
 
 8,015. 
 
 II. 
 
 Vegetable Foodstuffs, 
 
 &c. . . 4,633, 
 
 8,741. 
 
 81, 
 
 170, 
 
 4 714, 
 
 8 911, 
 
 III. 
 
 Beverage.? (non-alcoh( 
 
 )lic), &c. . . 3, 
 
 5, 
 
 43, 
 
 78, 
 
 46, 
 
 83, 
 
 IV. 
 
 Alcoholic Liquors, <fec 
 
 134, 
 
 132, 
 
 56, 
 
 42, 
 
 190, 
 
 174, 
 
 V. 
 
 Tobacco, &c. 
 
 5, 
 
 79, 
 
 62, 
 
 52, 
 
 67, 
 
 131, 
 
 VI. 
 
 Live Animals 
 
 474, 
 
 328, 
 
 
 5, 
 
 474, 
 
 333, 
 
 VII. 
 
 Animal Substances, 6 
 
 :c. . . 16,754, 
 
 31,283, 
 
 "lO. 
 
 6, 
 
 16,764, 
 
 31,289, 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Vegetable Substances 
 
 &c . . 142, 
 
 174, 
 
 18, 
 
 66, 
 
 160, 
 
 240, 
 
 IX. 
 
 Apparel, &c. 
 
 42, 
 
 77. 
 
 171, 
 
 204, 
 
 213, 
 
 281, 
 
 X. 
 
 Oils, &c. 
 
 844, 
 
 1,846, 
 
 42, 
 
 52, 
 
 886, 
 
 1,898, 
 
 XI. 
 
 Paints, (fee. . . 
 
 1, 
 
 7, 
 
 15, 
 
 8, 
 
 16, 
 
 15. 
 
 XII. 
 
 stones, &c. . . 
 
 1.042, 
 
 1,161, 
 
 2. 
 
 2, 
 
 1,044, 
 
 1,163 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Specie 
 
 8,885, 
 
 9,058, 
 
 847, 
 
 1,420, 
 
 9,732, 
 
 10,478, 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Metals (immanufactui 
 
 ed). Ores, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 8,916, 
 
 12,364, 
 
 10, 
 
 24, 
 
 8,926, 
 
 12,388, 
 
 XV. 
 
 Metals (part manufac 
 
 tured) . . 4, 
 
 19, 
 
 14, 
 
 25, 
 
 18, 
 
 44, 
 
 XVI. 
 
 Metals (manufactured 
 
 ) . . 118, 
 
 303, 
 
 196, 
 
 269, 
 
 314, 
 
 572, 
 
 XVII. 
 
 Leather, &c. 
 
 661, 
 
 716, 
 
 13, 
 
 55, 
 
 674, 
 
 771, 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 Wood, <fec. . . 
 
 666, 
 
 908, 
 
 32, 
 
 34, 
 
 698, 
 
 942, 
 
 XIX. 
 
 Earthenware, &c. 
 
 7, 
 
 19, 
 
 23, 
 
 16, 
 
 30, 
 
 35, 
 
 XX. 
 
 Paper, &c. . . 
 
 22, 
 
 72, 
 
 52, 
 
 112, 
 
 74, 
 
 184, 
 
 XXI. 
 
 Jewellery, &c. 
 
 68, 
 
 171, 
 
 54, 
 
 87, 
 
 122. 
 
 258. 
 
 XXIL 
 
 Instruments, &c. 
 
 1, 
 
 6, 
 
 13, 
 
 93, 
 
 14, 
 
 99, 
 
 XXIIL 
 
 Drugs. &c. . . 
 
 86, 
 
 268, 
 
 43, 
 
 55, 
 
 120, 
 
 323, 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 Total 
 
 130, 
 
 235, 
 
 122. 
 
 234, 
 
 252, 
 
 4G9, 
 
 
 47,742, 
 
 75,963, 
 
 1,954, 
 
 3,133, 
 
 49,696, 
 
 79,096, 
 
 From the above table it will be seen that there has been a very substantial 
 expansion in the principal divisions of the export trade of the Commonwealth. 
 Compared with 1901 the exports in 1912 of animal foodstuffs, principally 
 butter and meat, show an increase of 93*7 per cent. ; vegetable foodstuffs, 
 principally wheat, show an increase during the same period of 89*1 per cent. ; 
 animal substances — wool, skins, etc. — show an increase of 86 "7 per cent.; 
 oils, fats, and waxes — ^mainly tallow — an increase of 114-2 per cent. ; and 
 wood, etc. (timber) an increase of 35*0 per cent. 
 
 While Australia's exports are chiefly the product of the agi-icultural, 
 pistoral, and mining industries, there is some promise of the Commonwealth 
 exporting a substantial quantity of manufactured articles to the Eastern 
 and isl?.nd markets, as well as to those countries which produce similar 
 foodstuffs and raw materials, for the raising and handling of which Australia 
 has evolved and now manufactures special machinery and goods. 
 
 During recent years attention has accordingly been given by Australian 
 exporters to the possibilities of these markets. Commissioners have been
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 
 
 495 
 
 sent by the States to Eastern trade centres to investigate and advise as to 
 the requirements of these markets in regard to such commodities as Australia 
 is prepared to supply, and a survey of the export returns of the past decade 
 discloses a very material expansion in the value of the exports of 
 merchandise in the direction indicated. The principal countries concerned 
 in this trade are China, India, Ceylon, Japan, Java, Philippine Islands, 
 Straits Settlements, and Hong Kong. 
 
 The total value of imports into Australia in 1912 was £78,159,000. As 
 regards countries of shipment, the value of goods consigned from the United 
 Kingdom was £4.5,92-5,000, from British possessions £9,581,000, and from 
 foreign countries £22,653,000. Classified according to country of origin, 
 however, the imports from the United Kingdom were valued at £39,125,000, 
 from British possessions at £8,614,000, and from foreign countries at 
 £30,381,000.* The following table indicates the expansion in the import 
 trade which has taken place since the year 1891 : — 
 
 Commonwealth Imports, 1891 to 1912 — Countries of Shipment, 
 
 
 From — 
 
 Total 
 
 Period. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 (000 omitted). 
 
 Britisli Possessions 
 (000 omitted). 
 
 Foreign Countries 
 (000 omitted). 
 
 (000 omitted). 
 
 1891-5 
 1896-1900.. 
 1901-5 . . 
 1906-10 . . 
 1911 
 1912 
 
 £ 
 19,481. 
 21.798, 
 22,896, 
 31,246, 
 39,499, 
 45,925, 
 
 £ 
 3.177, 
 3.747, 
 5,005, 
 6,919, 
 8.612, 
 9,581, 
 
 £ 
 4,677, 
 8,218, 
 11,356, 
 13,343, 
 18,856, 
 22,653, 
 
 £ 
 27,335, 
 33,763, 
 39,257, 
 51,508, 
 66,967, 
 78,159, 
 
 The foregoing tables show that while the actual value of direct imports 
 from the United Kingdom during 1912 is above the yearly average of the 
 period under review, being more than double that of the quinquennium 
 1891-5, the proportion to total imports has diminished, having fallen from 
 71 -3 per cent, during the years 1891-5 to 58 -8 per cent, in 1912. The position 
 of the United Kingdom as indicated by her percentage proportion of the total 
 trade is largely affected by the imports of vegetable foodstuffs, a branch 
 of trade in which the United Kingdom cannot participate. The apparent 
 diversion of Australian trade from Great Britain is more fully dealt with 
 in a later part of this article. The growth of the value of imports from other 
 British possessions during the past twenty years has been such as to increase 
 the proportion to total imports from 11*6 per cent, in the years 1891-5 to 
 12 -3 per cent, in 1912. Of the total imports from British possessions during 
 1911-12, 35-0 per cent, was from New Zealand, 22-0 per cent, from India, 
 11-3 per cent, from Canada, and 9-0 per cent, from Ceylon. The imports 
 direct from foreign countries during the year 1912 represented 28 '9 per cent, 
 of the total imports, as compared with 17 '1 per cent, during the years 1891-5. 
 Of the total imports into Australia shipped from foreign countries, 22 • 7 per 
 cent, was from Germany, and 41-7 per cent, from the United States. 
 
 * In fiddition, tiic value of Australian prodiui 
 £78,15'.i,000. 
 
 ipnitcd was £:!!), OOd, inakiun up tlie total to
 
 496 
 
 Federal' Handbook. 
 
 An examination of the various categories with which imports are classi- 
 fied shows that, as regards value, about 46-7 per cent, of the total imports 
 are included in the two classes — (a) Apparel, textiles, and various manu- 
 factured fibres, and (b) metals manufactured, including machinery. The 
 following table shows the value of imports in 1901 and 1912, classified under 
 twenty-four categories : — 
 
 Commonwealth Imports Arranged in Classes, 1901 and 1912. 
 
 Classes 
 
 1901 
 
 1912 
 
 (000 
 
 (000 
 
 omitted) 
 
 omitted). 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Valne 
 
 (000 j Per Cent, 
 omitted). 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 Animal Foodstuffs, &c. 
 
 
 793, 
 
 1,038, 
 
 245, 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 II. 
 
 Vegetable Foodstuffs, &c. 
 
 
 2,926 
 
 4,456, 
 
 1,530, 
 
 52 
 
 2 
 
 ni. 
 
 Beverages (non-alcoholic), &c. 
 
 
 1,055, 
 
 1,864, 
 
 809, 
 
 76 
 
 6 
 
 IV. 
 
 Alcoholic Liquors, &c. 
 
 
 1,846, 
 
 2,023, 
 
 177, 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 V. 
 
 Tobacco, &c. 
 
 
 718, 
 
 1,046, 
 
 328, 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 VI. 
 
 Live Animals 
 
 
 40, 
 
 244, 
 
 204, 
 
 510 
 
 
 
 VII. 
 
 Animal Substances, &c. 
 
 
 124, 
 
 337, 
 
 213, 
 
 171 
 
 7 
 
 vin. 
 
 Vegetable Substances, &c. 
 
 
 459, 
 
 1,494, 
 
 1,035, 
 
 225 
 
 4 
 
 IX. 
 
 Apparel, &c. 
 
 
 
 12,066, 
 
 19.496. 
 
 7,430, 
 
 61 
 
 5 
 
 X. 
 
 Oils, &c. . . 
 
 
 
 1,290, 
 
 2,192, 
 
 902, 
 
 69 
 
 9 
 
 XI. 
 
 Paints, &c. 
 
 
 
 385, 
 
 677, 
 
 292, 
 
 75 
 
 8 
 
 XII. 
 
 Stones, &c. 
 
 
 
 131, 
 
 201, 
 
 70, 
 
 53 
 
 4 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Specie 
 
 
 
 173, 
 
 543, 
 
 370, 
 
 213 
 
 8 
 
 XTV. 
 
 Metals, Ores, &c. 
 
 
 
 984, 
 
 1,488, 
 
 504, 
 
 51 
 
 2 
 
 XV. 
 
 Metals, part manufactured 
 
 
 1,062, 
 
 1,424, 
 
 362, 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 XVI. 
 
 Metals, manufactured 
 
 
 7,492, 
 
 16,985, 
 
 9,493, 
 
 126 
 
 7 
 
 XVII. 
 
 Leather, &c. 
 
 
 
 524, 
 
 1,788, 
 
 1,264, 
 
 241 
 
 2 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 Wood, &c. . . 
 
 
 
 1,814, 
 
 3,565, 
 
 1,751, 
 
 96 
 
 5 
 
 XIX. 
 
 Earthenware, &c. . 
 
 
 
 925, 
 
 1,445, 
 
 520, 
 
 56 
 
 2 
 
 XX. 
 
 Paper, &c. 
 
 
 
 1,731, 
 
 3,116, 
 
 1,385, 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 XXI. 
 
 Jeweller\% &c. 
 
 
 
 1,065, 
 
 1,874, 
 
 809, 
 
 75 
 
 9 
 
 XXII. 
 
 Instruments. &c. 
 
 
 
 219, 
 
 518, 
 
 299, 
 
 136 
 
 5 
 
 XXIIl. 
 
 Drugs, &c. . . 
 
 
 
 1,472, 
 
 2,394, 
 
 922, 
 
 62 
 
 6 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 'Miscellaneous 
 
 
 
 3,140, 
 
 7,951, 
 
 4,811, 
 
 153-2 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 42,434, 
 
 78,159, 
 
 35,725, 
 
 84-2 
 
 6. Trade of the United Kingdom with Australia. 
 
 The failure of the United Kingdom to maintain the position formerly 
 held by her in the import trade of Australia has, during recent years, become 
 a matter of more than ordinary interest in both countries. In June, 1905, 
 Mr. E. J. Jeiiray was sent here as a " Commissioner of the Advisory Committee 
 on Commercial Intelligence of the British Board of Trade," to investigate 
 the conditions and prospects of British trade with this country, and early 
 in 1908 3Ir. Ben H. Morgan was sent on a similar mission by the Manufac- 
 turers' Association of Great Britain, and in particular to report on : — (i.) The 
 extent and possibilities of the market, with a view to (a) increasing export 
 trade, (6) establishing branch factories inside the tariffs ; (ii.) the extent 
 and condition of local industries ; (iii.) the nature and condition of foreign 
 competition ; (iv.) transport services, with special reference to shipping 
 " rings " and " conferences " ; (v.) the operation of local tariffs and effects
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., op Australia. 497 
 
 of preferences. In December, 1908, a permanent Commissioner of the British 
 Board of Trade arrived in Australia for the purpose of advising British 
 manufacturers of the particular requirements of the Australian markets, 
 with a view to improving the trade between the Commonwealth and the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 In his report Mr. Jeffray gave the following principal causes of the success 
 of the foreign manufacturer in the Australian market : — (i.) Greater prompti- 
 tude and attention to orders ; (ii.) greater readiness to adapt their goods 
 to the requirements of customers ; (iii.) more efficient representation in 
 Australia ; (iv.) better package of goods ; (v.) more attractive appearance 
 of goods ; (vi.) lower freights. 
 
 Mr. Morgan reports " that the most important reason for the growth 
 of foreign trade in Australia is that the foreign manufacturer is able to quote 
 lower prices than the British manufacturer for goods of equal value." That 
 the foreign manufacturer is able to do this, is, he contends, due to the 
 following, viz. : — (i.) Protection. By virtue of protection for his home market 
 " the foreign manufacturer can depend on a definite consumption therein, 
 and is thus able to produce in larger quantities, and therefore more cheaply." 
 (ii.) Lower shipping rates and raw materials. " Direct shipping services 
 have been established with foreign countries, who carry goods generally 
 at lower rates than British shipping companies carry British goods, and that, 
 following the developemnt of manufacturing industries in foreign countries 
 and the establishment of those cheap shipping facilities, the markets for 
 raw materials are being diverted to those countries . . . and b}' carrying 
 at lower rates, give their manufacturers an advantage in price in such raw 
 materials." After quoting instances of goods being charged freights from 
 Liverpool to Australia much above those charged on similar goods from 
 New York to Hamburg via Liverpool to Australia, Mr. Morgan says : — 
 " This shipping question is one of vital interest to manufacturers, and the 
 time has come when they must, if they are to retain their position in export 
 markets, interest themselves directly in freight matters, instead of leaving 
 them as heretofore to merchants and shipping agents." 
 
 Mr. Wickes, addressing the British delegates attending the seventh 
 Congress of the Chambers of Commerce of the Empire, alluding to 
 freights, said : — " I doubt if there is any question which so illustrates 
 the want of organization among om* commercial community," and he 
 suggested that there should be a keener study of freight rates from other 
 parts of the world, and also closer co-operation of British manufacturers, 
 for the more economical distribution of their manufactures. In subsequent 
 reports, Mr. Wickes strenuously advocates more direct representation of 
 British manufacturers in Australia. 
 
 In order to draw any reliable conclusions as to the growth of import trade 
 from the United Kingdom as compared with that from other countries, it will 
 be desirable to furnish a comparison free from the influence of such trade as is, 
 in the nature of the case, not open to the United Kingdom. For if the total 
 imports were included in any such comparison, the results would be subject 
 to certain limitations imposed by the nature of the imports from some coun- 
 tries. For example, the total imports from the United States have been 
 increased in certain years by imports of l)readstuffs, while imports of such
 
 498 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 items as kerosene and timber also increase the proportion of imports from 
 the United States without any prejudicial effect on the trade of the United 
 Kingdom. Similar modification is not necessary in regard to Germany, 
 as the nature of the imports from that country is substantially the same 
 as from the United Kingdom. The following statement shows accordingly 
 the percentage on the total value of Commonwealth imports of the principal 
 direct imports fi'om the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States 
 during th^ years 1886, 1906, 1908 to 1910, and 19li. It should be observed 
 that, prior to the year 1905, imports into the Commonwealth were recorded 
 only against the country whence they were directly shipped. Although the 
 values of direct imports do not afford completely satisfactory data (since the 
 proportions of indirect trade vary to some extent), it is necessary in any com- 
 parison extending fm'ther back than 1905 to use such figures. 
 
 Percentage on Total Commonwealth Imports op Principal Direct 
 Imports from United Kingdom, Germany, and United States, 
 1886, 1906, 1910, and 1911. 
 
 Nature of Imports. 
 
 Year. 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 United 
 states. 
 
 AU 
 Countries. 
 
 Total imports of foodstuffs of animal 
 origin, alcoholic liquors, apparel, 
 textiles, boots, metal, paper and 
 stationery, jewellery, timepieces, 
 earthenware, cements, drugs, chemi- 
 cals, fertilisers, and leather* 
 
 r 1886 
 1906 
 1908 
 
 ' 1909 
 1910 
 
 I 1911 
 
 89-31 
 71-98 
 71-29 
 72-70 
 71-04 
 69-91 
 
 1-65 
 7-94 
 7-66 
 7-10 
 6-91 
 7-16 
 
 3-01 
 7-79 
 8-84 
 7-12 
 8-07 
 8-95 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 Total imports (less bullion and specie) . . 
 
 ( 1886 
 1906 
 1908 
 
 ■ 1909 
 1910 
 
 I 1911 
 
 73-71 
 62-34 
 61-11 
 62-10 
 61-82 
 60-28 
 
 2-06 
 7-55 
 7-32 
 6-64 
 6-44 
 6-82 
 
 6-16 
 10-92 
 12-42 
 
 9-98 
 11-07 
 11-93 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 * Representing over 70 per cent, of the total imports. 
 
 The foregoing table shows that the share of the United Kingdom, as 
 indicated by the records according to " Country of Shipment," in the trade 
 of those classes of goods enumerated — representing over 70 per cent, of the 
 total imports from that country — has declined from 89*3 per cent, of the 
 whole in 1886 to 70*0 per cent, in 1911. The value of these imports from 
 the United Kingdom has increased fi-om £20.489,000 in 1886 to only 
 £32,038,000 in 1911, or by 56-4 per cent., while the total value of similar 
 imports has increased fi-om £22,938,000 to £45,826,000, or by 99*7 per cent. 
 Had the same proportion of the total trade been shipped from the United 
 Kingdom dui'ing 1911 as in 1886 it would have represented £40.927.000 
 instead of £32,038,000. 
 
 It has been suggested that the larger proportion of imports now received 
 from foreign countries is due to the establishment and increase of direct 
 shipping with the countries concerned, and that trade formerly received 
 through English ports is now received direct. From the Australian records 
 it is impossible to ascertain the value of the indirect trade with foreign
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 499 
 
 countries through the United Kingdom prior to 1905. The returns of the 
 British Board of Trade, however, show that the percentage of foreign and 
 colonial produce exported from the United Kingdom to Australia on the 
 total exports was 14 '26 in 1911, compared with 14 "16 per cent, during the 
 five years 1886 to 1890, and 13*52 per cent, during the 25 years 1886 to 
 1910. 
 
 It will be seen, therefore, that the average percentage of foreign goods 
 despatched to Australia through the United Kingdom during 1911 is almost 
 identical with the average of the years 1886-90, and is greater than the average 
 of the past 25 years. It is therefore apparent that the increase of direct 
 imports from foreign countries has not been, in the aggregate, at the expense 
 of the indirect trade via Great Britain. 
 
 Preferential trade with Great Britain has been under discussion in Aus- 
 tralia for many years, and the Tariff Act of 1908, at present in force, provides 
 preferential rates in favour of goods produced or manufactured in the United 
 Kingdom. On the introduction of the preferential treatment of British 
 goods, it was required that British material or labour should represent not 
 less than one-fourth the value of such goods. From the Lst September. 
 1911, it has been required, in regard to goods only partially manufactured 
 in the United Kingdom, that the final process or processes of manufacture 
 shall have been performed in the United Kingdom, and that the expenditure 
 in material of British production and or British labour shall have been 
 not less than one-fom'th of the factory or works' cost of the goods in the 
 finished state. 
 
 After an exhaustive analysis of the trade returns made in the Official 
 Year-Book of the Commonwealth (Xo. 6, pp. 629 to 643), it is stated that the 
 results do not disclose any positive effect of the preferential rate, one way 
 or the other. It is further stated that there is every reason to believe that 
 the records, in many instances, are not sufficiently accurate to allow of just 
 comparisons being made, and that it will only be in the course of a number 
 of years that anything like a definite opinion can be reached as to the efficiency 
 of the preferential treatment, for, as Professor W. J. Asliley, in his preface 
 to Mr. John Holt Schooling's British Trade Booh, says — " No comparison of 
 isolated years, no comparison of short consecutive periods, can be relied 
 upon to give properly comparable data." 
 
 Primarily, it will be necessary in some way to eliminate the normal growth 
 in business which would have taken place under any regime whatever in an 
 advancing country ; and secondly, the significance of the statistics will 
 depend upon a very rigid adherence to the same method of description in 
 regard to items and the same definition of " Origin." If the practice of 
 recording is as variable in the future as it has been in the past, no real de- 
 ductions can be diawn, and this goes to show the importance of maintaining 
 the same method of describing items, quite irrespective of their significance 
 from the stand-point merely of revenue. 
 
 In order to determine the course of trade, it will be essential to maintain 
 in its integrity for a sufficient nunrber of years any classification of items 
 once adopted, and no practicable means of analysis will enable one to pene- 
 trate the significance of the trade if that course is not followed, because the
 
 50J Federal Handbook. 
 
 determining effect of a preference which, in its nature, is likely to be not too 
 well marked compared with the other elements of growth, can easily be 
 vitiated by the entering of other possibilities of change into the results. 
 
 7. Shipping. 
 
 The shipping of the Commonwealth has hitherto been conducted partly 
 under Imperial Acts, consolidated in the Merchant Shipping Act of 189-i, 
 and amendments of these, and partly under Acts of the several States of 
 the Commonwealth. By Part -IV., section 98, of the Commonwealth 
 Constitiition Act, power to make laws with respect to trade and commerce 
 was extended to navigation and shipping, and in pursuance of this power 
 a Bill for an Act relating to Navigation and Shipping was introduced 
 into the Senate on the 17th March, 1904, but was not proceeded with. 
 After a Royal Commission in Australia and a conference between 
 representatives of the United Kingdom, the Commonwealth of Australia, 
 and New Zealand, in London, had been held on the subject of merchant 
 shipping legislation, an amended Bill was introduced into the Senate in 
 1907, and eventually received the Royal Assent in August, 1913. The Act, 
 which is to come into force on a date to be proclaimed, is based largely on 
 the British Merchant Shipping Acts and the Acts of New Zealand and New 
 South Wales, and contains 425 sections divided into eleven parts, as follows : — 
 I. Introductory. II. Masters and Seamen. III. Foreign Seamen. IV. Ships 
 and Shipping. V. Passengers. VI. The Coasting Trade. VII. Wrecks and 
 Salvage. VIII. Pilots and Pilotage. IX. Courts of Marine Inquiry. X. Legal 
 Proceedings. XL Miscellaneous. Apart from important provisions relating 
 to accommodation, manning, surveys, and pilotage, there are sections 
 dealing with the safety of life at sea. It is provided that ships carrying 
 50 or more passengers engaged on journeys exceeding 200 miles from port to 
 port are to be equipped, unless specially exempted, with efficient wireless 
 installation. 
 
 An entirely new departure is marked by that portion of the Act dealing 
 with the coasting trade. A ship is to be deemed as engaged in the coasting 
 trade if she takes on board passengers or cargo at any port in a State or 
 territory which is part of the Commonwealth, to be carried or delivered at any 
 other port in the same State or territory or in any other State or other 
 such territory. It is specially provided, however, that passengers can 
 be carried on tlirough tickets to such ports, and that cargo and mails 
 can be similarly carried. This provision means that unless licensed in 
 Australia for the coasting trade (which implies compliance with Australian 
 conditions as to pay, manning, and so on), a ship, whether it be British or 
 foreign, cannot carry passengers from one port of the Commonwealth 
 to another. An English mail steamer, calling first at Fremantle, could not 
 carry passengers thence to Adelaide. There is, however, a further provision 
 that the Governor-General in Council may by order declare that the carrj-ing 
 of passengers between specified ports in Australia by British ships shall not 
 be deemed engaging in the coasting trade. Underlying these provisions 
 is the broad principle that all ships engaged in the coasting trade shall conform 
 to Australian conditions as to manning, wages, and other matters. It is 
 provided that no vessel shall engage in the coasting trade unless licensed to
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. .501 
 
 do so. Such licences are for periods not exceeding three years, and it is. 
 specified on the licences that the seamen employed are to be paid wages in 
 accordance with Australian conditions, as enacted, and that in the case of 
 a foreign ship there are to be the same number of officers and seamen as. 
 would be required if she were a British ship, remastered in Au.stralia, or engaged 
 in the foreign trade. No ship, whether British or foreign, which receives 
 directly or indirectly a subsidy or bonus from a foreign Government can be 
 licensed for the coasting trade. This provision will make it impossible 
 for a vessel subsidized by a foreign Government to carry passengers, except 
 on through tickets from port to port in the Commonwealth, or within territory 
 subject to the Commonwealth. It is provided that the sections relating 
 to the coasting trade shall also come into operation on a date to be fixed by 
 proclamation, but shall not take effect on the date fixed for the commence- 
 ment of the Act unless the proclamation fixing that date expressly declares, 
 so. 
 
 The total tonnage of oversea shipping entered and cleared the Common- 
 wealth in 1911 was 9,98-5,000, which shows an increase of 1,162,000 tons,, 
 or 13 '2 per cent., since the year 1907. The chief countries from and to which 
 the shipping was entered and cleared are : — The United Kingdom (3, 001, 000- 
 tons), New Zealand (1,886,000 tons), Germany (636,000 tons), Chile (576, 000- 
 tons), the United States (535,000 tons). South Africa (375,000 tons), Japan 
 (261,000 tons), India and Ceylon (243,000 tons), and France (239,000 tons). 
 
 The shipping between the Commonwealth and the United Kingdom 
 and European countries during the past five years shows that steady increase 
 which indicates the consistent development of a well-established trade. The 
 shipping in this direction during 1911 amounted to 4,213,000 tons, or 42 "2 
 per cent, of the total oversea shipping of the Commonwealth, and was recorded 
 against the several countries as follows :— United Kingdom, 3,001,000 tons 
 (71-2 per cent.) ; Germany, 636,000 tons (15*0 per cent.) ; France, 239,00a 
 tons (5*7 per cent.) ; Belgium, 187,000 tons (4-4 per cent.) ; other European 
 countries, 150,000 tons (3 "6 per cent.).* 
 
 The tonnage of shipping between the Commonwealth and New Zealand 
 shows an expansion from 1,524,000 tons in 1907 to 1,886,000 tons in 1911, 
 an increase of 362,000 tons, or 23*7 per cent., during the four years. The 
 shipping with New Zealand represented 18*9 per cent, of the total shipping 
 of the Commonwealth during 1911. 
 
 The total tonnage between the Commonwealth and Eastern countries during 
 1911 amounted to 1,822,000 tons, or 18*2 per cent, of the whole, representing 
 an increase of 137,000 tons, or S'l per cent., as compared with 1907. The 
 tonnage between Australia and China, Singapore, and Hong Kcjng collectively 
 fell, largely in consequence of smaller exports of coal, from 413,000 tons in 
 1907 to 267,000 tons in 1911, while Japan increased by 15,000 tons (6-1 per 
 cent.) The tonnage recoided as to and from India and Ceylon rose from 
 199,000 tons in 1907 to 243,000 tons in 1911. This tonnage, which is nuch 
 
 • Ihfc reoord.H app'tar to shew that wtiilo the toiinaKo bctw^.n the Commonwealth and the United 
 KinKflom increased by «29,0f)0 tons, efjiial to an increase of :iH'2 per cent., the tonnage between the 
 Oomrnonwealth and European continental countries has increas(;d by .554,000 tons, or by 41*:i per cent., 
 or in other words that 70*1 per cent, of the increase was credited to the United KinRdom and 29- 9 to 
 the latter countries. .Vo real significance c»n, however, b« attached to these flKUres, for in many 
 instances it must be regarded as almost accidental whether tonnage be recorded against the United 
 Kingdom or against Belgium, Germany, or France.
 
 502 Federal Handbook. 
 
 below that of the previous year, does not, of coui'se, include steamers to or 
 from the United Kingdom or other countries calling at Colombo en route. 
 The tonnage recorded as to and from the Philippines shows a rapid decline 
 during the years 1909 and 1910, though some increase again appears in 1911. 
 The shipping tonnage between Australia and the Philippines has also been 
 affected largely by the coal trade, which has been latterly of much smaller 
 dimensions than in 1907. Owing to the limitation of the records, the figures 
 given in the tables do not represent the full volume of the shijjping between 
 the Commonwealth and the Philippines. In addition to the shipping re- 
 corded to the Philippine Islands the regular steam lines between the Common- 
 wealth and Japan make Manila a regular port of call, and it is by these vessels 
 that the general trade— apart from the coal trade— is chiefly carried. The 
 whole of the shipping which was recorded as entering the Commonwealth 
 dm-ing 1911 from the Philippines (57,000 tons) was, with the exception of 
 3,500 tons, in ballast, and of the 103,000 tons which was recorded as cleared 
 for that country, 78,000 tons cleared from the coal port of Newcastle. The 
 tonnage between the . Commonwealth and Papua has increased rapidly, 
 though consistently, during the past five years, the tonnage recorded between 
 these two countries being 35,000 tons in 1907, and 150,000 tons in 1911. 
 There has also been a marked expansion of the shipping to and from the Dutch 
 East Indies during later years, the tonnage having increased from 44,000 
 in 1907 to 159,000 in 1911. The shipping with the South Sea Islands, too, 
 shows an expanding trade. 
 
 The shipping tonnage recorded between the Commonwealth and African 
 countries during 1911 amounted to 502,000 tons, an increase as compared 
 with 1907 of 151,000 tons. Much of the trade between South Africa and 
 Australia, however, is carried by steamers calling at ports in the former 
 country on their voyages between the Commonwealth and the United King- 
 dom, and which are not shown in relation to African ports in the shipping 
 returns. Shipping tonnage with African countries — mainly confined to Cape 
 Colony, Natal, and Portuguese East Afi'ica — rose fi'om 566,000 tons in 1904, 
 to 650,000 tons in 1905, but fell to 528,000 tons in 1906, to 351,000 tons in 
 1907, and to 226,000 tons in 1908, so that the figm-es for 1911 indicate a very 
 material increase during recent years. These figures are, however, of no 
 significance as an index of the transport requirements between the two 
 countries, inasmuch as of the total tonnage passing between the two countries 
 395,000 tons were fi"om Afi'ica to Australia, with only 106,000 the other way. 
 Moreover, of the 395,000 tons which entered the Commonwealth fi-om 
 Africa, 369,000 tons, or 93*2 per cent., were represented by vessels in 
 ballast seeking freights fi'om Australian ports. 
 
 The shipping of the Commonwealth with North and Central America 
 dm-ing 1911 amounted to 728,000 tons (7*3 per cent, of the whole) repre- 
 senting as compared with 1907 a decline of 291,000 tons. The large tonnage 
 between the Commonwealth and North America during 1907 was due to 
 unusually heavy exports of coal to the United States. The 728,000 tons of 
 shipping with North and Central America dm'ing 1911 were recorded against 
 the several countries as follows :— United States, 535,000 tons (73*5 per cent.) ; 
 Canada, 163,000 tons (22 '4 per cent.); and Mexico, 30,000 tons (4*1 per 
 cent.).
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., op Australia. 503 
 
 The shipping between the Commonwealth and South American countries 
 dm-ing 1911 — 835.000 tons— was 37 per cent, greater than in 1909, though 
 still less than in 1908. The shipping in this direction dming 1911 was mainly 
 engaged in the carriage of coal and wheat to Chile and Peru, and its decline 
 as compared with the earlier years under review is due to the smaller export 
 of coal. Of the total shipping tonnage between the Commonwealth and 
 South America during 1911, 632.000 tons, or 75-7 per cent., is credited to 
 the coal port of Newcastle. Of the South American countries, Chile is 
 responsible for 576,000 tons (69*0 per cent.) ; Peru, 104,000 tons (12-4 per 
 cent.); Argentine Republic, 62,000 tons (7*5 per cent.); Brazil, 46,000 
 tons (5*5 per cent.) ; Uruguay, 41,000 tons (4*9 per cent.) ; and Ecuador, 
 6.000 tons (0-7 per cent.). 
 
 An important fact, fi'om its bearing on freight rates and its consequent 
 possible effect on the coal trade of New South Wales with South America, 
 is the absence of retujn freights from that country. Of the 354,000 tons of 
 shipping which entered the Commonwealth fi'om South America during 
 1911 only five vessels, totalling 13,000 tons, carried cargo. 
 
 8. Railways. 
 
 The first movement for the construction of railways in Australia took 
 place in 1846, and in the com'se of the next six or seven years several private 
 companies were promoted in Sydney and Melbomnie for the pm'poses of 
 building various short lines. 
 
 As difficulty was experienced by these companies in obtaining sufficient 
 capital for undertakings which were considered by many to be of an experi- 
 mental character, the Government, pushed on by the popular clamour for 
 railways, either subscribed directly for a large share of the stock, or made 
 loans, seciu'ed by mortgage. In some cases it also guaranteed interest or 
 dividends to private investors. None of the early railways was undertaken 
 without one or more of these forms of public support. 
 
 The companies thus fostered were not, however, generally successful. 
 In New South Wales the work of construction of the Sydney to Liverpool 
 line was only well under weigh when the discovery of gold caused a general 
 exodus from the city, and the company found it impossible to secure sufficient 
 labour to carry on the undertaking. Other lines, both in New South Wales 
 and Victoria, shared a similar fate, with the result that the Government had 
 to step in and complete the work. In Western Australia two trunk lines 
 were built by private companies on the land-grant system. In that colony 
 the sparse population prevented the use of public funds for railway work, 
 and land was consequently granted to build these two lines, which ran from 
 the metropolitan district, north and south, to Geraldton and Albany respec- 
 tively. The former still remains in private hands, and is the only trunk 
 line in Australia which is not run by the Government. The latter was 
 acquired by the Government in 1896 at a price of £1,100,000. At the 
 present time, out of a total mileage of 17,842 miles open for general traffic, 
 only 944 miles are under private control. 
 
 The principle of Government ownership and control may therefore 
 be regarded as the settled policy of the country. It may be said that the 
 Governments have recognised the supreme importance of a railroad policy,
 
 504 Federal Handbook. 
 
 not only as an element in the industrial, but even in the political life of 
 nations, and have felt that nothincr short of complete ownership and direct 
 management of the railroads would give them the power which, for national 
 reasons, they must exert. 
 
 The early essays at public control were not satisfactory, in regard either 
 to economical administration or traffic service. With a view to overcoming 
 the troubles which arose, the control and administration of railways was 
 placed in the hands of responsible Ministers, who appointed a general 
 manager to operate the lines. This system, however, opened the way to 
 abuse, and resulted in political favoritism. To remedy this evil the control 
 of the railways has been delegated to Commissioners, appointed by the 
 Governor in Council, under statutory authority. The last State to adopt 
 this scheme was Tasmania, where the control, management, and maintenance 
 of the Government railways were placed in the hands of a Commissioner 
 in 1911. In each of the States of New South Wales and Victoria there are 
 three Commissioners, but in the other States only one each. The number 
 of Commissioners, however, chiefly afiects convenience in administration, 
 and does not aSect the principle of independent management. Under this 
 system the Minister for Railways simply directs legislation, and represents 
 the Railway Department in Parliament. He has no authority to directly 
 interfere in the management, though the Ministry as a body, as the executive 
 representative of Parliament, can veto a Commissioner's policy. The 
 Commissioners issue annual reports to the Minister, except in South 
 Australia, where the Commissioner reports to Parliament. In some of the 
 States the Commissioners both build and manage the lines, but in others 
 railway construction is in the hands of the Public Works Department. 
 
 The progress made in opening up lines dm'ing the twenty years which 
 followed the completion of the first line in 1855 was very slow. This was 
 no doubt due partly to the difficulty of borrowing money at a reasonable 
 rate of interest,* owing to the depreciation of Australian securities in London, 
 and partly to the sparseness of the population, which it was feared would 
 not justify the necessary expenditure. In the vicinity of Sydney, also, the 
 ranges of mountains in the districts near the coast had to be either traversed 
 or pierced by tunnels, at a considerable expenditure of time and money, 
 thus retarding the expansion of the railway systems which now have their 
 starting point at that city. Since the year 1875, however, greater activity 
 in the construction of railways has been manifested, and satisfactory progress 
 has been made in all the States of the Commonwealth. The great era of 
 railway building in Australia was in the years 1887 to 1889, when the average 
 rate of construction was between 700 and 800 miles per annum. In the 
 eastern, south-eastern, and southern parts of Australia there now exists a 
 considerable network of railway lines converging from the various agricul- 
 tural, pastoral, and mining districts towards the principal ports, which are 
 themselves connected by systems of lines running roughly parallel to the 
 coast. These are shown on the accompanying map.* In the east, lines 
 radiating from Townsville, Rockhampton, Brisbane, and Sydney extend 
 inland in various directions for distances ranging up to over 600 miles ; in 
 the south-east there are numerous lines, those in Victoria converging towards 
 
 * See map on page 461.
 
 Manufactures, Industrial, Etc., of Australia. 
 
 505 
 
 Melbourne, while others in New South Wales have their terminus in Sydney; 
 in the south there are three main lines, with numerous branches, running 
 from Melboiirne, while from Adelaide one main line, with several branches 
 to the coastal towns, runs inland in a northerly direction for a distance of 
 nearly 700 miles, and another line runs in a south-easterly direction to 
 various ports, meeting the main line fi-om Melbom-ne on the border of 
 South Australia and Victoria. In addition to these main lines and their 
 numerous branches, there are extensive suburban systems in Melbourne and 
 some of the other cities of Australia, a considerable portion of the suburban 
 traffic in Sydney being conducted by means of electric tramways. All these 
 lines which have just been referred to are connected together by the main 
 inter-State line, which • permits of direct communication between the foui' 
 capital cities — Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide — a distance 
 fi'om end to end of 1,790|^ miles. In Western Australia there is a connected 
 system of main or trunk lines between the ports of the State and the agri- 
 cultural, pastoral, and mining districts. From these main lines a number 
 of branches has been constructed, opening up fresh agricultural areas to 
 the ports and markets of the State. In the northern parts of Queensland 
 and in the Northern Territory there are also a number of disconnected lines 
 rimning inland from the more important ports. In Tasmania the principal 
 towns are connected by a system of lines, and there are also, more especially 
 in the western districts, several lines which have been constructed for the 
 purpose of opening up mining districts. 
 
 The number of miles of Government and private lines open in each State 
 for general traffic on the 30th June, 1912, was as follows : — • 
 Government and Private Railways. — Mileage open for General 
 
 Traffic. 
 
 state. 
 
 state-owned 
 Lines. 
 
 Private Lines 
 
 available for 
 
 General Traffic. 
 
 New South Wales 
 Victoria 
 Queensland . . 
 South Australia 
 Western Australia 
 Tasmania 
 Northern Territory 
 
 Miles. 
 3,832 
 3,622 
 4,266 
 1,939 
 2,598 
 496 
 145' 
 
 Miles. 
 
 141 
 
 14 
 
 346 
 
 277 
 166 
 
 Commonwealth 
 
 16,898 
 
 944 
 
 These lines are of no fewer than five different gauges, and, though not 
 at present of any considerable magnitude, the extra cost, delav, and incon- 
 venience incurred by the necessity of transferring through passengers and 
 goods at places where there are breaks of gauge, are becoming more serious 
 as the volume of business increases. 
 
 Although the cost of alteration to a uniform gauge would be great, many 
 propo.sitions have from time to time been put forward with the obje(;t of 
 securing such a gauge, and attention has been drawn to the importance of 
 the unification of gauges before further expenditure on railway construction 
 is incurred by the States. The problem is, however, one which is by no 
 means easy of solution, and the difficulties are increased by the introduction 
 of what may be called (piestions of Io(;a] or State policy. That its solution 
 would facilitate the development of commerce and the settlement on the
 
 506 Federal Handbook. 
 
 land throughout the Commonwealth is now widely recognised. The economic 
 disadvantages of breaks of gauge, and of any artificial restrictions in regard 
 to trade finding its proper geographical outlets, are also seen by dispassionate 
 observers. It is obvious, too, that in the event of a foreign invasion of 
 any part of the seaboard, the interchange and concentrations of rolling-stock 
 for the transport of men and war materiel would be impeded, and might 
 result in confusion and loss. It is asserted, moreover, that unification of 
 gauges would tend to reduce to a negligible quantity all tendency to dis- 
 organization and undue congestion likely to occur at times of bountiful 
 seasons ; that various trades and industries would be benefited by the 
 aggregation, at times of abnormal or periodic activity, of idle trucks from 
 other States ; that there would be a large saving in the total capital expen- 
 ditm-e on rolling-stock ; in other words, that the fullest use of all rolling- 
 stock and the meeting of all exigencies would be facilitated. 
 
 The question naturally arises as to which gauge should be adopted 
 as the universal gauge of the Commonwealth. As regards Government 
 railways only, the New South Wales gauge of 4 ft. S^ in. has a 
 mileage of 3,832 ; Victoria and South Australia have a combined mileage 
 of 4,126 of 5 ft. 3 in. gauge ; while Queensland, South Australia, Western 
 Australia, and the Northern Territory have together 8,322 miles of 3 ft. 6 in. 
 gauge. By far the greater part of the mileage of private railways open for 
 general trafiic has also been constructed to the 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The mere 
 question of preponderance of mileage, therefore, indicates the 3 ft. 6 in. gauge 
 for adoption. But this question is obviously subordinate to those involving 
 engineering and economic considerations. Thus, the relative efficiency 
 from the widest point of view, the relative costs of alterations of permanent 
 way and rolling-stock, of carrying capacity and speed, that is to say, questions 
 of a technical nature, about which figures are not available, enter into the 
 grounds for decision. As regards the unification of the New South Wales 
 and Victorian lines, the advantage of reducing the broad gauge to the 4 ft. 8h in. 
 gauge is that there would be no necessity for the alteration of tunnels, cuttings, 
 bridges, or viaducts. 
 
 Several conferences have been held from time to time, for the purpose 
 of adopting a uniform gauge. The last of these was in April, 1913, when 
 engineers representing the six States and the Federal Government recom- 
 mended the adoption of the 4 ft. 8| in. gauge as the standard gauge for 
 Australia. The cost of conversion to that gauge of all lines on the continent 
 was estimated at £37,164,000. 
 
 The necessary arrangements have now been completed for connecting 
 the railways of the eastern and southern districts of Australia with the 
 Western Australian lines by the construction of a line between Port Augusta, 
 in South Australia, and Kalgoorlie, on the Western Australian gold-fields, 
 a distance of 1,063 miles. The estimated cost of construction and equip- 
 ment of the line is £3,988,000. It is claimed that the line would be of 
 immense benefit in the expedition of the European mails to the southern 
 and eastern parts of the continent, and, if occasion should arise, in facilitating 
 the transport of troops. A Railway Construction Department has been 
 created to carry out the work, and on the 14th September, 1912, the fii'st 
 sod of the Kalgoorlie-Port Augusta Railway was turned by the Governor- 
 General at Port Augusta. A commencement has also been made at Kal-
 
 Manufactures, Industrial. Etc., of Australia. 507 
 
 goorlie. and it is estimated that the line, which, is being bnilt from both ends, 
 and will have a gauge of -i ft. 8J in., will be completed in three years. In 
 the Northern Territory Acceptance Act (under which the Northern Territory 
 was transferred from the State of South Australia to the Commonwealth), 
 the construction of a transcontinental line from South Australia is provided 
 for ; under that Act the property in the railways from Port Augusta to 
 Oodnadatta, and from Darwin to Pine Creek, has been transferred to the 
 Commonwealth Government as fi-om the 1st January, 1911. The present 
 Commonwealth Government has recently announced its intention of intro- 
 ducing the necessary legislation to proceed with the survey and construction 
 of this line, which is said to present few engineering difficulties. 
 
 The total capital expenditure on the Government railways in Australia 
 up to the 30th June, 1912, was £160,557,000, which gives an average cost 
 of £9,502 per mile. This average is, however, unduly swollen by the heavy 
 cost of some of the early lines, such, for example, as that from Melbom'ne 
 to Bendigo, which was opened in 1862, at a cost of over £48,300 per mile. 
 Many of the more recent lines have been built at an average cost of less than 
 £1,500 per mile. The gross revenue of the Government railways in 1912 
 was £19,101,000, which works out at £1,130 per average mile worked, or 
 7s. 9d. per train mile run. Nearly 57 per cent, of the gross revenue is derived 
 from goods and live stock traffic receipts, 41 per cent, being from coaching 
 traffic, and about 2 per cent, fi'om miscellaneous sources. As regards coaching 
 traffic, the receipts per passenger journey range from about 6d. in Victoria 
 to over Is. 9d. in Tasmania. The difference in these amounts is not accounted 
 for by the rates charged, since the latter are fairly uniform in the several 
 States, but is largely due to the different traffic conditions. Thus, the low 
 cost per passenger journey in Victoria is accounted for by the large number 
 of metropolitan suburban passengers in that State. 
 
 The total working expenses in 1911-12 amounted to £12,471,000, or 
 65*3 per cent, on the gross earnings. This percentage has increased since 
 1907-8 from 58*7 per cent., but the increase is stated to be due mainly to 
 advances in salaries and wages of the staff and employes. The working 
 expenses per average mile worked have increased from £583, in 1907-8, to 
 £738, in 1911-12, while the expenses per train mile run have increased from 
 48 '9 to 54*2 pence in the same period. The percentage of working expenses 
 on gross revenue in 1911-12 ranged from 63'2 in Queensland, to 71*3 in 
 Western Australia (and to 117*2 in the Northern Territory). In order, 
 however, to make an adequate comparison of the working expenses of the 
 Government railways in the several States, allowance should be made for 
 the variation of gauges and of physical and traffic conditions, not only on 
 tlie railways of the different States, but also on different portions of the same 
 system. Where traffic is light, the percentage of working expenses is 
 naturally greater than where traffic is heavy ; and this is especially true in 
 Australia, where ton-mile rates are in many cases based on a tapeiing prin- 
 ciple- — i.e., a lower rate per ton-mile is charged upon merchandise fiom 
 remote interioi' distiicts — and where on many of the lines there is but little 
 backloading. Further, though efforts have been made from time to time 
 to obtain a unifoim system of accounts in the several States, the aiinujil 
 reports of the Commissioners do not yet comprise fully comparable data 
 of railway expenditure. As an indication of the differc^nt traffic; (londitions
 
 508 Federal Handbook. 
 
 prevailing in the several States, it may be mentioned that the number of 
 passenger journeys per mile of line worked in 1911-12 ranged from 3,409, 
 in Tasmania, to 29,420, in Victoria, while the number of tons of goods and 
 live stock carried per mile worked was lowest in Queensland (843), and 
 highest in New South Wales (2,871). 
 
 The net revenue in 1911-12, after payment of working expenses, amounted 
 to £6,630,000, or 4*1 per cent, on the capital expenditure. This gives an 
 average of £392 per average mile worked, or 2s. 4|d. per train mile run. 
 The total amount of interest payable on railway loan expenditure in 
 1911-12 was £5,6.50,000. Deducting this amount from the gross profits, a 
 net profit of £980,000 is left. This is equal to 0'6 per cent, on the total 
 cost of construction and equipment. Though the average percentage of 
 gross profits in 1911-12 was 4*1 per cent., an average does not accurately 
 express the position. At an early period the need of constructing 
 railways for the sole purpose of opening up undeveloped districts was 
 recognised, and lines were built which could not possibly pay for 
 some years to come ; as these railways always preceded population, 
 the money had to be raised at an almost speculative rate of interest, fre- 
 quently amounting to 6 per cent., while the more recent loans have been 
 effected at less than 4 per cent., hence the railways have been handicapped 
 by a burdensome interest. At the present time, also, spur lines are con- 
 structed, which can scarcely be expected to instantly return revenue in 
 excess of the expenditure, and so must, for a time at any rate, be a charge 
 on the more developed branches of the railway systems, and tend to increase 
 the ratio of working costs to revenue. It may be noted, however, that, 
 although the loans made for expenditure on railway construction and equip- 
 ment very largely increase the amount of the public debt of the Common- 
 wealth, forming, in fact, more than half the total debt, the money borrowed 
 has not been sunk in undertakings which give no return, but has been ex- 
 pended on works which are increasingly reproductive, Welding in most cases 
 a direct return on the capital expended, and representing a greater value 
 than their original cost. In Europe the national debts of various countries 
 have been incurred principally through the expenses of prolonged wars, 
 and the money has gone beyond recovery, but in Australia the expenditm-e 
 is represented to a large extent by public works, which pay a direct return 
 which is, on the whole, greater than the amount of interest due upon capital 
 invested. In addition to the purely commercial aspect of the figures relating 
 to the revenue and expenditure of the Commonwealth railways, it is of 
 importance that the object with which many of the lines were constructed 
 should be kept clearly in view ; the anticipated advantage in building these 
 lines has been the ultimate settlement of the country rather than the direct 
 returns from the railways themselves, and the policy of the State Govern- 
 ments has been to use the railway systems of the Commonwealth for the 
 development of the country's resources to the maximum extent consistent 
 with the direct payment by the customers of the railways of the cost of 
 working and interest charges. Further, the money has been spent in develop- 
 ing immense agricultural, pastoral, and mineral resources, which add to 
 the wealth of the community, while the benefits conferred in providing a cheap 
 and convenient mode of transit, and in generally furthering' the trade and 
 the best interests of the Commonwealth, are incalculable.
 
 Educational Policy axd Development. SOU 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 By Francis Anderson, M.A., Professor of Logic and Mental Philosophy 
 at the University of Sydney. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 A policy of centralization — how it arose, and developed. — Early history of education 
 in New South Wales. — Comparison with England. — The failure of local effort. — Com- 
 parison with the United States. — The undenominational system and the religious 
 •difficulty. — The first stages of the evolution of Australian education. — The stage of 
 reform and reconstruction. — Borrowing versus development. — The old sj^stem and the 
 new : Difficulties of transition.^ — Subjects and methods. — Vocational training.- — The new 
 schemes of education in Vctoria and New South Wales. — Technical education. — Co- 
 ordination and the need for National Councils. — Education in outlying districts. — The 
 status of the teacher. — Physical culture and medical inspection. — Moral and religious 
 culture. — Australian Universities, comparative statistics. — The educational ladder and 
 the broad highway. — The University in relation to schools, technical education, and 
 labour. — Defects of a centraUzed s\'stem of education. 
 
 As contrasted with the highly organized systems of France and 
 Germany, English education is said to be unsystematic, and American 
 education uncentralized.* There maybe certain advantages in an educational 
 policy which leaves the future to take care of itself, but public opinion in 
 Australia has long abandoned the faith in laissez faire as a suitable gospel 
 for a nation in course of construction. Past history and present necessities 
 point to a future development in which the two salient features will be system 
 Siud centralization- Whether the combination of these two features is to pro- 
 duce a mechanical or an organic system will depend on the character of the 
 people who live under the system. It is possible for a nation to be both politically 
 free and politically organized. A people trained in habits of freedom will 
 not submit to the tyranny of any bureaucratic rule until it ceases to do its 
 thinking for itself. The bugbear of bureaucracy, like the spectre of 
 socialism, is a favorite figure w'th journalists and politicians, but the 
 Australian people, although like other democracies it has a fondness for 
 phrases, takes political banners and battle cries with less seriousness than 
 either the English or the American peoples. It carries still further the 
 excellent English habit of treating proposals of social and political reform 
 on their merits, as ^^t'actical business measures for promoting the welfare 
 ■of the nation. In the matter of education it has made up its mind that what 
 it wants is system, and that centralization is the best way to get it. 
 
 In New Zealand, a homogeneous community is divided into provinces, 
 whose history, physical divisions, and divergence of interests have led to the 
 adoption of a decentralized educational system. Australia is a continent, 
 and it is divided, not into provinces, but into self-governing States. While 
 its population is, in all essentials, much more homogeneous than that of any 
 other nation 'n the world, the enormous extent of its area and the variety 
 of its economic interests will make the task of administration more and more 
 complex as population increases. A " socialized " control of Australian 
 education as a whole from a single administrative centre is outside the range 
 
 •Adams, Evolution of Educational Th'ory, p. 377. 
 C 12l.-)4. 2k
 
 510 Federal Handbook. 
 
 of practical politics at present, and, unless for those who fancy that- 
 national education can be " managed " on the analogy of a postal or 
 railway service, is outside any profitable discussion of a possible future- 
 policy. 
 
 The unit of administration is then, and will continue to be, the State. 
 AVithin each State the policy of Cv-ntralization was not adopted as the result 
 of a carefully thought-out plan. It rather forced itself on the public and on 
 the legislature as the only way out of the many difficulties of the educational 
 situation during the second and third quarters of the last century. These 
 difficulties were partly economic in their nature, partly social and religious. 
 The desire for a definite public policy arose in the breakdown of existing- 
 agencies to supply the needs of a rapidly-growing population. But there 
 was never at any time in those early days any broad or scientific discussion 
 of educational means or ends. 
 
 In the England of the same period, the problem of national education was 
 treated with perhaps still greater disregard of the vital issues involved. la 
 New South Wales, Mr. Robert Lowe, afterwards an English IVIinister of the 
 Crown, obtained in 1844 the appointment of a Select Committee to report on 
 the actual state of education, and to devise means for the establishment of a 
 system which would be in accordance with the needs and desires of the com- 
 munity. The report of that Committee contained, in principle, the scheme 
 of later development. In the five years which were spent in overcoming the- 
 efforts to block progress, made by the opponents of a uniform and undenomi- 
 national system of national education, Mr. Lowe probably learned lessons 
 which afterwards influenced, and in ways that were in some respects- 
 harmful, the course of English legislation. 
 
 Three notes struck during the long controversy were repeated in England, 
 and in the clamour raised over certain issues the educational aspects were- 
 obscured. The three notes were economic, political, and religious. The 
 economic note appealed to those who saw waste and misdirection of energy 
 through competition and overlapping in some districts, and absolute neglect 
 in others. The pernicious system of payment by results was designed by 
 Mr. Lowe's ill-directed business instincts, but was not imported into England 
 from Australia, for, by a happy fortune, payment by results was never 
 part of the educational policy of New South Wales, though at a later period 
 it was adopted for a time by Victoria, with disastrous consequences. In a 
 community where Ministers of Education are chosen as a rule not for any 
 special educational qualification, it was more by good luck than by good 
 guidance that Australia was saved from a policy wliich, wherever practised, 
 has earned universal condemnation. 
 
 The political note may be expressed in the phrase which Mr. Lowe made- 
 popular in England, " Let us educate our masters." Australian legislation 
 has, on the whole, been more uniformly progressive than corresponding 
 English legislation. There have been " no leaps in the dark," and the con- 
 sequent fear of what might happen when the educated ceased to correspond 
 with the governing classes has never been so acute as in the older country, 
 where the struggle between privilege and popular right roused so much 
 passion and dread. Yet no democracy can afford to regard with indifference- 
 the existence of large numbers of uneducated citizens. In 184-5, Mr. Lowe's-
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 511 
 
 Committee reported that more than half the children of New South Wales 
 (which then included the territories now known as Victoria and Queensland) 
 were receiving no education at all. 
 
 The religious, or rather, ecclesiastical note, was sounded l\y those who were 
 opposed to a merely secular education. The " religious difficulty " in Aus- 
 tralia will be discussed later. Here, it need only be said that while credit 
 may be given to the opponents of a common and undenominational school 
 system for the strength of their conscientious conviction, they fought a losing 
 battle from the first. Divergent ecclesiastical interests, the defective instruc- 
 tion provided in many of the private schools, and the insistent demand made 
 for the subsidy ol church schools from the common national purse, combined 
 to hasten a new order wMch seemed predestined from the first, a school system 
 which should be free, compulsory, and absolutely undenominational, and ■ 
 under centralized State control. This became the ideal towards which 
 public opinion converged, and although in some respects the ideal is not yet 
 fully realized, the issue was virtually fought and won in the years of con- 
 troversy, which ended in 1848 (the year of European revolution) with the 
 incorporation of the Board of National Education. The actual scheme which 
 that Board attempted to carry out was no doubt unworkable from the first. 
 It was a compromise which satisfied nobody at the beginning, and ended by 
 irritating everyone. Demands were made on local aid which could not be 
 fulfilled. As the Board, by its regulations, could not grant an application 
 for a new school unless one-third of the cost of building and equipment were 
 supplied by the applicants, education was neglected just in those districts 
 where it was most needed. The principle of concm'rent endowment of de- 
 nominational schools was a source of continual jealousy, strife, and political 
 and ecclesiastical engineering. The Board of National Education had to 
 subsidize its own rivals without control over the expenditure of funds which 
 it was compelled by Parliament to grant. 
 
 For eighteen years the unworkable scheme endured until it was replaced 
 by the Public School Act 1867 of Sir Henry Parkes. Struggling with great 
 difficulties, the Board of National Education had accomplished great things. 
 At the end of its first year of administration it had only four schools under 
 its direct control. At the end of its term of office it had brought into existence 
 259 National schools, with an attendance of 19,641 pupils. The strength of 
 the opposition may be estimated by the fact that at the latter date (1867) 
 there were in existence 310 denominational schools, subsidized by Govern- 
 ment (without control), having an attendance of 47,627 pupils. The Board 
 had to organize a workable scheme of studies, a system of classifi- 
 cation, examination, and inspection, to devise means for the training of 
 apprentice teachers, and to frame an adequate scale of remuneration for all 
 teachers. The Board worked according to its lights. Judged from the 
 business point of view, its efforts were praiseworthy and fairly successful. 
 Judged from the politico-ecclesiastical point of view, its best work was, in 
 the opinion of the majority, to demonstrate the failure of concurrent endow- 
 ment. Judged from the educational point of view, as now understood, the 
 result of the Board's work was to give a bad example to all Australia. This 
 criticism is an historical, not a personal one. The period was one of dense 
 ignorance, an ignorance unconscious of itself, on all but the superficial and 
 
 2 K 2
 
 512 Federal Handbook. 
 
 commonplace aspects of national education. A comparison of the English 
 educational historj'' of the same period would disclose the same ignorance of 
 vital issues, the same short-sighted measures for patcliing defects, the same 
 antiquated methods of training teachers, the same subordination of education 
 to instruction in certain traditional subjects, the same formal and mechanical 
 methods of examination and inspection. The " regulations," framed as a 
 scheme ad hoc, to provide a convenient means of setting the educational house 
 in order, soon acquired the authority and almost the sanctity of a traditional 
 document. Teachers were examined later on the regulations as on a kind of 
 Thirty-nine Articles. They were supposed to provide the full and fitting 
 framework within which all future development would be carried on, and in 
 fact they served as a model for the other States in their initial task of common 
 school organization. Under the regulations it was the official who governed, 
 and an analysis of the administrative system would reveal the real constitution. 
 The secret of its strength and its weakness lay in the narrowness of the ideas 
 behind it. The ideals set up were attainable without much difficulty. The 
 Annual Reports were accepted as a proof that all that was wanted was an 
 extension of the system on existing lines. 
 
 The Public Schools Act of 1867 contained certain inherent weaknesses 
 which in course of time became patent. There was little or no dissatisfaction 
 with the educational defects of the system, which had to wait, until the end 
 of the century brought a wave of reform which shook the educational fabric 
 in almost every State in Australia. It w^as only the working of the adminis- 
 trative machinery which, at the time, was felt to be defective. The provision 
 that one-third of the cost of new school buildings should be contributed by 
 the people of the locality could not, in a new country, be maintained for long 
 without a corresponding increase of local responsibility and power of self- 
 government. But Australia was already committed to a policy of central 
 administration in almost every Department. The power of the politician had 
 grown in the land, and any attempt at devolution of powers and responsibili- 
 ties was resisted, not only by local districts, accustomed to draw on the 
 national exchequer for almost every requirement, but by members of Parlia- 
 ment, who succeeded in blocking all attempts at establishing a system of 
 local government for nearly half a century. Successive Governments were 
 likewise unwilling to sm-render the power over members which was derived 
 from a lavish distribution of grants to districts, politically useful as a means 
 of manipulating majorities, but injurious to public and parliamentary morality. 
 The local obligation to contribute one-third of the cost of new buildings was 
 abolished by the Act of 1880, due also to Sir Henry Parkes. Since 1880 the 
 cost of new schools is defrayed directly by the Department of Public Instruc- 
 tion. Except for a few unimportant exceptions, the general policy of the 
 Australian States in this respect is the same. The Department determines 
 when, where, and how new schools should be erected, both in urban and rural 
 districts. In many cases schools have been built with the slightest regard to 
 what is required, structurally, hygienically, and educationally. School 
 inspectors who, in addition to their ordinary duties, have often to act as 
 clerks of works, are limited, as architects and officials are limited, by the 
 economic necessities of the situation. It is difficult to gauge the requirements 
 of a new and sparsely-settled district. Between the rapid growth of the city
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 513 
 
 population and the constant spread of the rural population, the Department 
 authorities have to do, not what they desire, but what they can, with the 
 limited means at their disposal. The result is that from almost every point 
 of view the great majority of Australian schools are seriously defective. 
 Only within the last few years has an intelligent care been taken to build new 
 schools with due regard to what is required by the best modern standards. 
 There is probably not a single school in Australia which could stand com- 
 parison with many admirably constructed and well-equipped public schools 
 of England, G-ermauy, Switzerland, and the United States. Here we touch 
 one great defect of our system of centralized administration. It may be 
 modified, if not removed, by greater parliamentary liberality and the develop- 
 ment of public knowledge and public interest in educational matters. But 
 when the special interest of the local district is not directly appealed to, it 
 cannot be expected to show that pride and sense of responsibility which 
 together have helped to produce the magnificent school buildings adorning 
 even small cities in the United States. It may be useful in this connexion to 
 refer to a common but misleading comparison made between Australia and 
 the United States in the matter of expenditure on education. At first sight, 
 the Australian State seems to suffer grievously from the comparison. Ten 
 per cent, is a fair statement of the proportion of the total expenditure on 
 education by the Australian State. The expenditure in an American State 
 is often 50 per cent, of the total State expenditure, supplemented in many 
 cases by an added 25 per cent, of the total expenditure of a local community. 
 But this is only one of the many cases in which statistical comparisons have 
 to be corrected by a wider knowledge of the political conditions of the countries 
 compared. If the American State had to undertake the burdens of the Aus- 
 tralian State, it could not aSord the generous, sometimes lavish, expenditure 
 on primary, technical, and university education. One burden alone may be 
 mentioned from which the American State is entirely free, railway con- 
 struction and maintenance. For better or worse, the Australian State has 
 chosen to take upon its shoulders many burdens which are left in other 
 countries to the initiative of individuals or private corporations. We need 
 not discuss the wisdom of collective, as contrasted with private, enterprise 
 in the task of social and political construction. Australia is a nation in course 
 of rapid self construction, and with the lessons derived from the experience 
 of other nations has deliberately chosen the more difl&cult, but perhaps wiser 
 and more hopeful, method of nation building. 
 
 In the opinion of the writer the second inherent wealcness of the 
 Public Schools Act of 1867 was due to the provision for the continuance 
 of State aid to denominational schools. This provision was a relic 
 of earlier conditions. Had Australian Governments adopted fi'om the 
 beginning the principle of subsidizing local effort on a territorial, 
 rather than on an ecclesiastical basis, the history of education in 
 Australia might have been widely different. A decentralized system of the 
 New Zealand type might have been the result. The other colonies followed 
 the example of New South Wales. Taking warning from her history, they 
 had not the same difficulties to encounter in dealing with denominational 
 competition and ecclesiastical strife of tongues. New South Wales had by 
 her own policy favoured the formation of a number of interests whose
 
 514 Federal Handbook. 
 
 energetic resistance was overcome only after an agitation which embittered 
 political life for more than a generation, and culminated in the abolition of 
 all State aid to denominational schools. Since 1882 the altered policy has been 
 strictly adhered to, but recently a small departure, viewed with much mis- 
 giving, has been made from the principle which forbids financial aid to schools 
 under ecclesiastical control. By the provisions of the Bursary Endowment 
 Act 1912 State bursaries, providing for a continued secondary education, 
 may be held at such schools. One main reason for granting this concession 
 was the limited number of State secondary schools. To some the con- 
 cession seems equitable ; by others it is regarded as a dangerous return to a 
 vicious principle. 
 
 The PubUc Instruction Act of 1880 is of great importance in the history 
 of education in Australia, since in all essentials it heljjed to determine the 
 natm-e of the educational system developed for the next quarter of a century. 
 The controversy which produced it had its echoes in all the other colonies 
 (as they were then called), and the principles underlying the Act had either 
 already become, or soon afterwards became, part of the " common conscious- 
 ness " of Parliament, press, and people. Those principles may be sum- 
 marized thus . — The teacher became a civil servant ; the school became 
 State property ; control meant State control under a responsible Minister ; 
 the schools were secularized, religion, when introduced, being taught in an 
 undenominational form. The corollary, of course, was that the maintenance 
 of the schools and the further development of the system should be a direct 
 charge on the national exchequer. These principles have been embodied 
 in the systems adopted in all the Australian States, although in Queensland 
 local support and partial control still remain in connexion with the ten District 
 Grammar Schools of that State. Many of the old questions which excited 
 public controversy are now dead. Even if the ideal of a national system 
 which shall be free, secular, and compulsory has not been fully attained 
 in any State, it expresses the will of the nation. Primary instruction was 
 not made free in New South Wales until 1906. High School fees were not 
 abolished until 1911. The fee previously paid in the primary schools was 
 3d. a week, but exemptions were granted with great liberality. In the other 
 States, fees varied from 3d. to 6d. weekly, although in some cases {e.g., 
 Queensland) as much as Is. 6d. was charged in the higher grades. Primary 
 education is now free in every State in Australia, the last vestige of school 
 fees being abolished in Tasmania in 1908. The abolition of the fee system 
 was hastened as soon as the Labour party began to make itself felt as a new 
 power in political life. 
 
 Compulsory education, in so far as primary instruction is concerned, is 
 accepted in principle, but in many cases is far from being fully carried out in 
 practice. Western Australia has the highest average attendance in propor- 
 tion to enrolment ; New South Wales, the oldest State, has the lowest. In 
 Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, and Western Australia, attendance is 
 required on every day on which the school is open. In New South Wales 
 and South Australia attendance is required for only 140 days in the year. 
 New South Wales makes the least satisfactory provision for securing regular 
 attendance. The Act is defective and badly administered, with the results 
 which might be expected. Western Australia has a stringent Act which is
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 515 
 
 Tigorously applied. Victoria has improved its position in recent years, and 
 compares favorably with New South Wales, but is still, like all the other 
 States, defective when compared with Western Australia, which in this matter, 
 as in several others, has shown an example of highly efficient administration. 
 It is to be noted that throughout Australia the increase in average attendance 
 does not keep pace with the natmal increase of the population of school age. 
 It is possible to exaggerate the defects of administration where the popula- 
 tion is sparsely distributed over an enormous area, and when a large " sluft- 
 ing " element exists both in town and country. A fair test of the work wliich 
 has been accomplished in primary education may be made by comparing the 
 percentages at successive periods of cliildren of school age, able both to read 
 and write. In 1861 only 47 per cent, of such children could both read and 
 write, while 25 j)er cent, were illiterate. In 1911 the former percentage had 
 increased to over 90 per cent., while the totally illiterate had decreased by 
 nearly two-thirds. Another test is supplied by the statistics for illiteracy, as 
 shown by marriage signatures. In 1861, 24*60 represented the proportion 
 of persons signing with marks to total number married. From that date, 
 this significantly high proportion steadily decreases, until in 1911 it amounts 
 to only 0'55. 
 
 In England, until the recent educational renaissance, the field of public 
 interest was mainly occupied by the strife of ecclesiastical politics. The 
 " educational question " when it appeared in newspapers meant the 
 '" religious difficulty." In Australia, after the storm and stress of early 
 controversy, the settled national policy became one of non-sectarian 
 instruction in all public schools. It seems unlikely there will be any 
 departure from this policy, which was adopted as the natural and inevitable 
 outcome of the conditions of Australian life and citizenship. It is difficult, 
 however, to ascertain the exact state of the public mind as to the amount 
 and quality of the religious instruction to be given in the public schools. 
 Efforts are made at intervals, gradually becoming longer, by representatives 
 of the various religious denominations to excite public opinion on the subject. 
 The general indifference on a question which has been settled by the logic of 
 events has been interpreted mistakenly as an indifference to religion itself. 
 It may be true that there is, as asserted, a " growing recognition that a purely 
 secular education is nationally unsatisfactory," but at the same time the 
 majority hold a settled conviction that no return should be made to the former 
 system. This was shown by a referendum, taken in 1904, in Victoria, the 
 State in which the principle of purely secular instruction is most closely 
 adhered to in the public schools. In spite of a most vigorous campaign to 
 induce the people of Victoria to vote for a slight alteration, there was a 
 decided majority against any interference with the established practice. In 
 South Australia a jDortion of Scripture may be read in school by the teacher, 
 if the parents so desire, but the reading must be " without note or comment." 
 In the other States provisionis made forreligiousinstruction within school hours 
 by the regular teacher, but it is difficult, from the references made to the 
 subject in the inspectors' reports, to pronounce on the quantity and quality 
 of the formal religious instruction given. In some cases {e.g., Tasmania) the 
 main emphasis is placed on Scripture history and geography. In New South 
 Wales and also in Queensland and Western Australia, the range of formal
 
 516 Federal Handbook. 
 
 instruction is broader. The formal religious instruction, as given in the public 
 schools ol New South Wales, represents perhaps the utmost limit which can be 
 conceded without turning teachers into exponents of special doctrines of 
 religious faith. The various Protestant denominations have expressed their 
 satisfaction with the existing system, and make only a limited use of the per- 
 mission granted to clergymen to give special religious instruction in the public 
 schools during regular school hours. In New South Wales one hour is allotted, 
 in Victoria half-an-hour, to religious instruction given within the school bv 
 persons other than the official teachers. It need hardly be added that in no 
 case is a pupil compelled to attend such special religious instruction given 
 by representatives of particular forms of faith. The state of the public mind 
 on the subject in general seems to be as follows : —With general recognition of 
 the importance of religion as an element in national life, the warnings of the 
 past, both in Australia and in other countries, are accepted as a salutary lesson 
 for the future. Refusal of all State recognition to particular forms of belief 
 is the silent or outspoken prenuss which de facto and de jure forbids any 
 attempt at reactionary legislation. The belief in division of labour in things 
 spiritual, as in things temporal, leaves to the church and the parents the duty 
 of providing for what is not the business of the secular authorities, doctrinal 
 instruction in matters of religious faith. The Roman Catholic church, how- 
 ever, does not believe in the separation in the education of the young of the 
 spiritual and the secidar. It denies that in the absence of definite dogmatic 
 teaching a residuum of undenominational belief can be retained, sufficient 
 to supply tke sanctions whicb are necessary for public morality, more especially 
 for the morality of the young. To the Catholic authorities a system of edu- 
 cation forms one whole, the elements not being separable. The position of 
 the Roman Catholic authorities is a simple and logical one, and in face of the 
 State's action they feel compelled to adopt a non possumus attitude. The 
 only reply of the State is a similar non possumus. There can be no compro- 
 mise between ideals which are so opposed in theory and in practice. In the 
 presence of the impasse thus created, public opinion in Australia and the 
 Roman Catholic authorities adopt opposite and apparently irreconcilable 
 alternatives. The State, with its traditions of fi-eedom and non-interference, 
 allows the Roman Catholic chiuch, or any other religious body, to conduct 
 schools in which children may be educated according to the wishes of the 
 parents. For the good of the community, it establishes publ.'c schools at 
 the common cost. For the good of the whole it may insist, and does insist 
 in some States, on the registration of non-State schools and teachers, and 
 on the inspection of non-State schools, so far as secular instruction is concerned. 
 But there is no indication that the States will advance a step beyond these 
 limits. It is only in the absence of a fully organized public secondary school 
 system that certain concessions have been made by granting a limited 
 number of bm'saries tenable at non-State secondary schools, and it does not 
 seem probable that such concessions will be extended in the future. On the 
 other hand, the Roman Catholic authorities decline to modify their attitude. 
 So far as their own schools are concerned, they maintain the policy of no 
 surrender, and strive with great and praiseworthy energy to increase the 
 number of their schools, to improve their methods of teaching, and ensure 
 the pedagogic training of the teachers. But, in recent years, in sympathy
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 517 
 
 with a corresponding movement in the United States ot America, the Roman 
 Catholic authorities in Australia have vigorously re-asserted their claim to 
 State subsidy on the grounds of public equity and what they denounce as 
 unfair taxation. Roman Catholic citizens are taxed for an education system 
 in the advantages of which they cannot share, and have, in consequence, to 
 tax themselves a second time for the support of their own separatist 
 schools. 
 
 Before dealing with this argument, it may be noted that the alleged general 
 dissatisfaction with the public school system is not borne out by statistics of 
 school attendance. Diuing the period 1901-1911 the increased average 
 attendance at private schools of all classes throughout the Commonwealth 
 has not in a single year been as much as 3,000. The increase in the average 
 attendance in the public schools of the Commonwealth during the same period 
 has been 113,000, a figure only 19,000 behind the total average attendance at all 
 private schools in the Commonwealth in 1911. 
 
 Among private schools it is probably only the Roman Catholic which are 
 permanently maintaining an increase in the number of pupils in attendance. 
 In New South Wales, where the separatist policy of the Roman Catholic 
 church has been most vigorously pursued, the percentage of Catholic children 
 attending the public schools compared with the total number of children in 
 attendance fell from 11 '48 to 10-98 (1901-11), a very slight decrease when 
 the activity of the church propaganda is taken into account. The corrc: 
 spending percentage of attendance at Roman Catholic schools rose during 
 the same period from 15*15 to 16 "30. It is estim.ated that, at present, for 
 every 60 Roman Catholic children attending their own denominational 
 schools, there are 40 attending the public schools. A fair proportion of 
 Roman Catholics are employed as public school teachers, and a number of 
 inspectors and higher officials of the Department of Public Instruction belong 
 to the Roman Catholic church. Within the Departments the religious question 
 has never been the cause of friction or serious embarrassment. Indeed, the 
 social and political life of Australia is singularly free from the bigotry and 
 intolerance which is unfortunately so common in some other countries. Anti- 
 clericalism never raises its head except when an occasional aggressive note is 
 sounded in sonie unguarded ecclesiastical allocution. 
 
 The demand for the State support of Roman Catholic schools on 
 the ground of equity appears to the writer to be more specious than 
 real. What no doubt is felt as a real grievance is the additional 
 burden which the Roman Catholic parent has to shoulder for the 
 privilege granted him of standing outside the national system. Like 
 every citizen, he has to contribute to public services for the common good, 
 in the advantages of which he will not directly participate. No body of 
 individuals within the State can justly demand, simply on the ground of 
 coascientioiLS refusal to avail themselves of the common sj^stem, to be sub- 
 sidized from the common purse for services which they undertake in religion, 
 education, or any other sphere of public effort. It is only the size of the 
 Roman Catholic minority which differentiates its claim in this respect from 
 a similar claim on the part of any other section of the community wliich 
 might make conscientious scruples a plea for public support. The Roman 
 Catholic minority is not increasing relatively to the rest of the population.
 
 618 Federal Handbook. 
 
 During the last decennial period, the Presbyterian church population in- 
 creased at a rate nearly twice, and the Church of England population at a 
 rate nearly thrice, that of the Roman Catholic church. The total increase of 
 the Roman Catholic population (1901-1911) was 70-805. The total increase 
 •of the " Christian " population during the same period was 647 •965. 
 
 Tliis religious difficulty is the only shadow on the fair prospect of Austra- 
 lian national education. Yet there need be little fear of a national policy 
 which has become an integral part of the national consciousness being radi- 
 cally altered in principle, although it may be occasionally menaced by an. 
 accidental political combination, which would in all likelihood meet with 
 swift and sure punishment at the polls. The position of the overwhelming 
 majority who are opposed to the Roman Catholic demands may be briefly 
 stated as follows : — The Roman Catholic education, by admission of the 
 ecclesiastical authorities, is one and indivisible. The teachers in their schools 
 are, for the greater number, clerical and unsalaried. In effect, to give grants 
 of public money to Roman Catholic schools on the ground that they provide 
 adequate secular instruction would be to subsidize a religious corporation 
 and a body of clerical teachers at the expense of the majority, who disapprove, 
 in varying degree, of State aid to religious corporations in any form, direct 
 or indirect. The objection is not to the teaching of the Catholic doctrine, or 
 to denominational education, but to a claim for privileged treatment. Such 
 a claim not merely conflicts with the accepted national policy, but is dis- 
 allowable on grounds of a deeper equity than the arithmetical and abstract 
 equality of treatment demanded by the chujch in order to lighten the burden 
 of a tax which is self-imposed. 
 
 The outward form of the organization of primary school education in 
 Australia has now been described in broad outline. The space given to the 
 educational history of New South Wales is due to the fact that, until the 
 middle of the nineteenth century, the parent colony was almost identical with 
 Australia, and that, after that date, the educational history of the other colonies 
 followed parallel lines of development. The difficulties were the same, and 
 were created by similar conditions. The remedies adopted were the same, 
 half measures half-heartedly applied. From beginning to end there is a 
 continuous and consistent evolution, both in principle and practice. 
 Neglecting minor differences, due to variation in local conditions and mental 
 outlook, the stages in the evolution may now be briefly summarized. In 
 the earliest period of settlement education was left, in accordance with British 
 tradition, to the parent or clergyman as a matter in which the State was not 
 directly concerned. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
 Parts deserves the credit of having taken the first step (1792) towards sup- 
 plying schools and teachers. A church was turned into a school, four teachers 
 ■were subsidized by the Society, and a clergyman was placed in control as 
 superintendent. In Tasmania, as in New South Wales, the early schools 
 were, for the most part, under direct control of the local authorities of the 
 Church of England. Very soon, the other denominations took part in the 
 task, and for many years the only education available was that supplied by 
 the church schools, supplemented by a few private but generally inefficient 
 institutions. In course of time, the necessity of organization was felt, partly 
 -on educational, partly on financial grounds. 
 
 4
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 519 
 
 The second stage was the appointment of Boards of Education, charged 
 with the oversight and partial control of the existing schools, and the duty 
 of extending the system In some cases there were two boards, Government 
 and denominational. In such cases the conflict of interests soon produced 
 friction. The interests of the various denominations were sufficiently alike 
 to arouse common action, and Eoman Catholics united with Anglicans and 
 Nonconformists in order to secure as much government money as possible. 
 The problem of distribution was settled on a simple arithmetical basis, and 
 there was practically no government control over teachers, school buildings, 
 or curriculum. In this stage, fitful attempts were made to stimulate local 
 efEort and responsibility, but for reasons already given the policy of 
 centralization soon took entire possession of the field. 
 
 The third stage began by substituting for competitive boards single 
 national councils (or their equivalents), which took over the greater number 
 of denominational schools. This stage ended with the definite establishment 
 of parliamentary control, under a Minister and Department of Public Instruc- 
 tion, and with the cessation of all State aid to private and denominational 
 schools. Victoria was tiie first colony to inaugurate the new system in 1872. 
 Acts to the same effect became operative in Queensland in 1875, and in South 
 Australia in 1878. New South Wales, where delay was caused by the greater 
 strength of opposing interests, followed in 1880. Tasmania did not come 
 into line with development on the continent until 1893. Western Australia, 
 after a long period of stagnation, developed in a very few years a national 
 •system of education which compares favorably with those of the older 
 States, but it was not until 1893 that the Act of Public Instruction was passed, 
 while aid to assisted schools was not abolished until 1895. 
 
 The fourth and present stage in the educational history of Australia is 
 that of reform and reconstruction. Various amending Acts of Parliament 
 have modified and enlarged the outward framework of the educational system, 
 and great changes have been made in methods and aims, with a view to 
 obtaining better results than were possible under the old sterootyped system 
 of examination and inspection, borrowed from English procedure, and brought 
 to a degree of mechanical completeness which fostered the illusion that we 
 had " the best and best administered primary educational system in the 
 world." The fact is that with the passing of the various Acts of Public 
 Instruction, and (except for the Roman Catholics) the practical disappearance 
 of the religious difficulty, the general impression was that the whole educa- 
 tional problem luid been solved, and that all that remained was the labour 
 of careful administration by competent officials. Judged by the prevailing 
 standards, the system worked well. It was the standards which were at 
 fault. Teachers, inspectors, and administrators were being transformed into 
 self satisfied officials. Inspectors' reports were expurgated and edited, until 
 they were reduced to a common level of dull official routine. The annual 
 departmental reports convoyed no information and supplied no enlighten- 
 ment on the real defects of the national system. As statistical documents 
 they satisfied Parliament and the press. As educational reviews, their value 
 was negligible. The public was, in the main, indifferent. It looked on 
 subjects and methods of school instruction as things somehow ordained in 
 Heaven and sanctificsd by use and wont. Parliament, the religious question
 
 520 Federal Handbook. 
 
 having been shelved, had not yet come to regard educfition as a political 
 question at all. The teachers were subjected to a severe course of discipline, 
 which made discussion of vital edacational questions " disloyal " interference 
 with the settled policy of the department. Above all, the men in charge of 
 the administration had been trained within the system, and were apparently 
 unable to grow beyond the system. Their minds moved within a closed 
 circle. The pupil teacher system was made the sole avenue of admission to 
 the service, which was guarded by a rigid Public Service Act from any intru- 
 sion of fresh blood. As a prominent politician put it, the service was sufiering 
 from in-breeding. According to the verdict of a foreign expert on education 
 who visited the co.untry, the " pupil teacher mind " dominated the system 
 from top to bottom. 
 
 Various circumstances combined to disturb and finally destroy the general 
 public and oflS.Gial satisfaction. The severest criticism came from within 
 Australia itself, from a few voices crying in the educational desert. But 
 such criticism might have been inefiectual if changes in economic ' and 
 political conditions had not co-operated to rouse the public mind to the need 
 for reform. There comes a time in the development of a young country 
 when systematic and scientific organization must take the place of rough and 
 ready happy-go-lucky methods of exploiting the national resources. In- 
 creasing differentiation of occupations brings a demand for increasing difieren- 
 tiation of training. The cosmopolitan struggle for trade makes each country 
 a competing unit, and raises the standards of effective production and dis- 
 tribution. Protectionist policies indirectly contributed to force the question 
 of the internal organization of economic supply and demand on public atten- 
 tion. The Labour Party began to shake itself free from its earlier narrowness 
 of outlook, and with the responsibilities which came ■with greater power, 
 showed a saner and more comprehensive appreciation of the problems of 
 national education. No governments in Australia have been more ambi- 
 tious in their educational aims, or more liberal in expenditure on national 
 education, than the Labour govenmients which have been in power in New 
 South Wales and South Australia. And in all the States, the Labour Party 
 has been educated out of the old jealousy of higher schools and universities 
 as exclusive and privileged institutions for the wealthier classes. It was 
 probably the economic motive, more than any other, which induced the 
 Legislatures to give a sympathetic hearing to the demand for educational 
 reform. Individual and national " efficiency " was declared, in Australia 
 as in England, to be the one thing needful. The public, which dearly loves 
 a phrase, took up the cry. Politicians followed like hounds on the scent. 
 The national system of education with its almost entire lack of co-ordination, 
 was criticised in the press, the parliaments, and on platforms, with the same 
 exaggeration with which it had been previously lauded. The most effectivfr 
 campaign originated in Victoria, where parliamentary neglect and inefficient 
 administration had combined to block progress during the closing period of 
 the last century. Victoria had been passing through a lengthened period of 
 economic stress, as the aftermath of a succession of " booms," and a ruthless 
 policy of retrenchment was applied in the department which could least afford 
 it. In the last year of the century, a Royal Commission was appointed which 
 laid bare the glaring defects of the existing administration. The first effect 
 
 i
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 521 
 
 was to educate the public mind to the need for radical reform in methods 
 and organization. Later, a number of reforms were initiated, more particu- 
 larly in connexion with the training of teachers, methods of school inspection, 
 manual training in schools, and the preparator}' steps for a system of technical 
 education, varied according to local needs, and with special reference to 
 agricultural industries. The period of economic stress in Victoria came to an 
 end, but it cannot be said that Victorian education has progressed according 
 to the hopes raised by the Report of the Royal Commission. Much of what 
 has been accomplished is due in the first place to the courage and intelligence 
 of the Chairman of the Commission, the Hon. Theodore Fink, and afterwards 
 to the energy and enthusiasm of the present Director of Education. But 
 nearly every educational reform in Victoria has been won after a long fight 
 with forces of reaction and prejudice, and with the short-sighted policv 
 which would limit free education to the meagre requirements of the 
 traditional primary school subjects. The battle for the new education 
 has, however, been fought and won at least in principle, and the only 
 objections which are now valid are based on arguments which appeal to the 
 pockets rather than to the hearts and heads of the people of Victoria. 
 
 In New South Wales, the resistance to reform on the part of the officials 
 of the Department collapsed after a brief but lively period of public con- 
 troversy. Throughout Australia the weakness of the personnel of the various 
 departments became manifest when called upon to defend the system which 
 had been built up with meticulous care for generations. One of the gravest 
 defects of the old order appeared in the fact that although it abounded in 
 excellent officials, it produced no men of striking personality, who left anv 
 impress on the educational life of the commvmity. One exception should be 
 made, in justice to the honoured memory of J. A. Hartley, who presided 
 over South Australian education from 1876 imtil his lamented death in 1896. 
 Western Australia owes much to the fortunate acquisition of Mr. Cyril Jack- 
 son (now of the London County Council), who for several years acted as head 
 of the Education Department and inaugurated there a S5'-stem which in some 
 respects is still ahead of those of the Eastern States. Recent changes have 
 brought to the front a number of men of high capacity, under whose guidance 
 the various State systems of education are in process of rapid transformation. 
 In New South Wales, a complete change was made in the higher ranks of 
 the governing staff, following on the Report of the Commission of 1902. The 
 Government had refused to grant the public demand for a Royal Commission 
 of investigation, but appointed two Commissioners to travel for a year in 
 other countries, and report on such improvements in education as 
 might be found desirable. The general opinion of the authorities seemed to 
 be that wnth a few " borrowings " here and there, the situation might be 
 saved and criticism silenced. One of the Commissioners was an officer of the 
 Department, the other was a University lecturer. The former, Mr. Turner, 
 gave special attention to technical education, the latter, Mr. Knibbs (now 
 Commonwealth Statistician), produced an encyclopajdic report, which 
 covered the whole educational field, and in effect led to the entire surrender of 
 the policy of passive resistance on the part of the Minister of Public Instruc- 
 tion and the chiefs of the Department. In face of the educational debacle 
 there could be no questions of half measures. The history of education in
 
 522 Federal Handbook. 
 
 New South Wales -from that time to the present has been a record of con- 
 sistent, and on the whole successful, attempts to construct a flexible, coherent, 
 and comprehensive national system, which should correspond to the economic 
 and political ideals of the people. 
 
 As usual, when reforming ideals take possession of a community, measures 
 were advocated with a zeal not according to knowledge. The " faddists " 
 rose to the occasion, and tlie public was bewildered by the number of fantastic 
 schemes for bringing into existence an educational millennium. British 
 sanity can generally be trusted when the question becomes one of practical 
 construction. The whole history of educational development in Australia 
 from the earliest beginning shows the application of ideas and methods which 
 we share with the mother country. We have the same qualities and the 
 same defects of the qualities. Sometimes we are a little ahead, sometimes a 
 little behind, England in readiness to receive new ideas and to apply them 
 systematically. But in the main, our educational development has taken place 
 on British lines. The first settlers brought with them the English mind and 
 temperament. The Australians of to-day are morally, intellectually, and 
 politically in all essentials one with the parent stock. Over 95 per cent, of 
 the population are of British birth or descent. Physical distance is discounted 
 by the continuous and growing spiritual intercourse which exists between 
 the two peoples. Sidere mutato, mens eadem. 
 
 If the " faddists " had been listened to, Australian educational reform 
 would have been either a business of incongruous patchwork, or an importa- 
 tion of a system alien from the social and political character and ambitions 
 of the Australian people. We were recommended to borrow this or that item 
 from other systems, or else to adopt in its entirety this or that foreign system,, 
 for preference, French, Grerman, or American. In face of the chaos of opinions, 
 the reconstruction went on steadily on the lines of a development consistent 
 with the actual national conditions. From the first, the organizers of the new 
 system showed a sane consciousness of the difference between the things 
 which could, and the things which could not, be borrowed. We may borrow,, 
 or rather imitate, certain ideals of foresight and forethought, scientific 
 method, and thoroughness. We may learn from older countries the impera- 
 tive necessity of special training for special fimctions, and in general the 
 importance of systematic co-ordination of the various grades and depart- 
 ments of national education, hitherto left unattached in a traditional but 
 perilous independence. Further, there are certain methods and schemes 
 which we may borrow from other comitries, where a similar economic situa- 
 tion has produced similar results. 
 
 There need be no hesitancy or confession of weakness in such borrowings. 
 One salient instance is the problem of continuation schools. Tlie first and 
 thoroughly English attitude was to be content with instituting evening 
 classes for the benefit of those who had failed to profit by the general educa- 
 tion afforded in the primary schools. Tired day-school teachers repeated 
 with the same method the same instruction to tired evening pupils. The 
 changed economic conditions of modern civilization have made the continua- 
 tion school problem one of vital national, and cosmopolitan interest. It is 
 a problem in which a number of varying interests converge, very difficult ta 
 reconcile, the interests of parent, pupil, apprentice, workman, employer, trade-
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 523 
 
 unionist, and capitalist. No nation can afford to neglect experiments made 
 by other nations, rivals, and possible antagonists in tlie cosmopolitan and 
 competitive struggle. 
 
 At the same time, granting the necessity as well as the wisdom of a policy 
 of borrowing from other nations in these and other important matters, the 
 education of every community is carried on under certain definite social and 
 political conditions which must be taken into account in constructing the 
 frame work of the educational scheme, in determining the curriculum of 
 studies, and the organic relation of the various grades of teachers and schools. 
 In most of these respects, Australian social and political conditions are different 
 from those of Germany or even England. A system of high schools, on the 
 model of the great English public schools, would be an exotic in Australia, 
 although we may "borrow" some of their ideals. More than half of the 
 expenditure on English education was last year (1912) drawn from local 
 rates. As compared with the Australian centralized system, with the State 
 as unit for taxation and administrative purposes, there are in England at 
 present 1,196 authorities of one kind or another, with varpng powers of 
 rating and controlling different grades of education. The gap between 
 various classes of schools and teachers corresponds to English social distinc- 
 tions which do not exist to anything like the same extent in Australia. Aus- 
 tralians have no desire to see such distinctions intensified by an undemocratic 
 organization of public schools. Germany, with its many lateral cleavages 
 in the structure of society is a warning rather than an example to Australians. 
 We decline to import any system which we believe would make for exclusive 
 caste distinctions between schools, pupils, or teachers. The ideal of special 
 training for special functions is not inconsistent with a unitary organic scheme 
 of national education in which the democratic features of freedom of access 
 to the highest positions, and freedom of promotion by merit and proved 
 capacity, will be preserved and strengthened. 
 
 With all respect to the excellent work accomplished in the other Australian 
 States, the existing scheme of organization in New South Wales represents 
 the high-water mark of Australian educational endeavour. New South Wales 
 has still some serious defects to remedy in regard to which she can afford to 
 take lessons frona other States, but, on the whole, her present system pron^ises 
 to fulfil what has already been defined as the requirement of an efficient 
 national system of education, that it shall be flexible, coherent, and compre- 
 hensive. By the generosity of the Government of New South Wales, the 
 Department of Public Instruction is being enabled to put the new scheme 
 into effective operation. It only requires a continuance of that generosity 
 for the system to be brought to full and beneficent fruition. 
 
 The total expenditure on education in New South Wales for 1912 (ex- 
 cluaing technical and university education) was £1,572,000. Popidation 
 (1911), l,fiJG,7'J4. In justice to some of tlie other States, especially Victoi'ia 
 and Queensland, it should be stated that the reforming movement in those 
 States coincided with the close of a period of financial stringency. The net 
 cost per scholar in average attendance in the Commonwealth was £(5 16s. 5d. 
 in 1911, as compared with £4 9s. 3d. in 1901, a significant advance. The 
 average cost per scholar in the various States in 1911 was :— New South 
 Wales, £7 12s. 5d. ; Victoria, £G 9s. Ud. ; Queensland, £5 15.s. lOd. ; South
 
 524 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Australia, £6 Is. 2d. ; Western Australia, £8 6s. lOd. ; Tasmania, £5 lis. 2d. 
 The total expenditure on all forms of educative effort in the Commonwealth 
 has increased from 13s. 4d. per head of the population in 1907-8 to 16s. 7d. 
 per head in 1911-12. 
 
 It is impossible within the limits of this article to do more than sketch 
 the general nature of the reformed system of education which, with certain 
 necessary variations in detail, is now the common ideal in process of realiza- 
 tion in all the Australian States. Rousseau, in his Emile, described in broad 
 outline the modern programme of primary instruction. Emile was to be 
 taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, singing and drawing, national history, 
 orally and by narrative, and the principles of natural (imdenominational) 
 religion. Practical information was to be imparted by object lessons, and 
 careful attention given to physical and technical training. Advances made 
 during the last half century have been mainly in educational methods and 
 in the surrender of the traditional teaching of subjects, as separate and inde- 
 pendent, in favour of an organic scheme of instruction based upon certain 
 central interests. The three R's ceased to be treated as ends in themselves, 
 and became instruments of mental development. Correlated groups of 
 subjects have been made the basis of classification, instead of single subjects, 
 or the sum of separated subjects. Such a reformed scheme provides what 
 did not exist before, rational centres of gravity for school work, and obvioxisly 
 implies a radical change in methods of teaching, classifying, examining, and- 
 inspecting. Within the limits laid down by general programmes of instruc- 
 tion, the freedom and independence of the teacher are encouraged and 
 rewarded, instead of being discouraged and fettered as imder the old system of 
 formal examination of classes and pupils, with its dominating principle of 
 testing for results which could be statistically expressed. The inspector 
 ceased to be an examining machine. The teacher ceased to be a teaching 
 machine. What was not sufficiently pro\dded for in the first attempts at 
 reform was (a) the necessary reconstruction of the curriculum by an appro- 
 priate grouping and co-ordination of subjects, and a clear exposition of the 
 new educational aims and methods ; (6) the difficulties attending a quick 
 change from a system governed by use and wont and mechanical 'methods, to 
 a system entailing a high degree of culture and spontaneous initiative. A great 
 army of iiistructors cannot change their methods in a year in response to the 
 summons of a Department. The key of the whole educational position lay 
 as it always lies, in the training of the teacher. But this was just the part 
 of the system which had been most neglected in the past. In only one or 
 two of the States was there even a Training College, where some of the better 
 qualified pupil teachers were enabled to remedy the defects of a primary 
 school education, but received no professional training which deserves the name. 
 
 In the circumstances, three things were absolutely necessary — (1) The 
 drawing up of a new programme of school instruction in accordance with the 
 new ideals. This was done in the various States in difierent degrees of in- 
 telligence and completeness. Victoria was ahead of the other States in this 
 respect, although Mr. Cyril Jackson had already done good work in the more 
 limited field of Western Australia. (2) New methods of selecting and train- 
 ing future teachers. The pupil teacher system was doomed to disappear 
 sooner or later. It had been maintained in existence so long mainly because
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 525 
 
 It. was a cheap and easy means of obtaining a supply of raw material for th" 
 ser\'ice. It is still maintained in a modified form in one or twc States. In 
 Victoria, where in the strife between economic and educational ideals the 
 latter have generally suffered, the good intentions of the heads of the De- 
 partment nave been partially frustrated by the lethargy of the State Par- 
 liament. The pupil teacher system still exists in Victoria, although shorn of 
 its worst defects by the provision of High School training for candidates. 
 A Training College (residential) in connexion with the University in great 
 measure fulfils the demands of a professional training school. The Principal 
 of the College is also Lecturer on Education at the Melbourne University, and 
 both University and Department co-operate in raising the standard of scho- 
 lastic requirements and the status of the teaching profession. Provision is 
 also made for training secondary school teachers. In no other State has so 
 much attention been given to the Summer School and other cognate means 
 of assisting acting teachers to improve themselves in the technique of their 
 profession. In South Australia for some years the training of the future 
 teacher has been conducted by Adelaide University in co-operation with the 
 Education Department. An efficient Training College exists at Perth, in 
 Western Australia, and there is one, on a smaller scale, at Hobart, Tasmania. 
 In Queensland the pupil teacher system has endured longer than elsewhere, 
 but, with the recent establishment of the University of Brisbane, a new spirit 
 has been roused in the northern State. The old examination plus drill system 
 of training teachers will soon disappear, to be replaced by a system somewhat 
 similar to that existing in South Australia. In New South Wales the pupil 
 teacher has almost vanished from the land. Probationary students are 
 selected by examination at a standard which presupposes a three years' 
 course of education beyond the primary school. Successful candidates 
 receive a free and assisted secondary and vocational training at High Schools. 
 The ordinary course at the Teachers' College lasts two years, but a one-year 
 course is also provided, qualifying for the third-class certificate. Third and 
 fourth year courses are open to selected students. Supplementary evening 
 courses are also provided for acting kindergarten and infant school teachers. 
 It is hoped that the standard for entrance to the college will soon be made 
 equivalent to a University matriculation. Qualified students receive free 
 education at the University, and are encouraged to proceed to a degree. The 
 Principal of the College is also University Professor of Education. The 
 College has a staff of over 30 lecturers, the gi-eat majority being University 
 graduates. To provide for the requirements of the smaller rural schools, a 
 six months' course of training is given in a separate building. A course of 
 training for secondary teacheis is also provided, and the University gives a 
 Diploma of Education to graduates. The College offers annually two travel- 
 ling scholarships of the value of £200 each. The Sydney Teachers' College 
 can stand comparison with the best similar institutions in Great Britain. 
 One serious qualification must be made. The work of the College is carried 
 on under most discouraging conditions. The buildings are quite unsuitable, 
 limited in accommodation, deficient in equipment, and situated in one of the 
 most insanitary districts of the city. 
 
 The third thing necessary was that Departments of Public Instruction 
 should come to the aid of the great body of teachers in the difficult years of 
 U. 12154. 2l
 
 526 Federal Handbook. 
 
 transition from the old system to the new. In all the States, the inspectors 
 were encouraged to sink the official examiner in the sympathetic co-operator. 
 District classes were formed for demonstration lessons and discussion. 
 Teachers were brought into closer intercourse with each other and with the 
 oflScers of the Department, and generally a new educational and progressive 
 spirit made itself manifest. Full and detailed programmes of instruction 
 with an abundance of illustration have been published by most of the Depart- 
 ments, but in no State with so much fullness and intelligent supervision as in 
 Victoria. In course of time much of this guidance will be unnecessary, but 
 for some years it will be absolutely essential, and it is hoped that the educa- 
 tional authorities in the other States will imitate the excellent example given 
 by the Victorian Department of Public Instruction. 
 
 In the reorganization of school work, special attention has been paid to 
 the training of infant school teachers and the adoption of kindergarten 
 methods. Kindergarten principles had been previously recognised as a matter 
 mainly of book study. Under the old Departmental rule the foolish notion 
 prevailed that all that was necessary in order to introduce new subjects or 
 methods was to frame an official note or regulation. When public attention 
 was called to some defect in the system, the Department replied with a few 
 meagre instructions to teachers, and the reform was supposed to be accom- 
 plished. No adequate care was taken to provide trained instructors in the 
 new subjects. Much of the kindergarten manual training and science teach- 
 ing in the primary schools received, and deserved, the severest condemnation. 
 The Free Kindergarten Union (first in New South Wales and afterwards in 
 other States) established training schools and colleges for teachers, and their 
 efforts and success stimulated the Departments to remedy the defects of the 
 existing official system. In all the States considerable advance has been 
 made in the lower grades of primary education by the elaboration of kinder- 
 garten and allied methods. In the teachers' colleges in Sydney and Mel- 
 bourne much good original work has been done in child study, and in adapt- 
 ing methods Avhich threatened to become stereotyped and mechanical to 
 Australian conditions and the requirements of modern scientific psychology. 
 In Sydney, both at the teachers' college and at the training college of the Free 
 Kindergarten Union, the principles of the Montessori system are now being 
 made the subject of experimental application by special teachers, some of 
 whom have been trained at the Montessori institutions in Italy. 
 
 In manual training the old plan of employing an intelligent mechanic to 
 teach the boys the use of tools was replaced in Victoria by the introduction of 
 Sloyd methods under competent trained instructors, supervised by an in- 
 structor of manual training imported from England. In no other State does 
 systematic manual training form so integral a part of school work. In 
 science teaching Victoria again led the way by adopting improved methods 
 of nature study as a preparation for more direct instruction in elementary 
 science. In all the States science is taking a much more prominent place in 
 the school curriculum than before, although development is delayed by meagre 
 school requirements and lack of properly qualified teachers. The increased 
 importance attached to the teaching of science in schools has been partly due 
 to the public recognition of its close connexion \vith the progress of the national 
 industries, and partly to the recognition of the pedagogic value of science as
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 527 
 
 an iastrumeut of mental and moral training. We need, however, to be con- 
 tinually reminded of Huxley's warning that no teaching of science is worth 
 anything as a mental discipline which is not based on a direct study of the 
 facts and a practical exercise of the observing and logical faculties. 
 
 In reaction from the old formal training with its false division of the curri- 
 culum into separate subjects, treated independently, exaggerated emphasis 
 has been laid on the necessity of " vocational " training. In the less (educa- 
 tionally) developed States, vocational training in the primary and superior 
 schools has, for the greater part, taken the form of an amateurish introduc- 
 tion of certain " occupations " as subjects of school study. But in all the 
 States, the guiding principle is being recognised that unless in special schools 
 the vocational must be subordinated to the educational end. The choice of 
 subjects will no doubt be in part determined by the dominant local interests, 
 but it is not enough that the school curriculum should reflect the environment. 
 It is the task of the public school education to enlarge and emich the spiritual 
 envdronment of the pupil, and subjects and methods must not be such as to 
 encourage a dangerous and premature narrowing of interests. At the same 
 time, since the great majority ol the pupils pass at once from the life of the 
 primary school to the life of the field, factory, shop, or warehouse, the old 
 formal training was obviously inadequate. The Victorian Commission on 
 Technical Education (1909) wisely began its work, although to the surprise 
 of the officials of the Department, by considering how far the primary school 
 system was fitted to prepare the pupil for later specialized training and occu- 
 pations. " The foundations of the work must necessarily be laid in the 
 primary schools, and a wisely regulated course of primary instruction will do 
 much to make the work of the technical school easy and to insure its success." 
 The recommendations of the Victorian Commission have not been carried 
 out in their entirety, but in Victoria and in all the other States, in varying 
 degree, there is now in operation a scheme of instruction which provides for 
 a reasonable amount of differentiation in the higher grades, and for later 
 specialization in continuation schools. 
 
 In 1912 Victoria had nineteen district liigh schools of two types — high 
 schools and agricultural high schools. A school farm of not less than 20 acres 
 is attached to each agricultural high school. Pupils must be of at least 
 twelve years of age, and must have passed the qualifying examination. No 
 fees are charged to pupils under fourteen. In these schools there is during 
 the first two years an industrial course leading to technical and trade occu- 
 pations, and a common course for pupils intending to remain at school for 
 four years. Both courses include English language and literature, history 
 and civics, mathematics, geography, elementary science, drawing, manual 
 work, and physical training. In the common course, a second language is 
 optional — Latin, French, or German. Manual training includes woodwork 
 and metal work, modelling, agriculture ; and for girls, needlework and cooking. 
 At the beginning of the third year, the general course of study is followed by 
 special courses each extending over two years, and leading to the teaching 
 profession, public service, commercial, agricultural, and higher technical 
 pursuits, and to the University. The agricultural high schools are now well 
 developed, and they provide an excellent traiixing, both theoretical and 
 practical 
 
 2L2
 
 528 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In New South Wales tlie system is more extensive and complex, and the 
 scheme, although still in the tentative experimental stage, is by far the most 
 ambitious in Australia. The nature of the organization is shown in the 
 accompanying chart. Under the previous system, a number of superior 
 public schools (dating from 1880) provided a higher primary instruction. 
 These are now in process of being reorganized into superior technical schools 
 (32), superior junior or technical schools (21), and superior domestic schools 
 for girls (52), the type of school being determined by local needs. In addi- 
 tion, 48 evening continuation schools have been established — 31 in the metro- 
 politan area, and 17 in country districts. Of these 22 are junior technical, 18 
 commercial, 7 domestic, and 1 preparatory. High schools, providing secondary 
 education, have been increased in numter from five to twelve. For admis- 
 sion to all these scliools, a qualifying certificate is necessary, showing that the 
 candidate has completed a full primary course. After a two years' course at 
 any of the higher schools, qualified pupils may proceed to a further two years' 
 course (16-18) at the high school, technical central college, advanced evening 
 continuation schools, or Hawkesbury Agricultural College. Candidates who 
 obtain the leaving certificate at the end of a four years' course may proceed 
 to the University, teachers' college, or to advanced classes at the technical 
 college. The principle of free education prevails throughout the greater part 
 of this scheme, fees being charged only in the highest grades. Liberal pro- 
 visions are made for bursaries and scholarships. In 1912, 300 State bursaries 
 (£10 — £-30 yearly for two years) and 514 scholarships (free instruction and text 
 books) were awarded. Intermediate technical scholarsliips (£25) were also 
 awarded, entitling the holders to a free three years at the technical or agri- 
 cultural colleges. Intermediate scholarships (50) were awarded, tenable for 
 a further two years' high school course. Probationary student scholarships 
 (88) enabled candidates for the teaching profession to complete the liigh 
 school course. In 1912, there were 560 students attending the teachers' 
 college, the greater number receiving allowances of various kinds. The 
 total expenditure for such allowances was £18,620. The holders of scholar- 
 ships receive free instruction and text books, and are granted allowances of 
 £30 if living at home, £50 if living at a distance. Finally, 200 State exhibi- 
 tions and scholarships are made available at the University. 
 
 The New South Wales scheme has been described in detail, as it shows the 
 nature of the ideals and the correlated system which promise to prevail 
 throughout the Commonwealth. In all the other States, the existing system 
 is being modified and extended, but with less fullness of detail, and less liberal 
 expenditure, than in New South Wales. The need for developing a State 
 secondary school system has not been so strongly felt in some of the other 
 States, where a number of efficient private secondary schools already existed. 
 In Victoria, there is a large number of excellent denominational higher schools 
 and colleges. In Queensland, there are ten district grammar schools (six 
 boys', four girls') each of which receives a State subsidy of £1,000 a year, in- 
 cluding £250 for the provision of district scholarships. In both States, these 
 schools are subject to Government inspection. South Australia has nineteen 
 district high schools (State) and at least two denominational grammar schools 
 of the best type. Western Australia is establishing continuation classes and 
 central schools, subsidizes one high school to the extent of £1,000 a year, and
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 
 
 529 
 
 Chart showing the General Scheme of Publie Education in New South Wales. 
 
 Kindergarten 
 
 AND 
 
 Infant ScHooi. 
 2 Years. 
 
 Primary School 
 6 Years. 
 
 QUALIFYING CERTIFICATE,
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 531 
 
 has now in operation an admirably equipped modern school at Perth, with a 
 four years' secondary course, providing both general and specialized instruc- 
 tion. Tasmania, owing to the financial loss entailed by her entering the 
 Commonwealth, has been rather backm^ard in educational development, but 
 is now planning a scheme on lines somewhat similar to those adopted in New 
 South Wales. 
 
 Certain weaknesses in the New South Wales scheme may now be noticed. 
 Similar weaknesses are to be found in the other States, but, since the system 
 of the mother State has received (for reasons mentioned) a prominent place in 
 this article, they may now be stated with special reference to that State, the 
 oldest and largest in the Commonwealth, which, after a lengthened period of 
 educational stagnation, now claims to be in the forefront of modern scholastic 
 progress. 
 
 1. The legal minimum school age is six years. The Australian child at 
 
 that age has almost passed the kindergarten period. Although 
 the number of children under six years attending State schools 
 throughout the Commonwealth was, at last census, nearly 
 100,000, the corresponding number in the schools of New South 
 Wales was under 10,000, and showed a tendency to decrease. 
 No adequate provision is made for kindergarten instruction of 
 these children in the State schools, and over 26,000 between the 
 ages of five and six receive no school instruction of any kind. 
 In these circumstances the free kindergartens are supplementing 
 State efiort, and the Governnaent recognises the value of their 
 work by an annual grant, £850 of which is devoted to kinder- 
 gartens in Sydney. So long as children under six are practically 
 excluded from State schools, the free kindergartens, which are 
 entirely unsectarian, have a claim to support on educational 
 grounds. Little children are often shockingly neglected in the 
 poorer districts of the city, where, except for sporadic religious 
 effort, the free kindergartens are the only civilizing agencies 
 that exist. 
 
 2. The supply of properly trained teachers is not adequate t o the 
 
 demand. A full development of the new system is premature 
 and dangerous until there is a fuller recognition of the principle 
 of special training for special functions in the higher depart- 
 ments. Considerable improvement is noticeable in this respect. 
 A generation ago. University graduates were practically ex- 
 cluded from the Public Service. There are now 264 graduates 
 engaged in the various departments of State school work. 
 
 3. The proposed special trade schools exist at present only on paper, 
 
 although one trade school, to cost over £6,000, is in course of 
 erection. 
 
 4. Continuation schools are still in the experiment stage. The incon- 
 
 gruous elements in the attendance (ages varying from 11 to 42), 
 and the lack of special qualifications on the part of many of the 
 teachers, are retarding d(!veIopTucnt. Further, the absence of 
 compulsion and the lack of public interest defeat the best efforts 
 of the Department. The Australian boy or girl of fourteen has
 
 532 Federal Handbook. 
 
 not the slightest difficulty in obtaining employment for which 
 no training is necessary. The most obvious requirement is that 
 the State should regulate the employment of labour under the 
 age of 16 or 17, so as to permit attendance at afternoon instead 
 of evening classes. In this matter it is good economic, as well 
 as good educational, policy to borrow from other communities, 
 who, in similar conditions to our own, have been taught by ex- 
 perience the need of such compulsory legislation to protect 
 children from the results of their own ignorance and from the 
 selfishness of parents and employers. 
 5. The excellent principle, according to which the State should provide 
 higher education only for those who show themselves capable 
 of taking advantage of it, is not yet fully adopted in practice. 
 From the junior technical school up to the technical college the 
 work is hampered by the presence of many unqualified pupils. 
 A more vigorous application of the tests for admission is neces- 
 sary. But in the actual period of transition from an old sys- 
 tem to a new many defects are unavoidable, which may be 
 gradually eliminated in the course of development. If reason- 
 able allowances are made, the present situation is full of hope 
 for the future. 
 Technical education has been, until quite recently, in a chaotic condition, 
 following the traditions and practice of the mother country. The Univer- 
 sities were not directly interested in it. The Education Departments for the 
 most part thought their work accomplished, with the provision of a sound 
 primary school education. Specialized technical instruction was left in the 
 main to private effort. The first impulse towards improvement was due to 
 the economic necessity of providing a better supply of skilled labour and 
 trained directors of labour. The supply has never been equal to the demand, 
 especially in the higher grades. ^Mining was among the first interests con- 
 sidered, and the Ballarat School of Mines, founded in 1870, occupies an 
 honorable place in the history of technical education in Australia. The 
 Sydney Technical College was not established imtil 22 years later, although 
 long before that technical classes had been instituted in Sydney. Victoria 
 has now four mining schools and a number of fairly successful technical 
 schools and colleges. South Australia possesses one Central School of IVIines 
 and Industries, and five local mining schools of subordinate importance. 
 The rapid progress of Tasmanian mining industry led to the establishment 
 of the Zeehan School of ]\Iines and Metallurgy, now affiliated to the University 
 of Tasmania. The magnificent and varied natural resources of Queensland 
 and the existence of a healthy district competition accomit for the special 
 attention given in the northern State to technical training. Queensland has 
 now sixteen technical colleges. Western Australia has one Central Technical 
 School and about a dozen branch local institutions. In both Queensland 
 and Western Australia, technical schools and colleges are now controlled by 
 the State Departments of Education, and in both there is a special Director 
 or Inspector of Technical Education. In the older States, only the slightest 
 attempts were made for many years at co-ordination and control of technical 
 training. Large institutions in Sydney and Melbourne were allowed to grow
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 533 
 
 into monstrous agglomerations of classes and studies. Since tlie end was a 
 practical one, tlie " practical man " was usually allowed to dominate the 
 situation. Sometimes the eternal struggle between the practical man ignorant 
 of theory and the scientific man insufficiently acquainted with practice led 
 to successive reversions of the controlling policy. The general result was 
 confusion, cross purposes, and wasted opportunities. The more glaring 
 faults have now been removed, or are in process of removal. In Victoria, 
 the appointment of the Commission on Technical Education (1899) marked 
 the beginning of a new era. The various technical schools, hitherto managed 
 by local committees or coimcils and subsidized by the State, which had yet 
 no effective voice in their control, are being taken over gradually by the 
 Department, and a scheme of linkage is now being devised between the liigher 
 technical colleges and the district and agricultural high schools. Agricultural 
 colleges and experiment farms (described in another article), controlled by the 
 Department of Agriculture, exist in each of the States except Tasmania. 
 The only comment that may be made concerning them in this article is, that 
 the instructors appointed have often been men who, while practically ex- 
 perienced, had yet but a minimum of the scientific knowledge and training 
 required. With the establishment of University schools of agriculture, this 
 undesirable state of affairs will gradually be remedied. 
 
 The expenditure on technical education in Victoria has about doubled in 
 the last six years. In Western Australia and New South Wales it has more 
 than doubled within the same period. But the fact of such relative increases 
 may convey a wrong impression of the general situation, for the total 
 expenditure on technical education in the Commonwealth is still less than Is. 
 per head of the population, and compares very unfavorably with the amount 
 (over 12s. per head of population) spent on primary education. Australia 
 falls beliind New Zealand in national expenditure on technical as well as 
 secondary education. The Australian public has not yet been roused to 
 anything like a full consciousness of its responsibilities, or of the proper place 
 which technical education must take in the organization of the national 
 system of education. 
 
 The traditional British policy of entrusting ever}i:hing to local boards and 
 councils has been a failure in Australia. The policy of subsidy without control 
 has also failed. Many are of opinion that the new policy of co-ordination 
 and control has not been carried far enough. The Victorian Commissioners 
 advocated the appointment of a State Council of Education as a safeguard for 
 the maintenance of educational progress. Such a body, it was argued, 
 would not in any way lessen or interfere with Parliamentary control or 
 Ministerial responsibility. " Its duty would be to study continuously all 
 parts of the educational system, from the State school to the University, and 
 to report on the reforms introduccid in other countries in all departments of 
 instruction." Such a council should contain representatives of all the educa- 
 tional interests in the State, and also representatives of all the leading econo- 
 mic interests, who should be " chosen, as far as possible, by reason of their 
 experience and qualifications in dealing with educational problems." In 
 New South Wales a similar proposal has been advocated from time to time, 
 but public opinion remains indifferent on the question. Probably the evils of 
 defective organization have not yet been sufficiently felt by the Australian
 
 534 Federal Handbook. 
 
 people, or by leaders of public opinion. In Victoria, a Council of Public 
 Education has been recently called into existence by Parliamentary enact- 
 ment. The functions of the Coimcil are limited, but effective work has already 
 been done especially in connexion with the registration of non-State teachers 
 and the inspection of private schools. It is probable that the main reason 
 for the appointment of the Council was the limited power allowed to the De- 
 partment by the Legislature in the matter of secondary and higher education. 
 In the other States, where the Departments of Public Instruction are not 
 limited, the need for a National Council has not been so strongly felt as 
 in Victoria, where powerful private and denominational interests had to be 
 conciliated by the creation of a special Board, on wliich they should be 
 directly represented. On the general question of the expediency of a National 
 Council of Education, all that need be said is that except to a limited extent 
 in Victoria, it does not seem to be within the range of immediate practical 
 politics. It will have to wait until the growing complexity of educational 
 development makes the problem of effective co-ordination more urgent than 
 it is at present. 
 
 Before treating of University education, some notice may be taken of 
 three important subjects — the provision made for the education of children 
 in the more remote districts, the position of the Australian teacher, and the 
 moral and physical training of the Australian pupil. 
 
 The Northern Territory (white population under 2,000) is administered 
 by the Commonwealth, which also protects the interests of the aboriginal 
 inhabitants. The Federal Government takes no share in education outside 
 this limited sphere, except in the control of the Commonwealth Naval and 
 Military colleges. In the various states. Native Protection Boards provide 
 for the elementary education of aboriginal children. The educational needs 
 of the white children in outlying districts led to the early establishment of 
 provisional and subsidized schools, which have greatly increased in number. 
 Sometimes, instead of opening several small new schools, the better plan, 
 economically and educationally, is adopted of conveying the children to the 
 school. Western Australia gives " driving grants " when parents live 3 miles 
 from the nearest school, and supports over 250 schools, with an attendance in 
 each of between ten and twenty children. The Queensland Department pays 
 nearly £7,000 a year to itinerant teachers, and nearly £10,000 for provisional 
 schools. The average cost of a pupil in a provisional school is greater by 
 nearly £1 10s. than the cost of the education of a pupil in an ordinary State 
 school. In Tasmania, New South Wales, and other States, the Department 
 makes pro\'ision for teaching in localities where an average of ten cannot be 
 secured, by subsidizing approved private teachers at a rate not exceeding £5 
 per pupil per annum. In 1912 the New South Wales Department spent over 
 £17,000 in such subsidies. Arrangements are also made for conducting tem- 
 porary schools at railway construction centres and on mining fields. It cannot 
 be said that Australia fails in her duty to the children in remote and sparsely 
 settled districts. 
 
 The position of a teacher in social and political estimation depends mainly 
 on the social value attached to the work performed and on the quality and 
 quantity of the prior training required. A plentiful supply of untrained 
 teaching labour was in itself almost sufficient to account for the low rates of
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 535 
 
 remuneration whicli prevailed under previous conditions. \Mien the public 
 recognises that the work done is work worth paying for, and that the quality 
 of that work is improving, it will be willing to pay teachers more liberally. 
 But the ordinary parent, especially among the labouring classes, fails at pre- 
 sent to see the intimate connexion between the boy's school work and the 
 man's life work. It is not likely that the teacher's remuneration will ever 
 correspond to the social value of his function. It hence becomes necessary 
 that the State should aid him in two ways, by bearing part of the cost of the 
 long preliminary training, and by providing a reasonable pension after a long 
 life of honorable and arduous social service. Progress may be noted in both 
 these respects. The duty of pensioning civil servants is at least admitted, 
 excepting perhaps by the Melbourne press, but some of the superannuation 
 schemes are very defective, badly devised, and inequitable in distribution. 
 In all the States, greater aid is now given during the preliminary period of 
 education and training, but in varying degree. New South Wales has the 
 most complete and liberal system. Teachers in the service, who are qualified, 
 are allowed to continue their education at the University, and to qualifv for 
 a degree in arts or science, without payment of fees. The salaries of teachers 
 have been raised considerably in recent years, especially in the lower grades, 
 but many qualified adult teachers still receive less pay than an ordinary 
 mechanic or dock labourer. There are variations in the standard of 
 remuneration in the different States owdng to allowances for house rent, etc., 
 but the limits for teachers in charge of schools are £110 and £120 for small 
 rural and provisional schools, and £500 for heads of large schools. The 
 corresponding limits for women teachers are £110 and £370. Male assistants 
 receive from £65 (Tasmania) to £222 (New South Wales). Western Australia 
 pays higher average rates than the other States, probably higher than any 
 other country in the world, for similar service. Victoria has recently raised 
 the salaries of her teachers, but the greatest increase in total expenditure on 
 teachers' salaries has taken place in New South Wales. The public school 
 teachers in that State increased in number (1902-1912) from 5,401 to 6,559, 
 the average attendance from 155,916 to 167,752, the total amount paid in 
 salaries and allowances from £644,961 to £1,027,907. Taking a shorter period, 
 the total rate of increase on salaries paid to teachers between 1909 and 1912 
 has been 27 percent. The greater part of this increase has been probably due 
 to the desire, stimulated by Labour legislation, to raise the minimum living 
 wage in the lower ranks of the teacliing profession. The democratic jealousy 
 of higher salaries for the highest positions is weakening, but it is not likely 
 that school work will ever offer the prize positions which are common in other 
 professions. Hence the necessity, incumbent on the State, to niake wise 
 provision, not only for security of tenure, but also for an equitable svstem of 
 retiring allow;mces. 
 
 The physical culture of the Australian pupil receives more intelligent and 
 systematic attention than is given in m.ost other countries. It is, no doubt, 
 aided by the freer life encour;;ged by Australian conditions. But in the city 
 districts the playgrounds are restricted in area, and a "weedy " tj-pe is be- 
 coming common, in spite of the tendency to sports, a tendency which is much 
 exaggerated in newsp:',pcr writing end travellers' tales. The cadet system, 
 school drill, and the compulsory military training are moral as well as physical
 
 536 Federal Handbook. 
 
 influences for good. Much, however, remains to be done by opening children's 
 playgrounds in city districts, and by an enlightened system of town planning. 
 The congestion in some parts of the cities, and even in some suburbs, has 
 given rise to open sores, which are indicative of past neglect. The municipal 
 councils are generally composed of well-meaning business men, who are 
 content with a policy sufficient for the day, but who rarely show wise and 
 comprehensive foresight for the future. In Sydney, owing to its physical 
 conditions and earlier foundation, municipal reform is involving enormous 
 expenditure in requital for the sins of the past. The physical condition of 
 the Australian children was assumed to be excellent until recent scientific 
 investigation rudely dispelled public complacency. Tasmania claims to 
 have been the first State to undertake an inquiry into the health of children 
 attending State schools. Medical inspectors have now been appointed in all 
 the States. They are assisted by specialists and nurses, and the Commonwealth 
 Government is preparing a scheme of uniform investigation and classification. 
 In Tasmania it has been found that, " speaking generally, the older and 
 more isolated the settlement, the greater was the number of defects found in 
 the children, and the lower the mortality." In the Hobart district, among 
 485 defective children (out of 2,108 examined), 174 were found to be sufiering 
 from imperfect vision or diseases of the eyes, 42 from diseases of the ear, 136 
 from marked adenoid growth, and 15 from pronounced curvature of the spine. 
 (Eeport, 1912.) Queensland has a very thorough scheme of medical inspection 
 in operation under competent officers. In Queensland, as in all the other 
 States, dental troubles are found present to an extraordinary degree, especially 
 among children of the city, while ophthalmia is a threatening evil in the re- 
 moter districts. Attention may be drawn to the excellent carrjnng out of the 
 Queensland scheme of medical school inspection (for detailed description of 
 results, cf. Annual Eeports of Queensland Education Department, 1910-12). 
 So far as the general investigation has gone, the results seem to show the same 
 defects, and in somewhat the same proportion, wliich exist among the children 
 of Europe and America. The disclosures will result, it is to be hoped, in 
 greater attention being given to the physical conditions of school life. The 
 efforts of both teachers and pupils are grievously handicapped by defective 
 structural and hygienic school conditions. And what is wanted is not merely 
 better school buildings and furniture, but more light, more air, and more 
 soap. 
 
 The results of medical inspection have also given new importance to the 
 necessity for special treatment of defective and backward children. In the 
 teachers' colleges, the causes of retardation are being systematically studied, 
 and the new psychology is coming to the help of those who are dissatisfied 
 with the old rough and ready methods of classifying children en hloc. Hitherto 
 State Governments have been content with establishing or subsidizing a few 
 special institutions (not always under proper scientific educational supervision) 
 for the more extreme cases of abnormal children. There is a ^videspread 
 indiSerence to the fact that every school contains a certain number of children 
 sufficiently abnormal to prevent them from being benefited by the ordinary 
 methods of instruction. Such children are serious hindrances to the general 
 instruction, besides suffering themselves from undetected and uncared-for 
 physical and mental defect. No adequate provision has been made in any
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 537 
 
 State for the special treatment of such abnormal or partially abnormal school 
 pupils, although in one or two instances {e.g., in Victoria) some attention is 
 being given to the training of selected teachers for special work. This is 
 undoubtedly the necessary prior task before arrangements can be made for 
 even the partial segregation of defective pupils in special classes or schools. 
 The utmost that can be said at present of Australia is that the various 
 Education Departments are only beginning to be dimly aware of a 
 nevr field, which calls for urgent investigation and the adoption of new 
 methods. 
 
 The moral education of the Australian youth has been unfavorably 
 criticised by visitors, who find what they sometimes describe as a lack of 
 reverence. This is, in most cases, a facile phrase for explaining to themselves 
 an indefinable change in the social atmosphere as compared with that of older 
 countries, where the rules of manners as well as of moral duty are imposed 
 by tradition and secured by convention and habit. At any rate, the lack of 
 reverence, if it exists in Australia, is a social characteristic not peculiai' to 
 the Austrahan school boy or girl. An Australian might himself prefer to 
 describe it as a lack of servility, and a humorous disregard of social ritual and 
 conventions, which do not appeal to his intelligence or his sense of utility. 
 Judged by standards which are not merely subjective and individual 
 impressions, Australian adult and juvenile morality compares favorably with 
 that of other countries. Authorities agree in considering that a fair compara- 
 tive test of criminality must be based on tbe number of commitals to higher 
 courts, since the total returns from lower courts contain a large number of 
 cases which are " merely technical breaches of laws having in some instances a 
 purely local significance." Since 1861 , there has been a steady decline in the 
 number of commitals in proportion to population, from 22 to 6 commitals per 
 10,000 of the population, i.e., a decline of about 73 per cent. The rate of 
 convictions for serious crime in the Commonwealth has decreased from 69*3 
 per 10,000 persons in 1881 to 24-6 per 10,000 in 1911. The prison population 
 of the Commonwealth has decreased from 16 per 10,000 in 1891 to 6 9 per 
 10,000 in 1911. 
 
 Much adverse criticism on the public school system seems to be based on 
 the assumption that, since dogmatic or sectarian religious instruction is not 
 given, the morality of the public school pupil must therefore be lower than 
 that of the pupils attending denominational schools. No satisfactory proof 
 of this sweeping a priori judgment has ever been given. As in other countries, 
 the better private schools and colleges contain a large proportion of pupils 
 who come from homes where the standards of refinement are above the 
 average. The difference between pupils in such institutions and the majority 
 of State school children is a social, rather than a moral, one, and gives rise to 
 much confusion of judgment. Those predisposed to attach great importance 
 to formal religious instruction in schools naturally claim for such instruction 
 the credit of much that, in the opinion of others, is really due to the ordinary 
 healthy life of the home and the school. 
 
 The absence of religious instruction of a formal and dogmatic kind from 
 the State schools doos not necessarily imply the absence of a moral and 
 religious spirit. The exposition of doctrine is technical, not moral or religious, 
 and there is great difference of opinion as to the educative value (moral or
 
 538 Federal Handbook. 
 
 intellectual) of much that is included under formal religious instruction. 
 ]\Ir. H. G. Wells, turning his attention for a moment from schemes of economic 
 and materialistic reconstruction, finds occasion to say that the young par- 
 ticularly need to be taught " truthfully and fully all we know of three funda- 
 mental things, the first of which is God, the next their duty towards their 
 neighbour, and the third, sex. The adequate why of these, and some sort of 
 adequate how, make all that matters in education." Australian educators 
 are not peculiar in neglecting the importance of instruction in sexual physio- 
 logy and psychology, and, so long as the public mind is dominated by the policy 
 of absolute reticence, the neglect must apparently remain. The best way of 
 introducing the subject in school instruction would perhaps be by collective 
 lessons on the lines advocated by the White Cross League. In religion, even 
 if dogmatic and sectarian instruction is to be excluded, much is left to the 
 teacher, provided he is a person of serious and high convictions. Here again, 
 the key to the educational situation is to be found in the training of the teacher, 
 in the production of the true educator, who becomes a moral and spiritual 
 force in the living community which is the school , and not the mere purveyor 
 of certain pabulum of instruction. " Their duty towards their neighbour " 
 means, if it means anything beyond the commandments and the conventions, 
 a training in civic duty which begins with the life of the school, in initiation 
 into Goethe's Three Reverences, reverence for our fellows and equals, reverence 
 for those who are wiser and better, and reverence for those who are weaker 
 and younger than ourselves. In all the Australian States probably more 
 attention is paid in State school teaching to civics, and the principles of a 
 sound social morality, than in the non-State schools, where these subjects are 
 either neglected or lost sight of in the attention given to ritual, or formal 
 religious instruction. In all the programmes of State school education, an 
 important place is reserved for systematic instruction in the principles of 
 morality and good citizenship by means of text books and carefully prepared 
 schemes of lessons. The conception of the true function of the State school as 
 a moral and educational instrument may be best stated in words quoted fi'om 
 the regulations with regard to inspection and examination, issued by the 
 Victorian Department of Education. " Although as a general rule, the 
 efl&ciency of the instruction will be measured by the inspector's tests, and by 
 the number of pupils who pass the qualifying examination, or who gain the 
 certificate of merit, or a scholarship, it should be clearly understood by teachers 
 that the inspector's opinion of the worth of the school to the community will 
 outweigh the results of examinations. The worth of the school to the com- 
 munity consists in the work it does in quickening the mental life of the pupils, 
 in forming habits likely to result in worthy character, and in inducing its 
 pupils to pass on to a higher type of school, or, before they leave the elementary 
 school, to complete the full course. More important than successful acquisi- 
 tion of knowledge as revealed by examinations is an affirmative answer to 
 such questions as these : — Are the teachers faithful and zealous in their work, 
 and are the pupils being systematically practised in earnest, honest endea- 
 vour ? Are they being trained to think, to think quickly, and to tliink for 
 themselves ? Are they interested in what they are doing, and are they 
 being taught to apply it in their out-of-school affairs ? Is their school en- 
 vironment calculated to produce a cheerful performance of their duties, a
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 539 
 
 consideration and respect for the rights of others, and an ideal of honour 
 and truthfulness in word and act ? " 
 
 University education in Australia has followed the lines of British de- 
 velopment. The State Universities of to-day resemble in many respects the 
 great English provincial Universities of Manchester and Birmingham. The 
 degrees are, by Royal Letters Patent, declared of equal status with those of 
 any other University in the Empire. There are no tests of any kind, save those 
 of merit and capacity. They are secular, in so far as no instruction in theology 
 is given or theological degrees granted. Women students are admitted, and 
 can proceed to degrees. They are all national Universities, in great measm-e 
 supported by Parliamentary grants, and the State is represented, directly 
 and indirectly, on the governing councils. 
 
 The six Australian Universities vary considerably in size, financial en- 
 dowment, and complexity of organization. Sydney (founded 1850) and 
 Melbourne (1853) are the oldest and largest. In the years in which these 
 Universities began operations, the respective State populations were only 
 266,900 and 347,307. When the University of South Australia began work 
 in 1876 the State population was slightly over 210,000. The estimated popula- 
 tion of Tasmania in 1890, when the University was founded, was only 144,787. 
 The two remaining Universities were not founded until within the last year 
 or two. Queensland University was formally opened in 1911; State popula- 
 tion, 622,129. The University of Western Australia began work a year later ; 
 State population (1911), 294,181. The delay in the establishment of Univer- 
 sities in the northern and western States was due in the latter case to slow 
 national development (the population of Western Australia in 1890 was still 
 under 50,000) ; in the former case, to a prolonged period of financial 
 depression. 
 
 The number of students attending lectures at the various Universities 
 (comparative estimate for 1911) was— Sydney, 1,407 ; Melbourne, 1,129 ; 
 Adelaide, 621 ; Tasmania, 147 ; Queensland (opening year), 83. The figures 
 for Melbourne and Adelaide do not include students in music. The Univer- 
 sity revenues were estimated in 1911 as follows: — Sydney, £69,557 (including 
 Government grants, £22,550) ; Melbourne, £67,051 (grants, £28,190) ; Tas- 
 mania, £6,930 (grant, £4,500). The new University of Western Australia is 
 to receive from Government an annual grant of £13,500. 
 
 Private benefactions also vary in amount. Sydney University has received 
 benefactions of a capital value of over half-a-million pounds. Melbourne 
 University has received over £160,000, and Adelaide nearly as much. The 
 University of Tasmania has practically no private endowment. Sydney 
 University library contains 100,000 volumes and 700 serial publications. The 
 opposite extreme is found in Tasmania, where the local University library 
 contains only 1,800 volumes and 12 serials. 
 
 The organization of the Universities is on familiar British lines. The 
 governing body is a small senate or council, with over twenty members. A 
 general council (corresponding to convocation) is, in the older Universities, 
 composed of graduates only, but in the new Universities of Queensland and 
 Western Australia it contains representatives of the national, industrial, 
 commercial, and scientific interests, and also donors of sums over £100. The 
 general council in some cases has only a deliberative function, in others it
 
 540 Federal Handbook. 
 
 has powers of revising University legislation. In the constitution of Sydney- 
 University, the University is declared to consist as a corporation of the senate. 
 The wider point of view appears in the constitution of the University of 
 Queensland, which is declared to be " a body corporate consisting of senate, 
 council, and graduate and undergi-aduate members." 
 
 The range of studies also follows British precedents, with the addition of 
 subjects recognised in American Universities and in some of the newer British 
 Universities as fit and proper subjects for University instruction. The 
 most complete curriculum exists in operation at Sydney and Melbom-ne. 
 Melbourne University has eight faculties — arts, law, medicine, science, 
 engineering, agriculture, dentistry, veterinary science (and also a musical 
 examination board) — with a stafi of eighteen professors and over 60 lecturers, 
 as well as a large number of teachers of music. Sydney has four faculties^ 
 arts, law, medicine, and science— with departments of mechanical and elec- 
 trical engineering, mining engineering, and metallurgy, economics and com- 
 merce, agriculture, veterinary science, dentistry, and miUtary science. The 
 Sydney University staff consists of 22 professors and over 100 lecturers. 
 Adelaide University gives instruction and grants degrees in arts, law, 
 medicine, science, English, and music. It has also a faculty of commerce, a 
 department of education, and a conservatorium of music. It has a staff of 
 eleven professors and 30 lecturers, not including teachers of music. The Uni- 
 versity of Tasmania has four professors and seven lecturers in three faculties of 
 letters, science, and law. The new Universities of Queensland and Western 
 Australia began with a limited programme, in which the emphasis was laid on 
 " utilitarian " rather than on " cultm-e " subjects. But within a year the pro- 
 gramme was expanded, and it is probable that both the new Universities 
 will repeat the history of Birmingham University, where the liberal studies, 
 at first subordinated, were quickly developed into a fully organized faculty 
 of arts. The University of Queensland began (in 1910) by establisliing four 
 chairs— classics, engineering, chemistry, and mathematics and physics. It 
 has now (1913) a faculty of arts with two professors and ten lecturers, a faculty 
 of science with one professor and nine lectm'ers, a faculty of engineering, with 
 one professor and three lecturers. The University of Western Australia 
 began with four professorships — modern literature and history, mathematics 
 and physics, chemistry, and engineering and mining — -but has now made addi- 
 tional provision for the teaching of classics, philosophy, economics, geology, 
 biology, agiiculture, and other subjects. 
 
 Most of the professorships are held by graduates of English and Scottish 
 Universities, but a considerable number of the professors and the great majority 
 of the members of the junior staffs are Australian graduates. Many 
 Australian graduates have afterwards obtained distinction at English, Ger- 
 man, and American Universities as post-graduate students, lecturers, and 
 professors. 
 
 No Australian University provides an entirely free education. Total 
 income fi-om fees in the three largest Universities (in 1911) : — Sydney, 
 £20,206 ; Melbourne, £31,242 ; Adelaide, £9,381. The annual revenue from 
 fees diminishes with increasing Uberahty in Grovernment gi-ants. The 
 statutory endowment varies from £5,000 (Tasmania) to £22,000 (Melbourne), 
 But the stj,tutory endowment is supplemented by large additional ajinual
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 541 
 
 grants for special purposes. Last year (1912) the total amount of 
 State aid received by Sydney University was £44,000, by Melbourne 
 University nearly £47,000, or without special building grants, £.37,500. 
 New South Wales is the only State which makes statutory provision for the 
 future increase of State aid to the University. By the University [Amend- 
 ment] Act 1912, the statutory endowment of the University was doubled, 
 and it was further provided that when the population returns of the State 
 involve an increase in the number of exhibitions granted for free University 
 education (one exhibition for every 500 persons between the ages of seventeen 
 and twenty) the endowment " shall be increased at the rate of £1 for every 
 fifteen persons of such increase." When the new scheme of State University 
 exhibitions is in operation, there may be 800 students in attendance at Sydney 
 University who pay no fees. These State exhibitions are not like other 
 University exhibitions, tenable only in the faculties of arts and pure science. 
 They may be held in any professional school, in a proportion to be determined 
 each year by the Senate of the University. The Government of New South 
 Wales has thus given effect to what has for long been an educational ideal 
 in Great Britain and Australia — the ideal of a system which shall form a pro- 
 gressive and continuous whole, from the primary, through the secondary 
 schools, to the technical colleges and the University. The Minister of Educa- 
 tion, in introducing the Bill, said " We want to make the University the final 
 stage in the educational scheme as laid down by the Government ; to exclude 
 nobody, but to admit everybody who has brains and application. If there 
 has been a ladder of education it has been a ladder beset with difficulties. 
 We want to make a road. It cannot be a royal road, but we hope to make 
 it easier to the aggregate child-intelligence of the State." In the other 
 Australian States, there is likewise a rapidly growing acknowledgment of 
 the claims of the Universities for greater public support, and, while a com- 
 pletely free University is still indefinitely distant, considerable progress has 
 been made towards the attainment of the ideal, without in any way lowering 
 the standards of University admission or instruction. 
 
 At Sydney and Melbourne, there are affiliated residential colleges within 
 the University grounds (Sydney 4, Melbourne 3), but only a small proportion 
 of the students reside in the colleges. These colleges are not under Univer- 
 sity control, but they provide tutors, who supplement the instruction given 
 at the University, mainly in the faculty of arts. In Melbourne, where 
 attendance at lectures in arts and law is not compulsory, though non- 
 attendance is exceptional, the colleges play a more important part 
 than in Sydney, where attendance at University lectures is compulsory 
 in all faculties. The colleges, while admitting students without respect 
 to religious creed, are closely connected with religious denominations — • 
 Church of England, Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, and Methodist. The 
 Women's College in Sydney is non-sectarian. In Brisbane three residential 
 colleges (Church of England, Presbyterian, and ]\Iethodist) have been estab- 
 lished in coimexion with the new University of that State. At the other 
 Australian Universities there are at present }io residential colleges. 
 
 The University of Queensland, although it maintains the priiiciplo of a 
 teaching University, makes certain concessions to external students. Bris- 
 bane does not occupy the same dominant position as the capitals of the
 
 542 Federal Handbook. 
 
 other States, and there are a nuraber of excellent provincial institutions in 
 Queensland capable of supplying instruction in the more general subjects. 
 External students are aided by a well -organized correspondence study 
 department. 
 
 Courses of evening lectures are provided at some of the Universities for 
 students who are unable to attend during the day, and the new Universities 
 of Queensland and Western Australia propose to make special arrangements 
 for such students. Melbourne University provides evening lectures in a 
 selected number of first and second year arts subjects, also in agriculture, 
 mining, and architectuxe. (Number of students in attendance in 1912, 81.) 
 Sydney University provides almost a full arts course for evening students, 
 and nearly all the courses in the school of economics are given in the evening. 
 (Attendance in 1912, 286.) 
 
 The University extension movement has not been a success in Australia, 
 except to a limited extent in New South Wales. Very few University exten- 
 sion courses have recently been given in Victoria or South AustraUa. The 
 Sydney University Extension Board, during period 1908-12, provided 
 courses of lectures at 56 coimtry centres. During 1912, 47 University exten- 
 sion courses (3-6 lectures) were given in New South Wales (average atten- 
 dance, 122). 
 
 Since the oldest University in Australia has been in existence for little 
 more than 60 years, and the latest is only a year old, the influence of Univer- 
 sity education on the national life has been naturally a thing of slow growth. 
 The first task, after providing for a broad liberal education, was to institute 
 courses of professional education. Law and medicine were the first pro- 
 fessional faculties established. The Australian Universities are now well repre- 
 sented in all the higher Courts of Justice in the Commonwealth. The first 
 three Judges of the High Court of the Commonwealth were all graduates of 
 Sydney University. Melbourne had a medical school in active operation 
 long before the Sydney Medical School was established in 1883. Sydney has 
 now over 600 medical graduates ; Melbourne has over 1,000. Official statistics 
 as to the proportion of Australian qualified, to foreign qualified, medical 
 practitioners in the Commonwealth are not available. A private analysis of 
 the medical registers in four States shows the following result. The figures 
 are approximate, as some of the med'cal registers are very imperfect : — • 
 New South Wales, foreign qualified practitioners, 654 ; AustraUan, 
 569. Victoria, foreign, 541; Australian, 681. Queensland, foreign, 241; 
 Australian, 150. South Australia, foreign, 146; Australian, 142. Western 
 Australia, foreign, 182 ; Australian, 102. Medical schools exist only in 
 Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide Universities. Australian graduates 
 in science and engineering are now to be found in all the more important 
 mining and industrial enterprises of Australia, and on the field in various parts 
 of Asia, Africa, and America. The Australian Universities have also been 
 represented in recent South Polar expeditions. Important original investi- 
 gations in Australian geologv, biology, anthropology, etc., have been conducted 
 by Australian University teachers and graduates, whose work has been recog- 
 nised by foreign Universities and learned societies. The more recently estab- 
 lished protessional schools are now making their influence felt in the gradual 
 raising of the higher standards of technical education.
 
 Educational Policy and Development. 543 
 
 Only within recent years have serious efforts been made to extend 
 the facilities offered for post-graduate instruction and research. A small 
 annual grant is made in some cases for providing Science Research 
 Scholarsliips (1912— Melbourne, £2,000 ; Sydney, £1,000). In a new Uni- 
 versity the teaching function dominates. The teachers, especially in the 
 faculty of arts, are overbm'dened with formal lecturing and class work, and 
 have too many subjects in charge to permit of the necessary specialization. 
 Yet, in spite of these restrictions, the annual output of original work is highly 
 creditable to the Australian Universities, especially in the scientific depart- 
 ments, where the teachers are in less bondage to the formal lecturing 
 system. 
 
 Important changes have been made in the governments of the Univer- 
 sities and their relation to the other parts of the national system of educa- 
 tion. The representative character of the senate or supreme administrative 
 body has been broadened, and now, in nearly every case, contains govern- 
 ment or Parliamentary representatives. The Universities and the Educa- 
 tion Departments have been brought into closer contact, to their reciprocal 
 advantage, without loss of University independence or freedom of teaching. 
 Extended public and Parliamentary interest has led to a wonderful increase 
 in the number of the various professional and scientific departments, but 
 sufficient thought has not been given to the greatly increased expenditure 
 which will be necessary for the effective equipment and maintenance of the 
 new schools. The faculties of arts have made, comparatively speaking, 
 less progress, although chairs of education and economics have in some cases 
 been added. There are still lacking chairs of ancient history, psychology, 
 poUtical philosophy, and sociology. It is a matter for astonishment that no 
 school of sociology has yet been established in any Australian University. 
 A fairly complete department of economics exists at the University of Sydney, 
 but no special instruction is provided in sociology. In all the Universities, the 
 arts curriculum is now arranged so as to allow a fairly wide list of " options," 
 the general aim being to avoid the two extremes of premature specialization 
 and dissipation of energy over an excessive number of different subjects. 
 
 Among the Universities, Melbourne was until lately, perhaps, the most 
 conservative, and Sydney the most advanced in the arrangement of the arts 
 curriculum, but Melbourne University has now (1913) considerably revised 
 its regulations and curricula for degrees in both arts and science. Ade- 
 laide provides, more than the others, for specialization during the arts course. 
 It is probable that, with greater development, the traditional arts faculty will 
 be replaced by a faculty of liberal studies, composed of a number of relatively 
 independent departments. In that case, the entrance standard would require 
 to be raised, and the present first year courses would be left to higher schools 
 and colleges. 
 
 The Australiaii Universities come into contact with the other departments 
 of national education mainly on two sides, higher school education and tech- 
 nical education. In the absence of any departmental organization of secon- 
 dary education, the Universities of Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide insti- 
 tuted junior and senior public examinations, on similar lines to those adopted 
 by Oxford and Cambridge. These examinations have now fulfilled their 
 function, and will gradually disappear, to be replaced by higher school 
 
 C.l-2ir,4. 2 m
 
 544 Federal Handbook. 
 
 examinations, controlled by a conjoint board, representing the Education 
 Departments and the Universities. The matriculation examination will be 
 retained only for the benefit of those who do not qualify for admission by 
 means of the leaving certificate. 
 
 The general unsatisfactory condition of technical education in Australia 
 has been already described. It is not in the least probable that the Australian 
 technical colleges will develop into technical Universities on the German 
 model. Future development will be on British lines, a greater extension of 
 the higher scientific-technical work at the University, which should be the 
 highest centre of training, and at which all the great national interests should 
 be represented. The technical colleges will be organized so as to free the 
 Universities from great part of the necessary elementary scientific instruction, 
 and to supplement the University by affording material facilities for specialized 
 technical application and research. 
 
 Complaints have been made that the Australian Universities stand outside 
 the national life, in dignified but dangerous isolation. The charge is usually 
 made in loose general terms, and with a childish ignorance of the evidence. 
 Sometimes what is meant is that the University should open its doors to the 
 incompetent. At other times, the reference is to the comparatively small 
 number of graduates who adopt politics as a profession. The Universities 
 conceived their first duty to be the provision of a liberal and professional 
 education. For any extension of their work they had to depend on increased 
 Government grants. It is not the Universities, but the State Governments, 
 who have failed in the necessary task of providing systematic instruction at 
 the Universities in economic, social, and poUtical science, as part of a training 
 for public and political life. During the present year (1913) a Workers' 
 Educational Association has been formed in several of the Austrahan States, 
 a non-party and unsectaiian association, with aims similar to those of the 
 present English association. The Australian Universities are entering into 
 sympathetic relations with the new movement, and some of them have already 
 taken steps to establish tutorial classes on the model of those which have 
 been so successful in England. 
 
 Students of education will have recognised in this condensed account 
 many parallels to English and Scottish educational policy and development. 
 According to the census of 1911, 96 99 per cent, of the total population had 
 been' born either in Australasia or in the United Kingdom. The two largest 
 foreign-born elements of the population were German (O* 75 per cent.) and 
 Chinese (0- 47 per cent.). The Australian people is indeed more homogeneous 
 than the parent stock, and its futui-e development may be more easily pre- 
 dicted than that of the United Kingdom. Foreign institutions and modes of 
 life rarely become acclimatized, which is a misfortune in some instances, 
 e.g., art, cookery, architecture, and the more refined kinds of social recreation. 
 The Austrahan national system of education is strongly akin in many features 
 to the French national system, but there has been no direct borrowing. 
 French influence has come by way of England, which was greatly affected 
 during last century by the social and poUtical ideas and example of France. 
 
 One grave defect of a highly centralized system has already been men- 
 tioned, its failure to secure corresponding local interest and effort. The 
 attempt to stimulate the sense of local responsibility, by means of single or
 
 Educatioxal PoLiCf AXD Developmext. 545 
 
 district school committees, has, up to the present, been a wretched failure. 
 Victoria is, perhaps, the only State where rural schools in general show any 
 appreciable improvement due to local interest or expenditure. 
 
 Another defect of a centralized system of national education is, according 
 to some writers, that it means a machine-made teacher and a standardized 
 ■child. The criticism was directed against the English board school, and so 
 far may have been warranted. But with the new system of training teachers, 
 in close contact with the University, and with the consequent free play of 
 ideas, the danger of the machine-made teacher is diminished. The danger 
 l^ecomes serious only when the chiefs of the service are impervious to new 
 ideas, and when the rank and file are excluded fi-om the broadening and 
 inspiring influence of a University education. Such conditions no longer 
 •exist in Australia, and there is little fear of their being restored. " Standardi- 
 zation " is a term too vague in its reference to be anything more than a 
 question-begging epithet, like " democratic." Standardization is not neces- 
 sarily an evil. It is not an evil in good manners or in the essentials of a 
 .sound liberal education. Changes in the methods of examination and inspec- 
 tion, and greater freedom in the detailed carrying out of the new programmes 
 of instruction, which are very broad and intelligent in conception, have already 
 done much to counteract the tendency to mechanical uniformity in the 
 routine of school work. 
 
 A final danger of the centralized system of national education is said to 
 b)e the opportunity which H puts at the disposal of a reactionary or tyrannical 
 ■Government. With an army of instructors, drilled into a common subser- 
 vience to regulations fi-om head-quarters, a nation may in a generation or two 
 be turned from free men into slaves or machines. This fearful prospect 
 alarms the imagination of those who live constantly in dread of the " coming 
 socialism." To one who has grown old in the service of the Australian 
 people, the danger seems illusory. The leviathan of a self-organized democracy 
 is not likely to be the fearful monster conjured up in such alarmist dreams. 
 It is no doubt possible, even certain, that the future holds surprises for social 
 optimists, as well as for social pessimists. But even supposing that the 
 worst which is feared should become true, there are still grounds for the faith 
 that the period of reaction or tyranny would be only a temporary lapse from 
 the ideal of a free national self-development. The free spirit of a nation 
 may be trusted to react, sooner or later, on its own institutions, which that 
 same spirit has created. The chm-ches, whose main reason for existence is to 
 bear witness to the reality of a moral order, may be trusted to keep alive the 
 •conviction that nothing can permanently prevail against the spiritual forces 
 which rule the world. And the national Universities may be trusted to do 
 their part. Only when the Universities in older lands became class institu- 
 tions did they fail to fulfil their high function, and become instruments of 
 reaction and subservience. As the centres of free and enlightened thought 
 on all the great human interests, the national Universities of Australia will 
 not, it may be believed, fail to supply men of light and leading for the nation. 
 The Universities of the past sent forth men who withstood Popes and Em- 
 perors. The Universities of the future may be trusted to provide men who 
 will not bend the knee before Kiufj Demos, or acknowledjie anv (jther master 
 than the spirit of freedom and truth. 
 
 2 M 2
 
 5i6 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 POLITICAL SYSTEMS OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 W. Harrison Moore, B.A., LL.D., Professor oj Law at the University of 
 
 Melbourne. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. The Federal System of 
 
 Government. 
 
 2. Responsible Government. 
 
 3. Parliaments and their Con- 
 
 stitution. 
 
 4. The Two Chambers of the 
 
 Legislature. 
 
 5. The Cabinet. 
 
 6. Party Government. 
 
 7. The Labour Party. 
 
 8. Administrative Problems. 
 
 9. The Courts and the Constitu- 
 
 tion. 
 10. Commonwealth and State 
 
 Functions. 
 IL The Development of the 
 
 Federal Con.stitution. 
 
 12. Constitution Amendment. 
 
 13. Imperial Relations. 
 
 1. The Federal System of Government. 
 
 The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 recites the 
 agreement of the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Aus- 
 tralia, Queensland, and Tasmania to unite in " one indissoluble 
 Federal Commonwealth under the Crown " and under the Consti- 
 tution thereby established, and provides that the Colonies (with Western 
 Australia if she join in the agreement) shall accordingly be united by proclam- 
 ation of the Crown upon a day appointed. The proclamation was made 
 on 17th September, 1900, and on 1st January, 1901, the appointed day, 
 the Federal Commonwealth came into being. Western Australia having by 
 this time accepted the Constitution, the Commonwealth included the whole 
 six colonies. 
 
 The foundation of the Commonwealth and the Constitution upon an 
 Act of the Imperial Parliament checks all argument as to the legal origin 
 of either ; we are thus spared some of the speculations which political 
 communities of this type appear to invite. It enables us also to recognise 
 the agreement of the colonies as at any rate the causa sine qua non ; such 
 recognition in no way impaii's the unity of the Act of Constitution or suggests 
 dangerous rights of secession. In complete accordance with the doctrine of 
 colonial self-government laid down for Australia in 1850, the union and its 
 conditions (subject to some alteration of the provisions concerning appeals 
 to the King in Council) were framed in Australia itself, and the Imperial 
 Parliament in passing the Statute which gave them legal form acted as the 
 supreme constituent authority in the Empire. 
 
 An extensive literature exists on the subject of the several unions of States, 
 and no definition of a federal union could be offered which would not challenge 
 criticism. For pm'poses of description, however, it may be said that a 
 federal government exists in any political community where the powers of 
 government are divided between two authorities — a central authority ex- 
 tending to the whole territory and population, and a number of particular 
 authorities limited to particular areas and persons and things therein — 
 each of which is equipped for its own purposes without recourse to the other, 
 and which are so far independent of each other that neither can destroy the 
 other or impair its powers or encroach upon its sphere.
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 547 
 
 If it is asked why the Australian colonies preferred a federal to an incor- 
 porate union, the division to the concentration of power, the most obvious 
 answer lies in the fact that where several States, independent of each other, 
 come together to form a new political community, there is, in the absence of 
 any imperative force, a strong bias against complete self-surrender and 
 absorption. The same cause influences the form which federalism is likely 
 to assume — in its most natural shape, the constituent States will not only 
 preserve their own identity, but will reserve the general powers of govern- 
 ment and will commit to the new federal authority specific powers only. 
 
 This tendency will be the greater if the union is formed under the auspices 
 of the existing Governments and of State politicians. It may be overcome 
 if the union is achieved either by or in the presence of force, as in Germany, 
 where the Empire was founded on the military supremacy of Prussia, whose 
 hegemony is stamped upon the Constitution. In South Africa, the deliberate 
 preference for an incorporate union was due to a variety of conditions, chief 
 amongst which were that the fundamental divisions of South African politics 
 transcended colonial boundaries altogether, and (it may be surmised) that 
 the pathway to union was beaten out by men whose position in the country 
 enabled them to view the conditions with detachment from local preposses- 
 sions and connexions. 
 
 That the Canadian Constitution gives the residuary power to the 
 Dominion Parliament and only specific powers to the Provinces is no excep- 
 tion to the rule. In addition to the fact that in the years 1864-1867, when 
 the " confederation " was forming, the United States was a neighbour flushed 
 with the spirit of American unity, is the fact that the Dominion Constitution 
 was not merely nor mainly a union of the British North American colonies ; 
 it was, so far as concerned its principal members — Ontario and Quebec — 
 a dissolution of the incorporate union of Upper and Lower Canada and the 
 substitution of a federal bond. 
 
 In Australia, all these exceptional conditions were absent. There was no 
 imperative external pressure — ^the questions of the Pacific and of a White Aus- 
 tralia had not then assumed the importance which later events and a wider 
 outlook have given them. Union was a governmental convenience rather 
 than a necessity, designed for the attainment of certain obvious and practical 
 purposes, more apparent to men of political experience than to the multitude. 
 In such circumstances, it was natural to build on existing foundations, to 
 leave things unchanged except so far as change should be necessary to secure 
 the practical ends in view. It is not necessary to lay stress upon mutual 
 jealousies, and the impossibility of obtaining union upon other terms. To 
 do 30 is to suggest that the Constitution was to its framers a pis-aller, an 
 acceptance of the second best ; and there is no reason for doubting their 
 belief that the great interests which they had in view would be served by a 
 government with powers definitely limited and pointing towards those ends 
 better than by one which was burdened with the miscellaneous functions of a 
 Parliament with plenary powers. An ardent national spirit and widespread 
 national consciousness have been the growth of the twelve years since federa- 
 tion was accomplished : the product of a sense of common external interests 
 and possible dangers on the one hand, and, on the other, of more clearly 
 d^ned differences in political thought and aims.
 
 548 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The position, as it presented itself to federalists, cannot be described 
 better than in the resolutions of the National Australasian Convention of 
 1891 :— 
 
 " That, in order to establish and secure an enduring foundation for the- 
 structure of a Federal Grovernment, the principles embodied in the reso- 
 lutions following be agreed to : — 
 
 " 1. That the powers and privileges and territorial rights of the several 
 existing Colonies shall remain intact except as to such surrenders 
 as may be agreed upon as necessary and incidental to the 
 power and authority of the National Federal G-overnment. 
 " 2. No new State shall be formed by separation from another State,. 
 nor shall any State be formed by the junction of two or more 
 States or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures 
 of the States concerned, as well as of the Federal Parliament. 
 " 3. That the trade and intercourse between the federated Colonies, 
 whether by land carriage or by coastal navigation, shall b& 
 absolutely free. 
 " 4. That the power and authority to impose Customs duties and 
 duties of Excise upon goods the subject of Customs duties, 
 and to offer bounties, shall be exclusively lodged in the Federal 
 Grovernment and Parliament, subject to such disposal of the 
 revenues thence derived as shall be agreed upon. 
 " 5. That the naval and military defence of Australia shall be en- 
 trusted to federal forces, under one command. 
 " 6. That provision shall be made in the Federal Constitution which 
 will enable each State to make such amendments in its Con- 
 stitution as may be necessary for the purposes of the 
 federation." 
 These principles were emphasized in the Federal Convention of 
 1897-9. 
 
 A clause in the draft of 1891, making the Governor-General of the Com- 
 monwealth the channel of communication between the Imperial Government 
 and the States, was omitted in the final scheme ; and the Canadian plan, 
 which gives to the Dominion Government the appointment of the Lieutenant- 
 Governors of the Provinces and a veto on provincial legislation was carefully 
 avoided. The object of the Constitution was to mark out the sphere of 
 the Federal Govermnent, to ensure the completeness of the power of that 
 Government in its sphere, and to leave the rest — the States' Constitutions,, 
 their frame of government, and their powers of government — unchanged. 
 
 2. Responsible Government. 
 
 In considering the structure of government, the States first demand 
 attention, as being the earlier in time, and the schools of experience in 
 which the framers of the Commonwealth Goverimient learnt their work. In 
 all other aspects than the federal, the experiences of the Colonies under 
 responsible government so obviously govern the Constitution, whether for 
 warning or for example, that it will be convenient to let one account 
 serve for both Federal and State Governments, merely calling attention to 
 significant points of difference.
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 549 
 
 Five of the federating Colonies acquired " responsible government " 
 between 1855 and 1859 ; Western Australia did not reach her political 
 majority imtil 1889. The mode in which the several Constitutions were 
 established was not uniform, and in some cases presented singular com- 
 plications, and obscurities. 
 
 But ultimately, all may be founded on some Act of the Imperial Par- 
 liament conferring upon a Colonial legislature the amplest power. Wliile 
 the Imperial Parliament has thus been the origin, it has also been the model 
 of the Colonial Constitutions. 
 
 The government of the Colonies is essentially self-government ; the Colonial 
 legislatures are not limited by any doctrine which would treat them as the 
 mere instruments of the Imperial Parliament. And just as the British 
 Constitution rests on a legal basis of Parliamentary sovereignty as dis- 
 tinguished from people's sovereignty, the self-government of Australia has 
 meant Parliamentary government, unhampered by limitations which an 
 authority merely delegated by the people would suggest. The most im- 
 portant manifestation of this is that self-government in a Colony has included 
 the power of amending its Constitution, and that the constituent power 
 has been lodged in the Colonial legislature without further reservation than 
 is involved by the observance of forms which the legislature itself may 
 abolish, and, in some cases, has abolished. 
 
 The assumption of " responsible government " involved several things, 
 of which the full significance and appreciation were only disclosed by time. 
 It meant that, in relation to the internal government of the Colony, the 
 Imperial Piirliament and Government abstained from interference in matters 
 of policy and administration. This consideration governed the exercise 
 of the reserved power of disallowing Colonial legislation, as well as of the 
 ordinary powers committed to the Governor by the Crown. 
 
 It meant also the transfer of power from a Governor, with a staff of 
 subordinate of&cers, answerable like himself to the British Government, 
 to an executive which was responsible within the Colony itself. It has 
 meant, in practice, that this responsibility has assumed a form similar to 
 that which has grown up in the United Kingdom since the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century. In short, " responsible government " has acquired a 
 secondary meaning connoting "cabinet government" or "party government," 
 so that in the Colonial legislature we find not merely the legislative authority 
 but the power which makes and unmakes Ministries. 
 
 This is foreshadowed rather than established in the Constitution. In 
 spite of expressions in the Constitution, which assume the existence in fact 
 of the system, the Cabinet system rests to this day in Australia mainly, 
 as it does in England wholly, upon conventional understanding and practices 
 rather than upon positive law. Thus, in addition to the flexibility which 
 belongs to a legal framework alterable by the ordinary legislature, there it. 
 the further flexibility arising from the free play of usage and convention. 
 The once famous theory of iliginbotham (Chief Justice of Victoria), which 
 attributed to the Constitution Acts the whole system of responsible goverimient , 
 now finds few supporters. The legal part of the Australian Constitution 
 until the establishment of the Conmionwcalth was mainly concerned with 
 the Legislatures, their organization and arrangemente.
 
 550 Federal Handbook. 
 
 3. Parliaments and their Constitution. 
 
 All tlie States' Constitutions provide for two Chambers. The Assembly, 
 or Lower House, is democratic in basis; and in its control of IVIinisters, 
 its financial preponderance, its limited term, and its liability to dissolution, 
 recalls the House of Commons. 
 
 In all the " Lower Houses " members have long received an " allowance " 
 or " reimbursement of expenses," which is in substance a salary. The 
 Senate of the Commonwealth, and the Legislative Councils of South Australia, 
 Western Australia, and Tasmania are also paid. In addition, members 
 receive a pass over the Government railways, and, in some cases, allowance 
 for travelling expenses, wliile there may be further allowances for special 
 service, as on the Standing Committee on Railways in New South Wales 
 and Victoria, or on Royal Commissions of Inquiry. It may be mentioned 
 that a procedure similar to that by which payment of members of the House 
 of Commons was introduced in 1911 — the inclusion of the necessary amount 
 in the Appropriation Bill — brought about a Constitutional crisis and " dead- 
 lock " in Victoria in 1877, though payment of members had been provided 
 for by temporary Acts since 1871. 
 
 Manhood suffrage for the Lower House has been universal for many 
 years ; women's suffrage upon an equal qualification was introduced into 
 South Australia in 1894:, and was adopted by Western Australia (1899), 
 New South Wales (1903), Tasmania (1903), Queensland (1905), and Victoria 
 (1909), and by the Commonwealth in 1902. Every adult is entitled to vote 
 in the district in which he resides. Plural voting is permitted in no State 
 and is forbidden for the Commonwealth Parliament, but in Victoria and 
 Queensland property-holders have an option of exercising their vote where 
 the property is situated, or where they reside. The result in Victoria is 
 that while Melbourne is at a general election a safe Labour seat, at a by- 
 election it is pretty certain to be won by an anti-Labour candidate. 
 
 A new country presents few of those features which in older governments 
 suggest competing methods of distributing representation amongst the 
 constituencies ; and thus the electoral units are found by dividing the electorate 
 into districts, with an approximately equal number of electors. One im- 
 portant modification of this plan is adopted : some advantage is given in 
 the distribution to rural over metropolitan electors. This is founded on 
 various grounds, but exists mainly to establish a balance of interests, and 
 especially to reduce the disproportionate weight of an urban vote con- 
 centrated in the capitals. It is recognised in the Commonwealth as well 
 as in the States. 
 
 In the States of Queensland and New South Wales provision has been 
 made for the redistribution of seats, due to changes in population, without 
 need for recourse to special legislation. In the other States there is no 
 such provision, and time produces similar anomalies to those found in the 
 United Kingdom. In the Commonwealth Parliament the matter, of course, 
 touches the relative weight of the States in the Parliament, and i i, therefore, 
 provided for by the Constitution, supplemented by legislation. It is the 
 business of the Chief Electoral Officer every fifth year to take into consideration 
 the representation of the several States in relation to the statistics of popu- 
 lation, and to determine whether any State has lost, and any other State
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 551 
 
 gained, a member, for the system contemplates adjustment by transfer and 
 not by an increase of the total number of members. This determination 
 is operative per se ; and it then becomes the duty of the Government to 
 order commissioners to redistribute the seats in the States concerned, in 
 order to give effect to it. The commissioners' reports are laid before both 
 Houses of Parliament, and, if approved — they cannot be amended — pass 
 into operation. The question suggests itself — what would be the position, 
 if, after the Electoral Officer had made his determination, either House of 
 Parliament should refuse its assent to any consequential adjustment ? The 
 reports of commissioners are by no means accepted as of course, and are 
 the occasion of fierce party battles in the Hoiise. The machinery of the 
 law may also be called into operation by the shifting of population within 
 a State. 
 
 The single-member constituency is the rule in Australia for the Lower 
 House ; but Tasmania has for years used an adaptation of Hare's system 
 of proportional representation, involving the multi-member electoral division. 
 The States have made various experiments in schemes for determining the 
 majority of votes where there are several candidates. Xew South "Wales 
 adopted the second ballot in 1910 as a means of coping with the " split 
 vote " where party discipline was not sufficiently strong to deal with the 
 matter ; the scheme was naturally opposed by the party which could rely 
 on its own organization to prevent rivalry from its own ranks. Queensland, 
 in 1892, Western Australia, in 1907, and Victoria, in 1911, have adopted 
 various forms of " contingent " or " preferential " voting. Of the general 
 effect of the schemes, it cannot be said that they have failed in their aim, 
 though, with the increased sharpness of party conflict and the growing 
 strength of party discipline, they appear to have come on the stage just as 
 the conditions which demanded them were passing away. On the other 
 hand, the party system itself peculiarly demands provision for the repre- 
 sentation of minorities. Possibly, the single -member constituency may, in 
 general, secure this in a haphazard way, though the expectations on which 
 the English system of 1885 was based have been singularly falsified in practice. 
 The Commonwealth Senate, with its multi-member constituency, shows 
 what is possible with a block vote as directed by a powerful organization. 
 No pro\'ision, however, has been made, except by Tasmania, for the 
 representation of minorities. The disadvantage of all such schemes is that 
 among a people fairly evenly divided in their politics, nice and accurate 
 adjustment of their representation makes Parliamentary government difficult 
 and may involve the whole institution in discredit. This consideration, of 
 course, does not apply with equal force to Second Chambers, and it is 
 possibly in connexion with an elective Upper House that proportional 
 representation promises the best results. 
 
 The ballot has been so long in use in the United Kingdom (though its 
 experimental character is recalled by the fact that it still depends on an 
 annual Act) that people forget that it used to be described as the " Australian 
 ballot " ; Australian experience was an important factor in encouraging its 
 adoption in England. In recent years, Australia has been making some 
 further experiments in the mode of recording votes. Partly, though not 
 solely, out of consideration for women electors, various provisions have been
 
 552 Federal Handbook. 
 
 made for recording votes otherwise than by attendance at the polling booth 
 in the elector's division. The most important of these has been " voting 
 by post," introduced in Victoria in 1900, and adopted by Queensland, Western 
 Australia, and the Commonwealth. It has been fiercely assailed by the 
 Labour Party as permitting violations of the secrecy of the ballot, and 
 obviously, if admitted as a general alternative, it would afford a means whereby 
 any person or political party able to bring pressure upon the elector could 
 readily make that pressure effective. Actually, voting by post is limited 
 to cases of illness, distance from polling booth, and absence. But in Queens- 
 land it was asserted that the system was abused, and after a constitutional 
 crisis in 1907, the law was 'imended in 1908 so as to permit electors to record 
 an " absent vote " at any booth. The same course was followed in the 
 Commonwealth, where the Labour Party abolished the postal vote in 1911, 
 and substituted " absent voting " at any polling booth in Australia. The 
 objection to this system is that it facilitates impersonation by diminishing 
 the risks of detection. Needless to say, the views held on the subject are 
 affected by the interests deemed to be involved. The postal vote facilitates 
 the recording of women's and farmers' votes, which are thought to favour 
 the Liberals. The absent vote provides for the shearers, seamen, and other 
 shifting classes who vote " Labour," while it does nothing for the farmer 
 who is distant from a polling booth, or the woman who is suffering the 
 infirmities of sex. It is by no means certain that the calculations of interest 
 on the subject by either party are sound. 
 
 In the organization and procedure of the Chambers the English model 
 is closely followed, and May^s Parliamentary Practice is as familiar as in the 
 House of Commons. The closure in various forms is now acclimatised in 
 Australia. There is usually a time limit for speeches on motions for ad- 
 journment, and in the Commonwealth Parliament a rule was made in 1912 
 limiting speeches in the House of Representatives to 65, or in certain 
 cases 95 minutes. In the Commonwealth Parliament and in some of the 
 States Parliaments, the consideration of Bills introduced in one session may, 
 imder certain restrictions, be resumed in the next session of the same 
 Parliament at the stage they had reached at the prorogation. 
 
 In the Commonwealth Parliament the Speaker's robes and the mace 
 were discarded during the last Labour regime, but were restored in the Par- 
 liament of 1913. A more serious breach with English traditions has recently 
 been made in the practice which frankly treats the Presidency, the Speaker- 
 ship, and the Chairmanship of Conmiittees as party appointments to be 
 determined anew in each Parliament. 
 
 4. The Two Chambers of the Legislature. 
 
 The second Chamber in Australia is foreshadowed in the composition 
 of the Legislative Coimcil established in New South Wales in 1842, 
 which consisted as to one -third of nominated and as to two -thirds of 
 elected members. Much discussion on the subject took place in the follo\\-ing 
 years, when Australian constitutions were in the making. Succeeding 
 Secretaries of State, the Board of Trade, and members of the House of Com- 
 mons in England ; the Governors, Legislatiires, press, and public meetings 
 in the Colonies took an active part. To one, the tradition — English and
 
 Political Systems op Australia. 553 
 
 Colonial — seemed a sufficient reason in favour of the two Chambers ; to 
 another, the adoption of the English model appeared to invite a comparison 
 which will lead to embarrassing claims by the Colonial Assembly. Others 
 again desired a Second Chamber as a guarantee for the presence in political 
 life of persons of independence and character, a Chamber which should at 
 once be a brake upon " naked democracy " and a model of tone and dis- 
 interestedness in public life. "While such a Chamber might be relied on to 
 stand between the Government and the onslaughts of a democratic Chamber, 
 it must not be merely the creature of Government, or it would lack respect 
 and influence. Therefore a life tenure for nominees was to be preferred to 
 a limited term. 
 
 It is curious to note that in the discussions preceding responsible 
 government, the common assumption on all sides is that a Council will be a 
 supporter of Government; and the critics of Government address them- 
 selves to considering whether it is better to have the Government phalanx 
 in the Assembly or in a separate Cha.mber. The Constitution contained in 
 the Imperial Act of 1850 left the settlement of the question to the 
 Colonies themselves, provisionally continuing the form of Legislature set 
 up in 1842. 
 
 In the result, New South Wales and Queensland adopted nominee Councils, 
 South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and (when her time came) Western 
 Australia, elective Councils. In the elective Comicils, the franchise varies 
 in details, but its character may be judged by the fact that the proportion of 
 Comicil to Assembly electors is from 30 to 40 per cent. 
 
 In contrast with the Assemblies, which are dissolved by lapse of time or 
 prerogative act, the Comicils have a continuous existence. Moreover, 
 whether the Council be a nominee body, whose members have a life 
 tenure, or an elective body, its personnel changes very slowly. Successive 
 reductions in some of the States of the term for which a Councillor 
 is elected give an imiform tenure for six years, one third or one half of 
 the members retiring by rotation every second or third year. But save in 
 rare instances a member once elected retains his seat for life or imtil resigna- 
 tion. Constituencies are large ; contests are expensive ; public interest 
 centres in the Assembly ; the Council offers no temptation to ambibion. 
 Members of Coimcil are generally older than Members of the Assembly, who 
 are themselves middle aged ; well-to-do, sometimes wealthy, men, whose 
 property, business, or profession, and not politics, has the first claim on their 
 time and attention. They have claimed to stand outside the party system ; 
 there has not been the same sharp division of their ranks as in the Assembly 
 into Ministerial and Opposition, The party division has probably been more 
 marked in the nominee Councils than in the elective, and it becomes more 
 pronounced with the infusion of Labour members which the nominee system 
 permits. But any Government may meet a check at the hands of a Legis- 
 lative Council, however constituted. Not claiming to make and mimake 
 Ministries, it does not recognise the obligation or the discipline of a party. 
 When a Ministry is being formed, the Premier will include one or two members 
 of the Comicil chosen less for their political views than for their persuasive 
 influence in a small body which has learaed to tnist itself to the guidance of 
 a few of its members. If these members have the necessary capacity and
 
 551 Federal Handbook. 
 
 time available, they may be the means whereby the Council fulfils its revisory 
 function with much public benefit. 
 
 Designed as conservative bodies, the Councils have certainly fulfilled the 
 retarding function of a Second Chamber. Nearly every measure which is 
 claimed as democratic and progressive has had to pass the ordeal of several 
 rejections. The several extensions of the franchise, including women's 
 sufirage ; payment of members ; land taxation ; the whole range of " ex- 
 perimental legislation " from schemes for land settlement and compulsory 
 purchase to wages boards and arbitration courts ; the extension of govern- 
 ment enterprise into the sphere of trading, have cheir long account of Bills 
 rejected by the Councils. Even so well-tried a measure as Workmen's 
 Compensation is in some cases still held back. The resistance of the Coimcils 
 to drastic schemes for breaking up the large pastoral holdings and to land 
 taxation, and the brake they apply to " socialistic legislation," have driven 
 many, if not into the ranks, at any rate to the support of the Labour Party, 
 and have been the main cause of the zeal of that Party for enlarging the 
 powers of the Commonwealth Government, in whose constitution a forward 
 policy has to encounter no such obstacle. 
 
 Yet when all is said, Australia is able to pride herself on the multitude 
 and variety of her legislative experiments, and with some justice she has 
 been regarded as the world's political laboratory. When the Government 
 and the Assembly have been very much in earnest — which is not always 
 the case — ^and have been supported by a strong public opinion, the Coimcils 
 have usually given way.* 
 
 The nominee and elective Councils have of course presented distinctive 
 problems in the long course of struggle between them and the Ministries. 
 In the case of the nominee Councils the first question was the respective 
 fmictions of Governor and Ministry in respect to nominations. In the view 
 of the Go vendor (supported at first by the Colonial Office), it was essential to 
 the usefulness and independence of the Council that its personnel should not 
 be altered so as merely to reflect the shifting conditions of parties in the 
 Assembly ; that though there was no legal limitation to the number of 
 members of the Council, a conventional limitation should be accepted, and 
 that appointments should in general be made only as vacancies arose by 
 death or resignation. Ministers, on the other hand, contended that in this 
 matter, as in others, self-government required that the Governor should 
 accept the advice of IMinisters or find successors. On this subject, the earlier 
 plan has been modified to the extent at any rate of abandoning the notion 
 of a conventional limitation of numbers ; and in 1892 Lord Eipon accepted 
 the principle of Ministerial responsibility, subject to the qualification that the 
 Governor should act upon his own opinion if he had ground for believing 
 that the Ministry was not supported in its action by the Assembly and the 
 coimtry. This appears to have been the principle acted on by the Governor 
 
 * A critic, however, might often have applied to the situation created the comment of a shrewd 
 parliamentarian on the relations of the Cabinet and the Lords in England : " An Upper Chamber 
 which will accept from a Ministry that it detests no measure that has not behind it an irresistible mass 
 of excited p'ablic opinion, lias sooner or later the fate of those Ministers in its hands. For on the one 
 band the friction generated by the process of forcing a Bill through a reluctant House of Lords annoys 
 and scandalizes a nation, which soon grows tired of having a revolution once a twelve month ; and, on 
 the other hand, the inability of a Cabinet to conduct through both Houses that continuous flow of 
 legislation which tlie changing necessities of a country like ours demand, alienates those amongst its 
 most ardent supporters who take little account of its difficulties and see only that it is unable to turn its 
 Bills into Acts." (Trevelyan, lAfs and Letters of Macaiday, 2, 56.)
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 555 
 
 of Queensland in 1907 when, on the rejection of certain Grovemment measures 
 by the Council, the Premier asked for assurances, to be publicly notified, 
 that persistence in the opposition would be followed by the appointment of 
 a sufficient number of Coimcillors to enable the Government to carry out 
 its policy. The Governor refused, the Ministry resigned, and a new Ministry 
 accepted office on the imderstanding that an immediate appeal would be made 
 to the comitry. A general election returned the old Ministry to office, and 
 the Comicil accepted the Bills. The consciousness that the remedy of further 
 appointments was available has been in all recent times a factor in inducing 
 the Councils to accept legislation, as for instance the Land Tax in New South 
 Wales in 1894 ; and in 1899 additional members were, in fact, appointed to 
 carry the Federation Bill. 
 
 In Queensland, the crisis of 1907 resulted in the legislative adoption of 
 the referendum as an alternative method for settling disputes between the 
 Chambers. In New South Wales, the anti-Labour Government in power in 
 1910 — which had had its own difficulties with the Council — introduced a 
 scheme for the prevention of deadlocks, at the same time providing for 
 a legal limitation of the number of members of the Council. Some 
 definite determination of the numerical relations of Coimcil and Assembly 
 is, of course, essential to all schemes which look to an ultimate adjustment 
 of the differences of the Chambers by a joint sitting. 
 
 In the colonies which adopted elective Councils, the differences between 
 the Chambers have been more frequent and acute. From the first, the 
 Councils, as being elected, have been able to claim that they are responsible 
 to their constituents, and particularly to urge with some force claims to a 
 participation in financial policy greater than that of the House of Lords or 
 of a nominee Chamber. In South Australia and in Victoria the differences 
 between the Houses in these matters have been sharp ; and in Victoria, 
 on three occasions — in 1865, 1867, and 1878 — the rejection of the Appropria- 
 tion Bill has brought the Govermnent to a standstill. 
 
 The memory of these conflicts remains, and was very apparent during the 
 debates on the Federal Constitution in 1897-1899. Two remedies have 
 suggested themselves. As early as 1874, the Government of Victoria appears 
 to have intended to propose the substitution of a nominee for the elected 
 Council ; and a Bill for the purpose was actually introduced in 1880, but did 
 not obtain the absolute majority required. The remedy generally favoured 
 and ultimately (1903) adopted leaves the principle of election unaffected, but 
 makes provision for "deadlock." The joint sitting, the substitution of a sus- 
 pensory for an absolute veto with or without a referendum, the dissolution of 
 one or both the Houses — these schemes in various combinations have been 
 discussed at various times. South Australia led the way with a provision 
 whereby if the Assembly twice passed a Bill, with an intervening general 
 ele' tion, the Governor might on the second rejection by the Council dissolve 
 both Houses. This provision is in force to-day, with an alternative whereby 
 the Governor may afforce the Council by issuing writs for the election of 
 additional members. In 1901 and 1908 attempts were made by the Govern- 
 ment to substitute a joint sitting after a measure had been twice rejected 
 by the Council ; and in 1910 and 1911 the Labour Government introduced 
 and passed througn the Assembly Bills whereby any scheme twice passed
 
 556 Federal Handbook. 
 
 by the Assembly and rejected by the Council might, if again passed by the 
 Assembly after a general election, be passed over the head of the Council. 
 
 In 1911 the Council rejected the Appropriation Bill. The Government, fol- 
 lomng the course taken by the Victorian Government in 1878, appealed to the 
 Imperial Government to give effect to the proposals of the Bill of 1911, 
 but was met with a refusal. It then dissolved the Assembly with a view to 
 a later double dissolution, but the country was against it. The political 
 history of South Australia during the last twenty years is one of constant 
 conflict between the Houses — of unsuccessful attempts to reduce the franchise 
 for the Coimcil and to establish more practicable means for making the will 
 of the Assembly and its electors prevail. Women's suffrage, though applicable 
 to both Houses, has widened the distance between Council and Assembly 
 by lowering the proportion of Council electors to electors for the Assembly, 
 and this fact is an important element in the situation. 
 
 In Victoria, disputes between the Council and the Assembly were at last 
 dealt with by the Constitution of 1903 under a plan suggested by the Com- 
 monwealth Constitution. On the rejection of a Bill by the Council, the 
 Governor may by proclamation dissolve the Assembly declaring th? cause 
 of disagreement between the Houses. If the new Assembly again passes 
 the Bill and the Council rejects it, both Coimcil and Assembly may be dis- 
 solved. The scheme proposed that the new Council and Assembly should 
 then hold a joint sitting ; but this had to be abandoned owing to the Council's 
 opposition. The result therefore is that if each House is supported by its 
 electors, there is no machinery for ending the dispute. It should be noticed 
 that even the plan established is qualified and surrounded by precautions 
 and safeguards. A dissolution of the Assembly within six months of its 
 expiry by effluxion of time does not count, and no part of the scheme applies 
 to provisions altering the Constitution of Council or Assembly. On no 
 occasion has the machinery of the Act of 1903 been put in operation, though 
 the Council has been active in criticism and in rejection of Government 
 measures. 
 
 When we pass from the Legislative Councils of the States to the Senate in 
 the Parliament of the Commonwealth we are in a wholly different atmosphere. 
 The framers of the Constitution were spared the fundamental problem of 
 determining the basis of a Second Chamber, for they had a principle ready 
 to hand — the representation of the States as such demanded at once by 
 federation and by the practical exigencies of the situation. Equal repre- 
 sentation in a Senate was after a struggle conceded to the six States. Each 
 State is a single constituency, and the term of service for a Senator is six 
 years, so arranged that half the Senators from each State retire every three 
 years. The large constituency and the continuity of the Senate stand for 
 the attempt to reproduce in the Senate something of the character of the ideal 
 Second Chamber. But if violence was done to the democratic principle of 
 equal citzenship by giving the same number of senators to all States regard- 
 less of population, an attempt was made to atone for it, as well as to avoid 
 the repetition in Commonwealth Govermnent of the experiences of the 
 colonies, by making the qualification for Senators and electors the same as 
 for members and electors of the House of Representatives, and by providing 
 for payment of Senators on the same scale as members of the House.
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 557 
 
 The Senate has equal powers with the House in ordinary legislation. 
 But as to finance, a detailed and complicated scheme aimed at securing first 
 the preponderance of the House of Representatives in relation to the" ordinary 
 annual service of government " and, as a consequence, the primary responsi- 
 bility of the Government to that House ; and, secondly, the protection of 
 the Senate against every form of tacking, whether by lumping various pro- 
 jects of taxation in the same measure, or by including schemes of expenditure 
 outside the " ordinary annual ser\dce of government " in the Appropriation 
 Bill, or by joining Bills of legislative policy with finance measures. (See 
 the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, sections 53-56.) For 
 the Senate was, like existing Upper Houses, not to have power to amend 
 finance measures, though it was compensated by a power to make 
 requests. 
 
 The possibility of conflict was foreseen, and section 57 provides for a 
 double dissolution followed by a joint sitting in case the Senate twice rejects 
 or fail 3 to pass a Bill sent to it by the House of Representatives. 
 
 The experience of twelve years shows the Senate in constitution, in action, 
 and in reputation very different from the design. The Constitution aimed 
 at a combination of cabinet government with federal government, and there 
 were prophets who foretold that the alliance was unnatural, and that one 
 of the two must destroy the other. In the Commonwealth, cabinet govern- 
 ment with its tradition of the supremacy of the Lower House, appears to 
 have prevailed. To the Senate have been assigned two* members of the 
 Cabinet, of whom only one would be a Minister with a portfolio, and the 
 protests of the Senate against such scurvy treatment have been wilfully 
 ignored. The absence of Ministers handicaps the Senate both in its legis- 
 lative and in its critical capacity, for INIiinsters can only take part in the 
 proceedings of their own Chamber. Very little legislation is iiiitiated in the 
 Senate, which during the earlier months of a session has little to do, 
 while towards the close of a session it is rushed wdth work, and before appeals 
 to facilitate public business even the revisory function of a Second Chamber 
 has to give way. It has little of the corporate feeling of the Legislative 
 Councils ; it is more definitely organized as " Ministerial " and " Opposi- 
 tion " ; and it would be idle to look to the Government supporters to champion 
 Senate claims against the House. 
 
 As a federal House of States, the Senate has long ceased to raise any 
 expectation of activity as a guardian of State powers and functions ; and 
 the conference of State Premiers has developed in part at leyst as the result 
 of its failure in this respect. As a Second Chamber, it has been docile beyond 
 expectation. In place of the cautious attitude of the Councils towards the 
 legislation of a " progressive " Ministry, the Senate has shown a fiery zeal 
 for experiment, and the leisure which it enjoys as an Upper House has been 
 employed in the debating of motions for the nationalization of " monopolies," 
 the further regulation of trusts and combines, and the enlargement generally 
 of Commonwealth powers. These debates would have had more value if 
 the Senate could have been taken seriously as an effective part of the con- 
 stitutional machinery. But so long as it deferred to tradition by leaving 
 to the House the active work of government while, unlike the Councils, it 
 
 * In the Liberal Ministry of 1913 there were tliree Senators.
 
 558 Federal Handbook. 
 
 accepted readily the legislation sent to it, it was esteemed in the community 
 as little more than a debating society. 
 
 This quiescence, however, depends on a political situation which is liable 
 to change, and which in fact was changed by the general election of 1913. 
 The elections of 1910 and 1913 returned Parliaments sharply divided into 
 two parties. In the Parliament of 1910, the Labour Party had a large 
 majority in both Houses ; in the Parliament of 1913 there were in the Senate 
 29 Labour members and 7 Liberals, while in the House of Representatives 
 the Liberals had a majority of one. The Labour Ministry retired on the 
 declaration of the polls, and the Liberal Ministry, having to part with one 
 of its supporters as Speaker, faced the equal ranks of its opponents in the 
 House. This is the situation at the time of writing (August, 1913). As the 
 Ministerial proposals include the repeal of several measures of their pre- 
 decessors, it is evident that the Senate is likely to play an active part in the 
 present Parliament. The result will probably be to make reform of the 
 Senate an important plank in the Liberal programme. 
 
 The Senate, indeed, is vulnerable from a democratic point of view in the 
 unequal value assigned to individual citizenship by the equal representation 
 of States. It has become vulnerable also by the mode of election for Senators. 
 The three Senators returned for each State are elected upon a block vote 
 which requires the elector to vote for three candidates and prohibits him from 
 giving more than one vote to any candidate. The enormous constituency, 
 which prevents a candidate from becoming personally known to the electors, 
 makes the party and its organization predominant in elections. As parties 
 obtain more control over the candidature and as electors vote more strictly 
 on party lines, a small majority in any State is likely to secure the whole 
 number of seats for that State. With a certain amomit of luck, the same 
 Party may in the same way secure the three seats in each of the States. This 
 is what happened at the election of 1910, when eighteen Labour Senators 
 were returned. In 1913, three States returned three Labour Senators, two 
 returned three Liberals, and one returned two Labour Senators and one 
 Liberal. At each election, the difierence between the votes cast for the two 
 parties was trifling. Some of the strongest objections to proportional repre- 
 sentation — that it is apt to leave parties too nicely balanced or to favour 
 the formation of small groups, and that it deprives elections of the driving 
 power which comes from a large turnover of seats — ^have little or no appli- 
 cation to a Second Chamber, which is, indeed, usually designed with the 
 object of preventing the body from being too radically changed at any one 
 time. The alteration of the electoral system of the Senate by some pro- 
 vision for the representation of minorities is a reform in which all parties 
 should be able to agree. 
 
 5. The Cabinet. 
 
 So far as concerns the Cabinet in the Australian States, there is 
 little that needs description. In general, the substance, and perhaps even 
 more the forms of British practice are observed. The Ministry may not 
 dominate the Assembly as much as the English Cabinet to-day dominates 
 the House of Commons ; it has been said to be less sensitive to defeats which 
 are not a direct challenge to its authority. Collective responsibility is often
 
 Political Systems op Australia. 559 
 
 a strain where party lines ire not clear and Ministerial supporters are drawn 
 from various groups, or where the regular Opposition is not suflB.cientIy 
 strong to threaten the Ministry. Reconstructions are called for by dis- 
 satisfied supporters, and sometimes take place. They would be more 
 frequent if it were possible to break the fall of an unpopular Minister in an 
 agreeable way. The secrecy of Cabinet proceedings is guarded well enough 
 in matters of the first importance. But in Australia, the number of depirt- 
 mental matters dealt with in Cabinet is very large, and this has probably 
 been responsible for a recent practice whereby frequently a comtnuniqiie is 
 made to the press, summarizing the results of the Cabinet council. The 
 number of Ministers is small, and while in England the more important 
 Departments of State have at least two Ministers in Parliament, the Australian 
 practice frequently assigns two and even three Departments to one Minister. 
 As it is impossible for a Department to be represented directly in both Houses, 
 the Cabinet includes two or toree "honorary Ministers," "Ministers without 
 a portfolio " who may share the conduct of Government business in tho 
 Legislative Council, and sometimes assist the Ministers in their Departments ; 
 and Victoria has adopted a feature of parliamentary govermnent in Europe 
 which permits Ministers in charge of a Bill to take part in the proceedings 
 of the other House. As all Ministers are in the Cabinet, there is no training 
 for Ministerial responsibility such as is afiorded by the Under-Secretaryship^ 
 in England. Often a preliminary term is served as an " honorary Minister," 
 and on a casual vacancy in a Department, the succession is commonly looked 
 for by an honorarj'' Minister. On the other hand, as there are no sinecure 
 offices like the Privy Ssal or the Chancellorship of the Duchy of Lancaster, 
 honorary ofiice is sometimes accepted by men who are unable or unwilling 
 to undertake heavy departmental work. The same reasons that in England 
 warn the Prime Mini; ter not to accept an onerous Department exist in 
 Australia. In the Commonwealth Government, Mr. Deakin became Prime 
 Minister " without a portfolio," and during the succeeding Ministry the office 
 of Prime Minister yms definitely constituted as a distinct " Department of 
 State."* Another result of the system by which there are no Ministers out- 
 side the Cabinet, is that the Attorney-General has always been in the Cabinet, 
 a fact which gives the office a political rather than a professional character. 
 It has in fact been held by gentlemen who were not members of the legal 
 profession at all. 
 
 " His Majesty's Opposition " has more formal recognition than in England, 
 for the leader of the Opposition usually has an official secretary at the public 
 expense, and in Queensland he receives a salary. 
 
 6. Party Government. 
 
 The Australian colonies in adopting the British system of cabinet 
 government as their mode of self-government, took a course which 
 provided for their immediate need of submitting the executive to colonial 
 control. The system was one which in outline they understood, though 
 even in England, outside official and ])arlian\ontary circles, there were 
 probxbly few people in 1855 who could chim to know it intimately. The 
 
 * In thj Cook Ministry thT Prime Miiiwter becimeMinbtcr for Home Affairs, but arranged that 
 one of the honorary ininisters should practically administer tho Dji)artm'"nt. 
 
 C. 12154. 2n
 
 560 Federal Handbook. 
 
 conventions of the system were accepted so far as they were understood. 
 A Government held office by the support of the Assembly ; that support 
 might be withdrawn without any breach of propriety by the House and without 
 injustice or hardship to Ministers. Opposition was a constitutional function 
 and not unpatriotic or factious condact, if accompanied by an acceptance 
 of the responsibility to assume office in certain well-defined contin- 
 gencies. 
 
 But such a system presents obvious temptations and dangers. In the 
 absence of real differences of policy, it is apt to become a game in which men 
 exercise their natural combrtiveness and rivalry, and in which Ministerial 
 ojB&ce is the trophy awarded to the victors, a trophy which they hold on 
 condition of defending it against all challengers. A lower level is reached if 
 the contest is dominated by material rewards, when government is perverted 
 by self-interest, loses all moral influence, and ceases to be representative 
 in anything but name. If changes of Ministry are based on real 
 differences of policy, still over frequent change destroys continuity and 
 makes government ineffective. In England, these e%als have been 
 encountered by the existence of parties, and the reduction of the 
 contest in the main to a struggle between two parties. The small 
 number of persons in Parliament who can look for any personal 
 advantage from a change of Ministry ; the fact that those who may aspire 
 to office have commonly an assured social position and some fortune so that 
 the emoluments of office though pleasant are not of vital concern, tend to 
 check the influence of personal interests, and to force political contests along 
 lines of real difference in matters of public policy. Moreover, in England, 
 party government grew out of parties, called into existence in the first 
 instance by great public issues, but ultimately having an independent exist- 
 ence, so that they lived not merely in the concert of their members for certain 
 definite political ends, but in the memory of past conflicts, and of great 
 leaders, in the possession of a name and of traditional principles and maxims 
 of political conduct. These formed a continuous bond of association and 
 gave the party a moral personality which could command attachment and 
 loyalty. The leaders of the party, guiding its counsels and directing its 
 policy, have been the most prominent men in Parliament, so that party 
 allegiance has generally been identified with loyalty to an individual parlia- 
 mentary leader or group of leading men. 
 
 Not all these conditions were reproduced in the colonies which entered on 
 the English system in the " fifties." Australia indeed shared in the remark- 
 able change of tone which during the preceding seventy years had gradually 
 banished the grosser forms of corruption from public life. The legitimate 
 pecuniary rewards of Australian politics have always been inconsiderable 
 and a public opinion not usually very observant or interested in political 
 affairs, has always been very sensitive at the suggestion of illegitimate gains. 
 Even the ordinary emoluments of office probably played a smaller part in 
 the struggle thin might be supposed : office was at least as much the token 
 of victory in the game as the material reward strivsn for. Certainly in the 
 hurly-burly of the early years of responsible goverimient, the number of men 
 who might naturally be affected by the lure of an official salary was smaller 
 than it was aftjr an era of comparative stability set in.
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 561 
 
 The custom which in England draws men to Parliament as the comple- 
 ment to or witness of success in professional or business life, was brought 
 to Australia by the colonists, though it has now almost passed away. But 
 the elements from which the House of Commons still drew its character 
 in the middle of the nineteenth century, and which furnished the traditions 
 •of political life and the basis of political contests, were incapable of trans- 
 mission to those who were so far away from the influences of the " governing 
 class." '" Whig " and " Tory " made nothing of the appeal to the Australian 
 legislator that they made in a House of Commons where men had not yet 
 ceased to talk of " Mr. Fox " and " Mr. Pitt." " Conservative " and 
 ■" Liberal " temperaments there were in political as in other affairs, finding 
 vigorous expression in the newspaper press and readily recognisable in the 
 general attitude of Councils and Assemblies respectively. But, in fact, the great 
 political questions which divided parties in England — and even in England 
 party lines from the repeal of the Corn Laws to the death of Palmerston 
 were ill-defined — were hardly issues at all (as the extension and protection 
 of political rights, the relations of Church and State), or they had not emerged 
 in the social conditions of the country (as the humanitarian movement 
 embodied in the Factories Acts, or the protection of industries by Tariffs). 
 These conditions were unfavorable to the formation of firm and continuous 
 associations for government. The nearest approach to party in the Englisli 
 sense was the habit whereby a.ssociations formed for some special purpose 
 served as a bond of union for general political action ; and the most perma- 
 nent and characteristic of political groups came to be determined by fiscal 
 sympathies, even when the fiscal question was not the cjuestion of the hour. 
 But the bond was a slight one, and it rarely included as a practical test of 
 party loyalty the acceptance of the leadership of some one who could speak 
 and act for all. Outside Parliament, party, in the English sense, with its 
 accompanying organization, did not exist ; the member counted mainly 
 upon his personal influence and popularity in his constituency and his record 
 or services to that constituency ; he was without fear of any caucus drawing 
 inspiration from head-quarters. Such conditions permit a freedom of political 
 action which many to-day may envy. But they are not favorable 
 to the smooth working of the cabinet system ; they tend in parti- 
 cular to make an assembly a congeries of local interests. It is not 
 surprising that in Australia the combinations of politicians for public 
 ends were transient and not permanent, and that public life developed 
 personal rivalries and jealousies marked with intense bitterness of 
 feeling. Ministry followed Ministry with rapid succession, and between 
 1856 and 1894 New South Wales had 28 Ministries ; Victoria, 27 ; 
 South Australia, 42. 
 
 This condition of tilings would hardly have been tolerable but for three 
 facts. In the first place, the limited range of colonial politics demands 
 less of " strong " government than is called for in a sovereign State. In the 
 second place, there was sufficient of general political agreement in the country 
 to insure a steady movement of democratic piogress- — there were few marked 
 periods of reaction. In the third place, " government " in a colony is in a 
 very large degree administrati )ii, vvliich is not substiintially interfered vvitb 
 by political change. 
 
 2 N 2
 
 562 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In a country whose sparse population and generous distances make 
 effective local government impossible, where extensive developmental work 
 Las to be undertaken, and where social conditions and opinion combine to 
 demand a wide sphere of governmental activity, Parliament readily becomes 
 the meeting ground of material interests, where the rural constituencies 
 are contending with each other for the expenditure of public money on roads 
 and bridges, where the town and country are jealously eyeing each other, 
 and where justice to one interest is often possible only by placating a number 
 of others. In the condition of the country, these interests had to find repre- 
 sentation, and it is useless to quarrel with the fact. The evil lay, of course, 
 in their tendency to dominate the situation, to lower the tone of politics, 
 and to form a public opinion which found a serious basis in some material 
 interest. The last tendency was not diminished by the fact that the greater 
 political issues were the disposition of the public lauds and the tariff. 
 
 7. The Labour Party. 
 
 It was the existence in Australia of the gi'eat capitals which eventually 
 organized politics on definite lines. At once the seat of government 
 and the centre of all business, the point at which substantially her whole 
 trade entered and left a colony, each capital brought together a vast 
 working-class population with every facility for organization for political 
 Fction as soon as the inducement to organize became sufficiently strong. 
 During the nineties the Labour Party was chiefly conspicuous as a driving 
 force in politics, supporting such Ministries as would promise indu.strial 
 legislation or a land tax. In other conditions, the appearance of such a 
 " third party " in Parliament would have been a disturbing factor. In 
 Australia, however, the advent of the Labour Party appears to have had 
 from the first a steadying influence in the Legislature. 
 
 The Party was soon sufficiently strong in numbers generally to hold the 
 balance of power, and its strength was beyond its numbers by the '" pledge " 
 which bound its members on all vital occasions to cast a solid vote. But 
 it was essentially a party striving to achieve results by parliamentary action,, 
 not one concerned merely to embarrass and hinder government, while it 
 was not strong enough to be under any temptation to make a bid for office, 
 and its system forbade coalescence with other parties to form a Ministry. 
 So long as it could work fairly well with an existing Ministry, it was content tO' 
 criticise it unsp?rngly, but not to withhold its sixpport. It was under these 
 conditions that government was carried on in most of the colonies during 
 the years immediatol} preceding Federation, and in tn Commonwealth during 
 the Ministry of Sir Edmund Barton and the first Ministry of Mr. Deakin. 
 
 As the Labour Party grew in strength till it ceased to be a " third party "■ 
 and became the regular Opposition, and later itself came into office, the other 
 sections in Parliament were learning something by its example in the way 
 of cohesion, discipline, and organization ; while the growing prominence of 
 the policy of nationalization, the rigour of the " pledge," and the ascendancy 
 of the trades tmions, served to mark out clearer lines of division by allying 
 the busin-^ss interests of the towns with the farming interest in the country 
 in defence of what could honestly be held as great and permanent principles 
 of political conduct and social well-being.
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 563 
 
 In regard to any political party, as President Lowell has well pointed out, 
 the first question is whether it works within or without tlie institutions of 
 the country. Tried by this test, we find that the Labour Party is organized 
 ior parlianientary action and accepts the main conventions of Cabinet 
 Grovernment. But it has certain features of its own which distinguish it 
 from the f iniiliar working of the older p^rties in England. 
 
 The caucus of members of the Parliamentary Party — with other parties 
 occasional, and usually a signal of distress — is a weekly event during the 
 Parliamentary Session ; and from it sometimes spring standing committees 
 to watch over departments of public affairs assigned to them. The chairman 
 of the caucus becomes the leader of the party in the House, and if he is called 
 on to form a Ministry, it is the caucus which determines by ballot the personnel 
 of the Government, though the distribution of offices is left to the leader. 
 In the caucus also take place the serious debates of the Party in regard to 
 its parliamentary action, and here we come to the root of the matter — the 
 pledge. Every candidate for nomination as a Labour candidate must, in 
 addition to his acceptance of the platform, undertake not to nominate as a 
 candidate unless selected by the organization (which involves submission 
 of his claims to the same authority before every election), and pledge himself 
 to vote in Parliament in all matters affecting the platform as a majority of 
 the Parliamentary Party in caucus determines This itself covers a wide 
 range of political action ; and practically (and in some cases expressly) 
 it extends to all matters of sufficient importance to affect the life of a j\linistry. 
 Obviously, a system which commits to a majority the control of the whole 
 party vote is one from which much of the moderating and persuasive virtue 
 imputed by political writers to " party " has gone out. The pledge and 
 the caucus have lost the party many supporters, and are assailed with force 
 by opponents. They are defended on the gxound of their efficacy, and if 
 experience justifies the claim, opponents will probably end by adopting or 
 adapting the system. Already the Liberal Party is making a more general 
 use of the caucus, and it is almost accepted that a conciliation conference 
 should precede hostile action in Parliament by discontented supporters of a 
 Liberal Ministry. Any considerable extension of the system must pro- 
 foundly affect the character of Parliamentary Government as heretofore 
 understood. 
 
 In place of a Chamber dehberating in public on the affairs of the country, 
 we may see a body split into two party delegations, holding their deliberations 
 apart and in secret, and meeting in the Chamber merely to record a vote 
 determined on in caucus. In England, the feature of the day is the domina- 
 tion of the House of Commons by the Cabinet. But in Australia, the preva- 
 lence of the caucus would threaten the Cabinet as much as the House. 
 Where the caucus elects the Ministry, the regular sessions of the caucus 
 must, it would seem, tend to supersede the deliberations of the Cabinet, 
 at any rate while Parliament is sitting; to bring Ministerial differences to the 
 arbitrament of the party meeting instead of to the Cabinet or the Premier ; 
 and to substitute for the collective responsibility of the Cabinet to Parliament 
 the individual responsibility of Ministers to the caucus. 
 
 Amongst the methods which have suggested themselves as a means of 
 escape from or mitigation of Cabinet domination in England has been a more
 
 554 Federal Handbook. 
 
 extended use of the committee system, by analogy to the methods of local 
 government. It is possible that in Australia the movement is one from 
 government by the Cabinet to direct government by the parliamentary 
 majority, acting perhaps through committees presided over by a Minister. 
 
 In England the predominance of the Cabinet in the party is fortified by 
 the disposition of honours, and by the not inconsiderable patronage which 
 still remains to Ministers. In Australia the Cabinet has none of these aids. 
 But there is one other factor — the organization of the party in the country. 
 In England the party organization outside Parliament has been the fighting 
 instrument and the intelligence department of the parliamentary leaders, 
 whose officers — the party whips — have controlled the party funds. The 
 policy of the party has been formulated by these leaders, who have made 
 their own appeal to Parliament and the country. In Australia the Labour 
 organization has at once a more formal and a more commanding part. The 
 fighting platfoim is the immediate party programme which every parliamen- 
 tary candidate must accept, and which, if elected, he is pledged to carry out 
 as far as circumstances will permit. This platform is determined on by 
 periodical conferences of delegates from branches of the State league. The 
 conference also chooses a standing executive, in which members of Parlia- 
 ment are not especially prominent, and which, indeed, may easily become 
 their censors. The question of responsibihty to the conference was in fact 
 raised in 1913 in New South Wales in a fashion which produced a condition 
 of acute tension, and threatened a serious disruption of the party, for the 
 conference claimed in the most definite way to review the political action of 
 the Parliamentary members of the Party, including the Ministry, and to 
 punish what it should adjudge to be their shortcomings and want of zeal. 
 It remains to be seen whether this claim — which was not generally acknow- 
 ledged by members, and was repudiated by Ministers — was merely a sporadic 
 outburst, or constitutes a definite development of the system of the Party. 
 The success which the Labour Party has won is so much attributed to the 
 completeness of its organization, that opponents are moved to imitate it, 
 and though among them no organization has attained a strength which 
 enables it to dominate policy, the position, taken as a whole, suggests that 
 the political centre of gravity is moving away from Parliament. It seems 
 possible that Australia may have to follow American and European 
 examples of legal recognition of parties, at any rate so as to regn.late the 
 process of selecting candidates. 
 
 It is not surprising therefore, that there should be much speculation as to 
 the form responsible government may assume in the near future. There are 
 on the one hand those whose ideal is that of Cabinet and Parliamentary 
 government, with what they deem its essentials — general party loyalty to 
 parliamentary leaders, with such freedom of individual action as will maintain 
 the deliberative character of Parliament and the responsibility of the Cabinet 
 to the representatives of the people, subject to the present power of dissolu- 
 tion in the hands of the Government as a means of appeal from the repre- 
 sentative to the constituency. From this point of view, pledge, caucus, and 
 conference, and the precise and intricate features of the organization, are 
 mechanical substitutes for the essential qualities of reason and judgment, 
 and have the grave defect of dissipating responsibility. On the other
 
 Political Systems op Australia. 565 
 
 hand, the election of Ministers in Parliament, fixity of tenure for the life of 
 the Parliament, or until the passing of a direct vote of censure, abandon- 
 ment of collective responsibility, and abolition of the prerogative of dissolu- 
 tion are suggested, and in various combinations find many advocates. 
 Such means, it is urged, will secure at once stability in administration and 
 freedom in parliamentary action. More recently, journalistic enterprise has 
 imported from America or Switzerland the " initiative " and the " referen- 
 dum," and Labour leaders have given them a hesitating approval. 
 According to this plan, the way of salvation lies in recourse to the direct 
 action of the people in the work of legislation. Parliament is frankly 
 treated as a mere instrument for recording the people's will ; it is not a 
 deliberative assembly of the wise. The organization of parties in Parliament 
 is an ineffectual attempt at compromise between two conflicting views of 
 government, and the next step in constitutional development is to provide 
 machinery whereby an educated democracy may take its part in direct 
 government. 
 
 8. Administrative Problems. 
 
 One of the most constant problems of modern government is the relation 
 of the political part to the administrative part of the system. The Cabinet 
 meets some of the difficulties ; the responsibility of Ministers to the Legis- 
 lature permits that they may be intrusted with a considerable discretion, 
 and removes from the legislature the temptation of meddling with the detailed 
 work of government. The subordination of other officers of Government 
 to the Ministers enables the Legislature to treat Ministers as solely responsible. 
 Ministers on their part with some show of justice might claim that they 
 cannot be responsible for those whom they cannot control ; that, therefore. 
 a discretionary power of appointment and dismissal must be in their hands 
 if they are to answer tor efficiency in administration. It is unnecessary here 
 to recm- to the mischief of political appointments and dismissals in the public 
 service ; but it may be pointed out that the restrictions involved in guarding 
 against the evil are some charge upon the services of the State. 
 
 In England it has hitherto been found possible to regulate the Civil 
 Service without recourse to law, whether as to appointments, promotions, 
 or tenure of officials. In Australia, the Public Services are governed by 
 elaborate statutory provisions defining the conditions of admission, the 
 classification of officers, remuneration, promotion, and discipline. The 
 administration of this body of laws is organized under a Public Service Com- 
 missioner or Commissioners, whose important functions are recognised by statu- 
 tory provisions designed to secure him against Ministerial pressure. Through 
 his hands pass appointments and promotions, and one of his principal func- 
 tions is to guard against the inflation of the service. In promotions, he 
 has to weigh seniority and efficiency, and here lies his main responsibility. 
 Any perfunctory performance of his duty will load the liigher ranks of the 
 service with indifferent officers ; a painstaking and conscientious selection 
 of junior officers is apt to evoke the cry of favoritism. Democratic principle 
 rejects any such division of the service as exists in England, where a special 
 class of man is introduced after a severe and competitive educational test 
 to fill the higher offices. In Australia, the entrance examination for all
 
 566 Federal Handbook. 
 
 candidates is not a very convincing test of ability or education ; the succes- 
 sive ranks are filled by promotion from below according to rules which limit 
 the area of selection. For professional or technical positions there is greater 
 freedom of choice, and the tendency appears to be to give to the chief of such 
 officers in a Department the functions of a permanent head. The establish- 
 ment of the Commonwealth Government and the need for organizing Depart- 
 ments before the passing of a Public Service Act gave the opportunity 
 for securing some of the best ability available whether within or without 
 the services of the States ; and the expansion of public activities calling 
 for the creation of new branches or Departments from time to time gives 
 similar opportunities to both Commonwealth and State. The Commonwealth 
 Public Service Act is emphatic in its insistence upon efficiency and its rele- 
 gation of seniority to a subordinate position. 
 
 There has been no indication in Australia of any tendency to make use 
 of the Public Service as the election agency for Ministers, as appears to be 
 common in some countries. Any such tendency, if it had existed, would 
 probably have been checked effectually by the elimination of direct political 
 control under the Public Service Acts. But the relation of public servants 
 to politics has engaged serious attention in Australia, as in all other communi- 
 ties where the solidarity of interest in a large body stimulates common action 
 for the protection or promotion of that interest, and where from the nature 
 of the case organization is peculiarly easy. The Parliament of Victoria 
 was, in 1903, so far impressed with the perversion of the public interest 
 which might arise from the pressure of public officers upon members of 
 Parliament and Mnisters that the whole Public Service, including the rail- 
 way service, was removed from the territorial divisions for electoral piirposes, 
 and was formed into special constituencies. This, however, was repealed 
 in 1906. In the Commonwealth and in New South Wales, the public servants 
 have the benefit of the Arbitration Law, and, as has been seen, the Common- 
 wealth has made more than one attempt to bring the State railway servants 
 under Commonwealth control. Such measures are based on the view that, 
 as Government can hardly concede to its servants the right to strike, it is 
 bound to provide them with the means of laying their claims before an 
 indifferent tribunal, and that a legitimate mode of pressing these claims 
 serves to remove the subject from the political and parliamentary arena, 
 where it would be determined less according to its merits than according 
 to the amount of effective pressure which could be applied at the moment. 
 
 Generally, the usual restrictions are imposed upon the political activities 
 of public officers. But in the case of the Commonwealth, the Labour Gov- 
 ernment in 1909 removed these restrictions and left the Comnaonwealth 
 service free to engage in the ordinary political action of citizens, subject 
 to a prohibition against commenting upon the administration of any Com- 
 monwealth Department and disclosing or making use of official information. 
 
 Within the Departments, IMinisters in Australia probably concern them- 
 selves far more with detail than do Ministers in England. Whether this 
 in all cases conduces to a more real contiol over the policy of the Department 
 may be doubted. 
 
 The desire to eliminate " political influence " from administration has not 
 been confined to the matter of the Civil Service. There are many matters
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 567 
 
 undertaken by Grovernment which call for special expert ability, others 
 which demand an unbiassed judgment in dealing with conflicting interests. 
 This has been recognised in varying degrees as imposing limitations upon 
 the sphere of the political part of Government, so as to promote efficiency 
 in management (as in the case of State railways) or to avoid the intrusion 
 of the miscellaneous factors which necessarily enter into any pohtical 
 judgment. The management of the railways is vested in Commissioners 
 with large powers of independent action, combining the functions of managers 
 with many of the powers of a Board of Directors. The relations between 
 the Minister and the Courts in such a system are delicate, and are occasionally 
 strained. Parliament, which has to find the money for any railway deficit, 
 must have control over commitments to large expenditure ; the relations 
 between the Courts and their stafi may call for the interference of the 
 Government and Parliament as a matter of national policy. But this public 
 and occasional interference is not open to the objections attaching to Minis- 
 terial management with the constant pressure of political considerations. 
 Railway construction may be either an incident of management or a matter 
 of policy. After some hesitation, it has been treated as a matter of policy, 
 the more particularly as in Australia the construction of railways must be 
 viewed not merely as a business enterprise but as a means of developing 
 national resources. 
 
 On the one hand, Parliament is entitled to determine the place of 
 railway construction amongst the various claimants for public expenditure, 
 and to determine the order in which the various railway schemes are to be 
 undertaken, as well as to judge of the plan of the work, so far as concerns, 
 e.g., estimates of cost. On the other hand, there is no matter in which the 
 decision of a political authority, w^h ether Minister or Assembly, is more liable 
 to be affected by influences outside the merits of the case. The position 
 has been recognised by some States in the establishment of a Standing 
 Parliamentary Committee to which all but insignificant schemes of railway 
 construction are referred for investigation and report, and which performs 
 functions analogous to those of the private bill committees of the Lords 
 and Commons. 
 
 The principles applied in the case of the railways are applied in greater 
 or less degree in other business relations between the State and the citizens, 
 first as a means of securing efficient management, and, secondly, as a means 
 of ousting illegitimate influences. The Savings Banks of the States and the 
 Commonwealth Bank are illustrations. Similarly, in the administration 
 of the intricate body of laws for the regulation of the Crown lands, it 
 has been found advisable in some cases to constitute semi- judicial and 
 special Boards with carefully defined statutory powers for dealing with the 
 resumption of lands for closer settlement and the management and rating 
 of irrigation areas. The disbm'sement of funds by the central Government 
 for the construction and maintenance of roads is another matter which 
 hovers between independent management and political action. The Inter- 
 State Commission, established by the Labour Government in 1912, has 
 an immense range of powers in relation to Inter-State trade and commerce, 
 and is, after the railways, the most important case of the use of an independent 
 body in administration. Some of the powers of the Commission arise under
 
 568 Federal Handbook. 
 
 the Constitution itself — a finding of the Commission is in certain cases made 
 a condition of Commonwealth action. In other cases, the Commission is 
 intrusted with the amplest powers of investigation, upon the results of which 
 may be based legislative or administrative action, or judicial proceedings. 
 In particular, the Commission is charged with a constant surveillance over 
 the operation of the Customs Tariff, avowedly that Parliament may act 
 upon authentic information and unprejudiced advice in reconciling the 
 several interests which a Tariff, especially a protective Tariff, affects. The 
 Commission is in many respects assimilated to a Court of Justice, and its 
 members, though appointed only for a term of years, have during that term 
 the security of a High Court Judge. It has been stated that the Liberal 
 Government which assumed office in 1913 proposes to vest the management 
 of the postal and telegraphic services in a body of Commissioners modelled 
 as to status and functions upon the Eailway Commissioners. 
 
 The existence of these semi-independent authorities involves in many 
 cases great complexity of function and relation, with the possibility of sharp 
 conflict between them and Ministers. Ultimately, it involves very difficult 
 constitutional questions as to the responsibility of Ministers for the exercise 
 of statutory powers vested in particular bodies or officers. Usually there 
 are left in the Ministry powers wliich in the last resort will make the political 
 view prevail ; but the country has the safeguard that such interference is an 
 extraordinary and not an ordinary exercise of power, that it almost necessarily 
 takes place in circumstances which insiu'e publicity, and that it must there- 
 fore be based on reasons on which the Ministry can rely as a justification of 
 its action. 
 
 Local government in Australia is entirely the creation of Statute, but 
 so far as it goes it carries the tradition of local government in England — 
 that is, it is viewed as local self-government and not as the instrument of the 
 central Government. In fact, there is in Australia less of the utilization 
 of the machinery of local government for national purposes than there is in 
 Great Britain. Police (together with the maintenance of prisons and the 
 cost of justice) and education are services organized and controlled by central 
 departments, and the exjjenditure is provided for by Parliament. The same 
 is true of asylums. There is no poor law, but a considerable charity vote 
 is usually granted by Parliament, and the subsidizing of benevolent insti- 
 tutions and the relief of unemployment are regarded as State rather than 
 municipal matters. Old-age pensions were provided by the State Parlia- 
 ments, and their administration was undertaken by the central departments ; 
 they are now, with invalid pensions and the maternity bonus, administered 
 by the Commonwealth Government through officers responsible to it. As 
 the railways are in the hands of the State Governments, those Governments- 
 are brought into closer relation than elsewhere with the internal communi- 
 cations of the country; roads and bridges are important feeders of the railways. 
 Moreover, these communications are of course essential to development, 
 and are often most urgently called for where there is least ability to bear 
 a local charge ; and historically there is a connexion between land revenue 
 and local works. Large amounts of money have been expended directly 
 by the central Government both out of loans and revenue ; and there are 
 roads and other works, distinguished as " national " from those controlled
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 569 
 
 by local authorities. In general, roads are now made and maintained by 
 the shires or municipalities, with the aid of a Government grant. It is 
 questioned whether this system altogether insures recognition by the muni- 
 cipalities of the national purposes for which the subsidy is paid, and recent- 
 legislation in Victoria is aimed at bringing main roads under a much more 
 direct control through the establishment of a non-political board. 
 
 A large part of Australia is now included in local government areas ; but 
 it is obvious that the effectiveness of local government must vary with the 
 widely different conditions of settlement in the several States. In the 
 capitals and other urban areas, government is organized upon familiar lines, 
 and undertakes the obvious services required by large town communities. 
 Both in Sydney and Melbourne, the existence of a large number of muni- 
 cipalities within the metropolitan district involves the creation of some 
 authorities which control services not admitting of separation, of which 
 sewerage and water supply are the most important. 
 
 9. The Courts and the Constitution. 
 
 The general principle of the division of powers between Commonwealth 
 and State, as already stated, is that the Commonwealth received authority 
 over certain matters specifically enumerated, while the Constitution 
 reserved to the States the residuary power : the federal plan is that of 
 the United States Constitution. 
 
 Federal government, with its division of power between two authorities, 
 demands some method of settling the frontiers and determining the rival 
 claims. It rests upon the assumption of a controlling law, and therefore a 
 sovereignty above each of the governments concerned. In such a system 
 government is in a peculiar degree based on law ; as Professor Dicey has 
 said, " Federalism is legalism." How that controlling law manifests itself 
 in action will depend largely upon the history and traditions of a country ; 
 it does not necessarily, as the cases of Germany and Switzerland show, find 
 expression in the arbitrament of the ordinary courts of law. But amongst 
 people bred under the influence of the English common law, the control of 
 the law has meant in Australia, as in America, the submission of the Constitu- 
 tion, with its definitions of and limitations on authority, to the interpretation 
 of the courts. In countries where the idea of law is more abstract, it may 
 be possible to conceive a constitution existing in an atmosphere outside 
 that of the courts, and yet with a legal and not merely a moral or conven- 
 tional obligation. But though the British Constitution and its offspring 
 know well constitutional rules which are not cognisable in the courts, they 
 deny them the name of laws. That is law which is enforced in the courts ; 
 for that which is not enforced in courts, English legal philosophy does not 
 readily find a name. Even in Germany, with a legal philosophy widely 
 diffused through her government, the idea of law, unsupported in consti- 
 tutional relations by the action of the tribunals, appears to be giving way 
 before the tendency of the self-determining legislature to augment its powers. 
 
 A system in which the courts of law are called upon in the course of their 
 ordinary business to consider the validity of Acts of Parliament is strange 
 to those who live under the rule of parliamentary sovereignty, and in commu- 
 nities whose constitutions were modelled on (Ik; Imperial Parliament the
 
 570 Federal Handbook. 
 
 adjustment to a new order has been not without some difficulties and heart- 
 burnings. The principle, indeed, was universally accepted. The rule 
 that Imperial Acts applying to a colony are of paramount authority was 
 familiar enough ; and it was obvious that if two legislatures with authority 
 over the same matter spoke with a discordant voice, the courts could not 
 give effect to the will of both, and must hold that one prevails over the other. 
 The occasions for such a conflict of Imperial legislation with colonial legis- 
 lation under " responsible government " were few. In the case of a federal 
 constitution where the powers of the central Legislature were in general 
 not exclusive, but concurred with powers of the States Legislatures, such 
 conflicts must be of constant occurrence ; and the Constitution expressly 
 provided that in such a case the laws of the Commonwealth should prevail. 
 In this class of case the task of the courts has been to determine what is 
 inconsistency, a more difficult task than appears on the surface. But in 
 order that a Commonwealth Statute shall prevail or, indeed, operate at all, 
 it must be a " law," i.e., not merely passed by Parliament, but within 
 the powers committed to Parliament by the Constitution. Inasmuch as the 
 Constitution itself is an Act of the Imperial Parliament, it is a law of para- 
 mount authority to which the courts must give effect. Where it says that 
 such and such a power only shall be exercised, the courts must give eflect 
 to the limitation, and treat any excess of the grant as ultra vires. Thus the 
 courts have the more delicate task of interpreting and defining the limits of 
 the powers of the Commonwealth as often as in any litigation before them 
 any such power is invoked. Further, the Constitution, although it is not 
 the origin of the powers of the States Parliaments, restricts their powers in 
 various ways, and therefore the Courts must consider whether acts of 
 the States Legislatures or executives are within the authority left to them 
 by the Constitution. Lastly, a written Constitution is no more than a 
 frame of government — a certain generality and breadth of description belongs 
 to its very nature. " A Constitution to contain an accurate detail of all the 
 subdivisions of which its great powers will admit, and of all the means by 
 which they may be carried into execution, would partake of the prolixity 
 of a legal code, and could scarcely be embraced by the human mind. It 
 would probably never be understood by the public. Its nature requires 
 therefore that only its great outlines should be marked, its more important 
 objects designated, and the minor ingredients which compose those objects 
 be deduced from the nature of the objects themselves" {per Marshall, C.J., 
 McCulloch V. Manjland (1819) )4 Wheaton 316). British Statutes are charac- 
 terized by a high degree of detail which invites the courts to a literal and 
 unimaginative interpretation. A Constitution, on the other hand, is brief, 
 allusive, the expression of some clearly discernible principles of government. 
 These have to be worked out in application, and their consequences cannot 
 at the outset be foreseen. Actually, the implications of a Constitution are 
 not less important than its explicit dispositions. Constitutional construc- 
 tion, therefore, involves a peculiar responsibility, not merely because of the 
 importance of the subject, but because of the special nature of the task. 
 The courts must adjust themselves to a new stand-point. The task before 
 them resembles less the interpretation of an Act of Parliament than the 
 development of the common law. In the case of a federal Constitution, it
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 571 
 
 has an analogy to the process by which large departments of the law have 
 been built up to contain " the unexpressed intention of the parties " in 
 contract. 
 
 It is obvious that such functions as these have a vast political significance, 
 and a system which casts them on the courts raises several grave questions. 
 Are judges with their training well-fitted for the determination of these 
 matters ? One advantage a man of large professional experience possesses : 
 he is accustomed to a detachment from mere personal views and sympathies 
 in his professional judgment and conduct. But something more is needful; 
 in the words of Marshall, "the judge must mingle with the lawyer's rigour 
 the statesman's breadth of view."' In the region of implied powers and implied 
 restraints the legal landmarks become faint ; in the interpretation of some 
 vague indefinite power, political battle cries are like siren's songs. When 
 great political issues hang on a judicial decision, the whole political interest 
 of the community is ranged on the one side and the other, and by tradition 
 the defeated litigant is not in a generous mood towards the court. More- 
 over, in making judicial appointments, Governments can hardly avoid 
 giving some weight to the prospective attitude of the judge towards con- 
 stitutional matters, and there is the temptation to subordinate unduly other 
 considerations of fitness to this. The system is obviously one which puts a 
 strain upon the Bench, the Executive, the Parliament, and public 
 opinion. 
 
 But it is easier to point to drawbacks than to suggest a remedy if the 
 reality of Federal Govei-nment is to be preserved. The frank acceptance 
 of political in place of legal control involves either the paramountcy of one 
 of the Governments concerned or of some authority external to both. In 
 the United States, this was impossible. In Canada, the system is mixed — 
 both Dominions and Pro\ances are subject to legal control through the 
 courts, while the Provinces are subject also to the political control of the 
 Dominion Government, which may disallow their legislation. In Australia 
 and Canada, there is the resource of submitting some at any rate of these 
 great questions to the political control of the Imperial Government, which 
 has the same power of disallowance ; and at the beginnings of the Australian 
 Constitution there was in fact a moment's hesitation as to the proper mode 
 of working out some of the problems of federalism. The Supreme Court of 
 Victoria and the Privy Council on appeal looked askance at the American 
 decisions as political wolves in legal sheepskin, and, rejecting all implied 
 restraints on power in law, sought to reconcile the plenary powers of a Par- 
 liament with that mutual forbearance which federalism demands, by reference 
 to the political supremacy of the Imperial Government and the Imperial 
 Parliament, as a means of preventing encroachment by the one authmity 
 upon the other. Perhaps the most notable decision of the High Court is 
 that in which it rejected this easy means of avoiding responsibilities ; held 
 that the delimitation of spheres was a legal question as to the existence of 
 power, and not a political ({uestion as to the proper use of powers ; and 
 declared that a view which would refer questions of everv-day action to the 
 supervision of the Imperial Government was a negation of that self-govern- 
 ment to which all Australia was accustomed, and was totally inconsistent with 
 the notorious purpose of the Constitution to enlarge that self-government.
 
 572 Federal Handbook. 
 
 It was in the same case that the High Court vindicated its own position 
 under the Constitution as against what it deemed the encroachment of the 
 Privy Council. 
 
 The constitutional importance of the High Court of Australia arises from 
 the fact that it is the supreme court of appeal in Australia, and that on con- 
 stitutional matters, within sec. 74 of the Constitution, no appeal lies to the 
 Privy Council except where the High Court for special reasons certifies that 
 the question is one which ought to be determined by the King in Council. 
 The peculiar prominence which eveaits have given to the High Court brings 
 us to a particular consideration of the subjects in the power of Commonwealth 
 and State respectively. 
 
 10. Commonwealth and State Functions. 
 
 In the sphere of Federal authority, precedence must be accorded 
 to the matters of defence and fiscal relations. Here the State 
 services of Defence and Customs were wholly transferred to the exclusive 
 authority of the Commonwealth Parliament. Subject to the constitutional 
 provision of inter-state free-trade, power was given to make laws with 
 respect to external and inter-state commerce. Two other State services, 
 closely connected with external commerce — lighting and buoying, and 
 quarantine — were also transferred, as was the post office, with the 
 telegraphs and telephones. Of the 39 subjects granted to the Common 
 wealth Parliament, some, like "' external affairs," " immigration," 
 " naturalization and aliens," point to the established need of a single voice 
 to speak for Australia in her external relations. Others, such as trade- 
 marks and patents, banking and bills of exchange, go some way towards 
 bringing " commercial law " into federal hands. Currency and coinage are 
 always regarded as fittest for a central authority, and in Australia the 
 power of the Commonwealth Parliament is fortified by prohibitions to the 
 States. Weights and measures are federal for like reasons. Marriage and 
 divorce are suggested by warnings from the United States. Alone amongst 
 the miscellaneous powers, " invalid and old-age pensions " and an arbitra- 
 tion power to deal with industrial disputes passing the boundaries of any 
 one State, were calculated to make any wide appeal to political feeling. 
 
 From the nature of the case, it is not possible to define the States' powers 
 by enumeration. But the residuary power includes such important matters 
 of administration as the lands, public health, mining, railways, education, 
 police, and local government ; the whole law of property and most civil 
 rights ; all trade and commerce, except foreign and inter-state commerce ; 
 and all industry and industrial relations except so far as they may be brought 
 into the Commonwealth sphere of conciliation and arbitration by the existence 
 of some form of dispute extending beyond the limits of any one State. The 
 State power thus embraces those social matters which in all modern countries 
 are arousing the deepest concern, as well as those matters of public economy 
 which in a new country engross the greatest amount of public attention 
 and constitute in ordinary times the politics of a dependency. 
 
 According to the view current at the time of the establishment of the 
 Commonwealth, the task which lay before the Government at the outset 
 was no doubt a heavy one. The organization of the transferred Departments
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 573 
 
 carried with it the need for replacing the varying laws of administration 
 of the States by an uniform law, work of an essentially departmental kind 
 in which Parliament would concern itself but little, and the public not at all. 
 Defence, on the other hand, called for constructive statesmanship, but in 
 1900 gave little promise of prolonged or keen political interest. Then there 
 was trade and commerce, as to which the Constitution imposed on the Par- 
 liament the task of framing an uniform tariff for Australia within two years, 
 and declared that on the accomplishment of that task, inter-state free 
 trade should be established. The fiscal question was thus the burning ques- 
 tion, which in the first instance defined the lines of parliamentary parties, 
 ranged old opponents against each other in familiar contest, brought out 
 old conflicts of interest, and, from the divergent policies of New South Wales 
 and Victoria, gave to the struggle something of an inter-state character. 
 But even in regard to the tariff, there was a general desire to effect a settle- 
 ment, and to relieve trade from the hindrance of a fluctuating policy. That 
 matter settled, everything pointed to calm in the federal sphere, and there 
 was room for reasonable doubt whether federal politics when the first work 
 was done and the glamour of the inauguration departed, would be sufficiently 
 stirring to attract the more robust type of politician, or to command a live 
 public interest. 
 
 The actual history of the Commonwealth during its twelve years of life 
 has been very different from the anticipation. The sessions of Parliament 
 have been as long as those of the States ; its proceedings have been con- 
 tentious enough to produce the closure in its various forms ; Ministries have 
 followed each other in rapid succession — the Ministry which took office in 
 June, 1913, is the tenth Government of the Commonwealth ; elections have 
 stirred the depths of political feeling and have called out the most strenuous 
 efforts of party organization, with the result of raising the percentage of 
 electors voting from 46.86 in 1901 to 73.43 in 1913 ; and the issues which 
 have led to this public interest are exactly those which were regarded as 
 outside federal politics. In several cases, the successful passage of an Act 
 through Parliament has been only a stage in the conflict, which has been taken 
 up in the courts, and eventually been passed on to the electors through 
 proposals for the alteration of the Constitution so as to invest the Parliament 
 with additional powers. 
 
 11. The Development of the Federal Constitution. 
 
 The first important constitutional principle laid down by the Higii 
 Court was that if either Commonwealth or State attempted to give 
 to its legislative or executive authority an operation which would 
 fetter or interfere with the free exercise of the legislative or executive 
 power of the other, the attempt unless clearly authorized by the 
 Constitution was invalid. This doctrine, first laid down in favour of 
 the salaries of Commonwealth officers against the taxation of the States, 
 was applied to protect the States against the application of the Commonwealth 
 Arbitration Act to disputes between the States Governments and their 
 servants employed on the State railways. The second gi-eat principle was 
 that, the Constitution having divided powers of Government between Com- 
 monwealth and States, the powers of the Commonwealth must Ix' interpreted
 
 574 Federal Handbook. 
 
 consistently with the maintenance of the division, and therefore if a par- 
 ticular grant of power to the Commonwealth would according to one con- 
 struction extend m substance to nullify that division and to give to the 
 Commonwealth a general paramount authority, it must be rejected in favour 
 of a more restricted application, consistent with the general scheme. This 
 principle was first explicitly enunciated in connexion with what was known 
 as the " new protection " — the policy of guaranteeing to the employes in 
 protected industries the advantageous conditions which protection made 
 possible. The difficulty was for the Commonwealth to accomplish this 
 under a Constitution which left the regulation of industry to the States. 
 By an ingenious use of the power of taxation, the customs duties were in 
 certain cases balanced by an excise, remissible on proof of compliance with 
 specified labour conditions. In the High Court this Act was challenged by a 
 taxpayer, and a majority of the Court held it was ultra vires : in substance 
 the Act was not one of taxation at all, it was a regulation of industry ; and if 
 the power of taxation sanctioned what had here been done the same device 
 would enable the Commonwealth to regulate anything whatsoever, and so 
 make the federal scheme illusory. Developing the same doctrine, the Court 
 in subsequent cases emphasized the fact that in the region of commerce the 
 Constitution which granted to the Commonwealth the subject of foreign 
 and inter-state commerce, impliedly forbade it to regulate the domestic 
 commerce of the States. The application of these doctrines was fatal to the 
 attempt to establish the Union Label under the cover of a Trade Marks Act ; 
 to regulate the contracts of corporations under the AustraUan Industries 
 Act ; to establish a common rule affecting all employers in a particular industry 
 under the Arbitration Act. It also limited the operation of the Arbitration 
 Act in various respects, and ixi particular established that the Commonwealth 
 Court of Arbitration in its awards was subject and not paramount to State 
 laws. Finally, it limited the scope of the Commonwealth's power of inquiry 
 by Royal Commissions to matters within the present power of the Common- 
 wealth Parliament, and prevented the inquiries extending to matters within 
 the exclusive authority of the States. Most of these matters had been the 
 subject of keen parliamentary contests, which included a severe questioning 
 of their legality. In the High Court itself, after the number of justices had 
 been raised from three to five, there appeared a sharp division of opinion 
 on the Bench as to fundamental principles on interpretation, and the two 
 new justices commonly dissented from the respect paid by the majority to 
 the reserved powers of the States. 
 
 The differences on the Bench illustrate the peculiar difficulty of the 
 Australian situation. The Constitution has two sources — one American and 
 one British. The federal element in the Constitution is that which is drawn 
 from America ; and the essentials of federaUsm were developed in the Supreme 
 Court of the United States in conditions which precluded any exaggerated 
 regard for the acts of Legislatures as such. The principle of people's 
 sovereignty imported that all Legislatures held their powers by delegation 
 and upon a trust. The Constitutions, Federal and State, were full of express 
 restraints upon legislative competence in the interest of individual right, 
 and, apart from such provisions, the doctrine of natural rights affected 
 (and continues to affect) legal as well as political thought. In Australia,
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 575 
 
 most of these conditions were absent, and though the American model has 
 furnished the federal relation in her Constitution, her Legislatures have the 
 traditional attributes of British parliamentary institutions so far as these 
 are possible in a non-sovereign community. Here, then, are two principles 
 co-existing in the same Constitution, and each admittedly demanding some 
 concession from the other. The question is — how much ? Which is the 
 preponderating principle — federalism or parliamentary sovereignty ? The 
 majority of the High Court has considered that federalism is the governing 
 principle, and has sought its guide chiefly in the decisions of the United 
 States, while recognising that in many matters there are diSercnces which 
 prevent the analogy from being perfect. The minority on the other hand has 
 rested more on British traditions, and has relied on the principles laid down 
 by the Privy Council in cases concerning immediately Governments either 
 unitary in form or, like the Dominion of Canada, based on a different federation 
 from that of Australia. 
 
 This has been the character of the legal contest. The political conflict 
 has necessarily been waged in a less refined atmosphere. 
 
 On the policy of the " new protection " indeed there was little difference 
 of opinion. Free-traders and protectionists alike were in agreement that 
 where the law secured a market for the manufacturer by high duties, the law 
 should not leave the employes to a competitive wage. The question was as 
 to the mode in which the aim should be attained. Already there were in 
 all but one of the States authorities for determiniug fair and reasonable wages, 
 who in considering what wages an industry could bear would take into account 
 the extent of protection which the employer enjoyed against foreign compe 
 tition. But here another industrial problem arose from the establishment 
 of inter-state free trade. A State authority could fix wages only within 
 the State, and employers there were exposed to unrestricted competition 
 from other States in which the labour conditions might be less onerous. The 
 fear was excited that either the least favorable conditions for labour might 
 be the standard for regulation generally, or industry might flow from the 
 States with high wages to those with low wages. Unsuccessful efforts to meet 
 the situation through a voluntary surrender of limited but sufficient powers 
 by the States to the Commonwealth are the contribution of Liberal policy 
 towards the solution of the problem. Labour finds in it a proof of the unity 
 of Australian industrial conditions and bases on it a demand for unlimited 
 federal control. 
 
 Another important factor in the situation has been the Commonwealth 
 Arbitration Court. Designed by the framers of the Constitution for dealing 
 with the rare case of industrial crises of national magnitude, the Court has 
 come to be sought by the trades unions in preference to State machinery, 
 and has become the most active of the industrial authorities in the Common- 
 wealth. The definition of its powers and functions had been the most con- 
 tentious of the tasks of the High Court. Unable to limit the terms of the 
 Constitution to the class of case originally contemplated, the High Court has 
 yet to give effect to the fact that the Constitution does impose some limits 
 on the jurisdiction of the Commonwealth Arbitration Court. In the result, 
 distinctions become very fine ; differences of opinion emerge in the High Court ; 
 and the discontents of those who find barriers impeding their access to the 
 C.121.54 t u
 
 576 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Arbitration Court are joined to a feeling of grievance and irritation at what 
 is deemed the artificial treatment of great issues. 
 
 12. Constitution Amendment. 
 
 The most potent factor in the political development of the Common- 
 wealth has been the democratic nature of the Constitution, so that 
 politicians aiming at great social and economic changes have seen before 
 them an open way unbarred by the Legislative Councils in the States. 
 The Labour Party has come to concentrate its main efforts upon federal 
 politics, to use or compel the use of federal powers for purposes which make 
 the Commonwealth Parliament and Commonwealth elections the scene of 
 the modern social and industrial conflict. The decisions of the High Court 
 having marked out the limits of attainment within the Constitution, the 
 amendment of the Constitution has become the immediate objective of Labour 
 politics and the " preservation of the Constitution " a rallying cry of their 
 opponents. 
 
 The Labour Party, on assuming office in 1910, set themselves at once to 
 free the Constitution from the limitations settled by the High Court decisions, 
 and passed through Parliament a measure for altering the Constitution so 
 as to bring under federal control all commerce and industry, including the 
 regulation of commercial trusts, and the whcle subject of labour and employ- 
 ment. A separate measure proposed to enable the Commonwealth to 
 nationalize any business declared by Parliament to be a monopoly. The 
 proposals were submitted to the electors by referendum in 1911, and were 
 decisively rejected. In 1913 the proposals were again laid before the electors 
 at the time of the general election, and were again rejected, though by slender 
 majorities only. The use of a general election for a referendum is tempting 
 for many reasons, but it may detract from its value as an expression of public 
 opinion on the measures submitted. Practically the short Australian ex- 
 perience appears to show that where measures for the alteration of the Con- 
 stitution are promoted by a Government which is asking generally for a re- 
 newal of the confidence of the people, the electors will not separate the pro- 
 posals from the Government, and their " yes " in the referendum goes along 
 with their votes for Government candidates for the Senate and the House 
 as their " no " goes with votes for the Opposition. In 1913, the referenda 
 dominated all other matters as a subject of political discussion, while the 
 personal issues of the election applied a stimulus which brought electors to 
 the poll. 
 
 It has been said that the most important part of any Constitution is the 
 provision for its alteration. Constitutions have been conceived as voluntary 
 grants by the ruler, as compacts between rulers and people, as agreements of 
 the people, and as direct expressions of a national will. A nation's concept 
 of sovereignty is usually to be found in the provision for the alteration of 
 its Constitution. In the Australian Constitution, the principles of parliamen- 
 tary government, of democracy, and of federalism which run through the 
 whole instrument are at work in the amending clause. Parliament has the 
 sole initiative, and in this case must act by absolute majority. The 
 possibility of disagreement between the Houses is provided for, and the 
 provision differs significantly from that applicable to ordinary legislation.
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 577 
 
 The ordinary dead-lock machinery is available only in the case of bills 
 passed by the House and rejected by the Senate, evidently contemplating 
 conditions familiar in Cabinet Government. In regard to proposals 
 to alter the Constitution, however, bills emanating from the Senate- — 
 the House of the States — as well as those originating in the House, have 
 the advantage of the dead-lock machinery. Moreover, that machinery 
 in the case of Constitution alterations is far more simple than that 
 applicable to ordinary legislation, for it dispenses altogether with the double 
 dissolution. It is enough that a Bill passed twice in one House has been 
 twice rejected by the other ; in such a case it may be at once submitted to 
 the electors for their approval. The reason for the difference in the schemes 
 is that ordinary legislation is essentially a function of ParHament, and the 
 reference to the people is made only as a last resort after the failure of all 
 other methods of reconcilement. In the case of alterations of the Consti- 
 tution, the people are not mere arbiters between the Houses ; they are 
 themselves participators in the Act. Federalism has invoked the " political 
 sovereign " — the electors — to assume a part in the " legal sovereignty." It 
 was the people of the Australian colonies who adopted the Constitution ; 
 without their approval no alteration in it can be made. 
 
 The alteration of a federal constitution is a revision of a compact between 
 the constituent States. It is, therefore, reasonable to expect some recogni- 
 tion of this in the machinery for approving such alterations. This, in Aus- 
 tralia, is effected as in Switzerland in conjunction with the submission to the 
 people. An alteration of the Constitution requires a national and a federal 
 majority — a majority of the whole number of electors of the Commonwealth 
 who have recorded their votes, and a majority of States, the latter ascertained 
 by the votes cast by the electors in the several States for or against the pro- 
 posal. The Parliamentary representation and the territorial integrity of the 
 Stat( s are protected by the further provision requiring the assent of a 
 State's electors to any alteration therein. 
 
 The direct participation of the electorate in the act of amending the Con- 
 stitution is no doubt a dethronement of Parliament. But the principle 
 which governs the mode of alteration is in truth derived from parliamentary 
 government. There is no attempt to see into the distant future, to provide 
 by superior wisdom for generations which might not know so well how to 
 govern themselves. The framers of the Constitution were themselves accus- 
 tomed to the flexibility of constitutional arrangements ; they were them- 
 selves the product of a dynamic age and society, well aware that rigidity 
 was not the same thing as stability. They knew, too, that while the people 
 of Australia might accept a regime of law, that law must be consistent with 
 their sense of self-government : it must no more be the dead hand of their 
 own past than the decree of an external authority. 
 
 In America, the artificial majorities required by the Constitution and the 
 inequality of population in the several States, combine to make large amend- 
 ments in the Constitution impossible and create a problem which suggests 
 desperate solutions. In the absence of amendment, the courts control the 
 situation in a way which recalls the constitutional struggles of the seventeenth 
 century in England, as even more do some of the remedies suggested. The 
 judges are invited to make a more political and less legal interpretation ;
 
 578 Federal Handbook. 
 
 even to treat the Constitution as something greater or something less than a 
 legal text — an enunciation of principles capable of indejBuite modification in 
 the face of changed social and economic conditions, and of changing political 
 ideas concerning the relations of government to the citizen. Grave and 
 responsible writers discuss, in ominous conjunction with these suggestions, 
 plans for hindering the courts from pronouncing judgment against the 
 validity of statutes, or for securing decisions favorable to their validity — 
 special modes of constituting the bench ; judicial appointments in relation 
 to the power of overruHng prior decisions ; election of judges ; a less secure 
 tenure ; removal by the Legislature or recall by popular vote, and replacement 
 by " progressive " minds. 
 
 The Australian Constitution, by the ease with which it can be amended, 
 leaves the courts no such final control. They are under no necessity to resort 
 to bold or ingenious constructions to meet the political conditions of the 
 country. If their decision is adverse to an Act of Parliament, it need be no 
 more than a suspensory veto, which, if not in accord with the national will, 
 can be readily set aside by an alteration of the Constitution conferring upon 
 Parliament the powers desired. As already stated, the appeals which have 
 been made to the country to alter the Constitution as interpreted by the High 
 Court, have not met with success. 
 
 13. Imperial Relations. 
 
 The principle of responsible government was the division of functions 
 between two authorities, each of which was answerable for its own 
 sphere. The Colonial Government was solely answerable to its citizens 
 for the internal affairs of the colony. Whatever touched the external 
 relations of the colony — with the mother country, with other colonies, or 
 with foreign States — ^was Imperial, which meant that it was in the hands of 
 the British Government. Yrt it was evident that in spite of the 
 limitation of the colonial functions, some internal affairs might in certain 
 contingencies assume an Imperial character ; there must, therefore, be a reserve 
 authority in the British Government of a controlling or supervisory kind. 
 Attempts to state the division with legal precision were discouraged, and 
 the scheme was consequently left free to develop through the course of 
 political events. Time has done its work. The growth of the Colonies in 
 population, wealth, and importance has been accompanied with a continually 
 expanding sphere of self-government. One after another matters once 
 deemed " Imperial " have been relegated to the Colonies, whose altered 
 status has been recognised by distinguishing them as "Dominions." The 
 alteration of their Constitutions is a right which in the Australian Colonies 
 was recognised as early as 1850, and is conceded to every representative 
 Legislature by the Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865. By successive 
 steps the self-governing Colonies have come to control their commercial 
 relations with other parts of the world, whether within or without the Em- 
 pire. The currency, marriage and divorce laws, the exercise of the pardoning 
 power, the conditions of naturalization, admission and expulsion from the 
 territory, the care of native races, have all passed into self-government. 
 In the sphere of commerce, the Dominions are treated as distinct units, 
 standing outside commercial treaties unless they assent to them, denouncing
 
 Political Systems of Australia. 579 
 
 them when they think fit, and in substance negotiating with foreign powers. 
 In matters of shipping, they exercise direct control over the coastal trade and 
 over vessels registered in the colony, and the British Government has practi- 
 cally abandoned control for such representations as it might make to a 
 foreign state. The Dominions maintain their own defence forces, and control 
 them even on the high seas. In the case of political treaties, the Empire is 
 necessarily treated as a single unit ; but it is recognised that no treaty par- 
 ticularly affecting the interests of a Dominion shall be concluded without 
 consultation, and the Arbitration Treaties of 1908 and 1911 and the Pecuniary 
 Claims Treaty of 1911 with the United States went so far as to provide for 
 the separate assent of any Dominion affected by any question to be referred 
 to arbitration. 
 
 In practice, then, the Dominion of the twentieth century by no means 
 confines itself to " internal affairs." Each has its own distinctive problems 
 in relation to the world without it, and is busy fashioning a policy to solve 
 them. The organization of defence has been stimulated by a consideration 
 of the special risks to which the situation and the policy of the Dominion 
 exposed her. The old conception of "responsible government" is inadequate 
 and seeks a new terminology and a new interpretation. Dependency on the 
 mother country is superseded by the " voluntary co-operation " or " partner- 
 ship " of the sisters ; the " colonies " have become " the nations " ; the 
 Dominion's Ministers periodically assemble as "colleagues" of the British 
 Ministers in an Imperial Conference, and are there admitted to the most 
 secret matters of State. Where does all this tend ? According to one view, 
 the movement is towards a system of voluntary alliances, and true statesman- 
 ship lies in removing all obstructions to nationhood. It must be recognised 
 that every " nation " has the right to make what arrangements it deems 
 necessary for the welfare of its inhabitants and the government of its terri- 
 tory, even though they are detrimental to those of other nations within or 
 without the Empire. These include arrangements of trade, the determina- 
 tion of the persons who shall be received as settlers, and the terms on which 
 they shall be received. Each of the nations must assume the responsibility 
 for its own defence, and must maintain and control its own forces. One by 
 one the ties which bind the nations to a British Cabinet and Parliament will 
 fall away, until the sole legal bond will be the common and equal subjection 
 of all to the Crown. The new relation would be neither supremacy nor 
 federation, but an equal alliance which would leave intact the sovereign 
 right of each ally to act upon her own responsibility in foreign affairs in the 
 last resort. 
 
 These views were enunciated by Mr. Jebb in his Colonial Nationalism, 
 published in 1905. As an interpretation they made a deep impression on 
 Australian thought, and did much to stimulate the national self-consciousness 
 they predicated. As a forecast, however, they were accepted with some 
 scepticism and not welcomed or acknowledged as an ideal. Yet in pro- 
 portion as the " national " activities enter into the self-government of a 
 Dominion, as its interests and policy come into contact with those of other 
 countries, the question of responsibility forces itself into consideration. If 
 the determination of policy and responsibility for action be with the Dominion 
 Mr. Jebb's conclusions as to disintegration seem inevitable, whatever one
 
 580 Federal Handbook. 
 
 may think of the prospect of alliance. If, on the other hand, the British 
 Government is to remain responsible, that Government must have the final 
 determination, and with the increased activity of the Dominion Government 
 in what used to be the Imperial sphere, the occasions for an active partici- 
 pation by Great Britain in the policy of the Dominions must increase. It 
 requires no great amount of prescience to see that such a system would not 
 work — it would be as little consistent with the traditions of Great Britain as 
 with those of the Dominions. There is a third possibility. We may develop 
 some organ, neither the British Government nor the Dominion Government, 
 but composed of both, for deliberating, determining, and acting in the name 
 of all, combining responsibility with power. As yet the periodical " Con- 
 ference " with its permanent secretariat, and subsidiary conferences, is all 
 that is firmly established. The Committee of Imperial Defence, used in con- 
 junction with the Conference of 1911 and the conversations with the Canadian 
 Ministers in 1912, is apparently offered tentatively as a means for more 
 continuous consultation, but has evoked criticism as being essentially an 
 adjunct of the British Government. It is probably true, as Lord MUner has 
 observed, that any great step forward will demand some formal and conscious 
 act of constitution-making. That is possible only if backed by a public 
 opinion throughout the Empire sufl&cient to carry constructive statesmanship 
 over the many obstacles which bar the path. Such an opinion does not 
 yet exist. But Australians are now at any rate conscious that there is an 
 Imperial problem to be solved, and in their maturer political growth are 
 less disposed than in their youth to a sensitive repugnance to all discussion 
 of the matter as disloyal to the ideal of self-government.
 
 Australia, Its People and Their Activities. 
 
 581 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON AUSTRALIA, ITS PEOPLE AND 
 THEIR ACTIVITIES. 
 
 By G. H. Kvihhs, C.M.G., F.S.S., F.R.A.S., etc., Commonwealth 
 
 Statistician. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 1. The People of Australia. 
 
 (a) Race, Physique, and Health. 
 (6) Longevity of Australians. 
 
 2. The Trade and Finance of Australia — 
 
 (a) Oversea Trade. 
 (6) Public Debt. 
 
 (c) Accumulation. 
 
 (d) Financial Relationship Between Commonwealth and States. 
 
 3. Productive Industries. 
 
 4. Land Legislation and Settlement. 
 
 5. Immigration. 
 
 6. Postal Services. 
 
 ". Scientific Socikties and Liberal Educational Effort. 
 8. Educational Benefactions: 
 
 I. The People of Australia. 
 
 (a) Race, Physique, and Health. 
 
 Australia is a country slightly larger than the United States of America, 
 and nearly the same size as Europe, including Russia in Europe, the 
 area, population, and density of population of the countries mentioned 
 being as follows : — 
 
 Particulars. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Area in square miles. . 
 
 Population . . 
 
 Density (persons per sq. mile) 
 
 3,860,368 
 
 452,153,642 
 
 117-13 
 
 2,973,890 
 
 91,972,266 
 
 30-93 
 
 2,974,581 
 
 4,668,707 
 
 1-57 
 
 The control of so large a territory by a mere handful of people 
 naturally offers difl&culties of a unique character, one of which deserves 
 special mention, viz., that arising from the adoption of what is known 
 as the " White Australia " policy, by which it is hoped to avoid 
 difficulties that have arisen in some other parts of the world, where 
 heterogeneous, or apparently heterogeneous, populations are associated 
 in civic life. 
 
 Australia embraces 1,825,261 square miles south of the Tropic of Capri- 
 corn, and 1,149,-320 square miles within the tropics, and although the high- 
 lands of the north will enable a limited but considerable number to live 
 in what is really a non-tropical region within that tropic, the problem of 
 peopling the north is that of establishing, in tropical regions, a white race. 
 Experiments are being made at the present time to develop the northern 
 portions of Australia, and valuable scientific investigations in tropical 
 medicine, which may be helpful in this effort, are being made at the Institute 
 of Tropical Medicine in Townsville. There is little doubt that these will 
 throw some light upon the subject, and assist materially in bringing the 
 problem to a satisfactory solution, if that be possible.
 
 582 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In regard to the range of climate of the principal towns, it may be 
 mentioned that meteorological researches shew that the mean annual tem- 
 perature at Darwin is 82*7° Fahr., while at Ballarat it is only 53*2° Fahr., 
 while the mean annual rainfall ranges from 61 '7 inches at Darwin to 9 '3 
 at Kalgoorlie. 
 
 The Australian people, with regard to racial constitution, are virtually 
 British, as the following figures from the last census shew, and it may be 
 added that the descendants of other European races disclose but small 
 difierentiation from their fellow citizens of British origin. The percentages 
 of the principal races represented are as follows : — 
 
 Australian born, 82 "90 per cent. ; natives of United Kingdom, 13 '37 ; 
 of New Zealand, '72 ; of Germany, "75 ; of China, '47 ; of Scandinavia 
 "33 ; of all other places, 1 "46 ; that is to say, at the date of the census, 
 1911, no less than 97 per cent, had been born either in Australasia or in the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 The evolution of the Australian people, therefore, may be regarded as 
 that of the British people under changed climatic, social, and economic 
 conditions. 
 
 With regard to the physical proportions of the Australian people, a 
 considerable number of measurements has been made in all the 
 States in connection with the military system of Australia, and from 
 these measurements the following table has been deduced : — 
 
 Age. 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 Height . . ins. 
 
 55-3 
 
 56-2 
 
 59.2 
 
 61-5 
 
 63-7 
 
 65-2 
 
 66-4 
 
 Weight . . lbs. 
 
 72-2 
 
 79-6 
 
 87.2 
 
 98-5 
 
 110-9 
 
 118-9 
 
 128-2 
 
 Weight divided by 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 height (lbs. -^ in.) 
 
 1-31 
 
 1-39 
 
 1-48 
 
 1-60 
 
 1-74 
 
 1-83 
 
 1-93 
 
 Ponderal index 
 
 22-8 
 
 22-7 
 
 22-7 
 
 22-7 
 
 22-8 
 
 22-8 
 
 22-9 
 
 In tho above table the ponderal index is given. This index represents 
 the ratio of the cube root of the weight divided by the height, and multiplied 
 by some constant. When the weight (W) is expressed in grammes, and the 
 height (H) in centimetres, one sees that the result WVH is equivalent to the 
 ratio of the side of a cube of water the same weight as the person to his 
 actual height, and is thus a ratio, large for heavily built, and small for lightly 
 built individuals, but independent of their actual weight. The ratio usually 
 adopted is 100 times the above, and on the average is about 29 at birth, 
 falls to 22| at about eleven years of age, and rises to 24 or 25 in old age. 
 Measurements of 959 Oxford University students between the ages 18 to 23 
 gave about 23 -25 as the average. The average Australian male of the same 
 age has a ponderal index of about 22 -9. and this number was deduced from 
 over 120,000 youths. It is obvious that the Australian is fairly well set up. 
 
 Equally remarkable with the great variety, already referred to, of the 
 Australian climate, is its salubrity. 
 
 In regard to the death rates in various parts of the world. New Zealand 
 occupies the premier place with an annual death rate of only 8 -9 per 1,000
 
 Australia, Its People and Their Activities. 
 
 583 
 
 (1912), and next to it comes the Australian Commonwealtli. For the quin- 
 quennium 1906-10 and the two years 1911-12 the death rate per 1000 was 
 10 "75 and 10 '35 respectively. There has been a fairly steady decrease for the 
 last thirty years, the death rate being 15*63 for the quinquennium 1881-5. 
 This decrease of over 30 per cent, in so short a time is very remarkable. 
 The similar rates for 1911 for other countries are: — Canada 12*6, Norway 
 13 -2, Denmark 13 -6, Sweden 13 '8, Netherlands 14 -5, United Kingdom 14 -8, 
 the German Empire 17 -3, France 19 -6, Italy 21 -4, and European Russia 
 31 •!, this last, however, being for 1905. 
 
 The table hereunder of rates per 1000 of the population for deaths from 
 various causes reveals certain striking features to which attention may be 
 drawn. In the period covered by the table, infantile mortality has fallen 
 from 126 per 1000 to about 70, a little over one-half. Typhoid, which was 
 0*55 per 1000 in the quinquennium 1881-5, is now only 0'12, diphtheria 
 and croup, which were 0*51 in 1886-90, are now only 0*16, and pulmonary 
 tuberculosis has decreased from 1*31 to 0*66, say, to one-half. Cancer, on 
 the other hand, has about doubled, having increased from '36 to "75. This 
 diminution in the frequency of death from tuberculosis and increase in that 
 from cancer is however general. 
 
 
 
 Death-rates 
 
 FROM Various Causes. 
 
 
 
 
 General 
 
 Infantile 
 
 Typhoid 
 
 
 Scarlet 
 
 Diphtheria 
 
 Pulmonary 
 
 Cancer 
 
 per 
 100,000. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Death 
 
 Rate per 
 
 1,000. 
 
 Mortality 
 
 per 
 
 1,000. 
 
 Fever 
 
 per 
 
 100,000. 
 
 per 
 100,000. 
 
 Fever 
 
 per 
 
 100,000. 
 
 and Croup 
 
 per 
 
 100,000. 
 
 Tuberculosis 
 
 per 
 
 100,000. 
 
 1881-1885 
 
 15-69 
 
 126 
 
 55 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 43 
 
 131 
 
 36 
 
 1886-1890 
 
 14-85 
 
 120 
 
 52 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 51 
 
 121 
 
 42 
 
 1891-1895 
 
 13-32 
 
 108 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 107 
 
 50 
 
 1896-1900 
 
 12-75 
 
 112 
 
 34 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 95 
 
 58 
 
 1901-1905 
 
 11-76 
 
 97 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 89 
 
 63 
 
 1906-1910 
 
 10-75 
 
 78 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 1911&1912 
 
 10-95 
 
 70 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 66 
 
 75 
 
 These favorable facts are reflected in the average length of life of the 
 Australian people, as is disclosed in several tables hereafter, the whole 
 evidence shewing that, if we except New Zealand, the position of Australia 
 is unique with respect to its healthiness. 
 
 (b) Longevity of Australians. 
 
 During the last quarter of a century, Australia, together with almost 
 every other country, has given indications of a decided increase in the 
 longevity of its people. Contrary to popular opinion, it appears probable 
 that native-born Australians of European stock will attain ages at least 
 equal to those attained by their immigrant forbears. Such indications 
 are furnished (a) by the diminishing crude death rates experienced, (6) by 
 the increasing numbers of old persons recorded at successive censuses, and 
 (c) still more satisfactorily by the increase in the expectation of life deduced 
 from the mortality experience of the population for successive decades. 
 Whilst (a) and (6) are indications which may easily be misleading, (c) is 
 practically unexceptionable, taken in conjunction with the increasing pro- 
 portion of Australian born in the population of Australia.
 
 584 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Life tables for the several States and for the Commonwealth of Australia 
 as a whole weie prepared in connection with the Australian census of 1911. 
 These tables fui'nish results for each sex and for each of the three decennial 
 periods 1881-90, 1891-1900, and 1901-10. It may be mentioned that this 
 is the first occasion on which a comprehensive investigation of the mortality 
 experience of the Australian States has been undertaken. 
 
 For the Commonwealth as a whole the following table furnishes the 
 numbers surviving at successive vicennial ages out of 1000 at birth according 
 to the six Commonwealth tables : — 
 
 Of 1,000 Males OR 1,000 Females Born, Numbers Surviving to Different 
 Ages, according to Australian Mortality Experience, 1881-90, 
 1891-1900, 1901-10. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 1881-1890. 
 
 1891-1900. 
 
 1901-1910. 
 
 1881-1890. 
 
 1891-1900. 
 
 1901-1910. 
 
 .. 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 20 . . 
 
 766 
 
 803 
 
 845 
 
 791 
 
 825 
 
 865 
 
 40 . . 
 
 641 
 
 698 
 
 759 
 
 675 
 
 725 
 
 780 
 
 60 . . 
 
 435 
 
 502 
 
 568 
 
 500 
 
 566 
 
 632 
 
 80 . . 
 
 104 
 
 126 
 
 143 
 
 157 
 
 186 
 
 214 
 
 These figures indicate that, according to the latest Australian experience, 
 56f per cent, of all males born will reach age 60, and 63j per cent, of aU 
 females, while no fewer than 14J per cent, of all males and 21J per 
 cent, of all females born will reach 80. At the present time the result is 
 probably still more favorable. These results are an interesting evidence 
 of the increasing numbers of survivors according to the successive experi- 
 ences. For instance, while, according to the 1881-90 experience, 43J per 
 cent, of all males and 50 per cent, of all females born would reach age 60, 
 according to that for 1901-10, these proportions are, as mentioned above, 
 increased to 56| per cent, for males and 63j per cent, for females. 
 
 A different view of this improvement in rates of mortality is given in 
 the table hereunder, which furnishes for various ages the average annual 
 Australian rates of mortality per 10,000 for the three decennia 1881-90, 
 1891-1900, and 1901-10 :— 
 
 Annual Eates of Mortality per 10,000 in Australia 1881-90, 1891-1900, 
 
 AND 1901-10. 
 
 
 
 Males. 
 
 
 
 Females. 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1881-1890. 
 
 1891-1900. 
 
 1901-1910. 
 
 1881-1890. 
 
 1891-1900. 
 
 1901-1910. 
 
 .. 
 
 1,325 
 
 1,184 
 
 951 
 
 1,157 
 
 1,014 
 
 795 
 
 10 . . 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 20 . . 
 
 71 
 
 47 
 
 37 
 
 53 
 
 39 
 
 33 
 
 40 . . 
 
 113 
 
 97 
 
 82 
 
 104 
 
 84 
 
 72 
 
 60 . . 
 
 323 
 
 303 
 
 258 
 
 240 
 
 225 
 
 192 
 
 80 . . 
 
 1,365 
 
 1,384 
 
 1,380 
 
 1,245 
 
 1,224 
 
 1,133
 
 Australia, Its People and Their Activities. 
 
 585 
 
 Up to age 60 there is quite a remarkable diminution in the rate of 
 mortality in each sex. This, indeed, holds up to 70, but from that age 
 onwards the rates are in some cases slightly higher in the later than in the 
 earlier decennia. This is, of course, a consequence of the fact that if deaths 
 are postponed by diminishing the number dying early, they will tend to 
 swell those at higher ages, and under ordinary circumstances must increase 
 the rates at such higher ages. 
 
 A representation of the position, which from some points of view is more 
 satisfactory than either of the foregoing is that which exhibits for various 
 ages what is known as the " expectation of life," i.e., the mean duration of 
 life beyond a given age of those who attain that age. 
 
 The following table furnishes for various ages the results deduced from the 
 Australian experience for each sex for each of the three decennia under review : — 
 
 Australian Expectation of Life, 1881-90, 1891-1900, and 1901-10. 
 
 
 Hales. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Age. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1881-1890. 
 
 1891-1900. 
 
 1901-1910. 
 
 1881-1890. 
 
 1891-1900. 
 
 1901-1910. 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 
 47-2 
 
 51 1 
 
 55-2 
 
 50-8 
 
 54-8 
 
 58-8 
 
 10 . . 
 
 48-9 
 
 51-4 
 
 53-5 
 
 51-9 
 
 54-5 
 
 56-4 
 
 20 . . 
 
 40-6 
 
 42-8 
 
 44-7 
 
 43-4 
 
 45-7 
 
 47-5 
 
 40 . . 
 
 26-5 
 
 27-6 
 
 28-6 
 
 29- 1 
 
 30-5 
 
 31-4 
 
 60 . . 
 
 13-8 
 
 140 
 
 14-3 
 
 15-4 
 
 15-9 
 
 16-2 
 
 80 . . 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 5-3 
 
 5-5 
 
 5-7 
 
 These results shew that for the whole of life there has been an increase 
 of no less than eight years both for males and females in the expectation 
 of life when the experience for 1901-10 is compared with that for 1881-90. 
 Similarly there has been an increase of about four and a half years in the 
 expectation for each sex at age 10 and an increase of slightly more than four 
 years in the expectation for each sex at age 20. 
 
 The only country for which similar details are immediately available for 
 the decennium 1901-10 is Sweden, the figures for which country, in com- 
 parison with those for Australia, are given in the following table : — 
 
 Comparison of Australian Life Table 1901-10 with that for Sweden, 
 
 1901-10. 
 
 
 Number Surviving. 
 
 Rate of Mortality, Per 
 1,000. 
 
 Expectation of Life. 
 
 Age. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Australia, 
 
 Sweden, 
 
 Australia. Sweden, 
 
 Australia, 
 
 Sweden, 
 
 
 1901-10. 
 
 1901-10. 
 
 1901-10. 1901-10. 
 
 1901-10. 
 
 1901-10. 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 i 
 ALES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 95- 1 
 
 92-6 
 
 55-2 
 
 54-6 
 
 20 
 
 845 
 
 817 
 
 3-7 
 
 6-4 
 
 44-7 
 
 45-9 
 
 40 . . 
 
 759 
 
 719 
 
 8-2 
 
 7-6 
 
 28-6 
 
 30-8 
 
 60 .. 
 
 568 
 
 566 
 
 25-8 
 
 20-7 
 
 14-4 
 
 101 
 
 80 . . 
 
 143 
 
 194 
 
 138 
 
 120-8 
 
 50 
 
 5-2 
 
 
 Females. 
 
 
 
 .. 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 79-5 
 
 75-9 
 
 58-8 
 
 57-0 
 
 20 .. 
 
 8G5 
 
 831 
 
 3 3 
 
 5-3 
 
 47-5 
 
 47-7 
 
 40 . . 
 
 780 
 
 735 
 
 7-2 
 
 70 
 
 31-5 
 
 32-5 
 
 60 . . 
 
 632 
 
 604 
 
 19-2 
 
 16-6 
 
 16-2 
 
 17-2 
 
 80 . . 
 
 214 
 
 237 
 
 113-3 
 
 109-4 
 
 5-7 
 
 5-6
 
 586 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The following table furnishes a comparison of the Australian expectation 
 of life for successive vicennial ages for the decennium 1891-1900, with 
 similar information relating to a corresponding period for the principal 
 European countries for which such information is available : — 
 
 Comparative Table of 
 
 Expectation of Life, Y 
 
 EARS 
 
 1891 
 
 -19O0 
 
 . 
 
 Age in Years. 
 
 .d 
 
 |V 
 ^2 
 
 6 
 o 
 
 ■§1 
 
 Norway. 
 1891-1900. 
 
 Denmark, 
 1895-1900. 
 
 Netherlands, 
 1890-1899. 
 
 S2 
 
 Belgium. 
 1891-1900. 
 
 England and 
 
 Wales, 
 
 1891-1900. 
 
 c> 
 
 Italy, 
 1899-1902. 
 
 II 
 
 "So 
 So 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maies. 
 
 
 
 20 
 40 
 60 
 80 
 
 
 
 20 
 40 
 60 
 80 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Y'ears. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 52-2 
 
 50-9 
 
 50-4 
 
 50-2 
 
 46-2 
 
 45-7 
 
 45-4 
 
 44-1 
 
 42-9 
 
 42-8 
 
 40-6 
 
 
 44-7 
 
 44-7 
 
 43-6 
 
 44-5 
 
 43-4 
 
 41-5 
 
 41-8 
 
 41-0 
 
 42-0 
 
 43-1 
 
 41-2 
 
 
 28-6 
 
 29-9 
 
 30-6 
 
 28-9 
 
 28-1 
 
 27-1 
 
 26-7 
 
 25-6 
 
 27-3 
 
 28-0 
 
 25-9 
 
 
 14-3 
 
 15-4 
 
 16-4 
 
 14-7 
 
 14-0 
 
 13-8 
 
 13-4 
 
 12-9 
 
 13-5 
 
 13-6 
 
 12-8 
 
 
 5-0 
 
 4-9 
 
 5-6 
 
 4-9 
 
 4-7 
 
 4-9 
 
 4-6 
 
 4-6 
 
 4-3 
 
 4-3 
 
 4-2 
 
 Females. 
 
 54-8 
 45-7 
 30-5 
 15-9 
 5-5 
 
 53-6 
 46-8 
 51-7 
 16-6 
 5-4 
 
 54-1 
 46-5 
 32-3 
 17-5 
 61 
 
 53-2 
 46-7 
 31-2 
 16-0 
 5-3 
 
 49-0 
 44-8 
 29-7 
 150 
 5-0 
 
 49-1 
 44-0 
 29-6 
 15-1 
 5-4 
 
 48-8 
 44-4 
 29-5 
 14-8 
 4-9 
 
 47-8 
 
 45-6 
 
 43-2 
 
 44-0 
 
 43-4 
 
 44-2 
 
 43-2 
 
 43-4 
 
 27-8 
 
 29-5 
 
 28-7 
 
 28-1 
 
 14-1 
 
 14-6 
 
 13-7 
 
 13-6 
 
 50 
 
 4-9 
 
 4-2 
 
 4-5 
 
 Years 
 37-8 
 40-1 
 25-5 
 12-6 
 4-4 
 
 39-9 
 40-8 
 26-6 
 12-8 
 4-5 
 
 Comparing the Australian rates of mortality with those of Sweden for 
 the decennium 1901-10 it will be seen that the incidence is markedly diSerent 
 in the two countries. The eSect of this upon the economic aspect of the 
 population of the two communities will best be seen by analysing the re- 
 spective expectations of life so as to shew, in regard to each person born, 
 the average time lived in the three groups of " Dependent Age " (under 15), 
 " Supporting Age " (15 to 65), and " Old Age " (above 65). 
 
 Treated in this manner the life tables furnish the following results : — 
 
 Analysis op Australian and Swedish Expectations of Life, 1901-10 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 Average Time Lived in Period by Each 
 Person Born. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Males. ; 
 
 Females. 
 
 
 Australia, Sweden, 
 
 1901-10, 1901-10, 
 
 Experience | Experience. 
 
 Australia, Sweden, 
 
 1901-10, 1901-10, 
 
 Experience. Experience. 
 
 Dependent Age . . 
 Supporting Age . . 
 Old Age 
 
 -15 
 
 15-64 
 65- 
 
 Years. 
 
 13-14 
 
 36-56 
 
 5-50 
 
 Years. 
 
 12-94 
 
 35-20 
 
 6-41 
 
 Years. 
 13-40 
 38-19 
 
 7-25 
 
 Years. 
 
 13-20 
 
 36-30 
 
 7-50 
 
 The whole of life 
 
 55-20 
 
 54-55 
 
 58-84 1 5700 
 
 This table indicates that for the economically important period of life, 
 viz., from 15 to 65, each male born in Australia experiences on the average 
 1 '36 years of Kfe more than a male born in Sweden, and each female born 
 in Australia 1 -89 years of life on the average more than a female born in 
 Sweden. This is a matter of considerable importance when it is remembered 
 that the mortality experience of Sweden is practically the best in Europe.
 
 Australia, Its People and Their Activities. 
 
 587 
 
 2. The Trade and Finance of Australia. 
 
 The subject of the oversea trade of Australia has been treated at some 
 length in Chap. XI., section 4. What is added here is supplementary to 
 that article. The facts which go to shew that there has been corresponding 
 expansion of the internal trade are derivable from railway statistics and 
 have been already set out at some length in the chapter mentioned, section 7. 
 
 (a) Oversea Trade. 
 
 Although far removed from the great centres of population, the Com- 
 monwealth of Australia occupies a relatively high position amongst the 
 trading countries of the world. To illustrate this, various tables have been 
 compiled, and are given hereinafter. These review the situation for the 
 past thirty years. In these tables the results are shewn either for quin- 
 quennial groups, or at quinquennial intervals. Tables so built up have 
 two advantages over others with only annual intervals. In the first place 
 a much larger period can be brought within the limits of a single table ; 
 and in the second place accidental fluctuations from year to year, due to 
 non-recurring causes, are either eliminated or greatly reduced. In the 
 period under review there were three of these fluctuations, to which refer- 
 ence will be made in the proper place. 
 
 The volume of a country's external trade, and its amount per head, is 
 a very fair index of its prosperity, provided that due allowance be made for 
 the important factors that may influence it. The first table shews the over- 
 sea trade of the Australian Commonwealth under the three headings of 
 " Recorded Value," " Value per Inhabitant per annum," and " Percentage 
 of Imports upon Exports " : — 
 
 Oversea Trade of the Commonwealth, 1881-1912. 
 
 Quinquennial 
 
 
 Recorded Value. 
 
 Value Per Inhabitant Per 
 Annum. 
 
 Percentage 
 
 of 
 
 Exports 
 
 Upon 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total 
 Trade. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total 
 Trade. 
 
 1881-1885 
 1886-1890 
 1891-1895 
 1896-1900 
 1901-1905 
 1906-1910 
 Year 1912 
 
 
 £.1000 
 
 174,474 
 173,377 
 136,675 
 168,815 
 196,289 
 257,539 
 78,159 
 
 £1,000 
 
 140,274 
 132,895 
 168,413 
 205,468 
 250,188 
 346,683 
 79,096 
 
 £1,000 
 
 314,748 
 306,272 
 305,088 
 374,283 
 452,477 
 604,222 
 157,255 
 
 £ «. (I. 
 
 14 5 3 
 
 11 16 7 
 
 8 4 
 
 9 5 5 
 10 1 8 
 
 12 5 7 
 16 16 7 
 
 £ «. d. 
 
 11 9 3 
 9 14 
 
 10 2 
 
 11 5 9 
 13 3 2 
 
 16 10 8 
 
 17 7 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 25 14 6 
 20 17 11 
 18 6 
 20 11 2 
 23 4 10 
 28 16 3 
 33 17 2 
 
 80-4 
 76-6 
 123' 2 
 121-7 
 130-5 
 134-6 
 101-2 
 
 It will be derived from this table that the value of trade per head per 
 annum started at £25 14s. 6d. in the first quinquennium, fell rapidly for ten 
 years, and then recovered itself, at first slowly and afterwards more rapidly. 
 The first quinquennium, and part of the second, formed a period of large 
 public borrowing and trade activity, but this was followed by a period of 
 stress, culminating in the acute financial crisis of 1892, when several of the 
 banks suspended payment. Recovery began to be apparent in 1896 and 
 continued steadily until 1903-4, when there was a somewhat severe set-back 
 owing to the drought of 1902. Since then, however, the advance has been 
 almost continuous, the only check being in the years 1908-9, when, as a 
 consequence of the American financial crisis of 1907, there was a fall in the 
 prices of Australian staple products.
 
 588 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 The tliird column of the table shews the relation between imports and 
 exports for the period. For the first ten years the balance of trade was in 
 favour of imports — the consequence of large public borrowing in that 
 period. From that time until 1911, the balance was in favour of exports, 
 the normal situation for a debtor country which is not largely increasing 
 its public debt. In 1912, however, there was heavy public borrowing, and 
 the imports were so largely increased in consequence, that imports and 
 exports for that year practically balanced each other. 
 
 (b) Public Debt. 
 
 Reference has been made in the previous paragraph to Australia as a 
 debtor country, and mention may now be made of the aggregate public 
 debt of the various States. The table hereunder shews the increase since 
 1881 at quinquennial intervals, and the increase per head of population, 
 and both will be be seen to be extremely large — 
 
 
 Public 
 
 Debt of Australian States. 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Per Head. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Per Head. 
 
 1881 
 1886 
 1891 
 1896 
 
 £ 
 
 66,306,471 
 
 117,323,018 
 
 15.5,117,773 
 
 180,623,886 
 
 £ s. d. 
 29 4 6 
 42 15 10 
 48 10 8 
 51 5 7 
 
 1901 
 1906 
 1913 
 
 £ 
 
 203,518,275 
 
 238,427,820 
 
 *294,482,164 
 
 £ s. d. 
 53 14 6 
 58 14 9 
 61 6 1 
 
 * Exclusive of Commonwealth Debt, £7,430,948. 
 
 This has been the occasion from time to time of much extraordinary and 
 irrelevant criticism by persons who failed to recognize that the loan money 
 has been applied largely to the improvement of internal communication 
 (absolutely essential to the development of a country which has no large 
 and navigable waterways), to harbor works, water supply, or other great 
 public utilities. The Australian States thus possess solid assets which 
 practically counterbalance the debt, inasmuch as they nearly pay the 
 interest bill. That this is a fair statement of the case can be illustrated as 
 follows : — In the financial year ended 30th June, 1912, the States obtained 
 in revenue from their " Public Works and Services " the sum of £23,690,269. 
 The expenditure during the same period was £15,952,803, leaving a surplus 
 of £7,737, 466. The interest payments for the year amounted to £9,479,003. 
 The profit on the " Public Works and Services " is thus sufficient to meet 
 all the interest payments, except an amount of £1,741,537. This, if capi- 
 talized at the average rate of interest paid by the States, amounts to about 
 £50,000,000, which is thus the amount of the public debt which was not 
 directly reproductive at that time.* Even this, however, is spent on immi- 
 gration, or in other ways which indirectly increases the wealth of Australia. 
 The country is thus not saddUng itself with a mere dead weight, but is rather 
 in the position of a company which for business principles is constantly 
 enlarging its capital, and is in a very different position financially from a 
 country whose public debt has been incurred in, say, war. 
 
 • The Public Debt at 30th June, 1912, was £277,124,095.
 
 Australia, Its People and Their Activities. 
 
 589 
 
 (c) Accumulation. 
 
 Under this heading will be included deposits in ordinary banks, deposits 
 in savings banks, etc., for the period under review. 
 
 The following table (Accumulation i.) shews the amount of deposits in the 
 ordinary banks for five-yearly intervals. The amounts given do not, of 
 course, represent the savings of the people, but rather the foundation for the 
 volume of trade. The fluctuations to be observed in the case of a former 
 table (Oversea Trade) are reproduced here in an even more marked degree : — 
 
 Accumulation (i.) Deposits in Ordinary Banks. 
 
 Year, 30th June. 
 
 Amount £1,000,000 
 Per Head 
 
 £ I £ 
 
 50-932 I 75-468 
 
 £. g. d. \ £ s. d. 
 
 22 8 11 I 27 10 7 
 
 £ 
 
 97-692 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 30 11 3 
 
 £ 
 
 85-680 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 24 6 6 
 
 £ 
 
 91-487 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 24 2 8 
 
 £ 
 106-515 
 £ s. d. 
 26 1 6 
 
 £ 
 149-828 
 £ s. d. 
 31 4 
 
 A second table (Accumulation ii.) furnishes the number of depositors in 
 savings banks during the period and the amount at credit. These show 
 steady advances during the 30 years, uninfluenced by any fluctuation. 
 
 Accumulation (ii.). — Savings Banks Statistics. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Amount at 
 
 Amount Per Head 
 
 Depositors. 
 
 Credit. 
 
 of Population. 
 
 1881 
 
 250,070 
 
 7,893,464 
 
 3 9 7 
 
 1886 
 
 
 
 396,735 
 
 10,284,530 
 
 3 15 
 
 1891 
 
 
 
 614,741 
 
 15,536.592 
 
 4 17 3 
 
 1896 
 
 
 
 764,650 
 
 24,330,214 
 
 6 18 2 
 
 1901 
 
 
 
 964,553 
 
 30,882,465 
 
 8 3 
 
 1906 
 
 
 
 1,185,608 
 
 38,286,219 
 
 9 9 10 
 
 1911 
 
 
 1,600,112 
 
 59,393,682 
 
 13 8 5 
 
 1913* 
 
 
 1,961,215 
 
 75,462,850 
 
 15 14 4 
 
 * Includes Commonwealth Savings Bank. 
 
 A third table (Accumulation iii.) shews the amounts paid in insurance 
 premiums (ordinary business). The figures from 1881-1906 include the 
 foreign business of Australian companies, but exclude the Australian business 
 of foreign companies : — 
 
 Accumulation (hi.). — Premium Income (New and Renewal) of 
 Australian Companies.* 
 
 Year. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1886. 
 
 1896. 
 
 1901. 
 
 1906. 
 
 £ 
 Amount . . . . I 887,894 
 
 Amount per head of i £ s. d. 
 population . . i 7 10 
 
 £ 
 
 1,406,854 
 
 £ «. d. 
 
 10 3 
 
 £ 
 
 2,144,695 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 13 5 
 
 £ 
 
 2,328,325 
 
 £ «. d. 
 
 13 3 
 
 £ , £ 
 
 2,917,552 , 3,619,918 
 
 £ s. d. \ £ s. d. 
 
 15 5 17 10 
 
 £ 
 
 4,938,315 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 113 
 
 * Including (till 1906) foreign business of Australian companies, but excluding Australian business of 
 
 foreign companies. 
 
 The two tables taken together shew that, despite the charges of private 
 extravagance, not unfrequently levelled against Australians, large and 
 increasing sums are put by for purely provident pui-poses. This, moreover, 
 is exclusive of the money invested in building societies, etc. It is just 
 possible that persons whose experience is mainly of the old world are apt 
 to mistake the higher standard of living for improvidence.
 
 590 Federal Handbook. 
 
 (d) Financial Relationship between Commonwealth and States. 
 
 A few words may be added on the changes in public finance brought about 
 by Federation. At the time of Federation the main revenue of the States 
 was derived from taxation (direct and indirect), and income from " Public 
 Works and Services." For the first ten years after Federation, the financial 
 relations between Commonwealth and State Governments were regulated 
 by Section 87 of the Constitution, known generally as the " Braddon 
 Clause." This provided that the Commonwealth should, until 31st Decem- 
 ber; 1910, and thereafter, as long as Parliament should decide, retain for its 
 own use an amount not exceeding one-fourth of the net revenue from customs 
 and excise duties, the balance to be returned to the States. The original 
 framers of the Constitution only contemplated a moderate Federal expendi- 
 dure, and doubtless considered one-fourth of the customs and excise revenue 
 sufficient, as it certainly was at first. After six or seven years, however, it 
 began to be realized that the Federal Government, with its heavy self-imposed 
 commitments for large national purposes, such as defence, old-age pensions, etc., 
 must face a largely increased expenditure. Consequently, on the expiration 
 of the Braddon clause, a new arrangement was made, for a period of ten 
 years, on terms much more favorable to the Commonwealth Government. 
 By the terms of the new agreement, the Commonwealth retains the whole 
 of the customs and excise revenue, and makes to each State, by monthly 
 instalments, an annual subsidy equal to 2-53. per head of the population 
 of that State, as at 31st December of the financial year in question. Special 
 annual subsidies are being made, in addition, to Western Australia and 
 Tasmania, as compensation for the dislocation of their fijiances, which 
 occurred when they surrendered control of their customs and excise revenue 
 to the Commonwealth. These arrangements are subject to alteration, or may 
 be determined at the expiration of ten years (1920). 
 
 3. Productive Industries. 
 (a) Value of Production. 
 
 The productive industries of Australia may be classified under the 
 headings of agricultural, pastoral, dairjdng, etc., forestry and fisheries, mining 
 and manufacturing. From the point of view of value of production, 
 manufacturing has taken the lead for the past two years — a position 
 previously held by the pastoral industry. At present agriculture fills the 
 third place, mining, dairy and poultry farming, and forestry and fisheries 
 following in the order named. 
 
 The development of these various industries having already been fully 
 described in previous chapters of this book, this further reference to 
 them must be considered as merely supplementary, and as dealing with them 
 purely from a statistical point of view. 
 
 The inaccuracy of statistical information, and the absence of uniformity 
 of its collection by the several States prior to 1906, and in the case of manu- 
 facturing for three years later, render it extremely difficult to form an 
 estimate of the probable value of production during the earlier years. Careful 
 estimates have, however, been made, and may be accepted as being suffi- 
 ciently connect to form a basis for comparative purposes, and also to furnish 
 evidence of the development that has taken place in the several industries 
 during recent years.
 
 Australia, Its People and Their Activities. 
 
 591 
 
 Estimated Value op Production from Australian Industries. 
 
 Year. 
 
 ^S' j I'-*--!- 
 
 Dairy, 
 Poultry, 
 and Bee 
 Farming. 
 
 Forestry 
 
 and 
 Fisheries. 
 
 Mining. 
 
 Manufac- 
 turing. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1901 
 1906 
 1912 
 
 £ £ 
 1,000 1,000 
 
 23,835 27,150 
 25,349 45,389 
 45,754 ' 51,615 
 
 £ 
 1,000 
 
 9,740 
 13,611 
 
 20,280 
 
 £ 
 1,000 
 
 2,772 
 4,879 
 6,432 
 
 £ 
 1,000 
 
 22,016 
 26,622 
 25,629 
 
 £ 
 1,000 
 
 27,191 
 33,205 
 57,022 
 
 £ 
 1,000 
 
 112,704 
 149,055 
 206,732 
 
 Per Head of Mean Poptjl\tton. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1901 
 
 6-29 
 
 7-16 
 
 2-57 
 
 0-73 
 
 5-81 
 
 717 
 
 29-73 
 
 1906 
 
 6-24 
 
 1118 
 
 3-35 
 
 1 20 
 
 6 -.56 
 
 818 
 
 36-71 
 
 1912 
 
 9-85 
 
 1111 
 
 4-37 
 
 1 38 
 
 5-52 
 
 12-28 
 
 44-51 
 
 (b) Agriculture. 
 
 Prior to the gold discoveries, and the consequent large influx of popu- 
 lation, very little attention was paid in Australia to agriculture, the bulk of 
 the food-stuffs being imported. It is estimated that only 491,000 acres were 
 under cultivation in 1850. The growing demand for agricultural products, 
 however, was soon reflected in the increased area cultivated, and from that 
 date, irrespective of fluctuations incidental to climatic conditions in 
 certain seasons, a consistent and satisfactory development has been in 
 evidence. 
 
 From 1871 to 1912 the area under crop increased from 2,316,000 acres 
 to 13,038,000 acres, or by 456 per cent., while the total value of produce 
 increased from £8,941,000 to £45,754,000, or by 412 per cent. 
 
 (c) The Pastoral Industry. 
 
 The pastoral industry is far the most important of the primary pro- 
 ductive industries of the Commonwealth, and in 1912 represented £51,615,000, 
 or nearly 34 per cent, of the total value of those industries. Wool, 
 of course, is the main factor in this yield, the values of wool and sheep- 
 skins exported during 1901, 1906, and 1912 being £15,237,000, £22,646,000, 
 and £26,355,000 respectively. The recent revision of the tariff of the 
 United States of America will probably have the effect of opening up a 
 very large market for Australian mutton and other meat products, in 
 addition to largely increasing the demand for our wool. 
 
 (d) Dairy, Poultry, and Bee Farming. 
 
 The development of the dairying industry in Australia has been rapid 
 during the last few years. The exports of butter, which in 1901 were valued 
 at £1,451,000, rose to £3,240,000 in 1906 ; five years later, in 1911, they 
 represented no less a value than £4,637,000, having more than trebled 
 during the decade. 
 
 The total value of output of dairy, poultry, and bee farming in 1906 
 was £13,611,000 ; in 1908, £15,045,000 ; in 1910, £17,387,000 ; and in 1912, 
 £20,280,000. 
 
 C. 12154. 2i'
 
 592 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 (e) Forestry and Fisheries. 
 
 (i.) Forestry. — The forests of the Commonwealth cover about 102,000,000 
 acres, the area specially reserved being about 27f million acres. The use» of 
 the more important of Australian timbers are many and various, and for 
 durability and beauty are unsurpassed by any timbers in the world. The 
 quantity of local timber sawn or hewn in Australia during 1902 was 352 
 million superficial feet, five years after it was over 416 million, while in 
 1912 over 667i million superficial feet of Australian timber was sawn or 
 hewn throughout the Commonwealth. 
 
 A considerable quantity of wattle and other bark used for tanning pur- 
 poses is produced. During 1912 the local tanneries used 26,739 tons, while 
 8,402 tons were exported. 
 
 (ii.) Fisheries. — Valuable food fishes abound in the coastal waters of 
 Australia, while the fresh water rivers and lakes yield abundant supplies 
 both of natural and acclimatized species. Pearls and pearlshell are obtained 
 in Western Australia, Queensland, and the Northern Territory, the last two 
 places also exporting quantities of beche-de-mer and tortoiseshell. 
 
 The enhanced value of the combined production of forestry and fisheries 
 during the past few years has been very satisfactory, the value of output 
 having increased from £4,879,000, in 1906, to £6,432,000, in 1912. 
 
 (f) Mining. 
 
 Although the annual return from mining is now considerably less than 
 that yielded by the pastoral, agricultural, and manufacturing industries, 
 nevertheless, the value of mineral production during 1912 amounted to 
 £25,629,238, an amount that had only been exceeded by the 1906 output, 
 the total value of which was £26,621,796. To the end of 1912 the Com- 
 monwealth mineral production totalled over 810 million pounds, to which gold 
 contributed £546,080,000 ; silver and lead, £70,069,000 ; copper, £62,394,000 ; 
 tin, £31,577,000 ; and coal, £78,570,000. 
 
 The following table shows the value of mineral production during certain 
 years from 1851 to 1912 : — ■ 
 
 
 Australian Mineral Production, 
 
 1851-1912. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silver 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Y 
 
 ear. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 and 
 Lead. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Coal. 
 
 other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1,319,932 
 
 1,778 
 
 309,324 
 
 11,937 
 
 25,739 
 
 2,190 
 
 1.670,900 
 
 1853 
 
 
 12,757,564 
 
 1,787 
 
 176,355 
 
 11.937 
 
 78,252 
 
 2,265 
 
 13,028,160 
 
 1860 
 
 
 10,373,280 
 
 11,926 
 
 4,3,044 
 
 11,937 
 
 235,930 
 
 3,000 
 
 11,079,117 
 
 1880 
 
 
 4,906,903 
 
 46,496 
 
 667,545 
 
 841,128 
 
 644,801 
 
 43,520 
 
 7,150,393 
 
 1890 
 
 
 5,261,217 
 
 2,857,849 
 
 339,978 
 
 646,157 
 
 1,470.267 
 
 268,611 
 
 10,844,079 
 
 1900 
 
 
 13,578,438 
 
 3,044,524 
 
 1,802,215 
 
 550,256 
 
 2,019,303 
 
 395,239 
 
 21,389,975 
 
 1910 
 
 
 11,553,840 
 
 2,224,687 
 
 2,389,412 
 
 950,768 
 
 3,684,041 
 
 *2,412,443 
 
 23,215,191 
 
 1912 
 
 
 9,879,928 
 
 3,876,251 
 
 3,244,550 
 
 1,348,992 
 
 4,418,025 
 
 »2,861,492 
 
 25,629,238 
 
 • Including zinc, 1910, £1,289,781 and £1,766,459. 
 
 Since the year 1900 the value of the mineral output has not progressed 
 very rapidly, the chief cause being the steady decline in the gold yield. The 
 other important minerals, however, shew a substantial increase in pro- 
 duction.
 
 Australia, Its People and Their Activities. 593 
 
 (g) Manufacturing. 
 
 Statistics relative to tlie manufacturing industries are not available for 
 the Commonwealth as a whole prior to 1903. and are even then not complete. 
 The growth of these industries since that date has been very considerable. 
 The number of factories in 1903 was 11,551, as compared with 14,878 in 
 1912, while the number of hands employed has increased from 195,810 
 to 327,456 in the same period. Similarly the total amount of salaries and 
 wages paid has risen from about £14,000,000, in 1903, to £31,287,492, in 
 1912. The total value added in the process of manufacture in 1907 was 
 £38,063,153, as compared with £60,499,787 in 1912. 
 
 As regards capital invested in manufacturing industries it hiay be noted 
 that the approximate value of land and buildings in connection with factories 
 increased from £23,056,000 in 1903 to £34,809,000 in 1912, while that of 
 plant and machinery employed in factories increased from £20,653,000 in 
 1903 to £34,461,000 in 1912, that is to say, the total fixed capital 
 employed in these industries rose from £43,709,000 to £69,270,000 — an 
 increase of 58^ per cent. 
 
 4. Land Legislation and Settlement. 
 In the early days of Australian colonization, land could be alienated 
 only by grants and orders from the Crown, and the power of making these 
 was vested solely in the Governor. In 1787, land was granted to liberated 
 convicts only, but two years later the privilege was extended to free immi- 
 grants or to marines serving in Australia and desirous of settling in the colony. 
 Tenure under leasehold was not adopted till the year 1811, and in 1834 
 leases were granted under a covenant to convert the same into grants on the 
 fulfilment of certain conditions, often merely nominal. Before this, however, 
 the principle of alienation of land by sale to free settlers had been introduced 
 by Sir Thomas Brisbane, the first land sale taking place in Sydney in 1825. 
 
 The system of grants was abolished in 1831 except for public or charitable 
 purposes, and purchase at public auction was made practically the sole 
 means of alienating Crown lands. In the same year the principle of selection 
 was introduced into the land laws of Australia. 
 
 A new element was embodied in the Imperial Act of 1842, namely, 
 the provision that, subject to a primary charge for survey, half the proceeds 
 of the land sales were to be used to defray the cost of immigration of 
 persons to the colony in which the revenue accrued. 
 
 Under another Act, viz., in 1847, a new classification of lands took place, 
 and, while sales by auction were maintained, a system of leasehold was 
 introduced, giving the lessee a right of purchase during the currency of the 
 lease at an upset price of £1 per acre, or, on the expiration of the lease, a 
 pre-emptive right at the same price over all or any part of the land. 
 
 The land legislation of New South Wales remained practically unaltered 
 from 1847 to 1861, and, as the several colonies received their own Constitutions, 
 their land laws for the most part remained identical with those of the mother 
 colony until such time as local conditions and requirements called for new 
 legislation. The influence of New South "Wales was not felt to the same 
 extent in South Australia and Western Australia, where other conditions 
 prevailed and where land settlement was effected by land laws of a special 
 and novel character. In the first chapter of this book reference has 
 already been made to Wakefield's scheme of settlement in South Australia.
 
 594 Federal irANDBOOK. 
 
 When the excitement of the gold rush had subsided and the interest in 
 gold digging was declining, the number of people desiring to settle on the 
 land so increased that the question of land settlement became of the first 
 order of importance. As a consequence, greater encouragement was given 
 to settlers by making the conditions of tenure more liberal, and legislation 
 was enacted to facilitate the establishment of an agrarian population side 
 by side with the pastoral tenants. Men with limited capital were enabled 
 to take up land under conditions that ensured a reasonable chance of success 
 and at the same time the Acts passed aimed at preventing land being made 
 the subject of mere speculative selection without bond fide intention of 
 settlement. 
 
 In 1858, South Australia enacted an important piece of land legislation, 
 viz., the " Real Property Act." This Act, originated by Sir Robert R. 
 Torrens, and subsequently adopted by all the States and by New Zealand, 
 has greatly facilitated all dealings in land by providing for such registration 
 of title as not only simplifies the investigation of such title, but also secures 
 the registered owner against all parties. 
 
 Many and varied were the experiments in land legislation made by the 
 several States. Acts from time to time were repealed, amended, or elaborated 
 as new conditions emerged, or difficulties presented themselves. Even at 
 the present time, though there is a considerable similarity between the 
 principal form of tenure in the States, the terms and conditions vary very 
 considerably. 
 
 In all the States, what are known as Closer Settlement Acts have been 
 passed. It was found that the value of the produce of a large estate, 
 originally considered as being at its full capacity, compared unfavorably with 
 the returns which could be obtained from the same area when subdivided 
 and cultivated by settlers. 
 
 Under the Acts mentioned, the State Governments resume, either under 
 agreement or under compulsory purchase, large estates which have in past 
 years been alienated by the Crown, and, after cutting them up into areas 
 of suitable size, throw them open to settlement on easy terms and conditions. 
 Of the total area of the Commonwealth, on the 31st December, 1912, 5"4 per 
 cent, was alienated, 2-7 per cent, was in process of alienation, 45'1 per cent. 
 was held under lease or licence, while the remainder, 46"8 per cent., was 
 unoccupied. 
 
 5. Immigration. 
 
 While recognizing fully the desirability of increasing the population of 
 their respective States by immigration, the State authorities, long prior to 
 Federation, deemed it wise to impose certain restrictions upon the character 
 of the immigration. The influx of Chinese, for example, was limited by 
 stringent statutory provisions, and Acts were passed in most of the States 
 restricting the immigration of other, chiefly Asiatic, races. 
 
 Further restrictions were placed upon the admission of persons who were 
 undesirable as inhabitants, either for medical or moral reasons, or who were 
 likely to be an economic burden upon the community. On the Federation 
 of the States in 1901, the power to make laws with respect to immigration 
 passed into the hands of the Commonwealth G-overnment. 
 
 At the present time, besides the restrictions mentioned above, an immi- 
 grant may be required to pass a dictation test before being admitted into
 
 Australia, Its People and Their Activities. 595 
 
 the Commonwealth. It may be stated that in general practice this test 
 is not imposed upon persons of European race. 
 
 Since the year 1861 the net immigration, that is, the excess of arrivals 
 over departures, has been 959,515 ; while for the same period the natural 
 increase, that is, the excess of births over deaths, has been 2,628,259. 
 
 To shew, however, the present activity of the several States in the matter 
 of immigration, it is necessary to give only the figures for the year 1912, 
 during which the arrivals from overseas into the Commonwealth were 166,958. 
 
 The departures in the same year amounted to 83,217, leaving a net immi- 
 gration total of 83,742 — a number which easily constitutes a record. 
 
 The net immigration for 1912 is also remarkable for the fact that it 
 actuall}' exceeded the natural increase of the population, which was 80,911. 
 
 In the earlier days of settlement in Australia, State-assisted immigration 
 played an important part. 
 
 Occasionally, however, one or other of the States would discontinue the 
 practice, but of late years the policy has been revived and is now being 
 vigorously carried out by all the States except Tasmania. 
 
 Assistance is granted towards the payment of passage money to persons 
 desiring to settle on the land or to engage in farm or dairy work, to domestic 
 servants and to other persons who can satisfy the Agents-General that they 
 will make suitable settlers ; while persons resident in Australia may nominate 
 their relatives or friends to come out by assisted passages. 
 
 During 1913, assistance was granted to 39,796 immigrants, making the 
 total number assisted from the earliest times, 812,491. 
 
 6. The Postal Service. 
 
 The development of a postal service in a large and sparsely populated 
 territory is necessarily a work of difficulty and expense. In its comparatively 
 short history, Australia has inaugurated a postal service which reaches 
 practically every inhabited part of the continent, although its population 
 is only about one-twentieth that of the United States of America, while its 
 area is the same. 
 
 The first office for postal purposes was established in Sydney in 1809, 
 the charge for the delivery of each letter being one shilling ; but it was not 
 until 1828 that a system of general post office communication was inaugur- 
 ated. Kates of postage depended entirely upon the distance and difficulty 
 of transmission, and varied from three pence to a shilling per letter. 
 
 In Tasmania, the mails in 1824 were delivered once a fortnight by foot 
 post, while in 1835 a mail cart made the journey twice a week from Hobart 
 to Launceston (121 miles) in nineteen hours. A post office was established 
 in Melbourne in 1837, with a fortnightly service between that city and 
 Sydney. It is interesting at the present to notice a clause in the Postal 
 Amendment Act passed in 1840 in New South Wales, which made it com- 
 pulsory, under a penalty of from £10 to £50, for the masters of all vessels 
 entering a port " to give timely notice of the near approach thereof, either 
 by the ringing of a bell or by such other signal as may reasonably be expected 
 to be distinctly heard or seen by the postmaster, a sufficient time before the 
 actual arrival of such steam-boat or other vessel to enable hina to receive 
 or despatch any mail on board."
 
 596 
 
 Federal Handbook. 
 
 In the year 1841, there were only 102 post offices in Australia, 56 being 
 in New South Wales, 43 in Tasmania, and 3 in what is now Victoria. 
 
 Subsequent to the discovery of gold, the history of the postal services 
 reveals a remarkable rate of increase in postal correspondence, as is seen 
 from the following table : — 
 
 Development op Postal Services. 
 
 Particulars. 
 
 1861. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1901. 
 
 1912. 
 
 Number of post offices 
 
 1,006 
 
 3,018 
 
 5,008 
 
 8,225 
 
 Number of letters and post 
 
 
 
 
 
 cards dealt with. .. 
 
 12,844,000 
 
 67,640,000 
 
 220,177,000 
 
 479,673,000 
 
 Number per post office 
 
 12,700 
 
 22,400 
 
 43,900 
 
 58,300 
 
 Number of letters and post- 
 
 
 
 
 
 cards dealt with per 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 of population . . 
 
 1,099 
 
 2,932 
 
 5,756 
 
 10,134 
 
 7. Scientific Societies and Liberal Educational Effort. 
 
 Despite the adverse influences incidental to the development of a young 
 country, higher education and the promotion of scientific efEort were not 
 neglected even in the earliest days of Australia, as the history of the 
 establishment of scientific societies, superior schools, and the universities 
 abimdantly shews. To some of these we shall now refer. 
 
 The origin of the Royal Society of New South Wales dates as far back as 
 1821, when, under the name of the Philosophical Society of Australasia, it was 
 founded by Sir Thomas Brisbane, who was its first president. Its present title 
 was acquired by Royal sanction in 1866, its object being the promotion of art, 
 science, literature, and philosophy. Some of the papers of the old Philosophical 
 Society published in 1825 contain much that is interesting of the early history 
 of Australia. The society has now over 300 members, while its exchange list 
 comprises the names of 370 kindred societies. The society possesses a very fine 
 library of about 21,000 volumes and pamphlets, and issues annually a journal 
 of 500-600 pp., the 47th volume of which has already appeared. 
 
 The Royal Society of Victoria dates back to 1854, the year preceding 
 that during which its constituent origins, viz., the Victorian Institute for the 
 Advancement of Science and the Philosophical Society of Victoria, were 
 amalgamated, under the title of the Philosophical Institute of Victoria. Its 
 present title was received in 1860. The constitution of the society states 
 that it was founded " for the promotion of art, literature, and science," but 
 for many years past science has monopolized its energies. Up to the present 
 56 volumes of publications have been issued. The society has a fine library 
 of 10,000 volumes, and exchanges with 326 kindred bodies. 
 
 The Royal Society of Queensland was instituted in 1884, being formed 
 " for the furtherance of the natural and applied sciences, especially by means of 
 original research." At latest date the members numbered over 100 ; publica- 
 tions, 75 volumes ; library, 4,000 volumes ; and societies on exchange list, 142. 
 The present Royal Society of South Australia grew out of the Adelaide 
 Philosophical Society, which was founded in 1853, its object being the dis- 
 cussion of all subjects connected with science, literature, and art. Despite this 
 programme, the tendency ;of the society became purely scientific. Permission
 
 Australia : Its People and Their Activities. 
 
 597 
 
 to assume the title " Eoyal " was obtained in 1879, the society thenceforward 
 being known as the Royal Society of South Australia. The membership is now 
 about 100, and the exchange list numbers 253. Up to the present the society 
 has issued 36 volumes of proceedings, and six of memoirs, exclusive of 
 individual papers pubUshed in earlier years. 
 
 The Royal Society of Tasmania, the first " Royal Society " to be estab- 
 lished outside the United Kingdom, was founded in 1843, and in the list of the 
 first corresponding members appear the names of Captains Ross and Crozier, 
 of H.M.S. Erebus and Terror. The society has a membership of nearly 200, 
 and a library of 8,000 volumes. Aimual volumes of proceedings have been 
 published since 1844, and exchanges are made with 140 kindred bodies. 
 
 The Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science was founded 
 in 1888, and has its head-quarters in Sydney. It meets biennially in each State 
 in turn. Up to date, thirteen volumes of proceedings have been issued, and 
 the exchange list numbers 250. The Linnean Society of New South Wales, 
 founded in 1875, maintains three investigators engaged in research work. 
 
 The principal scientific society in Western Australia, viz., the Natural 
 History and Science Society of Western Australia, has grown out of the 
 Mueller Botanic Society, founded in 1897, and has for its object the study 
 of natural history and pure science, promoted by periodical meetings and field 
 excursions. Its membership is 118, and since its establishment twenty 
 journals of proceedings have been issued. 
 
 There are a number of lesser societies, among which may be mentioned 
 the British Astronomical Society, which has a branch in Sydney, and the 
 Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, which has branches in Melbourne, 
 Brisbane, and Adelaide, while Melbourne is the head-quarters of the 
 Royal Australasian Ornithological Union. In 1901 the Australian Historical 
 Society was founded in Sydney, having for its object the collection and 
 preservation of all books, records, relics, and cognate matters having reference 
 to Australian history. 
 
 There are also professional societies, among which may be mentioned the 
 Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane branches of the British Medical Associa- 
 tion; and the Institutions of Surveyors of New South Wales and Victoria. 
 
 As far as can be ascertained, the total number of libraries in the 
 Commonwealth at the latest available date was about 1,500, the number 
 of books contained therein being estimated at nearly 3,000,000. In 
 each of the capital cities there is a well-equipped public library, the 
 institutions in Sydney and Melbourne, especially, comparing very favorably 
 with similar institutions in other parts of the world. An interesting table, 
 shewing the number of libraries in receipt of State or municipal aid, is given 
 hereunder : — 
 
 Subsidized Libraries and Books Therein. 
 
 Particulars. N.S.W. 
 
 Vic. 
 
 Q'land 
 
 8. Aust. 
 
 W. Aust. 
 
 Tas. 
 
 Northprn 
 Territory. 
 
 Number of libraries 477 
 Estimated number 1 
 
 of books . . 925,000 
 
 525 
 1,109,000 
 
 203 
 304,000 
 
 211 
 459,000 
 
 237 
 214,000 
 
 32 2 
 106,000 2,700
 
 598 Federal Handbook. 
 
 Amongst other important libraries not included in the above table may be 
 enumerated those at the Sydney University and the Australian Museum, 
 which contain 96,000 and 18,000 volumes respectively. There are also over 
 500 libraries, with an estimated total of 145,000 volumes, attached to the State 
 schools. In each of the capital cities, and in Launceston, museums devoted 
 to natural history, ethnology, and geology have been established. The 
 Australian Museum in Sydney, founded in 1836, is the oldest institution 
 of its kind in Australia, and contains, inter alia, a very valuable and complete 
 set of specimens of Australian fauna. There is a fine Technological Museum 
 in Sydney, with branches in six country centres, the metropolitan institution 
 containing over 109,000 specimens. Valuable research work in connexion 
 with the oil and other products of the eucalyptus has been undertaken by 
 the scientific stafi. A similar institution in Melbourne contains upwards 
 of 55,000 specimens. Museums devoted to botany and plant life are estab- 
 lished in Sydney, Melbourne, and Hobart ; while there are several museums 
 devoted to special objects, such as the " Nicholson " Museum of Antiquities 
 in Sydney, and the Queensland Geological Survey Museum in Brisbane and 
 Townsville. Each of the capital cities, as well as many of the larger towns, 
 have erected art galleries, containing many valuable works by both European 
 and Australian artists. 
 
 8. Educational Benefactions. 
 
 The Universities of Australia have benefited considerably by private 
 munificence, and so also have other institutions of an educational character, 
 such as Public Art Galleries, Technical Schools, Museums and Libraries, etc. 
 
 The most notable public benefactions are those which the Sydney 
 University has enjoyed, donations thereto aggregating nearly £500,000, of 
 which the bequests of Mr. J. H. Challis (£250,000), Sir P. N. Russell 
 (£100,000), and Mr. Thomas Fisher (£20,000) are the most noteworthy. 
 
 Melbourne University has received private benefactions totalling £175,000, 
 Sir Samuel Wilson (£30,000), Mr. James Stewart (£25,000), and the Hon. 
 Francis Ormond (£20,000) being the largest contributors. The last-named 
 gentleman also donated £108,000 to Ormond College, one of the affiliated 
 colleges of the Melbourne University. 
 
 Sir Thomas Elder and Sir W. Hughes, with sums of £98,000 and £20,000 
 respectively, are the chief benefactors of the Adelaide University, which has 
 so far received bequests totalling about £154,000. 
 
 Other notable benefactions are the collections of Sir Charles Nicholson 
 and Mr. George Masters to the Sydney University, the building for the 
 Natural History Museum given by Sir W. Macleay, the library of IVIr. D. S. 
 Mitchell, M.A. (valued at £108,000), given to the City of Sydney, and 
 the Felton Bequest given to the Melbourne Art Gallery, and which returns 
 annually about £8,000 to the trustees of that institution. 
 
 y> 
 
 By Authority : Albert J. Mullett, Government Printer, Melbourne.
 
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