■:^';mM
Zi^'
A GENERAL
HISTOKY OF MUSIC
BY
DR. JOSEPH SCHLUTER.
MRS. ROBERT TUBES.
' Die Vergangenheit gehSrt der Gegenwart an und die Schrift dem Leben,"
F. C. Dahlmann.
AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION.
LONDON:
RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.
^nmi^^tx in erlrmars in ^zt M^StiitVi*
1865.
tONDON: PRUJTKD BY WIIXIASl CLOWES AND SONS, STASlfORD SXKEET
AND CUAEU70 CBOSS.
S 7. (d 1 3
r
u-' W r-a ^
THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
For a Treatise of the History of Music from a
general point of view R. Gr. Kiesewetter has laid
the foundation in his admirable work (entirely
the result of personal researches), entitled : " His-
tory of our Modern, or European, Music/' ^ The
task that devolves on those who come after him
is, on the one hand, to treat more in detail of the
last century than he has done — carefully sum-
ming up the results of modem research—, on the
other, to condense in a shorter review the period
of preparation for " our modern music ;" — in fact,
to allot to each period as much time and con-
sideration as its intrinsic worth and interest at
the present day shall appear to warrant. Above
all, while thus treating of the subject, taken as a
whole, it is necessary to unfold the doctrine of
* Leipsic, 1834. Second edition, 1846.
851
iv PREFACE.
progressive development having an actual in-
herent sequence, to demonstrate the fact that the
Present is not merely connected with the Past by
the loose chain of tradition, but grows out of it
by reason of its internal structure and formation.
That the latest Histories of Music, which have
been presented to the public in the desultory
form of * Lectures,' do not meet the requirements
of thoughtful readers has been asserted before
now; and we have only to glance at such ac-
counts of concert and operatic performances as
are interspersed with historical notices and re-
marks to be assured that the sources of informa-
tion accessible to the public at large flow neither
freely nor clearly. Whether, and in what degree,
the present Work has attained the end desired,
I am not qualified to form an opinion ; I beg
merely to offer this assurance to the reader, that
I have steadfastly and carefully kept in view the
progressive development of Art, and instead of
crowding the pages of this little book with bio-
graphical anecdotes cheaply collected, or names
and titles of books, have strictly excluded every-
thing superfluous.
As to the style, I have endeavoured to combine
PREFACE. V
brevity with pleasant reading and warmth of ex-
pression. I intended neither to write a com-
pendium for the memory, nor afford facility to
those who skim a book. Some accompanying
remarks are printed in smaller type, so as not to
interfere with the proposed general survey of the
subject. May this little book, in the absence of
a reliable work of greater scope, find favour with
those who cherish " divine Cecilia's " Art, and
serve as a guide and foundation for future study I
J. SCHLUTER.
Emmerich on the Rhine.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Before the Christian Era .. .. .. .. .. 1
CHAPTER n.
Plain Song of the Latin Church. Ambrose, Gregory the
Great 10
CHAPTER HI.
First attempts in Harmony. Improvements in Musical Nota-
tion. Practical arrangement of the same .. .. 15
CHAPTER IV.
The Belgian School. Orlandus Lassus . . .. .. .. 20
CHAPTER V.
Palestrina and Ecclesiastical Music in Italy (the Roman and
Venetian Schools) .. .. .. ,. .. .. 32
CHAPTER VI.
Origin of the Opera. Influence of the Neapolitan School .. 47
CHAPTER VII.
The Protestant Church Song 68
Vlll CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VIII.
PAGE
Johann Sebastian Bach (The Sacred Cantata) .. .. 78
CHAPTER IX.
George Frederick Handel (The Oratorio) .. .. .. 95
CHAPTER X.
The French Opera and Griuck 116
CHAPTER XI.
Foundation and improvement of instrumental tnusic in Ger-
many by Haydn . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
CHAPTER XII.
Mozart (The Opera) 165
CHAPTER XIII.
Zenith of instrumental and ballad composition. Beethoven
and Schubert .. .. .. .. .. .. 195
CHAPTER XIV.
The successors of Mozart. The Italian, French, and German
Opera 251
CHAPTER XV.
The later musicians of Germany : Spohr, Mendelssohn, Schu-
mann. Present and future .. .. .. .. 306
HISTORY OF MUSIC.
CHAPTER I.
Befoee the Christian Eba.
Whereas the history of the Arts of Design
fiirnishes reliable information concerning periods
of remote antiquity by means of those monu-
ments that have been preserved to posterity, that
of Music must perforce commence with the
avowal, that she is wholly incompetent to do as
much. Even were our knowledge more extensive
than it is, an archaeology of music, previous to
the Christian — or, to go still further back, pre-
vious to the Grecian — era, would be of no value
or advantage to us. In short, there can be no
history of music as an art, where no musical
works of art exist.* " There is such a marked
* Zelter, in a letter to Goethe, says of Forkel — the best known
and most esteemed of German music-antiquaries — " He has begun a
history of music, and left it off at the very period when its history
can be realized by ourselves." He might have said with greater
precision ; where it begins to have an interest for us.
7 ^
2 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
difference between the music of the East and
that of the West, that, even if we knew more, we
should find little to suit our ear." We may
apply these words of Herder without reservation
to the music of the Israelitish nation, notwith-
standing Herder himself, by his classical work
' On the Spirit of Hebrew Poetry,' gave rise to
a more ideal view of its nature. As among all
Oriental nations at the present day, so in the
Hebrew music, the rhythmic element greatly pre-
ponderated. Song and dance stood in intimate
connexion with each other ; and, besides loud
wind instruments, percussion instruments (viz.,
kettledrums, cymbals, &c.), which are so powerful
in their effects on the untutored feelings, played
an important part. Even during the flourishing
reigns of David and Solomon, the music taught
in the school of the prophets — limited as it was
in its use in the service of the temple and sacred
l3rrics — was unable to rise beyond the showy
splendour of the worship of Jehovah, and attain
to artistic development. Doubtless, the severe,
uncompromising spirit of Monotheism contributed
likewise to impede the progress of what is, in its
very nature, a liberal art. Mendelssohn's cho-
ruses in ' Athalia,' with their trumpet and harp
accompaniments, may be taken as a sample
(though of course highly idealized) of the sacred
festal hymn of the Israelites — the maestro having
evidently intended, particularly in the instru-
BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 3
mentation, to give an historical colouring to the
composition.
Turning from the sacred music of the Hebrews
— rather noisy than melodious — , we find it im-
possible to determine to what extent the develop-
ment of Grecian music was affected by the meagre
attempts of the Indians, and, in particular, the
Egyptians, in this art; in any case, the first
theoretical foundation of a scientific treatment of
music among the Greeks was laid somewhere
about the sixth century [b.c], chiefly by the
philosopher Pythagoras, and Lasos of Hermione,
Pindar's preceptor. But, with the Greeks, music,
" the art of the Muses," had altogether a far wider
range ; for, besides the actual art of melody, it
included poetry, dancing, and the drama. In this
union, which embraced intellectual, moral, and,
in part, physical culture, music was considered,
together with gymnastics, the second necessary
part of a liberal education, as leading, by means
of harmony and rhythmical proportion (evpvOfjua),
to the purest elevation of mind, as well as moral
restraint. Music was not, as with us, merely an
object of education, but a means thereto.
The actual history of Greek music, omitting
the fables of Orpheus and other bards of that
remote age, begins with Terpander of Lesbos
[b.c. circa 670]. Terpander appears to be the
real founder of Greek music ; he introduced the
seven-stringed cithara, which had an octave in
4 ' HISTORY OF MUSIC.
compass, in lieu of the ancient (four-stringed)
tetrachord; lie arranged popular melodies in
accordance with the canons of art, and determined
with greater precision than heretofore the relative
positions of the three most ancient keys or
" harmonies " (Doric, Phrygian, Lydian). Flute-
playing, an art of anterior- Asiatic origin, and
peculiar to the worship of Dionysos, was treated
in an artistic manner by Olympos the Phrygian,
but did not meet with universal acceptance till a
later date. Lyre and cithara were the only
genuine Hellenic instruments, sacred to the purer
worship of Apollo.
Music, as performed on the Phormincc* — the
most ancient of Grecian stringed instruments — ,
played only a subordinate part in the intoned
recital of epic poems (whereby the Homeric are
chiefly understood) ; it was used merely to accent
the rhythm. Lyric poetry (subjective ^oHan
poesy, as well as the solemn Doric chorus), on the
contrary, was, from the nature of its metrical
structure, peculiarly adapted for the assistance of
music ; and, consequently, reached its full develop-
ment as an art when the mechanical powers of
music attained to some degree of perfection.
Poetry and music were intimately allied in song,
in the vocal rhythmic-melodic recitation of the
* The phorminx w<as, in all probability, the earliest stringed
instrument of the lyre genus. It was employed to accent the words
of the heroic metre, and was therefore dedicated to Apollo.
BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. D
choruses employed in tragedy; and, to increase the
effect of this latter on sentiment and imagination,
the lyre or cithara, with sounds of octaves, fifths,
and fourths, above and below, was employed as
accompaniment. Thus, music was the handmaid
of poetry, reverently following the bard's inspira-
tion, animating and accenting his words, giving
character to the whole, but without independent
existence either in lyric or dramatic poetry.
According to all testimony, there is not the
slightest trace of instrumental music, independent
of singing, to be discovered during the best period
of Grrecian art ; as, neither in the days of Homer,
do we fiud singing alluded to apart from instru-
mental accompaniment. Music and poetry were
inseparably united ; musical rhythm followed the
poetical cadence, or rather, we may say, this
cadence was a musical one; poets were, in like
manner, musicians. It was the same with the
Troubadours of the Middle Ages ; " song and
story ", words and melody, were one undivided art.
That the power of wondrous charm which poetry
gained by its connexion with music was deeply
felt by the poets themselves, is witnessed to by
the famous eulogy — one among many — by Pindar
in the first Pythian prize song. "Even the
flaming lightning-dart is extinguished by the
tones of the lyre, the eagle slumbers on the
sceptre of Jove, his swift pinions droop on each
side the royal bird; for the sound has shed a
6 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
dark mist over his bowed head, and softly closed
his eyelids; slumbering, he raises his gently
heaving plumage, tamed by the power of melody ;
yea, even the heart of mighty Ares is rejoiced,
seeing the terrible lance rests peacefully on his
large temple. But he whom Jove loveth not is
terrified, and withdraws himself in fear, when he
hears the voices of the Pierides on the earth and
boundless ocean; yea, even Typhos, abhorred of
the Gods, in Tartarus." As Pindar, in these words,
celebrates the conquering might of music over all
the nobler powers of nature, so did the Hellenes,
in general, consider its lofty and only true aim to
be that of imparting to every passionate emotion
measure and moderation — the highest mental
repose. For it was not to assert its own claims
by promoting merely sesthetic enjoyment, but
assist, " as an auxihary given by the Muses against
the dissonant currents of the soul," in connexion
with noble exalted poesy, in forming the mind,
manners, and character.
It was especially the office of Tragedy — in the
representation of which the several arts of the
Muses met in combined operation — to raise and
purify the passions by means of poetry and
music {Ka6ap(TL9) ; and this object was doubtless
attained till, simultaneously with the decay of
national and political life, the several arts threw
off their mutual allegiance and the former strict
control of the state, and essayed to shine on their
BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. T
own account. The exaggerated dithyrambic
choral hymn was wrested from its former noble
and suitable relation to the action represented ;
lyre and flute playing vied in public rivalry for
the applause of pleasure-seeking crowds ; while to
the more thoughtful Greek the mere craft of the
virtuoso appeared restricted and mean, unless sup-
ported by talent and skill of a high order. It
was not long before the simplicity and severity
which characterized the old music had to make
way for novelties which tickled the ear of the multi-
tude, and the aristocracy of connoisseurs succumbed
to a " certain low iheatrocracyr Plato, in parti-
cular, blames — besides the intermixture of various
styles of composition — the sundering of music
from poetry, by which the "melody without
words presented to the ear" was entirely aban-
doned to the insecure guidance of the feelings,
and thus became more and more diverted from
its original lofty ethical intention. Thus, sin-
gularly enough, the first appearance of Grecian
music as an independent art was the sign of its
decay. Proceeding directly from the genuine
national life of the people, closely entwined with
poetry, religion, and custom, and furnished with
such scanty means of harmony, it was unable to
soar to the heights of independent art ; the
soul's art, that which addresses itself to the deep
consciousness in man, could not, among a people
like the Greeks — prone to the more material con-
8 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
templation of beauty in its external manifesta-
tions — attain the same perfection as sculpture
and painting.* That little of Greek music which
is supposed to be still preserved in writing is,
comparatively, of small value ; an acquaintance,
founded on trustworthy documents, with the
composition of one chorus, would be more im-
portant to us than all the learned dissertations on
Grreek music that have ever been held.
The KoMANS have contributed nothing to the
* The manifold attempts to claim for Greek music the possession
of harmony (in our sense of the word) are so many failures ; for they
ignore the very essence of classical, as opposed to romantic, art.
" Music opened to the Greek no Romantic spirit-world from which is
wafted an atmosphere of mysterious awe and enchantment ; — rather
it brought the Pindaric Ode, the Sophocleian scene, into the full
blaze of Hellenic daylight, whose blue heavens beamed with un-
clouded brightness. If we may be allowed the metaphor, Grecian
music bore the same relation to Grecian poetry as polychromy to a
Grecian temple or statue. Just as the office of this latter was, in a
subordinate capacity, to assist the effect of architectural forms by
delicate and judicious tinting, and vaguely indicate— not coarsely
mock — the appearance of life in the statue, music was to lend its
aid in giving full and distinct utterance to the poet's thoughts — ^not
arrogantly to assert itself to the detriment of his expression. There-
fore, it is not to be reckoned a fault in Greek music that it lacked
harmony and breadth according to our ideas of music
Polyphony was, in the very nature of Greek music, an impos-
sihility'' A. W. Ambeos, History of Music, vol. i., p. 221. Breslau,
1862.
Bockh is quite right when he says that our music would have
displeased the Greeks as much as our Gothic architecture. " Tantum
abhorret ab antiquitatis indole nostras harmonise ratio, ut earn
veteribus displicituram fuisse, si nossent, contendere ausim." (Pin-
dari opera quas supersunt, p. 253.)
BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 9
history of music, seeing that in art as in hterar
ture they merely followed Greek models, and left
the performance of music almost entirely to
Greek slaves and freedmen. Only when em-
ployed in public purposes of utility and splen-
dour — particularly in military pageants — did they
achieve an increase of material. During the Em-
pire, especially in the reign of Nero — who ap-
peared in public as a singer and performer — , the
art was degraded to the service of fashion and
folly, and a mere toy for the gratification of
vanity and frivolity.
CHAPTER II.
Plain Song op the Latin Church. Ambrose. Gregory
THE Great.
In the early days of Christianity, the efforts
made to preserve the infant Church from contact
with the luxm-ious and dissolute practices of the
heathens, as well as precautions enforced by the
persecutions, banished instrumental music from
the Christian Liturgy ; whereas, to quote
Herder's expression, the entire "setting" of it
was vocal. The peculiar versification of the
Psalms {parallelismus memhrorum) gave rise to
the antiphonal, or alternate, chant, which was
sung, either by male and female choirs, or by
priests and people. It is, however, by no means
improbable, that, with the Christian converts,
echoes of Grreek melodies may have found their
way into the Christian Hymn.
Pope Sylvester established a singing school
at Eome [circa a.d. 330] ; and, somewhat later, St.
Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan [a.d. 374 — 397],
rendered signal services to the cause of art by
GREGORY THE GREAT. 11
judicious encouragement of, and efforts to popu-
larize, church singing. His endeavours were
especially directed to improve the alternate chant-
ing of antiphony and responsory ; to this end, he
wrote and composed hymns and spiritual songs
himself. The so-called Ambrosian Hymn, Te
Deum laudamus, is, however, the work of a subse-
quent author. ^
Gregory the Great [Pope a.d. 590 — 604]
endeavoured to reform church singing — which, in
the meantime, had become altogether too free and
secular in character — and restore it to its pris*
tine simplicity and vigour. To the four authentic
(primitive) ecclesiastical " modes " or " tones " of
Ambrose, which were founded on the Greek te-
trachord (Doric, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixo-
lydian), he added iovoc plagal (derivative) modes on
the fourth note below (Jiypd) the key-note ; and
thus founded the system of octaves, and the eight
ancient ecclesiastical "modes" or keys, calling
the several notes after the seven first letters of
the Latin alphabet. He collected and placed in
his Antiphonarium all the best church melodies
extant, carefully marked with points (nemnas^ i.e.
signs) ; which Antiphonarium, with subsequent
additions and variations, is used to this day in
the Eoman Catholic Church. The Gregorian or
Roman chant introduced by, and called after, him
(consisting of a monotonous chant with a strongly-
marked cadence) received the appellation of " canto
12 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
ferTYio " {cantus firmus) and ''plain-chant " (cantus
planus) by the Italians and French, in contra-
distinction to the rhythmical variety and move-
ment of secular (particularly Jigurate) melody.
In order to preserve this severe style of chanting
from any foreign influences, he established a
normal school of singing, and entrusted the exe-
cution of Churcjb music to the choir that was
formed there, by which means the former active
participation of the congregation in the singing
was almost entirely done away with. While
admiring the creative genius of Ambrose and his
lively sympathy with the people's spiritual needs,
we cannot fail to acknowledge the greater intel-
lectual energy of Gregory, whose talent for criti-
cism and organization has left its impress on
several succeeding centuries.
The Gregorian choir chant, which now sup-
planted the Ambrosian congregational chant, was
speedily diffused over Christian Europe. Its
most zealous promoter was Charlemagne, who,
true to his saying " I will that Church music be
pleasing to the Almighty," reformed the singing
in his private chapel, and, with the valuable
assistance of the British monk Alcuin, founded
numerous normal singing schools on the Boman
pattern in France and Germany. A century
later, Alfred the Great did as much for England ;
he is supposed to be the founder of a professor-
ship of music at Oxford.
THE GREGORIAN CHANT. 13
Though we are quite ready to admit, from its universal acceptance
and the testimony of St. Bernard and others, the great value of the
Gregorian chant in its day (i. e. down to the thirteenth century and
at farthest Palestrina's age), yet we cannot but think the recent
attempts which have been made to restore it in the ritual of the
Roman Catholic Church a signal mistake and complete failure.
Putting aside that the manifold changes it has incurred during the
lapse of ages, and, above all, the necessitated transposition into" the
modern system of music — and consequently a different pitch —
have enormously shorn it of its peculiar character and solemnity,
it lacks everything that we admire in music at the present day —
time, rhythm, distinct, heart-stirring tune^ and, consequently, that
quality which addresses itself to the feelings of the multitude, and
induces a spirit of devotion. Just as learned archseologists discover
beauty, which is uninteUigible to the ordinary comprehension, in stiff
pottery-pictures and antique woodcuts, we hear some out-and-out
medisevalist extol — with senseless affectation of profound know-
ledge — the Gregorian chant as the ne plus ultra of all ecclesiastical
art, the commencement of whose decline a recent author* has
connected with the names of Raphael and Palestrina ! Why should
we at the present day be severer than the Fathers at the Council of
Trent ? How shall we undertake to run counter to the education
and art-culture of modern times, just to procure for a few persons
the satisfaction of imagining themselves back in the palmy days of
ecclesiastical supremacy, through the medium of Gothic architecture
and Gregorian chants ?t
F. Mendelssohn, roused by foolish panegyric, expresses the same
feeUng in a letter to Zelter, dated from Rome. " I can't help it ; it
shocks me to hear the most solemn and beautiful words chanted along
to such unmeaning hurdy-gurdy sounds. They call it * canto fermo '
— Gregorian — that doesn't signify. If in former times things were
not deeply felt, or could not be done better, we can do better now,
and there is certainly nothing of this monotonous handicraft in the
words of the Bible ; there, everything is vigorous and genuine, and
* F. Clement, Histoire generale de la Musique Religieuse.
Paris, 1861.
t Note by the translator. If the truth of the above remarks
be admitted, how much greater force do they acquire when applied
to the revival of plain Gregorian chant in our Anglican liturgy !
14 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
besides that, is as well and as naturally expressed as it is possible to
be. Why then should it sound like a formula ? Is that what they
call Church music ? Certainly, it has not a/aZse expression, for it has
no expression whatever ; but is it not downright profenation of the
words? Thus, hundreds of times during the ceremonies here, I
have been quite savage ; and when people come and say, * How
beautiful it is !' it sounds like a bad joke, and yet they mean it
seriously P*
CHAPTEB III.
First attempts in Harmony. Improvements in Musical
Notation. Practical Arrangement of the same.
If, as before stated, it is probable that remnants
of old Grrecian melodies were preserved in the
early Christian hymns, the nniform movement of
the chant introduced by Gregory was entirely
opposed to the delicate metrical division which
distinguished Greek rhythm. In one respect only
it resembled Greek (as indeed all ancient) music,
viz. — in its unisonal character, i.e., the concen-
tration of all the voices on the same note ; that
wherein it differed from the former, was at least
no improvement on it. The antique theory was
only fully superseded when a new element was
introduced, viz. — harmony, which is the root
and principle of modern music. Kiesewetter's
opinion, that the Grecian system, which Hucbald
and Guido still adhered to, was an obstacle to the
free development of music, and that "the new
music only flourished in proportion as it began to
16 ' HISTORY OF MUSIC.
relinquish the old Greek system which had been
forced upon it," is perfectly correct.
With the tenth century commenced the first
attempts to introduce polyphony instead of
unisony in singing — i.e., the simultaneous sound-
ing of several voices on different notes. But
before music attained the imdoubted possession
of a genuine art of harmony, it had to undergo a
long and rigorous training, during which it did not
escape manifold errors. Eeared in the bosom of
the Church, and taught its first utterance in the
liturgical Latin, it now likewise obtained this first,
purely theoretical, cultivation 'in the cloister — al-
most the sole abode of learning in the Middle Ages.
HucBALD, a Flemish monk [840 — 930], made
the first attempt in two part song by adding
to the principal voice an accompaniment of pro-
gressive fourths and fifths. This "concentum
concorditer dissonum " he called diaphony, and the
accompaniment discantus or ordinary organum —
which latter appellation clearly denotes the pre-
sence of organ music, which took rise in the
eighth, and became generally extended during
the ninth century, though still in a very primi-
tive condition. From the combination of simul-
taneous sounds in chords, and their results, he
deduced the theory of harmonized melody — how-
ever uncouth and disagreeable his sequences of
fourths and fifths appear to us.
The following period, including the Benedic-
GUIDO OF AREZZO. 17
tine monk GuiDo of Arezzo (famed as "in-
ventor musicse"), who lived in the early part of
the eleventh century, in reality added nothing to
the resources of harmony. Though unacquainted
with musical notation (which consists of dots
placed on and between several parallel lines), he
paved the way for it, and made it practicable. It
is here necessary to explain, that the neumas (small
crooks and strokes of various shapes and positions)
were formerly placed on and between two lines
drawn horizontally above the text: in order to
designate more clearly the higher or lower pitch
of the notes, Guido spread them over four lines.
So little satisfactory, however, did this reform
appear even to himself, that he recommended the
Gregorian characters as the more convenient
method of notation. His chief merit was the in-
vention of an improved, purely practical, method
of singing, which addressed itself to the memory.
In order to insure correct intonation, he made use
of the syllables with which the first lines of a
well-known Latin hymn commenced : ut (C),
re (D), mi (E), fa (F), sol (G), la (A) ; this was
called Guido's solmisation or Solfa, The syllable
si (B), for the seventh note, was added at a much
later period ; and, thus completed, both the
Italians and French still employ this nomencla-
ture, of which the range has been considerably
enlarged by the additions in use for the major
and minor keys.
c
18 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Franco of Cologne, a presbyter, invented a
method of notation which completely answered
the requirements of the age in which he lived
(the end of the twelfth or beginning of the
thirteenth century) ; he not only denoted with
greater precision than heretofore the higher and
lower pitch of the notes by their position, but
also determined their duration or value by the
shape {Jigura). Prosody, as well as music — which
followed its rhythm — , was, till then, distinguished
merely by longs and breves ; Franco assumed four
periods of duration, viz., very long, long, short,
half short, — to which he gave the corresponding
nomenclature of Tnaxima, longa, brevis, semibrevis
(the latter our semibreve). He thus founded the
system of musical time, or mensuration, and the
distinction which afterwards came into general
use between choral micsic and Jigurate or mensur-
able mu^ic.
In the fourteenth century, Makchettus op
Padua and a Frenchman Johannes de Muris
(Jean de Meurs) carried his theory still further ;
they also established the first correct principles in
the use of consonances and dissonances.
But in order to understand how awkward and
clumsy were the first practical attempts in the
art of harmony compared with secular melody
(ah'eady enjoying a considerable amount of cul-
tivation), we have only to turn to the recently
discovered productions of the Trouvere Adam de
ADAM DE LA HALE. 19
LA Hale (" le boiteux d' Arras "). He composed
three part songs and Motets ; but bis plays
{jeux), of which both words and music were his
own composition, evince — for that period (the
latter half of the thirteenth century) — a surpris-
ing degree of facility and grace, both in rhythm
and melody.
CHAPTER rV.
The Belgian School. Orlandus Lassus.
While secular melody, as yet left to the natural
taste of the people — the Troubadours, Min-
strels, and " Minne singers " — , had, as we have
seen, attained considerable perfection, the labours
of the learned, on the contrary, were, till the
sixteenth century, solely directed to an extended
cultivation of harmony, in which the Low
Countries took the lead.* The remarkable intel-
lectual energy and penetration which distin-
guished them, the " patientia laboris " lauded by
Erasmus, as well as the wealth and prosperity
enjoyed by the nation at the period of which we
are treating, eminently fitted the Belgians for
devoting themselves wholly and exclusively to
the task of working the recently acquired har-
monic material. Delighted to have found in
♦ Ueber die Verdienste der Niederldnder, im 14., 15., und 16.
Jahrhnndert, um die Tonkunst, von K. G. Kiesewetter. Am-
sterdam, 1829.
THE BELGIAN SCHOOL. 21
music a concrete variety reducible to certain laws,
they applied themselves to the study of polyphony
and interweaving of parts {counterpoint) with
such intense ardour, that they took little account
of melodious expression, and seemed quite to
divert the art from its real aim and object. It is
therefore not to be wondered at — when the very
considerable difficulties which at that time at-
tended the construction of polyphonous pieces
are taken into consideration — that an art exer-
cised in so formal and restricted a manner
frequently degenerated into barren artificialness,
and that Beauty was lost in erudition and
formalism. The intricacies and subtilties of
simple, double, three or more part counterpoint,
appear stiff and strange to us ; nevertheless, they
were the needful preparatory exercises on newly
trodden ground. The harsh, unpliant harmonic
forms had to undergo a thorough intellectual
elaboration before genuine vitality and expression
could be breathed into them ; and never would
modern music have developed its powers so freely
and so happily, had not the Belgians undertaken
this severe mental labour with energy and zeal.
The influence of the (so-called) Belgian school
spread far and wide, and was so universally
acknowledged, that the Belgians occupied the
most distinguished and influential places in Italy,
France, and Germany.
The oldest known master and teacher of
22 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
counterpoint was Guillaume Bufay, who was
chapel-master and tenor singer in the papal
chapel from 1380 to 1432. His compositions
are chiefly for four parts, or voices, and usually
have a chorale or secular tune for their motif;
though devoid of expression, melody, or invention,
they display considerable advance, viz. — correct
harmony.
The more elaborate, fugued, style was founded
by Johannes Ockenheim [Ockeghem ; born be-
tween 1420 — 1430, died circa 1513]. He has been
called, though the epithet is scarcely appropriate,
the Sebastian Bach of the fifteenth century. His
name marks the period when polyphony, which
now formed an integral part of vocal music —
especially in the Church — , " caused the parts or
voices to carry out a theme without regard to ex-
pression or beauty, to separate and join again;
likewise formed and resolved dissonances, and ex-
ecuted a musical theme consisting of a few notes
moved backwards and forwards in different rela-
tive positions."* The increasing taste for arti-
ficial devices turned the progress of art into a yet
narrower channel ; its enigmatical canons, quaint
conceits and calculations, far outstripped aU other
crudities of mediaeval art ; though, at the same
time, it must be admitted, that the unremitting
thoughtful search for esoteric rules established
* Carriere, Aesthetik. ,
THE BELGIAN SCHOOL. 23
the practice of the art of harmony on a firm
basis, and provided a safe starting-point for feel-
ing and imagination. The papal chapel still
possesses seven masses of Ockenheim.
Ockenheim's celebrated pupil, the gifted and
accomplished. Josquin des Pres [born circa 1440,
died when chapel-master to the Emperor Maxi-
milian, circa 1515], was one of the first who
seriously endeavoured to raise abstract technical
skill — which hitherto had almost entirely ab-
sorbed the attention of musicians — to higher
sesthetic significance, and make it a vehicle of
sympathetic expression. Although even he occa-
sionally surpassed others in artificialness, and
sometimes — particularly in sequences of chords —
attempted quaint and even grotesque combinations,
his best works (chiefly four and five part Masses
and Motets) are, according to Kochlitz,* "easier
to comprehend, less spun out, less laden with
contrapuntal artifices." Though he bestowed
extraordinary pains on the elaboration and finish
of his works, they were not merely the result of
difficult and abstruse calculation ; he understood
well how to employ wit and humour in the treat-
ment of his art. Thus, while chapel-master to
Lewis XII. of France, wishing to remind the
king of his promise to bestow on him a prebend,
he composed two motets on the words " Memor
* Fiir Freunde der Tonkunst, vol. iv., p. 49. Vier Bande. Leipzig,
1824-1832.
24 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
esto verbi iui " and " Portio mea non est in terra
viventium'\ and caused them to be performed
before the Court. He had previously written a
mass on the solfa syllables la sol fa re mi, in
allusion to a nobleman whom he had vainly
besought to intercede with the king in his behalf,
and who had always put him off with the answer,
" Laisse faire moy." Yet he was by no means
wanting in thorough appreciation of sacred melody
and expression, and there are several of his
Motets and Masses, which, in their careful treat-
ment, foreshadow the grandeur and simplicity
which afterwards characterized Church music.
While allowing free play to his varied and
humorous tendencies, his principal efforts were
directed to the production of noble, dignified, and
simple forms in composition; he was thorough
master of the resources of his art in all its
branches. " Perfectly versed in all styles of art,
enormously productive, yet remarkable for care-
fulness of execution (for which Glarean praises
him while contrasting him with his somewhat
older contemporary, Jacob Hobrecht), attempting
bold flights, yet always intelligible, at once learned
and pleasing, everywhere graceful, he was the
universal favourite of the age, welcomed every-
where, ruling without a rival."* Josquin, called
by Luther " master of notes, while others were
* Heimsoeth, in Aschbach's Kirchenlexicmiy vol. iii., p. 841.
THE BELGIAN SCHOOL. 25
mastered by notes ", closes the series of musical
calculators, and opens that of real composers.
Though Josquin had exercised his art for a
considerable space of time in Italy and France,
his own country was the scene of his principal
labours; but the most remarkable Belgian com-
posers who succeeded him — Jean Mouton,
Clemens non Papa, Arcadelt, Goudimel,
WiLLAERT, his pupils, and others — were employed
almost entirely in foreign countries. The in-
vention of music-printing with moveable types
(by Ottavio Petrucci in 1502) was of important
service to them in the speedy and extensive
diffusion of their works ; and, till after the middle
of the sixteenth century, the Belgians enjoyed
undisputed supremacy throughout Europe. At
Eome, after Josquin had introduced the art of
counterpoint into the papal chapel, the Belgians
were preferred before the Italians ; besides these,
however, the French and Spaniards could boast
excellent composers in Carpentras and Morales.
A noble and deep conception of this latter is a
Motet for six voices : Lamentabatur Jacobus (" una
maraviglia dell' arte"), which still retains its
place in the performances of the Sistine chapel.
The " nuova musica " was not much exercised by
the Italians themselves, with the exception of the
Florentine Cost an zo Festa (distinguished as the
forerunner of Palestrina), who still survives in a
noble and simple Te Deum. [He died in 1545].
26 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Thus, the Belgians — especially since the papal
chapel-master Goudimel established a music-
school at Eome in 1540 — held nearly all the
musical appointments ; which monopoly, however,
was broken up by Animuccia, Palestrina, and
Nanini — Italians educated in Goudimel's school.
Adrian Willaert [born at Bruges circa 1490]
contributed in a far greater degree to the progress
of art than even Groudimel at Eome ; he was
likewise a pupil of Josquin, and chapel-master at
St. Mark's, Venice, from 1527 till his death
[1563]. The style of composition usual with his
predecessors was a four part canon constructed
on a given melody; Willaert wrote his Motets
for five, six, and seven voices; whereby he did
not aim at greater intricacy, but, on the contrary,
distinguished the parts from each other, and,
instead of closely interweaving the phrases in
sacred melody (as had previously been the custom),
disengaged them freely from each other. To
this end — according to the testimony of his pupil
Zarlino [1517-1593], highly esteemed for his
additions to the science of harmony — he first
arranged sacred songs, and particularly psalms,
for two or three separate choirs {a cow spezzato) ;
— thereby reviving the ancient antiphonal song
enriched with all the improvements of recent art.
By alternating the full and divided choir, he
attained the grandest effects — for an actual in-
strumental accompaniment was not as yet in use.
THE BELGIAN SCHOOL. 27
Heimsoetli* graphically records the splendour of
public life at Venice, " where a peculiarly vivid
interest in the common w*eal, and the intimate
relation between the ecclesiastical and national
fete resulting therefrom, found its common meet-
ing-ground in the State Church of St. Mark, and
created a perpetual demand for musical productions
of a grand and solemn character, inasmuch as the
attractions of the art were required, both within
and without the Church, to enhance the brilliancy
of the celebration."
But the importance of Willaert's great influence
will not be justly appreciated unless taken in
connection with the so-called Venetian school
which he founded, and which continued to
develop his style. His pupil and successor in
office, Cyprian de Eore — surnamed " il divino "
by the Italians, and considered even equal to
Orlando Lasso by the Belgians — , was born at
Mechlin in 1516; he succeeded in popularizing
the art of polyphony in the Madrigal (or secular
love-ditty, analogous in form to the Motet),
whereby he exercised no unimportant influence
on secular melody.
The last great master among the Belgians, and,
after Palestrina, the greatest of the sixteenth
century, was ORLANDUS LASS US [born
1520 at Mons in Hainault, died 1595 at
* See Heimsoeth, etc., p. 844.
28 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Munich].* After holding distinguished situations
at Eome and Naples, he visited France and
England, then passed a considerable time in
modest retirement in his native country, whence,
at the invitation of Duke Albert V. of Bavaria,
he repaired to Munich in 1557 ; here he resided
as chapel-master till his death, employed in im-
proving the style of Church music.
That he furthered the development of German
music, may be seen by referring to his pupil
Eccard ; on the other hand, his works reveal the
influence of the land in which he passed the
larger and more famous portion of his life, and
after a short sojourn in other countries came to
look upon as a second home. He did not rest
satisfied with the mere ingenious embroidery of
parts on a given melody, though his general
mode of treatment was more closely allied to the
formal mannerism of that style, than Palestrina's.
" He is the brilliant master of the North, great
and sublime in sacred composition, of inexhaustible
invention, displaying much breadth, variety, and
depth in his treatment ; he delights in full and
powerful harmonies, yet after all — owing to an
existence passed in journeys as well as service at
Court, and occupied at the same time with both
sacred and secular music — he came short of that
* BiograpMsche Notiz Uber Roland de Lattre hekannt unter dem
Namen Orland de Lassus. Avs dem Franzosischen des H. Delmotte
ubersetzt und mit Anmerkungen herausgegeben von S. W. Dehn
Berlin, 1837.
ORLANDUS I^SSUS. 29
lofty, solemn tone which pervades the works of
the great master of the South — Palestrina, who,
with advancing years, restricted himself more and
more to Church music."* And besides vigour,
depth, and sublimity, the works of Lassus reveal
a loving and gentle spirit, whose purity, piety,
and simplicity of expression in the Motet " Gus-
tate et viclete quam suavis sit Dominus timentibus
eum et confidentibus ei " (sung on the feast of Corpus
Domini at Munich) excited universal admiration.
His compositions in print and manuscript
(altogether upwards of two thousand in number)
form a choice collection. They are, for the most
part, at Munich ; and consist of Motets in four
to eight parts, of which many are composed on
secular themes ; Motets, principally in five or six
parts — though some in more or less — ; Hymns,
Psalms, Magnificats, Lamentations (of Jeremiah,
to which he added the composition of the
" Lessons on Job "), Eesponsories, Litanies, &c.
Of these the Motets — a branch of composition in
which he was considered to have excelled — and
the Seven penitential Psalms in five parts, were
most highly esteemed; concerning this latter
composition, Thibaut repeats a story without
foundation, viz., that Charles IX. of France
ordered them for his own use, " in order to obtain
rest to his soul after the massacre of St. Bartho-
lomew ". But, apart from these noble and multi-
* Heimsoeth.
30 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
farious productions, he would have rendered his
name everlastingly famous by his admirable
improvements in musical art, such as the
introduction of the chromatic element — thereby
introducing greater variety in modulation — , the
mensuration of time by reducing a number of
different kinds and their signs to two principal
kinds — equal and unequal, with the manner of
denoting the measure, as : allegro ^ adagio ^ &c.
His generation admired in him, as well as Pales-
trina, a " Prince of Music,'* the Pope created him
Knight of the Golden Spur in 1574, and — even
in Italy — on the title-page of one of his Masses,
beneath his likeness, these words were placed:
"Hie est Lassus, qui lassum recreat orbem."
Unconcerned as to fame, the "gentle, peaceful
man" (so Eccard portrays him) lived for his art
alone, and a contemporary (the admirable historian
Thuanus or de Thou) aptly says of him, that the
flattering expressions of the great, as well as a
European reputation, were not so much enjoyed as
endured by him.
Kiesewetter concludes his description of this
period in these words: '*Lassus shed lustre on,
and at the same time closed, the great epoch of
Belgian ascendancy, which, during the space of
two hundred years, had given to the world nearly
three hundred musicians of marvellous science
for the times in which they lived, many of whom
were excellent composers." The musical " DecHne
ORLANDUS LASSUS. 31
and Fall" of the Netherlands, which began with
Lassus' death, is not (as Fetis thought) so much
to be ascribed to the political disturbances of the
sixteenth century, and wars of the two succeeding
ones, as to the fact that the contrapuntal art
peculiar to the Belgians, after having gained its
best and last triumphs in Italy, and afterwards
Grermany, was, in the nature of things, forced to
give way to the melodious and beautiful style
which appeared with the seventeenth century, and,
in particular, to a genus of music, surpassing
every other, which was beginning to assert itself :
— the Opera.
CHAPTER V.
Palestrina and Ecclesiastical Music in Italy (the Eomak
AND Venetian Schools).
WiLLAERT, and in paxticnlar Orlandus Lassus,
had, with the intuition of genius, understood the
requirements of the age and country in which
they hved ; and, embodying the same in their own
art-conceptions, added new lustre to the Belgian
name. In Eome, on the contrary, at that time
the chief seat of Belgian art, the exclusive study
of technical skill had frozen it to a mere formula,
which, in itself lifeless, was unable to stand its
ground against the newly-awakened taste of the
nation.
So early as the tenth century, and from that
time down, improvements resulting from the pro-
gressive development of harmony were adopted
in the practice of ecclesiastical music — especially
in the papal chapel. From the latter half of the
thirteenth century — particularly after the return
of the Pope from Avignon (1377) — the Grregorian
chant became more and more overladen with con-
PALESTRINA. 33
trapuntal embellishments wliich rendered the pre-
scribed Church-song difficult of recognition in its
borrowed garb. From increasing disregard both
of meaning and connection in the text, the
ancient simple Church-song was threatened with
complete annihilation ; it became so comphcated
and overcharged, that it degenerated into a con-
fused jumble of sound. Still more common was
it for musicians — entirely losing sight of the real
intention of ecclesiastical music — to take melodies
from secular songs for the themes of their Masses
and Motets ; and, making no secret of this, to call
them by their profane titles ; as for instance :
L'liomme armd, Adieu mes amours^ Baisez moy,
Venere bella, Chiare, fresche e dolce acque, &c. The
Church could no longer behold with indifference
these aberrations of an art depraved and degraded
almost to a craft ; wherefore, at the Council of
Trent (in 1 562), a thorough and complete reforma-
tion of ecclesiastical music was brought under
consideration. The just reproofs of the Council,
which seriously threatened the entire existence of
Jigurate music, roused the creative genius of Pales-
trina, who raised music to an independent national
existence, and made it rank as one of the fine arts,
along with sculpture and painting ; — these last
having already reached their zenith in Leonardo
da Yinci, Kaphael, Correggio, Titian, and Michel
Angelo.
Giovanni Pierluigi da PALESTRINA was
34 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
(according to Baini*) born at Palestrina in 1524,
and educated in the severe school of Goudimel,
whose peculiarities were exaggerated to weakness
bj the majority of his pupils, — the master being
thus held responsible for their follies, and made to
appear the representative of a scholastic doctrine
totally devoid of life. Palestrina grasped the
essential doctrines of the school, without adopting
its mannerism. He did not bid defiance to esta-
blished rules, but moved within their limits with
so much freedom and easy grace, as to suggest
the idea of having struck out an entirely new
path.
Of his hitherto known compositions, the La-
mentations, and especially the Improperie (tender
reproaches of the Lord to his ungrateful people),
which were performed on Good Friday 1560,
during the Adoration of the Cross, captivated all
hearts by their sublime simplicity and gentle
piety of expression ; — for music of such purity,
solemnity, and majesty had never yet been heard
in the Church. The 'Improperie' have been
repeated yearly ever since, down to the present
time : in our day, Goethe and Mendelssohn have
recorded in touching words the deep impression
this music produced on them. His next work of
importance was (in 1562) a six-part Mass {super
ut^ re^ mi, fa, sol, la), in which the " Crucijixus
* G. Baini ; Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle ojpere di
Oiov, Fieri, da Falestrina, 2 volumi, Romay 1828.
PALESTRINA. 35
etiam pro nobis " for four high voices, was parti-
cularly admired.
But beyond Eome, the compositions of the
master were as yet unknown ; and, consequently, of
so little account in the deliberations of the Council
of Trent, that the Fathers, in the first blush of
indignation, and almost shame, that an art so
licentious should have been so long tolerated in
the house of Grod, insisted upon the abolition of all
Church music except the ancient Grregorian chant.
At length, in accordance with the earnest remon-
strance of the Emperor Ferdinand I. and the
Eoman Cardinals, who repeatedly cited Pales-
trina's compositions, it v/as agreed that practical
measures should be taken in order to ascertain
whether the declared abuses of the four (or more)
i^2LYt Jigurate melody lay in the nature of the art,
or only in the carelessness of composers ; and to
let the final decision rest upon a new composition
of Palestrina's, on a grander scale than he had
hitherto attempted.
Young Palestrina was therefore to write a
Mass — as a specimen — in which, above all, distinct
intelligibility of the words was required, and
have it performed before a commission of eight
cardinals — of whom St. Carlo Borromeo was one.
Thus, all eyes were directed to him, at a time
when the very existence of the art was at stake.
With the enthusiasm of the artist — with the
pious trustful confidence expressed in the motto
36 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
of his first Mass " Illumina oculos meos'' Pales-
trina applied himself to this noble task. Instead
of only one, he wrote three six-part Masses, of
which the third — written for soprano, alto, two
tenors, and two basses — excited such universal
admiration on its public performance [19th June,
1565] that the Pope himself (Pius IV.) exclaimed
in raptures : *' It is John who gives us here, in
this earthly Jerusalem, a foretaste of that new
song, which the holy Apostle John realized in
the heavenly Jerusalem long since, in prophetic
trance." Palestrina afterwards entitled his prize
Mass * Missa Papae Marcelli \ in grateful me-
mory of his former illustrious patron, Marcellus II.
Several provincial synods followed the example
of the Council of Trent; among them, one at
Milan in the same year (1565, over which Car-
dinal Carlo Borromeo presided), one at Cambray
(also in 1505), at Constance, and Augsburg (both
in 1567), Namur, and Mechlin (in 1570), and
others ; all of which set to work in earnest to
reform the loose practices of the composers of
Church music.
Palest rina's versatility and eminent genius
powerfully furthered the improved tendency of
the age. It is true that, previously, he had occa-
sionally made use of secular themes in his com-
positions ; but the best period of his productions
is characterized by the invariable connexion of
the sacred text with its ancient proper Church
PALESTRINA. 37
tune. By transposing the ecclesiastical melody
{canto fermo) from the tenor to the soprano
(thus rendering it more intelligible to the ear), he
created that glorious thing — choir-song, with its
refined harmony, — that noble and sublime music
of which his works are incomparable models,
and the papal chapel is the oracle. Of his very nu-
merous works (Masses, Motets, Hymns, Litanies,
&c.) scarcely one half has been printed ; besides
those already alluded to, and a few others, the
following are still performed at Eome — princi-
pally during the Holy Week : a brilliant Mass
for the Assumption of the Virgin — " Assumpta est
Maria in Coelum^' an incomparably sublime Of-
fertory on Holy Thursday — " Fratres ego enim
accepi^'' that masterpiece of Motets — " Surge illu-
minare Jerusalem,'' and a " Stahat Mater " for two
choirs.
Palestrina died in the arms of St. Filippo Neri,
on the 2nd of February 1594, and was buried in
St. Peter's, to the pious strains of his " Libera me
Domine" On his tomb is the following noble
epitaph : Joannes Petrus Aloysius Prcenestinus
MusiccB Princeps,
Essentially choral, as all Church iniisic should be, Palestrina's
music is the very opposite of the " melting mood ;" it is characterized
by an entire absence of contrast and local colouring. The harmony
is one of gentle repose, where " the voices do not seek for individual
display, but emerge from the full choir to return again and mutually
contribute to its soft, clear sound. There is not the least trace of
drainatic movement — not even when several choirs respond to each
88 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
otlier ; unruffled serenity broods over the entire composition, which,
nevertheless, is not devoid of occasional warm and decided touches —
disposed, however, in such a manner that the even rhythmical
measure is only partially varied, and the general equilibrium left
undisturbed. Human voices, combined either in choirs or har-
monized soli, are the sole interpreters of this music ; no attempt at
individual expression is i)ermitted, the relipjious element alone pre«
vails, and the expression consists above all in this : — that no in-
dividual pre-eminence shall disturb and weaken the ideal atmosphere
of the entire work."* The studied effects obtained by an abundant
use of chromatic passages, of dissonances, and violent contrasts — so
congenial to the modern ear — are not to be found in these pure
harmonies. " He is," Thibautf says of Palestrina, " so completely
master of the ancient ecclesiastical modes, and of the treatment of
the simple tonic chord in comix)sition, that repose and enjoyment
are to be founds in his works, in a greater degree, perhaps, than in
those of any other master."
The enthusiastic Baini, with refined analysis, distinguished ten
different styles in Palestrina's productions (he might, as Winterfeld
a[)tly remarks, have assumed as many styles as there are comi)Osi-
tions) ; yet on us — accustomed as we are to a tenderer and more
marked expression in melody — his works, on first hearing, are apt
to produce an impression of unifomiity, and even rigidity. At any
rate, this " musica dall' altro mondo " will scarcely fulfil the
expectations of those who esteem it adapted to revive Church
sympathy and hearty devotion in our own day ; and for this reason :
that modern choirs rarely attain to that correctness and precision (so
difficult where there is an almost continual interchange of the parts
or voices) which are indispensable to the true a])preciation of these
magnificent conceptions, and which Palestrina would be justified in
expecting of his own choir — specially trained for the purpose. But
when this perfection is attained, our spirits are held in thrall by the
ineffable sublimity and overwhelming majesty of these heavenly
strains. For this reason, Palestrina's choruses should only be
produced in the Church when the execution is perfectly irreproach-
able, and never in the remotest degree suggesting the idea of a mere
art-performance. Kiesewetter's advice (valuable as coming from one
whose opinion can be safely relied on), concerning Palestrina's
* YiscHER. Aesthetik. Vol. iii., p. 1135.
t Ueber Reinheit der Tonhunst, P. 54.
PALESTRINA. 39
compositions, is : " not to perform them to a modem audience without
careful selection and examination, as it can never be our intention
to bring Church music back to the simplicity of Palestrina's time."
The choir of the Sistine chapel, by the inheritance of long-
cherished tradition, is the most perfect, and, consequently, most
effective, exponent of Palestrina's music. Modern travellers, like
Jacobi and Mendelssohn, cannot sufficiently admire the wonderful
blending of the voices, the prolonged tones gradually merging from
one note and chord to another, softly swelling, decreasing, and
finally dying out almost inaudibly. *' They understand," said the
latter (in the letter to Zelter about the execution of the * Improperie '
above referred to), " how to bring out and place each delicate trait in
the most favourable light, without giving it undue prominence ; one
chord gently melts into another. The ceremony, at the same time, is
solemn and imposing; deep silence prevails in the chapel, only
broken by the re-echoing Greek "Holy," sung with unvarying
sweetness and expression." Paer was (in 1805) so impressed with
the " perfect musical piety " of the composition and performance, that
he exclaimed : " This is indeed divine music, such as I have long
sought for and my imagination was never able to realize, but which
I knew must exist !"
Unquestionably, this powerful impression is (according to Krause),*
in great measure, due to the sublimity and beauty of the place of
worship, as also to the Liturgy of the Koman Catholic Church — in
itself one of the greatest religious works of art ; unquestionably, this
music can only exercise full sway over minds who receive the
doctrines of that Church with a believing heart. But, also, those
whose intellect and feeling rise superior to the distinctions of creeds
are most deeply and powerfully impressed by the sacred music of
Palestrina and of those composers who resemble him ; for his
compositions, like all genuine music, soar — as far as religious con-
siderations are concerned — sublime above words and creeds of this
world to the regions of everlasting Truth. Our great composers
would doubtless be able, if they could attune their feelings to the
task, to write aWa Palestrina; — for we learn from the Treatise on
Purity in Music,t that'Cherubini achieved as much in a grand eight-
* Darstellungen aus der Geschichte der Musik.
f Ueher Beinheit der TonJcunst. Thibaut. Second edition.
Heidelberg, 1826. Fourth edition, edited by Bahb. Heidelberg,
1861»
40 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
part Credo. Just as modem architects have revived the Gothic
architecture of the Middle Ages, and Thorwaldsen and Canova
Grecian statuary, our great musicians might follow their example in
this purest hranch of musical art. Under any circumstances, how-
ever, the immortal models of Palestrina and his contemporaries will
always remain far superior to any mere reproductive imitations ; for
every peculiar genus of art is the result of innate, genuine in-
spiration, and the spontaneous growth of the age which pro-
duces it.
Palestrina and his fellow-pupil under Goudirael,
M. Giov. Nanini [died 1607], founded, and jointly
presided over, a music-school which faithfully con-
tinued Palestrina's style. Among Palestrina's
successors, Baini mentions, as admirable in their
Motets (songs set to a sacred text [77^^^] with its
ancient traditional Church tune) : Nanini — more
given to tenderness of expression than his great
predecessor — , andTommaso Ludovico da Yittoria
[born 1560], who, according to Thibaut, "com-
bined Spanish warmth with spiritual meekness."
Next to Vittoria [went to Munich circa 1594]
deserves mention: Felice Anerio, Palestrina's
successor in office, of whose works a " Te Deum,'\
an eight-part " Ave Eegina,'" and a mass " Dixit
Maria," are known to posterity.
But Nanini's pupil, Gregorio Allegri [born at
Eome in 1590, died there in 1652], surpassed
them all in his five and four part Miserere with a
conclusion for nine voices. Against Leop. Mo-
zart's, Spohr's, and Adam's depreciation (continu-
ally urged and reiterated) of this magnificent
composition, the fact speaks for itself, that the
. ROMAN SCHOOL. 41
young W. A. Mozart, after a second hearing,
secretly wrote it down, and carried it away like
treasure trove. Its association with the cere-
monies of the Sistine chapel (which cannot fail to
strike even the most jaded as well as the most un-
impressionable listener) may have promoted its
wide-world fame — its intrinsic merit is, never-
theless, beyond question. Figurate embellish-
ments are rarely employed in this melodious and
expressive composition. Like the approach of
impending fate, from time to time resounds, be-
tween the four and five part phrases, the same
mournful monotonous psalmody ; till in the last
verse, '' Tunc imponent super altare tuum vitulos,"
the full glory of the nine-part harmony bursts
forth like eternal and glorious redemption, obli-
terating the remembrance of earthly sorrows.
Besides Allegri's Miserere, one by Baini (in Men-
delssohn's opinion vapid and tame), and another
by Tommaso Bai [died 1714], composed in imi-
tation of. Allegri, are performed annually at Eome
during the Holy Week, when a judicious grada-
tion of effect is obtained, by crowning the per-
formance of Baini's work on Wednesday, and
Bai's on Holy Thursday, with that of Allegri on
Good Friday.*
* Note by the Translator. This order was not observed when
we were at Rome (in 1862). A Miserere by a modern comi)Oser
was performed in the Sistine chapel on Good Friday, which by no
means equalled that of Allegri, sung in the Choir chapel of St.
Peter's on the day previous.
42 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
The musicians of the following period departed
from the noble simplicity and solemnity which
distinguished their predecessors, and introduced
greater intricacy irito their compositions. Pales-
trina wrote almost exclusively for from four to
eight voices ; it now became the fashion to write
for several choirs consisting of 12, 16, 24, and
even 36 and 48 parts — a style of composition in
which Orazio Benevoli [chapel-master of St.
Peter's at Eome from 1646 till his death in
1672], his successor in office Bernabei [died
1690], and PiTOxi [died 1743] achieved cele-
brity. Of this latter (styled the Palestrina of the
eighteenth century) a six-part ' Dies tree,' com-
posed in the true Palestrina spirit, is highly
spoken of It is understood, as a matter of
course, that in all these compositions for a number
of parts, or rather choirs, the full and divided
choir was employed alternately, and only in such
passages as required a more powerful expression
were the choirs united in one fuU chorus.
Contemporary with the Roman, rose and flou-
rished the Venetian school, in which the treatment
of choir-composition received a more important
characteristic development than elsewhere. Its
strong proclivity for full-voiced songs and cho-
ruses corresponds, in some measure, to the broad,
flowing outline and brilliant colouring which dis-
tinguished the Venetian school of painting, and
culminated in Titian [died 1576]. The greatest
VENETIAN SCHOOL. 43
master in this style of composition was Giovanni
Gabrieli [born circa 1540, died 1612], nephew
and pupil of the learned contrapuntist Andrea
Gabrieli ; he applied himself to the improvement
of composition for combined choirs — a style for
which Willaert had displayed considerable pre-
ference — with careful reference to the words fur-
nished by the text.* Of his compositions, which
(according to Winterfeld) are highly effective, and
combine breadth of harmony with completeness
of form, the following deserve mention : Songs
for prayer and praise, for the most part selected
from verses in the Psalms, in six, seven, and ten
parts ; Magnificats for two and three choirs ;
Hymns for the Mass, also for three choirs (he
never wrote a complete Mass) ; Responsories for
Christmas and Easter day. — It is worthy of notice
that, besides pieces chiefly for two and three
choirs which were executed by voices alone (a
capella), he has left some which are furnished
with instrumental preludes and accompaniments.
For example: he arranged an ''Inecdesiis benedi-
tite Domino, Alleluia " for two choirs with three
cornets, one fiddle, and two trombones ; a " Sur^
readt Christus " for three voices and an orchestra
of two cornets, two violins, and four trombones,
with preludes and interludes, as well as choruses
and solo songs accompanied by difierent instru-
* Joliannes Gabrieli und sein Zeitalter, Dargestellt von WlNTEB-
TELD. Zwei Theile. Berlin, 1834.
44 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
ments — all in the utmost variety. Gabrieli was
organist of St. Mark's ; and, like Seb. Bach, his
professional skill on a full-toned instrument like
the organ doubtless suggested a florid stjde of
harmony, and the grand effects to be derived from
instrumental combinations. It may not be out
of place to mention here that it was at Venice
— always famous for skilful organists — that
Bernhard the German invented the pedal-board
[1470], an improvement which added greatly
to the resources of organ-playing^ as well as to
the art of harmony in general.
The masters of the succeeding period: Lotti
Caldara, Marcello — Venetians by birth and edu-
cation — are usually included in the Venetian
school ; they belong, however, — especially Mar-
cello — rather to the new period ushered in by
the Neapolitan school. Antonio Lotti [bom
circa 1660, died 1740], although adopting the
new style in his operas, retained the old severe
style of Church music in his best sacred composi-
tions — which, however, were relieved by a touch
of sweetness. A difierence may, notwithstanding,
be observed between his compositions a capella,
and those in the new stile concertante. " Those
of his more generally known works consist of
some Crucifixus for a number of voices, which)
however, must not be taken as specimens of the
style of his Masses ; thus, I have before me a
Mass written partly for four, partly for five and
YENETIAX SCHOOL. 45
l&ix voices (by doubling the treble and counter
tenor parts), in which — besides passages similar
to the above-mentioned ' Crucijixus/ such as the
y Qui tollis " and " Miserere nobis,'' as well as the
^^ Doming Deus agnus dei^' where the treble per-
forms a Gregorian ' Magnificat ' tune — such ano-
malies occur as for instance : a " Domine Deus "
in which a soprano and violin vie with each other
ill endless runs and flourishes — the whole accom-
panied by two violins concertanie, two viols, and
a bass-viol, to which a hautboy and trumpet are
occasionally added."*
Antonio Caldara [born circa 1674, died at
Vienna, chapel-master to Charles YI., in 1763]
was considered to have excelled in the fugue ; he
succeeded admirably in uniting Italian sweetness
with German science and religious expression —
especially in his Masses a cajjella. On the other
hand, the modern element of individual local ex-
pression enters largely into the compositions of
the aristocratic dilettante Benedetto Marcello
[1680—1739]. Even so late as 1802, a new
edition of his principal work : Parafrasi sopra i
50 primi salmi per 1, 2, 3 ^ 4 voci con basso conti-
nuo (Paraphrases on the 50 Psalms of David),
was published at Cherubini*s suggestion. The
Italians reverence the ' Salmi' as a classical pro-
duction, whereas Spohr and others consider them
* Heimsoeth, p. 859, and elsewhere.
46 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
poor, monotonous, and tedious. At any rate,
they are historically important ; for this composi-
tion — written in the comparatively loose form of
a cantata — had so much influence on the develop-
ment of the lyric opera, that it has been well re-
marked that Gluck began where Marcello left off.
The actual development of the Venetian, as a
separate school of art, ends with its greatest
master and representative Gr. Gabrieli, whose
style of composition was continued by his Ger-
man pupils, Heinrich Schutz and Hans Leo
Hassler (both to be mentioned hereafter), who
with some modifications — according to the dif-
ferent objects for which they worked — developed
his style yet further. The German Jacobus
Gallus from Krain (properly Hani or Handl,
1550 — 1591), the contemporary of G. Gabrieli,
Palestrina, and Orlandus Lassus, should also be
classed with the Italian masters. His works
contain specimens of aU the styles of composition
that had hitherto been invented. A Motet
written in 24 parts, for four six-part choirs,
proves him to have been an adept in elaborate com-
position for a large number of parts ; — that he
did not affect this style may be inferred from the
fact, that the greater part of his other composi-
tions, as, for instance, the celebrated Motets:
" Ecce quomodo moritur Justus ,' and *' Media vita
in morte sumus" are worthy to be ranked with
the best compositions of Palestrina.
CHAPTER VI.
Origin of the Opera. Influence of the Neapolitan
School.
The Yenetian school, during its most flourishing
period under G. Gabrieli, unquestionably enjoyed
a wide-spread influence, especially in Germany,
where that influence continued through a length-
ened period. The importance of the Venetian
school, however, as regards our own epoch, is not
to be compared with that of the Eoman, and still
less with that of the Neapolitan school ; in Italy,
indeed, it held latterly only a middle place
between the two. It is with the Neapolitan
school, though its earliest productions are now
rarely sought after and indeed scarcely known,
that the History of Modern Music commences —
in so far as that music speaks the language of the
feelings, emotions, and passions. From that
school the art of music received an entirely new
impulse and direction, which had its origin in
popular melody ; for secular music, formerly
homeless, had taken root and flourished, un-
48 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
shackled by ecclesiastical influences, in the genial
soil of Naples. Thus we are led, by the progress
of Art, from Eome and Venice to the bright and
joyous city of Naples, then to Florence, the seat
of learning and the fine arts, and, ultimately, back
to Naples.
Willaert and his pupils, especially Zarlino (as
well as Palestrina and Orl. Lassus, whom we are
accustomed to think of only as singers *'of the
long robe"), had already applied the art of poly-
phony to secular melody in the Madrigal (a
species of song treating of love or pastoral
scenes). This style of composition, "in which a
lively air with strongly-marked rhythm (then
somewhat rare) was accompanied by a simple
counterpoint of several — three, four, and up to
seven — voices,"* was speedily diffused throughout
Italy, and especially cherished at Naples, even
by the mass of the people, in the light and easy
form of the Villanelle or Villote alia Napolitana,
LucA Marenzio [born circa 1550, "zY piu dolce
cigno"~\ and Gesualdo di Venosa [1588—1612]
are the most celebrated and prolific Madrigal
writers.
The transition from the lyrical poetry of
polyphonous song to the " drama with chorus"
(still customary in our day) was a very natural
one ; for the choruses of the then prevalent pas-
* KlESEWETTER.
ORIGIN OF THE OPERA. 49
toral plays (for example Tasso's ' Aminta/ Gua-
rini's * Pastor Fido/ and others), which connected
the several scenes and acts and formed the con-
clusion, were in their tenor and substance essen-
tially lyrical. But that the same polyphonous
form should be employed also for dialogue and
monologue — though it had never been nor was
objected to in Church music (Palestrina's ' Impro-
perie' for instance) — could not fail to appear not
only unsuitable, but ridiculous, on the stage. Let
the reader, for instance, picture to himself the
situation of two lovers who were to address each
other by means of choruses placed behind, and
sometimes even actually on, the stage. Another
attempt to adapt Madrigal music to dramatic
monologue by assigning to this latter the highest,
and to instruments the remaining, parts of the
Madrigal, was not much more successful. Thus,
the only form of art which had hitherto been
acknowledged — ecclesiastical polyphonous song — ,
was found wholly inadequate for the expression of
individual feeling. It was therefore requisite to
discover some other and better mode of expres-
sion ; at the same time, there was an unwilling-
ness to relinquish the old, approved methods.
That which musicians would never have dared
to attempt, was undertaken by a society of
literati estabUshed at Florence in 1580. The
primary object of this association was the revival
of Greek art (inclusive of music) at its best
E
50 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
period; and, in accordance with this theory,
nothing less than an entire reconstruction of
contemporary musical art was insisted on. In
order to comprehend this tendency in the present
day, when the study of the classics is becoming
of less and less importance, we must bear in mind
that the antiquarian lore of those days, rejoicing
in the ardour of youth, disdained to minister only
to learned pedantry ; on the contrary, its endea-
vours had an immediate practical bearing on Art
and Literature. National Poetry — though for a
time held in restraint by a too servile imitation
of antique forms — , Statuary, and Painting forsook
the monopolizing service of the Church ; nor was
the art of Music able to resist the spirit of the
Renaissance (revival of classic antiquity) which
v/as everywhere successfully making head against
ecclesiastical domination.
As opposed to the art of polyphony, whose
very existence was contrary to Greek theories of
art, the society which had been formed at the
same place (and about the same period) as the
Platonic Academy founded by Cosmo de' Medici,
laid down as its primary axiom : — distinct indi-
viduality of expression, and clear intelligibility of
the words to be sung. At length, after a num-
ber of failures, the attempts to revive Greek
Tragedy gave birth to the recitative — the founda-
tion of the modern vocal drama, and answering to
the intoned recitation of the ancients. The reci-
ORIGIN OF THE OPERA. 51
tative, being a kind of compromise between
speaking and singing, was, therefore, aptly deno-
minated " micsica parlante,'" (speaking music.)
The first production of importance in the new
" stile rappresentativoj' or " recitativo,'' was Jacopo
Peri's ' Eurydice,' of which Einuccini furnished
the poem. It was performed at Florence on the
occasion of the nuptials of Henry IV. of France
with Mary of Medicis [February 6th, 1600],
and speedily achieved renown. In spite, or rather
in consequence, of the increasing expenditure
which afterwards attended the performance of
"music dramas" Q' dramme per musica') at the
Italian Courts on gala days, th-e result fell short of
the expectation of its founders. The musical
recitation, which, in accordance with the rules
laid down by antiquarians, plumed itself on "a
noble contempt for melody," could not fail to
strike a music-loving people as insipid and tame,
and to incite gifted and ambitious musicians to
fresh efforts;
The inventive genius of Claudio Monteverde
[born at Cremona circa 1566, died at Venice
1650] — to whom Kiese wetter assigns a special
epoch — considerably improved the Opera, which
was as yet, on the whole, sufficiently unmusical.
So far from adhering to the prescribed rule con-
cerning antique models, which required that the
actual musical form be almost entirely sacrificed
to distinct enunciation of the words, he ventured
52 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
to assert his art on an equal footing with poetry,
by rendering the recitative more susceptible of
melody, variety, and expresssion, and giving to
the instrumental accompaniment a wider and
more independent range. It was especially in
this last particular that his innovations incurred
violent censure. For his mode of employing the
instruments connected with vocal performance
in various characteristic ways, and of introducing
dissonances when the expression required was
one of passion or excitement, made it clearly
evident that his sole aim and object was by no
means comprised in the endeavour to equal the
much-vaunted models of antiquity. Character-
istic hereof is his attempt to represent musically
and dramatically an episode from Tasso's 'Jeru-
salem Delivered ' (* Tancred and Chlorinda'), in a
kind of cantata ; whereas, in the narrow zeal of
imitating Greek Tragedy, national poetry had
hitherto been almost entirely neglected by
musicians. In this particular, Monteverde's views
are all the more remarkable, because Tasso's
poem, which if rendered into prose would be
scarcely tolerable, seems, on the other hand, not
to require the assistance of music to give it effect..
Tasso's tender and melodious poem has rarely —
and then only in a greatly altered form — been
made use of in the subsequent Italian Opera,
whose range of subjects was almost entirely
limited to ancient mythology and history. With
ORiaiN OP THE OPERA. 68
Monteverde, the musical element of dramatic
representation began to usurp the place of the
poetical — previously so anxiously cherished — ; and,
although his Operas {^'favole in musica") do not
contain the remotest indications of that mighty
spirit of melody which before long was completely
to supersede the sister art of poetry, it is none
the less certain that the musical drama was
thenceforth deflected from its original tendency —
a circumstance which contributed in no small
degree to the progress of modern music.
The Church compositions of Yiadana and Caris-
simi, which were in like manner based on the
new theory of individual expression, had a more
important, though indirect, share in forming the
flowing melodious opera style than all the Opera
compositions that had hitherto appeared. Ludo-
vico ViADANA, a monk [in the early part of the
seventeenth century], was the first who in
sacred music disengaged melody from the re-
straints of contrapuntal laws, by treating the
harmony, which hitherto had engaged supreme
consideration, merely as the ground-work of a
tune complete and entire in itself. His prin-
cipal productions were what he styled Sacred
Concerts {concerti ecclesiastici or sacri), " a style of
composition in which Cantilene were executed by
one, two, three, or more voices, and required an
instrumental accompaniment — generally speaking,
54 . " HISTORY OP MUSIC.
the organ — to complete the harmony."* A hasso
continuo for the organ {hasso per organd) formed
the ground-work, to which it was the province of
the organist to add chords as fitness and taste
should suggest. The organist was therefore ex-
pected to be versed in the art of playing harmo-
nies to an unjigured bass ; subsequently, the
further development of the art of harmony neces-
sitated the use of figured basses, and, in conse-
quence, the practice of Thorough Bass, "In
these sacred songs of Viadana, we find songs for
each of the four voices ; some for one, for two,
for three, or for four voices, in all possible combi-
nations ; occasionally, some of the parts are
doubled ; there are also four-part songs inter-
rupted by soli (for example, a ^^ J)iei solemnia
fulget dies* for an introductor}'- tenor solo followed
by a chorus ; or a ''Die Maria quid vidisti" re-
peated four times as a chorus with soli, or four
voices in succession, interpolated) ; there are also,
for the sake of variety, songs with instruments,
for ex. — a three-part Bo7ie Jesu for tenor and
two trombones, a four-part song, " Repleatur cor
meum laude tua^' for alto, tenor, and {si placet) two
trombones. These compositions, as such, are of
no great value. But the whole arrangement is
very appropriate for Church singing, and favour-
able to the development of a well-defined melody
* KlESEWETTEB.
ORIGIN OF THE OPERA, 55
concentrated in one and the self-san\e part, and of
organ accompaniment in its best form. It is
true that, in former times, there were complete
songs in three and four parts, but those were in-
variably in the form of a canon or fugue ^ and
devoid of accompaniment."* Herein was esta-
blished the precedence of melody over harmony ;
the cohesion of all the parts or voices in the con-
struction of musical pieces fell away ; the contra-
puntal theory of composition had to make room
for inventions of a purely melodious character—
for a simple, tuneful style, as distinct from har-
monic treatment. The "varied, graceful style"
(so much admired by Prsetorius) of "Yiadana's
Concerts " found numerous imitators both among
Italian and German composers.
Giacomo Carissimi [born at Venice in 1600],
during a life nearly coextensive with the century,
contributed still further to the development of
genuine melody. He it was who, more than any
previous composer, gave to individual feeling and
expression that prominence which caused it
thenceforth — even in sacred music — to become the
chief aim and object of the musician. He was so
eminently successful in the treatment of the inde-
pendent forms in monody — the recitative and
arioso — , that his works served as models for the
now rapidly rising Opera.
Its musical development once thoroughly se-
* Heimsoeth.
56 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
cured, the Opera made quick progress, especially
when the performances began to take place in
public (about the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury). The impresari, in order to compensate for
the necessarily diminished splendour of public
representations, endeavoured to substitute the
delectation of the ear for that of the eye, while
increasing public favour encouraged composers to
improve upon the recitative and arioso till they
achieved the aria (air). The natural result of
these causes, working conjointly, was that an en-
tirely new direction was given to the Opera. The
vocal Opera, supported by the co-operation of the
great singing-schools, and formed by the Neapo-
litan school, and especially by the elder Scarlatti
and his pupils, ere long became a national institu-
tion.
With Carissimi's pupil, Alessandro Scarlatti
[born at Trapani 1659, died at Naples 1725] —
so much admired for the fertility and versatility
of his genius — , begins the actual history of the
modern Opera. The improvement of opera me-
lody (deplored as a " relapse into Paganism " by
E. Wagner) is chiefly due to him; he fixed
the forms of the Italian Opera of the last century
in all its most important details. More especially
is the Opera indebted to him for a fuller and freer
instrumentation, as well in those portions of the
performance where it is employed without singing
(viz., introductions and intermezzi), as in the
' THE NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL. '67
recitative, which, since then, has usually been
accompanied or ohligato. He moulded the aria
into the graceful, finished form it has since ree-
tained, by dividing it into three parts, viz., prin-
cipal phrase, middle phrase, and(ia capo (repetition
of the first part v^ith fresh and more florid orna-
mentations). In his numerous sacred composi-
tions (Masses, Motets, Oratorios, Cantatas), Scar-
latti adhered to the old, severe style. Among
these, the most celebrated are a Miserere composed
for the Papal chapel in 1680, and a fugue for
two choruses ; Tu es Petrus, which is still sung on
Easter day on the occasion of the Pope's entrance
into church.
Scarlatti's pupil, Francesco Durante [born at
Naples 1693, died there 1755], did not himself
write for the theatre, but the most celebrated
composers of Italian Opera — Duni, Terradeghas,
Piccini, Jomelli, and a number of others — were
educated in his school. In Church compositions
Durante adopted the modern style, though with-
out detriment to the dignity befitting sacred
music; he had a partiality for the vocal system
founded on ancient Church tunes, and employed it
successfully. Other pupils of Scarlatti's school,
deserving of mention, are Francesco Feo, whose
Mass for two choirs is described as not only bril-
liant, but grand and vigorous in character, and
Alessandro Stradella, famed for his romantic
history. Of yet greater note — likewise in sacred
58 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
music — was Durante's contemporary, Leonardo
Leo [born at Naples 1694, died there 1745], also
a pupil of Scarlatti's and of the Eoman school
under Pitoni. His chef-d'oeuvre in the old style
{a capella) is a grand eight-part Miserere y " which
was for Naples, what Allegri's was for Eome one
hundred years before."* Graceful and dignified
as are his compositions in the old vocal style, he
is on the other hand — especially in Oratorio {La
morte d'Ahelh) — an ardent promoter of the con-
certed style with recitative, of the aria (though
of a solemn cast), and of full-toned orchestral
acx3ompaniment ; he has (observes Eeichardt)
" carried the epoch of the grand style in music
into that of the graceful style."
The novelties which obtained after Leo's
time brought about a radical change in Church
music, which lost in dignity, solemnity, and
sublimity, in proportion as the more or less
florid style of solo singing, borrowed from the
Opera and instrumental music, supplanted the
chorus and organ. On the other hand, it is
worthy of notice that the last celebrated com-
posers of Church music exclusively, viz., Viadana,
Carissimi, and Durante, were singularly influen-
tial in furthering the improvement of the Opera.
Among the most celebrated of Leo's Operas was
^Olympiade^' in ^which occurs the duet ''Neigiorni
* Compare Heinse. Hildegard von Eohenthalj vol. i., p. 149-
154.
THE NEAPOLITAN- SCHOOL. 59
tuoifelici'^ and the air, " iVo so donde viene." In
the brilHant series of Italian Opera composers
formed in the school of Durante and Leo, we
distinguish the following : Pergolese, DunI,
Terradeglias, Jomelli [1714 — 1774], Traetta,
Ciccio Di Majo, Galuppi, Guglielmi, and, espe-
cially, Niccolo PicciNi [born at Bari 1728, died at
Passy, near Paris, 1800] and Gasparo Sacchini
[born at Naples 1735, died at Paris 1786], who
made beauty of form and vocal perfection their
almost exclusive study. After the custom had
obtained of employing a peculiar class of voices
whose chief excellence lay in an almost incon-
ceivable degree of technical skill, the style of the
Opera degenerated into weakness and affectation,
and little more was required of opera composers
than a series of brilliant bravura airs (generally
from twenty to thirty in number) loosely hung
on to the recitative ; — as to the few duets, trios,
and pieces d'ensemble, which entered into these
compositions, they were not in the least appre-
ciated by the general public.
The compositions of Joseph Adolf Hasse
[born at Bergedorf near Hamburg 1699, died
at Venice 1783], who was called by the Italians
^^ilcaro" or '' divino Sassone" are of a higher
class than those we have just alluded to ; indeed,
Hasse may be considered as the chief representa-
tive of the most brilliant period of Italian Opera.
"No other master has equalled him in his correct
60 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and genuine appreciation and rendering of the
general outline and features of the Italian school
at that period."* A pupil of the venerable Scar-
latti, and, in 1771, a rival of the young Mozart
(at that time fifteen years of age), his life and
works comprise the entire history and develop-
ment of the early Italian Opera. His prophecy
concerning Mozart, *' That boy will cause us all
to be forgotten" (" Questo ragazzo ci fara dimen-
ticar tutii"), was only too speedily to be fulfilled.
Metastasio [1698 — 1782], almost contempo-
rary with Ilasse, represents the poetical, as the
latter does the musical, element of the Italian
Opera seria. A musician (principally vocal) by
education, he has never been surpassed as a lyric
dramatic poet ; his language is admirably adapted
for singing, while his verses breathe a tender
lyrical expression. On the other hand, there is a
sameness of dramatic invention in his very-
numerous productions; he wrote, as composers
desired, solely for the mitsic, and we must not —
like the too severe A. W. Von Schlegel — expect to
find in him the dignity of a tragic poet. Eiehl
aptly contrasts him with the French stage poet
Scribe, in whose works the subjects, and sudden
— often inconsequent — dramatic effect predomi-
nates ; whereas, in Metastasio, the subject-matter
* W. H. RiEHL. Compare his admirable portraiture of Hasse,
the "Dresden Royal Ojpera composer ^^ in the Musikalische Clia-
raJcterkb^ey vol. i.
THE XEAPOLITAX SCnOOL. 61
adapts itself easily to the musical plastique. In
Italy, Da Ponte is, perhaps, the only genuine
stage poet who may be considered his equal.
His merits and defects are very justly and fairly
weighed and canvassed by Arteaga.''^
Originally called into existence by the Opera,
instrumental music — more especially fiddle-play-
ing — emerged by degrees from the subordinate
office of accompaniment and introduction to the
singing into an independent sphere of musical
art. After CoRELLi [1G53 — ^1713] — who excelled
in graceful and sweet-toned execution — and his
pupil Geminiani, came the gifted Tartini [1692
— 1770, '' il maestro delle nazioni'l, who brought
technical skill on the violin to the utmost perfec-
tion — especially in the management of the bow.
As a proof of his marvellous powers of execution,
we may cite his '^ devilish'' grotesque Devil's
Sonata ("Trille du diable") — a piece that has re-
cently been re-edited, and performed at concerts.
'* One cannot understand how such a piece can
be executed by four fingers only — it is like listen-
ing to three or four violins playing at once."
From his school at Padua proceeded the great
virtuosi Nardini and Pugnani, who, in their
turn, produced excellent pupils in Lozzi and
ViOTTI.
Vocalists of artistic and historical celebrity
were: the soprani Senesino and Bernacchi
* Le Bevoluzioni del teatro musicale Itcdiano. Venezia, 1785.
62 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
(pupils of PisToccHi), Caffarelli (whose voice
earned him a dukedom), Carlo Broschi, surnamed
Parinelli (pupil of PoRPORA, and the all-power-
ful favourite of Philip V. and Ferdinand VI. of
Spain) ; also Pacchiarotti, Marchesi, Crescen-
TiNi, Yelluti, and the female singers : Yittoria
Tes'i, Faustina Bordoni (Basse's wife), Francesca
CuzzoNi, Francesca Gabrieli. Lastly, deserv-
ing of mention are the famous Cremona fiddle-
makers — the Amati, Guarneri, Straduari,
whose instruments fetch large sums at the pre-
sent day.
Notwithstanding the efforts of those who con-
tributed to the brilliancy of the Italian Opera,
its splendour — based as it was on the immediate
gratification of the senses — was destined to fade
away rapidly. " The spirit of the ancient legends
of gods and heroes was not in the least under-
stood or appreciated — the taste of the age was
too debased ; they were employed merely as a
convenient garb for the expression of modern
sentimentality as well as to adorn and beautify
the same.* In addition to this, the Opera was
entirely adapted to the individual capacities of
the singers (all Hasse's for instance, above a hun-
dred in number, are arranged with reference to his
wife Faustina's powers) ; its existence was there-
fore necessarily an ephemeral one, owing to
changes in the performers as well as the decrease
♦ ¥, Cheysandeb. Eandel, vol. i., p. 82.
THE NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL. 63
of tlie extraordinary vocal execution above re-
ferred to, for which, indeed, it served only as a
scaffolding. How many are at the present day
acquainted with even the names of those once
famous compositions for which W. Heinse in his
art-novel * Hildegard von Hohenthal' (companion
to ' Ardinghello,' a work treating of the arts of
design, and especially of Italian painting) ex-
pressed such exceeding enthusiasm ? " Probably
many beautiful thoughts, both in melody and
expression, have perished with the innumerable
operas (now consigned to oblivion) of the two
first centuries of this branch of art; but the
musical drama could not prosper in such a soil."*
A few Church compositions alone escaped
universal oblivion ; and these are less remarkable
for reHgious depth and power than for a soft,
tender expression, and pleasing faciHty, both
in execution and effect, which rendered them
acceptable to the worldly tendency of that age.
Of the gentle and melancholy Emanuele d'
AsTOiiGA [born 1680] a Stabat Mater has obtained
celebrity. Equal, if not superior, to it is one by
Pergolese [1710 — 1736] for two female voices
with quartet accompaniment, — the last pious
strain of the early departing maestro, Klopstock
has written a German text for it, and it has of
late been performed in Germany with considerable
success. That Pergolese could also write with
* ViscHEB. Aesthetik. Vol, iii., p. 1139.
64 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
fire and spirit is evident from his Masses, his
113th Psalm for five voices, and other com-
positions. Of Astorga, whose memory has
been revived by Fr. Eochlitz,* and by Eiehl,t
Httle else is known. Of his Stahat writes the
latter : *' Astorga vacillates betw^een the modern
manner of dramatizing the sacred text, and the
old mystical style of contemplation, as we find it
in Palestrina's school — soaring sublime in evenly
progressing musical lyric above the varied signi-
fication and expression of the words of the text."
JoMELLi's Church compositions, including even
his Requiem and Miserere (the latter set to
Italian words : ** Pietii, Signore "), are of inferior
value. Mozart says of him : " This man has a
certain line in which he excels (the opera), so
that we cannot hope to supplant him in that
which he understands so thoroughly well. But
he should never have attempted to go out of his
province and write, for instance, Church music
in the old style." Of Hasse, a grand and noble
Te Deum, as well as a Requiem (according to
Krause; superior even to Mozart's), are still
annually performed in the Catholic Court Church
at Dresden. On the other hand, the light Italian
style and opera air appear without disguise or
reticence in his Masses and Oratorios.
If, as must be avowed, the Catholic Church
* Filr Freunde der Tonhunst Vol. ii., p. 87-101 '
t MusikcUische Charakterkojpfe. Vol. i.
THE NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL. 65
music of the eighteenth century approached
somewhat too closely to that of the Opera, so that
between an Opera seria and a solemn Mass little
or no difference can be discerned, yet in the
masters of the early Neapolitan school. Church
music " could always be distinctly recognized from
profane music, and retained its dignity notwith-
standing the introduction of new and showy
styles."* Though, indeed, it cannot be denied
that the modern tendency degenerated latterly
into narrow egotism and vain display, yet it
would be unfair — not to say bigoted — to regard
this tendency as inimical to the Church ; and,
while extolling a soulless and unartistic reaction,
to insist with puritanical rigour on the exclusion
of all concerted music from the Church. One
should rather (to use 0. Jahn'sf admirable ex-
pression) regard it as the natural consequence of
the revival of art, that an ardent desire was mani-
fested to express devotional feelings with all the
force and reality of genuine sentiment free from
conventional restraints, and "to consecrate all
the resources of an art which was developing
itself so splendidly, in the same manner as had
been the case with the arts of design. This
new impulse and direction was followed up with
the zeal of a newly-awakened artistic effort —
one which, of its kind, was as sincere as the
simple pious faith which thought to consecrate
♦ KiESE WETTER. f Mozart, vol. i., p. 441.
F
66 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
its best endeavours by devoting them to the
Church."
Thus, on the whole, the music of the Church
and that of the Opera progressed amicably hand
in hand, mutually influencing each other; the
improvement and extension of the new forms
benefited both, and their history is henceforward
inseparable. The Italian Oratorio^ in particular,
which, from the first, took the same course as the
Opera, was, in the eighteenth century, only a kind
of sacred Opera, the object of which was to in-
demnify lovers of music for the privations of
Lent. It was not till the great German masters,
Seb. Bach and Handel, had taken the Oratorio in
hand, that it acquired its ultimate and distinctive
character. Altogether, the relation of art in
general, and music in particular, to the Church
was a totally difierent one in Italy to what it was
in Protestant Germany; in the former it was
free, and more or less superior to ecclesiastical
restraint, in the latter (particularly during the
early Lutheran period) it was almost exclusively
ecclesiastical. The great intellectual movement
of the sixteenth century, brought about by the
study of classic antiquity, led, in Italy, to freedom
in art — in Germany to freedom in matters of
faith. The gay, artistic Italian temperament
was utterly at variance with the intellectual
energy and purely spiritual worship brought in
by the Eeformation — which was, in truth, un-
THE NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL. 67
favourable to art ; and thus it also came to pass
that Giordano Bruno's and Savonarola's attempts
at reform met with scant appreciation, and ob-
tained no hold on the general sympathy.
CHAPTER Vn.
The Protest a Jit Chubch Song.*
In Germany, the only branch of music worthy of
being called national was Church music, which,
through the agency of Luther and his musical
friends, Walther and Senfl, was imbued with a
strongly-marked Protestant tendency. What
Ambrose had been to the Latin, Luther was to
the German Church song, which, as well as every-
thing pertaining to the Church, he endeavoured
to popularize to the utmost. Instead of the
hitherto purely liturgical choir song of the Eoman
Church (which he called a dismal ass's bray), he
instituted the German chorale^ taking for his
models the sacred songs of the Hussites or Bohe-
mian and Moravian Brothers. Concerning these
latter, says Herder: "Many of them express
simplicity and devotion, piety and brotherly com-
* K. V. WiNTERFELD. " Dev Evaugelische Kirchengesang und
sein VerhcHtniss zur Kunst des Tmisatzes.''* 3 Theile, Leipzig,
1843-47.
THE PROTESTANT CHURCH SONG. 69
munion in a manner we cannot hope to emulate,
because we have it not." Musically educated,
and so enthusiastically partial to the art that he
"ranked it next in importance to theology,"
Luther's chief aim, while arranging the new
Church song, was to ensure that " the words be
worthily expressed, not babbled or drawled," and
above all that the " masses join in the singing and
pay devout attention."
The chorale of the Protestant Church was, in
the main, a combination of the Gregorian tune
with the modern principle of harmony. A
metrical song in the language of the country
(whatever that might happen to be) furnished
the words, while the tune of these songs was the
Gregorian style combined with a simple counter-
point according to the music of the period. It
was, however, only by degrees that the song re-
sulting from this combination which obtained in
the service of the new churches, assumed a marked,
complete, and, above all, popular character. At
first, metrical songs in the mother-tongue were
collected for the use of the congregation. As to
the music, it was either taken from popular tunes
of old church hymns, or else easy secular melodies
were adapted for use in churches.
In the Lutheran Church, Luther appears as a
poet — translating old (biblical, Boman and Bohe-
mian) songs, arranging German, and writing
original ones, — among others his famous hymn :
70 HISTORY OF MUSIC,
" Our God is a tower of strength."* He caused
these songs to be set for a number of voices, and
the congregation had to join in the leading
melody. — The French Calvinist Church song
was of inferior importance as compared with the
German Lutheran. It was confined principally
to the melodies of the Psalms versified in the
mother tongue by Marot and Beza (of which the
airs were chiefly borrowed from secular songs) ;
these were set very simply in four parts by
GouDiMEL [already mentioned ; he died a Hugue-
not, at Lyons, in 1572]. Of similar origin were
the three part musical pieces of Goudimel's con-
temporary, Clemens non Papa, as well as the
tunes on the Souter Liedekens — a Flemish
translation of the Psalms with doctrinal songs
and songs of praise annexed. Zwingli main-
tained the severely matter-of-fact view that sing-
ing, or even music, in church was superfluous,
disturbing to devotion, yea sinful. He is said
to have sung the proposal to the Zurich Council
for abolishing church singing.
It was the Church song, as arranged by Luther,
that alone met with general acceptance, and
received artistic development. The adversaries
of Protestantism have even gone so far as to
assert that, together with Luther's translation of
the Bible, it was the principal cause of the rapid
spread of that religion. People literally sang
* ** Ein'feste Burg ist unser GoU:'
THE PROTESTANT CHURCH SONG. 71
themselves into the new doctrine, and it was said
that many were by this means induced to embrace
it, who "formerly could not bear the name of
Luther."'^
The first Lutheran hymn-book appeared at
Wittenberg, in 1524, and was called 'an Attempt
at an Arrangement of a German Mass ;' it con-
tained, besides several songs retained from the
old Church, eight by Luther — all arranged for
four-part singing by his friend Walther. The
Protestant Church song was, in fact, originally
intended for part singing ; and, in order to bring
about the desired participation of the congrega-
tion, this latter was to join in the tune, which was
generally placed in the tenor part. Musicians
were too much accustomed to harmony to dispense
with it altogether, and the organ was not in use
as an accompaniment till fully one hundred years
later. The chorale did not take the simpler form
of a tune for one voice, with an accompaniment
* Luther, however, could appreciate the more artistic form of the
Motet — admirably treated by his friend Ludwig Senfl — as per-
formed by a choir; for he admires the lovely miracle of such
" music polished and adorned by art, of which it is above all things
strange and wonderful that a simple tune or tenor (as musicians are
wont to call it) is sung by one voice, and along with it three, four,
or five other voices sing likewise, and wondrously and variously
decorate and adorn the same, and lead, as it were, a heavenly dance,
where they meet, and sweetly and smilingly embrace, so that he
who understands and feels this music cannot refrain from wondering
mightily, and thinks there can be nothing in the world more
wonderful than such singing adorned by a number of voices."
72 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
of the other voices, till the seventeenth century,
when the melody was transferred from the tenor
(where it was frequently scarcely to be recog-
nized by reason of the surrounding voices) to the
treble, and, in accordance with this arrangement,
the hymn-books contained merely the tune and
the words. Lucas Osianders work, entitled
" Fifty Spiritual Songs and Psalms set in counter-
point for four voices, in such wise that a Christian
congregation mayjoinin the singing throughout,"
was chiefly instrumental in bringing about a
change which tended in so great a measure to
secure the participation of the people in the
singing. " I know very well," says he, in the
dedication to the schoolmasters of Wiirtemberg
(January 1st, 1586), "that composers are in the
habit of assigning the chorale to the tenor. But,
if this be done, the chorale cannot be distin-
guished from among the other parts ; the com-
mon people cannot tell what psalm it is, nor
join in the singing. For this reason, I have
placed the chorale in the treble, so that it sliall be
recognized distinctly, and every lay member can
sing too." The same views ai-e set forth by one
who was considered the greatest organist of his
time — Hans Leo Hassler [born at Nurem-
berg 1564, died 1618] — in the preface to his
book entitled : " Church Songs, Psalms, and Spi-
ritual Songs, set to common melodies simpliciter
in four parts," (1608), in which he has "endea-
THE PROTESTANT CHURCH SONG. 73
voured so to harmonize the best known church
tunes that the chorale shall be distinctly heard
throughout the treble, and at the same time the
congregation can join in and sing too."
The greatest master in this style of polypho-
nous Church song was Johannes EC CARD [born
at Miihlhausen in Thiiringen 1533, died chapel-
master at Berlin 1611], pupil of Orlandus Lassus.
His principal works are : * Spiritual Songs set to a
chorale or common church tune, and composed for
five voices ' (in two parts, Konigsberg, 1597),*
and * Prussian Festival Songs for the whole year,
for five, six, and up to eight, voices' (1598).
More especially in this latter work did he achieve
a truly artistic amalgamation of solo and polypho-
nous, congregational and choir singing, as well as
of the Song and the Motet — ^in Winterfeld's esti-
mation a " vigorous, expressive ensemble, singularly
delicate and ingenious in the detail, yet, notwith-
standing this care and finish, fully intelligible to
the people, and addressing itself to their sympa-
thies." The Protestant chorale or congregational
hymn, supported by harmony either of the choir
or organ (which soon after came into universal
use), attained its utmost perfection through
* The first part contains one hymn for Advent, six for Christmas,
three for the Epiphany, Passion Week, Easter, and Whitsuntide
each ; two for the Feast of the Trinity, besides a Magnificat and Te
Deum : the second part consists of twenty-nine songs for general
use, viz. (so called) Catechism Songs, Psalms, &c.
74 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Eccard, with whom its historical epoch may be
said to close.
It must not, however, be supposed that in the
seventeenth century there were not many admi-
rable composers of church music. Joh. Stobaus
and Heinrich Albert (pupils of Eccard's so-
called Prussian school of music) are worthy of
notice. These, as well as the Berlin and Saxon
composers, Joh. Cruger, Joh. Georg Ebeling,
Joachim Neander, Georg Neumark, wrote chiefly
for the sacred poetry of their contemporaries —
Simon Dach, Paul Gerhard, and others. A
number of their melodies have found their way
into the congregational Church song, and many
authors of chorale melodies are now quite forgotten
— those who are held to be the composers, being,
very frequently, merely the contrapuntists who
arranged the harmonies to these melodies.
During that sceptical period, the eighteenth
century — when organists were accustomed to play
trivial minuet tunes for introductions, intermezzi,
and jinali, during divine service, and poets
arranged " refined " songs and airs, not adapted
for popular use, for sacred songs — , chorale music
necessarily declined; for it had its root and
origin solely in religious feeling and the uni-
versal love of singing, which created a demand
for that kind of music. The chorale gradually
gave place to choir and solo singing, so that the
musical connoisseur, Mattheson, affirms that, in his
THE PKOTESTANT CHURCH SONG. 75
day, the chorale was only tolerated for the sake of
the ignorant and weak.
Though, in modern Protestant chorale books,
the character of the old tunes has, on the whole,
greatly deteriorated, yet the Protestant Church
possesses in her oldest and best chorales the only
genuine Church music which thoroughly answers
to the grand idea of catholicity — a universal
song, in which both words and melody have
equal power and effect ; whereas in the song of
the Eoman liturgy the text, and in choir song
(with or without accompaniment) the music
usually predominates.
The next important branch of Protestant
Church song, and which we find carried to per-
fection in the works of Seb. Bach, was founded
on the choir singing taken from Italian models.
Michael Pratorius, [1571 — 1621], and particu-
larly Heinrich Schutz (pupil of the celebrated
Johannes Gabrieli), were the first who attempted
this style. Pratorius endeavoured to combine
both old and new styles — the chorale and concerto
— and to establish a kind of compromise between
the two ; but Schutz boldly adopted the new
style.
Heinrich Schutz [born at Kostritz on the
Elster, 1585 — exactly one hundred years before
Seb. Bach — died, chapel-master, at Dresden, 1672]
introduced, in a considerable number of produc-
tions, the new forms of song, viz., the recitative
76 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and air, duet and trio, as well as an independent, if
not continuous, instrumental accompaniment into
Grerman music. Besides his * Sacred Concerts for
1 — 5 voices/ and the partially accompanied songs
of the * Symphonice Sacrce' he also attempted the
Oratorio style — thereby laying the foundation of
that branch of art in Germany. These pieces
deserve notice, and are as follows : ' History of
our Lord's Resurrection, ' The Seven Words of
our dear Saviour and Eedeemer Jesus Christ,
which he spoke on the Tree of the Holy Cross ;
set to music most touchingly,' and * The Passion
according to the four Evangelists ;' this latter
he considered his chef-d'oeuwe. Schiitz's only
secular piece was his opera * Daphne' the first in
Germany, and performed [1627] on the occa-
sion of a princely wedding at Torgau. It was
composed to Opitz's translation of Einuccini's
poem, and is a first and only attempt ; but on
that account all the more remarkable. Thus, we
find in Schiitz an artist of great and varied
powers, who, though almost forgotten at the
present day, was by his contemporaries not
inaptly called the " father of German music."
The succeeding period, during which neither
congregational nor choir singing made any ad-
vance, and the Hamburg Opera alone flourished
for a short space, was, for Germany, a transition
period — conservative merely as concerns the
methods of art, and preparatory to the appearance
THE PROTESTANT CHURCH SONG. 77
of Bach and Handel. Both these creative
geniuses — each in his different Hne — brought
Protestant music to the utmost perfection ; at the
same time they mark the epoch when "a new-
nation made its appearance, and took first rank in
the History of Music."
CHAPTER VIII.
JoHANN Sebastian Bach (The Sacred Cantata).
JoHANN Sebastian Bach, who, in continuation of
the foregoing remarks, comes next under our
notice, was born at Eisenach (Luther's birth-
place) on the 12th of March, 1685.* After
having been [since 1704] organist at Arnstadt,
Miihlhausen, Weimar, and Kothen, successively,
he was appointed [1723] precentor at the Tliomas'
School, Leipsic, which office he held till liis death
[July 28th, 1750]. One incident of a singularly
uneventful life deserves notice, — his encounter
[1717] with the French organist royal, Marchand,
whom he vanquished without an effort, seeing
that, instead of appearing at the hour appointed
for the contest with Bach, Marchand " took the
express, and vanished from Dresden at break of
day !" Bach occasionally visited Dresden with
his eldest son Friedemann, in order to (what
* Ueber Joh. Seh. BacJi's Leben, Kunst und KunstwerJce, von
J. W. FoRKFL. Leipzig, 1802. New edition, 1855.
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 79
" thoughtful " musicians in these days would think
very ill of him for doing) hear the Italian operas
of Hasse and others. In his latter years, shortly
before he became blind [1747], Frederick the
Great sent for him. At that time, his son
Emanuel was accompanyist (on the clavichord) to
the royal flute-player — by no means a perfect
timist. The king was " wonderfully struck "
with the bold artistic performance of the elder
Bach.
In accordance with the even tenour of a life
solely and earnestly devoted to the study of his
art, and in marked contrast to other great masters
of the period (especially Handel, Hasse, and
Gluck), the field of Bach's energies was restricted
to his own country — nay, to only a limited
portion of that country — , and was almost exclu-
sively employed in the service of his Church.
True it is, he did not particularly affect congre-
gational singing, and the greater part of the
chorale songs collected from his Cantatas have
never been completely adopted by the Church,
nor were they intended to lead the congregational
song. His grand individuality stands so entirely
aloof from the comprehension and sympathy of
the average, that, down to the present day, he is
the least popular of any composer. But in all
his works — in the Preludes and Fugues for organ,
in his Motets, Cantatas, and ' Passions ' — we find
the old Church tune rendered in a very character-
80 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
istic and original manner. In this respect, Bach
(who has been called the *' musical embodiment
of contemplative Lutheranism '') displays a re-
markable affinity to the greatest composer of the
Mother Church — Palestrina — ,who in like manner
almost always based his compositions on the
Gregorian chant. And as this latter composed
entirely for the Sistine choir, so did the Leipsic
precentor work solely and immediately for Divine
service and his choir at the Thomas' School.
Both these gifted men also resemble each other
in the simple Christian tenour of their lives ;
both worked principally for the Church ; but
Bach not so exclusively, and with greater indivi-
duality of expression — as well in detail, as with
regard to instrumental accompaniment.
All Bach's numerous sacred vocal compositions
— his Motets, Cantatas and " Passions " — are the
result of this tendency of his genius, always
employed on the musical treatment of the chorale
and its text. The Cantatas for all the Sundays
and holidays in the year, of which there is said
to have been five entire series (answering to as
many years), above three hundred altogether, are
even more remarkable than his Motets for one and
two choirs without instrumental accompaniment.
A part of the latter is now lost. It is related
that Mozart spent several hours of his brief visit
to Leipsic in studying them. While closely ad-
hering to the Liturgy, Bach displays in the treat-
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 81
ment of the text (which was on each occasion,
by previous understanding, made to correspond
with the sermon) a truly marvellous wealth of
grand, and original musical invention. Besides
an introductory chorus, each Cantata contains
several recitatives and airs or duets (though these
latter but seldom) and a concluding chorale.
But the cantus firmus of the chorale forms the
ground-work of all the pieces equally, and is
skilfully varied and arranged so as to correspond
to the sense of the words. ''Although delight-
ing in the utmost variety of form, he never loses
sight of the religious feeling embodied in the
text. The treble or bass, &c. sing the usual
Church song, while the remaining voices add
their solemn, joyful, or plaintive strains."* Be-
sides the organ, the stringed quartet, flutes,
hautboys, and trumpets are employed in the
accompaniment.
Eobert Franz has recently published a very
successful pianoforte edition of several of the
Cantatas. It is all the more valuable to us,
because not only several of the instruments (as
for example the violoncello piccolo and the corni da
caccia) are no longer in use, but the constant
ohligato treatment of the others (particularly of the
trumpets) would probably throw great difficulties
in the way of a perfotmance of these pieces in the
* Heimsoeth. Vol. iii., p. 861.
G
82 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
original form. It is only some of the texts that
are antiquated ; their naive mysticism no longer
suits our taste and feeling. But with regard
even to this objection, the following words of
S. Bagge (in his detailed and profound criticism
of the ' Passion according ^to St. Matthew ' on
the occasion of its performance at Vienna)* are
applicable. "The words may savour ever so
much of * pietism/ the principal thing to bear in
mind is, that the music penetrates and ennobles
both words and sentiment, and endows them with
the utmost sublimity of expression. We are
therefore led to overlook the actual words, just as
in an opera of Mozart, or in Fidelio, or a song of
Schubert's, we forgive the weakness of the poetry.*'
The so-called Christmas Oratorio may be de-
scribed as a Cantata in a more florid and detailed
style — a cheerful idyllic piece as contrasted with
the * Passions micsikJ
But his principal sacred composition in this
style is the grand double-choired ' Passion ' ac-
cording to St. Matthew (chapters xxvi. and xxvii.),
called the Matthduspassion, It was performed
for the first time in St. Thomas's Church, Leipsic,
at vespers on Good Friday, 1729, and consisted
of two distinct parts, between which was preached
the midnight sermon.
* Deutsche Musikzeitung. Jahrg. 1862. No. 17.
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 83
" The orchestra is divided into two choruses — the Sionites and the
Faithful — which are placed on different sides. The Sionites are
assembled to follow the sufferings of the Just One ; they call on
their companions in the faith to do likewise. Between the choruses
is heard the well-known chorale, whose words contain the mystery
of salvation — " Oh, Thou guileless Lamb of God."* The solemn
service thus opened, there follows the narrative, word for word,
according to St. Matthew, in the course of which Gospel personages
speak in character, the choruses coming in between ; thus forming
part of the service. The chorus of the People (turha) represents the
law and the crowd — bigoted, intolerant, cold, discontented; while
sympathizing, peaceful, and loving, the disciples of Jesus and their
followers are scattered among the coarse, unfeeling populace. They
are in the minority, and do not come forward prominently till the
end of the first part, when all is lost ; but they remain faithful to
the last, and follow their Lord to the grave, trusting in the victory
of their f{iith."f At suitable periods of the narrative, simple and
touching reflections are introduced — sometimes in the form of an air
or duet (with or without the addition of chorus), at others in the
religious choral hymn of the Church, suitably arranged — all in such
a simple, heartfelt manner, that the people can follow it with
sympathy and join in the chorales, so that the result is a really
solemn religious service for the entire congregation.
The chorases are the finest of all ; both the grand lyrical ones of
the imaginary crowd (at the beginning and end of the first; and
particularly the end of the second part), as well as those which
represent the Jewish people — dramatic, excited, fanatic, cruel. The
most imposing of all is the mighty chorus : " Have thunders and
lightnings both vanished in clouds ?":t the sublimity of which
astounded even Oullblcheff, who seldom admires any music but
Mozart's. It was encored at the first performance of the ' Passion '
at Vienna (Good Friday, April 15th, 1862). Songs written for
solo voices are always the most transient part of any great work ; but
in this one of Bach's there is very little one would wish to see
omitted. The whole of the accompanied recitatives are very
remarkable; among the airs we distinguish one for treble: " Pte-
* " Lamm Gottes unschuldig."
t Zelter. Preface to the book of the first Berlin performance,
+ " Sind Blitze und Bonner in Wolken verschwunden."
84 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
pentance and sorrow,"* and, above all, another for counter-tenor with
violin solo : " My God, have mercy !"t They have a melody and
beauty such as we should hardly expect to find in the learned fugue
writer. But it is in the treatment of the Evangelist's words that
Bach's great originality proclaims itself. No subsequent composer
can ever hope to emulate his unaffected piety of expression. Even
in the ordinary secco recitative, Bach's wonderful skill shines forth ;
it is quite impossible to imagine a more judicious and appropriate
rendering of the text. Another jxjint worthy of observation — as
affording a strong contrast to the increasing tendency to dramatize in
the modem Oratorio — is that Bach passes over without emphasis
points that would furnish op^jortunity for "dramatic effect," but
which do not strictly belong to the main subject — as, for example,
the death of Judas the traitor.
The orchestra is everywhere employed with careful reference to
the meaning of the words ; double orchestra for the full choruses,
and single orchestra for the rest. Many of the airs and accompanied
recitatives have obligato instruments ; the words of Christ have
nothing but a quartet accomimniment, while the harpsichord
(cemhalo) is used for the chords of the secco recitative. The accom-
paniment, generally speaking very subdued, rises with the force and
dignity of the words. When Jesus speaks — always, as we have
said, to a quartet accompaniment of treble chords — it is as if the
Holy Saviour were represented encompassed by a halo of glory.
Worthy of notice, also, is the charming ohligato management of the
wood instruments, particularly in the air " I will watch with Jesus "J
(hautboy), and the recitative "Golgotha, alas!"§ (clarionet.)
Dramatic pre-eminence of the whole orchestra by itself is, of course,
out of the question. It is only on one occasion — the death of Christ — ,
when the voices cease, that it comes forward on its own account — ^a
dramatic personality, as it were.
The poem which embodies the words of the Evangelist is by
Friedrich Henrici, surnamed Picander [1700—1764]. It bears traces
of an un poetical age ; yet has, as Bbhmll very justly remarks, " with
* " Bicss und Beu':'
t " Erharme dich, mein Gott.^^
I " Ich ivill hei meinem Jesus wacJien.^^
§ " Ach Oolgatha."
II Das Oratorium. Eine historische Studie von F. M. Bohme.
Leipzig, 1861.
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 85
all its affectation and exaggeration, on the whole, expressed the
sentiment of genuine Gospel faith with more truth and accuracy than
all the bald, formal rhymes that appeared subsequently."
After exactly one hundred years' rest and oblivion, Mendelssohn
revived^this noble and sublime composition. It was performed,
under his auspices, by the Berlin Singahademie on Good Friday
(March 12th, 1829), and again by general desire on March 21st —
Bach's birthday. The solemn season of Passion Week was well
chosen for the public performance of this work; for the deeply
religious spirit in which it is written requires, in order to be felt
and appreciated, a corresponding devout frame of mind in the listener
— one which can scarcely be realized at any other season, except in
church. Even Berlioz — a Frenchman — said, after one of the Berlin
performances of the * Passionsmusik,' " it was not a concert, but
Divine service he had been attending."
Of the smaller, and probably earlier, JoJmnnespassion^ Fr.
Rochlitz* has prepared an " accurate index, interspersed with a few
observations." He considers as the climax of the work, and what
cannot be sufficiently admired, " the actual biblical and historical —
consequently the descriptive element, as apart from that of expres-
sion, viz., the recitatives and the numerous greater or smaller
choruses that are interwoven with them." Besides a manuscript
* Passion ' according to St. Luke, of doubtful authenticity, two other
* Passionsmusik ' are said to have existed.
Bach, although a pious Protestant, did not
withhold his talents from the Eoman Catholic
Church — a proof that he was free from any sec-
tarian spirit; Still less was he a bigoted or in-
tolerant man ; but one fully capable of realizing
the essence and true spirit of Christianity, apart
from the formal dogmatism of different creeds.
The finest of his Masses is the so-called Grand or
High Mass in B minor (a 8 voci reali e 4 ripiene).
Of modern compositions of this kind, it is perhaps
the only one which has successfully combined the
* Fiir Freunde der Tonkunst. Vol. iv. p. 435 — 448.
86 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
purity and dignity of Church feeling with origin-
ality of invention and the unrestricted employment
of all the resources of art (chorus and solo, or-
chestra and organ). More especially in the Credo,
the Sanctus, and Osanna, has the grand choral
polyphony once more splendidly asserted its
claims to be, of all others, the form which is most
admirably adapted to express the fervour and
solemnity of religious feeling. The * High Mass *
has, on account of its marvellous polyphonous
structure, been described as a Gothic cathedral in
music ; — in like manner, the early Italian Opera
may be likened to the florid Eenaissance archi-
tecture, while Gluck's would answer to the chaste
and severe Grecian temple.
As to Bach's instrumental works, we shall, as
a matter of course, assign the priority to those
which (according to Beethoven) represent him as
the "patriarch of harmony,*' viz. — his composi-
tions for the Organ, consisting in the profound
and masterly treatment of the chorale in a series
of preludes and variations, as well as pieces in the
less severe form of the Fantasia with Fugue. " It
was (says K. M. von Weber)* his perfect com-
mand of the organ that determined the bent of
his genius. The grandiose character of this noble
instrument reminds one strongly of Bach ; while
the magnificence of his works, in point of har-
* Hinterl Schriften. Vol. iii., p. 67.
JOHANN SEBASTIATiT BACH. 87
mony, is due to tlie ingenuity and acuteness of
intellect which enabled him to combine the most
seemingly contradictory lines of harmony to a
perfect whole. This freedom in the flow of dif-
ferent parts, while the utmost smoothness is
maintained throughout, forced him to invent new
aids to the execution of his pieces. Hence it
arose that pianoforte-playing, in particular, enjoys
the advantages of a system o^ fingering , which was
first promulgated by his son Emanuel. Its pecu-
liarity consisted in the adoption of the thumb in
playing ; whereas, before his time, the four fingers
only were usually employed." Both as organist
and composer for the organ. Bach stands unri-
valled in the annals of art. Not only did he sur-
pass all his predecessors : Joh. Jacob Froberger
[born 1637], Frescobaldi's pupil, Scheidt, Kerl,
Pachelbel, and J. A. Retnecke, in boldness of
execution and grandeur of conception, he has
never been equalled by his successors : Joh.
Christian Kittel [1732—1809], his best pupil,
and the pupils of this latter : M. G. Fischer,
Hassler, UxMbreit, and Joh. Christian Rink
[1770 — 1846] — the patriarch of modern or-
ganists.
Bach's pianoforte works are, at the present day,
highly esteemed rather than actually known.
The Well-tempered Clavichord, "^ of which the
* " Das wohltemperirte Klavier. (' 2 Mai 24 Prdludien und
Fugen durch alle Tonarten.')"
88 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
first edition appeared in 1800 (fifty years after
the composer's death), forms no exception to this
rule. Indeed, the generahty of pianoforte musi-
cians are of opinion that this music is no longer
adapted to our taste — is, in short, too formal in
style^ as well as devoid of feeling and expression.
But the fact is, that very few performers can play
these pieces, particularly the fugues, correctly and
fluently, and, what is of still more consequence,
in the true Bach spirit. Even those who have
mastered the difficulties of Mozart and Beethoven
will hesitate to attempt these colossi. The best
preparation for this (Bach's greatest pianoforte
work) are the small and great (English) Suites —
a " series " of, generally speaking, dance tunes in
every variety of time, rhythm, and expression,
but all in the same key, and — unhke the more
modern Sonata — unconnected with each other.
The Prelude, also called Ouverture or Entree, is
usually succeeded by the gentle German Alle-
mande, the lively French Courante, the Sara-
hande fuU of Spanish grandezza, and the excited
Italian Gigue, Other forms of the dance tune
are the stately Menuetto, the Gavotte, Bourree,
Pavane, Passecaille, Chaconne, &c, " Bach was
the first who embodied artistic feeling in this
kind of casual form ; he displayed so much ori-
ginality of invention, both of melody and har-
mony, in the ' Suites Anglaises' that the bright-
ness and animation, as well as the admirable
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 89
keeping and dignity of these pieces, will always
cause them to be regarded as models of style."*
Even those who look upon these graceful
pieces in rhythmical dance measure merely as
a kind of ''etude'' will derive considerable en-
joyment from their vivacious, stirring move-
ment. — Bach's 'Suites' for orchestra are, on
the whole, inferior to them, and only histori-
cally valuable.
The Invenzioni — small model pieces for the
cultivation of skill and taste — are chiefly import-
ant as studies. The original title-page explains
their object : " A complete Gruide, to show lovers
of the pianoforte a clear method of playing cor-
rectly in two parts ; and also how to obtain good
' inventiones' and to carry them out properly;
above all, to acquire a ' cantabile ' style of playing,
and a good foretaste of composition." — The
grander compositions for concert performances
are, besides the (30) 'Goldberg Variations' the
Chromatic Fantasia — a model of ingenious and,
at the same time, easy-flowing modulations — , the
Concert in the Italian style, and the concerts for
one and several pianofortes after the violin concerts
of Vivaldi [died 1743]. — Bach's last production
was the Art of the Fugue, ^ which was engraved by
himself and his son. The four-part arrangement
* F. Hand. Aesthetik der Tonhunst. Zwei Theile. Jena, 1837,
1841. Vol. ii., p. 364.
t ' Kunst der Fuge* Compare M. Hauptmann. Erlduterungen
zu J. S. Bach's * Kunst der FugeJ*
90 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
of the chorale, '' When in deep distress "* (in the
Appendix), was composed only a few days before
his death.
The commonly-received opinion is that these
compositions, as well as Bach's music in general,
are out of date, dry, too learned, too studied, un-
intelligible — in short, destitute of melody ; where-
as, on the contrary, it is only too rich and massive
for our ear (unaccustomed to genuine polyphony) ;
the melody, so to speak, predominating through-
out. On this head we will quote Forkel'sf ad-
mirable words. ** In Bach's fugues we find all
those conditions fulfilled which, generally speak-
ing, are only required in the freer styles of com-
position. An admirable theme, leading into an
equally admirable tune originating in the
theme from beginning to end ; the remaining
parts are not mere accompaniment ^ but each is an
independent tune in itself, harmonizing with the
rest ; the progression of the whole piece is easy,
free, and flowing ; inexhaustible richness of modu-
lation is combined with irreproachable purity of
harmony ; and, lastly, an ideal atmosphere enve-
lopes the whole, so that the performer or listener
almost fancies the sounds are metamorphosed into
spirits." While many a great musician has pro-
duced some, more or less, inferior works, there
are, among Bach's compositions, some that appear
* " Wenn wir in hochsten Nothen sein.*^
f Ueber Joh. Seb. Baches Leben^ &c., p. 23.
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 91
singular to us, but certainly none that are weak.
Bach's music is contrapuntal in conception, grand,
and peculiar ; it is, therefore, no wonder that it
cannot be relished by boarding-school misses and
young ladies .who strum "Arrangements," etc.;
but it is downright intellectual music for " men,
and such women as are capable of appreciating a
right good man."* We are here reminded of the
highly cultivated artist, grown grey in the exer-
cise of manifold branches of art — ^ Angelica Eom-
berg, who was actually moved to tears when lis-
tening to a Prelude of Bach's. Nothing, indeed,
would tend so effectually to improve and form the
taste, and especially to raise the tone of pianoforte-
playing — greatly deteriorated since it has become
a fashionable female accomplishment — and com-
position, as a constant recurrence to the venerable
Bach.f On the other hand, it would, of course, be
worse than ignoring him altogether, to restrict
one's self entirely to his music, and to affect in-
difference to the superior charm, beauty, and
sweetness of more modern music.
To resume : Bach's historical fame rests on
his sacred music — especially the * Passions,' and
his organ compositions. What Palestrina had
been to the Eoman Catholic, Bach was to the
* Goethe.
t Compare Eochlitz. " Vom Geschmach an Seh. Bach's Corn-
posit ionen^ besonders fur das Klavier.'" Filr Freunde der Tankunst.
Vol. ii., p. 205-230.
92 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Protestant Church, whereas his sons on the other
hand, particularly ' Phillip p Emanuel — who in
another line did so much for the advancement of
art — ,the original, but unfortunate rRiEDEMANN,as
well as the polished " Londoner" or " Milanese,"
JoH. Christian, directed their efforts wholly to
secular music. Phil. Emanuel admitted that he
" was forced to adopt a style of his own, as he
never could have equalled his father in his own
particular province." A number of musicians —
contemporary as well as subsequent — adopted
Bach's manner in their Church compositions, as
for instance : Telemann at Hamburg, Stolzel at
Gotha, HoMiLius, Doles, Schicht, and others.
They have all left several annual series of Church
music, * Passions,' &c. But, sublime above them
all stands Sebastian Bach — a monument of
severe German art, and that, at a time when
a totally different style (the Italian) was gain-
ing ground around him.
Fr. Eochlitz* distinguishes, from among the
crowd of those who called themselves Bach's dis-
ciples, the following as worthy a place in the
History of Art : the organists Joh. Caspar
Vogler and Joh. Ludwig Krebs — of whom the
first somewhat approached Bach in manual skill,
and the latter in conception and feeling — also
Gottfr. Aug. HoMiLius (" Bach popularized ")
* Fer Fi-eunde der Tonkunst. Vol. iv., p. 165.
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 93
and Job. Phil. Kirnberger, the famous thorough-
bass master, and Court musician to the Princess
Amalia of Prussia. The theories set forth in
his writings (' The Art of correct Composition '*
and ' True Principles of Harmony 'f) are deduced
from the compositions of Bach. — " Handel had
neither time nor inclination to form pupils.
Smith was only his faithful amanuensis." (Com-
pare Eochlitz' admirable parallel between Bach
and Handel.)!
In 1843, a simple monument was, by Mendels-
sohn's instigation, erected to the memory (for a
long time almost forgotten) of the maestro,
close to his old official abode. A revised edition,
with notes, of all his works has been published in
two parts or volumes by the Leipzig Bach
Society (founded in 1850, the centenary of
his death). It has already reached the twelfth
annual series. According to the example set by
Mendelssohn, Marx, Mosewius, and others, sepa-
rate "Bach Societies" have been organized for
the express practice of Bach's great vocal pieces,
in Berlin, Breslau, and other cities. The concert
performances of Clara Wieck (afterwards Schu-
mann), Liszt, and their disciples, as, for instance,
Hans von Bulow and others, have done a great
* ' Eunst des reinen Satzes.'
t * Wahre Grundsdtze zum Gebrauche der Harmonie.''
% Fur Freunde der Tonkunst. Vol. iv., p. 153-164, reprinted
with some omissions in Brendel's History of Music, p. 212-215.
94 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
deal towards reviving the taste for a portion of
Bach's pianoforte works.* That " the present
generation is able and willing to study Sebastian
Bach '' may, according to that acute observer,
Riehl, confidently be taken as a favourable sign of
musical improvement. May his bolder prophecy,
concerning Bach, be fulfilled : " He was born for
the schools and connoisseurs in the eighteenth,
but for the nation in the nineteenth, century !"
* Note by the Tbanslator. Recently, in England, Hall^ has
introduced the works of Seb. Bach in bis " Pianoforte Recitals."
CHAPTER IX.
George Frederick Handel (The Oratorio).
George Frederick Handel, Bach's great con-
temporary, was born February 23rd, 1685, at
Halle, in Saxony, where his father (then upwards
of sixty years of age) practised as a surgeon.*
The boy being destined for the law, the father
used every endeavour to repress the early mani-
festations of musical genius in his son. In de-
fiance, however, of paternal injunctions, the child
contrived to play the harpsichord in secret. In
his seventh year, at the instance and with the
support of the Duke of Weissenfels — who
happened to hear him play on the organ — he was
placed under the tuition of the celebrated Zachau,
organist at Halle. For the space of seven years
* (7. F. Bdndely von Friedrich Chrysander. Zwei Bsinde,
Leipzig, 1858, 1860. Handel^ his Life^ Personal and Professional^
by Mrs. Bray. Studies on Handel, by H. F. Chorley. HandeCs
Pedigree, by K. E. Forstemann. The Life of Handel, by V.
SCHOLCHEfi..
96 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
he worked iinreinittingly both at execution and
harmony, at the end of which period his master
frankly admitted he could teach him nothing
more. His father's death occurring shortly after-
wards, Handel sought a wider field for the exer-
cise of his talents. Already [in 1698] acquainted
with the musical attractions — especially the
Italian Opera — of Berlin, he was possessed with
the desire of seeing more of the world. Accor-
dingly, he turned his steps to Hamburg [1703],
and was, in the first instance, engaged at the
theatre as second violinist. While there, several
of his Operas (' Almira,' ' Nero,' and others),
were produced on the stage with considerable
success.
At the time of Handel's arrival in Hamburg, the German Opera,
founded there in 1678, was no longer in its prime, though Keiser, its
best representative, was still in full activity. Whereas, at the German
Courts the Italian Opera alone was in vogue, at Hamburg, which
boasted the largest of the city theatres (so numerous at that time),
operas by German musicians were brought on the stage, and (their
existence depending entirely on the support and sympathy of the
audience) in the German language. In order to conciliate, as far as
possible, the theological prejudices of the age, the first attempts were
made with subjects taken from the Old Testament (for example,
Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, &c.) ; but soon, operas were always
taken from secular subjects, after French and Italian models. Since
the year 1690, the operas of Steffaxi [1655 — 1730], translated into
German, were in great favour. (He was chapel-master at Hanover,
and famous also for his chamber duets). But Eeinhold Keiser
[1673 — 1739] — considered by Hasse equal even to Al. Scarlatti — gave
to the Hamburg stage a marked pre-eminence by his (circa) 120 melo-
dramas, written (subsequently to 1696) expressly for that theatre.
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 97
Without endorsing Lindner's* opinion that he was the " Mozart of
the first epoch of German dramatic music," we have no hesitation in
affirming that he is the first German dramatic composer previous
to Mozart — particularly excelling in the air and accompanied
recitative. " Whatever he said, especially in the love-scenes, was so
naturally and gracefully expressed, and fell on the ear in so rich,
flowing, and melodious a manner, that one is even more tempted to
love than admire."t Mattheson [1681 — 1764], the opera singer and
composer (in after years, author of a considerable series of theo-
retical and analytical works), as also Telemann [1681 — 1767], the
imitator of Lully — fertile in production, poor in invention, but of
great technical ability, are quite inferior as compared to Keiser.
After 1718, when Keiser retired from the stage for a considerable
time, the Hamburg Opera deteriorated greatly. Music from diiferent
composers was pieced together to make an opera, or when Italian
operas were performed, the airs were sung in Italian and the rest
in German — perhaps for lack of performers who could sing in
Italian.
The German Opera thus totally bankrupt, the Italian Opera
(" under high patronage ") reigned sole and supreme, and was
supported, in an almost greater degree than heretofore, by such
extravagant admiration and expenditure as was utterly fatal to any
independent efforts. The great German masters, Handel, Hasse,
and Graun, wrote for Italy and the Italian Opera in London,
Dresden, and Berlin ; and even Gluck only met with full apprecia-
tion in France — after having, like Handel, devoted his talents,
during the greater part of his life, to the Italian Opera.
Handel's melodramas (as was afterwards the
case with his operas in London) having been
banished the stage by unworthy intrigues, the
undaunted musician — with some money scraped
together by pianoforte teaching — set out [in the
early part of 1707] for Italy. (He refused the
* Die erste stehende deutsche Oper. Dargestellt von E. 0. Lindner.
Berlin, 1855.
t Mattheson.
H
98 . HISTORY OF MUSIC.
heir apparent of Tuscany's offer to accompany
him thither free of expense.) It was the true
instinct of genius that impelled him to visit that
country — the cradle of art — , although the desire
to " mature himself and gain experience "* was
probably not so distinctly held in view by Handel
as it was afterwards by Goethe. Handel was
welcomed in all the great cities with all possible
honours, not only by the easily excited people
— who greeted him in the theatres with shouts
of *' Caro Sassone " — , but by fellow-artists, such
as Lotti, Al. Scarlatti and his son Domenico (the
celebrated harpsichord performer and composer),
Corelli, &c. Thus encouraged, Handel remained
in Italy upwards of three years. Of all musi-
cians anterior to Mozart undoubtedly the most
universal, he, like this latter, knew how to fall in
with the prevailing taste while retaining his own
artistic individuality, and, consequently, never
failed of success.
Thus, for Florence and Venice he wrote the
Operas * Eodrigo ' and * Agrippina ;' for Eome
(besides other sacred compositions) the Oratorios
* La Eesurrezione ' and ' II trionfo del tempo e
del disinganno;' while for Naples he composed
secular Cantatas with instrumental accompani-
ment ; among others, the pastoral play 'Aci,
Galatea e Polifemo ' — " the musical, as ' Pastor
* Chbysander.
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 99
fido' was the poetical, essence of Arcadian feel-
ing:/'* Both of these last-named works he
afterwards set to English words (' Acis and
Galatea,' 1720, "The triumph of time and truth,"
1737) ; in like manner, he was wont to take the
best pieces of his earlier sacred and secular com-
positions, and (often with very trifling altera-
tions) incorporate them in his later operas and
oratorios.
In 1710, Handel was appointed to succeed
Steffani at Hanover ; and in the autumn of that
year he paid a visit to London — where, since
Purcell's death, the Italian Opera was all the
fashion. His Opera ' Einaldo ' (composed with-
in a fortnight) was performed there in the early
part of 1711, on which occasion the airs " Cava
sposa'' and '' Lascia cKio piajiga" created im-
mense sensation.
In London, where, however, excellent musicians were not wanting,
Handel met with no rival, whether as a performer or composer.
England (according to Chrysander) could formerly boast an epoch of
first-rate musical excellence ; but that was, at the period of which we
are treating, a thing of the past. The most remarkable English
composer who may be regarded as Handel's predecessor was Henry
PuRCELL [1658 — 1695]. Similar to H. Schiitz in Germany, he was
the representative of national music as distinguished from that so
largely imported from France and Italy — yet he was unable to
establish an English style or school of music. English music,
properly speaking, had long since reached its zenith in the glorious
reign of Queen Elizabeth — so prosperous for art as well as for tlie
nation. Tallis [born circa 1520, died 1585] and his celebrated
♦ Chrysander.
100 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
pupil, William Bird [born circa 1545, died 1623], were excellent
organists as well as composers. In style, they somewhat resemble
the early Italian — in particular the Venetian — school, and their
chants are to this day heard in English cathedrals and churches.
Admirable composers, both of sacred and secular music (in the
Anthem, Motet, and Madrigal), were also : Thomas Morley [died
circa 1604], John Dowt.and [born in 1562], John Bennet [flourished
circa 1599], Orlando Gibbons [1583—1625], Pelham Humphreys
[1647—1674], John Blow [1648—1708], and others ; all of whom
have bequeathed us many charming pieces breathing a sweetness of
melody and tenderness of expression that justly entitle them to the
affectionate remembrance of posterity. Among subsequent com-
posers. Dr. Arne [1710 — 1778], Arnold, Storage, Dibdin (famous
for his sea-songs), and, more recently still, Calcott, Horsley,
Bishop and Glover, are of historical importance.*
After a second leave of absence [1712], Handel
never returned to his official duties at Hanover.
His composition in commemoration of the Peace
of Utrecht [1713], called the Utrecht TeDeumsmd
Jubilate (to be, however, distinguished from the
greatly superior Dettingen Te Deum of thirty years
later), procured him a grant of £200 per annum
from Queen Anne ; and he succeeded in concili-
ating his late master the Elector of Hanover,
on his arrival in England as George I. [1714],^
by his Water Music — composed on the occasion
of a royal pleasure party on the Thames. When
travelling in the King's suite in Germany [1716],
Handel took the opportunity of visiting Ham-
burg and Halle. It is probable that it was
* Note by the Transk<vtor. Those who desire further informa-
tion concerning English music and English musicians are referred to
Hogarth's Musical History, Chapters II. (p. 50), V., VI., VIII.,
XIV., XV., XXI., XXIL, XXIII.
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 101
during his stay at Hamburg he composed a
German Passionsmusih after Brookes' poem
('The sufferings and death of Jesus Christ
for the sins of the world, described in verse
after the four Evangelists by B. H. Brockes')
— a subject which has been treated both previ-
ously and subsequently by his former fellow-
musicians at Hamburg — Keiser, Telemann, and
Mattheson.
From 1717 to 1720, Handel resided in the
capacity of chapel-master to the Duke of
Chandos at Cannons ; and, during this period,
composed the famous Cliandos Anthems (twelve
in number). In these compositions, as well as in
the (four) Coronation and Funeral Anthems of a
later date, his manner of interspersing choruses
with solo songs, and two and three part solo
pieces with instrumental accompaniments, re-
minds one strongly of the grand Oratorios he
composed long afterwards ; for which reason,
Chrysander classes them with these in regard to
form and matter, and even considers them as the
preparation and studies for these latter. *'The
word ' Anthem ' (^Ant-hymn) originally referred
to some portion of the church service, and has
only this in common with its present relation to
the choir song, that it follows on the chorale,
or liturgical chant of the officiating priest. Now,
we understand it to apply to that genus of com-
position which in the main combines the Motet
102 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and Cantata. As the cantos of an epic refer
to one grand centre of heroic deeds and actions,
so does this series of songs of praise and thanks-
giving form a united whole, and thus becomes
almost an oratorio." Undoubtedly, it is neither
by accident nor without a significance of its own
that Handers first English Oratorio, Esther, fol-
lowed [1720] immediately on the Chandos
Anthems ; though it must be admitted that the
very operatic style of this Oratorio, as well as
Athaliah and Deborah [1733] (even when remodel-
led in 1732), has little in common with his subse-
quent grand productions. Thus we see Handel,
when free to follow the instincts of his genius
and his own incHnation, making the first attempts
in his own peculiar province of Oratorio composi-
tion — one which he probably little thought he
should have to relinquish for twenty years when
appointed to the management of the new Italian
Opera founded by subscription of the nobility.
But Handel, a man of gigantic proportions
both of mind and body, could not adapt his fine,
manly nature to the caprices of actors and singers
(Ouzzoni, Duristanti, Senesino, &c.) ; and it is
only to be wondered that it did not come to an
open rupture before his insisting, but without
avail, on the dismissal of the arrogant soprano,
Senesino. The nobility opened a new Opera
house, for which Farinelli and Faustina, with
their composers in ordinary, Porpora and Hasse,
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 103
were in turn engaged — a combination which
Handel, with far inferior resources, was wholly
unable to compete with. Unsuccessful with two
theatres (Hay market and Co vent Garden), nearly
ruined in pocket, and completely prostrated both
in body and mind, Handel was fain to retire
altogether from the Opera [1736].
Handel's Operas — like all those of the period —
have lost their value for our generation ; but the
advantage which the great musician himself de-
rived from his long and (so far as public success
was concerned) disastrous connexion with the
Opera, is not to be lightly esteemed. Very
striking is Chrysander's parallel between, the
Operas of Handel and the Comedies of Shake-
speare. That writer is of opinion that Comedy
and Opera were in both instances the best possible
schooling " these great artists could have under-
gone, in order to give shape and consistency to
their creations, and by a complete mastery of the
forms of art, to free themselves from the con-
straining influence of those forms. Had they
restricted themselves solely to Tragedy and Ora-
torio, they had never effected this in so remark-
able a degree. — As with Shakespeare Comedy
preceded Tragedy, so with Handel did the Ora-
torio succeed to the Opera— in both instances the
lighter and less congenial st^de was the founda-
tion of nobler and grander productions.'*
Tortured by gout, and almost on the verge of
104 HISTORY OF MUSIC. ^
insanity, Handel sought and obtained relief from
the baths of Aix-la-ChapeUe [1737]. Struck
with admiration by his wonderful performance on
the organ, devotees exclaimed : *' Saint Cecilia has
restored him to health that he may sing her
praises !" Truly and splendidly did Handel
afterwards fulfil this saying in a series of im-
mortal master-pieces. Very significant is the
transition from Opera to Oratorio which we mark
in ^Alexander s Feast,' composed to Dryden's Ode
in honour of Saint Cecilia [1736]. "In the
person of Timotheus, the singer who
* Could swell the soul to rage, or kindle soft desire,'
this highly imaginative poem portrays the
power of music in old Grecian times, and closes
with a reference to the sublimer influence of
Cliristian music, personified in Saint Cecilia.
* Let old Timotheus yield the prize.
Or both divide the crown ;
He raised a mortal to the skies,
She drew an angel down.'
In these words the poet concludes, by revealing
the happy union of both the Grecian and Christian
element in music. Handel's work has shed new
lustre on this graceful conception of the power of
music, and enriched it with an ideal colouring."*
This admirable composition, which so wonderfully
and accurately portrays sensations of the most
varied character, can be compared with nothing
* Chbysander.
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 105
in Handel's works but his rendering of Mil-
ton's exquisite poem, * L' Allegro ed il Pensieroso
— an ideal representation of the play of conflicting
passions and their final reconcilement and har-
mony in the third part, entitled * 11 Moderate '
After producing a few more mythological
subjects (^Semele ' after Congreve's dramatic poem,
and * The Choice of Hercules')^ no longer in the form
of Opera, but rather as Oratorio dramas — studies,
as it were, for the great works that were to follow
— , Handel, for the remainder of his life, turned his
attention exclusively (with what success we all
know) to the Oratorio proper (biblical in theme).
As his earlier sacred compositions were usually
written for some special state occasion, so, in like
manner, are his Oratorios (owing to previous
dramatic experience) adorned with all imaginable
richness and splendour. "The broad, grand
foundation of chorus which underlays the whole
work, and in which all the resources of counter-
point are employed with marvellous skill and
learning, yet without detriment to the distinct,
popular character of the chorus, is always forcible
and expressive, as are also the solo parts, however
brilliant and florid.* He has hit the exact
medium between the solemnity of the sacred text
* We cannot entirely concur in the above remarks. Handel
(according to Chrysander) actually transferred the " air " from the
Opera to the Oratorio ; wherefore, it is obvious that those written
chiefly with a view to display the vocal attainments so cherished at
106 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and the requirements of dramatic effect, and
thereby created a genuine Oratorio style, worthy
of imitation for ages to come."*
In 1738, ISRAEL IN EG YP T, the grandest
of Old Testament oratorios — the nation itself being
the centre of interest — , was given to the world.
Handel is grand beyond description when he
represents the people rising to arms, giving
battle, and celebrating their triumph. He does
indeed (to use Mozart's expression) peal forth
like a thunder-clap in the mighty choruses : " He
led them through," " The horse and his rider," and
a number of others ; and to what shall we liken
them, as well as the noble duet for two basses,
" The Lord is a man of war," for sublimity and
colossal grandeur? on the other hand, to what
compare the wonderful instrumental imagery of
the Plagues of Egypt ? As Kriigerf admirably
expresses it : " The first part of ' Israel in Egypt*
is narrated with the plainness of an epic ; the second
describes a series of grand lyrical effusions, break-
ing forth into songs of triumph ; while the
powerful dramatic movement surging through-
out gives an air of reahty to the whole work."
that period, will be rejected by good taste, and omitted in public
performances. On the whole, 'therefore, both in the Oratorios and
Anthems, the solos are inferior to the choruses ; but even " if he
does scribble now and then, according to the fashion of the day,
there is always something in it." (Mozart.)
* Heimsoeth. Vol. iii., p. 860.
t Deutsche Masikzeitung. Vol. iii., p. 170.
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 107
After 1740, were produced: 'Saul' the 'Mes-
siah' 'Samson^' 'Belsazer/ * Susanna/ * Joseph/
* Judas Maccahceus' ' Joshua^' ' Solomon/ ' Theo-
dora/ and, finally, [1751] ' Jephtha — written by
Smith from Handel's dictation (for — like Bach —
the great musician was stone blind during his
latter years). Of all these oratorios (with the ex-
ception of the incomparable ' Messiah') ' Samson/
and * Judas Maccabseus ' are the finest and most
generally popular. In SAMSON the thrilling
pathos of Milton's poem is softened, while the effect
is immeasurably heightened, by the addition of
Handel's music, — the whole representing a work
of art which (sixteen for the most part anti-
quated airs and one duet with recitative having
been suppressed in Mosel's tolerably successful
remodelling of the text) will survive all changes
of time and fashion. As is evident from the
immense number of airs, it is no longer the
struggles of a nation, but the tragic fate of a
hero, that in this Oratorio challenges our sym-
pathy — the character of the entire work being
decidedly dramatic. Powerful as are the choruses
of Israelites and Philistines, it is the lamentations
of Samson and his followers which pierce our very
soul, while in the final scene the feelings of the
survivors are brought before us in the noble
Dead March from ' Saul,'* leading into the chorus
" Glorious hero, may thy grave peace and mercy
* The Funeral March in * Saul' is introduced likewise in * Samson.*
108 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
ever have" — closing, as it were, in one grand final
chord.
In JUDAS MACCABAEUS [August 11th,
1746] it is the nation, the affairs of the nation, and
its great religious wars, which once more rivet at-
tention. Whereas in Samson the prevailing senti-
ment was one of deep pathos, so many and varied
emotions are here called forth, that it were hard
to say whether mourning for the illustrious dead,
pious trust in God, martial strains, or, finally, ihe
triumphant return of the warrior (" See, the con-
quering hero comes"),* is most deeply and truth-
fully expressed, so marvellously are the different
moods — heroic, elegiac, and idyllic — contrasted
with, and adapted to, each other. Most of the
other Oratorios (' Saul,' ' Joshua,* ' Jephtha,'
&c.,), in like manner, commemorate the Deli-
verers of a nation from oppression and bond-
age. Whether triumphant or succumbing, his
heroes proclaim that noble love of liberty of which
Handel was the devoted apostle in the land of
his adoption — England, the happy and the free.
But the work in which, of all others, Handel's
epic-dramatic treatment somewhat approaches the
epic-lyric style of Bach, while at the same time it
brings out the distinguisliing characteristics of
both in ihQ fuUest light, is the MESSIAH\—i\iQ
* Taken from the oratorio * Joshua.'
t Compare Eochlitz. Fur Freunde der Tonkunst. Yol. i.,
p. 227—280.
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 109
Oratorio which, at first [April 12th, 1741] rejected
in London, and afterwards enthusiastically re-
ceived at Dublin, became the corner-stone of
Handel's fame. The design of the work is
itself sublime, universal — it is " a veritable
Christian epos in music."* The first part treats
of the promised salvation of mankind through
Christ ; the second and most important part of
the work sets forth the Life, Sufferings, and
Eesurrection of our Lord, in a succession of
sublime images, to which is appended (in the
third part) the contemplation of " Things that
shall be hereafter" — Death, Eesurrection, Judg-
ment, and Life eternal. Thus, what other com-
posers have treated in separate works (for ex-
ample Bach's ' Passion,' his Christmas Oratorio,
Spohr's 'Last Judgment,' Schneider's dittof),
Handel combined in one grand trilogy — himself
selecting the plain, unadorned words of Holy-
Writ for his incomparable theme. — Here again
we find the chorus prominent^ Taking up from
the narrating single voices the solemn themes
of sin and suffering, consolation and hope,
atonement and salvation, the mighty chorus
pours forth the deep sympathies, as it were, of
the whole human race. Thus the chorus
"Unto us a Child is born," the world-famed
Hallelujah chorus (during which, in England,
the audience remain standing), the elaborate con-
* Herder. t ^ Das Weltgericht,*
110 HISTORY OP MUSIC.
eluding chorus " Worthy is the Lamb," &:c., are
the most striking portions of this wonderful master-
piece. The pathos and touching simplicity of
the ai7's : " Comfort ye my people," " He shall feed
his flock," *' He was despised," " I know that my
Eedeemer liveth," and others, complete the lofty
spiritual tone of this matchless — truly sacred —
Oratorio.
And, whereas Handel completed this grandest
achievement of sacred musical art in the short
space of twenty-one days, his successor in the
poeticaly " who translated his work from
music into poetry"* — Klopstock — laboured many
years [1748 — 1773] at his sacred epic poem,
and, after all, only succeeded in producing a
now almost forgotten poem of very unequal
merit.
The * Messiah ' (so highly prized in England)
has not hitherto obtained so great popularity in
Grermaiay as ' Samson ' and ' Judas Maccabseus ;'
— indeed, were it not for Mozart's judicious
revision of the score, it is probable that it would
long have remained unknown in this country.
Thibaut f is therefore prejudiced and unreason-
able when he inveighs against a fuller instru-
mentation of Handel's oratorios (more especially
against Mozart's), and talks of " polishing " and
*' adorning " to suit modern taste. The great
* Gervinus.
t Ueber lieinheit der Tonkunst, p. 136-142 of the 2nd edition.
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. Ill
improvements that have taken place in the art of
instrumentation, as well as the absence of the
masterly organ-playing with which Handel ac-
companied the performances in England, have
necessitated further additions to the scores of his
oratorios. Let us not therefore be captious, but
gladly and thankfully avail ourselves of the
modern revisions (consisting of abridgments and
fuller instrumentation) of Handel's works (the
* Messiah,' * Judas Maccabseus,' * Alexander's
Feast,' the sweet, elegiac, idyll, 'Acis and
Galatea,' by Mozart ; ' Israel in Egypt,' by Lind-
paintner ; ' Samson,' by Mosel and Ferd. Hiller).
At the same time we are quite willing to believe
with Thibaut, that where the only indications in
the score are organ, loud — "a power and volume
of sound was heard when Handel presided at the
organ such as hundreds of fiddles and flutes can-
not make up for now-a-days."
Handel died, as he had prayed he might, on
Good Friday [April 14th, 1759], and was buried
in Westminster Abbey. One hundred years
afterwards (July 1st, 1859), "his admirers in
England and Germany" raised a bronze statue
(admirably executed by Heidel of Berlin) to his
memory in the market-place of Halle. The
Leipsic Handel Society is now engaged in rais-
ing a *' monumentum cei^e perennius " to the great
master's memory in the form of a splendid
edition of all his works. It has already reached
112 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
the nineteenth volume. A complete edition
of Handel's works (in 50 folio volumes) was
published in London, 1786.
Fewer even than Baeh's were Handel's succes-
sors and imitators. English — national — music
had almost ceased to exist, and, before J. A.
Hiller's and Mozart's time, Handel's works were
quite unknown in Germany. Such sacred music
as appeared during the latter half of the last cen-
tury, is characterized by a soft, tender, and — above
all, vocally — pleasing expression. This period is
designated the Hasse-Graun, because Hasse was
its master and leader, and Graun in his * Death
of Jesus '* (after Kamler) has produced the best
work of the then prevailing style. The Eoman
Catholic Court chapel at Dresden possesses a
large number of Hasse's compositions (Masses,
Psalms and Hymns) written to Latin texts.
Of those annually performed at Dresden, the
most celebrated are the Te Deum and the great
*Eequiem.' Hasse also wrote a quantity of
Italian Oratorios — Metastasio furnishing the
texts. Krausef calls him the^Correggio of Church
music, "equally great, whether in sublime and
solemn, joyful and exulting passages, or when
depicting rapturous devotion [and the depth and
purity of sacred affection. Hasse's Church style
* * Tod Jem:
t Darstellungen aus der Oeschkhte der Musik. Gottingen 1827,
p. 194.
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 113
forms a complete, and, at the same time, beautiful,
contrast to Palestrina's ; both are, taken in con-
nection with the Church music of Bach and
Handel, as it were, expressly adapted to complete
the entire cycle of sacred music." Hasse's Church
style is remarkable for profound unity and
artistic finish, as well as for freshness and natural-
ness of expression ; Karl Heinrich GRAUN
[born in Saxony 1701, died, chapel-master
to Frederick the Great at Berhn, 1759], on the
other hand, sought to combine Italian and Ger-
man style in Church music. Thus, his famous
Cantata * The Death of Jesus ' consists, strictly
speaking, of two very unequal portions ; the airs
(out of all proportion long) and other solo songs
are quite in the ItaHan taste, while the choruses
are noble and devotional, " learned, yet intelli-
gible ; all the parts are interwoven with consum-
mate art, yet they are natural and flowing."*
When we bear in mind that even in many of
Handel's works, as well as those of other masters,
the airs are frequently of so formal a character as
to be unattractive — nay displeasing — to us, we
are inclined to consider the ' Death of Jesus,' as
a composition of genuine piety, and worthy of
remembrance — one which, though of inferior
originality, is yet deservedly popular, and while
it reflects the somewhat sentimental tendency of
* RocHLiTZ. Fur Freunde der Tonkunstj vol. iv., p. 203.
T
114 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
contemporary literature, is, on the whole, of noble
and dignified proportions. " Intense spirituality,
as well as deep — much less thrilling — pathos,
were not in his nature ; nor has he made any
pretensions to these great gifts, or sought to dis-
play them in his compositions."*
Even J. S. Bach's son, Emanuel, adopted the
style of the period — the Hasse-Graun — in his
Church compositions : — the sublime ' Holy ' (for
double-choir), and the Oratorio 'Israel in the
Desert ; while, with admirable taste, he care-
fully avoided the least approach to operatic
style.
We ought further to mention Job. Gottlieb
Naumann [born 1741, died at Dresden 1801],
a highly meritorious German musician of the
Italian school, though two biographersf have
vainly endeavoured to rescue his name from
oblivion. His principal sacred composition was
the Cantata ' The Lord*s Prayer '{ (after Klop-
stock's paraphrase). The same subject has re-
cently been set by Spolir (op. 104) as a double-
choir for male voices. Several of his masses still
hold a place in the repertory of the Chapel-royal
at Dresden ; they are not without a considerable
admixture of secular feeling. Naumann marks
* RocHLiTZ. Fiir Freunde der TonJcimst, vol. iv., p. 204.
t J. Naumann (son of the composer). Naumann's Biographies
Kiinsthr und Familisnlehen. Dresden, 1841.
Fr. Rochlitz. Fiir Freunde der Tonkunst, vol. iii., p. 3 — 74.
J ' Das Vater unser,'
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 115
the final close of this period, as well as that of
sacred music in the last century in general ;
whatever else has been produced — contemporary
and subsequent — is, with very few exceptions,
nothing but a repetition of what has been before,
and of no historical importance. The mechanical
assiduity of organists and precentors (worthy
musical master-singers) and the characterless skill
of Court composers (always ready to obey their
Highness's commands, whether in Opera, Oratorio
or Mass) were the combined causes which tended
more and more to depreciate sacred music, and to
remove the Oratorio further and further from the
plain Bible words and solemn Church style ; till,
at length, Haydn and Mozart — though without
adopting the old severe Church style — restored
genuine devotional feeling to sacred composition.
CHAPTER X.
The French Opera and Gluck.
The melodious Opera of Italy, having suc-
ceeded in throwing Church music into shade,
achieved complete victory over all branches and
styles of music. The French Opera alone main-
tained a species of rivalry — though in a compara-
tively subordinate capacity ; for the French —
always intent on novelty — had adopted the yet
immature Italian Opera, and transcribed and
transposed it so entirely to their own satisfaction,
that they persuaded themselves they had achieved
something quite new and original, and accord-
ingly cared little or nothing for anything else.
As early as 1645 (Monteverde's period), the
Cardinal Minister Mazarin (" qui cherclia tons les
moyens d'amuser Louis X/F") sent for an
Italian Opera company to Paris. The success of
the Italians inspired the French with a desire to
make a similar attempt, and before long, melo-
dramas in French, set to music in imitation
of Italian models, made their appearance. The
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 117
first attempt (" la premiere comedie francaise '') is
said to have been a pastoral play entitled ' La PaS"
torale ' [1659], composed by Cambert to a poem
by the Abbe Perrin, and was succeeded by several
others. But it was an Italian — Jean Baptiste
ZZ7Z:Zr[1633— 1687] who gained esteem and
popularity — especially at Court — by his operettas.
A native of Florence, he was, when twelve years
of age, brought to Paris by the Duke of Guise,
and, being employed in the Palace as a scullion,
soon attracted attention by his droll manner and
his skill on the violin. The king placed him in his
private band (" Lesvingt-quatre violons'), and soon
after appointed him to the leadership of an
orchestra established expressly for him and called
*' Les petits violons." Not long after, LuUy
appeared as dramatic composer for the Court-
revels (Ballets comiques) ; these had been custo-
mary before his arrival, and were tricked out
with singing, dancing and every imaginable
device — Moliere frequently supplying the text.
Ambitious, and a favourite of fortune (having
married Cambert's daughter), he supplanted every
rival, and in 1673 obtained the sole patent for
the Opera performances at the Palais Royal
theatre. By means of fuller instrumentation and
judicious interspersions of chorus and ballet,
Lully, in conjunction with his libretto poet Qui-
NAULT, so cleverly adapted Italian music to the
French taste, that his operas ( Tragedies lyriques,
118 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
or Tragedies raises en musique), and those of his
successor Eameau, held the stage for more than
a century. Laden with riches and honours, Lully
died in Paris, March 22nd, 1687.
Notwithstanding this apparently brilliant suc-
cess, Lully *s merit as a musician is, after all, but
mediocre. Avoiding the clearly defined forms of
air, duet, and ensemble, he merely endeavoured to
give effect to the words, and great prominence to
the pathetic element. In imitation of the early
Italian declamatory Opera, and in conformity with
his own indolent propensities, he bestowed pains
chiefly on the recitative proper (rhythmical speech,
or singing like speaking) — to which end he had
merely to render the declamatory accent in a
manner suitable to the French language. As a
matter of course, the absence of a well defined
musical form gave to the whole an arbitrary and
unstable character ; for the time was for ever
changing from equal to unequal, just as correct
intonation required. In order to avoid the tedious
monotony (likened to the ecclesiastical chant) of
these phrases — never forming a melody — he intro-
duced, at suitable intervals, short pieces for several
parts, as well as choruses and dances.* This
* A curious parallel is drawn by Riehl, in his * Culturstudien aus
drei Jahrhunderten,^ between R. Wagner's idiosyncracy in dramatic
composition, and tins primary formation of the Lully Opera.
Though seemingly harsh — if not unjust — , his opinion is fully borne
out by Wagner's latest productions (* Die Nihelungen ' and ' Tristan
und Isolde.^) " Lully is, so to speak, no ' scholar.' Construction is
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 119
manner of introducing chorus and ballet during
the plot, whereas the Italian Opera only admitted
the former at the close of, and the latter between,
the acts, was, and still is, peculiar to the French
Opera ; and, regarded in this light, Lully may lay
claim to be its founder. A salient point in Lully's
operas were the Overtures in two parts or move-
ments ; whereas the earlier Italian performances
were, for the most part, preceded by a flourish of
trumpets and a short ritornello.
Lully's successor Jean Philippe RAMEAU
[born at Dijon, October 25th, 1683, died at Paris
September 12th, 1764] was imdoubtedly a more
hardly to be found in his works. His dry harmonies might serve
principally to show us how not to harmonize. On the other hand,
Gluck's historical importance cannot be fully appreciated without a
previous acquaintance with Lully's works. He is the Wagner of the
eighteenth century. His Alceste is, as he himself calls it, * une
tragedie mise en musique^ — not an opera; for it cannot be divided
into airs, duets, ensembles^ &c., but only into scenes. Lully does not
singy he recites. The whole opera is one continued ohligato re-
citative, interrupted only by scraps of tunes and a few choruses. I
am now referring to Lully, though 1 might be thought to allude to
Wagner — it will do for either. The interpolated marches and dances
alone are music, and have become popular in Lully and Wagner. Lully
is frequently amazingly grand in dramatic efiect — so is Wagner;
then he falls back into tedious recitative dialogue — so does Wagner.
The choruses are distinguished by a simplicity, solemnity, and
dignity which, even in harmonic details, remind one occasionally of
the sublime church hymns of the earlier Italian masters. This is
no trifling merit, and one which cannot be denied to some of
Wagner's choruses. Lully sacrifices the musical structure to
dramatic expression ; he has the germs of tune, but no tune. Lully
or Wagner? The common expression * set to music' is strongly
suggestive ; but he to whom the faculty of * setting ' is denied,
120 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
thorough-going musician than the former. He
endeavoured to improve the recitative Opera by
employing a richer and more varied style of har-
mony. His taste, however, was not sufficiently
elevated to secure him from the reproach of over-
ornamentation and artificialness. Jean Jacques
Rousseau, in particular (who extended his doctrine
of nature and simplicity even to music), blamed
him severely for neglecting genuine natural tune
for far-fetched harmonies. Rousseau objected to
his compositions on the score that music, being
originally a melodious art, " is a child of nature,
and has a language of its own for expressing
emotional transports, which cannot be learnt from
thorough-bass rules " But his strictures fell un-
talks of ' writing * music. Thus painters who cannot j)aint pro-
duce 'poems' in pictures, and poets destitute of the poetical faculty
employ * word-painting.' In Lully the result is, therefore, a work in-
congruous, disconnected, incomplete, which must have left a confused
and tedious impression, were it not for carefully-studied contrasts
and splendour of stage efiFect, to achieve which, the comt^)08er literally
moved heaven and earth for his audience, as was the case in
' Alceste' (and likewise ' Tannhauser '). Lully and Wagner, taken
as musicians, are weak ; as musical poets they are better, but best of
all as stage managers. Gluck eschewed the looseness of form which
characterizes LuUy's operas, at the same time he strongly advocated
tj-uthfulness of dramatic delineation. Gluck, in the form of his
pieces, resembles the best style of Italian music much more nearly
than Lully, and Wagner resembles Lully rather than Gluck. If our
musicians only studied history more diligently, they would learn
that, after all, it is no such great proof of progress to go back to a
form of opera composition similar to Lully's, seeing that during the
century that has intervened, Gluck's manner and style has been
admirably developed. Too much progress sometimes leads to
reaction."
TOE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 121
heeded by the Parisian public, who thought
Raraeau's operas, especially ' Castor and Pollux,'
quite unsurpassed. Italy ^alone could furnish
them a new and better style.
In 1 752, an Italian Opera company, called by the
French " Les Bouffons" arrived in Paris, where
they created immense sensation, both for and
against themselves, by their small comic operas —
among which was Pergolese's ' La serva Pa-
drona ' (lately performed with great success in a
French translation). Two adverse parties, " Na-
tionals " and " Italians " (bouffonistes and anti-
bouffonistes) arose (as was the case twenty years
later with regard to Gluck and Piccini), and stood
up with great warmth for the merits of French
and Italian music respectively. Eousseau, whose
views exactly suited the " Italian " party, was, of
course, enlisted on their side, and (though he
had once written a French melodrama called ' Le
Devin du Village ') endeavoured even to demon-
strate that the French language was radically
unmusical, and therefore there could be no such
a thing as French music.
As the Italian comic opera was at this period acquiring con-
siderable importance, we will add a short account of its rise and
progress hitherto.* In its infancy, it formed the intermezzo between
the acts of an opera seria^ and — similar to the Greek sylvan drama
which followed the tragic trilogy — was frequently a parody on the
piece which preceded it ; though, more frequently still (as for
example Pergolese's * Serva Padrona'), it was not a satire on any
* Chiefly from Jahn. Mozart, vol. i., p. 343— 359.
122 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
particular subject, but designed to heighten the ideal artistic effect
of the opera seria by the interposed contrast of broad comedy.
Having acquired a more complete form on the boards of the small
theatres (teatrini), the opera hujfa^ as it was now called — generally
a two-act piece — , obtained a footing in large theatres, and the very
circumstance that for a long time it enjoyed less consideration and
fewer advantages than the opera seria, was highly favourable to its
free and natural development. External splendour and the con-
summate vocalisation which prevailed at that time were the portion
of the more dignified elder sister; but the restriction to simpler
forms of song and voices of a more natural calibre, endowed the
younger with the means of genuine and chai-acteristic rendering of
actual life. " The bass — despised and set aside in the opera seria —
became the corner-stone of the opera hujfa, and the bfisso buffo
(facetious, elderly gentleman, droll or stupid menial) sustained the
princij^al comic part." The tenor usually represented the senti-
mental lover ; while the Prima and Seconda doiina were the mis-
tress and abigail, or confidant. But the salient characteristic of the
opera huffa consisted in the ensembles and finali which brought the
dramatic element — thrown quite in the back-ground in the opera
seria — into full relief. The best masters of this new branch of art
were Laqroscino ("Ze dieu du genre bouffon''), Galuppi, and
N. PICCINI, who surpassed the two former. This gifted composer
simplified the form of the aria by omitting the da capo; he also
improved and varied the instrumental accompaniment, and, above all,
gave life and brilliancy to the Jinali by a richer and more expressive
arrangement of the voices. " His * Cecchina^'' or * La buona figliuoJa''
[1761] seems to mark the time when the opera buffa was recognized
as a special branch of art — ;iust as Pergolese's Serva Padrona marks
the intermezzo period." Perfected by Paesiello, and especially
CiMARosA, the opera buffa became the genuine, national musical
comedy, which has been admirably cultivated by the Italian
com]30sers of the last century down to Kossini and Donizetti in our
own. GoLDONi and Casti were the best writers of the comic opera
libretto. Goethe admired the Matrimonio segreto (Cimarosa) and
Re Teodoro (Paesiello) of the latter, and remarks at the same time
that ". the material which is to be embroidei"ed on should not be too
close in texture."
The " Nationals " at length gained their point,
and the " Bouffons " quitted Paris at the end of
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 123
two years [1754]; but Italian music continued.
No one with the slightest pretension to ear could
help admitting — whether in envy or admiration —
the peculiar charm of graceful, well-constructed
melody. From the strife of opposing tastes — the
Italian and French — arose, as it were to reconcile
and amalgamate them, the light piquante French
Operette. So soon as the very year in which the
" Bouffons " were expelled from Paris, " la pre-
miere comedie a ariettes:' ^ Les Troqueurs^ by
Antoine d'Auvergne appeared on the stage.
To this composer succeeded Duni [1709 — 1775J,
Philidor [1726—1795], and Monsigny [1729
— 1817] — superior to the two first, and the forerun-
ner of G retry ; he was styled " le veritable createur
de V opera comique franqaisy Besides 'Le Deserteur
and * Felix ou r Enfant trouve\' by Monsigny —
pieces much admired by Napoleon and occasionally
produced on the French stage — , his charming dra-
matic idyll ' Base et Colas ' {" im vrai chef-d'oeuvre
de grace naive'') has been performed of late.
The Parisian public of 1862, who thronged to
the performance of this piece, was indeed surprised
to find the music of 1764 so grateful to its ear.
Though by no means lacking in dramatic energy
and comic effects, tenderness and sweetness of
melody are the prevailing characteristics of Mon-
signy's works. *' La sensibiliie," says Fetis, '\fut
son genie, car il lui dut une multitude de melodies
touchantesy qui rendront, en tout temps, ses ouvrages
124 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
dignes de F attention des musiciens instruits"
Bernhard Eomberg's sister Angelica describes the
* Deserteur ' as exquisite " both in the subject-
matter and the music," and that at its first per-
formance in Paris, in 1769, the ladies sobbed and
cried " Oh man Dieu, mon Dieu /" We gather
also from other testimony that merriment and
humour are by no means the sole end and aim of
the French Operetta of those days ; and the best
composers — particularly Gretry — did not neglect
to turn the nobler emotions to account, and, by a
judicious admixture of sentiment, gave an ideal
colouring to their slight pieces. In the contem-
poraneous German melodrama, the sentimental
element — in conformity with the taste of the
period — preponderated.
GRETRY [born at Li^ge, February 11th,
1741, died at Paris, September 24th, 1813] is re-
garded as the greatest master of the French
Operetta. An admirer of Pergolese and Piccini,
he adapted the Italian melody, supported by very
meagre accompaniment, to the national taste, and
combined recitative and song with such consum-
mate art, that his pieces (among which * Richard
Coeur-de-Lion ' and ' Zeniire et Azov ' are reckoned
the best) were, and still are, supreme favourites
with the public. Harmony was, however, his weak
point ; of which his three-volumed apologetic
' Memoires ou Essais sur la Musique ' afibrds
ample demonstration. The graceful, though
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 125
somewhat frivolous, d'Alayrac [1753 — 1809],
whose merry, naive operettas : ' Nina' and ' Les
deux Savoyards' were naturalized in Germany,
followed closely in Gretry's steps. Berton
[1766 — 1844], of learned and refined taste, was
more original, particularly in his instrumentation
and ensembles. The remarkable aptitude for ex-
pressing deep emotional feeling which he dis-
played in * Montana et Stephanie ' and * Le
Delire ' did not, however, unfit him for the light
merriment and joyous spirit of the operetta (vide
* Ponce de Leon,' 'Aline, reine de Golconde,'
* Les Maris garqons,' &c.). Gossec [1773 — 1829]
soon forsook comic opera for independent instru-
mental composition, of which, in France, he is
the founder. His symphonies and quartets were
written at the same time as Haydn's. Catel
[1773 — 1830], who wrote also for the Opera seria
(* Semiramis '), and was, in his day, a theorist of
some note, is the author of ' Les Auhergistes de
qvxilite' — much admired by K. Maria von Weber,
who describes him as having united playful French
wit to Italian comic spirit and true feeling.
The last composer of legitimate Operetta is
NicoLO Isouard [born at Malta 1777, died at
Paris 1818, commonly called Nicolo de Malte] —
a pleasing unaffected writer, fully deserving of
popular favour, which he shared with young
Boieldieu. That he is a composer of some merit
ma}^ be inferred from the fact that his ' Cendrillon
126 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and *" Joconde ou les Coureurs d'aventures' have
teld the stage in Germany even to our own
generation ; though it is only the " romances"
(ballads) which occur in these operas that we
esteem now-a-days, as, indeed, is the case with
the later French comic opera; for in Auber's
* Fra DiavoloJ and ' Le Maqon' in Boieldieu's ' La
Dame blanche,' Adam's 'Postilion de Lonjvr
meau' &c., the song {chanson) — to use a some-
what thread-bare expression — is the " silver cord "
shining through the whole tissue.
With Melml and Boieldieu, who succeeded
Isouard, expired the charming hybrid between
opera and vaudeville, which, during the first
twenty years of its best period, so entirely en-
grossed French musical talent, that the LuUy and
Kameau opera style was of a sudden completely
neglected. Shortly after Gretry appeared Gluck,
who gave to the latter branch of art an artistic
perfection, which afterwards found a worthy
exponent in Spontini. While the French Grand
Opera — with the exception of the incompai-able
Bameau — was dependent on foreigners or natu-
ralized Frenchmen (Lully, Gluck, Spontini, Che-
rubini, Meyerbeer — Wagner did not attain that
honour) for composers, the opera comique, on the
other hand — as likewise in drama the comedy — ,
is the genuine '' genre national, le veritable berceau
et la vraie gloire de la musique franqaiseJ'*
* A. Adam. Dcrnitrs Souvenirs cTwi Musickn, p. 114.
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. ±27
Christoph Willibald Chevalier* GL TICK, the
regenerator of the Opera (and whose name may be
said to mark a period in this branch of art), was
born at Weidenwang in the Palatinate, July 2nd,
1714.t We shall pass over the larger portion of
his artist-life [1741 — 1762], as the Italian operas
which he wrote for the Milan, Yenice, and London
stages cannot lay claim to superior excellence,
and, indeed, were afterwards condemned by him-
self. After the year 1748, Gluck withdrew from
the restlessness of public life, and resided quietly
at Vienna, where he employed his leisure in
digesting and arranging the treasures of art-
experience he had collected in his travels, and
prepared himself by deep study and reflection for
fresh creative efforts. It is true, that both pre-
vious to, as well as contemporary with, Gluck, a
* Gluck was a Knight of the papal order of the Golden Spur, as
were also Mozart, Dittersdorf, and other musicians. "It is a
characteristic feature, that Gluck laid great stress on his rank. He
resembled Klopstock in this particular, who held ' that the artist's
calling should meet with due recognition and lionour.'" (Jahn
Mozarty \ol. i., p. 205.) On the other hand, Gluck (like Leopold
Mozart, who recommended his son to wear his Order on suitable
occasions) showed his knowledge of the world in not rejecting out-
ward distinctions when he ap^xjared in the select circles of Paris and
Vienna.
t Qluck und die Oper von A B. Marx. Zwei Biinde. Berlin,
1863.
Ch. W. Bitter von Gluck. Ein biographisch-asthetischer Versuch
von A. ScHMiD. Leipzig, 1854.
Compare Jahn {Mozart, vol. ii., p. 220 — 257), and Heinse
(^Hildegard von Eohenthal).
128 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
change in the Opera form, as it then stood, had
been, and still was, strongly advocated, and that
Metastasio had expressed himself greatly dissatis-
fied with the degenerate state of "poor Italian
music" which was gradually withdrawing its
allegiance from poetry ; but where was to be
found the creative genius that should venture to
oppose the prevailing tendency by his works, not
words ? Gluck alone was equal to the task. Like
his own ' Iphigenia,' " seeking with her soul the
land of Greece, '* he achieved in ' Orpheus,'
* Alceste,' and the two * Iphigenias ' (classical
operas in a two-fold sense), that which the
Florentines of two centuries before* had vainly
sought — a revival of classic tragedy, but in
a new art — that of music. These compositions
of Gluck — real tragedies — are far superior to
their modern texts; they are, in truth, the
genuine oflPspring of a poetical spirit, and not alone
in their rendering of the words, faithfully re-
produce the plastic repose and beauty which we
admire in antique sculpture and the Sophocleian
drama.
Gluck's first attempt, somewhat timid and con-
strained, to introduce his innovations with regard
to truthfulness of dramatic expression, was the
opera of ' Orfeo ed Euridice ' [Oct. 15th, 1764], in
which he was ably supported by the poet Calza-
BiGi, who wrote the text. As yet, evidently
fearful of ofFerins: too much offence to the de-
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 129
generate taste of the age, lie has, in this work, re-
tained several points which are in opposition to
his severe principles of art ; indeed, in its general
plan, it does not differ materially from the usual
Italian Opera of the period. The principal part
was written for a contralto, and the only solo parts
in addition were two trebles : that of Eurydice,
and the inevitable Cupid, whose apparition some-
what recalls the formal allegorical style of the
Court revels of those days. The effect of the
whole piece, which consists only of a few emotional
passages very similar to each other, is, conse-
quently, not intensely impressive ; but it contains
several striking points, particularly the well-known
scene of Orpheus in the infernal regions in the
second act. Gluck's treatment of the chorus,
which in the old Italian Opera had made way
more and more for solo singing, is masterly in the
extreme. Solo and chorus are combined in a
manner highly productive of dramatic action, and
mutually tend to increase the effect of both. So
exquisite is the scene where Orpheus' increasingly
plaintive strains at length silence the " No, No V
of the chorus, and afterwards draw the unwillingly
yielding chorus to sing his praises, till at the
words '' Al vincifor" the gates of Elysium are
opened to him, that (like the enthusiastic Heinse)
we are carried away by the scene, not even
heeding the music that works the enchantment,
so truthful and natural is the picture. "After
K
130 HISTOUY OF MUSIC.
all, there are many veins of precious ore in this
opera, but it cannot lay claim to downright origi-
nality throughout. It is a compound of his own
and foreign forms. It succeeded, however, in
arousing the antiquated indolent spirit."* The
sentimental J. J. Rousseau expressed himself still
more favourably : " What I more particularly
admire in Gluck is not so much the remarkable
amount of beauty his works display, as his discre-
tion and moderation. As regards what are called
the proprieties of art, I know of nothing so perfect
as the scene of Orpheus in the Elysian fields.
Pure, unalloyed happiness is portrayed throughout
with such evenness of expression, that neither
song nor dance tune interfere with the fixed
measure of enjoyment one derives throughout this
scene."
The opera of ' Alceste' [1767] was a great im-
provement as regards dramatic interest (of which
the addition of male voices is of itself character-
istic), and marks the actual period of Gluck's
reforms. The dedication of this work to the
Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany " gave him an
opportunity of stating his views, which were
opposed to the prevailing style, with the conscious-
ness that became him — clear and correct as far as
his artistic feeling went, but erroneous when he
(or his collaborators) philosophized on the aim and
object of music"!
* Heinse. t Mabx.
l^HE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 131
** When I undertook," writes Gluck, " to set this opera to music,
it was with the intention of freeing it from all those abuses which,
partly through misplaced vanity on the singers', and a too yielding
spirit on the musicians', part, had, during a lengthened period,
disfigured the Italian Opera to such an extent, that what ought to
have been grand and touching, degenerated into the most tedious
and absurd drama. I wished to confine the art of music to its real
object — that of aiding the effect of poetry by giving greater expres-
sion to the words and scenes ; but without detriment to the action
of the plot, and without weakening the impression by useless
ornamentation ; and I was of opinion that this ought to be effected
in the same manner as brilliancy of colour and judicious contrast of
light and shade heighten the effect of correct and well-designed
drawing, and give life and expression to the figures without effacing
the outline. Therefore, I do not stop the performer in the middle of
a dialogue while he waits the termination of a tedious ritornello^ nor
do I allow him to pause on a word or a vowel in order to give him
an opportunity of showing off the flexibility of his voice in a long
roulade^ or to wait till the orchestra gives him time to take breath
for a long cadenza. It seems to me, that the seconda parte of an air,
be it ever so emotional and important, ought not to be hurried over in
order that the words of the first part be repeated four times regularly
— ^the air ^occasionally concluding when the sense of the words is
not completed, so as to enable the singer to show that he can vary
the passage as much and as often as he pleases ; — in short, I wished
to do away with those abuses which common sense and good taste
had inveighed against for some time past. My idea is, that the
overture should prepare the audience for what is to follow, and, as it
were, herald the substance of the piece; that the instrumental
portion should vary according to the amount of passion or effect re-
quired, without making an abrupt transition from air to dialogue,
neither should it Ibrm an untimely interruption to the recitative, nor
interfere with, and weaken, the action. I thought, further, that my
utmost endeavours should tend to acquire a noble simplicity of
style; I have sought to avoid difficult passages where brilliancy
would be obtained at the cost of distinctness ; I only valued novel
effects when resulting from the scene and expression, and I have
never scrupled to sacrifice a principle for the sake of an effect. This
is my theory. Fortunately for me (in this respect Gluck was
always fortunate), the libretto suited my purpose exactly; the
celebrated poet (Calzabigi) ventured on a new method with regard to
132 HISTOKY OF MUSIC.
dramatic and scenic arrangements ; in consequence of whicli, flowery
descriptions, superfluous comparisons, and instructive, but formal
maxims (herein diflering from Metastasio) are set aside for language
expressing the feelings, powerful emotions, effective climaxes, and
varied drama. The result has justified my theories, and the
unanimous (?) applause of so enlightened a city has clearly proved
that simplicity, truth, and naturalness are the true principles of
beauty in every work of art."
The above views of Gluck concerning the nature of the Opera
have recently made so much ado (we allude to R. Wagner's book,
*Oper und Drama '), that we think it incumbent on us (to avoid being
identified with the cause) to correct this opinion by quoting two
eminent art-critics — Kiesewetter and 0. Jahn — for the especial benefit
of those who will listen to no opinion unless endoi*sed by a great
name.
" So much for Gluck's views. His high aesthetic feeling and
refined taste have saved him from the stumbling-block of those —
otherwise excellent — maxims which set forth that every considera-
tion for the music itself, which^ nevertheless^ must exist as a separate
a/rty even in the Opera, must be sacrificed to the poetry and the
'situation.* His genius, while giving every care to the integrity of
the poem, has established the independence, as well as the beauty, of
his music ; she is not the servant of poetry ; she is rather a loving
sister, apparently only intent on setting her charms in the fullest
light, yet too charming herself not to be acknowledged her superior.
The melodies of Gluck delight us in connection with the words by
the correctness of their musical expression ; but, were they dissevered
from the words, they would be considered excellent and beautiful on
their own account. And if, indeed, his songs are only fully effective
when heard in connection with the scenes to which they belong, andy
therefore, when disconnected are unsuitable for concert performanceSy
yet they are by no means without form, and their graceful Tno^^sare
so clearly recognisable, that after hearing his operas, the memory
retains them as easily (?) as if one had come out of an Italian Opera
house."*
" Musical performance touches the feelings and emotions so
directly, and with so much greater intensity and force than poetry
(which appeals principally to the mind and imagination), that it
* Kiesewetter. Geschichte der Musik, p. 93. First edition.
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 133
may easily happen that the declamatory recitation gives rise to an
unnatural disproportion of effect, if music, with its more powerful
means of expression, follows the words of the poem too servilely. It
is a mistake to say that music shall be subordinate to poetry — a
mistake which Gluck's simile only the more clearly displays'; for the
true artist does not colour or illuminate his picture, but conceives
the whole design as it shall appear in the full glow of colour ; he
cannot imagine it other than complete, and represents it accordingly;
the contrast between drawing and colour only applies to the me-
chanical part — not to the conception and production of a work of art.
The final explanation to this phenomenon, viz., that he would restrict
music as an independent art in its own peculiar province to a mere
characteristic illustration of poetry, is evidently to be found in the
inferiority of his musical organisation, for which this error of judg-
ment served as a cloak." * This, we would observe, as contrasted
with the learned pedantry and affectation of modern Gluck-wor-
shippers, is indeed an honest, straightforward opinion.
We will conclude with a favourable verdict from Heinse :t " Gluck
has indubitably ceded the highest place to poetry ; and by reverently
serving her, has incurred the displeasure of all musicians and
dilettanti. But he refutes himself the best ; for in his test operas the
music predominates more than in the others — only it does not trifle
and flutter about, but represents the emotions with powerful dis-
tinctness. It is thus, on the contrar}'-, that in many of the Italian
masters the poem predominates, for, frequently, if we did not know
the words, the music would tell us nothing."
The subject of ' Alceste' (from Euripides) bears
throughout such a strong reserablance to * Or-
pheus/ that we are inclined to suspect Gluck
has, in this opera, made use of much that he had
not been able to treat in the former one, or,
perhaps, had not as yet fully matured in his own
mind — a proceeding which (though in different
ways characteristic both of Gluck and Handel) is
* Otto Jahn. Mozart, vol. ii., p. 226—229.
t Eildegard von Eohenthal, vol. ii., p. 308.
134 HISTORY OP MUSIC.
clearly evident in both the *Tphigenias' and
in ' Armide.' In short, the design of the new
opera was to represent a perfect and complete
whole, regardless of the egotistical proclivities of
the singer. One important circumstance is the
bold co-operation of the orchestra evident for the
first time in Alceste, and appearing at once in the
overture, and particularly in the recitative accom-
paniments, in a new and peculiar manner. Wind
instruments (formerly employed only in the tutti
and concerted passages) are used by Gluck in a
highly characteristic style. By their aid, his
somewhat cold, unimpassioned music receives the
needful assistance to give animation and variety
to the unadorned rendering of the words ; while
to the whole, as compensation for the absence of
brilliant vocalization, they impart a rich instru-
mental colouring.
The first performance of 'Alceste ' [in the * Burg-
theater ' at Vienna, December 16th, 1767] is thus
described by Sonnenfels :* " I am in the land of
miracles. A serious melodrama with natural
voices, music without solfege^ or rather, without
chirrupping, Italian poetry without affectation and
bombast. The Burgtheater has been opened
with this three-fold wonder." The success of
' Alceste ' was, however, not so universal as the
worthy reporter had anticipated. "Notwith-
* In the * Wiener Biarium.*
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 135
standing the splendid form in which it was given
on the Viennese stage, as well as all manner of
extravagant puffs and advertisements, its success
was, after all, not a lasting one ; for it did not
appeal to the popular taste, and there was no
middle class of sufficiently elevated taste to give
encouragement and abiding interest to works of
this calibre."* Gluck himself confessed, in the
preface to 'Paride ed Elena'' [1769], that his ex-
pectations had been disappointed, and his endea-
vour " to restore dramatic music to its proper
aim and object " had not succeeded in Germany.
*' Pedants and half-educated men, as well as fas-
tidious dilettanti, whose judgment did not extend
beyond their ears, inveighed against principles
which, if correct, would have put an end to their
conceit."
Gluck looked for a better reception in Paris.
He rightly judged that the time had come when,
after the operetta interhide, the Grand Opera, with
his amendments, would find favour. Bailly du
KoLLET, attache to the French Legation at Vienna,
adapted Racine's * Iphigenie en Aulide ' for music,
and, at the instance of the Dauphiness, Marie
Antoinette (whose singing master Gluck had
formerly been), the opera was performed in
Paris, February 11th, 1774. It was, however, not
till the second performance, on the 19th of April,
* Gervinus. Geschichte der deutschen Dichiwng, vol. iv.,
p. 354.
136 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
that it obtained complete success. On that
occasion, so enraptured were the audience, that
when Achilles' air in the third act (" Calcas cFun
trait niortel perce ") was sung, the military bran-
dished their swords amid the general applause.
During the subsequent eighteen years, this opera
was performed no less than one hundred and fifty
times.
What the French required of an opera was :
truthfulness of expression ; distinct, pleasing,
simple melody ; music suited to the action, and
action to the music ; — all which they found com-
bined in Gluck's work. In addition to this, the
national vanity was not a little flattered and \
soothed; for the assertion that the French lan-
guage was not adapted for singing was thus sub-
stantially disproved, and even Rousseau admitted
that Gluck had wrought a change in his views on
that score.
In August of the same year, Gluck brought
out (in a French and very unfavourable adapta-
tion) ' Orpheus,* and, two years afterwards,
* Alceste,' on the stage. In the meantime
[August 1755], he produced a gala opera {Opera
ballet) of inferior merit, called * Cy there assiegee'
He was aroused to fresh and increased efforts by
the arrival of the celebrated Italian maestro
PicciNi — favoured by the Dubarry faction —
towards the close of 1776. The old party spirit
broke out afresh, and "Gluckists*' and "Piccinists"
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 137
carried on a literary feud with each other.*
While his enemies were busily spreading reports
that he had nothing new to give France, Gluck
produced ' Armide' [September 23rd, 1777], of
which the book was by Quinault and had already
been set by Lully, — an opera differing entirely
from any of his former ones. In accordance with
Gluck 's severe principles of art, this opera is no
advance on the previous ones ; it is rather a grand
operatic display in the ancient style, with rich
choruses and dances and great scenic effects, bat
little action. Handel's opera ' Rinaldo' [1711],
adapted from the same story (the well-known epi-
sode in Tasso's Gerusalemme Liheratd), depended
for effect more on the portrayal of emotion in the
airs — the " interior dramatic expression," as Chry-
sander calls it. To correspond with the subject
matter, Gluck's music, especially in the splendid
instrumental portions, is of brighter and more
delicate hue ; so that, on the stage, it would pro-
bably make a deeper impression on the less cri-
tical connoisseur. The choruses and ballets (com-
pare these latter with the trivial dance music of
the present day !) are indeed remarkably fine ;
but they are also by far the finest pieces in the
opera. Therefore, we agree with Heinse, that
though it has been the one most frequently per-
formed in Paris, it is — even from a stage point of
* Memoires, pour servir a Vhistoire de la revolution (yperee dans la
musique, par J. Chr. Gluck. Paris, 1781.
138 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
view — far inferior to his ' Iphigenie en Tauride/
" Altogether, it is deficient in naturalness ; the
Devil and Hate personified are too artificial ; and
the choruses, generally speaking, are not well
adapted to the scene. Nevertheless, some of the
scenes are effective, as for instance, one where
Armida goes to kill Einaldo asleep ; and another
— the last — where she is alone — forsaken by
Einaldo."
Piccini followed suit with the opera of 'Roland '
[January 1778], from the composition of which
Grluck desisted when he heard Piccini had been
commissioned to write it. The latter (greatly
esteemed even by his adversary Gluck) always
diffident, anticipated failure, but, on the contrary,
achieved a brilliant success ! It was now for
Gluck to conquer a rival who was becoming for-
midable, by producing a new composition. In
this he succeeded when ^Iphigenie en lauride ' was
performed [May 18th, 1779]. It is by far his
best work — one in which he combines both the
French and Italian peculiarities of powerful dra-
matic expression and beautiful melody, in this re-
spect surpassing all who had previously treated the
subject — Jomelli, Traetta, Ciccio di Majo, Piccini.
Gluck's 'Iphigenia in Tauris' is the grandest
lyrical tragedy that could possibly be created in
the antique spirit, but with modern appliances of
art, — in music, what Goethe's tragedy is in poetry
— the revival of Greek art in the German mind.
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 139
How noble and expressive are the female choruses,
as also Iphigenia's and Pylades' airs ! how faith-
fully is the old Greek feeling, from the first burst
of the introduction to the last faint echo of the
chorus, " To Greece, to Greece !" rendered ! But
what we admire most of all, is the sublime unity
of the whole, the avoidance of anything that
would be horrible or revolting, the correct taste
which never failed the composer even when por-
traying mysterious and fearful occurrences — such
as Iphigenia bewailing the murder of her father
by her own mother, and Orestes pursued by the
Eumenides. (What would Wagner, whose pre-
tensions can only be understood by supposing
him to be treading in Gluck's footsteps, have
made of scenes like these ?)*
After bringing out the opera of ' Echo et Nar-
cisse' [September 1778], and giving over the
setting of the Dandides to Salieri, Gluck, worn
out with strife and overwork, returned to Vienna,
where he died [November 17th, 1787, a few days
only after the first performance of Mozart's ' Don
Giovanni'] — leaving a considerable fortune. His
bust was placed in the opera-house at Paris beside
those of Lully, Quinault, and Eameau, and below
it the following inscription : " Musas praeposuit
Sirenis " (II prefera les Muses aux Sirenes).
* This opera was performed for the first time in German at
Vienna, October 23rd, 1781, and at Berlin (where Gluck's operas
were more frequently, as well as better, performed than elsewhere),
February 24th, 1795.
140 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Gluck had raised the French Opera to a pinnacle
on which it could not maintain itself without
him ; he had, to a great extent, weakened, though
not counteracted, the influence of the Italian style
introduced by Piccini, which still found numerous
adherents, especially at Court. Tlie multitude
were, however, ardent seekers of novelty ; and,
not altogether unreasonably, preferred the pleas-
ing, cheerful melodies of the national operetta, to
the grave character of the Grand Opera and
" musique tudesqueT Without predecessor, Gluck
had, even in France, no successors or even imita-
tors (with the exception of Mehul's exquisite
opera ' Joseph') till Spontini appeared ; yet was
his influence sufficiently powerful to have " deter-
mined the salient characteristics of the French
Opera even to the present day ; though at different
periods and in various ways, Italian influences
have undoubtedly made themselves felt."*
Gluck's reforms were of no account whatever
in Germany ; though German poets (Klopstock,
Herder, Wieland, (fee), as a matter of course,
lauded him as "the only musician who was a
poet," — i.e., content to be subservient to the
poet, and modestly sink his own individuahty.t
* Jahn. Mozart, vol. ii., p. 257.
f Herder's opinion deserves to be recorded ; " The progress of the
century reveals one who, rejecting all this musical rubbish, sees the
necessity for close relationship between the tale itself with his
music. He descended from the lofty pedestal on which the vulgar
musician was wont to glorify himself that iX)etry was subservient to
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 141
On the other hand, musicians — with Bach's
learned panegyrist Forkel at their head, who
declared Gluck's music only fit for rustics —
attacked him without mercy. Even Leopold
Mozart talks of Gluck's *' dismal opera ' Alceste ;' "
and the Princess Amalia of Prussia (Frederick
the Great's sister) did not hesitate to pronounce
the following opinion with regard to the ' Iphi-
genie en Tauride :' " Monsieur Gluck," writes she
to Kirnberger, " can never, in my opinion, be
reckoned a clever composer. In the first place, he
is not original; secondly, his melodies are tame
and poor ; and thirdly, he has no expression — no
emphasis. There is a sameness throughout (in
this last particular the worthy princess was not
so far wrong) ; and, taking it altogether, this
opera is a weak production."
The learned and accomplished Joh. Friedrich
Eeichardt* [1752 — 1814] is one of the few who
sided with Gluck ; but his compositions of nearly
all the poems of Goethe that can reasonably be
set to music afford the most striking proof of the
his art ; and, as far as was consistent with the taste of the nation for
whom be wrote, made his music subservient to language, emotion,
and action. He has imitators, and may be some one will before long
advance on him, by scattering to the four winds the whole wretched,
patched and pieced Opera system, and erecting a veritable Odeum — a
compendious lyrical structure, in which poetry, music, action, and
decoration form one complete whole." Has the deeply-read R.
Wagner perchance stumbled on this passage?
* Joh. Friedrizh Reichardt. Sein Leben und seine musikalische
Thatigkeit. Dargestellt von H. M, Schletterer. Augsburg, 18G4.
142 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
inapplicability of Gluck's theories as a general
principle, and apart from the stage. In the pro-
found odes : ' Prometheus/ ' Ganymede/ ' Borders
of humanity, &c.,'* his finely-imagined recitation
— partly owing to its leaving untouched the rich
polymetric form of poetry — is, on the whole,
more successful than in the ballads ; but his
''talking melody' {'' Sprechmelodie'') — as it is now
called — is wholly inadequate for the rendering of
the songs {Lieder), in which, indeed, his music is
far inferior to the poem in intensity of feeUng and
expression. The observation of Eochhtz f (gene-
rally so indulgent), in allusion to one of his com-
positions of the Lkder : that, with much art, he
has done a great deal for the words, but far less
for the expression, is a fair description of his whole
style. Goethe, who in the lines (' To Lina') :
" No, not talking, only singing,** &c.,t
has said clearly enough what he required of a
composer, denied in the * Xenien'§ all knowledge
of his conceited and officious friend. Eeichardt's
compositions of Goethe's melodramas : ' Claudine
von Villabella,' ' Jery und Biitely,' &c., are of as
little account as Anton Schweitzer's setting of
* * Grenzen der Menschheit, &c.'
t Compare Beichardfs music to Goethe's songs. See Fur Freunde
der Torikunst, vol. iii. p. 376 — 434.
I " Nur niclit reden, immer singenj*
§ The ' Xenien ' was a collection of satirical poems, edited con-
jointly by Schiller and Goethe, and consisted of satirical lines and
epigrams.
THE FREN^CH OPERA AND GLUCK. 143
Wieland's great operas : ' Eosamunde' and *A1-
ceste' — pieces which at Mannheim (at that time
enjoying a first-class musical reputation) were sup-
posed to be the foundation of a " German national
Opera." No highly-gifted musician attached him-
self to the great poets (Gluck had only set seven
of Klopstock's odes — according to this latter "in
real tones of truth " — ; others, as for example the
* Hermannschlacht ' and Gellert's songs, he only
retained by heart and never wrote down, while
Herder's sacred Cantatas remained almost unno-
ticed) — whereas inferior poets like Weisse, Gotter,
Brandes, Kotzebue, &c., have attained to unme-
rited honour through their composers : Hiller,
Benda, Himmel, and even Beethoven.
As in Italy and France the comic opera and
the operetta displaced the more serious style, so
in Germany, where a national Opera had as yet
no existence, the Liederspiel, founded by Job.
Adam Hiller [born December 25th, 1728, died
at Leipzig, June 16th, 1804] became highly popu-
lar. Hiller' s idyllic Liederspiele, or operettas
(* Lottchen am Hofe,' ' Die Liehe auf dem Lande,'
' Die Jagd' &c.), written in partnership with
Weisse, though now antiquated and forgotten,
always drew a full house ; and some of the songs
which occur in these pieces (as for example
" Ohne Lieb und ohm Wein ") still survive in
popular recollection. It is, indeed, "father"
Hiller's peculiar merit, that he, though a really
144 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
learned musician, sliould have been content with
such a humble sphere, and restricted himself to
songs, and refrained from all operatic devices and
embellishments ; which is the more to be
admired when we consider his partiality for
Hasse and Graun. His deserts, as far as
Handel's music is concerned, are beyond all
praise, as also as regards the art of singing in
Germany ; indeed, in the opinion of Eochlitz and
others, his pupils Gertrude Elizabeth Mara and
Corona Schroter (immortalized by Goethe) are
equal to the best Italian singers.
After Hiller, the only composer of operettas
whose name survives, is Friedrich Heinrich
HiMMEL [born 1765, died at Berlin, June 8th,
1814] admired in his day as the " polite" musician,
and whom Beethoven admitted to possess a
" charming talent." His^melodrama of ' Fanchon^
which enjoyed a long run of popularity, but is
too sentimental for the taste of our day, shows
the altered direction which the German Sing spiel
had taken by adopting the French operetta and
the Italian aria style. The forms were more
finished and polished, but they lacked the genuine
feeling and spirit of the German song. The
German Singspiel only attained a vigorous,
thoroughly popular, character, when Dittersdorf
and the Viennese " Volksoper "* took it in hand,
as, indeed, musical vitality and development may
* Literally, " the people's Opera.'*
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 145
be said now to have quitted Protestant North
Germany, and taken up its abode in Catholic
South Germany. The Northern, or Berlin
school (represented by Zelter, Berger, Bernh.
Klein, Friedr. Schneider and others,) is certainly
inferior to the South Germany, or Viennese, school.
The numerous operettas of George Benda
[172 2-9 5] are inferior to his melodramas : 'Ariadne
auf Naxos ' and ' Medea ^ which quickly found their
way into other countries. *' The magnificent
musical delineation of the passions — fear, joy, and
horror — made a powerful impression on all who
heard it." Mozart wrote to his father from.
Mannheim [Nov. 12th, 1778] as follows:—"!
have twice seen such a splendid piece performed
here, with the greatest pleasure ! Indeed,
nothing has ever astonished me so much ! for I
had always imagined that kind of thing would
never be effective. You know, of course, that it
is not sung, but declaimed, and the music is like
a recitative ohligato ; sometimes there is talking
amid the music, which has a splendid effect.
The piece I saw was ' Medea,' by Benda. He
has composed another, * Ariadne auf Naxos,' and
both are indeed excellent. You know that
Benda was always my favourite among Lutheran
composers. I am so fond of these two pieces
that I have them always by me."
Benda's melodramatic music (taking into con-
sideration the period in which it appeared) is in so
L
146 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
far remarkable, that, absolutely reversing Gluck's
principle of subordinating nmsic to poetry,
it allows the instrumental element, although
bound to the words and the dramatic move-
ment, a far freer characteristic development.
' Ariadne' appeared at the same time [1774] as
Gluck's * Iphigenie en Aulide/ whose still much
admired overture* discloses, in a far grander
manner and consistent form, the newly dis-
covered power of instrumental music. " There
is not so much as one phrase that resembles vocal
song — not one that seems to require the aid of
the book or the programme. Even were the
overture detached from the opera, and the audi-
ence ignorant of the relation of each to the other,
its musical significance would still be complete.
In design, it is music as applied to a given pur-
pose ; but in result, it is music pure and unal-
loyed."! It was about this time also that
Haydn originated the symphony, in which instru-
mental music became invested with a poetry of
its own, and the magic power of depicting all the
manifold phases of phantasy and feeling.
♦ As the overture leads directly into the first scene of the opera,
Mozart has added a conclusion for concert performances. It is a
truly sublime and brilliant addition, and far more in keeping with
the tragic grandeur of the piece than Wagner's, which, however, has
of late frequently received the preference (in Germany). Wagner's
conclusion, which employs the first motif of the allegro, is cleverly
imagined, but the colouring is too feeble and too modern. However
interesting, it is not in Gluck's style.
t OuLiBicHEFF. Mozart, vol. ii., p. 242.
CHAPTER XI.
Foundation and Impbovement of Instrumental Music in
Germany by Haydn.
We are now entering on the period when instru-
mental music attained to glorious distinction.
Like painting, it is entirely of modern origin, and
that branch of musical art in which Germany
first bid fair to out-rival Italy, and was even
destined to take the lead in all future progress.
If the supremacy of the Italians in violin playing
and technical skill on bowed instruments cannot
be denied, to the Germans is due the credit of
perfecting wind instruments, and being the first
to employ them characteristically. Not until
these were added to the resources of the orchestra
could instrumental music attain complete and
independent existence, warmth, animation, and
expression. The clarionet was the most recently
invented [at Nuremberg 1720] wind instrument,
and Gluck — altogether the greatest instrumental
composer previous to Haydn — had been the first
to employ it in dramatic music (in the " airs de
ballet'' of his operas). With what application
and zeal the technical features of instrumental
148 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
music were studied and practised in Germany
since the middle of the last century, is evidenf
from the numerous '^Methodes " for various instru-
ments which appeared in quick succession and
constantly new editions. Quanz wrote an * Essay
on Hints in playing the Traversiere Flute'*
(Berlin 1752); Leopold Mozart an ' Essay on
a thorough method of Violin playing' f (Augsburg
1756); and Phil. Eman. Bach an * Essay on a
true method of harpsichord playing '{ (first part
Berlin 1753)— a work still held in esteem, and
lately re-edited by Gr. Schilling; its technical
practice, being grounded on an uniform system of
fingering, laid the foundation to modern piano-
forte playing.
Haydn, the veritable originator of German in-
strumental music, in the first instance and in
general, adopted the pianoforte sonatas of Phil.
Eman. Bach (whom he was accustomed to
designate as his master) for his studies and model.
Eman. Bach had, in accordance with the paternal
wish, applied himself to music " for his pleasure
rather than as a profession " — a circumstance
which imparted to his whole after-career a
singularly free and distinct individuality, which
remained unfettered by scholastic restrictions.
" Entirely free from all that can be called man-
* * Versuch einer Anweisung die Flote traversiere zu spielen,^
f ' Versuch einer grundlichen ViolinschuleJ'
X ' Versuch tiber die wahre Art das Klavier zu spielen,*
JOSEPH HAYDN-. 149
nerism In the music of those days, he allowed his
own proclivities and, what we call, artistic indivi-
duality full scope — first of all in manual execution,
and afterwards in his compositions."* Of these,
the most remarkable are his pianoforte composi-
tions, especially the ' Sonatas and Fantasias for
connoisseurs and amateurs 'f — compositions held
in high esteem by young Haydn. " I could not
get away from my harpsichord till I had played
them through, and those who know me well must
be aware how much I am indebted to Emanuel
Bach, and that I have studied him thoroughly.
Bach once paid me a compliment about it." Cha-
racteristic also are Mozart's words when he heard
Bach extemporize on the harpsichord at Ham-
burg. " He is the father, we are the boys. If
any of us can do a thing well, he has learnt it of
him ; and if he doesn't say so, he is a fool. What
he does would no longer sufl&ce us ; but no one
can come up to him in the manner of doing it."
Some of Eman. Bach's ' Orchestral Symphonies,'
which appeared about the same time as Haydn's
earlier ones, have been revived of late, and, as is
frequently the case with works of an early period,
considerably overrated. For us they have a pecu-
liar interest, inasmuch as they exhibit a wonder-
ful advance on the orchestral " suites " of his
father, and do not appear to have any visible
* RocHLiTZ. Fiir Freunde der Tonkunsf, vol. iv., p. 299.
t * Sonaten und Fardasienfilr Kenner und Liebhdber.^
150 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
connection whatever with the suite form, which
Kiehl regards as the foundation of the modern
symphony. The purely abstract succession of
pieces in the dance form differs in toto from the
inward development of Eman. Bach's symphonies.
" To me it is evident that the * suite * is not the
parent of our modern symphony and sonata ; but
this would not preclude the adoption of the
former to a certain extent."* However inferior in
point of genuine orchestral character, as well as
general style and expression, Eman. Bach's sym-
phonies may be to those of Haydn and Mozart,
he it is, most certainly, who first prepared the
way for the brilliant epoch of instrumental music
which began with Haydn.
JOSEPH HA YBN— the eldest of fourteen
children — was born of poor parents at Rohrau (a
village on the frontiers of Austria and Hungary),
March 31st, 1732.f He was put to school in the
neighbouring village of Hainburg, where, under
the severe tuition of a relative, he became familiar
* Jahn.
t Griesingeb (the friend and companion of his later years) :
Biographische Notizen iiber J. Haydn. Leipzig, 1810.
Arnold's (so-called) biography : J. Haydn, Kurze Biographic
und dsthetische Darstellung seiner Werke. Erfurt, 1810.
Carpani: ie Haydine ovvero lettere su la vita e le opere del
celehre maestro G. Haydn. Milano, 1812.
A. Adam : La jeunesse d'Haydn in the Derniers Souvenirs d'un
Musicien, p. 1 — 39.
Haydn in London 1791 und 1792, von Prof. Th. von Karajan.
Wien, 1862.
Dies : Biographische Nachrichten von Jos. Haydn. Wien, 1810.
JOSEPH HAYDN. 151
with almost every kind of stringed and wind in-
strument till his ninth year, when he was sent to
Vienna as a chorister. There, in the choir of
St. Stephen's, he received a good practical educa-
tion in music ; his early attempts at composition
were aided by Fux's ' Gradus ad Parnassum ' (at
that time the standard work on composition) and
Mattheson's * Complete Chapel-master.'* After
eight years, when his voice broke, he was dis-
missed, and for the ten succeeding ones, poverty
and privation were his lot. His earnings, made
first by joining small bands of music {street-music
as he afterwards called it), and, subsequently, by
teaching, were barely sufficient to eke out a scanty
subsistence ; but his innate cheerfulness of dispo-
sition, and, yet more, his genuine love of art sus-
tained him through all the troubles and trials
tliat befel him. " Sitting at my old worm-eaten
harpsichord, I envied no king upon his throne."
He had even to reckon it a privilege that he was
allowed to accompany the renowned Porpora when
he gave singing lessons. The latter, indeed, treated
him no better than a servant ; " but I put up
with everything, for I learnt a great deal of
Porpora, in singing, composition, and Italian."
In the meantime, some pianoforte Sonatas and
Trios, published without his knowledge, caused
his name to become known, which led to his
being appointed [1760] chapel-master to Prince
* ' Vollkommener Kapellmeister.''
152 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Esterhazy — an appointment he held for thirty
years. The prince resided during the greater
portion of the year at his seat in Hungary, only
visiting Yienna for a few months in winter, and
riiaintained a band and choir of his own for opera
— Italian of course — , concert, and church music.
Haydn had not only to rehearse and conduct the
performers, but, as was always expected of a
chapel-master in those days, to write nearly all
the music himself. This was the origin of most
of his Symphonies and Quartets (together with
those written at a later date, 118 and 83 in num-
ber) ; his Concertos and Trios (each 24 in num-
ber) ; 44 Sonatas; 19 Operas (14 Italian and 5
German Marionnette Operas); 15 Masses; the
Oratorio ' 11 ritomo di Tohia ; and about 400
dances. Besides the above works, he wrote 163
pieces for the haryton — a species of viola digamba,
similar to our violincelb, and the prince's favourite
instrument. A good many of the Symphonies
were pieces doccasion — among them the * Cliil-
dren's' (for pianoforte and seven toy instru-
ments) and ^ Depart^ symphonies, which latter
owes its effect more to the ingenious idea of let-
ting one instrument after another cease, than to
any great musical originality. Occasionally,
some of the pieces in the symphonies written at
that period, were headed with appropriate titles
as : * La Bella Circassa,' * La Roxelana,' * Elena
Greca^ ' 11 Solitario,' '11 Maestro di scuola inna-
JOSEPH HAYDN^. 153
morato^ ' La Persiana' ' 11 Poltronel etc., and
(a circumstance deserving of notice) others he is
said to have provided with a kind of programme,
for instance : " God conversing with a hardened
sinner," " Departure of an indigent family for
America ; grief of those left behind ; the voyage
and return ;" '' Le matin, le inidi, le soir." Thus,
Haydn found, in his constant and varied duties,
the best opportunity for improving his talents and
forming his style. " My prince was pleased with
my productions ; I received commendation ; as
leader of an orchestra I was enabled to make ex-
periments, to observe, and learn what constitutes,
as well as mars, effect ; to improve, add, with-
draw, to make experiments. I lived apart from
the great world, with no one near to confuse or
annoy me ; and, thus, I could not fail to become
original."
After Prince Esterhazy's death [1790], Haydn,
now verging on his sixtieth year, entered on a
new career, whereby his future musical produc-
tions were materially influenced. Like Handel
and Gluck, he, too, was to meet with the full
measure of regard and appreciation in foreign
lands — not indeed, as they did, by his own efforts,
but by the valuable aid of a countryman and
enthusiastic admirer. John Peter Salomon from
Cologne, manager of the famous Professional
Conceits in London, and himself an excellent
artist, had already made repeated but ineffectual
154 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
attempts to induce Haydn to quit the service of
Prince Esterhazy and come to London, if only
for one winter. His terms were : that, for liberal
remuneration, Haydn should write a new piece —
if possible, a symphony — of which he was to
conduct the performance himself, for each of
Salomon's " Grand Concerts." Haydn, being now
at liberty, Salomon hastened to Vienna in order
to put his project into execution. That same
year, Haydn accompanied him to London, where
he remained a year and a half; and, after two
years [January 1794], returned thither for the
same length of time. During the three years of
his residence in London, Haydn wrote — besides a
number of smaller pieces — six of his finest Quar-
tets, and those incomparable twelve (entitled)
London Symphonies, which we all admire so
much : one in C minor, with the lovely minuet
trio (for violincello concertante) ; the truly sublime
one in B with the grand finale; the so-called
* Military Symphony \ one in Gr (with the " clock
movement "*), and others.
That Haydn was well received and remunerated
* The two last symphonies were sumamed from their beautiful
andante movements, wherein, in one, the beat of a kettledrum falls
unexpectedly on the softest possible piano ; in the other, is a splendid
" Turkish music." In other respects, the * Military Symi)hony ' has not
a particularly military character ; and, consequently, the comparison
which Ambros (in his * Orenzen der Musik und Poesie^ p. 132)
draws, to Haydn's disadvantage, with Beethoven's * Eroica^' is quite
out of place. Of the " military " element in the * Eroica ' we shall
have occasion to speak heixjafter.
JOSEPH HAYDX. 155
in England, is evident from an entry in his diary
referring to his farewell benefit concert at the
Haymarket Theatre [May 4th, 1795]: "This
evening I made four thousand florins. That is
only to be done in England." He returned to
Vienna, and purchased a house and garden in
one of the suburbs, where he lived quietly and
comfortably till his death (May 31st, 1809]. It
was during this latter period that his great
German Oratorios — ' The Creation ' and * The
Seasons ' — were composed.
Haydn's works, more, perhaps, than those of any
other master, form an epoch in the history of art ;
" Father Haydn," as he is called, is the ancestor of
succeeding musical generations. He has opened
out the widest field for free, artistic, individual
expression by means of instrumental music, of
which he fixed, and, in many ways, developed the
forms. Unfettered by rules and traditions of art
— grown up as it were in a school of his own —
he carried music out of school and church into
the freshness and reality of life — home to the
feelings of the multitude " even as it weeps and
laughs." As German poetry was improved by
Goethe's and Herder's return to the poetry of
early times — especially Homer, and the old
German national song — , so was music benefited
in a yet greater degree by Haydn, in whose com-
positions reminiscences of popular tunes, whether
of song or dance, are clearly discernible. .
156 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
In order to illustrate the newly-found subject-
matter, the forrn, or manner of composition, had
to be changed ; in lieu of the contrapuntal har-
monic style of composition, arose, since Haydn,
the melodic-thematic, consisting of a leading idea
or theme from which are derived a succession of
secondary subjects. This is called thematic compo-
sition; and by it, unity of design is combined
with constant variety. In this art — that of pur-
suing one thought or theme through all the
shades and intricacies of which it is susceptible,
and, without detriment to the original character,
cause it to represent every possible alternation of
feeling — Haydn, by the very clearness and sim-
plicity of his style, remains to this day a model.
"No artist has, with such innocence and sim-
plicity, accepted every, the smallest thought which
God has given him, and cherished it so heartil}^
and fervently, that it grew to a mighty stock of
artistic inspiration ; no one has bestowed such ad-
mirable, judicious, and loving care on the instru-
ments committed to his charge. He would be ever-
lastingly enviable, if he did not equally command
our respect, gratitude, and love."* "If an idea
presented itself," says Haydn, " all my endeavours
were directed to entertain and carry it out in
accordance with the rules of art. Thus I tried
to improve myself; and that is where many of our
* Compare the article * Haydn ' in Gassner's Universallexicon der
Tonhunst,
JOSEPH HAYDN. 157
modern composers fail ; they string one little piece
on to another, and break off when they have hardly
begun ; but none of it touches our feelings when
we hear it." Those would-be original geniuses,
whose supercilious vanity teaches them to look
down upon the writer of the * Children's ' Sym-
phony, and, comparing his symphonies with the
grandest that have ever been written — Beetho-
ven's — , pronounce them antiquated or old-
fashioned, would do well to ponder these words.
Haydn, to whom Mozart dedicated his six finest
Quartets [composed 1783-1785], and Beethoven
his first Trios ; to whose memory Cherubini (too
modest to dedicate to him his chef doeuvre, ' Les
deux Journees ') composed the ' Chant sur la mort
de Joseph Haydn' is still (especially now-a-days,
when the feeling for simplicity and beauty in art-
productions threatens to become extinct) the
master, from whom disciples of art may learn the
most. His Symphonies and Quartets are, owing
to their purity of idea and clearness of develop-
ment, models of their kind ; and even their short-
ness — so derided by the ignorant — might be ad-
vantageously imitated by our " Grand Symphony"
writers, who spin out everything to unheard-of
lengths, and with dwelling upon a number of
subordinate subjects are scarcely able to get to the
end.*
* A talented and judicious art-critic of our own day expresses
himself thus decidedly against the conceited assei'tion that Haydn's
158 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
We must not indeed expect to find profound
ideality in Haydn's works ; on tlie other hand,
we cannot allow that his Symphonies (as Riehl
even says of Mozart's) are nothing better than a
combination of symphonic movements. Haydn
imbibed his ideas directly from real life, just as it
presented itself to his childlike, sunny tempera-
ment — keenly alive to impressions from without.
The movements of his symphonies and quartets,
notwithstanding their close and complete con-
nexion with each other, are not bound together by
abstruse or poetical ideas ; but, as Haydn himself
admits with regard to some of them, rest on the
simple foundation of a particular circumstance or
emotion. To seek effect by means of contrast,
was utterly foreign to his purely harmonious dis-
position ; with him all is right and joyous as a
fine spring morning when our spirits are buoyant
with cheerfulness and hope. In the Minuets
which (like Mozart's andantes and adagios and
Beethoven's yinaZ?') pecuHarly characterize Haydn,
he seems to take especial delight — revelling in
playful humour and arch surprises.
That Haydn could make so much of an appa-
symphonies are not destined to endure. " Whereas, about twenty
years ago, Haydn was almost unanimously allowed to be the first
among instrumental composers, and his quartets and symphonies
extolled as the acme of perfection, it is now the fashion to fall into
the opposite extreme, and to speak of them with a contemptuous
smile, as of unpretending hagatelleSy beneath the notice of our
enlightened generation."
JOSEPH HAYDN". 159
rently restricted field of sentiment, is the clearest
proof of his wonderful musical gifts, as well as
true artistic self-knowledge, which, rejecting the
mysterious and ethereal, contented itself with a
slight tinge of ideality. '' The variety and deli-
cacy of perception with which he illustrated so
many different phases of a cheerful mood in the
elaboration of a symphony, and, without the aid
of forced contrasts, preserves its character appa-
rently intact while describing infinitesimal shades
of feeling, is, and ever will be, worthy of ad-
miration. Take, for instance, the symphony in D.
The first allegro movement portrays quiet felicity,
mingled with tender loving kindness — unclouded
even by a perceptible tinge of sadness ; the andante
following on it illustrates happiness and content ;
in the minuet, a delicious sense of enjoyment
breaks forth into wilful sportiveness ; while, in
conclusion, the 7vndo describes the wild merri-
ment of a joyous troop, and that with such
marked and distinctive traits, that when listening
to it, we almost fancy we see before us a picture
of Teniers. Thus, we find happiness and joy
represented in a variety of gradations, yet with-
out inducing the least sense of monotony or weari-
ness."* It was but seldom that Haydn attempted
tlie delineation of the passions, — not, however,
that he lacked either receptivity for grand emo-
* Fr. Hand. Aesthetih der Tonkunst. Vol. ii., p. 421.
160 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
tional sensations, or the faculty of rendering
them in music. Of this his Oratorios furnish
proofs to the contrary; for, besides tenderness
and sweetness, sublimity and solemnity are therein
strikingly expressed.
When in his sixty-fifth year [1797], Haydn
composed the * Creation,^ for which the book (it
was said) had been written for Handel by Lidley.
This Oratorio has a far more solemn and sacred
character than his Masses (in which serenity and
enjoyment break forth so charmingly and inno-
cently), and the noble chorus : " The heavens are
telling," and others, may be accounted equal to
the sublimest achievements of sacred choral music.
"I was,'' narrates Haydn, "never so pious as
when engaged on the * Creation ;' I fell on my
knees daily, and prayed God would vouchsafe me
strength to carry out the work." To the orchestra,
which forms a rich accompaniment to the recita-
tives and airs, is assigned the descriptive portion ;
while, towards the close, emotional transports find
vent in the lovely duet : " Graceful consort." It
is in this extensive range — embracing the Deity,
Nature, and Humanity — that the ' Creation '
stands alone, unrivalled. Were we to characterize
the different parts more nearly, we should say :
the first is the grandest, the second the most
picturesque, and the third the most melodious.*
♦ Memorable is the performance of the ' Creation ' in the Hall of
the University at Vienna, March 27th, 1808, at which Haydn (then
JOSEPH HAYDN. 16L
The third part of the ' Creation ' describes the
life of our first parents before the Fall. It is a
charming idyll, following on a grand epos.
Altogether idyllic in subject is the pastoral
Oratorio: ' The Seasons' [1801], after Thomson's
poem. Unlike the everlasting " Odes to Spring *'
of modern poetry, and their accompanying music,
Haydn presents us in the ' Seasons ' with a
in his seventy-sixth year) was present. When at the famous passage
" Let there be light " the audience broke out in loud plaudits, the old
man raised his trembling hands deprecatingly, saying : " It is not
mine, it comes from above." Dreading further excitement, he
desired to be conveyed home before the end of the first part. And
this was not the merely momentary weakness of old age ; it was
his firm persuasion that all blessing on his work came from above.
His scores were headed " In nomine Domini^'' or " S>di Deo gloria,^
and ended with " Laus Deo.^^
We cannot refrain from quoting an interesting passage, bearing
on Haydn's Oratorios, in the letter to Mendelssohn from his father
(see Lady Wallace's translation of Mendelssohn's letters, vol. ii.,
p. 78). " It seems to me that both the Oratorios of Haydn were, in
their sphere, also very remarkable phenomena. The poems of both
are weak, regarded as poetry ; but they have replaced the old positive
and almost metaphysical religious impulses by those which nature,
as a visible emanation from the Godhead, in her universality, and
her thousandfold individualities, instils into every susceptible heart.
Hence the profound depth, but also the cheerful efficiency, and cer-
tainly genuine religious influence, of these two works, which hitherto
stand alone ; hence the combined effect of the playful and detached
passages, with the most noble and sincere feelings of gratitude pro-
duced by the whole ; hence is it also that I individually could as
little endure to lose in the ' Creation ' and in the ' Seasons ' the crow-
ing of the cock, the singing of the lark,the lowing of the cattle, and
the rustic glee of the peasants, as I could in nature herself ; in other
words, the ' Creation ' and the ' Seasons ' are founded on nature and
the visible service of God, — and are no new materials for music to
be found there ?"
H
162 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
complete picture of rural life, the conception of
which is unequalled for naturalness and simplicity,
and for which the tenderly executed musical
colouring is as essential, as the portrayal of senti-
ments awakened by the contemplation of nature,
were to Beethoven's ideal mind (in the ' Pastoral
Symphony '). It cannot, however, be denied that
these numerous and, as far as they go, attractive,
instrumental details are prejudicial to the freedom
of song in the airs. Even if we do not, with
Zelter, regard the ' Seasons * as a symphony
with singing, yet we do not hesitate to designate
the greater portion of it as a recitative with un-
usually rich accompaniment. With the exception
of the air : " Oh how pleasing to the senses,'* and
the two songs in the last division, the tuneful,
purely musical, charm of the solo songs is incon-
siderable, or, at all events, not to be compared to
the lovely duets and the pieces dCensemhle. But
the choruses y besides the famous hunting and
vintner's choruses, the pious — really inspired —
choruses of prayer and praise, unite the whole
in one complete composition. Without them,
indeed, this work would consist merely of a series
of fatiguing, only partially interesting, pieces;
but they impart to it a oneness of form, as also
to the Oratorio the required lofty and ethical
significance — the religious elemeiat. Similar to
the sublimer * Creation,' the joyous idyll of the
' Seasons ' closes with the double choruses in
JOSEPH HAYDN. 163
praise of everlasting spring : " 'Tis come the
great and glorious morn," in solemn devotional
strains.
As to the intrinsic merit of these two works,
when compared with each other, Haydn has ex-
pressed himself as follows : " My * Creation ' will
endure, and probably the 'Seasons' also." On
being congratulated, on every side, after the first
performance of the ' Seasons,' he replied : " It is
not the ' Creation ;' there, angels sing, here,
rustics." That is, in the jargon of the schools,
there the ideal, here the 7'eal prevails ; and
"thoughtful" musicians, to whose palled taste
the ' Seasons ' fails to give satisfaction, would
probably express themselves at yet greater length.
Though the ' Creation ' is indisputably the
grander and more universal work of the two, yet
in the * Seasons,' Haydn's individuality shines
forth so brightly and distinctly, that it takes a
strong measure of modern conceit and affectation
to find it tedious.
'II ritorno di Tobia,' an Italian oratorio
written during the Esterhazy period, and of late
revived, is inferior in interest to those above
mentioned; but the composition of the Seven
words : ' Musica instrumentale sopra le sette ultime
parole del nostro Redentore al Croce' — an inter-
mezzo for Good Friday's Liturgy for orchestra
alone — is a work of note and importance. Haydn,
himself, set so great store by it, that not only did
164 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
he afterwards publish it as a solo-quartet, but
even adapted it for an oratorio, in which the
* Words ' were simply recited in a choral tone,
and the expression of the sentiments contained in
the instrumental description, is 'allotted to the
chorus.
In Church composition, properly speaking,
Haydn gave the preference to the works of his
younger brother Michael, as being more con-
sonant with genuine Church style. Michael's
are the so-called 'Spanish Mass,' the 'Requiem,'
' Pax vobis,' ' Salve Eegina,' ' Lauda Sion,' and
other sacred compositions.
In dramatic music, Haydn was a copyist. His
Italian Operas, of which his unfinished ' Orfeo,' —
written for the London stag:e — is reckoned the
best, reveal ignorance of scenic effect, as well as
of correct dramatic expression. These high
qualities were the portion of one, whom Haydn
himself designated as ^^ alone and incomparable,"
viz. — Mozart.
CHAPTER XII.
Mozart (The Opera).
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart* was born [Jan.
27th, 1756] at Salzburg, where his father,
Leopold Mozart (referred to above as the author
of a violin methode), was vice-chapel-master to the
Archbishop. So extraordinary was the child's
progress in everything appertaining to music, but
especially in pianoforte playing, that so early
even as 1762-1766, his father made professional
tours with little " Woferl " and his sister (five
years older than himself) to Munich, Vienna,
* OuLiBiCHEFF : * NouvelU Biographie de Mozart, suivie d'un
opergu sur Vhisfoire generate de la rausique et de Vanalyse des prin-
cipales ceuvres de Mozart.^ Moscou, 1843.
Otto Jahn: W, A. Mozart. Vier Bande. Leipzig, 1856-1859.
Chronologisch - thematisches Verzeichniss sdmmtlicher Tonwerke
W. A. Mozaii's, von L. Kitter von Kochel. Leipzig, 1863.
(Supplement to Jahn's Biography).
Mozart. Fine populdre Biographie des Meisters, von L. Nohl.
MUnchen, 1863.
Mozarfs Briefe, nach den Originalen herausgegehen von L. NoHi..
166 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Paris, and London. Wherever they went, the
"infant prodigies" were praised to the skies in
(jerman, Italian, and Latin, and in Holland
were even permitted to give concerts during Lent,
hecause it " redounded to God's glory." Mozart
afterwards spent three years at Salzburg and
Vienna in composing and studying the art of com-
position, during which time he attracted but little
notice — perhaps, even, was purposely neglected,
through the jealousy of rival artists. The juve-
nile composer (thirteen years old) met with a
warmer reception in Italy [1770]. Whatever
could most gratify the ambition of a gray-haired
professor was freely bestowed on the ingenuous
lad — the Papal Order, diplomas from the phil-
harmonic academies of Bologna and Verona, the
esteem of connoisseurs, and the adoration of the
multitude. Mozart's operas : * Mitridate Re di
Ponto' and ' Litcio Silla/ both of 'which he
wrote for the Milan stage (where the former was
performed under the youthful maestro' s leadership
to the cries of " Ewiva il Maestrino "), were per-
formed no less than twenty times. It is scarcely
necessary to add, that these operas (quite of the
traditional type), together with the later gala
pieces : ' Ascanio in Alba* * II Sogno di Scipione^
* II Re pastore^' and the German operettas
' Bastien und Bastienne,' ' Zaide* and even the
hujfa opera: ' La jinta Giardiniera' [1775] — a
more matured piece in regard to instrumentation
WOLFGAXG AMADEUS MOZART. 167
and drain atic expression — have no value and
importance now-a-days ; but (as Jahn justly
observes), the boy's exquisite discernment of cha-
racteristic and national peculiarities in different
branches of dramatic composition is evident in
these pieces.
Mozart's classical period may be said to begin
with ' Idomeneo' [1781], the success of which
(together with the consciousness of genius and
respect for his calling) inspired him with the
resolution of quitting the service of the coarse,
uneducated Archbishop of Salzburg. He had, it is
true, before this [1778 and 1779] endeavoured,
though unsuccessfully, to obtain an appointment
either at Munich, Mannheim (where he met his
bride Constance), or Paris. Mozart now settled
in Vienna, "in a private capacity," gaining a
livelihood by giving concerts, lessons, by profes-
sional tours, and such trifling sums as his compo-
sitions brought him in.* It was not till the
year 1787 that, with the title of Imperial Cham-
ber Composer, an annuity of 800 florins w^as
awarded him ; and — on his death-bed — the ap-
* A few weeks after the first performance of the * Enlfilhrung '
(for which, however, he got one hundred ducats), Mozart wrote,
December 21st, 1782, as follows : " Altogether I am so hardly-
worked that I often don't know what I am about. The entire fore-
noon till two o'clock is occupied in giving lessons, afterwards we
dine. After dinner I must allow my poor stomach a little time to
digest ; there remains only the evening when I can attempt to write,
and that not always, for I am frequently obliged to attend the
academies (public concerts).
168 . HISTORY OF MUSIC.
pointment of chapel-master at St. Stephen's
cathedral.
Idomeneo (' Idomeneo Ee di Creta ossia Ilia e
Idamante ') [performed for the first time at
Munich, Jan. 26th, 1781], is, on the whole, con-
structed on the plan of the old Italian Opera
seria ; the large proportion of airs, and the cir-
cumstance that the part of Idamante is written
for a now obsolete kind of voice, being of itself
characteristic. But, notwithstanding these con-
cessions to mere redundant vocalization in the
airs, and setting aside the evident imitation of
Gluck (particularly * Alceste ') in the treatment
of the recitatives, Mozart's genius shines forth
in all its might in the grand choruses, and,
still more, in the wonderfully bold, yet delicate,
colouring of the instrumentation with which this
opera abounds. ** Oulibicheff remarks with truth,
tliat in ' Idomeneo' it is easy to distinguish how
far Mozart still clings to the formal Opera seria, how
far he follows in the steps of Gluck and the French
Opera, and how far he does justice to his own
original powers."* It is much to be regretted
that the radically undramatic plan of the book,
and a want of variety and movement, as also of
effective ensembles, has hindered this opera, with
its manifold beauties, from keeping the stage.
It is not a musical drama — least of all one in
* Jahn. Vol. ii., p. 449.
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 169
Gluck's sense of the term — , but there is abun-
dance of dramatic music in it. It is, therefore, all
the more to be desired that this work — highly
prized by Mozart himself — should be duly repre-
sented in the concert room by extracts of its best
pieces.
If in *Idomeneo/ Mozart appears (as is also
the case in his two last Italian operas ' Cosi
fan tutte ' and ' Titus ') still fettered by Italian
influences, we find him in his other works at-
tempting hitherto untried styles, and leaving in
all of them works that may be called models of
their kind. The opera that followed next : ' Die
Entfuhrung aus dem Serail, oder Belmonte und
Constanze' [performed July 12th, 1782] was
written by command of the Emperor Joseph II.
(" who even included the lyric theatre among his
reform projects"). The plan of this work is, for
the most part, in the manner, and according to the
standard, of the Singspiel of that period ; but it is
far richer in the execution of the details, and,
likewise, remarkable for its admirable keeping and
warmth of expression — qualities which temper
the exultation of the happy bridegroom by the
tenderness of its lyrical strains. But Mozart did
not content himself with the expression of con-
templative sentiment alone; the delineation of
constancy and affection is relieved by the wildest
sallies of humour and a breadth of comic efiect
never again attained, even by himself. The
170 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
*' stupid, loutish, and wicked Osmin" (Mozart's
own words) is, of a truth, the most original cha-
racter that ever was imagined, and a downright
root and branch coinic personage, whose droll
pathos and rough jokes temper the sentimentahty
of the piece in the happiest possible manner.
And this best of bass buffos Mozart created, not
only without the assistance of, but actually unbe-
known to, his libretto poet — indeed he altered the
whole plan of the piece to suit his views. " This
Osmin," writes Mozart to his father, "has in the
libretto only one small song and nothing besides,
except in the trio and finale. So he is to have
another air in the first part, and one in the second.
I have indicated to Mr. Stephani (Bretzner was
the libretto poet and Stephani the - substitute en-
gaged by Mozart) the plan of these airs, and the
principal part of the music was finished before
Stephani knew anything about it." In the same
letter Mozart expresses himself on the means and
object of art with so much penetration, that it
seems astonishing people should say (as some do)
that Mozart, through life artless and inexperi-
enced, exercised his art instinctively and unreflect-
ingly, without profound " self-consciousness " —
in short, that he recked not how bad the libretto
for which he wrote his music might be. His
correspondence with his father regarding ' Ido-
meneo * and the ' Entfiihrung' furnish proofs to the
contrary ; afterwards, since the death of his father
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 171
[May 28th, 1787], lie had no further occasion to
express himself concerning his works. " At that
time, musicians were not in the habit of analyzing
art and works of art, and especially the peculiar
relations of the individual himself to art ; such a
proceeding was utterly foreign to Mozart's
nature."* It is also worthy of observation, that
Mozart has not made use of any former similar
work (not even * Zaide') when composing the
* Entfuhrung,' and that he left unfinished and
unemployed an already completely designed comic
opera, ' L'Oca del Cairo' [1783], because he
found the libretto poor, and the subject too nearly
approaching the ' Seraglio ' (yet the music of the
first act, particularly the lively /?2a/^, is magnifi-
cent, "resplendent with genius, playfulness, and
originality "). The case is the same with the
following year's [1784] opera ' Lo Sposo deluso,'
concerning which he writes at the time : "I have,
I should think, looked through a hundred or
more books." Not until the year 1786 did he
(with the exception of the one act operetta * Der
Schauspieldirector, a comedy with music for
Schonbrunn ')t produce a new chef-d'oeuvre replete
with originality and vigour.
* Jahn. Vol. ii., p. 299.
t " The pieces contained in this operetta (besides the overture there
were only two airs and one trio which also forms the finale) have
been embodied in Cimarosa's ' L'impresario in angustie,' which
Goethe caused to be performed in Weimar, in 1791, with the title of
* Theatralische Abenteuer ' (Stage Adventures). Several of Mozart's
172 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
In ' Le Nozze di Figaro ' [performed May 1st,
1786], which was composed in the space of six
weeks to a subject of his own selection, Mozart's
genius shines forth in full splendour. He has,
almost in sport as it were, achieved the diiSicult
task of infusing genuine sentiment into the
"polite society'' tone of Beaumarchais' lively
comedy,* and embodying its broad merriment in
musical forms. Mozart alone knew (what no
Italian or French composer could have done) ho\^
to redeem the cutting satire and frivolous tone of
the play. He sought out, as far as he was able,
the poetry of which the subject was capable, and,
taking love — genuine disinterested affection — for
the motive of its perpetual intrigues, described it
with wondrous depth and truth in every con-
ceivable relation, and caused it finally to triumph
over all obstacles and impediments. Frigid and
narrow-minded critics, however, who are incapable
of distinguishing between Mozart's glorious
music and the subject on which it rests, can only
be answered with the somewhat trite maxim, that
the proprieties of art are the sole standard of
beauty, and by them alone a work of art must be
judged.
songs have of late been interpolated, and the piece performed with
the title of * Der Schauspieldirector, oder Mozart und Schikaneder.'
(The Stage Manager, or Mozart and Schikaneder). Mozart himself
is the hero who is represented as composing the * Zauberfiote ' at
Schikaneder's suggestion." (Jahn.)
* * Le Manage de Figaro^ ou la Fode Journee^
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 173
' Figaro/ from a dramatic, as ' Don Giovanni '
from a musical, point of view, is unquestionably
Mozart's chef-d'oeuvre. The sprightliness of actual
life bursts forth in this incomparable " musical
comedy," more especially in the grand ensembles
and Jinali, where each character is admirably in
keeping. While Gluck invariably aims at the
solemn, measured repose that is the exclusive
attribute of Greek tragedy, and avoids whatever
might interfere with the even tenour of the sub-
ject, Mozart attains his best dramatic effects in
the ensembles a,nd Jinali, in the vigorous treatment
of which he is, perhaps, unequalled, and in the
airs he reveals the profound emotions which stir
the human heart, and the inborn power of melody.
He understood and appreciated better than any
other the aim and scope of dramatic music, and
carried both music and drama a step higher. Even
R Wagner is compelled to admit this much, when
(speaking of Gluck) he says : " Gluck took pains
to express himself correctly and intelligibly in
music, whereas Mozart, following his own natural
instinct, could not help doing so."* " Mozart,"
he continues, " has, in the opera, brought to light
the capabilities of music to respond generously to
every wish of the poet ; and the glorious musician
has, in his own natural, uncalculating method, by
truthfulness of dramatic compression, and the endless
* Oper und Drama. Vol. i., p. 132.
174 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
variety of his airs and tunes, discovered this
faculty in music in a far greater degree than
Gluck and his disciples."
Owing to party spirit and the intrigues of
Italian singers and composers, Mozart's " favourite
song " met with an indifferent reception at Vienna,*
but, on the contrary, was enthusiastically welcomed
at Prague. For Prague, accordingly, the great
maestro wrote his next and best work : '11 Dissoluto
punito ossia il Don G^/6>?;aw2zV [performed Oct. 29th,
1787]. 'Don Giovanni' is, as Spohr justly re-
marks, the most energetic in character of all
Mozart's operas. Here we have no mere out-
pouring of sentiment and emotion, but human
nature, swayed alternately by love and hate ; life,
in all its aspects of keen enjoyment and passionate
desire, forms the subject of this opera, while,
combined with the utmost variety of character
and '* situation," the development of the plot is
natural and simple. Diftering from all other
operas (but in this respect resembling the Shake-
* Strictly spoakinf];, only at the first performance — intentionally
marred by the Italian performers. L. Jklozart wrote to his daughter
that at the second perfoiTrtance fiive, and at the third seven, pieces
were encwed, " among which a small duet had to be repeated three
times." From this statement we learn that the anecdote (so
frequently retailed by way of consolation to unrewarded talent) that
Figaro was a complete failure at Vienna, is a gratuitous invention.
Even Mozart's opponents — envious rivals — knew how to appreciate
this opera ; for at subsequent performances encores were prohibited
(ostensibly for the sake of the singers) by imperial decree, and before
long, the ouera was withdrawn from the stage.
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 175
spearean drama), the prevailing character of
* Don Giovanni ' is a mixture of tragedy and
comedy. To use Jahn's words, " Mozart's con-
ception of this subject is drawn from his own
deep sympathy with, and profound knowledge of,
human nature."
Undeniable as is the force and richness of its
musical structure, and irresistible the power of
even a tolerable performance (which never fails to
draw a full house), the poetical significance of
this profound and carefully matured work is even
yet far from being fully appreciated. " The gran-
deur, beauty and sublimity of the music of ' Don
Giovanni' (writes a reporter in the year 1790)
will ever be discerned only by a select few," and
so it is up to the present time. Else how could
Don Giovanni's I'rivolous carriage, LeporeDo's
weak jokes, Zerlina's equivocal conduct, and
above all, the shameful mutilation of the second
finale (whereby the piece is made to conclude with
the ridiculous caperings of infernal masques and a
" brilliant display of fireworks") ever be tolerated ?
To satisfy the requirements of good taste, the
closing scene should express the nobler emotions
(vide the finale sestet with the fugued conclusion :
" Questo e il fin di chi fa mal "). When the " devil
takes the hero " there is, of course, an end of
everything, so far as the musical rabble is con-
cerned. But this concession to the " gods of the
gallery " not only mars the ideal impression of a
176 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
work of art, it utterly destroys the scenic illasion
as well as the tragic effect ; whereas Mozart has
introduced the demonic element with such con-
summate skill and impressiveness that no one can
help believing in the awful reality. For the rest,
the common herd, accustomed to regard Mozart
himself as a " Don Giovanni " incarnate, views this
opera as nothing more or less than a revel in
honour of dissipation and vice. Still more narrow
is the view taken by some propriety folks, who
really deplore that Mozart should have thrown
away his '* exquisite " music on such a coarse
subject. By such discriminating people as these,
a representation of the catastrophe alone — an
enlarged second finale — would probably be the
most admired. " This opera is not for the Vien-
nese, rather for the Praguers, but chiefly for
myself and my friends," said Mozart ; and in the
magnificent overture has he not, as it were in
characters of fire, proclaimed the lofty pathos
of the work — ay, so that the blindest might see,
were it not that there are those who cannot
realize " poetical justice " unless final retribution is
awarded amid thunder and lightning, and Death
himself appears to end the voluptuary's career !
Mozart's * Don Giovanni ' is, by its marvellous
delineation of both the lights and shadows of
life, its combined seriousness and playfulness,
tragedy and comedy, an universal^ unique, and
deeply significant work; one to which, in the
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 177
sister art of drama, Goethe's ' Faust ' can alone be
worthily compared. Both these productions are
drawn from the mysterious depths of popular
tradition ; both are, from their very nature, inim-
itable ; both are frequently taken as models, as well
as illustrated by the sister art ;* both are entirely
commensurate to the grandeur of their scheme and
the limits of their respective provinces, that, as
Carriere f aptly remarks, ' Don Giovanni ' in
poetry and ' Faust ' in music can never equal the
originals, " because poetry can neither render indi-
vidual character and feeling with such truth and
impressiveness as music, nor can music reveal deep
thoughts and self-conscious power with the pre-
cision and clearness of poetry." Goethe's * Faust '
and Mozart's ' Don Giovanni ' may be regarded
as the two greatest master-pieces of modern drama
and modern music, notwithstanding that in both
(especially in 'Faust') there is, to a certain
extent, a want of completeness and dramatic co-
herence.
So admirable is Da Ponte's (Mozart's poetical
coadjutor) musical appreciation in regard to the
* Viz., in poetry: 'Don Juan,' by Byron, and also by Lenau.
In music : * Faust ' (without reckoning Spohb's opera) by Schumann
(' Scenen aus Faust ') ; Berlioz — after Liszt the musical translator
par excellence — ^Damnation de Faust ' ; several scenes in airs arwl
choruses) ; Lindpaintner (' Overture to Faust ') ; E. Wagner (' An
Overture ' [save the mark !] to Faust) ; and Gounod (' Marguerite,^ an
Opera).
t Aesthetik. Vol. ii., p. 581.
X
178 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
books for ' Figaro ' and * Don Giovanni ' (the lat-
ter written, as he himself relates, with a bottle
of Tokay before him and his landlord's pretty-
daughter at his side), that his failure — as compe-
tent judges consider it — in this, his third, libretto
for Mozart is all the more glaring. The libretto
of the opera : * Go^ fan tutte, ossia La scuola degli
amanti' [performed Jan. 26th, 1790] is, in fact, so
wondrously stupid, that no subsequent stage
writer — desirous of rescuing Mozart's exquisite
music from oblivion — has ever succeeded in ar-
ranging it satisfactorily for the stage. It were
better far — at least we think so — to set aside
" modern adaptations,"* newspaper strictures, and
analyses ; these ridiculous love affairs and childish
surprises may indeed well be tolerated for the
sake of Mozart's music. " It has indeed," writes
L. Eellstab (on the occasion of the performance of
this piece at Berlin), " always appeared incompre-
hensible to ourselves, that a foolish Carnival joke,
which forms the plot of this opera, should be
taken so seriously, and expectations entertained
with regard to it which it is not in the least cal-
culated to fulfil. Two lovers agree to put the
fidelity of their mistresses to the proof by assum-
ing an incognito, and tempting them to infidelity.
The 7%tse succeeds ; the ladies abashed seek for-
giveness ; they are pardoned as a matter of course,
* In 1863, an attempt was made at Paris to adapt Shakespeare's
* Love's Labour Lost ' as a text-book for * Cosi fan tutte.'
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 179
VOWS, &c., are renewed, and all goes merrily as
before. That is no more than the way of the
world in general and this piece in particular. The
poet has treated the whole thing as a harmless
froHc — a mere " Vaudeville folie " — whereby,
indeed, he has neither had regard to probabilities
nor to the moral of his tale. Mozart has com-
posed the music to this trivial subject in a corre-
spondingly light, free, and jovial strain." * Cos
fan tutte,' being of the downright huffo species, in
which music is everything and the words are o
no account, is averse to careful dramatic develop-
ment of the plot ; the vivacity of its musical ex-
pression makes up for poverty of invention and
probability in the poetical department ; merri-
ment and joviality reign supreme, and whoever
enjoys conviviality and fun is sure to enter heart
and soul into it.
In ' Cosi fan tutte,' Mozart has, in general,
retained the traditional Italian forms, but in the
pieces d'ensemhle (mark the farewell scene !) and
the two Jinali, we detect the dramatic composer's
earlier manner. The same may be said, perhaps
in a still greater degree, of his last secular work
— an heroic opera, written, in the short space of
eighteen days, for the coronation of the Emperor
Leopold II., and entitled : ' La clemenza di Tito '
[performed at Prague, Sept. 6th, 1791]. Accord-
ing to the plan of the poem (Metastasio's, and
already frequently set to music) which Mozart
180 • HISTORY OF MUSIC.
was commanded to write for, the whole piece was
intended merely for a Court and festival opera
with brilliant solos and finale choruses. But
Mozart, not content with this, created the finale
of the first act, which, by its overpowering
dramatic truthfulness, has ever since remained a
model of musical tragedy. Similar to Shake-
speare's grand Eoman tragedies, Mozart has here
represented the public life of Eoman days heav-
ing and surging under the pressure of a great
national calamity. It is a grand historical
tableau, than which it is impossible to conceive
anything in music more impressive and lifelike.
How incomparable is the distribution of the
double chorus at the words : " OA giorno di dolor"
how profoundly imagined, how sublime ! Among
the airs we cannot fail to distinsruish the one
with como di hassetto (a now almost obsolete in-
strument of the clarionet genus) ohligato : '* Non
piu di fiori^' whose noble proportions and pro-
found expression give it a foremost place among
the (hitherto little known) Concert airs of
Mozart.
On the whole, Oulibicheff (who also deals hard
measure to ' Cosi fan tutte') considers ' Titus ' as,
undoubtedly, the least perfect of Mozart's severe
classical operas. " Mozart wrote five or six
pieces con amove ; these are, indeed, masterpieces
(besides the overture, the finale to the first act,
the trio in the second act, and the above-men-
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 181
tioned air of Yitellia ; to which may be dded the
last air of Sextus, the last chorus but one and the
concluding chorus) ; the other scenes, which he
only sketched, are redolent of the varnish of the
period, and, owing to the pressure of an incredibly
short space of time for completion, he commis-
sioned SussMAiER to write those recitatives that
were not ohligato — merely reserving to himself
the supervision. Tradition even ascribes to
Siissmaier Vitellia's air : * Deh si placer mi vuoi,'
and Sextus' duet with Annius : ' Deh prendi un
dolce amplesso! "
Scarcely had Mozart completed this highly
honourable task, than he set himself to finish one
of far greater importance, viz. : 'Die Zauherflote'
which was performed at Vienna so early as the
end of the same month [Sept. 30th,- 1791]. To
those never-ending critics whom we already
hear exclaiming against the foolish libretto, we
would fain reply in Hegel's consoling words
(taken from his Aesthetik), " How often do we
hear this cant : that the subject of the ' Zauber-
fiote ' is utterly contemptible ; yet this patch-
work subject forms one of the best opera books
extant. Schikaneder has, after a number of
strange, fantastic, and common-place productions,
at last hit the right medium. The realm of
Night, the Queen, the realm of the Sun, mysteries,
wisdom, love, ordeals, and, withal, a kind of moral
admirable in its universality ; added to which, the
X82 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
depth, the enchanting loveliness and repose of
the music, fills and enlarges the imagination while
it touches the inmost heart." When Mozart
wrote operas, he was indeed a poet ; more so
than ever when he composed the ' Zauberflote/
whose solemn and mysterious music could alone
invest the apparently childish drama with dignity
and grandeur. Even the overture, with its ex-
quisite varied melodic and contrapuntal beauties,
the trombone triads, the glowing, irresistibly
impetuous conclusion, seems to tell us that above
and beyond the checkered fairy tale, a higher
ideal world is about to be revealed. It is no
ordinary trials and sorrows which here appeal to
our sympathies, but an image of sorely-tried yet
victorious humanity is presented to our view in
deeply significant symbolism.* At the same
time — apart from Mozart's masonic relations — ,
we can never sufficiently admire how naturally
and truthfully he makes his characters think and
feel, and (especially in the naive and comic episodes
of Papageno and Papagena, on which he has bes-
towed equal pains with the rest) what a charming
* That this was clearly discerned by Beethoven — himself prone to
the ideal — is evident by his giving the preference to the * Zauber-
flote' among all Mozart's operas. Goethe, whose mystical tendencies
during his latter years are well known, undertook to write a second
part to the 'Zauberflote ' for an opera book. " If," says he of the
* Helena ' (Faust, part ii., act 3), " only it find favour with the masses,
its deeper meaning will, at the same time, not escape the initiated, as
is the case with the * Zauberflote ' and other works."
WOLFGAIS^G AMADEUS MOZAKT. 183
balance he maintains between the fairy creations
of his own brain, and those scenes which are
taken from life. He has here displayed that
wonderful versatility which enabled him to con-
ceive and describe every imaginable phase of
life, that charming vivacity and happy tempera-
ment which literally revelled in beauty and
variety, and (what exceeded the expectations of
the more specula^m^ than sipecnlsitwe Schikane-
der) has succeeded in endearing this ideal and
beautiful work alike to the multitude and the
cultivated minority. The ' Zauberflote ' was
performed at Vienna one hundred times during
the first year ; it was this piece which spread the
fame of the (meanwhile deceased) musician far
and wide through Germany.
* Die Zauberflote,' though of far grander pro-
portions, is de facto a Singspiel — as, indeed, it is
entitled in the earlier editions. Mozart wrote it
for a Viennese Volkstheater, in the unassuming
garb of the fairy plays so popular at that time ;
yet there is no opera so difficult of production on
the stage, none, unfortunately, of which the execu-
tion (especially in the subordinate parts) is fre-
quently so imperfect. The Queen of Night has
a notoriously difficult part, in which, indeed (in the
grand bravura air), Mozart, out of compliment to
the vocal powders of his prima donna (Mde. Lange,
his sister-in-law), has introduced passages of, to
say the least, questionable taste.
184 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
We trust the intelligent reader will require no
apology for the foregoing detailed account of
Mozart's operas. Mozart has obtained a fore-
most — nay the foremost — place in the annals of
dramatic art. His operas, in truth, comprise (as
Oulibicheff enthusiastically exclaimed) all the
known species of musical drama. ' Idomeneo/
' Titus/ and * Cosi fan tutte/ represent the
eighteenth century — the Opera seria and buffa
(the first, indeed, viz., * Idomeneo,' with reminis-
cences of the Gluck period) ; the * Entfiihrung '
and ' Die Zauberflote ' are the foundation of an
independent German school ; while * Figaro '
and ' Don Giovanni ' are works of universal in-
terest, which have alike exercised influence on the
Italian, French, and German Opera.
Mozart, the gifted heir of all hitherto avail-
able resources in musical art and science, was
almost as great in sacred and instrumental, as
in dramatic, compositions ; though, historically/,
his importance in these branches of art — es-
pecially the former — is, comparatively speaking,
inferior. His Masses date from the Salz-
burg period [1773 — 1780] — consequently, prior
to 'Idomeneo.' The (4) earliest, called breves,
are written in the severe contrapuntal style with
organ and two violins only ; one of them, in F
[1774], reminds Jalm of the finest specimens of
the earlier Neapolitan school. The later ones,
called solennes, have full instrumental accompani-
WOLFGANG AMADFXS MOZART. 185
ment ; they contain some beautiful traits replete
with religious feeling ; but the generality of the
Masses betray inequality of style and want of
keeping throughout. Mozart himself did not
esteem them highly; they were written under
the depressing influence, and to please the super-
ficial Italian taste, of the Archbishop of Salzburg,
to whose service he belonged as "Court and
Cathedral organist."* Among his other Church
* Of Mozart's Masses solennes, the two in C [1777 and 1779] (par-
ticularly the latter with the touching Agnus for treble solo) are
worthy the attention of musicians, and — with the omission perhaps
of the Dona movement — of more frequent perfonnance. But alas !
now-a-days even the ' Requiem,* as well as modem Church music
altogether, is despised; in Germany, the cathedral choirs are dis-
banded, and in lieu of Bacli, Beethoven, Mozart, &c., the prevailing
taste for mediasval productions admits of nothing but artificial imi-
tations of Palestrina, or the utterly artfess Gregorian chant. We
hold that the former beneficial alliance between the Church and
contemporary art cannot be dissolved without signal danger to both.
"The decline of sacred art," says even the learned Winterfeld
(Gabrieh, vol. ii., p. 124), " dates from the time when it contracted
that fatal taint by which it was degraded to the service of the
senses ; but is due, likewise, to that frigid exclusiveness which
demands the sacrifice of all genuine feeling and inspiration.*' Still
more forcible is S. Bagge's remark, that the Roman Catholic form of
worship has pursued the same tendency to splendour and florid
decoration as music: "Therefore, musicians cannot be blamed for
having shared this tendency ; more especially, as the hack st7'eam of
civilisation, which saw danger as well as deviation from established
lawfulness and propriety in redundance of ornament and influences
brought to bear more immediately on the senses, had not yet set in.'*
This reaction extended itself also to painting and statuary ; the
Madonnas of Raphael and other great painters are looked upon as
profane — indeed, by some the element of actual beauty is altogether
denied to religious art ; whereas architecture — a merely sublime
art — enjoys the utmost consideration, and architectural ornamenta-
186 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
compositions : the Vespers and Litanies [also be-
tween 1773 — 1780]; the elaborate contrapuntal
Motet: 'Misericordias Domini' [1781]; and the
angelic prayer for chorus : ^Ave verum corpus,'
" that should only be listened to on bended knee "
[composed June i8th, 1791], are specially de-
serving of notice.
tion — the shell of a shell — is allowed free play. It is the same crude
materialism of the age that rears its head in other branches of
musical art, which here appeals to the uninitiated in the sancti-
monious garb of saiutliness and Church discipline. With regard to
Mozart, he has bequeathed his own confession of faith, than which
nothing can be more sincerely attached to his church ; and that
Mozart's powers (even allowing for the external disadvantages under
which he laboured) fell far short of his intentions, no one, we
imagine, will be seriously inclined to maintain. U[X)n one occasion,
when his Leipsic friends were lamenting that many great musicians
had thrown away their talents on trivial church texts, Mozart
became serious, and exclaimed in words to this effect : " What
absurd nonsense they talk about art! As to you, if you carry
your religion in your head, may be there is something in it — I
can't say. But with us, it is different You cannot feel what
that means : ^^ Agnus Deil qui ioUis peccata mundil Dona nobis
pacem /" But when one has been, like myself, brought up from
early childhood in the mystical holiness of our religion, when one
has — before one even knew what meant the secret feelings that
welled-up within one, and, scarcely conscious of one's own desires —
attended Divine service with the deepest devotion, and returned
home with a heart relieved of its load and lifted up, and when
those were esteemed blessed indeed, who to the melting strains of
the Agmis Deil knelt down and received the Sacrament, and from
whose hearts, while receiving, the music spoke in serenity and joy —
*^BenedictuSf qui venit in nomine Domini " — then it is quite another
thing. Well yes, it is true, that gets lost by living in the world.
But — at least, so it is with me — when I take the well-known words
in hand with a view of setting them to music, it all comes back
most forcibly and impressively, and stii*s my very soul within me."
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 187
Mozart's genius was of that profound and com-
prehensive order that could achieve marvels even
in those branches of art which seemed most re-
mote from his decidedly dramatic temperament ;
but, during the period of his greatest activity, he
had no leisure to devote himself in earnest to
Church composition.
This circumstance would account for the rather
slovenly composition of the so-called Oratorio :
^Davidde penitente ' ( Cantata a due soprani e tenore
con cori, 1785), consisting merely of pieces se-
lected from his earlier Masses and a few addi-
tional solos. It was not till death was rife within
him that he concentrated his whole attention on
sacred composition, and drew the plan of that
stupendous work, that sublimest production of
modern art — the Requiem. The very ideal of
modern Church music, viz., inward devotional
feeling and the measured solemnity befitting
public worship — both uniting to form a work of
admirable proportions, exquisite musical expres-
sion, and noble Church feelmg — is, we think, most
completely attained in Mozart's ' Eequiem.' Its
character is that of grand choral polyphony, which
in the glorious solo-quartet pieces : Tuba mirum,
jRecordare, and Benedictus has a most striking
and thrilling effect. Every one knows that while
Mozart was engaged on the ' Zauberflote,' he
received an anonymous order for the ' Eequiem,'
and, with death staring him in the face, had to
188 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
hasten its completion, so that — similar to
Eaphael's last work the Transfiguration* — it is
not equally finished throughout. His pupil
SussMAiER (the same who aided him in ' Titus ')
filled up, in accordance with Mozart's instructions
and posthumous sketches, the gaps that were left
in the instrumentation and the three last numbers
{Sdnctus, Benedictiis, Agnus), Siissmaier, indeed,
professed to have entirely composed these pieces ;
hut, " with the exception of the SanctuSy we cer-
tainly have the Requiem — in all essential parti-
culars — exactly as Mozart partly completed it, and
partly intended it to be."t Doubtless, had life
been spared him, he would, after the * Requiem '
(which "he wrote foi* himself "), have produced
many a splendid work in Church music ; perhaps
indeed, — having already attained perfection in
every other style — have devoted himself to sacred
art with peculiar zeal, for which his recent appoint-
* The pamllel between Mozart and Raphael has been frequently
drawn, and insisted on even to the minutest details — latterly by
Alberti in his ^Raphael und Mozart Eine Parallele* Vortrag, etc.
(Stettin, 1856). Equal!}'' striking is the resemblance between
Beethoven and Michel Angelo, for which see H. Grimm's description
of the great Italian artist. " Existing entirely in ideal realms of
thought, absorbed in himself and sublime art, he is an enigma to
his contem]-)oraries, and frequently incomprehensible (Beethoven was
so only in his latter years) ; conscious of his powers, self-sufficing,
a man of few wants, he lived secluded ; benevolent, though of a
retiring disposition and habitually silent, his rare observations were
frequently ironical and sarcastic ; in never-ceasing activity pursuing
his own way, he was an inventor in whatever he undertook."
t ROCHLITZ.
WOLFGANa AMADEUS MOZART. 189
ment of chapel-master to St. Stephen's would
have furnished ample opportunity. Indeed, the
works written during the last six months of his
life — * Titus,' * Die Zauberflote,' and the ' Ee-
quiem ' — warrant this supposition, as also his
own pathetic farewell : " Even now I must go,
when I might live peaceably ; I must leave my
art, when, no longer the slave of fashion and
shackled by speculators (Schikaneder !), I could
follow my own inspiration, and be free to write
as my heart dictated !"
Mozart died — his last thoughts dwelling on
the * Eequiem' — December 5th, 1791, in the
thirty- seventh year of his age, — having been
actively devoted to the pursuit of his art from
early infancy. On the 4th of September, 1842 —
more than fifty years after his death — , a bronze
statue (by Schwanthaler) was erected to his me-
mory at Salzburg ; and, only a short time since,
an allegorical monument (a weeping muse placing
the score of the ' Eequiem' on his other works)
marks his — supposed — resting place.
Of Mozart's numerous instrumental composi-
tions, a large number, being merely juvenile
works or pieces d' occasion, are altogether of minor
value ; while others are important only as regards
certain portions (generally the andantes and
adagios). We aUude, of course (besides the nume-
rous Symphonies written before 1784), chiefly to
the pianoforte Sonatas, which — in spite of Mozart's
190 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
emphatic declaration : " He who judges me by
such bagatelles as those is a fool !" as well as his
father's; "You would not surely judge of him by
his pianoforte Sonatas, which he wrote when a
mere child?" — have frequently been taken as a
standard of comparison between Mozart and Beet-
hoven. Almost all of them, like the Masses, are of
inferior merit, especially in their concluding pieces.
The only pianoforte composition that may be
reckoned equal to his other productions is the
rich and carefully-finished ' F'antasia and Sonata '
[1785 and 1784], to which five or six of the Sonatas
(viz., two in D, two in F, one in B, and the one
in A with variations) may be reckoned as but
little inferior. Of the remainder, the greater
portion is " music of the past." In the estima-
tion of severe critics, they contain " a peculiar in-
termixture of original ideas and musical common-
places, deep sentiment and shallow trifling,
unrivalled art and careless workmanship."
In Mozart's chamber music we discern the
matured musician, viz., in the (6) Quartets dedi-
cated to Haydn ; the more brilliant and pathetic
Quintets ; the splendid (for its resources almost too
powerful) pianoforte Quartet in G minor, which —
contrary to his usual habit — Mozart himself
arranged as a violin quintet, and others. The
most remarkable of the smaller compositions for
orchestra are the graceful, exquisitely finished
Serenades for wind instruments ; likewise, a number
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 191
of miscellaneous works, among which the greater
part of the violin Sonatas were the offspring of
casual suggestion, and were frequently written,
amid the pressure of more important business, to
oblige his friends and pupils. With the excep-
tion of Fr. Schubert, no other great musician has
manifested such extraordinary facility and fertility
of production as Mozart, whose autograph cata-
logue, during the last few years of his life,
exhibits an average of three compositions per
month.*
Of the Symphonies, the finest are those in E
flat major, G minor, and C major (with the
fugue), which were written in the above order
in the space of one month and a half during the
summer of 1788. The E fiat Symphony has
been entitled, ' Chant du cygne ' — an appellation
which (apart from its peculiar signification) may
be taken as answering to the contemplative
repose, the elegiac feeling of the andante
movement. On the other hand, the two allegro
* " It would be past comprehension how works differing essentially
from each other — works, too, of unusual magnitude, depth, and
beauty — could have been produced in so short a time, were it not a
fact that, amid the multitudinous impressions of daily life, the
artist's mind is ever at work, secretly and unceasingly preparing
the threads from which a work of art shall ultimately be woven."
This graceful simile, taken by Jahn {Mozart, vol. iv., p 128) from
Mozart's own words, but applied in a wider sense, is perhaps more
applicable to Mozart than to any other composer ; for the facility
with which he wrote (for example, the overture to ' Don Giovanni '
was composed during the night previous to its performance) might by
many be mistaken for carelessness or haste.
19S HISTORY OP MUSIC.
movements have a youthful, joyous, muscular cha*
racter ; and how bright and cheerful is the Minuet
with its gentle Trio ! The character of the entire
work is not so much that of an autumnal elegy,
as of a quiet summer's evening mood, when
calmly and contentedly the impressions of the
day are gathered up and poured out in melody.
Emotion and passion, glimpses of which we
already discern in the impetuous finale where
(contrary to Mozart's usual practice) the musical
flow is interrupted and the conclusion suddenly
broken off, are allowed full sway in the grander
G minor Symphony. " The whispered murmur of
sorrow continues with increasing vehemence, till
it becomes a raging passion striving to drown its
own devouring grief."* The most emotional of
Mozart's symphonies is, of course, far removed
from Beethoven's deep pathos, — perhaps, gifted
connoisseurs deem it weak and tame ; yet it sets
forth Mozart's peculiar greatness, his wondrously
correct and refined taste, his admirably tempered
portrayal of deep emotion. Of its andante move-
ment (which bears some resemblance to the " por-
trait air" in the ' Zauberflote'), the young E.
Schubert declared " he could hear the angels sing
therein."
The C major Symphony with the ingxxedi finale
{'Jupiter Symphony ') celebrates the victor's tri-
umph. Earthly anguish is overcome ; all is
* Jahn.
WOLFGANG AMADEU8 MOZART. 193
peace, prosperity, and grandeur. It is the apo-
theosis of the master himself, whose triumphant
brow beams with immortality. With true artistic
discernment, Mozart selected for the finale of his
majestic work (as in the overture of ' Die Zauber-
flote') the most intellectual and ideal of forms —
the fugue — for the embodiment of his ideal sub-
ject ; and, in both instances, achieved " a real
triumph of art, in which observance of legitimate
principles of art and freedom of creative power
conduce to the utmost perfection, order, and
beauty."*
It is evident that these three magnificent works
— produced consecutively and at short intervals —
are the embodiment of one train of thought pur-
sued with increasing ardour ; so that, taken as a
whole, they form a grand trilogy , which it would
be intense enjoyment to listen to in the order in
which they were originated. These three grandest
of Mozart's symphonies (the first lyrical, the
second tragic-pathetic, and the third of ethical
import) correspond to his three greatest operas :
'Figaro,' 'Don Giovanni,' 'Die Zauberflote,' —
or if we select their instrumental counterparts, the
overtures of those operas.
Far more complete, and of greater intrinsic
merit than many of the movements in his other
(30) symphonies (among which, however, we
wojild distinguish the D major, in three move-
* Jaun.
o
194 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
ments, teeming with freshness and melody), are
Mozart's Pianoforte Concertos^ composed for his
own performance, and, consequently, with unusual
care and partiality. He gave to the Concerto (to
use his own definition, the acme of refinement, in
contra-distinction to the Symphony, which is the
acme of grandeur) its grand symphonic character
(carried to perfection by Beethoven) ; in accord-
ance with which, the pianoforte performance com-
bines with the orchestra in an animated and
delightful whole, by means of mutual interchange
of effect. Hoffmann, who owned to "a down-
right dislike of all pianoforte concertos whatsoever/*
described those of Mozart and Beethoven as " not
so much concertos, as symphonies with pianoforte
obligato.''
CHAPTER XIII.
Zenith op Instrumental and Ballad Composition. Beethoven
and schubeet.
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN, the last
great master of the so-called " classical " period (so
fertile in men of genius) in Germany, was born at
Bonn on the Ehine [December 17th, 1770], where
his father was tenor in the Elector of Cologne's
private chapel.* Devoting his vast powers princi-
pally to the composition of instrumental music,
he achieved in this branch of musical art results
hitherto unattained. So early as his eleventh
* Biographische Notizen iiber L. v. Beethoven, von Db. F. G.
Weqeler und Ferd. Ries. Coblenz, 1838.
A. ScHiNDLER (Beethoven's intimate friend during the years
1814-1827), Biographie von L, v. Beethoven, &c. Miinster, 1840.
Third edition in 2 vols., 1860. W. v. Lenz. Beethoven et ses trois
Styles. 2 vols. St. Petersbourg, 1852.
Oultbicheff. Beethoven, ses Critiques et ses Olossateurs. Leipzig,
1857.
Marx. Ludwig v. Beethoven's Leben und Schaffen. Berlin,
1859. 2nd edition, 1863.
Beethoven's Leben von L. Nohl. Erster Band Wien, 1864.
Chronologisches Verzeichniss der Werke L. v. Beethoven*8 von
Alexander W. Thayeb. Berlin, 1865.
196 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
year, he published variations on a march, three
pianoforte sonatas, and several songs. But the
peculiarity of his genius was even then, and sub-
sequently in a still greater degree, more especially
apparent when he extemporized on the pianoforte.
At Vienna, during the winter of 1786, when
playing on a theme given him by Mozart, the
latter remarked to the bystanders : " Mark this
young man, he will make a name for himself
some day." Being sent, when twenty-one years
of age [1792], by the Elector, to complete his
musical education at Vienna, he studied composi-
tion firstly under Haydn — whose course of in-
struction, however, was too precise and gradual
for an ardent spirit like Beethoven's — and, after-
wards, under the learned contrapuntist and
thorough-bass master, Albrechtsberger. His ex-
ercises in harmony and composition (interspersed
with delightful marginal notes against "book-
worms" and "pedants") were published in 1832,
and entitled : ' Beethoven s Studies in Thorough-
bass, (Sj'Cy by Seyfried — likewise a pupil of Al-
brechtsberger, and Beethoven's intimate friend.
The biographical notes which accompany this
work are of considerable interest ; but recent re-
searches have pronounced the book, so far as the
greater part is concerned, a fraud. In 1795,
Beethoven's first compositions, which are entitled
** works," made their appearance, viz., three Trios
(op. 1 ) dedicated to Prince Lichnowsky, and three
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEX. 197
pianoforte Sonatas dedicated to J. Haydn . These
works at once proclaimed the young musician the
first of the age. The compositions of the follow-
ing years (Sonatas, Trios, the two first pianoforte
Concertos, the Septet, the first S3nmphony) esta-
blished his reputation as a composer, so that he
could write with complete satisfaction to Wegeler
[June 1800] as follows: " My compositions bring
me in a good deal, and I may say, that I have
more commissions than I can well get through.
Indeed, for all my pieces there are six or seven
publishers, and more even if I wished : I am no
longer bargained with, I ask what I choose, and I
get it."
Highly beneficial, in regard to his artistic
career, was the society of aristocratic and intellec-
tual Viennese families who freely and cordially
welcomed Beethoven — already too prone to live
" only in his music " — among them on terms of
equahty and intimacy. Prince Lichnowsky even
received him [1794] as an inmate of his establish-
ment, and, when he desired to live independently,
granted him [1799] a pension of 600 florins* per
annum, and the Princess " would have put him
under a glass case to shield him from rough con-
tact." Eefined and cultivated women have ever
been the first to acknowledge true genius, and
Beethoven was, in truth, so adored by ladies of
high rank, that, oblivious of the accidents of birth
• £60.
198 HISTORY OP MUSIC.
and fortune, he, for several years, actually contem-
plated marriage with the young Countess Julia
Guicciardi. According to the prejudices (even
more in force at that time than they are now) of
her station, such an alliance was, of course, out of
the question ; and Beethoven faithfully kept his
promise never to love another — for, like Handel,
he never married. The souvenir of this pure and
ideal affection is preserved in the so-called
* Moonlight Sonata ' in C sharp minor [op. 27,
No. 2] dedicated to " Madamigella GiuUetta di
Guicciardi." " Life apart from thee "* is the stern
decree; patient resignation to which is patheti-
cally described in the tender melancholy adagio^
but against which the whole soul of the strong
man rebels and pours itself out in the presto agi-
tato of the same sonata.
Thus blighted in his affections, and — so soon
even as his thirtieth year — afflicted with deafness,
he withdrew more and more from human inter-
course.! In 1809, King Jerome oiSered him the
♦ Beethoven's own words in a letter to " Julia."
t So early as 1800, ke writes to Wegeler as follows : " But that
envious demon, my health, has played me a plaguy trick; my
hearing has got worse in the last three years. Indeed, I may
say life is a burden to me. For the last two years I have avoided
society because I cannot bear telling people I am deaf. If my
calling were other than it is, it wouldn't so much matter, but in my
calling it is a fearful thing ; besides which, my enemies, of whom
there are plenty, what would they say ? To give you an idea of
this extraordinary deafness, I must tell you that when I go to the
play, I am obliged to lean close to the orchestra in order to hear the
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 199
lucrative appointment of Chapel-master at Cassel,
but which his noble patrons at Vienna dissuaded
him from accepting, and secured him an annuity
of 4000 florins* in order to retain him at Vienna.
This sum (owing to the disordered state of Aus-
trian flnance) was, so soon even as 1811, reduced
to one-fifth of its original value ; but it had the
effect of debarring Beethoven from undertaking
duties which, with his increasing infirmity, he
would have been scarcely competent to fulfil, and
actors. At a little distance I am unable to distinguish the high
notes of the instruments ; it is astonishing that some people have
never noticed it when speaking to me ; as I used frequently to he
absent and abstracted, it went for that. ... I have often cursed my
existence ; Plutarch taught me resignation." And in the . same
letter (1801) in which he speaks of the sweet girl whose station
was, unhappily, superior to his own, he thus laments : " You can
hardly imagine how forlorn and desolate my life has been for the
last two years ; wherever I went, my deafness seemed like a spectre,
and I shrank from society, and appeared as though I were a
misanthrope, which indeed I am far from being. Oh, I would
embrace the whole world were I freed from this calamity
Were it not for my deafness, I should have travelled half round the
globe before now, and indeed I must. / will struggle with my fate ;
it shall not break me down." In the will which he drew up at
Heiligenstadt, near Vienna, in 1802, he alludes almost exclusively to
his deafness, which isolated him, " naturally of an ardent tempera-
ment and highly susceptible of social enjoyment," so early as his
28th year, and forced him, against his will, to turn philosopher.
(" It is no easy matter for any one, least of all for an artist," said
Beethoven in the aforementioned will.) It was his art alone that pre-
vented him from putting an end to his existence. " Oh ! it seemed
impossible to me to leave the world before I had completed all 1
felt myself inspired to do."
♦ About £400.
ni
200 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
thus he was left free to follow his own hent.
Though ever since 1816 almost stone deaf, he
^ Y ^ went on originating and composing, in increasingly
deeper strains, till, at length, on the 26th of
/ ^ March, 1827, death released him from his lonely
position and the hardships which his solicitude
5 / for ungrateful relatives had brought on his latter
/ years. '' Plaudite, amici, comoedia Jinita est'' were
his last words.
Beethoven's appearance is thus described by
Fr. Eochlitz in his second letter " on music and
musicians at Vienna,"* dated July 9th, 1822.
" The sight of him would have shocked me, had I
not been previously prepared ; though it was not
so much his neglected, almost wild exterior, his
thick and matted hair hanging dishevelled about
his head, as his whole aspect, that impressed me.
Imagine a man about fifty years of age, rather
small in stature, but thick set and powerfully
built, large-boned — somewhat similar to richte,f
only stouter, and the face fuller and rounder ;
colour ruddy and healthy, eyes restless, flashing,
aud, when fixed, absolutely piercing. His move-
ments are few, but quick and sudden ; the coun-
tenance, especially the quick intellectual eye, is a
mixture of, or rather an oscillation between, ex-
treme kindliness and shyness ; his whole manner
betokens that restlessness and anxious attention
* Fur Freunde der Tonkunst. Vol. iv., p. 350.
t The renowned German philosopher.
LUDWIG VAX BEETHOVEN. 201
which we frequently observe in persons of quick
feeling who are similarly afflicted ; occasionally, a
cheerful expression escapes him ; then he relapses
into gloomy silence. With all this, whoever sees
him cannot help saying to himself: 'This is the
man who has provided enjoyment for thousands
• — ^genuine intellectual enjoyment.' "
The bronze statue (by Hahnel) erected at Bonn,
in 1845, to Beethoven's memory, with its multi-
tudinous folds of drapery, is scarcely a fair repre-
sentation of the great master ; and the expression
of the face — similar to the generality of those
gloomy portraits of Beethoven — is too old and
serious. The bas-reliefs representing the Fantasia,
the Symphony, Sacred music, and Drama, are by
far the best part of it. It is much to be regretted
that, owing to insufficiency of funds, Schwan-
thaler's splendid cast (representing Beethoven as
Apollo with the lyre) could not be realized in
bronze. The impetuous Fr. Liszt, disgusted with
the tardiness of contributors, has undertaken to
defray the still remaining expenses connected with
the monument.
It has been usual, when treating of Beethoven's
life and works, to assume three separate periods
or styles, viz., the first [1795 — 1804], called the
Haydn and Mozart style ; the second [1804 —
1814], the matured period, as being stamped with
his own distinctive individuality ; and the third
or latter period 1814 — 1827], that of his decline.
202 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
It is, however, impossible to assign definite limits
to these supposed periods by the aid of dates or
compositions; still less can it be a question of
three distinct and separate " styles." We should
be disposed to admit this classification for general
purposes, and to select the first, third, and ninth
Symphonies as t3rpes of the three periods, we're it
not that a large number of works taken indiscri-
minately from any one of these periods bear a
marked resemblance to each other ; but to assume
a first period at all, appears to us both arbitrary
and superfluous. As might be expected, Beetho-
ven began by adopting the forms established by
Haydn and Mozart ; but the spirit and expression
he infused into them are his own, and these stamp
him at once as an original genius. This was
freely acknowledged by Haydn himself, when he
seriously endeavoured to dissuade the young com-
poser from publishing the last of the three trios
which had been dedicated to him by the former.
We have only to glance at Beethoven's pianoforte
Sonatas (among which the Pathetique, the one in
A flat with variations, the Graiule Sonata in B
[op. 22], those in C sharp minor [op. 27] and
D minor [op. 31] would be allotted to the " first
period "), and compare them with the most
finished Sonatas of Mozart, to see the fallacy of
this arrangement ; and who would perceive in the
pianoforte Concertos [op. 15, 19, 37], in the cele-
brated Septet [op. 20], in the second Symphony,
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 203
and those compositions which were written prior
to 1804, a " decided imitation of Mozart ?" We
must admit, that in Beethoven's works a richer
and warmer colouring prevails ; the ideas are cast
in a grander mould, are profoundly intellectual,
and fraught with a noble and deep pathos. The
manner in which Beethoven treats the Variation
— the most formal of musical forms — is of itself
characteristic. Variations, such as those of the A
flat and Kreutzer Sonatas and others are widely
removed from the merely formal cast of Haydn's
and even Mozart's themes varies, for they keep in
view the idea contained in the theme ; each time
presenting it, as it were, in a different light, they
repeat and envelope the theme, which thus takes
the character of a musical phrase of deep import,
and produces a corresponding impression on the
listener's mind. In no instance do we find the
form influencing his musical inspirations ; but,
on the contrary, the poetical idea which he seeks
to embody in music itself determines the form —
the work developes itself, as it were, from the
nucleus outwards.
Thus, to take one instance among many, instead
of the minuet (which on some occasions he re-
tained), he made use of the richer and more ela-
borate Scherzo, a form peculiar to himself, and
suggestive of playful wit disporting itself in a
variety of ever-changing moods. " To sum up,
204 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
this great master," says Griepenkerl,* " pos-
sesses one marked characteristic which is the
foundation of all the others, and which distin-
guishes him from every other ' tone-poet,' viz. : —
keen sense of humour, such as only a Shakespeare
and a Jean Paul have displayed in literature.
This subtle and powerful gift, which had never
before found expression in musical forms, was a
mine of wealth to a genius like Beethoven's." Of
a truth, wit and humour are essential charac-
teristics of Beethoven's grand originality, and
must be regarded as all the more significant of
his noble disdain for mere sentimental outpourings
as the musical form which this intellectual attri-
bute requires for its expression is frequently repul-
sive to amateurs, and by them decried as faulty ;
for, the embodiment in musical art of this species
of wit necessitates the employment of striking
changes and contrasts which interfere with the
flow of the melody or leading idea, while foreign,
or seemingly incongruous, elements are employed,
as well as quaint abrupt turns and other pecu-
liarities which have been denounced as eccentric
and unintelligible in Beethoven's works. Beet-
hoven's "tone-poetry" is contemplative, emotional;
and though in its impetuous flight it soars —
apparently heedless of form — far above ordinary
thought and comprehension, it invariably retains
* Das Musikfest oder die Be^hovener, p. 77.
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 205
that true proportion which is apparent, not so
much in isolated phrases, as in the profound con-
nexion with which each and every thought com-
bines to produce a complete and harmonious
whole. And although we are fain to admit that
Beethoven has not always attained to the purity and
perfection which characterize Mozart's writings,
yet he possesses, as no other does, the secret of
stirring our hearts. After listening to a work of
Beethoven's, we seem lifted into a higher sphere
of thought and sentiment ; we experience, as it
were, a feeling of repose — grateful, according as
our emotions have been previously more or less
roused by this wonderful music. Thus, the
enthusiastic Bettina von Arnim represents
Beethoven as writing to Goethe as follows :
" When I look around, I cannot help sighing ;
for what I behold is contrary to my religion, and
makes me despise the world, which does not
dream that music is a higher kind of inspiration
than even wisdom and philosophy ; it is the wine
which invigorates men to fresh efforts ; and I am
the Bacchus who mixes this glorious wine, and so
intoxicate men's minds, that when they are sober,
they find they have gained lasting treasures. — I
have no fears for my music, no harm can happen
to it ; whoever understands it will be freed from
all the misery that others drag about them."
This lofty ethical significance Beethoven's
music has in common with Schiller's poetry ;
206 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
while, at the same time, its naturalness and grace
in some measure correspond to that of Goethe.
We do not make this comparison because Beet-
hoven's prime was precisely contemporaneous
with the renowned classical period of German
poetry (represented by Schiller and Goethe), but
because Beethoven was, in fact, the first "tone-
poet " to whom such a comparison is applicable ;
for he was the first musician who (apart from
mere song composition) was thoroughly imbued
with the spirit of contemporaneous poetry, and
whose creations it manifestly influenced. 0.
Jahn* aptly remarks that "poetry must first
bring to light the faculty of minutely describing
the innermost depths of reflection and emotion
before these could be adequately represented by
means of music." Beethoven, accordingly, was
the truly original master whose creations ema-
nated from himself alone, and — ^far different from
tlie musicians of our day, who simply transcribe
written poetry into musical phrase— displayed his
grandest powers where (as Schindler writes in his
conversational notes of the great master) " words
are of no avail, because they are inadequate to
express the divine word which music alone can
render." Thus, the ancient poets and Shake-
speare, as well as Klopstock, Goethe, and Schiller,
were not so much his poetical models and guides,
as intellectual friends and companions when his
* MozaH. Vol ii., p. 393.
LTJDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 207
sad fate debarred him from human intercourse
and society.* This it was that kept his creative
fancy healthy and vigorous, and preserved him
from a too dreamy tendency — an error, however,
into which Schumann, the most poetical of musi-
cians, has occasionally fallen.
Let it then be clearly understood from the fore-
going remarks, that a high intellectual standard,
and the habit of attention which the perusal of
the great poets demands, is absolutely necessary
to a thorough comprehension and appreciation of
Beethoven's works ; — an average musical education
will not suffice for this. Thus, his rich and care-
fully-finished pianoforte Sonatas, in especial, are
replete with profound significance ; they represent
his entire artistic development. What wonderful
musical conceptions are these ! how ideal and spi-
* With what true appreciation Beethoven studied the great poets is
evident from his conversation with Fr. Rochlitz, in 1822, when
alluding to Klopstock : " Ever since that summer in Carlsbad
(where he made Goethe's acquaintance in 1811), I read Goethe
every day — that is, when I do read. He has quite destroyed Klop-
stock with me. You are astounded ? Well, you smile ? Ah,
because I have read Klopstock ! He has been my companion for
years ; when I went out walking, and wherever I went. Well, I
don't say that I always understood him. He flies too much from
one thing to another; he begins by soaring too high, always
maestoso 1 J) flat major ! Is it not so ? But he is grand, and he
elevates the soul. When I could not understand him, I guessed
what he meant — about. If he would only not be for ever dying !
That's sure to come in its own good time. At all events, it sounds
well. But Goethe ; he Uves, and we are to live too. That's why
he can be set t» music." But Shakespeare was, above all others, bin
"poete de predilection.'"
208 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
ritual their subject-matter ! how admirably do
they portray the loftier emotions and experiences,
mental conflict and triumph, in distinct and well-
defined forms, and present to the attentive lis-
tener's imagination, not only particular moods and
phases of feeling, but an entire psychological de-
velopment and progress ! The question has over
and over again been raised: what is the real
meaning, the poetical theme or subject of these
pieces? and frequent attempts have been made to
render the sentiments they contain in language,
or even to make them patent to common compre-
hension and reduce them to philosophical axioms.
The querists, for whose benefit various exegetical
commentaries have been framed,* belong chiefly to
a matter-of-fact, and not very musical, class of
people, who are incapable of appreciating a work
of art, and therefore imagine that fine words,
analogies, and so-called "ideas," can assist in
fathoming its depth and meaning. This feeling
prompted several of his friends to urge Beethoven,
when a new edition of his Sonatas was in contem-
plation, to " add some explanatory notes as to the
hjading ideas of many of those works.^f He
declined the suggestion ; and, as we know, has
only enlightened us as to a few of them by a
* We allude only to Elterleins' writings : Beethoven^s Clavier-
Sonaten erldutert^ &c. Leipzig, 1856 ; and Beethoven's Symphonien
nach ihrem idealen Gehalt. 2n(i edition. Dresden, 1858.
t Compare Mendelssohn's answer to a similar query. Vol. ii.,
p. 298 of the 'Letters' (translated by Lady Wallace).
LUDWIG VAX BEETHOVEN". 209
short heading or an occasional word or two. In
the days when he wrote his Sonatas, said he to
Schindler, people's minds were more poetical ;
they had, therefore, no need of the like explana-
tions. Now-a-days, people are too apt to endea-
vour, by interpreting even to the smallest detail
and colouring of a musical movement, to obtain
a confused and unsatisfactory intellectual reading
of that which can only be accurately apprehended
by the feelings. Such lengthy poetical descrip-
tions as we are now alluding to may perhaps find
favour with sentimental readers ; as to their use-
fuhiess, the fact speaks for itself that, particularly
as regards Beethoven, rarely do two expositors
agree in their reading of the same work. It would
rather assist the true understanding of his works if
Beethoven's life and artistic progress were written
with a view to the exact date of all his composi-
tions, and their reference to the great musician's
own circumstances considered and duly pointed
out. " Beethoven is never uniform or restricted,
nor is his conception limited to one particular
view or phase of feeling. — Yet this wide intellect
proclaims its own individuality so strikingly, that
Beethoven's works are but a reflex of his own ex-
periences. He did not, like most other com-
posers, appropriate and proceed to work out ideas
and feelings external to himself; on the contrary,
his * tone-pictures' faithfully represent himself, his
inner life, his experiences ; even when the ideal
p
210 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
(as, for instance, Napoleon, his ideal of a repub-
lican hero in the ' Eroica') claims his ardent
admiration, or, when harassed and afflicted, he
manfully struggles with cruel destiny till light
and cheerfulness illuminate the gloom (as in the
C minor Symphony), or when (as in the * Pasto-
rale') he revels in the full enjoyment of nature
and rural life. The ideas he imbibed became a
part of himself before they took form in music ;
it follows, therefore, that a biography of his own
life and experiences written by the composer him-
self could alone furnish a complete and satisfactory
commentary on his works."*
The theory we maintain concerning the purely
amateur origin and object of the numerous
analyses and descriptions of Beethoven's Sonatas
and Symphonies (similar to the fata morgana
which inverts the image it reflects) is further
strengthened by the circumstance, that those
compositions which are less accessible to the
general run of amateurs and concert audiences (as,
for instance, the violin Sonatas, the Trios, the
Quartets and Concertos) — have not been treated of
in works of the above description. Are such
compositions as the Kreutzer Sonata, Trios op.
70 and 97, Rasumowsky Quartets (op. 59), and
others we cannot here enumerate — are these
gems of chamber music, whose true appreciation
will ever and everywhere be a standard of correct
* F. Hand. A sthfik der TonJcunst. Vol. ii., p. 425.
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 211
taste, less poetical in conception, less profound,
less intelligible? As to the smaller works for
wind instruments, viz. the Quintet op. 16, Sestet
op. 71, and the Serenades (op. 25 and 41), an
interpretation of their subject-matter is scarcely
needed, so absorbing are the charming instru-
mental combinations and the sweet, graceful ex-
pression of these pieces. Ambros would probably
designate them as " Music of the moment " as
distinguished from " Intellectual music ;"* the
former, as he asserts, being the music of Haydn
and Mozart, the latter — they did not attain to.
The Concertos, five for pianoforte (of which
those in C minor and E flat major are the most
remarkable) and one for violin (op. 61), are
reckoned among the best and most matured of
Beethoven's works. These compositions hold a
middle place between the Sonata and the Sym-
phony ; and, like a species of instrumental Can-
tata, combine splendour of efiect and dramatic
vigour. When Hofl'mann (in allusion to their
symphonic character) designated the pianoforte
Concertos " Symphonies with pianoforte obligator'
it is evident he thereby intended only to describe
their grandeur and richness when compared with
pianoforte Concertos in general, (which are merely
calculated for the display of manual execution),
not that they were beyond the province of legiti-
mate pianoforte composition ; on the contrary,
* Grenzen der Musik und Fotsie. P. 123.
212 -HISTORY OF MUSIC.
the pianoforte part comes out so prominently
and effectively, that it is much to be regretted
these Concertos are not more frequently performed
— now-a-days, especially, when mere execution is
still held in high repute — and that, too, without
the introduction of those wretched cadenzas with
which performers are in the habit of disfiguring
these splendid works.
The ' Kreutzer Sonata' so called because dedi-
cated to the celebrated violinist Eudolf Kreutzer
(op. 47, *' scritta in uno stilo molto concertante,
quasi come d'un Concerto "), may be regarded as a
second smaller violin Concerto, though in plan and
general development it more nearly resembles
the sonata. The sixth pianoforte Concerto is the
exquisite * Fantasia ' for pianoforte, orchestra, and
chorus (op. 80), with its grand finale — a truly
sublime masterpiece, and withal so joyous, so
thoroughly popular and fascinating; altogether,
forming a charming prototype of, and contrast to,
the ninth Symphony. The plan of this work is
bold and vigorous. It opens with a pianoforte
fantasia ; to which succeed delicious variations for
the several instruments which, as it were, dispute
one another the possession of the lovely theme.
Joining in the now general contest, the pianoforte
once more takes up the theme, followed presently
by solo voices, male and female, and aitervvai'ds
by the whole chorus ; till, at the close, chorus,
orchestra, and pianoforte unite in glorious strains
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 213
in honour of the divine art. The ' Grand Concerto
concertant ' for pianoforte, violin, and violoncello
(op. 56 C major, called also the ' Triple Concert '), is
a most singular composition, and might with pro-
priety be styled a concerted Trio with orchestral
accompaniment, or Symphonie Concertante.
In order to the full and true appreciation of
those grandest achievements of modern musical art
— Beethoven's S YMPHONIES — , not only the
great composer's life and genius, but also the
period in which he lived and thought — those
stirring times which ushered in the present
century and gave birth to poUtical freedom and
philosophical research, when literature and music
put forth new and splendid shoots — must be
taken into consideration. A mind like Beet-
hoven's could not fail to be imbued with the spirit
of times like those, and his powerful imagination
excited to great creative efforts. When Beet-
hoven summoned all the resources of the orchestra^
it was not merely to provide a vehicle for the
effusion of sentimental strains, or the abstract
delineation of events or circumstances ; he seized
and reproduced the prevailing tone of thought
and feeling and the impression which remarkable
events were calculated to produce, while dwelling
on that view of a subject which more especially
harmonized with his own sentiments. Just as
Schiller's dramas take their character from great
and decisive historical events, do Beethoven's
214 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Symphonies (and that not the *Eroica* alone)
reflect that brilliant intellectual period which
shed, as it were, a halo over his glorious " tone-
pictures." At the same time, it is as absurd to
talk of Beethoven's political — much less demo-
cratic — tendencies, as to force a symbolic inter-
pretation upon works of art perfect and complete
in themselves. Beethoven was no philosopher ;
he was, like Schiller, a poet endowed with the
spirit of philosophy, who, appropriating the ideas
of the age in which he lived, rendered them out
of his own experiences — the offspring, as it
were, of a particular ; phase of sentiment. He
was, above all, an artist in the true sense of the
word ; one who never lost sight of the principle
that a real work of art should not depend for
success on any adventitious explanation or mean-
ing. Thus, in those magnificent specimens of
modern historical painting — Kaulbach's frescoes
— the object and essence of aU true art is so
admirably understood and kept in view that, not-
withstanding their deep significance, even the
least educated spectator can enjoy and appreciate
them. We should be incUned to define it as
follows : what the philosopher seeks in a work of
art is the idea, whereas the artist conceived an
ideal ; and the apprehension of a work of art in
the spectator or auditor is in proportion to the
degree of ideality with which he happens to be
endowed — in short, artistic perception. It follows,
LUDWIG VA:S- BEETHOVEN-. 215
therefore, that it is as ignorant to deny signi-
ficance to a work of art as it is absurd to be for
ever asking what the artist intended thereby to
express. " Beethoven, in his Symphonies," says
Lewis in his Life of Groethe,* "may have ex-
pressed grand psychological conceptions, which,
for the mind that interprets them, may give an
extra charm ; but if the strains in themselves do
not possess a magic, if they do not stir the soul
with a keen delight, then let the meaning be
never so profound, it will pass unheeded, because
the primary requisite of music is not that it shall
present grand thoughts, but that it shall agitate
the audience with musical emotions."
Thus was Beethoven understood, and according
to this standard was he judged by his generation ;
no one then thought of mysterious meanings,
tendencies, and the like. Perhaps people were
not so clever in those days ; indeed, some news-
paper critics gravely affirm that not even the mu-
sical merit of these great works was properly
understood. In order to confute this assertion,
we quote the opinion of a learned contemporary.!
" Beethoven has taken up musical art at that point
where Haydn and Mozart left it ; he adopted the
manner of those great masters, but developed and
improved it till it became absolutely transformed
* Vol. ii., p. 543.
t Krause. Darstellungen aus der Oeschichte der Musik, Got-
tiagen, 1827. P. 221.
216 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
by his genius. In especial, did lie carry orches-
tral music a step farther — as far indeed as is pos-
sible with our present means and methods of art.
He has, likewise, the great merit of having deve-
loped the resources of pianoforte music, and
enriched it with all the magnificence and power
of which it was susceptible. But it is in grand
orchestral music that his chief merit lies. Those
splendid descriptive Symphonies, the ' Pastorale'
and the *Eroica,' exhibit an intellectual depth
and force such as had never before been revealed
in music. What the opera is to music in general,
Beethoven's Symphonies are to the rest of instru-
mental music. In these matchless compositions,
the several instruments seem possessed with one
leading idea, which, conjointly with the rest, is
taken up and worked out by each according to its
own peculiar tone and character ; no two of the
parts are alike, yet all, as it were, intimately re-
lated, and inspired with the same sentiment, com-
bine to produce the loveliest effects. All the in-
gredients of the orchestra, from the larger and
more imposing masses to the smaller groups, as
well as all the instruments severally, conduce to
unity of effect in such a manner that their own
individual significance is thereby enhanced. More
especially are these masterpieces remarkable for
the admirably maintained balance between string
and wind instruments, and for the bold, vigorous
treatment of the basses. Extreme richness in the
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 217
instrumentation in no way precludes clearness and
precision — that is, with a well proportioned or-
chestra of which the execution (especially as
regards expression) is unimpeachable, and an
audience composed of those, who, by a due course
of study and attention to musical works of a
high order, have qualified themselves for the com-
prehension and enjoyment of such noble and pro-
found emanations as have never before found
expression in musical art. But even the less cul-
tivated lover of music is fascinated and enthralled
by these majestic compositions, though he may
not fathom their deeper meaning."
A noble spirit struggling with fate, surmount-
ing all obstacles, and breaking forth from bondage
to liberty, out of darkness into light, is the sub-
lime — we had almost said tragic — theme which
lies at the root of Beethoven's magnificent Sym-
phonies — the *Eroica,' the C minor, and A
major ; but is most powerfully developed in the
Ninth Symphony, where it is carried through all
the changing scenes of happiness and sorrow,
even to the sublimest visions of glorified rapture.
It is worthy of observation, that the above-named
Symphonies (3, 5, 7, 9), throughout which this,
the leading idea, is perpetually surging, are uni-
versally acknowledged to be the finest. Of the
remainder (2, 4, 6, and 1), whose general tone is
pleasing, tender, and joyous, the D major and
* Pastorale ' Symphonies (more especially in
L^
218 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
female estimation and that of the majority of
amateurs) are reckoned equal to the first-named.
The FIRST Symphony, in C major [1799, op. 21], which is dedi-
cated to the noble patron of art, van Swieten, presents, both in design
and general features, no marked difference from one of Haydn's best
Symphonies, when — as for instance in the grand B flat major — his
imagination takes a higher flight than usual. The powerful pathos
and dramatic effect for which the Jinali of Beethoven's other
Symphonies are remarkable are not, it is true, apparent in this one ;
yet we hold it to be mere affectation to esteem this, his first Sym-
phony, which K. M. V. Weber designates " bright and fiery," a weak
production.
The SECOND, in D major [1800, op. 36], opens a series of Sym-
phonies worthy of each other. We have listened to it over and
over again, and each time were strengthened in our conviction that
it is the most beautiful of all — so even and flowing are the parts, so
admirably complete and finished is the whole — a revival, as it were,
of Mozart in the Beethoven spirit. In entire keeping with the
joyous character of the prevailing key,* the work is an ideal reflex of
that happiest period of the composer's life, when reliance on his own
powers, the energy and enjoyment of life inherent to youth, and the
sweet illusion of first love lent a charm to existence. True it is,
there were sadder moments in which, shortly before the com-
pletion of this work, he complained to his friend Wegeler that the
" envious demon " was threatening to obscure his horizon ; but the
world as yet was to ignore this, and, out of his hidden treasures, he
has presented us with a work of art in which the actual and the
ideal unite in perfect harmony. — We subjoin a s^Decimen of " in-
terpretation " from Oulibichefi", who, however, finds the lovely
Larghetto "somewhat too long." *^ Elans guerriers et parade
militaire splendide dans Vallegro ; entretien prolonge avec une douce et
charmante amie dans le larghetto; jeux fuldtres commences dans le
scJierzo et poursuivis avec un surcroU d^ardeur dans le finale.**
The THIRD Symphony, in E flat major [1804, op. 55], entitled
* Eroica^ by Beethoven himself, was (according to Ries) originally
composed in honour of the " General bourgeois " Buonaparte — the
* Equally characteristic is the employment of the sombre D
minor key in the ninth and last (a striking contrast to this second)
Symphony.
LUDWia VAX BEETHOVEN, 219
hero of the Revolution. He had actually placed Buonaparte's name on
the title-page of the score, with the signature " Luigi van Beethoven "
beneath ; and, thus entitled, it was waiting to be forwarded to Paris
when Ries brought the great news to Beethoven that Buonaparte
liad declared himself Emperor. "After all he is no better than the
rest," exclaimed Beethoven, at the same time tearing up the title-
page and throwing down the score with reiterated curses on the
tyrant. Some time elapsed before the work made its appearance
(in the original form, though Oulibicheff affirms with the addition of
the funeral march !), entitled ' Sinfonia eroica composta per ftsteggiare
il sovve7iire di un grand uomo^ and dedicated to Prince Lobkowitz.
With this narrative before us, can any doubt be entertained as to
what Beethoven intended to portray ? Certainly, no other than
the ideal of a hero — such as Buonaparte appeared to be — one who
rids the world of oppressors and tyrants ; or else, that inborn heroism
which rejoices in the fray, mourns for the fallen brave, and, regardless
of death or danger, earns for itself a name that survives in the
hearts of a grateful posterity. We do not perceive in the Andante
episode any incongruity with the ideal scheme of this composition ;
though, perhaps, the Scherzo — which by some has been taken to
mean spectral apparitions, by others the pleasures of camp life, and
again by others the phantom revels of unburied slain — might incur
this imputation. We hold this to be one of those pieces which must
be gi-asped by the feelings rather than the imagination, and that it is
intended as a kind of interlude (mark those enchanting horns in the
trio !) between the mournful funeral march and the burst of joy and
triumph in the Finale.
The FO URTH Symphony, in B flat major [1806, op. 60], is one of
those which precludes the idea of any particular subject ; but, as
Oulibicheflf would say, it contains its own programme. TTie
fundamental idea of Beethoven's Symphonies, — viz., conflict and
victory — is likewise evident in this one ; but the tone is exulting, as
if assured of victory. As compared with the breadth and detail of the
* Eroica,* this (by Beethoven entitled) "grand" Symphony is, espe-
cially in the allegro movements, remarkably condensed and energetic.
Schindler, who never enlarges in analytical disquisitions on Beet-
hoven's works, calls it "the most polished of all the Symphonies."
One marked characteristic of this one — as contrasted with the
almost stereotyped introduction to Haydn's symphonies and those of
his imitators — is the sublime Adagio, so full of subdued pathos ;
presently the gloom disperses — for not yet will the great master give
t^
220 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
vent to his anguisli in a musical composition — and makes way for
the bright, joyous Allegro, which, rushing onwards in delighttul
rhythmical cadence, enthralls and captivates the listener's senses.
" Emotion is only fit for women ; music should strike fire from a
masculine mind " are the sentiments which Bettina von Araim
attributes to Beethoven, and which might here be quoted against
OulibicheflF, who is of opinion that love — its joys and sorrows — are not
alluded to in the Adagio alone. We agree, however, with his view
that this Symphony is a pendant to the second, and, like it, a faithful
picture of happier times gone by ; but the colouring throughout is of
deeper hue, and already dark shadows hover round the fair prospect
— monitors, as it were, of how transitory a thing is earthly
happiness.
The i^i-FIW Symphony, in C minor [1807, op. 67], whose central
position with regard to the others is not without a significance of its
own, is universally and rightly acknowledged to be the most perfect
instrumental work of Beethoven, and, consequently, the most
splendid Symphony that ever was written. It is a veritable tragedy
in music ; one in which the great problem of the composer's
life, viz., stniggle with destiny, is brought to a decisive issue.
" Thus fate knocks at our door," says Beethoven of the Allegro
theme, and : Be it so, is the reply of one who, through the drear
night and the horrors of death, unflinchingly progresses towards
immortality. We here subjoin Hoff mannas celebrated description,*
which, though somewhat diffuse, is comparatively the best.
Having compared Beethoven with Haydn and Mozart, and pointed
out the profound unity and proiX)rtion he observed in his instru-
mental works, HoflTmann proceeds as follows : " Of all his works,
perhaps none displays this in a higher degree than the glorious,
profoundly significant Symphony in C minor. How this wondrous
composition carries the imagination with ever-increasing mystery
and grandeur into the unknown spirit-world! Nothing can be
simpler than the leading idea of the Allegro, which consists merely
of two bars, and begins with a unisonal phrase, while the key in
which it is written remains at first a mystery. Oppressed and
harassed with forebodings of some dire catastrophe, it would seem to
denote one venting his anguish in sharp cries ; but soon a bright
image appears and illuminates the gloom (the exquisite theme in
* PJiantasiestiicIce in Callofs Manier. Vol. i., p. 48.
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOYEX. 221
G major, first indicated by the horn in E flat major). How simple,
we rejxiat, is the theme which the master lias selected for the comer-
stone of this imposing structure ; but how exquisitely does the
rhythmical proportion of the secondary and intermediate subjects unite
them with it in such wise tliat they assist in developing the character
of the movement indicated by the theme itself ! The phrases are
one and all short, consisting for the most part of only two or three
bars, and are, besides, constantly changing from the wind to the
stringed instruments. One would have been inclined to suppose
that such materials could produce nothing but a disjointed, un-
satisfactory result ; but, on the contrary, the proportion observed
throughout the whole piece, as well as the continual repetition of the
phrases and chords, suggests the idea of an indescribable yearning
after a higher existence. Does not the lovely theme of the Andante
con moto in A flat major (introduced by the violas and violins solo)
sound like a sweet voice from spirit-land, filling the heart with
consolation and hope ? But even here the dread shadow which
loomed so threateningly in the Allegro bursts from out the storm-
clouds, and from before its terrible aspect vanish the sweet forms
which hover around us. What shall I say of the Minuet (Scherzo) ?
Mark those singular modulations, those concluding choruses in the
dominant major, which the bass repeats in the minor key and
takes for the tonic of the succeeding theme, while the theme is for
ever extending itself through additional bars.* But, like a bright
sunbeam, the glorious theme breaks in amongst the jubilant concord
of instruments in the concluding movement. What wondrous
contrapuntal passages are these ! To many, indeed, the whole may
appear nothing more than a splendid rhapsody; but the more
intelligent listener will realize the idea of unspeakable anxious
yearning, and this thought will pursue him to the conclusion ; and,
not even when the magic sounds cease to fall on his ear, will he at
once awaken to the consciousness that he is no longer in the unseen
spirit region, where joy and grief surround him in musical form."
Mendelssohn, in one of his letters, gives an interesting narrative of
a visit to Goethe at Weimar, on which occasion he played the first
movement of the C minor Symphony on the pianoforte, " though the
* Spohr, who also finds fault with portions of the other move-
ments, calls the bass passages in the Trio (frequently a failure in the
execution) too quaint and noisy for his taste! The Finale is a
continuation of the third movement.
i^
222 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
old gentleman would have nothing to say to Beethoven. He was
wonderfully impressed. He said, ' That does not stir the feelings ;
it astounds one ; it is grandiose,' and so went on muttering to him-
self ; after some time he resumed : 'It is very grand, quite awful —
as if the house were tumbling about one's ears ; and what must it be
with all that number of performers ?' "
The mXTH Symphony, in F major [op. 68], was entitled 'Fas-
torale ' by Beethoven himself, and was performed for the first time
December 22nd, 1808, on the self-same occasion with the splendid
Fantasia [op. 80]. The composer has here subjoined a programme
which renders further explanation superfluous. It runs as follows :
"Cheerful sensations awakened by an arrival in the country.
Scene by a rivulet. Rustic merry-makin*. Storm. Songs of the
shepherds. Feelings of joy and gratitude after the storm." In
the additional notice, " The expression to be emotional rather than
pictorial," Beethoven has tersely and concisely declared the dis-
similarity between himself and his predecessors, esjjecially Haydn (in
the * Seasons,' of which a grand performance, warmly seconded by
Beethoven, had taken place March 27th of the same year). Whilst
Haydn delights in simply portraying a foreground without distance,
Beethoven finds in the ever-varying aspect of nature a reflex of his
own feelings ; by continually mingling his own sentiments with his
description of rural scenes, he throws around the landscape an ideal
atmosphere ; his work expresses, as it were, a longing for country
life common to persons of imaginative temperament. Thus our
musician — " the strange man escaping from city life "* in the genial
spring time — pursues his rambles " o*er hill and dale," to mingle
with the jovial, simple country folk :
" Both great and small send up a joyous cheer ;
Yes ! I am still a man — I feel it here."t
It is well known that Beethoven spent the greater portion of sum-
mer time in the country, and that he delighted in long rambles,
frequently j-eturning only at nightfall. We have no difiiculty there-
fore in tracing the origin of the Pastoral Symphony. As to the
' objections so continually brought forward against the imitation of
birds' notes (the quail, cuckoo, nightingale) in the second part, we
will reply in the words of Carriere :$ " Imitation of natural sounds
* HoLTY. t GoETHE*s Fuiist. % ^i^stJietHc. Vol. ii., p. 342.
LUDWIG YAN BEETHOVEN. 223
for their own sake is not art ; but Beethoven presents ns, in the
first instance, with a charming landscape view, and in the second,
with a retired valley scene ; the impressions which these call up in
our minds are so unmistakeable, so distinct, and, consequently, the
very essence of rural life is so fully realized, that the musical element
it contains is clearly brought to light ; accordingly, should the * tone-
poet' hesitate to complete the picture with reminiscences of the
sweet sounds more es])ecially typical of rural enjoyment, he would
fall- into the error of that mistaken idealism which despises natural
forms, however beauteous, and endeavours to replace them with
inventions of its own."
When Wagner expresses himself as follows : " The concert-going
public of our day only plays the hypocrite when pretending to
appreciate symphonic composition," he would probably account for
the partiality of the public for the ' Pastorale ' by the circumstance
that this Symphony happens to be furnished with a programme.
We have had occasion to observe that inferior amateurs have a
strong preference for the * Pastoral ' Symphony — probably on this
account. On the other hand, the verdict of severe judges runs thus :
" The work, as regards form, is by no means free from defects,
particularly the andante movement with its numerous repetitions."
The six first Symphonies succeeded each other at short intervals
from 1800 to 1808 ; but from the sixth, a period of five years elapsed
before the SEVENTH Symphony, in A major [1813, op. 92],—
the most majestic and powerful of the whole series — was given to the
world. It was performed for the first time, together with the
* Battle of Vittoria,' December 8th, 1813, and again December 12th,
as well as in January and February 1814. The Symphony at once
called forth "enthusiastic applause; and Beethoven, who con-
ducted the orchestra, received quite an ovation. This latest achieve-
ment of Beethoven's genius must be heard in order to be truly
appreciated."* A great deal has been Avritten and said concerning
this splendid composition ; some think it is intended to represent
Moorish chivalry ; f others, marriage festivities ; % others again, a
masquerade ||— all, in short, who have sought to interpret this music
* Leipz. Allg. Mus. Zeitung, Vol. xvi,, No. 4. Note by the
Translator. We presume the reviewer hereby means tbat a perusal
of the score alone will not suffice to disclose its beauties.
t MaKX. X AMBROS. 11 0ULIDICI1EB'B\
224 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
literally, agree in the idea of a festive celebration. We think L.
BischolFs reading of the A major Symphony, which views it as an
autumn sequel to the * Pastorale,' is the most ingenious. Perhaps
one would at first be inclined to take the Allegro immediately
following on the superb introduction for a scene of rustic festivity,
or does the | time and the instrumentation remind one rather of a
grand and brilliant hunting exj^dition? Even for that the move-
ment is too rich, too bold and majestic. We re^ieat, that Beethoven
had no intention of representing any particular external or pictu-
resque scene ; but simply himself, his life and circumstances viewed
in connexion with the world — at that time the theatre of mighty
events— around him. Kor should we lose sight of the circumstance
that this Symphony was first performed in the year 1813 (so im-
portant in the annals of history), and on the same occasion as a
commemorative piece (' The Battle of Vittoria ' composed in honour of
Wellington's victory, June 21st, 1813), as well as for a patriotic
object. (" For the benefit of Austrian and Bavarian warriors
invalided at the battle of Hanau.")* The celebrated Allegretto in
A minor was, as Si)ohr relates, encored at the first ]ierforma'.ice. It
oi^ens with a long-drawn f chord by tiie wind instruments lasting
from forte to piano through two entire' bars ; after which, tlie
violoncellos execute a measured theme of ineflable sadness, whose
every note stamps its melancholy on the mind. In ever-increasing
numbers sob and sigh the mysterious voices till the utmost expres-
sion of woe is attained ; when, amid the general lamentation, peals the
♦ Beethoven, in his circular of thanks to those who assisted at
the concert, expresses himself as follows : " It was a rare assemblage
of first-rate musicians ; each of whom, animated solely with the
desire of employing his talents for the advantage of his country,
without any scruples of precedence or merit took their places at the
orchestra indiscriminately, whether subordinate or otherwise. The
command of the orchestra was entrusted to me, because the music
was of my composition ; if any one else had written it, I would as
cheerfully have taken my place at the big drum, as did Herr
Hummel ; for we had no other object than that of serving our
country gladly and joyfully — that country which had done so much
for ns. Herr Schuppanzigh led the first violins ; Herr S[X)hr and
Herr Mayscder played among the second violins ; the first chapel-
master, Herr Salieri, marked time for the cannonades and drums ;
Herr Sivori and Herr Giuliani likewise occupied subordinate places.
LUDWia VAN BEETHOVEN. 22S
gently-healing melody in A major, assuaging the bitter grief which
alas ! is too deep-seated to be at once removed. Again the voice of
lamentation is heard, though this time not in passionate accents, but
gently and gradually melting into calmness and resignation. The
incomparable Scherzo-presto sparkles with life and enjoyment, to
which the expressive Assai meno presto (Trio) presents a wondrously
beautiful contrast. After the repetition of the Presto, the Meno
presto again returns, when it is suddenly broken off by a most
original and singular termination. The Finale carries the merriment
of the Scherzo to the utmost limits of wild bacchanalian excitement.
To Oulibicheff s taste, formed exclusively on Mozart's music, this
theme appears commonplace aud trivial. " Les fanatiques, pour les-
quels tout est genie dans Beethoven, appellent cela de VhumoTT Yes,
verily, genuine humour it is which sparkles throughout this
colossal yiTiaZe — delighting in contrast and opposition ; and this sense
of humour which, as we have already shown, was a powerful
ingredient of Beethoven's character, is wanting to Oulibicheff and
other " hommes de goutP Accordingly, we are not surprised that
he finds no merit in — least of all the Finale of — the eminently
vivacious
EIGHTH Symphony, in F major [181 7, op. 93]. He calls it " La
moins reussie et tres probaUement la moins goutee de toutes les sym-
phonies de Beethoven. Fcrite peu apres la septieme, elle en a tons les
defauts, sans aucune des grandes heautes qui y font compensation"
Whilst inveighing against the " eccentric, incoherent, contradictory "
Finale which, besides, includes nearly half of the entire work, Oubili-
cheff is so obtuse to the merits of the rest that he can see nothing
in the lovely Allegretto Scherzando but a satire on Rossini (!) ; while
of the charming Minuet with the playful Trio he afiBrms that any
other composer of the eighteenth century might have written it. On
the other hand, 0. Jahn remarks with great discrimination that the
Minuet has the slowest tempo of the whole Symphony, and that its
serious and dignified grace contrasts most humorously with the
lively tone of the remaining movements. We certainly agree that
the first movement is the least successful ; but whoever desj:)ises the
Finale — the theme of which is alone a wondrous conception — has
not properly understood Beethoven — the great humorist, who. in
extraordinary contrasts and combinations of apparently irreconcilable
elements displays a fund of originality and imagination as wonderful
as it is rare. One reason, perhaps, why this composition enjoys an in-
ferior degree of popularity to the others is (apart from the very high
Q
226 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
intx3llectual range requisite for its due appreciation) principally owing
to the fact that it requires the utmost precision and delicacy, and in
the Allegro movement great freedom and power, in the execution ;
the Finale^ especially, is quite a tour deforce for the orchestra.
Beethoven's NINTH Symphony, in D minor, " with a choral ^rwt/c
on Schiller's * Ode to Joy,' for full orchestra, four solo and four
choral voices " [1824, op. 125], is a truly colossal conception, typical
of a great soul unsubdued by the weight of affliction. For the last
time, when his days on earth are drawing to a close, the great
composer depicts in vivid and powerful traits the indomitable
fortitude of a noble mind under the pressure of unutterable woe, its
secret trials and conflicts, and ultimate j)eace and resignation.
" Pain is short, but joy — eternal,"*
says the poet most akin to Beethoven ; and this sentiment is, we
opine, the thought which lies at the root of this great work,
I)articularly the last movement. Most certainly this Symphony is,
in regard to conception, the loftiest of them all ; but, judged by a
l)urely musical and artistic standard, it is, undoubtedly (apart from
some eccentricities of modulation), inferior to the earlier ones. It
outstei^s the legitimate province of musical art ; for in the principal
movements, viz., the first and the last, it deals more in ideas than
emotion ; — Marx's definition, " that it exhausts the resources of
instrumental music," is, therefore, singularly appropriate. The
imposing grandeur of this Symphony in some measure justifies its
creation ; but it would be a mistake to exalt it into a precedent, or
regard it as the model of a genus, and we hold that view to be
erroneous which regards the eight preceding Symphonies as mere
preparatory studies for "that marvel of composition, the ninth."
Berlioz, who endeavoured to continue a style inaugurated by Beet^
hoven, has furnished the most striking proof that imitation of exalted
genius is liable to degenerate into caricature. " In connection with
music, poetry — the language of humanity — heals the deepest
sorrow," says Goethe. This is the profound thought on which the
great composer has reared his singular and incomparable edifice.
And yet its chief peculiarity — the introduction of the chorus in the
concluding movement — does not add to the effect; indeed, the
measured, almost monotonous concourse of voices intoning,
" Joy, thou spark of heavenly fire !'*
* Schiller's ** Maid of Orleans,"
LTJDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 227
would seem at first to produce an unpleasing impression. Beethoven
intended, apparently, to express the awe which seizes those who
contemplate the sacredness of joy, as Schiller describes in the * Ode
to Joy ;' and, therefore, the expression is intensified after the words
" thy hallowed fane."* The Adagio, breathing solemnity and
repose in every chord, is highly suggestive of inward peace and
content — a farewell, as it were, to the happy past. As to the
Scherzo (which in this Symphony constitutes the second movement),
the majority of connoisseurs have agreed in pronouncing it the most
original and beautiful portion of the work. We have here given a
short sketch of our own ideas concerning this magnificent — ^we had
almost said weird — composition, which, like the second part of
Goethe's 'Faust,' will ever remain a poema reconditum and
sesthetic problem.
The ninth Symphony (" which not one in ten
can understand" says Hans v. Biilow) is the
greatest and most admired of Beethoven's last
compositions ; this work, the Missa solemnis, the
lour last pianoforte Sonatas (op. 106, 109 — 111),
and the five last Quartets with the great fugue in
B (op. 127, 130—133, 135) are the works which
have, in our own day, given rise to much diversity
of opinion. While some regard them as the ne
plits ultra of Beethoven's productions, and extol
them as the onl^ correct standard worthy of future
imitation, the great majority pronounce them un-
intelligible, eccentric, and unpleasing. As usual,
the truth lies between these extreme opinions.
♦ " Dein Eetligthum." Note by the Translator. Sir E. B.
Lytton's excellent rendering of the * Ode to Joy ' does not adapt
itself to Beethoven's music, the metre being somewhat different from
that of Schiller's poem. The English version usually employed in
connection with the choral Symphony deviates so widely from the
original, that the effect alluded to in the text is entirely lost.
228 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
As in the later works of other men of genius,
but especially Goethe, a vein of serious contem-
plation verging on mysticism runs through these
last compositions of Beethoven, supplanting, in
great measure, the pathos and emotion which
distinguish his earlier works, and replacing clear,
well-defined melody by richly developed poly-
phonous and contrapuntal plirases. At the same
time, we cannot fail to be struck with the number
of passages still replete with the purity and grace
of his earlier works ; as, for instance, the second
and third movements of the ninth Symphony,
which are quite equal to anything he produced
during his prime. It cannot, on the other hand,
be denied that Beethoven has occasionally, and
sometimes even throughout an entire movement
or work, overstepped the limits of true beauty and
proportion, and in his lofty soarings over-taxed the
resources of musical art. But are not these very
works the genuine expression of his own feel-
ings, existence, and destiny — swayed alternately
by despair, resignation, and hope? Kegarded
from this point of view, how differently do the
gloomy, melancholy adagios — like unto sorrowful
old age lamenting in touching strains the happy
days of yore, and yearning, oh ! how earnestly, for
the "peace which passeth understanding" —
appear ; as also those impetuous allegros andjinali,
which resemble a mighty torrent rushing head-
long over the rocks to the dark abyss beneath !
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. ^ 229
For those whose imagination cannot sympathize
with that of the great master, these works will, as
a matter of course, possess but few attractions ;
while, to the purely musical taste, their elaborate
contrapuntal combinations will not compensate
for the absence of beauty in form and conception.*
We can quite understand that profound and edu-
cated musicians grow to these compositions ; also,
that the exclusive admiration of the disciples of the
" development theory " as applied to music answer
all objections advanced against their own confused
productions by quoting the immortal name of
Beethoven in support of their wild inventions.
Further, it appears to us especially worthy of
notice that, during the latter period of his life,
Beethoven exhibited a remarkable partiality for
the quartet — ^that genus of musical art which
Weber designates " intellectual music"! -^ deve-
* " Increasing deafness could not fail to act bane fully on the
imagination. His continued efforts at originality could not, as
formerly, be guarded from errors of judgment. Is it, therefore, to
be wondered at if his productions became more and more eccentric,
incoherent, and unintelligible? True it is, there are people who
profess to understand them, and are so overjoyed at this privilege,
that they esteem them far above his earlier masterpieces. For my
part, I confess that I have never been able to appreciate his later
works. The ninth Symphony, as regards the first three movements,
is, in spite of occasional traits of genius, inferior to any of his former
ones; but the conception of Schiller's ode in the fourth movement is
so utterly monstrous and absurd, that it is beyond my comprehen-
sion liow Beethoven could write such a thing." — Spohr's Auto-
hiography.
f Of the miLsical subject-matter of the five last quartets, an
230 HISTORY OP MUSIC.
lopment of the tendency of Beethoven's last sonatas
and quartets could only lead to a most undesir-
able spiritualization of music. The embodiment
of spiritual in material forms (which Bettina von
Arnim regards as the summit of all true art) is,
we think, not satisfactorily attained in modern
music ; but in Beethoven — who, like Goethe, gave
form and utterance to his own sensations — that
was a simple and natural form of expression which
in others becomes downright exaggeration. We
should, therefore, lay particular stress on the fact
that, previous to his decline, not only were the
great master's efforts expended in endeavouring
to render instrumental music capable of a contem-
plative tendency, but, likewise, in endowing the
forms — enlarged owing to increased importance
of the subject-matter — with a greater amount
of variety and colouring.
excellent analysis has been written by Selmab Baqge, the talented
editor of the 'Deutsche Musikzeituny*, (Nos. 36—40, 1862). He
is of opinion that those in B major (op. 130) and C sharp major
(op. 131) are the finest ; and that, of the E flat (op. 127) and
F (op. 135) quartets, the two centi-al movements are superior to
the principal ones. "It is worthy of observation that, as is well
known, this disproportion in the relative parts of a quartet has
gained ground ever since Beethoven's time ; and that in modem
quartets and other sonata forms the principal movements are,
generally speaking, inferior to the central ones." The sui^erscrip-
tions of two movements in the last — somewhat abstruse — quartets
should not be overlooked : " Canzona di ringraziamento in modo
lidico offerta alia divinitd da un guarito^^ (Ada(jio of the quartet
in A minor op. 132), and : " Hesitation. Shall it be ? It shall be !"
(Finale of the Quartet in F major, op. 135).
LTJDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 231
The other great work of Beethoven's latter
period is the Missa solemnis in D major, for four
choral and solo voices, full orchestra, and organ
fop. 123) ; the first performance of which took
place April 1st, 1824 — a few weeks previous to
that of the ninth Symphony. It is one of the
grandest and profoundest works of art ever
created; one, however, in which the composer's
peculiarities are all the more conspicuous, as
Church music, especially, requires that artistic in-
dividuality should assert itself as little as possible.
Taken as a whole, this Mass is rather a sublime
than a religious conception ; — not a Mass^ properly
speaking, with music adapted to the text, but
a lofty expressive composition on words from the
Church service — a composition whose astounding
grandeur leaves no room for religious feeling and
worship. Of this work, the Kyrie is the most de-
votional ; the Gloria, with its scarcely practicable
Presto finale^ the most vigorous ; the Credo, the
richest and profoundest ; and the Benedictus
(where a violin solo soars, as if on angels' wings,
over the whole orchestra), the sweetest and purest.
In direct opposition to the a capella style, which
Beethoven himself in a letter to Zelter (March
25th, 1823) calls "the only genuine Church
style," the orchestra holds here a prominent place,
and the singing is entirely subordinate, particu-
larly in passages where the capabilities of the
human voice are not duly considered. '■ To him
232 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
men were as instruments, and instruments as
men. *
The first Mass in C major, likewise for chorus
and solo voices, orchestra and organ [1804, op.
86], is the exact opposite of this "grand and
solemn " Mass — the expression being eminently
sweet and melodious. For this music (with Beet-
hoven's approbation) an additional German text
was written ; and thus it is known to many as
the ' Thi^ee hymns' Beethoven's Oratorio, or
rather Cantata, * The Mount of Olives' [\%^0^ op.
85], is, " in fact, only the first part of a * Passions '
oratorio ; but so much drawn out in detail that
he never designed a fitting termination. "f Beet-
hoven's own admission, in after years, that his
conception of Christ was too theatrical, is appli-
cable to the whole work. Ambros is even of
opinion that it is " scarcely equal to Eossini's
Stahat Mater, and a Beethoven association — if
ever such corae into existence in Germany (which
we hold to be neither essential nor desirable) —
should therefore do its utmost to obliterate the
memory of this work." J Taken by themselves,
the march of the Eoman soldiers and the final
chorus are admirable pieces.
Beethoven was no Church composer — less so
even than Haydn and Mozart ; indeed, so much
* Marx. f Eochlitz. Fur Freunde der Tonhunst.
% CulturhistoiHsche Bilder aus dem Mitsikleben der Gegenwart.
Leipzig, 1860. P. 26.
LUDWia VAX BEETHOVEN. 233
did he withdraw from communion with the
Church that the orthodox and pious Haydn
called him a downright atheist. Marx says :
"Not only was Beethoven too much wanting in
Church feeling and sympathy for the composition
of Masses, but he was not thoroughly at home in
choral writing, which, like every other branch of
art, has its own peculiar conditions." Beethoven
and the later musicians have carried musical art
to its furthest limits ; but in a very different
branch to sacred music.
In his sole opera, 'Fidelio' Beethoven has
adopted the Mozart form ; but how different the
essence and spirit of this opera from one of
Mozart's — indeed, from every other opera ! What
an enormous distance between a so-called opera
seria and the lofty pathos of this music !* But
much as we admire this noble music (the pri-
soners' choruses, Leonore's grand aria, the jubi-
lant duet which precedes the second finale, and
other pieces), we cannot deny that_, as such, it
♦ Let us not, however, be understood as praising Beethoven's
opera at the cost of every other. Music is, in its very essence, a
cheerful art. Therefore, even in sacred music, except on special
occasions (such as, for instance, a requiem), the expression is never
continued in one uninterruptedly solemn strain. In the opera
which, more than any other genus of musical art, demands variety
and piquancy (as well as great experience and knowledge of the
world on the part of the composer), prolonged seriousness is scarcely
tolerable. The lofty ideality of Beethoven's music could alone cause
it to maintain a hold on the interest of an audience already favour-
ably inclined ; Cherubini's opera * Les Deux Joumees ' met with
inferior success. Less gifted composers who have endeavoured to do
234 HISTORY OP MUSIC.
does not answer the highest demands of the
genus. Neither the dramatic action of Mozart's
operas nor the climax of effect in Gluck's drame
lyrique are here discernible ; the interest of the
piece centres solely in Leonore, who appears as
Fidel io in masculine attire. As to the other per-
sonages, little or no interest attaches to them ;
but Leonore, the heroine, is a part in which the
most renowned singers, viz., Schroeder-Devrient,
Schechner-Waagen, Milder-Hauptmann, Mali'
bran-Garcia, and, of late, Louise Koster and
Titiens have achieved their greatest triumphs.
Leonore is Beethoven's ideal of a loving woman,
whose affection, faithful unto death, inspires her
with the strength and courage of a true heroine ;
the remaining characters are quite subordinate —
the ideal, ethical, and expressive, element alone
being that in which he delighted. Florestan is a
purely passive personage ; besides whom, " Pizarro
and the Prime Minister (without, however, their
motives being distinctly accounted for — ^the latter
appearing like a deus ex machind at the conclusion
the same, have invariably lapsed into hopeless monotony, as, for
instance, Bellini in ' Capuletti e MonteccM ;' though, musically
speaking, there is a great deal of merit in this opera. The modern
school of Italian composers, Donizetti and others, make not the
slightest attempt (even in occasional scenes) to emulate the solemn
tone of tragedy in music — their heroes encounter death to the tune
of a lively waltz. In the Symphony — a far more serious branch of
composition— the necessity for a downright lively — nay, mirthful —
interlude (such as the Minuet or ScJierzo) is recognized by every
composer.
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 235
of the piece) represent the ''antagonistic prin-
ciples " (to quote Beethoven) "of good and evil.
Midway between both stands Eocco, the obedient
servant and abettor of evil, though good-natured,
and ready to forward the prisoner's release. In
order to give variety and action, but without exer-
cising any influence on the plot, Marcellina and
her jealous admirer Jacquino are introduced —
episodically, as it were. The choruses of pri-
soners, soldiers, and populace are mere garniture^
in order to assist the delineation of suffering, ty-
ranny, and succour."* It is in the domestic scenes
(Eocco, Marcellina, Jacquino) that Beethoven is
least at home. When an opera book arranged
from Schiller's ' Burgschaft ' was proposed to him
for composition, he actually requested Weigl to
compose the second act (the wedding feast) be-
cause " such cheerful gaiety did not suit him."t
It is worthy of remark, that in this, his only
opera, Beethoven celebrates an extraordinaiy
instance of female heroism (Schiller's female crea-
tions Tiave likewise, in general, more pathos than
strict adherence to nature), whereas Mozart —
who may in truth be styled the bard of love — ,
like Goethe and Shakespeare, portrays the female
sex with all the reality of life.
* Marx. Vol. i., p. 331.
t In 1816, Franz Schubert wrote an opera (left unfinished at the
third act) on another adaptation of Schiller's ballad; the score
contains fifteen pieces of music. Lindpaintner's opera on the same
subject has fallen into oblivion.
236 -• HISTORY OF MUSIC.
This opera was performed (with a somewhat
inferior cast) for the first time November 20th,
1 805, with the title of* Leonore^ or Conjugal Affec-
tion ; but met with a cold reception from an au-
dience composed chiefly of French officers. After
the third representation, Beethoven withdrew his
work from the stage. The following year, it was
again brought out with the suppression of a whole
act. " I rearranged the whole book for him,"
writes Breuning to Wegeler, " so as to give action
and variety to the plot ; he curtailed a good many
of the pieces, and it was performed three times
with the greatest applause. But it roused his
enemies at the theatre, and, as he had given
ofience to a great many at the second representa-
tion, they have succeeded in preventing the per-
formance of the opera in future." In 1814
Beethoven made several alterations in the opera,
particularly in the two Jinali, and gave it the
name of ' Fidelio.' " This business of the opera
is the most tedious in the world," wrote he in a
note to Treitsclike, who had undertaken to alter
the text. ** I am dissatisfied with the greater
part, and there is scarcely a piece that I have not
been obliged to alter." In this its present form,
the opera met with universal applause and appro-
bation.
For the several performances of this opera
[1805, 1806, 1814], Beethoven wrote four Over-
tures, the first of which he subsequently with-
LUDWia VAN BEETHOVEN. 237
drew; it was not published till after his
death. The third Overture, which is now very
appropriately given between the first and second
acts, is an arrangement and completion of the
second, No other overture can be compared with
this Leonore Overture. It is more than an over-
ture, — it is a fantasia, a downright symphonic
poem; while as a musical work — apart from its
ideal excellence in connection with the rest of the
opera — it is beyond all praise. The vigorous and
impetuous fourth Overture (in E, written for the
performance of 'Fidelio' in 1814) is the most
perfect and beautiful of them aU ; it varies from
the three other Leonore Overtures in this respect,
that it makes use of no themes from the opera,
but, on the contrary, forms an independent intro-
duction to the opera.*
The second work of importance which Beet-
hoven wrote for the stage is the music to Groethe's
play Egmont [1811]; and which, along with
Weber's ' Preciosa' and Mendelssohn's ' Mid-
summer Night's Dream,' is the best work of the
kind ever written. Besides the Overture (which
in point of dramatic significance and musical per
* Lyser narrates that, shortly before the performance of *Don
Giovanni,' Mozart played three splendid overtures for that Opera to
a friend of his; the first was in E fiat major; the second in C minor
(a fugued fantasia like that to ^ Die Zauberflote^ but totally
different in character), and the third in D major, which he subsequently
penned so quickly. But he could not be persuaded to write down
the others.
238 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
fection can only be compared with the one he
composed for Collins' tragedy Coriolanus), he
wrote four unique and admirable Entractes, in
which he has, with exquisite taste, united the last
scene of each act with the commencement of the
succeeding one — an interesting instance of how far
Beethoven esteemed instrumental music capable
of delineating particular situations and even
words. " He has," says Ambros,* "with admirable
tact, preserved the exact medium between allow-
ing his music to degenerate into a meaningless
mass of sound on the one hand (Meyerbeer's
* Struensee !'), and, on the other, maintaining a
due subordination of the music to the words of
the play" (unlike, for instance. Prince Eadzi will's
music to * Faust '). The other pieces are : Clara's
two songs, Egmont's monologue, the music which
accompanies Clara's death, Egmont's vision of
Clara as Liberty, and the triumphal symphony,
which also forms the conclusion of the Overture.
Beethoven wrote Egmont, as he himself told Eoch-
litz, with enthusiastic delight^ — having shortly
before made the poet's acquaintance at Teplitz.
A subsequent homage to the great poet was
that remarkable composition " Meeresstille und
gluckliche Fahrt^ the poems by J. W.von Goethe,
set to music and respectfully dedicated to the
immortal poet by Ludwig van Beethoven, op. 112."
The poems, especially the first, are not well suited
* Orenzen der Musi/c und Foesie. P. 94.
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 239
for songs ; and the entire composition is, we
think, so tlioroughly orchestral in conception that
we are inclined to surmise Beethoven originally
intended to write a purely instrumental piece.
There was certainly no idea of a programme -
overture, of which the poem was the key, in those
unsophisticated days. It is well known that
Mendelssohn has given a detailed instrumental
translation of the poem in his overture of the
same name (* A Calm Sea').
Beethoven further wrote three small pieces
d'occasion for the theatre : the ballet Prometheus
(*Gli uomini di Prometeo,' 1801), of which the
lively compact Overture is well known ; and, sub-
sequently [1812], two Festival plays with chorus
and songs by Kotzebue, entitled, ' The Ruins of
Athens ' and 'King Stephen, Hungary's first bene-
factor.' Among the pieces contained in the first
named of these plays, the choruses are remark-
ably fine, particularly the wild Dervish chorus
and the Turkish march which precedes it. Of
the second, the overture alone is known ; it is —
like the ' Euins of Athens ' — ^by itself (^. e. discon-
nected from the play), of no great importance as
a concert overture. Likewise a festival overture
(and what a one !), is tliat intended for the opening
of the new theatre in the Joseph stadt [1822] :
Zur Weihe des Ilauses (op. 1 24) — a splendid and
highly imaginative work, yet complete and clear
as anything of Mozart's.
240 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Beethoven's best vocal compositions are the
very beautiful ' Scotch Songs ' for one voice — (some-
times with one, two, or three others) with piano-
forte, violin, and violoncello accompaniment
[1815, op. 108] — taken from national melodies.
Far more popular — perhaps because less difficult
— are the songs and ballads with pianoforte ac-
companiment alone ; especially, Six Sacred Songs
of Gellert (op. 32, among them the famous * The
heavens declare the glory of God'), * Adelaide , by
Matthison (op. 46), Siv Songs of Goethe (op. 75,
' Know'st thou the land,' ' Heart, my heart whence
this emotion,' &c.,) and a collection of songs of
Jeitteles, * An die feime Geliehte ' (op. 98). What a
variety, both of style and character, do we find
in these songs ! how admirable are declamation,
melody, and accompaniment in each one of them !
Yet Beethoven — as he observed to Eochlitz in his
later years — did not " like writing songs." His
grave temperament was as little suited to the
action and variety of the opera as his ardent
fancy could brook the restraining influence of words
in song composition. Thus, in his grand vocal
works, as well as in the song proper (' Adelaide ' for
instance), the instrumental part rivals the vocal
in importance and character. In conclusion,
however highly we rate his genius as compared
with others, we find that Klopstock's epitaph on
Em. Bach may even more appropriately be ap-
plied to Beethoven :
FRANZ SCHUBERT. 241
" He was great in music derived from words,
but greater still in that loftier music without
words."
Vocal composition, so uncongenial to Beetho-
ven's masculine temperament, was carried to un-
rivalled perfection by FRANZ SCHUBERT
[born at Vienna, January 31st, 1797, died there,
November 19th, 1828], who wrote quite in the
Beethoven spirit.* His fame having been spread
by the celebrated song 'Erlking' [1816], others
(' The Wanderer,' ' Lob der Thranen,' ' Suleika,'
&c.) appeared in quick succession. But the most
remarkable of his vocal compositions are the two
great collections of songs : * Die Schone Mullerin '
and ' Winterreise 'f (both containing as many as
forty-four songs), which were probably suggested
by Beethoven's collection of songs 'An die feme
Geliebte' and which, together with others of his
finest songs, form, as it were, a worthy supplement
to that great master's works — so rich in harmony
and profound expression are they, so full of
charming variety — sorrow, joy, love, melancholy
being in turn depicted in the most vivid and
telling manner. The collection of songs entitled
' Schwanengesang ' contains Schubert's last and
best- known songs (' Standchen,' *Aufenthalt,' *Das
Fischermadchen,' ' Am Meer,' &c.).
♦ Franz Schubert ^ von Dr. H. Kreissle von Hellborn. Wieu,
1864.
t By W. MuUer.
R
242 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Whereas the old-fashioned song, derived princi-
pally from the operetta, aimed at a popular style
(in accordance with the simple verses to which it
was set), scarcely any of Schubert's songs or bal-
lads contain the slightest reminiscence of national
or popular tunes and rhythm ; — of Schubert's six
hundred songs, not one (so far as we are aware)
has ever become a popular melody. The clear,
concise form requisite for a popular melody, differs
radically from the delicate characteristic delinea-
tion, the varied, almost dramatic action — in short,
the subjective tendency, to which the pianoforte
accompaniment lends effect by a local and emo-
tional colouring in keeping with the words and me-
lody. Schubert metamorphosed the poet's thoughts
into melody ; and, embodying them in sweet vocal
strains, created a musical form answering to lyrical
poetry (then recently revived in Germany by
Goethe,Uhland, Eiickert, and Heine), and raised
ballad music to one of the highest branches of
vocal composition. Schubert's songs — next to
Beethoven's sonatas — represent the completion of
modern musical art ; the}^ are the key-stone to
the edifice commenced about a hundred years pre-
viously. Oratorio, opera, and symphony had
reached their apogee in Handel, Mozart, Beetho-
ven ; — it remained for Schubert to complete the
grand series of choric works by that branch of
musical art which appeals more particularly to
individual sentiment, and provides for him who.
FRANZ SCHUBERT. 243
wearied and disgusted with the ignohle elements
which, alas! too frequently degrade the musical
profession, turns to the privacy of home and seeks
refreshment and solace in what may, in truth, be
called " fire-side" music. " Franz Schubert," says
the poet Mayrhofer (Schubert's friend and com-
panion), " was my good genius, who faithfully
escorted me through life with melodies suited to
every occasion, whether of trouble, peace, change,
anxiety, sorrow, or joy." Beethoven himself, during
his last days on earth, keenly relished Schubert's
songs ; and Jean Paul requested to hear the
' Erlking ' once more before he died. As the bard
himself says in the narrative of his vision (' My
dream'), even the dying were " moved alternately
by love and sorrow." — "And for the second time,
with a heart full of unspeakable affection for those
who had spurned me, I once more bent my steps
to distant lands. For many a long year, I sang
songs. If I would sing of love, it turned to
pain ; and if I would sing of pain, it turned to
love. Thus was I swayed alternately by love
and pain."
Schubert's part songs have only recently been
brought into notice. We give the names of
those best known and most frequently per-
formed :* Quartets for male voices with piano-
forte accompaniment, entitled : ' Das Dorfchen'
' Nachtgesang im WaldeJ ' Nachthelle,' ' Schlacht-
* Note by the Teanslator. We believe only in Germany.
244 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
lied' (Klopstock) for eight part male choir;
' Stdndchen ' (Grillparzer) for mezzo-sopran and
choir of female voices ; * Miriams Siegesgesang '
for soli and choir (the instrumentation by
Fr. Lachner) ; ' Gesang der Geister iiber den
Wassem' for eight part choir and bowed in-
struments.
Some of Schubert's pianoforte pieces, viz., two
Fantasias in C (arranged for pianoforte and
orchestra by Liszt*) and F minor respectively
(the latter for two performers), the Impromptus
and Moments mv^icals^ are replete with originality
and rhythmic vivacity ; but exuberance of fancy
too often interferes with just and true proportion
in the form in his sonata writings. Schumann —
an enthusiastic admirer of Schubert — says, with
great truth, of the three last Sonatas (dedicated
to himself by the publisher) : " Brimming over
with invention, never at a loss, always musical
and tuneful, Schubert pours forth a rich stream
of melody, only occasionally interrupted by emo-
tional interludes, which, however, quickly subside.
* Liszt has therein rightly appreciated the symphonic character of
this piece ; and Schumann's surmise (principally in relation to the
Sonata for two performers, op. 140) — that a good number of
Schubert's compositions were originally intended for orchestra, but
that he had only time for a pianoforte sketch — is, we think, worth}'
of attention. His active, ever-prolific mind sought an easier mode
of expression, for which the pianoforte ofifered the readiest advantages.
Hence, Schubert is the exact opposite of the later musicians, who
endeavoured to write symphonies, but, in fact, only produced
quartets.
FRANZ SCHUBERT. 245
This is the impression they made on me. He
concludes in such a strain of sweet content-
ment and ease, as if he were ready to begin again
next day/' In another passage he writes about
the Sonatas (op. 42 and 53) and the Fantasia op.
78 as follows : " Without much ado, we may pro-
nounce these three Sonatas splendid; but his
Fantasia Sonata is, we think, the most perfect in
form and matter. After it, comes the one in
A minor " (op. 42, but we prefer the second in
A minor op. 143, and dedicated to Mendelssohn
by the publisher).*
Of Schubert's remaining instrumental composi-
♦ Equally characteristic is Schumann's opinion of Schubert as a
bard and composer in general. " If fecundity is a proof of genius,
Schubert is one of the greatest. He would probably in time
have set the whole of German literature to music. Whatever he
tried, broke forth into music ; JEschylus, Klopstock (so difficult to
compose) yielded to his touch, yet he discovered unsuspected depths
in W. Miiller's simple verses," " Schubert will ever be a favourite
with the young ; he has that for which they most sympathize —
ardent affections, bold imagination, vigorous action ; he tells them
that which they like best — tells them of strange adventures, maidens,
love-affairs; he is by no means devoid of wit and humour, but
never allows these qualities to destroy the tender impression of his
music. At the same time, he excites the imagination as no other,
except Beethoven, has ever done. We find reminiscences of Beethoven
in his music ; but had Beethoven never existed, Schubert would
still have been the same, though his peculiar bent might perhaps
have been longer in declaring itself (?). Compared to Beethoven,
Schubert is a feminine character — more talkative, gentler, tenderer.
True, he has powerful movements, nor is he wanting in breadth and
vigour ; but it is as a gentle entreating woman beside a commanding
masculine character — though only in comparison to Beethoven.
Compared to others, he is masculine enough ; for he is the most
vigorous and original of modern composers."
246 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
tions, the most remarkable are : the Quartet in
D minor for stringed instruments ; the Quintet
in C major, the (so-called) ForelJen Klavierqita*
tuor ; and, above all, the great Symphony in C
[written March 1828] — which Mendelssohn and
Schumann have pronounced to be the finest
orchestral composition after Beethoven. The
last (and only one in print) of Schubert's seven
Symphonies is a work teeming with imagina-
tion ; unfortunately, its extreme length deprives
it of much of the effect which a due observance of
proportion and form would have insured. " As to
analysing the several movements, it would afford
satisfaction neither to ourselves or others ; we
must be at the pains of copying the whole Sym-
phony if we would have an idea of its romantic
conception. Of the second movement, which
appeals to us in such touching strains, we would,
however, say a few words. It contains a passage
in which a horn is heard, as if a long way off,
and always seems to me to come from distant
spheres. Hush ! one listens and waits as though an
angelic visitor were stealing through the orches-
tra."* That Schubert left a considerable number
of works, especially instrumental compositions, un-
finished is easily accounted for when we bear in
mind his intense activity ever since his thirteenth
year. It is a fact, that he never corrected his
compositions — he had " no time " for that.
* R. Schumann.
FRANZ SCHUBERT. 247
Of nearly twenty — mostly unfinished — Operas
(Kreissle aptly calls them " song " operas),
Vaudevilles, and Melodramas of Schubert, the
operetta, ' Der hdusliche Krieg oder die Verschwo-
renen,' by Castelli, is the only one which has
recently been brought on the stage (at Francfort,
Vienna, &c.) The greater number have never
appeared on the stage, — and are not very likely
to do so at a time when plays and operas bor-
rowed from French examples monopolize the
boards of first-class theatres. Of the charming
and graceful music to ' Rosamunde ' we wrote as
follows on the occasion of its performance by the
Academy of Music at Coblentz : '' Since the 20th
of December, 1823, when the following notice
appeared in the Viennese papers — ' Eosamunde,
Princess of Cyprus, drama in four acts, with
chorus, incidental music, and dances, by Helmina
von Chezy, nee Baroness Klenke, music by Herr
Schubert ' — this music has probably been seldom
heard in a concert room. The overstrained
sentimentality of Frau von Chezy's style (which
caused even Weber's Euryanthe to become ' Verb-
nuyante') would alone prevent this piece from
keeping the stage. The tuneful andante and
vigorous allegro of the Overture are so delight-
ftil, that we cordially echoed the loud * encore ' it
called forth. Its loose structure — as compared
with the great classical models — reminds one of
Weber's style, particularly ' Preciosa,' to which
248 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Schubert's music (inasmuch as it consists of a
few songs and choruses) bears some resemblance.
We prefer the choruses to the dreamy Moon-
Hght Ballad ; and, of them, more especially the
chorus of spirits, whose solemn strains are worthy
to be compared with the priests' choruses in the
Zauberflote." When a reviewer of far greater
merit than ourselves declared of the aforesaid
operetta that, notwithstanding its unpretending
style, it contains more true beauty than all
Wagner's operas put together, we presume we
are not far wrong in supposing that Schubert's
other dramatic compositions are of sufficient
merit to warrant their performance at concerts.
Among Schubert's very numerous sacred
compositions (Masses, Oratorios, Hymns, &c.) the
E flat Mass is considered the finest ; this, as
well as the grand Symphony, was written in the
year of his death.
Schubert was, in every respect, a wonderfully
gifted man — admirably calculated to combine
Beethoven's depth with Mozart's facility and
grace. He was, unfortunately, prematurely
snatched away whilst in the full enjoyment of
his powers, so that a great many of his works
never attained that maturity and finish which we
admire in his songs and ballads.
So little is known of Schubert's life, that we borrow from Kreissle
a few passages bearing on the subject — reserving to ourselves the
privilege of some alterations and abbreviations. "His daily work
FRANZ SCHUBERT. 249
was usually begun in the forenoon, and continued without inter-
mission till dinner-time. When writing, his whole being was
absorbed in music ; his compositions had such an effect on him, that
eyewitnesses affirm they could frequently observe in his flashing eye
and altered speech that he was labouring under intense excitement.
The rest of the day was almost invariably devoted to social pleasures ;
and, in summer, to country excursions with his friends. But the
slightest encouragement sufficed to awake the slumbering muse ;
as we learn from the anecdote of his setting Shakespeare's exquisite
sonnet (' Hark, hark ! the lark at heaven's gate sings,') to music
during one of these excursions ; after being put on paper it was
sung off at once at sight. Whoever gave Schubert lines to be set
to music might be certain, if he took a liking for the subject,
that the work would be completed in the shortest possible time.
Thus the well-known song * The Wanderer ' was written in an
incredibly short space of time ; likewise the * Erlking,' which,
immediately after perusing Goethe's poem several times in the
greatest excitement, he sat down and composed as fast as he could
write the notes.
" When visiting at the houses of the great — which he only did
when invited for the purpose of accompanying his own songs —
Schubert was reserved and shy. No sooner had he finished his
exquisite playing of the accompaniment to his songs than he put on
a serious face, and withdrew to an adjoining room. Indifferent to
applause, he avoided all compliments, and sought only the approba-
tion of his intimate friends. Though he never danced, he was
sometimes present at private parties given at friends' houses, when
he would obligingly seat himself at the pianoforte and, for hours
together, extemporise the most beautiful dance music. (What
a contrast to some amateurs, who would not condescend to this, let
alone extemporising 1) Such passages as took his fancy he would
repeat, so as to fix them in his memory, and afterwards write them
do\vn. When not invited out, he would spend the evening at the
inn with his friends — the minority of whom were musicians. At
those times he was always communicative, amusing, and witty
withal ; but downright mirth was foreign to his disposition. Maybe
these meetings were prolonged into the small hours of the night, and
the bounds of strict sobriety now and then over-passed. As to the
stories current of Schubert's intemperate habits, they are, if not
absolute inventions, at least gross exaggerations. It is true, Schubert
was an epicure* in wine, and frequently indulged in a glass or two
250 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
more than was good for him. On these occasions he was apt to be
noisy, and his society became unpleasant.
" Of the Operas jDerformed at that time, Weigl's * Schweizer-
familie ' mterested him greatly ; indeed, it was the first opera he
had heard. He also admired Cherubini's * Medea,' Boieldieu'b
* Jean de Paris,' ' Cendrillon,' by Isouard, but principally Gluck's
'Iphig6nie en Tauride.' This opera always delighted him; and
its noble, lofty simplicity caused him to prefer it to every other. It
would appear that the melodious but shallow (?) tunes of the Italian
Opera (then at its zenith) had fewer charms for him. For the
rest, he admired Lablache, and Rossini's ' Barbiere di Seviglia' —
which never yet displeased any one — was a favourite with him ; he
also liked some of the pieces in * Otello.' "
CHAPTER XIV.
The Successors of Mozart. The Italian, French, and
German Opera.
"Music has to bewail not only a great genius,
but blighted expectations." Such is Grillparzer's*
epitaph on Franz Schubert ; and, in truth, never
had the tuneful muse sustained a heavier loss.
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, like Bach and
Handel, had gloriously fulfilled the promise of
their youth ; but to Schubert — the one of all
others who might have taken his place beside the
three great Viennese musicians — only a short
sojourn was allotted here on earth ; and the
"spark divine," which Beethoven perceived in
young Schubert, was destined never to expand
into a warmth and light difiusing flame. Conse-
quently, his genius left no impress on the period
which immediately succeeded him. Song compo-
sition was, as yet, quite a new branch, and Schubert's
instrumental — especially his pianoforte — composi-
tions could not hold their ground beside the great
* Grillparzer was the author of several tragedies : Saj[>pho, Medea,
and others.
252 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
classical models. The lofty ideality and harmony
of proportion which characterize these latter is
wanting in the writings of Schubert, whose ten-
dency is altogether a more personal and realistic
one. His instrumental compositions represent
his own feelings exactly as they were, and rarely
with the refined, artistic grace which we admire
in his songs. They are tinged with the sensa-
tional (if we may be allowed the term) element of
modern literature, which was only fairly recog-
nized and artistically treated by Mendelssohn and,
more particularly, Schumann. The Impromptus
and Moments miLsicals remind one strongly of the
Mendelssohnian ' Song without words' and the
Schumann Phantasiestiick, Thus, Schubert de-
notes the transition between the " classical" period
and the " romantic" school of modem days. But
his own generation knew but little of Schubert,
and Beethoven's lofty originality was unattainable.
" Who can write anything after Beethoven?" was
Schubert's own exclamation. Accordingly, Haydn
and Mozart were the masters whom the next
generation took for their models. History cannot
take count of the enormous undergrowth of mu-
sicians who followed in the steps of these great
masters ; a few instances, however, may be selected
from among the multitude — not so much for their
originality, as for their judicious and masterly
treatment of the forms in music.
In symphonic composition we find little that
SUCCESSORS OF MOZART. 253
recommends itself to our notice ; for without
poetical imagination and powerful resources in
harmony — indeed, without a certain heroic cha-
racter — this branch of art is scarcely conceivable.
These high qualifications were, however, not
vouchsafed to the " Viennese school," and their
Symphonies (judging from their purely lyrical
style and reduced dimensions) are nothing more
than adaptations of the quartet. What Eochlitz
misses in the operas of the charming violoncellist
and song composer Danzf, viz., brilliancy,
originality, distinctness, and character, is wanting
also in the symphony writers of the period —
Ferd. Eies, F. E. Fesca, Onslow, A. Eomberg,
&(t. ; though (as schoolmasters are wont to say of
their pupils) they took great pains with their
work. The symphonies of George Onslow
[17 84 — 18 5 3] — still occasionally performed — are
models of form, being free from eccentricity, but
likewise from imagination, faultless in the detail,
... in short, plain and straightforward like him-
self and whatever else is of true British origin.
Eieh]* is quite right in laying so much stress on
the excellence of Onslow's quartet composition in
regard to form, as, now-a-days, it is so much the
fashion to exalt the " idea" in works of art at the
expense of proportion and true beauty. " On the
other hand, Onslow's Symphonies," continues
Eiehl, "are nothing more than quartets for
* MvrSik. Characterkojfe. Vol. i.
254 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
orcliestra ; and of his operas (' Le Colporteur' &c.)
the Overture is the best part. Onslow could not
get beyond chamber music, as Platen could not
get beyond lyrical poetry."
On the whole, the quartet was the best oflf ; the
quartets ofF.E.FESCA [1789— 1826]and Andreas
EoMBERG [I7C7— 1821] can, in K. M. v. Weber's
and Eochlitz' judgment, bear listening to even after
those of Haydn and Mozart. Romberg's Can-
tatas with orchestral accompaniment': * The Song
of the Bell,' * Die Kindesmorderin ' (wjiich latter
he considered his best composition), * The Power
of Song' by Schiller, 'Die Harmonie der Sphdren,'
' Was hleiht und was schwindet ' are the only songs
of the kind still performed and listened to with
interest. A modern audience, as a matter of
course, finds them old-fashioned and tedious — as
it were, "homely fare" for commonplace folks.
After all, it is more palatable than many of our
modern concoctions. We cannot deny that the
fire in the ' Song of the Bell,' for instance, is
rendered much too tamely ; but it was in accord-
ance with the taste of the day, which preferred
melody to the more vigorous movements and
ensembles, (Our generation must have striking
effects — mere beauty of expression is comparatively
disregarded.) Of a similar calibre, but more
in the modern taste, are the tuneful, melodious
Symphonies of J. W. Kalliwoda [bom at Prague
1801] which may be reckoned among the best works
SUCCESSORS OF MOZART. 255
of their day, but they fail to satisfy the highest
requirements of taste. His concert overtures,
however, are distinguished by completeness of
form and effective arrangement, while the brilliant
pianoforte piece ^ L' engagement de danse' should
be compared with Weber'b far richer and more
refined * Aufforderung zum Tanz!
Mozart's influence on form and construction,
which we discern in the above-mentioned works,
found its most complete expression in JOB.. NEP.
HUMMEL [born at Presburg, November 14th,
1778, died chapel-master at Weimar, October
17th, 1837]. After the three great masters,
Hummel is the best pianoforte (not sonata) com-
poser ; and, as such, is the founder of a school which
has cast into the shade Dussek (' La consolation'
* La chasse,' &c.), Steibelt, Pleyel, Wolfl, &c.
His compositions (principally calculated for the
display of finished execution) are models in point
of form. The most remarkable are his Eondos, and
the well-known Polonaise ' La bella Capricciosa'
Equally admirable are his concertos^ though the
accompaniment is occasionally too florid — a fault
from which we must, for very difierent reasons,
exonerate modern concerto composers, (who, en
revanche^ make all the more noise in the inter-
ludes). Hummel's grand Septet for pianoforte,
stringed and wind instruments, is generally, and
with justice, considered his best work ; it is a
256 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
sterling, as well as brilliant and flowing composi-
tion, though not sufficiently profound to be com-
pared with anything of Beethoven's. In piano-
forte playing, especially extempore. Hummel was
esteemed the first of his day. Even Spohr — so
apt to find fault — concedes this much.* With
all this, he did what many of Liszt's pupils hold
to be incompatible with genius — he played strictly
in time. "The tempo rubato — that insufferable
fashion of hurrying on in one place and holding
back in another, now in vogue, with which a great
many pianists (and almost all singers) torture
real lovers of music — was held in abhorrence by
Hummel."! In order to appreciate his Masses,
one has only to compare them with Neukomm's
(of the same period), still occasionally performed.
In after years, Hummel wrote excellent arrange-
♦ " For me, his extempore playing had the greatest charms ; no
pianoforte plnyer has ever equalled him in this. Being once asked
to play waltzes for some dancing that was going on in the adjoining
room, he executed a series of fantasias, but always in waltz rhythm,
so that the dancers were not disturbed. Afterwards, he took easy
themes and passages from pieces which I and others had been
playing that evening, introduced them into a waltz, and repeated
them each time with brilliant and striking variations. He even
introduced one of the themes into a fugue, and came out with all his
contrapuntal resources ; and that without in the least interfering
with the enjoyment of the waltzers. Then he went back to the
old-fashioned style, and finally went off into a bravura surpassing
anything that had ever been heard of him. Throughout thef7ial€,
the ail's were clearly discernible, so that the whole thing was a really
artistic production." Spohr's Autobiography. Vol. i., p. 206.
t Musik. Brief e von eiiiem Wolilbekanten. P. 217 of the second
edition. Leipzig, 1860.
SUCCESSORS OF MOZART. 267
ments of some of Haydn's and Mozart's Sym-
phonies, and of the first seven Symphonies of
Beethoven (for pianoforte, flute, violin, and
violoncello).
The classic Moscheles (Professor at the
Leipsic Conservatory since 1846) followed up
Hummers style {concerto for two pianofortes :
* Hommage a Haendel,' &c.) ; but Kalkbrenner
(his rival in Vienna in 1823), and yet more
Thalberg [born 1812] (unequalled for graceful
and brilliant pianoforte execution) restricted them-
selves solely to manual dexterity on their instru-
ment. In a certain sense, K. M. von Weber
may be regarded as successor of Hummel in
pianoforte composition, although he surpasses
him in originality, vigour, and variety. His florid
Variations, Eondos, Polonaises, and Concertos
are well worthy the study of thoroughly efficient
pianists, but his Sonatas betray (though not to
the same extent as Hummel's) incoherence in
the design; — their Adagios and Minuets are lovely;
but in the Allegro movements, especially in
the secondary subjects, we frequently meet
with diff*use, meaningless phrases. The chamber
sonata, says Eiehl, gave way to the concert
sonata.
Compared with Hummel's compositions, the
scholastic and formal Sonatas of Clementi [born
at Eome 1752, died in London 1832] are of small
account. Mozart said — what none but a Mozart
S
258 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
could say — ^lie was a mere mechanician. His best
work is, in fact, that great collection of Etudes
' Gradus ad Parnasswriy which has, however,
been in great measure superseded by those of his
pupil, Joh. B. Cramer. The Etudes of this
latter are still held in high repute, but his other
compositions are, happily for him, forgotten ;
and of dementi's remaining pupils only two
have distinguished themselves as composers :
John Field, who wrote Notturnos in a sweet and
tender strain, and Ludwig Berger, whose Sonatas
were, however, no longer suited to the taste of the
day. The pianoforte became the instrument of
fashion, smd'L* etude de la velocitf the stereotyped
compendium of musical tuition. Karl Czerny
[1791 — 1857], the head of the Viennese piano-
forte teachers, was really a good musician and
excellent teacher (Liszt and Dohler are among his
pupils), but an all too prolific writer {composer
we may not call liim), whose works, written
invltd Minerva^ and amounting altogether to nine
hundred, have, till quite recently, ruled the
musical market. " Ever since I can remember, I
have given lessons for twelve hours daily ; I re-
quire four hours for composing, one for reading,
one for eating, and six for sleeping." It is a
fa<3t, that he had three or four pieces of music
lying on as many desks, all of which he worked
at at once. With inferior resources and less
exertion, this profitable trade was continued by
SUCCESSORS OF MOZART. 25R
the French firms : Francois Hiinten, Henri Herz
and Co., &c. ; who, in their turn, are succeeded
by Charles Yoss, Th. Oesten, Henri Cramer,
&c., in Gfermany.
In vocal composition we distinguish Zumsteeg
[1760—1802], Schiller's intimate friend in youth.
His settings of Burger's ballads contain several
points of interest, especially in the picturesque
accompaniments ; in other respects they are,
because devoid of vigour and originality, now
quite antiquated. Among the songs of that
period, two of Eomberg's : * Know'st thou the
Land ' and ' Fluchtiger ah Wind und Welle '
(Herder) are worthy of notice.
The Opera followed in the footsteps of Mozart's
'Entfiihrung' and ' Zauberflote ;' and, along
with it, the Viennese Volksoper founded by
Dittersdorf, which, on account of its peculiarity,
must not remain unnoticed. Karl von Ditters-
dorf [properly K. Ditters, born at Vienna
November 2nd, 1739, died a retired officer of the
Prince Bishop of Breslau's household, October
31st, 1799] introduced, in lieu of the VaitdevUk
and Liederspiel,* the genuine Opera Comique
with ensembles and Jinali into German dramatic
music. His best work is ' Dohtor und Apotheker!
"After that, I patched a number of operas to-
* Sort of operetta.
260 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
gether," says the poor destitute fellow in his
highly interesting autobiography, " of which a
good number have been played in various German
theatres." Dittersdorf is especially happy in
ridiculous and comic scenes, and is, perhaps, the
only genuine caricaturist Germany ever produced ;
he is also an excellent musician, but, unfortunately,
too careless of his talents — talents which called
forth G luck's admiration, and are evident in his
more serious compositions, such as Oratorios,
Symphonies, &c. Although more musically gifted
than most of his successors, he was fully conscious
of the true aims of art, as is proved by his essay in
the Lelpziger AUgem. Musikzeitung entitled: *0n
the limits of the Heroic and Comic in Music.'*
His comic operas may be called perfect in vivid
characteristic and true observance of form in the
several pieces of music ; Spohr esteems them in
regard to "innate musical value" far above
Qretry's operettas.
A. Kauer, Schenk, and the wonderfully pro-
lific Wenzel MiJLLER [1767 — 1835] — whose
clever farces were relished even by the refined
Hoffmann — wrote operettas in a light, popular
style. The music of these popular composers
(who would have been quite equal to a higher
walk of art) is, in its way, thoroughly original,
and its tone healthy and vigorous, though by no
means devoid of the tender element (" So leb denn
* Ueher die Ordnzen des Heroischen und Komischen in der Musik,
SUCCESSORS OP MOZAUT. 261
wohl, du stilles Haus " and other songs by
Miiller are favourite tunes in German}^). The
dry humour of these pieces is immeasurably supe-
rior to the allusive verses of the modern burlesque,
whose wit consists solely in vulgar puns and alli-
terations. But they also require a better musical
and vocal cast than the small summer theatres of
Germany are able to command.
As to the Opera itself, few signs of life were
visible in Germany. The greater number of
composers (when they did not write Italian
Operas) wisely estimated their own powers by
restricting themselves to the Singspiel modified
into Opera form ; as, for instance, Joseph Weigl
[born at Eisenstadt, in Hungary, 1766, died at
Vienna, February 3rd, 1846], vAiosq ' Schweizer-
familie ' is remarkable for masterly treatment of
form. While admiring its delicate, vivid instru-
mentation and exquisite vocalism, we cannot but
protest against the excessive sentimentality which
pervades the whole piece. Peter von Winter
[born at Mannheim 1754, died at Munich 1825]
aimed at a loftier style of pathos in his opera
compositions, but fell short of Mozart in rhythm-
ical structure of the aria and dramatic movement.
Only one of his operas, ' Das unterbrochene Op-
f erf est' is still held in repute. It is characterized
by the sweetness and clearness of its melodies, by
powerful choruses and rich ensembles.
262 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Mozart's influence is far more discernible in some
of the masters of Italian Opera. Increased richness
of harmony, fuller instrumentation, and dramatic
vigour, imparted a higher style to the Italian
branch of operatic art. Eighini [1756 — 1812]
almost equalled Mozart in the construction of his
vocal pieces, but cannot compare with him for dra-
matic action. His operas are, in fact, — what Abbe
Armand called Italian Operas in Gluck's day —
des concerts dont le drame est le pretexte. Sac-
CHiNi [1735 — 1786] wrote more in the Gluck
style (' Oedipe a Colone '). Antonio Salieri [bom
at Legnano in the Venetian territory 1750, died at
Vienna 1825, after having, during fifty-nine years,
served under four Austrian sovereigns] is almost
a German in the style and character of his music.
He resembled Mozart by adopting a medium be-
tween the lyrical tenderness of the Italian school
and Gluck's severely chaste style. His French
opera * Les Dandides^ the composition of which
was entrusted to him by Gluck (at that time
desirous of leaving Paris and returning to Vienna),
was, in the first instance, attributed to the latter ;
and that the Viennese actually preferred his
* AxuT, Re d' Ormns ' to 'Don Giovanni ' (as
also, by the way, Martin's opera ' Una cosa
vara ' to ' Figaro ') is a fact which speaks for
itself. Mosel considers it the finest Italian opera
* Ueher das Lehen und die Werke des Anton Salieri. Wien,
1827.
THE ITALIAN OPERA. 263
extant, not excepting Mozart's ' Titus.' His
comic operas (' La Grotta di Trifonio' &c.) are,
likewise, said to contain many pieces of merit.
At the present day, Salieri's operas (especially as
compared with the vapid music of some of the
modern Italian composers) meet with unmerited
neglect. Like Winter and Eighini, whose vocal
exercises are still in repute, Salieri was an excel-
lent and influential master, especially in composi-
tion (Weigl, Hummel, Moscheles, Schubert,
Liszt, and others, are of the number of his
pupils)«
Foremost in comic opera stands Paesiello
[1741 — 181(3], Cimarosa's rival, and, like him,
remarkable for dramatic action in the finali. In
Germany, his favourite operas were ' La hella Moli-
nara'' and ' 11 Re Teodoro in VeneziaJ Fioravanti
[born 17 64, died 183 7] displayed considerable talent
for comedy ; his opera 'Le Cantatrici villane was
for a long time the stock piece of Grerman theatres.
Almost as superior to Fioravanti as Mozart to
Dittersdorf, is Cimarosa [born at Naples 1755,
died at Venice, January 11th, 1801] a genuine
master of musical comedy. Like Mozart, he
excels in those parts of an opera which decide its
merit as a work of art, viz., the ensembles and
finali. His admirable, and by no means anti-
quated, opera ' II Matrimonio segreto' (the charming
offspring of his " secret marriage " with the Mozart
opera) is a model of exquisite and graceful
264 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
comedy^ The Overture bears a striking re-
semblance to that of * Figaro/ and the instru-
mentation of the whole opera is highly character-
istic, though not so prominent as in Mozart.
Especially delightful are the secret love scenes —
written evidently con amove, the composer having
practised them many a time in his youth. On
the occasion of its first performance at Vienna
[1791] the opera was repeated by imperial com-
mand ; and at Naples it was performed fifty-seven
times consecutively.
Between Cimarosa and Eossini we find a sta-
tionary period, represented chiefly by F. Paer and
Simon Mayer. The operas (* Sargino' ' Ca-
milla,' ' Agnese' ^ I Fuorusciti' &c.) which Paer
[1771 — 1839] furnished to order for various royal
personages (of whom Napoleon was the last) are,
in accordance with the style of the day, brilliant
and flowing but vapid and meaningless. His
imitation of Mozart's forms is exclusively external,
consisting principally in enriched instrumentation.
Even less remarkable was Simon Mayer [1763—
1845], who endeavoured to germanize the Italian
Opera. It sounds curious to hear G. Weber, the
thorough bass master, assert that " Germany gave
to England a Handel, to France a Gluck, and to
Italy a Simon Mayer!"
To these mediocre composers succeeded a great
and original genius — Gioacchino ROSSINI
THE ITALIAN OPERA. 265
[l»orn at Pesaro in the Eomagna, February 29th,
1792].''*' Rossini set at nought the efforts of his
imme«liate predecessors to improve the national
music by foreign adaptations, and even ventured
to caricature the renowned Paesiello (who had
composed the 'Barbiere' before him) in the rococco
songs of the two old people (Bartolo's arietta and
Marcellina's arid). The "saucy favourite of the
graces " threw precepts to the four winds (" Che
cosa? parole? Effettol EffettoT) and acknow-
ledged no other schoolmaster than his own genius
and experience. Learned Germans might shake
their heads and talk about his superficial work,
unlawful modulations and orchestral effects, his
crescendo and stretto passages, and even the tame-
ness and uniformity of his melodies — about want
of artistic finish in short; all these objections
were " dispelled by Rossini's opera airs as if they
were mere delusions of the fancy."f Everybody
v/as enchanted, even Oulibicheff (more candid
than most people) admitted, that when listening
for the first time to an opera of Rossini's he
forgot, for the time being, all he had ever known,
admired, played, or sung — it seemed as though
he had never heard music before. And no wonder :
the main charm of Rossini's operas was melody —
* Bossini's Leben und Treihen vornelimlich nacli den Nachriclden
des Eerrn. v. Stendhal (Vie de Rossini, 2 vols. Paris, 1824), with
opinions of contemporary writers on bis music, by Amadeus Wendt.
Leipzig, 1824.
t R. Wagner.
266 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
pleasing, grateful melody, rendered by the singer*s
art in sucli a manner as to dazzle and utterly
preclude sober judgment. Towards this object,
viz., fluent melody and vocalisation, Eossini
managed to render, not only the orchestra, but
even the chorus (almost entirely disregarded by
his predecessors) serviceable, by frequently re-
placing the full-voiced finale with a bravura air
and chorus {''aria col pertichini"). Finally, to
insure effect in any and every case, he wrote out
the vocal embellishments (fioriture) in detail
(whereas formerly these were left to the taste and
judgment of the vocalist) ; in doing which, how-
ever, he took into consideration the individual
capabiHties of those he wrote for. Thus, he
avoided cantahile pieces, because Mad. Colbran,
his prima donna (and wife into the bargain) was
no longer in her premiere jeunesse, and, conse-
quently, plain long drawn notes were unsuited to
her. With such faultless mise-eU'Scene, Eossini's
operas went the round of all the theatres in
Europe. His monopoly of the opera stage — un-
precedented in the annals of art — occurred, more-
over, during the Eestoration [1813 — 1830], when,
after the troublous times which preceded it, people
were only too susceptible to the charm of super-
ficial, pleasing impressions. Tancredi's air '' Di
tanti palpiti " was the favourite song of the period
— a period of political exhaustion and musical
poverty ; and, certes, it is no mere coincidence
THE ITALIAN OPERA. 267
that, contemporary with Rossini's operas, dance
music enjoyed a pre-eminence of its own in
Strauss and Lanneh at Vienna, though their
successors, Gung l, Lumbye, Labitzky, Musard,
&c., have worthily represented this light branch
of musical art.
Having first tried his hand at farces and one-act
operas, Eossini produced [1812] an opera huffa
(* La Pietra di Paragone ') at Milan, ' Tancredi '
and a huffa opera, ' Ultaliana in Algieri' at Venice.
From 1815 — 1822 he wrote for the stage manager
Barbaja at Naples his far-famed opera 'II Barbiere
di Seviglia ' (the Overture of which was taken from
his opera seria, ' Elisabetta,'' as he had only
fourteen days wherein to complete the whole
opera) ; afterwards : Otello, Cenerentola, La Gazza
Ladra^ La Donna del Lago, Moise in Egitto, &c. ;
for Vienna: Zehnira [1822], Semiramide [1823],
and, finally, for the Grand Opera at Paris, Le
Siege de Corinthe and Gu'dlaume Tell [1829].
Rossini is universally allowed to be unequalled
in genuine huffa Opera ; but he is quite as great in
Opera seria, into which he infused the energy
of the huffa {' Semiramide,' ' Moise,' ' Otello ').
Rossini is altogether the most comprehensive,
and at the same time national, composer the
modern Italian Opera has ever had — he is the
Mozart of Italy. Conceited German reviewers,
however, were never weary of denying to this
highly gifted man invention, depth, and character ;
2H8 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
but they had to retract everything when ' Guil-
laume Tell' was brought out. "Of all that
peculiarly characterizes Rossini's earlier operas,
nothing is discoverable in * Tell ;' there is none
of his usual mannerism ; but, on the contrary,
unusual richness of form, and careful finish of
detail combined with grandeur of outline. Mere-
tricious embellishments, shakes, runs, and ca-
dences are carefully avoided in this work, which
is natural and characteristic throughout ; even the
melodies have not the stamp and style of Rossini's
earlier tunes, but only their graceful charm and
lively colouring. In short, Rossini seems meta-
morphosed, as it were by a magician's wand, from
the Rossini of * Tancredi ' and ' Otello ' into an
entirely different artistic personage. If Rossini's
extraordinary talents could ever be doubted, this
work would furnish undeniable proofs to the
contrary."* In his Italian operas, and, we think,
yet more in the Stahat Mater (" le joli Stabat ")
Rossini remained, of course, what he always was —
essentially Italian ; and, why indeed should he,
like Simon Mayer, deny his country ? " Pro-
found study and workmanship are rarely to be
met with in his work ; not because he was un-
equal to it, but because he would not take the
trouble. As it was, his audience was always
pleased, and applauded him."
♦ Ambeos. Culturhistorische Bilder aits dem Musiklehen der
Oegenwartj p. 41.
THE ITALIAN OPERA. 269
' Guillaume Tell ' was the last song of Pesaro's
minstrel. Eesigning the field of his labours to
others, the great maestro lives in retired ease
at his villa at Passy near Paris. All we ever
hear of him is now and then a ^tcl^II piece d' occa-
sion, or some humorous observation regarding
modern musical art.
Bellini [born at Catania in Sicily 1802, died
at Puteaux near Paris 1835] restricted the opera
mainly to brilliant vocalisation in the solo parts.
He endeavoured to adopt the grave character of
the Opera seria, but possessed little or no dra-
matic talent ; his operas are essentially lyrical.
Herein he mistook the nature of the genus ; and,
accordingly, deviated more and more from the
true aim of the Opera. The doleful, almost sickly
sentimentality which prevails in ' Capuletti e
Montecchi' ' La Sonnamhula' and his other operas
{'11 PirataJ 'La Straniera,' 'Beatrice di Tenda,'
&c.) has, in spite of the sweetness of the airs, a
monotonous and tedious effect. His elegiac
pathos rises to powerful and genuine emotion in
Norma — his chef-d'oeuvre — which is, notwith-
standing the weakness of its choruses, the last of
the veritable Opera seria. His immediate successor,
Donizetti [born at Bergamo 1797, died there
1848], was, even for an Italian, far too careless of
his very superior talents. From 1822 to 1844 he
wrote upwards of sixty operas ; — when required,
270 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
he could even write a whole act in one day.
We consider * Lucrezia Borgia ' his best Opera
seria ; in ' Lucia di Lammermoor,' ' Belisario,'
'Anna Bolena,' 'Marino Faliero^' &c., the
march and dance tunes of the music too often
afford a strange contrast to the action of the
piece ; but of both the first named works the
ensembles are good. Of * La Favorite' (written for
the Parisian stage) Eiehl says : '* it is superbly
tedious.'* Donizetti did violence to his Italian
nature in writing this opera ; Bellini, likewise, in
his last opera, ' I Puritani ' (written for Paris),
approached the French style ; but it remained
for Verdi (whom we shall consider hereafter in
connection with Meyerbeer) to give musical ex-
pression to the modern school of French romance.
Although inferior to Rossini in vivacity and
colouring, Donizetti displays vigour and origi-
nality in comic opera {^ L'Elisire d'Amore,' ' Don
Pasquale,' ' La Fille du Eegiment' &c.)
Mercadante (' II Giuramento 'J, Carafa
('Masaniello'), and others, were but weak imita-
tors of Eossini, who endeavoured to conceal
poverty of invention by richness of instrumen-
tation. In general, modern Italian composers are
the reverse of Rossini in this respect : — that their
lively pieces, as compared with the cantabile
pieces of the same opera, are, for the most part,
inferior and frequently trivial; they cannot do
THE FRENCH OPERA. 271
anything except in dance rhythm ; accordingly,
the manufacturers of Grandes Fantaisies sur des
motifs de V opera .... have easy work of it.
The Mozart influence is not discernible in
Eossini's successors, though he himself esteemed
Mozart the first of musicians (his own ' Barbiere '
he called a musical farce, but 'Le Nozze di
Figaro ' a dramma giocoso). On the other hand,
the representatives of the French school prior
to Auber — Spontini, Cherubini, and Boieldieu —
turned their whole attention to the development
of Gluck's and Mozart's principles.* As a
worthy successor of Grluck we would cite, in the
first instance, Mehul [born 1763, died at Paris
1817], whose sterling opera * Joseph ' K. M. von
Weber admires for its thoroughly biblical ex-
pression and discreet management in the instru-
mental parts. Deserving of mention is his
programme-Overture * Une chasse du jeune Henri!
G ASPARO SP ON Tim [born at Jesi in the Papal
States, "Nov. 14th, 1784, died there January 29th,
1851] is the foremost and most gifted of Gluck's
successors. He has not, as is frequently asserted,
merely polished and adorned Gluck's style, but,
* De V Opera en France, par M. Castil-Blaze. 2 vols. Paris,
1820. This work is not so much a history as a cleverly executed
conception of the French Opera as it ought to be. This well-
written book failed however in its principal object — that of improving
the style of the so-called Orand Opera.
272 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
on the contrary, has endowed it with vigour and
action, and altered and modernized it to suit his
views, the people for whom he wrote, and the
requirements of modern stage practice, in a
manner at once original and pleasing. To the
majestic repose and lofty ideality of the Gluck
drama — so thoroughly commensurate to antique
tragedy — Spontini added that indispensable
feature of modern opera, viz. — dramatic action.
Eemarkable alike for grandeur of conception and
' delicacy of detail, powerful delineation and grace-
ful melody, his music, when the context requires
it, is replete with brilliancy and military splen-
dour. " He is more successful in the delineation
of masses and groups,*' says Eiehl,* " than in the
portrayal of emotional scenes (?) ; his rendering of
the national struggle between the Spaniards and
Mexicans in Cortez is, for instance, admirable.
He is, likewise, most (?) successful in the
management of large masses in the instrumenta-
tion. In this respect he was, like Napoleon, a
great tactician."
On the other hand, ' La Vestale ' — in which the
French ideal of "gloire" has found its highest
expression — his chef-d'oeuvre^ displays Spontini's
talents in a new light. His portrayal of
character, and truthful delineation of passionate
emotion in this opera are masterly indeed. The
* Musik Character kopfe. Vol. i.
THE FRENCH OPERA. 273
subject of * La Vestale ' (which resembles that
of * Norma/ but how differently treated !) is
tragic and sublime, as well as intensely emo-
tional. Julia, the heroine, a prey to guilty
passion ; the severe, but kindly high priestess ;
Licinius, the adventurous lover, and his faithful
friend Cinna ; pious vestals, cruel priests, bold
warriors, and haughty Eomans are represented
with statuesque finish and relief. Both these
works, ' La Vestale ' [1807] and ' Cortez ' [1809],
are among the finest that have ever been
written for the stage ; they are remarkable for
naturalness and sublimeness — qualities lost sight
of in the noisy instrumentation of his later works
(but noisy only as compared with those of con-
temporary stage writers). Unfortunately, they
can only be performed in the largest theatres,
and great tragic singers are rarely to be met with
now-a-days.
The opera ^Olympia [1819] (principally based
on splendour of effect) not obtaining the success
which he had anticipated, Spontini quitted Paris,
and was appointed General Music Director at
Berlin. But the grand heroic spirit which
animated his earlier noble creations appears to
have deserted him in the German Athens ; for
there, he could produce nothing better than
showy Court and gala operas (' Nurmahal, '
' Alcidor,' ' Agnes von Hohenstaufen'). One
work only of intrinsic merit did he bequeath—
T
274 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
when compelled by continued annoyances from
the Berlin press to resign his appointment — one
in. honour of the Prussian name : — ' Borussia,' a
song for male voices with orchestra.
Maria Luigi CHERUB INI [horn at Florence,
September 8th, 1760, died at Paris, March 16th,
1842) who, if not equal to the greatest masters
(for in every style he fell short of perfection), was
at least a kindred genius and worthy representa-
tive of the Haydn and Mozart school. Having
heard his chef-d'oeuvre, ' Les Deux Journees ' [per-
formed for the first time June 1800], we are
quite able to understand why his operas are no
longer performed in France, and rarely in Eng-
land and Germany. This opera is, as Eiehl
expresses it, " emotion dramatized," and that in
accordance with nature and truth ; but for stage
effect, especially now-a-days, we think it is too
finely chiselled, and the characters are not drawn
with sufficient clearness. The music itself is per-
fect, being equally distinguished for tenderness
and expressiveness as for noble simplicity and
purity of form. How would a modern composer,
had it fallen to his lot to compose "the days of
danger," have filled the house, from gallery to
pit, with fear and trembling !
Of Cherubini's remaining works (among which
Medea and Faniska are the most remarkable),
only the Overtures are known. The vigorous and
THE FRENCH OPERA. 275
tuneful one to Lodoisha, those of Medea (in
which emotional expression is so admirably
treated), of the ' Abencerages,' of *Anacreon,'
&c. All these Overtures are replete with vigour
and character ; their admirably drawn outline,
exquisite finish, and instrumentation cause them
to be reckoned models of their kind.
What was wanting to Cherubini's operas was
only too prevalent in his sacred music ; his
Masses, especially, wherever the text afforded the
slightest opening, are too dramatic ; some of the
pieces are quite operatic — nay theatrical — in style.
Thus it came to pass, as a matter of course, that
modern church music found its way from the
church to the concert room. Accordingly, it was
written with a view to this, and — as a reviewer
observed of a modern requiem — presented to the
listener's imagination a rich and picturesque
array of tones in lieu of the former close connection
of the music with the liturgy. If (in opposition
to the one-sided views of some critics) we admit
the lawfulness of this tendency of modern Church
music in consideration of the circumstances of
the age, we must allow that Cherubini's expressive
as well as brilliant Mass in D minor, and espe-
cially his Requiem in C minor [IS 10], are noble
and sublime conceptions. Notwithstanding the
most lavish employment of orchestral and choral
resources, these works are characterized by lofty
simplicity, exquisite proportion, distinctness of
form, and powerful imagination. When the
276 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
'Requiem' was about to be performed [1835, in
honour of Boieldieu s memory], tbe clergy ob-
jected to the employment of female voices:
Cherubini, accordingly, wrote a second requiem,
similar to the first, for a choir of male voices.
Of the * Hymnes Sacres (of which the composition
was probably suggested by Marcello's Psalms
which Cherubini undertook to edit) we dis-
tinguish two of the best known : the Ave Maria
for treble voice with hautboy ohligato is, in truth,
a piece of vanity and affectation — a mere thea-
trical display ,• but the four part Pater noster
(with the exception of the secular tone of its
conclusion) is not devoid of Church-Hke expression
and genuine devotion.
Taken altogether, Cherubini's music is cha-
racterized by mascuhne vigour and earnestness.
It is of a noble calibre, and savours more of
German depth than Italian sweetness, and that in
a greater degree even than Mozart's music ; for
which reason, Beethoven reckoned him " the most
estimable of living composers." But the French
said — what Napoleon said of the funeral Cantata
for General Hoche — that Cherubini was too
learned, especially in his operas — in other words,
too German.
Cherubinrs pupil Boieldieu [born at Rouen,
December 16th, 1775, died at his country seat
Jarey near Paris, October 9th, 1834] inclined to
the light French style. His operas, * Jean de
THE FRENCH OPERA. 277
Paris [1812] and ' La Dame blanche' [1825]— the
result of long years' practice in the national
operetta ('Le Calife de Bagdad,' *Ma tante
Aurore/ &c.) and the study of Mozart — are the
best Trench operas extant ; they are admirable '
and thoroughly popular works. While the
musician's taste is gratified by the carefully exe-
cuted ensembles (of which the second finale to
' La Dame blanche ' is absolute perfection), by
the neatness and gracefulness of the instrumenta-
tion, and correctness of the composition through-
out ("which alone can insure perpetuity to a
musical work"),* the popular taste is delighted
by the charming ballads and songs, which have,
as it were, become its inheritance ; even the airs
are more popular in Germany than those of
almost any other opera. Not long since, * La
Dame blanche " was performed in Paris for the
thousandth time.
Another pupil of Cherubini's was Boieldieu's
successor, Auber [born at Caen in Normandy,
January 29th, 1784, since 1842 Director of the
Conservatoire at Paris]. He created that opera
style which corresponds to (while frequently
taking for its subject) the tales and comedies of
Eugene Scribe, as also to Parisian life and taste,
and in which the simple unadorned expression of
feeling makes way for the artificial tone of polite
society. Auber is the offspring of modern French
* K. M. VON Weber.
278 . HISTORY OF MUSIC.
civilisation, to which the conventionalities of life
are, as it were, second nature ; and although far
less original, he is in his best works {Le Maqon,
Fra Diavolo, La Part du Diable, Lestocq, Le
Domino noir, &c.) quite as real as the easy going
jovial Eossini is in his. Auber's opera music is, we
admit, by no means profound ; on the contrary,
it is too frequently superficial —dancing, as it
were, " on the hght fantastic toe ;" but, generally
speaking, pleasing, full of lively coquetry, piquant,
and withal gracefully frivolous (take, for instance,
the undressing scene in ' Fra Diavolo ') — • in
short, the genuine expression of modern Parisian
life. It addresses itself, therefore, principally to
the French esprit, and the clever stage perform-
ance of the French acteurs chantants is as requisite
to this light style as florid Italian vocalisation is
to the Eossini opera.
Encouraged by success, Auber, unfortunately,
exhausted his powers by all too prolific exercise,
and repeated himself in a series of works each one
inferior to the last, till, at length, the graceful
opera composer degenerated into '' un habile
faiseur cC operas '' But true genius is never ex-
hausted ; it either goes on producing like Mozart,
or leaves off at the right time like Eossini.
Immeasurably superior to the rest of his com-
positions is the bold revolutionary opera, ' La
Muette He Portici' {Masaniello) [1827] — a truly
grand conception in wliich the composer has
THE FRENCH OPERA. 279
quitted the gay field of Parisian society for the
more stirring scenes of political excitement. The
music which accompanies the dumb girl's panto-
mime, the national dances, and the insurrectionary
crowd is perhaps unequalled for powerful and
passionate expression. ' Masaniello ' is the most
effective of show operas ; its performance at
Brussels in 1830 was the signal for revolt.
Of Auber's successors, Herold [born of Grerman
parents at Paris 1791, died 1833], by returning
to a simpler form of opera and developing his own
genial inspirations (advantages apparent in his
pretty opera ' Marie ') might have been the man
to restore the opera — now degenerated to a mere
spectacle. Unfortunately, he understood the times
better than he understood himself. His endeavour
to improve upon Auber's talent and manner is only
too evident in his shallow and noisy opera, 'Zampa
[1830]. His last opera, ' Le Pre aux Clercs^
is remarkable for the brilliant air for treble and
violin ohligato, Adolphe Adam [born at Paris
1803, died there 1855], who possessed technical
abilities, but " sans la moindre pretention au style
et au sentiment,'' repeats Auber's opera style in
the weakest of imitations (' Le Postilion de Lon-
jmneaUj 'Le Brasseur de Preston,' &c.). The
same may be said of the English composer Balfe,
whose vapid, flimsy operas (' The Bohemian Grirl,'
*The Castle of Aymon,' &c.) are nothing but
280 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
effete imitations of French and Italian opera
writers. He is inferior to Wallace ('Mari-
tana/ * The Amber Witch/ 'Lurline,' &c.),
in the instrumentation of his pieces as well
as in ensembles. Jul. Benedict [born at Stutt-
gardt 1804], in his operas ('The Gipsy's
Warning,' * The Eose of Erin,' and * The Bride
of Song'), as well as in the popular cantata,
' Undine,' confines himself to the lighter style ;
while, in our opinion, Macfarren's attempt to
revive the old English music in modern opera is
scarcely a successful one.
Somewhat better than the foregoing is the
German Fkiedrich von Flotow [born at Teuten-
dorf in Mecklenburg 1811], whose operas, Stra-
della, Martha, and Indra (written for the French
stage), are cleverly and judiciously adapted to the
taste of his audience. According to the severe
standard of high-art critics, his talent is esteemed
of the weakest ; but we think he is entitled to a
milder verdict, for the distinguishing peculiarities
of French life are so genially rendered in his
works (shall we call it the German element
frenchified, or the French element germanized ?)
that the result is decidedly pleasing, and unques-
tionably — popular. To the external brilliancy of
Auber's opera style he has added the two most
effective ingredients of Iffland's plays, viz.,
homely and familiar, as well as touching scenes.
THE FRENCH OPERA. 281
The play-going public likes to see every-day
life, its familiar in and out-door scenes (" nam his
plehecula gaudet ") represented on the stage with
all the embellishment of music and scenic effect.
But, along with the absurdest trivialities, we dis-
cover many traits of genuine feeling, and the
connoisseur — unless he be all too captious and
severe — cannot but be struck w^ith the easy and
lively dramatic action, pretty melody, and graceful
instrumentation."^
Auber was less successful with his later
'' grands' operas {Gustave, ou le Bal masque, Les
Diamants de la Couronne, Le Lac des Fees, &c.) —
partly because a new composer had arisen — one
who far surpassed him in clever adaptation of all
possible stage effects, viz., Giacomo Meyerbeer
[properly Jakob Meyer Beer, born at Berlin,
Sept. 5th, 1791, died at Paris, May 2nd, 1864].
In opera composition Meyerbeer is the very cari-
cature of the universal Mozart ; he is the cosmo-
politan Jew, who hawks his wares among all
* " For the rest, mediocre productions are not to be despised, so
long as they are free from aifectation. We must have something of
all sorts — something wherewith to pass the time pleasantly and
without intellectual exertion. Moreover, a large portion of the
public can appreciate nothing but mediocre productions. For which
reason, I would not be hard on a great many favourite songs and
pieces, as is the case with too many connoisseurs. All we have a
right to expect is, that those who can understand and appreciate
nothing but second-rate music should abstain from passing judgment
on grand and original compositions." — Thibaut. Ueber Reinlieit der
Tmkunst. P. 103.
282 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
nations indifferently, and does his best to please
customers of every kind. He endeavoured to
conceal absence of originality, vigour, and style
— all too apparent in his patch-work melodies —
by indefatigable accumulation of every musical
and non-musical means of effect within his reach ;
and, to do him justice, in his five-act monster
operas, 'Robert le Diable' [1831], ' Les Hu-
guenots' [1836], and ' Le Prophke' [1849] —
mainly written with a view to scenic effect — , he
has succeeded only too well. In face of such
meretricious advantages as these, it matters little
to us whether Meyerbeer improved the opera in a
dramatic sense ; if so, the advantages are wholly
external. The character of the Meyerbeer drama
is, as compared with the weak, sentimental produc-
tions of his immediate predecessors (especially
in Italy), energetic and vigorous, but overwhelmed
by the splendour of the mise-en-scene. Music
cannot maintain its concrete beauty and value with
such elaborate and heavy theatrical decoration,
and these overstrained exertions in search of
effect are prejudicial to that which alone can give
duration to a work of art, viz. — nature and senti-
ment. In spite of the intense exertions of
musical abilities of a very high order, Meyerbeer
produced nothing great, original, or of a novel
kind ; his operas leave on the mind of the more
intelligent listeners an impression of mingled
admiration and contempt.
THE FRENCH OPERA. 283
There is no need to enter into the respective
merits of these works ; after ' Robert le Diable'
and ' Les Huguenots' (both which to a certain
extent and under certain conditions we admire),
every opera of Meyerbeer's, {'Ein Feldlager in
Schlesien [1844], afterwards remodelled into
' Vielka ' for the Viennese, and ' L' Etoile du Nord '
for the Parisian stage ; the music to his brother
Michel Beer's tragedy of Struensee [1846]; ' Le
Propliete^ ' Dinorah^ ou le Pardon de Ploermel,^
[1859]) abounds more and more in studied effects
and strange, unnatural combinations. Phantom
nuns dancing, girls bathing, sunrise, skating,
gunpowder explosions, a king playing the flute
behind the scenes, the prima donna leading a
goat, &c. — all this, and more to boot, has been
dragged into his operas, and cost the composer
himself no trifling sum. The apparently flourish-
ing house of Scribe and Meyerbeer could not
even await the selling off', but came to a sudden
smash. " Meyerbeer's operas left tlie impression
that it was impossible to keep going on in this
manner without doing something for the higher
requirements of art; for, notwithstanding the
composer's remarkable talent for musical drama,
his operas contain sometimes too much, some-
times too little, — too much in the subject-matter,
external adornment, and effective 'situations,' — •
too little in the absence of poetry, ideality, and
sentiment (which are essential to a work of art),
284 HISTORY OF MUSIC,
as well as in the unnatural and constrained com-
binations of the plot."*
Whereas even the better part of the press
considers the ' Huguenots ' to be a superior and
remarkable work, we can only reply that the
several (and frequently considerable) beauties of
this opera (the page's cavatina, Margareta's aria,
her duet with Eaoul, the finale of the second act,
the grand duets in the third and fourth acts, and
the benediction of the swords) cannot blind us to
its defects. History must not view the subject
she contemplates "from tlie perspective of the
* ViscHER. Aesthetik. Vol. iii., p. 1149.
" All honour to great Meyerbeer !" is, of course, the watchword
of his party ; but Mendelssohn, who had no part with them, held a
different opinion. Concerning Robert le Diable (of which, however,
we cannot but admire the rich and masterly instrumentation), he wrote
to Immermaun (the poet), from Paris, as follows : " The subject is of
the romantic order, i. e., the devil appears in it (which suffices the
Parisians for romance and imagination). Nevertheless it is very
kad, and, were it not for two brilliant seduction scenes, there would
not even be effect. The devil is altogether a poor devil who
appears dressed as a knight in order to seduce his son — Robert, a
Norman knight, and in love with a Sicilian princess ; he succeeds
by persuading him to gamble away all his money and personal
property, i. e. his sword ; after which, he causes him to commit
sacrilege, gives him an enchanted twig, which takes him to the
chamber of the aforesaid princess, and renders him irresistible. All
this the son does willingly enough ; but when, at last, he is to sell
himself to his father, Scribe brings in a peasant girl, who has in her
possession the will of Robert's deceased mother, which she reads to
him, and thereby places him in such a state of indecision, that the
devil has to disappear below the boards at midnight without having
gained his point ; whereupon Robert marries the princess, the
peasant girl being a sort of guardian angel. The devil's name is
Bertram. I cannot imagine any music for such a cool transaction as
THE FRENCH OPERA. 285
present and immediate past ;"^ it is her duty to
mete out judgment according to the true standard
of beauty and fitness in art. ' Les Huguenots '
and that far weaker production the 'Prophete/
are, we think, all the more reprehensible (now-a-
days, especially, when too much stress is laid on
the subject of a work, and, consequently, on the
libretto of an opera) because the Jew has, in these
pieces, ruthlessly dragged before the footlights
two of the darkest pictures in the annals of
Catholicism, nor has he scrupled to bring high
mass and chorale on the boards. "He has the
ballet on the proscenium, with the organ behind
the scenes." t
this ; and, accordingly, the opera does not please me ; it is devoid of
sentiment and feeling, and I do not even find it effective. People
admire the music, hut where there is no warmth and truth I cannot
even form a standard of criticism." Mendelssohn wrote to his
father about this opera as follows : " When, in JRohert le Dialle^
nuns appear one after another and endeavour to seduce the hero,
till at length the lady abbess succeeds ; when the hero, aided by a
magic branch, gains access to the sleeping apartment of his lady
love, and throws her down, forming a tableau which is applauded
here and will perhaps be applauded in Germany ; and when, after
that, she implores for mercy in an aria ; when, in another opera, a
girl undresses herself, singing all the while that she will be
married at this time to-morrow — it may be effective, but I find no
music in it. For it is vulgar, and if such is the taste of the day and
therefore necessary, I prefer writing sacred music."
K. M. von Weber, Meyerbeer's fellow-pupil under Abbe Vogler,
complained, in those days, that in his Italian Operas (* Emma di
Besburgo,' '11 Crociato in Egitto,' &c.) "he prostituted his
profound, admirable, and German talent for the applause of the
crowd which he ought instead to have despised."
* Berliner National-Zeitung. t Riehl.
286 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
What Meyerbeer achieved on a large, Jacques
Offenbach [from Cologne, but naturalized in
Paris] attempted on a small scale ; and he has
done his very best to corrupt the taste of the
masses to its core. Not content with the success
which his charming operettas {'Le Manage aux
Lanternes,' 'La Fille (VElizondo' &c.) met with, he
started " burlesque operas " (written for his own
opera company Les Bouffes Parisiens), such as
^Orphee aux Enfers' 'Genevieve de Brabant,' *Le
Pont des Soupirs' &c. — a style, of which the object
is to parody the Opera seria^ whether " classical "
or *' romantic." When the mythological Opera
seria was in its prime, satire — within due bounds
• — may have been in good taste ; but now, it is
nothing but a coarse mockery of the ideal in art.
It is characteristic of this low-bred genus that
the imitation of animals ( Jupiter *s "fly" song in
' Orphee,' the ' Miau ' song in * La Chatte meta-
morphoses en Femme,' cackling of hens in
*Genofeva,' &c.) always obtains the greatest
applause — animals have become men, and men,
animals. 'Orphee,' in especial, owes its chief
popularity to the political and satirical allusions
with which it abounds, as well as to its scenery
and decorations ; as for the music of this opus,
nearly all of it is condensed into a set of quad-
rilles ; it is made up almost entirely of common-
place dance tunes, and is, in short, the music of
casinos and gin-palaces. We cannot but augur
THE FRENCH OPERA. 287
badlj for the future of the drama, as well as for
art in general, when we find this heterogeneous,
silly stuff actually obtaining enthusiastic applause.
In comic opera {V Eclair, Les Mousquetaires de
la Reine^ &c.) Halevy [properly Levy, 1799 —
1862] resembled Auber; but in the grand opera,
his brother Israelite Meyerbeer. Eiehl (who de-
lights in comparisons) says he is a commentary
on Meyerbeer, as Marschner is on Weber. We
consider this opinion far too favourable to Halevy,
His principal work, 'La JuiveJ is a tedious, heavy
opera teeming with Marschner and Wagner reci-
tative ; — in a musical point of view, poor, and
in moral, objectionable.
Not so much in Meyerbeer's style, though
scarcely more original, is Gounod [born 1818 J who
has with true French frivolity, operatized Goethe's
Faust for the delectation of the multitude.
Margaret is a sentimental Parisian grisette ; Faust,
a wild Quartier Latin student ; and so on to the
end of the chapter. What would Goethe — who
thought Mozart the man to compose his ' Faust '
— have said to this ! " And though the jaded
opera habitue, thirsting for novelty, may smile at
the pedantic litterateur who shakes his head at
Gounod's 'Margareta' and Offenbach's ' Orphee,'
and thinks of Beethoven's ' Fidelio ' and Mozart's
'Figaro' — it is a disgrace that we should be
continually importing such rubbish, while our
good old native stores lie mouldering on dusty
288 HISTORY OP MUSIC.
shelves."* Gounod's latest operas are ' La JReine
de Saba' and ' Mireille,' of which the female
choruses are the best part.
Giuseppe Verdi [born at Koncole in Lombardy,
1814] — far superior in musical ability to the above-
named Frenchman — has resuscitated the '' fearful
and horrible " tales of A^ictor Hugo and Dumas
fits in his operas, ''EmanV [1844], ^ Riijoletto'
[1851], '11 Trovatore; 'La Traviata' [both in
1853], which now hold the stage in almost all the
cities of Europe. If Verdi were as sound and con-
scientious as he is a prolific composer, he might
have restored the Italian stage — sorely deterio-
rated since Eossini's time — to something of its
pristine purity and excellence. As it is, he has,
by his fatal connexion with France, rendered his
country the worst possible service. Exquisite
vocalisation — the pride and glory of the Italian
stage — is absolutely threatened with annihilation
in the noisy clamour of his operas. Verdi is —
i. e. as far as an Italian can be — the successor of
Meyerbeer, having all his defects and but few of
his merits. Of Verdi's earlier operas {' Nabuco-
donozor,' ' / Lombardi' ' I due Foscari,' &c.),
and those whose subjects are taken from the
dramas of Shakespeare and Schiller (' Macbeth,'
* / Mamadieriy * Luisa Miller ') — the least said
* Deutsche Musik-Zeitung. This somewhat too severe verdict
refers rather to Gounod's superficial treatment of Goethe's profound
poem than to any defect in the music, which is not only beautiful,
but, occasionally, even sublime.
THE GERMAN OPERA. 289
the better. Nor are his latest productions, ' Un
Ballo in Maschera^ ' La Forza del Destino^ &c.
much to be commended.
As was the case in every other country, so also
in Germany, did Eossini's operas hold the sove-
reignty of the stage ; yet they exerted no influence
whatever on musical art and artists in Germany.
Even before Eossini had taken Vienna by storm,
Weber's Freischiltz created such a sensation at
Berlin [June 18th, 1821] as could not fail to
decide the tendency of the German Opera during
the period that was to follow.
KARL MARIA von WEBER* [born at
Eutin in Holstein, December 18th, 1786, died in
London a few weeks after the first performance of
'Oberon,' June 5th, 1826] is, above all, a tho-
roughly German composer. As his noble battle
songs (from Korner's * Leier und Schwerf) had been
the means of spreading patriotic feeling, during
the war of liberation, far and wide through Ger-
many, so did his operas embody the spirit of the
romantic school of poetry (which originated in
those stirring times) in the brightest and most
popular form imaginable. "Weber's music to
Preciosa (the subject of which is taken from a
novel of Cervantes) is an admirable rendering of
V
♦ The Life of Carl Maria von Weber. From the German of Lis
SOD, Baron von Weber. By J. Palgrave Simpson. 2 vols., post
8vo. Chapman and Hall.
U
290 HISTORY OF MTTSIC.
the true spirit of Spanish romance — so mnch ad-
mired and so rarely attained by the romantic
school of German literature. How genuine and
expressive is Preciosa's song ! how fascinating are
those vigorous gipsy choruses, so hearty in their
rendering of the joys of forest life — a favourite
topic with the romance writers of the period !"*
Even more delightful is the spirit of romance
in the natural and unseen world in * Freischiltz!
" I should never," said Beethoven, " have expected
it of that quiet fellow. And now he must
write operas, one after another, straight a-head,
without beating about the bush. That wretch
Caspar stands as firm as a house, and wherever
the devil puts in his claw, he is felt at once.*
But not that alone — notZamiel, the Wolfsschlucht,
&c., but the gentle, tender, and expressive strain
which, whether joyful or sorrowful, pervades the
entire work wins all hearts to ' Freischiitz.' In
a natural, unconstrained manner, such as never
before had been heard in a prima donna, Agathe
— the huntsman's fair fiancee — tells, in dreamy
soliloquy, of her true love, her joyous raptures,
and overwhelming happiness at her lover's return.
In scheme and design * Freischiitz ' resembles
not so much an opera as an enriched Singspiel ;
highly-finished ensembles and finali would not have
suited the style of this thoroughly German and
* Ambros. K, M. von Weber in seinen Beziehungen zu den Bo-
mantikem der deutschen Literatur. Musikleben der Gegenuvartj p. 44.
THE GERMAN OPERA. 291
popular opera — qualities which, probably, cause it
to be looked down upon as '* commonplace " by
" men of the future."
Weber's reputation established of a sudden
C' Freischiitz has hit the mark," wrote he to
Kind,* immediately after the first performance),
he must of course write an opera for the Viennese,
and the composer must go to Vienna to superin-
tend the first performance of 'Euryanthe (October
25th, 1823). "The thing is good," said Beet-
hoven ; but F. Schubert went with the public,
who said it had too little melody, and ' Freischiitz '
was quite another thing. Whatever the musical
beauties of this opera (we refer to Euryanthe's
song, " Glocklein im Thale," her duet with Adolar,
"Nimm hin die Seele raein," the great aria,
*' Zu ihm, zu ihm," the chorus of huntsmen, the
^r^i finale, and the first scenes of the third act),
the dismally sentimental libretto, lengthy recita-
tives, and elaborate orchestration were not to
the taste of the audience. Dramatically speaking,
Euryanthe is an admirable, and historically, an
important work ; the Marschner opera and Lohen-
grin (Wagner) are directly descended from ' Eury-
anthe.' Whatever is at all musical in the " music-
drama," which Wagner substitutes for the opera,
appears to us to be nothing more than a very one-
sided development of Weber's style in -this opera.
Weber, however, did not sit down complaining
* Tic poet wlio '.vroto tl:G lihrdto of * rrc:f:chut2;.'
292 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
that he was not appreciated ; he made no appeals
from a present and ignorant to a future and more
enlightened public ;* but, in his next work, he
consulted, as far as was compatible with his art-
theories, the requirements of the age and the audi-
ence to whom it was to be presented. His ' Oheron
has frequently been found fault with for want of
completeness in the design, for the mixture of
opera, play and singspiel it contains. The
London public, however, would have it so ; and
Weber (to whom the book, compiled from
Shakespeare's * Midsummer Night's Dream,' and
Wieland's ' Oberon,' was sent act by act) had no
other choice than to adapt himself to circum-
stances or give up the work. But how nobly and
gracefully has the master acquitted himself of this
somewhat difficult task, and even managed to
invent quite a new and original style. We
allude more especially to the fairy choruses, and
also to the delicate, ethereal colouring of the
whole piece.f Oberon and the real personages,
♦ In his Hinterlassenen Schriften (Posthumous writingSy edited by
Theodore Hell in three small volumes), Dresden and Leipzig, 1828,
he does not even allude to his own works. They are merely simple
jottings of his opinions on those works which most frequently came
under his observation during the course of his practice — chiefly as
Court chapel-master at Dresden — , and are delightful witnesses of the
thoughtful artist, always ready to sympathize with the beautiful
and the good whenever presented in the works of others. In 1861,
a monument (by Kietschel) was erected to Weber's memory near
the theatre at Dresden.
+ The first of the fairy choruses in Oberon with the highly
THE GERMA?^ OPERA. 293
it is true, are comparatively cast into the shade ;
while, again, the male characters are subordinate
to the female ones. Taken altogether, we find
that the airs (not excepting Eezia's, which bears
a strong resemblance to Agatha's scena ed aria)
savour of theatrical pathos, whereas all the smaller
songs (Eezia's ca^;a^^/^a, Unonspreghiera, Fatima's
arietta^ and the quartet in the second act) are full
of expression and significance.
Some musicians detect in Weber's Overtures to
the aforesaid operas inequality of workmanship
and want of coherence ; but they are masterpieces
of imagination and expression, and, accordingly,
are admired and esteemed by the discerning
connoisseur. Somewhat in the manner of the
overture to Beethoven's ' Leonore,' they present
a correct and complete outline — set as if in a
jewelled frame — of the entire work to which they
severally belong ; not an introduction to an intro-
duction, to which the overture has been reduced in
modern days (by Meyerbeer, Wagner, Gounod,
&;c.). The potpourri kind of overture, formed out
of the principal airs in the opera itself, we find
generally prevalent after Weber ; as, for instance,
efifective bassoon, Iflute, and horn notes, the delicate, sprite-Uke pro-
gressions of wood and stringed instruments alternately, the mer-
maid's song with the charming horn figure, are the most ethereal of
anything that has ever been composed in the " romantic " super-
natural style — not even excei)ting Mendelssohn's music to ' A
Midsummer Night's Dream,' which is, as it were, a description of
the bustling activity of this miniature fairy-realm.
294 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
' Zampa,' and even the brilliant overture to
' Guillaume Tell/ and many of Auber*s overtures,
&c. If, as Marx and others maintain, this ex-
ternal manner of composing the overture was
usual with Weber, it is singular that the Over-
tures to * Freischiitz ' and * Oberon ' are, in
every respect, far more complete, vigorous, and
jubilant than the actual * Jubilee OveiHure (a work
independent of any opera) itself.
In a dramatic sense {i,e, in the so-called grand
opera styles consisting in recitatives 2^11^ ensembles),
Marschner and Wagner trod in Weber's footsteps.
We shall refer to them presently. Other com-
posers who restricted themselves to productions
within the range of their capabilities, especially
KoNRADiN Kreutzer [1782-1849] and Franz
Glaser [1799-1861], copied Weber's lyrical
tendency in * Freischiitz ' and * Oberon,' but
almost entirely neglected dramatic expression.
'* Accordingly," as Eiehl observes, " it is no small
achievement that in Kreutzer's ' Naehtlager in
Granada' — the best work of this style — he has
managed to keep up the interest wholly by scenes
of a lyrical nature, while the absence of dramatic
action is made up for by the lyrical ' situa-
tions.' " We, ourselves, are by no means so in-
fatuated with the dramatic element as to prefer
the noisy, pretentious " music-drama" of our own
day to the refreshing simplicity and tuneful
THE GERMAN OPERA. 295
melody of Kreutzers opera songs. Likewise
deserving of praise is Kreutzer's graceful music to
Eaimund's popular piece * Der Verschwender' in
which, in his time, Lortzing took the part of
Valentine.
Foremost in the lyrical opera stands Ludwig
Spohr, an admirable and accomplished, but of
late years undeservedly neglected, composer. He
has previously to, and contemporary with, though
quite independently of Weber, treated the Opera
in an original and graceful manner. Faust, with
the splendid Polonaise [1813], and Jessonda
[1823] are far superior, both in style and ex-
pression, to the would-be dramatic works of
Weber's successors. In the last-named opera,
the gifted musician has seized and rendered the
spirit of oriental poetry in the happiest manner.
The duet *' Schones Mddchen^ wirst mich hassen'
and the so-called ' flower duet ' are the most
perfect embodiment of dreamy yearning for a
distant and beautiful land ; both these pieces
were, contrary to etiquette, encored at the first
performance of the opera at Cassel [July 28th,
1823]. In his other operas, ^ Zemire und Azov,'
^Der Berggeist' &c., Spohr has not always steered
clear of the shoals on which almost all succeedinof
opera composers grounded, viz., the lack of
dramatic vigour and truthfulness ; — lucky, indeed,
if the overture (as for instance Keissiger's Over-
296 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
tures to 'Nero,' 'Die Felsenmiihle/ 'Telva') or,
now and then, a song, survived the general wreck.
The stage requires from those who devote them-
selves to it, whether in a creative or representa-
tive capacity, total abnegation of self; egotism, so
much admired in the stage performance of some
actors, is intolerable in the dramatic poet or
composer. Accordingly, the operas of the best
modern composers, such as Lindpaintner, Franz
Lachner, Ferd. Hiller, Wilh. Taubert, Dorn,
and others, have, with few exceptions (generally
owing to local considerations), vanished from the
stage.
Albert Lortzing [born at Berlin, October 23rd,
1803, died there, January 20th, 1851], who was
formerly actor, singer, and opera-manager, has
manifested superior judgment in combining the
popular and tuneful element with the require-
ments of the modern stage ; his comic operas
and Singspiele, ' Czaar und Zimmermann/ ' Der
Wildschiltz^ &c., are excellent.* Lortzing is,
indeed, the only composer who has, since Ditters-
dorf, successfully devoted himself to comic opera,
and equalled him in the natural and unaffected
delineation of mirth and joviality. Grotesque
characters were \\\^forte^ but he also frequently
rendered tender and gentle characters and scenes
* Albert Lortzing^ sein Lehen und Wirken. Von Duringek.
Lei})zig, 1851,
THE GERMAN OPEBA. 297
in the happiest manner. The romantic opera,
Lortzing himself admitted, was " not so much
his style ;" yet it may be questioned whether,
since Weber, a downright " romantic" opera com-
poser has ever written anything better than the
charming and gracefully mysterious third finale
to * Undine'
Heinrich Marschner [born at Zittau in
Saxony, August 16th, 1795, died senior Court-
chapel-master at Hanover, December 14th, 1861]
is of the genuine romantic school (both in
choice and treatment of his subjects), and the
veritable successor of Weber. He was intro-
duced to the Dresden public by Weber himself,
but — he was no Weber. Though interesting to
the musician, his gloomy and fatiguing operas
have never become popular. Brendel, however,
is of opinion that " Marschner writes in the true
popular spirit, whereas Weber leaves the impres-
sion of having studiously adopted it." Certainly,
Marschner is most successful in songs, and, above
all, in comic pieces, where the realistic tendency
in some measure acts as a counterpoise to the
" romantic" and m3^sterious (* Der Vampyi\' 1828,
* Hans Heiling,' 1833). Opera of the best kind, as
well as genuine dramatic action, is not to be
found in Marschner, although he frequently
sacrifices to dramatic effect not only the character-
istic of his personages but even the musical form
298 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and vocalisation itself. "We refer to the opera
' Der Templer und die Jildin' [1829] — still occa-
sionally performed — a work which, we think,
partially resembles the Wagner style. Accord-
ing to modern notions, it is thoroughly dramatic,
i.e., constructed with a view to grand and ef-
fective scenes ; but to the musical taste it is not
so satisfactory as the two first-mentioned pieces ;
for tlie action, instead of resulting from the
characters of the plot, is entirely linked to the
story which forms the subject of the opera
(Walter Scott's ' Ivanhoe'). Here again the
comic parts are the best, viz., the fool's and the
hermit's songs. Lighter in texture, but charming
for its clear design and lively vigorous tone, is
the opera ' Tlie Merry Wives of Windsor ' by Otto
NicoLAi [born at Konigsberg 1809, died at
Berlin 1849], of which the delightful Overture
reminds one of Weber's exquisite style. Not
long since, this opera was repeatedly performed
in London, under the title of ' Falstaif,' with the
greatest success.
" But there arose a colossal genius, a flaming
spirit, to whom was decreed a crown of fire and
gold ; one who thought to aspire so high that,
if art and society ever appreciated his ideal, it
would be when the public taste was no longer
&c., &c." The genius thus extolled by Liszt
is no other than Eichard Wagner — the much-
THE GERMAN OPERA. 299
talked of poet-composer [born at Leipsic, May
22nd, 1818]. After having, like Meyerbeer
(according to Wagner " The most despicable
music-manufacturer of the period"), tried his
hand on operas of the Italian-French stamp
(' Das Liebesverbot' after Shakespeare's * Measure
for Measure,' and ' Rienzi' after Bulwer), and
vainly endeavoured to out-do Marschner's horrible
romance in ' Der fliegende Hollander ' [Dresden,
1843], his vanity and ambition led him to protest
against the degenerate Opera of the present day,
— against Meyerbeer's show operas, the French
and Italian dramatic and vocal opera, and, finally,
into open and declared opposition to the Opera in
general.
He begins by informing us* that the Opera — as
hitherto practised — is radically a mistake; be-
cause (what is true only of inferior Italian operas)
the means of expression (music) has become an
aim, whereas the aim (drama) has been used as a
means of expression. Accordingly, in * Tannhduser
[Dresden, 1844] and yet more in 'Lohengrin^
[Weimar, 1850] and his subsequent opera-dramas,
he has endeavoured to show us what the only
genuine and veritable " art of the future " ought
to be. His theory is that the sister arts, princi-
pally those of music and poetry, are no longer
to act separately, but mutually combine and
assist each other — opera, drama, and symphony
* See Waqneb*8 writings.
300 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
are no longer to be esteemed on their own ac-
count. Wagners most successful work (judged
by his own theories) is, we think, Lohengrin ;
for ' Tannhauser,' with its dreary recitatives
and paucity of melody, never was really popular
notwithstanding the magnificent mise-enscene.
In ' Tristan und Isolde ' and ' Das Rheingold '
(first part of *Die Nibelungen '), Wagner has
arrived at that point which we should have
supposed long since left behind when Lessing
proved the necessity for the separation of the arts
by unanswerable arguments. Thus, Wagner's
reforms are reduced to the idea (already advocated
by Eochlitz*) of an intimate connection between
drama and opera ; but the new form will never
be able to assert itself if the 'opera is to lose all
its special advantages and attractions, and become
nothing more than a finale^ and singing to be
abandoned for continuous recitative. f " A down-
* Fiir Freunde der Tonkunst. Vol. ii., p. 270 — 275.
t Wagner, by rejecting the forms of air, duet, &c., only proves
thereby that he has a thoroughly realistic, unimaginative — conse-
quently unartistic — conception of the musical drama. " Introduce
a new kind of opera which shall consist solely of recitative. It is
more natural, for it certainly resembles speech more nearly than an
air, a duet, or an ensemble do ; because there can be nothing more
unnatural than for two, three, or more |5ersous to get up and sing at
the same time. But naturalness in art is quite another from that
in real life. If art is to be anything at all, it must, from its very
nature, indulge in a great many things that are unnatural ; and
herein lies the charm of art that, notwithstanding its heterogeneous
means, it can bring about an illusion that shall resemble real life."
These are the words of the talented actor Lobtzing ; and Groethe —
THE GERMAN OPERA. 301
right poet or musician is, after all, better than
one who is half and half of each."*
The public has never been over favourable to
* Tannhauser ; ' but, with its performance in
Paris, Wagner appears to have completely played
out the part he had undertaken so confidently —
that of a would-be reformer. Amid unprece-
dented uproar, Tannhauser was hissed off the
stage at the Imperial Opera house [1861]; yet
the composer, in the famous letter "to a Leipsic
friend," pretended to have achieved a grand and
complete triumph among the " real " public, — the
" general opera-going public, as yet, not being
sufficiently enlightened " to appreciate his music.
We doubt if this will ever come to pass ; for the
" general opera-going public " has no taste for
the mediaeval romance to which Wagner is so
partial, and will have nothing to say (and very
properly too) to an opera without singing : " 6V
nest point pour entendre du recitatif que Von va a
r opera. ^
who most certainly would have esteemed the soimd judgment of
the comedian far above the wonn-eaten theories of " the man of the
future " — held the same opinion, as we gather from the author of the
' Fliegende Blatter fur Musik^ who chronicled the poet's words on
this subject. " Herein lies the dangerous demon for you youngsters.
You are quick to create new ideas, but how about giving them
shape and form ? Every branch of art has its weak point in theory,
but which must be retained in practice, because by suppressing it
you come too near to nature, and art would be unartistic."
* Carriere. Aesthetik. Vol. ii., p. 440.
t Rousseau.
302 HISTORY OP MUSIC.
Having given a slight sketch of the opera subsequent to Mozart,
it remains for us to add a short chronicle of those by Avhose talent
the above mentioned works have been rendered famous, viz.,
celebrated singers, both male and female. First and foremost come
the Italian singers (more especially of the Eossini Opera) : Tam-
BURiNi [born 1800], Rubini [born 1795], and Lablache, the famous
bass singer [born at Naples 1794, died there 1858]. In Germany,
hkewise (which is far from being the case at the present day), the
bass singers were the best. The masterly vocalisation of Fischer
[born 1745], Stromeyer [bom 1779], Wilhelm Haser [born 1781],
Wachter [born 1796], Spitzeder [born 1795], and othera, is, of
course, known to the greater number by tradition only ; so that the
few contemporary singers, Karl Formes and A. Kindermann, are,
in another sense, but to their own advantage, placed hors de concours.
Especially deserving of notice are the oratorio and concert singers
(particularly of Schubert's songs) J. M. Vogl [1768 - 1840], Joseph
Staudiol [born 1807, died in a madhouse at Vienna, 1860], and
Jules Stockhausen [born at Paris, 1826] (both of the two first u^re
likewise admirable opera singers). Anton Raff [1714 — 1797], whose
singing cured the Princess Belmonte of hypochondria ; Karl Bader
[born 1789], Wild [born 1792], IIaizinqer [bom 1796], Mantius
[born 1808], Tichatschek [bom 1810] were celebrated tenors; to
whom may be added in recent times Schnorb v. Cabolsfeld,
Ander, Niemann. Of Roger — the first of French singing actors or
acting singers {acteurs chantants) — Riehl writes ; " Roger is more
than a singer — he is a dramatic poet. By his wonderful jiantomimic
action he invents new * situations' and new phases of character, such as
are found neither in the libretto or the score. He has such a fund of
individuality in his parts, that with him the opera hero expands into
the sublime tragedy hero." Celebrated French singers are, also, Nour-
rit and Duprez. Nor must the English singers be overlooked:
Kelly [born at Dublin 1764, died 1826], and the celebrated tenor
Braham [first appeared in public 1774, died 1856], were renowned
eyen on the Continent Sims Reeves (tenor) and Santley (baritone)
now uphold the fame of English singing in oratorios and concerts.
Of female singers, who in accordance with the design of the
modern Oj^era, almost monopolize its triumphs both in Italy and
elsewhere, Angelica Catalani [" la prima cantatrice del mondo"
born at Sinigaglia 1783, died at Paris 1849] was the most re-
nowned. Her magnificent voice was heard to the best advantage in
Handel's music, or when in intoning, in the noblest and purest
THE OPERA. 303
style imaginable, England's national hymns, ' God save the King,'
and ' Rule Britannia,' on which occasions enthusiasm knew no
bounds. " The last air had ended," writes Rellstab in 1827,* " when,
amid thunders of applause, louder and louder the cry arose for
' God save the King !' Like a bom queen, the great cantatrice
stepped forward on the proscenium. The orchestra struck up the
glorious melody; after which, Catalan! sang her verse with such
dignity, grandeur, and majesty as has never been equalled. The
chorus joined in the solemn strain ; when, with increasing power,
the great songstress took up the second verse. Every gesture of her
noble frame corresponded to the inflexions of her voice ; her spark-
ling eyes denoted the ardour which inspired her and with which she
inspired others. Once more her full rich tones soared, as if on
eagle's wings, above the full- voiced chorus and orchestra." Others,
as for instance Henriette Sontag (in the execution of Rode's
variations), the English singer Clara Novello [born 1818], and
Pauline Viardot-Garcia [born 1821], may have nearly equalled
her in flexibility of voice, perhaps even surpassed her in execu-
tive skill ; but the quality of her voice is such as probably has
never been heard before or since, unless it were in the great concert
singer Mara. The most remarkable opera singers were : Imperatrice
[1783 — 1808] and Mariauna Sessi, Giuditta Pasta [born at Como
1798 ; died there 1865] celebrated in ' Norma' and other tragic parts,
Josephine Fodor [born at Paris 1793], the gifted and accomplished
Maria Felicita Malibran- Garcia [eldest daughter of the Spanish
tenor and singing-master Manuel Garcia, born at Paris 1808, died
at Manchester 183G, shortly after her mariiage with De Beriot],
Giulia Grisi [born 1812, married 1856 the celebrated tenor Mario],
Giuditta Grisi [died 1840], for whom Bellini wrote the part of
Romeo, and the renowned contralto Marietta Alboni [born 1824].
It is, however, to the German cantatrici that the brightest laurels
should be awarded ; for, to our taste, they far surpassed the Italian
singers in depth of expression and dramatic talent. Foremost
among them stands Wilhelmina Schroder-Devrient [born at
Hamburg 1805, died at Coburg 1860].t She excelled, not so much
* On the occasion of a concert which took place at the Berlin
Opera house.
f Wilhelmine Schroder-Devrient. Von Alfred Freiherrn von
WoLZOGEX. Leipzig, 1863. Erinnerungen an Wilhelmine Schroder-
Devrient vm Claire von GlIimer. Leipzig, 1862.
304 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
in vocalisation, as in bold, original conception of her parts, and
the artistic and poetic feeling with which she combined both the
musical and dramatic element. The grandest and most gifted of
women who ever trod the stage in modern days, she invested her
parts (Fidelio, Donna Anna, Euryanthe, the Vestal, Norma, &c.,)
with an individuality and grandeur never attained by any of her
predecessors. Henriette Sontag px)rn at Coblentz 1806, died in
Mexico 1854] and Jenny Lind [bom at Stockholm 1821], both of
whom combined jierfect vocalisation with exquisite feeling and
charming dramatic action, achieved, however, greater popularity than
the first-named artist. Then comes Nanette Schechner [born
at Munich 1806] " whose soul glowed in song." " Nanette Scliech-
ner is the grandest artist in my recollection, as far as singing goes ;
but Jenny Lind is more intellectual, and her style more finished ;
she is, indeed, the most perfect dramatic artist I have seen."*
Afterwards come : Anna Milder- Hauptmann [born at Constanti-
nople 1785, died at Berlin 1838], who was celebrated for her im-
personation in Gluck's and Spontini's operas ; Sabine Heinefetter
[born 1805], Karoline Ungher [born 1800], Sophie Schoberlechner
[born 1809], Wilhelmine Streit [born 1806], Clara Vespermann
[1800 — 1827], Pauline v. Schatzel [bom 1812], Jenny Lutzer
[born 1816], Agnes Schebest [born 1815], Henriette Carl [born
1811], Sophie Lowe [born 1815], and, recently', Louise Koster — an
artist whose noble conception of her \)aYts (Fidelio, Donna Anna,
&c.,) reminds one of the immortal Schroder - Devrient ; Louise
Dustmann-Meyer, Johanna Wagner (niece of the composer),
Jenny BtJRDE-NEY, Sophie Cruvelli (properly Criivell, born at
Bielefeld in Westphalia), Therese Titiens, Sophie Stehle, Pauline
Lucca, and the latest Italian singers Adelina Patti, Zelia Tre-
belli, D^sirde Artot, &c. England can boast exquisite dramatic as
well as vocal talent in Mrs. Billixgton [born in London 1765, ilied
at Venice 1818], Miss Stevens, Adelaide Kemble (who quitted
the stage 1843) ; and, at the present day, Mesd. Lemmens-Sher-
RiNGTON, Parepa, and Sainton-Dolby (the well-known contralto
and concert singer) share with the German Madme. Rudersdorf the
honour of representing England's best oratorio and concert singers.
On the whole, to women is due the honour of maintaining (in our
day when materialism obtains even in music) art in its highest and
best sense ; in other respects, genuine vocalisation is sadly on the
* L. Rellstab.
THE OPERA. 305
decline, if not actually hastening to its fall. Voices have no longer
the compass nor the timbre they formerly possessed; on the
other hand, there is a plentiful supply of medium and mediocre"
voices. Those who have to answer for this deterioration are the
composers, who have either forgotten or disdained to write in
accordance with the capabilities of the human voice. Ih this
respect, they are the exact opposite of the old Opera seria ; whereas,
formerly, the singers were in the habit of sacrificing truthfulness of
dramatic expression to the display of their individual capabilities,
the composers of our day subject singing to their caprices, to loud
instrumentation and dramatic effect. " If this goes on, is there not,"
asks Eiehl, "every probability that, with this 'dramatic' mania,
music will go to the devil ?" Meyerbeer's, Halevy's, Marschner's,
Wagner's, and Verdi's operas have, in truth, been the ruin of many
voices. It is no uncommon occurrence for the luckless singer to be
80 fatigued by the rehearsals as to be obliged to plead a " sudden
attack of hoarseness " (the Postilion de Lonjumeau, Th. Wachtel !)
and leave his part to be taken by another. It must ultimately
come to this : that it is no longer good style, finished vocalisation, or
musical talent which is expected of a singer, but strong lungs, and
great powers of endurance. For the future, the choice must lie
between two alternatives, viz. — whether singers are really " to give
up singing and accustom themselves more and more to grand reci-
tative performances," or whether it would not be advisable to
relinquish the grand and pretentious music-drama, and return to the
unassuming but melodious opera of former days.
CHAPTER XV.
The later Musicians op Germany : Spohr, Mendelssohn,
Schumann. Present and Future.
The latest attempts in Germany, France, and
Italy have proved only too clearly that, at the
present day, not only drama in general, but the
Opera in particular, is far from flourishing. In '
Germany, musical talent has, generally speaking,
quitted the stage for the concert room ; dramatic
music has, to a great extent, made way for
oratorio, instrumental, and song composition.
The last of those who successfully cultivated
every branch of musical art — the artist who
stood, as it were, on the confines of " Past and
Present,"* was the venerable Ludwig SPOHR
[born at Brunswick, April 5th, 1784, died. Court
chapel-master at Cassel, October 22nd, 1859.]t
We have already had occasion to remarkj that,
♦ In his violin concerto "Past and Present" [1839], Spohr
contrasted both the old and new styles with the express intention of
ridiculing modern violinists who aped Paganini.
t Spohr' s Autobiography. Translated from the German. Longman,
Green and Co., 1864.
% See p. 295.
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 307
notwithstanding their manifold separate beauties,
Spohr's operas fell short of perfection because the
composer did not grasp the subjects he chose for
dramatic representation with sufficient vigour
and distinctness. The same may be said of his
oratorios ' Die letzten Dinge ' [first performed on
Good Friday 18:26], 'Des Heilands letzte Stunden'
[1828], 'Der Fall Bahylons' [1840], in which
tender and melancholy expression is too preva-
lent, and, consequently, individual characteristic
wanting. Though greatly superior, especially in
the choruses, to the effective, showy instrumen-
tation observable in the works of Friedrich
Schneider [born 1786, died at Dessau 1858, 'Das
Weltgericht/ &c.], and even to the sacred songs
for male voices by Bernhard Klein [born at
Cologne 1794, died at Berlin 1832], they could
not fail to be cast into shade by Mendelssohn's
oratorios, which are not only more popular, but
also of a profounder calibre.
Of the pieces in 'Die letzten Dinge,' the
quartet and chorus * Selig sind die Todten/ the
duet (for soprano and tenor) ' Sei mir nicht
schrecklich in der Noth' and the chorus ' Gefallen
ist Babylon ' will live in the recollection of those
who have heard this highly attractive work —
attractive both in a religious and musical sense.
Of the above mentioned Klein, the oratorio
' Jephtha ' is a work of noble conception, and
entirely free from adventitious effects ; but com-
308 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
pared with the Handel oratorio, it would seem to
lack vigour and originality. A few of the
choruses, in which rich instrumentation and
polyphony conceal the absence of melodic inven-
tion, are alone of some merit, — indeed, it is in
these points that ingenious and skilful musicians
are most likely to succeed.
As is the case with almost all modern musi-
cians, Spohr delighted more especially in instru-
mental composition. His songs have met with
but little success ; and that vocal composition
was less congenial to him is evident in his cele-
brated instrumental work * The Power of Sound.'*
He tells us in his autobiography that he had
originally intended to write a cantata on the
poem which forms the subject of this work, but
that he found " the words would not suit this
genus." The work, which appeared as "a
characteristic delineation in the form of a
symphony" [1832],! is by no means free from
defects ; instead of a symphony, it presents a
number of symphonic phrases. Taken by them-
selves, the first allegro, the cradle song, and
military music are splendid pieces, whose distinct
and complete form is not marred by any myste-
rious and poetical allusions or reminiscences ;
were the other phrases of the other movements
equally perfect, we should be quite inclined to
* *Die Weihe der Tone.'
i Spohr's superscription to the piece.
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 309
admit the excellence as well as novelty of this
kind of sympliony, and assign it an honourable
place beside the classical symphony — just as we
recognize the merit of the Weber overture (which
takes the opera for its programme) as well as
that of the earlier thematically developed over-
ture. Spohr's work contrasts favourably with the
pretentious but shallow symphonies of recent
days, from which it differs in this respect — that,
instead of individualizing and describing a
Francesca, a Tasso, or a Faust (Liszt), it con-
tents itself with a general delineation of human
life and emotion ; and, after all, tells us even
more than we find in the book. Similar to it in
character is that ideal conception — the grand
double symphony for two orchestras, entitled :
^ Irdische^ und Gottliches im Menschenlehen; and
inferior to this latter, though presenting points of
interest in the detail, is the descriptive symphony
' Die Jahreszeiten'
But the magnificent C minor Symphony is,
taken in its entirety, an admirable and complete
work — one in which the composer's imagination
(too frequently swayed by yearning, sentimental
feelings and ideas) takes a vigorous and joyous
flight. The wild, demonic, and enchanting
Scherzo was encored on the occasion of its first
performance at Vienna.
We think that the most sterling compositions
of Spohr's — especially when compared with later
310 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
works of the kind — are his violin concertos, among
which is the well known one ' in modo di Scena
cantante ; ' it is exquisitely beautiful, and highly
successful in its rendering of vocal recitative and
aria on the violin. In the quartet, Spohr — like
Weber in the sonata — adopted the brilliant con-
certed style, wherein the violin solo plays a pro-
minent part. Of this style the double quartet is
a development, of which the idea originated, as
Spohr himself admitted, with Andreas Eomberg.
Finally, we must not omit to mention his rich
and variously arranged Nonet (for stringed quar-
tet, flute, hautboy, clarionet, horn, and bassoon),
nor his graceful and melodious sonatas for violin
and harp, which Spohr and his wife Dorette used
to play at concerts.
Spohr's later works, especially his operas and
quartets, are mere repetitions of his earher
ones ; and that which formerly made him appear
original degenerated into mannerism and affecta-
tion. These faults are only too evident (as, for
instance, in the so-called 'Historical Sym-
phony'), and have so warped the judgment of
musicians on the subject of Spohr 's music that
not only have vigour and distinctness of expres-
sion been denied to him, but also depth, imagi-
nation, and sentiment. "Yet whoever," says
Hand,* " maintains that Spohr's music is utterly
wanting in depth, and resembles the modern
* Aesthetik. Vol. i., p. 320.
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 311
Italian style, judges wrongly and unfairly.
Profundity is not wanting, but it is solely of senti-
ment — not that intellectual depth in which grand
thoughts and ideas are gathered up and reflected
by means of powerful imagination. The plastic
— ohjective — element, so far as it obtains in music,
is utterly foreign to Spohr ; on the other hand,
he is, like all artists who are prone to the
"sentimental," apt to fall into monotony and
mannerism. In the quartets, as also in the
oratorios, we are aware of a great deal we have
already heard in * Jessonda.' " Nevertheless,
though even the most favourable opinion may
find much that is onesided or deficient in Spohr's
compositions, he is greatly to be respected as a
sterling German musician — one who made no
attempts to appear that which he was not ; but,
so far as he went, was genuine and entire.
Of recent days, many admirable works of Spohr
have in Germany been treated with undeserved
neglect ; but the best violinists of the period :
Ferd. David [born 1810], Jos. Joachim [bom
1831], Ferd. Laub, Heinr. Ernst, Aug. Kompel,
Pott, Wieniawsky, Lauterbach, Strauss, and,
in England, Blagrove and Sainton, &c. — all of
them his pupils or educated by these — witness to
the noble spirit which directed his efforts. Differ-
ing entirely from the clever fiddling accomplish-
ments of NicoLO PAGANINl [born at Genoa
1784, died at Nice 1840] and his numerous imita-
312 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
tors (Bazzini, Sivori, Ole Bull, and others, in
Germany and France), the Spohr school — to whom
may be reckoned the composers Mayseder [1789
— 1863], B. MoLiQUE [born 1803], Maurer, and
LiPiNSKY — aimed at full, rich tone, and expressive
declamation on the violin. " Paganini is an extra-
ordinary man," said Spohr ; " but, besides several
eccentricities in bad taste intended only for mo-
mentaneous display, he introduces impossibilities
of such a nature as are thoroughly calculated to
destroy good playing." His variations on the
G string, his curious flageolet (^Les clochettes')
and pizzicato playing, his extraordinary facility for
double notes and all kinds of bravura passages —
what was all that, compared to a fine bow, full
tone, and cantabile execution ? But because it
was wonderfully effective, it found admirers, both
among players and composers ; since Paganini's
time, the greater number of violinists — especially
the French of recent days — are weak imitators of
the great virtuoso, and ' Le Camaval de Venise
cCapres Paganini' in endlessly varied transfor-
mations,' is the stock piece of violin players at
miscellaneous concerts.
Whereas the earlier French musicians (pupils
of Yiotti)— of whom Eode [1774—1830], Ru-
dolph Kreutzer [born of German parents at
Versailles 1767, died 1831], and Baillot [1771
-1842], (authors of the famous violin methode,
adopted by the Paris Conservatoire) — maintained
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 313
with Spolir that tone was " the source of all
genuine instrumental music," the moderns : De
Beriot [born at Louvain 1802, 'Tremolo' on
the Adagio of Beethoven's 'Kreutzer Sonata'],
and Lafont [1781-1839] aimed almost exclu-
sively at execution and effect. Far superior
to the two last is de Beriot's pupil Henri
ViEUXTEMPs [born at Yerviers 1820], though
even he has sacrificed too much to mere execu-
tion. His violin concertos, in particular, are
crowded with difficult passages and continued to
wearying lengths by the noisy unmeaning tutti ;
on the other hand, many of the movements, as
well as his smaller pieces, are full of charming
variety and imagination. The other Franco-
Belgian composers : Prume, Leonard, &c., pro-
duced and reproduced whatever they could ma-
nage to attain of Paganini's and Yieuxtemps' skill
and execution. Even the sisters Milanollo —
Theresa [born 1827] and Maria [1832-1848], who
created such a sensation from 1839-46, that
they rarely needed to depend on other perform-
ances than their own to render their concerts
attractive, found imitators ; but speculating
fathers and mothers could not bring about such
another miracle as nature had produced in the
artistic and finished execution of those two
ingenuous and gifted children. A remarkable
phenomenon is the repetition of the wonderful
quartet performance of the brothers Muller of
314 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Brunswick [born between 1797 and 1809] in the
Meininger quartet of the younger Miillers.
What Spohr was to violin, Bernhard Romberg
[born near Miinster in Westphalia 1767, died at
Hamburg 1841] was to violoncello playing. He
impressed one by his perfect command of the
instrument and exquisite playing, which never
gave the idea of difficulties sought and overcome.
Romberg was not merely a travelling artist— he
was, in truth, an original master, who, as Oulibi-
cheff expresses it, has left something more than a
name. His compositions (concertos, variations,
capriccios, &;c.) are, in the opinion of all good
players, models of their kind, and far superior to
the celebrated ones of Goltermann, Grutzma-
CHER, &c:, in our own day. Servais [bom at
Brussels 1807], who might with propriety be
styled a miniature Vieuxtemps on the violoncello,
stands at the head of those who do violence to
the grave, masculine nature of the instrument
by playing vioHn on the violoncello. Of modem
violoncellists, Alfred Piatti [born 1823] is one of
the most distinguished. Howell, and Bottesini
[born 1823] are celebrated double bass players.
The other orchestral instruments likewise be-
came transformed to meet the requirements of
professional dexterity. Like the bowed instru-
ments by a thinner quality of strings, so also
the wind instruments by additional vents, lost
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 315
in tone what they gained in compass. The
" straightforward, masculine " tone which Leopold
Mozart considered essential to violin playing is,
owing to the high pitch now required, no longer
to be found in the greater number of musicians.
In later times the best players are : flute — Anton
[died 1852] and Moritz Furstenau, Berbiguier,
TuLou, Drouet, Heineimeyer, Bohm, the English
EiCHARDSON, Pratten ; clarionet — Heinrich and
Karl Barm ANN, Hermstedt, Iwan Muller,
Lazarus ; hautboy — Nicholson ; horn — Punto
[properly Stich 1747-1803], the five brothers
ScHUNKE, KoNiG, the DiSTiN family ; trombone —
QuEissER [died 1846] ; trumpet — Harper; harp —
Nadermann [born at Paris 1773, died there 1835],
Parish Alvars [1816-1849], Aptommas, Ober-
thur; guitar— Giuliani [1796-1820]. The com-
positions of many of these artists are, with few
exceptions, trivial, and in direct opposition to old
Haydn's maxim : " A piece of music must have
flowing melody, connected ideas, and must be
neither artificial nor overladen." Who does not
shudder while thinking of the miserable, drawling,
variations of Kummer, Drouet, and the like ?
Fortunately, the now prevailing custom of giving
a series of concerts has done away with that
species of music, written solely with a view to
professional display, with which the migratory
solo player called forth admiration and astonish-
ment in all the cities of Europe ; and only a few.
316 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
really superior musicians venture to give concerts
(in proportion to their means and abilities) on
their own account.
From out the countless throng of public piano-
forte players stands FRANZ LISZT [horn at
Eaiding in Hungary, October 21st, 1811] — a
marked and singular character. A clever woman
once said that Thalberg was the first of pianists,
but there was only one Liszt. Liszt's playing was
distinguished not so much by the marvellous and
brilliant execution which made light of seemingly
insurmountable difficulties, as by the bold,
original style which made his performances ap-
pear more like the inspiration of the moment
than a matter of study and effect. For this
reason, Liszt is entitled — though only in a partial
degree— to the claim he put forth in Brendel's
* Neue Zeitschrift filr Musik' viz., that equal
merit is due both to creative and executive
talent.* We repeat, only in a partial degree;
* To that species of professional skill which may be regarded in
the light of genuine artistic inspiration, and of which Liszt was a
brilliant example, Hegel even assigns a place in esthetics. Speaking
of another strilving example of this power, he says : " The wonderful
command of material means, the ease and freedom with which it
makes light of apparently impracticable difficulties — delighting in
elaborate flourishes, sudden interruptions, arch surprises — , its
originality and invention lend a chaim even to quaint caprices and
effects. For, unless there be imagination, there can be no artistic
performance ; but the wonderful command which really talented
musicians possess over their instrument, and with which they are
enabled to increase its resources, and occasionally even counterfeit
the sounds of other musical instruments, is a proof of this faculty.
LATER MTJSICIAlSrS OF GERMANY. 317
for Liszt's own compositions (of which more
hereafter) furnish the best proof of the great
distance there is between clever playing and
clever composing. Both these gifts were, how-
ever, united in one whom Liszt himself extols in
a work * specially treating of
Frederic CHOPIN [born near Warsaw, March
1st, 1810]. An exile since the revolution of
1830, he lived — admired both professionally and
in society (especially by women) — at Paris. In
1840, he was attacked with consumption, and
died October 17th, 1849, and was buried, by his
own desire, beside Bellini, at the cemetery of
Pere la Chaise. He was designated by the French
" Franqais du Nord" and admirably does this
epithet describe the peculiar mixture of Polish
character and French taste, which prevails in
Chopin's compositions — more especially his Polo-
naises and Mazurkas. We think Chopin excels
mostly in dance compositions, in which humble
branch of art he displays a fund of poetical
In this species of execution we enjoy the greatest araount of
musical variety ; we are conscious of a strange mystery in that an
inanimate machine is translormed into an organ of expression, and
are impressed both with the conception and execution of a work of
art in one and tlie same moment."
* Frederic Cfivpin, par F. Liszt. Leipzig, 1852. The most
interesting parts of this ingenious and highly imaginative work
are, we think, the detailed and poetical description of some of the
musical pieces, — more especially as denoting the tendency of Liszt's
later productions.
318 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
sentiment clothed in elaborate ornamentation.
His Polonaises, Waltzes, and Mazurkas are not,
strictly speaking, dance music ; they are, as Liszt
expresses it, " de petits drames amoureux de divers
caracteres" — dreams of dance scenes, such as the
sick and sad young man would picture to himself
in a modern ball-room. These small imaginative
pieces teem with fanciful scenes and pictures ; it
would, indeed, be a delightful, and by no means
difficult task for "programme musicians" to
invent superscriptions for them, — more especially
as Liszt, in the work already alluded to, has inti-
mated and sketched out much that would afford
a clue to the reading of Chopin's music.
In all his compositions — in the dances, as well
as in the looser form of Etudes, Nocturnes, Im-
promptus, &c., the elegiac strain prevails ; his
poetry is wholly subjectivey and always tender,
delicate, dreamy ; no wonder, therefore, that
women of a highly cultivated taste have a par-
tiality for Chopin's music. But Chopin is by no
means (as we have heard it asserted) "a tho-
roughly diseased, unwholesome nature ;" of the
sickly fancies and caprices, the morbid feeling,
which possibly adhere to some of his later works,
no traces are discoverable in his best and well-
known compositions. " Chez lui^' says Liszt — in
reply to the further charge of artificialness and
* Frederic Clicypin^ p. 7.
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 319
over-ornamentation — ''la hardiesse se justifie ton-
jours ; la richesse, l' exuberance meme riexcluent pas
la clarte ; la singularite ne degenere pas en bizar-
rerie baroque^ les ciselures ne sont pas desordonnees,
et le luxe de V ornementation ne surcharge pas
V elegance des lignes pindpales!' But Chopin —
the classical drawing-room composer — is, of
course, far inferior to the grand old masters in
concerto and sonata composition ; wherefore, the
charm of novelty having subsided, only a few
movements are still cherished — the adagio of the
second concerto, and the Funeral March from the
first sonata.
In Germany, Egbert Schumann endeavoured,
previously even to Liszt, to obtain popularity
and esteem for Chopin's imaginative creations;
and Clara Schumann (nee Wieck) — the most
estimable of living female musicians — prefers the
music of Chopin after that of Bach, Beethoven,
and Schumann. To the ordinary pianist his
wide stretches in the chords, his difficult and
unusual cadences, &c., are troublesome — they
would like something different. After Chopin,
the best drawing-room composers are : Adolph
Henselt [born 1814, ' Concert Etudes'\ Stephen
Heller [born 1815, ' Nuits blanches'\ Alexander
Fesca [1820-49], Jules Schulhoff [born 1825].
Spare us a careful enumeration of the whole of
them : Genu^ irritabile vatum ! They are syno-
nymous with the downright technical "pianistes
compositeurs " — Dohler, Alexander Dreyschock,
320 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Leopold DE Meter, &c. ; and axe, moreover, well
known to all pianoforte players. On the other
hand, Ernst Pauer, Chas. Halle, Mad. Arabella
GoDDARD, and Miss Zimmermann are musicians
of sterling merit, who devote themselves to ge-
nuine, classical pianoforte music.
We are about to enter on the most recent
period, of which Mendelssohn and Schumann have
determined the character in all essential details.
Felix MENDELSSOIIN-BARTIiOLDYw^s
born at Hamburg, February 3rd, 1809. The prime
of his artistic career was passed at Leipsic ; but his
education and first public success took place at
Berlin, where his father (a wealthy banker, and
son of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn) had
established himself about the year 1812. His
mother {nee Bartholdy) bestowed the utmost
pains on the education of her son, who early
gave promise of unusual talent. Zelter, the
founder, and for a number of years director, of the
Singakademie at Berlin, instructed him in compo-
sition ; L. Berger and, subsequently, Moscheles
taught him pianoforte playing. So early as his
ninth year Mendelssohn appeared in public as a
pianist, and, seven years afterwards, produced
compositions (C minor Symphon}^, 1824, Over-
ture to *A Midsummer Night's Dream,' 1827,
&c.) highly esteemed to this day. After visiting
England, Italy, and France [1830—1833], and
residins" for some time in the capitals of those
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 321
countries,* he was appointed music-director at
Diisseldorf [1883 — 1835], " General music director
of Church music" at Berlin [1843—1845], and,
between whiles, as well as from the year 1845
till his death [November 4th, 1847], director
of the Gewandkaus concerts and the conservatory
of music at Leipsic.
Mendelssohn's historical importance will be
best understood when we bear in mind that, no
sooner did he appear than Spohr's influence and
authority declined. Mendelssohn, though person-
ally less gifted and profound than Spohr, had the
faculty of employing his more active and plastic
talent to such advantage that, during his com-
paratively brief career, he overtook and left far
behind him the steady-going, old-fashioned
master. Whereas in Spohr we frequently ob-
.^^.«erve want of proportion between the elaborate
form and comparatively inferior subject-matter, in
Mendelssohn (who in this respect almost equals
Mozart) we are . aware of the innate relation of
form and subject to each other. His delicate
* Mendelssohn's Letters^ translated by Lady Wallace. Long-
man and Co., 1863. They consist of letters to his family during his
sojourn in foreign countries, — not " musical " letters addressed to an
imaginary correspondent with a view to publication. The letters to
Zelter contain a great deal of interesting information on art subjects
and history (on the liturgy of the Holy Week at Rome), as well as
those to Ed. Devrient (on the opera), to Frau v. Pereira at Vienna
(on ballad composition and descriptive music), to Immermann (on
Meyerbeer and ' Robert le Diable '), to his sister Fanny (on the
recent composition of the * Waldpurgis Night ').
Y
322 HISTORY OF MUSIC,
perception and exquisite taste are the very-
embodiment of modern civilisation ; invigorated
by the study of the old masters, his productions
yet breathe the soft, tender spirit which suits the
taste of the day, and, accordingly, they have
obtained universal admiration. " A new vein of
genuine, original, and withal, exquisitely poetical
music has cropped up in a reflective and in-
tellectual age, unfitted for the production of works
of a grand and majestic kind ; salient character •
istics, vigour, and vivacity, are, however, by no
means wanting in the more remarkable composi-
tions of this master." The works to which these
latter words of Vischer* are most applicable are
not so much Mendelssohn's great sacred composi-
tions as the smaller ones in the '* romantic "
style : * The first Waldpurgis Nighty' with its highly
original spectral chorus ('Come with torches
brightly flashing') and solemn conclusion — a
unique and charming work [first performed at
Leipsic, February 2nd, 1843]; the exquisite
music to Shakespeare's Midsummer NigMs Dreamy
of w^hich the instrumental pieces — especially the
Scherzo and Wedding March — are the finest [first
performed at Potsdam, October 14th, 1843] ; the
descriptive concert overtures Ruy Bias [1839] and
the Hebrides [1832], of which the first, written for
Victor Hugo's drama of that name, is grand and
noble in style, and the second (entitled ' Fingal's
♦ AesfJrtf'L Vol. iii., p. 1149.
LATER MTISICIAXS OF GERMANY. 323
cave ' in the score) is a musical reminiscence of a
visit to those remarkable islands.
The absence of innate vigour, masculine simpli-
city, and genuine feeling (commented on by
Yischer and unjustly insisted on by Marx), is
particularly felt in the Symphonies [C minor 1824,
A major 1833, A minor 1842], in which either
the dreamy song or the scherzo prevails. Of these,
the A minor (' Scotch Symphony'), which is almost
exclusively of a scherzo character, is the most
spirited ; in the A major Symphony, the scherzo
and the scherzoASko^ finale are again the best parts.
Although containing much beauty of detail,
especially in the instrumentation, Mendelssohn's
Symphonies lack the grand scheme and consistent
character of Mozart's and Beethoven's ; they are —
what ihQ French reviewer Pierre Scudo unfairly
asserted of all Mendelssohn's works without
exception — ''plus remarquables par les details que
par lapensee premiered The hard trials and acute
sorrows which alone could give emotion, pathos,
and tragical grandeur to compositions of this
kind never fell to the lot of happy Felix — and to
counterfeit emotion and raging grief was utterly
foreign to his upright, candid nature.
In the oratorios St. Paul [first performed at
the Dusseldorf Musical Festival, May 22nd, 1836]
and Elijah [first performed at the Birmingham
Musical Festival, August 13, 1846] Mendelssohn
has displayed such a fund of exquisite originaUty,
324 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and such dignity and solemnity (especially in St.
Paul*) in the treatment of this previously almost
neglected branch of composition, that his works
may henceforward be regarded as models of
modern oratorio composition. To our taste, the
somewhat overstrained pietism of some of the
solos in the (musically-speaking) far richer and
more brilliant * Elijah' is scarcel}^ congenial, and
we reserve our admiration for the noble choruses
" Thanks be to God," " Woe to him," " Behold,
God, he passed by," &c.
Similar in character to * Elijah' is the music
to Kacine's biblical drama Athalia [written for
the performance at Charlottenburg, November
12th, 1844]. We think the conception of this
work is not sufficiently lyrical ; in proportion to
the number of choruses, choral dialogues, and
* " In this Oratorio, Mendelssohn has given us of his very own
in the choruses, as for instance : * Now this man ceaseth not ' —
* Stone him to death ' — ' Happy and blest are they ' — (sung at
Leipsic at his funeral) — ' Is this he, who in Jerusalem' — * great
are the depths.' He has given us music of the past in his admirable
adaptations of the chorale harmonized after the manner of Bach, as
well as in the chorus ' But our God abideth in Heaven.' He has
given us modem music intermixed with reminiscences of Handel in
the solo pieces. Over the whole is thrown the charm of exquisite
instrumentation ; gracefully pleading in the chorus ' be gracious,'
humbly petitioning in the air ' God ! have mercy upon me,' in-
finitely touching in the cavatina * Be thou faithful unto death.' "
(F. M. Bdhme, The Oratorio, p. 57). The same writer remarks that
Mendelssohn — the reviver of oratorio after the Uach and Handel models
— was the first who took the unadorned words of Scripture for his text,
and who also revived the chorale, which had been neglected for a
length of time past.
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 325
choral recitatives — so far as one can judge from a
concert performance — the lyrical intervals are too
few and far between. The solo pieces, viz., the
duet " Ever blessed child, rejoice," and the trio
" Hearts feel, that love Thee" (both combined
with chorus), are among the noblest and most
delightful of Mendelssohn's compositions.
The Organ Sonatas, Motets, and Psalms, for
choir, soli, and orchestra ('When Israel out of
Egypt came,' Ps. cxiv., ' As the hart pants/
Ps. xlii.) are a resuscitation of Bach's severe style
in a modern — not would-be ancient — garb. A
few contemporary critics are of opinion that
Mendelssohn has too much secularized Bach's
severe forms in St. Paul and other compositions,
and leavened sacred art with " romantic" ele-
ments, &c. ; whereas, at the time he produced
these works, he had to defend himself against
the charge of having copied Bach in a formal
and too accurate manner. " If my sacred music
bears any resemblance to that of Seb. Bach,"
writes he to Devrient, " I cannot help it ; for I
wrote as I felt, and if I have felt the words
as old Bach did, I am all the more glad of
it. For I do not suppose you mean that I
have copied his forms without any reference to
the substance ; if such were the case, I could
never have finished anything for sheer disgust
and inanit}^"
In order to complete our description of Men-
326 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
delssohn's versatile and prolific talent, we must
specify : the Pianoforte concerto in G minor [1832] ;
the Violin concerto [1845]; the D minor trio
[1840]; the brilliant Sonatas for pianoforte and
violoncello ; the Ottet for bowed instruments ; the
finale of the unfinished opera Loreley ,** Schil-
ler's ode To the Sons of Art, for male chorus and
orchestra ; the Choral Songs and Duets ; and,
finally, the Capriccios and highly popular Songs
without words (in seven books) for pianoforte.
We are inclined to regard the semi-religious,
semi-secular Symphony-Cantata, the Lohgesang
('Song of praise'), as weU as the choruses to
Sophocles' tragedies Antigone and Oedipus in
Colonos (written by desire of the late King of
Prussia) as, on the whole, the least successful of
his compositions. Mendelssohn had not Gluck's
admirable conception of the antique ; in lieu of
a certain distinct tone pervading the whole work,
he gives \is only detached reminiscences in the
vocal as well as the orchestral parts. But even
Mendelssohn's inferior works, amongst which
may be reckoned * A calm sea' and ' Melusine,'
display the true musician ; in delightful combi-
nations of sound, and well-defined form and
proportion, he is a master indeed.
Nevertheless — and we trust without incurring
* The book, by Em. Geibel, has been adopted by Max. Bruch
[born at Cologne, 1838] in his opera of the same name, which has
lately been performed at Mannheim, Cologne, Hamburg, and else-
where in Germany, with great success.
LATER MUSICIAXS OF GEEMAXY. 327
the charge of inconsistency — we are constrained
to admit that in the musical world of our day
(on which female* and dilettanti influences are
brought to hear in no slight degree) Mendelssohn
plays an all too important part. Scarcely a
concert takes place without one or even more of
Mendelssohn's compositions. Not only do the
great models of Each and Handel seem likely to
be cast into the shade by the very composer who
has deferred to them in so eminent a degree, but
even Schumann— the last musician of historical
importance — has had to make way for the
favourite of the day.
Egbert ASCZrC/i¥^iV^i\r [born June 8th, 1810]t
— almost the same age as his contemporary Men-
delssohn — was the youngest son of a bookseller
established at Zwickau, in Saxony. He did not
enjoy the advantages of a downright musical
education from early childhood — a few short
intervals between the hours of study at college
* Note by the Translator. We are reminded of several talented
women in private life. Foremost amongst them stands Fanny
Hensel, Mendelssohn's gifted sister [died at Berlin 1847]. Not to
mention a host of others in Germany and elsewhere, we will content
ourselves with distinguishing two of our countrywomen : — Mrs.
Arkwright, whose charming song ' Ruth ' needs no commendation
of ours, and Virginia Gabriel, the talented composer of the Can-
tatas ' Dreamland ' and * Graziella,' as w^ell as of a number of songs
(« The Forsaken,' &c.).
f Robert Schumann. Eine Biographie von Joseph v. "Wasie-
LEWSKY. Adorned with portraits of Robert and Clara Schumann
and two facsimiles. Dresden, 1858. The Hinterlassenen Schriften
^4 Bande, Leipzig, 1854) contains Schumann's critical essays..
328 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
was all he could devote to the pianoforte. From
1828 to 1830, however, when he was supposed
to be studying jurisprudence at Leipsic and Hei-
delberg, he was enabled to give more time to the
study of his favourite art, and finally resolved
to give up the profession he was intended for,
and devote himself entirely to music* In the
autumn of 1830 he returned to Leipsic in order
to perfect himself in pianoforte playing under
Friedrich Wieck's (Clara's father) tuition. In
the fallacious hope of acquiring greater mecha-
nical facility, he subjected his hands to a mode of
treatment which ultimately lamed the middle
finger of the right hand. He then applied
himself to the study of harmony and compo-
sition under Heinrich Dorn.
Partly to pave the way for his compositions
(widely deviating from all heretofore received
maxims), Schumann, together with Wieck and
others, edited the * New Musical Journal' f — the
organ of genuine, enthusiastic art-students verstis
* Hereditary musical talent — so common in the days of Haydn
and Mozart (^vide the Bendas, Rombergs, Fescas, Pixis', Fiirstenaus,
&c.) — is unknown in our generation. Many of our modem musicians,
indeed, have, like Schumann, begun their career as musicians after
having studied for the learned professions, as : Berlioz, Marschner,
Reissiger, Curschmann, Marx, Hans v. Biilow, J. Raff. Of these,
the history of art will probably take count of only a few ; the others
are esteemed at the present day for other reasons. Some of the
most recent musicians appear to be totally devoid of originality, and
have little else to recommend them ; but in lieu of this they have
" a high consciousness of art," and know how to criticise with pen
and tongue what others knew how to turite^
t ' Neue Zeitschrift fur MusikJ*
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMAN r. 329
the old-fashioned party — artisans and manufac-
turers all ; — in short, the poetic-minded and edu-
cated section of the musical world versus that of
mechanically-accomplished, time-serving, vulgar
musicians. " The days are gone when a luscious
cadenza, a languishing appogiatura, or an E flat
run from one end of the keys to another de-
lighted a whole audience ; now-a-days we must
have ideas, and those consequently carried out, —
we must have poetical conception; everything
must bear the impress of lively imagination, else
the effect is merely momentary. What fingers
do is simply mechanism, but what comes from
the heart speaks to the hearts of all." Under
the name of " Florestan," he attacks Meyerbeer's
' Huguenots,' saying that Meyerbeer is *' no
better than Tranconi's troupe, &c. — a mere make-
shift, full of shams and hypocrisy." Having given
up the editorship of this journal [1844], Schu-
mann settled at Dresden ; which place he quitted
in 1850 to succeed Ferd. Hiller as music-director
at Diisseldorf. But, so early as 1853, he was
compelled to withdraw from active life ; and, not
long after, the " nervous hypochondria," of which
he had already complained at Dresden, resulted
in confirmed insanity. He died at the asylum at
Endenich, near Bonn, July 29th, 1856.
His works correspond to his career and educa-
tion. He struggled through the " storm period"
— as he himself called the period of preparation
330 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
and transition from one career to another — and
attained to maturity in an incredibly short space
of time. The latter period of his active life, from
about 1 847, bears a general resemblance to the first ;
partly, in the restless, and occasionally fantastic,
imagination, and partly, in the over-intellectual
tendency which it displays. These characteristics
are evident in his first pianoforte compositions :
Papillons, Davidshiindlertdnzey Cameval, and, to
some extent, even in Kreisleriana, In these
pieces, Schumann is as unartistic and devoid of
form as his favourite poet Jean Paul ; like him,
he has an insurmountable antipathy to common-
place, every-day life ; and, like him, is for ever
taking refuge in the ideal. The Kinder semen,
Fantasiestiickey Waldsceneii, &c. are carefully
finished as regards form ; and in their graceful
characteristic superscriptions* we perceive the
poetical mind of the composer — albeit this kind
of poetic miniature-painting afibrds but little
satisfaction to the real musician.
" In proportion as his apprehension of the
nature and object of music became clearer and
deeper, in proportion as he endeavoured to write
good music without making wit, poetry, &c. his
foremost aim, Schumann's music improved in
* " GJikkes genug " (" Too happy to live ") " Trdumendes Kind "
(" 'J^he child's dream ") ; " Jn der Nacht " (" In the night ") ; " Her-
herge " (" Asylum ") ; " VeiTu/ene SteUe " (" Ill-omened spot ") ;
" Einsame Blumen " (" Solitary flowers ") ; " Vogel als Prophet "
(" The prophet-bird,") &c.
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 331
vigour and originality. The two allegro move-
ments of his First Symphony in B flat [1841]
teem with youthful vigour and vivacity ; the terse,
short rhythms in the first allegro of the Second
Symphony in C remind one of the same kind of
thing in Beethoven (the first allegro movements
of the fifth and eighth Symphonies) ; and the finale
of the splendid Pianoforte Quartet is as healthy
and joyous as any (?) of old Sebastian Bach's
quick, vigorous movements, (whose manner, in-
deed, Schumann occasionally reminds us of in this
piece). In these and similar passages, Schumann
rejoices in having attained the mastery after pro-
tracted struggles and many a backsliding."*
To this classical, but brief [1841—1846] period
of Schumann's career belong likewise : the ' Over-
ture, Scherzo, and Finale' [1841] — a kind of small
Symphony in three movements ; to which the
fantastically-constructed Symphony in E flat
major, with its five movements, forms a curious
contrast; the extremely difficult, but fine Piano-
forte Concerto in A minor ; the grand and bril-
liant Pianoforte Quintet in E flat ; the Quartets
for bowed instruments (op. 41), and the Can-
tata * Das Paradies und die Peri ' (from Moore's
*Lalla Eookh,' 1843). It is highly probable that
Mendelssohn's exam23le, as well as the influence
of his talented wife (whom he married in 1840),
contributed to the wonderful improvement on
* Ambros. MiLsikleben der Gegenwart, p. 85.
332 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
his earlier compositions observable in the above-
mentioned pieces.
Latterly, Schumann evinced a partiality for the
treatment of poetical subjects on an enlarged
scale. These are : the gloomy, tragic music to
Lord Byron's Manfred; the tender and lyrical
opera Genofeva ; and the ' Semen aits Faust ' [first
performed in its entirety at Cologne, January
14th, 1862], of which the finale of the second
part (Faust's transfiguration) was especially ad-
mired. Similar in subject and treatment to the
afore-mentioned Cantata is ' Die Pilgerfahrt der
Rose* which Brendel does not even scruple to
call a weak imitation of the same. In both these
works, the entire effect is, notwithstanding con-
siderable beauty of detail — ^particularly in the
choruses — ,unimposing ; for nowhere does it ap-
peal to the feelings, and its overstrained and doleful
fairy-romance fails to arouse sympathy or interest.
In taking leave of Schumann, we cannot
bestow too much praise on his Songs, which,
though not equal in point of form to Schubert's,
deserve to be ranked next to his, as for example :
* To the sunshine,' ' Gro, roseate zephyr,' * De-
votion,' 'The lotus flower,' *Thou art a beau-
teous flower,' ' Ich grolle nicht' ' Wass will die
einsame Thrdne' &c. ; the collections of songs
called ' Dichterliehe (of Heine, op. 24), and
*• Frauenliehe und Leben (of Chamisso, op.
42) ; the charmingly graceful songs for choir
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 333
without accompaniment : ' Schon Rohtraut' 'Das
Dorfchen,'' &c., and for choir with pianoforte
or small orchestra, * Zigeunerlehen ; and the
farewell song, * Es ist hestimmf (likewise set by
Mendelssohn), &c. Few of them have obtained
absolute popularity ; which is not to be wondered
at when we consider that Schumann's melodies
are not such as are readily seized by the ear and
memory, nor easily separated from the context
and " transcribed" for instrumental purposes in
the manner of " Songs without words ;" for they
seek to follow the poet's thought with the
utmost accuracy, even to the smallest minutise.
Although at first sight this proceeding seems
to indicate want of attention to musical form,
in reality, it was the only way to get rid of
the unmeaning vocal phraseology of Mendel-
ssohn's imitators, and infuse new vigour into
vocal composition.
Of Schumann's successors, the most distin-
guished is Eobert Franz [born at Halle in
Saxony, 1815], though he is not, for one moment,
to be seriously compared with the former. The
graceful conception and charming proportion
observable in Franz's compositions distinguish
them favourably from those of many modern
vocal composers, who are in the habit of utterly
disregarding, not only tuneful melody, but the
metre of the verses they set to music ; but as to
healthy, vigorous, and characteristic melody — we
334 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
seek for it in vain in the songs of Eobert Franz:
The vocal composer should be something better
than an obedient interpreter to the poet; his
highest, nay, his only object should be to invent
a melody which appeals directly to the feelings,
and reflects the poet's idea in every trait. De-
clamatory rendering of the words, be it ever so
exact and true, correct conception of the poet's
meaning, and melody aiming exclusively at a
close affinity with the verse metre are far from
answering to the idea of genuine vocal compo-
sition.
The case, however, is different in ballad com-
position ; where, so long as the epic, narrating
tone prevails, the plain recitative style of singing
is in good keeping. But in how far even this is
permissible, the talented Karl Lowe [born at
Halle, November 30th, 1796], who is the first of
ballad composers, has shown us in his numerous
ballads after Herder, Goethe, TJhland, etc. He
adopts a medium between simple recitative and
ariosOy which, however attractive it may seem
when taken in connection with the words, becomes
tedious after a time, because effective lyrical
crises — '/mere pleasing melody," as Wagner
contemptuously calls it — is too much lost sight
of Thus his larger compositions, and particu-
larly his ballad "groups" — not to mention his
Oratorios: 'Die sieben Schldfer' 'Die Apostel
in Philippi,' * Die eheiiie Schlange ' (the two last
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 335
for male choir only) — soon become monotonous ;
but, on the other hand, the smaller songs :
' Edward y ' Heinrich der Vogler,' ' Der WirtJdn
Tochterlein ' [" Es zogen drei Burschen "], etc. are
superior to almost anything we can recollect of
the kind.
In the ballad for choir, soil, and orchestra,
Niels Wilhelm GADE [born at Copenhagen,
October 22nd, 1817] was far more successful
than Lowe, or even Schumann (' Vom Pagen und
der Konigstochter,' four ballads of Greibel; 'Das
Gluckvon EdenhaU,'hj Uhland). 'Comala (after
Ossian) and 'Erlkonigs Tochter (after a Danish
legend) are, next to Ferd. HiUer's Lorelei, those
works which, since Mendelssohn's ' Waldpurgis
Night,' have deservedly obtained the greatest
success. Though Hiller may have displayed
more vigour and dramatic movement in the
treatment of his ' Lorelei ' (similar in subject to
Gade's ' Erlkonigs Tochter,' but of greater pathos
in the poetry), Gade has the, now-a-days inesti-
mable, advantage of greater simplicity and natural-
ness. His charming melodies are thoroughly
tuneful and easy to retain ; and his characteristic,
but never obtrusive, instrumentation harmonizes
admirably with the feeling of the entire piece.
Latterly, he has produced the graceful Cantatas :
^ FrilhlingS'Fantasie ' (for four solo voices, orches-
tra, and pianoforte), ^ Fruhlings-BotscliaJV (for
336 HISTORY 015^ MUSIC.
choir and orchestra), 'Die heilige Nacht' (for
contralto solo, choir, and orchestra).
Likewise, his gracefully arranged and evenly
elaborated Symphonies (1. C minor, 2. E major,
3. A minor, 4. B flat major, 5. D minor, with
pianoforte ohligato, 6. G minor) place Gade
amongst the foremost of living musicians. Some
would fain deny him all merit except what they
call his " northern colouring," and maintain that
his ideas are insignificant and poor ; but we can*
not help acknowledging that Gade has shown
admirable judgment in refraining from concep-
tions of a grand order, and has managed to unite
the ideal, though not profound, subject-matter
with motifs of a genre or landscape kind. If we
compare Gade's Symphonies with those of his
predecessors, we find they most resemble those of
Mendelssohn ; but the gifted Dane is as much
superior to Mendelssohn's imitators, as the
English composers Sterndale Bennett, with
his smooth concert Overtures (' Die Najaden,'
' The Wood-nymph,' etc.), and his Cantata ^ The
May Queen,' and Arthur Sullivan (' The
Tempest' Cantata) is of their number. Gade's
first Symphony (in C minor) as well as his
concert Overtures ' Nachkldnge vo7i Ossian ' and
'/m Hochlcmd,' inspired both Mendelssohn and
Schumann with the liveliest interest, — the latter
even regarding it as a good omen for the young
musician that the letters of his name corre-
sponded to the four strings of the violin.
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 337
In regard to vocal composition (little cultivated
by Gade and the best musicians since Schumann's
time), we have lately had to put up with a great
many weak and trivial productions ; but should we
disdain to admit a Eeissiger, Abt, Kucken,
EssER, Krebs, &c., together with Proch and
GuMBERT (" genteel ballad-minstrels " as they are
called) into good company, because they too
have been guilty of some trivial, but highly
popular, compositions? Excellent German vocal
composers are Alex. Fesca, Cursciimann [born
at Berlin 1805, died 1841, "Streamlet, cease thy
constant flow," " The sailor draws near land,"
&c.], Karl Banck [born 1804], W. Taubert, H.
DoRN, K. Eeinecke, Truhn, and others.
Genuine ballad-singing — to adopt Reissmann's*
nomenclature — is found in those choirs for male
voices, in which Karl Zollner, Aug. Schaffer,
and the journeyman patriarch Jul. Otto are
esteemed *' classical." The better and more
artistically disposed societies, like the Cologne
Choral Society^ are sadly in want of good modern
songs. Since Weber, Marschner, Mendelssohn,
and Konradin Kreutzer, Friedrich Silcher [died
at Tubingen 1860] is the only one who by his
" Volkslieder'" (in twelve books) has given a
* Das deutsche Lied in seiner historischen Entwickelung. Darge-
stellt von August Reissmaxn. Cassel, 1861.
t Note by the Translator. Many of our readers will doubt-
leFS remember the visits of this Society to England in 1853 and
1854.
* Z
338 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
nobler impetus to popular musical art — already
threatening to degenerate into wretched hum and
dance tunes. How genuine and true was his
conception of the popular song is evinced in his
composition oi' Lorelei ("Ich weiss nicht, was soil
es bedeuten,"), " Zu Strasshurg auf der Sclianz^*
'''- Morgen muss ich fort von /a^r," and a number
of other well-known songs. Spohr, Franz
Lachner (* Sturmesmythe'\ Ferd. Hiller, Gade,
Jul. RiETZ (Schiller's ' Dithyrambe^' ' Old German
war-song'), Hauptmann, Taubert, &c. did not
consider it beneath their dignity to do something
towards improving the despised, because neg-
lected, male choir singing ; but the majority of
musicians are content to accept the present state
of things, and abandon this branch of com-
position to the above-mentioned manufacturers.
In a greater degree even than the " music-
drama" founded on the old French recitative
opera, is the modern genus of composition called
''programme-music'' utterly foreign to German art
and feeling. It owes its origin to Berlioz — a
Frenchman ; and Liszt (who writes his books in
French) displays an affinity to French taste and
feeling in his " symphonic poetry." Programme-
music is a degenerate species of instrumental
music, which requires a special explanation in
order to be understood ; consequently, while
setting at nought form and proportion, which are
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 339
absolutely essential to all true art, it ignores the
first and most essential feature of German instru-
mental music, viz. — ideality. With what right
the representatives of this style appeal to Beet-
hoven's example in support of their theories we
think we have already satisfactorily shown ; and,
with regard to Schumann, it is only his first
attempts which they imitate. The Heidelberg
student's ' Papillons ' (op. 2) are of such import-
ance in Brendel's eyes that — though he bestows
but little attention on Schumann's later compo-
sitions — he thinks it incumbent on him* to.
*' allude to them more particularly." Schumann's
later compositions are entirely free from the
tendency to describe external events and occur-
rences. He protests against Berlioz' pro-
grammes, which he says " confined his view,"
and even the few superscriptions to his pieces he
declares are not to be understood in a universal
sense, — that which suited him individually ought
not to be taken as a rule. '* It is a bad sign for
music when it needs a superscription ; for it is a
proof that it is not the result of genuine inspira-
tion but of some outward suggestion. That our
art is able to express a great many things, and
even to follow the course of an event, who will
deny ? But those who are inclined to test the
value of the images thus originated can do so
easily — they need only erase the superscriptions."
* Oeschichte der Musik^ p. 506.
340 HISTORY OB^ MUSIC.
Indeed, the value of this would-be "charac-
teristic " music is determined by the simple fact
that the superscriptions are usually invented
after the music is composed ; but modern " tone-
poets" are rarely as candid as the one who
consulted us as to whether he should call his
recently composed overture * Minna von Barn-
helm ' * or * Clavigo,' f or another — ^rather cele-
brated pianist — whom AmbrosJ describes as hesi-
tating between * Abd-el-Kader * and the ' Falls of
Schaffhausen ' for the title of a '^ grande Etude'' I
" Une Jille est-elle depourvue de beaute\ d' esprit et
de doty on nous vante son caractereJ'
HECTOR BERLIOZ— ''i\iQ chief pillar of
modern development " — ,who endeavoured to re-
place absence of ideality and artistic perception by
meretricious devices and " grandeur of detail" (!),
and faulty design by enriched colouring, was
born in a village of the Isere department,
December 11th, 1803. His father intended him
for the medical profession, to which he objected.
All assistance from home being withdrawn in
consequence of this decision, he hired himself out
as chorist at a vaudeville theatre ; afterwards he
gave singing lessons, and ultimately made money
enough to enable him to complete his studies at
♦ Comedy, by Lessing.
t Tragedy, by Goethe.
X Qrenzen der Musik und PoesiCf p. 136.
lATER MUSICIANS OP GERMANY. 341
the Conservatoire at Paris. For his Cantata
* Sardanapalus ' [1830] he obtained a prize and
allowances for a journey to Italy. After his
return to Paris [1882], his Symphonies ' Sin-
fonie fantastique^ Episode de la vie dun artiste,'
and ' Harold en Italie ' were performed in public.
Both of them purport to represent incidents in
his own career ; the first, a vision engendered by
passionate admiration of an actress (terminating
in the execution march, guillotine, and witches'
revel) ; the second (with viola ohUgato [Harold !])
impressions of the country and people in Italy,
viz. — Harold in the mountains, scenes of sadness,
happiness and joy — pilgrimage — serenade in the
Abruzzi mountains — bandits' orgies. This
symphony has nothing whatever in common
with the fourth Canto of Byron's ' Childe
Harold ;' he might, says Ambros,* with equal
propriety have styled it 'Berlioz en Italie' or,
after the usual fashion, simply, ' Souvenirs
d' Italie.'
In his "dramatic Symphony," 'Romeo et
Juliette' Berlioz attempted to render an entire
poetical work (Shakespeare's ' Bomeo and
Juliet') by means of orchestra alone. To the
introduction on the first scene of the tragedy,
(the Dispute) and a * Prologue' sung by the
chorus with the interpolation of two songs (Song
for a contralto voice in honour of love, Italy, and
* CJompare Oremen der Mtisik, &c., p. 156 — 178.
342 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
Shakespeare, and a tenor solo, " Story of Queen
Mab"), succeed — likewise explained and connected
by choral and instrumental movements — the
principal scenes of the drama, viz. — Komeo's
melancholy — the ball at Capulet's house — ^the
balcony scene — Queen Mab (taken from Mer-
cutio's narrative) — scene in the vault. Berlioz
has not been successful in his endeavour to
render Shakespeare's play in music; for he did
not possess the secret of combining all the details
of the poetry with artistic unity, i.e. to group
the details according to the laws of composition
and reduce them to an harmonious whole. On
this account, he did right not to treat the * Dam-
nation de Faust ' in the form of a symphony, but
to confine himself to the description of a few
scenes : — Introduction, Eakocsky march (instead
of the soldiers' song), rustic dance under the
lime tree, Mephistopheles' rat song, &c.
As really original pieces, (though, as regards their
relation to the rest, horsd'oeuwe both of them),
the Eakocsky march and the Scherzo^ ' La Fee
Mab \ are much admired though but little known.
Berlioz calculated his instrumental effects for such
a large orchestra {at least fifteen first and as many
second violins, ten violas, &c.), that, apart from
other considerations, his works could rarely be
performed. After a time, " finding himself no
longer appreciated " (i.e. when the French were
tired of him), he made the tour of Germany, in
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 343
1843, but arrived — according to Brendel — too
soon. **We were not yet prepared for Berlioz'
innovations." The only thing for which Berlioz
was admired was the brilliant, ethereal colouring*
which he shed over his otherwise insignificant
compositions. Among the few who stood up for
him as a composer was Liszt, who even urged him
to come to Weimar in 1852, when the 'Eomeo'
symphony, ' Faust ' scenes, and his opera of
' Benmnuto Cellini ' (with the pleasing overture
* Le Carnaval Eomain ' in the second act) were per-
formed under his own auspices. The only genuine,
and really complete, work in the style of which
Berlioz is the founder is the Symphony-ode
' Le Desert; by Felicien David [born 1810] ; his
later Symphony-cantatas * Moses on Mount
Sinai' and 'Columbus,' as well as his operas,
met with but little success.
Whereas in the compositions of Berlioz we
may find somewhat to admire, Liszt's *' symphonic
poems" come very near to that which is no
longer musical art; it consists in giving pro-
minence to reflective, intellectual, " highly sym-
bolical," ideas — consequently art defeats its own
purpose (^^cogitaty ergo non esf), "Spiritual
music," forsooth, which robs spirit of its thought,
and music of its soul ! When passing judgment on
" symphonic poetry," we must, however, bear in
mind that Liszt has, generally speaking, selected
* Traite d* instrumentation et d* orchestration modernes^ Paris, 1844.
344 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
the most impracticable subjects* for musical
treatment, and that the want of form they exhibit
throughout is by no means characteristic of the
style or necessitated by the subject. On a nearer
view, " symphonic poetry " presents a strange con-
trast to the old-fashioned ^^ suite)' it professes
to mean something as a whole, without even
expressing anything clearly and distinctly in
detail. " As a matter of course, it goes on in the
same strain without interruption ; one part grows
out of the other without resulting in any distinct,
complete idea ; — distinct, complete idea is only to
be discerned in the symphonic poem in its
entirety." Thus Ambros,f the partial admirer of
Liszt ; his, also, is the clever saying : " These
works are not, they signify !"
That amongst his numerous symphonic poems
(as for instance ' Tasso ' and ' Prometheus '), we
find musical passages of considerable merit, is
only to be expected in a musician like Liszt ; but
* They are as follows : 1. * Ce qu*on entend sur la montagne '
(after V. Hugo) ; 2. * Tasso : Lamento e Triovfo ;' 3. ' Les Pre-
ludes ' (after Lamartine) ; 4. ' Orphee ;' 5. * Promethee ;' 6. ' Ma-
zeppa* (after V. Hugo); 7. ^ Festkldnge ;^ 8. ^ Heroide fnnebre i"*
9. ^Hungariaf 10. ^Hamlet* 11. ^ Hunnenschlacht^ (after Kaul-
bach) ; 12. ^ Die IdeaJe *^'> (after Schiller). Besides these is the
Faust Symphony (first movement — Faust ; Andante — Margaret) ^
Scherzo — Mephistopheles ; concluding with the chorus mysticus
(" Alles Vergdngliche ist nur ein Gleichniss ; . . . . Das Unhe-
schreibliche hier ist es gethan /") ; and the Symphony to Dante's
* Divina Commedia ' (Inferno and Purgatorio), with concluding
chorus for soprano and contralto voices.
t Musikleben der Gegenwart, p. 159. Compare p. 153 — 173.
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 345
the general impression is one of blank, dreary
discomfort. As a performer, Liszt is a pheno-
menon ; as a writer, he is entitled to a high place
in musical literature ; but as a composer, he has
remained what he was in his numerous '' Partitions
de Piano ^' '' Paraphrases^'' " Transcriptions'' (of
Beethoven, Wagner, Meyerbeer, Yerdi, &c.) — a
translator.
That which Liszt vainly essayed in his sym-
phonic poems, others (after the example of
Mendelssohn and Beethoven) attempted in the
overture — a branch of composition which aims at
rendering a poem in its general character and
with reference to a particular subject or event in
a musical and agreeable form. Among the best of
those which have appeared in recent times, we
reckon those of F. Eies to * Don Carlos ;' Schin-
delmeisser's to 'Uriel Acosta' (which, however,
strongly reminds one of Meyerbeer) ; Bargiel's to
' Medea ;' AV . Taubert s to Shakespeare's ' Tem-
pest ;' and K. Eeinecke's to Calderon s ' Dame
Kobold.' Unfortunately, a number of less gifted
composers have followed in their footsteps, and,
if it goes on much longer, we shall have an over-
ture to every play.
Finally, we must mention the small super-
scription composers — the poetical pianoforte
players who, in the amiable intention of describ-
ing a poetical or characteristic subject, torment
us with nothing but their miserable selves. Their
346 ' HISTORY OF MUSIC.
works exliibit the tokens by which Goethe par-
ticularly recognized the decay of poetry in our
age, as well as the sterility of our poets : — extreme
finish in the technical portion, and a tendency to
subjective contemplation.* Even in works of a
larger calibre, the much-talked of close association
of music and poetry is of a purely personal
origin ; indeed, this latest achievement has con-
fused and disturbed everything, and it is high
time for it to be thoroughly understood that the
limits of art are necessarily also the limits of the
Beautiful.
Like Wagner in the opera, Liszt and Berlioz
in instrumental music have ignored the propor-
tion which should exist between the subject-
matter and form; and art is left vacillating
between the two extremes of vulgar realism and
a too abstract idealism; — theory has got the start
of practice. But it is not so much the a/??i that
the artist strives at — not so much what his idea
was when he set about producing a work of art,
as what he can and really does produce, which is
of consequence to us ; he will not meet with
appreciation and admiration unless his creations
are carried out with legitimate methods of art.
" The real intention of fine art," says the greatest
of art philosophers — Lessing, " can be no other
than that which each art is competent to produce
* Compare Gervinus' Oeschichte der deutschen Dichtung^ vol v.,
p. 659.
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 347
independently of another. With modern painters,
the means is evidently an object. They paint
history for the sake of painting history, without
reflecting that they are thereby making their
art merely accessory to other arts and sciences ;
or, at least, are so dependent on other arts and
sciences that their own is entirely deprived of its
value as a primitive art."
When we come, however, to copyists — the
composers a la Liszt and Wagner — the case
assumes a serious aspect. These gentlemen seem
to think that they have nothing to do but to
take tilings easily in order to appear original and
in the modern taste ; they do not even compose,
they simply concoct, and expect that the pro-
gramme or superscription will do the rest.
" Whatever has already been done need not be
done again, and what can be done must be done."
Fortunately, however, the number of those who
thus transgress against the beauty of form is
small indeed ; and, although they may boast that
their admirers esteem their errors a proof of
genius and devotion to the Beautiful and the
True, and pursue to the death all who hold a
different opinion with their newly-discovered
theory, *'the aesthetics of ugliness," — * we need
entertain no fears about the future. The " new
German " school — as it now claims to be called —
* Aesthetik des Easdichen. Von Karl Rosenkbanz. Konigsberg,
1853.
348 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
will doubtless exhaust itself in as short a space
of time as did the *' storm-period " of 1770 —
1780 and the Young Germany of literature ; and
we have greater reason to fear that whatever of
a wholesome and genuine tendency is yet exist-
ing in the works of R. Wagner will remain
undeveloped than that the recently proclaimed
freedom and equality in art will ever be thought
seriously of.
The taste of the present generation is decidedly
in favour of music of a simple and sterling
calibre; the works of the great masters are
diffused among the multitude by means of cheap
and excellent editions and well managed Festi-
vals, societies, and Popular Concerts. Whereas,
in the year 1815, Spohr wrote from Munich:
"An entire symphony is performed at every
concert," as of something unusual, — at the sym-
phony-concerts established by Liebig at Berlin,
by Pasdeloup at Paris, and at the Philharmonic
and New Philharmonic Societies' and other
concerts in London, the finest instrumental com-
positions are now constantly performed to
hundreds and thousands of people. Likewise, in
contemporary compositions we observe, with
pleasure, a tendency to improve. A considerable
number of, for the most part, sterling and admi-
rable musicians, who do not follow the advice of
Mephisto :
** A poet choose as thine ally."
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 349
have (as we gather from their much and
deservedly admired compositions) withdrawn
from the easy-going eclecticism of the day : — Franz
Lachner [born at Rain in Suabia, April 2nd, 1804,
Symphonies, * Suites for orchestra] ; the celebrated
thorough bass master (author of ' Die Natur der
Harmonih und der Metrik' 1853) Moritz Haupt-
MANN [born at Dresden 1792, Masses, Motets —
among which the 'Salve Regina' called by
Spohr " ravishingly beautiful," — ecclesiastical
pieces for choir and orchestra] ; Niels Gade
(whose admirable compositions have been already
alluded to) ; Perd. Hiller [born at Francfort-
on-the-Maine 1811 : ' Die Zersiorung Jerusalems
and * Saul/ both oratorios — ; ' Ver sacrum ' or
* Die Grilndung Boms' a cantata ; — Hebrew
songs of Lord Byron, &c.] ; Karl Reinthaler
[* Jephtha, und seine Tochter/ an oratorio] ; Bernh.
Molique [' Abraham' an oratorio] ; Friedr.
Kiel [' Requiem '] ; Costa [* Eli^' * Naaman'
oratorios]; Hesse [died 1863], Ritter, and in
England, Goss, Elvey, and others [organ and
choir compositions] ; Wilh. Taubert [music
to Shakespeare's * Tempest *] ; Karl Reinecke
\J Ave Maria' and other choral songs, pianoforte
concertos, &c.] ; Jul. Rietz [overtures and sym-
phonies]; J. Joachim [violin concerto in the
Hungarian style]; also chamber and pianoforte
music by a great many of the aforesaid, and
Johannes Brahms [serenades in D and A for
350 HISTORY OF MUSIC.
small orchestra, sestet, and pianoforte pieces :
variations on airs of Handel, Schumann, &c.] ;
Ferd. David [chamber music for violin] ; Eob.
VoLKMANN, A. EuBiNSTEiN, J. Eaff and a
number of others. Yet we are to believe that the
field of art lies fallow and must be ploughed up
before it can produce another crop? True, no
one among living composers has been able to
replace Mendelssohn ; and, were he still living,
we should most certainly never have heard all
this talk about new theories in art.
We therefore await patiently the resurrection
of real genius — genius, such as shall put to
silence the disputes which distract the musical
profession in Germany — genius, whose works shall
proclaim a new ideal, and draw everything into its
mighty vortex. Another spring-time of music —
another classical epoch in music as well as poetry,
we may scarcely hope to see. The tendency of
the age is a different one ; there is less scope for
imagination in these scientific days ; and instead
of art, — political, national, and material interests
principally employ the minds of men. For this
reason, the artist who reveres the immortal Past
will cherish the element in which its greatness
consisted — the beautiful Ideal, — that it may con-
tinue to set forth all that is best and noblest in
man. This is Schiller's injunction to the Sons
of Art ; and so long as the sublime words of the
poet are not only sung, but understood and
LATER MUSICIANS OP GERMANY. 351
cherished, so long will — similar to Nature's inex-
haustible resources — genuine love of art and
creative power abide and continue :
" Sons of Art ! into your hands consigned
(That trust revere !)
The liberal dignity of human kind !
With you to sink, with you to reappear."*
* Sir E. Bulwer Lytton.
353
INDEX.
PAGE
Abt, Franz 337
Adam, Adolphe .. .. 279
Adam de la Hale .. .. 19
Albert, Heinrich .. .. 74
Alboni, Marietta .. .. 303
Albrechtsberger .. .. 196
Allegri 40
Amati 62
Ambrose, St. 10
Ander 302
Anerio, Felice .. .. 40
Aptommas 315
Arcadelt 25
Arkwright, Mrs. .. 327 w.
Arne, Dr 100
Arnold 100
Artot, Ddsir^ .. .. 304
Astorga 63
Auber 277
Bach, Job. Seb 78
, Phil. Em. 79, 92, 114, 148
— , Wilh. Friedemann 92
—, Job. Christian .. 92
Bader 302
Baillot 312
Bai 41
Balfe 279
Banck, Karl 337
Bargiel, Woldemar .. 345
PAGB
Barmann, Heinr. and Karl 315
Bazzini 311
Beethoven . . 188 w., 195
BelUni .. .. 234 w., 269
Benda, Georg .. .. 145
Benedict, Julius .. .. 280
Benevoli 42
Bennet, John . . . . 100
Bennett, WilliamStemdale 336
Berbiguier .. .. .. 315
Berger, Ludwig .. 258, 320
Berlioz, Hector .. .. 340
Bemabei 42
Bemacchi 61
Bernhard the German .. 44
Berton 125
Billington, Mrs 304
BiRD,Wimam 100
Bishop 100
Blagrove 311
Blow, John 100
Bdhm 315
Boieldieu.. .. 126,250,276
BoRDONi, Faustina .. ., 62
Bottesini 314
Braham 302
Brahms 349
Broschi, Carlo (Farinelli) 62
Bruch, Max 326 w.
Bull, Ole 311
2 A
354
INDEX.
PAGE
BuLOw, Hansv 93
Burde-Ney, Jenny . . 304
Ca/Tarelli 62
Caldara 45
Callcott 100
Calzabigi 128
Cambert 117
Carafa 270
Carissimi 55
Carl, Henriette , . , . 304
Carpentras .... .. 25
Catalani, Angelica .. 302
Catel 125
Cherubini . . . . 234 7?., 250, 274
Chopin 317
Cimarosa . . . . 122, 171 n., 263
Clemens non Pai)a . . . . 25
Clementi 257
Corelli 61
Costa 340
Cramer, J. B 258
Crescent! ni 62
Criiger 74
Cruvelli, Sophie . . . . 304
Curschmann 337
CuzzoNi, Francesca .. 62
Czemy 258
D'Alayrac
Danzi
DaPonte .. ..
D'Auvergne, Antoine
125
253
177
123
David, Felicien .. .. 343
, Ferd 311
De Beriot, Louis . . . . 313
De Meyer, Leopold .. 320
Dibdin lOO
DiSTix, family of .. .. 315
Dittersdorf 259
Dohler 320
Doles 92
PAGE
Donizetti .. .. ' 234 n., 269
Dora 296,337
DowLAND, John .. .. 100
Dreyschock 320
Drouet 315
Dufay 22
Duni 59,123
Duprez 302
Durante 57
Dussek 255
Dultmann-Meyer, Louise 304
Ebeling 74
Eccard 73
Elvey 349
Ernst 311
Esser 337
Farinelli
.. 62
Faustina
.. 62
Feo, Francesco
.. 57
Fesca, Alexander ..
.. 319
, Friedr. Ernst
.. 254
Festa, Costanzo ..
.. 25
Field, John 258
Fioravanti 263
Fischer, Mich. Gotthard .. 87
, Ludwig .. .. 302
Flotow 280
FoDOR, Josephine . . . . 303
Formes, Karl 302
Franco of Cologne... .. 18
Fraxz, Kobert .. .. 333
Frescobaldi 87
Froberger 87
FiJRSTENAU, Anton and
Moritz 315
Fux .. 151
Gabriel, Virginia .. 327 n.
Gabrieli, Francesca .. 62
IXDEX.
355
PAGE
Gabrieli, Giovanni .. 43
Gade, Niels Wilh. .. 335, 338
Gallus, Jacobus .. .. 46
Galuppi 59, 122
Geminiani 61
Gibbons, Orlando .. .. 100
Giuliani 315
Glaser 294
Glover 100
Gluck .. 127,147,168,250
Goddard, Mdme Arabella 320
Goltermann 313
Goss 349
Gossec 125
Goudimel 25,70
Gounod 287
Graun 113
Gregory the Great .. 11
Gretry 124
Grisi, Giuditta .. .. 303
, Giulietta .. .. 303
Griitzmacher 314
Guarneri 62
Guglielmi 59
GuiDO of Arezzo .. .. 17
Gumbert 337
Gungl 267
Haizinger 302
Halevy 287
Halle, Charles .. 94 n., 320
Handel 95
Harper 315
HA8ER,Wilh 302
Hasse .. .. 59,64,112
Hassler, Hans Leo .. 72
Hassler 87
Hauptmanx, Moritz .. 338
Haydn, Joseph . . . . 150
, Michael .. .. 164
Heinefetteb, Sabine .. 304
PAGE
Heinemeyer 315
Heller, Stephen .. .. 319
Hensel, Fanny . . . . 327 n-
Henselt 319
Hermstedt 315
Herold 279
Herz, Henri 259
Hesse, A. F 349
Hilleb, Joh. Adam . . 143
, Ferdinand .. 296,338
Himmel 144
Homilius 92
Hoi-sley 100
Howell 314
Hucbald 16
Hummel 255
HuMPHBEYS, Pelham . . 100
HUnten 259
Isouard 125
Joachim 311
Jomelli 59
Josquin des Pres . . . . 23
Kalkbrenner 257
Kalliwoda 254
Kauer 260
Keiser 96
Kelly 302
Kemble, Adelaide . . . . 304
Kerl 87
Kiel, Friedr 349
Kindermann 302
Kimberger 93
Kittel 87
Klein, Bei-nh 307
Kompel 311
Konig 315
KosTER, Louise . . . . 304
Kbebs, Joh. Ludwig .. 92
356
INDEX.
Krebs, Karl Aug. ..
Kreutzer, Konradin
, Rudolph . .
PAGE
337
294
312
Kucken 337
Kummer 315
Labitzky 267
Lablache 302
Lachner, Franz .. 296, 338
Lafont 313
Lagroscino 122
Lanner 267
Lasos of Hermione . . . . 3
La8SUS, Orlandug .. .. 27
Laub, Ferdinand .. .. 311
Lauterbach 311
Lazarus 315
Lemmens - Sherrington,
Madame 304
Leo, Leonardo 58
Leonard 313
LiND, Jenny 304
Lindimintner 296
Lipiusky 312
Liszt 316,343
Lolli 61
Lortzing 296
Lotti 44
Lowe, Karl 334
, Sophie 304
Lucca, Pauline .. .. 304
Lully 117
Lurabye 267
Luther .. .. .. .. 68
Lutzer, Jenny .. .. 304
Macfarren 280
Ma jo, Ciccio di . . . . 59
lilalibran-Garcia .. .. 303
Mantius 302
Mara, Gertrud Elisabeth 144
PAOK
Marcello 45
Marchesi 62
Marchettus of Padua . . 18
Marenzio, Luca .. .. 48
Mario 303
Marschner 297
Martin 262
Mattheson 97
Maurer 312
Mayer, Simon . . 264
Mayseder 312
Mdhul 126,271
Mendelssohn .. 2, 239, 320
Mercadante 270
Metastasio 60
Meyerbeer 281
MiLANOLLO, Theresa and
Maria 313
Milder-Hauptmann, Anna 304
Molique 312
Monsigny 123
Monteverde 51
Morales 25
Morley, Thomas .. .. 100
Moscheles .. .. 257,320
Mosel 107,111
MouTON, Jean .. .. 25
Mozart, Leopold 148, 111, 165
, Wolfg. Amadeus 60,
110, 165, 237 n,
MuLLER, the brothers . . 313
, I wan 315
, Wenzel .. .. 260
Mdris, Johannes de , . 18
Musard 267
Nadermann 315
Nanini 40
Nardini 61
Naumanx, Jos. G 114
Neander, Joachim . . .. 74
INDEX.
357
PAGE
Neukomm 256
Neumark 74
NicoLAi, Otto 298
Nicholson 315
Niemann 302
Nourrit 302
NovELLO, Clara .. .. 303
Oberthiir 315
Ockeuheim 22
Offenbach 286
Olympos 4
Onslow 253
Osiander 72
Otto, Jul 337
Pacchiarotti 62
Pachelbel 87
Paer 264
Paesiello 122,263
Paganini 311
Palestrina 33
Parepa, Madame . . . . 304
Parish- Alvars 315
Pasta, Giuditta .. .. 303
Patti, Adelina . . . . 304
Pauek, Ernst 320
Pergolese 63,121
Peri, Jacopo 51
Petrucci 25
Philidor 123
Piatti 314
Piccini .. .. 59, 122, 136
Pistocchi 62
Pitoni 42
Pleyel 255
Poriwra 62,151
Pott, Aug. 311
Pratorius, Michael .. 74
Pratten 315
Proch 337
Prume
PAGE
.. 313
Pugnani
.. 61
Punto
.. 315
Purcell, Henry-
99
Pythagoras
3
Quanz 148
Queisser 315
Quinault 117
Radziwill 238
Raff, Anton 302
, Joachim .. .. 350
Rameau 110
Reichaudt, Joh. Friedr. 141
Reinecke, J. a 87
,Karl .. 337,345
Reinthaler 349
Reissiger 337
Richardson 315
RiEg, Ferdinand .. 253, 345
Rietz, Julius 338
Righini 262
Rink 87
Rittek, A. G 349
Rode, Pierre 312
Roger; 302
Rollet, Bailly du . . . . 135
Romberg, Andr. . . 254, 259
,Bemh 314
RoEB, Cyprian de .. .. 27
Rossini 250,264
Rousseau, J. J 121
Rubmi 302
Rubinstein 350
RuDERSDORFF, Madame . . 304
Sacchini 59,262
Sainton 311
Saixton-Dolby, Madame 304
Salieri 139,262
358
INDEX.
PAGE
Salomon, John Peter . . 153
Santley 302
Scarlatti, Alessandro .. 56
— , Domenico .. 98
SCHAFFER, Aug 337
ScHATZEL, Pauline V. .. 304
ScHEBEST, Agnes .. .. 304
ScHECHNER-WAAOEN,Nan-
nette 304
Scheldt 87
Schenk 260
Schiclit 92
Schikaneder . . . . 172 n.
Schindelmeisser .. .. 345
Schneider, Friedrich .. 307
ScHNORR V. Carolsfeld .. 302
Sohoberlechxer, Sophie 304
SCHRODER-DEVRIENT.Wil-
helmine 303
ScHROTER, Corona . . . . 144
Schubert 241
Schulhoff 319
Schumann, Clara .. .. 319
, Ilobert 319, 327
ScHUNKE, the brothers .. 315
ScHiJTZ, Heinr 74
Schweitzer 142
Scribe 60
Senesino 61
Senfl, Ludwig . . . . 71 w.
Servais 314
Sessi, Imp. and Marianne 303
Seyfried 196
Silcher 337
Sims Beeves 302
Sivori 311
SoNTAG, Henriette .. .. 304
Spitzeder, Joseph .. .. 302
Spohr .. .. 295,306,338
Spontini 271
Staudigl 302
PAGK
Steffani 96
Stehle, Sophie .. .. 304
Steibelt 255
Stevens, Miss . . . . 304
Stobaus, Joh 74
Stockhausen, Jules . . 302
Stolzel 92
Storace 100
Stradella 57
Straduari 62
Strauss, Joh 267
, Ludwig .. .. 311
Streit, Wilhelmine .. 304
Stromeyer 302
Sullivan, Arthur .. .. 336
Siissmaier 181,188
Sylvester, Pope . . . . 10
Tallis 99
Taraburini 302
Tartini 61
Taubert, Wilh. .. 296,338
Telemann .. .. 92,97
Terpander 3
Terradeglias 59
Tesi, Vittoria 62
Thalberg 257"
Tichatschek 302
Tietjens, Therese . . . . 304
Traetta n9
Trebelli, Zelia .. .. 304
Trahn 337
Tulou 315
Ungher, Karoline .. .. 304
Umbreit 87
Velluti 62
Venosa, Gesualdo di .. 48
Verdi 288
Vespermann, Clara .. 304
INDEX.
359
PAGE
Viadana 53
Viardot-Garcia, Pauline 303
Vieuxtemps 313
Viotti 61
Vittoria "40
Yivaldi .. 89
VoGL,J. M 302
VoGLER, Joh. Caspar .. 92
,Abbe 285 n.
VoLKMANK, Robert.. .. 350
Wachtel, Th.
Wachter, J. M.
Wagker, Johanna
, Richard
305
302
304
118,299
Page
Wallace 280
Walther 71
Weber, K. M. von . . 257, 289
Weigl 261
WiECK, Friedr 328
Wieniawsky 311
Wild 302
Willaert 27
Winter 261
Zarlino
Zelter
Zimmermann, Miss..
ZoLLNER, Karl
27
320
320
337
Zumsteeg 259
FINIS.
PRIKTED BT WILLIAM CLOTTES AND SONS, STAWFORD STREET
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