■:^';mM 
 
 Zi^' 
 
A GENERAL 
 
 HISTOKY OF MUSIC 
 
 BY 
 
 DR. JOSEPH SCHLUTER. 
 MRS. ROBERT TUBES. 
 
 ' Die Vergangenheit gehSrt der Gegenwart an und die Schrift dem Leben," 
 
 F. C. Dahlmann. 
 
 AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. 
 ^nmi^^tx in erlrmars in ^zt M^StiitVi* 
 
 1865. 
 
tONDON: PRUJTKD BY WIIXIASl CLOWES AND SONS, STASlfORD SXKEET 
 AND CUAEU70 CBOSS. 
 
S 7. (d 1 3 
 
 r 
 
 u-' W r-a ^ 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 For a Treatise of the History of Music from a 
 general point of view R. Gr. Kiesewetter has laid 
 the foundation in his admirable work (entirely 
 the result of personal researches), entitled : " His- 
 tory of our Modern, or European, Music/' ^ The 
 task that devolves on those who come after him 
 is, on the one hand, to treat more in detail of the 
 last century than he has done — carefully sum- 
 ming up the results of modem research—, on the 
 other, to condense in a shorter review the period 
 of preparation for " our modern music ;" — in fact, 
 to allot to each period as much time and con- 
 sideration as its intrinsic worth and interest at 
 the present day shall appear to warrant. Above 
 all, while thus treating of the subject, taken as a 
 whole, it is necessary to unfold the doctrine of 
 
 * Leipsic, 1834. Second edition, 1846. 
 
 851 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 progressive development having an actual in- 
 herent sequence, to demonstrate the fact that the 
 Present is not merely connected with the Past by 
 the loose chain of tradition, but grows out of it 
 by reason of its internal structure and formation. 
 
 That the latest Histories of Music, which have 
 been presented to the public in the desultory 
 form of * Lectures,' do not meet the requirements 
 of thoughtful readers has been asserted before 
 now; and we have only to glance at such ac- 
 counts of concert and operatic performances as 
 are interspersed with historical notices and re- 
 marks to be assured that the sources of informa- 
 tion accessible to the public at large flow neither 
 freely nor clearly. Whether, and in what degree, 
 the present Work has attained the end desired, 
 I am not qualified to form an opinion ; I beg 
 merely to offer this assurance to the reader, that 
 I have steadfastly and carefully kept in view the 
 progressive development of Art, and instead of 
 crowding the pages of this little book with bio- 
 graphical anecdotes cheaply collected, or names 
 and titles of books, have strictly excluded every- 
 thing superfluous. 
 
 As to the style, I have endeavoured to combine 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 brevity with pleasant reading and warmth of ex- 
 pression. I intended neither to write a com- 
 pendium for the memory, nor afford facility to 
 those who skim a book. Some accompanying 
 remarks are printed in smaller type, so as not to 
 interfere with the proposed general survey of the 
 subject. May this little book, in the absence of 
 a reliable work of greater scope, find favour with 
 those who cherish " divine Cecilia's " Art, and 
 serve as a guide and foundation for future study I 
 
 J. SCHLUTER. 
 
 Emmerich on the Rhine. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Before the Christian Era .. .. .. .. .. 1 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 Plain Song of the Latin Church. Ambrose, Gregory the 
 
 Great 10 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 First attempts in Harmony. Improvements in Musical Nota- 
 tion. Practical arrangement of the same .. .. 15 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 The Belgian School. Orlandus Lassus . . .. .. .. 20 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Palestrina and Ecclesiastical Music in Italy (the Roman and 
 
 Venetian Schools) .. .. .. ,. .. .. 32 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Origin of the Opera. Influence of the Neapolitan School .. 47 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 The Protestant Church Song 68 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Johann Sebastian Bach (The Sacred Cantata) .. .. 78 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 George Frederick Handel (The Oratorio) .. .. .. 95 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 The French Opera and Griuck 116 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Foundation and improvement of instrumental tnusic in Ger- 
 many by Haydn . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Mozart (The Opera) 165 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Zenith of instrumental and ballad composition. Beethoven 
 
 and Schubert .. .. .. .. .. .. 195 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The successors of Mozart. The Italian, French, and German 
 
 Opera 251 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 The later musicians of Germany : Spohr, Mendelssohn, Schu- 
 mann. Present and future .. .. .. .. 306 
 
HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Befoee the Christian Eba. 
 
 Whereas the history of the Arts of Design 
 fiirnishes reliable information concerning periods 
 of remote antiquity by means of those monu- 
 ments that have been preserved to posterity, that 
 of Music must perforce commence with the 
 avowal, that she is wholly incompetent to do as 
 much. Even were our knowledge more extensive 
 than it is, an archaeology of music, previous to 
 the Christian — or, to go still further back, pre- 
 vious to the Grecian — era, would be of no value 
 or advantage to us. In short, there can be no 
 history of music as an art, where no musical 
 works of art exist.* " There is such a marked 
 
 * Zelter, in a letter to Goethe, says of Forkel — the best known 
 and most esteemed of German music-antiquaries — " He has begun a 
 history of music, and left it off at the very period when its history 
 can be realized by ourselves." He might have said with greater 
 precision ; where it begins to have an interest for us. 
 
 7 ^ 
 
2 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 difference between the music of the East and 
 that of the West, that, even if we knew more, we 
 should find little to suit our ear." We may 
 apply these words of Herder without reservation 
 to the music of the Israelitish nation, notwith- 
 standing Herder himself, by his classical work 
 ' On the Spirit of Hebrew Poetry,' gave rise to 
 a more ideal view of its nature. As among all 
 Oriental nations at the present day, so in the 
 Hebrew music, the rhythmic element greatly pre- 
 ponderated. Song and dance stood in intimate 
 connexion with each other ; and, besides loud 
 wind instruments, percussion instruments (viz., 
 kettledrums, cymbals, &c.), which are so powerful 
 in their effects on the untutored feelings, played 
 an important part. Even during the flourishing 
 reigns of David and Solomon, the music taught 
 in the school of the prophets — limited as it was 
 in its use in the service of the temple and sacred 
 l3rrics — was unable to rise beyond the showy 
 splendour of the worship of Jehovah, and attain 
 to artistic development. Doubtless, the severe, 
 uncompromising spirit of Monotheism contributed 
 likewise to impede the progress of what is, in its 
 very nature, a liberal art. Mendelssohn's cho- 
 ruses in ' Athalia,' with their trumpet and harp 
 accompaniments, may be taken as a sample 
 (though of course highly idealized) of the sacred 
 festal hymn of the Israelites — the maestro having 
 evidently intended, particularly in the instru- 
 
BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 3 
 
 mentation, to give an historical colouring to the 
 composition. 
 
 Turning from the sacred music of the Hebrews 
 — rather noisy than melodious — , we find it im- 
 possible to determine to what extent the develop- 
 ment of Grecian music was affected by the meagre 
 attempts of the Indians, and, in particular, the 
 Egyptians, in this art; in any case, the first 
 theoretical foundation of a scientific treatment of 
 music among the Greeks was laid somewhere 
 about the sixth century [b.c], chiefly by the 
 philosopher Pythagoras, and Lasos of Hermione, 
 Pindar's preceptor. But, with the Greeks, music, 
 " the art of the Muses," had altogether a far wider 
 range ; for, besides the actual art of melody, it 
 included poetry, dancing, and the drama. In this 
 union, which embraced intellectual, moral, and, 
 in part, physical culture, music was considered, 
 together with gymnastics, the second necessary 
 part of a liberal education, as leading, by means 
 of harmony and rhythmical proportion (evpvOfjua), 
 to the purest elevation of mind, as well as moral 
 restraint. Music was not, as with us, merely an 
 object of education, but a means thereto. 
 
 The actual history of Greek music, omitting 
 the fables of Orpheus and other bards of that 
 remote age, begins with Terpander of Lesbos 
 [b.c. circa 670]. Terpander appears to be the 
 real founder of Greek music ; he introduced the 
 seven-stringed cithara, which had an octave in 
 
4 ' HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 compass, in lieu of the ancient (four-stringed) 
 tetrachord; lie arranged popular melodies in 
 accordance with the canons of art, and determined 
 with greater precision than heretofore the relative 
 positions of the three most ancient keys or 
 " harmonies " (Doric, Phrygian, Lydian). Flute- 
 playing, an art of anterior- Asiatic origin, and 
 peculiar to the worship of Dionysos, was treated 
 in an artistic manner by Olympos the Phrygian, 
 but did not meet with universal acceptance till a 
 later date. Lyre and cithara were the only 
 genuine Hellenic instruments, sacred to the purer 
 worship of Apollo. 
 
 Music, as performed on the Phormincc* — the 
 most ancient of Grecian stringed instruments — , 
 played only a subordinate part in the intoned 
 recital of epic poems (whereby the Homeric are 
 chiefly understood) ; it was used merely to accent 
 the rhythm. Lyric poetry (subjective ^oHan 
 poesy, as well as the solemn Doric chorus), on the 
 contrary, was, from the nature of its metrical 
 structure, peculiarly adapted for the assistance of 
 music ; and, consequently, reached its full develop- 
 ment as an art when the mechanical powers of 
 music attained to some degree of perfection. 
 Poetry and music were intimately allied in song, 
 in the vocal rhythmic-melodic recitation of the 
 
 * The phorminx w<as, in all probability, the earliest stringed 
 instrument of the lyre genus. It was employed to accent the words 
 of the heroic metre, and was therefore dedicated to Apollo. 
 
BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. D 
 
 choruses employed in tragedy; and, to increase the 
 effect of this latter on sentiment and imagination, 
 the lyre or cithara, with sounds of octaves, fifths, 
 and fourths, above and below, was employed as 
 accompaniment. Thus, music was the handmaid 
 of poetry, reverently following the bard's inspira- 
 tion, animating and accenting his words, giving 
 character to the whole, but without independent 
 existence either in lyric or dramatic poetry. 
 According to all testimony, there is not the 
 slightest trace of instrumental music, independent 
 of singing, to be discovered during the best period 
 of Grrecian art ; as, neither in the days of Homer, 
 do we fiud singing alluded to apart from instru- 
 mental accompaniment. Music and poetry were 
 inseparably united ; musical rhythm followed the 
 poetical cadence, or rather, we may say, this 
 cadence was a musical one; poets were, in like 
 manner, musicians. It was the same with the 
 Troubadours of the Middle Ages ; " song and 
 story ", words and melody, were one undivided art. 
 That the power of wondrous charm which poetry 
 gained by its connexion with music was deeply 
 felt by the poets themselves, is witnessed to by 
 the famous eulogy — one among many — by Pindar 
 in the first Pythian prize song. "Even the 
 flaming lightning-dart is extinguished by the 
 tones of the lyre, the eagle slumbers on the 
 sceptre of Jove, his swift pinions droop on each 
 side the royal bird; for the sound has shed a 
 
6 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 dark mist over his bowed head, and softly closed 
 his eyelids; slumbering, he raises his gently 
 heaving plumage, tamed by the power of melody ; 
 yea, even the heart of mighty Ares is rejoiced, 
 seeing the terrible lance rests peacefully on his 
 large temple. But he whom Jove loveth not is 
 terrified, and withdraws himself in fear, when he 
 hears the voices of the Pierides on the earth and 
 boundless ocean; yea, even Typhos, abhorred of 
 the Gods, in Tartarus." As Pindar, in these words, 
 celebrates the conquering might of music over all 
 the nobler powers of nature, so did the Hellenes, 
 in general, consider its lofty and only true aim to 
 be that of imparting to every passionate emotion 
 measure and moderation — the highest mental 
 repose. For it was not to assert its own claims 
 by promoting merely sesthetic enjoyment, but 
 assist, " as an auxihary given by the Muses against 
 the dissonant currents of the soul," in connexion 
 with noble exalted poesy, in forming the mind, 
 manners, and character. 
 
 It was especially the office of Tragedy — in the 
 representation of which the several arts of the 
 Muses met in combined operation — to raise and 
 purify the passions by means of poetry and 
 music {Ka6ap(TL9) ; and this object was doubtless 
 attained till, simultaneously with the decay of 
 national and political life, the several arts threw 
 off their mutual allegiance and the former strict 
 control of the state, and essayed to shine on their 
 
BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. T 
 
 own account. The exaggerated dithyrambic 
 choral hymn was wrested from its former noble 
 and suitable relation to the action represented ; 
 lyre and flute playing vied in public rivalry for 
 the applause of pleasure-seeking crowds ; while to 
 the more thoughtful Greek the mere craft of the 
 virtuoso appeared restricted and mean, unless sup- 
 ported by talent and skill of a high order. It 
 was not long before the simplicity and severity 
 which characterized the old music had to make 
 way for novelties which tickled the ear of the multi- 
 tude, and the aristocracy of connoisseurs succumbed 
 to a " certain low iheatrocracyr Plato, in parti- 
 cular, blames — besides the intermixture of various 
 styles of composition — the sundering of music 
 from poetry, by which the "melody without 
 words presented to the ear" was entirely aban- 
 doned to the insecure guidance of the feelings, 
 and thus became more and more diverted from 
 its original lofty ethical intention. Thus, sin- 
 gularly enough, the first appearance of Grecian 
 music as an independent art was the sign of its 
 decay. Proceeding directly from the genuine 
 national life of the people, closely entwined with 
 poetry, religion, and custom, and furnished with 
 such scanty means of harmony, it was unable to 
 soar to the heights of independent art ; the 
 soul's art, that which addresses itself to the deep 
 consciousness in man, could not, among a people 
 like the Greeks — prone to the more material con- 
 
8 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 templation of beauty in its external manifesta- 
 tions — attain the same perfection as sculpture 
 and painting.* That little of Greek music which 
 is supposed to be still preserved in writing is, 
 comparatively, of small value ; an acquaintance, 
 founded on trustworthy documents, with the 
 composition of one chorus, would be more im- 
 portant to us than all the learned dissertations on 
 Grreek music that have ever been held. 
 
 The KoMANS have contributed nothing to the 
 
 * The manifold attempts to claim for Greek music the possession 
 of harmony (in our sense of the word) are so many failures ; for they 
 ignore the very essence of classical, as opposed to romantic, art. 
 " Music opened to the Greek no Romantic spirit-world from which is 
 wafted an atmosphere of mysterious awe and enchantment ; — rather 
 it brought the Pindaric Ode, the Sophocleian scene, into the full 
 blaze of Hellenic daylight, whose blue heavens beamed with un- 
 clouded brightness. If we may be allowed the metaphor, Grecian 
 music bore the same relation to Grecian poetry as polychromy to a 
 Grecian temple or statue. Just as the office of this latter was, in a 
 subordinate capacity, to assist the effect of architectural forms by 
 delicate and judicious tinting, and vaguely indicate— not coarsely 
 mock — the appearance of life in the statue, music was to lend its 
 aid in giving full and distinct utterance to the poet's thoughts — ^not 
 arrogantly to assert itself to the detriment of his expression. There- 
 fore, it is not to be reckoned a fault in Greek music that it lacked 
 
 harmony and breadth according to our ideas of music 
 
 Polyphony was, in the very nature of Greek music, an impos- 
 sihility'' A. W. Ambeos, History of Music, vol. i., p. 221. Breslau, 
 1862. 
 
 Bockh is quite right when he says that our music would have 
 displeased the Greeks as much as our Gothic architecture. " Tantum 
 abhorret ab antiquitatis indole nostras harmonise ratio, ut earn 
 veteribus displicituram fuisse, si nossent, contendere ausim." (Pin- 
 dari opera quas supersunt, p. 253.) 
 
BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 9 
 
 history of music, seeing that in art as in hterar 
 ture they merely followed Greek models, and left 
 the performance of music almost entirely to 
 Greek slaves and freedmen. Only when em- 
 ployed in public purposes of utility and splen- 
 dour — particularly in military pageants — did they 
 achieve an increase of material. During the Em- 
 pire, especially in the reign of Nero — who ap- 
 peared in public as a singer and performer — , the 
 art was degraded to the service of fashion and 
 folly, and a mere toy for the gratification of 
 vanity and frivolity. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Plain Song op the Latin Church. Ambrose. Gregory 
 THE Great. 
 
 In the early days of Christianity, the efforts 
 made to preserve the infant Church from contact 
 with the luxm-ious and dissolute practices of the 
 heathens, as well as precautions enforced by the 
 persecutions, banished instrumental music from 
 the Christian Liturgy ; whereas, to quote 
 Herder's expression, the entire "setting" of it 
 was vocal. The peculiar versification of the 
 Psalms {parallelismus memhrorum) gave rise to 
 the antiphonal, or alternate, chant, which was 
 sung, either by male and female choirs, or by 
 priests and people. It is, however, by no means 
 improbable, that, with the Christian converts, 
 echoes of Grreek melodies may have found their 
 way into the Christian Hymn. 
 
 Pope Sylvester established a singing school 
 at Eome [circa a.d. 330] ; and, somewhat later, St. 
 Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan [a.d. 374 — 397], 
 rendered signal services to the cause of art by 
 
GREGORY THE GREAT. 11 
 
 judicious encouragement of, and efforts to popu- 
 larize, church singing. His endeavours were 
 especially directed to improve the alternate chant- 
 ing of antiphony and responsory ; to this end, he 
 wrote and composed hymns and spiritual songs 
 himself. The so-called Ambrosian Hymn, Te 
 Deum laudamus, is, however, the work of a subse- 
 quent author. ^ 
 
 Gregory the Great [Pope a.d. 590 — 604] 
 endeavoured to reform church singing — which, in 
 the meantime, had become altogether too free and 
 secular in character — and restore it to its pris* 
 tine simplicity and vigour. To the four authentic 
 (primitive) ecclesiastical " modes " or " tones " of 
 Ambrose, which were founded on the Greek te- 
 trachord (Doric, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixo- 
 lydian), he added iovoc plagal (derivative) modes on 
 the fourth note below (Jiypd) the key-note ; and 
 thus founded the system of octaves, and the eight 
 ancient ecclesiastical "modes" or keys, calling 
 the several notes after the seven first letters of 
 the Latin alphabet. He collected and placed in 
 his Antiphonarium all the best church melodies 
 extant, carefully marked with points (nemnas^ i.e. 
 signs) ; which Antiphonarium, with subsequent 
 additions and variations, is used to this day in 
 the Eoman Catholic Church. The Gregorian or 
 Roman chant introduced by, and called after, him 
 (consisting of a monotonous chant with a strongly- 
 marked cadence) received the appellation of " canto 
 
12 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 ferTYio " {cantus firmus) and ''plain-chant " (cantus 
 planus) by the Italians and French, in contra- 
 distinction to the rhythmical variety and move- 
 ment of secular (particularly Jigurate) melody. 
 In order to preserve this severe style of chanting 
 from any foreign influences, he established a 
 normal school of singing, and entrusted the exe- 
 cution of Churcjb music to the choir that was 
 formed there, by which means the former active 
 participation of the congregation in the singing 
 was almost entirely done away with. While 
 admiring the creative genius of Ambrose and his 
 lively sympathy with the people's spiritual needs, 
 we cannot fail to acknowledge the greater intel- 
 lectual energy of Gregory, whose talent for criti- 
 cism and organization has left its impress on 
 several succeeding centuries. 
 
 The Gregorian choir chant, which now sup- 
 planted the Ambrosian congregational chant, was 
 speedily diffused over Christian Europe. Its 
 most zealous promoter was Charlemagne, who, 
 true to his saying " I will that Church music be 
 pleasing to the Almighty," reformed the singing 
 in his private chapel, and, with the valuable 
 assistance of the British monk Alcuin, founded 
 numerous normal singing schools on the Boman 
 pattern in France and Germany. A century 
 later, Alfred the Great did as much for England ; 
 he is supposed to be the founder of a professor- 
 ship of music at Oxford. 
 
THE GREGORIAN CHANT. 13 
 
 Though we are quite ready to admit, from its universal acceptance 
 and the testimony of St. Bernard and others, the great value of the 
 Gregorian chant in its day (i. e. down to the thirteenth century and 
 at farthest Palestrina's age), yet we cannot but think the recent 
 attempts which have been made to restore it in the ritual of the 
 Roman Catholic Church a signal mistake and complete failure. 
 Putting aside that the manifold changes it has incurred during the 
 lapse of ages, and, above all, the necessitated transposition into" the 
 modern system of music — and consequently a different pitch — 
 have enormously shorn it of its peculiar character and solemnity, 
 it lacks everything that we admire in music at the present day — 
 time, rhythm, distinct, heart-stirring tune^ and, consequently, that 
 quality which addresses itself to the feelings of the multitude, and 
 induces a spirit of devotion. Just as learned archseologists discover 
 beauty, which is uninteUigible to the ordinary comprehension, in stiff 
 pottery-pictures and antique woodcuts, we hear some out-and-out 
 medisevalist extol — with senseless affectation of profound know- 
 ledge — the Gregorian chant as the ne plus ultra of all ecclesiastical 
 art, the commencement of whose decline a recent author* has 
 connected with the names of Raphael and Palestrina ! Why should 
 we at the present day be severer than the Fathers at the Council of 
 Trent ? How shall we undertake to run counter to the education 
 and art-culture of modern times, just to procure for a few persons 
 the satisfaction of imagining themselves back in the palmy days of 
 ecclesiastical supremacy, through the medium of Gothic architecture 
 and Gregorian chants ?t 
 
 F. Mendelssohn, roused by foolish panegyric, expresses the same 
 feeUng in a letter to Zelter, dated from Rome. " I can't help it ; it 
 shocks me to hear the most solemn and beautiful words chanted along 
 to such unmeaning hurdy-gurdy sounds. They call it * canto fermo ' 
 — Gregorian — that doesn't signify. If in former times things were 
 not deeply felt, or could not be done better, we can do better now, 
 and there is certainly nothing of this monotonous handicraft in the 
 words of the Bible ; there, everything is vigorous and genuine, and 
 
 * F. Clement, Histoire generale de la Musique Religieuse. 
 Paris, 1861. 
 
 t Note by the translator. If the truth of the above remarks 
 be admitted, how much greater force do they acquire when applied 
 to the revival of plain Gregorian chant in our Anglican liturgy ! 
 
14 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 besides that, is as well and as naturally expressed as it is possible to 
 be. Why then should it sound like a formula ? Is that what they 
 call Church music ? Certainly, it has not a/aZse expression, for it has 
 no expression whatever ; but is it not downright profenation of the 
 words? Thus, hundreds of times during the ceremonies here, I 
 have been quite savage ; and when people come and say, * How 
 beautiful it is !' it sounds like a bad joke, and yet they mean it 
 seriously P* 
 
CHAPTEB III. 
 
 First attempts in Harmony. Improvements in Musical 
 Notation. Practical Arrangement of the same. 
 
 If, as before stated, it is probable that remnants 
 of old Grrecian melodies were preserved in the 
 early Christian hymns, the nniform movement of 
 the chant introduced by Gregory was entirely 
 opposed to the delicate metrical division which 
 distinguished Greek rhythm. In one respect only 
 it resembled Greek (as indeed all ancient) music, 
 viz. — in its unisonal character, i.e., the concen- 
 tration of all the voices on the same note ; that 
 wherein it differed from the former, was at least 
 no improvement on it. The antique theory was 
 only fully superseded when a new element was 
 introduced, viz. — harmony, which is the root 
 and principle of modern music. Kiesewetter's 
 opinion, that the Grecian system, which Hucbald 
 and Guido still adhered to, was an obstacle to the 
 free development of music, and that "the new 
 music only flourished in proportion as it began to 
 
16 ' HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 relinquish the old Greek system which had been 
 forced upon it," is perfectly correct. 
 
 With the tenth century commenced the first 
 attempts to introduce polyphony instead of 
 unisony in singing — i.e., the simultaneous sound- 
 ing of several voices on different notes. But 
 before music attained the imdoubted possession 
 of a genuine art of harmony, it had to undergo a 
 long and rigorous training, during which it did not 
 escape manifold errors. Eeared in the bosom of 
 the Church, and taught its first utterance in the 
 liturgical Latin, it now likewise obtained this first, 
 purely theoretical, cultivation 'in the cloister — al- 
 most the sole abode of learning in the Middle Ages. 
 
 HucBALD, a Flemish monk [840 — 930], made 
 the first attempt in two part song by adding 
 to the principal voice an accompaniment of pro- 
 gressive fourths and fifths. This "concentum 
 concorditer dissonum " he called diaphony, and the 
 accompaniment discantus or ordinary organum — 
 which latter appellation clearly denotes the pre- 
 sence of organ music, which took rise in the 
 eighth, and became generally extended during 
 the ninth century, though still in a very primi- 
 tive condition. From the combination of simul- 
 taneous sounds in chords, and their results, he 
 deduced the theory of harmonized melody — how- 
 ever uncouth and disagreeable his sequences of 
 fourths and fifths appear to us. 
 
 The following period, including the Benedic- 
 
GUIDO OF AREZZO. 17 
 
 tine monk GuiDo of Arezzo (famed as "in- 
 ventor musicse"), who lived in the early part of 
 the eleventh century, in reality added nothing to 
 the resources of harmony. Though unacquainted 
 with musical notation (which consists of dots 
 placed on and between several parallel lines), he 
 paved the way for it, and made it practicable. It 
 is here necessary to explain, that the neumas (small 
 crooks and strokes of various shapes and positions) 
 were formerly placed on and between two lines 
 drawn horizontally above the text: in order to 
 designate more clearly the higher or lower pitch 
 of the notes, Guido spread them over four lines. 
 So little satisfactory, however, did this reform 
 appear even to himself, that he recommended the 
 Gregorian characters as the more convenient 
 method of notation. His chief merit was the in- 
 vention of an improved, purely practical, method 
 of singing, which addressed itself to the memory. 
 In order to insure correct intonation, he made use 
 of the syllables with which the first lines of a 
 well-known Latin hymn commenced : ut (C), 
 re (D), mi (E), fa (F), sol (G), la (A) ; this was 
 called Guido's solmisation or Solfa, The syllable 
 si (B), for the seventh note, was added at a much 
 later period ; and, thus completed, both the 
 Italians and French still employ this nomencla- 
 ture, of which the range has been considerably 
 enlarged by the additions in use for the major 
 and minor keys. 
 
 c 
 
18 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Franco of Cologne, a presbyter, invented a 
 method of notation which completely answered 
 the requirements of the age in which he lived 
 (the end of the twelfth or beginning of the 
 thirteenth century) ; he not only denoted with 
 greater precision than heretofore the higher and 
 lower pitch of the notes by their position, but 
 also determined their duration or value by the 
 shape {Jigura). Prosody, as well as music — which 
 followed its rhythm — , was, till then, distinguished 
 merely by longs and breves ; Franco assumed four 
 periods of duration, viz., very long, long, short, 
 half short, — to which he gave the corresponding 
 nomenclature of Tnaxima, longa, brevis, semibrevis 
 (the latter our semibreve). He thus founded the 
 system of musical time, or mensuration, and the 
 distinction which afterwards came into general 
 use between choral micsic and Jigurate or mensur- 
 able mu^ic. 
 
 In the fourteenth century, Makchettus op 
 Padua and a Frenchman Johannes de Muris 
 (Jean de Meurs) carried his theory still further ; 
 they also established the first correct principles in 
 the use of consonances and dissonances. 
 
 But in order to understand how awkward and 
 clumsy were the first practical attempts in the 
 art of harmony compared with secular melody 
 (ah'eady enjoying a considerable amount of cul- 
 tivation), we have only to turn to the recently 
 discovered productions of the Trouvere Adam de 
 
ADAM DE LA HALE. 19 
 
 LA Hale (" le boiteux d' Arras "). He composed 
 three part songs and Motets ; but bis plays 
 {jeux), of which both words and music were his 
 own composition, evince — for that period (the 
 latter half of the thirteenth century) — a surpris- 
 ing degree of facility and grace, both in rhythm 
 and melody. 
 
CHAPTER rV. 
 
 The Belgian School. Orlandus Lassus. 
 
 While secular melody, as yet left to the natural 
 taste of the people — the Troubadours, Min- 
 strels, and " Minne singers " — , had, as we have 
 seen, attained considerable perfection, the labours 
 of the learned, on the contrary, were, till the 
 sixteenth century, solely directed to an extended 
 cultivation of harmony, in which the Low 
 Countries took the lead.* The remarkable intel- 
 lectual energy and penetration which distin- 
 guished them, the " patientia laboris " lauded by 
 Erasmus, as well as the wealth and prosperity 
 enjoyed by the nation at the period of which we 
 are treating, eminently fitted the Belgians for 
 devoting themselves wholly and exclusively to 
 the task of working the recently acquired har- 
 monic material. Delighted to have found in 
 
 ♦ Ueber die Verdienste der Niederldnder, im 14., 15., und 16. 
 Jahrhnndert, um die Tonkunst, von K. G. Kiesewetter. Am- 
 sterdam, 1829. 
 
THE BELGIAN SCHOOL. 21 
 
 music a concrete variety reducible to certain laws, 
 they applied themselves to the study of polyphony 
 and interweaving of parts {counterpoint) with 
 such intense ardour, that they took little account 
 of melodious expression, and seemed quite to 
 divert the art from its real aim and object. It is 
 therefore not to be wondered at — when the very 
 considerable difficulties which at that time at- 
 tended the construction of polyphonous pieces 
 are taken into consideration — that an art exer- 
 cised in so formal and restricted a manner 
 frequently degenerated into barren artificialness, 
 and that Beauty was lost in erudition and 
 formalism. The intricacies and subtilties of 
 simple, double, three or more part counterpoint, 
 appear stiff and strange to us ; nevertheless, they 
 were the needful preparatory exercises on newly 
 trodden ground. The harsh, unpliant harmonic 
 forms had to undergo a thorough intellectual 
 elaboration before genuine vitality and expression 
 could be breathed into them ; and never would 
 modern music have developed its powers so freely 
 and so happily, had not the Belgians undertaken 
 this severe mental labour with energy and zeal. 
 The influence of the (so-called) Belgian school 
 spread far and wide, and was so universally 
 acknowledged, that the Belgians occupied the 
 most distinguished and influential places in Italy, 
 France, and Germany. 
 
 The oldest known master and teacher of 
 
22 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 counterpoint was Guillaume Bufay, who was 
 chapel-master and tenor singer in the papal 
 chapel from 1380 to 1432. His compositions 
 are chiefly for four parts, or voices, and usually 
 have a chorale or secular tune for their motif; 
 though devoid of expression, melody, or invention, 
 they display considerable advance, viz. — correct 
 harmony. 
 
 The more elaborate, fugued, style was founded 
 by Johannes Ockenheim [Ockeghem ; born be- 
 tween 1420 — 1430, died circa 1513]. He has been 
 called, though the epithet is scarcely appropriate, 
 the Sebastian Bach of the fifteenth century. His 
 name marks the period when polyphony, which 
 now formed an integral part of vocal music — 
 especially in the Church — , " caused the parts or 
 voices to carry out a theme without regard to ex- 
 pression or beauty, to separate and join again; 
 likewise formed and resolved dissonances, and ex- 
 ecuted a musical theme consisting of a few notes 
 moved backwards and forwards in different rela- 
 tive positions."* The increasing taste for arti- 
 ficial devices turned the progress of art into a yet 
 narrower channel ; its enigmatical canons, quaint 
 conceits and calculations, far outstripped aU other 
 crudities of mediaeval art ; though, at the same 
 time, it must be admitted, that the unremitting 
 thoughtful search for esoteric rules established 
 
 * Carriere, Aesthetik. , 
 
THE BELGIAN SCHOOL. 23 
 
 the practice of the art of harmony on a firm 
 basis, and provided a safe starting-point for feel- 
 ing and imagination. The papal chapel still 
 possesses seven masses of Ockenheim. 
 
 Ockenheim's celebrated pupil, the gifted and 
 accomplished. Josquin des Pres [born circa 1440, 
 died when chapel-master to the Emperor Maxi- 
 milian, circa 1515], was one of the first who 
 seriously endeavoured to raise abstract technical 
 skill — which hitherto had almost entirely ab- 
 sorbed the attention of musicians — to higher 
 sesthetic significance, and make it a vehicle of 
 sympathetic expression. Although even he occa- 
 sionally surpassed others in artificialness, and 
 sometimes — particularly in sequences of chords — 
 attempted quaint and even grotesque combinations, 
 his best works (chiefly four and five part Masses 
 and Motets) are, according to Kochlitz,* "easier 
 to comprehend, less spun out, less laden with 
 contrapuntal artifices." Though he bestowed 
 extraordinary pains on the elaboration and finish 
 of his works, they were not merely the result of 
 difficult and abstruse calculation ; he understood 
 well how to employ wit and humour in the treat- 
 ment of his art. Thus, while chapel-master to 
 Lewis XII. of France, wishing to remind the 
 king of his promise to bestow on him a prebend, 
 he composed two motets on the words " Memor 
 
 * Fiir Freunde der Tonkunst, vol. iv., p. 49. Vier Bande. Leipzig, 
 1824-1832. 
 
24 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 esto verbi iui " and " Portio mea non est in terra 
 viventium'\ and caused them to be performed 
 before the Court. He had previously written a 
 mass on the solfa syllables la sol fa re mi, in 
 allusion to a nobleman whom he had vainly 
 besought to intercede with the king in his behalf, 
 and who had always put him off with the answer, 
 " Laisse faire moy." Yet he was by no means 
 wanting in thorough appreciation of sacred melody 
 and expression, and there are several of his 
 Motets and Masses, which, in their careful treat- 
 ment, foreshadow the grandeur and simplicity 
 which afterwards characterized Church music. 
 While allowing free play to his varied and 
 humorous tendencies, his principal efforts were 
 directed to the production of noble, dignified, and 
 simple forms in composition; he was thorough 
 master of the resources of his art in all its 
 branches. " Perfectly versed in all styles of art, 
 enormously productive, yet remarkable for care- 
 fulness of execution (for which Glarean praises 
 him while contrasting him with his somewhat 
 older contemporary, Jacob Hobrecht), attempting 
 bold flights, yet always intelligible, at once learned 
 and pleasing, everywhere graceful, he was the 
 universal favourite of the age, welcomed every- 
 where, ruling without a rival."* Josquin, called 
 by Luther " master of notes, while others were 
 
 * Heimsoeth, in Aschbach's Kirchenlexicmiy vol. iii., p. 841. 
 
THE BELGIAN SCHOOL. 25 
 
 mastered by notes ", closes the series of musical 
 calculators, and opens that of real composers. 
 
 Though Josquin had exercised his art for a 
 considerable space of time in Italy and France, 
 his own country was the scene of his principal 
 labours; but the most remarkable Belgian com- 
 posers who succeeded him — Jean Mouton, 
 Clemens non Papa, Arcadelt, Goudimel, 
 WiLLAERT, his pupils, and others — were employed 
 almost entirely in foreign countries. The in- 
 vention of music-printing with moveable types 
 (by Ottavio Petrucci in 1502) was of important 
 service to them in the speedy and extensive 
 diffusion of their works ; and, till after the middle 
 of the sixteenth century, the Belgians enjoyed 
 undisputed supremacy throughout Europe. At 
 Eome, after Josquin had introduced the art of 
 counterpoint into the papal chapel, the Belgians 
 were preferred before the Italians ; besides these, 
 however, the French and Spaniards could boast 
 excellent composers in Carpentras and Morales. 
 A noble and deep conception of this latter is a 
 Motet for six voices : Lamentabatur Jacobus (" una 
 maraviglia dell' arte"), which still retains its 
 place in the performances of the Sistine chapel. 
 The " nuova musica " was not much exercised by 
 the Italians themselves, with the exception of the 
 Florentine Cost an zo Festa (distinguished as the 
 forerunner of Palestrina), who still survives in a 
 noble and simple Te Deum. [He died in 1545]. 
 
26 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Thus, the Belgians — especially since the papal 
 chapel-master Goudimel established a music- 
 school at Eome in 1540 — held nearly all the 
 musical appointments ; which monopoly, however, 
 was broken up by Animuccia, Palestrina, and 
 Nanini — Italians educated in Goudimel's school. 
 Adrian Willaert [born at Bruges circa 1490] 
 contributed in a far greater degree to the progress 
 of art than even Groudimel at Eome ; he was 
 likewise a pupil of Josquin, and chapel-master at 
 St. Mark's, Venice, from 1527 till his death 
 [1563]. The style of composition usual with his 
 predecessors was a four part canon constructed 
 on a given melody; Willaert wrote his Motets 
 for five, six, and seven voices; whereby he did 
 not aim at greater intricacy, but, on the contrary, 
 distinguished the parts from each other, and, 
 instead of closely interweaving the phrases in 
 sacred melody (as had previously been the custom), 
 disengaged them freely from each other. To 
 this end — according to the testimony of his pupil 
 Zarlino [1517-1593], highly esteemed for his 
 additions to the science of harmony — he first 
 arranged sacred songs, and particularly psalms, 
 for two or three separate choirs {a cow spezzato) ; 
 — thereby reviving the ancient antiphonal song 
 enriched with all the improvements of recent art. 
 By alternating the full and divided choir, he 
 attained the grandest effects — for an actual in- 
 strumental accompaniment was not as yet in use. 
 
THE BELGIAN SCHOOL. 27 
 
 Heimsoetli* graphically records the splendour of 
 public life at Venice, " where a peculiarly vivid 
 interest in the common w*eal, and the intimate 
 relation between the ecclesiastical and national 
 fete resulting therefrom, found its common meet- 
 ing-ground in the State Church of St. Mark, and 
 created a perpetual demand for musical productions 
 of a grand and solemn character, inasmuch as the 
 attractions of the art were required, both within 
 and without the Church, to enhance the brilliancy 
 of the celebration." 
 
 But the importance of Willaert's great influence 
 will not be justly appreciated unless taken in 
 connection with the so-called Venetian school 
 which he founded, and which continued to 
 develop his style. His pupil and successor in 
 office, Cyprian de Eore — surnamed " il divino " 
 by the Italians, and considered even equal to 
 Orlando Lasso by the Belgians — , was born at 
 Mechlin in 1516; he succeeded in popularizing 
 the art of polyphony in the Madrigal (or secular 
 love-ditty, analogous in form to the Motet), 
 whereby he exercised no unimportant influence 
 on secular melody. 
 
 The last great master among the Belgians, and, 
 after Palestrina, the greatest of the sixteenth 
 century, was ORLANDUS LASS US [born 
 1520 at Mons in Hainault, died 1595 at 
 
 * See Heimsoeth, etc., p. 844. 
 
28 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Munich].* After holding distinguished situations 
 at Eome and Naples, he visited France and 
 England, then passed a considerable time in 
 modest retirement in his native country, whence, 
 at the invitation of Duke Albert V. of Bavaria, 
 he repaired to Munich in 1557 ; here he resided 
 as chapel-master till his death, employed in im- 
 proving the style of Church music. 
 
 That he furthered the development of German 
 music, may be seen by referring to his pupil 
 Eccard ; on the other hand, his works reveal the 
 influence of the land in which he passed the 
 larger and more famous portion of his life, and 
 after a short sojourn in other countries came to 
 look upon as a second home. He did not rest 
 satisfied with the mere ingenious embroidery of 
 parts on a given melody, though his general 
 mode of treatment was more closely allied to the 
 formal mannerism of that style, than Palestrina's. 
 " He is the brilliant master of the North, great 
 and sublime in sacred composition, of inexhaustible 
 invention, displaying much breadth, variety, and 
 depth in his treatment ; he delights in full and 
 powerful harmonies, yet after all — owing to an 
 existence passed in journeys as well as service at 
 Court, and occupied at the same time with both 
 sacred and secular music — he came short of that 
 
 * BiograpMsche Notiz Uber Roland de Lattre hekannt unter dem 
 Namen Orland de Lassus. Avs dem Franzosischen des H. Delmotte 
 ubersetzt und mit Anmerkungen herausgegeben von S. W. Dehn 
 Berlin, 1837. 
 
ORLANDUS I^SSUS. 29 
 
 lofty, solemn tone which pervades the works of 
 the great master of the South — Palestrina, who, 
 with advancing years, restricted himself more and 
 more to Church music."* And besides vigour, 
 depth, and sublimity, the works of Lassus reveal 
 a loving and gentle spirit, whose purity, piety, 
 and simplicity of expression in the Motet " Gus- 
 tate et viclete quam suavis sit Dominus timentibus 
 eum et confidentibus ei " (sung on the feast of Corpus 
 Domini at Munich) excited universal admiration. 
 His compositions in print and manuscript 
 (altogether upwards of two thousand in number) 
 form a choice collection. They are, for the most 
 part, at Munich ; and consist of Motets in four 
 to eight parts, of which many are composed on 
 secular themes ; Motets, principally in five or six 
 parts — though some in more or less — ; Hymns, 
 Psalms, Magnificats, Lamentations (of Jeremiah, 
 to which he added the composition of the 
 " Lessons on Job "), Eesponsories, Litanies, &c. 
 Of these the Motets — a branch of composition in 
 which he was considered to have excelled — and 
 the Seven penitential Psalms in five parts, were 
 most highly esteemed; concerning this latter 
 composition, Thibaut repeats a story without 
 foundation, viz., that Charles IX. of France 
 ordered them for his own use, " in order to obtain 
 rest to his soul after the massacre of St. Bartho- 
 lomew ". But, apart from these noble and multi- 
 * Heimsoeth. 
 
30 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 farious productions, he would have rendered his 
 name everlastingly famous by his admirable 
 improvements in musical art, such as the 
 introduction of the chromatic element — thereby 
 introducing greater variety in modulation — , the 
 mensuration of time by reducing a number of 
 different kinds and their signs to two principal 
 kinds — equal and unequal, with the manner of 
 denoting the measure, as : allegro ^ adagio ^ &c. 
 His generation admired in him, as well as Pales- 
 trina, a " Prince of Music,'* the Pope created him 
 Knight of the Golden Spur in 1574, and — even 
 in Italy — on the title-page of one of his Masses, 
 beneath his likeness, these words were placed: 
 "Hie est Lassus, qui lassum recreat orbem." 
 Unconcerned as to fame, the "gentle, peaceful 
 man" (so Eccard portrays him) lived for his art 
 alone, and a contemporary (the admirable historian 
 Thuanus or de Thou) aptly says of him, that the 
 flattering expressions of the great, as well as a 
 European reputation, were not so much enjoyed as 
 endured by him. 
 
 Kiesewetter concludes his description of this 
 period in these words: '*Lassus shed lustre on, 
 and at the same time closed, the great epoch of 
 Belgian ascendancy, which, during the space of 
 two hundred years, had given to the world nearly 
 three hundred musicians of marvellous science 
 for the times in which they lived, many of whom 
 were excellent composers." The musical " DecHne 
 
ORLANDUS LASSUS. 31 
 
 and Fall" of the Netherlands, which began with 
 Lassus' death, is not (as Fetis thought) so much 
 to be ascribed to the political disturbances of the 
 sixteenth century, and wars of the two succeeding 
 ones, as to the fact that the contrapuntal art 
 peculiar to the Belgians, after having gained its 
 best and last triumphs in Italy, and afterwards 
 Grermany, was, in the nature of things, forced to 
 give way to the melodious and beautiful style 
 which appeared with the seventeenth century, and, 
 in particular, to a genus of music, surpassing 
 every other, which was beginning to assert itself : 
 — the Opera. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Palestrina and Ecclesiastical Music in Italy (the Eomak 
 AND Venetian Schools). 
 
 WiLLAERT, and in paxticnlar Orlandus Lassus, 
 had, with the intuition of genius, understood the 
 requirements of the age and country in which 
 they hved ; and, embodying the same in their own 
 art-conceptions, added new lustre to the Belgian 
 name. In Eome, on the contrary, at that time 
 the chief seat of Belgian art, the exclusive study 
 of technical skill had frozen it to a mere formula, 
 which, in itself lifeless, was unable to stand its 
 ground against the newly-awakened taste of the 
 nation. 
 
 So early as the tenth century, and from that 
 time down, improvements resulting from the pro- 
 gressive development of harmony were adopted 
 in the practice of ecclesiastical music — especially 
 in the papal chapel. From the latter half of the 
 thirteenth century — particularly after the return 
 of the Pope from Avignon (1377) — the Grregorian 
 chant became more and more overladen with con- 
 
PALESTRINA. 33 
 
 trapuntal embellishments wliich rendered the pre- 
 scribed Church-song difficult of recognition in its 
 borrowed garb. From increasing disregard both 
 of meaning and connection in the text, the 
 ancient simple Church-song was threatened with 
 complete annihilation ; it became so comphcated 
 and overcharged, that it degenerated into a con- 
 fused jumble of sound. Still more common was 
 it for musicians — entirely losing sight of the real 
 intention of ecclesiastical music — to take melodies 
 from secular songs for the themes of their Masses 
 and Motets ; and, making no secret of this, to call 
 them by their profane titles ; as for instance : 
 L'liomme armd, Adieu mes amours^ Baisez moy, 
 Venere bella, Chiare, fresche e dolce acque, &c. The 
 Church could no longer behold with indifference 
 these aberrations of an art depraved and degraded 
 almost to a craft ; wherefore, at the Council of 
 Trent (in 1 562), a thorough and complete reforma- 
 tion of ecclesiastical music was brought under 
 consideration. The just reproofs of the Council, 
 which seriously threatened the entire existence of 
 Jigurate music, roused the creative genius of Pales- 
 trina, who raised music to an independent national 
 existence, and made it rank as one of the fine arts, 
 along with sculpture and painting ; — these last 
 having already reached their zenith in Leonardo 
 da Yinci, Kaphael, Correggio, Titian, and Michel 
 Angelo. 
 
 Giovanni Pierluigi da PALESTRINA was 
 
34 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 (according to Baini*) born at Palestrina in 1524, 
 and educated in the severe school of Goudimel, 
 whose peculiarities were exaggerated to weakness 
 bj the majority of his pupils, — the master being 
 thus held responsible for their follies, and made to 
 appear the representative of a scholastic doctrine 
 totally devoid of life. Palestrina grasped the 
 essential doctrines of the school, without adopting 
 its mannerism. He did not bid defiance to esta- 
 blished rules, but moved within their limits with 
 so much freedom and easy grace, as to suggest 
 the idea of having struck out an entirely new 
 path. 
 
 Of his hitherto known compositions, the La- 
 mentations, and especially the Improperie (tender 
 reproaches of the Lord to his ungrateful people), 
 which were performed on Good Friday 1560, 
 during the Adoration of the Cross, captivated all 
 hearts by their sublime simplicity and gentle 
 piety of expression ; — for music of such purity, 
 solemnity, and majesty had never yet been heard 
 in the Church. The 'Improperie' have been 
 repeated yearly ever since, down to the present 
 time : in our day, Goethe and Mendelssohn have 
 recorded in touching words the deep impression 
 this music produced on them. His next work of 
 importance was (in 1562) a six-part Mass {super 
 ut^ re^ mi, fa, sol, la), in which the " Crucijixus 
 
 * G. Baini ; Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle ojpere di 
 Oiov, Fieri, da Falestrina, 2 volumi, Romay 1828. 
 
PALESTRINA. 35 
 
 etiam pro nobis " for four high voices, was parti- 
 cularly admired. 
 
 But beyond Eome, the compositions of the 
 master were as yet unknown ; and, consequently, of 
 so little account in the deliberations of the Council 
 of Trent, that the Fathers, in the first blush of 
 indignation, and almost shame, that an art so 
 licentious should have been so long tolerated in 
 the house of Grod, insisted upon the abolition of all 
 Church music except the ancient Grregorian chant. 
 At length, in accordance with the earnest remon- 
 strance of the Emperor Ferdinand I. and the 
 Eoman Cardinals, who repeatedly cited Pales- 
 trina's compositions, it v/as agreed that practical 
 measures should be taken in order to ascertain 
 whether the declared abuses of the four (or more) 
 i^2LYt Jigurate melody lay in the nature of the art, 
 or only in the carelessness of composers ; and to 
 let the final decision rest upon a new composition 
 of Palestrina's, on a grander scale than he had 
 hitherto attempted. 
 
 Young Palestrina was therefore to write a 
 Mass — as a specimen — in which, above all, distinct 
 intelligibility of the words was required, and 
 have it performed before a commission of eight 
 cardinals — of whom St. Carlo Borromeo was one. 
 Thus, all eyes were directed to him, at a time 
 when the very existence of the art was at stake. 
 With the enthusiasm of the artist — with the 
 pious trustful confidence expressed in the motto 
 
36 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 of his first Mass " Illumina oculos meos'' Pales- 
 trina applied himself to this noble task. Instead 
 of only one, he wrote three six-part Masses, of 
 which the third — written for soprano, alto, two 
 tenors, and two basses — excited such universal 
 admiration on its public performance [19th June, 
 1565] that the Pope himself (Pius IV.) exclaimed 
 in raptures : *' It is John who gives us here, in 
 this earthly Jerusalem, a foretaste of that new 
 song, which the holy Apostle John realized in 
 the heavenly Jerusalem long since, in prophetic 
 trance." Palestrina afterwards entitled his prize 
 Mass * Missa Papae Marcelli \ in grateful me- 
 mory of his former illustrious patron, Marcellus II. 
 
 Several provincial synods followed the example 
 of the Council of Trent; among them, one at 
 Milan in the same year (1565, over which Car- 
 dinal Carlo Borromeo presided), one at Cambray 
 (also in 1505), at Constance, and Augsburg (both 
 in 1567), Namur, and Mechlin (in 1570), and 
 others ; all of which set to work in earnest to 
 reform the loose practices of the composers of 
 Church music. 
 
 Palest rina's versatility and eminent genius 
 powerfully furthered the improved tendency of 
 the age. It is true that, previously, he had occa- 
 sionally made use of secular themes in his com- 
 positions ; but the best period of his productions 
 is characterized by the invariable connexion of 
 the sacred text with its ancient proper Church 
 
PALESTRINA. 37 
 
 tune. By transposing the ecclesiastical melody 
 {canto fermo) from the tenor to the soprano 
 (thus rendering it more intelligible to the ear), he 
 created that glorious thing — choir-song, with its 
 refined harmony, — that noble and sublime music 
 of which his works are incomparable models, 
 and the papal chapel is the oracle. Of his very nu- 
 merous works (Masses, Motets, Hymns, Litanies, 
 &c.) scarcely one half has been printed ; besides 
 those already alluded to, and a few others, the 
 following are still performed at Eome — princi- 
 pally during the Holy Week : a brilliant Mass 
 for the Assumption of the Virgin — " Assumpta est 
 Maria in Coelum^' an incomparably sublime Of- 
 fertory on Holy Thursday — " Fratres ego enim 
 accepi^'' that masterpiece of Motets — " Surge illu- 
 minare Jerusalem,'' and a " Stahat Mater " for two 
 choirs. 
 
 Palestrina died in the arms of St. Filippo Neri, 
 on the 2nd of February 1594, and was buried in 
 St. Peter's, to the pious strains of his " Libera me 
 Domine" On his tomb is the following noble 
 epitaph : Joannes Petrus Aloysius Prcenestinus 
 MusiccB Princeps, 
 
 Essentially choral, as all Church iniisic should be, Palestrina's 
 music is the very opposite of the " melting mood ;" it is characterized 
 by an entire absence of contrast and local colouring. The harmony 
 is one of gentle repose, where " the voices do not seek for individual 
 display, but emerge from the full choir to return again and mutually 
 contribute to its soft, clear sound. There is not the least trace of 
 drainatic movement — not even when several choirs respond to each 
 
88 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 otlier ; unruffled serenity broods over the entire composition, which, 
 nevertheless, is not devoid of occasional warm and decided touches — 
 disposed, however, in such a manner that the even rhythmical 
 measure is only partially varied, and the general equilibrium left 
 undisturbed. Human voices, combined either in choirs or har- 
 monized soli, are the sole interpreters of this music ; no attempt at 
 individual expression is i)ermitted, the relipjious element alone pre« 
 vails, and the expression consists above all in this : — that no in- 
 dividual pre-eminence shall disturb and weaken the ideal atmosphere 
 of the entire work."* The studied effects obtained by an abundant 
 use of chromatic passages, of dissonances, and violent contrasts — so 
 congenial to the modern ear — are not to be found in these pure 
 harmonies. " He is," Thibautf says of Palestrina, " so completely 
 master of the ancient ecclesiastical modes, and of the treatment of 
 the simple tonic chord in comix)sition, that repose and enjoyment 
 are to be founds in his works, in a greater degree, perhaps, than in 
 those of any other master." 
 
 The enthusiastic Baini, with refined analysis, distinguished ten 
 different styles in Palestrina's productions (he might, as Winterfeld 
 a[)tly remarks, have assumed as many styles as there are comi)Osi- 
 tions) ; yet on us — accustomed as we are to a tenderer and more 
 marked expression in melody — his works, on first hearing, are apt 
 to produce an impression of unifomiity, and even rigidity. At any 
 rate, this " musica dall' altro mondo " will scarcely fulfil the 
 expectations of those who esteem it adapted to revive Church 
 sympathy and hearty devotion in our own day ; and for this reason : 
 that modern choirs rarely attain to that correctness and precision (so 
 difficult where there is an almost continual interchange of the parts 
 or voices) which are indispensable to the true a])preciation of these 
 magnificent conceptions, and which Palestrina would be justified in 
 expecting of his own choir — specially trained for the purpose. But 
 when this perfection is attained, our spirits are held in thrall by the 
 ineffable sublimity and overwhelming majesty of these heavenly 
 strains. For this reason, Palestrina's choruses should only be 
 produced in the Church when the execution is perfectly irreproach- 
 able, and never in the remotest degree suggesting the idea of a mere 
 art-performance. Kiesewetter's advice (valuable as coming from one 
 whose opinion can be safely relied on), concerning Palestrina's 
 
 * YiscHER. Aesthetik. Vol. iii., p. 1135. 
 t Ueber Reinheit der Tonhunst, P. 54. 
 
PALESTRINA. 39 
 
 compositions, is : " not to perform them to a modem audience without 
 careful selection and examination, as it can never be our intention 
 to bring Church music back to the simplicity of Palestrina's time." 
 
 The choir of the Sistine chapel, by the inheritance of long- 
 cherished tradition, is the most perfect, and, consequently, most 
 effective, exponent of Palestrina's music. Modern travellers, like 
 Jacobi and Mendelssohn, cannot sufficiently admire the wonderful 
 blending of the voices, the prolonged tones gradually merging from 
 one note and chord to another, softly swelling, decreasing, and 
 finally dying out almost inaudibly. *' They understand," said the 
 latter (in the letter to Zelter about the execution of the * Improperie ' 
 above referred to), " how to bring out and place each delicate trait in 
 the most favourable light, without giving it undue prominence ; one 
 chord gently melts into another. The ceremony, at the same time, is 
 solemn and imposing; deep silence prevails in the chapel, only 
 broken by the re-echoing Greek "Holy," sung with unvarying 
 sweetness and expression." Paer was (in 1805) so impressed with 
 the " perfect musical piety " of the composition and performance, that 
 he exclaimed : " This is indeed divine music, such as I have long 
 sought for and my imagination was never able to realize, but which 
 I knew must exist !" 
 
 Unquestionably, this powerful impression is (according to Krause),* 
 in great measure, due to the sublimity and beauty of the place of 
 worship, as also to the Liturgy of the Koman Catholic Church — in 
 itself one of the greatest religious works of art ; unquestionably, this 
 music can only exercise full sway over minds who receive the 
 doctrines of that Church with a believing heart. But, also, those 
 whose intellect and feeling rise superior to the distinctions of creeds 
 are most deeply and powerfully impressed by the sacred music of 
 Palestrina and of those composers who resemble him ; for his 
 compositions, like all genuine music, soar — as far as religious con- 
 siderations are concerned — sublime above words and creeds of this 
 world to the regions of everlasting Truth. Our great composers 
 would doubtless be able, if they could attune their feelings to the 
 task, to write aWa Palestrina; — for we learn from the Treatise on 
 Purity in Music,t that'Cherubini achieved as much in a grand eight- 
 
 * Darstellungen aus der Geschichte der Musik. 
 
 f Ueher Beinheit der TonJcunst. Thibaut. Second edition. 
 Heidelberg, 1826. Fourth edition, edited by Bahb. Heidelberg, 
 1861» 
 
40 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 part Credo. Just as modem architects have revived the Gothic 
 architecture of the Middle Ages, and Thorwaldsen and Canova 
 Grecian statuary, our great musicians might follow their example in 
 this purest hranch of musical art. Under any circumstances, how- 
 ever, the immortal models of Palestrina and his contemporaries will 
 always remain far superior to any mere reproductive imitations ; for 
 every peculiar genus of art is the result of innate, genuine in- 
 spiration, and the spontaneous growth of the age which pro- 
 duces it. 
 
 Palestrina and his fellow-pupil under Goudirael, 
 M. Giov. Nanini [died 1607], founded, and jointly 
 presided over, a music-school which faithfully con- 
 tinued Palestrina's style. Among Palestrina's 
 successors, Baini mentions, as admirable in their 
 Motets (songs set to a sacred text [77^^^] with its 
 ancient traditional Church tune) : Nanini — more 
 given to tenderness of expression than his great 
 predecessor — , andTommaso Ludovico da Yittoria 
 [born 1560], who, according to Thibaut, "com- 
 bined Spanish warmth with spiritual meekness." 
 Next to Vittoria [went to Munich circa 1594] 
 deserves mention: Felice Anerio, Palestrina's 
 successor in office, of whose works a " Te Deum,'\ 
 an eight-part " Ave Eegina,'" and a mass " Dixit 
 Maria," are known to posterity. 
 
 But Nanini's pupil, Gregorio Allegri [born at 
 Eome in 1590, died there in 1652], surpassed 
 them all in his five and four part Miserere with a 
 conclusion for nine voices. Against Leop. Mo- 
 zart's, Spohr's, and Adam's depreciation (continu- 
 ally urged and reiterated) of this magnificent 
 composition, the fact speaks for itself, that the 
 
. ROMAN SCHOOL. 41 
 
 young W. A. Mozart, after a second hearing, 
 secretly wrote it down, and carried it away like 
 treasure trove. Its association with the cere- 
 monies of the Sistine chapel (which cannot fail to 
 strike even the most jaded as well as the most un- 
 impressionable listener) may have promoted its 
 wide-world fame — its intrinsic merit is, never- 
 theless, beyond question. Figurate embellish- 
 ments are rarely employed in this melodious and 
 expressive composition. Like the approach of 
 impending fate, from time to time resounds, be- 
 tween the four and five part phrases, the same 
 mournful monotonous psalmody ; till in the last 
 verse, '' Tunc imponent super altare tuum vitulos," 
 the full glory of the nine-part harmony bursts 
 forth like eternal and glorious redemption, obli- 
 terating the remembrance of earthly sorrows. 
 Besides Allegri's Miserere, one by Baini (in Men- 
 delssohn's opinion vapid and tame), and another 
 by Tommaso Bai [died 1714], composed in imi- 
 tation of. Allegri, are performed annually at Eome 
 during the Holy Week, when a judicious grada- 
 tion of effect is obtained, by crowning the per- 
 formance of Baini's work on Wednesday, and 
 Bai's on Holy Thursday, with that of Allegri on 
 Good Friday.* 
 
 * Note by the Translator. This order was not observed when 
 we were at Rome (in 1862). A Miserere by a modern comi)Oser 
 was performed in the Sistine chapel on Good Friday, which by no 
 means equalled that of Allegri, sung in the Choir chapel of St. 
 Peter's on the day previous. 
 
42 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 The musicians of the following period departed 
 from the noble simplicity and solemnity which 
 distinguished their predecessors, and introduced 
 greater intricacy irito their compositions. Pales- 
 trina wrote almost exclusively for from four to 
 eight voices ; it now became the fashion to write 
 for several choirs consisting of 12, 16, 24, and 
 even 36 and 48 parts — a style of composition in 
 which Orazio Benevoli [chapel-master of St. 
 Peter's at Eome from 1646 till his death in 
 1672], his successor in office Bernabei [died 
 1690], and PiTOxi [died 1743] achieved cele- 
 brity. Of this latter (styled the Palestrina of the 
 eighteenth century) a six-part ' Dies tree,' com- 
 posed in the true Palestrina spirit, is highly 
 spoken of It is understood, as a matter of 
 course, that in all these compositions for a number 
 of parts, or rather choirs, the full and divided 
 choir was employed alternately, and only in such 
 passages as required a more powerful expression 
 were the choirs united in one fuU chorus. 
 
 Contemporary with the Roman, rose and flou- 
 rished the Venetian school, in which the treatment 
 of choir-composition received a more important 
 characteristic development than elsewhere. Its 
 strong proclivity for full-voiced songs and cho- 
 ruses corresponds, in some measure, to the broad, 
 flowing outline and brilliant colouring which dis- 
 tinguished the Venetian school of painting, and 
 culminated in Titian [died 1576]. The greatest 
 
VENETIAN SCHOOL. 43 
 
 master in this style of composition was Giovanni 
 Gabrieli [born circa 1540, died 1612], nephew 
 and pupil of the learned contrapuntist Andrea 
 Gabrieli ; he applied himself to the improvement 
 of composition for combined choirs — a style for 
 which Willaert had displayed considerable pre- 
 ference — with careful reference to the words fur- 
 nished by the text.* Of his compositions, which 
 (according to Winterfeld) are highly effective, and 
 combine breadth of harmony with completeness 
 of form, the following deserve mention : Songs 
 for prayer and praise, for the most part selected 
 from verses in the Psalms, in six, seven, and ten 
 parts ; Magnificats for two and three choirs ; 
 Hymns for the Mass, also for three choirs (he 
 never wrote a complete Mass) ; Responsories for 
 Christmas and Easter day. — It is worthy of notice 
 that, besides pieces chiefly for two and three 
 choirs which were executed by voices alone (a 
 capella), he has left some which are furnished 
 with instrumental preludes and accompaniments. 
 For example: he arranged an ''Inecdesiis benedi- 
 tite Domino, Alleluia " for two choirs with three 
 cornets, one fiddle, and two trombones ; a " Sur^ 
 readt Christus " for three voices and an orchestra 
 of two cornets, two violins, and four trombones, 
 with preludes and interludes, as well as choruses 
 and solo songs accompanied by difierent instru- 
 
 * Joliannes Gabrieli und sein Zeitalter, Dargestellt von WlNTEB- 
 TELD. Zwei Theile. Berlin, 1834. 
 
44 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 ments — all in the utmost variety. Gabrieli was 
 organist of St. Mark's ; and, like Seb. Bach, his 
 professional skill on a full-toned instrument like 
 the organ doubtless suggested a florid stjde of 
 harmony, and the grand effects to be derived from 
 instrumental combinations. It may not be out 
 of place to mention here that it was at Venice 
 — always famous for skilful organists — that 
 Bernhard the German invented the pedal-board 
 [1470], an improvement which added greatly 
 to the resources of organ-playing^ as well as to 
 the art of harmony in general. 
 
 The masters of the succeeding period: Lotti 
 Caldara, Marcello — Venetians by birth and edu- 
 cation — are usually included in the Venetian 
 school ; they belong, however, — especially Mar- 
 cello — rather to the new period ushered in by 
 the Neapolitan school. Antonio Lotti [bom 
 circa 1660, died 1740], although adopting the 
 new style in his operas, retained the old severe 
 style of Church music in his best sacred composi- 
 tions — which, however, were relieved by a touch 
 of sweetness. A difierence may, notwithstanding, 
 be observed between his compositions a capella, 
 and those in the new stile concertante. " Those 
 of his more generally known works consist of 
 some Crucifixus for a number of voices, which) 
 however, must not be taken as specimens of the 
 style of his Masses ; thus, I have before me a 
 Mass written partly for four, partly for five and 
 
YENETIAX SCHOOL. 45 
 
 l&ix voices (by doubling the treble and counter 
 tenor parts), in which — besides passages similar 
 to the above-mentioned ' Crucijixus/ such as the 
 y Qui tollis " and " Miserere nobis,'' as well as the 
 ^^ Doming Deus agnus dei^' where the treble per- 
 forms a Gregorian ' Magnificat ' tune — such ano- 
 malies occur as for instance : a " Domine Deus " 
 in which a soprano and violin vie with each other 
 ill endless runs and flourishes — the whole accom- 
 panied by two violins concertanie, two viols, and 
 a bass-viol, to which a hautboy and trumpet are 
 occasionally added."* 
 
 Antonio Caldara [born circa 1674, died at 
 Vienna, chapel-master to Charles YI., in 1763] 
 was considered to have excelled in the fugue ; he 
 succeeded admirably in uniting Italian sweetness 
 with German science and religious expression — 
 especially in his Masses a cajjella. On the other 
 hand, the modern element of individual local ex- 
 pression enters largely into the compositions of 
 the aristocratic dilettante Benedetto Marcello 
 [1680—1739]. Even so late as 1802, a new 
 edition of his principal work : Parafrasi sopra i 
 50 primi salmi per 1, 2, 3 ^ 4 voci con basso conti- 
 nuo (Paraphrases on the 50 Psalms of David), 
 was published at Cherubini*s suggestion. The 
 Italians reverence the ' Salmi' as a classical pro- 
 duction, whereas Spohr and others consider them 
 
 * Heimsoeth, p. 859, and elsewhere. 
 
46 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 poor, monotonous, and tedious. At any rate, 
 they are historically important ; for this composi- 
 tion — written in the comparatively loose form of 
 a cantata — had so much influence on the develop- 
 ment of the lyric opera, that it has been well re- 
 marked that Gluck began where Marcello left off. 
 The actual development of the Venetian, as a 
 separate school of art, ends with its greatest 
 master and representative Gr. Gabrieli, whose 
 style of composition was continued by his Ger- 
 man pupils, Heinrich Schutz and Hans Leo 
 Hassler (both to be mentioned hereafter), who 
 with some modifications — according to the dif- 
 ferent objects for which they worked — developed 
 his style yet further. The German Jacobus 
 Gallus from Krain (properly Hani or Handl, 
 1550 — 1591), the contemporary of G. Gabrieli, 
 Palestrina, and Orlandus Lassus, should also be 
 classed with the Italian masters. His works 
 contain specimens of aU the styles of composition 
 that had hitherto been invented. A Motet 
 written in 24 parts, for four six-part choirs, 
 proves him to have been an adept in elaborate com- 
 position for a large number of parts ; — that he 
 did not affect this style may be inferred from the 
 fact, that the greater part of his other composi- 
 tions, as, for instance, the celebrated Motets: 
 " Ecce quomodo moritur Justus ,' and *' Media vita 
 in morte sumus" are worthy to be ranked with 
 the best compositions of Palestrina. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Origin of the Opera. Influence of the Neapolitan 
 School. 
 
 The Yenetian school, during its most flourishing 
 period under G. Gabrieli, unquestionably enjoyed 
 a wide-spread influence, especially in Germany, 
 where that influence continued through a length- 
 ened period. The importance of the Venetian 
 school, however, as regards our own epoch, is not 
 to be compared with that of the Eoman, and still 
 less with that of the Neapolitan school ; in Italy, 
 indeed, it held latterly only a middle place 
 between the two. It is with the Neapolitan 
 school, though its earliest productions are now 
 rarely sought after and indeed scarcely known, 
 that the History of Modern Music commences — 
 in so far as that music speaks the language of the 
 feelings, emotions, and passions. From that 
 school the art of music received an entirely new 
 impulse and direction, which had its origin in 
 popular melody ; for secular music, formerly 
 homeless, had taken root and flourished, un- 
 
48 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 shackled by ecclesiastical influences, in the genial 
 soil of Naples. Thus we are led, by the progress 
 of Art, from Eome and Venice to the bright and 
 joyous city of Naples, then to Florence, the seat 
 of learning and the fine arts, and, ultimately, back 
 to Naples. 
 
 Willaert and his pupils, especially Zarlino (as 
 well as Palestrina and Orl. Lassus, whom we are 
 accustomed to think of only as singers *'of the 
 long robe"), had already applied the art of poly- 
 phony to secular melody in the Madrigal (a 
 species of song treating of love or pastoral 
 scenes). This style of composition, "in which a 
 lively air with strongly-marked rhythm (then 
 somewhat rare) was accompanied by a simple 
 counterpoint of several — three, four, and up to 
 seven — voices,"* was speedily diffused throughout 
 Italy, and especially cherished at Naples, even 
 by the mass of the people, in the light and easy 
 form of the Villanelle or Villote alia Napolitana, 
 LucA Marenzio [born circa 1550, "zY piu dolce 
 cigno"~\ and Gesualdo di Venosa [1588—1612] 
 are the most celebrated and prolific Madrigal 
 writers. 
 
 The transition from the lyrical poetry of 
 polyphonous song to the " drama with chorus" 
 (still customary in our day) was a very natural 
 one ; for the choruses of the then prevalent pas- 
 
 * KlESEWETTER. 
 
ORIGIN OF THE OPERA. 49 
 
 toral plays (for example Tasso's ' Aminta/ Gua- 
 rini's * Pastor Fido/ and others), which connected 
 the several scenes and acts and formed the con- 
 clusion, were in their tenor and substance essen- 
 tially lyrical. But that the same polyphonous 
 form should be employed also for dialogue and 
 monologue — though it had never been nor was 
 objected to in Church music (Palestrina's ' Impro- 
 perie' for instance) — could not fail to appear not 
 only unsuitable, but ridiculous, on the stage. Let 
 the reader, for instance, picture to himself the 
 situation of two lovers who were to address each 
 other by means of choruses placed behind, and 
 sometimes even actually on, the stage. Another 
 attempt to adapt Madrigal music to dramatic 
 monologue by assigning to this latter the highest, 
 and to instruments the remaining, parts of the 
 Madrigal, was not much more successful. Thus, 
 the only form of art which had hitherto been 
 acknowledged — ecclesiastical polyphonous song — , 
 was found wholly inadequate for the expression of 
 individual feeling. It was therefore requisite to 
 discover some other and better mode of expres- 
 sion ; at the same time, there was an unwilling- 
 ness to relinquish the old, approved methods. 
 
 That which musicians would never have dared 
 to attempt, was undertaken by a society of 
 literati estabUshed at Florence in 1580. The 
 primary object of this association was the revival 
 of Greek art (inclusive of music) at its best 
 
 E 
 
50 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 period; and, in accordance with this theory, 
 nothing less than an entire reconstruction of 
 contemporary musical art was insisted on. In 
 order to comprehend this tendency in the present 
 day, when the study of the classics is becoming 
 of less and less importance, we must bear in mind 
 that the antiquarian lore of those days, rejoicing 
 in the ardour of youth, disdained to minister only 
 to learned pedantry ; on the contrary, its endea- 
 vours had an immediate practical bearing on Art 
 and Literature. National Poetry — though for a 
 time held in restraint by a too servile imitation 
 of antique forms — , Statuary, and Painting forsook 
 the monopolizing service of the Church ; nor was 
 the art of Music able to resist the spirit of the 
 Renaissance (revival of classic antiquity) which 
 v/as everywhere successfully making head against 
 ecclesiastical domination. 
 
 As opposed to the art of polyphony, whose 
 very existence was contrary to Greek theories of 
 art, the society which had been formed at the 
 same place (and about the same period) as the 
 Platonic Academy founded by Cosmo de' Medici, 
 laid down as its primary axiom : — distinct indi- 
 viduality of expression, and clear intelligibility of 
 the words to be sung. At length, after a num- 
 ber of failures, the attempts to revive Greek 
 Tragedy gave birth to the recitative — the founda- 
 tion of the modern vocal drama, and answering to 
 the intoned recitation of the ancients. The reci- 
 
ORIGIN OF THE OPERA. 51 
 
 tative, being a kind of compromise between 
 speaking and singing, was, therefore, aptly deno- 
 minated " micsica parlante,'" (speaking music.) 
 
 The first production of importance in the new 
 " stile rappresentativoj' or " recitativo,'' was Jacopo 
 Peri's ' Eurydice,' of which Einuccini furnished 
 the poem. It was performed at Florence on the 
 occasion of the nuptials of Henry IV. of France 
 with Mary of Medicis [February 6th, 1600], 
 and speedily achieved renown. In spite, or rather 
 in consequence, of the increasing expenditure 
 which afterwards attended the performance of 
 "music dramas" Q' dramme per musica') at the 
 Italian Courts on gala days, th-e result fell short of 
 the expectation of its founders. The musical 
 recitation, which, in accordance with the rules 
 laid down by antiquarians, plumed itself on "a 
 noble contempt for melody," could not fail to 
 strike a music-loving people as insipid and tame, 
 and to incite gifted and ambitious musicians to 
 fresh efforts; 
 
 The inventive genius of Claudio Monteverde 
 [born at Cremona circa 1566, died at Venice 
 1650] — to whom Kiese wetter assigns a special 
 epoch — considerably improved the Opera, which 
 was as yet, on the whole, sufficiently unmusical. 
 So far from adhering to the prescribed rule con- 
 cerning antique models, which required that the 
 actual musical form be almost entirely sacrificed 
 to distinct enunciation of the words, he ventured 
 
52 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 to assert his art on an equal footing with poetry, 
 by rendering the recitative more susceptible of 
 melody, variety, and expresssion, and giving to 
 the instrumental accompaniment a wider and 
 more independent range. It was especially in 
 this last particular that his innovations incurred 
 violent censure. For his mode of employing the 
 instruments connected with vocal performance 
 in various characteristic ways, and of introducing 
 dissonances when the expression required was 
 one of passion or excitement, made it clearly 
 evident that his sole aim and object was by no 
 means comprised in the endeavour to equal the 
 much-vaunted models of antiquity. Character- 
 istic hereof is his attempt to represent musically 
 and dramatically an episode from Tasso's 'Jeru- 
 salem Delivered ' (* Tancred and Chlorinda'), in a 
 kind of cantata ; whereas, in the narrow zeal of 
 imitating Greek Tragedy, national poetry had 
 hitherto been almost entirely neglected by 
 musicians. In this particular, Monteverde's views 
 are all the more remarkable, because Tasso's 
 poem, which if rendered into prose would be 
 scarcely tolerable, seems, on the other hand, not 
 to require the assistance of music to give it effect.. 
 Tasso's tender and melodious poem has rarely — 
 and then only in a greatly altered form — been 
 made use of in the subsequent Italian Opera, 
 whose range of subjects was almost entirely 
 limited to ancient mythology and history. With 
 
ORiaiN OP THE OPERA. 68 
 
 Monteverde, the musical element of dramatic 
 representation began to usurp the place of the 
 poetical — previously so anxiously cherished — ; and, 
 although his Operas {^'favole in musica") do not 
 contain the remotest indications of that mighty 
 spirit of melody which before long was completely 
 to supersede the sister art of poetry, it is none 
 the less certain that the musical drama was 
 thenceforth deflected from its original tendency — 
 a circumstance which contributed in no small 
 degree to the progress of modern music. 
 
 The Church compositions of Yiadana and Caris- 
 simi, which were in like manner based on the 
 new theory of individual expression, had a more 
 important, though indirect, share in forming the 
 flowing melodious opera style than all the Opera 
 compositions that had hitherto appeared. Ludo- 
 vico ViADANA, a monk [in the early part of the 
 seventeenth century], was the first who in 
 sacred music disengaged melody from the re- 
 straints of contrapuntal laws, by treating the 
 harmony, which hitherto had engaged supreme 
 consideration, merely as the ground-work of a 
 tune complete and entire in itself. His prin- 
 cipal productions were what he styled Sacred 
 Concerts {concerti ecclesiastici or sacri), " a style of 
 composition in which Cantilene were executed by 
 one, two, three, or more voices, and required an 
 instrumental accompaniment — generally speaking, 
 
54 . " HISTORY OP MUSIC. 
 
 the organ — to complete the harmony."* A hasso 
 continuo for the organ {hasso per organd) formed 
 the ground-work, to which it was the province of 
 the organist to add chords as fitness and taste 
 should suggest. The organist was therefore ex- 
 pected to be versed in the art of playing harmo- 
 nies to an unjigured bass ; subsequently, the 
 further development of the art of harmony neces- 
 sitated the use of figured basses, and, in conse- 
 quence, the practice of Thorough Bass, "In 
 these sacred songs of Viadana, we find songs for 
 each of the four voices ; some for one, for two, 
 for three, or for four voices, in all possible combi- 
 nations ; occasionally, some of the parts are 
 doubled ; there are also four-part songs inter- 
 rupted by soli (for example, a ^^ J)iei solemnia 
 fulget dies* for an introductor}'- tenor solo followed 
 by a chorus ; or a ''Die Maria quid vidisti" re- 
 peated four times as a chorus with soli, or four 
 voices in succession, interpolated) ; there are also, 
 for the sake of variety, songs with instruments, 
 for ex. — a three-part Bo7ie Jesu for tenor and 
 two trombones, a four-part song, " Repleatur cor 
 meum laude tua^' for alto, tenor, and {si placet) two 
 trombones. These compositions, as such, are of 
 no great value. But the whole arrangement is 
 very appropriate for Church singing, and favour- 
 able to the development of a well-defined melody 
 
 * KlESEWETTEB. 
 
ORIGIN OF THE OPERA, 55 
 
 concentrated in one and the self-san\e part, and of 
 organ accompaniment in its best form. It is 
 true that, in former times, there were complete 
 songs in three and four parts, but those were in- 
 variably in the form of a canon or fugue ^ and 
 devoid of accompaniment."* Herein was esta- 
 blished the precedence of melody over harmony ; 
 the cohesion of all the parts or voices in the con- 
 struction of musical pieces fell away ; the contra- 
 puntal theory of composition had to make room 
 for inventions of a purely melodious character— 
 for a simple, tuneful style, as distinct from har- 
 monic treatment. The "varied, graceful style" 
 (so much admired by Prsetorius) of "Yiadana's 
 Concerts " found numerous imitators both among 
 Italian and German composers. 
 
 Giacomo Carissimi [born at Venice in 1600], 
 during a life nearly coextensive with the century, 
 contributed still further to the development of 
 genuine melody. He it was who, more than any 
 previous composer, gave to individual feeling and 
 expression that prominence which caused it 
 thenceforth — even in sacred music — to become the 
 chief aim and object of the musician. He was so 
 eminently successful in the treatment of the inde- 
 pendent forms in monody — the recitative and 
 arioso — , that his works served as models for the 
 now rapidly rising Opera. 
 
 Its musical development once thoroughly se- 
 * Heimsoeth. 
 
56 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 cured, the Opera made quick progress, especially 
 when the performances began to take place in 
 public (about the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury). The impresari, in order to compensate for 
 the necessarily diminished splendour of public 
 representations, endeavoured to substitute the 
 delectation of the ear for that of the eye, while 
 increasing public favour encouraged composers to 
 improve upon the recitative and arioso till they 
 achieved the aria (air). The natural result of 
 these causes, working conjointly, was that an en- 
 tirely new direction was given to the Opera. The 
 vocal Opera, supported by the co-operation of the 
 great singing-schools, and formed by the Neapo- 
 litan school, and especially by the elder Scarlatti 
 and his pupils, ere long became a national institu- 
 tion. 
 
 With Carissimi's pupil, Alessandro Scarlatti 
 [born at Trapani 1659, died at Naples 1725] — 
 so much admired for the fertility and versatility 
 of his genius — , begins the actual history of the 
 modern Opera. The improvement of opera me- 
 lody (deplored as a " relapse into Paganism " by 
 E. Wagner) is chiefly due to him; he fixed 
 the forms of the Italian Opera of the last century 
 in all its most important details. More especially 
 is the Opera indebted to him for a fuller and freer 
 instrumentation, as well in those portions of the 
 performance where it is employed without singing 
 (viz., introductions and intermezzi), as in the 
 
' THE NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL. '67 
 
 recitative, which, since then, has usually been 
 accompanied or ohligato. He moulded the aria 
 into the graceful, finished form it has since ree- 
 tained, by dividing it into three parts, viz., prin- 
 cipal phrase, middle phrase, and(ia capo (repetition 
 of the first part v^ith fresh and more florid orna- 
 mentations). In his numerous sacred composi- 
 tions (Masses, Motets, Oratorios, Cantatas), Scar- 
 latti adhered to the old, severe style. Among 
 these, the most celebrated are a Miserere composed 
 for the Papal chapel in 1680, and a fugue for 
 two choruses ; Tu es Petrus, which is still sung on 
 Easter day on the occasion of the Pope's entrance 
 into church. 
 
 Scarlatti's pupil, Francesco Durante [born at 
 Naples 1693, died there 1755], did not himself 
 write for the theatre, but the most celebrated 
 composers of Italian Opera — Duni, Terradeghas, 
 Piccini, Jomelli, and a number of others — were 
 educated in his school. In Church compositions 
 Durante adopted the modern style, though with- 
 out detriment to the dignity befitting sacred 
 music; he had a partiality for the vocal system 
 founded on ancient Church tunes, and employed it 
 successfully. Other pupils of Scarlatti's school, 
 deserving of mention, are Francesco Feo, whose 
 Mass for two choirs is described as not only bril- 
 liant, but grand and vigorous in character, and 
 Alessandro Stradella, famed for his romantic 
 history. Of yet greater note — likewise in sacred 
 
58 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 music — was Durante's contemporary, Leonardo 
 Leo [born at Naples 1694, died there 1745], also 
 a pupil of Scarlatti's and of the Eoman school 
 under Pitoni. His chef-d'oeuvre in the old style 
 {a capella) is a grand eight-part Miserere y " which 
 was for Naples, what Allegri's was for Eome one 
 hundred years before."* Graceful and dignified 
 as are his compositions in the old vocal style, he 
 is on the other hand — especially in Oratorio {La 
 morte d'Ahelh) — an ardent promoter of the con- 
 certed style with recitative, of the aria (though 
 of a solemn cast), and of full-toned orchestral 
 acx3ompaniment ; he has (observes Eeichardt) 
 " carried the epoch of the grand style in music 
 into that of the graceful style." 
 
 The novelties which obtained after Leo's 
 time brought about a radical change in Church 
 music, which lost in dignity, solemnity, and 
 sublimity, in proportion as the more or less 
 florid style of solo singing, borrowed from the 
 Opera and instrumental music, supplanted the 
 chorus and organ. On the other hand, it is 
 worthy of notice that the last celebrated com- 
 posers of Church music exclusively, viz., Viadana, 
 Carissimi, and Durante, were singularly influen- 
 tial in furthering the improvement of the Opera. 
 
 Among the most celebrated of Leo's Operas was 
 ^Olympiade^' in ^which occurs the duet ''Neigiorni 
 
 * Compare Heinse. Hildegard von Eohenthalj vol. i., p. 149- 
 154. 
 
THE NEAPOLITAN- SCHOOL. 59 
 
 tuoifelici'^ and the air, " iVo so donde viene." In 
 the brilHant series of Italian Opera composers 
 formed in the school of Durante and Leo, we 
 distinguish the following : Pergolese, DunI, 
 Terradeglias, Jomelli [1714 — 1774], Traetta, 
 Ciccio Di Majo, Galuppi, Guglielmi, and, espe- 
 cially, Niccolo PicciNi [born at Bari 1728, died at 
 Passy, near Paris, 1800] and Gasparo Sacchini 
 [born at Naples 1735, died at Paris 1786], who 
 made beauty of form and vocal perfection their 
 almost exclusive study. After the custom had 
 obtained of employing a peculiar class of voices 
 whose chief excellence lay in an almost incon- 
 ceivable degree of technical skill, the style of the 
 Opera degenerated into weakness and affectation, 
 and little more was required of opera composers 
 than a series of brilliant bravura airs (generally 
 from twenty to thirty in number) loosely hung 
 on to the recitative ; — as to the few duets, trios, 
 and pieces d'ensemble, which entered into these 
 compositions, they were not in the least appre- 
 ciated by the general public. 
 
 The compositions of Joseph Adolf Hasse 
 [born at Bergedorf near Hamburg 1699, died 
 at Venice 1783], who was called by the Italians 
 ^^ilcaro" or '' divino Sassone" are of a higher 
 class than those we have just alluded to ; indeed, 
 Hasse may be considered as the chief representa- 
 tive of the most brilliant period of Italian Opera. 
 "No other master has equalled him in his correct 
 
60 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 and genuine appreciation and rendering of the 
 general outline and features of the Italian school 
 at that period."* A pupil of the venerable Scar- 
 latti, and, in 1771, a rival of the young Mozart 
 (at that time fifteen years of age), his life and 
 works comprise the entire history and develop- 
 ment of the early Italian Opera. His prophecy 
 concerning Mozart, *' That boy will cause us all 
 to be forgotten" (" Questo ragazzo ci fara dimen- 
 ticar tutii"), was only too speedily to be fulfilled. 
 Metastasio [1698 — 1782], almost contempo- 
 rary with Ilasse, represents the poetical, as the 
 latter does the musical, element of the Italian 
 Opera seria. A musician (principally vocal) by 
 education, he has never been surpassed as a lyric 
 dramatic poet ; his language is admirably adapted 
 for singing, while his verses breathe a tender 
 lyrical expression. On the other hand, there is a 
 sameness of dramatic invention in his very- 
 numerous productions; he wrote, as composers 
 desired, solely for the mitsic, and we must not — 
 like the too severe A. W. Von Schlegel — expect to 
 find in him the dignity of a tragic poet. Eiehl 
 aptly contrasts him with the French stage poet 
 Scribe, in whose works the subjects, and sudden 
 — often inconsequent — dramatic effect predomi- 
 nates ; whereas, in Metastasio, the subject-matter 
 
 * W. H. RiEHL. Compare his admirable portraiture of Hasse, 
 the "Dresden Royal Ojpera composer ^^ in the Musikalische Clia- 
 raJcterkb^ey vol. i. 
 
THE XEAPOLITAX SCnOOL. 61 
 
 adapts itself easily to the musical plastique. In 
 Italy, Da Ponte is, perhaps, the only genuine 
 stage poet who may be considered his equal. 
 His merits and defects are very justly and fairly 
 weighed and canvassed by Arteaga.''^ 
 
 Originally called into existence by the Opera, 
 instrumental music — more especially fiddle-play- 
 ing — emerged by degrees from the subordinate 
 office of accompaniment and introduction to the 
 singing into an independent sphere of musical 
 art. After CoRELLi [1G53 — ^1713] — who excelled 
 in graceful and sweet-toned execution — and his 
 pupil Geminiani, came the gifted Tartini [1692 
 — 1770, '' il maestro delle nazioni'l, who brought 
 technical skill on the violin to the utmost perfec- 
 tion — especially in the management of the bow. 
 As a proof of his marvellous powers of execution, 
 we may cite his '^ devilish'' grotesque Devil's 
 Sonata ("Trille du diable") — a piece that has re- 
 cently been re-edited, and performed at concerts. 
 '* One cannot understand how such a piece can 
 be executed by four fingers only — it is like listen- 
 ing to three or four violins playing at once." 
 From his school at Padua proceeded the great 
 virtuosi Nardini and Pugnani, who, in their 
 turn, produced excellent pupils in Lozzi and 
 
 ViOTTI. 
 
 Vocalists of artistic and historical celebrity 
 were: the soprani Senesino and Bernacchi 
 
 * Le Bevoluzioni del teatro musicale Itcdiano. Venezia, 1785. 
 
62 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 (pupils of PisToccHi), Caffarelli (whose voice 
 earned him a dukedom), Carlo Broschi, surnamed 
 Parinelli (pupil of PoRPORA, and the all-power- 
 ful favourite of Philip V. and Ferdinand VI. of 
 Spain) ; also Pacchiarotti, Marchesi, Crescen- 
 TiNi, Yelluti, and the female singers : Yittoria 
 Tes'i, Faustina Bordoni (Basse's wife), Francesca 
 CuzzoNi, Francesca Gabrieli. Lastly, deserv- 
 ing of mention are the famous Cremona fiddle- 
 makers — the Amati, Guarneri, Straduari, 
 whose instruments fetch large sums at the pre- 
 sent day. 
 
 Notwithstanding the efforts of those who con- 
 tributed to the brilliancy of the Italian Opera, 
 its splendour — based as it was on the immediate 
 gratification of the senses — was destined to fade 
 away rapidly. " The spirit of the ancient legends 
 of gods and heroes was not in the least under- 
 stood or appreciated — the taste of the age was 
 too debased ; they were employed merely as a 
 convenient garb for the expression of modern 
 sentimentality as well as to adorn and beautify 
 the same.* In addition to this, the Opera was 
 entirely adapted to the individual capacities of 
 the singers (all Hasse's for instance, above a hun- 
 dred in number, are arranged with reference to his 
 wife Faustina's powers) ; its existence was there- 
 fore necessarily an ephemeral one, owing to 
 changes in the performers as well as the decrease 
 
 ♦ ¥, Cheysandeb. Eandel, vol. i., p. 82. 
 
THE NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL. 63 
 
 of tlie extraordinary vocal execution above re- 
 ferred to, for which, indeed, it served only as a 
 scaffolding. How many are at the present day 
 acquainted with even the names of those once 
 famous compositions for which W. Heinse in his 
 art-novel * Hildegard von Hohenthal' (companion 
 to ' Ardinghello,' a work treating of the arts of 
 design, and especially of Italian painting) ex- 
 pressed such exceeding enthusiasm ? " Probably 
 many beautiful thoughts, both in melody and 
 expression, have perished with the innumerable 
 operas (now consigned to oblivion) of the two 
 first centuries of this branch of art; but the 
 musical drama could not prosper in such a soil."* 
 A few Church compositions alone escaped 
 universal oblivion ; and these are less remarkable 
 for reHgious depth and power than for a soft, 
 tender expression, and pleasing faciHty, both 
 in execution and effect, which rendered them 
 acceptable to the worldly tendency of that age. 
 Of the gentle and melancholy Emanuele d' 
 AsTOiiGA [born 1680] a Stabat Mater has obtained 
 celebrity. Equal, if not superior, to it is one by 
 Pergolese [1710 — 1736] for two female voices 
 with quartet accompaniment, — the last pious 
 strain of the early departing maestro, Klopstock 
 has written a German text for it, and it has of 
 late been performed in Germany with considerable 
 success. That Pergolese could also write with 
 
 * ViscHEB. Aesthetik. Vol, iii., p. 1139. 
 
64 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 fire and spirit is evident from his Masses, his 
 113th Psalm for five voices, and other com- 
 positions. Of Astorga, whose memory has 
 been revived by Fr. Eochlitz,* and by Eiehl,t 
 Httle else is known. Of his Stahat writes the 
 latter : *' Astorga vacillates betw^een the modern 
 manner of dramatizing the sacred text, and the 
 old mystical style of contemplation, as we find it 
 in Palestrina's school — soaring sublime in evenly 
 progressing musical lyric above the varied signi- 
 fication and expression of the words of the text." 
 JoMELLi's Church compositions, including even 
 his Requiem and Miserere (the latter set to 
 Italian words : ** Pietii, Signore "), are of inferior 
 value. Mozart says of him : " This man has a 
 certain line in which he excels (the opera), so 
 that we cannot hope to supplant him in that 
 which he understands so thoroughly well. But 
 he should never have attempted to go out of his 
 province and write, for instance, Church music 
 in the old style." Of Hasse, a grand and noble 
 Te Deum, as well as a Requiem (according to 
 Krause; superior even to Mozart's), are still 
 annually performed in the Catholic Court Church 
 at Dresden. On the other hand, the light Italian 
 style and opera air appear without disguise or 
 reticence in his Masses and Oratorios. 
 
 If, as must be avowed, the Catholic Church 
 
 * Filr Freunde der Tonhunst Vol. ii., p. 87-101 ' 
 t MusikcUische Charakterkojpfe. Vol. i. 
 
THE NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL. 65 
 
 music of the eighteenth century approached 
 somewhat too closely to that of the Opera, so that 
 between an Opera seria and a solemn Mass little 
 or no difference can be discerned, yet in the 
 masters of the early Neapolitan school. Church 
 music " could always be distinctly recognized from 
 profane music, and retained its dignity notwith- 
 standing the introduction of new and showy 
 styles."* Though, indeed, it cannot be denied 
 that the modern tendency degenerated latterly 
 into narrow egotism and vain display, yet it 
 would be unfair — not to say bigoted — to regard 
 this tendency as inimical to the Church ; and, 
 while extolling a soulless and unartistic reaction, 
 to insist with puritanical rigour on the exclusion 
 of all concerted music from the Church. One 
 should rather (to use 0. Jahn'sf admirable ex- 
 pression) regard it as the natural consequence of 
 the revival of art, that an ardent desire was mani- 
 fested to express devotional feelings with all the 
 force and reality of genuine sentiment free from 
 conventional restraints, and "to consecrate all 
 the resources of an art which was developing 
 itself so splendidly, in the same manner as had 
 been the case with the arts of design. This 
 new impulse and direction was followed up with 
 the zeal of a newly-awakened artistic effort — 
 one which, of its kind, was as sincere as the 
 simple pious faith which thought to consecrate 
 
 ♦ KiESE WETTER. f Mozart, vol. i., p. 441. 
 
 F 
 
66 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 its best endeavours by devoting them to the 
 Church." 
 
 Thus, on the whole, the music of the Church 
 and that of the Opera progressed amicably hand 
 in hand, mutually influencing each other; the 
 improvement and extension of the new forms 
 benefited both, and their history is henceforward 
 inseparable. The Italian Oratorio^ in particular, 
 which, from the first, took the same course as the 
 Opera, was, in the eighteenth century, only a kind 
 of sacred Opera, the object of which was to in- 
 demnify lovers of music for the privations of 
 Lent. It was not till the great German masters, 
 Seb. Bach and Handel, had taken the Oratorio in 
 hand, that it acquired its ultimate and distinctive 
 character. Altogether, the relation of art in 
 general, and music in particular, to the Church 
 was a totally difierent one in Italy to what it was 
 in Protestant Germany; in the former it was 
 free, and more or less superior to ecclesiastical 
 restraint, in the latter (particularly during the 
 early Lutheran period) it was almost exclusively 
 ecclesiastical. The great intellectual movement 
 of the sixteenth century, brought about by the 
 study of classic antiquity, led, in Italy, to freedom 
 in art — in Germany to freedom in matters of 
 faith. The gay, artistic Italian temperament 
 was utterly at variance with the intellectual 
 energy and purely spiritual worship brought in 
 by the Eeformation — which was, in truth, un- 
 
THE NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL. 67 
 
 favourable to art ; and thus it also came to pass 
 that Giordano Bruno's and Savonarola's attempts 
 at reform met with scant appreciation, and ob- 
 tained no hold on the general sympathy. 
 
CHAPTER Vn. 
 
 The Protest a Jit Chubch Song.* 
 
 In Germany, the only branch of music worthy of 
 being called national was Church music, which, 
 through the agency of Luther and his musical 
 friends, Walther and Senfl, was imbued with a 
 strongly-marked Protestant tendency. What 
 Ambrose had been to the Latin, Luther was to 
 the German Church song, which, as well as every- 
 thing pertaining to the Church, he endeavoured 
 to popularize to the utmost. Instead of the 
 hitherto purely liturgical choir song of the Eoman 
 Church (which he called a dismal ass's bray), he 
 instituted the German chorale^ taking for his 
 models the sacred songs of the Hussites or Bohe- 
 mian and Moravian Brothers. Concerning these 
 latter, says Herder: "Many of them express 
 simplicity and devotion, piety and brotherly com- 
 
 * K. V. WiNTERFELD. " Dev Evaugelische Kirchengesang und 
 sein VerhcHtniss zur Kunst des Tmisatzes.''* 3 Theile, Leipzig, 
 1843-47. 
 
THE PROTESTANT CHURCH SONG. 69 
 
 munion in a manner we cannot hope to emulate, 
 because we have it not." Musically educated, 
 and so enthusiastically partial to the art that he 
 "ranked it next in importance to theology," 
 Luther's chief aim, while arranging the new 
 Church song, was to ensure that " the words be 
 worthily expressed, not babbled or drawled," and 
 above all that the " masses join in the singing and 
 pay devout attention." 
 
 The chorale of the Protestant Church was, in 
 the main, a combination of the Gregorian tune 
 with the modern principle of harmony. A 
 metrical song in the language of the country 
 (whatever that might happen to be) furnished 
 the words, while the tune of these songs was the 
 Gregorian style combined with a simple counter- 
 point according to the music of the period. It 
 was, however, only by degrees that the song re- 
 sulting from this combination which obtained in 
 the service of the new churches, assumed a marked, 
 complete, and, above all, popular character. At 
 first, metrical songs in the mother-tongue were 
 collected for the use of the congregation. As to 
 the music, it was either taken from popular tunes 
 of old church hymns, or else easy secular melodies 
 were adapted for use in churches. 
 
 In the Lutheran Church, Luther appears as a 
 poet — translating old (biblical, Boman and Bohe- 
 mian) songs, arranging German, and writing 
 original ones, — among others his famous hymn : 
 
70 HISTORY OF MUSIC, 
 
 " Our God is a tower of strength."* He caused 
 these songs to be set for a number of voices, and 
 the congregation had to join in the leading 
 melody. — The French Calvinist Church song 
 was of inferior importance as compared with the 
 German Lutheran. It was confined principally 
 to the melodies of the Psalms versified in the 
 mother tongue by Marot and Beza (of which the 
 airs were chiefly borrowed from secular songs) ; 
 these were set very simply in four parts by 
 GouDiMEL [already mentioned ; he died a Hugue- 
 not, at Lyons, in 1572]. Of similar origin were 
 the three part musical pieces of Goudimel's con- 
 temporary, Clemens non Papa, as well as the 
 tunes on the Souter Liedekens — a Flemish 
 translation of the Psalms with doctrinal songs 
 and songs of praise annexed. Zwingli main- 
 tained the severely matter-of-fact view that sing- 
 ing, or even music, in church was superfluous, 
 disturbing to devotion, yea sinful. He is said 
 to have sung the proposal to the Zurich Council 
 for abolishing church singing. 
 
 It was the Church song, as arranged by Luther, 
 that alone met with general acceptance, and 
 received artistic development. The adversaries 
 of Protestantism have even gone so far as to 
 assert that, together with Luther's translation of 
 the Bible, it was the principal cause of the rapid 
 spread of that religion. People literally sang 
 
 * ** Ein'feste Burg ist unser GoU:' 
 
THE PROTESTANT CHURCH SONG. 71 
 
 themselves into the new doctrine, and it was said 
 that many were by this means induced to embrace 
 it, who "formerly could not bear the name of 
 Luther."'^ 
 
 The first Lutheran hymn-book appeared at 
 Wittenberg, in 1524, and was called 'an Attempt 
 at an Arrangement of a German Mass ;' it con- 
 tained, besides several songs retained from the 
 old Church, eight by Luther — all arranged for 
 four-part singing by his friend Walther. The 
 Protestant Church song was, in fact, originally 
 intended for part singing ; and, in order to bring 
 about the desired participation of the congrega- 
 tion, this latter was to join in the tune, which was 
 generally placed in the tenor part. Musicians 
 were too much accustomed to harmony to dispense 
 with it altogether, and the organ was not in use 
 as an accompaniment till fully one hundred years 
 later. The chorale did not take the simpler form 
 of a tune for one voice, with an accompaniment 
 
 * Luther, however, could appreciate the more artistic form of the 
 Motet — admirably treated by his friend Ludwig Senfl — as per- 
 formed by a choir; for he admires the lovely miracle of such 
 " music polished and adorned by art, of which it is above all things 
 strange and wonderful that a simple tune or tenor (as musicians are 
 wont to call it) is sung by one voice, and along with it three, four, 
 or five other voices sing likewise, and wondrously and variously 
 decorate and adorn the same, and lead, as it were, a heavenly dance, 
 where they meet, and sweetly and smilingly embrace, so that he 
 who understands and feels this music cannot refrain from wondering 
 mightily, and thinks there can be nothing in the world more 
 wonderful than such singing adorned by a number of voices." 
 
72 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 of the other voices, till the seventeenth century, 
 when the melody was transferred from the tenor 
 (where it was frequently scarcely to be recog- 
 nized by reason of the surrounding voices) to the 
 treble, and, in accordance with this arrangement, 
 the hymn-books contained merely the tune and 
 the words. Lucas Osianders work, entitled 
 " Fifty Spiritual Songs and Psalms set in counter- 
 point for four voices, in such wise that a Christian 
 congregation mayjoinin the singing throughout," 
 was chiefly instrumental in bringing about a 
 change which tended in so great a measure to 
 secure the participation of the people in the 
 singing. " I know very well," says he, in the 
 dedication to the schoolmasters of Wiirtemberg 
 (January 1st, 1586), "that composers are in the 
 habit of assigning the chorale to the tenor. But, 
 if this be done, the chorale cannot be distin- 
 guished from among the other parts ; the com- 
 mon people cannot tell what psalm it is, nor 
 join in the singing. For this reason, I have 
 placed the chorale in the treble, so that it sliall be 
 recognized distinctly, and every lay member can 
 sing too." The same views ai-e set forth by one 
 who was considered the greatest organist of his 
 time — Hans Leo Hassler [born at Nurem- 
 berg 1564, died 1618] — in the preface to his 
 book entitled : " Church Songs, Psalms, and Spi- 
 ritual Songs, set to common melodies simpliciter 
 in four parts," (1608), in which he has "endea- 
 
THE PROTESTANT CHURCH SONG. 73 
 
 voured so to harmonize the best known church 
 tunes that the chorale shall be distinctly heard 
 throughout the treble, and at the same time the 
 congregation can join in and sing too." 
 
 The greatest master in this style of polypho- 
 nous Church song was Johannes EC CARD [born 
 at Miihlhausen in Thiiringen 1533, died chapel- 
 master at Berlin 1611], pupil of Orlandus Lassus. 
 His principal works are : * Spiritual Songs set to a 
 chorale or common church tune, and composed for 
 five voices ' (in two parts, Konigsberg, 1597),* 
 and * Prussian Festival Songs for the whole year, 
 for five, six, and up to eight, voices' (1598). 
 More especially in this latter work did he achieve 
 a truly artistic amalgamation of solo and polypho- 
 nous, congregational and choir singing, as well as 
 of the Song and the Motet — ^in Winterfeld's esti- 
 mation a " vigorous, expressive ensemble, singularly 
 delicate and ingenious in the detail, yet, notwith- 
 standing this care and finish, fully intelligible to 
 the people, and addressing itself to their sympa- 
 thies." The Protestant chorale or congregational 
 hymn, supported by harmony either of the choir 
 or organ (which soon after came into universal 
 use), attained its utmost perfection through 
 
 * The first part contains one hymn for Advent, six for Christmas, 
 three for the Epiphany, Passion Week, Easter, and Whitsuntide 
 each ; two for the Feast of the Trinity, besides a Magnificat and Te 
 Deum : the second part consists of twenty-nine songs for general 
 use, viz. (so called) Catechism Songs, Psalms, &c. 
 
74 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Eccard, with whom its historical epoch may be 
 said to close. 
 
 It must not, however, be supposed that in the 
 seventeenth century there were not many admi- 
 rable composers of church music. Joh. Stobaus 
 and Heinrich Albert (pupils of Eccard's so- 
 called Prussian school of music) are worthy of 
 notice. These, as well as the Berlin and Saxon 
 composers, Joh. Cruger, Joh. Georg Ebeling, 
 Joachim Neander, Georg Neumark, wrote chiefly 
 for the sacred poetry of their contemporaries — 
 Simon Dach, Paul Gerhard, and others. A 
 number of their melodies have found their way 
 into the congregational Church song, and many 
 authors of chorale melodies are now quite forgotten 
 — those who are held to be the composers, being, 
 very frequently, merely the contrapuntists who 
 arranged the harmonies to these melodies. 
 
 During that sceptical period, the eighteenth 
 century — when organists were accustomed to play 
 trivial minuet tunes for introductions, intermezzi, 
 and jinali, during divine service, and poets 
 arranged " refined " songs and airs, not adapted 
 for popular use, for sacred songs — , chorale music 
 necessarily declined; for it had its root and 
 origin solely in religious feeling and the uni- 
 versal love of singing, which created a demand 
 for that kind of music. The chorale gradually 
 gave place to choir and solo singing, so that the 
 musical connoisseur, Mattheson, affirms that, in his 
 
THE PKOTESTANT CHURCH SONG. 75 
 
 day, the chorale was only tolerated for the sake of 
 the ignorant and weak. 
 
 Though, in modern Protestant chorale books, 
 the character of the old tunes has, on the whole, 
 greatly deteriorated, yet the Protestant Church 
 possesses in her oldest and best chorales the only 
 genuine Church music which thoroughly answers 
 to the grand idea of catholicity — a universal 
 song, in which both words and melody have 
 equal power and effect ; whereas in the song of 
 the Eoman liturgy the text, and in choir song 
 (with or without accompaniment) the music 
 usually predominates. 
 
 The next important branch of Protestant 
 Church song, and which we find carried to per- 
 fection in the works of Seb. Bach, was founded 
 on the choir singing taken from Italian models. 
 Michael Pratorius, [1571 — 1621], and particu- 
 larly Heinrich Schutz (pupil of the celebrated 
 Johannes Gabrieli), were the first who attempted 
 this style. Pratorius endeavoured to combine 
 both old and new styles — the chorale and concerto 
 — and to establish a kind of compromise between 
 the two ; but Schutz boldly adopted the new 
 style. 
 
 Heinrich Schutz [born at Kostritz on the 
 Elster, 1585 — exactly one hundred years before 
 Seb. Bach — died, chapel-master, at Dresden, 1672] 
 introduced, in a considerable number of produc- 
 tions, the new forms of song, viz., the recitative 
 
76 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 and air, duet and trio, as well as an independent, if 
 not continuous, instrumental accompaniment into 
 Grerman music. Besides his * Sacred Concerts for 
 1 — 5 voices/ and the partially accompanied songs 
 of the * Symphonice Sacrce' he also attempted the 
 Oratorio style — thereby laying the foundation of 
 that branch of art in Germany. These pieces 
 deserve notice, and are as follows : ' History of 
 our Lord's Resurrection, ' The Seven Words of 
 our dear Saviour and Eedeemer Jesus Christ, 
 which he spoke on the Tree of the Holy Cross ; 
 set to music most touchingly,' and * The Passion 
 according to the four Evangelists ;' this latter 
 he considered his chef-d'oeuwe. Schiitz's only 
 secular piece was his opera * Daphne' the first in 
 Germany, and performed [1627] on the occa- 
 sion of a princely wedding at Torgau. It was 
 composed to Opitz's translation of Einuccini's 
 poem, and is a first and only attempt ; but on 
 that account all the more remarkable. Thus, we 
 find in Schiitz an artist of great and varied 
 powers, who, though almost forgotten at the 
 present day, was by his contemporaries not 
 inaptly called the " father of German music." 
 
 The succeeding period, during which neither 
 congregational nor choir singing made any ad- 
 vance, and the Hamburg Opera alone flourished 
 for a short space, was, for Germany, a transition 
 period — conservative merely as concerns the 
 methods of art, and preparatory to the appearance 
 
THE PROTESTANT CHURCH SONG. 77 
 
 of Bach and Handel. Both these creative 
 geniuses — each in his different Hne — brought 
 Protestant music to the utmost perfection ; at the 
 same time they mark the epoch when "a new- 
 nation made its appearance, and took first rank in 
 the History of Music." 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 JoHANN Sebastian Bach (The Sacred Cantata). 
 
 JoHANN Sebastian Bach, who, in continuation of 
 the foregoing remarks, comes next under our 
 notice, was born at Eisenach (Luther's birth- 
 place) on the 12th of March, 1685.* After 
 having been [since 1704] organist at Arnstadt, 
 Miihlhausen, Weimar, and Kothen, successively, 
 he was appointed [1723] precentor at the Tliomas' 
 School, Leipsic, which office he held till liis death 
 [July 28th, 1750]. One incident of a singularly 
 uneventful life deserves notice, — his encounter 
 [1717] with the French organist royal, Marchand, 
 whom he vanquished without an effort, seeing 
 that, instead of appearing at the hour appointed 
 for the contest with Bach, Marchand " took the 
 express, and vanished from Dresden at break of 
 day !" Bach occasionally visited Dresden with 
 his eldest son Friedemann, in order to (what 
 
 * Ueber Joh. Seh. BacJi's Leben, Kunst und KunstwerJce, von 
 J. W. FoRKFL. Leipzig, 1802. New edition, 1855. 
 
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 79 
 
 " thoughtful " musicians in these days would think 
 very ill of him for doing) hear the Italian operas 
 of Hasse and others. In his latter years, shortly 
 before he became blind [1747], Frederick the 
 Great sent for him. At that time, his son 
 Emanuel was accompanyist (on the clavichord) to 
 the royal flute-player — by no means a perfect 
 timist. The king was " wonderfully struck " 
 with the bold artistic performance of the elder 
 Bach. 
 
 In accordance with the even tenour of a life 
 solely and earnestly devoted to the study of his 
 art, and in marked contrast to other great masters 
 of the period (especially Handel, Hasse, and 
 Gluck), the field of Bach's energies was restricted 
 to his own country — nay, to only a limited 
 portion of that country — , and was almost exclu- 
 sively employed in the service of his Church. 
 True it is, he did not particularly affect congre- 
 gational singing, and the greater part of the 
 chorale songs collected from his Cantatas have 
 never been completely adopted by the Church, 
 nor were they intended to lead the congregational 
 song. His grand individuality stands so entirely 
 aloof from the comprehension and sympathy of 
 the average, that, down to the present day, he is 
 the least popular of any composer. But in all 
 his works — in the Preludes and Fugues for organ, 
 in his Motets, Cantatas, and ' Passions ' — we find 
 the old Church tune rendered in a very character- 
 
80 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 istic and original manner. In this respect, Bach 
 (who has been called the *' musical embodiment 
 of contemplative Lutheranism '') displays a re- 
 markable affinity to the greatest composer of the 
 Mother Church — Palestrina — ,who in like manner 
 almost always based his compositions on the 
 Gregorian chant. And as this latter composed 
 entirely for the Sistine choir, so did the Leipsic 
 precentor work solely and immediately for Divine 
 service and his choir at the Thomas' School. 
 Both these gifted men also resemble each other 
 in the simple Christian tenour of their lives ; 
 both worked principally for the Church ; but 
 Bach not so exclusively, and with greater indivi- 
 duality of expression — as well in detail, as with 
 regard to instrumental accompaniment. 
 
 All Bach's numerous sacred vocal compositions 
 — his Motets, Cantatas and " Passions " — are the 
 result of this tendency of his genius, always 
 employed on the musical treatment of the chorale 
 and its text. The Cantatas for all the Sundays 
 and holidays in the year, of which there is said 
 to have been five entire series (answering to as 
 many years), above three hundred altogether, are 
 even more remarkable than his Motets for one and 
 two choirs without instrumental accompaniment. 
 A part of the latter is now lost. It is related 
 that Mozart spent several hours of his brief visit 
 to Leipsic in studying them. While closely ad- 
 hering to the Liturgy, Bach displays in the treat- 
 
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 81 
 
 ment of the text (which was on each occasion, 
 by previous understanding, made to correspond 
 with the sermon) a truly marvellous wealth of 
 grand, and original musical invention. Besides 
 an introductory chorus, each Cantata contains 
 several recitatives and airs or duets (though these 
 latter but seldom) and a concluding chorale. 
 But the cantus firmus of the chorale forms the 
 ground-work of all the pieces equally, and is 
 skilfully varied and arranged so as to correspond 
 to the sense of the words. ''Although delight- 
 ing in the utmost variety of form, he never loses 
 sight of the religious feeling embodied in the 
 text. The treble or bass, &c. sing the usual 
 Church song, while the remaining voices add 
 their solemn, joyful, or plaintive strains."* Be- 
 sides the organ, the stringed quartet, flutes, 
 hautboys, and trumpets are employed in the 
 accompaniment. 
 
 Eobert Franz has recently published a very 
 successful pianoforte edition of several of the 
 Cantatas. It is all the more valuable to us, 
 because not only several of the instruments (as 
 for example the violoncello piccolo and the corni da 
 caccia) are no longer in use, but the constant 
 ohligato treatment of the others (particularly of the 
 trumpets) would probably throw great difficulties 
 in the way of a perfotmance of these pieces in the 
 
 * Heimsoeth. Vol. iii., p. 861. 
 
 G 
 
82 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 original form. It is only some of the texts that 
 are antiquated ; their naive mysticism no longer 
 suits our taste and feeling. But with regard 
 even to this objection, the following words of 
 S. Bagge (in his detailed and profound criticism 
 of the ' Passion according ^to St. Matthew ' on 
 the occasion of its performance at Vienna)* are 
 applicable. "The words may savour ever so 
 much of * pietism/ the principal thing to bear in 
 mind is, that the music penetrates and ennobles 
 both words and sentiment, and endows them with 
 the utmost sublimity of expression. We are 
 therefore led to overlook the actual words, just as 
 in an opera of Mozart, or in Fidelio, or a song of 
 Schubert's, we forgive the weakness of the poetry.*' 
 The so-called Christmas Oratorio may be de- 
 scribed as a Cantata in a more florid and detailed 
 style — a cheerful idyllic piece as contrasted with 
 the * Passions micsikJ 
 
 But his principal sacred composition in this 
 style is the grand double-choired ' Passion ' ac- 
 cording to St. Matthew (chapters xxvi. and xxvii.), 
 called the Matthduspassion, It was performed 
 for the first time in St. Thomas's Church, Leipsic, 
 at vespers on Good Friday, 1729, and consisted 
 of two distinct parts, between which was preached 
 the midnight sermon. 
 
 * Deutsche Musikzeitung. Jahrg. 1862. No. 17. 
 
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 83 
 
 " The orchestra is divided into two choruses — the Sionites and the 
 Faithful — which are placed on different sides. The Sionites are 
 assembled to follow the sufferings of the Just One ; they call on 
 their companions in the faith to do likewise. Between the choruses 
 is heard the well-known chorale, whose words contain the mystery 
 of salvation — " Oh, Thou guileless Lamb of God."* The solemn 
 service thus opened, there follows the narrative, word for word, 
 according to St. Matthew, in the course of which Gospel personages 
 speak in character, the choruses coming in between ; thus forming 
 part of the service. The chorus of the People (turha) represents the 
 law and the crowd — bigoted, intolerant, cold, discontented; while 
 sympathizing, peaceful, and loving, the disciples of Jesus and their 
 followers are scattered among the coarse, unfeeling populace. They 
 are in the minority, and do not come forward prominently till the 
 end of the first part, when all is lost ; but they remain faithful to 
 the last, and follow their Lord to the grave, trusting in the victory 
 of their f{iith."f At suitable periods of the narrative, simple and 
 touching reflections are introduced — sometimes in the form of an air 
 or duet (with or without the addition of chorus), at others in the 
 religious choral hymn of the Church, suitably arranged — all in such 
 a simple, heartfelt manner, that the people can follow it with 
 sympathy and join in the chorales, so that the result is a really 
 solemn religious service for the entire congregation. 
 
 The chorases are the finest of all ; both the grand lyrical ones of 
 the imaginary crowd (at the beginning and end of the first; and 
 particularly the end of the second part), as well as those which 
 represent the Jewish people — dramatic, excited, fanatic, cruel. The 
 most imposing of all is the mighty chorus : " Have thunders and 
 lightnings both vanished in clouds ?":t the sublimity of which 
 astounded even Oullblcheff, who seldom admires any music but 
 Mozart's. It was encored at the first performance of the ' Passion ' 
 at Vienna (Good Friday, April 15th, 1862). Songs written for 
 solo voices are always the most transient part of any great work ; but 
 in this one of Bach's there is very little one would wish to see 
 omitted. The whole of the accompanied recitatives are very 
 remarkable; among the airs we distinguish one for treble: " Pte- 
 
 * " Lamm Gottes unschuldig." 
 
 t Zelter. Preface to the book of the first Berlin performance, 
 
 + " Sind Blitze und Bonner in Wolken verschwunden." 
 
84 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 pentance and sorrow,"* and, above all, another for counter-tenor with 
 violin solo : " My God, have mercy !"t They have a melody and 
 beauty such as we should hardly expect to find in the learned fugue 
 writer. But it is in the treatment of the Evangelist's words that 
 Bach's great originality proclaims itself. No subsequent composer 
 can ever hope to emulate his unaffected piety of expression. Even 
 in the ordinary secco recitative, Bach's wonderful skill shines forth ; 
 it is quite impossible to imagine a more judicious and appropriate 
 rendering of the text. Another jxjint worthy of observation — as 
 affording a strong contrast to the increasing tendency to dramatize in 
 the modem Oratorio — is that Bach passes over without emphasis 
 points that would furnish op^jortunity for "dramatic effect," but 
 which do not strictly belong to the main subject — as, for example, 
 the death of Judas the traitor. 
 
 The orchestra is everywhere employed with careful reference to 
 the meaning of the words ; double orchestra for the full choruses, 
 and single orchestra for the rest. Many of the airs and accompanied 
 recitatives have obligato instruments ; the words of Christ have 
 nothing but a quartet accomimniment, while the harpsichord 
 (cemhalo) is used for the chords of the secco recitative. The accom- 
 paniment, generally speaking very subdued, rises with the force and 
 dignity of the words. When Jesus speaks — always, as we have 
 said, to a quartet accompaniment of treble chords — it is as if the 
 Holy Saviour were represented encompassed by a halo of glory. 
 Worthy of notice, also, is the charming ohligato management of the 
 wood instruments, particularly in the air " I will watch with Jesus "J 
 (hautboy), and the recitative "Golgotha, alas!"§ (clarionet.) 
 Dramatic pre-eminence of the whole orchestra by itself is, of course, 
 out of the question. It is only on one occasion — the death of Christ — , 
 when the voices cease, that it comes forward on its own account — ^a 
 dramatic personality, as it were. 
 
 The poem which embodies the words of the Evangelist is by 
 Friedrich Henrici, surnamed Picander [1700—1764]. It bears traces 
 of an un poetical age ; yet has, as Bbhmll very justly remarks, " with 
 
 * " Bicss und Beu':' 
 
 t " Erharme dich, mein Gott.^^ 
 
 I " Ich ivill hei meinem Jesus wacJien.^^ 
 § " Ach Oolgatha." 
 
 II Das Oratorium. Eine historische Studie von F. M. Bohme. 
 Leipzig, 1861. 
 
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 85 
 
 all its affectation and exaggeration, on the whole, expressed the 
 sentiment of genuine Gospel faith with more truth and accuracy than 
 all the bald, formal rhymes that appeared subsequently." 
 
 After exactly one hundred years' rest and oblivion, Mendelssohn 
 revived^this noble and sublime composition. It was performed, 
 under his auspices, by the Berlin Singahademie on Good Friday 
 (March 12th, 1829), and again by general desire on March 21st — 
 Bach's birthday. The solemn season of Passion Week was well 
 chosen for the public performance of this work; for the deeply 
 religious spirit in which it is written requires, in order to be felt 
 and appreciated, a corresponding devout frame of mind in the listener 
 — one which can scarcely be realized at any other season, except in 
 church. Even Berlioz — a Frenchman — said, after one of the Berlin 
 performances of the * Passionsmusik,' " it was not a concert, but 
 Divine service he had been attending." 
 
 Of the smaller, and probably earlier, JoJmnnespassion^ Fr. 
 Rochlitz* has prepared an " accurate index, interspersed with a few 
 observations." He considers as the climax of the work, and what 
 cannot be sufficiently admired, " the actual biblical and historical — 
 consequently the descriptive element, as apart from that of expres- 
 sion, viz., the recitatives and the numerous greater or smaller 
 choruses that are interwoven with them." Besides a manuscript 
 
 * Passion ' according to St. Luke, of doubtful authenticity, two other 
 
 * Passionsmusik ' are said to have existed. 
 
 Bach, although a pious Protestant, did not 
 withhold his talents from the Eoman Catholic 
 Church — a proof that he was free from any sec- 
 tarian spirit; Still less was he a bigoted or in- 
 tolerant man ; but one fully capable of realizing 
 the essence and true spirit of Christianity, apart 
 from the formal dogmatism of different creeds. 
 The finest of his Masses is the so-called Grand or 
 High Mass in B minor (a 8 voci reali e 4 ripiene). 
 Of modern compositions of this kind, it is perhaps 
 the only one which has successfully combined the 
 
 * Fiir Freunde der Tonkunst. Vol. iv. p. 435 — 448. 
 
86 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 purity and dignity of Church feeling with origin- 
 ality of invention and the unrestricted employment 
 of all the resources of art (chorus and solo, or- 
 chestra and organ). More especially in the Credo, 
 the Sanctus, and Osanna, has the grand choral 
 polyphony once more splendidly asserted its 
 claims to be, of all others, the form which is most 
 admirably adapted to express the fervour and 
 solemnity of religious feeling. The * High Mass * 
 has, on account of its marvellous polyphonous 
 structure, been described as a Gothic cathedral in 
 music ; — in like manner, the early Italian Opera 
 may be likened to the florid Eenaissance archi- 
 tecture, while Gluck's would answer to the chaste 
 and severe Grecian temple. 
 
 As to Bach's instrumental works, we shall, as 
 a matter of course, assign the priority to those 
 which (according to Beethoven) represent him as 
 the "patriarch of harmony,*' viz. — his composi- 
 tions for the Organ, consisting in the profound 
 and masterly treatment of the chorale in a series 
 of preludes and variations, as well as pieces in the 
 less severe form of the Fantasia with Fugue. " It 
 was (says K. M. von Weber)* his perfect com- 
 mand of the organ that determined the bent of 
 his genius. The grandiose character of this noble 
 instrument reminds one strongly of Bach ; while 
 the magnificence of his works, in point of har- 
 
 * Hinterl Schriften. Vol. iii., p. 67. 
 
JOHANN SEBASTIATiT BACH. 87 
 
 mony, is due to tlie ingenuity and acuteness of 
 intellect which enabled him to combine the most 
 seemingly contradictory lines of harmony to a 
 perfect whole. This freedom in the flow of dif- 
 ferent parts, while the utmost smoothness is 
 maintained throughout, forced him to invent new 
 aids to the execution of his pieces. Hence it 
 arose that pianoforte-playing, in particular, enjoys 
 the advantages of a system o^ fingering , which was 
 first promulgated by his son Emanuel. Its pecu- 
 liarity consisted in the adoption of the thumb in 
 playing ; whereas, before his time, the four fingers 
 only were usually employed." Both as organist 
 and composer for the organ. Bach stands unri- 
 valled in the annals of art. Not only did he sur- 
 pass all his predecessors : Joh. Jacob Froberger 
 [born 1637], Frescobaldi's pupil, Scheidt, Kerl, 
 Pachelbel, and J. A. Retnecke, in boldness of 
 execution and grandeur of conception, he has 
 never been equalled by his successors : Joh. 
 Christian Kittel [1732—1809], his best pupil, 
 and the pupils of this latter : M. G. Fischer, 
 Hassler, UxMbreit, and Joh. Christian Rink 
 [1770 — 1846] — the patriarch of modern or- 
 ganists. 
 
 Bach's pianoforte works are, at the present day, 
 highly esteemed rather than actually known. 
 The Well-tempered Clavichord, "^ of which the 
 
 * " Das wohltemperirte Klavier. (' 2 Mai 24 Prdludien und 
 Fugen durch alle Tonarten.')" 
 
88 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 first edition appeared in 1800 (fifty years after 
 the composer's death), forms no exception to this 
 rule. Indeed, the generahty of pianoforte musi- 
 cians are of opinion that this music is no longer 
 adapted to our taste — is, in short, too formal in 
 style^ as well as devoid of feeling and expression. 
 But the fact is, that very few performers can play 
 these pieces, particularly the fugues, correctly and 
 fluently, and, what is of still more consequence, 
 in the true Bach spirit. Even those who have 
 mastered the difficulties of Mozart and Beethoven 
 will hesitate to attempt these colossi. The best 
 preparation for this (Bach's greatest pianoforte 
 work) are the small and great (English) Suites — 
 a " series " of, generally speaking, dance tunes in 
 every variety of time, rhythm, and expression, 
 but all in the same key, and — unhke the more 
 modern Sonata — unconnected with each other. 
 The Prelude, also called Ouverture or Entree, is 
 usually succeeded by the gentle German Alle- 
 mande, the lively French Courante, the Sara- 
 hande fuU of Spanish grandezza, and the excited 
 Italian Gigue, Other forms of the dance tune 
 are the stately Menuetto, the Gavotte, Bourree, 
 Pavane, Passecaille, Chaconne, &c, " Bach was 
 the first who embodied artistic feeling in this 
 kind of casual form ; he displayed so much ori- 
 ginality of invention, both of melody and har- 
 mony, in the ' Suites Anglaises' that the bright- 
 ness and animation, as well as the admirable 
 
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 89 
 
 keeping and dignity of these pieces, will always 
 cause them to be regarded as models of style."* 
 Even those who look upon these graceful 
 pieces in rhythmical dance measure merely as 
 a kind of ''etude'' will derive considerable en- 
 joyment from their vivacious, stirring move- 
 ment. — Bach's 'Suites' for orchestra are, on 
 the whole, inferior to them, and only histori- 
 cally valuable. 
 
 The Invenzioni — small model pieces for the 
 cultivation of skill and taste — are chiefly import- 
 ant as studies. The original title-page explains 
 their object : " A complete Gruide, to show lovers 
 of the pianoforte a clear method of playing cor- 
 rectly in two parts ; and also how to obtain good 
 ' inventiones' and to carry them out properly; 
 above all, to acquire a ' cantabile ' style of playing, 
 and a good foretaste of composition." — The 
 grander compositions for concert performances 
 are, besides the (30) 'Goldberg Variations' the 
 Chromatic Fantasia — a model of ingenious and, 
 at the same time, easy-flowing modulations — , the 
 Concert in the Italian style, and the concerts for 
 one and several pianofortes after the violin concerts 
 of Vivaldi [died 1743]. — Bach's last production 
 was the Art of the Fugue, ^ which was engraved by 
 himself and his son. The four-part arrangement 
 
 * F. Hand. Aesthetik der Tonhunst. Zwei Theile. Jena, 1837, 
 1841. Vol. ii., p. 364. 
 
 t ' Kunst der Fuge* Compare M. Hauptmann. Erlduterungen 
 zu J. S. Bach's * Kunst der FugeJ* 
 
90 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 of the chorale, '' When in deep distress "* (in the 
 Appendix), was composed only a few days before 
 his death. 
 
 The commonly-received opinion is that these 
 compositions, as well as Bach's music in general, 
 are out of date, dry, too learned, too studied, un- 
 intelligible — in short, destitute of melody ; where- 
 as, on the contrary, it is only too rich and massive 
 for our ear (unaccustomed to genuine polyphony) ; 
 the melody, so to speak, predominating through- 
 out. On this head we will quote Forkel'sf ad- 
 mirable words. ** In Bach's fugues we find all 
 those conditions fulfilled which, generally speak- 
 ing, are only required in the freer styles of com- 
 position. An admirable theme, leading into an 
 equally admirable tune originating in the 
 theme from beginning to end ; the remaining 
 parts are not mere accompaniment ^ but each is an 
 independent tune in itself, harmonizing with the 
 rest ; the progression of the whole piece is easy, 
 free, and flowing ; inexhaustible richness of modu- 
 lation is combined with irreproachable purity of 
 harmony ; and, lastly, an ideal atmosphere enve- 
 lopes the whole, so that the performer or listener 
 almost fancies the sounds are metamorphosed into 
 spirits." While many a great musician has pro- 
 duced some, more or less, inferior works, there 
 are, among Bach's compositions, some that appear 
 
 * " Wenn wir in hochsten Nothen sein.*^ 
 f Ueber Joh. Seb. Baches Leben^ &c., p. 23. 
 
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 91 
 
 singular to us, but certainly none that are weak. 
 Bach's music is contrapuntal in conception, grand, 
 and peculiar ; it is, therefore, no wonder that it 
 cannot be relished by boarding-school misses and 
 young ladies .who strum "Arrangements," etc.; 
 but it is downright intellectual music for " men, 
 and such women as are capable of appreciating a 
 right good man."* We are here reminded of the 
 highly cultivated artist, grown grey in the exer- 
 cise of manifold branches of art — ^ Angelica Eom- 
 berg, who was actually moved to tears when lis- 
 tening to a Prelude of Bach's. Nothing, indeed, 
 would tend so effectually to improve and form the 
 taste, and especially to raise the tone of pianoforte- 
 playing — greatly deteriorated since it has become 
 a fashionable female accomplishment — and com- 
 position, as a constant recurrence to the venerable 
 Bach.f On the other hand, it would, of course, be 
 worse than ignoring him altogether, to restrict 
 one's self entirely to his music, and to affect in- 
 difference to the superior charm, beauty, and 
 sweetness of more modern music. 
 
 To resume : Bach's historical fame rests on 
 his sacred music — especially the * Passions,' and 
 his organ compositions. What Palestrina had 
 been to the Eoman Catholic, Bach was to the 
 
 * Goethe. 
 
 t Compare Eochlitz. " Vom Geschmach an Seh. Bach's Corn- 
 posit ionen^ besonders fur das Klavier.'" Filr Freunde der Tankunst. 
 Vol. ii., p. 205-230. 
 
92 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Protestant Church, whereas his sons on the other 
 hand, particularly ' Phillip p Emanuel — who in 
 another line did so much for the advancement of 
 art — ,the original, but unfortunate rRiEDEMANN,as 
 well as the polished " Londoner" or " Milanese," 
 JoH. Christian, directed their efforts wholly to 
 secular music. Phil. Emanuel admitted that he 
 " was forced to adopt a style of his own, as he 
 never could have equalled his father in his own 
 particular province." A number of musicians — 
 contemporary as well as subsequent — adopted 
 Bach's manner in their Church compositions, as 
 for instance : Telemann at Hamburg, Stolzel at 
 Gotha, HoMiLius, Doles, Schicht, and others. 
 They have all left several annual series of Church 
 music, * Passions,' &c. But, sublime above them 
 all stands Sebastian Bach — a monument of 
 severe German art, and that, at a time when 
 a totally different style (the Italian) was gain- 
 ing ground around him. 
 
 Fr. Eochlitz* distinguishes, from among the 
 crowd of those who called themselves Bach's dis- 
 ciples, the following as worthy a place in the 
 History of Art : the organists Joh. Caspar 
 Vogler and Joh. Ludwig Krebs — of whom the 
 first somewhat approached Bach in manual skill, 
 and the latter in conception and feeling — also 
 Gottfr. Aug. HoMiLius (" Bach popularized ") 
 
 * Fer Fi-eunde der Tonkunst. Vol. iv., p. 165. 
 
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 93 
 
 and Job. Phil. Kirnberger, the famous thorough- 
 bass master, and Court musician to the Princess 
 Amalia of Prussia. The theories set forth in 
 his writings (' The Art of correct Composition '* 
 and ' True Principles of Harmony 'f) are deduced 
 from the compositions of Bach. — " Handel had 
 neither time nor inclination to form pupils. 
 Smith was only his faithful amanuensis." (Com- 
 pare Eochlitz' admirable parallel between Bach 
 and Handel.)! 
 
 In 1843, a simple monument was, by Mendels- 
 sohn's instigation, erected to the memory (for a 
 long time almost forgotten) of the maestro, 
 close to his old official abode. A revised edition, 
 with notes, of all his works has been published in 
 two parts or volumes by the Leipzig Bach 
 Society (founded in 1850, the centenary of 
 his death). It has already reached the twelfth 
 annual series. According to the example set by 
 Mendelssohn, Marx, Mosewius, and others, sepa- 
 rate "Bach Societies" have been organized for 
 the express practice of Bach's great vocal pieces, 
 in Berlin, Breslau, and other cities. The concert 
 performances of Clara Wieck (afterwards Schu- 
 mann), Liszt, and their disciples, as, for instance, 
 Hans von Bulow and others, have done a great 
 
 * ' Eunst des reinen Satzes.' 
 
 t * Wahre Grundsdtze zum Gebrauche der Harmonie.'' 
 % Fur Freunde der Tonkunst. Vol. iv., p. 153-164, reprinted 
 with some omissions in Brendel's History of Music, p. 212-215. 
 
94 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 deal towards reviving the taste for a portion of 
 Bach's pianoforte works.* That " the present 
 generation is able and willing to study Sebastian 
 Bach '' may, according to that acute observer, 
 Riehl, confidently be taken as a favourable sign of 
 musical improvement. May his bolder prophecy, 
 concerning Bach, be fulfilled : " He was born for 
 the schools and connoisseurs in the eighteenth, 
 but for the nation in the nineteenth, century !" 
 
 * Note by the Tbanslator. Recently, in England, Hall^ has 
 introduced the works of Seb. Bach in bis " Pianoforte Recitals." 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 George Frederick Handel (The Oratorio). 
 
 George Frederick Handel, Bach's great con- 
 temporary, was born February 23rd, 1685, at 
 Halle, in Saxony, where his father (then upwards 
 of sixty years of age) practised as a surgeon.* 
 The boy being destined for the law, the father 
 used every endeavour to repress the early mani- 
 festations of musical genius in his son. In de- 
 fiance, however, of paternal injunctions, the child 
 contrived to play the harpsichord in secret. In 
 his seventh year, at the instance and with the 
 support of the Duke of Weissenfels — who 
 happened to hear him play on the organ — he was 
 placed under the tuition of the celebrated Zachau, 
 organist at Halle. For the space of seven years 
 
 * (7. F. Bdndely von Friedrich Chrysander. Zwei Bsinde, 
 Leipzig, 1858, 1860. Handel^ his Life^ Personal and Professional^ 
 by Mrs. Bray. Studies on Handel, by H. F. Chorley. HandeCs 
 Pedigree, by K. E. Forstemann. The Life of Handel, by V. 
 
 SCHOLCHEfi.. 
 
96 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 he worked iinreinittingly both at execution and 
 harmony, at the end of which period his master 
 frankly admitted he could teach him nothing 
 more. His father's death occurring shortly after- 
 wards, Handel sought a wider field for the exer- 
 cise of his talents. Already [in 1698] acquainted 
 with the musical attractions — especially the 
 Italian Opera — of Berlin, he was possessed with 
 the desire of seeing more of the world. Accor- 
 dingly, he turned his steps to Hamburg [1703], 
 and was, in the first instance, engaged at the 
 theatre as second violinist. While there, several 
 of his Operas (' Almira,' ' Nero,' and others), 
 were produced on the stage with considerable 
 success. 
 
 At the time of Handel's arrival in Hamburg, the German Opera, 
 founded there in 1678, was no longer in its prime, though Keiser, its 
 best representative, was still in full activity. Whereas, at the German 
 Courts the Italian Opera alone was in vogue, at Hamburg, which 
 boasted the largest of the city theatres (so numerous at that time), 
 operas by German musicians were brought on the stage, and (their 
 existence depending entirely on the support and sympathy of the 
 audience) in the German language. In order to conciliate, as far as 
 possible, the theological prejudices of the age, the first attempts were 
 made with subjects taken from the Old Testament (for example, 
 Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, &c.) ; but soon, operas were always 
 taken from secular subjects, after French and Italian models. Since 
 the year 1690, the operas of Steffaxi [1655 — 1730], translated into 
 German, were in great favour. (He was chapel-master at Hanover, 
 and famous also for his chamber duets). But Eeinhold Keiser 
 [1673 — 1739] — considered by Hasse equal even to Al. Scarlatti — gave 
 to the Hamburg stage a marked pre-eminence by his (circa) 120 melo- 
 dramas, written (subsequently to 1696) expressly for that theatre. 
 
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 97 
 
 Without endorsing Lindner's* opinion that he was the " Mozart of 
 the first epoch of German dramatic music," we have no hesitation in 
 affirming that he is the first German dramatic composer previous 
 to Mozart — particularly excelling in the air and accompanied 
 recitative. " Whatever he said, especially in the love-scenes, was so 
 naturally and gracefully expressed, and fell on the ear in so rich, 
 flowing, and melodious a manner, that one is even more tempted to 
 love than admire."t Mattheson [1681 — 1764], the opera singer and 
 composer (in after years, author of a considerable series of theo- 
 retical and analytical works), as also Telemann [1681 — 1767], the 
 imitator of Lully — fertile in production, poor in invention, but of 
 great technical ability, are quite inferior as compared to Keiser. 
 After 1718, when Keiser retired from the stage for a considerable 
 time, the Hamburg Opera deteriorated greatly. Music from diiferent 
 composers was pieced together to make an opera, or when Italian 
 operas were performed, the airs were sung in Italian and the rest 
 in German — perhaps for lack of performers who could sing in 
 Italian. 
 
 The German Opera thus totally bankrupt, the Italian Opera 
 (" under high patronage ") reigned sole and supreme, and was 
 supported, in an almost greater degree than heretofore, by such 
 extravagant admiration and expenditure as was utterly fatal to any 
 independent efforts. The great German masters, Handel, Hasse, 
 and Graun, wrote for Italy and the Italian Opera in London, 
 Dresden, and Berlin ; and even Gluck only met with full apprecia- 
 tion in France — after having, like Handel, devoted his talents, 
 during the greater part of his life, to the Italian Opera. 
 
 Handel's melodramas (as was afterwards the 
 case with his operas in London) having been 
 banished the stage by unworthy intrigues, the 
 undaunted musician — with some money scraped 
 together by pianoforte teaching — set out [in the 
 early part of 1707] for Italy. (He refused the 
 
 * Die erste stehende deutsche Oper. Dargestellt von E. 0. Lindner. 
 Berlin, 1855. 
 t Mattheson. 
 
 H 
 
98 . HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 heir apparent of Tuscany's offer to accompany 
 him thither free of expense.) It was the true 
 instinct of genius that impelled him to visit that 
 country — the cradle of art — , although the desire 
 to " mature himself and gain experience "* was 
 probably not so distinctly held in view by Handel 
 as it was afterwards by Goethe. Handel was 
 welcomed in all the great cities with all possible 
 honours, not only by the easily excited people 
 — who greeted him in the theatres with shouts 
 of *' Caro Sassone " — , but by fellow-artists, such 
 as Lotti, Al. Scarlatti and his son Domenico (the 
 celebrated harpsichord performer and composer), 
 Corelli, &c. Thus encouraged, Handel remained 
 in Italy upwards of three years. Of all musi- 
 cians anterior to Mozart undoubtedly the most 
 universal, he, like this latter, knew how to fall in 
 with the prevailing taste while retaining his own 
 artistic individuality, and, consequently, never 
 failed of success. 
 
 Thus, for Florence and Venice he wrote the 
 Operas * Eodrigo ' and * Agrippina ;' for Eome 
 (besides other sacred compositions) the Oratorios 
 * La Eesurrezione ' and ' II trionfo del tempo e 
 del disinganno;' while for Naples he composed 
 secular Cantatas with instrumental accompani- 
 ment ; among others, the pastoral play 'Aci, 
 Galatea e Polifemo ' — " the musical, as ' Pastor 
 
 * Chbysander. 
 
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 99 
 
 fido' was the poetical, essence of Arcadian feel- 
 ing:/'* Both of these last-named works he 
 afterwards set to English words (' Acis and 
 Galatea,' 1720, "The triumph of time and truth," 
 1737) ; in like manner, he was wont to take the 
 best pieces of his earlier sacred and secular com- 
 positions, and (often with very trifling altera- 
 tions) incorporate them in his later operas and 
 oratorios. 
 
 In 1710, Handel was appointed to succeed 
 Steffani at Hanover ; and in the autumn of that 
 year he paid a visit to London — where, since 
 Purcell's death, the Italian Opera was all the 
 fashion. His Opera ' Einaldo ' (composed with- 
 in a fortnight) was performed there in the early 
 part of 1711, on which occasion the airs " Cava 
 sposa'' and '' Lascia cKio piajiga" created im- 
 mense sensation. 
 
 In London, where, however, excellent musicians were not wanting, 
 Handel met with no rival, whether as a performer or composer. 
 England (according to Chrysander) could formerly boast an epoch of 
 first-rate musical excellence ; but that was, at the period of which we 
 are treating, a thing of the past. The most remarkable English 
 composer who may be regarded as Handel's predecessor was Henry 
 PuRCELL [1658 — 1695]. Similar to H. Schiitz in Germany, he was 
 the representative of national music as distinguished from that so 
 largely imported from France and Italy — yet he was unable to 
 establish an English style or school of music. English music, 
 properly speaking, had long since reached its zenith in the glorious 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth — so prosperous for art as well as for tlie 
 nation. Tallis [born circa 1520, died 1585] and his celebrated 
 
 ♦ Chrysander. 
 
100 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 pupil, William Bird [born circa 1545, died 1623], were excellent 
 organists as well as composers. In style, they somewhat resemble 
 the early Italian — in particular the Venetian — school, and their 
 chants are to this day heard in English cathedrals and churches. 
 Admirable composers, both of sacred and secular music (in the 
 Anthem, Motet, and Madrigal), were also : Thomas Morley [died 
 circa 1604], John Dowt.and [born in 1562], John Bennet [flourished 
 circa 1599], Orlando Gibbons [1583—1625], Pelham Humphreys 
 [1647—1674], John Blow [1648—1708], and others ; all of whom 
 have bequeathed us many charming pieces breathing a sweetness of 
 melody and tenderness of expression that justly entitle them to the 
 affectionate remembrance of posterity. Among subsequent com- 
 posers. Dr. Arne [1710 — 1778], Arnold, Storage, Dibdin (famous 
 for his sea-songs), and, more recently still, Calcott, Horsley, 
 Bishop and Glover, are of historical importance.* 
 
 After a second leave of absence [1712], Handel 
 never returned to his official duties at Hanover. 
 His composition in commemoration of the Peace 
 of Utrecht [1713], called the Utrecht TeDeumsmd 
 Jubilate (to be, however, distinguished from the 
 greatly superior Dettingen Te Deum of thirty years 
 later), procured him a grant of £200 per annum 
 from Queen Anne ; and he succeeded in concili- 
 ating his late master the Elector of Hanover, 
 on his arrival in England as George I. [1714],^ 
 by his Water Music — composed on the occasion 
 of a royal pleasure party on the Thames. When 
 travelling in the King's suite in Germany [1716], 
 Handel took the opportunity of visiting Ham- 
 burg and Halle. It is probable that it was 
 
 * Note by the Transk<vtor. Those who desire further informa- 
 tion concerning English music and English musicians are referred to 
 Hogarth's Musical History, Chapters II. (p. 50), V., VI., VIII., 
 XIV., XV., XXI., XXIL, XXIII. 
 
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 101 
 
 during his stay at Hamburg he composed a 
 German Passionsmusih after Brookes' poem 
 ('The sufferings and death of Jesus Christ 
 for the sins of the world, described in verse 
 after the four Evangelists by B. H. Brockes') 
 — a subject which has been treated both previ- 
 ously and subsequently by his former fellow- 
 musicians at Hamburg — Keiser, Telemann, and 
 Mattheson. 
 
 From 1717 to 1720, Handel resided in the 
 capacity of chapel-master to the Duke of 
 Chandos at Cannons ; and, during this period, 
 composed the famous Cliandos Anthems (twelve 
 in number). In these compositions, as well as in 
 the (four) Coronation and Funeral Anthems of a 
 later date, his manner of interspersing choruses 
 with solo songs, and two and three part solo 
 pieces with instrumental accompaniments, re- 
 minds one strongly of the grand Oratorios he 
 composed long afterwards ; for which reason, 
 Chrysander classes them with these in regard to 
 form and matter, and even considers them as the 
 preparation and studies for these latter. *'The 
 word ' Anthem ' (^Ant-hymn) originally referred 
 to some portion of the church service, and has 
 only this in common with its present relation to 
 the choir song, that it follows on the chorale, 
 or liturgical chant of the officiating priest. Now, 
 we understand it to apply to that genus of com- 
 position which in the main combines the Motet 
 
102 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 and Cantata. As the cantos of an epic refer 
 to one grand centre of heroic deeds and actions, 
 so does this series of songs of praise and thanks- 
 giving form a united whole, and thus becomes 
 almost an oratorio." Undoubtedly, it is neither 
 by accident nor without a significance of its own 
 that Handers first English Oratorio, Esther, fol- 
 lowed [1720] immediately on the Chandos 
 Anthems ; though it must be admitted that the 
 very operatic style of this Oratorio, as well as 
 Athaliah and Deborah [1733] (even when remodel- 
 led in 1732), has little in common with his subse- 
 quent grand productions. Thus we see Handel, 
 when free to follow the instincts of his genius 
 and his own incHnation, making the first attempts 
 in his own peculiar province of Oratorio composi- 
 tion — one which he probably little thought he 
 should have to relinquish for twenty years when 
 appointed to the management of the new Italian 
 Opera founded by subscription of the nobility. 
 
 But Handel, a man of gigantic proportions 
 both of mind and body, could not adapt his fine, 
 manly nature to the caprices of actors and singers 
 (Ouzzoni, Duristanti, Senesino, &c.) ; and it is 
 only to be wondered that it did not come to an 
 open rupture before his insisting, but without 
 avail, on the dismissal of the arrogant soprano, 
 Senesino. The nobility opened a new Opera 
 house, for which Farinelli and Faustina, with 
 their composers in ordinary, Porpora and Hasse, 
 
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 103 
 
 were in turn engaged — a combination which 
 Handel, with far inferior resources, was wholly 
 unable to compete with. Unsuccessful with two 
 theatres (Hay market and Co vent Garden), nearly 
 ruined in pocket, and completely prostrated both 
 in body and mind, Handel was fain to retire 
 altogether from the Opera [1736]. 
 
 Handel's Operas — like all those of the period — 
 have lost their value for our generation ; but the 
 advantage which the great musician himself de- 
 rived from his long and (so far as public success 
 was concerned) disastrous connexion with the 
 Opera, is not to be lightly esteemed. Very 
 striking is Chrysander's parallel between, the 
 Operas of Handel and the Comedies of Shake- 
 speare. That writer is of opinion that Comedy 
 and Opera were in both instances the best possible 
 schooling " these great artists could have under- 
 gone, in order to give shape and consistency to 
 their creations, and by a complete mastery of the 
 forms of art, to free themselves from the con- 
 straining influence of those forms. Had they 
 restricted themselves solely to Tragedy and Ora- 
 torio, they had never effected this in so remark- 
 able a degree. — As with Shakespeare Comedy 
 preceded Tragedy, so with Handel did the Ora- 
 torio succeed to the Opera— in both instances the 
 lighter and less congenial st^de was the founda- 
 tion of nobler and grander productions.'* 
 
 Tortured by gout, and almost on the verge of 
 
104 HISTORY OF MUSIC. ^ 
 
 insanity, Handel sought and obtained relief from 
 the baths of Aix-la-ChapeUe [1737]. Struck 
 with admiration by his wonderful performance on 
 the organ, devotees exclaimed : *' Saint Cecilia has 
 restored him to health that he may sing her 
 praises !" Truly and splendidly did Handel 
 afterwards fulfil this saying in a series of im- 
 mortal master-pieces. Very significant is the 
 transition from Opera to Oratorio which we mark 
 in ^Alexander s Feast,' composed to Dryden's Ode 
 in honour of Saint Cecilia [1736]. "In the 
 person of Timotheus, the singer who 
 
 * Could swell the soul to rage, or kindle soft desire,' 
 
 this highly imaginative poem portrays the 
 power of music in old Grecian times, and closes 
 with a reference to the sublimer influence of 
 Cliristian music, personified in Saint Cecilia. 
 
 * Let old Timotheus yield the prize. 
 Or both divide the crown ; 
 He raised a mortal to the skies, 
 She drew an angel down.' 
 
 In these words the poet concludes, by revealing 
 the happy union of both the Grecian and Christian 
 element in music. Handel's work has shed new 
 lustre on this graceful conception of the power of 
 music, and enriched it with an ideal colouring."* 
 This admirable composition, which so wonderfully 
 and accurately portrays sensations of the most 
 varied character, can be compared with nothing 
 * Chbysander. 
 
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 105 
 
 in Handel's works but his rendering of Mil- 
 ton's exquisite poem, * L' Allegro ed il Pensieroso 
 — an ideal representation of the play of conflicting 
 passions and their final reconcilement and har- 
 mony in the third part, entitled * 11 Moderate ' 
 
 After producing a few more mythological 
 subjects (^Semele ' after Congreve's dramatic poem, 
 and * The Choice of Hercules')^ no longer in the form 
 of Opera, but rather as Oratorio dramas — studies, 
 as it were, for the great works that were to follow 
 — , Handel, for the remainder of his life, turned his 
 attention exclusively (with what success we all 
 know) to the Oratorio proper (biblical in theme). 
 As his earlier sacred compositions were usually 
 written for some special state occasion, so, in like 
 manner, are his Oratorios (owing to previous 
 dramatic experience) adorned with all imaginable 
 richness and splendour. "The broad, grand 
 foundation of chorus which underlays the whole 
 work, and in which all the resources of counter- 
 point are employed with marvellous skill and 
 learning, yet without detriment to the distinct, 
 popular character of the chorus, is always forcible 
 and expressive, as are also the solo parts, however 
 brilliant and florid.* He has hit the exact 
 medium between the solemnity of the sacred text 
 
 * We cannot entirely concur in the above remarks. Handel 
 (according to Chrysander) actually transferred the " air " from the 
 Opera to the Oratorio ; wherefore, it is obvious that those written 
 chiefly with a view to display the vocal attainments so cherished at 
 
106 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 and the requirements of dramatic effect, and 
 thereby created a genuine Oratorio style, worthy 
 of imitation for ages to come."* 
 
 In 1738, ISRAEL IN EG YP T, the grandest 
 of Old Testament oratorios — the nation itself being 
 the centre of interest — , was given to the world. 
 Handel is grand beyond description when he 
 represents the people rising to arms, giving 
 battle, and celebrating their triumph. He does 
 indeed (to use Mozart's expression) peal forth 
 like a thunder-clap in the mighty choruses : " He 
 led them through," " The horse and his rider," and 
 a number of others ; and to what shall we liken 
 them, as well as the noble duet for two basses, 
 " The Lord is a man of war," for sublimity and 
 colossal grandeur? on the other hand, to what 
 compare the wonderful instrumental imagery of 
 the Plagues of Egypt ? As Kriigerf admirably 
 expresses it : " The first part of ' Israel in Egypt* 
 is narrated with the plainness of an epic ; the second 
 describes a series of grand lyrical effusions, break- 
 ing forth into songs of triumph ; while the 
 powerful dramatic movement surging through- 
 out gives an air of reahty to the whole work." 
 
 that period, will be rejected by good taste, and omitted in public 
 performances. On the whole, 'therefore, both in the Oratorios and 
 Anthems, the solos are inferior to the choruses ; but even " if he 
 does scribble now and then, according to the fashion of the day, 
 there is always something in it." (Mozart.) 
 
 * Heimsoeth. Vol. iii., p. 860. 
 
 t Deutsche Masikzeitung. Vol. iii., p. 170. 
 
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 107 
 
 After 1740, were produced: 'Saul' the 'Mes- 
 siah' 'Samson^' 'Belsazer/ * Susanna/ * Joseph/ 
 * Judas Maccahceus' ' Joshua^' ' Solomon/ ' Theo- 
 dora/ and, finally, [1751] ' Jephtha — written by 
 Smith from Handel's dictation (for — like Bach — 
 the great musician was stone blind during his 
 latter years). Of all these oratorios (with the ex- 
 ception of the incomparable ' Messiah') ' Samson/ 
 and * Judas Maccabseus ' are the finest and most 
 generally popular. In SAMSON the thrilling 
 pathos of Milton's poem is softened, while the effect 
 is immeasurably heightened, by the addition of 
 Handel's music, — the whole representing a work 
 of art which (sixteen for the most part anti- 
 quated airs and one duet with recitative having 
 been suppressed in Mosel's tolerably successful 
 remodelling of the text) will survive all changes 
 of time and fashion. As is evident from the 
 immense number of airs, it is no longer the 
 struggles of a nation, but the tragic fate of a 
 hero, that in this Oratorio challenges our sym- 
 pathy — the character of the entire work being 
 decidedly dramatic. Powerful as are the choruses 
 of Israelites and Philistines, it is the lamentations 
 of Samson and his followers which pierce our very 
 soul, while in the final scene the feelings of the 
 survivors are brought before us in the noble 
 Dead March from ' Saul,'* leading into the chorus 
 " Glorious hero, may thy grave peace and mercy 
 
 * The Funeral March in * Saul' is introduced likewise in * Samson.* 
 
108 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 ever have" — closing, as it were, in one grand final 
 chord. 
 
 In JUDAS MACCABAEUS [August 11th, 
 1746] it is the nation, the affairs of the nation, and 
 its great religious wars, which once more rivet at- 
 tention. Whereas in Samson the prevailing senti- 
 ment was one of deep pathos, so many and varied 
 emotions are here called forth, that it were hard 
 to say whether mourning for the illustrious dead, 
 pious trust in God, martial strains, or, finally, ihe 
 triumphant return of the warrior (" See, the con- 
 quering hero comes"),* is most deeply and truth- 
 fully expressed, so marvellously are the different 
 moods — heroic, elegiac, and idyllic — contrasted 
 with, and adapted to, each other. Most of the 
 other Oratorios (' Saul,' ' Joshua,* ' Jephtha,' 
 &c.,), in like manner, commemorate the Deli- 
 verers of a nation from oppression and bond- 
 age. Whether triumphant or succumbing, his 
 heroes proclaim that noble love of liberty of which 
 Handel was the devoted apostle in the land of 
 his adoption — England, the happy and the free. 
 
 But the work in which, of all others, Handel's 
 epic-dramatic treatment somewhat approaches the 
 epic-lyric style of Bach, while at the same time it 
 brings out the distinguisliing characteristics of 
 both in ihQ fuUest light, is the MESSIAH\—i\iQ 
 
 * Taken from the oratorio * Joshua.' 
 
 t Compare Eochlitz. Fur Freunde der Tonkunst. Yol. i., 
 p. 227—280. 
 
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 109 
 
 Oratorio which, at first [April 12th, 1741] rejected 
 in London, and afterwards enthusiastically re- 
 ceived at Dublin, became the corner-stone of 
 Handel's fame. The design of the work is 
 itself sublime, universal — it is " a veritable 
 Christian epos in music."* The first part treats 
 of the promised salvation of mankind through 
 Christ ; the second and most important part of 
 the work sets forth the Life, Sufferings, and 
 Eesurrection of our Lord, in a succession of 
 sublime images, to which is appended (in the 
 third part) the contemplation of " Things that 
 shall be hereafter" — Death, Eesurrection, Judg- 
 ment, and Life eternal. Thus, what other com- 
 posers have treated in separate works (for ex- 
 ample Bach's ' Passion,' his Christmas Oratorio, 
 Spohr's 'Last Judgment,' Schneider's dittof), 
 Handel combined in one grand trilogy — himself 
 selecting the plain, unadorned words of Holy- 
 Writ for his incomparable theme. — Here again 
 we find the chorus prominent^ Taking up from 
 the narrating single voices the solemn themes 
 of sin and suffering, consolation and hope, 
 atonement and salvation, the mighty chorus 
 pours forth the deep sympathies, as it were, of 
 the whole human race. Thus the chorus 
 "Unto us a Child is born," the world-famed 
 Hallelujah chorus (during which, in England, 
 the audience remain standing), the elaborate con- 
 
 * Herder. t ^ Das Weltgericht,* 
 
110 HISTORY OP MUSIC. 
 
 eluding chorus " Worthy is the Lamb," &:c., are 
 the most striking portions of this wonderful master- 
 piece. The pathos and touching simplicity of 
 the ai7's : " Comfort ye my people," " He shall feed 
 his flock," *' He was despised," " I know that my 
 Eedeemer liveth," and others, complete the lofty 
 spiritual tone of this matchless — truly sacred — 
 Oratorio. 
 
 And, whereas Handel completed this grandest 
 achievement of sacred musical art in the short 
 space of twenty-one days, his successor in the 
 poeticaly " who translated his work from 
 music into poetry"* — Klopstock — laboured many 
 years [1748 — 1773] at his sacred epic poem, 
 and, after all, only succeeded in producing a 
 now almost forgotten poem of very unequal 
 merit. 
 
 The * Messiah ' (so highly prized in England) 
 has not hitherto obtained so great popularity in 
 Grermaiay as ' Samson ' and ' Judas Maccabseus ;' 
 — indeed, were it not for Mozart's judicious 
 revision of the score, it is probable that it would 
 long have remained unknown in this country. 
 Thibaut f is therefore prejudiced and unreason- 
 able when he inveighs against a fuller instru- 
 mentation of Handel's oratorios (more especially 
 against Mozart's), and talks of " polishing " and 
 *' adorning " to suit modern taste. The great 
 
 * Gervinus. 
 
 t Ueber lieinheit der Tonkunst, p. 136-142 of the 2nd edition. 
 
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. Ill 
 
 improvements that have taken place in the art of 
 instrumentation, as well as the absence of the 
 masterly organ-playing with which Handel ac- 
 companied the performances in England, have 
 necessitated further additions to the scores of his 
 oratorios. Let us not therefore be captious, but 
 gladly and thankfully avail ourselves of the 
 modern revisions (consisting of abridgments and 
 fuller instrumentation) of Handel's works (the 
 * Messiah,' * Judas Maccabseus,' * Alexander's 
 Feast,' the sweet, elegiac, idyll, 'Acis and 
 Galatea,' by Mozart ; ' Israel in Egypt,' by Lind- 
 paintner ; ' Samson,' by Mosel and Ferd. Hiller). 
 At the same time we are quite willing to believe 
 with Thibaut, that where the only indications in 
 the score are organ, loud — "a power and volume 
 of sound was heard when Handel presided at the 
 organ such as hundreds of fiddles and flutes can- 
 not make up for now-a-days." 
 
 Handel died, as he had prayed he might, on 
 Good Friday [April 14th, 1759], and was buried 
 in Westminster Abbey. One hundred years 
 afterwards (July 1st, 1859), "his admirers in 
 England and Germany" raised a bronze statue 
 (admirably executed by Heidel of Berlin) to his 
 memory in the market-place of Halle. The 
 Leipsic Handel Society is now engaged in rais- 
 ing a *' monumentum cei^e perennius " to the great 
 master's memory in the form of a splendid 
 edition of all his works. It has already reached 
 
112 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 the nineteenth volume. A complete edition 
 of Handel's works (in 50 folio volumes) was 
 published in London, 1786. 
 
 Fewer even than Baeh's were Handel's succes- 
 sors and imitators. English — national — music 
 had almost ceased to exist, and, before J. A. 
 Hiller's and Mozart's time, Handel's works were 
 quite unknown in Germany. Such sacred music 
 as appeared during the latter half of the last cen- 
 tury, is characterized by a soft, tender, and — above 
 all, vocally — pleasing expression. This period is 
 designated the Hasse-Graun, because Hasse was 
 its master and leader, and Graun in his * Death 
 of Jesus '* (after Kamler) has produced the best 
 work of the then prevailing style. The Eoman 
 Catholic Court chapel at Dresden possesses a 
 large number of Hasse's compositions (Masses, 
 Psalms and Hymns) written to Latin texts. 
 Of those annually performed at Dresden, the 
 most celebrated are the Te Deum and the great 
 *Eequiem.' Hasse also wrote a quantity of 
 Italian Oratorios — Metastasio furnishing the 
 texts. Krausef calls him the^Correggio of Church 
 music, "equally great, whether in sublime and 
 solemn, joyful and exulting passages, or when 
 depicting rapturous devotion [and the depth and 
 purity of sacred affection. Hasse's Church style 
 
 * * Tod Jem: 
 
 t Darstellungen aus der Oeschkhte der Musik. Gottingen 1827, 
 p. 194. 
 
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 113 
 
 forms a complete, and, at the same time, beautiful, 
 contrast to Palestrina's ; both are, taken in con- 
 nection with the Church music of Bach and 
 Handel, as it were, expressly adapted to complete 
 the entire cycle of sacred music." Hasse's Church 
 style is remarkable for profound unity and 
 artistic finish, as well as for freshness and natural- 
 ness of expression ; Karl Heinrich GRAUN 
 [born in Saxony 1701, died, chapel-master 
 to Frederick the Great at Berhn, 1759], on the 
 other hand, sought to combine Italian and Ger- 
 man style in Church music. Thus, his famous 
 Cantata * The Death of Jesus ' consists, strictly 
 speaking, of two very unequal portions ; the airs 
 (out of all proportion long) and other solo songs 
 are quite in the ItaHan taste, while the choruses 
 are noble and devotional, " learned, yet intelli- 
 gible ; all the parts are interwoven with consum- 
 mate art, yet they are natural and flowing."* 
 When we bear in mind that even in many of 
 Handel's works, as well as those of other masters, 
 the airs are frequently of so formal a character as 
 to be unattractive — nay displeasing — to us, we 
 are inclined to consider the ' Death of Jesus,' as 
 a composition of genuine piety, and worthy of 
 remembrance — one which, though of inferior 
 originality, is yet deservedly popular, and while 
 it reflects the somewhat sentimental tendency of 
 
 * RocHLiTZ. Fur Freunde der Tonkunstj vol. iv., p. 203. 
 
 T 
 
114 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 contemporary literature, is, on the whole, of noble 
 and dignified proportions. " Intense spirituality, 
 as well as deep — much less thrilling — pathos, 
 were not in his nature ; nor has he made any 
 pretensions to these great gifts, or sought to dis- 
 play them in his compositions."* 
 
 Even J. S. Bach's son, Emanuel, adopted the 
 style of the period — the Hasse-Graun — in his 
 Church compositions : — the sublime ' Holy ' (for 
 double-choir), and the Oratorio 'Israel in the 
 Desert ; while, with admirable taste, he care- 
 fully avoided the least approach to operatic 
 style. 
 
 We ought further to mention Job. Gottlieb 
 Naumann [born 1741, died at Dresden 1801], 
 a highly meritorious German musician of the 
 Italian school, though two biographersf have 
 vainly endeavoured to rescue his name from 
 oblivion. His principal sacred composition was 
 the Cantata ' The Lord*s Prayer '{ (after Klop- 
 stock's paraphrase). The same subject has re- 
 cently been set by Spolir (op. 104) as a double- 
 choir for male voices. Several of his masses still 
 hold a place in the repertory of the Chapel-royal 
 at Dresden ; they are not without a considerable 
 admixture of secular feeling. Naumann marks 
 
 * RocHLiTZ. Fiir Freunde der TonJcimst, vol. iv., p. 204. 
 t J. Naumann (son of the composer). Naumann's Biographies 
 Kiinsthr und Familisnlehen. Dresden, 1841. 
 
 Fr. Rochlitz. Fiir Freunde der Tonkunst, vol. iii., p. 3 — 74. 
 J ' Das Vater unser,' 
 
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 115 
 
 the final close of this period, as well as that of 
 sacred music in the last century in general ; 
 whatever else has been produced — contemporary 
 and subsequent — is, with very few exceptions, 
 nothing but a repetition of what has been before, 
 and of no historical importance. The mechanical 
 assiduity of organists and precentors (worthy 
 musical master-singers) and the characterless skill 
 of Court composers (always ready to obey their 
 Highness's commands, whether in Opera, Oratorio 
 or Mass) were the combined causes which tended 
 more and more to depreciate sacred music, and to 
 remove the Oratorio further and further from the 
 plain Bible words and solemn Church style ; till, 
 at length, Haydn and Mozart — though without 
 adopting the old severe Church style — restored 
 genuine devotional feeling to sacred composition. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 The French Opera and Gluck. 
 
 The melodious Opera of Italy, having suc- 
 ceeded in throwing Church music into shade, 
 achieved complete victory over all branches and 
 styles of music. The French Opera alone main- 
 tained a species of rivalry — though in a compara- 
 tively subordinate capacity ; for the French — 
 always intent on novelty — had adopted the yet 
 immature Italian Opera, and transcribed and 
 transposed it so entirely to their own satisfaction, 
 that they persuaded themselves they had achieved 
 something quite new and original, and accord- 
 ingly cared little or nothing for anything else. 
 
 As early as 1645 (Monteverde's period), the 
 Cardinal Minister Mazarin (" qui cherclia tons les 
 moyens d'amuser Louis X/F") sent for an 
 Italian Opera company to Paris. The success of 
 the Italians inspired the French with a desire to 
 make a similar attempt, and before long, melo- 
 dramas in French, set to music in imitation 
 of Italian models, made their appearance. The 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 117 
 
 first attempt (" la premiere comedie francaise '') is 
 said to have been a pastoral play entitled ' La PaS" 
 torale ' [1659], composed by Cambert to a poem 
 by the Abbe Perrin, and was succeeded by several 
 others. But it was an Italian — Jean Baptiste 
 ZZ7Z:Zr[1633— 1687] who gained esteem and 
 popularity — especially at Court — by his operettas. 
 A native of Florence, he was, when twelve years 
 of age, brought to Paris by the Duke of Guise, 
 and, being employed in the Palace as a scullion, 
 soon attracted attention by his droll manner and 
 his skill on the violin. The king placed him in his 
 private band (" Lesvingt-quatre violons'), and soon 
 after appointed him to the leadership of an 
 orchestra established expressly for him and called 
 *' Les petits violons." Not long after, LuUy 
 appeared as dramatic composer for the Court- 
 revels (Ballets comiques) ; these had been custo- 
 mary before his arrival, and were tricked out 
 with singing, dancing and every imaginable 
 device — Moliere frequently supplying the text. 
 Ambitious, and a favourite of fortune (having 
 married Cambert's daughter), he supplanted every 
 rival, and in 1673 obtained the sole patent for 
 the Opera performances at the Palais Royal 
 theatre. By means of fuller instrumentation and 
 judicious interspersions of chorus and ballet, 
 Lully, in conjunction with his libretto poet Qui- 
 NAULT, so cleverly adapted Italian music to the 
 French taste, that his operas ( Tragedies lyriques, 
 
118 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 or Tragedies raises en musique), and those of his 
 successor Eameau, held the stage for more than 
 a century. Laden with riches and honours, Lully 
 died in Paris, March 22nd, 1687. 
 
 Notwithstanding this apparently brilliant suc- 
 cess, Lully *s merit as a musician is, after all, but 
 mediocre. Avoiding the clearly defined forms of 
 air, duet, and ensemble, he merely endeavoured to 
 give effect to the words, and great prominence to 
 the pathetic element. In imitation of the early 
 Italian declamatory Opera, and in conformity with 
 his own indolent propensities, he bestowed pains 
 chiefly on the recitative proper (rhythmical speech, 
 or singing like speaking) — to which end he had 
 merely to render the declamatory accent in a 
 manner suitable to the French language. As a 
 matter of course, the absence of a well defined 
 musical form gave to the whole an arbitrary and 
 unstable character ; for the time was for ever 
 changing from equal to unequal, just as correct 
 intonation required. In order to avoid the tedious 
 monotony (likened to the ecclesiastical chant) of 
 these phrases — never forming a melody — he intro- 
 duced, at suitable intervals, short pieces for several 
 parts, as well as choruses and dances.* This 
 
 * A curious parallel is drawn by Riehl, in his * Culturstudien aus 
 drei Jahrhunderten,^ between R. Wagner's idiosyncracy in dramatic 
 composition, and tins primary formation of the Lully Opera. 
 Though seemingly harsh — if not unjust — , his opinion is fully borne 
 out by Wagner's latest productions (* Die Nihelungen ' and ' Tristan 
 und Isolde.^) " Lully is, so to speak, no ' scholar.' Construction is 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 119 
 
 manner of introducing chorus and ballet during 
 the plot, whereas the Italian Opera only admitted 
 the former at the close of, and the latter between, 
 the acts, was, and still is, peculiar to the French 
 Opera ; and, regarded in this light, Lully may lay 
 claim to be its founder. A salient point in Lully's 
 operas were the Overtures in two parts or move- 
 ments ; whereas the earlier Italian performances 
 were, for the most part, preceded by a flourish of 
 trumpets and a short ritornello. 
 
 Lully's successor Jean Philippe RAMEAU 
 [born at Dijon, October 25th, 1683, died at Paris 
 September 12th, 1764] was imdoubtedly a more 
 
 hardly to be found in his works. His dry harmonies might serve 
 principally to show us how not to harmonize. On the other hand, 
 Gluck's historical importance cannot be fully appreciated without a 
 previous acquaintance with Lully's works. He is the Wagner of the 
 eighteenth century. His Alceste is, as he himself calls it, * une 
 tragedie mise en musique^ — not an opera; for it cannot be divided 
 into airs, duets, ensembles^ &c., but only into scenes. Lully does not 
 singy he recites. The whole opera is one continued ohligato re- 
 citative, interrupted only by scraps of tunes and a few choruses. I 
 am now referring to Lully, though 1 might be thought to allude to 
 Wagner — it will do for either. The interpolated marches and dances 
 alone are music, and have become popular in Lully and Wagner. Lully 
 is frequently amazingly grand in dramatic efiect — so is Wagner; 
 then he falls back into tedious recitative dialogue — so does Wagner. 
 The choruses are distinguished by a simplicity, solemnity, and 
 dignity which, even in harmonic details, remind one occasionally of 
 the sublime church hymns of the earlier Italian masters. This is 
 no trifling merit, and one which cannot be denied to some of 
 Wagner's choruses. Lully sacrifices the musical structure to 
 dramatic expression ; he has the germs of tune, but no tune. Lully 
 or Wagner? The common expression * set to music' is strongly 
 suggestive ; but he to whom the faculty of * setting ' is denied, 
 
120 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 thorough-going musician than the former. He 
 endeavoured to improve the recitative Opera by 
 employing a richer and more varied style of har- 
 mony. His taste, however, was not sufficiently 
 elevated to secure him from the reproach of over- 
 ornamentation and artificialness. Jean Jacques 
 Rousseau, in particular (who extended his doctrine 
 of nature and simplicity even to music), blamed 
 him severely for neglecting genuine natural tune 
 for far-fetched harmonies. Rousseau objected to 
 his compositions on the score that music, being 
 originally a melodious art, " is a child of nature, 
 and has a language of its own for expressing 
 emotional transports, which cannot be learnt from 
 thorough-bass rules " But his strictures fell un- 
 
 talks of ' writing * music. Thus painters who cannot j)aint pro- 
 duce 'poems' in pictures, and poets destitute of the poetical faculty 
 employ * word-painting.' In Lully the result is, therefore, a work in- 
 congruous, disconnected, incomplete, which must have left a confused 
 and tedious impression, were it not for carefully-studied contrasts 
 and splendour of stage efiFect, to achieve which, the comt^)08er literally 
 moved heaven and earth for his audience, as was the case in 
 ' Alceste' (and likewise ' Tannhauser '). Lully and Wagner, taken 
 as musicians, are weak ; as musical poets they are better, but best of 
 all as stage managers. Gluck eschewed the looseness of form which 
 characterizes LuUy's operas, at the same time he strongly advocated 
 tj-uthfulness of dramatic delineation. Gluck, in the form of his 
 pieces, resembles the best style of Italian music much more nearly 
 than Lully, and Wagner resembles Lully rather than Gluck. If our 
 musicians only studied history more diligently, they would learn 
 that, after all, it is no such great proof of progress to go back to a 
 form of opera composition similar to Lully's, seeing that during the 
 century that has intervened, Gluck's manner and style has been 
 admirably developed. Too much progress sometimes leads to 
 reaction." 
 
TOE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 121 
 
 heeded by the Parisian public, who thought 
 Raraeau's operas, especially ' Castor and Pollux,' 
 quite unsurpassed. Italy ^alone could furnish 
 them a new and better style. 
 
 In 1 752, an Italian Opera company, called by the 
 French " Les Bouffons" arrived in Paris, where 
 they created immense sensation, both for and 
 against themselves, by their small comic operas — 
 among which was Pergolese's ' La serva Pa- 
 drona ' (lately performed with great success in a 
 French translation). Two adverse parties, " Na- 
 tionals " and " Italians " (bouffonistes and anti- 
 bouffonistes) arose (as was the case twenty years 
 later with regard to Gluck and Piccini), and stood 
 up with great warmth for the merits of French 
 and Italian music respectively. Eousseau, whose 
 views exactly suited the " Italian " party, was, of 
 course, enlisted on their side, and (though he 
 had once written a French melodrama called ' Le 
 Devin du Village ') endeavoured even to demon- 
 strate that the French language was radically 
 unmusical, and therefore there could be no such 
 a thing as French music. 
 
 As the Italian comic opera was at this period acquiring con- 
 siderable importance, we will add a short account of its rise and 
 progress hitherto.* In its infancy, it formed the intermezzo between 
 the acts of an opera seria^ and — similar to the Greek sylvan drama 
 which followed the tragic trilogy — was frequently a parody on the 
 piece which preceded it ; though, more frequently still (as for 
 example Pergolese's * Serva Padrona'), it was not a satire on any 
 
 * Chiefly from Jahn. Mozart, vol. i., p. 343— 359. 
 
122 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 particular subject, but designed to heighten the ideal artistic effect 
 of the opera seria by the interposed contrast of broad comedy. 
 Having acquired a more complete form on the boards of the small 
 theatres (teatrini), the opera hujfa^ as it was now called — generally 
 a two-act piece — , obtained a footing in large theatres, and the very 
 circumstance that for a long time it enjoyed less consideration and 
 fewer advantages than the opera seria, was highly favourable to its 
 free and natural development. External splendour and the con- 
 summate vocalisation which prevailed at that time were the portion 
 of the more dignified elder sister; but the restriction to simpler 
 forms of song and voices of a more natural calibre, endowed the 
 younger with the means of genuine and chai-acteristic rendering of 
 actual life. " The bass — despised and set aside in the opera seria — 
 became the corner-stone of the opera hujfa, and the bfisso buffo 
 (facetious, elderly gentleman, droll or stupid menial) sustained the 
 princij^al comic part." The tenor usually represented the senti- 
 mental lover ; while the Prima and Seconda doiina were the mis- 
 tress and abigail, or confidant. But the salient characteristic of the 
 opera huffa consisted in the ensembles and finali which brought the 
 dramatic element — thrown quite in the back-ground in the opera 
 seria — into full relief. The best masters of this new branch of art 
 were Laqroscino ("Ze dieu du genre bouffon''), Galuppi, and 
 N. PICCINI, who surpassed the two former. This gifted composer 
 simplified the form of the aria by omitting the da capo; he also 
 improved and varied the instrumental accompaniment, and, above all, 
 gave life and brilliancy to the Jinali by a richer and more expressive 
 arrangement of the voices. " His * Cecchina^'' or * La buona figliuoJa'' 
 [1761] seems to mark the time when the opera buffa was recognized 
 as a special branch of art — ;iust as Pergolese's Serva Padrona marks 
 the intermezzo period." Perfected by Paesiello, and especially 
 CiMARosA, the opera buffa became the genuine, national musical 
 comedy, which has been admirably cultivated by the Italian 
 com]30sers of the last century down to Kossini and Donizetti in our 
 own. GoLDONi and Casti were the best writers of the comic opera 
 libretto. Goethe admired the Matrimonio segreto (Cimarosa) and 
 Re Teodoro (Paesiello) of the latter, and remarks at the same time 
 that ". the material which is to be embroidei"ed on should not be too 
 close in texture." 
 
 The " Nationals " at length gained their point, 
 and the " Bouffons " quitted Paris at the end of 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 123 
 
 two years [1754]; but Italian music continued. 
 No one with the slightest pretension to ear could 
 help admitting — whether in envy or admiration — 
 the peculiar charm of graceful, well-constructed 
 melody. From the strife of opposing tastes — the 
 Italian and French — arose, as it were to reconcile 
 and amalgamate them, the light piquante French 
 Operette. So soon as the very year in which the 
 " Bouffons " were expelled from Paris, " la pre- 
 miere comedie a ariettes:' ^ Les Troqueurs^ by 
 Antoine d'Auvergne appeared on the stage. 
 To this composer succeeded Duni [1709 — 1775J, 
 Philidor [1726—1795], and Monsigny [1729 
 — 1817] — superior to the two first, and the forerun- 
 ner of G retry ; he was styled " le veritable createur 
 de V opera comique franqaisy Besides 'Le Deserteur 
 and * Felix ou r Enfant trouve\' by Monsigny — 
 pieces much admired by Napoleon and occasionally 
 produced on the French stage — , his charming dra- 
 matic idyll ' Base et Colas ' {" im vrai chef-d'oeuvre 
 de grace naive'') has been performed of late. 
 The Parisian public of 1862, who thronged to 
 the performance of this piece, was indeed surprised 
 to find the music of 1764 so grateful to its ear. 
 Though by no means lacking in dramatic energy 
 and comic effects, tenderness and sweetness of 
 melody are the prevailing characteristics of Mon- 
 signy's works. *' La sensibiliie," says Fetis, '\fut 
 son genie, car il lui dut une multitude de melodies 
 touchantesy qui rendront, en tout temps, ses ouvrages 
 
124 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 dignes de F attention des musiciens instruits" 
 Bernhard Eomberg's sister Angelica describes the 
 * Deserteur ' as exquisite " both in the subject- 
 matter and the music," and that at its first per- 
 formance in Paris, in 1769, the ladies sobbed and 
 cried " Oh man Dieu, mon Dieu /" We gather 
 also from other testimony that merriment and 
 humour are by no means the sole end and aim of 
 the French Operetta of those days ; and the best 
 composers — particularly Gretry — did not neglect 
 to turn the nobler emotions to account, and, by a 
 judicious admixture of sentiment, gave an ideal 
 colouring to their slight pieces. In the contem- 
 poraneous German melodrama, the sentimental 
 element — in conformity with the taste of the 
 period — preponderated. 
 
 GRETRY [born at Li^ge, February 11th, 
 1741, died at Paris, September 24th, 1813] is re- 
 garded as the greatest master of the French 
 Operetta. An admirer of Pergolese and Piccini, 
 he adapted the Italian melody, supported by very 
 meagre accompaniment, to the national taste, and 
 combined recitative and song with such consum- 
 mate art, that his pieces (among which * Richard 
 Coeur-de-Lion ' and ' Zeniire et Azov ' are reckoned 
 the best) were, and still are, supreme favourites 
 with the public. Harmony was, however, his weak 
 point ; of which his three-volumed apologetic 
 ' Memoires ou Essais sur la Musique ' afibrds 
 ample demonstration. The graceful, though 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 125 
 
 somewhat frivolous, d'Alayrac [1753 — 1809], 
 whose merry, naive operettas : ' Nina' and ' Les 
 deux Savoyards' were naturalized in Germany, 
 followed closely in Gretry's steps. Berton 
 [1766 — 1844], of learned and refined taste, was 
 more original, particularly in his instrumentation 
 and ensembles. The remarkable aptitude for ex- 
 pressing deep emotional feeling which he dis- 
 played in * Montana et Stephanie ' and * Le 
 Delire ' did not, however, unfit him for the light 
 merriment and joyous spirit of the operetta (vide 
 
 * Ponce de Leon,' 'Aline, reine de Golconde,' 
 
 * Les Maris garqons,' &c.). Gossec [1773 — 1829] 
 soon forsook comic opera for independent instru- 
 mental composition, of which, in France, he is 
 the founder. His symphonies and quartets were 
 written at the same time as Haydn's. Catel 
 [1773 — 1830], who wrote also for the Opera seria 
 (* Semiramis '), and was, in his day, a theorist of 
 some note, is the author of ' Les Auhergistes de 
 qvxilite' — much admired by K. Maria von Weber, 
 who describes him as having united playful French 
 wit to Italian comic spirit and true feeling. 
 
 The last composer of legitimate Operetta is 
 NicoLO Isouard [born at Malta 1777, died at 
 Paris 1818, commonly called Nicolo de Malte] — 
 a pleasing unaffected writer, fully deserving of 
 popular favour, which he shared with young 
 Boieldieu. That he is a composer of some merit 
 ma}^ be inferred from the fact that his ' Cendrillon 
 
126 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 and *" Joconde ou les Coureurs d'aventures' have 
 teld the stage in Germany even to our own 
 generation ; though it is only the " romances" 
 (ballads) which occur in these operas that we 
 esteem now-a-days, as, indeed, is the case with 
 the later French comic opera; for in Auber's 
 * Fra DiavoloJ and ' Le Maqon' in Boieldieu's ' La 
 Dame blanche,' Adam's 'Postilion de Lonjvr 
 meau' &c., the song {chanson) — to use a some- 
 what thread-bare expression — is the " silver cord " 
 shining through the whole tissue. 
 
 With Melml and Boieldieu, who succeeded 
 Isouard, expired the charming hybrid between 
 opera and vaudeville, which, during the first 
 twenty years of its best period, so entirely en- 
 grossed French musical talent, that the LuUy and 
 Kameau opera style was of a sudden completely 
 neglected. Shortly after Gretry appeared Gluck, 
 who gave to the latter branch of art an artistic 
 perfection, which afterwards found a worthy 
 exponent in Spontini. While the French Grand 
 Opera — with the exception of the incompai-able 
 Bameau — was dependent on foreigners or natu- 
 ralized Frenchmen (Lully, Gluck, Spontini, Che- 
 rubini, Meyerbeer — Wagner did not attain that 
 honour) for composers, the opera comique, on the 
 other hand — as likewise in drama the comedy — , 
 is the genuine '' genre national, le veritable berceau 
 et la vraie gloire de la musique franqaiseJ'* 
 
 * A. Adam. Dcrnitrs Souvenirs cTwi Musickn, p. 114. 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. ±27 
 
 Christoph Willibald Chevalier* GL TICK, the 
 regenerator of the Opera (and whose name may be 
 said to mark a period in this branch of art), was 
 born at Weidenwang in the Palatinate, July 2nd, 
 1714.t We shall pass over the larger portion of 
 his artist-life [1741 — 1762], as the Italian operas 
 which he wrote for the Milan, Yenice, and London 
 stages cannot lay claim to superior excellence, 
 and, indeed, were afterwards condemned by him- 
 self. After the year 1748, Gluck withdrew from 
 the restlessness of public life, and resided quietly 
 at Vienna, where he employed his leisure in 
 digesting and arranging the treasures of art- 
 experience he had collected in his travels, and 
 prepared himself by deep study and reflection for 
 fresh creative efforts. It is true, that both pre- 
 vious to, as well as contemporary with, Gluck, a 
 
 * Gluck was a Knight of the papal order of the Golden Spur, as 
 were also Mozart, Dittersdorf, and other musicians. "It is a 
 characteristic feature, that Gluck laid great stress on his rank. He 
 resembled Klopstock in this particular, who held ' that the artist's 
 calling should meet with due recognition and lionour.'" (Jahn 
 Mozarty \ol. i., p. 205.) On the other hand, Gluck (like Leopold 
 Mozart, who recommended his son to wear his Order on suitable 
 occasions) showed his knowledge of the world in not rejecting out- 
 ward distinctions when he ap^xjared in the select circles of Paris and 
 Vienna. 
 
 t Qluck und die Oper von A B. Marx. Zwei Biinde. Berlin, 
 1863. 
 
 Ch. W. Bitter von Gluck. Ein biographisch-asthetischer Versuch 
 von A. ScHMiD. Leipzig, 1854. 
 
 Compare Jahn {Mozart, vol. ii., p. 220 — 257), and Heinse 
 (^Hildegard von Eohenthal). 
 
128 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 change in the Opera form, as it then stood, had 
 been, and still was, strongly advocated, and that 
 Metastasio had expressed himself greatly dissatis- 
 fied with the degenerate state of "poor Italian 
 music" which was gradually withdrawing its 
 allegiance from poetry ; but where was to be 
 found the creative genius that should venture to 
 oppose the prevailing tendency by his works, not 
 words ? Gluck alone was equal to the task. Like 
 his own ' Iphigenia,' " seeking with her soul the 
 land of Greece, '* he achieved in ' Orpheus,' 
 * Alceste,' and the two * Iphigenias ' (classical 
 operas in a two-fold sense), that which the 
 Florentines of two centuries before* had vainly 
 sought — a revival of classic tragedy, but in 
 a new art — that of music. These compositions 
 of Gluck — real tragedies — are far superior to 
 their modern texts; they are, in truth, the 
 genuine oflPspring of a poetical spirit, and not alone 
 in their rendering of the words, faithfully re- 
 produce the plastic repose and beauty which we 
 admire in antique sculpture and the Sophocleian 
 drama. 
 
 Gluck's first attempt, somewhat timid and con- 
 strained, to introduce his innovations with regard 
 to truthfulness of dramatic expression, was the 
 opera of ' Orfeo ed Euridice ' [Oct. 15th, 1764], in 
 which he was ably supported by the poet Calza- 
 BiGi, who wrote the text. As yet, evidently 
 fearful of ofFerins: too much offence to the de- 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 129 
 
 generate taste of the age, lie has, in this work, re- 
 tained several points which are in opposition to 
 his severe principles of art ; indeed, in its general 
 plan, it does not differ materially from the usual 
 Italian Opera of the period. The principal part 
 was written for a contralto, and the only solo parts 
 in addition were two trebles : that of Eurydice, 
 and the inevitable Cupid, whose apparition some- 
 what recalls the formal allegorical style of the 
 Court revels of those days. The effect of the 
 whole piece, which consists only of a few emotional 
 passages very similar to each other, is, conse- 
 quently, not intensely impressive ; but it contains 
 several striking points, particularly the well-known 
 scene of Orpheus in the infernal regions in the 
 second act. Gluck's treatment of the chorus, 
 which in the old Italian Opera had made way 
 more and more for solo singing, is masterly in the 
 extreme. Solo and chorus are combined in a 
 manner highly productive of dramatic action, and 
 mutually tend to increase the effect of both. So 
 exquisite is the scene where Orpheus' increasingly 
 plaintive strains at length silence the " No, No V 
 of the chorus, and afterwards draw the unwillingly 
 yielding chorus to sing his praises, till at the 
 words '' Al vincifor" the gates of Elysium are 
 opened to him, that (like the enthusiastic Heinse) 
 we are carried away by the scene, not even 
 heeding the music that works the enchantment, 
 so truthful and natural is the picture. "After 
 
 K 
 
130 HISTOUY OF MUSIC. 
 
 all, there are many veins of precious ore in this 
 opera, but it cannot lay claim to downright origi- 
 nality throughout. It is a compound of his own 
 and foreign forms. It succeeded, however, in 
 arousing the antiquated indolent spirit."* The 
 sentimental J. J. Rousseau expressed himself still 
 more favourably : " What I more particularly 
 admire in Gluck is not so much the remarkable 
 amount of beauty his works display, as his discre- 
 tion and moderation. As regards what are called 
 the proprieties of art, I know of nothing so perfect 
 as the scene of Orpheus in the Elysian fields. 
 Pure, unalloyed happiness is portrayed throughout 
 with such evenness of expression, that neither 
 song nor dance tune interfere with the fixed 
 measure of enjoyment one derives throughout this 
 scene." 
 
 The opera of ' Alceste' [1767] was a great im- 
 provement as regards dramatic interest (of which 
 the addition of male voices is of itself character- 
 istic), and marks the actual period of Gluck's 
 reforms. The dedication of this work to the 
 Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany " gave him an 
 opportunity of stating his views, which were 
 opposed to the prevailing style, with the conscious- 
 ness that became him — clear and correct as far as 
 his artistic feeling went, but erroneous when he 
 (or his collaborators) philosophized on the aim and 
 object of music"! 
 
 * Heinse. t Mabx. 
 
l^HE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 131 
 
 ** When I undertook," writes Gluck, " to set this opera to music, 
 it was with the intention of freeing it from all those abuses which, 
 partly through misplaced vanity on the singers', and a too yielding 
 spirit on the musicians', part, had, during a lengthened period, 
 disfigured the Italian Opera to such an extent, that what ought to 
 have been grand and touching, degenerated into the most tedious 
 and absurd drama. I wished to confine the art of music to its real 
 object — that of aiding the effect of poetry by giving greater expres- 
 sion to the words and scenes ; but without detriment to the action 
 of the plot, and without weakening the impression by useless 
 ornamentation ; and I was of opinion that this ought to be effected 
 in the same manner as brilliancy of colour and judicious contrast of 
 light and shade heighten the effect of correct and well-designed 
 drawing, and give life and expression to the figures without effacing 
 the outline. Therefore, I do not stop the performer in the middle of 
 a dialogue while he waits the termination of a tedious ritornello^ nor 
 do I allow him to pause on a word or a vowel in order to give him 
 an opportunity of showing off the flexibility of his voice in a long 
 roulade^ or to wait till the orchestra gives him time to take breath 
 for a long cadenza. It seems to me, that the seconda parte of an air, 
 be it ever so emotional and important, ought not to be hurried over in 
 order that the words of the first part be repeated four times regularly 
 — ^the air ^occasionally concluding when the sense of the words is 
 not completed, so as to enable the singer to show that he can vary 
 the passage as much and as often as he pleases ; — in short, I wished 
 to do away with those abuses which common sense and good taste 
 had inveighed against for some time past. My idea is, that the 
 overture should prepare the audience for what is to follow, and, as it 
 were, herald the substance of the piece; that the instrumental 
 portion should vary according to the amount of passion or effect re- 
 quired, without making an abrupt transition from air to dialogue, 
 neither should it Ibrm an untimely interruption to the recitative, nor 
 interfere with, and weaken, the action. I thought, further, that my 
 utmost endeavours should tend to acquire a noble simplicity of 
 style; I have sought to avoid difficult passages where brilliancy 
 would be obtained at the cost of distinctness ; I only valued novel 
 effects when resulting from the scene and expression, and I have 
 never scrupled to sacrifice a principle for the sake of an effect. This 
 is my theory. Fortunately for me (in this respect Gluck was 
 always fortunate), the libretto suited my purpose exactly; the 
 celebrated poet (Calzabigi) ventured on a new method with regard to 
 
132 HISTOKY OF MUSIC. 
 
 dramatic and scenic arrangements ; in consequence of whicli, flowery 
 descriptions, superfluous comparisons, and instructive, but formal 
 maxims (herein diflering from Metastasio) are set aside for language 
 expressing the feelings, powerful emotions, effective climaxes, and 
 varied drama. The result has justified my theories, and the 
 unanimous (?) applause of so enlightened a city has clearly proved 
 that simplicity, truth, and naturalness are the true principles of 
 beauty in every work of art." 
 
 The above views of Gluck concerning the nature of the Opera 
 have recently made so much ado (we allude to R. Wagner's book, 
 *Oper und Drama '), that we think it incumbent on us (to avoid being 
 identified with the cause) to correct this opinion by quoting two 
 eminent art-critics — Kiesewetter and 0. Jahn — for the especial benefit 
 of those who will listen to no opinion unless endoi*sed by a great 
 name. 
 
 " So much for Gluck's views. His high aesthetic feeling and 
 refined taste have saved him from the stumbling-block of those — 
 otherwise excellent — maxims which set forth that every considera- 
 tion for the music itself, which^ nevertheless^ must exist as a separate 
 a/rty even in the Opera, must be sacrificed to the poetry and the 
 'situation.* His genius, while giving every care to the integrity of 
 the poem, has established the independence, as well as the beauty, of 
 his music ; she is not the servant of poetry ; she is rather a loving 
 sister, apparently only intent on setting her charms in the fullest 
 light, yet too charming herself not to be acknowledged her superior. 
 The melodies of Gluck delight us in connection with the words by 
 the correctness of their musical expression ; but, were they dissevered 
 from the words, they would be considered excellent and beautiful on 
 their own account. And if, indeed, his songs are only fully effective 
 when heard in connection with the scenes to which they belong, andy 
 therefore, when disconnected are unsuitable for concert performanceSy 
 yet they are by no means without form, and their graceful Tno^^sare 
 so clearly recognisable, that after hearing his operas, the memory 
 retains them as easily (?) as if one had come out of an Italian Opera 
 house."* 
 
 " Musical performance touches the feelings and emotions so 
 directly, and with so much greater intensity and force than poetry 
 (which appeals principally to the mind and imagination), that it 
 
 * Kiesewetter. Geschichte der Musik, p. 93. First edition. 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 133 
 
 may easily happen that the declamatory recitation gives rise to an 
 unnatural disproportion of effect, if music, with its more powerful 
 means of expression, follows the words of the poem too servilely. It 
 is a mistake to say that music shall be subordinate to poetry — a 
 mistake which Gluck's simile only the more clearly displays'; for the 
 true artist does not colour or illuminate his picture, but conceives 
 the whole design as it shall appear in the full glow of colour ; he 
 cannot imagine it other than complete, and represents it accordingly; 
 the contrast between drawing and colour only applies to the me- 
 chanical part — not to the conception and production of a work of art. 
 The final explanation to this phenomenon, viz., that he would restrict 
 music as an independent art in its own peculiar province to a mere 
 characteristic illustration of poetry, is evidently to be found in the 
 inferiority of his musical organisation, for which this error of judg- 
 ment served as a cloak." * This, we would observe, as contrasted 
 with the learned pedantry and affectation of modern Gluck-wor- 
 shippers, is indeed an honest, straightforward opinion. 
 
 We will conclude with a favourable verdict from Heinse :t " Gluck 
 has indubitably ceded the highest place to poetry ; and by reverently 
 serving her, has incurred the displeasure of all musicians and 
 dilettanti. But he refutes himself the best ; for in his test operas the 
 music predominates more than in the others — only it does not trifle 
 and flutter about, but represents the emotions with powerful dis- 
 tinctness. It is thus, on the contrar}'-, that in many of the Italian 
 masters the poem predominates, for, frequently, if we did not know 
 the words, the music would tell us nothing." 
 
 The subject of ' Alceste' (from Euripides) bears 
 throughout such a strong reserablance to * Or- 
 pheus/ that we are inclined to suspect Gluck 
 has, in this opera, made use of much that he had 
 not been able to treat in the former one, or, 
 perhaps, had not as yet fully matured in his own 
 mind — a proceeding which (though in different 
 ways characteristic both of Gluck and Handel) is 
 
 * Otto Jahn. Mozart, vol. ii., p. 226—229. 
 t Eildegard von Eohenthal, vol. ii., p. 308. 
 
134 HISTORY OP MUSIC. 
 
 clearly evident in both the *Tphigenias' and 
 in ' Armide.' In short, the design of the new 
 opera was to represent a perfect and complete 
 whole, regardless of the egotistical proclivities of 
 the singer. One important circumstance is the 
 bold co-operation of the orchestra evident for the 
 first time in Alceste, and appearing at once in the 
 overture, and particularly in the recitative accom- 
 paniments, in a new and peculiar manner. Wind 
 instruments (formerly employed only in the tutti 
 and concerted passages) are used by Gluck in a 
 highly characteristic style. By their aid, his 
 somewhat cold, unimpassioned music receives the 
 needful assistance to give animation and variety 
 to the unadorned rendering of the words ; while 
 to the whole, as compensation for the absence of 
 brilliant vocalization, they impart a rich instru- 
 mental colouring. 
 
 The first performance of 'Alceste ' [in the * Burg- 
 theater ' at Vienna, December 16th, 1767] is thus 
 described by Sonnenfels :* " I am in the land of 
 miracles. A serious melodrama with natural 
 voices, music without solfege^ or rather, without 
 chirrupping, Italian poetry without affectation and 
 bombast. The Burgtheater has been opened 
 with this three-fold wonder." The success of 
 ' Alceste ' was, however, not so universal as the 
 worthy reporter had anticipated. "Notwith- 
 
 * In the * Wiener Biarium.* 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 135 
 
 standing the splendid form in which it was given 
 on the Viennese stage, as well as all manner of 
 extravagant puffs and advertisements, its success 
 was, after all, not a lasting one ; for it did not 
 appeal to the popular taste, and there was no 
 middle class of sufficiently elevated taste to give 
 encouragement and abiding interest to works of 
 this calibre."* Gluck himself confessed, in the 
 preface to 'Paride ed Elena'' [1769], that his ex- 
 pectations had been disappointed, and his endea- 
 vour " to restore dramatic music to its proper 
 aim and object " had not succeeded in Germany. 
 *' Pedants and half-educated men, as well as fas- 
 tidious dilettanti, whose judgment did not extend 
 beyond their ears, inveighed against principles 
 which, if correct, would have put an end to their 
 conceit." 
 
 Gluck looked for a better reception in Paris. 
 He rightly judged that the time had come when, 
 after the operetta interhide, the Grand Opera, with 
 his amendments, would find favour. Bailly du 
 KoLLET, attache to the French Legation at Vienna, 
 adapted Racine's * Iphigenie en Aulide ' for music, 
 and, at the instance of the Dauphiness, Marie 
 Antoinette (whose singing master Gluck had 
 formerly been), the opera was performed in 
 Paris, February 11th, 1774. It was, however, not 
 till the second performance, on the 19th of April, 
 
 * Gervinus. Geschichte der deutschen Dichiwng, vol. iv., 
 p. 354. 
 
136 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 that it obtained complete success. On that 
 occasion, so enraptured were the audience, that 
 when Achilles' air in the third act (" Calcas cFun 
 trait niortel perce ") was sung, the military bran- 
 dished their swords amid the general applause. 
 During the subsequent eighteen years, this opera 
 was performed no less than one hundred and fifty 
 times. 
 
 What the French required of an opera was : 
 truthfulness of expression ; distinct, pleasing, 
 simple melody ; music suited to the action, and 
 action to the music ; — all which they found com- 
 bined in Gluck's work. In addition to this, the 
 national vanity was not a little flattered and \ 
 soothed; for the assertion that the French lan- 
 guage was not adapted for singing was thus sub- 
 stantially disproved, and even Rousseau admitted 
 that Gluck had wrought a change in his views on 
 that score. 
 
 In August of the same year, Gluck brought 
 out (in a French and very unfavourable adapta- 
 tion) ' Orpheus,* and, two years afterwards, 
 * Alceste,' on the stage. In the meantime 
 [August 1755], he produced a gala opera {Opera 
 ballet) of inferior merit, called * Cy there assiegee' 
 He was aroused to fresh and increased efforts by 
 the arrival of the celebrated Italian maestro 
 PicciNi — favoured by the Dubarry faction — 
 towards the close of 1776. The old party spirit 
 broke out afresh, and "Gluckists*' and "Piccinists" 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 137 
 
 carried on a literary feud with each other.* 
 While his enemies were busily spreading reports 
 that he had nothing new to give France, Gluck 
 produced ' Armide' [September 23rd, 1777], of 
 which the book was by Quinault and had already 
 been set by Lully, — an opera differing entirely 
 from any of his former ones. In accordance with 
 Gluck 's severe principles of art, this opera is no 
 advance on the previous ones ; it is rather a grand 
 operatic display in the ancient style, with rich 
 choruses and dances and great scenic effects, bat 
 little action. Handel's opera ' Rinaldo' [1711], 
 adapted from the same story (the well-known epi- 
 sode in Tasso's Gerusalemme Liheratd), depended 
 for effect more on the portrayal of emotion in the 
 airs — the " interior dramatic expression," as Chry- 
 sander calls it. To correspond with the subject 
 matter, Gluck's music, especially in the splendid 
 instrumental portions, is of brighter and more 
 delicate hue ; so that, on the stage, it would pro- 
 bably make a deeper impression on the less cri- 
 tical connoisseur. The choruses and ballets (com- 
 pare these latter with the trivial dance music of 
 the present day !) are indeed remarkably fine ; 
 but they are also by far the finest pieces in the 
 opera. Therefore, we agree with Heinse, that 
 though it has been the one most frequently per- 
 formed in Paris, it is — even from a stage point of 
 
 * Memoires, pour servir a Vhistoire de la revolution (yperee dans la 
 musique, par J. Chr. Gluck. Paris, 1781. 
 
138 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 view — far inferior to his ' Iphigenie en Tauride/ 
 " Altogether, it is deficient in naturalness ; the 
 Devil and Hate personified are too artificial ; and 
 the choruses, generally speaking, are not well 
 adapted to the scene. Nevertheless, some of the 
 scenes are effective, as for instance, one where 
 Armida goes to kill Einaldo asleep ; and another 
 — the last — where she is alone — forsaken by 
 Einaldo." 
 
 Piccini followed suit with the opera of 'Roland ' 
 [January 1778], from the composition of which 
 Grluck desisted when he heard Piccini had been 
 commissioned to write it. The latter (greatly 
 esteemed even by his adversary Gluck) always 
 diffident, anticipated failure, but, on the contrary, 
 achieved a brilliant success ! It was now for 
 Gluck to conquer a rival who was becoming for- 
 midable, by producing a new composition. In 
 this he succeeded when ^Iphigenie en lauride ' was 
 performed [May 18th, 1779]. It is by far his 
 best work — one in which he combines both the 
 French and Italian peculiarities of powerful dra- 
 matic expression and beautiful melody, in this re- 
 spect surpassing all who had previously treated the 
 subject — Jomelli, Traetta, Ciccio di Majo, Piccini. 
 Gluck's 'Iphigenia in Tauris' is the grandest 
 lyrical tragedy that could possibly be created in 
 the antique spirit, but with modern appliances of 
 art, — in music, what Goethe's tragedy is in poetry 
 — the revival of Greek art in the German mind. 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 139 
 
 How noble and expressive are the female choruses, 
 as also Iphigenia's and Pylades' airs ! how faith- 
 fully is the old Greek feeling, from the first burst 
 of the introduction to the last faint echo of the 
 chorus, " To Greece, to Greece !" rendered ! But 
 what we admire most of all, is the sublime unity 
 of the whole, the avoidance of anything that 
 would be horrible or revolting, the correct taste 
 which never failed the composer even when por- 
 traying mysterious and fearful occurrences — such 
 as Iphigenia bewailing the murder of her father 
 by her own mother, and Orestes pursued by the 
 Eumenides. (What would Wagner, whose pre- 
 tensions can only be understood by supposing 
 him to be treading in Gluck's footsteps, have 
 made of scenes like these ?)* 
 
 After bringing out the opera of ' Echo et Nar- 
 cisse' [September 1778], and giving over the 
 setting of the Dandides to Salieri, Gluck, worn 
 out with strife and overwork, returned to Vienna, 
 where he died [November 17th, 1787, a few days 
 only after the first performance of Mozart's ' Don 
 Giovanni'] — leaving a considerable fortune. His 
 bust was placed in the opera-house at Paris beside 
 those of Lully, Quinault, and Eameau, and below 
 it the following inscription : " Musas praeposuit 
 Sirenis " (II prefera les Muses aux Sirenes). 
 
 * This opera was performed for the first time in German at 
 Vienna, October 23rd, 1781, and at Berlin (where Gluck's operas 
 were more frequently, as well as better, performed than elsewhere), 
 February 24th, 1795. 
 
140 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Gluck had raised the French Opera to a pinnacle 
 on which it could not maintain itself without 
 him ; he had, to a great extent, weakened, though 
 not counteracted, the influence of the Italian style 
 introduced by Piccini, which still found numerous 
 adherents, especially at Court. Tlie multitude 
 were, however, ardent seekers of novelty ; and, 
 not altogether unreasonably, preferred the pleas- 
 ing, cheerful melodies of the national operetta, to 
 the grave character of the Grand Opera and 
 " musique tudesqueT Without predecessor, Gluck 
 had, even in France, no successors or even imita- 
 tors (with the exception of Mehul's exquisite 
 opera ' Joseph') till Spontini appeared ; yet was 
 his influence sufficiently powerful to have " deter- 
 mined the salient characteristics of the French 
 Opera even to the present day ; though at different 
 periods and in various ways, Italian influences 
 have undoubtedly made themselves felt."* 
 
 Gluck's reforms were of no account whatever 
 in Germany ; though German poets (Klopstock, 
 Herder, Wieland, (fee), as a matter of course, 
 lauded him as "the only musician who was a 
 poet," — i.e., content to be subservient to the 
 poet, and modestly sink his own individuahty.t 
 
 * Jahn. Mozart, vol. ii., p. 257. 
 
 f Herder's opinion deserves to be recorded ; " The progress of the 
 century reveals one who, rejecting all this musical rubbish, sees the 
 necessity for close relationship between the tale itself with his 
 music. He descended from the lofty pedestal on which the vulgar 
 musician was wont to glorify himself that iX)etry was subservient to 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 141 
 
 On the other hand, musicians — with Bach's 
 learned panegyrist Forkel at their head, who 
 declared Gluck's music only fit for rustics — 
 attacked him without mercy. Even Leopold 
 Mozart talks of Gluck's *' dismal opera ' Alceste ;' " 
 and the Princess Amalia of Prussia (Frederick 
 the Great's sister) did not hesitate to pronounce 
 the following opinion with regard to the ' Iphi- 
 genie en Tauride :' " Monsieur Gluck," writes she 
 to Kirnberger, " can never, in my opinion, be 
 reckoned a clever composer. In the first place, he 
 is not original; secondly, his melodies are tame 
 and poor ; and thirdly, he has no expression — no 
 emphasis. There is a sameness throughout (in 
 this last particular the worthy princess was not 
 so far wrong) ; and, taking it altogether, this 
 opera is a weak production." 
 
 The learned and accomplished Joh. Friedrich 
 Eeichardt* [1752 — 1814] is one of the few who 
 sided with Gluck ; but his compositions of nearly 
 all the poems of Goethe that can reasonably be 
 set to music afford the most striking proof of the 
 
 his art ; and, as far as was consistent with the taste of the nation for 
 whom be wrote, made his music subservient to language, emotion, 
 and action. He has imitators, and may be some one will before long 
 advance on him, by scattering to the four winds the whole wretched, 
 patched and pieced Opera system, and erecting a veritable Odeum — a 
 compendious lyrical structure, in which poetry, music, action, and 
 decoration form one complete whole." Has the deeply-read R. 
 Wagner perchance stumbled on this passage? 
 
 * Joh. Friedrizh Reichardt. Sein Leben und seine musikalische 
 Thatigkeit. Dargestellt von H. M, Schletterer. Augsburg, 18G4. 
 
142 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 inapplicability of Gluck's theories as a general 
 principle, and apart from the stage. In the pro- 
 found odes : ' Prometheus/ ' Ganymede/ ' Borders 
 of humanity, &c.,'* his finely-imagined recitation 
 — partly owing to its leaving untouched the rich 
 polymetric form of poetry — is, on the whole, 
 more successful than in the ballads ; but his 
 ''talking melody' {'' Sprechmelodie'') — as it is now 
 called — is wholly inadequate for the rendering of 
 the songs {Lieder), in which, indeed, his music is 
 far inferior to the poem in intensity of feeUng and 
 expression. The observation of Eochhtz f (gene- 
 rally so indulgent), in allusion to one of his com- 
 positions of the Lkder : that, with much art, he 
 has done a great deal for the words, but far less 
 for the expression, is a fair description of his whole 
 style. Goethe, who in the lines (' To Lina') : 
 
 " No, not talking, only singing,** &c.,t 
 
 has said clearly enough what he required of a 
 composer, denied in the * Xenien'§ all knowledge 
 of his conceited and officious friend. Eeichardt's 
 compositions of Goethe's melodramas : ' Claudine 
 von Villabella,' ' Jery und Biitely,' &c., are of as 
 little account as Anton Schweitzer's setting of 
 
 * * Grenzen der Menschheit, &c.' 
 
 t Compare Beichardfs music to Goethe's songs. See Fur Freunde 
 der Torikunst, vol. iii. p. 376 — 434. 
 
 I " Nur niclit reden, immer singenj* 
 
 § The ' Xenien ' was a collection of satirical poems, edited con- 
 jointly by Schiller and Goethe, and consisted of satirical lines and 
 epigrams. 
 
THE FREN^CH OPERA AND GLUCK. 143 
 
 Wieland's great operas : ' Eosamunde' and *A1- 
 ceste' — pieces which at Mannheim (at that time 
 enjoying a first-class musical reputation) were sup- 
 posed to be the foundation of a " German national 
 Opera." No highly-gifted musician attached him- 
 self to the great poets (Gluck had only set seven 
 of Klopstock's odes — according to this latter "in 
 real tones of truth " — ; others, as for example the 
 * Hermannschlacht ' and Gellert's songs, he only 
 retained by heart and never wrote down, while 
 Herder's sacred Cantatas remained almost unno- 
 ticed) — whereas inferior poets like Weisse, Gotter, 
 Brandes, Kotzebue, &c., have attained to unme- 
 rited honour through their composers : Hiller, 
 Benda, Himmel, and even Beethoven. 
 
 As in Italy and France the comic opera and 
 the operetta displaced the more serious style, so 
 in Germany, where a national Opera had as yet 
 no existence, the Liederspiel, founded by Job. 
 Adam Hiller [born December 25th, 1728, died 
 at Leipzig, June 16th, 1804] became highly popu- 
 lar. Hiller' s idyllic Liederspiele, or operettas 
 (* Lottchen am Hofe,' ' Die Liehe auf dem Lande,' 
 ' Die Jagd' &c.), written in partnership with 
 Weisse, though now antiquated and forgotten, 
 always drew a full house ; and some of the songs 
 which occur in these pieces (as for example 
 " Ohne Lieb und ohm Wein ") still survive in 
 popular recollection. It is, indeed, "father" 
 Hiller's peculiar merit, that he, though a really 
 
144 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 learned musician, sliould have been content with 
 such a humble sphere, and restricted himself to 
 songs, and refrained from all operatic devices and 
 embellishments ; which is the more to be 
 admired when we consider his partiality for 
 Hasse and Graun. His deserts, as far as 
 Handel's music is concerned, are beyond all 
 praise, as also as regards the art of singing in 
 Germany ; indeed, in the opinion of Eochlitz and 
 others, his pupils Gertrude Elizabeth Mara and 
 Corona Schroter (immortalized by Goethe) are 
 equal to the best Italian singers. 
 
 After Hiller, the only composer of operettas 
 whose name survives, is Friedrich Heinrich 
 HiMMEL [born 1765, died at Berlin, June 8th, 
 1814] admired in his day as the " polite" musician, 
 and whom Beethoven admitted to possess a 
 " charming talent." His^melodrama of ' Fanchon^ 
 which enjoyed a long run of popularity, but is 
 too sentimental for the taste of our day, shows 
 the altered direction which the German Sing spiel 
 had taken by adopting the French operetta and 
 the Italian aria style. The forms were more 
 finished and polished, but they lacked the genuine 
 feeling and spirit of the German song. The 
 German Singspiel only attained a vigorous, 
 thoroughly popular, character, when Dittersdorf 
 and the Viennese " Volksoper "* took it in hand, 
 as, indeed, musical vitality and development may 
 
 * Literally, " the people's Opera.'* 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA AND GLUCK. 145 
 
 be said now to have quitted Protestant North 
 Germany, and taken up its abode in Catholic 
 South Germany. The Northern, or Berlin 
 school (represented by Zelter, Berger, Bernh. 
 Klein, Friedr. Schneider and others,) is certainly 
 inferior to the South Germany, or Viennese, school. 
 
 The numerous operettas of George Benda 
 [172 2-9 5] are inferior to his melodramas : 'Ariadne 
 auf Naxos ' and ' Medea ^ which quickly found their 
 way into other countries. *' The magnificent 
 musical delineation of the passions — fear, joy, and 
 horror — made a powerful impression on all who 
 heard it." Mozart wrote to his father from. 
 Mannheim [Nov. 12th, 1778] as follows:—"! 
 have twice seen such a splendid piece performed 
 here, with the greatest pleasure ! Indeed, 
 nothing has ever astonished me so much ! for I 
 had always imagined that kind of thing would 
 never be effective. You know, of course, that it 
 is not sung, but declaimed, and the music is like 
 a recitative ohligato ; sometimes there is talking 
 amid the music, which has a splendid effect. 
 The piece I saw was ' Medea,' by Benda. He 
 has composed another, * Ariadne auf Naxos,' and 
 both are indeed excellent. You know that 
 Benda was always my favourite among Lutheran 
 composers. I am so fond of these two pieces 
 that I have them always by me." 
 
 Benda's melodramatic music (taking into con- 
 sideration the period in which it appeared) is in so 
 
 L 
 
146 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 far remarkable, that, absolutely reversing Gluck's 
 principle of subordinating nmsic to poetry, 
 it allows the instrumental element, although 
 bound to the words and the dramatic move- 
 ment, a far freer characteristic development. 
 ' Ariadne' appeared at the same time [1774] as 
 Gluck's * Iphigenie en Aulide/ whose still much 
 admired overture* discloses, in a far grander 
 manner and consistent form, the newly dis- 
 covered power of instrumental music. " There 
 is not so much as one phrase that resembles vocal 
 song — not one that seems to require the aid of 
 the book or the programme. Even were the 
 overture detached from the opera, and the audi- 
 ence ignorant of the relation of each to the other, 
 its musical significance would still be complete. 
 In design, it is music as applied to a given pur- 
 pose ; but in result, it is music pure and unal- 
 loyed."! It was about this time also that 
 Haydn originated the symphony, in which instru- 
 mental music became invested with a poetry of 
 its own, and the magic power of depicting all the 
 manifold phases of phantasy and feeling. 
 
 ♦ As the overture leads directly into the first scene of the opera, 
 Mozart has added a conclusion for concert performances. It is a 
 truly sublime and brilliant addition, and far more in keeping with 
 the tragic grandeur of the piece than Wagner's, which, however, has 
 of late frequently received the preference (in Germany). Wagner's 
 conclusion, which employs the first motif of the allegro, is cleverly 
 imagined, but the colouring is too feeble and too modern. However 
 interesting, it is not in Gluck's style. 
 
 t OuLiBicHEFF. Mozart, vol. ii., p. 242. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Foundation and Impbovement of Instrumental Music in 
 Germany by Haydn. 
 
 We are now entering on the period when instru- 
 mental music attained to glorious distinction. 
 Like painting, it is entirely of modern origin, and 
 that branch of musical art in which Germany 
 first bid fair to out-rival Italy, and was even 
 destined to take the lead in all future progress. 
 If the supremacy of the Italians in violin playing 
 and technical skill on bowed instruments cannot 
 be denied, to the Germans is due the credit of 
 perfecting wind instruments, and being the first 
 to employ them characteristically. Not until 
 these were added to the resources of the orchestra 
 could instrumental music attain complete and 
 independent existence, warmth, animation, and 
 expression. The clarionet was the most recently 
 invented [at Nuremberg 1720] wind instrument, 
 and Gluck — altogether the greatest instrumental 
 composer previous to Haydn — had been the first 
 to employ it in dramatic music (in the " airs de 
 ballet'' of his operas). With what application 
 and zeal the technical features of instrumental 
 
148 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 music were studied and practised in Germany 
 since the middle of the last century, is evidenf 
 from the numerous '^Methodes " for various instru- 
 ments which appeared in quick succession and 
 constantly new editions. Quanz wrote an * Essay 
 on Hints in playing the Traversiere Flute'* 
 (Berlin 1752); Leopold Mozart an ' Essay on 
 a thorough method of Violin playing' f (Augsburg 
 1756); and Phil. Eman. Bach an * Essay on a 
 true method of harpsichord playing '{ (first part 
 Berlin 1753)— a work still held in esteem, and 
 lately re-edited by Gr. Schilling; its technical 
 practice, being grounded on an uniform system of 
 fingering, laid the foundation to modern piano- 
 forte playing. 
 
 Haydn, the veritable originator of German in- 
 strumental music, in the first instance and in 
 general, adopted the pianoforte sonatas of Phil. 
 Eman. Bach (whom he was accustomed to 
 designate as his master) for his studies and model. 
 Eman. Bach had, in accordance with the paternal 
 wish, applied himself to music " for his pleasure 
 rather than as a profession " — a circumstance 
 which imparted to his whole after-career a 
 singularly free and distinct individuality, which 
 remained unfettered by scholastic restrictions. 
 " Entirely free from all that can be called man- 
 
 * * Versuch einer Anweisung die Flote traversiere zu spielen,^ 
 
 f ' Versuch einer grundlichen ViolinschuleJ' 
 
 X ' Versuch tiber die wahre Art das Klavier zu spielen,* 
 
JOSEPH HAYDN-. 149 
 
 nerism In the music of those days, he allowed his 
 own proclivities and, what we call, artistic indivi- 
 duality full scope — first of all in manual execution, 
 and afterwards in his compositions."* Of these, 
 the most remarkable are his pianoforte composi- 
 tions, especially the ' Sonatas and Fantasias for 
 connoisseurs and amateurs 'f — compositions held 
 in high esteem by young Haydn. " I could not 
 get away from my harpsichord till I had played 
 them through, and those who know me well must 
 be aware how much I am indebted to Emanuel 
 Bach, and that I have studied him thoroughly. 
 Bach once paid me a compliment about it." Cha- 
 racteristic also are Mozart's words when he heard 
 Bach extemporize on the harpsichord at Ham- 
 burg. " He is the father, we are the boys. If 
 any of us can do a thing well, he has learnt it of 
 him ; and if he doesn't say so, he is a fool. What 
 he does would no longer sufl&ce us ; but no one 
 can come up to him in the manner of doing it." 
 Some of Eman. Bach's ' Orchestral Symphonies,' 
 which appeared about the same time as Haydn's 
 earlier ones, have been revived of late, and, as is 
 frequently the case with works of an early period, 
 considerably overrated. For us they have a pecu- 
 liar interest, inasmuch as they exhibit a wonder- 
 ful advance on the orchestral " suites " of his 
 father, and do not appear to have any visible 
 
 * RocHLiTZ. Fiir Freunde der Tonkunsf, vol. iv., p. 299. 
 t * Sonaten und Fardasienfilr Kenner und Liebhdber.^ 
 
150 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 connection whatever with the suite form, which 
 Kiehl regards as the foundation of the modern 
 symphony. The purely abstract succession of 
 pieces in the dance form differs in toto from the 
 inward development of Eman. Bach's symphonies. 
 " To me it is evident that the * suite * is not the 
 parent of our modern symphony and sonata ; but 
 this would not preclude the adoption of the 
 former to a certain extent."* However inferior in 
 point of genuine orchestral character, as well as 
 general style and expression, Eman. Bach's sym- 
 phonies may be to those of Haydn and Mozart, 
 he it is, most certainly, who first prepared the 
 way for the brilliant epoch of instrumental music 
 which began with Haydn. 
 
 JOSEPH HA YBN— the eldest of fourteen 
 children — was born of poor parents at Rohrau (a 
 village on the frontiers of Austria and Hungary), 
 March 31st, 1732.f He was put to school in the 
 neighbouring village of Hainburg, where, under 
 the severe tuition of a relative, he became familiar 
 
 * Jahn. 
 
 t Griesingeb (the friend and companion of his later years) : 
 Biographische Notizen iiber J. Haydn. Leipzig, 1810. 
 
 Arnold's (so-called) biography : J. Haydn, Kurze Biographic 
 und dsthetische Darstellung seiner Werke. Erfurt, 1810. 
 
 Carpani: ie Haydine ovvero lettere su la vita e le opere del 
 celehre maestro G. Haydn. Milano, 1812. 
 
 A. Adam : La jeunesse d'Haydn in the Derniers Souvenirs d'un 
 Musicien, p. 1 — 39. 
 
 Haydn in London 1791 und 1792, von Prof. Th. von Karajan. 
 Wien, 1862. 
 
 Dies : Biographische Nachrichten von Jos. Haydn. Wien, 1810. 
 
JOSEPH HAYDN. 151 
 
 with almost every kind of stringed and wind in- 
 strument till his ninth year, when he was sent to 
 Vienna as a chorister. There, in the choir of 
 St. Stephen's, he received a good practical educa- 
 tion in music ; his early attempts at composition 
 were aided by Fux's ' Gradus ad Parnassum ' (at 
 that time the standard work on composition) and 
 Mattheson's * Complete Chapel-master.'* After 
 eight years, when his voice broke, he was dis- 
 missed, and for the ten succeeding ones, poverty 
 and privation were his lot. His earnings, made 
 first by joining small bands of music {street-music 
 as he afterwards called it), and, subsequently, by 
 teaching, were barely sufficient to eke out a scanty 
 subsistence ; but his innate cheerfulness of dispo- 
 sition, and, yet more, his genuine love of art sus- 
 tained him through all the troubles and trials 
 tliat befel him. " Sitting at my old worm-eaten 
 harpsichord, I envied no king upon his throne." 
 He had even to reckon it a privilege that he was 
 allowed to accompany the renowned Porpora when 
 he gave singing lessons. The latter, indeed, treated 
 him no better than a servant ; " but I put up 
 with everything, for I learnt a great deal of 
 Porpora, in singing, composition, and Italian." 
 
 In the meantime, some pianoforte Sonatas and 
 Trios, published without his knowledge, caused 
 his name to become known, which led to his 
 being appointed [1760] chapel-master to Prince 
 
 * ' Vollkommener Kapellmeister.'' 
 
152 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Esterhazy — an appointment he held for thirty 
 years. The prince resided during the greater 
 portion of the year at his seat in Hungary, only 
 visiting Yienna for a few months in winter, and 
 riiaintained a band and choir of his own for opera 
 — Italian of course — , concert, and church music. 
 Haydn had not only to rehearse and conduct the 
 performers, but, as was always expected of a 
 chapel-master in those days, to write nearly all 
 the music himself. This was the origin of most 
 of his Symphonies and Quartets (together with 
 those written at a later date, 118 and 83 in num- 
 ber) ; his Concertos and Trios (each 24 in num- 
 ber) ; 44 Sonatas; 19 Operas (14 Italian and 5 
 German Marionnette Operas); 15 Masses; the 
 Oratorio ' 11 ritomo di Tohia ; and about 400 
 dances. Besides the above works, he wrote 163 
 pieces for the haryton — a species of viola digamba, 
 similar to our violincelb, and the prince's favourite 
 instrument. A good many of the Symphonies 
 were pieces doccasion — among them the * Cliil- 
 dren's' (for pianoforte and seven toy instru- 
 ments) and ^ Depart^ symphonies, which latter 
 owes its effect more to the ingenious idea of let- 
 ting one instrument after another cease, than to 
 any great musical originality. Occasionally, 
 some of the pieces in the symphonies written at 
 that period, were headed with appropriate titles 
 as : * La Bella Circassa,' * La Roxelana,' * Elena 
 Greca^ ' 11 Solitario,' '11 Maestro di scuola inna- 
 
JOSEPH HAYDN^. 153 
 
 morato^ ' La Persiana' ' 11 Poltronel etc., and 
 (a circumstance deserving of notice) others he is 
 said to have provided with a kind of programme, 
 for instance : " God conversing with a hardened 
 sinner," " Departure of an indigent family for 
 America ; grief of those left behind ; the voyage 
 and return ;" '' Le matin, le inidi, le soir." Thus, 
 Haydn found, in his constant and varied duties, 
 the best opportunity for improving his talents and 
 forming his style. " My prince was pleased with 
 my productions ; I received commendation ; as 
 leader of an orchestra I was enabled to make ex- 
 periments, to observe, and learn what constitutes, 
 as well as mars, effect ; to improve, add, with- 
 draw, to make experiments. I lived apart from 
 the great world, with no one near to confuse or 
 annoy me ; and, thus, I could not fail to become 
 original." 
 
 After Prince Esterhazy's death [1790], Haydn, 
 now verging on his sixtieth year, entered on a 
 new career, whereby his future musical produc- 
 tions were materially influenced. Like Handel 
 and Gluck, he, too, was to meet with the full 
 measure of regard and appreciation in foreign 
 lands — not indeed, as they did, by his own efforts, 
 but by the valuable aid of a countryman and 
 enthusiastic admirer. John Peter Salomon from 
 Cologne, manager of the famous Professional 
 Conceits in London, and himself an excellent 
 artist, had already made repeated but ineffectual 
 
154 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 attempts to induce Haydn to quit the service of 
 Prince Esterhazy and come to London, if only 
 for one winter. His terms were : that, for liberal 
 remuneration, Haydn should write a new piece — 
 if possible, a symphony — of which he was to 
 conduct the performance himself, for each of 
 Salomon's " Grand Concerts." Haydn, being now 
 at liberty, Salomon hastened to Vienna in order 
 to put his project into execution. That same 
 year, Haydn accompanied him to London, where 
 he remained a year and a half; and, after two 
 years [January 1794], returned thither for the 
 same length of time. During the three years of 
 his residence in London, Haydn wrote — besides a 
 number of smaller pieces — six of his finest Quar- 
 tets, and those incomparable twelve (entitled) 
 London Symphonies, which we all admire so 
 much : one in C minor, with the lovely minuet 
 trio (for violincello concertante) ; the truly sublime 
 one in B with the grand finale; the so-called 
 * Military Symphony \ one in Gr (with the " clock 
 movement "*), and others. 
 
 That Haydn was well received and remunerated 
 
 * The two last symphonies were sumamed from their beautiful 
 andante movements, wherein, in one, the beat of a kettledrum falls 
 unexpectedly on the softest possible piano ; in the other, is a splendid 
 " Turkish music." In other respects, the * Military Symi)hony ' has not 
 a particularly military character ; and, consequently, the comparison 
 which Ambros (in his * Orenzen der Musik und Poesie^ p. 132) 
 draws, to Haydn's disadvantage, with Beethoven's * Eroica^' is quite 
 out of place. Of the " military " element in the * Eroica ' we shall 
 have occasion to speak heixjafter. 
 
JOSEPH HAYDX. 155 
 
 in England, is evident from an entry in his diary 
 referring to his farewell benefit concert at the 
 Haymarket Theatre [May 4th, 1795]: "This 
 evening I made four thousand florins. That is 
 only to be done in England." He returned to 
 Vienna, and purchased a house and garden in 
 one of the suburbs, where he lived quietly and 
 comfortably till his death (May 31st, 1809]. It 
 was during this latter period that his great 
 German Oratorios — ' The Creation ' and * The 
 Seasons ' — were composed. 
 
 Haydn's works, more, perhaps, than those of any 
 other master, form an epoch in the history of art ; 
 " Father Haydn," as he is called, is the ancestor of 
 succeeding musical generations. He has opened 
 out the widest field for free, artistic, individual 
 expression by means of instrumental music, of 
 which he fixed, and, in many ways, developed the 
 forms. Unfettered by rules and traditions of art 
 — grown up as it were in a school of his own — 
 he carried music out of school and church into 
 the freshness and reality of life — home to the 
 feelings of the multitude " even as it weeps and 
 laughs." As German poetry was improved by 
 Goethe's and Herder's return to the poetry of 
 early times — especially Homer, and the old 
 German national song — , so was music benefited 
 in a yet greater degree by Haydn, in whose com- 
 positions reminiscences of popular tunes, whether 
 of song or dance, are clearly discernible. . 
 
156 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 In order to illustrate the newly-found subject- 
 matter, the forrn, or manner of composition, had 
 to be changed ; in lieu of the contrapuntal har- 
 monic style of composition, arose, since Haydn, 
 the melodic-thematic, consisting of a leading idea 
 or theme from which are derived a succession of 
 secondary subjects. This is called thematic compo- 
 sition; and by it, unity of design is combined 
 with constant variety. In this art — that of pur- 
 suing one thought or theme through all the 
 shades and intricacies of which it is susceptible, 
 and, without detriment to the original character, 
 cause it to represent every possible alternation of 
 feeling — Haydn, by the very clearness and sim- 
 plicity of his style, remains to this day a model. 
 "No artist has, with such innocence and sim- 
 plicity, accepted every, the smallest thought which 
 God has given him, and cherished it so heartil}^ 
 and fervently, that it grew to a mighty stock of 
 artistic inspiration ; no one has bestowed such ad- 
 mirable, judicious, and loving care on the instru- 
 ments committed to his charge. He would be ever- 
 lastingly enviable, if he did not equally command 
 our respect, gratitude, and love."* "If an idea 
 presented itself," says Haydn, " all my endeavours 
 were directed to entertain and carry it out in 
 accordance with the rules of art. Thus I tried 
 to improve myself; and that is where many of our 
 
 * Compare the article * Haydn ' in Gassner's Universallexicon der 
 Tonhunst, 
 
JOSEPH HAYDN. 157 
 
 modern composers fail ; they string one little piece 
 on to another, and break off when they have hardly 
 begun ; but none of it touches our feelings when 
 we hear it." Those would-be original geniuses, 
 whose supercilious vanity teaches them to look 
 down upon the writer of the * Children's ' Sym- 
 phony, and, comparing his symphonies with the 
 grandest that have ever been written — Beetho- 
 ven's — , pronounce them antiquated or old- 
 fashioned, would do well to ponder these words. 
 Haydn, to whom Mozart dedicated his six finest 
 Quartets [composed 1783-1785], and Beethoven 
 his first Trios ; to whose memory Cherubini (too 
 modest to dedicate to him his chef doeuvre, ' Les 
 deux Journees ') composed the ' Chant sur la mort 
 de Joseph Haydn' is still (especially now-a-days, 
 when the feeling for simplicity and beauty in art- 
 productions threatens to become extinct) the 
 master, from whom disciples of art may learn the 
 most. His Symphonies and Quartets are, owing 
 to their purity of idea and clearness of develop- 
 ment, models of their kind ; and even their short- 
 ness — so derided by the ignorant — might be ad- 
 vantageously imitated by our " Grand Symphony" 
 writers, who spin out everything to unheard-of 
 lengths, and with dwelling upon a number of 
 subordinate subjects are scarcely able to get to the 
 end.* 
 
 * A talented and judicious art-critic of our own day expresses 
 himself thus decidedly against the conceited assei'tion that Haydn's 
 
158 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 We must not indeed expect to find profound 
 ideality in Haydn's works ; on tlie other hand, 
 we cannot allow that his Symphonies (as Riehl 
 even says of Mozart's) are nothing better than a 
 combination of symphonic movements. Haydn 
 imbibed his ideas directly from real life, just as it 
 presented itself to his childlike, sunny tempera- 
 ment — keenly alive to impressions from without. 
 The movements of his symphonies and quartets, 
 notwithstanding their close and complete con- 
 nexion with each other, are not bound together by 
 abstruse or poetical ideas ; but, as Haydn himself 
 admits with regard to some of them, rest on the 
 simple foundation of a particular circumstance or 
 emotion. To seek effect by means of contrast, 
 was utterly foreign to his purely harmonious dis- 
 position ; with him all is right and joyous as a 
 fine spring morning when our spirits are buoyant 
 with cheerfulness and hope. In the Minuets 
 which (like Mozart's andantes and adagios and 
 Beethoven's yinaZ?') pecuHarly characterize Haydn, 
 he seems to take especial delight — revelling in 
 playful humour and arch surprises. 
 
 That Haydn could make so much of an appa- 
 
 symphonies are not destined to endure. " Whereas, about twenty 
 years ago, Haydn was almost unanimously allowed to be the first 
 among instrumental composers, and his quartets and symphonies 
 extolled as the acme of perfection, it is now the fashion to fall into 
 the opposite extreme, and to speak of them with a contemptuous 
 smile, as of unpretending hagatelleSy beneath the notice of our 
 enlightened generation." 
 
JOSEPH HAYDN". 159 
 
 rently restricted field of sentiment, is the clearest 
 proof of his wonderful musical gifts, as well as 
 true artistic self-knowledge, which, rejecting the 
 mysterious and ethereal, contented itself with a 
 slight tinge of ideality. '' The variety and deli- 
 cacy of perception with which he illustrated so 
 many different phases of a cheerful mood in the 
 elaboration of a symphony, and, without the aid 
 of forced contrasts, preserves its character appa- 
 rently intact while describing infinitesimal shades 
 of feeling, is, and ever will be, worthy of ad- 
 miration. Take, for instance, the symphony in D. 
 The first allegro movement portrays quiet felicity, 
 mingled with tender loving kindness — unclouded 
 even by a perceptible tinge of sadness ; the andante 
 following on it illustrates happiness and content ; 
 in the minuet, a delicious sense of enjoyment 
 breaks forth into wilful sportiveness ; while, in 
 conclusion, the 7vndo describes the wild merri- 
 ment of a joyous troop, and that with such 
 marked and distinctive traits, that when listening 
 to it, we almost fancy we see before us a picture 
 of Teniers. Thus, we find happiness and joy 
 represented in a variety of gradations, yet with- 
 out inducing the least sense of monotony or weari- 
 ness."* It was but seldom that Haydn attempted 
 tlie delineation of the passions, — not, however, 
 that he lacked either receptivity for grand emo- 
 
 * Fr. Hand. Aesthetih der Tonkunst. Vol. ii., p. 421. 
 
160 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 tional sensations, or the faculty of rendering 
 them in music. Of this his Oratorios furnish 
 proofs to the contrary; for, besides tenderness 
 and sweetness, sublimity and solemnity are therein 
 strikingly expressed. 
 
 When in his sixty-fifth year [1797], Haydn 
 composed the * Creation,^ for which the book (it 
 was said) had been written for Handel by Lidley. 
 This Oratorio has a far more solemn and sacred 
 character than his Masses (in which serenity and 
 enjoyment break forth so charmingly and inno- 
 cently), and the noble chorus : " The heavens are 
 telling," and others, may be accounted equal to 
 the sublimest achievements of sacred choral music. 
 "I was,'' narrates Haydn, "never so pious as 
 when engaged on the * Creation ;' I fell on my 
 knees daily, and prayed God would vouchsafe me 
 strength to carry out the work." To the orchestra, 
 which forms a rich accompaniment to the recita- 
 tives and airs, is assigned the descriptive portion ; 
 while, towards the close, emotional transports find 
 vent in the lovely duet : " Graceful consort." It 
 is in this extensive range — embracing the Deity, 
 Nature, and Humanity — that the ' Creation ' 
 stands alone, unrivalled. Were we to characterize 
 the different parts more nearly, we should say : 
 the first is the grandest, the second the most 
 picturesque, and the third the most melodious.* 
 
 ♦ Memorable is the performance of the ' Creation ' in the Hall of 
 the University at Vienna, March 27th, 1808, at which Haydn (then 
 
JOSEPH HAYDN. 16L 
 
 The third part of the ' Creation ' describes the 
 life of our first parents before the Fall. It is a 
 charming idyll, following on a grand epos. 
 Altogether idyllic in subject is the pastoral 
 Oratorio: ' The Seasons' [1801], after Thomson's 
 poem. Unlike the everlasting " Odes to Spring *' 
 of modern poetry, and their accompanying music, 
 Haydn presents us in the ' Seasons ' with a 
 
 in his seventy-sixth year) was present. When at the famous passage 
 " Let there be light " the audience broke out in loud plaudits, the old 
 man raised his trembling hands deprecatingly, saying : " It is not 
 mine, it comes from above." Dreading further excitement, he 
 desired to be conveyed home before the end of the first part. And 
 this was not the merely momentary weakness of old age ; it was 
 his firm persuasion that all blessing on his work came from above. 
 His scores were headed " In nomine Domini^'' or " S>di Deo gloria,^ 
 and ended with " Laus Deo.^^ 
 
 We cannot refrain from quoting an interesting passage, bearing 
 on Haydn's Oratorios, in the letter to Mendelssohn from his father 
 (see Lady Wallace's translation of Mendelssohn's letters, vol. ii., 
 p. 78). " It seems to me that both the Oratorios of Haydn were, in 
 their sphere, also very remarkable phenomena. The poems of both 
 are weak, regarded as poetry ; but they have replaced the old positive 
 and almost metaphysical religious impulses by those which nature, 
 as a visible emanation from the Godhead, in her universality, and 
 her thousandfold individualities, instils into every susceptible heart. 
 Hence the profound depth, but also the cheerful efficiency, and cer- 
 tainly genuine religious influence, of these two works, which hitherto 
 stand alone ; hence the combined effect of the playful and detached 
 passages, with the most noble and sincere feelings of gratitude pro- 
 duced by the whole ; hence is it also that I individually could as 
 little endure to lose in the ' Creation ' and in the ' Seasons ' the crow- 
 ing of the cock, the singing of the lark,the lowing of the cattle, and 
 the rustic glee of the peasants, as I could in nature herself ; in other 
 words, the ' Creation ' and the ' Seasons ' are founded on nature and 
 the visible service of God, — and are no new materials for music to 
 be found there ?" 
 
 H 
 
162 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 complete picture of rural life, the conception of 
 which is unequalled for naturalness and simplicity, 
 and for which the tenderly executed musical 
 colouring is as essential, as the portrayal of senti- 
 ments awakened by the contemplation of nature, 
 were to Beethoven's ideal mind (in the ' Pastoral 
 Symphony '). It cannot, however, be denied that 
 these numerous and, as far as they go, attractive, 
 instrumental details are prejudicial to the freedom 
 of song in the airs. Even if we do not, with 
 Zelter, regard the ' Seasons * as a symphony 
 with singing, yet we do not hesitate to designate 
 the greater portion of it as a recitative with un- 
 usually rich accompaniment. With the exception 
 of the air : " Oh how pleasing to the senses,'* and 
 the two songs in the last division, the tuneful, 
 purely musical, charm of the solo songs is incon- 
 siderable, or, at all events, not to be compared to 
 the lovely duets and the pieces dCensemhle. But 
 the choruses y besides the famous hunting and 
 vintner's choruses, the pious — really inspired — 
 choruses of prayer and praise, unite the whole 
 in one complete composition. Without them, 
 indeed, this work would consist merely of a series 
 of fatiguing, only partially interesting, pieces; 
 but they impart to it a oneness of form, as also 
 to the Oratorio the required lofty and ethical 
 significance — the religious elemeiat. Similar to 
 the sublimer * Creation,' the joyous idyll of the 
 ' Seasons ' closes with the double choruses in 
 
JOSEPH HAYDN. 163 
 
 praise of everlasting spring : " 'Tis come the 
 great and glorious morn," in solemn devotional 
 strains. 
 
 As to the intrinsic merit of these two works, 
 when compared with each other, Haydn has ex- 
 pressed himself as follows : " My * Creation ' will 
 endure, and probably the 'Seasons' also." On 
 being congratulated, on every side, after the first 
 performance of the ' Seasons,' he replied : " It is 
 not the ' Creation ;' there, angels sing, here, 
 rustics." That is, in the jargon of the schools, 
 there the ideal, here the 7'eal prevails ; and 
 "thoughtful" musicians, to whose palled taste 
 the ' Seasons ' fails to give satisfaction, would 
 probably express themselves at yet greater length. 
 Though the ' Creation ' is indisputably the 
 grander and more universal work of the two, yet 
 in the * Seasons,' Haydn's individuality shines 
 forth so brightly and distinctly, that it takes a 
 strong measure of modern conceit and affectation 
 to find it tedious. 
 
 'II ritorno di Tobia,' an Italian oratorio 
 written during the Esterhazy period, and of late 
 revived, is inferior in interest to those above 
 mentioned; but the composition of the Seven 
 words : ' Musica instrumentale sopra le sette ultime 
 parole del nostro Redentore al Croce' — an inter- 
 mezzo for Good Friday's Liturgy for orchestra 
 alone — is a work of note and importance. Haydn, 
 himself, set so great store by it, that not only did 
 
164 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 he afterwards publish it as a solo-quartet, but 
 even adapted it for an oratorio, in which the 
 * Words ' were simply recited in a choral tone, 
 and the expression of the sentiments contained in 
 the instrumental description, is 'allotted to the 
 chorus. 
 
 In Church composition, properly speaking, 
 Haydn gave the preference to the works of his 
 younger brother Michael, as being more con- 
 sonant with genuine Church style. Michael's 
 are the so-called 'Spanish Mass,' the 'Requiem,' 
 ' Pax vobis,' ' Salve Eegina,' ' Lauda Sion,' and 
 other sacred compositions. 
 
 In dramatic music, Haydn was a copyist. His 
 Italian Operas, of which his unfinished ' Orfeo,' — 
 written for the London stag:e — is reckoned the 
 best, reveal ignorance of scenic effect, as well as 
 of correct dramatic expression. These high 
 qualities were the portion of one, whom Haydn 
 himself designated as ^^ alone and incomparable," 
 viz. — Mozart. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 Mozart (The Opera). 
 
 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart* was born [Jan. 
 27th, 1756] at Salzburg, where his father, 
 Leopold Mozart (referred to above as the author 
 of a violin methode), was vice-chapel-master to the 
 Archbishop. So extraordinary was the child's 
 progress in everything appertaining to music, but 
 especially in pianoforte playing, that so early 
 even as 1762-1766, his father made professional 
 tours with little " Woferl " and his sister (five 
 years older than himself) to Munich, Vienna, 
 
 * OuLiBiCHEFF : * NouvelU Biographie de Mozart, suivie d'un 
 opergu sur Vhisfoire generate de la rausique et de Vanalyse des prin- 
 cipales ceuvres de Mozart.^ Moscou, 1843. 
 
 Otto Jahn: W, A. Mozart. Vier Bande. Leipzig, 1856-1859. 
 Chronologisch - thematisches Verzeichniss sdmmtlicher Tonwerke 
 W. A. Mozaii's, von L. Kitter von Kochel. Leipzig, 1863. 
 (Supplement to Jahn's Biography). 
 
 Mozart. Fine populdre Biographie des Meisters, von L. Nohl. 
 MUnchen, 1863. 
 
 Mozarfs Briefe, nach den Originalen herausgegehen von L. NoHi.. 
 
166 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Paris, and London. Wherever they went, the 
 "infant prodigies" were praised to the skies in 
 (jerman, Italian, and Latin, and in Holland 
 were even permitted to give concerts during Lent, 
 hecause it " redounded to God's glory." Mozart 
 afterwards spent three years at Salzburg and 
 Vienna in composing and studying the art of com- 
 position, during which time he attracted but little 
 notice — perhaps, even, was purposely neglected, 
 through the jealousy of rival artists. The juve- 
 nile composer (thirteen years old) met with a 
 warmer reception in Italy [1770]. Whatever 
 could most gratify the ambition of a gray-haired 
 professor was freely bestowed on the ingenuous 
 lad — the Papal Order, diplomas from the phil- 
 harmonic academies of Bologna and Verona, the 
 esteem of connoisseurs, and the adoration of the 
 multitude. Mozart's operas : * Mitridate Re di 
 Ponto' and ' Litcio Silla/ both of 'which he 
 wrote for the Milan stage (where the former was 
 performed under the youthful maestro' s leadership 
 to the cries of " Ewiva il Maestrino "), were per- 
 formed no less than twenty times. It is scarcely 
 necessary to add, that these operas (quite of the 
 traditional type), together with the later gala 
 pieces : ' Ascanio in Alba* * II Sogno di Scipione^ 
 * II Re pastore^' and the German operettas 
 ' Bastien und Bastienne,' ' Zaide* and even the 
 hujfa opera: ' La jinta Giardiniera' [1775] — a 
 more matured piece in regard to instrumentation 
 
WOLFGAXG AMADEUS MOZART. 167 
 
 and drain atic expression — have no value and 
 importance now-a-days ; but (as Jahn justly 
 observes), the boy's exquisite discernment of cha- 
 racteristic and national peculiarities in different 
 branches of dramatic composition is evident in 
 these pieces. 
 
 Mozart's classical period may be said to begin 
 with ' Idomeneo' [1781], the success of which 
 (together with the consciousness of genius and 
 respect for his calling) inspired him with the 
 resolution of quitting the service of the coarse, 
 uneducated Archbishop of Salzburg. He had, it is 
 true, before this [1778 and 1779] endeavoured, 
 though unsuccessfully, to obtain an appointment 
 either at Munich, Mannheim (where he met his 
 bride Constance), or Paris. Mozart now settled 
 in Vienna, "in a private capacity," gaining a 
 livelihood by giving concerts, lessons, by profes- 
 sional tours, and such trifling sums as his compo- 
 sitions brought him in.* It was not till the 
 year 1787 that, with the title of Imperial Cham- 
 ber Composer, an annuity of 800 florins w^as 
 awarded him ; and — on his death-bed — the ap- 
 
 * A few weeks after the first performance of the * Enlfilhrung ' 
 (for which, however, he got one hundred ducats), Mozart wrote, 
 December 21st, 1782, as follows : " Altogether I am so hardly- 
 worked that I often don't know what I am about. The entire fore- 
 noon till two o'clock is occupied in giving lessons, afterwards we 
 dine. After dinner I must allow my poor stomach a little time to 
 digest ; there remains only the evening when I can attempt to write, 
 and that not always, for I am frequently obliged to attend the 
 academies (public concerts). 
 
168 . HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 pointment of chapel-master at St. Stephen's 
 cathedral. 
 
 Idomeneo (' Idomeneo Ee di Creta ossia Ilia e 
 Idamante ') [performed for the first time at 
 Munich, Jan. 26th, 1781], is, on the whole, con- 
 structed on the plan of the old Italian Opera 
 seria ; the large proportion of airs, and the cir- 
 cumstance that the part of Idamante is written 
 for a now obsolete kind of voice, being of itself 
 characteristic. But, notwithstanding these con- 
 cessions to mere redundant vocalization in the 
 airs, and setting aside the evident imitation of 
 Gluck (particularly * Alceste ') in the treatment 
 of the recitatives, Mozart's genius shines forth 
 in all its might in the grand choruses, and, 
 still more, in the wonderfully bold, yet delicate, 
 colouring of the instrumentation with which this 
 opera abounds. ** Oulibicheff remarks with truth, 
 tliat in ' Idomeneo' it is easy to distinguish how 
 far Mozart still clings to the formal Opera seria, how 
 far he follows in the steps of Gluck and the French 
 Opera, and how far he does justice to his own 
 original powers."* It is much to be regretted 
 that the radically undramatic plan of the book, 
 and a want of variety and movement, as also of 
 effective ensembles, has hindered this opera, with 
 its manifold beauties, from keeping the stage. 
 It is not a musical drama — least of all one in 
 
 * Jahn. Vol. ii., p. 449. 
 
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 169 
 
 Gluck's sense of the term — , but there is abun- 
 dance of dramatic music in it. It is, therefore, all 
 the more to be desired that this work — highly 
 prized by Mozart himself — should be duly repre- 
 sented in the concert room by extracts of its best 
 pieces. 
 
 If in *Idomeneo/ Mozart appears (as is also 
 the case in his two last Italian operas ' Cosi 
 fan tutte ' and ' Titus ') still fettered by Italian 
 influences, we find him in his other works at- 
 tempting hitherto untried styles, and leaving in 
 all of them works that may be called models of 
 their kind. The opera that followed next : ' Die 
 Entfuhrung aus dem Serail, oder Belmonte und 
 Constanze' [performed July 12th, 1782] was 
 written by command of the Emperor Joseph II. 
 (" who even included the lyric theatre among his 
 reform projects"). The plan of this work is, for 
 the most part, in the manner, and according to the 
 standard, of the Singspiel of that period ; but it is 
 far richer in the execution of the details, and, 
 likewise, remarkable for its admirable keeping and 
 warmth of expression — qualities which temper 
 the exultation of the happy bridegroom by the 
 tenderness of its lyrical strains. But Mozart did 
 not content himself with the expression of con- 
 templative sentiment alone; the delineation of 
 constancy and affection is relieved by the wildest 
 sallies of humour and a breadth of comic efiect 
 never again attained, even by himself. The 
 
170 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 *' stupid, loutish, and wicked Osmin" (Mozart's 
 own words) is, of a truth, the most original cha- 
 racter that ever was imagined, and a downright 
 root and branch coinic personage, whose droll 
 pathos and rough jokes temper the sentimentahty 
 of the piece in the happiest possible manner. 
 And this best of bass buffos Mozart created, not 
 only without the assistance of, but actually unbe- 
 known to, his libretto poet — indeed he altered the 
 whole plan of the piece to suit his views. " This 
 Osmin," writes Mozart to his father, "has in the 
 libretto only one small song and nothing besides, 
 except in the trio and finale. So he is to have 
 another air in the first part, and one in the second. 
 I have indicated to Mr. Stephani (Bretzner was 
 the libretto poet and Stephani the - substitute en- 
 gaged by Mozart) the plan of these airs, and the 
 principal part of the music was finished before 
 Stephani knew anything about it." In the same 
 letter Mozart expresses himself on the means and 
 object of art with so much penetration, that it 
 seems astonishing people should say (as some do) 
 that Mozart, through life artless and inexperi- 
 enced, exercised his art instinctively and unreflect- 
 ingly, without profound " self-consciousness " — 
 in short, that he recked not how bad the libretto 
 for which he wrote his music might be. His 
 correspondence with his father regarding ' Ido- 
 meneo * and the ' Entfiihrung' furnish proofs to the 
 contrary ; afterwards, since the death of his father 
 
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 171 
 
 [May 28th, 1787], lie had no further occasion to 
 express himself concerning his works. " At that 
 time, musicians were not in the habit of analyzing 
 art and works of art, and especially the peculiar 
 relations of the individual himself to art ; such a 
 proceeding was utterly foreign to Mozart's 
 nature."* It is also worthy of observation, that 
 Mozart has not made use of any former similar 
 work (not even * Zaide') when composing the 
 
 * Entfuhrung,' and that he left unfinished and 
 unemployed an already completely designed comic 
 opera, ' L'Oca del Cairo' [1783], because he 
 found the libretto poor, and the subject too nearly 
 approaching the ' Seraglio ' (yet the music of the 
 first act, particularly the lively /?2a/^, is magnifi- 
 cent, "resplendent with genius, playfulness, and 
 originality "). The case is the same with the 
 following year's [1784] opera ' Lo Sposo deluso,' 
 concerning which he writes at the time : "I have, 
 I should think, looked through a hundred or 
 more books." Not until the year 1786 did he 
 (with the exception of the one act operetta * Der 
 Schauspieldirector, a comedy with music for 
 Schonbrunn ')t produce a new chef-d'oeuvre replete 
 with originality and vigour. 
 
 * Jahn. Vol. ii., p. 299. 
 
 t " The pieces contained in this operetta (besides the overture there 
 were only two airs and one trio which also forms the finale) have 
 been embodied in Cimarosa's ' L'impresario in angustie,' which 
 Goethe caused to be performed in Weimar, in 1791, with the title of 
 
 * Theatralische Abenteuer ' (Stage Adventures). Several of Mozart's 
 
172 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 In ' Le Nozze di Figaro ' [performed May 1st, 
 1786], which was composed in the space of six 
 weeks to a subject of his own selection, Mozart's 
 genius shines forth in full splendour. He has, 
 almost in sport as it were, achieved the diiSicult 
 task of infusing genuine sentiment into the 
 "polite society'' tone of Beaumarchais' lively 
 comedy,* and embodying its broad merriment in 
 musical forms. Mozart alone knew (what no 
 Italian or French composer could have done) ho\^ 
 to redeem the cutting satire and frivolous tone of 
 the play. He sought out, as far as he was able, 
 the poetry of which the subject was capable, and, 
 taking love — genuine disinterested affection — for 
 the motive of its perpetual intrigues, described it 
 with wondrous depth and truth in every con- 
 ceivable relation, and caused it finally to triumph 
 over all obstacles and impediments. Frigid and 
 narrow-minded critics, however, who are incapable 
 of distinguishing between Mozart's glorious 
 music and the subject on which it rests, can only 
 be answered with the somewhat trite maxim, that 
 the proprieties of art are the sole standard of 
 beauty, and by them alone a work of art must be 
 judged. 
 
 songs have of late been interpolated, and the piece performed with 
 the title of * Der Schauspieldirector, oder Mozart und Schikaneder.' 
 (The Stage Manager, or Mozart and Schikaneder). Mozart himself 
 is the hero who is represented as composing the * Zauberfiote ' at 
 Schikaneder's suggestion." (Jahn.) 
 
 * * Le Manage de Figaro^ ou la Fode Journee^ 
 
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 173 
 
 ' Figaro/ from a dramatic, as ' Don Giovanni ' 
 from a musical, point of view, is unquestionably 
 Mozart's chef-d'oeuvre. The sprightliness of actual 
 life bursts forth in this incomparable " musical 
 comedy," more especially in the grand ensembles 
 and Jinali, where each character is admirably in 
 keeping. While Gluck invariably aims at the 
 solemn, measured repose that is the exclusive 
 attribute of Greek tragedy, and avoids whatever 
 might interfere with the even tenour of the sub- 
 ject, Mozart attains his best dramatic effects in 
 the ensembles a,nd Jinali, in the vigorous treatment 
 of which he is, perhaps, unequalled, and in the 
 airs he reveals the profound emotions which stir 
 the human heart, and the inborn power of melody. 
 He understood and appreciated better than any 
 other the aim and scope of dramatic music, and 
 carried both music and drama a step higher. Even 
 R Wagner is compelled to admit this much, when 
 (speaking of Gluck) he says : " Gluck took pains 
 to express himself correctly and intelligibly in 
 music, whereas Mozart, following his own natural 
 instinct, could not help doing so."* " Mozart," 
 he continues, " has, in the opera, brought to light 
 the capabilities of music to respond generously to 
 every wish of the poet ; and the glorious musician 
 has, in his own natural, uncalculating method, by 
 truthfulness of dramatic compression, and the endless 
 
 * Oper und Drama. Vol. i., p. 132. 
 
174 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 variety of his airs and tunes, discovered this 
 faculty in music in a far greater degree than 
 Gluck and his disciples." 
 
 Owing to party spirit and the intrigues of 
 Italian singers and composers, Mozart's " favourite 
 song " met with an indifferent reception at Vienna,* 
 but, on the contrary, was enthusiastically welcomed 
 at Prague. For Prague, accordingly, the great 
 maestro wrote his next and best work : '11 Dissoluto 
 punito ossia il Don G^/6>?;aw2zV [performed Oct. 29th, 
 1787]. 'Don Giovanni' is, as Spohr justly re- 
 marks, the most energetic in character of all 
 Mozart's operas. Here we have no mere out- 
 pouring of sentiment and emotion, but human 
 nature, swayed alternately by love and hate ; life, 
 in all its aspects of keen enjoyment and passionate 
 desire, forms the subject of this opera, while, 
 combined with the utmost variety of character 
 and '* situation," the development of the plot is 
 natural and simple. Diftering from all other 
 operas (but in this respect resembling the Shake- 
 
 * Strictly spoakinf];, only at the first performance — intentionally 
 marred by the Italian performers. L. Jklozart wrote to his daughter 
 that at the second perfoiTrtance fiive, and at the third seven, pieces 
 were encwed, " among which a small duet had to be repeated three 
 times." From this statement we learn that the anecdote (so 
 frequently retailed by way of consolation to unrewarded talent) that 
 Figaro was a complete failure at Vienna, is a gratuitous invention. 
 Even Mozart's opponents — envious rivals — knew how to appreciate 
 this opera ; for at subsequent performances encores were prohibited 
 (ostensibly for the sake of the singers) by imperial decree, and before 
 long, the ouera was withdrawn from the stage. 
 
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 175 
 
 spearean drama), the prevailing character of 
 * Don Giovanni ' is a mixture of tragedy and 
 comedy. To use Jahn's words, " Mozart's con- 
 ception of this subject is drawn from his own 
 deep sympathy with, and profound knowledge of, 
 human nature." 
 
 Undeniable as is the force and richness of its 
 musical structure, and irresistible the power of 
 even a tolerable performance (which never fails to 
 draw a full house), the poetical significance of 
 this profound and carefully matured work is even 
 yet far from being fully appreciated. " The gran- 
 deur, beauty and sublimity of the music of ' Don 
 Giovanni' (writes a reporter in the year 1790) 
 will ever be discerned only by a select few," and 
 so it is up to the present time. Else how could 
 Don Giovanni's I'rivolous carriage, LeporeDo's 
 weak jokes, Zerlina's equivocal conduct, and 
 above all, the shameful mutilation of the second 
 finale (whereby the piece is made to conclude with 
 the ridiculous caperings of infernal masques and a 
 " brilliant display of fireworks") ever be tolerated ? 
 To satisfy the requirements of good taste, the 
 closing scene should express the nobler emotions 
 (vide the finale sestet with the fugued conclusion : 
 " Questo e il fin di chi fa mal "). When the " devil 
 takes the hero " there is, of course, an end of 
 everything, so far as the musical rabble is con- 
 cerned. But this concession to the " gods of the 
 gallery " not only mars the ideal impression of a 
 
176 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 work of art, it utterly destroys the scenic illasion 
 as well as the tragic effect ; whereas Mozart has 
 introduced the demonic element with such con- 
 summate skill and impressiveness that no one can 
 help believing in the awful reality. For the rest, 
 the common herd, accustomed to regard Mozart 
 himself as a " Don Giovanni " incarnate, views this 
 opera as nothing more or less than a revel in 
 honour of dissipation and vice. Still more narrow 
 is the view taken by some propriety folks, who 
 really deplore that Mozart should have thrown 
 away his '* exquisite " music on such a coarse 
 subject. By such discriminating people as these, 
 a representation of the catastrophe alone — an 
 enlarged second finale — would probably be the 
 most admired. " This opera is not for the Vien- 
 nese, rather for the Praguers, but chiefly for 
 myself and my friends," said Mozart ; and in the 
 magnificent overture has he not, as it were in 
 characters of fire, proclaimed the lofty pathos 
 of the work — ay, so that the blindest might see, 
 were it not that there are those who cannot 
 realize " poetical justice " unless final retribution is 
 awarded amid thunder and lightning, and Death 
 himself appears to end the voluptuary's career ! 
 
 Mozart's * Don Giovanni ' is, by its marvellous 
 delineation of both the lights and shadows of 
 life, its combined seriousness and playfulness, 
 tragedy and comedy, an universal^ unique, and 
 deeply significant work; one to which, in the 
 
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 177 
 
 sister art of drama, Goethe's ' Faust ' can alone be 
 worthily compared. Both these productions are 
 drawn from the mysterious depths of popular 
 tradition ; both are, from their very nature, inim- 
 itable ; both are frequently taken as models, as well 
 as illustrated by the sister art ;* both are entirely 
 commensurate to the grandeur of their scheme and 
 the limits of their respective provinces, that, as 
 Carriere f aptly remarks, ' Don Giovanni ' in 
 poetry and ' Faust ' in music can never equal the 
 originals, " because poetry can neither render indi- 
 vidual character and feeling with such truth and 
 impressiveness as music, nor can music reveal deep 
 thoughts and self-conscious power with the pre- 
 cision and clearness of poetry." Goethe's * Faust ' 
 and Mozart's ' Don Giovanni ' may be regarded 
 as the two greatest master-pieces of modern drama 
 and modern music, notwithstanding that in both 
 (especially in 'Faust') there is, to a certain 
 extent, a want of completeness and dramatic co- 
 herence. 
 
 So admirable is Da Ponte's (Mozart's poetical 
 coadjutor) musical appreciation in regard to the 
 
 * Viz., in poetry: 'Don Juan,' by Byron, and also by Lenau. 
 In music : * Faust ' (without reckoning Spohb's opera) by Schumann 
 (' Scenen aus Faust ') ; Berlioz — after Liszt the musical translator 
 par excellence — ^Damnation de Faust ' ; several scenes in airs arwl 
 choruses) ; Lindpaintner (' Overture to Faust ') ; E. Wagner (' An 
 Overture ' [save the mark !] to Faust) ; and Gounod (' Marguerite,^ an 
 Opera). 
 
 t Aesthetik. Vol. ii., p. 581. 
 
 X 
 
178 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 books for ' Figaro ' and * Don Giovanni ' (the lat- 
 ter written, as he himself relates, with a bottle 
 of Tokay before him and his landlord's pretty- 
 daughter at his side), that his failure — as compe- 
 tent judges consider it — in this, his third, libretto 
 for Mozart is all the more glaring. The libretto 
 of the opera : * Go^ fan tutte, ossia La scuola degli 
 amanti' [performed Jan. 26th, 1790] is, in fact, so 
 wondrously stupid, that no subsequent stage 
 writer — desirous of rescuing Mozart's exquisite 
 music from oblivion — has ever succeeded in ar- 
 ranging it satisfactorily for the stage. It were 
 better far — at least we think so — to set aside 
 " modern adaptations,"* newspaper strictures, and 
 analyses ; these ridiculous love affairs and childish 
 surprises may indeed well be tolerated for the 
 sake of Mozart's music. " It has indeed," writes 
 L. Eellstab (on the occasion of the performance of 
 this piece at Berlin), " always appeared incompre- 
 hensible to ourselves, that a foolish Carnival joke, 
 which forms the plot of this opera, should be 
 taken so seriously, and expectations entertained 
 with regard to it which it is not in the least cal- 
 culated to fulfil. Two lovers agree to put the 
 fidelity of their mistresses to the proof by assum- 
 ing an incognito, and tempting them to infidelity. 
 The 7%tse succeeds ; the ladies abashed seek for- 
 giveness ; they are pardoned as a matter of course, 
 
 * In 1863, an attempt was made at Paris to adapt Shakespeare's 
 * Love's Labour Lost ' as a text-book for * Cosi fan tutte.' 
 
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 179 
 
 VOWS, &c., are renewed, and all goes merrily as 
 before. That is no more than the way of the 
 world in general and this piece in particular. The 
 poet has treated the whole thing as a harmless 
 froHc — a mere " Vaudeville folie " — whereby, 
 indeed, he has neither had regard to probabilities 
 nor to the moral of his tale. Mozart has com- 
 posed the music to this trivial subject in a corre- 
 spondingly light, free, and jovial strain." * Cos 
 fan tutte,' being of the downright huffo species, in 
 which music is everything and the words are o 
 no account, is averse to careful dramatic develop- 
 ment of the plot ; the vivacity of its musical ex- 
 pression makes up for poverty of invention and 
 probability in the poetical department ; merri- 
 ment and joviality reign supreme, and whoever 
 enjoys conviviality and fun is sure to enter heart 
 and soul into it. 
 
 In ' Cosi fan tutte,' Mozart has, in general, 
 retained the traditional Italian forms, but in the 
 pieces d'ensemhle (mark the farewell scene !) and 
 the two Jinali, we detect the dramatic composer's 
 earlier manner. The same may be said, perhaps 
 in a still greater degree, of his last secular work 
 — an heroic opera, written, in the short space of 
 eighteen days, for the coronation of the Emperor 
 Leopold II., and entitled : ' La clemenza di Tito ' 
 [performed at Prague, Sept. 6th, 1791]. Accord- 
 ing to the plan of the poem (Metastasio's, and 
 already frequently set to music) which Mozart 
 
180 • HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 was commanded to write for, the whole piece was 
 intended merely for a Court and festival opera 
 with brilliant solos and finale choruses. But 
 Mozart, not content with this, created the finale 
 of the first act, which, by its overpowering 
 dramatic truthfulness, has ever since remained a 
 model of musical tragedy. Similar to Shake- 
 speare's grand Eoman tragedies, Mozart has here 
 represented the public life of Eoman days heav- 
 ing and surging under the pressure of a great 
 national calamity. It is a grand historical 
 tableau, than which it is impossible to conceive 
 anything in music more impressive and lifelike. 
 How incomparable is the distribution of the 
 double chorus at the words : " OA giorno di dolor" 
 how profoundly imagined, how sublime ! Among 
 the airs we cannot fail to distinsruish the one 
 with como di hassetto (a now almost obsolete in- 
 strument of the clarionet genus) ohligato : '* Non 
 piu di fiori^' whose noble proportions and pro- 
 found expression give it a foremost place among 
 the (hitherto little known) Concert airs of 
 Mozart. 
 
 On the whole, Oulibicheff (who also deals hard 
 measure to ' Cosi fan tutte') considers ' Titus ' as, 
 undoubtedly, the least perfect of Mozart's severe 
 classical operas. " Mozart wrote five or six 
 pieces con amove ; these are, indeed, masterpieces 
 (besides the overture, the finale to the first act, 
 the trio in the second act, and the above-men- 
 
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 181 
 
 tioned air of Yitellia ; to which may be dded the 
 last air of Sextus, the last chorus but one and the 
 concluding chorus) ; the other scenes, which he 
 only sketched, are redolent of the varnish of the 
 period, and, owing to the pressure of an incredibly 
 short space of time for completion, he commis- 
 sioned SussMAiER to write those recitatives that 
 were not ohligato — merely reserving to himself 
 the supervision. Tradition even ascribes to 
 Siissmaier Vitellia's air : * Deh si placer mi vuoi,' 
 and Sextus' duet with Annius : ' Deh prendi un 
 dolce amplesso! " 
 
 Scarcely had Mozart completed this highly 
 honourable task, than he set himself to finish one 
 of far greater importance, viz. : 'Die Zauherflote' 
 which was performed at Vienna so early as the 
 end of the same month [Sept. 30th,- 1791]. To 
 those never-ending critics whom we already 
 hear exclaiming against the foolish libretto, we 
 would fain reply in Hegel's consoling words 
 (taken from his Aesthetik), " How often do we 
 hear this cant : that the subject of the ' Zauber- 
 fiote ' is utterly contemptible ; yet this patch- 
 work subject forms one of the best opera books 
 extant. Schikaneder has, after a number of 
 strange, fantastic, and common-place productions, 
 at last hit the right medium. The realm of 
 Night, the Queen, the realm of the Sun, mysteries, 
 wisdom, love, ordeals, and, withal, a kind of moral 
 admirable in its universality ; added to which, the 
 
X82 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 depth, the enchanting loveliness and repose of 
 the music, fills and enlarges the imagination while 
 it touches the inmost heart." When Mozart 
 wrote operas, he was indeed a poet ; more so 
 than ever when he composed the ' Zauberflote/ 
 whose solemn and mysterious music could alone 
 invest the apparently childish drama with dignity 
 and grandeur. Even the overture, with its ex- 
 quisite varied melodic and contrapuntal beauties, 
 the trombone triads, the glowing, irresistibly 
 impetuous conclusion, seems to tell us that above 
 and beyond the checkered fairy tale, a higher 
 ideal world is about to be revealed. It is no 
 ordinary trials and sorrows which here appeal to 
 our sympathies, but an image of sorely-tried yet 
 victorious humanity is presented to our view in 
 deeply significant symbolism.* At the same 
 time — apart from Mozart's masonic relations — , 
 we can never sufficiently admire how naturally 
 and truthfully he makes his characters think and 
 feel, and (especially in the naive and comic episodes 
 of Papageno and Papagena, on which he has bes- 
 towed equal pains with the rest) what a charming 
 
 * That this was clearly discerned by Beethoven — himself prone to 
 the ideal — is evident by his giving the preference to the * Zauber- 
 flote' among all Mozart's operas. Goethe, whose mystical tendencies 
 during his latter years are well known, undertook to write a second 
 part to the 'Zauberflote ' for an opera book. " If," says he of the 
 * Helena ' (Faust, part ii., act 3), " only it find favour with the masses, 
 its deeper meaning will, at the same time, not escape the initiated, as 
 is the case with the * Zauberflote ' and other works." 
 
WOLFGAIS^G AMADEUS MOZAKT. 183 
 
 balance he maintains between the fairy creations 
 of his own brain, and those scenes which are 
 taken from life. He has here displayed that 
 wonderful versatility which enabled him to con- 
 ceive and describe every imaginable phase of 
 life, that charming vivacity and happy tempera- 
 ment which literally revelled in beauty and 
 variety, and (what exceeded the expectations of 
 the more specula^m^ than sipecnlsitwe Schikane- 
 der) has succeeded in endearing this ideal and 
 beautiful work alike to the multitude and the 
 cultivated minority. The ' Zauberflote ' was 
 performed at Vienna one hundred times during 
 the first year ; it was this piece which spread the 
 fame of the (meanwhile deceased) musician far 
 and wide through Germany. 
 
 * Die Zauberflote,' though of far grander pro- 
 portions, is de facto a Singspiel — as, indeed, it is 
 entitled in the earlier editions. Mozart wrote it 
 for a Viennese Volkstheater, in the unassuming 
 garb of the fairy plays so popular at that time ; 
 yet there is no opera so difficult of production on 
 the stage, none, unfortunately, of which the execu- 
 tion (especially in the subordinate parts) is fre- 
 quently so imperfect. The Queen of Night has 
 a notoriously difficult part, in which, indeed (in the 
 grand bravura air), Mozart, out of compliment to 
 the vocal powders of his prima donna (Mde. Lange, 
 his sister-in-law), has introduced passages of, to 
 say the least, questionable taste. 
 
184 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 We trust the intelligent reader will require no 
 apology for the foregoing detailed account of 
 Mozart's operas. Mozart has obtained a fore- 
 most — nay the foremost — place in the annals of 
 dramatic art. His operas, in truth, comprise (as 
 Oulibicheff enthusiastically exclaimed) all the 
 known species of musical drama. ' Idomeneo/ 
 ' Titus/ and * Cosi fan tutte/ represent the 
 eighteenth century — the Opera seria and buffa 
 (the first, indeed, viz., * Idomeneo,' with reminis- 
 cences of the Gluck period) ; the * Entfiihrung ' 
 and ' Die Zauberflote ' are the foundation of an 
 independent German school ; while * Figaro ' 
 and ' Don Giovanni ' are works of universal in- 
 terest, which have alike exercised influence on the 
 Italian, French, and German Opera. 
 
 Mozart, the gifted heir of all hitherto avail- 
 able resources in musical art and science, was 
 almost as great in sacred and instrumental, as 
 in dramatic, compositions ; though, historically/, 
 his importance in these branches of art — es- 
 pecially the former — is, comparatively speaking, 
 inferior. His Masses date from the Salz- 
 burg period [1773 — 1780] — consequently, prior 
 to 'Idomeneo.' The (4) earliest, called breves, 
 are written in the severe contrapuntal style with 
 organ and two violins only ; one of them, in F 
 [1774], reminds Jalm of the finest specimens of 
 the earlier Neapolitan school. The later ones, 
 called solennes, have full instrumental accompani- 
 
WOLFGANG AMADFXS MOZART. 185 
 
 ment ; they contain some beautiful traits replete 
 with religious feeling ; but the generality of the 
 Masses betray inequality of style and want of 
 keeping throughout. Mozart himself did not 
 esteem them highly; they were written under 
 the depressing influence, and to please the super- 
 ficial Italian taste, of the Archbishop of Salzburg, 
 to whose service he belonged as "Court and 
 Cathedral organist."* Among his other Church 
 
 * Of Mozart's Masses solennes, the two in C [1777 and 1779] (par- 
 ticularly the latter with the touching Agnus for treble solo) are 
 worthy the attention of musicians, and — with the omission perhaps 
 of the Dona movement — of more frequent perfonnance. But alas ! 
 now-a-days even the ' Requiem,* as well as modem Church music 
 altogether, is despised; in Germany, the cathedral choirs are dis- 
 banded, and in lieu of Bacli, Beethoven, Mozart, &c., the prevailing 
 taste for mediasval productions admits of nothing but artificial imi- 
 tations of Palestrina, or the utterly artfess Gregorian chant. We 
 hold that the former beneficial alliance between the Church and 
 contemporary art cannot be dissolved without signal danger to both. 
 "The decline of sacred art," says even the learned Winterfeld 
 (Gabrieh, vol. ii., p. 124), " dates from the time when it contracted 
 that fatal taint by which it was degraded to the service of the 
 senses ; but is due, likewise, to that frigid exclusiveness which 
 demands the sacrifice of all genuine feeling and inspiration.*' Still 
 more forcible is S. Bagge's remark, that the Roman Catholic form of 
 worship has pursued the same tendency to splendour and florid 
 decoration as music: "Therefore, musicians cannot be blamed for 
 having shared this tendency ; more especially, as the hack st7'eam of 
 civilisation, which saw danger as well as deviation from established 
 lawfulness and propriety in redundance of ornament and influences 
 brought to bear more immediately on the senses, had not yet set in.'* 
 This reaction extended itself also to painting and statuary ; the 
 Madonnas of Raphael and other great painters are looked upon as 
 profane — indeed, by some the element of actual beauty is altogether 
 denied to religious art ; whereas architecture — a merely sublime 
 art — enjoys the utmost consideration, and architectural ornamenta- 
 
186 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 compositions : the Vespers and Litanies [also be- 
 tween 1773 — 1780]; the elaborate contrapuntal 
 Motet: 'Misericordias Domini' [1781]; and the 
 angelic prayer for chorus : ^Ave verum corpus,' 
 " that should only be listened to on bended knee " 
 [composed June i8th, 1791], are specially de- 
 serving of notice. 
 
 tion — the shell of a shell — is allowed free play. It is the same crude 
 materialism of the age that rears its head in other branches of 
 musical art, which here appeals to the uninitiated in the sancti- 
 monious garb of saiutliness and Church discipline. With regard to 
 Mozart, he has bequeathed his own confession of faith, than which 
 nothing can be more sincerely attached to his church ; and that 
 Mozart's powers (even allowing for the external disadvantages under 
 which he laboured) fell far short of his intentions, no one, we 
 imagine, will be seriously inclined to maintain. U[X)n one occasion, 
 when his Leipsic friends were lamenting that many great musicians 
 had thrown away their talents on trivial church texts, Mozart 
 became serious, and exclaimed in words to this effect : " What 
 absurd nonsense they talk about art! As to you, if you carry 
 your religion in your head, may be there is something in it — I 
 can't say. But with us, it is different You cannot feel what 
 that means : ^^ Agnus Deil qui ioUis peccata mundil Dona nobis 
 pacem /" But when one has been, like myself, brought up from 
 early childhood in the mystical holiness of our religion, when one 
 has — before one even knew what meant the secret feelings that 
 welled-up within one, and, scarcely conscious of one's own desires — 
 attended Divine service with the deepest devotion, and returned 
 home with a heart relieved of its load and lifted up, and when 
 those were esteemed blessed indeed, who to the melting strains of 
 the Agmis Deil knelt down and received the Sacrament, and from 
 whose hearts, while receiving, the music spoke in serenity and joy — 
 *^BenedictuSf qui venit in nomine Domini " — then it is quite another 
 thing. Well yes, it is true, that gets lost by living in the world. 
 But — at least, so it is with me — when I take the well-known words 
 in hand with a view of setting them to music, it all comes back 
 most forcibly and impressively, and stii*s my very soul within me." 
 
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 187 
 
 Mozart's genius was of that profound and com- 
 prehensive order that could achieve marvels even 
 in those branches of art which seemed most re- 
 mote from his decidedly dramatic temperament ; 
 but, during the period of his greatest activity, he 
 had no leisure to devote himself in earnest to 
 Church composition. 
 
 This circumstance would account for the rather 
 slovenly composition of the so-called Oratorio : 
 ^Davidde penitente ' ( Cantata a due soprani e tenore 
 con cori, 1785), consisting merely of pieces se- 
 lected from his earlier Masses and a few addi- 
 tional solos. It was not till death was rife within 
 him that he concentrated his whole attention on 
 sacred composition, and drew the plan of that 
 stupendous work, that sublimest production of 
 modern art — the Requiem. The very ideal of 
 modern Church music, viz., inward devotional 
 feeling and the measured solemnity befitting 
 public worship — both uniting to form a work of 
 admirable proportions, exquisite musical expres- 
 sion, and noble Church feelmg — is, we think, most 
 completely attained in Mozart's ' Eequiem.' Its 
 character is that of grand choral polyphony, which 
 in the glorious solo-quartet pieces : Tuba mirum, 
 jRecordare, and Benedictus has a most striking 
 and thrilling effect. Every one knows that while 
 Mozart was engaged on the ' Zauberflote,' he 
 received an anonymous order for the ' Eequiem,' 
 and, with death staring him in the face, had to 
 
188 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 hasten its completion, so that — similar to 
 Eaphael's last work the Transfiguration* — it is 
 not equally finished throughout. His pupil 
 SussMAiER (the same who aided him in ' Titus ') 
 filled up, in accordance with Mozart's instructions 
 and posthumous sketches, the gaps that were left 
 in the instrumentation and the three last numbers 
 {Sdnctus, Benedictiis, Agnus), Siissmaier, indeed, 
 professed to have entirely composed these pieces ; 
 hut, " with the exception of the SanctuSy we cer- 
 tainly have the Requiem — in all essential parti- 
 culars — exactly as Mozart partly completed it, and 
 partly intended it to be."t Doubtless, had life 
 been spared him, he would, after the * Requiem ' 
 (which "he wrote foi* himself "), have produced 
 many a splendid work in Church music ; perhaps 
 indeed, — having already attained perfection in 
 every other style — have devoted himself to sacred 
 art with peculiar zeal, for which his recent appoint- 
 
 * The pamllel between Mozart and Raphael has been frequently 
 drawn, and insisted on even to the minutest details — latterly by 
 Alberti in his ^Raphael und Mozart Eine Parallele* Vortrag, etc. 
 (Stettin, 1856). Equal!}'' striking is the resemblance between 
 Beethoven and Michel Angelo, for which see H. Grimm's description 
 of the great Italian artist. " Existing entirely in ideal realms of 
 thought, absorbed in himself and sublime art, he is an enigma to 
 his contem]-)oraries, and frequently incomprehensible (Beethoven was 
 so only in his latter years) ; conscious of his powers, self-sufficing, 
 a man of few wants, he lived secluded ; benevolent, though of a 
 retiring disposition and habitually silent, his rare observations were 
 frequently ironical and sarcastic ; in never-ceasing activity pursuing 
 his own way, he was an inventor in whatever he undertook." 
 
 t ROCHLITZ. 
 
WOLFGANa AMADEUS MOZART. 189 
 
 ment of chapel-master to St. Stephen's would 
 have furnished ample opportunity. Indeed, the 
 works written during the last six months of his 
 life — * Titus,' * Die Zauberflote,' and the ' Ee- 
 quiem ' — warrant this supposition, as also his 
 own pathetic farewell : " Even now I must go, 
 when I might live peaceably ; I must leave my 
 art, when, no longer the slave of fashion and 
 shackled by speculators (Schikaneder !), I could 
 follow my own inspiration, and be free to write 
 as my heart dictated !" 
 
 Mozart died — his last thoughts dwelling on 
 the * Eequiem' — December 5th, 1791, in the 
 thirty- seventh year of his age, — having been 
 actively devoted to the pursuit of his art from 
 early infancy. On the 4th of September, 1842 — 
 more than fifty years after his death — , a bronze 
 statue (by Schwanthaler) was erected to his me- 
 mory at Salzburg ; and, only a short time since, 
 an allegorical monument (a weeping muse placing 
 the score of the ' Eequiem' on his other works) 
 marks his — supposed — resting place. 
 
 Of Mozart's numerous instrumental composi- 
 tions, a large number, being merely juvenile 
 works or pieces d' occasion, are altogether of minor 
 value ; while others are important only as regards 
 certain portions (generally the andantes and 
 adagios). We aUude, of course (besides the nume- 
 rous Symphonies written before 1784), chiefly to 
 the pianoforte Sonatas, which — in spite of Mozart's 
 
190 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 emphatic declaration : " He who judges me by 
 such bagatelles as those is a fool !" as well as his 
 father's; "You would not surely judge of him by 
 his pianoforte Sonatas, which he wrote when a 
 mere child?" — have frequently been taken as a 
 standard of comparison between Mozart and Beet- 
 hoven. Almost all of them, like the Masses, are of 
 inferior merit, especially in their concluding pieces. 
 The only pianoforte composition that may be 
 reckoned equal to his other productions is the 
 rich and carefully-finished ' F'antasia and Sonata ' 
 [1785 and 1784], to which five or six of the Sonatas 
 (viz., two in D, two in F, one in B, and the one 
 in A with variations) may be reckoned as but 
 little inferior. Of the remainder, the greater 
 portion is " music of the past." In the estima- 
 tion of severe critics, they contain " a peculiar in- 
 termixture of original ideas and musical common- 
 places, deep sentiment and shallow trifling, 
 unrivalled art and careless workmanship." 
 
 In Mozart's chamber music we discern the 
 matured musician, viz., in the (6) Quartets dedi- 
 cated to Haydn ; the more brilliant and pathetic 
 Quintets ; the splendid (for its resources almost too 
 powerful) pianoforte Quartet in G minor, which — 
 contrary to his usual habit — Mozart himself 
 arranged as a violin quintet, and others. The 
 most remarkable of the smaller compositions for 
 orchestra are the graceful, exquisitely finished 
 Serenades for wind instruments ; likewise, a number 
 
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART. 191 
 
 of miscellaneous works, among which the greater 
 part of the violin Sonatas were the offspring of 
 casual suggestion, and were frequently written, 
 amid the pressure of more important business, to 
 oblige his friends and pupils. With the excep- 
 tion of Fr. Schubert, no other great musician has 
 manifested such extraordinary facility and fertility 
 of production as Mozart, whose autograph cata- 
 logue, during the last few years of his life, 
 exhibits an average of three compositions per 
 month.* 
 
 Of the Symphonies, the finest are those in E 
 flat major, G minor, and C major (with the 
 fugue), which were written in the above order 
 in the space of one month and a half during the 
 summer of 1788. The E fiat Symphony has 
 been entitled, ' Chant du cygne ' — an appellation 
 which (apart from its peculiar signification) may 
 be taken as answering to the contemplative 
 repose, the elegiac feeling of the andante 
 movement. On the other hand, the two allegro 
 
 * " It would be past comprehension how works differing essentially 
 from each other — works, too, of unusual magnitude, depth, and 
 beauty — could have been produced in so short a time, were it not a 
 fact that, amid the multitudinous impressions of daily life, the 
 artist's mind is ever at work, secretly and unceasingly preparing 
 the threads from which a work of art shall ultimately be woven." 
 This graceful simile, taken by Jahn {Mozart, vol. iv., p 128) from 
 Mozart's own words, but applied in a wider sense, is perhaps more 
 applicable to Mozart than to any other composer ; for the facility 
 with which he wrote (for example, the overture to ' Don Giovanni ' 
 was composed during the night previous to its performance) might by 
 many be mistaken for carelessness or haste. 
 
19S HISTORY OP MUSIC. 
 
 movements have a youthful, joyous, muscular cha* 
 racter ; and how bright and cheerful is the Minuet 
 with its gentle Trio ! The character of the entire 
 work is not so much that of an autumnal elegy, 
 as of a quiet summer's evening mood, when 
 calmly and contentedly the impressions of the 
 day are gathered up and poured out in melody. 
 Emotion and passion, glimpses of which we 
 already discern in the impetuous finale where 
 (contrary to Mozart's usual practice) the musical 
 flow is interrupted and the conclusion suddenly 
 broken off, are allowed full sway in the grander 
 G minor Symphony. " The whispered murmur of 
 sorrow continues with increasing vehemence, till 
 it becomes a raging passion striving to drown its 
 own devouring grief."* The most emotional of 
 Mozart's symphonies is, of course, far removed 
 from Beethoven's deep pathos, — perhaps, gifted 
 connoisseurs deem it weak and tame ; yet it sets 
 forth Mozart's peculiar greatness, his wondrously 
 correct and refined taste, his admirably tempered 
 portrayal of deep emotion. Of its andante move- 
 ment (which bears some resemblance to the " por- 
 trait air" in the ' Zauberflote'), the young E. 
 Schubert declared " he could hear the angels sing 
 therein." 
 
 The C major Symphony with the ingxxedi finale 
 {'Jupiter Symphony ') celebrates the victor's tri- 
 umph. Earthly anguish is overcome ; all is 
 * Jahn. 
 
WOLFGANG AMADEU8 MOZART. 193 
 
 peace, prosperity, and grandeur. It is the apo- 
 theosis of the master himself, whose triumphant 
 brow beams with immortality. With true artistic 
 discernment, Mozart selected for the finale of his 
 majestic work (as in the overture of ' Die Zauber- 
 flote') the most intellectual and ideal of forms — 
 the fugue — for the embodiment of his ideal sub- 
 ject ; and, in both instances, achieved " a real 
 triumph of art, in which observance of legitimate 
 principles of art and freedom of creative power 
 conduce to the utmost perfection, order, and 
 beauty."* 
 
 It is evident that these three magnificent works 
 — produced consecutively and at short intervals — 
 are the embodiment of one train of thought pur- 
 sued with increasing ardour ; so that, taken as a 
 whole, they form a grand trilogy , which it would 
 be intense enjoyment to listen to in the order in 
 which they were originated. These three grandest 
 of Mozart's symphonies (the first lyrical, the 
 second tragic-pathetic, and the third of ethical 
 import) correspond to his three greatest operas : 
 'Figaro,' 'Don Giovanni,' 'Die Zauberflote,' — 
 or if we select their instrumental counterparts, the 
 overtures of those operas. 
 
 Far more complete, and of greater intrinsic 
 
 merit than many of the movements in his other 
 
 (30) symphonies (among which, however, we 
 
 wojild distinguish the D major, in three move- 
 
 * Jaun. 
 
 o 
 
194 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 ments, teeming with freshness and melody), are 
 Mozart's Pianoforte Concertos^ composed for his 
 own performance, and, consequently, with unusual 
 care and partiality. He gave to the Concerto (to 
 use his own definition, the acme of refinement, in 
 contra-distinction to the Symphony, which is the 
 acme of grandeur) its grand symphonic character 
 (carried to perfection by Beethoven) ; in accord- 
 ance with which, the pianoforte performance com- 
 bines with the orchestra in an animated and 
 delightful whole, by means of mutual interchange 
 of effect. Hoffmann, who owned to "a down- 
 right dislike of all pianoforte concertos whatsoever/* 
 described those of Mozart and Beethoven as " not 
 so much concertos, as symphonies with pianoforte 
 obligato.'' 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Zenith op Instrumental and Ballad Composition. Beethoven 
 and schubeet. 
 
 LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN, the last 
 great master of the so-called " classical " period (so 
 fertile in men of genius) in Germany, was born at 
 Bonn on the Ehine [December 17th, 1770], where 
 his father was tenor in the Elector of Cologne's 
 private chapel.* Devoting his vast powers princi- 
 pally to the composition of instrumental music, 
 he achieved in this branch of musical art results 
 hitherto unattained. So early as his eleventh 
 
 * Biographische Notizen iiber L. v. Beethoven, von Db. F. G. 
 Weqeler und Ferd. Ries. Coblenz, 1838. 
 
 A. ScHiNDLER (Beethoven's intimate friend during the years 
 1814-1827), Biographie von L, v. Beethoven, &c. Miinster, 1840. 
 Third edition in 2 vols., 1860. W. v. Lenz. Beethoven et ses trois 
 Styles. 2 vols. St. Petersbourg, 1852. 
 
 Oultbicheff. Beethoven, ses Critiques et ses Olossateurs. Leipzig, 
 1857. 
 
 Marx. Ludwig v. Beethoven's Leben und Schaffen. Berlin, 
 1859. 2nd edition, 1863. 
 
 Beethoven's Leben von L. Nohl. Erster Band Wien, 1864. 
 
 Chronologisches Verzeichniss der Werke L. v. Beethoven*8 von 
 Alexander W. Thayeb. Berlin, 1865. 
 
196 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 year, he published variations on a march, three 
 pianoforte sonatas, and several songs. But the 
 peculiarity of his genius was even then, and sub- 
 sequently in a still greater degree, more especially 
 apparent when he extemporized on the pianoforte. 
 At Vienna, during the winter of 1786, when 
 playing on a theme given him by Mozart, the 
 latter remarked to the bystanders : " Mark this 
 young man, he will make a name for himself 
 some day." Being sent, when twenty-one years 
 of age [1792], by the Elector, to complete his 
 musical education at Vienna, he studied composi- 
 tion firstly under Haydn — whose course of in- 
 struction, however, was too precise and gradual 
 for an ardent spirit like Beethoven's — and, after- 
 wards, under the learned contrapuntist and 
 thorough-bass master, Albrechtsberger. His ex- 
 ercises in harmony and composition (interspersed 
 with delightful marginal notes against "book- 
 worms" and "pedants") were published in 1832, 
 and entitled : ' Beethoven s Studies in Thorough- 
 bass, (Sj'Cy by Seyfried — likewise a pupil of Al- 
 brechtsberger, and Beethoven's intimate friend. 
 The biographical notes which accompany this 
 work are of considerable interest ; but recent re- 
 searches have pronounced the book, so far as the 
 greater part is concerned, a fraud. In 1795, 
 Beethoven's first compositions, which are entitled 
 ** works," made their appearance, viz., three Trios 
 (op. 1 ) dedicated to Prince Lichnowsky, and three 
 
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEX. 197 
 
 pianoforte Sonatas dedicated to J. Haydn . These 
 works at once proclaimed the young musician the 
 first of the age. The compositions of the follow- 
 ing years (Sonatas, Trios, the two first pianoforte 
 Concertos, the Septet, the first S3nmphony) esta- 
 blished his reputation as a composer, so that he 
 could write with complete satisfaction to Wegeler 
 [June 1800] as follows: " My compositions bring 
 me in a good deal, and I may say, that I have 
 more commissions than I can well get through. 
 Indeed, for all my pieces there are six or seven 
 publishers, and more even if I wished : I am no 
 longer bargained with, I ask what I choose, and I 
 get it." 
 
 Highly beneficial, in regard to his artistic 
 career, was the society of aristocratic and intellec- 
 tual Viennese families who freely and cordially 
 welcomed Beethoven — already too prone to live 
 " only in his music " — among them on terms of 
 equahty and intimacy. Prince Lichnowsky even 
 received him [1794] as an inmate of his establish- 
 ment, and, when he desired to live independently, 
 granted him [1799] a pension of 600 florins* per 
 annum, and the Princess " would have put him 
 under a glass case to shield him from rough con- 
 tact." Eefined and cultivated women have ever 
 been the first to acknowledge true genius, and 
 Beethoven was, in truth, so adored by ladies of 
 high rank, that, oblivious of the accidents of birth 
 • £60. 
 
198 HISTORY OP MUSIC. 
 
 and fortune, he, for several years, actually contem- 
 plated marriage with the young Countess Julia 
 Guicciardi. According to the prejudices (even 
 more in force at that time than they are now) of 
 her station, such an alliance was, of course, out of 
 the question ; and Beethoven faithfully kept his 
 promise never to love another — for, like Handel, 
 he never married. The souvenir of this pure and 
 ideal affection is preserved in the so-called 
 * Moonlight Sonata ' in C sharp minor [op. 27, 
 No. 2] dedicated to " Madamigella GiuUetta di 
 Guicciardi." " Life apart from thee "* is the stern 
 decree; patient resignation to which is patheti- 
 cally described in the tender melancholy adagio^ 
 but against which the whole soul of the strong 
 man rebels and pours itself out in the presto agi- 
 tato of the same sonata. 
 
 Thus blighted in his affections, and — so soon 
 even as his thirtieth year — afflicted with deafness, 
 he withdrew more and more from human inter- 
 course.! In 1809, King Jerome oiSered him the 
 
 ♦ Beethoven's own words in a letter to " Julia." 
 
 t So early as 1800, ke writes to Wegeler as follows : " But that 
 envious demon, my health, has played me a plaguy trick; my 
 hearing has got worse in the last three years. Indeed, I may 
 say life is a burden to me. For the last two years I have avoided 
 society because I cannot bear telling people I am deaf. If my 
 calling were other than it is, it wouldn't so much matter, but in my 
 calling it is a fearful thing ; besides which, my enemies, of whom 
 there are plenty, what would they say ? To give you an idea of 
 this extraordinary deafness, I must tell you that when I go to the 
 play, I am obliged to lean close to the orchestra in order to hear the 
 
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 199 
 
 lucrative appointment of Chapel-master at Cassel, 
 but which his noble patrons at Vienna dissuaded 
 him from accepting, and secured him an annuity 
 of 4000 florins* in order to retain him at Vienna. 
 This sum (owing to the disordered state of Aus- 
 trian flnance) was, so soon even as 1811, reduced 
 to one-fifth of its original value ; but it had the 
 effect of debarring Beethoven from undertaking 
 duties which, with his increasing infirmity, he 
 would have been scarcely competent to fulfil, and 
 
 actors. At a little distance I am unable to distinguish the high 
 notes of the instruments ; it is astonishing that some people have 
 never noticed it when speaking to me ; as I used frequently to he 
 absent and abstracted, it went for that. ... I have often cursed my 
 existence ; Plutarch taught me resignation." And in the . same 
 letter (1801) in which he speaks of the sweet girl whose station 
 was, unhappily, superior to his own, he thus laments : " You can 
 hardly imagine how forlorn and desolate my life has been for the 
 last two years ; wherever I went, my deafness seemed like a spectre, 
 and I shrank from society, and appeared as though I were a 
 misanthrope, which indeed I am far from being. Oh, I would 
 
 embrace the whole world were I freed from this calamity 
 
 Were it not for my deafness, I should have travelled half round the 
 globe before now, and indeed I must. / will struggle with my fate ; 
 it shall not break me down." In the will which he drew up at 
 Heiligenstadt, near Vienna, in 1802, he alludes almost exclusively to 
 his deafness, which isolated him, " naturally of an ardent tempera- 
 ment and highly susceptible of social enjoyment," so early as his 
 28th year, and forced him, against his will, to turn philosopher. 
 (" It is no easy matter for any one, least of all for an artist," said 
 Beethoven in the aforementioned will.) It was his art alone that pre- 
 vented him from putting an end to his existence. " Oh ! it seemed 
 impossible to me to leave the world before I had completed all 1 
 felt myself inspired to do." 
 ♦ About £400. 
 
ni 
 
 
 
 200 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 thus he was left free to follow his own hent. 
 Though ever since 1816 almost stone deaf, he 
 ^ Y ^ went on originating and composing, in increasingly 
 deeper strains, till, at length, on the 26th of 
 
 / ^ March, 1827, death released him from his lonely 
 
 position and the hardships which his solicitude 
 
 5 / for ungrateful relatives had brought on his latter 
 / years. '' Plaudite, amici, comoedia Jinita est'' were 
 his last words. 
 
 Beethoven's appearance is thus described by 
 Fr. Eochlitz in his second letter " on music and 
 musicians at Vienna,"* dated July 9th, 1822. 
 " The sight of him would have shocked me, had I 
 not been previously prepared ; though it was not 
 so much his neglected, almost wild exterior, his 
 thick and matted hair hanging dishevelled about 
 his head, as his whole aspect, that impressed me. 
 Imagine a man about fifty years of age, rather 
 small in stature, but thick set and powerfully 
 built, large-boned — somewhat similar to richte,f 
 only stouter, and the face fuller and rounder ; 
 colour ruddy and healthy, eyes restless, flashing, 
 aud, when fixed, absolutely piercing. His move- 
 ments are few, but quick and sudden ; the coun- 
 tenance, especially the quick intellectual eye, is a 
 mixture of, or rather an oscillation between, ex- 
 treme kindliness and shyness ; his whole manner 
 betokens that restlessness and anxious attention 
 
 * Fur Freunde der Tonkunst. Vol. iv., p. 350. 
 t The renowned German philosopher. 
 
LUDWIG VAX BEETHOVEN. 201 
 
 which we frequently observe in persons of quick 
 feeling who are similarly afflicted ; occasionally, a 
 cheerful expression escapes him ; then he relapses 
 into gloomy silence. With all this, whoever sees 
 him cannot help saying to himself: 'This is the 
 man who has provided enjoyment for thousands 
 • — ^genuine intellectual enjoyment.' " 
 
 The bronze statue (by Hahnel) erected at Bonn, 
 in 1845, to Beethoven's memory, with its multi- 
 tudinous folds of drapery, is scarcely a fair repre- 
 sentation of the great master ; and the expression 
 of the face — similar to the generality of those 
 gloomy portraits of Beethoven — is too old and 
 serious. The bas-reliefs representing the Fantasia, 
 the Symphony, Sacred music, and Drama, are by 
 far the best part of it. It is much to be regretted 
 that, owing to insufficiency of funds, Schwan- 
 thaler's splendid cast (representing Beethoven as 
 Apollo with the lyre) could not be realized in 
 bronze. The impetuous Fr. Liszt, disgusted with 
 the tardiness of contributors, has undertaken to 
 defray the still remaining expenses connected with 
 the monument. 
 
 It has been usual, when treating of Beethoven's 
 life and works, to assume three separate periods 
 or styles, viz., the first [1795 — 1804], called the 
 Haydn and Mozart style ; the second [1804 — 
 1814], the matured period, as being stamped with 
 his own distinctive individuality ; and the third 
 or latter period 1814 — 1827], that of his decline. 
 
202 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 It is, however, impossible to assign definite limits 
 to these supposed periods by the aid of dates or 
 compositions; still less can it be a question of 
 three distinct and separate " styles." We should 
 be disposed to admit this classification for general 
 purposes, and to select the first, third, and ninth 
 Symphonies as t3rpes of the three periods, we're it 
 not that a large number of works taken indiscri- 
 minately from any one of these periods bear a 
 marked resemblance to each other ; but to assume 
 a first period at all, appears to us both arbitrary 
 and superfluous. As might be expected, Beetho- 
 ven began by adopting the forms established by 
 Haydn and Mozart ; but the spirit and expression 
 he infused into them are his own, and these stamp 
 him at once as an original genius. This was 
 freely acknowledged by Haydn himself, when he 
 seriously endeavoured to dissuade the young com- 
 poser from publishing the last of the three trios 
 which had been dedicated to him by the former. 
 We have only to glance at Beethoven's pianoforte 
 Sonatas (among which the Pathetique, the one in 
 A flat with variations, the Graiule Sonata in B 
 [op. 22], those in C sharp minor [op. 27] and 
 D minor [op. 31] would be allotted to the " first 
 period "), and compare them with the most 
 finished Sonatas of Mozart, to see the fallacy of 
 this arrangement ; and who would perceive in the 
 pianoforte Concertos [op. 15, 19, 37], in the cele- 
 brated Septet [op. 20], in the second Symphony, 
 
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 203 
 
 and those compositions which were written prior 
 to 1804, a " decided imitation of Mozart ?" We 
 must admit, that in Beethoven's works a richer 
 and warmer colouring prevails ; the ideas are cast 
 in a grander mould, are profoundly intellectual, 
 and fraught with a noble and deep pathos. The 
 manner in which Beethoven treats the Variation 
 — the most formal of musical forms — is of itself 
 characteristic. Variations, such as those of the A 
 flat and Kreutzer Sonatas and others are widely 
 removed from the merely formal cast of Haydn's 
 and even Mozart's themes varies, for they keep in 
 view the idea contained in the theme ; each time 
 presenting it, as it were, in a different light, they 
 repeat and envelope the theme, which thus takes 
 the character of a musical phrase of deep import, 
 and produces a corresponding impression on the 
 listener's mind. In no instance do we find the 
 form influencing his musical inspirations ; but, 
 on the contrary, the poetical idea which he seeks 
 to embody in music itself determines the form — 
 the work developes itself, as it were, from the 
 nucleus outwards. 
 
 Thus, to take one instance among many, instead 
 of the minuet (which on some occasions he re- 
 tained), he made use of the richer and more ela- 
 borate Scherzo, a form peculiar to himself, and 
 suggestive of playful wit disporting itself in a 
 variety of ever-changing moods. " To sum up, 
 
204 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 this great master," says Griepenkerl,* " pos- 
 sesses one marked characteristic which is the 
 foundation of all the others, and which distin- 
 guishes him from every other ' tone-poet,' viz. : — 
 keen sense of humour, such as only a Shakespeare 
 and a Jean Paul have displayed in literature. 
 This subtle and powerful gift, which had never 
 before found expression in musical forms, was a 
 mine of wealth to a genius like Beethoven's." Of 
 a truth, wit and humour are essential charac- 
 teristics of Beethoven's grand originality, and 
 must be regarded as all the more significant of 
 his noble disdain for mere sentimental outpourings 
 as the musical form which this intellectual attri- 
 bute requires for its expression is frequently repul- 
 sive to amateurs, and by them decried as faulty ; 
 for, the embodiment in musical art of this species 
 of wit necessitates the employment of striking 
 changes and contrasts which interfere with the 
 flow of the melody or leading idea, while foreign, 
 or seemingly incongruous, elements are employed, 
 as well as quaint abrupt turns and other pecu- 
 liarities which have been denounced as eccentric 
 and unintelligible in Beethoven's works. Beet- 
 hoven's "tone-poetry" is contemplative, emotional; 
 and though in its impetuous flight it soars — 
 apparently heedless of form — far above ordinary 
 thought and comprehension, it invariably retains 
 
 * Das Musikfest oder die Be^hovener, p. 77. 
 
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 205 
 
 that true proportion which is apparent, not so 
 much in isolated phrases, as in the profound con- 
 nexion with which each and every thought com- 
 bines to produce a complete and harmonious 
 whole. And although we are fain to admit that 
 Beethoven has not always attained to the purity and 
 perfection which characterize Mozart's writings, 
 yet he possesses, as no other does, the secret of 
 stirring our hearts. After listening to a work of 
 Beethoven's, we seem lifted into a higher sphere 
 of thought and sentiment ; we experience, as it 
 were, a feeling of repose — grateful, according as 
 our emotions have been previously more or less 
 roused by this wonderful music. Thus, the 
 enthusiastic Bettina von Arnim represents 
 Beethoven as writing to Goethe as follows : 
 " When I look around, I cannot help sighing ; 
 for what I behold is contrary to my religion, and 
 makes me despise the world, which does not 
 dream that music is a higher kind of inspiration 
 than even wisdom and philosophy ; it is the wine 
 which invigorates men to fresh efforts ; and I am 
 the Bacchus who mixes this glorious wine, and so 
 intoxicate men's minds, that when they are sober, 
 they find they have gained lasting treasures. — I 
 have no fears for my music, no harm can happen 
 to it ; whoever understands it will be freed from 
 all the misery that others drag about them." 
 
 This lofty ethical significance Beethoven's 
 music has in common with Schiller's poetry ; 
 
206 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 while, at the same time, its naturalness and grace 
 in some measure correspond to that of Goethe. 
 We do not make this comparison because Beet- 
 hoven's prime was precisely contemporaneous 
 with the renowned classical period of German 
 poetry (represented by Schiller and Goethe), but 
 because Beethoven was, in fact, the first "tone- 
 poet " to whom such a comparison is applicable ; 
 for he was the first musician who (apart from 
 mere song composition) was thoroughly imbued 
 with the spirit of contemporaneous poetry, and 
 whose creations it manifestly influenced. 0. 
 Jahn* aptly remarks that "poetry must first 
 bring to light the faculty of minutely describing 
 the innermost depths of reflection and emotion 
 before these could be adequately represented by 
 means of music." Beethoven, accordingly, was 
 the truly original master whose creations ema- 
 nated from himself alone, and — ^far different from 
 tlie musicians of our day, who simply transcribe 
 written poetry into musical phrase— displayed his 
 grandest powers where (as Schindler writes in his 
 conversational notes of the great master) " words 
 are of no avail, because they are inadequate to 
 express the divine word which music alone can 
 render." Thus, the ancient poets and Shake- 
 speare, as well as Klopstock, Goethe, and Schiller, 
 were not so much his poetical models and guides, 
 as intellectual friends and companions when his 
 
 * MozaH. Vol ii., p. 393. 
 
LTJDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 207 
 
 sad fate debarred him from human intercourse 
 and society.* This it was that kept his creative 
 fancy healthy and vigorous, and preserved him 
 from a too dreamy tendency — an error, however, 
 into which Schumann, the most poetical of musi- 
 cians, has occasionally fallen. 
 
 Let it then be clearly understood from the fore- 
 going remarks, that a high intellectual standard, 
 and the habit of attention which the perusal of 
 the great poets demands, is absolutely necessary 
 to a thorough comprehension and appreciation of 
 Beethoven's works ; — an average musical education 
 will not suffice for this. Thus, his rich and care- 
 fully-finished pianoforte Sonatas, in especial, are 
 replete with profound significance ; they represent 
 his entire artistic development. What wonderful 
 musical conceptions are these ! how ideal and spi- 
 
 * With what true appreciation Beethoven studied the great poets is 
 evident from his conversation with Fr. Rochlitz, in 1822, when 
 alluding to Klopstock : " Ever since that summer in Carlsbad 
 (where he made Goethe's acquaintance in 1811), I read Goethe 
 every day — that is, when I do read. He has quite destroyed Klop- 
 stock with me. You are astounded ? Well, you smile ? Ah, 
 because I have read Klopstock ! He has been my companion for 
 years ; when I went out walking, and wherever I went. Well, I 
 don't say that I always understood him. He flies too much from 
 one thing to another; he begins by soaring too high, always 
 maestoso 1 J) flat major ! Is it not so ? But he is grand, and he 
 elevates the soul. When I could not understand him, I guessed 
 what he meant — about. If he would only not be for ever dying ! 
 That's sure to come in its own good time. At all events, it sounds 
 well. But Goethe ; he Uves, and we are to live too. That's why 
 he can be set t» music." But Shakespeare was, above all others, bin 
 "poete de predilection.'" 
 
208 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 ritual their subject-matter ! how admirably do 
 they portray the loftier emotions and experiences, 
 mental conflict and triumph, in distinct and well- 
 defined forms, and present to the attentive lis- 
 tener's imagination, not only particular moods and 
 phases of feeling, but an entire psychological de- 
 velopment and progress ! The question has over 
 and over again been raised: what is the real 
 meaning, the poetical theme or subject of these 
 pieces? and frequent attempts have been made to 
 render the sentiments they contain in language, 
 or even to make them patent to common compre- 
 hension and reduce them to philosophical axioms. 
 The querists, for whose benefit various exegetical 
 commentaries have been framed,* belong chiefly to 
 a matter-of-fact, and not very musical, class of 
 people, who are incapable of appreciating a work 
 of art, and therefore imagine that fine words, 
 analogies, and so-called "ideas," can assist in 
 fathoming its depth and meaning. This feeling 
 prompted several of his friends to urge Beethoven, 
 when a new edition of his Sonatas was in contem- 
 plation, to " add some explanatory notes as to the 
 hjading ideas of many of those works.^f He 
 declined the suggestion ; and, as we know, has 
 only enlightened us as to a few of them by a 
 
 * We allude only to Elterleins' writings : Beethoven^s Clavier- 
 Sonaten erldutert^ &c. Leipzig, 1856 ; and Beethoven's Symphonien 
 nach ihrem idealen Gehalt. 2n(i edition. Dresden, 1858. 
 
 t Compare Mendelssohn's answer to a similar query. Vol. ii., 
 p. 298 of the 'Letters' (translated by Lady Wallace). 
 
LUDWIG VAX BEETHOVEN". 209 
 
 short heading or an occasional word or two. In 
 the days when he wrote his Sonatas, said he to 
 Schindler, people's minds were more poetical ; 
 they had, therefore, no need of the like explana- 
 tions. Now-a-days, people are too apt to endea- 
 vour, by interpreting even to the smallest detail 
 and colouring of a musical movement, to obtain 
 a confused and unsatisfactory intellectual reading 
 of that which can only be accurately apprehended 
 by the feelings. Such lengthy poetical descrip- 
 tions as we are now alluding to may perhaps find 
 favour with sentimental readers ; as to their use- 
 fuhiess, the fact speaks for itself that, particularly 
 as regards Beethoven, rarely do two expositors 
 agree in their reading of the same work. It would 
 rather assist the true understanding of his works if 
 Beethoven's life and artistic progress were written 
 with a view to the exact date of all his composi- 
 tions, and their reference to the great musician's 
 own circumstances considered and duly pointed 
 out. " Beethoven is never uniform or restricted, 
 nor is his conception limited to one particular 
 view or phase of feeling. — Yet this wide intellect 
 proclaims its own individuality so strikingly, that 
 Beethoven's works are but a reflex of his own ex- 
 periences. He did not, like most other com- 
 posers, appropriate and proceed to work out ideas 
 and feelings external to himself; on the contrary, 
 his * tone-pictures' faithfully represent himself, his 
 inner life, his experiences ; even when the ideal 
 
 p 
 
210 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 (as, for instance, Napoleon, his ideal of a repub- 
 lican hero in the ' Eroica') claims his ardent 
 admiration, or, when harassed and afflicted, he 
 manfully struggles with cruel destiny till light 
 and cheerfulness illuminate the gloom (as in the 
 C minor Symphony), or when (as in the * Pasto- 
 rale') he revels in the full enjoyment of nature 
 and rural life. The ideas he imbibed became a 
 part of himself before they took form in music ; 
 it follows, therefore, that a biography of his own 
 life and experiences written by the composer him- 
 self could alone furnish a complete and satisfactory 
 commentary on his works."* 
 
 The theory we maintain concerning the purely 
 amateur origin and object of the numerous 
 analyses and descriptions of Beethoven's Sonatas 
 and Symphonies (similar to the fata morgana 
 which inverts the image it reflects) is further 
 strengthened by the circumstance, that those 
 compositions which are less accessible to the 
 general run of amateurs and concert audiences (as, 
 for instance, the violin Sonatas, the Trios, the 
 Quartets and Concertos) — have not been treated of 
 in works of the above description. Are such 
 compositions as the Kreutzer Sonata, Trios op. 
 70 and 97, Rasumowsky Quartets (op. 59), and 
 others we cannot here enumerate — are these 
 gems of chamber music, whose true appreciation 
 will ever and everywhere be a standard of correct 
 
 * F. Hand. A sthfik der TonJcunst. Vol. ii., p. 425. 
 
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 211 
 
 taste, less poetical in conception, less profound, 
 less intelligible? As to the smaller works for 
 wind instruments, viz. the Quintet op. 16, Sestet 
 op. 71, and the Serenades (op. 25 and 41), an 
 interpretation of their subject-matter is scarcely 
 needed, so absorbing are the charming instru- 
 mental combinations and the sweet, graceful ex- 
 pression of these pieces. Ambros would probably 
 designate them as " Music of the moment " as 
 distinguished from " Intellectual music ;"* the 
 former, as he asserts, being the music of Haydn 
 and Mozart, the latter — they did not attain to. 
 
 The Concertos, five for pianoforte (of which 
 those in C minor and E flat major are the most 
 remarkable) and one for violin (op. 61), are 
 reckoned among the best and most matured of 
 Beethoven's works. These compositions hold a 
 middle place between the Sonata and the Sym- 
 phony ; and, like a species of instrumental Can- 
 tata, combine splendour of efiect and dramatic 
 vigour. When Hofl'mann (in allusion to their 
 symphonic character) designated the pianoforte 
 Concertos " Symphonies with pianoforte obligator' 
 it is evident he thereby intended only to describe 
 their grandeur and richness when compared with 
 pianoforte Concertos in general, (which are merely 
 calculated for the display of manual execution), 
 not that they were beyond the province of legiti- 
 mate pianoforte composition ; on the contrary, 
 
 * Grenzen der Musik und Fotsie. P. 123. 
 
212 -HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 the pianoforte part comes out so prominently 
 and effectively, that it is much to be regretted 
 these Concertos are not more frequently performed 
 — now-a-days, especially, when mere execution is 
 still held in high repute — and that, too, without 
 the introduction of those wretched cadenzas with 
 which performers are in the habit of disfiguring 
 these splendid works. 
 
 The ' Kreutzer Sonata' so called because dedi- 
 cated to the celebrated violinist Eudolf Kreutzer 
 (op. 47, *' scritta in uno stilo molto concertante, 
 quasi come d'un Concerto "), may be regarded as a 
 second smaller violin Concerto, though in plan and 
 general development it more nearly resembles 
 the sonata. The sixth pianoforte Concerto is the 
 exquisite * Fantasia ' for pianoforte, orchestra, and 
 chorus (op. 80), with its grand finale — a truly 
 sublime masterpiece, and withal so joyous, so 
 thoroughly popular and fascinating; altogether, 
 forming a charming prototype of, and contrast to, 
 the ninth Symphony. The plan of this work is 
 bold and vigorous. It opens with a pianoforte 
 fantasia ; to which succeed delicious variations for 
 the several instruments which, as it were, dispute 
 one another the possession of the lovely theme. 
 Joining in the now general contest, the pianoforte 
 once more takes up the theme, followed presently 
 by solo voices, male and female, and aitervvai'ds 
 by the whole chorus ; till, at the close, chorus, 
 orchestra, and pianoforte unite in glorious strains 
 
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 213 
 
 in honour of the divine art. The ' Grand Concerto 
 concertant ' for pianoforte, violin, and violoncello 
 (op. 56 C major, called also the ' Triple Concert '), is 
 a most singular composition, and might with pro- 
 priety be styled a concerted Trio with orchestral 
 accompaniment, or Symphonie Concertante. 
 
 In order to the full and true appreciation of 
 those grandest achievements of modern musical art 
 — Beethoven's S YMPHONIES — , not only the 
 great composer's life and genius, but also the 
 period in which he lived and thought — those 
 stirring times which ushered in the present 
 century and gave birth to poUtical freedom and 
 philosophical research, when literature and music 
 put forth new and splendid shoots — must be 
 taken into consideration. A mind like Beet- 
 hoven's could not fail to be imbued with the spirit 
 of times like those, and his powerful imagination 
 excited to great creative efforts. When Beet- 
 hoven summoned all the resources of the orchestra^ 
 it was not merely to provide a vehicle for the 
 effusion of sentimental strains, or the abstract 
 delineation of events or circumstances ; he seized 
 and reproduced the prevailing tone of thought 
 and feeling and the impression which remarkable 
 events were calculated to produce, while dwelling 
 on that view of a subject which more especially 
 harmonized with his own sentiments. Just as 
 Schiller's dramas take their character from great 
 and decisive historical events, do Beethoven's 
 
214 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Symphonies (and that not the *Eroica* alone) 
 reflect that brilliant intellectual period which 
 shed, as it were, a halo over his glorious " tone- 
 pictures." At the same time, it is as absurd to 
 talk of Beethoven's political — much less demo- 
 cratic — tendencies, as to force a symbolic inter- 
 pretation upon works of art perfect and complete 
 in themselves. Beethoven was no philosopher ; 
 he was, like Schiller, a poet endowed with the 
 spirit of philosophy, who, appropriating the ideas 
 of the age in which he lived, rendered them out 
 of his own experiences — the offspring, as it 
 were, of a particular ; phase of sentiment. He 
 was, above all, an artist in the true sense of the 
 word ; one who never lost sight of the principle 
 that a real work of art should not depend for 
 success on any adventitious explanation or mean- 
 ing. Thus, in those magnificent specimens of 
 modern historical painting — Kaulbach's frescoes 
 — the object and essence of aU true art is so 
 admirably understood and kept in view that, not- 
 withstanding their deep significance, even the 
 least educated spectator can enjoy and appreciate 
 them. We should be incUned to define it as 
 follows : what the philosopher seeks in a work of 
 art is the idea, whereas the artist conceived an 
 ideal ; and the apprehension of a work of art in 
 the spectator or auditor is in proportion to the 
 degree of ideality with which he happens to be 
 endowed — in short, artistic perception. It follows, 
 
LUDWIG VA:S- BEETHOVEN-. 215 
 
 therefore, that it is as ignorant to deny signi- 
 ficance to a work of art as it is absurd to be for 
 ever asking what the artist intended thereby to 
 express. " Beethoven, in his Symphonies," says 
 Lewis in his Life of Groethe,* "may have ex- 
 pressed grand psychological conceptions, which, 
 for the mind that interprets them, may give an 
 extra charm ; but if the strains in themselves do 
 not possess a magic, if they do not stir the soul 
 with a keen delight, then let the meaning be 
 never so profound, it will pass unheeded, because 
 the primary requisite of music is not that it shall 
 present grand thoughts, but that it shall agitate 
 the audience with musical emotions." 
 
 Thus was Beethoven understood, and according 
 to this standard was he judged by his generation ; 
 no one then thought of mysterious meanings, 
 tendencies, and the like. Perhaps people were 
 not so clever in those days ; indeed, some news- 
 paper critics gravely affirm that not even the mu- 
 sical merit of these great works was properly 
 understood. In order to confute this assertion, 
 we quote the opinion of a learned contemporary.! 
 " Beethoven has taken up musical art at that point 
 where Haydn and Mozart left it ; he adopted the 
 manner of those great masters, but developed and 
 improved it till it became absolutely transformed 
 
 * Vol. ii., p. 543. 
 
 t Krause. Darstellungen aus der Oeschichte der Musik, Got- 
 tiagen, 1827. P. 221. 
 
216 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 by his genius. In especial, did lie carry orches- 
 tral music a step farther — as far indeed as is pos- 
 sible with our present means and methods of art. 
 He has, likewise, the great merit of having deve- 
 loped the resources of pianoforte music, and 
 enriched it with all the magnificence and power 
 of which it was susceptible. But it is in grand 
 orchestral music that his chief merit lies. Those 
 splendid descriptive Symphonies, the ' Pastorale' 
 and the *Eroica,' exhibit an intellectual depth 
 and force such as had never before been revealed 
 in music. What the opera is to music in general, 
 Beethoven's Symphonies are to the rest of instru- 
 mental music. In these matchless compositions, 
 the several instruments seem possessed with one 
 leading idea, which, conjointly with the rest, is 
 taken up and worked out by each according to its 
 own peculiar tone and character ; no two of the 
 parts are alike, yet all, as it were, intimately re- 
 lated, and inspired with the same sentiment, com- 
 bine to produce the loveliest effects. All the in- 
 gredients of the orchestra, from the larger and 
 more imposing masses to the smaller groups, as 
 well as all the instruments severally, conduce to 
 unity of effect in such a manner that their own 
 individual significance is thereby enhanced. More 
 especially are these masterpieces remarkable for 
 the admirably maintained balance between string 
 and wind instruments, and for the bold, vigorous 
 treatment of the basses. Extreme richness in the 
 
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 217 
 
 instrumentation in no way precludes clearness and 
 precision — that is, with a well proportioned or- 
 chestra of which the execution (especially as 
 regards expression) is unimpeachable, and an 
 audience composed of those, who, by a due course 
 of study and attention to musical works of a 
 high order, have qualified themselves for the com- 
 prehension and enjoyment of such noble and pro- 
 found emanations as have never before found 
 expression in musical art. But even the less cul- 
 tivated lover of music is fascinated and enthralled 
 by these majestic compositions, though he may 
 not fathom their deeper meaning." 
 
 A noble spirit struggling with fate, surmount- 
 ing all obstacles, and breaking forth from bondage 
 to liberty, out of darkness into light, is the sub- 
 lime — we had almost said tragic — theme which 
 lies at the root of Beethoven's magnificent Sym- 
 phonies — the *Eroica,' the C minor, and A 
 major ; but is most powerfully developed in the 
 Ninth Symphony, where it is carried through all 
 the changing scenes of happiness and sorrow, 
 even to the sublimest visions of glorified rapture. 
 It is worthy of observation, that the above-named 
 Symphonies (3, 5, 7, 9), throughout which this, 
 the leading idea, is perpetually surging, are uni- 
 versally acknowledged to be the finest. Of the 
 remainder (2, 4, 6, and 1), whose general tone is 
 pleasing, tender, and joyous, the D major and 
 * Pastorale ' Symphonies (more especially in 
 
L^ 
 
 218 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 female estimation and that of the majority of 
 amateurs) are reckoned equal to the first-named. 
 
 The FIRST Symphony, in C major [1799, op. 21], which is dedi- 
 cated to the noble patron of art, van Swieten, presents, both in design 
 and general features, no marked difference from one of Haydn's best 
 Symphonies, when — as for instance in the grand B flat major — his 
 imagination takes a higher flight than usual. The powerful pathos 
 and dramatic effect for which the Jinali of Beethoven's other 
 Symphonies are remarkable are not, it is true, apparent in this one ; 
 yet we hold it to be mere affectation to esteem this, his first Sym- 
 phony, which K. M. V. Weber designates " bright and fiery," a weak 
 production. 
 
 The SECOND, in D major [1800, op. 36], opens a series of Sym- 
 phonies worthy of each other. We have listened to it over and 
 over again, and each time were strengthened in our conviction that 
 it is the most beautiful of all — so even and flowing are the parts, so 
 admirably complete and finished is the whole — a revival, as it were, 
 of Mozart in the Beethoven spirit. In entire keeping with the 
 joyous character of the prevailing key,* the work is an ideal reflex of 
 that happiest period of the composer's life, when reliance on his own 
 powers, the energy and enjoyment of life inherent to youth, and the 
 sweet illusion of first love lent a charm to existence. True it is, 
 there were sadder moments in which, shortly before the com- 
 pletion of this work, he complained to his friend Wegeler that the 
 " envious demon " was threatening to obscure his horizon ; but the 
 world as yet was to ignore this, and, out of his hidden treasures, he 
 has presented us with a work of art in which the actual and the 
 ideal unite in perfect harmony. — We subjoin a s^Decimen of " in- 
 terpretation " from Oulibichefi", who, however, finds the lovely 
 Larghetto "somewhat too long." *^ Elans guerriers et parade 
 militaire splendide dans Vallegro ; entretien prolonge avec une douce et 
 charmante amie dans le larghetto; jeux fuldtres commences dans le 
 scJierzo et poursuivis avec un surcroU d^ardeur dans le finale.** 
 
 The THIRD Symphony, in E flat major [1804, op. 55], entitled 
 * Eroica^ by Beethoven himself, was (according to Ries) originally 
 composed in honour of the " General bourgeois " Buonaparte — the 
 
 * Equally characteristic is the employment of the sombre D 
 minor key in the ninth and last (a striking contrast to this second) 
 Symphony. 
 
LUDWia VAX BEETHOVEN, 219 
 
 hero of the Revolution. He had actually placed Buonaparte's name on 
 the title-page of the score, with the signature " Luigi van Beethoven " 
 beneath ; and, thus entitled, it was waiting to be forwarded to Paris 
 when Ries brought the great news to Beethoven that Buonaparte 
 liad declared himself Emperor. "After all he is no better than the 
 rest," exclaimed Beethoven, at the same time tearing up the title- 
 page and throwing down the score with reiterated curses on the 
 tyrant. Some time elapsed before the work made its appearance 
 (in the original form, though Oulibicheff affirms with the addition of 
 the funeral march !), entitled ' Sinfonia eroica composta per ftsteggiare 
 il sovve7iire di un grand uomo^ and dedicated to Prince Lobkowitz. 
 With this narrative before us, can any doubt be entertained as to 
 what Beethoven intended to portray ? Certainly, no other than 
 the ideal of a hero — such as Buonaparte appeared to be — one who 
 rids the world of oppressors and tyrants ; or else, that inborn heroism 
 which rejoices in the fray, mourns for the fallen brave, and, regardless 
 of death or danger, earns for itself a name that survives in the 
 hearts of a grateful posterity. We do not perceive in the Andante 
 episode any incongruity with the ideal scheme of this composition ; 
 though, perhaps, the Scherzo — which by some has been taken to 
 mean spectral apparitions, by others the pleasures of camp life, and 
 again by others the phantom revels of unburied slain — might incur 
 this imputation. We hold this to be one of those pieces which must 
 be gi-asped by the feelings rather than the imagination, and that it is 
 intended as a kind of interlude (mark those enchanting horns in the 
 trio !) between the mournful funeral march and the burst of joy and 
 triumph in the Finale. 
 
 The FO URTH Symphony, in B flat major [1806, op. 60], is one of 
 those which precludes the idea of any particular subject ; but, as 
 Oulibicheflf would say, it contains its own programme. TTie 
 fundamental idea of Beethoven's Symphonies, — viz., conflict and 
 victory — is likewise evident in this one ; but the tone is exulting, as 
 if assured of victory. As compared with the breadth and detail of the 
 * Eroica,* this (by Beethoven entitled) "grand" Symphony is, espe- 
 cially in the allegro movements, remarkably condensed and energetic. 
 Schindler, who never enlarges in analytical disquisitions on Beet- 
 hoven's works, calls it "the most polished of all the Symphonies." 
 One marked characteristic of this one — as contrasted with the 
 almost stereotyped introduction to Haydn's symphonies and those of 
 his imitators — is the sublime Adagio, so full of subdued pathos ; 
 presently the gloom disperses — for not yet will the great master give 
 
t^ 
 
 220 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 vent to his anguisli in a musical composition — and makes way for 
 the bright, joyous Allegro, which, rushing onwards in delighttul 
 rhythmical cadence, enthralls and captivates the listener's senses. 
 " Emotion is only fit for women ; music should strike fire from a 
 masculine mind " are the sentiments which Bettina von Araim 
 attributes to Beethoven, and which might here be quoted against 
 OulibicheflF, who is of opinion that love — its joys and sorrows — are not 
 alluded to in the Adagio alone. We agree, however, with his view 
 that this Symphony is a pendant to the second, and, like it, a faithful 
 picture of happier times gone by ; but the colouring throughout is of 
 deeper hue, and already dark shadows hover round the fair prospect 
 — monitors, as it were, of how transitory a thing is earthly 
 happiness. 
 
 The i^i-FIW Symphony, in C minor [1807, op. 67], whose central 
 position with regard to the others is not without a significance of its 
 own, is universally and rightly acknowledged to be the most perfect 
 instrumental work of Beethoven, and, consequently, the most 
 splendid Symphony that ever was written. It is a veritable tragedy 
 in music ; one in which the great problem of the composer's 
 life, viz., stniggle with destiny, is brought to a decisive issue. 
 " Thus fate knocks at our door," says Beethoven of the Allegro 
 theme, and : Be it so, is the reply of one who, through the drear 
 night and the horrors of death, unflinchingly progresses towards 
 immortality. We here subjoin Hoff mannas celebrated description,* 
 which, though somewhat diffuse, is comparatively the best. 
 Having compared Beethoven with Haydn and Mozart, and pointed 
 out the profound unity and proiX)rtion he observed in his instru- 
 mental works, HoflTmann proceeds as follows : " Of all his works, 
 perhaps none displays this in a higher degree than the glorious, 
 profoundly significant Symphony in C minor. How this wondrous 
 composition carries the imagination with ever-increasing mystery 
 and grandeur into the unknown spirit-world! Nothing can be 
 simpler than the leading idea of the Allegro, which consists merely 
 of two bars, and begins with a unisonal phrase, while the key in 
 which it is written remains at first a mystery. Oppressed and 
 harassed with forebodings of some dire catastrophe, it would seem to 
 denote one venting his anguish in sharp cries ; but soon a bright 
 image appears and illuminates the gloom (the exquisite theme in 
 
 * PJiantasiestiicIce in Callofs Manier. Vol. i., p. 48. 
 
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOYEX. 221 
 
 G major, first indicated by the horn in E flat major). How simple, 
 we rejxiat, is the theme which the master lias selected for the comer- 
 stone of this imposing structure ; but how exquisitely does the 
 rhythmical proportion of the secondary and intermediate subjects unite 
 them with it in such wise tliat they assist in developing the character 
 of the movement indicated by the theme itself ! The phrases are 
 one and all short, consisting for the most part of only two or three 
 bars, and are, besides, constantly changing from the wind to the 
 stringed instruments. One would have been inclined to suppose 
 that such materials could produce nothing but a disjointed, un- 
 satisfactory result ; but, on the contrary, the proportion observed 
 throughout the whole piece, as well as the continual repetition of the 
 phrases and chords, suggests the idea of an indescribable yearning 
 after a higher existence. Does not the lovely theme of the Andante 
 con moto in A flat major (introduced by the violas and violins solo) 
 sound like a sweet voice from spirit-land, filling the heart with 
 consolation and hope ? But even here the dread shadow which 
 loomed so threateningly in the Allegro bursts from out the storm- 
 clouds, and from before its terrible aspect vanish the sweet forms 
 which hover around us. What shall I say of the Minuet (Scherzo) ? 
 Mark those singular modulations, those concluding choruses in the 
 dominant major, which the bass repeats in the minor key and 
 takes for the tonic of the succeeding theme, while the theme is for 
 ever extending itself through additional bars.* But, like a bright 
 sunbeam, the glorious theme breaks in amongst the jubilant concord 
 of instruments in the concluding movement. What wondrous 
 contrapuntal passages are these ! To many, indeed, the whole may 
 appear nothing more than a splendid rhapsody; but the more 
 intelligent listener will realize the idea of unspeakable anxious 
 yearning, and this thought will pursue him to the conclusion ; and, 
 not even when the magic sounds cease to fall on his ear, will he at 
 once awaken to the consciousness that he is no longer in the unseen 
 spirit region, where joy and grief surround him in musical form." 
 
 Mendelssohn, in one of his letters, gives an interesting narrative of 
 a visit to Goethe at Weimar, on which occasion he played the first 
 movement of the C minor Symphony on the pianoforte, " though the 
 
 * Spohr, who also finds fault with portions of the other move- 
 ments, calls the bass passages in the Trio (frequently a failure in the 
 execution) too quaint and noisy for his taste! The Finale is a 
 continuation of the third movement. 
 
i^ 
 
 222 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 old gentleman would have nothing to say to Beethoven. He was 
 wonderfully impressed. He said, ' That does not stir the feelings ; 
 it astounds one ; it is grandiose,' and so went on muttering to him- 
 self ; after some time he resumed : 'It is very grand, quite awful — 
 as if the house were tumbling about one's ears ; and what must it be 
 with all that number of performers ?' " 
 
 The mXTH Symphony, in F major [op. 68], was entitled 'Fas- 
 torale ' by Beethoven himself, and was performed for the first time 
 December 22nd, 1808, on the self-same occasion with the splendid 
 Fantasia [op. 80]. The composer has here subjoined a programme 
 which renders further explanation superfluous. It runs as follows : 
 "Cheerful sensations awakened by an arrival in the country. 
 Scene by a rivulet. Rustic merry-makin*. Storm. Songs of the 
 shepherds. Feelings of joy and gratitude after the storm." In 
 the additional notice, " The expression to be emotional rather than 
 pictorial," Beethoven has tersely and concisely declared the dis- 
 similarity between himself and his predecessors, esjjecially Haydn (in 
 the * Seasons,' of which a grand performance, warmly seconded by 
 Beethoven, had taken place March 27th of the same year). Whilst 
 Haydn delights in simply portraying a foreground without distance, 
 Beethoven finds in the ever-varying aspect of nature a reflex of his 
 own feelings ; by continually mingling his own sentiments with his 
 description of rural scenes, he throws around the landscape an ideal 
 atmosphere ; his work expresses, as it were, a longing for country 
 life common to persons of imaginative temperament. Thus our 
 musician — " the strange man escaping from city life "* in the genial 
 spring time — pursues his rambles " o*er hill and dale," to mingle 
 with the jovial, simple country folk : 
 
 " Both great and small send up a joyous cheer ; 
 Yes ! I am still a man — I feel it here."t 
 
 It is well known that Beethoven spent the greater portion of sum- 
 mer time in the country, and that he delighted in long rambles, 
 frequently j-eturning only at nightfall. We have no difiiculty there- 
 fore in tracing the origin of the Pastoral Symphony. As to the 
 ' objections so continually brought forward against the imitation of 
 birds' notes (the quail, cuckoo, nightingale) in the second part, we 
 will reply in the words of Carriere :$ " Imitation of natural sounds 
 
 * HoLTY. t GoETHE*s Fuiist. % ^i^stJietHc. Vol. ii., p. 342. 
 
LUDWIG YAN BEETHOVEN. 223 
 
 for their own sake is not art ; but Beethoven presents ns, in the 
 first instance, with a charming landscape view, and in the second, 
 with a retired valley scene ; the impressions which these call up in 
 our minds are so unmistakeable, so distinct, and, consequently, the 
 very essence of rural life is so fully realized, that the musical element 
 it contains is clearly brought to light ; accordingly, should the * tone- 
 poet' hesitate to complete the picture with reminiscences of the 
 sweet sounds more es])ecially typical of rural enjoyment, he would 
 fall- into the error of that mistaken idealism which despises natural 
 forms, however beauteous, and endeavours to replace them with 
 inventions of its own." 
 
 When Wagner expresses himself as follows : " The concert-going 
 public of our day only plays the hypocrite when pretending to 
 appreciate symphonic composition," he would probably account for 
 the partiality of the public for the ' Pastorale ' by the circumstance 
 that this Symphony happens to be furnished with a programme. 
 We have had occasion to observe that inferior amateurs have a 
 strong preference for the * Pastoral ' Symphony — probably on this 
 account. On the other hand, the verdict of severe judges runs thus : 
 " The work, as regards form, is by no means free from defects, 
 particularly the andante movement with its numerous repetitions." 
 
 The six first Symphonies succeeded each other at short intervals 
 from 1800 to 1808 ; but from the sixth, a period of five years elapsed 
 before the SEVENTH Symphony, in A major [1813, op. 92],— 
 the most majestic and powerful of the whole series — was given to the 
 world. It was performed for the first time, together with the 
 * Battle of Vittoria,' December 8th, 1813, and again December 12th, 
 as well as in January and February 1814. The Symphony at once 
 called forth "enthusiastic applause; and Beethoven, who con- 
 ducted the orchestra, received quite an ovation. This latest achieve- 
 ment of Beethoven's genius must be heard in order to be truly 
 appreciated."* A great deal has been Avritten and said concerning 
 this splendid composition ; some think it is intended to represent 
 Moorish chivalry ; f others, marriage festivities ; % others again, a 
 masquerade ||— all, in short, who have sought to interpret this music 
 
 * Leipz. Allg. Mus. Zeitung, Vol. xvi,, No. 4. Note by the 
 Translator. We presume the reviewer hereby means tbat a perusal 
 of the score alone will not suffice to disclose its beauties. 
 
 t MaKX. X AMBROS. 11 0ULIDICI1EB'B\ 
 
224 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 literally, agree in the idea of a festive celebration. We think L. 
 BischolFs reading of the A major Symphony, which views it as an 
 autumn sequel to the * Pastorale,' is the most ingenious. Perhaps 
 one would at first be inclined to take the Allegro immediately 
 following on the superb introduction for a scene of rustic festivity, 
 or does the | time and the instrumentation remind one rather of a 
 grand and brilliant hunting exj^dition? Even for that the move- 
 ment is too rich, too bold and majestic. We re^ieat, that Beethoven 
 had no intention of representing any particular external or pictu- 
 resque scene ; but simply himself, his life and circumstances viewed 
 in connexion with the world — at that time the theatre of mighty 
 events— around him. Kor should we lose sight of the circumstance 
 that this Symphony was first performed in the year 1813 (so im- 
 portant in the annals of history), and on the same occasion as a 
 commemorative piece (' The Battle of Vittoria ' composed in honour of 
 Wellington's victory, June 21st, 1813), as well as for a patriotic 
 object. (" For the benefit of Austrian and Bavarian warriors 
 invalided at the battle of Hanau.")* The celebrated Allegretto in 
 A minor was, as Si)ohr relates, encored at the first ]ierforma'.ice. It 
 oi^ens with a long-drawn f chord by tiie wind instruments lasting 
 from forte to piano through two entire' bars ; after which, tlie 
 violoncellos execute a measured theme of ineflable sadness, whose 
 every note stamps its melancholy on the mind. In ever-increasing 
 numbers sob and sigh the mysterious voices till the utmost expres- 
 sion of woe is attained ; when, amid the general lamentation, peals the 
 
 ♦ Beethoven, in his circular of thanks to those who assisted at 
 the concert, expresses himself as follows : " It was a rare assemblage 
 of first-rate musicians ; each of whom, animated solely with the 
 desire of employing his talents for the advantage of his country, 
 without any scruples of precedence or merit took their places at the 
 orchestra indiscriminately, whether subordinate or otherwise. The 
 command of the orchestra was entrusted to me, because the music 
 was of my composition ; if any one else had written it, I would as 
 cheerfully have taken my place at the big drum, as did Herr 
 Hummel ; for we had no other object than that of serving our 
 country gladly and joyfully — that country which had done so much 
 for ns. Herr Schuppanzigh led the first violins ; Herr S[X)hr and 
 Herr Mayscder played among the second violins ; the first chapel- 
 master, Herr Salieri, marked time for the cannonades and drums ; 
 Herr Sivori and Herr Giuliani likewise occupied subordinate places. 
 
LUDWia VAN BEETHOVEN. 22S 
 
 gently-healing melody in A major, assuaging the bitter grief which 
 alas ! is too deep-seated to be at once removed. Again the voice of 
 lamentation is heard, though this time not in passionate accents, but 
 gently and gradually melting into calmness and resignation. The 
 incomparable Scherzo-presto sparkles with life and enjoyment, to 
 which the expressive Assai meno presto (Trio) presents a wondrously 
 beautiful contrast. After the repetition of the Presto, the Meno 
 presto again returns, when it is suddenly broken off by a most 
 original and singular termination. The Finale carries the merriment 
 of the Scherzo to the utmost limits of wild bacchanalian excitement. 
 To Oulibicheff s taste, formed exclusively on Mozart's music, this 
 theme appears commonplace aud trivial. " Les fanatiques, pour les- 
 quels tout est genie dans Beethoven, appellent cela de VhumoTT Yes, 
 verily, genuine humour it is which sparkles throughout this 
 colossal yiTiaZe — delighting in contrast and opposition ; and this sense 
 of humour which, as we have already shown, was a powerful 
 ingredient of Beethoven's character, is wanting to Oulibicheff and 
 other " hommes de goutP Accordingly, we are not surprised that 
 he finds no merit in — least of all the Finale of — the eminently 
 vivacious 
 
 EIGHTH Symphony, in F major [181 7, op. 93]. He calls it " La 
 moins reussie et tres probaUement la moins goutee de toutes les sym- 
 phonies de Beethoven. Fcrite peu apres la septieme, elle en a tons les 
 defauts, sans aucune des grandes heautes qui y font compensation" 
 Whilst inveighing against the " eccentric, incoherent, contradictory " 
 Finale which, besides, includes nearly half of the entire work, Oubili- 
 cheff is so obtuse to the merits of the rest that he can see nothing 
 in the lovely Allegretto Scherzando but a satire on Rossini (!) ; while 
 of the charming Minuet with the playful Trio he afiBrms that any 
 other composer of the eighteenth century might have written it. On 
 the other hand, 0. Jahn remarks with great discrimination that the 
 Minuet has the slowest tempo of the whole Symphony, and that its 
 serious and dignified grace contrasts most humorously with the 
 lively tone of the remaining movements. We certainly agree that 
 the first movement is the least successful ; but whoever desj:)ises the 
 Finale — the theme of which is alone a wondrous conception — has 
 not properly understood Beethoven — the great humorist, who. in 
 extraordinary contrasts and combinations of apparently irreconcilable 
 elements displays a fund of originality and imagination as wonderful 
 as it is rare. One reason, perhaps, why this composition enjoys an in- 
 ferior degree of popularity to the others is (apart from the very high 
 
 Q 
 
226 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 intx3llectual range requisite for its due appreciation) principally owing 
 to the fact that it requires the utmost precision and delicacy, and in 
 the Allegro movement great freedom and power, in the execution ; 
 the Finale^ especially, is quite a tour deforce for the orchestra. 
 
 Beethoven's NINTH Symphony, in D minor, " with a choral ^rwt/c 
 on Schiller's * Ode to Joy,' for full orchestra, four solo and four 
 choral voices " [1824, op. 125], is a truly colossal conception, typical 
 of a great soul unsubdued by the weight of affliction. For the last 
 time, when his days on earth are drawing to a close, the great 
 composer depicts in vivid and powerful traits the indomitable 
 fortitude of a noble mind under the pressure of unutterable woe, its 
 secret trials and conflicts, and ultimate j)eace and resignation. 
 
 " Pain is short, but joy — eternal,"* 
 says the poet most akin to Beethoven ; and this sentiment is, we 
 opine, the thought which lies at the root of this great work, 
 I)articularly the last movement. Most certainly this Symphony is, 
 in regard to conception, the loftiest of them all ; but, judged by a 
 l)urely musical and artistic standard, it is, undoubtedly (apart from 
 some eccentricities of modulation), inferior to the earlier ones. It 
 outstei^s the legitimate province of musical art ; for in the principal 
 movements, viz., the first and the last, it deals more in ideas than 
 emotion ; — Marx's definition, " that it exhausts the resources of 
 instrumental music," is, therefore, singularly appropriate. The 
 imposing grandeur of this Symphony in some measure justifies its 
 creation ; but it would be a mistake to exalt it into a precedent, or 
 regard it as the model of a genus, and we hold that view to be 
 erroneous which regards the eight preceding Symphonies as mere 
 preparatory studies for "that marvel of composition, the ninth." 
 Berlioz, who endeavoured to continue a style inaugurated by Beet^ 
 hoven, has furnished the most striking proof that imitation of exalted 
 genius is liable to degenerate into caricature. " In connection with 
 music, poetry — the language of humanity — heals the deepest 
 sorrow," says Goethe. This is the profound thought on which the 
 great composer has reared his singular and incomparable edifice. 
 And yet its chief peculiarity — the introduction of the chorus in the 
 concluding movement — does not add to the effect; indeed, the 
 measured, almost monotonous concourse of voices intoning, 
 
 " Joy, thou spark of heavenly fire !'* 
 * Schiller's ** Maid of Orleans," 
 
LTJDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 227 
 
 would seem at first to produce an unpleasing impression. Beethoven 
 intended, apparently, to express the awe which seizes those who 
 contemplate the sacredness of joy, as Schiller describes in the * Ode 
 to Joy ;' and, therefore, the expression is intensified after the words 
 " thy hallowed fane."* The Adagio, breathing solemnity and 
 repose in every chord, is highly suggestive of inward peace and 
 content — a farewell, as it were, to the happy past. As to the 
 Scherzo (which in this Symphony constitutes the second movement), 
 the majority of connoisseurs have agreed in pronouncing it the most 
 original and beautiful portion of the work. We have here given a 
 short sketch of our own ideas concerning this magnificent — ^we had 
 almost said weird — composition, which, like the second part of 
 Goethe's 'Faust,' will ever remain a poema reconditum and 
 sesthetic problem. 
 
 The ninth Symphony (" which not one in ten 
 can understand" says Hans v. Biilow) is the 
 greatest and most admired of Beethoven's last 
 compositions ; this work, the Missa solemnis, the 
 lour last pianoforte Sonatas (op. 106, 109 — 111), 
 and the five last Quartets with the great fugue in 
 B (op. 127, 130—133, 135) are the works which 
 have, in our own day, given rise to much diversity 
 of opinion. While some regard them as the ne 
 plits ultra of Beethoven's productions, and extol 
 them as the onl^ correct standard worthy of future 
 imitation, the great majority pronounce them un- 
 intelligible, eccentric, and unpleasing. As usual, 
 the truth lies between these extreme opinions. 
 
 ♦ " Dein Eetligthum." Note by the Translator. Sir E. B. 
 Lytton's excellent rendering of the * Ode to Joy ' does not adapt 
 itself to Beethoven's music, the metre being somewhat different from 
 that of Schiller's poem. The English version usually employed in 
 connection with the choral Symphony deviates so widely from the 
 original, that the effect alluded to in the text is entirely lost. 
 
228 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 As in the later works of other men of genius, 
 but especially Goethe, a vein of serious contem- 
 plation verging on mysticism runs through these 
 last compositions of Beethoven, supplanting, in 
 great measure, the pathos and emotion which 
 distinguish his earlier works, and replacing clear, 
 well-defined melody by richly developed poly- 
 phonous and contrapuntal plirases. At the same 
 time, we cannot fail to be struck with the number 
 of passages still replete with the purity and grace 
 of his earlier works ; as, for instance, the second 
 and third movements of the ninth Symphony, 
 which are quite equal to anything he produced 
 during his prime. It cannot, on the other hand, 
 be denied that Beethoven has occasionally, and 
 sometimes even throughout an entire movement 
 or work, overstepped the limits of true beauty and 
 proportion, and in his lofty soarings over-taxed the 
 resources of musical art. But are not these very 
 works the genuine expression of his own feel- 
 ings, existence, and destiny — swayed alternately 
 by despair, resignation, and hope? Kegarded 
 from this point of view, how differently do the 
 gloomy, melancholy adagios — like unto sorrowful 
 old age lamenting in touching strains the happy 
 days of yore, and yearning, oh ! how earnestly, for 
 the "peace which passeth understanding" — 
 appear ; as also those impetuous allegros andjinali, 
 which resemble a mighty torrent rushing head- 
 long over the rocks to the dark abyss beneath ! 
 
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. ^ 229 
 
 For those whose imagination cannot sympathize 
 with that of the great master, these works will, as 
 a matter of course, possess but few attractions ; 
 while, to the purely musical taste, their elaborate 
 contrapuntal combinations will not compensate 
 for the absence of beauty in form and conception.* 
 We can quite understand that profound and edu- 
 cated musicians grow to these compositions ; also, 
 that the exclusive admiration of the disciples of the 
 " development theory " as applied to music answer 
 all objections advanced against their own confused 
 productions by quoting the immortal name of 
 Beethoven in support of their wild inventions. 
 
 Further, it appears to us especially worthy of 
 notice that, during the latter period of his life, 
 Beethoven exhibited a remarkable partiality for 
 the quartet — ^that genus of musical art which 
 Weber designates " intellectual music"! -^ deve- 
 
 * " Increasing deafness could not fail to act bane fully on the 
 imagination. His continued efforts at originality could not, as 
 formerly, be guarded from errors of judgment. Is it, therefore, to 
 be wondered at if his productions became more and more eccentric, 
 incoherent, and unintelligible? True it is, there are people who 
 profess to understand them, and are so overjoyed at this privilege, 
 that they esteem them far above his earlier masterpieces. For my 
 part, I confess that I have never been able to appreciate his later 
 works. The ninth Symphony, as regards the first three movements, 
 is, in spite of occasional traits of genius, inferior to any of his former 
 ones; but the conception of Schiller's ode in the fourth movement is 
 so utterly monstrous and absurd, that it is beyond my comprehen- 
 sion liow Beethoven could write such a thing." — Spohr's Auto- 
 hiography. 
 
 f Of the miLsical subject-matter of the five last quartets, an 
 
230 HISTORY OP MUSIC. 
 
 lopment of the tendency of Beethoven's last sonatas 
 and quartets could only lead to a most undesir- 
 able spiritualization of music. The embodiment 
 of spiritual in material forms (which Bettina von 
 Arnim regards as the summit of all true art) is, 
 we think, not satisfactorily attained in modern 
 music ; but in Beethoven — who, like Goethe, gave 
 form and utterance to his own sensations — that 
 was a simple and natural form of expression which 
 in others becomes downright exaggeration. We 
 should, therefore, lay particular stress on the fact 
 that, previous to his decline, not only were the 
 great master's efforts expended in endeavouring 
 to render instrumental music capable of a contem- 
 plative tendency, but, likewise, in endowing the 
 forms — enlarged owing to increased importance 
 of the subject-matter — with a greater amount 
 of variety and colouring. 
 
 excellent analysis has been written by Selmab Baqge, the talented 
 editor of the 'Deutsche Musikzeituny*, (Nos. 36—40, 1862). He 
 is of opinion that those in B major (op. 130) and C sharp major 
 (op. 131) are the finest ; and that, of the E flat (op. 127) and 
 F (op. 135) quartets, the two centi-al movements are superior to 
 the principal ones. "It is worthy of observation that, as is well 
 known, this disproportion in the relative parts of a quartet has 
 gained ground ever since Beethoven's time ; and that in modem 
 quartets and other sonata forms the principal movements are, 
 generally speaking, inferior to the central ones." The sui^erscrip- 
 tions of two movements in the last — somewhat abstruse — quartets 
 should not be overlooked : " Canzona di ringraziamento in modo 
 lidico offerta alia divinitd da un guarito^^ (Ada(jio of the quartet 
 in A minor op. 132), and : " Hesitation. Shall it be ? It shall be !" 
 (Finale of the Quartet in F major, op. 135). 
 
LTJDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 231 
 
 The other great work of Beethoven's latter 
 period is the Missa solemnis in D major, for four 
 choral and solo voices, full orchestra, and organ 
 fop. 123) ; the first performance of which took 
 place April 1st, 1824 — a few weeks previous to 
 that of the ninth Symphony. It is one of the 
 grandest and profoundest works of art ever 
 created; one, however, in which the composer's 
 peculiarities are all the more conspicuous, as 
 Church music, especially, requires that artistic in- 
 dividuality should assert itself as little as possible. 
 Taken as a whole, this Mass is rather a sublime 
 than a religious conception ; — not a Mass^ properly 
 speaking, with music adapted to the text, but 
 a lofty expressive composition on words from the 
 Church service — a composition whose astounding 
 grandeur leaves no room for religious feeling and 
 worship. Of this work, the Kyrie is the most de- 
 votional ; the Gloria, with its scarcely practicable 
 Presto finale^ the most vigorous ; the Credo, the 
 richest and profoundest ; and the Benedictus 
 (where a violin solo soars, as if on angels' wings, 
 over the whole orchestra), the sweetest and purest. 
 In direct opposition to the a capella style, which 
 Beethoven himself in a letter to Zelter (March 
 25th, 1823) calls "the only genuine Church 
 style," the orchestra holds here a prominent place, 
 and the singing is entirely subordinate, particu- 
 larly in passages where the capabilities of the 
 human voice are not duly considered. '■ To him 
 
232 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 men were as instruments, and instruments as 
 men. * 
 
 The first Mass in C major, likewise for chorus 
 and solo voices, orchestra and organ [1804, op. 
 86], is the exact opposite of this "grand and 
 solemn " Mass — the expression being eminently 
 sweet and melodious. For this music (with Beet- 
 hoven's approbation) an additional German text 
 was written ; and thus it is known to many as 
 the ' Thi^ee hymns' Beethoven's Oratorio, or 
 rather Cantata, * The Mount of Olives' [\%^0^ op. 
 85], is, " in fact, only the first part of a * Passions ' 
 oratorio ; but so much drawn out in detail that 
 he never designed a fitting termination. "f Beet- 
 hoven's own admission, in after years, that his 
 conception of Christ was too theatrical, is appli- 
 cable to the whole work. Ambros is even of 
 opinion that it is " scarcely equal to Eossini's 
 Stahat Mater, and a Beethoven association — if 
 ever such corae into existence in Germany (which 
 we hold to be neither essential nor desirable) — 
 should therefore do its utmost to obliterate the 
 memory of this work." J Taken by themselves, 
 the march of the Eoman soldiers and the final 
 chorus are admirable pieces. 
 
 Beethoven was no Church composer — less so 
 even than Haydn and Mozart ; indeed, so much 
 
 * Marx. f Eochlitz. Fur Freunde der Tonhunst. 
 
 % CulturhistoiHsche Bilder aus dem Mitsikleben der Gegenwart. 
 Leipzig, 1860. P. 26. 
 
LUDWia VAX BEETHOVEN. 233 
 
 did he withdraw from communion with the 
 Church that the orthodox and pious Haydn 
 called him a downright atheist. Marx says : 
 "Not only was Beethoven too much wanting in 
 Church feeling and sympathy for the composition 
 of Masses, but he was not thoroughly at home in 
 choral writing, which, like every other branch of 
 art, has its own peculiar conditions." Beethoven 
 and the later musicians have carried musical art 
 to its furthest limits ; but in a very different 
 branch to sacred music. 
 
 In his sole opera, 'Fidelio' Beethoven has 
 adopted the Mozart form ; but how different the 
 essence and spirit of this opera from one of 
 Mozart's — indeed, from every other opera ! What 
 an enormous distance between a so-called opera 
 seria and the lofty pathos of this music !* But 
 much as we admire this noble music (the pri- 
 soners' choruses, Leonore's grand aria, the jubi- 
 lant duet which precedes the second finale, and 
 other pieces), we cannot deny that_, as such, it 
 
 ♦ Let us not, however, be understood as praising Beethoven's 
 opera at the cost of every other. Music is, in its very essence, a 
 cheerful art. Therefore, even in sacred music, except on special 
 occasions (such as, for instance, a requiem), the expression is never 
 continued in one uninterruptedly solemn strain. In the opera 
 which, more than any other genus of musical art, demands variety 
 and piquancy (as well as great experience and knowledge of the 
 world on the part of the composer), prolonged seriousness is scarcely 
 tolerable. The lofty ideality of Beethoven's music could alone cause 
 it to maintain a hold on the interest of an audience already favour- 
 ably inclined ; Cherubini's opera * Les Deux Joumees ' met with 
 inferior success. Less gifted composers who have endeavoured to do 
 
234 HISTORY OP MUSIC. 
 
 does not answer the highest demands of the 
 genus. Neither the dramatic action of Mozart's 
 operas nor the climax of effect in Gluck's drame 
 lyrique are here discernible ; the interest of the 
 piece centres solely in Leonore, who appears as 
 Fidel io in masculine attire. As to the other per- 
 sonages, little or no interest attaches to them ; 
 but Leonore, the heroine, is a part in which the 
 most renowned singers, viz., Schroeder-Devrient, 
 Schechner-Waagen, Milder-Hauptmann, Mali' 
 bran-Garcia, and, of late, Louise Koster and 
 Titiens have achieved their greatest triumphs. 
 Leonore is Beethoven's ideal of a loving woman, 
 whose affection, faithful unto death, inspires her 
 with the strength and courage of a true heroine ; 
 the remaining characters are quite subordinate — 
 the ideal, ethical, and expressive, element alone 
 being that in which he delighted. Florestan is a 
 purely passive personage ; besides whom, " Pizarro 
 and the Prime Minister (without, however, their 
 motives being distinctly accounted for — ^the latter 
 appearing like a deus ex machind at the conclusion 
 
 the same, have invariably lapsed into hopeless monotony, as, for 
 instance, Bellini in ' Capuletti e MonteccM ;' though, musically 
 speaking, there is a great deal of merit in this opera. The modern 
 school of Italian composers, Donizetti and others, make not the 
 slightest attempt (even in occasional scenes) to emulate the solemn 
 tone of tragedy in music — their heroes encounter death to the tune 
 of a lively waltz. In the Symphony — a far more serious branch of 
 composition— the necessity for a downright lively — nay, mirthful — 
 interlude (such as the Minuet or ScJierzo) is recognized by every 
 composer. 
 
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 235 
 
 of the piece) represent the ''antagonistic prin- 
 ciples " (to quote Beethoven) "of good and evil. 
 Midway between both stands Eocco, the obedient 
 servant and abettor of evil, though good-natured, 
 and ready to forward the prisoner's release. In 
 order to give variety and action, but without exer- 
 cising any influence on the plot, Marcellina and 
 her jealous admirer Jacquino are introduced — 
 episodically, as it were. The choruses of pri- 
 soners, soldiers, and populace are mere garniture^ 
 in order to assist the delineation of suffering, ty- 
 ranny, and succour."* It is in the domestic scenes 
 (Eocco, Marcellina, Jacquino) that Beethoven is 
 least at home. When an opera book arranged 
 from Schiller's ' Burgschaft ' was proposed to him 
 for composition, he actually requested Weigl to 
 compose the second act (the wedding feast) be- 
 cause " such cheerful gaiety did not suit him."t 
 It is worthy of remark, that in this, his only 
 opera, Beethoven celebrates an extraordinaiy 
 instance of female heroism (Schiller's female crea- 
 tions Tiave likewise, in general, more pathos than 
 strict adherence to nature), whereas Mozart — 
 who may in truth be styled the bard of love — , 
 like Goethe and Shakespeare, portrays the female 
 sex with all the reality of life. 
 
 * Marx. Vol. i., p. 331. 
 
 t In 1816, Franz Schubert wrote an opera (left unfinished at the 
 third act) on another adaptation of Schiller's ballad; the score 
 contains fifteen pieces of music. Lindpaintner's opera on the same 
 subject has fallen into oblivion. 
 
236 -• HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 This opera was performed (with a somewhat 
 inferior cast) for the first time November 20th, 
 1 805, with the title of* Leonore^ or Conjugal Affec- 
 tion ; but met with a cold reception from an au- 
 dience composed chiefly of French officers. After 
 the third representation, Beethoven withdrew his 
 work from the stage. The following year, it was 
 again brought out with the suppression of a whole 
 act. " I rearranged the whole book for him," 
 writes Breuning to Wegeler, " so as to give action 
 and variety to the plot ; he curtailed a good many 
 of the pieces, and it was performed three times 
 with the greatest applause. But it roused his 
 enemies at the theatre, and, as he had given 
 ofience to a great many at the second representa- 
 tion, they have succeeded in preventing the per- 
 formance of the opera in future." In 1814 
 Beethoven made several alterations in the opera, 
 particularly in the two Jinali, and gave it the 
 name of ' Fidelio.' " This business of the opera 
 is the most tedious in the world," wrote he in a 
 note to Treitsclike, who had undertaken to alter 
 the text. ** I am dissatisfied with the greater 
 part, and there is scarcely a piece that I have not 
 been obliged to alter." In this its present form, 
 the opera met with universal applause and appro- 
 bation. 
 
 For the several performances of this opera 
 [1805, 1806, 1814], Beethoven wrote four Over- 
 tures, the first of which he subsequently with- 
 
LUDWia VAN BEETHOVEN. 237 
 
 drew; it was not published till after his 
 death. The third Overture, which is now very 
 appropriately given between the first and second 
 acts, is an arrangement and completion of the 
 second, No other overture can be compared with 
 this Leonore Overture. It is more than an over- 
 ture, — it is a fantasia, a downright symphonic 
 poem; while as a musical work — apart from its 
 ideal excellence in connection with the rest of the 
 opera — it is beyond all praise. The vigorous and 
 impetuous fourth Overture (in E, written for the 
 performance of 'Fidelio' in 1814) is the most 
 perfect and beautiful of them aU ; it varies from 
 the three other Leonore Overtures in this respect, 
 that it makes use of no themes from the opera, 
 but, on the contrary, forms an independent intro- 
 duction to the opera.* 
 
 The second work of importance which Beet- 
 hoven wrote for the stage is the music to Groethe's 
 play Egmont [1811]; and which, along with 
 Weber's ' Preciosa' and Mendelssohn's ' Mid- 
 summer Night's Dream,' is the best work of the 
 kind ever written. Besides the Overture (which 
 in point of dramatic significance and musical per 
 
 * Lyser narrates that, shortly before the performance of *Don 
 Giovanni,' Mozart played three splendid overtures for that Opera to 
 a friend of his; the first was in E fiat major; the second in C minor 
 (a fugued fantasia like that to ^ Die Zauberflote^ but totally 
 different in character), and the third in D major, which he subsequently 
 penned so quickly. But he could not be persuaded to write down 
 the others. 
 
238 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 fection can only be compared with the one he 
 composed for Collins' tragedy Coriolanus), he 
 wrote four unique and admirable Entractes, in 
 which he has, with exquisite taste, united the last 
 scene of each act with the commencement of the 
 succeeding one — an interesting instance of how far 
 Beethoven esteemed instrumental music capable 
 of delineating particular situations and even 
 words. " He has," says Ambros,* "with admirable 
 tact, preserved the exact medium between allow- 
 ing his music to degenerate into a meaningless 
 mass of sound on the one hand (Meyerbeer's 
 * Struensee !'), and, on the other, maintaining a 
 due subordination of the music to the words of 
 the play" (unlike, for instance. Prince Eadzi will's 
 music to * Faust '). The other pieces are : Clara's 
 two songs, Egmont's monologue, the music which 
 accompanies Clara's death, Egmont's vision of 
 Clara as Liberty, and the triumphal symphony, 
 which also forms the conclusion of the Overture. 
 Beethoven wrote Egmont, as he himself told Eoch- 
 litz, with enthusiastic delight^ — having shortly 
 before made the poet's acquaintance at Teplitz. 
 
 A subsequent homage to the great poet was 
 that remarkable composition " Meeresstille und 
 gluckliche Fahrt^ the poems by J. W.von Goethe, 
 set to music and respectfully dedicated to the 
 immortal poet by Ludwig van Beethoven, op. 112." 
 The poems, especially the first, are not well suited 
 
 * Orenzen der Musi/c und Foesie. P. 94. 
 
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN. 239 
 
 for songs ; and the entire composition is, we 
 think, so tlioroughly orchestral in conception that 
 we are inclined to surmise Beethoven originally 
 intended to write a purely instrumental piece. 
 There was certainly no idea of a programme - 
 overture, of which the poem was the key, in those 
 unsophisticated days. It is well known that 
 Mendelssohn has given a detailed instrumental 
 translation of the poem in his overture of the 
 same name (* A Calm Sea'). 
 
 Beethoven further wrote three small pieces 
 d'occasion for the theatre : the ballet Prometheus 
 (*Gli uomini di Prometeo,' 1801), of which the 
 lively compact Overture is well known ; and, sub- 
 sequently [1812], two Festival plays with chorus 
 and songs by Kotzebue, entitled, ' The Ruins of 
 Athens ' and 'King Stephen, Hungary's first bene- 
 factor.' Among the pieces contained in the first 
 named of these plays, the choruses are remark- 
 ably fine, particularly the wild Dervish chorus 
 and the Turkish march which precedes it. Of 
 the second, the overture alone is known ; it is — 
 like the ' Euins of Athens ' — ^by itself (^. e. discon- 
 nected from the play), of no great importance as 
 a concert overture. Likewise a festival overture 
 (and what a one !), is tliat intended for the opening 
 of the new theatre in the Joseph stadt [1822] : 
 Zur Weihe des Ilauses (op. 1 24) — a splendid and 
 highly imaginative work, yet complete and clear 
 as anything of Mozart's. 
 
240 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Beethoven's best vocal compositions are the 
 very beautiful ' Scotch Songs ' for one voice — (some- 
 times with one, two, or three others) with piano- 
 forte, violin, and violoncello accompaniment 
 [1815, op. 108] — taken from national melodies. 
 Far more popular — perhaps because less difficult 
 — are the songs and ballads with pianoforte ac- 
 companiment alone ; especially, Six Sacred Songs 
 of Gellert (op. 32, among them the famous * The 
 heavens declare the glory of God'), * Adelaide , by 
 Matthison (op. 46), Siv Songs of Goethe (op. 75, 
 ' Know'st thou the land,' ' Heart, my heart whence 
 this emotion,' &c.,) and a collection of songs of 
 Jeitteles, * An die feime Geliehte ' (op. 98). What a 
 variety, both of style and character, do we find 
 in these songs ! how admirable are declamation, 
 melody, and accompaniment in each one of them ! 
 Yet Beethoven — as he observed to Eochlitz in his 
 later years — did not " like writing songs." His 
 grave temperament was as little suited to the 
 action and variety of the opera as his ardent 
 fancy could brook the restraining influence of words 
 in song composition. Thus, in his grand vocal 
 works, as well as in the song proper (' Adelaide ' for 
 instance), the instrumental part rivals the vocal 
 in importance and character. In conclusion, 
 however highly we rate his genius as compared 
 with others, we find that Klopstock's epitaph on 
 Em. Bach may even more appropriately be ap- 
 plied to Beethoven : 
 
FRANZ SCHUBERT. 241 
 
 " He was great in music derived from words, 
 but greater still in that loftier music without 
 words." 
 
 Vocal composition, so uncongenial to Beetho- 
 ven's masculine temperament, was carried to un- 
 rivalled perfection by FRANZ SCHUBERT 
 [born at Vienna, January 31st, 1797, died there, 
 November 19th, 1828], who wrote quite in the 
 Beethoven spirit.* His fame having been spread 
 by the celebrated song 'Erlking' [1816], others 
 (' The Wanderer,' ' Lob der Thranen,' ' Suleika,' 
 &c.) appeared in quick succession. But the most 
 remarkable of his vocal compositions are the two 
 great collections of songs : * Die Schone Mullerin ' 
 and ' Winterreise 'f (both containing as many as 
 forty-four songs), which were probably suggested 
 by Beethoven's collection of songs 'An die feme 
 Geliebte' and which, together with others of his 
 finest songs, form, as it were, a worthy supplement 
 to that great master's works — so rich in harmony 
 and profound expression are they, so full of 
 charming variety — sorrow, joy, love, melancholy 
 being in turn depicted in the most vivid and 
 telling manner. The collection of songs entitled 
 ' Schwanengesang ' contains Schubert's last and 
 best- known songs (' Standchen,' *Aufenthalt,' *Das 
 Fischermadchen,' ' Am Meer,' &c.). 
 
 ♦ Franz Schubert ^ von Dr. H. Kreissle von Hellborn. Wieu, 
 1864. 
 t By W. MuUer. 
 
 R 
 
242 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Whereas the old-fashioned song, derived princi- 
 pally from the operetta, aimed at a popular style 
 (in accordance with the simple verses to which it 
 was set), scarcely any of Schubert's songs or bal- 
 lads contain the slightest reminiscence of national 
 or popular tunes and rhythm ; — of Schubert's six 
 hundred songs, not one (so far as we are aware) 
 has ever become a popular melody. The clear, 
 concise form requisite for a popular melody, differs 
 radically from the delicate characteristic delinea- 
 tion, the varied, almost dramatic action — in short, 
 the subjective tendency, to which the pianoforte 
 accompaniment lends effect by a local and emo- 
 tional colouring in keeping with the words and me- 
 lody. Schubert metamorphosed the poet's thoughts 
 into melody ; and, embodying them in sweet vocal 
 strains, created a musical form answering to lyrical 
 poetry (then recently revived in Germany by 
 Goethe,Uhland, Eiickert, and Heine), and raised 
 ballad music to one of the highest branches of 
 vocal composition. Schubert's songs — next to 
 Beethoven's sonatas — represent the completion of 
 modern musical art ; the}^ are the key-stone to 
 the edifice commenced about a hundred years pre- 
 viously. Oratorio, opera, and symphony had 
 reached their apogee in Handel, Mozart, Beetho- 
 ven ; — it remained for Schubert to complete the 
 grand series of choric works by that branch of 
 musical art which appeals more particularly to 
 individual sentiment, and provides for him who. 
 
FRANZ SCHUBERT. 243 
 
 wearied and disgusted with the ignohle elements 
 which, alas! too frequently degrade the musical 
 profession, turns to the privacy of home and seeks 
 refreshment and solace in what may, in truth, be 
 called " fire-side" music. " Franz Schubert," says 
 the poet Mayrhofer (Schubert's friend and com- 
 panion), " was my good genius, who faithfully 
 escorted me through life with melodies suited to 
 every occasion, whether of trouble, peace, change, 
 anxiety, sorrow, or joy." Beethoven himself, during 
 his last days on earth, keenly relished Schubert's 
 songs ; and Jean Paul requested to hear the 
 ' Erlking ' once more before he died. As the bard 
 himself says in the narrative of his vision (' My 
 dream'), even the dying were " moved alternately 
 by love and sorrow." — "And for the second time, 
 with a heart full of unspeakable affection for those 
 who had spurned me, I once more bent my steps 
 to distant lands. For many a long year, I sang 
 songs. If I would sing of love, it turned to 
 pain ; and if I would sing of pain, it turned to 
 love. Thus was I swayed alternately by love 
 and pain." 
 
 Schubert's part songs have only recently been 
 brought into notice. We give the names of 
 those best known and most frequently per- 
 formed :* Quartets for male voices with piano- 
 forte accompaniment, entitled : ' Das Dorfchen' 
 ' Nachtgesang im WaldeJ ' Nachthelle,' ' Schlacht- 
 
 * Note by the Teanslator. We believe only in Germany. 
 
244 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 lied' (Klopstock) for eight part male choir; 
 ' Stdndchen ' (Grillparzer) for mezzo-sopran and 
 choir of female voices ; * Miriams Siegesgesang ' 
 for soli and choir (the instrumentation by 
 Fr. Lachner) ; ' Gesang der Geister iiber den 
 Wassem' for eight part choir and bowed in- 
 struments. 
 
 Some of Schubert's pianoforte pieces, viz., two 
 Fantasias in C (arranged for pianoforte and 
 orchestra by Liszt*) and F minor respectively 
 (the latter for two performers), the Impromptus 
 and Moments mv^icals^ are replete with originality 
 and rhythmic vivacity ; but exuberance of fancy 
 too often interferes with just and true proportion 
 in the form in his sonata writings. Schumann — 
 an enthusiastic admirer of Schubert — says, with 
 great truth, of the three last Sonatas (dedicated 
 to himself by the publisher) : " Brimming over 
 with invention, never at a loss, always musical 
 and tuneful, Schubert pours forth a rich stream 
 of melody, only occasionally interrupted by emo- 
 tional interludes, which, however, quickly subside. 
 
 * Liszt has therein rightly appreciated the symphonic character of 
 this piece ; and Schumann's surmise (principally in relation to the 
 Sonata for two performers, op. 140) — that a good number of 
 Schubert's compositions were originally intended for orchestra, but 
 that he had only time for a pianoforte sketch — is, we think, worth}' 
 of attention. His active, ever-prolific mind sought an easier mode 
 of expression, for which the pianoforte ofifered the readiest advantages. 
 Hence, Schubert is the exact opposite of the later musicians, who 
 endeavoured to write symphonies, but, in fact, only produced 
 quartets. 
 
FRANZ SCHUBERT. 245 
 
 This is the impression they made on me. He 
 concludes in such a strain of sweet content- 
 ment and ease, as if he were ready to begin again 
 next day/' In another passage he writes about 
 the Sonatas (op. 42 and 53) and the Fantasia op. 
 78 as follows : " Without much ado, we may pro- 
 nounce these three Sonatas splendid; but his 
 Fantasia Sonata is, we think, the most perfect in 
 form and matter. After it, comes the one in 
 A minor " (op. 42, but we prefer the second in 
 A minor op. 143, and dedicated to Mendelssohn 
 by the publisher).* 
 
 Of Schubert's remaining instrumental composi- 
 
 ♦ Equally characteristic is Schumann's opinion of Schubert as a 
 bard and composer in general. " If fecundity is a proof of genius, 
 Schubert is one of the greatest. He would probably in time 
 have set the whole of German literature to music. Whatever he 
 tried, broke forth into music ; JEschylus, Klopstock (so difficult to 
 compose) yielded to his touch, yet he discovered unsuspected depths 
 in W. Miiller's simple verses," " Schubert will ever be a favourite 
 with the young ; he has that for which they most sympathize — 
 ardent affections, bold imagination, vigorous action ; he tells them 
 that which they like best — tells them of strange adventures, maidens, 
 love-affairs; he is by no means devoid of wit and humour, but 
 never allows these qualities to destroy the tender impression of his 
 music. At the same time, he excites the imagination as no other, 
 except Beethoven, has ever done. We find reminiscences of Beethoven 
 in his music ; but had Beethoven never existed, Schubert would 
 still have been the same, though his peculiar bent might perhaps 
 have been longer in declaring itself (?). Compared to Beethoven, 
 Schubert is a feminine character — more talkative, gentler, tenderer. 
 True, he has powerful movements, nor is he wanting in breadth and 
 vigour ; but it is as a gentle entreating woman beside a commanding 
 masculine character — though only in comparison to Beethoven. 
 Compared to others, he is masculine enough ; for he is the most 
 vigorous and original of modern composers." 
 
246 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 tions, the most remarkable are : the Quartet in 
 D minor for stringed instruments ; the Quintet 
 in C major, the (so-called) ForelJen Klavierqita* 
 tuor ; and, above all, the great Symphony in C 
 [written March 1828] — which Mendelssohn and 
 Schumann have pronounced to be the finest 
 orchestral composition after Beethoven. The 
 last (and only one in print) of Schubert's seven 
 Symphonies is a work teeming with imagina- 
 tion ; unfortunately, its extreme length deprives 
 it of much of the effect which a due observance of 
 proportion and form would have insured. " As to 
 analysing the several movements, it would afford 
 satisfaction neither to ourselves or others ; we 
 must be at the pains of copying the whole Sym- 
 phony if we would have an idea of its romantic 
 conception. Of the second movement, which 
 appeals to us in such touching strains, we would, 
 however, say a few words. It contains a passage 
 in which a horn is heard, as if a long way off, 
 and always seems to me to come from distant 
 spheres. Hush ! one listens and waits as though an 
 angelic visitor were stealing through the orches- 
 tra."* That Schubert left a considerable number 
 of works, especially instrumental compositions, un- 
 finished is easily accounted for when we bear in 
 mind his intense activity ever since his thirteenth 
 year. It is a fact, that he never corrected his 
 compositions — he had " no time " for that. 
 * R. Schumann. 
 
FRANZ SCHUBERT. 247 
 
 Of nearly twenty — mostly unfinished — Operas 
 (Kreissle aptly calls them " song " operas), 
 Vaudevilles, and Melodramas of Schubert, the 
 operetta, ' Der hdusliche Krieg oder die Verschwo- 
 renen,' by Castelli, is the only one which has 
 recently been brought on the stage (at Francfort, 
 Vienna, &c.) The greater number have never 
 appeared on the stage, — and are not very likely 
 to do so at a time when plays and operas bor- 
 rowed from French examples monopolize the 
 boards of first-class theatres. Of the charming 
 and graceful music to ' Rosamunde ' we wrote as 
 follows on the occasion of its performance by the 
 Academy of Music at Coblentz : '' Since the 20th 
 of December, 1823, when the following notice 
 appeared in the Viennese papers — ' Eosamunde, 
 Princess of Cyprus, drama in four acts, with 
 chorus, incidental music, and dances, by Helmina 
 von Chezy, nee Baroness Klenke, music by Herr 
 Schubert ' — this music has probably been seldom 
 heard in a concert room. The overstrained 
 sentimentality of Frau von Chezy's style (which 
 caused even Weber's Euryanthe to become ' Verb- 
 nuyante') would alone prevent this piece from 
 keeping the stage. The tuneful andante and 
 vigorous allegro of the Overture are so delight- 
 ftil, that we cordially echoed the loud * encore ' it 
 called forth. Its loose structure — as compared 
 with the great classical models — reminds one of 
 Weber's style, particularly ' Preciosa,' to which 
 
248 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Schubert's music (inasmuch as it consists of a 
 few songs and choruses) bears some resemblance. 
 We prefer the choruses to the dreamy Moon- 
 Hght Ballad ; and, of them, more especially the 
 chorus of spirits, whose solemn strains are worthy 
 to be compared with the priests' choruses in the 
 Zauberflote." When a reviewer of far greater 
 merit than ourselves declared of the aforesaid 
 operetta that, notwithstanding its unpretending 
 style, it contains more true beauty than all 
 Wagner's operas put together, we presume we 
 are not far wrong in supposing that Schubert's 
 other dramatic compositions are of sufficient 
 merit to warrant their performance at concerts. 
 
 Among Schubert's very numerous sacred 
 compositions (Masses, Oratorios, Hymns, &c.) the 
 E flat Mass is considered the finest ; this, as 
 well as the grand Symphony, was written in the 
 year of his death. 
 
 Schubert was, in every respect, a wonderfully 
 gifted man — admirably calculated to combine 
 Beethoven's depth with Mozart's facility and 
 grace. He was, unfortunately, prematurely 
 snatched away whilst in the full enjoyment of 
 his powers, so that a great many of his works 
 never attained that maturity and finish which we 
 admire in his songs and ballads. 
 
 So little is known of Schubert's life, that we borrow from Kreissle 
 a few passages bearing on the subject — reserving to ourselves the 
 privilege of some alterations and abbreviations. "His daily work 
 
FRANZ SCHUBERT. 249 
 
 was usually begun in the forenoon, and continued without inter- 
 mission till dinner-time. When writing, his whole being was 
 absorbed in music ; his compositions had such an effect on him, that 
 eyewitnesses affirm they could frequently observe in his flashing eye 
 and altered speech that he was labouring under intense excitement. 
 The rest of the day was almost invariably devoted to social pleasures ; 
 and, in summer, to country excursions with his friends. But the 
 slightest encouragement sufficed to awake the slumbering muse ; 
 as we learn from the anecdote of his setting Shakespeare's exquisite 
 sonnet (' Hark, hark ! the lark at heaven's gate sings,') to music 
 during one of these excursions ; after being put on paper it was 
 sung off at once at sight. Whoever gave Schubert lines to be set 
 to music might be certain, if he took a liking for the subject, 
 that the work would be completed in the shortest possible time. 
 Thus the well-known song * The Wanderer ' was written in an 
 incredibly short space of time ; likewise the * Erlking,' which, 
 immediately after perusing Goethe's poem several times in the 
 greatest excitement, he sat down and composed as fast as he could 
 write the notes. 
 
 " When visiting at the houses of the great — which he only did 
 when invited for the purpose of accompanying his own songs — 
 Schubert was reserved and shy. No sooner had he finished his 
 exquisite playing of the accompaniment to his songs than he put on 
 a serious face, and withdrew to an adjoining room. Indifferent to 
 applause, he avoided all compliments, and sought only the approba- 
 tion of his intimate friends. Though he never danced, he was 
 sometimes present at private parties given at friends' houses, when 
 he would obligingly seat himself at the pianoforte and, for hours 
 together, extemporise the most beautiful dance music. (What 
 a contrast to some amateurs, who would not condescend to this, let 
 alone extemporising 1) Such passages as took his fancy he would 
 repeat, so as to fix them in his memory, and afterwards write them 
 do\vn. When not invited out, he would spend the evening at the 
 inn with his friends — the minority of whom were musicians. At 
 those times he was always communicative, amusing, and witty 
 withal ; but downright mirth was foreign to his disposition. Maybe 
 these meetings were prolonged into the small hours of the night, and 
 the bounds of strict sobriety now and then over-passed. As to the 
 stories current of Schubert's intemperate habits, they are, if not 
 absolute inventions, at least gross exaggerations. It is true, Schubert 
 was an epicure* in wine, and frequently indulged in a glass or two 
 
250 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 more than was good for him. On these occasions he was apt to be 
 noisy, and his society became unpleasant. 
 
 " Of the Operas jDerformed at that time, Weigl's * Schweizer- 
 familie ' mterested him greatly ; indeed, it was the first opera he 
 had heard. He also admired Cherubini's * Medea,' Boieldieu'b 
 * Jean de Paris,' ' Cendrillon,' by Isouard, but principally Gluck's 
 'Iphig6nie en Tauride.' This opera always delighted him; and 
 its noble, lofty simplicity caused him to prefer it to every other. It 
 would appear that the melodious but shallow (?) tunes of the Italian 
 Opera (then at its zenith) had fewer charms for him. For the 
 rest, he admired Lablache, and Rossini's ' Barbiere di Seviglia' — 
 which never yet displeased any one — was a favourite with him ; he 
 also liked some of the pieces in * Otello.' " 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The Successors of Mozart. The Italian, French, and 
 German Opera. 
 
 "Music has to bewail not only a great genius, 
 but blighted expectations." Such is Grillparzer's* 
 epitaph on Franz Schubert ; and, in truth, never 
 had the tuneful muse sustained a heavier loss. 
 Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, like Bach and 
 Handel, had gloriously fulfilled the promise of 
 their youth ; but to Schubert — the one of all 
 others who might have taken his place beside the 
 three great Viennese musicians — only a short 
 sojourn was allotted here on earth ; and the 
 "spark divine," which Beethoven perceived in 
 young Schubert, was destined never to expand 
 into a warmth and light difiusing flame. Conse- 
 quently, his genius left no impress on the period 
 which immediately succeeded him. Song compo- 
 sition was, as yet, quite a new branch, and Schubert's 
 instrumental — especially his pianoforte — composi- 
 tions could not hold their ground beside the great 
 
 * Grillparzer was the author of several tragedies : Saj[>pho, Medea, 
 and others. 
 
252 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 classical models. The lofty ideality and harmony 
 of proportion which characterize these latter is 
 wanting in the writings of Schubert, whose ten- 
 dency is altogether a more personal and realistic 
 one. His instrumental compositions represent 
 his own feelings exactly as they were, and rarely 
 with the refined, artistic grace which we admire 
 in his songs. They are tinged with the sensa- 
 tional (if we may be allowed the term) element of 
 modern literature, which was only fairly recog- 
 nized and artistically treated by Mendelssohn and, 
 more particularly, Schumann. The Impromptus 
 and Moments miLsicals remind one strongly of the 
 Mendelssohnian ' Song without words' and the 
 Schumann Phantasiestiick, Thus, Schubert de- 
 notes the transition between the " classical" period 
 and the " romantic" school of modem days. But 
 his own generation knew but little of Schubert, 
 and Beethoven's lofty originality was unattainable. 
 " Who can write anything after Beethoven?" was 
 Schubert's own exclamation. Accordingly, Haydn 
 and Mozart were the masters whom the next 
 generation took for their models. History cannot 
 take count of the enormous undergrowth of mu- 
 sicians who followed in the steps of these great 
 masters ; a few instances, however, may be selected 
 from among the multitude — not so much for their 
 originality, as for their judicious and masterly 
 treatment of the forms in music. 
 
 In symphonic composition we find little that 
 
SUCCESSORS OF MOZART. 253 
 
 recommends itself to our notice ; for without 
 poetical imagination and powerful resources in 
 harmony — indeed, without a certain heroic cha- 
 racter — this branch of art is scarcely conceivable. 
 These high qualifications were, however, not 
 vouchsafed to the " Viennese school," and their 
 Symphonies (judging from their purely lyrical 
 style and reduced dimensions) are nothing more 
 than adaptations of the quartet. What Eochlitz 
 misses in the operas of the charming violoncellist 
 and song composer Danzf, viz., brilliancy, 
 originality, distinctness, and character, is wanting 
 also in the symphony writers of the period — 
 Ferd. Eies, F. E. Fesca, Onslow, A. Eomberg, 
 &(t. ; though (as schoolmasters are wont to say of 
 their pupils) they took great pains with their 
 work. The symphonies of George Onslow 
 [17 84 — 18 5 3] — still occasionally performed — are 
 models of form, being free from eccentricity, but 
 likewise from imagination, faultless in the detail, 
 ... in short, plain and straightforward like him- 
 self and whatever else is of true British origin. 
 Eieh]* is quite right in laying so much stress on 
 the excellence of Onslow's quartet composition in 
 regard to form, as, now-a-days, it is so much the 
 fashion to exalt the " idea" in works of art at the 
 expense of proportion and true beauty. " On the 
 other hand, Onslow's Symphonies," continues 
 Eiehl, "are nothing more than quartets for 
 
 * MvrSik. Characterkojfe. Vol. i. 
 
254 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 orcliestra ; and of his operas (' Le Colporteur' &c.) 
 the Overture is the best part. Onslow could not 
 get beyond chamber music, as Platen could not 
 get beyond lyrical poetry." 
 
 On the whole, the quartet was the best oflf ; the 
 quartets ofF.E.FESCA [1789— 1826]and Andreas 
 EoMBERG [I7C7— 1821] can, in K. M. v. Weber's 
 and Eochlitz' judgment, bear listening to even after 
 those of Haydn and Mozart. Romberg's Can- 
 tatas with orchestral accompaniment': * The Song 
 of the Bell,' * Die Kindesmorderin ' (wjiich latter 
 he considered his best composition), * The Power 
 of Song' by Schiller, 'Die Harmonie der Sphdren,' 
 ' Was hleiht und was schwindet ' are the only songs 
 of the kind still performed and listened to with 
 interest. A modern audience, as a matter of 
 course, finds them old-fashioned and tedious — as 
 it were, "homely fare" for commonplace folks. 
 After all, it is more palatable than many of our 
 modern concoctions. We cannot deny that the 
 fire in the ' Song of the Bell,' for instance, is 
 rendered much too tamely ; but it was in accord- 
 ance with the taste of the day, which preferred 
 melody to the more vigorous movements and 
 ensembles, (Our generation must have striking 
 effects — mere beauty of expression is comparatively 
 disregarded.) Of a similar calibre, but more 
 in the modern taste, are the tuneful, melodious 
 Symphonies of J. W. Kalliwoda [bom at Prague 
 1801] which may be reckoned among the best works 
 
SUCCESSORS OF MOZART. 255 
 
 of their day, but they fail to satisfy the highest 
 requirements of taste. His concert overtures, 
 however, are distinguished by completeness of 
 form and effective arrangement, while the brilliant 
 pianoforte piece ^ L' engagement de danse' should 
 be compared with Weber'b far richer and more 
 refined * Aufforderung zum Tanz! 
 
 Mozart's influence on form and construction, 
 which we discern in the above-mentioned works, 
 found its most complete expression in JOB.. NEP. 
 HUMMEL [born at Presburg, November 14th, 
 1778, died chapel-master at Weimar, October 
 17th, 1837]. After the three great masters, 
 Hummel is the best pianoforte (not sonata) com- 
 poser ; and, as such, is the founder of a school which 
 has cast into the shade Dussek (' La consolation' 
 * La chasse,' &c.), Steibelt, Pleyel, Wolfl, &c. 
 His compositions (principally calculated for the 
 display of finished execution) are models in point 
 of form. The most remarkable are his Eondos, and 
 the well-known Polonaise ' La bella Capricciosa' 
 Equally admirable are his concertos^ though the 
 accompaniment is occasionally too florid — a fault 
 from which we must, for very difierent reasons, 
 exonerate modern concerto composers, (who, en 
 revanche^ make all the more noise in the inter- 
 ludes). Hummel's grand Septet for pianoforte, 
 stringed and wind instruments, is generally, and 
 with justice, considered his best work ; it is a 
 
256 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 sterling, as well as brilliant and flowing composi- 
 tion, though not sufficiently profound to be com- 
 pared with anything of Beethoven's. In piano- 
 forte playing, especially extempore. Hummel was 
 esteemed the first of his day. Even Spohr — so 
 apt to find fault — concedes this much.* With 
 all this, he did what many of Liszt's pupils hold 
 to be incompatible with genius — he played strictly 
 in time. "The tempo rubato — that insufferable 
 fashion of hurrying on in one place and holding 
 back in another, now in vogue, with which a great 
 many pianists (and almost all singers) torture 
 real lovers of music — was held in abhorrence by 
 Hummel."! In order to appreciate his Masses, 
 one has only to compare them with Neukomm's 
 (of the same period), still occasionally performed. 
 In after years, Hummel wrote excellent arrange- 
 
 ♦ " For me, his extempore playing had the greatest charms ; no 
 pianoforte plnyer has ever equalled him in this. Being once asked 
 to play waltzes for some dancing that was going on in the adjoining 
 room, he executed a series of fantasias, but always in waltz rhythm, 
 so that the dancers were not disturbed. Afterwards, he took easy 
 themes and passages from pieces which I and others had been 
 playing that evening, introduced them into a waltz, and repeated 
 them each time with brilliant and striking variations. He even 
 introduced one of the themes into a fugue, and came out with all his 
 contrapuntal resources ; and that without in the least interfering 
 with the enjoyment of the waltzers. Then he went back to the 
 old-fashioned style, and finally went off into a bravura surpassing 
 anything that had ever been heard of him. Throughout thef7ial€, 
 the ail's were clearly discernible, so that the whole thing was a really 
 artistic production." Spohr's Autobiography. Vol. i., p. 206. 
 
 t Musik. Brief e von eiiiem Wolilbekanten. P. 217 of the second 
 edition. Leipzig, 1860. 
 
SUCCESSORS OF MOZART. 267 
 
 ments of some of Haydn's and Mozart's Sym- 
 phonies, and of the first seven Symphonies of 
 Beethoven (for pianoforte, flute, violin, and 
 violoncello). 
 
 The classic Moscheles (Professor at the 
 Leipsic Conservatory since 1846) followed up 
 Hummers style {concerto for two pianofortes : 
 * Hommage a Haendel,' &c.) ; but Kalkbrenner 
 (his rival in Vienna in 1823), and yet more 
 Thalberg [born 1812] (unequalled for graceful 
 and brilliant pianoforte execution) restricted them- 
 selves solely to manual dexterity on their instru- 
 ment. In a certain sense, K. M. von Weber 
 may be regarded as successor of Hummel in 
 pianoforte composition, although he surpasses 
 him in originality, vigour, and variety. His florid 
 Variations, Eondos, Polonaises, and Concertos 
 are well worthy the study of thoroughly efficient 
 pianists, but his Sonatas betray (though not to 
 the same extent as Hummel's) incoherence in 
 the design; — their Adagios and Minuets are lovely; 
 but in the Allegro movements, especially in 
 the secondary subjects, we frequently meet 
 with diff*use, meaningless phrases. The chamber 
 sonata, says Eiehl, gave way to the concert 
 sonata. 
 
 Compared with Hummel's compositions, the 
 scholastic and formal Sonatas of Clementi [born 
 at Eome 1752, died in London 1832] are of small 
 account. Mozart said — what none but a Mozart 
 
 S 
 
258 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 could say — ^lie was a mere mechanician. His best 
 work is, in fact, that great collection of Etudes 
 ' Gradus ad Parnasswriy which has, however, 
 been in great measure superseded by those of his 
 pupil, Joh. B. Cramer. The Etudes of this 
 latter are still held in high repute, but his other 
 compositions are, happily for him, forgotten ; 
 and of dementi's remaining pupils only two 
 have distinguished themselves as composers : 
 John Field, who wrote Notturnos in a sweet and 
 tender strain, and Ludwig Berger, whose Sonatas 
 were, however, no longer suited to the taste of the 
 day. The pianoforte became the instrument of 
 fashion, smd'L* etude de la velocitf the stereotyped 
 compendium of musical tuition. Karl Czerny 
 [1791 — 1857], the head of the Viennese piano- 
 forte teachers, was really a good musician and 
 excellent teacher (Liszt and Dohler are among his 
 pupils), but an all too prolific writer {composer 
 we may not call liim), whose works, written 
 invltd Minerva^ and amounting altogether to nine 
 hundred, have, till quite recently, ruled the 
 musical market. " Ever since I can remember, I 
 have given lessons for twelve hours daily ; I re- 
 quire four hours for composing, one for reading, 
 one for eating, and six for sleeping." It is a 
 fa<3t, that he had three or four pieces of music 
 lying on as many desks, all of which he worked 
 at at once. With inferior resources and less 
 exertion, this profitable trade was continued by 
 
SUCCESSORS OF MOZART. 25R 
 
 the French firms : Francois Hiinten, Henri Herz 
 and Co., &c. ; who, in their turn, are succeeded 
 by Charles Yoss, Th. Oesten, Henri Cramer, 
 &c., in Gfermany. 
 
 In vocal composition we distinguish Zumsteeg 
 [1760—1802], Schiller's intimate friend in youth. 
 His settings of Burger's ballads contain several 
 points of interest, especially in the picturesque 
 accompaniments ; in other respects they are, 
 because devoid of vigour and originality, now 
 quite antiquated. Among the songs of that 
 period, two of Eomberg's : * Know'st thou the 
 Land ' and ' Fluchtiger ah Wind und Welle ' 
 (Herder) are worthy of notice. 
 
 The Opera followed in the footsteps of Mozart's 
 'Entfiihrung' and ' Zauberflote ;' and, along 
 with it, the Viennese Volksoper founded by 
 Dittersdorf, which, on account of its peculiarity, 
 must not remain unnoticed. Karl von Ditters- 
 dorf [properly K. Ditters, born at Vienna 
 November 2nd, 1739, died a retired officer of the 
 Prince Bishop of Breslau's household, October 
 31st, 1799] introduced, in lieu of the VaitdevUk 
 and Liederspiel,* the genuine Opera Comique 
 with ensembles and Jinali into German dramatic 
 music. His best work is ' Dohtor und Apotheker! 
 "After that, I patched a number of operas to- 
 
 * Sort of operetta. 
 
260 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 gether," says the poor destitute fellow in his 
 highly interesting autobiography, " of which a 
 good number have been played in various German 
 theatres." Dittersdorf is especially happy in 
 ridiculous and comic scenes, and is, perhaps, the 
 only genuine caricaturist Germany ever produced ; 
 he is also an excellent musician, but, unfortunately, 
 too careless of his talents — talents which called 
 forth G luck's admiration, and are evident in his 
 more serious compositions, such as Oratorios, 
 Symphonies, &c. Although more musically gifted 
 than most of his successors, he was fully conscious 
 of the true aims of art, as is proved by his essay in 
 the Lelpziger AUgem. Musikzeitung entitled: *0n 
 the limits of the Heroic and Comic in Music.'* 
 His comic operas may be called perfect in vivid 
 characteristic and true observance of form in the 
 several pieces of music ; Spohr esteems them in 
 regard to "innate musical value" far above 
 Qretry's operettas. 
 
 A. Kauer, Schenk, and the wonderfully pro- 
 lific Wenzel MiJLLER [1767 — 1835] — whose 
 clever farces were relished even by the refined 
 Hoffmann — wrote operettas in a light, popular 
 style. The music of these popular composers 
 (who would have been quite equal to a higher 
 walk of art) is, in its way, thoroughly original, 
 and its tone healthy and vigorous, though by no 
 means devoid of the tender element (" So leb denn 
 
 * Ueher die Ordnzen des Heroischen und Komischen in der Musik, 
 
SUCCESSORS OP MOZAUT. 261 
 
 wohl, du stilles Haus " and other songs by 
 Miiller are favourite tunes in German}^). The 
 dry humour of these pieces is immeasurably supe- 
 rior to the allusive verses of the modern burlesque, 
 whose wit consists solely in vulgar puns and alli- 
 terations. But they also require a better musical 
 and vocal cast than the small summer theatres of 
 Germany are able to command. 
 
 As to the Opera itself, few signs of life were 
 visible in Germany. The greater number of 
 composers (when they did not write Italian 
 Operas) wisely estimated their own powers by 
 restricting themselves to the Singspiel modified 
 into Opera form ; as, for instance, Joseph Weigl 
 [born at Eisenstadt, in Hungary, 1766, died at 
 Vienna, February 3rd, 1846], vAiosq ' Schweizer- 
 familie ' is remarkable for masterly treatment of 
 form. While admiring its delicate, vivid instru- 
 mentation and exquisite vocalism, we cannot but 
 protest against the excessive sentimentality which 
 pervades the whole piece. Peter von Winter 
 [born at Mannheim 1754, died at Munich 1825] 
 aimed at a loftier style of pathos in his opera 
 compositions, but fell short of Mozart in rhythm- 
 ical structure of the aria and dramatic movement. 
 Only one of his operas, ' Das unterbrochene Op- 
 f erf est' is still held in repute. It is characterized 
 by the sweetness and clearness of its melodies, by 
 powerful choruses and rich ensembles. 
 
262 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Mozart's influence is far more discernible in some 
 of the masters of Italian Opera. Increased richness 
 of harmony, fuller instrumentation, and dramatic 
 vigour, imparted a higher style to the Italian 
 branch of operatic art. Eighini [1756 — 1812] 
 almost equalled Mozart in the construction of his 
 vocal pieces, but cannot compare with him for dra- 
 matic action. His operas are, in fact, — what Abbe 
 Armand called Italian Operas in Gluck's day — 
 des concerts dont le drame est le pretexte. Sac- 
 CHiNi [1735 — 1786] wrote more in the Gluck 
 style (' Oedipe a Colone '). Antonio Salieri [bom 
 at Legnano in the Venetian territory 1750, died at 
 Vienna 1825, after having, during fifty-nine years, 
 served under four Austrian sovereigns] is almost 
 a German in the style and character of his music. 
 He resembled Mozart by adopting a medium be- 
 tween the lyrical tenderness of the Italian school 
 and Gluck's severely chaste style. His French 
 opera * Les Dandides^ the composition of which 
 was entrusted to him by Gluck (at that time 
 desirous of leaving Paris and returning to Vienna), 
 was, in the first instance, attributed to the latter ; 
 and that the Viennese actually preferred his 
 * AxuT, Re d' Ormns ' to 'Don Giovanni ' (as 
 also, by the way, Martin's opera ' Una cosa 
 vara ' to ' Figaro ') is a fact which speaks for 
 itself. Mosel considers it the finest Italian opera 
 
 * Ueher das Lehen und die Werke des Anton Salieri. Wien, 
 1827. 
 
THE ITALIAN OPERA. 263 
 
 extant, not excepting Mozart's ' Titus.' His 
 comic operas (' La Grotta di Trifonio' &c.) are, 
 likewise, said to contain many pieces of merit. 
 At the present day, Salieri's operas (especially as 
 compared with the vapid music of some of the 
 modern Italian composers) meet with unmerited 
 neglect. Like Winter and Eighini, whose vocal 
 exercises are still in repute, Salieri was an excel- 
 lent and influential master, especially in composi- 
 tion (Weigl, Hummel, Moscheles, Schubert, 
 Liszt, and others, are of the number of his 
 pupils)« 
 
 Foremost in comic opera stands Paesiello 
 [1741 — 181(3], Cimarosa's rival, and, like him, 
 remarkable for dramatic action in the finali. In 
 Germany, his favourite operas were ' La hella Moli- 
 nara'' and ' 11 Re Teodoro in VeneziaJ Fioravanti 
 [born 17 64, died 183 7] displayed considerable talent 
 for comedy ; his opera 'Le Cantatrici villane was 
 for a long time the stock piece of Grerman theatres. 
 Almost as superior to Fioravanti as Mozart to 
 Dittersdorf, is Cimarosa [born at Naples 1755, 
 died at Venice, January 11th, 1801] a genuine 
 master of musical comedy. Like Mozart, he 
 excels in those parts of an opera which decide its 
 merit as a work of art, viz., the ensembles and 
 finali. His admirable, and by no means anti- 
 quated, opera ' II Matrimonio segreto' (the charming 
 offspring of his " secret marriage " with the Mozart 
 opera) is a model of exquisite and graceful 
 
264 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 comedy^ The Overture bears a striking re- 
 semblance to that of * Figaro/ and the instru- 
 mentation of the whole opera is highly character- 
 istic, though not so prominent as in Mozart. 
 Especially delightful are the secret love scenes — 
 written evidently con amove, the composer having 
 practised them many a time in his youth. On 
 the occasion of its first performance at Vienna 
 [1791] the opera was repeated by imperial com- 
 mand ; and at Naples it was performed fifty-seven 
 times consecutively. 
 
 Between Cimarosa and Eossini we find a sta- 
 tionary period, represented chiefly by F. Paer and 
 Simon Mayer. The operas (* Sargino' ' Ca- 
 milla,' ' Agnese' ^ I Fuorusciti' &c.) which Paer 
 [1771 — 1839] furnished to order for various royal 
 personages (of whom Napoleon was the last) are, 
 in accordance with the style of the day, brilliant 
 and flowing but vapid and meaningless. His 
 imitation of Mozart's forms is exclusively external, 
 consisting principally in enriched instrumentation. 
 Even less remarkable was Simon Mayer [1763— 
 1845], who endeavoured to germanize the Italian 
 Opera. It sounds curious to hear G. Weber, the 
 thorough bass master, assert that " Germany gave 
 to England a Handel, to France a Gluck, and to 
 Italy a Simon Mayer!" 
 
 To these mediocre composers succeeded a great 
 and original genius — Gioacchino ROSSINI 
 
THE ITALIAN OPERA. 265 
 
 [l»orn at Pesaro in the Eomagna, February 29th, 
 1792].''*' Rossini set at nought the efforts of his 
 imme«liate predecessors to improve the national 
 music by foreign adaptations, and even ventured 
 to caricature the renowned Paesiello (who had 
 composed the 'Barbiere' before him) in the rococco 
 songs of the two old people (Bartolo's arietta and 
 Marcellina's arid). The "saucy favourite of the 
 graces " threw precepts to the four winds (" Che 
 cosa? parole? Effettol EffettoT) and acknow- 
 ledged no other schoolmaster than his own genius 
 and experience. Learned Germans might shake 
 their heads and talk about his superficial work, 
 unlawful modulations and orchestral effects, his 
 crescendo and stretto passages, and even the tame- 
 ness and uniformity of his melodies — about want 
 of artistic finish in short; all these objections 
 were " dispelled by Rossini's opera airs as if they 
 were mere delusions of the fancy."f Everybody 
 v/as enchanted, even Oulibicheff (more candid 
 than most people) admitted, that when listening 
 for the first time to an opera of Rossini's he 
 forgot, for the time being, all he had ever known, 
 admired, played, or sung — it seemed as though 
 he had never heard music before. And no wonder : 
 the main charm of Rossini's operas was melody — 
 
 * Bossini's Leben und Treihen vornelimlich nacli den Nachriclden 
 des Eerrn. v. Stendhal (Vie de Rossini, 2 vols. Paris, 1824), with 
 opinions of contemporary writers on bis music, by Amadeus Wendt. 
 Leipzig, 1824. 
 
 t R. Wagner. 
 
266 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 pleasing, grateful melody, rendered by the singer*s 
 art in sucli a manner as to dazzle and utterly 
 preclude sober judgment. Towards this object, 
 viz., fluent melody and vocalisation, Eossini 
 managed to render, not only the orchestra, but 
 even the chorus (almost entirely disregarded by 
 his predecessors) serviceable, by frequently re- 
 placing the full-voiced finale with a bravura air 
 and chorus {''aria col pertichini"). Finally, to 
 insure effect in any and every case, he wrote out 
 the vocal embellishments (fioriture) in detail 
 (whereas formerly these were left to the taste and 
 judgment of the vocalist) ; in doing which, how- 
 ever, he took into consideration the individual 
 capabiHties of those he wrote for. Thus, he 
 avoided cantahile pieces, because Mad. Colbran, 
 his prima donna (and wife into the bargain) was 
 no longer in her premiere jeunesse, and, conse- 
 quently, plain long drawn notes were unsuited to 
 her. With such faultless mise-eU'Scene, Eossini's 
 operas went the round of all the theatres in 
 Europe. His monopoly of the opera stage — un- 
 precedented in the annals of art — occurred, more- 
 over, during the Eestoration [1813 — 1830], when, 
 after the troublous times which preceded it, people 
 were only too susceptible to the charm of super- 
 ficial, pleasing impressions. Tancredi's air '' Di 
 tanti palpiti " was the favourite song of the period 
 — a period of political exhaustion and musical 
 poverty ; and, certes, it is no mere coincidence 
 
THE ITALIAN OPERA. 267 
 
 that, contemporary with Rossini's operas, dance 
 music enjoyed a pre-eminence of its own in 
 Strauss and Lanneh at Vienna, though their 
 successors, Gung l, Lumbye, Labitzky, Musard, 
 &c., have worthily represented this light branch 
 of musical art. 
 
 Having first tried his hand at farces and one-act 
 operas, Eossini produced [1812] an opera huffa 
 (* La Pietra di Paragone ') at Milan, ' Tancredi ' 
 and a huffa opera, ' Ultaliana in Algieri' at Venice. 
 From 1815 — 1822 he wrote for the stage manager 
 Barbaja at Naples his far-famed opera 'II Barbiere 
 di Seviglia ' (the Overture of which was taken from 
 his opera seria, ' Elisabetta,'' as he had only 
 fourteen days wherein to complete the whole 
 opera) ; afterwards : Otello, Cenerentola, La Gazza 
 Ladra^ La Donna del Lago, Moise in Egitto, &c. ; 
 for Vienna: Zehnira [1822], Semiramide [1823], 
 and, finally, for the Grand Opera at Paris, Le 
 Siege de Corinthe and Gu'dlaume Tell [1829]. 
 
 Rossini is universally allowed to be unequalled 
 in genuine huffa Opera ; but he is quite as great in 
 Opera seria, into which he infused the energy 
 of the huffa {' Semiramide,' ' Moise,' ' Otello '). 
 Rossini is altogether the most comprehensive, 
 and at the same time national, composer the 
 modern Italian Opera has ever had — he is the 
 Mozart of Italy. Conceited German reviewers, 
 however, were never weary of denying to this 
 highly gifted man invention, depth, and character ; 
 
2H8 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 but they had to retract everything when ' Guil- 
 laume Tell' was brought out. "Of all that 
 peculiarly characterizes Rossini's earlier operas, 
 nothing is discoverable in * Tell ;' there is none 
 of his usual mannerism ; but, on the contrary, 
 unusual richness of form, and careful finish of 
 detail combined with grandeur of outline. Mere- 
 tricious embellishments, shakes, runs, and ca- 
 dences are carefully avoided in this work, which 
 is natural and characteristic throughout ; even the 
 melodies have not the stamp and style of Rossini's 
 earlier tunes, but only their graceful charm and 
 lively colouring. In short, Rossini seems meta- 
 morphosed, as it were by a magician's wand, from 
 the Rossini of * Tancredi ' and ' Otello ' into an 
 entirely different artistic personage. If Rossini's 
 extraordinary talents could ever be doubted, this 
 work would furnish undeniable proofs to the 
 contrary."* In his Italian operas, and, we think, 
 yet more in the Stahat Mater (" le joli Stabat ") 
 Rossini remained, of course, what he always was — 
 essentially Italian ; and, why indeed should he, 
 like Simon Mayer, deny his country ? " Pro- 
 found study and workmanship are rarely to be 
 met with in his work ; not because he was un- 
 equal to it, but because he would not take the 
 trouble. As it was, his audience was always 
 pleased, and applauded him." 
 
 ♦ Ambeos. Culturhistorische Bilder aits dem Musiklehen der 
 Oegenwartj p. 41. 
 
THE ITALIAN OPERA. 269 
 
 ' Guillaume Tell ' was the last song of Pesaro's 
 minstrel. Eesigning the field of his labours to 
 others, the great maestro lives in retired ease 
 at his villa at Passy near Paris. All we ever 
 hear of him is now and then a ^tcl^II piece d' occa- 
 sion, or some humorous observation regarding 
 modern musical art. 
 
 Bellini [born at Catania in Sicily 1802, died 
 at Puteaux near Paris 1835] restricted the opera 
 mainly to brilliant vocalisation in the solo parts. 
 He endeavoured to adopt the grave character of 
 the Opera seria, but possessed little or no dra- 
 matic talent ; his operas are essentially lyrical. 
 Herein he mistook the nature of the genus ; and, 
 accordingly, deviated more and more from the 
 true aim of the Opera. The doleful, almost sickly 
 sentimentality which prevails in ' Capuletti e 
 Montecchi' ' La Sonnamhula' and his other operas 
 {'11 PirataJ 'La Straniera,' 'Beatrice di Tenda,' 
 &c.) has, in spite of the sweetness of the airs, a 
 monotonous and tedious effect. His elegiac 
 pathos rises to powerful and genuine emotion in 
 Norma — his chef-d'oeuvre — which is, notwith- 
 standing the weakness of its choruses, the last of 
 the veritable Opera seria. His immediate successor, 
 Donizetti [born at Bergamo 1797, died there 
 1848], was, even for an Italian, far too careless of 
 his very superior talents. From 1822 to 1844 he 
 wrote upwards of sixty operas ; — when required, 
 
270 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 he could even write a whole act in one day. 
 We consider * Lucrezia Borgia ' his best Opera 
 seria ; in ' Lucia di Lammermoor,' ' Belisario,' 
 'Anna Bolena,' 'Marino Faliero^' &c., the 
 march and dance tunes of the music too often 
 afford a strange contrast to the action of the 
 piece ; but of both the first named works the 
 ensembles are good. Of * La Favorite' (written for 
 the Parisian stage) Eiehl says : '* it is superbly 
 tedious.'* Donizetti did violence to his Italian 
 nature in writing this opera ; Bellini, likewise, in 
 his last opera, ' I Puritani ' (written for Paris), 
 approached the French style ; but it remained 
 for Verdi (whom we shall consider hereafter in 
 connection with Meyerbeer) to give musical ex- 
 pression to the modern school of French romance. 
 Although inferior to Rossini in vivacity and 
 colouring, Donizetti displays vigour and origi- 
 nality in comic opera {^ L'Elisire d'Amore,' ' Don 
 Pasquale,' ' La Fille du Eegiment' &c.) 
 
 Mercadante (' II Giuramento 'J, Carafa 
 ('Masaniello'), and others, were but weak imita- 
 tors of Eossini, who endeavoured to conceal 
 poverty of invention by richness of instrumen- 
 tation. In general, modern Italian composers are 
 the reverse of Rossini in this respect : — that their 
 lively pieces, as compared with the cantabile 
 pieces of the same opera, are, for the most part, 
 inferior and frequently trivial; they cannot do 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA. 271 
 
 anything except in dance rhythm ; accordingly, 
 the manufacturers of Grandes Fantaisies sur des 
 motifs de V opera .... have easy work of it. 
 
 The Mozart influence is not discernible in 
 Eossini's successors, though he himself esteemed 
 Mozart the first of musicians (his own ' Barbiere ' 
 he called a musical farce, but 'Le Nozze di 
 Figaro ' a dramma giocoso). On the other hand, 
 the representatives of the French school prior 
 to Auber — Spontini, Cherubini, and Boieldieu — 
 turned their whole attention to the development 
 of Gluck's and Mozart's principles.* As a 
 worthy successor of Grluck we would cite, in the 
 first instance, Mehul [born 1763, died at Paris 
 1817], whose sterling opera * Joseph ' K. M. von 
 Weber admires for its thoroughly biblical ex- 
 pression and discreet management in the instru- 
 mental parts. Deserving of mention is his 
 programme-Overture * Une chasse du jeune Henri! 
 
 G ASPARO SP ON Tim [born at Jesi in the Papal 
 States, "Nov. 14th, 1784, died there January 29th, 
 1851] is the foremost and most gifted of Gluck's 
 successors. He has not, as is frequently asserted, 
 merely polished and adorned Gluck's style, but, 
 
 * De V Opera en France, par M. Castil-Blaze. 2 vols. Paris, 
 1820. This work is not so much a history as a cleverly executed 
 conception of the French Opera as it ought to be. This well- 
 written book failed however in its principal object — that of improving 
 the style of the so-called Orand Opera. 
 
272 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 on the contrary, has endowed it with vigour and 
 action, and altered and modernized it to suit his 
 views, the people for whom he wrote, and the 
 requirements of modern stage practice, in a 
 manner at once original and pleasing. To the 
 majestic repose and lofty ideality of the Gluck 
 drama — so thoroughly commensurate to antique 
 tragedy — Spontini added that indispensable 
 feature of modern opera, viz. — dramatic action. 
 Eemarkable alike for grandeur of conception and 
 ' delicacy of detail, powerful delineation and grace- 
 ful melody, his music, when the context requires 
 it, is replete with brilliancy and military splen- 
 dour. " He is more successful in the delineation 
 of masses and groups,*' says Eiehl,* " than in the 
 portrayal of emotional scenes (?) ; his rendering of 
 the national struggle between the Spaniards and 
 Mexicans in Cortez is, for instance, admirable. 
 He is, likewise, most (?) successful in the 
 management of large masses in the instrumenta- 
 tion. In this respect he was, like Napoleon, a 
 great tactician." 
 
 On the other hand, ' La Vestale ' — in which the 
 French ideal of "gloire" has found its highest 
 expression — his chef-d'oeuvre^ displays Spontini's 
 talents in a new light. His portrayal of 
 character, and truthful delineation of passionate 
 emotion in this opera are masterly indeed. The 
 
 * Musik Character kopfe. Vol. i. 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA. 273 
 
 subject of * La Vestale ' (which resembles that 
 of * Norma/ but how differently treated !) is 
 tragic and sublime, as well as intensely emo- 
 tional. Julia, the heroine, a prey to guilty 
 passion ; the severe, but kindly high priestess ; 
 Licinius, the adventurous lover, and his faithful 
 friend Cinna ; pious vestals, cruel priests, bold 
 warriors, and haughty Eomans are represented 
 with statuesque finish and relief. Both these 
 works, ' La Vestale ' [1807] and ' Cortez ' [1809], 
 are among the finest that have ever been 
 written for the stage ; they are remarkable for 
 naturalness and sublimeness — qualities lost sight 
 of in the noisy instrumentation of his later works 
 (but noisy only as compared with those of con- 
 temporary stage writers). Unfortunately, they 
 can only be performed in the largest theatres, 
 and great tragic singers are rarely to be met with 
 now-a-days. 
 
 The opera ^Olympia [1819] (principally based 
 on splendour of effect) not obtaining the success 
 which he had anticipated, Spontini quitted Paris, 
 and was appointed General Music Director at 
 Berlin. But the grand heroic spirit which 
 animated his earlier noble creations appears to 
 have deserted him in the German Athens ; for 
 there, he could produce nothing better than 
 showy Court and gala operas (' Nurmahal, ' 
 ' Alcidor,' ' Agnes von Hohenstaufen'). One 
 work only of intrinsic merit did he bequeath— 
 
 T 
 
274 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 when compelled by continued annoyances from 
 the Berlin press to resign his appointment — one 
 in. honour of the Prussian name : — ' Borussia,' a 
 song for male voices with orchestra. 
 
 Maria Luigi CHERUB INI [horn at Florence, 
 September 8th, 1760, died at Paris, March 16th, 
 1842) who, if not equal to the greatest masters 
 (for in every style he fell short of perfection), was 
 at least a kindred genius and worthy representa- 
 tive of the Haydn and Mozart school. Having 
 heard his chef-d'oeuvre, ' Les Deux Journees ' [per- 
 formed for the first time June 1800], we are 
 quite able to understand why his operas are no 
 longer performed in France, and rarely in Eng- 
 land and Germany. This opera is, as Eiehl 
 expresses it, " emotion dramatized," and that in 
 accordance with nature and truth ; but for stage 
 effect, especially now-a-days, we think it is too 
 finely chiselled, and the characters are not drawn 
 with sufficient clearness. The music itself is per- 
 fect, being equally distinguished for tenderness 
 and expressiveness as for noble simplicity and 
 purity of form. How would a modern composer, 
 had it fallen to his lot to compose "the days of 
 danger," have filled the house, from gallery to 
 pit, with fear and trembling ! 
 
 Of Cherubini's remaining works (among which 
 Medea and Faniska are the most remarkable), 
 only the Overtures are known. The vigorous and 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA. 275 
 
 tuneful one to Lodoisha, those of Medea (in 
 which emotional expression is so admirably 
 treated), of the ' Abencerages,' of *Anacreon,' 
 &c. All these Overtures are replete with vigour 
 and character ; their admirably drawn outline, 
 exquisite finish, and instrumentation cause them 
 to be reckoned models of their kind. 
 
 What was wanting to Cherubini's operas was 
 only too prevalent in his sacred music ; his 
 Masses, especially, wherever the text afforded the 
 slightest opening, are too dramatic ; some of the 
 pieces are quite operatic — nay theatrical — in style. 
 Thus it came to pass, as a matter of course, that 
 modern church music found its way from the 
 church to the concert room. Accordingly, it was 
 written with a view to this, and — as a reviewer 
 observed of a modern requiem — presented to the 
 listener's imagination a rich and picturesque 
 array of tones in lieu of the former close connection 
 of the music with the liturgy. If (in opposition 
 to the one-sided views of some critics) we admit 
 the lawfulness of this tendency of modern Church 
 music in consideration of the circumstances of 
 the age, we must allow that Cherubini's expressive 
 as well as brilliant Mass in D minor, and espe- 
 cially his Requiem in C minor [IS 10], are noble 
 and sublime conceptions. Notwithstanding the 
 most lavish employment of orchestral and choral 
 resources, these works are characterized by lofty 
 simplicity, exquisite proportion, distinctness of 
 form, and powerful imagination. When the 
 
276 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 'Requiem' was about to be performed [1835, in 
 honour of Boieldieu s memory], tbe clergy ob- 
 jected to the employment of female voices: 
 Cherubini, accordingly, wrote a second requiem, 
 similar to the first, for a choir of male voices. 
 Of the * Hymnes Sacres (of which the composition 
 was probably suggested by Marcello's Psalms 
 which Cherubini undertook to edit) we dis- 
 tinguish two of the best known : the Ave Maria 
 for treble voice with hautboy ohligato is, in truth, 
 a piece of vanity and affectation — a mere thea- 
 trical display ,• but the four part Pater noster 
 (with the exception of the secular tone of its 
 conclusion) is not devoid of Church-Hke expression 
 and genuine devotion. 
 
 Taken altogether, Cherubini's music is cha- 
 racterized by mascuhne vigour and earnestness. 
 It is of a noble calibre, and savours more of 
 German depth than Italian sweetness, and that in 
 a greater degree even than Mozart's music ; for 
 which reason, Beethoven reckoned him " the most 
 estimable of living composers." But the French 
 said — what Napoleon said of the funeral Cantata 
 for General Hoche — that Cherubini was too 
 learned, especially in his operas — in other words, 
 too German. 
 
 Cherubinrs pupil Boieldieu [born at Rouen, 
 December 16th, 1775, died at his country seat 
 Jarey near Paris, October 9th, 1834] inclined to 
 the light French style. His operas, * Jean de 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA. 277 
 
 Paris [1812] and ' La Dame blanche' [1825]— the 
 result of long years' practice in the national 
 operetta ('Le Calife de Bagdad,' *Ma tante 
 Aurore/ &c.) and the study of Mozart — are the 
 best Trench operas extant ; they are admirable ' 
 and thoroughly popular works. While the 
 musician's taste is gratified by the carefully exe- 
 cuted ensembles (of which the second finale to 
 ' La Dame blanche ' is absolute perfection), by 
 the neatness and gracefulness of the instrumenta- 
 tion, and correctness of the composition through- 
 out ("which alone can insure perpetuity to a 
 musical work"),* the popular taste is delighted 
 by the charming ballads and songs, which have, 
 as it were, become its inheritance ; even the airs 
 are more popular in Germany than those of 
 almost any other opera. Not long since, * La 
 Dame blanche " was performed in Paris for the 
 thousandth time. 
 
 Another pupil of Cherubini's was Boieldieu's 
 successor, Auber [born at Caen in Normandy, 
 January 29th, 1784, since 1842 Director of the 
 Conservatoire at Paris]. He created that opera 
 style which corresponds to (while frequently 
 taking for its subject) the tales and comedies of 
 Eugene Scribe, as also to Parisian life and taste, 
 and in which the simple unadorned expression of 
 feeling makes way for the artificial tone of polite 
 society. Auber is the offspring of modern French 
 * K. M. VON Weber. 
 
278 . HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 civilisation, to which the conventionalities of life 
 are, as it were, second nature ; and although far 
 less original, he is in his best works {Le Maqon, 
 Fra Diavolo, La Part du Diable, Lestocq, Le 
 Domino noir, &c.) quite as real as the easy going 
 jovial Eossini is in his. Auber's opera music is, we 
 admit, by no means profound ; on the contrary, 
 it is too frequently superficial —dancing, as it 
 were, " on the hght fantastic toe ;" but, generally 
 speaking, pleasing, full of lively coquetry, piquant, 
 and withal gracefully frivolous (take, for instance, 
 the undressing scene in ' Fra Diavolo ') — • in 
 short, the genuine expression of modern Parisian 
 life. It addresses itself, therefore, principally to 
 the French esprit, and the clever stage perform- 
 ance of the French acteurs chantants is as requisite 
 to this light style as florid Italian vocalisation is 
 to the Eossini opera. 
 
 Encouraged by success, Auber, unfortunately, 
 exhausted his powers by all too prolific exercise, 
 and repeated himself in a series of works each one 
 inferior to the last, till, at length, the graceful 
 opera composer degenerated into '' un habile 
 faiseur cC operas '' But true genius is never ex- 
 hausted ; it either goes on producing like Mozart, 
 or leaves off at the right time like Eossini. 
 
 Immeasurably superior to the rest of his com- 
 positions is the bold revolutionary opera, ' La 
 Muette He Portici' {Masaniello) [1827] — a truly 
 grand conception in wliich the composer has 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA. 279 
 
 quitted the gay field of Parisian society for the 
 more stirring scenes of political excitement. The 
 music which accompanies the dumb girl's panto- 
 mime, the national dances, and the insurrectionary 
 crowd is perhaps unequalled for powerful and 
 passionate expression. ' Masaniello ' is the most 
 effective of show operas ; its performance at 
 Brussels in 1830 was the signal for revolt. 
 
 Of Auber's successors, Herold [born of Grerman 
 parents at Paris 1791, died 1833], by returning 
 to a simpler form of opera and developing his own 
 genial inspirations (advantages apparent in his 
 pretty opera ' Marie ') might have been the man 
 to restore the opera — now degenerated to a mere 
 spectacle. Unfortunately, he understood the times 
 better than he understood himself. His endeavour 
 to improve upon Auber's talent and manner is only 
 too evident in his shallow and noisy opera, 'Zampa 
 [1830]. His last opera, ' Le Pre aux Clercs^ 
 is remarkable for the brilliant air for treble and 
 violin ohligato, Adolphe Adam [born at Paris 
 1803, died there 1855], who possessed technical 
 abilities, but " sans la moindre pretention au style 
 et au sentiment,'' repeats Auber's opera style in 
 the weakest of imitations (' Le Postilion de Lon- 
 jmneaUj 'Le Brasseur de Preston,' &c.). The 
 same may be said of the English composer Balfe, 
 whose vapid, flimsy operas (' The Bohemian Grirl,' 
 *The Castle of Aymon,' &c.) are nothing but 
 
280 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 effete imitations of French and Italian opera 
 writers. He is inferior to Wallace ('Mari- 
 tana/ * The Amber Witch/ 'Lurline,' &c.), 
 in the instrumentation of his pieces as well 
 as in ensembles. Jul. Benedict [born at Stutt- 
 gardt 1804], in his operas ('The Gipsy's 
 Warning,' * The Eose of Erin,' and * The Bride 
 of Song'), as well as in the popular cantata, 
 ' Undine,' confines himself to the lighter style ; 
 while, in our opinion, Macfarren's attempt to 
 revive the old English music in modern opera is 
 scarcely a successful one. 
 
 Somewhat better than the foregoing is the 
 German Fkiedrich von Flotow [born at Teuten- 
 dorf in Mecklenburg 1811], whose operas, Stra- 
 della, Martha, and Indra (written for the French 
 stage), are cleverly and judiciously adapted to the 
 taste of his audience. According to the severe 
 standard of high-art critics, his talent is esteemed 
 of the weakest ; but we think he is entitled to a 
 milder verdict, for the distinguishing peculiarities 
 of French life are so genially rendered in his 
 works (shall we call it the German element 
 frenchified, or the French element germanized ?) 
 that the result is decidedly pleasing, and unques- 
 tionably — popular. To the external brilliancy of 
 Auber's opera style he has added the two most 
 effective ingredients of Iffland's plays, viz., 
 homely and familiar, as well as touching scenes. 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA. 281 
 
 The play-going public likes to see every-day 
 life, its familiar in and out-door scenes (" nam his 
 plehecula gaudet ") represented on the stage with 
 all the embellishment of music and scenic effect. 
 But, along with the absurdest trivialities, we dis- 
 cover many traits of genuine feeling, and the 
 connoisseur — unless he be all too captious and 
 severe — cannot but be struck w^ith the easy and 
 lively dramatic action, pretty melody, and graceful 
 instrumentation."^ 
 
 Auber was less successful with his later 
 '' grands' operas {Gustave, ou le Bal masque, Les 
 Diamants de la Couronne, Le Lac des Fees, &c.) — 
 partly because a new composer had arisen — one 
 who far surpassed him in clever adaptation of all 
 possible stage effects, viz., Giacomo Meyerbeer 
 [properly Jakob Meyer Beer, born at Berlin, 
 Sept. 5th, 1791, died at Paris, May 2nd, 1864]. 
 In opera composition Meyerbeer is the very cari- 
 cature of the universal Mozart ; he is the cosmo- 
 politan Jew, who hawks his wares among all 
 
 * " For the rest, mediocre productions are not to be despised, so 
 long as they are free from aifectation. We must have something of 
 all sorts — something wherewith to pass the time pleasantly and 
 without intellectual exertion. Moreover, a large portion of the 
 public can appreciate nothing but mediocre productions. For which 
 reason, I would not be hard on a great many favourite songs and 
 pieces, as is the case with too many connoisseurs. All we have a 
 right to expect is, that those who can understand and appreciate 
 nothing but second-rate music should abstain from passing judgment 
 on grand and original compositions." — Thibaut. Ueber Reinlieit der 
 Tmkunst. P. 103. 
 
282 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 nations indifferently, and does his best to please 
 customers of every kind. He endeavoured to 
 conceal absence of originality, vigour, and style 
 — all too apparent in his patch-work melodies — 
 by indefatigable accumulation of every musical 
 and non-musical means of effect within his reach ; 
 and, to do him justice, in his five-act monster 
 operas, 'Robert le Diable' [1831], ' Les Hu- 
 guenots' [1836], and ' Le Prophke' [1849] — 
 mainly written with a view to scenic effect — , he 
 has succeeded only too well. In face of such 
 meretricious advantages as these, it matters little 
 to us whether Meyerbeer improved the opera in a 
 dramatic sense ; if so, the advantages are wholly 
 external. The character of the Meyerbeer drama 
 is, as compared with the weak, sentimental produc- 
 tions of his immediate predecessors (especially 
 in Italy), energetic and vigorous, but overwhelmed 
 by the splendour of the mise-en-scene. Music 
 cannot maintain its concrete beauty and value with 
 such elaborate and heavy theatrical decoration, 
 and these overstrained exertions in search of 
 effect are prejudicial to that which alone can give 
 duration to a work of art, viz. — nature and senti- 
 ment. In spite of the intense exertions of 
 musical abilities of a very high order, Meyerbeer 
 produced nothing great, original, or of a novel 
 kind ; his operas leave on the mind of the more 
 intelligent listeners an impression of mingled 
 admiration and contempt. 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA. 283 
 
 There is no need to enter into the respective 
 merits of these works ; after ' Robert le Diable' 
 and ' Les Huguenots' (both which to a certain 
 extent and under certain conditions we admire), 
 every opera of Meyerbeer's, {'Ein Feldlager in 
 Schlesien [1844], afterwards remodelled into 
 ' Vielka ' for the Viennese, and ' L' Etoile du Nord ' 
 for the Parisian stage ; the music to his brother 
 Michel Beer's tragedy of Struensee [1846]; ' Le 
 Propliete^ ' Dinorah^ ou le Pardon de Ploermel,^ 
 [1859]) abounds more and more in studied effects 
 and strange, unnatural combinations. Phantom 
 nuns dancing, girls bathing, sunrise, skating, 
 gunpowder explosions, a king playing the flute 
 behind the scenes, the prima donna leading a 
 goat, &c. — all this, and more to boot, has been 
 dragged into his operas, and cost the composer 
 himself no trifling sum. The apparently flourish- 
 ing house of Scribe and Meyerbeer could not 
 even await the selling off', but came to a sudden 
 smash. " Meyerbeer's operas left tlie impression 
 that it was impossible to keep going on in this 
 manner without doing something for the higher 
 requirements of art; for, notwithstanding the 
 composer's remarkable talent for musical drama, 
 his operas contain sometimes too much, some- 
 times too little, — too much in the subject-matter, 
 external adornment, and effective 'situations,' — • 
 too little in the absence of poetry, ideality, and 
 sentiment (which are essential to a work of art), 
 
284 HISTORY OF MUSIC, 
 
 as well as in the unnatural and constrained com- 
 binations of the plot."* 
 
 Whereas even the better part of the press 
 considers the ' Huguenots ' to be a superior and 
 remarkable work, we can only reply that the 
 several (and frequently considerable) beauties of 
 this opera (the page's cavatina, Margareta's aria, 
 her duet with Eaoul, the finale of the second act, 
 the grand duets in the third and fourth acts, and 
 the benediction of the swords) cannot blind us to 
 its defects. History must not view the subject 
 she contemplates "from tlie perspective of the 
 
 * ViscHER. Aesthetik. Vol. iii., p. 1149. 
 
 " All honour to great Meyerbeer !" is, of course, the watchword 
 of his party ; but Mendelssohn, who had no part with them, held a 
 different opinion. Concerning Robert le Diable (of which, however, 
 we cannot but admire the rich and masterly instrumentation), he wrote 
 to Immermaun (the poet), from Paris, as follows : " The subject is of 
 the romantic order, i. e., the devil appears in it (which suffices the 
 Parisians for romance and imagination). Nevertheless it is very 
 kad, and, were it not for two brilliant seduction scenes, there would 
 not even be effect. The devil is altogether a poor devil who 
 appears dressed as a knight in order to seduce his son — Robert, a 
 Norman knight, and in love with a Sicilian princess ; he succeeds 
 by persuading him to gamble away all his money and personal 
 property, i. e. his sword ; after which, he causes him to commit 
 sacrilege, gives him an enchanted twig, which takes him to the 
 chamber of the aforesaid princess, and renders him irresistible. All 
 this the son does willingly enough ; but when, at last, he is to sell 
 himself to his father, Scribe brings in a peasant girl, who has in her 
 possession the will of Robert's deceased mother, which she reads to 
 him, and thereby places him in such a state of indecision, that the 
 devil has to disappear below the boards at midnight without having 
 gained his point ; whereupon Robert marries the princess, the 
 peasant girl being a sort of guardian angel. The devil's name is 
 Bertram. I cannot imagine any music for such a cool transaction as 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA. 285 
 
 present and immediate past ;"^ it is her duty to 
 mete out judgment according to the true standard 
 of beauty and fitness in art. ' Les Huguenots ' 
 and that far weaker production the 'Prophete/ 
 are, we think, all the more reprehensible (now-a- 
 days, especially, when too much stress is laid on 
 the subject of a work, and, consequently, on the 
 libretto of an opera) because the Jew has, in these 
 pieces, ruthlessly dragged before the footlights 
 two of the darkest pictures in the annals of 
 Catholicism, nor has he scrupled to bring high 
 mass and chorale on the boards. "He has the 
 ballet on the proscenium, with the organ behind 
 the scenes." t 
 
 this ; and, accordingly, the opera does not please me ; it is devoid of 
 sentiment and feeling, and I do not even find it effective. People 
 admire the music, hut where there is no warmth and truth I cannot 
 even form a standard of criticism." Mendelssohn wrote to his 
 father about this opera as follows : " When, in JRohert le Dialle^ 
 nuns appear one after another and endeavour to seduce the hero, 
 till at length the lady abbess succeeds ; when the hero, aided by a 
 magic branch, gains access to the sleeping apartment of his lady 
 love, and throws her down, forming a tableau which is applauded 
 here and will perhaps be applauded in Germany ; and when, after 
 that, she implores for mercy in an aria ; when, in another opera, a 
 girl undresses herself, singing all the while that she will be 
 married at this time to-morrow — it may be effective, but I find no 
 music in it. For it is vulgar, and if such is the taste of the day and 
 therefore necessary, I prefer writing sacred music." 
 
 K. M. von Weber, Meyerbeer's fellow-pupil under Abbe Vogler, 
 complained, in those days, that in his Italian Operas (* Emma di 
 Besburgo,' '11 Crociato in Egitto,' &c.) "he prostituted his 
 profound, admirable, and German talent for the applause of the 
 crowd which he ought instead to have despised." 
 
 * Berliner National-Zeitung. t Riehl. 
 
286 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 What Meyerbeer achieved on a large, Jacques 
 Offenbach [from Cologne, but naturalized in 
 Paris] attempted on a small scale ; and he has 
 done his very best to corrupt the taste of the 
 masses to its core. Not content with the success 
 which his charming operettas {'Le Manage aux 
 Lanternes,' 'La Fille (VElizondo' &c.) met with, he 
 started " burlesque operas " (written for his own 
 opera company Les Bouffes Parisiens), such as 
 ^Orphee aux Enfers' 'Genevieve de Brabant,' *Le 
 Pont des Soupirs' &c. — a style, of which the object 
 is to parody the Opera seria^ whether " classical " 
 or *' romantic." When the mythological Opera 
 seria was in its prime, satire — within due bounds 
 • — may have been in good taste ; but now, it is 
 nothing but a coarse mockery of the ideal in art. 
 It is characteristic of this low-bred genus that 
 the imitation of animals ( Jupiter *s "fly" song in 
 ' Orphee,' the ' Miau ' song in * La Chatte meta- 
 morphoses en Femme,' cackling of hens in 
 *Genofeva,' &c.) always obtains the greatest 
 applause — animals have become men, and men, 
 animals. 'Orphee,' in especial, owes its chief 
 popularity to the political and satirical allusions 
 with which it abounds, as well as to its scenery 
 and decorations ; as for the music of this opus, 
 nearly all of it is condensed into a set of quad- 
 rilles ; it is made up almost entirely of common- 
 place dance tunes, and is, in short, the music of 
 casinos and gin-palaces. We cannot but augur 
 
THE FRENCH OPERA. 287 
 
 badlj for the future of the drama, as well as for 
 art in general, when we find this heterogeneous, 
 silly stuff actually obtaining enthusiastic applause. 
 
 In comic opera {V Eclair, Les Mousquetaires de 
 la Reine^ &c.) Halevy [properly Levy, 1799 — 
 1862] resembled Auber; but in the grand opera, 
 his brother Israelite Meyerbeer. Eiehl (who de- 
 lights in comparisons) says he is a commentary 
 on Meyerbeer, as Marschner is on Weber. We 
 consider this opinion far too favourable to Halevy, 
 His principal work, 'La JuiveJ is a tedious, heavy 
 opera teeming with Marschner and Wagner reci- 
 tative ; — in a musical point of view, poor, and 
 in moral, objectionable. 
 
 Not so much in Meyerbeer's style, though 
 scarcely more original, is Gounod [born 1818 J who 
 has with true French frivolity, operatized Goethe's 
 Faust for the delectation of the multitude. 
 Margaret is a sentimental Parisian grisette ; Faust, 
 a wild Quartier Latin student ; and so on to the 
 end of the chapter. What would Goethe — who 
 thought Mozart the man to compose his ' Faust ' 
 — have said to this ! " And though the jaded 
 opera habitue, thirsting for novelty, may smile at 
 the pedantic litterateur who shakes his head at 
 Gounod's 'Margareta' and Offenbach's ' Orphee,' 
 and thinks of Beethoven's ' Fidelio ' and Mozart's 
 'Figaro' — it is a disgrace that we should be 
 continually importing such rubbish, while our 
 good old native stores lie mouldering on dusty 
 
288 HISTORY OP MUSIC. 
 
 shelves."* Gounod's latest operas are ' La JReine 
 de Saba' and ' Mireille,' of which the female 
 choruses are the best part. 
 
 Giuseppe Verdi [born at Koncole in Lombardy, 
 1814] — far superior in musical ability to the above- 
 named Frenchman — has resuscitated the '' fearful 
 and horrible " tales of A^ictor Hugo and Dumas 
 fits in his operas, ''EmanV [1844], ^ Riijoletto' 
 [1851], '11 Trovatore; 'La Traviata' [both in 
 1853], which now hold the stage in almost all the 
 cities of Europe. If Verdi were as sound and con- 
 scientious as he is a prolific composer, he might 
 have restored the Italian stage — sorely deterio- 
 rated since Eossini's time — to something of its 
 pristine purity and excellence. As it is, he has, 
 by his fatal connexion with France, rendered his 
 country the worst possible service. Exquisite 
 vocalisation — the pride and glory of the Italian 
 stage — is absolutely threatened with annihilation 
 in the noisy clamour of his operas. Verdi is — 
 i. e. as far as an Italian can be — the successor of 
 Meyerbeer, having all his defects and but few of 
 his merits. Of Verdi's earlier operas {' Nabuco- 
 donozor,' ' / Lombardi' ' I due Foscari,' &c.), 
 and those whose subjects are taken from the 
 dramas of Shakespeare and Schiller (' Macbeth,' 
 * / Mamadieriy * Luisa Miller ') — the least said 
 
 * Deutsche Musik-Zeitung. This somewhat too severe verdict 
 refers rather to Gounod's superficial treatment of Goethe's profound 
 poem than to any defect in the music, which is not only beautiful, 
 but, occasionally, even sublime. 
 
THE GERMAN OPERA. 289 
 
 the better. Nor are his latest productions, ' Un 
 Ballo in Maschera^ ' La Forza del Destino^ &c. 
 much to be commended. 
 
 As was the case in every other country, so also 
 in Germany, did Eossini's operas hold the sove- 
 reignty of the stage ; yet they exerted no influence 
 whatever on musical art and artists in Germany. 
 Even before Eossini had taken Vienna by storm, 
 Weber's Freischiltz created such a sensation at 
 Berlin [June 18th, 1821] as could not fail to 
 decide the tendency of the German Opera during 
 the period that was to follow. 
 
 KARL MARIA von WEBER* [born at 
 Eutin in Holstein, December 18th, 1786, died in 
 London a few weeks after the first performance of 
 'Oberon,' June 5th, 1826] is, above all, a tho- 
 roughly German composer. As his noble battle 
 songs (from Korner's * Leier und Schwerf) had been 
 the means of spreading patriotic feeling, during 
 the war of liberation, far and wide through Ger- 
 many, so did his operas embody the spirit of the 
 romantic school of poetry (which originated in 
 those stirring times) in the brightest and most 
 popular form imaginable. "Weber's music to 
 Preciosa (the subject of which is taken from a 
 novel of Cervantes) is an admirable rendering of 
 
 V 
 
 ♦ The Life of Carl Maria von Weber. From the German of Lis 
 SOD, Baron von Weber. By J. Palgrave Simpson. 2 vols., post 
 8vo. Chapman and Hall. 
 
 U 
 
290 HISTORY OF MTTSIC. 
 
 the true spirit of Spanish romance — so mnch ad- 
 mired and so rarely attained by the romantic 
 school of German literature. How genuine and 
 expressive is Preciosa's song ! how fascinating are 
 those vigorous gipsy choruses, so hearty in their 
 rendering of the joys of forest life — a favourite 
 topic with the romance writers of the period !"* 
 
 Even more delightful is the spirit of romance 
 in the natural and unseen world in * Freischiltz! 
 " I should never," said Beethoven, " have expected 
 it of that quiet fellow. And now he must 
 write operas, one after another, straight a-head, 
 without beating about the bush. That wretch 
 Caspar stands as firm as a house, and wherever 
 the devil puts in his claw, he is felt at once.* 
 But not that alone — notZamiel, the Wolfsschlucht, 
 &c., but the gentle, tender, and expressive strain 
 which, whether joyful or sorrowful, pervades the 
 entire work wins all hearts to ' Freischiitz.' In 
 a natural, unconstrained manner, such as never 
 before had been heard in a prima donna, Agathe 
 — the huntsman's fair fiancee — tells, in dreamy 
 soliloquy, of her true love, her joyous raptures, 
 and overwhelming happiness at her lover's return. 
 In scheme and design * Freischiitz ' resembles 
 not so much an opera as an enriched Singspiel ; 
 highly-finished ensembles and finali would not have 
 suited the style of this thoroughly German and 
 
 * Ambros. K, M. von Weber in seinen Beziehungen zu den Bo- 
 mantikem der deutschen Literatur. Musikleben der Gegenuvartj p. 44. 
 
THE GERMAN OPERA. 291 
 
 popular opera — qualities which, probably, cause it 
 to be looked down upon as '* commonplace " by 
 " men of the future." 
 
 Weber's reputation established of a sudden 
 C' Freischiitz has hit the mark," wrote he to 
 Kind,* immediately after the first performance), 
 he must of course write an opera for the Viennese, 
 and the composer must go to Vienna to superin- 
 tend the first performance of 'Euryanthe (October 
 25th, 1823). "The thing is good," said Beet- 
 hoven ; but F. Schubert went with the public, 
 who said it had too little melody, and ' Freischiitz ' 
 was quite another thing. Whatever the musical 
 beauties of this opera (we refer to Euryanthe's 
 song, " Glocklein im Thale," her duet with Adolar, 
 "Nimm hin die Seele raein," the great aria, 
 *' Zu ihm, zu ihm," the chorus of huntsmen, the 
 ^r^i finale, and the first scenes of the third act), 
 the dismally sentimental libretto, lengthy recita- 
 tives, and elaborate orchestration were not to 
 the taste of the audience. Dramatically speaking, 
 Euryanthe is an admirable, and historically, an 
 important work ; the Marschner opera and Lohen- 
 grin (Wagner) are directly descended from ' Eury- 
 anthe.' Whatever is at all musical in the " music- 
 drama," which Wagner substitutes for the opera, 
 appears to us to be nothing more than a very one- 
 sided development of Weber's style in -this opera. 
 
 Weber, however, did not sit down complaining 
 
 * Tic poet wlio '.vroto tl:G lihrdto of * rrc:f:chut2;.' 
 
292 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 that he was not appreciated ; he made no appeals 
 from a present and ignorant to a future and more 
 enlightened public ;* but, in his next work, he 
 consulted, as far as was compatible with his art- 
 theories, the requirements of the age and the audi- 
 ence to whom it was to be presented. His ' Oheron 
 has frequently been found fault with for want of 
 completeness in the design, for the mixture of 
 opera, play and singspiel it contains. The 
 London public, however, would have it so ; and 
 Weber (to whom the book, compiled from 
 Shakespeare's * Midsummer Night's Dream,' and 
 Wieland's ' Oberon,' was sent act by act) had no 
 other choice than to adapt himself to circum- 
 stances or give up the work. But how nobly and 
 gracefully has the master acquitted himself of this 
 somewhat difficult task, and even managed to 
 invent quite a new and original style. We 
 allude more especially to the fairy choruses, and 
 also to the delicate, ethereal colouring of the 
 whole piece.f Oberon and the real personages, 
 
 ♦ In his Hinterlassenen Schriften (Posthumous writingSy edited by 
 Theodore Hell in three small volumes), Dresden and Leipzig, 1828, 
 he does not even allude to his own works. They are merely simple 
 jottings of his opinions on those works which most frequently came 
 under his observation during the course of his practice — chiefly as 
 Court chapel-master at Dresden — , and are delightful witnesses of the 
 thoughtful artist, always ready to sympathize with the beautiful 
 and the good whenever presented in the works of others. In 1861, 
 a monument (by Kietschel) was erected to Weber's memory near 
 the theatre at Dresden. 
 
 + The first of the fairy choruses in Oberon with the highly 
 
THE GERMA?^ OPERA. 293 
 
 it is true, are comparatively cast into the shade ; 
 while, again, the male characters are subordinate 
 to the female ones. Taken altogether, we find 
 that the airs (not excepting Eezia's, which bears 
 a strong resemblance to Agatha's scena ed aria) 
 savour of theatrical pathos, whereas all the smaller 
 songs (Eezia's ca^;a^^/^a, Unonspreghiera, Fatima's 
 arietta^ and the quartet in the second act) are full 
 of expression and significance. 
 
 Some musicians detect in Weber's Overtures to 
 the aforesaid operas inequality of workmanship 
 and want of coherence ; but they are masterpieces 
 of imagination and expression, and, accordingly, 
 are admired and esteemed by the discerning 
 connoisseur. Somewhat in the manner of the 
 overture to Beethoven's ' Leonore,' they present 
 a correct and complete outline — set as if in a 
 jewelled frame — of the entire work to which they 
 severally belong ; not an introduction to an intro- 
 duction, to which the overture has been reduced in 
 modern days (by Meyerbeer, Wagner, Gounod, 
 &;c.). The potpourri kind of overture, formed out 
 of the principal airs in the opera itself, we find 
 generally prevalent after Weber ; as, for instance, 
 
 efifective bassoon, Iflute, and horn notes, the delicate, sprite-Uke pro- 
 gressions of wood and stringed instruments alternately, the mer- 
 maid's song with the charming horn figure, are the most ethereal of 
 anything that has ever been composed in the " romantic " super- 
 natural style — not even excei)ting Mendelssohn's music to ' A 
 Midsummer Night's Dream,' which is, as it were, a description of 
 the bustling activity of this miniature fairy-realm. 
 
294 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 ' Zampa,' and even the brilliant overture to 
 ' Guillaume Tell/ and many of Auber*s overtures, 
 &c. If, as Marx and others maintain, this ex- 
 ternal manner of composing the overture was 
 usual with Weber, it is singular that the Over- 
 tures to * Freischiitz ' and * Oberon ' are, in 
 every respect, far more complete, vigorous, and 
 jubilant than the actual * Jubilee OveiHure (a work 
 independent of any opera) itself. 
 
 In a dramatic sense {i,e, in the so-called grand 
 opera styles consisting in recitatives 2^11^ ensembles), 
 Marschner and Wagner trod in Weber's footsteps. 
 We shall refer to them presently. Other com- 
 posers who restricted themselves to productions 
 within the range of their capabilities, especially 
 KoNRADiN Kreutzer [1782-1849] and Franz 
 Glaser [1799-1861], copied Weber's lyrical 
 tendency in * Freischiitz ' and * Oberon,' but 
 almost entirely neglected dramatic expression. 
 '* Accordingly," as Eiehl observes, " it is no small 
 achievement that in Kreutzer's ' Naehtlager in 
 Granada' — the best work of this style — he has 
 managed to keep up the interest wholly by scenes 
 of a lyrical nature, while the absence of dramatic 
 action is made up for by the lyrical ' situa- 
 tions.' " We, ourselves, are by no means so in- 
 fatuated with the dramatic element as to prefer 
 the noisy, pretentious " music-drama" of our own 
 day to the refreshing simplicity and tuneful 
 
THE GERMAN OPERA. 295 
 
 melody of Kreutzers opera songs. Likewise 
 deserving of praise is Kreutzer's graceful music to 
 Eaimund's popular piece * Der Verschwender' in 
 which, in his time, Lortzing took the part of 
 Valentine. 
 
 Foremost in the lyrical opera stands Ludwig 
 Spohr, an admirable and accomplished, but of 
 late years undeservedly neglected, composer. He 
 has previously to, and contemporary with, though 
 quite independently of Weber, treated the Opera 
 in an original and graceful manner. Faust, with 
 the splendid Polonaise [1813], and Jessonda 
 [1823] are far superior, both in style and ex- 
 pression, to the would-be dramatic works of 
 Weber's successors. In the last-named opera, 
 the gifted musician has seized and rendered the 
 spirit of oriental poetry in the happiest manner. 
 The duet *' Schones Mddchen^ wirst mich hassen' 
 and the so-called ' flower duet ' are the most 
 perfect embodiment of dreamy yearning for a 
 distant and beautiful land ; both these pieces 
 were, contrary to etiquette, encored at the first 
 performance of the opera at Cassel [July 28th, 
 1823]. In his other operas, ^ Zemire und Azov,' 
 ^Der Berggeist' &c., Spohr has not always steered 
 clear of the shoals on which almost all succeedinof 
 opera composers grounded, viz., the lack of 
 dramatic vigour and truthfulness ; — lucky, indeed, 
 if the overture (as for instance Keissiger's Over- 
 
296 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 tures to 'Nero,' 'Die Felsenmiihle/ 'Telva') or, 
 now and then, a song, survived the general wreck. 
 The stage requires from those who devote them- 
 selves to it, whether in a creative or representa- 
 tive capacity, total abnegation of self; egotism, so 
 much admired in the stage performance of some 
 actors, is intolerable in the dramatic poet or 
 composer. Accordingly, the operas of the best 
 modern composers, such as Lindpaintner, Franz 
 Lachner, Ferd. Hiller, Wilh. Taubert, Dorn, 
 and others, have, with few exceptions (generally 
 owing to local considerations), vanished from the 
 stage. 
 
 Albert Lortzing [born at Berlin, October 23rd, 
 1803, died there, January 20th, 1851], who was 
 formerly actor, singer, and opera-manager, has 
 manifested superior judgment in combining the 
 popular and tuneful element with the require- 
 ments of the modern stage ; his comic operas 
 and Singspiele, ' Czaar und Zimmermann/ ' Der 
 Wildschiltz^ &c., are excellent.* Lortzing is, 
 indeed, the only composer who has, since Ditters- 
 dorf, successfully devoted himself to comic opera, 
 and equalled him in the natural and unaffected 
 delineation of mirth and joviality. Grotesque 
 characters were \\\^forte^ but he also frequently 
 rendered tender and gentle characters and scenes 
 
 * Albert Lortzing^ sein Lehen und Wirken. Von Duringek. 
 Lei})zig, 1851, 
 
THE GERMAN OPEBA. 297 
 
 in the happiest manner. The romantic opera, 
 Lortzing himself admitted, was " not so much 
 his style ;" yet it may be questioned whether, 
 since Weber, a downright " romantic" opera com- 
 poser has ever written anything better than the 
 charming and gracefully mysterious third finale 
 to * Undine' 
 
 Heinrich Marschner [born at Zittau in 
 Saxony, August 16th, 1795, died senior Court- 
 chapel-master at Hanover, December 14th, 1861] 
 is of the genuine romantic school (both in 
 choice and treatment of his subjects), and the 
 veritable successor of Weber. He was intro- 
 duced to the Dresden public by Weber himself, 
 but — he was no Weber. Though interesting to 
 the musician, his gloomy and fatiguing operas 
 have never become popular. Brendel, however, 
 is of opinion that " Marschner writes in the true 
 popular spirit, whereas Weber leaves the impres- 
 sion of having studiously adopted it." Certainly, 
 Marschner is most successful in songs, and, above 
 all, in comic pieces, where the realistic tendency 
 in some measure acts as a counterpoise to the 
 " romantic" and m3^sterious (* Der Vampyi\' 1828, 
 * Hans Heiling,' 1833). Opera of the best kind, as 
 well as genuine dramatic action, is not to be 
 found in Marschner, although he frequently 
 sacrifices to dramatic effect not only the character- 
 istic of his personages but even the musical form 
 
298 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 and vocalisation itself. "We refer to the opera 
 ' Der Templer und die Jildin' [1829] — still occa- 
 sionally performed — a work which, we think, 
 partially resembles the Wagner style. Accord- 
 ing to modern notions, it is thoroughly dramatic, 
 i.e., constructed with a view to grand and ef- 
 fective scenes ; but to the musical taste it is not 
 so satisfactory as the two first-mentioned pieces ; 
 for tlie action, instead of resulting from the 
 characters of the plot, is entirely linked to the 
 story which forms the subject of the opera 
 (Walter Scott's ' Ivanhoe'). Here again the 
 comic parts are the best, viz., the fool's and the 
 hermit's songs. Lighter in texture, but charming 
 for its clear design and lively vigorous tone, is 
 the opera ' Tlie Merry Wives of Windsor ' by Otto 
 NicoLAi [born at Konigsberg 1809, died at 
 Berlin 1849], of which the delightful Overture 
 reminds one of Weber's exquisite style. Not 
 long since, this opera was repeatedly performed 
 in London, under the title of ' Falstaif,' with the 
 greatest success. 
 
 " But there arose a colossal genius, a flaming 
 spirit, to whom was decreed a crown of fire and 
 gold ; one who thought to aspire so high that, 
 if art and society ever appreciated his ideal, it 
 would be when the public taste was no longer 
 &c., &c." The genius thus extolled by Liszt 
 is no other than Eichard Wagner — the much- 
 
THE GERMAN OPERA. 299 
 
 talked of poet-composer [born at Leipsic, May 
 22nd, 1818]. After having, like Meyerbeer 
 (according to Wagner " The most despicable 
 music-manufacturer of the period"), tried his 
 hand on operas of the Italian-French stamp 
 (' Das Liebesverbot' after Shakespeare's * Measure 
 for Measure,' and ' Rienzi' after Bulwer), and 
 vainly endeavoured to out-do Marschner's horrible 
 romance in ' Der fliegende Hollander ' [Dresden, 
 1843], his vanity and ambition led him to protest 
 against the degenerate Opera of the present day, 
 — against Meyerbeer's show operas, the French 
 and Italian dramatic and vocal opera, and, finally, 
 into open and declared opposition to the Opera in 
 general. 
 
 He begins by informing us* that the Opera — as 
 hitherto practised — is radically a mistake; be- 
 cause (what is true only of inferior Italian operas) 
 the means of expression (music) has become an 
 aim, whereas the aim (drama) has been used as a 
 means of expression. Accordingly, in * Tannhduser 
 [Dresden, 1844] and yet more in 'Lohengrin^ 
 [Weimar, 1850] and his subsequent opera-dramas, 
 he has endeavoured to show us what the only 
 genuine and veritable " art of the future " ought 
 to be. His theory is that the sister arts, princi- 
 pally those of music and poetry, are no longer 
 to act separately, but mutually combine and 
 assist each other — opera, drama, and symphony 
 
 * See Waqneb*8 writings. 
 
300 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 are no longer to be esteemed on their own ac- 
 count. Wagners most successful work (judged 
 by his own theories) is, we think, Lohengrin ; 
 for ' Tannhauser,' with its dreary recitatives 
 and paucity of melody, never was really popular 
 notwithstanding the magnificent mise-enscene. 
 In ' Tristan und Isolde ' and ' Das Rheingold ' 
 (first part of *Die Nibelungen '), Wagner has 
 arrived at that point which we should have 
 supposed long since left behind when Lessing 
 proved the necessity for the separation of the arts 
 by unanswerable arguments. Thus, Wagner's 
 reforms are reduced to the idea (already advocated 
 by Eochlitz*) of an intimate connection between 
 drama and opera ; but the new form will never 
 be able to assert itself if the 'opera is to lose all 
 its special advantages and attractions, and become 
 nothing more than a finale^ and singing to be 
 abandoned for continuous recitative. f " A down- 
 
 * Fiir Freunde der Tonkunst. Vol. ii., p. 270 — 275. 
 
 t Wagner, by rejecting the forms of air, duet, &c., only proves 
 thereby that he has a thoroughly realistic, unimaginative — conse- 
 quently unartistic — conception of the musical drama. " Introduce 
 a new kind of opera which shall consist solely of recitative. It is 
 more natural, for it certainly resembles speech more nearly than an 
 air, a duet, or an ensemble do ; because there can be nothing more 
 unnatural than for two, three, or more |5ersous to get up and sing at 
 the same time. But naturalness in art is quite another from that 
 in real life. If art is to be anything at all, it must, from its very 
 nature, indulge in a great many things that are unnatural ; and 
 herein lies the charm of art that, notwithstanding its heterogeneous 
 means, it can bring about an illusion that shall resemble real life." 
 These are the words of the talented actor Lobtzing ; and Groethe — 
 
THE GERMAN OPERA. 301 
 
 right poet or musician is, after all, better than 
 one who is half and half of each."* 
 
 The public has never been over favourable to 
 * Tannhauser ; ' but, with its performance in 
 Paris, Wagner appears to have completely played 
 out the part he had undertaken so confidently — 
 that of a would-be reformer. Amid unprece- 
 dented uproar, Tannhauser was hissed off the 
 stage at the Imperial Opera house [1861]; yet 
 the composer, in the famous letter "to a Leipsic 
 friend," pretended to have achieved a grand and 
 complete triumph among the " real " public, — the 
 " general opera-going public, as yet, not being 
 sufficiently enlightened " to appreciate his music. 
 We doubt if this will ever come to pass ; for the 
 " general opera-going public " has no taste for 
 the mediaeval romance to which Wagner is so 
 partial, and will have nothing to say (and very 
 properly too) to an opera without singing : " 6V 
 nest point pour entendre du recitatif que Von va a 
 r opera. ^ 
 
 who most certainly would have esteemed the soimd judgment of 
 the comedian far above the wonn-eaten theories of " the man of the 
 future " — held the same opinion, as we gather from the author of the 
 ' Fliegende Blatter fur Musik^ who chronicled the poet's words on 
 this subject. " Herein lies the dangerous demon for you youngsters. 
 You are quick to create new ideas, but how about giving them 
 shape and form ? Every branch of art has its weak point in theory, 
 but which must be retained in practice, because by suppressing it 
 you come too near to nature, and art would be unartistic." 
 
 * Carriere. Aesthetik. Vol. ii., p. 440. 
 
 t Rousseau. 
 
302 HISTORY OP MUSIC. 
 
 Having given a slight sketch of the opera subsequent to Mozart, 
 it remains for us to add a short chronicle of those by Avhose talent 
 the above mentioned works have been rendered famous, viz., 
 celebrated singers, both male and female. First and foremost come 
 the Italian singers (more especially of the Eossini Opera) : Tam- 
 BURiNi [born 1800], Rubini [born 1795], and Lablache, the famous 
 bass singer [born at Naples 1794, died there 1858]. In Germany, 
 hkewise (which is far from being the case at the present day), the 
 bass singers were the best. The masterly vocalisation of Fischer 
 [born 1745], Stromeyer [bom 1779], Wilhelm Haser [born 1781], 
 Wachter [born 1796], Spitzeder [born 1795], and othera, is, of 
 course, known to the greater number by tradition only ; so that the 
 few contemporary singers, Karl Formes and A. Kindermann, are, 
 in another sense, but to their own advantage, placed hors de concours. 
 Especially deserving of notice are the oratorio and concert singers 
 (particularly of Schubert's songs) J. M. Vogl [1768 - 1840], Joseph 
 Staudiol [born 1807, died in a madhouse at Vienna, 1860], and 
 Jules Stockhausen [born at Paris, 1826] (both of the two first u^re 
 likewise admirable opera singers). Anton Raff [1714 — 1797], whose 
 singing cured the Princess Belmonte of hypochondria ; Karl Bader 
 [born 1789], Wild [born 1792], IIaizinqer [bom 1796], Mantius 
 [born 1808], Tichatschek [bom 1810] were celebrated tenors; to 
 whom may be added in recent times Schnorb v. Cabolsfeld, 
 Ander, Niemann. Of Roger — the first of French singing actors or 
 acting singers {acteurs chantants) — Riehl writes ; " Roger is more 
 than a singer — he is a dramatic poet. By his wonderful jiantomimic 
 action he invents new * situations' and new phases of character, such as 
 are found neither in the libretto or the score. He has such a fund of 
 individuality in his parts, that with him the opera hero expands into 
 the sublime tragedy hero." Celebrated French singers are, also, Nour- 
 rit and Duprez. Nor must the English singers be overlooked: 
 Kelly [born at Dublin 1764, died 1826], and the celebrated tenor 
 Braham [first appeared in public 1774, died 1856], were renowned 
 eyen on the Continent Sims Reeves (tenor) and Santley (baritone) 
 now uphold the fame of English singing in oratorios and concerts. 
 
 Of female singers, who in accordance with the design of the 
 modern Oj^era, almost monopolize its triumphs both in Italy and 
 elsewhere, Angelica Catalani [" la prima cantatrice del mondo" 
 born at Sinigaglia 1783, died at Paris 1849] was the most re- 
 nowned. Her magnificent voice was heard to the best advantage in 
 Handel's music, or when in intoning, in the noblest and purest 
 
THE OPERA. 303 
 
 style imaginable, England's national hymns, ' God save the King,' 
 and ' Rule Britannia,' on which occasions enthusiasm knew no 
 bounds. " The last air had ended," writes Rellstab in 1827,* " when, 
 amid thunders of applause, louder and louder the cry arose for 
 ' God save the King !' Like a bom queen, the great cantatrice 
 stepped forward on the proscenium. The orchestra struck up the 
 glorious melody; after which, Catalan! sang her verse with such 
 dignity, grandeur, and majesty as has never been equalled. The 
 chorus joined in the solemn strain ; when, with increasing power, 
 the great songstress took up the second verse. Every gesture of her 
 noble frame corresponded to the inflexions of her voice ; her spark- 
 ling eyes denoted the ardour which inspired her and with which she 
 inspired others. Once more her full rich tones soared, as if on 
 eagle's wings, above the full- voiced chorus and orchestra." Others, 
 as for instance Henriette Sontag (in the execution of Rode's 
 variations), the English singer Clara Novello [born 1818], and 
 Pauline Viardot-Garcia [born 1821], may have nearly equalled 
 her in flexibility of voice, perhaps even surpassed her in execu- 
 tive skill ; but the quality of her voice is such as probably has 
 never been heard before or since, unless it were in the great concert 
 singer Mara. The most remarkable opera singers were : Imperatrice 
 [1783 — 1808] and Mariauna Sessi, Giuditta Pasta [born at Como 
 1798 ; died there 1865] celebrated in ' Norma' and other tragic parts, 
 Josephine Fodor [born at Paris 1793], the gifted and accomplished 
 Maria Felicita Malibran- Garcia [eldest daughter of the Spanish 
 tenor and singing-master Manuel Garcia, born at Paris 1808, died 
 at Manchester 183G, shortly after her mariiage with De Beriot], 
 Giulia Grisi [born 1812, married 1856 the celebrated tenor Mario], 
 Giuditta Grisi [died 1840], for whom Bellini wrote the part of 
 Romeo, and the renowned contralto Marietta Alboni [born 1824]. 
 
 It is, however, to the German cantatrici that the brightest laurels 
 should be awarded ; for, to our taste, they far surpassed the Italian 
 singers in depth of expression and dramatic talent. Foremost 
 among them stands Wilhelmina Schroder-Devrient [born at 
 Hamburg 1805, died at Coburg 1860].t She excelled, not so much 
 
 * On the occasion of a concert which took place at the Berlin 
 Opera house. 
 
 f Wilhelmine Schroder-Devrient. Von Alfred Freiherrn von 
 WoLZOGEX. Leipzig, 1863. Erinnerungen an Wilhelmine Schroder- 
 Devrient vm Claire von GlIimer. Leipzig, 1862. 
 
304 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 in vocalisation, as in bold, original conception of her parts, and 
 the artistic and poetic feeling with which she combined both the 
 musical and dramatic element. The grandest and most gifted of 
 women who ever trod the stage in modern days, she invested her 
 parts (Fidelio, Donna Anna, Euryanthe, the Vestal, Norma, &c.,) 
 with an individuality and grandeur never attained by any of her 
 predecessors. Henriette Sontag px)rn at Coblentz 1806, died in 
 Mexico 1854] and Jenny Lind [bom at Stockholm 1821], both of 
 whom combined jierfect vocalisation with exquisite feeling and 
 charming dramatic action, achieved, however, greater popularity than 
 the first-named artist. Then comes Nanette Schechner [born 
 at Munich 1806] " whose soul glowed in song." " Nanette Scliech- 
 ner is the grandest artist in my recollection, as far as singing goes ; 
 but Jenny Lind is more intellectual, and her style more finished ; 
 she is, indeed, the most perfect dramatic artist I have seen."* 
 Afterwards come : Anna Milder- Hauptmann [born at Constanti- 
 nople 1785, died at Berlin 1838], who was celebrated for her im- 
 personation in Gluck's and Spontini's operas ; Sabine Heinefetter 
 [born 1805], Karoline Ungher [born 1800], Sophie Schoberlechner 
 [born 1809], Wilhelmine Streit [born 1806], Clara Vespermann 
 [1800 — 1827], Pauline v. Schatzel [bom 1812], Jenny Lutzer 
 [born 1816], Agnes Schebest [born 1815], Henriette Carl [born 
 1811], Sophie Lowe [born 1815], and, recently', Louise Koster — an 
 artist whose noble conception of her \)aYts (Fidelio, Donna Anna, 
 &c.,) reminds one of the immortal Schroder - Devrient ; Louise 
 Dustmann-Meyer, Johanna Wagner (niece of the composer), 
 Jenny BtJRDE-NEY, Sophie Cruvelli (properly Criivell, born at 
 Bielefeld in Westphalia), Therese Titiens, Sophie Stehle, Pauline 
 Lucca, and the latest Italian singers Adelina Patti, Zelia Tre- 
 belli, D^sirde Artot, &c. England can boast exquisite dramatic as 
 well as vocal talent in Mrs. Billixgton [born in London 1765, ilied 
 at Venice 1818], Miss Stevens, Adelaide Kemble (who quitted 
 the stage 1843) ; and, at the present day, Mesd. Lemmens-Sher- 
 RiNGTON, Parepa, and Sainton-Dolby (the well-known contralto 
 and concert singer) share with the German Madme. Rudersdorf the 
 honour of representing England's best oratorio and concert singers. 
 
 On the whole, to women is due the honour of maintaining (in our 
 day when materialism obtains even in music) art in its highest and 
 best sense ; in other respects, genuine vocalisation is sadly on the 
 
 * L. Rellstab. 
 
THE OPERA. 305 
 
 decline, if not actually hastening to its fall. Voices have no longer 
 the compass nor the timbre they formerly possessed; on the 
 other hand, there is a plentiful supply of medium and mediocre" 
 voices. Those who have to answer for this deterioration are the 
 composers, who have either forgotten or disdained to write in 
 accordance with the capabilities of the human voice. Ih this 
 respect, they are the exact opposite of the old Opera seria ; whereas, 
 formerly, the singers were in the habit of sacrificing truthfulness of 
 dramatic expression to the display of their individual capabilities, 
 the composers of our day subject singing to their caprices, to loud 
 instrumentation and dramatic effect. " If this goes on, is there not," 
 asks Eiehl, "every probability that, with this 'dramatic' mania, 
 music will go to the devil ?" Meyerbeer's, Halevy's, Marschner's, 
 Wagner's, and Verdi's operas have, in truth, been the ruin of many 
 voices. It is no uncommon occurrence for the luckless singer to be 
 80 fatigued by the rehearsals as to be obliged to plead a " sudden 
 attack of hoarseness " (the Postilion de Lonjumeau, Th. Wachtel !) 
 and leave his part to be taken by another. It must ultimately 
 come to this : that it is no longer good style, finished vocalisation, or 
 musical talent which is expected of a singer, but strong lungs, and 
 great powers of endurance. For the future, the choice must lie 
 between two alternatives, viz. — whether singers are really " to give 
 up singing and accustom themselves more and more to grand reci- 
 tative performances," or whether it would not be advisable to 
 relinquish the grand and pretentious music-drama, and return to the 
 unassuming but melodious opera of former days. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 The later Musicians op Germany : Spohr, Mendelssohn, 
 Schumann. Present and Future. 
 
 The latest attempts in Germany, France, and 
 Italy have proved only too clearly that, at the 
 present day, not only drama in general, but the 
 Opera in particular, is far from flourishing. In ' 
 Germany, musical talent has, generally speaking, 
 quitted the stage for the concert room ; dramatic 
 music has, to a great extent, made way for 
 oratorio, instrumental, and song composition. 
 The last of those who successfully cultivated 
 every branch of musical art — the artist who 
 stood, as it were, on the confines of " Past and 
 Present,"* was the venerable Ludwig SPOHR 
 [born at Brunswick, April 5th, 1784, died. Court 
 chapel-master at Cassel, October 22nd, 1859.]t 
 We have already had occasion to remarkj that, 
 
 ♦ In his violin concerto "Past and Present" [1839], Spohr 
 contrasted both the old and new styles with the express intention of 
 ridiculing modern violinists who aped Paganini. 
 
 t Spohr' s Autobiography. Translated from the German. Longman, 
 Green and Co., 1864. 
 
 % See p. 295. 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 307 
 
 notwithstanding their manifold separate beauties, 
 Spohr's operas fell short of perfection because the 
 composer did not grasp the subjects he chose for 
 dramatic representation with sufficient vigour 
 and distinctness. The same may be said of his 
 oratorios ' Die letzten Dinge ' [first performed on 
 Good Friday 18:26], 'Des Heilands letzte Stunden' 
 [1828], 'Der Fall Bahylons' [1840], in which 
 tender and melancholy expression is too preva- 
 lent, and, consequently, individual characteristic 
 wanting. Though greatly superior, especially in 
 the choruses, to the effective, showy instrumen- 
 tation observable in the works of Friedrich 
 Schneider [born 1786, died at Dessau 1858, 'Das 
 Weltgericht/ &c.], and even to the sacred songs 
 for male voices by Bernhard Klein [born at 
 Cologne 1794, died at Berlin 1832], they could 
 not fail to be cast into shade by Mendelssohn's 
 oratorios, which are not only more popular, but 
 also of a profounder calibre. 
 
 Of the pieces in 'Die letzten Dinge,' the 
 quartet and chorus * Selig sind die Todten/ the 
 duet (for soprano and tenor) ' Sei mir nicht 
 schrecklich in der Noth' and the chorus ' Gefallen 
 ist Babylon ' will live in the recollection of those 
 who have heard this highly attractive work — 
 attractive both in a religious and musical sense. 
 Of the above mentioned Klein, the oratorio 
 ' Jephtha ' is a work of noble conception, and 
 entirely free from adventitious effects ; but com- 
 
308 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 pared with the Handel oratorio, it would seem to 
 lack vigour and originality. A few of the 
 choruses, in which rich instrumentation and 
 polyphony conceal the absence of melodic inven- 
 tion, are alone of some merit, — indeed, it is in 
 these points that ingenious and skilful musicians 
 are most likely to succeed. 
 
 As is the case with almost all modern musi- 
 cians, Spohr delighted more especially in instru- 
 mental composition. His songs have met with 
 but little success ; and that vocal composition 
 was less congenial to him is evident in his cele- 
 brated instrumental work * The Power of Sound.'* 
 He tells us in his autobiography that he had 
 originally intended to write a cantata on the 
 poem which forms the subject of this work, but 
 that he found " the words would not suit this 
 genus." The work, which appeared as "a 
 characteristic delineation in the form of a 
 symphony" [1832],! is by no means free from 
 defects ; instead of a symphony, it presents a 
 number of symphonic phrases. Taken by them- 
 selves, the first allegro, the cradle song, and 
 military music are splendid pieces, whose distinct 
 and complete form is not marred by any myste- 
 rious and poetical allusions or reminiscences ; 
 were the other phrases of the other movements 
 equally perfect, we should be quite inclined to 
 
 * *Die Weihe der Tone.' 
 
 i Spohr's superscription to the piece. 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 309 
 
 admit the excellence as well as novelty of this 
 kind of sympliony, and assign it an honourable 
 place beside the classical symphony — just as we 
 recognize the merit of the Weber overture (which 
 takes the opera for its programme) as well as 
 that of the earlier thematically developed over- 
 ture. Spohr's work contrasts favourably with the 
 pretentious but shallow symphonies of recent 
 days, from which it differs in this respect — that, 
 instead of individualizing and describing a 
 Francesca, a Tasso, or a Faust (Liszt), it con- 
 tents itself with a general delineation of human 
 life and emotion ; and, after all, tells us even 
 more than we find in the book. Similar to it in 
 character is that ideal conception — the grand 
 double symphony for two orchestras, entitled : 
 ^ Irdische^ und Gottliches im Menschenlehen; and 
 inferior to this latter, though presenting points of 
 interest in the detail, is the descriptive symphony 
 ' Die Jahreszeiten' 
 
 But the magnificent C minor Symphony is, 
 taken in its entirety, an admirable and complete 
 work — one in which the composer's imagination 
 (too frequently swayed by yearning, sentimental 
 feelings and ideas) takes a vigorous and joyous 
 flight. The wild, demonic, and enchanting 
 Scherzo was encored on the occasion of its first 
 performance at Vienna. 
 
 We think that the most sterling compositions 
 of Spohr's — especially when compared with later 
 
310 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 works of the kind — are his violin concertos, among 
 which is the well known one ' in modo di Scena 
 cantante ; ' it is exquisitely beautiful, and highly 
 successful in its rendering of vocal recitative and 
 aria on the violin. In the quartet, Spohr — like 
 Weber in the sonata — adopted the brilliant con- 
 certed style, wherein the violin solo plays a pro- 
 minent part. Of this style the double quartet is 
 a development, of which the idea originated, as 
 Spohr himself admitted, with Andreas Eomberg. 
 Finally, we must not omit to mention his rich 
 and variously arranged Nonet (for stringed quar- 
 tet, flute, hautboy, clarionet, horn, and bassoon), 
 nor his graceful and melodious sonatas for violin 
 and harp, which Spohr and his wife Dorette used 
 to play at concerts. 
 
 Spohr's later works, especially his operas and 
 quartets, are mere repetitions of his earher 
 ones ; and that which formerly made him appear 
 original degenerated into mannerism and affecta- 
 tion. These faults are only too evident (as, for 
 instance, in the so-called 'Historical Sym- 
 phony'), and have so warped the judgment of 
 musicians on the subject of Spohr 's music that 
 not only have vigour and distinctness of expres- 
 sion been denied to him, but also depth, imagi- 
 nation, and sentiment. "Yet whoever," says 
 Hand,* " maintains that Spohr's music is utterly 
 wanting in depth, and resembles the modern 
 
 * Aesthetik. Vol. i., p. 320. 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 311 
 
 Italian style, judges wrongly and unfairly. 
 Profundity is not wanting, but it is solely of senti- 
 ment — not that intellectual depth in which grand 
 thoughts and ideas are gathered up and reflected 
 by means of powerful imagination. The plastic 
 — ohjective — element, so far as it obtains in music, 
 is utterly foreign to Spohr ; on the other hand, 
 he is, like all artists who are prone to the 
 "sentimental," apt to fall into monotony and 
 mannerism. In the quartets, as also in the 
 oratorios, we are aware of a great deal we have 
 already heard in * Jessonda.' " Nevertheless, 
 though even the most favourable opinion may 
 find much that is onesided or deficient in Spohr's 
 compositions, he is greatly to be respected as a 
 sterling German musician — one who made no 
 attempts to appear that which he was not ; but, 
 so far as he went, was genuine and entire. 
 
 Of recent days, many admirable works of Spohr 
 have in Germany been treated with undeserved 
 neglect ; but the best violinists of the period : 
 Ferd. David [born 1810], Jos. Joachim [bom 
 1831], Ferd. Laub, Heinr. Ernst, Aug. Kompel, 
 Pott, Wieniawsky, Lauterbach, Strauss, and, 
 in England, Blagrove and Sainton, &c. — all of 
 them his pupils or educated by these — witness to 
 the noble spirit which directed his efforts. Differ- 
 ing entirely from the clever fiddling accomplish- 
 ments of NicoLO PAGANINl [born at Genoa 
 1784, died at Nice 1840] and his numerous imita- 
 
312 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 tors (Bazzini, Sivori, Ole Bull, and others, in 
 Germany and France), the Spohr school — to whom 
 may be reckoned the composers Mayseder [1789 
 — 1863], B. MoLiQUE [born 1803], Maurer, and 
 LiPiNSKY — aimed at full, rich tone, and expressive 
 declamation on the violin. " Paganini is an extra- 
 ordinary man," said Spohr ; " but, besides several 
 eccentricities in bad taste intended only for mo- 
 mentaneous display, he introduces impossibilities 
 of such a nature as are thoroughly calculated to 
 destroy good playing." His variations on the 
 G string, his curious flageolet (^Les clochettes') 
 and pizzicato playing, his extraordinary facility for 
 double notes and all kinds of bravura passages — 
 what was all that, compared to a fine bow, full 
 tone, and cantabile execution ? But because it 
 was wonderfully effective, it found admirers, both 
 among players and composers ; since Paganini's 
 time, the greater number of violinists — especially 
 the French of recent days — are weak imitators of 
 the great virtuoso, and ' Le Camaval de Venise 
 cCapres Paganini' in endlessly varied transfor- 
 mations,' is the stock piece of violin players at 
 miscellaneous concerts. 
 
 Whereas the earlier French musicians (pupils 
 of Yiotti)— of whom Eode [1774—1830], Ru- 
 dolph Kreutzer [born of German parents at 
 Versailles 1767, died 1831], and Baillot [1771 
 -1842], (authors of the famous violin methode, 
 adopted by the Paris Conservatoire) — maintained 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 313 
 
 with Spolir that tone was " the source of all 
 genuine instrumental music," the moderns : De 
 Beriot [born at Louvain 1802, 'Tremolo' on 
 the Adagio of Beethoven's 'Kreutzer Sonata'], 
 and Lafont [1781-1839] aimed almost exclu- 
 sively at execution and effect. Far superior 
 to the two last is de Beriot's pupil Henri 
 ViEUXTEMPs [born at Yerviers 1820], though 
 even he has sacrificed too much to mere execu- 
 tion. His violin concertos, in particular, are 
 crowded with difficult passages and continued to 
 wearying lengths by the noisy unmeaning tutti ; 
 on the other hand, many of the movements, as 
 well as his smaller pieces, are full of charming 
 variety and imagination. The other Franco- 
 Belgian composers : Prume, Leonard, &c., pro- 
 duced and reproduced whatever they could ma- 
 nage to attain of Paganini's and Yieuxtemps' skill 
 and execution. Even the sisters Milanollo — 
 Theresa [born 1827] and Maria [1832-1848], who 
 created such a sensation from 1839-46, that 
 they rarely needed to depend on other perform- 
 ances than their own to render their concerts 
 attractive, found imitators ; but speculating 
 fathers and mothers could not bring about such 
 another miracle as nature had produced in the 
 artistic and finished execution of those two 
 ingenuous and gifted children. A remarkable 
 phenomenon is the repetition of the wonderful 
 quartet performance of the brothers Muller of 
 
314 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Brunswick [born between 1797 and 1809] in the 
 Meininger quartet of the younger Miillers. 
 
 What Spohr was to violin, Bernhard Romberg 
 [born near Miinster in Westphalia 1767, died at 
 Hamburg 1841] was to violoncello playing. He 
 impressed one by his perfect command of the 
 instrument and exquisite playing, which never 
 gave the idea of difficulties sought and overcome. 
 Romberg was not merely a travelling artist— he 
 was, in truth, an original master, who, as Oulibi- 
 cheff expresses it, has left something more than a 
 name. His compositions (concertos, variations, 
 capriccios, &;c.) are, in the opinion of all good 
 players, models of their kind, and far superior to 
 the celebrated ones of Goltermann, Grutzma- 
 CHER, &c:, in our own day. Servais [bom at 
 Brussels 1807], who might with propriety be 
 styled a miniature Vieuxtemps on the violoncello, 
 stands at the head of those who do violence to 
 the grave, masculine nature of the instrument 
 by playing vioHn on the violoncello. Of modem 
 violoncellists, Alfred Piatti [born 1823] is one of 
 the most distinguished. Howell, and Bottesini 
 [born 1823] are celebrated double bass players. 
 
 The other orchestral instruments likewise be- 
 came transformed to meet the requirements of 
 professional dexterity. Like the bowed instru- 
 ments by a thinner quality of strings, so also 
 the wind instruments by additional vents, lost 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 315 
 
 in tone what they gained in compass. The 
 " straightforward, masculine " tone which Leopold 
 Mozart considered essential to violin playing is, 
 owing to the high pitch now required, no longer 
 to be found in the greater number of musicians. 
 In later times the best players are : flute — Anton 
 [died 1852] and Moritz Furstenau, Berbiguier, 
 TuLou, Drouet, Heineimeyer, Bohm, the English 
 EiCHARDSON, Pratten ; clarionet — Heinrich and 
 Karl Barm ANN, Hermstedt, Iwan Muller, 
 Lazarus ; hautboy — Nicholson ; horn — Punto 
 [properly Stich 1747-1803], the five brothers 
 ScHUNKE, KoNiG, the DiSTiN family ; trombone — 
 QuEissER [died 1846] ; trumpet — Harper; harp — 
 Nadermann [born at Paris 1773, died there 1835], 
 Parish Alvars [1816-1849], Aptommas, Ober- 
 thur; guitar— Giuliani [1796-1820]. The com- 
 positions of many of these artists are, with few 
 exceptions, trivial, and in direct opposition to old 
 Haydn's maxim : " A piece of music must have 
 flowing melody, connected ideas, and must be 
 neither artificial nor overladen." Who does not 
 shudder while thinking of the miserable, drawling, 
 variations of Kummer, Drouet, and the like ? 
 Fortunately, the now prevailing custom of giving 
 a series of concerts has done away with that 
 species of music, written solely with a view to 
 professional display, with which the migratory 
 solo player called forth admiration and astonish- 
 ment in all the cities of Europe ; and only a few. 
 
316 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 really superior musicians venture to give concerts 
 (in proportion to their means and abilities) on 
 their own account. 
 
 From out the countless throng of public piano- 
 forte players stands FRANZ LISZT [horn at 
 Eaiding in Hungary, October 21st, 1811] — a 
 marked and singular character. A clever woman 
 once said that Thalberg was the first of pianists, 
 but there was only one Liszt. Liszt's playing was 
 distinguished not so much by the marvellous and 
 brilliant execution which made light of seemingly 
 insurmountable difficulties, as by the bold, 
 original style which made his performances ap- 
 pear more like the inspiration of the moment 
 than a matter of study and effect. For this 
 reason, Liszt is entitled — though only in a partial 
 degree— to the claim he put forth in Brendel's 
 * Neue Zeitschrift filr Musik' viz., that equal 
 merit is due both to creative and executive 
 talent.* We repeat, only in a partial degree; 
 
 * To that species of professional skill which may be regarded in 
 the light of genuine artistic inspiration, and of which Liszt was a 
 brilliant example, Hegel even assigns a place in esthetics. Speaking 
 of another strilving example of this power, he says : " The wonderful 
 command of material means, the ease and freedom with which it 
 makes light of apparently impracticable difficulties — delighting in 
 elaborate flourishes, sudden interruptions, arch surprises — , its 
 originality and invention lend a chaim even to quaint caprices and 
 effects. For, unless there be imagination, there can be no artistic 
 performance ; but the wonderful command which really talented 
 musicians possess over their instrument, and with which they are 
 enabled to increase its resources, and occasionally even counterfeit 
 the sounds of other musical instruments, is a proof of this faculty. 
 
LATER MTJSICIAlSrS OF GERMANY. 317 
 
 for Liszt's own compositions (of which more 
 hereafter) furnish the best proof of the great 
 distance there is between clever playing and 
 clever composing. Both these gifts were, how- 
 ever, united in one whom Liszt himself extols in 
 a work * specially treating of 
 
 Frederic CHOPIN [born near Warsaw, March 
 1st, 1810]. An exile since the revolution of 
 1830, he lived — admired both professionally and 
 in society (especially by women) — at Paris. In 
 1840, he was attacked with consumption, and 
 died October 17th, 1849, and was buried, by his 
 own desire, beside Bellini, at the cemetery of 
 Pere la Chaise. He was designated by the French 
 " Franqais du Nord" and admirably does this 
 epithet describe the peculiar mixture of Polish 
 character and French taste, which prevails in 
 Chopin's compositions — more especially his Polo- 
 naises and Mazurkas. We think Chopin excels 
 mostly in dance compositions, in which humble 
 branch of art he displays a fund of poetical 
 
 In this species of execution we enjoy the greatest araount of 
 musical variety ; we are conscious of a strange mystery in that an 
 inanimate machine is translormed into an organ of expression, and 
 are impressed both with the conception and execution of a work of 
 art in one and tlie same moment." 
 
 * Frederic Cfivpin, par F. Liszt. Leipzig, 1852. The most 
 interesting parts of this ingenious and highly imaginative work 
 are, we think, the detailed and poetical description of some of the 
 musical pieces, — more especially as denoting the tendency of Liszt's 
 later productions. 
 
318 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 sentiment clothed in elaborate ornamentation. 
 His Polonaises, Waltzes, and Mazurkas are not, 
 strictly speaking, dance music ; they are, as Liszt 
 expresses it, " de petits drames amoureux de divers 
 caracteres" — dreams of dance scenes, such as the 
 sick and sad young man would picture to himself 
 in a modern ball-room. These small imaginative 
 pieces teem with fanciful scenes and pictures ; it 
 would, indeed, be a delightful, and by no means 
 difficult task for "programme musicians" to 
 invent superscriptions for them, — more especially 
 as Liszt, in the work already alluded to, has inti- 
 mated and sketched out much that would afford 
 a clue to the reading of Chopin's music. 
 
 In all his compositions — in the dances, as well 
 as in the looser form of Etudes, Nocturnes, Im- 
 promptus, &c., the elegiac strain prevails ; his 
 poetry is wholly subjectivey and always tender, 
 delicate, dreamy ; no wonder, therefore, that 
 women of a highly cultivated taste have a par- 
 tiality for Chopin's music. But Chopin is by no 
 means (as we have heard it asserted) "a tho- 
 roughly diseased, unwholesome nature ;" of the 
 sickly fancies and caprices, the morbid feeling, 
 which possibly adhere to some of his later works, 
 no traces are discoverable in his best and well- 
 known compositions. " Chez lui^' says Liszt — in 
 reply to the further charge of artificialness and 
 
 * Frederic Clicypin^ p. 7. 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 319 
 
 over-ornamentation — ''la hardiesse se justifie ton- 
 jours ; la richesse, l' exuberance meme riexcluent pas 
 la clarte ; la singularite ne degenere pas en bizar- 
 rerie baroque^ les ciselures ne sont pas desordonnees, 
 et le luxe de V ornementation ne surcharge pas 
 V elegance des lignes pindpales!' But Chopin — 
 the classical drawing-room composer — is, of 
 course, far inferior to the grand old masters in 
 concerto and sonata composition ; wherefore, the 
 charm of novelty having subsided, only a few 
 movements are still cherished — the adagio of the 
 second concerto, and the Funeral March from the 
 first sonata. 
 
 In Germany, Egbert Schumann endeavoured, 
 previously even to Liszt, to obtain popularity 
 and esteem for Chopin's imaginative creations; 
 and Clara Schumann (nee Wieck) — the most 
 estimable of living female musicians — prefers the 
 music of Chopin after that of Bach, Beethoven, 
 and Schumann. To the ordinary pianist his 
 wide stretches in the chords, his difficult and 
 unusual cadences, &c., are troublesome — they 
 would like something different. After Chopin, 
 the best drawing-room composers are : Adolph 
 Henselt [born 1814, ' Concert Etudes'\ Stephen 
 Heller [born 1815, ' Nuits blanches'\ Alexander 
 Fesca [1820-49], Jules Schulhoff [born 1825]. 
 Spare us a careful enumeration of the whole of 
 them : Genu^ irritabile vatum ! They are syno- 
 nymous with the downright technical "pianistes 
 compositeurs " — Dohler, Alexander Dreyschock, 
 
320 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Leopold DE Meter, &c. ; and axe, moreover, well 
 known to all pianoforte players. On the other 
 hand, Ernst Pauer, Chas. Halle, Mad. Arabella 
 GoDDARD, and Miss Zimmermann are musicians 
 of sterling merit, who devote themselves to ge- 
 nuine, classical pianoforte music. 
 
 We are about to enter on the most recent 
 period, of which Mendelssohn and Schumann have 
 determined the character in all essential details. 
 Felix MENDELSSOIIN-BARTIiOLDYw^s 
 born at Hamburg, February 3rd, 1809. The prime 
 of his artistic career was passed at Leipsic ; but his 
 education and first public success took place at 
 Berlin, where his father (a wealthy banker, and 
 son of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn) had 
 established himself about the year 1812. His 
 mother {nee Bartholdy) bestowed the utmost 
 pains on the education of her son, who early 
 gave promise of unusual talent. Zelter, the 
 founder, and for a number of years director, of the 
 Singakademie at Berlin, instructed him in compo- 
 sition ; L. Berger and, subsequently, Moscheles 
 taught him pianoforte playing. So early as his 
 ninth year Mendelssohn appeared in public as a 
 pianist, and, seven years afterwards, produced 
 compositions (C minor Symphon}^, 1824, Over- 
 ture to *A Midsummer Night's Dream,' 1827, 
 &c.) highly esteemed to this day. After visiting 
 England, Italy, and France [1830—1833], and 
 residins" for some time in the capitals of those 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 321 
 
 countries,* he was appointed music-director at 
 Diisseldorf [1883 — 1835], " General music director 
 of Church music" at Berlin [1843—1845], and, 
 between whiles, as well as from the year 1845 
 till his death [November 4th, 1847], director 
 of the Gewandkaus concerts and the conservatory 
 of music at Leipsic. 
 
 Mendelssohn's historical importance will be 
 best understood when we bear in mind that, no 
 sooner did he appear than Spohr's influence and 
 authority declined. Mendelssohn, though person- 
 ally less gifted and profound than Spohr, had the 
 faculty of employing his more active and plastic 
 talent to such advantage that, during his com- 
 paratively brief career, he overtook and left far 
 behind him the steady-going, old-fashioned 
 master. Whereas in Spohr we frequently ob- 
 .^^.«erve want of proportion between the elaborate 
 form and comparatively inferior subject-matter, in 
 Mendelssohn (who in this respect almost equals 
 Mozart) we are . aware of the innate relation of 
 form and subject to each other. His delicate 
 
 * Mendelssohn's Letters^ translated by Lady Wallace. Long- 
 man and Co., 1863. They consist of letters to his family during his 
 sojourn in foreign countries, — not " musical " letters addressed to an 
 imaginary correspondent with a view to publication. The letters to 
 Zelter contain a great deal of interesting information on art subjects 
 and history (on the liturgy of the Holy Week at Rome), as well as 
 those to Ed. Devrient (on the opera), to Frau v. Pereira at Vienna 
 (on ballad composition and descriptive music), to Immermann (on 
 Meyerbeer and ' Robert le Diable '), to his sister Fanny (on the 
 recent composition of the * Waldpurgis Night '). 
 
 Y 
 
322 HISTORY OF MUSIC, 
 
 perception and exquisite taste are the very- 
 embodiment of modern civilisation ; invigorated 
 by the study of the old masters, his productions 
 yet breathe the soft, tender spirit which suits the 
 taste of the day, and, accordingly, they have 
 obtained universal admiration. " A new vein of 
 genuine, original, and withal, exquisitely poetical 
 music has cropped up in a reflective and in- 
 tellectual age, unfitted for the production of works 
 of a grand and majestic kind ; salient character • 
 istics, vigour, and vivacity, are, however, by no 
 means wanting in the more remarkable composi- 
 tions of this master." The works to which these 
 latter words of Vischer* are most applicable are 
 not so much Mendelssohn's great sacred composi- 
 tions as the smaller ones in the '* romantic " 
 style : * The first Waldpurgis Nighty' with its highly 
 original spectral chorus ('Come with torches 
 brightly flashing') and solemn conclusion — a 
 unique and charming work [first performed at 
 Leipsic, February 2nd, 1843]; the exquisite 
 music to Shakespeare's Midsummer NigMs Dreamy 
 of w^hich the instrumental pieces — especially the 
 Scherzo and Wedding March — are the finest [first 
 performed at Potsdam, October 14th, 1843] ; the 
 descriptive concert overtures Ruy Bias [1839] and 
 the Hebrides [1832], of which the first, written for 
 Victor Hugo's drama of that name, is grand and 
 noble in style, and the second (entitled ' Fingal's 
 
 ♦ AesfJrtf'L Vol. iii., p. 1149. 
 
LATER MTISICIAXS OF GERMANY. 323 
 
 cave ' in the score) is a musical reminiscence of a 
 visit to those remarkable islands. 
 
 The absence of innate vigour, masculine simpli- 
 city, and genuine feeling (commented on by 
 Yischer and unjustly insisted on by Marx), is 
 particularly felt in the Symphonies [C minor 1824, 
 A major 1833, A minor 1842], in which either 
 the dreamy song or the scherzo prevails. Of these, 
 the A minor (' Scotch Symphony'), which is almost 
 exclusively of a scherzo character, is the most 
 spirited ; in the A major Symphony, the scherzo 
 and the scherzoASko^ finale are again the best parts. 
 Although containing much beauty of detail, 
 especially in the instrumentation, Mendelssohn's 
 Symphonies lack the grand scheme and consistent 
 character of Mozart's and Beethoven's ; they are — 
 what ihQ French reviewer Pierre Scudo unfairly 
 asserted of all Mendelssohn's works without 
 exception — ''plus remarquables par les details que 
 par lapensee premiered The hard trials and acute 
 sorrows which alone could give emotion, pathos, 
 and tragical grandeur to compositions of this 
 kind never fell to the lot of happy Felix — and to 
 counterfeit emotion and raging grief was utterly 
 foreign to his upright, candid nature. 
 
 In the oratorios St. Paul [first performed at 
 the Dusseldorf Musical Festival, May 22nd, 1836] 
 and Elijah [first performed at the Birmingham 
 Musical Festival, August 13, 1846] Mendelssohn 
 has displayed such a fund of exquisite originaUty, 
 
324 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 and such dignity and solemnity (especially in St. 
 Paul*) in the treatment of this previously almost 
 neglected branch of composition, that his works 
 may henceforward be regarded as models of 
 modern oratorio composition. To our taste, the 
 somewhat overstrained pietism of some of the 
 solos in the (musically-speaking) far richer and 
 more brilliant * Elijah' is scarcel}^ congenial, and 
 we reserve our admiration for the noble choruses 
 " Thanks be to God," " Woe to him," " Behold, 
 God, he passed by," &c. 
 
 Similar in character to * Elijah' is the music 
 to Kacine's biblical drama Athalia [written for 
 the performance at Charlottenburg, November 
 12th, 1844]. We think the conception of this 
 work is not sufficiently lyrical ; in proportion to 
 the number of choruses, choral dialogues, and 
 
 * " In this Oratorio, Mendelssohn has given us of his very own 
 in the choruses, as for instance : * Now this man ceaseth not ' — 
 * Stone him to death ' — ' Happy and blest are they ' — (sung at 
 Leipsic at his funeral) — ' Is this he, who in Jerusalem' — * great 
 are the depths.' He has given us music of the past in his admirable 
 adaptations of the chorale harmonized after the manner of Bach, as 
 well as in the chorus ' But our God abideth in Heaven.' He has 
 given us modem music intermixed with reminiscences of Handel in 
 the solo pieces. Over the whole is thrown the charm of exquisite 
 instrumentation ; gracefully pleading in the chorus ' be gracious,' 
 humbly petitioning in the air ' God ! have mercy upon me,' in- 
 finitely touching in the cavatina * Be thou faithful unto death.' " 
 (F. M. Bdhme, The Oratorio, p. 57). The same writer remarks that 
 Mendelssohn — the reviver of oratorio after the Uach and Handel models 
 — was the first who took the unadorned words of Scripture for his text, 
 and who also revived the chorale, which had been neglected for a 
 length of time past. 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 325 
 
 choral recitatives — so far as one can judge from a 
 concert performance — the lyrical intervals are too 
 few and far between. The solo pieces, viz., the 
 duet " Ever blessed child, rejoice," and the trio 
 " Hearts feel, that love Thee" (both combined 
 with chorus), are among the noblest and most 
 delightful of Mendelssohn's compositions. 
 
 The Organ Sonatas, Motets, and Psalms, for 
 choir, soli, and orchestra ('When Israel out of 
 Egypt came,' Ps. cxiv., ' As the hart pants/ 
 Ps. xlii.) are a resuscitation of Bach's severe style 
 in a modern — not would-be ancient — garb. A 
 few contemporary critics are of opinion that 
 Mendelssohn has too much secularized Bach's 
 severe forms in St. Paul and other compositions, 
 and leavened sacred art with " romantic" ele- 
 ments, &c. ; whereas, at the time he produced 
 these works, he had to defend himself against 
 the charge of having copied Bach in a formal 
 and too accurate manner. " If my sacred music 
 bears any resemblance to that of Seb. Bach," 
 writes he to Devrient, " I cannot help it ; for I 
 wrote as I felt, and if I have felt the words 
 as old Bach did, I am all the more glad of 
 it. For I do not suppose you mean that I 
 have copied his forms without any reference to 
 the substance ; if such were the case, I could 
 never have finished anything for sheer disgust 
 and inanit}^" 
 
 In order to complete our description of Men- 
 
326 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 delssohn's versatile and prolific talent, we must 
 specify : the Pianoforte concerto in G minor [1832] ; 
 the Violin concerto [1845]; the D minor trio 
 [1840]; the brilliant Sonatas for pianoforte and 
 violoncello ; the Ottet for bowed instruments ; the 
 finale of the unfinished opera Loreley ,** Schil- 
 ler's ode To the Sons of Art, for male chorus and 
 orchestra ; the Choral Songs and Duets ; and, 
 finally, the Capriccios and highly popular Songs 
 without words (in seven books) for pianoforte. 
 We are inclined to regard the semi-religious, 
 semi-secular Symphony-Cantata, the Lohgesang 
 ('Song of praise'), as weU as the choruses to 
 Sophocles' tragedies Antigone and Oedipus in 
 Colonos (written by desire of the late King of 
 Prussia) as, on the whole, the least successful of 
 his compositions. Mendelssohn had not Gluck's 
 admirable conception of the antique ; in lieu of 
 a certain distinct tone pervading the whole work, 
 he gives \is only detached reminiscences in the 
 vocal as well as the orchestral parts. But even 
 Mendelssohn's inferior works, amongst which 
 may be reckoned * A calm sea' and ' Melusine,' 
 display the true musician ; in delightful combi- 
 nations of sound, and well-defined form and 
 proportion, he is a master indeed. 
 
 Nevertheless — and we trust without incurring 
 * The book, by Em. Geibel, has been adopted by Max. Bruch 
 [born at Cologne, 1838] in his opera of the same name, which has 
 lately been performed at Mannheim, Cologne, Hamburg, and else- 
 where in Germany, with great success. 
 
LATER MUSICIAXS OF GEEMAXY. 327 
 
 the charge of inconsistency — we are constrained 
 to admit that in the musical world of our day 
 (on which female* and dilettanti influences are 
 brought to hear in no slight degree) Mendelssohn 
 plays an all too important part. Scarcely a 
 concert takes place without one or even more of 
 Mendelssohn's compositions. Not only do the 
 great models of Each and Handel seem likely to 
 be cast into the shade by the very composer who 
 has deferred to them in so eminent a degree, but 
 even Schumann— the last musician of historical 
 importance — has had to make way for the 
 favourite of the day. 
 
 Egbert ASCZrC/i¥^iV^i\r [born June 8th, 1810]t 
 — almost the same age as his contemporary Men- 
 delssohn — was the youngest son of a bookseller 
 established at Zwickau, in Saxony. He did not 
 enjoy the advantages of a downright musical 
 education from early childhood — a few short 
 intervals between the hours of study at college 
 
 * Note by the Translator. We are reminded of several talented 
 women in private life. Foremost amongst them stands Fanny 
 Hensel, Mendelssohn's gifted sister [died at Berlin 1847]. Not to 
 mention a host of others in Germany and elsewhere, we will content 
 ourselves with distinguishing two of our countrywomen : — Mrs. 
 Arkwright, whose charming song ' Ruth ' needs no commendation 
 of ours, and Virginia Gabriel, the talented composer of the Can- 
 tatas ' Dreamland ' and * Graziella,' as w^ell as of a number of songs 
 (« The Forsaken,' &c.). 
 
 f Robert Schumann. Eine Biographie von Joseph v. "Wasie- 
 LEWSKY. Adorned with portraits of Robert and Clara Schumann 
 and two facsimiles. Dresden, 1858. The Hinterlassenen Schriften 
 ^4 Bande, Leipzig, 1854) contains Schumann's critical essays.. 
 
328 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 was all he could devote to the pianoforte. From 
 1828 to 1830, however, when he was supposed 
 to be studying jurisprudence at Leipsic and Hei- 
 delberg, he was enabled to give more time to the 
 study of his favourite art, and finally resolved 
 to give up the profession he was intended for, 
 and devote himself entirely to music* In the 
 autumn of 1830 he returned to Leipsic in order 
 to perfect himself in pianoforte playing under 
 Friedrich Wieck's (Clara's father) tuition. In 
 the fallacious hope of acquiring greater mecha- 
 nical facility, he subjected his hands to a mode of 
 treatment which ultimately lamed the middle 
 finger of the right hand. He then applied 
 himself to the study of harmony and compo- 
 sition under Heinrich Dorn. 
 
 Partly to pave the way for his compositions 
 (widely deviating from all heretofore received 
 maxims), Schumann, together with Wieck and 
 others, edited the * New Musical Journal' f — the 
 organ of genuine, enthusiastic art-students verstis 
 
 * Hereditary musical talent — so common in the days of Haydn 
 and Mozart (^vide the Bendas, Rombergs, Fescas, Pixis', Fiirstenaus, 
 &c.) — is unknown in our generation. Many of our modem musicians, 
 indeed, have, like Schumann, begun their career as musicians after 
 having studied for the learned professions, as : Berlioz, Marschner, 
 Reissiger, Curschmann, Marx, Hans v. Biilow, J. Raff. Of these, 
 the history of art will probably take count of only a few ; the others 
 are esteemed at the present day for other reasons. Some of the 
 most recent musicians appear to be totally devoid of originality, and 
 have little else to recommend them ; but in lieu of this they have 
 " a high consciousness of art," and know how to criticise with pen 
 and tongue what others knew how to turite^ 
 
 t ' Neue Zeitschrift fur MusikJ* 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMAN r. 329 
 
 the old-fashioned party — artisans and manufac- 
 turers all ; — in short, the poetic-minded and edu- 
 cated section of the musical world versus that of 
 mechanically-accomplished, time-serving, vulgar 
 musicians. " The days are gone when a luscious 
 cadenza, a languishing appogiatura, or an E flat 
 run from one end of the keys to another de- 
 lighted a whole audience ; now-a-days we must 
 have ideas, and those consequently carried out, — 
 we must have poetical conception; everything 
 must bear the impress of lively imagination, else 
 the effect is merely momentary. What fingers 
 do is simply mechanism, but what comes from 
 the heart speaks to the hearts of all." Under 
 the name of " Florestan," he attacks Meyerbeer's 
 ' Huguenots,' saying that Meyerbeer is *' no 
 better than Tranconi's troupe, &c. — a mere make- 
 shift, full of shams and hypocrisy." Having given 
 up the editorship of this journal [1844], Schu- 
 mann settled at Dresden ; which place he quitted 
 in 1850 to succeed Ferd. Hiller as music-director 
 at Diisseldorf. But, so early as 1853, he was 
 compelled to withdraw from active life ; and, not 
 long after, the " nervous hypochondria," of which 
 he had already complained at Dresden, resulted 
 in confirmed insanity. He died at the asylum at 
 Endenich, near Bonn, July 29th, 1856. 
 
 His works correspond to his career and educa- 
 tion. He struggled through the " storm period" 
 — as he himself called the period of preparation 
 
330 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 and transition from one career to another — and 
 attained to maturity in an incredibly short space 
 of time. The latter period of his active life, from 
 about 1 847, bears a general resemblance to the first ; 
 partly, in the restless, and occasionally fantastic, 
 imagination, and partly, in the over-intellectual 
 tendency which it displays. These characteristics 
 are evident in his first pianoforte compositions : 
 Papillons, Davidshiindlertdnzey Cameval, and, to 
 some extent, even in Kreisleriana, In these 
 pieces, Schumann is as unartistic and devoid of 
 form as his favourite poet Jean Paul ; like him, 
 he has an insurmountable antipathy to common- 
 place, every-day life ; and, like him, is for ever 
 taking refuge in the ideal. The Kinder semen, 
 Fantasiestiickey Waldsceneii, &c. are carefully 
 finished as regards form ; and in their graceful 
 characteristic superscriptions* we perceive the 
 poetical mind of the composer — albeit this kind 
 of poetic miniature-painting afibrds but little 
 satisfaction to the real musician. 
 
 " In proportion as his apprehension of the 
 nature and object of music became clearer and 
 deeper, in proportion as he endeavoured to write 
 good music without making wit, poetry, &c. his 
 foremost aim, Schumann's music improved in 
 
 * " GJikkes genug " (" Too happy to live ") " Trdumendes Kind " 
 (" 'J^he child's dream ") ; " Jn der Nacht " (" In the night ") ; " Her- 
 herge " (" Asylum ") ; " VeiTu/ene SteUe " (" Ill-omened spot ") ; 
 " Einsame Blumen " (" Solitary flowers ") ; " Vogel als Prophet " 
 (" The prophet-bird,") &c. 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 331 
 
 vigour and originality. The two allegro move- 
 ments of his First Symphony in B flat [1841] 
 teem with youthful vigour and vivacity ; the terse, 
 short rhythms in the first allegro of the Second 
 Symphony in C remind one of the same kind of 
 thing in Beethoven (the first allegro movements 
 of the fifth and eighth Symphonies) ; and the finale 
 of the splendid Pianoforte Quartet is as healthy 
 and joyous as any (?) of old Sebastian Bach's 
 quick, vigorous movements, (whose manner, in- 
 deed, Schumann occasionally reminds us of in this 
 piece). In these and similar passages, Schumann 
 rejoices in having attained the mastery after pro- 
 tracted struggles and many a backsliding."* 
 
 To this classical, but brief [1841—1846] period 
 of Schumann's career belong likewise : the ' Over- 
 ture, Scherzo, and Finale' [1841] — a kind of small 
 Symphony in three movements ; to which the 
 fantastically-constructed Symphony in E flat 
 major, with its five movements, forms a curious 
 contrast; the extremely difficult, but fine Piano- 
 forte Concerto in A minor ; the grand and bril- 
 liant Pianoforte Quintet in E flat ; the Quartets 
 for bowed instruments (op. 41), and the Can- 
 tata * Das Paradies und die Peri ' (from Moore's 
 *Lalla Eookh,' 1843). It is highly probable that 
 Mendelssohn's exam23le, as well as the influence 
 of his talented wife (whom he married in 1840), 
 contributed to the wonderful improvement on 
 
 * Ambros. MiLsikleben der Gegenwart, p. 85. 
 
332 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 his earlier compositions observable in the above- 
 mentioned pieces. 
 
 Latterly, Schumann evinced a partiality for the 
 treatment of poetical subjects on an enlarged 
 scale. These are : the gloomy, tragic music to 
 Lord Byron's Manfred; the tender and lyrical 
 opera Genofeva ; and the ' Semen aits Faust ' [first 
 performed in its entirety at Cologne, January 
 14th, 1862], of which the finale of the second 
 part (Faust's transfiguration) was especially ad- 
 mired. Similar in subject and treatment to the 
 afore-mentioned Cantata is ' Die Pilgerfahrt der 
 Rose* which Brendel does not even scruple to 
 call a weak imitation of the same. In both these 
 works, the entire effect is, notwithstanding con- 
 siderable beauty of detail — ^particularly in the 
 choruses — ,unimposing ; for nowhere does it ap- 
 peal to the feelings, and its overstrained and doleful 
 fairy-romance fails to arouse sympathy or interest. 
 
 In taking leave of Schumann, we cannot 
 bestow too much praise on his Songs, which, 
 though not equal in point of form to Schubert's, 
 deserve to be ranked next to his, as for example : 
 * To the sunshine,' ' Gro, roseate zephyr,' * De- 
 votion,' 'The lotus flower,' *Thou art a beau- 
 teous flower,' ' Ich grolle nicht' ' Wass will die 
 einsame Thrdne' &c. ; the collections of songs 
 called ' Dichterliehe (of Heine, op. 24), and 
 *• Frauenliehe und Leben (of Chamisso, op. 
 42) ; the charmingly graceful songs for choir 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 333 
 
 without accompaniment : ' Schon Rohtraut' 'Das 
 Dorfchen,'' &c., and for choir with pianoforte 
 or small orchestra, * Zigeunerlehen ; and the 
 farewell song, * Es ist hestimmf (likewise set by 
 Mendelssohn), &c. Few of them have obtained 
 absolute popularity ; which is not to be wondered 
 at when we consider that Schumann's melodies 
 are not such as are readily seized by the ear and 
 memory, nor easily separated from the context 
 and " transcribed" for instrumental purposes in 
 the manner of " Songs without words ;" for they 
 seek to follow the poet's thought with the 
 utmost accuracy, even to the smallest minutise. 
 Although at first sight this proceeding seems 
 to indicate want of attention to musical form, 
 in reality, it was the only way to get rid of 
 the unmeaning vocal phraseology of Mendel- 
 ssohn's imitators, and infuse new vigour into 
 vocal composition. 
 
 Of Schumann's successors, the most distin- 
 guished is Eobert Franz [born at Halle in 
 Saxony, 1815], though he is not, for one moment, 
 to be seriously compared with the former. The 
 graceful conception and charming proportion 
 observable in Franz's compositions distinguish 
 them favourably from those of many modern 
 vocal composers, who are in the habit of utterly 
 disregarding, not only tuneful melody, but the 
 metre of the verses they set to music ; but as to 
 healthy, vigorous, and characteristic melody — we 
 
334 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 seek for it in vain in the songs of Eobert Franz: 
 The vocal composer should be something better 
 than an obedient interpreter to the poet; his 
 highest, nay, his only object should be to invent 
 a melody which appeals directly to the feelings, 
 and reflects the poet's idea in every trait. De- 
 clamatory rendering of the words, be it ever so 
 exact and true, correct conception of the poet's 
 meaning, and melody aiming exclusively at a 
 close affinity with the verse metre are far from 
 answering to the idea of genuine vocal compo- 
 sition. 
 
 The case, however, is different in ballad com- 
 position ; where, so long as the epic, narrating 
 tone prevails, the plain recitative style of singing 
 is in good keeping. But in how far even this is 
 permissible, the talented Karl Lowe [born at 
 Halle, November 30th, 1796], who is the first of 
 ballad composers, has shown us in his numerous 
 ballads after Herder, Goethe, TJhland, etc. He 
 adopts a medium between simple recitative and 
 ariosOy which, however attractive it may seem 
 when taken in connection with the words, becomes 
 tedious after a time, because effective lyrical 
 crises — '/mere pleasing melody," as Wagner 
 contemptuously calls it — is too much lost sight 
 of Thus his larger compositions, and particu- 
 larly his ballad "groups" — not to mention his 
 Oratorios: 'Die sieben Schldfer' 'Die Apostel 
 in Philippi,' * Die eheiiie Schlange ' (the two last 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 335 
 
 for male choir only) — soon become monotonous ; 
 but, on the other hand, the smaller songs : 
 ' Edward y ' Heinrich der Vogler,' ' Der WirtJdn 
 Tochterlein ' [" Es zogen drei Burschen "], etc. are 
 superior to almost anything we can recollect of 
 the kind. 
 
 In the ballad for choir, soil, and orchestra, 
 Niels Wilhelm GADE [born at Copenhagen, 
 October 22nd, 1817] was far more successful 
 than Lowe, or even Schumann (' Vom Pagen und 
 der Konigstochter,' four ballads of Greibel; 'Das 
 Gluckvon EdenhaU,'hj Uhland). 'Comala (after 
 Ossian) and 'Erlkonigs Tochter (after a Danish 
 legend) are, next to Ferd. HiUer's Lorelei, those 
 works which, since Mendelssohn's ' Waldpurgis 
 Night,' have deservedly obtained the greatest 
 success. Though Hiller may have displayed 
 more vigour and dramatic movement in the 
 treatment of his ' Lorelei ' (similar in subject to 
 Gade's ' Erlkonigs Tochter,' but of greater pathos 
 in the poetry), Gade has the, now-a-days inesti- 
 mable, advantage of greater simplicity and natural- 
 ness. His charming melodies are thoroughly 
 tuneful and easy to retain ; and his characteristic, 
 but never obtrusive, instrumentation harmonizes 
 admirably with the feeling of the entire piece. 
 Latterly, he has produced the graceful Cantatas : 
 ^ FrilhlingS'Fantasie ' (for four solo voices, orches- 
 tra, and pianoforte), ^ Fruhlings-BotscliaJV (for 
 
336 HISTORY 015^ MUSIC. 
 
 choir and orchestra), 'Die heilige Nacht' (for 
 contralto solo, choir, and orchestra). 
 
 Likewise, his gracefully arranged and evenly 
 elaborated Symphonies (1. C minor, 2. E major, 
 3. A minor, 4. B flat major, 5. D minor, with 
 pianoforte ohligato, 6. G minor) place Gade 
 amongst the foremost of living musicians. Some 
 would fain deny him all merit except what they 
 call his " northern colouring," and maintain that 
 his ideas are insignificant and poor ; but we can* 
 not help acknowledging that Gade has shown 
 admirable judgment in refraining from concep- 
 tions of a grand order, and has managed to unite 
 the ideal, though not profound, subject-matter 
 with motifs of a genre or landscape kind. If we 
 compare Gade's Symphonies with those of his 
 predecessors, we find they most resemble those of 
 Mendelssohn ; but the gifted Dane is as much 
 superior to Mendelssohn's imitators, as the 
 English composers Sterndale Bennett, with 
 his smooth concert Overtures (' Die Najaden,' 
 ' The Wood-nymph,' etc.), and his Cantata ^ The 
 May Queen,' and Arthur Sullivan (' The 
 Tempest' Cantata) is of their number. Gade's 
 first Symphony (in C minor) as well as his 
 concert Overtures ' Nachkldnge vo7i Ossian ' and 
 '/m Hochlcmd,' inspired both Mendelssohn and 
 Schumann with the liveliest interest, — the latter 
 even regarding it as a good omen for the young 
 musician that the letters of his name corre- 
 sponded to the four strings of the violin. 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 337 
 
 In regard to vocal composition (little cultivated 
 by Gade and the best musicians since Schumann's 
 time), we have lately had to put up with a great 
 many weak and trivial productions ; but should we 
 disdain to admit a Eeissiger, Abt, Kucken, 
 EssER, Krebs, &c., together with Proch and 
 GuMBERT (" genteel ballad-minstrels " as they are 
 called) into good company, because they too 
 have been guilty of some trivial, but highly 
 popular, compositions? Excellent German vocal 
 composers are Alex. Fesca, Cursciimann [born 
 at Berlin 1805, died 1841, "Streamlet, cease thy 
 constant flow," " The sailor draws near land," 
 &c.], Karl Banck [born 1804], W. Taubert, H. 
 DoRN, K. Eeinecke, Truhn, and others. 
 
 Genuine ballad-singing — to adopt Reissmann's* 
 nomenclature — is found in those choirs for male 
 voices, in which Karl Zollner, Aug. Schaffer, 
 and the journeyman patriarch Jul. Otto are 
 esteemed *' classical." The better and more 
 artistically disposed societies, like the Cologne 
 Choral Society^ are sadly in want of good modern 
 songs. Since Weber, Marschner, Mendelssohn, 
 and Konradin Kreutzer, Friedrich Silcher [died 
 at Tubingen 1860] is the only one who by his 
 " Volkslieder'" (in twelve books) has given a 
 
 * Das deutsche Lied in seiner historischen Entwickelung. Darge- 
 stellt von August Reissmaxn. Cassel, 1861. 
 
 t Note by the Translator. Many of our readers will doubt- 
 leFS remember the visits of this Society to England in 1853 and 
 1854. 
 
 * Z 
 
338 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 nobler impetus to popular musical art — already 
 threatening to degenerate into wretched hum and 
 dance tunes. How genuine and true was his 
 conception of the popular song is evinced in his 
 composition oi' Lorelei ("Ich weiss nicht, was soil 
 es bedeuten,"), " Zu Strasshurg auf der Sclianz^* 
 '''- Morgen muss ich fort von /a^r," and a number 
 of other well-known songs. Spohr, Franz 
 Lachner (* Sturmesmythe'\ Ferd. Hiller, Gade, 
 Jul. RiETZ (Schiller's ' Dithyrambe^' ' Old German 
 war-song'), Hauptmann, Taubert, &c. did not 
 consider it beneath their dignity to do something 
 towards improving the despised, because neg- 
 lected, male choir singing ; but the majority of 
 musicians are content to accept the present state 
 of things, and abandon this branch of com- 
 position to the above-mentioned manufacturers. 
 
 In a greater degree even than the " music- 
 drama" founded on the old French recitative 
 opera, is the modern genus of composition called 
 ''programme-music'' utterly foreign to German art 
 and feeling. It owes its origin to Berlioz — a 
 Frenchman ; and Liszt (who writes his books in 
 French) displays an affinity to French taste and 
 feeling in his " symphonic poetry." Programme- 
 music is a degenerate species of instrumental 
 music, which requires a special explanation in 
 order to be understood ; consequently, while 
 setting at nought form and proportion, which are 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 339 
 
 absolutely essential to all true art, it ignores the 
 first and most essential feature of German instru- 
 mental music, viz. — ideality. With what right 
 the representatives of this style appeal to Beet- 
 hoven's example in support of their theories we 
 think we have already satisfactorily shown ; and, 
 with regard to Schumann, it is only his first 
 attempts which they imitate. The Heidelberg 
 student's ' Papillons ' (op. 2) are of such import- 
 ance in Brendel's eyes that — though he bestows 
 but little attention on Schumann's later compo- 
 sitions — he thinks it incumbent on him* to. 
 *' allude to them more particularly." Schumann's 
 later compositions are entirely free from the 
 tendency to describe external events and occur- 
 rences. He protests against Berlioz' pro- 
 grammes, which he says " confined his view," 
 and even the few superscriptions to his pieces he 
 declares are not to be understood in a universal 
 sense, — that which suited him individually ought 
 not to be taken as a rule. '* It is a bad sign for 
 music when it needs a superscription ; for it is a 
 proof that it is not the result of genuine inspira- 
 tion but of some outward suggestion. That our 
 art is able to express a great many things, and 
 even to follow the course of an event, who will 
 deny ? But those who are inclined to test the 
 value of the images thus originated can do so 
 easily — they need only erase the superscriptions." 
 
 * Oeschichte der Musik^ p. 506. 
 
340 HISTORY OB^ MUSIC. 
 
 Indeed, the value of this would-be "charac- 
 teristic " music is determined by the simple fact 
 that the superscriptions are usually invented 
 after the music is composed ; but modern " tone- 
 poets" are rarely as candid as the one who 
 consulted us as to whether he should call his 
 recently composed overture * Minna von Barn- 
 helm ' * or * Clavigo,' f or another — ^rather cele- 
 brated pianist — whom AmbrosJ describes as hesi- 
 tating between * Abd-el-Kader * and the ' Falls of 
 Schaffhausen ' for the title of a '^ grande Etude'' I 
 " Une Jille est-elle depourvue de beaute\ d' esprit et 
 de doty on nous vante son caractereJ' 
 
 HECTOR BERLIOZ— ''i\iQ chief pillar of 
 modern development " — ,who endeavoured to re- 
 place absence of ideality and artistic perception by 
 meretricious devices and " grandeur of detail" (!), 
 and faulty design by enriched colouring, was 
 born in a village of the Isere department, 
 December 11th, 1803. His father intended him 
 for the medical profession, to which he objected. 
 All assistance from home being withdrawn in 
 consequence of this decision, he hired himself out 
 as chorist at a vaudeville theatre ; afterwards he 
 gave singing lessons, and ultimately made money 
 enough to enable him to complete his studies at 
 
 ♦ Comedy, by Lessing. 
 t Tragedy, by Goethe. 
 X Qrenzen der Musik und PoesiCf p. 136. 
 
lATER MUSICIANS OP GERMANY. 341 
 
 the Conservatoire at Paris. For his Cantata 
 * Sardanapalus ' [1830] he obtained a prize and 
 allowances for a journey to Italy. After his 
 return to Paris [1882], his Symphonies ' Sin- 
 fonie fantastique^ Episode de la vie dun artiste,' 
 and ' Harold en Italie ' were performed in public. 
 Both of them purport to represent incidents in 
 his own career ; the first, a vision engendered by 
 passionate admiration of an actress (terminating 
 in the execution march, guillotine, and witches' 
 revel) ; the second (with viola ohUgato [Harold !]) 
 impressions of the country and people in Italy, 
 viz. — Harold in the mountains, scenes of sadness, 
 happiness and joy — pilgrimage — serenade in the 
 Abruzzi mountains — bandits' orgies. This 
 symphony has nothing whatever in common 
 with the fourth Canto of Byron's ' Childe 
 Harold ;' he might, says Ambros,* with equal 
 propriety have styled it 'Berlioz en Italie' or, 
 after the usual fashion, simply, ' Souvenirs 
 d' Italie.' 
 
 In his "dramatic Symphony," 'Romeo et 
 Juliette' Berlioz attempted to render an entire 
 poetical work (Shakespeare's ' Bomeo and 
 Juliet') by means of orchestra alone. To the 
 introduction on the first scene of the tragedy, 
 (the Dispute) and a * Prologue' sung by the 
 chorus with the interpolation of two songs (Song 
 for a contralto voice in honour of love, Italy, and 
 
 * CJompare Oremen der Mtisik, &c., p. 156 — 178. 
 
342 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 Shakespeare, and a tenor solo, " Story of Queen 
 Mab"), succeed — likewise explained and connected 
 by choral and instrumental movements — the 
 principal scenes of the drama, viz. — Komeo's 
 melancholy — the ball at Capulet's house — ^the 
 balcony scene — Queen Mab (taken from Mer- 
 cutio's narrative) — scene in the vault. Berlioz 
 has not been successful in his endeavour to 
 render Shakespeare's play in music; for he did 
 not possess the secret of combining all the details 
 of the poetry with artistic unity, i.e. to group 
 the details according to the laws of composition 
 and reduce them to an harmonious whole. On 
 this account, he did right not to treat the * Dam- 
 nation de Faust ' in the form of a symphony, but 
 to confine himself to the description of a few 
 scenes : — Introduction, Eakocsky march (instead 
 of the soldiers' song), rustic dance under the 
 lime tree, Mephistopheles' rat song, &c. 
 
 As really original pieces, (though, as regards their 
 relation to the rest, horsd'oeuwe both of them), 
 the Eakocsky march and the Scherzo^ ' La Fee 
 Mab \ are much admired though but little known. 
 Berlioz calculated his instrumental effects for such 
 a large orchestra {at least fifteen first and as many 
 second violins, ten violas, &c.), that, apart from 
 other considerations, his works could rarely be 
 performed. After a time, " finding himself no 
 longer appreciated " (i.e. when the French were 
 tired of him), he made the tour of Germany, in 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 343 
 
 1843, but arrived — according to Brendel — too 
 soon. **We were not yet prepared for Berlioz' 
 innovations." The only thing for which Berlioz 
 was admired was the brilliant, ethereal colouring* 
 which he shed over his otherwise insignificant 
 compositions. Among the few who stood up for 
 him as a composer was Liszt, who even urged him 
 to come to Weimar in 1852, when the 'Eomeo' 
 symphony, ' Faust ' scenes, and his opera of 
 ' Benmnuto Cellini ' (with the pleasing overture 
 * Le Carnaval Eomain ' in the second act) were per- 
 formed under his own auspices. The only genuine, 
 and really complete, work in the style of which 
 Berlioz is the founder is the Symphony-ode 
 ' Le Desert; by Felicien David [born 1810] ; his 
 later Symphony-cantatas * Moses on Mount 
 Sinai' and 'Columbus,' as well as his operas, 
 met with but little success. 
 
 Whereas in the compositions of Berlioz we 
 may find somewhat to admire, Liszt's *' symphonic 
 poems" come very near to that which is no 
 longer musical art; it consists in giving pro- 
 minence to reflective, intellectual, " highly sym- 
 bolical," ideas — consequently art defeats its own 
 purpose (^^cogitaty ergo non esf), "Spiritual 
 music," forsooth, which robs spirit of its thought, 
 and music of its soul ! When passing judgment on 
 " symphonic poetry," we must, however, bear in 
 mind that Liszt has, generally speaking, selected 
 
 * Traite d* instrumentation et d* orchestration modernes^ Paris, 1844. 
 
344 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 the most impracticable subjects* for musical 
 treatment, and that the want of form they exhibit 
 throughout is by no means characteristic of the 
 style or necessitated by the subject. On a nearer 
 view, " symphonic poetry " presents a strange con- 
 trast to the old-fashioned ^^ suite)' it professes 
 to mean something as a whole, without even 
 expressing anything clearly and distinctly in 
 detail. " As a matter of course, it goes on in the 
 same strain without interruption ; one part grows 
 out of the other without resulting in any distinct, 
 complete idea ; — distinct, complete idea is only to 
 be discerned in the symphonic poem in its 
 entirety." Thus Ambros,f the partial admirer of 
 Liszt ; his, also, is the clever saying : " These 
 works are not, they signify !" 
 
 That amongst his numerous symphonic poems 
 (as for instance ' Tasso ' and ' Prometheus '), we 
 find musical passages of considerable merit, is 
 only to be expected in a musician like Liszt ; but 
 
 * They are as follows : 1. * Ce qu*on entend sur la montagne ' 
 (after V. Hugo) ; 2. * Tasso : Lamento e Triovfo ;' 3. ' Les Pre- 
 ludes ' (after Lamartine) ; 4. ' Orphee ;' 5. * Promethee ;' 6. ' Ma- 
 zeppa* (after V. Hugo); 7. ^ Festkldnge ;^ 8. ^ Heroide fnnebre i"* 
 9. ^Hungariaf 10. ^Hamlet* 11. ^ Hunnenschlacht^ (after Kaul- 
 bach) ; 12. ^ Die IdeaJe *^'> (after Schiller). Besides these is the 
 Faust Symphony (first movement — Faust ; Andante — Margaret) ^ 
 Scherzo — Mephistopheles ; concluding with the chorus mysticus 
 (" Alles Vergdngliche ist nur ein Gleichniss ; . . . . Das Unhe- 
 schreibliche hier ist es gethan /") ; and the Symphony to Dante's 
 * Divina Commedia ' (Inferno and Purgatorio), with concluding 
 chorus for soprano and contralto voices. 
 
 t Musikleben der Gegenwart, p. 159. Compare p. 153 — 173. 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 345 
 
 the general impression is one of blank, dreary 
 discomfort. As a performer, Liszt is a pheno- 
 menon ; as a writer, he is entitled to a high place 
 in musical literature ; but as a composer, he has 
 remained what he was in his numerous '' Partitions 
 de Piano ^' '' Paraphrases^'' " Transcriptions'' (of 
 Beethoven, Wagner, Meyerbeer, Yerdi, &c.) — a 
 translator. 
 
 That which Liszt vainly essayed in his sym- 
 phonic poems, others (after the example of 
 Mendelssohn and Beethoven) attempted in the 
 overture — a branch of composition which aims at 
 rendering a poem in its general character and 
 with reference to a particular subject or event in 
 a musical and agreeable form. Among the best of 
 those which have appeared in recent times, we 
 reckon those of F. Eies to * Don Carlos ;' Schin- 
 delmeisser's to 'Uriel Acosta' (which, however, 
 strongly reminds one of Meyerbeer) ; Bargiel's to 
 ' Medea ;' AV . Taubert s to Shakespeare's ' Tem- 
 pest ;' and K. Eeinecke's to Calderon s ' Dame 
 Kobold.' Unfortunately, a number of less gifted 
 composers have followed in their footsteps, and, 
 if it goes on much longer, we shall have an over- 
 ture to every play. 
 
 Finally, we must mention the small super- 
 scription composers — the poetical pianoforte 
 players who, in the amiable intention of describ- 
 ing a poetical or characteristic subject, torment 
 us with nothing but their miserable selves. Their 
 
346 ' HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 works exliibit the tokens by which Goethe par- 
 ticularly recognized the decay of poetry in our 
 age, as well as the sterility of our poets : — extreme 
 finish in the technical portion, and a tendency to 
 subjective contemplation.* Even in works of a 
 larger calibre, the much-talked of close association 
 of music and poetry is of a purely personal 
 origin ; indeed, this latest achievement has con- 
 fused and disturbed everything, and it is high 
 time for it to be thoroughly understood that the 
 limits of art are necessarily also the limits of the 
 Beautiful. 
 
 Like Wagner in the opera, Liszt and Berlioz 
 in instrumental music have ignored the propor- 
 tion which should exist between the subject- 
 matter and form; and art is left vacillating 
 between the two extremes of vulgar realism and 
 a too abstract idealism; — theory has got the start 
 of practice. But it is not so much the a/??i that 
 the artist strives at — not so much what his idea 
 was when he set about producing a work of art, 
 as what he can and really does produce, which is 
 of consequence to us ; he will not meet with 
 appreciation and admiration unless his creations 
 are carried out with legitimate methods of art. 
 " The real intention of fine art," says the greatest 
 of art philosophers — Lessing, " can be no other 
 than that which each art is competent to produce 
 
 * Compare Gervinus' Oeschichte der deutschen Dichtung^ vol v., 
 p. 659. 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 347 
 
 independently of another. With modern painters, 
 the means is evidently an object. They paint 
 history for the sake of painting history, without 
 reflecting that they are thereby making their 
 art merely accessory to other arts and sciences ; 
 or, at least, are so dependent on other arts and 
 sciences that their own is entirely deprived of its 
 value as a primitive art." 
 
 When we come, however, to copyists — the 
 composers a la Liszt and Wagner — the case 
 assumes a serious aspect. These gentlemen seem 
 to think that they have nothing to do but to 
 take tilings easily in order to appear original and 
 in the modern taste ; they do not even compose, 
 they simply concoct, and expect that the pro- 
 gramme or superscription will do the rest. 
 " Whatever has already been done need not be 
 done again, and what can be done must be done." 
 Fortunately, however, the number of those who 
 thus transgress against the beauty of form is 
 small indeed ; and, although they may boast that 
 their admirers esteem their errors a proof of 
 genius and devotion to the Beautiful and the 
 True, and pursue to the death all who hold a 
 different opinion with their newly-discovered 
 theory, *'the aesthetics of ugliness," — * we need 
 entertain no fears about the future. The " new 
 German " school — as it now claims to be called — 
 
 * Aesthetik des Easdichen. Von Karl Rosenkbanz. Konigsberg, 
 1853. 
 
348 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 will doubtless exhaust itself in as short a space 
 of time as did the *' storm-period " of 1770 — 
 1780 and the Young Germany of literature ; and 
 we have greater reason to fear that whatever of 
 a wholesome and genuine tendency is yet exist- 
 ing in the works of R. Wagner will remain 
 undeveloped than that the recently proclaimed 
 freedom and equality in art will ever be thought 
 seriously of. 
 
 The taste of the present generation is decidedly 
 in favour of music of a simple and sterling 
 calibre; the works of the great masters are 
 diffused among the multitude by means of cheap 
 and excellent editions and well managed Festi- 
 vals, societies, and Popular Concerts. Whereas, 
 in the year 1815, Spohr wrote from Munich: 
 "An entire symphony is performed at every 
 concert," as of something unusual, — at the sym- 
 phony-concerts established by Liebig at Berlin, 
 by Pasdeloup at Paris, and at the Philharmonic 
 and New Philharmonic Societies' and other 
 concerts in London, the finest instrumental com- 
 positions are now constantly performed to 
 hundreds and thousands of people. Likewise, in 
 contemporary compositions we observe, with 
 pleasure, a tendency to improve. A considerable 
 number of, for the most part, sterling and admi- 
 rable musicians, who do not follow the advice of 
 Mephisto : 
 
 ** A poet choose as thine ally." 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OF GERMANY. 349 
 
 have (as we gather from their much and 
 deservedly admired compositions) withdrawn 
 from the easy-going eclecticism of the day : — Franz 
 Lachner [born at Rain in Suabia, April 2nd, 1804, 
 Symphonies, * Suites for orchestra] ; the celebrated 
 thorough bass master (author of ' Die Natur der 
 Harmonih und der Metrik' 1853) Moritz Haupt- 
 MANN [born at Dresden 1792, Masses, Motets — 
 among which the 'Salve Regina' called by 
 Spohr " ravishingly beautiful," — ecclesiastical 
 pieces for choir and orchestra] ; Niels Gade 
 (whose admirable compositions have been already 
 alluded to) ; Perd. Hiller [born at Francfort- 
 on-the-Maine 1811 : ' Die Zersiorung Jerusalems 
 and * Saul/ both oratorios — ; ' Ver sacrum ' or 
 * Die Grilndung Boms' a cantata ; — Hebrew 
 songs of Lord Byron, &c.] ; Karl Reinthaler 
 [* Jephtha, und seine Tochter/ an oratorio] ; Bernh. 
 Molique [' Abraham' an oratorio] ; Friedr. 
 Kiel [' Requiem '] ; Costa [* Eli^' * Naaman' 
 oratorios]; Hesse [died 1863], Ritter, and in 
 England, Goss, Elvey, and others [organ and 
 choir compositions] ; Wilh. Taubert [music 
 to Shakespeare's * Tempest *] ; Karl Reinecke 
 \J Ave Maria' and other choral songs, pianoforte 
 concertos, &c.] ; Jul. Rietz [overtures and sym- 
 phonies]; J. Joachim [violin concerto in the 
 Hungarian style]; also chamber and pianoforte 
 music by a great many of the aforesaid, and 
 Johannes Brahms [serenades in D and A for 
 
350 HISTORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 small orchestra, sestet, and pianoforte pieces : 
 variations on airs of Handel, Schumann, &c.] ; 
 Ferd. David [chamber music for violin] ; Eob. 
 VoLKMANN, A. EuBiNSTEiN, J. Eaff and a 
 number of others. Yet we are to believe that the 
 field of art lies fallow and must be ploughed up 
 before it can produce another crop? True, no 
 one among living composers has been able to 
 replace Mendelssohn ; and, were he still living, 
 we should most certainly never have heard all 
 this talk about new theories in art. 
 
 We therefore await patiently the resurrection 
 of real genius — genius, such as shall put to 
 silence the disputes which distract the musical 
 profession in Germany — genius, whose works shall 
 proclaim a new ideal, and draw everything into its 
 mighty vortex. Another spring-time of music — 
 another classical epoch in music as well as poetry, 
 we may scarcely hope to see. The tendency of 
 the age is a different one ; there is less scope for 
 imagination in these scientific days ; and instead 
 of art, — political, national, and material interests 
 principally employ the minds of men. For this 
 reason, the artist who reveres the immortal Past 
 will cherish the element in which its greatness 
 consisted — the beautiful Ideal, — that it may con- 
 tinue to set forth all that is best and noblest in 
 man. This is Schiller's injunction to the Sons 
 of Art ; and so long as the sublime words of the 
 poet are not only sung, but understood and 
 
LATER MUSICIANS OP GERMANY. 351 
 
 cherished, so long will — similar to Nature's inex- 
 haustible resources — genuine love of art and 
 creative power abide and continue : 
 
 " Sons of Art ! into your hands consigned 
 (That trust revere !) 
 The liberal dignity of human kind ! 
 
 With you to sink, with you to reappear."* 
 
 * Sir E. Bulwer Lytton. 
 
353 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abt, Franz 337 
 
 Adam, Adolphe .. .. 279 
 
 Adam de la Hale .. .. 19 
 
 Albert, Heinrich .. .. 74 
 
 Alboni, Marietta .. .. 303 
 
 Albrechtsberger .. .. 196 
 
 Allegri 40 
 
 Amati 62 
 
 Ambrose, St. 10 
 
 Ander 302 
 
 Anerio, Felice .. .. 40 
 
 Aptommas 315 
 
 Arcadelt 25 
 
 Arkwright, Mrs. .. 327 w. 
 
 Arne, Dr 100 
 
 Arnold 100 
 
 Artot, Ddsir^ .. .. 304 
 
 Astorga 63 
 
 Auber 277 
 
 Bach, Job. Seb 78 
 
 , Phil. Em. 79, 92, 114, 148 
 
 — , Wilh. Friedemann 92 
 
 —, Job. Christian .. 92 
 
 Bader 302 
 
 Baillot 312 
 
 Bai 41 
 
 Balfe 279 
 
 Banck, Karl 337 
 
 Bargiel, Woldemar .. 345 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Barmann, Heinr. and Karl 315 
 
 Bazzini 311 
 
 Beethoven . . 188 w., 195 
 BelUni .. .. 234 w., 269 
 Benda, Georg .. .. 145 
 Benedict, Julius .. .. 280 
 
 Benevoli 42 
 
 Bennet, John . . . . 100 
 
 Bennett, WilliamStemdale 336 
 Berbiguier .. .. .. 315 
 
 Berger, Ludwig .. 258, 320 
 Berlioz, Hector .. .. 340 
 
 Bemabei 42 
 
 Bemacchi 61 
 
 Bernhard the German .. 44 
 
 Berton 125 
 
 Billington, Mrs 304 
 
 BiRD,Wimam 100 
 
 Bishop 100 
 
 Blagrove 311 
 
 Blow, John 100 
 
 Bdhm 315 
 
 Boieldieu.. .. 126,250,276 
 BoRDONi, Faustina .. ., 62 
 
 Bottesini 314 
 
 Braham 302 
 
 Brahms 349 
 
 Broschi, Carlo (Farinelli) 62 
 
 Bruch, Max 326 w. 
 
 Bull, Ole 311 
 
 2 A 
 
354 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 BuLOw, Hansv 93 
 
 Burde-Ney, Jenny . . 304 
 
 Ca/Tarelli 62 
 
 Caldara 45 
 
 Callcott 100 
 
 Calzabigi 128 
 
 Cambert 117 
 
 Carafa 270 
 
 Carissimi 55 
 
 Carl, Henriette , . , . 304 
 
 Carpentras .... .. 25 
 
 Catalani, Angelica .. 302 
 
 Catel 125 
 
 Cherubini . . . . 234 7?., 250, 274 
 
 Chopin 317 
 
 Cimarosa . . . . 122, 171 n., 263 
 
 Clemens non Pai)a . . . . 25 
 
 Clementi 257 
 
 Corelli 61 
 
 Costa 340 
 
 Cramer, J. B 258 
 
 Crescent! ni 62 
 
 Criiger 74 
 
 Cruvelli, Sophie . . . . 304 
 
 Curschmann 337 
 
 CuzzoNi, Francesca .. 62 
 
 Czemy 258 
 
 D'Alayrac 
 
 Danzi 
 
 DaPonte .. .. 
 
 D'Auvergne, Antoine 
 
 125 
 253 
 177 
 123 
 
 David, Felicien .. .. 343 
 
 , Ferd 311 
 
 De Beriot, Louis . . . . 313 
 
 De Meyer, Leopold .. 320 
 
 Dibdin lOO 
 
 DiSTix, family of .. .. 315 
 
 Dittersdorf 259 
 
 Dohler 320 
 
 Doles 92 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Donizetti .. .. ' 234 n., 269 
 
 Dora 296,337 
 
 DowLAND, John .. .. 100 
 
 Dreyschock 320 
 
 Drouet 315 
 
 Dufay 22 
 
 Duni 59,123 
 
 Duprez 302 
 
 Durante 57 
 
 Dussek 255 
 
 Dultmann-Meyer, Louise 304 
 
 Ebeling 74 
 
 Eccard 73 
 
 Elvey 349 
 
 Ernst 311 
 
 Esser 337 
 
 Farinelli 
 
 .. 62 
 
 Faustina 
 
 .. 62 
 
 Feo, Francesco 
 
 .. 57 
 
 Fesca, Alexander .. 
 
 .. 319 
 
 , Friedr. Ernst 
 
 .. 254 
 
 Festa, Costanzo .. 
 
 .. 25 
 
 Field, John 258 
 
 Fioravanti 263 
 
 Fischer, Mich. Gotthard .. 87 
 
 , Ludwig .. .. 302 
 
 Flotow 280 
 
 FoDOR, Josephine . . . . 303 
 
 Formes, Karl 302 
 
 Franco of Cologne... .. 18 
 
 Fraxz, Kobert .. .. 333 
 
 Frescobaldi 87 
 
 Froberger 87 
 
 FiJRSTENAU, Anton and 
 
 Moritz 315 
 
 Fux .. 151 
 
 Gabriel, Virginia .. 327 n. 
 
 Gabrieli, Francesca .. 62 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 355 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Gabrieli, Giovanni .. 43 
 
 Gade, Niels Wilh. .. 335, 338 
 
 Gallus, Jacobus .. .. 46 
 
 Galuppi 59, 122 
 
 Geminiani 61 
 
 Gibbons, Orlando .. .. 100 
 
 Giuliani 315 
 
 Glaser 294 
 
 Glover 100 
 
 Gluck .. 127,147,168,250 
 
 Goddard, Mdme Arabella 320 
 
 Goltermann 313 
 
 Goss 349 
 
 Gossec 125 
 
 Goudimel 25,70 
 
 Gounod 287 
 
 Graun 113 
 
 Gregory the Great .. 11 
 
 Gretry 124 
 
 Grisi, Giuditta .. .. 303 
 
 , Giulietta .. .. 303 
 
 Griitzmacher 314 
 
 Guarneri 62 
 
 Guglielmi 59 
 
 GuiDO of Arezzo .. .. 17 
 
 Gumbert 337 
 
 Gungl 267 
 
 Haizinger 302 
 
 Halevy 287 
 
 Halle, Charles .. 94 n., 320 
 
 Handel 95 
 
 Harper 315 
 
 HA8ER,Wilh 302 
 
 Hasse .. .. 59,64,112 
 
 Hassler, Hans Leo .. 72 
 
 Hassler 87 
 
 Hauptmanx, Moritz .. 338 
 
 Haydn, Joseph . . . . 150 
 
 , Michael .. .. 164 
 
 Heinefetteb, Sabine .. 304 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Heinemeyer 315 
 
 Heller, Stephen .. .. 319 
 Hensel, Fanny . . . . 327 n- 
 
 Henselt 319 
 
 Hermstedt 315 
 
 Herold 279 
 
 Herz, Henri 259 
 
 Hesse, A. F 349 
 
 Hilleb, Joh. Adam . . 143 
 
 , Ferdinand .. 296,338 
 
 Himmel 144 
 
 Homilius 92 
 
 Hoi-sley 100 
 
 Howell 314 
 
 Hucbald 16 
 
 Hummel 255 
 
 HuMPHBEYS, Pelham . . 100 
 
 HUnten 259 
 
 Isouard 125 
 
 Joachim 311 
 
 Jomelli 59 
 
 Josquin des Pres . . . . 23 
 
 Kalkbrenner 257 
 
 Kalliwoda 254 
 
 Kauer 260 
 
 Keiser 96 
 
 Kelly 302 
 
 Kemble, Adelaide . . . . 304 
 
 Kerl 87 
 
 Kiel, Friedr 349 
 
 Kindermann 302 
 
 Kimberger 93 
 
 Kittel 87 
 
 Klein, Bei-nh 307 
 
 Kompel 311 
 
 Konig 315 
 
 KosTER, Louise . . . . 304 
 
 Kbebs, Joh. Ludwig .. 92 
 
356 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Krebs, Karl Aug. .. 
 Kreutzer, Konradin 
 , Rudolph . . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 337 
 294 
 312 
 
 Kucken 337 
 
 Kummer 315 
 
 Labitzky 267 
 
 Lablache 302 
 
 Lachner, Franz .. 296, 338 
 
 Lafont 313 
 
 Lagroscino 122 
 
 Lanner 267 
 
 Lasos of Hermione . . . . 3 
 
 La8SUS, Orlandug .. .. 27 
 
 Laub, Ferdinand .. .. 311 
 
 Lauterbach 311 
 
 Lazarus 315 
 
 Lemmens - Sherrington, 
 
 Madame 304 
 
 Leo, Leonardo 58 
 
 Leonard 313 
 
 LiND, Jenny 304 
 
 Lindimintner 296 
 
 Lipiusky 312 
 
 Liszt 316,343 
 
 Lolli 61 
 
 Lortzing 296 
 
 Lotti 44 
 
 Lowe, Karl 334 
 
 , Sophie 304 
 
 Lucca, Pauline .. .. 304 
 
 Lully 117 
 
 Lurabye 267 
 
 Luther .. .. .. .. 68 
 
 Lutzer, Jenny .. .. 304 
 
 Macfarren 280 
 
 Ma jo, Ciccio di . . . . 59 
 
 lilalibran-Garcia .. .. 303 
 
 Mantius 302 
 
 Mara, Gertrud Elisabeth 144 
 
 PAOK 
 
 Marcello 45 
 
 Marchesi 62 
 
 Marchettus of Padua . . 18 
 Marenzio, Luca .. .. 48 
 
 Mario 303 
 
 Marschner 297 
 
 Martin 262 
 
 Mattheson 97 
 
 Maurer 312 
 
 Mayer, Simon . . 264 
 
 Mayseder 312 
 
 Mdhul 126,271 
 
 Mendelssohn .. 2, 239, 320 
 
 Mercadante 270 
 
 Metastasio 60 
 
 Meyerbeer 281 
 
 MiLANOLLO, Theresa and 
 
 Maria 313 
 
 Milder-Hauptmann, Anna 304 
 
 Molique 312 
 
 Monsigny 123 
 
 Monteverde 51 
 
 Morales 25 
 
 Morley, Thomas .. .. 100 
 Moscheles .. .. 257,320 
 
 Mosel 107,111 
 
 MouTON, Jean .. .. 25 
 Mozart, Leopold 148, 111, 165 
 
 , Wolfg. Amadeus 60, 
 
 110, 165, 237 n, 
 MuLLER, the brothers . . 313 
 
 , I wan 315 
 
 , Wenzel .. .. 260 
 
 Mdris, Johannes de , . 18 
 Musard 267 
 
 Nadermann 315 
 
 Nanini 40 
 
 Nardini 61 
 
 Naumanx, Jos. G 114 
 
 Neander, Joachim . . .. 74 
 
INDEX. 
 
 357 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Neukomm 256 
 
 Neumark 74 
 
 NicoLAi, Otto 298 
 
 Nicholson 315 
 
 Niemann 302 
 
 Nourrit 302 
 
 NovELLO, Clara .. .. 303 
 
 Oberthiir 315 
 
 Ockeuheim 22 
 
 Offenbach 286 
 
 Olympos 4 
 
 Onslow 253 
 
 Osiander 72 
 
 Otto, Jul 337 
 
 Pacchiarotti 62 
 
 Pachelbel 87 
 
 Paer 264 
 
 Paesiello 122,263 
 
 Paganini 311 
 
 Palestrina 33 
 
 Parepa, Madame . . . . 304 
 
 Parish- Alvars 315 
 
 Pasta, Giuditta .. .. 303 
 
 Patti, Adelina . . . . 304 
 
 Pauek, Ernst 320 
 
 Pergolese 63,121 
 
 Peri, Jacopo 51 
 
 Petrucci 25 
 
 Philidor 123 
 
 Piatti 314 
 
 Piccini .. .. 59, 122, 136 
 
 Pistocchi 62 
 
 Pitoni 42 
 
 Pleyel 255 
 
 Poriwra 62,151 
 
 Pott, Aug. 311 
 
 Pratorius, Michael .. 74 
 
 Pratten 315 
 
 Proch 337 
 
 Prume 
 
 PAGE 
 
 .. 313 
 
 Pugnani 
 
 .. 61 
 
 Punto 
 
 .. 315 
 
 Purcell, Henry- 
 
 99 
 
 Pythagoras 
 
 3 
 
 Quanz 148 
 
 Queisser 315 
 
 Quinault 117 
 
 Radziwill 238 
 
 Raff, Anton 302 
 
 , Joachim .. .. 350 
 
 Rameau 110 
 
 Reichaudt, Joh. Friedr. 141 
 
 Reinecke, J. a 87 
 
 ,Karl .. 337,345 
 
 Reinthaler 349 
 
 Reissiger 337 
 
 Richardson 315 
 
 RiEg, Ferdinand .. 253, 345 
 
 Rietz, Julius 338 
 
 Righini 262 
 
 Rink 87 
 
 Rittek, A. G 349 
 
 Rode, Pierre 312 
 
 Roger; 302 
 
 Rollet, Bailly du . . . . 135 
 Romberg, Andr. . . 254, 259 
 
 ,Bemh 314 
 
 RoEB, Cyprian de .. .. 27 
 
 Rossini 250,264 
 
 Rousseau, J. J 121 
 
 Rubmi 302 
 
 Rubinstein 350 
 
 RuDERSDORFF, Madame . . 304 
 
 Sacchini 59,262 
 
 Sainton 311 
 
 Saixton-Dolby, Madame 304 
 Salieri 139,262 
 
358 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Salomon, John Peter . . 153 
 
 Santley 302 
 
 Scarlatti, Alessandro .. 56 
 
 — , Domenico .. 98 
 
 SCHAFFER, Aug 337 
 
 ScHATZEL, Pauline V. .. 304 
 
 ScHEBEST, Agnes .. .. 304 
 
 ScHECHNER-WAAOEN,Nan- 
 
 nette 304 
 
 Scheldt 87 
 
 Schenk 260 
 
 Schiclit 92 
 
 Schikaneder . . . . 172 n. 
 
 Schindelmeisser .. .. 345 
 
 Schneider, Friedrich .. 307 
 
 ScHNORR V. Carolsfeld .. 302 
 
 Sohoberlechxer, Sophie 304 
 
 SCHRODER-DEVRIENT.Wil- 
 
 helmine 303 
 
 ScHROTER, Corona . . . . 144 
 
 Schubert 241 
 
 Schulhoff 319 
 
 Schumann, Clara .. .. 319 
 
 , Ilobert 319, 327 
 
 ScHUNKE, the brothers .. 315 
 
 ScHiJTZ, Heinr 74 
 
 Schweitzer 142 
 
 Scribe 60 
 
 Senesino 61 
 
 Senfl, Ludwig . . . . 71 w. 
 
 Servais 314 
 
 Sessi, Imp. and Marianne 303 
 
 Seyfried 196 
 
 Silcher 337 
 
 Sims Beeves 302 
 
 Sivori 311 
 
 SoNTAG, Henriette .. .. 304 
 
 Spitzeder, Joseph .. .. 302 
 Spohr .. .. 295,306,338 
 
 Spontini 271 
 
 Staudigl 302 
 
 PAGK 
 
 Steffani 96 
 
 Stehle, Sophie .. .. 304 
 
 Steibelt 255 
 
 Stevens, Miss . . . . 304 
 
 Stobaus, Joh 74 
 
 Stockhausen, Jules . . 302 
 
 Stolzel 92 
 
 Storace 100 
 
 Stradella 57 
 
 Straduari 62 
 
 Strauss, Joh 267 
 
 , Ludwig .. .. 311 
 
 Streit, Wilhelmine .. 304 
 
 Stromeyer 302 
 
 Sullivan, Arthur .. .. 336 
 
 Siissmaier 181,188 
 
 Sylvester, Pope . . . . 10 
 
 Tallis 99 
 
 Taraburini 302 
 
 Tartini 61 
 
 Taubert, Wilh. .. 296,338 
 Telemann .. .. 92,97 
 
 Terpander 3 
 
 Terradeglias 59 
 
 Tesi, Vittoria 62 
 
 Thalberg 257" 
 
 Tichatschek 302 
 
 Tietjens, Therese . . . . 304 
 
 Traetta n9 
 
 Trebelli, Zelia .. .. 304 
 
 Trahn 337 
 
 Tulou 315 
 
 Ungher, Karoline .. .. 304 
 
 Umbreit 87 
 
 Velluti 62 
 
 Venosa, Gesualdo di .. 48 
 
 Verdi 288 
 
 Vespermann, Clara .. 304 
 
INDEX. 
 
 359 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Viadana 53 
 
 Viardot-Garcia, Pauline 303 
 
 Vieuxtemps 313 
 
 Viotti 61 
 
 Vittoria "40 
 
 Yivaldi .. 89 
 
 VoGL,J. M 302 
 
 VoGLER, Joh. Caspar .. 92 
 
 ,Abbe 285 n. 
 
 VoLKMANK, Robert.. .. 350 
 
 Wachtel, Th. 
 Wachter, J. M. 
 Wagker, Johanna 
 , Richard 
 
 305 
 302 
 304 
 118,299 
 
 Page 
 
 Wallace 280 
 
 Walther 71 
 
 Weber, K. M. von . . 257, 289 
 
 Weigl 261 
 
 WiECK, Friedr 328 
 
 Wieniawsky 311 
 
 Wild 302 
 
 Willaert 27 
 
 Winter 261 
 
 Zarlino 
 
 Zelter 
 
 Zimmermann, Miss.. 
 ZoLLNER, Karl 
 
 27 
 320 
 320 
 337 
 
 Zumsteeg 259 
 
 FINIS. 
 
 PRIKTED BT WILLIAM CLOTTES AND SONS, STAWFORD STREET 
 AND CHARIXG CROS>-. 
 

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