f\ 
 

 
 EL-MAS'UDf S 
 
 f\ 
 
 HISTORICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 
 
 ENTITLED 
 
 MEADOWS OF GOLD AND MINES OF GEMS" 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE ARABIC 
 
 BY 
 
 ALOYS SPRENGER, M.D. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 LONDON: 
 PRINTED FOR THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND 
 
 OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 SOLD BY 
 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET; 
 
 AND 
 
 PARBURY, ALLEN, AND Co., LEADENHALL STREET. 
 
 MDCCCXLI. 
 
5)17 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 HARRISON AND CO., PRINTERS, 
 ST. MARTIN'S LANE. 
 
THIS WORK 
 
 IS 
 
 RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 
 
 TO THE 
 
 RIGHT HONOURABLE 
 
 THE EARL OF MUNSTER, 
 
 BY 
 
 THE TRANSLATOR, 
 
 790984 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 "SOME authors treat in their works exclu- 
 sively on history, as el-Mas' udi in his book 
 entitled THE MEADOWS OF GOLD ; in which 
 he describes the state of the nations and 
 countries of the East and West, as they 
 were in his age, that is to say, in 330 (332), 
 A.H. He gives an account of the genius and 
 usages of the nations, a description of the 
 countries, mountains, seas, kingdoms, and 
 dynasties ; and he distinguishes the Arabian 
 race from the Barbarians. El-Mas'udi be- 
 came, through this work, the prototype of 
 
 Uf 
 
 fAxl>* 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 all historians to whom they refer, and the 
 authority on which they rely in the critical 
 estimate of many facts, which form the 
 subject of their labours. 
 
 "Then came el-Bekri, who followed the 
 example of el-Mas'udi, but only in geogra- 
 phy, and not with respect to other subjects 
 (ethnography and history) ; for the changes 
 which had taken place in his time, since 
 el-Mas'udi, in the relative position and state 
 of nations, and in the spirit of times (literally, 
 the generations) were not material. But, 
 at present, at the end of the eighth cen- 
 tury, a complete revolution has taken place 
 with the Maghrib, where we live. 
 
 "I take advantage, in this book, of all 
 the opportunities of collecting information 
 
PREFACE. VII 
 
 which are at my command here in the 
 Maghrib, to give an idea (of human society 
 and its history), and a systematical and 
 full account (of the facts referring to this 
 subject). But my particular object is to 
 describe the Maghrib, and the condition of 
 the inhabitants of this part of the globe in 
 different periods (literally, the condition of 
 the generations) and of its various nations, 
 and to give a narrative of the kingdoms 
 which flourished here, and of the dynasties 
 which ruled over it. I must exclude the 
 history of other countries, for I do not know 
 the condition and circumstances in which 
 the Eastern countries, and the nations who 
 live there, are ; and mere report, however 
 exact it may be, does not enable me to 
 accomplish the task which I have in view. 
 El-Mas'udi has fully accomplished this task, 
 having made very extensive journeys, and 
 
PKEFACK. 
 
 examined almost all countries, as we learn 
 from his book ; but where he speaks of the 
 Maghrib, his account is too short/' (Ibn 
 Khaldun, Proleg.) 
 
 The frequent quotations and extracts 
 from el-Mas'udi, in other Arabic authors, 
 show that Ibn Khaldun' s opinion of our 
 author was universal. And we cannot hesi- 
 tate to compare him with the Jonian histo- 
 rian : If it is the warmth for his own 
 nationality and tenets without prejudice 
 against what is foreign; the elasticity of 
 mind to receive impressions, and to appre- 
 ciate opinions, without want of firmness and 
 principles ; the thirst for correctness of 
 information without preconceived criticism, 
 which rejects what is unknown, if it differs 
 from known facts ; the vastness of experi- 
 
 c .s 
 
 MS. of Leyden, 
 No. 1350, foL 12; addit. MS. of the British 
 Museum, No. 9574, fol. 23. 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 ence and deep learning acquired through 
 extensive journeys, frequent intercourse 
 with men of all nations and opinions, with- 
 out neglecting that self-knowledge which is 
 acquired in solitary self- contemplation and 
 the basis of history ; and if it is that ex- 
 tensive knowledge and enlarged mind which 
 embraces all the past, reflecting on the 
 present; and that sound criticism, which, 
 entering into the feelings of nations, and 
 penetrated by those ideas, imaginations, 
 and tendencies, which mankind feel at all 
 times, selects what is national and charac- 
 teristic although it may not always bear the 
 stamp of logical reasoning ; if it is for these 
 merits that Herodotus has acquired the 
 name of Father of History, and of the great- 
 est of all Historians, el-Mas'udi has a just 
 claim to be called the Herodotus of the 
 Arabs. Combining, like Herodotus, ethno- 
 graphy and geography with history, and 
 learning with experience and oral informa- 
 tion, he distinguishes between the various 
 nations of the East, and gives us a picture of 
 their innate character ; then he follows up 
 those ideas and principles, which, under the 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 form of religion for the uneducated, and as 
 philosophy or as an instrument to lead the 
 great mass, for men in power, have grown up 
 from the character of each nation, or were 
 embraced by the nation, if they had been 
 first pronounced by one man or a prophet. 
 He shows us particularly, in the second 
 part, how such opinions served as a spiritual 
 link to connect man with man, to strengthen 
 the ties of blood and language, and to cover 
 interests with the veil of sacredness ; and 
 how religious opinions brought nations into 
 conflict with each other. 
 
 El-Mas' iidi has the merit of treating the 
 tenets of all sects with equal attention; and 
 ancient traditions which had existed in the 
 East for thousands of years, seem to have 
 been melted, as it were, in his mind, into 
 one original idea, as they had flowed from 
 one common source. In this respect, even 
 his History of the Creation is of interest ; 
 for he unites the traditions respecting cos- 
 mogony which were kept up in the East, 
 together with the documents of Moses and 
 Sanchoniaton, with the Scriptural accounts*. 
 
 * This may be shown by the classification of the fruit trees 
 
PREFACE. XI 
 
 Although the praise which Ibn Khaldun 
 gives to El-Mas'udi, considering him as the 
 Imam of all Arabic historians, does not 
 apply to the first period of Arabic literature ; 
 yet he may indeed be considered as the re- 
 presentative of the learning of the second 
 period : the importance of his work must 
 therefore be identified with that of Moham- 
 medan literature generally. But the useful- 
 ness of Oriental studies has been questioned 
 by a class of men whose opinions deserve 
 
 which el-Mas'udi gives, p. 60 infra, which is a tradition of 
 the Guebres, and agrees as well with the Zend-Avesta, as if it 
 were a translation: " Tout arbre qui vient dans les deux Mondes, 
 (dont) le bois (est) sec ou humide, et qui est cultive (par la main 
 de 1'homme), porte des fleurs et des fruits, est de trente especes. 
 
 Dix (de ces) especes (portent des fruits) dont on peut manger 
 le dedans et le dehors, comme le figuier, le pommier, le coignas- 
 sier, 1'oranger, la vigne, le murier, le dattier, le myrthe, et les 
 autres arbres de cette espece. 
 
 Dix (especes portent des fruits), dont on peut manger le de- 
 dans, comme le dattier, le pecher, 1'abricotier blanc, et les autres 
 arbres de cette espece. 
 
 Ceux-ci (les dix dernieres especes, portent des fruits), dont 
 on peut manger le dedans, et dont on ne doit pas manger le dehors, 
 s^avoir, le noyer, 1'amandier, le grenadier, le cocotier, le noisetier, 
 le chateignier, le pistachier sauvage, le noyer, dont le fruit a la 
 coquille tendre. II y a encore beaucoup d'arbres fruitiers de cette 
 espece." (Boun Dehesch xxvii., vol. ii., p. 406.) 
 
Xll PREFACE. 
 
 respect. These dry grammatical studies, 
 being mostly a task for memory, enslave the 
 mind, and contract its horizon, instead of 
 enlarging it ; whereas, all pursuits which 
 have no practical use should contribute to 
 raise the energies of man, to enlarge his 
 views on the condition of mankind, and to 
 make him more free. This is their language. 
 It is, therefore, the best introduction for the 
 reader to our author, and for our author to 
 the reader, to devote this Preface to some 
 considerations on the relation of Oriental 
 studies to the present state of European 
 knowledge. It is the more necessary to 
 speak on this point, that the reader may 
 know the tendency of the notes of the trans- 
 lator, otherwise he might be blamed for his 
 endeavour, because it cannot be denied, that 
 the senseless learning displayed by some 
 philologists, of all denominations, in their 
 notes, full of useless quotations, are the 
 overflowings of a weak brain, but industrious 
 hand, and as offensive to common sense as 
 the eructations of a weak but overloaded 
 stomach, with which they may be compared. 
 It may be presumed that, if we had an 
 
PREFACE. Xlll 
 
 exact picture of the rise, progress, height, and 
 downfall of a nation, we might, by compari- 
 son, come to the result, that there are cer- 
 tain laws in the growth of nations, as we 
 observe them in individuals, which develope 
 certain faculties and feelings at certain 
 periods of historical life.* And how should 
 it be otherwise, since we find that certain 
 tendencies, wants, and ideas, are as con- 
 stantly met with in the mind of man, under 
 every climate and circumstance, as the laws 
 of nature are in matter ? So, for instance, 
 there is no human being who has not a ten- 
 dency to rise above others, as there is no mat- 
 ter without gravity. The spirited feels this 
 tendency as ambition, the idle as vanity, the 
 weak as fashion, the affectionate mother as 
 love and foresight for her child, and only the 
 self-conceited carries his vanity so far as to 
 think that he is free from it. In a society 
 
 * Ibn Kaldun, who started this idea four or five centuries 
 before Herder and Lessing, devotes a chapter of his Prolego- 
 mena to it, which is inscribed 3UxA>Jb j\\ l$! J^jJJ /.^J ^ 
 (jolacvJi $ " that ruling nations go through natural periods 
 of life like individuals." 
 
XIV PREFACE. 
 
 where all are equal, every one will strive 
 to raise himself above the rest, and to|rule; 
 and if one man stands so high that he cannot 
 be outdone, it will appear a worthy prize of 
 exertion to approach him, and to gain his 
 favour by servility. The ambition of youth 
 consists in noble enthusiasm; but as soon as 
 man has been taught by disappointment to 
 be wise, and as soon as he is rooted and fet- 
 tered to life by wife and children, his objects 
 are morematerial. There is no great action, 
 good or bad, to which youth cannot be led 
 by imagination, as there is no baseness and 
 dishonesty to which a married man is not 
 ready, provided it promises a safe profit for 
 himself and his race. We find exactly the 
 same in nations. What high actions were per- 
 formed by the Arabs when they first came forth 
 from their deserts ; and to what baseness did 
 they sink when their state had become old 
 and rotten ! The Greek and Roman history 
 presents us with more known, but not more 
 decided, examples ; for the rest there is no 
 need of going so far; we find examples at 
 home. The history of modern Europe dates 
 since the Crusades, when the sceptre of the 
 
PREFACE. XV 
 
 world was wrested from the hands of the 
 Arabs, who had pushed their conquests over 
 Europe as far as they wished. Is not the 
 enthusiasm which then enlivened nations 
 compared with the tendency of our age, in 
 which wealth alone gives claim to the honours 
 and privileges of the Peerage, like the noble 
 impetuosity of youth in comparison with 
 senile avarice ? Ibn Khaldun believes, there- 
 fore, that the following are the periods of 
 life through which a nation that has arrived 
 at power will go: 
 
 " On the phases of the dynasty and the 
 changes of its state and condition. The 
 nomadic manners of the members of the 
 dynasty (who have subjected the country 
 through their nomadic bravery^ in the va- 
 rious phases. 
 
 " Know that the dynasty passes through 
 various phases and revolutions ; and the 
 members of the dynasty (the men in power) 
 
XVI PREFACE. 
 
 show in every phase a different character 
 which is consistent with the circumstances 
 of the respective phase, and different from 
 that of every other phase, for we are crea- 
 tures of circumstances (literally, for the cha- 
 racter of man follows in its nature the crisis 
 of the circumstances under which he is 
 placed). The conditions and phases of a 
 dynasty may generally be reduced to five. 
 
 " The first is the phase of conquest, by 
 invading the country, overcoming resistance 
 and any difficulties which may be opposed, 
 and by making one's self master of the sove- 
 reign power, and wresting it from the hand 
 of the preceding dynasty. In this phase the 
 man (or family) who stands at the head of 
 the dynasty (i. e. conquerors) will be on a 
 level with the rest of the conquering nation, 
 
 *AJ yfc g&l 
 ^ilaJi ;> b$\ j\J 
 J30,\ 
 
PREFACE. XVI 
 
 and be distinguished neither by majesty nor 
 by a greater share in the revenue, nor will 
 his person be particularly protected and 
 sacred. He will not enjoy any privilege 
 before the rest, as a natural consequence of 
 patriotism, which alone gives conquest, and 
 which does not (immediately) cease after 
 victory. 
 
 "In the second phase the man who 
 stands at the head of the dynasty, ac- 
 quires the sovereignty over his own nation : 
 he appropriates to himself exclusively the 
 royalty (over the conquered nation), and 
 
 * By rendering the word XxXAaxJI, I change an Arabic idea 
 into an European notion. The Arab loves his family, his tribe, 
 and his nation: they are his parents, his brothers, his children. 
 But the free Bedouin is not attached to the soil. We have a 
 similar predilection for our native soil. Compare the note to 
 page 176, infra. 
 
 C 
 
Xviii PREFACE. 
 
 keeps his tribe at a distance, instead of allow- 
 ing them an equal share (in the emoluments 
 of the conquest), and of associating with 
 them. The characteristics of this phase are, 
 that the sovereign will connect a great num- 
 ber of men with his personal interests, by 
 office and adoption, with whom he sur- 
 rounds himself to counteract the overbearing 
 character of his countrymen (relations) who 
 have assisted him in the conquest ; and who, 
 having equal claims by birth, demand an 
 equal share in power. He excludes them 
 from the administration, keeps them at a 
 distance from his person, and repels them 
 if they should intrude, to the end that the 
 power may remain in his hands, and that 
 his family may be distinguished by the ma- 
 
 jUii, 3U4UJ5 
 
 (UU-o) Uxx^j^UJ *k ^ XJ^xJt 
 
PREFACE. XIX 
 
 jesty of which he has laid the foundation. 
 He is now as anxious to keep them off, 
 and to subdue them, as the first conquerors 
 were in their contest for the kingdom : and 
 he goes still further than they did ; for they 
 had to do with foreigners, so that the differ- 
 ence between the two parties was distinctly 
 marked, for they were all connected by 
 patriotism in their wars, whereas he has to 
 contend with his relations; and his assistants 
 in his manoeuvres are the minority, consisting 
 of strangers : he must therefore brave diffi- 
 culties. 
 
 " In the third stage he gives himself up to 
 comforts, for he has attained his object, and 
 is now enjoying the fruits of the supreme 
 power, indulging in pleasure, for which the 
 
XX PREFACE. 
 
 human mind has a natural inclination : as to 
 increase the revenue, to found lasting monu- 
 ments, to have great fame. The sovereign, 
 therefore, directs his intentions towards the 
 revenue department and increases it j he keeps 
 the balance between income and expend- 
 iture; he calculates the expenses and the 
 object which he gains by them ; he erects 
 numerous buildings, great fabrics, extensive 
 cities, and lofty public monuments ; he re- 
 ceives the nobles of the nation and the chiefs 
 of the tribes who come as envoys to his 
 court to do him homage ; and he is kind to 
 those who are in his service. His favourites 
 and suite enjoy at the same time great wealth 
 and importance ; his standing army is kept 
 
 *.> 
 
PREFACE. XXI 
 
 in good order ; they have ample pay, which 
 is regularly received every new moon ; the 
 consequences of this regularity are to be 
 seen in their dress, uniform, and appearance, 
 on parade days. The allies of the sovereign 
 in this phase boast of his friendship, and his 
 enemies are filled with fear. This is the 
 last phase of the sovereignty of those who 
 stand at the head of the dynasty (i.e. the 
 conquerors), for, hitherto, the conquerors 
 have had absolute power to follow their 
 views ; they were distinguished by grandeur, 
 as luminaries to posterity. 
 
 "The fourth phase is that of being 
 contented^ and of conservatism. The man 
 who stands at the head of the conquerors 
 
XX11 PREFACE. 
 
 will content himself with keeping up what 
 his predecessors have done ; (he is no longer 
 the mere Emir of the conquering tribes,) but 
 he is equal to any other king, being an auto- 
 crat : he confirms what his predecessors have 
 done and imitates them step by step (lite- 
 rally, he follows their slippers and shoes 
 with his shoes). He acts in all instances 
 after precedents, considering any deviation 
 from their institutions as destructive, for 
 he thinks they must have best understood 
 the principles upon which they built his 
 majesty. 
 
 "The fifth phase is that of prodigality 
 and extravagance (and reform). The sove- 
 reign will squander away in this phase what 
 his predecessors have gathered ; giving him- 
 self up to pleasure and lust, and by prodigality 
 
PREFACE. XX111 
 
 towards his intimates and courtiers, by pa- 
 tronising favourites of bad character, and a 
 numerous rabble without principles, whom 
 he appoints to the most important offices, 
 which they are unable to manage ; for they 
 know neither what they have to do, nor 
 what they have to avoid. Thus the great 
 men who guide the (ruling) nation (by moral 
 influence) and those who had come to impor- 
 tance through the favour of former sove- 
 reigns, are injured; hence, they take a 
 dislike to the sovereign, and refuse to lend 
 him their assistance : his army will thus be 
 ruined, for the luxurious court spends the 
 means in pleasures, instead of giving them 
 their pay; he excludes them from every 
 office in the administration, and does not 
 show them any attention. Thus he destroys 
 
XXIV PREFACE. 
 
 what his predecessors have built. In this 
 phase the symptoms of the decline of the 
 dynasty manifest themselves,, and it suffers 
 under a chronic disease, of which it can- 
 not be cured: it hastens to dissolution. " 
 
 The English reader will be surprised to 
 find in the last two phases the outlines of 
 the history of the present state of his own 
 country, the struggle between conservatism 
 and reform, written by an author who lived 
 more than four centuries ago, in Africa, 
 and hardly knew the name of England. 
 Thus, his idea, " That ruling nations go 
 through natural periods of life, like indivi- 
 duals," is confirmed; and this is the indivi- 
 dual life, or historical career, of nations, 
 and the result and object of particular his- 
 tory. 
 
 By comparing a great number of biogra- 
 phies of such nations as succeeded each other 
 
 l$J &jt $3 MS. Of 
 
 Leyderi, No. 1350, i., fol. 66, verso. MS. 
 of the British Museum, No. 9574, fol. 100, 
 verso. 
 
PREFACE. XXV 
 
 on the stage of history in the rule of the 
 world, and in whom all the activity of man- 
 kind was concentrated and represented as at 
 present in Europe, it might, perhaps, be 
 proved by facts, what philosophers presume, 
 that there are even certain laws as to when 
 and how different nations enter on the stage 
 of history, and what part they are to per- 
 form ; for although certain qualities are 
 universal to all men, every nation has an 
 innate national character which constitutes 
 its individuality, and predestines it to a cer- 
 tain career, just as a woman is destined to a 
 different vocation from that of a man. 
 
 This is by no means to be taken in a 
 mystical sense, for nothing can, for instance, 
 be more natural than that the sober and 
 simple Arab, who used thousands of years 
 ago to make inroads upon Persia, should 
 be so successful as to plant the standard of 
 the doctrine of the unity of God upon the 
 graves of the Khosraws, at the period when 
 the Parthian rulers had outlived their time, 
 their minds being corrupted by the vices of 
 the most luxurious court, by the most artificial 
 religion, and the grossest superstition. The 
 
XXVI PREFACE. 
 
 Arabs were the liberators of the subjects who 
 suffered under an artificial, over-refined state 
 of society, and under the arbitrary spoliations 
 of an insatiable and innumerable nobility. In 
 the same way, it is not less natural that the 
 stage of history should, in its origin, have 
 been in the south (in Asia), and that modern 
 European civilization should have begun in 
 the congenial climate of Italy and Spain, 
 than it is, that those countries have their 
 spring in advance of the more northern 
 regions. 
 
 If the general road which nations have 
 to go could be laid down and deduced from 
 incontrovertible facts, the results would be 
 more valuable than all other human know- 
 ledge. They would give us an insight into 
 the condition and object of mankind. " Be- 
 hold the tales of the time," says an Arabic 
 author, "and when thou knowest where 
 we come from, see where we are going to." 
 They would prove that the fate of nations 
 does not depend upon chance or the arbi- 
 trary actions of a few individuals. Men who 
 are the actors in a great crisis are the pro- 
 duct of time, and not time the product of 
 
PREFACE. XXV11 
 
 their talents ; they will not succeed if they 
 act against the spirit of the age. A history 
 in this sense would also point out the 
 sphere of individual activity in public life ; 
 for if the periods of the life of nations are 
 laid down in certain laws, and if the attempts 
 of the privileged cannot change their course, 
 it would follow that the grievances of man- 
 kind arise from those desperate attempts of 
 men in power to interfere w T ith the course of 
 things, and to retard their natural progress, 
 or from those men of a destructive character 
 who, misled by enthusiasm, mean to accele- 
 rate events beyond their natural course; and 
 if we could determine, by such a view of his- 
 tory, for a given period (for instance for the 
 present moment), what is the unalterable 
 course which a nation will pursue, the men who 
 do their best to smooth the way could be po- 
 sitively distinguished from those who, under 
 pretence of principle, attempt to interfere 
 with the course of the nation, turning it to 
 their own advantage ; and history would 
 show the final triumph of the former over 
 the latter, pointing out, that talent counter- 
 balances wealth, that reason stands against 
 
XXV111 PREFACE. 
 
 prejudice, energy against the power of public 
 opinion and inherited privileges, persuasion 
 and faith against hypocrisy and ecclesiastical 
 tyranny, enthusiasm against fashion, and 
 freedom against the power of interest and 
 servility, and that the struggle between these 
 different tendencies is decided by eternal 
 laws, by Providence, in favour of moral 
 power. Individual stands against individual, 
 and he is victorious who goes with the spirit 
 of the times : he may be a prince or a beggar. 
 European history, however, will lead us 
 neither to a correct idea of the individual 
 life of nations, nor of their mutual succession 
 on the stage of history, without a knowledge 
 of the East. There is not one nation in 
 European history whom we can follow from 
 the moment it entered upon the stage of ac- 
 tion down to its fall. The period of existence 
 of modern nations is not yet elapsed. The 
 origin of the Greeks and Romans is fabulous; 
 and the documents which we possess respect- 
 ing them do not reach higher up than the 
 time of their power. There are only one or 
 two great revolutions related in European 
 history, in which the rule over the world 
 
PREFACE. XXIX 
 
 passed from one race to another under the 
 rise of new ideas, which exemplify the suc- 
 cession of nations. The few accounts of 
 Greek authors, of the ancient dynasties of 
 Babylon and other countries of the East, 
 derive their value only if they are illustrated 
 by the history of later parallel facts from 
 more modern Eastern history, of which we 
 possess exact and numerous accounts in 
 Arabic authors. Lest it should be denied 
 that the history of the Greeks is very imper- 
 fect, and that their ideas and institutions are 
 secondary, and mere fragments of a more 
 ancient nation, it will be necessary to enter 
 into some details before it can be shown 
 that the study of the East furnishes us with 
 materials both for ascertaining the natural 
 periods of the individual life of a nation, and 
 the succession of nations on the stage of 
 history. 
 
 The Greeks had escaped from the tyranny 
 of a priest caste which kept their northern 
 and southern neighbours in ignorance, mo- 
 nopolizing knowledge. Freedom inspired 
 them with love for their native country and 
 fame ; and patriotism brought them to the 
 
XXX PREFACE. 
 
 highest perfection that mankind has yet 
 attained. Worship of arts was their religion, 
 sublime poetry their code of laws, refined 
 taste their moral guide, and freedom their 
 tie of union. But although their originality 
 of conception cannot be disputed, the mate- 
 rial of their science, as well as of their arts, 
 is not their own : they derived it either from 
 imperfect recollections of their former home, 
 or imported it from the East, and gave to it 
 a more popular form. Creuzer has lately 
 collected some passages of Greek authors 
 in proof of this assertion. Facts are a 
 stronger proof than testimony ; and as scat- 
 tered fragments of a vessel, for instance, are 
 posterior to the whole, and the germ anterior 
 to the plant, so we may rest satisfied that a 
 country in which we find all ideas coherent, 
 understood and derived from one source, 
 although less developed, is anterior to ano- 
 ther in which we find them sacredly preserved, 
 but not understood, and numerous beyond 
 measure . In order to show that this is the 
 relation of the East and Greece, it will be 
 necessary to anticipate a theory of the nine 
 spheres of the heaven, which may be consi- 
 
PREFACE. XXXI 
 
 dered as the creed of the esoteric in Babylon, 
 and in many other Eastern countries, and 
 the basis of the religious notions of the 
 Greeks, although they never understood 
 it. 
 
 The origin of existence is the great pro- 
 blem of all philosophy ; for the Lord of life 
 and death is the God whom the mortal feels 
 bound to worship. It is certainly the most 
 natural idea, that all life should be derived 
 from an ultimate male and female principle. 
 The male principle was the fifth and divine 
 element, the ether*, of which the stars are 
 only the concentrations ; the female principle 
 was the earth, which rests quiet and passive 
 in the centre of the circumvolving ether, 
 according to the ideas of the ancients. Hence 
 Aristotlef says, " The principle of motion, 
 which gives the first impulse to generation, 
 
 * On the ether see the note to page 179 infra) and the Fih- 
 rist apud Hottinger, Historia Orientalis, edit. alt. p. 283. 
 
 f De Generations Animalium, lib. L, cap. 2. The Chinese 
 have the same idea, but apply it particularly to their emperor as 
 the representative of the creation, (see the note to page 326, 
 infra). Respecting the change which this idea underwent among 
 the Semites. See the note to page 58, infra. 
 
XXX11 PREFACE. 
 
 is called male (and father), and the (passive) 
 principle which yields the material, is called 
 mother . . . Hence the earth is considered 
 as female, and the mother (of all that exists), 
 and the heaven (ether) as the male, and the 
 father." If motion is the characteristical 
 quality of Divinity, the planetary sphere 
 which is most remote from the earth has the 
 greatest claim to divinity, for its revolutions 
 are the most rapid. Saturn will, therefore, 
 be the highest and oldest god; he is the 
 Sator. Opposite him stands his wife and 
 sister the Earth, which is eternal and un- 
 created like him ; and from them proceed 
 all other beings, Festus seems, therefore, 
 to be correct in deriving the name of this 
 planet a satu. He was, however, dethroned 
 as soon as this theory was further developed, 
 as the reader will soon perceive. 
 
 As soon as these two poles were once 
 defined as the male and female principle, the 
 poets in their imagination, and philosophers 
 in their abstraction, knew no bounds in 
 commenting upon them. The principle of 
 motion, or the male pole, was conceived to 
 be active, possessed of the supreme intellect; 
 
PREFACE. XXX111 
 
 the female pole passive, but feeling, mild, 
 and affectionate, whilst the male principle 
 was thought to be harsh and selfish. About 
 forty million miles above the female pole, 
 and nearly as many under the male pole, 
 in the middle between both, there must be 
 perfect equilibrium. This was, therefore, 
 the place of the sun, according to the ideas 
 of the ancients, although he is in reality 
 about nine times more distant from Saturn 
 than from the earth. Ptolemy's agreeing 
 with this wrong computation shows us 
 whence he derived his information. The 
 sun is, therefore, the son and mediator be- 
 tween heaven and earth ; for, in him, the 
 nature of both is combined; in him rests 
 the affection of his parents, which, in a phy- 
 sical sense, is warmth, and, in mysticism, 
 the law of love ; and he is indeed the source 
 of heat. In all ancient religions, the sun 
 is the regenerator and redeemer, not the 
 creator ; but this has been frequently mis- 
 understood by the exoteric. 
 
 Having now developed the trinity of the 
 ancients, we may proceed to state whence 
 the qualities attributed to the planets, which 
 
 d 
 
XXXIV PREFACE. 
 
 were the souls or individuals (J 2>\*\ of the 
 ether, took their origin ; for the insignifi- 
 cant peculiarities which may be observed in 
 them, and some of which have been noticed 
 in the notes to page 222, infra, cannot sa- 
 tisfactorily account for the same attributes 
 being given to the planets throughout all 
 the world. 
 
 In Oriental psychology, of which the 
 reader will find farther details in another 
 part of this work, all the qualities of men are 
 said to be based either on sympathy sAil,- 
 which is female and passive, or on antipathy 
 and selfishness s^UxM, which is male and 
 active : they are both neither good nor bad 
 in themselves. These two fundamental qua- 
 lities are manifested either with warmth and 
 violence *\xj|, or with system, and tempered 
 by justice XMX*H, or with coolness and re- 
 flexion &\. The female qualities, based on 
 sympathy, must be predominant under the 
 sun, according to what has been said, and 
 the male qualities, founded on antipathy, 
 above this luminary. Now, as the sun is at 
 the same time the source of warmth in a 
 mystical as well as physical sense, we may 
 form the following scale : 
 
PREFACE. XXXV 
 
 Antipathy with coolness = the ill-natured SATURN. 
 
 Antipathy tempered = the royal* JUPITER. 
 
 Antipathy with warmth = the pugnacious MARS. 
 
 The SUN. 
 
 Sympathy with warmth = the enamoured VENUS. 
 
 Sympathy tempered = the meek MERCURY. 
 
 Sympathy with cool reflection = the tender MOON. 
 
 The Arabic astrologers allude to this 
 theory, for they had been the initiated before 
 Mohammed; and when they found it more 
 expedient to serve as companions to the 
 khalifs, professing the Islam, than as priests 
 in their temples, they gave to their doctrines 
 a different shape. This theory is the soul of 
 all ancient religions, and pervades their phi- 
 losophical sciences and those of the Arabs. 
 
 The testimony of authors, in proof that 
 this has been the theory of the initiated 
 in the East, and the farther development 
 of the changes which new discoveries pro- 
 duced in it, and of the political revolutions 
 which were occasioned by such changes, 
 will be explained in another volume of this 
 
 * It must be observed that the sovereign is considered in the 
 East as the moderator c. \\ ^Jl, and as prohibiting for the sake of 
 his own selfishness ; for he is the head of the soldier caste XLxH , 
 so that Jupiter stands in his right place. 
 
 ds 
 
XXXVI PREFACE, 
 
 work. Our purpose here is to show, that 
 the Greek history of mythology consists 
 of misunderstood fragments, of a more 
 ancient system ; and, therefore, that Greek 
 history has, without the knowledge of the 
 East, no beginning, and does not lead to 
 those results of the study of history which 
 gives it an infinite importance. 
 
 The Greeks, uninitiated in the myste- 
 ries of the priest class, and superior to the 
 lower classes, continued to attribute to the 
 planets these characters, without knowing 
 why. They personified, therefore, the idols,* 
 and invented fables, in explanation of the 
 worship, being ignorant of the reasons. 
 From these fables grew up their poetry; 
 from the personifications their fine arts ; and 
 this, as we have said, was the object of their 
 life. But even in their fables they remained 
 faithful to eastern notions, which tradition 
 had preserved, contenting themselves with 
 giving to them a more pleasing form. 
 
 In the same way, every theory of the 
 natural philosophy of the Greeks had been 
 
 * See note to page 218, infra. 
 
PREFACE. XXXV11 
 
 previously known in the East. If Aristotle, 
 in whom all the knowledge of antiquity 
 on this head is concentrated, who sub- 
 jected to the laws of reasoning what the 
 uninitiated believed on authority, and who 
 profaned the mysteries of the initiated as 
 far as he had a knowledge of them, quotes 
 mostly Greek authors, in speaking of sub- 
 jects connected with natural philosophy, 
 and alludes but seldom to the wisdom of 
 the Chaldeans and Egyptians, it must be 
 borne in mind, that most of their opinions 
 had been imported into Greece long before 
 the Stagirite, and had thus become Greek, 
 or they had been inherited from the first 
 Greek settlers, and thus always been in the 
 nation; and that he has followed the dia- 
 lectic system of didactics, in which every- 
 thing is founded on reason, authority being 
 named only of well-known opinions which 
 are rejected, and form the subject of pole- 
 mics, in order to explain and exemplify 
 those which are defended as laws of reason, 
 not of authority, which is, therefore, not 
 named. 
 
 The doctrine of the ether, of the five 
 
XXXV111 PREFACE. 
 
 elements, and other central theories of Aris- 
 totle's natural philosophy, are found in Ta- 
 tary, China*, Persia, Egypt, and all other 
 nations of the East. Nearly half of the 
 names of medicines in Dioscorides and 
 Galen may be derived from the Persian, 
 Arabic, and other Oriental languages, and 
 the use of those exported from India must 
 naturally have first been known in their 
 native country before they were exported. 
 
 When Alexander had opened the East, 
 not only Greek science but even Greek arts 
 took a more decided Eastern character. 
 Their poetry became more romantic; their 
 sculpture less grotesque ; in former times 
 their gods had been represented as men, and 
 now they received the character of genii ; 
 their schools of astronomy and medicine 
 partook more and more of Eastern ideas, as 
 they proceeded, and they proceeded as they 
 were guided by these -new materials. Pto- 
 lemy adopts even the chronology of the 
 Babylonians. And the temperaments of 
 
 * See Visdelou, apud D'Herbelot, Bibl. Orient. Suplem. 
 and the note to page 179, infra. 
 
PREFACE. XXXIX 
 
 Galen are as ancient as the world; they 
 are connected with star worship*, and 
 pervade the whole of Galen's or rather 
 Eastern ideas on anatomy, physiology, and 
 pathology f; even in materia medica the 
 same idea is followed, and every medicine 
 has its crasis (or temperament). 
 
 The Greeks had the merit of bringing 
 the materials which they collected in the 
 East (I doubt whether from books) into a 
 system, to compare them with experience, 
 and to found them upon reason; whereas, 
 they had existed as faith or mystery amongst 
 Eastern nations. When the East was re- 
 vived by the Arabs, the works of the Greeks 
 were so very welcome, because the Eastern 
 nations found in them their own ideas sys- 
 tematically arranged. 
 
 These few hints may be sufficient to show 
 that the ancient history of Europe is incohe- 
 rent and incomplete in itself. Even many 
 
 * Compare page 206, infra. 
 
 f In the literary history of the Arabs, down to el-Mas'udi,some 
 curious eastern theories from Ibn Jauzi, of which the translator 
 possesses a beautiful manuscript, which is probably the only one 
 in Europe, will be given, to confirm what is asserted here. 
 
XL PREFACE. 
 
 forms of Greek grammar cannot be explained 
 without the assistance of the Sanscrit and 
 Zend languages. The Roman history is still 
 more in the dark. The fables with which it 
 is headed by Roman historians are a confes- 
 sion that their institutions want an historical 
 explanation ; but that they did not find any 
 either in their annals or in their popular 
 traditions. There is, therefore, no nation 
 in Europe, nor has there ever been any, of 
 which we have a complete account, from the 
 moment when it entered upon the stage of 
 history to the end of its career, and from 
 the progress and fall of which we could 
 draw a picture of the life of nations : and 
 it can still less be expected that the history 
 of Europe should give us an idea of the 
 succession of nations on the stage of history. 
 The periods of life are much slower in the 
 North. 
 
 The East, on the contrary, is rich in 
 experience : the periods of life rapidly suc- 
 ceed each other, and are decided in their 
 character; the revolutions, so violent, that 
 they cannot remain unobserved ; one empire 
 was founded upon the ruins of another ; 
 
PREFACE. XL1 
 
 dynasties rose and faded with the rapidity and 
 splendor of meteors. Towns, like Bagdad, 
 el-Kufah, el-Kahirah, were built like camps ; 
 and on the Oxus, for instance, we see the 
 Tatars, Persians, Greeks, Parthians, Arabs, 
 and Uzbeks, as rulers, within the compara- 
 tively short period of three thousand years. 
 On account of these frequent, rapid and de- 
 cided changes, the idea of the mutual rela- 
 tion and succession of nations was, at least 
 with reference to Iran, known to the ancient 
 Persians, and forms one of the theories of 
 the Zend-Avesta; and a perfectly correct 
 division of the then known human races in 
 the Semitic, Negroes (Hamites), and Tatars, 
 including the Caucasian race (Japhetites), is 
 even found in Genesis. We cannot better 
 illustrate and confirm what has been said 
 above, than by following up the ideas of 
 the Zend-Avesta. Such an inquiry enters 
 the more into the plan of this preface as it 
 will enable the reader to form a correct 
 judgment respecting the place which the 
 history of the Arabs occupies, with reference 
 to other nations. 
 
 First, we must have a clear notion of 
 
XL11 PREFACE. 
 
 Iran, or rather Khunnerets, as connected 
 with irrigation. "If the water/' says our 
 author*, who gives us some precious notices 
 on this subject, "retires four hundred cubits 
 from its original place, this place will be 
 waste." He exemplifies his statement by 
 the different state in which el-Hirah was in 
 his time, and that in which it had been a 
 few centuries previously. The country in 
 which Niniveh was situated is now a desert, 
 and the gardens of the khalifs are covered 
 with sand. As the sun produces the most 
 luxuriant vegetation, if his rays fall on wa- 
 tered ground (the female element), so are 
 they destructive if they meet no humidity. 
 It is for this reason that the sun is represented 
 in these two opposite characters in Siwa. 
 There is, therefore, no cultivation of the 
 ground possible without irrigation. To keep 
 up the irrigation is nothing less than to con- 
 trol enormous rivers, to dig new ones, and to 
 drain countries ; it is a much more gigantic 
 work than all the railroads of Europe. 
 Hence, an almost infinite number of hands 
 
 * Page 254, infra. 
 
PREFACE. XL111 
 
 must be employed for this purpose ; and 
 this, in the infancy of society, can only be 
 done by a powerful government which rules 
 extensive countries, and, as a great govern- 
 ment can never be free by a despot. This 
 is borne out by the system of gathering the 
 taxes of these countries Abu Yusof says, 
 in a letter to Hariin er-Rashid which must 
 be considered as an official document, 
 66 Such land as was waste and is now cul- 
 tivated and irrigated by the water of the 
 heaven (rain), or from wells or brooks, or 
 large rivers, which are nobody's property, 
 (like the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Oxus, or 
 Saihun) pays only the Tithes ; but if the land 
 is watered by the canals which were dug by 
 the ancient Persians, as the Nahr el-Melik, 
 or Nahr Yezdejerd, the Kheraj is to be paid 
 for it, although it may be cultivated by a 
 Moslim." As these regulations have been 
 copied from the Persians *, it is evident that 
 
 * Whenever the Arabs conquered a town or province of 
 Persia, they called the Dihkans, asked them what taxes had been 
 paid under the Khosraws, and confirmed generally the ancient 
 regulations. En-Nowa'iri (MS. of Leyden N. 2 D.) gives us, in 
 the History of the Sasanians, an account of their regulations of 
 
XL1V PREFACE. 
 
 the land tax was levied for the irrigation, 
 since those lands which did not require arti- 
 ficial irrigation were exempt. 
 
 This formed the character of the popu- 
 lation of such countries (deltas), amongst 
 which Babylonia (Khunnerets) at present 
 claims our attention. As the cultivation of 
 the soil was dependent upon a powerful 
 monarch, the very existence of the culti- 
 vators was connected with despotism. No 
 wonder, therefore, if servility is so deeply 
 impressed on the character of all nations 
 who live in deltas. The king is the god of 
 fertility, who, by directing his attention to 
 irrigation, may double the number of inha- 
 bitants in less than twelve years, as they 
 perish by thousands if it is neglected. It 
 has been asserted, that the climate forms 
 the character of a nation, and Oriental 
 
 the land tax, which agrees literally with what Abu Yusof con- 
 siders as law under the 'Abbaside khalifs. And as the Sasanians 
 had been the restorers of the ancient state of things, to what 
 they were before Alexander, we may trace the same institution to 
 the ancientPersians. 
 
 Lands, under artificial irrigations, are called cU, which 
 has been rendered in this translation by estates. 
 
PREFACE. XLV 
 
 despotism has, for this reason, become pro- 
 verbial. History shows, however, that now 
 monks celebrate their processions in the 
 streets through which the triumphant Ro- 
 man citizens marched, and that the slavish 
 Babylonian lives between the Bedouin the 
 freest and happiest man on earth and the 
 independent Kurd. The national charac- 
 ter depends upon institutions and education. 
 A rich country will soon produce men of 
 talent and cunning, who earn their living by 
 teaching or deceiving; and they are the 
 priests, who will form a caste as soon as a 
 man rises amongst them who unites their 
 doctrines into one system, which, in order 
 to be adopted by the nation, must of 
 course be in harmony with their institutions, 
 and will therefore be kept sacred as long as 
 those institutions last. Thus, we have the 
 three fundamental classes of society of the 
 population of deltas, fat and slavish cul- 
 tivators, cunning priests, and a luxurious 
 court and soldiery ; or, applying it to Baby- 
 lon, the Nabateans, Magi, and the Daulat 
 X!_5*xM (dynasty). The first of these three 
 classes are fixed to the soil ; the third is 
 
XLV1 PREFACE. 
 
 constantly changing, passing through the 
 phases and revolutions which Ibn Khaldun 
 describes in the passage quoted above ; and 
 the priest caste is intermediate between 
 both. The priests were the masters of the 
 king and kingdom, as long as the state was 
 founded upon their theories ; and they 
 formed an amusing society of savans round 
 the courts of the Khalifs when their doc- 
 trines no longer found faith. 
 
 When such a monarchy (daulat*) is in the 
 height of its activity, it will extend its grasp 
 after conquests, as it will be the aim of 
 conquerors when it is in decay. The nearest 
 object to excite the avarice of Babylonia are 
 the fertile banks of the Oxus, as a Bac- 
 trian monarch can find no worthier object 
 of his ambition than Babylonia. These two 
 countries were, therefore, united under one 
 ruler at all periods when Western Asia was 
 in a flourishing state, and they form Iran, 
 in its greatest extent, the stage of history 
 of Western Asia, and the object of our 
 present observations. 
 
 * The primary meaning of the root of Daulat is, the vicissi- 
 tudes of fortune. 
 
PREFACE. XLV11 
 
 South-west of Iran extend the deserts of 
 Arabia, which are bounded on the south by a 
 fertile mountainous country. This may be 
 considered as the native soil of the Semitic 
 race. History has recorded several success- 
 ful Arabic invaders who have subdued Iran. 
 Scripture names Nimrod ; from the third 
 volume of el-Mas'udi we shall learn the 
 names of Sheddad Ben 'Ad and many 
 others; and in Persian traditions Zohak is 
 mentioned as a Semitic conqueror, previous 
 to the Mohammedan conquests. In the 
 same manner it is reported by Herodotus, 
 by Mongolish traditions and Persian poets, 
 that the Tatars, who have their original seats 
 in the steppes north-east of Iran, conquered 
 this country in ancient times, previous to 
 the Seljuks, Jingiz-Khan, and Tai'mur. 
 
 These two nations stand like the two 
 magnetic poles, opposite each other, with 
 reference to Iran, in their national character 
 as well as in their geographical position. 
 Both were originally nomades : and the main 
 body of the nation, continuing wandering 
 habits, remained at all times in the primitive 
 condition of man. But the Tatars are pas- 
 
XLV111 PREFACE. 
 
 turing soldiers, whilst the Arabs are warlike 
 shepherds. The Tatars are used to blind 
 obedience and discipline. The basis of all 
 their social institutions is hereditary aristo- 
 cracy. A Tatar magnate has, amongst other 
 privileges, that of committing nine crimes. 
 To be a slave is the pride of a Tatar ; and 
 they have acted as such at all periods, at 
 Eastern courts. If they become masters, 
 they dig their own graves by imbecility, 
 idleness, and cruelty. An example of their 
 passive obedience are the Cossacks. Jingiz- 
 Khan may be considered as the repre- 
 sentative of the national character of the 
 Tatars. His strict discipline, order in the 
 camp, and simple regulations, render him 
 one of the greatest generals recorded in 
 history, and the extent of his conquests, 
 and the valorous opposition of some of 
 his enemies, fill the reader of his life with 
 astonishment ; but no man ever shed more 
 blood, laid waste more countries, and 
 committed greater cruelties, than Jingiz 
 Khan. The captive enemies had to serve 
 him as shields against their brothers, and 
 were forced to fight against them before 
 
PREFACE. XL1X 
 
 they were slaughtered. When he took a 
 town (Balkh, for instance), the lives of the 
 inhabitants were spared until their temples 
 were profaned, their wives and daughters 
 ravished, and their houses burnt ; and when 
 he had thus tortured their feelings, men and 
 women were promiscuously put to the sword. 
 The Tatars were called the nation of Mars 
 by the Iranians. 
 
 The Bedouin, who is the prototype of 
 the Semitic race, on the contrary, is per- 
 fectly free and independent *. He is capable 
 
 * Harith Ben Keldah described the character of the Arabs 
 before Khosraw Anusharwan, in the following terms: "Their 
 minds are liberal, their hearts cheerful ; their language is expres- 
 sive, their tongues are eloquent, their pedigrees pure and genuine, 
 their ancestors noble ; the words flow from their mouths like 
 arrows from the bow, but milder than the breezes of spring, and 
 sweeter than honey; (literally, the water of a certain spring of 
 Paradise ;) they feed the hungry in the time of need; they fight the 
 strong in war; they do not permit that their high feelings should be 
 hurt, that their neighbour should be injured, that their wives or 
 daughters should be profaned, or, that the noble should be hum- 
 bled." 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 of the noblest enthusiasm, but he has less 
 imagination than any other nation, hence 
 his poetry is lyric* ; the long- winding epos 
 and drama are unknown to him ; his reason- 
 
 Ibn Abi Osaibiah, MS. of the Brit. Museum, No. 7340, fol. 
 44 verso. The variants are from a MS. of the Royal Library 
 at Paris. 
 
 * Nothing can better illustrate the peculiar character of 
 Arabic poetry than the verses of the Koran, given in the follow- 
 ing page. (Sura, 91, translation of Sale.) God swears: 
 
 " By the sun and its rising brightness ; by the moon, when 
 she followeth him ; by the day, when it showeth its splendour ; 
 by the night, when it covereth him with darkness; by the heaven 
 and Him who built it ; by the earth and Him who spread it forth; 
 by the soul and Him who completely formed it, and inspired into 
 the same wickedness and piety ; now is he who has purified the 
 same happy." 
 
 Heaven and earth are too narrow for the spirit of Mohammed, 
 whilst the hero of Homer swears by so trifling an object as a 
 stick, which he paints in several verses: 
 
 " Yes, by this sceptre, which will no longer shoot either leaves 
 or rind, for it once left its stem on the mountains, nor will it ever 
 blossom again ; the sharp knife has pruned around both the leaves 
 and bark. Now this sceptre is intrusted into the hands of the 
 judging sons of Greece, Jove's delegates, from whom all wise 
 laws emanate, thus I utter a great and solemn oath to you." 
 
 As the rhyme of the Arabic original is as characteristic for 
 sublime, and romantic poetry as the grave Hexameter for the 
 apos, the original is here added: 
 
PREFACE. LI 
 
 ing is clear and logical ; and thus the 
 Bedouins were the founders of the spirit of 
 the middle ages. The Arab is, therefore, 
 not the tool of dreams and hopes ; his object 
 is to enjoy the moment, and to be to be 
 good, to be wise, to be free, to be happy ; 
 whilst the endeavour of other nations is to 
 have, and to be possessed to have goods, 
 to be possessed of knowledge, to have 
 power, to have the means of rendering them- 
 selves happy and thus they are possessed, 
 
 U j, Ul&b ttl JJJJ j 
 
 Nai /ia ToSc (ncrjirTpov, TO KCV ovirorf <^uXXa KOL oovf 
 
 firireidfj TrpStra TO/JLTJV ei/ opo-<rt 
 dvaOrjXrja-fi' ire pi yap pa ^aX/cot 
 
 <cai <p\oioV vvv avre p,iv vies ' 
 Ej/ 7ra\dp,r)s (popeovcri diKa(rrr6\oi, otre 
 Upos Albs elpvarai' 6 Se rot peyas f(TO"erat opKos. 
 
 Iliad, L, 234-239, 
 
LU PREFACE. 
 
 and fettered in their own golden chains. 
 The Arab is as anxious to obtain wealth as 
 other men, because he is active ; but it is 
 against his nature to store up wealth. If he 
 wishes to have great means, it is in order to 
 entertain his friends, to be more liberal and 
 hospitable than others, and to give riches 
 away as fast as he obtains them. These 
 habits of prodigality became a law of reli- 
 gion (the alms), and continued even to the 
 time of the Khalifat, however adverse they 
 were to civilized society and ruinous to the 
 state. The Arab obeys no one ; he has 
 no wants ; a few dates suffice for his meal. 
 What he takes, he takes by force the 
 native right of the stronger; but he gives 
 out of charity. Thus he feels himself greater 
 than the rest of mankind, and despises 
 them. What can make a man a slave who 
 has no wants ? His only master is honour 
 and conviction : hence, a sound religion 
 alone could unite the nation. His obe- 
 dience to the Sheikh is that of a son to his 
 father; it cannot be enforced; and the 
 orders, or rather advice, of a Sheikh is the 
 expression of the will of the tribe. The 
 only social tie which guarantees the life of 
 
PREFACE. Llll 
 
 the inhabitants of the desert is the blood 
 revenge founded on the love of relations. 
 If a man is slain, the family of the deceased 
 will not rest, if they should perish to the 
 last man, before they have retaliated the 
 death of their relation on the tribe of the 
 murderer. Atrocities are therefore avoided 
 out of love to one's own relations. 
 
 As the character of the Semites and 
 Tatars is opposed, so are their tongues; 
 for language, like a faithful wife, follows the 
 character of the mind, and gives birth to its 
 children. The Tatar forms compound ex- 
 pressions as he has received joint ideas ; for 
 the different modifications of one notion and 
 its relation appear to his shallow mind like 
 several ideas ; thus he uses compound ex- 
 pressions like "lordship," (i.e. the shape of 
 a lord,) and, 1 have said, although he has 
 only one idea to express. In Tatar languages, 
 compounding words and heaping grammati- 
 cal terminations and suffixed syllables is 
 carried to such an extreme, that the words 
 which express the objects are buried under 
 them. The riches of the Semitic lan- 
 guages, on the contrary, do not consist in 
 compounding ideas which have no natural 
 
L1V PREFACE. 
 
 relation to each other, but in organizing the 
 roots ; so the Arab would say teeth, and not 
 many * tooth ; I saw^ and not I have seen. 
 The Arabic language has no compound 
 words, and hardly any grammatical termina- 
 tions. Words are formed and grammatically 
 construed by changing the vowels of the 
 root; by internal organisation, and not by 
 juxta-position. Such a language can only 
 be spoken by a nation which expresses more 
 the sentiments and ideas of its heart, and 
 which gives, even in describing objects, the 
 feeling which they produced in the mind, 
 than a narration of the surrounding world. 
 The Semitic languages are what the Germans 
 would term subjective tongues, whilst the 
 Tatar languages are objective. The reader 
 may now easily guess that the Arab will 
 apply the same root to quite different ob- 
 jects, if they produced a similar impression 
 on his mind ; thus the root jara, which has 
 primarily the signification of to flow, means 
 also, if pronounced with different vowels 
 
 * The s, which forms the plural in most Hindo-Germanic 
 languages, as well as the lar, which forms the plural in Tatar 
 tongues, is to be considered as a corruption of some ancient 
 word meaning many, or a number. 
 
PREFACE. LV 
 
 and accents, a brave young man, a lively 
 girl, a ship, and the sun. As the Bedouin 
 calls the sun the Runner, if his attention is 
 exclusively directed to its motion, in the 
 same manner, he may call it the White 
 (l>^A>J!), or the Luminary (j^jtH or ^V^O* if 
 the impression of its colour or splendour is 
 prevalent in his mind, and so with other 
 notions. The reader will find, for the same 
 reason, numerous hysteron-proterons in Ara- 
 bic expression which have been preserved in 
 this translation ; for, as the Arab expresses 
 even facts as sentiments, he says^r^jf what 
 makes the greatest impression upon him. 
 Thus we read& first, that Zakariya was put 
 to death 3 and then it is described how he 
 was killed. 
 
 As long as the government of Iran was 
 in the vigour of life, these two nomadic 
 nations assisted it against other powers. We 
 find them in the account by Herodotus of 
 the army of Xerxes; and under Khosraw 
 Anusharwan fifty thousand Tatar troops 
 came on the Persian frontier, demanding to 
 be taken into his service: "For," said 
 they, "we gain our living by the sword; 
 
 * See page 122, infra. 
 
LV1 PREFACE. 
 
 and, as our country cannot give us food, we 
 must be thy enemies, if thou wilt not re- 
 ceive us as friends, and provide for us and 
 our families." It appears from el-Wakedi's 
 genuine account of the Mohammedan con- 
 quests, as quoted by early authors, that the 
 inhabitants of Yemen were driven by a si- 
 milar motive to join the banners of the 
 Islam. The population was too dense, and so 
 they came, uncalled for, to Medinah, and 
 asked 'Omar to send them against some 
 enemies of the faith. 
 
 When the rulers of Iran had passed 
 through the periods of life described by Ibn 
 Khaldun, and sunk under their own weight, 
 the Arabs and Tatars made predatory incur- 
 sions upon the unprotected cultivators, as 
 they did under the successors of Anushar- 
 wan. For, dependent as nomades in 
 some measure are upon civilized nations, 
 they are always on the alert for making 
 plunder. The Arabs and Tatars are like 
 two reservoirs of water over Iran ; if a 
 breach is opened, they will naturally come 
 down upon Iran, and make the breach 
 wider, to irrigate it if guided, and to inundate 
 it if not controlled. Success fills them with 
 
PREFACE. LV11 
 
 self-confidence ; the prospect of rich booty 
 attracts new invaders, and unites them. And 
 what can resist them if they are united ? A 
 tradition is related of Mohammed, that he 
 expressed sanguine hopes of the rise of the 
 Arabic power, on the occasion of a victory 
 of a predatory corps of the Temimites over 
 the Persians ; so that it is very likely, that 
 his religious enthusiasm was heightened 
 by the prospect of victory and political 
 ascendancy; the more so as he exhorts the 
 Koraishites, in one of the last Surahs of 
 the Koran, to be united, for union would 
 give to them wealth and power. 
 
 The conquests of Iran by these nations 
 appear to have been alternate. Thus, under 
 'Omar, the Arabs poured over Iran, and 
 pushed their conquests to other countries, 
 until the surplus population* of Arabia was 
 exhausted. When the storm had subsided, 
 they passed as Daulat XJ^j of the country 
 [that is to say, as the soldier caste and 
 nobility, as the Normans were in England], 
 through the periods of life described by Ibn 
 
 * Ibn Khaldun, who defends this idea, gives an estimate of 
 the number of conquering Arabic populations of that time. But 
 it does not seem very correct. 
 
LV111 PREFACE. 
 
 Khaldun*. In the mean time, the Tatar 
 steppes were over populous and full of 
 vigour, whilst the Semitic rulers were 
 drowned in luxury. Thus it was their turn to 
 inundate Iran, after the Arabs had possessed 
 it four centuries f. 
 
 We find on the banks of the Tigris a 
 pure Semitic population ; and as Babylon 
 was the seat of Semitic learning and civili- 
 zation, so the name of Bokhara is derived 
 from a Mongolish word meaning, according 
 to Abulghazi-Khan, "wisdom," because it 
 was the centre of Tatar civilization:]:; and 
 the main population on the banks of the 
 Oxus seem at all times to have been Tatars. 
 From whence came the Persians, and other 
 Hindo-Germanic nations, who are of a race 
 distinct from the Tatars and Semites, and to 
 whom no delta is left in western Asia ? It 
 seems they are the product of the mixture 
 of those two opposite nations, as their lan- 
 guage combines the character of the tongues 
 of both, having compositions and internal 
 organization ; so that it must be posterior 
 
 * Page xv., supra. 
 
 f The Seljuks came in 432 A.H. 
 
 % Page 46 of the Tatar edition. 
 
PREFACE. L1X 
 
 to the Tatar and Semitic languages, for a 
 more perfect development is naturally pos- 
 terior to a more simple structure. Although 
 I could not defend this theory of the origin 
 of the Hindo-Germanic nations, so much is 
 certain, that they are the nations of civiliza- 
 tion, and that civilization will no more rise 
 without the intercourse of opposite nations, 
 than one sex alone can give birth to a child. 
 These alternate conquests of the Arabs and 
 Tatars must be considered as having given 
 birth to civilization. They illustrate, there- 
 fore, the succession and mutual relation of 
 nations in history better than anything else. 
 
 Our author*, Hamza of Ispahan, and 
 the Zend-Avesta mention four other nations, 
 the Semites, Tatars, and Iranians included 
 which answer to the seven Kishwars or 
 climates f , and which surround the passive 
 inhabitants of Iran, like six stamina the 
 pistillum, invading and reviving it in their 
 turn. 
 
 South of Iran live the Hindus. A suc- 
 cessful inroad of some Hindu conqueror is 
 
 * In his Tauluh ; and after him Haji Khalfa, in his Bibliog. 
 Diction. 
 
 f Compare page 1 98, infra. 
 
LX PREFACE. 
 
 recorded in the eighteenth chapter of this 
 work ; and they were, even at the time of 
 Anushirwan, so strong, that he expresses 
 his fears of them in his last speech. As the 
 Germans, fortheirhighintellectual character, 
 their tendency to mysticism, their political 
 passiveness and insignificance, bear a resem- 
 blance to the character of the slavish culti- 
 vators of Iran, so India may be compared in 
 its geographical position and character with 
 Italy. The Italians, like the Hindus, are 
 buried under the ruins of their former gran- 
 deur, and vegetate, in unmanly occupation, 
 in the plundered temples of their Benares, 
 on the Tiber. The French bear a resem- 
 blance to the Arabs ; both have shown 
 themselves equally capable of fighting for 
 principles, and of being united by enthu- 
 siasm, and not by the fear of a master. The 
 Russians are the Tatars of Europe, and the 
 main body of the subjects of the Autocrat 
 are of Tatar origin. South-east of Iran 
 lie Thibet and China, which have been 
 compared with the Turks by Hager in a 
 learned article in the Fundgrubens des 
 Orients. Egypt is situated in the West, 
 from whence the Persians have experienced 
 
PREFACE. LX1 
 
 several invasions. Tyrus and the empire of 
 Croesus, whose attack upon the Persian 
 empire failed, were north-west of Iran, and 
 may be called the Great Britain* of the 
 ancient world. Subsequently, the Byzan- 
 tine empire succeeded, and was at constant 
 war with the rulers on the Tigris both the 
 Khosraws and Khalifs. The struggles of 
 these six nations, but particularly of those 
 of the Arabs and Tatars, their mutual 
 relation, and their power over Iran, offer a 
 wide field for studying the succession of 
 nations in the stage of history ; whereas the 
 contests of India, China, Egypt, and Asia 
 Minor, against Iran, and among themselves, 
 are less important ; for here doulat fights 
 against doulat. Their conflicts do not give 
 us a view of the connexion of the first prin- 
 ciples from which states grow up, but only 
 of the opposition of the interest of states 
 and monarchs. 
 
 Thus far as to the relative position of 
 nations to each other, and their succession 
 on the stage of history. We may nowpro- 
 
 * This comparison of the nations of Asia with those of Europe 
 could be carried much futher into detail ; for similar circumstances 
 have similar effects, and similar processes of life produce, in physi- 
 ology, similarly organized formations. 
 
LX11 PREFACE. 
 
 ceed to show, that the history of the power 
 of the Arabs furnishes us with better mate - 
 rials for studying the individual life of nations 
 than that of any European country. Their 
 history is complete, and we have trustworthy 
 accounts from the moment when they 
 entered upon the stage of action, to the time 
 when they went back into their deserts 
 again. 
 
 Their own poetry and traditions, as well 
 as foreign authors, show us the Arabs before 
 Mohammed exactly in the same condition as 
 they are now. They have no state, but sim- 
 ply families ; and they make, therefore, no 
 progress, nor are they subject to decay as a 
 nation. Their endeavour is, as we have said, 
 not to possess, but to be : existence ends 
 with the life of the individual, whilst his 
 possession remains. The Bedouin history is 
 the genealogy only of those to whom they 
 owe their existence ; they cannot point to 
 changes in state, nor to progress in arts and 
 literature, nor to any beneficial influence in 
 society which their fathers have made, for 
 all these things are connected with posses- 
 sion ; and revolutions in states are effected 
 because rights and property are transferred 
 
PREFACE. Lxiii 
 
 from one class to another by the change of 
 ideas. The ideas of nomades can make no 
 progress, for the natural feelings of man are 
 at all times the same ; and knowledge is a 
 possession which changes with new discove- 
 ries, and is useless, if not applied to life and 
 and property. When the Persians and 
 Byzantines were enervated by luxury, and 
 drowned in the forms of civilization, the 
 spirit of which was gone, the constant 
 inroads of the Arabs were more successful, 
 and a too dense population had made them 
 more reflective ; for necessity is the mother 
 of invention. Prophets arose in all parts of 
 Arabia ; and the Mohammedan doctrine of 
 the unity of God was crowned with success 
 six centuries after the introduction of the 
 Christian religion, and about three after 
 Arius had first declared himself against the 
 trinity. 
 
 The Koraishite tribe stood first, as the 
 head of the Arabs, and they thought it 
 safer for their freedom to have the Oma'i- 
 yides as their Khalifs than the Alites, who 
 raised their claims by divine grace. The 
 Oma'iyides, who were merely Emirs, went 
 through the five phases of life, but in 
 
XL1V PREFACE. 
 
 them the first two were particularly de- 
 veloped. Hejjaj Ben Yusof drowned the 
 spirit of freedom in el-Kufah and el-Basrah 
 in their own blood. The baptism of mo- 
 narchy the mild and fatherly form of go- 
 vernment cost the lives of twenty-one thou- 
 sand men. Their death did not give so 
 much alarm; for they did not fall in the 
 open field, but under the hand of the exe- 
 cutioner, in prison, and the servile part of 
 the population was well fed. The victims 
 who fell in the open field were innumerable. 
 Hejjaj was the precursor of the ' Abbasides, 
 although he was their enemy. This new 
 dynasty went through the five phases. They 
 were 'Alites and Kings (no longer Emirs), 
 supported, in spite of the Kora'ishites and 
 their allies, by the Nizar tribes, who lived 
 near the Tigris, and who were more used 
 to a master by divine right, and by the 
 Khorasanians ; for the first want which they 
 felt after they had recovered from the shock 
 of the Arabic conquest, was that of having 
 a monarch, to counteract the rapacity of the 
 governors, and to promote irrigation. The 
 'Abbasides represent particularly the third 
 and fourth phases. At the beginning of the 
 
PREFACE. LXV 
 
 fourth century, the 'Abbaside power was at 
 an end; physical force and money* now 
 alone gave right to power, and every gover- 
 nor made himself independent in his pro- 
 vince. Each of these moluk et-Tawa'if went 
 through the above periods of life ; but they 
 represented particularly the last phase that 
 of reform and dissolution. Till now the 
 power of the kings was owing to the Arabic 
 conquests, although some were Tatars ; 
 whereas the sovereignty of the Seljukians, 
 Jingiz-Khanians, and Ta'imurians, rested on 
 the success of the Tatar arms. The Arabs, 
 by degrees, turned back into the deserts, 
 or were humbled to the state of cultivators. 
 Their original character vanished, and they 
 became like the Nabatheansf,who had been 
 deposited there by the Bedouins thousands 
 of years ago, and so they remain at present. 
 Thus the periods of life are distinctly 
 marked in Arabic history, and nothing can 
 exceed the fidelity of their historians. They 
 believe till they are persuaded of the contrary, 
 
 * Thus the Ghaznewides and Khowarezmshahians owed their 
 power entirely to the treasures of India. 
 
 j- The Nabatheans were looked on with such contempt by 
 the Bedouins, that their name had become a nickname, at the 
 time of the author of the " Nabathean Agriculture." 
 
LXV1 PREFACE. 
 
 and adhere closely even to the terms of the 
 source whence they derive their information, 
 naming the whole series of persons through 
 whom they have received traditions. Orien- 
 talists should study the lives and characters of 
 the traditionists before they enter into his- 
 tory, for this alone can enable them to form an 
 estimate of the critical value of the accounts. 
 El-Mas'udi gives us only one instance of 
 such a way of treating history, in the first 
 volume*; but many in the last. An Arabic 
 historian will relate a fact without changing 
 it, although it may be against his views. 
 An instance is found in our author, where 
 he relates the ridiculous ideas of el-Jahit 
 respecting the unicornf . How much more 
 valuable such simplicity is, in history, than 
 modern criticism, may be shown in an ex- 
 ample. Goethe, the German poet, speaks, 
 in his Westwstlichen Diwan, on the march 
 of the Israelites from Egypt to Syria, and 
 means to prove that they would not have 
 been longer in the desert than two years ; 
 the reasons which he alleges are too ridi- 
 culous to be recounted here. Ibn Khaldun, 
 adhering to the text of Scripture, thinks 
 
 * Page 57, infra. f Page 392, infra. 
 
PREFACE. LXV11 
 
 that the Israelites, debased by the slavery 
 which they had endured in Egypt, were 
 unable to oppose the Philistines, until the 
 old generation had died off, and a new one 
 grown up in the hardy life of the desert. 
 
 It has been our endeavour to show, that 
 the fruits of the study of history ought to 
 be, to obtain a view of the individual life of 
 nations; and to ascertain, by connecting 
 these particular histories, the laws of the 
 succession of nations in the rule of the 
 world. European history, it has been as- 
 serted, does not lead to these results ; for 
 modern nations have not yet arrived at the 
 end of their career; and the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans, (as it has been shown at some length, 
 for fear of the prevailing Helenomania 
 among the learned of Europe,) borrowed 
 their institutions and the material of their 
 science and arts from the East : hence the 
 study of the East alone can lead us to the 
 above-mentioned results. We attempted 
 to illustrate the succession of nations by a 
 few hints bearing on this subject as far as 
 Iran is concerned ; for this is the stage of 
 the history related by our author; and, 
 finally, we meant to intimate, that the his- 
 
LXvifi PREFACE. 
 
 tory of the power of the Arabs is the only 
 complete biography of a nation which can 
 serve as the standard in judging others. 
 Now this would be the place to show how 
 far our author contributes towards these two 
 objects. It is, however, much better for the 
 reader to peruse The Meadows of Gold, and 
 judge for himself. It may suffice to say, 
 that he treats, besides history, on almost 
 all the branches of Arabic science, poetry, 
 and common life. It seemed, therefore, 
 well, occasionally, to supply, from other 
 authors, what is wanting, to give to the 
 reader a perfect insight into the life of the 
 Arabs at the time of their power ; to show 
 whence el-Mas'udi derived his historical 
 information; to assist the reader in the 
 criticism of facts ; and to throw some light 
 on the time and manner in which the Arabs 
 cultivated various sciences and arts. The 
 first will be done in additional notes, or 
 little memoirs, which were first intended to 
 be added at the end of each volume ; but 
 for want of time they must be postponed to 
 the end of the last volume of each of the 
 two sections of which the whole work con- 
 sists, and the latter will be done in a sepa- 
 
PREFACE. LX1X 
 
 rate volume, which will form the last part 
 of this work, and contain the literary his- 
 tory of the Arabs, down to the time of el- 
 Mas'udi, together with our author's own 
 life* and literary connections. I have 
 already collected for this purpose notices 
 on the lives and works of several thousand 
 authors, partly from their own writings, and 
 partly from extracts and notices found in later 
 authors, where the original works are lost. 
 
 I have seen, and partly perused, nearly 
 twenty copies of the whole or part of The 
 Meadows of Gold, preserved in public or 
 private collections, at Paris, Leyden, Oxford, 
 
 * The reader may find an excellent Memoire on the life and 
 writings of el-Mas'udi, written by M. Quatremere de Quincy, in 
 the Journal Asiatique, (Ille serie, tome vii., No. 37, Janvier, 
 1839, p. 5 to 31,) with which he may compare D'Herbelot, article 
 Massoudi; Abulfeda, Ann. Mosl. vol. ii., adnot. 208, p. 118, adn. 
 hist.; Deguignes, not. et extr., vol. i.; Silvestre de Sacy, ibid., tome 
 viii., p. 132; idem, Chrestom. Arabe; Langles, Voyage en Egypte 
 et Nubie de Norden, tome iii., p. 292, note 1; Hamaker, Spec. 
 Catalogs pp. 46, 48 ; d'Ohson, Des Peuples du Caucase, pref. 
 iii., viii.; Fraehn, Ibn Fozlan; Charmoy, Sur les Slaves, in 
 the Memoirs of the Academy of St. Petersburgh, t. vii., Nov. 
 1832 and 5 July 1833; Nicolls, catal. Bibl Bodleyana-, Gilde- 
 meister, de Indis, Bonn, 1836. Mr. Gildemeister has translated 
 into Latin, and published the whole of the seventh chapter of 
 el-Mas'udi. I have to regret that I could not take advantage of 
 his excellent work, having been in the country when my translation 
 of that chapter went through the press. The difference of the 
 MSS. will account for the difference of the translation of some 
 passages. 
 
LXX PREFACE. 
 
 Cambridge, and London. Including the ex- 
 tracts found in other authors, the number of 
 copies of which I possess some knowledge 
 may be calculated to be above fifty. They 
 all agree in certain faults ; the variants are 
 material and innumerable. It seems that the 
 autograph was written in a bad hand : per- 
 haps it was the bad state of the MSS. of the 
 first edition of The Meadows of Gold which 
 induced the author to publish a second 
 edition, of which he speaks in the Tanbih ; 
 but as this edition is nowhere to be found, 
 criticism on the work is rendered difficult, if 
 not impossible. The reader will do better to 
 consider what has been done in this trans- 
 lation, than what remains to be done. 
 
 The translation of this volume has been 
 made from a manuscript of Ley den (No. 
 537, a), which ends with the thirty-second 
 chapter. It is very ancient, made by a 
 man of great learning, and therefore very 
 correct. Sometimes, however, when he 
 found a corrupt passage, he gave a wrong 
 sense to it in his corrections. But it is, at 
 all events, the best copy in existence. On 
 the margin one sometimes finds valuable 
 ^ariants, written by a later hand. I am 
 
PREFACE. LXX1 
 
 indebted for the perusal of this copy to the 
 kindness of Professor Weijers, D.D., and 
 the liberal institutions of the library of the 
 University of Leyden : hence it has resulted 
 that nowhere in Europe has so much been 
 done for Oriental literature as in Holland ; 
 and yet not one MS. of the rich collection 
 of that university has been lost or damaged. 
 How many useful works would be saved 
 from the worms, and how much credit 
 would it throw on the literary character of 
 the University of Oxford, if they would 
 follow this example! Before I sent the 
 translation to press, I compared it with 
 several other copies : as, 
 
 A manuscript of my esteemed friend, M. 
 de Gayangos, who, although he is enriching 
 Oriental historiography with his own labours, 
 throws open his valuable collection of Orien- 
 tal manuscripts to his friends with as much 
 liberality as if he had collected them solely 
 for their use. This copy is modern and 
 carelessly written, but complete. 
 
 A manuscript of the Asiatic Society of 
 Paris, which contains only the first chapters, 
 and those not complete. 
 
 The manuscript of Leyden marked No. 
 
LXX11 PREFACE. 
 
 282, A, which contains the whole of the first 
 part, that is to say, the first sixty-nine chap- 
 ters. It is better than most other copies of 
 el-Mas'udi, however numerous its faults are. 
 
 A manuscript of Cambridge, which had 
 been imperfect ; but Mr. Burckhardt, its for- 
 mer owner, took care to have it completed. 
 Besides, I had several extracts from the MSS. 
 of the Royal Library at Paris, and others. 
 
 Lord Munster had the kindness to go 
 over the whole translation, to correct faults 
 against the English idiom. But as it is im- 
 possible to reconcile the Arabic style with 
 the genius of the English language, without 
 working over sentence after sentence afresh, 
 the mistakes which may still be found in 
 this translation in English diction, must not 
 be ascribed to his Lordship, whereas the 
 translator has to avow, that he had, in many 
 difficult expressions of the original, recourse 
 to his Lordship, and derived a great deal of 
 information from him for the notes, and a 
 lucid understanding of the text. In many 
 instances, aliteral translation has been prefer- 
 red to an idiomatical English expression, for 
 reasons which the reader will easily discover. 
 
 Brighton, April, 1841. 
 
EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, AND 
 MINES OF GEMS. 
 
 IN the name of God, the Merciful, the Clement ! 
 Praise be to God, to him is due all praise and 
 glory! Blessed be Mohammed, the highest 
 of the Prophets, and his pure family. 
 
 FIRST CHAPTER. 
 The Object of this Work. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says: We have described, in the in- 
 troduction to our work, called Aklibdr ez-zemdn 1 
 (on the history of time), the figure of the earth, its 
 towns, wonders, and seas, its heights and depths, 
 mountains and rivers, the produce of the mines; 
 the various waters, marshes, and the islands of the 
 sea and of lakes. We have also given descrip- 
 tions and historical sketches of large edifices and 
 lofty temples, an account of the beginning and last 
 origin of things, and notices of inhabited districts, 
 and of such tracts as had been land and became 
 sea, or which had been sea and became land ; 
 together with the causes of those changes, both 
 proceeding from sidereal and natural influences. 
 We proceeded then, in that work, to divide the 
 
2 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 climates according to the stars which preside over 
 them, and the lines on the globe, and the extent 
 of the districts. We also entered into details on 
 the discussions on history, and on the different 
 opinions of its beginning, and on the priority of 
 the Hindus and other pagans. We have men- 
 tioned the accounts of sacred and other books, and 
 the traditions of the Rabbis 2 . After this intro- 
 duction 5; we have related in that work the history 
 of ancient kings, former nations, and distinguished 
 men, and of tribes of past times, according to their 
 different origin, classes, and religion. We have 
 given an account of all their wise institutions, 
 the sayings of philosophers, and of the history of 
 their kings and emperors (Csesars 3 ) who have passed 
 on the wings of time. In another chapter we have 
 followed up the history of the prophets, holy men 
 and devotees, until God completed his bounty by 
 sending MOHAMMED his prophet. We continued 
 our history in relating his birth, youth, and pro- 
 phetic mission, his flight, his military expeditions, 
 both those commanded by himself, and those com- 
 manded by his leaders 4 , down to his death. 
 
 Thus we have followed up the history of the 
 Khalifs and of their empire, which grew up attended 
 with constant disputes and wars with the Talebites 
 
 *M plural of 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. O 
 
 who descended from Fdtimah 5 , down to the time 
 when we write this book, which is during the reign 
 of el-Mottaki Lilian, in the year 332, A. H. 
 
 After the Akhbar ez-zeman, we wrote our book 
 the Kitdb el-ausat', which is also a historical work, 
 chronologically arranged from the creation down to 
 the time when we concluded our great work, and 
 the Kitab el-ausat which follows it. Subse- 
 quently we thought it useful to reduce into a 
 smaller compass what is said in detail in the larger 
 work, and to shorten what we have related in 
 the Kitab el-ausat, so that we may give the essence 
 of the contents of those two works in a less 
 voluminous book, in which we shall mention, 
 besides, different sciences which are not noticed 
 in those two works. We have to excuse ourselves, 
 if it should be found too short, and to apologize, 
 as our mind got disturbed and our strength reduced 
 by the privations of travelling, and by crossing 
 seas and deserts. The object of these journeys 
 has been to satisfy our thirst for knowledge, and to 
 learn the peculiarities of the various nations and 
 parts of the world, by witnessing them, and the 
 state of foreign countries, by seeing them ; in this 
 way we travelled to INDIA 7 , Ez-ZiNj 8 , ES- 
 
 UiH ^AAxJlkJl. LUM^I V UT The middling work. 
 7 A. & B. Jsi^Ji; C. Js^JI. 8 go^JU 
 
 9 A. c^u^ll; B. cJuaM; C. jJuflJl; C. adds f j 
 and China." B 2 
 
4 EL-MAS*Ul>i'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 EZ-ZANIJ*. We have also traversed the East 
 and the West. Sometimes we were in the ex- 
 tremity of KHORASAN, other times in the centre of 
 ARMENIA 11 and ADHERBUAN IS! , ER-RiN 13 and EL- 
 BAILKAX U , then again in EL-'!RAK and in ESH-SHAM 
 (Syria). We went from one quarter of the earth to 
 the other as the sun makes his revolutions. As 
 some poet says: " We rambled through the dif- 
 ferent parts of the country,, sometimes we were in 
 the extreme east and other times in the west, like 
 the sun, the ardour of the mind which remains 
 unimpaired, is unsatisfied until it reaches the region 
 (the other world,) which cannot be approached by 
 travelling." 
 
 Then we had intercourse with kings of different 
 
 10 A. & c. ^Jj; B. 
 
 13 A. & B. ^yi; C. 
 
 14 A. & B. ^ 
 
 * Arabic Geographers seem not to have been very well 
 acquainted with this name from the various ways of spelling it. 
 Jaubert's translation of Edrisi (vol. I. page 59, et seq.) alone 
 presents us with four varieties; er-Rdnij, ez-Zdlij, ez-Zdnij, and 
 er-Rabij. The MSS. of Mas'udi add to this list er-Rdbih, ^\A\ 
 and ez-Zdbih. The reading adopted by most authors is er-Ranij 
 g\j\\ I preferred " ez-Zanij" on the authority of a most ancient 
 and carefully written MS. of the British Museum, (N. 7496, 
 add. MSS.) which seems to be an extract from Beladori's Kitdb 
 el-bolddn and the autograph of the abbreviator. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 5 
 
 usages and politics, and by comparing them we 
 have come to the result, that illustrious actions 
 have faded in this world, and its luminaries are 
 extinguished. There is a great deal of wealth but 
 little intellect. You will find the self-sufficient 
 and ignorant, illiterate and defective, contented 
 with opinions, and blind to what is near them. 
 Subsequently, this sort of knowledge did not appear 
 to us a worthy task,, nor did we consider it worth our 
 while to devote ourselves to these pursuits, so we 
 wrote rather our works on the different opinions 
 and various beliefs, as the book on the " Exposition 
 of the Principles of the Religion 15 /' and the " Tracts 
 on the Principles of the Religion 16 ," the work on 
 " The Secret of Life 17 ," and another on the " Argu- 
 ments of the Principles of Dogmatics (philoso- 
 phically) arranged/' 
 
 The last-mentioned book contains the principles 
 of jurisdiction and the rules of passing decisions : 
 as defence against argumentation, and deciding on 
 one's own authority; rejecting opinion and grace; 
 the knowledge of what is abrogated (in law), and 
 what is put instead of it, and of how far and in 
 what points there is only one opinion ; the distinc- 
 tion between particular and general, between positive 
 
 15 
 1C 
 
 7 
 
6 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 and negative commands, and between disapproved 
 and permitted, then the traditions which are generally 
 acknowledged as true, and those originally reported 
 only by one man, the example of the prophet, and 
 the juristical decisions founded thereon. We 
 added our own opinions on the subject, both those 
 which are controversial, and those which are in 
 accordance with others 18 . 
 
 " Reflections on the Imamship, and statement of 
 the opinions of those who maintain the rights of 
 the Imam to be hereditary, and of those who 
 make him elective, together with the passages (of 
 the Koran, &c.,) which both parties bring forward 
 in proof of their opinions 19 ," and "The Book 
 
 18 As every word of this sentence is a technical expression, I 
 add the original. \^,\ Lo ft\\ 1^1 w *M 
 
 *** ^ or an explanation of these terms I 
 refer the reader to the additional notes at the end of this volume. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 
 
 of Sincerity (the impartial book) on the Imam- 
 ship 20 ." 
 
 We have, besides, inserted occasional remarks on 
 these subjects in our works on various sciences, 
 empirical and mystical, evident and occult, passed 
 or still existing. 
 
 We have called attention to those subjects 
 which the vigilant observe, and upon which the 
 intelligent reflect, and to what they mention of the 
 splendour which enlightens the world and is diffused 
 over its barrenness, and to the results of researches 
 in the ruins, which ever have been famous and 
 glorious in their origin, and which may lead to 
 further explanations. We entered into the art 
 of government, as the government of cities, and 
 its natural laws, and the division of the parts of 
 these laws. 
 
 We entered into speculations on the first origin 
 and the composition of the world and the heavenly 
 bodies, and of what is tangible and not tangible, 
 and what is dense, and what is the reverse. 
 
 We have been prevailed upon to write these 
 books on history, and the explanation of the events 
 of the world, by the unanimous example of the wise 
 men and philosophers who have done their best, 
 that there may be kept up in the world the recollec- 
 
8 EL-MAS'lJOl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 tion of what there is praiseworthy and digested 
 in science. We found that authors have observed 
 two ways in writing hooks, the one to explain the 
 matters in full length, the other to shorten them ; 
 and, again, the one elucidates whilst the other 
 abridges. But we found that the accounts are in- 
 creasing in number with the progress of time. The 
 learned stands frequently higher than the intelligent 
 and clever. But each of them has a part assigned 
 to his faculties. Every climate has some wonders 
 which the inhabitants do not understand, and no 
 man who has zeal for science can rest satisfied and 
 content, with what natives may report of their coun- 
 tries ; but he can trust to a man who has spent his 
 life in travelling, and passed his days in researches, 
 and who has minutely explored the mines (of 
 knowledge), and carefully collected all that can 
 interest. 
 
 Men have written books on history at all times, 
 some are of more, some of less, value. Every one 
 has exerted himself according to his powers, and 
 has deposited therein the stores of his wit and 
 talent, as 
 
 1 Wahb Ben Monabbih <Ux* ^>\ c*^. 
 
 2 Abu Mikhnaf * Lut Ben Yahya el-'Ameri #\ 
 
 \ f*&* 
 
 * The most copies of Mas'udi bear Mohnifand. this is the 
 reading adopted by Kosegarten in his edition of Tabari. The 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 
 
 3 Mohammed Ben Ishak 
 
 4 El-Wakedi 
 
 5 Ibn el-Kelbi 
 
 6 Abu 'Obaidah Ma'mer Ben el-Mothanni 
 
 7 Ibn 'Ayyash* jiU* ^1. 
 
 8 El-Haithem Ibn 'Adi et-Tayf 
 
 9 Esh-Sharki Ibn el-Ketami 
 
 10 Hemmad er-Rawiyah * 
 
 11 El-Asma'i { juo^ 
 
 12 Sahl Ben Harun 
 
 13 Ibn el-Mokaffa' 
 
 14 El-Yezidi <s 
 
 15 El-'Otbi el-Omawiy 
 
 16 Abu Zeid Sa'id Ben Aus el-Ansari 
 
 reading which I have adopted rests on the authority of the Kamus, 
 (edit. Calcutt. p. 1160) and the Fihrist (874. anc. fond. MS. 
 Arab. Royal Library at Paris.) 
 
 * One copy bears J^J^JJ (j*lxxJJ *jj The addition of the 
 patronymic " el-Hamadani," in this wrong reading makes it pro- 
 bable that it is the same person mentioned in Tiedemann's ibn 
 Khallikan under N. 364. 
 
 t Haji Khalfa (N. 2140) makes el-Hayi" of el-Tay " but this 
 is wrong 
 
10 EL-MAS'UDI J S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 17 En-Nadhr Ben Shomail 
 
 18 'Obaid-ullah Ben 'Ayeshah X^Lc ^^ 
 1 9 Abu' Obaid el-Kasim Ben Sallam * I 
 
 20 'All Ben Mohammed el-Medaini 
 ^cAxU. 
 
 21 Demad Ben Rafi^ Ben Selmah 
 J*-^. 
 
 22 Mohammed Ben Sallam el-Jomhi 
 ^^ f iU. 
 
 23 Abu 'Othman 'Amr Ben Bahr el-Jahith 
 
 &*^ >sr ^ JJ+& ^Zs. ^\. 
 
 24 AbuZeid'Omar Ben Shabbehen-Nomairi Joj >J 
 
 25 El-Azraki el-Ansari 
 
 26 Abu Saib el-Makhzumi 
 
 27 'All Ben Mohammed Ben Sole'j'man en-Naufeli 
 
 28 Ez-Zobair Ben Bekkar J6* ^ j*>^- 
 
 29 El-Injili 
 
 30 Er-Riyashi 
 
 31 Ibn 'Abid <k>U or 
 
 * Other readings are X 
 
 - ^j *u* * ^jU The reading which I have 
 
 adopted in the text rests on the authority of Ibn Khallikan. 
 f The readings differ \ or Jt or ^\ or JI. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 11 
 
 32 'Arnrnar Ibn Wathimah * X 
 
 33 Abu Hassan ez-Ziyadi ( 
 
 34 'Isa Ibn Lahi'ah el-Misri (&ux$J) ***jJ 
 
 35 'Abd-ur-Rahman Ben 'Abd-ullah Ben Abdul 
 Hokm el-Misri 
 
 36 Abu Keisan el-Hadi 
 
 37 Mohammed Ben Musa el-Khowarezmi 
 
 38 Abu Ja'fer Mohammed Ben Abi-s-Sari 
 
 39 Mohammed Ben el-Haithem Ben Shebamah 
 (Shebabah) el-Khorasani ^^^ fj^tt ^> J^sx 
 ^Ujil (S^UJK) SUUA the author of the Book 
 ed-daulat (%j*M the dynasty.) 
 
 40 Ishak Ibn Ibrahim el-Mausili, the author of the 
 Song-book, and of other works *J^j1 .jj vJu 
 
 * There is a great difference in the readings of this name. 
 The MS. in M. Schultz's collection in the Royal Library at 
 Paris gives the reading which I have adopted in the text. The 
 MS. of Leyden bears cf^oU XAJJ ^\ ^Xc and another copy 
 has c5?jAaU ^jl*c I believe it is the same man whom Haji 
 Khalfa (N. 2120) calls 'Omdrah Ben Wathimah. 
 
12 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 41 El-Khalil Ibn el-Haithem el-Harthemi JJlil 
 ^j*$r$\ fAAgH ^jJ the author of the book on 
 Stratagems and Manoeuvres in War ^A\ ^UT 
 
 Vj^i J NJ&|j aa d f other works. 
 
 42 Mohammed Ben Yezid el-Mobarred el-Azdi 
 
 43 Mohammed Ben Soleiman el-Minkari el- 
 Jauheri 
 
 44 Mohammed Ben Zakariya el-Ghallabi^ el-Basri 
 (el-Misri) (^^0 cfj^ui^ 3-^x)^ ^0 (^j^*^^, 
 the author oif the j^^i i^UT and other works. 
 
 45 Ibn Abi-d-Dunya (er-Raini) the preceptor of 
 el-Moktefi Billah (^0 USjJl ^^ ^j^^ 
 
 46 Ahmed Ben Omar (Mohammed) el-Khoza'i, 
 known under the name of el-Khakani of 
 Antiochia o 
 
 47 'Abdullah Ben Mohammed Ben Mahfiith el 
 
 Beladi el-Ansari l^yL^v^ ^j *x^ ^.^ ^J^ iXxc 
 
 ^Uaj^\ (tf>^0 tf*xX>Ji the companion of 
 
 Ibn Yezid 'Imarah Ben Zaid of Medina (Ibn 
 
 * All the copies of Mas'udi bear &xJJ instead of 
 I prefer the latter on the authority of the Fihrist. His work 
 is called in some copies jl^^SH v^ an( ^ ^ n ^ e Fihrist 
 2>f^.y\. Haji Khalfa contains none of these titles. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 13 
 
 Othman Ben Zaid of Medina) *,Ux Ju 
 
 48 Mohammed Ben el-Barki Ben Khalid el-Waki 
 el-Katib* -oKN ^\ *\!U. (^ ^xiJ Cj _^ <x+2X 
 author of the ^U^M c_UT " Exposition." 
 
 49 Ahmed Ben Mohammed Ben Khalid el-Barki, 
 the son of the preceding 
 
 50 Abii Sa'id es-Sokkari f ^.Cj^ *x/jt-j ^>\ 
 
 51 Ahmed Ben Abi Tdher^lfc ^? ^.j J^! the 
 
 * This name is found only in M. de Gayangoz's copy. It is 
 evidently very incorrect. Comparing it with the next following 
 name, which is also only met in Gayangoz's MS., I consider "el- 
 Waki " as a corruption of "el-Barki ", which is to be left out the first 
 time. The name runs therefore : Mohammed Ben Khalid el-Barki 
 el-Kdtib. Haji Khalfa (N. 2405 edit. Fliigel) ascribes a work 
 called "Exposition of the History of Bagdad" to Ahmed Ben 
 Mohammed Ben Khalid el-Barki el Kdtib. This name agrees 
 exactly with the name of the next following author. As in M. 
 de Gayangoz's copy frequently a sentence is written twice, I 
 almost think the father must abdicate as an author in favour of his 
 son. 
 
 f This author is mentioned only in a copy of the Royal 
 Library at Paris, (collection of M. Schultz) and in M. de 
 Gayangoz's MS. The later MS. adds, He is the author of the 
 work i-^xl^ *^W^ "P ems of the Arabs (Bedouins^)" in the 
 Fihrist and in Haji Khalfa (edit. Fliigel, N. 38.) This book bears 
 the title UJJ C>UjSN " Popular Poems." 
 
14 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 author of the " History of Bagdad" j+\ v ^ 
 Jjjob and other works. 
 
 52 Ibn el-Wesha U^J ^\ 
 
 53 'All Ben Mojahid X4>Ls=s.<> (JJ j ^ the author 
 of the ''History of the O may y ides "^,U=U V UT 
 (^.jju^oSM and other works. 
 
 54 Mohammed Ben Saleh Ben el-Betah (en- 
 Nettah*.) ( C U*N) ^U^l ^ ^\# ^ *+=s^ 
 the author of the " History of the Abbaside 
 Dynasty'^ X/^UxJ^ XJ 3 *xJ^ t_lxT and other works. 
 
 55 Yusuf Ben Ibrahim ^&>jA (j_^ <-**-^. the 
 author of the " History of Ibrahim Ben el- 
 Mahdi " and other works. 
 
 56 Mohammed Ben el-Hareth et-Taghlebi (eth- 
 Tha'lebi) (c^xn) gteX\ cL^^ ^^ <x*^ 
 the author of the " Manners of the Kings" v_A^ 
 (XUQ t_-^U^ o^U.^ which he composed for el- 
 Fath Ben Khakan ^UU ^ g&\ and of 
 other works. 
 
 57 'Obaid-ullah Ben 'Abdulla Ben Khordadbeh 
 
 He is the best writer ; his style is an example 
 which has been imitated by other authors. They 
 
 * The reading el-Betah "is confirmed by the authority of the 
 Fihrist (874 MS. Arabe ancien fonds of the Royal Library at 
 Paris;) and en-Nettah" by Haji Khalfa (edit. Fliigel, N. 2151.) 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 15 
 
 have followed his traces and copied from his works. 
 Whoever wishes to convince himself of the truth 
 of our assertion, may read his large work on history, 
 gjUM & j^&\ u.UT. He compiled the materials 
 for this work with great care ; arranged them in a 
 new order, and comprised in it a vast deal of infor- 
 mation. It contains the history of the Persians, 
 and other nations, their kings, and the biographies 
 of those kings. 
 
 Another excellent book of his treats on the 
 roads and kingdoms, fyc., Uyx 3 jOlit ^ JCJUJL! j. 
 Whenever I was in want of information, I found it 
 there, and whenever I consulted it, I had reason to 
 praise it. 
 
 58 History (of Mohammed ) from his birth to his 
 death, and of the Khalifs and Kings after him, 
 down to the Khalifat of el-Mo'tadhed Billah, 
 with an account of all that happened or existed 
 in their days, and their traditions, by Mohammed 
 Ben 'AH el Hosaini el-'Alawi ed-Dinaweri t_UT 
 ^tfj* ^ SlJ>Jl J 
 
 59 History of Ahmed Ben Yahya el-Belddori v^" 
 cfji^xJ^ ^^ (J jj js,*^^ &j^ an ^ the work of 
 the same author which has the following title, 
 
16 EL-MAS'lJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 " The countries and their subjection to the 
 Mohammedans, by treaty or force, after the 
 Hijrah of the prophet, and all the conquests of 
 Mohammed, and of the Khalifs after him, also 
 the traditions illustrative of this subject;" <-A^ 
 
 The author describes in this 
 book,, all the countries east and west, south and 
 north. We do not know of any better work 
 on the conquest of the countries than this. 
 
 60 The history of Ddwud Ben el-Jerrdh, A^J <->^ 
 gJJCM <5* ^4>\ (.jj. This is the great reposi- 
 tory of the history of the Persians, and of 
 other nations. The author is the grandfather 
 of the vizier 'All Ben 'Isa Ben Dawud Ben el- 
 Jerrah. 
 
 61-4 history containing the events, state, and times 
 before the Islam and after, by Abu 'Abdullah 
 Mohammed Ben el-Hasan Ben Siwdr, known 
 under the name of Ibn Okht 'Isa Ben Ferklidn- 
 shdh, ^k 
 
 ^.^j. His history goes 
 down to the year 320. 
 
 62 History of Abu 'Isa Ben el-Monajjim (the 
 astrologer) principally based on the Pentateuch, 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 17 
 
 It treats also on other prophets and kings. 
 63 History of the Omayyides, their virtues, the 
 qualities by which they distinguished themselves 
 from other great families, and the new line 
 of conduct which they adopted when in power ; 
 by Abu ! 'Abd-ur-Rahmdn Khaled Ben Heshdm 
 el-Omawiy ^AjljU 
 
 64 T%e history of Abu Bishr ed-Dauldbi ^ 
 
 65 And the excellent book of Abu Bekr Mo- 
 hammed Ben Khalaf Ben Waki\ the Kadi, on 
 history, with notices on other subjects ; 
 
 66 Biography and History by Mohammed Ben 
 Khaled el-Hdshemi 
 
 67 History and Biography by Ishak Ben Sola'iman 
 el-Hdshemi; j 
 
 68 Biography of the Khalifs by Abu Bekr Mo- 
 hammed Ben Zakariyd er-Rdzi, liXi^^x** JxT 
 
 ; the author of 
 
18 EL-MAS' i DI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the " Kitab el-Mansuri"^^;uJJ V UT and other 
 medical works. 
 
 69 The works of 'Abdullah Ben Moslim Ben Ko- 
 taibah ed-Dinaweri XAAA? (.+-> fiwo /.jj aM! *XAC 
 tf^jJJ, which are numerous and extensive, 
 as his Encyclopedia ( _ 5,1*^ t v^UT and other 
 works. 
 
 70 The history of Abu Ja'fer Mohammed Ben Jarir 
 et-Tabari ^jvUl^j^ ^ tX^yLx^ ^\ jsjlj- 
 No other book can be compared with this, 
 which forms a supplement to all other works. 
 He has collected different historical traditions 
 and documents, so that his book contains a 
 variety of information, which renders it very 
 useful. And how could it be otherwise? the 
 author having been the most learned Divine* 
 of his age, and the most religious person of 
 his time. He united the knowledge of the 
 
 * " Divine," <Ui'J means a person well versed in law and 
 divinity, i. e. 1. The Koran and its explanation. This compre- 
 hends the sacred ancient history of the creation and prophets, 
 the outline of which the reader finds in the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 
 6th chapters of this work. 2. The traditions which are inti- 
 mately connected with the early history of the Mohammedans, 
 for history derives all its information from traditions. 3. Some 
 auxiliary sciences, such as logic, grammar, Arabic, archaeology* 
 &c. Hence it was required to be a good Divine, in order to be 
 a good historian. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 19 
 
 Divines of all the leading cities*, and was ac- 
 quainted with all traditions and documents. 
 
 * When the Mohammedans had conquered part of Persia, 'Omar 
 founded on the frontier between the conquering and subjected 
 countries (Arabia and Persia), two military cantonments, (el- 
 Basrah and el-Kufah) to ensure the conquests. These two cities 
 were called /.*-> v^^JJ sing* jj*a+$\ Hence j+j&+j means "to 
 form such a cantonment." Similar cantonments were founded by 
 the same Khalif, and for the same purpose, in Syria, Mesopotamia, 
 and Egypt. Although they were in their origin little more than 
 camps, they rose soon to importance, being the site of the govern- 
 ment of the conquered countries, and the rich booty collected 
 there from all quarters of the world, changed them into splendid 
 cities. In these cantonments the veterans who had fought with Mo- 
 hammed were stationed. When peace was restored, their minds 
 were turned to religious speculations, and their imagination was 
 filled with the recollections of the prophet ; the absence from the 
 original spot may have contributed to exalt and embellish these 
 recollections. They related the sayings and history of the prophet 
 to their children, who were anxious to gather as many of these 
 sacred traditions as they possibly could, and to compare the 
 accounts of the same fact, as related by different persons. So in 
 every one of those stations of the veterans, or " leading cities," 
 to which Mekka and Medina may be reckoned, a corpus of tra- 
 ditions was formed which was first orally taught, but soon committed 
 to writing, studied and commented upon by the divines 
 
 These cantonments may be compared, in an ecclesiastical point 
 of view, witli the primitive Christian churches, (Jerusalem, Alex- 
 andria Antiochia, &c.), with this difference, that they were at the 
 same time the sites of learning, and that their chivalrous feelings 
 were so strong, that the blood of more than a hundred thousand 
 
 C 2 
 
20 KL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 71 Of the same description is the history of Abu 
 'Abdullah Ibrahim Ben Mohammed Ben 'Orfah 
 el-Wdsiti, the grammarian, known by his nick- 
 name, Niftawaih 
 
 His history is full of elegant extracts from the 
 best works, and of useful matter. He was 
 the best writer of his time. 
 
 72 Mohammed Ben Yahya es-Suli ^$& ^j tX+2x 
 JyH followed his example in his book called 
 The papers on the history of the Abbasides and 
 their poetries u Ju?&\ ^ UX^UrU ^J o^^J t->\tf 
 ^,U-2^ and in his work on the history of the 
 Viziers of the Beni 'Abbas ^1^ ^A^t? ^JvS- 
 He relates anecdotes which are not to be 
 found in any other author, for he had the 
 opportunity of witnessing them personally ; 
 he was besides very learned and well- 
 informed, and a good writer. 
 
 73 Of the same kind is the work on the Viziers, 
 
 men who fell in el-Kufah under the executioner of Hejjaj Ben 
 Yusuf could not quench their thirst for independency. 
 
 This is the original acceptation of the word VAO^O which was 
 lost when the cities to which it had been applied, lost their import- 
 ance and character. Modern writers use sometimes the plural 
 ,Uo*J in order to make a sentence more pompous, and in this case 
 it means "provinces" in a vague acceptation of the word. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 21 
 
 by Abul- Hasan 'All Ben el-Hasan, who is 
 known under the name of Ibn el-Mdshitah*, 
 
 This work goes down to 
 the end of the reign of er-Radhi Billah. 
 
 74 Equal merit has Abul-Faraj Koddmah Ben 
 Ja'fer el-Kdtib c-^j'KH yL*^ ^ 3UJA* ^^\ ^\. 
 He was a good and elegant writer, who chose 
 such words which expressed best the meaning, 
 as one may see from his historical work, 
 which has the title, flowers of the spring, ^-ktf 
 t>j$\r*j but his best work is the book on the 
 tribute, ^*\ <-ur. In these two works he 
 justifies fully the praise which is given to him. 
 
 75 Abul-Kdsim JcCfer Ben Mohammed Ben Ham- 
 dan el-Mausili el-Fakih 
 
 wrote his histo- 
 rical work called el-Bdhir j&kjA\ ^\jS (the admi- 
 rable) in opposition to the Kitab er-Raudhat 
 'tejjti c^UT (the garden) of el-Mobarred 
 76 Ibrahim Ben Mdhawaih el-Far esi ^> 
 
 xy>Lo. He imitates a work of el- 
 
 * Haji Khalfa (No. 242 edit. Fliigel) writes the name of 
 this author Abul-Hosam 'AU Ben Mohammed el-Meshshdtah 
 XlsUUJI but this is wrong. Compare the Tenbih (337 MSS. of 
 St. Germain, fol. 195 vers.) 
 
22 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Mobarred called "el-Kamil" _UKU V UT (the 
 perfect book.) 
 
 77 The work of Ibrahim Ben Musa el-Wdsiti on 
 the history of the Viziers, &}* &> ^^ v^~ 
 \j-j\ J^\ ^ is \s^\^\. He wrote this book 
 in opposition to Mohammed Ben Ddwud Ben 
 el-Jerrah's book on the same subject. 
 
 78 The work of 'AH Ben el-Fath* el-Katib known 
 under the name of el-Motawwak, on the history 
 of several Viziers of el-Moktader, ^^ _AxT 
 
 79 El-Misri's work named Flowers of the eyes 
 and brightness of the heart, (jj>**M 
 
 80 TAe history of 'Abdur-Rahim Ben Mohammed 
 el-Warrak, generally called el-Jorjdni es-Sa'di-f, 
 
 81 History of el-Mausil and other places, by Abu 
 Zokra 
 
 * Haji Khalfa (No. 242) is wrong in writing the name of 
 this author 'Alt Ben Abil-Fatah. 
 
 t Haji Khalfa (No. 2193) calls this author 'Aid er-Rah- 
 mdn Ben 'Aid er-Rezzdh es-Sadi el-Jorjdnt. One of my 
 copies bears Ben el- Warrdk 
 
 I The name of this author in Haji Khalfa (No. 2320) is 
 Zakariya el-Mausili. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 23 
 
 82 The chronicle of Ahmed Ben AU Ya'kub el- 
 Misri* embracing the history of the Abbasides 
 and other families, 
 
 83 The history of the Khalifs, from the house of 
 Abbas, and others, by 'Abdullah Ben el-Hosdin 
 Ben Sa'd el-Kdtib, f ^U^i 
 
 84 Mohammed Ben Abil-Azhar's J ^ 
 
 work on history, and other subjects. 
 
 * Haji Khalfa (No. 2151) writes this name Ahmed Ben 
 Yakub el-Misri. 
 f Haji Khalfa writes 'Abdullah Ben Hosa'in Ben Maad 
 
 I Haji Khalfa calls this author Abul-Azhar Mohammed 
 Ben Mozid) a grammarian, who died 325. This is wrong, as 
 we see from es-Soyutl (lives of grammarians and lexicographers y 
 an Arabic MS. of Dr. J. Lee). This author says, " Mohammed 
 Ben Mozid Ben Mahmud Ben Mansur Abu Bekr el-Khoza'i, 
 known under the name of"Ibn Abll-Azhar" the grammarian, is 
 called by some writers Mohammed Ben Ahmed Ben Mozid.... He is 
 the author of the work el-harj wal-marj, &c." With this account 
 agrees the author of the Fihrist (Vol. I., No. 874, MS. Arab. 
 anc. fonds., in the Royal Library at Paris, fol. 200 verso.), who 
 gives to the author of the el-harj wal-marj the name of Ibn 
 Abil-Azhar Abu Bekr Mohammed Ben Ahmed of Bushanj 
 
24 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 This book has the title of rebellion and revo- 
 lutions) dLA<tey\ j j\ v^" 
 85 Sendn Ibn Thdbet Ben Korrah el-Harrdni, 
 
 Jt/il 2jS (jjJ u^olj (^jt\ j,U^, * has written a 
 work, the contents of which are not in his 
 line and profession ; it is in the form of an 
 epistle to a friend of his, who holds office under 
 Government; and contains dissertations on 
 moral philosophy, and the division of the soul, 
 into the intellectual soul (AJ&UM), animal soul 
 (or function) (^UA*axM), and vegetative soul 
 
 (or function) (x^W^O* ^ e a ^ so gi yes the 
 leading ideas on the government of cities, 
 from Plato's Republic, which is in two books. 
 He speaks also on the duties of the Sovereign, 
 and of the Viziers. Then he proceeds to 
 history, which he believes to have from good 
 authority, for he does not relate as an eye- 
 witness, except the history of Mo'tadhed 
 Billah, in whose court he lived. He gives an 
 account of the days which he passed with hi in. 
 
 * Haji Khalfa (No. 2191) makes a gross anachronism, in 
 ascribing to Thabet Ben Korrah a history from the year 190 to 
 363, whereas the supposed author died 288 A.H. He means 
 probably the history of the grandson of Thabet Ben Korrah, 
 whose name was Thdbet Ben Sendn and who is much praised as 
 a historian, by Abul-Faraj (Hist. Dynast, p. 208., and also Ase- 
 mani Bibl. Orientalis, Vol. II., p. 317.) He died 363 A.H. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 25 
 
 Then he goes back from one Khalif to 
 another, but contrary to all history, and de- 
 viating from the accounts of all other his- 
 torians. And even if his history were better, 
 and if he had not gone beyond what he had 
 seen himself, he ought to be blamed for a 
 work which is not in his profession, and for 
 a labour which is out of his line. He ought 
 to have written on those branches of science 
 in which he is unique, as on the Science of 
 Euclid (j^jvxXiM,, the linea secantes v^UkJuc, on 
 the Almegest, and on Circles c>]^jsU; or he 
 ought to have entered into an explanation of the 
 systems of Socrates, Plato, or Aristotle, treat- 
 ing on the system of the heavens* X>UJJ UA5M, 
 on meteorological phenomena xj^XxH jl^t, or 
 on natural temperaments. On causes, their 
 connexion and conclusions ^yU^J- On proposi- 
 tions cijUJoiU, and compound syllogisms U>^ 
 djlxTj.*!!. On the distinction between natural 
 and supernatural oU$lsn. Also on the science 
 of the matter, dimensions, figures, and the 
 mensuration of forms (stereometry), and other 
 problems of philosophy. If he had written 
 on these subjects, no blame could be cast upon 
 
 * This is the Arabic title for Aristotle's work, De Ccelo, 
 and the following one for his Meteorologica. 
 
26 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 him for his labour, for he would have produced 
 a work which is consistent with his professional 
 science. But the learned are defective in their 
 abilities, and the wise have some weak points. 
 Hence, 'Abdullah Ben el-Mokaffa' says: 
 "Whosoever writes a book exposes himself: if 
 it is good he will earn fame, and if it is bad he 
 will reap shame." 
 
 We mentioned only those chronicles, histories, 
 biographies, and documents, the authors of which 
 are known, and omitted the historical works of the 
 persons who have written on the traditions, con- 
 taining the names, lives, and classes, of men ; for 
 this volume is too limited to contain all that. 
 Besides, in our work entitled Kitdb Akkbdr ez-zemdn 
 and Kitdb el-ausat, we have named the persons 
 who have made themselves in any way remarkable, 
 with their biographies, and anecdotes of their lives, 
 and we have given an account of the persons of 
 science, and their classes; beginning from the time 
 of the companions of the prophet and the fol- 
 lowers* after them, we have followed up the great 
 men of every age, in chronological order, till the 
 year 332, according to the difference of their 
 
 * Those who lived at the time of Mohammed, and knew him, 
 are called " companions," c-A^t and those who knew the compa- 
 nions, but not the prophet himself, are called "followers," 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 27 
 
 pursuits and opinions, whether they were divines of 
 the leading cities, or other persons who espoused 
 the cause of some opinion, sect, system, or contro- 
 versy. 
 
 We have given to the present work the title, 
 MEADOWS OF GOLD, AND MINES OF GEMS, <_A>^ 
 jjiyll ^yiljco ^ 4-*jfr<xM &?*> m order to excite a 
 desire and curiosity after its contents, and to make 
 the mind eager to become acquainted with history, 
 the prominent and leading facts of which are com- 
 prised in this book, whilst they are related in full 
 detail in our former works on the same subject, and 
 with the interesting accounts selected for these pages 
 from our other writings. We have dedicated this 
 book as a present to kings and men of learning, 
 having treated in it on every subject which may be 
 useful or curious to learn, and on any knowledge 
 which arose in the lapse of time. 
 
 We have pointed to the subjects of our former 
 works, repeating here everything that a clever and 
 well-informed man ought to know. There is no 
 branch of science, nor any object of interest, of 
 which we do not speak ; nor is there any important 
 fact which we do not distinctly mention in this 
 book. We have compressed it into the form of 
 a summary, interspersed with various hints, and 
 illustrated with occasional observations. 
 
 Whosoever changes in any way its meaning, 
 removes one of its foundations, corrupts the lustre 
 
28 EL-MAs'ui)i's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 of its information, covers the splendour of one 
 paragraph-, or makes any change or alteration, 
 selection or extract; and whoever ascribes it to 
 another author, may he feel the wrath of God! 
 Quick may come the vengeance, and may the blows 
 of misfortune fall upon him with such violence that 
 he is unable to bear his fate in patience, and that he 
 loses his intellect over it. May God make him an 
 example to the reflecting, and may He take from him 
 what he had given to him. May He who is the 
 Creator of heaven and earth bereave him of the 
 strength and other graces which he had bestowed 
 upon him, to whatever sect or opinion he may 
 belong. 
 
 We have put this intimidation at the beginning 
 of this book, and at the end, that it may deter any 
 one who might have an inclination, and be bad 
 enough, to do such a thing. God will see him, and 
 watch his doings. The space (of life) is short, and 
 the distance (to the other world) is small, and to 
 God we shall all return*. 
 
 Here we subjoin a list of the chapters of this 
 book, showing the contents of every one of them 
 
 * This expression of reliance on God is borrowed from the 
 Koran, and is constantly in the mouth of the Moslims if they see 
 themselves wronged. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 29 
 
 SECOND CHAPTER. 
 A List of the Chapters contained in this Book. 
 
 WE have explained in the preceding chapter the 
 object of this work ; in this chapter we will give a 
 list of the contents of the chapters, in the same 
 systematical order which we have observed in the 
 body of the book, to the end that the reader can 
 easier refer to them. 
 
 3. The first origin. The process of the creation, 
 and the first generations from Adam to Ibrahim. 
 
 4. The history of Ibrahim, and the prophets 
 after him. The kings of the children of Israel. 
 
 5. The reign of Rakhobo'am Ben Solaiman Ben 
 Dawud and the Israelite kings after him. Concise 
 account of the prophets. 
 
 6. Those who lived in the Fatrah, that is to 
 say, in the time between Christ and Mohammed. 
 
 7. An abridged account of the Hindus, their 
 opinions, the origin of their kings, and their lives, 
 also their usages in holy service. 
 
 8. On the globe, the seas, the beginning of 
 rivers, the mountains, and seven climates, and the 
 stars which preside over them, and other subjects. 
 
 9. A concise account of seas that have changed 
 their places, and of great rivers. 
 
30 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 10. Account of the Abyssinian sea, its extent, 
 gulfs and straits. 
 
 11. The different opinions on ebband flow, and 
 all that has been said on this subject. 
 
 12. The Greek (Mediterranean) sea, its length 
 and breadth, and its beginning and end. 
 
 13. The Sea of Nitus* and Manitus, and the 
 strait of Constantinople. 
 
 14. The sea of Bab el-Abwab and Jorjan (the 
 Caspian Sea), and a view of the connexion of all the 
 seas. 
 
 15. The Chinese Empire, its kings ; their lives, 
 government, &c. 
 
 16. A comprehensive view of the accounts of 
 the seas, and their wonders, and of the nations who 
 live in the islands of the sea, or on the coast, the 
 succession of their kings, &c. 
 
 17. On the Caucasus, and accounts of el-Lan 
 (Alans), es-Serir, el-Khazar, and various races of 
 Turks f, and el-Bulghar, also of Derbend and the 
 nations and kings of those regions. 
 
 .*J is a corruption of Q^Lju Pontus, which is so 
 universally found in Arabic authors, that it seems to be sanctioned 
 by use. 
 
 t The word "Turk" throughout this work is not to be taken 
 in the meaning it generally has in the English language. For the 
 nation which we call "Turks" are named in the east "Othmanlis," 
 whilst the name "Turk" has with good Arabic writers about the 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 31 
 
 18. The Assyrian kings. 
 
 1 9. The kings of Mausil and Ninive, who are 
 the same as those called el-Aturyiin*, ^.j$f.j3W 
 
 20 The kings of Babel of Nabatsean, and other 
 origin. They are called the "Chaldseans." 
 
 21. The first Persian kings; their lives, with 
 historical sketches. 
 
 22. The kings of the Satrapies, and the Ash- 
 ghanians. These were between the first and second 
 Persian dynasties. 
 
 23. The origin of the Persians, and what the 
 historians say on this subject. 
 
 24. The Sassanian kings, who are the second 
 series of Persian sovereigns, and collections from 
 their history. 
 
 25 The Greeks t> their history, and opinions 
 on their history. 
 
 same meaning as with us, " Tatars." I refer the reader for a more 
 scientific explanation of this word to the 17th chapter and the 
 additional notes to it. 
 
 * He means probably the kings of "Aturia," which is the 
 name of the country belonging to Niniveh, in Strabo, (edit. Basil. 
 1549, page 669.) 
 
 f The Greeks, before they were subjected by the Romans, are 
 called by oriental writers " Yunaniyun, , . . ^.xj U^/J \ or lonians . 
 The term is originally Syriac UJQ-i, for the Arabs derived their 
 knowledge of the ancient Greeks originally from the Syrians, and 
 these were, of course, best acquainted with those Greeks who 
 
32 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 26. The history of Alexander in India. 
 
 27. The Greek kings, after Alexander. 
 
 28. The Roman Empire, and what historians 
 say on the origin of the Romans, the number of 
 their kings, and their chronology. Also sketches 
 from the lives of those kings. 
 
 29. The Christian sovereigns of the Byzantines, 
 we mean the emperors of Constantinople, with 
 some notices of what has happened during their 
 reigns. 
 
 30. The emperors after the beginning of the 
 Islam down to the emperor Romanus, who is now 
 reigning in 332 A. H. 
 
 31. Accounts of Egypt, and the Nile, wonders 
 of Egypt, and its sovereigns. 
 
 32. Alexandria, the edifices of this town, and 
 the kings who resided there. 
 
 33. The Sudan (Negroes), their origin and 
 different races. 
 
 34. The Slavonians, the countries where they 
 
 lived nearest to them, who were the "lonians." After the 
 conquest ^of the Romans, the eastern empire was called Rum 
 p^JJ I translate ^/JU^AH by "Greeks," and +^\ for 
 distinction's sake, by " Byzantines." Whosoever wishes for further 
 explanation on this subject may consult Hamaker's note to the 
 " Liber de expugnatione Memphidis et Alexandria ", Leyden 1 825, 
 p. 60. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 33 
 
 live, their kings, and the divisions of the Slavonian 
 nations. 
 
 35. The Franks and Galicians, XxJ&lJ their 
 kings, sketches from their history and biography, 
 and their wars with the inhabitants of Andalus, 
 (Moors in Spain.) 
 
 36. The Longobards, and their kings, together 
 with an account of the country which they inhabit*. 
 
 37. The 'Adites, and their kings; a view of 
 their history, and the opinions respecting the length 
 of the time which they flourished. 
 
 38. The Themudites and their kings; Salih 
 their prophet, and some sketches from their history. 
 
 39. Mekka, an historical account of this city, 
 and of the holy house, (the Ka'bah,) also of the 
 supremacy which the Jorhomites, and other tribes, 
 held there ; and what besides enters under this head. 
 
 40. On the description of the earth, and the 
 various countries. Love to the native soil. 
 
 41 . The dispute on the reason why " el- Yemen," 
 
 * M. De Guignes, (Notices et Extraits des MSS. de la 
 Bibliotheque du Roi, Vol. i. p. 4.) and Hamaker, (Specimen 
 Catal.) read the word Aj^TyJJ Nogorod. We have no doubt but 
 that $jjS^&\ is a corruption of Jj.x&jJJ "el-Liingobard,'' 
 although all MSS. agree in this corrupt reading. We are con- 
 firmed in our opinion by Nowai'ri, (MS. of Leyden, Nro. 273, page 
 50,) who spells it Jj^&^J " Alangobard." 
 
 D 
 
34 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 " el-Irak," 6^*n "esh-Sham," ^l&l and 
 "el-Hejaz," jl^J have received these names. 
 
 42. Yemen, the origin of the inhabitants of this 
 country, and the various opinions thereon. 
 
 43. Yemen, and the kings called ct Tobba's," 
 and others, together with their lives, and the years 
 which they reigned. 
 
 44. The kings of el-Hfrah, who came from 
 Yemen, and others, together with their history. 
 
 45. Kings of Syria who came from Yemen, and 
 others, together with their history. 
 
 46. Wandering people of the Arabs, and of 
 other nations ; the reasons why they inhabit the 
 deserts, and the Kurds the mountains; their origin 
 and history, and all that is connected with this 
 subject, 
 
 47. The different beliefs and opinions of the 
 Arabs, before the Islam; their dispersion. The 
 history of the elephant, and the invasion of the 
 Abyssinians, Abdul Motallib, &c. 
 
 48. Opinions of the Arabs on the soul, intellect, 
 and animal life. 
 
 49. What the Arabs say on ghosts and witch- 
 craft, and what other nations say on this and other 
 subjects of the same nature. 
 
 50. On ominous sounds, demons and the like, 
 according to the opinions of the Arabs and others, 
 both those who believe it and who deny it. 
 
 51. The ideas of the Arabs on augury, divina- 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 35 
 
 tion, physiognomies, and lucky or unlucky omens, 
 taken from the circumstance whether game turns from 
 the left to the right, or from the right to the left. 
 
 52. Soothsaying, how it is done, and various 
 accounts thereof; the distinction between a rational 
 and irrational soul, and opinions on visions, dreams, 
 and other subjects connected with them. 
 
 53. The history of Seil el-'Arem in the country 
 of Saba and Marib. The dispersion of the Azd, 
 and their settling in other countries. 
 
 54. The years and months of the Arabs com- 
 pared with those of other nations, how far they 
 agree, and how far they differ. 
 
 55. The months of the Kopts and Syrians, the 
 difference of their names. A view of chronology, 
 and what is connected with these matters. 
 
 56. The months of the Syrians; how they 
 agree with the months of the Greeks; how many 
 days in a year. 
 
 57. Months of the Persians. 
 
 58. The years and months of the Arabs, and 
 the names of their days and nights. 
 
 59. What the Arabs say on the nights of the 
 lunar months, and what is connected with this 
 subject. 
 
 60. The revolutions of the sun and moon*. 
 
 * Mas'iidl states at the end of this index that the number of 
 chapters is 132. All MS. copies fall short of this number, 
 
 D 2 
 
36 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 6 1 . The influence on this world ascribed to the 
 sun and moon, and the various opinions on this 
 subject. 
 
 62. The quarters of the world, and what is 
 peculiar to every part of them in the east and west, 
 south and north, and other influence of the stars. 
 
 63. Sacred edifices and lofty temples ; on the 
 houses sacred to the worship of fire and idols. 
 The idolatry of the Hindus, on the stars and other 
 strange things in this world. 
 
 64. Sacred houses of the Greeks, and their 
 description. 
 
 65. Sacred houses of the ancient Romans. 
 
 66. The sacred houses of the Slavonians, toge- 
 ther with their description. 
 
 67. The high temple of the Sabeans of Harran, 
 and of other Sabean sects. The various things 
 preserved in these temples, and the like. 
 
 68. Account of the houses of fire worship, 
 their construction, and the account of the Magi 
 respecting those houses, and their construction. 
 
 omitting frequently the chapter heads. Taking the chapter heads 
 of all the copies at my disposal, I brought the number of chapters 
 to 131. De Guignes, who gives this list, although very incomplete, 
 in the first volume of the Notices et Extraits des MSS., after the 
 MSS. of Paris, mentions the above chapter head, which I the 
 readier adopt to make complete the number of 132, as Mas'udi 
 speaks also on the course of the sun and moon in the chapter 
 inscribed in my copies "The influence on this World, &c." 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 37 
 
 69. Conspectus of the chronology of the world, 
 from the beginning down to the birth of Mo- 
 hammed. 
 
 70. The birth of Mohammed, his pedigree, and 
 what enters besides under this head. 
 
 71. The prophetic mission of Mohammed,, and 
 his history till his flight. 
 
 72. The flight of Mohammed, and the heads of 
 his history, till his death. 
 
 73. Account of his history, and circumstances 
 connected with it, from his birth to his death. 
 
 74. New dogmas which commenced with the 
 prophet, and which had never existed before him. 
 
 75. The Khalifat of Abu Bekr es-Sadik: his 
 pedigree, and sketches from his life and history. 
 
 76. The Khalifat of 'Omar Ben el-Khattab: his 
 pedigree, and sketches from his life and history. 
 
 77. Khalifat of 'Othman Ben el-'Affan. 
 
 78. Khalifat of 'Ali Ben Abi Taleb: his pedi- 
 gree, and sketches from his life and history: his 
 brothers and sisters. 
 
 79. Account of the battle of the camel, how it 
 began, and what there happened. 
 
 80. The occurrences between the Arabs of el- 
 Trak, and esh-Sham (Syria), at Siffin. 
 
 81. The two arbitrators, and the beginning of 
 the arbitration. 
 
 82. 'All's wars with the people of Nahrwan, 
 who were called " esh-Shorrat," (SchismaticksJ ; 
 and the result of this war. 
 
38 EL-MASU'DI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 83. 'All's assassination. 
 
 84. Sayings of 'Ali, examples of his abstemious- 
 ness, and some anecdotes of this nature. 
 
 85. The Khalifat of el-Hasan Ben 'All Ben Abi 
 Taleb. 
 
 86. Reign of Mo'awiyah Ben Abi Sofyan. 
 
 87. History of Mo'awiyah, his government, and 
 anecdotes from his life. 
 
 88. The companions of the Prophet, their 
 praise. 'Ali and el-' Abbas. 
 
 89. The reign of Yezid Ben Mo'awiyah Ben 
 Abi Sofyan. 
 
 90. El-Hosain, the son of 'Ali, is killed, and 
 many of his family and followers share his fate. 
 
 91. The names of the children of 'Ali Ben Abi 
 Taleb. 
 
 92. Sketches from the life and history of Yezid; 
 some extraordinary actions of his. His wars, &c. 
 
 93. Reign of Mo'awiyah Ben Yezid, Merwan 
 Ibn el-Hakam, el-Mokhtar Ben Abi 'Obaid and 
 'Abdullah Ben ez-Zobair, and sketches from their 
 lives and history, and some occurrences which 
 happened at this period. 
 
 94. Reign of 'Abdul-Melik Ben Merwan: 
 sketches from his life and history. 
 
 95. El-Hejjaj Ben Yusof ; his speech, and part 
 of his history. 
 
 96. Reign of el-Walid Ben 'Abdul-Melik: 
 sketches from his history, and the history of el- 
 Hejjaj during his reign. 
 
AND MINKS OF GEMS. 39 
 
 97. Reign of Soleiman Ben 'Abdul-Melik : 
 sketches from his life and history. 
 
 98. Khalifat of 'Amr Ben 'Abdul-' Aziz Ben 
 Merwan Ben el-Hakam: sketches from his life 
 and history. 
 
 99. Reign of Yezid Ben 'Abdul-Melik: sketches 
 from his life and history. 
 
 100. Reign of Hesham Ben 'Abdul-Melik, and 
 sketches from his life and history. 
 
 101. Reign of el-Walid Ben Yezid Ben 'Abdul- 
 Melik, and sketches from his life and history. 
 
 102. Reigns of Yezid Ben el-Walid Ben 'Abdul- 
 Melik, and Ibrahim Ben el-Walid Ben 'Abdul- 
 Melik, and anecdotes from the history of their 
 reigns. 
 
 103. The party spirit between the descendants 
 of Yemen, and the Nizarians. And the rebellion 
 against the Omayyides which was the result. 
 
 104. The reign of Merwan Ben Mohammed 
 Ben Merwan Ben el-Hakam. 
 
 105. The number of years which the Omay- 
 yide dynasty has been in power. 
 
 106. The 'Abbasside dynasty : further history of 
 Merwan ; his murder, his wars, and life. 
 
 107. The Khalifat of es-Seffah, his life and 
 history, and the history of his time. 
 
 108. The Khalifat of el-Mansur; his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 109. The Khalifat of el-Mehdi: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
40 EL-MAS'UDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 110. The Khalifat of el-Hadi : his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 111. The Khalifat of er-Rashid; his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 112. The Barmekides, their history, and their 
 influence upon their time. 
 
 113. The Khalifat of el-Amin: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 114. The Khalifat of el-Mamun: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 115. The Khalifat of el-Mo'tasem: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 116. The Khalifat of el-Wathik: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 1 1 7. The Khalifat of el-Motawakkel : his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 118. The Khalifat of el-Montaser; his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 119. The Khalifat of el-Mosta'in: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 120. The Khalifat of el-Mo'tazz: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 121. The Khalifat of el-Mohtadi: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 122. The Khalifat of el-Mo'tamed : his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 123. The Khalifat of el-Mo'tadhed : his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 124. The Khalifat of el-Moktafi: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 41 
 
 125. The Khalifat of el-Moktader: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 126. The Khalifat of el-Kahir: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 127. The Khalifat of er-Radhi: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 128. The Khalifat of el-Mottaki: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 129. The Khalifat of el-Mostakfi: his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 130. The Khalifat of el-Moti': his life and 
 history, and sketches from the history of his time. 
 
 131. The second conspectus of the chronology, 
 containing the period from the Hijrah, down to the 
 present time, i. e., Jomadal-ewwel of the year 
 336. Thi sis the date when I finished this book. 
 
 132. Names of the leaders of the pilgrimage. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, these are all the chapters 
 contained in this book. We shall give, in every 
 chapter, the contents pointed to in the preceding 
 list,, and besides, various other histories and accounts 
 not mentioned in this list, but they form only sepa- 
 rate paragraphs of the mentioned chapters. So we 
 give in our chronicles of the Khalifs, and the length 
 of their lives, in a separate paragraph their bio- 
 graphy and history; and then we add another 
 paragraph containing an account of the occurrences 
 during their reigns, the history of the Viziers, and 
 the sciences which were the object of their literary 
 
42 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 circles. We have put into a different shape what 
 we have said in our former works on the same 
 subject. 
 
 The number of chapters contained in this book 
 is one hundred and thirty two. The first chapter 
 contains the object of our work, and the second the 
 list of chapters contained in it, and the last chapter 
 contains the names of the leaders of the pilgrimage 
 from the beginning of the Isldm down to 335, A.H. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 43 
 
 IN the name of the Merciful and Clement God ! 
 THIRD CHAPTER. 
 
 On the beginning of all things, process of the 
 creation, and the progress of generation. 
 
 ABUL-HASAN (el-Mas'udi) says : the learned Mos- 
 lims, of all sects, agree that God, the Almighty, 
 created the universe without model, and from 
 nothing. The first thing created, acccording to a 
 tradition based on the authority of Ibn el-'Abbas 
 and others, was water ; upon it was the throne of 
 God, and when God intended to accomplish the 
 work of creation, he produced smoke * from the 
 water, which rose over it, and he called it *WlJ 
 heaven. He made the water dry, and changed it 
 into one earth, then he divided it into seven earths t. 
 This was done in two days, on Sunday and Monday. 
 
 * i. e. The exhalation of the waters, as he says soon after. 
 
 f The Arabs received the theory of seven earths without 
 knowing what they were. Some believe that there are six earths 
 under the one which we inhabit; in the sixth is the throne of 
 Iblisy whilst others divide the globe known to the Arabs into seven 
 earths. (Kitab el-Bold&i, add. MS. of the Brit. Museum, 7496). 
 
44 EL-MAS'fJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 He created the earth upon a fish CL>^* which is 
 mentioned in the Koran, in the Surah, " Nun f " "by 
 the reed (pen) and what they write, and by the 
 FISH." This water again rests upon alarge smooth 
 stone, and the stone upon the back of an angel, who 
 stands upon a rockt, and this rock is supported by 
 the wind. The rock is also mentioned in the 
 Koran : in the words of Lokman to his son, "O 
 my Son, if the weight of one mustard-seed pushes 
 on the rock, or on the heavens, or on the earth, or 
 wherever it may be, God is aware of it, for God is 
 clear-sighted and omniscient." When the fish 
 shakes, an earthquake is produced. God, however, 
 placed firmly the mountains upon it, and the earth 
 remains firm. To this alludes the passage of the 
 Koran ^[, "He has thrown upon the earth mountains 
 firmly rooted, lest it should move with you." He 
 created the mountains, the nourishment of the inha- 
 bitants of the earth, and the trees, in two days, on 
 Tuesday and Wednesday. Therefore we read in 
 
 * This fish is named >_ ^A._I Bahmut or Hamut, (Ibn Shohna, 
 MS. of the Asiatic Society at Paris.) L ^ jj is hardly ever 
 used but as the name of the pisces of the zodiac. This fable 
 seems to have been originally an astronomical allegory. 
 
 t Surah Lxviii, verse 48. 
 
 % Ibn Shohna and others say this rock rests upon a bull (the 
 sacred animal of the Hindus), which is called ^ISjxT Kayuthdn. 
 
 Koran edit. Fliigel, Surah xxxi, verse 15. 
 
 IT Surah xvi, verse 15. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 45 
 
 the Koran, "Say (O Mohammed) how can you 
 disbelieve on him who has created the earth in two 
 days? and how can they associate a companion 
 with him who is the Lord of the worlds, and who 
 has put firmly-rooted mountains, and spread his 
 blessing in it. He provides equally for those who 
 pray to him for it. 
 
 Then God ascended to the heavens,, which were 
 smoke. He said to the heavens and to the earth, 
 "come whether you like or not; " they answered, 
 "We come by good will." This smoke was the breath 
 of the water. God made first one heaven, then he 
 divided it into seven heavens. This was done in 
 two days, on Thursday and on Friday. Friday was 
 called the day of assembling (*xirt ^) for God 
 has assembled (+^) (completed) on that day, 
 the creation of the heavens and earth. Then he 
 said I will reveal in every heaven what belongs to it, 
 that is to say, he created what there is in it, as 
 angels, seas and the mountains of el-Bord ^ jJt JU^. 
 The heaven of the world is green, and consists of 
 emerald ; the second heaven is white, and of silver ; 
 the third heaven is red, and of ruby; the fourth 
 heaven is white, and of pearls; the fifth heaven is 
 (j+z\) of gold ; the sixth heaven is of a yellow gem, 
 (Topaz) ; the seventh heaven is of light, and it is 
 all covered with angels who stand on one foot, and 
 praise God, because they are so near him. Their 
 legs go through the seventh earth, and a space of 
 
46 EL-MASUDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 five hundred years' journey below the seventh earth, 
 and their heads are under the throne of God, which 
 they do not reach. They say, THERE is NO GOD, 
 
 BUT GOD*; HE SITS ON THE THRONE OF GLORY; 
 
 so they say, from the moment of creation, to the 
 hour of the judgment. 
 
 Under the throne is a sea, from which comes the 
 food for all living beings. God commands, and 
 there flows, what he likes, from heaven to heaven, 
 till it comes to the place called <c el-Abrem," *^t 
 then God gives his command to the wind, and it 
 carries it to the clouds, through which it passes as 
 through a sieve. Under the heaven of the world is 
 a sea filled with animals, which are kept together 
 by the eternal decree, like the water of the seas of 
 the earth. 
 
 When God had completed the creation of the 
 world, he peopled it with genii ^.szOJ before he created 
 Adam. He made them of fire, among them was 
 "Iblis" (jMAU God forbade them to shed the blood 
 of animals,, nor should they show a rebellious spirit 
 among themselves ; but they shed blood, and one 
 became the enemy of the other. When Iblis saw 
 that they would not forbear from these bad actions, 
 he asked God that he might raise him to the heaven, 
 and there he worshipped God with the angels, with 
 the greatest devotion. God sent a corps of angels, 
 
 * A verse of the Koran. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 47 
 
 under the command of Iblis, against the genii, and 
 they drove them into the islands of the seas, and 
 killed as many of them as God pleased. 
 
 God placed Iblis as a guardian over the heaven 
 of the world,, but his heart was filled with pride. 
 
 When it was the will of God to create Adam, 
 he said to the angels " I shall put a lieutenant on 
 earth;" they answered,, "Who will be this lieu- 
 tenant*?" God answered, " He will have children 
 who will degenerate in earth, and envy and kill 
 each other." They said, "O our Lord, thou placest 
 a being there who will spread corruption, and shed 
 blood, and we sing thy praise, and glorify thee !" 
 He answered "I know what you do not know." 
 
 Then he sent the angel Gabriel to the earth to 
 fetch clay for him from the earth. But the earth 
 said "I fly to God from thee*f, if thou darest take 
 it!" and he returned and took none from it. God 
 sent then Michael, and the earth said the same 
 words to him as to Gabriel, and he took no clay 
 from it. Then he sent the angel of death, and the 
 earth took flight to God (said the same words), but 
 
 * This story is literally taken from the second Surah of the 
 Koran. 
 
 f The expression " I fly to God from thee,'' ^JL aHb ^\ 
 is borrowed from the Koran, and is of very frequent use amongst 
 the Arabs, being equivalent to the commonest English imprecation 
 implying " I refer to God, who will curse thee." 
 
48 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 he said "and I fly to God, if I return without 
 having accomplished what I am to do." And he 
 took black, red, and white earth; for this reason 
 the sons of Adam are of different colours. The 
 first man was called ADAM -M for he was taken 
 from the surface (adim) *oM of the earth. Some 
 have a different opinion. God commissioned the 
 angel of death over death. 
 
 When God had kneaded together the dust, he left 
 it for forty years, till it had become tenacious clay ; 
 then he left it other forty years, till it got foetid 
 and altered. This is meant by the words of the 
 Koran " modelled from foetid dirt." Then he gave 
 to the clay the form of man, but left it without a 
 soul; it made a jingling noise, like an earthenware 
 vessel, so it remained a hundred and twenty, or, 
 according to other authorities, forty years. This is 
 meant, in the words of the Koran; " There passed 
 a time over man when he was not worth notice." 
 The angels passed on this body, and were afraid of 
 it, more particularly Iblis. Once he passed it and 
 struck with his foot against it ; there came from it 
 a sound like the jingling noise of an earthenware 
 vessel. To this allude the words of the Koran, 
 " From the jingling noise like an earthenware 
 
 vessel," but some give to the word 5LoJU (jingling 
 
 sounds) a different interpretation. 
 
 Iblis entered by its mouth, and came out by its 
 back, and God said to him " do not go through 
 what I have created." 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 49 
 
 When God intended to breathe the soul into 
 Adam, he ordered them to worship him: they did 
 so, except Iblis. He refused, in his pride, to do it, 
 and said ll O Lord, I am better than him; thou 
 hast created me of fire, and him of clay : and fire 
 is nobler than clay; further, thou hast made me 
 the lieutenant in the heaven of the earth, and I am 
 clad in feathers, ornamented with a scarf of light, 
 and crowned with grace. I have worshipped thee in 
 heaven and earth." God said to him, " Go forth 
 from here, thou wretch, upon thee is my curse, till 
 the day of judgment. '' He asked God for a fixed 
 term to the day when they would be resuscitated, 
 and he made him look forward to a definite time. 
 So the name of Iblis (Devil) received the meaning 
 which it has. 
 
 There are different opinions as to the reason why 
 God ordered the angels to worship Adam. Some 
 persons believe he was to be considered by them as 
 " Mihrab *," whilst the object of worship was God. 
 The servants of God ought to have followed his 
 orders, and obeyed him in this trial which he had 
 chosen. There are yet other opinions. God 
 breathed into Adam, and as soon as a part of the 
 
 * The " Mihrab " -jU^S is that place in the mosque which 
 looks towards the temple of Mekka, where the Mohammedans 
 turn their faces to, when they say their prayers. 
 
 E 
 
50 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 body was pervaded by it, it began to feel*, and God 
 said, the creation of man went on fastt. 
 
 When his breath came into Adam, he sneezed, 
 and God said to him "Pronounce the words, Praise 
 be to God, and thy Lord will be merciful with thee, 
 O Adam." 
 
 El-Mas'udi says: what we have said on the 
 creation, is the account of the revelation, and 
 traditions, which have been handed down from 
 ancient periods to a more recent age, and narratives 
 of the passed which have been preserved. We have 
 related these traditions as we have received them 
 from oral accounts 1 , and as they are found in 
 writing. 
 
 There are evident authorities that the world 
 
 * I read y**.x\J although all copies bear y*Jls:0 to sit or to 
 
 pray. 
 
 tf 
 
 I was doubtful about 
 
 the meaning of this sentence. $f could be read ^^ as a 
 ca^, which might mean man has been created in the vigour o/* 
 life. But as the whole account of the creation consists of passages 
 of the Koran, patched together with the view of explaining them, 
 
 these words probably allude to the 38th verse of the twenty -first 
 
 j 
 Surah J^S ^ ^UwJ^J iJiX^. which Sale translates on the 
 
 authority of el-Bei'dhawi , man is created of precipitation, i. e., he 
 is hasty and inconsiderate. El-LVTas'udi, as we see, differs in his 
 interpretation from el-Bei'dhawi. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 51 
 
 has been created (and does not exist from eternity), 
 and it is illustrated by the nature of the world. 
 But we do not quote in our account what those say 
 who accept the revealed religion,, and agree with 
 our account, following also the traditions (and 
 not speculations); nor do we comment on the 
 opinions which are different from, and opposed to, 
 ours. We have given such details in our former 
 works. We gave however, also, in many passages of 
 this work, a summary view of those sciences which 
 rest on speculation, arguments, and disputes, and 
 we have alluded to different opinions and sects,, but 
 that was done by the way of history. 
 
 A tradition, which is traced to the Commander 
 of the Faithful, 'All Ben Abi Taleb, tells us that 
 God, when he intended to establish the laws of the 
 universe, to lay the seed of generation, and to 
 produce the creation, gave to it first the form of 
 fine dust before he formed the earth, and raised the 
 heavens. He dwelt in his unapproachable glory, 
 and in the unity of his power. Then he put down 
 a particle of his light, and made lighten a sparkle of 
 his splendour. The dust rose, and the light was 
 concentrated in the centre of this floating dust. 
 This represented the figure of our prophet MO- 
 HAMMED, on whom may rest the blessing of God ! 
 and God said, "Thou art the chosen and the elected. 
 In thee rest my light and the abundant gifts of my 
 bounty (or my guidance) ; for thy sake I have 
 
 E 2 
 
52 EL-MAS'uDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 spread the soil, and made the waters flow ; for thy 
 sake I have raised the heavens, and fixed reward 
 and punishment; for thy sake I have created 
 Paradise, and hell- fire. I raise the people of the 
 holy-house (at Mekka)* to the divine revelation, 
 and reveal to them, from the mysteries of my 
 knowledge, the sub til ties of reason, and I do not 
 leave thee in ignorance of what is not known to 
 them. They are to be the proof on earth (of my 
 existence) , and the apostles of my omnipotence and 
 unity." 
 
 After this God pronounced the Creed f, and 
 assumed the supreme power, and the unity, in 
 distinction (from his creation)^. 
 
 * One copy bears " of thy family," L^AAJ ^&>\ instead of 
 ulLvAjJj). This reading is very probable, for the tradition seems 
 to be a fabrication of the Shiites in order to prove that the 
 supreme power, in state and religion, is not elective, but pre- 
 destined from the moment of the creation, for the family of 
 Mohammed, and his descendants, the 'Alites. 
 
 f This well-known formula which constitutes the whole 
 essential part of the Islam runs: " There is no God but God, 
 and Mohammed is the prophet of God." 
 
 } The words are X/ 
 
 *j 
 
 ^ The meaning of this sentence is meta- 
 physical and dark, so that I am not quite sure of the correctness 
 of my translation. In M. de Gayangoz's copy, the words and 
 meaning are quite disfigured. I conceive the sense to be this. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 53 
 
 When God had assumed these qualities, he 
 proclaimed to the creation, the election of Mo- 
 hammed as his lieutenant on earth, and he showed 
 to the creation that the Divine guidance was with 
 him, and that the light was his, and the spiritual 
 
 All the qualities which we assign to God are only expressions of 
 his essence with respect to the creation as, supreme power, 
 X-Jjj* bounty, &c., so that it was the first act of creation to 
 " assume" these relative qualities. It is for the rest only by the 
 qualities relative to the creation, that we have any knowledge of 
 God, so much so, that Aristotle, Spinoza, and the Buddhists and 
 Pythagoraeans before them, believed the world to be eternal, like 
 God; for, they say, God cannot exist without the world, as high 
 not without deep. The difference of Aristotle's and Mas'udi's 
 philosophy is, that Aristotle acknowledges only the relative 
 qualities of God, and not the absolute ones (i. e. the essence of 
 God), which, as they are not relative to the creation, are incom- 
 prehensible to man. The only way of coming to some words 
 which may express the absolute qualities of God are negations of 
 the qualities of the creation (^^.1) for instance, " he is not 
 finite, he is not composed of parts," &c., so that there remains 
 nothing else but that he is " one," and consequently " eternal,' 
 and this is the meaning of /Jt ^^ yo^^] " but he is dis- 
 tinct from his creation, and uninfluenced by it: for he is one;" or as 
 Hegel expresses it (as the creation is for created beings every- 
 thing that we can conceive), "he is the eternal nihilum (Nichts.)" 
 The reader will find such passages from Arabic authors which 
 may prove that the above ideas are truly Mohammedan, together 
 with a further developement of this system of metaphysics, in our 
 introduction to this work. 
 
54 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 empire (Xx>UJ) in his family, previous to the promul- 
 gation of the law of justice (the Mohammedan 
 religion), for its glorious success was predestined. 
 Then God hid the act of creation amongst the 
 mysteries of his knowledge. After that God 
 extended the earth, he expanded the time, he made 
 the waters ebb and flow, he raised up the foam and 
 smoke; he established his throne over the waters, 
 he raised the earth over the level of the seas, and 
 he called the creation to obey him, and it acknow- 
 ledged him as its Lord. 
 
 God made now the angels partly from the lights 
 which he created on purpose, partly from lights 
 derived from those already created, and he joined 
 the profession of the prophetic mission of Moham- 
 med with the creed of his own usity. So it was 
 known in heaven before it became known on earth *. 
 
 When God had created Adam he acquainted 
 the angels with his high dignity, and that he had 
 distinguished him with superior knowledge, in proof 
 of which he made him give the names to every 
 object. 
 
 * This is one of the grandest fables in explanation of a reli- 
 gions belief (My thus) ever framed; it tends to make the Mo- 
 hammedan religion eternal truth, and to justify the sublime words 
 of the Koran : the Islam is the religion of the heavens and 
 earth. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 55 
 
 God made the angels consider Adam as a 
 Mihrab, Ka'bah and Kiblah*, to which the lights 
 and the righteous spirits were to pray. 
 
 God informed now Adam of what rested in him f . 
 But he concealed from him the high dignity which 
 
 * Kiblah XXxi* is that quarter of the world to which the 
 believers turn their faces in their prayers. This was, with the 
 Moslims, first the temple of Jerusalem, but Mohammed changed 
 it, and chose the Kabah, or the temple of Mekka. The part of 
 a mosque which is turned towards Mekka is, therefore, the same 
 as the high altar in Christian churches, and is called Mihrab. 
 There stands the chief person present at the prayers, and per- 
 forms the ceremonies, his face turned towards Mekka, and the 
 rest of the assembly follow his example. 
 
 t That is to say that he was one of the ancestors of Moham- 
 med. This and the next three following chapters contain the bibli- 
 cal history in the light in which Mohammed and his followers con- 
 ceived it. The highest object of mankind is truth, which is 
 eternal and immutable, hence the religion which is all truth and, 
 according to some, even the Koran, or the expression of truth is 
 eternal. God sent, from time to time, prophets to all nations, so 
 that the number of all the prophets amounts to not less than 
 1 24,000 ! in order to keep up the profession of this religion on 
 earth. The last and greatest of all the prophets was Mohammed, 
 he was for all nations, and for all subsequent times. The reader 
 has become acquainted with the creation of the corporeal essence 
 of the prophetship or light which became fully incarnated in Mo- 
 hammed, by the perusal of the preceding pages. This essence of 
 the prophetship rested in more or less latent life in his ancestors. 
 They were distinguished by a light which shone from their fore- 
 heads, till they had begot a sou to whom it was transmitted. The 
 
56 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 he had conferred upon him, for he had called him 
 Imam before the angels. He was the bearer of our 
 beatitude and of our light which God had kept 
 concealed under the veil of time until MOHAMMED 
 made his appearance*. 
 
 ancestors of Mohammed were therefore all, more or less, prophets. 
 They were at the same time the guardians of the sanctuary of the 
 Arabs (the Ka'bah) which did not lose its sacredness by the new 
 law. This will explain the following- pages of el-Mas'udi. 
 
 This idea appears to us not to be in contradiction with the 
 notions of the Jews, if we pay attention to their genealogies, right 
 of primogeniture, &c. The more striking it is that modern 
 theologists see in the Old Testament only a preparation and 
 propaedeutic to the doctrine of our Saviour, although they ac- 
 knowledge that the natural progress of mankind is so unsafe that 
 since Christ, serious corruptions of that doctrine had taken place , 
 For the rest their idea is certainly more philosophical than the. 
 Mohammedan one. 
 
 * Copies disagree here materially; one bearing / . ^ JJ 
 ^\ LcJo CM^A&H %..d>U3 <j (Xt^JkAaJ literally until Mohammed 
 broke forth from the channels (i. e., appeared), and another, JJ 
 
 \ UX3 djty&M^Uo J U*:si >*j ^ until (God) 
 ordered Mohammed to detail the laws or dogmas. However, the 
 second reading is very improbable, for cMJCJ would be an unusual 
 plural of cyC3 and the sense of this sentence would logically 
 cohere with the preceding only in the case if we explain light as 
 truth, whilst it is evident from what preceded (page 51) that the 
 light ivhich was transmitted through the channels, (ancestors,) 
 is the essence of the prophetship. But I must add that the par- 
 ticle <J consequently, with which the next sentence begins, speaks 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 57 
 
 He called mankind publicly and privately (to 
 the true religion), and he preached to them openly 
 and secretly. And Mohammed appointed to keep 
 up the true religion in coming ages, and in genera- 
 tions which were not yet born, those who received 
 a ray of the light* which had preceded, for they 
 are initiated in his mysteries, and understand 
 clearly his glorious tendency, and he consoled 
 those who are the victims of an ungodly time. 
 
 Then the light was transferred to the distin- 
 guished men amongst us (the 'Alites), and became 
 resplendent in our Imams. We are the lights of the 
 heaven, and the lights of the earth. In us is salva- 
 tion, from us go forth the treasures of knowledge. 
 We are the centre of all that is going on, by our 
 guidance the proofs become conclusive ; we are the 
 seal of the Imams, and the liberators of the nation; 
 we are the noblest of the creation, the most chosen 
 of all things, the proof of the Lord of the worlds ; 
 hence, the benefits are best which flow from our 
 throne. This tradition is from Abu 'Abdullah 
 
 for the second reading, for the sense would run: having been 
 commanded to detail the dogmas or laws, he called mankind, fyc. 
 * He means the 'Alites. They inherited as much of the 
 essence of the prophetship as was required to keep up the true 
 religion. They endeavoured to attain, through these theories and 
 numerous rebellions, the same infallibility in religion, and power 
 in government, which the Popes had in the middle ages, but they 
 were not so successful. 
 
58 EL-MAS'lJDi'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Ja'fer Ben Mohammed, who received it from 
 his father, Mohammed Ben 'All,, who had it from 
 his father, 'Ali Ben el-Hosain, to him it was related 
 by his parent el-Hosain Ben 'Ali, and he had 
 received it from the Commander of the Faithful, 
 'All Ben Abi Taleb. We do not feel inclined to 
 allege all the channels through which this tradition 
 has been preserved, nor the different versions in 
 which it has come down to us, as we have given a 
 full account of these circumstances, in our former 
 works, where we have traced every version to the 
 authority whence we have derived it. In this book 
 we are afraid to be too long and prolix. 
 
 What I have found in the Pentateuch respecting 
 the history of the creation is this ; God began the 
 creation on Monday, and had accomplished it on 
 Saturday, hence the Jews have chosen Saturday as 
 their sacred day. The believers on the Gospel say 
 the Messiah rose on Sunday from the grave; hence 
 they celebrate Sunday as their holyday. But per- 
 sons distinguished by their knowledge of divine 
 law, and the sources upon which it is founded, state 
 that the creation was begun on Sunday and accom- 
 plished on Friday. On Friday the soul was 
 breathed into Adam. This was on the sixth of 
 
 Nfsan (April). Then Eve (^ Hawwa)*, was 
 created from Adam. 
 
 Ibn Shohna (Universal History, MS. of the Asiatic Society 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 59 
 
 They began to inhabit the Paradise when three 
 hours of that day had elapsed, and they remained 
 there for three hours, which is one fourth of a day, 
 and this is equal to 250 years of the world. God 
 now discarded Adam from the Paradise, and he 
 placed him on Serendib (Ceylon) <_o.>o^ Eve 
 at Jiddah "Je=* Iblis at Baisan (^U*AJ) and the 
 serpent at Isfahan. 
 
 Adam was placed on mount ez-Zahun ((V^*jJ1 
 orj^$iJO in Ceylon; there were leaves with which 
 he covered his body, and as they were dry, the wind 
 carried them off, and dispersed them throughout 
 India. It is said that the frequency of perfumes in 
 India arises from these leaves, but some have a dif- 
 ferent opinion: God knows best. They say, hence 
 are, aloes wood aydl the clove JjLyM madder (?) 
 x^U^J musk JC*U and other perfumes particular to 
 India. In this mountain sparkle diamonds and other 
 
 at Paris), believes the name Hawwd L^ to be derived from 
 "living," for, he says, she was created from something living. 
 But it is evident that the name of Eve ought to be written ^Lifc 
 ffawdj which means air. Gaia and Uranos have changed their 
 sexes amongst the Semites; if we enter into the spirit of the 
 mythus, and consider that spontaneous generation must go forth 
 from the earth, under the influence of the air, temperature, &c., 
 this changing of the sexes leads us to the important historical fact 
 that the Semites have not understood the mythus, and can there- 
 fore not be the inventors of it, but that they have borrowed it 
 from elsewhere. 
 
60 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 precious stones. In the islands of India is the smyris 
 u>l>JUJ! and in the bottom of the sea are pearls. 
 When Adam descended from the Paradise he took 
 a grain of wheat, and thirty cuttings of the fruit-trees 
 of the Paradise, ten of them have shells; viz., the 
 nut (Juglans regia) j^il the common almond, (Amyg- 
 dalus communis) j^AJ! the filbert-nut, (Nux avellana) 
 ^M^i the pistachio nut cJix^iJi the poppy 
 the chestnut JsjJUAliJJ the pomegranate 
 the banana,, or plaintain (Musa paradisiaca) 
 ^U the Syrian oak (Quercus Ballota) kjJuM* 
 
 Ten of them have kernels : the peach y^ the 
 apricot (jk*U the Damascene plum, (Pruna nigra seu 
 Damascena) y^U^l the date-tree i_Jbyi Ruellia 
 guttata J^AAxM the lote-tree (Rhamnus nabeca Forsk. 
 Flora Egypt., p. Lxiii), vJuJJJ the medlar-tree 
 
 * Ibn el- Ward! quotes this passage of Masudi adding 
 the pine-tree, and *=^UJ\ the orange; but he leaves out 
 It is ver y probable that ,bJl>J) and 5sj\^>\*A\ are 
 synonymous in some countries, as such they are considered by 
 Banquiero (Libro de agricultura su autor Abu Sacaria, Madrid 
 1802.) But Avicenna (Lib. II. p. 14S,) and Kazwini make a 
 distinction between these two fruits, so that there is no reason 
 why Mas'udl should not have mentioned them both. Tlie latter 
 author says (MS. of the East India House, Nro. 1377, fol. 
 164, verso) "Shdhballut is a tree of Syria which is also found in 
 Arran, The fruits of this tree are neither so dry nor so styptic 
 as those of the Ballut tree, &c." 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 61 
 
 (Mespillum) j^^\ the jujube-tree (Zizipha rubra) 
 vLUJt the fruit of the Lontaris domestica* JJiU the 
 cherry U-JjXJJ (U*>|jBJ) Some of them have neither 
 shell nor any other covering besides the part to 
 be eaten, nor a kernel; viz., the apple 
 the quince Jc^JuJI the grapes *-U*Jt the pears 
 the fig ^^\ the mulberry d^XM the orange ^^\ 
 the cucumber (Cucumis pepo) lixH another sort 
 of cucumber (Cassia fistula) ^U^O! the melon <g^-^ 
 
 It is related that Adam and Eve were separated 
 when they came down from the Paradise. They 
 had agreed to meet at an appointed place called 
 ' Arafat f ciA^c whence this place has its name;}:. 
 
 Adam longing for Eve, came to see her, 
 
 * Mokl JjLo is a gum very like frankincense, but it comes 
 from the tree called *^ J (Medical Dictionary of Mohammed Bin 
 Yoosoof, Calcutta, 1830, p. 275.) Sprengel (Hist, rei herbar. 
 Tom. I., p. 272,) believes +* to be the Lontaris domestica or 
 Borasusflalelliformis. 
 
 t (jLc 'araf means to know. 
 
 I On this holy spot, and on the ceremonies which the Pilgrims 
 have to perform there (on the 9th of Dul-Hijjah), see Burck- 
 hardt's Travels in Arabia, London, 1829, p. 266. 
 
 Ibn Shohna says that Adam met Eve when he made the 
 pilgrimage by the command of God. This sounds much better, 
 for all these details have a tendency to show the antiquity and 
 sacredness of some institutions and beliefs. 
 
62 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 and she conceived a boy and a girl ; they called 
 the boy Cain ^A* and the girl Lubed jo^J and 
 after that she bore him another boy whom they 
 named Habil ^A& and a girl whose name was 
 Iklimiyd U^X*!. There is some dispute about the 
 name of the eldest son of Adam; the most people, 
 and amongst them those who acknowledge the Old 
 Testament, believe his name was Cain ^.^.l* but 
 some state he was called Kabil J^U. J Ali Ben 
 el-Jahm ^^\\\ ^^ ^ says in his poem on the 
 creation (verses), " We had* a son and called him 
 Cain ; after we had given him birth, we did our best, 
 and Habil grew up as another fruit of our affections, 
 Cain grew up as well, and they did not separate 
 from each other." 
 
 Those who believe on the Old Testament say> 
 Adam married the twin -sister of Habil to Cain, and 
 the twin-sister of Cain to Habil, so that the twins 
 should be separated in marriage. The law of 
 marriage adopted by Adam, was, therefore, to 
 separate, as much as possible, persons allied by 
 relationship, in order to prevent, by separating them, 
 the bad consequences, and the weakening influence 
 upon the offspring; The Magians are of opinion 
 
 * The word which in this case means had in Arabic is 
 from Cana. so that it is a jeu de mots with the name C'am. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 63 
 
 that Adam did not object to the marriage of rela- 
 tions ; hence, they are not against it. They have 
 some mystery respecting this, according to which 
 they think it good that a man should marry his 
 sister, and the mother her son. We have given the 
 details thereof in the 14th Fenn ^iM of our book 
 Akhbdr ez-Zemdn. 
 
 Habil and Cain brought a sacrifice. Habil 
 selected the best of his flocks, and of his provision, 
 and brought it as a sacrifice. Cain took the worst 
 that he possessed for this purpose*. What oc- 
 curred after this is related by God in the Koran f; 
 viz., that Cain murdered Habil in the desert of Ka' 
 ^Ij' which is in the country belonging to Damascus, 
 in Syria. There he struck him with a stone on his 
 forehead. Hence it is said the beasts learnt from 
 man to be atrocious; for he began to do evil and to 
 
 * En-Nowairi (MS. of Leyden) informs us that the Bedouins 
 used to sacrifice animals, whilst the inhabitants of towns in Arabia 
 brought unbloody sacrifices. Hence it may be that this tale was 
 invented by the Bedouins, in order to throw the odium of the first 
 crime on the people of towns amongst whom the ties of relation- 
 ship are so much looser than amongst Bedouins. 
 
 f Surah v. verse 31, et seq. 
 
64 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 murder. When he had murdered him, he was 
 anxious to conceal his body, carried it (on his 
 shoulders) and wandered about with it (not knowing 
 what to do). God sent two ravens, one of which 
 killed and buried the other. When Cain saw this 
 he was struck with horror, and exclaimed the words 
 related in the Koran* Wo is me! I had not sense 
 enough to do like this raven, to hide my brother's 
 shame. Then he buried him. When Adam heard 
 of the murder, he was downcast, and mourned. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says: There is a poem popular 
 amongst the people which they put into the mouth 
 of Adam when he mourned, it runs : 
 
 " The country is altered, and all that is in it. 
 
 The whole earth has changed for the worse. 
 
 All that has life and colour is different ; and 
 the sea has lost its lovely appearance. 
 
 The inhabitants have turned the produce of the 
 fields into poison and bitterness, and an enemy 
 infests us. 
 
 The cursed has not overlooked man, as we per- 
 ceive ; for Cain has cruelly slain Habil, and that 
 amiable countenance is withered. 
 
 My lot is to shed tears ; for Habil rests in the 
 grave. 
 
 I see a life before me full of sorrow, and all 
 that I may meet in it will be gloomy." 
 
 * Surah v. verse 34, edit. Flugel. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 65 
 
 I have found in many books on history, biogra- 
 phy, and genealogy, that when Adam said these 
 words, Iblis replied from a place where he could 
 hear but not see him 
 
 " Thou now complainest about the country and 
 its inhabitants, and thou dost feel the earth narrow. 
 
 " Thou and thy wife Hawwa were merry, not- 
 withstanding the badness of the world ; but my 
 intrigues and machinations were at work until their 
 abundant fruits were matured. 
 
 " And if I was not prevented by the pity of the 
 Almighty, I should destroy the everlasting beatitude 
 of heaven." 
 
 In another book I found a distich standing by 
 itself, which Adam heard from a voice, without 
 seeing who uttered it: 
 
 " O, Adam! both are killed ; for the living falls 
 a sacrifice to the dead*/' 
 
 When Adam had heard this, his pains and sor- 
 rows were increased, both for him who was no 
 more, and for him who was still alive ; for he knew 
 that the murderer was to be killed. 
 
 God revealed to Adam: " 1 will produce from 
 thee my light, which shall flow through splendid 
 channels and noble roots (ancestors). I will exalt 
 
 * This means, that Cain would be killed ; after the general idea 
 that " He that killeth with the sword must be killed with the 
 sword." (Apocal. xiii. 10.) 
 
 F 
 
66 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 this light ahove all other lights, and make it the 
 seal of the prophets (Mohammed). He shall be 
 succeeded by the best of Imams in a continual 
 series to the end of time. I will make the world 
 answer to their call, and I will enlighten it through 
 their followers. Purify and sanctify thyself, and 
 praise God : then approach to thy wife, after she 
 has been purified, and my promise will descend from 
 thee through the child which thou wilt beget." 
 Adam did what he was ordered ; and when Hawwa 
 was with child, her forehead was covered with a 
 lustre, and light shone in her eyes and eyebrows 
 till her confinement. Then she gave birth to Shith 
 C!AA (Seth.) He was the most beautiful child, 
 strong and perfect in his form and in the symmetry 
 of his body. He was imbued with a light which 
 sparkled from the marks and protuberances of his 
 forehead. Adam gave him the name of Shith. 
 The gift of God was slumbering in him till he grew 
 up ; and when he came to riper age, Adam acquainted 
 him with his mission and the promises of God, and 
 told him that he would be the agent of God*, and 
 his own successor after his death, to support 
 truth on earth. This mission was to be inherited 
 
 * &\ SLsS This expression is wanting in Arabic diction- 
 aries, although it is not unusual: ^5CX^o &5r A* 3y*i means a 
 representative of the king. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 67 
 
 by his descendants, who were to be distinguished 
 and glorious. When Adam told this to Shith, 
 he kept it secret, and guarded it for the moment as 
 a mystery, as it was only to be revealed publicly at 
 another time. Adam died soon after, on Friday, 
 the 6th of Nisan, at the same hour when he had 
 been created; he had lived nine hundred and thirty 
 years. Shith was the guardian of the children of 
 Adam. It is said that he left forty thousand children 
 and grandchildren. 
 
 There is some dispute about Adam's grave. 
 Some pretend that it is in Mina*, cfU in the mosque 
 
 * Mina is a valley near Mekka, and, together with the 
 mosque el-Khai'f, one of the sacred spots where the Moslem pil- 
 grims resort. Mohammed kept up the Pagan ceremony of throw- 
 ing there pebbles on a pillar of stone. It has probably the same 
 origin as the usage of the Romans and Greeks, of casting stories on 
 the statue of Mercury. 
 
 The seven idols which were in the valley of Mina, before Mo- 
 hammed, according to el-Azraki, (apud Burckhardt, Travels in 
 Arabia, p. 275,) prove at once that the place was sacred to the 
 seven planets. We see that the sacredness of the place dates 
 from a very remote period, from its being connected with the 
 father of mankind ; and we conclude that it has been celebrated 
 from the circumstance that its name (although it is so far from 
 the coast) reached the ears of Ptolemy, who mentions the Manitae. 
 The ceremony of casting stones on the pillar is probably as ancient 
 as the place, having ever formed the main object of the pilgrimage 
 there. Ibn Ishak, an Arabic writer of the second century of the 
 Hijrah, states thus the origin of this ceremony: When Ibrahim 
 returned from his pilgrimage to 'Arafat, and came to the valley 
 
 F 2 
 
68 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 of el-Khaif i^Lt. Others believe it to be in 
 a cavern of the Mount Abu Koba'is u**>J* ^*- 
 Shith exercised the office of judge amongst his co- 
 temporaries, and taught them the sacred books 
 (revealed to the prophets before him), and other 
 books which God revealed to him. 
 
 Shith begot Anush ^ (Enos). When his 
 wife was pregnant with him,, the light was trans- 
 ferred to her till she was delivered, then the child 
 was imbued with the light. When Anush was 
 grown up, Shith informed him of what was latent 
 in him, and of his pre-eminence; and he ordered 
 him to give to his children an education adequate 
 to their distinction and high position, and to tell 
 them to give to their children the same instruction, 
 
 of Mina, Satan (Iblis) contrived to obstruct his passage; but the 
 Angel Gabriel advised him to throw stones on the foe, which he 
 did, and, after pelting him seven times, Iblis retired. Ibrahim did 
 the same with equal success in the middle and end of the valley 
 when Iblis had again made his appearance. It is difficult to say 
 whether this tradition is a mystification, to justify the Pagan cere- 
 mony, or whether it was current before Mohammed, and his 
 motive for keeping it up. If it was more ancient than Mohammed, 
 further researches about Ibrahim, son of Azer (i. e. fire), res- 
 pecting whom the Arabs have preserved many traditions, inde- 
 pendent of the biblical account of Abraham, son of Terah, may 
 point out an intimate connexion between Mercury, the god of 
 knowledge, and Ibrahim, who rebuilt the Ka'bah and imported 
 civilization from the Sabeans of Harran to the Semites. 
 * Abu Koba'is is the name of a mountain of Mekka. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 69 
 
 when they would be able to understand it. This 
 legacy went from generation to generation, until 
 the light came to 'Abdul-Motalleb (the grandfather 
 of Mohammed), his son 'Abdullah, and the PROPHET. 
 This is a topic of controversy between the fol- 
 lowers of different sects, particularly between those 
 who adhere to the doctrine of evidence ^jXAxJl 
 oaiJL and the followers of the doctrine of election 
 jUxiOM i^ls^t. The defenders of the doctrine 
 of evidence are Imamists 3UU2J JjM, and form 
 a fraction of the sectarians (Shi'ites) Xx/w&l of 
 'Ali Ben Abi Taleb and his children by Fatimah*. 
 They believe that God does not leave mankind at 
 any time without a man who keeps up the religion 
 of God (and stands at the head of the believers). 
 Such men are either prophets or guardians f, who 
 bear the evidence of their rights in their names and 
 
 * The words of the original sJvL /.%.- ,.v iv^UaJJ mean 
 literally " the pure ones amongst his ('All's) children." -.MJo 
 is the usual epithet for the family of Mohammed. See page 3. 
 
 t Guardians IAAC^! sing, .y^ means the executor of a will, 
 or a guardian of an orphan, and hence, in opposition to pro- 
 phet, as in the above sentence, it means him in whose hands is the 
 executive power of the laws (civil and religious) which God 
 has revealed through the prophets, and which must not be changed. 
 The first seven Imams are called ^^MO^\ (De Sacy Chrest., 
 Tom. I. p. 158.) The origin of the Shi'ite sect, and of the 
 technical meaning of the word ^ is attributed to a sentence of 
 
70 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 pedigree from God and his prophet. The doctrine 
 of election is defended by the divines of the leading 
 cities, the Mo'tazilites X^XxU, a section of the 
 Khawarij ^k\JJ, the Morjiites Xv^U, and by 
 many of those who admit the traditions and the 
 generally received opinions (the orthodox;, and by 
 a section of the Zeidians j^Ju^-H. They believe 
 that it is the will of God and his prophet that the 
 nation should choose a man amongst themselves, 
 and make him their Imam, for there are times when 
 God does not send a legate. The Shi'ites consider 
 such Imams as usurpers of the dignity. 
 
 We shall have an opportunity in the course of 
 this work to throw some light on the differences of 
 opinions and religious controversies. 
 
 Anush cultivated the earth. Some consider 
 Shith as the father of mankind, after Adam, and 
 do not allow that the other children of Adam had a 
 share in the propagation of our race; but some 
 differ from this opinion : God knows best. In the 
 time of Anush, Cain, the murderer of his brother 
 Habil, was killed. His murder is variously 
 related. We refer the reader to our works, the 
 Akhbar ez-zeman, and the Kitab el-ausat. 
 
 'Abdullah Ben Saba es-Sauda, who lived under 'Othman: 
 go J! ^X ^j!. This sentence became 
 
 the watch-word of the Shi'ites (En-Nowa'iri, MS. of Leyden, 
 No. 2 13, p. 1056). 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 71 
 
 Anush died the 3rd of Teshrfn, 960 years of 
 age. He had a son of the name of Raman ^Uxi'. 
 The prophetic light sparkled from his forehead. 
 His father took from him the oath of his office, and 
 he cultivated the earth till he died. He reached the 
 age of 910 years, and died in the month of Tamuz. 
 The son of Ka'inan was Mahalayil J^^-o 
 (Mahalaleel) . He begot Lud (^j) who was the 
 heir of the prophetic light, and gave the oath of 
 keeping up truth. It is said that many musical 
 instruments were invented in his time by the chil- 
 dren of Cain. The wars of Lud and other stories 
 have been related in our Akhbar ez-Zeman. The 
 children of Shith had wars with the descendants of 
 Cain. A race of Hindus, who descend from Adam, 
 derive their origin from the children of Cain. 
 They inhabit that part of India which is called 
 Komdr ^Ui* : from this country the Komdri Aloe 
 t^U&tayi has its name. 
 
 Lud lived 962 years,, and died in Adar (March). 
 He was succeeded by his son Akhnukh 
 (Enoch), who is the same person as Edris 
 (instructor) the prophet. The Sabeans* believe 
 that he is identical with Hermes ^^jb which 
 name means 'Utarid sjlas. (the planet Mercury). 
 
 * One copy bears XjLsAjei!J the companions (of the prophet), 
 instead of 
 
72 EL-MASUDPs MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 God says of him in his book *, " that he exalted him 
 to a high place." He lived on earth 300 years or 
 more. He was the first man who taught the com- 
 forts of life and sewed with a needle. To him 
 thirty books were revealed, and to Shith twenty- 
 nine, in which there are the two formulas, ''There is 
 no God but God," and " Praise be to Godf." He 
 was followed by his son Matushalekh ^JL&yU 
 who bore the prophetic light on his forehead, and 
 cultivated the land. Matushalekh had many chil- 
 dren. Some persons say that the Bulgars 
 the Russians (j^ 9 and Slavonians 
 are his descendants. He lived 960 years, and died 
 in the month of Ilul. He was succeeded by his 
 son Lamek jCL. In his time was a great con- 
 fusion amongst mankind. He died 999 years of 
 age. His son was Nuh ^5 (Noah). In his age 
 corruption and injustice were great on earth. Nuh 
 rose to be a preacher of God, but the people were 
 too rebellious and ungodly, so that they would not 
 listen to him. God ordered him to construct a 
 ship; and when he had finished it, the angel Gabriel 
 
 * Koran, Surah xix., vers. 58, edit. Fliigel. 
 
 "I" *\A**J * \/Jl4J Perhaps these two words are to be taken 
 in the more extensive meaning : they contain the profession of the 
 unity of God, and hymns to his praise. 
 
 J Another copy \jLx!t. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 73 
 
 brought him the coffin of Adam, in which there 
 was his corpse*. They went into the ship on 
 Tuesday, the ninth of Adar. Whilst Nun and his 
 family were in the ship, God kept the earth five 
 months under water. Then he ordered the earth to 
 swallow up its waters, and the heaven to withhold 
 its rains f, and the ark stood on the mount el-Jiidi 
 tfJ^iL El-Judi is a mountain in the country of 
 MasurJ ^U Cc_5J>**^)> an( ^ ex tends to Jezirah 
 Ibn 'Omar j+& ^Y^y^ which belongs to the ter- 
 ritory of el-Mausil. This mountain is eight farsangs 
 from the Tigris. The place where the ship stopped, 
 which is on the top of this mountain, is still to 
 be seen. 
 
 They say some tracts of the earth did not im- 
 mediately swallow up the water, whilst others 
 
 * ,x>Lci &+* f\ dj^-jlj I was tempted to read 
 " his covenant" as one copist writes. I shall state the reasons 
 for which it must run *A*OJ. 
 
 t Koran, Surah xi., verse 46. 
 
 J Masur seems to be the same word as Masius, which is the 
 Greek name of the mount el-Judl. (Strab. pp. 501 and 506.) 
 The word e\-Judi has been compared by Bochart with the 
 Gordycei montes. 
 
 El-Kazwini (MS. of the East India House, N. 1377.) 
 informs us that there was still, to the time of the 'Abbasides, a 
 temple on the mount Judi which was said to have been con- 
 structed by Noah, and covered with the planks of the ark. Epi- 
 phanius (Haeres. 18) reports nearly the same tradition for his 
 
74 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 absorbed it rapidly when they were commanded to 
 do so. The lands which obeyed give good water 
 on digging; but those lands which were less sub- 
 missive were punished by God, the water on digging 
 being salt, and the country sandy. The water 
 which could not be absorbed went into the depths of 
 the earth, and in particular places. This is the 
 origin of the seas: they are the remains of the 
 waters by which God has destroyed the nations. 
 The account and description of the seas will call 
 our attention hereafter in this book. 
 
 Nuh went forth from the ark, and with him his 
 three sons, Sam -U, Ham *b>, and Jafeth c^L, 
 together with his three daughters-in-law, and forty 
 men and forty women. They went upon the plat- 
 form of this mountain, and built there a town, 
 which they called Themanin ^^^ (eighty). 
 It bears this name till our time [332 A.H.] The 
 children of these eighty persons became extinct, 
 and God peopled his creation with the descendants 
 of Nuh. To this allude the words of the Koran, 
 "We have preserved his progeny, and they are 
 those who still exist." God knows best the mean- 
 
 time. The vicinity of Harran, which was the seat of learning 
 since Abraham, and the centre of Sabean worship, makes it more 
 than probable that this temple was connected with the Sabean 
 religion, and the history of the ark owes perhaps its origin to the 
 priests of those places. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 75 
 
 ing of these words. The name of the person who 
 refused the offer of Nun, when he said to him 
 " Embark with us, my son*," is Yam -b. 
 
 Nuh divided the earth amongst his sons, and 
 gave to every one of them a part as property. He 
 cursed his son Ham on account of his well-known 
 behaviour towards his father. He said, " Cursed be 
 Ham and his children may he be the slaves of his 
 brethren ; but Sam be blessed ; and God shall en- 
 large Yafeth, and he shall dwell in the places 
 allotted to Samf." Nuh lived, according to the 
 Pentateuch |, after the flood 325 years. Some 
 historians differ in this point. 
 
 Sam went away, followed by his children ; and 
 they took possession of the places allotted to them 
 in the land and sea. We shall describe them in 
 this book. 
 
 Now we shall speak on the separation of man- 
 kind, and the division of the earth amongst the 
 three sons of Nuh, Yafeth, Sam, and Ham. 
 
 * Koran, Surah ix., verse 44. 
 
 f These words are literally transcribed from the holy Bible, 
 (Genesis ix., 25, 26, 27,) except that they run there, cursed be 
 Canaan, instead of Ham. And not without reason, for the 
 Canaanites were the victims of those cruelties which might be 
 justified by this story as being the fulfilment of the curse of their 
 father, and, consequently, according to their ideas, a divine 
 decree. 
 
 Genesis ix. 28. 
 
76 EL-MASU'Di's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Sam inhabited the middle of the earth, from the 
 sacred land pJ>J ^^ (i. e. the country of Mekka 
 and Medina) to Hadhramaut >^*a^, 'Oman 
 ^Uc, and 'Alij U. Amongst his children we 
 name Arem ^\ and Arfakhshad iX^^J,!. 
 
 One of the descendants of Arem Ben Sam is 
 'Ad Ben 'Us (Uz) Ben Arem*; he settled in the 
 Ahkaf er-Raml *\ ^^ oUb*lt God sent the 
 prophet Hud ^_jfc to the 'Adites, Another of his 
 descendants is Themud Ben 'Ad Ben Arem *j*5 
 fj m* *l* cu^ They settled in el-Hijr^! (Arabia 
 Petrea), between Syria and the Hejaz. God sent 
 to them their brother Saleh -LU> His history is 
 well known, and we shall insert a summary account 
 of it, as well as of the histories of other prophets, 
 in the progress of this work. 
 
 Tasm f.*Jb and Jadis (j*o*x^ sons of Laud '^ 
 (Lud) Ben Arem, took possession of el-Yemamah 
 and el -Bahrein, and the descendants of their brother 
 'Amalik vJiJL^ Ben Laud Ben Arem settled in 
 subsequent times, partly in the sacred land, and 
 partly in Syria. To them belong the 'Amalikites 
 
 * One MS. bears * \ / . ^ io *.c / . *j M^ls an d another 
 
 instead 
 
 f This means the " sand-hills," i. e. the desert of southern 
 Arabia. 
 
AND MINKS OF GEMS. 77 
 
 who were scattered all over the country. 
 Another brother of theirs, named Ommaim ^\ 
 Ben Laud, settled in Faris. 
 
 We shall speak on this subject in the (twenty-third) 
 chapter of this book, which is inscribed " The Origin 
 of the Persians, and what the historians say on this 
 subject;" for some authors connect Kayumerth with 
 Ommaim. Others believe that Ommaim settled in 
 the land of Webar J^^ ; that is, the country inha- 
 bited by the Genii, according to the opinion of some 
 Arabic historians. 
 
 The descendants of ' Abil Ben 'Us ^^s. ^s ^.^9 
 the brother of 'Ad Ben 'Us, settled in Medina. 
 
 Another grandson of Sam is Mash ^U Ben Arem 
 Ben Sam. He went to Babel ; his son is Nimrud 
 Ben Mash yiU ^^ ^j** (Nimrod), who built the 
 Tower of Babel, and a bridge over the Shat-el-Forat. 
 He reigned five hundred years, and was the king 
 of the Nabataeans k*JM jX, In his time God divided 
 the languages ; so that the descendants of Sam 
 spoke nineteen different tongues, the descendants 
 of Ham seventeen, and the children of Yafeth 
 thirty-six. We will speak further on in this work 
 as to the dispersion of the nations over the earth, 
 and the poems which they composed at their 
 separation in el-'Irak. 
 
 Some believe it was Falegh iJU who divided the 
 earth amongst the nations, and hence he was named 
 
78 EL-MAs'uni's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 "Falegh;" for this name means "Divider:" 
 
 Shalekh li is the son of Arfakhshad Ben Sam 
 Ben Nub, and the father of Falegh, who divided 
 the earth; and Falegh is one of the ancestors x^. 
 
 of Ibrahim el-Khalil X/IiOi (the friend of God). 
 
 'Aber ^U another son of Shalekh, is the father of 
 Kahtan ^UajS.. Kahtan 's son, Ya'rob <_^ju was 
 the first man who was greeted with the title of KING 
 JJlU by his children. This is the most glorious 
 and most cursed name. Some say this title had 
 been in use before him, with the kings of el-Hirah. 
 Kahtan is the father of all the Yemenites, 
 as we shall mention in the (forty-second) chapter 
 of this work, which is inscribed " Yemen, the 
 Origin of the Inhabitants of this Country, and the 
 various opinions thereon." He was the first man 
 who spoke Arabic; at least, he first made the 
 meaning clear by terminations vlr^l* 
 
 Yoktan ^IkSu Ben 'Aber Ben Shalekh was the 
 father of Jorhom +&}*- who was the cousin of Ya'rob. 
 The Jorhomites dwelt originally in Yemen, and 
 spoke Arabic ; in subsequent times they emigrated 
 to Mekka, according to the traditions respecting 
 them, which we shall give. The children of Katura 
 \jJaS are their cousins. In subsequent time, 
 God made Isma'il settle amongst them, and he 
 married into them, so that they were the uncles of 
 his children. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 79 
 
 The believers of the Old Testament maintain 
 that Lamek JC*J is still alive; for God said to Sam, 
 " I will preserve him for ever, whom I make the 
 guardian of the body of Adam." Sam buried the 
 coffin &jj\3 of Adam in the middle of the earth, and 
 appointed Lamek as guardian. Sam died on Friday, 
 in the month of Ilul, six hundred years of age : he 
 was succeeded in his mission by Arfakhshad J^^L,? 
 who attained an age of four hundred and sixty-five 
 years: he died in the month of Nisan. After him 
 followed his son Shalekh : he died four hundred and 
 thirty years old, and was succeeded by his son 
 'Aber, who cultivated the country. In his days 
 quarrels arose in different places of the earth: he 
 died in an age of three hundred and forty years. 
 His son Falegh succeeded him : he was two hundred 
 and thirty-seven years old when he died. We have 
 spoken of him and of the confusion of languages 
 
 Ulxj which took place during his life at Babel. 
 
 His successor was his son Ar'au ^s.j\ (Reu), and 
 during his life Nimrud the giant was born, according 
 to some accounts. Ar'au died in the month of Nisan, 
 two hundred years of age. His son Sharukh ^l^ 
 took his place: during his days the worship of 
 idols and of images is said to have been introduced, 
 owing to several causes. He attained an age of 
 two hundred and thirty years. He was replaced by 
 his son Nahur.j^U who followed the good exam- 
 
80 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 pie of his fathers: during his life were earthquakes: 
 there had never been any before him. He is 
 the inventor of the arts of life (^^j^Jl, and of different 
 instruments. In his lifetime the Hindus and other 
 nations formed themselves into bodies. He 
 lived one hundred and forty-six years, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Tarah ^^3 ; this is the name for 
 Azar* yj\ the father of Ibrahim. In his days Nim- 
 rud Ben Kan 'an rose. Under en-Nimrud the prac- 
 tice of worshipping fire and light f came first in 
 use, and he introduced certain (holy) orders in their 
 cultus. There were great troubles and wars in this 
 age in the world. New empires and provinces were 
 formed in the east and west. It was at this time 
 when the stars and their predictions began to be an 
 object of study. The heavens were divided into 
 regions, and astronomical instruments were invented. 
 Man began to understand the meaning of all these 
 things. The astrologers observed the aspect of the 
 
 * Azar is the name of the father of Abraham in the Koran 
 (Surah vi. v. 74) ; Terah is his name in the Bible (Genesis xi. 
 26). The name Azar, which means "fire," and the "planet 
 Mars," is by no means of Arabic invention ; for Abraham's father 
 is called Athar by Eusebius. It is a favourite name amongst the 
 star-and-fi re-worshippers. (HYDE, de Relig. vet. Pers. p. 64). 
 
 t The Moon was considered as the concentration of light, 
 whilst the Sun is the centre of fire. (Tradition of Wahb Ben 
 Monabbih.) * 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 81 
 
 heaven for the coming year*, and its prediction, 
 and told en-Nimrud that a child would be horn, 
 who would expose the folly of their dreams, and 
 do away with their worship. En-Nimrud ordered 
 the child to be killed ; but Ibrahim was concealed. 
 Tarah, who is the same person as Azer, died at the 
 age of two hundred and sixty years. 
 
 * The words of the original are 
 
 xJlk Jt- Tali' means originally the point of the 
 horizon where it is cut by the parallel of the observer in the east, 
 or the section of the horizon of which that point is the middle. It 
 is therefore one of the four cardinal points of Arabic astrology 
 XX-M^ s\.'jj\ (literally the four tent-poles) ; viz., the Zenith, 
 # U**M \amy ti 16 Nadir ^aji\ JO^, the Tali', and the same point 
 of the horizon in the west <_j.lxSJ. The planet which is in the 
 moment when the sun enters into the sign of the Aries, in the Tali', 
 or in the ]0th, 7th, 4th, llth, 9th, 5th, or 3rd degree of ascen- 
 sion, or comes soonest to one of these points, is the Regent of the 
 
 HJ 
 
 year l$J ^jj^ ^ SUUJt ^^(^. And as the Regent exercises 
 the greatest influence upon the destiny of the world during the 
 year, the whole constellation of the beginning of the vernal 
 equinox is called &UJJ xJUs by the way of ellipsis, instead 
 
 of 1 JlkH UJ ^ ( Ab * Ma ' sher > 
 
 G 
 
82 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 FOURTH CHAPTER. 
 
 The history of Ibrahim (Abraham) (**&>jj\, the prophets 
 after him, and the kings of the Children of Israel. 
 
 WHEN Ibrahim was grown up, he went out from 
 the cavern where he had been concealed, contem- 
 plated the phenomena of nature, and reflected on 
 their meaning. Looking at the planet Venus, and 
 observing how it rose, he said: " This is my Lord !" 
 When the moon rose, and he saw that it was much 
 brighter, he exclaimed: " This is my Lord!" But 
 when the sun displayed its splendour, he cried out 
 full of astonishment, " This is my Lord*!" The 
 commentators do not agree in the meaning of 
 the words of Ibrahim " This is my Lord." Some 
 believe this to be related by the way of induction 
 and parable; whilst others are of opinion that it 
 happened before he had come to the knowledge of 
 truth, when he was still striving. Gabriel came 
 now to him, and taught him his religion, and God 
 chose him as his prophet and friend JJl^. (I have 
 to observe against this explanation that) Ibrahim had 
 
 * El-Koran, Surah vi. verses 76 78. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 83 
 
 received the strength* of God; and he who is 
 strengthened by God will be kept pure from sin 
 and fall, and from any worship besides the One the 
 Eternal. 
 
 Ibrahim blamed his people for their idolatry. 
 When they were annoyed by the disdain with which 
 Ibrahim scorned their gods, and which had attracted 
 public notice, en-Nimrud threw him into the fire : 
 but God converted the fire into coolness, and he 
 was preserved t. The fire did not flame any- 
 where on earth on that day. 
 
 * *W xj or f*X$M h as nearly the same meaning as 
 " divine grace," only pushed a little further. Education, or 
 interest and the spirit of the time, is with most persons the sole 
 foundation of their religious and political principles ; and, as their 
 selfishness, or want of intelligence and experience, does not allow 
 them to appreciate the opinions of others, or to defend their own, 
 they take refuge to divine authority, maintaining that their own 
 infatuation is the effect of divine inspiration or predestination, and 
 the principles of their adversaries a diabolical artifice. El- 
 Mas'udi shows himself here, and in his opinion on the Imamship, 
 much more in favour of the doctrine of predestination, than was 
 general in his time amongst the Sonnites. 
 
 t El-Koran xxi. verse 20 (edit. Fliigel). In order to increase 
 the number of miracles, and to find an opportunity for an edifying 
 comment, the Rabbins rendered DHttO TIN " Ur of the Chal- 
 dees" (Gen. xi. 31) by fire of the Chaldees;" for T)N, ur, means 
 " fire ;" and added the above story, which Mohammed inserted in 
 the Koran. 
 
 G 2 
 
84 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 After Ibrahim had passed the eighty-sixth or 
 ninetieth year of his age, Isma'il was born to him 
 by Hajir ^=.U> who was a slave-woman to Sarah 'ij^. 
 Sarah was the first person who believed on Ibrahim. 
 She was the daughter of Batuwil, the son of Nahur, 
 and uncle of Ibrahim. This, however, is contro- 
 verted, as we shall mention hereafter. 
 
 Lut^J, the son of Haran Ben Tarikh Ben 
 Nahur, was Ibrahim' s nephew, and one of those 
 who believed on him. God sent Lut to the five 
 towns; viz., Sodum px*w, Ghomura ]^r, Adruma 
 
 U^J, Saghura \jj&e, and Safura ]^JU>. The 
 
 f 
 people of Lut were Mutafikah* X&j^U. Some com- 
 
 
 
 mentators derive this word from ^31, afak, " a lie." 
 God alludes to this in the Koran in the words 
 tSj&\ X&j^Xf ) These five cities were situated be- 
 tween esh-Sham and the Hejaz, near the two Syrian 
 provinces Jordan and Palestine. The spot of these 
 towns is barren up to our time (332 A.H.), and the 
 stones are marked with shining black lines. Lut 
 lived about twenty years amongst these people, and 
 preached to them; but they would not believe: 
 
 * El-Koran, Surah xi. verse 91 (edit. Fliigel) ; comp. M. L. 
 Dubeux' note to his translation of Tabari, vol. i. p. 144 ; I suspect 
 Mutaftkah is a corruption of some Hebrew word. 
 
AND MIXES OF GEMS. 85 
 
 therefore this punishment of God came down upon 
 them, as it is related in the Koran*. 
 
 When Hajir had borne Isma'il to Ibrahim, 
 Sarah became jealous of her; Ibrahim took, there- 
 fore, Isma'il and Hajir to Mekka, and settled them 
 there. This is related in the Koranf , in the words 
 of Ibrahim: " O, my Lord, I made some of my 
 children dwell in a barren valley, at thy sacred 
 house !" God, hearing their prayers, gave them 
 the Jorhomites and 'Amalikites joJUxM ^ p&j*> as 
 companions in their solitude, and made men love 
 them. 
 
 The people of Lut were destroyed in the time 
 of Ibrahim, on account of their corruption, as it is 
 related in the Koranf 
 
 God ordered Ibrahim to sacrifice his son: he 
 showed himself ready to obey; but when he had 
 laid him down on his face, God ransomed him with 
 a noble victim $. 
 
 Then Ibrahim and Isma'il laid the foundation 
 of the house (the temple of Mekka) . When Ibrahim 
 was more than one hundred and twenty years old, 
 Sarah bore him Ishak. There is some dispute 
 about the sacrifice of Ibrahim; some think that 
 
 * Surah vii. vers. 78 82 ; xi. xv. and xxvii. 
 
 f Surah ii. 
 
 | Surah xi. 
 
 El-Koran xxxvii. verse 107 (edit. Fliigel). 
 
86 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Ishak was to be the victim, whilst others maintain 
 it was Isma'il. If it was to take place in Mina (a 
 valley near Mekka), it was Isma'il, for Ishak never 
 came into the Hejaz; and if it was to take place 
 in Syria, it was Ishak; for Isma'il had never been 
 in Syria again, after he had been carried away from 
 that country. 
 
 Sarah died, and Ibrahim married Kitura \)^**3 9 
 who bore him seven sons ; Zimran ^5rj? Yokshan 
 tjtlxij Medan ^Ix*, Madyan ^.jjJcc, Nishan ^J^ 
 (Ishbak), Shukh ^K, and Kir jj*. Ibrahim 
 died in Syria, one hundred and seventy years of 
 age : God revealed to him ten sacred books. 
 
 Ishak married Rabeka, a daughter of Batuwll 1 , 
 after the death of his father, and she gave birth to 
 el-'A'isu and Ya'kub 2 , who were twins, but el-'Aisu 
 was first born. Ishak was sixty years of age, and 
 nearly blind, when they were born. He made 
 Ya'kub the chief over his brothers, and the succes- 
 sor in the prophetic mission. To el-'Aisu he gave 
 the sovereignty over his children. Ishak was one 
 hundred and eighty -five years of age when he died, 
 and he was buried with his father, the " Friend of 
 
 * See 1 Chron. i. 32. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 87 
 
 God." The place where they were buried is well 
 known; it is eighteen miles from Jerusalem, in a 
 mosque which is called the mosque of Ibrahim, and 
 the fields of Ibrahim. 
 
 Ishak ordered his son Ya'kub to go to Syria, 
 and commissioned him and his twelve children with 
 the prophetic office. Their names are Rubil, 
 Shima'un, Lawi, Yehuda, Yessajir, Zebalun, Yusof, 
 Benyamin 3 . 
 
 Ya'kub was in great fear of his brother el-'Aisu, 
 but God protected him: Ya'kub possessed five 
 thousand five hundred sheep, and gave to his bro- 
 ther el-'Aisu the tenth part of these, in order that 
 he might not do him any harm, and for fear of his 
 impetuosity. After God had protected him, he 
 had no longer to be in fear; (hence he refused to 
 deliver the tithes;) but he was punished in his 
 children, for having broken his promise. God said 
 to him: " Thou hast not obeyed my command; 
 hence the children of el-'Aisu shall dominate five 
 hundred and fifty years over thy children." This 
 was the space of time from the destruction of Jeru- 
 salem by the Romans to the conquest of that city 
 by 'Omar Ben el-Khattab, during which period the 
 Children of Israel were in slavery. 
 
88 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Yiisof was the favourite of Ya'kub. His bro- 
 thers envied him, and their jealousy gave origin to 
 the story between Yusof and his brothers, which 
 God relates through the tongue of his prophet in 
 the Koran *. 
 
 Ya'kub died in Egypt, at the age of one hundred 
 and forty years : Yusof carried him to Palestine, and 
 buried him at the tomb of Ibrahim and Ishak. 
 Yusof died also in Egypt, one hundred and ten 
 years old. 
 
 They laid his body into a coffin of stone, closed 
 it with lead,, and covered it with a varnish which 
 keeps out air and water, and threw it into the Nile, 
 at the town of Memphis v^iJU, where there is the 
 mosque of Yusof. Some say Yusof ordered that 
 he should be buried in the grave of his father 
 Ya'kub, at the mosque of Ibrahim. In his time 
 lived Ayyub (Job) ; his full name is Ayyub Ben 
 Amus Ben Dezaj (Zeerah?) Ben Da'wayil (Reul?) 
 Ben el-Aisu Ben Ishak Ben Ibrahim 
 
 He was in Syria, in the district of Hauran 
 in the highland of Damascus, from whence 
 
 * In the twelfth chapter, which is therefore inscribed " The 
 Surah of Joseph." 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 89 
 
 the plain is watered, and in el-Jabiyah*. He had 
 a great fortune, and was blessed with many chil- 
 dren. God proved him, bereaving him of his pro- 
 perty and children. 
 
 He bore this trial with patience, and God 
 restored to him what he had possessed. His story 
 is related in the Koranf . The mosque of Ayyub, 
 and the spring in which he washed his body, are 
 famous to this day (332 A.H.): they are not far 
 from Nawa ^ and el-Jaulant (^j^it in the pro- 
 vince of the Jordan, between Damascus and Tiberias. 
 The distance of this mosque and spring from the 
 town of Nawa is about three miles. The stone on 
 which Ayyub rested at the time of his affliction, 
 when his wife died of puerperal fever, is still in that 
 mosque. 
 
 Those who believe in the Pentateuch and other 
 ancient books^ maintain that Musa Ben Misha Ben 
 Yusof Ben Ya'kub cJL*^ (^ ^^ <^jv ^grr 
 ^j was a prophet before Musa Ben Amran 
 ^f (Moses), and that it was he who 
 sought el-Khidhr Ben Melkan Ben Falegh Ben 
 
 * El-Jabiyah XxjliJ is the name of a hill and village belong- 
 ing to Damascus (Athar el-Bilad). 
 
 f Surah xxi. verse 83, and Surah xxxviii. verse 40. 
 
 J This is probably the valley of Ajalon : the author of the 
 Jihannuma (p. 559) gives this name to a mount near Damascus. 
 
90 EL-MAs'fJDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 'Aber Ben Shaleh Ben Arfakhshad Ben Sam Ben 
 
 Nuh* 
 
 Some of those who believe in the Old Testa- 
 ment say el-Khidhr was the same person as Hidh- 
 run Ben 'Imayil Ben Elifaz Ben el-'Aisu Ben 
 Ishak Ben Ibrahim 4 ; he was sent as prophet to his 
 nation, who were converted by him. 
 
 Musa Ben 'Amran Ben Fahit Ben Lawi Ben 
 Ya'kiib 5 was in Egypt at the time of Fir 'aim 
 (Pharaoh) the giant. Fir'aun's name was el-Walid 
 Ben Mos'ab Ben Moawiyah Ben Abi Nomair Ben 
 Abil-Holus Ben Leith Ben Haran Ben 'Amr Ben 
 'Amalik 6 . He was the fourth of the Pharaohs of 
 Egypt, and a man of great stature, who enjoyed a 
 long life. The Children of Israel had fallen into 
 
 * Khidhr is said to be meant under the " Servant of God," 
 mentioned in the Koran (Surah xviii. 64), as having been met by 
 Moses. 
 
 ( 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 91 
 
 slavery after the death of Yusof, and lived under 
 great afflictions. The soothsayers, astrologers, and 
 conjurors informed Fir'aun that a child would be 
 born,, which would make an end to his power, and 
 perform great things in Egypt. Fir'aun was 
 frightened by this prediction, and gave orders to 
 kill the children. The mother of Musa exposed 
 
 her child on the Nile ^ by the command of God, 
 as it is related in the Koran *. 
 
 At the same time lived the prophet Sho'aib. 
 His full name is Sho'aib Ben Thoriel Ben Da'wayel 
 Ben Marik Ben 'Anka Ben Madyan Ben Ibrahimf, 
 
 He spoke Arabic and was sent to the inhabitants 
 of Madyan (as a preacher). When Musa had 
 taken flight from Fira'un, he went to the prophet 
 Sho'aib, and married his daughter, as it is related 
 in the Koran f. God ordered Musa to lead the 
 
 * Surah xx. 39. 
 
 t The names of the forefathers of Sho'aib are variously 
 spelt in different MSS., and by different authors; but all agree 
 that one of them was Madyan, i. e., that he was a Madyanite. 
 He is identified with Jethro, but I think without sufficient reason, 
 probably the destruction of Madyan by an earthquake gave an 
 opportunity for inventing the story of a preacher to whom the 
 inhabitants did not listen, and to assign the fatal catastrophe to 
 this sin. Compare the note at the bottom of the next page. 
 1 Surah vii. verse 83. 
 
92 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 children of Israel into et-Tih AAX!| *; their number 
 amounted to six hundred thousand adults, besides 
 those who had not attained ripe age. 
 
 The tables which God gave to Musa on the 
 mount Sina UA** j^s were of emerald, and the 
 writing was in gold. When Musa descended from 
 the mount, and saw that the children of Israel were 
 worshipping the calf, he was so much shocked at it 
 that the tables fell from his hands, and broke. He 
 gathered the pieces and put them, with other things, 
 into the Tabut es-Sakinah &*!! ^1? which was 
 placed in the tabernacle J$A$M. The tabernacle 
 was intrusted to Harun, for he was the bearer of 
 the prophetic office of this age, ^UjJl ^*S. The 
 revelation of the Pentateuch to Musa Ben 'Amran 
 was completed when he was in the desert. Harun 
 died, and was buried in the mount Mowab, 
 v^ (or w ^-<) which is not far from the mountains 
 of esh-Sharah 'i\jtA\ and from the mount Sinaf. 
 
 His grave is well known; it is in a frightful 
 cavern, in which, sometimes at night, a great 
 murmur is heard which frightens every living 
 being J. Some say he is not buried, but only laid 
 
 * The desert near mount Sinai. 
 f Another copy bears from et-Tohur,^^IiJ| 
 I The volcanic action which manifests itself in some places 
 near the mount Sinai, by a great noise which proceeds from the 
 bowels of the earth, raising sometimes the sound to which this pas- 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 93 
 
 into that cavern. This cavern is very curious, as 
 we have said. Seven months after, Musa died at 
 the age of one hundred and twenty years. Some 
 authors state that Musa died three years after 
 Harun,, and that he entered esh-Sham (Syria), and 
 fought there with the 'Amalikites (Jut UxJI, Korba- 
 nites (^j^oLj-XM Madyanites, and other tribes., as is 
 mentioned in the Pentateuch. God gave to Musa 
 ten books, which completed the number of one 
 hundred sacred codes. Subsequently God revealed 
 to him the Pentateuch in Hebrew, which contains 
 commands and prohibitions, permissions and inter- 
 dictions, regulations and decrees. It is in five sifr 
 jju,*, which means "books/' Musa had made the 
 ark in which the covenant, SUxCj! was preserved, 
 of six thousand seven hundred and fifty mithkals of 
 gold. 
 
 The high-priest after Harun was Yusha' Ben 
 Ni'm, ^ ^.j-t y. who was of the tribe of Ephraim. 
 Although Musa died one hundred and twenty years 
 old, he bore not a trace of an advanced age; nor 
 
 sage alludes, has been observed in ancient times, and mentioned by 
 Procopius, and by modern travellers, (M. Gray, Dr. Seetzen, &c.,) 
 and it is very probable that Madyan, and the other places which are 
 said not to have listened to the exhortation of Sho'ai'b, have been 
 destroyed by a volcanic eruption and earthquakes, as Abul-Feda, 
 (Hist. Anteislamitica, ed. Fleischer, page 31,) relates. 
 
 * The word is Hebrew *)P)p and is hardly ever used by the 
 Arabs but in speaking of the Bible. 
 
94 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 appeared Harun old : both retained the appearance 
 of youth. After Musa's death Yusha 3 led the 
 Israelites into Syria. This country was then in 
 possession of giant kings of the 'Amali kites iJi/JUc 
 and others. Yusha' sent expeditions against them, 
 and had many engagements. He conquered Ariha 
 ls?jJ (Jericho) and Za'r*, in the Ghaur^yyj, or low 
 country on the Dead Sea, which repels divers, and 
 in which no fish or living creature can exist, as it 
 has been observed by the author of the logic (Aris- 
 totle) f, and other authors of ancient and modern 
 time. The Dead Sea receives the waters of the 
 lake of Tiberias through the river Jordan. The 
 
 * I take this for the Arabic name of Kirjath-Jearim, which 
 was one of the first cities conquered by the Israelites (Josh, xi, 
 1 7); there is, besides, some analogy of sound between Jearim or 
 Ye'arim, which is the plural of JT'UP Ya'rah, and *.. Za'r; 
 the meaning, however, is opposite to the Hebrew word, which means 
 a forest, or a place rendered impenetrable by shrubs, whilst *CjSJJ 
 is explained in the Kamus as a place without herbs. But Yearim 
 is perhaps the name of the tribe who had their quarters in this 
 
 town; for Kirjah JTHp means generally a city. El-Firuzabadi 
 
 j-j 
 mentions a town of the name of j\ so called after a daughter of 
 
 Lot, and Abul-Feda (edit. Reinaud, p. 48.) gives this name to the 
 Dead Sea, so that it is very likely we ought to read Zoghar 
 instead of Za'r. This, however, would not alter the affinity of 
 this name with Jear, for as there is no A in Hebrew, c. must be 
 used instead of it. 
 
 t Ei 8' eoTiv a><77Tfp pvOoXoyovai rives fv HaXaKTTiinj roiavrr) Xi/ii/)?, 
 fls TJV eat Tts" e'/^aXAfl a-vvftr)<ras avfipomov rj V7rovyiov eVrtTrXetv KOI ov 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 95 
 
 water of the lake of Tiberias comes from the lake 
 Kafra el-Kera'un ^y^SM >*f *> which is in the dis- 
 trict of Damascus. The Jordan runs a great dis- 
 tance through the Dead Sea without mixing with 
 its water; but in the middle the water of the Jordan 
 sinks. Nobody knows how it comes that the 
 water of the lake is not increased by the accession 
 of this river, which is very considerable. There 
 are long stories and accounts related respecting the 
 Dead Sea, which we have inserted in our 'Akhbar 
 ez-Zeman and Kitab el-Ausat, together with an 
 account of the stones found there, which have the 
 shape of a melon, and are of two varieties. They 
 are called the Jews'-stone, and have been described 
 by philosophers, and used by physicians against 
 the stone of the bladder f ; this stone is either male 
 
 Kara TOV vSaros. (Meteor., lib. ii. cap. 3, p. 432, a ; 
 Genevae, 1605.) 
 
 * The name of this lake is variously spelt in various MSS., 
 and I have not been able to determine which is the correct 
 reading; for other Arabic authors (Abul-Feda, edit. Reinaud, 
 p. 48; Jehannuma, p. 555, &c.) call it the lake of Banias, from a 
 neighbouring town which had anciently the name Paneas, or 
 Caesarea Philippi, and on coins VTTO Ilcu/ao, as if Paneas had been the 
 name of the snow mountain on which the town is situated. With 
 ancient authors the lake has the name Samochonitis, which has 
 also no reference to the name which el-Mas'udi gives to it. Per- 
 haps it is connected with Kaferla, which is the name of a town 
 twelve miles from Paneas, in Shultens' Index Geographicus. 
 
 t Ibn en-Nafis (p. 43, edit. Calcut.) and other Arabic phy- 
 
96 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 or female: the male stone is useful for men, the 
 female for women. Another production of this 
 lake is bitumen, which is called ^-*,=>. There is 
 only one lake on earth in which no living being is 
 to be found, and this is a lake in Aderbijan, on which 
 I have sailed. It is situated between the city of 
 Ormiah* and el-Maraghah, and is known there by 
 the name of Kabiidanf. Some ancient writers 
 enter into the causes why no living being can exist 
 in the Dead Sea. Now, although they do not 
 reflect upon the lake Kabudan, one must naturally 
 conclude that the same causes must be active there. 
 
 sicians praise this stone against lithiasis, and it may be that this 
 volcanic production is of an alcalish nature. Avicenna (lib. ii. 
 p. 180), however, denies its litholytic properties. Mr. Maundrel 
 found a kind of bituminous stone, which answers to the descrip- 
 tion given by Arabic authors of the Jews'-stone, excepting the 
 size ; for he says that he saw stones of this sort two feet square. 
 Dr. Daubeny found it to be similar to that of Ragusa, in Sicily. 
 
 * Although all copies bear Armenia, I thought it quite safe 
 to change it into Ormiah XA^,! ; for this is a celebrated city in the 
 vicinity of this lake, from which it has its name in other writers, 
 being called the lake of Ormiah, and which claims the honour of 
 being Zoroaster's birth-place. 
 
 f The copy of Cambridge comes nearest to the true reading 
 of this name (jjta^AT), bearing j^J^jJ", of which the copyists 
 made generally ^l^xiT or ^J^-xT. After the researches of 
 Saint Martin (Memoires sur 1'Armenie, Paris, 1818, torn. i. 
 p. 17), there can be no doubt but that all these corruptions are 
 intended to express the Armenian name of this lake, which is 
 K'habodan. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 97 
 
 The king of Syria, es-Soma'ida' Ben Hauber 
 Ben Malik, marched against Yiisha', and they came 
 to several engagements; the result of which was, that 
 the king was killed, and Yusha' took possession of 
 his whole kingdom. Yusha' came in contact with 
 other kings of the Giants and Amalekites, and sent 
 corps towards Damascus. Yusha' lived one hun- 
 dred and twenty years. His full name was Yusha' 
 Ben Nun Ben Ephraim Ben Yusof Ben Ya'kub 
 Ben Ishak Ben Ibrahim. Some say Yusha' opened 
 his military operations with the war against the 
 Amalekite king Samaida' Ben Hauber x-**w 
 ^^CU'. whose dominions were in the country of 
 Ailah, towards Madyan. 'Auf Ben Sa'id el-Jor- 
 homi 0$j^\ (jou*) XAJU (jjo c5j.fi says, in allusion 
 to this: 
 
 " Doest thou not see Ibn Hauber the 'Amalekite 
 at Ailah: he is heated and thin on account of the 
 agitation which he is in, being invaded by an army 
 of eighty thousand Israelites, partly without, partly 
 with armour. 
 
 " The forces of the 'Amalekites, who march after 
 him on foot, climbing and running, offer the same 
 appearance : as if they had never been amongst the 
 cavalry of Mekka. 
 
 " Soma'ida' has never been in calamity before*." 
 
 * The last two distichs are only in the copy of Cambridge. 
 
 H 
 
98 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 In some village of the Belka, in Syria, there 
 was a man of the name of Bala'am Ben Ba'ur 
 (Beor) Ben Samum Ben Ferstam Ben Math Ben 
 Lut Ben Haran, who had answered the call*: his 
 people urged him to curse Yusha' Ben Nun ; but 
 he was unable to do it. He advised, therefore, 
 some 'Amalekite king to send handsome women 
 towards the army of the Israelites. They ap- 
 proached to the women, and were punished with 
 the plague, which killed seventy thousand of their 
 men. Bala'am is the person of whom it is said 
 in the Koran f, that he had received the signs of 
 God, and that he apostatized. 
 
 Yusha' Ben Nun died when he was one hundred 
 and ten years of age. After him Kaleb Ben 
 Yiifenna Ben Baridh Ben Yehuda stood at the head 
 of the children of Israel. Yusha' and Kaleb en- 
 joyed the particular grace of God. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, I found in another copy (of 
 the Pentateuch) that Kushan el-Kofri^: was eight 
 
 * To answer the call of somebody, means generally to join 
 one's party; here it means that he professed the religion of God, 
 to which everybody is called. The Arabs give to the history of 
 Balaam a somewhat different version from that which it has in the 
 Bible. (Numb, xxii.; xxiv. 14 5 Mic. vi. 5; 2 Pet. ii. 15; Judeii.; 
 Rev. ii. 14.) See D'Herbelot, voce Balaam. 
 
 f Surah vii. 
 
 J He means Cushan-rishataim. El-Kofri means the unbe- 
 liever. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 99 
 
 years the ruler of the Israelites after Yusha', until 
 he died. 'Othnayil Ben Amayayil Ben Kazin 
 (Othniel, the son of Kenaz), of the tribe of Juda, 
 ruled forty years, and killed Kush J^^ (Cushan- 
 rishataim), one of the giants, who resided at Marib 
 v-^U of the Belka. After him the children of 
 Israel fell into idolatry, and God permitted that the 
 Kana'anites should subject them ten years. After 
 this period they were ruled by 'Amlal el-Ahbari* 
 cSjlpOM J& (the high-priest) forty years. His suc- 
 cessor was Shamwil (Samuel), who reigned until 
 Talut ujj.!lk (Saul) came to the throne. During his 
 reign the invasion of Jalut >^U- (Goliath), the 
 king of the Berbers of Palestine, took place. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, according to the version after 
 which we began to relate this history, the head and 
 administrator of the affairs of the children of Israel, 
 after Yusha', was Kaleb Ben Yvifenna, and after him 
 Finehas Ben el-'Oziz Ben Harun (Aaron) Ben 
 'Amranf, who was twenty years the judge of the 
 
 * Probably Heli is meant : in this case his name ought to be 
 written ^JUr 'Ilan. Compare p. 102, infra. El-Ahbari means 
 generally a Jewish doctor, and not high- priest as here. 
 
 t jydl QJJ (j\s& The copy of Leyden bears el-'Ozir. 
 Phinehas the high-priest was the son of Eleazer, and not of Oziz. 
 We learn from the Chronicon of the Samaritans, which has been 
 translated by Hottinger, that Oziz, the fifth high-priest from 
 
 H 2 
 
100 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Israelites. He put the books of Moses into a cop- 
 per vessel, shut its opening with lead, and took 
 it to the rock of the temple of Jerusalem. This 
 was before the temple was built. The rock split, 
 and in the cavity so formed another projecting rock 
 presented itself. When Finehas had placed the 
 vessel upon this rock, the cavity closed, and was as 
 before*. After Finehas Ben el-'Oziz, the Israelites 
 
 Aaron, has concealed some sacred vessels. It is very likely that 
 el-Mas' udi, and the author of the said Chronicon, who is Abul- 
 Fath Ben Abul-Hasan, have used the same sources. 
 
 * This rock, which rises about man's height from the level of 
 the ground, is covered with a cupola, and on the side of the rock 
 stands a chapel, and it enjoys still the veneration of the Moslims. 
 (Jihannuma, Constant. 1732, p. 565.) El-Kazwlni gives in his 
 work, Athar el-bilad, several other instances of veneration for 
 stones in Syria, as the stone sacred to Sho'a'ib at Kafermendah 
 k'iXxxjviT, the stone sacred to Job in the Jaulan, &c. Taking into 
 consideration the various stones which were almost worshipped in 
 Arabia, besides the black stone of Mekka, one might almost 
 suppose this gross fetishism formed one time a part of the 
 national religion of the Semitic nations, owing, no doubt, to 
 aerolithes, which may be very frequent in those volcanic coun- 
 tries ; hence, Sanchoniathon ascribes the origin of this practice to 
 the god Coelus, saying they are living and animated stones. 
 
 As further instances of the practice of consecrating or wor- 
 shipping stones, may be brought forward, the example of Jacob 
 (Gen. xviii. 18), the testimony of Clemens of Alexandria 
 (Strom., lib. vii.), and the practice of Arnobius (Cont. Gen., lib. i.) : 
 " Si quando conspexeram lubricatum lapidem, et ex olivsB unguine 
 lubricatum, tanquam inesset vis praesens, adulabar, affabar." 
 (Compare Calmet, voce Stone, ") 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 101 
 
 were ruled by Kushan el-Atim (Cushan-rishataim), 
 the king of Mesopotamia, for they were fallen into 
 idolatry, for which they had to endure night years' 
 hardship. Then was 'Othnayil (Othniei) Ben 
 Yufenna, the brother of Kaleb, of the tribe of Juda, 
 judge, forty years. After him they were subjected 
 by Aglum (Eglon), the king of Mowab, who kept 
 them under great oppression eighteen years. Then 
 was Ahud, of the tribe of Ephraim, their judge 
 fifty-five years. When he had been thirty-five 
 years judge, the age of the world was four thousand 
 years: this, however, is controverted by chronolo- 
 gers. He was succeeded by his son Sha'an (Sham- 
 gar, the son of Anath). Then they were conquered 
 by Bills (Jabin), the Kanaanite, king of Syria, 
 twenty years. Then ruled a woman, of the name 
 of Dabura (Deborah), who was, according to some 
 authors, the daughter of her predecessor. She 
 joined with herself a man of the name of Barak, 
 forty years. After her they were conquered by the 
 chiefs of the Madyanites, viz., 'Urib (Oreb), Zerneb 
 (Zeeb), Buria, Dara' (Zebah), Salana (Zalmunna), 
 seven years and three months. Then Jida'un 
 (Gideon), of the family of Menasha, forty years. 
 He killed the kings of the Madyanites, and was 
 succeeded by his son Abu Malikh (Abimelech). 
 Then Thula' (Tola), of the tribe of Ephraim, 
 twenty-three years. Then Nas (Jair), of the family 
 of Menasha, twenty-two years. Then the kings of 
 
102 EL-MAS'lJOl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Amman (Ammon), eighteen years and three months. 
 Then Yehtim (Jephthah), of Beit Lehm, seven years*. 
 Then Samsun, twenty years. Then they were sub- 
 jected by the kings of Palestine forty years. Then 
 Tlan (Heli), the high-priest, forty years. In his 
 time the Babylonians conquered the children of 
 Israel, took the ark, through which the Israelites 
 had expected to gain the victory over them, and 
 they carried it to Babel. They made the Israelites 
 and their children captives, and carried them off 
 from their homes. 
 
 At the same time happened what is related of 
 the people of Hizkil (Ezekiel), who went out from 
 their homes for fear of death (of the enemy), although 
 they were thousands in number. God said to them 
 "Die;" and when they were dead, he restored 
 them to life again. Then they were visited with 
 the plague, and only three tribes of them escaped 
 death f. One tribe took refuge on the sea-shore, 
 the other to some island of the sea, and the third to 
 
 U^AJ Bethlehem, the city of flesh, or incarnation. The 
 form more frequently used to express incarnation and naturali- 
 sation, is *l^\J^J (Ibn Khaldun, Proleg., lib. i.) 
 
 f Koran, Surah ii. verse 244, edit. Fliigel. The tendency of 
 this story of the Koran is to show that it is of no avail to fly 
 from an enemy ; for God can restore the dead to life, and destroy 
 men in thousands by the plague as well as by war. The fable 
 owes its origin probably to Rabbinical traditions invented as a 
 comment upon the thirty-eighth chapter of Ezekiel. 
 
AND MINKS OF GEMS. 103 
 
 the summits of the mountains: after many adven- 
 tures they came back to their homes, and said to 
 Hizkil, " Hast thou ever heard of a people that had 
 to experience what we have encountered?" Hizkil 
 answered, ' ' No, I have never heard of a people who 
 have taken flight from God as you have done." God 
 sent after seven days again the plague amongst 
 them, and they died all to the last man. 
 
 After 'Ilan, the high-priest, ruled Ashmawil Ben 
 Baruha Ben Nahur (Samuel). He was a prophet, 
 and administered the state of the Israelites twenty 
 years. God gave them peace, and blessed them. 
 But subsequently, when they were in new troubles, 
 they said to Ashmawil, " Send us a king, and we 
 will fight in the way of God." He was ordered to 
 make Talut, who is Saul Ben Kish Ben Abiyal Ben 
 Sarur Ben Bakhurat Ben Asmida' (Aphiah) Ben 
 Benyamin Ben Ya'kub Ben Ishak Ben Ibrahim, 
 their king: he gave him power, and the Israelites 
 had never before been all united as they were under 
 Talut. From the emigration of the Israelites from 
 Egypt, under Musa, to the accession of Talut, 
 elapsed five hundred and seventy- two years and 
 three months. Talut was originally a tanner, and 
 made leather. Their prophet Ashmawil announced 
 to them, 4< God has set Talut king over you." 
 They answered, according to what God says*, 
 
 * Koran, Surah ii. \erse 248. 
 
104 EL-MAS'uDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD 
 
 " How shall he reign over us ? We are more 
 worthy of the sovereignty than he; and he is not in 
 possession of a great fortune." " The proof of his 
 sovereignty," said Samuel, "shall be the ark, in 
 which there is tranquillity * from your Lord, and 
 
 * The word which I render by tranquillity is sekinah 
 
 -> j /.T-O xu-j. This is not considered as an Arabic 
 word by lexicographers, and I have found it only in one instance, 
 besides in the above sentence from the Koran, in a passage of 
 Ibn Khaldun (Prolegomena, MS. of Ley den, folio 112, verso), 
 which runs thus, if the MS. is correct: jjf *L*>JJ 
 
 SL ''The rulers will have obtained 
 an arbitrary and absolute power over the subjects; hence they 
 will encroach upon all their money by introducing customs, or 
 monopolies, or confiscations of private property on or without 
 suspicion. The soldiers will become daring in this phasis towards 
 the rulers ; for they have lost their vigour, and the enthusiasm for 
 their own cause and caste is declining: they have, therefore, 
 nothing better to expect. The attempt to remedy the evil by 
 settling the gratuities (and changing them into regular pay), and 
 by making enormous expenses for them, will fail, and they will 
 find no friend/' 
 
 Maracci and Sale, in their commentaries to the Koran, and 
 after them De Sacy, in his Chrestom. Arabe (torn, ii., p. 77), 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 105 
 
 the relics of the signs (which God had given to 
 former prophets)." The ark remained ten years 
 
 follow the opinion of some Arabic interpreters of that book, 
 and consider the word as the Hebrew pWQttf shekinah, which is 
 derived from /.jX*j> to rest, to be quiet) to be present, and means 
 the divine presence in the temple of Jerusalem, which drove from 
 thence the princes of the air (genii of the Arabs), and made it 
 quiet: then it means also inspiration, and in the Targums or the 
 Chaldee paraphrases it is used for Holy Ghost (Calmet, Diet, 
 of the Bible) . This signification, however, would be quite con- 
 trary to the ideas of Mohammed, who probably took up the term 
 without connecting a clear idea with it : for things of which we 
 do not understand the meaning, or which have none at all, are 
 most edifying. Some commentators of the Koran say, therefore, 
 the tabut es-sakmah was an ark given to Adam, which contained 
 the portraits of all the prophets up to Mohammed. For as there 
 are many false prophets who have wrought miracles, whilst the 
 Arabic legate of God professed that he did not perform any other 
 but moral wonders, it would indeed have been the best to have a 
 portrait to verify the man who is to be believed. This fabrica- 
 tion seems to have been forged in opposition to the Jenahians, 
 Xx^UiJ, who considered descent as the evidence of the pro- 
 phetic mission of a man ; and as our author seems to have been 
 very much in favour of the latter doctrine, as it appears from 
 what he says above, p. 54, (compare the second note to p. 55, 
 supra,) he must have rejected this explanation of sakinah, and 
 have taken the word in its first meaning as tranquillity. This 
 justifies also the suggestion contained in the first note to p. 73, 
 supra, which is besides confirmed by the first six lines in p. 79, 
 supra, from which it appears that el-Mas'udi believed that the 
 tabut (ark, coffin) of Adam contained his body, and not the 
 portraits of the prophets. 
 
106 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 at Babel. They heard at dawn the noise of 
 the angels flying round the ark, and it was carried 
 away. 
 
 Jalut iS^U. (Goliath) was very powerful, and 
 his troops and leaders were numerous. When 
 Jalut (Goliath), whose full name is Jalut Ben 
 Balud Ben Diyal Ben Hattan Ben Faris Ben Nasud 
 Ben Sam Ben Nuh ^U^ ^ JUS ^ S^L & ^U 
 gy ^ *L ^.jj Jj>*sU ^.j^ u^jL5 (^j-it heard that the 
 Israelites had put Talut (Saul) on the throne, he 
 marched with several races of Berbers j*jA\ from 
 Palestine, towards the Israelites. Samuel ordered 
 Talut to go out with the children of Israel to fight 
 against Jalut. God sent them the trial at a river 
 between the districts of the Jordan and Palestine, 
 which he has related in his book*. When they 
 were very thirsty, they were ordered how they 
 should drink: those who doubted, lapped like dogs, 
 and they were killed by Jalut to the last man. 
 Saul selected from his best troops three hundred 
 and thirteen men, amongst whom were the brothers 
 of Dawud (David), and Dawud himself. The two 
 armies met, but the battle was undecided. Talut 
 encouraged his men, and promised to any one who 
 would go out against Jalut one-third of his king- 
 
 * Koran, Surah ii. verse 250. Mohammed has confounded 
 Saul and Gideon. (Judg. vii.) 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 107 
 
 dom, and his daughter in marriage. Dawud went 
 out against him, and killed him with a stone which 
 he had in his forage-bag. He threw it with a 
 sling, and Jalut fell on the ground. This is related 
 in the Koran *, where God says, " Dawud slew 
 Jalut . . . These are the signs of God." 
 
 Some say, Dawud had three stones in his 
 forage-bag, which united, and became one stone; 
 and this they say was the stone with which he killed 
 Jalut. There exist several comments on this 
 stone, which we have related in our former works. 
 Some pretend that it was Talut (Saul) who slew 
 those who lapped from the river, and acted con- 
 trary to the command of God, and not Jalut 
 (Goliath). We have related the story of the coat 
 of mail, of which their prophet had predicted that 
 nobody could conquer Jalut except whom it fitted; 
 and which fitted Dawud: we have given details 
 respecting these wars, and the river which dried up : 
 and we have related the history of the kingdom of 
 Talut (Saul)f, and the Berbers, and their origin, in 
 our book called the Akhbar ez-zeman, and we shall 
 speak on it in the following pages of this work, in 
 a more adapted place, where we give a brief account 
 of the history of the Berbers, and their dispersion 
 over the earth. 
 
 * Koran, Surah ii. verse 250. 
 
 f It should probably run, the kingdom of Jalut, or Goliath. 
 
108 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 God made the name of Dawud glorious, and that 
 of Talut obscure; for Talut refused to keep his 
 promise to him. But when he saw that Dawud 
 became popular, he married his daughter to him, 
 and gave him the third part of his possessions, the 
 third part of the revenue, the third part of his 
 jurisdiction, and the third part of his subjects. 
 After he had done so, he envied him, and intended 
 to deprive him of them. But God did not permit 
 it, and Dawud declared himself against his inten- 
 tions. All what Dawud did prospered. Saul 
 died in the night, under great depression of spirits, 
 whilst he was sitting on his throne. After his 
 death the whole empire came under Dawud. 
 
 Talut reigned twenty years. The spot where 
 Dawud killed Jalut is said to be Baisan, in the 
 Ghaur, which is a district of the Jordan. 
 
 God rendered the iron soft for Dawud,, and he 
 made coats of mail. God made the mountains 
 and birds subservient* to him, and they praised 
 God with him. David had wars with the people 
 of Mowab, in the country of el-Belka. God re- 
 vealed to him the Book of Psalms, in Hebrew, 
 consisting of one hundred and fifty Surahs. He 
 divided them into thirds: one third fortells the 
 
 history of Bokhta Nassar ^a5 tlXir (Nebuchadnez- 
 
 * Koran, Surah xxxviii. verses 17 and 18. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 109 
 
 zar) with the Israelites ; another third predicts what 
 would happen to them from the people of Athur 
 j>\; and one third contains admonitions, exhor- 
 tations, and hymns. There are neither laws nor 
 interdicts, nor permissions nor prohibitions, in the 
 Psalms. Dawud was successful in all that he did; 
 and even those unbelievers who had a rebellious 
 spirit, were filled with respect for him, in all parts 
 of the earth. He built a house for holy service at 
 Kurat el-islam*,, that is to say, in Beit el-Makdis. 
 This temple is standing in our time [332 A.H.], and 
 it is known under the name of Mihrab of Dawud. 
 There is at present no building in Jerusalem which 
 is higher than this temple. You can see from its 
 top as far as the Dead Sea and the River Jordan. 
 
 To Dawud happened the story of the two adver- 
 saries, to which an allusion is made in the Book of 
 Godf. Dawud, before he had heard the other, 
 passed the sentence: " He has wronged thee in 
 asking from thee (thy ewe), &c." The commen- 
 
 *. jj Kurat el-isldm, means the district of the 
 islam, and is a play of words with the name of Jerusalem, 
 with which it has some similarity of sound, it being pro- 
 nounced by the Arabs, Uraslam, or Aurashlim j^^JLiUJ, or 
 simply Shallam ^& (el-Kamus, p. 1647). Compare the twenty- 
 eighth chapter, infra. 
 
 t Koran, Surah xxxviii. verse 21, et seq. 
 
110 EL-MAS'lIDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 tators to the Koran do not agree respecting the 
 fault of Dawud (for which he is blamed in the 
 Koran). Some give the same explanation which 
 we have just given, and which is justified by the 
 words *, " We have made thee our lieutenant on 
 earth, &c." But some say that the story of the 
 two adversaries was a parable in allusion to Uria 
 Ben Kenan, and his being killed, as it is mentioned 
 in the " boohs of the beginning" *JXAA)U u*xT, and 
 in oilier works. Dawud underwent a repentance 
 of forty days' fasting and weeping. He had no less 
 than one hundred wives. Solaiman was his son: 
 he showed great talents, and used to be present 
 when his father exercised the duties of a judge; 
 and God gave him \visdom in speech and judgment, 
 as it is said in the Koran f, " We gave to all of them 
 wisdom and knowledge, &c." When he was dying, 
 he made Solaiman his heir. Dawud reigned forty 
 years over Palestine and the Jordan. He had an army 
 of sixty thousand soldiers, with swords, shields, and 
 good horses; they were men in the prime of life, 
 full of courage and vigour. 
 
 * Koran, xxxviii. verse 25. After the words quoted stands, 
 in this, and in several other instances, 3Lj5N> which I render by 
 "&c.;'' for it cannot mean anything else but "and the rest of 
 this verse." 
 
 Surah xxi. verse 79. 
 
AND MINKS OF GEMS. Ill 
 
 In his age flourished Lokman the Wise, in the 
 country of Ailah and Madyan: his full name is 
 Lokman Ben 'Anka Ben Madyan Ben Merwan 
 
 He was a Nubian, and a freed slave of 
 Lokain Ben Jesr *& ^JU. Lokman was born 
 
 in the tenth year of the reign of Dawud. He was 
 a slave, full of virtue, and God gave him wisdom. 
 He lived distinguished by his wisdom and abste- 
 miousness until Yunos Ben Matt a csU ^ u*A*H 
 (Jonas) was sent to Ninive, in the country of 
 el-Mausil. 
 
 After the death of Dawud his son Solaiman was 
 the bearer of the prophetic office, and the judge. 
 He extended his justice over all his subjects, his 
 government was firm, and he held the armies in 
 due submission. Sola'iman began to build the Beit 
 el-Makdis (the temple of the sacred city), which is 
 called the most remote temple ^taSW <X:sx*wo, round 
 which God pours out his blessing. When he had 
 finished the construction of the temple, he built a 
 house for himself. This is called in our days the 
 Church of the Resurrection*, and is the greatest 
 church at Jerusalem; but there are other large 
 
 XJl 3U*AxT. See Golius' notes to Alfergani, p. 158, 
 and Castelli's Diet. Heptagl. 
 
112 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 churches besides, as the Church of Sahytin (Sion), 
 which has been mentioned by Dawud, and the 
 Church of el- Jesmaniyah * X>oU*iJ, in which 
 Dawud is said to be buried. God gave to Solaiman 
 greater favours than to anybody before him, and 
 he made subservient to him men, genii, birds, and 
 winds, as it is related in the Book of Godf. Solai- 
 man ruled forty years over the Beni Israel. He 
 died in an age of fifty-two years. 
 
 * This is probably the church which Haji Khalfa (p. 565) 
 calls the Church of the Virgin Mary ; for the place where it is 
 situated has with him the name el- Jesmaniyah. I suppose Jes- 
 maniyah means corporis Christi; for the Christian Arabs have 
 formed a number of words after the genius of the Syriac and 
 
 3 > 
 
 Greek languages, as *J&'^, plur. *jotS'i person (of the Trinity); 
 iII^AwUM the human nature (of Christ) ; uj^&JJ Godhead 
 implying a somewhat different idea from 5U6 Jil| ; *>lcr?"Mj 
 the union (of the three persons of the Trinity), and hence quite 
 different from the pure Mohammedan idea expressed by the word 
 
 ] ! (Mefatih el-'olum.) 
 f Koran, Surah xxi. and xxxviii. 
 
AND MINKS OF GEMS. 1J3 
 
 FIFTH CHAPTER. 
 
 The reign of Rakhobb'am Ben Solaiman Ben Ddwud, 
 and the Israelite kings who succeeded him. Concise 
 account of their Prophets. 
 
 AFTER the death of Solaiman, his son Rakhobo'am 
 *ju^!j came to the throne. He ruled at first over 
 all the tribes; but subsequently they separated 
 themselves from him, except the tribes of Judah 
 and Benjamin. He reigned seventeen years. 
 
 The king of the ten tribes was Yeruboham 
 (Jeroboam), who had several wars, and worshipped 
 a calf of gold and jewels. God destroyed him after 
 a reign of twenty years. 
 
 Then reigned Abya (Abijah), the son of Rakho- 
 bo'am Ben Solaiman, three years. Then reigned 
 Ahar (Asa) forty years. Then reigned Yuram 
 (Jehoram), who introduced the worship of idols 
 (stars), statues, and images: he reigned one 
 year. Then reigned a woman, of the name of 
 'Athalan (Athaliah), who destroyed the descendants 
 of Dawud, and only one boy of this family was 
 spared. The children of Israel, indignant at her 
 cruelty, killed her, after a reign of seven years, and 
 made this boy their king. He was seven years of 
 age when he came to the throne, and reigned forty 
 
114 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 years, or less. Then reigned Amasyd (Amaziab) 
 fifty- two years. During his reign lived the prophet 
 Sha'ya U*~ (Isaiah), with whom he came in frequent 
 contact. He had some wars,, which we have re- 
 lated in our book Akhbar ez-zeman. Then reigned 
 Yutham (Jotham) ten years ; according to others, 
 sixteen years. After him reigned Ahaz : he intro- 
 duced idolatry, and was an unjust king. One of the 
 greatest kings of Babel, named Baghin* ^L,, 
 marched against him. After long wars between Ahaz 
 and the king of Babel, the latter made Ahaz prisoner, 
 and destroyed the towns of the (Israelite) tribes, 
 and their dwellings. 
 
 During his reign religious quarrels took place 
 between the Jews and the Samaritans *^U-^J. 
 The Samaritans deny the prophetic mission of 
 Dawud, maintaining that there was no prophet after 
 Musa. They chose their chiefs from the descend- 
 ants of Harun (Aaron) Ben 'Amran, and live in 
 our time [A.H. 332], in separate towns, in the 
 Jordan and Palestine, as, for instance, in the town 
 called 'Ara r,U, which is between er-Ramlah and 
 Tiberias, and other towns as far as Nabolos 
 
 * This is a corruption for Tiglathpileser, instead of which 
 one copy bears y^aX* ', so that it may be inferred, from the 
 
 great difference which exists between the two copies, that el- 
 Mas'udi wrote the name correctly, but that it was corrupted by 
 the copyists, as it happened with other names. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 115 
 
 (Naplous). In this last-mentioned city they are 
 most numerous. They have a (sacred) mount which 
 they call Tur* j^Jb, and they offer there prayers at 
 certain times. They sound bells of silver at prayer 
 time, and it is they who say, " Do not touch me !" 
 They believe that Nabolos is the sacred town (Beit 
 el-makdis)t, and the town of Ya'kub, and that 
 there is the place where his flock grazed. The 
 Samaritans are of two sects, which are separate 
 
 -3. These are the words of the original in the copy of 
 Leyden. De Sacy quotes this passage thus, in his Chrestomathie 
 Arabe (torn. ii. pp. 342 and 343): jo &\ jUu Ja>- *^ 
 
 Igj'U^f ^i C>JjXo axXc s^oLj&J JojJ, and translates ac- 
 cordingly: Us ont la une montagne nominee Tor-berik. Les 
 Samaritains font la priere sur cette montagne dans les temps 
 destines a ce pieux exercice. The MS. of Cambridge bears 
 
 t Isstachri (edit. Moeller, p. 31) says nearly the same thing: 
 here are his words : 
 
 syc l^! El-Edrisi transcribed this passage in his work, and 
 corrupted it thus: - - - '[^\ XAJX 
 
 Lc 
 
 *yc . Nabolos is the town of the Samaritans, and the people of 
 Jerusalem believe that nowhere Samaritans are found but in this 
 
 I 2 
 
116 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 from each other, as they are separate from the 
 other Jews. One of the two sects is called Kushan * 
 ^Uj.r, and the other Dushan (or Rushan) e t*^ 
 (jiZjj). One of these two sects believes that the 
 world has no beginning f, and other dogmas of this 
 nature, which I forbear to mention, for fear of being 
 too tedious in a work which professes to treat on 
 history, and not on opinions and doctrines of sects. 
 Ahaz had reigned seventeen years before he 
 was made a prisoner by the king of Babylon. In 
 his captivity a son was born to him, who received 
 the name Hizkiya U*^ (Hezekiah). He kept up 
 the religion of the true God, and gave orders to 
 destroy images and idols. During his reign Senna- 
 harib <-o^L^\Mo the king of Babel, marched against 
 Jerusalem. He had several wars with the Israel- 
 
 town, &c. ( Rosenmiiller, Analecta Arabica, pars iii. p. 3. 
 Compare Jaubert's Translation, torn. i. p. 335.) 
 
 This may serve as an example how Oriental writers are some- 
 times misled by corrupt readings, and may illustrate the note to 
 page 1 1 7 of this volume ; for there can be no doubt that this 
 fault is to be attributed to el-Edrisi himself, and not to the copyists, 
 since it is found in the copies of Oxford and Paris. 
 
 * If the Cuthaeans derive their name from Cush, or Scythia, 
 the spelling is here more correct than in the Bible (2 Kings xvii. 
 24, 30; Ezra iv. 1, 2) ; for there it is /TO Kuth, Xov0. 
 
 f Arabic scholastics make a distinction between rjj, which 
 
 is the term used here, and JjJ: the former meaning what has 
 no beginning, and the latter what has neither beginning nor end. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 117 
 
 ites, and suffered great loss; but finally he took 
 many tribes prisoners. Hizkiya reigned till he 
 died, twenty-nine years. 
 
 After Hizkiya his son Manasha (Manasseh) 
 reigned. He killed the prophet Sha'ya, and gave a 
 bad example, which was followed by his subjects. 
 God sent Constantine, the king of er-Rum*, against 
 
 * "The Lord brought upon them the captains of the 
 host of the king of Assyria, which took Manasseh among the 
 thorns, and bound him with fetters, and carried him to Babylon. 
 And when he was in affliction he besought the Lord his God 
 . . . . And [God] brought him again to Jerusalem, into his 
 kingdom." (2 Chron. xxxiii. 11, 12, 13.) Petavius believes that 
 this Assyrian king was the Berodach-baladan of the Scriptures 
 (2 Kings xx. 12), and Map8oKfp,7ra8os of the Chronological Tables 
 of Ptolemy. As the copyists put frequently a known word instead 
 of a name of less frequent occurrence, we may suppose that el- 
 Mas'udi wrote Mardokempad, king of Atur, (see our note to 
 page 31 of this volume,) of which the copyist made Constantine, 
 king of er-Rum; for el-Mas'udl was well acquainted with 
 Ptolemy's Chronological Tables, and quotes them in the Tanbih. 
 
 But in comparing this passage with the words of et-Tabari 
 (who was one of the sources whence el-Mas'udi derived his infor- 
 mation), preserved by Ibn Khaldun (MS. of Leyden, No. 1250, 
 vol. ii. fol. 44, verso), we feel inclined to ascribe this gross anachro- 
 nism to our author's want of attention: XxjU 
 
 "In the fifty-second (year of the reign of Manasseh) Byzan- 
 tium was built : the founder of this city was King Yuros. It is 
 the same town which has been renewed by Constantine, and 
 
118 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 him, who invaded his country with several armies, 
 put his troops to flight, made him a prisoner, and 
 kept him twenty years in er-Rum, in captivity ; but 
 changing his former conduct, he was restored to 
 his kingdom. He reigned till he died, twenty-five, 
 or, as others say, thirty, years. 
 
 His successor was 'Amun (Amon), who neither 
 believed nor obeyed God, but worshipped images 
 and idols. When his ungodliness had reached the 
 utmost, Fir'aun the Lame gjs-W u**j* marched 
 from Egypt, with a large army, against him, and 
 after he had made a great slaughter amongst the 
 Israelites, he took him as prisoner to Egypt, where 
 he perished. He reigned five years. Some authors 
 differ in their account. After him reigned his 
 brother Tufil J^yT, who is the father of the prophet 
 Danial jUib. During his reign el-Bokhta Nassar 
 (Nebuchadnezzar), the governor of el- 'Irak, and the 
 Arabs * ^xJ^oV^xJi, under the king of Persia, who 
 
 called after his name." (Compare Eusebius, Chronicorum Canonii 
 ad Olympiadem 30, A. H.) Now seeing the account of the cap- 
 tivity of the Israelites on the same page with the name of Con- 
 stantine, he, probably overlooking a line, took him for the king 
 who made them prisoners. For a similar mistake of el-Edrisi, 
 owing to the perusal of a corrupt copy of the author whence he 
 was compiling, see the note to page 115 of this volume. 
 
 * Perhaps it ought to read 'Irak el-' Arab, which is the name 
 for Babylonia, and I should not have hesitated to change the read- 
 ing, if Herodotus did not give nearly the same title to Sennaherib, 
 calling him BcwiAe'a *Apa/3tW re *cai ' 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 119 
 
 was then residing in Balkh, the capital of his em- 
 pire, marched against the Israelites; and after he 
 had slain many of them,, he took them to el-'Irak, 
 into captivity. He carried also the Pentateuch and 
 the books of the prophets and the histories of the 
 king away, which were in the temple at Jerusalem, 
 and threw them into a well. The ark of the cove- 
 nant fell also into his hands, and he preserved it in 
 some place of his country. The number of the 
 Israelites who were in captivity is said to have been 
 eighteen thousand. In his time lived Jeremiah the 
 prophet. El-Bokhta Nassar made a campaign 
 against Egypt, and killed Pharao the Lame., who 
 was at that time the king of Egypt. Thence he 
 proceeded towards the West, took the kings pri- 
 soners, and conquered many towns. 
 
 The king of Persia had married a woman of the 
 Israelite captives, who bore him a child, and he 
 sent the children of Israel back into their homes 
 after two years' captivity. When they had re- 
 turned into their native country, reigned Zorobabil 
 Ben Salsal (Zorobabel, the son of Selathiel). The 
 town of Jerusalem was rebuilt, and what had been 
 destroyed was re-established. They got the Penta- 
 teuch out of the well, and their state became flourish- 
 ing. This king devoted forty-six years to the culti- 
 vation of the country ; and he ordered them to keep 
 the prayers and other obligations prescribed by the 
 Law, which had been neglected during the captivity. 
 
120 EL-MAS'UDl's -MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 The Samaritans believe that the Pentateuch 
 which was recovered from the well, was not the 
 same which Musa had given to them,, but that it is 
 full of fictions, changes, and alterations. The 
 author of the new Pentateuch which the Jews have 
 is Zorobabil, who collected it from the accounts of 
 those who knew it by heart, whilst the genuine 
 Pentateuch is in the hands of the Samaritans. This 
 king reigned forty-six years. Another version of 
 this history says, that the person who married a 
 Jewish lady was el-Bokhta Nassar himself, and that 
 he released the Jews from the captivity. 
 
 After Ibrahim his son Isma'il took charge of the 
 house (Ka'bah, at Mekka). God made him a pro- 
 phet, and sent him to the 'Amalikites, and to some 
 tribes of Yemen, to forbid to them idolatry. Some 
 of them became believers ; the most part, however, 
 remained faithful to the false religion. Ismael was 
 blessed with twelve sons, viz., Nabet (Nebaioth), 
 Kidar, Abdil, Mibsam, Maisa' (Mishma), Duma, 
 Dowam*, Mita (Massa), Heddad, Taim (Tema), 
 Yetura, and Nan's, **AXI; p**^ J^l; ^\& ^L* 
 
 \* U. Ibrahim 
 
 * Dowam is not mentioned in the Bible (Chronicon i. 29, 30): 
 it crept in probably by writing Duma twice, once wrongly spelt ; 
 and then, in order not to have thirteen names, the copyists left out 
 Kedemah, which is the name last mentioned in the Bible. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 121 
 
 declared Isma'il as his successor, and Isma'il in- 
 stalled Nabet, or according to others, Kidar, to 
 succeed him. When Isma'il died, he was one 
 hundred and thirty- seven years of age, and was 
 buried in the mesjid el-Haram (the temple of 
 Mekka), on the spot where the black stone is. 
 After him the charge of the temple was intrusted 
 to his son Nabet, who followed the good example 
 and religion of his father. 
 
 There were several prophets and men distin- 
 guished by godliness between Solaiman, son of 
 Dawud, and the Masih (Messiah), as Aramaya 
 Uc^l (Jeremiah), Daniyal (Daniel), 'Ozair ^y. 
 (Ezra) [whose prophetic dignity is controverted], 
 Sha'ya (Isaiah), Hizkial (Ezekiel), llyds (Elias), el- 
 Yasa' (Elisha), Yunos* (Jonas), Dul-Kifl 
 
 * I preserve here, and in other Scriptural names, the Arabic 
 sound; for some changes are as much sanctioned by use with 
 them, as in English to say John instead of Joannes. Besides, 
 these corruptions may yet point out whence the Arabs have 
 originally derived their Biblical knowledge. Some Hebrew names 
 seem even to have been originally Arabic, and to have been pre- 
 served in the language of this nation, as well as in the Scriptures. 
 Only, in putting the vowels, I follow in preference the Scriptures, 
 when Arabic authors do not agree: some authors write the Kamus 
 Nomrud, whilst others write Namrud and Nimrud. I prefer 
 the latter. 
 
 t The name of Dul-Kifl is twice mentioned in the Koran; 
 the first time (xxi. 85) with Isma'il and Idris, and the second 
 
122 EL-MAs'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 and el-Khidhr* j*a.\. A tradition reported by 
 Ibn Ishak (or Ibn ' Abbas) makes Aramaya a pious 
 and godly man (but not a prophet). Another pro- 
 phet of this period was Zakariya (Zacharias), who 
 was the son of Adan, of the children of Dawud and 
 the tribe of Juda. He was married to Lishya' 
 (Elizabeth), the daughter of 'Imran, and sister of 
 Maryam (Mary), the mother of Christ. 'Imran, 
 who was the son of Maran Ben Yo'akim, was also 
 a descendant of Dawud. The name of the mother 
 of Lishya' (Elizabeth), and of Maryam,, was Han- 
 nah. Elizabeth gave birth to Yahya (John), who 
 was the cousin of Christ. His father Zakariya was 
 a carpenter. The Jews spread the rumour that he 
 had ravaged Maryam, and put him to death. When 
 
 time (xxxviii.) with Isma'iland el-Yasa' (Elisha), so that one may 
 infer that he is a Hebrew prophet who received this name from 
 some action or event, as Jonas was called Dul-Nun, from the 
 fish which swallowed him. Sale adds the following note to the 
 second passage of the Koran: " Al-Beidawi here takes notice 
 of another tradition concerning this prophet ; viz., that he enter- 
 tained and took care of a hundred Israelites, who fled to him 
 from a certain slaughter; from which action he probably had 
 the name Dul-Kifl given him; the primary signification of the 
 word cafala being to maintain, or take care of another. If a 
 conjecture might be founded on this tradition, I should fancy the 
 person intended was Obadiah, the governor of Ahab's house." 
 * About el-Khidhr see page 90 of this volume. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 123 
 
 he was aware of their intention, he took refuge in 
 a tree, and hid himself in its cavity ; but Satan, the 
 enemy of God, pointed him out to them. They 
 split the tree in which he was, and cut him to 
 pieces in so doing. When Elizabeth, the sister of 
 Maryam, the mother of Christ, had given birth to 
 Yahya Ben Zakariya, she took flight with her child 
 from some king to Egypt. 
 
 When he had grown up God sent him to the 
 children of Israel. He preached to them what God 
 has commanded and forbidden, and they put him 
 to death. There were many rebellions* amongst 
 the Israelites. God sent, therefore,, a king, of the 
 name of Hardush (Herodes), from the East. Under 
 him the righteous men had the same fate as Yahya, 
 the son of Zakariya; and it was only after long 
 troubles, that he put a stop to shedding blood. 
 
 When Maryam was seventeen years of age God 
 sent the angel Gabriel to her, and he breathed the 
 spirit into her. She was with child of the Masih, 
 Jesus the son of Maryam, and she gave him birth 
 in a country town,, called Beit Lehm, which is some 
 miles from Jerusalem. This was in the twenty- 
 fourth of the first Kanun. His history is related 
 
 The copy of Leyden bears ^ 
 There were many traditions among the Israelites." 
 
124 EL MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 by God in the Koran*, and the Christians believe 
 that Jesus observed the old religion of his nation. 
 He read (lectured on) the Pentateuch and other 
 ancient books for twenty-nine or thirty years, at 
 Tiberias, in the province of the Jordan, in a syna- 
 gogue called el-Madras u^JsJU. A certain day he 
 was reading the Book of the prophet Esaias, and 
 he saw in it the passage, "Thou art my prophet and 
 my elect: I have chosen thee for me:" he closed the 
 book, gave it to the minister of the synagogue, 
 and went out saying, " The word of God is now 
 fulfilled in the Son of Manf." Some say Christ 
 lived in a town called Nasarah (Nazareth), in the 
 district of el-Lajjun ^^.J^, in the province of the 
 Jordan. Hence the Christians have (in Arabic) 
 the name Nasraniyah lo^A^U I have visited that 
 church: it is in high veneration with the Christians. 
 There are some coffins of stone, with dead bodies 
 
 in them, from which oil comes out, of the consis- 
 
 ~ j 
 tency of the inspissated juice of fruits (Roob v^0> 
 
 in which the Christians find their blessing. 
 
 The Masih came to the lake of Tiberias, where 
 he found some fishermen, who were the sons of 
 Zabada, and some fullers. Matta (Matthew), Yo- 
 hanna (John), Markush (Mark), and Luka (Luke), 
 
 * In the third Surah, and passim. 
 t Lukeiv. 1621. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 125 
 
 are the four apostles who wrote the Gospel, and 
 preserved the history of the Masih: they have 
 related in it his birth and his baptism by Yahya 
 Ben Zakariya, who is called John Baptist ^.^ 
 tXfrxJJ, in the lake of Tiberias, from which the water 
 runs into the Jordan ; the wonders wrought through 
 him, the miracles with which God honoured him, 
 and how the Jews treated him, till he ascended into 
 heaven, when he was thirty-three years of age. 
 
 There are long accounts of the Masih, Mary am, 
 and Yusof the carpenter, in the Gospel, which we 
 forbear inserting; for God does not mention them 
 (in the Koran), nor has his prophet Mohammed 
 related them. 
 
126 EL-MA$'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 SIXTH CHAPTER. 
 
 Those who lived in the Fatrah ; that is to say, in the 
 time between Christ and Mohammed. 
 
 EL-MAS'UDI says, many persons who lived between 
 Christ and Mohammed, in the Fatrah, professed 
 the unity of God, and believed that he sends (pro- 
 phets). But whether there has been a prophet 
 amongst them or not is controverted. Some allege 
 that Hantalah Ben Safwan ^yu* ^^ XXk;^, who 
 was a descendant of Isma'il Ben Ibrahim, has been 
 a prophet, and was sent to the Ashab er-Rass*, 
 
 The Ashab er-Rass are brought forward 
 as an example in the Koran (xxv. 40), together with the 'Adites 
 and Themudites, as a nation, who have been punished for not 
 having listened to their prophet. The commentators of the 
 Koran conceive ashab to mean inhabitants^ and believe, therefore, 
 er-Rass to be a town. They have, however, been so much at a 
 loss to find the site of this town, that they thought it might be on 
 the river er-Rass, or the Araxes of the ancients I Now sahib 
 hardly ever means inhabitants. El-Fairuzabadi (p. 763) gives 
 the following opinion : " Er-Rass is the name of a well of rem- 
 nants of the Themudites, in which they smothered \y^ their 
 prophet, not believing on him." This leads me to think that 
 rass is to be taken as an infinitive, and ashab er-rass to be 
 rendered by smotherers. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 127 
 
 who were equally descended from Isma'il, and 
 divided into two tribes, one of which was called 
 
 o * 
 
 Kodman ^LctXS, and the other Yamin (^-j-<^> or 
 Ra'wil J^y^j? both of which were in Yemen. When 
 Hantalah Ben Safwan rose amongst them, by the 
 command of God, they killed him. A prophet of 
 the children of Israel, of the tribe of Juda, received 
 therefore the revelation of God, that Bohkta Nassar 
 would march, by divine command, against them : 
 and he vanquished them. To this allude the words 
 of God: " When they felt our strength, they were 
 agitated .... dying and perishing." It is 
 said that they were Himyarites, and this is sup- 
 ported by one of their (Himyarite) poets in an 
 elegy: 
 
 " My eyes flow in tears for the Ashab er-Rass, 
 the Ra'wil, and Kodman: the punishment which 
 the tribe of the Kahtanites suffered caused those to 
 submit to God who had refused to do so." 
 
 It is stated on the authority of Wahb Ben 
 Monabbih that Dul-Karnein, who is the same per- 
 son with Alexander*, lived after Christ, in the 
 
 * Other passages of this work evince an intimate acquaintance 
 of el-Mas'udi with the history of Alexander the Great, and the 
 Alexandrian era. But it is the habit of Arabic historians, and 
 particularly with our author, to give the different traditions which 
 they have received literally as they heard them, even if they 
 
128 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Fatrah. He had a vision, in which he saw himself 
 so near the sun that he seized its two extremities 
 ^/JjjtM, the eastern and western. He related this 
 dream to his people, and they called him " One who 
 has both horns" (or sides of the sun) ^jjtt^i. 
 Many different opinions respecting him have been 
 advanced, which are to be found in our works, the 
 Akhbar ez-zeman and the Kitab el-ausat, and we 
 shall give a view of his history in those chapters 
 of this book which treat on the Greek and Byzan- 
 tine sovereigns. 
 
 In the same way the historians do not agree on 
 the men of the grotto (the Seven Sleepers): some 
 say they lived in the Fatrah ; others think other- 
 wise. We shall insert a concise account of their 
 history in the (twenty-eighth) chapter on the Roman 
 emperors in this book. For the rest we have 
 their adventures related in the Kitab el-ausat, and in 
 the work which preceded it, the Akhbar ez-zeman. 
 
 One of the persons who lived after Christ, in 
 the Fatrah, was George UMA^S*. His birth fell 
 
 should be convinced they are not true. Here he states, more- 
 over, his authority. This anachronism had its origin probably in 
 a king of Yemen, who had the name Dul-Karnein from two curls 
 of hair, and who was confounded with Alexander, as he had the 
 same epithet. I shall again speak of this name in the chapter 
 on the kings of Yemen. The name Dul-Karnem is mentioned in 
 the eighteenth chapter of the Koran. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 129 
 
 within the lifetime of some of the apostles. God 
 sent him to the King of el-Mausil, to call him to 
 the true religion, and though the king killed him, 
 God restored him to life, and sent him a second 
 time to him : the king killed him again ; but God 
 resuscitated him once more, and sent him a third 
 time: now the king burnt him, and threw the ashes 
 into the Tigris. God destroyed the king, and all 
 his subjects who had followed him. So the story is 
 related by believers of the Scriptures, and in the 
 books on the beginning and on the biography (of 
 Mohammed), by Wahb Ben Monabbih and other 
 authors. 
 
 Another man of the Fatrah was Habib en-Nejjar 
 ^Ls\M s^*^ wn lived at Antioch, in Syria, where 
 there reigned a tyrant, who worshipped idols and 
 images. Two disciples of the Masih went to him, 
 to call him to God. He imprisoned and ill-treated 
 them, till they were aided by God, who sent a third 
 man. Who he was is controverted; but most 
 authors say that he was Peter, which is the Greek 
 name of the apostle who is called Sim'an w lx~> in 
 Arabic, and Sham'iin in Syriac. This is Sham'un 
 the brasser. 
 
 But many historians and the Christians of all 
 sects are of opinion, that the third apostle, through 
 whom they were aided, was Paul, and the two 
 others who had been committed to prison, were 
 Thomas and Peter. They had a long interview 
 
 K 
 
130 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 with the king, showing him miracles and proofs: 
 they healed those born blind, and the lepers, and 
 restored the dead to life. Paul succeeded in ob- 
 taining an audience: he gained his favour, and the 
 king set free his two colleagues from prison. Habib 
 en-Nejjar* came, and he believed on them when 
 he had seen their signs. God relates this in the 
 Koran t, in the words, " When we sent two men to 
 them; but they charged them with imposture. 
 Wherefore we strengthened them with a third one," 
 &c., down to the words " a man came in haste." 
 
 Peter and Paul were killed in Rome. Many 
 persons relate that they were crucified with their 
 heads downwards, after they had been a long time 
 in contact with the emperor and Saiman ^^ 0$*) 
 the sorcerer^. After the Christian religion had 
 become victorious, they were laid in a coffin of 
 crystal, and deposited in a church of that city. 
 
 We have related this in oar Kitab el-ausat 
 where we speak of the curiosities of Rome, and 
 where we trace the history of the disciples of 
 Christ, and their dispersion over the earth. We 
 
 * A mosque in the middle of the market of Antioch, sacred 
 to this Habib, was much visited by pilgrims at the time of el- 
 Kazwini ( Athar el-bilad). 
 
 f Surah xxxvi., from verse 13 to 19. 
 
 t Simon Magus, to whose aeronautics the prayers of St. 
 Peter made a fatal end. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 131 
 
 shall exhibit a summary of their history in this 
 book. 
 
 The contrivers of the pit* ^J^i ^->\^\ lived 
 
 * An allusion to this story being found in the Koran, it is 
 related in the commentaries to that book, and almost in every 
 Arabic work on geography. But modern authors enrich it with 
 edifying additions and pious alterations. 
 
 The fact, as it is related by our author, is historical, and 
 happened in 522 A.D. The heroism of a Najranite matron, and 
 of a boy who threw himself into the flames, gave rise naturally 
 to the popular tradition of the miracle which el-Mas'udi relates, 
 and to which Mohammed alluded three hundred years before 
 him. 
 
 Baronius (Annal. Eccl. ; Lucas 1741, Tom. ix., pp. 309 et 
 seq. ad annum 522 et 523) reproduces the acta St. Aretha* 
 martyris, who was the chief of the Najranites. These acta are 
 exceedingly curious; and to judge from the spirit in which they 
 are written, I feel confident they come from the pen of an Arab, 
 and were possibly originally composed in that language. This 
 would be an important addition to the history of the civilization 
 of the Arabs. The frequent allusions to the Scriptures evince 
 an intimate acquaintance of the author with the Bible. Lam- 
 beccius speaks for the rest of another work which exists in the 
 emperor's library at Vienna, and which was written in Tifar 
 .lili at this period, and may serve as a proof of the literary 
 activity of the Arabs before Mohammed : it has the title " Abrahii 
 regis Homeritarum leges a St. Gregentio Tapharensi Episcopo 
 compositae." 
 
 The persecution of the Najranite Christians, and the conquest 
 of the Abyssinians, are also mentioned by Procopius (De bello 
 Persico i., 20), Cedrenus (ad annum 522), Zonaras, Nicephorus, 
 
 K 2 
 
132 EL-MAS'UDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 also in the time of the Fatrah, in the capital of 
 Najran, in Yemen, during the reign of Du 
 
 &c. Comparing the Arabic accounts with the Greek authors, it 
 is possible the fact was this. 
 
 Najran was favoured by nature, and so famous since ancient 
 times, that it seems to have formed one of the objects of the 
 invasion of JElius Gallus. The inhabitants, ever anxious, as it 
 seems, to lead the Bedouins to their interests, raised a temple in 
 opposition to the Ka'bah of Mekka, which was called the Ka'bah 
 of Najran, in order to attract pilgrims. But it seems that they 
 did not fully succeed, since the town is not mentioned amongst 
 the markets of the Arabs. This failure is to be accounted for by 
 their situation between Mekka and San'a, both of which were 
 sacred by age and many popular traditions, acknowledged by 
 habit, and the one protected by the league of the Modhar tribes, 
 whose centre it was, whilst the other was the capital of all the 
 Himyarite tribes: hence the tenets of the Arians, which were 
 preached to them by a monk in the fourth century of the 
 Christian era, were welcome to them, as they condemned the 
 black stone and the idols of the Ka'bah, to which the Korai'shites 
 owed their power, and gave them hope to come to the possession 
 of the Ghomdan at San'a. The sacred well of this Capitolium 
 reminds one of the Zemzem ; and the four sides, painted in white, 
 red, yellow, and green, seem to have the same origin as the 
 Ka'bah (i.e., square building), of which there were several in 
 Arabia, besides that of Mekka; and, although the Ghomdan was 
 chiefly sacred to the planet Venus, the seven stories, or roofs, 
 imply a clear allusion to the seven planets. 
 
 The mystifications of Arianism, however, made no impression 
 upon the sound minds of the Bedouins. The Najranites sought, 
 therefore, in treason what they had in vain contended for through 
 enslaving their minds; and it is allowed by Christian authors that 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 133 
 
 Nowas*, who killed Du Shenatirf yU-fc ^. He 
 was a Jew: and having heard that there were fol- 
 lowers of the religion of the Messiah in Najran, he 
 came himself there, sank pits in the ground, filled 
 them with glowing fire, and called the inhabitants 
 to the Jewish religion: those who followed him 
 were free; but those who refused to obey were 
 thrown into the fire. There came a woman, with a 
 child of seven months, who refused to abjure her 
 
 they had betrayed their country to the King of Abyssinia, 
 " Dunaanus (Du Nowas) rex, tarn, ut genus Christianorum 
 vexaret, quam, ut Eleslaano regi ^Ethiopum molestiam crearet, 
 graviter afflixit cives urbis Nagran in Homeritide sitse, cui pra3- 
 fectus erat St. Arethas." 
 
 Dii Nowas, was Lord of Phare, which is spelt Taphar in an 
 ancient Greek Menologium, quoted by Pagius ; so that there can 
 be no doubt but that Tifar JJ& is meant. He professed the 
 Jewish religion; for the law of Moses had found many prose- 
 lytes in Arabia by its sublime simplicity; and being the protector 
 of Yemen, he was of course obliged to check the conduct of the 
 Najranites, and decided to eradicate the evil which was owing 
 to their religion. But the /Ethiopians revenged the blood of 
 their brethren, and took possession of Arabia, until a reaction 
 took place, in which the Persians were called in. 
 
 * Du Nowas means the man with the curl, for he had a black 
 curl hanging over his back. 
 
 t Du Shenatir means the man with ear-rings, shenatir being 
 the Himyarite word for ear-ring 3&j.i'. El-Fairuzabadi says, 
 Du Shenatir had this surname, because he had one finger too many. 
 His proper name was Lakhti'ah XxxAiL . 
 
134 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 religion. She was taken to the fire, and when she 
 was frightened God gave speech to the child, and 
 it said, "Go on, mother, in thy faith; thou wilt 
 not meet a fire after this." They were both thrown 
 into the fire. They were true believers, professing 
 the unity of God, and did not belong to the 
 Christian creed of this age (who profess the trinity). 
 Shocked at these cruelties, a man of the name of 
 Du Tha'leban* j,UX*S' ^ ( 6 Ubm) went to 
 Caesar to ask him for his aid. The emperor wrote 
 to the Nejashi (the king of Abyssinia) about the case, 
 as he was nearer. This gave origin to the invasion 
 of the Abyssinians in Yemen, who kept this country 
 in subjection till (Yusoff ) Du Yasan ^y*j* solicited 
 the assistance of several kings, which was at last 
 granted to him by Anushirwan, as we have de- 
 scribed in our books, the Akhbar ez-zeman and the 
 Kitab el-ausat; and we shall give a summary of 
 these events in the (forty-third) chapter, where we 
 speak on the Adwa^ and kings of Yemen. The story 
 of the contrivers of the pit is mentioned in the 
 
 * Procopius gives him the name Kais. 
 
 f The name Yusof is only in the Cambridge copy. Yazan 
 is a Wadi (in Yemen), and Du Yazan a Himyarite king who was 
 in possession of this Wadi. (Kamus, p. 1 81 6.) 
 
 I Adwa \j&\ is the plural of Du, and means literally pos- 
 sessed of: here it implies the chiefs whose surnames began with 
 Du. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 135 
 
 Koran*, from the words, "Killed are the con- 
 trivers of the pit/' to the words, "They had 
 nothing to revenge on them but their belief on the 
 almighty and glorious God." 
 
 Khaled Ben Sinan el-Absi lived also in the 
 Fatrah: his full name was Khaled Ben Sinan 
 Ben'Ayyath (Ghaith?) Ben J Abs ^U- ^ ^ 
 y^xc ^ dvx ^>. He has been mentioned by 
 the Prophetf, who says, "" There was a prophet 
 who has been destroyed by his nation." The story 
 is this : a fire rose in Arabia, and caused a great 
 commotion and disturbances amongst the Arabs; 
 so that fire-worship was making its way amongst 
 them. Khaled took a club, and struck on the fire, 
 exclaiming, "Begin! begin! every grace from God 
 alone we win : I enter the flames, and they blaze 
 high; I come out from them, and my reward is 
 nigh^:" and he extinguished the fire. When he 
 was dying, he said to his brothers, " When I am 
 
 * Surah Ixxxv., from the fourth to the eighth verse. 
 
 t When the Beni 'Abs sent delegates to Mohammed he 
 seems jiot yet to have been aware of Khaled's death ; so that it 
 appears this religious commotion was contemporaneous with Mo- 
 hammed. (Siyar el-Halebi, Cairo, 1248, A.H. p. 378.) 
 
 J The copies differ materially; I followed this reading: 
 
 JJ (read 
 
136 EL-MAS'UDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 buried, a herd of wild asses, of the Himyarites, will 
 come, and an ass without a tail, who goes in front 
 of them, will kick with his hoof on my grave. 
 When you see that, open the grave, for I shall 
 come forth from it, and give you information about 
 everything." When they had buried him, they 
 saw what he had foretold; and they intended to 
 take him out. Some of them, however, objected to 
 it, and said, " We fear the Arabs will blame us if 
 we disturb the rest of the dead." When his daugh- 
 ter came to the Prophet, and heard him reciting 
 (the words of the Koran): cc Say! he is the only 
 God the Eternal," she said, " The same words 
 have been used by my father." We shall further 
 speak of this man in another part of this book. 
 
 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, Riat esh-Shanni &A\ v^L^, 
 (tfUJJ v^) li ve d also in the Fatrah: he belonged 
 first to the tribe of 'Abd el-Kais*, and then to the 
 Shann tribe. He was a believer in the religion of 
 the Messiah (?), previous to the mission of Moham- 
 med. [They heard a voice from heaven : " Three 
 persons on earth are good: Riat esh-Shanni,, 
 
 * 'Abd el-Kais Ben Aksa iS *aS\ /.jj (j*A*H >^ ft was 
 the father of a tribe which belonged to the Asad family, and had 
 its quarters in el-Bahrain. (Add. MS. of the Brit. Museum, 
 7596.) The Abucei of Ptolemy seem to imply this tribe, which 
 was very powerful. Shann was also a son of Aksa. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 137 
 
 Bohairah the monk, and another man who is to 
 come." By the last the Prophet was meant*.] It 
 was observed that the grave of every child of Riat 
 was bedewed by a slight rain. 
 
 Another man who lived in the Fatrah was 
 As'ad Abu Karib el-Himyarit. He was a believer 
 in the Prophet seven hundred years before his 
 mission. He said, 
 
 cf I declare that Ahmed is a prophet of God, the 
 Creator of life ; and if I was to live to his time I 
 should be his Vizier and his nephew." 
 
 He was the first who clad the Ka'ba with 
 leather, saying, 
 
 " I clothe the house which is to be sacred by 
 the command of God, surrounding it with a rich 
 cover of various colours." 
 
 Koss Ben Sa'idah, of the tribe of lyad Ben 
 Nizar Ben Ma'add j\y /.^ <iL>J ^ sJtcLa ^.j u*o 
 
 * x ** CU^ 0>0 was a philosopher of the Arabs, and 
 believed that God sends prophets. It is him who 
 said, " Who lives dies, and who dies flies; and all 
 what is growing devours what is going." His 
 wisdom and intelligence became proverbial. El- 
 
 * This sentence is only in the copy of Leyden. 
 f His full name is L*jXT /.w <-^J" ^\ Xx*t I he 
 was the middle Tobba'. 
 
138 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 A'sha ,<&fi5M says, " Wiser * than Koss, and 
 braver than the inmate of the cavern, in the thick 
 wood at Khaffan" (i.e. the lion). 
 
 There came delegates from lyad to the Pro- 
 phet, and he asked them about Koss. They 
 replied that he was dead; and Mohammed said, 
 '" It is as if I saw him in the fair of 'Okatf l&Ke: 
 he was sitting on a red camel,, and said, ' O people! 
 assemble, hear, and cry, Who lives dies, and who 
 dies flies; and what is growing devours what is 
 going. But then, the heaven gives us information, 
 
 * El-Mas'udf writes y^Jj A, +.s\ ; but the saying seems to 
 have been (Jf Jf ^ t^k^J. See el-Mai'dani, vol. i. p. 467, and 
 p. 189; and D'Herbelot. 
 
 t 'Okat is the fair in the open country between Nakhlah 
 XX=? and et-Tayif. It began in the new moon of Dul-Ki'dah 
 and lasted twenty days. The Arabic tribes used to assemble 
 there to recite their poetries, each tribe boasting of their glory 
 ^^TlxAj. From this fair the 'Okati leather has its name. 
 The Arabs used also to ransom their prisoners at 'Okat, to pay 
 the price of blood, and to settle their quarrels before an arbitrator 
 *J*Ls., that the pilgrimage to which they proceeded from 'Okat 
 might be a ceremony of national unanimity and peace. (MS. of 
 the Brit. Museum, 7353.) The words j^' ^ *-! seem to 
 refer to arbitration ; for en-Nowairi informs us that he used to say, 
 
 the prosecutor .^cjJ ^ is to bring evidence, and the defendant, 
 if he denies the charge, is to swear. Hence it would appear that 
 he acted as arbitrator. Perhaps I ought to have translated the 
 above words, " a better arbitrator than Koss. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 139 
 
 and the earth calls us to contemplation : the seas 
 raise waves, and the stars set: the roof (of the 
 heavens) is raised, and the ground (of the earth) is 
 firmly placed*.' Koss swore by God: ' There is a 
 faith which is more acceptable to the Lord than 
 your religion. What may be the reason that men 
 pass away, and do not return ? Do they like to be 
 there? or have they ended, and do they sleep? 
 They all go the same way, although their actions 
 are different/ He said (continued the Prophet) 
 some verses, which I have forgotten." 
 
 Abu Bekr es-Sadik rose, and said, " I recollect 
 those verses, O Prophet of God ;" and he recited 
 them thus : 
 
 " We have an example in the famous men who 
 passed before us, since I observe they went towards 
 death without resistance. I observed the same in 
 my contemporaries: they fade, great and little. 
 
 En-Nowairl 
 
 (p. 137 MS. of Leyden, N. 273) quotes these words of Koss, 
 adding, ^\ &\* ^l^^ ^ ^ j^'j ^ 'if^'f 
 
 The solemn protestation which follows begins in en-Nowa'iri, 
 "If there was pleasure on earth, we should have to expect 
 sorrow after this life. There is a faith, &c." These words 
 explain the meaning of the sentences which follow. 
 
140 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 He who is gone will never return ; and those who 
 are still alive will not remain behind. I am sure 
 no exception will be made where they all go to*. 
 
 The Prophet said, ' l God may be merciful to Koss, 
 and I hope he will honour him with his bounty." 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, Koss made himself known by 
 many poems, sentences of wisdom, and distin- 
 guished actions, for an account of which we refer 
 our readers to our book., the Akhbar ez-zeman and 
 Kitab el-ausat, where we have also spoken of his 
 researches in medicine and soothsaying from birds 
 and other omens, and his knowledge in other 
 branches of natural philosophy . 
 
 Another famous man of the Fatrah was Zeid 
 Ben 'Amr Ben Nofai'l ,>/ju ^j ^^^ ^j Abu 
 Za'id, the son of Zeid Joj ^...j *XA*** ^.j!, was one of 
 the Tenf (whom Mohammed had promised that 
 they would enter the Paradise) , and the nephew of 
 'Omar Ben el-Khattab. Being against idolatry, he 
 expressed freely his opinion. El-Khattab informed 
 the ignorant of Mekka about it, and gave him into 
 
 * Death is the phenomenon which calls man to reflexion, 
 although he may still live in that happy social state in which his 
 vital spirits are healthy enough to enjoy the present, regardless of 
 the past and future : hence elegies of this character are frequent 
 amongst the Bedouins, and their tunes are melancholy. A beau- 
 tiful specimen is in the Hamasa, p. 44. 
 
 f He must mean Sa'd. See Reiske's note to Abulfeda, 
 Annales Muslemici, vol. i. to p. 245. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 141 
 
 their power. They persecuted him, and he took 
 up his abode in a cavern, in Hera *Jj*. He came 
 secretly to Mekka, whence he took flight to Syria ; 
 and there he continued his speculations on religion, 
 till he was poisoned by the Christians. He died 
 in Syria. There passed several things between 
 him, the king, and the interpreter, and between 
 him and some Ghasanite king, at Damascus, which 
 we have related in our former works. 
 
 Omaiyah Ben Abi-s-Salt eth-Thakefi ^ **\ 
 c/j&Jt <rJUfili j.\ f is also a man who made himself 
 known in the Fatrah : he was a poet, and a very 
 sound man. Being in commercial connexions with 
 Syria, he met there with the believers in revelation, 
 both Jews and Christians: he read himself their 
 (sacred) books, and knew that a prophet would 
 rise amongst the Arabs. In several poems he treats 
 on the ideas of the followers of religion, describing 
 the heavens and earth, sun and moon, angels and 
 prophets. He celebrates also the prophetic mis- 
 sion, the resurrection of the dead, the Paradise, and 
 hell. He sang hymns to God, acknowledging his 
 unity, as in the words : 
 
 * This is a mount three miles from Mekka, which was a 
 
 favourite summer residence of Mohammed. 
 &^j s *.*. 
 
 t X<w\ is the diminutive form of JLoJ (a female slave), and 
 
 tl^JuaH is the man famous in single combat. (Hamasa, p. 776 ; 
 compare p. 354.) 
 
142 EL-MAs'uni's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 "Praise be to God. None is like him; and 
 who does not profess this truth is unjust against 
 himself." 
 
 The following terms express his idea of the 
 Paradise : 
 
 " There is no idle talk, no sinful action, nor do 
 they contend for fame. This is their eternal home." 
 
 When he had heard of the mission of the 
 Prophet he was full of anger and indignation, he 
 came however to Medina, in order to become a 
 Moslem, but envy made him alter his resolution and 
 he returned to et-Tayif. One day when he was 
 with a girl at a drinking party, a raven came, uttered 
 three sounds, and flew a way again. Omaiyah asked, 
 " Do you know what the raven said?" they replied, 
 " No." He announced that Omaiyah would not 
 drink a third cup before he would die. The party 
 expressed that it was not true, but he continued, 
 " Take your cups;" and when the third cup came 
 to Omaiyah he fainted away, and gave a long time 
 no signs of life. Then he said, tl I am at your 
 service ! at your service ! You call me to you. I 
 am of those who have experienced grace and not 
 returned the praise of thanksgiving. If thou par- 
 donest, O God, thou wilt forgive all; for where hast 
 thou a servant who has not done wrong? " Then he 
 said the following verses: 
 
 " The day of judgment is a serious day; and to 
 think on this day must make the young grey. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 143 
 
 (i Would to heaven I had been a shepherd of 
 wild goats, on the summits of mountains, before it 
 comes to me. 
 
 " Every life is short, even should it last an age 
 before it ends." 
 
 After he had said these verses he sighed, and in 
 this sigh departed his soul. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, antiquarians well versed in the 
 
 battle days of the Arabs, and in the history of past 
 
 f 
 times, like Ben Dab ^te (^1 (v^ W0 a l"Haithern 
 
 Ben 'Adi, Abu Mikhnaf Lut Ben Yahya and Mo- 
 hammed Ben es-Sayib el-Kelbi c^vKM -vA***M <^j^ **^ 
 state that the following story was the origin of the 
 habit of the Koraishites to put "In thy name, O 
 my God," on the head of their writings. Omaiyah 
 Ben Abi-s-Salt, the Thakefite, went with a num- 
 ber of persons of his tribe and others to Syria. 
 On the return of the caravan they halted in 
 some station, and as they were assembled at their 
 supper, a little serpent made its appearance and 
 approached to them. One amongst them threw 
 sand on its face,, and the serpent went back again. 
 They made themselves ready for the journey, packed 
 the camels, and set out from the station. A short 
 distance from it an old woman came from a sand- 
 hill leaning on a stick, and said, " Why have you 
 not been kind enough to feed an orphan girl who 
 came to you at supper?" They asked her, "Who 
 
144 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 art thou?" She answered, " I am the mother of 
 the creeper. You shall either perish in some years, 
 or by the Lord, you shall err, dispersed through 
 the country." Then she struck with her stick on 
 the ground and said, stirring up the sand, " Long 
 be to their homes the way, and their animals shall 
 run away ! " The camels became shy as if every one 
 of them had a Satan on its back; nothing could 
 keep them and they dispersed in the wadi. We were 
 occupied in gathering them from the end of the day 
 to the next morning, and we hardly succeeded in 
 bringing them together. When we made them 
 kneel down to receive their burthens to continue 
 our journey, the woman made again her appearance,, 
 did with her stick as on the first time, repeating the 
 same words; the camels became shy, and we were 
 by no means able to keep them. The next day we 
 attempted again to collect them and to pack them, 
 but the woman came once more, and having done 
 as on the first and second times, the camels ran again 
 away. The next night at moonlight, we were in 
 despair for our animals of burthen JQ&\, and we said 
 to Omai'yah Ben Abi-s-Salt, " What hast thou to say 
 on our situation?" He went up the sand hill from 
 which the woman came, and having gone down on 
 the other side of the hill he climbed up another, and 
 after he had descended from that hill, he saw a 
 Christian chapel in which candles were burning, and 
 a man with white hair and beard was laying on his 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 145 
 
 side across the entrance. "When I stood before 
 him," continues Omaiyah in his tale, " he raised 
 his head, saying, ' Hast thou a follower?' I 
 answered, ' Yes/ He asked further, 'From whence 
 does thy companion speak to thee?' I replied, 
 ' From my left ear.' He enquired about the colour 
 of his dress, and I answered, 'He is in black.' 
 1 This is the habit of the Genii, thou dost better not 
 do so. In this affair one speaks to the right ear 
 and the most desirable dress is white. But what 
 do you want?' I told him the story of the old 
 woman, and he said in answer, * Thou speakest 
 truth. But she is not true. She is a Jewish 
 woman, whose husband perished many years ago, 
 she will go on playing the same trick to you, 
 and she will destroy you if she can.' Omaiyah said, 
 * How can we get out of it?' He answered, 
 ' Assemble your camels, and if she comes and does 
 what she has done, say seven times in a high voice, 
 and seven times in a low voice, " In thy name,, O 
 God!" and she will not be able to do you any 
 harm. ' '- 
 
 Omaiyah returned to the caravan, and related 
 there what he had heard. The old woman came 
 and did as she had done on former occasions, and 
 he pronounced seven times in a high voice, and 
 seven times in a low voice, " In thy name, O God." 
 After that the camels did not move. The woman 
 said, " I know your man, he is white at the top and 
 
 L 
 
146 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 black at the bottom." They continued their journey ; 
 and the next morning they saw that Omai'yah was 
 attacked with leprosy on his face, neck,, and chest, 
 whilst the lower part of his body was black. When 
 they came to Mekka they related this event, and 
 the inhabitants of that city began to put at the 
 head of their writings, " In thy name,, our God 
 l*$Xn jC***lj" This formula was in use till the 
 Islam was introduced ; then it was replaced by the 
 formula, "In the name of the merciful, clement 
 God!" 
 
 Omai'yah had several adventures besides this, 
 which we have related in our Akhbar ez-zeman and 
 other works. 
 
 Warakah (Warikah) Ben Naufel Ben Asad 
 Ben Abdul-' Ozza Ben Kosai'y ^.^ JJ^j (J j r j XS^ 
 ^A^i* ^j <fy*JJ *XAC ^j *x^, the uncle of Khadijah, 
 the daughter of Khowai'lid, the wife of the Prophet, 
 lived also in the Fatrah. The perusal of the Scrip- 
 tures led him to enter into discussions, for he was 
 anxious to pick up knowledge, and to shake off 
 idolatry. He informed Khadijah that Mohammed 
 would be the Prophet of the Arabic nation, but that 
 he would be ill-treated and disclaimed as a story- 
 teller. He met the Prophet, and said to him, " O 
 my cousin (dear friend), be firm in thy career, and 
 by him, in whose hand is the soul of Warakah, 
 thou art the Prophet of this nation. Thou wilt be 
 ill-treated, and called a liar. They will drive thee 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 147 
 
 out from thy house, and fight against thee. My only 
 wish is to be still alive then, that I could lend my 
 aid to the cause of God." 
 
 It is controverted whether he died as a Christian 
 or as a Moslim ; for some authors say that he was no 
 more alive when Mohammed entered his prophetic 
 office, whilst others bring forward the following 
 words, which he said in praise of Mohammed: 
 
 " He is mild, forgiving, and never revengeful, 
 refraining anger and bitter feelings when he receives 
 injury." 
 
 Another man who lived in the Fatrah was 
 'Odasah, a freed slave of 'Otbah Ben Ilabi'ah 
 Syujj Cj^ *^ c ** *~^*xc *, who was a native of 
 Ninive ; and he met the Prophet at et-Tayif, when 
 he was come there to preach the Islam to that 
 town. He had, on this occasion, long discussions 
 with the inhabitants, in the palm-grove. Although 
 he had acknowledged the Prophet, he fell as a 
 Christian in the battle of Bedr. 
 
 o ^ 
 
 Abu Kais Sarmah Ben Abi Anas &*j& y^/Jf ^\ 
 was one f the Ansar belonging to 
 
 * 'Otbah was the father of Hind, Mo'awiyah's mother. 
 
 t The author of the Kamus (p. 1650) seems not to be very 
 
 J O 
 
 sure about this name; he says, /.wl 3! iy*t? ( ?i *-y^ 
 2Loj40 ji\ j\ (jMJt J-t i*yi\ ^ (J*^^ Hence I preferred the 
 
 pronunciation marked in the copy of Leyden. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the Beni en-Nejjar ^ls\M- He devoted himself to 
 an abstemious life, dressed in rough clothes, and 
 disapproved of idolatry, consecrating the house in 
 which he lived to a chapel, from which menstruat- 
 ing women and polluted persons were excluded ; 
 and he professed to worship the God of Ibrahim. 
 When the Prophet came to Medinah, he embraced 
 the Islam, and proved a good Moslim. For him 
 the verse of the Koran * was revealed which is 
 called^snJJ xt (the verse of the day-break J, which 
 runs, u Eat and drink, until you can plainly dis- 
 tinguish a white thread from a black thread by the 
 day-break." The following words on Mohammed 
 have been said by him : ' ' There lives a number of 
 ten persons amongst the Koraishites who are visit- 
 ing Mekka, to see whether they find a man who 
 loves truth." 
 
 Abu 'Amir el-Ausi, whose name was 'Abd 
 'Amr Ben Saifi Ben en-No'man, of the Beni 'Amr 
 Ben 'Auf, who belong to the el-Aus tribe ^-U ^>\ 
 
 ujW c> **** (jj-^ *)* <&t wno ^ s the same person 
 as Abu Hantalahj and has the surname Ghasil el- 
 
 Malayikah xL^I J^^, was a chief, and had lived 
 abstemious, in rough clothes, at the time of igno- 
 
 * In the second Surah. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 149 
 
 ranee. When the Prophet came to Medina, he 
 had a long conversation with him: subsequently he 
 left that city, with fifty slave boys, and died in 
 Syria, as a Christian. 
 
 Another man of the Fatrah is 'Abdullah Ben 
 Jahsh el-Asadi tf*x*^ (jksi /^j <*MI &*.&. : he was 
 of the tribe of Asad Ben Khozai'mah X^iy^, and the 
 husband of Omm Habibah, who was the daughter 
 of Abi Sofyan Ben Harb, before she was married 
 to the Prophet. He had read the Scriptures, and 
 inclined to Christianity. When Mohammed had 
 entered his prophetic office, he emigrated, with 
 other Moslims, to Abyssinia, and with him his wife, 
 Omm Habibah. There he apostatized from the 
 Islam, and died as a Christian. 
 
 S- 
 
 He used to say ^'A^^ USSVAJ t>! that is to 
 say,, " We see, and you attempt to open your eyes." 
 The expressions of this saying are taken from 
 young dogs; for it is said of a dog, when he opens 
 
 the eyes after birth, ^Jij &3 (he opens his eyes) ; 
 but if he attempts to open his eyes, and is unable 
 
 * 
 
 to do it, it is said U>U>. After his deatlv, the 
 Nijashi (the king of Abyssinia) married Omm 
 Habibah, the daughter of Abi Sofyan to the 
 Prophet, and gave her a dowry of four hundred 
 dinars. 
 
 O-j 
 
 Bohaira l^os? the monk, lived also in the Fatrah; 
 he was a believer on Christ, and his name in 
 
150 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Christian books is Serjis (Sergius) u*^.**. Bohaira 
 was of the Abdulkais tribe. When Mohammed 
 went to Syria with Abu Taleb, Abu Bekr, and 
 Belal, at an age of thirteen years, on mercantile 
 business, they passed by Bohaira, who was sitting 
 in his cell, and he recognized the Prophet, com- 
 paring his appearance and the signs which he 
 bore on him with what he had found in his books, 
 and observing the cloud which shaded him whenever 
 he sat down. Bohaira received them as guests, 
 paid them great respects, and gave them refresh- 
 ments. He went forth from his cell to see the seal 
 of the prophetship, between the shoulders of the 
 Prophet, he placed his hand upon it and believed on 
 him. Bohaira informed Abu Bekr and Belal of his 
 destination, and he asked him to come back with 
 him the same way. He guarded them to be 
 watchful for him against the believers on the 
 Scriptures. His uncle, Abu Taleb, having received 
 this information, returned with him. When he was 
 come back from his journey to Mekka, he began his 
 acquaintance with Khadijah, and the signs were 
 wrought which, together with the account which she 
 received of his journey, made her believe that he 
 was a prophet. 
 
 El-Mas'iidi says, This is a review of the history 
 from the Creation as far as we have followed it up. 
 We attended only to those facts which are stated in 
 the revelation and related in the books (Scriptures, 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 151 
 
 particularly the Koran,) and which have been 
 explained by the prophets. Now we shall trace the 
 beginning of the kingdoms of the Hindus and 
 review briefly their religious speculations, then we 
 will follow up the history of other empires, having 
 given an account of the history of the Kings of the 
 Israelites, as we have found it in the sacred books. 
 
152 EL-MAS'IIDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 SEVENTH CHAPTER. 
 
 An abridged account of the Hindus, their religious 
 opinions, and the origin of their kingdoms. 
 
 EL-MAS'UDI says, all historians who unite maturity 
 of reflexion with depth of research, and who have a 
 clear insight into the history of mankind and its 
 origin, are unanimous in their opinion, that the 
 Hindus have been in the most ancient times that 
 portion of the human race which enjoyed the bene- 
 fits of peace and wisdom. When men formed 
 themselves into bodies, and assembled into commu- 
 nities, the Hindus exerted themselves to join them 
 with their empire, and to subject their countries, to 
 the end that they might be the rulers. The great 
 men amongst them said, " We are the beginning 
 and end; we are possessed of perfection, pre-emi- 
 nence, and completion. All that is valuable and 
 important in the life of this world owes its origin to 
 us. Let us not permit that anybody shall resist 
 or oppose us; let us attack any one who dares to 
 draw his sword against us, and his fate will be flight 
 or subjection." 
 
 They were prevailed upon by these consider- 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 153 
 
 ations to elect a king. He was the highest 
 Barahman, the greatest king, and the foremost 
 Imam. In his days flourished philosophy, and the 
 wise men stood at the head of the nation. They 
 extracted iron from the mines, and forged swords, 
 daggers, and several sorts of warlike instruments : 
 they raised temples, adorned them with precious 
 stones of the finest lustre, represented in these tem- 
 ples the spheres of the heavens, the twelve zodiacal 
 signs, and the stars. They gave by representation 
 an idea of the system of the worlds, and went even 
 so far as to show by these means the influence of 
 the stars on this world, and the way in which they 
 produce the different animals, both rational and 
 irrational. There was the position of the greatest 
 ruler to be seen, that is to say, the SUN. 
 
 The Barahman wrote a book, which contained 
 the proofs of all these subjects, and conveyed a 
 clear idea of them to the minds of the Exoteric 
 J^xJt, whilst he implanted into the minds of the 
 Esoteric <_j^iLl the knowledge of what is above all 
 that, pointing to him who is the first cause, and 
 called all beings to existence, embracing them with 
 his bounty. The Hindus obeyed this king. Their 
 country was well cultivated, and he made them 
 enjoy the utmost of worldly prosperity. 
 
 He assembled the wise men, and they composed 
 
154 EL MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 during his reign the book es-Sind-hind, which 
 means ''The last end of the ends*." Upon this 
 
 Ja*sls\j j^^y\ i_AxT <_*XjJ C^ejJ xLejjj&M +&* 
 
 * M. Colebooke( Dissertation on the Algebra of the Hindus,) 
 identifies the Sind-hind with the Siddhanta of Brahmegupta, who 
 lived about twelve hundred years ago. The meaning of Sind- 
 hind, as explained by our author, confirms the identity of the 
 two words, for Siddhanta means the perfect end. But the 
 Sind-hind in question must be another astronomical work of the 
 name of Siddhanta, than that of Brahmegupta; for the Arkand 
 and Arjabhar are more ancient than Brahmegupta, whereas they 
 are here stated to be derived from the Sind-hind ; besides, it seems 
 that the theories here alluded to by el-Mas 'udi are of an earlier 
 date than those of Brahmegupta. This is of importance for the 
 history of astronomy, and particularly for the history of the dis- 
 covery of the precession of the equinox, and the connexion of 
 this theory with some ancient chronologies ; for it would appear 
 that the Arabs had no original translation of the Siddhanta ; but 
 that only the system had been known to them ; and if later authors 
 allude to the Sind-hind, the system of the Siddhanta, as laid 
 down in the work el-Khowarezmi, which bears the title es-Sind- 
 hind, is meant. 
 
 This is clearly stated by the author of the Fihrist, who must 
 be considered as the highest authority in these points, on account 
 of his exactness in bibliography and proximity in time, having 
 written 377 A.H. : ^^Jyu *<**^ **>j& J**' O"^J <j_>^ 
 J04 JuuSL ^iJj*^ Jlx!^ b$\ *&j ^c "The astrono- 
 mers trusted before and after the observation on his two tables, 
 which together were known under the name of Sind-hind." He 
 means the tables of Mohammed Ben Musa el-Khowarezmi, who 
 was one of the astronomers of el-Mamun. Would they not have 
 taken the Siddhanta itself as a standard work, if they had had 
 another translation than a paraphrase of a Persian work on this 
 system. Compare chapter 126 infra, note. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 155 
 
 book other works are founded, as the Arjab- 
 
 The statement of the Fihrist is further explained and con- 
 firmed by el-Kefti (Bibl. Philosoph. MS. of Leyden, No. 159), 
 who states, that el-Khowarezmi was a follower of the Sind-hind, 
 which was one of the three Hindu systems of astronomy. I 
 insert his own words, without correcting the faults, and without 
 translation; for I have at this moment no means of verifying the 
 proper names which occur in the passage : 
 
 (3"*** (^ * X * :SS 
 
 But if the Arabs have not been in possession of a translation 
 of the Siddhanta, how could they be acquainted with the system ? 
 Various reasons make us believe that they received it from the 
 Persians, whose literary connexion with the Hindus is historically 
 proved. First, the theory, as it is exhibited here, seems to be a 
 combination of that of Persia and India, as further notes tend to 
 show. Second, almost all Arabic astrology comes from the Per- 
 sians, and their astronomy was derived from the same source 
 previous to the translation of the ^eyia-rr] trvvral-is. For this rea- 
 son most terms are borrowed from the Persians, although some 
 of them may ultimately be Sanscrit ; and the most early Arabic 
 astronomers were natives of such parts of Persia, which had ever 
 been famous schools of science, as Balkh, &c., or of Harran. 
 Third, Hamzah, of Isfahan, a contemporary of el-Mas'iidi, (apud 
 Anquetil Du Perron, torn, ii., p. 352,) refers to a book based upon 
 
156 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 bar* and the Almagest: from the Arjabharthe Ark- 
 
 the Avesta of Zoroaster, which contains a similar theory. " Le 
 dieu supreme a fixe a 12,000 ans la vie (la duree) du monde, du 
 commencement a la fin. Le monde resta sans mal pendant 3000 
 ans, dans sa partie superieure," &c. 
 
 Es-Sind-hind was. therefore, as the above passages unequivo- 
 cally prove, at the same time the name of the Siddhanta system of 
 astronomy, the only astronomical system of the Hindus known to 
 the Arabs; and of an original Arabic work on this system. 
 Admitting that it was considered in the first sense as a Sanscrit 
 word, meaning the perfect end, I should suppose, in order to 
 account for the seemingly arbitrary alteration of the sound, that 
 it is in the second sense an imitation of the Sanscrit term in two 
 Arabic words, (as the Arabs are very fond of plays on words,) and 
 
 that one ought to read <X*gH <XAJ. J<Ju*Ji means that a tradition 
 
 is mosnad,orthat one can point out the persons through whom it has 
 been handed down, up to Mohammed. But the word is also used 
 in a similar meaning in other instances, and not only in speaking 
 of traditions as, JsJJ jfo U, ^ Vj yJJ iU cAAixJJ U^ 
 
 oV*^ U^ 1 *^ ^4& ft^xM <^*~ ^UajuN). "There is nota 
 trace to be found of the philosophical sciences (in the Maghrib,) 
 and still less a system, because the continuance of instruction has 
 been interrupted by the destruction of civilization." &^\ jj^ 
 might therefore mean continuance of (the system) of the Hindus 
 or introduction of the Hindu system amongst the Mohammedans. 
 
 Ya'kub Ben Tarik o^Ub /.jj vy^V. wrote a work, in two 
 books, the first of which contains the science of the spheres of 
 the heaven ; and the second shows how they exercised their influ- 
 ence upon the fate of dynasties. He professed to follow the doc- 
 trine of the Siddhanta, and calls his work Zij es-Sind-hind. Of a 
 more scientific character seems to be the Zij es-Sind-hind of Ibn 
 Amahurji^.LcJ, whose full name is Abul-Kasim 'Abdullah Ben 
 Amahur. These two authors lived both before the middle of 
 the fourth century. 
 
 * This is the name for aryabhatta. The Sanscrit t, it is to be 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 157 
 
 and* derives its origin, and from the Almagest the 
 book of Ptolemy t, and subsequently the Astrono- 
 mical Tables;}: have been based upon them. 
 
 They invented the nine figures which form the 
 
 read) Xx 
 
 remembered, is the character of a peculiar sound often mistaken 
 for r, and which the Arabs were likely so to write, rather than 
 with a te or a tau. The Hindi t is generally written by the 
 English in India with an r ; example, Ber (vatd,*) the Indian fig, 
 vulg. Banian tree (Colebrooke ibidem}. 
 
 * Arkand is a corruption of Area, which is still prevalent in 
 the vulgar Hindi (Idem^ ibidem). 
 
 f The words, " The Book of Ptolemy," are probably an appo- 
 sition to Almagest instead, " which is a book of Ptolemy." In 
 this case, the names of the numerous works which owe their 
 origin to the Almagest, are left out by the copyist. Not only all 
 MSS. of el-Mas'udi, but also the transcript of this passage in 
 en-Nowairi (MS. of Leyden, N. 273, p. 956) has this mistake. 
 If the words, " The books of Ptolemy," are not an apposition, 
 el-Mas'udi must mean the liber quadripartitus of Ptolemy ; 
 for he knew perfectly well that the Almagest is the work of 
 Ptolemy, and calls him occasionally " the author of the Almagest." 
 
 t Cl>Ls \JJ, sing. f~\'fi\. This word is derived from the 
 Persian *\ (a corde), and means the Astronomical Tables upon 
 which the Astronomical Kalendar 
 
 is made. From this word &s:!yj is to be distin- 
 guished, which is derived from the Persian J-,\ (birth), and 
 
158 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 numeric system of the Hindus*. Barahman was 
 the first who explained the apogseon of the sun; 
 and stated that the apogseont is three thousand 
 years]; in every sign of the Zodiac: at present, 
 
 i_#I S5ULS z^$ J ^ W j*> u"*^J ^ 4 (Jtf 
 
 means the square or circle drawn round the stars in a certain 
 region of the heavens by astrologers in casting nativity. (MS. 
 of Leyden, N. 514.) 
 
 * The Zero, which is expressed by a dot by the Arabs, is 
 not considered as a figure. 
 
 -j- Auj, apogeum, is a term borrowed from the Persian, in this 
 language it is written, x.^ or S$\ ug. g>}$\ jfo the orbit 
 of the apogeum is the name for the ecliptic, which is also called 
 the excentric orbit %TJMjr JULj <j5jM ? because its centre does 
 not coincide with the centre of the earth. The period of a revo- 
 lution of this orbit is called yuga of the solstice in Sanscrit, hence 
 it is very likely that the Persian word ug, is derived from yuga. 
 These two words have a great affinity with the Greek mwj/, which 
 is to be written with a digamma. It seems that this term 
 migrated and changed its meaning with the idea. 
 
 f Siirya Siddhanta, and the herd of Hindu astronomers, 
 reckon the motion of trepidation to a degree and a-half in a cen- 
 tury; whereas here one degree is reckoned. It is therefore very 
 likely that the researches of these astronomers had not been known 
 to el-Mas'udi, else he would have taken them up the readier as 
 el-Battani had come nearly to the same result about thirty years 
 before the Meadows of Gold was written ; computing the motion 
 of the stars at a degree in sixty-six years. The period of three 
 thousand years is mentioned in the Zend-Avesta, (Boun-Dehesch, 
 Paris 1771, torn, ii., pp. 345 and 347). The circumstance 
 that el-Mas'udi takes no notice of the corrections of the trepidation 
 which had been discovered, is a corroboration of what is said in 
 the note, p. 154, supra. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 159 
 
 that is to say, in 332 A.H., it is in the Gemini, 
 according to his opinion. When it comes into the 
 signs of the southern hemisphere, the face of the 
 earth will be changed, and what is now inhabitable 
 will turn uninhabitable, * and vice-versa ; for the 
 south will be north, and the north south *. He 
 deposited the dates of the formation (of the 
 planetary system) in a golden house: they form the 
 most ancient (astronomical) chronology, and the 
 
 xj ^ 9 
 
 * The Arabs believed the south -pole to be the extreme of 
 heat, as the north -pole is the extreme of cold, and they thought 
 that it is for this reason that the southern hemisphere is uninhabi- 
 table ; and that this would be changed when the apogaeon of the 
 sun would be in the southern, and the perigseon in the northern 
 hemisphere. Compare the next chapter. 
 
 | These words are only in the copy of Cambridge, and in the 
 extract which en-Nowa'iri gives of this passage. 
 
 J One copy bears and, instead of ^ on, which alters 
 somewhat the meaning. Other variants of some importance are 
 inserted in the text between crotchets. 
 
160 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 basis upon which the Hindus make the kalendars 
 (of the changes) of the moon, and calculate the 
 rising of the full moon for India; but not for other 
 countries. They comment much on the moon; 
 but we cannot insert wliat they say on it in this 
 book, it being a work on history, and not on philo- 
 sophical inquiries and speculations; besides, we 
 have given a summary of these subjects in our 
 Kitab el-ausat. 
 
 Some Hindus believe that the world is regene- 
 rated every thousand Hazarwan*, and that as often as 
 
 U^k } (read 
 read) i^\ 
 
 UAxT 6 &\ 
 
 u* 
 
 f The MS. of Cambridge and two other copies bear " every 
 seventy thousand years of the Hazarwan." As copies do not 
 agree, the following correction may be admissible, considering the 
 the word thousand put in by the way of exaggeration : " every 
 seventy-two Hazarwan." A Hazarwan would mean in this case 
 a maha yuga; and the period in question would be a Menu yuga, 
 which consists of seventy-two maha yugas, or three hundred 
 and eleven million, forty thousand years. (Aryabhatta, apud 
 Colebrooke.) 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 161 
 
 this period expires, existence is renewed*, the pro- 
 pagative power returns, quadrupeds again pasture, 
 
 By reading ]&* M#, instead of *JU* year, before Hazar- 
 wan as XJu* can have no meaning, and is left out in some copies ; 
 the number of years would agree with the time generally assigned 
 to the four yugas together, viz., seven millions, six hundred thou- 
 sand years, save the number of zeros. 
 
 * This theory was not only familiar to the Hindus and Per- 
 sians, but the ages of the world of Greek and Latin poets owe to 
 it their origin. According to Plato, in his Timaeus, the Greeks 
 had received from the Egyptians the doctrine of the earth's 
 undergoing certain dissolutions, effected by the alternate violence 
 of water and fire, which were succeeded by regenerations, and 
 followed one another periodically. They were called apocatastasis, 
 and J. Firmicus computes that there is a period of three hundred 
 thousand years, from one mundane apocatastasis to another. In 
 an Egyptian narration relative to Osiris and Typhos, preserved 
 by Synesius, we find also an allusion to the greater mundane 
 apocatastasis. And it is curious that this doctrine was not yet 
 lost in Egypt after the conquest of the Arabs. The reader will 
 find some extracts from el-Makrizi in the notes to the thirty-first 
 chapter, where they are mentioned in the most fabulous shape ; 
 but such confirmations teach us to appreciate and explain fables, if 
 sacred by antiquity, and the belief of a whole nation. 
 
 It would appear from a tradition of Wahb Ben Monabbih, 
 that the ancient Arabs had equally some notions of a periodical 
 destruction of the earth, which was effected by water, according to 
 their opinions. They supposed, namely, that the fish and the 
 bull, who support our planet (see p. 44, supra), swallow up the 
 
 M 
 
162 EL-MAS'fjDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the waters flow, animals creep, herbage grows, and 
 breezes breathe through the air. Most of the 
 Hindus are of opinion that certain cycles return 
 periodically,, beginning through powers* whose cor- 
 
 (read eXxxj 
 
 water till they are full, and then a universal flood would take 
 place. 
 
 Respecting similar doctrines with the Chinese, the reader may 
 consult Bailly, Hist, de 1' Astronomic. 
 
 * These powers are the IDEAS of Plato. Our author adheres 
 closely tothe spirit of the Hindus ; for the Arabs, who followed the 
 dialetic philosophy, as it is more congenial with the Arabian nation 
 and religion, considered the principle of life in matter as a mere form 
 of its existence, and used therefore the word 2,*.^ form, in the 
 above meaning. In this sense, says Ibn Khaldun, 
 
 " the natural, first and sole reason is, that the dynasty and royalty 
 is for civilized society what the form is for matter: it is the 
 shape which preserves its existence through its own peculiarity." 
 
 As it appears to be of some importance to have a clear notion 
 of the signification of the word ^- <J>, it may not be amiss to 
 add examples where it has very nearly the same meaning as in the 
 text. XXfeUJt Jult \ (read Sulx&t) V U&1 ^ LJ/i < 
 
 l (Ibn Khaldun's Proleg. in 
 the last chapter of the fifth book). 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 163 
 
 poreal existence sleeps in latent life; but their 
 nature is mighty, and their essence is immutable. 
 They define the limits, and fix the time required for 
 the process (of the re-incarnation of these powers), 
 which forms the great cycle and developement. 
 They place it into the abyss of ages, and calculate 
 the time from its beginning to the end to thirty-six 
 thousand years, repeated in twelve thousand years 
 (periods)*. This forms with them the Hazerwan, 
 
 " We have already stated with respect to penmanship, that 
 it exists in the rational soul of man as faculty (power), which 
 will not be developed from possibility (power) to reality except 
 by the introduction of sciences." 
 
 The same author uses this word exactly in the same meaning 
 in several other instances as, JjuW JJ s 
 
 ^UU ^ vw.UxH wyu, JJ ^ 
 " One must know the relation of these quantities in order to be 
 able to bring plans into execution, (literally to draw plans out from 
 power to reality,) according to certain rules." 
 
 * This gives four hundred and thirty-two millions of years 
 If we take two zeros away, we have the number of years assigned 
 by Aryabhatta to the maha yuga, and if we add one, we have that 
 of the calpa of Brahmegupta. But all MSS. agree, and the 
 expression is such, that each of these changes would be arbitrary, 
 The one factor, thirty- six thousand, is the anciently supposed time 
 
 M 2 
 
164 EL-MAS'uDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 which developes and influences the powers. The 
 (lesser) cycles render everything that exists in 
 them longer or shorter (according to the age of the 
 world). The life of things is longest at the begin- 
 ning of the renovation (or great cycle); for as it is 
 just opened, the powers are more free in their 
 action; whereas the lives are shortest at the end of 
 the renovation, for the cycle is more narrow ; they 
 are confined: and the frequent repetitions (of the 
 
 of one re volution of the equinox through the zodiac, and the other 
 factor, twelve thousand, expresses the number of an age of the Gods 
 according to Menu (Institutes, i. 71), and corresponds with the 
 great cycle of the Persians, after which Ormuzd would be 
 victorious over Ahriman: perhaps, every one of these years 
 has been considered by the Persians, at a later period, as a revo- 
 lution of the equinox or thirty- six thousand years; in order to 
 make agree the chronology of their sacred books with that of 
 Hindu astronomers, just as our geologists make the seven days 
 of the creation longer periods of time. This explains the some- 
 what singular expression of the original " repeated in twelve 
 thousand years ;" for only one copy bears the more natural 
 expression, " multiplied." 
 
 There is, therefore, not one date in this theory which is not 
 found in the Persian cosmogony, as well as in that of the Hindus. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS 165 
 
 incarnation or becoming life of the powers) are 
 injurious to the lives; because the powers of the 
 bodies and the purity of matter are predominant at 
 the beginning of the cycle, and free in their mani- 
 festation: for purity is anterior to impurity, and 
 limpidity is above the dregs, and the length of life is 
 in proportion with the purity of the crasis ; and the 
 powers which animate the elements (or matter)., 
 extend the influence of their perfection to the mix- 
 tures (bodies) which, as they form the wordly 
 existence, are the source of deterioration, alteration, 
 and decay. But at the latter part of the great 
 cycle, and the end of the great developement, the 
 appearance of things will be deformed, the souls 
 weak, and the crasis impure; the powers are im- 
 paired, what is perishable goes to decay, and every- 
 thing goes in inverted narrow cycles ; wherefore the 
 
 U * 
 (read 
 
166 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 space of life is no longer computed by a period of 
 ages (but only by years). 
 
 The Hindus assign the reasons upon which the 
 theories which we have just given are based. They 
 allege proofs on the first origin (of all things), and 
 on the distinctions of the cycles of the Hazarwans, 
 as we have explained them ; and they teach various 
 mysteries and subtilties respecting the soul; its 
 connexion with supernatural things, and its origin 
 which proceeds in the direction from above down- 
 wards ; and other doctrines which have been laid 
 down by el-Barahman in the beginning of the time. 
 
 El-Barahman reigned until he died, three hun- 
 dred and sixty-six years. His descendants have the 
 name Brahmins x$\j^\ up to our time. They 
 are in high respect with the Hindus, and form their 
 highest caste and their nobility. They abstain from 
 all animal food, and men and women wear a yellow 
 thread on their necks, which is put on like the belt 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 167 
 
 of a sword, as a mark of distinction between them 
 and other castes of their nation. 
 
 In ancient time and during the reign of el- 
 Barahman, there assembled seven sages (Rishis?) 
 of the Hindus, to whom the nation looked up, in 
 the golden house; and they said to one another, 
 (f Let us unite our speculations to decypher what is 
 the state and mystery of this world ; where we come 
 from, and where we are going to ; and whether we 
 are created from nothing to proceed to the essence of 
 wisdom or the reverse ? and whether the Creator who 
 is the cause of our existence and who gives growth 
 to our bodies, derives any benefit from having made 
 us? or whether he averts any disadvantage from 
 himself in making us fade from this world? Whe- 
 ther he is susceptible of want and diminution as we 
 are, or whether nothing influences him? but if so, 
 why does he destroy and annihilate us, after he has 
 called us to existence, and after we have enjoyed 
 ourselves?" 
 
 The first of 'the sages, to whom all others 
 looked up, said,, "Do you find one man who has a 
 correct notion of things, present or distant, and 
 who is certain and positive (in his knowledge)." 
 
 The second wise man said, " If the wisdom of 
 the Almighty had come into any one's mind, it 
 would be a diminution of his wisdom. The object 
 is incomprehensible, and human reason is too short 
 to understand matters." 
 
 The third sage said, " We must begin our study 
 
168 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 with the knowledge of ourselves, for this is the 
 thing nearest to us, before we enter into investiga- 
 tions of what is distant from ourselves*." 
 
 The fourth sage said, " The experience of every 
 man, whatever field he may have chosen, proves 
 that he requires in it self-knowledge. " 
 
 The fifth sage said, " Hence it is required to be 
 in connexion with wise men, in order to be assisted 
 by their wisdom." 
 
 The sixth wise man said, " It is necessary for 
 any man who loves his own happiness, not to 
 neglect it, particularly since the stay in this world 
 is limited, and since it is certain that we must 
 leave it." 
 
 The seventh sage said, c< I do not understand 
 what you say, but I know that I came into this 
 world without my will ; that I lived in it astounded 
 with what I see; and that I am sorry to leave it." 
 
 The Hindus agreed at all times respecting the 
 opinions of these seven sages. Everybody followed 
 
 * This sentence is not to be understood in the moral meaning, 
 that one ought to know one's own frailties, but that man is the 
 microcosmos, which, if well understood, leads to the knowledge of 
 everything else, or rather, that the human mind is the mirror 
 
 of the universe. 
 
 Quid mirum noscere mundum 
 
 Si possent homines, quibus est et mundus in ipsis ; 
 Exemplumque Dei quisquis est in imagine parva? 
 
 (Manilius.) 
 
 F. Hegel believes that the yva>6i atavrov of Solon, is to be 
 taken nearly in the same meaning. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 169 
 
 (originally) their doctrines and professed their 
 system; but in subsequent times, they no longer 
 agreed respecting their systems and doctrines, and 
 they split into seventy distinct sects. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, in the book of Abul-Kasim 
 el-Balkhi, called " The Fountains of questions and 
 answers," tSUl^i^ JoUJll ^#& and in the work of 
 el-Hasan Ben Musa en-Nubakhti * ^^ ^j ( jju^.!, 
 which has the title, " On the philosophical and 
 religious doctrines and the sects of the Hindus; 
 their opinions, the causes which gave rise to them, 
 and the reasons why they burn themselves and 
 inflict various torments upon themselves ;" v^* 
 
 not a word is said of all we have just 
 explained, nor do they allude to the subject on 
 which we have spoken. 
 
 Authors do not agree concerning the Barahman: 
 some believe him to be Adam and a prophet for 
 the Hindus; others think that he was a king, as we 
 have stated ; and this is the opinion most universally 
 received. 
 
 * This patronymic is variously spelt, o&c'JJJt (MS. of 
 Cambridge,) CfjvaCyJJ (MS. of Leyden;) <sCa=?yiJl (Fihrist el- 
 Kotob, p. 120,) <a$'j%\ (et-Tanbih, fol. 221, verso). Compare 
 Chapter 126, infra. 
 
170 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 The Hindus lamented in the deepest mourning, 
 the death of the Barahman. They made his eldest 
 son king, who had been designed by his father to be 
 his successor, and to whom he had given his 
 instructions. His name was el-Bahbud ^xfcUU 
 (:>y&UJj). He followed the example of his father in 
 his government; he had the best views, built new 
 temples, invested the wise men with power, 
 increased their dignity, encouraged them to teach 
 wisdom, and sent them out to acquire it (by 
 travelling). He reigned till he died one hundred 
 years. In his reign the game of tables or backgam- 
 mon* JjxM was invented. This game shows how 
 one obtains gain, for it is neither the result of 
 sagacity and contrivance, nor is subsistence earned 
 by cleverness in this world. Some say Azdeshirf 
 Ben Babek invented the game of the tables and 
 played it first. He expressed in this game the acti- 
 vity of the world and its inhabitants, and the differ- 
 ence of their conditions. The twelve points of the 
 tables answer to the twelve months of the year, and 
 the thirty tablemen <->*& are expressive of the thirty 
 days of the month. The dice are meant as symbols 
 
 * T. Hyde wrote a prodigiously learned Historia Nerdiludii, 
 which forms the second book of his Historia Shahiludii. 
 
 t r>-JjU The MS. of Leyden which is very correct, writes 
 this name constantly with instead of .. Compare the observa- 
 tion of Fleischer on this subject, (Abulfeda, p. 206.) 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 171 
 
 of fate and the way in which it deals with mankind; 
 for the player who is favoured by luck, will attain in 
 this game what he wishes, whilst the clever and 
 provident is less lucky than another, if the other is 
 favoured by fortune ; for gain and good fortune are 
 a mere chance in this world. 
 
 After el-Bahbud reigned Ramah st^, ( W U^ or 
 ^LoJj), about one hundred and fifty years. There 
 are different histories and accounts extant of this 
 king. He had several wars with the kings of Persia 
 and China,, the leading points of which are related in 
 our former works. 
 
 After him came Fur ^ (Porus) to the throne. 
 Alexander gave him a battle, and killed him in a 
 single combat, after a reign of one hundred and 
 forty years. Then succeeded Daisalem jJu*oJ 
 (fa f UMJ,) who is the author of Kalilah wa Dimnah, 
 which has been translated by Ibn el-Mokaffa'. 
 Sehl Ben Harun composed a book for el-Mamun, 
 entitled " The fox and the boar" a^ic ^ sxXxS ^->\3S, 
 in which he imitates the Kalilah wa Dimnah, 
 writing on the same heads, and narrating the same 
 parables; but his book is superior in beauty of 
 style. He reigned one hundred and twenty years. 
 Some give a different number of years. 
 
 Then succeeded Balhit dv^Xj (clv^Xj). In his 
 reign the game of chess g^ax* was invented, and 
 he recommended the play in preference to back- 
 
172 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 gammon, pointing out that the clever is the 
 winner, and not the idiot. He studied the numbers 
 (of the product of the squares) of this game^ and 
 wrote a work* on the subject for the Hindus^ 
 which is known under the title Tor ok Hankd ta'idd 
 
 By these means chess became their favourite game, 
 and he used to play it with the wise men (of his 
 court), and gave to the pieces the figure of men 
 and animals, distinguishing them by certain degrees 
 and ranks, as the king *1&J, the administrator 
 jo*xU (the queen), the officer yMjjJI (the bishop) ; 
 similar offices are represented in other pieces. 
 
 He laid also an allegory of the higher bodies in 
 the chess, that is to say, of the stars of the heavens, 
 observing the number seven and twelve. Every 
 piece was consecrated to a star. This game served 
 also to preserve the empire ; for whenever they had 
 to do with an enemy and the stratagems of war, 
 they represented on the chess-board the movements 
 
 of the troops, both light and heavy ^^ J^-U. 
 The Hindus have a method in the multiplica- 
 
 * A similar work has been written by the Arabic mathema- 
 tician, Abu Yusof el-Missisi] ^aAXOtJij whose full name was 
 Ya'kiib Ben Mohammed, under the title O 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 173 
 
 tion of the squares of the chess-board, which they 
 keep secret. The result of this multiplication is 
 a number which exceeds the astronomical dates, 
 and those of the first cause, amounting to 
 18,446,744,073,709,551,615. The series of the 
 thousands is this: the first number is to be pro- 
 nounced with six times thousand*, then comes 
 thousand five times, then four times,, then three 
 times, then twice, then thousand is to be pronoun- 
 ced once. 
 
 The Hindus attribute to itf a meaning by 
 which one may explain what is to happen in future 
 ages and centuries, and the influence which the 
 heavenly bodies have on this world ; and by it may 
 be predicted how long the human soul is to dwell in 
 this world. 
 
 The Greeks, Romans, and other nations, con- 
 nect equally various theories with chess t. It is 
 
 * The Arabs, like the Teutonic languages, have no words 
 which comprises a higher number than a thousand. They express 
 therefore a million by thousand times thousand, and so on with any 
 higher number. In order to avoid mistakes, they add at the end 
 how often thousand is to be taken or multiplied with itself, as is 
 here the case. 
 
 f The author leaves it uncertain whether he means the game 
 of chess, or the above number. 
 
 J It seems, indeed, that the game of chess attracted even 
 in Europe, a much greater attention in the middle ages than 
 at present; as may be exemplified by the existence of some 
 
174 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 played in different ways, as is explained in the 
 books written by the Shatrenjees* on this subject, 
 by early writers, as well as by es-Suli and el-'Adeli 
 J*xx!^ d**A\> wno are the best players in our days. 
 Belhith ci^^L reigned till he died, eighty years, 
 or, according to other copies (of the work from 
 which we derive our account), one hundred and 
 thirty years. 
 
 German manuscript, which contains a poem on this subject, in the 
 Library of the Arsenal at Paris, (MS. Allem. No. 6). It is a 
 thick quarto written in the year 1418, but the author, whose name 
 is MICHAEL SCHERER of Strasburg, says himself, that he com- 
 posed it in 1337, after a Latin work on the same subject. The 
 allegorical meaning of the pieces, moral precepts, and even 
 theological disquisitions, form the greater portion of its contents, 
 but there are also some curious historical facts related in it. 
 
 The Dutch are in possession of a similar poem of ancient date. 
 
 * As the luxurious Mamun happened to be fond of the chess- 
 board, a number of men studied the game and wrote on the 
 subject, collecting and inventing traditions to prove that this game 
 was permitted, enquiring into the history and fixing the rules to be 
 observed in playing. These men were called *^J[a.A\. An 
 Arabic work of this nature, by el-Hasan el-Basri, is in Mr. Rich's 
 collection in the British Museum in London, (No. 75 15,) but it 
 contains no historical facts not found in Hyde's Historia Shahi- 
 ludii and Sir W. Jones' works, (vol. i. p. 521.) More curious 
 are the details which en-Nowa'iri furnishes on this subject, in his 
 Encyclopaedia. On the literary history previous to el-Mas'iidi, 
 concerning this subject, as well as any other of which our author 
 speaks, the reader may consult the additional notes. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 1/5 
 
 He was succeeded by Kurush*, who introduced 
 new religious ideas amongst the Hindus, as he 
 thought them suited to the spirit of the time ; and 
 adapted to the tendency of his contemporaries, 
 relinquishing former systems. 
 
 In his reign lived es-Sondbad ^L^x^, who is the 
 author of the book The seven Vezirs, the teacher and 
 boy, and the wife of the king jkx+Wj &***\\ \jj\ <-A^* 
 JJJIJ s!j*t* *&*J\j. This is the book which bears the 
 name Kitdb es-Sondbdd ^UXJUJ1 v lxf. In the 
 library of this king the large work " On pathology 
 and therapeutics" CLjW^xU^ * \^\ j J^M AJ^JUJ ^ 
 was compiled J^, with drawings and pictures of 
 the plants. 
 
 This king reigned till he died, one hundred 
 and twenty years. After his death the Hindus 
 disagreed in point of religion : they divided them- 
 selves into parties, and formed distinct states; and 
 every chief made himself independent in his district. 
 Es-Sind was ruled by its own king; another king 
 reigned in el-Kinnauj; another over Kashmir 
 jx^3 yoj\ ; and another resided in the city of el- 
 Mankir (Monghir?) j+&&\> which is the great 
 metropolis. He was the first who had the name 
 
 * LTJU^* This is the way in which Abulfaragius (Hist- 
 dynast, p. 82.) writes the name of Cyrus. En-Nowairi writes 
 the name of this Hindu king ni*J" Kush. 
 
176 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 el-Ballahra c^XxM (^JuJ\), which became subse- 
 quently the title of every sovereign of that great 
 capital, down to our time, which is the year 
 332 A.H. 
 
 India * is a vast country, having many seas and 
 
 0j\ Literally, the country of the Hindus, which, it 
 must be remembered, comprizes only the south and east of the 
 peninsula : whereas the north-eastern part is called by the Arabs, 
 the country of the Sind nation. 
 
 As in the translation the name of the country in most cases 
 is substituted for expressions like bilad es-Sin, (the dominions of 
 the Chinese,) ardh er-Rum, (the country of the Byzantines,) 
 memlekat el-Jelalikah, (the kingdom of the Galicians,) &c.: it is 
 well to notice the peculiarity of the Arabs in this respect, which 
 is characteristic, and which may also be observed in Genesis. 
 
 As we adapt our notions of others to our own ideas as pro- 
 duced by circumstances and education, just as the hump-backed 
 will paint every body with a hunch; the wandering- Arabs 
 who have no country, being solely connected by the feelings and 
 pride of their tribes Xxxxax!!, cannot conceive how any nation 
 can be so degraded as to be dependent upon a country or any 
 other possession : they estimate the honesty and value of a man 
 after what he is, and not (as it is the case in modern legislation,) 
 after what he possesses. Hence they consider the name of every 
 country as that of a tribe, and are most anxious to find out or 
 to invent the genealogy of the patriarch (father) of such a tribe, 
 as they know the ancestors of their own tribes ; so, for instance, 
 they received from the Persians the name of Chin ^>~, which 
 means China (the country), but the Arabs consider it as the 
 name of the father of the nation (tribe), and consequently of the 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 177 
 
 mountains, and borders on the empire of ez-Zanij, 
 which is the kingdom of the Maharaj g|j$U the 
 king of the islands, whose dominions form the 
 frontier between India and China, and are con- 
 sidered as part of India. 
 
 The Hindu nation extends from the mountains 
 of Khorasan and of es-Sind as far as et-Tubbet. 
 But there prevails a great difference of feelings, 
 
 nation itself; and they called the country the territory of the 
 Fin or Sin (Chinese). 
 
 In subsequent times, however, when the victorious Arabs had 
 settled in cities, the tribe feeling gave way to the habits of settled 
 life, and the names of countries are in later authors again con- 
 sidered as such. 
 
 This will explain the form of the word XxJ&Jj (Galicia,) 
 and some other proper names which else must appear arbitrary ; 
 it is the plural of cJiXiJ or Gallic (Gallicus), just as X*a^clJJ 
 is the plural of (jaJl or comes, (count). 
 
 In the history of Europe, we find that proper names have 
 changed in the same way their meaning by the change of facts, 
 as with the Arabs by the change of notions ; so were the Parisii, 
 Lugduni, &c., originally tribes, and now they are cities. 
 
 Here an addition to the note, p. 19 supra, may find place. 
 It is stated there that the military cantonments were called Misrs, 
 which means Egypts. The Western Arabs being in constant 
 contact with the Egyptians, became necessarily aware of their 
 settled condition ; and Misr means, therefore, the country of Egypt 
 (and not the nation,) at all periods of the Arabic language. It 
 was therefore very natural that they should say, we Egyptianize 
 yj&+j, when they settled in those cantonments. Hence y^oaJJ 
 means with Ibn Khaldun constantly a country where the inha- 
 bitants are settled and civilized. 
 
 N 
 
178 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 language, and religion, in these empires; and they 
 are frequently at war with each other. The most 
 of them believe on the metempsychosis, or the 
 transmigration of the soul. The Hindus are dis- 
 tinct from other black nations, as the Zanj gjtt> 
 ed-Demadem ^UxJl (-aUyj), and others, in point 
 of intellect, government,, philosophy, colour, appear- 
 ance, good constitution, talent, and intelligence. 
 Galen says that the Negroes have ten qualities 
 which are peculiar to them, and not found in any 
 other nation : crisp hair, scanty eye-brows, expanded 
 nostrils, thick lips, sharp teeth, stinking skin, black 
 complexion, fissures in the skin of their hands and 
 feet, long am mentulam, and great levity. The same 
 author states further, their levity is owing to the 
 bad quality (organisation) of their brains ; for this 
 renders their intellectual faculties weak. What 
 other authors say on the levity of the Negroes, and 
 their gay temper, and on the still higher degree of 
 levity, which is peculiar to the Zanj, and which 
 distinguishes them from other Negroes, is to be 
 found in our former works. 
 
 Ya'kub Ben Ishak el-Kindi ui*\ ^j vy^ 
 c^jJ^M asserts, in a memoir on the influence of the 
 higher individuals (i.e. stars) and heavenly bodies 
 upon this world -U*.=^ *tjkd\ ^sUsSM JUit ^ *^ 
 fUxil *k ^ Xj^UvJ!, that God has arranged 
 it so that everything that he has created acts at 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 
 
 179 
 
 the same time as cause upon others, and the cause 
 produces an effect in the object upon which it acts, 
 which corresponds with the cause; but the object, 
 which is passive, does not create any impression 
 upon the cause, which is active. Spirit is the cause 
 of heaven jfaJJ*, and not its effect: hence it does 
 
 * Arabian astronomers express thus their notions of the 
 heaven or sphere. Lnw^JJ ^c Jf^s=U> tf^ 
 
 " The heaven is a simple body (not compounded,) which has 
 the shape of a ball (ii. 4), and turns round its own centre, which 
 it fully surrounds (i. 2). It has neither levity nor gravity 
 (i. 3), and it possesses not heat, cold, moisture, nor dryness, nor 
 is it susceptible of separation or coalition." 
 
 With this may be compared the words in the Ayeen Akberi, 
 (vol. iii. 2,) where it is said that this is the opinion of the ' er- 
 sians, Egyptians, and Greeks, and that the heaven is eternal, and 
 endowed with reason. 
 
 The references which I added in the translation, refer to 
 Aristotle's book de Ccelo, where the same ideas are expressed. 
 Here another passage of Aristotle, relative to the same subject, 
 may be quoted, which sets the belief, that the heaven exercises an 
 influence upon the earth and its inhabitants, in its proper light, and 
 connects the notions of the Hindus, Persians, and Greeks, on 
 this subject. 
 
 Qvpavov 8e KOI aorpow ova-Lav p.ev alOepa ffaXov/MP, ovx coy nvcs, 
 8ta ro TTvpos &r) ov(rav, cu&cr&u, Tr\r)p,p.\ovvTcs Trepl rr\v ir\f1crTov Trvpos 
 aTnjAXa-yfiei/?;!/ Swap-iV aXXa 8m TO deWc'iv KVK\o<popovp,vr)v oroi^eToj/ 
 ovvav crepov ra>v recro-apwj/, a^parov re KOI Selov. Arist. de Mundo, 
 cap. 2, vol. i. p. 465. 
 
 <; We call the matter, of which the heaven and the stars con- 
 
 N 2 
 
180 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 not receive impressions from it. It is, however, a 
 
 sist, ETHER ; not because it is a fire as some believed, who had 
 exceedingly wrong notions respecting that power (matter), which 
 is very far from being a fire; but because it is an ELEMENT 
 which observes the circular form in its motion, and it is different 
 from the four other elements, being everlasting and divine." 
 
 It is strange that this fifth element of Aristotle has never been 
 noticed, although the four elements have found advocates in the 
 German Metaphysico-physiologists, (see Carus, Lehrbuch der 
 Physiologic, vol. i.,) in whose system it would suit admirably well. 
 
 But the doctrine of a fifth element is much more ancient than 
 Aristotle, even amongst the Greeks. Ocellus, (translation of 
 Taylor, p. 10,) who lived about five centuries before Christ, at 
 the time of Pythagoras, seems to have had the same notions of it 
 as Aristotle. " But the Fates themselves distinguish and separate 
 the impassive part of the world from that which is perpetually 
 moved (mutable). For the course of the moon is the isthmus 
 of immortality and generation. The region indeed above the 
 moon, and also that which the moon occupies, contain the genus 
 of the gods; but the place beneath the moon, is the place of 
 strife and nature." 
 
 The idea of Jive elements is general amongst the Hindus. 
 They call the ether, Akas; and, although its natural place is, 
 as with the Greeks, above the other elements, it pervades every- 
 thing and is the vehicle of sound. Amongst the ancient Persians 
 it seems to have been considered even as the principle of vege- 
 tative life, hence the Zend-Avesta calls it " un feu qui ne brule 
 pas et qui anime tous les etres." It was probably after the Per- 
 sian idea that some Greek philosophers believed the ether was a 
 fire. The Arabs have probably found this theory of the heaven 
 in the schools of Persia, before they have been acquainted with 
 the writings of the Greeks, after which they have put it in a 
 scientific shape. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 181 
 
 law in nature that the spirit* follows the organisa- 
 tion of the body, if there is nothing in the way. 
 So it is with the Zanji. His country being very 
 hot, the heavenly bodies exercise their influence 
 upon it, and predispose in the humours a tendency 
 to go to the upper parts of the body: hence their 
 eyes are large, the lips thick, the nose flat and big, 
 and the head high. The crasis of the brain is, 
 therefore, out of proportion, and the mind cannot 
 perfectly manifest its action ; the nicety of dis- 
 tinctions and the action of the understanding are 
 confused. Ancient and modern authors have 
 
 The heavens, or spheres, which preside, according to the 
 astrologers, over the destiny of this world are, therefore, not 
 different from the ether of the philosophers, which is the divine 
 element of life ; nor from the Zeus of the Greeks, and the Hawa 
 <gj\ ( air )> which was worshipped by the Arabs, before the 
 Islam, as we learn from the Koran, where it is said, ^ CoLsl 
 x\*> <XA!\ <Xi.J, and from a tradition of Ibn 'Abbas. See also 
 Maimonides, p. 157 of the Engl. Transl. 
 
 * In the Cambridge copy the quotation from el-Kindi is left 
 out altogether. From an allusion of Ibn Khaldun to this passage 
 of our author, on the Negroes, it would appear that he did not 
 find it in his copy again. 
 
 The MS. of Leyden bears ^*\A!^ instead of yjijjl, which 
 is only found in the (for the rest very incorrect,) copy of the 
 Asiatic Society of Paris. However, if this reading was not con- 
 firmed by the context, it might safely be adopted on the authority 
 of Aristotle, from whom the whole of el- Kindt's reasoning is 
 borrowed. At Sidvoiai eTrovrai. TOIS O-W/LUWI, Physiogn. cap. 1. 
 
182 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 spoken on the causes under the influence of which 
 the Negroes are placed; and they entered upon 
 their position relative to heaven, the seven planets, 
 and particularly the five planets, which preside 
 over their developement, and have alone influence 
 upon the formation of their bodies. But this hook 
 is not solely devoted to this subject. We state 
 here only the facts as they have been advanced by 
 various authors, referring for further details and the 
 exposition of their arguments in proof of those 
 facts, to our book the Akhbar ez-zeman. We have 
 also explained in that book the theory of those 
 astrologers and astronomers who ascribe the cha- 
 racter of the Negroes to Saturn, as this is expressed 
 in the verses of some modern Mohammedan writer: 
 " One of them (the planets) is Saturn, who is 
 an old man and powerful king. His complexion is 
 black *, and this is the colour of his dress, and of 
 his sulky mind. He exercises his influence upon 
 the Zanj and the slaves, and to him leadf and iron 
 are sacred." 
 
 * This description of Saturn answers exactly the picture which 
 el-Kazwmi gives of this planet, which is to be found beautifully 
 illuminated, in a MS. of the East India House, No. 1 377, and in its 
 outlines in the Fundgruben des Orients, vol. i., but there it looks 
 the contrary way by a mistake of the artist. 
 
 f A slight alteration would change the sense into " and he 
 is the enemy of iron." This is more probable because iron was 
 sacred to Mars, and has still the name of this planet in medicine; 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 183 
 
 Tawus el-Yemani, the companion of 'Abdullah 
 Ben el- 'Abbas ^j\ aHJ *x>^ t-^U? jl^l u^lk 
 u^U*!! would not eat any meat slain (or sacrificed) 
 by a Zanji. He used to say, a Zanji was a hideous 
 slave. We have heard that Abul-'Abbas er-Raddhi 
 Ben el-Moktader would never take anything from 
 the hand of a black man, saying he was a hideous 
 slave. I do not know whether he has initiated 
 Tawus in his system, or in a sort of philosophical 
 and religious sect. 
 
 'Amr Ben Bahr el-Jahit k^ lit j^s? ^j ^ 
 wrote a book " On the national pride of the 
 Negroes, and their disputes with the white men." 
 
 No king can succeed to the throne, according 
 to Hindu laws, before he is forty years of age, nor 
 
 for physicians acknowledge that their art originated from astro- 
 logy to this day, in this as well as in some other names, as 
 lunar caustic (Nitrate of silver). Mercury, crystals of Venus 
 (neutral sulphate of copper), &c. Not only metals, but everything 
 on earth had a patron in one of the planets with the astrologers, 
 and almost everybody was as far an astrologer as his scientific 
 education went. And it appears that in the dark ages a medicine 
 was considered as the mediator between its respective star and 
 the patient; and hence it had frequently no efficacy if not prepared 
 under a certain constellation. These follies seem to have origi- 
 nated in the ancient religion of the Sawad of the Tigris and 
 Euphrates. Compare Maimonides, English Translation of Dr. 
 Townley, p. 158; and Zend-Avesta, i. 2, p. 28. 
 
184 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 appears their sovereign ever before the public, 
 except at certain times, which are fixed at long 
 intervals, and then it is only for the inspection of 
 state affairs; for, in their opinion, the kings lose 
 their respect and give away their privileges if the 
 public gazes at them*. The measures of govern- 
 ment must be carried by mildness in India, and by 
 degradation from a higher rank. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says., I have seen in the country of 
 Serendib (Ceylon), which is an island of the sea, 
 that when a king dies, he is laid upon a car, with 
 small wheels, and made for the purpose. His hair 
 touches the ground, and a woman with a broom in 
 her hand sweeps dust on his head, crying out, " O 
 people, this was yesterday your king, and you were 
 bound to listen to his orders. See what now has 
 become of him! He has left this world, and the 
 King of the kings has taken his soul (life) f . He 
 alone is living, and dies not. Do not be given to 
 life after this example." These words have the ten- 
 dency to exhort to a pious and abstemious life in 
 this world. After a procession with the body 
 
 * Institutes of Menu, vii. 6, " Nor can any human creature 
 on earth gaze on him (the king)." 
 
 f " The king of death has taken his soul into eternal *oX 
 life. Thus bears the copy of Cambridge, but *jX5 has not 
 the signification which the context would give to the word, if the 
 passage was correct. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 185 
 
 through the streets of the town, they divide it into 
 four parts, and burn it with sandal- wood, camphor, 
 and other perfumes which they have prepared: the 
 ashes are thrown to the winds. This is the funeral 
 ceremony for kings and their courtiers of the most 
 nations of India *. They state the reason for so 
 doing, and the object which they have in view. 
 
 The royalty is limited upon the descendants of 
 one family, and never goes to another f. The 
 same is the case with the families of the vizier, 
 kadhi, and other high officers. They are all (here- 
 ditary and) never changed nor altered J. 
 
 The Hindus abstain from (spirituous) liquors 
 i_>^.!\$, not in obedience to some religious precept, 
 but because they do not choose to take a thing 
 which overwhelms their reason, and makes cease the 
 dominion which this faculty is to exercise over men. 
 If it can be proved of one of their kings, that he 
 has drunk (wine) , he forfeits the crown ; for he is 
 (not considered to be) able to rule and govern (the 
 empire) if he is given to such habits ||. 
 
 They hear frequently songs and musical per- 
 formances <|&U^ ^UvJi, and they have various sorts 
 
 * Compare ancient accounts of India and China, p. 31. 
 f Ibidem, p. 32. 
 
 J The king must appoint seven or eight ministers whose 
 lineage is noble. Menu, vii. 84. 
 
 Ancient accounts of India and China, p. 33. 
 || Compare Institutes of Menu, v,ii. 47, 50. 
 
186 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 of musical instruments which produce on man all 
 shades of impressions between laughing and crying. 
 Sometimes they make girls drink (wine), to excite 
 them to show their mirth in their presence, and in 
 order to be inspired with gaiety by their merriment. 
 
 The Hindus have various interesting institu- 
 tions, and are rich in curious facts. We have 
 given many sketches from their history and biogra- 
 phy (manners) in our book, the Kitab Akhbar ez- 
 zeman, and Kitab el-ausat. A specimen, however, 
 shall be inserted here. 
 
 One of the most curious stories of the kings of 
 the Hindus, and a strange (yet characteristic) ex- 
 ample of the line of conduct of the most ancient 
 Hindu kings, and their institutions., is (exhibited in 
 the following narration) of a king of el-Komar* 
 j($l\ (Comorin). From this kingdom and tract of 
 India the Komdri aloes c?^l$Jl J^c has its name. 
 This country is not an island of the sea, but it 
 belongs to the continent, and is very mountainous. 
 Few parts of India are more populous than this, 
 and the inhabitants distinguish themselves before 
 the other Hindus by their agreeable breath, which 
 they acquire by rubbing their teeth with aloes- wood, 
 as it is the habit amongst the Mohammedans. 
 They consider, like the Mohammedans, fornication 
 
 * Compare ancient accounts of India and China, p. 65, et 
 seqq. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 187 
 
 to be unlawful, and they avoid (like them) unclean- 
 liness, and the use of wine. In this practice the 
 Hindus of the higher ranks are like those of the 
 lower classes. 
 
 They (the inhabitants of el-Komar) are for 
 the most part infantry, on account of the mountain- 
 ous character of the country, which is broken by 
 rivers, and has few plains, or high table-lands ^Lcr'J. 
 The country of el-Komar is the point of communi- 
 cation with the dominions of the Maharaj ^\^^\ 9 
 the king of the islands, as the Isle of ez-Zanij, 
 Kolah XXT, Serendib i-vA>j~ (Ceylon), and other 
 islands. 
 
 It is related that an inconsiderate man ruled in 
 ancient times over el-Komar. One day he sat on 
 the royal throne in his palace, which stood on a 
 large river of sweet water, like the Tigris or Eu- 
 phrates, and was one day's journey from the sea. 
 The vizier was with the king, who said to him, 
 "The splendour and high civilization of the empire 
 and islands of the Maharaj are celebrated. This 
 excites a desire in my mind which I wish to 
 realize." The vizier, a prudent man, who knew 
 the levity of his master, asked him "What is thy 
 desire, O king?" " I wish," replied the king, " to 
 see the head of the Maharaj, the king of ez-Zanij, 
 laying (in a dish) at my feet." The vizier saw 
 that envy had inspired him with these thoughts, 
 
188 EL-MAs'uni's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 and he said, after some consideration, " I do not 
 think the king will permit this idea to rest in his 
 mind, as there has never existed any difference 
 between us and that nation, neither of yore, nor of 
 late; nor have they ever done us any harm. Be- 
 sides they are far from us, in islands, and by no 
 means neighbours ; nor have they any design 
 against our possessions. The distance between the 
 dominions of the Maharaj and those of el-Komar, 
 is from ten to twenty days across the sea. It is 
 therefore better, O king," continued the vizier, " not 
 to persist in this scheme." The king made no reply, 
 he was enraged with anger, and shut his ear to 
 advice. He acquainted his officers and the chiefs 
 of his men, who were present, with his project ; and 
 so it was divulged, and went from tongue to tongue 
 till it reached the Maharaj, who was a prince of 
 great prudence, and a middle-aged man. 
 
 The Maharaj called his vizier, related to him 
 the account which he had received, and said, " Con- 
 sidering the project of this madman, which has 
 come to publicity, and the intentions which he has 
 formed, with his inexperienced and overbearing 
 spirit, and after his words have become generally 
 known, we can no longer preserve peace with him, 
 he has forfeited the crown, and deserves to be 
 deposed." The king ordered his vizier to observe 
 secrecy of what had passed between them, and to 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 189 
 
 prepare a thousand of the best ships 
 V^XJ ksjt, with full equipment, to provide them 
 with the arms necessary, and to man them with a 
 sufficient number of the best soldiers. He pre- 
 tended that these preparations were meant for an 
 excursion into his islands, and he wrote to the 
 kings (governors) of these islands, who were under 
 his sway, and his subjects, that he had the intention 
 to pay them a visit, and to make an excursion to 
 their islands. This rumour spread, and the king 
 of every island made all possible preparation for the 
 reception of the Maharaj. When everything was 
 ready and in order, he went on board and sailed 
 with the army to the kingdom of el-Komar. The 
 king of el-Komar was not aware of the expedition 
 before he came up the wadi (river,) which washes 
 the walls of the royal palace. The Maharaj ordered 
 his men to make an assault upon (the palace,) and 
 they surrounded it unaware, and took possession of 
 it. The inhabitants appeared before the Maharaj, 
 he ordered to proclaim "quarter," and sat on the 
 throne on which the king of el-Komar used to sit, 
 who was now a prisoner, and commanded to bring the 
 king and his vizier in his presence, and said, " What 
 gave rise to those intentions which are beyond 
 thy power? And if thou hadst attained thy object 
 thou wouldst not have been the happier." The 
 facility of the execution of the project did not afford 
 any excuse (to the captive king), and so he remained 
 
190 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 silent. "If thy desires/' continued the Maharaj, 
 "to see my head before thee in a dish had been 
 joined with the intention to make thyself master of 
 my dominions, and the throne, and to spread 
 destruction in any part of the country, I should 
 do the same thing to thee. But thou hast dis- 
 tinctly expressed thy object, and I will now visit 
 it on thee; and I will return to my country 
 without touching anything in thy empire either 
 small or great. Thou shalt be an example for 
 posterity, that none may dare to transgress the 
 portion which Providence has given to him*." 
 
 After these words he beheaded him ; and turning 
 to the vizier, "Thou hast tried all," said he, " that 
 a good vizier can do: I know thou gavest good 
 advice to thy master, which he ought to have 
 accepted : consult who may be most fit to succeed 
 this madman, and put him on the throne." The 
 Maharaj returned immediately to his country, and 
 neither he nor anybody of his army touched anything 
 in the kingdom of el-Komar. 
 
 LAJK CyJ* 1 JJJ jCx3 *XT Jji ^ 
 
 M. Renaudot had evidently the same 
 
 words which are transcribed here ; but he differs from the above 
 translation. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 191 
 
 When the Maharaj was come back into his 
 dominions, he sat on his throne, from whence he 
 enjoyed the view over a hay which was called the 
 Bay of the Ingot of Gold -^jJJ ^xJ* ^^5 and 
 before him was placed the dish with the head of the 
 king of el-Komar. He assembled the great men of 
 his kingdom, narrated to them his exploits, and 
 exposed the reason which had brought him under 
 the necessity of undertaking them. He was 
 received with the marks of admiration, and prayers 
 for his welfare. Then he gave orders to wash 
 the head of the king of el-Komar, to embalm it, and 
 to send it in a vase to the king who had succeeded 
 him in el-Komar; and he wrote to him: ll Our 
 motive in acting as we have done with thy prede- 
 cessor having been his hostile intentions towards 
 us and to offer an example to his equals, it appears to 
 us well to send back his head to thee, since we have 
 obtained our object, as there is no use in keeping it, 
 for this trophy would not add to the glory of our 
 victory." The news of this action reached the 
 ears of the kings of India and China, and the 
 Maharaj rose greatly in their estimation ; and since 
 this time, the kings of el-Komar turn their faces 
 every morning towards ez-Zanij, and prostrate them- 
 selves to express their veneration for the Maharaj. 
 
 * ..^A! Seems to be the technical term for ingot, in Arabic 
 coinage; at least it is used as such by en-Nowairl. 
 
192 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, the meaning of the words 
 v-^> &\ ^J ^j^Xc (the bay of the ingot of gold) is 
 this, the palace of the Maharaj stands on a little 
 bay ^Jvr, which is in connexion with the greatest 
 strait of ez-Zanij. At high tide this strait is filled 
 with sea water, and at low tide sweet water flows in 
 it. The treasurer ^Lc^j of the king goes every 
 morning into this bay, carrying an ingot of gold 
 with him of several pounds UuJ, but we do not know 
 its exact weight. He throws it before the king 
 into the bay. When the tide comes in, the water 
 covers this and other ingots which may be there; 
 and when the water retires, it appears again, and it 
 shines in the sun. The king sits in the room of 
 reception from which he delights to see it .The habit 
 of throwing every day a golden ingot into this bay, is 
 continued during the whole reign of the same king, 
 and they are never touched. When the king dies, 
 his successor has them all taken out, and none of 
 them are put into the bay again; but they are 
 counted, melted, and distributed among the royal 
 household; amongst the men,, women, children, 
 leaders, and servants ; to every one according to his 
 station, and the class to which he belongs; and 
 what remains is given to the poor and indigent. 
 The number of golden ingots and their weight 
 is registered, and it is said such and such a king 
 reigned so many years, and left such and such 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 193 
 
 a number of ingots, of such a weight in the royal bay, 
 for distribution after his death. Kings who had 
 a long reign, set their glory on leaving many 
 ingots. 
 
 The greatest king of India in our times is the 
 Ballahra, the lord of El-Mankir. The most kings 
 of India turn, in their prayers, their face towards 
 him; and they pray (adore?) his messengers yiT^ 
 
 when they receive them. The dominions of the 
 Ballahra border on many other kingdoms of India. 
 Some kings have their territory in the mountains, 
 and are not in possession of a sea, as the er-Ray 
 <$VjJJ (Raja), who is the king of el-Kashmir J*C&A!I 
 > and the king of et-Tafi ^UUt (^UJl or 
 and other Hindu sovereigns. Others 
 are in possession of land and sea. The country of 
 the king el- Ballahra is eighty Sindi farsangs ^w ^ 
 x>jJLo, from the sea; every such farsang has eight 
 miles. His troops and elephants are innumerable, 
 and his army consists mostly of infantry, for his 
 dominions are mountainous. At some distance 
 from him is the territory of Barudah 22^ (*#^ 
 or *f> or *jjj}) 9 who is one of those kings of 
 India who have no sea, and resides in the town of 
 el-Kinnauj*. This is the name for every sove- 
 
 * In other passages of this work the title of this king is 
 
 O 
 
194 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 reign who rules over this country. He has large 
 armies garrisoned in the north and south, and in 
 the east and west; for he is surrounded by warlike 
 neighbours. We shall insert a general account of 
 the kings of es-Sind and India, and of other places 
 of the world, farther on in this book, where we 
 speak of the seas,, their wonders, and of the 
 nations, kings, &c., in them, and round them. We 
 have treated on these subjects in our former works. 
 There is no strength nor power except in God. 
 
 clearly written Budah k'^j. The name or title of the king of 
 el-Kinnauj, at the time of the conquest of Mahmud of Ghizna, 
 was Rajbal 
 

 AND MINES OP GEMS. ] 95 
 
 EIGHTH CHAPTER. 
 
 On the globe, the seas, the beginning of rivers, the 
 mountains, the seven climates, the stars which 
 preside over them, the order of the spheres, and 
 other subjects. 
 
 EL-MAS'UDI says, the mathematicians have divided 
 the earth into four quarters, the east, west, north, 
 and south. Another division is into the inhabited 
 and uninhabited, cultivated and uncultivated world. 
 They say the earth is round, its centre falls in the 
 midst of the heaven, and the air surrounds it from 
 all sides. It is the dot (centre) in reference to the 
 zodiac. 
 
 The cultivated land is considered to begin from 
 the Eternal Islands (Fortunate Islands) jo^il 
 okxJlii, in the Western Ocean, which is a group of 
 six flourishing islands, and to extend as far as the 
 extremity of China ^xaJJ. They found that this is 
 a space of twelve hours (of the daily revolution of 
 the sun) ; for they know that when the sun sets in 
 the extremity of China, it rises again in the 
 cultivated islands of the Western Ocean ; and when 
 it sets in these islands, it rises in the extremity of 
 China. This is half the circumference of the earth, 
 
 o 2 
 
196 EL-MAS'UDl'.S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 and the length of the cultivated parts of the globe, 
 which, if reduced into miles, amounts to thirteen 
 thousand five hundred geographical miles *. 
 
 The researches into the breadth of the culti- 
 vated land have shown that it extends from the 
 equator as far north as the isle of Thule Jp, which 
 belongs to Britannia XAJU^J, and where the longest 
 day has twenty hours. 
 
 They state that there is a point of the equator 
 of the earth between east and west, which falls in 
 an island between India and Habesh (Abyssinia), 
 somewhat south of these two countries; and as 
 it is in the middle, between north and south, so 
 it is in the middle between the Fortunate Islands 
 and the utmost cultivated districts of China; and 
 this is known by the name of the Dome of the earth 
 u*j $\ Xxi', and defined by the description which we 
 have just givenf. 
 
 * Literally "of those miles which are in use in measuring the 
 circumference of the earth." 
 
 f Messrs. Reinaud and Baron Slane, (Aboulfeda, p. 376,) 
 collected the most important passages from Arabic authors, 
 bearing on this dome of the earth, and traced the origin of 
 the idea to India. But it appears it also existed amongst the 
 ancient Greeks. 
 
 6s ('OSuo'evs) 8) drjdd <f)i\a)v OTTO TrfjfMaTa nd^fi, 
 
 Nqo-os fv dfjiffripvTr), 061 T OM$AAO2 eori 6a\d(T(Tr)5. 
 
 Homer, Odyss. i. 51. 
 
 The navel of the earth is also mentioned in the Scriptures; 
 but as the Greeks have neglected this idea in subsequent time, it 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 197 
 
 The breadth from the Isle of Thule to the 
 equator makes nearly sixty degrees: this is one- 
 sixth of the circumference of the earth. This 
 sixth, which represents the breadth of the cultivated 
 parts of the earth, multiplied with one-half, which 
 expresses the length, gives as product the extent of 
 the cultivated world (jji/*JJ of the northern hemi- 
 sphere. This product is half one-sixth (or one- 
 twelfth) of the surface of the globe. 
 
 THE SEVEN CLIMATES*. The first climate is the 
 
 seems that it had arisen from considering the earth as a round 
 plain, convex in the centre, which is this dome. It belongs there- 
 fore to the doctrine of the Jummoodeep of the Hindus, about 
 which, the reader may compare Ayeen Akberi, vol. iii., p. 25. 
 
 Bazih s^Lj is a town near the dome of the earth, on the same 
 meridian as Khojandah, in Transoxania; and this meridian was 
 considered as the absolute division between east and west (Meta- 
 tih el-'olum). 
 
 * The basis of all researches in ancient history must unques- 
 tionably be to trace when and where ideas have risen ? how they 
 have been propagated? what changes they underwent? and 
 what was their influence upon the life, freedom, and happiness of 
 man in their different phases. It is in this point of view that this 
 notice of our author on the seven climates is important, for it 
 shows us that it is neither an invention of the Greeks, as Pliny 
 observes (lib. vii., cap. 39), nor originally founded upon the 
 observations of the gnomon having reference to the northern 
 latitude, as the same author, and everybody else after him, 
 believed. 
 
 The seven climates, as we see here, are independent of the 
 latitude of places ; and owe their origin to the circumstance that, 
 
198 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 country of Babil, which includes Khorasan, Faris, 
 
 in the star worship, every part of the earth was sacred to one of 
 the seven planets. 
 
 This was not only the habit amongst the Persians, but we find 
 that they have been imitated by Ptolemy, who assigns equally 
 to every country a planet as a patron, in his Tetrabiblos. I have 
 no means of referring to this book at present, and do not remem- 
 ber whether he makes the same divisions, but nothing is more 
 natural than that the city of Baal or Babylon, [for even Arabic 
 writers (et-Tanbih, fol. 25. verso,) confess, that the Persians and 
 Nabathaeans derive Babel from Bil J^,, which means the planet 
 Jupiter c5^p.^JL\ J should be sacred to Jupiter ; and the countries 
 of the black nations to the dark and gloomy Saturn ; whilst the 
 lively Arabs worshipped particularly the bright star of Venus in 
 San'a ; Thaut was the god of the grave Egyptians, and it is very 
 likely that the Sabeans of Harran, worshipped the moon in 
 preference to other planets ; the warlike Turks, or Tartars, found 
 in Mars their patron ; whilst the most eastern country, the Shave 
 of the Zend books, was naturally sacred to the sun. 
 
 As we conclude that a map in which the first meridian goes 
 through Greenwich, has been made in England, so we can have 
 no doubt that a division of the globe, in which Babel stands on the 
 head, has been made in Babylonia; for the rest we have a direct 
 proof in the Tenblh, where the author says distinctly that the 
 Persians divide the earth into seven climates, consecrating them 
 to the seven planets. Maimonides, Nev., p. iii., cap. 27, assigns 
 the division of the earth after the seven planets to the Sabeans 
 (Chaldeans). 
 
 The Zendavesta mentions these seven climates in several places, 
 but the fire worshippers leave out the planets who presided over 
 them. The Zend word for climate is Keshvar. 
 
 It is very curious that Pliny includes all the countries in the 
 first climate, which we find in el-Mas'iidi as being subordinate to 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 199 
 
 el-Ahwas, el-Mausil, and the Jebal*. The Aries 
 and Sagittarius are the zodiacal signs of this climate, 
 and Jupiter is its planet. 
 
 The second climate includes es-Sind, India, 
 and es-Sudan (Nigritia): their sign is Capricorn, 
 and their planet Saturn. 
 
 The third climate is Mekka, Medina, Yemen, 
 et-Tayif, the Hejaz, and the intermediate countries: 
 their sign is Scorpio, and their star is Venus. 
 
 The fourth climate is Egypt t, Afrikiyah (Africa 
 
 it. He names (lib. vi. cap. 39,) Parthyene (Khorasan) ; Persae 
 (Faris) ; Susiane (el- Ahwaz) ; and Mesopotamia (el-Mausil) : 
 although these countries belong, according to Pliny's principle of 
 division, to the third climate. Nobody will therefore say the 
 division of the earth into seven climates was a Greek invention, or 
 was originally made according to the latitude of the places, 
 although the honour of having reduced it to this more scientific 
 principle is owing to the Greeks. 
 
 * These countries formed the Iran or holy land of the Per- 
 sians, which is called KHOUNNERETS in the Zend books. This 
 name would be an additional proof to confirm what has been stated 
 in the preceding note, if such was required. The Keschvar or 
 climate of Khounnerets, means the climate of Babel, (exactly the 
 same as our author calls it), for el-Mas'udi informs us in the 
 Tanblh (MS. 337, de St. Germain, Royal Library of Paris, fol. 
 25, recto)) that Kha'inereth C,J.AAS*. is the Assyrian or Chaldean 
 name of Babylon. This throws a great deal of light on the 
 Zendavesta; for Khounnerets is mentioned as the most sacred 
 place. It may lead to important conjectures, why this climate has 
 its name from Babel and not the pure Persian name Iran. 
 
 T This climate has the name of Arze in the Zend books, and 
 
200 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 provincia), el-Berber, Spain, and the interjacent 
 countries: their sign is the Gemini, and their 
 planet is Mercury. 
 
 The fifth climate is Syria and el-Jezirah (Meso- 
 potamia)*: their sign is the Aquarius, and their 
 planet the Moon. 
 
 The sixth climate is et-Turk (Turkestan), el- 
 Khazar j^\ 9 ed-Dailom jju<x!l, and es-Sakalibah 
 XxJUuoJJ (Slavonians) f: their sign is the Cancer, and 
 their star is Mars. 
 
 The seventh climate is ed-DabilJ 
 
 or J^JJl, and China: their zodiacal sign is the 
 Libra, and their planet the Sun. 
 
 Hosain the astronomer, who is the author of 
 the Astronomical Tables p.^Jl J g$\\ v^> relates 
 from Khaled Ben 'Abdul-Melik el-Marwazi tfj^Xt 
 G^jJtAO' and the others who have observed the sun 
 in the plains of Sinjar ^l^uw, in Diyar Rabi'ah, by 
 order of el-Mamun, that the length of one degree 
 
 the chief of this climate is there (Boun-Dehesch, cap. xxx, p. 
 408), said to be Schaschega, which is clearly the name of the Sesak 
 of the Scriptures. It would not be difficult to find out the name g 
 of the chiefs of the other climates, if it was worth while. 
 
 * One copy adds " and er-Rum," the Byzantine empire. 
 
 f These nations and countries were all on the coasts of the 
 Caspian. 
 
 f Perhaps Daibol, which is the last seaport in es-Sind, is to be 
 read. 
 
 The llabi'ah tribe held the South of Mesopotamia. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 201 
 
 of the earth is equal to fifty-six miles : they mul- 
 tiplied this number with three hundred and sixty, 
 and found the circumference of the globe, which is 
 covered with land and seas, to be twenty thousand 
 one hundred and sixty miles. The circumference 
 of the earth, multiplied with seven, gives as pro- 
 duct one hundred and forty-one thousand one hun- 
 dred and twenty; and this, divided with twenty- 
 two, gives the length of the diameter ^3 of the 
 earth as the result, viz., six thousand four hundred 
 and fourteen miles, and nearly half a tenth of a 
 mile. The length of the radius of the earth is 
 three thousand two hundred and seven miles, six- 
 teen minutes, and two-thirds of a second, which is 
 equal to one-fourth and the fourth part of one-tenth 
 of a mile (eleven-fortieths). A mile has four thou- 
 sand black cubits : these are the cubits which have 
 been introduced by the Khalif el-Mamun for mea- 
 suring cloths, buildings, and grounds: one cubit 
 has twenty-four inches *j&\. 
 
 The philosopher o^X/jUt (Ptolemy) gives an 
 account in his book entitled "Gighrafia" loiyL*. 
 (yecoypa^ia) of the world, its towns, mountains, 
 seas, islands, rivers,, and wells. He describes the 
 inhabited towns and cultivated tracts. There were, 
 according to him, four thousand five hundred and 
 thirty towns in his time. He names these towns, 
 adding to every one of them in what climate it is 
 situated. He says in his book what colour the 
 
202 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 mountains of the world have, red, yellow, green, 
 or any other colour. There are about two hundred 
 mountains (named by Ptolemy). He gives their 
 dimensions, mentions the mines which are in them, 
 and the mass of which they consist (or the gems 
 found in them). The philosopher says that the 
 seas which surround the globe are five seas. He 
 names the islands which are in them, stating whe- 
 ther they are cultivated or not; but only the more 
 celebrated islands are mentioned, and not those 
 which are less known. So, for instance*, there is 
 an Archipelago in the Abyssinian Sea, consisting 
 of nearly one thousand islands, called ed-Dinjat 
 L*u&Jl (^LsryjjOi), all of which are cultivated. 
 The distance from one island to another is two or 
 three miles, more or less. 
 
 He states in his geography that the sea of the 
 Byzantine empire and of Egypt (the Mediterranean) 
 begins from the sea of the idols of copper (Columrus 
 Herculis) ; that the number of all the great springs 
 on earth is two hundred and thirty, not counting 
 the lesser ones; that there are two hundred and 
 ninety great and perennial rivers; and that the 
 extent of every one of the seven climates, which 
 we have just mentioned, is nine hundred farsangs 
 
 The Cambridge copy 
 bears Aj ^ j$*j an( ^ ^ le mentions that there is an Archipelago. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 203 
 
 square. Some seas have cultivation (in islands); 
 others have none. Into the number of the latter 
 enters the ocean, or the sea, which surrounds the 
 world kxsi?J ^i. The reader will find in the fol- 
 lowing pages a description of the division of the 
 seas. They are all represented in the geography 
 (of Ptolemy) in drawings of different colours, di- 
 mensions, and forms. Some have the form of a 
 cloak ^U^Xxk, some of an armour, and others of 
 intestines*, and are round, or triangular; but the 
 names in that book are in Greek : hence they are 
 unintelligible. 
 
 The diameter of the earth is two thousand one 
 hundred farsangs [but the correct number is one 
 thousand six hundred farsangs f] : a farsang is equal 
 to one thousand six hundred cubits. 
 
 The orbit of the lowest star is the sphere (or 
 heaven) of the moon, and has one hundred and 
 twenty-five thousand six hundred and sixty far- 
 sangs in circumference. The diameter of the 
 heaven, from the limit of the head of the Aries to 
 the limit of the head of the Libra, measures forty 
 thousand farsangs. 
 
 * This word L*ax>, intestine, is, I believe, not found in 
 any dictionary. It is, however, used in vulgar Arabic, and fre- 
 quently found in books. 
 
 f This correction is only in one copy. 
 
204 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 There are nine spheres (or heavens) cftUi. The 
 first; which is the smallest, and nearest to the earth, 
 is the sphere of the Moon^W*; the second is the 
 sphere of Mercury JjlkxJ!; the third, of Venus 
 *jj*>j$\; the fourth, of the Sun y^^t; the fifth, of 
 Mars jtt ; the sixth of Jupiter <gJrJ&\ ; the 
 seventh, of Saturn J^JJ; the eighth, of the fixed 
 stars; the ninth, of the Zodiac ^$j&. The form 
 of these spheres is like one ball in another. The 
 sphere of the Zodiac is called the universal sphere 
 ^XSftjfo. The revolution of this sphere is the 
 cause of day and night ; for it carries the sun, 
 
 * The word Kamar (moon), says en-Nowairi, means white ; Zoh- 
 rah (Venus) resplendent, Zonal (Saturn) is explained as meaning 
 ill-natured and wandering; Mirrikh (Mars), say some authors, means 
 originally an arrow without feathers, and this name was applied to 
 Mars on account of its irregular course ; others seek for a more 
 natural meaning of this word, and derive it from the name of a 
 tree called markh ^ ^ 9 the branches of which are rubbed against 
 
 each other and produce fire; 'Utarid (Mercury), says the same 
 author, means a penman : and, indeed, this planet is represented 
 as such ; but whether this word is ever used for penman in Arabic 
 is more than doubtful. Ibn Bai'tar mentions a plant which is 
 called Sonbal er-Rumi by the Arabs, and 'Utarid by the Naba- 
 theans. This might lead to the opinion that this strange-sounding 
 word derives its origin in its astronomical meaning, as well from 
 that language, to which several other terms and notions of Arabic 
 astronomy seem to owe their origin. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 205 
 
 moon, and all the stars, once in a day and night, 
 with itself, in the direction from east to west, round 
 the two poles, which are fixed the one in the north, 
 and this is the pole of the Bear ; and the other in 
 the south, which is the pole of Canopus. The 
 signs of the zodiac have no other sphere than this ; 
 for they are certain places in heaven which have 
 received this name*, in order to fix after them 
 the position of the stars, in reference to the uni- 
 versal sphere. The sphere of the zodiac must there- 
 fore be narrow towards the two poles, and become 
 wide in the middle, 
 
 The line which cuts the sphere in two halves 
 running from the east to the west is called the 
 equinoctial line J^tt\ Jjo^ *jjte- Both poles are at 
 the same distance from this line. It has the 
 name equinoctial line, because when the sun is upon 
 it, day and night are equal in all countries of the 
 world. The direction from north to south in the 
 sphere is called latitude o^ c > an d the direction 
 from east to west longitude J^. The spheres are 
 round; they include the world (earth), and turn 
 round the centre of the earth, which stands like the 
 centre of a circle in the middle of them. The 
 
 * This explains why the Signs of the Zodiac were called boruj, 
 sing, borj, which means stronghold, or fortress, and answers to the 
 Persian word Alborj, and the German Burg, Berg. 
 
206 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 spheres of the heaven are nine; the nearest is the 
 sphere of the moon, above it is the sphere of Mer- 
 cury, then that of Venus, then the sphere of the sun, 
 which is in the middle between the seven spheres (of 
 the planets); above the sphere of the sun is that of 
 Mars, then the sphere of Jupiter, then the sphere of 
 Saturn. In every one of these seven spheres there is 
 only one star. Above Saturn is the eighth sphere, in 
 which are the signs of the zodiac, and all other 
 stars. The ninth sphere is the largest and widest, 
 it is called the greatest sphere, and includes all 
 others which we have just enumerated, with the four 
 temperaments and all qualities*. There is no star 
 in it. It turns from east to west, making one com- 
 plete revolution every day. And in its revolution 
 it carries with itself all the spheres which are below 
 (within) it. But the seven spheres (of the planets) 
 turn from west to eastt. The ancients prove what 
 
 * XJuXiU A^ ZxjjM >ULM, literally "the four 
 natures, and every quality." The four natures imply warmth 
 and cold, dryness and wet. Two of these qualities were consi- 
 dered as necessary for the existence of a body as the three geo- 
 metrical dimensions. Arabic pharmacologists begin, therefore, 
 the description of drugs by stating which two of these qualities, or 
 temperaments, they possess. 
 
 Quality XJuXiJ is the characteristic property which distin- 
 guishes one individual from another. (Bahr el-Jewahir.) 
 
 f This astronomical theory is copied from Ptolemy, and is of 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 207 
 
 we have said with many arguments, but it would be 
 too long to repeat them here. 
 
 The stars visible to the eye and all others are in 
 the eighth sphere, which does not make its revolu- 
 tions round the pole of the general sphere (being 
 excentric). They bring as proof for the difference 
 of the motion of the sphere of the zodiac from that 
 of the other spheres, that the twelve zodiacal signs 
 follow each other in their course, without change in 
 their relative position and alteration in their motion 
 in rising and setting. Every one of the planets has 
 a different motion, for there is a discrepancy in their 
 course ; sometimes the motion is quicker, sometimes 
 
 little interest. I give the explanation of the idea of the seven 
 spheres in the precise words of La Place (Exposition du Systeme 
 du Monde, Paris, 1808, p. 343): " Ptolemee 1'adopta (the theory 
 of the circular and uniform motion), et pla^ant la terre au centre 
 des mouvements celestes, il essaya de representer leur inegalite 
 dans cette hypothese. Que Ton imagine un mouvement sur une 
 premiere circonference, dont la terre occupe le centre, celui d'une 
 seconde circonference sur laquelle se meut le centre d'une troisieme 
 circonference, et ainsi de suite jusqu'a la derniere, que 1'astre 
 decrit uniformement. Si le rayon d'une de ces circonference s 
 surpasse la somme des autres rayons, le mouvement apparent de 
 1'astre autour de la terre sera compose d'un moyen mouvement 
 uniforme, et de plusieurs inegalites dependantes des rapports 
 qu'ont entre eux les rayons des diverses circonferences et le 
 mouvement de leur centre et de 1'astre ; on peut done, en multi- 
 pliant, et en determinant convenablement ces quantites, repre- 
 senter toutes les inegalites de ce mouvement apparent." 
 
208 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 it goes towards the south, other times to the 
 north. 
 
 They (the astronomers), define the SPHERE 
 JjjU! as the end Sul^iM (universe), for it embraces 
 the higher and lower nature*. The definition in 
 reference to its natural quality is, that it is a round 
 form, and the largest (concrete) form which includes 
 all others f. 
 
 The rapidity of the motion of these stars is 
 different, so the moon stays in every sign (of the 
 zodiac) two days and half a day, and she goes 
 through all the heaven in one month ; the sun stays 
 in every sign one month; Mercury stays fifteen 
 days; Venus twenty-five days; Mars stays in every 
 sign of the zodiac forty-five days; Jupiter stays in 
 every sign of the zodiac one year, and Saturn 
 remains thirty months in every sign of the zodiac. 
 
 Ptolemy, the author of the Almagest ^- 
 
 * The ether and the four elements of the earthly bodies : the 
 former has its natural place above the lunar region, and is the 
 essence of life ; whilst the latter form the dead mass of bodies. 
 Compare the note to p. 179, supra. 
 
 f El-Khalil, the great grammarian, defines the word better: 
 *UwJJ i*fijj* *& jfollj "felek (sphere) is the round of the 
 heaven:" the word has, therefore, originally only reference to 
 the form, and not to the matter; and this is borne out by the 
 original signification of the word, for it means anything round : 
 hence it would appear that all these ideas have not been in the 
 nation, but have been imported, for else they would have a word. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 209 
 
 states, the circumference of the earth, with all its 
 mountains and seas, is twenty-four thousand miles; 
 and its diameter, that is to say, its width and depth, 
 seven thousand six hundred and thirty-six miles. 
 These data were found by taking the northern alti- 
 tude in two towns which are under the same meri- 
 dian, namely, at Tadmor, which is in the desert 
 between Syria and el-Trak, and at er-Rakkah. 
 They found the town of er-Rakkah to be under the 
 thirty-fifth and one-third degree of northern alti- 
 tude, whilst the elevation of the north pole in 
 Tadmor is thirty-four degrees. The difference 
 between both is one and one-third degree. Then 
 they measured the distance between Tadmor and 
 er-Rakkah ; and they found it to be sixty-seven miles. 
 Sixty- seven miles of the earth is therefore the 
 known quantity yfclliM of the circle jfoW. They 
 divided the whole circle into three hundred and 
 sixty degrees, for a reason which they state ; but it 
 would be against our object to demonstrate it here. 
 This division is correct in their opinion; for they 
 found that the heaven is divided into twelve parts 
 by the zodiacal signs, and the sun, remaining in 
 every sign one month, goes through the whole 
 heaven in three hundred and sixty -five days. 
 
 The sphere which makes the daily revolution 
 turns round an axle and two poles, just like the 
 wheel of the carpenter or turner, who makes balls, 
 boxes, and other articles of wood. Those who live 
 
 p 
 
210 EL MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 in the middle of the earth, that is to say, on the 
 equator, have all the year round day and night of 
 equal length; and they see both poles, the north 
 and south poles ; whilst those who inhabit the 
 northern hemisphere, see only the north pole and the 
 Bear, but not the south pole, nor the stars near it. 
 For this reason they never see the Canopus in 
 Khorasan, whilst it may be observed in el-'Irak 
 some days in the year. If a camel looks at this 
 star it will die, according to the common belief 
 which we have related, together with the reason 
 which is assigned that it should be fatal only to 
 this species of quadrupeds. In the northern coun- 
 tries they never see the Canopus all the year round. 
 The different schools of the sciences of the spheres 
 and stars do not agree about the axles upon which 
 the heaven rests, whether they are immoveable, or 
 whether they have a rotatory motion. Most of 
 them are, however, of opinion that they do not 
 move. The reader may find a further develope- 
 ment of the opinions, whether these axles are 
 immoveable, or whether they form part of the 
 sphere (and turn)*, in our former works. 
 
 * There seems, notwithstanding the gross notions alluded 
 to in this passage, to have prevailed a dark idea of the mutual 
 attraction of the heavenly bodies, amongst the Arabs, at least el- 
 Makrizi informs us that some astronomers suppose that the earth 
 is attracted from all sides by the heaven, as by a magnet. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 211 
 
 The philosophers are at variance about the 
 form of the seas. Most of the ancients, such as the 
 mathematicians of the Hindus and Greeks, believe 
 that they are convex ^\A**O (round). This hypo- 
 thesis, however, is rejected by those who follow 
 strictly the revelation*. The former bring for- 
 ward many arguments in proof of their statement. 
 If you sail on the sea, land and mountains disap- 
 pear gradually, until you lose even the sight of 
 highest summits of the mountains, and, on the 
 contrary, if you approach the coast, you gra- 
 dually perceive, first, the mountains, and, when 
 you come nearer, you see the trees and plains. 
 
 This is the case with the mountain of Doma- 
 wand jJ^Ufc> between er-Rai and Taberistan. It is 
 to be seen at a distance of one hundred farsangs, on 
 account of its height: from the summit rises a 
 smoke ; and it is covered with eternal snow, owing 
 to its elevation. From the foot of the mountain 
 gushes forth a copious river, the water of which is 
 impregnated with sulphur, and of a yellow hue 
 like the colour of gold. The mountain is so high 
 
 They probably oppose passages of the Koran, like these, 
 or 
 
 P 2 
 
 01 UJ 
 
212 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 that about three days and nights are required to 
 ascend it. When on the top, a platform is dis- 
 covered, of about a thousand cubits square ; but 
 as seen from below, it appears as if terminating 
 in a cone. This platform is covered with red 
 sand (scoriae?), into which the feet sink. No 
 animal can reach the summit, not even a bird, on 
 account of the height, the wind, and the cold. On 
 the top are about thirty holes, from whence issues 
 clouds of sulphurous smoke, which is seen from 
 the sea. From the same wind-holes < AJJ^ pro- 
 ceeds, sometimes, a noise to be compared with 
 the loudest thunder, which is accompanied with 
 flames. It frequently happens that a man who 
 exposes himself to danger, by climbing up to 
 the highest mouths of these holes, brings a yellow 
 sulphur back like gold, which is used in different 
 arts, in alchemy, and for other purposes*. From 
 
 * 'Ali Ben Zorairah g^, ^^ ( ^^ ^c, a man well versed in 
 natural philosophy, who made himself known through many 
 works, says, that he has ascended this mountain, with several 
 persons of Khorasan, and gives almost literally the same descrip- 
 tion as el-Mas'udi ; so that it is probable our author has derived 
 his account from him if he is earlier. 
 
 El-Kazwini, in whose 'Ajaib el-Makhlukat the above author 
 is quoted, gives, under the head jebal en-nar (volcanoes), the 
 following account: 
 
 " Volcanoes are numerous. There is one in Turkestan with 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 213 
 
 the top the mountains all around appear like hillocks, 
 however high they may be. This mountain is 
 about twenty farsangs from the Caspian. If ships 
 sail in this sea, and are very distant, they will not 
 see it ; but when they go towards the mountains of 
 Taberistan, and are within a distance of one hun- 
 dred farsangs, they perceive the north side of this 
 mountain of Domawand ; and the nearer they come 
 to the shore the more is seen of it. This is an 
 evident proof of the spherical form of the water of 
 the sea, which has the shape of a segment of a 
 ball. 
 
 In the same way if a man sails on the sea of 
 er-Rum, which is the same as that of Egypt and of 
 Syria, he loses sight of the mount el-Akra* ^*^ 
 which has a height beyond measure, and is near 
 Antakiyah (Antioch) X/J1W, and of the mountains of 
 el-Ladikiyah 3ui'i&H (Laodicea), Atrabolos 
 (Tripolis), and those of the Isle of Kobros 
 (Cyprus), and other places in the Byzantine empire ; 
 
 a grotto, which may be compared to a large house ; and every 
 animal that goes into it dies instantly : another is in Kolistan (?) 
 
 /. ^ 
 
 There is a place in this mountain which causes instant death 
 to every bird that approaches it : it is therefore surrounded with 
 dead animals. In the neighbourhood of Domawand is another 
 mountain, like the mountain of Domawand: at night fire is seen 
 burning on the summit, and smoke issues during the day.] 
 
214 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 and he does not see these places although nothing is 
 between him and them. We shall give a more 
 complete account of the mountain of Domawand in 
 this book, relating what the Persians say of it. 
 Edh-Dhahhak, with many mouths*, is bound with 
 iron on the summit of this mountain. The holes 
 on its top are some of the great chimnies (craters) f 
 of the earth. 
 
 There are many disputes respecting the size of 
 the globe. Most mathematicians believe that the 
 distance from the centre of the earth to the limit of 
 air and fire (atmosphere) amounts to one hundred 
 and sixty-eight thousand miles. The earth is 
 somewhat more than thirty-seven times greater 
 than the moon, thirty-two thousand times greater 
 than Mercury, and twenty-four thousand times 
 greater than Venus; but the sun is one hundred 
 and sixty times and one-fourth and one-eighth 
 times greater than the earth, and two thousand six 
 hundred and forty times larger than the moon; so 
 that the whole earth is equal only to half a tenth 
 (one-twentieth) of one degree of the sun. The 
 
 J'lxv/oJi "the Laugher," is one of the Arabic 
 names for Zohak, the Semitic invader, in the Persian empire. 
 Some identify him with Nimrod. The popular tradition, that he 
 is tied on mount Domawand, is confirmed by Ferdusi and the 
 Zend books. 
 t Ubl sing. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS, 215 
 
 diameter of the sun is forty-two thousand miles. 
 Mars is sixty-three times larger than the earth ; its 
 diameter is eight thousand seven hundred miles. 
 Jupiter is eighty-two times and one-half and one- 
 fourth (three-quarters) larger than the earth ; its 
 diameter is thirty-three thousand two hundred and 
 sixteen miles. Saturn is ninety-nine and a half 
 times as large as the earth; its diameter being 
 thirty-two thousand seven hundred and eighty-six 
 miles. The bodies of the fixed stars of the first 
 magnitude, of which there are fifteen, are every one 
 of them ninety-four and a half times greater than 
 the earth. 
 
 DISTANCES OF THE STARS FROM THE EARTH. 
 When the moon is nearest to the earth the distance 
 is one hundred and twenty-eight thousand miles, 
 and when it is remotest from our globe, it amounts 
 to four million one hundred and nineteen thousand 
 six hundred miles. The greatest distance of the 
 sun from the earth is four million eight hundred 
 and twenty thousand miles and a half : the greatest 
 distance of Mars is somewhat more than three hun- 
 dred and thirty million six thousand miles. The 
 greatest distance of Jupiter from the earth is some- 
 what more than fifty-four million one hundred and 
 sixty thousand miles: the greatest distance of 
 Saturn is more than seventy-seven million miles. 
 The greatest distances of the fixed stars are in the 
 same proportions. Upon the divisions, degrees, 
 
216 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 and distances, which we have mentioned, the calcu- 
 lations of time and eclipses are founded. The 
 principal instruments for astronomical observation 
 are the astrolabes CL>lj^k-^I (armillary spheres). 
 Books have been written entirely on this subject. 
 We have devoted this chapter to the explanation of 
 some of those matters which are the subject of so 
 many discussions. Our observations may serve as a 
 guide to enter deeper into this subject, on which we 
 have treated more fully in our former writings. 
 Those inhabitants of Harran* who profess the 
 
 * Abulfaragius states, that Harran was built by Kainan, and 
 so called after his son. This town is mentioned in Genesis, and 
 by several Latin and Greek authors. The passages of the 
 classics respecting Harran, have been collected by Vadianus. 
 
 It is probably owing to its advantageous situation, that Mer- 
 wan the last Oma'iyide Khalif in the East, chose it as his residence, 
 and built there a palace at the expense of several millions of Dir- 
 hems. The Abbasides may have felt repugnance to take their resi- 
 dence in this town, in which Ibrahim the predecessor of es-Seffah 
 the founder of their dynasty, suffered death after long imprison- 
 ment. But under the Seljuks, Atabeks, and as late as the crusades, 
 Harran was a place of importance and frequently the site of one 
 of the feudal sovereigns; it flourished particularly under the 
 Beni Hamdan, who ruled over Mesopotamia, at the beginning of 
 the fourth century of the Hijrah. 
 
 It seems that Harran has always been one of the principal 
 sites of learning. Near this town was a sacred place of the 
 Sabeans , and the Harranians continued faithful to their religion, 
 which was that of the ancient Chaldeans, after the rise of the 
 Abasside dynasty, although the population round them had twice 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 217 
 
 religion of the Sabeans*, and who aspire by trum- 
 
 changed their faith: first they embraced Christianity, and then 
 they professed the tenets of Mohammed. 
 
 Their yearly pilgrimage to the pyramids in Egypt, brought 
 them into contact with the Alexandrians ; this led to an exchange 
 of ideas which is very perceptible in the writings of the latter, 
 and which encouraged the literary activity amongst the Sabeans 
 of Harran, so much, that the greatest share in the regeneration 
 of the philosophical sciences amongst the Arabs is owing to them. 
 All armillary spheres and other astronomical instruments were 
 originally made by them ; and a number of Harranians distinguished 
 themselves as translators or original authors, at the earliest period 
 of Arabic literature, as Thabet Ben Korrah, his master in astro- 
 nomy BenKamita UiA+5, el-Battam ^IxxJJ, Ibn er-Ruh _. ^\ 9 
 the Sabean, and many others, which will be mentioned in another 
 place of this book. 
 
 * Hottinger devotes the eighth chapter of the first book of his 
 Historia Orientalis to the exposition of the Sabean religion. He 
 follows up his subject with much learning, and had a most excel- 
 lent guide, having made use of the Fihirst of Mohammed Ben 
 Ishak en-Nadim, (not el-Kadim or prisons as he writes,) known 
 under the name of Abul-Faraj Ben Abi Ya'kub, who wrote in 
 377, A,H., and died in 385. 
 
 Hottinger knew neither the title of the book nor the age when 
 the author lived. Both are of importance, for the date shows 
 that he was contemporary with men who professed this religion; 
 and to be the author of the Fihirst gives him the character of an 
 exceedingly learned and exact writer. 
 
 He lived most likely in Babylonia, and was thus in constant 
 contact with Sabeans. We may therefore perfectly rely on what he 
 says. His treatise on Sabeanism and other religions, forms the last 
 chapter of the Fihrist; this is the third of the last volume, of 
 which there is an ancient and perfectly correct MS. at Leyden. 
 
218 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 pery pretensions*, to the knowledge of ancient 
 philosophy,, although they are uninstructed in the 
 
 With more caution the extracts which Hottinger gives from 
 Maimonides must be used. 
 
 It has been advanced by Spencer (De Leg. Hebr.) that the 
 Sabeans are very modern and not more ancient than Mohammed, 
 for they are the first time mentioned in the Koran. Now Sabi is an 
 Arabic word, applied to almost all Gentiles ; therefore, no wonder 
 if the word is found only in the writings of Arabic or Rabbinical 
 authors, and the Koran is the most ancient book in Arabic litera- 
 ture, excepting some poems collected afterwards. Hamzah, of 
 Ispahan, (MS. of Leyden,) informs us that the name of Sabeans 
 meant originally a sect of Christians, and has not been applied to 
 the Harranians before the time of el-Mamun, when they adopted 
 this name in order to escape a prosecution. Still more pre- 
 posterous is the opinion expressed in Calmet's Fragments, 
 DC XIII., where Sabeism is derived from St. John the Baptist. 
 
 Arabic authors who have lived with the Sabeans, state unani- 
 mously that they worshipped principally the seven planets. Sup- 
 posing this worship had been recently introduced in Harran, it was 
 certainly ancient amongst their brethren the Canaanites, (both the 
 Harranians and Canaanites spoke the Aramean language) ; for 
 Manassah received from them the same religion (2 Kings, xxxiii.), 
 we may therefore safely suppose that the Sabeans were not 
 materially different from the Chaldeans, who are called astrologers 
 on account of their star worship. Perhaps the Sabeans of Harran 
 are the Orcheni of Strabo (Lib. xvi., p. 701), who were a sect 
 of Chaldeans in Mesopotamia. 
 
 Strabo and other Greek authors agree with the Arabs in 
 making the Chaldeans astrologers and star worshippers ; but we 
 have to account for the allusions made to them in the Scriptures, 
 from which it might appear that they worshipped almost merely 
 
 * Literally, " And are the rabble of ancient philosophers." 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 219 
 
 wisdom of the Greeks (Chaldeans?), have 
 
 idols. On examining the names of those idols, we find that they 
 are the Semitic names of the planets. Aserah JTV10N <> r Astarte, 
 is az-Zohrah syfc-JN the Arabic name for the planet Venus ; which 
 was also called Balthi ^XxJ\ (Beltis in Greek authors). 
 Thamus may be taken for shomus u*j.$JJ, plural of shams, the 
 sun, for Adonis, with whom this deity is identified by Jerom, is 
 the sun as well; Merodach is Merrikh, the name of the planet 
 Mars in Arabic, the word is derived from mar ad ^w, which 
 means to be rebellious both in Arabic and Hebrew; and as the 
 original meaning of marad is the same as that of maras ^wo 
 and marakh }<*, it seems that only mar is the primitive syllable, 
 it is therefore not surprising to find the name of this planet 
 written Merodach, Merrikh, and Mars. Nebo means a prophet, 
 which is the name of Mercury or 'Utarid amongst the Sabeans; 
 for this planet is the patron of the priestclass ; as it has already 
 been noticed by Norberg, who establishes the fact by the testimony 
 of the Syro-Chaldeans. 
 
 Baal means lord, and is the name for Jupiter, but frequently 
 applied to the sun ; perhaps some of the sects of Chaldeans con- 
 sidered the sun as lord, and called it consequently Baal : the 
 identity of Baal with Jupiter is confirmed by the testimony of 
 Herodotus, which is worth more than that of all later authors, 
 who transcribed one another as far as it suited their purpose, and 
 referred in their learned ignorance to books and never to what 
 they could have witnessed themselves. See also p. 1 99 supra note. 
 
 More examples could be added and errors of mythologists cor- 
 rected, but these will do for our purpose. The representations of 
 the stars as idols, seem therefore to have been intended for the 
 exoteric; for we must distinguish here more than with any other 
 nation between the notions of the exoteric and those of the un- 
 initiated. The reader will find a developement of the former 
 in the additional notes to this chapter. 
 
220 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 adopted a gradation of the priests in their temples, 
 which is an imitation of the system of the 
 nine spheres*. The highest priest is called rds 
 
 * El-Makrizi (MS. of the Earl of Munster, vol. iii., Korrah 
 40) says nearly the same thing of the priests of ancient Egypt ; 
 " A priest who has served the seven planets seven years, has the 
 title Bahir jJ&L, and a priest who has served them forty-nine 
 years, seven years each, has the title Katir k|y '> he enjoys such 
 high honours that the king rises before him, allows him to sit 
 down on his side, and consults him in every action which he does. 
 Then the other priests come in, and with them the artisans, and 
 stand opposite the Katir. Every one of their priests is exclusively 
 destined for the service of one planet, and he must not pass to 
 another. He is called a servant of such a planet, so one says 
 the servant of the moon, the servant of Mercury, the servant 
 of Venus, the servant of the sun, the servant of Mars, the servant 
 of Jupiter, and the servant of Saturn. When they are all mar- 
 shalled, the Katir says to one of them, Where is thy Lord to day ? 
 and he answers, in such a sign of the zodiac, and in such a degree 
 and minute. Then he asks the next, and so he goes through all 
 of them ; and when he knows their position in reference to the 
 sphere of the zodiac, he says to the king, you ought to do such 
 and such a thing to-day: he tells him what he is to eat, when he 
 may go into his harem, when he is to go on horseback, and so 
 on, to the most minute thing. A secretary writes down every 
 word that he says. Then the Katir turns to the artisans, and 
 orders them what they are to do/' &c. 
 
 f The word Stt^T is not in the copy of Cambridge. The 
 variants between crotchets are all from the Cambridge copy. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 221 
 
 Komorr*. The Christians, who came after them, 
 arranged the orders of priests in their hierarchy 
 after the system which had been laid down by the 
 Sabeans. The Christians call this gradation ordina- 
 
 (read 
 
 * This word is met with in the Scriptures (2 Kings, xxiii. 5, 
 &c.), where it is exactly spelt as here "1D3. The Hebrew language 
 does not afford an explanation of its meaning ; for those which 
 have been advanced, as that it means black, or priest of the 
 moon ^5 (o and not with a J), are not founded. In Arabic it 
 means penis, or longum penem habens vir, and it is exceedingly 
 likely that this word was taken in this meaning, for the office 
 of the Komorr answered to that of Batrick, which represents, as 
 we may observe, something higher than the ninth sphere. Arabic 
 astrology, which is the daughter of the Pagan religions of Asia, 
 places there the procreative power, which the Arabs sometimes 
 call God, and sometimes the throne of God ; for an incorporeal 
 being is not so well adapted to the system. In the first mean- 
 ing, says our author, page 46, supra, " God commands, and there 
 flows what he likes from heaven to heaven (or sphere to sphere)," 
 &c. And in the second meaning, we read, in el-Kazwini, " Some 
 Moslims make agree the revelation of God and the opinion of 
 the philosophers, and think that this sphere is the stool, and the 
 tenth sphere, which is the greatest of all, is the throne of God." 
 
222 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 tion (el-'Atab). The first (lowest) order is es-Salt*, 
 
 * The Salt answers to the Ostiarius in the Roman degrees 
 of ordination, and to the sphere of the moon, in ancient astrology. 
 As it may lead to interesting comparisons between the exoteric 
 notions and the various forms under which they were made 
 available to the uninitiated, the characteristics of the seven 
 spheres and planets are detailed in this and the following notes 
 after Abu Ma'sher, Balinos, and el-Kazwmi, and occasionally 
 their views have been compared with those of the Greeks, and of 
 the Zend-Avesta, to show the identity of ancient religions, philo- 
 sophy, and astrology. 
 
 The moon is a female planet (Zendavesta, vol. ii., 382; 
 Arist. Hist. Anim., vii., 2; Pliny, lib. ii., 104), and has an affi- 
 nity with the female element the water which she attracts ; and 
 hence she causes the tide (Zendav., tome ii., 370, 385 ; Pliny, 
 ibidem). She is the concentration of light, and was, before the 
 introduction of Greek astronomy amongst the Arabs, believed to 
 shine with her own light (Zendavesta, vol. ii., 18, and p. 80, 
 supra). She is the planet which gives fertility, increases the 
 seed, animal warmth, and affection (Zendavesta, i. 26, p. 426 ; 
 Aristotle, de Generat. Animalium, ii. 4). To the moon silver is 
 sacred amongst the metals, and white amongst the seven colours, 
 every one of which, it seems, was considered to be fixed in a 
 metal, and sacred, together with the respective metal, to one of 
 the seven planets. All white or grey animals, of a meek tem- 
 per, are equally consecrated to her, particularly such birds, also 
 mules, fruit-trees, &c. The sphere of the moon is the isthmus of 
 immortality ; under it is the fire and air (atmosphere) of the earth, 
 which is mutable ; but above the moon everything is pure and 
 divine (supra lunam pura omnia ac diuturnae lucis plena: Pliny, 
 lib. ii., cap. 7) : hence she is called the gate of the heaven, and 
 
s AND MINES OF GEMS. 223 
 
 the second Aghsat *, the third Nudakirf, the 
 
 the order of priests sacred to her sphere must naturally be the 
 Ostiarius, or Porter. 
 
 The moon, considered as a goddess, is frequently not distin- 
 guished from Venus. 
 
 * To this order answers the atmosphere, or sphere of Mer- 
 cury, which is three hundred and eighty-eight thousand four 
 hundred and eighty-miles thick. The planet itself is described as 
 radians by Pliny (ii., 29), an epithet which is equally given to 
 the sun by the same author. It is probably this quality of diffus- 
 ing its rays which has also been noticed by astrologers, that this 
 planet is considered to diffuse the light of wisdom and knowledge. 
 He is the god of penmanship XjlxXf \, and a child born under the 
 influence of this planet will be meek and clever. It was, at all 
 events, a correct notion, that the next step after the gate of the 
 heaven should be the pons asinorum, and that wisdom should be 
 the first degree in heaven, and in the hierarchy within the gate : 
 hence this order in the Catholic Church is called Lectorship, and 
 the Lector receives a book at the Ordination. The astrologers 
 are probably equally right in calling the patron of the Savans 
 and priests cJi^UU (the unprincipled, or hypocrite). They say 
 that he adds energy both to lucky and unlucky constellations, as 
 he happens to meet them. 
 
 ) This order answers to the sphere of Venus, which is three 
 million seven hundred and ninety-five thousand and ninety- two 
 miles thick. The lovely star which animates this sphere, and 
 keeps always near the sun like a lover, and approaches to him, or 
 recedes for a short time like a coquette, was represented as the 
 
224 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 fourth Shemasheryam *, the fifth Kissis f, the sixth 
 
 beauty of the heavens at all times and by all nations. Arabic 
 astrologers call her the lesser luck JU^M <>sx*JJ, and ascribe to 
 her influence mirth and love. Pliny and the Zend-books agree 
 with them in assigning to her the procreative (not generative) 
 power. To this star brass was sacred, and the green colour 
 (verdigris); also fish, serpents, bees, grapes, sparrows. The 
 ancient Christian Church seems to have found no higher ideas 
 respecting the lucky influence of this star amongst the Sabeans, 
 than that it averts evil; hence this order has the power of 
 destroying the bad effects of evil spirits, and the priests of this 
 order are called Exorcistes in Greek and Latin. If there was no 
 other evidence of the mixed nature of the Ritual of the Romish 
 Church, the gross superstition of having an order of exorcists 
 would be proof enough. 
 
 * The Greek name of the order is Acoluthos (follower) : he 
 has the same office as the clerk in the Anglican Church. The 
 order answers to the sphere of the sun, which is ten million one 
 hundred and seventy-six thousand nine hundred and ninety-eight 
 miles thick, and was considered as the mediator, as will be shown 
 in the additional notes. The Acoluthos is the highest of the four 
 minor orders, and is also the mediator between the people and 
 higher orders, as the sun between the lower and higher planets. 
 
 f The sphere which corresponds with this order is that of 
 Mars, which is ten million one hundred and seventy-six thousand 
 nine hundred and ninety-eight miles thick. The blood-red colour 
 of this planet has brought it into discredit with astrologers, who 
 call it the lesser misfortune JU^J y**^\J!, besides its course 
 appeared to the ancients (Pliny, ii., cap. 15) so irregular, that 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 225 
 
 Barduth *, the seventh Huzabiskatos f : he is after 
 
 they are justified in calling him the Marikh, rebellious. He is 
 the god of iron, and the red colour (peroxyde of iron), of war, 
 lions, tigers, hyaenas, of the Turks, and everything terrible. 
 Under his protection are birds of a red colour, and the lapwing 
 \^>J^J!, which is one of the best known ill omens in Oriental 
 superstition. 
 
 * This order was the representation of the sphere of Jupiter, 
 and is called Diaconate in Greek and Latin. I am not suffi- 
 ciently acquainted with its office and ceremonies to know its 
 relation to this sphere. Jupiter is the greatest of all the planets, 
 and if the ether was the essence of the heavens, and the stars 
 like the souls of the ether, this star had a natural claim to be the 
 lord of all other planets. The astrologers call him the great 
 luck rS$\ JuuJl* and ascribe to him all the good. To Jupiter, 
 blue (the colour of the sky), and copper (vitriol, or sulphate of 
 copper), is sacred ; also emerald, onyx, jasper, ruby, and all sorts 
 of precious stones ; farther musk, wheat, and every thing that is 
 esteemed. 
 
 f This order represents the highest of all the planetary 
 spheres ; that of Saturn, which is twenty-one million six hundred 
 and six miles thick. Saturn is represented as an old man, and 
 this is the name of this order in the ancient Christian Church; 
 for Presbyter has the same signification. Arabic astrologers call 
 Saturn the great misfortune jS$\ ^r^xM, and Pliny seems to 
 think that this planet must be cold and dreary, on account of its 
 great distance from the sun. 
 
 To Saturn the heavy and ignoble metal lead, and black is 
 sacred, and all unclean animals, as pigs, dogs, &c. 
 
 [The Reader 
 Q 
 
226 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the Bishop. The eighth is the Akkaf *; the ninth 
 is the Mitran (Metropolitan), which means the 
 head of the town. And above all these ranks is 
 the Batric (Patriarch), which means father of the 
 fathers, or of the mentioned orders, and the laymen. 
 
 The reader will find in the additional notes to this chapter at 
 the end of this volume, more philosophically accounted for, the 
 qualities attributed to the spheres of the heaven and the planets. 
 
 * This is a corruption of eVto-KOTroy, Bishop, or literally who 
 inspects from above. This appellation is very well chosen ; for 
 the order represents the signs of the zodiac which do look down 
 from above on the planets. 
 
 f I transcribed the copy of Mr. Gayangos, with all its faults 
 in order to give to the reader the variants which it presents in the 
 names of the orders: 
 
 Lf* 
 
 Lo ^C l^Jol^ ^ Xi^Xfj XA-J^J <Sj\*s>\\ 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 227 
 
 This is the opinion of the Esoteric Christians 
 respecting these orders ; but the Exoteric give other 
 reasons, alleging that a king had introduced them 
 and other things which it would be useless to 
 relate. These are the orders of the Melikites 
 (Orthodox), who form the main body, and are the 
 original Christians ; for the Eastern Christians, or 
 'Ibad*, who are called Nestorians and Jacobites, are 
 branches of them, and their imitators. The Chris- 
 tians took, as we have said, the whole of the insti- 
 
 * Other Arabic authors take the name 'Ibadites in a more 
 limited sense, applying only to the Christians of el-Hirah. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 EL-MAS UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 tution of their orders from the Sabeans: Kissis, 
 Shemas, and other ranks. 
 
 Manes rose as Heresiarch after the Messiah, 
 and Ibn ed-Dai'san and Marcion followed his ex- 
 ample. From Manes the Manicheans have their 
 name ; from Marcion the Marcionites ; and from 
 Ibn ed-Daisan the Daisanites. In subsequent times 
 rose from them the Mozdakians, and other sects, 
 who follow the Dualistie doctrine. 
 
 The reader will find in our books,, the Akhbar 
 ez-zeman, and the Kitab el-ausat, a number of 
 anecdotes respecting these sects, and an account of 
 the fabulous stories which they tell, and of their 
 laws which they assign to God, although they are 
 made by man. We have also treated on these 
 sects in our book " On the various opinions on the 
 principles of religion ^\ J c^UiU ^ V UT 
 CjUUx!!. We have spoken of the books of these 
 religious opinions, and the destruction of these 
 sects, in our work entitled the "Explanation of 
 
 read) 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 229 
 
 the principles of religion" 
 In these chapters we enter on the points on which 
 scholastic theology dwells, and which are the prin- 
 ciple objects to be described. We allude only to 
 striking facts, by way of narrative, and with the 
 view to give an insight into the history of the sects, 
 lest this book should be found defective in such in- 
 formation respecting them, as a well-informed man 
 ought to know; but we do not mean to enter into 
 any polemic discussions. 
 
230 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 NINTH CHAPTER. 
 
 A concise account of seas that have changed their 
 places, and of great rivers. 
 
 THE author of the Logic <JikzJ,J (Aristotle) says, 
 that the seas change their places in the lapse of 
 centuries and the length of ages. And indeed all 
 seas are in a constant motion; but if this motion is 
 compared with the volume of water, the extent of 
 their level, and the depth of their abysses, it is as if 
 they were quiet. There is, however, no place on 
 earth that is ever covered with water nor one that is 
 ever land, but a constant revolution takes place 
 effected by the rivers which may run in one place 
 or discontinue their course, for this reason the 
 places of sea and land change, and there is no 
 place on earth always land nor always sea. At 
 periods there will be land where there once has been 
 sea; and the sea will occupy what one time has been 
 land. These revolutions are caused by the course 
 and origin of the rivers,, for places watered by 
 rivers have a period of youth and decrepitude, of 
 growth and of life and death, like animals and plants, 
 with the difference that growth and decay in plants 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 231 
 
 and animals do not manifest themselves now in one 
 part and then in another, but all parts grow 
 together, so they wither and die at the same time. 
 But the earth grows and declines part by part. 
 This is also connected with the revolutions of the 
 sun. 
 
 The learned are at variance about the rivers and 
 springs, and their origin. Some are of opinion that 
 all have the same ultimate source, namely, the 
 greatest sea. This is the sea 'adab c_> xc j^e, and 
 not the Okianos (the Atlantic). Others suppose 
 that the water is in the earth in the same way as the 
 veins in the body. Some reason thus : It is a law of 
 nature that the surface of the water be level, but 
 as the earth is in some places high and in others 
 deep, the water goes to the deepest part, and when 
 it is enclosed in caverns it has a tendency to form 
 steam, which produces a pressure on the earth from 
 beneath ; it gushes forth and gives origin to springs 
 and ( rivers. Frequently water is the product of the 
 air which is in the bowels of the earth, for water is 
 no element djJU&wf o-rot%etoz/), but it is the product 
 of the rottenness* and the exhalations of the earth. 
 We forbear mentioning here the various controver- 
 sies which are extant on this head for fear of tres- 
 
 * X>*A This is a medical term which means gangrene, and 
 implies the last stage of inflammation which precedes it. 
 
232 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 passing our limits, for we mean to abridge what we 
 have said in other works in detail. 
 
 Much has been said on the beginning, course, 
 length, and end of large rivers; like the Nile,, the 
 Euphrates, the Tigris, the river of Balkh or Jaihun, 
 the river Mihran j,|^-o in es-Sind JsJUJJ cSo^-*' 
 the Ganges <j~s^> which is a large river in India, 
 and the Atanabus u*oUkJ (Danube), which falls 
 into the sea Nitus (Black Sea), and other large 
 rivers. I saw in the geography (of Ptolemy), a 
 drawing of the Nile as it comes forth from the 
 mountain el-Komr j$\ J,**-, rising from twelve 
 sources ; then the water falls into two lakes which 
 are like the marshes (of Babylonia between Wasit 
 and el-Basrah) ; further on the water is collected in 
 its course into one stream which passes sandy 
 districts, and (on the foot of) mountains. It pro- 
 ceeds, flowing through that part of the country of the 
 Sudan (Negroes), which borders on the country of 
 the Zanj, and a branch g^L goes off from it into 
 the sea of the Zanj ^'^j^ This is the sea of the 
 island Kanbalu* which is well cultivated, and the 
 inhabitants are Moslims but they speak the Zanjee 
 language. The Mahomedans have conquered this 
 island and made the inhabitants prisoners, just as 
 they have taken the isle of Crete (jiJajjj'J in the 
 
 * The MS. bears 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 233 
 
 Mediterranean. This happened at the beginning of 
 the 'Abbaside and end of the Omaiyide dynasties. 
 From this island to 'Oman, the distance is, according 
 to the account of the sailors, about five hundred 
 farsangs by sea. This however is a mere conjecture, 
 and not geometrically measured. Many of the sailors 
 of Smlf and 'Oman who visit this sea, say, that they 
 found in it, at or before the time when the Nile 
 increases in Egypt, different colours within the 
 small space in which the river continues its course 
 in the sea, for it forces its way to some distance on 
 account of its rapidity. The river comes from the 
 mountains of the Zanj and is above a mile wide. 
 The water is sweet and becomes muddy at the time 
 of the increase. There live in it susmdr (alliga- 
 tors) ^Uw^xJ! which means crocodiles like those in 
 
 the Nile of Egypt, they are also called Warl ^\. 
 El-Jahit supposes that the river Mihran in 
 es-Sind is the Nile, alleging as a proof that cro- 
 codiles live in it. I cannot understand how this 
 proof can be conclusive. This he states in his book 
 " on the leading cities and the wonders of the coun- 
 tries" (^tXXxJJ 4-^b^^La^^! i_>ur. It is an excel- 
 lent work, but as he has never made a voyage and few 
 journies and travels through kingdoms and cities, 
 he did not know that the Mihran of es-Sind comes 
 from the well-known sources of the highland of es- 
 Sind, from the country belonging to Kinnauj 
 
234 EL-MAS J UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 
 
 in the kingdom of Budah **#, and of Kashmir 
 5, el-Kandahar ^Lfrjafl!, and et-Takin (sfU&\ 
 , the tributaries which rise in these coun- 
 tries run to el-Multan and from thence the united 
 river receives the name Mihran. El-Multan 
 ^lU^U means meadows of gold. The King of 
 el-Multan is a Kora'ishite, and of the children of 
 Osamah Ben Lawi Ben Ghalib ^j c5>J ^j 2UL-J 
 -*Jlc. His dominion extends as far as the frontier 
 of Khorasan. The lord of the kingdom of el- 
 Mansurah ^y^JLtJ! is a Koraishite, who is descended 
 from Habbar Ben el-Aswad* Jy-^J ^^ J^ 9 who 
 has been one of their t kings. The crown of el- 
 Multan has been hereditary, in the family which 
 rules at present, since ancient times, and nearly 
 from the beginning of the Islam. 
 
 From el-Multan the river Mihran takes its 
 course to the country of el-Mansurah, and falls 
 about ed-Daibol into the Indian ocean. In this sea 
 are many crocodiles, for it has several estuaries and 
 gulfs as the estuary of Sindabur j^^^o (^^tX^) 
 in the kingdom of Baghar ^L (L>.) in India; 
 
 ' The reader finds a notice of this family in Reiske's notes 
 to Abulpeda's Historia Islamitica. Vol. I. 
 
 f El-Mansurah is taken as the name of the inhabitants, and 
 for this reason the plural is used here. Compare the note to p. 
 176, supra. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 235 
 
 the estuary of ez-Zanj in the dominions of the 
 Maharaj and the gulfs of el-A'nab v Us^M (grapes), 
 which extend towards the island Serendib (Ceylon). 
 The crocodiles live particularly in sweet water, and, 
 as we said, in the estuaries of India the water of 
 which is for the most part sweet, on account of the 
 streams which arise from rain and fall in them. 
 
 Now we return to the description of the Nile of 
 Egypt. The philosophers say, that its course on 
 the face of the earth, through cultivated and waste 
 countries, is nine hundred or one thousand farsangs 
 before it comes to Oswan in Upper Egypt. The 
 boats from el-Fostat go as far up the river as 
 Oswan ; but some miles from Oswan are mountains 
 and rocks, and as the Nile takes its course through 
 the midst of them, the navigation is rendered 
 impracticable. These rocks form the line of separa- 
 tion between the Nile navigation of the Abyssinians 
 and Moslims. This part of the Nile has the name 
 of huge stones and rocks j^*aJi ^jUij (cataracts). 
 Having passed through Upper Egypt the Nile comes 
 to el-Fostat. It passes the mount et-Tilemun 
 
 ^^^wJaM, and the dam of el-Lahun ^yfc&H at el- 
 Fayyum. In this place is the island which Joseph 
 had chosen for himself and which was granted to 
 him kju. The history of Egypt, of the landed 
 property there, and the buildings raised by Joseph, 
 will be related in the thirty-first chapter. As the 
 
236 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Nile continues its course it is divided into many 
 branches which go to Tinms, Dimyat, Rashid, and 
 el-Iskandariyah (Alexandria), but the canal which 
 goes to Alexandria had no water previous to the 
 inundation of this year 332. I have heard [I am in 
 Antakiyah (Antioch) and the Syrian frontiers], that 
 the Nile rose to eighteen cubits, but I do not know 
 whether the water runs through the canal of Alex- 
 andria or not. 
 
 Alexander, the son of Philip of Macedonia, 
 has built Alexandria on this branch of the Nile. 
 The most part of the water of this river had then 
 its course to it, and irrigated the country round 
 Alexandria and Maryut ^^, so that it was in the 
 most flourishing state of cultivation, and an unin- 
 terrupted line of gardens extended from Maryut to 
 Barkah Xi^j in the Maghrib. Vessels went up the 
 Nile, and came down as far as the markets of 
 Alexandria. The bed of the Nile in the town was 
 paved with stones and granite. In subsequent 
 times the water deposited so much mud that the 
 canal was filled, and the passage of the water ob- 
 structed. Others assign a different cause, which 
 rendered it impossible to keep the bed of the canal 
 clear. We cannot enter on their opinions ; for 
 the plan of our book excludes such details. The 
 Alexandrians began to drink the water of wells ; 
 for the Nile runs about one day's journey from 
 Alexandria. We shall give a full historical account 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 237 
 
 of this town in the chapter devoted to the descrip- 
 tion of Alexandria. 
 
 The water which, as we stated, falls into the 
 sea of the Zanj, forms an estuary, which comes 
 to the upper part of the course of this river through 
 the country of the Zanj, arid separates this country 
 from the remotest provinces of Ahyssinia. If it was 
 not for this gulf, interjacent deserts, and marshes, 
 the Abyssinians could not defend their country 
 against the Zanj ; for they are superior in numbers 
 and bravery. 
 
 The river of Balkh, which has the name Jaihun 
 (Oxus), rises from several sources, and, having 
 passed et-Tirmid xy3J, Asfarayin ^y.iyu-k and 
 other places of Khorasan, it takes its course 
 through Khowarezm : there in several places it 
 branches off: the rest falls into a lake, on which 
 the town of el-Jorjaniyah X/JU*^it is situated in the 
 lowest part of Khowarezm. This is the greatest 
 lake there, and many believe that it is the greatest 
 lake in the cultivated world; for it is about one 
 month's journey long and wide. There is some 
 navigation carried on in this lake : it also receives 
 the river* of Ferghanah and esh-Shash, which runs 
 through the country of el-'Adat cihUSJ and the 
 
 * The Sirr Suyi ^y0\~* of the Tatars, and Sa'ihun 
 of the Arabs. 
 
238 EL-MAS'uof S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 town of Hai's JJMA^, on which boats go down 
 into the lake. On this river the Turkish city 
 named Newtown x>xiJ &j<x (Yanghi Kant) is 
 situated, amongst the population of which are some 
 Moslims; but the majority are Turks. The popu- 
 lation of this place consists of Ghizians*, who are 
 
 * One copy bears XxKxJJ, and another 3o JJ. Isstachri 
 places there the *jjy \ 1 this seems to be more correct, and is 
 confirmed by the author of the Oriental Geography, who writes 
 . They are, therefore, the nations whose name is spelt Ghozz 
 in the Kamus, and Ghiz in the Jagata'i dictionary printed at Cal- 
 cutta, and who are better known in Western Asia under the name 
 of Seljiiks, as the founders of several dynasties, and, in their 
 original site, under the name Kirghiz, as nomades. Kir jo 
 means a plain, and Kirghiz ytro a Ghiz of the desert, or a 
 nomade. They took this name probably in contradistinction of 
 their brothers, who were at Bagdad domineering slaves ; and at a 
 subsequent period servile masters over almost all the Moham- 
 medan dominions. For this reason the addition Kir to the name of 
 the Ghiz seems to be comparatively modern, although Abulghaziy 
 connects them with Oghuz-Khan. This seems to be confirmed by 
 the Chinese writers, who call them Ha-Kya-szu (pronounced 
 Hakas) in ancient times, and Ki-li-ki-szu, which is pronounced 
 Kilgis since the thirteenth century. As the names Kirghis and 
 Seljuks came into use, the name Ghiz Oghuz or Hakas disappeared. 
 
 Before we go further in the history of the name Ghiz, it is 
 necessary to make a few remarks on its sound and the way in which 
 this sound is expressed by different writers and in the various 
 compounds in which we meet it. The first letter is g. This 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 239 
 
 mostly nomades; but some are settled. They are 
 Turks by origin, and divided in three hordes dU^t, 
 the higher, middling, and lower horde. These are 
 
 letter is not in the Arabic alphabet, hence Abulghaziy (p. 26 
 of the Tatar text.) writes the name Kirghiz in three different ways ; 
 yfjS' KirJciz, yij*S Ckirghiz, and \.A3j3 CkircMz. The 
 same author informs us further that g is pronounced by some 
 Tatar tribes like j, and that they spell Kipjak (or Kapjak) 
 oLsEVJ, and Jipjak oUs^V The second letter has the same 
 
 V * V * 
 
 sound as the u in French and the v in Greek, and which, in Greek 
 as well as in Tatar words, is sometimes expressed by a Kasrah or i 
 in Arabic, sometimes by a Dhammah or o, and sometimes by a 
 ^ or u. The third letter seems to be a z, but it would appear 
 
 that some Tatar hordes pronounce it like th or t. The name of 
 the Circassians (Jerkez), for instance, seems to have been pro- 
 nounced Cercetse at the time of Pliny (vi., 5.) 
 
 The Archbishop Siestrencewicz de Bohusz proves in his 
 work, Sur Y Origins des Sarmates, Petersbourg, 1812, vol. iv., 
 p. 637, with a host of testimonies from ancient authors, that the 
 Scythians called themselves Goths, or Gots: this is, therefore, 
 clearly the same name as Ghiz. The Archbishop derives from 
 Goth the word Scyth, saying the S may have been added by the 
 Greeks. He could have confirmed this conjecture by the exam- 
 ple of some other name of the same nation, to which an S is pre- 
 fixed, although the name of the man, from which it is derived, 
 does not begin with an S. Herodotus (iv., cap. 6) derives 
 namely the /Scolotes from Col (Colaxain). 
 
 Eichwald (Alte Geogrophie des Kaspichen Meeres) identifies 
 the Scythians with the Judes, and there can be no doubt that 
 both names are only different pronunciations of the name Ghiz. 
 We find the name Ghiz farther in the Getes, Tyragetes (or Getes 
 
240 EL-MAS'UD1'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the bravest of all Turks, and have the smallest eyes, 
 and most diminutive stature. The author of the 
 logic (Aristotle) observes, however, in the four- 
 
 who lived on the Tyras), and Massagetes of the ancients, and in 
 the Tunghiz, Targhiz, Taghizghiz, &c., of Oriental authors. It 
 seems tliat 'he word Ghiz is pronounced like Gete in Tatary, and 
 not a Greek corruption : hence we read Gete in the history of 
 Timour (Transl. by Petis de la Crois, vol. i., p. 26), which 
 
 is written 3uj=. Jitta in the Persian original (MS. of theEarl of 
 Munster). The identity of the Kirghiz with the Massagetes of 
 Herodotus is shown by their geographical position, and confirmed 
 by Chinese authors, who give the same account of them as 
 Herodotus. 
 
 Although the Massagetes of Herodotus and other classics, 
 and the Ghozz, Kirghiz, &c., of Oriental authors, are undoubtedly 
 of Tatar origin, it has been proved by Eichwald, that the Getes 
 and Tyragetes of the classics were Slavonians. It seems, there- 
 fore, that the name Ghiz or Gete, which is so widely spread in 
 Central Asia, and which has been so sacredly preserved since the 
 most ancient times, applied originally rather to a religion than to 
 a nation, to which the Budini (Buddhists?) seem to have been 
 opposed. In this case the name of the Goths may not be different 
 from that of Ghiz. We find that Arabic authors use the name 
 Ghozz and Turk indiscriminately: as Turk is undoubtedly the 
 name of the Tatar race, the other must have originally meant 
 their religion, the founder of which was most likely Oghuz Khan 
 ^jUi^E^. As this note is already too long, we reserve it for 
 the additional notes to say something more on this man and reli- 
 gion. The division of the Ghiz into three hordes, of which 
 our author speaks, is still existing, notwithstanding their numerous 
 emigrations; and it seems to have existed as early as the time 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 241 
 
 teenth and eighteenth books of his work on the 
 animals ^j^JL^, where he speaks of the bird 
 called el-Gheranik ui^\^ (yepavos the crane), that 
 there are some Turks who are of a still smaller 
 size*. The reader will find an account of all the 
 Turkish hordes in occasionally interspersed notices, 
 and under a peculiar head further on in this 
 work. 
 
 The town of Balkh has a Ribatf , named el- 
 Ahashban ^U&^J (^Uo^j), about twenty days' 
 
 when they made the inroad into Persia, recorded by Herodotus ; 
 for his Massagetes are undoubtedly the Getes, or Ghiz, of the 
 great horde ; masa means great in Pehlewi ; and we cannot doubt 
 that Herodotus derives his knowledge of the fact from the 
 Persians. 
 
 * Aristotle, Historia Animalium, viii. cap. 12. says, the cranes 
 go from the Scythian steppes to the marshes above Egypt, from 
 which the Nile comes, and fight with the Pigmies. The Arabic 
 translator seems to have correctly rendered the word Scythians 
 by Turks; but he has misunderstood the passage in placing the 
 Pigmies in Scythia, and making them Turks. 
 
 -(- Ribat kU . is a frontier place, exposed to the invasions of 
 those who have not embraced the Islam. In order to form in 
 such places an armed population, for the defence of the Moslim 
 territory, some worldly advantages, all possible privileges in 
 heaven, and the title tajL~ were attached to a residence in them. 
 Most divines declare a place where the unbelievers have once 
 made an invasion, as a Ribat for two years; after the second 
 inroad, for forty years; and after a third invasion, for ever 
 (Hidayah, and its commentary the Kefayah). 
 
 R 
 
242 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 journey from the city, in the most distant of its 
 dependencies. Beyond this Ribat live various un- 
 believing nations, as the Turks, called Ukhan* 
 j,U^ (^U^J); and Tubbet ciuJ south of these 
 Turks are others, named Inghan ^Uut (Talighan?f). 
 In their country rises a great river, which bears the 
 name River of Inghan J ^Uwt ^J O&Q- Some 
 persons, who are acquainted with those localities, 
 believe that it is the beginning of the river of JBalkh, 
 or the Jaihun. The length of its course is about 
 one hundred and fifty farsangs : some make it four 
 hundred farsangs, from the beginning of the river 
 of the Turks, that is to say, the Inghan. Geogra- 
 phers who think that the Jaihun falls into the 
 Mihran (Indus) of es-Sind, are wrong . We 
 
 * Perhaps they are the Ouhoun of Deguignes, Histoire de 
 Huns, vol. ii. pp. 24 and 50, or the Auchatae of Herodotus, iv. 6. 
 
 f Burnes' Travels to Bokhara, vol. ii. p. 202. 
 
 J Isstachri, p. 114, gives to the main stream of the rivulets, 
 which form the Jaihun, the name of L ^ ly-j and to the country 
 whence it comes from, that of loW 1 ^ Wajan, on the frontier of 
 Badakhshan. This is probably a more correct reading than 
 Inghan. 
 
 This is the opinion of the Zend-Avesta (p. 392), and it 
 came probably from the Guebers to the Mohammedans : " Le 
 Veh roud passe dans le Khorassan, parait dans la terre de Sind, 
 et coule dans le Zare de 1'Hindoustan; la on 1'appelle le Mehra 
 roud." And p. 393, " Le Veh roud est encore appelle Kase;" 
 car dans le Sind on 1'appelle Kase." And again, " Le Kase va 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 243 
 
 will not speak here of the Black and White 
 
 dans la ville de Tous; la on 1'appelle le Casp roud." We have 
 here three rivers, which form a semicircle, and separate Iran from 
 three Keshvars, or climates : India, Tibet and China, (Frededafshe 
 and Videdafshe), and from Tatary (Vorojereste?). The name 
 for the whole line of water is Veh roud. Kase seems to be 
 at the same time the Oxus (Jaihun), and the river of the 
 Penjab, which rises near the sources of the Oxus. It is 
 very likely that the name OPUS is formed from Kase by prefix- 
 ing the Greek article 6, and subjoining the termination os. The 
 Casp roud is the Ochus of the ancients. The opinion that the 
 Oxus once fell into the Caspian, seems to owe its origin to the 
 circumstance that the Guebers did not sufficiently distinguish the 
 Oxus and Ochus. Mehra, or Mihran is still now the name 
 of the lower course of the Indus. These three rivers had all the 
 same importance for the Persians, as frontier, as well as in a 
 commercial and agricultural point of view ; hence they said, for 
 the sake of system, that the whole line of water falls into the 
 Gulf of 'Oman, since the principal river has there its mouths. It 
 appears, namely, that they had the idea that their sacred land was 
 on all sides surrounded by rivers, and that the Veh roud, or 
 south and eastern semicircle, corresponds with a north and western 
 semicircle, called Arg roud, formed by the same sea and the Tigris 
 with which they may have connected the A raxes. This will explain 
 what is said in the Zend-Avesta, ii., p. 390: "Les deux rouds 
 (the Arg roud, and Veh roud), de deux extremites, font la tour 
 de toute la terre (of Iran), vont (passent) dans le Zare, et 
 mangent tous les Keschwar. Ensuite tous les deux se jettent 
 dans le Zare Ferakh Kand (the Sea of 'Oman, and Persian Gulf)." 
 As the frontier of Iran [or rather the Khounnerets, i.e. 9 
 Babylon (see p. 199, supra); for this idea being so wrong res- 
 pecting eastern rivers, must have had its origin in the west] was 
 extended, the Ochus was neglected in the north-east, and the 
 
 R 2 
 
244 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Arisht* o&Aj^l C*x>j\ ^ s^W ^^, on which the 
 kingdom of Kai'makf Baighur % ^ybo ^V(u^) 
 is situated, who are also Turks, beyond the river 
 Jaihun. On these two rivers live the Ghaznians 
 (Ghiz?) X/JytM (SujpjJl), who are equally Turks. 
 
 Euphrates, and even the Nile, with the Mediterranean, were 
 taken into account in the west. The Tigris (Arg roud) conti- 
 nued, nevertheless, to be the sacred river, as it is in the Zend- 
 Avesta; and even under the Khalifs, there was no Mohammedan 
 festival celebrated with so much pomp as that on the Tigris, at the 
 time of the summer solstice. The Tigris separated the sacred 
 land from the three other Keshvars or climates; Arabia (Shave), 
 the West and Egypt (Arze), Mesopotamia and Asia Minor (Vo- 
 robereste?); so that it is literally true that these two lines of 
 rivers water (mangent) all seven climates, or Keshvars. The 
 division into these seven climates (which el-Mas'udi has described 
 p. 199, supra) is, therefore, originally relative to the place where 
 the division was made. 
 
 As the Arg and Veh roud consist ultimately of four rivers, 
 as many flow in the paradise of Moses. 
 
 * If the nations on this river are the Uigurs, this name 
 should be written Irtish, else it may be the Sirr (the Saihun of 
 Arabic geographers, and the Jaraxes of Strabo), which is also 
 called Ariss, or Arsh. 
 
 -j- Perhaps it is the same name as the Ka'imar l^f mentioned 
 by Abulghazi (Edit. Tatarica, Kasan, 1825) in the genealogy of 
 the Turks as one of the fathers, which always means a tribe or 
 nation. There is for the rest a Turkish horde of the name of 
 Ka'imak, mentioned in the Jihannuma apud J. v., Hammer, 
 Hist, de 1'empire Ottoman. 
 
 | Probably ^yfcx-j instead of ,ybJ Ighur, or Uighur. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 245 
 
 Many tales are related about those two rivers. We 
 do not know the length of their course. 
 
 Various accounts are current respecting the 
 Ganges u^s^*, which is the river of India: it rises 
 in the mountains of the most remote parts of India, 
 towards China, not far from the Turkish frontier, 
 and falls, after a course of four hundred farsangs, 
 into the Abyssinian Sea ^^^>sr, on the coast of 
 India. 
 
 The Euphrates ci|;iH has its sources in the 
 country of Kalikala &u)|? (Arzen-er-Rum., vulgo 
 Erzerum), on the Armenian frontier, from the 
 mountains called Afradohosf yM^^! 
 about one day's journey from Kali-kala 
 The course of the Euphrates goes through the By- 
 zantine territory, till it enters (into the Moslim 
 territory) at Malatiyah jUkXx>. A Moslim, who has 
 been a prisoner of war in the Christian countries, 
 tells me that the Euphrates receives in its course 
 through the Byzantine territory many tributaries. 
 One of them comes from the lake of el-Mazerbun 
 j which is the largest lake in the 
 
 * The Mohammedans had lost sight of the Ganges when 
 Alahmud of Ghiznah conquered India; and they called it then 
 iT, after the Persian way of spelling, 
 f Compare St. Martin, Mem. sur I'Armenie, vol. i., p. 45. 
 
246 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Byzantine empire; for it is one month long 
 and wide, or more. They ply boats on it. 
 
 The Euphrates comes to Jasr Manbij ^y 
 after it has passed the castle of Somaisat 
 which is built of clay: then it comes to Balos L 
 and passes Siff in ^^A*?, the field of the battle be- 
 tween the Moslims of el-'lrak and Syria (under 
 'Ali): farther on it passes er-Rakkah, er-Rahabah 
 Su^ll, Hit iJlAx4>, and el-Anbar ^Uttl, In these 
 places several canals are derived from it, like the 
 'Isa canal, which passes Bagdad, and joins the 
 Tigris. The Euphrates continues its course to Stir 
 j**> G!***)> Kasr Ibn Hobairah SJAX* 
 el-Kufah, el-Jami'in ^^lii, Ahmedabad(?) 
 
 * el-Yerman j^N (u~j&\), and et-Tafuf 
 ; then it runs into the marshes between el- 
 Basrah and el-Wasit. The whole course of the 
 Euphrates is five hundred farsangs or more. The 
 greatest part of the water of the Euphrates had 
 once its course through el-Hirah: the bed may still 
 be traced, and it has the name of 'Atik (ancient). 
 On it was fought the battle between the Moslims and 
 Rostam (at the time of 'Omar), called the battle of 
 el-Kadesiyah. The Euphrates fell at that time 
 into the Abyssinian sea, at a place which is now 
 called en-Najaf cju?UJ ; for the sea came up to this 
 place, and thither resorted the ships of China and 
 India, destined for the kings of el-Hirah. Many 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 247 
 
 ancient historians, who are well acquainted with 
 the battle days of the Arabs, as Hesham Ben Mo- 
 hammed el-Kelbi csvJKit, Abu Mokhnif Lut Ben 
 Yahya, and esh-Sharki Ben el-Katami ^j ^*j~\\ 
 ^LkJfJ!, relate that the inhabitants of el-Hirah for- 
 tified themselves in the white tower of el-Kadesiyah, 
 and in that of the Beni Bokailah(or Bakilah) XXxJu csu, 
 when Khaled el-Mekhzumi ^^^\ marched 
 against them, in the reign of Abu Bekr, from el- 
 Yemamah, with the victorious army which had 
 slain the false prophet of the Beni Hanifah csu 
 XJux-*. These were the towers of el-Hirah, which 
 lay now [in 332 A.H.] in ruins, and nobody lives 
 there. The site of the town is three miles from el- 
 Kufah. When Khaled saw that the Hirians were 
 fortifying themselves against him, he encamped his 
 army not far from en-Najaf: he himself rode with 
 Dhirar Ibn el-Azur el-Asadi er3w>^J j*$\ ^jjj ^\j*>, 
 who was one of the Bedouin horsemen, to the city ; 
 and they came to the tower of the Taghlebites 
 j*. The Christians ^^Uc threw pots 
 jjyaL on them, which made his horse shy. Dhirar 
 said, "May God make thee quiet, for this is the 
 greatest stratagem which they are prepared to 
 make." Khaled returned to his camp, and sent 
 to them that they should depute an intelligent 
 aged man to him, that he could ask him about 
 their affairs. They sent 'Abd el-Mesih Ben 'Amr 
 
248 EL-MAS J uni's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Ben Kais Ben Hayyan Ben Bokailah el-Ghassani 
 to him, who had built the white citadel. Bokailah 
 had this name because he went out one day in a 
 green silk dress ; and the people said, who is this 
 bokailah? (herb XXJu). This is the same ' Abdul - 
 Mesih who went to Satih <g&** el-Ghassani the 
 soothsayer, to ask him about a dream of the 
 Miibeds ^Jjw^U, and the earthquake which the 
 palace of the Persian kings at Ctesiphon had sus- 
 tained, and other things which had reference to the 
 Sasanian kings. 
 
 'Abd el-Mesih was then three hundred and fifty 
 years of age when he came to Khaled. He was 
 walking: Khaled looked at him when he drew near, 
 and said, 
 
 " Whence dost thou descend, O Sheikh?" 
 
 He answered, " From the kidnies of my father." 
 
 " Where dost thou come from?" 
 
 " From the womb of my mother." 
 
 "Where art thou?" 
 
 " On the ground." 
 
 " In what (place) art thou?" 
 
 " In my clothes.'' 
 
 " Art thou by reason or insane?" 
 
 " Why, by God, I am a leader, (and therefore 
 certainly an intelligent man)." 
 
 " The son of how many art thou*?" 
 
 * This is an Arabic idiom, meaning " of what age are you?" 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 249 
 
 " The son of one man." 
 
 " By God, I requested them to send a man of 
 their city to me," said Khaled, " and they depute 
 an idiot, who, if I ask one thing, answers another." 
 " By God," replied the man of el-Hirah, " I answer 
 precisely to thy questions, ask further." 
 
 " Are you Arabs or Nabatheans?" 
 
 " We are Nabathized Arabs, and Arabized 
 Nabatheans*." 
 
 "Do you wish for war or peace?'* 
 
 16 For peace." 
 
 " And what is the meaning of these fortifica- 
 tions?" 
 
 " They are built for mad people who are shut up 
 in them till they come to their senses." 
 
 " How many (years) are come over thee?" 
 
 " Three hundred and fifty." 
 
 " And what hast thou seen?" 
 
 " I have seen the ships of the sea coming up to 
 us in this deep country (cjbdli) with the goods of 
 es-Sind and India: the ground which is now under 
 thy feet was covered with the waves of the sea. 
 
 * That is to say, we are agriculturists, retaining some Bedouin 
 habits, for Arab c_^c means only a Bedouin; (See E. Lane's 
 Modern Egyptians), and Nabathean J^J means as it will be 
 shown in a note to the twentieth chapter, the agriculturists on the 
 skirt of the desert, of Bedouin origin. 
 
250 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Look how far we are at present from the shore. I 
 remember that a woman might set out with her 
 basket on her head, and would find the whole coun- 
 try in so flourishing a state, covered with villages, 
 plantations, trees, and cultivation, intersected with 
 canals and ponds full of water, as far as Syria, that 
 she would not require more than one cake for her 
 provision*; What is it now? It is destroyed and 
 desert. So God visits his servants and country." 
 
 Khaled, and all who were present, were asto- 
 nished at what they had heard. They recollected 
 the name of 'Abdel-Mesih, for he was famous 
 amongst the Arabs for his great age and sound 
 reason. 
 
 They say he had a poison with him, the effects 
 of which were instantaneous. 
 
 Khaled asked him, " What hast thou here? " 
 
 11 Virulent poison," was his answer. 
 
 11 What wilt thou do with it?" 
 
 * The reader must bear in mind that it is a duty in the east 
 commanded by feelings and sacred by habit, religion, and honour, 
 to be hospitable to strangers. Hence it is only in deserts that they 
 carry their provisions with them. 
 
 Other authors describe in similar terms the nourishing state in 
 which the Ahkaf has once been, saying, that the palm-trees were 
 so fertile and abundant, that if a woman went out of doors with a 
 basket and put it down, she would find it after a while full of dates, 
 wherever it may have stood, and without any exertion on her part. 
 Perhaps the words of our author had originally the same meaning. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 251 
 
 He answered, " I took it with me with the in- 
 tention that if I should receive such proposals from 
 thee as may be agreeable to me and favourable for 
 my countrymen. I would accept them and praise 
 God for them, (and not take the poison). But in 
 the contrary case, that I might not be the first 
 who returned home laden with disgrace and sorrow, 
 I intended to devour this poison and to quit this 
 world, for only a short time more is allotted to 
 me." 
 
 " Give it to me," ordered Khaled, and took it 
 in the palm of his hand, saying, " In the name of 
 God, and by God, in the name of the Lord of heaven 
 and earth, in the name of the Almighty, in whose 
 name nothing on earth goes wrong." After he had 
 pronounced these words he devoured it ; he immedi- 
 ately fainted away, and his chin sank on his chest. 
 
 They opened his clothes ; he recovered and was 
 full of vigour. 
 
 The 'Ibadite returned to his people. He was an 
 'Ibadite ^j JUr by religion, which means a Nestorian 
 Christian. When he came into the town he said, 
 " O people, I come from the Satan ; he has devoured 
 poison of which the effects are instantaneous, and it 
 has not done him the least harm ; do what you can 
 to have him far from your town." 
 
 "They are a people full of ardour, and their cause 
 is rising, whilst that of the Sasanians is sinking. 
 This religion will have a success which will extend 
 
252 EL-MAS'UD1'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 over all the earth, but corruptions will creep into it." 
 They made peace with Khaled under the condition 
 that they should pay one hundred thousand dirhems, 
 and wear a black sash ^LJUlaJJ yt^ ^Ls (rolled 
 round their heads, and hanging down behind as a 
 humiliating mark of distinction from the Moslims.) 
 Khaled broke off from es-Kirah, and said the fol- 
 lowing verses on the subject. 
 
 " How is it possible that after the Mondirs a 
 price should be laid on (the two splendid palaces of 
 the kings of el-Hirah) el-Khawarnak u&jjsi \ and 
 es-Sodair ^*XwJJ, although they are protected by 
 the horsemen of every tribe, against the roaring 
 lion. And how comes it that I should pasture in 
 the gardens between (the canals of) Marrah *^o 
 and el-Jofair j>*4-\. We were become (united) like 
 the flock on a rainy day, after the (tribe) Abu- 
 Kais have perished. We have slain the Ma* add 
 tribes in open combat like camels destined to be 
 sacrificed. We raise tribute like the Kings of Per- 
 sia, and it is paid to us by the (Jewish tribes of 
 Khaibar), the Beni Korai'tah j&jjjiJl, and en-Nad- 
 hir j#ti\. So the chances which lay in the bosom 
 of time are uncertain, to-morrow may bring joy or 
 
 sorrow." 
 
 We have inserted this story here in confirmation 
 of our statement, respecting the changing places of 
 the seas and the shifting of the waters and rivers in 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 253 
 
 the course of time, and daring the lapse of ages. 
 When the waters did not run any longer to this 
 place the sea became land, and at present there is a 
 distance of several days between el-Hirah and the 
 sea. Whoever has seen the Najaf will fully enter 
 into our views. 
 
 In the same way the Tigris has changed its 
 course; there is a great distance between the pre- 
 sent course of the river and the dry bed which is 
 stopped by the sand, and called Batn el-fauhi 
 gf=L\ L .J*j ; it runs close on the town of Bados u^L, 
 in the district of Wasit of el-Irak to Dafiri 
 turning towards Sus u*^ in Khuzistan < 
 whilst the new bed passes east of Baghdad, at a 
 place called Rakkah esh-Shemasiyah 3u*U&!J >,; 
 and an inundation has brought the river to the west 
 where it runs at present between Kotrobbol Jo^k* 
 and the Town of peace (Bagdad), so that it passes 
 the villages called el-Kobb v^* esh- Shark! &j"&9 
 and other estates, which belong to Kotrobbol. The 
 inhabitants of these places have had a law -suit, with 
 those of the eastern side, who are in possession of 
 Rakkahesh-Shemasiyah, in the reign of el-Mokta- 
 der, in the presence of his Vizier, Abul-Hasan 'Ali 
 Ben 'Isa. What well-informed men have deposed 
 at this occasion, and what we have stated are facts 
 which are well known at Bagdad. If the water 
 changes its course in about thirty years the seventh 
 
254 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 part of a mile it will make nearly one mile in two 
 hundred years ; and if the water of a river retires 
 four hundred cubits from its original place, this 
 place will be waste. Through these causes places 
 are rendered uncultivated, and if the water finds a 
 declivity or a descent it widens by its course and 
 rapidity the bed as it carries the ground away to an 
 immense distance, and wherever it finds a wide and 
 low place it fills it and forms lakes, marshes, and 
 lagunas. By these means places which have been 
 cultivated become deserts, and those which were 
 without cultivation become cultivated. Everybody 
 of common sense will understand and appreciate 
 what we have said. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, all historians who possess just 
 ideas respecting the history of the world and its 
 kings, know, that in the year in which the Prophet 
 of God sent messengers to the Kisra ^^J**, and 
 this was the seventh year after his flight from 
 Mekka to Medinah, the Euphrates and Tigris were 
 so much swelled that they never had been so before; 
 the water made immense breaches and holes which 
 were greater than the canals, and as the canals 
 could not hold the water the dams and mounds gave 
 way, and the water filled the lower country. 
 
 The Persian King, Abrawaiz ^^ (Perwiz), 
 
 * This is the Arabic pronunciation of the Persian title 
 Khosraw j^.**i, which means possessed of an extensive kingdom. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 255 
 
 endeavoured to confine the water again, to repair 
 the dams, and to open the trenches olj^Lfc; but 
 he was unable to control the river, it took its course 
 towards the place where, in our time, are the 
 marshes. The cultivation and fields were sub- 
 merged, and whole districts were changed into the 
 marshes which are there at present, his exertions to 
 stop it being inefficient. The Persians were soon 
 after occupied with the Arabic wars; the water 
 broke through its limits, and nobody could turn his 
 mind to the reparation of the dams, so the marshes 
 became wider and more extensive. 
 
 When Mo'awiyah had come to the Khalifat he 
 appointed his adoptive 'Abdullah Ben Derraj *XAC 
 
 &\j* cj^ ^ over the tribute of el-'Irak, and he 
 raised from the lands on the marshes fifteen million 
 (of Dirhems*) worth by cutting the reeds grown in 
 these marshes, and taking the whole as property of 
 the state. In subsequent times the water made 
 more breaches through the dams and mounds, and 
 when Hassan en-Nabti, the adoptive of the Beni 
 Dhobbah, was revenue cellector under the Khalifat 
 
 * Arabic authors frequently mention the sums without stating 
 what sort of money is meant. In these cases it is a general rule 
 that Dinars are understood if they speak of those countries which 
 had been under the sway of the Byzantine empire ; and Dirhems, 
 if the provinces in question had formed part of the Persian 
 monarchy. 
 
256 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 of el-Walid for Hejjaj Ben Jusof, he gained some 
 lands from the marshes. 
 
 The whole extent of the marshes which the 
 water occupies at present, is about fifty far sang s 
 long and as many broad. In the centre is a round 
 place in which the ground rises; this is a city 
 covered with water, and if the water is clear one may 
 see at the bottom the ruins of buildings; some 
 stones are still standing in their place whilst others 
 have fallen down. One may still trace the plan of 
 the buildings. The same is the case with the lake 
 of Tinnis and Dimyat (Damietta) , in which may be 
 seen the farms and towns as we have related in 
 another place in this book, and in other works. 
 Now we will resume our subject and describe the 
 Tigris, its sources, course, and mouths. It comes 
 from the country of Amid <x*J, which belongs to 
 Diar Bekr, but the sources are in the country of 
 Khelat k&^, which forms part of Armenia. It 
 receives various tributaries as Sarit k> >r -o (^uy*) 
 and Satid JuSU-, which come from the country of 
 Arzan, and Mayyaf arikin (^b'Uc ; and other rivers, 
 as the river Dusha l^J, el-Khabur, which comes 
 from Arminiah, and falls between the country of 
 Masura* and Faiz-Sabur f , in the countries of 
 
 or \ jy * or 
 j or jUai' or 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 257 
 
 Kerda and Bazenda*, into the Tigris, and the 
 A'wari cf j}Z\ (jJv$L>), which comes from el-Mausil 
 and its dependencies, the country of the Beni 
 Hamdan. The poets say of these rivers, "On 
 the Karda and Bazenda it is delightful to spend the 
 summer and spring ; for their water is as cool 
 as the Salsabil (a spring in Paradise), whilst the 
 ground of Bagdad is as hot as live coals, and the 
 heat is oppressive." The river el-Khabur is not the 
 same which has its sources at the town of Ras el- 
 'ain, and falls below the city of Karkisia IA^A^J into 
 the Euphrates. The Tigris passes in its course the 
 towns of Balad jJL and el-Mausil : it receives below 
 el-Mausil and above the Hodaibiyah (the rough 
 country) of el-Mausil J^U jU^x-*, the river ez-Zab 
 vl>M from Arminiyah; this is the greater Zab, 
 farther on the other Zab, which comes equally from 
 Arminiyah and Aderbaijan, pours its waters into it. 
 The Tigris proceeds to Tikrit, Samarra J^oL*, and 
 Bagdad, receiving the Khandak ojjil!, es-Sorah 
 x\j*d\ (*\j&\), and nahr-'Isa ^^AC ^: these are 
 the canals which we have said run from the 
 Euphrates into the Tigris. When the Tigris has 
 
 or 
 
 copy of Leyden bears J^JL! 
 
 from the country of Karenda, and the (river) Zahadra comes from 
 
 el-Mausil. 
 
 S 
 
258 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 quitted Bagdad, it receives a great many rivers 
 (canals), like the Badnal jbjo (iL^j or <S\^), and 
 Nahras u^j (Nahr-Nar, or Nahr-Shir?), the 
 Nahr-Wan, not far from Jarjaraya L^.^, es-Sib 
 v***JJ> and No'maniyah XoLjJJL Having passed the 
 town of Wasit, the Tigris is divided into several 
 branches ; some of which run into the marshes of 
 el-Basrah, as the river called Baradud V^> or 
 the el-Yahudi river, and the Shami (or Samarri) 
 branch. On the stream which goes to el-'Akar 
 jjud\ (^k!j), the greatest part of the navigation 
 from Bagdad and Wasit to el-Basrah, is carried 
 on. The whole course of the Tigris is about three 
 or four hundred farsangs. 
 
 We have omitted many rivers, describing only 
 the larger ones, which are better known; for we 
 entered into details in our works, the Akhbar ez- 
 zeman and the Kitab el-ausat. We shall give 
 further notices in this book of rivers which have 
 been named, and of such as we have omitted to 
 mention. 
 
 El-Basrah has several great rivers, like the 
 Nahr-Shirin (.ju^ Nahr-ed-Dair ^*xM> and the 
 Nahr-Ibn-'Amr. There are also some considerable 
 rivers in the province of el-Ahwaz and the country 
 between this province and el-Basrah. We forbear 
 entering upon them here, having given accounts of 
 them, and of the shores of the Persian Gulf at el- 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 259 
 
 Basrah and el-Obollah, and of the place known 
 under the name of Hezarah *j^.=U (or el-Herarah), 
 which is a strip of land projecting into the sea*, 
 close to el-Obollah, and which is the cause that the 
 sailors go into the harbour of el-Basrah. There are 
 marks of wood erected for the sailors in the sea, at 
 Hezarah, on the side of el-Obollah and 'Abbadan, 
 which look like three seats in the middle of the 
 water, and upon which fires are burnt by night, to 
 caution the vessels which come from 'Oman, Siraf, 
 and other ports, least they run against the Hezarah; 
 for if they run there, they are wrecked and lost. 
 
 * The MS. of Leyden differs from the other two copies, and 
 bears on the contrary, there is a bay *^\ ^ j^^^ u- 
 in which the vessels lay. 
 
 S '2 
 
260 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 TENTH CHAPTER. 
 
 Account of the Abyssinian sea, its extent, gulfs, 
 and straits. 
 
 ESTIMATES have been made respecting the extent of 
 the Indian sea, which is identical with the Abyssi- 
 nian sea : its length from the most western part of 
 Abyssinia as far as China in the east, is eight thou- 
 sand miles, and its breadth is in one place two thou- 
 sand seven hundred, and in another one thou- 
 sand nine hundred miles, for it varies in different 
 places. These dimensions have been disputed, but 
 \ve will not enter into the different statements, 
 because there are no proofs upon which they rest. 
 This is the greatest sea of the habitable world. It 
 has a gulf extending from Abyssinia as far as Ber- 
 bera, a country situated between the territory of the 
 Zanj and the Abyssinians. This gulf is called the 
 Berberian gulf <?^ jUt giM it is five hundred 
 miles long, and at the beginning and end one hun- 
 dred miles wide. These are not the Berbers *r>\n 
 who live west of Afrikiyah (Africa pro vincia), for 
 that is a different country although it has the same 
 name. The sailors of 'Oman go on this sea as far 
 as the island of Kanbalu f>JUj, in the sea of the 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 261 
 
 Zanj. This island is inhabited by Moslims, and by 
 Zanj who have not embraced th Islam. The 
 sailors of 'Oman to whom we have just alluded, 
 believe that this gulf, which is called the Berberian 
 gulf, and with them the sea of the Berbers and of 
 the country of Jofuni ^yL^ *&j, is much greater 
 than we have said. The waves of this sea are huge 
 like high mountains. 
 
 These are blind waves ^S^^-o; this (marine) 
 term means waves which rise as high as mountains, 
 and between which abysses open like the deepest 
 valleys but they do not break; hence no foam is 
 created like that produced by the collision of the 
 waves, in other seas. They believe that these waves 
 are enchanted. The sailors of 'Oman who sail on this 
 sea are Arabs, of the tribe of el-Azd ^W, and when 
 they are on board a ship, sometimes lifted up by 
 these waves, and then again sinking between them ; 
 they say verses whilst they are at work, as, " O 
 Berbera and Jofuni and thy enchanted waves. 
 Jofuni,, and Barbera, and their waves,, as thou seest 
 them." 
 
 These sailors go on the sea ez-Zanj as far as the 
 island of Kanbahi ^JUxi* and the Sofalah (low coun- 
 try), of the Demdemah*, which is on the extremity 
 
 ' One copy bears JJ^LJJ ^ XJU-o S&j and another MS. 
 
 XJUL*. It does not require any explanation why these 
 two readings have been changed in the translation. 
 
262 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 of the country of the Zanj and the low countries 
 JJUJ thereabout. The merchants of Siraf ^j^jl j**Ji 
 are also in the habit of sailing on this sea. I have 
 made a voyage on it from Sohar*, which is the 
 capital of 'Oman, with a crew of Sirafians ; they 
 are the owners of the vessels like Mohammed Ben 
 Zindibud and Jauher Ben Ahmad, known under the 
 name of Ibn Shirah ^\ ^ y*y^ "K*^j &t <x * s2 
 (jy*j) 5^Aj ^..jjlj oj^xU, who perished in this sea 
 with his whole crew. 
 
 And, in 304 A.H., I made a voyage from the 
 island of Kanbalu to 'Oman, in a vessel of Ahmad 
 and 'Abd es-Samad 4*^1 ^XAC, brothers of 'Abd 
 er-Rahim Ben Ja'fer of Siraf. I passed then the 
 spot where, subsequently, the vessel of Ahmad and 
 'Abd es-Samad was wrecked, and where these two 
 men perished with their whole crew. When I 
 made my first voyage on this sea, Ahmad Ben Helal 
 Ben Okht el-Kattal JUXJ1 Z 
 
 * Both copies bear Sinjar AZCUJ, and M. Quatremere followed 
 this reading- in the extract which he gives of this passage in the 
 Memoires sur 1'Egypte, vol. ii., page 182, the true reading seems 
 to be 1^. 
 
 f The MS. of Cambridge gives him the name , . ^ 
 0$ ^.AA*M fj&Jj Mohammed Ben Zeidum (?) of Siraf. It is 
 probably the same person as Abu Zeid of Siraf, in Reinaudot, 
 (p. 39). 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 263 
 
 was Emir of 'Oman. I have frequently been at sea; 
 as in the Chinese sea ^jywa!^^, in the seaofer- 
 Rum, in that of the Khazar j^\ (the Caspian), of 
 el-Kolzom ~^&\ (the Red Sea), and in the sea of 
 el- Yemen: I have encountered many perils, but 
 I found the sea of the Zanj which we have just 
 described the most dangerous of all. 
 
 There is a fish in this sea called el-Owal $\j$\ 
 (whale), which is from four to five hundred 'Omari 
 cubits tsjf.\\ ,[>^ l n g> these are the cubits in use 
 in this sea. The usual length of this fish is one 
 hundred perches ^L. Frequently when it swims 
 through the sea only the extremities of the two fins 
 are to be seen, and it looks like the sail of a ship 
 \jid\ j&j X*. Generally the head of the whale is 
 out of water; and when it powerfully ejects water, it 
 gushes into the air more than one bowshot high. 
 The vessels are afraid of it by day and night, and 
 they beat drums <_^lj j and wooden poles to drive it 
 away. This fish drives with its tail and fins other 
 fish into its open mouth, and they pass down its 
 throat with the stream of water. When the whale 
 sins God sends a fish about one cubit long called 
 esh-Shak &z\\* , it adheres to the root of its tail 
 
 * Quatremere translates this passage in his Memoires sur 
 1'Egypte, vol. ii., p. 491, and found this word written sal; one of 
 my copies bears 
 
264 EL-MAS'UDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 and the whale has no means to make itself free from 
 it. It goes therefore to the bottom of the sea and 
 beats itself to death; its dead body floats on the 
 water and looks like a great mountain. The fish 
 called esh-Shak, adheres frequently to the whale. 
 The whales, notwithstanding their size, do not 
 approach vessels; and they take flight when they 
 see this little fish, for it is their destruction*. 
 
 In the same way a little animal which lives on 
 the banks and islands of the Nile, is the destruction 
 of the crocodile. The crocodile has no natural 
 passage through its body; and whatever it eats is 
 turned into worms in its belly: when it feels any 
 inconvenience it goes out on the land and lays on 
 its back, opens its mouth, and there come the water- 
 birds like the Taitawif cf^LJaJJ, the Hasani 
 jU^it QUait), the Shamirek J^clwJJ, and other 
 sorts of birds, to eat the large worms which may be 
 
 * The translation of M. Quatremere of this sentence runs, 
 " L'okal qui ose attaquer un vaisseau, quoique grand qu'il soit, 
 prend la fuite des qu'il appergoit ce petit poisson qui est son 
 plus terrible ennemi." This sounds much better than the transla- 
 tion which I give. Since probability and the authority of this 
 distinguished orientalist is against me, I transcribe the original 
 after three copies, ^ 
 
 1^3 Xj'l? ^ L*^ ^ would certainly be more natural if the 
 words did run l^IoxJ _ J^| 
 
 t See Calilah et Dimnah, p. 124. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 265 
 
 in the belly of the crocodile. This little animal 
 watching in the sand, seizes this opportunity to 
 jump on its scales, and goes down its throat. The 
 crocodile throws itself violently on the ground, and 
 goes to the bottom of the Nile. The little animal 
 devours its intestines and gnaws its way out. This 
 little animal is generally about one cubit long, 
 resembles a weasel, and has legs and claws. 
 
 In the sea of the Zanj are many and variously 
 shaped species of fish, if people do not tell stories to 
 cover their ignorance. But as it is not our object 
 to relate the wonders of the sea, nor to describe the 
 aquatic animals, serpents, and other strange crea- 
 tures, which live in it, we will now return to the 
 description of its various divisions, gulfs, inlets, and 
 tongues of land. Another gulf of the Abyssinian 
 sea is that which comes up to the town of el-Kolzom 
 fjAjiH* which belongs to Egypt, and is three days 
 from Fostat. On this gulf is the city of Allah, the 
 Hejaz*, Joddah *x^, and Yemen. It is one thou- 
 sand four hundred miles long, and where it is widest 
 two hundred miles broad. Opposite the mentioned 
 places as Ailah and the Hejaz, on the western 
 coast of this gulf is el-'Allaki, el-'Aidab v^**J'> 
 which belongs to Upper Egypt, the country of 
 
 el-Bojah s\M &>j\ ; then Abyssinia and Nigritia 
 
 * The MSS. bear \ and *)A. 
 
266 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 , which form the coast of the Red Sea, 
 as far as the frontiers of the Sofalahs, (low district,) 
 _ U3UJ of the Zanj. At the Sofalah of the country 
 of the Zanj another gulf branches off, and this is the 
 Persian sea which comes up to el-Obollah,, to the 
 Khashabat, cijU^ 1, (the wooden sea-marks), and 
 to 'Abbadan j,bU, which belongs to el-Basrah. 
 The length of this gulf is one thousand four hun- 
 dred miles, and the breadth at the entrance five 
 hundred miles, but in some places it is not above 
 one hundred and fifty miles wide. This gulf has 
 a triangular shape, at one angle el-Obollah is 
 situated, thence the gulf extends towards the east 
 along Faris. Of the places situated on this coast, 
 we name Persian Daurak u^iM ^^9 Maherban 
 ^LjjfcU (Mahruban), and Shiniz ; from this town 
 the embroidered Shinizee cloth has its name; 
 for this and other sorts of clothes are manu- 
 factured there: farther the town of Jannabah, 
 whence the Jannabee cloth X>oUil v^t has its 
 name*; the town of Najiram p*^0, belonging to 
 Siraf JJjA-a, then the countries of Ibnf 'Imarah 
 ? the coast of Kerman and the coast 
 
 * 'ITiese manufacturing and other towns were destroyed at 
 the time of Abul-Feda owing to the rule of the Turkish soldiers, 
 whom the 'Abbasides had called in to keep up the course of 
 absolutism against their own nation. 
 
 f Some copies leave out the word Ibn. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 267 
 
 of Mokran ^JC*, which is the country of the 
 Khawarij, who are Heretics *\jS\ ^^ gjl*^* 
 The whole of this coast is a palm country: then 
 comes the coast of es-Sind there are the mouths 
 of the river Mihran ^jfr*> which is the river of 
 es-Sind (Indus), and has been described. In the 
 es-Sind is the town of ed-Da'ibol. Then comes 
 the coast of India, the country of Borudh u^' 
 whence the Borudhi cinnabar has its name. 
 Thence extends one interrupted coast as far as 
 China, partly cultivated, partly waste. 
 
 On the coast opposite the mentioned countries 
 as Kerman and es-Sind is el-Bahrain, the islands of 
 Kotr ^33, the Shatt of the Beni Jadimah ^ k 
 &:<x^, (who belong to the 'Abdel-Kais tribe), Oman, 
 the country of el-Mahrah s^Xt, as far as the 
 promontory of el-Jomjomah **2aj?i u^l;, in the 
 country of esh-Shihr ^s^l; on this coast is also 
 el-Ahkaf, and near the coast many islands are 
 situated, like the island of Kharak J^U., which 
 belongs to the country of Jannabah, and has its 
 surname after it: between this island and the con- 
 tinent is a strait of a few miles,, in which the pearls 
 called Kharaji pearls are found. Another island is 
 called the isle of Awal _J^ *j*y?> there live the 
 Beni Ma'n ^.j** ^ij, the Beni Mismar J^** 9 
 and a great number of other Arabs. It is about 
 one day or less from the towns of the coast of 
 
268 EL-MAS J UDIS MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Meran, which belongs to el-Bahrain. On this coast 
 which is called the coast of Hajar jz&&, are the 
 towns ez-Zarah i^tyi and el-Katif. uLlaxH. 
 
 After the isle of Awal are many other islands 
 as the isle Lafit L^O^, which is also called the island 
 of the Beni Kawan ^\J6 csu. It has been con- 
 quered by 'Amr Ben el-'Asi, and there is his mosque 
 standing to this day. This island is very populous 
 well cultivated, and has several villages. At a short 
 distance from it is the island of Haijam ^ Urufc. There 
 the sailors take in water. Then the mountains 
 known under the name of Kosair, Owair, ^s. ^ ?*$> 
 and a third one the name of which is not known. 
 Then ed-Dordur, which is called the terrible Dordur 
 > and by the sailors the father of hell; 
 ^\) at these parts of the sea rise 
 enormous black rocks high overhanging the water, 
 neither plants nor animals can live on them, and under 
 them the sea is very deep and stormy, hence every- 
 body who sails there is filled with fear; they are 
 between 'Oman and Siraf, and vessels cannot help 
 sailing through the midst of them. There is a 
 constant current of the water which makes it foam. 
 This sea, I mean the Persian gulf, which is also called 
 the Persian sea, is skirted by the countries and towns 
 which we have enumerated, as el- Bahrein, Faris, 
 el-Basrah, and Oman, and extends as far as the 
 promontory of el-Jomjomah. Between the Persian 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 269 
 
 gulf and the gulf of el-Kolzom and Ailah (the Red 
 Sea,) is the Hejaz and el- Yemen ; this land extends 
 fifteen hundred miles between the two gulfs, forming 
 a peninsula which is surrounded for the most part 
 by the sea before described. 
 
 On this sea extending from China along India, 
 Faris, 'Oman, el-Basrah, el-Bahrain, Yemen, 
 Abyssinia, the Hejaz, el-Kolzom, ez-Zanj, es-Sind, 
 and in the islands which it surrounds, are so many 
 and various nations, that their description and 
 number is known only to the Almighty who has 
 created them, and every section of them has a name 
 by which it is distinguished from the rest. The 
 water forms one uninterrupted sea. There are 
 many places in this sea where they dive for pearls 
 
 s. s- 
 
 jM. On these coasts, cornelians, Madinj 
 which is a sort of coral, and different 
 sorts of rubies, sapphires, diamonds, and turquois 
 are found. There are mines of gold and silver in 
 the country of Kolah X# and Serirah '^^ and 
 on the coast of this sea are mines of iron, in the 
 countries about Kerman. 'Oman produces copper. 
 From the countries which form the coast of this 
 sea, come different sorts of perfumes, scents, am- 
 bergis, various drugs used in medicine, plantane, 
 cinamon, cinnabar, and ruscus ^1,^x^01. We shall 
 hereafter specify the places where all those precious 
 stones, perfumes, and plants are found. 
 
270 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 This sea which we have described, bears the 
 general name of the Abyssinian Sea ^z^\ J&- 
 The winds of the different parts of this sea which 
 we have described, and every one of which has a 
 distinct name, as the Persian gulf, the sea of Yemen, 
 the sea of el-Kolzom, the sea of Abyssinia, and the 
 sea of ez-Zanj, are different. In some seas the wind 
 comes from the bottom of the sea, stirring up the 
 water ; waves rise therefrom as in a boiling kettle, 
 where the particles J^ of the heat of the fire come 
 from underneath. In others winds and storms come 
 partly from the bottom of the sea, partly from the 
 air, and in some seas the wind arises wholly from 
 an agitation of the air without any wind coming 
 from the bottom of the sea. Those winds which, 
 as we have stated^ come from the bottom of the 
 sea, arise from the winds which blow from the land 
 and penetrate into the sea, from whence they rise to 
 the surface of the water. God knows best how this 
 comes. 
 
 There are several winds in those seas which are 
 known to the sailors to blow in particular directions 
 at certain times. This peculiar knowledge is ac- 
 quired by theory, practice, and long experience. 
 They also have a knowledge of certain signs and 
 indications by which they can tell whether the wind 
 will be high or not, and when a storm maybe expected. 
 What we have said here of the Abyssinian Sea, may 
 be applied in some measure to the Mediterranean, 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 271 
 
 where the Byzantines and Moslims have certain signs 
 by which they can tell if the wind will change. The 
 same is the case with the sailors of the sea of the 
 Khazar, (the Caspian) who go to Jorjan, Taberistan, 
 and ed-Dailem. We shall give in the following 
 pages, a view and some details of the description and 
 history of those seas, and their wonders, if it is the 
 will of God, for there is no strength but in God. 
 
272 
 
 ELEVENTH CHAPTER. 
 
 The different opinions on ebb and flow, and all that 
 has been said on this subject. 
 
 FLOW ,x*JJ means the coming in of the water 
 according to its nature and the laws of its motion. 
 The ebb j^ii is the going out of the water, and rests 
 on laws which are the reverse of those of the flow. 
 This may be observed in the Abyssinian sea, which 
 comprehends the seas of China, India, and the gulfs 
 of el-Berbera and Faris, as we have said in the pre- 
 ceding chapter. With respect to the ebb and flow, 
 the seas may be divided into three classes, the first 
 of which comprehends those seas in which ebb and 
 flow take place, and are apparent and evident ; the 
 other in which ebb and flow take place, but are 
 not perceptible ; and finally, there are seas in which 
 there is no ebb and flow at all. In those seas which 
 have no ebb and flow, the cause of their absence 
 may be threefold. The first cause is this : if the 
 water remains some time quiet it becomes salt, 
 heavier, and denser: it happens frequently that the 
 water goes into certain places for one cause or 
 another, and forms a sort of lake, diminishing in 
 
AND MINES OP GEMS. 273 
 
 summer, and increasing in winter, and one may 
 observe that it is increased by the accession of rivers 
 and springs. To the second class belong those 
 seas which are far from land and extensive, a cir- 
 cumstance which renders it impossible to observe 
 the ebb and flow. The third class comprehends such 
 seas as are on volcanic ground, for if the ground is 
 in volcanic action the water is in a constant current 
 to another sea, being increased in volume and 
 swelled by the air which is originally in the earth, 
 and thence communicated to the water. This is 
 particularly frequent with seas that have an exten- 
 sive line of coast and many islands*. 
 
 A variety of opinions have been started respecting 
 the causes of the ebb and flow. Some ascribe them 
 to the influence of the moon, for she being congenial 
 
 ju *iu 
 
 \j Means an increase in volume without an (apparent) 
 addition of matter. If this increase be effected by heat it is 
 c>Jiij J^fsW^, and if by the absorption of another stuff as air 
 and humidity, it is called <s\LsxiJJ ^sik^CJJ. The secondary 
 meaning, which alone is found in Dictionaries is to boil. 
 
 T 
 
274 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 with water makes it warm and expands it. They 
 compare her influence with that of fire: if water is 
 exposed to the influence of heat in a kettle, although 
 only one-half or two-thirds of the kettle be full, it 
 will rise when it boils, until it runs over, for its 
 volume becomes apparently double whilst its weight 
 is diminished, it being a law of heat to expand bodies, 
 and a law of cold to contract them. The bottom of 
 the sea becomes warm, and by these means sweet 
 water is produced in the earth, which is changed (into 
 salt water) and becomes warm, as it happens in 
 cisterns and wells. When the water is warm it 
 expands, and when it is expanded, it is increased in 
 volume ; and when its volume is great, every particle 
 pushes the particle next to itself, and so it raises the 
 level as it rises from the bottom, for it requires more 
 space. The full moon communicates a great deal of 
 heat to the atmosphere, hence the water increases in 
 volume. This is called the monthly tide (spring 
 tide). 
 
 The Abyssinian sea runs from east to west 
 along the equator; after this line the moveable 
 heavenly bodies and those fixed stars which stand 
 vertically over it make their daily revolutions. 
 When the moveable bodies are at a sufficient dis- 
 tance from the equator their action upon the sea is 
 suspended, but when they are near the line they 
 exercise their influence upon the sea from one end 
 to the other every day and night; with all that, the 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS, 275 
 
 place exposed to their influence shows but little 
 increase; it is therefore particularly in rivers and 
 other channels through which the water flows into 
 the sea, that the flow is distinctly seen. 
 
 Others say, if the ebb and flow is the same phe- 
 nomenon as the expansion of water in a kettle under 
 the influence of fire, which makes the water rise, 
 the sea will, after it has been removed from the 
 bottom of its basin, go according to its nature 
 (gravity), to the deepest places of the earth, and so 
 it will return into its former place, just as the water 
 which boils in a cauldron goes as fast back to the 
 bottom of the vessel as it is displaced by the particles 
 of the fire (heat). Now the sun is the warmest 
 body ; and if the sun was the cause of ebb and flow, 
 the latter would begin with the rising of this 
 luminary, and the former with its setting. They 
 believe therefore that ebb and flow is caused by 
 vapours, which are produced in the bowels of the 
 earth and continue to be generated, until they are 
 discharged. This discharge pushes the water of the 
 sea, and it remains in this state until the pressure 
 from underneath it is diminished; then the sea 
 returns to the depths of its bed and the ebb succeeds. 
 Hence ebb and flow take place indiscriminately 
 during day and night, summer and winter, indepen- 
 dent of the rising and setting of the sun and moon . 
 They say further the fact is evident, for as soon as 
 the ebb is over the tide comes in, and the end of the 
 
 T2 
 
276 EL-TMAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 flow is immediately succeeded by the ebb, for the pro- 
 duction of these vapours is constant; when they are 
 discharged they are replaced by others. Whenever 
 the water of the sea runs back into its basin vapours 
 are generated by the contact of the water and earth. 
 When the sea returns vapours are produced, and 
 when it rises they are discharged. 
 
 The strictly orthodox say, everything, the course 
 and reason, of which cannot be discovered in nature 
 must be ascribed to the (immediate) action of God, and 
 is an additional proof of his unity and wisdom. For 
 ebb and flow no natural cause can be assigned. 
 
 Others say the motion of the waters of the 
 sea is not different from the vicissitudes of the 
 temperaments pl& in men. You may observe 
 in choleric, sanguine, and other persons, that their 
 temperament is roused for a time then it is quiet 
 again. In the same way the sea rises by degrees, 
 and when it has come to the greatest intenseness, it 
 sinks by degrees. 
 
 Another hypothesis has been advanced, opposed 
 to those already mentioned. It is assumed that the 
 air which is in contact with the water of the sea, 
 produces a constant decomposition of it : the con- 
 sequence of which is that the waters of the sea are 
 expanded and rise, and this is the flow ; but in the 
 mean time, the water spreads and produces a decom- 
 position of the air which makes the water return into 
 its former place , and this is the ebb. These actions 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 277 
 
 are constant, and follow each other without inter- 
 ruption, for the water decomposes the air, and the 
 air decomposes the water. It may be greater when 
 the moon is full, for the activity of this (chemical) 
 change is increased. The moon is therefore the 
 reason of a more copious flow, but not of the flow 
 altogether, for the flow takes place although the 
 moon be in the last quarter. And the tide in the 
 Persian gulf is sometimes greatest at the rising of 
 the first quarter. 
 
 Many of the Nawajidah gj^ly [this is the name 
 for the sailors of Siraf and 'Oman, who are con- 
 stantly on this sea, and visit various nations in 
 the islands and on the coast,] say that the ebb and 
 flow takes place only twice a year in the greatest 
 part of this sea, once in the summer months, then 
 the ebb is six months north-east, during which the 
 sea of China and of other countries of that quarter 
 of the globe is high, for the water flows then from the 
 west ; and once in the winter months, then the ebb 
 is six months south-west, for in winter the sea is 
 fuller in the west, whilst the sea of China ebbs. 
 The motions of the sea cohere with the course of 
 the winds, for when the sun is in the northern 
 hemisphere, the air moves to the south, hence the 
 sea is during summer higher in the south, for the 
 northern winds are high and force the water there. 
 In the same way when the sun is in the southern 
 hemisphere ; the course of the air, and with it the 
 
278 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 current of the water, is from south to north, and 
 hence there is less water in the south. The shifting 
 of the water in these two. directions, from south to 
 north and from north to south is called the hyemal 
 ebb and flow; the ebb of the north is flow, in the 
 south vice versa, and if the moon* happens to 
 meet with another planet in one of these two direc- 
 tions, the warmth is increased by their joined 
 action, and hence the current of the air is stronger 
 towards the hemisphere which is opposite to that 
 where the sun is. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, this is the hypothesis of el- 
 Kindi and Ahmad Ben et-Taib es-Sarakhsi, and what 
 we have said is borrowed from them ; namely, that 
 the motion of the sea coincides with the course of the 
 winds. I saw a curious phenomenon in the country 
 of Kanbayat in India, from which the laced Kanbayan 
 shoes X-,A.>UAJJ JlxiJI have their name, for they are 
 made in this and the neighbouring towns like Sindanf 
 and Stibarah s^L^w (Sufarah) . I visited this place 
 in 303, A.H., during the government of Babina UoL 
 
 * The text is probably corrupted and should run, and if the 
 sun happens to meet with the moon or another planet, &c. 
 
 f Some MSS. bear JJ^^XXA*, and others ^l^&; supposing 
 the first part of the word being correctly spelt in the first reading, 
 and the finale ^ in the second, we have the name which Abul- 
 feda gives to a town on the coast of India, viz., 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 279 
 
 lo'L), who was appointed there as Brahman <& 
 by the Ballahra* ^^XxJI, the sovereign of el- 
 Mankir jJolXU This Babina liked to enter into 
 disputations with Moslims or persons of any other 
 religion, who visited his province. The above-men- 
 tioned town is situated on an estuary which is as 
 wide as the Nile, or like the Tigris antl Euphrates. 
 On the banks of the estuary one sees towns, villas, 
 cultivation, gardens, palms, cocoanut-trees, guinea- 
 fowls, parrots, and other Indian birds. The city of 
 Kambayah is two days or less distant from the 
 mouth of this estuary. The ebb is so marked in 
 this estuary that the sand lays quite bare, and only 
 in the middle of the bed remains a little water. I 
 saw a dog on this sand, which was left dry by the 
 water like the sand of a desert ; the tide coming in 
 from the sea like a mountain caught him although he 
 ran as fast as he could to the land to escape, and the 
 poor animal was drowned notwithstanding his swift- 
 ness. Between el-Basrah and el-Ahwaz in the 
 places called el-Basiyan ^U* UM and el-Kaidem 
 f<x*Hj the tide comes in with equal violence and is 
 called there the crime (Boaref), full of noise, ebuli- 
 
 * The original title of this prince is according to the Mefatih 
 el-'olum, ts J *ktyt Behlway or .jb Ji.j Baluhar. 
 
 -f- See Major Rennel's Memoirs on the map of Hindoostan, 
 p. 353, who describes the passage of the Boare up the Hoogly. 
 
280 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 tion, and danger: the sailors are afraid of it, and 
 the place is well known to everybody who has passed 
 it on his way to Daurak o^ and Faris. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 281 
 
 TWELFTH CHAPTER. 
 
 The sea of er-Rum (the Mediterranean^ , its length 
 and breadth, beginning and end. 
 
 THE sea of er-Rum -^Jl, of Tarsus vyj* 9 Adanah 
 sl3.it, el-Misslsah 'i^j^\ 9 Antakiyah (Antioch), el- 
 Ladikiyah ZJ* &N (Laodocia), Atrabolos uJbV^t 
 (Tripolis), Sur^xs, and of other places on the 
 coast of Syria and Egypt, as of Alexandria and on 
 the coast of the Maghrib, is five thousand miles long; 
 the breadth varies being in some places eight hun- 
 dred miles, in others seven hundred, six hundred 
 and less; so it is stated in the astronomical works of 
 many authors of astronomical tables, as Mohammed 
 Ben Jaber el-Battani jUxJJ ^jU. (J j.j <x*:2. This sea 
 begins from the strait which connects it with the sea 
 Okianos (the Atlantic), and which is narrowest 
 between the coast of Tanjah *^J& (Tangiers) and 
 Sabtah XZx*s (Ceuta), in the Maghrib, and between 
 the coast of el-Andalos (Spain) ; this narrow passage 
 has the name of Saita lk>~ (Ceuta), the distance 
 between the two coasts is not more than ten miles; 
 
EL-MAS 5 UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 hence it is the route to cross over from the Maghrib 
 to el-Andalos, and from el-Andalos into the Magh- 
 rib. It is generally called the Zokak oli'j^l (lane). 
 We shall speak in our account of Egypt of the 
 bridge, which joined the two coasts, and of the navi- 
 gation on this sea; also that the island of Kobros 
 u~j* (Cyprus) and el-'Arish (fit j.x$\ were once 
 connected by land, so that caravans passed from one 
 place to another. 
 
 On the limits where these two seas, the Mediter- 
 ranean and the Ocean join, pillars of copper and 
 stone, have been erected by King Hirakl the giant*. 
 Upon these pillars are inscriptions and figures, 
 which show with their hands that one cannot go 
 further, and that it is impracticable to navigate 
 beyond the Mediterranean into that sea (the ocean), 
 for no vessel sails on it: there is no cultivation nor 
 a human being, and the sea has no limits neither 
 in its depths nor extent, for its end is unknown. 
 This is the sea of darkness, also called the green sea 
 or the surrounding sea l*^\ ^ ^*a^l ^ cAiJsJJ ^i 
 Some say that these pillars are not on this strait, but 
 in some islands of the ocean and their coast. 
 
 Some people consider this sea as the origin of all 
 
 * Hirakl JJf jjfc is generally the Arabic name for Heraclius 
 but here, as the reader perceives, the pillars in question are the 
 Herculis. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 283 
 
 others. There are some wonderful stories related 
 respecting it, for which we refer the reader to ourbook 
 the Akhbar ez-zeman ; there he will find an account of 
 those crews who have risked their lives in navigating 
 this sea, and who of them have escaped, and who 
 have been shipwrecked, also what they have encoun- 
 tered and seen. Such an adventurer was a Moor 
 of Spain, of the name of Khoshkhash <j.ici 
 He was a young man of Cordoba : having assembled 
 some young men they went on board a vessel which 
 they had ready on the ocean, and nobody knew for 
 a long time what had become of them. At length 
 they came back loaded with rich booty. Their 
 history is well known among the people of el- 
 Andalos (the Moors in Spain). 
 
 The length of this strait which forms a current 
 from the ocean into the Mediterranean is consider- 
 able, extending from the mentioned pillars as far as 
 el-Ahjar. The current from the ocean is so great 
 that it is perceptible. From the sea of er-Rum, of 
 Syria and Egypt, a gulf branches off which is five 
 hundred miles long, and passes the city of Rome 
 XA-CJJ &LKX.O. This gulf is called the Adriatic u^jM 
 in the language of Rome. West of this strait* (or 
 
 * One copy leaves out this sentence altogether, and the other 
 gives it incomplete; for it seems that the author continued his 
 account of the Adriatic naming some towns of Italy situated on it 
 before he comes again to speak of the strait of Gibraltar. This 
 description of the Adriatic however is left out in all MS. 
 
284 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 gulf) a town is situated, named Sabtah (Ceuta), it 
 lays on the same side as Tanjah, opposite the cities 
 on the coast of Spain, and the Jebel Tarik 3^. 
 jjUs (Gibraltar) , so named after the freed-slave of 
 Musa Ben Nosair. The time for crossing from 
 Sabtah to Spain is from morning to noon. This 
 strait is very boisterous, and there is sometimes a 
 great swell although there is no wind, for the water 
 runs through it into the Mediterranean. The Moors 
 in Spain and in the Maghrib call this strait Lane 
 oli'^J!, for it has this shape. 
 
 There are various islands in the Mediterranean, 
 as the isle of Cyprus uj*S 9 between the coast of Syria 
 and er-Rum, Rhodes u*^j, opposite Alexandria, 
 Crete J&y t y>J, and Sicily *JuU>. We shall speak 
 of Sicily when we treat of the mount Borkan ^ ^ 
 (^Etna), which throws out fire variously shaped, 
 representing sometimes enormous carcases. Ya'- 
 kub Ben Ishak el-Kindi and Ahmad Ben et-Taib 
 es-Sarakhsi c^i ^ ^^^ <s*&\ <Jbswt ^ vy*V. 
 ^y^juwJJ, differ respecting the length and breadth 
 of this sea from the account which we have given, as 
 we shall have an opportunity to observe further in 
 this book where we describe these seas according to 
 the plan of the work. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 285 
 
 THIRTEENTH CHAPTER. 
 
 On the sea ofNitus (Pontus), and Mdyotis* (Maoris), 
 and the strait of Constantinople. 
 
 THE Pontus extends from the country of Ladikah 
 XJ'^ to Constantinople, and has a length of one 
 thousand one hundred miles. Its breadth at the 
 beginning is three hundred miles. The great river, 
 named Tanabus u^uUk (Danube), which we have 
 
 * The name of this sea being variously spelt in different copies, 
 the spelling of Abulfeda has been followed in page 30, supra ; for 
 although this author may be incorrect in some cases, he is more 
 correct than any other Oriental geographer, particularly in the ortho- 
 graphy of proper names, and his geography has lately been pub- 
 lished by M. Reinaud and Baron Slane, with such exactness, that 
 it must be considered as the standard work and canon in writing 
 geographical names. Most copists write ^JajLc, and this seems 
 
 to be the correct way of spelling it; for if we add the vowels 
 
 we have as nearly the Greek word Matcorts, as it can be expressed 
 in Arabic. It appears for the rest from this chapter that the Arabs 
 had exceedingly wrong notions respecting the Pontus, as well as 
 the Palus Maeotis; for although they had in the earliest time 
 pushed their conquests as far as the coasts of the Black Sea, and 
 although they carried on some trade on it, they referred in geo- 
 graphy, as well as in other branches of human knowledge, seldom 
 to experience, being led entirely by the authority of more 
 ancient information, which was frequently misunderstood. 
 
286 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 already mentioned falls into this sea. It comes 
 from the north, and runs through the country of 
 many Japhetite nations. It rises from a large lake 
 in the north, which receives its water from springs 
 and mountains. The course of this river is about 
 three hundred farsangs long. Its banks are all along 
 cultivated by the children of Yafeth Ben Nuh. It 
 flows through the sea of Mayotis into the Pontus, ac- 
 cording to the opinion of many well-informed men. 
 This is a large river in which there are various 
 stones, plants, and medical substances, and hence 
 notice has been taken of it by many ancient philo- 
 sophers. 
 
 Some people consider the sea of Mayotis as a 
 lake, to which they give a length of three hundred 
 miles, and a width of one hundred miles. From 
 this sea the strait of Constantinople branches off, 
 which connects it with the Mediterranean; the 
 length of this strait is three hundred miles, and its 
 breadth on an average fifty miles. On its western 
 bank Constantinople is situated, and there runs an 
 uninterrupted line of cultivation from the beginning 
 of this strait to the end, and as far as Rome and 
 Spain. The opinions of those astronomers must 
 therefore be true, who maintain that the sea 
 of the Targhiz jJ3\*, Russians cr^Ji, and 
 
 * This name is mostly spelt vc j>U or not dotted at all. I 
 suppose it is the same nation as the Tyragetes of Herodotus. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 287 
 
 Nagaiz*, who are three nations of Turkish origin, is 
 the same as the Pontus. We shall speak of these 
 nations in the progress of our work if it is the 
 will of God the Almighty, distinguishing those who 
 sail on this sea from those who do not navigate it. 
 
 * Amongst the various readings rutf v^ seems to be 
 the most correct. The Nagaiz live north-east of the Black Sea 
 towards Stavropol. 
 
288 EL-MAS'lTDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 FOURTEENTH CHAPTER. 
 
 The sea of Bab el-Abwdb, of the Khazar and of 
 *7orjdn (the Caspian), and the relation in which 
 the seas stand to each other. 
 
 THE sea of the Barbarians* ^U^l ^s? which is so 
 called because their abodes are on its coast, is sur- 
 rounded from all sides with cultivation; it is 
 generally known under the name of the sea of Bab 
 
 el-Abwabf v^^ v^>^> the sea of the Khazar, 
 of el-Jil (Ghilan), of ed-Dailem, of Jorjan, and of 
 Taberistan. On this sea live various nations of 
 Turkish origin. It extends along Khowarezm 
 which forms a province of Khorasan, and is eight 
 hundred miles long, its breadth is six hundred 
 
 means any person who is not Arab, but particularly 
 the Persians. In this passage it must be taken in the more 
 extensive meaning, in which it answers exactly to the Latin 
 barbarus. Ibn Khaldun uses in this sense the expression 
 
 l " a wild animaL " 
 
 -j- Our author writes this name in all instances Bab wal- 
 Abwab, i.e., the gate and the gates, instead of Bab el-Abwab, i.e., 
 the gate of the gates, and comes therefore nearer to the ancient 
 name Portce Caucasia. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 289 
 
 miles, and it has nearly a round shape. In the 
 progress of our work we will describe all the nations 
 who live on this sea, which has the name of the sea 
 of the Barbarians. 
 
 In this sea are many Tenanin*, which is the 
 plural of Tinnin. They are equally frequent in the 
 Mediterranean, particularly about Tripolis, Laodicea, 
 and Jebel el- Akra', in the district of Antioch, for under 
 this mountain the sea is deep and boisterous ; hence 
 this place is called the Knot of the Sea j.s\!\ *J-=M- 
 On the coast of this sea are situated Antioch, 
 Rashid, Sakandarunah'!' (Alexandria Cilicise), Hisn 
 el-Markab^, on the mountain el-Lokkam, Missi- 
 sah, where the river Jaihan falls into the sea, 
 Adanah XJit with the mouth of the Saihan, Tarsus 
 with the river el-Berdan ^b jJJ, which is the river 
 of Tarsus ; further on is waste land, which forms the 
 frontier between the Moslim and the Byzantine 
 
 * It appears from what follows, that tinnin (in Hebrew, 
 tannin), which is the usual word for dragon, means originally 
 water- spout, and that the signification dragon owes its origin to 
 the popular belief, that the water-spout is a sea-monster, which, 
 according to el-Kazwinl, has sometimes a length of two farsangs. 
 Some further details, respecting the fables to which this pheno- 
 menon has given rise, as those of the Gorgons, of Perseus and 
 Andromeda, of St. George, &c., will be given in the additional 
 notes. 
 
 f The MSS. bear Alexandria, although it comes later. 
 
 i. The MSS. bear tyJu^Jl and o^i^Jl. 
 
 U 
 
290 EL-MAS'lJDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 territory: then we come to the towns of Kalamiah 
 3UjlJ', Yunos u*^.j and Kerasia U~jj ; then to 
 Solukiah a/Ji^X*, which has a large river that falls 
 into the Mediterranean; from thence the sea is 
 skirted with a line of fortresses, which extends as 
 far as Constantinople. We have omitted many 
 rivers of the Byzantine dominions which fall into 
 this sea, as the Cold River ^UJt^xM, the Honey 
 River J^xJt ^ 3 and many others. The coast of the 
 Maghrib, beginning from the strait on which Tan- 
 giers is situated, is equally in a flourishing state of 
 cultivation all along the coast of Afrikiya, Susah, 
 Tripolis, the Maghrib, (in its narrower sense), 
 Alexandria, Rashid, and Dimyat, up to the Byzan- 
 tine frontier, which joins the coast formed by the 
 Byzantine dominions: further on is the coast of 
 Rome, and beyond it the coast of Spain as far as the 
 coast opposite Tangiers, on the strait from which we 
 began our description. The whole coast just de- 
 scribed presents an uninterrupted line of well-culti- 
 vated countries, belonging partly to the Moslims, 
 partly to the Roman dominions, and intersected by 
 several rivers which fall into the sea and the strait 
 of Constantinople, which is only one mile wide. 
 This sea has several gulfs and estuaries, but they 
 are merely inlets, and do not communicate with any 
 other sea. 
 
 The shape of this sea has been compared to a 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 291 
 
 cabbage *-**j&\, of which the strait of Gibraltar 
 forms the stalk ; but it will appear, by comparing 
 the length and breadth which we have given, that it 
 is not round. 
 
 The Tinnins (dragons) are quite unknown in the 
 Abyssinian sea and in its numerous estuaries and bays. 
 They are most frequent near the Atlantic (jluUs'l- 
 Different opinions have been advanced as to what the 
 dragon is : some believe that it is a black wind in 
 the bottom of the sea, which rises into the air, 
 that is to say, the atmosphere j4-\, as high as the 
 clouds, like a hurricane whirling dust aloft as it rises 
 from the ground, and destroying vegetation. The 
 shape of the dragon becomes longer the higher it 
 ascends in the air. 
 
 Some people believe that the dragon is a black 
 serpent which rises into the air, the clouds are at 
 the same time black, all is dark, and this is suc- 
 ceeded by a terrible wind. 
 
 Some are of opinion that it is an animal which 
 lives in the bottom of the sea, and that, when it is 
 haughty and overbearing, God sends an angel in a 
 cloud, who draws it out. It has the shape of a 
 black shining serpent. When it is carried through 
 the air it goes so high that it does not touch any 
 thing with its tail, excepting, perhaps, very high 
 buildings or trees ; but it frequently damages 
 many trees. It is carried in the clouds to 
 Yajuj and Majuj (Gog and Magog). The clouds 
 
 u 2 
 
292 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 kill the dragon through cold and rain, and give it 
 to Gog and Magog to devour. This is the 
 opinion of Ibn 'Abbas. There are various other 
 popular traditions respecting the dragon, which are 
 recorded by biographers of Mohammed and other 
 prophets, but we cannot insert them all here. They 
 say, for instance, that the dragons are black serpents 
 which live in the desert, whence they pass, by rivers 
 swelled by rains, into the sea. They feed there on 
 sea animals, grow to an immense size, and live a 
 long time ; but when one of them has reached an 
 age of five hundred years, it becomes so oppressive 
 to sea animals, that there happens something like 
 what we have related, as being the account of Ibn 
 'Abbas. Some, they state, are white, and others 
 black like serpents. 
 
 The Persians do not deny the existence of 
 dragons. They believe that they have seven heads*, 
 they call them ^U<x^Jf, and allude frequently 
 
 * The representation of the constellation called Dragon in el- 
 Kazwini (MS. of the East India House, No. 1377,) has equally 
 seven heads. 
 
 * By the change of j into . we may pronounce this word 
 el-Agorghan ^LjLjs*^, which would leave no doubt of the 
 identity with the Greek name Gorgons. In this case the name 
 of Perseus could be derived from the Persian word Peri ^ ^ 
 which means an angel. Several pages being wanting in the MS. 
 of Leyden, I have this passage, unfortunately, only in one MS., 
 else the comparison with other copies would show how far this 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 293 
 
 to them in their tales. God knows best what the 
 dragons really are. 
 
 Many persons believe the stories connected with 
 this subject, whilst they are rejected by many 
 sound men. We will not repeat tales like that of 
 'Imran Ben Jabir, who is said to have reached 
 the sources of the Nile, and to have crossed the sea 
 on the back of an animal, laying hold of its hair 
 This, they say, was a marine animal, of such celerity 
 that it accompanied the sun in its course. By 
 seizing its hair 'Imran crossed the sea, seeking the 
 bed of the sun, at once he saw the Nile as it comes 
 forth from golden palaces; they say also that the 
 angel who guards the sources of the Nile gave 
 him a bunch of grapes, and that he returned to the 
 man who had seen him when he set out, to describe 
 to him how he had managed to reach the Nile, 
 
 conjecture is correct, and whether the Greeks have borrowed 
 the fable of the Gorgons, and of Perseus and Andromeda from 
 the Persians, or whether they owe it to the Syrians and Phoeni- v/ 
 cians. For the rest it is very likely that ^IsJ^^J is to be read 
 as two words: in this case the translation would run, " And they 
 give to them a name which sounds 'an (or rather ghan ; for the 
 Persians have not the sound of the ^) in the singular." 
 
 The Kamus, p. 1728, informs us that the Persian name for 
 the constellation called Dragon ^jLxJJ is .^oJjufc. This word 
 (Haftorang) occurs repeatedly in the Zend-Avesta, and has been 
 mistaken by Anquetil Duperron for the Great Bear. 
 
294 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 but he found him dead. They relate further some 
 adventures which he had with the devil, several 
 tales respecting the bunch of grapes, and other 
 stories. 
 
 It is asserted on the authority of a tradition (of 
 the Prophet), that in the middle of the green sea, 
 (ocean) are all sorts of curious stones and gold, on 
 four pillars of ruby, sapphire, emerald, and chry- 
 solith, from every pillar comes forth a river, and 
 these four rivers go from the ocean into the four 
 quarters of the globe without mixing with the sea 
 water. The first of these four rivers is the Nile, 
 the second is the Jaihan (in Syria) ^Lsx^., the 
 third, the Sai'han ^Isx*, and the fourth is the 
 Euphrates*. 
 
 Another story of this sort is, that the angel to 
 
 * In Boun-Dehesh it is said that all the rivers fall into the 
 Ferakh-kand, and come from thence ; meaning, no doubt, by the 
 evaporation of the water, which falls down as rain, and forms the 
 rivers. The vulgar version of this theory, which is related here, 
 afforded an opportunity to connect a fiction with the sacred rivers, 
 of which there are everywhere four in Eastern tradition, although 
 they do not agree as to their identity. Compare the note to page 
 243, supra. 
 
 This idea had been known to the Greeks, and defended by 
 some of their philosophers in its grossest version. " Some think," 
 says Aristotle, Meteor, ii., 2, " that the rivers flow (peiv) from 
 the sea, and again into the sea : they become sweet by being fil- 
 tered in their passage through the earth, and loose by this 
 means their saltness." 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 295 
 
 whose care the seas are confided immerges the heel 
 of his foot into the sea at the extremity of China, 
 and, as the sea is swelled, the flow takes place. 
 Then he raises his foot from the sea, and the 
 water returns into its former place, and this is the 
 ebb. They demonstrate this by an example : If a 
 vessel is only half full of water, and you put your 
 hand or foot into it, the water will fill the whole 
 vessel, and, when you take out the hand, the water 
 will be as before. Some think that the angel puts 
 only the great toe of his right foot into the water, 
 and that this is the cause of the tide. 
 
 The theories* just alluded to are neither proved 
 
 JSAxVc *.A*J sljjTi Lc 
 
 (read 
 
 UJLc ^^ c^l U 
 
 Jji 
 
 5 &\J4jj\ 
 ]! .aJfef L 
 
 As the 
 
296 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 as facts, nor are they articles of faith (although 
 they are put into the mouth of Mohammed) : they 
 belong to that class of traditions which may be 
 believed or rejected, for they rest ultimately on the 
 authority of only one (of the companions of the 
 Prophet), and but few have handed them down : 
 they cannot be traced to many (of the companions), 
 nor have they ever been generally acknowledged. 
 And this is required to give to traditions authority, 
 removing all possibility of interpolation. Only, 
 if a tradition is founded on such (historical) 
 evidence, which leaves no doubt respecting its 
 authority, one must subject (one's reason) to it, 
 and be guided by it ; for God has commanded that 
 sacred traditions should be considered as positive 
 laws, in the words "Receive what the Prophet has 
 given (permitted) to you, and forbear from what he 
 forbids you :" but the above traditions have not 
 the character of authenticity. We have explained 
 the different opinions on this subject. We have 
 thought it necessary to enter into these details, 
 in order to convince the reader that we are 
 competent to judge on the questions which have 
 
 As the word UJ^A^, which has been taken in the trans- 
 lation as a technical term, and applying only to the knowledge of 
 law, might be translated, " And we have made ourselves master 
 of the subjects on which we speak in this book," the original 
 text has been added. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 297 
 
 reference to revelation, alluded to in this or in any 
 other of our works, and that he may not be misled 
 by the misconstruction of critics of some other 
 subjects on which we have treated. 
 
 Some people count four seas in the cultivated 
 world, others five, others six, and some bring them 
 to seven ; all of which are connected and uninter- 
 rupted. The first is the Abyssinian sea ^ 
 then the Mediterranean ^jjJJ, the Pontus L 
 the May otis ^kiLc, the Khazarian sea 
 and the Ocean cr-JUil, which is also called the 
 Green Sea, the Surrounding Sea, and the Dark Sea. 
 The sea Mayotis is connected with the Pontus, 
 which communicates with the Mediterranean 
 through the strait of Constantinople; and the 
 Mediterranean stands again in connexion with the 
 Ocean or the Green Sea; they form therefore only 
 one sea, as the waters are not separated. But they 
 are in no connexion whatever with the sea of the 
 Khazar (the Caspian). The Mayotis and Pontus 
 should also be considered as one sea, and although 
 these two seas, the greater of which is called the 
 Pontus u*kJo, and the smaller and narrower Mayotis^ 
 yJajLo, are only connected by a strait ; one ought 
 to give to both together only one name, calling them 
 
 * Both copies bear, the smaller sea is called Pontus, and the 
 larger Mayotis. This must be a fault of the copyists. 
 
298 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 either Pontus or Mayotis. If we use hereafter the 
 name Pontus or Mayotis, be it understood that the 
 terms are to be taken in this meaning, (each of these 
 two names) implying the smaller and the greater sea. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, many people have the wrong 
 opinion that the sea of the Khazar stands in con- 
 nexion with the Mayotis, but I have not seen one 
 merchant who goes into the country of the Khazar, 
 nor anybody else who sails on the sea of Mayotis 
 and Pontus, to the Byzantine dominions or to the 
 Targhiz, who agreed with the opinion that the sea 
 of the Khazar is connected with any other sea 
 either by a canal or by a strait, or in any other 
 way excepting through the river of the Khazar. 
 We will speak of the kingdom of the Khazar, and 
 how the Russians brought their vessels into this 
 (the Caspian) sea, (from the Black Sea), which 
 happened after the year three hundred (of the 
 Hijrah), in the chapter on the Caucasus and the town 
 of Bab-el- Abwab. 
 
 I have referred to many ancient and modern 
 authors who have a great knowledge of the sea, and 
 found that they state in their works that the strait 
 of Constantinople begins from the sea of Mayotis, 
 and proceeds to the sea of the Khazar, connecting 
 them. I cannot comprehend how they come to 
 this idea ; whether they know it from experience, or 
 whether they deduce it from premises and conclu- 
 sions, or perhaps they are under wrong impressions, 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 299 
 
 and believe that the Russians who sail on this sea 
 (the Black Sea) are the Khazar. I sailed from 
 Aboskun ^^L^\ 9 which is a seaport on the coast 
 of Jorjan, to Taberistan, and other countries, and 
 asked every merchant and sailor possessed of any 
 knowledge, whom I met, respecting this point, 
 and every one of them informed me that one could 
 not come by water into the Black Sea, except by the 
 way which had been taken by the Russians. The 
 inhabitants of er-Rum, Aderbaijan, el-Bailkan, [in 
 the country near Berda'ah and other provinces,] of 
 ed-Dailem, el-Jil, Jorjan, and Taberistan, were 
 alarmed and made a general rise against them, for 
 they had never before seen an enemy coming against 
 them from those quarters, nor was such an invasion 
 recorded since the most remote time. The fact to 
 which we have just alluded is well known in the 
 above-mentioned cities, nations, and countries, and 
 they cannot deny it on account of its publicity. It 
 happened in the reign of Ibn Abi-s-Saj. 
 
 I read in a book, which bears the name of el- 
 Kindi, and his disciple^ es-Sarakhsi, who lived with 
 the Khalif el-Mo'tadhed, that there is a great lake 
 in the north, at the extremity of the habitable world, 
 extending as far as the north pole, and that there 
 is a town near this lake of the name of Tuliah 
 SJ^j, on the limits of the habitable world. This 
 lake is also mentioned in the Memoirs of the 
 Beni el-Monajjim. Ahmad Ben et-Taib es-Sarakhsi 
 
300 EL-MAS'lJDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 states, in his Memoir on the seas, waters, and 
 mountains JUi^ *^U ^la^JJ ^ XJLw^,, on the autho- 
 rity of el-Kindi, that the Mediterranean is six thou- 
 sand miles long in its extent from Sur, Atrabolos 
 (Tripolis), Antioch, el-Markab* t-o^U 9 the coast of 
 el-Missisah, Tarsus, and Kalamiah Xx^i' (Xx^Xi'), to 
 the pillars of Hercules, and that it is four hundred 
 miles wide where it is broadest. 
 
 This is what el-Kindi and Ibn et-Taib say. We 
 have now stated what both parties say on this 
 subject, and how far they differ from the astrono- 
 mers, as we have found in their works, or heard 
 from their followers. We cannot add the proofs 
 with which they strengthen their statements ; for 
 we have made it a rule for ourselves to be concise 
 and short in this book. 
 
 The various opinions of the Greeks and of other 
 ancient philosophers, on the origin and cause of 
 the seas, have been given in full detail in the 
 second book ^3 of our Akhbar ez-zeman, which 
 consists of thirty books: there all the theories 
 respecting this subject are specified, under the 
 names of their authors: the present work, how- 
 ever, shall nevertheless contain a summary view of 
 the various theories on this head. 
 
 Some are of opinion that the sea is a remnant 
 
 * The MSS. bear 4_Jul \ el-Mankib. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 301 
 
 of the primitive humidity, the greater portion of 
 which has been dried up by fire, and that portion 
 which remained has undergone a change through 
 the process of burning, and has become salt. 
 Some maintain that, when the whole of the primi- 
 tive humidity underwent the process of burning 
 under the revolutions of the sun, the pure part 
 was separated, and the rest became salt and bitter*. 
 Some consider the sea as the sweat of the earth f, 
 which is caused by the constant revolutions of the 
 sun round our planet. Some believe that the sea 
 is the rest of the secondary humidity, which was 
 left after the earth had extracted the purer part of 
 it for the production of solid bodies : the same thing 
 happens with sweet water ; if you pass it through 
 sand, it will be found salt. Some are of opinion 
 
 * " Some say, the region nearest to the solid mass of the 
 globe was originally occupied by water round the whole earth; 
 but subsequently it was evaporated, and dried up by the heat of 
 the sun ; wind, and the revolutions of sun and moon, converted v 
 the water which was left into sea (i.e., salt-water)." Aristotle, 
 Meterol. ii., cap 1. 
 
 This idea is universal, and is met with as early as Genesis. El- 
 Kazwini seems to think that the greater part of the water which 
 once surrounded our globe is now concentrated in the south- 
 ern hemisphere, being attracted by the heat of the sun, which is 
 greatest in the south pole, according to the ideas of the Arabs. 
 
 f This opinion was defended by Empedocles. Pliny, lib. ii., 
 Aristotle, Meteorol. ii., 1 . 
 
302 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 that the sweet and salt waters were originally mixed : 
 the sun attracted the lighter (i.e., sweet water), 
 and raised (evaporated) it. Some think the sun 
 evaporates (the sweet water which is raised from 
 the sea water) and feeds upon it*. Others object 
 that the vapour becomes again water after it has 
 been purified ; for, as the vapour rises to the higher 
 and colder regions, it is condensed by the cold. 
 Some persons argue that that portion of elementary 
 water which has existed as vapour in the air, and 
 has been condensed by the cold to which it was 
 exposed there, is sweet ; whilst that portion of 
 elementary water which has been exposed to the 
 influence of burning is salt. 
 
 Some reason thus : the water which flows into 
 the sea from the high and low grounds of the 
 earth absorbs, according to its nature, the salt 
 which the earth throws out into its basin ; the 
 particles of fire which are naturally in water, 
 together with the particles of heat which emanate 
 from the sun and moon, and cause the water, being 
 mixed with it, to come forth from the earth, raise 
 and evaporate the water by their raising (expansive) 
 power, the finer particles of water, when it is above, 
 are turned into rain. This process is constantly 
 repeated, because this water becomes again salt ; 
 
 * Aristotle, Meleorol. ii., 2. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 303 
 
 for the earth embues it again with saline particles, 
 and the sun and moon deprive (the sea) again of the 
 finer and sweet portions of the water (by evapora- 
 tion). It is for this reason that the sea remains 
 unchanged both in quantity and (specific) weight 
 (salt dissolved in it); for the heat raises the finer 
 portion of the sea water, and changes it into 
 atmospheric humidity, in the same proportion 
 as the same water flows again into the sea, in the 
 form of streams, after it has become terrestrial 
 humidity SUxJ^J*; for, being in the form of streams, 
 it has a tendency to stagnate, and to form marshes 
 flowing to the deepest places of the earth, and so it 
 comes into the bed of the sea. The quantity of 
 water remains, therefore, constant, and is neither 
 
 * The Arabs have quite distinct names for different sorts of 
 waters, as if they had considered them as different substances. This 
 passage and what follows leads to the same idea; and, indeed, what 
 can be more different in its reference to man than sea-water and 
 spring- water ? We read, therefore, in the Zend-Avesta (vol. ii., 
 p. 394, Boun-dehesch), u II est parle dans la loi de sept especes 
 d'eaux : s^avoir, la premiere eau est celle qui est sur les arbres ; 
 la seconde, celle qui, coulant des montagnes, forme les rouds ; 
 la troisieme, 1'eau de pluie; la quatrieme, celle qui est appellee 
 Armiste (creusee) ; la cinquieme, la semence des animaux, et 
 celle des hommes ; la septieme, la sueur des animaux, et celle des 
 hommes." 
 
 After these seven humours follow seven others in the Zend- 
 Avesta, which are produced by them. 
 
304 EL-MAS'tiDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 increased nor diminished. The springs are the 
 hidden veins of the earth, pouring into the brooks, 
 which fall into the rivers. This has been compared 
 with the construction of animals. When an animal 
 takes food, the limpid part of it is distributed 
 through the body by the influence of warmth, and 
 is destined for nutrition ; but the salt and bitter 
 parts remain behind to be secreted as excrements, 
 being not possessed of limpidity v^ r > an d this is 
 the stuff of which urine and sweat consist. And as 
 the nutritive humours are changed under the in- 
 fluence of warmth, into bitterness (bile) and saltness, 
 one will find that bitter (bilious) excrements, besides 
 the urine and sweat, are secreted from the body, 
 if the warmth is increased beyond its regular 
 standard ; for all water that has been burnt is bitter. 
 This is the theory of all ancients*. 
 
 This can be demonstrated by an experiment. If 
 you heat any liquor which contains a nutritive 
 substance, like wine, vinegar, rose, saffron, or gilly- 
 flower water, the spirituous particles fly away with 
 the vapour which rises from it ; but if you heat salt 
 water the case is different : the absorbed spirituous 
 (salt) particles remain behind, particularly if the 
 process of heating is repeated. The author of 
 the Logic f (Aristotle) has many discussions on 
 
 * Compare Aristotle, Meteorologica, ii.. 2 and 3. 
 f Locis laudatis. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 305 
 
 this subject ; so he says that the sea- water is denser 
 and more turbid than sweet water, which is limpid 
 and clear; and that if we give to a piece of wax 
 the shape of a vessel well shut, and lay it into salt 
 water, we shall find that the water which penetrated 
 into the vessel is sweet to the taste, and specifically 
 lighter than sea-water ; whereas, the water round 
 the vessel is more salt, and specifically heavier. 
 
 Flowing water is called river ^ ; water coming 
 forth from the earth is called spring (jj*c ; and 
 water collected in a great mass is called sea j*=- * 
 
 El-Mas'udi says there are many treatises extant 
 on the water and its causes. In the second book 
 of our work Akhbar ez-zeman, which comprises 
 thirty books, we have exposed the proofs which 
 have been brought forward in confirmation of the 
 theories respecting the extent of the sea, its dimen- 
 sions, the use of its saltness, its connections 
 and divisions, its being neither liable to increase 
 nor decrease, and respecting the reasons that the 
 ebb and flow is greater in the Abyssinian sea 
 than anywhere else. 
 
 I have had many conversations with merchants 
 of 'Oman and of Siraf, who are in the habit of 
 navigating the seas of China, India, es-Sind, ez- 
 
 * This includes lakes; for s^sr, the Arabic word for lake, 
 
 X 
 
 is the diminutive of ..-ST sea. 
 
306 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Zanj, Yemen, el-Kolzom, and of Abyssinia, and 
 received information which differed from the ac- 
 count given by philosophers and other men of 
 learning, upon whose authority the dimensions and 
 extent of the seas is usually stated. The sailors 
 say that this sea, in certain directions, has no end. I 
 made, also, the acquaintance of the sailors on the 
 Mediterranean, both those on board of ships of war 
 and of traders: they are the Nautse XAJ'^JM, the 
 officers of the men*, and the captains L^l, and 
 others who are intrusted with the management 
 of vessels of war, as Lawi g^y Go^0> who has 
 the surname Abul-Harb, and is a slave of Zorakah 
 3}jj, the governor of Tripolis, in Syria, on the coast 
 of Damascus. They are well acquainted with the 
 length and breadth of the Mediterranean, with its 
 gulfs and straits. I found such information in 
 'Abdullah Ben Wazir, the governor of the town 
 of Jobailahf, on the coast of Hims, in Syria; and at 
 present,, that is to say, in 332 A.M., there is no 
 man who knows the Mediterranean better than he. 
 All vessels, the ships of war as well as traders, 
 follow his advice, and trust in his knowledge and 
 science, on account of his long experience. We 
 
 * It is very likely that the original reading was , . ^.A 
 and not Jca..^. 
 
 f MSS. bear 2u*JLc, &k*. and 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 307 
 
 have related the wonders of this sea, and the 
 information which we have gathered respecting it, in 
 the preceding pages, and we shall insert in our 
 progress some further notices respecting it. 
 
 Various signs have been stated which are said 
 to indicate that water is to be found in the earth on 
 digging. Some say experience has shown that in 
 places where reeds, aquatic plants, grass, and other 
 herbage grows, water will be found on digging; but 
 the absence of such plants shows that water is 
 distant. 
 
 I have found the following rule in the works on 
 agriculture : If you wish to know whether the water 
 is near or far, dig three or four cubits into the 
 ground, then take a kettle of brass, or an earthen- 
 ware jar, with a wide mouth; besmear the inside of 
 it equally with grease: take clean white wool and 
 a stone of the size of an egg, which you enclose 
 in the wool, making a ball of it; then besmear 
 the side of this ball with melted wax, patch it 
 into the jar which has been anointed with oil or 
 grease, and let it down into the bottom of the pit. 
 The wool will be attached to the bottom of the jar 
 through the wax, and it will be glued on the stone. 
 Throw earth upon the vessel, one, two, or more 
 cubits deep. All this is to be done after sunset. Hav- 
 ingleft it in this state during the night, you remove the 
 earth the next morning before the rising of the sun ; 
 and if you find many drops of water adhering to the 
 
 X 2 
 
308 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 inside of the vessel, one near the other, and if the 
 wool be wet,, you may be sure that you will soon find 
 water in that place; but if the drops be distant from 
 each other, and if the wool be but little wet, you must 
 dig to a great depth before you arrive at water; and 
 if you see no drops, or only very few, either in the 
 vessel or on the wool, you will find no water in this 
 place, not even on digging deep. 
 
 I found, in another copy of the works on agricul- 
 ture, other rules concerning the same subject. If 
 you wish to know whether you will soon come to 
 water on digging, you have only to examine the 
 back of the ants of that place: if they be thick, 
 black, and heavy in their carriage, you will find the 
 distance of the water in proportion to their carriage. 
 But if they be light, and run so fast that you can 
 hardly catch them, the water is at a distance of 
 forty cubits. And the first water will be good and 
 sweet, but the second will be heavy and salt. 
 These are the signs for a man who means to dig for 
 water: we have given a full account of this subject 
 in our Akhbar ez-zeman. In this book we give 
 merely general notices of subjects which are necessary 
 to be known, without entering into details and illustra- 
 tions, referring to the Akhbar ez-zeman, where we 
 enter at greater length on these subjects. Let us 
 now speak of the kings of the Chinese, and what 
 belongs besides under this head. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 309 
 
 FIFTEENTH CHAPTER. 
 
 The Chinese Empire : its kings : their lives and 
 government. 
 
 THE historians do not agree respecting the Chinese 
 and their origin. Many of them say that the 
 children of 'Abur Ben Batwil Ben Yafeth Ben Nuh 
 
 cm 
 
 went north-east, when Falegh Ben 'Aber Ben 
 Arfakhshad divided the earth amongst the sons of 
 Nuh. A portion of them, descended from Ar'au jsj, 
 took their way towards the north, dispersed there 
 over the country, and formed a number of nations 
 and kingdoms, as ed-Dailem jJoJJJ, el-Jil ^A.\ 
 
 et-Tailisan ^LJUW? (UX^l et-Tatar* 
 
 xU and el-Mukan 
 
 * This nation must live west of the Caspian; I doubt, there- 
 fore, whether Tatar is a correct reading. A MS., 7496, in the 
 
 British Museum, which contains an ancient geographical work, 
 
 o- 
 mentions frequently this name; spelling it j\AJ! el-Bab r, and in 
 
 one instance el-Bair. 
 
 f This name is written el-Mufan in the MS. which appears 
 to be nearest to the true reading of the name. The beginning 
 of this chapter has been compared with an extract in en-Nowairi. 
 The proper names have been transcribed in Arabic characters, as 
 they are in the MSS., with all their faults; but, where it was safe, 
 they have been corrected in the English transcript. 
 
310 EL-MAS'tfDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 or ^UyUi)* Further are the inhabitants of 
 the Caucasus, who consist of various races of el- 
 Lakz y&J (yfl or ^jSi\\), the Alans ^Wl (j, 
 the Khazar ^yUthe Abkhaz Ji*y\ (jb$\ or 
 the Serir jij*il\, the Cossaks ^T, and other 
 nations descended from them. They are spread 
 over those tracts and over the country along the 
 Black Sea and the Mayotis, as far as Terabizond 
 (Trebizond). They inhabit, also, the coast of the 
 sea of the Khazar, of the Targhiz (Bulghar) , and 
 other neighbouring nations. 
 
 The children of Abur set over the river of 
 Balkh (Oxus) : the most of them proceeded to 
 China <jjyo, spread over the country, and formed 
 empires, as the Khottal JJC-L! (j^il), who are the 
 inhabitants of Khottalan & (^dH**)* the Dii- 
 shan(?) ^l&jJ Cu^au or u^^) ^ e Oshrusanah 
 x+r.pZ,y\ 9 the inhabitants of the Soghd x*aH who 
 live between Bokhara and Samarkand, the Fergha- 
 nians* Xj^VjiJ!, and the inhabitants of esh-Shash 
 jiUJI, of Isbijab (Isfijab) ^l^^-^ (cj^J or ^1^0' 
 and of the country belonging to Tarab cii^lXH 
 
 * The Ferghanians formed one of the best corps of Turkish 
 troops in the service of the 'Abbasides, and are frequently 
 mentioned by historians; but as the dot upon the A is sometimes 
 omitted in MS 8., Reiske and other authors have been led astray, 
 and, considering the word to be derived from Fir'aun, they believed 
 them to be Egyptians. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 311 
 
 (u^UM or jjjUJJ or eM^/jdJ. Some of these nations 
 built cities and villages, whilst others live in 
 steppes. Of the same origin are other nations, as 
 the Turks j\, the Kharlajians* gO^Al (gojAJ)> 
 and the Taghizghizf ^iy&J! who inhabit the town 
 of Kusan ^^ (o^/O^ forming an empire between 
 Khorasan and China; and they are at present [in 
 332, A.H.] the bravest of all Turkish hordes. Their 
 king has the title Irkhan;}: ^U-,1 (o^ or 6^ or 
 ^bjjj), and professes the doctrine of the Mani- 
 cheans, which no other Turkish horde acknowledges. 
 Farther are descended from 'Abur the Kaimakians 
 /JI^M)' tne Marghinanians (?) XJU 
 or axxsS'JsJJ or X/Jl^Jj), the Baunah 
 , and the Jaghrians (?) x>j*iJ (*j*L\ or 
 
 * The Tatar name of this horde is Kal-aj ^Jb*: t ^ ie y claim 
 to be descended from Oghuz Khan. Deguignes, Hist, des Huns, 
 Vol. ii., p. 9, and Abulghazi Bahadur Khan, edit. Tatar, p. 14. 
 
 f On the various ways in which the name of this horde is 
 spelt, from which the Tulunides were descended, the reader may 
 consult Roorda's Abul Abbasi Ahmedis Vita, Leyden, 1825, 
 p. 50. 
 
 J Irkhan (.jU^ot means the khan of men. The reading 
 of one copy is Ilkhan i.e., the khan of the nation ; the latter is a 
 title frequently met with in Tatar history, and this reading should 
 have deserved the preference, if this title were not in all other 
 passages of el-Mas'udi, where this prince is mentioned, distinctly 
 written Irkhan. 
 
312 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 or AAjyiit). The bravest of them are the 
 Ghizians *tyA\, and the best formed and hand- 
 somest are the Kharlajians X/oiyLt (^i^t or 
 XxT^L! or X/J->i!) who inhabit Ferghanah XJU^J, 
 esh-Shash jfclcjJJ, and the adjacent country. They 
 have the sway over the Turks, and the Khakan of 
 the Khakans (^Si^L! 6^'^ is of their horde: 
 all the Turkish nations obey him, and all other 
 Turkish kings are his vassals. One of these 
 Khakans was Ferasiab the Turk, who conquered 
 Persia: another of them was Sanah 3oL>. The 
 Khakan of the Turks extends his sway at present 
 over all Turkish kings, since the town in the 
 steppes of Samarkand, which had the name 'Amat 
 cl$ (c>Uc), was destroyed. We have related under 
 what circumstances the government was removed 
 from this city, in our book called Kitab el-ausat. 
 
 One part of the children of 'Abur came as far 
 as the frontiers of India. The climate of the country 
 impressed its character upon them ; and they are in 
 their complexion like the Hindus, and not like 
 other Turks. Some of them are settled, whilst 
 others are wandering. Another portion of them is 
 settled in et-Tubbet dL^xJ!. They placed their 
 government to the hands of a king, who was 
 subject to the khakan ; but, when the power of the 
 khakan had ceased, the Tubbetians gave to their 
 king the title khakan, imitating the former Turkish 
 kings. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 313 
 
 The majority of the children of 'Abur followed 
 the course of the river to the extremity of China. 
 There they spread over the country, fixed their 
 abode, and cultivated the land ; they formed communi- 
 ties, established capitals, and built towns. They 
 founded a large city for the residence of their king, 
 which they called Anku* yu! (yot or ly*J)}; this 
 city is three months' journey from the Abyssinian 
 sea; the whole interjacent country is covered with 
 towns and well-cultivated. Their first king in this 
 new settlement was LotsatisBenNa'ur BenYarej Ben 
 'Abiir Ben Yafeth Ben Nuh U 
 
 L ^jj. When he was on the throne 
 he spread his subjects over the country, dug canals, 
 planted trees, taught the use of the fruits as food, 
 and killed the lions (wild beasts). He reigned 
 about three hundred years ; then he died, and was 
 succeeded by his son 'Arun Ben Lotsatis (^j#jz* 
 He put the corpse of his father in a golden statue 
 JlA^JI, as an expression of his veneration and 
 regretf . The statue was put on a golden throne, 
 
 * Abulfeda writes Yanju >-**? \ the . j and o k in these two 
 ways of spelling seem both to be meant to express the sound of g. 
 This town is supposed to be Nanking, which is called Kiang- 
 Ming by the Chinese. 
 
 j It is well known that this practice prevails among the 
 
314 EL-MAS'uDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 studded with precious stones. He himself took his 
 seat under this throne, worshipping the dead, and so 
 did all the inhabitants of the kingdom every morning 
 and evening. He reigned about two hundred and 
 fifty years. After him, his son 'Abirun Ben 'Arun 
 
 6^^ (^ Uij* 1 ^ (j&**s came to the throne. He 
 also put the body of his father into a golden statue, 
 which he placed one step lower than that of his 
 grandfather. He first addressed his prayers to his 
 grandfather, and then to his father. His government 
 was very good, and he never did anything without 
 asking his subjects for their opinion. Equity was 
 everywhere exercised, the population increased*, and 
 the soil was cultivated during his reign, which 
 lasted two hundred years. His son 'Athinan Ben 
 'Abirun J^AXC ^ u^c (^AAC) succeeded him. 
 He observed the same usage, of putting the body of 
 his father in a golden statue and worshipping it. 
 His was a long reign, and his territory extended to 
 the country of the Turks, the descendants of his 
 uncle. In his days, arts to promote the comforts of 
 
 Chinese. Abulghazi ascribes the same usage to the ancient 
 Tatars ; and he agrees in this point, as in many others, with 
 Herodotus, lib. iv. 
 
 * It deserves to be noticed that the increase of mankind is 
 considered in the east as the object of human society and the 
 criterion of a good government, just as we consider the greatest 
 happiness to the greatest number as such. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 315 
 
 life, and other trades, became frequent. He lived 
 four hundred years, and had Jaraban his son 
 ^U-JAT lrj j ^^ as successor. He ordered, first, 
 ships to be built, manned them, loaded them with the 
 produce of China, and sent them to India, es-Sind, 
 Babylonia, and other kingdoms near and far. He 
 made to the kings the most rare presents, and sent 
 them costly gifts; and he gave orders to his sailors 
 to bring him from every country what is beautiful 
 and exquisite for the table, or for dress and furniture, 
 not found in his own kingdom. He ordered them to 
 make themselves acquainted with the forms of govern- 
 ment of every empire, and with the religious tenets, 
 laws, and moral state of every nation; and that they 
 should ask the people for precious stones, perfumes, 
 and instruments. The vessels went out, and sepa- 
 rated to visit various countries, following the orders 
 of their king. Wherever they landed the inhabitants 
 were surprised at them, and admired what they 
 brought. Kings, whose dominions were on the sea 
 coast, built vessels, and ordered them to sail to 
 China, in order to import into China such products 
 as were wanting there. They wrote to the king, 
 acknowledging the presents of his country and send- 
 ing others in return. So China advanced in her 
 civilization and prosperity. The king died after a 
 reign of about two hundred years, to the greatest 
 affliction of his subjects. The public mourning 
 lasted one month. Tutal Ben Jaraban 
 
316 KL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 y.'jjj was his son and successor. He 
 put the corpse of his father into an image of gold, 
 and observed the usages of former kings. He 
 brought his affairs into order and made some praise- 
 worthy new institutions : the like none of his prede- 
 cessors had made. He said to his countrymen, an 
 empire cannot exist without justice, for justice is 
 the balance of God,, and it is productive of an 
 increase of prosperity and of good actions. He 
 created courtiers and nobles, and gave crowns as 
 marks of distinction. He formed ranks among the 
 people according to their pursuits. He went out to 
 seek a place for a temple, and he found a spot with 
 luxuriant herbage, covered with flowers and well 
 watered. There he marked out the foundation of a 
 temple. Stones of various colours and descriptions 
 were brought to the spot, and the construction went 
 on. A cupola was raised on the top with air-holes, 
 and the whole fabric was in perfect symmetry. In 
 the temple were cells for persons who wished to 
 shut themselves up for the service of God. When 
 the whole edifice was completed, he put in its 
 uppermost part the statues which contained the 
 bodies of his fathers, giving orders to worship 
 them. 
 
 He assembled the great men of his empire, and 
 acquainted them of his intentions to unite all his 
 subjects into one religion, to which they could 
 always appeal. Religion should be the tie of union 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 317 
 
 and order; for he observed that, if a government has 
 lost sight of religion, it is exposed to dissolution, 
 corruption, and vice. He founded the government, 
 therefore, on sacred laws and positive regulations 
 dictated by reason, which should form the basis: he 
 made a penal code : he fixed the conditions under 
 which matrimony should be legitimate, to induce 
 women to become mothers, and to render the ties 
 between father and child firm ; and he made a 
 distinction between the laws; enforcing some as 
 positive and obligatory commands, which are 
 violated by neglecting the observance of their 
 tenor ; whilst he left others open to the will of 
 the individual ,JJ!p ; for they should only serve as 
 guides. He prescribed to his subjects certain 
 prayers, and regulated the divine service. There 
 is, however, no inclination nor prostration observed 
 in their prayers, which are performed at fixed times 
 of day or night ; but, in the prayers which are to be 
 said at certain times in the year and months, pros- 
 trations and inclinations are to be made. He 
 instituted feasts. Fornication is under certain 
 restrictions belonging to the criminal laws. If a 
 woman means to prostitute herself, she has to pay 
 a certain tax ; but if she refuses the embraces of 
 men for some time, or if she gives up the practice 
 altogether, she has no longer to pay the tax. 
 The sons of such women are enlisted in the (stand- 
 ing) army of the king; but the girls are left to the 
 
318 EL-MAS'UDI 5 S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 mothers, and are generally initiated in their trade. 
 He prescribed sacrifices and incense which were to 
 be offered in the temples. To the stars incense 
 was offered; and for every star a certain time was 
 fixed on which its favour was particularly solicited, 
 by burning incense, perfumes, and certain drugs. 
 He defined everything which his subjects had to do. 
 He enjoyed a long life, had a numerous pos- 
 terity, and died after a reign of about one hundred 
 and fifty years. This king was much lamented. 
 They put his body into a coffin of gold ornamented 
 with precious stones, and built him a grand mau- 
 soleum, on the top of which they placed seven gems 
 of different colours, answering to the seven planets, 
 that is to say, to the sun and moon (^1^1), and 
 the five stars, in shape and colour. The day of his 
 death was celebrated as a holy day, in which they 
 assembled at his mausoleum and said many prayers. 
 His portrait and an account of his life were engraved 
 on a plate of gold, and deposited on the top of the 
 mausoleum, where everybody could see them, that they 
 should serve as an example, and as an exhortation 
 to follow his good government. The history of his 
 life and his portrait are also represented on the 
 gates of the town, on coins of gold and copper <j*>Xj 
 and on dresses*. 
 
 * Ibn Khaldun observes that the Persian kings had dresses the 
 woof of which was gold, and represented various figures, particu- 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 319 
 
 Their money consists, for the most part, of 
 copper and brass coins. This city became the 
 residence of the kings of China. The name of it 
 is Anku lyut 0>+^), and it is three months' journey 
 distant from the Abyssinian sea. They have 
 another large town called Madu _j<x (\*i Amid), in 
 the north-west of their empire, towards et-Tubbet 
 C^AAJI. Madu and et-Tubbet keep up a constant 
 warfare, without either party being conquerors or 
 conquered. 
 
 Order in the affairs of the empire, good govern- 
 ment, and prosperity continued under the suc- 
 cessors of this king: justice was everywhere 
 exercised, and injustice was banished from their 
 country. They followed the regulations made by 
 the former kings, whom we have mentioned; and 
 they kept up the wars with their enemies. Their 
 frontiers were well guarded by soldiers, the armies 
 received their pay regularly., and merchants flocked 
 there, by land and sea, from all parts of the world. 
 They were of the ancient faith, the Samanean reli- 
 ligion* X/JfxJI XJu, which is about the same as the 
 
 larly the portraits of the kings : they were manufactured in their 
 own palaces, and given as presents to men of distinction. This 
 costume went over to the Arabs. 
 
 * The Mefatih el-'olum (MS. of Leyden, No. 314) contains 
 the following important passage respecting the Samaneans : 
 
320 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 belief of the Koraishites before Mohammed. They 
 worshipped symbols, towards which they turned 
 their faces in praying. Persons of intellect ad- 
 dressed their prayers to the Almighty, andi they 
 considered the images of idols and other symbols 
 
 " The Samaneans are the Arabs who follow the doctrine of 
 Saman. They are idolaters, who maintain that the world had no 
 beginning: they believe in the metempsychosis, and that the 
 earth is constantly declining. 
 
 " In the most ancient times all the nations were either Saman- 
 eans or Chaldeans. The Samaneans are idolaters. The Chal- 
 deans are also called Sabeans and Harranians ; for the remnants of 
 them live in Harran and el- 'Irak. They believe that Yudasif 
 (Yudasp), the rebel of India, was their prophet. This Budasif 
 (Budasp: this seems to be more correct than Yudasif) was 
 contemporaneous with the king Tahmurth, and the Persian 
 writing comes from him. The name of Sabeans was applied to 
 them at the time of el-Mamun, and meant originally a Christian 
 sect. In India and China are the remnants of the Samaneans." 
 
 Hamzah of Ispahan (MS. of Leyden) confirms literally the 
 words of the Mefatih el-'olum. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 321 
 
 merely as objects to fix their eyes upon 
 whilst the uneducated and ignorant confounded 
 these symbols with the Almighty, and worshipped 
 them both (God and the symbols) together. The 
 adoration of the idols brought them nearer to God, 
 although the notions expressed in their religious 
 service were too concrete to be adequate to the 
 sublimity, greatness, and majesty of the divinity. 
 The service which they performed to these idols 
 was nevertheless an expression of obedience to God, 
 and it brought them nearer to him. 
 
 This continued until speculations and sectarian- 
 ism grew up in China: then rose the Dualists, and 
 those who believe on a time without limits J^i 
 ^fcjO!. Previous to these innovations, they had 
 worshipped images, like the higher and lower classes 
 in India. These religious quarrels caused a com- 
 plete revolution: they had not been without specu- 
 lation, but they had referred in all questions to the 
 ancient sacred laws. 
 
 The Chinese empire borders on the kingdom of 
 the Taghizghiz y.y&\ t and it was from them that 
 they received the doctrine of Manes 45^-0 > f a gd 
 of light and darkness. Previously they had been 
 in ignorance, and had the same system of worship 
 as the various Turkish hordes, until a satan of a 
 Manichean came to them, and preached to them in 
 flowery phrases of the discord which prevails in this 
 
322 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 world ; the opposition of life and death, health and 
 illness, rich and poor, light and dark, separation and 
 union, continuity and division, rising and setting, 
 existence and non-existence, night and day, and other 
 things which are opposite to each other. He named 
 to them the different pains and frailties to which all 
 animals are subject, hoth those endowed with speech 
 and those deprived of this faculty; and by which 
 even children, and persons not possessed of their 
 mental faculties, are tortured ; adding that, as God 
 the Almighty did not stand in need of their suffer- 
 ings, they must be ascribed to a powerful opposite 
 principle, which was active in contaminating what 
 is good and moral ; and that this was in God. Far 
 be from God what he professed ! for he is the 
 Exalted, the Great. Manes mislead by this and 
 similar theories their reason, and they believed 
 them. When the King of China was a Shamanean 
 c^oi he sacrificed animals, and was constantly at 
 war with Irkhan ^U^l the king of the Turks; 
 but, when he had turned Manichean, they became 
 on terms of friendship. 
 
 The kings (and governors) of China follow 
 different sects and religions, and they are at variance 
 in their faith. But they are not biassed so as to 
 abandon the laws commanded by reason, and sacred 
 by usage, in making regulations and passing sen- 
 tences. The laws of reason are acknowledged by 
 all sects. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 323 
 
 The Chinese are divided into tribes and branches, 
 like the tribes and families of the Arabs. They 
 bestow great care upon the preservation of their 
 genealogies; and some persons can name fifty an- 
 cestors: many know them as far back as 'Abur. 
 Persons of the same family do not intermarry ; so, 
 for instance (referring for an example to Arabia), a 
 man of the Modhar tribe would marry a woman of 
 the Rabi'ah tribe, and a man of the Rabfah would 
 marry into the Modhar tribe; or a Kahlan man 
 would marry a Himyarite woman, and a Himyarite 
 a woman of the Kahlan tribe. They are of opinion 
 that the children of such a match will be of a good 
 constitution; and, indeed, tjiis law contributes to 
 public health and longevity. 
 
 China* continued to be in a flourishing condi- 
 tion, as it had been under the ancient kings, up 
 to the year 264 of the Hijrah, when some event 
 happened which destroyed order, paralysed the 
 laws, and prevented the nation from opposing their 
 enemies, up to our time [332 A.H.]. These dis- 
 orders were caused by a rebel, who, although he 
 was not of royal blood, rose in some town of China. 
 His name was Baishu Shirrir jj.jJ* ^\-> Orf^ 
 He began with liberality, by which he 
 
 * Compare Ancient Account of India and China, from page 
 40 to page 44. 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 atracted the worst and lowest classes. The king 
 and the lords of the council were not watchful 
 enough, on account of his obscurity ; for he was a 
 man of no importance. His cause became strong, 
 his name famous, and his numbers and power 
 increased; for the bad came to join him from far 
 and near. 
 
 When his army was numerous enough, he 
 quitted the place where he had begun the rebellion. 
 He sent corps out to make predatory incursions 
 into the well-cultivated parts of the country ; and 
 finally he besieged the city of Khaniku lyuU. 
 (Canton). This is a very large town, situated on a 
 river greater than the Tigris, or about the same: it 
 falls into the sea of China, six or seven days' 
 from the said city. Through this river the 
 ships go up which come from el-Basrah *j*3^\, 
 Siraf oV^-i, 'Oman ^l, the various towns of India 
 and es-Sind, the islands of ez-Zanij, from es-Sinf, 
 and other countries, with their cargoes and goods. 
 This town is inhabited by Moslims, Christians, Jews, 
 and Magians, besides the Chinese. The said rebel 
 marched towards this city, besieged it, and put the 
 army of the king, which was come to relieve it, to 
 flight. He violated what is sacred; and, having 
 increased his army, he took Khaniku by storm. 
 
 When he was master of the city, the victims 
 who fell under the sword of the rebels were innu- 
 merable; and the number of Moslims, Christians, 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 325 
 
 and Jews alone, exclusive of the Chinese population, 
 who were killed or drowned for fear of the sword, 
 amounted to two hundred thousand. These were 
 counted ; for the kings are in the habit of keeping a 
 census of the population of their dominions, both of 
 their subjects and of foreigners who are resident 
 there. There are special officers and men for the 
 census Lei. This gives them a view of the state of 
 the population of their empire. The assailants cut 
 down the mulberry plantations round the town, which 
 were of importance, their leaves being the food of 
 
 the silkworm, which yields the silk. This destruc- 
 
 . '^"T^^^C' " 
 
 tion of the trees was the cause why silk has failed^ 
 
 and that the exportation of this article into the 
 
 Moslim countries is stagnated. Baishii overran , 
 
 with his army one place after another; and having 
 increased his troops with people of bad character, 
 whose only object was plunder, he marched towards 
 Ankii, which is the residence of the king. He had 
 an army of three hundred thousand men, cavalry 
 and infantry. The king and his court met him with 
 about one hundred thousand men. About one month 
 of constant fight both parties stood their ground, 
 but after this period the king was defeated and put 
 to flight: the rebel pursued him a long way. The 
 king took refuge in a town in the extremity of 
 China. The rebel took possession of the metropolis 
 and the royal palace, and appropriated to himself the 
 treasures of the former kings, and those which they 
 
326 EL-MAS'UDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 had given to their higher officers. He overran the 
 rest of the country, and conquered other towns; but 
 he saw that he could not keep the throne, not being 
 of royal blood. He spread destruction over all the 
 country, confiscated property, and shed blood. 
 The town in which the king had taken refuge was 
 Madii, of which we have already spoken as being 
 on the frontier of et-Tubbet. 
 
 The king of China wrote to Irkhan, the king of 
 the Turks, to implore his assistance : informing 
 him how he was situated, and explaining to him 
 what was the duty of kings, if asked for aid by 
 their brother kings, and that it was a law of royalty 
 and a duty to assist each other. The Turkish 
 monarch sent his son in aid,, with four hundred 
 thousand men, cavalry and infantry. The two 
 parties met, and the war was undecided between 
 them for about a year : the numbers of men killed 
 on both sides was enormous. Then the rebel 
 disappeared, or, as some say, he was killed or burnt. 
 His children and court were made prisoners, and 
 the king of China returned to his residence. 
 
 The common people give to the king the title 
 Baghbur (or Faghfiir*), which means the son of 
 
 or jJuW' In tne Kamus the first syllable is 
 marked with a dhammah ; but this seems to be wrong. Bagh 
 means, according to el-Asma'i, god or idol : hence Bagdad means 
 the gift of God, and Bagistan a temple (Bagoda ?), in the Sind 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 327 
 
 heaven *UvJl ^j] ; but the title by which he is 
 addressed is Ti'emhian ^U:=zv*k, (Tien-hia,) and 
 not Baghfur. 
 
 The governor of every district made himself 
 independent in his province, in the same manner as 
 the kings of the satrapies cJbyjJ J'^Ju, after 
 Alexander, the son of Philip, the Macedonian, 
 had killed Dara Ben Dara, king of Persia, and 
 almost in the same way as it is with us at present, 
 in 332 A.H. The king of China being satisfied with 
 their nominal submission, and that they laid the 
 affairs of the empire before him, did not chose to 
 send armed force into every one of his provinces, 
 to fight those who had made themselves masters of 
 them. As the king's power was so limited, those 
 independent governors of the provinces withheld 
 the revenue, and he was glad enough to be in peace 
 with them. Every one of these petty kings invaded 
 the country of his neighbours as much as his power 
 
 and Persian languages, particularly in Pehlewi. Bur means son. 
 In the East the ether or heaven has been considered as God; and 
 hence the word Bagh seems to imply both meanings. Bagfur 
 is, therefore, a literal translation of Tien-t9e. " Pour mieux 
 faire comprendre de quel ciel ils veulent parler," says Visdelou, 
 " ils poussent la genealogie plus loin. Ils lui (to the emperor) 
 donnent le ciel pour pere, la terre pour mere, le soleil pour frere 
 aine, et la lune pour soeur ainee." 
 
328 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 allowed. By these means the public order and 
 welfare were destroyed which had existed under 
 the former kings,, under whom the government 
 and administration were good, and justice was ad- 
 ministered according to the law of reason (for they 
 had no revealed code like the Koran). 
 
 It is related* that a merchant of the town of 
 Samarkand, in Khorasan, went from his home, with 
 a good stock of wares, to el-'Irak, where he 
 bought many goods of this country, and preceded 
 to el-Basrah. He went by sea to 'Oman, whence 
 he directed his voyage to Kolah XK, which is half 
 way to China, or about that. It is at present the 
 commercial mart of the Moslim vessels of Siraf 
 and 'Oman, where they meet with the merchants of 
 China, who come to this island in their own vessels. 
 In most ancient times it was different ; for the 
 Chinese vessels used to come to 'Oman, Siraf, to 
 the coasts of Faris, and el-Bahrein, to el-Obollah, 
 and el-Basrah (which had then the name of Farj 
 el-Hind); and in the same way the vessels went 
 from the ports mentioned as far as China. But 
 since justice was no longer practised, and under 
 the depraved state of government which we have 
 described, both parties meet half way. 
 
 The said merchant went at Kolah on board a 
 
 * Compare Ancient Account of India and China, translated 
 by Renaudot, London, 1733, from page 69 to page 73. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 329 
 
 Chinese vessel, which brought him into the sea-port 
 of Khaniku. The king sent a eunuch from his 
 court, on whom he had particular confidence (to 
 purchase wares). In China eunuchs are appointed 
 in the revenue department and other offices : some 
 parents, therefore, castrate their children, in order 
 that they may rise to power. This officer (the 
 eunuch) came to Khaniku; there he sent for the 
 merchants, among whom was the Khorasanian. 
 They showed him the wares which he required, and 
 he chose what he thought might meet the king's 
 wishes. The Khorasanian asked a higher price 
 for his wares than he felt inclined to pay: after a 
 dispute, it came so far, that the officer gave orders 
 to imprison him, and to force him (to yield). The 
 merchant had confidence in the justice of the king, 
 and went directly to Anku, the residence of the 
 king, and presented himself in the place of the 
 oppressed (court of appeal). It is the usage of 
 the country, that the plaintiff, whether he come 
 from a remote place, or is a resident of the capital, 
 puts on a peculiar dress of red silk,, which is like a 
 shirt, and presents himself in a place designed for 
 appeals against oppression. Some of the provincial 
 kings have to receive there the plaintiffs who may 
 present themselves. They come, therefore, before 
 this court, from the distance of one month by post. 
 This was the case with the said merchant, and he 
 stood before the officer of this department. He 
 
330 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 came to him and said, "Thou undertakes! an im- 
 portant matter,, and exposest thyself to great danger ; 
 consider well whether thou art sure of the truth of 
 thy statement : if not, I will send thee back to the 
 place from whence thou earnest." These words are 
 addressed to every one who comes to demand 
 redress; and if the party shrinks, and vaccillates in 
 the accusation, he is sent home, after a bastinado of 
 one hundred strokes ; but, if he insists on his state- 
 ment, he is brought before the king to trial. When 
 the merchant continued in his* prosecution, and 
 when they saw that he insisted on the truth of his 
 assertion without fear or hesitation, he had an 
 audience of the king. He stood before him and 
 related his case. When the interpreter had ex- 
 plained his complaint to the king, he allotted him 
 a habitation, and loaded him with kindness. 
 
 He sent for the vizier, and for the leaders of 
 the centre and of the right and left wings. These 
 are officers who are appointed to these commands 
 in time of peace, that, in case a war should break 
 out, every one may know his place and duties. 
 The king ordered every one of them to write to 
 their respective officers in Khaniku, [for every one 
 has a lieutenant in every province of the king- 
 dom, with whom he is in correspondence,] and to 
 request them to send in a statement of the particulars 
 of the case of the merchant and the eunuch. The 
 king wrote equally to his lieutenant in that province. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 331 
 
 The case had become known there, and the letters 
 which came back by post confirmed the truth of the 
 merchant. The king of China has, on the roads of 
 all his provinces, mules with docked tails*, for the 
 post, and for the transport of parcels WyLt 
 
 Then the king sent for the eunuch, he deprived 
 him of his favour, and he said, " Thou hast ill- 
 treated a merchant, who has come from a distant 
 country. He has made a long journey by land and 
 
 * Jo >xJ!j post, is derived from the Persian word buridah 
 jjju vj, which means dock-tailed: for the mules used for this 
 purpose had their tails docked. Berid means the post mule, the 
 messenger who rides it, and the distance from one station X5ws 
 to another, where the mules were changed, which was about two 
 farsangs : some authors say four ; and from Ibn Khordadbeh it 
 appears to have been six miles. The letter-carrier is called 
 c VU^iU in Arabic: this word is a corruption of the Persian 
 word xJLwj a servant. In the post-office jy nj\ /.J*J* every 
 letter or parcel put to post, or come by post, was entered *S*.j 
 in a list - uXjtj which was called ^jX^^J in Arabic, that is to 
 say, (_ .b tS \\ In this list the number of letters and parcels 
 was named, and the address of every one of them specified. 
 
 The Bodleian library of Oxford is in possession of a very 
 ancient MS. of Ibn Khordadbeh's Geography. The author was 
 post-master-general somewhere in Khorasan, towards the end of 
 the third century, and his book is nothing more than a road-book, 
 naming all the post stations, and the distances from one place to 
 another. From this book the distances of places in all other 
 Arabic geographers are copied, but not always very correctly. 
 
332 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 sea, and has passed many kingdoms without any 
 adversity. He made up his mind to come to my 
 empire, in confidence on my justice, and thou hast 
 treated him thus ! If he had returned from my states 
 thus ill-treated, he would have spread unfavourable 
 reports in other kingdoms, and my name and 
 government would have been branded with ignominy. 
 If it were not in consideration of thy former services, 
 I should put thee to death ; but now I will inflict a 
 punishment upon thee which is harder than death. 
 I appoint thee (to guard) the tombs of the kings. 
 Thou shalt be with the dead, since thou hast 
 acquitted thyself so ill of thy duties and my orders 
 among the living." 
 
 The king heaped great favours on the merchant, 
 and sent him to Khaniku (Canton), saying, " If 
 thou meanest to sell to us such wares as we may 
 choose, thou shalt have a good price for them; but 
 if thou dost not feel inclined to sell, thou art the 
 master over thy property. Stay if thou likest, sell 
 what thou pleasest, and go wheresoever thou 
 choosest." The eunuch was sent to the tombs of 
 the kings. 
 
 There is a curious story related of the king of 
 China*. A man of Koraishite origin, of the family 
 
 * Compare Ancient Account of India and China, by two 
 Mohammedan travellers, translated by Renaudot, London, 1733, 
 from page 51 to page 59. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 333 
 
 of Habbar Ben el-Aswad,* Jy^ ^j ,/** came, 
 during the well-known invasion of the leader of the 
 Zanj, from el-Basrah to Siraf. He had been a 
 great man at el-Basrah, and had a good fortune. 
 From Siraf he made a voyage to India : there he 
 went from one vessel into another, landing in 
 various places of India, until he came to China. 
 When he had come to Khaniku, he had a fancy to 
 visit the royal residence, which was then in the 
 town of Hamdan (Cumdan) ^Jj^: this is one of 
 the largest and most important cities of the empire. 
 He remained a long while in the royal palace, and 
 sent a memorial to the king, in which he stated 
 that he was of the family of the Arabic prophet. 
 The king provided him with lodgings, and ordered 
 whatever he might require to be given him, and 
 every comfort procured for him. In the mean time 
 he wrote to the king (governor) at Khaniku, and 
 gave him orders to inquire of the merchants 
 respecting the man who claimed to be a relation of 
 the prophet of the Arabs. The answer of the 
 governor of Khaniku confirmed the truth of what 
 he had said. The king gave him access to the 
 court, and made him rich presents, with which he 
 subsequently returned to el-Irak. 
 
 He was an intelligent man, and related that, 
 
 * See, for a notice of this family, Reiske's notes to Abul- 
 feda y Annal. Moslem, vol. i. 
 
334 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 when he was presented before the king, he asked 
 him respecting the Arabs, and how they made an 
 end to the Persian empire. "We were assisted by 
 God," answered the Arab, " because they wor- 
 shipped the fire, sun, and moon, instead of the 
 Almighty God. The Arabs have conquered the 
 most celebrated, populous, and richest countries, 
 which have the greatest deltas (which are the 
 sources of fertility) : they have subjected nations of 
 the greatest intellect and fame." He asked him 
 further what was the gradation in dignity of the 
 kings of the earth. " I do not know," replied the 
 Arab. The king ordered the interpreter to ex- 
 plain to him: " We count five great kings: the 
 most powerful of them is he who is in possession of 
 el-'Irak; for this country is in the middle of the 
 world, and is surrounded by all other kingdoms. 
 We give him, since ancient times, the title of king 
 of kings. After him ranks this our king, to whom 
 we give the title of king of men (mankind (j*UJj). 
 No government is better than ours, no monarch 
 more absolute and firm in his power than our 
 king, nor do the subjects of any other mo- 
 narch yield such strict obedience as we to our 
 king. We are the kings of men. After our- 
 selves follows the king of the lions U**M J0u ; 
 this is the king of the Turks, our neighbour. They 
 are men-lions. Next to them ranks the king of 
 the elephants; that is to say, the king of India, 
 which has with us the name of the kingdom of 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 335 
 
 wisdom ; for the Hindus have invented philosophy. 
 Then follows the Byzantine king, whom we call the 
 king of men (jU.yf) ; for no men on earth have 
 better constitutions or finer countenances than the 
 Byzantines. These five stand at the head of kings: 
 all others are beneath them." 
 
 He asked him through his interpreter whether 
 he could recognize his Lord, that is to say, the Pro- 
 phet, if he should see him. " How can I see him?" 
 said the Arab; " he is with God." " I do not mean 
 it literally, " said the king, "but in a representation." 
 He answered in the affirmative. The king ordered 
 a box to be brought ; and, when it was before him, 
 he took a casket out from it, and said to the inter- 
 preter, show 7 him his Lord; " and I saw (relates the 
 Arab), in the casket, the images of the prophets. 
 My lips muttered benedictions upon them. The king 
 did not know that I knew them ; hence, he said to 
 the interpreter, ' Ask him why he moves his lips.' 
 He interrogated me, and I answered him that I was 
 pronouncing benedictions upon the prophets. He 
 asked me further how I recognized them, and I told 
 him that I knew them by the attributes with which 
 they were represented. ' This,' I exclaimed, ' is 
 Nuh in the ark ; he has been saved with those who 
 were with him whilst God submerged the whole 
 earth, and all that was on it.' He smiled, and 
 said, It is Nuh, as thou sayest ; but it is not true 
 that the whole earth was inundated. The flood 
 
336 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 occupied only a part of the globe, and did not reach 
 our country. Your traditions are correct, as far as 
 that part of the earth is concerned which you inha- 
 bit; but we, the inhabitants of China, of India, of es- 
 Sind, and other nations, do not agree with your 
 account; nor have our forefathers left us a tradition 
 agreeing with yours on this head. As to thy belief 
 that the whole earth was covered with water, I must 
 remark that this would be so remarkable an event 
 that the terror would keep up its recollection, and all 
 the nations would have handed it down to their 
 posterity.' I endeavoured to answer him, and to 
 bring forth arguments against his assertion in 
 defence of my statement. Then I continued, ' This 
 is Musa with his rod, and the Israelites.' 'Yes,' 
 observed the monarch, * it is he with his energy 
 *X>Jt X$ against the corruption of his nation.' 
 'There is Christ/ exclaimed the Arab, 'riding on 
 an ass, and with him the apostles.' The king 
 made the observation that his career was but short, 
 having hardly lasted longer than thirty months." 
 A great number of other prophets were shown, and 
 comments made on their history. So much we 
 have selected as a specimen (of the account of this 
 Korai'shite). 
 
 This Koraishite, who was known under the 
 name of Ibn Habbar J^& (^^> recollected to have 
 seen long inscriptions over every figure, containing, 
 as he believed, the name, the country, the length of 
 
AND MINES OP GEMS. 337 
 
 the life, the reason of the prophetic mission, and 
 the biography of every prophet. 
 
 " Then," proceeds this man in his narrative, " I 
 saw the image of the prophet Mohammed sitting on a 
 camel, and surrounded by his companions, who wore 
 Arabic shoes of camels' leather on their feet. They 
 had girdles tied round their waists, on which 
 their dentifrice was suspended. I could not help 
 shedding tears at this sight, and he made the 
 interpreter ask me for the reason of my emotion. 
 ' This,' I answered, * is our prophet,, our lord and 
 my nephew (relation) ; may God bless him !' 
 'What thou sayest is true,' replied the king; 'He 
 and his nation came to the possession of the finest 
 territories, he himself, however, had them not under 
 his power^ but his successors.' I saw the images 
 of many prophets: one of them joined his fore-finger 
 and thumb into a ring, as if he meant to indicate 
 that the creation of God forms a ring ; another had 
 his fore-finger and thumb pointed to the heavens, 
 expressing that he resigns all the goods of this 
 world for what is above. 
 
 " The king asked me respecting the khalifs,, 
 their dress, and many questions concerning the 
 divine laws, and I answered him to the best of my 
 knowledge. He asked me also what we believe to 
 be the age of the world. I said, 'The Moslims do 
 not agree in this point; some state it to be six 
 thousand years, and some give a higher, and others 
 
 z 
 
338 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 a lesser number.' He asked me whether this had 
 been taught by our prophet. I answered, 'Yes. J 
 He and his vizier laughed, and he expressed by a 
 sign that he did not approve of my answer. * I do 
 not think/ said he, 'your prophet can have said 
 this: thou must be wrong.' I made a mistake, and 
 answered, 'Yes, he said so.' When I made this 
 reply, I saw by his brow that he disapproved of it. 
 Then he ordered his interpreter to tell me that I 
 should weigh my words, observing that kings wish 
 to have a positive and true answer. ' Thou allow- 
 est that you do not agree on this head, and yet 
 thou sayest that you have a tradition of the Pro- 
 phet on it. What prophets say excludes contro- 
 versy, and it must be received with faith. Take 
 care, therefore, not to say such contradictions/ 
 He made many other observations, which I cannot 
 remember, on account of the length of time. 
 Finally, he said, 'Do not separate thyself from thine 
 own king; for he is nearer to thee than I, both with 
 respect to home and consanguinity.' I related to 
 him the circumstances which brought me from 
 el-Basrah to Siraf; 'Then,' I continued, ( l had 
 a great desire to see thee, O king! having heard so 
 much of the stability of thy empire, of the per- 
 fection of thy institutions and justice, and of thy 
 excellent government, which extends its beneficial 
 influence over all thy subjects. I was longing to 
 see thy kingdom, and to witness its prosperity; 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 339 
 
 and now, having seen it, I shall return to my native 
 soil, and into the dominions of my nephew (rela- 
 tion), to relate how perfect and glorious I found 
 this kingdom, how extensive this country, how 
 universal the practice of justice, which emanates 
 from thy wise institutions. Every word shall ex- 
 press my admiration and thy praise, O, most glo- 
 rious monarch!' He was delighted with my 
 words, awarded precious gifts to me, and sent me 
 by post to Khaniku. The governor of the last- 
 mentioned city received orders to treat me respect- 
 fully, to present me to all distinguished persons 
 there, and to lodge me till I could set out on my 
 voyage. I lived there most splendidly until I left 
 China." 
 
 El-Mas'udi says,, Abu Zai'd el-Hasan (Moham- 
 med) Ben Yezid, of Siraf, gave me an account 
 of Ibn Habbar at el-Basrah, where he was settled 
 after he had left Siraf. This was in 303 A.H. 
 Abu Zaid el-Hasan was the nephew of Abu Yezid 
 (Zaid), Mohammed Ben Mozdin (^j-^v* G^U), 
 Ben Sasiat CLjU*- U (jU UA*J), the governor of 
 Siraf; he was a man of much information and intel- 
 ligence, and he told me that he had asked this 
 Koraishite, Ibn Habbar, respecting the town of 
 
 o^ 
 
 Hamdan ^Ux*-; its description, extent, &c.; and 
 he told me how large it was, the number of inhabi- 
 tants, and that it was divided into two parts, which 
 
 z 2 
 
340 EL-MAS'UDIS MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 were separated by a long, wide, and straight road. 
 The king, his vizier, the kadhi of the kadhis, the 
 garrison, the eunuchs of the king, and all his house- 
 hold, reside on the right side, which is towards the 
 east: from this part of the town the lower class and 
 markets are excluded. Through the streets run 
 canals, and they are shaded by trees, which are 
 symmetrically planted, and the houses are spacious 
 and magnificent. On the left side, which is 
 towards the west, are the tradespeople, the stores 
 for provisions, and the markets. In the morning 
 I saw the stewards of the king, his household, the 
 slave boys of his leaders and their guardians, going on 
 foot and horseback to the quarter of the town where 
 the markets and tradespeople are ; they provided 
 themselves there with necessaries, and returned. 
 None went again at any other time to that quarter 
 before the next morning, for in their own quarter 
 there is every pleasure., beautiful lakes and canals, 
 but no palms ; for palms do not grow in China. 
 
 The Chinese are the most clever people on 
 earth : they have extraordinary skill in plastic and 
 other arts, so that no other nation can be compared 
 with them in any kind of workmanship. The court 
 awards prizes for well made works, in order to pro- 
 mote them ; and the king orders them to be shown 
 in a public exhibition in his palace for one whole 
 year (before the prize is given) ; and if nobody can 
 discover a fault during this time, in a piece of art 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 341 
 
 exhibited there, the prize is awarded, and it is put 
 into the collection of arts; bat, if there be found any 
 imperfection, it is turned out, and no reward is 
 given. A man had made an ear of corn on which a 
 sparrow was sitting, and this was considered for 
 some time as a prize piece: a humpbacked man 
 saw it, and noticed that there was a fault in it. 
 ''Where?" he was asked. "Everybody knows," 
 replied the humpbacked, " that if a sparrow sits on 
 an ear it bends; the artist, however, has made it 
 upright, although the sparrow sits on it: this is a 
 fault." The judgment of the humpbacked man was 
 found correct, and the artist was not rewarded. The 
 object in acting thus is to stimulate artists to exert 
 themselves, and to be more careful and considerate 
 in what they do. 
 
 China is rich in remarkable objects, and there 
 are many interesting accounts of the inhabitants, of 
 which we will give an abstract in the progress of this 
 work. We have related them all in our books, the 
 Akhbar-ez-zeman and the Kitab el-ausat; in the 
 latter we give such accounts as are omitted in the 
 Akhbar-ez-zeman ; and in this book we relate some 
 facts which are wanting in both those works. 
 
342 EL-MAS'lJDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 SIXTEENTH CHAPTER. 
 
 A comprehensive view of the accounts of the seas, of 
 their wonders, and of the nations who live in 
 islands, or on the coast. The relative position and 
 dignity of various kings. The history of Spain 
 and other countries. The places and substances 
 which yield perfumes. The various kinds of 
 perfumes. 
 
 IN the preceding pages of this work we h^ve given 
 a general account of the seas, both those which are 
 in communication with each other, and those which 
 are separated. Here we will recapitulate all the 
 accounts which we possess, connected with the Abys- 
 sinian sea, speaking, at the same time, of the kings 
 and kingdoms situated on this sea ; also of their 
 respective position, and other matters of interest. 
 
 We repeat that the seas of China, India, Faris, 
 and Yemen, are connected, and form only one 
 mass of water. The difference of the currents 
 and height of the water is to be attributed to 
 the direction of the winds, the season when 
 they rise, and other causes. The Persian sea is 
 most stormy, and most dangerous for navigation, at 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 343 
 
 the time when the Indian sea is quiet; and, again, 
 the Persian sea is quiet when the sea of India is 
 boisterous, stormy, dark, and rough. The sea of 
 Paris begins to be stormy when the sun enters into 
 the sign Virgo, about the time of the autumnal 
 equinox; it continues so, and storms increase every 
 day, until the sun comes into the sign Pisces : it is 
 roughest at the end of autumn, when the sun is in 
 the sign Sagittarius: then it becomes more quiet 
 until the sun enters again into Virgo, and it is most 
 quiet at the end of spring, when the sun is in 
 Gemini. The Indian Sea is stormy till the sun 
 enters into the sign Virgo: then begins the navi- 
 gation on it; for it is easiest when the sun is in 
 Sagittarius. They sail all the year round on the 
 Persian Sea, from 'Oman to Siraf, which is a dis- 
 tance of one hundred and sixty farsangs, and from 
 Siraf to el-Basrah, which is a voyage of one hun- 
 dred and forty farsangs. But at this time it is not 
 navigable, excepting in the two mentioned routes, 
 or to neighbouring harbours. 
 
 Abu Ma'sher yb** ^\ y the astrologer, confirms, 
 in his " Great Introduction to Astronomy" J^j^U 
 p-s=vxM ^ $ j**ffJ> what we have said, that the 
 stormy and quiet seasons on these seas begin when the 
 sun is in the above-mentioned signs of the zodiac ; 
 and he relates further, that it is impossible to sail from 
 'Oman on the sea of India in the Tirmah (June), 
 
344 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 except with first-rate* vessels and light cargoes. 
 These vessels are called et-Tirmahians SUALojAxM. 
 In India is at that time winter f \S~\\ ^ jT,U*j, 
 and the rainy season ; for (the two Syriac months 
 called) Kanun and the month Shobat, (December, 
 January, and February,) are their summer months : 
 our winter being their summer, whilst the month 
 Taimis (July) and Ab (August), which are sum- 
 mer months with us, are their winter. This change 
 of seasons is the case in all the towns of India, es- 
 Sind, and the neighbouring countries, through the 
 whole extent of this sea. From this circumstance, 
 that their winter is in our summer, the saying has 
 
 Ml 
 
 its origin *xx$M ^L ^**j (_o^; that is to say, 
 " he wintered in India." This is owing to the dif- 
 ference of the distance from the sun. 
 
 Pearl fishing, in the sea of Faris, is carried on 
 from the beginning of Nisan (April) to the end of 
 Ailul (October) ; but there is no pearl fishing from 
 Ailul to Nisan. The places where pearls are found 
 in this sea have been named in the preceding pages 
 of this book. There do not exist pearls in any 
 other but the Abyssinian sea, near the coast of 
 the countries of Kharak J^U., Kotr^y?, 'Oman j,l$, 
 Serendib ^jjo^, and other places. In our former 
 
 * The word which I render first-rate vessels is doubtful in 
 all MS S. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 345 
 
 works we have mentioned how the pearls grow, and 
 the various opinions on this subject. ; for some 
 believe that they are produced by rain, whilst others 
 maintain that their formation is independent of rain ; 
 we have described the pearls, both the old (fine) and 
 the new ones, which are called ^Lsxjl, but gene- 
 rally known under the name of J^X^!. The flesh 
 and grease which are in mother of pearl are of an 
 animal which has the anxiety of a mother for the 
 pearls that are in it, at the approaching of the 
 divers*. We have given a description of pearl 
 fishing. The divers must not eat any other food 
 but fish, dates, or what is prepared of grain 
 c>\j$\ : their ears are split, to give a passage to the 
 breath (through the Eustachian tube), instead of 
 breathing through the nostrils ; for they put a little 
 ball of tortoise-shell into the nostrils : [the tortoise 
 *UJ.*vJJ is a kind of marine animal, and of its shells 
 combs and other instruments are made, instead of 
 using wood:] and they put cotton with a little oil 
 into their ears ; and, when they walk at the bottom 
 
 ^c 21 jU cy^f. This is the reading of all the MSS., 
 and still I cannot help thinking that it is a corruption instead of 
 
 Xs. 2jJlf * " in which the pearls rest like the foetus in the 
 womb of the mother." 
 
346 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 of the sea, they let the oil ascend, to receive by this 
 means a glimpse of light. Their feet and legs are 
 blackened with soot ; for the marine animals of which 
 divers are afraid are shy of soot. Their voice 
 (from the bottom of the sea) sounds like the barking 
 of dogs. The sound passes through the water till it 
 reaches the ears. In our former works we have 
 given a full account of many curious matters con- 
 nected with divers, pearl-fishing, the pearls, and the 
 animals that produce them; also of the descriptions, 
 marks, prices, size, and weight of pearls. 
 
 This sea begins from el-Basrah and el-Obollah, 
 and extends along el-Bahrain from the sea-marks 
 of el- Basrah. Then comes the sea of Ladiwa (of 
 the Lacadives) <s^ j^z G&J^ j-^v) : on this sea 
 Safura ^yL*>, Subarah *j\~>f~>, Tanah lj', Sindabur 
 ^yjjsx*-, Kanbayat x>.UxT, and other places of India 
 and es-Sind, are situated. Then comes the sea of 
 Horkand *xiT^ ^^sr ; then the sea of Kilah x^ j^s:, 
 which is also spelt Kolah *XT, and of the islands ; 
 then the sea of Kardebinj gv*V >*; (^O^ >=0 > 
 then the sea of es-Sinf < i^aJl, from which the 
 Sinfi aloes has its name; for it comes from thence; 
 then the sea of China, which is the sea of Saihu jssyo 
 (i^s^ or ^.=?U>) ; and there is no sea beyond it. 
 
 We have said that the Persian Gulf begins from 
 the sea-marks of el-Basrah, and a place called el- 
 Kankela ^H *&J or jOXl\. There are 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 347 
 
 marks of wood erected in the sea, to insure the 
 navigation to 'Oman, which is a distance of three 
 hundred farsangs. On the coast of this sea are 
 Faris and el -Bahrain. From 'Oman, the capital of 
 which is Sohar*, which the Persians call Maztin 
 
 CD^r* CcL.vtrO ? to el-Maskat LjuJLI, which is a 
 village where the sailors take in water from the 
 fresh- water wells which are there, are fifty farsangs. 
 From Mask at to the promontory of el-Jomjomah 
 are also fifty farsangs. This is the limit of the sea 
 of Faris, the whole length of which is four hundred 
 farsangs. This is the division recognized by 
 sailors. 
 
 The promontory of el-Jomjomah *^sx*iJ ^j 
 is a mountain, which stands in connection with (the 
 deserts of) esh-Shihr^JI and el- Ahkaf, in Yemen. 
 No one knows to what distance the sand extends 
 under the water : but it is most copious under the 
 promontory of el-Jomjomah. There are, as we 
 have said, mountains in the sea, under water, like 
 those on the land; and they are called in the 
 Mediterranean sofalah XJUuJi. Such a sofalah is in 
 a place which is known by the name of coast of 
 Salukiyat LJ^L*, in the Byzantine empire: it 
 extends under water nearly as far as the Isle of 
 Cyprus, and the greater part of the shipwrecks in the 
 
 * The MS. bears here^l*c\^, as in page 262, supra. 
 
348 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Mediterranean happen there. The sailors have, in 
 every sea, peculiar expressions by which they un- 
 derstand each other. 
 
 From the promontory of el-Jomjomah, the ves- 
 sels enter, from the sea of Faris, into the second 
 sea, which has the name Ladiwa <s^y . Its depth 
 is unfathomable, its extent cannot be measured, 
 and the mass of water is beyond calculation. Many 
 sailors believe that no description can comprehend 
 all its parts, it being of an almost endless extent, 
 as we have already stated. The vessels cross it in 
 two or three months, or in one month, as they have 
 the wind. On the side of this sea extend the sea 
 and country of the Zanj. 
 
 This sea has not much ambergris ; for it is 
 mostly thrown on to the coast of the Zanj, and of 
 esh-Shihr, in Arabia. 
 
 The inhabitants of esh-Shihr are of the tribe of 
 Kodha'ah Ben Malik Ben Himyar Jju ^ XeLa* 
 j*&* CU^' anc ^ f t ner Arabic tribes. The inha- 
 bitants of Arabic origin in this country, which is 
 also known under the name of el-Mahrah 2 
 are called the people of hair and body ^yc 
 ~*Jjj. Their language differs from pure Arabic : 
 the difference consists in using shin instead of Kaf 
 uJKM ; for instance, (jti^J^j J ClAS U*3 yiA Ju& 
 <s 30 i ^xsr" ^ which is the same as 
 t Jj LlJL J 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 349 
 
 cf<SJJJ The same is the case in other 
 phrases. They are a poor and needy people : 
 they have a sort of camel called Mahri camel <-**? 
 : it goes as fast as the Bejawi camel t-r^srW 
 .=svJJ, or even faster, as some think. On these 
 they ride along their coast ; and when the camel 
 comes to ambergris, which has been thrown out by 
 the sea, it kneels down ; for it is trained and 
 taught to do so : thus the rider can pick it up. 
 The ambergris, which is found on this coast, and 
 on the islands and coast of ez-Zanj, is the best : it 
 is round, of a blue colour, and is of the size of an 
 ostrich's egg, or smaller. There is a sort of amber- 
 gris which is brought on shore by a fish, called 
 whale JtjSN, of which we have spoken. When the 
 sea is stormy, pieces of ambergris are thrown up 
 from the bottom of the sea, as big as mountains, or 
 smaller, as we have described. This fish devours 
 the ambergris, which causes its death; and it floats 
 on the surface of the water. When people of ez- 
 Zanj, or others, observe the whale, they throw 
 hooks and ropes on it from their boats, open its 
 belly, and take the ambergris. The ambergris 
 found in the belly of the fish has a foetid smell, and 
 is known to the perfumers of el-'Irak and Faris 
 
 * " How dost thou mean what thou hast said to me? I have told 
 thee to put what I have with me to what thou hast with thee." 
 
350 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 under the name of el-mand *x;U ; but that which is 
 found in the back of the fish is delicious and exqui- 
 site. Its quality depends on the length of the 
 time which it has been in the entrails of the fish. 
 
 Between the third sea, which is the sea of 
 Horkand^, and the second, which is the sea Ladiwa, 
 are many islands ; and they form the division 
 between these two seas. Some say there are about 
 two thousand, but, in fact, there are no more than 
 one thousand and nine hundred, every of one which is 
 cultivated. All these islands are ruled by a woman, 
 for it is an ancient habit with them not to have a 
 man as sovereign. 
 
 These islands yield much ambergris, which is 
 thrown on shore by the sea. It is sometimes the 
 size of the largest rocks. I have learned from 
 several sailors of Siraf and 'Oman, when I visited 
 those two towns, and from others who used to sail 
 to these islands, that the ambergris grows in the 
 bottom of the sea, and is of various kinds, as there 
 are various sorts of Agalloche : it is white, black, 
 spongy, and the like, and, when the sea is strong, 
 it throws up rocks and stones, and with them 
 ambergris. 
 
 The inhabitants of these islands are united 
 
 * Compare Renaudot's Ancient Accounts of China, from page 
 1 to page 8. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 351 
 
 under one government ; they are very numerous, 
 and have immense armies. The distance from 
 one island to another is one mile, or one, two, 
 or three farsangs. Their palm tree is the cocoa- 
 nut palm j^^UJJjJsr, but they have no date palms. 
 Persons who understand the generation (physiology) 
 of animals, and the vegetation of plants, believe 
 that the cocoa-nut tree is originally the same as the 
 wild palm tree, which yields the fruit called mokl 
 JJiU J^?> hut that the soil of India impressed its own 
 character on it, when it was transplanted, and that 
 it changed it into the cocoa-nut palm. We entered 
 in our work called ^.^UKJ! ciA^l^' "axioms of 
 experience," upon the influence which the climate 
 and air of every part of the globe exercise on the 
 nature of men and animals, and vegetation. Thus, 
 it is to be ascribed to the influence of the climate 
 that the Turks have peculiar features, and small 
 eyes ; and even their camels bear the stamp of the 
 climate : their legs are short, their neck thick, and 
 their hair white. The country of Yajuj and Majuj 
 (Gog and Magog) partakes of the same character. 
 There could be brought forward many other ex- 
 amples, which have been pointed out by persons 
 who possess a knowledge of the races that inhabit 
 the east and west, as we have described. 
 
 No other island of the sea can boast of such 
 skilful artisans as the inhabitants of this group, 
 
352 EL-MAS'lTDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 in all arts and trades, as in making cloth, instru- 
 ments, and so forth. 
 
 The treasures of this country consist of shells, 
 (concha veneris) *. These shells form the habi- 
 tation of certain animals; and, when there is no 
 money in the public treasury, the inhabitants receive 
 orders to cut branches of the cocoa-nut tree, and to 
 throw them on the water, with the leaves. These 
 animals fasten on the branches, and are thus 
 gathered ; then they are spread upon the sand 
 on the beach, and, as the animal perishes in the sun, 
 the shell remains empty. So they fill the public 
 treasury. These islands have, together, the name 
 of ez-Zanjat >Lsx>- Jl*, and they export the great- 
 est quantity of cocoa-nuts J*^jUM yt>^ g\^\. The 
 most important of these islands is Serendib < v.*x^ 
 (Ceylon). At a distance of about a thousand farsangs 
 from Serendib is another archipelago, called er- 
 Ramin (^ycl^l: these islands are cultivated, have 
 many gold mines, and are governed by kings. In 
 the same sea is Fansur jy^xi, whence the Fansuri 
 camphor has its name. In years in which hurricanes, 
 storms, inundations, and earthquakes are frequent, 
 camphor is most abundant, and when these cala- 
 mities are of less frequency, camphor is scarce. 
 
 En-Nowairi(MS. of Leyden, p. 26,) writes, after Benel-Jahit, 
 
 i 
 
 er-Rithhat. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 353 
 
 In almost all the islands which we have named 
 they eat cocoa-nuts: from these islands, bokkam (a 
 dye similar to our Brazil wood) fjulf and ruscus* 
 &[)j$L\ are exported; they have also gold and 
 elephants. Some of the inhabitants are cannibals. 
 This archipelago stands in connection with the 
 islands of el-Jebalus ^Litf, which have a popu- 
 lation of a very singular appearance. They bring 
 in boats ambergris, betel, and other articles, to 
 the vessels which pass them, to exchange these 
 articles for iron and some clothes. They do not 
 employ money. Next to them are islands called 
 Andaman e U!*xJ\ (^UljJl), which are inhabited by 
 Negroes of strange appearance and look. Their 
 hair is woolly, and each of their feet is larger than 
 
 * The Haisran is identified with the t$\J(j*J in the MS. 
 1075, anc. fonds of the Royal Library at Paris, and Laguna 
 informs us, in his excellent notes to his Spanish Translation of 
 Dioscoridcs (Valencia, 1695, p. 100), that it is the ruscus; but 
 he, as well as Banqueri (Libro de Agricultural leave it uncertain 
 what species of ruscus. In the said MS. of Paris, the Haisran 
 is thus described: "It is imported to us from China; it has the 
 form of ropes a finger thick, which are used for various domestic 
 purposes. They are particularly useful for hanging cloth on them, 
 for they do not make marks. Some say they are the branches of 
 some shrub; others believe that they are roots." En-Nowa'iri 
 informs us, that the sceptre of the khalif was of this wood. 
 
 f En-Nowairi writes, jj^U^J and ^Sl&J Langalus; 
 and in the MS. of the British Museum No. 7496, their name r 
 written ^^jKj'U 
 
 2 A 
 
354 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 one cubit. They have no vessels, and, if a ship- 
 wrecked sailor is thrown on their shore, they devour 
 him. They do the same with the crew of vessels if 
 they land there. 
 
 I have been told by many sailors, that they have 
 sometimes seen a small strip of white cloud over this 
 sea, from which a long white tongue comes forth 
 stretching down to the sea; and, when it reaches the 
 water, the sea rises towards it in a terrible hurricane, 
 which destroys everything that may come within its 
 reach, and it is followed by a heavy shower. 
 
 The fourth sea is that of Kilah Bar JL>**M 
 as we have said. It has also the name of the Sea 
 of Kolah XK ^^ (xX/J"). The water in this sea is 
 shallow; the shallower a sea is, the more frequent 
 are accidents, and the greater is the danger. In 
 this sea are many islands and sedadi <s ^U*? (<s j\j*> 
 sing. tf^*?). This word is a plural of sadi cfJ^>; so 
 the sailors call a land between two straits, if they 
 have to pass it. Several islands and mountains of 
 this sea are worth notice; but our object is to give 
 general ideas, and not to enter into details. 
 
 The fifth sea, which is known under the name 
 of Kerda'* gijT, is equally shallow, and full of moun- 
 tains and islands, from which the camphor and the 
 essential oil of camphor ^ytffl *U are procured. 
 Camphor has little essential oil,, but much vehicle, 
 from which it can hardly be extracted. 
 
 * Page 346 supra, this sea has the name of Kardebinj. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 355 
 
 These islands are inhabited by various nations. 
 One race is called el-Maht i^sswM (_~*asJt) ; they 
 have crisp hair and strange features. They come 
 in boats to the vessels which pass by, and throw a 
 sort of poisoned arrow. Beyond these people, and 
 between the country of Kolah, are mines of white 
 lead (tin), and mountains rich in silver, which con- 
 tain also gold and lead; but it cannot be separated. 
 
 Next follows the sea of es-Sinf ( i;>^!\^^:, 
 according to the division which we have just made. 
 In this sea are the dominions of the Maharaj, the 
 king of the islands. The population and number of 
 the troops of his kingdom cannot be counted ; and 
 the islands under his sceptre are so numerous, that 
 the most fast sailing vessel is not able to go round 
 them in two years. This king is in possession of 
 several kinds of spices <5o^W and perfumes ; and no 
 kingdom has more natural resources, nor more 
 articles for exportation, than this. Among these 
 are camphor, aloes, gillyflowers, sandal-wood, betel- 
 nuts, mace, cardamoms, cubebs, and the like. The 
 limits of this sea, which extends from these islands 
 towards the sea of China, are not known, and its 
 extent is unexplored. 
 
 In some parts of this island are high mountains, 
 with a dense population, who have slit ears, and a 
 white complexion. Their faces look like a piece of 
 a hammered shield ; they wear their hair long, as 
 we (the Mohammedans) wear our beards. From 
 these mountains issues fire, by day and night. By 
 
356 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 day it has a dark appearance, and at night it 
 shines red. It rises to such a height, that it reaches 
 the regions of the heaven (i.e. it ascends above the 
 atmosphere). The explosion is accompanied with 
 a noise like the loudest thunder. Sometimes a 
 strange sound proceeds from these volcanos, which 
 is indicative that their king will die ; and, if the 
 sound is lower, it foretells the death of one of their 
 chiefs. They know the meaning of these sounds, 
 by long habit and experience. This is one of the 
 great chimneys (craters) of the earth. At no great 
 distance is another island, from which, constantly, 
 the sound of drums, lutes, fifes, and other musical 
 instruments, and the noise of dancing, and various 
 amusements, are heard. Sailors, who have passed 
 this place, believe that the Dajjal (Antichrist) 
 occupies this island. 
 
 To the dominions of the Maharaj belongs Sarirah 
 *jjj.~>, the extent of which is estimated at four 
 hundred farsangs. The whole island is well culti- 
 vated. He is also in possession of the island of 
 ez-Zanij, er-Ramni tfUij-H, and many other islands 
 which are not known to us. The Maharaj is the 
 lord of the sixth sea, which is the sea of es-Sinf 
 
 The seventh sea is the sea of China 
 which is also called the sea of Saihu * 
 
 * One MS. reads >ss\**j and another 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 357 
 
 this is a stormy and dangerous sea, and there is a 
 great deal of <-*ssd\; this word means a great raging 
 
 w 
 
 on the sea jssd\ ^ X^xM 'i&A\ <-*sd\ j>+JiSj, and 
 is one of the maritime terms which are common 
 among the sailors of every sea. In this sea are 
 many mountains, between which the vessels must 
 pass. 
 
 When a great storm comes on, black figures 
 rise from the water, about four or five spans long, 
 and they look like little Abyssinians. They mount 
 on the vessels; but, however numerous they may 
 be, they do no harm. When sailors observe them, 
 they are sure that a storm is near ; for their ap- 
 pearance is a certain sign of a gale. They prepare 
 themselves for the storm, which will either be their 
 ruin, or they will be saved from it. Those who are 
 to be saved frequently observe something like a 
 luminous bird at the top of the mast JJ<xH. The 
 sailors of the sea of China, and of the whole Abys- 
 sinian sea, call the mast $3M (jj^xJ!); and the 
 sailors of the Mediterranean call it <^jl^\. This 
 appearance on the top of the mast is of such 
 brightness that the eye cannot behold it, nor can 
 they make out what it is. The moment it appears 
 the sea becomes quiet, the gale lulls, and the 
 waves subside. Then this brightness vanishes, 
 and no one can perceive how it comes, or how 
 it disappears. It is the sign of safety, and the 
 assurance that they have escaped. What we have 
 
358 EL-MAS'UDI J S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 related is confirmed by the sailors and merchants 
 of el-Basrah, 'Oman, Siraf, and others, who have 
 navigated this sea ; and, however marvellous it 
 sounds, it may be true that God sends such a 
 sign ; for his servants are saved, through his 
 power, from the dangers of the sea, and guided in 
 their voyage. 
 
 In this sea is a sort of crab, of the length of 
 one cubit, or a span, more or less : if it comes forth 
 from the sea in rapid motion, and goes on shore, it 
 loses the qualities of an animal, and is petrified. 
 This stone forms an ingredient in the collyria, and, 
 generally, in medicines for the eye. It is, therefore, 
 well known. There are wonderful accounts reported 
 respecting the sea of China, and those which are in 
 connection with it. We refer the reader to our 
 books on these subjects, which we have frequently 
 had occasion to bring under his notice. 
 
 Beyond the coast of China is no other kingdom 
 known or described, excepting the country of es- 
 
 Sabal y^\ (es-Sila?), and the islands which 
 belong to it. No one from el-Irak, or any other 
 place of the West, frequents this country. The 
 air of this country is wholesome, the water 
 good, the soil fertile, and the precious stones are 
 brilliant and genuine : hence, the country is rich ; 
 and it seldom happens that any of the inhabitants 
 leave their native soil. They are allies of the 
 Chinese, and the kings of both countries constantly 
 exchange presents. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 359 
 
 Some say they are descendants of 'Abur, who 
 settled there in the same way as the Chinese took 
 possession of their country. 
 
 In China are many rivers, which may be com- 
 pared with the Tigris and Euphrates. They come 
 from the country of the Turks, et-Tubbet, and of the 
 Soghd JouaJi. The Soghd live between Bokhara and 
 Samarkand. In their country is the mountain en- 
 Nushadir* jiliytfl (the mountain of sal-ammoniac), 
 from which fire rises in summer at night, which may 
 be seen at a distance of nearly one hundred farsangs ; 
 and by day smoke issues, which is so dense that 
 the rays of the sun cannot penetrate through it. 
 This mountain yields sal-ammoniac ^sliy . Tra- 
 vellers in summer take their road from Khorasan to 
 China by this mountain; for there is a valley 
 through it, which is forty or fifty miles long. At 
 the entrance of the valley wait some men who offer 
 themselves to carry the baggage, if they are well 
 paid. They use sticks to drive the passengers on 
 their journey; for any stoppage or rest would be 
 fatal to the traveller, in consequence of the irritation 
 which the ammoniacal vapours of this valley pro- 
 duce on the brain, and on account of the heat. The 
 way becomes more and more narrow till the travellers 
 
 * This volcano has been introduced to the notice of Europe by 
 Klaproth, Abel Remusat, and Humboldt. 
 
360 EL-MAS 5 UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 come to the end of their perilous passage. Here 
 are pits with water, in which they throw themselves, 
 to obtain relief from the depressing influence of the 
 vapours of sal-ammoniac, and of the heat of the air. 
 No animal passes through the valley in summer, nor 
 anybody who is excited by fanaticism*. The sal 
 ammoniac throws out flames in summer. In winter 
 much snow and rain fall, which extinguish the 
 heat and flames: at that time men and animals can 
 pass it without inconvenience. When travellers 
 arrive in the Chinese. territories,, they are beaten as 
 in passing (to counteract the congestion of blood in 
 the brain). The distance from Khorasan to China, 
 through the pass just mentioned, is about forty days' 
 journey; partly through steppes, solitudes, and 
 deserts. The other road, which is used for animals, 
 is about four months' journey ; but on that the tra- 
 veller enjoys the protection of several Turkish tribes. 
 I have seen a very intelligent and agreeable man 
 
 * c^sfi ^ \* gjyt Jfo JUo y>: literally, "No 
 caller (or one who makes proselytes,) nor one who answers, (or 
 a proselyte,) passes this valley." I doubt whether the meaning 
 which I have given to this passage in the text is correct ; but I do 
 not know the true sense. Perhaps the author means to say one 
 must not speak; but why should he use such an artificial expres- 
 sion ? Moreover, if he meant to circumscribe the word speak, by 
 saying the traveller must neither ask nor answer, he would have 
 
 used JoUj, and not cb 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 361 
 
 at Balkh, who had made the journey to China, 
 several times ; but he had never been at sea. I have 
 seen many other persons who went from the country 
 of the Soghd, through the mountains of en-Nushadir, 
 to et-Tubbet and China. Khorasan is contiguous 
 to India, and es-Sind, in the direction of el- 
 Mansurah and el-Multan. The same caravan 
 goes from es-Sind to Khorasan, and the caravans of 
 India go in the same manner into this country, as 
 far as Zabolistan j,UuJJj, which has the name of 
 Fairuz Ibn KaTk JC/J" ^.jj\ jjj*- This is an ex- 
 tensive country: it has many astonishingly strong 
 castles, and is densely inhabited by nations of 
 different tongues. Historians do not agree respect- 
 ing their origin. Some trace their descent from 
 Yafeth Ben Nuh, and others connect them with the 
 first Persians, giving a long genealogy. 
 
 The country of et-Tubbet (Tibet) is separated 
 and distinct from China. The rulers of et-Tubbet 
 are the Himyarites, who were led there by one of 
 the Tobba's, as we shall relate in the history of 
 Yemen, to which we shall devote some of the 
 following pages of this book ; and it is to be found 
 in our Akhbar ez-zeman. The population of et- 
 Tubbet consists partly of nomades, and partly of 
 settled inhabitants. The wandering Tibetans are 
 of Turkish origin, and so numerous that they 
 cannot be counted. They yield to no nomadic nation 
 of the Turks, and are respected by other Turkish 
 
362 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 hordes ; for in ancient times the king (khdkan) 
 was of their horde ; and it is generally believed, 
 among all Turks, that they will again obtain the 
 royal power. 
 
 The country of et-Tubbet has some peculiarities 
 in its air, water, soil, plains, and mountains, which 
 deserve notice. There, man lives gay and full of 
 cheerfulness, which is neither interrupted by sor- 
 rows, nor cares, nor by reflection. The varieties 
 of fruits, flowers, meadows, and rivers, of this 
 country, are innumerable. The nature of this 
 country predisposes men and animals to be light- 
 hearted and cheerful ; you will not even see old 
 men or old women dull ; but old and young are 
 equally gay. This cheerfulness, joviality, and gaiety, 
 lead them to indulge in music and dancing; and 
 it goes so far, that the relations of persons who die 
 do not feel such deep sorrow as other people feel 
 at the loss of a beloved individual, or in the absence 
 of one to whom they are attached ; but, notwith- 
 standing this levity, they are affectionate to each 
 other. 
 
 This country has the name of Thobbet after 
 those Himyarites who had settled LH^xS (thobbit) 
 there. This is expressed in the poem of Di 'bil 
 Ben 'All el-Khoza'i ^r^kvM ^c ^j J^c^, in which 
 he lowers the Komait il^&i, boasting of the superi- 
 ority of the Kahtan tribes above the Nizar^J tribes. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 363 
 
 " They have put an inscription on the gate of 
 Merw and on the gate of China. Both these are 
 our inscriptions. They have named Samarkand 
 after (their king) Shamir, and they have colonized 
 et-Tubbet." 
 
 We shall relate, in the chapter on the history of 
 the kings of Yemen, the principal events in the 
 history of the kings of et-Tubbet, and of those who 
 made (military) excursions. Et-Tubbet borders on 
 one side on China, and on the other side on India, 
 Khorasan, and the Turkish steppes. It comprises 
 extensive cultivated lands and many towns, some 
 of which are fortified. In ancient times, they gave 
 to their kings the title Tobba 5 , in imitation of the 
 title of the king of Yemen. But, as time changes 
 every thing, the Himyaritic language was lost 
 amongst them, and exchanged for a language which 
 is similar to those of the neighbouring countries 
 and nations ; and they called their king Khakan 
 
 The Tubbetan and Chinese musk comes from 
 contiguous countries, in which the musk deer U& 
 jCJLI lives; and the superiority of the Tubbetan 
 musk over the Chinese musk depends on two causes : 
 the musk deer of et-Tubbet lives upon spikenard 
 and all sorts of aromatic herbs, whilst the Chinese 
 musk deer has none of those odoriferous plants; 
 further, the Tubbetans leave the musk in the blad- 
 der, as it is in its natural state, and the Chinese take it 
 
364 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 out from the bladder, and adulterate it with blood 
 and other sophistications. Besides, the Chinese 
 musk is imported to us by sea, and is thus exposed 
 to moisture and different air. When the Chinese 
 have spoiled their musk by adulteration, they put it 
 into pots and bottles, which they carefully close, and, 
 in this state, it is imported into the Moslim territory 
 by the seaports of 'Oman, Paris, el-Irak, and other 
 large towns*. 
 
 The musk which the zebif yields, immediately 
 after it has come to maturity, is the best and most 
 exquisite, such as the musk of et-Tubbet is. There 
 is no difference between the musk gazelles J^JU ^j* 
 and the common gazelles ^>*> as to form, appear- 
 ance, colour, or horns; the sole difference that 
 exists is, that they have canine teeth, resembling 
 the projecting teeth of the elephant. The musk 
 deer has two such teeth projecting from the jaw, 
 which are very strong, white, and straight, and about 
 
 * En-Nowairi gives some precious details respecting the trade 
 of perfumes, which was the most considerable branch of foreign 
 commerce under the Abbasides. He confirms the statement of 
 our author, saying that the musk of et-Tubbet and of China are 
 originally of the same quality ; but that the Tubbetan musk is 
 imported by land ^liJ\ .Jks. through Khorasan, and preserves 
 its fragrancy; whilst the Chinese musk, although it comes origin- 
 ally from Tubbet, is brought from Canton (Khaniku) by sea, and 
 loses its strength. 
 
 f Compare Ancient Accounts of India and China, p. 71. 
 
AND MINKS OF GEMS. 365 
 
 one span long, more or less. The Chinese and Tub- 
 betans set nooses, nets, and traps, to catch the 
 musk deer ; sometimes they shoot them with arrows. 
 They pull them down and cut out the musk bladder. 
 The blood in the navel has a foetid smell, and, as 
 long as it is fresh, it has not only no fragrance, but 
 it is very offensive. After it has been kept for some 
 time, it loses that offensive smell, and it becomes, 
 under the influence of air, musk. It undergoes 
 exactly the same process as fruits, if they have been 
 taken from the tree before they have their flavour. 
 The best musk is that which is found in the navel 
 of the animal, and matured in the bladder till it has 
 its fragrancy. The blood is accumulated in the 
 navel of the animal, and, when its particles have 
 undergone a change there, it receives an agreeable 
 smell. The animal, feeling some inconvenience, 
 rubs its navel on rocks and stones which are 
 warmed by the sun, for this excites a pleasing 
 sensation. By this means (this changed blood) is 
 discharged, and adheres to the stones. The sen- 
 sation may be compared to the relief felt if a 
 tumour or boil, in which much matter has been 
 collected, is discharged. When the musk bladder 
 which is the Persian word for navel]* is 
 
 *~> i>^ Sj.* jJu ^ X4-1J. The word is 
 
 written &jU in Persian, and does not mean " navel," generally, 
 but, as in Arabic, especially, " the navel bag of a musk goat." 
 
366 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 emptied of its contents, it cicatrizes, and the blood 
 accumulates there a second time, as in the first 
 instance. The Tubbetans go out to the rocks 
 and mountains, and there they find the blood con- 
 gealed on the stones, which has been matured by 
 nature in the animal, and dried by the sun, after it 
 has been exposed to its influence. This is the 
 most exquisite musk, and is, in gathering, put into 
 the musk bladders which have been taken from 
 hunted deer, and brought for the purpose to the 
 spot where the musk is gathered. This is the musk 
 used by the Tubbetan princes, and which they send 
 as presents to each other; but it is seldom exported 
 from their country. There are many towns in et- 
 Tubbet, and the musk is called after the town or 
 district from whence it comes. 
 
 The kings of China, of the Turks, of India, of 
 the Zanj, and all other kings of the earth, looked up 
 to the king of the climate (kishwar) of Babel 
 with great respect; for he is the first king on earth, 
 and occupies the same position with respect to 
 others as the moon* with respect to the stars. For 
 his country is the noblest and most populous : he is 
 the richest of all sovereigns ; he is most favoured by 
 nature ; and he has a powerful and firm government. 
 This was the case in ancient times ; but now, [in 
 
 One copy reads, in the margin, as a correction, " the sun. 1 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 367 
 
 332 A.H.,] this description does not at all agree with 
 the sovereign of this country. The ancient kings of 
 Babel had the title of Shahan Shah ali^UU, which 
 means the King of Kings. He has the same position 
 with regard to the rest of the world as the heart in 
 the body, and the buckle in a necklace. Next ranks 
 the king of India, who is the king of wisdom and 
 of elephants ; for it was acknowledged amongst the 
 Khosraws that wisdom comes from India. After 
 the king of India ranks the king of China, who is 
 the king of wise government, good institutions, and 
 perfection in arts. No king on earth pays more 
 attention to internal government than the king of 
 China, nor keeps any other the citizens, soldiers, and 
 persons in office, better under control. His people 
 are brave, strong, and powerful. He is able to defend 
 his country with well equipped armies. His troops 
 receive pay, as it was the case under the kings of 
 Babel. The first rank after the king of China is 
 claimed by the king of the Turks ; who resides in 
 the city of Kofristan* ^U*- jjLf, and rules over the 
 Turkish nation called Taghizghiz. He is called the 
 king of lions (tigers) and of horses ; for there is no 
 nation on earth braver, nor more lion (tiger) -like in 
 shedding blood, than his subjects; nor has any 
 country greater abundance of horses than this. His 
 
 * One copy reads Kushan j^li 
 
368 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 country is between China and the steppes of Kho- 
 rasan. The title of this monarch is Irkhan W U^ 5 
 (the Khan of Men). The Turks have several kings, 
 who rule over different hordes, and are not under 
 submission to the irkhan; but there is no other 
 Turkish king who excels him. The Byzantine king, 
 who follows next, is named the King of Men ; for 
 there are no men on earth better formed than his 
 subjects. This gradation was recognized in ancient 
 times ; but subsequently the kings of the earth 
 have become more equal in their positions. A 
 man who takes a very correct view of the history of 
 the world, describes thus, in some poem, the 
 kings of the world : 
 
 " There are two famous palaces on earth, the 
 Iwan (of the Khosraws, at Ctesiphon), and the 
 Ghomdan (of the kings of Yemen, at San'a); and 
 there are only two great royal families, the Sasa- 
 nians and Kahtanites. Faris is, in preference, 
 called the earth, and Babil the climate (or Kishwar). 
 The site of the Islam is Mekka, and Khorasan 
 is the world. The two royal cities, Bokhara and 
 Balkh, form the two corners (of Khorasan), and 
 render it formidable. El-Bailakan ^liX/^! and 
 Taberistan are its frontiers ; er-Rai is its Sharwan 
 (fortified frontier pass). In society some men are 
 distinguished by higher rank, as the Marzoban (in 
 the Persian empire),, the Batrick (or Patrician, 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 369 
 
 amongst the Romans), and the Tarkhan*. The 
 title of the Persian king is Kisra; the Romans call 
 their monarch Caesar; the Abyssinians Nejashi; 
 and the Turks Khakanf." 
 
 The king of Sicily XJJus and Afrikiyah, in the 
 Maghrib, had, before the Islam, the title Jirjis 
 U^AJS*^. (George) ; and the king of Spain had the 
 name Lodrik c JijjM (Roderic) , which was common 
 to all the kings of Spain. The inhabitants of this 
 country are said to belong to the nation of el-Ishban 
 
 * Tarkhan is the title of the Tatar Magnates. A Tarkan had 
 the right to go to court whenever he pleased, and to commit nine 
 crimes without being subject to the laws. These privileges were 
 inherited through nine generations. The Hungarians, who are 
 Tatars, have preserved and extended these humane institutions. 
 A Hungarian Magnate may commit as many crimes as he chooses; 
 he is never checked by the court of Vienna, except if he should 
 dare to wish to better the condition of his country; and his 
 privileges are inherited by his whole posterity without end. 
 
 2 B 
 
370 EL-MAS'UDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 j,U-&yJ (Hispani), who are descen dents of Yafeth 
 Ben Nuh, and are spread over this country. But 
 the more generally received opinion amongst the 
 Moslims in Spain is, that Lodrik (Roderic) was of 
 the Galician nation, who are a French race. He 
 was the last sovereign; and was killed by Tank 
 L^jVjUs, the freed slave of Musa Ben Nosair, when 
 he conquered Spain and entered Tolaitilah *XkJik 
 (Toledo), which was the metropolis and the residence 
 of the king. Through this city runs a large river, 
 which has the name Taj ah* <^lj' (Tagus). It comes 
 from the country of the Galiciansf Xi'^i^ and the 
 Basques;};. They are a great nation, ruled by a 
 king who goes as frequently to war with the Mos- 
 lims in Spain, as the Galicians and the French 
 saj>jj^i. This river, (the Tagus,) falls into the 
 Atlantic Ocean. It is one of the most celebrated 
 rivers in the world: in the middle of its course it 
 passes the town of Toledo. Over the Tagus goes 
 the arched bridge es-Saif i^ix**!! ^ko, which was 
 constructed by ancient kings ; it is one of the 
 
 * Almost all MSS. read the name of this river Abirah SJAO!, 
 and it is evident from what follows, that our author did not suffi- 
 ciently distingTiish between the Tagus and the Ebro. 
 
 H- This is the plural of <JiX:s, as it has been said in the note 
 to page 177 supra. The Arabic name of the country is Jiilikiyah 
 
 All MSS. read &\\ instead 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 371 
 
 most remarkable buildings on earth, and much more 
 surprising than the bridge Sajineh* Lsx->, on the 
 frontier between Mesopotamia and the Byzantine 
 empire, not far from Somaisat kLA*-o, in the coun- 
 try of Sarujah f X^*-. This, and the city of 
 Toledo,, are fortified, and have strong walls. 
 
 The (Mohammedan) inhabitants of this city 
 rebelled against the Omaiyides after the conquest, 
 and defended themselves two years with success 
 against them; but, in 315, the town was taken by 
 'Abder-Rahman Ben Mohammed Ben 'Abdullah 
 Ben Mohammed Ben 'Abder-Rahman Ben el- 
 Hakam Ben Hisham Ben 'Abder-Rahman Ben 
 Mo'awiyah Ben Hisham Ben 'Abdel-Melik Ben 
 Merwan Ben el-Hakam, and he is at present [332 
 A.M.,] king of Spain. Many buildings of this city 
 were destroyed when it was taken. Kortobah 
 AA^J was made the metropolis of Spain, and con- 
 tinues to be so to this day. It is seven days' jour- 
 ney from Toledo, and about three days from the 
 sea: one day's journey from the sea is the town 
 Ishbiliyah *JlAAf (Seville). The cultivation and 
 towns of Spain extend about two months' journey, 
 
 * This seems to be a corruption of the Greek word ^evy^a, 
 or of the Arabic name Jasr Manbij, and to mean one or the other 
 of these two bridges over the Euphrates. 
 
 f Abulfeda writes Saruj. But en-Nowa'iri in an autographic 
 copy of one of the volumes of his history (MS. of Leyden), spells 
 the name like our author. 
 
 2 B 2 
 
372 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 and amongst them there are nearly forty renowned 
 cities. 
 
 The Omai'yades in Spain, are called the sons 
 of the khalifs cjb^i! \ csvj, but they do not give 
 them the title khalifah (successor of the prophet), 
 for no prince has a claim to this title, in their 
 opinion, who is not master of the two holy cities 
 (which formed the dominions of the Prophet). 
 
 'Abd er-Rahman Ben Mo'awiyah Ben Hisham 
 Ben 'Abd el-Melik Ben Merwan went to Spain in 
 in the Rebi' of 137* A.H. (and died in 171). He 
 was succeeded by his son Hisham Ben 'Abd er- 
 Rahman, who reigned nine years (180). Then 
 reigned his son, el-Hakam Ben Hisham, nearly 
 twenty years (206) f- At present reigns 'Abd 
 er-Rahman Ben Mohammed (350) in Spain as we 
 have said. He has a very good government. 
 
 He made in 327 A. H., an expedition against the 
 Christians, with more than one hundred thousand 
 men, and encamped before the capital of the king- 
 
 * One copy reads the year 137, and another 139; the real 
 date is the tenth of Rebi'L, 138. 
 
 f Here the names of 'Abd er-Rahman Ben el-Hakam [238] ; 
 Mohammed Ben 'Abd er-Rahman [273]; el-Mondir Ben Mo- 
 hammed [275]; and Abdullah [300]; are left out in all copies 
 by a mistake of the transcribers. The dates between crotchets 
 are the years of the death of the kings, and have been borrowed 
 from Conde's Historia de la Domination de los Arabes en 
 Espana, Madrid, 1820. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 373 
 
 dom of the Galicians, which is called Samurah, 
 'ijjv* (Zamora), and surrounded with seven walls, 
 which form one of the most wonderful buildings 
 raised by ancient kings. From one wall to another 
 is a considerable distance, in which run ditches 
 filled with water. He conquered two walls, and 
 then the besieged made a sally upon the assailants, 
 and killed as many as they could reach; the 
 number of those who fell under the sword, or were 
 drowned, amounted to forty thousand men. This 
 gave to the Galicians and Basques the superiority 
 over the Moslims, and they took the towns and 
 frontiers towards France from them. On this 
 frontier is the city of Orbunah XJ^t, which the 
 Moslims lost in 300 A.H., with other towns and 
 fortresses, but the town is still existing after the 
 conquest, to this day 332 A.H. 
 
 In the eastern part of Spain, on the Medi- 
 terranean, is the city of Tortushah *&> j^ ; and 
 a little farther north, is Faraghah Xr^j on a large 
 river, then Laridah SJ^, and still further north 
 lies csvxb ; the last mentioned town is on the 
 French frontiers. This is the most narrow pass of 
 the Pyrenees. 
 
 A short time previous to the beginning of the 
 fourth century of the Hijrah, ships landed in Spain 
 which had thousands of men on board, who made 
 incursions on the coast. The Moslims of Spain 
 
374 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 believed that they were a Magian nation ^ U 
 jM^sOlJ (fire worshippers) who were in the habit of 
 visiting this country every two centuries. They 
 came from a gulf of the Ocean, and not from the 
 strait on which the pillars of copper (columns Her- 
 culls) stand. I suppose this gulf is connected with 
 the sea of Mayotis and the Pontus, (through a 
 northern passage,) and that the invading nation 
 were the Russians * u*j^ 5 of whom we have 
 spoken; for no other nation sails in the seas which 
 stand in connexion with the Ocean. In the Medi- 
 terranean f, not far from Crete, planks of vessels 
 of Indian plantain wood have been found, which 
 were well cut and joined with fibres of the cocoa nut 
 tree. It was evident that they were of wrecked 
 vessels, and had been a long time in water; vessels 
 of this description are only found in the Abyssinian 
 sea, for the vessels of the Mediterranean and of the 
 West are all joined with nails. In the Abyssinian 
 sea, iron nails would not be applicable for sbip 
 building, for the water of that sea corrodes the iron, 
 and the nails become thinner and weaker in the 
 water; hence the planks are joined with fibres and 
 besmeared with grease and quicklime. This is a 
 proof that the seas have a communication. The 
 
 * They were the Normans. This suggestion, although it is 
 not correct, does honour to the sagacity of our author. 
 
 f Compare Ancient Accounts of India and China, translated 
 by Renaudot, page 59. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 375 
 
 sea towards China and the country of es-Sila 
 ^XA*J! (jo-Jl), goes all round the country of the 
 Turks, and has a communication with the sea 
 of the West c-^jdj^ (the Atlantic), through some 
 straits of the great ocean ^^ u*^^' 
 
 On the coast of Syria, ambergris has been found 
 thrown on shore, although it has never been a pro- 
 duction of the Mediterranean since ancient times, 
 and it is possible that it came there through the 
 same way by which we suppose that the planks of 
 the vessels came there from the sea of China. God 
 knows best. The sea of Spain * abounds in am- 
 bergris, and it is exported from Spain to Egypt and 
 other countries, from the coasts of this sea called 
 Shantirin ^.^J^JU-K (Santarem), and Shodaunah 
 *3j*xi (Sidonia) . The ounce , in Bagdad weight, i s paid 
 with three mithkals of gold in Spain, and in Egypt 
 with ten dinars, although it is of an inferior quality. 
 
 It is probable that the pieces of ambergris found 
 on the Byzantine (Syrian) coasts have been propelled 
 there by the waves, for the sea of Spain is in com- 
 munication with the sea that washes these coasts. 
 
 In Spain are considerable mines of silver and 
 quicksilver, and since this is the best quicksilver 
 that exists, it is exported into all Moslim, and not 
 Moslim, countries. Other articles of exportation 
 
 * Compare Al-Makarri, History of the Mohammedan dynas- 
 ties in Spain, translated by M. Gayangos, vol. I. p. 89. 
 
376 EL-MAS'lJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 from Spain are saffron and ginger roots J^-ST y\ \ 
 The principal ingredients of perfumes are five: 
 musk, camphor, aloes, ambergris, and saffron ; they 
 all come from India, except saffron and ambergris, 
 which are found in the country of the Zanj, in esh- 
 Shihr, ^.=i=UJJ, and Spain. 
 
 The kinds of spices x^Ut are twenty-five, viz., 
 the hyacinth (spikenard) J^JUJI, gilly-flower 
 sandal-wood ^AxaJJ, betel-nut (nutmeg) 
 the rose ^\ 9 cassia Xs:Ou*J!, the bark of pomegra- 
 nate -o;^ the finer species of cinnamon XJ^iM, 
 cardamoms xXsijiH, cubeb< XjUJft, a species of 
 cinnamon* |yxlL^J\, the berries of Ceesalpinia Sappa 
 ^XA!\ - 7 -^ 5 the roots of the Nymphea S^ULM, 
 a species of grain resembling cherry-stones (growing 
 in Aderbaijan) ^Lsv*!!, saffron of Yemen <j^^> 
 costus-root \a.*&\, clove jlxli^i, the gum of the lada 
 ^J^M^ styrax X*xU, the seed of satonicum 
 calamus aromaticus HiXjjjOi ^^ 9 orobanche j 
 We have described the mines of silver, gold, quick- 
 silver, and the places where all sorts of perfumes 
 are found, in our work, the Akhbar ez-zeman: we 
 
 * The Arabs distinguished particularly two species of cinna- 
 mon which are both mentioned here: one of them is most likely 
 the cinnamon of Ceylon (laurus cinnamonum)j and the other the 
 cinnamon of China (laurus cassia?) or perhaps the Malabrathrum. 
 
 j- The names of three drugs are left uncertain in the MSS. 
 
AND MINF.S OF GEMS. 377 
 
 may, therefore, dispense with entering further on 
 this subject in this book. 
 
 The accounts which are reported respecting the 
 sea of the west, are marvellous, particularly those 
 which regard the sea that washes the cultivated 
 districts of the Sudan (Negroes), and the extreme 
 west. Men who are possessed of an extensive 
 knowledge of our globe, say, that the Abyssinians 
 and Sudan (Negroes) occupy a country of seven 
 years' journey; that Egypt forms the sixtieth part 
 of the country of the Sudan ; and that the country 
 of the Sudan forms only a small portion of the sur- 
 face of the earth, the dimension of which is five 
 hundred years' journey. One third of it is inha- 
 bited, one-third is desert, and one-third is covered 
 with seas. The country of the Sudan borders on 
 the most distant plains of the dominions of Idris 
 Ben Tdris Ben 'Abdullah Ben el-Hasan Ben el- 
 Hosain Ben 'All Ben Abi Taleb, in the Mag rib, 
 which is the country of Tilimsan ^U^Xj, Tahart 
 djjjblj, and Fas ^ (Fezz) : then comes Sus el- 
 adna ^^1^*^, which is about two thousand three 
 hundred miles from el-Kairwan, and twenty days' 
 from Sus el-aksa. The cultivation extends, with- 
 out interruption, as far as the Wadi-r-raml (valley 
 of sandj and Kasr el-aswad (the black palace). 
 Farther on come deserts of sand, in which one finds 
 a town, of the name of Medinat en -Nonas wa 
 
378 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Kibab er-Rasas (the town of copper, and the cupo- 
 las of lead) . 
 
 Musa Ben Nosair has penetrated as far as 
 Medinat en-Nonas, under the reign of 'Abd el- 
 Melik Ben Merwan. The wonderful things which 
 he has seen, are related in several books which are 
 known to every one. Some are of opinion that 
 the town which has been stormed by Musa, is in 
 the plains of the Ardh el-Kebirah S^AA&J u*j\ (the 
 main land), which extends (north of the Peninsula) 
 of Spain. Maimun Ben 'Abd el-Wehhab Ben 'Abd 
 er- Rahman Ben Rostam el-Farisi, who was of the 
 Ibadhian sect *\AC ^.j u-jl^H tX^c ( .^j (_^^^> 
 ^Uyfc ^ L5 * ; UJi jr*j ^.j ^^J has spread there 
 the tenets of the Khawarij. Some historians believe 
 that the inhabitants are remnants of the Ishban, 
 who have cultivated those countries. Maimun 
 had several wars with the Talebites. We shall 
 speak on the different opinions respecting the 
 Ishban ^jUt in another chapter of this book. 
 Some connect them with the Persians, deriving the 
 name from Isbahan ^1$.^. 
 
 In these places of the Maghrib are found some 
 of the sect of the Khawarij, called the Harurians* 
 
 * One copy reads " Sofrians (Sj^JUaJl." The y are a 
 fraction of the Harurians, so called from Saffar, the founder of 
 the sect. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 379 
 
 l. They possess several cities, like the town 
 of Dar'ah* Xj^a, which has large silver mines: this 
 town lies towards el-Jasrf j**L\, and is contiguous 
 with the country of the Abyssinians, with whom 
 the inhabitants are at constant war. In our book 
 called the Akhbar ez-zeman, we have related the 
 wars of the Maghrib; and we have described the 
 towns of that country ; we have named the sects of 
 the Khawarij, as the Ibadhians, Sofrians, and the 
 Mo'tazilite sects, who live there ; and we have re- 
 lated the wars which arose between the followers 
 of those two religious opinions. We have also 
 acquainted the reader with the history of el-Aghlab 
 et-Temimi ^&\ cAc^, who was appointed by el- 
 Mansiir over the Maghrib %, of his residence in 
 Afrikiyah, of the state of his affairs, during the 
 reign of er-Rashid, and the succession of his son, as 
 an independant prince, over Afrikiyah, and other 
 provinces of the Maghrib, till Abu Nasr Ziadatul- 
 lah Ben 'Abdullah Ben Ibrahim Ben Ahmed (Ben 
 el-Aghlab Ben Ibrahim Ben Mohammed ) Ben 
 
 * The MSS. read XcJo and SufJ. 
 
 f One copy reads " towards the South." 
 
 J Abulfeda and Rasmussen (Annales Moslim.) say, that 
 Ibrahim Ben el-Aghlab is the founder of the dynasty, and that 
 he has been appointed by er-Rashid. 
 
 It should run Ben Mohammed Ben Ibrahim, leaving out 
 Ben Aghlab. Compare Abulfeda ad annum 296. 
 
380 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 el-Aghlab, one of his successors, was expelled by 
 Abu 'Abdullah, the Mohtesib, who was a Sufi, and 
 an emissary of the governor of el-Mahdiyah. He 
 drove him out, with the assistance of the Ketamah 
 5LoUr, and other tribes of the Berbers, in 297, A.H., 
 during the Khalifat of el-Moktader. All this is 
 related in the Akhbar ez-zeman, where we also 
 describe his march to er-Rakkah. This man had 
 originally been Mohtesib (officer of police) at 
 Ramhormuz, in the Ahwaz. 
 
 We now resume our subject, and continue to 
 name the kings, postponing the description of the 
 kingdoms situated on the Abyssinian sea, which we 
 intend hereafter to introduce to the notice of the 
 reader. 
 
 The king of the Zanj is Wafliman (2j ^X 
 the king of el-Lan is Kerkendaj glxiTjT ( 
 the kings of el-Hirah were the No'mans XJ 
 and the Mondirs *,iUU ; the king of the mountainous 
 country of Tabaristan was Faran ^U (cv,lj or jjjU), 
 and el-Jebel is named after him and his sons to this 
 day. The king of India is the Ballahra cf^XxJl; 
 the king of Kinnauj, who is one of the kings of es- 
 
 Sind is Budah SA^J ()^ or iatp) ; this is a title 
 general to all kings of el- Kinnauj *: at present this 
 
 * En-Nowa'iri states, that the title of the king of Kinnauj is 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 381 
 
 city is under the sceptre of the Islam, for it forms a 
 province of el-Multan. Through this town passes 
 one of the (five) rivers, which form together the 
 river Mihran in es-Sind, which is considered by el- 
 Jahit k^lit as the Nile, and by others as the 
 Jai'hun of Khorasan*. This Budah, who is the 
 king of el-Kinnauj , is an enemy of the Ballahra the 
 king of India. The king of el-Kandahar ^U^XJ!, 
 who is one of the kings of es-Sind ruling over this 
 country, is called Jahaj ^\^-. (^^v^-) ; this name is 
 common to all sovereigns of that country. From 
 his dominions comes the river Rayid <>oV,, one of 
 the five rivers which form the Mihran of es- 
 Sind. Kandahar is called the country of the Rahbut 
 
 (j * 
 
 (Rajbut) ls}*&>^\ (k^/jfc^H); another river of the 
 
 Panjab is called Hatil JJsbb ; it comes also from the 
 mountains of es-Sind, and runs through the country 
 of er-Rahbut, which is the country of el-Kandahar: 
 the fourth river of the Panjab comes from the coun- 
 try of Kabul and its mountains, which forms the 
 frontier of es-Sind towards Bost k*j, Ghaznahf 
 
 Ray (S\y Perhaps the difference of the times when el-Mas'udi 
 and en-Nowai'ri wrote, may account for the difference of their 
 statements. 
 
 * The first of these two errors came from the Greeks to the 
 Arabs, and the others from the Persians. 
 MSS. read -Js and 
 
382 EL-MASU'DI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Nafsh (?) (jliu (yjjju, er-Rokhkhaj g^jti, and 
 the country of er-Rawan* (^^ which is the fron- 
 tier of Sijistan. One of the five rivers comes from 
 the country of Kashmir ^^L3. The king of Kash- 
 mir has the name er-Rama ^\^\ (cfyi), which is 
 a general title for all kings. 
 
 Kashmir is situated in the mountains of es- 
 Sind, and forms a powerful kingdom, which com- 
 prizes from sixty to seventy thousand towns and 
 villages ; and his territory is unapproachable except- 
 ing from one side, so that he can shut up the whole 
 of his dominions with one gate ; for it is surrounded 
 by mountains of such height that neither men nor 
 wild animals can climb over them, and they are 
 only accessible to birds. Where there are no 
 mountains, there are inaccessible valleys, trees, 
 jungles, and rivers which defend the place by their 
 rapidity. The natural fortifications of this country 
 is well known in Khorasan and other provinces, 
 and it is one of the most wonderful things in the 
 world. 
 
 The dominions of Budah the king of Kinnauj, 
 extend about one hundred and twenty Sindian 
 farsangs in length and breadth ; one of their far- 
 sangs is eight of our miles. The above-mentioned 
 king has four armies, corresponding with the four 
 
 * MSS. read here and in other passages .* j. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 383 
 
 cardinal winds. Each of these four armies consists 
 of seven hundred thousand men. The army of the 
 north has to oppose the king of el-Multan and his 
 allies. The army of the south has to defend the 
 the country against the Ballahra, the king of el- 
 Mankir ; and in the same manner are the other 
 armies engaged against the other neighbouring 
 powers. It is said that the towns, villages, and 
 estates in his dominions, the extent of which we 
 have stated, amount, as far as can be counted, to 
 one million and eight hundred thousand villages, 
 surrounded by trees, rivers, mountains, and 
 meadows. 
 
 Although he possesses few elephants in com- 
 parison with other kings, he maintains near a 
 thousand war elephants. If an elephant is spirited, 
 pugnacious, and brave, a rider sits on his back, and 
 he has a Fautal jJ^j (J^O which is a kind of 
 sword, in his trunk. The trunk is covered with 
 mail and iron, and the rest of his body is protected 
 by an armour of iron and leather ; such an elephant 
 is surrounded by five hundred men, who protect 
 him from behind. An elephant thus equipped, 
 keeps his ground against six thousand horsemen. 
 He advances, retires, goes round (and makes the 
 military evolutions), like a horse with a rider on his 
 back. These are the manoeuvres of the elephants 
 of the Hindus in all their wars. 
 
 We have already stated that the sovereign power 
 
384 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 over el-Multan rests in the family of Samah* Ben 
 Lawi Ben Ghalib <-_*JU ^ ^ ^j JUU They 
 have considerable forces. Their territory is one 
 ^ of the greatest of those Moslim countries, which 
 \ form a frontier against unbelieving nations. There 
 i are on the frontiers of el-Multan about one hundred 
 ^thousand villages and estates, as far as they can be 
 'counted. There is the celebrated idol of el-Multan, 
 to which the inhabitants of es-Sind and India 
 perform pilgrimages by thousands, from the most 
 distant places ; they carry money^ precious stones, 
 aloes, and other sorts of perfumes, there to fulfil 
 their vows. The greatest part of the revenue of the 
 king of el-Multan, comes from the rich presents of 
 genuine komari aloes ; one mann of which is worth 
 two hundred dinars ; for it is so genuine, that it 
 receives the impression of a seal like wax ; and 
 from other objects of value, which are brought 
 there as offerings. When the unbelievers march 
 against el-Mi'iltan, and the Moslims do not feel 
 themselves strong enough to oppose them, they 
 threaten to break their idol, and their enemies 
 immediately withdraw their armies. 
 
 I visited el-Multan after 300 A. H., when Abu 
 
 * Page 234, supra, this name is spelt Osamah SLoLwJ in all 
 copies, whilst they read in this passage Samah, and lower down 
 they write the family name of this dynasty, es-Samf . 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 385 
 
 -d-Dilhat el-Monbad (el-Monabbih) Ben Asad el- 
 Karshi es-Sami 
 
 was king there. At the same time, 
 I visited el-Mansurah ; the king of that country 
 was then Abul-Mondir Omar Ben 'Abdullah 
 ^3! ju>c ^j jS^**^] f*\. I was acquainted with 
 his vizier Riah ^.lj^> with his sons Mohammed and 
 'Ali, and with an Arab of the name of Hamzah, 
 who was one of the lords and kings of the Bedouins. 
 There were also many descendants of 'Ali Ben Abi 
 Taleb, of 'Omar Ben 'Ali, and of Mohammed Ben 
 'Ali, at el-Mansurah. There is some relationship 
 between the royal family of el-Mansurah and the 
 family of esh-Shawarib the Kadi ^IXM u_r,^^J!, 
 for the kings of el-Mansurah are of the family of 
 Habbar Ben el-Aswad, and have the name of Beni 
 'Amr Ben 'Abd el-Aziz el-Karshi, who is to be 
 distinguished from 'Amr Ben 'Abd el-Aziz Ben 
 Merwan, the Omaiyide (khalif). 
 
 When all the rivers which we have enumerated 
 have passed the Golden house (or temple) * ^^AJ 
 c_jui>xH, which is the meaning of the name of el- 
 Multan, they unite at about three days' journey 
 below this city and above el-Mansurah, at a place 
 
 * It is probably a fault of the copyists that we read in a pre- 
 ceding passage, that the name of el-Multan means " meadow of 
 gold." 
 
 2 c 
 
386 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 called Dushab v*A^> in ^ one stream which pro- 
 ceeds to the town of er-Rud ^^\ (^<^0> which lies 
 on its western bank and belongs to el-Mansurah, 
 where it receives the name Mihran j,|j$-o. There it 
 is divided into two branches, both of which fall at 
 the town of Shakirah kyi-l, which belongs also to 
 one of the districts of el-Mansurah, into the Indian 
 sea, under the name of Mihran of es-Sind j,|^ 
 JsJUJ!, about two days' journey from the town of 
 ed-Daibol. 
 
 El-Multan is seventy-five Sindian fursangs from 
 el-Mansurah. Each farsang has eight miles, as 
 stated above. All the estates and villages under the 
 dependency of el-Mansurah amount to three hundred 
 thousand. The whole country is well cultivated, 
 and covered with trees and fields. They are at 
 constant war with a nation called the Mind \j*H, 
 who are a race of the Sind, and with other nations 
 on the frontiers of es-Sind. El-Multan is equally 
 on the frontier of es-Sind, and so are the towns and 
 villages belonging to it. El-Mansurah has its name 
 from Mansur Ben Jamhur, governor of the Omai- 
 yides. The king of el-Mansurah has eighty war 
 elephants, every one of which is supported by five 
 hundred infantry in battle, as we have already re- 
 marked; and these elephants can oppose thousands 
 of horse. 
 
 I have seen two elephants of this king, which 
 had become famous at the courts of India and es- 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 387 
 
 Sind for their courage and success in wars. One 
 had the name Monkirkals y^Xi^Ju^o (y^X^^o), and 
 
 o- 
 
 the other Haidarah k^j^. Many curious stories 
 are related respecting Monkirkals, throughout all 
 India. On the death of one of his leaders, he did 
 not eat nor drink for several days, and he cried and 
 sighed like a human being who is mourning. Tears 
 fell from his eyes, and thus he continued for a con- 
 siderable time. Another story is, that he went out 
 one day from his hayir ^>U, which means the 
 stable of elephants; Haidarah was behind him, and 
 they were followed by eighty other elephants. 
 When they came to a narrow street in el-Mansurah 
 a woman came unawares on the elephant, and was 
 so frightened that she fell on her back, and she was 
 uncovered in the middle of the road. Monkirkals, 
 observing this, posted himself across the road, turn- 
 ing his right side in opposition to the elephants 
 coming behind him, to prevent them from injuring 
 the woman, and he gave her a sign with his trunk 
 to rise from the ground, having first placed her dress 
 in order and covered her. When she was in safety 
 with her husband, the elephant changed his position 
 and continued his way, followed by the others. 
 
 The natural history of the elephant is full of 
 interesting stories of this kind; and they are not 
 only used for war, but for many other purposes, as 
 for carrying burdens, drawing carriages, threshing 
 
 2 c 2 
 
388 EL-MAs'uni's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 rice, and other sorts of grain tyH, as oxen tread 
 out corn on a floor. We shall speak on the ele- 
 phants in the chapter on the Zanj : for nowhere else 
 are they so numerous as in their country, where 
 they live in a wild state. 
 
 Let us now resume our short account of the 
 kings of es-Sind and India. The language of es- 
 Sind is different from that of India. Es-Sind is 
 the country which is nearer the dominions of the 
 Moslims, and India that which is farther from 
 them. The inhabitants of el-Mankir, which is the 
 residence of the Ballahra, speak the Kiriyah lan- 
 guage X.j^T (xyJ'), which has this name from the 
 places where it is spoken. On the coast, as in 
 Saimur (?) j^v*, Subarah, Tanah, and other towns 
 on the coast of the Ladiwa sea, a language is 
 spoken which has its name from the sea which 
 washes these countries; and this is the Ladiwa sea, 
 which has been described above. On this coast 
 are many rivers,, which run from the south, whilst 
 all other rivers of the world flow from north to 
 south, excepting the Nile, of Egypt, and the Mihran, 
 of es-Sind. We have given an explanation why 
 this is the case, and we have stated what the 
 learned say on the subject, in our Akhbar ez- 
 zeman. In the same work we have named the 
 places which have a great elevation (above the level 
 of the sea), and those which are less elevated. 
 
 Neither in India, nor in es-Sind, is there a sove- 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 389 
 
 reign who disturbs the peace of the Moslims in 
 their own country*. The Islam is, therefore, 
 flourishing there. The mosques and jami's for 
 Moslim worship are large and splendid, their kings 
 are long-lived, and reign forty, fifty, and more 
 years, and the (Moslim) subjects believe, that the 
 length of the life of a sovereign depends upon his 
 justice and the respect paid to the Moslims. He 
 (the Ballahra) pays his army from the public trea- 
 sury, as the Moslims do. In his empire Talata- 
 wian 5u^kXk (Tatarian Xj^klk) dirhams are in cir- 
 culation, one of which weighs a drachm and a half. 
 The coins are impressed with the date when their 
 king succeeded to the throne. His war elephants 
 are beyond number. This country is also called 
 the country of el-Kiminker j&JJl (^XjJj). On 
 one side it is exposed to the inroads of the king of 
 the Khazar ^y^J, who possesses a great number of 
 horses, camels, and troops, and they believe that 
 there is no king on earth more glorious than he, 
 excepting the king of the climate of Babel, which 
 is the fourth climate ; for this king surpasses in 
 magnificence and valour all other kings of the 
 world. The Ballahra has a great animosity against 
 
 * One copy reads " who persecutes the Moslims in his coun- 
 try ; so, for instance, the Ballahra ;" and all that follows respecting 
 the longevity of the kings, is said there in reference to the Bal- 
 lahra. 
 
390 / EL-MAS'UDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the Moslims. He has a number of elephants : his 
 dominions occupy a tongue of land, and are so rich 
 in mines of gold and silver, that gold and silver is 
 the medium of their commerce. 
 
 Next to this country is the kingdom of et-Takin 
 0ylU!. The king is on friendly terms with the 
 neighbouring sovereigns and with the Moslims ; his 
 military forces are less considerable than those of 
 the kings whom we have named. In this kingdom 
 are the prettiest women of all India. They are 
 praised for their beauty in books, De Coitu <_o;r* 
 *U!J, and sailors are excedingly anxious to buy them. 
 They are known under the name of Takinians. 
 Beyond this kingdom is that of Rahma ^, which 
 is the title for their kings, and generally at the same 
 time their name. His dominions border on those 
 of the king of the Khazars ; and, on one side, on 
 those of el-Ballahra, with whom he is frequently 
 at war. Rahma has more troops, elephants, and 
 horses, than the Ballahra, the king of el-Khazar and 
 of et-Takin. When he takes the field, he has no 
 less than five thousand elephants. He never goes 
 
 * A work of this title, by the celebrated Rhazes, is in the 
 library of Ley den. The number of curious observations, the 
 correct and practical ideas, and the novelty of the notions of 
 eastern nations on these subjects, which are contained in this book, 
 render it one of the most important productions of the medical 
 literature of the Arabs. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 391 
 
 to war but in winter, because the elephants cannot 
 bear thirst. His forces are generally exaggerated ; 
 some believe that the number of fullers and washers 
 in his camp, is from ten to fifteen thousand. The above- 
 mentioned kings fight in squares, every one amount- 
 ing to twenty thousand men ; so that every one of 
 the four sides of the square has five thousand men. 
 
 In the kingdom of Rahma cowries are used as 
 the medium of exchange in commerce. His country 
 abounds in silver, gold, and aloes, and there the 
 finest cloths known are manufactured. From this 
 country a sort of hair, called ^QxA) saiman, 
 is exported, which is fastened on ivory and silver, 
 and used as fly-flaps. Servants, with such instru- 
 ments in their hands, stand at the head of the kings 
 when they hold court. 
 
 In his country is an animal of the name of 
 
 j 
 
 j{u<U (<JJuJj) ^l&Jt, which common people call the 
 unicorn ^jJ^fil- It has in its forehead one horn 
 and is not as great as the elephant, but much 
 higher than the buffalo. This animal bellows like 
 a bull. Elephants take flight from it, because, God 
 knows, there is no animal stronger than this. Its 
 bones are not divided into limbs, but the legs are 
 without articulation; hence, it cannot bend its limbs. 
 It lives in forests and woods, and when it sleeps it 
 leans on a tree. The Hindus and the Moslims in 
 India eat the flesh of this animal, for it enters into 
 
392 EL-MAS'fjDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the class of bulls and buffaloes. Most Hindus are 
 unacquainted with this animal; but in the kingdom 
 of Rahma it is more frequent, and its horn is there 
 purer and finer. The horns are white, with a black 
 figure in the middle, on a white ground; representing 
 the outlines and shades of the figures of men, 
 guinea-fowls, fish, and of the unicorn itself, or of 
 some other animal found in those countries. This 
 horn is wrought, and they make girdles and ribbons 
 of it, just as such ornaments are made of gold and 
 silver. These articles form part of the dress of the 
 kings and nobles of China; and they are so much 
 valued, that such a girdle costs from two to four 
 thousand dinars. From these girdles ornaments of 
 gold are suspended, and they look exceedingly well : 
 sometimes they are inlaid with precious stones and 
 gold. The figures, in the horn of the unicorn, are 
 black, on a white ground; sometimes, however, 
 they are white on a black ground. El-Jahit be- 
 lieves, that the unicorn is a seven months' camel, 
 which stretches its head out from the womb of the 
 mother to graze, and then it draws it in again. He 
 relates this extraordinary fact in his book te On 
 
 Animals" ^V-^ v^- This story led me to 
 inquire of the merchants of Siraf and 'Oman, who 
 visit those places, and whom I saw in India : every- 
 body was surprised at my question, and assured me, 
 that the pregnancy and delivery of the unicorn are 
 not different from that of the buffalo. I do not 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 393 
 
 know how el-Jahit learnt this story; whether he 
 found it in some book, or whether it had been 
 related to him. 
 
 The king Rahma has maritime and inland 
 provinces. On his empire borders a kingdom, 
 which has no sea: the name of the king is el-Kas 
 i^l&J (u-U&O- T ne inhabitants are white; they 
 have their ears slit; and the men and women are 
 very handsome. They have elephants., camels, and 
 horses. 
 
 The neighbour of this king is the king of el- 
 Farbikh gi^AN (g^\ or ^yfll) (Kamirus?); who 
 possesses maritime provinces and inland provinces, 
 his dominions being situated on a peninsula. The 
 sea throws ambergris on shore, and the country is 
 productive of pepper and elephants. He is brave 
 and proud. But he is less powerful than proud, 
 and less brave than overbearing. 
 
 The inhabitants of the country of el-Maujah 
 x^.U which comes next, are of a white complexion 
 and handsome; they do riot slit their ears. They 
 have horses and the necessary warlike equipment 
 for defence. Their country is rich in musk. We 
 have described the musk-deer in the preceding pages. 
 The inhabitants dress like the Chinese. Their 
 country is defensible against invasion by its moun- 
 tains, the summits of which are white; and there 
 are no higher mountains, either in India or in 
 es-Sind, than these. The musk of their country is 
 
394 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 celebrated and is named after it, for sailors and 
 merchants, who export this article and carry on 
 commerce with it, call it Maujahian musk 
 
 Beyond el-Maujah is the kingdom of el-Mayid 
 jolU or JulU), which has a number of towns, 
 extensive cultivated districts, and numerous armies. 
 Their kings employ eunuchs in their service, and 
 for the administration of their provinces, which 
 yield very many natural products*, for levying the 
 revenues, and as governors ; as it is the habit with 
 the kings of the Chinese, which we have described in 
 their history. El-Mayid borders on China, and 
 there pass constantly ambassadors from one country 
 to the other with presents, which are exchanged 
 between the two courts. But these two kingdoms 
 are separated by great mountains, which are very 
 difficult of access. The Mayid are very brave and 
 strong. The messengers of the king of the Mayid, 
 which are sent to China, are watched lest they should 
 spy out the country, and take advantage of the 
 weak points ; and lest they should know the roads of 
 the extinsive dominions of the Chinese. 
 
 ^J1 Literally, "they are mines." The word 
 mine is used in Arabic, as well for places which yield perfumes and 
 spices, as for such as yield metals. Another copy has ^UlJ 
 instead of slxU, an( l gives to the sentence the meaning, *' as, 
 for instance, the province of el-Mawan." 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 395 
 
 The Hindu and Chinese nations, which we 
 have mentioned, have their own manners and usages 
 in eating, drinking, husbandry, dressing, and in the 
 art of healing. They use actual cautery ^UJL ^\, 
 &c. An example of their manners is, that their 
 kings do not think it prudent to prevent the free 
 passage of wind, "for," they say, "it is a noxious 
 matter," and they do not think it at all improper to 
 let it freely escape under any circumstance. Their 
 sages had the same opinion and practice. They 
 thought, that restraint in this matter was unwhole- 
 some and productive of illness ; whilst they con- 
 sidered it as a cure, to give free psssage to the 
 wind. This they considered as the greatest remedy 
 as a preservative against cholic and constipation, 
 and as a relief for complaints of the spleen. Hence 
 they pass wind both gently and aloud, without any 
 restraint ; nor do they consider it to be against 
 good breeding. The ancient Hindus were well 
 skilled in medicine, and curious anecdotes are 
 related of them, which are connected with this 
 subject. An historian says of the Hindus, that 
 they consider it less genteel to cough,, than to 
 break wind aloud. An eructation is considered as 
 the same thing, as smothered effects of flatulency,, 
 for the noise in breaking wind loudly deprives it of 
 the offensive smell. The historian shows that what 
 he says respecting the Hindus is generally known, 
 and has been acknowledged in biographical, histo- 
 
396 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 rical, miscellaneous, and poetical works, as in the 
 poem which has the title jAit cMi, which he quotes. 
 
 "The wise and eloquent Hindu pronounces an 
 opinion which I am embellishing with the charms 
 of poetry. Do not restrain loud wind whenever 
 you may feel it, but break it and open the doors to 
 it, for restraint in this matter is unwholesome ; but, 
 to give to wind free passage, brings you rest and 
 health. Coughing and blowing the nose is indecent 
 and ill-bread ; but not breaking wind aloud. Eruc- 
 tations and genteel winds are the same thing, with 
 the only difference, that a genteel wind has a more 
 offensive smell." 
 
 The wind in the bowels is, indeed, in both cases 
 the same, and only different with reference to the 
 way by which it is expelled ; that which comes up 
 is called eructation, and that which goes down is 
 called flatulency : it is the same as the distinction 
 between slapping (the face),, and a thump (on the 
 back of the head) (wyUaJ!^ X*kMi), the one is on the 
 face, the other on the occiput, but in reality they 
 are the same thing ; it is only a distinction of the 
 region of the body. 
 
 Man is subject to many affections, constant 
 accidents, and long diseases, as cholic, pains in the 
 stomach, and other accidents,, which arise from an 
 accumulation of impurities in the primes via, which 
 are not discharged when they are mobile, and when 
 nature makes its regular efforts to discharge them. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 397 
 
 Other animals are free from these evils ; for matters 
 which create disorders in the bowels are with them 
 immediately discharged, since they oppose no con- 
 straint. Ancient philosophers and the sages of the 
 Greeks, like Democritus u^^H**, Pythagoras 
 u^jys. UL5, Socrates k^Ju*, Diogenes u*jUjS, and 
 other sages of all nations rejected every restraint 
 in these things, because they knew what harm 
 arises from it; and everybody who has the talent of 
 observation will have noticed in himself, that they 
 were right in their opinion ; for it is a rule, esta- 
 blished by experience, and confirmed by reasoning. 
 But moralists find fault with it, for different rea- 
 sons, although it has nothing to do with them. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, we have related the history of 
 the kings of India, their usages, interesting anec- 
 dotes, showing their manners j^~>, and their social 
 habits, in our Akhbar ez-zeman, and in the Kitab 
 el-ausat, where we have entered into details res- 
 pecting the Maharaj, who is the king of the islands 
 from which drugs and spices are exported, as well 
 as on other kings of India, as the king of el-Komar, 
 and other sovereigns of the mountainous districts, 
 which are opposite these islands, as ez-Zanij, and 
 others; and the history of the kings of China, of 
 the king of Serendib, and of the country of Man- 
 dura u^JsLo (&* (jjuy***)> which is opposite to 
 the island Serendib, as Komar is opposite the 
 islands of the Maharaj, to which ez-Zanij belongs. 
 
398 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 Every king of the country of Mandura has the 
 title el-Kay idi JuUH- 
 
 We shall give notices of the kings of the east 
 and west, south (^.j^l) and north, in this book, 
 speaking of the kings of Yemen, and of the Per- 
 sians, Romans, Greeks, the Maghrib and the differ- 
 ent Abyssinian and Negro nations, and of some 
 nations who have descended from Yafeth. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 399 
 
 SEVENTEENTH CHAPTER. 
 
 On the Caucasus; account of the Alans, Khazar ; 
 of the different races of Turks, and the Bulgarians; 
 also a notice of Bab el-Abwdb (Derbend), and the 
 neighbouring nations.* 
 
 THE mountain of el-Kaikhf *&! (Caucasus) is a 
 large mountain, and is of such extent that it com- 
 
 * This chapter of our author, for the most part, is translated 
 into French in Klaproth's Magazin Asiatique, Paris, 1835. I 
 made this translation without being aware that there already 
 existed one ; but, subsequently, when I had seen the French 
 version, I compared mine with it, and, in several instances where 
 I differ from it, put the Arabic text, to justify myself. 
 
 f Caucasus means the lull mountain, from the Persian words 
 Hjfr^gdw Koh. It is therefore not to be considered as a mis- 
 take, if Herodotus gives to the Caucasus the name Taurus, but 
 as a translation of the Persian name. The Boun-Dehesh offers a 
 sufficient explanation, why so many mountains were called Taurus 
 or Bull mountains. The Persians took the same view of the 
 mountains as of the rivers, which has been shown p. 243, supra, 
 attaching religious ideas to these natural fortresses, with which 
 Providence had protected their country on some parts. As 
 long as the empire had narrow limits, the Taurus was the end of 
 
400 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 prizes a number of kingdoms and nations. In this 
 
 their world; when it extended further to the north, it was the 
 Caucasus, and the Imaus in the south, both of which received 
 therefore the sacred name of Bull mountain, which was con- 
 nected with star worship, for the Bull mountain was evidently 
 sacred to el-Borj _ oJj. The first meaning of this word is 
 stronghold ; and it has been applied to the signs of the zodiac, 
 for a reason which has been stated in page 205, supra, note. 
 
 These natural fortresses or strongholds of Iran were naturally 
 compared with the strongholds of heaven, and hence they are 
 simply called Alborj in the Zend-Avesta, whilst other writers call 
 them simply the Bulls (el-Kaf, i,e., Gaw). 
 
 Providence considered the welfare of Iran or Khunnerets, 
 at the moment of the creation, protecting this sacred country by 
 rivers and mountains; hence we find, even in Mohammedan cos- 
 mogony, that their world (the Khunnerets) is based upon a fish, 
 (/.<?., the four rivers, see p. 243, supra) which rests upon a bull, 
 on whose back stand the mountains, (see the third note to p. 44, 
 supra). 
 
 The name of the Caucasus ^\ in Mas'udi is so variously 
 punctuated, that we can little rely on the correctness of the read- 
 ing of it by later authors. They make generally ^XiM of it, 
 because this word has a meaning in Arabic. I read it ^vxiJI 
 el-Ka'ikh, considering the word as a contraction of Gaw-Koh. This 
 suggestion is founded upon the authority of several Arabic authors, 
 (MS. of the Royal Library at Paris, No. 847, anc.fonds, fol. 22, 
 recto; en-Nowairi; Kamus, p. 1330; Isstachri, tabula xv.,and el- 
 Kazwini aja'ib el-Makhlukat, where by a mistake cJixXM is written), 
 who derive their knowledge of the Caucasus from a different source 
 than el-Mas'udi, and write jJuxM el-Kaik, which is only a dif- 
 ferent mode for expressing the same sound. 
 
 The passage to which I am alluding of the MS. 874, anc. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 401 
 
 mountain live seventy-two nations*, and every nation 
 has its own king and language which differs from 
 the others. This mountain has several passes and 
 valleys; in one of them, Kisra Anushirwan has 
 built the town of Bab el-Abwab. He constructed 
 also a wall between this town and the sea of the 
 Khazar (the Caspian sea) which runs even one mile 
 into the sea. This wall, which extends to the sum- 
 mit of the mountain of el-Kaikh, is about forty 
 farsangs long, and crosses mountains and valleys. 
 At the other end stands the fortress of Taberistanf 
 ^(X*j^3. Anushirwan made at every three miles, 
 more or less, according to the importance of the 
 way which leads to it, a gate of iron ; and he settled 
 
 fonds, is curious : " A man (whose name is not clear in the MS.) 
 related to me, that he had been sent by some king of the Cau- 
 casus i_JuxJ\ Jj^ to the king of the Russians, for he believed 
 that they had an inscription, engraved on wood. (When I came 
 there) they showed me some white pieces of wood, with drawing 
 .jifcju on them. I do not know whether they were the signs for 
 whole words or separate letters. They looked like this" here 
 follows a drawing. 
 
 * Timosthenes finds in Diuscurias, the capital of the Colchians, 
 three hundred different nations and tongues. Pliny vii., 5. 
 
 f Taberistan is a wrong reading met with in other authors as 
 well as in el-Mas'udi, instead of / . ^U^jJo Tabasseran, which is 
 the name of an ancient fortress, and of a province of Daghestan. 
 It has with the Persians, also, the name U^xls Taberseran 
 (Klaproth). 
 
 2 D 
 
402 EL-MAS'lJDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 at every gate, within the wall, people who were to 
 guard the gate and the wall near it, to check the 
 incursions of the nations who live on these moun- 
 tains: as the Khazar, el-Lan, the different Turkish 
 hordes, the Serir, Targhiz*, and other unbelieving 
 nations. The jebel el-Kaikh extends in length and 
 breadth about two months' journey ; and the people 
 who live upon and about it can only be counted by 
 Him who created them. 
 
 One pass of this mountain *jU Je^l leads 
 towards the sea of the Khazar (Caspian), and is not 
 far from Bab el-Abwab as we have mentioned. 
 Another runs towards the sea Mayotis, with which 
 the strait of Constantinople communicates as 
 we have before said. On this sea is the town 
 of Trebizond k'Joyj^k. There is a fair once a year, 
 at which merchants assemble from all nations 
 Moslims, Byzantines, Armenians, and others from 
 the country of Kashakf S.ZS. 
 
 * All copies read ..cjjJJ. Klaproth reads JfcX>JJ Bulgarians; 
 and this seems to be correct, for there are some passages further 
 on in this chapter where our author speaks of the wars of this 
 nation against the Byzantines. And the comparison of his ac- 
 count with Greek authors shows, that he means the Bulgarians. 
 In the copy of Cambridge, JLL is written in some instances as a 
 correction on the margin. I thought it better not to change this 
 error, for, in some instances, it may be that our author means not 
 the Bulgarians, but a different nation. 
 
 f One copy reads " Alans." 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 403 
 
 When Anushirwan had built this city, which 
 bears the name of Bab el-Abwab, and the wall 
 which runs over land, water, and mountains, and 
 when he had settled people there, (a military 
 colony,) and kings, he assigned to them (the kings) 
 their ranks v^'lr* an ^ districts, and marked the 
 boundary, as Ardeshir Ben Babek had done when 
 he assigned to the kings of Khorasan their ranks. 
 One of the kings in those districts which border on 
 the country of the Moslims, near the province of 
 Barda'ah Xc^j, to whom Anushirwan assigned his 
 rank, was a king of the name of Sharwan (jj^> 
 and from him his dominions have this name*. His 
 title was Sharwan Shah *L2 (jj\-^, and every 
 king who is in possession of those districts has the 
 name Sharwan, (which sounds Sharwan-Shah with 
 the title). His kingdom has at present [332 A.H.] 
 about one month's journey in circumference, for he 
 has conquered several provinces which had not been 
 assigned to him by Anushirwan ; and these new ac- 
 cessions are now considered as part of his dominions. 
 The present king [we have just mentioned the date 
 in which we write] is a Moslim of the name of Mo- 
 hammed Ben Yezid. He is a descendant of Behram 
 Gur j^ -l^j. The ruler of Khorasanf at present 
 
 f This is probably an error instead of Khosru Shah ( Abulfeda, 
 page 387). 
 
 2 D 2 
 
404 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 [we have just mentioned the date] is one of the 
 descendants of Isma'il Ben Ahmed ; and Isma'il 
 derived his origin also from Behram Gur. Nobody 
 who knows genealogy will contradict it. 
 
 The king of the Serir, Mohammed Ben Yezid, 
 equally a descendent of Behram Gur who is the 
 Sharwan, is in possession of the city of Bab el- 
 Abwab, since the death of a near relation of his, of 
 the name of 'Abdul-Melik Ben Hesham <XXUx*c 
 -Uob (JL ^j ? who was a man of the Ansar. He and 
 his forefathers, had been the governors of Bab el- 
 Abwab, and had been settled there since the time 
 when Moslemah Ben 'Abdul-Melik xxc ^j.j '&*** 
 c^XU and other Moslim leaders, conquered that 
 country in the beginning of the Islam. 
 
 On the kingdom of Sharwan borders another 
 kingdom of the mountains of el-Kaikh, which has 
 the name Layidan* j,1x^ ( e ^W). The king is 
 called Layidan-shah sLS^Utf (*l-S ^)- It has 
 recently been conquered by Sharwan Mohammed 
 Ben Yezid. He has also subjugated the kingdom of 
 the Mukanians *ol*jXi. The king of el-Kizf 
 
 * Klaproth found this name spelt LjJ Abran. 
 
 f El-Kiz seems to be a wrong reading, instead of OCXM el-Lakz. 
 This seems to be the Arabic name for the Lesghiz, which has 
 some resemblance to the Georgian name of the same nation, 
 Lek'hethi : and the Lekos, mentioned in Vakhthang (apud St. 
 Martin, vol. ii., page 182) as one of the fathers of the Caucasian 
 nations, is in all likelihood the father of the same nation. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 405 
 
 is equally a vassal of Sharwan. The population 
 of this kingdom, which is situated on the mountains, 
 is innumerable. Some of them are unbelievers, and 
 do not acknowledge the Sharwan as their master: 
 they are the Dudanians 2Lob^xM (X/Jb^JM or XiA^l), 
 who are pagans, and have no king. The usages 
 which they are said to have in their marriages and 
 traffic, are very singular. 
 
 There are passes and valleys in this mountain 
 which are inhabited by nations who are unac- 
 quainted with each other, on account of the diffi- 
 culty of communication, which is impeded by the 
 height and roughness of the mountains, by marshes 
 and forests, by the waters which flow down from 
 the summits, and by the immense rocks and stones. 
 
 This man, named Sharwan, has subjected many 
 kingdoms in these mountains which had been given 
 to various chiefs by Anushirwan and others who 
 organized that country. They are now all under 
 the sceptre of Mohammed Ben Yezid ; amongst 
 them is Khorasan Shah (Khosru Shah) and Rawan 
 Shah ^Lfc ^j (*t gUb). We shall relate how 
 he became master of the kingdom of Sharwan. He 
 and his father were in possession of Layidan, and 
 had no other kingdom*. The king of Sharwan is 
 
 Jj a 
 
406 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the neighbour of the king of Taberistan ^.jU^x^, 
 who is, in our time, a Moslim of the name of Ibn 
 Okht 'Abdul Melik JiJH XAC ^J ^J, who has been 
 Emir of Bab el-Abwab. 
 
 The nation nearest to Bab el-Abwab are the Hai'dan 
 (^.jjj^ ((^oyc*). They form one of the kingdoms 
 of the Khazar. Next to Haidan is the kingdom of 
 the Khazar. Their metropolis was the city of Se- 
 mender * ^*x;*~>, which is eight days' journey from 
 the town of Bab el-Abwab. This city has a nume- 
 rous population of Khazar, but it is no longer the 
 capital, for when Solaiman Ben Rabi'ah el-Bahili 
 ^Lfc UJi ***j; > ^UxX*d conquered Semender in the 
 beginning of the Islam, the king transferred his 
 residence to Itil JJJ, which is seven days' journey 
 from Semender ; and since this time the kings of 
 the Khazar reside there. 
 
 This town (Itil) is divided into three parts, by 
 a large river, which rises from the higher regions 
 of the country of the Turks, and from which an 
 arm branches off, somewhere near the country of 
 the Targhiz y*j&\ (Bulgarians), and falls into the 
 sea of Mayotisf. This town has two sides. In 
 
 * Compare Fraehn, de Chasaris, in Actis Acad. Imp. Scient. 
 Petersbourg, 1822, vol. viii. Klaproth informs us, that the 
 modern name of Semender is Tarku, or Tarkhu ^.jjN 
 
 f The error that the Don is a branch of the Wolga is also 
 met with in Byzantine authors. (Klaproth.) 
 
AND MINES OP GEMS. 407 
 
 the middle of the river is an island, in which the 
 king resides. The palace of the king stands on the 
 extremity of this island, and is connected by a 
 bridge of boats with one of the two sides of the 
 town. In this town are many Moslims and 
 Christians, Jews and Pagans. The king, his suite, 
 [and the Khazar of his army*,] embraced the 
 tenets of the Jews, in the reign of er-Rashid. To 
 this king flock the Jews from all the Moslim dis- 
 tricts, and from the Byzantine empire ; for the em- 
 peror forced the Jews of his dominions to turn 
 Christians, and loaded the converts with favours. 
 The present [332, A.H.] Byzantine emperor is Ar- 
 manus u-^JU;! (Romanus II.). We shall speak in 
 another chapter on the Byzantine emperors ; how 
 many there were ; and we shall also give the history 
 of Romanus and his colleague. Under these cir- 
 cumstances, many Jews took flight from the By- 
 zantine empire into the country of the Khazar. As 
 we cannot insert in this book the history of the 
 conversion of the king of the Khazar to Judaism, 
 we refer the reader to our former works. 
 
 One of the various Pagan nations who live in 
 his country are the Sekalibah XxJlx*^ (Sclavonians), 
 and another the Rus y*^ (the Russians). They 
 live in one of the two sides of this town : they burn 
 
 * These words are left out in some copies. 
 
408 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the dead with their cattle, utensils, arms, and orna- 
 ments. When a man dies, his wife is burnt alive 
 with him; but, when the wife dies, her husband is 
 not burnt. If a bachelor dies, he is married after 
 his death. Women are glad to be burnt; for they 
 cannot enter into paradise by themselves. This 
 usage prevails also among the Hindus,, as we have 
 said. But the Hindus never burn a woman with 
 her husband, unless it is her own wish. 
 
 The majority of the population of this country 
 are Moslims; for the standing army of the king 
 consists of Moslims. They are called al-Larisians 
 L^SUi (XAA*.^), and come from Khowarezm; 
 whence they emigrated at an early period, after the 
 spreading of the Islam ; on account of drought and 
 plague which had visited their country. They are 
 brave, good soldiers, and form the strength of the 
 king of the Khazar in his wars. They fixed certain 
 conditions under which they would establish them- 
 selves in his country; one of these conditions was, 
 that they should be allowed to profess publicly the 
 Islam; to build mosques and call out the prayers; 
 and that the vizier of the kingdom should be a man 
 of their religion and nation. The vizier there is at 
 present from amongst them; his name is Ahmed 
 Ben Kuwaih &* (J j.j *x^. Another condition is, 
 that if the king of the Khazar should have a war 
 against the Moslims, they would remain separate in 
 his camp, (observe neutrality,) and not fight against 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 409 
 
 a nation who profess the same religion; but they 
 would fight for him against any other nation. 
 There are, at present, seven thousand horsemen 
 of theirs, in the army of the king, armed with bows 
 and equipped in cuirasses, helmets, and coats of 
 mail: he has also some spearsmen. In point of 
 arms, they are like the soldiers in Moslim coun- 
 tries. Their supreme judges, in religious and civil 
 matters, are Moslims. 
 
 In accordance with the constitution of the king- 
 dom of the Khazar, there are nine supreme judges in 
 the country; two of them for the Moslims; two for the 
 Khazars, who follow the laws of the Pentateuch in 
 passing sentence ; two for the Christians, who follow 
 the laws of the gospel in their decisions ; and one 
 for the Sclavonians, Russians, and the other pagan 
 population. The pagan judge decides after the 
 heathen laws; that is to say, the dictates of reason, 
 (not revelation). If any important case comes 
 before him, he refers to the Moslim judges, and lets 
 them decide after the law of the Islam. 
 
 There is no other king in these parts who has 
 paid troops, except the king of the Khazar. Every 
 Moslim has there the name Larisian, (although he 
 may not be of this nation,) and it is even extended 
 to such Russians and Sclavonians as serve in the 
 (standing) army or household of the king; although 
 they are pagans as we have said*. But there are 
 
410 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 many Moslims in this kingdom besides the Larisi- 
 ans; they are artisans, tradespeople, and merchants, 
 who have been attracted by the justice and security (of 
 persons and property) afforded by the government. 
 They have a great public mosque U-f> the Minaret 
 of which rises above the royal palace ; and several 
 private mosques xsaJlf, where children are in- 
 structed in reading the Koran. If the Moslims 
 and Christians, who are there, agree, the king has 
 no power over them. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, What we have said does not 
 refer to the king of the Khazar himself, but we 
 mean the Khakan (jjbA^ (Major domus)-, for there 
 is a king in the country of the Khazar, besides the 
 Khakan. He is shut up in his palace : he never 
 makes a public procession, nor does he show him- 
 self to the nobility or the people, and he never 
 goes out from his palace. His person is sacred, 
 but he has nothing to do with the affairs of the 
 state, either to command or forbid. Everything 
 is administered by the Khakan for the king, who 
 lives with him in the same palace. If a drought, 
 or any other misfortune, befals the country of the 
 Khazar, or if a war or any other accident happens 
 to them, the lower and higher classes of the nation 
 run to the king, and say, "The administration of 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 411 
 
 tliis Khakan brings misfortune upon us: put him to 
 death, or deliver him to us, that we may kill him." 
 Sometimes he delivers him to them, and they put 
 him to death; at other times he takes charge himself 
 of the execution; and sometimes he has pity on 
 him, protects him, and sets him free without doing 
 him any harm, although he might have deserved it. 
 I do not know whether this institution dates from 
 ancient times, or whether it has been recently 
 introduced. The Khakan is chosen from among 
 the nobility * by their chiefs ; but I think that the 
 royalty of the present dynasty takes date from a 
 remote period. 
 
 The Khazar have boats, with which they go on 
 a river, which falls above their city (Itil) into the 
 river (Wolga) that runs through their capital (Itil). 
 
 )\ cf iU Ahl bait, or ahl el-boyutdt 
 means, I believe, generally persons of family, or the nobility. 
 Klaproth and Frsehn differ from my opinion : the latter translates 
 
 the words (^yu* d^ J^l J $\ XxJlXiU <*** $3 
 " Dignitas autem non nisi certse alicui families competit," which I 
 should have rendered by " To the Khakanship only men of family 
 are competent, who have distinguished themselves." With the 
 Alites I^IAAJ ^&>\ means the members of the family of Moham- 
 med; and thus I ought to have explained it in the note page 52, 
 supra. In Persian history, t * AJ'^AJI JjM are the ancient 
 nobility. 
 
412 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 On the banks of this river, which has the name of 
 Bortas u-U^j, Turks have settled, who form part of 
 the kingdom of the Khazar. Their country is well- 
 cultivated, and lies between the Khazar and the 
 kingdom of the Targhiz (Bulgarians). The river 
 (Bortas) comes from the Targhiz (Bulgarians), 
 and there is an active navigation carried on be- 
 tween the Targhiz and Khazar. Bortas is origi- 
 nally the name of a Turkish nation, as we have 
 before said, who live on this river, and give to it 
 their name. From their country come the furs of 
 black and red foxes, which are called the Bortasian 
 furs. A black fur of this kind costs one hundred 
 dinars, and more; but the red are cheaper. Dresses 
 of these furs are worn by the kings of the Arabs 
 and the Barbarians ; and they form part of their 
 vanity; for they are considered more valuable than 
 the furs of sable jye*> herrneline <*&*!!, and the like. 
 The kings wear tiaras (j*J&S, khaftans, and robes 
 g\j*, of these furs. If kings have their khaftans 
 and robes lined with black Bortasian foxs' fur, it is 
 excusable (although it is against the divine laws). 
 
 From the upper course of the river of the 
 Khazar (Wolga), an arm branches off (the Don), 
 that falls into a narrow gulf of the sea, Pontus, 
 which is the sea of the Russians ; for no nation, 
 excepting the Russians, navigates this sea. They 
 are a great nation, living on one of the coasts of 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 413 
 
 this sea. They neither have a king nor do they 
 acknowledge a positive law (revelation), X*j^. 
 Many of them are merchants, and trade with the 
 kingdom of the Targhiz. The Russians are in 
 possession of great silver mines, which maybe com- 
 pared with those in the mountain of Lahjir jsa&y 
 (^acuj) in Khorasan. The capital of the Targhiz 
 is situated on the coast of the sea Mayotis*. In 
 my opinion, this country belongs to the seventh 
 climate. The Targhiz are of Turkish origin. Their 
 caravans go as far as Khowarezm in Khorasan, and 
 from Khowarezm caravans go to them ; but there 
 live several wandering hordes of Turkish origin, 
 who are distinct from the Targhiz, between these two 
 countries which render the road of the caravans 
 unsafe. 
 
 The present king of the Targhizf [in 332 A.H.] 
 is a Moslim. He embraced this religion, in the 
 time of el-Moktader Billah after 310 A.H., in con- 
 sequence of a vision. His son has made the pil- 
 
 * The town of the Bulgarians, says Klaproth, is situated on 
 the Wolga, under the place where it unites with the Kama, and 
 not on the Black Sea. El-Mas'udi confounds the Bulgarians 
 who live on the Wolga with those on the Danube. So far Klap- 
 roth. I think that el-Mas'udi made a distinction, calling the one 
 nation Targhiz, and the other Bulgar JfcXjj and that some copy- 
 ists wrote in both instances Bulgarians, and others Targhiz. 
 
 f One copy reads Bulgarians, and this name agrees with the 
 Byzantine historians. 
 
414 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 grimage (to Mokka), and was at Bagdad. Moktader 
 sent him one great and several small standards, and 
 presents of money. They have a great public 
 mosque. This king has made a holy expedition 
 against Constantinople, with about fifty thousand 
 horsemen. His predatory corps spread as far as 
 the territory of Rome, Spain, the country of Borjan 
 ^U^j (Burgundy?), Galicia, and France*, which is 
 about two months' journey from Constantinople ; 
 the intermediate country is partly cultivated and 
 partly uncultivated. The Moslims had made a re- 
 ligious war from Tarsus, on the Syrian frontier, 
 against Jarkendiyah &<xj^*, under the minister f 
 Thaml $, the governor of the frontier, who is 
 known under the name ed-Daksi ^A^JA!! (^xJAll), 
 with the Moslim and Christian { vessels which he 
 
 * X-xr'w^! El-Ifranjah. I suppose this word means the French 
 in authors who wrote before the crusades, for the eastern Arabs 
 derived their knowledge of Europe from the Moors in Spain, who 
 were best acquainted with the French amongst all European na- 
 tions, if they were not the only Christian nation beyond the 
 Pyrenees of whom they had a precise knowledge. Since the 
 Crusades, the word Ifranjah means any European. 
 
 t ..tJliLj means that he had a place in the household of the 
 khalif. First, slaves were employed to serve the khalif ; subse- 
 quently, they took advantage of the weakness of the sovereign, 
 and the menial offices in his household became of more importance 
 than right or talent. Thus, Khadim, or servant, became a title 
 as minister with us. 
 
 J One copy reads xjljj^ (.jytu^U ^S\^ 9 "The Mos- 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 415 
 
 commanded, in A. H. 312; they passed through 
 the strait of Constantinople and entered a gulf of 
 the Mediterranean, which has no communication 
 with any other sea, and then they came into the 
 country of Jarkendiyah. On land they met a num- 
 ber of Targhiz who came to their aid ; and they said 
 that their king was not far off. This proves what 
 we have said, that the Targhiz had extended their 
 military expeditions as far as the Mediterranean. 
 Some went with the Moslims on board the Tarsian 
 vessels, and came to Tarsus. 
 
 The Targhiz (Bulgarians) are a great and power- 
 ful nation : they are brave and have subjected their 
 neighbours; and one horseman of theirs, who has 
 turned Moslim,to the number of which belongs the 
 king, can oppose three other horsemen and two 
 hundred unbelievers. The inhabitants of Constan- 
 tinople are not able to defend themselves against 
 them, excepting by their walls; the same is the 
 case with other districts in that neighbourhood ; 
 their only protection are their fortresses and walls. 
 
 The night is exceedingly short in the country of 
 the Bulgarians all the year round; some believe 
 that a Bulgarian cannot boil (meat in) his kettle 
 
 lim and 'Omanian vessels ;" and another ^ juyoLUi t-f]^ 
 /.yAJj^AjJ " the Syrian and Basrian vessels." As they could 
 not bring the vessels from the Persian Gulf into the Mediterra- 
 nean, I read the last word 
 
416 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 before the morning comes. We have explained the 
 reason of this phenomenon in our former books, as 
 depending upon the spherical form (of the earth); 
 we have also said, that the night lasts in some 
 parts of the world six months without interruption ; 
 and then again, that they have six months' day, 
 and no night. This is about (the time when the 
 sun is in) capricornus cf<x^. The reasons which 
 are connected with the spherical form (of the earth) 
 are also stated by the authors of the astronomical 
 tables. 
 
 The Russians cr^t consist of several different 
 nations and distinct hordes ; one is called *Ate^JM 
 (*>l*jjXJ() (Lithuanians?). They go on their mer- 
 cantile business as far as Spain, Rome, Constan- 
 tinople, and the Khazar. After the year 300, they 
 had five hundred ships, every one of which had one 
 hundred men on board : they passed up the estuary 
 (of the Don) which opens into the Pontus, and is in 
 communication with the river of the Khazar 
 (Wolga). The king of the Khazar keeps a garrison 
 on this side the estuary, with efficient warlike 
 equipments to exclude any other power from this 
 passage, and to prevent them from occupying, by 
 land, that branch of the river of the Khazar 
 which stands in connection with the Pontus ; for 
 the Nomadic Turks, who are the Ghozz yai, try 
 frequently to winter there. Sometimes the water 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 417 
 
 (the Don) which connects the river of the Khazar 
 (Wolga) with the above-mentioned estuary is frozen, 
 and the Ghozz cross it with their horses, for although 
 it is a great water, the ice does not break under them. 
 The king of the Khazar himself frequently takes 
 the field against them, if his garrison is too weak 
 to drive them back, and he prevents them from 
 going over the ice, thus defending his dominions. It 
 is impossible for the Turks to cross the river 
 in summer. 
 
 When the Russian vessels came to the garrison, 
 on the entrance of the estuary, they sent to the 
 king of the Khazar to ask his permission to pass 
 through his dominions, to go down his river, and 
 enter into the sea of the Khazar, which is the sea 
 of Jorjan, Taberistan, and of other places of the 
 Barbarians ^U^t as we have stated, promising 
 him half the plunder which they should make from 
 the nations who live on the coast of this sea. He 
 gave them leave. They entered the estuary, and, 
 continuing their voyage up the river (Don) , as far 
 as the river of the Khazar (Wolga), they went 
 down this river, passed the town of Itil, and 
 entered through its mouth into the sea of the 
 Khazar. This is a very large and deep river. By 
 these means the Russians came into this sea, and 
 spread their predatory excursions over el-Jil, ed- 
 Dailem, Taberistan, Aboskun, which is the name 
 for the coast of Jorjan, the Naphtha Country 
 
 2 E 
 
418 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 uIl, and towards Aderbijan, the town of Ardobil 
 J.AJ^J which is in Aderbijan, and about three days' 
 journey from this sea. They shed blood, plundered 
 property, made children prisoners, and sent out 
 predatory and incendiary corps in all directions. 
 The inhabitants of the coasts of this sea were 
 thrown into consternation, for they had never had 
 to contend with an enemy from these quarters ; for 
 the sea had only been frequented by peaceful traders 
 and fishing-boats. They had been at war with 
 el-Jil, ed-Dailem, and the leader of the forces of 
 Ibn Abi-s-Saj ^L? g] ^>\, but with no other 
 nation. The Russians landed on the coast of the 
 Naphtha Country, which is called Babikah XLL 
 (Baku), and belongs to the kingdom of Sharwan- 
 Shah. On their return from the coast, the Russians 
 landed in the islands which are near the Naphtha 
 Country, being only a few miles distant from it. 
 The king of Sharwan was then 'Ali Ben el-Haithem. 
 As the merchants sailed in boats and vessels in 
 pursuit of their commercial business to those islands, 
 the Russians attacked them ; thousands of Moslims 
 perished, and were partly put to the sword, partly 
 drowned. The Russians remained several months 
 in this sea, as we have before said. The nations 
 on the coast had no means of repelling them, although 
 they made warlike preparations and put themselves 
 in a state of defence, for the inhabitants of the 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 419 
 
 coasts on this sea are well civilized. When they 
 had made booty and captives, they sailed to the 
 mouths of the river of the Khazar (Wolga), and 
 sent messengers with money and booty to the king, 
 in conformity with the stipulations which they had 
 made. The king of the Khazar has no ships on 
 this sea, for the Khazar are no sailors; if they were, 
 they would be of the greatest danger to the Moslims. 
 The Larisians * and other Moslims in the country 
 of the Khazar heard of the conduct of the Rus- 
 sians, and they said to their king: " The Russians 
 have invaded the country of our Moslim brothers ; 
 they have shed their blood and made their wives 
 and children captives, as they were unable to resist ; 
 permit us to oppose them." As the king was not 
 able to keep them quiet, he sent messengers to 
 the Russians, informing them that the Moslims 
 intended to attack them. The Moslims took the 
 field and marched against them, going down the 
 banks of the river. When both parties saw each 
 other, the Russians left their vessels and formed 
 their battle array opposite the Moslims. In the 
 ranks of the latter were many Christians of Itil 
 ys\. The number of the Moslim army was about 
 
 AM,Jl al-Larisiah, or Allaris, for the syllable iah expresses 
 sometimes the plural; they are the Alares of the middle ages, 
 as Klaproth correctly supposes. 
 
 2 E 2 
 
420 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 fifteen thousand men, provided with horses and 
 equipments. They fought three days, and God 
 gave victory to the Moslims: they put the Russians 
 to the sword, others were drowned, and only five 
 thousand escaped ; who sailed (first) along the bank 
 of the river, on which Bortas* is situated; (then) 
 they left their vessels and proceeded by land. Some 
 of them were slain by the inhabitants of Bortas, and 
 others came into the country of Targhiz, where they 
 fell under the sword of the Moslims. There were 
 about thirty thousand dead counted on the banks 
 of the river of the Khazar. The Russians did not 
 make a similar attempt after that year. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, we have related this fact in 
 proof (of our statement that the Black sea and 
 Caspian are separated) against those who maintain 
 that the sea of the Khazar is connected with the sea 
 Mayotis and the strait of Constantinople, through 
 the Mayotis or Pontus ; for if this was the case, the 
 Russians would have made their voyage by this way, 
 being the masters of the Black sea, as we have 
 said. Besides, the merchants of all the nations 
 who live near this sea state, unanimously, that the 
 sea of the Barbarians ^U^ has no strait by which 
 it is connected with any other sea ; and as this 
 sea is but small, it can be known in its whole ex- 
 
 * One copy reads Autas 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 421 
 
 tent. The history of the Russian ships, which we 
 have related, is generally known amongst all nations 
 who live there. I have forgotten the exact date of 
 their expedition, but it happened after 300 A. H. 
 Perhaps those who maintain that the sea of the 
 Khazar is connected with the strait of Constanti- 
 nople mean, under the sea of the Khazar, the sea 
 Mayotis, and the Pontus, which is the sea of the 
 Targhiz and Russians ; God knows how this is. 
 
 The coast of Taberistan extends along this sea 
 (the Caspian) , and there is the town called es-Samer 
 ^**J\ (*jdO> which is a seaport, and one hour of the 
 day from the town of Itil. On the coast of Jorjan 
 is the town Aboskun*, about three days' journey 
 from (the town of) Jorjan. On this sea are also 
 el-Jil and ed-Dailem. There is a constant naviga- 
 tion carried oa between the above-mentioned towns 
 and Itil. They go up the river [Wolga] as far as 
 Itil; they sail also to Bakah (Baku) XTL, which 
 yields white and other naphtha ; white naphtha is 
 found no where on earth but there. Baku lies 
 on the south of the kingdom of Sharwan. In this 
 naphtha country is a crater (chimney) from which 
 fire issues perpetually, throwing up a high flame. 
 Opposite this coast are several islands : one of them 
 is three days distant, in which there is a great vol- 
 
 * All MSS. write this name invariably 
 
422 EL-MAs'tJDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 cano which often throws out fire, at all seasons 
 of the year. The fire rises like a high mountain 
 in the air, and its light spreads over the greater part 
 of the sea, so that it is seen at a distance of one 
 hundred farsangs. This volcano is like el-Borkan 
 (jo^j-jJJ in Sicily, which is between the country of 
 the Franks and Afrikiyah. There is no volcano on 
 earth which makes a greater noise, nor any the 
 smoke of which is more black, or the flames more 
 copious, than that which is in the kingdom of the 
 Maharaj. Next comes the volcano of Barahiit 
 yt^j, which is not far from Asfar and Hadhramaut, 
 in the country of esh-Shihr, which is in the province 
 of Yemen and 'Oman. The noise is heard like 
 thunder at a distance of several miles, and it throws 
 live coals up from its depth like mountains, and 
 pieces of black rock which rise so high in the air 
 that they can be seen at many miles' distance; then 
 they fall down again, partly into the crater, and 
 partly round it. The live coals which are thrown 
 out are stones which have become red by the par- 
 ticles of heat which they have absorbed. We have 
 explained the cause which produces volcanoes 
 (springs of fire) in our Akhbar ez-zeman. 
 
 In this sea are islands opposite the coast of 
 Jorjan, where a sort of white falcons *!j.j are caught. 
 These falcons are soon made tame ; and one has 
 little to fear that they will associate (with the wild 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 423 
 
 birds) ; but they are rather weak, for the sports- 
 men who catch them in these islands feed them with 
 fish; and, if any other food is given to them, they 
 become reduced in strength. Men who distinguish 
 themselves by their knowledge of falconry ^j\yd\9 
 and of the different sorts of rapacious birds which 
 have been employed for the same purpose, among 
 the Persians,, Turks,, Byzantines, Hindus, and Arabs, 
 say, that falcons of a white colour are the quickest 
 and handsomest ; that they have the best shape and 
 chest; and that they are soonest tamed, and the 
 strongest of all falcons to rise in the air ; that they 
 have the longest breath, and fly furthest, for they 
 are very light and spirited*, and they have a hotter 
 temper than any other species of falcons. The dif- 
 ference of colour depends upon the difference of 
 climate. Hence, they are of a pure white in Ar- 
 menia, in the country of the Khazar, in Jorjan, 
 and the neighbouring countries of the Turks, on 
 account of the great fall of snow in those climates. 
 A sage of the Khakans (J ^^\^ 9 or kings of 
 the Turks, to whom all other kings of the Turks 
 pay submission, says, " When the falcons of our 
 country bring out their young from the nest into 
 the open field, they rise in the air till they come to 
 a cold and dense atmosphere, where there are insects 
 
 * Literally? " there are parts of warmth in them." 
 
424 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 with which they feed them ; this soon makes them 
 strong, and they learn to use their wings and to fly 
 high to find their food. Some times fragments of 
 those insects are found in the nests of falcons." 
 According to Galen's classification, the air is warm 
 and moist ; so that the cold of the air is owing to 
 the intenseness of winds which rise. The air is not 
 without beings which inhabit it. Balinas cr-U^L 
 (tjAolJb)* (Pliny) says, " Since in these two ele- 
 ments, viz., earth and water, are beings and inhabit- 
 ants, the two upper elements, i.e., air and fire, must 
 also have beings and inhabitants." 
 
 I have found in some anecdotes of er-Rashid, 
 that he went out hunting one day in the country 
 near el-Mausil, with a white falcon on his hand. 
 
 * This author is in the Royal Library at Paris. I shall have an 
 opportunity of inserting the leading points of the contents of this 
 curious and very philosophical book in another volume. M. De 
 Sacy supposes, that the word is a corruption of Apollonius ; this, 
 however, seems not to be well founded. There are many instances 
 in which the Arabs put an \ at the beginning of foreign names; but 
 perhaps, none where they omit it. Dr. Nicolls found this author 
 quoted in a MS. of the Bodl. Library (see Catal. Bill. Bodl). 
 In a geographical work in the British Museum, which was 
 composed under Mo'tadhed, he has the surname ^vcjJJ the 
 Roman, and is said to have constructed talismans. It seems that 
 the fame of the Latin naturalist penetrated to the Arabs, but as 
 they had no translation of his works, they connected marvels with 
 his name, and put it on the head of their own compositions. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 425 
 
 The bird became uneasy on his hand, and he let 
 it off: it rose in the air till it disappeared from 
 his eyes. After he had despaired of seeing it 
 again, he perceived it with an insect, which was 
 like a serpent, or a fish, with wings like the fins of 
 a fish. Er-Rashid had it put on a plate; and, when 
 he had returned from his sport, he called learned 
 men, and asked them whether they were aware of 
 a being living in the air. " O, Commander of 
 the Faithful," answered Mokatil JJUU, " a tradition 
 of thy ancestor 'Abdullah Ben el-'Abbas informs 
 us, that the air is inhabited by people f\ of different 
 forms; and nearer to us than these people live 
 white insects, which breed in the air, being kept 
 aloof by the thicker atmosphere. They grow to 
 the shape of a serpent, or a fish, with wings ; they 
 have, however, no feathers. These insects are 
 caught by the white falcons, which live in Arme- 
 nia." The Khalif produced the plate, showed the 
 insect, and made rich presents to Mokatil. 
 
 Some good observers have told me in Egypt 
 and other countries, that they have seen white ser- 
 pents in the air, which moved from one place to 
 another with a celerity that was equal to lightning; 
 that they fell sometimes upon an animal on the 
 earth and killed it; that they are sometimes heard 
 flying by night ; and that their locomotion in 
 the air is accompanied with a noise like that which 
 is produced when a new cloth is unfolded. Persons 
 
426 EL-MAs'uni's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 who have no knowledge of this subject, or other 
 women (superstitious and ignorant persons), are 
 frequently heard saying, that this sound proceeds 
 from witches, who fly on wings of quills through 
 the air. Various opinions have been stated on these 
 topics ; and such proofs have been adduced of the 
 existence of animals in the two (upper) elements, 
 as leave no doubt that animals are generated and 
 grown in the two light elements, which are air and 
 fire, as there are generated and grown in the two 
 denser elements, earth and water. 
 
 El-Mas'fidi says, the sages and kings have 
 described the falcons, and dilated on their praise. 
 The Khakan, or king of the Turks, says, " The 
 falcon is courageous and well-behaved." Kisra 
 Anusharwan praises this bird in these words: " He 
 is active and watchful, and he seizes the opportunity 
 when he can." The Csesar says, " The falcon is a 
 noble king ; when he is in need he takes, and when 
 it is expedient he relinquishes." The philosophers 
 speak thus of the falcon: " You may expect that a 
 falcon will pursue his prey with great velocity, 
 attack it powerfully, and fly very high, if he have 
 long legs and a wide chest ; for this is a sign of 
 strength, and that he is light and quick. You will 
 observe in birds of prey, that their strength is in 
 proportion to the width of their chest, whereas 
 their velocity and skill in turning round (in vertical 
 motion) are in proportion to the length of their 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 427 
 
 legs and the compactness of their bodies ; for the 
 strength of the falcon is reduced if the wings are 
 short, and the body thin (delicate) ; but if they are 
 too long he is rendered weak and soon fatigued. 
 Birds of prey cannot overtake any other birds than 
 such as have short legs, and you will find that the 
 strength of woodcocks, quails,, and partridges, is 
 in an inverse proportion to the length of their 
 legs. 
 
 Arsijanis says, the falcon is a rapacious bird, 
 but he is not provided with any sort of protection 
 by nature; his strength consists in the slenderness 
 (of the hind part of his body and the length) of his 
 feet; and although he is the weakest of all birds in 
 body, he is the most courageous, for he possesses a 
 degree of heat which is not found in other birds. 
 We found that his chest consists of a tendinous 
 texture, and is not swelled with flesh. The words 
 of Arsijanis are confirmed by Galen. The former 
 author says further, that the falcon builds his nest 
 on trees of thorns, which he puts together at differ- 
 ent intervals; and he protects himself by these 
 means against heat and cold. If he is breeding he 
 builds for himself a house (nest), with a roof that 
 shuts out rain and snow, that he may be comfort- 
 able and protected against cold. 
 
 Adham Ben Mohriz j^sz ^j f&&\ says, that 
 the first who amused himself with birds of prey was 
 el-Hareth Ben Mo'awiyah Ben Thaur, who was the 
 
428 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 father of Kindah ^ 
 >*r. He went out one day sporting, and laid 
 snares for sparrows (small birds). An akdar bird 
 ^^n fell upon one of the sparrows, which had already 
 been caught in the snares. Akdar ^\ has the same 
 meaning as Sakr* jLa, and is also called the Ajdal 
 J<>c.3!. He ate the sparrow although he was him- 
 self caught. The king, surprised at his devouring 
 the sparrow, although his wings were broken, shut 
 him up in a large cage, and he saw that he was 
 quiet, and that he did not make any efforts to 
 escape. If food was given to him he ate it ; if he 
 saw meat he jumped on the hands of his master; 
 and he became so tame that he did what was said to 
 him, that he ate from the hand, and was carried 
 unconfined. One day he saw a dove ; he flew 
 after it, from the hand of his master, and caught 
 it. The king ordered therefore to use the falcon 
 for hunting. One day when the king was going 
 with the falcon and saw a hare, the falcon flew upon 
 the hare and took it. The king used it therefore for 
 sporting and killing birds and hares. Since this 
 time falcons have been employed amongst the 
 Arabs, and their use became more general. 
 
 Arsijanis y^JUzv^l the philosopher, relates res- 
 
 * This is a species of hawk. Baron v. Hammer- Purgstall 
 (Falkner-Klee) renders this name in German by Sakerfalke. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 429 
 
 pecting the hawks ^/jMyLM, in his book which the 
 Byzantine emperor, who had the name Nisban(?) 
 ^UMU (^U*A*), sent to el-Mahdi as a present from 
 his country, that is to say, the Byzantine dominions, 
 one day a hawk ^M-* descended upon a water-fowl 
 and caught it ; then he rose in the air and repeated 
 the same movements several times. The king said, 
 " This is a sporting bird; he has shown his skill in 
 flying down on the water-fowl, and this makes him 
 fit for sporting; and he has shown us his quickness 
 in rising in the air, which speaks for his agility." 
 He was surprised when he saw how well he could 
 turn round (in vertical motion), and was the first 
 who used hawks ^/jfc^-* for sporting. 
 
 Sa'id Ben 'Ofair ( j*s) j>* ^^t V~> relates, 
 on the authority of Hashim Ben Khadij ^U 
 ^.Xi. QJ.J QM*U), that Constantine, the king of 
 Amariyah, went out sporting with a falcon, and 
 came as far as the strait of the Pont us, which joins 
 this sea with the Mediterranean. He crossed it, 
 and went to the plains between the strait and the 
 sea. Seeing a hawk persecuting a water-fowl, he 
 admired him for his quickness, violence, and cou- 
 rage, in pursuing his prey, and he ordered him to be 
 caught and tamed ; and he was the first who used 
 kawks. Observing that the meadow was extensive, 
 and covered with flowers of different colours, he 
 said, this is a strong place, between the sea and a 
 
430 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 river (the strait), and fit for a town: and this in- 
 duced him to build Constantinople. 
 
 We shall relate the history of Constantine, the 
 son of Helena,, who made the Christian religion vic- 
 torious, in the chapter which treats on the history 
 of the Byzantines. This is one version of the his- 
 tory of the construction of Constantinople. 
 
 Ibn 'Ofair relates, upon the authority of Abu 
 Yezid el-Fehri cs^\ Jo ^j #\ (V?.?Ji Joj ^\) 9 that 
 it was the usage with the Lodriks A^jJlH, of Spain, 
 that the king had hawks flying over the army, and 
 over the cavalcade, whenever he went out on an 
 expedition, or in procession. The birds were 
 taught to fly sometimes high and sometimes low; 
 so they went on till he took his quarters ; then they 
 sat round him. One day one of their kings set 
 out ; the hawks were with him, in the described 
 manner, and one of them pursued and caught some 
 birds which flew up. This induced the king to dress 
 them for sporting; and he was the first who used 
 them for this purpose in the Maghrib and in Spain. 
 
 El-Mas'udi says, it is the account of many 
 persons who are well- versed in this subject, that the 
 inhabitants of the Maghrib were the first who 
 amused themselves with vultures ^1>J^. When 
 the Byzantines (Romans) observed the robust con- 
 stitution of their body and the abundance of their 
 excrements l^-ob!? their wise men said no bird 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 431 
 
 is more fit for mischief than this. It is related that 
 the emperor sent a vulture to the Kisra, and wrote 
 him, that he was more efficient than the falcon 
 uaM, with the sport of which he was so delighted. 
 The Kisra ordered him to be set against a wild buck 
 csvk, and the bird got the better of him, notwith- 
 standing his resistance. The Kisra returned, full 
 of joy, from this sight. When he hungered him 
 for sporting, the bird fell upon a boy, and killed 
 him. The Kisra said, " The emperor deprives us 
 of our children without an army." The Kisra pre- 
 sented the emperor in return with an eagle, and 
 wrote to him that he had killed wild bucks, and 
 similar animals ; but he did not mention that the 
 vulture had killed a boy. The emperor admired 
 the eagle, which was like a hyena *x$3; but as he 
 was not on his guard, several boys were torn to 
 pieces by the bird. The emperor said, " The 
 Kisra takes us for his game; but, since we have 
 made a game of him, it does no harm." 
 
 In speaking of the sea of Jorjan and its islands, 
 we went beyond our limits, and treated on the 
 different sorts of birds of prey ; we shall give a 
 summary account of the falcons, and how many 
 different species of birds of prey there exist, in the 
 chapter on the Byzantine kings. Now we return 
 to our account of Bab el-Abwab, and the nations 
 which live in the neighbourhood of this wall, and of 
 the Caucasus. 
 
432 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 We have already stated, that the population of 
 Haidan is one of the worst nations near Bab el- 
 Abwab ; their king is a Mohammedan, and con- 
 siders himself as descended from Kahlan. His 
 children and his household are the only Moslims 
 in all his dominions. The name of the present 
 [332 A.H.] king is Salman* j,UL* (^IxXA-j) ; and 
 I believe this is the title of every king of this 
 country. Between the kingdom of Khaidan 
 
 - O ,- 
 
 (^U/^ (Hai'dan) and Bab el-Abwab, is a Moham- 
 medan population of Arabian origin f who speak 
 only Arabic. They live in villages situated in 
 forests, jungles, valleys, and on large rivers. They 
 have been there since the time when the country 
 was conquered by them. Although their country 
 is on the frontier of the kingdom of Haidan, they 
 are independent ; for it is inaccessible on account 
 of its forests and rivers. The distance from the 
 town of Bab el-Abwab to this country, is only 
 three miles. The inhabitants of Bab el-Abwab 
 call them sometimes to their aid. 
 
 On the frontiers of the kingdom of Haidan, 
 
 * This, observes M. Klaproth, is probably a fault instead of 
 ioi Shamgal, which is, to this day, the title of the prince of 
 Kormik, who resides at Tarkhu. 
 
 f These Arabs live to this day in the neighbourhood of 
 Sharwan as nomades. See Klaproth. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 433 
 
 towards the Caucasus and the wall, is a king called 
 Birzoban j,L^j, he is a Moslim, and the name of 
 his country is el-Karaj g^tfi. The inhabitants are 
 armed with clubs. Birzoban is the title of every 
 king who rules over this country. 
 
 Next to the Birzoban is a nation called 
 Ghumik < **$ (< 5u*e). They are Christians, and 
 have no king, but chieftains, who are on friendly 
 terms with el-Lan. Next to them, towards the 
 wall and the mountain is the kingdom of Zarikeran 
 6b^d;!> which means " coat of mail manufactory," 
 for most of the inhabitants are employed in making 
 coats of mail, stirrups, bridles, swords, and similar 
 instruments of iron. They have various religions; 
 some are Moslims, others are Jews and Christians. 
 Their country is very rough and inaccessible to the 
 neighbouring nations. Beyond them are the do- 
 minions of Filan Shah *U> ^^/J, who is a Christian; 
 and, as we have already stated, he is descended from 
 Behram Gur. He has the name of king of the 
 Serir (throne), for Yezdejerd, the last of the Sasa- 
 nian kings,, sent, when he took flight, his throne of 
 gold and his treasures, with one of the descendants 
 of Behram Gur, to this country, and there they 
 were preserved till his death; for Yezdejerd went to 
 Khorasan, where he was killed during the khalifat 
 of 'Othman, as we have related in this book and in 
 our other works. They remained in this coun- 
 
 2 F 
 
434 EL-MAS'UD1'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 try; he made himself master of it, and his succes- 
 sors have therefore the name Sahib es-Serir* to this 
 day. The capital of this king is called Khomikhf 
 j**- Twelve thousand villages obey him, and 
 it is in his choice to make any of their inhabitants 
 slaves. His country is rough, and therefore well 
 protected against any invasion ; it occupies a valley 
 of the Caucasus. He some times overruns the 
 country of the Khazar, for they live in plains, and 
 he in mountains. 
 
 Next to this kingdom comes the kingdom of el- 
 Lan, the king of which has the name of el-Ker- 
 kendaj ^\^S^\ (^jarjJft), which is a general 
 title for all kings of this country, as Filan-Shah is 
 the title of all kings of es-Serir. The capital of 
 el-Lan is Ma's oax^ (<_,***>), which means " obser- 
 vation of religion," 2wLx He has several magnifi- 
 cent palaces, besides his residence in the capital, in 
 which he occasionally resides. He is related to the 
 king of es-Serir, one having married the sister of 
 the other. The kings of el-Lan embraced, after the 
 rise of the Islam, during the 'Abbaside dynasty, the 
 
 * Serir is evidently the name of the nation, who are probably 
 the same as the Serri of Pliny, (lib. vi., cap. 5,) who wrote 
 nearly six hundred years before Yezdejerd. As Serlr happens 
 to mean throne in Arabic, the above fable was invented. 
 
 f Klaproth's MS. reads Homraj ; he identifies therefore this 
 town with Humry, in the territory of the Uzmei of the Kaitak, 
 now called Kavah Kend. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 435 
 
 Christian religion ; previously they were Pagans ; 
 and after 320 A. H., they returned to their former 
 faith, giving up Christianity, and expelling the 
 bishops and priests who had been sent to them by 
 the Byzantine emperor. 
 
 Between the kingdom of el-Lan and the Cau- 
 casus is a fortress, and a bridge over a large river. 
 The fortress has the name of Kal'ah Bab el-Lan (the 
 citadel of the Alan gate or pass), and was built by a 
 king of the first Persian dynasty, called Isfendiar. He 
 placed there a garrison, to prevent the Alans from 
 entering the Caucasus ; for no other road leads 
 there but that which goes over this bridge, which is 
 commanded by the castle. It is built on live rock^ 
 which renders it impregnable, and it is impossible 
 to cross the bridge, if opposed by the garrison. 
 This castle, which stands on the summit of the 
 rock, has a spring of fresh water in its centre. 
 This is one of the most famous fortresses on earth, 
 both for its strength and for the historical recol- 
 lections which are connected with it, and related by 
 Persian poets, who describe its construction by 
 Isfendiar. 
 
 Isfendiar had many wars with various nations 
 of the eastern countries: he marched to the country 
 of the Turks, and destroyed the city of es-Safr 
 ^ju^JI, which was very extensive, fortified by nature, 
 and considered as impregnable ; so that it had be- 
 come proverbial with the Persians. The exploits 
 
 2 F 2 
 
436 EL-MAS'lJDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 of Isfendiar, and the details which we have given, 
 are related in the book y^X**!! i^UT (^xCuJl or 
 LtAxJI or (5V&JJ1), which has been translated by 
 Ibn el-Mokaffa' into Arabic. When Moslemah 
 Ben 'Abd el-Melik Ben Merwan penetrated to those 
 countries, he settled some Arabs in this fortress, 
 after he had made peace with the nations, whose 
 posterity defend the place to this day. Sometimes 
 they receive their provisions from the plains which 
 are near Tiflis. This town is five long days' jour- 
 ney distant from this fortress. One man can op- 
 pose all the unbelieving kings, in this castle, so 
 advantageous is its commanding position, it being 
 (as it were) suspended in the air, over the bridge 
 and valley. 
 
 The king of the Alans * musters thirty thousand 
 brave and stong horsemen: this force gives him 
 the supremacy over other kings. The cultivation 
 of his kingdom is uninterrupted, so that when the 
 cock crows, he is answered in the whole of his 
 dominions, the country being all covered with inha- 
 bitants and cultivation. 
 
 Next to the Alans live a nation called Kashak 
 ^S: their country extends from the Caucasus to 
 the Mediterranean ^\ ^sr. They are a great 
 nation, and follow the Magian religion. They are, 
 among all the nations whom we have mentioned, 
 
 * One copy reads, the king of es-Serir. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 437 
 
 the cleanest, and the most handsome in their ap- 
 pearance, both men and women. They have good 
 persons, are slender round the waist,, have well- 
 shaped hips, and are of a comely form. The Kashak 
 women are celebrated for their charms. They dress 
 in white, in Greek brocade ^^ ^UjjJJ, in cloth 
 of scarlet ^^k&JLJ! colour, and other sorts of 
 cloth, as gilt brocade. In their country various 
 sorts of cloths are manufactured of hemp and other 
 materials: one sort is called et-Talli cloth ^XkJI 
 (jUl): it is finer than damask (silk) <j^.jx!!, and 
 
 stouter than (our) hemp cloth JulT (<xT). One piece 
 of this sort of cloth costs about ten dinars; and is 
 exported to the neighbouring Moslim countries. 
 The same cloth is exported from other nations, who 
 live near the Kashak ; but the best comes from them. 
 
 The Alans are much stronger than this nation., 
 and they cannot maintain their independency, 
 except by fortifying themselves against the Alans 
 in the citadel which they have erected on the sea 
 coast. There is some controversy respecting the 
 sea on which they live ; some take it for the 
 Mediterranean, whilst others consider it to be the 
 Pontus. I have only to observe, that their sea is 
 not far from the country of Trebizond, and that a 
 constant navigation and trade are kept up between 
 them and this city. 
 
 The reason why they are too weak to oppose 
 
438 EL-MAS J UDi's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the Alans is, that their power is not concentrated 
 under one king. If they were united, neither the 
 Alans nor any other nation would have power over 
 them. The word kashak is Persian, and means 
 pride &*jil\ and arrogance c^X^St, for a person who 
 has these two qualities is called JiS in Persian. 
 
 Next to this nation comes another, the country 
 of which is called the Seven Lands * ^taXj x*JI, 
 and lies on the sea. They form a large and power- 
 ful nation, who are in possession of an extensive 
 country. I know nothing respecting their religion 
 and government. On the Seven Lands border a 
 large nation,, who are separated from the Kashak 
 by a great river which falls into the Mediterranean, 
 or into the sea Mayotis. On this river live nu- 
 merous hordes, of a nation of the name of Irem 
 -j\ (fttl)' They are Pagans, and strange looking 
 people. There is a curious story related of fish 
 which come every year to this country. They cut 
 flesh off from them. When they come back the 
 next year, the flesh has grown again, and they cut it 
 off from the other side. This story is well known 
 amongst the unbelievers of that country f. 
 
 * The German name for Transylvania Siebenbiirgen has 
 nearly the same meaning, but is not as ancient as el-Mas'udi. 
 
 f Klaproth remarks, that the inhabitants of the coast of the 
 Caspian, on the mouth of the Korr, cut the eggs out from the 
 belly of the fish for caviar, and throw the fish back into the 
 water. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 439 
 
 Not far from this country is another between 
 four high and inaccessible mountains, which include 
 a plain of nearly one hundred miles. In the centre 
 of this plain is a circle, as exact as if it had been 
 marked out with compasses J^ 9 in solid stone. 
 The circuit is formed by a complete ring hewn in 
 stone, which is fifty miles in circumference. The 
 pieces [of rock by which this ring is formed] go 
 vertically down like a wall which is raised from be- 
 low upwards, two miles high.* These rocks render 
 it impossible to go within the inclosure. By night, 
 you see many lights in it in different places ; and 
 by day, you discover villages, cultivated grounds, 
 rivers which water those villages, men, and cattle f; 
 but every thing appears little, on account of the 
 height from which you look down. Nobody knows 
 what nation they are, for they are unable to climb 
 
 ' r 
 
 f A similar story is related in Abul-ghazi Khan, who fol- 
 lowed Mongolish traditions. It seems, therefore, to be a widely 
 spread tradition of Central Asia. Perhaps such places were se- 
 cluded from the world to give to them, and those who inhabit them, 
 through remoteness, a degree of sacredness. Any one who has 
 passed the dreary and solitary plains extending many miles round 
 Stonehenge, a sacred place of the Druids, near Salisbury, must be 
 struck with this idea. Perhaps a comparison might be drawn, 
 and even an affinity and connexion might be discovered, between 
 those Tatar places of worship and the sacred forests of the 
 Druids. 
 
440 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 up (the surrounding mountains from within), and no 
 one who ascends to the top (from without) can go 
 down to them. 
 
 Behind these four mountains on the sea coast 
 is another ring near the precipice ; in it are forests 
 and jungles, which are inhabited by a sort of mon- 
 keys who have an erect stature and round face ; they 
 are exceedingly like men, but they are all covered 
 with hair. Sometimes it happens that they are 
 caught. They show very great intelligence and 
 docility; but they are deprived of speech, by which 
 they could express themselves, although they un- 
 derstand* what is spoken. But they express them- 
 selves by signs. Sometimes they are brought to the 
 kings of those nations, and they are taught to stand 
 by them and to taste what is on their table ; for the 
 monkeys have the peculiar quality of knowing if 
 poison is in food or drink. Some part of the food 
 is given to the monkey who smells it, and, if he 
 eats of it, the king eats: but, if not, he knows 
 that it contains poison. The same is the practice 
 of most Chinese and Hindu sovereigns. We have 
 given in this book an account of the Chinese 
 embassies which came to el-Mahdi ; and we related 
 what they said of the use which their kings make of 
 monkeys for tasting their food. We have also 
 
 * One copy reads that they do not understand what is spoken. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 441 
 
 mentioned the tale of the monkeys in Yemen, and 
 of the plate of iron on which Solaiman Ben Dawud 
 wrote a treaty to the monkeys of Yemen; and of 
 the governor of Mo'awiyah Ben Abi Sofyan, who 
 wrote a document respecting them: and we have 
 given the description of the great monkey who had 
 a table on his neck. 
 
 There are no monkeys on earth who are so clever 
 and mischievous as this species. Monkeys live in 
 warm climates, as in Nubia, and in the most northern 
 part of Abyssinia, on the banks of the upper course 
 of the Nile. They are called Nubian monkeys, and 
 are of a diminutive size, have little faces, and their 
 body is as black as pitch, as the Nubians themselves 
 are. This is the species which the monkey men 
 j^jjXH have. They mount on a spear and go 
 through their exercises on the top of it. Another 
 species of monkeys are in the northern regions, 
 forests, and jungles, in the country of the Sclavo- 
 nians and of other nations, of which we have said, 
 that they approach in their appearance, to the figure 
 of man. Monkeys are also found on the coasts of 
 the straits of el-Zanij, in the Chinese sea, and in 
 the dominions of the Maharaj, who, as we have al- 
 ready said, is king of the islands opposite the king- 
 dom of China, being situated between the kingdom 
 of el-Ballahra and China. The monkeys of those 
 countries are very numerous, and famous for the 
 perfection of their figure. From thence monkeys 
 
442 EL-MAS'UDI J S MEADOWS OP GOLD, 
 
 and serpents were brought to el-Moktader, They 
 were in long chains, and some of the monkeys had 
 beards and long whiskers ; some were young, and 
 others old. The present was accompanied by many 
 other curiosities of the sea ; they were brought by 
 Ahmed Ben Hilal j^fc ^j <x^!, who was then 
 governor of 'Oman. These monkeys are very well 
 known to the sailors of Siraf and 'Oman, who 
 trade with the countries of Kolah and ez-Zanij ; 
 they are also acquainted with the way of hunting 
 the crocodiles (alligators), which live at the bottom 
 of the water. El-Jahit believes they are only found 
 in the Nile of Egypt, and in the river Mihran of 
 es-Sind. We have related what is said on this sub- 
 ject, and where crocodiles are found, in the previous 
 pages of this book. In many places of Yemen, the 
 traveller is not able to fight his way through the 
 monkeys, they are so numerous; so, for instance, 
 in the valley of Nakhlah aXis? <ss\j, which is between 
 el-Jenned and Zabid, which is now [332 A.H.] under 
 Ibrahim Ben Ziyad *L>) ^j ft*jri> the governor 
 of el-Harmali JU^J.1. This valley is one day's 
 journey, or more, from Zabid. It is well cultivated, 
 and has abundance of flowing water and musa trees 
 ^JU. It is surrounded by two mountains. The 
 monkeys form there two corps; each is lead by a 
 Hazr j,yfc (jj&\ which means a male monkey, who 
 is distinguished by his superior size and virility, 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 443 
 
 and who is the leader of the rest. A she ape gives 
 birth to a dozen young monkeys at once, as the 
 sow brings forth many 'pigs. Some of the young 
 monkeys are nursed and carried by the mother just 
 as women carry their children, and the male takes 
 care of the rest. They have parties and meetings, 
 which are numerously attended. There you may hear 
 them speechify, and discuss matters. The female 
 monkeys chatter like women, when they are alone. 
 If a man hears their conversation and does not see 
 them, in those mountains, in musa and other trees, 
 and by night, he has no suspicion but that they are 
 human beings. The monkeys of Yemen are the 
 wildest, most mischievous, and have the greatest 
 docility. The Yemenites call the monkeys ^yi- 
 The male and female animal have long ringlets of 
 hair flowing over their shoulders, which are as black 
 as possible. When they meet, they sit according to 
 their rank, after their leader; and they imitate man 
 in all their doings. 
 
 In the valleys, plains, and mountains at Marib, 
 which is between the country of San'a and the castle 
 of Kahlan ^^T **Xi', the monkeys are so numerous, 
 that they may be compared with clouds. 
 
 Kahlan ^%r is one of the fortresses of Yemen, 
 where now As'ad Ben Ya'fur jy.*.* ^> <x**~t 
 (yL*j), the king of Yemen, lives; separated from 
 society, only with his court. This king is a rem- 
 
444 EL-MASU'DI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 nant of the Himyarite sovereigns, and has an army 
 of about fifty thousand men, infantry and cavalry, 
 in pay. They receive their pay every month at a 
 fixed time, which is called XJ^JM*. They assemble 
 here, and then they return into the Mikhalif of that 
 country: Mikhalif means fortresses &xM cjl^L^OL^t- 
 
 This prince had wars in Yemen with the Kar- 
 matians, and the Lord of the Zanj J, who was 'Ali 
 Ben el-Fadhl >UM ^ JL*, after 270 A.H.- 'Ali 
 acted a great part in Yemen until he was killed: 
 then Yemen surrendered to As'ad. 
 
 The monkeys are in several places of Yemen, 
 and in other regions of the earth, which we forbear 
 to mention; for we have explained the reason why 
 
 * JyS means to encamp and to quarter. They were pro- 
 bably drawn up in review when they received their pay : 
 XJyJi would therefore mean here, the being drawn up. 
 
 f 1 o&sS plural cjUJl^j means, with other Arabic authors, 
 a district of Yemen, of which there were seventy-two or seventy- 
 three. Some of the names of these districts are found in Johann- 
 sen (Hist. Jemanae, p. 34) ; but the list of all of them is in Ibn 
 Khordadbeh's Geography (MS. of the Bodleian Library). This 
 passage of el-Mas'udl's leads us to suppose that in every such 
 district was a fortress, inhabited, as one may presume, by one of 
 the Abna ^Uj^J or chiefs of the Persian expedition, which con- 
 quered the country under Anusharwan, and introduced a sort of 
 feudal system as it would appear. 
 
 The MSS. read S^U and S 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 445 
 
 they live in some quarters of the world, whilst they 
 are not met with in others, in our Akhbar ez- 
 zeinan, where we have also given an account of the 
 nisnas* ^UwJM, and the 'irbid J^^xM, which are a 
 sort of animals like serpents, in the Hajrf j.ar of 
 Yemamah: the singular is, according to the opinion 
 of some lexicographers, ^^. El-Motawakel asked, 
 in the beginning of his Khalifat, Honain Ben Ishak 
 to bring him, amongst other species of animals, 
 some nisnas: only two specimens were brought for 
 him to Serrmenray ; but he did not think to send 
 for an 'irbad; perhaps because this animal perishes 
 if it is removed from Yemamah,, at a certain dis- 
 tance from this province, in the cage in which it is 
 carried. The people of Yemamah use it against 
 serpents, scorpions, and other vermin, as the people 
 of Sijistan make use of the urchins Jolo for this 
 purpose. In ancient times no urchin was killed 
 in that country. This town was built by Alex- 
 ander, in an open and sandy country, and it is sur- 
 rounded by sand hills, which are supported by 
 wood arid reeds. There are a number of vipers, 
 
 * A kind of ape or satyr, which are said to inhabit the desert 
 of el- Ahkaf. 
 
 f This town is to be distinguished from el-Hijr, which is the 
 Petra of ancient geographers : there is for the rest a passage in 
 Pliny, lib. iv., cap. 32, where this town of Yemamah is to be 
 understood under Petra. 
 
446 EL-MAS'tTDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 and several species of serpents ; so that if they had 
 not many urchins, the inhabitants would be over- 
 come by them. In the same situation are the 
 Egyptians, in upper Egypt, and elsewhere. They 
 have a little animal, which they call el-'iras u^-ty^l 
 it is larger than a locust and smaller than a weazel, 
 of a red colour, with a white belly ; and, if it was 
 not for this reptile, the Egyptians would be over- 
 come by basilisks ^UA!!, which are a sort of great 
 serpents. When the basilisk forms a ring round 
 this little animal, it emits an air, by which the 
 basilisk bursts. This air is peculiar to this little 
 animal. The east has several peculiarities in land 
 and sea, in animals, vegetation, and such as are 
 caused by the destructive effects of the hot season. 
 The same can be said of the west, the Tayammon 
 (J <yM, i.e., the south, and the Jari i^y*, which means 
 the north. We have given an account of the nature 
 of the quarters of the world, and it would be a di- 
 gression from the plan of our work to enter into 
 details on those subjects in this chapter. 
 
 We will therefore return to the account of the 
 nations which live in the neighbourhood of Bab 
 el-Abwab, the wall, the Caucasus, the country of 
 the Khazar, and the Alans. On the frontiers of 
 the Khazar towards the west, live four Turkish 
 nations, which derive their origin from the same 
 forefather. Some of them are settled, whilst 
 others are nomads. They are all brave and can 
 
'AND MINES OF GEMS. 447 
 
 resist any nation . Each of them has its own king, 
 whose dominions have an extent of several days, 
 and they are contiguous to each other. Some of 
 them are on the Pontus. They extend their pre- 
 datory excursions as far as Rome ***,; XijtX-o 
 which is in the direction towards Spain. They are 
 victorious over all the nations who live there. 
 Between the king of the Khazar and the lord of 
 el-Lan a friendship exists. They are immediate 
 neighbours of the former. The first of these 
 
 o 
 
 nations has the name Bajna Us? (<s? or tf^sr). 
 
 ^0^0 
 
 The second is called Bajkord <^x==:, the next 
 following nation is called Bajinak JU^ (Uar^v- 
 a/arot), and is the bravest of the four. The fourth 
 is called Nukerodah (Novgorod?) *<^Ty. Their 
 kings have sovereign power*, they had wars with 
 the Byzantines after the year 320 A.H. (932 A.D.) 
 or in that yearf. The Byzantines have, oir"the~~ 
 frontiers towards these four nations, a large Greek 
 city which is called Walender^j^ ($OuJj or \jjj), 
 which has a great population (garrison), and is 
 protected by the sea on one side, and by mountains 
 on the other. The inhabitants (garrison) of this 
 town defended the country against the invasions of 
 
 _5^j 
 
 f Compare Cedrenus ad annum .934. 
 
448 EL-MAS'UD1'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the before mentioned four Turkish nations, and 
 they were unable to penetrate into the country of 
 the Byzantines, being precluded by mountains, the 
 sea, and this town. These four nations have been 
 at war with each other, on account of a dispute 
 respecting a Moslim merchant of Ardobil, who, 
 although he enjoyed the protection of hospitality of 
 one of these nations, was injured by another. This 
 gave rise to disunion. The Byzantines of Walen- 
 der took advantage of it, invaded their country 
 whilst they were disunited ; they took many of 
 their children prisoners, and plundered their pro- 
 perty. When they heard of this, as they were 
 occupied in their war, they united under one com- 
 mander, proclaimed a mutual amnesty, remitting 
 blood revenge ; and the whole nation, about six 
 thousand horse strong, at once repaired to the 
 town of Walender, and this without being called 
 out, and without collecting the men. If they had 
 called out their men, they would have mustered 
 about one hundred thousand horsemen. When 
 Romanus who is the present emperor of the Byzan- 
 tines, that is to say, in 332 A.H., had received 
 intelligence, he sent against them twelve thousand 
 (Arabic) horsemen* who had embraced the Chris- 
 
 * The Taghlebites, some of the Rabi'ah, and other tribes of 
 Syria and Mesopotamia, used to serve in the army of the Byzan- 
 tine emperors. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 449 
 
 tian religion, with spears in the Arabic costume 
 (Sj, and fifty thousand Byzantines. They came in 
 
 - o .- 
 
 eight days* to the town of Walender^ja^, encamped 
 beyond the town, and took (partly) their quarters 
 in the houses of the inhabitants. The Turks had 
 already killed a vast number of the population of 
 Walender, but they defended themselves with their 
 walls till this reinforcement reached them. When 
 the four kings had oberved that their enemies had 
 received the aid of those (Arabs) who had turned 
 Christians, and of the Byzantines, they sent unto 
 their own country, which lies towards the country 
 of the Khazar, Alans, Bab el-Abwab, and others, 
 and collected the Moslim population j* who did not 
 enlist except in wars against unbelievers. 
 
 When the two armies had drawn up in battle 
 array, the Christian Arabs advanced in front of the 
 ranks of the Byzantines; and, on the side of the 
 Turks, the merchants who were in their army pro- 
 ceeded from the ranks, and invited them to the 
 Mohammedan religion, promising to bring them 
 into the Moslim territory, if they would take quar- 
 ter from the Turks. They refused to accept these 
 
 * One copy reads eighteen days. 
 
 f One copy reads, they collected Moslim merchants who were 
 resident in their country, in that of the Khazar, Bab el-Abwab, of 
 the Alans, or any other country, and that portion of the four 
 Turkish nations who had embraced the Islam. 
 
 2 G 
 
450 EL-MAS'UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 terms, and they fought a general battle, in which 
 the Christian Arabs and Byzantines were superior 
 to the Turks; for their number was many times 
 greater than that of their enemies. They remained 
 that night at their posts. The four Turkish kings 
 held a council, in which the king of the Bajinak 
 said, " Give me the command to-morrow morning." 
 They agreed to give it to him; and the next morn- 
 ing they posted many close bodies of troops 
 (squares), of a thousand men each, on the extremity 
 of the right wing, and on the extremity of the left 
 wing. When the soldiers were drawn up, the 
 bodies of troops (squares)* of the extremity of the 
 right wing advanced, and fell upon the centre of 
 the enemy, fighting their way to the place of the 
 squares which had been posted at the extremity of 
 the left wing, and the latter advancing upon the 
 right wing, fell equally upon the centre of the enemy, 
 and fought their way to the right wing: an uninter- 
 rupted shooting (of arrows, stones, &c.) ensued, and 
 these bodies of troops ground the enemy like a mill- 
 stone, following each other; but the centre, and the 
 right and left wings of the Turks stood quiet, whilst 
 the squares were in action. They fought thus: the 
 squares of the Turks who went out from the extre- 
 
 (j~*$S means the squares or close bodies, as they were 
 in the Roman order of battle. But here it seems to mean light 
 cavalry in contracjjstinction to the troops of the line. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 451 
 
 mity of the right wing opened their operations by 
 shooting on the left wing of the Byzantines: they 
 passed their (own) right wing, keeping up the shooting 
 and came to the centre. The squares which came 
 from the extremity of the left wing began to shoot 
 on the side of the right wing of the enemy, proceeded 
 to the left wing, and continued to shoot, advancing 
 to the centre where the squares (of both sides) met, 
 grinding the enemy, as we have said. When the 
 Christian (Arabs) and the Byzantines saw their 
 .state, and the breaking up of their ranks under the 
 uninterrupted shower of arrows which came from 
 their enemies, they charged the loose troops in front 
 of the army. Thus they came close on the line of 
 the Turks, which stood firm to receive them. The 
 squares opened before them, and the Turks fell all 
 at once en masse upon them ; this had the effect of 
 putting the Byzantines to flight. The Turkish line 
 [not the loose troops (or squares) of their battle 
 array] charged, after this attack, the line of the 
 enemy without intermission ; and, at the same time, 
 the squares fought them from the right and left. 
 They fell under the sword, and were in the greatest 
 difficulty ; the cries of men and horses were terrible ; 
 and about six thousand Byzantines and Christian 
 (Arabs) were killed, so that they could almost 
 ascend to the walls of the town over their carcases. 
 The town was taken, the sword made several 
 days' ravages ; and the inhabitants were made pri- 
 
 2 G 2 
 
452 EL-MAS'tJDl's MEADOWS of GOLD, 
 
 soners. After three days, the Turks proceeded 
 towards Constantinople. They passed a number of 
 cultivated districts, meadows, and estates, spreading 
 slaughter and taking prisoners, till they came to the 
 walls of Constantinople. There they staid for 
 about forty days, and sold the captive women 
 and children for linen, cloths of brocade, and 
 silk. They put the men to the sword, none 
 received quarter ; sometimes they did not spare even 
 women and children. They made predatory excur- 
 sions all over these countries, and as far as [the 
 country of the Sclavonians and Rome. At present 
 their invasion extends even to*] the frontiers of 
 Spain, France, and Galicia. The predatory incur- 
 sions of the above-mentioned Turkish nations con- 
 tinue to this day to infest Constantinople, and the 
 above-mentioned kingdoms. 
 
 We return to the account of the Caucasus, the 
 wall, and Bab el-Abwab, having given a concise 
 account of the nations who live in those countries. 
 One of these nations lives on the frontiers of the 
 Alans, and has the name el-Abkhaz jLs?5N. They 
 are Christians, and form a monarchy: the present 
 king has the name et-Tobili ^X^LM (Theophilus?)f. 
 
 * These words are left out in some MSS. and by Klaproth; and 
 it is very likely that they are interpolated. 
 
 f The MS. of Ley den reads thus : " They have at present 
 their own king, but they are, nevertheless, under the supremacy 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 453 
 
 The dominions of this Tobili are called Mesjid of 
 Dul-Karnain (Alexander). The Abkhaz and Kha- 
 zarians used to pay tribute to the governor of the 
 frontiers of Tiflis, since the time when this city 
 was subjected by the Mohammedans, who settled 
 there (a military colony), which continued up to 
 the reign of el-Mot awakel. There was a king in 
 these frontiers, of the name of Ishak Ben Isma'il, 
 who had subjected, with the Moslims whom he 
 had under his command, the nations of that neigh- 
 bourhood. They acknowledged their submission to 
 him by paying the capitation tak. His power was 
 in the ascendant (and he considered himself as an 
 independent prince), until el-Motawakel sent an 
 army against the frontier of Tiflis, which took the 
 country by force, after some battles. Ishak was 
 killed; for he had made himself independent in 
 that country. It would be too long to relate his 
 whole history, which is pretty well known in 
 
 of the king of the Alans. Their country extends as far as the 
 Caucasus. Next to them live the Khazarians j iV^U? wno are 
 a great nation and profess the Christian religion. They are also 
 called el-Hazran J jV^* They have at present a king of the 
 name of Tobl'a ju/,yj, whose dominions occupy the place called 
 Mesjid Dul-Karnain. The Abkhaz and Khazarians used to pay 
 tribute to the governor of the frontiers of Tiflis," etc. 
 
 Klaproth observes, that the Hazran occupied a part of Min- 
 grelia and Guria. which is still called Kadzaro by the Turks. 
 
454 EL-MASU'DI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 those countries and elsewhere, amongst persons 
 possessed of a knowledge of history. He pretended 
 to be a KoraTshite and of the Omaiyde family ; but 
 it is not true. Since that time the Moslims have 
 lost their power on the frontiers of Tiflis, and have 
 never recovered it. The neighbouring kingdoms 
 refused their submission, and they encroached upon 
 the principal estates (villages) of Tiflis. You 
 are obliged to pass through those unbelieving- 
 nations if you wish to go to the most distant Mo- 
 hammedan dominions about Tiflis, since they live 
 all round this Moslim province, the inhabitants of 
 which are a people of great strength and bravery; 
 but they are surrounded by the said kingdoms. 
 
 Beyond the Kharzan (j_>V^ (Hazaran), is the 
 country of the Samsaha l^ua^!, who are Chris- 
 tians, mixed, however, with Pagans : they have no 
 king. Next to the Samsahians, between the fron- 
 tier of Tiflis and the fortress Bab el-Lan, which we 
 have described, is the kingdom of the Senarians 
 x>^UxaJ! (Xj^U*a!l): their king has the name Ke- 
 reskus u jjS' (^^fj.r). They are Christians, 
 and believe that they are of Arabic origin, and 
 a portion of the 'Oka'il* tribe (which belongs to the 
 
 * One copy reads 
 ^ic <>, and another copy reads 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 455 
 
 confederation) of the Modhar tribes (which have 
 the same origin as the other) Nizar tribes. They 
 have lived there from ancient times, and have 
 subjected many nations of the Caucasus. I have 
 seen in the country of Marib, in Yemen, several 
 men of the 'Ok ail tribe, variously accoutred, and 
 did not find any difference between them and the 
 manners of their brethren on the Caucasus. This 
 tends to strengthen their assertion. They have 
 many horses and great wealth, and there are no 
 people in all Yemen of the tribe of Nizar Ben 
 Ma'add besides the ' Ok ail family, except the ac- 
 counts which are given of the children of Anmar 
 j{f\ Ben Nizar Ben Ma'add, of their immigration into 
 Yemen, of the interview which Jarir Ben 'Abdullah 
 el-Bajaliy ^X-rsOJ <*MUxc ^i jj.j^- had with the Pro- 
 phet, and the history of the Bajilah ^X^s:. The 
 Sinarians believe that they had lived with the 'Okail 
 in the country of Marib, and that they sepa- 
 rated from the 'Oka'il, who still live in Yemen, in 
 ancient times, under several circumstances which 
 are related in history. 
 
 Next to the kingdom of the Sinarians lives a na- 
 tion called Shakin * ($& who are Christians, inter- 
 spersed with Moslims who are mostly merchants, 
 
 * This is the country of Shakhi, which lies north of the Korr 
 and Karabagh. (Klaproth.) 
 
456 EL-MAS'lJDl'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 or employed in other trades ^3^. Their king 
 is at present, when we publish this book, Ader Ben 
 
 Samah Ben Homayir (^U>) jj\$ ^j *v* ^j j\- 
 
 Next to them is the kingdom of Ka'ilah XXo. 
 
 The population of the capital consists of Moslims, 
 
 whilst the villages, and estates about the town, are 
 
 inhabited by Christians. Their present king is 
 
 <j" 
 A'anbasah x*j^\ (***) The Lame. He gives 
 
 shelter to robbers, vagabonds, and highwaymen. 
 
 Next comes the kingdom of the Mukanians 
 3USb>U. We have already mentioned this country, 
 saying that it has been conquered, and now forms 
 part of the dominions of Sharwan-Shah. But it is 
 to be distinguished from a country on the coast of 
 the sea of the Khazar, which has the same name. 
 Mohammed Ben Yezid who is at present known as 
 Sharwan-Shah sli {Jsj*** had been King Layidan- 
 Shah *L3 j,JX)^, and his ancestors had the same 
 title; for, at that time 'Ali Ben el-Haithem had the 
 title of King Sharwan-Shah. But when 'AH was 
 dead, Mohammed made himself master of (the 
 dominions and title of) Sharwan-Shah and other 
 countries, as we have related, after he had killed 
 his uncles, and occupied the said kingdoms. He 
 is in possession of a fortress, called the fortress of 
 Tiar ^Uj, which is situated on the Caucasus, and 
 the strongest known on earth, excepting a fortress 
 in Paris not far from Siraf, on the sea coast, in a 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 457 
 
 place called ez-Zirobad Jo^yi, which belongs to 
 'Abdullah Ben Tmarah. This fortress has the name 
 ofed-Dikdan ^JjXjjJl. 
 
 There are many fortresses on earth of which 
 strange stories are related, which have been collected 
 by Abu-1-Hosa'in el-Medaini, in a monograph on 
 this subject, which he has entitled, "The book of 
 the Fortresses" &*tt ^UT. In this book are select 
 stories respecting fortresses, some of which we have 
 given in our Akhbar ez-zeman. 
 
 Ei-Mas'udi says, this is a view of the account of 
 the town Bab el-Abwab, the wall, Caucasus, and 
 the inhabitants of these countries. We have given 
 a detailed narration of their manners and modes in 
 warfare, and of the stratagems of their kings, in our 
 Akhbar ez-zeman. The accounts which we have 
 given of them, and the descriptions of their kingdoms, 
 dwell on objects which are palpable (i. e., the pre- 
 sent state), and not on abstractions (or the history 
 of past times), and which anybody who chooses to 
 visit the countries which we have described may see*. 
 
 'Oba'id Allah Ben Khordadbeh gives in his book 
 which has the title of, "The Roads and the King- 
 doms," the distances of places by the road (not as 
 
458 EL-MAS'UDI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 the crow flies), but he does not give any account of 
 the kings and kingdoms. There is no use in show- 
 ing merely the distances and roads, for this regards 
 only sending couriers* and despatching parcels and 
 letters. The same author mentions how great the 
 revenue of the villages of elTrak was. Such 
 account, however, cannot be correct, for the 
 revenue is always sinking and rising, disminishing 
 and increasing, according to circumstances f ; and he 
 states, that the mount el-'Arij gj*$\ which is 
 between Mekka and Medina coheres with the 
 mountains of Syria, so that it is connected with the 
 mount of el-Akra' at Antiochia, which is again in 
 connexion with the mount el-Kam -\&J. This is a 
 curious notice, and shows that he knew, that the 
 various parts of the earth are connected, and no 
 where interrupted nor separated, except, that in some 
 places there are low, in others high, countries. His 
 
 * The MS. of Ley den leaves the reading of this word doubt- 
 ful, and others write _ .X5, instead of ^o. The reader may 
 refer, respecting Ibn Khordadbeh, to the note to page 331. Here 
 is confirmed what has been said there partly as conjecture, without 
 being aware of this passage, namely, that Ibn Khordadbeh 's work 
 was intended as a road and post book. Perhaps it was even the 
 official directory. 
 
 t I published the whole of this account of the land-tax of 
 Ibn Khordadbeh, from the MS. of Oxford, with the accounts of 
 some other authors on the same subject, in the Asiatic Journal 
 of 1839. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 459 
 
 book may be considered as the best work in its way. 
 Of equal merit is his book on the chronology and 
 history of the nations before the Islam. 
 
 Ahmad Ben et-Taib, the companion of el-Mo'- 
 tadhed Billah, wrote a book on the same subject, in 
 which he gives an account of the whole world ; but 
 what he says, is, for the most part, contrary to 
 truth ; and I believe that it is a pseudonym work 
 to which his name is prefixed, for he was possessed 
 of much more knowledge than what this book be- 
 speaks; and if it is genuine, we must consider that 
 God, the Almighty, gives, by his infinite wisdom, 
 absolute power and mercy to his servants to 
 those success in their labours to whom he thinks 
 best. 
 
 One of the Persian kings built the town of Bab 
 el-Abwab, of the wall of which we have said, that it 
 extends over land, sea, and mountains, and several 
 fortresses: he settled military colonies there, and he 
 defined the ranks of the kings. He wrote to the 
 king of the Khazar, el-Lan, and Turks, and to the 
 kings of other nations, who ruled over Berda'ah er- 
 Rum, el-Bailakan, Aderbijan, Zanjan ^U^, (sic, or 
 y^j), Abhar ^\ (^^0* Kazwin, Hamadan, ed- 
 Dainawar, Nohawand, and other places which were 
 under the dependency of el-Kufah and el- Basrah 
 (after the Arabic conquests),, and form part of el- 
 'Irak. God may keep the said nations within their 
 limits, particularly since the Moslim power has been 
 
460 EL-MAS'UOI'S MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 so reduced, and is in such a decline that the Byzan- 
 tines are victorious over the Moslims; the pilgrim- 
 age to Mekka is in a bad state; holy warfare 
 is neglected; the highways are unsafe, and the 
 roads bad ; every chief makes himself the independ- 
 ent master of the provinces in which he is, as was 
 the case under the kings of the Satrapies, after the 
 death of Alexander, until Ardeshir Ben Babek Ben 
 Sasan united the empire. He restored order, he 
 rendered religious service safe, and promoted the 
 cultivation of the country (by paying attention to 
 irrigation, and thus it continued) until God sent his 
 prophet, through whom he dispelled the darkness of 
 wrong religions, and destroyed the services ordained 
 by false creeds. The Islam was victorious till at 
 present, but now, that is to say, in 332 A.H., under 
 the Khalifat of Abu Ishak Ibrahim el-Mottaki Lilian 
 its pillars give way, and its foundations are sinking. 
 God is the helper in human affairs. 
 
 There are many curious accounts connected 
 with Bab el-Abwab, and the various fabrics which 
 have been raised by Kisra Ben Kobad Ben Fairuz, 
 that is to say*, Kisra Anusharwan: as the town 
 of stone 2,lilXijjco near a place called el-Masit 
 
 * The MS. of Ley den reads, " Who was the father of Anu- 
 sharwan." If this reading is adopted, the word " Ben " before 
 " Kobad " is to be left out. This alteration, however, is not con- 
 firmed by any MS. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 461 
 
 (kjuJU)- The wall which he raised in the 
 country of Sharwan and which is called the wall of 
 clay, and the wall of stone which has the name el- 
 Bermeki u * ri J!; other accounts refer to the coun- 
 try of Berda'ah Xc<^j. We will not enter into fur- 
 ther details, having spoken on this subject in our 
 former works. 
 
 The river el-Koru ^\ (jjfy (Korr or Cyrus) 
 rises in the country of Khazaran in the kingdom of 
 Jerir jjj^ ; it takes its course through the country 
 of Abkhaz* to the province of Tiflis, which forms 
 the Moslim frontier ; in the middle of this province 
 it is divided and runs to the Solawerdians Xj^LJI, 
 (XjJ^UJJ or XjjjUJ!) (Shulawerdi) who are a 
 brave and strange nation of Armenian origin, 
 as we have said. From these the hatchets called 
 Xj^ *U*J1 (we) i^UL, \f&> have their name ; which 
 are in use with the Siabihah X^L**]! (Xx^UiJ!) 
 and other Barbarian corps p^U^ JJ^.. This river, 
 which has the name el-Korr^Xl!, passes through Bar- 
 daj TT^JJ a place of the province of Berda'ah, and 
 a few miles distant from this capital ; then it receives 
 near es-Sinarah iT,l,Ldt (sJlyaJJ) the river es-Ras 
 u*y (ur^l^)> which runs near Trebizond. And 
 after these two rivers are united, they fall into the 
 sea of the Khazar. 
 
 * The MSS. read . .Ur*\ and ,^\A\. 
 
462 EL-MAS'uDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD, 
 
 The river er-Ras comes from the dominions of 
 Babek el-Khorrami ^j^ joL, which are called the 
 country of Badin ^jjXf, and belong to Aderbijan, 
 
 and from a mount, which has the name of Jebel 
 Abi Miisa, in el-Gharat* ci^U!i: on this moun- 
 tain live several nations, belonging to er-Ran, in 
 Armenia. It passes the town Warthan ^lij^ 
 (^ydjj), and it comes to the place where it falls 
 into the Korr, near the village called Sinarah, as 
 we have said. 
 
 The river Isfedrtid j^JujU, which means the 
 White River, by the way of the transposition of the 
 words, according to the genius of each of the two 
 languages, the Persian and the Arabicf, passes 
 through the country of ed-Dailem, and washes the 
 
 castle which has the name Kal'ah of Salar ^^U- 
 (&*)) which is the name of Ibn Aswar the Dai- 
 
 lemite ^JbAJJ j\y*\ (jj^^ wno * s one f the kings of 
 ed-Dailem, who has at present [that is to say, in 
 the date when we write this book] rendered himself 
 
 * Some copies read er-Ran. 
 
 -j- 
 
 literally, " According to the putting before and behind between 
 the two languages, namely, the Persian and the Arabic." That 
 is to say, the Persians put the adjective before the substantive, 
 and say the white river ; whilst the Arabs observe the reverse 
 order, saying the river the white. 
 
AND MINES OF GEMS. 463 
 
 master of Aderbijan. Then this river takes its 
 course from ed-Dailem to el-Jil J/Jj [from Jil is 
 derived Jilan j,3U>], and there it receives another 
 river from the country of ed-Dailem, which is called 
 Shahanrud ^5ll (^.j^jfcLi) , that is to say, the 
 King of Rivers : it is so called on account of the 
 purity, white colour, limpidness, and abundance of 
 its waters. These two united rivers fall into the 
 sea of the Dai'lem, the Khazar, and other nations 
 who live on its coasts. The majority of the popu- 
 lation on the banks of these rivers form the Dailem 
 and the Jil, who have conquered and subjected a 
 great part of the country. 
 
 Having given an account of the Caucasus, the 
 nations who live on it, and round it, of Bab el- 
 Abwab, and the Khazar, we will proceed to speak 
 of the kings of the Assyrians, who are considered 
 as the first monarchs in astronomical tables (observa- 
 tions) and chronology ; then follow the kings of 
 el-Mausil and of Ninive ; then the kings of Babel,, 
 who are the cultivators of the earth, who have dug 
 canals, planted trees, converted waste lands into 
 fields, and made roads. These are followed by the 
 first series of Persian kings, who are the Jahan 
 w llj^ (..jljfclJ^), which means Lords, down to 
 Feridun : then follow the Askan ^IsCJ, the last of 
 whom was Dara Ben Dara, which is the same as 
 Darius: the are the Soki'm 
 
464 EL-MAS J UDl's MEADOWS OF GOLD. 
 
 (Kaianians). After them follow the kings of the 
 Satrapies, who are the Ashghan ^UliSM. Then 
 comes the second series of Persian (kings), that is 
 to say, the Sasanians : then the Greeks : then 
 follows the Roman empire. We shall add the 
 kings of the Arabs (or Maghrib) who followed 
 them. We shall also give an historical account of 
 the Sudan, of Egypt, Alexandria, and of other places 
 of the earth, if it is the will of God ; for there is no 
 strength but in God. 
 
 END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. 
 
 
 LONDON : HARRISON AND Co., PRINTERS, ST. MARTIN'S LANE. 
 
 

 & 
 
RETURN TO the circulation desk of any 
 University of California Library 
 or to the 
 
 NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station 
 University of California 
 Richmond, CA 94804-4698 
 
 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 
 2-month loans may be renewed by calling 
 
 (415)642-6233 
 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books 
 
 to NRLF 
 Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days 
 
 prior to due date 
 
 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW 
 
 * DUE NRLF NOV 1 
 
 61988 
 
 
 NRLF DUE MAY? 
 
 1989 
 
 
 JUL3 1989 
 
 
 
 APR 2 * 1991 
 
 JUN1 
 
 1999 
 
 WTFRLlQRAoy /OAF 
 
 AUG 
 
 302003 
 
 " Ml " * 1 r- 1AfiA 
 
 ' AUG 11 
 
 2007 
 
 ON| - 1 5 1990 
 
 IJMIW rHr<r>*t tr- m . 
 
 
 ( 
 
U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES